Ethnobotany of the Himalayas (Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions) 3030574075, 9783030574079

Citation preview

Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions Series Editors: R. W. Bussmann · N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Ripu M. Kunwar · Hassan Sher Rainer W. Bussmann  Editors

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas

Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions Series Editors Rainer W. Bussmann Department of Ethnobotany Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden Ilia State University Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge La Paz, Bolivia Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden Ilia State University Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia Universidad Mayor de San Andrés La Paz, Bolivia

Ethnobotanical research in recent years has increasingly shifted into applied aspects of the discipline, including climate change research, conservation, and sustainable development. It has by now widely been recognized that “traditional” knowledge is always in flux and adapting to a quickly changing environment. Trends of globalization, especially the globalization of plant markets, have greatly influenced how plant resources are managed nowadays. While ethnobotanical studies are now available from many regions of the world, no comprehensive encyclopedic series focusing on the worlds mountain regions is available in the market. Scholars in plant sciences worldwide will be interested in this website and its dynamic content. The field (and thus the market) of ethnobotany and ethnopharmacology has grown considerably in recent years. Student interest is on the rise, attendance at professional conferences has grown steadily, and the number of professionals calling themselves ethnobotanists has increased significantly (the various societies—Society for Economic Botany, International Society of Ethnopharmacology, Society of Ethnobiology, International Society for Ethnobiology, and many regional and national societies in the field currently have thousands of members). Growth has been most robust in BRIC countries. The objective of this new series on Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions is to take advantage of the increasing international interest and scholarship in the field of mountain research. We anticipate including the best and latest research on a full range of descriptive, methodological, theoretical, and applied research on the most important plants for each region. Each contribution will be scientifically rigorous and contribute to the overall field of study. More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/15885

Ripu M. Kunwar • Hassan Sher Rainer W. Bussmann Editors

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas With 1274 Figures

Editors Ripu M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences Florida Atlantic University Boca Raton, FL, USA

Hassan Sher Faculty of Life Sciences University of Swat Mingora, Pakistan

Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON) Kathmandu, Nepal Rainer W. Bussmann Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden Ilia State University Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge La Paz, Bolivia

ISSN 2523-7489 ISSN 2523-7497 (electronic) ISBN 978-3-030-57407-9 ISBN 978-3-030-57408-6 (eBook) ISBN 978-3-030-57409-3 (print and electronic bundle) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6 © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021, corrected publication 2022 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG. The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Preface

The Himalayas are the highest mountain range on Earth, with more than one hundred peaks exceeding 7000 m, including the highest peak above sea level on Earth, Mount Everest, with 8848 m. The Himalayan system includes the Karakorum, Hindu Kush, Indian, Nepalese, Bhutanese, and Tibetan Himalayas. Some of the largest rivers in the world originate in the range, including the Ganges, the Indus, the Brahmaputra, the Yamuna, and the Yangtze, in whose surroundings billions of people live. The Himalayan mountains have profoundly influenced the cultures of South Asia, and many of them are sacred to Hinduism and Buddhism. Plants provide humankind with essential resources, including food and medicines, and given its huge ethnic diversity, the Himalayan region is one of the hotspots of human-plant interactions. With the increase in human population and greater access to markets, over-harvesting of commercially important medicinal species has increased. At the same time, habitat loss, climate change, and invasive species further threaten wild plant populations, while traditional knowledge associated with plant use is being eroded by urbanization. Thus, never before in human history has there been a greater need to discover, understand, conserve, and sustainably use culturally important plant resources. With the present volume, we aim to provide an in-depth introduction to the plantuse knowledge of the peoples in the Himalayan range. Following introductions to the 3 very distinct parts of the region, 249 plant chapters feature a modern overview on taxonomy, local names, and information on the ecology and distribution of hundreds of species. The ethno-botanical information provides both an overview on historic uses as well as data from the most recent scientific studies of plant use in the region and contains the most up-to-date literature sources. We hope this volume will give both interested laypeople and professionals an opportunity to learn about the fascinating biodiversity and plant-use culture of the Himalayas, and will spark interest in its further documentation, sustainable use, and conservation.

v

Contents

Volume 1 Part I

Regions

...........................................

1

....

3

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Indian Himalaya (Garhwal Himalaya) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pavlos Georgiadis

35

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Hindukush and Karakoram Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Nepal, Bhutanese, and Tibetan Himalayas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ripu M. Kunwar, Bhishma P. Subedi, Sushim R. Baral, Tek Maraseni, Chris LeBoa, Yagya P. Adhikari, and Rainer W. Bussmann Part II

Plants

...........................................

Abies pindrow (Royle ex D. Don.) Royle Abies spectabilis (D. Don) Spach PINACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Achyut Tiwari, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Wahid Hussain, and Arshad Mehmood Abbasi

65

105

107

Acantholimon lycopodioides (Girard) Boiss. PLUMBAGINACEAE . . . . . . . . Wahid Hussain, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

119

...............

123

Acmella calva (DC.) R.K. Jansen ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Man D. Bhatt, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

133

Achillea millefolium L. ssp. millefolium ASTERACEAE Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

vii

viii

Contents

Aconitum balfourii Stapf. Aconitum ferox Wall. ex. Ser. Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle Aconitum laeve Royle Aconitum naviculare (Brühl) Stapf. Aconitum spicatum Stapf. Aconitum violaceum Jacq. ex Stapf var. violaceum RANUNCULACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . Hassan Sher, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Ikram Ur Rahman Wahid Hussain, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Aconogonon coriarium (Grig.) Sojak. Aconogonon tortuosum (D.Don) Hara var. tibetanum (Meisn.) S.-P.Hong POLYGONACEAE . . . . . . Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

139

155

Aegopodium alpestre Ledeb. APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

161

Aesculus indica (Wall. ex Cambess.) Hook. SAPINDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . Hem Raj Paudel, Prakash Poudel, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

163

Ageratina adenophora (Spreng.) R.M. King & H. Rob. ASTERACEAE . . . Mohan Siwakoti, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

171

Ajuga brachystemon Maxim. Ajuga parviflora Benth. in Wall. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

177

Allium carolinianum DC. Allium griffithianum Boiss. Allium humile Kunth Allium jacquemontii Regel Allium oreoprasum Schrenk AMARYLLIDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

183

Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br. APOCYNACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Man D. Bhatt, Ripu M. Kunwar, Bijendra Basnyat, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

203

Amomum subulatum Roxb. ZINGIBERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

213

Ampelocissus latifolia (Roxb.) Planch. VITACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mohan Prasad Panthi, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

217

Anacyclus pyrethrum (L.) DC. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

223

Contents

Anaphalis adnata DC. Anaphalis busua (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) DC. Anaphalis contorta (D. Don) Hook. f. Anaphalis triplinervis (Sims) C.B. Clarke ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sheetal Vaidya and Rainer W. Bussmann

ix

225

Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f.) Wall. ACANTHACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

235

Angelica glauca Edgew. APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bandana Awasthi, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

239

Anisomeles indica (L.) Kuntze LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sabina Gyawali, Sanjeev Luintel, Santosh Thapa, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

249

Aquilaria sinensis (Loureiro) Sprengel Aquilaria yunnanensis S. C. Huang THYMELAEACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

253

Arisaema flavum (Forssk.) Schott ARACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kalyan Panta, Hassan Sher, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Ikram Ur Rahman, Wahid Hussain, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

257

Arnebia euchroma (Royle) I. M. Johnst. BORAGINACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hammad Ahmad Jan, Wahid Hussain, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

267

Artemisia absinthium L. Artemisia biennis Willd. Artemisia bigelovii A. Gray Artemisia brevifolia Wall. ex DC. Artemisia scoparia Waldst. ex Kit. Artemisia vulgaris L. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hammad Ahmad Jan, Hassan Sher, Wahid Hussain, Ikram Ur Rahman, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

271

Asparagus racemosus Willd. ASPARAGACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ram Prasad Acharya, Rose Shrestha, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Wahid Hussain, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

289

Astilbe rivularis Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don. SAXIFRAGACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . Ram C. Poudel, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

305

Astragalus candolleanus Royle ex Benth. Astragalus chlorostachys Lindl. Astragalus hendersonii Baker Astragalus peduncularis Royle ex Benth. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

311

x

Contents

Atriplex hortensis L. Atriplex rosea L. AMARANTHACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

317

Atropa acuminata Royle ex Lindl. SOLANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

323

Bauhinia variegata L. Bauhinia vahlii Wight & Arn. FABACEAE . . . . . . . Jyoti Bhandari, Dhruba Bijaya GC, Sunita Dhungana, Neeru Thapa, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

327

Berberis aristata DC. Berberis asiatica Roxb. ex DC. Berberis chitria Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Berberis glaucocarpa Stapf Berberis lycium Royle Berberis orthobotrys Bien. ex Aitch. ssp. orthobotrys Berberis vulgaris L. BERBERIDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hassan Sher, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Ikram Ur Rahman, Wahid Hussain, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

337

Bergenia ciliata Sternb. SAXIFRAGACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hammad Ahmad Jan, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Wahid Hussain, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

353

Betula utilis D. Don BETULACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narayan Ghimire, Ripu M. Kunwar, Wahid Hussain, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

369

Bidens biternata (Lour.) Merr. & Sherff ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Laxmi Khaniya, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

381

Bistorta amplexicaulis (D. Don) Greene Bistorta vivipara (L.) S.F. Gray POLYGONACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

391

Boerhavia diffusa L. NYCTAGINACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kuber Jung Malla, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

403

Bombax ceiba L. MALVACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ikram Ur Rahman, and Maroof Ali Turi

409

Brucea javanica (L.) Merr. SIMAROUBACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kamal Adhikari, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

415

Contents

xi

Bupleurum thomsonii C.B. Clarke APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

423

Buxus wallichiana Baill. BUXACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hammad Ahmad Jan, Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

427

Caesalpinia decapetala (Roith) Alston FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C. M. Chaudhary, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

431

Caltha alba Cambess. Caltha palustris L. RANUNCULACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . Hammad Ahmad Jan, Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

439

Cannabis sativa L. CANNABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

443

Capparis spinosa L. CAPPARACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

451

Carex canescens L. Carex cardiolepis Nees Carex cruenta Nees CYPERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

461

Carum carvi L. Carum copticum (L.) Benth. & Hook. f. APIACEAE . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

469

Cassia fistula L. Cassia occidentalis L. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Subhas Khatri, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

477

Castanopsis hystrix J. D. Hooker & Thomson ex A. de Candolle Castanopsis indica (Roxburgh ex Lindley) A. de Candolle in Hance Castanopsis tribuloides (Smith) A. de Candolle in Hance FAGACEAE . . . . Narayan Prasad Pokharel, Hari Prasad Pandey, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

491

Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D. Don) G. Don PINACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ram C. Poudel, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Wahid Hussain, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Ripu M. Kunwar, and Rainer W. Bussmann

497

Celastrus paniculatus Willd. CELASTRACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hammad Ahmad Jan, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

505

xii

Contents

Celtis australis L. CANNABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

509

Chenopodium album L. AMARANTHACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dharma Raj Dangol, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

515

Choerospondias axillaris (Roxb.) B.L. Burtt & A.W. Hill ANACARDIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Krishna C. Paudel, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

527

Cichorium intybus L. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hammad Ahmad Jan, Wahid Hussain, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

541

Cinnamomum tamala (Buch.-Ham.) T. Nees & Nees LAURACEAE . . . . . . Dipesh Pyakurel, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

547

Cirsium verutum (D. Don) Spreng. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gopal Lamichhane, Prakash Poudel, Hem Raj Paudel, Rashmi Thapa, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

555

Citrus medica L. RUTACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rajendra Gyawali, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

567

Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt CUCURBITACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Prakash Prasad Sapkota, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

583

Codonopsis clematidea (Schrenk ex Fisch. & C.A. Mey.) C.B. Clarke CAMPANULACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hammad Ahmad Jan, Wahid Hussain, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Coelogyne barbata Lindl. ex Griff. Coelogyne corymbosa Lindl. Coelogyne cristata Lindl. Coelogyne fimbriata Lindl. Coelogyne flaccida Lindl. Coelogyne fuscescens Lindl. Coelogyne nitida (Wall. ex D. Don) Lindl. Coelogyne ovalis Lindl. Coelogyne prolifera Lindl. Coelogyne punctulata Lindl. Coelogyne stricta (D. Don) Schltr. ORCHIDACEAE . . . . . Kamal Prasad Acharya, Yagya P. Adhikari, and Ripu M. Kunwar Colchicum aitchisonii (Hook. f.) Nasir Colchicum luteum Baker COLCHICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hassan Sher, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Ikram Ur Rahman, Wahid Hussain, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

591

595

609

Contents

xiii

Cordia dichotoma G. Forst. BORAGINACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

615

Corydalis govaniana Wall. PAPAVERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Ikram Ur Rahman, and Hammad Ahmad Jan

621

Cotoneaster uniflorus Bunge ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

627

Crateva unilocularis Buch.-Ham. CAPPARACAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kedar Baral, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

629

Cucumis sativus L. Cucumis sativus var. hardwickii (Royle) Alef CUCURBITACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mathura Khanal, Hari Datt Lekhak, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Curculigo orchioides Benth. HYPOXIDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Curcuma aromatica Salisb. Curcuma longa L. Curcuma zedoaria (Christm.) Roscoe ZINGIBERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hari Prasad Devkota, Anjana Adhikari-Devkota, Tarun Belwal, Rajan Logesh, Niranjan Das, Prakash Poudel, Dhaka Ram Bhandari, and Rainer W. Bussmann

635

643

649

Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. CONVOLVULACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Razan Mahat, Asmita Thapa, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Wahid Hussain, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

661

Cyathea spinulosa Wall. ex Hook. CYATHEACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Man K. Dhamala, Dipak Khadka, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

669

Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf POACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kalyan Gauli, Shiva Kumar Sharma, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

679

Cyperus difformis L. Cyperus rotundus L. CYPERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

687

Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D. Don) Soo ORCHIDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Yagya Raj Paneru, Pratikshya Chalise, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

695

xiv

Contents

Daphne bholua Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don. Daphne mucronata Royle Daphne papyracea Wall. ex G. Don. THYMELAEACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shambhu Charmakar, Ripu M. Kunwar, Megh Nath Kafley, Dhirendra Kumar Pradhan, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

705

Datura stramonium L. SOLANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

725

Debregeasia longifolia (Burm. f.) Wedd. URTICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Giridhar Amatya, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

735

Delphinium brunonianum Royle Delphinium himalayae Munz Delphinium roylei Munz Delphinium vestitum Wall. ex Royle RANUNCULACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hammad Ahmad Jan, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Wahid Hussain, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

739

Dendrobium nobile Lindl. ORCHIDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Yagya P. Adhikari, Prakash Bhattarai, Kamal Prasad Acharya, Ripu M. Kunwar, and Rainer W. Bussmann

747

Didymocarpus aromaticus Wall. ex D. Don GESNERIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . Astha Tuladhar, Ripu M. Kunwar, and Rainer W. Bussmann

753

Digitalis lanata Ehrh. PLANTAGINACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

761

Dioscorea bulbifera L. Dioscorea deltoidea Wall. ex Kunth DIOSCOREACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nirmala Joshi, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

769

Diploknema butyracea (Roxb.) H.J. Lam. SAPOTACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bhola Bhattarai, Roshan Chikanbanjar, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

779

Drosera peltata Thunb. DROSERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gauri S. Bhandari, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

789

Drymaria cordata (L.) Willd. ex Schult. CARYOPHYLLACEAE . . . . . . . . . . Anjana Devkota, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

795

Contents

Drynaria propinqua (Wall. ex Mett.) Bedd. POLYPODIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . Rashmi Thapa, Prakash Poudel, Ripu M. Kunwar, and Rainer W. Bussmann Dryopteris cochleata (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) C. Chr. Dryopteris filix-mas (L.) Schott DRYOPTERIDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hira Shova Shrestha, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Duchesnea indica (Andews) Teschem. ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Duhaldea cappa (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) Pruski & Anderb. Inula nervosa Wall. ex DC. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ramesh Basnet, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

xv

805

811

821

825

Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jyoti Sherchan, Prakash Poudel, Biswas Sapkota, Hammad Ahmad Jan, and Rainer W. Bussmann

835

Elaeagnus angustifolia L. var. angustifolia L. ELAEAGNACEAE . . . . . . . . Hammad Ahmad Jan, Wahid Hussain, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

855

Engelhardia spicata Lesch. ex Blume JUGLANDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shreehari Bhattarai, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

863

Ephedra gerardiana Wall. ex Stapf EPHEDRACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wahid Hussain, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

867

Epilobium angustifolium L. Epilobium latifolium L. ssp. latifolium L. Epilobium leiophyllum Hausskn. Epilobium royleanum Hausskn. ONAGRACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Equisetum diffusum D. Don Equisetum ramosissimum Desf. EQUISETACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hira Shova Shrestha, Ripu M. Kunwar, Maroof Ali Turi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Erigeron alpinus L. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hassan Sher, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

875

879

891

xvi

Contents

Erythrina arborescens Roxb. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Krishna Ram Bhattarai, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Euphorbia hirta L. Euphorbia pilosa L. Euphorbia royleana Boiss. EUPHORBIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mukti Ram Paudel, Babita Paudel, Hari Datta Bhattarai, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Maroof Ali Turi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

897

903

Evolvulus alsinoides (L.) L. CONVOLVULACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Man D. Bhatt, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Maroof Ali Turi

917

Fagara oxyphylla (Edgew.) Engl. RUTACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ripu M. Kunwar

927

Fagonia bruguieri DC Fagonia indica var. schweinfurthii Hadidi ZYGOPHYLLACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

929

Ferula assa-foetida L. Ferula narthex Boiss. APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hassan Sher, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

933

Fragaria nubicola (Hook. f.) Lindl. ex Lacaita ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . Sangita Shresta, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. PaniaguaZambrana

941

Fraxinus excelsior L. Fraxinus xanthoxyloides (G. Don) DC. OLEACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

951

Fritillaria cirrhosa D. Don. LILIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hem Raj Paudel, Laxmi Raj Joshi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

957

Fumaria indica Pugsley PAPAVERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hammad Ahmad Jan, Wahid Hussain, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

965

Gentiana kurroo Royle GENTIANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wahid Hussain, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

971

Gentianodes tianschanica (Rupr. ex Kusn.) Omer, Ali & Qaiser GENTIANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hassan Sher, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

977

Contents

Gentianopsis paludosa (Munro ex Hook. f.) Ma Gentianopsis vvedenskyi (Grossh.) V.V. Pis. GENTIANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hassan Sher, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman Geranium collinum Stephan ex Willd. Geranium nepalense Sweet Geranium wallichianum D. Don ex Sweet GERANIACEAE . . . . . . . . Hammad Ahmad Jan, Wahid Hussain, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Girardinia diversifolia (Link) Friis URTICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Prabhat Sapkota, Ram C. Poudel, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

xvii

981

985

995

Grewia disperma Rottler ex Spreng. MALVACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1001 Khadka B. Bhandari, Suresh Subedi, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Hedychium spicatum Buch.-Ham. ex Sm. ZINGIBERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . 1015 Razan Mahat, Asmita Thapa, Rameshwar Bhattarai, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Heracleum candicans Wall. ex DC. APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1021 Hassan Sher, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Hippolytia dolichophylla (Kitam.) K. Bremer & Humphries ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1031 Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman Hippophae rhamnoides L. ssp. turkestanica Rousi Hippophae rhamnoides L. Hippophae salicifolia D. Don Hippophae tibetana Schltdl. ELAEAGNACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1033 Youba Raj Pokharel, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Arshad Mehmood Abbasi Holarrhena pubescens Wall. ex G. Don APOCYNACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1043 Ram C. Poudel, Ripu M. Kunwar, and Rainer W. Bussmann Holboellia latifolia Wall. LARDIZABALACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1049 Razan Mahat, Asmita Thapa, Bhagawat Rimal, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Hydrocotyle nepalensis Hook. ARALIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1055 Laxmi Mahat Kunwar, Roshni Mahat, Asmita Thapa, Razan Mahat, Ripu M. Kunwar, and Rainer W. Bussmann Hyoscyamus niger L. SOLANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1059 Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

xviii

Contents

Hypericum perforatum L. HYPERICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1065 Hammad Ahmad Jan, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Wahid Hussain, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Hypotrachyna nepalensis (Taylor) Divakar, A. Crespo, Sipman, Elix & Lumbsch PARMELIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1075 Shiva Devkota and Christoph Scheidegger Incarvillea emodi Chatterjee BIGNONIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1081 Hammad Ahmad Jan, Hassan Sher, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Indigofera heterantha Wall. ex Brandis FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1085 Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Wahid Hussain, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Ipomoea hederacea Jacq. CONVOLVULACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1091 Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Ikram Ur Rahman, and Wahid Hussain

Volume 2 Isatis stocksii Boiss. BRASSICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1093 Hassan Sher, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Ikram Ur Rahman, Maroof Ali Turi, Wahid Hussain, Manzoor Ullah, Hammad Ahmad Jan, and Arshad Mehmood Abbasi Ixiolirion tataricum (Pall.) Herb. IXIOLIRONACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1101 Hassan Sher, Wahid Hussain, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Jasminum humile L. OLEACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1103 Bindu K. C., Sabina Gyawali, Sanjeev Luintel, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Jatropha curcas L. EUPHORBIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1111 Chandra Kanta Subedi, Ram Prasad Chaudhary, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Juglans regia L. JUGLANDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1123 Dhruba Bijaya GC, Jyoti Bhandari, Deepak Gautam, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Juncus articulatus L. JUNCACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1141 Hassan Sher, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

Contents

xix

Juniperus communis L. Juniperus excelsa M. Bieb. Juniperus indica Bertol. Juniperus pseudosabina var. turkestanica (Kom.) Silba Juniperus recurva Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Juniperus sibirica Burgsd. Juniperus squamata Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don CUPRESSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . 1143 Ila Shrestha, Ripu M. Kunwar, Wahid Hussain, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Jurinea dolomitica Galushko ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1157 Suman Aryal, Bishnu Hari Poudyal, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Justicia adhatoda L. ACANTHACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1163 Laxmi Raj Joshi, Suneeta Bhatta, Hem Raj Paudel, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Lamium album L. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1173 Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Launaea procumbens (Roxb.) Ramayya & Rajagopal ASTERACEAE . . . . 1179 Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Leea indica (Burm. f.) Merr. VITACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1183 Laxmi Khaniya, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Lepidium apetalum Willd. Lepidium sativum L. BRASSICACEAE . . . . . . . . 1189 Wahid Hussain, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Ligusticopsis wallichiana (DC.) Pimenov & Kljuykov Selinum vaginatum C.B. Clarke APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1197 Deepa Khatri, Sumit Bahadur Baruwal Chhetri, Rashmi Thapa, Hari Prasad Devkota, Prakash Poudel, Ripu M. Kunwar, and Rainer W. Bussmann Lobelia pyramidalis Wall. CAMPANULACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1205 Bikash Baral, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Luculia gratissima (Wall.) Sweet RUBIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1211 Hari Krishna Sainju, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall.) Drude ERICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1215 Prabin Bhandari, Krishna Kumar Shrestha, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

xx

Contents

Maesa chisia Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don. PRIMULACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1223 Ila Shrestha, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Mallotus philippensis (Lam.) Müll.-Arg. EUPHORBIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . 1231 Ram C. Paudel, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Malva neglecta Wallr. MALVACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1239 Hammad Ahmad Jan, Maroof Ali Turi, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Meconopsis aculeata Royle Meconopsis horridula Hook. f. and Thomson Meconopsis latifolia (Prain) Prain Meconopsis quintuplinervia Regel Meconopsis simplicifolia (D. Don) Walpers PAPAVERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1247 Mukti Ram Poudeyal, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Medicago sativa L. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1257 Hammad Ahmad Jan, Wahid Hussain, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Mentha arvensis L. Mentha longifolia (L.) L. Mentha royleana Benth. Mentha viridis (L.) L. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1265 Hammad Ahmad Jan, Hassan Sher, Wahid Hussain, Ikram Ur Rahman, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Morchella conica Pers. ex Fr. Morchella esculenta (Fr.) I.R. Hazll MORCHELLACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1279 Sailesh Ranjitkar, Nani Maiya Sujakhu, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Wahid Hussain, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Morus alba L. Morus serrata Roxb. MORACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1295 Kiran Timalsina, Arjun Bhusal, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1309 Kumar Shrestha, Dammar Singh Saud, Shankar Pant, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng. RUTACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1317 Sangita Gautam, Laxmi Kunwar, Namraj Dhami, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Mussaenda frondosa L. Mussaenda macrophylla Wall. RUBIACEAE . . . . . 1327 Prakash Poudel, Rashmi Thapa, Jyoti Sherchan, Biswas Sapkota, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Contents

xxi

Myrica esculenta Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don. MYRICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1337 Keshab R. Goutam, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Nardostachys grandiflora DC. CAPRIFOLIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1345 Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora (Pennell) D.Y. Hong PLANTAGINACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1349 Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Nepeta brachyantha Rech. f. & Edelb. Nepeta cataria L. Nepeta connata Royle ex Benth. Nepeta leucolaena Benth. ex Hook. f. Nepeta hindostana (Roth.) Hainus. Nepeta podostachys Benth. LAMIACEAE . . . . 1353 Wahid Hussain, Hassan Sher, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Nigella sativa L. RANUNCULACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1359 Peter Bridgewater, Suraj Upadhaya, Beeju Poudyal, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Ocimum gratissimum Lam. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1369 Arati Gurung, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Olea ferruginea Royle OLEACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1379 Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Onosma hispida Wall. ex G. Don BORAGINACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1389 Wahid Hussain, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Ophiocordyceps sinensis (Berk.) G.H. Sung, J.M. Sung, Hywel-Jones & Spatafora OPHIOCORDYCIPITACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1393 Rainer W. Bussmann Orobanche vulgaris Poir. OROBANCHACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1397 Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz BIGNONIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1401 Keshab Shrestha, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Osmanthus fragrans (Thunb.) Lour. OLEACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1409 Shandesh Bhattarai, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Osyris quadripartita Salzm. ex Decne. SANTALACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1415 Sajan Lal Shyaula, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

xxii

Contents

Paeonia emodi Wall. ex Royle PAEONIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1423 Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Papaver dubium L. Papaver nudicaule L. Papaver somniferum L. PAPAVERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1431 Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Parietaria judaica L. URTICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1439 Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman Paris polyphylla Sm. MELANTHIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1441 Gyanendra Karki, Ripu M. Kunwar, Ram Prasad Acharya, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Parnassia nubicola Wall. ex Royle. CELASTRACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1449 Rainer W. Bussmann and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Pedicularis albida Penn. OROBANCHACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1455 Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman Peganum harmala L. NITRARIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1461 Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Periploca aphylla Decne. APOCYNACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1471 Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Wahid Hussain Perovskia abrotanoides Karel. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1475 Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman Persicaria amphibia (L.) Delarbre Persicaria barbata (L.) H. Hara Persicaria capitata (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) H. Gross Persicaria hydropiper (L.) Spach Persicaria nepalensis (Meisn.) H. Gross POLYGONACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1477 Khadka B. Bhandari, Durga Kutal, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Phlomis bracteosa Royle ex Benth. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1491 Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Wahid Hussain

Contents

xxiii

Phyllanthus emblica L. PHYLLANTHACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1495 Bishnu Hari Poudyal, Suman Aryal, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Physochlaina praealta Hook. SOLANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1505 Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman Picea smithiana (Wall.) Boiss. PINACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1507 Devi K. Thapa-Magar, Khum B. Thapa-Magar, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Wahid Hussain Picrorhiza kurrooa Royle ex Benth. PLANTAGINACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1515 Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman Pinus gerardiana Wall. ex Lamb. Pinus roxburghii Sarg. Pinus wallichiana A. B. Jacks. PINACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1519 Hammad Ahmad Jan, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Wahid Hussain, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Pistacia atlantica Desf. Pistacia integerrima Stewart ex Brandis Pistacia khinjuk Stocks ANACARDIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1531 Hassan Sher, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Ikram Ur Rahman, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Plantago depressa Willd Plantago lanceolata L. Plantago major L. Plantago ovata Forssk. PLANTAGINACAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1539 Archana M. Kattel, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Wahid Hussain, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Pleione humilis (Sm.) D. Don. ORCHIDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1555 Prakash Bhattarai, Yagya P. Adhikari, Ripu M. Kunwar, and Rainer W. Bussmann Pleurospermum candollei (Wall. ex DC.) Benth. ex C.B. Clarke APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1559 Hassan Sher, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman Podophyllum hexandrum Royle BERBERIDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1561 Pratikshya Chalise, Yagya Raj Paneru, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Wahid Hussain, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

xxiv

Contents

Polygonatum cirrhifolium (Wall.) Royle Polygonatum multiflorum (L.) All. Polygonatum verticillatum (L.) All. ASPARAGACAE . . . . . . . . . . . 1569 Rameshwar Bhattarai, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Ripu M. Kunwar, Maroof Ali Turi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Potentilla fulgens Wall. ex Hook. ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1579 Shiva Pariyar, Hem Raj Paudel, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Primula denticulata Sm. Primula macrophylla D. Don Primula reptans Hook. ex Watt PRIMULACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1589 Hammad Ahmad Jan, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Prinsepia utilis Royle ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1597 Sony Baral, Kalyan Gauli, Ripu M. Kunwar, Maroof Ali Turi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Prunella vulgaris L. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1607 Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Maroof Ali Turi Pyracantha crenulata (D. Don) M. Roem. ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1613 Ganga D. Bhatta, Ripu M. Kunwar, and Rainer W. Bussmann Pyrus communis L. Pyrus pashia Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don. ROSACEAE . . . 1619 Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Quercus baloot Griff. Quercus dilatata Lindl Quercus incana W. Bartram Quercus lanata Sm. FAGACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1633 Nabin Joshi, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz APOCYNACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1647 Kanti Prabha Thapa, Chandrakant Chaudhary, Ripu M. Kunwar, and Rainer W. Bussmann Rhamnus purpurea Edgew. Rhamnus virgata Roxb. RHAMNACEAE . . . . . 1655 Khadka B. Bhandari, Binayak Kunwar, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Rheum emodi Wall. Rheum tibeticum Maxim. ex Hook. f. POLYGONACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1665 Hammad Ahmad Jan, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Wahid Hussain, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Contents

xxv

Rhododendron afghanicum Aitch. & Hemsl. Rhododendron anthopogon D. Don Rhododendron arboreum Sm. Rhododendron campanulatum D. Don Rhododendron collettianum Aitch. & Hemsl. ERICACEAE . . . . . . 1673 Ram C. Poudel, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Wahid Hussain, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Rhynchostylis retusa (L.) Blume ORCHIDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1691 Yagya P. Adhikari, Anke Jentsch, and Ripu M. Kunwar Rosa brunonii Lindl. Rosa macrophylla Lindl. Rosa sericea Lindl. Rosa webbiana Wall. ex Royle ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1697 Hammad Ahmad Jan, Wahid Hussain, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Rubia manjith Roxb. ex Fleming Rubia tinctorium L. RUBIACEAE . . . . . . 1709 Dhirendra Kumar Pradhan, Sunita Ulak, Shambhu Charmakar, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Rubus ellipticus Sm. Rubus foliolosus Weihe & Nees Rubus fruticosus L. Rubus irritans Focke ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1717 Laxmi Khaniya, Rabindra Bhattarai, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Wahid Hussain, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Rumex nepalensis Spreng. Rumex hastatus D. Don Rumex longifolius DC. POLYGONACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1735 Grinsun Sharma, Prakash Poudel, Rashmi Thapa, Santosh Lamichhane, Hem Raj Paudel, Hari Prasad Devkota, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Saccharum filifolium Nees ex Steud. POACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1755 Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Ikram Ur Rahman Salix alba L. SALICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1757 Hassan Sher, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman Salvia nubicola Wall. ex Sweet LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1763 Hassan Sher, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Ikram Ur Rahman, and Wahid Hussain Sapindus mukorossi Gaertn. SAPINDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1775 Suneeta Bhatta, Laxmi Raj Joshi, Dhruba Khakurel, and Rainer W. Bussmann Sapium insigne (Royle) Benth. & Hook. f. EUPHORBIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . 1785 Sabina Gyawali, Sanjeev Luintel, Harisharan Luintel, and Rainer W. Bussmann

xxvi

Contents

Satyrium nepalense D. Don. Satyrium nepalense var. ciliatum (Lindl.) Hook. f. ORCHIDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1791 Rainer W. Bussmann Saussurea albescens (DC.) Sch. Saussurea lappa (Decne.) Sch. Bip Saussurea obvallata (DC.) Sch. Bip. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1795 Shanta Budha-Magar, Hassan Sher, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Ikram Ur Rahman Schima wallichii (DC.) Korth. THEACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1805 Rana B. B.K., Ripu M. Kunwar, and Rainer W. Bussmann Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Oken. SAPINDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1813 Reecha Balayar, Ripu M. Kunwar, and Rainer W. Bussmann Scurrula elata (Edgew.) Danser Loranthaceae Viscum album L. Viscum articulatum Burm. f. Viscum loranthi Elmer SANTALACEAE . . . . . 1819 Mohan P. Devkota, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Scutellaria barbata D. Don Scutellaria discolor Colebr. Scutellaria orientalis L. Scutellaria prostrata Jacq. ex Benth. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . 1829 Nabaraj Dahal, Razan Mahat, Asmita Thapa, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Maroof Ali Turi, and Wahid Hussain Semecarpus anacardium L. f. ANACARDIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1837 Bhola Bhattarai, Roshan Chikanbanjar, Sanjeev Luintel, Sabina Gyawali, Ripu M. Kunwar, and Rainer W. Bussmann Senecio nudicaulis Buch.-Ham. ex C.B. Clarke ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . 1845 Sudha Joshi Shrestha, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Seseli libanotis (L.) W.D.J. Koch Seseli transcaucasicum Pimenov & Sdobina APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1855 Rainer W. Bussmann and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Skimmia anquetilia Tayl. & Airy Shaw. Skimmia arborescens T. Anderson ex Gamble Skimmia laureola (DC.) Sieb. & Zucc. ex Walp. Skimmia melanocarpa Rehder & E. H. Wilson Skimmia multinervia Huang RUTACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1861 Man D. Bhatt, Ripu M. Kunwar, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Smilax aspera L. Smilax ovalifolia Roxb. SMILACACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1869 Suneeta Bhatta, Laxmi Raj Joshi, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Contents

xxvii

Solanum aculeatissimum Jacq. Solanum nigrum L. Solanum surattense Burm. f. SOLANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1881 Laxmi Kunwar, Sangita Gautam, Namraj Dhami, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Maroof Ali Turi, Wahid Hussain, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Hassan Sher, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Solena heterophylla Lour. CUCURBITACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1907 Sushmita Poudel, Sarah Albright, and Rainer W. Bussmann Sophora mollis (Royle) Baker FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1913 Asmita Thapa, Razan Mahat, Laxmi Mahat Kunwar, Ripu M. Kunwar, and Rainer W. Bussmann Sorbus cuspidata (Spach) Hedl. ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1917 Bindu K. C., Sabina Gyawali, Sanjeev Luintel, Hari P. Sharma, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Spondias pinnata (L. f.) Kurz ANACARDIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1927 Yadav Uprety, Dhruba Khakurel, and Rainer W. Bussmann Stephania elegans Hook. f. & Thomson MENISPERMACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . 1933 Yagya P. Adhikari, Dhaka M. Adhikari, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Sterculia villosa Roxb. MALVACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1941 Ripu M. Kunwar and Rainer W. Bussmann Swertia angustifolia Burkill Swertia chirayita Buch.-Ham. ex C.B. Clarke Swertia cordata (G. Don) Clarke Swertia petiolata D. Don GENTIANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1943 Hammad Ahmad Jan, Wahid Hussain, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Syringa emodi Wall ex G. Don. OLEACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1953 Ripu M. Kunwar, Wahid Hussain, and Rainer W. Bussmann Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels MYRTACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1955 Abdul Sahim Ansari, Usha Thakuri, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Tamaricaria elegans (Royle) Qaiser & Ali TAMARICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . 1967 Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman Tamarix arceuthoides Bunge TAMARICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1971 Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Ikram Ur Rahman Taraxacum campylodes G.E. Haglund Taraxacum officinale F.H. Wigg Taraxacum sikkimense Hand.-Mazz. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1977 Sanjeev Luintel, Sabina Gyawali, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

xxviii

Contents

Taxus baccata (L.) Borkh. Taxus contorta Griff. Taxus mairei (Lemée & H. Lév.) S.Y. Hu Taxus wallichiana Zucc. TAXACEAE . . . . . . . 1991 Ram C. Poudel, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. Terminalia chebula Retz. COMBRETACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2005 Rose Shrestha, Ram Prasad Acharya, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Thalictrum cultratum Wall. Thalictrum foetidum L. Thalictrum foliolosum DC. RANUNCULACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2015 Sabina Gyawali, Sanjeev Luintel, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Thymus linearis Benth. ssp. linearis Jalas Thymus serpyllum L. Thymus vulgaris L. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2027 Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Maroof Ali Turi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers ex Hook. f. & Thomson. Tinospora sinensis (Lour.) Merr. MENISPERMACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2037 Jeevan Pandey, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Tribulus terrestris L. ZYGOPHYLLACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2045 Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Trichodesma indicum (L.) Lehm. BORAGINACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2053 Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Ikram Ur Rahman Trigonella corniculata (L.) L. Trigonella gracilis Benth. FABACEAE . . . . . 2055 Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Trillium govanianum Wall. ex Royle MELANTHIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2061 Til K. Thapa, Ripu M. Kunwar, H. Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, and Rainer W. Bussmann Urtica dioica L. URTICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2067 Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Maroof Ali Turi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Valeriana hardwickii Wall. var. hoffmeisteri C.B. Clarke Valeriana jatamansi Jones Valeriana officinalis L. CAPRIFOLIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . 2079 Bishwa Nath Oli, Shambhu Charmakar, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, and Maroof Ali Turi

Contents

xxix

Verbascum thapsus L. SCROPHULARIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2101 Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Vernonia anthelmintica (L.) Willd. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2113 Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Viola biflora L. Viola canescens Wall. Viola odorata L. Viola pilosa Blume Viola rupestris F.W. Schmidt Viola suavis M. Bieb. VIOLACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2123 Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Withania coagulans (Stocks) Dunal Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal SOLANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2139 Wahid Hussain, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz. LYTHRACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2147 Mohan Raj Kafle, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Zanthoxylum armatum DC. Zanthoxylum oxyphyllum Edgew. RUTACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2159 Biswas Sapkota, Prakash Poudel, Rashmi Thapa, Jyoti Sherchan, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Ziziphus jujuba Mill Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2173 N. B. Khatri Chhetri, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Maroof Ali Turi Correction to: Didymocarpus aromaticus Wall. ex D. Don GESNERIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Astha Tuladhar, Ripu M. Kunwar, and Rainer W. Bussmann

C1

About the Editors

Dr. Ripu M. Kunwar is a medicinal plant expert and ethnobotanist who has conducted several researches on plant-people interactions in the Nepal Himalaya for two decades. He completed his M.Sc. (botany) at Tribhuvan University, Nepal, in 2000. He was an outstanding student and received a gold medal in MPhil in Forest Management in 2002 at IIFM, India. After completing his two master’s courses, he worked at many institutions in various capacities, including doing research on medicinal plants, indigenous knowledge, ethnobotany, biodiversity, and climate change impacts. He completed his M.A. in geography in August 2015 and Ph.D. in geosciences (cultural and spatial ecology) in August 2018 from Florida Atlantic University (FAU). He was advised by Prof. Dr. Maria Fadiman, Prof. Dr. Mary Cameron, Prof. Dr. Rainer Bussmann, and Dr. Tobin Hindle for his PhD. Currently, he affiliates to Ilia State University, Georgia, as a postdoctoral research associate. Dr. Kunwar is a fellow of ITTO, Japan (2006), a recipient of the Missouri Botanical Garden–ASC fellowship, USA (2012), and a grantee of Rufford Foundation Grant, UK (2014, 2015, 2017), National Geographic Society Early Career Grant, USA (2018), FAU-GRIP Grant (2015), and FAU-Science Student Grant (2018). He has been awarded the Young Scientist of Developing Country 2009 by TWAS, Italy, and NAST, Nepal. He received several travel awards for attending international conferences in Austria, China, Germany, India, Italy, and the USA. He is a member of the Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON) and the Society of Economic Botany, USA, since 2007 and 2012, respectively. Dr. Kunwar has authored over xxxi

xxxii

About the Editors

70 publications including over 40 peer-reviewed articles, 15 book chapters, 10 review papers, and 1 book. His research articles featured in the journals PLOS One, Ecological Indicators, Ecosystem Services, Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (JEE), Journal of Ethnopharmacology, Journal of Ethnobotany Research and Applications (JERA), and Global Ecology and Conservation. Currently, he works as an associate editor for JERA and is an editorial board member of JEE. Dr. Kunwar has bagged over 1400 citations and H Index 19. Detail is available at GoogleScholar https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl¼en&user¼0hJp XUEAAAAJ&view_op¼list_works&sortby¼pubdate.

Prof. Dr. Hassan Sher was born in Swat District of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. He is associated with teaching and research for the last 23 years. Dr. Sher obtained his M.Sc. (botany, 1995) and M.Phil. (botany, specialization in plant ecology, 1998) from the Department of Botany, Peshawar University, and Ph.D. (botany, specialization in plant ecology, 2006) from GC University, Lahore. His work is focusing on traditional knowledge system, ethnobotany, ecology, in situ and ex situ conservation of valuable endangered plant species with IUCN, WWF, SDC/IC, FAO and UNDP, with rich experience in the restoration/rehabilitation of degraded habitats and recovery of rare/threatened plant species. Dr. Sher published more than 150 original research articles and is a member of 7 national and international scientific societies and organizations. He has supervised and examined/evaluated many postgraduate and M.Phil. theses and Ph.D. dissertations. He is also the reviewer of internationally reputed scientific journals. A total of five research projects have been successfully completed by Dr. Sher, funded by both international and national donors, whereas one research project is ongoing. Dr. Sher has supervised 15 M.Sc. students and 1 M.Phil. research scholar, and 8 M.Phil. research scholars and 6 Ph.D. research scholars are currently under his guidance. A total of four books and one book chapter have been published. Dr. Sher’s contributions toward preservation and innovation in the field of medicinal plants conservation

About the Editors

xxxiii

and management were recognized jointly by the Government of Pakistan and SAARC countries by awarding him the prestigious SAARC Gold Medal and SAARC Award in Dhaka, Bangladesh, during the Summit in 2003 on the theme “Invention in the Field of Traditional Medicines.” Dr. Sher is professor and director of the Centre for Plant Sciences and Biodiversity, and also dean of the Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Pakistan, since May 21, 2019. Dr. Sher was the registrar of the University of Swat from June 11, 2011, to January 24, 2012, and then from March 17, 2016, to February 28, 2018. Furthermore, he was a focal person for Himalaya University Consortium of ICIMOD for Biodiversity and Natural Resource Management, and focal person of the Higher Education Commission, Islamabad, for establishment of the women’s campus at the University of Swat from June 15, 2017, to September 2019. Dr. Sher is member of NCRC of HEC for the disciplines of botany, environmental sciences, and plant protection. Dr. Rainer W. Bussmann earned his M.Sc. (diploma) in biology from Universität Tübingen, Germany, in 1993 and his doctorate from Universität Bayreuth, Germany, in 1994. He is an ethnobotanist and vegetation ecologist, and co-director of Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia, as well as Head of the Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany, Ilia State University, both of which he co-founded. Before retiring from Missouri Botanical Garden, Dr. Bussmann was director of the William L. Brown Center at Missouri Botanical Garden, William L. Brown curator of economic botany, and senior curator. Before accepting the directorship of WLBC, he held academic appointments as research fellow in geography and the environment at the University of Texas at Austin from 2006 to 2007, as associate professor of botany and scientific director of Harold Lyon Arboretum at the University of Hawaii from 2003 to 2006, and as assistant professor at the University of Bayreuth from 1997 to 2003, following a postdoc at the same institution from 1994 to 1997. He holds affiliate faculty appointments at Washington University St. Louis, USA; University of Missouri St. Louis, USA;

xxxiv

About the Editors

Florida Atlantic University Boca Raton, USA; Universidade Federal da Paraíba, Brazil; Universidád Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Perú; and at Ilia State University, Republic of Georgia, and serves as external thesis advisor at multiple other universities worldwide. His work focuses on ethnobotanical research and the preservation of traditional knowledge in Bolivia, Peru, Madagascar, the Caucasus, and the Himalayas. To date, Dr. Bussmann has authored over 290 peer-reviewed papers, over 1200 book chapters, and authored or edited 38 books. Dr. Bussmann is a past president of the Society for Economic Botany and has served as board/council member of the International Society for Ethnopharmacology, Society of Ethnobiology, Botanical Society of America, and International Society of Ethnobiology. See more of his work on his website (https://www. cejaandina.org/rainer-w-bussmann/) and download publications from ResearchGate (https://www.researchgate. net/profile/Rainer_Bussmann).

Contributors

Arshad Mehmood Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan Kamal Prasad Acharya Department of Sport, Food and Natural Sciences, Western Norway University of Applied Sciences, Bergen, Norway Ram Prasad Acharya Centre for Sustainable Agricultural Systems, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD, Australia Practical Solutions Consultancy, Kathmandu, Nepal Dhaka M. Adhikari Sustainable Environmental and Ecosystem Management, Lalitpur, Nepal Kamal Adhikari Resource Himalaya Foundation, Lalitpur, Nepal Yagya P. Adhikari Department of Biogeography, BayCEER, University of Bayreuth, Bayreuth, Germany Department of Disturbance Ecology, BayCEER, University of Bayreuth, Bayreuth, Germany Anjana Adhikari-Devkota Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan Sarah Albright University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, USA Giridhar Amatya Mooswan Herby Industry, Kathmandu, Nepal Abdul Sahim Ansari Birgunj Metropolitan City Ward 4, Birta, Parsa, Nepal Suman Aryal Institute for Agriculture and the Environment, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD, Australia Bandana Awasthi DAI/USAID Nepal Paani Program, Kathmandu, Nepal Rana B. B.K. Division Forest Office, Gorkha, Nepal Reecha Balayar Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Nepal xxxv

xxxvi

Contributors

Bikash Baral Research, Community Development and Conservation Center (C3DR), Pokhara, Nepal Kedar Baral Division Forest Office, Tanahun, Nepal Sony Baral The Resource Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal Institute of Silvilculture and University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria Sushim R. Baral Maijubahal-7 Chabahil 7, Kathmandu, Nepal Sumit Bahadur Baruwal Chhetri Department of Pharmacy, School of Health and Allied Sciences, Pokhara University, Pokhara, Nepal Ramesh Basnet Plant Research Centre, Jumla, Nepal Department of Plant Resources (DPR), Thapathali, Kathmandu, Nepal Bijendra Basnyat NARMA Consultancy, Kathmandu, Nepal Tarun Belwal College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, Key Laboratory for Agro-Products Postharvest Handling of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Zhejiang Key Laboratory for Agro-Food Processing, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China Dhaka Ram Bhandari Institute of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Justus Liebig University, Giessen, Germany Gauri S. Bhandari The Research Institute of Basic Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea Jyoti Bhandari Institute of Forestry, Tribhuvan University, Pokhara, Nepal Khadka B. Bhandari Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal Prabin Bhandari Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal Man D. Bhatt Botany Department, Siddhanath Science Campus, Tribhuvan University, Kanchanpur, Nepal Ganga D. Bhatta National Herbarium and Plant Laboratories (KATH), Godawari, Lalitpur, Nepal Suneeta Bhatta Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal Bhola Bhattarai National Advocacy Forum, NAFAN Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal

Contributors

xxxvii

Hari Datta Bhattarai Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal Krishna Ram Bhattarai Department of Plant Resources, Thapathali, Kathmandu, Nepal Prakash Bhattarai Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Rabindra Bhattarai Center Department of Botany, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal Rameshwar Bhattarai Asian Center for Development, Kathmandu, Nepal Shandesh Bhattarai Nepal Academy of Science and Technology, Lalitpur, Nepal Shreehari Bhattarai Agriculture Forest University, Hetauda, Nepal Arjun Bhusal Green Governance Nepal, Baneshwor, Kathmandu, Nepal Bindu K. C. Amrit Science College, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Peter Bridgewater Faculty of Science and Technology, Institute for Applied Ecology, University of Canberra, Bruce, ACT, Australia Shanta Budha-Magar Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand Rainer W. Bussmann Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Pratikshya Chalise National Herbarium and Plant Laboratories, Department of Plant Resources, Ministry of Forests and Environment, Godawari, Lalitpur, Nepal Shambhu Charmakar Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Kathmandu, Nepal Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy Chandrakant Chaudhary Department of Environmental Science, Macquarie University, Macquarie Park, Australia C. M. Chaudhary Environmental Services Nepal Private Limited, Thapathali, Kathmandu, Nepal Ram Prasad Chaudhary Research Centre for Applied Science and Technology (RECAST), Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Roshan Chikanbanjar Bhattarai, Bhola, NAFAN, Kathmandu, Nepal National Advocacy Forum, Kathmandu, Nepal Nabaraj Dahal Practical Solutions Consultancy, Kathmandu, Nepal

xxxviii

Contributors

Dharma Raj Dangol Institute for Social and Environmental Research Nepal, Chitwan, Nepal Niranjan Das Department of Chemistry, Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar College, Belonia, S. Tripura, India Anjana Devkota Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Hari Prasad Devkota Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan Mohan P. Devkota Botany Department, Amrit Campus, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Shiva Devkota Global Institute for Interdisciplinary Studies (GIIS), Kathmandu, Nepal Man K. Dhamala Central Department of Environmental Science, Tribhuvan University, Tribhuvan, Nepal Namraj Dhami School of Health and Allied Sciences, Pokhara University, Pokhara, Nepal Sunita Dhungana Institute of Forestry, Tribhuvan University, Pokhara, Nepal Kalyan Gauli The Resource Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal Deepak Gautam Institute of Forestry, Tribhuvan University Pokhara Campus, Pokhara, Nepal Sangita Gautam School of Health and Allied Sciences, Pokhara University, Pokhara, Nepal Dhruba Bijaya GC Institute of Forestry, Tribhuvan University, Pokhara, Nepal Pavlos Georgiadis Department of Societal Transition and Agriculture, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany Narayan Ghimire Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Tribhuvan, Nepal Keshab R. Goutam Ministry of Forests and Environment, Kathmandu, Nepal Arati Gurung Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Rajendra Gyawali Kathmandu University, Dhulikhel, Kavre, Nepal Sabina Gyawali Amrit Science College, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Wahid Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan Hammad Ahmad Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan

Contributors

xxxix

Anke Jentsch Department of Disturbance Ecology, BayCEER, University of Bayreuth, Bayreuth, Germany Laxmi Raj Joshi National Trust for Nature Conservation, Bardia Conservation Program, Kathmandu, Nepal Nabin Joshi Asia Network for Sustainable Agri-Bioresources, Kathmandu, Nepal Nirmala Joshi Department of Plant Resources, Thapathali, Kathmandu, Nepal Sudha Joshi Shrestha Department of Botany, Patan Multiple Campus, Tribhuvan University, Lalitpur, Nepal Mohan Raj Kafle Division Forest Office Lamjung, Lamjung, Nepal Megh Nath Kafley Forest Research and Training Center, Ministry of Forests and Environment, Kathmandu, Nepal Gyanendra Karki Agriculture and Forestry University, Rampur, Chitwan, Nepal Archana M. Kattel Shakti Global, LLC, Orlando, FL, USA Dipak Khadka Guangdong Key Laboratory for Innovative Development and Utilization of Forest Plant Germplasm, College of Forestry and Landscape Architecture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China Golden Gate International College, Kathmandu, Nepal Dhruba Khakurel Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal Mathura Khanal Foresters’ Association of Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal Laxmi Khaniya Center Department of Botany, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal Deepa Khatri Department of Pharmacy, Nobel Academy, Purbanchal University, Pokhara, Nepal Subhas Khatri National Herbarium and Plant Laboratories (KATH), Godawari, Lalitpur, Nepal N. B. Khatri Chhetri SOS Hermann Gmeiner School, Sanothimi Bhaktapur, Nepal Dhirendra Kumar Pradhan Forest Research and Training Center, Ministry of Forests and Environment, Kathmandu, Nepal Binayak Kunwar Agriculture and Forestry University, Chitawan, Nepal Laxmi Kunwar School of Health and Allied Sciences, Pokhara University, Pokhara, Nepal Ripu M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal

xl

Contributors

Durga Kutal University of Wisconsin-Whitewater, Whitewater, WI, USA Gopal Lamichhane Department of Oriental Pharmacy, Wonkwang University, Iksan, Republic of Korea Santosh Lamichhane Department of Pharmacy, Wonkwang University, Iksan, Republic of Korea Chris LeBoa Department of Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA Hari Datt Lekhak Botanical Society of Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal Rajan Logesh TIFAC-CORE in Herbal Drugs, Department of Pharmacognosy and Phytopharmacy, JSS College of Pharmacy (JSS Academy of Higher Education and Research), Udhagamandalam, Tamil Nadu, India Harisharan Luintel Forest Action, Kathmandu, Nepal Sanjeev Luintel Amrit Science College, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Razan Mahat Trichandra Multiple Campus, Tribhuvan University, Ghantaghar, Kathmandu, Nepal Roshni Mahat Kathmandu, Nepal Laxmi Mahat Kunwar Kathmandu, Nepal Kuber Jung Malla Department of Plant Resources, Kathmandu, Nepal Tek Maraseni University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD, Australia Northwest Institute of Eco-Environment and Resources, Lanzhou, China Bishwa Nath Oli Ministry of Forests and Environment, Kathmandu, Nepal Jeevan Pandey Department of Plant Resources, Ministry of Forest and Environment, Government of Nepal, Thapathali, Nepal Yagya Raj Paneru Department of Botany, Capital College and Research Centre, Koteshwor, Kathmandu, Nepal Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia Shankar Pant Texas A&M AgriLife Research and Extension Center, Weslaco, TX, USA Agricultural Research Service, US Department of Agriculture, Stillwater, OK, USA Kalyan Panta Prithivi Narayan Campus, Tribhuvan University, Pokhara, Nepal Shiva Pariyar Ministry of Industry, Tourism, Forest and Environment, Pokhara, Nepal Mohan Prasad Panthi Kathmandu-32, Pepsicola, 44600, Nepal

Contributors

xli

Babita Paudel Center for Natural and Applied Sciences, Kathmandu, Nepal Hem Raj Paudel National Herbarium and Plant Laboratories, Department of Plant Resources, Godawari, Nepal Krishna C. Paudel Institute of Forestry, Tribhuvan University, Tribhuvan, Nepal Mukti Ram Paudel Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal Ram C. Paudel Molecular Biotechnology Unit, Faculty of Science, Nepal Academy of Science and Technology (NAST), Lalitpur, Nepal Youba Raj Pokharel Ministry of Forests and Environment, Kathmandu, Nepal Prakash Poudel Department of Pharmacy, Novel Academy, Purbanchal University, Pokhara, Nepal Ram C. Poudel Molecular Biotechnology Unit, Faculty of Science, Nepal Academy of Science and Technology (NAST), Khumaltar, Nepal Sushmita Poudel University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, USA Beeju Poudyal Himalayan Conservation and Research Institute, Kathmandu, Nepal Bishnu Hari Poudyal Institute for Agriculture and the Environment, University of Southern Queensland, Darling Heights, QLD, Australia Forest Action Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal Mukti Ram Poudeyal Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Hari Prasad Pandey Ministry of Forests and Environment, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal Narayan Prasad Pokharel Ministry of Forests and Environment, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal Dipesh Pyakurel Nepal Herbs and Herbal Products Association, Kathmandu, Nepal Agriculture and Forestry University, Chitwan, Nepal Sailesh Ranjitkar NGene, Solutions of Natural Innovation, Kathmandu GPO 44614, Nepal Honghe Center for Mountain Futures, Kunming Institute of Botany, Honghe County 654400, Yunnan, China Faculty of Humanities and Social Science, Mid-Western University, Lalitpur, Nepal Bhagawat Rimal College of Applied Sciences (CAS)-Nepal, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal

xlii

Contributors

Hari Krishna Sainju Department of Biotechnology, Asian Institute of Technology and Management, Lalitpur, Nepal Biswas Sapkota Department of Pharmacy, Novel Academy, Pokhara, Nepal Prabhat Sapkota Division Forest Office, Gulmi, Nepal Prakash Prasad Sapkota Dhawalagiri Multiple Campus, Baglung, Nepal Christoph Scheidegger Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research WSL, Birmensdorf, Switzerland Shiva Kumar Sharma The Resource Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal Grinsun Sharma Department of Medical Science, Wonkwang University, Iksan, Republic of Korea Hari P. Sharma Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Hassan Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan Jyoti Sherchan Department of Pharmacy, Novel Academy, Pokhara, Nepal Sangita Shresta Red River Trail, Valley Ranch, Irving, Texas, USA Hira Shova Shrestha Department of Science, Sanothimi Campus, Bhaktapur, Nepal Ila Shrestha Botany Department, Patan Multiple Campus, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal Keshab Shrestha Natural History Museum, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Krishna Kumar Shrestha Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal Kumar Shrestha Department of Plant Biology, Ecology and Evolution, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, USA Rose Shrestha Department of Plant Resources, Ministry of Forests and Environment, Kathmandu, Nepal Sajan Lal Shyaula Faculty of Science, Nepal Academy of Science and Technology, Lalitpur, Nepal Dammar Singh Saud Department of Plant resources, Thapathali, Kathmandu, Nepal Mohan Siwakoti Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Nepal

Contributors

xliii

Bhishma P. Subedi Asia Network for Sustainable Agriculture and Bioresources, Kathmandu, Nepal Chandra Kanta Subedi Research Centre for Applied Science and Technology (RECAST), Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Suresh Subedi Arkansas Tech University, Russellville, AR, USA Nani Maiya Sujakhu National Centre for Borderland Ethnic Studies in Southwest China, Yunnan University, Kunming, China Usha Thakuri Hetauda Makawanpur, Nepal

Sub

Metropolitan

City

Ward-14,

Mayurdhap,

Asmita Thapa Trichandra Multiple Campus, Tribhuvan University, Ghantaghar, Kathmandu, Nepal Kanti Prabha Thapa Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal Neeru Thapa Institute of Forestry, Tribhuvan University, Pokhara, Nepal Rashmi Thapa Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, School of Health and Allied Sciences, Pokhara University, Pokhara, Nepal Santosh Thapa Tri-Chandra College, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Til K. Thapa National Herbarium and Plant Laboratories (KATH), Godawari, Lalitpur, Nepal Devi K. Thapa-Magar Nobel College, Kathmandu, Nepal Khum B. Thapa-Magar Department of Forest and Rangeland Stewardship, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA Kiran Timalsina Green Governance Nepal, Baneshwor, Kathmandu, Nepal Achyut Tiwari Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Nepal Astha Tuladhar College of Liberal Arts and Sciences, Mie University, Tsu, Japan International Society of Horticultural Sciences (ISHS), Leuven, Belgium Maroof Ali Turi College of Life Science, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu, China Sunita Ulak Forest Research and Training Center, Ministry of Forests and Environment, Kathmandu, Nepal Manzoor Ullah Department of Botany, University of Science and Technology, Bannu KP, Pakistan Suraj Upadhaya Department of Natural Resource Ecology and Management, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA Himalayan Conservation and Research Institute, Kathmandu, Nepal

xliv

Contributors

Yadav Uprety WWF Nepal Program, Baluwatar, Kathmandu, Nepal Ikram Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan Sheetal Vaidya Department of Botany, Patan Multiple Campus, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Nepal

Part I Regions

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Hindukush and Karakoram Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

The Regions The Hindukush is an 800-kilometre-long mountain range that stretches through Afghanistan, from its centre to Northern Pakistan and into Tajikistan. The range forms the western section of the Hindukush Himalayan Region (HKH) and is the westernmost extension of the Pamir Mountains, the Karakoram and the Himalayas. The three regions meet in Pakistan (Fig. 1). It divides the valley of the Amu Darya (the ancient Oxus) to the north from the Indus River valley to the south. The range has numerous high snow-capped peaks, with the highest point being Tirich Mir or Terichmir at 7708 m in the Chitral District of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. To the north, near its northeastern end, the H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_2

3

4

H. Sher et al.

Fig. 1 Meeting pint of Hindukush, Karakoram and Himalaya, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan) Fig. 2 Rakaposhi Summit, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Hindukush buttresses the Pamir Mountains near the point where the borders of China, Pakistan and Afghanistan meet, after which it runs southwest through Pakistan and into Afghanistan near their border. The eastern end of the Hindukush in the north merges with the Karakoram Range. Towards its southern end, it connects with the Spin Ghar Range near the Kabul River. The Hindukush range region was a historically significant centre of Buddhism with sites such as the Bamiyan Buddhas. It remained a stronghold of polytheistic faiths until the nineteenth century. The Hindukush range has been the passageway during the invasions of the Indian subcontinent (Anderson et al. 2020). The region carries many snow-capped peaks, mountain lakes and high passes (Figs. 2, 3, 4, and 5). The Karakoram is a mountain range spanning the borders of India, Pakistan and China with the northwest extremity of the range extending to Afghanistan and

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Hindukush and Karakoram Fig. 3 Borith Lake, GilgitBaltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 4 Khaplu Valley, GilgitBaltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

5

6

H. Sher et al.

Fig. 5 Khunjerab Pass, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Tajikistan; its highest 15 mountains are all based in Pakistan. It begins in the Wakhan Corridor (Afghanistan) in the west, encompasses the majority of Gilgit-Baltistan (Pakistan), and extends into Ladakh (India) and the disputed Aksai Chin region controlled by China. It is the second highest mountain range in the world and part of the complex of ranges including the Pamir Mountains, the Hindukush and the Himalayan Mountains. The Karakoram has eight summits over 7500 m in height, with four of them exceeding 8000 m, including K2, the second highest peak in the world at 8611 m. The range is about 500 km in length and is the most heavily glaciated part of the world outside the polar regions. The Siachen Glacier at 76 km and the Biafo Glacier at 63 km rank as the world’s second and third longest glaciers outside the polar regions. The Karakoram is bounded on the east by the Aksai Chin plateau, on the northeast by the edge of the Tibetan Plateau and on the north by the river valleys of the Yarkand and Karakash rivers beyond which lie the Kunlun Mountains. At the northwest corner are the Pamir Mountains. The southern boundary of the Karakoram is formed, west to east, by the Gilgit, Indus and Shyok rivers, which separate the range from the northwestern end of the Himalaya range proper. These rivers flow northwest before making an abrupt turn southwestwards towards the plains of Pakistan. Roughly in the middle of the Karakoram range is the Karakoram Pass, which was part of a historic trade route between Ladakh and Yarkand but now inactive (Figs. 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10). There is great heterogeneity of features from south to north and west to east in relation to precipitation, vegetation and human livelihoods. This variability defies making easy generalizations about the region (Sharma et al. 2019).

Geography The Hindukush region is the westernmost extension of the Pamir and the Himalayas. It divides the valley of the Amu Darya (the ancient Oxus) to the north from the Indus River valley to the south. The range has numerous high snow-capped peaks, with the

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Hindukush and Karakoram Fig. 6 Soog Valley, GilgitBaltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 7 Deosai National Park, Skardu, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

7

8

H. Sher et al.

Fig. 8 Gunji Roundu Valley, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan) Fig. 9 Nagar Valley, GilgitBaltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

highest point being Tirich Mir or Terichmir at 7708 m in the Chitral District of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. To the north, near its northeastern end, the Hindukush buttresses the Pamir Mountains near the point where the borders of China, Pakistan and Afghanistan meet, after which it runs southwest through Pakistan and into Afghanistan near their border. The eastern end of the Hindukush in the north merges with the Karakoram Range. Towards its southern end, it connects with the Spin Ghar Range near the Kabul River. Numerous high passes transect the

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Hindukush and Karakoram

9

Fig. 10 Badhowai Valley, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

mountains, forming a strategically important network for the transit of caravans. The most important mountain pass in Afghanistan is the Salang Pass (Kotal-e Salang) (3878 m) north of Kabul, which links southern Afghanistan to northern Afghanistan. The range has several other passes in Afghanistan, the lowest of which is the southern Shibar Pass (2700 m) where the Hindukush range terminates. The Hindukush from the boundary between the Indus watershed in South Asia and Amu Darya watershed in Central Asia Melt water from snow and ice feeds major river systems in Central Asia: the Amu Darya, the Helmand River and the Kabul River. Smaller rivers with headwaters in the range include the Khash, the Farah and the Arashkan (Harut) rivers. The basins of these rivers serve the ecology and economy of the region, but the water flow in these rivers greatly fluctuate, and reliance on these has been a historical problem with extended droughts being commonplace. The eastern end of the range, with the highest peaks and high snow accumulation, allows to long-term water storage.

Climate Hindukush The climate setting of the eastern Hindukush is characterized by the transitional position between the humid monsoon regime along the southern declivity of the Himalayas and the semiarid winter-rain conditions of Southwest Asia and arid Central Asia. A steep south-north gradient of decreasing annual precipitation,

10

H. Sher et al.

which characterizes the mountain belts of northern Pakistan is modified by the orographic structure and seasonally alternating circulation systems. The horizontal differentiation is overlaid by pronounced vertical climatic gradients, which range from the arid valley floors to humid nival climates within a short distance. Southern Chitral receives higher amounts of summer rainfall from monsoonal depressions. Central and northern Chitral show a more arid regime that is influenced by winter precipitation from western disturbances (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002).

Karakoram In the last ice age, a connected series of glaciers stretched from western Tibet to Nanga Parbat and from the Tarim Basin to the Gilgit District. To the south, the Indus glacier was the main valley glacier, which flowed 120 km down from Nanga Parbat massif to 870 m elevation. In the north, the Karakoram glaciers joined those from the Kunlun Mountains and flowed down to 2000 m in the Tarim Basin. While the current valley glaciers in the Karakoram reach a maximum length of 76 km, several of the ice age valley glacier branches and main valley glaciers had lengths up to 700 km. During the ice age, the glacier snowline was about 1300 m lower than today. Physical factors are, to a high degree, varied over the region because of extreme differences in altitude, exposition and geomorphological structure. The climate generally is strongly continental and extremely arid. Only in the highest altitudes can cold subhumid conditions be expected. The climate diagrams of Kashgar (Western Tarim Basin) and Geer (W Tibet) and low amount of precipitation (about 60 mm annually at the altitude of 4300 m) and not representative of the highest elevations. A rapid increase of humidity is obvious above the altitude of about 4400 m in the central N slope of the Karakoram. The high amount of radiation causes extreme annual, diurnal and exposition-governed temperature changes. Aspect and exposition are important factors which regulate evaporation. The N slopes of Kunlun Shan and Aghil Shan are moister and hold a much more varied vegetation than the S slopes. Not a single species was found growing on a S slope exclusively. Lithophytic lichens are almost entirely confined to N-facing rocks of the alpine and sub-nival belts where they can reach high species diversities. It is beyond the scope of this article to discuss micro-climatical features of the area, but these factors control the altitudinal and latitudinal distribution of vegetation types and plant species (Dickoré 1991). In the past the Hindukush-Karakoram climate has changed significantly, and in the near future, it will change more dramatically (Krishnan et al. 2019). The region experienced a time of climate warming from 1901 to 1940, from 1940 to 1970 was a layer of cooling, and again from 1970 up to present a layer of warming. Annual mean surface air temperature has pointedly risen in the HHK from 1901 to 2014, at 0.10 ° C/decade rate, while the rate of warming is 0.2 °C/decade over the last 50 years. It is predicted that the region will experience warming 1.7–2.4 °C in the near future term (2036–2065). In the near future, it is predicted that monsoon precipitation would increase from 4% to 12% and in the long term from 4% to 25%. In the Karakoram the

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Hindukush and Karakoram

11

winter precipitation is predicted to increase from 7% to 15%, but in the central Himalaya, it is predicted that it will decline slightly (Krishnan et al. 2019). On the spatial pattern of temperatures across different geographic regions of the topographic variations, the annual season’s cycle and weather patterns variability have strong controls. In the southern foothill, the average winter and summer temperatures are between 18 °C and 30 °C, while in the middle Himalayan areas have average summer temperatures from 15 °C to 25 °C, and in winters it is very cold. The winter temperature is below the freezing point in the areas where elevation is above 4800 m, and these areas receive precipitation mainly on snow form largely in the form of snow. In the upper Indus Basin of Pakistan, the mean end-of-summer regional snow line altitude (SLA) zones range from 3000 to 5000 m. The elevated Karakoram records of observed surface temperature from Pakistani stations indicate that the average maximum temperature during July is about 20 °C and in February the average minimum temperature is about 3 °C (Krishnan et al. 2019).

Geology Geologically, the area is rooted in the formation of a subcontinent from a region of Gondwana that drifted away from East Africa about 160 million years ago, around the Middle Jurassic period. The Indian subcontinent, Australia and islands of the Indian Ocean rifted further, drifting northeastwards, with the Indian subcontinent colliding with the Eurasian Plate nearly 55 million years ago, towards the end of Paleocene. This collision created the Himalayas, including the Hindukush. The Hindukush is a part of the young Eurasian mountain range, consisting of metamorphic rocks such as schist, gneiss and marble, as well as of intrusives such as granite and diorite of different age and size. The northern regions of the Hindukush witness Himalayan winter and have glaciers, while its southeastern end witnesses the fringe of Indian subcontinent summer monsoons. The Hindukush range remains geologically active and is still rising – it is prone to earthquakes. Ancient mines producing lapis lazuli are found in Kowkcheh Valley, while gem-grade emeralds are found north of Kabul in the valley of the Panjshir River and some of its tributaries. The West Hindukush mountains have been the source of finest lapis lazuli for thousands of years. The principal mountain ranges (Kunlun Shan, Aghil Shan, Central Karakoram) contain large plutonic, mainly granite outcrops. Sediments of the ancient Tethys from almost all geological epochs and metamorphites are equally and widely distributed. Slightly metamorphized sediments are even preserved in the innermost mountain range. Large outcrops of siliceous slates in the Kunlun Shan and Yarkand valley (mainly Permian) and in the Aghil Shan (Carboniferous) often make unstable scree slopes. Locally, as by the main fault line between the Kunlun and the Karakoram mountains (Aghil Gorge, 3880 m), hard bedrock of quartzite and other metamorphites provide better conditions for a richer flora. The summit pyramid of K2 itself (above the upper limit of vegetation) consists of an extremely hard and heavy, fine-grained striate gneiss. Limestone is especially apparent in the Aghil

12

H. Sher et al.

Shan, where there are calcareous outcrops ranging from Carboniferous to Jurassic, towered by huge dolomite cliffs. These form the complete mountain range west of the Aghil Pass of more than 2 km in height. This special geological situation (the better water supply on the foot of these cliffs) might be responsible for a comparatively rich flora noted on the N side of Aghil pass. Smaller calcareous outcrops in the subalpine belt of the Shaksgam and Muztagh valleys (mainly Carboniferous) and other Paleozoic limestone areas of the Kunlun foothills apparently have no special floras (Dickoré 1991). Extensive loess accumulations almost cover the Kunlun foothills totally and are to a lesser extent also found in the N slope of Kunlun Shan up to 4400 m, south of the Kunlun Shan main ridge; loess is entirely wanting (Dickoré 1991). Soils generally are poorly developed. Even in the lower altitudes, hardly any horizons are to be distinguished. Dominating soil types are Yermosols (desert soils of lower altitudes), Lithosols, and Gelosols (high altitudes). Solonchaks locally occur by rivers. Notable accumulations of humus (rarely more than 2–5 cm) were found only in the higher alpine belt under cushions of Sibbaldia tetrandra and under spots of alpine turf (Stipa concinna). Fen peat (Carex, Kobresia) is restricted to very local situations by springs and flushes. A more or less pronounced salinization is evident almost everywhere below of the alpine belt. Soda efflorescences are frequent up to about 4200 m (Dickoré 1991).

Vegetation and Flora The Hindukush-Karakoram forms an ecotone zone which delimits the IranoTuranian, Sino-Himalayan and Central Asiatic floristic regions. The northern boundary of West Himalayan montane coniferous forests runs through southern Chitral, whereas northern Chitral and the inner valley floors are noticeably treeless (Khan et al. 2013). The subalpine and alpine belts are predominately covered by thorncushion and dwarf-scrub vegetation, which contains many Irano-Turanian and Pamirean floristic elements (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002). The plant species provide a wealth of beneficial products that contribute significantly to the quality of life of the local inhabitants (Ali and Qaiser 2009). The area carries six conifer species Cedrus deodara, Pinus gerardiana, Pinus wallichiana, Abies pindrow, Picea smithiana and Juniperus excelsa and dominant broad-leaf species Betula utilis, Quercus baloot and Quercus dilatata (Schickhoff 2005). Among the conifers, Cedrus deodara is Pakistan’s national tree, provides excellent quality timber and has a great national economic importance. As a product of former and recent conditions, the speciespoor flora of the region is an essentially Holarctic-Central Asian-Tibetan one, almost completely excluding elements of closely neighbouring geobotanical division units (Tropical, Irano-Turanian, Sino-Himalayan (Dickoré 1991)). The flora is extremely diverse, with a large number of endemic species (Figs. 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, and 18), many of which are medicinally used, including interesting medicinal (Fig. 19) and edible (Fig. 20) fungi. In the Eastern Himalaya alone from 1998 to 2008, each year an average of 35 new species were discovered (Xu et al. 2019).

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Hindukush and Karakoram

13

Fig. 11 Iris kashmiriana, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Vegetation Zonation Colline Belt The colline belt comprises the warm-temperate zone of the valley floors and adjacent lower slopes. Except for the southmost localities in Nuristan, southern Chitral, Dir, Swat and lndus Kohistan, the colline belt is arid. Closed forests are naturally absent in the north, apart from alluvial Tamarix, Elaeagnus, Salix or Populus groves or plantations within the irrigated and cultivated areas. The colline belt shows a considerable increase of its upper limit from 2100 m in the south to about 2400 m in the north. This is, however, distinctly less than the increase of the effective lower valley floor from slightly above 1000 m to above 2500 m. All vegetation types of the colline belt are used as winter pasture (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002). The natural vegetation of the comparatively moist southern valleys has been largely removed by wood-cutting and irrigated cultivation or highly degraded through grazing. Remaining examples of this vegetation type resemble a subtropical thorn steppe. This is apparently a replacement community of thermophilous broadleaved and Pinus roxburghii forests on the northwestern margin of their distribution. The moist thermophilous forest comprises a very characteristic West Himalayan formation. This vegetation type is originally relatively rich in tree and shrub species

14

H. Sher et al.

Fig. 12 Rheum webbianum, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

but under the present utilization mostly degraded. Ruderal areas covered by almost monospecific stands of Dodonaea viscosa represent extreme stages of degradation. Along steep valley and gorge sections (e.g. Lower Kunar Valley), Quercus baloot and other submontane species (Prunus cornuta) descend into the colline belt. A certain west-east gradient is also apparent. Monotheca buxifolia characterizes the Afghan fraction of the area. Quercus incana and an increasing proportion of Himalayan species are found from Dir and Swat eastwards (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002). The dry colline belt of the main valley floors is a rather uniform and species-poor formation of desert scrub and occasional small desert trees. Haloxylon griffithii and Pulicaria salviaefolia extend to an altitude of approximately 2400 m. Besides many widespread and common taxa, including scattered small trees of Pistacia atlantica subsp. cabulica and Pistacia khinjuk in fissures of rock outcrops, the arid colline belt of the main Chitral Valley seems to be characterized by a few endemics (Bupleurum gilesii) and occasional eastern outposts of West Pamirean and Irano-Turanian elements (Gontscharovia popovii, Celtis caucasica). Some areas are characterized by Haloxylon thornsonii and Haplophyllum gilesii, vicariant endemics of the upper lndus Valley (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002). The Kashgarian lowland is equivalent to the colline zone up to the foot of the mountains. Temperate stone, more rarely alluvial loess and sand deserts, and oases comprise the westernmost extension of the Mongolian vegetation province. The

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Hindukush and Karakoram

15

Fig. 13 Pinus roxburghii, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Kashgarian flora is exceedingly poor in species compared to the E Mongolian as well as to the Middle Asiatic floras W of the bordering mountains. Beneath the widespread desert shrubs (Haloxylon ammodendron, Calligonum mongolicum), endemics are few (Myricaria pulcherrima, Apocynum hendersonii) (Dickoré 1991). The Kunlun foothills include montane and subalpine loess deserts and steppes. Common Central-Asiatic species (Sympegma regelii, Juniperus pseudosabina) and a few Irano-Turanian elements (Reaumuria soongarica, Acantholimon diapensioides) occur in the W part (Dickoré 1991).

Submontane Belt The submontane belt shows a slight increase of its absolute upper limit from 2600 m in the south to 2800–2900 m in the north. In the same direction, a substantial change of vegetation character is obvious, from forest to scrub, steppe and desert steppe, occasionally with tree groves. The submontane belt is comparatively rich in herbaceous and shrubby species, which represent a transition from dominant (inner) West Himalayan elements in the south to IranoTuranian and West Pamirean elements in the north (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002). Evergreen sclerophyllous oak forests with Quercus baloot are a conspicuous and characteristic vegetation type on the lower edge of the submontane belt in East

16

Fig. 14 Anisomeles indica, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 15 Meconopsis betonicifolia, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

H. Sher et al.

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Hindukush and Karakoram

17

Fig. 16 Juniperus excelsa, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 17 Rhododendron arboreum, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Afghanistan and the West Himalayas. Diospyros lotus and Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana are especially confined to the south slopes of Nuristan, lowermost Chitral, Dir and Swat. The altitudinal distribution of Quercus baloot extends from below 1250 m to 1300–1850 m. On south-facing slopes, altitudes between 1900 and 2350 m occasionally up to 2500 m are occupied by Quercus baloot woodlands (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002). Naturally open Pinus gerardiana forests near the absolute drought limit of forest distribution occur on the upper edge of the drier submontane belt, succeeding Quercus baloot, and are often followed by montane Cedrus deodara and Pinus wallichiana forests. Substantial stands of Pinus gerardiana concentrate on the slopes at altitudes between approximately 2200 and 2600 m. Shelter provided by Pinus gerardiana seems to be an important precondition for a well-developed herbaceous

18

H. Sher et al.

Fig. 18 Rhododendron afghanicum, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 19 Ganoderma lucidum, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

and shrubby companion flora, including therophytes and geophytes, which in places provides relatively rich grazing grounds. Wood and the edible seeds of Pinus gerardiana are another valuable resource (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002).

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Hindukush and Karakoram

19

Fig. 20 Morchella esculenta (Morchellaceae) Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

Open steppe and dwarf-scrub formations in which Irano-Turanian and West Pamirean elements (e.g. Scabiosa olivieri, Saussurea leptophylla, Scutellaria multicaulis) prevail occupy considerable areas, e.g. of central Chitral. Many of the characteristic species are at their eastern limit of distribution, but some (Artemisia persica, Fraxinus xanthoxyloides) reoccur in the dry valleys of Gilgit, Baltistan and Ladakh. Groves of Prunus kuramica and Juniperus excelsa subsp. polycarpos and other xerophytic trees occur regularly (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002).

Montane Belt The montane belt ranges from 2600 to 3200 m in the south and from 2800 to 3500 m in the north. It is generally a belt of dark boreal-style coniferous forests in the south, whereas almost treeless steppes are found in the north. Even, for example, in the humid southern part of Chitral and adjacent areas, the montane forest is discontinuous and restricted to smaller patches, mostly on north-facing slopes, alternating with steppe and scrub vegetation on south-facing slopes. This pattern, while related to climatic properties, is especially influenced by anthropo-zoogenic disturbance. Vegetation cover is variable and depends strongly on the intensity of pastoral utilization (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002). Rather small and disjunct forest areas dominated by mixed deciduous trees and laurophyllous oaks occur in the south (Nuristan, Dir, Swat) and in Kalasha. These evergreen-mixed forests contain Quercus dilatata (2000–2400 m) and Quercus semecarpifolia (2400–2900 m), are confined to the most humid areas and are under high threat, being widely cleared for grazing and cultivation (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002). The montane belt accommodates West Himalayan coniferous forests. Abies pindrow, Cedrus deodara, Pinus wallichiana and Picea smithiana characterize this

20

H. Sher et al.

formation, which is widely distributed from East Afghanistan to West Nepal. In the southwestern Karakorum and in the Nanga Parbat area, Picea and Pinus wallichiana range further north, whereas Abies is mainly restricted to the southern declivity of Nanga Parbat and the Astor Valley, and Cedrus extends north only to the Chilas section of the lndus Gorge. Cedrus deodara though usually dominates towards the lower edge of the montane forest (about 2450–3050 m) and Pinus wallichiana towards the higher altitudes. Abies and Picea are relatively rare. The cedar is regarded as the most valuable timber resource, and management is urgently needed to preserve these stands and their sustainable utilization. The shrub and herb layers of well-developed Cedrus deodara forests can be rich in West Himalayan (Carex cardiolepis, Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana, Podophyllum hexandrum) and endemic elements (Saussurea chitralica) (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002). Considerable areas in the moist montane belt are either naturally covered by or anthropo-zoogenously converted into dwarf-scrub, scrub and meadow-steppe vegetation. In places, treeless south-facing slopes are covered by Artemisia brevifolia, dwarf-scrub and open scrub formations. The semiarid montane belt is substantially treeless, apart from occasional Juniperus semiglobosa groves, mostly in water surplus situations on slopes and small patches of riverine forest (Betula utilis subsp. jacquemontii, Populus nigra, Populus pamirica). The widespread Artemisia brevifolia, Artemisia persica, Krascheninnikovia ceratoides and some other species connect the montane belts of Hindukush and the upper Karakorum (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002).

Subalpine Belt The subalpine belt comprises the zone around the (potential) upper treeline and extends between 3200 and 3800 m in the south and from 3500 to 4000 m in the north. Species composition of the subalpine belt comprises balanced proportions of montane and alpine species. However, the definition of the subalpine belt is more difficult in the treeless north, where a scrub belt can be absent too. Local variation of subalpine vegetation types is high due to various natural and anthropogenic factors. In avalanche trails and around the major high mountain massifs, subalpine and alpine vegetation may locally descend to lower altitudes. Betula utilis subsp. jacquemontii, probably the most common and distinctive subalpine tree of the western Himalayas, is generally rare and at its northern limit of distribution (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002). A subalpine krummholz belt is developed along the upper edge of montane forests through the south of the study area. It is characterized by shrub species of a wide West- or Pan-Himalayan distribution (Juniperus squamata, Lonicera obovata, Salix denticulata), with occasional Betula utilis subsp. jacquemontii groves or some stunted conifer trees from the montane belt below. Throughout the area the treeline ecotone zones rarely show regular patterns, due to steep microclimatic exposure gradients and often strong human interference (grazing, burning, selective cutting) (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002).

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Hindukush and Karakoram

21

The subalpine vegetation encompasses dwarf shrublands and steppe formations, which often show considerable proportions of thorn cushions (Acantholimon lycopodioides, Astragalus lasiosemius, Astragalus strobilijerus) in their life-form composition. Besides dry open turf (Carex stenophylla) or bunch grass steppes (Festuca olgae), a variety of low shrubs, subshrubs and herbs may come to local dominance. The semiarid subalpine scrub and steppe include many taxa which are widely distributed in the inner mountains of western Central Asia and occasional endemics. The distribution of Saussurea gilesii is almost exclusively confined to the area covered by the vegetation map, including adjacent Wakhan and westernmost Gilgit. The corresponding vegetation type from the southwestern Karakorum (lower Gilgit, Hunza, Baltistan) is accordingly somewhat different. Of its genus, which is prolific in the Irano-Turanian region, Acantholimon lycopodioides is the only species to extend eastwards through the southwestern Karakorum and inner western Himalayas to Ladakh. Thorn cushions (Acantholimon, Astragalus) and other dwarf shrubs (Artemisia, Ephedra gerardiana) are used for fuel and thatch roofs, especially in the vicinity of seasonally inhabited pastoral settlements (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002).

Alpine Belt The alpine belt accommodates a small-scale mosaic of hemicryptophyte and chamaephyte-dominated meadow, turf and dwarf-scrub communities. Extensive areas of open rock faces and unstable scree slopes are almost devoid of vegetation or accommodate only a very thin cover of highly specialized plants. Differences in parent rock, substrate, relief position and soil moisture obviously account for local variation of plant distribution (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002). The alpine regions of Nuristan, southern Chitral, Dir, Swat, southwestern Karakorum, Nanga Parbat, Kashmir and lndus-Kohistan accommodate fairly closed turf and dwarf-scrub communities. In easternmost Afghanistan, this formation is already at its absolute western limit. In its overall composition, the humid alpine belt especially in the Hindukush is a transition zone between the species-rich alpine vegetation of the outer Himalayas from Hazara and Kashmir eastwards and the corresponding more species-poor communities of the southwestern Karakorum and the inner western Himalayas. Besides turf and dwarf-scrub communities, the humid alpine belt accommodates a variety of specialized rock fissure and scree slope habitats. Tall forb, meadow and scrub vegetation join steep shady rock bases, streams and meltwater courses (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002). Open steppe, dwarf-scrub and desert vegetation characterize the alpine belt of northern Chitral. The respective mosaic of alpine rock and scree vegetation, including a few patches of more dense turf vegetation along bases of gravel fans, snowfields and other water surplus habitats, is relatively rich in species. Average vegetation cover of the Hindukush alpine belt is though much lower, usually far below 30% of the surface. Floristic relations are with much of the eastern Pamirs

22

H. Sher et al.

and with the central and northern Karakorum. Characteristic species include taxa that are widely distributed through much of the Karakorum (Carex nivalis, Kobresia karakorumensis, Lonicera semenovii, Tanacetum pyrethroides) and the Tibetan Plateau (Oxytropis tatarica, Poa attenuata). Pamirean elements, which usually reach their southeastern limit of distribution approximately from the Chitral-Gilgit divide to the Khunjerab Pass (Draba korshinskyi, Smelowskia calycina), are also well represented. Another group of species, which is absent from the Gilgit-lndus basin and the wider southwestern Karakorum, reoccurs disjunctively in the dry mountains of Ladakh, Zanskar and Spiti in northwest India (Alajja rhomboidea, Parrya stenocarpa) (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002). The Kunlun Shan N slope is the richest in species, including Central and N Asian elements, possibly also the (relatively) highest concentration of Sino-Himalayan elements (Braya thomsonii, Rhodiola himalensis). The border between the Mongolian and the Tibetan vegetation provinces can be drawn over the Kunlun N slope. There are some endemics (Braya pamirica, Koeleria litwinowiana) and additional species indicating a certain role of the Kunlun N slope as a glacial refuge and interglacial migration path (Thermopsis alpina, Thermopsis inflata). Thus, the “Kunlun Corridor” on the N margin of Tibet may be set against the Himalayan Corridor on the S rim of Tibet. However, since forests are absent and the comparatively poor flora includes only a few extant endemics, the “Kunlun Corridor” is by far less important and conspicuous than the Himalayan (Dickoré 1991). The Aghil Shan N slope and Yarkand valley can be considered as a transitional zone between NW central Asian and Tibetan high mountain vegetation or part of a “CircumTibetan Zone.” Similar vegetation features seem to be widespread around the extremely dry and high interior of Tibet. Accordingly, many of the species are widely distributed at least over NW Tibet and extend variously into adjacent mountain ranges such as the Tian Shan, the Pamirs, the Hindukush and more distant systems. Typical species possibly are Kobresia deasyi and Primula macrophylla; for certain groups within large holarctic genera such as Oxytropis, Potentilla, Gentianella sect. Comastoma, this zone may represent a centre of diversity. In the Central Karakoram N slope/Shaksgam valley, the vegetation features are similar to most of the central high mountains and the interior valleys of the PamirKarakoram-imalaya-S Tibet system. Carex montis-everestii, Oxytropis cf. chiliophylla, Potentilla pammca and Thylacospermum caespitosum may be considered characteristic for the inner section of the Karakoram N slope (Dickoré 1991).

Nival Belt The nival belt is generally extremely species-poor. There are no more than 20–50 plant species in the sub-nival belt. Most of these taxa are specialized rhizomatous scree colonizers or rock-fissure cushions, which both must be able to cope with low temperatures and mechanical stress caused by frequent freezing and thawing. Western elements, which often are restricted to the eastern Pamir, eastern Hindukush and

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Hindukush and Karakoram

23

Karakorum (Oxytropis platonychia, Lagotis globosa, Psychrogeton olgae), seem to outnumber the Pan-Tibetan ones (Draba oreades, Saussurea gnaphalodes) (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002).

Anthropogenic Impact The Hindukush-Karakoram region has been settled by humans for millennia and has always been an important migration and trade route. The altitudinal distribution of cultivated areas ranges from the colline to the lower montane belt. As crop cultivation is almost entirely dependent on the availability of glacial and snow meltwater for irrigation, the settlement oases with agriculture are located along the streams and especially on the alluvial fans of tributary valleys and on cultivable slopes (Fig. 21). Access through new road construction has started to greatly impact especially the forest belt of the region (Fig. 22). The cultivation of riverbanks and the steep slopes has always been difficult. A sophisticated network of water distribution forms the precondition of irrigated agriculture (Fig. 23). Commonly cultivated crops include rice (Oryza sativa) up to approximately 2300 m, maize (Zea mays) to 2900 m, wheat (Triticum durum, Triticum aestivum) to approximately 3300 m and barley (Hordeum vulgare) to 3500 m. Cultivation of Cannabis saliva often within maize fields is common in the northern tributaries, especially in Yarkhun and Laspur. Double cropping is possible in the main valley between Drosh and Buni and in the lowermost portions of Turkho Valley, with an upper limit at approximately 2500 m. Crop residues; hay, supplemented by

Fig. 21 Houses in Marghazar Valley, Swat, Pakistan. (Photo Hassan Sher & Ikram Ur-Rahman)

24

H. Sher et al.

Fig. 22 Road construction in Picea forest, Swat, Pakistan. (Photo Hassan Sher & Ikram Ur-Rahman)

Fig. 23 Traditional tillage, Sulathan, Swat, Pakistan. (Photo Hassan Sher & Ikram Ur-Rahman)

cultivated lucerne (Medicago saliva, Medicago x varia); leaves of planted trees (Salix spp., Populus spp.); and indigenous hygrophilous bushes (Hippophae rhamnoides) supply winter fodder of livestock. Cultivation of fruit trees, especially mulberries (Morus alba), apricots (Prunus armeniaca) and walnuts (Juglans regia) is limited to a small scale and altitudes below approximately 2900 m (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002). Many of the forests are in poor condition due to anthropogenic disturbances, including illegal cutting, regional land use systems, irrigated crop cultivation and nomadic livestock husbandry. These factors have a considerable impact on the vegetation types (Khan et al. 2010) and result in the degradation of large areas of

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Hindukush and Karakoram

25

Fig. 24 Fuel wood collectors, Miandam Valley, Swat, Pakistan. (Photo Hassan Sher & Ikram Ur-Rahman)

land in different elevational belts and subregions (Alamgir 2004; Khan et al. 2011). Numerous recent studies described plant communities with a special emphasis on forest vegetation affected by anthropogenic activities in various climatic zones of Pakistan (Nafeesa et al. 2007; Siddiqui et al. 2010; Ahmed et al. 2011; Wahab et al. 2008; Khan et al. 2011; Shaheen et al. 2011). The local forests are the main source of non-agricultural livelihoods and are widely used for collection of firewood (Fig. 24), often leading to the destruction of easily accessible roots (Fig. 25) and the burning of forest resources in the progress (Fig. 26). Peat from high subalpine and alpine wetlands is also collected as fuel (Fig. 27), and many of the upper forest areas have been converted to extensive pastures (Fig. 28). In addition, many plant species are collected for medicinal purposes, both for local use and sale, as well as for the production of utensils (Figs. 29 and 30). The landscape at the upper parts of the region is known for its glaciated peaks, high altitudinal wetlands, green pastures and biodiversity of global significance. Each component of the landscape has a tremendous importance from different perspectives. However, this is because of the anthropogenic pressures that this important landscape is steadily losing its ecological characters that it is known for. The natural landscape is fragmented because of human settlements, roads and other ill-planned and unsustainable developments resulting in the weakening of the socioeconomic systems leading to the loss of natural livelihood base. The situation is further worsened and accelerated further by climate change and enhanced populations of both humans and their livestock. Given the ecological importance of the landscape, its glaciated peaks and pastures and wildlife species of global importance, the specified part of the landscape is under focus for conservation that requires the creation of Protected Areas, wise use of the available land and water resources, monitoring of the health of the sensitive features such as glaciers and

26

H. Sher et al.

Fig. 25 Cut roots of Picea, Swat, Pakistan. (Photo Hassan Sher & Ikram Ur-Rahman)

Fig. 26 Burnt trees, Swat, Pakistan. (Photo Hassan Sher & Ikram Ur-Rahman)

social strengthening of the local communities for them to take care of the fragile ecosystems of this fragile landscape. About 60% of the agriculture lands, forests and pastures of our country are progressively being exposed to threats from increased climatic variability and, in the longer run, to climate change. Abnormal changes in air temperature and rainfall and resulting increases in frequency and intensity of drought and flood events have long-term implications for the viability of these ecosystems (Bell and Morse 2004). As climatic patterns change, so also do the spatial distribution of agro-ecological zones, habitats, distribution patterns of plant diseases and pests, fish populations and ocean circulation patterns which can have significant impacts on agriculture and food production.

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Hindukush and Karakoram

27

Fig. 27 Peat harvested as fuel, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 28 Pastures in Picea forest, Swat, Pakistan. (Photo Hassan Sher & Ikram Ur-Rahman)

Adaptation to climate change is, therefore, no longer a secondary and long-term response option only to be used as a last resort. It is now prevalent and imperative and, for those communities already vulnerable to the impacts of present-day climate hazards, needs an urgent imperative. Successful adaptation must be

28

H. Sher et al.

Fig. 29 Old man with a medicinal plant collection bag. Note trees with cut branches in the background, Swat, Pakistan. (Photo Hassan Sher & Ikram Ur-Rahman)

Fig. 30 Utensil workshop, Hunza Valley, Pakistan. Utensils are mostly made from Salix wood. (Photo Hassan Sher & Ikram Ur-Rahman)

accomplished through actions that target and reduce the vulnerabilities poor people now face, as they are likely to become more prevalent as the climate changes. This approach calls for a convergence of four distinct communities who have long been tackling the issue of vulnerability reduction through their respective activities vs. disaster risk reduction, climate and climate change, environmental management and poverty reduction. Bringing these communities together and offering a common platform and a shared vocabulary from which to develop an integrated approach to climate change adaptation can provide an opportunity to revisit some of the intractable problems of environment and development. The starting point for this convergence is a common understanding of the concepts of adaptation, vulnerability, resilience, security, poverty and livelihoods, as well as an understanding of the gaps in current adaptation approaches. Taken together, they

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Hindukush and Karakoram

29

indicate a need and an opening for adaptation measures based on the livelihood activities of poor and vulnerable communities. This places the goal of poverty reduction at the centre of adaptation, as the capabilities and assets that comprise people’s livelihoods often shape poverty as well as the ability to move out of poverty. Any approach to improve the livelihoods of the population, and to improve environmental management, requires an understanding of how livelihoods are conducted and sustained, that is, how resources are mobilized to earn an income and meet basic needs. Central to both the definition of livelihoods and household resilience are livelihood assets, i.e. the means of production available to a given individual or group that can be used to generate material resources sufficient enough to reduce poverty. The greater and more varied the asset base, the more sustainable and secure the livelihood. There are generally five forms of livelihood assets: natural capital, social-political capital, human capital, physical capital and financial capital. Taken together, these assets largely determine how people will respond to the impacts of climate change and should, therefore, form the basis of adaptation strategies. At present our five livelihood assets are highly disturbed. Therefore, facing the crisis of food insecurity and at the same time without any strategy for the future planning, the world is also facing global environmental crisis like global warming, ozone layer depletion and climatic change, which have reduced 10% of our productivity from the green sectors of livelihoods. However, all of these assets are important, and natural resources are particularly important for the poorest and most vulnerable communities in the world especially in mountainous areas. The poor are more heavily dependent on ecosystem services and, therefore, most severely affected by deteriorating environmental conditions and factors limiting resource access. While climate change is not the only threat to natural resources and livelihoods, climate-induced changes to resource flows will affect the viability of livelihoods unless effective measures are taken to protect and diversify them through adaptation and other strategies. For the poorest and most vulnerable, these strategies should include ecosystem management and restoration activities such as watershed restoration, agroecology, forest protection and rangeland/pasture rehabilitation. In fact, these activities can represent “win-win” approaches to climate change adaptation, as they serve immediate needs and bring immediate benefits to local communities while also contributing to longer-term capacity development that will create a basis for reducing future vulnerabilities.If adaptation strategies should reflect the dynamics of peoples’ livelihoods, then adaptation must be seen as a process that is itself adaptive and flexible to address locally specific and changing circumstances. The responsibility for adaptation lies with those who stand to gain the most. While those with the least capacity to adapt are the most vulnerable, they are also the most likely and most motivated to take conscious adaptation actions. For the poor and vulnerable, the actions that they take will be constrained by their limited assets and capabilities, but they will also be the most appropriate given the specific local manifestations of climate change impacts. These actions should be supported by external agencies in collaboration with ministries of environment and agriculture to build up the asset base of the poor.

30

H. Sher et al.

Traditionally, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs) have been used widely in the region to supplement food and to cure disease (Saqib et al. 2011; Sher et al. 2014, 2015). Currently however, their collection is limited to informal trade of a few highvalue endangered species in localized areas of Swat District. The benefits of informal trade are disproportionately enjoyed by the middlemen, while the collectors, both resident and nomadic, gain very little. The indigenous knowledge about MAPs is also fast fading in the wake of the increased use of allopathic medicines, increased interest of younger generations in urban-based employment and lack of interest by formal public and development institutions in documenting knowledge of MAPs (Bussmann et al. 2007, 2008; de Boer et al. 2012). This paper reports on a project designed to promote livelihoods in local communities by documenting indigenous knowledge of MAPS, promoting their sustainable use and promoting fair trade. We hypothesized that these goals could be achieved through awareness raising and capacity building of the stakeholders including the government line departments, NGOs and the communities. These initiatives would benefit the nomadic and resident populations, particularly the landless, small landholders and the vulnerable in general, for whom income generation from MAPs can be a crucial part of their livelihoods. The aim of the present project, therefore, was to create awareness on these issues and to promote sustainable use of MAPs for improved livelihoods and economic development of the target communities. The project revealed that preliminary work showed that species having medicinal and aromatic value are abundant in Swat District, but, considering them weeds, farmers remove them from their fields and grazing areas through slash and burn techniques. In addition, it was found that a number of other high-value MAP species can be successfully cultivated in these environments (Sher et al. 2014; Sher and Barkworth 2015). To ensure the sustainable long-term use of MAP resources, a community-based approach with capacity building and linkage to development is needed. This approach can be adapted based on the premise that sustainable use, management and efficient marketing of MAPs will only be possible if communities are involved from the outset and provide with opportunities to improved their awareness of the issues, develop the necessary knowledge and skills and, most importantly, help link directly with national markets. Participatory approaches for conducting general awareness-raising sessions are important. Village Development Committees (VDCs), where available, should be involved in the selection of participants for various trainings and for the implementation of all activities as recommended by Bussmann et al. (2008). Focus group discussions (FGD) can be conducted in each village, with MAP collectors and local traders as the main participants to prioritize the important MAPs and delineate the area in a participatory map where prioritized MAPs are found as well as their abundance in each of the forest compartments (Wimmer and Dominic 1994, and Babbie 1992) (Figs. 31, 32, and 33). It is important to emphasize that the communities have taken an immense interest in sustainable development of MAPs despite being asked to participate in an activity-based, short-term project with a relatively low budget. It will take some time before the true impact of the project can be ascertained, but benefits for the

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Hindukush and Karakoram

31

Fig. 31 Medicinal and Aromatic Plant collection and production training workshop, Swat, Pakistan. (Photo Hassan Sher & Ikram Ur-Rahman)

Fig. 32 Medicinal and Aromatic Plant collection and production training workshop, practical fieldwork, Rodingar Valley, Pakistan. (Photo Hassan Sher & Ikram Ur-Rahman)

participating communities included the discovery that many of the weeds around their houses and in their agricultural fields are actually economically valuable species. In the past these species were used for fodder or fuelwood (Sher et al. 2010). Increasing the interest of communities in making income out of these plants using sustainable methods will not endanger them (Mati and de Boer 2011; Myers et al. 2000; Salick et al. 2004). Furthermore, enhanced capacity through cultivation and cash income through marketing of a several will decrease pressure on the few high-value endangered species that were traditionally being harvested both by the government and communities for income generation. Such interactions, particularly those between the community representatives and government officials result in community empowerment. Communities can learn about existing regulations for forest use, and the possibilities to cultivate and market high-value herbs in demand in the market and to create a better linkages between the

32

H. Sher et al.

Fig. 33 Medicinal and Aromatic Plant collection and production training workshop – collected material drying, Miandam Valley, Pakistan. (Photo Hassan Sher & Ikram Ur-Rahman)

government institutions and the communities and cultivation of alternate species are expected to decrease reliance on harvesting of endangered species for cash income. Because of the tremendous importance of the region from ecological, socioeconomic and climate change perspectives, considering the current rate of ecosystem degradation, impact of climate change and inadequacy of resources to support scientific management of natural resources; recognizing the need to address sociocultural and socio-economic issues leading to sustainable development and regional cooperation for management under the “ecosystem approach” in conserving irreplaceable and unique biodiversity resources; and enhancing the socio-economic status of the local population, a variety of steps are needed to manage and conserve the Hindukush-Karakoram ecosystem in the future.

References Ahmed M, Shaukat SS, Siddiqui FM. Multivariate analysis and dynamic of Cedrus deodara forests from Hindukush and Himalayan range of Pakistan. Turk J Bot. 2011;35:1–20. Alamgir KG. A study on the condition, use, management and trends of major forest types in Chitral District: report of Chitral conservation strategy and IUCN Sarhad Program; 2004. p. 111. Ali H, Qaiser M. The Ethnobotany of Chitral valley, Pakistan with particular references to medicinal plants. Pak J Bot. 2009;41:2009–41. Anderson K, Fawcett D, Cugulliere A, Benford S, Jones D, Leng R. Vegetation expansion in the subnival Hindukush Himalaya. Glob Chang Biol. 2020:1–18. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb. 14919. Babbie E. The practice of social science research. Belmont: Wadsworth Publication; 1992.

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Hindukush and Karakoram

33

Bell S, Morse S. Experiences with sustainability indicators and stakeholder participation: a case study relating to a ‘Blue Plan’ project in Malta. Sust Dev. 2004;12:1–14. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Vandebroek I, Jones A, Revene Z. Health for sale: the medicinal plant markets in Trujillo and Chiclayo, northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3:37. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Ly J. From garden to market? The cultivation of native and introduced medicinal plant species in Cajamarca, Peru and implications for habitat conservation. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2008;6:351–61. de Boer HJ, Lamxay V, Björk L. Comparing medicinal plant knowledge using similarity indices: a case of the Brou, Saek and Kry in Lao PDR. J Ethnopharmacol. 2012;141:481–500. Dickoré WB. Zonation of flora and vegetation of the Northern declivity of the Karakoram/Kunlun mountains (SW Zinjiang, China). GeoJournal. 1991;25(2/3):265–84. Khan N, Ahmad M, Wahab M, Ajaib M. Phytosociology, structure and physiochemical analysis of soil in Quercus baloot Griff, Forest District Chitral Pakistan. Pak J Bot. 2010;42(4):2429–41. Khan N, Ahmad M, Shaukat SS, Wahab M, Siddiqui FM. Structure, diversity and regeneration potential of Monotheca buxifolia (Falc.) A. DC. dominated forests of District Dir Lower, Pakistan. Front Agric China. 2011;5(1):106–21. Khan N, Skaukat SS, Ahmed M, Siddiqui MF. Vegetation-environment relationships in the forests of Chitral district, Hindukush range of Pakistan. J For Res. 2013;24(2):205–16. Krishnan R, Shrestha AB, Ren G, Rajbhandari R, Saeed S, Sanjay J, Ren Y. Unravelling climate change in the Hindukush Himalaya: rapid warming in the mountains and increasing extremes. In: The Hindukush Himalaya assessment. Cham: Springer; 2019. p. 57–97. Mati E, de Boer HJ. Ethnobotany and trade of medicinal plants in the Qaysari Market, Kurdish Autonomous Region, Iraq. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011;133:490–510. Myers N, Mittermeier RA, Mittermeier CG, da Fonseca GA, Kent J. Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature. 2000;403:853–8. Nafeesa Z, Arshad M, Sarwat MN. Phytosociological attributes of different plant communities of Pir Chinasi Hills of Azad Jammu and Kashmir. Int J Agric Biol. 2007;9(4):565– 574. Nüsser M, Dickoré WD. A tangle in the triangle: vegetation map of the Eastern Hindukush (Chitral, Northern Pakistan). Erdkunde. 2002;56:37–65. Salick J, Anderson JD, Woo J, Sherman RE, Cili N, Yin XZ, Na A, Dorje S. Tibetan ethnobotany and gradient analyses, Menri (Medicine Mountains), eastern Himalayas. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Bridging Scales and Epistemologies. Linking Local Knowledge and Global Science in Multi-Scale Assessments Alexandria, Egypt. 2004. Saqib Z, Malik RN, Shinwari MI, Shinwari ZK. Species richness, ethnobotanical species richness and human settlements along a Himalayan altitudinal gradient: prioritizing plant conservation in Palas valley, Pakistan. Pak J Bot. 2011;43:129–33. Schickhoff U. The upper timberline in the Himalayas, Hindukush and Karakorum: a review of geographical and ecological aspects. In: Mountain ecosystems. Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer; 2005. p. 275–354. Shaheen H, Qureshi RA, Shinwari ZK. Structural diversity, vegetation dynamics and anthropogenic impact on lesser Himalayan subtropical forests of Bagh district, Kashmir. Pak J Bot. 2011;43(4):1861–6. Sharma E, Molden D, Rahman A, Khatiwada YR, Zhang L, Singh SP, Wester P. Introduction to the Hindukush Himalaya assessment. In: The Hindukush Himalaya assessment. Cham: Springer; 2019. p. 1–16. Sher H, Barkworth ME. Economic development through medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) cultivation in Hindukush Himalaya Mountains of District Swat, Pakistan. J Mt Sci. 2015;12(5):1292–301. https://doi.org/10.1007/S11629-014-3247-2. Sher H, Al-Yemeni M, Faridullah A. Cultivation and domestication study of high value medicinal plant species (its economic potential and linkages with commercialization). Afr J Agric Res. 2010;5(18):2462–70. Sher H, Aldosari A, Ali A, de Boer HJ. Economic benefits of high value medicinal plants to Pakistani communities: an analysis of current practice and potential. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2014;10:71. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-10-71.

