Ethnobotany of the Himalayas (Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions) 3030574075, 9783030574079

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Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions Series Editors: R. W. Bussmann · N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Ripu M. Kunwar · Hassan Sher Rainer W. Bussmann  Editors

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas

Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions Series Editors Rainer W. Bussmann Department of Ethnobotany Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden Ilia State University Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge La Paz, Bolivia Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden Ilia State University Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia Universidad Mayor de San Andrés La Paz, Bolivia

Ethnobotanical research in recent years has increasingly shifted into applied aspects of the discipline, including climate change research, conservation, and sustainable development. It has by now widely been recognized that “traditional” knowledge is always in flux and adapting to a quickly changing environment. Trends of globalization, especially the globalization of plant markets, have greatly influenced how plant resources are managed nowadays. While ethnobotanical studies are now available from many regions of the world, no comprehensive encyclopedic series focusing on the worlds mountain regions is available in the market. Scholars in plant sciences worldwide will be interested in this website and its dynamic content. The field (and thus the market) of ethnobotany and ethnopharmacology has grown considerably in recent years. Student interest is on the rise, attendance at professional conferences has grown steadily, and the number of professionals calling themselves ethnobotanists has increased significantly (the various societies—Society for Economic Botany, International Society of Ethnopharmacology, Society of Ethnobiology, International Society for Ethnobiology, and many regional and national societies in the field currently have thousands of members). Growth has been most robust in BRIC countries. The objective of this new series on Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions is to take advantage of the increasing international interest and scholarship in the field of mountain research. We anticipate including the best and latest research on a full range of descriptive, methodological, theoretical, and applied research on the most important plants for each region. Each contribution will be scientifically rigorous and contribute to the overall field of study. More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/15885

Ripu M. Kunwar • Hassan Sher Rainer W. Bussmann Editors

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas With 1274 Figures

Editors Ripu M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences Florida Atlantic University Boca Raton, FL, USA

Hassan Sher Faculty of Life Sciences University of Swat Mingora, Pakistan

Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON) Kathmandu, Nepal Rainer W. Bussmann Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden Ilia State University Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge La Paz, Bolivia

ISSN 2523-7489 ISSN 2523-7497 (electronic) ISBN 978-3-030-57407-9 ISBN 978-3-030-57408-6 (eBook) ISBN 978-3-030-57409-3 (print and electronic bundle) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6 © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021, corrected publication 2022 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG. The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Preface

The Himalayas are the highest mountain range on Earth, with more than one hundred peaks exceeding 7000 m, including the highest peak above sea level on Earth, Mount Everest, with 8848 m. The Himalayan system includes the Karakorum, Hindu Kush, Indian, Nepalese, Bhutanese, and Tibetan Himalayas. Some of the largest rivers in the world originate in the range, including the Ganges, the Indus, the Brahmaputra, the Yamuna, and the Yangtze, in whose surroundings billions of people live. The Himalayan mountains have profoundly influenced the cultures of South Asia, and many of them are sacred to Hinduism and Buddhism. Plants provide humankind with essential resources, including food and medicines, and given its huge ethnic diversity, the Himalayan region is one of the hotspots of human-plant interactions. With the increase in human population and greater access to markets, over-harvesting of commercially important medicinal species has increased. At the same time, habitat loss, climate change, and invasive species further threaten wild plant populations, while traditional knowledge associated with plant use is being eroded by urbanization. Thus, never before in human history has there been a greater need to discover, understand, conserve, and sustainably use culturally important plant resources. With the present volume, we aim to provide an in-depth introduction to the plantuse knowledge of the peoples in the Himalayan range. Following introductions to the 3 very distinct parts of the region, 249 plant chapters feature a modern overview on taxonomy, local names, and information on the ecology and distribution of hundreds of species. The ethno-botanical information provides both an overview on historic uses as well as data from the most recent scientific studies of plant use in the region and contains the most up-to-date literature sources. We hope this volume will give both interested laypeople and professionals an opportunity to learn about the fascinating biodiversity and plant-use culture of the Himalayas, and will spark interest in its further documentation, sustainable use, and conservation.

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Contents

Volume 1 Part I

Regions

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1

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3

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Indian Himalaya (Garhwal Himalaya) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pavlos Georgiadis

35

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Hindukush and Karakoram Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Nepal, Bhutanese, and Tibetan Himalayas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ripu M. Kunwar, Bhishma P. Subedi, Sushim R. Baral, Tek Maraseni, Chris LeBoa, Yagya P. Adhikari, and Rainer W. Bussmann Part II

Plants

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Abies pindrow (Royle ex D. Don.) Royle Abies spectabilis (D. Don) Spach PINACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Achyut Tiwari, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Wahid Hussain, and Arshad Mehmood Abbasi

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105

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Acantholimon lycopodioides (Girard) Boiss. PLUMBAGINACEAE . . . . . . . . Wahid Hussain, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

119

...............

123

Acmella calva (DC.) R.K. Jansen ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Man D. Bhatt, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

133

Achillea millefolium L. ssp. millefolium ASTERACEAE Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

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Aconitum balfourii Stapf. Aconitum ferox Wall. ex. Ser. Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle Aconitum laeve Royle Aconitum naviculare (Brühl) Stapf. Aconitum spicatum Stapf. Aconitum violaceum Jacq. ex Stapf var. violaceum RANUNCULACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . Hassan Sher, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Ikram Ur Rahman Wahid Hussain, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Aconogonon coriarium (Grig.) Sojak. Aconogonon tortuosum (D.Don) Hara var. tibetanum (Meisn.) S.-P.Hong POLYGONACEAE . . . . . . Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

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Aegopodium alpestre Ledeb. APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

161

Aesculus indica (Wall. ex Cambess.) Hook. SAPINDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . Hem Raj Paudel, Prakash Poudel, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

163

Ageratina adenophora (Spreng.) R.M. King & H. Rob. ASTERACEAE . . . Mohan Siwakoti, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

171

Ajuga brachystemon Maxim. Ajuga parviflora Benth. in Wall. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

177

Allium carolinianum DC. Allium griffithianum Boiss. Allium humile Kunth Allium jacquemontii Regel Allium oreoprasum Schrenk AMARYLLIDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

183

Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br. APOCYNACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Man D. Bhatt, Ripu M. Kunwar, Bijendra Basnyat, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

203

Amomum subulatum Roxb. ZINGIBERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

213

Ampelocissus latifolia (Roxb.) Planch. VITACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mohan Prasad Panthi, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

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Anacyclus pyrethrum (L.) DC. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

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Contents

Anaphalis adnata DC. Anaphalis busua (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) DC. Anaphalis contorta (D. Don) Hook. f. Anaphalis triplinervis (Sims) C.B. Clarke ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sheetal Vaidya and Rainer W. Bussmann

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Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f.) Wall. ACANTHACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

235

Angelica glauca Edgew. APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bandana Awasthi, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

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Anisomeles indica (L.) Kuntze LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sabina Gyawali, Sanjeev Luintel, Santosh Thapa, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

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Aquilaria sinensis (Loureiro) Sprengel Aquilaria yunnanensis S. C. Huang THYMELAEACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

253

Arisaema flavum (Forssk.) Schott ARACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kalyan Panta, Hassan Sher, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Ikram Ur Rahman, Wahid Hussain, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

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Arnebia euchroma (Royle) I. M. Johnst. BORAGINACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hammad Ahmad Jan, Wahid Hussain, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

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Artemisia absinthium L. Artemisia biennis Willd. Artemisia bigelovii A. Gray Artemisia brevifolia Wall. ex DC. Artemisia scoparia Waldst. ex Kit. Artemisia vulgaris L. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hammad Ahmad Jan, Hassan Sher, Wahid Hussain, Ikram Ur Rahman, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

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Asparagus racemosus Willd. ASPARAGACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ram Prasad Acharya, Rose Shrestha, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Wahid Hussain, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

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Astilbe rivularis Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don. SAXIFRAGACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . Ram C. Poudel, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

305

Astragalus candolleanus Royle ex Benth. Astragalus chlorostachys Lindl. Astragalus hendersonii Baker Astragalus peduncularis Royle ex Benth. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

311

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Atriplex hortensis L. Atriplex rosea L. AMARANTHACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

317

Atropa acuminata Royle ex Lindl. SOLANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

323

Bauhinia variegata L. Bauhinia vahlii Wight & Arn. FABACEAE . . . . . . . Jyoti Bhandari, Dhruba Bijaya GC, Sunita Dhungana, Neeru Thapa, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

327

Berberis aristata DC. Berberis asiatica Roxb. ex DC. Berberis chitria Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Berberis glaucocarpa Stapf Berberis lycium Royle Berberis orthobotrys Bien. ex Aitch. ssp. orthobotrys Berberis vulgaris L. BERBERIDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hassan Sher, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Ikram Ur Rahman, Wahid Hussain, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

337

Bergenia ciliata Sternb. SAXIFRAGACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hammad Ahmad Jan, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Wahid Hussain, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

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Betula utilis D. Don BETULACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narayan Ghimire, Ripu M. Kunwar, Wahid Hussain, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

369

Bidens biternata (Lour.) Merr. & Sherff ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Laxmi Khaniya, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

381

Bistorta amplexicaulis (D. Don) Greene Bistorta vivipara (L.) S.F. Gray POLYGONACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

391

Boerhavia diffusa L. NYCTAGINACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kuber Jung Malla, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

403

Bombax ceiba L. MALVACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ikram Ur Rahman, and Maroof Ali Turi

409

Brucea javanica (L.) Merr. SIMAROUBACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kamal Adhikari, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

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Bupleurum thomsonii C.B. Clarke APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

423

Buxus wallichiana Baill. BUXACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hammad Ahmad Jan, Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

427

Caesalpinia decapetala (Roith) Alston FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C. M. Chaudhary, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

431

Caltha alba Cambess. Caltha palustris L. RANUNCULACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . Hammad Ahmad Jan, Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

439

Cannabis sativa L. CANNABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

443

Capparis spinosa L. CAPPARACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

451

Carex canescens L. Carex cardiolepis Nees Carex cruenta Nees CYPERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

461

Carum carvi L. Carum copticum (L.) Benth. & Hook. f. APIACEAE . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

469

Cassia fistula L. Cassia occidentalis L. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Subhas Khatri, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

477

Castanopsis hystrix J. D. Hooker & Thomson ex A. de Candolle Castanopsis indica (Roxburgh ex Lindley) A. de Candolle in Hance Castanopsis tribuloides (Smith) A. de Candolle in Hance FAGACEAE . . . . Narayan Prasad Pokharel, Hari Prasad Pandey, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

491

Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D. Don) G. Don PINACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ram C. Poudel, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Wahid Hussain, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Ripu M. Kunwar, and Rainer W. Bussmann

497

Celastrus paniculatus Willd. CELASTRACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hammad Ahmad Jan, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

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Celtis australis L. CANNABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

509

Chenopodium album L. AMARANTHACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dharma Raj Dangol, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

515

Choerospondias axillaris (Roxb.) B.L. Burtt & A.W. Hill ANACARDIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Krishna C. Paudel, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

527

Cichorium intybus L. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hammad Ahmad Jan, Wahid Hussain, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

541

Cinnamomum tamala (Buch.-Ham.) T. Nees & Nees LAURACEAE . . . . . . Dipesh Pyakurel, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

547

Cirsium verutum (D. Don) Spreng. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gopal Lamichhane, Prakash Poudel, Hem Raj Paudel, Rashmi Thapa, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

555

Citrus medica L. RUTACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rajendra Gyawali, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

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Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt CUCURBITACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Prakash Prasad Sapkota, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

583

Codonopsis clematidea (Schrenk ex Fisch. & C.A. Mey.) C.B. Clarke CAMPANULACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hammad Ahmad Jan, Wahid Hussain, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Coelogyne barbata Lindl. ex Griff. Coelogyne corymbosa Lindl. Coelogyne cristata Lindl. Coelogyne fimbriata Lindl. Coelogyne flaccida Lindl. Coelogyne fuscescens Lindl. Coelogyne nitida (Wall. ex D. Don) Lindl. Coelogyne ovalis Lindl. Coelogyne prolifera Lindl. Coelogyne punctulata Lindl. Coelogyne stricta (D. Don) Schltr. ORCHIDACEAE . . . . . Kamal Prasad Acharya, Yagya P. Adhikari, and Ripu M. Kunwar Colchicum aitchisonii (Hook. f.) Nasir Colchicum luteum Baker COLCHICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hassan Sher, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Ikram Ur Rahman, Wahid Hussain, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

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Cordia dichotoma G. Forst. BORAGINACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

615

Corydalis govaniana Wall. PAPAVERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Ikram Ur Rahman, and Hammad Ahmad Jan

621

Cotoneaster uniflorus Bunge ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

627

Crateva unilocularis Buch.-Ham. CAPPARACAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kedar Baral, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

629

Cucumis sativus L. Cucumis sativus var. hardwickii (Royle) Alef CUCURBITACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mathura Khanal, Hari Datt Lekhak, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Curculigo orchioides Benth. HYPOXIDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Curcuma aromatica Salisb. Curcuma longa L. Curcuma zedoaria (Christm.) Roscoe ZINGIBERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hari Prasad Devkota, Anjana Adhikari-Devkota, Tarun Belwal, Rajan Logesh, Niranjan Das, Prakash Poudel, Dhaka Ram Bhandari, and Rainer W. Bussmann

635

643

649

Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. CONVOLVULACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Razan Mahat, Asmita Thapa, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Wahid Hussain, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

661

Cyathea spinulosa Wall. ex Hook. CYATHEACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Man K. Dhamala, Dipak Khadka, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

669

Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf POACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kalyan Gauli, Shiva Kumar Sharma, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

679

Cyperus difformis L. Cyperus rotundus L. CYPERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

687

Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D. Don) Soo ORCHIDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Yagya Raj Paneru, Pratikshya Chalise, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

695

xiv

Contents

Daphne bholua Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don. Daphne mucronata Royle Daphne papyracea Wall. ex G. Don. THYMELAEACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shambhu Charmakar, Ripu M. Kunwar, Megh Nath Kafley, Dhirendra Kumar Pradhan, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

705

Datura stramonium L. SOLANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

725

Debregeasia longifolia (Burm. f.) Wedd. URTICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Giridhar Amatya, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

735

Delphinium brunonianum Royle Delphinium himalayae Munz Delphinium roylei Munz Delphinium vestitum Wall. ex Royle RANUNCULACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hammad Ahmad Jan, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Wahid Hussain, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

739

Dendrobium nobile Lindl. ORCHIDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Yagya P. Adhikari, Prakash Bhattarai, Kamal Prasad Acharya, Ripu M. Kunwar, and Rainer W. Bussmann

747

Didymocarpus aromaticus Wall. ex D. Don GESNERIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . Astha Tuladhar, Ripu M. Kunwar, and Rainer W. Bussmann

753

Digitalis lanata Ehrh. PLANTAGINACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

761

Dioscorea bulbifera L. Dioscorea deltoidea Wall. ex Kunth DIOSCOREACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nirmala Joshi, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

769

Diploknema butyracea (Roxb.) H.J. Lam. SAPOTACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bhola Bhattarai, Roshan Chikanbanjar, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

779

Drosera peltata Thunb. DROSERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gauri S. Bhandari, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

789

Drymaria cordata (L.) Willd. ex Schult. CARYOPHYLLACEAE . . . . . . . . . . Anjana Devkota, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

795

Contents

Drynaria propinqua (Wall. ex Mett.) Bedd. POLYPODIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . Rashmi Thapa, Prakash Poudel, Ripu M. Kunwar, and Rainer W. Bussmann Dryopteris cochleata (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) C. Chr. Dryopteris filix-mas (L.) Schott DRYOPTERIDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hira Shova Shrestha, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Duchesnea indica (Andews) Teschem. ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Duhaldea cappa (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) Pruski & Anderb. Inula nervosa Wall. ex DC. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ramesh Basnet, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

xv

805

811

821

825

Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jyoti Sherchan, Prakash Poudel, Biswas Sapkota, Hammad Ahmad Jan, and Rainer W. Bussmann

835

Elaeagnus angustifolia L. var. angustifolia L. ELAEAGNACEAE . . . . . . . . Hammad Ahmad Jan, Wahid Hussain, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

855

Engelhardia spicata Lesch. ex Blume JUGLANDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shreehari Bhattarai, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

863

Ephedra gerardiana Wall. ex Stapf EPHEDRACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wahid Hussain, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

867

Epilobium angustifolium L. Epilobium latifolium L. ssp. latifolium L. Epilobium leiophyllum Hausskn. Epilobium royleanum Hausskn. ONAGRACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Equisetum diffusum D. Don Equisetum ramosissimum Desf. EQUISETACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hira Shova Shrestha, Ripu M. Kunwar, Maroof Ali Turi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Erigeron alpinus L. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hassan Sher, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

875

879

891

xvi

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Erythrina arborescens Roxb. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Krishna Ram Bhattarai, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Euphorbia hirta L. Euphorbia pilosa L. Euphorbia royleana Boiss. EUPHORBIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mukti Ram Paudel, Babita Paudel, Hari Datta Bhattarai, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Maroof Ali Turi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

897

903

Evolvulus alsinoides (L.) L. CONVOLVULACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Man D. Bhatt, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Maroof Ali Turi

917

Fagara oxyphylla (Edgew.) Engl. RUTACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ripu M. Kunwar

927

Fagonia bruguieri DC Fagonia indica var. schweinfurthii Hadidi ZYGOPHYLLACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

929

Ferula assa-foetida L. Ferula narthex Boiss. APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hassan Sher, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

933

Fragaria nubicola (Hook. f.) Lindl. ex Lacaita ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . Sangita Shresta, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. PaniaguaZambrana

941

Fraxinus excelsior L. Fraxinus xanthoxyloides (G. Don) DC. OLEACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

951

Fritillaria cirrhosa D. Don. LILIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hem Raj Paudel, Laxmi Raj Joshi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

957

Fumaria indica Pugsley PAPAVERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hammad Ahmad Jan, Wahid Hussain, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

965

Gentiana kurroo Royle GENTIANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wahid Hussain, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