34

H. Sher et al.

Sher H, Aldosari A, Ali A, de Boer HJ. Indigenous knowledge of folk medicines among tribal minorities in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, northwestern Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;166:157–67. Siddiqui FM, Ahmed M, Shaukat SS, Khan N. Advance multivariate techniques to investigate vegetation-environmental complex of pine forests of moist area of Pakistan. Pak J Bot. 2010;42:267–93. Wahab M, Ahmad M, Khan N. Phytosociology and dynamics of some pine forests of Afghanistan. Pak J Bot. 2008;40(3):1071–9. Wimmer R, Dominic J. Mass media research: an introduction. Belmont/New York: Wadsworth; 1994. Xu J, Badola R, Chettri N, Chaudhary RP, Zomer R, Pokhrel B, Pradhan R. Sustaining biodiversity and ecosystem services in the Hindukush Himalaya. In: The Hindukush Himalaya assessment. Cham: Springer; 2019. p. 127–65.

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Indian Himalaya (Garhwal Himalaya) Pavlos Georgiadis

Introduction Set amidst the Indian western Himalayan belt, Garhwal has been identified through the ages as a distinct geographical, socio-economic, historical, and cultural landscape. The region lies between latitudes of 29o260 N to 31o280 N and longitudes of 77o490 E to 80o60 E, covering a total area of 29,089 sq. km. Bordered by Tibet to the north and the Kumaon region in the east, it belongs to the state of Uttarakhand, which is often referred to as the “Abode of Gods,” widely known as the home of sacred ancient sanctuaries. Administratively, Garhwal comprises seven districts, namely, Chamoli, Dehradun, Haridwar, Pauri, Rudraprayag, Tehri, and Uttarkashi. Garhwal is widely cited in ancient Sanskrit scripts as the home of some of the most important Hindu deities and is richly dotted by prominent shrines and religious centers. The most prominent include Badrinath, Kedarnath, Yamunotri, and Gangotri. The two later are situated on the springs of Yamuna and Ganges, two of the most sacred rivers of India with immense ecological, cultural, and economic significance. Apart from being an important pilgrimage destination, it is in this region of the Himalaya where the foundations of Ayurveda and Yoga can be traced (see also Sakarkar et al. 2003). As a result, every year Garhwal is attracting hundreds of thousands of visitors from India and abroad, who come to admire the great natural beauty of the region and enjoy the numerous treks traversing its forests, valleys, and snow covered Himalayan peaks. The area represents a distinct phytogeographic region and provides natural habitat to the majority of medicinal and aromatic plants recorded in the Indian Himalaya (Fig. 1).

P. Georgiadis (*) Department of Societal Transition and Agriculture, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_3

35

36

P. Georgiadis

Fig. 1 The Kedarnath temple is one of the holiest Hindu shrines dedicated to Lord Shiva. The temple is located at 3583 m and is accessible through a 22 km uphill trek from Gaurikund. (Photo P. Georgiadis)

Geology and Geography The rugged Himalaya were formed as a result of the titanic force of compression generated by the approach and eventual collision of the Indian shield and the Eurasian Plate. This process began ca. 52 Ma, as a transformation and deposition of enormous amounts of floor sediments of the ancient Tethys Ocean onto the continent, forming the most conspicuous climax on Earth. The formation of the Himalaya and neighboring ranges constitute by far the widest and highest orogenic system on Earth, led by extensive crustal shortening and thickening, large-scale thrusting and folding, polyphase metamorphism, anatexis, intrusion, exhumation, uplift, and erosion (Dhital 2015). This process has been responsible for geological, geochemical, and climatological consequences of global extent (Rowley 1996). The tectonic activity is still ongoing, as the Indian landmass continues to move and press towards Asia, generating earthquakes and landslides (Jayangondaperumal et al. 2018). Therefore, the characterization of the Himalaya as the “young and restless giant” by Valdiya (1998) is apt for the world’s loftiest mountain range. The Garhwal region is a rugged mountainous terrain, regarded as a series of spurs from the Tibetan watershed, known as the Western Himalaya. The region displays a complete cross-section of the Himalayan orogenic belt encompassing the principal tectonic zones of Outer Himalaya (Sub-Himalaya or Siwalik), Lesser (Lower)

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Indian Himalaya (Garhwal Himalaya)

37

Himalaya, Greater (Higher) Himalaya, and Tethys Himalaya which are separated by the major thrust and faults. (Thakur 1987). The Siwalik Range extends from a north-east to south-west direction between the Himalayan Frontal Thrust to the south and the Main Boundary Thrust to the north, forming the youngest and southernmost part of the Himalaya. On a palaeontological basis, this belt is further divided into three geological formations, namely, Upper Siwalik formations associated with various rock minerals coarse sandstone, boulder conglomerates, clay, grit rock minerals; Middle Siwalik formations associated with grey micaceous, sandstone, gravel beds, shale, clay rock minerals, and Lower Siwalik formations associated with micaceous sandstone, purple clay, mudstone rock minerals, etc. (Chaudhary et al. 2019). The Ganges river is cutting this range from the southern middle part of the region, before it continues its southward journey across the Indo-Gangetic Plain. The fluvial system crossing the area is responsible for inundations taking place every year, depositing a variety of sediments and lithological features, from fine to coarse-grained sand clay, to silt with gravel and boulders. Nested between the Siwalik and the Higher Himalaya lies a meta-sedimentary mountainous sequence forming the Lesser (Lower) Himalaya (Rajwar 1993). This sequence is bound by the Main Boundary Thrust in the south and the Main Central Thrust in the north and is further divided into the Inner Lesser Himalaya and the Outer Lesser Himalaya (Célérier et al. 2009a, b). This massive rugged belt consists of metamorphosed sedimentary rocks (quartzite, marble, slate, phyllite, schist, and gneiss), minor volcanic and granitic rocks, as well as transported, isolated parts of the central crystalline rocks originating in the Higher Himalaya (Sorkhabi 2010). This zone features a large number of fertile terraced river valleys including those of the Alaknanda, the Mandakini, the Bhagirathi, the Yamuna, the Nayar, and the Ganges. With a tolerable climate, the Lesser Himalaya is home to the majority of human settlements and therefore contains most of the cultivated agricultural area. Thrust over the Lower Himalaya, along the Main Central Thrust, are the Greater (Higher) Himalaya. This central crystalline belt is made up of 10–20 km thick metamorphic rocks (schists and gneisses) and granites, which are more than 2500 million years old, forming the backbone of the Himalayan mountains (Sorkhabi 2010). Being quite hard and resistant to weathering, these rocks provide a dramatic landscape sculptured by glaciers, horned peaks, serrated crusts, high ridges, deep valleys, huge boulders, and glistering lakes. Stretching from west to east, the magnificent series of garlanted snow-clad summits of Bandarpunch (6315 m), Gangotri (6614 m), Kedarnath (6940 m), Chaukhamba (7318 m), Kamet (7765 m), and Nanda Devi (7815 m) is transversed by the gorging Bhagirathi, Alaknanda, and Dhawalganga rivers (Rajwar 1993) (Fig. 2). The uppermost belt of the inner Himalaya is called Tethyan Himalaya and is marked by intense folding, recumbent overturned folds, and small scale thrusts (Rajwar 1993). It consists of sandstone, shale, and limestone sediments which were deposited on the continental shelf of the Tethys Ocean and contains many kinds of fossils including ammonites and chitinozoans (Sinha et al. 2011; Sinha and Verniers 2016; Sorkhabi 2010).

38

P. Georgiadis

Fig. 2 The majestic horned peak of mountain Shivling (6501 m), located near the snout of the Gangotri glacier. Its name refers to its holy status and shape resembling a Shiva Linga, which is the aniconic representation of the Hindu deity Shiva. The western tributary of the glacier along the Tapovan meadow is shown on the foreground. (Photo P. Georgiadis)

The important glaciers of the Garhwal Himalaya are Gangotri gl., Kedarnath gl., Bhagat-Kharak gl., Satopanth gl., Raikana gl., Kosa gl., Mana gl., Bamini gl., Nandadevi gl., Arwa gl., and Khatling gl. (Rajwar 1993). The present glaciation is but a shadow of its former presence during the Ice Age, nevertheless still provides the source of morphogenic processes which carve the landscape into numerous mountains, foothills, narrow plains and valleys. Rivers of varying shapes and sizes stem from these glaciers and flow parallel to the mountains, often turning into acute bends and thus forming deep gorges. This drainage system falls under the Ganges, Yamuna, and Ramganga systems and serves as the perpetual reservoir of water for most of the main rivers of immense value to northern India (Fig. 3). The numerous rivers and rivulets bisecting the rugged terrain of Garhwal form valleys which divide a succession of steep ridges and slopes. These typically feature extensive cascades of terraces generated through glacio-fluvial deposits, which provide land to locals for agriculture and settlement. The Siwalik and Lesser Himalayan regions extending from 400 to 3000 m altitude host most of human habitation. Beyond this zone, there are many hot springs found in the transitional zones of deep faults across the Main Boundary Thrust and the Main Central Thrust (Valdiya 1998). Renowned hot springs in Garhwal are located in Yamunotri, Badrinath, Tapovan, Gaurikund, Madmaheshwar, Gangnani, and Kunseni. A number of natural glacial lakes have also been developed in this region (Maharjan et al. 2018).

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Indian Himalaya (Garhwal Himalaya)

39

Fig. 3 Terminus of the Gangotri glacier at Gaumukh, the precise source of the Bhagirathi river – one of the two headstreams of the Ganges. This is one of the largest glaciers in the Himalaya and primary source of the Ganges, which starts here its flow of 2704 km across the Gangetic Plain of India and Bangladesh, eventually emptying into the Bay of Bengal, providing a lifeline to millions of people who live along its course. The snow-covered peaks on the background constitute the Bhagirathi massif with the highest peak Parbat I at 6865 m. (Photo P. Georgiadis)

Climate Garhwal extends across a wide range of altitudes from 325 m in its southern borders to 7817 m atop the Nanda Devi, one of the majestic mountain peaks of the Greater Himalaya. Between these extremes of elevation, the climatic conditions in the region vary from tropical to glacial with temperatures ranging from hot to freezing point and below zero. Seven different climatic zones are distinguished in the region from south to north, on the basis of temperature, precipitation, and altitude: tropical (4000 m) (Kaushic 1959). Located in the Indian Himalayan monsoonal subcontinent, Garhwal features three climatic seasons in a year: warm summer (March–June), humid winter (July–October), and winter (November– February). Temperature drops as elevation increases in the Himalayan region, affecting the spatial and temporal fluctuations of the climate at large, but also in microclimatic contexts. Local microclimates are also influenced by different levels of precipitation, depending on factors such as the specific location and slope aspect, proximity to

40

P. Georgiadis

Fig. 4 Thick fog covering an oak-Rhododendron forest near the Kartik Swami shrine, Rudraprayag District. (Photo P. Georgiadis)

glaciers, forests, mountain peaks, and ridges. The relief of the land also accentuates the complexities of weather, with variations of exposure to sunlight and to rainbearing winds producing very intricate patterns of local climate. As a result, striking changes are observed within short horizontal distances with climatic conditions varying from valley to valley and one side of the mountain to another (Rajwar 1993) (Fig. 4). The climate of Garhwal is also influenced by chief weather phenomena observed in the entire Himalayan region. An example is the frequent occurrence of fog during the rainy season, arising before sunrise and disappearing with the appearance of the sun, especially in areas with high soil moisture across river valleys. Frost is also frequent during winter, where the clear night skies lead to longwave radiation cooling of the earth (Rajwar 1993). Extreme weather events are not uncommon, due to the erratic pattern of precipitation during the monsoon season (July– September), making the whole hilly region of Garhwal prone to natural disasters, such as landslides, avalanches, and floods (Chaudhary et al. 2019) (Fig. 5). In addition to monsoonal rains, severe weather is also formed due to the movement of eastward propagating weather systems known as the Western Disturbances that originate from the Mediterranean region (Krishnan et al. 2020). Their frequency, intensity, and synoptic aspects are the primary sources of precipitation during winter and early spring, not only influencing the amount and duration of snowfall in the region (Shekhar et al. 2010; Dimri et al. 2015; Hunt et al. 2018; Krishnan et al. 2019), but also activating monsoons in certain areas of northwestern India (Das et al. 2002).

Floristics Across its altitudinal zonation, the Western Himalaya belt is a meeting ground for a variety of floristic elements, reflecting affinities and biogeographic influences from different directions. Specifically, it forms a link between the Tethyan and the eastern

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Indian Himalaya (Garhwal Himalaya)

41

Fig. 5 Landslide causing a road blockage on the road between Joshimath and Badrinath, Chamoli District. Such disruptions in road traffic are common on the hills of Garhwal, often taking days to be removed by drivers and local authorities. (Photo P. Georgiadis)

Asiatic flora (Takhtajan 1980) and has been identified as one of the major hotspots of endemism and genetic diversity in India (Rao 1994). Garhwal covers part of the transition zone between the phytogeographic regions of eastern and western Himalaya, established by Stearn (1961) based on the distribution of the Himalayan cedar (Pinaceae: Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex Lambert) G. Don). Stearn (1961) has also marked the presence of Chinese elements in Garhwal, while Mani (1978, 1994) mentions connections with elements from the Turkmenistan sub-region and Ethiopia. Finally, Rawat et al. (2001) point out the migration to the region of plant species from as far as the north temperate and arctic regions of Eurasia, the highlands and cold deserts of Central Asia, the Mediterranean mountains, the high Tibetan Plateau, the eastern Himalaya and south Asiatic regions to west China, the upper Gangetic Plain and the south Indian hills. Being a transitional zone and smaller in geographical area, Garhwal has virtually no palaeoendemic and only few neoendemics. Nevertheless, the region harbors more than 3500 of the about 8000 species of flowering plants growing in the Himalaya and is particularly known as the center of diversity of wild relatives of important crop genera like Pyrus L., Prunus L., Sorbus L., (Rosaceae), Ribes L. (Grossulariaceae), and Hordeum L. (Poaceae) (Rawat et al. 2001). Much of this diversity is recorded in the Flora of the District Garhwal Northwest Himalaya, which enumerates a total number of 2150 species (Gaur 1999). This rich plant biodiversity occurs in forests or alpine meadows and abounds in a large genetic pool of medicinal, aromatic, and timber, yielding species.

42

P. Georgiadis

High climatic diversity, coupled by the structural, lithological, and pedological characteristics of the area, give rise to multiple types of landscapes and ecological patterns in the Garhwal Himalaya. These features are further reflected on the rich diversity of natural vegetation and cultivated crops. This vegetational wealth is aptly represented by sub-tropical to almost arctic types of flora. Within these biotic zones, abrupt changes in elevation and specific topographic and microclimatic features create some distinct habitats and plant associations (Gaur 1982; Gairola et al. 2010, 2011a, b, c; Sharma et al. 2010a, b; Bahuguna et al. 2011). Despite the variations in the flora within short distances, there is a strong degree of uniformity of vegetation across large areas, allowing for a classification of the region into four distinct vegetation zones (Rajwar 1993): The Tropical and Subtropical Forest Zone lies below 1200 m of altitude and includes tropical moist deciduous forests dominated by the Sal tree (Dipterocarpaceae: Shorea robusta Roth), mixed with Indian laurel (Combretaceae: Terminalia alata Roth), axlewood (Combretaceae: Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. ex DC.) Wall. ex Guill. & Perr.), Indian elm (Ulmaceae: Holoptelea integrifolia (Roxb.) Planch.), cotton tree (Malvaceae: Bombax ceiba L.), black cutch (Fabaceae: Acacia catechu (Lf.) P. J. H. Hurter & Mabb.), and bamboo (Poaceae: Dendrocalamus strictus (Roxb.) Nees). The upper, subtropical belt features a prominent zone of chir pine (Pinaceae: Pinus roxburghii Sarg.) (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6 The Siwalik region is dominated by deciduous forests dominated by the Sal tree (Dipterocarpaceae: Shorea robusta Roth). Dense patches of heavily lopped trees indicate high degree of disturbance due to extensive wood harvesting. (Photo P. Georgiadis)

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Indian Himalaya (Garhwal Himalaya)

43

Fig. 7 The Banj oak Quercus leucotrichophora A. Camus (Fagaceae) is one of the most beneficial trees in the Garhwal Himalaya, offering a valuable source of wood and fodder to the locals. Its roots stimulate the recharge of mountain springs and its abundant leaf litter protects the soil, thus providing important ecosystem services. For this reason, the species is prioritized in social forestry programs, with seedlings planted in selected areas around the villages of Garhwal. (Photo P. Georgiadis)

The Temperate Forest Zone extends between 1200 and 2000 masl and features a mixed vegetation of broadleaved trees such as different species of oaks (Fagaceae: Quercus incana Bartram, Q. semecarpifolia Sm.) and box myrtle (Myricaceae: Myrica esculenta Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don). Its upper limits form a transition of oaks (Fagaceae: Quercus leucotrichophora A. Camus, Q. floribunda Lindl. ex A. Camus), Himalayan birch (Betulaceae: Betula utilis D. Don), oval-leaf staggerbush (Ericaceae: Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall.) Drudge), west Himalayan fir (Pinaceae: Abies pindrow (Royle) Spach), Rhododendron arboreum Sm. (Ericaceae) and Himalayan cedar (Pinaceae: Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex Lambert) G. Don) (Fig. 7). The Sub-Alpine Forest Zone broadly lies between altitudes of 1800 and 3000 m and can further be divided into a Lower Sub-Alpine Zone and an Upper Sub-Alpine Zone. The former consists of oak-Rhododendron forests, while the latter features Himalayan fir from 2170 to 3255 m; blue pine (Pinaceae: Pinus excelsa Lam.) from 860 to 3100 m within the drainage of the Alaknanda and Bhagirathi rivers; west Himalayan spruce (Pinaceae: Picea smithiana Boiss.) from 2000 to 3000 m; Himalayan cypress (Cupressaceae: Cupressus torulosa D. Don ex Lamb.) from 2000 to 3000 m; Himalayan cedar from 2500 to 3000 m; and Himalayan birch from 2500 to 3200 m (Fig. 8). The Alpine Forests, Bushland and Meadows extend above 3000 m. High-level Himalayan birch and Indian silver fir (Pinaceae: Abies webbiana Lindl.) form the upper limits of the real forests of the Himalaya. Above this treeline the vegetation is dominated by xerophytic bushland, before it transedes to the alpine meadows composed of perennial mesophytic herbs and grasses (Fig. 9).

44 Fig. 8 Rhododendron arboreum Sm. (Ericaceae) growing on a cliff near Dadmir village, Uttarkashi District. (Photo P. Georgiadis)

Fig. 9 Alpine meadow above the treeline close to the estuary of the Alaknanda river at the confluence of the Satonpath and Baghirath Kharak glaciers. This is the northernmost location of India on the Mana Pass, 21 km away from the border with Tibet. (Photo P. Georgiadis)

P. Georgiadis

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Indian Himalaya (Garhwal Himalaya)

45

Social and Cultural Identity The distinctive geography of Garhwal obviously influences the socio-economic structure on the hills. Faith for life, and life itself, comes through a continuous interaction with the biotic and abiotic environment. The locals live by the rhythms and traditions they have known for centuries, still largely untouched by the complications of modern life. Culture, traditions, rituals, folk dress, as well as settlement patterns are remarkably different in this part of the Himalaya (Negi and Saklani 2001). Characterized by honesty, agility, hard work, and confidence in themselves, Garhwalis show an innate curiosity to anything foreign and provide their help and hospitality openly. The local language “Garhwali” is altogether different from the Hindi language and is designated as “vulnerable” in UNESCO’s Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger (Moseley 2010) (Fig. 10). The age-long, intimate relationship of the people of Garhwal with both religion and nature is most probably influenced by the general isolation of the region. Many traditional villages are settled far away from roads in this largely hilly region, and one has to walk for hours, even days, to reach villages situated up to 35 km deep into the mountains. These rural communities have developed their age-old culture and traditional lifestyles through a constant interaction with the natural environment. This connection is manifested in all aspects of cultural heritage, from prayers and song lyrics to local food, handicrafts, and architecture (Fig. 11). Fig. 10 A Garhwali hillman wearing a traditional Pahari Topi (Himanchali cup) and cape traditionally woven with sheep wool. (Photo P. Georgiadis)

46

P. Georgiadis

Fig. 11 Detail on the roof of a building serving as a granary (seed bank) in Jakhol village, Uttarkashi District. The slated roof is ornamented with hand carved wooden artifacts of doves, peacocks, cows, and goats, all sacred animals revered in Hinduism. (Photo P. Georgiadis)

The majority of the population is concentrated along water courses due to the availability of fertile land and water for drinking and irrigation. Most of the settlements are located on gentle slopes, or on more or less plain areas, allowing for better accessibility. Traditional villages are composed of typically architected houses made of wood and stone, and their location is influenced by the specific geographical characteristics of each locality. Being home to predominantly agricultural communities, these villages are surrounded by forests and terraces of crop fields. Transport infrastructure is very basic and most villages are connected with narrow, dusty roads hanging over high cliffs. Crowded buses and private vehicles transport people and goods across the deep valleys and mobility remains a challenge, especially during the rainy summer months where roads may remain blocked for many days or weeks due to the high risk of landslides (Figs. 12 and 13). The region has a long history of subsistence economy, with the basic occupation of the locals being agriculture, cattle farming, and a few artisanal industries. Local biodiversity provides the raw ingredients serving everyday needs for food, medicine, fiber, fuel, wood, animal fodder, crop protection, and worship. The intimate relationship between humans and plant life is reflected in the fact that the indigenous knowledge on the collection and use of several plant species is still kept alive in the villages of Garhwal, though declining (Fig. 14). The people of Garhwal are highly adapted to the harshness of the environment and are masters in the labor intensive agriculture of the hills. By tradition, the majority of the growers follow traditional organic farming practices, fertilizing

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Indian Himalaya (Garhwal Himalaya)

47

Fig. 12 Saur village in Uttarkashi District is located on a slope surrounded by oak-Rhododendron and mixed conifer forest and terraced fields. (Photo P. Georgiadis)

Fig. 13 Traditional Garhwali houses, constructed of locally available and affordable wood and stone at Jakhol village, Uttarkashi District. These houses can be more than a century old and are often ornamented with wood carvings of magnificent artistry which offer an insight to the lives of people of the past. (Photo P. Georgiadis)

48

P. Georgiadis

Fig. 14 Terraced crop fields are a key feature of the rural landscape in Garhwal. The plots are usually inundated with stream water during the monsoon season for the cultivation of several varieties of paddy rice. (Photo P. Georgiadis)

their land with nutrient-rich manure obtained from cows and buffalos kept in every house. The overall geographic isolation and the rugged hilly terrain do not allow for mechanized agriculture and the often outdated technologies compel every family member to participate in the farming activities. As a result, farming is performed in a collective manner, where villagers help each other in the cultivation and harvesting of their crops (Fig. 15). Women play a major role at all stages of food production, while also looking after the household and cattle. A typical image on the hills of Garhwal is that of women carrying firewood and greens for animal fodder from the surrounding forests in specially woven baskets. In cases where potable water, fodder, and fuel plants are not available in the close vicinity of their village, women of all ages have to cover long distances on a daily basis, in order to get access to these vital resources. Previous research (Georgiadis 2008) suggests that Garhwali women are more skilled in plant identification compared to men, probably because of their continuous contact with the local forests and fields for their daily activities (Figs. 16, 17, and 18). The inhabitants of Garhwal are still dependent on traditional healing for treating diseases, due to the relatively poor access to modern medical facilities, especially in the remote inner areas of the hills. In almost every village, there will be locals with knowledge on the collection, preparation, and administration of medicinal plants. In the absence of primary health centers, they are acting as first responders, delivering effective healthcare in an affordable manner. Most of them are old men and women that prescribe household remedies for treating human and animal disorders, using

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Indian Himalaya (Garhwal Himalaya)

49

Fig. 15 The muddy paddy terraces on the hills are cultivated with traditional plows carried by bulls or buffalos. A young boy in Kontha village, Rudraprayag District, is learning to navigate the tool, with bundles of rice seedlings visible in the foreground. A variety of crops is growing in the background, both inside and on the stone-walled margins of the terraces. (Photo P. Georgiadis)

Fig. 16 A young Garhwali woman as she walks across the terraced fields close to Chandrapuri village, Rudraprayag District, carrying a traditionally woven basket and sickle for foraging wild greens for food and fodder. (Photo P. Georgiadis)

plants growing in the ecosystems surrounding the villages. In addition to these folk medicine practitioners, a number of registered holistic healers operate in the major towns of Garhwal. Some of them are so acknowledged that patients often travel to them from far and wide to receive specialized treatments for a range of ailments. These range from common colds and fevers to skin diseases and wounds, problems of heart, eyes and ears, digestive and urinary disorders, heart problems, diabetes, rheumatic arthritis, bone fractures, and abdominal pains, among others (Fig. 19). Elders possessing traditional knowledge on the use of medicinal plants are respected members of the local communities and are usually keen on transferring their skills through oral tradition to the next generations. As they are growing older, this traditional wisdom is nevertheless eroding, as the untouched lands of Garhwal are invaded by western, allopathic medicine providing quick relief from ailments.

50

P. Georgiadis

Fig. 17 An older Garhwali woman transplanting rice seedlings in a terraced paddy field during the monsoon season at village Kontha, Rudraprayag District. A diversity of crop plants is seen in the background. (Photo P. Georgiadis)

Fig. 18 A Garhwali woman in her kitchen at Saur village, Uttarkashi District, preparing a stew of buckwheat leaves Fagopyrum esculentum Moench (Polygonaceae) grown on the margins of paddy rice terraces. (Photo P. Georgiadis)

The life on the hills, marked by labor-intensive agriculture, does not allow the time necessary for the youth to acquire this knowledge. As a result, although many people can still identify their local plant diversity, their skills on medicinal uses of plants is on the decline (Figs. 20 and 21).

Plant Use History The vegetational wealth and the occurrence of a rich diversity of medicinal and aromatic plants in Garhwal have attracted the interest of ethnobotanists working with a number of institutions based in the state of Uttarakhand. Among them is the Forest Research Institute of India, the Northern Circle of the Botanical Survey of India, the Wildlife Institute of India, as well as the Garhwal University in Srinagar. The

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Indian Himalaya (Garhwal Himalaya)

51

Fig. 19 A Practitioner of traditional medicine in Guptkashi, Rudraprayag District, preparing a mixture of plants using mortar and pestle. Ayurvedic ingredients packaged into plastic containers are visible in the background. (Photo P. Georgiadis)

Fig. 20 An elder at village Saur, Uttarkashi District, examines a plant specimen during semi-structured interviews of an ethnobotanical survey. (Photo P. Georgiadis)

majority of this research relates to field studies in certain districts and altitudes and often focuses on plants with marketing potential. Apart from the ethnobotanical notes presented in the Flora of Garhwal (Gaur 1999), very little published work presents the ethnobotany of the entire region of Garhwal (see Gaur et al. 1983; Jain and Saklani 1991; Singh et al. 1997; Badoni and Badoni 2001; Pundeer and Singh 2002; Rawat and Bhatt 2002; Kala 2005a; Pante et al. 2006; Bhat et al. 2013).

52

P. Georgiadis

Fig. 21 A Garhwali woman in Triyuginarayan village, Rudraprayag District, examines a dry specimen of Kuth (Asteraceae: Saussurea lappa Clarke), explaining its medicinal uses to a group of youngsters. (Photo P. Georgiadis)

Ethnobotanical surveys and plant collections by the author have documented uses of 251 medicinal and aromatic plants belonging to 81 families, which are collected from the wild or cultivated in the Garhwal Himalaya (Georgiadis 2008). This diversity includes plants of various life forms, namely herbs, climbers, shrubs, lianas, trees, succulents, and ferns. Most of them grow in the wild, often associated with oak and Rhododendron spp. forests, forest edges, clearings and open meadows, sloppy ravines, waste places, or inside villages. However, that study reports 103 medicinal and aromatic taxa which are found in cultivation in home gardens or on the margins of terraced crop fields due to uncertain seasonal availability of key species in the wild. The people of Garhwal live on a plant-based diet and the consumption of meat is only reserved for special occasions. There is a general belief that every plant is medicinal, something that is reflected on the culinary habits of the local population that include the regular consumption of plants within the context of a balanced, holistic diet. Plants for the daily meals are consumed raw and cooked or processed in the form of achar (pickles), jams, juices, or chutneys (sauces). Different plant parts have one or another use and are often used alone or in mixtures for the preparation of herbal remedies. These are usually consumed raw or processed, powdered or pasted with water, oil, milk, or honey (Fig. 22). The main agricultural crops commonly grown in the fields surrounding the villages of Garhwal include cereals and pseudocereals. Among them are various

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Indian Himalaya (Garhwal Himalaya)

53

Fig. 22 A man is preparing a paste of chili peppers (Solanaceae: Capsicum annuum L.) using a traditional grinding stone. Every household has a stone for pasting different herbs and vegetables, including medicinal plants. (Photo P. Georgiadis)

Fig. 23 A Garhwali farmer is milling wheat using the rotating stone of a traditional water mill in Pillu village, Rudraprayag District. (Photo P. Georgiadis)

local varieties of rice (Poaceae: Oryza sativa L.), wheat (Poaceae: Triticum L.), different millets (Poaceae: Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) P. Beauv.; Eleusine corocana Gaertn.; Setaria italica (L.) P. Beauv.), amaranth (Amaranthaceae: Amaranthus caudatus L.; A. spinosus L.), rapeseed (Brassicaceae: Brassica napus L.), barley (Poaceae: Hordeum vulgare L.), buckwheat (Polygonaceae: Fagopyrum esculentum Moench) (Fig. 23). The vegetable gardens usually contain radish (Brassicaceae: Raphanus sativus L.), onions (Amaryllidaceae: Allium cepa L.), potatoes (Solanaceae: Solanum tuberosum L.), tomatoes (Solanaceae: Solanum lycopersicum L.), okras (Malvaceae: Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench), and different cucurbits. Most fruit trees growing close to households or fields include apples (Rosaceae: Malus domestica Borkh.), lychees (Sapindaceae: Litchi chinensis Sonn.), apricots (Rosaceae: Prunus armeniaca L.), plums (Rosaceae: Prunus cerasifera Ehrh.), and Himalayan wild cherries (Rosaceae: Prunus cerasoides. D. Don), pears (Rosaceae: Pyrus spp. L.), agrumes (Rutaceae: Citrus spp. L.), mangoes (Anacardiaceae: Mangifera indica L.),

54

P. Georgiadis

Fig. 24 A Garhwali woman with a fresh harvest of apples (Rosaceae: Malus domestica Borkh.) at Sankri village, Uttarkashi District. (Photo P. Georgiadis)

bananas (Zingiberaceae: Musa spp. L.), and guavas (Myrtaceae: Psidium guajava L.) (see also Rana et al. 2016). This produce is by large for self-consumption, while some is reaching the regional markets and a small proportion of organic Basmati rice is exported (Fig. 24). The evergreen mountain forests provide a bounty of edible wild plants, which are regularly harvested by the locals. Edible flowers of Rhododendron arboreum Sm. (Ericaceae) are collected in bulk and are used for the preparation of refreshing drinks which are particularly beneficial for cardiac and circulatory health and are usually offered as a treat to guests in Garhwali homes. Young fronds of the fern Diplazium polypodioides Bl. (Woodsiaceae), locally known as “Lingra,” are an eclectic culinary delicacy. Tubers of air yam (Dioscoreaceae: Dioscorea bulbifera L.) as well as the leaves of goosefoot (Chenopodiaceae: Chenopodium album L.) are cooked and eaten as vegetables. Edible fruits of the Indian barberry (Berberidaceae: Berberis aristata DC.) constitute a good source of vitamins. Seeds of cultivated crops such as caraway (Apiaceae: Carum carvi L.), hemp (Cannabaceae: Cannabis sativa L.), sesame (Pedaliaceae: Sesamum orientale L.), and black mustard (Brassicaceae: Brassica nigra L.) are used as condiments and for oil extraction used in everyday cooking (Fig. 25). Various plant parts are collected from the wild and are taken either raw, pasted, cooked, or mixed with other ingredients. The knowledge system related to the use of medicinal plants is very complex, as in many cases, different parts of the same species can be administered in order to treat or provide relief from multiple ailments. For example, the roots of Asparagus filicinus Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don (Asparagaceae) are used to treat diabetes, diarrhea, and dysentery, while also being a good source of iron. Pasted leaves of Anemone rivularis Buch.-Ham. ex DC. (Ranunculaceae) is applied externally on the forehead against headaches, while the extract is applied on sore skin and as ear drops. Stems and leaves of Fumaria indica (Hausskn.) Pugsley (Papaveraceae) are diuretic, diaphoretic, and aperient. Powdered and mixed with water they are used against malaria fever, while the paste is applied on wounds. Seeds of Cleome viscosa L. (Cleomaceae) are pasted and applied externally to

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Indian Himalaya (Garhwal Himalaya)

55

Fig. 25 A man holding freshly harvested fronds of the edible fern Lingra (Woodsiaceae: Diplazium polypodioides Bl.), a popular wild food in the hills of Garhwal. (Photo P. Georgiadis)

provide relief from rheumatoid arthritis, while also being used as a spice with fried vegetables. Powder of the stems, leaves, and roots of Calotropis procera W. T. Aiton (Apocynaceae) is useful against asthma, cough, and tuberculosis, while the roots are grinded with water and taken as an antidote to scorpion bites. Besides being a vital source of food and medicine, plants also form part of general hygiene. Examples include the fruits of the Indian soapberry “Reetha” (Sapindaceae: Sapindus mukorossi Gaertn.), and the leaves and stems of “Bhimal” (Malvaceae: Grewia optiva J. R. Drumm. ex Burret), which are used as natural soaps. The renowned “Neem” (Meliaceae: Azadirachta indica A. Juss.) is a symbol of India, and thousands of people across the country start their day by chewing its stems for oral hygiene. This is a tree found in lower altitudes; however, Garhwal features the wrinkled prickly ash (Rutaceae: Zanthoxylum armatum DC.), which is locally called “Timroo” and is used for general oral hygiene. The majority of species have other uses that shape the cultural landscape of Garhwal. The oak tree Quercus leucotrichophora A. Camus (Fagaceae), locally known as “Banj,” is a source of wood for fuel and home construction and its leaves are a major source of animal fodder. Almost every household has its own granary built of the wood of the Himalayan cedar (Pinaceae: Cedrus deodara (Roxb.) G. Don), which is rich in insect-deterrent essential oils. There, seeds and grains of indigenous crop plants are stored and often exchanged among the community. Various plant-based mixtures are used as biological protection against pests and

56

P. Georgiadis

Fig. 26 A Garhwali woman in Saur village, Rudraprayag District, inside her granary on the ground floor of her house. This level of the traditional buildings is usually kept about 1 m high and is used for storing grains, seeds, and fodder. (Photo P. Georgiadis)

crop diseases. For example, the leaves of the Chinese chaste tree Vitex negundo L. (Lamiaceae) are dried and placed with stored grains in seed banks or mixed with cow urine for the preparation of a natural insecticide for crops. Other plants take their place in veterinary medicine, that is, Colebrookea oppositifolia Sm. (Lamiaceae), whose leaves are used for the extraction of eye drops for cattle. Fiber-yielding plants, such as the Himalayan nettle Girardinia diversifolia (Link) Friis (Urticaceae), are used for making ropes (Fig. 26). Plants also have an important position in the worship of Hindu deities and are offered in prayers and rituals, often on a daily basis. Example is the very rare Jurinea dolomiaea Boiss. (Asteraceae), whose roots are traditionally used for the preparation of incense burned in religious rituals. Holy trees like the sacred “Peepal” fig tree Ficus religiosa L. (Moraceae) are conserved and often seen garlanded with red or orange ribbons. Unsurprisingly, the symbol of the state of Uttarakhand is the flower of “Brahm Kamal” (Asteraceae: Saussurea obvallata (DC.) Edgew.), a beautiful erect herb growing high in the snowy mountain peaks that is considered to be one of the most sacred offerings to the important Hindu deity of Lord Shiva. Other species, such as the Bael tree (Rutaceae: Aegle marmelos (L.) Corrêa), are often planted close to temples and places of worship. The forests of Garhwal also provide habitat to a number of edible and medicinal mushrooms. Among them are: Ganoderma lucidum (Fr.) Karst. (Ganodermataceae); Agaricus campestris L. and Coprinus comatus (O. F. Müll.) Pers. (Agaricaceae);

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Indian Himalaya (Garhwal Himalaya)

57

Amanita hemibapha (Berk. & Br.) Sacc. (Amanitaceae); Boletus edulis Bull ex Fries and Strobilomyces floccopus (Vahl. ex Fr.) Karst (Boletaceae); Hydnum repandum L. (Hydnaceae); Morchella esculenta Fr. (Morchellaceae); Cantharellus cibarius Fr., C. minor Peck and Craterellus cornucopioides (L.) Pers. (Cantharellaceae); Lactarius deliciosus (Fr.) Gray, Lactarius subindigo Verbeken & E. Horak., Lactifluus hygrophoroides Berk. & Curt., Russula brevipes Peck, and Russula virescens (Schaeffer ex Secretan) Fr. (Russulaceae) (Vishwakarma et al. 2011; Bhatt et al. 2016).

Threats to Diversity The pressure experienced by the rich habitat and floristic diversity in Uttarakhand has stimulated research interest in the status, distribution, and conservation of medicinal and aromatic plants in Garhwal (see Nautiyal et al. 1997, 2002; Kala et al. 1998, 2006; Maikhuri et al. 1998, 2001; Airi et al. 2000; Kala 2000, 2004, 2005b; Uniyal et al. 2002; Semwal et al. 2007; Rawat and Chandra 2014). However, this attention is usually limited to certain species with high commercial value which are facing pressure in the wild. Among them are Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle (Ranunculaceae), Nardostachys jatamansi (D. Don) DC. (Caprifoliaceae), and Picrorhiza kurroa ex Benth. (Plantaginaceae). Due to their enormous economic importance, many medicinal and aromatic plants have been exhaustingly exploited during the last century. Τhe once thickly vegetated forests of Garhwal have been largely slashed down and transported through the rivers and more recently through the roads. Exploitation of marketable plants still applies increasing pressure on the region’s ecosystems, with considerable environmental, social, and economic repercussions (Chauhan et al. 2013). The increasing demand for herbal and plant-based products is potentially one of the most threatening factors to biodiversity. Due to the large gap between demand and supply, the largest share of the total raw plant materials coming from the state of Uttarakhand into the national and international herbal markets originates through harvesting from the wild. In many cases, these collection practices are unsustainable, limiting the natural regeneration of wild plant populations. The forests of Garhwal are also pressed due to the increasing trends in human and domestic animal populations and the consequent demand on arable and grazing land, firewood, timber, and other construction wood. The collection methods of most medicinal and aromatic plants employed by the people of Garhwal are not destructive to the plants themselves. However, species with rhizomes or barks of high medicinal value are more vulnerable, since these plant parts are vital for sustaining the physiology and reproduction of the respective species. The problem is particularly sharp in higher altitudes, where the overall harshness of the environment limits the regenerative capacity of plants. Rare species like the high-altitude “Salam Panja” orchid (Orchidaceae: Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D. Don) Soó) whose tuber yields a juice that is traditionally used as a tonic is listed as “critically rare” under the CITES Appendix II (CITES 2019). The same applies to Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth.

58

P. Georgiadis

(Plantaginaceae) whose rhizome is used in Ayurvedic treatments of digestive problems. Both of these plant species have been reported to have been harvested from the wild to near extinction; therefore, they now enjoy special conservation status. The degradation of the fragile mountain ecosystems proceeds at alarming rates due to forest fires and the overexploitation of forest biomass serving the needs of local communities in animal fodder and wood (Dhyani and Dhyani 2016). Dominant but slow growing trees such as Quercus leucotrichophora A. Camus are lopped for wood and fodder at such an excessive degree, that they are failing to regenerate. These degraded forests are rapidly invaded by chir pine Pinus roxburghii Sarg., altering the hydrological regimes and above-ground biomass production. These alterations generate further impacts to the vegetal cover leading to soil erosion and reduced discharge of springs and streams (Valdiya 1998). Changes in weather patterns and precipitation due to anthropogenic climate change lead to reduced water availability for irrigation, hence affecting the agricultural productivity and crop cycles in the region (Negi et al. 2012; Dhanai et al. 2014). They also alter soil moisture conditions and overall fertility, which in turn influence the growth and regeneration of the largely herbaceous forest vegetation. The unpredicted frequency and intensity of forest disturbances due to climate change also include insect or pest outbreaks and invasive species which may reduce the overall forest rigor. Besides the impact on the fragile natural habitats of Garhwal, the effects of global warming in the Western Himalaya are felt in the entire Indian subcontinent. Highelevation Himalayan areas above 4000 masl underwent amplified warming at a rate of about 0.5 °C/decade since the 1950s (Sabin et al. 2020). As a result, Himalayan glaciers have lost a significant amount of their mass in the past 40 years, with the average rate of ice loss doubled during the twenty-first century compared to the end of the twentieth century (Maurer et al. 2019). Depending on the terrain and meteorological patterns, the annual glacial retreat ranges from a few meters to almost 61 m (Kulkarni and Karyakarte 2014). Garhwal’s largest glacier, Gangotri, which provides a significant source of meltwater for the Ganges, has reportedly retreated at a rate of about 30 m every year during recent decades (Rai and Gurung 2005). These dramatic effects not only cause major landscape alterations and natural disasters in the Himalayan region, but also affect streamflow and fresh water availability for drinking and irrigation, hence threatening the water and food security of millions of people living along their courses (Kaser et al. 2010; Pritchard 2017). The depletion of water resources is visible in many areas of Garhwal, especially in the hilly districts which entirely depend on rainfed agriculture. More than one third of the natural springs that contribute to the Ganges river system are drying up, and several once perennial streams have now become seasonal (Tiwari and Joshi 2012). The threads to the biocultural richness of the region are not only of environmental nature. Although the state of Uttarakhand has witnessed economic growth at high rates since its formation in 2000, development has been lopsided towards districts that lie in the plains of the state. The urban dependency of rural populations for higher education and healthcare has led to an increase in migration from the hills, often leading to the abandonment of entire villages and the agricultural land

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Indian Himalaya (Garhwal Himalaya)

59

surrounding them. Active farm plots interspersed with inactive ones are difficult to manage in the interconnected terraced system of Garhwal. Consequently, people shift away from traditional subsidence farming and as the land becomes barren, it is taken over by invasive species such as Lantana camara L. (Verbenaceae) and Parthenium hysterophorus L. (Asteraceae). Migration from the villages is affecting the overall rural way of life, which for centuries has been based on the strength of community and the deep indigenous knowledge on sustainable management and use of forest resources.

Conclusion The intricate relationship between ecosystems and human communities is so strong in the Garhwal Himalaya, so the region is only livable when balance in the human ecology is maintained. The value of the goods and services provided by plant resources in Garhwal is immeasurable and the livelihoods of the locals are directly dependent on the sustainable use of these resources. Therefore, the conservation of plant wildlife and the rejuvenation of local ethnobotanical knowledge and indigenous culture are imperative. The remoteness of indigenous communities in the remote mountainous areas of Garhwal can be turned into comparative advantage by making use of their biodiversity and local knowledge. The rich ethnomedicinal heritage of the region can be a major driver for self-directed development in the region, averting the alarming trends of migration and ecosystem degradation. The international market for medicinal and aromatic plants, but also for ornamental species and exotic fruits, is booming and the demand is higher than the supply. This opens new opportunities for sustainable collection from the wild as well as for organic cultivation, especially for poor families and small land owners. The people of Garhwal are experts in the cultivation of plants in hilly terrain and can benefit greatly from capacity building programs for the sustainable production and cooperative marketing of a number of medicinal and aromatic plants. The local medicinal flora represents a variety of species which are suitable for growing in almost every agro-climatic condition. The shifting cultivation traditionally practiced in the region, leaves large areas as fallow land which can be profitably used for the cultivation of annual or perennial plants. Taking advantage of the different habits of the recorded medicinal species in the area, the application of regenerative growing practices is possible in adapted agroforestry systems, including multi-tier cropping and intercropping. Such cultivation will not only help meet the increasing demand for medicinal and aromatic plant-based raw ingredients, but can also conserve this valuable resource and even add to its current productivity, while restoring the wider ecosystem. For centuries, everything from soil-related work to harvest has been done collectively in the villages of Garhwal. This long tradition of community-based agriculture can potentially drive a new wave of social entrepreneurship for increasing efficiency, minimizing transaction costs, and diversifying incomes for the people of Garhwal.

60

P. Georgiadis

As a matter of fact, some pioneering efforts in this direction start to emerge in Garhwal with the prioritization of some medicinal and aromatic plants for cultivation. Among them are Picrorhiza kurroa ex Benth. (Plantaginaceae), Nardostachys jatamansi (D. Don) DC. (Caprifoliaceae), Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle (Ranunculaceae), Swertia chirayita (Roxb.) H. Karst. (Gentianaceae), and Podophyllum hexandrum Royle (Berberidaceae). The opportunities arising from tackling the interconnected sustainability challenges in Garhwal make the region an exciting research domain on sustainable rural development, ecosystem conservation, and landscape restoration. From preserving indigenous knowledge to improving livelihoods and connecting the region to markets, the Garhwal Himalaya awaits ethnobotanical workers who are keen in exploring and documenting human-plant relationships in one of the most magnificent mountain landscapes on Earth.

References Airi S, Rawal RS, Dhar U, Purohit AN. Assessment of availability and habitat preference of Jatamansi – a critically endangered medicinal plant of west Himalaya. Curr Sci. 2000;79(10):1467–71. Badoni A, Badoni K. Ethnobotanical heritage. In: Kandari OP, Gusain OP, editors. Garhwal Himalaya: nature, culture & society. Srinagar: TransMedia Publication; 2001. p. 126–47. Bahuguna YM, Sharma J, Gairola S. Phytodiversity in the submergence area of the Srinagar hydroelectric power project in Garhwal Himalaya, Uttarakhand, India. Int J Environ Sci. 2011;1(7):1448–58. Bhat JA, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:1. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-9-1. Bhatt RP, Singh U, Stephenson SL. Wild edible mushrooms from high elevations in the Garhwal Himalaya-I. Curr Res Environ Appl Mycol. 2016;6(2):118–32. https://doi.org/10.5943/cream/6/2/6. Célérier J, Harrison TM, Webb AAG, Yin A. The Kumaun and Garwhal Lesser Himalaya, India: part 1. Structure and stratigraphy. Geol Soc Am Bull. 2009a;121(9-10):1262–80. https://doi.org/ 10.1130/B26344.1. Célérier J, Harrison TM, Beyssac O, Herman F, Dunlap WJ, Webb AAG. The Kumaun and Garwhal Lesser Himalaya, India: part 2. Thermal and deformation histories. Geol Soc Am Bull. 2009b;121:1281–97. https://doi.org/10.1130/B26343.1. Chaudhary S, Kumar A, Negi M. A geospatial appraisal of Garhwal Himalayan bio-geodiversity and its ecotourism potentials. Int J Res Anal Rev. 2019;6(1):911–26. https://doi.org/10.1729/ Journal.20555. Chauhan RS, Nautiyal BP, Nautiyal MC. Trade of threatened Himalayan medicinal and aromatic plants – socioeconomy, management and conservation issues in Garhwal Himalaya, India. Glob J Med Res. 2013;13(2):9–17. CITES Appendices I, II and III. 2019. https://www.cites.org/eng/app/appendices.php Das MR, Mukhopadhyay RK, Dandekar MM, Kshirsagar SR. Pre-monsoon western disturbance in relation to monsoon rainfall, its advancement over NW India and their trends. Curr Sci. 2002;82(11):1320–1. Dhanai R, Negi RS, Singh S, Parmar MK. The effects of climate change on natural resources and socio-economic condition of Himalayan communities of Uttarakhand, India. Int J Mod Commun Technol Res. 2014;2(11):265749.

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Indian Himalaya (Garhwal Himalaya)

61

Dhital MR. Geological setting of Himalaya. In: Geology of the Nepal Himalaya, Regional geology reviews. Cham: Springer; 2015. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-02496-7_21. Dhyani S, Dhyani D. Strategies for reducing deforestation and disaster risk: lessons from Garhwal Himalaya, India. In: Renaud F, Sudmeier-Rieux K, Estrella M, Nehren U, editors. Ecosystembased disaster risk reduction and adaptation in practice, Advances in natural and technological hazards research, vol. 42. Cham: Springer; 2016. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-43633-3_22. Dimri AP, Niyogi D, Barros AP, Ridley J, Mohanty UC, Yasunari T, Sikka DR. Western disturbances: a review. Rev Geophys. 2015;53:225–46. https://doi.org/10.1002/2014RG000460. Gairola S, Sharma CM, Rana CS, Ghildiyal SK, Suyal S. Phytodiversity (angiosperms and gymnosperms) in Mandal-Chopta forest of Garhwal Himalaya, Uttarakhand, India. Nat Sci. 2010;8(1):1–17. Gairola S, Sharma CM, Ghildiyal SK, Suyal S. Tree species composition and diversity along an altitudinal gradient in moist tropical montane valley slopes of the Garhwal Himalaya, India. For Sci Technol. 2011a;7(3):91–102. https://doi.org/10.1080/21580103.2011.597109. Gairola S, Sharma CM, Suyal S, Ghildiyal SK. Composition and diversity of five major forest types in moist temperate climate of the Western Himalaya. For Stud China. 2011b;13(2):139–53. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11632-011-0207-6. Gairola S, Sharma CM, Suyal S, Ghildiyal SK. Species composition and diversity in mid-altitudinal moist temperate forests of the Western Himalaya. J For Sci. 2011c;27(1):1–15. Gaur RD. Dynamics of vegetation of Garhwal Himalaya. In: Paliwal GS, editor. The vegetational wealth of Himalaya. New Delhi: Puja Publishers; 1982. p. 12–5. Gaur RD. Flora of the district Garhwal northwest Himalaya (with ethnobotanical notes). Srinagar: TransMedia Publication; 1999. Gaur RD, Semwal JK, Tiwari JK. A survey of high altitude medicinal plants of Garhwal Himalayas. Bull Med Ethnobot Res. 1983;4:102–16. Georgiadis P. Local plant knowledge for livelihoods: an ethnobotanical survey in the Garhwal Himalaya, Uttarakhand, India. Weikersheim: Margraf Publishers; 2008. Hunt KMR, Turner AG, Shaffrey LC. The evolution, seasonality and impacts of western disturbances. Q J R Meteorol Soc. 2018;144:278–90. https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.3200. Jain SK, Saklani A. Observations on ethnobotany of the tons valley region of Uttarkashi district of Northwest Himalayas. Mt Res Dev. 1991;11:177–83. Jayangondaperumal R, Thakur VC, Joevivek V, Rao PS, Gupta AK. Active tectonics of Kumaun and Garhwal Himalaya. Singapore: Springer; 2018. Kala CP. Status and conservation of rare and endangered medicinal plants in the Indian transHimalaya. Biol Conserv. 2000;93:371–9. Kala CP. Revitalizing traditional herbal therapy by exploring medicinal plants: a case study of Uttaranchal State in India. Proceedings of the International Conference on Indigenous Knowledge: Transforming the Academy; 2004 May 27–28; Penn State University, State College; 2004. p. 15–22. Kala CP. Current status of medicinal plants used by traditional Vaidyas in Uttaranchal state of India. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2005a;3:267–78. Kala CP. Indigenous uses, population density and conservation of threatened medicinal plants in protected areas of the Indian Himalayas. Conserv Biol. 2005b;19:368–78. Kala CP, Rawat GS, Uniyal VK. Ecology and conservation of the valley of flowers National Park, Garhwal Himalaya. Dehradun: Wildlife Institute of India; 1998. Kala CP, Dhyani PP, Sajwan BS. Developing the medicinal plant sector in northern India: challenges and opportunities. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:32–47. Kaser G, Großhauser M, Marzeion B. Contribution potential of glaciers to water availability in different climate regimes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2010;107:20223–7. https://doi.org/10. 1073/pnas.1008162107. Kaushic SD. Climatic zones and their related socio-economy in Garhwal Himalaya. Geogr Rev. 1959;24(3–4):29.

62

P. Georgiadis

Krishnan R, Sabin TP, Madhura RK, Vellore RK, Mujumdar M, Sanjay J, Nayak S, Rajeevan M. Non-monsoonal precipitation response over the western Himalayas to climate change. Clim Dyn. 2019;52:4091–109. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-018-4357-2. Krishnan R, Gnanaseelan C, Sanjay J, Swapna P, Dhara C, Sabin TP, Jadhav J, Sandeep N, Choudhury AD, Singh M, Mujumdar M, Parekh A, Tewari A, Mehajan R, Chopra R, Joshi A, Nagarajan A, Nivsarkar M, Rajeevan M, Collins M, Niyogi D. Introduction to climate change over the Indian region. In: Krishnan R, Sanjay J, Gnanaseelan C, Mujumdar M, Kulkarni A, Chakraborty S, editors. Assessment of climate change over the Indian region. Singapore: Springer; 2020. p. 3. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4327-2_1. Kulkarni AV, Karyakarte Y. Observed changes in Himalayan glaciers. Curr Sci. 2014;106(2):237–44. Maharjan SB, Mool PK, Lizong W, Xiao G, Shrestha F, Shrestha RB, Khanal NR, Bajracharya SR, Joshi S, Shai S, Baral P. The status of glacial lakes in the Hindu Kush Himalaya. ICIMOD research report 2018/1. Kathmandu: ICIMOD; 2018. https://lib.icimod.org/record/33736 Maikhuri RK, Nautiyal S, Rao KS, Saxena KG. Medicinal plant cultivation and biosphere reserve management: a case study from the Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve, Himalaya. Curr Sci. 1998;74:157–63. Maikhuri RK, Rao KS, Semwal RL. Changing scenario of Himalayan agroecosystems: loss of agrobiodiversity, an indicator of environmental change in central Himalaya, India. Environmentalist. 2001;21:23–9. Mani MS. Ecology and phytogeography of high-altitude plants of the northwest Himalaya. New Delhi: Oxford & I.B.H. Publishing; 1978. Mani MS. The Himalaya, its ecology and phytogeography: a review. In: Pangtey YPS, Rawal RS, editors. High altitudes of the Himalaya (biogeography, ecology and conservation). Nainital: Gyanodaya; 1994. p. 1–10. Maurer JM, Schaefer JM, Rupper S, Corley A. Acceleration of ice loss across the Himalayas over the past 40 years. Sci Adv. 2019;5:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aav7266. Moseley C. Atlas of the world’s languages in danger. 3rd ed. Paris: UNESCO Publishing; 2010. Online version: http://www.unesco.org/culture/en/endangeredlanguages/atlas Nautiyal BP, Pandey N, Bhatt AB. Analysis of vegetation pattern in an alpine zone in north-west Himalaya: a case study of Garhwal Himalaya with reference to diversity and distribution patterns. Int J Ecol Environ Sci. 1997;23:49–65. Nautiyal BP, Prakash V, Buhuguna R, Maithani UC, Rajashekran C, Bisht H, Nautiyal MC. Population study for monitoring the status of rarity of three aconite species in Garhwal Himalaya. Trop Ecol. 2002;43:297–303. Negi SS, Saklani A. Uttarakhand in making. In: Kandari OP, Gusain OP, editors. Garhwal Himalaya: nature, culture & society. Srinagar: TransMedia Publication; 2001. p. 422–32. Negi GCS, Samal PK, Kuniyal JC, Kothyari BP, Sharma RK, Dhyani PP. Impact of climate change on the western Himalayan mountain ecosystems: an overview. Trop Ecol. 2012;53(3):345–56. Pante PC, Tiwari L, Pante HC, editors. Folk-medicine and aromatic plants of Uttaranchal. Dehradun: Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh; 2006. Pritchard HD. Asia’s glaciers are a regionally important buffer against drought. Nature. 2017;545:169–87. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature22062. Pundeer YPS, Singh D. Ethnobotanical wild food plants of Jaunsar-Bawar (Western Himalayas), Uttaranchal. Indian Forester. 2002;128:571–82. Rai SC, Gurung CP. An overview of glaciers, glacier retreat and subsequent impacts in Nepal, India and China. WWF Program. 2005. http://assets.panda.org/downloads/himalayaglaciersreport2005.pdf Rajwar GS. Garhwal Himalaya: ecology and environment. New Delhi: Ashish Publishing House; 1993. Rana P, Tewari SK, Kumar V. Floristic structure, composition and functional characteristics of homegardens in Garhwal region, Uttarakhand, India. Int J Agric Environ Biotechnol. 2016;9(6):1045–59. https://doi.org/10.5958/2230-732X.2016.00133.9. Rao RR. Biodiversity in India: floristic aspects. Dehradun: Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh; 1994.

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Indian Himalaya (Garhwal Himalaya)

63

Rawat RS, Bhatt VK, editors. Nature’s pharmacopoeia. Medicinal plant diversity in Doon Valley. Dehradun: Navdanya; 2002. Rawat VS, Chandra J. Vegetational diversity analysis across different habitats in Garhwal Himalaya. J Bot. 2014;2014:1–5. Rawat DS, Bhandari BS, Gaur RD. Vegetational wealth. In: Kandari OP, Gusain OP, editors. Garhwal Himalaya: nature, culture & society. Srinagar: TransMedia Publication; 2001. p. 70–92. Rowley DB. Age of initiation of collision between India and Asia: a review of stratigraphic data. Earth Planet Sci Lett. 1996;145(1–4):1–13. Sabin TP, Krishnan R, Vellore R, Priya P, Borgaonkar HP, Singh BB. Climate change over the Himalayas. In: Krishnan R, Sanjay J, Gnanaseelan C, Mujumdar M, Kulkarni A, Chakraborty S, editors. Assessment of climate change over the Indian region. Singapore: Springer; 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4327-2_11. Sakarkar DM, Sakarkar UM, Jaiswal SB. Essence of Ayurveda: the traditional medical science. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2003;2(4):333–45. Semwal DP, Saradhi PP, Nautiyal BP, Bhatt AB. Current status, distribution and conservation of rare and endangered medicinal plants of Kedarnath wildlife sanctuary, Central Himalayas, India. Curr Sci. 2007;92(12):1733–8. Sharma CM, Baduni NP, Gairola S, Ghildiyal SK, Suyal S. Tree diversity and carbon stocks of some major forest types of Garhwal Himalaya, India. For Ecol Manag. 2010a;260(12):2170–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2010.09.014. Sharma CM, Baduni NP, Gairola S, Ghildiyal SK, Suyal S. The effect of slope aspects on the forest composition, community structure and soil nutrient status of some major natural temperate forest types of Garhwal Himalaya. J For Res. 2010b;21(3):331–7. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s11676-010-0079-y. Shekhar MS, Chand H, Kumar S, Srinivasan K, Ganju A. Climate-change studies in the western Himalaya. Ann Glaciol. 2010;51(54):105–12. Singh VK, Ali ZA, Siddiqui MK. Folk medicinal plants of Garhwal and Kumaon forest of Uttar Pradesh, India. Hamdard Med. 1997;40:35–47. Sinha HN, Verniers J. First discovery of the chitinozoans Belonechitina capitata from the Shiala formation of northeastern Garhwal-Kumaon Tethys Himalaya, Pithoragarh District, Uttrakhand, India. Geosci Front. 2016;7:859–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2015.07.005. Sinha HN, Vandenbroucke TRA, Verniers J. First Ordovician chitinozoans from Indian Gondwana – new evidence from the Shiala formation. Rev Palaeobot Palynol. 2011;167(1–2):117–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.revpalbo.2011.07.006. Sorkhabi R. Geologic formation of the Himalaya. Himal J. 2010;66. Stearn WT. Allium and Milula in the central and eastern Himalaya. Bull Br Mus Nat Hist. 1961;2:161–91. Takhtajan A. Outline of the classification of flowering plants. Bot Rev. 1980;46:225–359. Thakur VC. Plate tectonic interpretation of the western Himalaya. Tectonophysics. 1987;134(1– 3):91–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/0040-1951(87)90251-4. Tiwari PC, Joshi B. Environmental changes and sustainable development of water resources in the Himalayan headwaters of India. Water Resour Manag. 2012;26:883–907. https://doi.org/10. 1007/s11269-011-9825-y. Uniyal SK, Awasthi A, Rawat GS. Current status and distribution of commercially exploited medicinal and aromatic plants in upper Gori valley, Kumaon Himalaya, Uttaranchal. Curr Sci. 2002;82(2):1246–52. Valdiya KS. Dynamic Himalaya. Hyderabad: Universities Press (India) Limited; 1998. Vishwakarma MP, Bhatt RP, Gairola S. Some medicinal mushrooms of Garhwal Himalaya, Uttarakhand, India. Int J Med Aromat Plants. 2011;1(1):33–40.

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Nepal, Bhutanese, and Tibetan Himalayas Ripu M. Kunwar, Bhishma P. Subedi, Sushim R. Baral, Tek Maraseni, Chris LeBoa, Yagya P. Adhikari, and Rainer W. Bussmann

The Nepal Himalaya Plant use in the Nepal Himalaya, recorded in the 6500-year-old text of the Rigveda, ranks among the earliest uses of medicinal plants (Malla and Shakya 1984). Another early account, the Saushrut Nighantu, is perhaps the oldest Nepali medicinal plant book, which was produced during the rule of the Great King Mandev in the fifth century, and records the uses of 278 Nepalese medicinal plants (Subedi and Tiwari R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal B. P. Subedi Asia Network for Sustainable Agriculture and Bioresources, Kathmandu, Nepal S. R. Baral Maijubahal-7 Chabahil 7, Kathmandu, Nepal T. Maraseni University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD, Australia Northwest Institute of Eco-Environment and Resources, Lanzhou, China C. LeBoa Department of Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA Y. P. Adhikari Department of Biogeography, BayCEER, University of Bayreuth, Bayreuth, Germany Department of Disturbance Ecology, BayCEER, University of Bayreuth, Bayreuth, Germany R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_5

65

66

R. M. Kunwar et al.

2000; Gewali and Awale 2008). Later compendia of herbal pharmacopoeias such as Chandra Nighantu and Nepali Nighantu published in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, respectively, described 750 plants and 971 articles (IUCN Nepal 2004). During 1802–1803, a French botanist Francis Buchanan-Hamilton who visited Nepal was the first foreigner to catalogue the useful plants of this country. Later the books Prodromus Florae Nepalensis by D. Don in 1825 and Tentamen Florae Nepalensis by N. Wallich were noteworthy in presenting the records of useful plants of Nepal. Due to its geographical location and the isolationist policies of its Rana rulers, Nepal remained inaccessible to much of the outside world and became known as a “land of mystery.” After the Anglo-Nepalese war (1814–1816), the government made slight concessions and allowed a few British botanists to visit Kathmandu, but the area remained mostly off limits to outsiders (Bhatt 1964). The inaccessibility of Nepal to foreigners was well versed by Hooker (1855) and Heim and Gansser (1939). The situation changed in 1950 when the Rana rule came to an end. While the collection of plants for different purposes dated back to centuries, the research on medicinal and food plants from eastern Nepal by ML Banerji in 1955 (Banerji 1955) was considered to be the first publication on Nepal’s ethnobotany. Since then, many researchers have studied the medicinal and edible wild plants of Nepal. The seminal early works on medicinal plants of Nepal come from BD Pandey (1964), PR Pande (1964), Devkota (1968), and Malla and Shakya (1984), while the paper by Singh (1968) on wild food plants was also influential to the field (Rajbhandary and Winkler 2015). There have been approximately 1000 ethnobotanical studies carried out in Nepal: mostly about medicinal plants. A review of 822 publications made between 1968 and 2014 done by Rajbhandary and Winkler (2015) revealed that 44% of published studies were associated with ethnomedicine and 23% with ethnobotany. Another review by Ghimire (2008) reported that 53% studies were related to inventory and use of medicinal plants. There are other review studies on ethnobotany in Nepal such as Rajbhandari (2001), Shrestha et al. (2004), and Kunwar and Bussmann (2008); however, none is attempted to analyze the spatial coverage of ethnobotanical studies in Nepal. Recently, a few accounts ventured into describing the ethnobotany at spatial scales. Kunwar et al. (2020) documented the ethnobotany of Paris polyphylla Sm. from 51 districts, and Charmakar et al. (2020) reported that of Valeriana jatamansi Jones from 55 districts out of 77 districts in Nepal. Medicinal plants have long been collected and used in Nepal and are mostly from the wild. There are a large number of policies on sustainable harvesting of medicinal plants, but they are not strictly implemented. As a result, many high-value medicinal plants, on which local livelihoods depend, are depleting. Sustainable management of medicinal plants with commercial potential and their effective integration in development plans is urgently needed to improve local livelihoods and the national economy. Similarly, studies focusing on applied and conservation ethnobotany are of urgent need, as most of the ethnobotanical studies carried out to date are traditional, only documenting the knowledge and inventory of the resources (Figs. 1 and 2).

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Nepal, Bhutanese, and Tibetan Himalayas

Fig. 1 Alpine ecosystem, Manang. (Photo Krishna R Bhattarai)

Fig. 2 Shey Phoksundo National Park, Dolpa, November, 2006. (Photo Ripu Kunwar)

67

68

R. M. Kunwar et al.

Physiography Nepal’s geological history has given rise to the country’s complex biogeography reinforced by its location at the crossroads of two biogeographic realms: Palearctic in the north and Paleotropic in the south (Udvardy 1975). It is a small landlocked country which lies along the slopes of the Himalayan mountain between China and India between 80° 040 –88° 120 E and 26° 220 –30° 270 N. Being laid at the lap of the lofty Himalayas, the country has the largest elevational gradient in the world (Li and Feng 2015), extending from tropical alluvial plains as low as 59 m above sea level (m asl) in the lowland Tarai to the world’s highest summit Mt. Everest (8848 m) in a distance of only 150–200 km (Hagen 1969). Thus, Nepal’s terrain is extremely complex with steep geographical gradients. Broadly, the country is divided into three longitudinal zones (East 80° 040 –83°, Central 83°–86°300 , and West 86°300 –88°120 ) (Stearn 1960). Vertically, there are distinct five eco-physiographical regions: the Himalayas (23% of total area and above 5000 m), High Mountains (20% of total area, between 3000 and 5000 m), the Middle Mountains (30% of total area, between 1000 and 3000 m), Siwalik Hills (12.8% of total area, between 500 and 1000 m asl), and the flat lowlands of Tarai (13.7% of total area, up to 500 m asl), representing nival, alpine, temperate, subtropical, and tropical bioclimate, respectively (Dobremez 1976; LRMP 1986; IUCN 2000). There are 71 mountains of over 6000 m in Nepal among which Mt. Everest, Mt. Kangchenjunga, Mt. Lhotse, and Mt. Makalu are the world’s first, third, fourth, and fifth highest peaks, respectively. You will behold the magnificent vista of these snow-capped mountains at the northern part of the country (Figs. 3 and 4).

Geo-ecology All the mountains within the nival zone, above 5000 m, are covered with perpetual snow and treeless vegetation and are characterized by Precambrian metamorphosed gneisses, mica schist, limestone, and shale of different ages (Pariyar 2008). This biome includes some dry inner-Himalayan valleys and arid plateaus in Mustang, Manang, and Dolpa districts (NBSAP 2014). There are over 400 plant species recorded from above 5000 m of the Everest region (Miehe 1989). The highest recorded flowering plant Ermania himalayensis (Cambess.) O.E. Schulz (Brassicaceae) is found at around 6000 m (Bhuju et al. 2007). Saussurea gnaphalodes (Royle ex DC.) Sch. Bip. (Asteraceae), Lepidostemon everestianus Al-Shehbaz (Brassicaceae), Arenaria bryophylla Fernald (Caryophyllaceae), and Androsace khumbuensis Dentant (Primulaceae) are found up to elevations of 6400 m on the northern and southern slopes of Mt. Everest (Dentant 2018), the highest recorded elevation of any living plants in the world. The High Mountains Zone (3000–5000 m) is characterized by biologically diverse summer grazing pastures ranging from luxuriant natural conifer and mixed forests in some locations (Aryal et al. 2014). The soils can be characterized by phyllite, schist, gneiss, and quartzite of different ages. The Middle Mountain (also known as Mid-Hills) is characterized by a great variety of terrain types and intensive

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Nepal, Bhutanese, and Tibetan Himalayas

Fig. 3 Physiographic map of Nepal. (Photo Bhagawat Rimal)

Fig. 4 Range of hills and mountains, taken from Bipyakatal, Baitadi. (Photo Ripu Kunwar)

69

70

R. M. Kunwar et al.

farming on hillside terraces between 1000 and 3000 m. This region has the greatest diversity of ecosystems and species in Nepal (BPP 1995). It covers 2.25 million hectares of forest, about 38% of the country’s total forest cover (DFRS 2015), and contains several fertile and densely populated valleys, including Kathmandu and Pokhara. It is a highly populated (38% of total population) region and borders the lowland Tarai (41%) (CBS 2011). The Siwalik zone, the southernmost Himalayan foothills, is characterized by steep hills of unstable geomorphology. These hills are primarily semi-consolidated tertiary sandstone, siltstone, shale, and conglomerate. The Siwalik is the youngest mountain range in the Himalayas (Dahal et al. 2010) and extends across four countries including Pakistan, India, Nepal, and Bhutan (Taral et al. 2018). In Nepal, the Siwalik spreads from east to west across 36 different districts and covers 12.78% of Nepal’s area, of which 72.56% are forests (DFRS 2015). A fossilized tooth of a Ramapithecus, an extinct group of primates, found in 1980 at the bank of Tinau river (Butwal), Siwalik Hills, dated as the second oldest in the world at 9.0–9.5 million years (Munthe et al. 1983), which connotes prehistoric habitation of the western Nepal (Pradhan 1998). A group of early settlers (Aryans) advanced into the western parts of Nepal in 1100 AD (Chaturvedi and Singh 1986) is considered one of the early accounts of human civilization and forest and plant exploitation in Nepal (Shrestha 2001; Kunwar et al. 2019) (Figs. 5 and 6). Lowland Tarai comprises of a narrow belt of fertile flat land with recent and post Pleistocene alluvial deposits (Carson et al. 1986) in the southernmost part of the country up to 500 m (NBSAP 2014). It is considered as a rice bowl of the country (Gauchan and Pandey 2011). The fertile alluvial lands in Tarai and riverbanks in the Mid-Hills are highly suitable for mixed farming of rice, millet, maize, wheat, as well as other cash crops and dairy products and different forest practices. Dense broadleaved Shorea robusta (Sal) forest and riverine Dalbergia sissoo-Acacia catechu forests support the lush biodiversity of the area and boast large number of charismatic animals including tiger (Panthera tigris), one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), etc. which are found only in South Asia and Southeast Asia (Jnawali et al. 2011) (Figs. 7 and 8).

Water Resources The Himalayas, also known as the “third pole” or the “water tower of Asia,” is the most glaciated area in the world outside of the Polar Regions, with vast stocks of fresh water in the forms of snow and ice. Nepal’s glaciers, snow, and ice-melt waters feed more than 6000 rivers including rivulets and tributaries across the country (WECS 2011). The major perennial river systems in Nepal are Mahakali, Karnali, Gandaki, and Koshi rivers, all of which originate from the Himalayas. All of Nepal’s rivers flow into the Ganges, a river of great cultural and religious significance and the most populous river basin in the world. These river systems contain water resources with tremendous potential for productive ecosystems, hydropower, and irrigation development. Nepal is rich in hydro-resources, with one of the highest per capita hydropower potentials in the world. The estimated theoretical power potential is

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Nepal, Bhutanese, and Tibetan Himalayas

71

Fig. 5 Churia-Siwalik Hills, youngest hills in the Himalayas, taken from Motahaldu, Dadeldhura. (Photo Ripu Kunwar)

Fig. 6 Women carrying Murraya koenigii (Asare) for processing, Baitada, Kanchanpur. (Photo Ripu Kunwar)

72

R. M. Kunwar et al.

Fig. 7 Endangered Ailurus fulgens (red panda) at Polangpati, Langtang National Park, Nepal. (Photo Hari P Sharma)

Fig. 8 Mussaenda macrophylla and butterfly, Pokhara-5, Kaski, Nepal. (Photo Mira Dhakal)

approximately 83,000 MW. However, the economically feasible potential has been evaluated at approximately 43,000 MW (Adhikari 2006). All these river systems harbor 42 globally threatened species (CSUWN 2009) with over 25% of the country’s total flora (Kunwar et al. 2015).

Climate Nepal exhibits a wide range of climatic conditions varying from tropical at southern lowland to alpine/arctic in the north due to its topographic extremes. The climate is predominantly influenced by three major factors: altitude, monsoon, and western disturbances (GoN 2014). The year in Nepal is characterized by four distinct seasons, namely, the pre-monsoon (March–May), monsoon

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Nepal, Bhutanese, and Tibetan Himalayas

73

(June–September), post-monsoon (October–November), and winter (December– February) (WECS 2011). Nepal receives average annual rainfall of around 1600 mm, but this number varies widely by region. The southern flanks of the Himalayas, such as Pokhara, receive the highest amount of rainfall (3345 mm), while the rain shadow areas of Dolpa and Mustang receive less than 10% of that amount (295 mm). Total annual rainfall increases with altitude up to approximately 3000 m and then diminishes at higher elevations (MoSTE 2014). The high-altitude regions of Nepal are most sensitive to climate change and have been warming the most quickly (WWF 2005). Climate vulnerability indices have shown that Nepal is one of the most climatevulnerable countries worldwide (Maplecroft 2011; Christensen et al. 2013; Kreft et al. 2015). According to Nepal Climate Vulnerability Study Team (NCVST), the mean annual temperatures could increase by a mean of 1.4 °C (with a range of 0.5 °C–2.0 °C) by the 2030s, rising to an increase of 4.7 °C (3.0 °C–6.3 °C) by the 2090s. Cities are warming faster than the surrounding outskirts (Baidya et al. 2007). In this same time period, precipitation levels are expected to change dramatically. Some reports posture that they may decline by 34% or rise by 22% by the 2030s, decline by 36% or rise by 67% by the 2060s, and decline by 43% or rise by 80% by the 2090s (NCVST 2009). It is also generally expected that there will be an increase in interannual variability in monsoon rainfall and an increase in the occurrence of extreme (or heavy) rainfall events (Christensen et al. 2013). Between 1990 and 2014, approximately 3.4 million Nepalese were affected by floods, droughts, and landslides (MoE 2010b). It is estimated that more than 1.9 million people are highly vulnerable to climate change, while 10 million are at increasing risk due to climate impacts (MoE 2010a). Mean annual temperatures and precipitation are expected to change in Nepal over the remainder of this century. The country is also vulnerable to seasonal foods, drought, and landslides (WECS 2011) and seismic and developmental disasters (Klein et al. 2019) (Figs. 9, 10, and 11).

Biodiversity Aided by diverse terrain and topography, Nepal’s variety of climatic conditions has spurred the evolution of unique flora, fauna, livelihoods, and cultures across the country. This cornucopia of endemic features aid in creating a diversity of rich and unique ecosystems and human-nature interactions (Maraseni et al. 2006). The country possesses about 0.1% of the Earth’s terrestrial land, but it harbors about 2% share of the world’s biodiversity and ranks 25th position in terms of species richness (Bhuju et al. 2007). The feature is associated with the dense tropical monsoon forests of the Tarai, deciduous and coniferous forests of the Mid-Hills and, and subalpine and alpine pastures and rugged/arid landscape of the Himalayan range. The rugged topography has created geographic isolation and numerous ecological niches to which different ethnic groups have adapted (Manzardo 1977) and high-value medicinal plants are refuged (Subedi 2006).

74

R. M. Kunwar et al.

Fig. 9 Drying chilis on house floor, Pahada, Dolpa, 1750 m. (Photo Ripu Kunwar)

Fig. 10 Local people harvesting buckwheat, Kagbeni, Mustang. (Photo Nipesh Dhaka Adhikari)

There are a large variety of forest types and different ecosystems across the different landscapes of Nepal (Dobremez 1976; Stainton 1972). This includes

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Nepal, Bhutanese, and Tibetan Himalayas

75

Fig. 11 Drying rice on house floor, Jhyari, Rara National Park, Mugu, 2800 m. (Photo Ripu Kunwar)

more than 10,630 plant and 3000 wildlife species living in 118 different ecosystem types, 75 vegetation types, and 35 forest types (NBSAP 2014). There are over 6500 species of flowering plants (Press et al. 2000; DPR 2001; Ghimire 2008; Kunwar et al. 2010; MoFSC 2014; Shrestha and Bajracharya 2019; Shrestha 2020) including over 2300 useful and medicinal plant species (Baral and Kurmi 2006; Rokaya et al. 2010; Kunwar et al. 2018). Useful plants along with non-timber forest products (NTFPs) from Nepal have a total export value of over US$ 700 million annually and account for 11% of the country’s total exports (DPR 2001). This number is only 40– 50% of the NTFPs harvested, since approximately the same amount is either consumed within households or sold in local markets without ever being recorded. Of 312 endemic flowering plants in Nepal (Rajbhandari and Rai 2017), about 63% are from the high mountains, and 38% are from the Mid-Hills (Press et al. 2000). Indicator species such as the Indian horse chestnut (Aesculus indica (Wall. ex Cambess.) Hook.) and Deodar cedar (Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D. Don) G. Don) are predominantly found in the west, while broad-leaved evergreen (Castanopsis hystrix Miq.) and the Sikkim larch (Larix griffithiana) are predominantly found in eastern and central Nepal (Bhuju et al. 2007). The plant family with the largest number of species are Orchidaceae (450 species) followed by Asteraceae (395 species), Poaceae (366 species), Fabaceae (304 species), and Cyperaceae (191 species)

76

R. M. Kunwar et al.

Fig. 12 Paris polyphylla (Satuwa) flower bud, Daman, Makawanpur. (Photo Giridhar Amatya)

(Miehe et al. 2015). Medicinal plants are an integral part of indigenous medical systems and livelihoods and have long been collected, consumed, and conserved by indigenous populations, leading to a wealth of accumulated indigenous knowledge (Singh et al. 1979) (Figs. 12, 13, and 14).

Population, Ethnicity, and Religion Nepal is inhabited by 30 million people and has an annual growth rate of 1.32% per year between 2001 and 2011. Socioculturally, the country has over 125 ethnic groups and castes, including Chepang, Raute, etc., and 123 languages (CBS 2012). The Raute are the last nomadic people of Nepal (Fortier 2009). Nepali language, derived from Sanskrit, is the national and official language of the country. Over 80% of Nepalese are Hindus and about 10% are Buddhists. Hindu mythology considers the Himalayas to be the home of the gods. Three principal Hindu deities, Brahma (the creator), Vishnu (the caretaker), and Shiva (the destroyer), are worshipped equally. Pashupatinath, a large Shiva temple in Kathmandu, is one of the holiest sites in Nepal and attracts Hindu pilgrims all over the world. Similarly, being the birthplace of Lord Buddha, Nepal is an international pilgrimage site to the Buddhist all over the world. Buddhists visit Lumbini – the birthplace located some 300 km south west of Kathmandu. Hindus consider Buddha as one of the incarnations of Lord Vishnu and worship him.

Socioeconomy About 70% of the population lives in rural, mountainous areas and the Mid-Hills region; both zones characterized with a fragile and remote physiography and low

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Nepal, Bhutanese, and Tibetan Himalayas

77

Fig. 13 Mucuna pruriens (Kauso) pods, Parigaon, Kanchanpur. (Photo Prem Budha and Ripu Kunwar)

Fig. 14 Debregeasia salicifolia (Tusare) fruits, Chatiwon, Doti. (Photo Giridhar Amatya)

economic productivity (Abington 1992; CBS 2011). Limited access foments the regional disparities in development and discrepancies in income and education between rural and urban area. Nepal’s Human Development Index (0.579) and Gender Inequality Index put the country in the medium human development category (UNDP 2019). The Government of Nepal put forward an ambitious goal of graduating from the least developed country (LDC) status by 2022 (GoN 2013) (Figs. 15, 16, 17, and 18). Nepal’s economy, strongly backed up by agriculture and remittances from working abroad, is growing but varies greatly year to year (GoN 2014). The economy is

78

R. M. Kunwar et al.

also dependent on the use of natural resources, including farmed areas, pastures, and forests. Agriculture including forestry and fishery remains the country’s principal economic activity. Majority of the population are subsistence farmers and grow paddy, wheat, maize, millet, barley, vegetables, and potato. Rice and wheat are the two main crops grown in the Tarai region along with other cash crops such as sugarcane, jute, cotton, and mangoes. Animals such as cow, buffalo, and goats are reared by most of the households, while some households also keep chickens and pigs (Figs. 19, 20, 21, and 22). At higher altitudes, agro-pastoralism prevails and yaks and sheep are reared, and the number a person owns symbolizes their family’s wealth. Moreover, the mountains and rivers of the Himalayas are valued as sacred sites, and the alpine meadows, pastures, and forests are treasured for transhumance, livestock grazing, and collecting of high-value medicinal plants like Himalayan caterpillar fungus, Ophiocordyceps sinensis (Berk.) G.H. Sung; Himalayan yew, Taxus contorta Griff.; and love apple, Paris polyphylla Sm. (Kunwar et al. 2020). Many of the plants are collected and used for cultural practices, livelihood and primary health care under theoretical and practical traditional knowledge, and mores and beliefs of surrounding health, illness, and sociocultural values and because of limited access to other healthcare options (Kunwar et al. 2013). Plants collected for socioeconomic gain, cultural heritage, and drug development (Farnsworth and Morris 1976), are now been threatened due to local peoples’ changing perceptions (Bhattarai 1992; Fig. 15 Buddhist flag at Swayambhu, Kathmandu. (Photo Yagya Adhikari)

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Nepal, Bhutanese, and Tibetan Himalayas

79

Fig. 16 A woman in traditional attire, Sundamunda village, Khar, Darchula. (Photo Yadav Uprety)

Fig. 17 Women collecting hey grass during famine in winter, Dhap, Darchula. (Photo Ripu Kunwar)

80

R. M. Kunwar et al.

Fig. 18 Nomadic Raute tribe, Khanikhola, Dailekh. (Photo Nipesh Dhaka Adhikari)

Fig. 19 Terrace cultivation, Nayagaun, Kavre, with mountain range of Mt. Gaurishankar and Jugal. (Photo Bijaya Khadka)

Bussmann and Sharon 2006; Byg et al. 2010). Some medicinal plants are severely threatened, as changing climatic gradients, land-use patterns, and socioeconomic and cultural changes force plant species to either adapt, move, or perish (Parmesan and Yohe 2002; Alves and Rosa 2007; Cameron 2010) (Figs. 23 and 24).

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Nepal, Bhutanese, and Tibetan Himalayas

81

Fig. 20 Agroforestry and primitive round house, Astam, Kaski. (Photo Ripu Kunwar)

Fig. 21 A rural village livelihood in the Mid-Hills, Gurja Khani, Myagdi. (Photo Ripu Kunwar)

82

R. M. Kunwar et al.

Fig. 22 Transhumance and pastoral life, Budhi, Darchula. (Photo Ripu Kunwar)

Forest exploitation was severe before the 1970s (Robbe 1954; Ekholm 1975) because the government forests were considered open commodity and harvesting of NTFPs and medicinal plants was free or could be done with the payment of a nominal fee (Chaudhary et al. 2017). Forest management structures such as community forests, beginning in late 1970s, and local (indigenous) participatory forest management initiatives are meant to control the degradation of government-managed forests, but the loss has remained substantial (Kunwar et al. 2019). As a result, the country is successful in restoring forests that cover about 43% of the land area (DFRS 2015). The community forestry in Nepal has often been hailed and reported as one of the successful forestry programs in South Asia (Karki et al. 2017). Community forestry covers 40% of the total forest cover of the country, providing immediate goods and services to marginalized and disadvantaged communities of rural and remote areas of the country (Bhattarai et al. 2019). In its Master Plan of Forestry Sector, Nepal has identified 61% of the total forests of the country that have potential for community forestry and provide the possibility for rural communities to be engaged in NTFP-based enterprise activities while maintaining the overall forest health for generations to come (Subedi and Tiwari 2000). However, these forests are coming under existential threats from invasive species and changing land-use patterns and climate change (Figs. 25 and 26).

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Nepal, Bhutanese, and Tibetan Himalayas

83

Fig. 23 Mule train transporting goods, Rara National Park, Mugu, April 2011. (Photo Ramesh Basnet)

Fig. 24 Sky islands, the mountain at foreground is a reservoir of medicinal plants, Hilsa, Humla, 3200 m. (Photo Dipesh Pyakurel)

84

R. M. Kunwar et al.

Fig. 25 Schima-Castanopsis forest, Godawari, Lalitpur. (Photo Yagya Adhikari)

Way Forward There are few studies that explore the opportunities generated by ethnobotany to aid in cultivating sustainable use of forest resources and complement local livelihoods and the national economy. This book, Mountain Ethnobotany in Nepal, is a co-created project among botanists, foresters, environmentalists, naturalists, and pharmacists of Nepal and abroad to share opportunities and knowledge that will contribute to the advancement of sustainable conservation and development in the country. We hope policy-makers will become increasingly aware of the critical role of traditional knowledge, ethnobotany, and medicinal plants of Nepal can play in building the resilience and adaptive capacities of the country’s population and economy against the challenges of climate change, socio-acculturation, and landuse change. Understanding the function of mountain ethnobotany and appreciating its important services will enhance our ability to guide policies on conservation and sustainable management of flora resources. This communication will hopefully strengthen the network of botanists, foresters, ethnobiologists, environmentalists, anthropologists, forest managers, and cultural heritage policy-makers working to developing strategies that might lead in the future to increased recognition, preservation, and renewal of traditional practices in Nepal. And we hope it will help you, the reader, better appreciate the scope of ethnobotany and its role in the conservation of ecosystems through the harmony of human-nature interactions.

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Nepal, Bhutanese, and Tibetan Himalayas

85

Fig. 26 Rhododendron-Quercus forest, Sigas, Baitadi. (Photo Ripu Kunwar)

The Eastern Himalaya: Bhutan and Tibet Of the 34 biodiversity hotspots in the world, the Eastern Himalayan range is one of the richest with nearly 750,000 sq. km area covering Nepal, Bhutan, the Indian states of West Bengal, Sikkim, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh, southeast Tibet (China), and northern Myanmar. The region is in the limelight as a part of crisis ecoregions, biodiversity hotspots, endemic bird areas, megadiverse countries, and the Global 200 Ecoregions. This area is geologically young and shows high altitudinal variation resulting in the formation of the tallest alluvial grasslands among the world and subtropical broadleaf forest in the foothills to temperate broadleaf forest in the Mid-Hills, conifer forest in the higher hills, and alpine meadows above the tree line. The Indo-Burma hotspot itself is home to 7000 endemic plants and has 1.9% of the world’s total endemic vertebrates. More than 7000 plants species have been recorded from the region, which alone consists of many endemic and endangered flora and fauna (Banerjee and Bandopadhyay 2016) (Fig. 27). During the Quaternary period, the Tibetan Plateau underwent the greatest changes of any region in the world. Since the Neogene, a series of enormous and drastic geologic and climatic events has occurred. The Indian plate collided with the Eurasian plate; the highest mountain and plateau region in the world arose from the ancient sea, the Tethys Sea, which was forced far to the west; atmospheric circulations changed their routes, and some new systems were formed; and mountain glaciers progressed and withdrew repeatedly. As a result of these changes,

86

R. M. Kunwar et al.

Fig. 27 Main Central-Eastern Himalayan Range with Mt. Everest. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

large-scale movement and exchange took place in the floras and vegetations on the Plateau. After passing through this period of harsh natural selection and evolution, some of the specialized young plateau vegetation types emerged, for instance, the high-cold desert, steppe, and meadow. But there remain some ancient forest vegetation types which have been reestablished somewhat to the south. In particular, the vegetational gradient or zonal system now peculiar to the Plateau developed (Chang 1981).

Climate The climate of the Eastern Himalaya is extremely diverse. This variation in climatic conditions and average temperature is maintained by two main factors – the vast differences in altitude and influence of the North Indian monsoons. Mountain peaks are permafrost, and lower valley regions are cool in summer owing to the highaltitude terrain. In the far northern part of the kingdom, the weather is cold during winter. In the central areas of the country, the climate is cooler, changing to deciduous and temperate forests with warm summers and cool, dry winters. While the Tibetan Plateau and the peak regions are cool to cold, southern Bhutan has a hot, humid, subtropical climate, static the whole year. The Indian summer monsoon stays from late June to late September and is mostly limited to the southern border areas of Bhutan, resulting in heavy rain and high humidity in the region. They bring 60–90% of total rainfall of the western region. Annual precipitation varies extensively in different areas of the country. The northern border area and Tibet get about 40 mm of precipitation per year, which is mainly snow. In the temperate central regions, a yearly average of 1000 mm precipitation occurs, whereas 7800 mm/year

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Nepal, Bhutanese, and Tibetan Himalayas

87

precipitation is registered in the humid, subtropical south, resulting in thick tropical forests and savannas (Banerjee and Bandopadhyay 2016). The latitudinal differences in solar radiation and temperature are basic determinants of the plateau vegetation zones in Tibet. Although the enormous height of the Plateau may tend to diminish the latitudinal temperature differences, the relief (which is higher in the northwest and lower in the southeast) compounds the effects of the latitudinal gradient of heat. Therefore, on the southern slope, there are tropical and subtropical mountain forests; in the central part, mesothermal steppe and desert vegetation prevail; and there are high-cold steppes and deserts in the north. The main ridge of the Great Himalaya provides the northern limit of tropical mountains. In the east, the Himalayas extends to 29° north latitude. This is almost the northernmost limit of the tropical zone on earth. The extensive mountains, which protect the area to the south from cold air masses that move across interior Asia, permit this northward extension of the Tropics. The limit between mesothermal and high-cold climate or vegetation corresponds approximately to the mean July isotherm of 9 °C in the west and 11 °C in the east. South of this limit on the Plateau, or in the mountains below it, temperate vegetation occurs in mesothermal or mesomicrothermal forest, steppe, or desert. North of this limit on the Plateau, or above it on the mountains, the vegetation changes to alpine meadow, low scrub, high-cold steppe, or desert types. However, moisture affects the plateau vegetation even more strongly than temperature. Precipitation decreases from southeast to northwest and provides a moisture gradient from humid and subhumid to semiarid and arid corresponding to a vegetational gradation from forest and meadow to steppe and desert. The gradients of temperature and precipitation interact to form seven plateau vegetation zones, of which five are plateau zones. These are the humidhot tropical montane forest zone on the southern slope of the Himalayas, the moist-warm subtropical montane forest zone in southeastern Tibet, the moist-cryophilic highcold meadow and low scrub of eastern Tibet and western Sichuan, the arid mesothermal montane steppe and shrubland zones in the Tsangpo River Valley of southern Tibet, the arid and cryophilic high-cold steppe zone of Chiangtang (northern Tibet) and western Qinghai, the arid and mesothermal montane desert zone of western Ali, and the very arid and cryophilic high-cold desert zone of northwestern Tibet. Among these the boundary between the moist meadow and forest zones and the semiarid steppe zone corresponds approximately to the annual isohyet of 400 mm in the north and of 500 mm in the Tsangpo River Valley. The aridity index at this limit is about 1.0. The limit between the semiarid steppe zone and very arid desert zone corresponds approximately to the 100 mm isohyet and an aridity index of 3.5. The particular features of the atmospheric circulation above the Plateau have a major effect on these climatic conditions. With the uplift of the mountains during the Quaternary, the Tibetan Plateau became a “hot island” in the troposphere, impeding atmospheric circulations and bringing about significant changes in climate and vegetation both on the Plateau and in surrounding areas. The uplift disrupted the planetary wind system resulting from the Earth’s rotation and changed atmospheric circulation resulting from the temperature effects caused by the heating of the

88

R. M. Kunwar et al.

Plateau. Anomalous patterns thus caused are the Tibetan Highland which forms at high elevations on the Plateau; the Mongolian-Siberian anticyclone, which develops to the north in the winter; and the summer Southwest Monsoon in the south. The climate of the Plateau, then, is largely controlled by a strong high-pressure center with continental climate characteristics. It is also strongly influenced by two other major circulations: the tropical maritime Southwest Monsoon coming from the Indian Ocean which drenches the southeastern part of Tibet in the summer but rapidly weakens toward the inner reaches of the Plateau and the westerlies which control the climate of the Plateau during the winter (Chang 1981). The southeastern mountains of Tibet, including the southern slopes of the Eastern Himalaya and the southern part of the Traverse Mountain Ranges (Hengduan Mountains), face the humid Southwest Monsoon in summer and receive abundant rainfall. Even in winter, there is a warm and moist region of convergence with low pressure and high precipitation. Due to the protection afforded by the northern mountains and the Plateau, the influences of the dry west wind and northern cold current are minimal. The humid Southwest Monsoon may extend along valleys of the Tsangpo River and the Three Rivers (Nu, Lancang, and Jinsha) into the southeastern part of the Plateau. Luxuriant montane forest vegetation grows in those parts of Tibet which are influenced by the humid maritime monsoon. Forest vegetation occurs in peripheral valleys and on the southern slopes of the Plateau, but it is never found on the level of the Plateau itself with its cold continental climate (Chang 1981).

Ecoregions The Eastern Himalaya is among the 234 globally outstanding ecoregions of the world, according to a comprehensive analysis of global biodiversity by the World Wildlife Fund. Bhutan is also an exclusive biodiversity hotspot in the world where forest coverage has increased to 72% of the country’s total area. It has six major agro-ecological zones equivalent to certain altitudinal ranges and climatic environments: alpine, cool temperate, warm temperate, dry subtropical, humid subtropical, and wet subtropical. The country is gifted with large forest coverage of 70.46% of the total land area. Bhutan is also unique for its conservation policy and its varied altitudinal and climatic range. The country can be broadly divided into the following three zones: (i) alpine zone (4000 m and above, Fig. 28) with no forest cover, (ii) temperate zone (2000–4000 m) with conifer or broadleaf forests (Figs. 29 and 30), and (iii) subtropical zone (150–2000 m) with tropical/subtropical environment. The forest types include fir, mixed conifer, blue pine forest, chir pine, broadleaf with conifer, highland hardwood, lowland hardwood, and tropical lowland forests (Banerjee and Bandopadhyay 2016) (Figs. 28, 29, and 30). The vegetation of the Tibetan Plateau also cannot be considered to belong to the mountain vertical zonal vegetation. The Plateau vegetation shows the following characteristics in zonation, ecological conditions, and vegetation physiognomies which are very different from the general mountain vegetation. The vegetation

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Nepal, Bhutanese, and Tibetan Himalayas

89

Fig. 28 Alpine lake, Nepal. (Photo R.E. Hart)

Fig. 29 Coniferous forest zone, Bumthang, Bhutan. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

zones on the mountains surrounding the Plateau fit into the mountain vertical zonal scheme, yet the main zonal differences in the vegetation on the Plateau are not caused by differences in elevation but by horizontal gradients in moisture and temperature conditions. Nevertheless, the altitudinal variations do introduce further

90

R. M. Kunwar et al.

Fig. 30 Over-aged coniferous forest, Bhutan. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

modifications. The widths of the vegetation zones on the Plateau are much greater than those of mountain vegetation zones. Mountain vertical vegetation zones are known for their narrow width, rapid transition, extensive fragmentation, and complex interdigitation of their vegetation types. These characteristics are due to the complex relief of mountains. The vegetation zones on the Plateau are horizontally extensive; they are usually several hundred kilometers wide. They also have more internal continuity and uniformity and more gradual transitions than mountain vegetation zones. In these respects, at least, the zonation of plateau vegetation is similar to the usual horizontal lowland vegetational zonation (Chang 1981).

Vegetation and Flora The region includes the mountain forests along the southeastern periphery of Tibet and the southern slopes of the Himalayas. To the east, it contacts the subtropical montane forests in western Sichuan and northern Yunnan. To the west, it connects with the tropical montane forests of Bhutan, Sikkim, Nepal, and western India on the southern slopes of the Himalayas. Wherever there are high mountains and gorges in the area, they are watered by the Southwest Monsoon. The major components of the vegetation are the Indo-Malayan floral element and the Sino-Himalayan floral element of Eastern Asia. If the main ridge of the Himalayas is viewed as a limit between tropical and subtropical zones, then this region may be divided into two montane forest zones (Chang 1981).

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Nepal, Bhutanese, and Tibetan Himalayas

91

Tropical Montane Forest Zone of the Himalayan Southern Slope The southern slope of the Eastern Himalaya faces the Southwest Monsoon and receives abundant rainfall. Its annual rainfall generally exceeds 2500 mm. The mean annual temperature on the lower mountains exceeds 20 °C. Although there is a relatively dry season of 2–3 months (during which monthly rainfall is less than 100 mm), the area is always fog-bound in these months which keeps the air moist. The range in elevation in this narrow area is more than 7000 m (from 200 to 7765 m). Consequently, one of the most complex and perfect systems of mountain vertical vegetation zones on earth has developed on its slopes, with tropical montane rain forest in the basal zone. The vertical vegetation zonal spectrum is as follows. The tropical lower montane rain forest and semievergreen forest zone includes the lower mountains and hills, below 1100 m, in the Eastern Himalaya. The luxuriant tropical rain forest in the valleys consists mainly of Dipterocarpus turbinatus, Mesua ferrea, Canarium resiniferum, Artocarpus chaplasha, Tetrameles nudiflora, Dillenia indica, and Talauma phelocarpa. Most of these are evergreen trees belonging to the Indo-Malayan floral element. Some of them have prominent tropical characteristics such as plank buttresses on roots and cauliflory. Lianas (Dendrocalamus hamiltonii, Calamus spp.) and epiphytes are abundant in these forests. Usually Bambusa pallida is found in the understory, and Pandanus furcatus is present in gaps. On the slopes of the lower mountains, 600–1000 m, there are tropical montane semi-evergreen forests mainly consisting of semi-deciduous gigantic trees, such as Dysoxylum gobara, Terminalia myriocarpa, and Altingia excelsa, and luxuriant lower tropical evergreen trees (e.g., Beilschmiedia, Cinnamomum). Lianas and epiphytes are also abundant (Chang 1981). The montane evergreen broadleaf forest zone lies at elevations between 1100 and 2200 m and can be divided into upper and lower parts. The lower subzone is dominated by Castanopsis hystrix and C. indica and is mixed with many tropical evergreen broadleaf trees, such as Machilus, Machilia, Cinnamomum, and Phoebe, belonging to the Lauraceae, and Magnolia, Engelhardtia spicata, and Schima wallichii. The forests of the upper subzone consist mainly of Quercus lamellosa, Quercus glauca var. gracilis, and Lithocarpus xylocarpus. In addition to some further species of evergreen broadleaf trees, deciduous trees are increasingly common. These include Acer spp., Alnus nepalensis, Mallotus nepalensis, Carpinus viminea, and the arborescent Rhododendron. The zone of the montane evergreen broadleaf forest is very humid, with annual rainfall that may exceed 3000 mm. Trunks of trees and the ground are often fully covered by thick mosses. It can be called a “mossy forest,” but it differs from the low “elfin” forests and the mossy forests in other tropical mountains in its much taller trees (Chang 1981). The montane mixed coniferous and broadleaf forest zone is between 2200 and 2800 m and is dominated by Tsuga dumosa, which sometimes mixes with Quercus pachyphylla and Quercus lamellosa to form mixed evergreens, coniferous, and broadleaf forests. Also present are Taxus baccata, Magnolia campbellii, Acer campbellii, Acer pectinatum, and Rhododendron spp. Arundinaria griffithii often is present in the understory, and ferns are very abundant in ground herbaceous layers (Fig. 27).

92

R. M. Kunwar et al.

The upper montane dark coniferous forest is located between 2800 and 3600 (up to 3900) m. The climate is wet, cold, and always foggy. The vegetation is dominated by Abies delavayi var. motuoensis and has a large amount of Rhododendron spp. and Sinarundinaria as understory. Larix griffithii often is present on open ground and Betula utilis “krummholz” at the upper forest line. The subalpine Rhododendron shrubland and meadow zone is situated between 3600 (3900) and 4000 (4200) m and transition from forests to the alpine zone. The luxuriant subalpine shrubland consists especially of Rhododendron campanulatum, Rhododendron barbatum, Rhododendron lepidotum, and others, with deciduous shrubs such as Salix, Rosa, Cotoneaster, Viburnum, and Lonicera, and interspersed luxuriant forb meadows (Chang 1981). The alpine scrub and meadow zone is between 4000 (4200) and 4600 m. The alpine dense scrub consists of lower Rhododendron setosum and Rhododendron nivale. The alpine meadow contains abundant species of colorful forbs. Most of them belong to the Sino-Himalayan floral element. Because the seasonal changes are great, and in the winter there is a thick snow deposit on the alpine zone of the Himalayas, the alpine vegetation there does not have tropical characteristics and belongs to subtropical or temperate types. West of Bhutan, the climate of the Himalayas becomes progressively drier, and there is a well-developed arid season. The tropical monsoon forest consists of deciduous Shorea robusta instead of the tropical rain forest on the lower hills. In the upper montane coniferous zone, the more drought-resistant Picea smithiana and Larix griffithii occur. In the alpine zone, the eastern Himalayan forb meadow is replaced by a Kobresia meadow (Chang 1981).

Subtropical Montane Coniferous Forest Zone of Southeastern Tibet The zone includes mountains and valleys along the middle reaches of the Tsangpo (Brahmaputra) River, its tributaries (Niyan, Yegongqu, and Polong-Tsangpo), and three eastern rivers (Nu, Lancang, and Jinsha). These rivers cut deeply into the southeastern part of the Plateau. The humid Southwest Monsoon passes through their valleys and penetrates into this corner of the Plateau. The dense forest vegetation is distributed correspondingly on the valley slopes. The rainfall is obviously less than that on the southern slopes of the Himalayas, varying between 500 and 1000 mm. Northward along the upper rivers onto the inner part of the Plateau, the forest vegetation becomes sparse and vanishes as a consequence of decreasing moisture. The lowest elevation in this area is above 2000 m, and the basic topography is of mountains and valleys (the Plateau has been strongly eroded, and only fragments of the original surface remain). The vegetation belongs to the montane vertical-zoned types. Subtropical evergreen broadleaf forests, which are distributed widely along the eastern periphery of the Plateau (Western Sichuan and Northern Yunnan), occur in only a very limited region in Tibet: the Tongmai Valley to the north of the great curvature of the Tsangpo River which is reached by humid and hot air currents and supports subtropical evergreen broadleaf forests between 2000 and 2500 m. These

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Nepal, Bhutanese, and Tibetan Himalayas

93

forests consist mainly of oaks (Quercus incana and Quercus gilliana) and contain abundant subtropical Eastern Asian floral elements. Because the elevation of most valleys in this region exceeds 2500 m, the subtropical broadleaf zone usually is not present here (Chang 1981). From 2500 to 3200 m, there is a lower montane mixed coniferous and broadleaf forest zone or coniferous forest zone. On southern slopes, it is composed of forests of Pinus densa, Quercus aquifolioides, or mixed forest of both species. Forests of Pinus armandii exist where it is more humid. On northern slopes, forests composed mainly of Picea balfouriana (in the eastern part) or Picea likiangensis var. linzhiensis (in the western part) extend from 2500 to 3200 m. Usually this is the basic subzone of the upper montane dark coniferous forest zone. The biomass of this spruce forest is immense. The height of trees may be more than 60 m, and the timber volume can reach over 1500 m3/ha. Under spruce forest canopies, there is abundant undergrowth: Enkianthus deflexus, Lindera cercidifolia, Litsea cubeba, Acer campbellii, Rhus succedanea, Deutzia corymbosa, Rhododendron spp., and Sinarundinaria spathiflora. The moss layer is very well developed (Chang 1981). From 3200 to 4000 m or somewhat higher, there is a dark-colored coniferous forest zone consisting of Abies delavayi (in the eastern part, Fig. 31) or Abies spectabilis (in the western part). The most common undergrowth species are Rhododendron houlstani, Rhododendron przewalskii, Sorbus spp., Rosa omeiensis, Lonicera succata, Deutzia corymbosa, and Sinarundinaria spathiflora. Most of these undergrowth and herb species in the coniferous forests belong to Eastern Asian floral elements (Sino-Himalayan element). Some boreal elements (Vaccinium spp., Bergenia, Chamaenerion angustifolium, Circaea alpina, Fragaria vesca, Polygonum viviparum, Thalictrum alpinum, especially, and some mosses) appear in the upper montane forest regions, and the subtropical evergreen broadleaf forest floral element dominates in the lower montane regions (Chang 1981) (Fig. 31). In the northern part of this forest region, the climate becomes drier and colder. In the upper part, particularly on southern slopes, the forests are often composed of Juniperus tibetica and Juniperus convallium. Their upper limits reach 4300 or even 4600 m. On the western edge of this region where the forest vegetation changes gradually to steppe, the humid dark coniferous forest zone disappears, and a sparse coniferous forest of Cupressus gigantea is present and merges into steppe vegetation (Chang 1981). The transitional alpine vegetation above treeline is low Rhododendron scrub (Rhododendron ramosissimum, Rhododendron nivale, Rhododendron anthopogon) on northern slopes and Cassiope fastigiata scrub on southern slopes. The alpine meadow which consists mainly of Kobresia angusta and Kobresia pygmaea occupies higher areas above the scrub vegetation. Some alpine herbs are often present in the meadow, among them Polygonum viviparum, Anaphalis nepalensis, Gentiana spp., Meconopsis horridula, Oxygraphis polypetala, and Thalictrum alpinum. In the hot and dry valleys of the Three Rivers, the coniferous forest vegetation is distributed only on upper slopes, whereas the valley bottoms are occupied by xeric thorny scrub which consists mainly of Sophora vicinijolia and Elsholtzia capituligera, sometimes with cacti (introduced Opuntia) (Chang 1981).

94

R. M. Kunwar et al.

Fig. 31 Mixed Abies-Rhododendron forest, Yunnan, China. (Photo R.E. Hart)

The High-Cold Vegetation Region The extensive plateau between the Himalayan and Kunlun Mountain ranges has relatively low mountains, platform plateaus, and lake and valley basins. The elevation of the main plateau level is about 500 m in the southeast and over 5000 m in the northwest. Some valleys in the south may extend down to approximately 3000 m. The Plateau is controlled by the Westerlies in the winter half of the year and has an arid, cold, and continental climate. From east to west, with increasing drought, the high-cold meadow, steppe, and desert vegetation occur in sequence. The flora of the eastern meadow zones is dominated by Tibetan endemic species and SinoHimalayan elements. The flora of the central and western steppe and desert zones is dominated by Central Asiatic (Tethys) elements and Tibetan endemic species (Chang 1981).

Naqu¨ (Eastern Tibet) High-Cold Meadow and Scrub Plateau Zone The elevation of the Plateau in eastern Tibet is approximately 4000–4500 m. Although the landscape is more eroded here than in western Tibet, it remains a prominent and relatively complete plateau plain. The climate is cold and somewhat moist. The annual mean temperature is between 3.0 °C and 0 °C. The mean temperature of the warmest month is 8–10 (12)°C and the frostless season from 20 to 100 days. The annual rainfall is 400–700 mm. There are thunderstorms with hailstones in the summer and relatively abundant snow accumulation in the winter

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Nepal, Bhutanese, and Tibetan Himalayas

95

and spring. Judged by its vertical zones, vegetation of this Plateau zone seems much like an extension of the upper part of the preceding mountain forest zonation onto the Plateau. In the valleys of its southeastern part, fragmentary coniferous forests persist. On the Plateau proper, there is extensive high-cold meadow which consists mainly of low-growing Kobresia pygmaea and Kobresia humilis, usually associated with Polygonum sphaerostachyum and other forbs, including Thalictrum alpinum, Anaphalis xylorrhiza, Leontopodium pusillum, Carex atrata var. glacialis, Meconopsis horridula, Polygonum viviparum, Potentilla stenophylla, Pedicularis, and Gentiana, and cushion plants such as Arenaria musciformis and Androsace tapete. High-cold evergreen sclerophyllous scrubs, composed of microphyllous Rhododendron cephalanthus and Rhododendron setosum on northern slopes, and deciduous shrubs of Salix spp., Potentilla fruticosa, and Caragana jubata in valleys or on southern slopes are always found in conjunction with the high-cold meadow. In level areas and swampy valleys, there occur high-cold swampy meadows with a mound-like growth form of Kobresia littledalei. Westward, as the climate becomes drier, the importance of mesic forbs decreases gradually, leaving almost pure Kobresia meadow. Finally, some steppe species appear in the community, and the Rhododendron scrub disappears to be replaced by Juniperus spp. on the inner Plateau (Chang 1981). The high-cold Kobresia meadows differ in floristic composition, community structure, and other ecological features from the humid dicotyledonous alpine meadows of the Alps or other moist-temperate mountains and the alpine tundra of higher latitudes. This vegetation is referred to as Tibetan high-cold meadow. It has evolved under drier and harsher high mountain and plateau conditions with continental climates. By its ecological features and phytogeographic situation, Kobresia meadows appear to be a transitional or intermediate type between cryo-mesic alpine meadow and cryo-xeric high-cold steppe. They develop a compact tussock physiognomy and have a series of typical mesic meadow species, but its dominant, Kobresia, has xeromorphic characteristics and contains some xeric steppe species. In fact, the Kobresia meadow zone is situated between the humid alpine meadow and mountain forest vegetation zone in the east and the arid high-cold steppe plateau zone in the west. The range of Kobresia meadow is mainly the Tibetan Plateau and its surrounding mountain regions such as the Pamir, Kunlun, Tian Shan, Qilian, Altai, Hangai, and Traverse Mountains, northward to the Ural and Caucasus. Most species of Kobresia belong to SinoHimalayan elements endemic to Tibet and Central Asia (Chang 1981).

Tsangpo (Upper Brahmaputra) Valley Xeric Shrubland and Steppe Plateau Zone The Tsangpo Valley, located between the northern piedmont of the Himalayas and Nyenchen Tanglha and Gangdisi Mountains, is a subduction zone at the margin of two continental plates. It extends east-west through the south section of the Plateau. Its altitude increases westward from 3500 m to 4500 m. Because of the rain shadow

96

R. M. Kunwar et al.

effect of the Himalayas, annual precipitation is generally between 300 and 500 mm and decreases gradually. Above about 4400 m, the slope vegetation changes from mesothermal steppe to high-cold steppe which is dominated by Stipa purpurea. The shrubland vegetation of Potentilla fruticosa, Lonicera tibetica (in the east), and Caragana versicolor (in the west) occurs widely in this range in conjunction with the steppe communities. On the southern slopes of the Gangdisi and Nyenchen Tanglha ranges, there are extensive Juniperus shrubland communities in the steppe zone (Chang 1981). From 4600 to 5400 m in the east and 5000 to 5600 m in the west, the mountains and plateaus are occupied by high-cold meadow and cushion plant vegetation. These are composed mainly of Kobresia pygmaea and the cushion plants Arenaria musciformis, Androsace tapete, and Oxytropis chiliophylla. The Kobresia meadow usually occupies relatively flat or gentle, stable slopes with rather well-developed soil. On the steep or rocky slopes, there is sparse cushion plant vegetation. The latter extends down into the lower steppe zone and forms a special cushion plantsteppe vegetation type there (Chang 1981). Above 5400 (5600) m and to approximately 6000 m, there is a subnival zone where sparse alpine forbs (Saussurea, Saxifraga, Gentiana, Draba, Braya, Androsace, Potentilla) grow in rock fractures and on slopes of rock debris. The surfaces of rocks are covered with lichens (e.g., Rhizocarpon geographicum, Glypholecia scabra, Caloplaca elegans, Parmelia conspersa). The nival zone begins between 5800 and 6200 m. Along the western edge of the valley steppe region, in the Pulan Valley and the basin of Mafamutso and Langaktso lakes, the climate and vegetation tend toward desert. Mountain desert-steppe vegetation consisting of Stipa glareosa and Ceratoides latam occurs there and is characteristic of the transition from steppe plateau zone to desert plateau zone (Chang 1981).

Chiangtang (Northern Tibet) High-Cold Steppe Plateau Zone Chiangtang extends between the Gangdisi, Nyenchen Tanglha, and Kunlun ranges. It is a whole plate which uplifted at the end of the Tertiary and is a landform consisting of a plateau basin of gently undulating plains with abundant scattered lakes. The level of the plateau rises gradually from 4500 m in the south to 5200 m in the north. The climate is cold, arid, and quite windy. The mean annual temperature ranges between 2 °C and 0 °C; the mean temperature of the warmest month ranges between 6 °C and 10 (12)°C. During 6–7 months, the mean temperatures remain below 0 °C. The temperature is much lower northward, and continuous permafrost is widespread. The diurnal and annual temperature ranges are very high. The annual precipitation varies between 100 and 300 mm concentrated in the summer and decreasing from southeast to northwest (Chang 1981). The most extensive vegetation zone on the plateau is the steppe of Stipa purpurea, the center of distribution for which is the Chiangtang Plateau. The typical high-cold steppe community of purple feathergrass is rather sparse, with plant coverage never more than 20%. Usually there are some cushion plants (Arenaria

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Nepal, Bhutanese, and Tibetan Himalayas

97

musciformis, Androsace tapete, Thylacospermum rupifragum) in the community. On different parts of the Chiangtang Plateau, the high-cold steppe of purple feathergrass shows some prominent ecological differentiation. Along the east and southeast periphery of Chiangtang, there is a transitional section between the high-cold meadow zone and the highcold steppe zone. There, Kobresia pygmaea and some mesic forbs occur in the steppe communities, and the plant cover in general is somewhat more complete. Northward, since the altitude increases, the climate becomes colder and drier, and the vegetation gradually changes to high-cold desert; Carex moorcroftii becomes more important with increasing altitude. Finally, the high-cold desertsteppe of Carex moorcroftii and Ceratoides compacta is dominant in the northernmost part of Chiangtang. Conversely, in the southern part of Chiangtang, since the climate is a little warmer and moister, some mesothermal plant elements (e.g., Orinus thoroldii, Pennisetum flaccidum, Artemisia wellbyi, the shrub Caragana vmicolor) are present. Westward, as the climate becomes drier and warmer, in large lake basins are found steppes of Stipa glareosa (of the desertsteppe flora of Central Asia) and Stipa subsessiliflora var. basiplumosa. Here, the steppe vegetation is transitional toward desert. However, the plain and the lower mountains of the Plateau are still dominated by the steppe vegetation of purple feathergrass (Chang 1981).

Western Ali Mountain Desert Plateau Zone On the western edge of Tibet, between the northwestern Himalaya and Karakoram ranges, there is a series of mountains and valleys called the Ali region. The elevation of the valleys is 3000 m in the south and 4300 m in the north. This region experiences the driest climate in Tibet. The center of the summer thermal low of Tibet is located here, and this is also the hottest region on the Plateau. The July mean temperature is 15 °C but may be as low as 10 °C in the winter. The annual precipitation is no more than 50–75 mm. The aridity is in the range of 3.4–6, with a drought period of between 5 and 6 months during the growing season. Therefore, this region has a cold temperate steppe-desert or desert climate (Chang 1981). The plateau zonal vegetation is a desert community which consists of suffrutescent Ceratoides latens (Tethys flora), Ajania fruticulosa (Central Asiatic flora), and the endemic perennial Christoka crassifolia. The driest core of desert is in the Bangong Mountains and the Chiangchenmo Mountains which surround Bangong Tso and Spangul Tso in the northwestern part of the region. This is a region of rocky desert with almost no vegetation; there is only a very sparse growth of Ceratoides latens. Above 4500 m, some feathergrasses (Stipa glareosa, Stipa subsessiliflora, Stipa breviflora) enter the desert community with Ceratoides latens, changing the vegetation to steppe-desert, and this community extends up to 5200 m on Mount Chiangchenmo. This may be the world’s highest desert. In south Ali, the climate is a little more humid. The Shiquanhe (lndus) River Valley, Ge’erqu River Valley, Xiangquanhe (Sutlej) River Valley, and the surrounding lower mountains are occupied by mountain steppe-desert vegetation which consists mainly of Ceratoides

98

R. M. Kunwar et al.

latens, Ajania fruticulosa, Stipa glareosa, and some xeric shrubs (Ephedra gerardiana and Caragana versicolor). The desert community develops vigorously there because of relatively abundant snowfall in the winter and the spring. Some ephemeral plants (Tauscheria lasiocarpa, Koelpinia linearis) are present in the desert (Chang 1981). In the southwestern comer of Ali, where the Xiangquanhe Valley falls to 2900 m, the climate is warmer. Some Mediterranean subtropical elements, such as Colutea arborescens, are present there. The dominants of the desert vegetation are species with more Tethystic and Central Asiatic affinities such as Artemisia salsoloides, Artemisia sacrorum, Scorzonera, Ceratoides latens, Capparis spinosa, Kochia, Polygonum paronychioides, and Stipa stapfii. These reflect a change toward the subtropical desert in the Kashmir Valley. The vertical zonation of mountain vegetation in western Ali has a spectrum of desert types, too. The structure of the vertical zones is as follows: desert or steppe-desert zone (basic zone), giving way to steppe zone, giving way to high-cold cushion plant vegetation zone, finally yielding to the subnival zone (Chang 1981). The mountain steppe zone can be divided into two or three subzones. The lower one is a desert-steppe subzone, which is mainly composed of Stipa glareosa and Ceratoides latens, the former being the dominant. The intermediate subzone exists only in southern mountains of the area and is formed by the conjunction of mountain shrublands (consisting of Caragana versicolor) and steppe communities (the dominants are Stipa glareosa, Stipa breviflora, and Stipa purpurea). The upper subzone is a high-cold steppe subzone which consists of Stipa purpurea and Carex moorcroftii. North of about latitude 33° in Ali, the shrubland of Caragana versicolor disappears, leaving the steppe zone with only the two other subzones (Chang 1981). The high mountains of Ali usually lack alpine meadows except for some isolated patches under moist conditions. The typical high mountain vegetation there is of sparse cushion plants, mainly Arenaria musciformis and Thylacospermum caespitosum. The upper vegetation line reaches almost to 5600 or 5700 m. The upper limit of the agricultural cultivation is also very high. On the southern slopes of the Karakoram Range at latitude 34°, bare barley is grown to 4780 m and can be harvested in most years (Chang 1981).

Northwestern Tibetan High-Cold Desert Plateau Zone The northwestern part of the Chiangtang Plateau is located between the Kunlun and Karakoram ranges. The elevation of the Plateau and lake basins is over 5000 m. Here is the coldest and driest climate of the Plateau. The mean annual temperature is about 8 to 1 0 °C. There are 9–10 months in which the mean monthly temperature is lower than 0 °C, with no frostless season in the year. Even in the warmest part of the year, there are heavy frosts every night, and an extensive permafrost horizon generally exists there. The annual and diurnal temperature ranges are rather high. The mean annual precipitation is only 20–50 mm, all in frozen forms. Eastward, the precipitation is somewhat greater, about 100–150 mm. The wind is very strong and

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Nepal, Bhutanese, and Tibetan Himalayas

99

frequent (Chang 1981). Because of the extremely severe ecological conditions and the shorter history of vegetation development after the uplift of the Plateau, the vegetation is very sparse and rather poor in species. Usually one is presented with a vast expanse of plateau gravel or Gobi without plants or many bare rocky slopes and hilltops. The plateau zonal vegetation is sparse high-cold desert, which has evolved during the time since the Plateau was uplifted. It is composed of cryophytic-xeric cushion-like nano-suffruticose Ceratoides compacta. These plants exist on debris or gravel slopes and especially on vast ancient lake plains formed by lake sediments. The soil contains high concentrations of salt and has permafrost. The salt in the soil may be due to the evaporation of an ancient salt lake, coupled with the low precipitation which causes continual salt accumulation (Chang 1981). Very low temperatures, very short or non-existent growing season, severe drought, high wind, and barren, rocky, and salty soil are typical ecological conditions for the high-cold desert plateau zone. The plant coverage of a high-cold desert community of Ceratoides compacta usually is never more than 8% and often as little as 1–2%. Companion species are very few (Pegeophyton scapiflorum, Hedinia tibetica). The only woody plant in the highcold desert zone is Myricaria hedinii, which grows along riverbeds. Its branches and trunks are entirely underground, and only its branchlets with small leaves are exposed on the ground surface. This plant forms a dense cushion, no more than 1 cm above the ground (Chang 1981). Eastward from longitude 80° on the Plateau, the highcold desert vegetation prevails. The wide lake plain is occupied by high-cold desert of Ceratoides compacta, but the piedmont slopes and steppes are covered by high-cold desert-steppe which is dominated by Carex moorcroftii with some Ceratoides compacta. The vegetation on the mountainsides on both sides of the lake plain is more vigorous than on the plain itself. This may be caused by a persistent temperature inversion. The structure of the vertical zonal spectrum is very simple. Above the basic vegetation zone of high-cold desert and desert-steppe, there is a narrow zone of high-cold steppe consisting of Carex moorcroftii. Its vertical range is not wider than 200 m and its upper limit is at 5300 m. Above this, a subnival zone with some sparse alpine herbs (such as Saussurea gnaphalodes, Melandrium apetalum, and cushion plants) is found. The snowline lies between 6000 and 6200 m (Chang 1981).

References Abington JB. Sustainable livestock production in the mountain agro-ecosystem of Nepal. Rome: FAO of the United Nations; 1992. Adhikari D. Hydropower development in Nepal. NRB Econ Rev. 2006:70–94. beta.nrb.org.np. Alves RRN, Rosa IML. Biodiversity, traditional medicine and public health: where do they meet? J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3:14. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-3-14. Aryal S, Maraseni TN, Cockfield G. Sustainability of transhumance grazing systems under socioeconomic threats in Langtang, Nepal. J Mountain Sci. 2014;11:1023–34. Baidya SK, Regmi RK, Shrestha ML. Climate profile and observed climate change and variability in Nepal. 2007. Retrieved from http://www.climatenepal.org.np/main/?p¼research& sp¼onlinelibrary&opt¼detail&id¼381

100

R. M. Kunwar et al.

Banerjee A, Bandopadhyay B. Biodiversity hotspot of Bhutan and its sustainability. Curr Sci. 2016;110(4):521–7. Banerji ML. Some edible and medicinal plants from east Nepal. J Bombay Nat Hist Soc. 1955;53:153–6. Baral SR, Kurmi PP. A compendium of medicinal plants in Nepal. Kathmandu: Mass Printing Press; 2006. Bhatt DD. Plant collection in Nepal. Madrono. 1964;17(5):145–52. Bhattarai NK. Medical ethnobotany in Karnali zone, Nepal. Econ Bot. 1992;46(3):257–61. Bhattarai B, Kunwar RM, KC R. Forest certification and FSC standard initiatives in collaborative forest management system in Nepal. Int For Rev. 2019;21(4):416–24. https://doi.org/10.1505/ 146554819827906852. Bhuju UR, Shakya PR, Basnet TB, Shrestha S. Nepal biodiversity resource book: protected areas, Ramsar sites, and world heritage sites. Kathmandu: ICIMOD/Ministry of Environment, Science and Technology, Government of Nepal; 2007. Biodiversity Profiles Project (BPP). An assessment of the representation of the terrestrial ecosystems in the protected areas system of Nepal. Biodiversity profile project, publication no. 15. Kathmandu: Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation; 1995. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional medicinal plant use in Northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing culture. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:47. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-2-47. Byg A, Salick J, Law W. Medicinal plant knowledge among lay people in five eastern Tibet villages. Hum Ecol. 2010;38(2):177–91. Cameron MM. Healing landscapes: sacred and rational nature in Nepal’s Ayurvedic medicine. Symb Ecol Cult Nat Soc Himalaya. 2010:40–60. Carson B, Shah PB, Maharjan PL. Land systems report: the soil landscapes of Nepal. Ottowa: Land Resources Mapping Project/Kenting Earth Sciences Limited; 1986. CBS. Third Nepal living standards survey 2010–11. Statistical report (in two volumes). Kathmandu: CBS; 2011. CBS. Environment statistics of Nepal, 2011. Kathmandu: CBS; 2012. Available online at: http:// cbs.gov.np/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/environment_book_final.pdf Chang DHS. The vegetation zonation of the Tibetan Plateau. Mt Res Dev. 1981;1(1):29–48. Charmakar S, Oli BN, Gauli K, Sharma HP, Kunwar R. Habitat distribution modeling of Valeriana jatamansi in Nepal. Submitted to PeerJ. 2020. Chaturvedi OP, Singh JS. The structure and function of pine forest in Central Himalaya, I: dry matter dynamics. Ann Bot. 1986;60:237–52. Chaudhary, et al. Traditional practice and knowledge of indigenous and local communities in Kailash sacred landscape, Nepal. Working paper 2017/1. Kathmandu: ICIMOD; 2017. Christensen JH, Krishna Kumar K, Aldrian E, An S-I, Cavalcanti IFA, de Castro M, . . . Zhou T. Climate phenomena and their relevance for future regional climate change. In: Stocker TF, Qin D, Plattner G-K, Tignor M, Allen SK, Boschung J, . . . Midgley PM, editors. Climate change 2013: the physical science basis. Working group I contribution to the fifth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press; 2013. p. 1217–308. CSUWN. Conservation and sustainable use of wetlands in Nepal. Kathmandu: CSUWN; 2009. Banko Janakari special issue. p. 40–42. Dahal RK, Paudel PP, Hasegawa S, Bhandary NP, Yatabe R. Catchment scale landslide Hazard assessment in the Siwaliks of Nepal. AGUFM; 2010. p. NH31C-03. Dentant C. The highest vascular plants on earth. Alp Bot. 2018;128:97–106. Devkota K. Nepali Nighantu. (Medicinal Plant of Nepal) (in Nepali). Kathmandu: Royal Nepal Academy; 1968, 604 pp. DFRS. State of Nepal’s forests, vol. 5. Kathmandu: Department of Forest Research and Survey; 2015. Dobremez JF. Le Népal: Écologie et biogéographie [Ecology and biogeography of Nepal]. Paris: Centre Nationale de la Recherche Scientifique; 1976.

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Nepal, Bhutanese, and Tibetan Himalayas

101

DPR. Flowering plants of Nepal: phanerogams. Kathmandu: Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation; 2001. Ekholm EP. The deterioration of mountain environment. Science. 1975;189:764–70. Farnsworth NR, Morris RW. Higher plants – the sleeping giant of drug development. Am J Pharm Educ. 1976;148:46–52. Fortier J. Kings of the Forest: the cultural resilience of Himalayan hunter-gatherers. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press; 2009. p. 232. Gauchan D, Pandey S. Is Investment in Rice Research in Nepal adequate and balanced across production environments? Some empirical evidence. Nepal J Agric Econ. 2011;50(4):52–65. https://doi.org/10.22004/ag.econ.155536. Gewali MB, Awale S. Aspects of traditional medicine in Nepal. Toyama: Institute of Natural Medicine, University of Toyama; 2008. Ghimire SK. Medicinal plants in the Nepal Himalaya: current issues, sustainable harvesting, knowledge gaps and research priorities. In: Medicinal plants in Nepal: an anthology of contemporary research. Kathmandu: Ecological Society; 2008. p. 25–42. GoN. Statistical information on Nepalese agriculture 2012/2013. Kathmandu: Agribusiness Promotion and Statistics Division: Ministry of Agricultural Development; 2013. GoN. National account of Nepal 2014 press release. Kathmandu: Government of Nepal, Central Bureau of Statistics; 2014. Hagen T. Report on the geological survey of Nepal. Denckschrift desschweizerischen Naturforschenden Gesellschaft. 1969;86:1–160. Heim A, Gansser A. The Throne of the Gods. New York: The McMillan; 1939. p. 233. Hooker JD. Himalayan Journals, notes of a naturalist: in Bengal, The Sikkim and Nepal Himalayas, The Khasia Mountains, etc. 1855. IUCN. Nepal iso-potential agro-ecological zone map. Kathmandu: IUCN, Nepal, HMG/DANIDA, NARMSAP, TISC; 2000. IUCN Nepal. National register of medicinal and aromatic plants. Kathmandu: IUCN Nepal; 2004. p. 161. Jnawali SR, Baral HS, Lee S, Acharya KP, Upadhyay GP, Pandey M, Shrestha R, Joshi D, Laminchhane BR, Griths J, Khatiwada AP, Subedi N, Amin R. The status of Nepal mammals: the national red list series. Kathmandu: Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation; 2011. Karki R, Shrestha KK, Ojha H, Paudel N, Khatri DB, Nuberg A. From forests to food security: pathway in Nepal’s community forestry. Small-Scale Forestry. 2017. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s11842-017-9377-y. Klein JA, Tucker CM, Steger CE, Nolin A, Reid R, Hopping KA, Yeh ET, Pradhan MS, Taber A, Molden D, Ghate R, Chodhury D, Alcantara-Ayala I, Lavorel S, Muller B, Gret-Regamet A, Boone RB, Bourgeron P, Castellanos E, Chen A, Dong S, Keiler M, Seidl R, Thorn J, Yager K. An integrated community and ecosystem-based approach to disaster risk reduction in mountain systems. Environ Sci Policy. 2019;94:143–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2018. 12.034. Kreft S, Eckstein D, Junghans L, Kerestan C, Hagen U. Global climate risk index. Berlin: Germanwatch e.V; 2015. Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Ethnobotany in the Nepal Himalaya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2008;4:24. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-4-24. Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Dhungana SK, Shrestha PR, Shrestha KK. Floral biodiversity of Nepal: an update. J Nat Hist Mus. 2010;25:295–311. Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Acharya RP, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants, traditional medicine, markets and management in far-west Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:24. https://doi.org/10.1186/ 1746-4269-9-24. Kunwar RM, Pyakurel P, Burlakoti C, Pyakurel P, Shah SG. Phyto-ecological assessment of Mahakali river, Farwestern Nepal. J Nat Hist Mus. 2015;29:32–48.

102

R. M. Kunwar et al.

Kunwar RM, Fadiman M, Cameron M, Bussmann RW, Thapa-Magar KB, Rimal B, Sapkota P. Cross-cultural comparison of plant use knowledge in Baitadi and Darchula districts, Nepal Himalaya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14:40. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-018-0242-7. Kunwar RM, Fadiman M, Hindle T, Suwal MK, Adhikari YP, Baral K, Bussmann RW. Composition of forests and vegetation in the Kailash Sacred Landscape, Nepal. J Forestry Res. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11676-019-00987-w. Kunwar RM, Adhikari YP, Sharma HP, Rimal B, Devkota HP, Charmakar S, Thapa S, et al. Distribution, use, trade and conservation of Paris polyphylla Sm. in Nepal. Global Ecol Conserv. 2020;23:e01081. Li M, Feng J. Biogeographical interpretation of elevational pattern of genus diversity of seed plants in Nepal. PLoS One. 2015;10(10):e0140992. LRMP. Land system report. Kathmandu/Ottawa: Land Resource Mapping Project (LRMP)/Kenting Earth Science; 1986. Malla SB, Shakya SR. Medicinal plants of Nepal. In: Majupuria TC, editor. Nepal natures’ paradise. Bangkok: White Lotus; 1984. p. 261–97. Manzardo AE. Ecological constraints on trans- Himalayan trade in Nepal. Contribut Nepal Stud. 1977;4:63–81. Maplecroft. Climate change risk atlas 2011. Bath: Maplecroft; 2011. Maraseni TN, Shivakoti G, Cockfield G, Apan A. Nepalese non-timber forest products: an analysis of the equitability of profit distribution across a supply chain to India. Small Scale For Econ Manag Policy. 2006;5(2):191–206. Miehe G. Vegetation patterns on Mt. Everest as influenced by monsoon. Vegetation. 1989;79:21–32. Miehe G, Miehe S, Böhner J, Bäumler R, Ghimire SK, Bhattarai K, Chaudhary RP, Subedi M, Jha PK, Pendry C. Vegetation ecology. In: Miehe G, Pendry C, Chaudhary RP, editors. Nepal: an introduction to the natural history, ecology and human environment of the Himalayas. Edinburgh: Royal Botanical Garden; 2015. p. 385–472. MoE. National Adaption Programme of Action (NAPA) to climate change. Kathmandu: Government of Nepal, Ministry of Environment (MoE); 2010a. MoE. Climate change vulnerability mapping for Nepal: National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) to climat e cha nge. 20 10b . http: //www.nc csp.gov.np/publicati on/ 2010ClimateChangeVulnerabilityMappingforNepal.pdf MoFSC. Nepal fifth National Report on convention on biological diversity. Kathmandu: Ministry of Forest & Soil Conservation, Government of Nepal; 2014. MoSTE. Nepal 2nd National Communication (NATCOM) to UNFCCC. 2014. Retrieved from http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/nplnc2.pdf Munthe J, Dongol B, Hutchison JH, Kean WF, Munthe K, West RM. New fossil discoveries from the Miocene of Nepal include a hominoid. Nature. 1983;303(5915):331–3. NBSAP. Nepal biodiversity strategy action plan. Kathmandu: Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation; 2014. NCVST. Vulnerability through the eyes of the vulnerable: climate change induced uncertainties and Nepal’s development predicaments. Kathmandu: Institute for Social and Environmental Transition–Nepal & Institute for Social and Environmental Transition. 2009. http://isetnepal.org.np/ download/vulnerability-through-the-eyes-of-vulnerable-climate-change-induced-uncertaintiesand-nepal-s-development-predicaments. Nepal Climate Vulnerability Study Team. Pandey BD. The wealth of medicinal plants of Nepal. Peking symposium, China. 1964. p. 133–40. Pariyar D. Country pasture/forage resource profiles. Kathmandu: FAO Country Profile Nepal; 2008. Parmesan C, Yohe G. A globally coherent fingerprint of climate change impacts across natural systems. Nature. 2002;421:37–42. Pradhan K. Origin of Ramapithecus in Nepal. Anc Nepal. 1998;107:15–29. Press JR, Shrestha KK, Sutton DA. Annotated checklist of the flowering plants of Nepal. London/ Kirtipur: The Natural History Museum/Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University; 2000.

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Nepal, Bhutanese, and Tibetan Himalayas

103

Rajbhandari KR. Ethnobotany of Nepal. Kathmandu: Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal; 2001. Rajbhandari KR, Rai SK. A handbook of the flowering plants of Nepal, vol. 1. Kathmandu: Government of Nepal Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation, Department of Plant Resources; 2017. Rajbhandary S, Winkler D. Ethnobotany. Nepal: an introduction to the natural history, ecology and human environment of the Himalayas. Katghmandu: Flora of Nepal Committee; 2015. p. 271–85. Robbe E. Report to the government of Nepal on forestry. Rome: EPTA/FAO 209; 1954. Rokaya MB, Munzbergova Z, Timsina B. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants from the Humla district of western Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010;130:485–504. Shrestha S. The Vedic-Aryan entry into contemporary Nepal [A pre-historical analysis based on the study of Puranas]. Ancient Nepal. 2001:1–8. Shrestha KK. Insight from Englerian system to APG system in Flora of Nepal. In: Siwakoti M, Jha PK, Rajbhandary S, Rai SK, editors. Plant diversity of Nepal. Kirtipur: Botanical Society of Nepal, C/o Central Department of Botany, TU; 2020. Shrestha KK, Bajracharya SB. Biodiversity in Nepal. In: Pullaiah T, editor. Global biodiversity. Volume 1, Selected countries in Asia. Oakville/Waretown: Apple Academic Press; 2019. p. 427–72. Shrestha KK, Rajbhandary S, Tiwari NN, Poudel RC, Uprety Y. Ethnobotany in Nepal: review and perspectives. [Report]. Kathmandu: WWF Nepal Program and Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal; 2004. Singh SC. Some wild plants of food value in Nepal. Tribhuvan Univ J. 1968;4(1):50–6. Singh MP, Malla SB, Rajbhandari SB. Medicinal plants of Nepal: Retrospects and prospects. Econ Bot. 1979;33(2):185–98. Stainton JDA. Forests of Nepal. London: John Murray; 1972. Stearn WT. Allium and Milula in the central and eastern Himalaya. Bull Br Museum Nat Hist Bot. 1960;2:159–91. Subedi BP. Linking plant based enterprises and local communities to biodiversity conservation in Nepal Himalaya. New Delhi: Adroit Publishers; 2006. Subedi KR, Tiwari NN. Shausruta Nighantu (in Sanskrit). Beljhundi: Mahendra Sanskrit University; 2000. Taral S, Sarkar S, Chakraborty T. An ichnological model for a deltaic depositional system: new insights from the Neogene Siwalik Foreland Basin of Darjeeling-Sikkim Himalaya. Palaeogeogr Palaeoclimatol Palaeoecol. 2018;511:188–207. Udvardy MDF. A classification of the biogeographical provinces of the world. UNESCO, MAP 8 and IUCN occasional paper 18. Morges: UNESCO; 1975. UNDP. Inequalities in human development in the 21st century, briefing note for countries on the 2019 human development report. New York: United Nations Development Programme (UNDP); 2019. WECS. Water resources of Nepal in the context of climate change. Kathmandu: WECS; 2011. World Wildlife Fund. An overview of glaciers, glacier retreat, and subsequent impacts in Nepal, India and China. 2005. Retrieved from https://www.wwf.or.jp/activities/lib/pdf_climate/ environment/Overview_of_Glaciers.pdf

Part II Plants

Abies pindrow (Royle ex D. Don.) Royle Abies spectabilis (D. Don) Spach PINACEAE Achyut Tiwari, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Wahid Hussain, and Arshad Mehmood Abbasi

Synonyms Abies pindrow (Royle ex D. Don.) Royle: Abies webbiana var. pindrow (Royle ex D. Don) Brandis; Pinus pindrow Royle ex. D. Don Abies spectabilis (D. Don) Spach: Abies webbiana (Wall. ex D. Don) Lindl; Pinus scpectabilis D. Don; Pinus webbiana Wall. ex D. Don

A. Tiwari Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_6

107

108

A. Tiwari et al.

Local Names Abies pindrow: Pashto: Bejoor; Jammu and Kashmir: Raga Abies spectabilis: Jammu and Kashmir: Morinda; Gurung: Kye; English: Himalayan Silver Fir; Hindi: Kandamorinda, Morinda, Raga, Talispatra, Talispatri, Tapispatra, Ttosh, Rai, Span, talispatra; Malayalam: Talisapatram, Taleesaptram; Nepali: Talispatra, Gobre Salla; Sanskrit: Talisam, Talisapatra, Talisapatram, Dhatripatra, Manduparani, Sukodara, Talisa, Talisapatradya; Sherpa: Thaasing; Tamil: Talisapatri, talispatri; Telugu: Thaalespathri, Talispatri; Tibetan: ba-lu; Urdu: talispatar, zarnab.

Botany and Ecology Abies pindrow: Trees up to 30 m tall or more, with a narrow pyramidal shape. Bark fissured, light gray to brown. Leaves spiral, 2–4 cm long, upper surface grooved, dark green, shiny. Male cones 1–2 cm long, axillary, ellipsoid, reddish-green; microsporophyll with 2 linear sporangia; microspores winged. Female cones 8– 12 cm long, solitary or in pairs, narrowly oblong, violet-purple; megasporophyll obovate, 2 cm long. Seeds 1–1.2 cm long; wing twice as long as the seed. “Silver fir” is common and gregarious in the Himalaya up to 3100 m, usually on the North aspect. Cones ripen in September. E. Afghanistan, Himalaya eastward to W. Nepal (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020; Kunwar et al. 2015, 2018a, b, 2019, 2020). The species is endangered due to habitat loss and harvesting (Ahmad Jan et al. 2019; Aumeeruddy-Thomas et al. 2004) (Figs. 1 and 2). Abies spectabilis: Trees to 50 m tall; trunk to more than 1.5 m diameter; bark rough, scaly; branchlets yellowish gray, brown, or reddish brown, furrowed, pubescent or glabrous, densely leafy; winter buds globose or ovoid, resinous. Leaves ascending on upper side of cone-bearing branchlets, pectinately arranged in 2 lateral sets on young and vegetative branchlets, bright green adaxially, linear, 2–6 cm  2–2.5 mm, stomatal lines in 2 white bands abaxially, resin canals 2, marginal, apex emarginate or 2-cleft. Seed cones dark purple, maturing to dark brown or blue-brown with a little purple, cylindric, 8.5–20  4.5–7.5 cm. Seed scales at middle of cones flabellatetrapeziform, 2.3–2.8  2.8–3.4 cm, margin auriculate and thin laterally. Bracts included spatulate, 1/3–1/2 as long as seed scales, apex with an acute, short cusp. Seeds about 1 cm; wing broadly cuneate, longer than seeds, apex truncate (Mulk Khan et al. 2014; O’Neill et al. 2017; Wu et al. 1994–2013, Yadav et al. 2004). It has been suggested to ban export in Nepal top reduce harvest pressure (Gurung and W. Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan e-mail: [email protected] A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan e-mail: [email protected]

Abies pindrow (Royle ex D. Don.). . .

109

Fig. 1 Abies pindrow (Pinaceae) branch, Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

Fig. 2 Abies pindrow (Pinaceae) cones and size comparison by the author, Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

110

A. Tiwari et al.

Fig. 3 Abies spectabilis (Pinaceae) plant, Nepal. (Photo Achyut Tiwari)

Pyakurel 2017). Press et al. (2000) reported four species: Abies densa Griff. ex Parker, Abies pindrow Royle, Abies spectabilis (D. Don) Mirb., and Abies spectabilis var. langtanensis Silba from the Nepal Himalaya; however, there still exists the chances of more varieties in the Himalaya (Figs. 3 and 4). Abies spectabilis is the dominant tree in the forests of the central and western Himalaya, especially from 3000 to 4000 m, with occasional occurrences on ridges below this height. It needs cool moist conditions at the roots, thus growing better on north facing slopes and often giving way to grass or shrubs on south facing ones. This species is found in Afghanistan (Hindu Kush), Pakistan (Karakoram Range), China (West Tibet), India (Kashmir Himalaya), and Nepal (from the MilkeDanda ridge westwards). It commonly occurs as a canopy dominant species in very wet forest, accompanied by species of Rhododendron including R. campanulatum, R. lepidotum, and R. anthopogon, as well as Betula utilis (Yadav et al. 2004, Chhetri 2008), and at lower elevations associated with Pinus wallichiana (Tiwari et al. 2017). Abies spectabilis trees reach up to 50 m in height and form extensive forests on the wet, south-facing slopes of the Himalayas. The canopy is dense, and the understory is open with lots of mosses on the forest floor. In the wettest valleys the trees are festooned with gray Usnea lichen, which hangs from the branches. It is a mountain species,

Abies pindrow (Royle ex D. Don.). . .

111

Fig. 4 Abies spectabilis (Pinaceae) habitat where the plant grows luxuriantly, Nepal. (Photo Achyut Tiwari)

where it is usually the dominant species favoring the cooler soil of north-facing slopes, at elevations from 2700 to 3900 m (DPR 1993). A. spectabilis is the most intensively studied tree species in dendrochronological studies from central Himalaya, ranging from growth climate relationship, climate reconstruction, stable isotope studies of tree rings, and studying treeline dynamics in Nepal Himalaya (Schmidit et al. 1999; Sano et al. 2002; Yasue et al. 2002; Khanal and Rijal 2002), thus showing great potentiality of this species in dendro science. In many locations A. spectabilis forests in Nepal have been found to be extending its closed canopy and upper treeline forest to higher elevations in response to climate change (Tiwari et al. 2017; Sigdel et al. 2018). A. spectabilis is an important constituent of cool-moist upper temperate to subalpine forests and treeline in Himalaya extending from Afghanistan to the eastern parts of India (Sahni 1990). A. spectabilis used to include Abies densa Griff. in the past, but this is now treated as a distinct species here. This species is closely related to Abies pindrow and may be no more than a high-altitude form of that species (Zheng and Fu 1978). Although the species is very widespread, its conservation status has been assessed as “Near Threatened” because it has suffered a population decline of about 25% in recent times. Rampant logging is a major cause in declining population. Himalayan silver fir oil also popularly known as Abies oil is extracted by steam distillation of the needles and young twigs of Abies spectabilis (D. Don) Mirb., responsibly harvested

112

A. Tiwari et al.

from the Himalayan forests of Nepal. The plant is classified as “Near Threatened” in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (2013). Abies spectabilis forests have suffered severe depletion, especially at the lower elevations, from logging and deforestation. A population decline of approximately 25% over the past three generation has occurred. This tree is therefore listed as Near Threatened approaching Vulnerable A2 (Zhang et al. 2011). Logging has been the principal threat with declines of up to 30% reported from some areas. The development of tourist infrastructure to support trekking and climbing industries has been, and still is one of the drivers for the decline. It is included in some nature reserves in Nepal and India. Greater regulation of infrastructure development is also required and has been initiated in some areas where tourism is increasing (Byers 2014).

Phytochemistry Major components include Î-pinene, limonene, Î2-pinene, cam-phene, bornyl acetate, and carvone. Plants of this genus show high diversity in their secondary metabolites as well as pharmacological effects (Yang et al. 2008). Previous reports mentioned the occurrence of a unique sesquiterpenoid, a novel biflavanol, some diterpenoids, norditerpenoids, triterpenoids, and other compounds from three different Abies plants of A. georgei, A. delabayi, and A. chensiensis (Wu et al. 2010; Yang et al. 2008). The phytochemical study has isolated 3 new and 69 known chemical components from A. spectabilis, along with the cytotoxic activities of all three new compounds against four tumor cell lines.

Local Medicinal Uses Abies pindrow: Bark extract used for cough and bronchitis (Bhat et al. 2013; Kunwar et al. 2019; Malik et al. 2015), asthma (Muhammad et al. 2019), fever (Malik et al. 2015), and diabetes (Ullah et al. 2019). It is used in Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh for constipation, asthma, astringent, bronchitis, cold, cough, antispasmodic, carminative, expectorant, stomachic, as tonic, cuts, rheumatism, ulcers, and wounds (Gairola et al. 2014). Abies spectabilis: Used for fever and as antiseptic (Singh et al. 2017), for bone fractures (Rajbhandari et al. 2007). The needle oil is valued for colds and nasal congestions. Leaf decoction is used for cough and bronchitis. The plant is considered to be used for asthma, bronchitis, cough, rheumatism, anorexia, abdominal lump, indigestion, and tuberculosis (Kunwar et al. 2010a,b). The dried leaves are also reported to improve digestion and have also been used as an aphrodisiac. Juice from the leaves is taken to treat asthma and bronchitis and is also given to infants suffering from fever and chest infection. The essential oil distilled from the leaves is used for colds, aching joints, and nasal congestion (Chopra et al. 1986; Manandhar 2002). The leaf juice is used in the treatment of asthma, bronchitis (Manandhar 2002; DPR 1993), also for cough (Bhattarai 1989, 1992), bronchitis and respiratory problems (Joshi and Edington 1990; Joshi and Joshi 2009; Uprety et al. 2010; Kunwar et al.

Abies pindrow (Royle ex D. Don.). . .

113

2010; Malla et al. 2015), as expectorant (Kunwar and Duwadee 2003), as tonic and for tuberculosis (Ghimire and Nepal 2008), and bone fractures (Kunwar et al. 2015; Manandhar 1986; Sacherer 1979). Abies nordmanniana is used to heal eczema and applied to the diseased skin. The species is also used to stop bleeding from a wound. The needles are prepared as tea and to cure tuberculosis and ulcers (Bussmann 2017).

Local Food Uses Abies pindrow: A useful timber tree for building purposes. The wood is used for making matches and paper pulp (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Abies pindrow: Commonly used timber species. Abies spectabilis: Used as timber (Singh et al. 2017). Common fuelwood and timber species, frequently being used in mountainous regions of Nepal. A. spectabilis is used for paper, furniture making, and firewood; the wood is used for construction and thatching roof, and it is also used for fuel and resins (Chopra et al. 1986; Manandhar 2002). The leaves are astringent, carminative, expectorant, stomachic,

Fig. 5 Abies spectabilis (Pinaceae) timbers ready for translocation at Kagbeni Mustang, 2804 m. (Photo A. Tiwari, August 2018)

114

A. Tiwari et al.

Fig. 6 Abies spectabilis (Pinaceae) forest floor after rampant logging at Chimang Mustang, 3300 m. (Photo A. Tiwari, September 2014)

and tonic. This practice is extremely wasteful, as only 10% of the tree can be used for shingles, and the rest would be left to rot. Nowadays it is more common to use corrugated iron for roofs. An essential oil is obtained from the plant, though the report does not give yields or uses. The dried leaves, mixed with other ingredients, are used in making incense. Younger fruits are used for production of dyes (Manandhar 2002; DPR 1993). Also used as incense (Sherpa 2001) (Figs. 5 and 6).

References Ahmad Jan H, Jan S, Bussmann RW, Wali S, Sist F, Ahmad L. Complementary and alternative medicine research, prospects and limitations in Pakistan: a literature review. Acta Ecol Sin. 2019; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chnaes.2019.12.005. Ali SI, Qaiser M. 1995–2020. Flora of Pakistan, Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan and Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, USA. Aumeeruddy-Thomas Y, Shinwari ZA, Ayaz A, Ahmad Khan A. Ethnobotany and the management of fodder and fuelwood at Ayubia National Park, North West Frontier Province, Pakistan. People and Plants Working Paper 13, WWF, Surrey. 2004. Bhat J, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1). http://www.ethnobiomed.com/content/9/1/1 Bhattarai NK. Traditional phytotherapy among Sherpas of Helambu, Central Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 1989;27:45–54.

Abies pindrow (Royle ex D. Don.). . .

115

Bhattarai NK. Folk anthelmintic drugs of Central Nepal. Int J Pharmacogn. 1992;30(2):145–50. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017; XXVII, 746 p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1) Byers A. Contemporary human impacts on subalpine and alpine ecosystems of the Hinku Valley, Makalu-Barun National Park and Buffer Zone, Nepal. Himalaya J Assoc Nepal Himal Stud. 2014;33(1):25–41. Chen D, Zhang D, Larsen K. Abies spectabilis. Flora of China. St. Louis/Cambridge, MA: Missouri Botanical Garden/Harvard University Herbaria; 2013. Retrieved 10 Apr 2013. Chhetri PK. Dendrochronological analyses and climate change perceptions in Langtang National Park, Central Nepal. In: Aryal KR, Gadema Z, editors. Climate change and disaster impact reduction; 2008. p. 28–32. Chopra RN, Nayar SL, Chopra IC. Glossary of Indian medicinal plants (including the supplement). New Delhi: Council of Scientific and Industrial Research; 1986. (1986-00-00) DPR. Terse details of the medicinal properties of Nepalese plants, including cultivated species and a few imported herbs. Kathmandu: Medicinal Plants of Nepal. Department of Medicinal Plants; 1993. (1993-00-00) Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Ghimire SK, Nepal BK. Developing a community-based monitoring system and sustainable harvesting guidelines for non-timber forest products (NTFP) in Kangchenjunga Conservation Area (KCA), East Nepal. Report. Kathmandu: WWF Nepal; 2008. Gurung K, Pyakurel D. Identification manual of commercial medicinal and aromatic plants of Nepal. Kathmandu: Nepal Herbs and Herbal Products Association (NEHHPA); 2017. Joshi AR, Edington JM. The uses of medicinal plants by two village communities in the Central Development Region of Nepal. Econ Bot. 1990;44:71–83. Joshi AR, Joshi K. Plant diversity and ethnobotanical notes on tree species of Syabru Village, Langtang National Park, Nepal. Ethnobot Leafl. 2009;13:651–64. Khanal NR, Rijal SP. Tree ring chronology from Ganesh Himal Area, Central Nepal. In: Geothermal/Dendrochronological paleoclimate reconstruction across Eastern Margin of Eurasia. Proceedings of the 2002 international Mastsuyama workshop. 2002. p. 12–19. Kunwar RM, Duwadee NPS. Ethnobotanical notes on Flora of Khaptad National Park (KNP), far-western, Nepal. Himal J Sci. 2003;1(1):25–30. Kunwar RM, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants in farwest Nepal: indigenous uses and pharmacological validity. Med AromatiPlant Sci Biotechnol. 2010a;4:24–82. Kunwar RM, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants in farwest Nepal: their indigenous uses and pharmacological validity. Med Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010b;4 (Special Issue 1):28–42. Kunwar RM, Pandey ML, Kunwar LM, Bhandari A. Medicinal plants and ethnomedicine in peril: a case study from Nepal Himalaya. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2014; https://doi.org/ 10.1155/2014/792789. Kunwar RM, Acharya RP, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plant dynamics in indigenous medicines in farwest Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;163:210–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jep.2015.01.035. Kunwar RM, Fadiman M, Cameron M, Bussmann RW, Thapa-Magar KB, Rimal B, Sapkota P. Cross-cultural comparison of plant use knowledge in Baitadi and Darchula districts, Nepal Himalaya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018a;14:40. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002018-0242-7. Kunwar RM, Evans A, Mainali J, Ansari AS, Rimal B, Bussmann RW. Change in forest and vegetation cover influencing distribution and uses of plants in the Kailash Sacred Landscape, Nepal. Environ Dev Sustain. 2018b; https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-018-0254-4. Kunwar RM, Shrestha K, Malla S, Acharya T, Sementelli A, Kutal D. Relation of medicinal plants, their use patterns and availability in the lower Kailash Sacred Landscape, Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;187 https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.6.1-14.

116

A. Tiwari et al.

Kunwar RM, Fadiman M, Thapa S, Acharya RP, Cameron M, Bussmann RW. Plant use values and phytosociological indicators: implications for conservation in the Kailash Sacred Landscape, Nepal. Ecol Indic. 2020;108:105679. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2019.105679. Malik ZA, Bhat J, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhat AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44. Malla B, Gauchan DP, Chhetri RB. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by ethnic people in Parbat district of western Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;165:103–17. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jep.2014.12.057. Manandhar NP. Ethnobotany of Jumla District, Nepal. Int J Crude Drug Res. 1986;24(2):81–9. Manandhar NP. Plants and people of Nepal. Oregon: Timber Press; 2002. Muhammad S, Hussain M, Abbas Z, Saquib Z, Bussmann RW, Shah GM. An ethnomedicinal appraisal of Kurram agency tribal area Pakistan. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2019;184:631–47. Mulk Khan S, Page S, Ahmad H, Harper D. Ethno-ecological importance of plant biodiversity in mountain ecosystems with special emphasis on indicator species of a Himalayan Valley in the northern Pakistan. Ecol Indic. 2014;37:175–85. O’Neill AR, Badola HK, Dhyani PP, Rana SK. Integrating ethnobiological knowledge into biodiversity conservation in the eastern Himalayas. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13:21. https://doi. org/10.1186/s13002-017-0148-9. Press JR, Shrestha KK, Sutton DA. Annotated checklist of the flowering plants of Nepal. London: Natural History Museum; 2000. Rajbhandari M, Mentel R, Jha PK, Chaudhary RP, Bhattarai S, Gewali MB, Karmacharya N, Hipper M, Lindequist U. Antiviral activity of some plants used in Nepalese traditional medicine. eCAM. 2007:1–6. https://doi.org/10.1093/ecam/nem156. Sacherer J. The high altitude ethnobotany of the Rolwaling Sherpas. Contrib Nepalese Stud. 1979;4(2):45–64. Sahni KC. Gymnosperms of India and adjacent countries. Dehra Dun: Bishen Singh & Mahendra Pal Singh; 1990. Sano M, Furuta F, Kobayashi O, Sweda T. Paleoclimate reconstruction for western Nepal based on Abies spectabilis tree-ring width and density. In: Geothermal/dendrochronological paleoclimate reconstruction across Eastern Margin of Eurasia. Proceedings of the 2002 international Mastsuyama workshop. 2002. p. 2–11. ISBN 0-88192-527-6 (2002-00-00). Schmidit B, Wazny T, Malla K, Hofs E, Khalessi M. Chronologies for historical dating in high Asia/ Nepal. In: Wimmer R, Vetter RE, editors. Tree ring analysis: biological, methodological and environmental aspects. Wallingford: CABI International; 1999. Sherpa S. The high altitude ethnobotany of the Walung people of WalangchungGola, Kanchanjunga conservation area, East Nepal. MSc thesis. Kirtipur: Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University; 2001. Sigdel SR, Wang Y, Camarero JJ, Zhu H, Liang E, Peñuelas J. Moisture mediated responsiveness of treeline shifts to global warming in the Himalayas. Glob Chang Biol. 2018;24(11):5549–59. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.14428. Singh S, Youssouf M, Malik ZA, Bussmann RW. Sacred groves: myths, beliefs and biodiversity conservation a case study from western Himalaya, India. Int J Ecol. 2017; https://doi.org/ 10.1155/2017/3828609. Article ID 3828609 Tiwari A, Fan ZX, Jump AS, Li SF, Zhou ZK. Gradual expansion of moisture sensitive Abies spectabilis forest in the trans-Himalayan zone of Central Nepal associated with climate change. Dendrochronologia. 2017;41:34–43. Ullah M, Mehmood S, Ali M, Bussmann RW, Aldosari A, Ali Khan R, Ullah R, Hussain W, Rahman Shah MA. An ethnopharmacological study of plants used for treatment of diabetes in the southern and tribal regions of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;188 https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.8.1-20.

Abies pindrow (Royle ex D. Don.). . .

117

Uprety Y, Asselin H, Boon EK, Yadav S, Shrestha KK. Indigenous use and bio-efficacy of medicinal plants in the Rasuwa District, Central Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:3. http://www.ethnobiomed.com/content/6/1/3 Wu Z, Raven, P.H., Hong D. eds. 1994–2013. Flora of China. Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press, Beijing/St. Louis. Wu L, Li YL, Li S-M, Yang X-W, Xia J-H, Zhou L, Zhang W-D. Systematic phytochemical investigation of Abies spectabilis. Chem Pharm Bull. 2010;58(12):1646–9. https://doi.org/ 10.1248/cpb.58.1646. Yadav RR, Singh J, Dubey B, Chaturvedi R. Varying strength of relationship between temperature and growth of high-level fir at marginal ecosystems in western Himalaya, India. Curr Sci. 2004;8:1152–6. Yang X-W, Li S-M, Shen Y-H, Zhang W-D. Phytochemical and biological studies of Abies species. Chem Biodivers. 2008;5(4):56–81. Yasue K, Noda M, Kobayashi O, Sano M, Kato T, Sweda T. Dendroclimatological potential of Abies spectabilis at Khurpu dada pass, Ganesh Himal, Central Nepal. In: Geothermal/dendrochronological paleoclimate reconstruction across Eastern Margin of Eurasia. Proceedings of the 2002 international Mastsuyama workshop. 2002. p. 20. Zhang D, Rushforth K, Katsuki T. Abies spectabilis. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. e. T42300A10686224. 2011. https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.20112.RLTS.T42300A10686224.en. Zheng WJ, Fu LG. Journal Flora Reipublicae Popularis Sinicae (ed: Wu ZY). Beijing: Science Press; 1978. p. 55.

Acantholimon lycopodioides (Girard) Boiss. PLUMBAGINACEAE Wahid Hussain, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Acantholimon lycopodioides (Girard) Boiss: Statice lycopodioides Girard

Local Names Acantholimon lycopodioides: Trans-Himalaya: Longze; Ladakh: Lonze, Longzey

Botany and Ecology Acantholimon lycopodioides: Shrublets, densely pulvinate. Cushions 30–100 cm wide. Leaf blade glaucous, linear, (1–)1.5–3  0.1–0.2(–0.3) cm, rigid, glabrous, apex shortly awned. Inflorescences unbranched, 3–4(–5) cm, densely pubescent; spikes dense, distichous, with 5–8 spikelets; spikelets 2 or 3 flowered; bracts broadly W. Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_7

119

120

W. Hussain et al.

Fig. 1. Acantholimon lycopodioides (Plumbagonaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

ovate, 4–5 mm, pubescence very short; first bractlet 6–7 mm, broadly membranous, pubescence very short, apex with a very short awn. Calyx 6–8 mm, funnelform, tube densely velvety between ribs; limb white with red-purple veins, veins pubescent or glabrescent. Corolla pink to pinkish. Flowering July–August, fruiting August– September (Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Fig. 1).

Local Medicinal Uses Acantholimon lycopodioides: is used to treat cardiac disorders (Gairola et al. 2014; Kala et al. 2005a, b), also used as abortifacient and for muscular pain (Gairola et al. 2014). Acantholimon hohenackeri: A decoction of flowers is used for diarrhea. A decoction of flowers is used for the normalization of blood pressure and in cases of allergy (Mehdiyeva et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Acantholinum hirsutum serves as fodder for livestock (Ari et al. 2015).

References Ari S, Temel M, Kargıoğlu M, Konuk M. Ethnobotanical survey of plants used in AfyonkarahisarTurkey. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2015;11:84. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-015-0067-6. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1) Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86.

Acantholimon lycopodioides (Girard) Boiss.

121

Kala CP. Ethnomedicinal botany of the Apatani in the Eastern Himalayan region of India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2005a;1:11. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-1-11. Kala CP. Indigenous use, population density, and conservation of threatened medicinal plants in protected areas of the Indian Himalayas. Conserv Biol. 2005b;19(2):368–78. Mehdiyeva N, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Acantholimon hohenackeri (Jaub. & Spach) Boiss. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-49412-8_96. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press. 1994–2013.

Achillea millefolium L. ssp. millefolium ASTERACEAE Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Achillea millefolium L. ssp. millefolium: Achillea alpicola (Rydb.) Rydb.; Achillea arenaria A. Heller; Achillea borealis subsp. arenicola (A. Heller) D.D. Keck; Achillea borealis subsp. californica (Pollard) D.D. Keck; Achillea californica Pollard; Achillea gigantea Pollard; Achillea lanulosa Nutt.; Achillea lanulosa subsp. alpicola (Rydb.) D.D. Keck; Achillea lanulosa var. alpicola Rydb.; Achillea laxiflora Pollard & Cockerell; Achillea megacephala Raup; Achillea millefolium subsp. borealis (Bong.) Breitung; Achillea millefolium subsp. occidentalis (DC.) Hyl.; Achillea millefolium var. alpicola (Rydb.) Garrett; Achillea millefolium var. arenicola (A. Heller) Nobs; Achillea millefolium var. asplenifolia (Vent.) Farw.; Achillea millefolium var. borealis (Bong.) Farw.; Achillea millefolium var. californica (Pollard) Jeps.; Achillea millefolium var. gigantea (Pollard) Nobs; Achillea millefolium var. lanulosa (Nutt.) Piper; Achillea millefolium var. litoralis Ehrend. ex Nobs.; Achillea millefolium var. maritima Jeps.; Achillea millefolium var. megacephala B. Boivin; Achillea millefolium var. nigrescens E. Mey.; Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis DC.; Achillea millefolium var. pacifica (Rydb.) H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_8

123

124

H. A. Jan et al.

G.N. Jones; Achillea millefolium var. puberula (Rydb.) Nobs; Achillea nigrescens (E. Mey.) Rydb.; Achillea occidentalis (DC.) Raf. ex Rydb.; Achillea pecten-veneris Pollard; Achillea puberula Rydb.; Achillea rosea Desf.; Achillea subalpina Greene; Achillea sudetica Opitz; Chamaemelum millefoilum (L.) E.H.L. Krause

Botany and Ecology Achillea millefolium: Perennial. Rhizome slender, creeping, branched; whole plant more or less covered with fine white hairs; stems few or solitary, usually weakly pubescent (finely floccose), (5)20–60(120) cm high, erect or ascending from base, erect, less often flexuous, simple or branched above, cylindrical, finely sulcate, with short leafy branches in axils of upper and middle cauline leaves. Leaves lanceolate, oblong-lanceolate, or almost linear, punctate-alveolate, twice or thrice pinnately cut, with numerous more or less remote segments (1.5–10 mm apart); lower cauline leaves and leaves of nonflowering branches 10–40 cm long, 0.8–5 cm wide, rachis 1–2 mm wide, leaves usually in upper part with solitary teeth between basal segments; lobes and teeth lanceolate, less often linear, 0.5–1.5 mm long, 0.3–0.4 (0.5) mm wide, terminating in short cartilagenous cusp. Capitula in numerous, unequal, compound corymbs, 2–15 cm in dia. Involucre oblong to almost ovoid, 3–4(6) mm long, (2)3–4(5) mm in dia; involucral bracts green, carinate, with prominent midrib, membranous along margin, often brownish; bracts ovate to oblong-elliptical, membranous, floccose above, with scattered hairs on dorsal surface. Ligules of outer florets white, pink, or red. (1)2–4 mm long, 1.5–3.0(4.5) mm wide, more or less rotund, 2- to 3-toothed at apex, limb a half as long as involucre; tubular florets up to 20, glandular-hairy on outside. Flowering July–October. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, on dry forest edges, clearings, in open forests, on dry meadows, slopes, railroad embankments, along roads, on the outskirts of fields (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8).

Phytochemistry Carbohydrates (glucose, galactose, arabinose, inositol), organic acids (aconite, amber), essential oils (azulene, caryophyllene, eucalyptol, borneol, bornylacetate, pinene, limonene, a-thujone, terpineol, aljojoen, cadinene, camphene, camphor, copaene, cumIn aldehyde, cymol, eugenol, farnesene, furfural, gumulene, isoartemisiacetone, isobutyl acetate, limonene, menthol, myrcene, sabinene, a-terpinene, y-terpinene, terpinol-4, terpinolene), sesquiterpenoids (acetoxyartabsin, acetylbalkanolide, achillicine, achilline, austricine, balkhanide, dihydroacetoxytamatcine, hydroxyachilline, leucodine, millefine, millepholide), alkaloids (betaine, choline, trigonelline, achilleine), cyanogenic compounds, steroids (sitosterol, sitosterol acetate), phenolic compounds, tannins, phenolcarbonic acids (salicylic, coffee), coumarins, flavonoids (apigenine, luteoline, cosmosyne, luteoline, artemethine, kasticine, isoramnetine, vitexine, sertizine, orientine, quercetine, isovitoxine, apigenine, isoeryentin, vicenin),

Achillea millefolium L. ssp. millefolium

125

Fig. 1 Achillea millefolium (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

fatty acids (myristic, palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleicc), coumarins, terpenoids (azulene, geraniol, citral, menton, carvone, a-thuyone, achilline) (Sokolov 1993).

Local Medicinal Uses Achillea millefolium: Used for fever and cold (Gilani et al. 2006), toothache, as tonic, dysentery (Akhtar et al. 2018; Shah and Khan 2006); cough,profuse mucous discharges (Kayani et al. 2014); piles and leucorrhoea (Amjad et al. 2017), toothache, earache, tuberculosis, stomach disorders, fever (Ahmad and Habib 2014), as diaphoretic, stimulant, tonic, to treat fever, cold, hemorrhoids, headaches, diuretic, urinary disorders and menstrual problems (Shaheen et al. 2012), for wound healing, digestion, earache, toothache, tuberculosis (Ahmad et al. 2017); as tonic, astringent, stomachic, fever, cough, diarrhea flu, chest pain, black fever, and cough (Ch et al. 2013), also to treat stomachache (Mahmood et al. 2012). The species has decongestant, astringent, healing, diaphoretic, antipyretic, and anti-inflammatory properties. The whole plant (including flowers) is prepared in

126 Fig. 2 Achillea millefolium (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Achillea millefolium (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

H. A. Jan et al.

Achillea millefolium L. ssp. millefolium Fig. 4 Achillea ptarmicifolia (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Achillea ptarmicifolia (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

127

128

H. A. Jan et al.

Fig. 6 Achillea ptarmicifolia (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 7 Achillea latiloba (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

infusion and is taken to promote menstruation, as a stimulant and against hemorrhoids. It is also used to relieve the symptoms of indigestion, flatulence, and colitis. The whole plant is used to treat acne, boils, bot fly infestations, bruises, gallbladder,

Achillea millefolium L. ssp. millefolium

129

Fig. 8 Achillea latiloba (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

gastritis, strengthens digestive system, healing wounds, hemorrhage, hemorrhoids, lack of appetite, menstrual colic, nosebleed, skin ulcers, sores, and as analgesic and tonic; the Wwole plant, leaves, and flowers are used to treat indigestion, inflammation, spasms and as emmenagogue; leaves and flowers are used for blood cleansing. The infusion of flowers and roots is used to treat diarrhea and empacho. Fresh flowers and leaves are used to treat gastritis, diabetes, blood, and cholesterol. The plant is also widely used for psychosomatic and nervous system disorders, gstrointestinal problems, liver and gallbladder ailments and spiritual cleansing, as well as inflammations and shows antibacterial and antifungal properties. It is also used as remedy for diabetes and cancer. The preparations exhibit low toxicity (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). Species of Artemisia are also widely used in the Caucasus (Bussmann et al. 2020; Bussmann 2015). Widely used as wound healing agent and included in a variety of official pharmacopoeiae. In the Altai the leaves are chewed for toothache, and the plants are used as diuretic, antitumor, and wound-healing agent. In the Ural, the decoction is used as hemostatic for internal bleeding and nosebleeds, as laxatives, for gastric problems, hemorrhoids, gastritis, stomach ulcers, kidney and urinary diseases, skin diseases and burns. In Middle Asia, the leaves are used for rheumatism, bronchial asthma, heart disease, kidney disease, as diuretic, hemostatic, and antipyretic as well as anthelmintic, for anemia, diarrhea, and amenorrhea (Liu et al. 2020). Used for digestive problems (Ari et al. 2015). Smoke is applied to treat fever and respiratory tract problems (Mohagheghzadeh and Faridi 2006). An infusion and a decoction of the aerial parts and flowers of Achillea filipendulina are used as a treatment for diarrhea, dysentery, gastrointestinal diseases, gynecological diseases, and as an appetizer. To prepare an infusion, one teaspoon of the flowers or aerial parts is infused in 200 ml of boiled water for 15 min. For a decoction, two teaspoons of flowers or aerial parts are added to half a liter of water and boiled for 5 min. Sugar and honey are added to change the taste. To treat diarrhea and dysentery, half a glass of the infusion is taken before each meal for 7 days. A decoction of flowers is added to soups and taken in case of diarrhea or dysentery. A bath with a decoction is taken against gynecological diseases, such as colpitis, inflammation of the female genital organs, itching skin, or allergy in or around the vagina. To treat gynecological diseases (colpitis), it is used together with

130

H. A. Jan et al.

Capparis spinosa var. herbacea L. and Amaranthus retroflexus L. It is also used to treat cardiovascular diseases. A decoction of dried flowers is used as a children’s digestive aid, and also to treat stomach-ache and cough (Liu et al. 2020). Achillea setacea is used for conjunctivitis and for diseases of the stomach. A leaf infusion is used in Middle Asia for diseases of the cardiovascular system, stomach problems, for hemorrhoids, amenorrhea, metrorrhagia, toothache, and as galaktogogue (Liu et al. 2020). Achillea grandiflora: The leaves and the whole plant are used for wound care (Bussmann et al. 2020; Bussmann 2015). Achillea micrantha: The leaves and the whole plant are used for wound care (Bussmann et al. 2020; Bussmann 2015). Achillea nobilis: The leaves and whole pant are being used for wounds. The root extract is used to treat rheumatism (Bussmann et al. 2020; Bussmann 2015). Achillea biebersteinii is used against headaches, colds, stomach-ache, ulcers (Tetik et al. 2013). Achillea schischkinii is employed to treat pain and hemorrhoids (Tetik et al. 2013). Achillea wilhelmsii serves for digestive problems, hemorrhoids, and high colesterol (Tetik et al. 2013). Achillea teretifolia is used for digestive problems, skin diseases, and acne (Ari et al. 2015).

Local Food Uses Achillea extracts are used to produce bitter liqueurs (Liu et al. 2020). Achillea millefolium / Achillea latiloba: The whole plant is used as filling for Khachapuri. The flowers are used as tea (Bussmann et al. 2020; Bussmann 2015). Achillea filipendulina: Boiled flowers are added to flour soup and are given to women after delivery (Liu et al. 2020).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Achillea asiatica: Fodder for cattle, sheep, horses, and camels. Planted as ornamental (Liu et al. 2020). Achillea filipendulina is widely used in pest management. For this purpose, 800 g of the aerial parts including the flowers are infused in 10 l of boiled water for 40 min. Before application, 40 g of soap is added to the infusion. The infusion is sprayed on vegetables and/or trees in the evening, before sunset. The aerial parts of the plant, including the flowers, are also put within the furrows of vegetables to deter pests (Liu et al. 2020).

Achillea millefolium L. ssp. millefolium

131

References Ahmad KS, Habib S. Indigenous knowledge of some medicinal plants of Himalaya Region, Dawarian village, Neelum valley, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. Univ J Plant Sci. 2014;2(2):40–7. Ahmad KS, Hamid A, Nawaz F, Hameed M, Ahmad F, Deng J, Mahroof S. Ethnopharmacological studies of indigenous plants in Kel village, Neelum Valley, Azad Kashmir, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13(1):68. Akhtar R, Mir TA, Showkat S. Ethnomedicinal observations among the inhabitants of sarf naar area of Shiekhpora-Kreeri, Baramulla, Jammu and Kashmir. J Med Plants. 2018;6(3):78–81. Amjad MS, Arshad M, Saboor A, Page S, Chaudhari SK. Ethnobotanical profiling of the medicinal flora of Kotli, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan: empirical reflections on multinomial logit specifications. Asian Pac J Trop Med. 2017;10(5):503–14. Ari S, Temel M, Kargıoğlu M, Konuk M. Ethnobotanical survey of plants used in AfyonkarahisarTurkey. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2015;11:84. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-015-0067-6. Bussmann RW. Taxonomy – an irreplacable tool for the validation of herbal medicine. In: Mukherje PK, editor. Evidence-based validation of herbal medicine. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 2015. p. 87–118. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Ghorbani A, Nasab FK, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D. Achillea grandiflora M. Bieb.; Achillea micrantha Willd.; Achillea millefolium L.; Achillea nobilis L.; Achillea ptarmicifolia (Willd.) Rupr. ex Heimerl. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions Far Eastern Europe. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020. https:// doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77088-8_5-2. Ch MI, Ahmed F, Maqbool M, Hussain T. Ethnomedicinal inventory of flora of maradori valley, district forward Khahuta, Azad Kashmir, Pakistan. Am J Res Commun. 2013;1(6):239–61. Gilani SA, Qureshi RA, Gilani SJ. Indigenous uses of some important ethnomedicinal herbs of Ayubia National Park, Abbottabad, Pakistan. Ethnobot Leafl. 2006;2006(1):32. Kayani S, Ahmad M, Zafar M, Sultana S, Khan MPZ, Ashraf MA, Yaseen G. Ethnobotanical uses of medicinal plants for respiratory disorders among the inhabitants of Gallies–Abbottabad, Northern Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;156:47–60. Liu B, Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Akobirshoeva A, Ghorbani A, Kool A. Achillea asiatica Serg.; Achillea filipendulina Lam.; Achillea millefolium L.; Achillea setacea Waldst. & Kit. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions Central Asia and Altai. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020. Macbride JF, Weberbauer A. Flora of Peru. Chicago: Field Museum; 1936–1995. Mahmood A, Mahmood A, Malik RN. Indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants from Leepa valley, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2012;143(1):338–46. Mohagheghzadeh A, Faridi P. Medicinal smokes. J Ethnopharmacol. 2006;108:161–84. Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, Romero C. Achillea millefolium L. In: Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions – ethnobotany of the Andes. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77093-2_6-1. Shah GM, Khan MA. Checklist of medicinal plants of Siran Valley, Mansehra, Pakistan. Ethnobotan Leafl. 2006;2006(1):6. Shaheen H, Shinwari ZK, Qureshi RA, Ullah Z. Indigenous plant resources and their utilization practices in village populations of Kashmir Himalayas. Pak J Bot. 2012;44(2):739–45. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 7. Family Asteraceae (Compositae). Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1993. 352 p. (in Russian). Tetik F, Civelek S, Cakilcioglu U. Traditional uses of some medicinal plants in Malatya (Turkey). J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;146:331–46.

Acmella calva (DC.) R.K. Jansen ASTERACEAE Man D. Bhatt, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Acmella calva (DC.) R.K. Jansen: Ceratocephalus javanicus (Schultz-Bipontinus ex Miquel) Kuntze, Colobogyne langbianensis Gagnep, Spilanthes acmella var. calva (DC.) Clarke ex Hooker f., Spilanthes callimorpha A.H. Moore, Spilanthes calva DC., Spilanthes javanica Schultz-Bipontinus ex Miquel, Spilanthes langbianensis (Gagnep.) Stuessey, Spilanthes rugosa Blume ex De Candolle, Spilanthes rugosa var. truncata Miq.

M. D. Bhatt Botany Department, Siddhanath Science Campus, Tribhuvan University, Kanchanpur, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_9

133

134

M. D. Bhatt et al.

Local Names Acmella calva: Nepali: Marati, Marethi, Moreti, Saru, Gorakhpan, Banmara; Hindi: Eripacha, Akkarakaaram, Akravu, Kala avizal, Niakoppu, Naimanjal, Akrkara Pipulka, Paracress, Mandal PooChedi; Bangladeshi: Shormoni, Vhadalika, Kanlu, Jhummosak; Naga: Okensencha; English: Toothache plant.

Botany and Ecology Acmella calva: Perennial herb, stoloniferous, glabrous to densely hairy, between 20 and 30(120) cm tall. Stem creeping or erect, rooting at the nodes. Petiole up to 4.5 cm long, winged, leaf blade ovate to linear-lanceolate or elliptical, 1–6 cm long, 0.7–2 cm wide, obtuse to acute or sometimes acuminate at the apex, cuneate to truncate at the base, entire margin to denticulate or serrated, ciliate, trinervate (with three veins) or triplinervate, membranous, glabrous, or densely hairy on both sides. Flower heads solitary or grouped by few at the ends of the branches, peduncles up to 25 cm long, involucre cylindrical to subhemispheric, the bracts arranged in 2 series, ovate to lanceolate, 2.5–7 mm long, blunt to acuminate at the apex, ciliated, receptacle conical at maturity, until 10 mm long, paleae oblong, 2.5–4.5 mm long. Flowers ligulate usually 11, but varying from 5 to 19, tube 1–2 mm long, hairy, the elliptic-oblong sheet, 2–4(–7) mm long, yellow-orange, glabrous; tubular flowers 70–300, 1.5–3 mm long, ligules up to 10 mm long, yellow-orange, glabrous, anthers about 1 mm long, dark brown to blackish. Achenae oblong, compressed, 1–2 mm long, black or blackish, callous margins and often ciliated, glabrous on the faces (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995). (Fig. 1). Flowering: December–April; fruiting: May–June. Spilanthes Jacq. (Moore 1907) is primarily a woody genus of 30–40 species of Asteraceae in the new and old-world tropics. The genus has been traditionally divided into two sections, that is, Spilanthes and Acmella Rich (De Candolle 1836; Moore 1907). Spilanthes was described in 1760 by Jacquin to include S. insipidia and the lactotype species S. urens. In 1807 Richards described Acmella as a distinct but closely related genus of five species that differed from species of Spilanthes in Fig. 1 Spilanthes paniculata (Asteraceae) at canal side of Bhimdutta-18, Kanchanpur, Nepal. (Photo Man Dev Bhatt)

Acmella calva (DC.) R.K. Jansen

135

possessing ray florets and in the absence of pappus. Cassini (1822) discussed the relationship between these two genera and suggested that Acmella might be treated better as section within Spilanthes. He found that the pappus difference between these two genera did not hold but he regarded the presence or absence of ray florets as valid. In fact, he moved all radiate taxa of Spilanthes into Acmella. De Candolle (1836) followed the suggestion and also described many new species in both section Spilanthes (sect. Salivaria by De Candolle) and section Acmella (Jansen 1981). Spilanthes is distributed globally in tropical and subtropical America, North Australia, Africa, Indo-Malaysia, Borneo, India, Nepal, Indonesia, Myanmar, Philippines, Thailand, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka (Jansen 1981). This plant commonly grows on stream-sides, marshes, and moist forest margins, fields of Tropical and Subtropical areas. It is distributed within 300–2300 m Central Eastern and Western Nepal (Press et al. 2000).

Phytochemistry Several species in this genus are tropical and are used extensively in traditional medicine and in flavoring foods tuffs. They are predominantly used as extracts in personal care products, traditional medicines, and the pharmaceutical and culinary areas (Paulraj et al. 2013). In this genus, the major phytochemicals present are saturated and unsaturated alkyl ketones, alkamides, hydrocarbons, acetylenes, lactones, alkaloids, terpenoids, flavonoids, and coumarins. They are the main constituents considered responsible for the pharmacological activity (Paulraj et al. 2013). The roots, flower heads, and whole aerial part yield a compound known as spilanthol, which is a powerful stimulant, sialogogue, and local anesthetic. The other compounds reported as Carbohydrate, Alkaloid, Phenolic compounds, Flavonoids, Tannins, Glycoside, Steroid, Protein and Amino acids, Saponin-Gum, and Acidic compounds in Spilanthes calva (Ramprashad et al. 2019). Similarly, the phytochemistry of Spilanthes acmella contain Caryophyllene oxide, Caryophyllene, Limonene, Myrcene, Sabinene-cis-ocimene, β -pinene Compounds (Begum et al. 2008). Chemical analysis shows that Spilanthes acmella contain major pungent compounds, spilanthol (N-isobutyl-2E, 6Z, 8E-decatrienamide) which is naturally occurring insecticide, and ButylatedHydroxytoluene (Leng et al. 2011). Antioxidant, Butylatedhydroxytoluene (BHT), and fatty acids (n-Hexadecanoic acid and tetradecanoic acid) could be obtained from extracts of mother plant of flower heads (Leng et al. 2011). The leaves contain alkaloids, carbohydrates, pungent amide tannins, steroids, carotenoids, essential oil, amino acids, etc. (Savadi et al. 2010). Besides the alkamides, pungent nonvolatile sesquiterpenoids have been found, such as polygodial and eudesmanolide II. The pungent flavor of Spilanthes acmella is due to an unsaturated alkamid; spilantholthat is present in its highest concentration (1%) in the flowers. Essential oils were isolated from the flower of S. acmella, whose main constituents were limonene, β-caryophyllene, Z-β-ocimene, γ-cadinen, thymol, germacrene D, and myrcene. The crude ethyl acetate of S. acmella was purified by chromatographic methods to give acetylaleuritolic acid, vanillic acid, and sitostenone (Nabi et al. 2016).

136

M. D. Bhatt et al.

Local Medicinal Uses Acmella calva. is a plant species with widespread medicinal values. A study conducted in Nepal showed the leaves of the species are used to treat cuts and mud infection (Acharya and Pokhrel 2006). Bhattarai et al. (2009) found out the use of flowers of Spilanthes in treatment of cough, cold, and gingivitis. The fruit decoction is useful in control of toothache and on boils and wounds (Pushpangadan and Atal 1986). The root of the species is used in various forms; the juice of root is used in tuberculosis (Atiqur et al. 2007) while the whole root is used for dental caries (Badgujar et al. 2008). The leaves and flower decoction of Acmella oleracea is used in curing stammering, toothache, stomatitis, and throat complaints (Chadha 2008) and in malaria (Ahua et al. 2007). Acmella paniculata is used in treatment of constipation, liver troubles, toothache, worm infection, and as an tonic during jaundice (Kala 2005). Different extracts of Acmella calva are known to have potent medicinal values. The flower is used for the toothache and dysentery (Jadeja and Nakar 2010), to treat and cure stammering in children, leucorrhoea (Jondiko 1986), flu, cough, rabies, and tuberculosis. The flowers are also known to have antifungal property (Rani and Murty 2005). The whole plant extracts are used as bio-insecticides (Sharma and Pegu 2011; Raquel 2007), local anesthetic (Broussalis et al. 1999), fast acting muscle relaxant and antiwrinkle agent (Belfer 2007; Schubnel 2007). It has also been used to relieve pain, which includes headache, toothache, and muscle pain (Mollik et al. 2010). A study by Revathi and Parimelazhghan (2010) has found that plant is helpful in cases of tuberculosis. The leaves are used as remedial agent for snakebite and in articular rheumatism (Kadir et al. 1989). Similarly, other studies have found plants can be used as digestive (Leng et al. 2011; Sahu et al. 2011) and antimalarials and antibacterials (Haw and Keng 2007). Root paste is used in throat related ailments (Biswas et al. 2010). Sold as medicinal species (Kunwar et al. 2013). Flowers chewed for toothache in Nagaland (Kichu et al. 2015). Used against snakebites and as appetizer (Kunwar et al. 2012, 2015). Acmella caulirhiza is used for liver problems (Yineger et al. 2008) and tonsillitis (Giday et al. 2010). Acmella ciliata is used for internal bleeding, renal bleeding, and colds with high mucus (Bussmann and Sharon 2006).

Local Food Uses The species is eaten as vegetable (Dangol et al. 2017).

References Acharya E, Pokhrel B. Ethno-medicinal plants used by Bantar of Bhaudaha, Morang, Nepal. Our Nature. 2006;4(1):96–103. Ahua KM, Ioset JR, Ioset KN, Diallo D, Maue¨l J, Hostettmann K. Antileishmanial activities associated with plants used in the Malian traditional medicine. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;110(1):99–104.

Acmella calva (DC.) R.K. Jansen

137

Atiqur RM, Uddin SB, Wilcock CC. Medicinal plants used by Chakma tribe in hill tracts districts of Bangladesh. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2007;3:508–17. Badgujar SB, Mahajan RT, Kosalge SB. Traditional practice for oral health care in Nandurbar District of Maharashtra, India. Ethnobot Leafl. 2008;12:1137–44. Begum J, Bhuiyan MNI, Chowdhury JU. Essential oil from inflorescence of Spilenthes calva DC. Bangladesh J Bot. 2008;37(2):217–8. Belfer WA. Cosmetic compositions comprising peptides and Acmella oleracea extract to accelerate repair of functional wrinkles. US patent 2007048245. 2007. Bhattarai S, Chaudhary RP, Taylor SL. Ethnomedicinal plants used by the people of Nawalparasi District, Central Nepal. Our Nature. 2009;7:82–99. Biswas A, Bari MA, Roy M, Bhadra SK. Inherited folk pharmaceutical knowledge of tribal people in the Chittagong hill tracts, Bangladesh. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2010;9:77–89. Broussalis AM, Ferraro GE, Martino VS, Pin-Zon R, Coussio JD, Alvarez JC. Argentine plants as potential source of insecticidal compounds. J Ethnopharmacol. 1999;67:219–23. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in Northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing culture. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:47. Cassini H. Spilanthes. In: Dictionnaire de sciences naturelles, vol. 24. Paris: Le Normant; 1822. p. 328–31. Chadha ML. Indigenous vegetables of India with a potential for improving livelihoods. In: International symposium on underutilized plants for food security, nutrition, income and sustainable development, ISHS Acta Horticulturae, 806. 2008. http://www.actahort.org/books/ 806/80672.htm Dangol DR, Maharjan KL, Maharjan SK, Acharya AK. Wild edible plants in Nepal. In: Joshi BK, Bahadur KCH, Acharya A, editors. Conservation and utilization of agricultural plant genetic resources of Nepal. Dhulikhel: NAGRC; 2017. p. 390–407. De Candolle AP. Spilanthes. In: Prodromus systematis naturalisregni vegetabilis, vol. 5. Paris: Treuttel and Wurtz; 1836. p. 620–6. Giday M, Asfaw Z, Woldu Z. Ethnomedicinal study of plants used by Sheko ethnic group of Ethiopia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010;1321:75–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2010.07.046. Haw AB, Keng CL. Micropropagation of Spilanthes acmella L., a bio-insecticide plant, through proliferation of multiple shoots. J Appl Hort. 2007;5:65–8. Jacquin NJ. Enumeratio systematica plantarum. Leiden: T. Haak; 1760. Jadeja BA, Nakar RN. Study on ethno-medico botany of weeds from Saurashtra region, Gujarat, India. Plant Arch. 2010;10(2):761–5. Jansen R. Systematics of Spilanthes (Compositae: Heliantheae). Syst Bot. 1981;6(3):231–57. https://doi.org/10.2307/2418284. Jondiko IJ. A mosquito larvicide in Spilanthes mauritiana. Phytochemistry. 1986;25:2289–90. Kadir HA, Zakaria MB, Kechil AA, Azirun MS. Toxicity and electrophysiological effects of Spilanthes acmella Murr. Pestic Sci. 1989;25:329–35. Kala CP. Ethnomedicinal botany of the Apatani in the Eastern Himalayan region of India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2005;1:11, 1–8. Kichu A, Malewska T, Akter K, Imchen I, Harrington D, Kohen J, Vemulpad SR, Jamie JF. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of Chungtia village,Nagaland, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;166:5–17. Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Sharma LN, Shrestha KP, Kominee H, Bussmann RW. Underutilized plant species in far-west Nepal – a valuable resource being wasted. J Mt Sci. 2012;9:589–600. Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Acharya RP, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants, traditional medicine, markets and management in far-west Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:24. Kunwar RM, Acharya RP, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plant dynamics in indigenous medicines in Farwest Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;163:210–9. Leng TC, Ping NS, Lim BP, Keng CL. Detection of bioactive compounds from Spilanthes acmella (L.) plants and its various in vitro culture products. J Med Plant Res. 2011;5:371–8. Macbride JF, Weberbauer A. Flora of Peru. Chicago: Field Museum; 1936–1995. Mollik MAH, Hossan MSH, Paul AK, TaufiqUr-Rahman M, Jahan R, Rahmatullah M. A comparative analysis of medicinal plants used by folk medicinal healers in three districts of Bangladesh and inquiry as tomode of selection of medicinal plants. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2010;8:195–218.

138

M. D. Bhatt et al.

Moore AH. Revision of the genus Spilanthes. Proc Am Acad Arts. 1907;42:521–69. Nabi NG, Wani TA, Shrivastava M, Wani A, Shah SN. Spilanthes acmella an endangered medicinal plant-its traditional, phytochemical and therapeutic properties – an overview. Int J Adv Res. 2016;4(1):627–39. Paulraj J, Govindarajan R, Palpu P. The genus Spilanthes ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, and pharmacological properties: a review. Adv Pharmacol Sci. 2013;510298:22. https://doi.org/10. 1155/2013/510298. Press JR, Shrestha KK, Sutton DA. Annotated checklist of the flowering plants of Nepal. London: The Natural History Museum; 2000. Pushpangadan P, Atal CK. Ethnomedical and ethnobotanical investigations among some scheduled caste communities of travancore, Kerala, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 1986;16(2–3):175–90. Ramprashad S, Das R, Mondal B, Saha L. Phytochemical evaluation and antioxidant activities of Spilanthes calva DC. Pharmacol Online. 2019;1:289–300. Rani SA, Murty SU. Evaluation of antimicrobial activity of Spilanthes acmella flower head extract. J Nat Rem. 2005;5:170–1. Raquel FE. Bacterial lipid composition and antimicrobial efficacy of cationic steroid compounds. Biochem Biophys Acta. 2007;1768:2500–9. Revathi P, Parimelazhghan T. Traditional knowledge on medicinal plants used by Irula tribe of Hasanur hills, Erode, Tamil Nadu, India. Ethnobot Leafl. 2010;14:136–60. Richard LC. Acmella. In: Persoon C, editor. Synopsis plantarum. Paris: J.G. Gottam; 1807. p. 472–3. Sahu J, Jain K, Jain B, Sahu RK. A review on phytopharmacology and micropropagation of Spilanthes acmella. Pharmacol Online News Lett. 2011;2:1105–10. Savadi RV, Yadav R, Yadav N. Study on immunomodulatory activity of ethanolic extract Spilanthes acmella Murr. Leaves. Indian J Nat Prod Resour. 2010;2:204–7. Schubnel LA. Different approach to lifting efficacy based on a natural active ingredient. SOFW J. 2007;133:34–9. Sharma UK, Pegu S. Ethnobotany of religious and super natural beliefs of the Mising tribes of Assam with special reference to the ‘DoburUie’. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2011;7:1–13. Yineger H, Kelbessa E, Bekele T, Lulekal E. Plants used in traditional management of human ailments at Bale Mountains National Park, Southeastern Ethiopia. J Med Plants Res. 2008;26:132–53.

Aconitum balfourii Stapf. Aconitum ferox Wall. ex. Ser. Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle Aconitum laeve Royle Aconitum naviculare (Bru¨hl) Stapf. Aconitum spicatum Stapf. Aconitum violaceum Jacq. ex Stapf var. violaceum RANUNCULACEAE Hassan Sher, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Ikram Ur Rahman, Wahid Hussain, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Synonyms Aconitum balfourii Stapf.: Aconitum atrox (Brühl) Mukerjee; Aconitum atrox Goris; Aconitum ferox var. atrox Brühl; Caltha codua Buch.-Ham. (Hassler 2020) Aconitum ferox Wall. ex. Ser.: Aconitum atrox Walp; Aconitum virosum D. Don (Hassler 2020) Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle: Intraspecific taxa: Aconitum heterophyllum subsp. heterophyllum; Aconitum heterophyllum subsp. parciflorum R.A. Qureshi & M.N. Chaudhri; Aconitum heterophyllum var. roylei L.B. Chaudhary & R.R. Rao (Hassler 2020) Aconitum laeve Royle: Aconitum lycoctonum Besser; Aconitum vitifolium Royle ex Stapf. H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan W. Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_10

139

140

H. Sher et al.

Aconitum naviculare (Brühl) Stapf.: Aconitum bhutanicum Y. Kadota; Aconitum creagromorphum Lauener; Aconitum ferox var. naviculare Brühl; Intraspecific taxon: Aconitum naviculare var. leiocarpum Tamura (Hassler 2020) Aconitum spicatum Stapf.: Aconitum ferox var. spicata Brühl (Hassler 2020) Aconitum violaceum Jacq. ex Stapf var. violaceum: Aconitum multifidum Koch ex Rchb.; Aconitum multifidum Royle; Intraspecific taxon: Aconitum napellus var. multifidum (Royle) Hook. fil. & Thoms.; Aconitum violaceum var. robustum Stapf; Aconitum violaceum var. weileri (Gilli) H. Riedl. (Hassler 2020); Aconitum violaceum var. multifidum (Royle) Qureshi & Chaudhri

Local Names Aconitum balfourii: English: Balfour’s Monkshood; Nepali: Gobaree; Hindi: Meetha; Bhotiya: Meetha jari, Mithabish. Aconitum ferox: English: Indian aconite, Monk’s hood; Hindi: Bachhnag, Mithabish; Nepali: Bis, Bikh, Nilo Bikh, Kaalo Bis; Kham: Dutsi loma; Tibetan: Bong-nag, zinpa; Sanskrit/Ayurvedic: Vatsanaavah; Unani: Bishnaag; Siddha/ Tamil: Vasanaavi, Karunaab-hi; Sikkim: Bikhma; Lepcha: Nyine. Aconitum heterophyllum: English: Atis root; Nepali: Atis; Sanskrit: Ativisha; Hindi: Atis, Arand, Ataicha; Tibetan: Bon-na, bon-na dhar-po; Malayalam: Athividayam; Ayurvedic: Ativishaa, Arunaa, Vishaa, Shuklakandaa; Siddha/ Tamil: Athividayam; Urdu: Atis talkh; Gilgit-Baltistan: Patrees; Sikkim: Bikhma; North Pakistan: Mohri; Ladakh: Atees; Buwan, Paunkar, Boga-karpo, Boi; Jammu: Patrees; Kashmir: Pivak, Patis, Patrees, Paewakh, Bandalnag. Aconitum laeve: Pashto: Zahamora ‫ﺯﻩﺭﻡﻭﺭﺍ‬, Hindi: Bariyara, Gulsakari Pakistan: Maniree, Ayurvedic: Vatsanaabha, Telugu: Nagabala.

R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia

Aconitum balfourii Stapf. . . .

141

Aconitum naviculare: Gurung: Ponkar, Boknar; Tamang: Mongar; Chinese: Chuan kui wu tou; Tibetan: Bong-nga kar-po; Amchi: Bongkar, Bongnga karpo. Aconitum spicatum: English: Nepal Aconite; Nepali: Bikh; Gurung: Galtu; Kham: Tsen dug; Sherpa: Dug, Memen; Chinese: ya dong wu tou. Aconitum violaceum: Pashto: Zaharmora; Urdu: Atees, Jadwar, English: Violet Monkshood; Nepali: Madhubish; Hindi: Bokar, Kali-Patish, Bauva (in Uttarakhand);North Pakistan: Booma, Mohri; Jammu: Mori, Patrishi; Kashmir: Atis, Bishmool, Mohand, Mori; Ladakh: Boga-karpo, Boga-nagpo, Jhimba, Yangtso, Jhimba.

Botany and Ecology Aconitum species are mostly distributed in subalpine and alpine moist pastures, shady places and some species in temperate and subalpine forest edges (Singh et al. 2012). Aconitum balfourii: Erect glabrous herb, up to 2 m tall. Stem simple or branched, lower leaves long-stalked, upper leaves short-stalked. Inflorescence many-flowered racemes with yellowish tomentum, up to 30 cm long; sepals 5, blue, pubescent, uppermost helmet-shaped; petals glabrous. Flowering and fruiting September to November (Gaur 1999). Aconitum ferox: Erect perennial herb, 1–2 m tall. Leaves palmate, with 5 ovate or wedge-shaped lobes. Flowers deep blue, 2–3 cm long, in spike. Flowering and fruiting in August – November. Mostly found in shady and moist places, shrub land, moist forests between 2100–3800 m in the temperate, subalpine and alpine Himalayan regions (Polunin et al. 1987; Ghimire et al. 2008). Aconitum heterophyllum: Biennial with 2 tubers. Stem (15–)25–70(–90) cm high, simple or with a few branches in the lower part, glabrous with a few very short crispate hairs above. Lower most leaves with long petioles, orbicular-cordate to ovate-cordate in outline, usually deeply 5-lobed with crenate lobes, the others with short petioles or sessile, semi-amplexicaul, irregularly crenate-dentate, rarely lobate. Inflorescence a loose raceme, rarely subpaniculate. Lower bracts similar to upper leaves, the others ovate to lanceolate, crenate or entire. In the longer peduncles the bracteoles are elliptical or usually entire. Sepals blue to violet, glabrous. Lateral sepals obliquely obovate with dark tips, 14–20  12–20 mm, not stipitate, lower ones narrower. Petals (nectaries) with a long (16–18 mm) claw and short (4 mm) very wide hood, lobed or entire. Filaments winged above the middle, 6–8 mm long. Carpels 5, oblong-elliptical, pubescent, abruptly contracted to the style of about equal length. Follicles straight, 16–18 mm, glabrescent or glabrous. Seeds obpyramidate, 3–4 mm long with almost winged angles. Common on grassy meadows, rocky moist areas, alpine dry scrubs, grassy and shady slopes between 2400–4500 m (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020; Bhat et al. 2014) (Fig. 1). Aconitum laeve: Root elongate, cylindrical. Stem erect, up to 1.5 m high, simple or with a few branches, in the upper part hairy and viscid, glabrous below. Basal leaves with very long petioles, usually withered at flowering time, stern-leaves gradually

142

H. Sher et al.

Fig. 1 Aconitum heterophyllum (Ranunculaceae), Kalam Mehodand valley, Swat, Pakistan. (Photo I. Ur-Rahman & H. Sher)

decreasing in size toward the inflorescence, deeply five- to nine-palmatisect with obovate to obovate-oblong segments, coarsely dentate or sometimes incised again, orbicular to orbicular-reniform in outline, up to 30 cm wide, glabrous, uppermost merging with floral leaves. Inflorescence composed of branched racemes, up to 50 cm, with leafy apices. Bracteole linear to filiform. Helmet from a wide base suddenly tapering to a cylindrical hood, straight or slightly recurved at apex, 12– 16 mm high, 3.5 mm wide, yellowish. Petals (nectaries) with a narrowly conical straight gibbulose or recurved hood, 5 mm long, with deflexed, oblong, shortly bilobed lips. Filaments winged to the middle. Follicles 3, 10–13 mm, spreading, glabrous or with yellowish hairs. Seeds elliptic-oblong, compressed, shiny, finely transversely rugose, 2.5–3 mm long. Flowering July–August. (Ali and Qaiser 1995– 2020; Polunin et al. 1987; Chaudhary and Rao 1998) (Fig. 2). Aconitum laeve is found in forest edges, open meadows, and partially on shaded places (Khan et al. 2012; Kumar et al. 2020). Aconitum naviculare (Brühl) Stapf: Perennial herb, 10–30 (45) cm tall. Basal leaves, petiolate, petiole 2.5–21 cm, orbicular-cordate, deeply 3–5 lobed, upper leaves 1 or 2, much smaller, sub-sessile, deeply 3-lobed. Flowers in loose racemes, dull reddish purple/violet blue, with dark purple veins. Flowering September – early October, fruiting October (Stainton 1997; Ohba et al. 2008). Found in alpine meadows and shrublands between 4000 and 4800 m in semiarid and trans-Himalayan regions in open, relatively dry and sunny south facing slopes (Shrestha and Jha 2009, 2010). Aconitum spicatum: Shrub, 1–1.5 m tall, usually simple, sparsely pubescent. Proximal cauline leaves withered at anthesis, middle ones slightly long petiolate, leaf blade cordate-pentagonal, 7  9.5 cm, both surfaces appressed pubescent, 3-parted; central lobe rhombic, 3-fid; lateral lobes obliquely flabellate, unequally 2-fid. Inflorescence 6–15 cm, many flowered; rachis and pedicels densely spreading yellowish pubescent and shortly glandular pubescent; bracts leaflike or lanceolate-linear to

Aconitum balfourii Stapf. . . .

143

Fig. 2 Aconitum laeve (Ranunculaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

linear. Pedicels 2–8 cm, oblique upward, proximally with 2 bracteoles; bracteoles narrowly linear, about 4 mm. Sepals purple, abaxially densely pubescent; lower sepals about 1.6 cm; lateral sepals 1.5–1.7 cm; upper sepal galeate or lower galeate, 1.5–2 cm high, around 1.7 cm from base to beak, lower margin slightly concave. Petaline claw sparsely pubescent; lip about 5 mm, slightly concave; spur slightly incurved, ca. 1.5 mm. Stamens sparsely pubescent; filaments entire. Carpels 5, densely yellowish pubescent. Flowering September, up to 4000 m (Ghimire et al. 2008; Wu et al. 1994–2013). Aconitum violaceum: Biennial with geminate tubers. Stem 10–30 cm high, usually simple, erect in the lower part, glabrous or hairy. Leaves forming a dense cluster near the base, rarely equally distributed throughout the whole length, with  long petioles, orbicular, five-palmatipartite to the base, primary segments deeply bi-pinnatisect, lobes of the last order linear, acute or subobtuse,  glabrous, the upper leaves much reduced in size. Inflorescence a dense or  lax, simple raceme, rarely with a single branch. Bracts similar to upper leaves, but much reduced. Lower pedicels 4( 5) cm with spreading hairs. Sepals violet, rarely blue or yellowish-green with blue veins, pubescent, helmet 14–20 mm high, 18–24 mm long (including beak), lateral sepals broadly obovate, oblique, 12–16  10–14 mm, lower ones

144

H. Sher et al.

elliptical, 10–12 mm, deflexed. Petals (nectaries) glabrous, claw 12–18 mm, hood gibbous dorsally, with truncate recurved lips. Filaments hairy in the upper part, winged in the lower, wings ending in tiny teeth. Two varieties can be distinguished. Open and damp places, forests, and meadows 3000–4500 m in Pakistan. Distributed in Nepal, NE India, China, Kashmir, and Northern Parts of Pakistan. Locally found in the high altitude of Swat Dir, Chitral, Gilgit, and Hazara Division. Harvesting time: August and September. Threatened (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020; Jabeen et al. 2013) (Figs. 3, 4 and 5). Mostly found in rhododendron forest edges, rocky moist areas, open grassy alpine slopes, and alpine pastures of central Himalaya from 3600–4800 m in Jammu Kashmir and 4000–4500 m asl in Nepal (Sharma et al. 2014; Sabir et al. 2016; Rajbhandary and Rai 2017).

Phytochemistry Aconitum balfourii: Contains pseudoaconitine, aconitine (Sharma and Gaur 2012), balfourine, (Khetwal et al. 1992; Khetwal and Pande 2004), norditerpenoid alkaloids (Khetwal et al. 1994). Aconitum ferox: Tubers ferox: Tubers contain pseudaconitine, bikhaconitine, veratroyl pseudaconine, diacetyl pseudaconitine, norditerpenoid alkaloids (Hanuman and Katz 1993a), quinolinones (Hanuman and Katz 1993b), lipoalkaloides (Hanuman and Katz 1994a). Other compounds include 14-Oacetylsenbusine A, norditerpenoid alkaloids-chasmaconitine, crassicauline-A, falconericine, bikhaconine, pseudaconine, neoline, senbusine-A, isotalatizidine and columbianine (Hanuman and Katz 1994b). Aconitum heterophyllum: Contains alkaloids heterophyllisine, heterophylline, heterophyllidine, atidine, F-dihydroatisine, hetidine, hetisinone, atisine and hetisine heteratisine (Pelletier et al. 1968; Aneja et al. 1973), the diterpenoid lactone atisenol (Pelletier et al. 1982), 6-dehydroacetylsepaconitine and 13-hydroxylappaconitine, lycoctonine, delphatine, lappaconitine (Ahmad et al. 2008). Aconitum laeve: Contains 8-methyllycaconitine, 14-demethyllycaconitine, and Ndeethyllycaconitine-N-aldehyde, swatinine, delphatine, lappaconitine, puberanine, N-acetylsepaconitine (Shaheen et al. 2005; Ulubelen et al. 2002), lappaconitine, puberanine, swatinine, N-acetylsepaconitine (Shaheen et al. 2005). Also flavonol glycosides (quercetin-3-O-ß-D-glucopyranoside -7-O-ά-L-rhamnoside and quercetin-3-O-rutinoside-7-O-rhamnoside) (Kumar and Verma 2011, swatinine-A, swatinine-B (Begum et al. 2014). Aconitum naviculare: A very well researched species from which alkaloids (e.g., navirine, isoatisine, hordenine, atisine, hetisinone and delfissinol), flavonoid glycosides, and phenol glycosides have been reported (Gao et al. 2004; Shrestha and Dall’Acqua 2010; He et al. 2017). Cao et al. (2008) reported naviculine A and B, Dall’Acqua et al. (2008) navirine B, navirine C and chellespontine. He et al. (2017) found navicularine A, B, and C, chellespontine, hetisine, and heteratisine.

Aconitum balfourii Stapf. . . . Fig. 3 Aconitum violaceum (Ranunculaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

Fig. 4 Aconitum violaceum (Ranunculaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Haider Ali)

Fig. 5 Aconitum violaceum (Ranunculaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Haider Ali)

145

146

H. Sher et al.

Aconitum spicatum: Especially in the root tubers aconitine, bikhaconitie, mesaconitine, hypaconitine, deoxyaconitine, spicatine A, spicatine B (Gao et al. 2005). Aconitum violaceum: Contains diterpenes, flavonoids, fatty acids, aconitine, indaconitine, and polysaccharide such as starch, indaconitine, atisine (Bahuguna et al. 2000; Yadav and Verma 2010) and aconitine (Rawat et al. 2014).

Local Medicinal Uses Aconitum balfourii Stapf: Mostly roots. Aconitum ferox Wall. ex Ser.: The whole plant is used but root tubers are more preferred. Aconitum heterophyllum Wall.: Mostly harvested for tubers. Aconitum laeve Royle: Both aerial parts and roots are used. Aconitum naviculare (Brühl) Stapf: Entire plant parts but the tuberous root is more preferred than aerial parts. Aconitum spicatum (Brühl) Stapf: Whole plant but mostly harvested for tubers. Aconitum violaceum Jacq. ex Stapf: Whole plant but tubers are preferred.

Traditional Medicinal Uses Aconitum balfourii Stapf: Used to cure arthritis (Joshi 2016), fever and rheumatism (Kumar et al. 2015; Rawat 2005; Bisht et al. 2013), leprosy (Phondani et al. 2010) and boils (Uniyal 2003). Taken orally with lukewarm water for stomach acidity and the decoction with Picrorhiza kurroa for stomachache (Boktapa and Sharma 2010). Root powder [of Aconitum atrox (Bruchi) Mukherjee. (syn.)] prepared after drying in sunlight is mixed with tobacco and smoked to cure cough (Jain and Saklani 1991). Aconotum balfourii roots are used to treat snakebites, boils, gout, scorpion stings and insect bites (Singh et al. 2017). Aconitum ferox: Used to treat fever, cuts, and inflammation (Ghimire et al. 2001), to treat joint pain (Uprety et al. 2010), leprosy, fever and cholera (Kunwar et al. 2006) and digestive problems and fever (Tiwari et al. 2009). The root material needs to be detoxified by boiling with water for 24 hours or more (Pradhan and Badola 2008). In India, dried tubers are detoxified by boiling in alcohol and used to treat like high fever, stomachache, tonsillitis and throat pain, and cheilitis (Tsering and Tag 2005), as analgesic and antipyretic (DPR 2007), antidote lethal poisons, ear and nose discharge, typhoid, body pain, rheumatism (Singh et al. 2002), and rabies (Quattrocchi 2012). In Sikkim it is used for asthma, blood clots, cough, diabetes, rheumatism, snakebites, stomachache, and toothache (Tamang et al. 2017). The Lepcha use the species to treat asthma, cough, leprosy, fever, and muscular rheumatism (Palit and Banerjee 2016). Aconitum heterophyllum: Used to treat diarrhea dysentery and hemorrhoids; used against fever, sexual weakness, as anthelminthic (Ahmad et al. 2014), for flu, cough and abdominal pain, dysentery, cirrhosis, vomiting and stomach disorders, for colds and

Aconitum balfourii Stapf. . . .

147

cough (Kayani et al. 2014), as tonic, febrifuge, and aphrodisiac (Ali et al. 2011). Also employed to treat stomach pain, gastric trouble, typhoid, tuberculosis (Bano et al. 2014; Waseem et al. 2006), bronchitis, pneumonia, constipation, stomachache, and toothaches (Mahmood et al. 2012), and as general body tonic (Sher and Hussain 2009). Roots ‘Ativisa’ used widely in ayurvedic medicines to treat fever, cough, asthma, and digestive problems (Shah and Joshi 1971; Kunwar and Duwadee 2003; Palit and Gurung 2008; Khan et al. 2010), diarrhea, dysentery, headache, cough, and cold (Rokaya et al. 2010), and to cure constipation (Tiwari et al. 2009). Tubers boiled in milk are used for fever, flu, digestive problems, and vomiting, and with mustard oil to cure arthritis (Lone et al. 2014), snakebites and Aconitum poisoning (Tsering and Tag 2005). They serve as antiperiodic, aphrodisiac, astringent, and tonic (DPR 2007) and sometimes are chewed as an aphrodisiac, vermifuge, anthelmintic, and febrifuge (Quattrocchi 2012). In Pakistan, root powder is given against kidney stones, for toothache, and rheumatism (Ahmad et al. 2009), and menstrual problems (Kumar et al. 2009). A decoction of Aconitum heterophyllum roots is used to cure diarrhea and to enhance memory (Sher et al. 2016). The dried roots are eaten by women during pregnancy to have a male child. In India the plant is used externally to treat wounds, cuts and boils, and headache, and ingested to treat fevers, stomach aches, and as anthelminthic (Singh et al. 2017). Also used to treat bile, remedy headache, colds, fever, and clean the digestive tract. In Sikkim it is used for snakebites, as antidote for food-poisoning, stomachache, anti-periodic, to treat piles, body-ache, could, cough, nose discharge, sore-throat, and as contraceptive (Tamang et al. 2017). In Ladakh used for fever and cough (Ballabh et al. 2008; Malik et al. 2015). In India the species is applied for body-ache, colic (Kala 2005; Kala et al. 2004). In Northern Pakistan it is used for fever, snakebite, joint pain, diarrhea, cough, and stomachache (Kayani et al. 2015). Aconitum laeve Royle: Plant is used for kidney stone and other kidneys problem, as anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, and antioxidant (Quattrocchi 2012) and in the treatment of diarrhea, vomiting, cough, and cold (Srivastava et al. 2010). Also for the treatment of sciatica in Ladakh (Kala 2006), against kidney stones, kidney problems, nervous disorders. Aconitum naviculare: Often used by Amchis (traditional Tibetan medicine practitioners) (Shrestha and Dall’Acqua 2010; Bhattarai et al. 2007; Shrestha et al. 2007; Ghimire et al. 2020). In Dolpa (western Nepal), used against poisoning (Lama et al. 2001), for gall bladder problems in Mustang (Chetri et al. 2006), against fever, headache, jaundice, high blood pressure, and cold in Manag (Bhattarai et al. 2006; Shrestha et al. 2007). In Tibet, used as a sedative, analgesic, and febrifuge (Gao et al. 2004), and for gastritis, hepatitis, and nephritis (Cao et al. 2008). The species is also widely used Bhutan (Nawang 1996) and Sikkim (Shrivastava 1998). In Kashmir, Ladakh and Jammu used as aphrodisiac, astringent, to treat cough, diarrhea, dysentery, dyspepsia, inflammations, as tonic, for abdominal ailments, abdominal pain, as anthelmintic, anti-periodic, to remedy arthritis, fever, general weakness, headache, hysteria, male impotence, intestinal inflammation, intestinal worms, joint pain, malarial fever, piles, skin problems, spleen enlargement, stomach ailments, stomach ache, throat infections, throat swelling, as tonic, for toothache, urinary infection, and vomiting (Gairola et al. 2014).