971

Gentianodes tianschanica (Rupr. ex Kusn.) Omer, Ali & Qaiser GENTIANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hassan Sher, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

977

Contents

Gentianopsis paludosa (Munro ex Hook. f.) Ma Gentianopsis vvedenskyi (Grossh.) V.V. Pis. GENTIANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hassan Sher, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman Geranium collinum Stephan ex Willd. Geranium nepalense Sweet Geranium wallichianum D. Don ex Sweet GERANIACEAE . . . . . . . . Hammad Ahmad Jan, Wahid Hussain, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Girardinia diversifolia (Link) Friis URTICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Prabhat Sapkota, Ram C. Poudel, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

xvii

981

985

995

Grewia disperma Rottler ex Spreng. MALVACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1001 Khadka B. Bhandari, Suresh Subedi, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Hedychium spicatum Buch.-Ham. ex Sm. ZINGIBERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . 1015 Razan Mahat, Asmita Thapa, Rameshwar Bhattarai, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Heracleum candicans Wall. ex DC. APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1021 Hassan Sher, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Hippolytia dolichophylla (Kitam.) K. Bremer & Humphries ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1031 Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman Hippophae rhamnoides L. ssp. turkestanica Rousi Hippophae rhamnoides L. Hippophae salicifolia D. Don Hippophae tibetana Schltdl. ELAEAGNACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1033 Youba Raj Pokharel, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Arshad Mehmood Abbasi Holarrhena pubescens Wall. ex G. Don APOCYNACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1043 Ram C. Poudel, Ripu M. Kunwar, and Rainer W. Bussmann Holboellia latifolia Wall. LARDIZABALACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1049 Razan Mahat, Asmita Thapa, Bhagawat Rimal, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Hydrocotyle nepalensis Hook. ARALIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1055 Laxmi Mahat Kunwar, Roshni Mahat, Asmita Thapa, Razan Mahat, Ripu M. Kunwar, and Rainer W. Bussmann Hyoscyamus niger L. SOLANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1059 Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

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Hypericum perforatum L. HYPERICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1065 Hammad Ahmad Jan, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Wahid Hussain, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Hypotrachyna nepalensis (Taylor) Divakar, A. Crespo, Sipman, Elix & Lumbsch PARMELIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1075 Shiva Devkota and Christoph Scheidegger Incarvillea emodi Chatterjee BIGNONIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1081 Hammad Ahmad Jan, Hassan Sher, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Indigofera heterantha Wall. ex Brandis FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1085 Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Wahid Hussain, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Ipomoea hederacea Jacq. CONVOLVULACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1091 Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Ikram Ur Rahman, and Wahid Hussain

Volume 2 Isatis stocksii Boiss. BRASSICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1093 Hassan Sher, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Ikram Ur Rahman, Maroof Ali Turi, Wahid Hussain, Manzoor Ullah, Hammad Ahmad Jan, and Arshad Mehmood Abbasi Ixiolirion tataricum (Pall.) Herb. IXIOLIRONACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1101 Hassan Sher, Wahid Hussain, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Jasminum humile L. OLEACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1103 Bindu K. C., Sabina Gyawali, Sanjeev Luintel, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Jatropha curcas L. EUPHORBIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1111 Chandra Kanta Subedi, Ram Prasad Chaudhary, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Juglans regia L. JUGLANDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1123 Dhruba Bijaya GC, Jyoti Bhandari, Deepak Gautam, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Juncus articulatus L. JUNCACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1141 Hassan Sher, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

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Juniperus communis L. Juniperus excelsa M. Bieb. Juniperus indica Bertol. Juniperus pseudosabina var. turkestanica (Kom.) Silba Juniperus recurva Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Juniperus sibirica Burgsd. Juniperus squamata Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don CUPRESSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . 1143 Ila Shrestha, Ripu M. Kunwar, Wahid Hussain, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Jurinea dolomitica Galushko ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1157 Suman Aryal, Bishnu Hari Poudyal, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Justicia adhatoda L. ACANTHACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1163 Laxmi Raj Joshi, Suneeta Bhatta, Hem Raj Paudel, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Lamium album L. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1173 Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Launaea procumbens (Roxb.) Ramayya & Rajagopal ASTERACEAE . . . . 1179 Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Leea indica (Burm. f.) Merr. VITACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1183 Laxmi Khaniya, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Lepidium apetalum Willd. Lepidium sativum L. BRASSICACEAE . . . . . . . . 1189 Wahid Hussain, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Ligusticopsis wallichiana (DC.) Pimenov & Kljuykov Selinum vaginatum C.B. Clarke APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1197 Deepa Khatri, Sumit Bahadur Baruwal Chhetri, Rashmi Thapa, Hari Prasad Devkota, Prakash Poudel, Ripu M. Kunwar, and Rainer W. Bussmann Lobelia pyramidalis Wall. CAMPANULACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1205 Bikash Baral, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Luculia gratissima (Wall.) Sweet RUBIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1211 Hari Krishna Sainju, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall.) Drude ERICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1215 Prabin Bhandari, Krishna Kumar Shrestha, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

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Maesa chisia Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don. PRIMULACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1223 Ila Shrestha, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Mallotus philippensis (Lam.) Müll.-Arg. EUPHORBIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . 1231 Ram C. Paudel, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Malva neglecta Wallr. MALVACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1239 Hammad Ahmad Jan, Maroof Ali Turi, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Meconopsis aculeata Royle Meconopsis horridula Hook. f. and Thomson Meconopsis latifolia (Prain) Prain Meconopsis quintuplinervia Regel Meconopsis simplicifolia (D. Don) Walpers PAPAVERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1247 Mukti Ram Poudeyal, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Medicago sativa L. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1257 Hammad Ahmad Jan, Wahid Hussain, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Mentha arvensis L. Mentha longifolia (L.) L. Mentha royleana Benth. Mentha viridis (L.) L. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1265 Hammad Ahmad Jan, Hassan Sher, Wahid Hussain, Ikram Ur Rahman, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Morchella conica Pers. ex Fr. Morchella esculenta (Fr.) I.R. Hazll MORCHELLACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1279 Sailesh Ranjitkar, Nani Maiya Sujakhu, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Wahid Hussain, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Morus alba L. Morus serrata Roxb. MORACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1295 Kiran Timalsina, Arjun Bhusal, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1309 Kumar Shrestha, Dammar Singh Saud, Shankar Pant, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng. RUTACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1317 Sangita Gautam, Laxmi Kunwar, Namraj Dhami, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Mussaenda frondosa L. Mussaenda macrophylla Wall. RUBIACEAE . . . . . 1327 Prakash Poudel, Rashmi Thapa, Jyoti Sherchan, Biswas Sapkota, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

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Myrica esculenta Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don. MYRICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1337 Keshab R. Goutam, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Nardostachys grandiflora DC. CAPRIFOLIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1345 Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora (Pennell) D.Y. Hong PLANTAGINACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1349 Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Nepeta brachyantha Rech. f. & Edelb. Nepeta cataria L. Nepeta connata Royle ex Benth. Nepeta leucolaena Benth. ex Hook. f. Nepeta hindostana (Roth.) Hainus. Nepeta podostachys Benth. LAMIACEAE . . . . 1353 Wahid Hussain, Hassan Sher, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Nigella sativa L. RANUNCULACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1359 Peter Bridgewater, Suraj Upadhaya, Beeju Poudyal, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Ocimum gratissimum Lam. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1369 Arati Gurung, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Olea ferruginea Royle OLEACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1379 Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Onosma hispida Wall. ex G. Don BORAGINACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1389 Wahid Hussain, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Ophiocordyceps sinensis (Berk.) G.H. Sung, J.M. Sung, Hywel-Jones & Spatafora OPHIOCORDYCIPITACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1393 Rainer W. Bussmann Orobanche vulgaris Poir. OROBANCHACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1397 Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz BIGNONIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1401 Keshab Shrestha, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Osmanthus fragrans (Thunb.) Lour. OLEACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1409 Shandesh Bhattarai, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Osyris quadripartita Salzm. ex Decne. SANTALACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1415 Sajan Lal Shyaula, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

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Paeonia emodi Wall. ex Royle PAEONIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1423 Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Papaver dubium L. Papaver nudicaule L. Papaver somniferum L. PAPAVERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1431 Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Parietaria judaica L. URTICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1439 Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman Paris polyphylla Sm. MELANTHIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1441 Gyanendra Karki, Ripu M. Kunwar, Ram Prasad Acharya, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Parnassia nubicola Wall. ex Royle. CELASTRACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1449 Rainer W. Bussmann and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Pedicularis albida Penn. OROBANCHACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1455 Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman Peganum harmala L. NITRARIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1461 Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Periploca aphylla Decne. APOCYNACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1471 Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Wahid Hussain Perovskia abrotanoides Karel. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1475 Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman Persicaria amphibia (L.) Delarbre Persicaria barbata (L.) H. Hara Persicaria capitata (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) H. Gross Persicaria hydropiper (L.) Spach Persicaria nepalensis (Meisn.) H. Gross POLYGONACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1477 Khadka B. Bhandari, Durga Kutal, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Phlomis bracteosa Royle ex Benth. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1491 Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Wahid Hussain

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Phyllanthus emblica L. PHYLLANTHACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1495 Bishnu Hari Poudyal, Suman Aryal, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Physochlaina praealta Hook. SOLANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1505 Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman Picea smithiana (Wall.) Boiss. PINACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1507 Devi K. Thapa-Magar, Khum B. Thapa-Magar, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Wahid Hussain Picrorhiza kurrooa Royle ex Benth. PLANTAGINACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1515 Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman Pinus gerardiana Wall. ex Lamb. Pinus roxburghii Sarg. Pinus wallichiana A. B. Jacks. PINACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1519 Hammad Ahmad Jan, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Wahid Hussain, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Pistacia atlantica Desf. Pistacia integerrima Stewart ex Brandis Pistacia khinjuk Stocks ANACARDIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1531 Hassan Sher, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Ikram Ur Rahman, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Plantago depressa Willd Plantago lanceolata L. Plantago major L. Plantago ovata Forssk. PLANTAGINACAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1539 Archana M. Kattel, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Wahid Hussain, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Pleione humilis (Sm.) D. Don. ORCHIDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1555 Prakash Bhattarai, Yagya P. Adhikari, Ripu M. Kunwar, and Rainer W. Bussmann Pleurospermum candollei (Wall. ex DC.) Benth. ex C.B. Clarke APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1559 Hassan Sher, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman Podophyllum hexandrum Royle BERBERIDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1561 Pratikshya Chalise, Yagya Raj Paneru, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Wahid Hussain, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

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Polygonatum cirrhifolium (Wall.) Royle Polygonatum multiflorum (L.) All. Polygonatum verticillatum (L.) All. ASPARAGACAE . . . . . . . . . . . 1569 Rameshwar Bhattarai, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Ripu M. Kunwar, Maroof Ali Turi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Potentilla fulgens Wall. ex Hook. ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1579 Shiva Pariyar, Hem Raj Paudel, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Primula denticulata Sm. Primula macrophylla D. Don Primula reptans Hook. ex Watt PRIMULACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1589 Hammad Ahmad Jan, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Prinsepia utilis Royle ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1597 Sony Baral, Kalyan Gauli, Ripu M. Kunwar, Maroof Ali Turi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Prunella vulgaris L. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1607 Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Maroof Ali Turi Pyracantha crenulata (D. Don) M. Roem. ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1613 Ganga D. Bhatta, Ripu M. Kunwar, and Rainer W. Bussmann Pyrus communis L. Pyrus pashia Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don. ROSACEAE . . . 1619 Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Quercus baloot Griff. Quercus dilatata Lindl Quercus incana W. Bartram Quercus lanata Sm. FAGACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1633 Nabin Joshi, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz APOCYNACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1647 Kanti Prabha Thapa, Chandrakant Chaudhary, Ripu M. Kunwar, and Rainer W. Bussmann Rhamnus purpurea Edgew. Rhamnus virgata Roxb. RHAMNACEAE . . . . . 1655 Khadka B. Bhandari, Binayak Kunwar, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Rheum emodi Wall. Rheum tibeticum Maxim. ex Hook. f. POLYGONACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1665 Hammad Ahmad Jan, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Wahid Hussain, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

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Rhododendron afghanicum Aitch. & Hemsl. Rhododendron anthopogon D. Don Rhododendron arboreum Sm. Rhododendron campanulatum D. Don Rhododendron collettianum Aitch. & Hemsl. ERICACEAE . . . . . . 1673 Ram C. Poudel, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Wahid Hussain, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Rhynchostylis retusa (L.) Blume ORCHIDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1691 Yagya P. Adhikari, Anke Jentsch, and Ripu M. Kunwar Rosa brunonii Lindl. Rosa macrophylla Lindl. Rosa sericea Lindl. Rosa webbiana Wall. ex Royle ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1697 Hammad Ahmad Jan, Wahid Hussain, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Rubia manjith Roxb. ex Fleming Rubia tinctorium L. RUBIACEAE . . . . . . 1709 Dhirendra Kumar Pradhan, Sunita Ulak, Shambhu Charmakar, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Rubus ellipticus Sm. Rubus foliolosus Weihe & Nees Rubus fruticosus L. Rubus irritans Focke ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1717 Laxmi Khaniya, Rabindra Bhattarai, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Wahid Hussain, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Rumex nepalensis Spreng. Rumex hastatus D. Don Rumex longifolius DC. POLYGONACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1735 Grinsun Sharma, Prakash Poudel, Rashmi Thapa, Santosh Lamichhane, Hem Raj Paudel, Hari Prasad Devkota, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Saccharum filifolium Nees ex Steud. POACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1755 Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Ikram Ur Rahman Salix alba L. SALICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1757 Hassan Sher, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman Salvia nubicola Wall. ex Sweet LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1763 Hassan Sher, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Ikram Ur Rahman, and Wahid Hussain Sapindus mukorossi Gaertn. SAPINDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1775 Suneeta Bhatta, Laxmi Raj Joshi, Dhruba Khakurel, and Rainer W. Bussmann Sapium insigne (Royle) Benth. & Hook. f. EUPHORBIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . 1785 Sabina Gyawali, Sanjeev Luintel, Harisharan Luintel, and Rainer W. Bussmann

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Satyrium nepalense D. Don. Satyrium nepalense var. ciliatum (Lindl.) Hook. f. ORCHIDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1791 Rainer W. Bussmann Saussurea albescens (DC.) Sch. Saussurea lappa (Decne.) Sch. Bip Saussurea obvallata (DC.) Sch. Bip. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1795 Shanta Budha-Magar, Hassan Sher, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Ikram Ur Rahman Schima wallichii (DC.) Korth. THEACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1805 Rana B. B.K., Ripu M. Kunwar, and Rainer W. Bussmann Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Oken. SAPINDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1813 Reecha Balayar, Ripu M. Kunwar, and Rainer W. Bussmann Scurrula elata (Edgew.) Danser Loranthaceae Viscum album L. Viscum articulatum Burm. f. Viscum loranthi Elmer SANTALACEAE . . . . . 1819 Mohan P. Devkota, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Scutellaria barbata D. Don Scutellaria discolor Colebr. Scutellaria orientalis L. Scutellaria prostrata Jacq. ex Benth. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . 1829 Nabaraj Dahal, Razan Mahat, Asmita Thapa, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Maroof Ali Turi, and Wahid Hussain Semecarpus anacardium L. f. ANACARDIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1837 Bhola Bhattarai, Roshan Chikanbanjar, Sanjeev Luintel, Sabina Gyawali, Ripu M. Kunwar, and Rainer W. Bussmann Senecio nudicaulis Buch.-Ham. ex C.B. Clarke ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . 1845 Sudha Joshi Shrestha, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Seseli libanotis (L.) W.D.J. Koch Seseli transcaucasicum Pimenov & Sdobina APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1855 Rainer W. Bussmann and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Skimmia anquetilia Tayl. & Airy Shaw. Skimmia arborescens T. Anderson ex Gamble Skimmia laureola (DC.) Sieb. & Zucc. ex Walp. Skimmia melanocarpa Rehder & E. H. Wilson Skimmia multinervia Huang RUTACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1861 Man D. Bhatt, Ripu M. Kunwar, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Smilax aspera L. Smilax ovalifolia Roxb. SMILACACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1869 Suneeta Bhatta, Laxmi Raj Joshi, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

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Solanum aculeatissimum Jacq. Solanum nigrum L. Solanum surattense Burm. f. SOLANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1881 Laxmi Kunwar, Sangita Gautam, Namraj Dhami, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Maroof Ali Turi, Wahid Hussain, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Hassan Sher, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Solena heterophylla Lour. CUCURBITACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1907 Sushmita Poudel, Sarah Albright, and Rainer W. Bussmann Sophora mollis (Royle) Baker FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1913 Asmita Thapa, Razan Mahat, Laxmi Mahat Kunwar, Ripu M. Kunwar, and Rainer W. Bussmann Sorbus cuspidata (Spach) Hedl. ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1917 Bindu K. C., Sabina Gyawali, Sanjeev Luintel, Hari P. Sharma, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Spondias pinnata (L. f.) Kurz ANACARDIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1927 Yadav Uprety, Dhruba Khakurel, and Rainer W. Bussmann Stephania elegans Hook. f. & Thomson MENISPERMACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . 1933 Yagya P. Adhikari, Dhaka M. Adhikari, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Sterculia villosa Roxb. MALVACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1941 Ripu M. Kunwar and Rainer W. Bussmann Swertia angustifolia Burkill Swertia chirayita Buch.-Ham. ex C.B. Clarke Swertia cordata (G. Don) Clarke Swertia petiolata D. Don GENTIANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1943 Hammad Ahmad Jan, Wahid Hussain, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Syringa emodi Wall ex G. Don. OLEACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1953 Ripu M. Kunwar, Wahid Hussain, and Rainer W. Bussmann Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels MYRTACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1955 Abdul Sahim Ansari, Usha Thakuri, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Tamaricaria elegans (Royle) Qaiser & Ali TAMARICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . 1967 Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman Tamarix arceuthoides Bunge TAMARICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1971 Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Ikram Ur Rahman Taraxacum campylodes G.E. Haglund Taraxacum officinale F.H. Wigg Taraxacum sikkimense Hand.-Mazz. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1977 Sanjeev Luintel, Sabina Gyawali, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