148

H. Sher et al.

Aconitum spicatum: Although very toxic, the species is used as antipyretic and analgesic (Kunwar and Duwadee 2003), and to treat cough, bile fever, lung and intestine infection, headache, cuts, and wounds (Lama et al. 2001), as well as fever and headache (Uprety et al. 2010). The roots are detoxified by boiling them with Terminalia chebula Retz. (Ghimire et al. 2008), and roots are mixed with fruits of Terminalia bellerica (Gaertn.) Roxb. and roots of Stellera chamaejasme L. for joint pain and arthritis (Ghimire et al. 2008). The roots are also used for allergies, boils, cuts, wounds, and liver problems (Kunwar and Adhikari 2005; Bhattarai et al. 2010), the leaf paste for fever and headache (Kunwar and Adhikari 2005). Aconitum spicatum is used in Nepal as antidote and analgesic (Kunwar et al. 2006, 2016). Aconitum violaceum: Roots used to treat rheumatism, stomachache, colds (Kumar et al. 2015). The root powder is eaten with sugar to treat stomachache and acute cough in children (Uniyal 2003), a root decoction in milk or ghee serves to treat fever, asthma, cough, and rheumatism, abscess, boils, and skin diseases (Noor et al. 2012), and rheumatism (Akhtar et al. 2013). In Kashmir ‘Khambir’ is prepared by fermenting sundried petals and sugar for 10–15 days, and serve to treat cough, cold, fever, stomach, and liver disorders, and root pieces are applied to cavities to treat toothache, and a mixture of roots and oil for boils and joint pains (Lone et al. 2014), as well as the root powder for sciatica and as analgesic, and the root juice used for snake and scorpion bites (Thakur et al. 2016). Roots are also used to remedy heart problems and high blood pressure (Rana et al. 2013; Sharma et al. 2010). It is used in Northern Pakistan to treat snakebites, scorpion stings, infections, cold, cough and fever (Kayani et al. 2015). In Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh for toothache, colds, cough, fever, liver ailments, stomach problems, as anthelmintic, appetizer, to treat asthma, gastric disorders, gastrointestinal disorders, joint pain, renal pain, rheumatism, as stomachic (Gairola et al. 2014). In Middle Asia Aconitum extracts are used to treat tumors, rheumatism, and tuberculosis. In Kyrgyz medicine the infusion of the tubers in fermented horse milk or water is used for tuberculosis, radiculitis, headaches, and cancer. An infusion of the roots of Aconitum talassicum is used to treat rheumatism and malaria. (Bussmann et al. 2020). Root powder of Aconitum atrox prepared after drying in sunlight is mixed with tobacco and smoked to cure cough (Jain and Saklani 1991). The plant is also used for fever, rheumatism, and abdominal pain (Malik et al. 2015). Aconitum chasmanthum is used as body tonic (Kayani et al. 2015), neuralgia, rheumatism, beurological problems, and as anthelminthic (Gairola et al. 2014). Aconitum rotundifolium serves as a remedy for joint pain, liver disorders, jaundice, and headache (Kayani et al. 2015), and as an antidote and anti-pyretic.

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Aconitum ferox: Used to poison arrowheads (Rokaya et al. 2010) and as insecticide (Rana et al. 2015). Aconitum spicatum is used as an arrow poison in Nepal (Manandhar 1986; Rokaya et al. 2010). In Kangchenjunga, roots are tied on babies and mothers as ‘buti’ (amulet) against evil powers (Sherpa 2001).

Aconitum balfourii Stapf. . . .

149

Aconitum heterophyllum sometimes serves as fodder, and has high economic value (Wali et al. 2019). Aconitum laeve: It is also used as veterinary medicine in Kashmir, where the roots are used to treat stomach and internal disorders (flukes, worms), and also as a tonic to treat weakness after diarrhea and delivery of cattle (Khuroo et al. 2007). In veterinary medicine some species are used to treat wounds and ulcers. All species are highly toxic. (Bussmann et al. 2020). In the Himalayas Aconitum is used to poison arrows. Many species are heavily collected, and by now endangered due to overharvesting (Jan et al. 2019), and high economic revenue (Aumeeruddy-Thomas et al. 2004; Gurung and Pyakurel 2017; Mulk Khan et al. 2014; Olsen 2005; O’Neill et al. 2017).

References Ahmad M, Ahmad W, Ahmad M, Zeeshan M, Obaidullah, Shaheen F. Norditerpenoid alkaloids from the roots of Aconitum heterophyllum Wall with antibacterial activity. J Enzyme Inhib Med Chem. 2008;23(6):1018–22. Ahmad H, Khan SM, Ghafoor S, Alil N. Ethnobotanical study of upper Siran. J Herbs Spices Med Plants. 2009;15(1):86–97. Ahmad M, Sultana S, Fazl-i-Hadi S, Ben Hadda T, Rashid S, Zafar M, et al. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in high mountainous region of Chail valley (district Swat-Pakistan). J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2014;10(1):36. Ahmad H, Ahmad S, Shah SAA, Latif A, Ali M, Khan FA, Tahir MN, Shaheen F, Wadood A, Ahmad M. Antioxidant and anticholinesterase potential of diterpenoid alkaloids from Aconitum heterophyllum. Bioorg Med Chem. 2017;25(13):3368–76. Akhtar N, Rashid A, Murad W, Bergmeier E. Diversity and use of ethno-medicinal plants in the region of Swat, North Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1):25. https://doi.org/10.1186/ 1746-4269-9-25. Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan and Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995–2020. Ali H, Sannai J, Sher H, Rashid A. Ethnobotanical profile of some plant resources in Malam Jabba valley of Swat, Pakistan. J Med Plants Res. 2011;5(18):4676–87. Aneja R, Locke DM, Pelletier SW. The diterpene alkaloids: the structure and stereochemistry of heteratisine. Tetrahedron. 1973;29(21):3297–308. Aumeeruddy-Thomas Y, Shinwari ZA, Ayaz A, Ahmad Khan A. Ethnobotany and the management of fodder and fuelwood at Ayubia National Park, North West Frontier Province, Pakistan, People and plants working paper 13. Surrey: WWF; 2004. Bahuguna R, Purohit MC, Rawat MSM, Purohit AN. Qualitative and quantitative variations in alkaloids of Aconitum species from Garhwal Himalaya. J Plant Biol. 2000;27(2):179–83. Ballabh B, Chaurasia OP, Ahmed Z, Singh SB. Traditional medicinal plants of cold desert Ladakh – used against kidney and urinary disorders. J Ethnopharmacol. 2008;118:331–9. Bano A, Ahmad M, Zafar M, Sultana S, Rashid S, Khan MA. Ethnomedicinal knowledge of the most commonly used plants from Deosai Plateau, Western Himalayas, Gilgit Baltistan, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155(2):1046–52. Begum S, Mumtaz A, Latif A, Ahmad W, Alam S, Nisar M, Zeeshan M, Khan MTH, Shaheen F, Ahmad M. Pharmacologically active C-19 diterpenoid alkaloids from the aerial parts of Aconitum laeve Royle. Records Nat Prod. 2014;8(2):83–92. Bhatt D, Joshi GC, Kumar R, Tewari LM. Phytosociological features and threat categorization of Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex. Royle and A. ferox Wall. ex. Ser. in Kumaun. J Ecol Nat Environ. 2014;6(3):111–8.

150

H. Sher et al.

Bhattarai S, Chaudhary RP, Taylor RSL. Ethnomedicinal plants used by the people of Manang district, central Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:41. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-42692-41. Bhattarai S, Chaudhary RP, Taylor RSL. Prioritization and trade of ethnomedicinal plants by the people of Manang district, central Nepal. In: Chaudhary RP, Aase TH, Vetaas OR, Subedi BP, editors. Local effects of global changes in the Himalayas: Manang, Nepal. Kirtipur/Norway: Tribhuvan University/University of Bergen; 2007. p. 151–69. Bhattarai S, Chaudhary RP, Quave CL, Taylor RS. The use of medicinal plants in the transHimalayan arid zone of Mustang district, Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6(1):14. https:// doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-6-14. Bisht VK, Negi JS, Bh AK, Sundriyal RC. Traditional use of medicinal plants in district Chamoli, Uttarakhand, India. J Med Plants Res. 2013;7(15):918–29. Boktapa NR, Sharma AK. Wild medicinal plants used by local communities of Manali, Himachal Pradesh, India. Ethnobot Leaflets. 2010;14:259–67. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z. Aconitum leucostomum Vorosch.; Aconitum soongaricum Stapf.; Aconitum talassicum Popov; Aconitum sp. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions central Asia and Altai: Springer International Publishing International Publishing; 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3319-77087-1_13-1. Cao J-X, Li L-B, Ren J, Jiang S-P, Tian R-R, Chen X-L, Peng S-L, Zhang J, Zhu H-J. Two new C20-diterpernoid alkaloids from the Tibetan medicinal plant Aconitum naviculare Stapf. Helv Chim Acta. 2008;91:1954–60. Chaudhary LB, Rao RR. Notes on the genus Aconitum L. (Ranunculaceae) in North-West Himalaya (India). Feddes Repert. 1998;109(7–8):527–37. Chetri M, Chapagain NR, Neupane BD. Flowers of mustang: a pictorial guide book. National trust for nature conservation. Kathmandu: Annapurna Conservation Area Project, Upper Mustang Biodiversity Conservation Project; 2006. Dall’Acqua S, Shrestha BB, Gewali MB, Jha PK, Carrara M, Innocenti G. Diterpenoid alkaloids and phenolic glycosides from Aconitum naviculare (Brühl) Stapf. Nat Prod Commun. 2008;3: 1985–9. DPR [Department of Plant Resources]. Medicinal plants of Nepal (revised), Bulletin Department of Plant Resources No. 28. Kathmandu: Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation, Department of Plant Resources; 2007. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Gao L, Wei X, Yang L. A new diterpenoid alkaloid from a Tibetan medicinal herb Aconitum naviculare Stapf. J Chem Res. 2004;4:307–8. Gao LM, Wei XM, Yang L. Two new norditerpenoid alkaloids from Aconitum spicatum Stapf. Chin Chem Lett. 2005;16(4):475–8. Gaur RD. Flora of the district Garhwal, North West Himalaya. Guntur: Transmedia; 1999. Ghimire SK, Lama YC, Tripathi GR, Schmitt S, Thomas YA. Conservation of plant resources, community development and training in applied ethnobotany at Shey-Phoksundo National Park and its Buffer Zone, Dolpa, Report series no. 41. Kathmandu: WWF Nepal; 2001. Ghimire SK, Sapkota IB, Oli BR, Parajuli-Rai R. Non-timber Forest products of Nepal Himalaya: database of some important species found in the mountain protected areas and surrounding regions. Kathmandu: WWF Nepal; 2008. Ghimire SK, Bista G, Lama NS, Craig SR. Without the plants, we have no medicine: Sowa Rigpa, ethnobotany, and conservation of threatened species in Nepal. Kathmandu: WWF Nepal & Himalayan Amchi Association; 2020 (in press). Gurung K, Pyakurel D. Identification manual of commercial medicinal and aromatic plants of Nepal. Kathmandu: Nepal Herbs and Herbal Products Association (NEHHPA); 2017. Hanuman JB, Katz A. Isolation and identification of four norditerpenoid alkaloids from processed and unprocessed root tubers of Aconitum ferox. J Nat Prod. 1993a;56(6):801–9.

Aconitum balfourii Stapf. . . .

151

Hanuman JB, Katz A. Isolation of quinolinones from ayurvedic processed root tubers of Aconitum ferox. Nat Prod Lett. 1993b;3(3):227–31. Hanuman JB, Katz A. New lipo norditerpenoid alkaloids from root tubers of Aconitum ferox. J Nat Prod. 1994a;57(1):105–15. Hanuman JB, Katz A. Diterpenoid alkaloids from ayurvedic processed and unprocessed Aconitum ferox. Phytochemistry. 1994b;36(6):1527–35. Hassler M. 2020. World plants: synonymic checklists of the vascular plants of the world (version Nov 2018). In: Species 2000 & ITIS catalogue of life, 2020-06-04 beta (Roskov Y, Ower G, Orrell T, Nicolson D, Bailly N, Kirk PM, Bourgoin T, DeWalt RE, Decock W, van Nieukerken E, Penev L, eds.). Digital resource at www.catalogueoflife.org/col. Species 2000: Naturalis, Leiden, the Netherlands. He JB, Luan J, Lv XM, Rui DY, Tao J, Wang B, Niu YF, Ju HP. Navicularines A–C: new diterpenoid alkaloids from Aconitum naviculare and their cytotoxic activities. Fitoterapia. 2017;120:142–5. Jabeen N, Kozgar MI, Dar GH, Shawl AS, Khan S. Distribution and taxonomy of genus Aconitum in Kashmir: potent medicinal resource of Himalayan valley. Chiang Mai J Sci. 2013;40(2):173–86. Jain SK, Saklani A. Observations on the ethnobotany of the Tons valley region in the Uttarkashi district of the northwest Himalaya, India. Mt Res Dev. 1991;11(2):157–61. Jan AH, Jan S, Bussmann RW, Wali S, Sist F, Ahmad L. Complementary and alternative medicine research, prospects and limitations in pakistan: a literature review. Acta Ecol Sin. 2019; https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.chnaes.2019.12.005. Joshi RK. Traditional healthcare practices among the villages of Khirshu, Pauri, Uttarakhand, India. Soc Sci Rev. 2016;2(2):105–16. Kala CP. Indigenous use, population density, and conservation of threatened medicinal plants in protected areas of the Indian Himalayas. Conserv Biol. 2005;19(2):368–78. Kala CP. Medicinal plants of the high altitude cold desert in India: diversity, distribution and traditional uses. Int J Biodivers Sci Manag. 2006;2(1):43–56. Kala CP, Farooquee NA, Dhar U. Prioritization of medicinal plants on the basis of available knowledge, existing practices and use value status in Uttaranchal, India. Biodivers Conserv. 2004;13:453–69. Kayani S, Ahmad M, Zafar M, Sultana S, Khan MPZ, Ashraf MA, Yaseen G. Ethnobotanical uses of medicinal plants for respiratory disorders among the inhabitants of Gallies–Abbottabad, Northern Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;156:47–60. Kayani S, Ahmad M, Sultana S, Khan Shinwari Z, Zafar M, Yaseen G, Hussain M, Bibi T. Ethnobotany of medicinal plants among the communitiesof Alpine and Sub-alpine regions of Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;164:186–202. Khan MA, Khan MA, Hussain M, Ghulam GM. An ethnobotanical inventory of Himalayan region Poonch valley, Azad Kashmir (Pakistan). Ethnobot Res Appl. 2010;8:107–23. Khan N, Ahmed M, Siddiqui MF, Bibi S, Ahmed I. A phytosociological study of forest and non-forest vegetation of district Chitral, Hindukush range of Pakistan. FUUAST J Biol. 2012;2:91–101. Khetwal KS. Constituents of high altitude Himalayan herbs, part XX. A C-19 diterpenoid alkaloid from Aconitum balfourii. Indian J Chem B. 2007;46B(8):1364–6. Khetwal KS, Pande S. Constitutens of high altitude Himalayan herbs, part XV: a new norditerpenoid alkaloid from the roots of Aconitum balfourii. Nat Prod Res. 2004;18(2):129–33. Khetwal KS, Joshi BS, Desai HK, William PS. Alkaloids of Aconitum balfourii Stapf. Heterocycles (Sendai). 1992;34(3):441–4. Khetwal KS, Desai HK, Joshi BS, Pelletier SW. Norditerpenoid alkaloids from the aerial parts of Aconitum balfourii Stapf. Heterocycles (Sendai). 1994;38(4):833–42. Khuroo AA, Malik AH, Dar AR, Dar GH, Khan ZS. Ethnoveterinary medicinal uses of some plant species by the Gujjar tribe of the Kashmir Himalaya. Asian J Plant Sci. 2007;6(1):148–52. Kumar P, Verma DL. Flavonol-3, 7-di-o-glycosides from the flowers of Aconitum laeve. Int J Res Phytochem Pharmacol. 2011;1(3):172–5.

152

H. Sher et al.

Kumar GP, Gupta S, Murugan MP, Bala SS. Ethnobotanical studies of Nubra valley-A cold arid zone of Himalaya. Ethnobot Leaflets. 2009;13:752–65. Kumar A, Mitra M, Adhikari BS, Rawat GS. Depleting indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants in cold-arid region of Nanda Devi biosphere reserve, Western Himalaya. Med Aromat Plants. 2015;4(195):2167–78. Kunwar RM, Adhikari N. Ethnomedicine of Dolpa district, Nepal: the plants, their vernacular names and uses. Lyonia. 2005;8(1):43–9. Kunwar RM, Duwadee NPS. Ecology and economy of NTFPs in Nepal: a case study from Dolpa and Jumla districts, Nepal. Botanica Orientalis. 2003;3:89–97. Kunwar RM, Nepal BK, Kshhetri HB, Rai SK, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicine in Himalaya: a case study from Dolpa, Humla, Jumla and Mustang districts of Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2(1):27. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-2-27. Kunwar RM, Baral K, Paudel P, Acharya RP, Thapa-Magar KB, Cameron M, Bussmann RW. Landuse and socioeconomic change, medicinal plant selection and biodiversity resilience in far western Nepal. Plos ONE. 2016; https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0167812. Lama YC, Ghimire SK, Aumeeruddy-Thomas Y. Medicinal plants of Dolpo: Amchi’s knowledge and conservation: WWF Nepal Program; 2001. Lone PA, Bhardwaj AK, Shah KW, Tabasum S. Ethnobotanical survey of some threatened medicinal plants of Kashmir Himalaya, India. J Med Plants Res. 2014;8(47):1362–73. Mahmood A, Mahmood A, Malik RN. Indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants from Leepa valley, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2012;143(1):338–46. Malik ZA, Bhat J, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhat AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44. Manandhar NP. Ethnobotany of Jumla district, Nepal. Int J Crude Drug Res. 1986;24(2):81–9. Mulk Khan S, Page S, Ahmad H, Harper D. Ethno-ecological importance of plant biodiversity in mountain ecosystems with special emphasis on indicator species of a Himalayan valley in the northern Pakistan. Ecol Indic. 2014;37:175–85. Nawang R. Medicinal plants. In: Non-wood forest products of Bhutan, RAP Publication no 1996/6. Bangkok: Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of United Nations; 1996. p. 21–41. Noor A, Khatoon S, Ahmed M. Enumeration of the ethnobotaniacal uses of some herbs in Astore valley, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan with particular reference to health cure purposes. FUUAST J Biol. 2012;2(2 December):31–48. O’Neill AR, Badola HK, Dhyani PP, Rana SK. Integrating ethnobiological knowledge into biodiversity conservation in the eastern Himalayas. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13:21. https://doi. org/10.1186/s13002-017-0148-9. Ohba H, Iokawa Y, Sharma LR, editors. Flora of Mustang, Nepal. Tokyo: Kodansha Scientific Ltd; 2008. Olsen CS. Valuation of commercial central Himalayan medicinal plants. Ambio. 2005;34(8):607–10. Palit D, Banerjee A. Traditional uses and conservative lifestyle of Lepcha tribe through sustainable bioresource utilization – case studies from Darjeeling and Norgh Sikkim, India. Int J Conserv Sci. 2016;7(3):735–52. Palit D, Gurung S. Some phytoremedies used traditionally by Gurungs in Darjeeling, West Bengal, India. Pleione. 2008;2:175–81. Pelletier SW, Aneja R, Gopinath KW. The alkaloids of Aconitum heterophyllum wall: isolation and characterization. Phytochemistry. 1968;7:625–35. Pelletier SW, Ateya AMM, Finer-Moore J, Mody NV, Schramm LC. Atisenol, a new ent-atisene diterpenoid lactone from Aconitum heterophyllum. J Nat Prod. 1982;45(6):779–81. Phondani PC, Maikhuri RK, Rawat LS, Farooquee NA, Kala CP, Vishvakarma SR, Rao KS, Saxena KG. Ethnobotanical uses of plants among the Bhotiya tribal communities of Niti valley in central Himalaya, India. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2010;8:233–44. Polunin O, Stainton A, Farrer A. Concise flowers of the Himalaya. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1987.

Aconitum balfourii Stapf. . . .

153

Pradhan BK, Badola HK. Ethnomedicinal plant use by Lepcha tribe of Dzongu valley, bordering Khangchendzonga biosphere reserve, in North Sikkim, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2008;4: 22. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-4-22. Purushothaman KK, Chandrasekharan S. Alkaloids of Aconitum ferox. Phytochemistry. 1974;13(9):1975–7. Quattrocchi U. CRC world dictionary of medicinal and poisonous plants: common names, scientific names, eponyms, synonyms, and etymology (5 volume set): CRC press; 2012. Rajbhandary KR, Rai SK. A handbook of flowering plants of Nepal, vol. I. Kathmandu: Department of Plant Resources; 2017. Rana CS, Ballabha R, Tiwari JK, Dangwal LR. An ethnobotanical study of the plant resources in the Nanda Devi biosphere reserve (a world heritage site), Uttarakhand, India. J Ethnobiol Trad Med. 2013;120:591–601. Rana SK, Oli PS, Rana HK. Traditional botanical knowledge (TBK) on the use of medicinal plants in Sikles area, Nepal. Asian J Plant Sci Res. 2015;5(11):8–15. Rawat GS. Alpine meadows of Uttaranchal: ecology, land use and status of medicinal & Aromatic plants. Dehradun: Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh; 2005. Rawat JM, Rawat B, Mishra S, Negi RK, Mishra SN, Chandra A, Nautiyal S. Altitudinal and seasonal variation in bioactive compound aconitine in Aconitum violaceum, a threatened medicinal plant of Indian Himalayan region. Int J. 2014;2(10):981–8. Rokaya MB, Münzbergová Z, Timsina B. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants from the Humla district of western Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010;130(3):485–504. Sabir S, Arshad M, Hussain M, Sadaf HM, Imran M, Yasmeen F, Chaudhari SK. A probe into biochemical potential of Aconitum violaceum: a medicinal plant from Himalaya. Asian Pacific J Trop Dis. 2016;6(6):502–4. Shah NC, Joshi MC. An ethnobotanical study of the Kumaon region of India. Econ Bot. 1971;25(4):414–22. Shaheen F, Ahmad M, Khan MTH, Jalil S, Ejaz A, Sultankhodjaev MN, Arfan M, Choudhary MI, Atta-ur-Rahman. Alkaloids of Aconitum laeve and their anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and tyrosinase inhibition activities. Phytochemistry. 2005;66(8):935–40. Sharma E, Gaur AK. Aconitum balfourii Stapf: a rare medicinal herb from Himalayan alpine. J Med Plants Res. 2012;6(22):3810–7. Sharma PK, Chauhan NS, Lal B, Husaini A, Teixeira da Silva J. Conservation of Phyto-diversity of Parvati valley in Northwestern Himalayas of Himachal Pradesh-India. Med Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010;4(1):47–63. Sharma P, Rana JC, Devi U, Randhawa SS, Kumar R. Floristic diversity and distribution pattern of plant communities along altitudinal gradient in Sangla valley, Northwest Himalaya. Sci World J. 2014:Article ID 264878. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/264878. Sher H, Hussain F. Ethnobotanical evaluation of some plant resources in northern part of Pakistan. Afr J Biotechnol. 2009;8(17). Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni groups in Chitral district, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Sherpa S. The high altitude ethnobotany of the Walung people of Walangchung Gola. Kanchenjunga Conservation Area, East Nepal [MSc thesis] Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal; 2001. Shrestha BB, Dall’Acqua S. Aconitum naviculare: a threatened and endemic medicinal plant of the Himalaya. In: Kala CP, editor. Medicinal plants and sustainable development. New York: Nova Science Publisher; 2010. p. 167–76. Shrestha BB, Jha PK. Habitat range of two alpine medicinal plants in a trans-Himalayan dry valley, central Nepal. J Mt Sci. 2009;6:66–77. Shrestha BB, Jha PK. Life history and population status of the endemic Himalayan Aconitum naviculare. Mt Res Dev. 2010;30(4):353–64.

154

H. Sher et al.

Shrestha BB, Dall’Acqua S, Gewali MB, Jha PK, Innocenti G. New flavonoid glycosides from Aconitum naviculare (Brühl) Stapf, a medicinal herb from the trans-Himalayan region of Nepal. Carbohydr Res. 2006;341:2161–5. Shrestha BB, Jha PK, Gewali MB. Ethomedicinal use and distribution of Aconitum naviculare (Brühl) Stapf in upper Manang central Nepal. In: Chaudhary RP, Aase TH, Vetaas OR, Subedi BP, editors. Local effects of global changes in the Himalayas: Manang, Nepal. Nepal/Norway: Tribhuvan University/ University of Bergen; 2007. p. 171–81. Shrivastava RC. Flora of Sikkim (Ranunculaceae – Moringaceae). Dehradun: Oriental Enterprises; 1998. Singh HB, Prasad P, Rai LK. Folk medicinal plants in the Sikkim Himalayas of India. Asian Folklore Stud. 2002;61(2):295–310. Singh B, Chauhan RS, Vashistha RK, Nautiyal MC, Prasad P. Ecological features of Aconitum balfourii (Brühl) Muk. – an endangered medicinal plant in the northwest Himalaya. J For Res. 2012;23(1):145–50. Singh A, Nautiyal MC, Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal plants used by local inhabitants of Jakholi Block, Rudraprayag district, Western Himalaya, India. J Etnobiol Ethnomed. 2017:1349. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0178-3. Srivastava N, Vikas S, Barkha K, Dobriyal AK, Jadon VS. Advancement in research on Aconitum sp. (Ranunculaceae) under different area: a review. Biotechnology. 2010;9(4):411–27. Stainton A. Flowers of the Himalayas: A supplement. New Delhi: Oxford University Press; 1997. Tamang M, Pal K, Kumar Rai S, Kalam A, Rehan AS. Ethnobotanical survey of threatened medicinal plants of West Sikkim. Int J Bot Stud. 2017;2(6):116–25. Thakur SD, Kapoor KS, Samant SS. Diversity, distribution and indigenous uses of some threatened medicinal plants in Kullu district of Himachal Pradesh, Northwestern Himalaya. Res Environ Life Sci. 2016;9(1):42–5. Tiwari UK, Kotia A, Rawat GS. Medico-ethnobotany of the Monpas in Tawang and West Kameng districts of Arunachal Pradesh, India. Pleione. 2009;3(1):1–8. Tsering J, Tag H. High altitude ethnomedicinal plants of Western Arunachal Himalayan landscape. Pleione. 2005;9(1):18–25. Ulubelen A, Mericli AH, Mericli F, Kolak U, Arfan M, Ahmad M, Ahmad H. Norditerpenoid alkaloids from the roots of Aconitum laeve Royle. Pharmazie. 2002;57(6):427–9. Uniyal B. Utilization of medicinal plants by the rural women of Kullu, Himachal Pradesh. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2003;2(4):366–70. Uprety Y, Asselin H, Boon EK, Yadav S, Shrestha KK. Indigenous use and bio-efficacy of medicinal plants in the Rasuwa district, central Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6(1):3. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-6-3. Wali R, Rahman K, Raja NI, Qureshi R, Bussmann RW, Mashwani ZUR. A quantitative medico botanical expedition of Fairy Meadows National Park, Diamir, Gilgit Baltistan, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019:1835. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.35.1-30. Waseem M, Shah MAU, Qureshi RA, Muhammad I, Afza R, Yousaf S. Ethnopharmacological survey of plants used for the treatment of stomach, diabetes, and ophthalmic diseases in Sudhan Gali, Kashmir, Pakistan. Acta Bot Yunnanica. 2006;28(5):535. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, eds. Flora of China. Science Press, Beijing & Missouri Botanical Garden Press, St. Louis; 1994–2013. Yadav S, Verma DL. Acylated flavonol glycosides from the flowers of Aconitum violaceum staph. Nat Sci. 2010;8:239–43.

Aconogonon coriarium (Grig.) Sojak. Aconogonon tortuosum (D.Don) Hara var. tibetanum (Meisn.) S.-P.Hong POLYGONACEAE Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

Synonyms Aconogonon coriarium (Grig.) Sojak.: Polygonum coriarium Gilg. Aconogonon tortuosum (D.Don) Hara var. tibetanum (Meisn.) S.-P.Hong: Polygonum tortuosum D. Don

Local Names Aconogonon alpinum: Jammu: Palkrach Aconogonon molle: Nepali: Thotne

H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_11

155

156

H. Sher et al.

Botany and Ecology Aconogonon coriarium: An erect, 1–1.5 ( 2.5) m tall perennial herb. Stem somewhat divaricately and profusely branched, mostly glabrous or with few hairs usually below the nodes. Leaves (3.5–) 4–12  2–4.5 ( 5) cm, ovate to ovate-lanceolate, petiole 3– 4 mm long, acute to acuminate, broadly cuneate or rounded at the base, mostly entire, ciliate at the margin, glabrous above, sparsely to densely pubescent below. Ochrea 1.5 ( 1.8)-2.8 ( 3) cm long, ovate to orbicular, membranous, caducous, glabrous or pilose, brown. Inflorescence a branched terminal panicle with numerous dense flower clusters, 5–12 cm long, branches nodding in fruit. Flowers creamy white, 3.0–3.5 mm across, pedicel 2–5 mm long. Ochreolae ovate-orbicular, brown, membranous, pellucid, glabrous. Tepals 5, subequal, obovate, rounded or blunt at the apex, 3–5 ( 6)  1.5–3 ( 3.5) mm. Stamens 8, filaments much longer than the anthers. Ovary, 3.0–4.0  1.75– 2.75 mm, lanceolate ovate-trigonous with 3, very small styles; stigmas capitate. Nuts subsessile, ovate, trigonous, not beaked 3–5  2–3.5 mm, smooth,  dull brownish, included or slightly exserted from the tepals. Flowering June–July. Grows in between the altitudinal ranges of 1400 and 3500 m on damp slopes along with the streams; Distribution: Kazakstan, Tadzhikistan, Uzbekstan, Turkemenistan, Afghanistan, and Pakistan (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020; Figs. 1, 2, and 3). Aconogonon tortuosum: Erect, 30–150 cm high, branched, pubescent to hairy, perennial subshrub with  elongated rhizome. Stem  terete, profusely, dichotomously branched from base or above, pubescent to hairy or glabrous, woody. Leaves (1–) 1.5–4 ( 6.8)  (0.9–) 1.0–3 ( 3.5) cm, elliptic, lanceolate-ovate, acute, or

Fig. 1 Polygonum aviculare (Polygonaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Aconogonon coriarium (Grig.) Sojak. . . .

157

Fig. 2 Polygonum aviculare (Polygonaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

obtuse at the apex, margin entire or undulate, ciliate or scabrous or glabrous; glabrous or pubescent on both sides with slightly rough or coriaceous texture, petiole 0.5–4.0 mm long. Ochrea 5.0–15 mm long, ovate-broadly ovate, entire to dentate, tubular, truncate, hairy. Inflorescence many flowered, dense, pubescent, up to 2.0 cm long pedunculate, terminal or axillary panicles; panicles (0.8–) 1.5–5 ( 7) cm long. Flowers 2–3.5 mm across, pedicel 1–2.5 mm long, slightly longer in fruit. Ochreolae 1.5–3 mm long, lanceolate, cartilaginous, ciliate, hairy. Tepals 5, creamy white, subequal, 1.5–3.5  0.75–1.25 mm, ovate to ovate elliptic, obtuse, entire, parallel veined, veins 3. Stamens 8, subexserted, filaments long, equal. Ovary 0.5–1.5  c. 1.0 mm, oblanceolate, trigonous with three short styles and capitate stigma. Nuts (2–) 2.5–4  1.5–1.9 mm, ovate, brown, shining, included or slightly exserted from the tepals. Two varieties are recognized in our region (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020).

Phytochemistry Catechins. flavonoids (kaempferol, quercetine), carbohydrates, anthocyanines (delphinide, emoine), steroids, catcheins, saponins, alkaloids, organic acids (oleic, oxalic, malic, citane, lemon), vitamins (C, carotene), phenolic compounds, tannins, phenolcarbonic acids, coumarins (Fedorov 1949).

158

H. Sher et al.

Fig. 3 Polygonum aviculare (Polygonaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses Aconogonon coriarium: In the Altai the plants are used to treat arthritis, cough, liver and urinary diseases, and tuberculosis. In Middle Asia the infusion used to treat stomach spasms, intestinal infections, diarrhea, as tonic, hemostatic, and diuretic. The plant is used in a bath to treat bacterial and fungal skin diseases and rashes. The fresh herb is put on tumors, wounds, and skin ulcers (Bussmann et al. 2020a, b, c; Fedorov 1949). Aconogonon tortuosum: Controls painful urination (Ballabh et al. 2008). Aconogonon alpinum: Used for joint pain and arthritis (Gairola et al. 2014).

Local Food Uses Aconogonon coriarium: The young shoots are boiled like spinach, always with a large number of other species (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2020a, b, c; Fedorov 1949). The aboveground parts until flowering are used boiled. The plant can also be used dried form for cooking dovga (is a soup cooked from curdled milk (yogurt), various greens, a small amount of rice and egg. In some regions of the country also a small amount of peas is added. It is considered good for digestion and for intestinal cramps). Leaves of the plant are used as one of the ingredients added to plov (a common dish in the east. In Azerbaijan rice is boiled on a small fire until soft,

Aconogonon coriarium (Grig.) Sojak. . . .

159

in combination with other ingredients like meat, birds, fish, dried fruits, greens, beans). Such dish possesses constipating properties and is often cooked with the purpose to treat intestinal disorders (Damirov et al. 1988). Aconogonon molle: Young shoots are eaten as vegetable (Dangol et al. 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Aconogonon coriarium: The leaves yield green, blue and yellow dyes for wool and silk. Used as fodder (Fedorov 1949). Polygonum aviculare is used in poultry farming. The seeds are good feed for poultry, mainly for geese (Akhundov et al. 1989). A dark blue color is obtained from the root for dyeing wool (Akhundov et al. 1989). Good nectariferous plant, producing much nectar (Akhundov et al. 1989).

References Akhundov QF, Mahammadli BR, Asadov KS. Useful wild-growing plants. Baku: Maarif; 1989. (in Azeri). Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan and Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995–2020. Ballabh B, Chaurasia OP, Ahmed Z, Singh SB. Traditional medicinal plants of cold desert Ladakh – used against kidney and urinary disorders. J Ethnopharmacol. 2008;118:331–9. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Polygonum alpinum All.; Polygonum aviculare L.; Polygonum carneum C. Koch; Polygonum hydropiper L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-49412-8_80. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z. Polygonum aviculare L.; Polygonum coriarium Grig. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions Central Asia and Altai: Springer International Publishing; 2020a. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3319-77087-1_108-1. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D. Bistorta officinalis Delarbre; Polygonum carneum C. Koch. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions far Eastern Europe. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020b. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Ghorbani A, Nasab FK, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D. Polygonum aviculare L. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions far Eastern Europe. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020c. https://doi.org/10.1007/9783-319-77088-8_108-2. Damirov IA, Prilipko LI, Shukurov DZ, Kerimov YB. Medicinal plants of Azerbaijan. Baku; 1988. (in Russian). Dangol DR, Maharjan KL, Maharjan SK, Acharya AK. Wild edible plants in Nepal. In: Joshi BK, Bahadur KCH, Acharya A, editors. Conservation and utilization of agricultural plant genetic resources of Nepal. Dhulikhel: NAGRC; 2017. p. 390–407. Fedorov AA. The herbs applied in traditional medicine of the Talysh. Baku: Publishing House of AS of USSR; 1949. (in Russian). Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86.

Aegopodium alpestre Ledeb. APIACEAE Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

Synonyms Aegopodium alpestre Ledeb.: Aegopodium alpestre fo. scabrum Kitag.; Aegopodium alpestre fo. tenerum Hara; Aegopodium alpestre fo. tenuisectum Kitag.; Aegopodium alpestre var. daucifolium Gorovoj; Carum aplestre (Ledeb.) Koso-Pol.; Pimpinella kashmirica R.R. Stewart ex Dunn

Botany and Ecology Aegopodium alpestre: Plants (20–)30–100 cm. Roots fibrous from an elongate, slender rootstock. Stem hollow. Basal petioles 5–13 cm; blade broad-triangular in outline, 3–9  3.5–12 cm, ternate-2-pinnate; ultimate segments long-ovate or ovateH. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_12

161

162

H. Sher et al.

lanceolate, 1.5–3.5  0.7–2 cm, sessile, base cuneate, irregularly sharp-serrate, apex acute to acuminate. Umbels 3–8 cm across; peduncles 7–15 cm; rays 9–17, 2–4.5 cm; umbellules 10–15 mm across, many-flowered; pedicels 3–10 mm, unequal. Petals white. Styles 2–3  stylopodium. Fruit oblong or oblong-ovoid, 3–3.5  1.8–2.5 mm. Flowering and fruiting June–August (Wu et al. 1994–2013).

Local Food Uses Aegopodium alpestre is sometimes eaten as vegetable. The leaves of Aegopodium podagraria are used as salad (Kalle and Sõukand 2016; Kolosova et al. 2017; Łuczaj and Szymański 2007; Sõukand et al. 2017; Vogl-Lukasser et al. 2010).

References Kalle R, Sõukand R. Current and remembered past uses of wild food plants in Saaremaa, Estonia: changes in the context of unlearning debt. Econ Bot. 2016;70:235–53. Kolosova V, Svanberg I, Kalle R, Strecker L, Gençler Özkan AM, Pieroni A, Cianfaglione K, Molnár Z, Papp N, Łuczaj Ł, Dimitrova D, Šeškauskaitė D, Roper J, Hajdari A, Sõukand R. The bear in Eurasian plant names: motivations and models. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13:14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0132-9. Łuczaj Ł, Szymański WM. Wild vascular plants gathered for consumption in the Polish countryside: a review. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3:17. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-3-17. Sõukand R, Hrynevich Y, Vasilyeva I, Prakofjewa J, Vnukovich Y, Paciupa J, Hlushko A, Knureva Y, Litvinava Y, Vyskvarka S, Silivonchyk H, Paulava A, Kõiva M, Kalle R. Multi-functionality of the few: current and past uses of wild plants for food and healing in Liubań region, Belarus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13:10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0139-x. Vogl-Lukasser B, Vogl CR, Gütler M, Heckler S. Plant species with spontaneous reproduction in homegardens in Eastern Tyrol (Austria): perception and management by women farmers. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2010;8:1–15. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. St. Louis: Science Press, Beijing & Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013.

Aesculus indica (Wall. ex Cambess.) Hook. SAPINDACEAE Hem Raj Paudel, Prakash Poudel, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Aesculus indica (Wall. ex Cambess.) Hook.: Aesculus indica var. concolor Browicz; Pavia indica Royle; Pawia indica (Colebr.) Kuntze; Pavia indica Wall. ex Cambess.

H. R. Paudel (*) National Herbarium and Plant Laboratories, Department of Plant Resources, Godawari, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] P. Poudel (*) Department of Pharmacy, Novel Academy, Purbanchal University, Pokhara, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_13

163

164

H. R. Paudel et al.

Local Names Aesculus indica: Nepali: panger, karu, pangra, lekh pangro, pangro, pangrya, Ghode pangro-Nepali (Manandhar 1986; Kunwar et al. 2010; Manandhar 1993; Bhattarai 1992; Kunwar and Duwadee 2003; Press et al. 2000); Sanskrit: naaru; Jammu: ban khodi, gugu, van khodi, bankhar, ban khor, khori; Himachal Pradesh: khanor, bankhor, tatwokhar; Hindi: fangar, bankhor, gugu, kanor, pankor; Kashmir: hane, hanudun; Punjab: kanur, gun, kanor; English: Indian horse chestnut.

Botany and Ecology Aesculus indica: Tree, 20 m or more tall. Petiole 10–15 cm long; petiolule 0.5–2 cm long. Leaflets 5–7( 9), elliptic to oblong-lanceolate, 10–20 cm long, 2.5–7 cm broad, acuminate, the middle one the largest, subserrate, cuneate, glabrous. Panicles 15– 30 cm long, puberulous to tomentose. Calyx tube about 5 mm long, campanulate, puberulous; lobes acute or rounded, 1.5–2 mm long. Petals 4, unequal, white, tinged yellow, 1.3–2.3 cm long, clawed, puberulous on the outside. Disc anterior, lobed. Anthers 2–2.5 mm long, oblong, sparsely pubescent; filaments about the size of the petals or longer, slightly curved, glabrous. Ovary elongated, about 5 mm long, puberulous; style about as long as the filaments. Capsule more or less ovoid; 3–4.5 ( 5) cm long, smooth. Seeds 2.7–3.5 cm broad, dark brown, and shiny. Flowering April–May; fruiting October–November. Afghanistan, Pakistan, and the W. Himalayas from Kashmir to Nepal (Ali and Qaiser 1995-2020) (Figs. 1, 2, 3 and 4).

Phytochemistry The seeds, which constitute the edible portion of the fruit, contain 50.5% moisture. The total sugar content is 5.58%, whereas the reducing and non-reducing sugars are 4.59 and 0.94%, respectively. The protein and mineral contents are 0.388 and 1.934%, respectively (Parmar and Kaushal 1982). β-Sitosterol and quercetin occur R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia

Aesculus indica (Wall. Ex Cambess.) Hook.

165

Fig. 1 Aesculus indica (Sapindaceae), plant, Nepal. (Photo Hem R Paudel)

in the leaves, rutin and astragalin in the stems (Srijayanta et al. 2014), and aescin in the seeds (Khan et al. 1995) are important phytochemicals of A. indica. It contains the most active chemical constituent called aescin, which is a mixture of triterpenoid saponin with excellent anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. Naturally, aescin which exists in the water-insoluble and water-soluble fraction is used in the preparation of therapeutic agents required for oral administration (Sood et al. 2015).

Local Medicinal Uses Aesculus indica: The bark is astringent and used as a tonic and febrifuge. The leaves are used as fodder. The fruit is officinal and applied in rheumatic pains (Ali and Qaiser 1995-2020). Fruit powder is used for abdominal pain and as tonic, intestinal colic, and as astringent (Yousufzai et al. 2010). Fruits are anthelmintic and given to horses for colics; plant oil is externally used against rheumatism (Akhtar et al. 2013). The seed endocarp is crushed and mixed with wheat flour

166

H. R. Paudel et al.

Fig. 2 Aesculus indica (Sapindaceae), plant in flowering stage, Nepal. (Photo Hem R Paudel)

and is given to horses to relieve stomach pain (Shah and Khan 2006). Seeds are used for the complaints of ulcers and hemorrhoids (Jamal et al. 2017). Leave extracts are used to treat whooping cough (Malik et al. 2019). The bark is used for colic and chest anemia (Muhammad et al. 2019). The fruit is used to cure abdominal pain and seed powder for jaundice (Khan et al. 2019). Fruit powder is used for general weakness and as stimulant (Ahmed and Murtaza 2015). Powdered fruits are eaten before breakfast and considered as anthelmintic. Oil extract from the fruit is externally applied to treat rheumatism (Sher et al. 2010). Dried ground leaves are mixed in oil and used to treat scabies in children less than 10 years. Dried ground fruits are taken orally to treat anorexia and constipation (Sher et al. 2016), used to treat rheumatism (Bhat et al. 2013) and to treat pain and skin problems (Kunwar et al. 2010), and used as astringent and tonic and for boils, burns, skin eruptions, headache, hair growth, joint pain, skin rashes, and wounds (Gairola et al. 2014). They are used to cure rheumatism, but for this purpose, the oil extracted from the seeds is preferred (Parmar and Kaushal 1982). In France and Germany, the bark of the tree is used to treat patients suffering from intermittent fever and ague. The nuts are used in the case of piles and obstinate constipation. An extract of leaves has been found to be useful in whooping cough

Aesculus indica (Wall. Ex Cambess.) Hook. Fig. 3 Aesculus indica (Sapindaceae), flowers, Nepal. (Photo Hem R Paudel)

Fig. 4 Aesculus indica (Sapindaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

167

168

H. R. Paudel et al.

(Parmar and Kaushal 1982). Fruits and seeds are used in inflammation, foot injury, headache, cough, and cold and anthelmintic. Fruit paste is applied externally for skin diseases. Seed oil is applied in the case of skin diseases; oilcake is smeared on the forehead to relieve headache in Jumla (Manandhar 1986); and seed oil is valued for joint pain and skin problems (Kunwar et al. 2010). About 10–15 cotyledons are fed to cattle as an anthelmintic medicine (Manandhar 1993); the seed oil is smeared, regularly, on the affected parts to treat cutaneous infections like scabies and ringworm. The oil cake is made into a paste with water and applied to the forehead, which is supposed to relieve severe headache (Bhattarai 1992). Seed oil is used to cure rheumatism (Kunwar and Duwadee 2003), skin diseases (Kunwar and Adhikari 2005), and joint pain (Bhattarai et al. 2011). Fruit eases urination of livestock (Kunwar et al. 2018). Plant bark is used in colic and chest anemia (Muhammad et al. 2019), and leave extracts are used to treat whooping cough in Pakistan (Malik et al. 2019). The crushed seeds are used for washing clothes in Himachal Pradesh, India (Rajasekaran and Singh 2009).

Local Food Uses Aesculus indica: The seeds can be eaten (Ali and Qaiser 1995-2020). Flour from nuts is used for special food for pregnant women (Thakur et al. 2017). In some parts of Himachal Pradesh, the seeds are dried and ground into flour, which is called tattawakhar. This flour, which is bitter, is used for making halwa. Its bitterness is removed by soaking it in water for about 12 hours. The bitter component gets dissolved in water and is removed when the water is decanted. The halwa prepared from the flour is taken as phalahar (non-cereal food) during fasts. The fruits are used as a medicine for animals as well as for human beings. They are also fed to cattle after steeping them in water and also sometimes after mixing them with flour. The leaves are lopped and used as a fodder for cattle. The drinking cups are also sometimes made of it (Parmar and Kaushal 1982).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Aesculus indica: The Himalayan “horse chestnut” is found wild and is also cultivated as an ornamental tree, from 1200 to 3300 m. (Ali and Qaiser 1995-2020). Nuts are used against colic and to cure chest diseases in horses, donkeys, and mules (Akhtar et al. 2013). Used for timber and furniture (Aumeeruddy-Thomas et al. 2004; Mulk Khan et al. 2014). The fruits are given to horses suffering from colic. This tree has a magnificent appearance and is very ornamental on the account of its foliage and beautiful multicolored flowers. Because of these qualities, it is very suitable as an avenue tree (Parmar and Kaushal 1982). The leaves of the plant are given to livestock as fodder (Rana et al. 2019). Crushed seeds when fed to cattle are reported to improve the quality and quantity of milk (Syed et al. 2016). Plant wood is used for construction purpose in western Nepal (Kunwar and Duwadee 2003) (Fig. 5).

Aesculus indica (Wall. Ex Cambess.) Hook.

169

Fig. 5 Aesculus indica (Sapindaceae), local collector processing nuts, Sakhra valley, Swat, Pakistan. (Photo I. Ur-Rahman & H. Sher)

References Ahmed MJ, Murtaza G. A study of medicinal plants used as ethnoveterinary: harnessing potential phytotherapy in Bheri, district Muzaffarabad (Pakistan). J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;159:209–14. Akhtar N, Rashid A, Murad W, Bergmeier E. Diversity and use of ethno-medicinal plants in the region of swat, North Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1):25. Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan and Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995-2020. Aumeeruddy-Thomas Y, Shinwari ZA, Ayaz A, Ahmad Khan A. Ethnobotany and the management of fodder and fuelwood at Ayubia National Park, north west Frontier Province, Pakistan. In: People and plants working paper 13. WWF: Surrey; 2004. Bhat J, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath wildlife sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:1. http://www.ethnobiomed.com/content/9/1/1 Bhattarai KR, Måren I, Chaudhary RP. Medicinal plant knowledge of the Panchase region in the Middle Hills of the Nepalese Himalayas. Banko Janakari. 2011;21(2):31–9. Bhattarai NK. Medical ethnobotany in the Karnali zone, Nepal. Econ Bot. 1992;46:257–61. https:// doi.org/10.1007/BF02866624. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Jamal Z, Pervez A, Hussain M, Shah GM, Shah SH, Ahmed M. Ethnomedicinal plants used for gastrointestinal ailments by the rural communities of Kaghan Valley, Mansehra, Pakistan. J Appl Environ Biol Sci. 2017;7(12):41–8.

170

H. R. Paudel et al.

Khan L, Ahmad KD, Kifayatullah Q, Arfan M. Commercial extraction of aescin. Int J Pharmacognosy. 1995;33:344–5. Khan WM, Shah SZ, Khan MS, Akhtar N. Evaluation of indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants from tall Dardyal Hills, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. J Herbal Med. 2019;100314 Kunwar RM, Adhikari N. Ethnomedicine of Dolpa district, Nepal: the plants, their vernacular names and uses. Lyonia. J Ecol Appl. 2005;8(1):43–9. Kunwar RM, Duwadee NPS. Ethnobotanical notes on flora of Khaptad National Park (KNP) far-Western Nepal. Himal J Sci. 2003;1(1):25–30. Kunwar RM, Fadiman M, Cameron M, Bussmann RW, Thapa-Magar KB, Rimal B, Sapkota P. Cross-cultural comparison of plant use knowledge in Baitadi and Darchula districts, Nepal Himalaya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14 https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-018-0242-7. Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Bussmann RW. Traditional herbal medicine in far-West Nepal: a pharmacological appraisal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:35. https://doi.org/10.1186/17464269-6-35. Malik, K., Ahmad, M., Zafar, M., Sultana, S., Tariq, A., & Rashid, N.. Medicinal plants used for treatment of prevalent diseases in northern Pakistan of Western Himalayas. In Medicinal Plants-Use in Prevention and Treatment of Diseases. IntechOpen. 2019. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89932 Manandhar NP. Ethnobotany of Jumla District, Nepal. Int J Crude Drug Res. 1986;24(2) https://doi. org/10.3109/13880208609083311. Manandhar, N.P. 1993. Ethnobotanical note on folk-lore remedies of Baglung district, Nepal, contribution to Nepalese studies, http://himalay.socanth.cam.ac.uk. Muhammad N, Ali N, Uddin N. Ethno-veterinary practices used for treatment of various ailments in hilly areas of Melagah valley district swat KPK, Pakistan. Int J Bot Stud. 2019;4(3):171–9. Mulk Khan S, Page S, Ahmad H, Harper D. Ethno-ecological importance of plant biodiversity in mountain ecosystems with special emphasis on indicator species of a Himalayan Valley in the northern Pakistan. Ecol Indic. 2014;37:175–85. Parmar C, Kaushal ML. Aesculus indica. In: Wild Fruits. New Delhi: Kalyani; 1982. p. 6–9. Press JR, Shrestha KK, Sutton DA. Annotated checklist of the flowering plants of Nepal. London: Natural History Museum; 2000. Rajasekaran A, Singh J. Ethnobotany of Indian horse chestnut (Aesculus indica) in Mandi district, Himachal Pradesh. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2009;8(2):285–6. Rana D, Bhatt A, Lal B. Ethnobotanical knowledge among the semi-pastoral Gujjar tribe in the high altitude (Adhwari’s) of Churah subdivision, district Chamba, Western Himalaya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2019;15:10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-019-0286-3. Shah GM, Khan MA. Common medicinal folk recipes of siran valley, Mansehra, Pakistan. Ethnobot Leafl. 2006;2006(1):5. Sher H, Alyemeni MN, Wijaya L, Shah AJ. Ethnopharmaceutically important medicinal plants and its utilization in traditional system of medicine, observation from the northern parts of Pakistan. J Med Plants Res. 2010;4(18):1853–64. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni groups in Chitral District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Sood S, Mishra M, Sood A, Thakur V. Hypoglycaemic and hypocholesterolimic efficacy of horse chestnut (Aesculus indica) using rat models. J Clin Nutr Diet. 2015;1(6) ISSN 2472-1921 Srijayanta S, Raman A, Goodwin BL. A comparative study of the constituents of Aesculus hippocastanum and Aesculus indica. J Med Food. 2014;2(2):45–50. Syed IR, Sukhcharn S, Saxena DC. Evaluation of physical and compositional properties of horsechestnut (Aesculus indica) seed. J Food Proc Technol. 2016;7(3) https://doi.org/10.4172/21577110.1000561. Thakur D, Sharma A, Uniyal SK. Why they eat, what they eat: patterns of wild edible plants consumption in a tribal area of Western Himalaya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13:70. https:// doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0198-z. Yousufzai SA, Khan N, Wahab M, Ajaib M. Ethnomedicinal study of Marghazar Valley, Pakistan. Int J Biol Biotechnol. 2010;7:409–16.

Ageratina adenophora (Spreng.) R.M. King & H. Rob. ASTERACEAE Mohan Siwakoti, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Ageratina adenophora (Spreng.) R.M. King & H. Rob.: Ageratina trapezoides (Kunth) R.M. King & H. Rob; Eupatorium adenophora Spreng.; Eupatorium aenophorum Spreng; Eupatorium adenophorum var. peruvianum Harms; Eupatorium glandulosum Kunth; Eupatorium glandulosum Sch. Bip. ex Baker; Eupatorium padadendse Parish; Eupatorium trapezoideum Kunth.

M. Siwakoti Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_14

171

172

M. Siwakoti et al.

Local Names Ageratina adenophora: Nepali: Banmara, Kalo banmara, Kaloharam, Kalimunte, Kalo tite, Raune, Hawe, Assame, Barmeli; English: Crofton weed, Eupatory, Sticky snakeroot, Mexican devil.

Botany and Ecology Ageratina adenophora: Shrubs or perennial herbs, 30–90( 200) cm tall. Stems erect; branches opposite, obliquely ascending, white or ferruginous puberulent, upper part and peduncles more densely so, glabrescent or glabrous in lower part by anthesis. Leaves opposite, long petiolate; blade abaxially pale, adaxially green, ovate, triangular-ovate, or rhombic-ovate, 3.5–7.5  1.5–3 cm, thin, both surfaces sparsely puberulent, more densely so abaxially and on veins, basally 3-veined, base truncate or slightly cordate, margin coarsely crenate, apex acute. Synflorescences terminal, corymbose or compound-corymbose, to 12 cm in diameter. Capitula numerous, 2–4 cm, 40–50-flowered; involucre broadly campanulate, about 3  4 mm; phyllaries 2-seriate, linear or linear-lanceolate, 3.5–5 mm, apex acute or acuminate; receptacle convex to conical; corollas purplish, tubular, about 3.5 mm. Achenes black-brown, narrowly elliptic, 1–1.5 mm, 5-angled, without hairs and glands; pappus setae 10, basally connate, white, fine, equal to corolla. Flowering and fruiting April–October (Siwakoti and Varma 1999; Wu et al. 1994–2013). The plant reproduces both by seeds and vegetative growth. It can produce 7,000 to 10,000 seeds per plant, of which 70–85% seeds are viable (Parsons and Cuthbertson 2001). When the plant introduced in new habitat, it can spread rapidly as an invasive weed due to adaptation of short and long distance seed dispersal by wind and water, discontinuous seed germination and prolonged viability, high stress tolerance, growth by root stock and stem fragment, high phenotypic plasticity, competitive ability through its allelopathy nature (Wu et al. 2004; Wang et al. 2011; Inderjit et al. 2011; Poudel et al. 2019). It invades in moist, open, and disturbed landscapes along the margins of forests, fallow-lands, and agricultural lands and causes huge economic losses and ecological impacts. During 1800s, the Mexican native plant was introduced in various countries as an ornamental plant in gardens; later on, it escaped to natural habitats and colonized rapidly as a problematic invasive plant throughout the world, and it invaded almost 40 countries in Asia, Oceania, Africa, and Europe (Wu et al. 2004; Muniappan et al. 2009; Poudel et al. 2019). In India, it was introduced in garden during 1924 (Tripathi et al. 1981) but the herbarium specimen of Central National Herbarium (CAL) showed in 1914 (Poudel et al. 2019). It is considered that the plant was introduced in Nepal via India and the first report was in 1952 (Tiwari et al. 2005). In Nepal, the plant occurs in subtropical and temperature regions (Siwaliks and Midhills) in West, Central, and East along the elevation of 400–3280 m (Tiwari et al. 2005; Siwakoti et al. 2016; Shrestah 2016). It is profusely grown in the wet places, roadsides, and walking trails (Figs, 1 and 2).

Ageratina adenophora (Spreng.) R.M. King & H. Rob.

173

Fig. 1 Ageratina. adenophora (Asteraceae), Nepal. (Photo Bharat Shrestha)

Phytochemistry The plant synthesizes a number of secondary metabolites along with 45 kinds of volatile compounds, mainly from the aerial parts (Subba and Kandel 2012; Ma et al. 2015). Researchers reported 8 monoterpenoids, 3 diterpenoids, 6 triterpenoids, 26 sesquiterpenes, 6 steroids, 8 of flavonoids, 25 phenolic acid derivatives, as well as other compounds such as fatty acids, alcohol, anhydrides, and ketones, which are known from this plant (Ma et al. 2015; Poudel et al. 2019). The allelochemicals properties of plant can inhibit the seed germination of many native species including forages and crops (Tripathi et al. 1981; Inderjit et al. 2011; Poudel et al. 2019).

Local Medicinal Uses Ageratina adenophora: Considered as one of the worst invasive alien plant species, so there is only a limited economic use of the plant, but it has been introduced in local pharmacopoeia (Kunwar et al. 2015, 2019). The leaf juice is used to stop

174

M. Siwakoti et al.

Fig. 2 Ageratina adenophora (Asteraceae), population in habitat, Nepal. (Photo Bharat Shrestha)

bleeding of cut and wounds, forming clots, also used to pour into the eye to treat insomnia, and root juice is prescribed to treat fever (Subba and Kandel 2012). The plant also used for cattle bedding and composting (Tiwari et al. 2005; Baral et al. 2017; Shrestha et al. 2018). The extract is used to massage the body, and for cuts and wounds (Raj et al. 2018).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Ageratina adenophora: The biomass of this weed is used for making bio-briquettes (Baral et al. 2017). In China, the plant is used as a substrate to produce domestic fungus, as well as to make dye (Sun et al. 2004). The plant has poisonous effect on domestic animals such as horses. It is known to cause respiratory disease in horses and may result in death if horses continue to feed upon it for prolonged periods (O’Sullivan 1979). The plant in flowering stage is more toxic than juvenile stage (O’ Sullavan 1985). Researchers have also reported the potential uses of this weed as insecticides, water purifiers, sources of bioactive natural products, and substrate for mushroom cultivation, thereby opening ways for its extensive utilization (Poudel et al. 2019). Health hazards to human and other livestock have not been reported yet (Poudel et al. 2019). The gallfly (Procecidochares utilis) and leaf spot fungus (Passalora ageratinae) have been considered effective to suppress the growth of the

Ageratina adenophora (Spreng.) R.M. King & H. Rob.

175

plant (Poudel et al. 2019), and the growth of perennial native grasses (e.g., Setaria sphacellata and Lolium perenne) is beneficial to competitively suppress the invasion of the plant (Poudel et al. 2019).

References Baral S, Adhikari A, Khanal R, Malla Y, Kunwar R, Basnyat B, Guali K, Acharya RP. Invasion of alien plant species and their impact on different ecosystems of Panchase area, Nepal. Banko Janakari. 2017;27:31–42. Inderjit EA, Crocoli C, Bajpai D, Kaur R, Feng Y, Silva C, Carrean JT, Valient-Banquet A, Gershenzon, Callaway RM. Volatile chemicals from leaf litter associated with invasiveness of a neo-tropical weed in Asia. Ecology. 2011;92:316–24. Kunwar RM, Acharya RP, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plant dynamics in indigenous medicines in Farwest Nepal. J Ethnopharnacol. 2015;163:210–9. Kunwar RM, Shrestha K, Malla S, Acharya T, Sementelli A, Kutal D. Ethnobotany. Relation of medicinal plants, their use patterns and availability in the lower Kailash Sacred Landscape, Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;187. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.6.1-14. Ma QP, Cheng CR, Li XF, Liang XY, Ding J. Chemistry, pharmacological activities and analysis of Ageratina adenophora. Asian J Chem. 2015;27:4311–6. Muniappan R, Raman A, Reddy GVP. Ageratina adenophora (Sprengel) King & Robinson (Asteraceae). In: Muniappan R, Raman A, Reddy GVP, editors. Biological control of tropical weeds using arthropods. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press; 2009. p. 63–73. O’Sullavan BM. Investigations into Crofton weed (Eupatorium adenophorum) toxicity in 638 horses. Aust Vet J. 1985;62:30–2. O’Sullivan BM. Crofton weed (Eupatorium adenophorum) toxicity in horses. Aust Vet J. 1979;55:19–21. Parsons WT, Cuthbertson EG. Noxious weeds of Australia. 2nd ed. Collingwood: CSIRO Publishing; 2001. p. 239–42. Poudel AS, Jha PK, Shrestha BB, Muniappan R. Biology and management of the invasive weed Ageratina adenophora (Asteraceae): current state of knowledge and future research needs. Int J Weed Biol Ecol Vegetat Manag. 2019;1–14. https://doi.org/10.1111/Wre.12. Raj AJ, Biswakarma B, Pala NA, Shukla G, Vineeta V, Kumar M, Chakravarty S, Bussmann RW. Indigenous uses of ethno-medicinal plants among forest dependent communities of Northern Bengal, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;141:8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002018-0208-9. Shrestah BB. Invasive alien plant species in Nepal. In: Jha PK, Siwakoti M, Rajbhandary SR, editors. Frontiers of botany. Kathmandu: Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University; 2016. p. 269–84. Shrestha BB, Shrestha UB, Sharma KP, Thapa-Parajuli RB, Devkota A, Siwakoti M. Community perception and prioritization of invasive alien plants in Chitwan-Annapurna landscape, Nepal. J Environ Manag. 2018;229:38–47. Siwakoti M, Varma SK. Plant diversity of eastern Nepal: Flora of plains of eastern Nepal. Dehradun: Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh; 1999. 202p Siwakoti M, Shrestha BB, Devkota A, Shrestha UB, Thapa-Parajuli RB, Sharma KP. Assessment of the effects of climate change on distribution of invasive alien plant species in Nepal. In: Bhuju DR, McLaughlin K, Siuapati J, Devkota BD, Shrestha N, Ghimire GP, Neupane PK, editors. Building knowledge for climate resilience in Nepal: research brief. Kathmandu: Nepal Academy of Science and Technology; 2016. p. 66–72. Subba B, Kandel RC. Chemical composition and bioactivity of essential oil of Ageratina adenophora from Bhaktapur District of Nepal. J Nepal Chem Soc. 2012;30:78–86.

176

M. Siwakoti et al.

Sun XY, Lu ZH, Sang WG. Review on studies of Eupatorium adenophorum - an important invasive species in China. J Forest Res. 2004;15:319–22. Tiwari S, Adhikari B, Siwakoti M, Subedi K. An inventory and assessment of invasive alien species of Nepal. Kathmandu: IUCN; 2005. Tripathi RS, Singh RS, Rai JPN. Allelopathic potential of Eupatorium adenophorum - a dominant ruderal weed of Meghalaya. Proc Indian Natl Sci Acad. 1981;B47:458–65. Wang R, Wang JF, Qiu ZJ, Meng B, Wan FH, Wang YZ. Multiple mechanisms underlie rapid expansion of an invasive alien plant. New Phytol. 2011;191:828–39. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. St. Louis: Science Press, Beijing & Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Wu ZH, Qin GL, Deng TJ. Invasion and establishment of Eupatorium adenophorum Spreng. and its risk appraisal in some areas of Guangxi. Southwest China J Agric Sci. 2004;469–471.

Ajuga brachystemon Maxim. Ajuga parviflora Benth. in Wall. LAMIACEAE Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms: Bulga brachystemon (Maxim) Kuntze

Local Names Ajuga brachystemon: Garhwal: neelkanthi, rajpatti; Buner: boote; Urdu: gooti; Kashmir: janiadam, jain-i-adam; Jammu: jo-aaran, neel kanthi.

R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_15

177

178

R. M. Kunwar et al.

Botany and Ecology Ajuga parviflora: Annual or short-lived perennial. Stems spreading or ascending, 10–25 cm, usually unbranched, with a sparse to dense eglandular indumentum of long villous multicellular hairs. Leaves rosette-forming or not, variable in size, up to 45  25 mm, obovate-spathulate to elliptic, entire to crenate, narrowed into petiole, entire to irregularly crenate, with multicellular eglandular hairs, thin-textured; petiole on basal leaves up to 20 mm; cauline leaves smaller than basal and decreasing up the stem. Inflorescence unbranched of up to 18 distant or approximating 8–12flowered verticillasters. Calyx 2.5–4 mm with a similar indumentum to stem and with or without sessile oil globules, campanulate; teeth triangular lanceolate, acute, as long as tube; basally enlarged as nutlets mature. Corolla pink, bluish white to

Fig. 1 Ajuga bracteosa (Lamiaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hassan Sher & Ikram Ur Rahman)

Fig. 2 Ajuga genevensis (Lamiaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Ajuga brachystemon Maxim. . . .

179

white, 5–6( 8) mm, pilose; tube slender, shortly exserted from calyx lobes. Stamens usually included in corolla tube. Nutlets pale brown, transversely rugose with prominent ridges, about 1.5  1 mm. Flowering March–June. E. Afghanistan, Pakistan, Kashmir, NW India. (Ali and Qaiser 1995-2020) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Fig. 3 Ajuga genevensis (Lamiaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Ajuga genevensis (Lamiaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

180

R. M. Kunwar et al.

Local Medicinal Uses The leaves of Ajuga brachystemon are used in India to treat fevers (Kumar et al. 2011) and in Jammu and Kashmir as astringent, blood-purifier, anthelminthic, diuretic, styptic, stimulant, tonic, hair tonic, hair wash, and anthelminthic and for abdominal pain, diarrhea, fever, gastric disorders, headache, jaundice, leukorrhea, malaria, oral ulcers, wounds, stomach ache, and rheumatism (Gairola et al. 2014). Also employed to remedy hypertension, jaundice, fever, joint swelling (Jan et al. 2017) and stomach ache (Malik et al. 2015). Ajuga turkestanica: A leaf decoction is used as anti-inflammatory agent and for wounds, burns, tonsilitis, diseases of the stomach, and rheumatism (Bussmann et al. 2020). Ajuga integrifolia leaves are masticated in Pakistan against throat ache, and a decoction is given to women to ease labor (Sher et al. 2015) and to treat diabetes (Ullah et al. 2019). Ajuga remota is used in Kenya as antimalarial and anthelminthic and for colds and flu and stomach problems (Njoroge et al. 2004; Njoroge and Bussmann 2006a, b). Ajuga parviflora: In Jammu and Kashmir, it is used to treat cough, fever, intestinal infections, indigestion, stomach disorders, piles, malaria, and gonorrhea and as purgative and diuretic (Gairola et al., 2014). Ajuga integrifolia is used for diarrhea, malaria, and wound care (Gedif and Hahn 2003), to expel a retained placenta and treat ascariasis (Giday et al. 2009a, b), and for wounds, amoebiasis, and boils (Giday et al. 2010). Ajuga alba serves to treat earache (Yineger et al. 2008). Ajuga chamaepitys is used as tonic, anti-pyretic, emmenagogue, and diuretic and against hemorrhoids and for wound care (Altundaga and Oztürk 2011).

Local Food Uses Ajuga turkestanica: The leaves are eaten in soups and as a salad (Bussmann et al. 2020).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Ajuga turkestanica: Fodder for cattle (Bussmann et al. 2020). Ajuga remota is used in Kenya in veterinary medicine for cattle (Njoroge and Bussmann 2004; 2006c).

Ajuga brachystemon Maxim. . . .

181

References Ahmad L, Semotiuk A, Zafar M, Ahmad M, Sultana S, Liu Q-R, Zada MP, Ul Abidin SZ, Yaseen G. Ethnopharmacological documentation of medicinal plants used for hypertension among the local communities of DIR lower, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;175:138–46. Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan and Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995-2020. Altundaga E, Oztürk M. Ethnomedicinal studies on the plant resources of East Anatolia, Turkey. Proc Soc Behav Sci. 2011;19:756–77. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z. Ajuga sp.; Ajuga turkestanica Briq. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions Central Asia and Altai. Cham: Springer International Publishing International Publishing; 2020. https:// doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77087-1_15-1. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Gedif T, Hahn H-J. The use of medicinal plants in self-care in rural Central Ethiopia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2003;87:155–61. Giday M, Asfaw Z, Woldu Z, Teklehaymanot T. Medicinal plant knowledge of the bench ethnic group of Ethiopia: an ethnobotanical investigation. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2009a;5:34. https:// doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-5-34. Giday M, Asfaw Z, Woldu Z. Medicinal plants of the Meinit ethnic group of Ethiopìa: an ethnobotanical study. J Ethnopharmacol. 2009b;124:513–21. Giday M, Asfaw Z, Woldu Z. Ethnomedicinal study of plants used by Sheko ethnic group of Ethiopia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010;1321:75–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2010.07.046. Jan AH, Wali S, Ahmad L, Jana S, Ahmad N, Ullah N. Ethnomedicinal survey of medicinal plants of Chinglai valley, Buner district, Pakistan. Eur J Integr Med. 2017;13:64–74. Kumar M, Bussmann RW, Mukesh J, Kumar P. Ethnomedicinal uses of plants close to rural habitation in Garhwal Himalayan, India. J Med Plant Res. 2011;511:2252–60. Malik ZA, Bhat J, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhat AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44. Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Herbal usage and informant consensus in ethnoveterinary management of cattle diseases among the kikuyus Central Kenya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2006a;108:332–9. Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Phytotherapeutic management of diversity and utilization of antimalarial ethnophytotherapeutic remedies among the kikuyus Central Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006b;2:8. Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Traditional management of ear, nose and throat ENT diseases in Central Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006c;2:54. Njoroge GN, Barbara G, Bussmann RW, Newton LE, Ngumi VW. Utilization of weed species as source of traditional medicines in Central Kenya: optimizing resource efficiency R.U.E. in agroecosystems. Lyonia. 2004;72:71–87. Sher H, Aldosari A, Bussmann RW. Morels of Palas Valley, Pakistan: a potential source for generating revenue, income and improving livelihood of mountain communities. Econ Bot. 2015;69(4):345–59. Ullah M, Mehmood S, Ali M, Bussmann RW, Aldosari A, Ali Khan R, Ullah R, Hussain W, Rahman Shah MA. An ethnopharmacological study of plants used for treatment of diabetes in the southern and tribal regions of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18(8):1–20. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.8.1-20. Yineger H, Kelbessa E, Bekele T, Lulekal E. Plants used in traditional management of human ailments at Bale Mountains National Park, southeastern Ethiopia. J Med Plants Res. 2008;26:132–53.

Allium carolinianum DC. Allium griffithianum Boiss. Allium humile Kunth Allium jacquemontii Regel Allium oreoprasum Schrenk AMARYLLIDACEAE Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Synonyms Allium carolinianum DC.: Allium aitchisonii Baker, Allium aitchisonii Regel, Allium blandum Wall., Allium obtusifolium Klotzsch, Allium platyspathum var. falcatum Regel, Allium platystylum Regel, Allium polyphyllum Kar. & Kir., Allium thomsonii Baker. Allium griffithianum Boiss.: Allium rubellum var. grandiflorum Boiss. Allium humile Kunth: Allium govanianum Wall. ex Baker, Allium nivale Jacquem. ex Hook. f. & Thomson.

Local Names Allium carolinianum: Pashto: jangli wezai; Baltistan: broq chong; chong; Northwest Pakistan: khokhai; Jammu: arum, kotse, skiche; Kashmir: praan, gogcheegma. H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_16

183

184

H. A. Jan et al.

Allium griffithianum: Kurram: payazaki. Allium humile: Garhwal: pangri. Allium jacquemontii: Kurram: zangali, payaz. Allium oreoprasum: Nepali: lungho. Allium sativum: Pashto: woga; Khyber Pakhtunkhwa: werzenu; Kashmir: gande, gundh, rohun, gand, rhoon, rohan, ruhan; Jammu: pyaaz, ganda, thoom, Ladakh: tsong, gogps, sgogpa, skokpa. Allium cepa: Pashto: payz.

Botany and Ecology Allium carolinianum: Bulbs usually paired, ovoid to ovoid-cylindric, 1–2.5 cm in diameter; tunic brown to yellowish-brown, leathery, apex separated, usually fibrous. Leaves broadly linear, usually falcate, shorter than scape, (3–)5–15-mm wide, flat, smooth, apex obtuse. Scape 20–40( 60) cm, terete, covered with leaf sheaths for about half its length. Spathe 2-valved, persistent. Umbel globose, densely many flowered. Pedicels subequal, slightly shorter than to twice as long as perianth, bracteolate or ebracteolate. Perianth pale red to purple-red or white; segments oblong to narrowly so, (4.5–)6–8( 9.4)  1.5–3 mm, apex obtuse, sometimes retuse; inner ones subequaling to slightly longer than outer. Filaments subulate, slightly shorter than to twice as long as perianth segments, connate at base and adnate to perianth segments for about 1 mm; inner ones wider than outer at base. Ovary subglobose, with concave nectaries at base. Style exserted. Flowering and fruiting June to September (Wu et al. 1994-2013). Allium griffithianum: Plants up to 40 cm tall. Bulb ovoid, outer coats coriaceous, fibrous grayish-black; inner coats membranous; bulblets present, few, large. Leaves 2–3, linear, semicylindrical, fistular, grooved, 1–2 mm broad, glabrous. Umbels hemispherical, dense flowered. Pedicels very unequal, 5–20 mm long. Tepals broadly lanceolate to oval, 6–7-mm long, white to light pink or light purple, acute to obtuse, veins prominent; inner tepals shorter than the outer, distinctly gibbous at the base. Filaments entire, about 1/3 the length of the tepals, about 2/3 of the filaments united, upper 1/3 free; inner filaments broad, ovate, outer narrower, triangular. Flowering March to April. Central Asia, Afghanistan, India, and Pakistan. A very common species (Ali and Qaiser 1995-2020). Allium humile: Bulb solitary, cylindric; tunic brown, reticulate or subreticulate. Leaves 4–7, linear, 4–5-mm wide, flat, solid, fleshy, apex obtuse. Scape 5–15 cm, slightly compressed, covered with leaf sheaths only at base. Umbel hemispheric, many flowered. Pedicels subequal, 1.5–2 times as long as perianth. Perianth broadly exposed, white; segments with yellowish-green midvein, lanceolate, 7–8 ( 10)  about 2 mm. Filaments equal, about 1/2 as long as perianth segments. Ovary obconical-globose. Style short; stigma slightly three-cleft. Flowering June (Wu et al. 1994-2013). Allium jacquemontii: Plants 15–35 cm tall. Bulb ovoid, 0.5–1.2 cm broad; outer coats coriaceous, striate, black-brown; inner membranous. Scapes slender, glabrous.

Allium carolinianum DC. . . .

185

Leaves 2–3, linear, fistular, 0.5–1.5 mm broad, glabrous. Umbels dense flowered, about 3 cm across. Pedicels filiform, about 15-mm long. Tepals rose colored, about 5–mm long, oval, acute. Filaments about 2/3 the length of the tepals, entire, inner broader, triangular; anthers dark violet colored. Style included; stigma capitate. Flowering March to April: Central Asia, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and India. A common species in the plains and the foothills (Ali and Qaiser 1995-2020). Allium oreoprasum: Bulbs clustered, narrowly ovoid-cylindric, 0.5–1 cm in diameter; tunic yellowish-brown, reticulate. Leaves narrowly linear, shorter than (sometimes half as long as) scape, 1–3( 4)-mm wide. Scape 11–30( 40) cm, terete, covered with leaf sheaths only at base. Spathe 1- or 2-valved, persistent. Umbel fascicled to hemispheric, few flowered. Pedicels subequal, 1.5–3 times as long as perianth, bracteolate. Perianth pale red to white; segments with dark purple midvein, obovate-elliptic to broadly so, 4.2–7  2.5–4 mm, apex with a conduplicate and reflexed point; inner ones usually shorter and wider than outer. Filaments 1/2–3/4 as long as perianth segments, connate at base and adnate to perianth segments for 1.2– 1.5 mm; outer ones narrowly triangular, slightly shorter than inner and about half as wide at base; inner ones broadly triangular. Ovary subglobose, without concave nectaries at base. Style not exserted; stigma slightly three-cleft. Flowering and fruiting June to August (Wu et al. 1994-2013).

Local Medicinal Uses Many species of wild onion with garlic scent are widely used in folk medicine. The tincture has antimicrobial properties and is used in atherosclerosis, colitis, and diarrhea. Fresh or cooked onions are applied topically for certain skin diseases (abrasions, sores). Fresh juice from the leaves and bulbs with sugar is used for the treatment of diseases of the upper respiratory tract. Onion improves vision; onion juice prevents the development of cataracts in the early stages. Alcohol tinctures regulate blood pressure and improve the elasticity of capillaries (Bussmann 2017; Fayvush et al. 2017). Allium carolinianum serves to remedy diabetes (Ullah et al. 2019), as appetite stimulant and tonic and to treat jaundice and skin and eye inflammations (Pawera et al. 2015). It is also used for joint pain and gastrointestinal disorders (Abbas et al. 2016). In Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh, it is used for constipation, female ailments, joint pain, indigestion, and swollen joints (Gairola et al. 2014). Allium griffithianum serves to remedy colic and vomiting (Muhammad et al. 2019). Allium jacquemontii: Fresh leaves are plucked though they are bitter in taste, but when eaten raw or cooked along with other pot herbs, it is a good remedy for gastrointestinal disorders especially stomachache (Jan et al. 2017). Rhizome is used for stomach disorder (Muhammad et al. 2019), unequal mammary glands and hypertension (Ahmad et al. 2015), as well as stomach disorders (Muhammad et al. 2019). Allium oreoprasum: In Nepal it is used to treat colds, cough, and sore throat. The species showed antiviral properties (Rajbhandari et al. 2007).

186

H. A. Jan et al.

Allium ursinum is used for wound healing in the form of a decoction, gargle, and applications as disinfectant and wound healing remedy in diseases of the skin and women’s diseases and for abscess. The plant is used raw in scurvy. Allium species are used as anthelminthic (Bussmann 2017; Fayvush et al. 2017). Allium victorialis is used for infectious diseases: Used in the fresh form as antimicrobial and anthelmintic remedy (Bussmann 2017; Fayvush et al. 2017). In Jammu and Kashmir, it is used for toothache and diarrhea (Gairola et al. 2014). Allium giganteum: During the spring people use its fresh leaves in traditional foods such as Ugro, Oshi Burida, Otala, Hirik, Oshi tupa, and Mastoba. It provides a unique taste, and people believe it has health benefits (nutraceutical). Local people also dry its leaves and use it in different traditional foods as a spice during winter times. The bulbs are collected and pickled. Onion pickles are very popular in Tajikistan (Bussmann et al. 2020). Allium karataviense: In Middle Asia it is used for lung problems. The decoction of bulbs is used in traditional medicine for pulmonary diseases and strong shortness of breath (Bussmann et al. 2020). Allium proliferum: In Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh, it is used for joint health (Gairola et al. 2014). Allium stipitatum: Used as ornamental, in traditional medicine, and as a vegetable. The plants are applied in folk medicine against skin diseases. Plants are baked or cooked in honey and used against several diseases. The bulbs have disinfectant properties and are used to treat rheumatism and high blood pressure and as a booster in the digestive tract (Bussmann et al. 2020). Allium cepa: In popular medicine it is considered as a great disinfectant, and in this way it is used in the form of plasters on the affected part and in cases of bites and insect bites. The onion is also considered effective to reduce inflammation and disinfect the respiratory tract: it is used especially to treat hoarseness, sore throats, and inflammation of the nasal mucosa. Consuming it as juice or broth mixed with a little sugar and drunk in glasses, combined with the application of plasters, is used successfully to treat inflammations, wounds, boils, abscesses, and fistulas. Fresh bulbs are used to treat high blood pressure, varicose veins, diabetes, rheumatism, asthma, and cough for blood cleansing. Fresh bulbs are used to treat cough. In Peru it is used for cough and bronchial problems (Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2020). In Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh, it is used for hair health (Gairola et al. 2014). Allium przewalskianum: In Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh, it is given to women after delivery to improve strength and is used for dysentery, stomachache, abdominal gas, hypertension, and stomach pain (Gairola et al. 2014). Allium rubellum: In Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh, it is used for earache, giddiness, insect bites, and respiratory troubles and as expectorant (Gairola et al. 2014). Allium consanguineum: In Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh, it is used as aphrodisiac and stimulant (Gairola et al. 2014). Allium odorum is used in Peru for bronchitis, asthma, and bruises (PaniaguaZambrana et al. 2020). Allium sativum: Commonly used against intestinal worms, to reduce blood pressure and blood sugar, as an antispasmodic, to lower levels of cholesterol in the blood, and

Allium carolinianum DC. . . .

187

for intestinal diseases. It is usually used raw and as a disinfectant and a tonic for the pituitary gland. It is a plant that also relieves diabetes and rheumatism in general. Garlic is also used to regulate liver function and cure hemorrhoids, varicose veins, gastrointestinal infections, and dysentery. The whole plant is used for witchcraft and good luck. Fresh bulbs are used for blood cleansing; to treat arthritis, rheumatism, high blood pressure, diabetes, high cholesterol, hemorrhage, bronchitis, cough, gastritis, intestinal infections, liver problems, and cancer; and as analgesic, circulatory stimulant, tonic, and vermifuge. Fresh bulbs are used to treat high blood pressure, cough, tonsillitis, and hemorrhage and for cultural illnesses (e.g., that the kari kari (a spirit) stays away and to stay young). Fresh bulbs are used to treat cough, bronchitis and colds, and other respiratory disorders. Its antibacterial activity has been confirmed (Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2020). It is used in Pakistan to treat blood pressure and menopausal problems, as aphrodisiac (Sher et al. 2016), and for indigestion and goiter (Reang et al. 2016). Allium gilgiticum serves to treat pain and headache (Wali et al. 2019).

Local Food Uses Allium carolinianum is eaten as vegetable (Ahmad et al. 2015; Ullah et al. 2019) and used as condiment (Abbas et al. 2019). Young leaves and stems of Allium paradoxum together with the bulbs in fresh or pickled form are used as seasoning for various dishes. The leaves and stems of Allium paradoxum together with bulbs are used as one of the ingredients for cooking the national dishes Dovga (a soup cooked from yogurt, various greens, a small amount of rice, and eggs. In some regions of the country, a small amount of peas is added to it. It is considered good for digestion and for treatment of intestinal cramps and has warming and diaphoretic effects), Kutab (various edible greens baked in a thin rolled dough. In some regions of the country, white cheese, or cottage cheese. Before it is eaten, the rolls are greased with butter, often mixed with yoghurt), and Kuku (an omelet with various greens, sometimes with added meat or fish, and often mixed with yoghurt. This food is believed to strengthen the organism and stimulates libido, especially if eaten with cinnamon and fried onions). Allium humile and Allium stracheyi: Used as food in Garhwal (Thakur et al. 2017). Allium victorialis has a very strong garlic taste. It is used fresh, fermented, and salted (Bussmann 2017; Fayvush et al. 2017). Allium ursinum is used raw and in the form of a marinade with salt and vinegar. Young leaves of Allium ursinum are fried thoroughly in oil with onions (with either walnuts or eggs added in some regions) and are eaten with yoghurt (Bussmann 2017; Fayvush et al. 2017). The consumption of leaves of Allium ursinum and A. victorialis is widespread in the Caucasus. A. ursinum is consumed at lower and A. victorialis at higher altitudes. The use of the latter species is more frequent. It was customary to eat the leaves pickled (Bussmann 2017; Fayvush et al. 2017).

188

H. A. Jan et al.

Allium karataviense: In Tajikistan the whole plant is eaten (Sokolov 1994). Leaves and bulbs are widely used in traditional foods such as Oshi burida, Oshi tuppa, and Alafjush (Bussmann et al. 2020). Allium rosenbachianum: Local people use fresh leaves as well as dried leaves depending on the season in Tajik national dishes such as Oshi burida, Ugro, Umoch, Otalla, Birinjoba, and Hirik (Bussmann et al. 2020). Allium stipitatum: Young and undeveloped bulbs are pickled in aromatic vinegar (Tajik “pijozi anzur,” Uzbek “anzur pijoz,” Persian “mu-sir,” Dari “toshi”) and used as appetizer and with meals (Bussmann et al. 2020). Allium tenuissimum: A very widely used species. The inflorescence and seeds can be used as condiments. All kinds of livestock like to eat; it is an excellent forage plant. Zama is widely distributed, but most popular in Central Inner Mongolia, the Loess Plateau area. It comes from Mongolian phonetic translation, but after the spread of the Han people, it has become zemeng, zameng, and other similar names. This species has very fine and narrow leaves and is extremely drought-tolerant (Bussmann et al. 2020). Allium trautvetterianum: People use the leaves of this onion species fresh as well as dried depending the season. It is important in Tajik national foods, such as Modeloba, Oshiburida, Oshitupa, Umoch, Ugro, and Mastoba (Bussmann et al. 2020). Allium cepa and A. sativum are used as a seasoning and as a food (Wali et al. 2019; Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2020). Lots of Allium species serve as seasoning for the Naxi in Yunnan (Zhang et al. 2016). Allium gilgiticum is a vegetable in Gilgit-Baltistan (Wali et al. 2019).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Allium giganteum: The plant produces a big umbel of flowers and is used in horticulture as an ornamental plant (Bussmann et al. 2020). Allium karavatiense: It is a highly appreciated ornamental plant for its beautiful inflorescence (Bussmann et al. 2020). Allium stipitatum: Piyozi anzur is used as ornamental plant because of its flower umbels. However, overharvesting of bulbs from natural populations for different uses has resulted in inclusion of this species in the Red Book of Tajikistan (Bussmann et al. 2020). Allium rosenbachianum: The plant is used as an ornamental (Bussmann et al. 2020). Allium trautvetterianum: This is very rarely offered as ornamental (Bussmann et al. 2020). Allium odorum and Allium sativum are used in Peru for bad air/mal aire and to cleanse the house of spirits (Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2020). In Ethiopia it is used to treat hepatitis in livestock (Yineger et al. 2007). Allium gilgiticum can be used as forage (Wali et al. 2019) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, and 23).

Allium carolinianum DC. . . . Fig. 1 Allium cepa (Amaryllidaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Allium fistulosum (Amaryllidaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

189

190 Fig. 3 Allium fistulosum (Amaryllidaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Allium fistulosum (Amaryllidaceae), Pankisi gorge, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Allium fistulosum (Amaryllidaceae), Pankisi gorge, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

H. A. Jan et al.

Allium carolinianum DC. . . . Fig. 6 Allium victorialis (Amaryllidaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 7 Allium victorialis (Amaryllidaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

191

192 Fig. 8 Allium victorialis (Amaryllidaceae), pickled, Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 9 Allium sativum (Amaryllidaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

H. A. Jan et al.

Allium carolinianum DC. . . . Fig. 10 Allium schoenoprasum (Amaryllidaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 11 Allium schoenoprasum (Amaryllidaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

193

194 Fig. 12 Allium karataviense (Amaryllidaceae), Tajikistan. (Photo M. Boboev)

Fig. 13 Allium karataviense (Amaryllidaceae), Tajikistan. (Photo M. Boboev)

H. A. Jan et al.

Allium carolinianum DC. . . . Fig. 14 Allium sp. (Amaryllidaceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 15 Allium rosenbachianum (Amaryllidaceae), Tajikistan. (Photo M. Boboev)

195

196 Fig. 16 Allium rosenbachianum (Amaryllidaceae), Tajikistan. (Photo M. Boboev)

Fig. 17 Allium cepa (Amaryllidaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

H. A. Jan et al.

Allium carolinianum DC. . . .

Fig. 18 Allium rosenbachianum (Amaryllidaceae), Tajikistan. (Photo M. Boboev) Fig. 19 Allium stipitatum (Amaryllidaceae), Tajikistan. (Photo M. Boboev)

197

198 Fig. 20 Allium stipitatum (Amaryllidaceae), Tajikistan. (Photo M. Boboev)

Fig. 21 Allium stipitatum (Amaryllidaceae), Tajikistan. (Photo M. Boboev)

H. A. Jan et al.

Allium carolinianum DC. . . .

199

Fig. 22 Allium tenuissimum (Amaryllidaceae), Local Mongolians grow Zama Allium tenuissimum on their roof, where no fierce competition with other species. (Photo Runkuan Liu & Shuanlian Pu)

Fig. 23 Wild semiarid habitat of Allium tenuissimum accompanied by Fabaceae sp. (Photo Runkuan Liu & Shuanlian Pu)

200

H. A. Jan et al.

References Abbas Z, Mulk Khan S, Mehmood Abbasi A, Pieroni A, Ullah Z, Iqbal M, Ahmad Z. Ethnobotany of the Balti community, Tormik valley, Karakorum range, Baltistan, Pakistan. Abbas et al. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12(38) https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0114-y. Abbas, Z., Alam, J., Muhammad, S., Bussmann, R.W., Mulk Khan, S., Hussain, M. 2019. Phytocultural diversity of the Shigar valley Central Karakorum Baltistan, northern Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl 1832 https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.31.1-18. Ahmad L, Semotiuk A, Zafar M, Ahmad M, Sultana S, Liu QR, et al. Ethnopharmacological documentation of medicinal plants used for hypertension among the local communities of DIR lower, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;175:138–46. Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan and Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995-2020. Bussmann, RW; Batsatsashvili, K; Kikvidze, Z; Boboev, M; Ghorbani, A; de Boer, H; Kool, A; Liu, B; Zhao, L; Ma, Z (2020). Allium giganteum Regel; Allium karataviense Regel.; Allium rosenbachianum Regel; Allium stipitatum Regel; Allium suworowii Regel; Allium trautvetterianum Regel. In: Batsatsashvili, K; Kikvidze, Z; Bussmann, RW (Eds.) Ethnobotany of mountain regions Central Asia and Altai. Springer International Publishing International Publishing Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77087-3_16-1. Bussmann RW (ed.). Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1). Fayvush G, Aleksanyan A, Mehdiyeva N, Alizade V, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Allium paradoxum (M. Bieb.) G. Don; Allium ursinum L.; Allium victorialis L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/978-3-319-49412-8_135. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Jan HA, Wali S, Ahmad L, Jan S, Ahmad N, Ullah N. Ethnomedicinal survey of medicinal plants of Chinglai valley, Buner district, Pakistan. Eur J Integr Med. 2017;13:64–74. Muhammad S, Hussain M, Abbas Z, Saqib Z, Bussmann RW, Shah GM. An ethnomedicinal appraisal of the Kurram agency, tribal area, Pakistan. Indian J Tradit Knowl (IJTK). 2019;18(4):631–47. Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, Romero ABOUT. Allium cepa L.; Allium fistulosum L.; Allium ramosum L.; Allium sativum L. In: Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions – Ethnobotany of the Andes. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77093-2_15-1. Pawera L, Verner V, Termote C, Sodombekov I, Kadanov A, Karabaev N, Skalicky M, Polesny Z. Medical ethnobotany of herbal practitioners in the Turkestan range, southwestern Kyrgyzstan. Acta Soc Botan Polon. 2015; https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3483. Rajbhandari M, Mentel R, Jha PK, Chaudhary RP, Bhattarai S, Gewali MB, Karmacharya N, Hipper M, Lindequist U. Antiviral activity of some plants used in Nepalese traditional medicine. eCAM. 2007:1–6. https://doi.org/10.1093/ecam/nem156. Reang I, Goswami S, Pala NA, Kumar K, Bussmann RW. Ethnoveterinary applications of medicinal plants by traditional herbal healers in Reang tribe of South district Tripura, India. Med Aroma Plant. 2016;5–2. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni groups in Chitral District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Sokolov PD. (ed.). Plant resources of Russia and adjacent states: Flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 8. Families Butomaceae - Typhaceae. Akademia Nauk, Leningrad, 1994;271 p. (in Russian).

Allium carolinianum DC. . . .

201

Thakur D, Sharma A, Uniyal SK. Why they eat, what they eat: patterns of wild edible plants consumption in a tribal area of Western Himalaya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13:70. https:// doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0198-z. Ullah M, Mehmood S, Ali M, Bussmann RW, Aldosari A, Ali Khan R, Ullah R, Hussain W, Rahman Shah MA. An ethnopharmacological study of plants used for treatment of diabetes in the southern and tribal regions of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18(8) https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.8.1-20. Wali R, Rahman K, Raja NI, Qureshi R, Bussmann RW, Mashwani ZUR. A quantitative medico botanical expedition of fairy meadows National Park, Diamir, Gilgit Baltistan, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019, 1835; https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.35.1-30. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994-2013. Zhang L, Chai Z, Zhang Y, Geng Y, Wang Y. Ethnobotanical study of traditional edible plants used by the Naxi people during droughts. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:39. https://doi.org/10. 1186/s13002-016-0113-z.

Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br. APOCYNACEAE Man D. Bhatt, Ripu M. Kunwar, Bijendra Basnyat, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br.: Alstonia constricta F. Muell.; Alstonia kurzii Hook. f.; Alstonia spectabilis Kurz; Echites pala Buch.-Ham. ex Spreng.; Echites scholaris L.; Pala scholaris (L.) Roberty.

M. D. Bhatt Botany Department, Siddhanath Science Campus, Tribhuvan University, Kanchanpur, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] B. Basnyat NARMA Consultancy, Kathmandu, Nepal R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_17

203

204

M. D. Bhatt et al.

Local Names Alstonia scholaris: Nepali: chhatiwan, chhalamani, palimara, chhatiun, aak chhataun, chhatni (Press et al. 2000); Sanskrit: bahucchada, bishmachhad, brihatvak, saptaparna; Hindi: chhattiwan, satiwan, saptaparnna, datyuni, chhatium, Japanese: shima sokei; Chepang: chhataun, Tamil: elilaip-palai, paalooram pattai; Bhengali: chatian; Lepcha: purbo, Naga: loomi; Mooshar: chhatamain, Newar: chhatiwansin, Rai: wallun; English: devil’s tree, white cheese wood, verbal, milkwood pines, milkwood, milky pine, blackboard tree, dita bark. The species epithet scholaris was derived from the use of its wood in making blackboards for schools in Southeast Asia (Arulmozhi et al. 2007; Baliga 2010, 2012) (Figs. 1 and 2). Fig. 1 Alstonia scholaris (Apocynaceae), Pipara, Chitwan, Nepal. (Photo Ripu M. Kunwar)

Fig. 2 Alstonia scholaris (Apocynaceae), DodharaChandani area, Kanchanpur, Nepal. (Photo Ripu M. Kunwar)

Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br.

205

Phytochemistry The chemical constituents of the A. scholaris contain alkaloids, coumarins, flavonoids, leucoanthocyanins, reducing sugars, simple phenolics, steroids, saponins, and tannins. Leaf extract contain Cu, Zn, Fe, Ca, Cr, Mn, and Cd. Ethanolic extract of leaves contain four picrin-type monoterpenoids indole alkaloids, 5β-methoxyaspidophylline, picrinine, picralinal, 5-methoxystrictamine; methanolic extract of leaves contains the first seco-uleine alkaloids. The hydro-alcoholic extract of leaves contain 2,3-secofernane triterpenoids, alstonic acids A and B, together with an indole alkaloid, N-methoxymethyl picrine. Alkaloids – alstonamine, akuammiline, vallesamine (Watanabe et al. 2005), akuammicin, diamine, ditamine, echitamidine, echitamine, macrocarpamine, nareline, Nb-demethylechitamine, Nb-oxide and Nb-methiodide, picrinine, picralinal, pseudoakuammigine, rhizine, strictamine, tetrahydroalstonine, and tubotaiwin (GoN 2007; Hussain et al. 1992; Prajapati et al. 2006). Leaves contain betulin, ursolic acid and β-sitosterol, and betulene (Asolkar and Chakre 1965-1981), and bark contains glucoside of venoterpine, triterpenes, lupeol, stigmasterol, sitosterol acetate, and amyrin (Joshi 2006). The analysis of phytochemical constituents was by Banerji and Banerji (1975), Banerji and Chakrabarti (1994), Dutta et al. (2010), and Thankamani (2011). Alkaloids are one of the major constituents of the species (Dutt, 19; Cai et al. 2010). Among different alkaloids, echitamine (Govindachari and Rajappa 1961), echitamine chloride (Kamarajan et al. 1991), rhazine (Chatterjee et al. 1969), nareline (Morita et al. 1977), pseudo-akuammigine (Banerji and Banerji 1977), scholarine (Banerji and Siddhanta 1981), scholaricine (Banerji 1981), dihydrocondylocarpine (Rahman et al. 1968), picrinine (Ghosh et al. 1988), alschomine and isoalschomine (Abe et al. 1989), mataranine A and B (Hadi 2009), monoterpenoid indole alkaloids (Cai et al. 2008), picralinal of picralima group (Rastogi and Mehrotra 1970-1979), picrinine-type alkaloids (Cai et al. 2008), N1-methoxymethyl picrinine (Wang et al. 2009), etc. have been reported. Other chemical constituents have been reported from different parts of the plant such as bark (Gupta et al. 2002; Feng et al. 2009), leaves (Chatterjee et al. 1965; Banerji and Banerji 1977; Rahman et al. 1968), roots (Boonchuay and Court 1976), flowers (Dutta et al. 1976), and fruits (Wongseripipatana et al. 2004). Among the other constituents, Isookanin-7-o-alpha-lrhamnopyranoside, a new flavanone glycoside (Chauhan et al. 1985), and alstonoside, a secoiridoid glucoside (Thomas et al. 2008), have been recorded. Iridoids, coumarins, flavonoids, leucoanthocyanins, reducing sugars, simple phenolics, steroids, saponins, and tannins were also found in the plant (Khyade et al. 2014). Presence of agr-amyrin, bgr-amyrin, lupeol acetate, venenative, rhazine, and yohimbine has been noted (Gupta et al. 2002). Linalool, cis- and trans-linalool oxides (furanoid and pyranoid), alpha-terpineol, 2-phenylethyl acetate and terpinen-4-ol have been reported (Dung et al. 2001), alstonic acids A and B and steroids lupeol acetate (Gupta et al. 2005), flavonoids (Hui et al. 2009); monoterpene, triterpene (Chakravarti et al. 1960; Wang et al. 2009); iridoids (Feng et al. 2008) have been reported from the plant. Apart from those, two C13-norisoprenoids, namely, megastigmane-3β, 4α, 9-triol and 7-megastigmene-3,6,9-triol (Xu et al. 2009), and C13-norisoprenoid (Xu et al. 2009) are among the other phytoconstituents of the species.

206

M. D. Bhatt et al.

Botany and Ecology Alstonia scholaris: Trees to 40 m tall, glabrous. Bark gray; branchlets copiously lenticellate. Leaves in whorls of 3–10; petiole 1–3 cm; leaf blade narrowly obovate to very narrowly spatulate, 7–28 X 2–11 cm, leathery, base cuneate, apex usually rounded; lateral veins 25–50 pairs, at 80–90° to midvein. Cymes dense, pubescent; peduncle 4–7 cm. Pedicel usually as long as or shorter than calyx. Corolla white, tube 6–10 mm; lobes broadly ovate or broadly obovate, 2–4.5 mm, overlapping to left. Ovaries distinct, pubescent. Follicles distinct, linear, to 57 cm X 2–5 mm. Seeds oblong, margin ciliate, ends with tufts of hairs 1.5–2 cm. Flowering June to November, fruiting October to December (Grierson and Long 1984; Wu et al. 1994-2013), vulnerable (Gurung and Pyakurel 2017).

Local Medicinal Uses Alstonia scholaris: The pharmacological action of the stem bark is hypotensive and anticancerous (Chandel et al. 1996). It paralyzes peripheral motor nerve filaments as a property of ditaine which it contains. Picrinine showed CNS depressant action (Joshi 2006). It is used in diarrhea of malarial origin and for chronic intermittent fevers suppressed by quinine (Joshi 2006). The plant species is highly medicinal in reference to local uses. In Ayurveda plant is considered as astringent, stomachic, laxative, and insecticidal and is used for wound, cough, skin diseases, asthma, and abdominal mass and also as blood purifier (Misra 1993). The different parts of plant is used as medicine like bark, leaves, wood, sap, gum, roots and milky exudates. Seed and bark: powdered with cornflower is given to cattle for strength and vigor (Manandhar 1989, 2002); given to nursing women for increasing milk; also used as febrifuge, laxative, and appetizer (Siwakoti and Siwakoti 1998); used to cure malarial fever (Siwakoti and Siwakoti 2000) and treat sprain (Dangol and Gurung 2000); given after childbirth to improve lactation (Joshi 2006; Manandhar 1986, 2002); used as febrifuge, anthelmintic, and alterative; used for diarrhea, dysentery, chronic ulcers (IUCN 2004; Devkota 1968), malarial fever, leprosy, and skin diseases (GoN 2007; LISP 2004; Sacherer 1979); and given to women after childbirth as astringent and for lactation, bronchitis, and pneumonia (Warrier et al. 1994; Watanabe et al. 2005). Decoction of the bark is tonic and anticholeric (Joshi 2006; Manandhar 2002). Roots: used in tumor and cancer (Asolkar and Chakre 1965-1981; Dutta 2007; Joshi 2006). Leaves: sap is rubbed on the chest to cure chest pain, heart pain, and lung problems (Chaudhary 2001), latex mixed with mustard oil is applied on boils and areas with rheumatic pain, and a few drops are put in the ear to relieve earache (Joshi 2006; IUCN 2004; Manandhar 2002); it is used for snakebite (GoN 2007) and fever of parturient women (Siwakoti and Siwakoti 1998). Antileishmanial activity has been shown (Rocha et al. 2005). In Bengal it is used for cough and cold and as anthelminthic (Raj et al. 2018). It is used for hypertension, diabetes, and malaria (Ahmad and Ismail 2003), applied to swellings and used as abortifacient (Ayyanar and Ignacimuthu 2005), used for leucorrhea (Bhandary et al. 1995), used

Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br.

207

to treat piles and as galactagogue (Debbarma et al. 2017; Ignacimuthu et al. 2006), and proposed as cancer remedy (Graham et al. 2000). In Mizoram it is used to treat malaria, diarrhea, heart problems, and hypertension (Sharma et al. 2001). It is applied to snakebites (Houghton and Osibogun 1993). In Nagaland it is used for gastritis, as liver tonic, and for jaundice (Kichu et al. 2015). In India it is used to treat asthma, bronchitis, chest pain, cholera, diarrhea, eye complaints, fever, malaria, pneumonia, rheumatism, snakebite, stomachache, ulcer of mouth, cholera, headache, neuralgia, and pain in legs and aids in childbirth (Verma et al. 2007). In Nepal it is used to treat fever, headache, and asthma (Kunwar et al. 2009, 2013; Kunwar and Bussmann 2009). Alstonia boonei is used to treat tuberculosis (Sharifi-Rad et al. 2017).

Local Food Uses Alstonia scholaris: In Bengal it is used as ingredient in alcoholic beverages (Raj et al. 2018).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Alstonia scholaris: The plant has been investigated as a source of biocrude and solid fuel (Sharma and Prasad 1986), alternative energy (Augustus et al. 2003), and isoprene emission (Padhy and Varshney 2005). The tree is still being overharvested in the past for timber in Malaysia and adjoining countries. The bark is harvested to prepare incense sticks in India and Nepal as the bark has adhesive properties. As a result of overharvesting, IUCN keeps this in the red list as “rare” in 1998, and later, it was assigned “least concern” (IUCN 2020). The CAMP kept this under vulnerable category. In Nepal, its local population is least known. It is used to treat cough and cold and as anthelminthic in livestock (Raj et al. 2018) and used in ceremonial practice.

References Abe F, Chen RF, Yamauchi T, Marubayashi N, Ueda I. Alschomine and Isoalschomine, new alkaloids from the leaves of Alstonia scholaris. Chem Pharmaceut Bull. 1989;37(4):887–90. Ahmad FB, Ismail G. 2003. Medicinal plants used by Kadazandusun communities around Crocker Range. ASEAN Review of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation (ARBEC) January– March 2003. http://www.arbec.com.my/pdf/art1janmar03.pdf Arulmozhi S, Mitra Mazumder P, Purnima A, Sathiya Narayanan L. Pharmacological activities of Alstonia scholaris Linn. (Apocynaceae)-a review. Pharm Rev. 2007;1:163–70. Asolkar LK, Chakre OJ. Second supplement to glossary of Indian medicinal plants with active principles. New Delhi: Publication & Information Directorate, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research; 1965-1981. Augustus GDPS, Jayabalan M, Seiler GJ. Alternative energy sources from plants of Western Ghats (Tamil Nadu, India). Biomass Bioenergy. 2003;24(6):437–44.