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Taxus baccata (L.) Borkh. Taxus contorta Griff. Taxus mairei (Lemée & H. Lév.) S.Y. Hu Taxus wallichiana Zucc. TAXACEAE . . . . . . . 1991 Ram C. Poudel, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. Terminalia chebula Retz. COMBRETACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2005 Rose Shrestha, Ram Prasad Acharya, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Thalictrum cultratum Wall. Thalictrum foetidum L. Thalictrum foliolosum DC. RANUNCULACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2015 Sabina Gyawali, Sanjeev Luintel, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Thymus linearis Benth. ssp. linearis Jalas Thymus serpyllum L. Thymus vulgaris L. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2027 Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Maroof Ali Turi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers ex Hook. f. & Thomson. Tinospora sinensis (Lour.) Merr. MENISPERMACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2037 Jeevan Pandey, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Tribulus terrestris L. ZYGOPHYLLACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2045 Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Trichodesma indicum (L.) Lehm. BORAGINACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2053 Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Ikram Ur Rahman Trigonella corniculata (L.) L. Trigonella gracilis Benth. FABACEAE . . . . . 2055 Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Trillium govanianum Wall. ex Royle MELANTHIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2061 Til K. Thapa, Ripu M. Kunwar, H. Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, and Rainer W. Bussmann Urtica dioica L. URTICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2067 Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Maroof Ali Turi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Valeriana hardwickii Wall. var. hoffmeisteri C.B. Clarke Valeriana jatamansi Jones Valeriana officinalis L. CAPRIFOLIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . 2079 Bishwa Nath Oli, Shambhu Charmakar, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, and Maroof Ali Turi

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Verbascum thapsus L. SCROPHULARIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2101 Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Vernonia anthelmintica (L.) Willd. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2113 Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Viola biflora L. Viola canescens Wall. Viola odorata L. Viola pilosa Blume Viola rupestris F.W. Schmidt Viola suavis M. Bieb. VIOLACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2123 Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Withania coagulans (Stocks) Dunal Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal SOLANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2139 Wahid Hussain, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz. LYTHRACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2147 Mohan Raj Kafle, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Zanthoxylum armatum DC. Zanthoxylum oxyphyllum Edgew. RUTACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2159 Biswas Sapkota, Prakash Poudel, Rashmi Thapa, Jyoti Sherchan, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Ziziphus jujuba Mill Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2173 N. B. Khatri Chhetri, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Maroof Ali Turi Correction to: Didymocarpus aromaticus Wall. ex D. Don GESNERIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Astha Tuladhar, Ripu M. Kunwar, and Rainer W. Bussmann

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About the Editors

Dr. Ripu M. Kunwar is a medicinal plant expert and ethnobotanist who has conducted several researches on plant-people interactions in the Nepal Himalaya for two decades. He completed his M.Sc. (botany) at Tribhuvan University, Nepal, in 2000. He was an outstanding student and received a gold medal in MPhil in Forest Management in 2002 at IIFM, India. After completing his two master’s courses, he worked at many institutions in various capacities, including doing research on medicinal plants, indigenous knowledge, ethnobotany, biodiversity, and climate change impacts. He completed his M.A. in geography in August 2015 and Ph.D. in geosciences (cultural and spatial ecology) in August 2018 from Florida Atlantic University (FAU). He was advised by Prof. Dr. Maria Fadiman, Prof. Dr. Mary Cameron, Prof. Dr. Rainer Bussmann, and Dr. Tobin Hindle for his PhD. Currently, he affiliates to Ilia State University, Georgia, as a postdoctoral research associate. Dr. Kunwar is a fellow of ITTO, Japan (2006), a recipient of the Missouri Botanical Garden–ASC fellowship, USA (2012), and a grantee of Rufford Foundation Grant, UK (2014, 2015, 2017), National Geographic Society Early Career Grant, USA (2018), FAU-GRIP Grant (2015), and FAU-Science Student Grant (2018). He has been awarded the Young Scientist of Developing Country 2009 by TWAS, Italy, and NAST, Nepal. He received several travel awards for attending international conferences in Austria, China, Germany, India, Italy, and the USA. He is a member of the Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON) and the Society of Economic Botany, USA, since 2007 and 2012, respectively. Dr. Kunwar has authored over xxxi

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About the Editors

70 publications including over 40 peer-reviewed articles, 15 book chapters, 10 review papers, and 1 book. His research articles featured in the journals PLOS One, Ecological Indicators, Ecosystem Services, Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (JEE), Journal of Ethnopharmacology, Journal of Ethnobotany Research and Applications (JERA), and Global Ecology and Conservation. Currently, he works as an associate editor for JERA and is an editorial board member of JEE. Dr. Kunwar has bagged over 1400 citations and H Index 19. Detail is available at GoogleScholar https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl¼en&user¼0hJp XUEAAAAJ&view_op¼list_works&sortby¼pubdate.

Prof. Dr. Hassan Sher was born in Swat District of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. He is associated with teaching and research for the last 23 years. Dr. Sher obtained his M.Sc. (botany, 1995) and M.Phil. (botany, specialization in plant ecology, 1998) from the Department of Botany, Peshawar University, and Ph.D. (botany, specialization in plant ecology, 2006) from GC University, Lahore. His work is focusing on traditional knowledge system, ethnobotany, ecology, in situ and ex situ conservation of valuable endangered plant species with IUCN, WWF, SDC/IC, FAO and UNDP, with rich experience in the restoration/rehabilitation of degraded habitats and recovery of rare/threatened plant species. Dr. Sher published more than 150 original research articles and is a member of 7 national and international scientific societies and organizations. He has supervised and examined/evaluated many postgraduate and M.Phil. theses and Ph.D. dissertations. He is also the reviewer of internationally reputed scientific journals. A total of five research projects have been successfully completed by Dr. Sher, funded by both international and national donors, whereas one research project is ongoing. Dr. Sher has supervised 15 M.Sc. students and 1 M.Phil. research scholar, and 8 M.Phil. research scholars and 6 Ph.D. research scholars are currently under his guidance. A total of four books and one book chapter have been published. Dr. Sher’s contributions toward preservation and innovation in the field of medicinal plants conservation

About the Editors

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and management were recognized jointly by the Government of Pakistan and SAARC countries by awarding him the prestigious SAARC Gold Medal and SAARC Award in Dhaka, Bangladesh, during the Summit in 2003 on the theme “Invention in the Field of Traditional Medicines.” Dr. Sher is professor and director of the Centre for Plant Sciences and Biodiversity, and also dean of the Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Pakistan, since May 21, 2019. Dr. Sher was the registrar of the University of Swat from June 11, 2011, to January 24, 2012, and then from March 17, 2016, to February 28, 2018. Furthermore, he was a focal person for Himalaya University Consortium of ICIMOD for Biodiversity and Natural Resource Management, and focal person of the Higher Education Commission, Islamabad, for establishment of the women’s campus at the University of Swat from June 15, 2017, to September 2019. Dr. Sher is member of NCRC of HEC for the disciplines of botany, environmental sciences, and plant protection. Dr. Rainer W. Bussmann earned his M.Sc. (diploma) in biology from Universität Tübingen, Germany, in 1993 and his doctorate from Universität Bayreuth, Germany, in 1994. He is an ethnobotanist and vegetation ecologist, and co-director of Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia, as well as Head of the Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany, Ilia State University, both of which he co-founded. Before retiring from Missouri Botanical Garden, Dr. Bussmann was director of the William L. Brown Center at Missouri Botanical Garden, William L. Brown curator of economic botany, and senior curator. Before accepting the directorship of WLBC, he held academic appointments as research fellow in geography and the environment at the University of Texas at Austin from 2006 to 2007, as associate professor of botany and scientific director of Harold Lyon Arboretum at the University of Hawaii from 2003 to 2006, and as assistant professor at the University of Bayreuth from 1997 to 2003, following a postdoc at the same institution from 1994 to 1997. He holds affiliate faculty appointments at Washington University St. Louis, USA; University of Missouri St. Louis, USA;

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About the Editors

Florida Atlantic University Boca Raton, USA; Universidade Federal da Paraíba, Brazil; Universidád Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Perú; and at Ilia State University, Republic of Georgia, and serves as external thesis advisor at multiple other universities worldwide. His work focuses on ethnobotanical research and the preservation of traditional knowledge in Bolivia, Peru, Madagascar, the Caucasus, and the Himalayas. To date, Dr. Bussmann has authored over 290 peer-reviewed papers, over 1200 book chapters, and authored or edited 38 books. Dr. Bussmann is a past president of the Society for Economic Botany and has served as board/council member of the International Society for Ethnopharmacology, Society of Ethnobiology, Botanical Society of America, and International Society of Ethnobiology. See more of his work on his website (https://www. cejaandina.org/rainer-w-bussmann/) and download publications from ResearchGate (https://www.researchgate. net/profile/Rainer_Bussmann).

Contributors

Arshad Mehmood Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan Kamal Prasad Acharya Department of Sport, Food and Natural Sciences, Western Norway University of Applied Sciences, Bergen, Norway Ram Prasad Acharya Centre for Sustainable Agricultural Systems, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD, Australia Practical Solutions Consultancy, Kathmandu, Nepal Dhaka M. Adhikari Sustainable Environmental and Ecosystem Management, Lalitpur, Nepal Kamal Adhikari Resource Himalaya Foundation, Lalitpur, Nepal Yagya P. Adhikari Department of Biogeography, BayCEER, University of Bayreuth, Bayreuth, Germany Department of Disturbance Ecology, BayCEER, University of Bayreuth, Bayreuth, Germany Anjana Adhikari-Devkota Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan Sarah Albright University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, USA Giridhar Amatya Mooswan Herby Industry, Kathmandu, Nepal Abdul Sahim Ansari Birgunj Metropolitan City Ward 4, Birta, Parsa, Nepal Suman Aryal Institute for Agriculture and the Environment, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD, Australia Bandana Awasthi DAI/USAID Nepal Paani Program, Kathmandu, Nepal Rana B. B.K. Division Forest Office, Gorkha, Nepal Reecha Balayar Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Nepal xxxv

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Contributors

Bikash Baral Research, Community Development and Conservation Center (C3DR), Pokhara, Nepal Kedar Baral Division Forest Office, Tanahun, Nepal Sony Baral The Resource Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal Institute of Silvilculture and University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria Sushim R. Baral Maijubahal-7 Chabahil 7, Kathmandu, Nepal Sumit Bahadur Baruwal Chhetri Department of Pharmacy, School of Health and Allied Sciences, Pokhara University, Pokhara, Nepal Ramesh Basnet Plant Research Centre, Jumla, Nepal Department of Plant Resources (DPR), Thapathali, Kathmandu, Nepal Bijendra Basnyat NARMA Consultancy, Kathmandu, Nepal Tarun Belwal College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, Key Laboratory for Agro-Products Postharvest Handling of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Zhejiang Key Laboratory for Agro-Food Processing, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China Dhaka Ram Bhandari Institute of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Justus Liebig University, Giessen, Germany Gauri S. Bhandari The Research Institute of Basic Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea Jyoti Bhandari Institute of Forestry, Tribhuvan University, Pokhara, Nepal Khadka B. Bhandari Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal Prabin Bhandari Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal Man D. Bhatt Botany Department, Siddhanath Science Campus, Tribhuvan University, Kanchanpur, Nepal Ganga D. Bhatta National Herbarium and Plant Laboratories (KATH), Godawari, Lalitpur, Nepal Suneeta Bhatta Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal Bhola Bhattarai National Advocacy Forum, NAFAN Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal

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Hari Datta Bhattarai Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal Krishna Ram Bhattarai Department of Plant Resources, Thapathali, Kathmandu, Nepal Prakash Bhattarai Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Rabindra Bhattarai Center Department of Botany, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal Rameshwar Bhattarai Asian Center for Development, Kathmandu, Nepal Shandesh Bhattarai Nepal Academy of Science and Technology, Lalitpur, Nepal Shreehari Bhattarai Agriculture Forest University, Hetauda, Nepal Arjun Bhusal Green Governance Nepal, Baneshwor, Kathmandu, Nepal Bindu K. C. Amrit Science College, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Peter Bridgewater Faculty of Science and Technology, Institute for Applied Ecology, University of Canberra, Bruce, ACT, Australia Shanta Budha-Magar Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand Rainer W. Bussmann Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Pratikshya Chalise National Herbarium and Plant Laboratories, Department of Plant Resources, Ministry of Forests and Environment, Godawari, Lalitpur, Nepal Shambhu Charmakar Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Kathmandu, Nepal Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy Chandrakant Chaudhary Department of Environmental Science, Macquarie University, Macquarie Park, Australia C. M. Chaudhary Environmental Services Nepal Private Limited, Thapathali, Kathmandu, Nepal Ram Prasad Chaudhary Research Centre for Applied Science and Technology (RECAST), Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Roshan Chikanbanjar Bhattarai, Bhola, NAFAN, Kathmandu, Nepal National Advocacy Forum, Kathmandu, Nepal Nabaraj Dahal Practical Solutions Consultancy, Kathmandu, Nepal

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Contributors

Dharma Raj Dangol Institute for Social and Environmental Research Nepal, Chitwan, Nepal Niranjan Das Department of Chemistry, Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar College, Belonia, S. Tripura, India Anjana Devkota Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Hari Prasad Devkota Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan Mohan P. Devkota Botany Department, Amrit Campus, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Shiva Devkota Global Institute for Interdisciplinary Studies (GIIS), Kathmandu, Nepal Man K. Dhamala Central Department of Environmental Science, Tribhuvan University, Tribhuvan, Nepal Namraj Dhami School of Health and Allied Sciences, Pokhara University, Pokhara, Nepal Sunita Dhungana Institute of Forestry, Tribhuvan University, Pokhara, Nepal Kalyan Gauli The Resource Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal Deepak Gautam Institute of Forestry, Tribhuvan University Pokhara Campus, Pokhara, Nepal Sangita Gautam School of Health and Allied Sciences, Pokhara University, Pokhara, Nepal Dhruba Bijaya GC Institute of Forestry, Tribhuvan University, Pokhara, Nepal Pavlos Georgiadis Department of Societal Transition and Agriculture, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany Narayan Ghimire Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Tribhuvan, Nepal Keshab R. Goutam Ministry of Forests and Environment, Kathmandu, Nepal Arati Gurung Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Rajendra Gyawali Kathmandu University, Dhulikhel, Kavre, Nepal Sabina Gyawali Amrit Science College, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Wahid Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan Hammad Ahmad Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan

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Anke Jentsch Department of Disturbance Ecology, BayCEER, University of Bayreuth, Bayreuth, Germany Laxmi Raj Joshi National Trust for Nature Conservation, Bardia Conservation Program, Kathmandu, Nepal Nabin Joshi Asia Network for Sustainable Agri-Bioresources, Kathmandu, Nepal Nirmala Joshi Department of Plant Resources, Thapathali, Kathmandu, Nepal Sudha Joshi Shrestha Department of Botany, Patan Multiple Campus, Tribhuvan University, Lalitpur, Nepal Mohan Raj Kafle Division Forest Office Lamjung, Lamjung, Nepal Megh Nath Kafley Forest Research and Training Center, Ministry of Forests and Environment, Kathmandu, Nepal Gyanendra Karki Agriculture and Forestry University, Rampur, Chitwan, Nepal Archana M. Kattel Shakti Global, LLC, Orlando, FL, USA Dipak Khadka Guangdong Key Laboratory for Innovative Development and Utilization of Forest Plant Germplasm, College of Forestry and Landscape Architecture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China Golden Gate International College, Kathmandu, Nepal Dhruba Khakurel Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal Mathura Khanal Foresters’ Association of Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal Laxmi Khaniya Center Department of Botany, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal Deepa Khatri Department of Pharmacy, Nobel Academy, Purbanchal University, Pokhara, Nepal Subhas Khatri National Herbarium and Plant Laboratories (KATH), Godawari, Lalitpur, Nepal N. B. Khatri Chhetri SOS Hermann Gmeiner School, Sanothimi Bhaktapur, Nepal Dhirendra Kumar Pradhan Forest Research and Training Center, Ministry of Forests and Environment, Kathmandu, Nepal Binayak Kunwar Agriculture and Forestry University, Chitawan, Nepal Laxmi Kunwar School of Health and Allied Sciences, Pokhara University, Pokhara, Nepal Ripu M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal

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Contributors

Durga Kutal University of Wisconsin-Whitewater, Whitewater, WI, USA Gopal Lamichhane Department of Oriental Pharmacy, Wonkwang University, Iksan, Republic of Korea Santosh Lamichhane Department of Pharmacy, Wonkwang University, Iksan, Republic of Korea Chris LeBoa Department of Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA Hari Datt Lekhak Botanical Society of Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal Rajan Logesh TIFAC-CORE in Herbal Drugs, Department of Pharmacognosy and Phytopharmacy, JSS College of Pharmacy (JSS Academy of Higher Education and Research), Udhagamandalam, Tamil Nadu, India Harisharan Luintel Forest Action, Kathmandu, Nepal Sanjeev Luintel Amrit Science College, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Razan Mahat Trichandra Multiple Campus, Tribhuvan University, Ghantaghar, Kathmandu, Nepal Roshni Mahat Kathmandu, Nepal Laxmi Mahat Kunwar Kathmandu, Nepal Kuber Jung Malla Department of Plant Resources, Kathmandu, Nepal Tek Maraseni University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD, Australia Northwest Institute of Eco-Environment and Resources, Lanzhou, China Bishwa Nath Oli Ministry of Forests and Environment, Kathmandu, Nepal Jeevan Pandey Department of Plant Resources, Ministry of Forest and Environment, Government of Nepal, Thapathali, Nepal Yagya Raj Paneru Department of Botany, Capital College and Research Centre, Koteshwor, Kathmandu, Nepal Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia Shankar Pant Texas A&M AgriLife Research and Extension Center, Weslaco, TX, USA Agricultural Research Service, US Department of Agriculture, Stillwater, OK, USA Kalyan Panta Prithivi Narayan Campus, Tribhuvan University, Pokhara, Nepal Shiva Pariyar Ministry of Industry, Tourism, Forest and Environment, Pokhara, Nepal Mohan Prasad Panthi Kathmandu-32, Pepsicola, 44600, Nepal