208

M. D. Bhatt et al.

Ayyanar M, Ignacimuthu S. Traditional knowledge of Kani tribals in Kouthalai of Tirunelveli hills, Tamil Nadu, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102:246–55. Baliga MS. Alstonia scholaris Linn. R. Br. In the treatment and prevention of cancer: past, present, and future. Integr Cancer Ther. 2010;9:261–9. Baliga MS. Review of the phytochemical, pharmacological and toxicological properties of Alstonia scholaris Linn. R. Br (Saptaparna). Chin J Integr Med. 2012;19:1–14. Banerji A. Scholaricine, an alkaloid from Alstonia scholaris. Phytochemistry. 1981;20(3):2771–3. Banerji A, Banerji J Constituents of Alstonia scholaris. Indian Science Congress Association Proceedings; 1975. p. 62. Banerji A, Banerji J. Isolation of Pseudo Akuammigine from the leaves of Alstonia scholaris. Indian J. Chem. B Org. 1977;15:390391. Banerji J, Chakrabarti R. Constituents of Alstonia scholaris conversion of Picrinine into Strictamine and to a Pyrrolidinoindolenine system. Indian J Chem B Org Chem Incl Med Chem. 1994;23:453–4. Banerji A, Siddhanta AK. Scholarine: an indole alkaloid of Alstonia scholaris. Phytochemistry. 1981;20:540–2. Bhandary MJ, Chandrashekar KR, Kaveriappa KM. Medical ethnobotany of the Siddis of Uttara Kannada district, Karnataka, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 1995;47:149–58. Boonchuay W, Court WE. Minor alkaloids of Alstonia scholaris root. Phytochemistry. 1976;15 Cai XH, Liu YP, Feng T, Luo XD. Picrinine-type alkaloids from the leaves of Alstonia scholaris. Chin J Nat Med. 2008;6:20–2. Cai XH, Shang JH, Feng T, Luoa XD. Novel alkaloids from Alstonia scholaris. Z Naturforsch B Chem Sci. 2010;65:11641168. Chakravarti D, Chakravarti RN, Ghose R. Triterpenes of Alstonia scholaris R. Br J Indian Chem Soc. 1960;37:637–9. Chandel KPS, Shukla G, Sharma N. Biodiversity in medicinal and aromatic plants in India. New Delhi: ICAR, National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources; 1996. 239 p. Chatterjee A, Mukherjee B, Ray AB, Das B. The alkaloid of the leaves of Alstonia scholaris R. Br Tetrahedron Lett. 1965;41:36333637. Chatterjee A, Mukherjee B, Ghosal S, Banerjee PK. Occurrence of Rhazine in Alstonia scholaris R. Br.: biogenetic and chemo taxonomic significance of the co occurrence of several indole alkaloids having a common structural pattern. J Indian Chem Soc. 1969;46:635638. Chaudhary NK. Knowledge system on the use of indigenous medicinal plants in Tharu community: anthropological case study of Bachhauli VDC of Chitwan District, Narayani zone. (Master’s thesis). Ghantaghar, Kathmandu: Department of Sociology/Anthropology, Tri-Chandra Campus; 2001. Chauhan JS, Chaturvedi R, Kumar S. Isookanin-7-O-alpha-LRhamnopyranoside a new flavanone glycoside from the roots of Alstonia scholaris. Indian J. Chem. B Org. 1985;24(2):219. Dangol DR, Gurung SB. Ethnobotanical study of Darai tribe in Chitwan District, Nepal. In: Proceeding of the III National Conferences on science and technology, vol. 2. Kathmandu: Nepal Academy of Science and Technology; 2000. p. 1194–213. Debbarma M, Pala NA, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in tribes of Tripura, Northeast India. African J Trad Compl Altern Med. 2017;144:156–68. Devkota K. Nepali Nighantu. (medicinal Plant of Nepal) (in Nepali). Kathmandu: Royal Nepal Academy; 1968. 604 p. Dung NX, Ngoc RH, Rang DD, Nhan NT, Klinkby N, Leclercq PA. Chemical composition of the volatile concentrate from the flowers of Vietnamese Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br., Apocynaceae. J Essent Oil Res. 2001;(6):3, 424–426. Dutta IC. Non timber Forest products of Nepal: identification, classification, ethnic uses and cultivation. Kathmandu: Hill Side Press; 2007. 484 p. Dutta SC, Bhattacharya SK, Ray AB. Flower alkaloids of Alstonia scholaris. Planta Med. 1976;30(1):86–90.

Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br.

209

Dutta M, Senn S, Laskar S. Fatty acid composition of Alstonia scholaris (Linn.) R. Br. Seed oil having some antibacterial principles. Biosci Biotechnol Res Asia. 2010;7:481–4. Feng T, Cai XH, Du ZZ, Luo XD. Iridoids from the bark of Alstonia scholaris. Helv Chim Acta. 2008;91:2247–51. Feng T, Cai XH, Zhao PJ, Du ZZ, Li WQ, Luo XD. Monoterpenoid indole alkaloids from the bark of Alstonia scholaris. Planta Med. 2009;75(14):1537–41. Ghosh R, Roychowdhury P, Chattopadhyay D, Iitaka Y. The structure of an alkaloid, picrinine, from Alstonia scholaris. Acta Cryst. 1988;44:2151–4. GoN. Medicinal plants of Nepal. Thapathali, Kathmandu, Nepal: Bulletin of the Department of Plant Resources No. 28. Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation; 2007. 402 p. Govindachari TR, Rajappa S. Echitamine Tetrahedron 1961;15(1–4):132–143. Graham JG, Quinn ML, Fabricant DS, Farnsworth NR. Plants used against cancer – an extension of the work of Jonathan Hartwell. J Ethnopharmacol. 2000;73:347–77. Grierson AJC, Long DG. Flora of Bhutan vol 2 part 2. Edinburgh: Royal Botanical Garden; 1984. Gupta RS, Sharma R, Sharma A, Bhatnager AK, Dobhal MP, Joshi YC, Sharma MC. Effect of Alstonia scholaris bark extract on testicular function of Wistar rats. Asian J Androl. 2002;4(3):175–8. Gupta RS, Bhatnager AK, Joshi YC, Sharma MC, Khushalani V, Kachhawa JB. Induction of antifertility with lupeol acetate in male albino rats. Pharmacology. 2005;75(2):57–62. Gurung K, Pyakurel D. Identification manual of commercial medicinal and aromatic plants of Nepal. Teku: Nepal Herbs and Herbal Products Association (NEHHPA); 2017. Hadi S. Mataranine a and b: a new diastomeric indole alkaloid from Alstonia scholaris R. Br. Of Lombok Island. Indonesian J Chem. 2009;9(3):466–9. Houghton PJ, Osibogun IM. Flowering plants used against snakebite. J Ethnopharmacol. 1993;39:1–29. Hui T, Sun Y, Zhu L, Guo W, Rao G. Flavonoids in leaves of Alstonia scholaris. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi. 2009;34(9):1111–3. Hussain A, Virmani OP, Popali SP, Mishra LN, Gupta MM, Srivastava GN, Abraham Z, Singh AK. Dictionary of Indian medicinal plants. Lucknow: Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants; 1992. Ignacimuthu SS, Ayyanar MM, Sankara Sivaraman KK. Ethnobotanical investigations among tribes in Madurai District of Tamil Nadu (India). J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:25. IUCN. The IUCN red list of threatened species. Version 2020–2. https://www.iucnredlist.org. Downloaded on 26 July 2020. IUCN, Nepal. 2004. National Register of medicinal and aromatic plants (revised & updated). The World Conservation Union, Nepal; 2020. 202 p. Joshi SG. Medicinal Plants. New Delhi: Oxford & IBH Publishing; 2006. 491 p. Kamarajan P, Sekar N, Mathuram V, Govindasamy S. Antitumor effect of echitamine chloride on methylcholonthrene induced fibrosarcoma in rats. Biochem Int. 1991;25(3):491–8. Khyade SM, Kasoteb DM, Vaikosc NP. Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br. And Alstonia macrophylla wall. Ex G. Don: a comparative review on traditional uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;153:1–18. Kichu A, Malewska T, Akter K, Imchen I, Harrington D, Kohen J, Vemulpad SR, Jamie JF. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of Chungtia village, Nagaland, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;166:5–17. Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Medicinal, aromatic and dye plants of Baitadi and Darchula districts, Nepal Himalaya: status, uses and management. In: Hartmann M, Weipert J, editors. Biodiversität, Naturausstattung im Himalaya, vol. III. Erfurt, Verein der Freunde und Förderer des Naturkundemuseums; 2009. p. 475–89. Kunwar RM, Upreti Y, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Indigenous use and ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in far-West Nepal. Ethnobot Res and Appl. 2009;7:5–28. Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Acharya RP, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants, traditional medicine, markets and management in far-West Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:24.

210

M. D. Bhatt et al.

LISP. Bikaska Pailaharu: Jadibunti Parbarddan Bisheshanka. Palpa: Local Initiatives Support Programme; 2004, 198 p Manandhar NP. A contribution to the ethnobotany of Mooshar tribes of Dhanusha District, Nepal. J Nat Hist Mus. 1986;10(1–4):53–64. Manandhar NP. Medicinal plants use by Chepang tribes of Makawanpur district, Nepal. Fitoterapia. 1989;60(1):61–8. Manandhar NP. Plants and people of Nepal, vol. 599. Portland: Timber Press; 2002. Misra, B.. Bhavprakash Nighantu. (Commented by Chunakar KC., Ed. Pandey GS). Chaukhumba Bharati Academy. Gokul Bhawan, Varanasi, India; 1993. 984 p. Morita Y, Hesse M, Schmid H, Banerji A, Banerji J, Chatterjee A, Oberhänsli WE. Alstonia scholaris: the structure of the indole alkaloid nareline. Helv Chim Acta. 1977;60(4):1419–32. Padhy PK, Varshney CK. Isoprene emission from tropical tree species. Environ Pollut. 2005;135(1):101–9. Prajapati ND, Purohit SS, Sharma AK, Kumar T. A handbook of medicinal plants: a complement source book. Agrobios India: Jodhpur; 2006. Press JR, Shrestha KK, Sutton DA. Annotated checklist of the flowering plants of Nepal. London: The Natural History Museum; 2000. Rahman AU, Alvi KA, Muzaffar A. Isolation and 1H/13CNMR studies on 19, 20-Dihydrocondylocarpine: an alkaloid from the leaves of Ervatamia coronaria and Alstonia scholaris. Planta Med. 1968;4:325–6. Raj AJ, Biswakarma B, Pala NA, Shukla G, Vineeta V, Kumar M, Chakravarty S, Bussmann RW. Indigenous uses of ethno-medicinal plants among forest dependent communities of northern Bengal, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;141:8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002018-0208-9. Rastogi, R.P. and Mehrotra B.N. A compendium of medicinal plants vol. 2. New Delhi: Central Drugs Research Institute, Lucknow and Publication and Information Directorate; 1970-1979. 833 p Rocha LG, Almeida JRGS, Macedo RO, Barbosa-Filhob JM. A review of natural products with antileishmanial activity. Phytomedicine. 2005;12:514–35. Rumphius GE. 1743. Herbarium A m-boinense. vol. 2. 270 p., 87pls.; vol.. 3. 218 p., 141pls. Utrecht: Steven Neaulme; 1741. Sacherer J. The high altitude ethnobotany of the Rolwaling Sherpas. Contributions to Nepalese Studies (Nepal). 1979;4(2):45–64. Sharifi-Rad J, Salehi B, Stojanović-Radić ZZ, Tsouh Fokou PV, Sharifi-Rad M,. Mahady GB, Sharifi-Rad M, Masjedi M-R, Lawal TO, Ayatollahi SA, Masjedi J, Sharifi-Rad R, Setzer WN, Sharifi-Rad M, Kobarfard F, Rahman AU, Choudhary MI, Atar A, Iriti M 2017. Medicinal plants used in the treatment of tuberculosis – Ethnobotanical and ethnopharmacological approaches. Biotechnol Adv S0734-9750(17)30077–0. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biotechadv. 2017.07.001. Sharma DK, Prasad R. Biocrude and solid fuel from laticiferous plants. Biomass. 1986;11:75–9. Sharma HK, Chhangte L, Dolui AK. Traditional medicinal plants in Mizoram, India. Fitoterapia. 2001;72:146–61. Siwakoti M, Siwakoti S. Ethnomedicinal uses of plants among the Limbu of Morang District, Nepal. Ecoprint. 1998;5(1):79–84. Siwakoti M, Siwakoti S. Ethnomedicinal uses of plants among the Satar tribe of Nepal. In: Maheshwari JK, editor. Ethnobotany and medicinal plants of Indian subcontinent. Jodhpur: Scientific publishers (India); 2000. p. 79–108. Thankamani VI. Phytochemical screening and antimicrobial activity of Alstonia scholaris flowers (L.) r.Br. FAM: Apocynaceae. Int J Pharmaceut Res Dev. 2011;3(4):172–8. Thomas PS, Kanaujia A, Ghosh D, Duggar R, Katiyar CK. Alstonoside, a secoiridoid glucoside from Alstonia scholaris. Indian J Chem B Org. 2008;47:1298–302. Verma A, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants in an urban environment: the medicinal flora of Banares Hindu university, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3:35.

Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br.

211

Wang F, Ren FC, Liu JK. Alstonic acids a and B, unusual 2, 3-secofernane triterpenoids from Alstonia scholaris. Phytochemistry. 2009;70:650–4. Warrier PK, Nambiar VPK, Ramankutty C, editors. Indian medicinal plants: a compendium of 500 species, vol. 2. Kottakkal: Orient Longman Publishers; 1994. Watanabe, T., Rajbhandari K.R., Malla K.J. and Yahara S. 2005. A Hand Book of Medicinal Plants of Nepal. Ayur seed life environmental institute (Ayurseed L.E.I.), Japan. 262 p. Wongseripipatana S, Chaisri L, Sritularak B, Likhitwitayawuid K. Indole alkaloids from the fruits of Alstonia scholaris. Thai J Pharm Sci. 2004;28:173–80. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994-2013. Xu Y, Feng T, Cai XH, Luo XD. A new C13-Norisoprenoid from leaves of Alstonia scholaris. Chin J Nat Med. 2009;7(1):21–3.

Amomum subulatum Roxb. ZINGIBERACEAE Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

Local Names Amomum subulatum: Lepcha: Bara alainchi; Pashto: Kholanjan; Mizoram: Alaidum

Botany and Ecology Amomum subulatum: Plants 1–2 m tall. Ligule 3–4 mm, membranous, apex rounded, emarginate; petiole absent or nearly so on proximal leaves, 1–3 cm on distal ones; leaf blade oblong-lanceolate, 25–60  3.5–11 cm, glabrous, base rounded or cuneate, apex long cuspidate. Spikes subturbinate, about 5 cm in diameter; peduncle 0.5–4.5 cm, scalelike sheaths brown; bracts pale red, ovate, H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_19

213

214

H. Sher et al.

Fig. 1 Amomum subulatum (Zingiberaceae), Kanju, Swat, Pakistan. (Photo H. Sher & I Ur-Rahman)

about 3 cm, apex obtuse with horny cusp; bracteoles tubular, about 3 cm, apex acute, emarginate. Calyx glabrous, 3-cleft to middle; lobes subulate. Corolla tube equaling calyx; lobes yellow, central one subulate at apex. Lateral staminodes red, subulate, about 2 mm. Labellum with yellow midvein, oblong, about 3 cm, white pubescent, veins conspicuous, apex involute. Filament about 5 mm; anther about 1 cm; connective appendage elliptic, entire, about 4 mm. Capsule purple or red-brown, globose, 2– 2.5 cm in diameter, with 10 undulate wings, apex with persistent calyx. Flowering May–June, fruiting June–September (Wu et al. 1994–2013; Fig. 1).

Local Medicinal Uses Amomum subulatum: Used to treat infections in teeth and gum, as well as gonorrhea (Palit and Banerjee 2016; Ur-Rahman et al. 2019). The species is also used to treat snakebites (Houghton and Osibogun 1993). Already mentioned in classic reek texts (Grivas 2018). Part of traditional Chinese medicine (Wu 2005). Decotion of the rhizome is taken orally in diarrhea, dysentery, stomach colic, food poisoning, and jaundice. The juice of the rhizome is used externally as antiseptic. The rhizome decoction is one of the components of a formulation used externally in the treatment of measles (Sharma et al. 2001). Amomum tsaoko: is used for intestinal diseases and stomach problems (Ma et al. 2019). Amomum aromaticum serves to treat piles (Kala 2005).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Amomum tsaoko: Used in tea agroforestry (Ahmed et al. 2010; O’Neill et al. 2017).

Amomum subulatum Roxb.

215

References Ahmed S, Stepp JR, Toleno RAJ, Peters CM. Increased market integration, value and ecological knowledge of tea agroforests in the Akha highlands of Southwest China. Ecol Soc. 2010;15(4):27. Grivas C. Non-native herbal materia medica in Greek texts of the roman period. Medicina nei secoliarte e scienza. J Hist Med. 2018;30(2):531–78. Houghton PJ, Osibogun IM. Flowering plants used against snakebite. J Ethnopharmacol. 1993;39:1–29. Kala CP. Ethnomedicinal botany of the Apatani in the Eastern Himalayan region of India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2005;1:11. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-1-11. Ma Y, Liu D, Cheng H, Bussmann RW, He H, Guo Z, Liu B. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by Miao people in Jijiezi, Yunnan, China. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18(26) https:// doi.org/10.32859/era.18.26.1-14. O’Neill AR, Badola HK, Dhyani PP, Rana SK. Integrating ethnobiological knowledge into biodiversity conservation in the Eastern Himalayas. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13:21. https://doi. org/10.1186/s13002-017-0148-9. Palit D, Banerjee A. Traditional uses and conservative lifestyle of Lepcha tribe through sustainable bioresource utilization – case studies from Darjeeling and Norgh Sikkim, India. Int J Conserv Sci. 2016;7(3):735–52. Sharma HK, Chhangte L, Dolui AK. Traditional medicinal plants in Mizoram, India. Fitoterapia. 2001;72:146–61. Ur-Rahman I, Sher H, Bussmann RW, editors. Reference guide on high value medicinal and Aromatic plants – sustainable management and cultivation practices. Mingora: University of Swat, Pakistan; 2019. (ISBN 978-969-23419-0-5). Wu JN. An illustrated Chines Materia Medica. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2005. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013.

Ampelocissus latifolia (Roxb.) Planch. VITACEAE Mohan Prasad Panthi, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Ampelocissus latifolia (Roxb.) Planch.: Ampelocissus latifolia (Roxb.) Planch.; Vitis glabrata Roth in Schult., Vitis latifolia Roxb.

Local Names Ampelocissus latifolia: Nepali: Pureni पुरेनी; Satar: Chimbers; Sanskrit: Amlavetasah, Paniyavalli, Sitalata; Hindi: Pani-bel, Katti-bel, Bechuti, Bhinura; Bengali: Gowalia lata; Marathi: Ran draksha; Oriya: Dibroli; English: Wild Grape vine M. P. Panthi Kathmandu-32, Pepsicola, 44600, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_18

217

218

M. P. Panthi et al.

Botany and Ecology Ampelocissus latifolia: A weak herbaceous climber, with a tuberous root stock; stem and branches hollow more or less glabrous, young parts puberulous. Leaves orbicular or broadly cordate 7–15  8–15 cm, 3–7 lobed, lobes acute, serrate-dentate,  glabrous on both sides; petiole 3–5 cm long, stipules minute, deciduous. Inflorescence a compact thyrsoid cyme; peduncle 6–7 cm long, ending in a long bifurcate tendril. Flowers numerous, deep reddish. Calyx truncate or obscurely 5 toothed. Petals 5, oblong. Ovary 10-lobed at apex, sunken in the disc, style absent; stigma cup shaped. Berry globose, black, 6–7 mm, 2 seeded, rarely 3 seeded. Seeds elliptical, margin rugose, transversely with a linear tubercle on the back and bluntly ridged on the face. Flowering May–August, fruiting October. N.W. India, Assam, Sylhet, Bengal, Bihar, sub Himalayan tracts, from Ravi east ward, Kashmir & Nepal (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020; Nazimuddin and Qaiser 1982) (Figs. 1 and 2). Native in Indian continent It is distributed in the Himalaya (Kumaun, Uttar Pradesh to Nepal); Western Ghats, India. There are five species of Ampelocissus in Nepal. A. latifolia (Roxb.) Planch is found throughout Nepal between 300 m and

Fig. 1 Ampelocissus latifolia (Vitaceae), fresh plant collected for its medical use in Arghakhanchi district, Nepal. (Photo Mohan Panthi)

Ampelocissus latifolia (Roxb.) Planch.

219

Fig. 2 Ampelocissus latifolia (Vitaceae), plant close up view. (Photo Mohan Panthi)

1600 m elevation and common along the streams side mixed with forests (Press et al. 2000). A. latifolia contains some pharmacologically active constituents that have antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory activities (Anand and Patni 2016). The plant also exhibits antibacterial (Pednekar and Raman 2013), antiproliferative, cytogenotoxic (Chaudhuri and Ray 2014, 2015), anti-inflammatory, and allelopathic activities (Chaudhuri et al. 2015; Chaudhuri and Ray 2016). The phytochemical analysis revealed the presence of various compounds like phenolics, flavonoids, terpenoids, anthraquinones, etc. having antioxidant activities (Pednekar and Raman 2013). Fruit extracts of A. latifolia has shown the presence of abundant phenolics and flavonoids imparting various bioactivities including excellent free radical scavenging and ferric reducing activities, anti-elastase, anticollagenase, antityrosinase, and antiinflammatory activities using in vitro assays (Singh et al. 2015). Stem and fruit powder analysis of Ampelocissus (FT-IR process) showed the alkanes, alkenes, alcohols, esters, amines, ketones, aldehydes (Kalaivani and Sumathi 2018), etc. Crude extract of A. latifolia has shown a source of antioxidant activity (Chaudhuri and Ray 2020).

Local Medicinal Uses Ampelocissus latifolia: reported to be one of the most effective wild plants used to treat eye infection in West Nepal. Local healers take fresh young stem of the plant and drop 3–4 drops of juice into patient’s eyes by blowing stem pipe to cure eyes

220

M. P. Panthi et al.

suffering from wounds and contamination. Users said it has cooling properties and very effective against infection. Similarly, grazing animals are also treated same way when whiteness appears on eye balls due to contaminations locally called “Phulo parnu.” If Ampelocissus latifolia is not easily available, in that case people prefer to use second plant as an alternative, i.e., Ampelocissus rugosa. The plant has high medicinal value and is used for indigenous treatment of numerous diseases including bone fractures, dysentery, leukorrhea, dental problems (Patil and Patil 2012), stomach pain, gout, tuberculosis, dyspepsia, indigestion, body weakness, and for bone strengthening. It is used as an antidote for snake-bite, applied on wounds, abscess, and for easy labor and delivery of a baby (Patil and Patil 2005). Paste of the roots is applied to cuts and wounds (Manandhar 2002). In Ayurveda, it has been reported to be used as Kustha, Kamala, Sotha, and Vrana (Kirtikar and Basu 1998). The plant has high medicinal value and is used for indigenous treatment of numerous diseases including bone fractures, dysentery, leukorrhea, dental problems (Patil and Patil 2012), stomach pain, gout, tuberculosis, dyspepsia, indigestion, body weakness, and for bone strengthening. It is used as an antidote for snake-bite, applied on wounds, abscess, and for easy labor and delivery of a baby (Patil and Patil 2005). Paste of the roots is applied to cuts and wounds (Manandhar 2002). According to Manandhar (2002), there are four species of Ampelocissus in Nepal which are in ethnobotanical uses: Ampelocissus divaricata: Juice of the root is used for snake or scorpion bites; Ampelocissus rugosa: Paste of the stem is applied for muscular swellings and sprains and also used to set dislocated bones.

Local Food Uses Ampelocissus sikkimensis: Ripe frits are eaten fresh.

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Ampelocissus latifolia: Used as dye. Ampelocossus multistriata is used as fishing poison (Neuwinger 2004).

References Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan and Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995–2020. Anand DC, Patni V. Ampelocissus latifolia (Roxb) planch. A traditional plant with enormous medicinal and economic importance. Int J Pharm Bio Sci. 2016;7(3):303–7. Chaudhuri A, Ray S. Evaluation of phytotoxic and cytogenotoxic potentials of leaf aqueous extract of Ampelocissus latifolia (Roxb.) Planch. in relation to its total polyphenol content. Int J Pharma Bio Sci. 2014;5(4):225–35.

Ampelocissus latifolia (Roxb.) Planch.

221

Chaudhuri A, Ray S. Antiproliferative activity of phytochemicals present in aerial parts’ aqueous extract of Ampelocissus latifolia (Roxb.) Planch. on apical meristem cells. Int J Pharma Bio Sci. 2015;6(2):99–108. Chaudhuri A, Ray S. Allelopathic potential of tannic acid and its equivalent phenolics extracted from aerial parts of Ampelocissus latifolia (Roxb.). Planch. IOSR J Agric Vet Sci. 2016;9(7):90–100. Chaudhuri A, Ray S. In vitro free radical scavenging activities of aerial parts’ aqueous extract and extract fractions of Ampelocissus latifolia (Roxb.) Planch. in relation to total phenolics and flavonoid contents. J King Saud Univ Sci. 2020;32:732–9. Chaudhuri A, Kundu LM, Dutta S, Chatterjee S, Goswami S, Roy GC, Ray S. Allelopathic effects of aerial parts’ aqueous extract of Ampelocissus latifolia (Roxb.) Planch. in apical meristem cells. Asian J Plant Sci Res. 2015;5(3):11–6. Kalaivani V, Sumathi R. Antifungal, phytochemical, protein and FT-IR analysis of Ampelocissus latifolia (ROXB.) planch. Int J Pharm Biol Sci. 2018;8(4):339–43. Kirtikar KR, Basu BD. Indian medicinal plants. 2nd ed. Dehradun: International Book Distributor; 1998. Manandhar NP. Plants and people of Nepal. Portland: Timber Press; 2002. Nazimuddin S, Qaiser M. In: Nasir E, Ali SI, editors. Lahore: Flora of Pakistan, vol. 147. 1982. p. 1–16. Neuwinger HD. Plants used for poison fishing in tropical Africa. Toxicon. 2004;44:417–30. Patil MV, Patil DA. Ethnomedicinal practices of Nasik district, Maharashtra. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2005;4(3):287–90. Patil KJ, Patil SV. Biodiversity of vulnerable and endangered plants from Jalgaon district of North Maharashtra. Asian J Pharm Life Sci. 2012;2(2):144–50. Pednekar PA, Raman B. Antimicrobial and antioxidant potential with FTIR analysis of Ampelocissus latifolia (Roxb.) Planch. leaves. Asian J Pharm Clin Res. 2013;6(1):157–62. Press JR, Shrestha KK, Sutton DA. Annotated checklist of the flowering plants of Nepal. London: Natural History Museum; 2000. Singh H, Lily MK, Dangwal K. Evaluation and comparison of polyphenols and bioactivities of wild edible fruits of north-west Himalaya, India. Asian Pac J Trop Dis. 2015;5(11):888–93.

Anacyclus pyrethrum (L.) DC. ASTERACEAE Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

Local Names Anacyclus pyrethrum: Pashto: Peli ponar; Aqar qarha

Botany and Ecology Anacyclus pyrethrum: Annual. Stem erect or ascending, branched, weakly hairy, sometimes almost glabrous in lower part, to 40 cm high. Leaves weakly pubescent, oblong, twice pinnately cut into more or less sparse, entire, 2–3-fid, acute, linear, and linear-subulate, divergent, 4–10 mm long lobes. Capitula about 1 cm in diameter, solitary at apices of main stem and branches, on long, thickened, short pilase

H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_20

223

224

H. Sher et al.

peduncles. Involucre hemispherical, short-pilose; bracts oblong, with whitemembranous margin; outer bracts acute, inner somewhat obtuse. Receptacle convex, with membranous cuneate-obovate, short cuspidate scales, shorter than corolla tubes. Outer florets with elliptical ligules, 8–13 mm long, sometimes absent (var. discoidea), white above and reddish below; disk florets bisexual, tubular, lemon-yellow, corolla tubes of ali florets glabrous. Achenes flat, deltoid-obovate, 2.5–3.0 mm long and 2.0– 2.5 mm in diameter, with wide wings extended above into broadly deltoid auricles in outer achenes, much narrower and lacking auricles in inner achenes. Flowering July to August.

Local Medicinal Uses Anacyclus pyrethrum: Used to treat sore throat, as eye wash, and for toothache (Ur-Rahman et al. 2019; Wali et al. 2019).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Anacyclus pyrethrum: Used as forage (Wali et al. 2019).

References Ur-Rahman I, Sher H, Bussmann RW, editors. Reference guide on high value medicinal and Aromatic plants – sustainable management and cultivation practices. Mingora: University of Swat, Pakistan; 2019. (ISBN 978-969-23419-0-5). Wali R, Rahman K, Raja NI, Qureshi R, Bussmann RW, Mashwani ZUR. A quantitative medico botanical expedition of Fairy Meadows National Park, Diamir, Gilgit Baltistan, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18(35) https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.35.1-30.

Anaphalis adnata DC. Anaphalis busua (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) DC. Anaphalis contorta (D. Don) Hook. f. Anaphalis triplinervis (Sims) C.B. Clarke ASTERACEAE Sheetal Vaidya and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Anaphalis adnata DC.: Gnaphalium adnatum (Wall. ex DC.) DC. ex Kitam.; Gnaphalium sericeoalbidum Vaniot; Gnaphalium esquirolii H. Lev.; Anaphalis sericeoalba (Vaniot) H. Lev. Anaphalis esquirolii (H. Lev) H. Lev.; Gnaphalium formosanum Hayata.; Anaphalis sericeo-abida (H. Lev. & Vaniot) H. Lev.; Pseudognaphalium adnatum (DC.) Y.S. Chen Anaphalis busua (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) DC.: Gnaphalium busua Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don; Gnaphalium busum Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don; Antennaria semidecurrens DC.; Antennaria villosissima D. Don; Anaphalis busua (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) Hand.-Mazz.; Gnaphalium villosissima D. Don; Gnaphalium semidecurrens Wall. ex DC.; Anaphalis semidecurrens (Wall. ex. DC.) DC. Anaphalis contorta (D. Don) Hook. f.: Anaphalis contorta var. pellucida (Franch.) Y. Ling., Anaphalis falconeri C.B. Clarke, Anaphalis franchetiana Diels, Anaphalis tenella DC., Antennaria contorta D. Don, Gnaphalium contortum (D. Don) Buch.-Ham., Gnaphalium pellucidum Franch. Anaphalis triplinervis (Sims) C.B. Clarke: Antennaria triplinervis Sims, Gnaphalium cynoglossoides Trevis, Gnaphalium perfoliatum Wall., Gnaphalium quintuplinerve Buch.-Ham. ex DC.; Gnaphalium nepalense Hort. ex DC.; Gnaphalium cuneatum Wall ex DC.

S. Vaidya Department of Botany, Patan Multiple Campus, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Nepal R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_21

225

226

S. Vaidya and R. W. Bussmann

Local Names Anaphalis adnata: Nepali: Buki phul Anaphalis busua: Napal Bhasha: Bu-swan, Tamang: Taptap Mhendo, Nepali: Bhuko Anaphalis contorta: Gurung: Phosorasan, Nepali: Buko Anaphais triplinervis: Tamang: Taptap, Tibetan: Taygun, Nepali: Buki phul; Hindi: Bugla

Botany and Ecology Anaphalis adnata: Perennial woolly herb, 10–60 cm tall. Stem simple or branched, spreading, densely tomentose. Leaves adnate to semi-amplexicaul, yellowish green, lanceolate to oblong, 3–5 cm long, 2–2.5 wide, attenuate, mucronate, entire, 1–3 veined, both surfaces with long curly unicellular hairs and multicellular uniseriate hairs with long dry tips. Inflorescence terminal and axillary, compound lax corymb, peduncles lanate, 2–5 mm in length, peduncular bract partly scarious, about 2 mm long, 0.5 mm wide. Capitula 6–8, about 3–5 mm in diameter. Phyllaries multiseriate, outermost ones white with golden yellow streaks at base, lanceolate, about 4.5 mm long, 1.5 mm wide, obtuse; middle ones white, ovate, about 5 mm long, 2.5 mm wide, obtuse; innermost ones white with greenish base, lanceolate, 2.5 mm long, 0.5 mm wide, obtuse. Pistillate florets about 2.5 mm in length, corolla lobes golden yellow and slender, with unicellular glandular hairs. Staminate florets about 2 mm in length, corolla lobes golden yellow and spreading at mouth. Pappus about 3 mm in length, bristles capillary, cilia short. Cypselae oblong, 440 μm long, 175 μm wide, twin clavate hairs sparse and narrow, each 28 μm in length; stylopodium 62 μm and carpopodium 67 μm in diameter. Flowering and fruiting August–January. Along the Himalayan range of Kashmir to Bhutan including Nepal, Assam, Myanmar, Bangladesh, Indo-China, Philippines, Taiwan. Occasional in sunny steep slopes and on shady forest floor, between 800 and 2500 in Western, Central, and Eastern regions of Nepal Himalaya (Vaidya et al. 2018; Fig. 1). Anaphalis busua: Perennial wooly white herb, 10–60 cm tall. Stem simple and branched, spreading, some lateral branches sterile, densely tomentose. Basal leaves rosulate and linear. Upper leaves ash green, linear, 2–10 cm long, 0.2–0.8 cm wide, base strongly decurrent on stem, mucronate, entire, 1-veined, both surfaces with long aduncate unicellular hairs, flagellate multicellular hairs with long dry tips and multicellular glandular hairs. Inflorescence axillary compound corymb. Capitula more than 8–10 in each corymb, about 2–4 mm in diameter. Phyllaries multiseriate, outermost ones white, ovate, about 5
2 mm, obtuse; middle ones opaque white, oblong, about 6 mm long, 2 mm wide, obtuse and innermost ones transparent white, spathulate, 4 mm long, 1.5 mm wide, obtuse. Pistillate florets about 3 mm in length, corolla lobes golden yellow and slender, with unicellular glandular hairs. Staminate florets about 1.5 mm in length, corolla lobes golden yellow with prominent glandular hairs. Pappus about 3–4 mm in length, bristles capillary, basal projections long and

Anaphalis adnata DC. . . .

227

Fig. 1 Anaphalis adnata (Asteraceae), Kakani, Kathmandu, Nepal. (Photo S. Vaidya)

prominent. Cypselae oval, about 285 μm long, 160 μm wide, twin hairs absent, epidermal cells forming outward projecting papillae; stylopodium 52 μm and carpopodium 90 μm in diameter. Flowering and fruiting June–December. China, India, Nepal. Occasional in sunny steep slopes, on mossy rocks and sandy dry river banks, between 1000 and 2260 in Western, Central, and Eastern regions of Nepal (Vaidya et al. 2018; Fig. 2). Anaphalis contorta: Perennial lanate stoloniferous herb, 6–40 cm tall. Stem slender, erect or decumbent, tomentose, branched, base usually with densely tomentose leafy buds. Leaves adnate to semiamplexicaul, dark green, linear, 0.6–3 cm long, 0.2– 0.5 cm wide, cordate and auriculate, mucronate, margin revolute, 1-veined, both surfaces with multicellular hairs with long dried tips entangled with unicellular long curly hairs. Inflorescence terminal, in compound lax corymbs, peduncles lanate, about 0.5 mm long, peduncular bracts uniformly green. Capitula dense, about 4–5 mm in diameter. Phyllaries multiseriate, outermost ones greenish to purple red at base, densely cottony, about 2.5 mm long, 0.8 mm wide; middle ones milky white, about 3.5 long, 1.5 mm wide; innermost ones about 2.5 mm long, 0.6 mm wide. Pistillate florets light yellow, 1.5–2.5 mm long, corolla lobes with capitates hairs. Staminate florets dark yellow, 1–2 mm long. Neuter florets brown, about 1 mm long. Pappus 2 mm in length, bristles capillary, basal cilia prominent. Cypselae oblong, about 310 μm long, 140 μm wide, epidermal cells bulging evenly and twin hairs dense and short, about 20 μm long, stylopodium 40 μm and carpopodium 50 μm in

228

S. Vaidya and R. W. Bussmann

Fig. 2 Anaphalis busua (Asteraceae), Mude Bazar, Sindhupalchowk. (Photo S. Vaidya)

Fig. 3 Anaphalis contorta (Asteraceae), Tal, Manang, Nepal (Photo S. Vaidya)

diameter. Fruiting and flowering March to December. Pakistan, China, India, Nepal, Bhutan, and Philippines. Frequent on sunny steep slopes, mossy rocks, sunny dry riverbanks between 1400 and 3300 in Western, Central, and Eastern regions of Nepal (Vaidya et al. 2018; Wu et al. 1994–2013, Fig. 3). Anaphalis triplinervis: Perennial, wooly stoloniferous herb, 4–50 cm tall. Stem erect, floccose to tomentose, branches very few, occasionally simple. Leaves amplexicaul to sheathing, grayish green, oblong to obovate, 2–12 cm long, 0.5– 4 cm wide, attenuate, mucronate, entire, 3–7 veined, lower surface tomentose,

Anaphalis adnata DC. . . .

229

Fig. 4 Anaphalis triplinervis (Asteraceae), Kalinchowk, Dolakha, Nepal. (Photo S. Vaidya)

upper surface floccose, both surfaces with long curly unicellular hairs, multicellular uniseriate hairs with dried long tips and multicellular uniseriate short glandular hairs. Inflorescence terminal, axillary or both, simple lax compound or simple corymb, peduncles lanate, peduncular bract scaly, about 4 mm long, 1 mm wide. Capitula 6– 8, or 2–3, or just one in number, 8–10 mm in diameter. Phyllaries multiseriate, outermost ones about 8 long, 2 mm wide, middle ones about 9 long, 2 mm wide and innermost ones about 7 mm long, 0.4 mm wide. Pistillate florets about 4 mm long, corolla light brown, corolla lobes with multicellular, long stalked glandular hairs. Staminate florets about 3.5 mm long, corolla dark brown, lobes with glandular and non-glandular hairs. Pappus about 5 mm long, bristles capillary, basal cilia prominent. Cypselae oblong, 600 μm long, 210 μm wide, twin hairs sparse and narrow, 30 μm in length, stylopodium 70 μm and carpopodium 75 μm in diameter. Flowering and fruiting August–December. Afghanistan, N. W. Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan, China. Abundant on sunny steep slopes, mossy rocks, sandy river banks and shady forest floors between 1000 and 3600 in Western, Central and Eastern regions of Nepal (Vaidya et al. 2018; Wu et al. 1994–2013; Fig. 4).

Phytochemistry Caryophyllene oxide (Pande et al. 2008; Sharma et al. 2019), caryophyllene alcohol, α-cadinol, 14-hydroxyl-9-epi-ß-caryophyllene, γ-muurolene, ar-curcumine, ß-bisabolene (Pande et al. 2008), anaphalisqualenol, anapharenosoic acid, araneosol, isoquercitrin, astragalin, anaphalol, 5-hydroxy7-O-30 -methyl bute 20 -enylpthalide, 5,7-dihydroxyphalide, 5-methoxy-7-hydroxyphalide, ß-sitosterol, tiliroside, sitigmasterol (Ratauri et al. 2012), E-caryophyllene, ß-himachalene, δ-cardinene, α-pinene (Rawat et al. 2017), epi-α-cadinol, valencene, 1,10-epoxyfuranoeremophilane,

230

S. Vaidya and R. W. Bussmann

α-humulene, α-farnesene, β-vetivone, germacrene D, β-caryophyllene, p-cymene, (Z)-β-ocimene, β-elemene, humulene epoxide II (Sharma et al. 2019).

Local Medicinal Uses Anaphalis adnata: Juice of the leaves is applied on fresh cuts and wounds, which are then covered with crushed wooly leaves (Manandhar 2003). Anaphalis busua: The plant infusion is taken orally as antipyretic, dry leaves mixed with ash are burnt for moxibution therapy (Ghimire et al. 2001; Rokaya et al. 2010); juice from the whole plant is applied to cuts and wounds (Manandhar 2003); infusion made by the leaves and flowers is used for cough, cold, and sore throat (Rajbhandari et al. 2009). Anaphalis contorta: Used for cuts, boils wounds, and as insect repellent (Bhat et al. 2013a, b). Paste of the whole plant is taken orally for curing cough and cold (Manandhar 2003; Uprety et al. 2010); paste of the root is applied to cuts and wounds (Manandhar 2003); infusion of the roots is taken to cure diarrhea (Balami 2004). In Pauri Garhwal, Uttrakhand of India, the paste of leaves of A. contorta is applied on cuts, wounds, and boils; and the whole plant is used as the insect repellent (Pala et al. 2010). The indigenous people of Manali wildlife sanctuary in north western Himalaya of India use the leaves of A. busua for hematoma; they use the flowers of A. contorta for antibacterial treatment and also to check the bleeding (Rana & Samant 2011). In Kedarnath wildlife sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India, the paste of leaves and flower heads of A. contorta is used on cuts, wounds, and boils; the smoke produced by burning the whole plant of this species is used to repel the insects. In Manoor valley of Northern Pakistan, the roots, leaves, and flower heads of A. contorta are used cure indigestion, diarrhea, and the inflammation of the stomach (Rahman et al. 2016). Anaphalis triplinervis: Used for cuts, wounds, and as antiseptic (Singh et al. 2017). For lacerations of toes, and wounds (Bhat et al. 2013a, b). Paste of flower heads is applied to wounds (Manandhar 2003); infusion of roots is taken for curing diarrhea (Balami 2004); leafs and flowers are used as the diuretic, for curing food poisoning and during heat therapy (Pandey 2006). The inhabitants of Khunjerab national park of Pakistan use the dried leaves and flowers of A. triplinervis as a herbal tea for flu, fever, and nausea; they also cure eye infections with the smoke produced by burning its dried flower heads (Khan et al. 2011). Anaphalis margaritacae: Used for cuts, wounds, and boils (Bhat et al. 2013a, b).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Anaphalis busua: The whole plant with flower heads is used for worshipping special deities during festivals such as Janhai Poornima, Indra Jatra, and Dashain (Figs. 5 and 6).

Anaphalis adnata DC. . . .

231

Fig. 5 Anaphalis busua (Asteraceae) (wrapped around the wooden log, which represents God Indra during Indra Jatra festival. (Photo S. Vaidya)

Fig. 6 Offerings of Anaphalis busua (Asteraceae) during Dashain. (Photo S. Vaidya)

Anaphalis contorta: The floral stalks are made into long garlands, which are tied above the main door to keep the evil spirits away (Fig. 7). Anaphalis triplinervis: The flower heads are offered in everyday worship.

232

S. Vaidya and R. W. Bussmann

Fig. 7 Anaphalis contorta (Asteraceae) strings on the main entrance. (Photo S. Vaidya)

References Balami N. Ethnomedicinal uses of plants among the Newar community of Pharping village of Kathmandu District, Nepal. Tribhuvan Univ J. 2004;24(1):13–9. https://doi.org/10.3126/tuj. v24i1.251. Bhat J, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013a;9:1. http://www.ethnobiomed.com/content/9/1/1. Bhat JA, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath wildlife sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013b;9:1. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-9-1. Ghimire SK, Lama SK, Tripathi YC, Schmitt S, Aumeeruddy-Thomas Y. Conservation of plant resources, community development and training in applied ethnobotany at Shey-Phoksundo national park and its buffer zone, Dolpa. Kathmandu: WWF Nepal Program; 2001. 2001: Report Series 41. Khan B, Abdukadir A, Qureshi R, Mustafa G. Medicinal uses of plants by the inhabitants of Khunjerab national park, Gilgit, Pakistan. Pak J Bot. 2011;43(5):2301–10. Manandhar NP. Plants and people of Nepal. Portland: Timber Press; 2003. Pala NA, Negi AK, Todaria NP. Traditional uses of medicinal plants of Pauri Garhwal, Uttrakhand. Nat Sci. 2010;8(6):57–61. Pande C, Joshi RK, Sammal SS. Chemical composition of the essential oil of Anaphalis contorta Hook. f. J Essent Oil Res. 2008;20(5):444–5. https://doi.org/10.1080/10412905.2008.9700054. Pandey MR. Use of medicinal plants in traditional Tibetan therapy system in Upper Mustang, Nepal. Our Nat. 2006;4:69–82. Rahman IU, Ijaz F, Afzal A, Iqbal Z, Ali N, Khan SM. Contributions to the phytotherapies of digestive disorders: traditional knowledge and cultural drivers of Manoor Valley, Northern Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;192:30–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.06.049. Rajbhandari M, Mentel R, Jha PK, Bhattarai S, Gewali MB, Karmacharya N, Hipper M, Lindequist U. Antiviral activity of some plants used in Nepalese traditional medicine. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2009;6(4):517–22. https://doi.org/10.1093/ecam/nem156. Rana MS, Samant SS. Diversity, indigenous uses and conservation status of medicinal plants in Manali wildlife sanctuary, north western Himalaya. Indian J Tradit Know. 2011;10(3):439–59.

Anaphalis adnata DC. . . .

233

Ratauri R, Sati S, Singh H, Sati M, Badoni P. Phytochemical examination of Anaphalis busua leaves. In: Khemani L, Srivastava M, Srivastava S, editors. Chemistry of phytopotentials: health, energy and environmental perspectives. Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer; 2012. p. 105–6. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-23394-4_22. Rawat K, Prasad K, Bisht G. Phytochemical analysis and antioxidant activity essential oil of Anaphalis contorta from Uttrakhand Himalayas. J Anal Pharm Res. 2017;6(2):00172. https:// doi.org/10.15406/japlr.2017.06.00172. Rokaya MB, Münzbergová Z, Timsina B. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants from the Humla district of western Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010;130(3):485–504. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.jep.2010.05.036. Sharma RK, Kaur H, Singh M, Kumar M, Sharma R, Shah GC, Sharma P. Chemical composition and antimicrobial properties of essential oil Anaphalis triplinervis from western Himalaya. Chem Nat Compd. 2019;55:751–3. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10600-019-02800-w. Singh S, Youssouf M, Malik ZA, Bussmann RW. Sacred groves: myths, beliefs and biodiversity conservation a case study from Western Himalaya, India. Int J Ecol. 2017:3828609. https://doi. org/10.1155/2017/3828609. Uprety Y, Asselin H, Boon EK, Yadav S, Shrestha KK. Indigenous use and bio-efficacy of medicinal plants in the Rasuwa District, Central Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:3. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-6-3. Vaidya S, Shakya LR, Pandey AK. The genus Anaphalis DC. (Asteraceae: Gnaphalieae) in Nepal Himalaya. In: Das AP, Bera S, editors. Plant diversity in the Himalaya hotspot region, vol. 1. Dehradun: Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh; 2018. p. 233–65. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013.

Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f.) Wall. ACANTHACEAE Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Justicia paniculata Burm. f.

Local Names Andrographis paniculata: Benghali: Kalmegh, Chirawta; Mizoram: Hnahkhapui; Hindi: Nelaveum; Cebuano: Maribilus; English: Creat; Nepali: Kitatikta, Kalmegh, Sanskrit: Bhunimbah; Tamil: Siriynanangai; Jammu: Kaalmegh, Kiryata; Laos: Sarm phan pee.

R. M. Kunwar (*) Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_22

235

236

R. M. Kunwar et al.

Botany and Ecology Andrographis paniculata: Herbs to 50 cm tall, annual, much branched. Stems 4– angled, glabrous. Petiole 0.3–1 cm; leaf blade ovate-lanceolate, lanceolate, or narrowly elliptic, 1.5–7  1–2.5 cm, both surfaces glabrous, abaxially pale green, adaxially green, secondary veins 3–5 on each side of midvein, base attenuate and decurrent onto petiole, margin entire, apex acute to shortly acuminate. Inflorescences terminal, leafy panicles of secund racemes; rachis glabrous to sparsely pubescent; bracts triangular to subulate, 1–1.5 mm; bracteoles linear to subulate, 1–1.5 mm. Pedicel 2–9 mm, sparsely pubescent with gland-tipped and non-glandular trichomes (gland-tipped pubescent). Calyx 2.5–3 mm, outside glabrous or gland-tipped pubescent, lobes subulate. Corolla white, 0.9–1.5 cm, outside gland-tipped pubescent; tube basally funnelform for 4–8 mm; lower lip with purple dots, 5–7 mm, erect, lobes about 3 mm; upper lip 5–7 mm, reflexed, 2-lobed, lobes about 1 mm. Stamens exserted from corolla tube. Style 6–10 mm, sparsely pilose toward base. Capsule ellipsoid-compressed, 1.5–2  0.3–0.4 cm, glabrous or sparsely pubescent with gland-tipped trichomes, about 12-seeded. Seeds about 2  1.5 mm, rugose. Flowering and fruiting throughout year. (Kala and Singh Sajwan 2007; Wu et al. 1994-2013).

Local Medicinal Uses Andrographis paniculata: The species is very widely used, including in ayurvedic and traditional Chines medicine (Wu 2005; Farnsworth et al. 1985). Antibacterial activities have been shown (Ahmad et al. 2006; Chomnawang et al. 2005). The species also acts as anticoagulant (Yoon et al. 2002), has antidiabetic properties (Muthu et al. 2006; Ullah et al. 2019), and is used to treat tuberculosis (Sharifi-Rad et al. 2017), diabetes, liver problems, fever, cough and cold, stomach pain, malaria, fever, insect bites and scorpion stings, menstrual disorders, skin boils, and leucoderma (Raj et al. 2018). Andrographis has shown inhibiting activity against snake venom (Houghton and Osibogun 1993; Perumal Samy et al. 2012). It is also used to treat neurological conditions (Dey et al. 2017). In Tripura and the Eastern Himalayas, it is used to treat dog bites, diarrhea, and dysentery (Debbarma et al. 2017; Kala 2005). It can be used for liver disorders (Singh et al. 2002). In Mizoram, it is employed for malaria and fever, as stomachic and in stomach trouble (Sharma et al. 2001), and in other areas of India to treat asthma (Savithramma et al. 2007). Also employed as antidote, for dermatological ailments and as snakebite remedy (Ignacimuthu et al. 2006; Pandikumar et al. 201). The plant is useful for curing malarial and intermittent fever, dysentery and liver disorders, and dermatological problems (Kunwar et al. 2010), and kidney disorders (Gairola et al. 2014). Sometimes as panacea (Delang 2007), and against hairlos (Ayyanar and Ignacimuthu 2005).

Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f.) Wall.

237

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Andrographis paniculata: Planted in agroforestry systems (Kabir and Webb 2008; Langenberger et al. 2009).

References Ahmad I, Aquil F, Owais M. Modern phytomedicine. Weinheim: Wiley; 2006. Ayyanar M, Ignacimuthu S. Traditional knowledge of Kani tribals in Kouthalai of Tirunelveli hills, Tamil Nadu, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102:246–55. Chomnawang MT, Surassmo S, Nukoolkarn VS, Gritsanapan W. Antimicrobial effects of Thai medicinal plants against acne-inducing bacteria. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;101:330–3. Debbarma M, Pala NA, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in tribes of Tripura, Northeast India. Afr J Tradit Complement Altern Med. 2017;144:156–68. Delang CO. The role of medicinal plants in the provision of health care in Lao PDR. J Med Plants Res. 2007;1(3):5–59. Dey A, Gorai P, Mukherjec A, Dhan R, Kumar Modak B. Ethnobiological treatments of neurological conditions in the Chota Nagpur plateau, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2017;198:33–44. Farnsworth NR, Akerele O, Bingel AS, Soejarto DD, Gua Z. Medicinal plants in therapy. Bull World Health Organ. 1985;63/6:965–81. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Houghton PJ, Osibogun IM. Flowering plants used against snakebite. J Ethnopharmacol. 1993;39:1–29. Ignacimuthu SS, Ayyanar MM, Sankara Sivaraman KK. Ethnobotanical investigations among tribes in Madurai District of Tamil Nadu (India). J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:25. Kabir ME, Webb EL. Can Homegardens conserve biodiversity in Bangladesh? Biotropica. 2008;40(1):95–103. Kala CP. Ethnomedicinal botany of the Apatani in the eastern Himalayan region of India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2005;1(11) https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-1-11. Kala CP, Singh Sajwan B. Revitalizing Indian systems of herbal medicine by the National Medicinal Plants Board through institutional networking and capacity building. Curr Sci. 2007;93(6):797–806. Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Bussmann RW. Traditional herbal medicine in far-West Nepal: a pharmacological appraisal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Pandikumar P, Chellappandian M, Mutheeswaran S, Ignacimuthu S. 2011. Consensus of local knowledge on medicinal plants among traditional healers in Mayiladumparai block of Theni District, Tamil Nadu, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010;134:354–62. Langenberger G, Prigge V, Martin K, Belonias B, Sauerborn J. Ethnobotanical knowledge of Philippine lowland farmers and its application in agroforestry. Agrofor Syst. (2009. 2009;76:173–94. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-008-9189-3. Muthu C, Ayyanar M, Raja N, Ignacimuthu S. Medicinal plants used by traditional healers in Kancheepuram District of Tamil Nadu. India J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2(43) Pawera L, Verner V, Termote C, Sodombekov I, Kandakov A, Karabaev N, Polesny Z. Medical ethnobotany of herbal practitioners in the Turkestan range, southwestern Kyrgyzstan. Acta Soc Botan Polon. 2016; https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3483. Perumal Samy R, Gopalakrishnakone P, Chow VTK. Therapeutic application of natural inhibitors agaisnt snake venom phospholipase A2. Bioinformation. 2012;8(1) Raj AJ, Biswakarma B, Pala NA, Shukla G, Vineeta V, Kumar M, Chakravarty S, Bussmann RW. Indigenous uses of ethno-medicinal plants among forest dependent communities of northern Bengal, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;141(8) https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-018-0208-9.

238

R. M. Kunwar et al.

Savithramma N, Sulochana C, Rao KN. Ethnobotanical survey of plants used to treat asthma in Andhra Pradesh, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;113:54–61. Sharifi-Rad J, Salehi B, Stojanović-Radić ZZ, Tsouh Fokou PV, Sharifi-Rad M, . Mahady GB, Sharifi-Rad M, Masjedi M-R, Lawal TO, Ayatollahi SA, Masjedi J, Sharifi-Rad R, Setzer WN, Sharifi-Rad M, Kobarfard F, Rahman AU, Choudhary MI, Atar A, Iriti M 2017. Medicinal plants used in the treatment of tuberculosis – Ethnobotanical and ethnopharmacological approaches. Biotechnol Adv https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biotechadv.2017.07.001. S07349750(17)30077-0. Sharma HK, Chhangte L, Dolui AK. Traditional medicinal plants in Mizoram, India. Fitoterapia. 2001;72:146–61. Singh AK, Raghubanshi AS, Singh JA. Medical ethnobotany of the tribals of Sonaghati of Sonbhadra district, Uttar Pradesh, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2002;81:31–41. Ullah M, Mehmood S, Ali M, Bussmann RW, Aldosari A, Ali Khan R, Ullah R, Hussain W, Rahman Shah MA. An ethnopharmacological study of plants used for treatment of diabetes in the southern and tribal regions of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18(8) https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.8.1-20. Wu JN. An illustrated chines Materia Medica. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2005. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994-2013. Yoon S-J, Pereira MS, Pavao MSG, Hwang J-K, Pyun YR, PAS M. The medicinal plant Porana volubilis contains polysaccharides with anticoagulant activity mediated by heparin cofactor II. Thromb Res. 2002;106:51–8.

Angelica glauca Edgew. APIACEAE Bandana Awasthi, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Angelica glauca Edgew.: Angelica archangelica subsp. norvegica (Rupr.) Nordh.; A. commutata (C.A. Mey. ex Rupr.) M. Hiroe; Angelica discocarpa (Fr.) M. Hiroe; Angelica intermedia Schult. ex Steud.; Angelica litoralis (Wahlenb.) Fr.; Angelica major Gilib. [Invalid]; Angelica norwegica (Rupr.) Nyman; Angelica officinalis Moench; Angelica procera Salisb.; Angelica sativa Mill.; Archangelica archangelica (L.) H.Karst. [Invalid]; Angelica discocarpa Fr.; Angelica commutata C.A. Mey. ex Rupr.; Angelica litoralis C. Agardh; Angelica littoralis C. Agardh ex DC.; Angelica norwegica Rupr.; Angelica officinalis Hoffm.; Angelica officinalis subsp. litoralis (DC.) Dostál; Angelica sativa (Mill.) Besser; Angelica slavica G. Reuss; Angelica spuria B. Awasthi DAI/USAID Nepal Paani Program, Kathmandu, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_23

239

240

B. Awasthi et al.

Wahlenb.; Ligusticum angelica Stokes (http://www.theplantlist.org); Archangelica officinalis monstr. Phyllomana Lange.; Selinum archangelica (L.) Vest

Local Names Angelica glauca: Ayurveda: Chandaa, Chandaamshuka, Kathachoraa (Khare 2008); Danish: Kvan (Bhat et al. 2011); Doteli: Gannano; Garwhal: Chora; Dutch: grote-engelwortel (Bhat et al. 2011); German: Echt-Engelwurz; Hindi: Choraka bheda, Dudhachoraa (Bhat et al. 2011); Nepali: Ganannu, Gannano (Kunwar et al. 2010a, b, 2018); Sanskrit: Laghu Coraka; Swedish: Kvanne (Bhat et al. 2011); Jammu: Chora, Chorua; Kashmir: Chora, Chorche

Botany and Ecology Angelica is a large and taxonomically complex genus, with 90–110 species and varieties, under the Apiaceae family (Feng et al. 2009). There are over 60 species under the genus recognized globally for the medicinal properties (Forycka and Buchwald 2019) however, have mentioned A. archangelica as the only species that is officially used for medicinal purpose and as spice. In Nepal, there are only four species of Angelica: A. archangelica, A. cyclocarpa, A. harae and A. nubigena (Press et al. 2000). Angelica archangelica is native to north and northeast Europe, Russia, Iceland, Greenland and the Himalayas. Angelica glauca: Plants 1–2.5 m, glabrous, aromatic. Root thick, long-conic. Stem stout, ribbed. Leaves long-petiolate; blade triangular, 20–30
20–25 cm, 2–3ternate-pinnate, primary pinnae long-petiolulate, proximal pinnules 3-foliolose; leaflets subsessile, ovate to oblong-ovate, 3–5
1.5–2.5 cm, base cuneate, margin mucronulate-serrate, glaucous abaxially. Peduncles 15–25 cm; bracts 5, linear, 1.5– 2.5 cm, reflexed; rays 15–20, 2–6 cm, subequal; bracteoles 6–10, linear, ca. 6 mm, reflexed. Calyx teeth obsolete. Petals white, obovate. Fruit oblong-ellipsoid, 8– 12
4–6 mm; dorsal ribs prominent, thick, obtuse-rounded, lateral ribs broadwinged; vittae 1 in each furrow, 2–4 on commissure. Flowering and fruiting June– August (Kaul 1997; Bhat et al. 2011; Joshi 2016; Wilson 2016; Wu et al. 1994– 2013; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7). The species is native to Syria (Khare 2008; Wilson 2016), distributed in some regions of Temperate Asia, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Hungary, Iceland, Poland and Central Russia, and is reported to have an occasional to common distribution in Western Himalayas. Found at an altitude from 1000 to 4000 m along slow-moving streams, damp meadows and forest gullies in rocky substrate (Kaul 1997). Critically endangered due to over-harvesting (Jan et al. 2019, Kala et al. 2004, Kala 2005).

Angelica glauca Edgew. Fig. 1 Angelica archangelica (Apiaceae), a rural villager describing plant and its uses, Nepal. (Photo Ripu Kunwar)

Fig. 2 Angelica ternata (Apiaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

241

242 Fig. 3 Angelica adzharica (Apiaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Angelica adzharica (Apiaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Angelica adzharica (Apiaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

B. Awasthi et al.

Angelica glauca Edgew. Fig. 6 Angelica adzharica (Apiaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 7 Angelica archangelica (Apiaceae), Abisko, Sweden. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

243

244

B. Awasthi et al.

Phytochemistry Roots: Oils: α-phellandrene, α-pinene, furfural, diacetyl-α-terpineol, borneol, angelica lactone, angelic acid, exaltolide, α-bisabolol, farnesol, elemol and eudesmol (Kaul 1997); β-phellandrene (Barnes et al. 2008; Wilson 2016); sabinene and 3-carene (Holm et al. 1997); thujene, β-pinene, limonene, linalool, borneol (Barnes et al. 2008); coumarins (angelicin, xanthotoxin, xanthotoxol, bergapten, oxypeucedanin, imperatorin, osthol, oreoselone, umbelliferone, umbelliprenin, archangelicin, 20 -angeloyl-3’isovaleryl vaginate, osthenol, hernaclenol) (Härmälä et al. 1991; Ojala 2001; Barnes et al. 2008; Wilson 2016; Kowal et al. 2017; Oliveira et al. 2019); several phenols (Wilson 2016); and archangelenone (Barnes et al. 2008; Sood et al. 2010). Kowal et al. (2017) also reported of have derived isoquercitrin for the first time from a food supplement manufactured from A. archangelica. Leaves: isopimpinellin, imperatorin and bergapten (Steck and Bailey 1969) and α- and β-pinene and β-phellandrene. Seeds: Essential oil: α- and β-phellandrene, sabinene, myrcene, α-pinene and limonene (Holm et al. 1997) and coumarins. Fruits: imperatorin, isoimperatorin and bergapten (Mathos et al. 2015) and β-phellandrene.

Local Medicinal Uses Angelica is included in a variety of official herbal pharmacopoeiae. In the Ural the roots are used as diuretic and expectorant; for bronchitis, neurasthenia, insomnia, gastritis and ascites; and as tincture for rheumatism, gout and sciatica, as well as with otitis and toothache (Sokolov 1988). Angelica glauca: In Nepal, its roots are used for cold, cough, gastric, stomachache, joint ache and constipation and as an effective remedy for indigestion in the northwest region (Kunwar et al. 2010, 2018). On a global scale, all parts of A. archangelica are reported to be traditionally used for various problems such as asthma, loss of appetite, flatulent dyspepsia (Sigurdsson et al. 2005), nervous headache, fever, skin rashes, wounds, rheumatism and toothaches. Its introduction as a medicine for plague in Europe is well cited in literatures (Crellin et al. 1990). Researches have shown that the leaves possess anti-proliferative and anti-tumour properties as well (Sigurdsson et al. 2005). Roots possess stimulant, expectorant and diaphoretic properties (Wilson 2016). The roots are reported to have abortifacient property as well, so it is suggested to restrict its frequent use during pregnancy (Duke 2002). To treat constipation bronchitis and stomach disorders (Malik et al. 2015). Used also for flatulence, indigestion and oedema (Thakur et al. 2014). Used in Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh for dyspepsia, flatulence, as stimulant, for asthma, dysentery, as expectorant, to treat influenza, stomach disorders, stomach pain, toothache, vomiting, mental disorders and as cardiac stimulant (Gairola et al. 2014). The roots of Angelica archangelica are used for gastric problems (Kunwar and Bussmann 2009; Kunwar et al. 2013, 2016, 2018, 2019) and as anthelminthic and for stomachache (Kunwar et al. 2010, 2015).

Angelica glauca Edgew.

245

Local Food Uses Angelica glauca: In many parts of the world, the oil of roots is used for flavouring cakes, candy, beverages, perfumery and in medicine (Sood et al. 2010; Wilson 2016). Kaul (1997) cited its use as the main flavouring ingredient of gin. The fruit powder is used as spices in flavouring food articles (Kaul 1997). Crushed roots to flavour food (Thakur et al. 2014, 2017). Angelica adzharica/ Angelica tatianae: The young shoots are eaten raw and pickled. The seeds are used as spice. In Northern Armenia highly valued as edible plant. The leaf petioles with spicy bitter taste are eaten raw and rarely salted and probably also have medicinal properties (Bussmann et al. 2020).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Angelica glauca: is used in Nepal for the treatment of asthma, cough and colds (Kunwar et al. 2015, 2016) and oedema, gastric problems and as anthelminthic (Thakur et al. 2014). Angelica adzharica/Angelica tatianae: The essential oils are used for perfumes. (Sokolov 1988). The young stems are eaten as pickle (Bussmann et al. 2020).

References Barnes J, Anderson LA, Phillipson JD. Herbal medicines-third edition. Am J Homeopath Med. 2008;101(1):52. Bhat ZA, Kumar D, Shah MY. Angelica archangelica Linn. is an angel on earth for the treatment of diseases. Int J Nutr Pharmacol Neurol Dis. 2011;1(1):36. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D. Angelica adzharica Pimenov; Angelica tatianae Bordz. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions far eastern Europe. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3319-77088-8_11-2. Crellin JK, Philpott J, Bass AT. Herbal medicine past and present: a reference guide to medicinal plants, vol. 2: Raleigh/Durham: Duke University Press; 1990. p. 97–101. Duke JA. Handbook of medicinal herbs. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2002. Feng T, Downie SR, Yu Y, Zhang X, Chen W, He X, Liu S. Molecular systematics of Angelica and allied genera (Apiaceae) from the Hengduan Mountains of China based on nrDNA ITS sequences: phylogenetic affinities and biogeographic implications. J Plant Res. 2009;122(4):403–14. Forycka A, Buchwald W. Variability of composition of essential oil and coumarin compounds of Angelica archangelica L. Herba Polonica. 2019;65(4):62–75. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Härmälä P, Kaltia S, Vuorela H, Hiltunen R. A furanocoumarin from Angelica archangelica. Planta Med. 1991;58(3):287–9. Holm Y, Vuorela P, Hiltunen R. Enantiomeric composition of monoterpene hydrocarbons in n-hexane extracts of Angelica archangelica L. roots and seeds. Flavour Fragr J. 1997;12(6):397–400.

246

B. Awasthi et al.

Jan HA, Jan S, Bussmann RW, Wali S, Sisto F, Ahmad L. Complementary and alternative medicine research, prospects and limitations in Pakistan: a literature review. Acta Ecol Sin. 2019; https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.chnaes.2019.12.005. Joshi RK. Angelica (Angelica glauca and A. archangelica) oils. In: Essential oils in food preservation, flavor and safety: Cambridge: Academic Press; 2016. p. 203–8. Chapter 21. Kala CP. Indigenous use, population density, and conservation of threatened medicinal plants in protected areas of the Indian Himalayas. Conserv Biol. 2005;19(2):368–78. Kala CP, Farooquee NA, Dhar U. Prioritization of medicinal plants on the basis of available knowledge, existing practices and use value status in Uttaranchal, India. Biodivers Conserv. 2004;13:453–69. Kaul MK. Medicinal plants of Kashmir and Ladakh: temperate and cold arid Himalaya. New Delhi: Indus Publishing; 1997. Khare CP. Indian medicinal plants: an illustrated dictionary. New York: Springer Science & Business Media; 2008. Kowal NM, Eyjolfsson R, Olafsdottir ES. Investigations on the constituents of SagaPro tablets, a food supplement manufactured from Angelica archangelica leaf. Die Pharmazie-an international. J Pharm Sci. 2017;72(1):3–4. Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Medicinal, Aromatic and Dye Plants of Baitadi and Darchula Districts, Nepal Himalaya: status, uses and management. In: Hartmann M, Weipert J, editors. Biodiversität, Naturausstattung im Himalaya, Bd. III. Erfurt; 2009. p. 475–89. Kunwar RM, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants in farwest Nepal: indigenous uses and pharmacological validity. Med Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010a;4(1):28–42. Kunwar RM, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants in Farwest Nepal: their indigenous uses and pharmacological validity. Med Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010b;4 (special issue 1):28–42. Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Acharya RP, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants, traditional medicine, markets and management in far-west Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:24. Kunwar RM, Acharya RP, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plant dynamics in indigenous medicines in Farwest Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;163:210–9. Kunwar RM, Baral K, Paudel P, Acharya RP, Thapa-Magar KB, Cameron M, Bussmann RW. Landuse and socioeconomic change, medicinal plant selection and biodiversity resilience in far western Nepal. PLoS One. 2016; https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0167812. Kunwar RM, Fadiman M, Cameron M, Bussmann RW, Thapa-Magar KB, Rimal B, Sapkota P. Cross-cultural comparison of plant use knowledge in Baitadi and Darchula districts, Nepal Himalaya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14(1):40. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-018-0242-7. Kunwar RM, Fadiman M, Hindle T, Suwal MK, Adhikari YP, Baral K, Bussmann RW. Composition of forests and vegetation in the Kailash Sacred Landscape, Nepal. J Forest Res. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11676-019-00987-w. Malik ZA, Bhat J, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhat AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44. Mathos MJ, Santana L, Uriarte E, Abreu OA, Molina E, Yordi EG. Coumarins – an important class of phytochemicals. Phytochemicals-isolation, characterisation and role in human health. 2015. 113–140. Ojala T. Biological screening of plant coumarins. Academic dissertation, Division of Pharmacognosy, University of Helsinki; 2001. Oliveira CR, Spindola DG, Garcia DM, Erustes A, Bechara A, Palmeira-dos-Santos C, Smaili SS, Pereira GJ, Hinsberger A, Viriato EP, Marcucci MC, Sawaya ACHF, Tomaz SL, Rodrigues EG, Bicoletto C. Medicinal properties of Angelica archangelica root extract: cytotoxicity in breast cancer cells and its protective effects against in vivo tumor development. J Integr Med. 2019;17(2):132–40. Press JR, Shrestha KK, Sutton DA. Annotated checklist of the flowering plants of Nepal. London: Natural History Museum Publications; 2000.

Angelica glauca Edgew.

247

Sigurdsson S, Ögmundsdóttir HM, Hallgrimsson J, Gudbjarnason S. Antitumour activity of Angelica archangelica leaf extract. In Vivo. 2005;19(1):191–4. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1988. 357 p. (in Russian). Sood SK, Gupta P, Kumar S. Flavouring and fragrant resources of India. New Delhi: Scientific Publishers; 2010. Steck W, Bailey BK. Leaf coumarins of Angelica archangelica. Can J Chem. 1969;47(13):2425– 30. Thakur KS, Kumar M, Bawa R, Bussmann RW. Ethnobotanical study of herbaceous flora along an altitudinal gradient in Bharmour Forest Division, District Chamba of Himachal Pradesh, India. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2014; https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/946870. Thakur D, Sharma A, Uniyal SK. Why they eat, what they eat: patterns of wild edible plants consumption in a tribal area of Western Himalaya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13:70. https:// doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0198-z. Wilson L. Spices and flavoring crops: fruits and seeds. In: Caballero B, Finglas P, Toldrá F, editors. Encyclopedia of food and health. Boca Raton: Cambridge Academic Press; 2016. p. 73–83. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013.

Anisomeles indica (L.) Kuntze LAMIACEAE Sabina Gyawali, Sanjeev Luintel, Santosh Thapa, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Anisomeles indica (L.) Kuntze: Anisomeles ovata R. Br.; Epimeredi indicus (L.) Rothm.; Marrubium indicum (L.) Burm. f.; Nepeta indica L.

Local Names Anisomeles indica: Hindi: Ramtulsi, Gopali; Bengali: gobura, gopali, apang; Hindi: काला भंग्रा Kala bhangra, Gobara; Kannada: Mangamari Soppu; Konkani: गोपाली Gopali; Nepali: रातो चारपात Raato Chaarapaate, Udaira – Tharu, Nirepati, S. Gyawali · S. Luintel Amrit Science College, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal S. Thapa Tri-Chandra College, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_24

249

250

S. Gyawali et al.

Jhusule, Rato Pat; Jinting (Sh); Manipuri: থোইদিঙঅঙৌবা Thoiding angouba; Marathi: गोपाली Gopali; Malayalam: Chedayan; Others: Gopali, Malabar Catmint, Indian Catmint, Chedayan, Karinthumba; Telugu: adabeera; Kannada: Mangamari soppu; English: Indian Catmint, Malabar catmint

Botany and Ecology Anisomeles indica: Stems erect, 1–2 m tall, branched, densely appressed white pubescent. Petiole 1–4.5 cm; leaf blade broadly ovate, 4–9
2.5–6.5 cm, adaxially finely strigose especially on veins, abaxially densely white minutely tomentose, tomentose on veins, base broadly truncate-cuneate, margin irregularly dentate, apex acute or short acuminate. Spikes about 2.5 cm in diam.; floral leaves short petiolate or  sessile, longer than verticillasters; bracts 3–4 mm. Calyx about 6 mm, hirsute, glandular pubescent, yellow glandular; teeth purple-red, triangular-lanceolate, about 2.7 mm, ciliate. Corolla purplish, about 1.3 cm, glabrous outside; tube funnelform, mouth to 3.5 mm wide; upper lip oblong, 4.5–5
3 mm, margin entire; lower lip subhorizontally spreading, about 9
5 mm; middle lobe obcordate, about 3
4.5 mm, slightly undulate, bearded; lateral lobes ovate. Ovary glabrous. Nutlets about 1.5 mm in diameter. Flowering August–September, fruiting September– November (Wu et al. 1994–2013). The genus Anisomeles has not been recorded on any of the islands of the southern Pacific Ocean, except as a naturalized alien (Bean 2015). Most members of the Anisomeles are confined to the tropics while only A. indica extends north of the Tropic of Cancer. The species diversity is greatest in tropical Australia, especially the “Top End” of Northern Territory and in northern Queensland. It is a widespread and common species. It is indigenous in southern Asia, including Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Maldives, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Burma, Thailand, Laos, Malaysia, Vietnam, China, Taiwan, Japan, Philippines, and Indonesia (including Papua). Its native range is Tropical and Subtropical Asia. It grows on a wide range of habitats from steep mountain slopes to alluvial flats, and on sandy or clayey soils. The African Plants Database (APD 2013) states that A. indica is naturalized in Madagascar. Hedge (1998) cited two specimens for Madagascar, commenting that “Perhaps A. indica is present in Madagascar, but this has never been confirmed, even as an introduced species.” Baker (1877) stated that the occurrences of A. ovata (¼ A. indica) on nearby Mauritius were naturalizations. Naturalized populations also occur at Fiji, Samoa, Trinidad, and Jamaica.

Phytochemistry The plant has 14-membered carbocyclic diterpenoids ovatodiolide (I, R ¼ β-H) (II) and isoovatodiolide (I, R ¼ α-H) (Manchand and Blount 1977); tetracosane, tetracosanol, β-amyrin, friedelin, and betulonic, macrocyclic diterpenes, ovatodiolide, and anisomelic acid, anisomelin (40 ,5- dihydroxy-30 ,6,7-trimethoxyflavone) (Ansari and Dobhal 1982); 5-hydroxy-30 ,40 ,6,7-tetramethylflavone, anisomelin, and apigenin

Anisomeles indica (L.) Kuntze

251

(Rao et al. 1983); palmitic acid (23.334%), stearic acid (22.749%), lignoceric acid (21.54%), linalyl acetate (15.3%), and α-thujone (11.9%) (Yogesh et al. 2011); 2-(3-methoxy-4-hydroxy) phenyl-ethanol 1-O-α-L-[(1 ! 3)- rhamnopyranosyl-6feruloyl] glucoside (I) along with known 2-(3, 4-dihydroxy) Ph ethanol1-O-α-L[(1 ! 3)-rhamnopyranoside-4-O-caffeoyl] glucoside (verbascoside) (II), and 2-(3,4-dihydroxy) Ph ethanol (1 ! 1) (2 ! 2)-[(1 ! 3)- rhamnopyranoside-4-Ocaffeoyl] glucoside (oraposide) (III) (Wang and Luan 1994); One cembrane-type diterpenoid (3), two benzenoids (4 and 5), five flavonoids (1, 2, 6, 7, and 14), and six phenyl propanoids (8–13) (Rao et al. 2009); alanine, anisomelic acid, apigenin, amyrin, b sitosterol, behemic acid, betulin, cerotic acid, malabaric acid, ovatodiolide, pedallitin, stearic acid, stigmasterol (Kunwar et al. 2010). Mono- and sesquiterpenes, α-Bisabolol oxide B, a sesquiterpene oxide, dihydro-β-ionone, hexyl butanoate, tetracosane, and vitispirane (Batish et al. 2012); chloroform (4.20% w/w), ethyl acetate (4.23% w/w), and aqueous decoction (12.11% w/w) (Sundriyal et al. 2013); farnesyl acetone, nootkatone, and jasmatone (Basappa et al. 2015); oxygenated diterpenes and diterpene hydrocarbons (54.7%), abietadiene (20.5%), βcaryophyllene (8.8%), (E, E)-α-farnesene (5.5%), linoleic acid (8.7%), trans-ferruginol (8.1%), and abietol (6.1%) (Melkani et al. 2016); six triterpenoids (1–6), 4 megastigmanes (7–10), and 5 hydroxycinnamic acid derivs, 2α,3α,19α-trihydroxyurs-12,20(30)-dien-28-oic acid (Liu et al. 2019).

Local Medicinal Uses Anisomeles indica: It is used to treat nervous disorders and fever (Singh et al. 2002), urinary problems (Kunwar et al. 2010; Purkayastha et al. 2005), and also as tonic, astringent, and for uterine problems (Kunwar et al. 2010), as well as for body ache (Kala 2005). The extract showed anti-HIV activity (Ahmad et al. 2006). Leaf juice is put in the ear to stop pus formation inside (Manandher 1998); sore throat, diarrhea, dysentery, fever (Oli and Nepal 2003; Uprety et al. 2016), urinary problem (Kunwar and Duwadee 2003a, b; Kunwar et al. 2015); stomachache (Acharya and Pokhrel 2006); leaf extract is useful for urinary complaints, plant is astringent, tonic and its juice is useful for urinary affections (Kunwar et al. 2010) and as tonic (Joshi 2014).

References Acharya E, Pokhrel B. Ethno-medicinal plants used by Bantar of Bhaudaha, Morang, Nepal. Our Nat. 2006;4(1):96–103. Ahmad I, Aquil F, Owais M. Modern phytomedicine. Weinheim: Wiley; 2006. Ansari S, Dobhal MP. Chemical-constituents of the roots of Anisomeles indica Ktz. Pharmazie. 1982;37(6):453–4. APD. African Plants Database (version 3.4.0). Conservatoire et Jardin botaniques de la Ville de Genève and South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria. 2013. http://www.ville-ge. ch/musinfo/bd/cjb/africa/. Accessed 22 Dec 2013. Baker JG. Flora of Mauritius and the Seychelles. London: L. Reeve & Co.; 1877.

252

S. Gyawali et al.

Basappa G, Kumar V, Sarojini BK, Poornima DV, Gajula H, Sannabommaji TK, Rajashekar J. Chemical composition, biological properties of Anisomeles indica Kuntze essential oil. Ind Crop Prod. 2015;77:89–96. Batish DR, Singh HP, Kaur M, Kohli RK, Singh S. Chemical characterization and phytotoxicity of volatile essential oil from leaves of Anisomeles indica (Lamiaceae). Biochem Syst Ecol. 2012;41:104–9. Bean AR. A taxonomic revision of Anisomeles R. Br.(Lamiaceae). Austrobaileya. 2015:321–81. Hedge IC. Anisomeles. In: Morat P, editor. Flore de Madagascar et des Comores 175. Paris: Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle; 1998. p. 42–4. Joshi N. Utilization pattern and conservation status of plant resources of Makawanpur District, Central Nepal. 2014. Kala CP. Indigenous use, population density, and conservation of threatened medicinal plants in protected areas of the Indian Himalayas. Conserv Biol. 2005;19(2):368–78. Kunwar RM, Duwadee NPS. Ethnobotanical notes on Flora of Khaptad National Park (KNP), FarWestern, Nepal. Him J Sci. 2003a;1(1):25–30. Kunwar RM, Duwadee NPS. Ecology and economy of NTFPs in Nepal: a case study from Dolpa and Jumla. Bot Orientalis. 2003b;3:89–97. Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Bussmann RW. Traditional herbal medicine in Far-West Nepal: a pharmacological appraisal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6(1):35. Kunwar R, Acharya RP, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plant dynamics in indigenous medicines in Far-West Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;163:210–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jep.2015.01.035. Liu QW, Chen CH, Wang XF, Jiang K, Qu SJ, Dai YR, Tan CH. Triterpenoids, megastigmanes and hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives from Anisomeles indica. Nat Prod Res. 2019;33(1):41–6. Manandher NP. Ethnobotanical census on herbal medicines of Banke district, Nepal. Contribut Nepal Stud. 1998;25:57–63. Manchand PS, Blount JF. Chemical constituents of tropical plants. 10. Stereostructures of the macrocyclic diterpenoids ovatodiolide and isoovatodiolide. J Org Chem. 1977;42(24):3824–8. Melkani AB, Mohan L, Pant CC. Diterpene rich essential oil from Anisomeles indica (L.) O. Kuntz. and its antimicrobial activity. World J Pharm Res. 2016;5(5):932–43. Oli BR, Nepal BK. Non-timber forest products from the Kangchenjunga conservation area: aspects of trade and market opportunities. Kathmandu: WWF Nepal Programme; 2003. Purkayastha J, Nath SC, Islam B. Ethnobotany of medicinal plants from Dibru-Saikhowa biosphere reserve of Northeast India. Fitoterapia. 2005;76:121–7. Rao LJM, Kumari GK, Rao NP. 6-Methoxy flavones from Anisomeles ovata (syn. Anisomeles indica). J Nat Prod. 1983;46(4):595–8. Rao YK, Fang SH, Hsieh SC, Yeh TH, Tzeng YM. The constituents of Anisomeles indica and their anti-inflammatory activities. J Ethnopharmacol. 2009;121(2):292–6. Singh AK, Raghubanshi AS, Singh JA. Medical ethnobotany of the tribals of Sonaghati of Sonbhadra district, Uttar Pradesh, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2002;81:31–41. Sundriyal A, Bijjem KRV, Kalia AN. Antiepileptic potential of Anisomeles indica (Linn.) Kuntze aerial parts in pentylenetetrazole-induced experimental convulsions in Wistar rats. 2013. Uprety Y, Poudel RC, Gurung J, Chettri N, Chaudhary RP. Traditional use and management of NTFPs in Kangchenjunga landscape: implications for conservation and livelihoods. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12(1):19. Wang Y, Luan X. Phenethyl alcohol glycosides in Epimeredi indica. Chin Tradit Herb Drug. 1994;32(12):1325. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Yogesh U, Krishnakant P, Navin S. Analysis of fatty acid in Anisomeles species by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Pharm J. 2011;3(22):44–7.

Aquilaria sinensis (Loureiro) Sprengel Aquilaria yunnanensis S. C. Huang THYMELAEACEAE Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Aquilaria sinensis (Loureiro) Sprengel: Aquilaria grandiflora Bentham; Aquilaria ophispermum Poiret.; Ophispermum sinense Loureiro; Agallochum sinense (Loureiro) Kuntze

Local Names Aquilaria sinensis: Chinese: 土沉香 tu chen xiang; English: Chinese eaglewood Aquilaria yunnanensis: Chinese: 云南沉香 yun nan chen xiang, English: Yunnanese eaglewood

R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_25

253

254

R. M. Kunwar et al.

Botany and Ecology Aquilaria sinensis: Trees 5–15 m tall. Bark dark gray, smooth; branchlets terete, rugose, puberulous, glabrescent. Petiole 5–7 mm, pubescent; leaf blade dark or purple-green, glossy adaxially, light green abaxially, orbicular or elliptic to oblong, sometimes obovate, 5–9  2.8–6 cm, leathery, both surfaces glabrous, but sometimes puberulous along margin, base broadly cuneate, apex acuminate or acute, apiculate; lateral veins 15–20 pairs, more conspicuous abaxially, veins and veinlets slender, subparallel, obscure. Inflorescence terminal, a loose panicle of umbels, many flowered. Flowers fragrant at night; pedicel 5–10 mm, densely yellow-gray pubescent. Calyx yellowish green; tube narrowly campanulate, 5–6 mm, exterior and interior densely pubescent; lobes 5, ovate, 3–5 mm, both surfaces pubescent, apex rounded and obtuse, or acute. Petaloid appendages 10, scalelike, inserted at throat of tube, obviously densely pilose at anthesis. Stamens 10; filaments about 1 mm; anthers linear-oblong, about 1.5 mm. Ovary ovoid, densely grayish white hairy; style obsolete or nearly so; stigma capitate. Capsule shortly stipitate, ovoid, 2–3  about 2 cm, densely yellow pubescent, base tapering, apex apiculate; pericarp thin, smooth when dried. Seeds dark brown, ovoid, about 10  7.5 mm, white sericeous or glabrous; funicle conspicuous, about 1.5  0.4 cm, longer than seed, tapered at base, broad and compressed below seed. Flowering spring-summer, fruiting summer-autumn. Lowland forests, sunny places on slopes or along roadsides. Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan. Aquilaria sinensis has been very heavily exploited and is listed as vulnerable by the IUCN (de Boer et al. 2014; Hamilton 2004; Wu et al. 1994–2013). Aquilaria yunnanensis: Trees small, 3–8 m tall. Branchlets dark brown, puberulous. Petiole 4–5 mm, pubescent; leaf blade elliptic-oblong or oblong-lanceolate, rarely obovate, 7–11  2–4 cm, leathery, glabrous, glabrescent, or puberulous only on midrib, base cuneate or narrowly cuneate, apex caudate-acuminate, acumen 1–1.5 cm; veins usually branched, dense, conspicuous and raised abaxially, obscure adaxially. Inflorescence terminal or axillary, consisting of 1 or 2 umbels. Flowers fragrant; pedicel about 6 mm, slender. Calyx light yellow; tube campanulate, 6–7 mm, exterior pubescent, interior 10-ribbed, ribs pubescent; lobes 5, ovateoblong, about 3 mm, nearly as long as tube, inside densely pubescent. Petaloid appendages about 1.5 mm, puberulous, apex rounded. Stamens 10, 1.5–2 mm; anthers linear, shorter than or equaling filaments. Ovary subglobose, about 3 mm, shiny, pubescent; style obscure; stigma capitate. Capsule obovoid, about 2.5  1.7 cm, base tapering and enclosed by erect, persistent calyx, corky when dried, apex rounded and apiculate; pericarp thickened, slightly rugose when dried, yellow pubescent. Seeds 1 or 2, ovoid, densely brown-yellow pubescent, apex obtuse; funicle 0.8–1 cm, slightly shorter or longer than seed. Valley forests; about 1200 m. Yunnan. This species has been confused with Aquilaria sinensis and is probably exploited in the same way (Wu et al. 1994–2013).

Aquilaria sinensis (Loureiro) Sprengel . . .

255

Local Medicinal Uses Aquilaria sinensis: The species is used for stomach pain, constipation, scrotal hernia, impotence., cold, lower back pain, and knee pain (Wu 2005). Aquilaria yunnanensis: The species is used for stomach pain, constipation, scrotal hernia, impotence, cold, lower back pain, and knee pain (Wu 2005).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Aquilaria sinensis: The bark is used to make paper; the heart wood is prized for its fragrance (Wu et al. 1994–2013; Wu 2005). Aquilaria yunnanensis: The bark is used to make paper; the heart wood is prized for its fragrance (Wu et al. 1994–2013; Wu 2005).

References de Boer H, Ouarghidi A, Martin G, Abbad A, Kool A. DNA barcoding reveals limited accuracy of identifications based on folk taxonomy. PLoS One. 2014;9(1):e84291. Hamilton AC. Medicinal plants, conservation and livelihoods. Biodivers Conserv. 2004;13:1477– 517. Wu JN. An illustrated chines Materia Medica. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2005. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013.

Arisaema flavum (Forssk.) Schott ARACEAE Kalyan Panta, Hassan Sher, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Ikram Ur Rahman, Wahid Hussain, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

K. Panta (*) Prithivi Narayan Campus, Tribhuvan University, Pokhara, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan W. Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_26

257

258

K. Panta et al.

Synonyms Arisaema abbreviatum Schott, Arum flavum Forssk., Arisaema pertusum Riedl.; Dochafa flava (Forssk.) Schott.

Local Names Arisaema flavum: Gurung: Timtry; Pashto: Marjarai, Nepali: Banko, Sarpa ko Makai; English: Cobra lily, Jack-in-the pulpit, Green dragon.

Botany and Ecology Arisaema flavum was collected by P. Forskal from the mountains of the Arabic peninsula (nowadays N. Yemen) and described in 1775. Schott described it as Arisaema abbreviatum collected from western Himalaya, from the region of Shimla. It was the new species to the plant taxonomy. Later, the new born genus Arisaema Mart. (he) was merged to A. abbreviatum with an old name Arum flavum. Then it got the name Arisaema flavum (Forsk.) Schott on the basis of morphological similarities of floral characters (Gusman 1997). The species epithet flavum means yellow in Latin and indicates its flower color (Harrison 2012). Since A. flavum differs with all other Arisaemas, Schott created a new genus DOCHAFA. Arisaemas indeed differ from all other aroids by their sex changes from year to year (Gusman 1997). Forskål mentioned in his “Flora Ægyptiaco Arabica sive descriptiones plantarum” that Dochaf referred to Arum flavum Forsk. and Arum pentaphyllum Forsk. A short life appeared in the genus Dochafa merged with Arisaema (Engler 1920). Also reused the term Dochafa and retained the name genus Arisaema. Arisaema flavum: Plants monoecious and male. Tuber subglobose, 1.5–2.5 cm in diameter. Cataphylls 3–5, green, 8–25 cm. Leaves 1 or 2; petiole green to purplish, unmarked, 11–35 cm, sheathing for about 4/5 length forming pseudostem; leaf blade pedate; leaflets 5–11(
15), sessile, glaucous abaxially, green adaxially, oblonglanceolate or obovate-lanceolate, base cuneate, apex acuminate; central leaflet largest, 9–12  3–5 cm; outer (lateral leaflets) gradually decreasing to outermost (1.5– 4  1–1.2 cm). Peduncle emerging from pseudostem, green, 15–30 cm. Spathe smallest in genus, 2.5–6 cm in total; tube yellowish green, ovoid to globose, 1– 1.5  1–1.4 cm, constricted at dark purple throat with nectar inside; limb yellow or green, inside dark purple at least at basal part, oblong-ovate, 1.5–4.5  0.8–2 cm, apex acuminate, slightly incurved. Spadix bisexual or male, very short, 1–2 cm in total; female zone proximal, 3–7  5–7 mm; ovaries congested, greenish, obovoid; stigma sessile; male zone distal, light yellow, cylindric, 3–7  2–3 mm; synandria congested, usually consisting of 2 anthers; thecae sessile, dehiscent by apical pore. Appendix yellowish or yellow green, ellipsoid, 2–5  about 1.5 mm, very short, rugose when dry. Mature infructescence nodding, subglobose, about 4 cm in diameter. Berries obovoid, 3–4  3–5 mm. Seeds 3, pale yellowish, 2–2.5 mm. Flowering

Arisaema flavum (Forssk.) Schott

259

Fig. 1 Arisaema flavum (Araceae) plant, Nepal. (Photo Hari P Gurung) Fig. 2 Arisaema flavum (Araceae) Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

May–June. Open places rocky slopes 1800 to 3500 m in Pakistan. Distributed in Nepal, NE India, China, Kashmir and northern parts of Pakistan. Locally found in high altitude of Malakand and Hazara divisions. Harvesting time September to March (Wu et al. 1994-2013; Mayo and Gilbert 1986; Kunwar et al. 2010a, b). The flowers are either male or monoecious (Anonymous 1994) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Ecology Arisaema comprises about 150 species in the world (Murata 1984; Gusman and Gusman 2006). About 140 species are found in the Himalayas, southern India, China, Sri Lanka, Japan, Korea, and South East Asia. There are 95 species of

260

K. Panta et al.

Fig. 3 Arisaema flavum (Araceae) Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

Fig. 4 Arisaema flavum (Araceae) Pakistan. (Photo Haider Ali)

Arisaema reported in the Flora of China (http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx? flora_id¼2) and 24 species in Nepal (Press et al. 2000; Renner et al. 2004). Across Saudi Arabia and Oman to east Africa, five or six species are endemic, and three are endemic to North America (Renner et al. 2004). It is also found in Southern Arabia, Oman, Yemen, and Saudi Arabia (Kletter and Kriechbaum 2001). Besides these, Ethiopia, Somalia, Arabian Peninsula, Pakistan, Nepal, and Assam are native home to them (Govaerts and Frodin 2002; Gusman and Gusman 2006). These species are confined to cool temperate environment, including montane grasslands. Few species

Arisaema flavum (Forssk.) Schott

261

have found thriving well between 4200 and 4500 m asl in the Himalayan range and at 3200 m in East Africa. Arisaema flavum is found in the tropical region. It prefers to thrive well in a cool and moist peaty soil in the bog, woodland, or a sheltered border in semi shade (Rice 1998; Huxley 1992). This species prefers a loamy or peaty soil (Chittendon 1951). A. flavum is found growing well in the mountain slopes of tropical to subalpine regions between 3500 to 4300 m above sea level. It is a perennial monocot flowering plant. It comes under the family Araceae (Arum family). The plant looks like insectivorous pitcher plant. The inflorescence of the plant is attractive. It is supposed to live a 100 years. The plant is known by many names due to its peculiar flowering habit and the shape of its attractive inflorescence. Expression of sex in Arisaema is dependent on edaphic factors, especially nutritional conditions during a plant’s life. Large plants are bisexual or only possess pistillate flowers (female) but small plants may be only staminate flowers. As demonstrated experimentally the sex is influenced by root storage (Bierzychudek 1984). All Arisaema species have found exchanging each other their genetic characters consistently through producing male and female flowers simultaneously (http://www.umsl.edu/-biosrenn/). Arisaema demonstrates “sex change” and is the characteristics of Araceae, and rarely found among angiosperms that are labile to sex determination. Environment and life history of the plant determine sex of this plant (Charnov and Bull 1977; Freeman et al. 1980). However, Murata (1990) found sex-changing populations of A. flavum, described as subspecies tibeticum, leaving the remaining two subspecies of A. flavum. Germination of Arisaema flavum seeds usually takes place about 1–6 months at 15 °C. These may remain viable for at least a year. They grow well during spring season (Rice 1998). Pollination is usually performed by a fungus gnats (Mycetophilidae) and sciarid gnats (Sciaridae). Besides these, nectar feeding small bees may also pollinate (Murata et al. 1993; Vogel and Martens 2000).

Phytochemistry Arisaema flavum possesses alanine, ariseminone, asparagine, cysteine, glycine, norvaline, and ornithine (Rastogi and Mehrotra 1979). Seeds were found to contain 13-phenyltridecanoic acid (an ω-phenyalkanoic acid) among other saturated and unsaturated straight chain fatty acid (Kletter and Kriechbaum 2001). Plant species also found to have four triterpenoids: α-amyrin, β-amyrin, lup-20 (29)-en-3β-ol, lup-20 (29)-en-3β-yl acetate, two sterols β- sitosterol, β-setosteryl galactoside (Ahmad et al. 2003). It is assumed that calcium oxalate raphides which cause minute lesions in the mouth due to the toxicity in this plant affect the circulatory system of human blood. Some chemical compounds found in the species were saponins, proanthocyanidins, cinnamic acids, flavonoids, cyanogenic glucosides, alkaloids, and amines. Irritant compounds: protocatechuic aldehyde, homogentisic acid and their glycosides (Alocasia, Colocasia, Pinellia), and allergenic 5-alkyl-and 5-alkenylresorcinols

262

K. Panta et al.

(Philodendron) are also reported from this plant. Besides these, flavonoids and anthocyanins are such as C-glycoflavones, flavonols, and procyanidins are present, while flavones are present in limited amount. The chemistry of the Araceae resemble to Liliiflorae. 1, 2-O-diacyl-3-O-beta-D-galactopyranosyl glycerols and 1, 2-Odiacyl-3-O-[alpha-D-galactopyranosyl-(100 ! 60 )-O-beta-D-galactopyranosyl] glycerols were isolated from Arisaema amurense. These compounds have shown cytotoxicities against P388 and DLD-1 (Jung et al. 1996).

Local Medicinal Uses Arisaema flavum: Poisonous sedative and relives body pain. The tubers are crushed, and a paste is made which is applied against foot and mouth diseases in cattle. The paste is also applied for snake bite (Shaheen et al. 2012). Fruit is used for cough and cold (Haq et al. 2011). Rhizome and red fruit are poisonous causing numbness of tongue. It is also believed to help in tracing bears (Hamayun 2007). Leaf extract is applied over snake bite to act as an antidote. It also saves milk from being stale when mixed with each other and dried roots of the plant is put in the container to have the milk from getting stale (Sabeen and Ahmad 2009). Possesses antioxidant properties. Methanol extract of Arisaema flavum leaves showed promising antioxidant activity (Bhagat et al. 2014). This species also has immunomodulatory potential. Methanolic extract of Arisaema flavum leaves showed immune enhancing effect in mice (Bhagat et al. 2014). Mitogenic activity and antiproliferative activity are shown by Arisaema. The isolated and purified Lectin from Arisaema flavum tubers demonstrated a strong mitogenic activity for BALB/c splenocytes and human lymphocytes in comparison to Con A, a plant mitogen. The species also showed in vitro antiproliferative activity. It had potency to inhibit the growth of P388D1 and J774 macrophage cancer cell lines to 65% and 74%, respectively, while a partial response was observed in the case of both B-cell and T-cell lymphoma (WEHI-279 and A20, respectively) murine cancer cell lines (Singh et al. 2004). Methanolic tuber extracts of A. flavum contained weak antiviral property (Rajbhandari et al. 2007). Antibacterial activity against all bacterial strains except Staphylococcus aureus was found (Bibi et al. 2011). It has medicinal values as an expectorant and is also used in the treatment of chronic tracheitis, tetanus, bronchiectasis, and epilepsy. Used for wounds and skin problems (Rajbhandari et al. 2007). Tubers of Arisaema species are used to treat fractures, traumatic injuries, and swellings. Arisaema heterophyllum serves to treat hypertension, headache, constipation (Ma et al. 2019). Arisaema propinquum is used to treat diabetic neuropathy and rheumatic arthritis (Sher et al. 2016). Arisaema jaquemontii serves for cough, kidney stones, and to treat snake bites (Malik et al. 2015), to increase muscular strength, for body pain and skin problems (Kayani et al. 2015).

Arisaema flavum (Forssk.) Schott

263

Arisaema consanguineum, Arisaema speciosum, and Arisaema triphyllum are used to treat snakebites (Houghton and Osibogun 1993). Arisaema schimperianum is used to treat glandular tuberculosis (Yineger et al. 2008). Arisaema tortuosum is used to treat snakebites and bone fractures (Jain et al. 2005; Katewa et al. 2004).

Local Food Uses Arisaema flavum: The young leaves are plucked and cooked as a vegetable in limited amount however; some caution is advised (Dangol et al. 2017; Manandhar 2002). The roots of Arisaema tortuosum and Arisaema jaquemontii, and shoots of Arisaema utile, Arisaema consanguineum, and Arisaema erubescens are eaten (Dangol et al. 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Arisaema flavum: Leaves infusion is used against mouth and foot diseases of cattle (Ahmed and Murtaza 2015). Cultivated as ornamental. The fruits of Arisaema murrayi are used to heat cattle (Waghchaure et al. 2006). Arisaema species have been used as a pesticide (Zahang 1982).

References Ahmad VU, Hussain H, Hussain J, Ullah F. Chemical constituents from Arisaema flavum. Proc Pakistan Acad Sci. 2003;40(1):85–90. Ahmed MJ, Murtaza G. A study of medicinal plants used as ethnoveterinary: harnessing potential phytotherapy in Bheri, district Muzaffarabad (Pakistan). J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;159:209–14. Anonymous. Flora of China, Missouri botanical garden Press. St, Louis; 1994. Bhagat M, Sudan R, Gupta S, Kaul A, Singh J. Antioxidant and immunomodulatory potential of cobra lily species of north-western Himalayan region: a comparative analysis mitogenic activity and antiproliferative activity. J Biol Active Prod Nat. 2014;4(3):179–87. Bibi Y, Nisa S, Chaudhary FM, Zia M. Antibacterial activity of some selected medicinal plants of Pakistan. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2011;11:52. Bierzychudek P. Determinants of gender in Jack-in-the-pulpit: the influence of plant size and reproductive history. Oecologia. 1984;65:14–8. Charnov EL, Bull J. When is sex environmentally determined? Nature. 1977;266:828–30. Chittendon F. RHS dictionary of plants plus supplement, 1956: Oxford University press; 1951. Dangol DR, Maharjan KL, Maharjan SK, Acharya, AK. 2017. Wild edible plants in Nepal. in: Joshi BK, Bahadur KC H, Acharya A (eds). Conservation and utilization of agricultural plant genetic resources of Nepal. NAGRC, Dhulikhel. 390-407. Engler A. Das Pflanzenreich 73(IV, 23 F): 172. Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann; 1920. Freeman DC, Harper KT, Charnov EL. Sex change in plants: old and new observations and new hypotheses. Oecologia. 1980;47:222–32.

264

K. Panta et al.

Govaerts R, Frodin DG. World checklist and bibliography of Araceae (and Acoraceae): 1-560. Kew: The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens; 2002. Gusman, G. (1997). Some remarks on Arisaema flavum and its subspecies, Faculte des Sciences, Universite Libre de Bruxelles (CP 233) bd. du Triomphe, B -1050 Bruxelles, Belgium. Gusman G, Gusman L. The genus Arisaema, a monograph for botanists and nature lovers, 2nd edt. 1-474: A.R.G. Gantner Verlag K.G., Ruggell; 2006. Hamayun M. Traditional uses of some medicinal plants of Swat Valley, Pakistan. Indian J Trad Knowl. 2007;6(4):636–41. Haq F, Ahmad H, Alam M. Traditional uses of medicinal plants of Nandiar Khuwarr catchment (district Battagram), Pakistan. J Med Plants Res. 2011;5(1):39–48. Harrison L. RHS Latin for gardeners. United Kingdom: Mitchell Beazley; 2012. Houghton PJ, Osibogun IM. Flowering plants used against snakebite. J Ethnopharmacol. 1993;39:1–29. Huxley A. The new RHS dictionary of gardening, 1992. Mac Millan Press. In: ISBN 0-332-4749-5; 1992. Jain A, Katewa SS, Galav PK, Sharma P. Medicinal plant diversity of Sitamata wildlife sanctuary, Rajasthan, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102:143–57. Jung JH, Lee H, Kang SS. Diacyl-glyceryl-galactosides from Arisaema amurense. Phytochemistry. 1996;42(2):447–52. Katewa SS, Chaudhary BL, Jain A. Folk herbal medicines from tribal area of Rajasthan, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2004;92:41–6. Kayani S, Ahmad M, Sultana S, Khan Shinwari ZM, Yaseen G, Hussain M, Bibi T. Ethnobotany of medicinal plants among the communities of alpine and sub-alpine regions of Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;164:186–202. Kletter C, Kriechbaum M. DWA BA-Arisaema, Typhonium. In: Tibetan medicinal plants: Medpharma Scientific Publisher; 2001. p. 77–84. Kunwar RM, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants in Farwest Nepal: their indigenous uses and pharmacological validity. Med Arom Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010a;4(special issue 1):28–42. Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Bussmann RW. Traditional herbal medicine in far-West Nepal: a pharmacological appraisal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010b;6:35. Ma, Y., Liu, D., Cheng, H., Bussmann, R.W., He, H., Guo, Z., Liu, B. 2019. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by Miao people in Jijiezi, Yunnan, China. Ethnobot Res Appl 1826 https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.26.1-14. Malik ZA, Bhat J, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhat AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44. Manandhar, N. P. Plants and people of Nepal. Timber Press, Oregon; 2002. ISBN 0-88192.527-536. Mayo SJ, Gilbert M. A preliminary revision of Arisaema (Araceae) in tropical Africa and Arabia. Kew Bull. 1986;41(2):261–78. https://doi.org/10.2307/4102929. Murata J. An attempt at an infrageneric classification of the genus Arisaema (Araceae). J. Fac. Sci. Univ. Tokyo, Sect. 3, Bot. 1984;13:431–82. Murata J. Three subspecies of Arisaema flavum (Forssk.) Schott (Araceae). Jpn J Bot. 1990;65 Murata J, Ren C, Murata H, Ogawa S. Arisaema flavum, a honey producing Araceae. Abstract 1203, 15th international botanical congress. Yokohama: Jp; 1993. p. 224. Press JR, Shrestha KK, Sutton DA. Annotated checklist of the flowering plants of Nepal. London: The Natural History Museum; 2000. Rajbhandari M, Mentel R, Jha PK, Chaudhary RP, Bhattarai S, Gewali MB, Karmacharya SB, Hipper N, Lindequest U. Antiviral activity of some plants used in Nepalese traditional medicine. eCAM. 2007;6(4):517–22. https://doi.org/10.1093/ecam/nem156. Rastogi RP, Mehrotra BN. A compendium of medicinal plants, vol. 2. New Delhi: Central Drugs Research Institute, Lucknow and Publication and Information Directorate; 1979. p. 833.

Arisaema flavum (Forssk.) Schott

265

Renner S, Zhang L, Murata J. A chloroplast phylogeny of Arisaema (Araceae) illustrates tertiary floristic links between Asia, North America, and East Africa. Am J Bot. 2004;91(6):881–8. Retrieved June 14, 2020, from www.jstor.org/stable/4122703 Rice G. Growing from seed, vol. 2: Thompson and Morgan Publishers; 1998. Sabeen M, Ahmad SS. Exploring the folk medicinal flora of Abbotabad city. Pakistan Ethnobot Leafl. 2009;2009(7):1. Shaheen H, Shinwari ZK, Qureshi RA, Ullah Z. Indigenous plant resources and their utilization practices in village populations of Kashmir Himalayas. Pak J Bot. 2012;44(2):739–45. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni groups in Chitral District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Singh J, Singh J, Kamboj SS. A novel mitogenic and antiproliferative lectin from a wild cobra lily, Arisaema flavum. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2004;318(4):1057–65. Vogel S, Martens J. A survey of the function of the lethal kettle traps of Arisaema (Araceae), with records of pollinating fungus gnats from Nepal. Bot J Linn Soc. 2000;133:61–100. Waghchaure CK, Tetali P, Gunale VR, Antia NH, Bird TJ. Sacred groves of Parinche Valley of Pune District of Maharashtra, India and their importance. Anthropol Med. 2006;13(1):55–76. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D e. Flora of China. St. Louis: Science Press, Beijing & Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994-2013. Yineger H, Kelbessa E, Bekele T, Lulekal E. Plants used in traditional management of human ailments at Bale Mountains National Park, southeastern Ethiopia. J Med Plants Res. 2008;26:132–53. Zahang J. Alpine plants of China. New York: Gordeon & Breach; 1982. ISBN 0-677-60190-5

Arnebia euchroma (Royle) I. M. Johnst. BORAGINACEAE Hammad Ahmad Jan, Wahid Hussain, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Arnebia euchroma (Royle) I. M. Johnst.: Arnebia euchroma var. grandis Kazmi; Lithospermum euchromum Royle ex Benth.; Macrotomia euchroma (Royle ex Benth.) Paulsen; Macrotomia oginoi Kitam.; Macrotomia perenmnis Boiss.