Contributors

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Babita Paudel Center for Natural and Applied Sciences, Kathmandu, Nepal Hem Raj Paudel National Herbarium and Plant Laboratories, Department of Plant Resources, Godawari, Nepal Krishna C. Paudel Institute of Forestry, Tribhuvan University, Tribhuvan, Nepal Mukti Ram Paudel Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal Ram C. Paudel Molecular Biotechnology Unit, Faculty of Science, Nepal Academy of Science and Technology (NAST), Lalitpur, Nepal Youba Raj Pokharel Ministry of Forests and Environment, Kathmandu, Nepal Prakash Poudel Department of Pharmacy, Novel Academy, Purbanchal University, Pokhara, Nepal Ram C. Poudel Molecular Biotechnology Unit, Faculty of Science, Nepal Academy of Science and Technology (NAST), Khumaltar, Nepal Sushmita Poudel University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, USA Beeju Poudyal Himalayan Conservation and Research Institute, Kathmandu, Nepal Bishnu Hari Poudyal Institute for Agriculture and the Environment, University of Southern Queensland, Darling Heights, QLD, Australia Forest Action Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal Mukti Ram Poudeyal Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Hari Prasad Pandey Ministry of Forests and Environment, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal Narayan Prasad Pokharel Ministry of Forests and Environment, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal Dipesh Pyakurel Nepal Herbs and Herbal Products Association, Kathmandu, Nepal Agriculture and Forestry University, Chitwan, Nepal Sailesh Ranjitkar NGene, Solutions of Natural Innovation, Kathmandu GPO 44614, Nepal Honghe Center for Mountain Futures, Kunming Institute of Botany, Honghe County 654400, Yunnan, China Faculty of Humanities and Social Science, Mid-Western University, Lalitpur, Nepal Bhagawat Rimal College of Applied Sciences (CAS)-Nepal, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal

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Contributors

Hari Krishna Sainju Department of Biotechnology, Asian Institute of Technology and Management, Lalitpur, Nepal Biswas Sapkota Department of Pharmacy, Novel Academy, Pokhara, Nepal Prabhat Sapkota Division Forest Office, Gulmi, Nepal Prakash Prasad Sapkota Dhawalagiri Multiple Campus, Baglung, Nepal Christoph Scheidegger Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research WSL, Birmensdorf, Switzerland Shiva Kumar Sharma The Resource Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal Grinsun Sharma Department of Medical Science, Wonkwang University, Iksan, Republic of Korea Hari P. Sharma Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Hassan Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan Jyoti Sherchan Department of Pharmacy, Novel Academy, Pokhara, Nepal Sangita Shresta Red River Trail, Valley Ranch, Irving, Texas, USA Hira Shova Shrestha Department of Science, Sanothimi Campus, Bhaktapur, Nepal Ila Shrestha Botany Department, Patan Multiple Campus, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal Keshab Shrestha Natural History Museum, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Krishna Kumar Shrestha Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal Kumar Shrestha Department of Plant Biology, Ecology and Evolution, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, USA Rose Shrestha Department of Plant Resources, Ministry of Forests and Environment, Kathmandu, Nepal Sajan Lal Shyaula Faculty of Science, Nepal Academy of Science and Technology, Lalitpur, Nepal Dammar Singh Saud Department of Plant resources, Thapathali, Kathmandu, Nepal Mohan Siwakoti Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Nepal

Contributors

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Bhishma P. Subedi Asia Network for Sustainable Agriculture and Bioresources, Kathmandu, Nepal Chandra Kanta Subedi Research Centre for Applied Science and Technology (RECAST), Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Suresh Subedi Arkansas Tech University, Russellville, AR, USA Nani Maiya Sujakhu National Centre for Borderland Ethnic Studies in Southwest China, Yunnan University, Kunming, China Usha Thakuri Hetauda Makawanpur, Nepal

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Asmita Thapa Trichandra Multiple Campus, Tribhuvan University, Ghantaghar, Kathmandu, Nepal Kanti Prabha Thapa Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal Neeru Thapa Institute of Forestry, Tribhuvan University, Pokhara, Nepal Rashmi Thapa Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, School of Health and Allied Sciences, Pokhara University, Pokhara, Nepal Santosh Thapa Tri-Chandra College, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Til K. Thapa National Herbarium and Plant Laboratories (KATH), Godawari, Lalitpur, Nepal Devi K. Thapa-Magar Nobel College, Kathmandu, Nepal Khum B. Thapa-Magar Department of Forest and Rangeland Stewardship, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA Kiran Timalsina Green Governance Nepal, Baneshwor, Kathmandu, Nepal Achyut Tiwari Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Nepal Astha Tuladhar College of Liberal Arts and Sciences, Mie University, Tsu, Japan International Society of Horticultural Sciences (ISHS), Leuven, Belgium Maroof Ali Turi College of Life Science, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu, China Sunita Ulak Forest Research and Training Center, Ministry of Forests and Environment, Kathmandu, Nepal Manzoor Ullah Department of Botany, University of Science and Technology, Bannu KP, Pakistan Suraj Upadhaya Department of Natural Resource Ecology and Management, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA Himalayan Conservation and Research Institute, Kathmandu, Nepal

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Contributors

Yadav Uprety WWF Nepal Program, Baluwatar, Kathmandu, Nepal Ikram Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan Sheetal Vaidya Department of Botany, Patan Multiple Campus, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Nepal

Part I Regions

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Hindukush and Karakoram Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

The Regions The Hindukush is an 800-kilometre-long mountain range that stretches through Afghanistan, from its centre to Northern Pakistan and into Tajikistan. The range forms the western section of the Hindukush Himalayan Region (HKH) and is the westernmost extension of the Pamir Mountains, the Karakoram and the Himalayas. The three regions meet in Pakistan (Fig. 1). It divides the valley of the Amu Darya (the ancient Oxus) to the north from the Indus River valley to the south. The range has numerous high snow-capped peaks, with the highest point being Tirich Mir or Terichmir at 7708 m in the Chitral District of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. To the north, near its northeastern end, the H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_2

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Fig. 1 Meeting pint of Hindukush, Karakoram and Himalaya, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan) Fig. 2 Rakaposhi Summit, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Hindukush buttresses the Pamir Mountains near the point where the borders of China, Pakistan and Afghanistan meet, after which it runs southwest through Pakistan and into Afghanistan near their border. The eastern end of the Hindukush in the north merges with the Karakoram Range. Towards its southern end, it connects with the Spin Ghar Range near the Kabul River. The Hindukush range region was a historically significant centre of Buddhism with sites such as the Bamiyan Buddhas. It remained a stronghold of polytheistic faiths until the nineteenth century. The Hindukush range has been the passageway during the invasions of the Indian subcontinent (Anderson et al. 2020). The region carries many snow-capped peaks, mountain lakes and high passes (Figs. 2, 3, 4, and 5). The Karakoram is a mountain range spanning the borders of India, Pakistan and China with the northwest extremity of the range extending to Afghanistan and

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Hindukush and Karakoram Fig. 3 Borith Lake, GilgitBaltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 4 Khaplu Valley, GilgitBaltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

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Fig. 5 Khunjerab Pass, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Tajikistan; its highest 15 mountains are all based in Pakistan. It begins in the Wakhan Corridor (Afghanistan) in the west, encompasses the majority of Gilgit-Baltistan (Pakistan), and extends into Ladakh (India) and the disputed Aksai Chin region controlled by China. It is the second highest mountain range in the world and part of the complex of ranges including the Pamir Mountains, the Hindukush and the Himalayan Mountains. The Karakoram has eight summits over 7500 m in height, with four of them exceeding 8000 m, including K2, the second highest peak in the world at 8611 m. The range is about 500 km in length and is the most heavily glaciated part of the world outside the polar regions. The Siachen Glacier at 76 km and the Biafo Glacier at 63 km rank as the world’s second and third longest glaciers outside the polar regions. The Karakoram is bounded on the east by the Aksai Chin plateau, on the northeast by the edge of the Tibetan Plateau and on the north by the river valleys of the Yarkand and Karakash rivers beyond which lie the Kunlun Mountains. At the northwest corner are the Pamir Mountains. The southern boundary of the Karakoram is formed, west to east, by the Gilgit, Indus and Shyok rivers, which separate the range from the northwestern end of the Himalaya range proper. These rivers flow northwest before making an abrupt turn southwestwards towards the plains of Pakistan. Roughly in the middle of the Karakoram range is the Karakoram Pass, which was part of a historic trade route between Ladakh and Yarkand but now inactive (Figs. 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10). There is great heterogeneity of features from south to north and west to east in relation to precipitation, vegetation and human livelihoods. This variability defies making easy generalizations about the region (Sharma et al. 2019).

Geography The Hindukush region is the westernmost extension of the Pamir and the Himalayas. It divides the valley of the Amu Darya (the ancient Oxus) to the north from the Indus River valley to the south. The range has numerous high snow-capped peaks, with the

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Hindukush and Karakoram Fig. 6 Soog Valley, GilgitBaltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 7 Deosai National Park, Skardu, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

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Fig. 8 Gunji Roundu Valley, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan) Fig. 9 Nagar Valley, GilgitBaltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

highest point being Tirich Mir or Terichmir at 7708 m in the Chitral District of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. To the north, near its northeastern end, the Hindukush buttresses the Pamir Mountains near the point where the borders of China, Pakistan and Afghanistan meet, after which it runs southwest through Pakistan and into Afghanistan near their border. The eastern end of the Hindukush in the north merges with the Karakoram Range. Towards its southern end, it connects with the Spin Ghar Range near the Kabul River. Numerous high passes transect the

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Fig. 10 Badhowai Valley, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

mountains, forming a strategically important network for the transit of caravans. The most important mountain pass in Afghanistan is the Salang Pass (Kotal-e Salang) (3878 m) north of Kabul, which links southern Afghanistan to northern Afghanistan. The range has several other passes in Afghanistan, the lowest of which is the southern Shibar Pass (2700 m) where the Hindukush range terminates. The Hindukush from the boundary between the Indus watershed in South Asia and Amu Darya watershed in Central Asia Melt water from snow and ice feeds major river systems in Central Asia: the Amu Darya, the Helmand River and the Kabul River. Smaller rivers with headwaters in the range include the Khash, the Farah and the Arashkan (Harut) rivers. The basins of these rivers serve the ecology and economy of the region, but the water flow in these rivers greatly fluctuate, and reliance on these has been a historical problem with extended droughts being commonplace. The eastern end of the range, with the highest peaks and high snow accumulation, allows to long-term water storage.

Climate Hindukush The climate setting of the eastern Hindukush is characterized by the transitional position between the humid monsoon regime along the southern declivity of the Himalayas and the semiarid winter-rain conditions of Southwest Asia and arid Central Asia. A steep south-north gradient of decreasing annual precipitation,

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which characterizes the mountain belts of northern Pakistan is modified by the orographic structure and seasonally alternating circulation systems. The horizontal differentiation is overlaid by pronounced vertical climatic gradients, which range from the arid valley floors to humid nival climates within a short distance. Southern Chitral receives higher amounts of summer rainfall from monsoonal depressions. Central and northern Chitral show a more arid regime that is influenced by winter precipitation from western disturbances (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002).

Karakoram In the last ice age, a connected series of glaciers stretched from western Tibet to Nanga Parbat and from the Tarim Basin to the Gilgit District. To the south, the Indus glacier was the main valley glacier, which flowed 120 km down from Nanga Parbat massif to 870 m elevation. In the north, the Karakoram glaciers joined those from the Kunlun Mountains and flowed down to 2000 m in the Tarim Basin. While the current valley glaciers in the Karakoram reach a maximum length of 76 km, several of the ice age valley glacier branches and main valley glaciers had lengths up to 700 km. During the ice age, the glacier snowline was about 1300 m lower than today. Physical factors are, to a high degree, varied over the region because of extreme differences in altitude, exposition and geomorphological structure. The climate generally is strongly continental and extremely arid. Only in the highest altitudes can cold subhumid conditions be expected. The climate diagrams of Kashgar (Western Tarim Basin) and Geer (W Tibet) and low amount of precipitation (about 60 mm annually at the altitude of 4300 m) and not representative of the highest elevations. A rapid increase of humidity is obvious above the altitude of about 4400 m in the central N slope of the Karakoram. The high amount of radiation causes extreme annual, diurnal and exposition-governed temperature changes. Aspect and exposition are important factors which regulate evaporation. The N slopes of Kunlun Shan and Aghil Shan are moister and hold a much more varied vegetation than the S slopes. Not a single species was found growing on a S slope exclusively. Lithophytic lichens are almost entirely confined to N-facing rocks of the alpine and sub-nival belts where they can reach high species diversities. It is beyond the scope of this article to discuss micro-climatical features of the area, but these factors control the altitudinal and latitudinal distribution of vegetation types and plant species (Dickoré 1991). In the past the Hindukush-Karakoram climate has changed significantly, and in the near future, it will change more dramatically (Krishnan et al. 2019). The region experienced a time of climate warming from 1901 to 1940, from 1940 to 1970 was a layer of cooling, and again from 1970 up to present a layer of warming. Annual mean surface air temperature has pointedly risen in the HHK from 1901 to 2014, at 0.10 ° C/decade rate, while the rate of warming is 0.2 °C/decade over the last 50 years. It is predicted that the region will experience warming 1.7–2.4 °C in the near future term (2036–2065). In the near future, it is predicted that monsoon precipitation would increase from 4% to 12% and in the long term from 4% to 25%. In the Karakoram the

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winter precipitation is predicted to increase from 7% to 15%, but in the central Himalaya, it is predicted that it will decline slightly (Krishnan et al. 2019). On the spatial pattern of temperatures across different geographic regions of the topographic variations, the annual season’s cycle and weather patterns variability have strong controls. In the southern foothill, the average winter and summer temperatures are between 18 °C and 30 °C, while in the middle Himalayan areas have average summer temperatures from 15 °C to 25 °C, and in winters it is very cold. The winter temperature is below the freezing point in the areas where elevation is above 4800 m, and these areas receive precipitation mainly on snow form largely in the form of snow. In the upper Indus Basin of Pakistan, the mean end-of-summer regional snow line altitude (SLA) zones range from 3000 to 5000 m. The elevated Karakoram records of observed surface temperature from Pakistani stations indicate that the average maximum temperature during July is about 20 °C and in February the average minimum temperature is about 3 °C (Krishnan et al. 2019).

Geology Geologically, the area is rooted in the formation of a subcontinent from a region of Gondwana that drifted away from East Africa about 160 million years ago, around the Middle Jurassic period. The Indian subcontinent, Australia and islands of the Indian Ocean rifted further, drifting northeastwards, with the Indian subcontinent colliding with the Eurasian Plate nearly 55 million years ago, towards the end of Paleocene. This collision created the Himalayas, including the Hindukush. The Hindukush is a part of the young Eurasian mountain range, consisting of metamorphic rocks such as schist, gneiss and marble, as well as of intrusives such as granite and diorite of different age and size. The northern regions of the Hindukush witness Himalayan winter and have glaciers, while its southeastern end witnesses the fringe of Indian subcontinent summer monsoons. The Hindukush range remains geologically active and is still rising – it is prone to earthquakes. Ancient mines producing lapis lazuli are found in Kowkcheh Valley, while gem-grade emeralds are found north of Kabul in the valley of the Panjshir River and some of its tributaries. The West Hindukush mountains have been the source of finest lapis lazuli for thousands of years. The principal mountain ranges (Kunlun Shan, Aghil Shan, Central Karakoram) contain large plutonic, mainly granite outcrops. Sediments of the ancient Tethys from almost all geological epochs and metamorphites are equally and widely distributed. Slightly metamorphized sediments are even preserved in the innermost mountain range. Large outcrops of siliceous slates in the Kunlun Shan and Yarkand valley (mainly Permian) and in the Aghil Shan (Carboniferous) often make unstable scree slopes. Locally, as by the main fault line between the Kunlun and the Karakoram mountains (Aghil Gorge, 3880 m), hard bedrock of quartzite and other metamorphites provide better conditions for a richer flora. The summit pyramid of K2 itself (above the upper limit of vegetation) consists of an extremely hard and heavy, fine-grained striate gneiss. Limestone is especially apparent in the Aghil

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Shan, where there are calcareous outcrops ranging from Carboniferous to Jurassic, towered by huge dolomite cliffs. These form the complete mountain range west of the Aghil Pass of more than 2 km in height. This special geological situation (the better water supply on the foot of these cliffs) might be responsible for a comparatively rich flora noted on the N side of Aghil pass. Smaller calcareous outcrops in the subalpine belt of the Shaksgam and Muztagh valleys (mainly Carboniferous) and other Paleozoic limestone areas of the Kunlun foothills apparently have no special floras (Dickoré 1991). Extensive loess accumulations almost cover the Kunlun foothills totally and are to a lesser extent also found in the N slope of Kunlun Shan up to 4400 m, south of the Kunlun Shan main ridge; loess is entirely wanting (Dickoré 1991). Soils generally are poorly developed. Even in the lower altitudes, hardly any horizons are to be distinguished. Dominating soil types are Yermosols (desert soils of lower altitudes), Lithosols, and Gelosols (high altitudes). Solonchaks locally occur by rivers. Notable accumulations of humus (rarely more than 2–5 cm) were found only in the higher alpine belt under cushions of Sibbaldia tetrandra and under spots of alpine turf (Stipa concinna). Fen peat (Carex, Kobresia) is restricted to very local situations by springs and flushes. A more or less pronounced salinization is evident almost everywhere below of the alpine belt. Soda efflorescences are frequent up to about 4200 m (Dickoré 1991).