Local Names Arnebia euchroma: Ladakh: Lali-Jadi; Hindi: Dedmok; Chitrali: Phosuk ‫ﭖﻭﺱﻭﮎ‬

H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan W. Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_27

267

268

H. A. Jan et al.

Botany and Ecology Arnebia euchroma: Herbs perennial. Roots stout, to 2 cm in diam., containing copious purple dye. Stems usually 1 or 2, erect, branched above, sheathed with remaining bases of leaves, 15–40 cm tall, spreading white or pale yellow hirsute. Leaves sessile, sparsely semiappressed hirsute. Basal leaves linear to linearlanceolate, 7–20 cm  0.5–1.5 cm, base sheathlike, apex short acuminate; stem leaves lanceolate to linear-lanceolate, smaller without sheathlike base. Cymes terminal, 2–6 cm at anthesis, many flowered; bracts lanceolate. Flowers heterostylous. Calyx lobes linear, 1.2–1.6 cm, to 3 cm in fruit, densely pale yellow hirsute on both sides, apex subacute. Corolla dark purple, sometimes pale yellow and purple-red tinged, tubular-campanulate, glabrous or sparsely short pubescent outside; tube straight, 1–1.4 cm; limb 6–10 mm wide; lobes spreading, ovate. Anthers ca. 2.5 mm. Style apex 2-lobed; stigmas 2, obovate. Nutlets black-brown, broadly ovate, ca. 3.5  3 mm, scabrous reticulate lined, with few tubercles, adaxially almost flat, center line prominent, abaxially convex, apex subacute; attachment scar somewhat triangular. Flowering and fruiting June–August (Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Figs. 1 and 2).

Fig. 1 Arnebia inconspicua (Boraginaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Huassain)

Arnebia euchroma (Royle) I. M. Johnst.

269

Fig. 2 Arnebia euchroma (Boraginaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Phytochemistry A high content of pyrrolizidine alkaloids has been reported (Ahmad et al. 2018a, b).

Local Medicinal Uses Arnebia euchroma: Root and stem are used for cuts, burns, and wounds (Malik et al. 2015; Tariq et al. 2019). Also employed to treat tuberculosis, cold, cough, and flu (Ballabh and Chaurasia 2007; Pawera et al. 2015). Used in traditional Chinese medicine (Wu 2005) and displayed strong anti-HIV activity in vitro (Ahmad et al. 2006). Used as general tonic (Kala et al. 2004), and for kidney and urinary disorders (Ballabh et al. 2008). Uses include alopecia, as antiphlogistic, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, vomiting with blood, cold, cough, cuts, earache, eye ailments, gynecological disorders, kidney complaints, renal bleeding, lung problems, toothache, wounds¡, back-ache, and as toothbruch (Gairola et al. 2014). Arnebia benthamiana: Used to treat fever (Kala et al. 2004; Kala 2005). Arnebia guttata is used as inferior replacement for the same uses as Arnebia euchroma (Ballabh and Chaurasia 2007).

270

H. A. Jan et al.

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Arnebia benthamiana: Used as hair tonic (Kala et al. 2004; Kala 2005). Arnebia euchroma: Used as hair tonic (Kala et al. 2004; Kala 2005).

References Ahmad I, Aquil F, Owais M. Modern phytomedicine. Weinheim: Wiley; 2006. Ahmad L, He Y, Hao J-C, Semotiuk A, Liu Q-R, Mazar P. Toxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids provide a warning sign to overuse of the ethnomedicine Arnebia benthamii. J Ethnopharmacol. 2018a;210:88–94. Ahmad L, He Y, Semotiuk AJ, Liu Q-R, Hao J-C. Survey of pyrrolizidine alkaloids in the tribe Lithospermeae (Boraginaceae) from Pan-Himalaya and their chemotaxonomic significance. Biochem Syst Ecol. 2018b;81:49–57. Ballabh B, Chaurasia OP. Traditional medicinal plants of cold desert Ladakh – used in treatment of cold, cough and fever. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;112(2):341–9. Ballabh B, Chaurasia OP, Ahmed Z, Singh SB. Traditional medicinal plants of cold desert Ladakh – used against kidney and urinary disorders. J Ethnopharmacol. 2008;118:331–9. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Kala CP. Indigenous use, population density, and conservation of threatened medicinal plants in protected areas of the Indian Himalayas. Conserv Biol. 2005;19(2):368–78. Kala CP, Farooquee NA, Dhar U. Prioritization of medicinal plants on the basis of available knowledge, existing practices and use value status in Uttaranchal, India. Biodivers Conserv. 2004;13:453–69. Malik ZA, Bhat J, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhat AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44. Pawera L, Verner V, Termote C, Sodombekov I, Kadanov A, Karabaev N, Skalicky M, Polesny Z. Medical ethnobotany of herbal practitioners in the Turkestan Range, southwestern Kyrgyzstan. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2015; https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3483. Tariq F, Ul-Haq SI, Natasha K, Ahmad J, Ahmad F, Adnan, Ali A, Basit A. Ethnomedicinal study of various plants in lone valley, district Chitral, KPK, Pakistan. J Med Plants. 2019;7(3):24–8. Wu JN. An illustrated Chines Materia Medica. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2005. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013.

Artemisia absinthium L. Artemisia biennis Willd. Artemisia bigelovii A. Gray Artemisia brevifolia Wall. ex DC. Artemisia scoparia Waldst. ex Kit. Artemisia vulgaris L. ASTERACEAE Hammad Ahmad Jan, Hassan Sher, Wahid Hussain, Ikram Ur Rahman, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Synonyms Artemisia biennis Willd.: Artemisia biennis var. diffusa Dorn Artemisia bigelovii A. Gray: Artemisia petrophila Wooton & Standl., Artemisis bigelowii (A. Gray) K. Bremer & Humphries H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan W. Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_28

271

272

H. A. Jan et al.

Artemisia brevifolia Wall. ex DC: Seriphidium brevifoplium (Wall. ex DC.) Y. Ling & Y.-R. Ling Artemisia scoparia Waldst. ex Kit.: Artemisia capillaris fo. angustisecta Pamp., Artemisia capillaris fo. elegans (Roxb.) Pamp., Artemisia capillaris fo. kohatica (Klatt) Pamp., Artemisia capillaris fo. myriocephala Pamp., Artemisia capillaris fo. tenuifolia Pamp., Artemisia capillaris fo. villosa (Korsh.) Pamp., Artemisia capillaris fo williamsonii Pamp., Artemisia capillaris var. scoparia (Waldst. & Kit.) Pamp., Artemisia elegans Roxb., Artemisia kohatica Klatt, Artemisia scoparia fo. sericea Kom., Artemisia scoparia var. heteromorpha Kitag., Artemisia scopariiformis Popov, Olgosporus scoparius (Waldst. & Kit.) Less., Oligosporus scoparius (Waldst. & Kit.) Poljakov Artemisia vulgaris L.: Artemisia opulenta Pamp.; Artemisia vulgaris var. glabra Ledeb.; Artemisia vulgaris var. kamtschatica Besser

Local Names Artemisia absinthium: Jammu: Tethwan; Ladakh: Burse, Burtse-kar, Tethwan Chhuma-jom; Kurram: Mastaya; Gilgit-Baltistan: Khampa; Pashto: Trakha ‫ﺗﺮﺍﺧﺎ‬ Artemisia biennis: Kurram: Jangli, Tarkha; Ladakh: Magrass Artemisia bigelovii: Pashto: Naray Trakha ‫ﻧﺎﺭﻱ ﺗﺮﺍﺧﻪ‬. Artemisia brevifolia: Gilgit-Baltistan: Bustae; Ladakh: Phur-nag; Khampa, Khamchu, Phur-nag; Kashmir: Moori, Joon, Tarkha Artemisia scoparia: Kurram: Tarkhi boti; Khyber-Pakhtumkhwa: Jawkay; Urdu: Doorang; Baltistan: Khobustae; Pashto: Jaukay ‫ﺟﻮﮐﯽ‬. Artemisia vulgaris: Jammu: Jaatu; Kurram: Darlrang; Buner: Goote; Pashto: Tarkha ‫ﺗﺮﺧﻪ‬.

Botany and Ecology Artemisia absinthium: Perennial. Whole plant grayish from short approximate hairs, sericeous-tomentose. Root vertical, thick, perennial. Stem 60–100 cm high, herbaceous, erect, with short branches, leafy, sometimes basally with short nonflowering branches bearing long-petiolate leaves. Leaves with 6–9 cm long and 3–7 cm wide lamina broadly ovate, almost thrice pinnately dissected, terminal lobe lanceolate, short-acuminate; middle cauline leaves short petiolate, lacking lobes at base of petiole, twice pinnately dissected; upper leaves subsessile, simple pinnate or twice ternate; bracteal leaves ternate or simple, undivided, narrowly lanceolate; lobes of all leaves linear-oblong, scarcely acuminate, undivided or with few teeth, usually 3–20 mm long and 1–4 mm wide. Capitula globose, 2.5–3.5 mm in diameter, drooping or spreading into narrowly paniculate inflorescence. Involucral bracts oblong-ovate, [outer] almost as long as inner bracts, hairy on spine, with wide scarious margin. Receptacle convex, hairy. Peripheral florets pistillate, usually 25, their corollas filiform-tubular; stigma lobes exserted from tube, linear, arcuate; disk florets numerous (usually 60), their corollas conical, glabrous, sometimes weakly hairy; anthers

Artemisia absinthium L. . . .

273

Fig. 1 Artemisia absinthium (Asteraceae), on roadside, together with Peganum harmala, Swat, Pakistan. (Photo I Ur-Rahman & H. Sher)

Fig. 2 Artemisia absinthium (Asteraceae), Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

linear, apical appendages of anthers obtusely angular, with round apex, basal appendages short, obtuse; stigma lobes broadly linear, after flowering somewhat curved. Achenes about 1 mm long, oblong-cuneate, rather flat, finely sulcate, with a round, slightly convex at apex. Flowering July to August. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, in meadows, steppes, on river banks, forest margins, fields, rocky areas, in crops and fields, in gardens, along irrigation ditches, around settlements as weed, on recent fallow lands, near roads, dwellings, in kitchen gardens and gardens,

274

H. A. Jan et al.

Fig. 3 Artemisia absinthium (Asteraceae), Capadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Artemisia absinthium (Asteraceae), Kartli, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

less often in crop fields, meadows, pastures, and forest edge; in forest, forest-steppe, and steppe zones, as well as in mountains (Shishkin and Boborov 1961) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8). Artemisia biennis: Annuals or biennials, (10–)30–80( 150) cm, not aromatic. Stems 1, erect, often reddish, simple (finely striate), glabrous. Leaves cauline, green or yellow-green (sessile); blades broadly lanceolate to ovate, 4–10

Artemisia absinthium L. . . .

275

Fig. 5 Artemisia absinthium (Asteraceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 6 Artemisia absinthium (Asteraceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

( 13)  1.5–4 cm, 1–2-pinnately lobed (ultimate lobes coarsely toothed), faces glabrous. Heads (erect, subsessile) in (leafy) paniculiform to spiciform arrays 12–35 ( 40)  2–4 cm (lateral branches relatively short). Involucres globose, 2–4  (1.5–) 2–4 mm. Phyllaries green broadly elliptic to obovate, glabrous. Florets: pistillate 6–25; bisexual 15–40; corollas pale yellow, ca. 2 mm, glabrous. Cypselae ellipsoid (4–5-nerved), 0.2–0.9 mm, glabrous (Fig. 9).

276

H. A. Jan et al.

Fig. 7 Artemisia absinthium (Asteraceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Artemisia bigelovii: Shrubs, 20–40( 60) cm (branched from bases, rounded), mildly aromatic; not root-sprouting. Stems silvery, canescent (bark gray-brown). Leaves persistent, light gray-green; blades narrowly cuneate, 0.5–3  0.2–0.5 cm, entire or 3( 5)-lobed (lobes 1.5–2 mm, less than 1/3 blade lengths, acute), faces silvery canescent. Heads (usually nodding) in arrays 6–25  1–4 cm (branches erect, somewhat curved). Involucres globose, 2–3  1.5–2.5 mm. Phyllaries (8–15) ovate, canescent or tomentose. Florets pistillate 0–2 (raylike, laminae to 1 mm); bisexual 1–3; corollas 1–1.5 mm (style branches of ray florets elongate, exsert, epapillate, tips acute; of disc florets, short, truncate, papillate). Cypselae (ellipsoid, 5-ribbed) 0.8–1 mm, glabrous (Fig. 10). Artemisia brevifolia: Subshrubs or shrubs, 15–35( 45) cm tall, gray arachnoid pubescent, later glabrescent. Lower stem leaves: petiole 3–5 mm; leaf blade ovate, 1.5–2.5  1-2 cm, 2- or 3-pinnatisect; segments 2–4 pairs; lobules linear, 2–4 mm. Middle stem leaves 2-pinnatisect. Upper leaves and leaflike bracts pinnatisect or entire. Synflorescence a narrow or somewhat broad panicle. Capitula usually 2 or 3 together along branchlets. Involucre ovoid-oblong or ellipsoid, ca. 2 mm in diam.; phyllaries densely pubescent. Florets 3 or 4( 8). Achenes oblong-ovoid or ovoidellipsoid. Flowering and fruiting August-October (Wu et al. 1994–2013). Artemisia scoparia: Herbs, perennial, biennial, or annual, 40–90( 130) cm tall, much branched from lower on stem; branches and leaves gray or yellowish sericeous-pubescent, later glabrescent, strongly aromatic. Lower stem leaves: petiole

Artemisia absinthium L. . . .

277

Fig. 8 Artemisia absinthium (Asteraceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 9 Artemisia biennis (Asteraceae), Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

2–4 cm; leaf blade ovate-oblong or elliptic, 1.5–3.5  1–3 cm, 2- or 3-pinnatisect; segments 3 or 4 pairs; lobules 1 or 2 pairs, 3–5  0.2–1 mm. Middle stem leaves sessile; leaf blade oblong or ovate-oblong, 1–2  0.5–1.5 cm, 1- or 2-pinnatisect; segments 2 or 3 pairs; lobules filiform, usually curved, 4–8  0.2–0.3( 0.5)

278

H. A. Jan et al.

Fig. 10 Artemisia bigelovii (Asteraceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 11 Artemisia scoparia (Asteraceae), Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

mm. Uppermost leaves and leaflike bracts 3–5-sect. Synflorescence a broad panicle. Capitula many, shortly pedunculate or sessile. Involucre subglobose, rarely ovoid, 1–1.5( 2) mm in diam. Marginal female florets 5–7. Disk florets 4–10, male. Achenes obovoid or oblong. Flowering and fruiting July-October (Wu et al. 1994– 2013) (Figs. 11 and 12). Artemisia vulgaris: Perennial. Rhizome strong, in upper part thickened; stem herbaceous, erect, (45)65–160 cm high, angular-ribbed, more or less branched, usually brownish-violet, leafy, weakly hairy. Leaves green above, glabrous or not densely arachnoid hairy, grayish, arachnoid hairy beneath, lower-most leaves

Artemisia absinthium L. . . .

279

Fig. 12 Artemisia scoparia (Asteraceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 13 Artemisia vulgaris (Asteraceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

petiolate, rest sessile, 3–15 cm long and 1.5–11 cm wide, deeply pinnately dissected or pinnately cut into elliptical-lanceolate or linear-lanceolate, usually deeply incised or toothed, lobes 1–10 cm long and 2.5 cm wide; upper leaves small, floral bracts entire, linear. Capitula oblong or narrowly campanulate, 3–4 mm long and 1.5–3.0 mm in diameter, slightly inclined, less often almost drooping, in dense racemes on secondary branches forming in general, more or less narrow or rather wide panicle. Involucre arachnoid hairy, involucral bracts scarious along margin, outer bracts ovate, acuminate, inner bracts longer, elliptical, obtuse. Receptacle convex. Peripheral pistillate florets 7–10; their corollas narrowly tubular, stigma lobes narrowly linear, straight, erect; disk florets bisexual, (5)8–20, their corollas narrow, cup-shaped conical, smooth, reddish-brownish; anthers linear, on rather long filaments, apical appendages of anthers acute, basal appendages subacute; stigma lobes at maturity slightly exserted from tube, arcuate, thickened upward, truncate,

280

H. A. Jan et al.

Fig. 14 Artemisia vulgaris (Asteraceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

with long dense cilia. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, forest, partly forest-steppe and steppe zones, in coniferous-deciduous open deciduous forests, around forest glades, edges of forests, river valleys, ravins, gullies, mountain slopes, meadows, scrubs, fallow lands, near fields and dwellings, to the upper mountain belt, often as weed. Often cultivated (Shishkin and Boborov 1961) (Figs. 13 and 14).

Local Medicinal Uses Artemisia absinthium: Aerial parts are used for skin problems, itching (Bano et al. 2014). Leaves and flowers are used for stomach pain and worm infection of intestine (Malik et al. 2011). Whole plant is used as stomachic. Tincture of plant is considered good for digestion (Jamal et al. 2017). Whole plant extract is used for tuberculosis, flowers and leaves decoction is used for cough (Kayani et al. 2014). Leaves are used for fever and cold and also as carminative (Shah and Khan 2006). Whole plant is used for skin allergy, diabetes, malaria (Hussain et al. 2018). Whole plant is used to relieve the yellow hove of jaundice from skin (Jan et al. 2009a, b). Flowers are used to enhance digestion as well as worm problems (Khan et al. 2013). Leaves are used for ear pain (Ahmed and Akhtar 2016). It is an aromatic tonic. It was formerly found as a high reputation in debility of the digestive organs. The powdered herb serve to relieve bilious melancholia and will help to disserve the yellow hove of jaundice from skin. Artemisia absinthium is often planted in Ethiopia as medicine (Mekonen et al. 2015), e.g., used for wounds (Yineger et al. 2007). Used also to treat diabetes (Ullah et al. 2019). This plant is used as a promoter of digestion, antispasmodic, antacid, against intestinal worms, against fever, as an appetite stimulant, and also in the treatment of gallbladder affections and intestinal obstructions. Externally, it is used as an antiseptic, for the treatment of blows and insect bites, for ulcers or skin sores. In popular

Artemisia absinthium L. . . .

281

medicine, it is used as a general tonic and particularly to treat liver diseases and bilious states. Fresh stems and leaves are used to treat diarrhea, gallbladder, stomachache, gastritis/ulcers, diabetes, thrush, cold, air (cultural illnesses), and as anthelmintic. The whole plant used to treat gallbladder, liver problems, as vermifuge, and tonic; stems, leaves, and flowers are used as analgesic, diuretic, and to treat lack of appetite; leaves are used to treat fright/susto, blood cleansing, for breast care, cough, deafness, diarrhea, flatulence, gallstones, halitosis, headache, indigestion, lung diseases, otitis, insect stings, stomach ache, stomach problems, sunstroke, throat inflammation, toothache, and as tranquilizer and vomitive. The fresh leaves are used to treat body pain, stomach pain. Only for critical illnesses. The infusion of the plant is used to treat liver and kidney problems (stones), indigestion and stomach pain (excess cause dizziness). The infusion of the plant is used to treat bile and nerve problems. It is used to treat liver conditions, inflammation of the kidneys, diabetes, and to level cholesterol. It is used as an antiparasitic Used to treat menstrual colic, and is used to regulate the menstrual cycle, and for nervous system issues. Some antibacterial activity has been reported (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). In the Ural used for cancer of the liver, stomach, spleen, uterus, and leukemia. The root infusion is used for rheumatism and arthritis. In the Altai and Middle Asia, the leaves are used to treat lung diseases, angina, intestinal colics, tuberculosis, respiratory infections, rhinitis. In the Northern Caucasus, the leaves decoction is used to treat gonorrhea, in Armenia diabetes mellitus. The flower infusion is used to treat ulcers of the intestine, epilepsy, hemorrhoids, fever, diarrhea, and enterocolitis, and is in Azerbaijan used for furuncles. (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2020; Bussmann 2017; Liu et al. 2020). Applied as refrigerant (Ali et al. 2019), anti-malarial, anti-diabetic, to increase appetite, for hormonal balance in women, as relaxant, for stomach-ache, asthma, and as lithontriptic (Muhammad et al. 2019; Mustafa et al. 2015). In Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh used for dandruff, intermittent fever, stomach pain, as tonic, vermifuge, abdominal pain, diabetes, joint pain, epilepsy, gastric disorders, gynecological disorders, malaria, obesity, rheumatism (gairola et al. 2014). Artemisia biennis: Used to treat skin ailments (Ali et al. 2019). In Kashmir, Jammu, and Ladakh to treat obesity (Gairola et al. 2014). Artemisia bigelovii: Leaves are used for gastric problem and flowers for stomach pain (Wali et al. 2019). Artemisia brevifolia: In Ladakh used to treat fever (Ballabh and Chaurasia 2007). In Kashmir, Jammu, and Ladakh used as anthelminthic, antiseptic, aphrodisiac, blood purifier, for gastrointestinal disorders, as laxative, anthelminthic, antiseptic, to increase appetite, and for stomach ache (Gairola et al. 2014). Artemisia vulgaris: The plant is applied to tumors. The whole plant powder is given to horses in colic. Dried leaves in very small doses (Mg) are given as anthelmintics (Shah and Khan 2006). Leaves are used as anthelmintic and for skin diseases (Hamayun et al. 2006). Leaves and root are used for liver pain, stomach disorder (Ahmad et al. 2017). Extract of its young shoots is used to regulate monthly cycle (Khan et al. 2013). Leaf infusion is used for fever (Hayat et al. 2009). Leaves extract is used for eye diseases (Waseem et al. 2006). Whole plant is used for cardiac problems (Imtiaz et al. 2013). Leaves are used for stomach pain, hypertension,

282

H. A. Jan et al.

dysentery, scorpion sting, and snakebites (Khan et al. 2018). The leaves are used for skin diseases (Ullah et al. 2014). Decoction of leaves is used for diabetes (Zain-ulAbidin et al. 2018). Used for stomach-ache, hypertension, dysentery, and as poultice for scorpion stings (Ahmad et al. 2015). Used as topical antibiotic and for skin ailments (Ahmad et al. 2017). Also applied as anthelminthic (Muhammad et al. 2019). In Kashmir, Jammu, and Ladakh to treat nosebleeds, cough, and measles (Gairola et al. 2014). Artemisia desertorum: In Kashmir, Jammu, and Ladakh as antiseptic and amnthelminthic (Gairola et al. 2014). Artemisia dracunculus: In Kazahkstan and other parts of Middle Asia the leaves are used as poultice for eczema and burns, and internally for tuberculosis, pneumonia, and bronchitis. (Liu et al. 2020). In Kashmir, Jammu and Ladakh to intestinal disorders, indigstion, bladder irritation, as diuretic, for gynecological disorders, menstrual problems, and toothache (Gairola et al. 2014). Artemisia gmelinii: In Ladakh used for cold, cough, and fever (Ballabh and Chaurasia 2007; Gairola et al. 2014). Artemisia frigida: A cold infusion of the herb is used as a diuretic and mild purgative. In Mongolian medicine, powders, infusion, and decoction are used for ulcers, infected wounds, lymphadenitis, and as baths for diseases of the joints. Internally, the infusion is used to fever, chronic alcoholism, tuberculosis, heart disease, hypoxia, cough (especially in old men), angina, tachycardia, neurasthenia, and epilepsy, and is applied for gastralgia, intestinal colic, headache and toothache, as astringent, anti-helminthic, to stimulate the appetite, with diarrhea, dysentery, and as diuretic. (Liu et al. 2020). Artemisia scoparia: Whole plant is used for fever, bronchitis, cough, jaundice diuretic, purgative and earache. Plant extract is used in cardiac problems. Plant is also used against poisonous insect bites (Mahmood et al. 2011). Used as a purgative and in the treatment of burns (Hussain et al. 2010). Shoot and seeds are used as respiratory stimulant, anthelmintic, purgative, and against earache (Akhtar et al. 2013). Used for the treatment of ear pain. The smoke of twigs is considered good for burns. Considered as fodder for goats (Shedayi and Gulshan 2012). Leaves are used for hepatitis, jaundice, stomach disorders (Ahmad et al. 2017). Used as anathematic, used as medicine against malarial fever (Jan et al. 2009a, b). Stem is used for stomach-ache, anthelminthic, used for healing of wounds (Muhammad et al. 2019). The whole plant decoction is used for fever, vomiting, and motion of children. The tea of its leaves is useful for cough, undetected fever (mubaraki) and for cooling effect. Whole plant is boiled in water and takes the steam (in local language “cultap”) which is useful for the cold. The whole plant paste is used externally to heal cough and other chest problems (Tareen et al. 2010). Plant is used as febrifuge, cure for kidney and liver ailments, blood purifier (Barkatullah et al. 2015). Used for earache, laxative and purgative. The fresh plant boiled in water, then cooled and used for stomach problems and for inflammation of intestines (Khan et al. 2015). In the Altai the leaves are used to treat tuberculosis, pneumonia, bronchitis, laryngitis, pharyngitis, angina, with liver disease, fever, anemia, rheumatism, and as anthelmintic. In Tajikistan the leaf ash is used as expectorant. (Liu et al.

Artemisia absinthium L. . . .

283

2020). Used as anthelminthic and to treat urethritis (Abbas et al. 2019). Used to treat diabetes (Ullah et al. 2019), as anthelminthic and to treat seasonal fever (Sher et al. 2016), also as purgative and stomachic (Muhammad et al. 2019). Artemisia afra: Heated plant material is fermented and given to children with sore throat and for fever. Also for indigestion. Boiled roots are used as anthelminthic. The leaf juice serves as emetic. Ash from the whole plant is used as expectorant and for abdominal pain. Extract of boiled leaves drunk for colds, flu, headache, and fever. A steam bath is used for flu and colds. Crushed leaves can be applied for congestion, and leaf juice as ear drops (Kokwaro 2009). A very important medicinal species in Ethiopia, and often sold in local markets and in the medicinal plant trade (Bekalo et al. 2009). The species is also used to treat fever, and burned for colds, when the smoke is inhaled (Yineger et al. 2008). The antibacterial activity of Artemisia afra and Artemisia abyssinica has been shown (Geyid et al. 2005). The species is also used to treat epilepsy (Yineger et al. 2007). Artemisia annua: The infusion is used as relaxant (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). There has been little use in popular herbal medicine before the last 2–3 decades, when Chinese traditional medicine became rather popular in Armenia. In medieval Armenian medicine, it was recommended to treat fevers, hemorrhoids, diseases of the stomach, liver, spleen, and bladder and kidney stones with Artemisia (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017) A tea made from leaves of Artemisia annua helps to cure wounds, when applied as poultice and serves as insect repellant (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017). In Kashmir, Jammu and Ladakh to treat jaundice (Gairola et al. 2014). Artemisia japonica: In Kashmir, Jammu, and Ladakh to treat skin infections and diarrhea (Gairola et al. 2014). Artemisia laciniata: In Kashmir, Jammu, and Ladakh to treat cuts and wounds (Gairola et al. 2014). Artemisia macrocephala: In Kashmir, Jammu, and Ladakh to treat joint pain, rheumatism and skin irritations (Gairola et al. 2014). Artemisia maritima: In Kashmir, Jammu, and Ladakh as anthelminthic, for skin diseases, stomach problems, intestinal parasites, as antiseptic, to treat cuts and wounds, flatulence and gastric disorders (Gairola et al. 2014). Artemisia marcrooftiana: In Kashmir, Jammu, and Ladakh to treat abdominal pain, flatulence, indigestion, malaria, and as anthelminthic (Gairola et al. 2014). Artemisia nilagirica: In Kashmir, Jammu, and Ladakh to treat asthma and neurological disorders (Gairola et al. 2014). Artemisia parviflora: In Kashmir, Jammu, and Ladakh used as diuretic, and for gynecological disorders (Gairola et al. 2014). Artemisia sieversiana: In Kashmir, Jammu, and Ladakh to treat urinary tract inflammation, kidney pain, and skin diseases (Gairola et al. 2014). Artemisia copa: The infusion is used for pain, for gall bladder problems, as digestive, often combined with sodium bicarbonate. The infusion mixed with milk is used for stomach pain, cold and colic. In the form of baths or incense it serves to combat “mal de aire” and toothache. As a bath it serves for bone pain. People attribute to the species the ability to cause vivid dreams. (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020).

284

H. A. Jan et al.

Artemisia fragrans: A decoction and extract as tea is used in to treat colds. Fresh crushed leaves, as well as their decoction and extract are used crushed and as soaking therapy for furuncles and abscess (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017). A decoction and extract is used as tea in dysentery and fever. Also used as anthelminthic: A decoction of the aboveground parts is used against worm (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017). Artemisia roxburghiana is used as antipyretic and tonic (Bhat et al. 2013). In Kashmir, Jammu, and Ladakh to treat allergies and abscesses (Gairola et al. 2014).

Local Food Uses Artemisia absinthium: Ecuador: Used to prepare wormwood liquor (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). The leaves are used as spice, especially to produce aromatic liquor, and as bitter agent in the production of beer. (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017; Liu et al. 2020). Artemisia copa: Used as tea. Produces edible roots (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). Artemisia dracunculus: The leaves are used in cheese production, as spice and for salads, and to make lemonade (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017; Liu et al. 2020). Artemisia annua /frigoida/leucodes/vulgaris: The leaves are used as flavoring agent for liquors and as spice for cooking (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017; Liu et al. 2020).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Artemisia absinthium: Used to treat freight/susto in children, and fend off sorcery (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). Similar uses have been reported from Ethiopia, where the species is used to fend off evil from cattle and against evil eye (Luizza et al. 2013). In the Caucasus Artemisia absinthium is used to treat wounds in animals (Bussmann 2017; Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2020). As fodder for sheep and rabbits. The plant is browsed by cows but gives the milk a very unpleasant taste. The leaves yield lemon yellow, dark green and olive dyes for wool and silk. Planted as ornamental. Toxic, causes dermatoses when crushing and grinding the plant. (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Liu et al. 2020; Bussmann 2017). used as insect repellent (Abbas et al. 2016). Leaves given to cattle, goats, and sheep to prevent indigestion (Ali et al. 2019). The stems of Artemisia brevifolia are used as firewood (Abbas et al. 2016). A tincture made from leaves of Artemisia annua helps to heal wounds of cattle (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017). Flowering shoots are sometimes used as a seasoning for meat and fish dishes (usually as substitute of Artemisia dracunculus). Artemisia annua is used in food as aromatic and tasty seasoning for different meals. Artemisia fragrans is used in food as aromatic and tasty seasoning for different meals also (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017).

Artemisia absinthium L. . . .

285

Artemisia copa: People attribute to the species the ability to cause vivid dreams. Also used as dye for green to yellow, and as forage (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). Artemisia scoparia: Shoots are used in making brooms for sweeping lawns and houses (Khan et al. 2015). Artemisia abyssinica has been shown to be acaricidal (Wanzala 2017). The leaves of Artemisia vulgaris are used for sats’ebai (vegetables dipped in sour milk) (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017). Given to horses in cases of colic (Ahmad et al. 2017). Artemisia dracunculus: Fodder for cattle, horses, camels. Planted also as ornamental. (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017; Liu et al. 2020). Artemisia annua/leucodes/vulgaris: Fodder for livestock, especially sheep. goats and camels. A yellow dye for wool is produced from the leaves. Planted as ornamental (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017; Liu et al. 2020). Artemisia scoparia: Fodder for small livestock. Used as ornamental (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017; Liu et al. 2020). Artemisia frigida: The oil is used for soap, and the species serves as winter fodder. (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017; Liu et al. 2020). Artemisia japonica is used as incense (Bhat et al. 2013). Artemisia species are one of the valuable components of winter pastures (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017). (Bussmann et al. 2020; Bussmann 2017; Batsatsashvili et al. 2017, Liu et al. 2020; Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020)

References Abbas Z, Mulk Khan S, Mehmood Abbasi A, Pieroni A, Ullah Z, Iqbal M, Ahmad Z. Ethnobotany of the Balti community, Tormik valley, Karakorum range, Baltistan, Pakistan. Abbas et al. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:38. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0114-y. Abbas Z, Alam J, Muhammad S, Bussmann RW, Mulk Khan S, Hussain M. Phyto-cultural diversity of the Shigar valley Central Karakorum Baltistan, northern Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;1832 https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.31.1-18. Ahmad L, Semotiuk A, Zafar M, Ahmad M, Sultana S, Liu Q-R, Zada MP, Ul Abidin SZ, Yaseen G. Ethnopharmacological documentation of medicinal plants used for hypertension among the local communities of DIR lower, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;175:138–46. Ahmad KS, Hamid A, Nawaz F, Hameed M, Ahmad F, Deng J, Mahroof S. Ethnopharmacological studies of indigenous plants in Kel village, Neelum Valley, Azad Kashmir, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13(1):68. Ahmed MJ, Akhtar T. Indigenous knowledge of the use of medicinal plants in Bheri, Muzaffarabad, Azad Kashmir, Pakistan. Eur J Integr Med. 2016;8(4):560–9. Akhtar N, Rashid A, Murad W, Bergmeier E. Diversity and use of ethno-medicinal plants in the region of swat, North Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1):25. Ali A, Aldosari A, Tng DYP, Ullah M, Hussain W, Ahmad M, Hussain J, Khan A, Hussain H, Sher H, Bussmann RW, Shao J-W. Traditional uses of plants by indigenous communities for veterinary practices at Kurram district, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;1824 https://doi.org/ 10.32859/era.18.24.1-19. Ballabh B, Chaurasia OP. Traditional medicinal plants of cold desert Ladakh—used in treatment of cold, cough and fever. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;112(2):341–9.

286

H. A. Jan et al.

Bano A, Ahmad M, Zafar M, Sultana S, Rashid S, Khan MA. Ethnomedicinal knowledge of the most commonly used plants from Deosai plateau, Western Himalayas, Gilgit Baltistan, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155(2):1046–52. Barkatullah, Ibrar M, Rauf A, Hadda TB, Mubarak MS, Patel S. Quantitative ethnobotanical survey of medicinal flora thriving in Malakand Pass Hills, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;169:335–46. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Aleksanyan A, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Artemisia annua L.; Artemisia fragrans Willd. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-49412-8_127. Bekalo TH, Demissew Woodmata S, Asfaw Woldemariam Z. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by local people in the lowlands of Konta special Woreda, southern nations, nationalities and peoples regional state, Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2009;5:26. https:// doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-5-26. Bhat J, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomedicine. 2013;9:1. http://www.ethnobiomed.com/content/9/1/1. Bussmann RW (ed.). Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Springer International Publishing International Publishing: Cham; XXVII, 2017;746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Ghorbani A, Nasab FK, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D. Artemisia absinthium L.; Artemisia annua L.; Artemisia dracunculus L.; Artemisia leucodes Schrenk; Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & kit.; Artemisia vulgaris L.; Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions far Eastern Europe. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77088-8_16-2. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Geyid A, Abebe D, Debella A, Makonnen Z, Aberra F, Teka F, Kebede UK, Yersaw K, Biza T, Haile Mariam B, Guta M. Screening of some medicinal plants of Ethiopia for their antimicrobial properties and chemical profiles. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;97:421–7. Hamayun M, Khan A, Afzal S, Khan MA. Study on traditional knowledge and utility of medicinal herbs of district Buner, NWFP, Pakistan. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2006;5(3):407–12. Hayat MQ, Khan MA, Ashraf M, Jabeen S. Ethnobotany of the genus Artemisia L. (Asteraceae) in Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009;7:147–62. Hussain K, Nisar MF, Majeed A, Nawaz K, Bhatti KH. Ethnomedicinal survey for important plants of Jalalpur Jattan, district Gujrat, Punjab, Pakistan. Ethnobotanical Leaflets. 2010;2010(7):11. Hussain W, Ullah M, Dastagir G, Badshah LAL. Quantitative ethnobotanical appraisal of medicinal plants used by inhabitants of lower Kurram, Kurram agency, Pakistan. Avicenna J Phytomed. 2018;8(4):313. Imtiaz S, Abdullah S, Afzal S, Rehman G, Waheed M. Medicinal plants used by traditional healers of Punjab, Pakistan. Can J App Sci. 2013;3(4):496–515. Jamal Z, Pervez A, Hussain M, Shah GM, Shah SH, Ahmed M. Ethnomedicinal plants used for gastrointestinal ailments by the rural communities of Kaghan Valley, Mansehra, Pakistan. J Appl Environ Biol Sci. 2017;7(12):41–8. Jan G, Khan MA, Gul F. Ethnomedicinal plants used against jaundice in Dir Kohistan valleys (NWFP), Pakistan. Ethnobotanical leaflets. 2009a;2009(8):7. Jan G, Khan MA, Jan F. Medicinal value of the Asteraceae of Dir Kohistan Valley, NWFP, Pakistan. Ethnobotanical Leaflets. 2009b;2009(10):1. Kayani S, Ahmad M, Zafar M, Sultana S, Khan MPZ, Ashraf MA, Yaseen G. Ethnobotanical uses of medicinal plants for respiratory disorders among the inhabitants of Gallies–Abbottabad, northern Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;156:47–60.

Artemisia absinthium L. . . .

287

Khan SM, Page S, Ahmad H, Shaheen H, Ullah Z, Ahmad M, Harper DM. Medicinal flora and ethnoecological knowledge in the Naran Valley, Western Himalaya, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1):4. Khan MT, Hashim S, Ayub S, Jan A, Marwat KB. A case study of ethnobotany and biodiversity conservation from tehsil Barawa, upper Dir, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Pak J Bot. 2015;47 (SI):7–13. Khan MT, Ahmad L, Rashid W. Ethnobotanical documentation of traditional knowledge about medicinal plants used by indigenous people in Talash valley of Dir lower. Northern Pakistan J Intercult Ethnopharmacol. 2018;7(1):8–24. Kokwaro JO. Medicinal plants of East Africa. Nairobi: University of Nairobi Press; 2009. Liu B, Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z. Artemisia absinthium L.; Artemisia annua L.; Artemisia dracunculus L.; Artemisia frigida Willd.; Artemisia leucodes Schrenk; Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Kit.; Artemisia sieversiana Ehrh. ex Willd.; Artemisia vulgaris L.; Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions Central Asia and Altai. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77087-1_23-1. Luizza MW, Young H, Kuroiwa C, Evangelista P, Worede A, Bussmann RW, Weimer A. Local knowledge of plants and their uses among women in the Bale Mountains, Ethiopia. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2013;11:315–39. Mahmood A, Mahmood A, Shaheen H, Qureshi RA, Sangi Y, Gilani SA. Ethno medicinal survey of plants from district Bhimber Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. J Med Plant Res. 2011;5(11): 2348–60. Malik AH, Khuroo AA, Dar GH, Khan ZS. Ethnomedicinal uses of some plants in the Kashmir Himalaya. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2011;10(2):362–6. Mekonen T, Giday M, Kelbessa K. Ethnobotanical study of homegarden plants in Sebeta-Awas District of the Oromia region of Ethiopia to assess use, species diversity and management practices. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2015;1164 Muhammad S, Hussain M, Abbas Z, Saquib Z, Bussmann RW, Shah GM. An ethnomedicinal appraisal of Kurram agency tribal area Pakistan. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2019;184:631–47. Muhammad N, Ali N, Uddin N. Ethno-veterinary practices used for treatment of various ailments in hilly areas of melagah valley district swat KPK, Pakistan. Int J Bot Stud. 2019;4(3):171–9. Mustafa B, Hajdari A, Pieroni A, Pulaj B, Koro X, Quave QL. A cross-cultural comparison of folk plant uses among Albanians, Bosniaks, Gorani and Turks living in South Kosovo. Mustafa et al. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2015;11:39. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-015-0023-5. Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, Echeverría J, Romero C. Artemisia absinthium L.; Artemisia abrotanum L.; Artemisia annua L.; Artemisia copa Phil. In: Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions – Ethnobotany of the Andes. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77093-2_28-1. Shah GM, Khan MA. Checklist of medicinal plants of Siran Valley, Mansehra, Pakistan. Ethnobotanical leaflets. 2006;2006(1):6. Shedayi AA, Gulshan B. Ethnomedicinal uses of plant resources in Gilgit-Baltistan of Pakistan. J Med Plant Res. 2012;6(29):4540–9. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni groups in Chitral District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Shishkin, B.K., Boborov, E.G. 1961 (English 1995). Flora of the USSR, Volume 26: Compositae Giseke (altern. Asteraceae Dumort); Akademia Nauk, Leningrad. 1072 pages. Tareen RB, Bibi T, Khan MA, Ahmad M, Zafar M, Hina S. Indigenous knowledge of folk medicine by the women of Kalat and Khuzdar regions of Balochistan Pakistan. Pak J Bot. 2010;42(3): 1465–85. Ullah S, Ullah A, Rashid A. Medicinal diversity of weeds in the historical valley of Landikotal, Khyber agency, Pakistan. Pak J Weed Sci Res. 2014;20(4):531–9.

288

H. A. Jan et al.

Ullah M, Mehmood S, Ali M, Bussmann RW, Aldosari A, Ali Khan R, Ullah R, Hussain W, Rahman Shah MA. An ethnopharmacological study of plants used for treatment of diabetes in the southern and tribal regions of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18(8) https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.8.1-20. Wali S, Ahmad Jan H, Bussmann RW. Quantitative ethnomedicinal study of indigenous medicinal plants used for digestive disorders of Laspur Valley, Chitral, northern Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;1832 https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.32.1-18. Wanzala, W 2017. Potential of Traditional Knowledge of Plants in the Management of Arthropods in Livestock Industry with Focus on Acari Ticks. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. Article ID 8647919, 33 pages. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/8647919. Waseem M, Shah MAU, Qureshi RA, Muhammad I, Afza R, Yousaf S. Ethnopharmacological survey of plants used for the treatment of stomach, diabetes, and ophthalmic diseases in Sudhan Gali, Kashmir, Pakistan. Acta Bot Yunnanica. 2006;28(5):535. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Yineger H, Kelbessa E, Bekele T, Lulekal E. Ethnoveterinary medicinal plants at Bale Mountains National Park, Ethiopia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;112:55–70. Yineger H, Kelbessa E, Bekele T, Lulekal E. Plants used in traditional management of human ailments at Bale Mountains National Park, Southeastern Ethiopia. J Med Plant Res. 2008;26: 132–53. Zain-ul-Abidin S, Khan R, Ahmad M, Bhatti MZ, Zafar M, Saeed A, Khan N. Ethnobotanical survey of highly effective medicinal plants and phytotherapies to treat diabetes mellitus II in South-West Pakistan. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(4):682–90.

Asparagus racemosus Willd. ASPARAGACEAE Ram Prasad Acharya, Rose Shrestha, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Wahid Hussain, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Asparagopsis abyssinica Kunth; Asparagopsis acerosa Kunth; Asparagopsis brownei Kunth; Asparagopsis decaisnei Kunth; Asparagopsis floribunda Kunth; Asparagopsis hohenackeri Kunth; Asparagopsis javanica Kunth; Asparagopsis retrofracta Schweinf. ex Baker; Asparagopsis sarmentosa Dalzell & A.Gibson; Asparagopsis subquadrangularis Kunth; Asparagus acerosus Roxb.; Asparagus dubius Decne.; Asparagus fasciculatus R.Br.; Asparagus jacquemontii Baker; Asparagus penduliflorus Zipp. ex Span.; Asparagus petitianus A.Rich.; Asparagus stachyoides Spreng. ex Baker; Asparagus tetragonus Bresler; Asparagus zeylanicus (Baker) Hook.f.; Protasparagus acerosus (Kunth) Kamble; Protasparagus jacquemontii (Baker) Kamble; Protasparagus racemosus (Willd.) Oberm.; Protasparagus racemosus var. javanicus (Kunth) Kamble; Protasparagus racemosus var. subacerosus (Baker) Kamble; Protasparagus zeylanicus (Hook.f.) Kamble; Geitonoplesium scandens Hassk. R. P. Acharya Centre for Sustainable Agricultural Systems, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD, Australia Practical Solutions Consultancy, Kathmandu, Nepal R. Shrestha Department of Plant Resources, Ministry of Forests and Environment, Kathmandu, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Florida, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan W. Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_29

289

290

R. P. Acharya et al.

Local Names Asparagus racemosus: Pashto: Shaghandale ‫ﺷﺎﻏﻨﺪﺍﻟﯥ‬, Nepali: Kurilo, Shatawari, Makuri, Satamule; Kham: Rai Su We; Nepali in Dolpa: Jhinjhelkandi; Sherpa: Pujotoro, Kopi; Tamang: Kobi; Gurung: Pujutoro; Tharu: Saawar Santawar; Tibetan: Nyeshing, Nye Sug Pa; Jammu: Sanspod, Zaru, Manjani; Arabic: Satawar, Shaqaqul; Rajastan: Shatavari; Hindi: Safed-musali, Satamuli, Satawar, Satawari, Shatavir; Tamil: Thanneer vittan kilangu; Sanskrit: Abhiru, Satamuli, Satapadi, Satavari, Satavirya, Shatamuli, Shatapadi, Shatavari, Shvetamuli; Chinese: T’ien-men Dong; Unani: Satawar; Siddha: Seemaithannervittan; English: Indian Asparagus, Wild Asparagus.

Botany and Ecology Asparagus racemosus: Tall climbers or, if without support, tangled shrubs with shiny yellow stems and soft, feathery branches when ‘in leaf, usually bare when in flower. Rhizome woody, small, compact. Roots many, with fusiform swellings near rhizome. Stems straight, smooth. Spines short, recurved, present on stems and main branches. Branches spreading, bearing numerous branchlets, more or less 70 mm long, closely beset with overlapping cladode fascicles. Cladodes more or less 4– 8 per fascicle, unequally long, filiform, 10–16 mm long, thin. Flowers in simple racemes, in multibudded axils of stems and branches, usually several racemes together, racemes more or less 20–30 mm long; tepals attenuate below, more or less 3 mm long, white with a reddish central streak, reflexed in fruit; bracts membranous, acuminate, curved around stalk below; stalk more or less 2 mm long, articulated in middle. Stamens with red (or dark) anthers. Ovary attenuate below. Berry shortly stipitate, more or less 7 mm in diameter, red. (Wu and Raven 2000; DPR 2009a, b) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5).

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia

Asparagus racemosus Willd. Fig. 1 Asparagus racemosus (Asparagaceae), plant, Nepal. (Photo Rose Shrestha)

Fig. 2 Asparagus racemosus (Asparagaceae), flowers with cladodes, Nepal. (Photo Rose Shrestha)

291

292 Fig. 3 Asparagus racemosus (Asparagaceae), root tubers, Nepal. (Photo Rose Shrestha)

Fig. 4 Asparagus racemosus (Asparagaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

R. P. Acharya et al.

Asparagus racemosus Willd.

293

Fig. 5 Asparagus racemosus (Asparagaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

1a. Asparagus racemosus var. racemosus Willd. 1b. A. racemosus var. subacerosus Baker,

Key to the Varieties 1a. Cladodes in fascicles of (3-)5-8(-11), V-Shaped, 8–12 mm . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . ..A. racemosus var. racemosus. 1b. Cladodes in fascicles of 1–3, triquetrous, 12–20 mm long . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .A. racemosus var. subacerosus. 1a. Asparagus racemosus var. racemosus Willd. Scrambling sub shrub, hermaphrodite, Cladodes in fasicles of (3–)5–8(–11), V shaped, 8–12 mm, acute. Inflorescence 3–10 cm, simple or branched raceme. Tubers light yellow, slender, 6–20 3 0.8–1 cm. Origin and distribution: Tropical & Subtropical. E Himalaya, S E Asia, N Pakistan, NW India, Sikkim, Kashmir, Malaysia, Australia, Africa, Nepal (West, Central & East). Altitudinal range: 100–2100 m. Ecology: Habitat: Open slopes, forests, shrubberies. Occurrence: Fairly common. Phenology: Flowering: July–September Fruiting: August–November. 1b. A. racemosus var. subacerosus Baker, J. Linn. Soc. Bot. 14: 624 (1875).

294

R. P. Acharya et al.

Scrambling or erect sub shrub, hermophrodite. Cladodes in fascicles of 1–3, triquetrous, (8–)15–20(
30)  0.8–1 mm. Inflorescence 1–2 cm, with 2–5 clusterd flowers. Tubers yellowish, stout, usually 6–10  1–1.5 cm. Origin and Distribution: Nepal, N. E. India and Srilanka. Altitudinal range: 140–1500 m. Ecology: Habitat: In forests. Occurrence: Fairly common. Phenology: Flowering: June–August Fruiting: September.

Phytochemistry Steroidal saponins (asparagosides, Sarsasapogenin, Shatavarin I-VI),; Oligospirostanoside Carboxylic acid (Asparagusic acid); Polycyclic alkaloid (Asparagamine A – racemosol & Kaempferol) (Sekine et al. 1994); Isoflavones (8-methoxy-5, 6, 4-trihydroxy isoflavone-7-0-beta-D-glucopyranoside); Cyclic hydrocarbons (Racemosol, Dihydrophenantherene); Furan compound (Racemofuran); Carbohydrates (Polysaccharides, Polyoses, Mucilage and Polyuronoid); Flavonoids (Glycosides of quercitin, rutin and hyperoside); Sterols (Sitosterol, 4, 6-dihydroxy2-O (-2-hydroxy isobutyl) benzaldehyde, Undecanyl cetanoate); Trace minerals (Zinc, Manganese, Copper, Cobalt, Magnesium, Calcium, Potassium, Selenium, Iron); Miscellaneous constituents (Essential fatty acids, Gamma linolenic acid, Vitamins A, B1, B2, C, and E, and minerals like Cu, Mg, P, Ca, Fe, Se, K, Zn, Folic acid, Diosgenin, Arginine, tyrosine, Resin, and Tannin); (Negi et al. 2010; Sharma et al. 2017; Selvaraj et al. 2019; Shrestha et al. 2016), Aminoacids (asparagine, arginine, tyrosine); triterpenoids, tanins (Catecholic tanin, reducing compound, Gallic tannin); Volatile oil, Coumarin, essential oils (Nagamani et al. 2012; Janani and Singaravadivel 2015); Sterols (sitosterol, 4, 6-dihydryxy-2-O (-2-hydroxy isobutyl) benzaldehyde and undecanyl cetanoate) (Singh and Tiwari 1991); Phytosterols, triterpenoids, flavonoids, lactones, glycosides, fatty acids, phenolic compounds, saponins, and tannins (Jayashree et al. 2013).

Local Medicinal Uses Asparagus racemosus: The general Ayurvedic uses of the plant tubers are in hemorrhage, gonorrhea, inflammatory, diseases of heart, liver, and blood. Whole plant is considered to use in diabetes, jaundice, and urinary disorders. (Manandhar 2002; Baral and Kurmi 2006; DPR 2006). In Dolpa, tubers are used as tonic for strength, and in lymph fluid disorders, kidney disorders, diarrhea, dysentery, and excessive menstrual bleeding. A concentrate prepared from it is beneficial for diseases of the skin (Ghimire et al. 2008). Dried root powder is given orally with hot water to cure urinary troubles. Root decoction is given orally after delivery as tonic. Tuberous root powder or paste is given orally as an invigorating tonic to lactating women and livestock in western Nepal and Tharu communities of central

Asparagus racemosus Willd.

295

Nepal. (Rajnhandary 2001; Singh et al. 2012). Roots are used for burning sensation in Rupandehi (Acharya and Acharya 2009), for loss of appetide by Magar in Tanahu (Uprety et al. 2011), in constipation and stomachache in Dang (Sigdel and Rokaya 2011). Tender shoots are used for making soup to cure diarrhea in Centarl Nepal (Bhattarai 1993). Tuber paste taken in diarrhea and dysentery as anthelmintic and to cure diarrhea in Dolpa, Humla, Jumla, and Mustang (Kunwar et al. 2006). Juice taken to increase appetite in Lalitpur (Shrestha and Joshi 1993), and for heel cracks (Ignacimuthu et al. 2006). In Rajastan to avoid uterus prolapse, body-ache, as tonic, aphrodisiac, for leucorrhea (Jain et al. 2005), also as tonic (Katewa et al. 2004), and to prevent skin aging (Kunwar et al. 2019). In Palpa District, about five teaspoonfuls of powder of dry root is taken three times a day for a week to cure urinary troubles. About a cup of root decoction (A tuberous root boiled in water) is taken by women thrice a day for 15 days after delivery as a tonic (Mahato and Chaudhary 2005). Root powder given in acidity and nurshing mother in Khaptad National Park (Kunwar and Duwadee 2003). Root decoction is given as remedy for diarrheal patients; root tubers are fed to cattle to get relief from milching disorder, to increase lactation; Roots used as antipyretic by Sherpas in Helumbu; Decoction of root is given to treat fever in Satar community of Morang and Jhapa districts; (Rajnhandary 2001). Asparagus racemosus is a well-known Ayurvedic rasayana which prevents ageing, increase longevity, impart immunity, improve mental function, vigor, and add vitality to the body. It is mainly known for phytoestrogenic properties and prescribed for correcting menstrual disorders (Ashajyothi et al. 2009). Root tubers are cooling, galactagogue, diuretic, demulcent, antispasmodic, analgesic, stomachic, carminative, appetizer, and aphrodisiac (Alok et al. 2013; Goyal et al. 2003). It is also used in nervous disorders, dyspepsia, tumors, inflammation, neuropathy, hepatopathy (Chawla et al. 2011). It has been used extensively as an adaptogen to increase the nonspecific resistance of organisms against a variety of stresses. Besides use in the treatment of diarrhea and dysentery, the plant also has potent antioxidant immunostimuulant, anti-dyspepsia, and antitussive effects (Velavan et al. 2007). In international market, Asparagus racemosus is used medicinally as a refrigerant, demulcent, diuretic, aphrodisiac, anti-dysenteric (Kirtikar and Basu 1993), galactogogic, bitter-sweet, emollient, cooling, nervine tonic, constipating, and antiseptic (Chaudhary and Kar 1992). The plant is used as diuretic, stomachic, and to treat fever (Shah and Khan 2006a). The juice of the roots of Asparagus given with milk is very effective when a stone has been present in the kidney for a long time. Corm is used to stimulate sexual desire and carminative. Decoction of rhizome is given for fever. The juice of the herb with equal portion of milk is given to remove calculi (Shah and Khan 2006b). Paste of powder is applied for wounds healing (Antiseptic); powders are taken orally to stimulates sexual desire and treat dysentery (Khan et al. 2013). Plant is used as refrigerant, diuretic, stomachache, fever, antiseptic, and galactagogue (Ahmad et al. 2009). Dried roots are burnt and fumed are inhaled twice a day for malaria (Shah et al. 2014). Root powder is used as galaktagogue (Jan et al. 2020; Shinwari et al. 2017). Asparagus racemosa has medicinal applications in Ethiopia (Bekalo et al.

296

R. P. Acharya et al.

2009). Used as galactagogue (Kunwar et al. 2006). Asparagus root is tonic, aphrodisiac, diuretic, carminative, appetizer, and antispasmodic. It is useful in mental disorders, dyspepsia, and diarrhea. Tender shoots are tonic and useful in dysentery and rheumatism. Also used in tuberculosis, measles, diarrhea, epilepsy, and liver problems and considered as a galactagogue, aphrodisiac, diuretic, antispasmodic, and nerve tonic. It is also considered to prevent ageing, impart immunity, improve mental functions and add vigor and vitality to the body. Root extract increases mammary gland in post-partum period acting as a galactagogue. Dysmenorrhea and premenstrual syndrome were found to be symptom free after usage of root extract. The plant extract is cardioprotective, antitumor, antifungal, anti-ulcer, immunostimulatory, and diuretic. The crude saponins from the shoots are useful in dyspepsia, and extracts of plant rhizomes reduce blood sugar levels (Kunwar et al. 2009a, b; Raj et al. 2018). Applied as aphrodisiac, and as liver tonic, as well as for jaundice (Singh et al. 2002), and to treat headache (Harsha et al. 2002). Applied to treat tuberculosis (Sharifi-Rad et al. 2017). In Karnataka used to treat diabetes (Bhandary et al. 1995). In Jammu and Kashmir to treat rheumatism and headache (Gairola et al. 2014). Asparagus africanus: Roots chewed as remedy for sore throat and cough. The root infusion is used to treat gonorrhea and other venereal diseases. Leaves are applied to wounds, and a leaf decoction is used to cure bubonic plague (Taita). The root infusion is used to ease childbirth. A decoction of the whole plant is drunk for mental problems (Kokwaro 2009). Juice is put on pimples (Bussmann et al. 2011; Lulekal et al. 2008). Used to treat diarrhea and involuntary weight-loss (Teklehaymanot et al. 2007), as well as skin lesions (Teklehaymanot 2009). Asparagus falcatus: Root tubers used to treat gonorrhea and to cure hernias in children. Also drunk as anthelminthic (Kokwaro 2009). Juice is put on pimples (Bussmann et al. 2011). Asparagus setaceus juice is used to treat herpes (Giday et al. 2009). The leaves are chewed for cough (Njoroge and Bussmann 2006), and the juice is applied to boils (Njoroge and Bussmann 2007). Used also for back pain in women, postpartum pain, and to treat sexually transmitted diseases (Njoroge and Bussmann 2009), as well as abscesses, diarrhea, toothache, wounds, and sores (Njoroge et al. 2004). Used to treat urinary problems in Ethiopia (Wondimu et al. 2007), plant powder for dermal issues (Yineger et al. 2008). Asparagus aethiopicus is used as anti-hypertensive (Desta 1995). The roots of all Asparagus species used as diuretic (Fayvush et al. 2017). Asparagus adscendens also serves as galactagogue (Singh et al. 2017), as aphrodisiac, demulcent, cooling agent, diaphoretic, and weakness (Gairola et al. 2014). Asparagus filicinus is used for diabetes and diarrhea (Bhat et al. 2013), as anthelminthic and to ease delivery (Gairola et al. 2014). Asparagus officinalis: used to ease delivery and against rheumatism (Gairola et al. 2014). Asparagus simulans is used in Madagascar to treat epilepsy and stomach pain (Razafindraibe et al. 2013).

Asparagus racemosus Willd.

297

Local Food Uses Asparagus racemosus: Tender shoots are cooked as vegetable, and candy is prepared from tubers. In Manang, roots are eaten to cure dysentery and diarrhea; and tender shoots are eaten as vegetable (Shrestha et al. 1995). In Langtang region, tender shoots are eaten as vegetable in rejuvenating patients and post-natal mothers (Rajnhandary 2001; Dangol 2002a, b). In lower Kangchenjunga, tender shoots are eaten as vegetable to induce lactation (Shrestha and Ghimire 1996). Decoction of tender shoots are used as tonic in Karnali zone. Tender leaves are eaten as vegetables by tharus in Chitwan (Dangol 2002a, b). Its fruit is eaten to treat pimples in Dhading district (Rajnhandary 2001). The young shoots and boiled tubers are eaten in form of vegetable, pickle, soups (Dangol et al. 2017a, b) (Figs. 6 and 7). Asparagus africanus/Asparagus falcatus: The large root stores lots of water that can be collected (Bussmann et al. 2006).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Asparagus racemosus: The roots are used for fermentation of local beer (Kunwar et al. 2009b), and ethnoveterinary purposes (Reang et al. 2016). Also used to increase sexual desire (as an aphrodisiac). The plant has been shown to aid in the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders and in alcohol abstinence-induced withdrawal symptoms (Bopana and Saxena 2007). Locally, the root is also used to control fleas, and squeezed roots are used for washing clothes (Manandhar 2002; Baral and Kurmi 2006). As galactagogue for cattle (Singh et al. 2002). The dried and processed root tubers of this plant are high demand in local, national, and international markets as well as high interest among local people for commercial cultivation. This is one of the major trade species from Nepal, and mainly companies are Fig. 6 Asparagus racemosus (Asparagaceae), cleaned root tubers ready for processing, Nepal. (Photo Rose Shrestha)

298

R. P. Acharya et al.

Fig. 7 Asparagus racemosus (Asparagaceae), processed root tubers ready for use and trade, Nepal. (Photo Rose Shrestha)

involved in the production and trade of Kurilo in Nepal and India. Dabur Nepal, one of the major herbal based industries has given highest priority to this species and put under their priority list of cultivation. This species was abundant in natural forests in the past mainly in Siwalik and Tarai region. Most of the farmers/collectors sell the Kurilo in district headquarters in a semiprocessed form (cleaned, dried, and graded). According to trade statics, a total of 300 MT was exported annually to India in 2009 (DPR 2009a, b). After 2010 onwards, this trend was decreased and limited to 60–80 MT/year in 2015. Currenrly, this trend is below 40–50MT/year (DPR 2014; Acharya and Sharma 2014). The premature and untimely collection, harvesting, illegal collection of root/ tuber, and habitat destruction are common causes of diminishing the Kurilo in Nepal. Moreover, it has been unsustainably harvested by the local communities because of the limited knowledge of its ecology and growth. Moreover, good quality seed supply is limited to cultivate in the private land. Government of Nepal has listed Kurilo as a priority species for cultivation and trade. Kurilo is considered as a vulnerable species in natural conditions (DPR 2006). Asparagus africanus/Asparagus falcatus: Eaten by goats and cattle and threaded for calabashes (Bussmann 2006; Bussmann et al. 2011; Luizza et al. 2013). Asparagus africanus: Used to wash away the spirit of a person who died (Bussmann et al. 2006). Used to make brooms (Bussmann et al. 2011). Also used to treat horses (Giday et al. 2003). The root extract is used as insect repellent (Giday et al. 2007) and to treat rabies (Yineger and Yewhalaw 2007).

References Acharya R, Acharya KP. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by Tharu community of Parroha VDC, Rupandehi district, Nepal. Scientific World. 2009;7(7):80–4. Acharya RP, Sharma R. Identification of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) species for commercialization and trade promotion with an aim to supply on sustained basis from wild

Asparagus racemosus Willd.

299

and cultivation area under IN-MAPS districts i.e. Pyuthan, Dang, Surkhet, Banke, Kailali, and Kanchanpur. Report submitted to Jadibuti Association of Nepal. Banke, Nepalgunj; 2014. Ahmad H, Khan SM, Ghafoor S, Ali N. Ethnobotanical study of upper Siran. Int J Geogr Inf Syst. 2009;15(1):86–97. Alok S, Jain SK, Verma A, Kumar M, Mahor A, Sabharwal M. Plant profile, phytochemistry and pharmacology of Asparagus racemosus (Shatavari): a review. Asian Pac J Trop Dis. 2013;3(3):242–51. Ashajyothi V, Pippalla RS, Satyavati D. Asparagus racemosus-a phytoestrogen. Int. J Pharm Technol. 2009;1(1):36–47. Baral SR, Kurmi PP. A compendium of medicinal plants in Nepal. Kathmandu: Mrs Rachana Sharma; 2006. p. 80. Bekalo TH, Demissew Woodmata S, Asfaw Woldemariam Z. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by local people in the lowlands of Konta special Woreda, southern nations, nationalities and peoples regional state, Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2009;5:26. https:// doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-5-26. Bhandary MJ, Chandrashekar KR, Kaveriappa KM. Medical ethnobotany of the Siddis of Uttara Kannada district, Karnataka, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 1995;47:149–58. Bhat J, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath wildlife sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:1. http://www.ethnobiomed.com/content/9/1/1 Bhattarai NK. Folk herbal remedies for diarrhea and dysentery in Central Nepal. Fitoterapia. 1993;64(3):243–9. Bopana N, Saxena S. Asparagus racemosus – ethnopharmacological evaluation and conservation needs. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;110(1):1–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2007.01.001. Bussmann RW. Islands in the desert – forest vegetation of Kenya’s smaller mountains and highland areas (Nyiru, Ndoto, Kulal, Marsabit, Loroghi, Ndare, Mukogodo, Porror, Mathews, Gakoe, Imenti, Ngaia, Nyambeni, Loita, Nguruman, Nairobi). East Afr Nat Hist. 2002;91(1/2):27–79. appendices 1–7 @ www.naturekenya.org/JournalEANH.htm Bussmann RW. Ethnobotany of the Samburu of Mt. Nyiru, South Turkana, Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:35. Bussmann RW, Gilbreath GG, Lutura M, Lutuluo R, Kunguru K, Wood N, Mathenge S. Plant use of the Maasai of Sekenani Valley, Maasai Mara, Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:22. Bussmann RW, Swartzinsky P, Worede A, Evangelista P. Plant use in Odo-Bulu and Demaro, bale region, Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2011;7:28. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z. Asparagus persicus baker, Asparagus sp. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions Central Asia and Altai: Springer International Publishing; 2020. Chaudhary B, Kar A. Mineral contents of Asparagus racemosus. Indian Drugs. 1992;29:62–4. Chawla A, Chawla P, Roy MRC. Asparagus racemosus (Willd): biological activities & its active principles. Indo Global J Pharm. 2011;1(2):113–20. Dangol BR, Forest community diversity and associated medicinal plants in the Langtang National Park, Rasuwa, Central Nepal. M.Sc. Thesis. Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu; 2002a. Dangol DR. Economic uses of forest plant resources in western Chitwan. Nepal Banko Janakari. 2002b;12(2):56–64. Dangol D, Maharjan K, Maharjan S, Acharya A. Wild edible plants of Nepal. In: Joshi BK, HB KC, Acharya AK, editors. Pro. of conservation and utilization of agricultural plant genetic resources in Nepal; 2017a. p. 390–407. Dangol DR, Maharjan KL, Maharjan SK, Acharya AK. Wild edible plants in Nepal. In: Joshi BK, Bahadur KCH, Acharya A, editors. Conservation and utilization of agricultural plant genetic resources of Nepal. Dhulikhel: NAGRC; 2017b. p. 390–407. Desta B. Ethiopian traditional herbal drugs. Part I: studies on the toxicity and therapeutic activity of local taenicidal medications. J Ethnopharmacol. 1995;45:27–33.

300

R. P. Acharya et al.

DPR, Prioritized Medicinal Plants for Economic Development in Nepal. Department of Plant Resources, Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu; 2006:125p (in Nepali). DPR Fascicles of Flora of Nepal- Passifloraceae, Setaria (Graminae), Asparagus (Liliaceae), Phrymaceae, Icacinaceae, Juglandaceae, Trapaceae, Toricelliaceae, ed. Uprety,RK & Baral, SR. Department of Plant Resources (DPR), Thapathali, Kathmandu;2009a:31–51. DPR. Market Study of Seven MAPs in Far and Mid Western Developmet Region. Kathmandu: Department of Plant Resources (DPR); 2009b. DPR Status mapping and feasibility study for cultivation promotion of MAPs/NTFPs in the Chure and adjacent areas of Makwanpur, Bara, Parsa, Rautahat, Sarlahi, Sunsari, Morang and Jhapa Districts, Department of Plant Resources (DPR), Kathmandu:2014. Fayvush G, Aleksanyan A, Mehdiyeva N, Alizade V, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Asparagus officinalis L., Asparagus verticillatus L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Gachati FN. Kikuyu botanical dictionary. Nairobi: AMREF; 1989. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Ghimire SK, Sapkota IB, Oli BR, Parajuli-Rai R. Non-timber Forest products of Nepal Himalaya: database of some important species found in the mountain protected areas and surrounding regions. Kathmandu: WWF Nepal; 2008. p. 96–7. Giday M, Asfaw Z, Elmqvist T, Woldu Z. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by the Zay people in Ethiopia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2003;85:43–52. Giday M, Teklehaymanot T, Animut A, Mekonnen Y. Medicinal plants of the Shinasha, Agew-awi and Amhara proples in northwest. Ethipopia: Joruna; 2007. Giday M, Asfaw Z, Woldu Z, Teklehaymanot T. Medicinal plant knowledge of the bench ethnic group of Ethiopia: an ethnobotanical investigation. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2009;5:34. https:// doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-5-34. Goyal RK, Singh J, Lal H. Asparagus racemosus—an update. Indian J Med Sci. 2003;57(9):408– 14. Harsha VH, Hebbar SS, Hegde GR, Shripathi V. Kunabi tribe of Karnataka in India. Fitoterapia. 2002;73:281–7. Ignacimuthu SS, Ayyanar MM, Sankara Sivaraman KK. Ethnobotanical investigations among tribes in Madurai District of Tamil Nadu (India). J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2(25) Jain A, Katewa SS, Galav PK, Sharma P. Medicinal plant diversity of Sitamata wildlife sanctuary, Rajasthan, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102:143–57. Jan HA, Jan S, Bussmann RW, Ahmad L, Wali S, Ahmad N. Ethnomedicinal survey of the plants used for gynecological disorders by the indigenous community of district Buner, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2020;19:1–18. Janani SR, Singaravadivel S. Screening of phytochemical & GC-MS analysis of some bioactive constituents of Asparagus racemosus Willd. IJPRIF. 2015;6(2):428–32. Jayashree GV, Rachitha P, Krupashree K, Hemanth Kumar K, Khanum F. Phytochemical analysis of Methanolic extract of roots of Asparagus Racemosus (Shatavari). Int J Pharm Bio Sci. 2013;4(4):250–4. Katewa SS, Chaudhary BL, Jain A. Folk herbal medicines from tribal area of Rajasthan, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2004;92:41–6. Khan SM, Page S, Ahmad H, Shaheen H, Ullah Z, Ahmad M, Harper DM. Medicinal flora and ethnoecological knowledge in the Naran Valley, Western Himalaya, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1):4. Kirtikar KR, Basu BD. Indian medicinal plants, vol. Vol. I. 2nd ed. New Delhi; 1993. Kokwaro JO. Medicinal plants of East Africa. Nairobi: University of Nairobi Press; 2009. Kshirsagar RD, Singh NP. Some less known ethnomedicinal uses from Mysore and Coorg districts, Karnataka state, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2001;75:231–8.

Asparagus racemosus Willd.

301

Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Medicinal, Aroma tic and Dye plants of Baitadi and Darchula districts, Nepal Himalaya: status, uses and management. In: Hartmann M, Weipert J, editors. Biodiversität, Naturausstattung im Himalaya, Bd. III. Erfurt; 2009. p. 475–89. Kunwar RM, Duwadee NPS. Ethnobotanical notes on flora of Khaptad National Park(KNP) far Western Nepal. Himal J Sci. 2003;1(1):25–30. Kunwar RM, Nepal BK, Kshetri HB, Rai SK, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicine in Himalaya: a case study from Dolpa, Humla, Jumla and mustang districts of Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006:2–27. Kunwar RM, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Diversity, utilization and management of medicinal plants in Baitadi and Darchula districts, farwest Nepal. Initiation. 2008;21:157–64. Kunwar RM, Upreti Y, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Indigenous use and ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in far-West Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009a;7:5–28. Kunwar RM, Chowdhary L, Bussmann RW. Diversity, utilization and management of medicinal plants in Baitadi and Darchula districts, farwest Nepal. Initiation. 2009b;21:157–64. Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Acharya RP, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants, traditional medicine, markets and management in far-West Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:24. Kunwar RM, Fadiman M, Cameron M, Bussmann RW, Thapa-Magar KB, Rimal B, Sapkota P. Cross-cultural comparison of plant use knowledge in Baitadi and Darchula districts, Nepal Himalaya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14:40. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-018-0242-7. Kunwar RM, Shrestha K, Malla S, Acharya T, Sementelli A, Kutal D. Relation of medicinal plants, their use patterns and availability in the lower Kailash Sacred Landscape, Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;187 https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.6.1-14. Luizza MW, Young H, Kuroiwa M, Evangelista P, Worede A, Bussmann RW, Weimer A. Local knowledge of plants and their uses among women in the Bale Mountains, Ethiopia. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2013;11:315–39. Lulekal E, Kelbessa E, Bekele T, Yineger H. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in Mana Angetu District, southeastern Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2008;4:10. https://doi.org/10. 1186/1746-4269-4-10. Mahato RB, Chaudhary RP. Ethnomedicinal study and Antibacterial activities of selected plants of Palpa district. Nepal Sci World. 2005;3(3):26–31. Malik ZA, Bhat J, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhat AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44. Manandhar NP. Plants and people of Nepal. Oregon: Timber Press; 2002. Nagamani SJ, Ahuja J, Reddy V. Comparative phytochemical screening of Vatashunga, Shatavari and Shatapushpa claimed for Prajasthapana activity. Ann Biol Res. 2012;3(3):1294–304. Negi JS, Singh P, Joshi GP, Rawat MS, Bisht VK. Chemical constituents of Asparagus. Pharmacogn Rev. 2010;4(8):215–20. https://doi.org/10.4103/0973-7847.70921. Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Traditional management of ear, nose and throat ENT diseases in Central Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:54. Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Ethnotherapeutic management of skin diseases among the kikuyus of Central Kenya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;111:303–7. Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Ethnotherapeutic management of Sexually Transmitted Diseases STDs and reproductive health conditions in Central Province, Kenya. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2009;8(2):262–9. Njoroge GN, Barbara G, Bussmann RW, Newton LE, Ngumi VW. Utilization of weed species as source of traditional medicines in Central Kenya: optimizing resource efficiency R.U.E. in agroecosystems. Lyonia. 2004;72:71–87. Raj AJ, Biswakarma B, Pala NA, Shukla G, Vineeta V, Kumar M, Chakravarty S, Bussmann RW. Indigenous uses of ethno-medicinal plants among forest dependent communities of Northern Bengal, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;141:8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-018-0208-9. Rajnhandary KR. Ethnobotany of Nepal. Ethnobotanical Soc Nepal. 2001:93–4. Razafindraibe HM, Razafiarison ZL, Raharimalala F, Rakotoarivony F, Randrianarivony T, Rakotoarivelo N, Randrianasolo A, Kuhlman A, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants used by women from Agnalazaha littoral forest southeastern Madagascar. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:73.

302

R. P. Acharya et al.

Reang I, Goswami S, Pala NA, Kumar K, Bussmann RW. Ethnoveterinary applications of medicinal plants by traditional herbal healers in Reang tribe of south district Tripura, India. Med Aromat Plant. 2016:5–2. Rokaya MB, Münzbergová Z, Timsina B. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants from the Humla district of western Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010;130(3):485–504. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jep.2010.05.036. Sairam KS, Priyambada NC, Goel RK. Gastroduodenal ulcer protective activity of Asparagus racemosus: an experimental, biochemical and histological study. J Ethnopharmacol. 2003;86(1):1–10. Saxena VK, Chaurasia S. A new isoflavone from the roots of Asparagus racemosus. Fitoterapia. 2001;72:307–9. Sekine T, Fukasawa N, Kashiwagi Y, Ruangrungsi N, Murakoshi I. Structure of asparagamine a: a novel polycyclic alkaloid from Asparagus racemosus. Chem Pharm Bull. 1994;42:1360–2. Selvaraj K, Sivakumar G, Pillai AA, Veeraraghavan VP, Bolla SR, Veeraraghavan GR. Phytochemical screening, HPTLC fingerprinting and Invitro antioxidant activity of root extract of Asparagus racemosus. Pharm J. 2019;11(4):818–23. Shah GM, Khan MA. Checklist of medicinal plants of Siran Valley, Mansehra, Pakistan. Ethnobot Leaflets. 2006a;2006(1):6. Shah GM, Khan MA. Common medicinal folk recipes of siran valley, Mansehra, Pakistan. Ethnobot Leaflets. 2006b;2006(1):5. Shah GM, Abbasi AM, Khan N, Guo X, Khan MA, Hussain M, Tahir AA. Traditional uses of medicinal plants against malarial disease by the tribal communities of lesser Himalayas–Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155(1):450–62. Sharifi-Rad J, Salehi B, Stojanović-Radić ZZ, Tsouh Fokou PV, Sharifi-Rad M, Mahady GB, Sharifi-Rad M, Masjedi M-R, Lawal TO, Ayatollahi SA, Masjedi J, Sharifi-Rad R, Setzer WN, Sharifi-Rad M, Kobarfard F, Rahman AU, Choudhary MI, Atar A, Iriti M. Medicinal plants used in the treatment of tuberculosis – Ethnobotanical and ethnopharmacological approaches. Biotechnol Adv. 2017;S0734–9750(17):30077-0. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. biotechadv.2017.07.001. Sharma A, et al. A comprehensive review of the pharmacological actions of Asparagus Racemosus. Am J Pharm Tech Res. 2017; Shinwari S, Ahmad M, Zhang G, Jahan S, Sultana S. Medicinal plant diversity use for gynecological disorders among the rural communities of Northern Pakistan. Pak J Bot. 2017;49(5):1787– 99. Shrestha KK, Sah JP, Ghimire SK. Ecology, exploitation trend and conservation of potential high altitude medicinal plants in Gyasumdo Valley, Manang. Unpublished report. Annapurna Conservation Area Project (ACAP), Kimg Mahendra Trust for Nature Conservation (KMTNC), Kathmandu, 1995. Shrestha R, Shakya A, Shrestha KK. Phytochemical screening and Pharmacognostical Study on four Asparagus species (Asparagaceae) of Nepal. Int J Phytopharmacol. 2016;7(4):202–8. Singh R. Asparagus racemosus: a review on its phytochemical and therapeutic potential. Nat Prod Res. 2016;30(17):1896–908. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2015.1092148. Singh J, Tiwari HP. Chemical examination of roots of Asparagus racemosus. J Indian Chem Soc. 1991;68(7):427–8. Singh AK, Raghubanshi AS, Singh JA. Medical ethnobotany of the tribals of Sonaghati of Sonbhadra district, Uttar Pradesh, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2002;81:31–41. Singh AG, Kumar A, Tewari DD. An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used in Terai forest of western Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2012;8:19. http://www.ethnobiomed.com/content/8/1/19 Singh A, Nautiyal MA, Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal plants used by local inhabitants of Jakholi block, Rudraprayag district, Western Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;1349 https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0178-3. Teklehaymanot T. Ethnobotanical study of knowledge and medicinal plants use by the people in Dek Island in Ethiopia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2009;124:69–78.

Asparagus racemosus Willd.

303

Teklehaymanot T, Giday M, Medhin G, Mekonnen Y. Knowledge and use of medicinal plants by people around Debre Libanos monastery in Ethiopia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;111:271–83. Velavan S, Nagulendran KR, Mahesh R, Hazeena Begum V. The chemistry, pharmacological and therapeutic applications of Asparagus racemosus- a review. Pharmacogn Rev. 2007;1(2):350–60. Wondimu T, Asfaw Z, Kelbessa E. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants around ‘Dheeraa’ town, Arsi zone, Ethiopia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;112:152–61. Wu ZY, Raven PH, editors. Flora of China. Vol. 24 (Flagellariaceae through Marantaceae). Beijing/ St. Louis: Science Press/MBG Press; 2000. http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_ id¼2&taxon_id¼240001105 Yineger H, Yewhalaw D. Traditional medicinal plant knowledge and use by local healers in Sekoru District, Jimma zone, southwestern Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3:24. Yineger H, Kelbessa E, Bekele T, Lulekal E. Plants used in traditional management of human ailments at Bale Mountains National Park, Southeastern Ethiopia. Res J Med Plant. 2008;26:132–53.

Astilbe rivularis Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don. SAXIFRAGACEAE Ram C. Poudel, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Astilbe rivularis Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don.: Astilbe indica (Blume) Backer; Astilbe speciosa Jungh.; Spiraea barbata Wall. ex Cambess.

Local Names Astilbe rivularis: Nepali: Bansupari, Buro Okhati, Bedango, Budo Okhati, Budo Aushadi, Gane gurjo, Gujargano, Thulo Aushadi, Thulo Okhati; Amchi: Subkha; Newar: Facu waasha; Tamang: Ganchhyung, Mran, Pabale; English: False buck’s R. C. Poudel (*) Molecular Biotechnology Unit, Faculty of Science, Nepal Academy of Science and Technology (NAST), Khumaltar, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_30

305

306

R. C. Poudel et al.

beard, Perennial Spirea (Manandhar 1991, 2002; Acharya 2012; Balami 2004; Bhattarai et al. 2010; Luitel et al. 2014).

Botany and Ecology Astilbe rivularis: Herbs 0.6–2.5 m tall. Stems brown long glandular hairy. Leaves 2- or 3-pinnately compound; common petiole and petiolules brown long pilose; leaflets lanceolate, narrowly to broadly ovate, elliptic or broadly so, rhombic-elliptic, narrowly rhombic-obovate, or obovate, 4–14.5 cm  1.7–8.4 cm, abaxially brown long pilose and glandular hairy along veins, adaxially sparsely brown glandular strigose, base obliquely cordate or rounded to cuneate, margin doubly serrate, apex acuminate. Panicle to 42 cm, many flowered; branches 1–18 cm, brown crisped glandular hairy; bracts 3, subelliptic, 1.1–1.4 mm  0.2–0.6 mm, brown pilose, margin entire or dentate; pedicels 0.6–1.8 mm. Sepals 4 or 5, green, ovate or elliptic to oblong, 1.2–1.5  about 1 mm, submembranous, abaxially subconvex, adaxially subconcave, glabrous, 1-veined. Petals absent, sometimes 1(–5) and obsolescent. Stamens 5–10(–12), 0.2– 2.4 mm. Pistil about 2 mm; carpels 2, base connate; ovary subsuperior; styles divergent. Flowering and fruiting June–November (Wu et al. 1994–2013). Bhutan, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Assam, S. Tibet, Thailand, N. Indo-China, W. China, 2000–3600 m, mainly in subtropical to subalpine areas in forest margins, meadows, and scrubby slopes. Highly collected (O’Neill et al. 2017) (Fig. 1).

Phytochemistry A. rivularis contains alkaloids, coumarins, flavonoids, glycosides, and tannins. Major chemical components reported from this species are aesculatin, astilbic acid, astilbin, aticoside, bergenin, dimethylaesculatin, daucosterol, eucryphin, palmitine, peltoboykinoleic acid, scopoletin, sitosterol, and stilbene (Buckingham 1994; Jain 1994). Rai et al. (2019) have isolated 2-Coumaranone; 2-Buten-1-one, 1-phenyl; undecanoic acid, 2-methyl; 2-Piperidinone, 3,6-bis (1-methyllethenyl)-1-phenyl, trans; crinan 1,2-didehydro; 9-Octadecenoic acid (z)- methyl ester; [1,1-Bicyclopropyl]-2-octanoic acid, 2-hexyl-, methyl ester; 17a-Ethyl-3amethoxy-17a-aza-D-homoandrost-5-ene-17-one and butanedioicacid, 2,3-bis (8-nonen-1-yl)-, dimethyl ester from the rhizome. Similarly the aerial part of this plant contain bergenin, β-amyrin, β-sitosterol, β-peltoboykinolic acid, astilbic acid, and quercetin (Sastry et al. 1987). Other important compounds β-peltoboykinolic acid, astilbic acid, acetyl-β-peltoboykinolic acid, and bergenin have been isolated from the root (Sastry and Rao 1977).

Local Medicinal Uses Astilbe rivularis: Root is used to treat headache, fever, stomachache, gastritis, diarrhea, and dysentry (Manandhar 1991, 2002; Kunwar and Duwadee 2003; Shrestha and Dhilion 2003; Bhattarai et al. 2006; Kunwar et al. 2006, 2008, 2009,

Astilbe rivularis Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don.

307

Fig. 1 Astilbe rivularis (Saxifragaceae). Fruiting plant, Baitadi, Nepal. (Photo R. M. Kunwar)

2010a, b, 2013; Kunwar and Bussmann 2009; Acharya 2012; Ghimire et al. 2018). Root is useful in ascariasis (Acharya 2012). Root is taken as appetizer or to improve digestion (Bhattarai 1991; Acharya 2012). Root juice with honey is given three times a day to the patient of peptic ulcer (Manandhar 2002). Root juice is recommended in case of menstrual disorders, to ease delivery, and check excessive postpartum bleeding (Manandhar 1993, 2002; Rai 2003; Shrestha and Dhilion 2003; Kunwar et al. 2008, 2010; Uprety et al. 2010; Acharya 2012); In central Nepal, some communities are practicing of taking 15 g of root paste with two spoonful of honey twice a day for a week to check postpartum hemorrhage, diarrhea, and dysentry (Bhattarai 1993a, 1994). Tamang and Newar communities of Makawanpur and Kathmandu district, respectively, take root and bark even after delivery for after-delivery recovery (Joshi and Joshi 2008; Luitel et al. 2014). Root powder is also considered as energetic or have aphrodisiac potency (Bhattarai 1993a; Balami 2004). Bhattarai (1993b) reported two or three teaspoonfuls doses of root paste taken orally twice a day for 2 or more days to relieve various types of body ache. The juice of the plant is applied on muscular swelling and sprains (Manandhar 2002). Gurung communities of Manang district take one spoon of root powder with milk once a day for the remedy of dizziness and infertility (Bhattarai et al. 2006). The species is used to treat toothache, internal bleeding, pain during childbirth, to induce

308

R. C. Poudel et al.

uterine contraction during birth, for menstrual disorders (abortifacient), as blood purifier (Maity et al. 2004), for headache and to treat infertility (Rajbhandari et al. 2007).

References Acharya R. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of Resunga hill used by Magar community of Badagaun VDC of Gulmi district, Nepal. Sci World. 2012;10(10):54–65. Balami NP. Ethnomedicinal uses of plants among the Newar community of Pharping village of Kathmandu district, Nepal. Tribhuvan Univ J. 2004;24(1):13–9. Bhattarai NK. Folk herbal medicines of Makawanpur district, Nepal. Int J Pharmacogn. 1991;29(4):284–95. Bhattarai NK. Medical ethnobotany in the Rapti zone, Nepal. Fitoterapia. 1993a;64(5):483–93. Bhattarai NK. Folk herbal medicines of Dolakha district, Nepal. Fitoterapia. 1993b;64(5):387–95. Bhattarai NK. Folk herbal remedies for gynaecological complaints in Central Nepal. Int J Pharm. 1994;32(1):13–26. Bhattarai S, Chaudhary RP, Taylor RL. Ethnomedicinal plants used by the people of Manang district, Central Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:41. Bhattarai S, Chaudhary RP, Quave CL, Taylor RSL. The use of medicinal plants in the transHimalayan arid zone of Mustang district, Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:14. Buckingham J. Dictionary of natural products, vol. 7. London: Chapman and Hall; 1994. Ghimire KM, Adhikari M, Uprety Y, Chaudhary RP. Ethnomedicinal use of plants by the highland communities of Kailash Sacred Landscape, far-west Nepal. Acad J Med Plants. 2018;6(11):365–8. Jain SK. Ethnobotany and research on medicinal plants in India. Ciba Found Symp. 1994;185:153–68. Joshi K, Joshi AR. Ethnobotanical studies on some lower plants of the Central Development Region, Nepal. Ethnobot Leafl. 2008;12:32–40. Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Medicinal, aromatic and dye plants of Baitadi and Darchula districts, Nepal Himalaya: status, uses and management. In: Hartmann M, Weipert J, editors. Biodiversität und Naturausstattung im Himalaya III. Erfurt: Naturekunde Museum; 2009. p. 475–89. Kunwar RM, Duwadee NPS. Ethnobotanical notes on flora of Khaptad National Park, far western Nepal. Himal J Sci. 2003;1(1):25–30. Kunwar R, Nepal B, Kshhetri H, Rai S, Bussmann R. Ethnomedicine in Himalaya: a case study from Dolpa, Humla, Jumla and Mustang districts of Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:27. Kunwar RM, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Diversity, utilization and management of medicinal plants in Baitadi and Darchula districts, farwest Nepal. Initiation. 2008;21:157–64. Kunwar RM, Upreti Y, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Indigenous use and ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in Far-west Nepal. Ethnobotany Research and Application 2009;7:5–28. Kunwar RM, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants in farwest Nepal: their indigenous uses and pharmacological validity. Med Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010a;4 (Special issue 1):28–42. Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Bussmann RW. Traditional herbal medicine in far-west Nepal: a pharmacological appraisal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010b;6:35. Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Acharya RP, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants, traditional medicine, markets and management in far-west Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:24. Luitel DL, Rokaya MB, Timsina B, Münzbergová Z. Medicinal plants used by the Tamang community in the Makawanpur district of central Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2014;10:5. Maity D, Pradhan N, Chauhan AS. Folk uses of some medicinal plants from North Sikkim. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2004;3(1):66–71.

Astilbe rivularis Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don.

309

Manandhar NP. Medicinal plant-lore of Tamang tribe of Kabhrepalanchok district, Nepal. Econ Bot. 1991;45(1):58–71. Manandhar NP. Ethnobotanical note on folklore remedies of Baglung district, Nepal. Contrib Nepal Stud. 1993;20(2):183–96. Manandhar NP. Plants and people of Nepal. Portland: Timber Press; 2002. O’Neill AR, Badola HK, Dhyani PP, Rana SK. Integrating ethnobiological knowledge into biodiversity conservation in the Eastern Himalayas. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13:21. https://doi. org/10.1186/s13002-017-0148-9. Rai MB. Medicinal plants of Tehrathum district, Eastern Nepal. Our Nat. 2003;1:42–8. Rai V, Kumar A, Das V, Ghosh S. Evaluation of chemical constituents and in vitro antimicrobial, antioxidant and cytotoxicity potential of rhizome of Astilbe rivularis (Bodho-okhati), an indigenous medicinal plant from Eastern Himalayan region of India. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2019;19(1):200. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12906-019-2621-6. Rajbhandari M, Mentel R, Jha PK, Chaudhary RP, Bhattarai S, Gewali MB, Karmacharya N, Hipper M, Lindequist U. Antiviral activity of some plants used in Nepalese traditional medicine. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2007; https://doi.org/10.1093/ecam/nem156. Sastry BS, Rao EV. Chemical examination of Astilbe rivularis. Indian J Chem Sect B. 1977;15:494–5. Sastry BS, Vykuntam U, Rao E. Chemical examination of the aerial parts of Astilbe rivularis. Indian Drugs. 1987;24:354–9. Shrestha PM, Dhilion SS. Medicinal plant diversity and use in the highlands of Dolakha district, Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2003;86:81–96. Uprety Y, Asselin H, Boon EK, Yadav S, Shrestha KK. Indigenous use and bio-efficacy of medicinal plants in the Rasuwa district, Central Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:3. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013.

Astragalus candolleanus Royle ex Benth. Astragalus chlorostachys Lindl. Astragalus hendersonii Baker Astragalus peduncularis Royle ex Benth. FABACEAE Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Synonyms Astragalus candolleanus Royle ex Benth.: Astragalus latifolius ssp. candolleanus (Boiss.) Ponert Astragalus chlorostachys Lindl.: Astragalus bakeristrobiliferus H. Okashi, Astragalus microdontus Baker, Hedysarum strobiliferum Baker, Hedysarum strobiliferum L. Astragalus hendersonii Baker: Phyllolobium heydeni (Baker) M.L. Zhang & Podlech Astragalus peduncularis Royle ex Benth.: Astragalus corydalinus Bunge

A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_31

311

312

A. M. Abbasi et al.

Botany and Ecology Astragalus candolleanus: Shrub, suberect or prostrate, branches pubescent. Leaf imparipinnately compound, up to 12.5 cm long; leaflets 17–25, about 1.2–1.3 cm long, elliptic or oblong, sparsely pubescent or glabrous; stipules about 6–7 mm long, free. Inflorescence a is compact raceme, having sessile or pedunculate peduncle about 5 cm or less. Bracts exceeding the pedicel. Pedicel about 2.5–6 mm long. Calyx about 1.2–1.3 cm long, pubescent; upper calyx teeth 5 mm and lower 6 mm long. Vexillum about 2.5–2.6 mm long. Wing shorter than vexillum and longer than the keel. Fruit about 1.7–2.6 cm long, pubescent, hairs spreading. Flowering June–August. Kashmir; Pakistan (N.W.F. Province) (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020) (Fig. 1). Astragalus chlorostachys: Plants 40–100 cm tall, with appressed to spreading, white to dark brown hairs. Stems 1–1.5 mm thick, erect, hairy, often glabrescent with age. Leaves 6–17 cm; stipules 3–13(–16) mm, narrowly triangular to ovate, mostly spreading, free or in lateral branches sometimes shortly vaginate-connate behind stem, hairy; petiole (0.4–)1.6–2.5 cm, like rachis glabrous or hairy; leaflets in 6–11(–13) pairs, elliptic, 9–40  4–20 mm, both surfaces loosely to rather densely covered with appressed to subappressed white or yellowish hairs, adaxially sometimes glabrescent, apex obtuse to slightly retuse. Racemes densely many flowered, later elongating to 4–11(–14) cm; peduncle 4–8 cm, elongating up to 13 cm with age, with short hairs; bracts soon falling, 3–8 mm, hairy. Bracteoles 0.25–1.5 mm, sometimes absent. Calyx 4–6.5 mm, densely covered with appressed to ascending, dark brown, and white hairs; teeth mostly unequal, triangular, 0.5–1.5 mm, sometimes indistinct. Petals pale yellow, all nearly of same length; standard elliptic to rhombic-elliptic or obovate, 10–13  4–6(–7) mm, apex retuse to emarginate. Style Fig. 1 Astragalus candolleanus (Fabaceae). Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

Astragalus candolleanus Royle ex Benth. . . .

313

with glabrous or very shortly hairy stigma. Legumes with a stipe 6–9 mm, narrowly ellipsoid to oblong, 15–31 mm, 3.5–5.5 mm high and wide, keeled ventrally and dorsally, with a beak 2–4 mm, incompletely to completely two-locular; valves thin, glabrous (Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Fig. 2). Astragalus hendersonii: Root woody, about 3 mm thick, branches about 1–5 cm long. Stipules amplexicaul, about 1.2–2 mm long, about 2–3 mm broad, glabrous. Leaf imparipinnately compound, rachis about 7–10 mm, (including petiole), pilose, and petiole about 2–5 mm long. Leaflets about 11–17, opposite, about 3.5–6 mm long, obovate, oblong, obtuse, densely pilose, and conduplicate. Inflorescence is a 2–3-flowered peduncled raceme, peduncle about 7–12 mm long, pilose, hairs white. Bracts about 3 mm long, densely albo-pilose. Calyx about 5.0–6.0 mm, densely pilose, hairs white, teeth about 2–2.5 mm long. Corolla mauve to purple. Vexillum about 10 mm long. Wing about 8–9.0 mm long, claw about 4–5 mm, blade 5–6 mm long. Keel about 8–9.0 mm long. Fruit stipitate, stipe about 1 mm, fruit about 16– 17 mm long, about 11–12 mm broad (pressed condition), oblong, pilose, hairs white; sutures scarcely intruded. Seeds about 20 per pod. Flowering July–September (Kashmir; Tibet, E. Turkistan) (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020). Astragalus peduncularis: Plants 25–70 cm tall, covered with mostly  medifixed hairs. Stems several, 20–60 cm, often with very short lateral branches, densely hairy; hairs appressed, often flexuous, white, at nodes also black, 0.3–0.5 mm, a few ascending up to 1 mm. Leaves 5–10 cm, subsessile; stipules 6–8 mm, high vaginate-connate behind stem, loosely to rather densely appressed hairy; rachis rather densely white hairy; leaflets in 7–13 pairs, narrowly elliptic, 7–19(–25)  1.5–7 mm, abaxially loosely to densely appressed hairy, adaxially glabrous or subglabrous, apex rounded or obtuse, mostly very shortly mucronulate. Racemes up to 10 cm, rather densely many flowered; peduncle 6–23 cm, hairy like stem; bracts 3–5 mm, black and white hairy. Bracteoles 1–2 mm. Calyx 8–10 mm, loosely covered with appressed to ascending, mostly asymmetrically bifurcate to Fig. 2 Astragalus chlorostachyus (Fabaceae). Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

314

A. M. Abbasi et al.

subbasifixed, black or mixed white and black hairs; teeth unequal, 1–2 mm. Petals greenish white, standard often  purple tinged; standard obovate, 14–17  6–8 mm, apex emarginate; wings 12–13 mm; keel 11–12 mm. Legumes sessile, nodding, 11– 20 mm, 4–5 mm high and 5–6 mm wide, with a beak 1–2 mm, 1-locular to incompletely 2-locular; valves densely black and white hairy, glabrous with age (Wu et al. 1994–2013).

Local Medicinal Uses Astragalus gilgitensis is used for digestion (Wali et al. 2019). Astragalus caucasicus/Astragalus membranaceus: The roots are used for the treatment of digestive disorders (Bussmann et al. 2017, 2019; Liu and Bussmann 2020). Astragalus arequipensis: The aerial parts mixed with urine, guano of waycho (Agriornis sp.) and lizard meat are elaborated a patch for the treatment of bone breaks (Echeverría et al. 2020). Astragalus cerphalotus serves to treat siabetes and wounds (Tetik et al. 2013). Astragalus sp. are used in the treatment of cancerous and gangrenous wounds (Sezik et al. 2001; Yeşilada et al. 1995). Astragalus jolderensis is used for skin and thyroid gland problems (Ghorbani 2005).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Astragalus caucasicus/Astragalus membranaceus: Used as fodder. The root gum is used in art (Bussmann et al. 2017, 2019; Liu and Bussmann 2020). Astragalus arequipensis: Forage use when dry, if green is toxic. The children use the pods to print marks on the ground in the form of flame footsteps (Echeverría et al. 2020). Astragalus gilgitensis is used for forage (Wali et al. 2019). Astragalus flavescens and Astragalus microcephalus serve as fodder (Ari et al. 2015).

References Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan and Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995–2020. Ari S, Temel M, Kargıoğlu M, Konuk M. Ethnobotanical survey of plants used in AfyonkarahisarTurkey. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2015;11:84. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-015-0067-6. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo Republic of Georgia, Caucasus. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge 2017;161:7–24. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D. Astragalus caucasicus Pall. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z,

Astragalus candolleanus Royle ex Benth. . . .

315

Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions far Eastern Europe. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2019. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77088-8_19-2. Echeverría J, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Astragalus arequipensis Vogel. In: Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions – ethnobotany of the Andes. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-31977093-2_29-1. Ghorbani A. Studies on pharmaceutical ethnobotany in the region of Turkmen Sahra, north of Iran (part 1): general results. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102:58–68. Liu B, Bussmann RW. Astragalus membranaceus Bunge. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions Central Asia and Altai. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77087-1_25-1. Sezik E, Yesilada E, Honda G, Takaishi Y, Takeda Y, Tanaka T. Traditional medicine in Turkey X. Folk medicine in Central Anatolia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2001;75:95–115. Tetik F, Civelek S, Cakilcioglu U. Traditional uses of some medicinal plants in Malatya (Turkey). J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;146:331–46. Wali R, Rahman K, Raja NI, Qureshi R, Bussmann RW, Mashwani ZUR. A quantitative medico botanical expedition of Fairy Meadows National Park, Diamir, Gilgit Baltistan, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019:1835. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.35.1-30. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. St. Louis: Science Press, Beijing & Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Yeşilada E, Honda G, Sezik E, Tabata M, Fujita T, Tanaka T, Takeda Y, Takaishi Y. Traditional medicine in Turkey. V. Folk medicine in the inner Taurus Mountains. J Ethnopharmacol. 1995;46:133–52.

Atriplex hortensis L. Atriplex rosea L. AMARANTHACEAE Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Atriplex hortensis L.: Atriplex nitens Schkuhr Atriplex rosea L.: Atriplex arenicola Hauman; Atriplex arenicola var. albescens Hauman; Atriplex erosa Brueckner & Verdoorn; Atriples spatiosa A. Nelson

Local Names Atriplex hortensis: Russian: Лебеда (lebeda) Atriplex rosea: Pashto: Babara, Ranzaka

H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_32

317

318

H. Sher et al.

Fig. 1 Atriplex hortensis (Amaranthaceae) in a garden in Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R. W. Bussmann and N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Botany and Ecology Atriplex hortensis: Annual, 60–150 cm high; stem erect, mostly branched; leaves, except the lowermost, alternate, petiolate, triangular, broadly hastate at base, entire or more rarely slightly toothed, mostly taper-tipped, green on both sides; flowers in spikes disposed in a leafless panicle; staminate 5-merous; pistillate of two sorts, some ebracteolate with a 5-parted perianth and without bracteoles, others without perianth, others enclosed by a pair of sessile or very short stipitate bracteoles, these rotund or rounded-oval, entire, free; seeds of the former horizontal, convex, black, lustrous, 1–2 mm in diameter, those of the latter vertical, flat, olivaceous-brown, dull, 3–4.5 mm in diameter. Flowering July– September. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, on solonetz soils, rarely on solonchak, steppes, along banks of rivers, on slopes, in ravines, common in gardens and orchards (Bussmann et al. 2020; Komarov and Shishkin 1936) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4). Atriplex rosea: Annual, 30–90 cm high, divaricately branched from base, whitishfarinose at least in upper part; leaves alternate, short-petioled, ovate to ovaterhombic, coarsely sinuate-toothed, entire and cuneate at base, obtuse and often minutely mucronulate, green above, whitish-farinose beneath, the uppermost reduced, narrower and entire; flowers verticillate in a leafy inflorescence; staminate 5-merous; pistillate in axillary glomerules of 5–1 O, with broadly ovate-triangular or broad-rhombic bracteoles; fruiting bracteoles short-stipitate, united in lower half,

Atriplex hortensis L. . . .

319

Fig. 2 Atriplex hortensis (Amaranthaceae) in a garden in Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R. W. Bussmann and N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Atriplex hortensis (Amaranthaceae) in a garden in Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R. W. Bussmann and N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

free and toothed above, prominently 3– to 5-nerved; seeds round, dark brown, glabrous, lustrous, ca. 2 mm in diameter. July–September. Weed-infested places and chalky ground (Komarov and Shishkin 1936).

320

H. Sher et al.

Fig. 4 Atriplex hortensis (Amaranthaceae) in a garden in Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R. W. Bussmann and N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Atriplex hortensis: Saponins, phenolcarboxylic acids (ferulic), flavonoids (piferol, quercetin), betacyanins (betanine), phenylcarboxylic acids (vanilline, ferulic) (Fedorov 1984).

Local Medicinal Uses Atriplex rosea: Crushed leaves and roots boiled in water given orally two times a day for 2–3 months to increase body weight (Ali et al. 2019). Atriplex sp. is used to strengthen the immune system (Ari et al. 2015). Atriplex hortensis: In the Caucasus, the leaves are used as diuretic and hemostatic (Bussmann et al. 2020).

Local Food Uses Atriplex hortensis: The young leaves are eaten as salad and cooked as herb pie. Leaves (esp. young) of A. hortensis and A. nitens are used as spinach and with sorrel for green soup; they are also eaten boiled with oil/butter (Bussmann et al. 2020). The leaves are used for Pkhali (herb pie) (Bussmann et al. 2020) and as pot herbs (Łuczaj and Szymański 2007; Łuczaj et al. 2012).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Atriplex hortensis: Stems are used to produce blue dye (Bussmann et al. 2020). As silage for cattle and other livestock.

Atriplex hortensis L. . . .

321

References Ali A, Aldosari A, Tng DYP, Ullah M, Hussain W, Ahmad M, Hussain J, Khan A, Hussain H, Sher H, Bussmann RW, Shao J-W. Traditional uses of plants by indigenous communities for veterinary practices at Kurram district, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18:24. https://doi. org/10.32859/era.18.24.1-19. Ari S, Temel M, Kargıoğlu M, Konuk M. Ethnobotanical survey of plants used in Afyonkarahisar– Turkey. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2015;11:84. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-015-0067-6. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D. Amaranthus hybridus L.; Amaranthus palmeri S. Watson; Amaranthus spinosus L.; Amaranthus retrofexus L.; Atriplex hortensis L. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions far Eastern Europe. Cham: Springer; 2020. Fedorov AA, ed. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 1. Families magnoliaceae – limoniaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1984, 460 p. (in Russian). Komarov VL, Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, volume 6: Centrospermae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1936 (English 1970), 731 pages, 55 b/w plates, 2 maps. Łuczaj Ł, Szymański WM. Wild vascular plants gathered for consumption in the Polish countryside: a review. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3:17. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-3-17. Łuczaj Ł, Pieroni A, Tardio J, Pardo de Samtayana M, Söukand R, Svanberg I, Kalle R. Wild food plants in 21st century Europe: the disappearance of old traditions and the search for new cuisines involving wild edibles. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2012;81849:359–70.

Atropa acuminata Royle ex Lindl. SOLANACEAE Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Local Names Atropa acuminata: Jammu: Belladona, Brand, Jalakajal, Chella lubbar, Meithkafal, Yabrooj, Nachan Ariel, Pashto: Bargag ‫ﺑﺎﺭګګ‬

Botany and Ecology Atropa acuminata: Herb up to 1.6 m tall, branched. Stem and branches fistular, young shoots puberulous. Leaves 8–17  4.5–8.0 cm, elliptic-lanceolate to ovatelanceolate, acuminate, cuneate. Petiole up to 20 mm long. Calyx 9–15 mm long, up to 20 mm in fruit,  cupular, puberulous; lobes 6–10 mm long, ovate-acute, unequal, persistent. Corolla 20–23 mm long, yellow; lobes obtuse. Stamens included. Anthers c. 3 mm long, oblong filaments 10–11 mm long. Berry globose, 10 mm broad black when ripe. Seeds subreniform, 2 mm long, reticulate, foveolate, brown. Flowering June–July. E. Iran, E. Afghanistan, eastwards to Kashmir, Mongolia (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020) (Fig. 1). H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_33

323

324

H. A. Jan et al.

Fig. 1 Atropa acuminata (Solanaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Local Medicinal Uses Atropa acuminata: Poultice of leaves is used as pain killer and as antirheumatism (Zeb et al. 2013). Root applied externally in the treatment of gout and rheumatism. Leaves are applied to boils (Shah and Khan 2006). Leaves are narcotic, sedative, diuretic, and anodyne (Hussain et al. 2006). Poultice of leaves against pain and rheumatism (Akhtar et al. 2013). Seeds are used for male contraceptives (Zaman et al. 2020). Plant is used for asthma, rheumatic pain, eye diseases, and cough (Malik et al. 2011). Plant is used for pain and rheumatism as poultice (Latif et al. 2006). The plant is used as sedative and narcotic (Kayani et al. 2017), as analgesic, mydriatic, sedative, narcotic, and antispasmodic (Ghorbani 2005; Mohagheghzadeh and Faridi 2006; Muhammad et al. 2019). Also employed for eye problems (Ghorbani 2005). Employed as analgesic, diuretic, mydriatic, narcotic, sedative, for abdominal-pain, as antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, to treat asthma, burns, cough, as diuretic, for eyeailments, inflammation, joint-dislocation, joint pain, muscular pain, neuralgia, rheumatism (Gairola et al. 2014). Atropa baetica serves as narcotic (Mohagheghzadeh and Faridi 2006). Atropa belladonna serves as antispasmodic (Ahmad and Ismail 2003; Ahmad et al. 2006), for boils, cough, and rheumatism (Gairola et al. 2014).

References Ahmad FB, Ismail G. Medicinal plants used by Kadazandudun communities around Crocker Range. ASEAN Review of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation (ARBEC) January– March 2003. 2003. http://www.arbec.com.my/pdf/art1janmar03.pdf Ahmad I, Aquil F, Owais M. Modern phytomedicine. Weinheim: Wiley; 2006.