Vegetation and Flora The Hindukush-Karakoram forms an ecotone zone which delimits the IranoTuranian, Sino-Himalayan and Central Asiatic floristic regions. The northern boundary of West Himalayan montane coniferous forests runs through southern Chitral, whereas northern Chitral and the inner valley floors are noticeably treeless (Khan et al. 2013). The subalpine and alpine belts are predominately covered by thorncushion and dwarf-scrub vegetation, which contains many Irano-Turanian and Pamirean floristic elements (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002). The plant species provide a wealth of beneficial products that contribute significantly to the quality of life of the local inhabitants (Ali and Qaiser 2009). The area carries six conifer species Cedrus deodara, Pinus gerardiana, Pinus wallichiana, Abies pindrow, Picea smithiana and Juniperus excelsa and dominant broad-leaf species Betula utilis, Quercus baloot and Quercus dilatata (Schickhoff 2005). Among the conifers, Cedrus deodara is Pakistan’s national tree, provides excellent quality timber and has a great national economic importance. As a product of former and recent conditions, the speciespoor flora of the region is an essentially Holarctic-Central Asian-Tibetan one, almost completely excluding elements of closely neighbouring geobotanical division units (Tropical, Irano-Turanian, Sino-Himalayan (Dickoré 1991)). The flora is extremely diverse, with a large number of endemic species (Figs. 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, and 18), many of which are medicinally used, including interesting medicinal (Fig. 19) and edible (Fig. 20) fungi. In the Eastern Himalaya alone from 1998 to 2008, each year an average of 35 new species were discovered (Xu et al. 2019).

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Fig. 11 Iris kashmiriana, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Vegetation Zonation Colline Belt The colline belt comprises the warm-temperate zone of the valley floors and adjacent lower slopes. Except for the southmost localities in Nuristan, southern Chitral, Dir, Swat and lndus Kohistan, the colline belt is arid. Closed forests are naturally absent in the north, apart from alluvial Tamarix, Elaeagnus, Salix or Populus groves or plantations within the irrigated and cultivated areas. The colline belt shows a considerable increase of its upper limit from 2100 m in the south to about 2400 m in the north. This is, however, distinctly less than the increase of the effective lower valley floor from slightly above 1000 m to above 2500 m. All vegetation types of the colline belt are used as winter pasture (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002). The natural vegetation of the comparatively moist southern valleys has been largely removed by wood-cutting and irrigated cultivation or highly degraded through grazing. Remaining examples of this vegetation type resemble a subtropical thorn steppe. This is apparently a replacement community of thermophilous broadleaved and Pinus roxburghii forests on the northwestern margin of their distribution. The moist thermophilous forest comprises a very characteristic West Himalayan formation. This vegetation type is originally relatively rich in tree and shrub species

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Fig. 12 Rheum webbianum, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

but under the present utilization mostly degraded. Ruderal areas covered by almost monospecific stands of Dodonaea viscosa represent extreme stages of degradation. Along steep valley and gorge sections (e.g. Lower Kunar Valley), Quercus baloot and other submontane species (Prunus cornuta) descend into the colline belt. A certain west-east gradient is also apparent. Monotheca buxifolia characterizes the Afghan fraction of the area. Quercus incana and an increasing proportion of Himalayan species are found from Dir and Swat eastwards (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002). The dry colline belt of the main valley floors is a rather uniform and species-poor formation of desert scrub and occasional small desert trees. Haloxylon griffithii and Pulicaria salviaefolia extend to an altitude of approximately 2400 m. Besides many widespread and common taxa, including scattered small trees of Pistacia atlantica subsp. cabulica and Pistacia khinjuk in fissures of rock outcrops, the arid colline belt of the main Chitral Valley seems to be characterized by a few endemics (Bupleurum gilesii) and occasional eastern outposts of West Pamirean and Irano-Turanian elements (Gontscharovia popovii, Celtis caucasica). Some areas are characterized by Haloxylon thornsonii and Haplophyllum gilesii, vicariant endemics of the upper lndus Valley (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002). The Kashgarian lowland is equivalent to the colline zone up to the foot of the mountains. Temperate stone, more rarely alluvial loess and sand deserts, and oases comprise the westernmost extension of the Mongolian vegetation province. The

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Fig. 13 Pinus roxburghii, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Kashgarian flora is exceedingly poor in species compared to the E Mongolian as well as to the Middle Asiatic floras W of the bordering mountains. Beneath the widespread desert shrubs (Haloxylon ammodendron, Calligonum mongolicum), endemics are few (Myricaria pulcherrima, Apocynum hendersonii) (Dickoré 1991). The Kunlun foothills include montane and subalpine loess deserts and steppes. Common Central-Asiatic species (Sympegma regelii, Juniperus pseudosabina) and a few Irano-Turanian elements (Reaumuria soongarica, Acantholimon diapensioides) occur in the W part (Dickoré 1991).

Submontane Belt The submontane belt shows a slight increase of its absolute upper limit from 2600 m in the south to 2800–2900 m in the north. In the same direction, a substantial change of vegetation character is obvious, from forest to scrub, steppe and desert steppe, occasionally with tree groves. The submontane belt is comparatively rich in herbaceous and shrubby species, which represent a transition from dominant (inner) West Himalayan elements in the south to IranoTuranian and West Pamirean elements in the north (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002). Evergreen sclerophyllous oak forests with Quercus baloot are a conspicuous and characteristic vegetation type on the lower edge of the submontane belt in East

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Fig. 14 Anisomeles indica, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 15 Meconopsis betonicifolia, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

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Fig. 16 Juniperus excelsa, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 17 Rhododendron arboreum, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Afghanistan and the West Himalayas. Diospyros lotus and Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana are especially confined to the south slopes of Nuristan, lowermost Chitral, Dir and Swat. The altitudinal distribution of Quercus baloot extends from below 1250 m to 1300–1850 m. On south-facing slopes, altitudes between 1900 and 2350 m occasionally up to 2500 m are occupied by Quercus baloot woodlands (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002). Naturally open Pinus gerardiana forests near the absolute drought limit of forest distribution occur on the upper edge of the drier submontane belt, succeeding Quercus baloot, and are often followed by montane Cedrus deodara and Pinus wallichiana forests. Substantial stands of Pinus gerardiana concentrate on the slopes at altitudes between approximately 2200 and 2600 m. Shelter provided by Pinus gerardiana seems to be an important precondition for a well-developed herbaceous

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Fig. 18 Rhododendron afghanicum, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 19 Ganoderma lucidum, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

and shrubby companion flora, including therophytes and geophytes, which in places provides relatively rich grazing grounds. Wood and the edible seeds of Pinus gerardiana are another valuable resource (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002).

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Fig. 20 Morchella esculenta (Morchellaceae) Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

Open steppe and dwarf-scrub formations in which Irano-Turanian and West Pamirean elements (e.g. Scabiosa olivieri, Saussurea leptophylla, Scutellaria multicaulis) prevail occupy considerable areas, e.g. of central Chitral. Many of the characteristic species are at their eastern limit of distribution, but some (Artemisia persica, Fraxinus xanthoxyloides) reoccur in the dry valleys of Gilgit, Baltistan and Ladakh. Groves of Prunus kuramica and Juniperus excelsa subsp. polycarpos and other xerophytic trees occur regularly (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002).

Montane Belt The montane belt ranges from 2600 to 3200 m in the south and from 2800 to 3500 m in the north. It is generally a belt of dark boreal-style coniferous forests in the south, whereas almost treeless steppes are found in the north. Even, for example, in the humid southern part of Chitral and adjacent areas, the montane forest is discontinuous and restricted to smaller patches, mostly on north-facing slopes, alternating with steppe and scrub vegetation on south-facing slopes. This pattern, while related to climatic properties, is especially influenced by anthropo-zoogenic disturbance. Vegetation cover is variable and depends strongly on the intensity of pastoral utilization (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002). Rather small and disjunct forest areas dominated by mixed deciduous trees and laurophyllous oaks occur in the south (Nuristan, Dir, Swat) and in Kalasha. These evergreen-mixed forests contain Quercus dilatata (2000–2400 m) and Quercus semecarpifolia (2400–2900 m), are confined to the most humid areas and are under high threat, being widely cleared for grazing and cultivation (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002). The montane belt accommodates West Himalayan coniferous forests. Abies pindrow, Cedrus deodara, Pinus wallichiana and Picea smithiana characterize this

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formation, which is widely distributed from East Afghanistan to West Nepal. In the southwestern Karakorum and in the Nanga Parbat area, Picea and Pinus wallichiana range further north, whereas Abies is mainly restricted to the southern declivity of Nanga Parbat and the Astor Valley, and Cedrus extends north only to the Chilas section of the lndus Gorge. Cedrus deodara though usually dominates towards the lower edge of the montane forest (about 2450–3050 m) and Pinus wallichiana towards the higher altitudes. Abies and Picea are relatively rare. The cedar is regarded as the most valuable timber resource, and management is urgently needed to preserve these stands and their sustainable utilization. The shrub and herb layers of well-developed Cedrus deodara forests can be rich in West Himalayan (Carex cardiolepis, Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana, Podophyllum hexandrum) and endemic elements (Saussurea chitralica) (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002). Considerable areas in the moist montane belt are either naturally covered by or anthropo-zoogenously converted into dwarf-scrub, scrub and meadow-steppe vegetation. In places, treeless south-facing slopes are covered by Artemisia brevifolia, dwarf-scrub and open scrub formations. The semiarid montane belt is substantially treeless, apart from occasional Juniperus semiglobosa groves, mostly in water surplus situations on slopes and small patches of riverine forest (Betula utilis subsp. jacquemontii, Populus nigra, Populus pamirica). The widespread Artemisia brevifolia, Artemisia persica, Krascheninnikovia ceratoides and some other species connect the montane belts of Hindukush and the upper Karakorum (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002).

Subalpine Belt The subalpine belt comprises the zone around the (potential) upper treeline and extends between 3200 and 3800 m in the south and from 3500 to 4000 m in the north. Species composition of the subalpine belt comprises balanced proportions of montane and alpine species. However, the definition of the subalpine belt is more difficult in the treeless north, where a scrub belt can be absent too. Local variation of subalpine vegetation types is high due to various natural and anthropogenic factors. In avalanche trails and around the major high mountain massifs, subalpine and alpine vegetation may locally descend to lower altitudes. Betula utilis subsp. jacquemontii, probably the most common and distinctive subalpine tree of the western Himalayas, is generally rare and at its northern limit of distribution (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002). A subalpine krummholz belt is developed along the upper edge of montane forests through the south of the study area. It is characterized by shrub species of a wide West- or Pan-Himalayan distribution (Juniperus squamata, Lonicera obovata, Salix denticulata), with occasional Betula utilis subsp. jacquemontii groves or some stunted conifer trees from the montane belt below. Throughout the area the treeline ecotone zones rarely show regular patterns, due to steep microclimatic exposure gradients and often strong human interference (grazing, burning, selective cutting) (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002).

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The subalpine vegetation encompasses dwarf shrublands and steppe formations, which often show considerable proportions of thorn cushions (Acantholimon lycopodioides, Astragalus lasiosemius, Astragalus strobilijerus) in their life-form composition. Besides dry open turf (Carex stenophylla) or bunch grass steppes (Festuca olgae), a variety of low shrubs, subshrubs and herbs may come to local dominance. The semiarid subalpine scrub and steppe include many taxa which are widely distributed in the inner mountains of western Central Asia and occasional endemics. The distribution of Saussurea gilesii is almost exclusively confined to the area covered by the vegetation map, including adjacent Wakhan and westernmost Gilgit. The corresponding vegetation type from the southwestern Karakorum (lower Gilgit, Hunza, Baltistan) is accordingly somewhat different. Of its genus, which is prolific in the Irano-Turanian region, Acantholimon lycopodioides is the only species to extend eastwards through the southwestern Karakorum and inner western Himalayas to Ladakh. Thorn cushions (Acantholimon, Astragalus) and other dwarf shrubs (Artemisia, Ephedra gerardiana) are used for fuel and thatch roofs, especially in the vicinity of seasonally inhabited pastoral settlements (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002).

Alpine Belt The alpine belt accommodates a small-scale mosaic of hemicryptophyte and chamaephyte-dominated meadow, turf and dwarf-scrub communities. Extensive areas of open rock faces and unstable scree slopes are almost devoid of vegetation or accommodate only a very thin cover of highly specialized plants. Differences in parent rock, substrate, relief position and soil moisture obviously account for local variation of plant distribution (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002). The alpine regions of Nuristan, southern Chitral, Dir, Swat, southwestern Karakorum, Nanga Parbat, Kashmir and lndus-Kohistan accommodate fairly closed turf and dwarf-scrub communities. In easternmost Afghanistan, this formation is already at its absolute western limit. In its overall composition, the humid alpine belt especially in the Hindukush is a transition zone between the species-rich alpine vegetation of the outer Himalayas from Hazara and Kashmir eastwards and the corresponding more species-poor communities of the southwestern Karakorum and the inner western Himalayas. Besides turf and dwarf-scrub communities, the humid alpine belt accommodates a variety of specialized rock fissure and scree slope habitats. Tall forb, meadow and scrub vegetation join steep shady rock bases, streams and meltwater courses (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002). Open steppe, dwarf-scrub and desert vegetation characterize the alpine belt of northern Chitral. The respective mosaic of alpine rock and scree vegetation, including a few patches of more dense turf vegetation along bases of gravel fans, snowfields and other water surplus habitats, is relatively rich in species. Average vegetation cover of the Hindukush alpine belt is though much lower, usually far below 30% of the surface. Floristic relations are with much of the eastern Pamirs

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and with the central and northern Karakorum. Characteristic species include taxa that are widely distributed through much of the Karakorum (Carex nivalis, Kobresia karakorumensis, Lonicera semenovii, Tanacetum pyrethroides) and the Tibetan Plateau (Oxytropis tatarica, Poa attenuata). Pamirean elements, which usually reach their southeastern limit of distribution approximately from the Chitral-Gilgit divide to the Khunjerab Pass (Draba korshinskyi, Smelowskia calycina), are also well represented. Another group of species, which is absent from the Gilgit-lndus basin and the wider southwestern Karakorum, reoccurs disjunctively in the dry mountains of Ladakh, Zanskar and Spiti in northwest India (Alajja rhomboidea, Parrya stenocarpa) (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002). The Kunlun Shan N slope is the richest in species, including Central and N Asian elements, possibly also the (relatively) highest concentration of Sino-Himalayan elements (Braya thomsonii, Rhodiola himalensis). The border between the Mongolian and the Tibetan vegetation provinces can be drawn over the Kunlun N slope. There are some endemics (Braya pamirica, Koeleria litwinowiana) and additional species indicating a certain role of the Kunlun N slope as a glacial refuge and interglacial migration path (Thermopsis alpina, Thermopsis inflata). Thus, the “Kunlun Corridor” on the N margin of Tibet may be set against the Himalayan Corridor on the S rim of Tibet. However, since forests are absent and the comparatively poor flora includes only a few extant endemics, the “Kunlun Corridor” is by far less important and conspicuous than the Himalayan (Dickoré 1991). The Aghil Shan N slope and Yarkand valley can be considered as a transitional zone between NW central Asian and Tibetan high mountain vegetation or part of a “CircumTibetan Zone.” Similar vegetation features seem to be widespread around the extremely dry and high interior of Tibet. Accordingly, many of the species are widely distributed at least over NW Tibet and extend variously into adjacent mountain ranges such as the Tian Shan, the Pamirs, the Hindukush and more distant systems. Typical species possibly are Kobresia deasyi and Primula macrophylla; for certain groups within large holarctic genera such as Oxytropis, Potentilla, Gentianella sect. Comastoma, this zone may represent a centre of diversity. In the Central Karakoram N slope/Shaksgam valley, the vegetation features are similar to most of the central high mountains and the interior valleys of the PamirKarakoram-imalaya-S Tibet system. Carex montis-everestii, Oxytropis cf. chiliophylla, Potentilla pammca and Thylacospermum caespitosum may be considered characteristic for the inner section of the Karakoram N slope (Dickoré 1991).

Nival Belt The nival belt is generally extremely species-poor. There are no more than 20–50 plant species in the sub-nival belt. Most of these taxa are specialized rhizomatous scree colonizers or rock-fissure cushions, which both must be able to cope with low temperatures and mechanical stress caused by frequent freezing and thawing. Western elements, which often are restricted to the eastern Pamir, eastern Hindukush and

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Karakorum (Oxytropis platonychia, Lagotis globosa, Psychrogeton olgae), seem to outnumber the Pan-Tibetan ones (Draba oreades, Saussurea gnaphalodes) (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002).

Anthropogenic Impact The Hindukush-Karakoram region has been settled by humans for millennia and has always been an important migration and trade route. The altitudinal distribution of cultivated areas ranges from the colline to the lower montane belt. As crop cultivation is almost entirely dependent on the availability of glacial and snow meltwater for irrigation, the settlement oases with agriculture are located along the streams and especially on the alluvial fans of tributary valleys and on cultivable slopes (Fig. 21). Access through new road construction has started to greatly impact especially the forest belt of the region (Fig. 22). The cultivation of riverbanks and the steep slopes has always been difficult. A sophisticated network of water distribution forms the precondition of irrigated agriculture (Fig. 23). Commonly cultivated crops include rice (Oryza sativa) up to approximately 2300 m, maize (Zea mays) to 2900 m, wheat (Triticum durum, Triticum aestivum) to approximately 3300 m and barley (Hordeum vulgare) to 3500 m. Cultivation of Cannabis saliva often within maize fields is common in the northern tributaries, especially in Yarkhun and Laspur. Double cropping is possible in the main valley between Drosh and Buni and in the lowermost portions of Turkho Valley, with an upper limit at approximately 2500 m. Crop residues; hay, supplemented by

Fig. 21 Houses in Marghazar Valley, Swat, Pakistan. (Photo Hassan Sher & Ikram Ur-Rahman)

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Fig. 22 Road construction in Picea forest, Swat, Pakistan. (Photo Hassan Sher & Ikram Ur-Rahman)

Fig. 23 Traditional tillage, Sulathan, Swat, Pakistan. (Photo Hassan Sher & Ikram Ur-Rahman)

cultivated lucerne (Medicago saliva, Medicago x varia); leaves of planted trees (Salix spp., Populus spp.); and indigenous hygrophilous bushes (Hippophae rhamnoides) supply winter fodder of livestock. Cultivation of fruit trees, especially mulberries (Morus alba), apricots (Prunus armeniaca) and walnuts (Juglans regia) is limited to a small scale and altitudes below approximately 2900 m (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002). Many of the forests are in poor condition due to anthropogenic disturbances, including illegal cutting, regional land use systems, irrigated crop cultivation and nomadic livestock husbandry. These factors have a considerable impact on the vegetation types (Khan et al. 2010) and result in the degradation of large areas of

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Fig. 24 Fuel wood collectors, Miandam Valley, Swat, Pakistan. (Photo Hassan Sher & Ikram Ur-Rahman)

land in different elevational belts and subregions (Alamgir 2004; Khan et al. 2011). Numerous recent studies described plant communities with a special emphasis on forest vegetation affected by anthropogenic activities in various climatic zones of Pakistan (Nafeesa et al. 2007; Siddiqui et al. 2010; Ahmed et al. 2011; Wahab et al. 2008; Khan et al. 2011; Shaheen et al. 2011). The local forests are the main source of non-agricultural livelihoods and are widely used for collection of firewood (Fig. 24), often leading to the destruction of easily accessible roots (Fig. 25) and the burning of forest resources in the progress (Fig. 26). Peat from high subalpine and alpine wetlands is also collected as fuel (Fig. 27), and many of the upper forest areas have been converted to extensive pastures (Fig. 28). In addition, many plant species are collected for medicinal purposes, both for local use and sale, as well as for the production of utensils (Figs. 29 and 30). The landscape at the upper parts of the region is known for its glaciated peaks, high altitudinal wetlands, green pastures and biodiversity of global significance. Each component of the landscape has a tremendous importance from different perspectives. However, this is because of the anthropogenic pressures that this important landscape is steadily losing its ecological characters that it is known for. The natural landscape is fragmented because of human settlements, roads and other ill-planned and unsustainable developments resulting in the weakening of the socioeconomic systems leading to the loss of natural livelihood base. The situation is further worsened and accelerated further by climate change and enhanced populations of both humans and their livestock. Given the ecological importance of the landscape, its glaciated peaks and pastures and wildlife species of global importance, the specified part of the landscape is under focus for conservation that requires the creation of Protected Areas, wise use of the available land and water resources, monitoring of the health of the sensitive features such as glaciers and

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Fig. 25 Cut roots of Picea, Swat, Pakistan. (Photo Hassan Sher & Ikram Ur-Rahman)

Fig. 26 Burnt trees, Swat, Pakistan. (Photo Hassan Sher & Ikram Ur-Rahman)

social strengthening of the local communities for them to take care of the fragile ecosystems of this fragile landscape. About 60% of the agriculture lands, forests and pastures of our country are progressively being exposed to threats from increased climatic variability and, in the longer run, to climate change. Abnormal changes in air temperature and rainfall and resulting increases in frequency and intensity of drought and flood events have long-term implications for the viability of these ecosystems (Bell and Morse 2004). As climatic patterns change, so also do the spatial distribution of agro-ecological zones, habitats, distribution patterns of plant diseases and pests, fish populations and ocean circulation patterns which can have significant impacts on agriculture and food production.

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Fig. 27 Peat harvested as fuel, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 28 Pastures in Picea forest, Swat, Pakistan. (Photo Hassan Sher & Ikram Ur-Rahman)

Adaptation to climate change is, therefore, no longer a secondary and long-term response option only to be used as a last resort. It is now prevalent and imperative and, for those communities already vulnerable to the impacts of present-day climate hazards, needs an urgent imperative. Successful adaptation must be

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Fig. 29 Old man with a medicinal plant collection bag. Note trees with cut branches in the background, Swat, Pakistan. (Photo Hassan Sher & Ikram Ur-Rahman)

Fig. 30 Utensil workshop, Hunza Valley, Pakistan. Utensils are mostly made from Salix wood. (Photo Hassan Sher & Ikram Ur-Rahman)

accomplished through actions that target and reduce the vulnerabilities poor people now face, as they are likely to become more prevalent as the climate changes. This approach calls for a convergence of four distinct communities who have long been tackling the issue of vulnerability reduction through their respective activities vs. disaster risk reduction, climate and climate change, environmental management and poverty reduction. Bringing these communities together and offering a common platform and a shared vocabulary from which to develop an integrated approach to climate change adaptation can provide an opportunity to revisit some of the intractable problems of environment and development. The starting point for this convergence is a common understanding of the concepts of adaptation, vulnerability, resilience, security, poverty and livelihoods, as well as an understanding of the gaps in current adaptation approaches. Taken together, they

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indicate a need and an opening for adaptation measures based on the livelihood activities of poor and vulnerable communities. This places the goal of poverty reduction at the centre of adaptation, as the capabilities and assets that comprise people’s livelihoods often shape poverty as well as the ability to move out of poverty. Any approach to improve the livelihoods of the population, and to improve environmental management, requires an understanding of how livelihoods are conducted and sustained, that is, how resources are mobilized to earn an income and meet basic needs. Central to both the definition of livelihoods and household resilience are livelihood assets, i.e. the means of production available to a given individual or group that can be used to generate material resources sufficient enough to reduce poverty. The greater and more varied the asset base, the more sustainable and secure the livelihood. There are generally five forms of livelihood assets: natural capital, social-political capital, human capital, physical capital and financial capital. Taken together, these assets largely determine how people will respond to the impacts of climate change and should, therefore, form the basis of adaptation strategies. At present our five livelihood assets are highly disturbed. Therefore, facing the crisis of food insecurity and at the same time without any strategy for the future planning, the world is also facing global environmental crisis like global warming, ozone layer depletion and climatic change, which have reduced 10% of our productivity from the green sectors of livelihoods. However, all of these assets are important, and natural resources are particularly important for the poorest and most vulnerable communities in the world especially in mountainous areas. The poor are more heavily dependent on ecosystem services and, therefore, most severely affected by deteriorating environmental conditions and factors limiting resource access. While climate change is not the only threat to natural resources and livelihoods, climate-induced changes to resource flows will affect the viability of livelihoods unless effective measures are taken to protect and diversify them through adaptation and other strategies. For the poorest and most vulnerable, these strategies should include ecosystem management and restoration activities such as watershed restoration, agroecology, forest protection and rangeland/pasture rehabilitation. In fact, these activities can represent “win-win” approaches to climate change adaptation, as they serve immediate needs and bring immediate benefits to local communities while also contributing to longer-term capacity development that will create a basis for reducing future vulnerabilities.If adaptation strategies should reflect the dynamics of peoples’ livelihoods, then adaptation must be seen as a process that is itself adaptive and flexible to address locally specific and changing circumstances. The responsibility for adaptation lies with those who stand to gain the most. While those with the least capacity to adapt are the most vulnerable, they are also the most likely and most motivated to take conscious adaptation actions. For the poor and vulnerable, the actions that they take will be constrained by their limited assets and capabilities, but they will also be the most appropriate given the specific local manifestations of climate change impacts. These actions should be supported by external agencies in collaboration with ministries of environment and agriculture to build up the asset base of the poor.

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Traditionally, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs) have been used widely in the region to supplement food and to cure disease (Saqib et al. 2011; Sher et al. 2014, 2015). Currently however, their collection is limited to informal trade of a few highvalue endangered species in localized areas of Swat District. The benefits of informal trade are disproportionately enjoyed by the middlemen, while the collectors, both resident and nomadic, gain very little. The indigenous knowledge about MAPs is also fast fading in the wake of the increased use of allopathic medicines, increased interest of younger generations in urban-based employment and lack of interest by formal public and development institutions in documenting knowledge of MAPs (Bussmann et al. 2007, 2008; de Boer et al. 2012). This paper reports on a project designed to promote livelihoods in local communities by documenting indigenous knowledge of MAPS, promoting their sustainable use and promoting fair trade. We hypothesized that these goals could be achieved through awareness raising and capacity building of the stakeholders including the government line departments, NGOs and the communities. These initiatives would benefit the nomadic and resident populations, particularly the landless, small landholders and the vulnerable in general, for whom income generation from MAPs can be a crucial part of their livelihoods. The aim of the present project, therefore, was to create awareness on these issues and to promote sustainable use of MAPs for improved livelihoods and economic development of the target communities. The project revealed that preliminary work showed that species having medicinal and aromatic value are abundant in Swat District, but, considering them weeds, farmers remove them from their fields and grazing areas through slash and burn techniques. In addition, it was found that a number of other high-value MAP species can be successfully cultivated in these environments (Sher et al. 2014; Sher and Barkworth 2015). To ensure the sustainable long-term use of MAP resources, a community-based approach with capacity building and linkage to development is needed. This approach can be adapted based on the premise that sustainable use, management and efficient marketing of MAPs will only be possible if communities are involved from the outset and provide with opportunities to improved their awareness of the issues, develop the necessary knowledge and skills and, most importantly, help link directly with national markets. Participatory approaches for conducting general awareness-raising sessions are important. Village Development Committees (VDCs), where available, should be involved in the selection of participants for various trainings and for the implementation of all activities as recommended by Bussmann et al. (2008). Focus group discussions (FGD) can be conducted in each village, with MAP collectors and local traders as the main participants to prioritize the important MAPs and delineate the area in a participatory map where prioritized MAPs are found as well as their abundance in each of the forest compartments (Wimmer and Dominic 1994, and Babbie 1992) (Figs. 31, 32, and 33). It is important to emphasize that the communities have taken an immense interest in sustainable development of MAPs despite being asked to participate in an activity-based, short-term project with a relatively low budget. It will take some time before the true impact of the project can be ascertained, but benefits for the

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Fig. 31 Medicinal and Aromatic Plant collection and production training workshop, Swat, Pakistan. (Photo Hassan Sher & Ikram Ur-Rahman)

Fig. 32 Medicinal and Aromatic Plant collection and production training workshop, practical fieldwork, Rodingar Valley, Pakistan. (Photo Hassan Sher & Ikram Ur-Rahman)

participating communities included the discovery that many of the weeds around their houses and in their agricultural fields are actually economically valuable species. In the past these species were used for fodder or fuelwood (Sher et al. 2010). Increasing the interest of communities in making income out of these plants using sustainable methods will not endanger them (Mati and de Boer 2011; Myers et al. 2000; Salick et al. 2004). Furthermore, enhanced capacity through cultivation and cash income through marketing of a several will decrease pressure on the few high-value endangered species that were traditionally being harvested both by the government and communities for income generation. Such interactions, particularly those between the community representatives and government officials result in community empowerment. Communities can learn about existing regulations for forest use, and the possibilities to cultivate and market high-value herbs in demand in the market and to create a better linkages between the

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Fig. 33 Medicinal and Aromatic Plant collection and production training workshop – collected material drying, Miandam Valley, Pakistan. (Photo Hassan Sher & Ikram Ur-Rahman)

government institutions and the communities and cultivation of alternate species are expected to decrease reliance on harvesting of endangered species for cash income. Because of the tremendous importance of the region from ecological, socioeconomic and climate change perspectives, considering the current rate of ecosystem degradation, impact of climate change and inadequacy of resources to support scientific management of natural resources; recognizing the need to address sociocultural and socio-economic issues leading to sustainable development and regional cooperation for management under the “ecosystem approach” in conserving irreplaceable and unique biodiversity resources; and enhancing the socio-economic status of the local population, a variety of steps are needed to manage and conserve the Hindukush-Karakoram ecosystem in the future.

References Ahmed M, Shaukat SS, Siddiqui FM. Multivariate analysis and dynamic of Cedrus deodara forests from Hindukush and Himalayan range of Pakistan. Turk J Bot. 2011;35:1–20. Alamgir KG. A study on the condition, use, management and trends of major forest types in Chitral District: report of Chitral conservation strategy and IUCN Sarhad Program; 2004. p. 111. Ali H, Qaiser M. The Ethnobotany of Chitral valley, Pakistan with particular references to medicinal plants. Pak J Bot. 2009;41:2009–41. Anderson K, Fawcett D, Cugulliere A, Benford S, Jones D, Leng R. Vegetation expansion in the subnival Hindukush Himalaya. Glob Chang Biol. 2020:1–18. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb. 14919. Babbie E. The practice of social science research. Belmont: Wadsworth Publication; 1992.

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Bell S, Morse S. Experiences with sustainability indicators and stakeholder participation: a case study relating to a ‘Blue Plan’ project in Malta. Sust Dev. 2004;12:1–14. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Vandebroek I, Jones A, Revene Z. Health for sale: the medicinal plant markets in Trujillo and Chiclayo, northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3:37. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Ly J. From garden to market? The cultivation of native and introduced medicinal plant species in Cajamarca, Peru and implications for habitat conservation. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2008;6:351–61. de Boer HJ, Lamxay V, Björk L. Comparing medicinal plant knowledge using similarity indices: a case of the Brou, Saek and Kry in Lao PDR. J Ethnopharmacol. 2012;141:481–500. Dickoré WB. Zonation of flora and vegetation of the Northern declivity of the Karakoram/Kunlun mountains (SW Zinjiang, China). GeoJournal. 1991;25(2/3):265–84. Khan N, Ahmad M, Wahab M, Ajaib M. Phytosociology, structure and physiochemical analysis of soil in Quercus baloot Griff, Forest District Chitral Pakistan. Pak J Bot. 2010;42(4):2429–41. Khan N, Ahmad M, Shaukat SS, Wahab M, Siddiqui FM. Structure, diversity and regeneration potential of Monotheca buxifolia (Falc.) A. DC. dominated forests of District Dir Lower, Pakistan. Front Agric China. 2011;5(1):106–21. Khan N, Skaukat SS, Ahmed M, Siddiqui MF. Vegetation-environment relationships in the forests of Chitral district, Hindukush range of Pakistan. J For Res. 2013;24(2):205–16. Krishnan R, Shrestha AB, Ren G, Rajbhandari R, Saeed S, Sanjay J, Ren Y. Unravelling climate change in the Hindukush Himalaya: rapid warming in the mountains and increasing extremes. In: The Hindukush Himalaya assessment. Cham: Springer; 2019. p. 57–97. Mati E, de Boer HJ. Ethnobotany and trade of medicinal plants in the Qaysari Market, Kurdish Autonomous Region, Iraq. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011;133:490–510. Myers N, Mittermeier RA, Mittermeier CG, da Fonseca GA, Kent J. Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature. 2000;403:853–8. Nafeesa Z, Arshad M, Sarwat MN. Phytosociological attributes of different plant communities of Pir Chinasi Hills of Azad Jammu and Kashmir. Int J Agric Biol. 2007;9(4):565– 574. Nüsser M, Dickoré WD. A tangle in the triangle: vegetation map of the Eastern Hindukush (Chitral, Northern Pakistan). Erdkunde. 2002;56:37–65. Salick J, Anderson JD, Woo J, Sherman RE, Cili N, Yin XZ, Na A, Dorje S. Tibetan ethnobotany and gradient analyses, Menri (Medicine Mountains), eastern Himalayas. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Bridging Scales and Epistemologies. Linking Local Knowledge and Global Science in Multi-Scale Assessments Alexandria, Egypt. 2004. Saqib Z, Malik RN, Shinwari MI, Shinwari ZK. Species richness, ethnobotanical species richness and human settlements along a Himalayan altitudinal gradient: prioritizing plant conservation in Palas valley, Pakistan. Pak J Bot. 2011;43:129–33. Schickhoff U. The upper timberline in the Himalayas, Hindukush and Karakorum: a review of geographical and ecological aspects. In: Mountain ecosystems. Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer; 2005. p. 275–354. Shaheen H, Qureshi RA, Shinwari ZK. Structural diversity, vegetation dynamics and anthropogenic impact on lesser Himalayan subtropical forests of Bagh district, Kashmir. Pak J Bot. 2011;43(4):1861–6. Sharma E, Molden D, Rahman A, Khatiwada YR, Zhang L, Singh SP, Wester P. Introduction to the Hindukush Himalaya assessment. In: The Hindukush Himalaya assessment. Cham: Springer; 2019. p. 1–16. Sher H, Barkworth ME. Economic development through medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) cultivation in Hindukush Himalaya Mountains of District Swat, Pakistan. J Mt Sci. 2015;12(5):1292–301. https://doi.org/10.1007/S11629-014-3247-2. Sher H, Al-Yemeni M, Faridullah A. Cultivation and domestication study of high value medicinal plant species (its economic potential and linkages with commercialization). Afr J Agric Res. 2010;5(18):2462–70. Sher H, Aldosari A, Ali A, de Boer HJ. Economic benefits of high value medicinal plants to Pakistani communities: an analysis of current practice and potential. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2014;10:71. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-10-71.

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Sher H, Aldosari A, Ali A, de Boer HJ. Indigenous knowledge of folk medicines among tribal minorities in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, northwestern Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;166:157–67. Siddiqui FM, Ahmed M, Shaukat SS, Khan N. Advance multivariate techniques to investigate vegetation-environmental complex of pine forests of moist area of Pakistan. Pak J Bot. 2010;42:267–93. Wahab M, Ahmad M, Khan N. Phytosociology and dynamics of some pine forests of Afghanistan. Pak J Bot. 2008;40(3):1071–9. Wimmer R, Dominic J. Mass media research: an introduction. Belmont/New York: Wadsworth; 1994. Xu J, Badola R, Chettri N, Chaudhary RP, Zomer R, Pokhrel B, Pradhan R. Sustaining biodiversity and ecosystem services in the Hindukush Himalaya. In: The Hindukush Himalaya assessment. Cham: Springer; 2019. p. 127–65.

Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Indian Himalaya (Garhwal Himalaya) Pavlos Georgiadis

Introduction Set amidst the Indian western Himalayan belt, Garhwal has been identified through the ages as a distinct geographical, socio-economic, historical, and cultural landscape. The region lies between latitudes of 29o260 N to 31o280 N and longitudes of 77o490 E to 80o60 E, covering a total area of 29,089 sq. km. Bordered by Tibet to the north and the Kumaon region in the east, it belongs to the state of Uttarakhand, which is often referred to as the “Abode of Gods,” widely known as the home of sacred ancient sanctuaries. Administratively, Garhwal comprises seven districts, namely, Chamoli, Dehradun, Haridwar, Pauri, Rudraprayag, Tehri, and Uttarkashi. Garhwal is widely cited in ancient Sanskrit scripts as the home of some of the most important Hindu deities and is richly dotted by prominent shrines and religious centers. The most prominent include Badrinath, Kedarnath, Yamunotri, and Gangotri. The two later are situated on the springs of Yamuna and Ganges, two of the most sacred rivers of India with immense ecological, cultural, and economic significance. Apart from being an important pilgrimage destination, it is in this region of the Himalaya where the foundations of Ayurveda and Yoga can be traced (see also Sakarkar et al. 2003). As a result, every year Garhwal is attracting hundreds of thousands of visitors from India and abroad, who come to admire the great natural beauty of the region and enjoy the numerous treks traversing its forests, valleys, and snow covered Himalayan peaks. The area represents a distinct phytogeographic region and provides natural habitat to the majority of medicinal and aromatic plants recorded in the Indian Himalaya (Fig. 1).