Atropa acuminata Royle ex Lindl.

325

Akhtar N, Rashid A, Murad W, Bergmeier E. Diversity and use of ethno-medicinal plants in the region of Swat, North Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1):25. Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. Karachi/St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi/Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995–2020. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Ghorbani A. Studies on pharmaceutical ethnobotany in the region of Turkmen Sahra, north of Iran (part 1): general results. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102:58–68. Hussain F, Islam M, Zaman A. Ethnobotanical profile of plants of Shawar Valley, District Swat, Pakistan. Int J Biol Biotechnol. 2006;3(2):301–7. Kayani S, Ahmad M, Hussain M, Zafar M, Khan MA, Shah GM. Ethnotoxic profile of poisonous plants of Kaghan Valley Western Himalayas Pakistan. JAPS: J Anim Plant Sci. 2017;27:1. Latif A, Shinwari ZK, Hussain J, Murtaza S. NTFPS: an alternative to forest logging in Minadam and Sultanar Valley Swat. Lyonia. 2006;11(2):15–21. Malik AR, Siddique MAA, Sofi PA, Butola JS. Ethnomedicinal practices and conservation status of medicinal plants of North Kashmir Himalayas. Res J Med Plant. 2011;5(5):515–30. Mohagheghzadeh A, Faridi P. Medicinal smokes. J Ethnopharmacol. 2006;108:161–84. Muhammad S, Hussain M, Abbas Z, Saquib Z, Bussmann RW, Shah GM. An ethnomedicinal appraisal of Kurram Agency Tribal area Pakistan. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2019;184:631–47. Shah GM, Khan MA. Common medicinal folk recipes of siran valley, Mansehra, Pakistan. Ethnobot Leaflets. 2006;2006(1):5. Zaman W, Ahmad M, Zafar M, Amina H, Ullah F, Bahadur S, . . ., Jahan S. The quest for some novel antifertility herbals used as male contraceptives in district Shangla, Pakistan. Acta Ecol Sin. 2020;40(1):102–12. Zeb A, Khan SM, Ahmad H. Wild plants of the Dughalgay Valley District Swat, Pakistan; traditional use and marketing. Emir J Food Agric. 2013;25(10):1–10.

Bauhinia variegata L. Bauhinia vahlii Wight & Arn. FABACEAE Jyoti Bhandari, Dhruba Bijaya GC, Sunita Dhungana, Neeru Thapa, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Bauhinia variegata L.: Bauhinia candida Aiton, Bauhinia chinensis Vogel, Bauhinia decora L. Uribe, Bauhinia variegata var. candida Buch.-Ham., Bauhinia variegata var. chinensis DC., Bauhinia variegata (L.) Benth., Phanera variegata (L.) Benth. Bauhinia vahlii Wight & Arn.: Bauhinia racemosa Lam. J. Bhandari · D. B. GC (*) · S. Dhungana · N. Thapa Institute of Forestry, Tribhuvan University, Pokhara, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_34

327

328

J. Bhandari et al.

Local Names Bauhinia variegata: Pashto: Kachnar ‫ ;ﮎﺍﭺﻥﺍﺭ‬English: Ebony tree, Buddhist bauhinia; butterfly tree; kachnar; orchid tree; paper mulberry; pink orchid tree; poor man’s orchid; purple orchid tree; Spanish: gorro de Napoleón; mariposa; orchidea de pobre; orquidea de palo; puente de mono; French: arbre à orchidées; arbre de Saint-Thomas; bois de boeuf; sabot boeuf; Chinese: yang zi jing; Naga: Owepanghef; Portuguese: árvore-de-São-Thomaz; Bangladesh: rakta-kamhar; swet-kanchan; Brazil: unha-de-vacca; Cuba: bauhinia; Dominican Republic: flamboyán; orquídea; Haiti: flamboyant; India: Kachnar, Kanchan; Malaysia: akbar tapak kerbau; kotidaram; kupu-kupu; Nepal: koiralo; Baygan (Magar), Ambu, Koiramendo (Tamang), Kachnar, Kovidarah (Sanskrit), Kunopma (Newar), Groinbak (Raji): Jammu: Kaliar, Karal, Kachnar, Kaliari, Kartair, Karar; Pakistan: Kachnar; Puerto Rico: palo de orquídeas; Magar: Baygan; Tam: Ambu, Koiramendo; Newar: Kachnar, Kovidarah, Kunopma; Raji: Groinbak

Botany and Ecology Bauhinia variegata: A medium sized tree with dark brown nearly smooth bark; young shoots pubescent. Leaves petiolate, petiole 2–3.8 cm long; lamina 4.5–15 cm long, as broad as or rather broader than long, with a medium cleft reaching from 1/4 to 1/3 the way down, lobes obtuse, the base is deeply heart shaped, 9–15 nerved, pubescent beneath when young. Inflorescence few flowered pubescent raceme. Pedicel short or absent, bracteole minute; hypanthium slender, 1.2–2.5 cm long. Calyx 2.0–2.7 cm long, tomentose, 5 toothed at the apex. Petals 5–6.3 cm long, obovate, with long rather broad claw, all white or 4 petals pale purple and fifth darker with purple veins. Stamens 5, fertile, no staminodes. Ovary hairy, stipe 10–17 mm long; style long, stigma capitate. Pods 15–30 cm long, about 1–2.5 cm broad, hard, flat, dehiscent 10–15 seeded; stipe glabrous (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5). This species can grow on most soil types and starts to bloom when it is 2 to 3 years old (Bhardwaj et al. 2015). It grows best in the full moon or partial shade. It is prominent greenhouse plants which grows at an altitude of 1800 m in Himalayas (Deswal and Arora 2015). It can easily propagate from seed and by air layering (Ghaisas et al. 2009). Bauhinia variegata has antibacterial (Mishra et al. 2013) and antifungal properties (Bach et al. 2014) and is used in grazing areas (Habib et al. 2016), biomonitoring of environmental pollution (Da Silveira Fleck et al. 2016), and health treatments (Abbasi et al. 2015). Bauhinia variegata can be naturally propagated through the seeds when provided with favorable conditions, whereas artificial propagation is carried out by stump planting, that is, direct sowing of seeds (Khare et al. 2018). The different parts of the plant such as leaves, stems, buds, flowers, barks, seeds, and roots are utilized in the

Bauhinia variegata L. . . .

329

Fig. 1 Bauhinia variegata (Fabaceae), Nairobi, Kenya. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Bauhinia variegata (Fabaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

preparation of medicine and apply in treatment for different diseases (Mali and Dhake 2009). Bauhinia vahlii: A huge climber, branches densely hairy, tendrils circinate, usually opposite the leaves. Leaves alternate, petiolate, petiole about 7.5–9 cm long, cordate at the base, lobed at the apex, orbicular in shape, 10–46 cm long and almost as broad, sparsely hairy on the upper and densely hairy on the lower surface. Inflorescence terminal, subcorymbose, densely hairy raceme; bracteoles persistent. Flowers white turning buff with age. Hypanthium about 5–8 mm long. Calyx 3–5 lobed, about 10– 12.5 mm long, splitting into 2–3 parts, densely villous. Petals 5, about 1.7–4.3 cm long, shortly clawed, spathulate, hairy externally. Fertile stamens 3, 2–7 staminodes may be present. Ovary densely tomentose, style hairy. Pod woody, 22.5–30 cm long, 5–7.5 cm broad, dehiscent, rusty velvety, 6–12 seeded. Seed flat, dark brown, polished, about 2.5 cm in diameter. Flowering April–June. W. Pakistan (Punjab); India (Punjab, U.P., Bengal, Behar, Assam, Bombay, Central India, Madras); Nepal; Sikkim (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020).

330

J. Bhandari et al.

Fig. 3 Bauhinia variegata (Fabaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Local Medicinal Uses Bauhinia variegata: The seeds are tonic and aphrodisiac; leaves are demulcent and mucilaginous (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020). Buds locally called “Kalian” are used as vegetable given in digestive problems (Ahmed et al. 2013). Leaves and flowers paste is given to cattle to cure diarrhea (Abbasi et al. 2013). The young leaves, flowers, and fruits are boiled and eaten as a vegetable and useful in skin diseases (Memon et al. 2008). The plant is used as expectorant, sedative, diuretic, hypnotic pertussis (Shah and Khan 2006). Decoction of bark is used for diarrhea and dysentery. Paste of the bark is applied to treat cuts and wounds. Flowers are used as vegetable and have rich protein contents (Mahmood et al. 2012a). Powdered flowers are used to enhance lactation (Jan et al. 2020) and as carminative. As blood purifier and cure poxes (Mahmood et al. 2012b). Bark and seed of the plant is used for scrofula (Ullah et al. 2016). Root of the plant is used for obesity (Rahman et al. 2019). Decoction made from floral buds is given in piles. Buds are also dried to treat diarrhea (Hussain et al. 2017). Hepatoprotective, anthelmintic, antiseptic/Wound healing, nephroprotective, antidiabetic, insecticidal, antigoitrogenic, anti-inflammatory, and antitubercular (Negi et al. 2012).

Bauhinia variegata L. . . .

331

Fig. 4 Bauhinia variegata (Fabaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

It is one of the most important tree species used in ayurvedic medicine system It is a nitrogen-fixing tree that helps to enrich the soil fertility. The various parts of the plants are used as medicines to cure variety of diseases. The plant is used for curing bronchitis, leprosy, inflammation, bacterial infection, diarrhea, dysentery, skin diseases, intestinal worms, wounds, ulcer, fungal infection, ulcers, and tumors (Prashar and Kumar 2010). The presence of various chemical constituents in B. variegata may be potential cause of treatment of various disorders (Khare et al. 2017). Plant parts, leaves, barks, seeds, flower buds, flowers, and roots have been used as remedy for asthma, leprosy, flatulence, snake bite, skin diseases, and dysentery (Jackson et al. 1994). It is valued in Nepal as a fodder and human food (Gautam 2012). Juice mixed with juice of Mangifera indica and Aegle marmelos used against diarrhea (Manandhar 1991), dysentery, tooth brush (Kunwar et al. 2006), for wounds, cuts, sprains, and fractures (Kunwar and Bussmann 2009; Kunwar et al. 2009, 2013); for body cooling, bark juice for menstrual disorder (Pant et al. 2005; Uprety et al. 2011, 2012; Parajuli 2011, 2012; Luitel et al. 2014); cure leucorrhoea and mumps (Kunwar et al. 2015; Bhattarai et al. 2012), snake bite (Acharya and Acharya 2009; Acharya 2012); diarrhea, indigestion, tumors (Bhattarai 1990, 1992, 1993; Singh et al. 2012; Atreya et al. 2017); dyspepsia, obesity (Rai 2003), piles, liver disorder (Singh et al. 2011), anthelmintic (Tamang 2003; Gautam 2011; Thapa 2013); hyperthermia, blood purification, cut and wounds (Bhatta 1999; Balami 2004; Subedi 2017);

332

J. Bhandari et al.

Fig. 5 Bauhinia variegata (Fabaceae), distribution in Nepal. (Photo Jyoti Bhandari)

diarrhea, dysentery (Tamang and Sedai 2016; Aryal et al. 2018). The root is carminative and used in dyspepsia and flatulence and as an antidote to snake poison (Gautam 2012). The stem bark is used as astringent, alliterative, antidiabetic, antitumor, tonic and anthelmintic, obesity, and washing ulcers (Prashar and Kumar 2010). The ash of dried leaves is taken against cough (Mali et al. 2007). In Northern India the species is used to treat diarrhea, dysentery, indigestion, laxative, leprosy, malaria, piles (bleeding), skin diseases, snake bite, syphilis, tumors, ulcers and worms (Verma et al. 2007), as astringent, and for skin problems (Joshi et al. 2010. In Nepal the flower juice is taken for dysentery and diarrhea, while dried flowers are given for diarrhea, dysentery and piles, and fresh flowers are used as laxative (Kunwar et al. 2010a, b). The leaves and stem-bark are used for the treatment of diabetes, kidney problems, obesity, diarrhea, and as poultice for skin problems. The plant (particularly the leaves) is used to lower cholesterol, against intestinal worms, in the treatment of stomach pains, as a diuretic, as a reducer of blood pressure and to lower the levels of lipids in the blood. The bark is used as a healing, anti-inflammatory, and antihemorrhagic, and also as a general tonic and in the treatment of skin diseases, relief of ulcers, diarrhea, and to treat dysentery. Infusion of the leaves of different species of Bauhinia is traditionally used in the treatment of diabetes and hypertension and as a diuretic and anthelmintic agent (Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2020). Used to remedy syphilis, leprosy, and skin diseases (Singh et al. 2002). In Nagaland used for gastrointestinal problems (Kichu et al. 2015), and for abdominal tumors (Jain et al. 2005). In Jammu used as

Bauhinia variegata L. . . .

333

anthelmintic, bloodpurifier, for flatulence, diarrhea, dysentery, intestinal cramps, as antispasmodic, for cough, as laxative, to treat piles, for skin diseases and toothache (Gairola et al. 2014). Bauhinia racemosa serves for diarrhea (Singh et al. 2002) and as contraceptive (Jain et al. 2005). Bauhinia vahli is used for stomach-pain and diarrhea (Singh et al. 2002). Bauhinia purpurea: Used as carmative, for diarrhea, ulcers, boils and abscesses (Jain et al. 2005).

Local Food Uses Bauhinia variegata: Flowers are cooked as vegetable (Dangol et al. 2017). The leaves are used for the preparation of biddies (Puntambekar 1957). Buds and leaves can be eaten as a vegetable or pickled (Pant and Sharma 2010).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Bauhinia variegata: It is grown as an ornamental plant and also yields tanning material. The foliage is used as fodder and the seeds are eaten; bark yields good fibers for ropes (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020). Often grown as ornamental tree in gardens and along the roadsides. Round log and sawn wood, wood board, gum and fiber production, and recovering degraded areas (Khare et al. 2018). Leaves are often used for feeding cattle (Gautam 2012).

References Abbasi AM, Khan MA, Shah MH, Shah MM, Pervez A, Ahmad M. Ethnobotanical appraisal and cultural values of medicinally important wild edible vegetables of Lesser Himalayas-Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1):66. Abbasi AM, Shah MH, Li T, Fu X, Guo X, Liu RH. Ethnomedicinal values, phenolic contents and antioxidant properties of wild culinary vegetables. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;162:333–45. Acharya R. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of Resunga Hill used by Magar Community of Badagaun VDC of Gulmi District, Nepal. Sci World. 2012;10(10):54–65. Acharya R, Acharya KP. Ethnomedicinal plants used by Tharu Community of Parroha VDC, Rupandehi district, Nepal. Sci World. 2009;7:80. Ahmed E, Arshad M, Saboor A, Qureshi R, Mustafa G, Sadiq S, Chaudhari SK. Ethnobotanical appraisal and medicinal use of plants in Patriata, New Murree, evidence from Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1):13. Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. Karachi/St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi/Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995–2020. Aryal KP, Poudel S, Chaudhary RP, Chettri N, Chaudhary P, Ning W, Kotru R. Diversity and use of wild and noncultivated edible plants in the western Himalaya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14:10.

334

J. Bhandari et al.

Atreya K, Pyakurel D, Thagunna KS, Bhatta LD, Uprety Y, Kotru R, Oli BN, Rimal S, Chaudhary RP. Traditional agricultural and medicinal practices in the Kailash Sacred Langscape, Nepal. ICIMOD working paper 2017/12. Kathmandu: ICIMOD; 2017. Bach EE, Esquerdo KF, Oliveira MB, Reis FA, Cardoso VO, Wadt NS. Control of spot blotch in barley plants with fungicide and Bauhinia variegata Linn. leaf extract. Emir J Food Agric. 2014;26(7):630–8. Balami N. Ethnomedicinal uses of plants among the Newar community of Pharping village of Kathmandu district, Nepal. Tribhuvan Univ J. 2004;24(1):13–9. Bhardwaj P, Ram R, Zaidi AA, Hallan V. Natural occurrence of apple stem grooving virus on Bauhinia variegata. Trees. 2015;29(5):1415–22. Bhatta LR. Ethnobotanical study in a village at Rukum District, Nepal. Banko Janakari. 1999;9(2):40–3. Bhattarai NK. Herbal folk medicine of Kabhrepalanchok district, Central Nepal. J Crude Drug Res. 1990;28(3):225–31. Bhattarai NK. Folk herbal remedies of sindhupalchok district Central Nepal. Fitoterapia. 1992;63(2):145–55. Bhattarai NK. Folk herbal medicines of Dolakha district, Nepal. Fitoterapia. 1993;64(5):387–95. Bhattarai KR, Måren IE, Chaudhary RP. Medicinal plant knowledge of the Panchase region in the Middle Hills of the Nepalese Himalayas. Banko Janakari. 2012;21(1):31–9. Da Silveira Fleck A, Moresco MB, Rhoden CR. Assessing the genotoxicity of traffic-related air pollutants by means of plant biomonitoring in cities of a Brazilian metropolitan area crossed by a major highway. Atmos Pollut Res. 2016;7(3):488–93. Dangol DR, Maharjan KL, Maharjan SK, Acharya AK. Wild edible plants in Nepal. In: Joshi BK, Bahadur KCH, Acharya A, editors. Conservation and utilization of agricultural plant genetic resources of Nepal. Dhulikhel: NAGRC; 2017. p. 390–407. Deswal G, Arora K. Ethnobotany and phytopharmacology of Bauhinia variegata. Int J Pharm Res. 2015;3(9):261–3. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Gautam TP. Indigenous uses of some medicinal plants in Panchthar district, Nepal. Nepal J Biosci. 2011;1:125–30. Gautam S. Bauhinia variegata Linn: all purpose utility and medicinal tree. For Bull. 2012;12(2):61–4. Ghaisas M, Shaikh S, Deshpande A. Evaluation of the immunomodulatory activity of ethanolic extract of the stem bark of Bauhinia variegata Linn. Int J Green Pharm (IJGP). 2009;3(1). Habib G, Khan N, Sultan A, Ali M. Nutritive value of common tree leaves for livestock in the semiarid and arid rangelands of Northern Pakistan. Livest Sci. 2016;184:64–70. Hussain S, Murtaza G, Mehmood A, Qureshi RA. Conservation of indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants of Western Himalayan region Rawalakot, Azad Kashmir, Pakistan. Pak J Pharm Sci. 2017;30(3):773–82. Jackson JK, Stapleton C, Jeanrenaud J-P. United Kingdom Forestry Research Project, Kathmandu. Manual of afforestation in Nepal. 1994. Jain A, Katewa SS, Galav PK, Sharma P. Medicinal plant diversity of Sitamata wildlife sanctuary, Rajasthan, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102:143–57. Jan HA, Jan S, Bussmann RW, Ahmad L, Wali S, Ahmad N. Ethnomedicinal survey of the plants used for gynecological disorders by the indigenous community of district Buner, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2020;19:1–18. Joshi M, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal uses of plant resources of the Haigad watershed in Kumaun Himalaya. Med Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010;4(special issue 1):43–6. Khare P, Kishore K, Sharma DK. A study on the standardization parameters of Bauhinia variegata. Asian J Pharm Clin Res. 2017;10(4):133–6. Khare P, Kishore K, Sharma DK. Historical aspects, medicinal uses, phytochemistry and pharmacological review of Bauhinia variegata. Asian J Pharm Pharmacol. 2018;4(5):546–62.

Bauhinia variegata L. . . .

335

Kichu A, Malewska T, Akter K, Imchen I, Harrington D, Kohen J, Vemulpad SR, Jamie JF. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of Chungtia village, Nagaland, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;166:5–17. Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Medicinal, aromatic and dye plants of Baitadi and Darchula Districts, Nepal Himalaya: status, uses and management. In: Hartmann M, Weipert J, editors. Biodiversität, Naturausstattung im Himalaya, Bd. III. Erfurt; 2009. p. 475–489. Kunwar RM, Nepal BK, Kshhetri HB, Rai SK, Bussmann R. Ethnomedicine in Himalaya: a case study from Dolpa, Humla, Jumla and Mustang districts of Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:27. Kunwar RM, Upreti Y, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Indigenous use and ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in Far-west Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. Universität Erfurt; 2009;7:5–28. Kunwar RM, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants in Far west Nepal: their indigenous uses and pharmacological validity. Med Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010a;4 (Special issue 1):28–42. Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Bussmann RW. Traditional herbal medicine in Far-west Nepal: a pharmacological appraisal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010b;6:35. Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Acharya RP, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants, traditional medicine, markets and management in far-west Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:24. Kunwar R, Acharya RP, Chaudhary CL. Medicinal plant dynamics in indigenous medicines in farwest Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol [Internet]. Elsevier; 2015; 163:210–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.jep.2015.01.035. PMID: 25655999. Luitel DL, Rokaya MB, Timsina B, Münzbergová Z. Medicinal plants used by the Tamang community in the Makawanpur district of Central Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2014;10:5. Macbride JF, Weberbauer A. Flora of Peru. Chicago: Field Museum; 1936–1995. Mahmood A, Mahmood A, Mujtaba G, Mumtaz MS, Kayani WK, Khan MA. Indigenous medicinal knowledge of common plants from district Kotli Azad Jammu and Kashmir Pakistan. J Med Plant Res. 2012a;6:4961–7. Mahmood A, Mahmood A, Mahmood M. Indigenous wild medicinal plants used by local people of Dudial area, district Mirpur, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. J Med Plants Res. 2012b;6(13):2686–90. Mali RG, Dhake AS. Bauhinia variegata Linn. (Mountain Ebony): a review on ethnobotany, phytochemistry and pharmacology. Orient Pharm Exp Med. 2009;9(3):207–16. Mali RG, Mahajan SG, Mehta AA. Rakta Kanchan (Bauhinia variegata): chemistry, traditional and medicinal uses-a review. Pharmacogn Rev. 2007;1(2):314–319. Manandhar NP. Medicinal plant-lore of Tamang tribe of Kabhrepalanchok District, Nepal. Econ Bot. 1991;45(1):58–71. Memon AH, Rind FMA, Laghari MGH, Mughal UR, Memon N, Gilal RA, Almani F. Common folk medicinal and ethnomedicinal uses of thirty medicinal plants of districts Dadu and Jamshoro, Sindh, Pakistan. Sindh Univ Res J (Sci Ser). 2008;40(2):89–108. Mishra A, Sharma AK, Kumar S, Saxena AK, Pandey AK. Bauhinia variegata leaf extracts exhibit considerable antibacterial, antioxidant, and anticancer activities. Biomed Res Int. 2013. https:// doi.org/10.1155/2013/915436 Negi A, Sharma N, Singh M. Spectrum of pharmacological axtivities from Bauhinia variegata: a review. J Pharm Res. 2012;5:2. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/221705120_Spec trum_of_Pharmacological_Activities_from_Bauhinia_variegata_A_Review Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, Romero C. Bauhinia variegata L. In: Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions – ethnobotany of the Andes. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77093-2_35-1. Pant HM, Sharma N. Inventory of some exotic cultivated tree species of Doon valley and their ethnobotanical uses. J Med Plants Res. 2010;4(20):2144–7. Pant SR, Dhami NR, Panta IR. Wild edible plants of Lekham area, Darchula, Farwestern Nepal. Scientific World. 2005;3:73–7.

336

J. Bhandari et al.

Parajuli RR. Study on ethnomedicinal plants of Maipokhari wetland area in Ilam, Eastern Nepal. Bull Dept Pl Res. 2011;33:33–42. Parajuli RR. Ethnomedicinal use of plants in Rai community of Maimajuwa and Puwamajuwa VDCs of Ilam District, Eastern Nepal. Bull Dept Pl Res. 2012;34:65–73. Prashar Y, Kumar AS. Antiobesity activity of Bauhinia variegata Linn. in high fat diet induced obesity in female rats. Pharmacologyonline. 2010;2:1008–16. Puntambekar P. Review on Bauhinians. Indian Forestry. 1957;78:39–44. Rahman IU, Afzal A, Iqbal Z, Hart R, Abd_Allah EF, Hashem A, . . ., Bussmann RW. Herbal teas and drinks: folk medicine of the Manoor Valley, Lesser Himalaya, Pakistan. Plan Theory. 2019;8(12):581. Rai MB. Medicinal plants of Tehrathum District, Eastern Nepal. Our Nat. 2003;1:42–8. Shah GM, Khan MA. Checklist of medicinal plants of Siran Valley, Mansehra, Pakistan. Ethnobot Leaflets. 2006;2006(1):6. Singh AK, Raghubanshi AS, Singh JA. Medical ethnobotany of the tribals of Sonaghati of Sonbhadra district, Uttar Pradesh, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2002;81:31–41. Singh AG, Gautam LP, Tewari DD. Folk uses of some medicinal plants of Dobhan VDC of Palpa district, Western Nepal. J Phytology. 2011;3(8):62–7. Singh AG, Kumar A, Tewari DD. An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used in Terai forest of western Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2012;8:19. Subedi R. Ethnobotanical study of Panchase Protected Forest, Kaski district, Central Nepal. Amsterdam: Tibhuvan University; 2017. Tamang G. An ethnobiological study of the Tamang people. Our Nat. 2003;1:37–41. Tamang R, Sedai DR. Documentation of ethnomedicinal knowledge on plant resources used by Baram Community in Arupokhari VDC, Gorkha district, Central Nepal. Bull Dep Plant Resour. 2016;38:60–4. Thapa LB. Medicinal plants used by Raji ethnic tribe of Nepal in treatment of gastrointestinal disorders. Our Nat. 2013;11(2):177–86. Ullah H, Ullah S, Basar S. Indigenous uses, knowledge, and population density of threatened medicinal plants in Gabral valley, district Swat of-Pakistan. J Entomol Zool Stud. 2016;4:448–51. Uprety Y, Poudel RC, Asselin H, Boon E. Plant biodiversity and ethnobotany inside the projected impact area of the Upper Seti Hydropower Project, Western Nepal. Environ Dev Sustain. 2011;13:463–92. Uprety Y, Poudel RC, Shrestha KK, Rajbhandary S, Tiwari NN, Shrestha UB, Asselin H. Diversity of use and local knowledge of wild edible plant resources in Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2012;8:16. Verma A, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants in an urban environment: the medicinal flora of Banares Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3:35.

Berberis aristata DC. Berberis asiatica Roxb. ex DC. Berberis chitria Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Berberis glaucocarpa Stapf Berberis lycium Royle Berberis orthobotrys Bien. ex Aitch. ssp. orthobotrys Berberis vulgaris L. BERBERIDACEAE Hassan Sher, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Ikram Ur Rahman, Wahid Hussain, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Synonyms Berberis aristata DC.: Berberis chitria Buch.-Ham. ex Ker Gawl., Berberis chitria var. sikkimensis C.K. Schneid., Berberis sikkimensis (C.K. Schneid.) Ahrendt, Berberis sikkimensis var. baileyi Ahrendt Berberis asiatica Roxb. ex DC.: Berberis dealbata Lindl., Berberis hypoleuca Lindl., Berberis asiatica var. clarkeana C.K. Schneid., Berberis vinifera T.S. Ying (Harber 2020). Berberis chitria Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don: Berberis chitria var. occidentalis Ahrendt H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan W. Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_35

337

338

H. Sher et al.

Berberis glaucocarpa Stapf: Berberis aristata Sims Berberis vulgaris L.: Berberis baluchistanica Ahrendt

Local Names Berberis aristata: Jammu: Kareel kaimbal, Daruharidra, Kaembu; Kashmir: Kasmal, Dandlether, Dandleder, Kawe dach; Sikkim: Chutro; Lepcha: Sutong, Kung; Nepali: Chutro, Chautari, Barhamase chutro; Newari: Chhuntasi, Maltapyaasi; Tamang: Kerpa, Kerba, Pichyar; Sanskrit: Daruharidra, Daruhaldhi, Rasanjan; Hindi: Chitra, Chotra; English: Barberry, Tree Turmeric Berbneris asiatica: Kashmir: Rasaut, Kasmal; Gharwal: Kingod; Ladakh: Kirmuda; Nepali: Chutro, Aul chutro, Chutra; Newari: Chhuntasi, Maltapyaasi; Sherpa: Namli; Tamang: Kerpa; Sanskrit: Daruharidra, Daruhaldi, Rasanjan; English: Barberry Berberis lycium: Kashmir: Kowdach, Kaodauch, Lawdach, Khawaray; Ladakh: Daruhaldi, Dama; Jammu: Cambel, Kaimal, kamble, Kamblu, Kavelli, Krumbal, Kurmal, Rasaunt, Simblu, Simloo, Simlu; Pashto: Zyar largai ، ‫ﮎﺭﻭﺱﮎﯼ‬, Karoskay ‫ﺯﯾﺎﺭ ﻻﺭګﯼ‬. Berberis vulgaris: Ladakh: Kirsing; Malataya: Karamuk; Pakistan: Shuturum.

Botany and Ecology Berberis aristata: Shrub, 3–4 m tall; stem terete, glabrous, pale yellow, obscurely or very minutely verruculose; internodes 2.5–4.5 cm long; spines mostly simple, rarely 3-fid, 5–10 mm long. Leaves obovate-elliptic, 3–6 (–7.5) cm long, 1–2.5 (–3) cm broad, subsessile to very shortly petioled, usually 4–8 spinose-dentate at margin, pale, slightly reticulately veined. Racemes 2–4 cm long, 15–25–flowered, rigid, R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia

Berberis aristata DC. . . .

339

rarely slightly compound. Flowers 10–12 mm across, pale yellow with petals slightly larger than the inner sepals; pedicels 5–10 mm long in fruit, stout. Prophylls about 1 mm long. Outer sepals about 2 mm long, ovate; middle ones about twice and the inner sepals about thrice as long, obovate. Petals about 7 mm long, 4.5 mm broad, obovate with retuse apices and somewhat clawed base with a pair of marginal glands. Stamens about 5.5 mm long with subapiculate apices. Berries oblongglobose, 7–9 mm long, 6–7 mm broad, black, pruinose-white; style 1 mm long; seeds 3–4, oblong-ellipsoid, 3–4 mm long. Flowering April–May. (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020). Common in forest clearings and disturbed vegetation along forest edges and roadsides at 1300–3400 m altitude (Adhikari et al., 2012). Berberis asiatica: Shrubs, evergreen, 2–3 m tall. Branches pale yellow, terete, sometimes sulcate, glabrous; spines 3-fid, 1.2–2.5 cm. Leaves sessile; leaf blade abaxially shiny, pale green, adaxially dark green or grayish white, elliptic-lanceolate, 1.2–3.2 cm  4–9 mm, leathery, abaxially with conspicuously raised midvein, lateral and reticulate veins inconspicuous, adaxially with slightly raised midvein, lateral veins visible, reticulate veins inconspicuous, base cuneate, margin slightly revolute, slightly undulate, 2–4-spinulose-serrulate on each side, apex acute, aristate. Flowers 2–10-fascicled. Pedicels 1.1–2.2 cm; bractlets ovate, ca. 2  1 mm, apex acuminate. Sepals in 2 whorls; outer sepals ovate, ca. 5  4 mm, apex acute; inner sepals oblongobovate, ca. 7  4.5 mm, rounded, obtuse. Petals obovate, ca. 7  4 mm, base clawed, with separate glands, apex emarginate. Stamens ca. 5 mm; anther connective prolonged, apiculate. Ovules 3 or 4. Berry purplish black, pyriform or ellipsoid, 7–9  5–6 mm, pruinose, style persistent. Flowering May–June, fruiting July (Wu et al. 1994–2013). Common in disturbed vegetation beside roads and trails, and forest clearings at 1000–2700 m altitude (Adhikari et al. 2012). B. asiatica is easily distinguished by other closely related species by its leathery leaves with distinct reticulate venation and glaucous berries Nepal, India, China, Bhutan, Myanmar. Berberis chitria: Shrub, 3–4 m tall, almost deciduous; stem and shoots terete, dark reddish-brown, finely pubescent to subglabrous; internodes 2.5–5 cm long; spines (1–) 3-fid, 1–2( 3) cm long. Leaves obovate to elliptic, 2–6( 10) cm long, 1.5–2.5 ( 4) cm broad, dull to pale green, subsessile, finely reticulate, usually 3–9 spinulose at the margin, sometimes almost entire. Inflorescence (5–)8–12( 17) cm long, 10–20-flowered, loosely corymbose-paniculate, with flowers usually in groups of three, including peduncle (1.5–)4–6( 8) cm long, drooping. Flowers 12–18 mm across, yellow, often tinged with red; pedicels 8–15 mm long, glabrous. Prophylls c. 1.5 mm long, appressed, at middle of pedicel or the base of flower. Sepals obovate, outer 6–7 mm long, inner 9– 10 mm long, Petals 8–9 mm long, broadly elliptic, emarginate and subacute at the apex. Stamens 7 mm long, subapiculate at the apex. Ovules 4–5, with longer stipes. Berries dark red-brown, 10–12 mm long, 4–6 mm broad, narrowly ovoid or oblong-ellipsoid, epruinose, excluding 1–1.5 mm long style. Flowering May–June. Almost throughout the Himalayas. The var. occidentalis, which includes Kashmir plants also and is said to have smaller, entire leaves (2–4.5 cm long) and broader fruits (12 x 6 mm), is not different from it. (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020). Berberis glaucocarpa: Shrub, 3–4 m tall; stem terete, glabrous, pale yellow, obscurely or very minutely verruculose; internodes 2.5–4.5 cm long; spines mostly

340

H. Sher et al.

simple, rarely 3-fid, 5–10 mm long. Leaves obovate-elliptic, 3–6 ( 7.5) cm long, 1–2.5 ( 3) cm broad, subsessile to very shortly petioled, usually 4–8 spinosedentate at margin, pale, slightly reticulately veined. Racemes 2–4 cm long, 15–25flowered, rigid, rarely slightly compound. Flowers 10–12 mm across, pale yellow with petals slightly larger than the inner sepals; pedicels 5–10 mm long in fruit, stout. Prophylls c. 1 mm long. Outer sepals c. 2 mm long, ovate; middle ones c. twice and the inner sepals c. thrice as long, obovate. Petals c. 7 mm long, 4.5 mm broad, obovate with retuse apices and somewhat clawed base with a pair of marginal glands. Stamens c. 5.5 mm long with subapiculate apices. Berries oblong-globose, 7–9 mm long, 6–7 mm broad, black, pruinose-white; style 1 mm long; seeds 3–4, oblong-ellipsoid, 3–4 mm long. Flowering April–May. Another very similar species, Berberis lycioides Stapf, with narrower leaves, longer racemes, berries 10–12 mm long, oblong-ovoid, and petals entire and shorter than inner sepals, may also occur within our area. (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020). Berberis lycium: Shrub, 2–3( 4) m tall, erect or suberect, semideciduous; stem and branches pale, whitish to greyish, terete to subsulcate, glabrescent, younger ones obscurely to distinctly puberulous; internodes 1.5–3.5 cm long; spines (1–)3-fid, (6-) 10–20 mm long, yellowish to straw-coloured. Leaves oblanceolate to oblongobovate, (2–) 3–6 cm long, 6–12 mm broad, subsessile, usually conspicuously papillose, grey or white below, entire to 2–4 spinulose at the margins, acute to subacuminate, openly veined. Racemes (6–)10–25-flowered, 3–6( 7) cm long, rarely shorter and subfascicled (2–2.5 cm). Flowers 6–8 mm across, usually paleyellow; pedicels 6–12( 15) mm long, rarely longer, slender, thin, glabrous; bracts 2–2.5 mm. long. Prophylls c. 1 mm long, ovate, reddish. Outer sepals much smaller than the middle and inner sepals; inner sepals 4.5–5 mm long, 3 mm broad, obovate. Petals slightly shorter than the inner sepals, obovate, emarginate, with lanceolate basal glands. Stamens slightly shorter than petals, connectives produced or anthers apiculate. Ovules usually 4, shortly stipitate. Berries 7–8 mm long, c. 5 mm broad, ovoid or obovoid-subglobose, excluding 1 mm long style, blackish with heavy greywhite bloom; seeds 3–4 mm long. Flowering April–June. Distribution: Kashmir, Pakistan and N. W. Himalayas. A variable species said to have replaced Berberis ceratophylla G. Don in Kashmir and Western Himalayas and itself to be replaced by Berberis parkeriana Schneid. in the bordering areas of Kashmir and Pakistan. The varieties subfascicularis Ahrendt and subvirescens Ahrendt with shorter, 5–15flowered inflorescences, racemose to subfascicled, seem to be only variants of the species, the former with leaves like the type variety but the latter with leaves dull greenish below. (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6). Berberis orthobotrys: Shrub, 1(–2) m high, glabrous; stem often dark red, sometimes orange-yellow or pale-brownish; internodes 1–2( 3.5) cm long, sulcate, strict; spines mostly 3–fid, 1–2(–2.5) cm long, orange-yellow to reddish or brownish. Leaves very variable, usually obovate, 1–2.5(–3.5) cm long, 5–15 (–20) mm broad, 5–15(20) spinose-serrulate at the margins, rarely subentire, green, sometimes subpruinose grey beneath, subsessile shortly petiolate (up to 5 mm). Inflorescence racemose, subumbellate, umbellate-racemose or racemose-subfascicled, rarely compound below, highly variable, usually 5–20(–25)-flowered, 1.5–3(–4) cm long,

Berberis aristata DC. . . .

341

Fig. 1 Berberis lycium (Berberidaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi) Fig. 2 Berberis lycium (Berberidaceae), Bhutan. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

obscurely to distinctly peduncled. Flowers 7–12 mm across, yellow to pale-yellow; pedicels (4–)5–12)(–15) mm long, lower often longer than the upper ones, slender rarely stout (and short). Sepals 4–7 mm long, outer smaller, Petals about as long as or slightly shorter than the inner sepals, emarginate to entire, flat to convolute. Stamens about as long as or shorter than the petals, connectives not produced, rarely subconical. Ovules 3–5. Berries oblong, subovoid or subobovoid, rarely oblongorbicular, 7–10 mm long, 5–6 mm broad, very variable, red, sometimes subpruinose or somewhat dark-colored when dried, often 3–seeded; seeds c. 3 mm long, oblongellipsoid. A variable species in leaf size, serrations, fruit size, shape, coloration and length of pedicels. (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020). Berberis vulgaris: Deciduous shrubs up to 3 m tall. Stems long, with short branches bearing spines. Bark of second year stems smooth and gray in color. Bud scales fall

342 Fig. 3 Berberis lycium (Berberidaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 4 Berberis lycium (Berberidaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

H. Sher et al.

Berberis aristata DC. . . .

343

Fig. 5 Berberis lycium (Berberidaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 6 Berberis lycium (Berberidaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

off early. Leaves simple, usually obovate with one midvein and with short petioles, margins flat with shallow teeth tipped with small spines. Flowers in a raceme disposed from short shoots with 10–20 flowers each; anther filaments lack curved teeth. Berries are red to purple, round, juicy and solid. Mainly under cultivation. Found throughout the Caucasus, Central Europe, Mediterranean, the Balkans, Russia, and Central Asia. Introduced to North America. Flowers and fruits from May to June. Berberis vulgaris is an important food for many small birds, which disperse the seeds in their droppings. The species is the alternate host species of the wheat rust fungus (Puccinia graminis), a grass-infecting rust fungus that is a serious fungal disease of wheat and related grains. (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020).

344

H. Sher et al.

Phytochemistry Berberis aristata: High concentration of Berberine, especially in the roots (Furrianca et al. 2015, Chander et al. 2017). Also contains aromoline, berbamine, berlambine, columbamine, palmatine, jatrorrhizine, karachine, oxyberberine, taxilamine and oxyacanthine (Bhardwaj & Kaushik 2013; Watanabe et al. 2005), carbohydrates, tannins, phytosterols, flavonoids (quercetin, meratin, rutin), and volatile oils (Furrianca et al. 2015). Berberis asiatica: Contains berberine, berbamine, berbinium, berlambine, palmatine, columbamine, Jatrorrhizine, oxyberberine oxyacanthine, magnoflorine (Watanabe et al. 2005; Bhardwaj & Kaushik 2013; Furrianca et al. 2015), tannins, flavonoids, steroids, saponins, phenols, carbohydrates, proteins, and free amino acids (Patni et al. 2012; Furrianca et al. 2015). reported from root and stem of B. asiatica (Patni et al. 2012; Furrianca et al. 2015).

Local Medicinal Uses Berberis aristana It is also taken as blood purifier and tonic (Watanabe et al. 2005). Bark, wood, and roots are used to treat Jaundice, malarial fever, fever, diabetes, diarrhea, and skin diseases (Rajbhandari 2001; Manandhar 2002; Watanabe et al. 2005; Chapagain et al. 2018). In Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh used as laxative, for backache, fractures, jaundice, rheumatism, as rejuvenating tonic, for eye ailments, fever, and weakness (Gairola et al. 2014). To treat fever, jaundice, malaria, diarrhea, swellings, eye problems, and ravies in Sikkim (Tamang et al. 2017). Used by the Lepcha for skin disorders, jaundice, and gastric problems (Palit and Banerjee 2016). Berberis asiatica fruits are used as mild laxative for children, the roots and bark as astringent, stomatic, diaphoretic, and to remedy piles (Joshi et al. 2010), with similar uses reported by Singh et al. Used for eye problems (Kunwar et al. 2008; Kunwar et al. 2013; 2015) and serves for gastric problems, as anthelminthic, for diabetes and eye infections (Joshi et al. 2010; Kunwar et al. 2009, 2013), and also as mild laxative, especially for children. In Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh used for backache and joint pain (Gairola et al. 2014). In Gharwal to remedy diabetes, eye infections, and kidney stones (Pratap Singh et al. 2019), in Ladakh for gastric problems, diabetes and eye infections (Malik et al. 2015). Applied to snakebites (Houghton and Osibogun 1993) and as ophthalmic (Kumar et al. 2011). The wood, root bark, and the plant extract are alterative, deobstruent, astringent, antiperiodic, and diaphoretic. Decoction of root bark is used in eye disease (Watanabe et al. 2005). It is used as blood purifier and to treat rheumatisms, jaundice, fever, diarrhea and dysentery, and in eye problems (Rajbhandari 2001; Kunwar and Bussmann 2009a, b). It is also used with butter for the treatment of bleeding piles (Bhattacharjee et al. 1980). Studies suggested that several species of Berberis are traded under the same vernacular name (Srivastava and Rawat 2013). Berberis lycium: A brown extract from its roots and lower parts of stem is called “Rasaunt” and is mixed with water for use as cooling agent or tonic. It is also used as

Berberis aristata DC. . . .

345

an eye lotion. (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020). Root is used in jaundice and diarrhea. The bark of the root is used in diabetes, also used as tonic (Gilani et al. 2006). Root and leaves are used for Jaundice and diarrhea (Ahmad et al. 2017). The paste of bark and roots is used to treat fracture and headache. Locally, the dried root is used for the treatment of fractured bones and wounds healing and as general body tonic (Ahmad and Habib 2014). Dried root bark given orally as body tonic (Akhtar et al. 2013). Root of the plant is used for hepatitis, menorrhagia, chronic fever, and jaundice (Ahmad et al. 2014). Leaves and fruit decoction is used for dyspepsia (Wali et al. 2019a, b). Root is febrifuge, used in piles. Leaves are used in jaundice (Hussain et al. 2008). The plant is locally used as carminative, febrifuge, treating eye complaints, chronic diarrhea, piles, toothache and septic gums, jaundice, fencing and hedges, diabetics, and as tonic (Jan et al. 2017). The paste of root bark is externally applied on wounds. Powdered bark is mixed in water and the paste is applied on bone fracture. Crushed bark is soaked in water and the resultant extract is taken early morning to treat diabetes, scabies, boils, and pimples. The extract possesses cooling effect and seldom used in winter season (Ahmed et al. 2013). Root and stem barks are tonic. Decoction of root and stem barks are used against splenic trouble, as intestinal astringent, good for cough, chest, and throat trouble and a good application to boils. The paste of root bark is externally applied on wounds and on bone fracture. Crushed bark is soaked in water and the resultant extract is taken early morning to treat diabetes, scabies, boils, and pimples. The extract possesses cooling effect and seldom used in winter season (Amjad and Arshad 2014). Used to heal wounds (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018), conjunctivitis, and diabetes, eye infections, jaundice, fever and urinary infections (Sher et al. 2016), for bone fractures, pneumonia, headache, stomachic, arthritis, wound healing, to speed delivery (Wali et al. 2019a, b), and blood purification (Muhammad et al. 2019). Used for eye problems and piles (Joshi et al. 2010). In Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh used as cooling agent, to reduce stomach acidity, as coagulant, for constipation, diarrhea, intestinal problems, jaundice, liver ailments, piles, stomach-ache, wounds, antiseptic, for blemishes, throat pain, colds, cough, diabetes, dropsy, eczema, eye ailments, fever, as gastric tonic, for indigestion, irregular bowel moments, as laxative, for toothache, urinary problems wounds, as astringent, for boils, chest problems, and spleen trouble (Gairola et al. 2014). Berberis brandisiana: In Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh used for as tonic and for eye problems (Gairola et al. 2014). Berberis pachyacantha: In Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh to treat fever (Gairola et al. 2014). Berberis pseudumbellata: In Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh used for throat-ache and intestinal disorders (Gairola et al. 2014). Bereris ulicina: In Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh to remedy ringworm, as tonic, for throat problems, diarrhea, intestinal ulcers, lung diseases, eye problems, piles, as tonic, for bloody vomit, and lung diseases (Gairola et al. 2014). Berberis jamesoniana/Berberis vulgaris: In Tajikistan a root infusion is used to treat cardiovascular diseases, gastric diseases, neurasthenia, rheumatism, fevers, and a poultice is used for inflammatory processes of fractures and bruises. In northern

346

H. Sher et al.

Tajikistan, the roots are used to treat wounds, bone fractures, rheumatism, radiculitis, heart pain, and stomach aches. In Kazakhstan, the extract of young branches is used for headache. The fruit infusion acts as anticoagulant. In Uzbekistan, the leaves are used as cardiotonic and antipyretic. All over the region, the fruits are used as antipyretic, to relieve thirst. A decoction of the leaves is used to treat kidney stones, tuberculosis, chest pains, and headaches. An infusion of the fruits is used to treat constipation and wounds (Bussmann et al. 2020). Also used to treat high blood pressure and skin problems (Sher et al. 2016; Ur-Rahman et al. 2019). Berberis vulgaris: to treat jaundice, bone fractures, as anthelminthic and laxative (Ghorbani 2005). In Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh used intestinal ulcers, lung disease, diarrhea, and vomiting blood (Gairola et al. 2014). In Matalaya, as anthelminthic and as liver protectant (Tetik et al. 2013), in Pakistan for gastrointestinal problems and sore-throat (Kayani et al. 2015). Berberis orthobotrys: Used as sedative, bronchitis, for fever, and as analgesic (Majid et al. 2019). Berberis parkeriana: For bone fractures, jaundice, back-ache, as tonic, and high blood pressure (Majid et al. 2019). Berberis pseudumbellata: Used to remedy indigestion, typhoid, muscular pain, jaundice, and urinary problems (Kayani et al. 2015). Berberis rigidifolia: The roots are used to treat fevers, as a purgative, as a tonic, against excessive sweating, and especially the root is used to stop bleeding (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). Other species like Berberis glauca and Berberis goudotii are used for constipation, fevers, hemorrhages, as sudorific, to treat malaria, and as skin tonic. The fruit is used in refrigerating syrups (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). Berberis buceronis is used in for liver problems and hepatitis, respiratory and nervous system disorders, and gynecological problems. The plants show antibacterial properties and essentially no toxicity. Most material is used in mixtures with other species. Packages labeled as “Berberis vulgaris” are distributed to patients in the Peruvian social security health system, and Berberis species are widely sold in markets (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). Berberis holstii: Root decoction as remedy for constipation, as laxative, and for chest diseases (Kokwaro 2009).

Local Food Uses Berberis aristata and Berberis asiatica: Fruits are eaten (Dangol et al. 2017). Ripe fruits are eaten fresh and used to make alcoholic drinks. The inner bark of stem and roots are used to make yellow dye. The spiny branches are sometimes used to make fences around fields in villages (Manandhar 2002). Berberis rigidifolia: fruits can be eaten (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020).

Berberis aristata DC. . . .

347

Fig. 7 Berberis vulgaris (Berberidaceae), fresh fruits in market, Gori, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Berberis jamesiana/Berberis vulgaris: The fruits are eaten fresh, and dried for use in sauces, for making jams and sweets, as well as spice (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2020; Bussmann 2017) (Fig. 7). Berberis holstii: The fruits are eaten fresh, and dried for use in sauces, for making jams and sweets, as well as spice (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Fedorov 1984). The fruits of Berberis brandisiana are elso eaten (Abbas et al. 2019).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Berberis rigidifolia Ecuador: The root is used as a dye because it contains yellow berberine. The plant is used as a living fence (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). Berberis jamesiana/Berberis vulgaris: The bark yields yellow, golden, dark violet, dark blue, and olive dyes for wool and silk (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2020; Bussmann 2017). Berberis lycium is also used for forage, and widely sold (Ahmad Jan et al. 2017; Ullah et al. 2019; Wali et al. 2019a, b), and is given to livestock for internal wounds (Ali et al. 2019). Berberis holstii has no use among the Samburu (Bussmann 2006). The bark of many species, however, yields yellow, golden, dark violet, dark blue, and olive dyes for wool and silk (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Fedorov 1984). Berberis balochistanica (Umair et al. 2019). The leaf and bark powder of the spiny branches of Berberis brandisiana are used as fence around gardens, house, and hut material. Whole plant is also used as fuel wood (Abbas et al. 2019) (Fig. 8).

348

H. Sher et al.

Fig. 8 Berberis lycium (Berberidaceae) root bark for sale in shop, Bahrain, Swat. (Photo Ikram Ur-Rahman & Hassan Sher)

References Abbas Z, Alam J, Muhammad S, Bussmann RW, Mulk Khan S, Hussain M. Phyto-cultural diversity of the Shigar valley Central Karakorum Baltistan, northern Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;1832 https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.31.1-18. Adhikari B, Pendry CA, Pennington RT, Milne RI. A revision of Berberis s.s. (Berberidaceae) in Nepal. Edinb J Bot. 2012;69(3):447–522. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0960428612000261. Ahmad KS, Habib S. Indigenous knowledge of some medicinal plants of Himalaya region, Dawarian village, Neelum valley, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. Univ J Plant Sci. 2014;2(2):40–7. Ahmad Jan H, Wali S, Ahmad L, Jana S, Ahmad N, Ullah N. Ethnomedicinal survey of medicinal plants of Chinglai valley, Buner district, Pakistan. Eur J Integrative Med. 2017;13:64–74. Ahmad M, Sultana S, Fazl-i-Hadi S, Ben Hadda T, Rashid S, Zafar M, Yaseen G. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in high mountainous region of Chail valley (district swat-Pakistan). J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2014;10(1):36. Ahmad KS, Hamid A, Nawaz F, Hameed M, Ahmad F, Deng J, Mahroof S. Ethnopharmacological studies of indigenous plants in Kel village, Neelum Valley, Azad Kashmir, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13(1):68. Ahmed E, Arshad M, Saboor A, Qureshi R, Mustafa G, Sadiq S, Chaudhari SK. Ethnobotanical appraisal and medicinal use of plants in Patriata, new Murree, evidence from Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1):13. Akhtar N, Rashid A, Murad W, Bergmeier E. Diversity and use of ethno-medicinal plants in the region of swat, North Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1):25. Ali SI, Qaiser M. 1995–2020. Flora of Pakistan, Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan and Missouri botanical garden, St. Louis. Ali A, Aldosari A, Tng DYP, Ullah M, Hussain W, Ahmad M, Hussain J, Khan A, Hussain H, Sher H, Bussmann RW, Shao J-W. Traditional uses of plants by indigenous communities for veterinary practices at Kurram District, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;1824 https://doi.org/ 10.32859/era.18.24.1-19. Amjad MS, Arshad M. Ethnobotanical inventory and medicinal uses of some important woody plant species of Kotli, Azad Kashmir, Pakistan. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. 2014;4(12):952–8.

Berberis aristata DC. . . .

349

Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Berberis vulgaris L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Bhardwaj D, Kaushik N. Phytochemical and pharmacological studies in genus Berberis. Phytochem Rev. 2013;11:523–42. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11101-013-9272-x. Bhattacharjee S, Tiwari KC, Majumdar R, Misra AK. Folklore medicine from district Kamrup (Assam). Bull Med Ethno Bot Res. 1980;1:447–60. Bussmann RW. Ethnobotany of the Samburu of Mt. Nyiru, South Turkana, Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:35. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus, vol. XXVII. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1 Bussmann, R.W., Sharon, D. (2006). Traditional plant use in Northern Peru: Tracking two thousand years of healing culture. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2:47. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Know. 2017;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z. Berberis jamesiana Forrest & W.W. Sm. Berberis vulgaris L. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions Central Asia and Altai. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020. Chander V, Aswal JS, Dobhal R, Uniyal DP. A review on pharmacological potential of Berberine; an active component of Himalayan Berberis aristata. J Phytopharmacol. 2017;6(1):53–8. Chapagain NH, Tamang R, Thakur C. Ethnobotany of Tamang community of Nepal. Makwanpur: Department of Plant Resources, District Plant Resources Office; 2018. Dangol DR, Maharjan KL, Maharjan SK, Acharya AK. Wild edible plants in Nepal. In: Joshi BK, Bahadur KCH, Acharya A, editors. Conservation and utilization of agricultural plant genetic resources of Nepal. Dhulikhel: NAGRC; 2017. p. 390–407. Fedorov AA, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, vol. 1. Leningrad: Families Magnoliaceae – Limoniaceae. Akademia Nauk; 1984. 460 p. (in Russian) Furrianca M, Alvear MA, Zambrano T, Barrientos L, Fajardo V, Salazar L. Medicinal value of the Berberis genus as hypoglycemic agent. Bol Latinoam Caribe Plant Med. Aromat. 2015;14(5):423–41. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Ghorbani A. Studies on pharmaceutical ethnobotany in the region of Turkmen Sahra, north of Iran (part 1): general results. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102:58–68. Gilani SA, Qureshi RA, Gilani SJ. Indigenous uses of some important ethnomedicinal herbs of Ayubia National Park, Abbottabad, Pakistan. Ethnobotanical Leaflets. 2006;2006(1):32.

350

H. Sher et al.

Harber J. The Berberis of China and Vietnam: a revision. In: Monographs in systematic botany from Missouri Botanical Garden, vol. 136. St. Louis: Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 2020. Houghton PJ, Osibogun IM. Flowering plants used against snakebite. J Ethnopharmacol. 1993;39:1–29. Hussain K, Shahazad A, Zia-ul-Hussnain S. An ethnobotanical survey of important wild medicinal plants of Hattar district Haripur, Pakistan. Ethnobot Leaflets. 2008;2008(1):5. Jan HA, Wali S, Ahmad L, Jan S, Ahmad N, Ullah N. Ethnomedicinal survey of medicinal plants of Chinglai valley, Buner district, Pakistan. Eur J Integrative Med. 2017;13:64–74. Joshi M, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal uses of plant resources of the Haigad watershed in Kumaun Himalaya. Med Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol. 4 special issue. 2010;1:43–6. Kayani S, Ahmad M, Sultana S, Khan Shinwari ZM, Yaseen G, Hussain M, Bibi T. Ethnobotany of medicinal plants among the communities of Alpine and Sub-alpine regions of Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;164:186–202. Kokwaro JO. Medicinal plants of East Africa. Nairobi: University of Nairobi Press; 2009. Kreuzer M, Howard C, Adhikari B, Pendry CA, Hawkins JA. Phylogenomic approaches to DNA barcoding of herbal medicines: developing clade-specific diagnostic characters for Berberis. Front Plant Sci. 2019;10:586. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2019.00586. Kumar M, Bussmann RW, Mukesh J, Kumar P. Ethnomedicinal uses of plants close to rural habitation in Garhwal Himalayan, India. J Med Plant Res. 2011;511:2252–60. Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants and quantitative ethno medicine: a case study from Baitadi and Darchula districts, far-West Nepal. J Nat Hist Mus. 2009a;24(1):73–82. https://doi. org/10.3126/jnhm.v24i1.2244. Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Medicinal, Aromatic and Dye plants of Baitadi and Darchula Districts, Nepal Himalaya: status, uses and management. In: Hartmann M, Weipert J, editors. Biodiversität, Naturausstattung im Himalaya, Bd. III. Naturkundemuseum Erfurt; 2009b. p. 475–89. Kunwar RM, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Diversity, utilization and management of medicinal plants in Baitadi and Darchula districts, farwest Nepal. Initiation. 2008;21:157–64. Kunwar RM, Upreti Y, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Indigenous use and ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in far-West Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009;7:5–28. Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Acharya RP, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants, traditional medicine, markets and management in far-West Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:24. Majid A, Ahmad H, Saqib Z, Ur Rahman I, Khan U, Alam J, Hussain Shah A, Ahmad Jan S, Ali N. Exploring threatened traditional knowledge; ethnomedicinal studies of rare endemic flora from lesser Himalayan region of Pakistan. Rev Bras. 2019;29(6) Malik ZA, Bhat J, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhat AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44. Manandhar NE. Plants and people of Nepal. Oregon: Timber Press Portland; 2002. Muhammad S, Hussain M, Abbas Z, Saquib Z, Bussmann RW, Shah GM. An ethnomedicinal appraisal of Kurram agency tribal area Pakistan. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2019;184:631–47. Palit D, Banerjee A. Traditional uses and conservative lifestyle of Lepcha tribe through sustainable bioresource utilization - cas studies from Darjeeling and Norgh Sikkim, India. Int J Cons Sci. 2016;7(3):735–52. Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, Romero C. Berberis rigidifolia Kunth ex DC. In: Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions – ethnobotany of the Andes. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-31977093-2_37-1. Patni S, Sah A, Meena H, Pandey H, Manchanda A. Physico-chemical, phyto-chemical and elemental analysis of stem bark and roots of Berberis asiatica. Adv Appl Sci Res. 2012;3:3624–8. Rajbhandari KR. Ethnobotany of Nepal. Kathmandu: Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON); 2001. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni groups in Chitral District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059.

Berberis aristata DC. . . .

351

Singh AP, Kumar M, Nagar B, Pala NA, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal use of plant resources in Kirtinagar block of Tehri Garhwal in Western Himalaya. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;1814 https:// doi.org/10.32859/era.18.14.1-11. Srivastava S, Rawat AKS. Quality evaluation of ayurvedic crude drug daruharidra, its allied species, and commercial samples from herbal drug markets of India. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2013;2013:472973. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/472973. Tamang M, Pal K, Kumar Rai S, Kalam A, Rehan Ahmad S. Ethnobotanical survey of threatened medicinal plants of West Sikkim. Int J Bot Stud. 2017;2(6):V 116–25. Tetik F, Civelek S, Cakilcioglu U. Traditional uses of some medicinal plants in Malatya (Turkey). J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;146:331–46. Ullah M, Mehmood S, Ali M, Bussmann RW, Aldosari A, Ali Khan R, Ullah R, Hussain W, Rahman Shah MA. An ethnopharmacological study of plants used for treatment of diabetes in the southern and tribal regions of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18(8) https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.8.1-20. Umair M, Altaf M, Bussmann RW, Abbasi AM. Ethnomedicinal uses of the local flora in Chenab riverine area, Punjab province Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2019;15:7. https://doi.org/10. 1186/s13002-019-0285-4. Ur-Rahman I, Afsal A, Iqbal Z, Ijas F, Ali N, Asif M, Alam J, Majid A, Bussmann RW. Traditional and ethnomedicinal dermatology practices in Pakistan. Clin Dermatol. 2018;363:310–9. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.clindermatol.2018.03.018. Ur-Rahman, I., Sher, H., Bussmann, R.W. (Ed.) (2019). Reference guide on high value medicinal and aromatic plants – sustainable management and cultivation practices. University of Swat, Mingora. ISBN 978-969-23419-0-5. Wali R, Rahman K, Raja NI, Qureshi R, Bussmann RW, Mashwani ZUR. A quantitative medico botanical expedition of Fairy Meadows National Park, Diamir, Gilgit Baltistan, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019a, 1835; https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.35.1-30. Wali S, Ahmad Jan H, Bussmann RW. Quantitative ethnomedicinal study of indigenous medicinal plants used for digestive disorders of Laspur Valley, Chitral, northern Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019b;1832 https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.32.1-18. Watanabe T, Rajbhandari KR, Malla KJ, Yahara S. A handbook of medicinal plants of Nepal. Bangkok: Kubfai Publishing Project, Foundation of Democracy and Development Studies; 2005. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Issouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013.

Bergenia ciliata Sternb. SAXIFRAGACEAE Hammad Ahmad Jan, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Wahid Hussain, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Bergenia ciliata Sternb.: Bergenia ciliata (Royle) A. Br. ex Engl.; Bergenia ligulata var. ciliata (Royle) Engl.; Bergenia thysanodes (Lindl.) C.K. Schneid.; Megasea ciliata Haw.; Saxifraga ciliata Royle; Saxifraga ligulata Wall.; Saxifraga pacumbis Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don. nom. inval.; Saxifraga thysanodes Lindl. H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan W. Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_36

353

354

H. A. Jan et al.

Local Names Bergenia ciliata: Baltistan: Schapur; Pashto: Ghat panra, Zakham Parna / ‫;ﺯﺧﻢ ﭘﺎﻧﺎ‬ Amchi: Gadhur; Arabian: Barghienia-mehdiyata, Junteyenah; Assamese: Patharkuchi; Bengali: Himasagara, Pahtarchuri, Patharkuchi, Patrankur; Chitrali: Besabur; Dolpali Nepali: Salipat, Silpari, Simtadi; English: Hairy bergenia, Rockfoil, Stone breaker; Garo: Singkhantha; German: Steinbrech; Gujrati: Pakhanbheda, Pashanbheda; Gurung: Padambet, Pakhanbed, Pakombet; Hindi: Dakachu, Dhoklumbo, Laoo-patra, Pakhanbhed, Pakhanbheda, Pakhenbhed, Pandamdawi, Patharchat, Patharcua, Sadpottar, Silparo, Silpbheda, Silphara, Silpheda; Gharwal: Pashandbhet, Syalmadi, Kaamal; Japanese: Yukinoshita; Kannada: Alepgaya, Hittaga, Hittulaka, Pahanbhedi, Pasanaberu; Kashmiri: Batweyaa, Pashanbhed; Kham: Gatik mukpo; Khasi: La Khowang; Kumaoni: Pakhanbhed, Patharchur; Magar: Haangpaat; Malayalam: Kallorvanchi, Kallurvanchi, Kallurvanni; Marathi: Pashanbheda; Meeteilon: Tatenpiu; Mizoram: Khamdamdawi, Pandamdawi; Nepalese: Dhungri ko jara, Pakanbadha, Pakhanbed, Silparo, Silpu, Simpate, Pakhanbed; Oriya: Pasanbhedi, Pashanabheda; Pahari: Butpawh; Pashto: Barmia, Batpia, Budpiah, But pewa, Gatpanra, Ghata pana, Kamargul, Maknar path, Qamar Panra, Shapur; Persian: Gashah; Punjabi: Batpia, Dharposh, Kachalu, Pashanbhed; Rai: Dhaebotam, Sediwakthosida; Sanskrit: Amabhedaka, Ashmabheda, Nagbhita, Pashanbheda, Silabheda; Sherpa: Chyucha, Chyurpu, Hyoma, Kopsokpa, Silviro; Sinahalese: Pahanabeya; Tamang: Bhramhendo, Bregyal, Pakhenved; Jammu: Kanpar, Sapdotri, Zakhme-e-hayat, Batpaia: Kashmir: Zakhmihayat, Palpati, Pahend, Korasdun; Ladakh: Palpout; Tamil: Sirupilai; Telugu: Kondapindi, Telanurupindi; Tibetan: A-ama-bhe-da, Gadhur, Ghatik mukpo; Unani: Mukha; Urdu: Kachalu, Pakhanabheda, Zakhkme-hayat; Walung: Kopsyokpa (Ahmad et al. 2018; Chauhan et al. 2012; Dutta 2007; Ghimire et al. 2008; Gurav and Gurav 2014; Khan and Kumar 2016; Lama et al. 2001; Manandhar 2002; Singh et al. 2018)

Botany and Ecology Bergenia ciliata: Herb, up to 35 cm tall. Leaves few, spreading, 4–11  3–10 cm, glabrous or hirsute, suborbicular to orbicular or broadly obovate, base cordate or sometimes rounded, apex rounded or sometimes abruptly acuminate; margin entire to occasionally denticulate at top, ciliate. Petiole 1–2( 5)cm long, glabrous or hirsute. Inflorescence a one-sided raceme or corymbose, often subtended by an ovate leafy bract; bract glabrous or sparsely ciliate; scape and inflorescence greenish or pink tinged. Peduncle up to 10 cm long; flowers pink to purplish, pedicellate. Sepals about 7 mm long, oblong. Petals 10  4 mm, unguiculate, limb orbicular. Filaments about 1 cm long, pink to red. Carpels 2. Styles about 7 mm long. Carpels and styles green or pinkish. Capsule 13  6 mm, including styles. Seeds elongated, about 1 mm

Bergenia ciliata Sternb.

355

long, brown, minutely tuberculate. Moist rocky ledges, shady places, 1000–3500 m in Pakistan. Distributed in Nepal, NE India, China, Kashmir, and northern parts of Pakistan. Locally found in the high altitude of Swat Dir, Chitral, Gilgt, and Hazara Division. Harvesting time: September to March (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020). The species is highly collected (Kunwar et al. 2016, 2018, 2019) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3). Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb. forma ciliata: Leaves sometimes pubescent above, but always below. The species is found in Quercus forest. Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb. forma ligulata: Leaves glabrous on both surfaces. The species is found in Quercus and Pinus forests (Akiyama et al. 2012).

Fig. 1 Bergenia ciliata (Saxifragaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 2 Bergenia ciliata (Saxifragaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

356

H. A. Jan et al.

Fig. 3 Bergenia ciliata (Saxifragaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Phytochemistry A total of 95 phytochemical compounds have been reported from this plant especially flavonoids, bergenin, tannins, phenolics, alkaloids, gallic acid, and glycosides (Adhikary et al. 2011; Aggarwal et al. 2014; Agnihotri et al. 2014; Ahmed et al. 2016; Ali et al. 2018; Bagul et al. 2003; Bhandari et al. 2019; Byahatti et al. 2010; Chauhan et al. 2012, 2000; Dhalwal et al. 2008; Dutta 2007; Jani et al. 2013; Muzaffar et al. 2020; Patel and Savadi 2014; Pokhrel et al. 2014; Rafi et al. 2017; Rathee et al. 2010; Sadat et al. 2015; Shankar et al. 2016; Shrestha et al. 2015; Shrestha and Pant 2011; Singh et al. 2007, 2016; Srivastava et al. 2015a, b, 2013; Srivastava and Rawat 2007; Ullah et al. 2013; Verma et al. 2014, 2019; Wagle et al. 2016; Walter et al. 2013; Yousaf et al. 2018; Zafar et al. 2019). Other frequently reported compounds are phenols, saponins, carbohydrate, steroids, reducing sugar, terpenoid, (+)-catechin, aminoacids, coumarins, gallicin, protein, β-Sitosterol, cardiac glycosides, catechin, diterpenes, and fatty acids (Adhikary et al. 2011; Bhandari et al. 2019; Byahatti et al. 2010; Dhalwal et al. 2008; Jani et al. 2013; Muzaffar et al. 2020; Patel and Savadi 2014; Pokhrel et al. 2014; Rafi et al. 2017; Rathee et al. 2010; Shankar et al. 2016; Shrestha et al. 2015; Singh et al. 2016; Srivastava et al. 2015b; Ullah et al. 2013; Venkatadri et al. 2010; Verma et al. 2014, 2019; Walter et al. 2013; Yousaf et al. 2018). Also ( )-3-Ogalloylcatechin, ( )-3-O-galloylcatechin, ( )-3-O-galloylepicatechin, [E,Z]-2,4decadienal, [E]-4-hepten-2-one, 11-O-galloylbergenin, 2,4-dimethyl-3-pentanone, 2,4-hexadienal, 2,4-nonadienal, 2-ethyl hexanol, 2-methyl butanoic acid, 2-methyl-1-propanol, 2-nitropropane, 2-pentanol, 2-pentanone, 2-phenylisopropanol, 3-methyl butanol, 3-methyl-4-hexen-2-one, 3-pentanol, 5,6-dihydro-2pyranone, 5-[2-propenyl]-1,3-benzodioxole, acetic acid, afzelechin, albumin, anthocyanins, ash, camphor, decanoic acid, emodins, epicatechin, ethanol, ethyl acetate,

Bergenia ciliata Sternb.

357

glucose, glycosaponins, heptanal, heptanoic acid, heptanol, hexanal, hexanenitril, hexanoic acid, hexanol, isobutyrophenone, leucoanthocyanins, leucocyanidin, limonene, linalool, methyl cinnamate, methyl gallate, methyl nonanoate, minerals, morin, mucilage, nonanoic acid, octanoic acid, octanol, pentanoic acid, pentanol, p-hydroxybenzoyl bergenin, polyphenolics, polysaccharides, pyrogallol, quinone, rutin, starch, sterols, tannic acid, trapezoid, vitamins, α-phenylethyl alcohol, α-terpineol, β-caryophyllene, β-phellandrene, and δ-hexalactone (Ali et al. 2018; Bagul et al. 2003; Bhandari et al. 2008; Dutta 2007; Gyawali and Kim 2012; Muzaffar et al. 2020; Sadat et al. 2015; Shankar et al. 2016; Srivastava et al. 2015b; Wagle et al. 2016; Zafar et al. 2019).

Local Medicinal Uses Bergenia ciliata: The species is used as tonic and remedy for fever, diarrhea, and pulmonary infections. The rhizome is crushed and used in all kinds of ulcers mainly stomach and duodenal and also in internal infections. It is also anticancerous (Gilani et al. 2006). Rhizome mixed in milk and sugar is used in colon cancer and muscular pains daily before breakfast. Powdered rhizome is applied over wounds. Powdered rhizomes mixed with honey are given to the children when teething. A powdered rhizome is mixed with wheat flour and sugar is added and cooked in “desi ghee.” This “halwa” is eaten as tonic (Shah and Khan 2006a, b). Leaf juice is used for diarrhea and asthma/breathing problems, and seed paste is used for urinary problems, ophthalmia, and boils (Bano et al. 2014). The root powder is given along with desi ghee in diabetes and skin diseases. The same is used for reducing blood cholesterol (Ahmed et al. 2013). Latex is applied externally for gum diseases, and decoction of rhizome is used in kidney stones (Khan et al. 2013a, b). The root paste is applied on skin as sunscreen and to treat skin diseases (Shah and Hussain 2012). Leaves are used for discharge of pus in animals and relief for muscular pain (Hamayun et al. 2006). Rhizome is used as general body tonic, stomachache, and duodenal ulcers (Haq et al. 2011). Plant rhizome and bark is used for fever, diarrhea, cough, cold, asthma, wounds, dysentery, urinary troubles, and earaches (Kayani et al. 2015a, b). Rhizome is used as antidiabetic and expectorant (Ali et al. 2011) and also used to treat abdominal problems, cuts and wounds, leucorrhea, stomach ailments, and stones (Singh et al. 2017), as well as diarrhea (Palit et al. 2016; Rajbhandari et al. 2007), fever, digestive problems, and skin diseases (Malik et al. 2015), urinary problems, cough, cold, asthma, wounds, and earache (Kayani et al. 2015a, b). Bergenia ciliata is very popular for its wide ethnomedicinal uses most commonly in rural areas of Nepal, India, and Pakistan. Leaves and rhizomes of this plant are widely used for the treatment of fever, diarrhea, kidney stone, wounds, dysentery, and urinary trouble (Abbasi et al. 2010; Adhikary et al. 2011; Adnan et al. 2014; Bhattarai 2018; Bhattarai et al. 2006; Chowdhary et al. 2009; Dutta 2007; Hasan et al. 2013; Idrisi et al. 2010; Joshi and Joshi 2001; Juyal and Ghildiyal 2013; Kala 2005; Khan et al. 2014, 2013a, b; Kumari et al. 2012; Kunwar and Adhikari 2005; Lama et al. 2001; Manandhar 2002; Mehra et al. 2014; Nand and Naithani 2018;

358

H. A. Jan et al.

O’Neil et al. 2017; Pant et al. 2009; Pant and Samant 2010; Pradhan and Badola 2008; Qureshi et al. 2009; Radha 2019; Rai et al. 2000; Rai and Lalramnghinglova 2010; Rajbhandari et al. 2001; Saha et al. 2011; Samal et al. 2010; Shah and Khan 2006a, b; Shaheen et al. 2012; Sharma et al. 2001; Sharma and Sood 2013; Shrestha et al. 2016; Shrestha and Dhillion 2003; Sigdel et al. 2013; Singh and Rawat 2011; Singh et al. 2012; Uniyal et al. 2006; Watanabe et al. 2005). It is also used as anticancerous, antiscorbutic, aphrodisiac, carminative, diuretic, hair tonic, laxative, tonic, and also used to treat arthritis, asthma, astringent, backache, bladder stone, body ache, boils, burns, cold, cough, cuts, diabetes, digestive disorder, earache, eye pain, fracture, gall stone, indigestion, inflammation, intestine disease, liver disorder, muscular pain, ophthalmia, oral inflammation, parasites, piles, pulmonary infection, renal infections, rheumatism, roundworm infestation, septic pimples developed on the head of new born baby, stomachache, swollen joints, tonsils, toothache, ulcers, and vomiting (Adhikary et al. 2011; Adnan et al. 2014; Begum et al. 2014; Bhandari et al. 2008; Bhattarai 2018; Bhattarai et al. 2006; Chowdhary et al. 2009; Dutta 2007; Gairola et al. 2014; Gilani et al. 2014; Hasan et al. 2013; Idrisi et al. 2010; Jacquet et al. 2014; Joshi and Joshi 2001; Kala 2005; Khan et al. 2014; Kumari et al. 2012; Kunwar et al. 2013a, b; Lama et al. 2001; Manandhar 2002; Mehra et al. 2014; O’Neil et al. 2017; Pal et al. 2015; Pant and Samant 2010; Pradhan and Badola 2008; Qureshi et al. 2009; Radha 2019; Rai et al. 2000; Rai and Lalramnghinglova 2010; Rajbhandari et al. 2009, 2001; Shah and Khan 2006a, b; Shaheen et al. 2012; Sharma et al. 2001; Sharma and Sood 2013; Shrestha et al. 2016; Shrestha and Dhillion 2003; Sigdel et al. 2013; Singh and Rawat 2011; Singh et al. 2012; Watanabe et al. 2005). Used for eye problems (Abbas et al. 2019). Also used for treatment of gastritis and gallstones (Kunwar & Bussmann 2009, Kunwar et al. 2008, 2009, 2013a, b, 2015). Some less frequently reported uses are for ache, after childbirth, allergy, analgesic, antispasmodic, appendicitis, bleeding, bile disorder, blindness, blood health, bronchitis, calculus disease, cardiac problems, chronic ulcers, colic, colitis, colon cancer, constipation, cutaneous infections, delivery, demulcent, dysuria, ethno-veterinary medicine, gastrointestinal problems, gum disease, headache, heart disease, hemorrhage, infection, lactation, liver complaints, lung disease, lymphatic system, maternity problem, menstruation, mouth sores, pain, painful urination, pneumonia, postpartum complication, pregnancy, respiratory problems, sexually transmitted infection, skin diseases, spleen enlargement, sprain, stimulant, stomach disease, stone, teething, throat infection, tiredness, tumors, vertigo, and vital tonic (Adnan et al. 2014; Bhattarai 2018; Bhattarai et al. 2006; Chowdhary et al. 2009; Dutta 2007; Jacquet et al. 2014; Joshi and Joshi 2001; Khan et al. 2013a, b, 2014; Kumari et al. 2012; Kunwar and Adhikari 2005; Lama et al. 2001; Manandhar 2002; Nand and Naithani 2018; O’Neil et al. 2017; Pant and Samant 2010; Parajuli 2013; Rai et al. 2000; Rai and Bhujel 2012; Shah and Khan 2006a, b; Shrestha et al. 2016; Shrestha and Dhillion 2003; Watanabe et al. 2005).

Bergenia ciliata Sternb.

359

Local Food Uses Bergenia ciliata: The species is used for culinary purposes, and used as vegetable in India and Pakistan (Adnan et al. 2014; O’Neil et al. 2017; Pant and Samant 2010; Sharma and Sood 2013). Pickle of this plant is prepared in the kitchens of India and Nepal (Manandhar 2002; Sharma and Sood 2013). Tea prepared from dry leaves is drunk in India (Ballabha et al. 2013).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Bergenia ciliata: The species is used as fodder as well as fuel plant (Adnan et al. 2014; Begum et al. 2014) in Pakistan. Bergenia ciliata is one of the commercial medicinal plant products harvested in Nepal (Bhattarai and Ghimire 2006a; Olsen 2005). In a study carried out in western Nepal, it was observed that 70.1 tons of this plant was traded from Baitadi district at the rate of NRs. 25.6 per kg in fiscal year 2014 (Pyakurel et al. 2017). For sustainable harvesting of Bergenia ciliata, the rhizomes are collected before flowering from the mature individuals during September to March, leaving immature rhizomes in soil Fig. 4 Bergenia cordifolia (Saxifragaceae), garden, La Paz, Bolivia. (Photo Rainer W. Bussmann)

360

H. A. Jan et al.

(Khanal 2003). 10–15 cm long rhizomes should be left inside the soil while harvesting (Shrestha and Shrestha 2004). The harvestable amount is 70–80% of the mother’s stock (Bhattarai and Ghimire 2006b). Many species, including Bergenia ciliata and Bergenia cordifolia are frequentlly used in horticulture (Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8).

Fig. 5 Bergenia cordifolia (Saxifragaceae), garden, La Paz, Bolivia. (Photo Rainer W. Bussmann)

Fig. 6 Bergenia ciliata (Saxifragaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

Bergenia ciliata Sternb.

361

Fig. 7 Bergenia cordifolia (Saxifragaceae), garden, La Paz, Bolivia. (Photo Rainer W. Bussmann)

Fig. 8 Bergenia ciliata (Saxifragaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Haider Ali)

References Abbas Z, Alam J, Muhammad S, Bussmann RW, Mulk Khan S, Hussain M. Phyto-cultural diversity of the Shigar valley Central Karakorum Baltistan, Northern Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019:1832. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.31.1-18. Abbasi AM, Khan MA, Ahmad M, Zafar M, Jahan S, Sultana S. Ethnopharmacological application of medicinal plants to cure skin diseases and in folk cosmetics among the tribal communities of North-West Frontier Province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010;128:322–35. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jep.2010.01.052.

362

H. A. Jan et al.

Adhikary P, Roshan KC, Kayastha D, Thapa D, Shrestha R, Shrestha TM, et al. Phytochemical screening and anti-microbial properties of medicinal plants of Dhunkharka community, Kavrepalanchowk, Nepal. Int J Pharm Biol Arch. 2011;2:1663–7. Adnan M, Tariq A, Begum S, Ullah A, Mussarat S. Medicinal plants after forest disturbance, restoration and cultivation in Pakistani Himalaya. Int J Agric Biol. 2014;16:1006–10. Aggarwal D, Kaushal R, Kaur T, Bijarnia RK, Puri S, Singla SK. The most potent antilithiatic agent ameliorating renal dysfunction and oxidative stress from Bergenia ligulata rhizome. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;158:85–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.10.013. Agnihotri V, Sati P, Jantwal A, Pandey A. Antimicrobial and antioxidant phytochemicals in leaf extracts of Bergenia ligulata: a Himalayan herb of medicinal value. Nat Prod Res. 2014;29:1074–7. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2014.980244. Ahmad M, Butt MA, Zhang G, Sultana S, Tariq A, Zafar M. Bergenia ciliata: a comprehensive review of its traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology and safety. Biomed Pharmacother. 2018;97:708–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopha.2017.10.141. Ahmed E, Arshad M, Saboor A, Qureshi R, Mustafa G, Sadiq S, Chaudhari SK. Ethnobotanical appraisal and medicinal use of plants in Patriata, new Murree, evidence from Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1):13. Ahmed M, Phul AR, Ul-Haq I, Bibi G, Mazhar K, Ur-Rehman T, et al. Antioxidant, anticancer and antibacterial potential of Zakhm-e-hayat rhizomes crude extract and fractions. Pak J Pharm Sci. 2016;29:895–902. Akiyama S, Gornall RJ, Adhikari B, Pendry CA, Watson MF. Flora of Nepal, vol. 3. 1st ed. Edinburgh: Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 20a Inverleith Row; 2012. Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan and Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995–2020. Ali H, Sannai J, Sher H, Rashid A. Ethnobotanical profile of some plant resources in Malam Jabba valley of Swat, Pakistan. J Med Plants Res. 2011;5(18):4676–87. Ali E, Arshad N, Bukhari NI, Tahir MN, Zafar S, Hussain A, et al. Linking traditional anti-ulcer use of rhizomes of Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb. to its anti-Helicobacter pylori constituents. Nat Prod Res. 2018:1–4. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2018.1488711. Bagul MS, Ravishankara MN, Padh H, Rajani M. Phytochemical evaluation and free radical scavenging properties of rhizome of Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb. forma ligulata Yeo. J Nat Remedies. 2003;3:83–9. Ballabha R, Rawat DS, Tiwari JK, Tiwari P, Gairola A. Wild edible plant resources of the Lohba range of Kedarnath Forest Division (KFD), Garhwal. Int Res J Biol Sci. 2013;2:65–73. Bano A, Ahmad M, Hadda TB, Saboor A, Sultana S, Zafar M, Ashraf MA. Quantitative ethnomedicinal study of plants used in the Skardu valley at high altitude of KarakoramHimalayan range, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2014;10(1):43. Begum S, AbdEIslam NM, Adnan M, Tariq A, Yasmin A, Hameed R. Ethnomedicines of highly utilized plants in the temperate Himalayan region. Afr J Tradit Complement Altern Med. 2014;11:132–42. https://doi.org/10.4314/ajtcam.v11i3.20. Bhandari MR, Jong-Anurakkum N, Hong G, Kawabata J. α-Glucosidase and α-amylase inhibitory activities of Nepalese medicinal herb Pakhanbhed (Bergenia ciliata, Haw.). Food Chem. 2008;106:247–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2007.05.077. Bhandari L, Bista BB, Khanal C. Phytochemical, microscopic and standardization of Bergenia ciliata for authentication. J Plant Res. 2019;17:118–24. Bhattarai KR. Ethnobotanical study of plants used by Thami community in Ilam District, Eastern Nepal. Our Nat. 2018;16:55–67. https://doi.org/10.3126/on.v16i1.22123. Bhattarai KR, Ghimire M. Commercially important medicinal and aromatic plants of Nepal and their distribution pattern and conservation measure along the elevation gradient of the Himalayas. Banko Janakari. 2006a;16:3–13. https://doi.org/10.3126/banko.v16i1.357. Bhattarai KR, Ghimire MD. Cultivation and sustainable harvesting of commercially important medicinal and aromatic plants of Nepal. Nepal: Heritage Research and Development Forum; 2006b.

Bergenia ciliata Sternb.

363

Bhattarai S, Chaudhary RP, Taylor RSL. Ethnomedicinal plants used by the people of Manang district, Central Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-2-41. Byahatti VV, Pai KV, D’Souza M. Effect of phenolic compounds from Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb. leaves on experimental kidney stones. Anc Sci Life. 2010;30:14–7. Chauhan SK, Singh B, Agrawal S. Simultaneous determination of bergenin and gallic acid in Bergenia ligulata Wall by high-performance thin-layer chromatography. J AOAC Int. 2000;83:1480–3. https://doi.org/10.1093/jaoac/83.6.1480. Chauhan R, Ruby K, Dwivedi J. Bergenia ciliata mine of medicinal properties: a review. Int J Pharm Sci Rev Res. 2012;15:20–3. Chowdhary S, Kumar H, Verma DL. Biodiversity and traditional knowledge of Bergenia spp. in Kumaun Himalaya. New York Sci J. 2009;2:105–8. Dhalwal K, Shinde VM, Biradar YS, MAhadik KR. Simultaneous quantification of bergenin, catechin, and gallic acid from Bergenia ciliata and Bergenia ligulata by using thin-layer chromatography. J Food Compos Anal. 2008;21:496–500. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2008. 02.008. Dutta IC. Non timber forest products of Nepal (Identification, classification, ethnic uses & cultivation). Kathmandu: Hill Side Press; 2007. Ethnomedicine. 14:40. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-018-0242-7 Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh BY. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Ghimire SK, Sapkota IB, Oli BR, Parajuli RR. Non-timber forest products of Nepal Himalata: database of some important species found in the mountain protected areas and surrounding regions. Kathmandu: WWF Nepal; 2008. Gilani SA, Qureshi RA, Gilani SJ. Indigenous uses of some important ethnomedicinal herbs of Ayubia National Park, Abbottabad, Pakistan. Ethnobot Leaf. 2006;2006(1):32. Gilani SA, Khan AM, Qureshi RA, Sherwani SK, Khan RU, Bokhari TZ. Ethno-medicinal treatment of common gastrointestinal disorders by indigenous people in Pakistan. Adv Biores. 2014;5:42–9. https://doi.org/10.15515/abr.0976-4585.5.42-49. Gurav SS, Gurav NS. A comprehensive review: Bergenia ligulata Wall-a controversial clinical candidate. Int J Pharm Sci Res. 2014;5:1630–42. https://doi.org/10.13040/IJPSR.0975-8232. 5(5).1630-42. Gyawali R, Kim K-S. Bioactive volatile compounds of three medicinal plants from Nepal. Kathmandu Univ J Sci Eng Technol. 2012;8:51–62. https://doi.org/10.3126/kuset.v8i1.6043. Hamayun M, Khan A, Afzal S, Khan MA. Study on traditional knowledge and utility of medicinal herbs of district Buner, NWFP, Pakistan. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2006;5(3):407–12. Haq F, Ahmad H, Alam M. Traditional uses of medicinal plants of Nandiar Khuwarr catchment (district Battagram), Pakistan. J Med Plants Res. 2011;5(1):39–48. Hasan MK, Gatto P, Jha PK. Traditional uses of wild medicinal plants and their management practices in Nepal-A study in Makawanpur district. Int J Med Aromat Plants. 2013;3:102–12. Idrisi MS, Badola HK, Singh R. Indigenous knowledge and medicinal use of plants by local communities in Rangit Valley, South Sikkim, India. NeBIO. 2010;1(2):34–45. Jacquet AR, Subedi R, Ghimire SK, Rochet J-C. Nepalese traditional medicine and symptoms related to Parkinsons disease and other disorders: patterns of the usage of plant resources along the Himalayan altitudinal range. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;153:178–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.jep.2014.02.016. Jani S, Shukla V, Harisha C. Comparative pharmacognostical and phytochemical study on Bergenia ligulata Wall. and Ammania buccifera Linn. AYU (An Int Q J Res Ayurveda). 2013;34:406–10. https://doi.org/10.4103/0974-8520.127724. Joshi KK, Joshi SD. Genetic heritage of medicinal and aromatic plants of Nepal Himalayas. Kathmandu: Buddha Academic Publishers and Distributors; 2001. Juyal P, Ghildiyal JC. Journal of medicinal plants studies medicinal Phyto-diversity of Bhabar tract of Garhwal Himalaya. J Med Plants Stud. 2013;1:43–57.

364

H. A. Jan et al.

Kala CP. Ethnomedicinal botany of the Apatani in the Eastern Himalayan region of India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2005;1:1–8. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-1-11. Kayani S, Ahmad M, Sultana S, Khan Shinwari Z, Zafar M, Yaseen G, Hussain M, Bibi T. Ethnobotany of medicinal plants among the communities of Alpine and Sub-alpine regions of Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015a;164:186–202. Kayani S, Ahmad M, Sultana S, Shinwari ZK, Zafar M, Yaseen G, Bibi T. Ethnobotany of medicinal plants among the communities of Alpine and Sub-alpine regions of Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015b;164:186–202. Khan MY, Kumar V. Phytopharmacological and chemical profile of Bergenia ciliata. Int J Phytopharm. 2016;6:90–8. https://doi.org/10.7439/ijpp. Khan SM, Page S, Ahmad H, Shaheen H, Ullah Z, Ahmad M, et al. Medicinal flora and ethnoecological knowledge in the Naran Valley, Western Himalaya, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013a;9:1–13. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-9-4. Khan SM, Page S, Ahmad H, Shaheen H, Ullah Z, Ahmad M, Harper DM. Medicinal flora and ethnoecological knowledge in the Naran Valley, Western Himalaya, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013b;9(1):4. Khan N, Abbasi AM, Dastagir G, Nazir A, Shah GM, Shah MM, et al. Ethnobotanical and antimicrobial study of some selected medicinal plants used in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK) as a potential source to cure infectious diseases. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2014;14:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6882-14-122. Khanal M. Pasanved: Samkshipta Parichaya. Kalpabrikshya. 2003;14:15–8. Kumari P, Joshi GC, Tewari LM. Biodiversity status, distribution and use pattern of some ethnomedicinal plants. Int J Conserv Sci. 2012;3:309–18. Kunwar RM, Adhikari N. Ethnomedicine of Dolpa district, Nepal: the plants, their vernacular names and uses. Lyonia. 2005;8:43–9. Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Medicinal, aromatic and dye plants of Baitadi and Darchula Districts, Nepal Himalaya: status, uses and management. In: Hartmann M, Weipert J, editors. Biodiversität, Naturausstattung im Himalaya, Bd. III. Erfurt; 2009. p. 475–89. Kunwar RM, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Diversity, utilization and management of medicinal plants in Baitadi and Darchula districts, farwest Nepal. Initiation. 2008;21:157–64. Kunwar RM, Upreti Y, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Indigenous use and ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in far-west Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009;7:5–28. Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Acharya RP, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants, traditional medicine, markets and management in far-west Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013a;9:24. Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Acharya RP, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants, traditional medicine, markets and management in far-west Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013b;9. https://doi.org/10.1186/ 1746-4269-9-24. Kunwar RM, Acharya RP, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plant dynamics in indigenous medicines in farwest Nepal. J Ethnopharnacol. 2015;163:210–9. Kunwar RM, Baral K, Paudel P, Acharya RP, Thapa-Magar KB, Cameron M, Bussmann RW. Landuse and socioeconomic change, medicinal plant selection and biodiversity resilience in far western Nepal. PlosONE. 2016. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0167812. Kunwar RM, Fadiman M, Cameron M, Bussmann RW, Thapa-Magar KB, Rimal B, Sapkota P. Cross-cultural comparison of plant use knowledge in Baitadi and Darchula districts, Nepal Himalaya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14:40. Kunwar RM, Shrestha K, Malla S, Acharya T, Sementelli A, Kutal D. Relation of medicinal plants, their use patterns and availability in the lower Kailash Sacred Landscape, Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019:187. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.6.1-14. Lama YC, Ghimire SK, Aumeeruddy-Thomas Y. Medicinal plants of Dolpo: Amchi’s knowledge and conservation. First. Kathmandu: WWF Nepal Program; 2001. Malik ZA, Bhat J, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhat AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44.

Bergenia ciliata Sternb.

365

Manandhar NP. Plants and people of Nepal. Portland: Timber Press; 2002. Mehra A, Bajpai O, Joshi H. Diversity, utilization and sacred values of ethno-medicinal plants of Kumaun Himalaya. Trop Plant Res. 2014;1:80–6. Muzaffar S, Bhatnagar S, Badakhasann S. Evaluation of antibacterial activity of Bergenai ciliata plant. J Emerg Technol Innov Res. 2020;7:612–22. Nand K, Naithani S. Ethnobotanical uses of wild medicinal plants by the local community in the Asi Ganga sub-basin, Western Himalaya. J Complement Med Res. 2018;9:34–46. O’Neil AR, Badola HK, Dhyani PP, Rana SK. Integrating ethnobiological knowledge into biodiversity conservation in the Eastern Himalayas. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13:1–14. https:// doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0148-9. Olsen CS. Valuation of commercial central Himalayan medicinal plants. Ambio. 2005;34:607–10. https://doi.org/10.1639/0044-7447(2005)034. Pal DK, Kumar A, Dutta B, Sharma S. Ethnobotanical knowledge and usage of wild plants in Theog Forest Division, Himachal Pradesh, North Western Himalay. J Ethnobiol Tradit Med Phot. 2015;124:922–35. Palit D, Banerjee A. Traditional uses and conservative lifestyle of Lepcha tribe through sustainable bioresource utilization – cas studies from Darjeeling and Norgh Sikkim, India. Int J Conserv Sci. 2016;7(3):735–52. Pant S, Samant SS. Ethnobotanical observations in the Mornaula Reserve Forest of Kumoun, West Himalaya, India. Ethnobot Leafl. 2010;14:193–217. Pant S, Samant SS, Arya SC. Diversity and indigenous household remedies of the inhabitants surrounding Mornaula reserve forest in West Himalaya. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2009;8:606–10. Parajuli RR. Study on local uses of medicinal plants in Nayabazar, Pyang and Jamuna VDCs of Ilam District. Nepal J Sci Technol. 2013;14:57–66. Patel AM, Savadi RV. Pharmacognostic and phytochemical evaluation of Bergenia ciliata rhizome. Int J Pharm Rev Res. 2014;4:52–5. Pokhrel P, Banerjee J, Dahal P, Khanal H, Gupta AK, Dey BK. Phytochemical screening and biological evaluation of different parts of plant Bergenia ciliata. J Pharmacogn Phytochem. 2014;3:220–4. Pradhan BK, Badola HK. Ethnomedicinal plant use by Lepcha tribe of Dzongu valley, bordering Khangchendzonga Biosphere Reserve, in North Sikkim, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2008;4. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-4-22. Pyakurel D, Bhattarai Sharma I, Ghimire SK. Trade and conservation of medicinal and aromatic plants in Western Nepal. Bot Orient J Plant Sci. 2017;11:27–37. https://doi.org/10.3126/botor. v11i0.21029. Qureshi RA, Ghufran MA, Gilani SA, Yousaf Z, Abbas G, Batool A. Indigenous medicinal plants used by local women in Southern Himalayan region of Pakistan. Pakistan J Bot. 2009;41:19–25. Radha PS. Survey of ethnomedicinal plants used by migratory shepherds in Shimla District of Himachal Pradesh. Plant Arch. 2019;19:477–82. Rafi S, Kamili AN, Ganai BA, Mir MY, Parray JA. Phytochemical analysis of Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb. J Res Dev. 2017;17:31–4. Rai SK, Bhujel RB. Medicinal plants of Darjeeling Himalayan region.pdf. Himal Res J. 2012;1:181–95. Rai PK, Lalramnghinglova H. Ethnomedicinal plant resources of Mizoram, India: implication of traditional knowledge in health care system. Ethnobot Leafl. 2010;14:274–305. Rai LK, Prasad P, Sharma E. Conservation threats to some important medicinal plants of the Sikkim Himalaya. Biol Conserv. 2000;93:27–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3207(99)00116-0. Rajbhandari M, Wegner U, Jülich M, Schöpke T, Mentel R. Screening of Nepalese medicinal plants for antiviral activity. J Ethnopharmacol. 2001;74:251–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/S03788741(00)00374-3. Rajbhandari M, Mentel R, Jha PK, Chaudhary RP, Bhattarai S, Gewali MB, Karmacharya N, Hipper M, Lindequist U. Antiviral activity of some plants used in Nepalese traditional medicine. eCAM. 2007:1–6. https://doi.org/10.1093/ecam/nem156.

366

H. A. Jan et al.

Rajbhandari M, Mentel R, Jha PK, Chaudhary RP, Bhattarai S, Gewali MB, et al. Antiviral activity of some plants used in Nepalese traditional medicine. ECAM. 2009;6:517–22. https://doi.org/ 10.1093/ecam/nem156. Rathee D, Thanki M, Agarwal R, Anandjiwala S. Simultaneous Quantification of Bergenin, (+)Catechin, Gallicin and Gallic acid; and Quantification of β-Sitosterol using HPTLC from Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb. Forma ligulata Yeo (Pasanbheda). Pharm Anal Acta. 2010:01. https://doi.org/10.4172/2153-2435.1000104. Sadat A, Uddin G, Alam M, Ahmad A, Siddiqui BS. Structure activity relationship of bergenin, p-hydroxybenzoyl bergenin, 11-O- galloylbergenin as potent antioxidant and urease inhibitor isolated from Bergenia ligulata. Nat Prod Res. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2015. 1004173. Saha J, Sarkar PK, Chattopadhyay S. A survey of ethnomedicinal plants of Darjeeling hills for their antimicrobial and antioxidant activities. Indian J Nat Prod Resour. 2011;2:479–92. Samal PK, Dhyani PP, Dollo M. Indigenous medicinal practices of Bhotia tribal Community in Indian Central Indigenous medicinal practices of Bhotia tribal community in Indian Central Himalaya. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2010;9:140–4. Shah SM, Hussain F. Ethnomedicinal plant wealth of Mastuj valley, Hindukush range, District Chitral, Pakistan. J Med Plant Res. 2012;6:4328–37. Shah GM, Khan MA. Common medicinal folk recipes of Siran Valley, Mansehra, Pakistan. Ethnobot Leafl. 2006a;10:49–62. Shah GM, Khan MA. Checklist of medicinal plants of Siran Valley, Mansehra, Pakistan. Ethnobot Leaflets. 2006b;2006(1):6. Shaheen H, Shinwari ZK, Qureshi RA, Ullah Z. Indigenous plant resources and their utilization practices in village populations of Kashmir Himalayas. Pakistan J Bot. 2012;44:739–45. Shankar KG, Fleming AT, Vidhya R, Pradhan N. Synergistic efficacy of three plant extracts, Bergenia ciliata, Acorus Calamus and Dioscorea bulbifera for antimicrobial activity. Intenational J Pharma Bio Sci. 2016;7:619–28. Sharma M, Sood SK. Ethnobotanical survey for wild plants of district Solan, Himachal Pradesh, India. Int J Environ Biol. 2013;3:87–95. Sharma HK, Chhangte L, Dolui AK. Traditional medicinal plants in Mizoram, India. Fitoterapia. 2001;72:146–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0367-326X(00)00278-1. Shrestha PM, Dhillion SS. Medicinal plant diversity and use in the highlands of Dolakha district, Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2003;86:81–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-8741(03)00051-5. Shrestha UK, Pant B. Production of bergenin, an active chemical constituent in the callus of Production of bergenin, an active chemical constituent in the callus of Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb. Bot Orient J Plant Sci. 2011;8:40–4. https://doi.org/10.3126/botor.v8i0.5557. Shrestha UB, Shrestha S. Major non-timber forest products of Nepal. Kathmandu: Bhundipuran Prakashan; 2004. Shrestha P, Adhikari S, Lamichhane B, Shrestha BG. Phytochemical screening of selected medicinal plants of the family Lythraceae. IOSR J Environ Sci Toxicol Food Technol. 2015;1:11–7. Shrestha N, Shrestha S, Koju L, Shrestha KK, Wang Z. Medicinal plant diversity and traditional healing practices in Eastern Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;192:292–301. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.jep.2016.07.067. Sigdel SR, Rokaya MB, Timsina B. Plant inventory and ethnobotanical study of Khimti hydropower project, Central Nepal. Sci World. 2013;11:105–12. https://doi.org/10.3126/sw.v11i11. 8563. Singh G, Rawat GS. Ethnobotanical survey of Kedarnath wildlife sanctuary in Western Himalaya, ethnomedicinal survey of Kedarnath wildlife sanctuary in Western Himalaya, India. Indian J Fundam Appl Life Sci. 2011;1:35–46. Singh DP, Srivastava SK, Govindarajan R, Rawat AKS. High-performance liquid chromatographic determination of bergenin in different Bergenia species. Acta Chromatogr. 2007:246–52. Singh H, Husain T, Agnihotri P, Pande PC, Iqbal M. Biodiversity conservation through traditional beliefs system: a case study from Kumaon Himalayas, India. Int J Conserv Science. 2012;3:33–40.

Bergenia ciliata Sternb.

367

Singh M, Pandey N, Agnihotri V, Singh KK, Pandey A. Antioxidant, antimicrobial activity and bioactive compounds of Bergenia ciliata Sternb.: a valuable medicinal herb of Sikkim Himalaya. J Tradit Complement Med. 2016:1–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtcme.2016.04.002. Singh, S. Youssouf, M., Malik, Z.A., Bussmann, R.W. 2017. Sacred groves: myths, beliefs and biodiversity conservation a case study from Western Himalaya, India. Int J Ecol. Article ID 3828609. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/3828609. Singh L, Kumar A, Paul A. Bergenia ciliata: the medicinal herb of cold desert. Int J Chem Stud. 2018;6:3609–13. Srivastava S, Rawat AKS. Simultaneous determination of bergenin and gallic acid in different Bergenia species. J Planar Chromatogr – Mod TLC. 2007;20:275–7. https://doi.org/10.1556/ JPC.2007.6002. Srivastava N, Srivastava A, Srivastava S, Khan AR, Rawat AKS. Ph ton quantification and method optimization for optimum recovery of Bergenin and Gallic acid in Bergenia ciliata using HPTLC. J Phytochem Phot. 2013;114. Srivastava N, Singh BN, Srivastava A, Khan AR, Srivastava S, Sharma A, et al. Evaluation of phenolic content recoveries in hydrolyzed extracts of Bergenia ciliata using RP-HPLC, GC – MS after Silylation, and validation through antioxidant potential. J Liq Chromatogr Relat Technol. 2015a;38:1722–30. https://doi.org/10.1080/10826076.2015.1091012. Srivastava N, Srivastava A, Srivastava S, Rawat AKS, Khan AR. Simultaneous quantification of Bergenin, Epicatechin, (+)-Catechin, and Gallicin in Bergenia ciliata using high performance liquid chromatography. J Liq Chromatogr Relat Technol. 2015b;38:1207–12. https://doi.org/10. 1080/10826076.2015.1025145. Ullah N, Haq I, Mirza B. Phytotoxicity evaluation and phytochemical analysis of three medicinally important plants from Pakistan. Toxicol Ind Health. 2013. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 0748233712472527. Uniyal SK, Singh KN, Jamwal P, Lal B. Traditional use of medicinal plants among the tribal communities of Chhota Bhangal, Western Himalaya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2. https://doi. org/10.1186/1746-4269-2-14. Venkatadri R, Guha G, Kumar RA, Mathew L. Evaluation of antioxidant activities of Bergenia ciliata rhizome. Rec Nat Prod. 2010;4:38–48. Verma P, Gauttam V, Kalia AN. Comparative pharmacognosy of Pashanbhed. J Ayurveda Integr Med. 2014;5:104–8. https://doi.org/10.4103/0975-9476.131728. Verma R, Tapwal A, Kumar D, Puri S. Assessment of antimicrobial potential and phytochemical profiling of Ethnomedicinal plant Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb. in Western Himalaya. J Microbiol Biotechnol Food Sci. 2019;9:15–20. https://doi.org/10.15414/jmbfs.2019.9.1.15-20. Wagle P, Tamrakar B, Shrestha S, Gautam LN. Bioassay guided Phyto-chemical investigation of Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb: a rocky Himalayan medicinal Plant of Nepal. Am J Theor Appl Bus. 2016;2:21–5. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.jddmc.20160202.11. Walter NS, Bagai U, Kalia S. Antimalarial activity of Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb. against Plasmodium berghei. Parasitol Res 2013. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-013-3487-z. Watanabe T, Rajbhandari KR, Malla KR, Yahara S. A handbook of medicinal plants of Nepal. Non-Profit Organization AYUR SEED, Life Environmental Institute (Ayurseed L.E.I), Japan; 2005. Yousaf S, Kaukab G, Gul H, Khalid N, Kausar R, Ahmed H, et al. Pharmacological and phytochemical analysis of Bergenia ciliate leaf and rhizome extracts. Pak J Pharm Sci. 2018;31:1911–6. Zafar R, Ullah H, Zahoor M, Sadiq A. Isolation of bioactive compounds from Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb rhizome and their antioxidant and anticholinesterase activities. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2019;19:1–13.

Betula utilis D. Don BETULACEAE Narayan Ghimire, Ripu M. Kunwar, Wahid Hussain, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Betula utilis D. Don: Betula albosinensis var. septentrionalis C.K. Schneid., Betula bhojpattra Lindl. ex Wall., Betula bhojpattra var. latifolia Regel, Betula jacquemontii Spach, Betula utilis var. jacquemontii (Spach) H.J.P. Winkl., Betula utilis var. prattii Burkill N. Ghimire Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Tribhuvan, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] W. Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_37

369

370

N. Ghimire et al.

Local Names Betula utilis: Nepali: Bhojpatra; Gilgit-Baltistan: Jonji; Karakorum: Staqpa; Sikkim: Bhojpatra; Jammu: Bhojpatra, Bhuz, Bhujapatra; Kashmir: Burz, Buri; Ladakh: Towa; English: Himalayan birch; Sanskrit: Bhurja, Bahulavalkalah, Bahupata, Bhurjapatraka; Tamil: Bhurjjamaram, Purchcham; Telugu: Bhujapatri; Kannada: Bhuyapathra; Hindi: Bhojpatra; Malayalam: Bhujapatram, Bhurjjamaram; Lepcha: Sanglikung

Botany and Ecology Betula utilis: Trees to 35 m tall; bark dark red-brown, exfoliating in thin flakes. Branches red-brown, glabrous; branchlets brown, densely resinous glandular and pubescent. Petiole 0.8–2 cm; leaf blade ovate, ovate-elliptic, or oblong, 4–9  2.5–6 cm, abaxially densely resinous punctate and pubescent, bearded in axils of lateral veins, adaxially densely villous when young, base rounded or subcordate, margin irregularly and doubly mucronate-serrate, apex acuminate or caudate-acuminate; lateral veins 8–14 on each side of midvein. Female inflorescence 1 or 2 or 3 in a raceme, pendulous, oblong-cylindric, 3–5 cm  7–12 mm; peduncle 0.5–1.5 cm; bracts 5–8 mm, pubescent, ciliate, 3-lobed, middle lobe lanceolate, lateral lobes ovate, about 1/3 as long as middle lobe. Nutlet obovate, 2–3  1.5–2 mm, with membranous wings ca. as wide as nutlet. Flowering June to July; fruiting July to August (Wu et al. 1994–2013). Heavily used and regarded as endangered (Jan et al. 2017). The plant prefers acid, neutral, and basic (alkaline) soils. It can grow in semishade (light woodland) or no shade. It also requires moist soil (Bhattacharyya et al. 2006). Its therapeutic effects constitute antiseptic, aromatic, carminative, and contraceptive. Parts of the plant, including the fungal growth (bhurja-granthi) have also long been used in local traditional medicine (Singh et al. 2012) (Figs. 1, 2, 3 and 4). Betula utilis is a long-lived species which survives more than 400 years (Bhattacharyya et al. 2006). It helps to maintain the fragile ecosystem of the Himalayas by managing soil erosion and creating bio-shield for the rest of the forests and sub-alpine meadows immediately below the treeline zone (Kala 1998). B. utilis, a valuable timber tree of commercial importance commonly found in temperate broad-leaved forests at high altitudes (3500–4200 m), has its distribution range from Inner Mongolia north of China to Yunnan province in the south and over the Himalayan region of Afghanistan, Bhutan, India, and Nepal (Figs. 5, 6 and 7). It is a broad-leaved angiosperm tree species in the Himalayas, which dominates an extensive area at subalpine altitudes (Zobel and Singh 1997). B. utilis (bhojpatra birch) forms treeline vegetation all along the Nepal Himalayas, and extensive stands of this species can be found on northern shady slopes and ravines (TISC 2002). Betula species show a high freezing tolerance (Sakai and Larcher 1987) which enables them to form a treeline in the Himalayas (Zobel and Singh 1997; TISC 2002) as well as in the Scandinavian region (Cairns and Moen 2004).

Betula utilis D. Don

371

Fig. 1 Betula utilis (Betulaceae), natural habitat of Betula utilis at Solukhumbu, Sagarmatha National Park, 3600 m, May 2010. (Photo N P Ghimire and LN Khanal)

Phytochemistry Its phytochemical analysis shows that this species is rich in alkaloids and carbohydrates which show antibacterial activity (Kumaraswamy et al. 2008). Betulin, acetyloheanolic acid, lupeol, oleanolic acid, betulinic acid, lupenone, sitosterol, methyl betulonate, and methyl betulate are the chemical compounds which are extracted from its bark. The essential oil of B. utilis bark shows the presence of geranic acid, selenol, linalool, sesquiphellandrene, champacol, and 1,8-cineole. Fatty acid constituents present in the Betula utilis bark are linoleic (17.66%), myristic (15.9%), palmitic (9.09%), and oleic (11.30%) acid (Mishra et al. 2016). Karachicrustics (triterpenoid) is aromatic and has antiseptic properties (Barnes et al. 1974). The compound betulin shows anticancer activity by suppressing the growth of malignant melanoma and cancer of the liver and lungs (Kikuzaki and Nakatani 1993). The phytochemical constituent of B. utilis is betulinic acid which shows many biological activities. Now, it has been proven that it has tremendous anticancer properties. Thus, this plant plays a significant role in the prevention and treatment of cancer and various other diseases by having various pharmacological activities like antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-HIV (Singh et al. 2012).

372

N. Ghimire et al.

Fig. 2 Betula utilis (Betulaceae), forest in Gaurishankar Conservation Area, Nepal. (Photo Lila Sharma)

Local Medicinal Uses Betula utilis: The bark of B. utilis is widely used in the Ayurveda and Unani systems of medicine in the treatment of various ailments and diseases such as skin infections, diseases of the blood and ear, convulsions, wounds, bronchitis, leprosy, etc. The leaves of the plant show efficacy in treating urinary tract infections and kidney and bladder stones (Khan et al. 2011). The paste of the bark was used to treat wounds, burns, and cuts. The juice of the bark was used to treat fever, cough and cold, internal bleeding, diarrhea, bronchitis, and jaundice. Leaf decoction is taken as diuretics. Bark paper is used to release fear and cure fever (Kunwar and Adhikari 2005). The fungal growth (bhurja-granthi) has also long been used in local traditional medicine. Plant also provides food, gums, and resins (Zaki et al. 2011). It helps in the treatment of asthma, cold, malaria, cough, gout, and rheumatism (Kumar et al. 2015). It is also used on burns, cuts, ear complaints, jaundice, and wounds (Haq 2012). In Ladakh, Kashmir and Jammu used to treat anemia and other blood diseases, as antiseptic, and as carminative for cough, ear ailments, jaundice, hysteria, obesity, rheumatism, leprosy, bronchitis, and burns (Gairola et al. 2014). The bark is used to treat bacterial infections, skin diseases, bronchitis, cough, cuts, wounds and burns, and sore throat, as astringent, and also to ease delivery and to expel the placenta after birth (Kunwar

Betula utilis D. Don Fig. 3 Betula utilis (Betulaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

Fig. 4 Betula utilis (Betulaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

373

374

N. Ghimire et al.

Fig. 5 Betula litwinowii (Betulaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

et al. 2010; Wali et al. 2019). Betula utilis serves as antiseptic (Kunwar et al. 2013; Tamang et al. 2017) and as tonic and is used to treat convulsions (Palit and Banerjee 2016) and rheumatism (Singh et al. 2017). Betula litwinowii/Betula platyphylla: A decoction and alcoholic extracts of buds and leaves are used as diuretic and choleretic for edemas, diseases of the kidney, and inflammation of the gall bladder and liver. Decoction is used as anthelminthic as well as poultice in case of bad healing wounds and ulcers (Damirov et al. 1988). Birch catkins, young shoots, leaves, and sap are used medicinally. Traditional medicine recommends birch sap as a diuretic and as a treatment for scurvy, tonsillitis, bronchitis, and lung diseases, and also for blood cleansing (Kopaliani 2013). In Zemo Tsageri (Lechkhumi), broth made of birch buds is given to the sick with lung diseases, especially with tuberculosis. Broth or tincture made of bark was used as mouthwash to heal toothache and also scurvy. A leaf and bark extract in water is used against dandruff and hair loss. Leaf tea is used to cure colds and as panacea. The bark is chewed for toothache. The catkins are applied to wounds, and the stem sap helps against goiter (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017; Tang et al. 2020).

Local Food Uses Betula utilis. Betula litwinowii/Betula platyphylla: Sap extracted from the stems can be drunk (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017; Tang et al. 2020).

Betula utilis D. Don

375

Fig. 6 Betula litwinowii (Betulaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Betula utilis: Many insects and beetles live in bark and roots of Betula which provides them niche (Khanday and Buhroo 2015). The bark of Himalayan birch was used as paper for writing lengthy scriptures and texts in Sanskrit and other scripts. The papery bark of B. utilis is also used for making rooftop and umbrella cover (Kala et al. 2004) and baskets for protecting breads from molding. Betula utilis trees are also used for ornamental purpose and beautification of landscape. It is also used in religious Hindu ceremonies (Haq 2012). A portion of papery bark is kept in indoor spaces to get harmony in families (Kunwar and Adhikari 2005). They are also real multipurpose trees in Gilgit-Baltistan (Abbas et al. 2019) used for firewood, timber, and fodder (Singh et al. 2017; Wali et al. 2019). Being a long-lived tree species, at present, it is being used for understating dendroclimatology by establishing its relationships with climate and glacial fluctuations (Dawadi et al. 2013). Leaves are used as fodder and shoots for construction (Manandhar 2002). The local people of its distribution range, traditionally, have been using Betula utilis as a valuable timber for construction of houses and making local bridges. It has hard and dense wood. The high-altitude pastoral communities use its wood for firewood and construction of huts during their stay in the high altitude of the Himalaya. The foliage is used for fodder. The widespread use of this species for firewood and fodder has caused serious habitat degradation and

376

N. Ghimire et al.

Fig. 7 Betula litwinowii (Betulaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

population decline, urging participatory conservation measures. The plant falls into different categories locally according to its percentage of reduction in population size (Ahmad et al. 2012), which considered this plant to be endangered. Betula utilis used excessively in the treatment of malaria, cold, rheumatism, and asthma is placed in the category of critically endangered (Haq 2012). Excessive use for fuel and medicinal purpose considered Betula utilis as a threatened plant (Zaki et al. 2011). B. utilis has been evaluated but not qualified for any category, thus considered to be of the least concern under the IUCN category. Realizing the decline in its population, it has been placed under threatened category locally. However, the threat categories assigned to this species vary in different countries and within different states of the same country (Anonymous 2010) (Fig. 8). Betula litwinowii/Betula platyphylla: A dye solution is prepared from bark, wood, and roots to obtain red-yellow and from leaves for grey-green and greenish-blue color and their shades. The solution is used for dyeing wool, cotton, and silk yarn as well as products from them. The wood is used to make lots of tools, including beer ladles, bowls, candlesticks, cups, dippers, mortars, plows, spinning wheels, spoons, tool handles, vessels to store alcohol and pickles, walking sticks, and yokes. It is also used for making carts, furniture, and sleds, and the branches make good brooms (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017; Tang et al. 2020) (Fig. 9).

Betula utilis D. Don

377

Fig. 8 Betula utilis (Betulaceae) bark used to make a cover to protect bread from molding, Changru, Darchula. (Photo Ripu Kunwar)

Fig. 9 Betula litwinowii (Betulaceae), brooms, Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

References Abbas Z, Alam J, Muhammad S, Bussmann RW, Mulk Khan S, Hussain M. Phyto-cultural diversity of the Shigar valley Central Karakorum Baltistan, northern Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019:1832. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.31.1-18.

378

N. Ghimire et al.

Ahmad KS, Qureshi R, Hameed M, Ahmad F, Nawaz T. Conservation assessment and medicinal importance of some plants resources from Sharda, Neelam Valley. Int J Agric Biol. 2012;12:11–5. Anonymous. Medicinal plant species of conservation concern identified for Jammu & Kashmir (JK). http://envis.frlht.org – ENVIS Centre on Conservation of Medicinal Plants, FRLHT, Bangalore. 2010. http://frlhtenvis.nic.in Barnes BV, Bruce PD, Sharik TL. Natural hybridization of yellow birch and white birch. For Sci. 1974;20:215–21. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Betula pubescens var. litwinowii (Doluch.) Ashburner & mc. All. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-31949412-8_147. Bhattacharyya A, Shah SK, Chaudhary V. Would tree ring data of Betula utilis be potential for the analysis of Himalayan glacial fluctuations? Curr Sci. 2006;91(6):754–61. Bussmann, R.W. ed. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Springer International Publishing International Publishing: Cham; XXVII, 2017;746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1 Cairns DM, Moen J. Herbivory influences treeline. J Ecol. 2004;92:99–131. Damirov IA, Prilipko LI. Shukurov DZ, Kerimov YB. Medicinal plants of Azerbaijan. Baku; 1988. (in Russian). Dawadi B, Liang E, Tian L, Devkota LP, Yao T. Pre-monsoon precipitation signal in tree rings of timberline Betula utilis in the Central Himalayas. Quat Int. 2013;283:72–7. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A crosscultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2014;155:925–986 Haq F. The critically endangered flora and fauna of district Battagram Pakistan. Adv Life Sci. 2012;2:118–23. Jan H, Wali S, Ahmad L, Jana S, Ahmad N, Ullah N. Ethnomedicinal survey of medicinal plants of Chinglai valley, Buner District, Pakistan. Eur J Integr Med. 2017;13:64–74. Kala CP. Ecology and conservation of alpine meadows in the valley of flowers National Park, Garhwal Himalaya. Ph.D. thesis. Dehradun: Forest Research Institute, Deemed University; 1998. Kala CP, Farooquee NA, Dhar U. Prioritization of medicinal plants on the basis of available knowledge, existing practices and use value status in Uttaranchal, India. Biodivers Conserv. 2004;13:453–69. Khan NM, Ahmed M, Ahmed A, Shaukat SS, Wahab M, Ajaib M, Nasir M. Important medicinal plants of Chitral Gol National Park, Pakistan. Pak J Bot. 2011;43(2):797–809. Khanday AL, Buhroo A. 2015. Shot-hole borer (Scolytus nitidus Schedl) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae): a new host- Himalayan birch (Betula utilis)-communication. Nat Sci. 2015;13:15–26. Kikuzaki H, Nakatani N. Antioxidant effects of some ginger constituents. Food science. Aust J Bot. 1993;43:797–809. Kopaliani L. Forest plants of Georgia (trees, shrubs, herbs) Publishing Center, Kutaisi; 2013. (in Georgian). Kumar A, Mitra M, Adhikari BS, Rawat GS. Depleting indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants in cold-arid region of Nanda Devi biosphere reserve, Western Himalaya. Med Aromat Plants. 2015;4:195. https://doi.org/10.4172/2167-0412.1000195. Kumaraswamy M, Kavitha H, Satish S. Antibacterial evaluation and phytochemical analysis of B. utilis against some human pathogenic Bacteria. Adv Biol Res. 2008;2:21–5. Kunwar RM, Adhikari N. Ethnomedicine of Dolpa District, Nepal: the plants, their vernacular names and uses. Lyonia. 2005;8(1):43–9. Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Bussmann RW. Traditional herbal medicine in far-West Nepal: a pharmacological appraisal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:35. Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Acharya RP, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants, traditional medicine, markets and management in far-West Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:24.

Betula utilis D. Don

379

Manandhar NP. Plants and people of Nepal. Portland: Timber press; 2002. Mishra T, Arya RK, Meena S, Joshi P, Pal M, Meena B. Isolation, characterization and anticancer potential of cytotoxic Triterpenes from Betula utilis bark. PLoS One. 2016;11(7):e0159430. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0159430. Palit D, Banerjee A. Traditional uses and conservative lifestyle of Lepcha tribe through sustainable bioresource utilization - case studies from Darjeeling and North Sikkim, India. Int J Conserv Sci. 2016;7(3):735–52. Sakai A, Larcher W. Frost survival of plants: response and adaptation to freezing stress. Ecol Stud. 1987;62 Singh S, Yadav S, Sharma PA, Thapliyal A. Betula utilis: a potential herbal medicine. Int J Pharm Biol Arch. 2012;3:493–9. Singh S, Youssouf M, Malik ZA, Bussmann RW. Sacred groves: myths, beliefs and biodiversity conservation a case study from Western Himalaya, India. Int J Ecol. 2017:Article ID 3828609. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/3828609. Tamang M, Pal K, Kumar Rai S, Kalam A, Rehan Ahmad S. Ethnobotanical survey of threatened medicinal plants of West Sikkim. Int J Bot Stud. 2017;2(6):V 116–25. Tang Y, Liu B, Bussmann RW. Betula platyphylla Sukaczev. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions Central Asia and Altai: Springer International Publishing International Publishing; 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-31977087-1_28-1. TISC (Tree Improvement and Silviculture Component). Forest and vegetation types in Nepal TISC document: Department of Forest; 2002. Wali R, Rahman K, Raja NI, Qureshi R, Bussmann RW, Mashwani ZUR. A quantitative medico botanical expedition of fairy meadows National Park, Diamir, Gilgit Baltistan, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;1835 https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.35.1-30. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Zaki M, Sofi MS, Kaloo ZA. A reproducible protocol for raising clonal plants from leaf segments excised from mature trees of Betula utilis a threatened tree species of Kashmir Himalayas. Int Multidiscip J. 2011;1:7–13. Zobel DB, Singh SP. Himalayan forests and ecological generalizations. Bioscience. 1997;47:735–56.

Bidens biternata (Lour.) Merr. & Sherff ASTERACEAE Laxmi Khaniya, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Bidens biternata (Lour.) Merr. & Sherff: Bidens biternata var. abyssinica (Sch. Bip.) Sherff; Bidens biternata f. abyssinica Sherff; Bidens biternata var. biternata; Bidens biternata f. biternata; Bidens biternata var. glabrata (Vatke) Sherff; Bidens biternata f. lasiocarpa Sherff; Bidens biternata var. mayebarae (Kitam.) Kitam.

L. Khaniya Center Department of Botany, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_38

381

382

L. Khaniya et al.

Local Names Bidens biternata: India: Achirchitta, Phutjom, Kerrai, Kathori, Kuro, Indonesia: Agedi, Ketul; Thai: Konchem, Chinese: Jinzhan, Yinpan; Urdu: Dipmal, Phutium; English: Yellow flowered black jack, Spanish needles, black jack, five leaved blackjack, beggar ticks (Zahara et al. 2015).

Botany and Ecology Bidens biternata: Annuals. Stems erect, 30–150 cm tall, subtetragonal, loosely crisp pilose, branched in upper portion. Leaves cauline; median leaves opposite, petiole 3–5 cm, blade 9–15 cm, prominently soft pubescent on both surfaces, once or twice divided into pinnate leaflets, terminal segment ovate, shortly acuminate, rather prominently toothed, lateral segments ovate, sometimes lower one pinnatifid; upper leaves gradually smaller, opposite or alternate, bipinnately parted. Capitula radiate or discoid, 7–10 mm in diam.; peduncle 1.5–5.5 cm; phyllaries 8–10, 1-seriate, herbaceous, linear, 3–6.5 mm, acute; outer chaff calycular bracts 5–6 mm, margin hyaline. Ray florets 0–5, sterile; lamina yellow, ca. 5.5  2.5– 3 mm, tube 1.2–1.5 mm. Disk florets bisexual, fertile; corolla 4–5.5 mm, tube 1.2–2 mm. Achenes linear, 9–19  ca. 1 mm, compressed, 4-angled, shortly strigose; pappus awns 3 or 4, 3–4 mm. Flowering September–November (Shi et al. 2011; Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4). Native to Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, Sudan, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Zaire, Ghana, Nigeria, Angola, Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Arabian Peninsula, China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Indonesia, Philippines, New Caledonia, and Solomon Islands. It grows at elevations between 1100 and 2000 m in moist and shady place in the forest and in Farms, village, along the roadside, cultivated areas and along the bank of small channels. There are eight species of Bidens presence in Nepal (Press et al. 2000; Bhatt et al. 2012; Zahara et al. 2015; Satish and Visahal 2018) (Figs. 5, 6, 7, and 8).

Phytochemistry Bidens biternata is rich in phytochemicals. It contains sesquiterpenes, germacrene-D, β-caryophyllene, β-carotene, isolated sugar, glycosides, flavonoids, alkaloids, phenolics, tannins, steroids, terpenoids, coumarins, saponins, anthraquinones, phlobatannins, iridoids, calcium, magnesium iron, manganese, aluminum, zinc, and copper. It has to have wide range of nutritional factors like carbohydrates, proteins, reducing sugar, amino acids, free fatty acids, crude fiber, lipids, and vitamins A and E. Anti-nutritional factors like phytic acid, total phenol, tannic acid, etc. (Tapas et al. 2008; Sukumaran et al. 2012; Swapna et al. 2014; Zahara et al. 2015; Satish and Visahal 2018).

Bidens biternata (Lour.) Merr. & Sherff Fig. 1 Bidens sp. (Asteraceae), Nepal. (Photo Man D. Bhatt)

Fig. 2 Bidens sp. (Asteraceae), Nepal. (Photo Man D. Bhatt)

383

384 Fig. 3 Bidens sp. (Asteraceae), Nepal. (Photo Man D. Bhatt)

Fig. 4 Bidens biternata (Asteraceae), Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

L. Khaniya et al.

Bidens biternata (Lour.) Merr. & Sherff Fig. 5 Bidens pilosa (Asteraceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 6 Bidens pilosa (Asteraceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

385

386 Fig. 7 Bidens pilosa (Asteraceae), fruits, Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 8 Bidens pilosa (Asteraceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

L. Khaniya et al.

Bidens biternata (Lour.) Merr. & Sherff

387

Local Medicinal Uses Bidens biternata: It is traditionally being used as a source of medicine. Botanical studies and records of the traditional use of B. biternata are used in over 26 diseases (Zahara et al. 2015). It has been used in traditional medicine as anti-inflammatory, antimalarial, anti-allergic, anti-ulcer, antidiabetic, anticancer, and antibacterial agent. Whole body plant is useful in appendicitis, sore throat, snakebite, diarrhea (Ishaque 2018), cold, ulcers, leprosy, toothache, fever, cough, asthma, liver infection, cutaneous infections, against inflammation, malaria, digestive disorders, detoxification, respiratory tract infections, blood stasis effect, acute jaundice, hepatitis, gastroenteritis, malaria, rheumatoid joint pain, topical cure boils, traumatic swellings, pain, and many others (Sandra et al. 2000; Masako and Yoshiyuki 2006; Parimalakrishnan et al. 2006; Maicon et al. 2008; Durre et al. 2011; Zahara et al. 2015; Satish and Visahal 2018). Leaf juice of B. biternata is used for the treatment of Leprosy at initial stages, lactating mothers, and cuts (Prajapati et al. 2003). In India Bidens pilosa is used for cough and bronchitis, while Bidens bipinnata and Bidens biternata are used to treat leprosy and cuts, for wounds, and the seeds as appetizer (Singh et al. 2002). Bidens pseudocosmos: The seeds are used as remedy for fever (Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2020). Bidens laevis: The infusion is used for lung, gallbladder, and bladder diseases (Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2020). Bidens pilosa: The main medicinal use of this plant is to reduce blood sugar levels, that is, cure diabetes. The decoction of the whole plant is used to treat diseases of the liver, rebound of bile, indigestion, and diarrhea. The leaves prepared in infusion are used for the treatment of dysentery, diarrhea, flu, stomach pain, canker sores, angina pectoris, cough, fevers, diabetes, edema, hepatitis, hypertension, and gastroduodenal ulcers. It has also been used against inflammation and as a diuretic. Externally, the infusion of the leaves is used against fungi of the skin, to heal wounds and sores, as an antiseptic, and to relieve pain in the bones and joints. The whole plant is used to treat diarrhea, indigestion, urinary infections, as diuretic, and to remedy witchcraft; whole plant, stems, leaves, and flowers are used to treat diabetes, gallbladder, and liver problems; stems, leaves, and flowers are used as emenagogue. The whole fresh plant is used to treat liver, infections, and diarrhea. The bath with the infusion of the flowers is used to treat skin allergies. The leaves, in infusion, are used to heal wounds. The juice of the flower is used to treat nerve conditions. The flower macerated with escancel (Amaranthaceae), geranium (Geranium sp.), “Cana yuyu” (Sonchus sp.), and “sacha gola” (Rumex sp.) is used to treat gangrene. Root and buds are used to treat “cold inflammation” (sudden cooling of the body). It serves as a medicine to treat “heat inflammation.” The root is taken in an infusion to calm vaginal bleeding. The flowers, in infusion, are used to treat postpartum conditions and for those affected by the bladder. The leaves are used to treat angina. The infusion of the petals is drunk to treat liver and heart conditions. It serves as a diuretic, to treat rheumatism, osteo-articular and back pain, throat conditions, and canker sores. The whole plant, fresh or dried, is used to treat gallbladder,

388

L. Khaniya et al.

kidney inflammation, inflammation (general), kidneys, prostate, hair loss, diabetes, liver, blood, and heart. More recently used to treat diabetes and cancer, and bacterial and fungal infections due to its antibacterial properties, and low toxicity (PaniaguaZambrana et al. 2020). Used as anthelminthic, coagulant, and to treat diarrhea and stomach problems (Njoroge et al. 2004). In Kenya the species is used for respiratory disorders (Bussmann 2006), to improve fertility (Njoroge and Bussmann 2009), and to treat nosebleeds (Njoroge and Bussmann 2006). Bidens macrocarpa has medicinal uses in Ethiopia (Yineger et al. 2008).

Local Food Uses Bidens biternata: It is a wild edible plant rich in macronutrients and micronutrients. Leaves of the plant are used for combustion. Its young shoots are eaten raw or steamed. In times of scarcity of staple food, local communities use such plants as vegetable (Priyadi et al. 2010; Sukumaran et al. 2012; Zahara et al. 2015; Satish and Visahal 2018). Bidens laevis: Used as infusion/tea mixed with cinnamon (Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2020).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Bidens biternata: The young shoots are eaten as vegetable (Dangol et al. 2017). Bidens laevis: Used for forage (Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2020). Bidens pilosa: The young shoots are eaten as vegetable (Dangol et al. 2017).

References Bhatt JR, Singh JS, Singh SP, Tripathi RS, Kohli RK. Invasive alien plants: an ecological appraisal for the Indian subcontinent. Wallingford: CABI; 2012. Bussmann RW. Ethnobotany of the Samburu of Mt. Nyiru, South Turkana, Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:35. Dangol DR, Maharjan KL, Maharjan SK, Acharya AK. Wild edible plants in Nepal. In: Joshi BK, Bahadur KCH, Acharya A, editors. Conservation and utilization of agricultural plant genetic resources of Nepal. Dhulikhel: NAGRC; 2017. p. 390–407. Durre S, Sami U, Muhammad AR, Uzma S, Asma Y, Sadia G, Naeem A. Acetylcholine esterase and antioxidant potential of some members of Asteraceae and Euphorbiaceae. J Med Plants Res. 2011;5(32):7011–6. Ishaque M. Identification and characterization of antioxidant and cytotoxic activities of selected medicinal plants of Gallyat region, Pakistan. Rawalpindi: Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi; 2018. Maicon RK, Karina BF, Tatiana S, Luiz PLW, Maria HR, Edlayne G, Joana DF, Danilo WF, Rozangela CP. Study of the antitumor potential of Bidens pilosa (Asteraceae) used in Brazilian folk medicine. J Ethnopharmacol. 2008;117:69–75. Masako H, Yoshiyuki S. Antinflammatory and antiallergic activity of Bidens pilosa L. J Health Sci. 2006;52:711–7.

Bidens biternata (Lour.) Merr. & Sherff

389

Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Traditional management of ear, nose and throat ENT diseases in Central Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:54. Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Ethnotherapeutic management of sexually transmitted diseases STDs and reproductive health conditions in Central Province, Kenya. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2009;8(2):262–9. Njoroge GN, Barbara G, Bussmann RW, Newton LE, Ngumi VW. Utilization of weed species as source of traditional medicines in Central Kenya: optimizing resource efficiency R.U.E. in agroecosystems. Lyonia. 2004;7(2):71–87. Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, Echeverría J, Romero C. Bidens laevis (L.) Britton, Stern & Poggenb.; Bidens pilosa L.; Bidens pseudocosmos Sherff; Bidens sp. In: Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions – ethnobotany of the Andes. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77093-2_ 38-1. Parimalakrishnan S, Akalanka D, Anton S, Arul GD, Manavalan R, Sridhar N. Studies of anticancer and antipyretic activity of Bidens pilosa whole plant. Afr Health Sci. 2006;6(1):27–30. Prajapati ND, Purohit SS, Sharma AK, Kumar T. A hand book of medicinal plants. In: Bhakat RK, Sen UK, editors. Traditional uses of medicinal plants of Pauri Garhwal, Uttrakhand. Patnagar: Agribios India; 2003. p. 553. Press JR, Shrestha KK, Sutton DA. Annotated checklist of the flowering plants of Nepal. London: The Natural History Museum; 2000. Priyadi H, Takao G, Rahmawati I, Supriyanto B, Nursal WI, Rahman I. Five hundred plant species in Gunung Halimun Salak National Park, West Java: a checklist including Sundanese names, distribution and use. Bogor: CIFOR; 2010. Sandra MN, Clara L, Colin WW. A review of antimyocobacterial natural products. Phytother Res. 2000;14:303–22. Satish UK, Visahal RM. Study of future food crop Bidens biternata (Lour.) Merr and Sheriff – a nutraceutical approach. Int J Recent Trends Sci Technol. 2018:37–9. Shi Z, Chen YL, Chen YS, Lin YR, Liu SW, Ge XJ, Gao TG, Zhu SX, Liu Y, Yang QE, Humphries CJ, von Raab-Straube E, Gilbert MG, Nordenstam B, Kilian N, Brouillet L, Illarionova ID, DJN H, Jeffrey C, Bayer RJ, Kirschner J, Greuter W, Anderberg AA, Semple JC, Štěpánek J, Freire SE, Martins L, Koyama H, Kawahara T, Vincent L, Sukhorukov AP, Mavrodiev EV, Gottschlich G. Asteraceae (Compositae). In: Wu ZY, Raven PH, Hong DY, editors. Flora of China, volume 20–21 (Asteraceae). Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 2011. p. 1–894. Singh AK, Raghubanshi AS, Singh JA. Medical ethnobotany of the tribals of Sonaghati of Sonbhadra district, Uttar Pradesh, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2002;81:31–41. Sukumaran P, Nair AG, Chinmayee DM, Mini I, Sukumaran ST. Phytochemical investigation of Bidens biternata (Lour.) Merr. and Sheriff.-a nutrient-rich leafy vegetable from Western Ghats of India. Appl Biochem Biotechnol. 2012;167:1795–801. Swapna TS, Nair AG, Mini I, Pradeesh S. Free-radical scavenging activity of leaves of Bidens Biternata (Lour.) Merr. & Sherif. Int J Pharm Res Dev. 2014;6(8):127–35. Tapas AR, Sakarkar DM, Kakde RB. Flavonoids as nutraceuticals: a review. Trop J Pharm Res. 2008;7(3):1089–99. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Yineger H, Kelbessa E, Bekele T, Lulekal E. Plants used in traditional management of human ailments at Bale Mountains National Park, Southeastern Ethiopia. J Med Plants Res. 2008;26:132–53. Zahara K, Bibi Y, Tabassum S, Mudrikah BT, Haider S, Araa A, Ajmal M. A review on pharmacological properties of Bidens biternata: a potential nutraceutical. Asian Pac J Trop Dis. 2015;5(8):595–9.

Bistorta amplexicaulis (D. Don) Greene Bistorta vivipara (L.) S.F. Gray POLYGONACEAE Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Bistorta amplexicaulis (D. Don) Greene: Polygonum amplexicaule D. Don var. amplexicaule Bistorta vivipara (L.) S.F. Gray: Bistorta vivipara subsp. macounii (Small ex J.M. Macouni) Soják, Persicaria vivipara (L.) Ronse Decr., Polygonum viviparum L., Polygonum viviparum var. macounii (Small ex J.M. Macoun) Hultén

H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_39

391

392

H. Sher et al.

Local Names Bistorta amplexicaulis: Jammu: Masloon, Jangli Chai; Kashmir: Machirun, Maachran Chai, Machrum Chai; Pashto: Tarwa panra ‫ﺗﺮﻭﺍﭘﺎﻧړﺎ‬, Anjbar; Urdu: Anjabar; Chitrali: Tarwa panna; Baltistan: Shey lamey; English: Bistort, Mountain fleece Bistorta vivipara: Baltistan: Chenga; Kashmiri: Masloon, Drop, Mashun, Manchiren, Churkee; Ladakh: Langna, Katur

Botany and Ecology Bistorta amplexicaulis: Erect, 35–70 ( 100) cm tall, branched or simple, glabrous, perennial, long rhizomatous herb. Stem simple or branched, erect, with few leaves. Leaves 3.0–15  1.75–10 cm, broadly lanceolate-ovate, serrate, acuminate, ciliate on midrib and margins, cordate or amplexicaule at base, petiole up to 10 cm long. Ochrea 1.5–5.0 cm long, lanceolate, tubular, acuminate, with two to three long acuminate lobes. Inflorescence 1.5–10.0 cm long, terminal, simple (var. speciosa) or branched (var. alba), many flowered, dense pedunculate raceme, peduncles up to 8.0 cm long. Flowers up to 4.0 mm across, pedicel 1–3 mm long. Ochreolae 3–5 mm long, lanceolate, cartilaginous, with long aristate apex and entire margin. Tepals 5, 2–3.5  1.5–2.5 mm, lanceolate to ovate, obtuse, entire, unequal. Stamens 8, filaments thick and short, unequal; anthers dark bluish, subexserted to exserted. Ovary 1–2  0.25–0.5 ( 0.75) mm, lanceolate, trigonous with three, long, filiform winged and free styles and nonprominent stigma. Nuts 3.0–5.5  2.0–3.5 mm, ovate, trigonous and unequal lobes, dark brown to black, glabrous, shining. Open slope, prefer shade in forest, 1500–3000 m. Distributed in Nepal, India, China, and Pakistan. Locally found in the high altitude of Malakand and Hazara Division especially in coniferous forest. Harvesting time: September–March (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020). Highly over collected (Mulk Khan et al. 2014) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8). Bistorta vivipara: Erect, 15–45 ( 50) cm tall, glabrous, simple rarely, branched, perennial herb with thick fibrous rhizomes. Leaves 4–15  0.5–1 ( 1.5) cm, linear, acuminate, entire, upper surface glabrous, lower with few cilia on veins, basal leaves long petiolate, petiole 0.8–6.0 cm long, cauline leaves sessile. Ochrea 0.3–1.0 cm long, ovate, tubular, membranous, entire. Inflorescence 1.0–8.0 cm long, bulbiferous on the lower part, bulbils ovoid, 3–4 mm long; peduncle up to 4.0 cm long. Flowers 1–2.0 mm across, whitish to pink, pedicel 1–2.5 mm long. Ochreolae 2–4 mm long, ovate, long acuminate, dentate, tubular, membranous, glabrous. Tepals 4–5, divided almost to the base, 2–3 mm long, broadly oblanceolate, obtuse, entire, unequal outer surface wrinkled. Stamens 6, filaments long, filiform, unequal, 3 long and 3 short, exserted. Ovary 0.5–1.0  0.25–0.5 mm, biconvex with 2 long, filiform and free styles and capitate stigmas. Nuts 2–3  1.5–2 mm, biconvex, dark brown, glabrous,

Bistorta amplexicaulis (D. Don) Greene . . .

393

Fig. 1 Bistorta carnea (Polygonaceae). Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Bistorta carnea (Polygonaceae). Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

shining. Flowering June–August. A wide spread and highly variable species. Grows between 2500–4500 m, in moist shady areas and steep slopes, sometimes even as a weed; Distribution: Siberia, Western and Central Asia, Himalaya, Xizang, China, Japan, North America, and Greenland. (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020). Widely commercialized (Overgaard Larsen 2002) (Figs. 9 and 10).

394

H. Sher et al.

Fig. 3 Bistorta carnea (Polygonaceae). Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Bistorta carnea (Polygonaceae). Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses Bistorta amplexicaulis: The powdered rhizome of the herb is used to treat chronic diarrhea and excessive bleeding from any part of the body and externally on fresh wounds to stop bleeding. Shoots are used to cure ulcer (Sher et al. 2011). Root

Bistorta amplexicaulis (D. Don) Greene . . .

395

Fig. 5 Bistorta amplexicaulis (Polygonaceae). Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 6 Bistorta amplexicaulis (Polygonaceae). Pakistan. (Photo Haiser Ali)

powder is used for urinary disorders, cough, sore throat, and joint pain (Ahmad et al. 2014; Jan et al. 2019). Root infusion is used for sore throat, as laryngitis and tonic (Bano et al. 2014). Plant is used for sore throat (Kayani et al. 2014). Root and leaf tea is used for rheumatism, root powder for blood dysentery, nausea and emetic, leaf juice for blood purifier, and root powder for leucorrhea and as a tonic (Mahmood et al. 2012). Rhizome powder mixed with little salt is used for sore throat, swelling of mouth and tongue (Khan et al. 2013). Plant is used as tonic, for gastro-intestinal problems, ulcer, and throat infection (Majid et al. 2019). Plant is used to treat ulcer (Jamal et al. 2017). The rhizome is ground into powdered form and is taken with water for treatment of gout and rheumatism. Special tea is made from the rhizome,

396

H. Sher et al.

Fig. 7 Bistorta amplexicaulis (Polygonaceae). Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

Fig. 8 Bistorta amplexicaulis (Polygonaceae). Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

which is then used for fever and flue. The rhizome is also effective to cure ulcers (Razzaq et al. 2013). Plant is used for eczema and measles (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018, 2019). To treaty backache, as stomatic (Wali et al. 2019). Also used as tonic for gastrointestinal disorders, ulcers, and throat infections (Majid et al. 2019); for fever, joint pain, asthma, burns, colds, cough, headache; as heart stimulant; for indigestion, joint inflammations, rheumatism, stomach pain (Gairola et al. 2014).

Bistorta amplexicaulis (D. Don) Greene . . .

397

Fig. 9 Bistorta vivipara (Polygonaceae). Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Bistorta vivipara: The roots are used for inflammations and cancer problems (Khan et al. 2015). Powder prepared from rhizome taken with milk in fever, body pains, and muscles contraction (Naseer et al. 2017). Plant is used in chronic bronchitis (Alamgeer et al. 2018) and for throat infections and piles (Wali et al. 2019). To remedy diarrhea, lung diseases, fever, sore throat, hemorrhages, abdominal pain, used as astringent, chest complaints, leucorrhea, ulcers, backache, wounds, cuts, and skin eruptions (Gairola et al. 2014). Bistorta carnea: used for gastroenteric diseases, a decoction, and liquid extract of the rhizome, as well as powder is ingested for diseases of the stomach and as astringent in acute and protracted diarrhea. The rhizome is used to treat snakebite. Also used to stop bleeding and as anti-inflammatory agent, also to heal intestinal disorders (dysentery, diarrhea). The flowers and roots are also used to treat lung problems and are externally applied to fractures and bruises. The plant is effective during its flowering period. It is widely used in traditional medicine, mostly to heal renal, liver and stomach illnesses, against fatigue, later catarrh of bladder, old and new wounds. It is believed to be especially effective against gallstones. It can actively remove sand from the body. The residents of Baraleti collect knotgrass, wash it, and keep it in the shade. They consider it as a remedy that drives out salts and “poisons” from the body. A handful of dry knotgrass is put in a ceramic vessel and 1 l of boiling water is added. After 15 min (or boiling 5 min), it is decanted and the resulted broth is drunk instead of water. Alternatively, the sick drinks a wine

398

H. Sher et al.

Fig. 10 Bistorta vivipara (Polygonaceae). Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

glass of this broth three times a day. The entire herb is also crushed and is used like a mustard plaster and it is used to prepare a remedy for pancreatitis; the broth is given to heal gastro-intestinal disorders and hemorrhoids (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2020; Bussmann 2017; Batsatsashvili et al. 2017) (Figs. 11 and 12).

Local Food Uses Bistorta carnea: The fried rhizome is also used for food (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2020; Bussmann 2017; Batsatsashvili et al. 2017). Bistorta vivipara: Seeds can be eaten (Wali et al. 2019).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Bistorta amplexicaule is used as galactagogue in cattle, for thatching, and forage (Wali et al. 2019). Bistorta carnea is used for dyeing: Yellow and black colors are obtained from the rhizome. Can be used as decorative in gardens and parks. The rhizome is used for tanning leather (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2020; Bussmann 2017; Batsatsashvili et al. 2017). Bistorta vivipara serves as forage (Wali et al. 2019).

Bistorta amplexicaulis (D. Don) Greene . . .

399

Fig. 11 Bistorta carnea (Polygonaceae), root tincture as medicine, Zesko, Kvemo Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 12 Bistorta carnea (Polygonaceae), root tincture as medicine, Zesko, Kvemo Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

References Ahmad M, Sultana S, Fazl-i-Hadi S, Ben Hadda T, Rashid S, Zafar M, Yaseen G. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in high mountainous region of Chail valley (District Swat-Pakistan). J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2014;10(1):36.

400

H. Sher et al.

Alamgeer, Younis W, Asif H, Sharif A, Riaz H, Bukhari IA, Assiri AM. Traditional medicinal plants used for respiratory disorders in Pakistan: a review of the ethno-medicinal and pharmacological evidence. Chin Med. 2018;13(1):48. Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. Karachi/St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi/Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995–2020. Bano A, Ahmad M, Hadda TB, Saboor A, Sultana S, Zafar M, Ashraf MA. Quantitative ethnomedicinal study of plants used in the skardu valley at high altitude of KarakoramHimalayan range, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2014;10(1):43. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Polygonum alpinum All.; Polygonum aviculare L.; Polygonum carneum C. Koch; Polygonum hydropiper L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-49412-8_80. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D. Bistorta officinalis Delarbre; Polygonum carneum C. Koch. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions far Eastern Europe. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3319-77088-8_24-2. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Jamal Z, Pervez A, Hussain M, Shah GM, Shah SH, Ahmed M. Ethnomedicinal plants used for gastrointestinal ailments by the rural communities of Kaghan Valley, Mansehra, Pakistan. J Appl Environ Biol Sci. 2017;7(12):41–8. Jan AH, Jan S, Bussmann RW, Wali S, Sist F, Ahmad L. Complementary and alternative medicine research, prospects and limitations in Pakistan: a literature review. Acta Ecol Sin. 2019. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.chnaes.2019.12.005. Kayani S, Ahmad M, Zafar M, Sultana S, Khan MPZ, Ashraf MA, Yaseen G. Ethnobotanical uses of medicinal plants for respiratory disorders among the inhabitants of Gallies – Abbottabad, Northern Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;156:47–60. Khan SM, Page S, Ahmad H, Shaheen H, Ullah Z, Ahmad M, Harper DM. Medicinal flora and ethnoecological knowledge in the Naran Valley, Western Himalaya, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1):4. Khan SW, Abbas Q, Hassan SN, Khan H, Hussain A. Medicinal plants of Turmic Valley (Central Karakoram National Park), Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. J Bioresour Manag. 2015;2(2):11. Mahmood A, Mahmood A, Malik RN. Indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants from Leepa valley, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2012;143(1):338–46. Majid A, Ahmad H, Saqib Z, Ur Rahman I, Khan U, Alam J, Hussain Shah A, Ahmad Jan S, Ali N. Exploring threatened traditional knowledge; ethnomedicinal studies of rare endemic flora from Lesser Himalayan region of Pakistan. Rev Bras. 2019;29(6):785–92. Mulk Khan S, Page S, Ahmad H, Harper D. Ethno-ecological importance of plant biodiversity in mountain ecosystems with special emphasis on indicator species of a Himalayan Valley in the northern Pakistan. Ecol Indic. 2014;37:175–85. Naseer A, Masoodi TH, Geelani SM, Wani AA, Ahmad PI. Ethno-medicinal utilization of medicinal plants under Betula utilis forest in North and Central Kashmir Himalayas. Int J Usuf Mngt. 2017;18(1):14–24. Overgaard Larsen H. Commercial medicinal plant extraction in the hills of Nepal: local management system and ecological sustainability. Environ Manag. 2002;29(1):88–101.

Bistorta amplexicaulis (D. Don) Greene . . .

401

Rahman IU, Afzal A, Iqbal Z, Ijaz F, Ali N, Bussmann RW. Traditional and ethnomedicinal dermatology practices in Pakistan. Clin Dermatol. 2018;36(3):310–9. Razzaq A, Rashid A, Islam M, Iqbal A, Khan H. Ethnomedicinal profile and conservation status of plant biodiversity in Alexander the Great Valley, District Shangla, Pakistan. J Med Plant Res. 2013;7(20):1379–86. Sher Z, Khan Z, Hussain F. Ethnobotanical studies of some plants of Chagharzai valley, district Buner, Pakistan. Pak J Bot. 2011;43(3):1445–52. Ur-Rahman I, Afsal A, Iqbal Z, Ijas F, Ali N, Asif M, Alam J, Majid A, Bussmann RW. Traditional and ethnomedicinal dermatology practices in Pakistan. Clin Dermatol. 2018;36(3):310–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clindermatol.2018.03.018. Ur-Rahman I, Sher H, Bussmann RW, editors. Reference guide on high value medicinal and Aromatic plants – sustainable management and cultivation practices. Mingora, Pakistan: University of Swat; 2019. ISBN 978-969-23419-0-5. Wali R, Rahman K, Raja NI, Qureshi R, Bussmann RW, Mashwani ZUR. A quantitative medico botanical expedition of Fairy Meadows National Park, Diamir, Gilgit Baltistan, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019:1835. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.35.1-30.

Boerhavia diffusa L. NYCTAGINACEAE Kuber Jung Malla, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Boerhavia diffusa L.: Axia cochinchinensis Lour.; Boerhavia adscendens Willd.; Boerhavia caribea Jacq. Boerhavia coccinea Mill.; Boerhavia coccinea fo. parcehirsuta Heimerl; Boerhavia coccinea var. leiocarpa (Heimerl) Standl.; Boerhavia decumbens Vahl; Boerhavia diandra Aubl.; Boerhavia diffusa var. hirsuta (Jacq.) Kuntze; Boerhavia diffusa var. leiocarpa (Heimerl) C.D. Adams; Boerhavia diffusa var. mutabilis R. Br.; Boerhavia diffusa var. paniculata (Rich.) Kuntze; Boerhavia diffusa var. viscosa (Lag. & Rodr.) Heimerl; Boerhavia erecta L.; Boerhavia hirsuta Willd.; Boerhavia ixodes Standl.; Boerhavialaxa Pers.; K. J. Malla Department of Plant Resources, Kathmandu, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_40

403

404

K. J. Malla et al.

Boerhavia paniculata fo. leiocarpa Heimerl; Boerhavia paniculata Lam.; Boerhavia paniculata Rich.; Boerhavia polymorpha Rich.; Boerhavia ramulosa M.E. Jones.; Boerhavia reopens L.; Boerhavia repens var. diffusa (L.) Heimerl ex Kook. f.; Boerhavia sonorae Rose; Boerhavia squamata Raf.; Boerhavia surinamensis Miq.; Boerhavia viscosa fo. oligadena Heimerl; Boerhavia viscosa Lag. & Rodr.; Boerhavia viscosa subsp. apiculata Standl.

Local Names Boerhavia diffusa: Jammu: Itt-Sitt, Ittsitt, Saandthi, Punarnava, Lal dodal; Punjabi: Itsit; Gharwal: Pundera; Nepali: Punarnava, Sothagni; India: Punarnava, Bashkhira, Punarnava, Sant; Sri Lanka: Chattaranai, Kancharanai, Mukurattai; English: Spreading Hogweed, Red spiderling, Horse purslane, Pigweed

Botany and Ecology Boerhavia diffusa: Herbs perennial. Stems trailing, to 200 cm; stems glabrous or sparsely pubescent. Roots thick, fleshy. Petiole 0.4–2 cm; leaf blade ovate, 1–5
1– 4 cm, both surfaces sparsely pubescent, abaxially gray-yellow, wrinkled when dry, base rounded or cuneate, margin undulate, with stout, muticellular hairs, apex obtuse or acute. Inflorescences terminal, capitate-cymose panicles; peduncle slender, sparsely pubescent. Pedicel short to almost absent. Bracts small, lanceolate, pubescent. Perianth limb bright purple or purple-red, 1.5–2 mm. Stamens 1–3(5), slightly exserted or included. Anthocarp clavate, 3–3.5 mm, 5-ribbed, with viscid glands and sparse pubescence, apex rounded. Flowering and fruiting spring-autumn (Wu et al. 2003, 1994–2013) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4). Fig. 1 Boerhavia diffusa (Nyctaginaceae), plant, Nepal. (Photo Kuber J Malla)

Boerhavia diffusa L.

405

Fig. 2 Boerhavia diffusa (Nyctaginaceae), flower, Nepal. (Photo Kuber J Malla)

Fig. 3 Boerhavia diffusa (Nyctaginaceae), flower, Nepal. (Photo Kuber J Malla)

B. diffusa is pantropical in distribution. It is recorded in floras of India, Malaysia, and West Pakistan, and in many of the Indian regional floras such as Madras (Gamble 1957), Tamil Nadu Carnatic, Goa, Diu, Daman, and Nagarhaveli (Rao 1986), Tamil Nadu (Henry et al. 1987), Cannanore (Ramachandran and Nair 1988), and Eastern Karnataka (Singh 1988). Open places near sea, dry and warm river valleys; 100–1900 m. Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Hainan, Sichuan, S Taiwan, Yunnan [Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Japan (Ryukyu Islands), Laos,

406

K. J. Malla et al.

Fig. 4 Boerhavia diffusa (Nyctaginaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam; Africa, America, Australia, Pacific Islands] (Wu et al. 2003). Its native range is unclear, and it is widely naturalized. In Nepal, it grows at elevations from sea level to 300–1200 m from east to west Nepal (Press et al. 2000).

Phytochemistry Many bioactive compounds like tannins, flavonoids, alkaloids (punarnavine), glycosides, steroids, terpenoids, phenolic compounds, rotenoids (boeravinones A-O), etc. are reported in B. diffusa plants (Shisode and Kareppa 2011; Krishnamoorthy et al. 2017). Three rotenoids, namely, boeravinone A, B, and C and 3-O-(60 -palmitoyl-β-D-glucopyranosyl) sitosterol, were isolated and their structure was determined by Lami et al. (1990) and Kadota et al. (1989). Boeravinone B was identified and quantified by employing HPLC in hydroalcoholic extracts made from whole plant of B. diffusa and also in its polyherbal formulation (Singh et al. 2017).

Local Medicinal Uses Boerhavia diffusa: Classified as rasayana in Ayurveda. Ayurvedic formulations such as Punarnavasava, Sukumara ghrita, Punarnavadyarishta, Punarnavadi mandura, Sothaghna Lepa, Maha Narayan Taila, Punarnavastaka kvatha curna, Punarnava guggulu, Punarnavadi kvatha curna, and Varuni contain B. diffusa as main ingredient. These formulations are used to treat numerous ailments in humans like heart disease, sciatica, inflammation, diseases of abdomen, spleen and liver disorders, arthritis, etc. (Watanabe et al. 2005; DPR 2007; Mishra et al. 2014). B. diffusa has been traditionally used to treat cardiac diseases in Ayurveda (Kirtikar and Basu 1991) and to treat eye complaints in Nepal (Kunwar 2018) and India (Sadhu et al. 2011). Used in Punjab for dysmenorrhea, cough, snakebites, bronchial

Boerhavia diffusa L.

407

problems, asthma, kidney failure, and flu (Umair et al. 2019). In India as abortifacient, for anemia, asthma, as blood purifier, body heat, childbirth, cold, cough, dropsy, inflammation, jaundice complaints, liver complaints, menstrual complaints, pain in the abdomen, piles, stomach complaints, urine complaints, and wounds (Verma et al. 2007) and also against rheumatism (Pandikumar et al. 2011). In Gharwal, for asthma, bronchitis, as tonic and for eye complaints (Kumar et al. 2011), the latter also in Rajasthan (Katewa et al. 2004). Used in Jammu and Kashmir for snakebites, asthma, as diuretic, expectorant, for eye ailments, fever, gangrene, inflammation, jaundice, as laxative, and to treat edema (Gairola et al. 2014).

Local Food Uses Boerhavia diffusa: Long thick and fleshy root are eaten by the Aborigines of central Australia. Leaves are cooked as a pot herb or added to soups and also used as a vegetable. Also eaten in Nepal (Dangol et al. 2017).

References Dangol DR, Maharjan KL, Maharjan SK, Acharya, AK. 2017. Wild edible plants in Nepal. in: Joshi BK, Bahadur KCH, Acharya A . Conservation and utilization of agricultural plant genetic resources of Nepal. NAGRC, Dhulikhel. 390–407. Department of Plant Resources. Medicinal plants of Nepal. 2nd ed. Kathmandu: Department of Plant Resources; 2007. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Gamble JS. Flora of the presidency of Madras, vol. II. Calcutta: Botanical Survey of India; 1957. Henry AN, Kumari GR, Chitra V. Flora of Tamil Nadu, India, vol. II. Coimbatore: Botanical Survey of India; 1987. Kadota S, Lami N, Tezuka Y, Kikuchi T. Constituents of the roots of Boerhavia diffusa Linn. I. Examination of sterols and structures of new rotenoids (boeravinones A and B). Chem Pharm Bull. 1989;37(12):3214–20. Katewa SS, Chaudhary BL, Jain A. Folk herbal medicines from tribal area of Rajasthan, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2004;92:41–6. Kirtikar KR, Basu BD. Indian medicinal plants, vol. III. 2nd ed. Allahabad: Lalit Mohan Basu; 1991. p. 2045–8. Periodical Experts Book Agency, Delhi. Krishnamoorthy PKP, Muthukumaran S, Maheswaran A, Sukumaran P. Isolation, purification and characterization of boeravinone B from Boerhavia diffusa Linn. Int Res J Pharm. 2017;8:140–4. Kumar M, Bussmann RW, Mukesh J, Kumar P. Ethnomedicinal uses of plants close to rural habitation in Garhwal Himalayan, India. J Med Plant Res. 2011;511:2252–60. Kunwar RM. Ethnobotany of the Kailash Sacred Landscape, Nepal: implication for conservation through interactions of plants, people, culture and geography. PhD dissertation, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton; 2018. Lami N, Kadota S, Tezuka Y, Kikuchi T. Constituents of the roots of Boerhavia diffusa Linn. II. Structure and stereochemistry of a new rotenoid boeravinone C2. Chem Pharm J. 1990;38(6):1558–62. Mishra S, Aeri V, Gaur PV, Jachak SM. Phytochemical, therapeutic, and ethnopharmacological overview for a traditionally important herb: Boerhavia diffusa Linn. BioMed Res Int. 2014. Article ID 808302:1–19. Hindawi Publishing Corporation.

408

K. J. Malla et al.

Pandikumar P, Chellappandian M, Mutheeswaran S, Ignacimuthu S. Consensus of local knowledge on medicinal plants among traditional healers in Mayiladumparai block of Theni District, Tamil Nadu, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011;134:354–62. Press JR, Shrestha KK, Sutton DA. Annotated checklist of the flowering plants of Nepal. London: The Natural History Museum; 2000. Tribhuvan University, Nepal. Ramachandran VS, Nair VJ. Flora of Cannanore. Ser. 3. Calcutta: Botanical Survey of India; 1988. Rao RS. Flora of Goa, Diu, Daman, Dadra and Nagarhaveli. Ser. 2. Calcutta: Botanical Survey of India; 1986. Sadhu PS, Singh S, Gupta V, Bansal P, Kumar D. Potential herbs used in ocular diseases. J Pharm Sci Res. 2011;3(4):1127–40. Shisode KS, Kareppa BM. In-vitro antioxidant activity and phytochemical studies of Boerhaavia diffusa Linn. roots. Int J Pharm Sci Res. 2011;2:3171–6. Singh NP. Flora of Eastern Karnataka, vol. II. Delhi: Mittal Publications; 1988. Singh A, Sharma H, Singh R, Pant P, Srikant N, Dhiman KS. Identification and quantification of boeravinone-B in whole plant extract of Boerhavia diffusa Linn and in its polyherbal formulation. JNR. 2017;17:88–95. Umair M, Altaf M, Bussmann RW, Abbasi AM. Ethnomedicinal uses of the local flora in Chenab riverine area, Punjab province Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2019;15:7. https://doi.org/10. 1186/s13002-019-0285-4. Verma A, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants in an urban environment: the medicinal flora of Banares Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3:35. Watanabe T, Rajbhandari KR, Malla KJ, Yahara S. A handbook of medicinal plants of Nepal. Bangkok: Kobfai Publishing Project Foundation for Democracy and Development Studies; 2005. 285 p. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Wu ZY, Raven PH, Hong DY, editors. Flora of China. Vol. 5 (Ulmaceae through Basellaceae). Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 2003.

Bombax ceiba L. MALVACEAE Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ikram Ur Rahman, and Maroof Ali Turi

Synonyms Bombax heptaphyllum L., Bombax malabaricum DC., Gossampinus malabarica (DC.) Merr., Salmalia malabarica (DC) Schott ex Endl.

Local Names Bombax ceiba: Urdu: Mocharas.

H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan e-mail: [email protected] M. A. Turi College of Life Science, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu, China e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_212

409

410

H. Sher et al.

Fig. 1 Bombax ceiba (Bombacaceae), habit, Pakistan. (Photo M.A. Turi)

Botany and Ecology Bombax ceiba: Tall trees, trunk usually unbranched up to considerable height. Bark gray, covered with hard small conical prickles, usually disappearing with age. Petiole 10–30 cm long, pulvinate at the base; stipules triangular, 5–10 mm  4 mm with hairy margin, caducous. Leaflets 5–7, glabrous, entire, elliptic-lanceolate, acuminate, attenuate at base, more or less leathery, unequal, 5–20 cm  2–8 cm; petiolule 1–3 cm long. Inflorescence many fascicles of 1–4 flowers borne, at or near the end of branches. Flowers large, showy, red (occasionally yellow or white); pedicel thick, 2– 2.5 cm long. Calyx 3-lobed (rarely 2-lobed), cup-shaped, 3.5–4 cm long, smooth outside, densely silky within. Petals twisted in bud, stellate tomentose outside, sparsely pubescent inside, elliptic-oblong, usually recurved, 8–11 cm  4–5 cm. Stamens c. 75, united at base in 6 phalanges, each of 11–15 stamens, the innermost phalange surrounding the pistil is composed of 15 stamens of which 5-innermost are the largest and forked; filaments 3.5–6 cm long, pink, somewhat tomentose, flattened at base; anthers long, afterward twisted, violet. Ovary conical, green, covered with silky hairs, 0.5–1.2 cm long; style simple, 5.9–6.5 cm long; stigmas 5, filiform. 5– 6 mm long. Capsule 10–12.5 cm long; oblong, woody, 5 valved, profusely to finely tomentose. Seeds brown, smooth, obovid, 6 mm long, embedded in silky white wool. Flowering December–March. Distribution: Commonly cultivated as a roadside and garden tree in Pakistan. Wild in sub-Himalayan tract from Hazara to eastward, up to 1200 m, India, Ceylon, Southeast Asia, China, Australia (Queenslands North Australia) and China (Yunnan) (Ali and Qaiser 1995-2020) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6).

Bombax ceiba L.

411

Fig. 2 Bombax ceiba (Bombacaceae), habit, Pakistan. (Photo M.A. Turi)

Fig. 3 Bombax ceiba (Bombacaceae), flower, Pakistan. (Photo M.A. Turi)

Local Medicinal Uses Bombax ceiba: The flowers are astringent and refrigerant and to treat cutaneous infections. The young roots are diuretic and tonic. They are used in the treatment of cholera, tubercular fistula, coughs, urinary complaints, nocturnal pollution, abdominal pain due to dysentery, and impotency. The gum is astringent, demulcent and tonic. It is used in the treatment of dysentery, hemoptysis in pulmonary tuberculosis, influenza, and menorrhagia. The leaves are hypotensive and hypoglycemic. A decoction of the shoots can be been used to treat ulcers of the palate, syphilis,

412 Fig. 4 Bombax ceiba (Bombacaceae), flower, Pakistan. (Photo M.A. Turi)

Fig. 5 Bombax ceiba (Bombacaceae), flower, Pakistan. (Photo M.A. Turi)

Fig. 6 Bombax ceiba (Bombacaceae), flower, Pakistan. (Photo M.A. Turi)

H. Sher et al.

Bombax ceiba L.

413

leprosy, and spider or snake bites. Combined with the roots of Moghania macrophylla, the fruit of Terminalia chebula and borax, they are used to treat enlarged spleen; they are combined with Capparis zeylanica and Carissa carandas to treat edema; and with Trigonella foenum-graecum to treat corns on the foot. The seedlings have reputed antipyretic activity (when ground with a few leaves of Cassia fistula and Semecarpus anacardium). They are combined with Vitis spp. to treat carbuncle; and with Terminalia alata to treat haematuria. The stem is used on bleeding gums (cooked in mustard oil with the bark of Zyzyphus rugosa and Ichnocarpus frutescens and then eaten). The bark is reputedly used against cholera (usually combined with many other plants), pleurisy, stings, and as a diuretic. It is used in bandages for lasting fractures or given in infusion for toothache before visiting the dentist.

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Bombax ceiba: A fast-growing plant, tolerant of full sun even when small and with a wide range of uses, it can be used as a pioneer when restoring native woodland. It can also be used as a pioneer when establishing a large woodland garden, being able to remain as a canopy tree as the garden matures. The plant is traditionally grown in living fences in the northwestern Himalayas, where it helps to exclude livestock and other animals; mark out land boundaries, while also providing a range of medicinal and other uses. The seed floss is used as a stuffing material for pillows, cushions. It is considered to be vermin-proof. A fiber is obtained from the inner bark, which is suitable for cordage. A transparent gum exudes from the bark and sapling root (Malabar gum). The gum can be mixed with ashes and castor oil and is then used as a cement for caulking iron saucepans. An oil obtained from the seed is used to make soap and for lighting purpose. It can be used as a substitute for cottonseed oil. The fibrous bark is used for making ropes. The greyish, dark-streaked wood is coarse-textured, straight-grained, light in weight, very soft and pithy. It can be used to make packing cases, toys, matches, pencils. Large trunks are often hollowed out to make canoes. The wood is a source of cellulose production. The exudate is sold (Ur Rahman et al. 2019).

References Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan and Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995-2020. Ur-Rahman I, Sher H, Bussmann RW, editors. Reference guide on high value medicinal and aromatic plants – sustainable management and cultivation practices. Pakistan: University of Swat; 2019. (ISBN 978-969-23419-0-5).

Brucea javanica (L.) Merr. SIMAROUBACEAE Kamal Adhikari, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Brucea javanica (L.) Merr.: Ailanthus gracilis Salisb. Brucea amarissima Desv. ex Gomes; Brucea amarissima (Lour.) Merr.; Brucea glabrata Decne.; Brucea gracilis (Salisb.) DC.; Brucea sumatrana Roxb.; Brucea sumatrensis Spreng.; Gonus amarissimus Lour.; Lussa amarissima (Lour.) Kuntze; Rhus affinis Wall.; Rhus amela D. Don; Rhus bucki-amela Roxb.; Rhus fastuosa Salisb.; Rhus javanica L.; Tetradium amarissimum Poir.

K. Adhikari Resource Himalaya Foundation, Lalitpur, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_205

415

416

K. Adhikari et al.

Local Names Brucea javanica: Nepali: Amilo, Bhaki amilo, Bhangil, Chugo, Chuk amilo, Dudhe bhalayo; English: Nepalese sumac; Hindi: Tatri; Tibetan name: Thanksin; Amchi: Da trig; Bhojpuri: Aanwala; Chepang: Rusi; Danuwar: Bhakiamilo; Gurung: Tiba, Ghursing; Lepcha: Tanghrilchyor; Naga: Tangwa; Limbu: Iseba, Isi; Magar: Muruk; Newari: Supchun; Rai: Mahada, Mara; Sunwar: Bhakari, Kursinglo; Tamang: Tibro, Tipru; Gharwal: Damfel; Tharu: Amil (Manandhar 2002; Ghimire et al. 2008); Pashto: Titarai ‫ﺗﯿﺘﺎﺭﯤ‬

Botany and Ecology Brucea javanica: Shrubs to trees, 2–10 m tall; branchlets ferruginous pubescent, lenticellate. Leaf blade sessile, imparipinnately compound; rachis broadly winged to wingless, ferruginous pubescent; leaflets (5–)7–13; leaflet blade ovate to oblong, increasing in size toward apex, 6–12  3–7 cm, adaxially dark green, sparsely pubescent or glabrescent, abaxially lighter green, glaucous, and ferruginous pubescent, base rounded to cuneate in terminal leaflet, margin dentate, often crenate, apex acute, lateral veins and reticulate venation impressed adaxially and prominent abaxially. Inflorescence many branched, densely ferruginous pubescent, male ones 30–40 cm, female ones shorter. Pedicel about 1 mm, minutely pubescent; flowers white. Male flowers: calyx minutely pubescent, lobes long ovate, about 1 mm, with ciliate margins; petals obovate-oblong, about 2 mm; stamen filaments about 2 mm, anthers ovoid, about 0.7 mm; disk annular; ovary reduced to absent. Female flowers: calyx lobes about 0.6 mm; petals elliptic-ovate, about 1.6 mm; staminodes much reduced; disk annular; ovary ovoid, about 1 mm, densely white pubescent, styles 3, stigma capitate. Drupe globose, slightly compressed, 4–5 mm in diameter, mixed pilose and glandular-pubescent, red at maturity. Flowering August–September, fruiting October (Polunin and Stainton 1984, Ghimire et al. 2008; Wu et al. 1994– 2013; Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Phytochemistry Quassinoids are the main constituents of Brucea javanica. The extract and the isolated compounds especially quassinoids exhibited various biological properties, such as antitumor and antimalarial effects (Zhao et al. 2014). From quassinoid, (i) 4-ethoxycarbonyl-2-quinolone, (ii) bruceine I, (iii) vanillic acid, (iv) quercetin3-O-beta-D-galactoside, and (v) luteolin-7-O-beta-D-glucoside were isolated (Yu and Li 1990). Two new quassinoids namely (1) brujavanol C and (2) brujavanol D, along with six compounds (3) brujavanol A, (4) bruceine E, (5) 5a, 14b, 15b-trihydroxyklaineanone, (6) bruceine D, (7) bruceine H, and

Brucea javanica (L.) Merr.

417

Fig. 1 Brucea javanica (Simaroubaceae), Dhulikhel, Nepal. (Photo Dipesh Pyakurel)

Fig. 2 Brucea javanica (Simaroubaceae), Rolpa, Nepal. (Photo Kamal Adhikari)

(8) bruceine F were isolated (Chumkaew et al. 2017). Seven compounds isolated from the n-BuOH extract of the dried stem bark are: (i) gallic acid, (ii) methyl gallate, (iii) scopoletin, (iv) scopolin, (v) 1, 2, 3, 4, 6-penta-O-galloyl-B-D-glucose, (vi) orcinol, and (vii) orcinol-B-D-glucoside (Chung et al. 1999). A new quassinoid, yadanziolide S was isolated from the seeds, along with 10 compounds flazin, bruceine D, yadanziolide B, bruceoside A, yadanziolide S, yadanzigan, glycerol 1,3-bisoleate, azelaic acid, ()-8-hydroxyhexadecanoic acid, and vanillin (Su et al. 2002). The fruit also contains gallotannin, gallotannic acid, gallic acid, m-digallic acid, and potassium acid salts (Ahmed 2010; Ghimire et al. 2008).

418

K. Adhikari et al.

Fig. 3 Brucea javanica (Simaroubaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 4 Brucea javanica (Simaroubaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Local Medicinal Uses Brucea javanica: Dry fruits of Nepalese sumac are cut into small pieces, decocted, and the decoction is drunk for asthma, stomach ache, dysentery (Rokayaa et al. 2010; Lama et al. 2001; Bhattarai 1993). Fruits are appetite inducing and eaten for stomach ache, dysentery, and diarrhea (Budha-Magar et al. 2020; Gubhaju and Gaha 2019; Uprety et al. 2016; Kunwar et al. 2013; Parajuli 2013; Acharya 2012; Uprety et al. 2012; Balami 2006; Poudel and Uprety 2004; Kunwar and Duwadee 2003; Shrestha and Dhillion 2003; Manandhar 2002; Lama et al. 2001; Ghimire et al. 2001; Pohle 1990). Fruits are either eaten raw or pickled in Manang (Rajbhandari 2001).

Brucea javanica (L.) Merr.

419

Fruit powder is given to treat dysentery at Chitwan district; powdered seed is taken with yogurt to cure diarrhea by the Tamangs of Kathmandu valley (Rajbhandari 2001). Powdered fruit is given to treat profuse menstruation at Lamjung district (Rajbhandari 2001; Manandhar 1987). A paste of the galls on the plant is applied to treat swellings and wounds (Mahato and Chaudhary 2005; Manandhar 2002). Powder of fruit bark is used to swollen legs due to mud at Dang district (Rajbhandari 2001). A paste of the galls on the plant is given to treat paralysis (Manandhar 2002). A decoction of fruit is given to animals with foot-and-mouth disease (Acharya et al. 2015; Malla and Chhetri 2009; Manandhar 2002). The fruits are carminative and are recommended in colic (Haq et al. 2011; Haq 2012). Used for cholera, body swellings, and fever (Malik et al. 2015). For gas problems, stomach ache, against mushroom poisoning, dysentery, high blood pressure, rashes (Kunwar et al. 2009, 2010; Kichu et al. 2015). Rhus parviflora is used to treat tooth problems (Pratap Singh et al. 2019), cholera, cough, and fever (Kumar et al. 2011; Malik et al. 2015). Rhus succedanea: Remedy for colic, allergies, tuberculosis (Gairola et al. 2014). Rhus natalensis: Rots are pounded in water and the extract is drunk for flu, abdominal pain and gonorrhea, hookworm and diarrhea. Leaves are used to treat cough, and the steam from boiled leaves is inhaled for colds. The leaf decoction is drunk for stomach-ache, especially in children (Kokwaro 2009). Used to remedy stomachache (Bussmann 2006). The fruits are eaten to prevent chest problems, and the twigs used as toothbrush (Bussmann et al. 2006). The plant serves also as antimalarial (Njoroge and Bussmann 2006a), and to treat back pains, diarrhea, anthrax, postpartum pains and toothache (Njoroge et al. 2004). Rhus tenuinervis: Young shoots and leaves chewed for heartburn (Kokwaro 2009). Rhus vulgaris: Boiled fruits are used for diarrhea. Boiled stems applied to wounds. Powdered roots are used for gonorrhea, the leaves for hemorrhoids (Kokwaro 2009). The fruit decoction is used for diarrhea (Beentje 1994). The plant serves also as antimalarial (Njoroge et al. 2004; Njoroge and Bussmann 2006). Rhus ruspolii: Used to remedy stomachache (Bussmann 2006) and to treat wounds (Giday et al. 2009).

Local Food Uses Brucea javanica: Ripe fruits are eaten either raw or pickled (Dangol et al. 2017), as well as appetizer (Kunwar et al. 2012). Rhus natalensis: The fruit is eaten (Beentje 1994; Bussmann 2006). Rhus tenuinervis: The fruit is eaten (Beentje 1994). Rhus vulgaris: The fruit is eaten (Beentje 1994). Rhus ruspolii: The fruit is edible (Bussmann 2006). Rhus coriaria is used as spice (Yeşil et al. 2019).

420

K. Adhikari et al.

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Brucea javanica: The plant is used as fodder, fuelwood, furniture, and agricultural implements (Kunwar and Duwadee 2003). Fruits eaten by livestock (Kunwar et al. 2012). Rhus roxburghii: Causes contact dermatitis (Kichu et al. 2015). Rhus natalensis: A bark infusion is given to livestock with East Coast Fever (Kokwaro 2009). The leaves are browsed by livestock (Bussmann 2006). Burnt for its good smell and used as firewood (Bussmann et al. 2006). Given top livestock to treat endometritis and foot and mouth disease (Muthee et al. 2011). Produces excellent charcoal (Tian et al. 2017). Rhus vulgaris: A root decoction is used for diarrhea in livestock (Kokwaro 2009). Rhus ruspolii: The leaves are browsed by livestock (Bussmann 2006). Rhus glutinosa is used as fuelwood (Mekonnen et al. 2015).

References Acharya R. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of Resunga hill used by Magar community of Badagaun, Gulmi, Nepal. Sci World. 2012;10:54–65. Acharya R, Marasini D, Acharya DP. Traditional knowledge on medicinal plants used for the treatment of domestic cattle in Dhikura village of Arghakhanchi district, Nepal. Adv J Med Plant Res. 2015;2(1):006–16. Ahmed M. Medicinal Plants. Chennai: MJP Publishers; 2010. Balami NP. Ethnobotanical uses of plants among the Newar Community of Pharping Village of Kathmandu District, Nepal. IEEE Acoust Speech Signal Process Newslett. 2006;24(1) https:// doi.org/10.3126/tuj.v24i1.251. Bhattarai NK. Folk herbal medicines of Dolakha district, Nepal. Fitoterapia. 1993;64(5):387–95. Budha-Magar S, Bhandari P, Ghimire SK. Ethno-medicinal survey of plants used by Magar (Kham) community, Rolpa district, Western Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2020; https://doi.org/10.32859/era. Bussmann RW, Gilbreath GG, Lutura M, Lutuluo R, Kunguru K, Wood N, Mathenge S. Plant use of the Maasai of Sekenani Valley, Maasai Mara, Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:22. Chumkaew P, Pechwang J, Srisawat T. Two new antimalarial quassinoid derivatives from the stems of Brucea javanica. J Nat Med. 2017; https://doi.org/10.1007/s11418-017-1089-2. Chung S, Hwang BY, Oh G, Kang S, Kim M, Choi W, Lee KS, Ro JS. Chemical components from the stream Bark of Rhus javanica L. Korean J Pharmacogn. 1999;30(3):295–300. Dangol DR, Maharjan KL, Maharjan SK, Acharya AK. Wild edible plants in Nepal. In: Joshi BK, Bahadur KCH, Acharya A, editors. Conservation and utilization of agricultural plant genetic resources of Nepal. Dhulikhel: NAGRC; 2017. p. 390–407. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Ghimire SK, Lama YC, Tripathi GR, Schmitt S, Aumeeruddy-Thomas Y. Conservation of plant resources, community development and training in applied ethnobotany at Shey-Phoksundo national park and its buffer zone, Dolpa. WWF report series no. 41. 2001. Ghimire SK, Sapkota IB, Oli BR, Parajuli RR. Non-timber forest products of Nepal Himalaya: database of some important species found in the mountain protected areas and surrounding regions. Kathmandu: WWF Nepal Program; 2008. Giday M, Asfaw Z, Woldu Z. Medicinal plants of the Meinit ethnic group of Ethiopìa: an ethnobotanical study. J Ethnopharmacol. 2009;124:513–21.

Brucea javanica (L.) Merr.

421

Gubhaju MR, Gaha Y. Ethnomedicinal uses of plants in Mityal, Palpa, Nepal. J Plant Res. 2019;17(1):155–62. Haq F. The ethno botanical uses of medicinal plants of Allai Valley, Western Himalaya Pakistan. Int J Plant Res. 2012;2(1):21–34. Haq F, Ahmad H, Alam M. Traditional uses of medicinal plants of Nandiar Khuwarr catchment (District Battagram), Pakistan. J Med Plants Res. 2011;5(1):39–48. Kichu A, Malewska T, Akter K, Imchen I, Harrington D, Kohen J, Vemulpad SR, Jamie JF. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of Chungtia village,Nagaland, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;166:5–17. Kokwaro JO. Medicinal plants of East Africa. Nairobi: University of Nairobi Press; 2009. Kumar M, Bussmann RW, Mukesh J, Kumar P. Ethnomedicinal uses of plants close to rural habitation in Garhwal Himalayan, India. J Med Plant Res. 2011;511:2252–60. Kunwar RM, Duwadee NPS. Ethnobotanical notes on flora of Khaptad National Park, Far western Nepal. Himal J Sci. 2003;1(1):25–30. Kunwar RM, Upreti Y, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Indigenous use and ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in Far-west Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009;7:5–28. Kunwar RM, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants in Farwest Nepal: their indigenous uses and pharmacological validity. Med Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010;4 (special issue 1):28–42. Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Sharma LN, Shrestha KP, Kominee H. Ethnobotany 2012. Underutilized plant species in Far-West Nepal – a valuable resource being wasted. J Mt Sci. 2012;9:589–600. Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Sharma LN, Shrestha KP, Kominee H, Bussmann RW. Underutilized plant species in far west Nepal. J Mt Sci. 2013;9(5):589–600. Lama YC, Ghimire SK, Aumeeruddy-Thomas Y. Medicinal plants of Dolpo: Amchis’ knowledge and conservation. Kathmandu: WWF Nepal Program; 2001. Mahato RB, Chaudhary RP. Ethnomedicinal study and antibacterial activities of selected plants of Palpa district, Nepal. Sci World. 2005;3(3):26–31. Malik ZA, Bhat J, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhat AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44. Malla B, Chhetri RB. Indigenous knowledge on ethnobotanical plants of Kavrepalanchowk district. Kathmandu Univ J Sci Eng Technol. 2009;5(2):96–109. Manandhar NP. Traditional medicinal plants used by tribals of Lamjung district, Nepal. Int J Crude Drug Res. 1987;25(4):236–40. Manandhar NP. Plants and people of Nepal. Portland: Timber Press; 2002. Mekonnen T, Giday M, Kelbessa K. Ethnobotanical study of homegarden plants in Sebeta-Awas District of the Oromia Region of Ethiopia to assess use, species diversity and management practices. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2015;11:64. Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Phytotherapeutic management of diversity and utilization of antimalarial ethnophytotherapeutic remedies among the Kikuyus Central Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:8. Njoroge GN, Barbara G, Bussmann RW, Newton LE, Ngumi VW. Utilization of weed species as source of traditional medicines in Central Kenya: optimizing resource efficiency R.U.E. in agroecosystems. Lyonia. 2004;72:71–87. Parajuli R. Indigenous knowledge on medicinal plants: Maipokhari, Maimajhuwa and Mabu VDCs of Ilam District, Eastern Nepal. J Dept Plant Resour. 2013;35:50–8. Pohle P. Useful plants of Manang District. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag Wiebaden; 1990. Polunin O, Stainton A. Flowers of the Himalaya. Delhi: Oxford University Press; 1984. Poudel RC, Uprety Y. Ethnobotanical survey and NTFP resources in Nuwakot district, Central Nepal. Botanica Orientalis. 2004;4:66–71. Rajbhandari KR. Ethnobotany of Nepal. Kathmandu: Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal; 2001. Rokayaa MB, Münzbergováa Z, Timsina B. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants from the Humla district of western Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010;130:485–504. Shrestha PM, Dhillion SS. Medicinal plant diversity and use in the highlands of Dolakha district, Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2003;86(1):81–96.

422

K. Adhikari et al.

Singh AP, Kumar M, Nagar B, Pala NA, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal use of plant resources in Kirtinagar Block of Tehri Garhwal in Western Himalaya. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18(14) https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.14.1-11. Su B, Chang LC, Park EJ, Cuendet M, Santarsiero BD, Mesecar AD, Mehta RG, Fong HHS, Pezzuto JM, Kinghorn AD. Bioactive constituents of the seeds of Brucea javanica. Planta Med. 2002;68:730–3. Uprety Y, Poudel RC, Shrestha KK, Rajbhandary S, Tiwari NN, Shrestha UB, Asselin H. Diversity of use and local knowledge of wild edible plant resources in Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2012;8:16. Uprety Y, Poudel RC, Gurung J, Chettri N, Chaudhary RP. Traditional use and management of NTFPs in Kangchenjunga Landscape: implications for conservation and livelihoods. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:19. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0089-8. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Yeşil Y, Çelik M, Yılmaz B. Wild edible plants in Yeşilli (Mardin-Turkey), a multicultural area. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2019;15:52. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-019-0327-y. Yu YN, Li X. Studies on the chemical constituents of Brucea javanica (L.). Merr Acta Pharm Sin. 1990;25(5):382–6. PMID: 2178313. Zhao L, Li C, Zhang Y, Wen Q, Ren D. Phytochemical and biological activities of an anticancer plant medicine. Anti Cancer Agents Med Chem. 2014;14(3):440–58.

Bupleurum thomsonii C.B. Clarke APIACEAE Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Botany and Ecology Bupleurum thomsonii: Erect, 1 or more stems from the base, 10–75 cm tall. Lower leaves linear to lanceolate, up to 14 cm long, veins 5–7; upper leaves lanceolate to ovate, up to 10 cm long, veins numerous, base broad, amplexicaul, cordate. Involucral bracts lacking or 1–3, linear to lanceolate, acuminate bractlets, as long or longer than the flowering umbellet, veins 3. Flowers about 20, yellow. Pedicels 3–4 times longer than the carpels. Fruit 6–7 mm long; ridges winged; furrows 3-vittate. Himalayas in India and W. Pakistan (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Local Medicinal Uses Bupleurum thomsonii: In traditional Chines medicine, Bupleurum is used in mixture with other plants for diarrhea, constipation, alternating chills, and fever caused by cold, dry throat, flank pain, vomiting, emotional instability, menstrual H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_41

423

424

H. Sher et al.

Fig. 1 Bupleurum sp. (Apiaceae), Zhibiani, Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Bupleurum sp. (Apiaceae), Zhibiani, Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

problems, irregular menstruation, hemorrhoids, anal or uterine prolapse (Liu et al. 2016; Wu 2005). A decoction of above-ground parts of Froriepia subpinnata (Bupleurum subpinnatum) is used in gastric diseases as a tea (Mehdiyeva et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017). Bupleurum chinense is used as analgesic (Almeida et al. 2001). Bupleurum rigidum has antiviral activity (Ahmad et al. 2006).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Froriepia subpinnata (Bupleurum subpinnatum): The above-ground parts are used as seasoning for meat and fish dishes (Mehdiyeva et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017).

Bupleurum thomsonii C.B. Clarke Fig. 3 Bupleurum sp. (Apiaceae), Zhibiani, Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Bupleurum sp. (Apiaceae), Zhibiani, Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

425

426

H. Sher et al.

References Ahmad I, Aquil F, Owais M. Modern phytomedicine. Weinheim: Wiley; 2006. Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan and Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995–2020. Almeida RN, Navarro DS, Barbosa-Filho JM. Plants with central analgesic activity. Phytomedicine. 2001;8(4):310–22. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Liu B, Bussmann RW, Li F, Li J, Hong L, Long C. Ethnobotanical approaches of traditional medicine studies in Southwest China: a literature review. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;186:343–50. Mehdiyeva N, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Froriepia subpinnata (Ldb.) Bail. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-49412-8_49. Wu JN. An illustrated Chines materia medica. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2005.

Buxus wallichiana Baill. BUXACEAE Hammad Ahmad Jan, Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

Local Names Buxus wallichiana: Pashto: Shamshad ‫ﺷﻤﺸﺎﺩ‬

Botany and Ecology Buxus wallichiana: An evergreen shrub or small tree, sometimes up to 10 m tall. Stem straight, bark ash grey, young shoots tetragonal, hirsute, hairs spreading. Leaves lanceolate oblanceolate or very narrowly obovate or elliptic oblong, 1.5–6 cm long, 0.8–l.2 cm broad, attenuate at the base, obtuse or somewhat H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_42

427

428

H. A. Jan et al.

emarginate or apiculate at the apex, glabrous except the hirsute petiole and midrib on upper side, veins conspicuous. Racemes 6–8 mm long, rounded. Floral parts akin to those of last species. Capsule ovoid, walnut brown, 7–10 mm long, 5–6 mm in diameter, horns divergent, c. 2–3 mm long. Flowering March–May. 1–3000 m., in moist hills in Afghanistan, Pakistan, India (Punjab, U.P., Kumaon) Nepal, and Bhutan (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020) (Figs. 1 and 2).

Local Medicinal Uses Buxus wallichiana: The extract of leaves used against edema (Irfan et al. 2018). Leaves of the plant are used as anti-rheumatic, diaphoretic, and febrifuge (Barkatullah et al. 2015). The plant is used as diaphoretic, poisonous (Sher et al. 2011), and for gastrointestinal disorders (Murad et al. 2011).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Buxus wallichiana: The leaves have been reported to be fatal to cattle and other browsing animals except goats. They taste bitter due to the presence of alkaloids like buxines. The wood is uniformly light yellow to brownish yellow, smooth, hard, even Fig. 1 Buxus wallichiana (Buxaceae), Pakistan. (Photo H.A. Jan)

Buxus wallichiana Baill.

429

Fig. 2 Buxus wallichiana (Buxaceae), Pakistan. (Photo H.A. Jan)

textured, with silky lustre and without distinction between sap wood and heart wood. Boxwood is highly durable and is used for engravings, fine carving, turning and for manufacturing drawing, geometrical and musical instruments, snuff boxes, and combs (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020).

References Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan and Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995–2020. Barkatullah, Ibrar M, Rauf A, Hadda TB, Mubarak MS, Patel S. Quantitative ethnobotanical survey of medicinal flora thriving in Malakand Pass Hills, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;169:335–46.

430

H. A. Jan et al.

Irfan M, Nabeela IK, Kamil M, Ullah S, Khan S, Shah M, Jan G. Ethnobotanical survey of the Flora of Tehsil Balakot, District Mansehra, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. J Appl Environ Biol Sci. 2018;8(8):1–13. Murad W, Ahmad A, Gilani SA, Khan MA. Indigenous knowledge and folk use of medicinal plants by the tribal communities of Hazar Nao Forest, Malakand District, North Pakistan. J Med Plants Res. 2011;5(7):1072–86. Sher Z, Khan Z, Hussain F. Ethnobotanical studies of some plants of Chagharzai valley, district Buner, Pakistan. Pak J Bot. 2011;43(3):1445–52.

Caesalpinia decapetala (Roith) Alston FABACEAE C. M. Chaudhary, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Caesalpinia decapetala (Roith) Alston: Biancaea decapetala (Roth) O. Deg.; Biancaea scnadens Tod.; Biancaea sepiaria (Roxb.) Todaro; Caesalpinia cristata L.; Caesalpinia decapetala var. japonica (Siebold & Zucc.) H. Ohashi; Caesalpinia decapetala var. japonica (Siebold & Zucc.) Isley; Caesalpinia var. pubescens (Tang & F.T. Wang) P.C. Huang; Caesalpinia japonica Siebold & Zucc.; Caesalpinia sepiaria Roxb.; Caesalpinia sepiaria var. japonica (Siebold & Zucc.) Gagnep.; Caesalpinia sepiaria var. japonica (Siebold & Zucc.) Makino; Caesalpinia sepiaria C. M. Chaudhary Environmental Services Nepal Private Limited, Thapathali, Kathmandu, Nepal H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_43

431

432

C. M. Chaudhary et al.

var. pubescens Tang & F.T. Wang; Reichardia decapetala Roth; Reichardia decapetala Wight ex Steud.

Local Names Caesalpinia decapetala: Malagasy: Roimainty, Roinombilahy, Tsiafakomby, Tsifakombilahy; South Africa: Kaffer-wag-n-bietjie, Kraaldoring, Mauritiusdoring; Hawaian: Puakelekino; Chinese: Ma tou, Tien tou, Yun shi, Yun shih; India: Aila, Airi, Alai, Arlu, Bara durghar, Cakkarakarakam, Cakkirakarakam, Cakkirakarakkoti, Cakkirakaram, Chilhar, Chillara, Chillari, Chillur, Goddakorinda, Gajalige, Gajalike, Gajalikke, Gajilikke, Gajjiga, Gilo, Goodda-korinda, Good-sige, Hunnula, Hunnulla, Ikai, Ikkai, Indu, Inga, Inku, Inna, Intai, Intu, Iraittu, Iraittumakkoti, Iraittumam, Iyacceti, Iyai, Iyakkoti, Kadinyindu, Kinder, Kanderi, Kando, Karacam, Karanj, Karanjika, Karongsi, Kathet, Kencige, Kenjige, Kilgach, Kingan, Kundugajjikai, Kurudu gejjuga, Kurudugajjida, Kurudugajjiga, Kurudugajjige, Kuruttugajjigai, Kurutugajjika, Puli tatukki, Pulitadukki, Pulitatukki, Pulithaduki-kodi, Pulithadukki, Pulititakki, Pulittodakki, Pulittotakki, Puliyukili, Puthadukki, Ralan, Relan, Relu, Sagargoti, Totari, Unalla, Undla, Uppili, Uri, Urn; Bhasa: Areuy mata hiyang gunung, Secang lembut; French: Arrete-boeuf, Bois sappan; Nepali: Arile kanda, Ulte kanda, Karanga, Lata, Arille, Lata kanda, Arari kanda, Arile; English: Mauritius thorn, Mysore thorn, Wait-a-bit, Water honey locust, Wild honey; Pashto: Jara ‫ﺝﺍړﻩ‬

Botany and Ecology Caesalpinia decapetala: Climbers, with copious prickles. Bark dull red. Branches, rachis of leaves, and inflorescence with recurved prickles and pubescent. Leaves 20– 30 cm; pinnae 3–10 pairs, opposite, with prickles in pairs at base; stipules obliquely ovate, apex acuminate, caducous; leaflets 8–12 pairs, oblong, 1–2.5 cm
6–12 mm, membranous, both surfaces puberulent, glabrescent when old, both ends obtuserounded. Racemes terminal, 15–30 cm, with abundant flowers; rachis densely prickly. Pedicels 3–4 cm, hairy, jointed at apex so flowers easily fall off. Sepals 5, oblong, puberulent. Petals reflexed at anthesis, yellow, orbicular or obovate, 1– 1.2 cm, membranous, base shortly clawed. Stamens subequal to petals in length; filaments compressed at base, lanate in lower part. Ovary glabrous. Legume chestnut-brown, shiny, oblong-ligulate, 6–12
2.5–3 cm, fragile-leathery, glabrous, dehiscent, and thickened to a narrow wing along ventral suture when ripe, apex prolonged into a sharp beak. Seeds 6–9, brown, elliptic, about 11
6 mm. Flowering and fruiting April–October (Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4). Caesalpinia decapetala occurs on bushy hillsides, uplands, and along streams in temperate and tropical regions (Hao et al. 2004). C. decapetala invades forest margins and gaps, plantations, roadsides, and watercourses (PIER 2002). In the Pacific, the plant is confined to dry to mesic lowland habitats (PIER 2002).

Caesalpinia decapetala (Roith) Alston Fig. 1 Caesalpinia decapetala (Fabaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 2 Caesalpinia decapetala (Fabaceae), Nawalparasi, Nepal. (Photo CM Chaudhary)

433

434

C. M. Chaudhary et al.

Fig. 3 Caesalpinia decapetala (Fabaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 4 Caesalpinia decapetala (Fabaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Caesalpinia decapetala (Roith) Alston

435

Phytochemistry Aliphatic natural products: Eicosanoic acid (flower [Imamura et al. 1980]); Heptacosane (flower [Imamura et al. 1980]); Nonacosane (flower [Imamura et al. 1980]). Carbohydrates: 1-(4-Hydroxybenzoyl)glucose; β-D-form (flower [Imamura et al. 1980]). Simple aromatic natural products: Protosappanin A (wood [Namikoshi et al. 1987]); Protosappanin B (wood [Namikoshi et al. 1987]); Protosappanin C (wood [Namikoshi et al. 1987]). Flavonoids: Apigenin (stem [Imamura et al. 1980]); Brazilin; (+)-form (wood [Namikoshi et al. 1987]); Butein (wood [Namikoshi et al. 1987]); 30 -Deoxy-4-0-methylsappanol (wood [Namikoshi et al. 1987]); 3-(3,4-Dihydroxybenzylidene)-7-hydroxy-4-chromanone (wood [Namikoshi et al. 1987]); 40 ,7-dihydroxyflavone (stem [Imamura et al. 1980]); Episappanol (wood [Namikoshi et al. 1987]); Isoliquiritigenin (wood [Namikoshi et al. 1987]); 4–0Methylepisappanol (wood [Namikoshi et al. 1987]) 4–0-Methylesappanol (wood [Namikoshi et al. 1987]); Sappanchalcone (wood [Namikoshi et al. 1987]); Sappanol (wood [Namikoshi et al. 1987]); Sappanone B; ®-form (wood [Namikoshi et al. 1987]). Terpenoids: β-Carotene (flower [Imamura et al. 1980]). Steroids: β-Sitosterol (stem [Imamura et al. 1980]). Aminoacids and peptides: 2-Amino-3(3-carboxyphenyl)propanic acid; (S)-form (seed [Watson and Fowden 1973]); 2-Amino-4-ethylidenepentanedioic acid; (S)-(E)-form (seed [Watson and Fowden 1973]); 2-Piperidinecarboxylic acid; (S)-form (seed [Evans and Bell 1978; Watson and Fowden 1973]).

Local Medicinal Uses Caesalpinia decapetala: Seed powder is used for malaria (Shah et al. 2013). Seed paste is used to remove freckles from face (Shah et al. 2013). Plant root is used as a purgative (Hassan et al. 2020). Used in Ayurveda and Sidha. Bark decoction abortifacient. Roots, stems, and pods used for relieving pain. Roots purgative; roots juice decoction applied to treat sprain and muscular swellings. Leaves as emmenagogue; bruised leaves applied to burns. Seeds astringent, anthelmintic, analgesic, antipyretic, antimalarial; seeds and roots insecticide. Flowers infusion in bronchitis, asthma, and malarial fevers. Caesalpinia sepiaria leaves decoction given in stomach disorders. The roots of C. decapetala (Roth) Alston are used in folk medicine to treat bronchitis, prevent colds, and as an antimalarial agent (Wagner et al. 1999). A bath with decoction of C. decapetala is valuable for the treatment of jaundice (Bhadoriya et al. 2012). Leaves are used for the treatment of burns, biliousness and stomach disorders. Leaves and roots are also used as a purgative and emmenagogue. Other uses of C. decapetala are as laxative, tonic, anti-pyretic and carminative (Pawar and Surana 2010). The anti-oxidant, anti-tumor and antifertility activities of C. decapetala have been reported (Pawar and Surana 2010; Bhadoriya et al. 2012; Xiao et al. 2013). Anthelmintic, antiperiodic, astringent, febrifuge (Gupta 1945). The leaves are emmenagogue and laxative (Chopra et al. 1986; Department of Medicinal Plants 1993). They are applied externally to burns

436

C. M. Chaudhary et al.

(Chopra et al. 1986; Department of Medicinal Plants 1993). The root is purgative (Chopra et al. 1986; Department of Medicinal Plants 1993), used for diarrhea (Waghchaure et al. 2006). The roots are employed for colds and rheumatic pain. The seeds are highly toxic (Ma et al. 2019). Caesalpinia volkensii: Decoction used for malaria (Beentje 1994; Kokwaro 2009). Leaf decoction also applied for pregnancy pain and stomach problems. Roots chewed or boiled as aphrodisiac. Buds crushed and applied for eye problems (Kokwaro 2009). Used as antimalarial (Njoroge and Bussmann 2006a). The root sap is inhaled in the nostrils to treat nose and throat problems (Njoroge and Bussmann 2006c). Caesalpinia bonducella serves as anthelminthic, febrifuge, and antibacterial agent (Kumar et al. 2006).

Local Food Uses Caesalpinia decapetala fruits can be eaten, but the seeds are toxic (Dangol et al. 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Caesalpinia decapetala: Caesalpinia decapetala is used as a landscaping plant as a hedge or an ornamental in China and elsewhere. The bitter tasting stems and roots can be used medicinally, while other parts of the plant are useful in the chemical industry (Hao et al. 2004). The fruits and bark are rich in tannin. With an oil content of 35%, the seeds serve as a source of lubricant and soap (Hao et al. 2004). Plants are often grown as field boundaries in Nepal (Manandhar 2002). An excellent hedge plant (Chopra et al. 1986). Wood-moderately hard (Gamble 1972). Environmental Uses include: Agroforestry; Boundary, barrier or support; soil improvement. It is used as an ornamental plant. Veterinary medicine, leaves given for sores in the mouth. This species has a symbiotic relationship with certain soil bacteria, these bacteria form nodules on the roots and fix atmospheric nitrogen. Some of this nitrogen is utilized by the growing plant but some can also be used by other plants growing nearby (Huxley 1992). The bark is a rich source of tannin (Gupta 1945; Manandhar 2002). Used as fishing poison (Kunwar et al. 2009, 2010). Planted as life fence (Mekonnen et al. 2015). Caesalpinia volkensii: The leaves are used in ethnoveterinary medicine (Njoroge and Bussmann 2006b). Caesalpinia sp.: The wood is used for tools, especially plows, and also as firewood (Bussmann et al. 2011).

Caesalpinia decapetala (Roith) Alston

437

References Beentje H. Kenya trees and shrubs. Nairobi: National Museums of Kenya; 1994. Bhadoriya U, Sharma P, Solank SS. In vitro free radical scavenging activity of gallic acid isolated from Caesalpinia decapetala wood. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. 2012;2(Suppl 2):833–6. Bussmann RW, Swartzinsky P, Worede A, Evangelista P. Plant use in Odo-Bulu and Demaro, Bale region, Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2011;7:28. Chopra RN, Nayar SL, Chopra IC. Glossary of Indian medicinal plants (including the supplement). New Delhi: Council of Scientific and Industrial Research; 1986. Dangol DR, Maharjan KL, Maharjan SK, Acharya AK. Wild edible plants in Nepal. In: Joshi BK, Bahadur KCH, Acharya A, editors. Conservation and utilization of agricultural plant genetic resources of Nepal. Dhulikhel: NAGRC; 2017. p. 390–407. Department of Medicinal Plants, Nepal. Medicinal plants of Nepal. Government of Nepal, Kathmandu; 1993. Evans CS, Bell EA. ‘Uncommon’ amino acids in the seeds of 64 species of Caesalpinieae. Phytochemistry. 1978;17:1127–9. Gamble JS. A manual of Indian timbers. Dehr Dun: Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh; 1972. Gupta BL. Forest flora of Chakrata, Dehra Dun and Saharanpur. Dehra Dun: Forest Research Institute Press; 1945. Hao Z, Wu Y, Ding J, Binion D, Fu W, Reardon R. Invasive plants of Asian origin established in the United States and their natural enemies, vol. 1. USDA, Washington DC; 2004. Hassan N, Din MU, Hassan FU, Abdullah I, Zhu Y, Jinlong W, Shah SI. Identification and quantitative analyses of medicinal plants in Shahgram valley, district swat, Pakistan. Acta Ecol Sin. 2020;40(1):44–51. Huxley A. The new RHS dictionary of gardening. London: Macmillan Press; 1992. ISBN 0-333-47494-5. Kokwaro JO. Medicinal plants of East Africa. Nairobi: University of Nairobi Press; 2009. Kumar VP, Chauhan NS, Padh H, Raj M. Search for antibacterial and antifungal agents from selected Indian medicinal plants. J Ethnopharmacol. 2006;107:182–8. Kunwar RM, Upreti Y, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Indigenous use and ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in Far-west Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009;7:5–28. Kunwar RM, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants in farwest Nepal: their indigenous uses and pharmacological validity. Med Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010;4 (Special issue 1):28–42. Ma Y, Liu D, Cheng H, Bussmann RW, He H, Guo Z, Liu B. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by Miao people in Jijiezi, Yunnan, China. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019; 18(26). https:// doi.org/10.32859/era.18.26.1-14. Manandhar NP. Plants and people of Nepal. Oregon: Timber Press; 2002. ISBN 0-88192-527-6. Mekonnen T, Giday M, Kelbessa K. Ethnobotanical study of homegarden plants in Sebeta-Awas district of the Oromia Region of Ethiopia to assess use, species diversity and management practices. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2015;11:64. Namikoshi M, et al. Homoisoflavonoids and related compounds. IV. Absolute configurations of homoisoflavonoids from Caesalpinia sappan L. Chem Pharm Bull. 1987;35:3568–75. Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Phytotherapeutic management of diversity and utilization of antimalarial ethnophytotherapeutic remedies among the Kikuyus Central Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006a;2:8. Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Herbal usage and informant consensus in ethnoveterinary management of cattle diseases among the Kikuyus Central Kenya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2006b;108:332–9. Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Traditional management of ear, nose and throat ENT diseases in Central Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006c;2:54.

438

C. M. Chaudhary et al.

Njoroge GN, Barbara G, Bussmann RW, Newton LE, Ngumi VW. Utilization of weed species as source of traditional medicines in Central Kenya: optimizing resource efficiency R.U.E. in agroecosystems. Lyonia. 2004;72:71–87. Pawar CR, Surana SJ. Optimizing conditions for gallic acid extraction from Caesalpinia decapetala wood. Pak J Pharm Sci. 2010;23:423–5. PIER (Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk). Caesalpinia decapetala. 2002. http://www.hear.org/pier/ species/caesalpinia_decapetala.htm. Shah GM, Jamal ZAFAR, Hussain M. Phytotherapy among the rural women of district Abbotabad. Pak J Bot. 2013;45:253–61. Waghchaure CK, Tetali P, Gunale VR, Antia NH, Bird TJ. Sacred groves of Parinche Valley of Pune district of Maharashtra, India and their importance. Anthropol Med. 2006;13(1):55–76. Wagner WL, Herbst DR, Sohmer SH. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii, vol. 2. New York: Bishop Museum Special Publication; 1999. p. 647. Watson R, Fowden L. Amino acids of Caesalpinia tinctoria and some allied species. Phytochemistry. 1973;12:617–22. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Xiao HW, Sheng JY, Na L, De YH, Lin HJ, Wei X. Chemical constituents of Caesalpinia decapetala (Roth) alston. Molecules. 2013;18:1325–36.

Caltha alba Cambess. Caltha palustris L. RANUNCULACEAE Hammad Ahmad Jan, Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

Synonyms Caltha alba Cambess.: Caltha palustris var. alba (Cambess.) Hook. f. & Thomson Caltha palustris L.: Caltha arctica R. Br.; Caltha asarifolia DC; Caltha cornuta Schott, Nyman & Kotschy; Caltha laeta Schott, Nyman & Kotschy; Caltha palustris ssp. arctica (R. Br.) Hultén; Caltha palustris ssp. asariifolia (DC.) Hultén; Caltha palustris var. arctica (R.Br.) Hutch.; Caltha palustris var. asariifolia (DC.) Hutsch., Caltha palustris var. flabelliformis (Pursh) Torr. & A. Gray; Caltha palustris var. palustris; Caltha palustris var. radicans (T.F. Forst.) A. Gray; Caltha radicans T.F. Forst

H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_44

439

440

H. A. Jan et al.

Local Names Caltha alba and Caltha palustris: Urdu: Pilling; Pashto: Makhan Path ‫;ﻣﺨﻦ ﭘﺖ‬ Jammu: Mameri, Mamiri, Tatnu, Panjali Kanval

Botany and Ecology Caltha alba: Perennial. Stems 20–60 cm high, stout, branched, glabrous. Basal leaves with long petioles and broadly ovate sheath, blade reniform, 4–15 cm wide, margin regularly, rather finely hooked or crenate, stem-leaves smaller, crenate or  irregularly sharply dentate, sessile or with a short petiole. Flowers white, 1–2 or forming few-flowered corymbs; 25–60 mm in diameter. Sepals 5–6, petaloid, narrowly obovate, obovate-oblong or oblong-lanceolate. Stamens numerous. Number of carpels 5–15. Mature follicles  erect, oblong, compressed,  straight for its larger part or convex on both sides, especially ventrally, 8–10 cm long (including style). Style sharply separated from ovary, subulate, ovary rarely tapering into the short narrowly triangular style. Seeds black, rarely brown, 1.6–1.7 ( 2.5) mm long, slightly asymmetrical. Pakistan and Kashmir. (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020) (Fig. 1). Caltha palustris: Perennial, stem stout 15–60 cm high, ascending, rarely documbent, with densely fibrous root-stock. Basal leaves long petioled, 71–2 cm wide, entirely or finely or coarsely toothed upper ones and sessile. Flowers yellow rarely white, 2.5–5 cm in diameter. Sepals 5–6, petaloid,  obovate-oblong or lanceolate. Follicles variable in number with variable length of style. Seeds oblong, black,  shining (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020).

Fig. 1 Caltha alba (Ranunculaceae), Pakistan. (Photo HA Jan)

Caltha alba Cambess. . . .

441

Local Medicinal Uses Caltha alba and Caltha palutsris: Used for wound healing (Majid et al. 2019), for muscular pain, skin problems, fever, and toothache (Kayani et al. 2015). To treat inflammation, cough, diuretic, urinary infections, antiseptic, cold, cough, fever, swelling, wounds, ascites, dropsy, and renal pain (Gairola et al. 2014). Leaves are used as a laxative (Akhtar et al. 2013). Root paste is used for toothache and muscular pain (Bano et al. 2014). The leaf powder is used for wounds healing (Majid et al. 2019). Flowering shoots are used as a laxative (Haq et al. 2011). Whole plant powder is used as antispasmodic (Hamayun et al. 2006). A root infusion is used as mouth wash; young shoots and leaves are cooked as vegetable for and considered as digestive (Khan et al. 2013). The extract of the whole plant used as antifebrile and purgative (Khan et al. 2016). Leaves are orally used to stop pain and cramps, for menstrual disorders, as a laxative and diuretic. The leaf extract is used for cleaning skin lesions and sores (Shaheen et al. 2012). Leaves of the plant are used as antispasmodic (Adnan et al. 2007). The plant used as antispasmodic and sedative. It is used to cure backache and costochondritis. The extraction of root used for cough, cold, and fever. It also used as poultice (Khan et al. 2015).

Local Food Uses Caltha alba and Caltha palusris: Sometimes eaten as vegetable (Dangol et al. 2017).

References Adnan SM, Hamayun M, Begum S, Lee IJ. Studies on ethnomedicinal knowledge, market assessment and conservation status of some socio-economically important medicinal plants of Roringar Valley, District Swat, Pakistan. Pakistan Phytopharm Nat Prod. 2007;1(1):67–72. Akhtar N, Rashid A, Murad W, Bergmeier E. Diversity and use of ethno-medicinal plants in the region of Swat, North Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1):25. Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan and Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995–2020. Bano A, Ahmad M, Hadda TB, Saboor A, Sultana S, Zafar M, Ashraf MA. Quantitative ethnomedicinal study of plants used in the skardu valley at high altitude of KarakoramHimalayan range, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2014;10(1):43. Dangol DR, Maharjan KL, Maharjan SK, Acharya AK. Wild edible plants in Nepal. In: Joshi BK, Bahadur KCH, Acharya A, editors. Conservation and utilization of agricultural plant genetic resources of Nepal. Dhulikhel: NAGRC; 2017. p. 390–407. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Hamayun M, Khan A, Afzal S, Khan MA. Study on traditional knowledge and utility of medicinal herbs of district Buner, NWFP, Pakistan. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2006;5(3):407–12.

442

H. A. Jan et al.

Haq F, Ahmad H, Alam M. Traditional uses of medicinal plants of Nandiar Khuwarr catchment (District Battagram), Pakistan. J Med Plants Res. 2011;5(1):39–48. Kayani S, Ahmad M, Sultana S, Khan Shinwari Z, Zafar M, Yaseen G, Hussain M, Bibi T. Ethnobotany of medicinal plants among the communitiesof alpine and sub-alpine regions of Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;164:186–202. Khan SM, Page S, Ahmad H, Shaheen H, Ullah Z, Ahmad M, Harper DM. Medicinal flora and ethnoecological knowledge in the Naran Valley, Western Himalaya, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1):4. Khan MT, Hashim S, Ayub S, Jan A, Marwat KB. A case stud of ethnobotany and biodiversity conservation from Tehsil Barawal, Upper Dir, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Pak J Bot. 2015;47(SI):7–13. Khan MT, Khan I, Khan MI, Hussain Z, Ayub S, Khan N, Khan IA. Ethnobotanical study of wild flora in the remote areas of Nothern Pakistan. Wulfania J. 2016;23(10):149–65. Majid A, Ahmad H, Saqib Z, Ur Rahman I, Khan U, Alam J, Hussain Shah A, Ahmad Jan S, Ali N. Exploring threatened traditional knowledge; ethnomedicinal studies of rare endemic flora from Lesser Himalayan region of Pakistan. Rev Bras. 2019;29(6):785–92. Shaheen H, Shinwari ZK, Qureshi RA, Ullah Z. Indigenous plant resources and their utilization practices in village populations of Kashmir Himalayas. Pak J Bot. 2012;44(2):739–45.

Cannabis sativa L. CANNABACEAE Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Cannabis sativa L.: Cannabis chinense Delile; Cannabis indica Lam.; Cannabis sativa var. indica (Lam.) E. Small & Cronquist

Local Names Cannabis sativa: Naga: Ganja; Punjabi and Jammu: Bhang; Kashmir: Bange, Bang, Bunga, Bangh, Charis; Pashto: Bang ‫ ;ﺏﻥ‬English: Hemp H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org