P. Georgiadis (*) Department of Societal Transition and Agriculture, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_3

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Fig. 1 The Kedarnath temple is one of the holiest Hindu shrines dedicated to Lord Shiva. The temple is located at 3583 m and is accessible through a 22 km uphill trek from Gaurikund. (Photo P. Georgiadis)

Geology and Geography The rugged Himalaya were formed as a result of the titanic force of compression generated by the approach and eventual collision of the Indian shield and the Eurasian Plate. This process began ca. 52 Ma, as a transformation and deposition of enormous amounts of floor sediments of the ancient Tethys Ocean onto the continent, forming the most conspicuous climax on Earth. The formation of the Himalaya and neighboring ranges constitute by far the widest and highest orogenic system on Earth, led by extensive crustal shortening and thickening, large-scale thrusting and folding, polyphase metamorphism, anatexis, intrusion, exhumation, uplift, and erosion (Dhital 2015). This process has been responsible for geological, geochemical, and climatological consequences of global extent (Rowley 1996). The tectonic activity is still ongoing, as the Indian landmass continues to move and press towards Asia, generating earthquakes and landslides (Jayangondaperumal et al. 2018). Therefore, the characterization of the Himalaya as the “young and restless giant” by Valdiya (1998) is apt for the world’s loftiest mountain range. The Garhwal region is a rugged mountainous terrain, regarded as a series of spurs from the Tibetan watershed, known as the Western Himalaya. The region displays a complete cross-section of the Himalayan orogenic belt encompassing the principal tectonic zones of Outer Himalaya (Sub-Himalaya or Siwalik), Lesser (Lower)

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Himalaya, Greater (Higher) Himalaya, and Tethys Himalaya which are separated by the major thrust and faults. (Thakur 1987). The Siwalik Range extends from a north-east to south-west direction between the Himalayan Frontal Thrust to the south and the Main Boundary Thrust to the north, forming the youngest and southernmost part of the Himalaya. On a palaeontological basis, this belt is further divided into three geological formations, namely, Upper Siwalik formations associated with various rock minerals coarse sandstone, boulder conglomerates, clay, grit rock minerals; Middle Siwalik formations associated with grey micaceous, sandstone, gravel beds, shale, clay rock minerals, and Lower Siwalik formations associated with micaceous sandstone, purple clay, mudstone rock minerals, etc. (Chaudhary et al. 2019). The Ganges river is cutting this range from the southern middle part of the region, before it continues its southward journey across the Indo-Gangetic Plain. The fluvial system crossing the area is responsible for inundations taking place every year, depositing a variety of sediments and lithological features, from fine to coarse-grained sand clay, to silt with gravel and boulders. Nested between the Siwalik and the Higher Himalaya lies a meta-sedimentary mountainous sequence forming the Lesser (Lower) Himalaya (Rajwar 1993). This sequence is bound by the Main Boundary Thrust in the south and the Main Central Thrust in the north and is further divided into the Inner Lesser Himalaya and the Outer Lesser Himalaya (Célérier et al. 2009a, b). This massive rugged belt consists of metamorphosed sedimentary rocks (quartzite, marble, slate, phyllite, schist, and gneiss), minor volcanic and granitic rocks, as well as transported, isolated parts of the central crystalline rocks originating in the Higher Himalaya (Sorkhabi 2010). This zone features a large number of fertile terraced river valleys including those of the Alaknanda, the Mandakini, the Bhagirathi, the Yamuna, the Nayar, and the Ganges. With a tolerable climate, the Lesser Himalaya is home to the majority of human settlements and therefore contains most of the cultivated agricultural area. Thrust over the Lower Himalaya, along the Main Central Thrust, are the Greater (Higher) Himalaya. This central crystalline belt is made up of 10–20 km thick metamorphic rocks (schists and gneisses) and granites, which are more than 2500 million years old, forming the backbone of the Himalayan mountains (Sorkhabi 2010). Being quite hard and resistant to weathering, these rocks provide a dramatic landscape sculptured by glaciers, horned peaks, serrated crusts, high ridges, deep valleys, huge boulders, and glistering lakes. Stretching from west to east, the magnificent series of garlanted snow-clad summits of Bandarpunch (6315 m), Gangotri (6614 m), Kedarnath (6940 m), Chaukhamba (7318 m), Kamet (7765 m), and Nanda Devi (7815 m) is transversed by the gorging Bhagirathi, Alaknanda, and Dhawalganga rivers (Rajwar 1993) (Fig. 2). The uppermost belt of the inner Himalaya is called Tethyan Himalaya and is marked by intense folding, recumbent overturned folds, and small scale thrusts (Rajwar 1993). It consists of sandstone, shale, and limestone sediments which were deposited on the continental shelf of the Tethys Ocean and contains many kinds of fossils including ammonites and chitinozoans (Sinha et al. 2011; Sinha and Verniers 2016; Sorkhabi 2010).

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Fig. 2 The majestic horned peak of mountain Shivling (6501 m), located near the snout of the Gangotri glacier. Its name refers to its holy status and shape resembling a Shiva Linga, which is the aniconic representation of the Hindu deity Shiva. The western tributary of the glacier along the Tapovan meadow is shown on the foreground. (Photo P. Georgiadis)

The important glaciers of the Garhwal Himalaya are Gangotri gl., Kedarnath gl., Bhagat-Kharak gl., Satopanth gl., Raikana gl., Kosa gl., Mana gl., Bamini gl., Nandadevi gl., Arwa gl., and Khatling gl. (Rajwar 1993). The present glaciation is but a shadow of its former presence during the Ice Age, nevertheless still provides the source of morphogenic processes which carve the landscape into numerous mountains, foothills, narrow plains and valleys. Rivers of varying shapes and sizes stem from these glaciers and flow parallel to the mountains, often turning into acute bends and thus forming deep gorges. This drainage system falls under the Ganges, Yamuna, and Ramganga systems and serves as the perpetual reservoir of water for most of the main rivers of immense value to northern India (Fig. 3). The numerous rivers and rivulets bisecting the rugged terrain of Garhwal form valleys which divide a succession of steep ridges and slopes. These typically feature extensive cascades of terraces generated through glacio-fluvial deposits, which provide land to locals for agriculture and settlement. The Siwalik and Lesser Himalayan regions extending from 400 to 3000 m altitude host most of human habitation. Beyond this zone, there are many hot springs found in the transitional zones of deep faults across the Main Boundary Thrust and the Main Central Thrust (Valdiya 1998). Renowned hot springs in Garhwal are located in Yamunotri, Badrinath, Tapovan, Gaurikund, Madmaheshwar, Gangnani, and Kunseni. A number of natural glacial lakes have also been developed in this region (Maharjan et al. 2018).

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Fig. 3 Terminus of the Gangotri glacier at Gaumukh, the precise source of the Bhagirathi river – one of the two headstreams of the Ganges. This is one of the largest glaciers in the Himalaya and primary source of the Ganges, which starts here its flow of 2704 km across the Gangetic Plain of India and Bangladesh, eventually emptying into the Bay of Bengal, providing a lifeline to millions of people who live along its course. The snow-covered peaks on the background constitute the Bhagirathi massif with the highest peak Parbat I at 6865 m. (Photo P. Georgiadis)

Climate Garhwal extends across a wide range of altitudes from 325 m in its southern borders to 7817 m atop the Nanda Devi, one of the majestic mountain peaks of the Greater Himalaya. Between these extremes of elevation, the climatic conditions in the region vary from tropical to glacial with temperatures ranging from hot to freezing point and below zero. Seven different climatic zones are distinguished in the region from south to north, on the basis of temperature, precipitation, and altitude: tropical (4000 m) (Kaushic 1959). Located in the Indian Himalayan monsoonal subcontinent, Garhwal features three climatic seasons in a year: warm summer (March–June), humid winter (July–October), and winter (November– February). Temperature drops as elevation increases in the Himalayan region, affecting the spatial and temporal fluctuations of the climate at large, but also in microclimatic contexts. Local microclimates are also influenced by different levels of precipitation, depending on factors such as the specific location and slope aspect, proximity to

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Fig. 4 Thick fog covering an oak-Rhododendron forest near the Kartik Swami shrine, Rudraprayag District. (Photo P. Georgiadis)

glaciers, forests, mountain peaks, and ridges. The relief of the land also accentuates the complexities of weather, with variations of exposure to sunlight and to rainbearing winds producing very intricate patterns of local climate. As a result, striking changes are observed within short horizontal distances with climatic conditions varying from valley to valley and one side of the mountain to another (Rajwar 1993) (Fig. 4). The climate of Garhwal is also influenced by chief weather phenomena observed in the entire Himalayan region. An example is the frequent occurrence of fog during the rainy season, arising before sunrise and disappearing with the appearance of the sun, especially in areas with high soil moisture across river valleys. Frost is also frequent during winter, where the clear night skies lead to longwave radiation cooling of the earth (Rajwar 1993). Extreme weather events are not uncommon, due to the erratic pattern of precipitation during the monsoon season (July– September), making the whole hilly region of Garhwal prone to natural disasters, such as landslides, avalanches, and floods (Chaudhary et al. 2019) (Fig. 5). In addition to monsoonal rains, severe weather is also formed due to the movement of eastward propagating weather systems known as the Western Disturbances that originate from the Mediterranean region (Krishnan et al. 2020). Their frequency, intensity, and synoptic aspects are the primary sources of precipitation during winter and early spring, not only influencing the amount and duration of snowfall in the region (Shekhar et al. 2010; Dimri et al. 2015; Hunt et al. 2018; Krishnan et al. 2019), but also activating monsoons in certain areas of northwestern India (Das et al. 2002).

Floristics Across its altitudinal zonation, the Western Himalaya belt is a meeting ground for a variety of floristic elements, reflecting affinities and biogeographic influences from different directions. Specifically, it forms a link between the Tethyan and the eastern

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Fig. 5 Landslide causing a road blockage on the road between Joshimath and Badrinath, Chamoli District. Such disruptions in road traffic are common on the hills of Garhwal, often taking days to be removed by drivers and local authorities. (Photo P. Georgiadis)

Asiatic flora (Takhtajan 1980) and has been identified as one of the major hotspots of endemism and genetic diversity in India (Rao 1994). Garhwal covers part of the transition zone between the phytogeographic regions of eastern and western Himalaya, established by Stearn (1961) based on the distribution of the Himalayan cedar (Pinaceae: Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex Lambert) G. Don). Stearn (1961) has also marked the presence of Chinese elements in Garhwal, while Mani (1978, 1994) mentions connections with elements from the Turkmenistan sub-region and Ethiopia. Finally, Rawat et al. (2001) point out the migration to the region of plant species from as far as the north temperate and arctic regions of Eurasia, the highlands and cold deserts of Central Asia, the Mediterranean mountains, the high Tibetan Plateau, the eastern Himalaya and south Asiatic regions to west China, the upper Gangetic Plain and the south Indian hills. Being a transitional zone and smaller in geographical area, Garhwal has virtually no palaeoendemic and only few neoendemics. Nevertheless, the region harbors more than 3500 of the about 8000 species of flowering plants growing in the Himalaya and is particularly known as the center of diversity of wild relatives of important crop genera like Pyrus L., Prunus L., Sorbus L., (Rosaceae), Ribes L. (Grossulariaceae), and Hordeum L. (Poaceae) (Rawat et al. 2001). Much of this diversity is recorded in the Flora of the District Garhwal Northwest Himalaya, which enumerates a total number of 2150 species (Gaur 1999). This rich plant biodiversity occurs in forests or alpine meadows and abounds in a large genetic pool of medicinal, aromatic, and timber, yielding species.

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High climatic diversity, coupled by the structural, lithological, and pedological characteristics of the area, give rise to multiple types of landscapes and ecological patterns in the Garhwal Himalaya. These features are further reflected on the rich diversity of natural vegetation and cultivated crops. This vegetational wealth is aptly represented by sub-tropical to almost arctic types of flora. Within these biotic zones, abrupt changes in elevation and specific topographic and microclimatic features create some distinct habitats and plant associations (Gaur 1982; Gairola et al. 2010, 2011a, b, c; Sharma et al. 2010a, b; Bahuguna et al. 2011). Despite the variations in the flora within short distances, there is a strong degree of uniformity of vegetation across large areas, allowing for a classification of the region into four distinct vegetation zones (Rajwar 1993): The Tropical and Subtropical Forest Zone lies below 1200 m of altitude and includes tropical moist deciduous forests dominated by the Sal tree (Dipterocarpaceae: Shorea robusta Roth), mixed with Indian laurel (Combretaceae: Terminalia alata Roth), axlewood (Combretaceae: Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. ex DC.) Wall. ex Guill. & Perr.), Indian elm (Ulmaceae: Holoptelea integrifolia (Roxb.) Planch.), cotton tree (Malvaceae: Bombax ceiba L.), black cutch (Fabaceae: Acacia catechu (Lf.) P. J. H. Hurter & Mabb.), and bamboo (Poaceae: Dendrocalamus strictus (Roxb.) Nees). The upper, subtropical belt features a prominent zone of chir pine (Pinaceae: Pinus roxburghii Sarg.) (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6 The Siwalik region is dominated by deciduous forests dominated by the Sal tree (Dipterocarpaceae: Shorea robusta Roth). Dense patches of heavily lopped trees indicate high degree of disturbance due to extensive wood harvesting. (Photo P. Georgiadis)

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Fig. 7 The Banj oak Quercus leucotrichophora A. Camus (Fagaceae) is one of the most beneficial trees in the Garhwal Himalaya, offering a valuable source of wood and fodder to the locals. Its roots stimulate the recharge of mountain springs and its abundant leaf litter protects the soil, thus providing important ecosystem services. For this reason, the species is prioritized in social forestry programs, with seedlings planted in selected areas around the villages of Garhwal. (Photo P. Georgiadis)

The Temperate Forest Zone extends between 1200 and 2000 masl and features a mixed vegetation of broadleaved trees such as different species of oaks (Fagaceae: Quercus incana Bartram, Q. semecarpifolia Sm.) and box myrtle (Myricaceae: Myrica esculenta Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don). Its upper limits form a transition of oaks (Fagaceae: Quercus leucotrichophora A. Camus, Q. floribunda Lindl. ex A. Camus), Himalayan birch (Betulaceae: Betula utilis D. Don), oval-leaf staggerbush (Ericaceae: Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall.) Drudge), west Himalayan fir (Pinaceae: Abies pindrow (Royle) Spach), Rhododendron arboreum Sm. (Ericaceae) and Himalayan cedar (Pinaceae: Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex Lambert) G. Don) (Fig. 7). The Sub-Alpine Forest Zone broadly lies between altitudes of 1800 and 3000 m and can further be divided into a Lower Sub-Alpine Zone and an Upper Sub-Alpine Zone. The former consists of oak-Rhododendron forests, while the latter features Himalayan fir from 2170 to 3255 m; blue pine (Pinaceae: Pinus excelsa Lam.) from 860 to 3100 m within the drainage of the Alaknanda and Bhagirathi rivers; west Himalayan spruce (Pinaceae: Picea smithiana Boiss.) from 2000 to 3000 m; Himalayan cypress (Cupressaceae: Cupressus torulosa D. Don ex Lamb.) from 2000 to 3000 m; Himalayan cedar from 2500 to 3000 m; and Himalayan birch from 2500 to 3200 m (Fig. 8). The Alpine Forests, Bushland and Meadows extend above 3000 m. High-level Himalayan birch and Indian silver fir (Pinaceae: Abies webbiana Lindl.) form the upper limits of the real forests of the Himalaya. Above this treeline the vegetation is dominated by xerophytic bushland, before it transedes to the alpine meadows composed of perennial mesophytic herbs and grasses (Fig. 9).

44 Fig. 8 Rhododendron arboreum Sm. (Ericaceae) growing on a cliff near Dadmir village, Uttarkashi District. (Photo P. Georgiadis)

Fig. 9 Alpine meadow above the treeline close to the estuary of the Alaknanda river at the confluence of the Satonpath and Baghirath Kharak glaciers. This is the northernmost location of India on the Mana Pass, 21 km away from the border with Tibet. (Photo P. Georgiadis)

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Social and Cultural Identity The distinctive geography of Garhwal obviously influences the socio-economic structure on the hills. Faith for life, and life itself, comes through a continuous interaction with the biotic and abiotic environment. The locals live by the rhythms and traditions they have known for centuries, still largely untouched by the complications of modern life. Culture, traditions, rituals, folk dress, as well as settlement patterns are remarkably different in this part of the Himalaya (Negi and Saklani 2001). Characterized by honesty, agility, hard work, and confidence in themselves, Garhwalis show an innate curiosity to anything foreign and provide their help and hospitality openly. The local language “Garhwali” is altogether different from the Hindi language and is designated as “vulnerable” in UNESCO’s Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger (Moseley 2010) (Fig. 10). The age-long, intimate relationship of the people of Garhwal with both religion and nature is most probably influenced by the general isolation of the region. Many traditional villages are settled far away from roads in this largely hilly region, and one has to walk for hours, even days, to reach villages situated up to 35 km deep into the mountains. These rural communities have developed their age-old culture and traditional lifestyles through a constant interaction with the natural environment. This connection is manifested in all aspects of cultural heritage, from prayers and song lyrics to local food, handicrafts, and architecture (Fig. 11). Fig. 10 A Garhwali hillman wearing a traditional Pahari Topi (Himanchali cup) and cape traditionally woven with sheep wool. (Photo P. Georgiadis)

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Fig. 11 Detail on the roof of a building serving as a granary (seed bank) in Jakhol village, Uttarkashi District. The slated roof is ornamented with hand carved wooden artifacts of doves, peacocks, cows, and goats, all sacred animals revered in Hinduism. (Photo P. Georgiadis)

The majority of the population is concentrated along water courses due to the availability of fertile land and water for drinking and irrigation. Most of the settlements are located on gentle slopes, or on more or less plain areas, allowing for better accessibility. Traditional villages are composed of typically architected houses made of wood and stone, and their location is influenced by the specific geographical characteristics of each locality. Being home to predominantly agricultural communities, these villages are surrounded by forests and terraces of crop fields. Transport infrastructure is very basic and most villages are connected with narrow, dusty roads hanging over high cliffs. Crowded buses and private vehicles transport people and goods across the deep valleys and mobility remains a challenge, especially during the rainy summer months where roads may remain blocked for many days or weeks due to the high risk of landslides (Figs. 12 and 13). The region has a long history of subsistence economy, with the basic occupation of the locals being agriculture, cattle farming, and a few artisanal industries. Local biodiversity provides the raw ingredients serving everyday needs for food, medicine, fiber, fuel, wood, animal fodder, crop protection, and worship. The intimate relationship between humans and plant life is reflected in the fact that the indigenous knowledge on the collection and use of several plant species is still kept alive in the villages of Garhwal, though declining (Fig. 14). The people of Garhwal are highly adapted to the harshness of the environment and are masters in the labor intensive agriculture of the hills. By tradition, the majority of the growers follow traditional organic farming practices, fertilizing

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Fig. 12 Saur village in Uttarkashi District is located on a slope surrounded by oak-Rhododendron and mixed conifer forest and terraced fields. (Photo P. Georgiadis)

Fig. 13 Traditional Garhwali houses, constructed of locally available and affordable wood and stone at Jakhol village, Uttarkashi District. These houses can be more than a century old and are often ornamented with wood carvings of magnificent artistry which offer an insight to the lives of people of the past. (Photo P. Georgiadis)

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Fig. 14 Terraced crop fields are a key feature of the rural landscape in Garhwal. The plots are usually inundated with stream water during the monsoon season for the cultivation of several varieties of paddy rice. (Photo P. Georgiadis)

their land with nutrient-rich manure obtained from cows and buffalos kept in every house. The overall geographic isolation and the rugged hilly terrain do not allow for mechanized agriculture and the often outdated technologies compel every family member to participate in the farming activities. As a result, farming is performed in a collective manner, where villagers help each other in the cultivation and harvesting of their crops (Fig. 15). Women play a major role at all stages of food production, while also looking after the household and cattle. A typical image on the hills of Garhwal is that of women carrying firewood and greens for animal fodder from the surrounding forests in specially woven baskets. In cases where potable water, fodder, and fuel plants are not available in the close vicinity of their village, women of all ages have to cover long distances on a daily basis, in order to get access to these vital resources. Previous research (Georgiadis 2008) suggests that Garhwali women are more skilled in plant identification compared to men, probably because of their continuous contact with the local forests and fields for their daily activities (Figs. 16, 17, and 18). The inhabitants of Garhwal are still dependent on traditional healing for treating diseases, due to the relatively poor access to modern medical facilities, especially in the remote inner areas of the hills. In almost every village, there will be locals with knowledge on the collection, preparation, and administration of medicinal plants. In the absence of primary health centers, they are acting as first responders, delivering effective healthcare in an affordable manner. Most of them are old men and women that prescribe household remedies for treating human and animal disorders, using

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Fig. 15 The muddy paddy terraces on the hills are cultivated with traditional plows carried by bulls or buffalos. A young boy in Kontha village, Rudraprayag District, is learning to navigate the tool, with bundles of rice seedlings visible in the foreground. A variety of crops is growing in the background, both inside and on the stone-walled margins of the terraces. (Photo P. Georgiadis)

Fig. 16 A young Garhwali woman as she walks across the terraced fields close to Chandrapuri village, Rudraprayag District, carrying a traditionally woven basket and sickle for foraging wild greens for food and fodder. (Photo P. Georgiadis)

plants growing in the ecosystems surrounding the villages. In addition to these folk medicine practitioners, a number of registered holistic healers operate in the major towns of Garhwal. Some of them are so acknowledged that patients often travel to them from far and wide to receive specialized treatments for a range of ailments. These range from common colds and fevers to skin diseases and wounds, problems of heart, eyes and ears, digestive and urinary disorders, heart problems, diabetes, rheumatic arthritis, bone fractures, and abdominal pains, among others (Fig. 19). Elders possessing traditional knowledge on the use of medicinal plants are respected members of the local communities and are usually keen on transferring their skills through oral tradition to the next generations. As they are growing older, this traditional wisdom is nevertheless eroding, as the untouched lands of Garhwal are invaded by western, allopathic medicine providing quick relief from ailments.

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Fig. 17 An older Garhwali woman transplanting rice seedlings in a terraced paddy field during the monsoon season at village Kontha, Rudraprayag District. A diversity of crop plants is seen in the background. (Photo P. Georgiadis)

Fig. 18 A Garhwali woman in her kitchen at Saur village, Uttarkashi District, preparing a stew of buckwheat leaves Fagopyrum esculentum Moench (Polygonaceae) grown on the margins of paddy rice terraces. (Photo P. Georgiadis)

The life on the hills, marked by labor-intensive agriculture, does not allow the time necessary for the youth to acquire this knowledge. As a result, although many people can still identify their local plant diversity, their skills on medicinal uses of plants is on the decline (Figs. 20 and 21).

Plant Use History The vegetational wealth and the occurrence of a rich diversity of medicinal and aromatic plants in Garhwal have attracted the interest of ethnobotanists working with a number of institutions based in the state of Uttarakhand. Among them is the Forest Research Institute of India, the Northern Circle of the Botanical Survey of India, the Wildlife Institute of India, as well as the Garhwal University in Srinagar. The

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Fig. 19 A Practitioner of traditional medicine in Guptkashi, Rudraprayag District, preparing a mixture of plants using mortar and pestle. Ayurvedic ingredients packaged into plastic containers are visible in the background. (Photo P. Georgiadis)

Fig. 20 An elder at village Saur, Uttarkashi District, examines a plant specimen during semi-structured interviews of an ethnobotanical survey. (Photo P. Georgiadis)

majority of this research relates to field studies in certain districts and altitudes and often focuses on plants with marketing potential. Apart from the ethnobotanical notes presented in the Flora of Garhwal (Gaur 1999), very little published work presents the ethnobotany of the entire region of Garhwal (see Gaur et al. 1983; Jain and Saklani 1991; Singh et al. 1997; Badoni and Badoni 2001; Pundeer and Singh 2002; Rawat and Bhatt 2002; Kala 2005a; Pante et al. 2006; Bhat et al. 2013).

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Fig. 21 A Garhwali woman in Triyuginarayan village, Rudraprayag District, examines a dry specimen of Kuth (Asteraceae: Saussurea lappa Clarke), explaining its medicinal uses to a group of youngsters. (Photo P. Georgiadis)

Ethnobotanical surveys and plant collections by the author have documented uses of 251 medicinal and aromatic plants belonging to 81 families, which are collected from the wild or cultivated in the Garhwal Himalaya (Georgiadis 2008). This diversity includes plants of various life forms, namely herbs, climbers, shrubs, lianas, trees, succulents, and ferns. Most of them grow in the wild, often associated with oak and Rhododendron spp. forests, forest edges, clearings and open meadows, sloppy ravines, waste places, or inside villages. However, that study reports 103 medicinal and aromatic taxa which are found in cultivation in home gardens or on the margins of terraced crop fields due to uncertain seasonal availability of key species in the wild. The people of Garhwal live on a plant-based diet and the consumption of meat is only reserved for special occasions. There is a general belief that every plant is medicinal, something that is reflected on the culinary habits of the local population that include the regular consumption of plants within the context of a balanced, holistic diet. Plants for the daily meals are consumed raw and cooked or processed in the form of achar (pickles), jams, juices, or chutneys (sauces). Different plant parts have one or another use and are often used alone or in mixtures for the preparation of herbal remedies. These are usually consumed raw or processed, powdered or pasted with water, oil, milk, or honey (Fig. 22). The main agricultural crops commonly grown in the fields surrounding the villages of Garhwal include cereals and pseudocereals. Among them are various

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Fig. 22 A man is preparing a paste of chili peppers (Solanaceae: Capsicum annuum L.) using a traditional grinding stone. Every household has a stone for pasting different herbs and vegetables, including medicinal plants. (Photo P. Georgiadis)

Fig. 23 A Garhwali farmer is milling wheat using the rotating stone of a traditional water mill in Pillu village, Rudraprayag District. (Photo P. Georgiadis)

local varieties of rice (Poaceae: Oryza sativa L.), wheat (Poaceae: Triticum L.), different millets (Poaceae: Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) P. Beauv.; Eleusine corocana Gaertn.; Setaria italica (L.) P. Beauv.), amaranth (Amaranthaceae: Amaranthus caudatus L.; A. spinosus L.), rapeseed (Brassicaceae: Brassica napus L.), barley (Poaceae: Hordeum vulgare L.), buckwheat (Polygonaceae: Fagopyrum esculentum Moench) (Fig. 23). The vegetable gardens usually contain radish (Brassicaceae: Raphanus sativus L.), onions (Amaryllidaceae: Allium cepa L.), potatoes (Solanaceae: Solanum tuberosum L.), tomatoes (Solanaceae: Solanum lycopersicum L.), okras (Malvaceae: Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench), and different cucurbits. Most fruit trees growing close to households or fields include apples (Rosaceae: Malus domestica Borkh.), lychees (Sapindaceae: Litchi chinensis Sonn.), apricots (Rosaceae: Prunus armeniaca L.), plums (Rosaceae: Prunus cerasifera Ehrh.), and Himalayan wild cherries (Rosaceae: Prunus cerasoides. D. Don), pears (Rosaceae: Pyrus spp. L.), agrumes (Rutaceae: Citrus spp. L.), mangoes (Anacardiaceae: Mangifera indica L.),

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Fig. 24 A Garhwali woman with a fresh harvest of apples (Rosaceae: Malus domestica Borkh.) at Sankri village, Uttarkashi District. (Photo P. Georgiadis)

bananas (Zingiberaceae: Musa spp. L.), and guavas (Myrtaceae: Psidium guajava L.) (see also Rana et al. 2016). This produce is by large for self-consumption, while some is reaching the regional markets and a small proportion of organic Basmati rice is exported (Fig. 24). The evergreen mountain forests provide a bounty of edible wild plants, which are regularly harvested by the locals. Edible flowers of Rhododendron arboreum Sm. (Ericaceae) are collected in bulk and are used for the preparation of refreshing drinks which are particularly beneficial for cardiac and circulatory health and are usually offered as a treat to guests in Garhwali homes. Young fronds of the fern Diplazium polypodioides Bl. (Woodsiaceae), locally known as “Lingra,” are an eclectic culinary delicacy. Tubers of air yam (Dioscoreaceae: Dioscorea bulbifera L.) as well as the leaves of goosefoot (Chenopodiaceae: Chenopodium album L.) are cooked and eaten as vegetables. Edible fruits of the Indian barberry (Berberidaceae: Berberis aristata DC.) constitute a good source of vitamins. Seeds of cultivated crops such as caraway (Apiaceae: Carum carvi L.), hemp (Cannabaceae: Cannabis sativa L.), sesame (Pedaliaceae: Sesamum orientale L.), and black mustard (Brassicaceae: Brassica nigra L.) are used as condiments and for oil extraction used in everyday cooking (Fig. 25). Various plant parts are collected from the wild and are taken either raw, pasted, cooked, or mixed with other ingredients. The knowledge system related to the use of medicinal plants is very complex, as in many cases, different parts of the same species can be administered in order to treat or provide relief from multiple ailments. For example, the roots of Asparagus filicinus Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don (Asparagaceae) are used to treat diabetes, diarrhea, and dysentery, while also being a good source of iron. Pasted leaves of Anemone rivularis Buch.-Ham. ex DC. (Ranunculaceae) is applied externally on the forehead against headaches, while the extract is applied on sore skin and as ear drops. Stems and leaves of Fumaria indica (Hausskn.) Pugsley (Papaveraceae) are diuretic, diaphoretic, and aperient. Powdered and mixed with water they are used against malaria fever, while the paste is applied on wounds. Seeds of Cleome viscosa L. (Cleomaceae) are pasted and applied externally to

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Fig. 25 A man holding freshly harvested fronds of the edible fern Lingra (Woodsiaceae: Diplazium polypodioides Bl.), a popular wild food in the hills of Garhwal. (Photo P. Georgiadis)

provide relief from rheumatoid arthritis, while also being used as a spice with fried vegetables. Powder of the stems, leaves, and roots of Calotropis procera W. T. Aiton (Apocynaceae) is useful against asthma, cough, and tuberculosis, while the roots are grinded with water and taken as an antidote to scorpion bites. Besides being a vital source of food and medicine, plants also form part of general hygiene. Examples include the fruits of the Indian soapberry “Reetha” (Sapindaceae: Sapindus mukorossi Gaertn.), and the leaves and stems of “Bhimal” (Malvaceae: Grewia optiva J. R. Drumm. ex Burret), which are used as natural soaps. The renowned “Neem” (Meliaceae: Azadirachta indica A. Juss.) is a symbol of India, and thousands of people across the country start their day by chewing its stems for oral hygiene. This is a tree found in lower altitudes; however, Garhwal features the wrinkled prickly ash (Rutaceae: Zanthoxylum armatum DC.), which is locally called “Timroo” and is used for general oral hygiene. The majority of species have other uses that shape the cultural landscape of Garhwal. The oak tree Quercus leucotrichophora A. Camus (Fagaceae), locally known as “Banj,” is a source of wood for fuel and home construction and its leaves are a major source of animal fodder. Almost every household has its own granary built of the wood of the Himalayan cedar (Pinaceae: Cedrus deodara (Roxb.) G. Don), which is rich in insect-deterrent essential oils. There, seeds and grains of indigenous crop plants are stored and often exchanged among the community. Various plant-based mixtures are used as biological protection against pests and

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Fig. 26 A Garhwali woman in Saur village, Rudraprayag District, inside her granary on the ground floor of her house. This level of the traditional buildings is usually kept about 1 m high and is used for storing grains, seeds, and fodder. (Photo P. Georgiadis)

crop diseases. For example, the leaves of the Chinese chaste tree Vitex negundo L. (Lamiaceae) are dried and placed with stored grains in seed banks or mixed with cow urine for the preparation of a natural insecticide for crops. Other plants take their place in veterinary medicine, that is, Colebrookea oppositifolia Sm. (Lamiaceae), whose leaves are used for the extraction of eye drops for cattle. Fiber-yielding plants, such as the Himalayan nettle Girardinia diversifolia (Link) Friis (Urticaceae), are used for making ropes (Fig. 26). Plants also have an important position in the worship of Hindu deities and are offered in prayers and rituals, often on a daily basis. Example is the very rare Jurinea dolomiaea Boiss. (Asteraceae), whose roots are traditionally used for the preparation of incense burned in religious rituals. Holy trees like the sacred “Peepal” fig tree Ficus religiosa L. (Moraceae) are conserved and often seen garlanded with red or orange ribbons. Unsurprisingly, the symbol of the state of Uttarakhand is the flower of “Brahm Kamal” (Asteraceae: Saussurea obvallata (DC.) Edgew.), a beautiful erect herb growing high in the snowy mountain peaks that is considered to be one of the most sacred offerings to the important Hindu deity of Lord Shiva. Other species, such as the Bael tree (Rutaceae: Aegle marmelos (L.) Corrêa), are often planted close to temples and places of worship. The forests of Garhwal also provide habitat to a number of edible and medicinal mushrooms. Among them are: Ganoderma lucidum (Fr.) Karst. (Ganodermataceae); Agaricus campestris L. and Coprinus comatus (O. F. Müll.) Pers. (Agaricaceae);

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Amanita hemibapha (Berk. & Br.) Sacc. (Amanitaceae); Boletus edulis Bull ex Fries and Strobilomyces floccopus (Vahl. ex Fr.) Karst (Boletaceae); Hydnum repandum L. (Hydnaceae); Morchella esculenta Fr. (Morchellaceae); Cantharellus cibarius Fr., C. minor Peck and Craterellus cornucopioides (L.) Pers. (Cantharellaceae); Lactarius deliciosus (Fr.) Gray, Lactarius subindigo Verbeken & E. Horak., Lactifluus hygrophoroides Berk. & Curt., Russula brevipes Peck, and Russula virescens (Schaeffer ex Secretan) Fr. (Russulaceae) (Vishwakarma et al. 2011; Bhatt et al. 2016).

Threats to Diversity The pressure experienced by the rich habitat and floristic diversity in Uttarakhand has stimulated research interest in the status, distribution, and conservation of medicinal and aromatic plants in Garhwal (see Nautiyal et al. 1997, 2002; Kala et al. 1998, 2006; Maikhuri et al. 1998, 2001; Airi et al. 2000; Kala 2000, 2004, 2005b; Uniyal et al. 2002; Semwal et al. 2007; Rawat and Chandra 2014). However, this attention is usually limited to certain species with high commercial value which are facing pressure in the wild. Among them are Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle (Ranunculaceae), Nardostachys jatamansi (D. Don) DC. (Caprifoliaceae), and Picrorhiza kurroa ex Benth. (Plantaginaceae). Due to their enormous economic importance, many medicinal and aromatic plants have been exhaustingly exploited during the last century. Τhe once thickly vegetated forests of Garhwal have been largely slashed down and transported through the rivers and more recently through the roads. Exploitation of marketable plants still applies increasing pressure on the region’s ecosystems, with considerable environmental, social, and economic repercussions (Chauhan et al. 2013). The increasing demand for herbal and plant-based products is potentially one of the most threatening factors to biodiversity. Due to the large gap between demand and supply, the largest share of the total raw plant materials coming from the state of Uttarakhand into the national and international herbal markets originates through harvesting from the wild. In many cases, these collection practices are unsustainable, limiting the natural regeneration of wild plant populations. The forests of Garhwal are also pressed due to the increasing trends in human and domestic animal populations and the consequent demand on arable and grazing land, firewood, timber, and other construction wood. The collection methods of most medicinal and aromatic plants employed by the people of Garhwal are not destructive to the plants themselves. However, species with rhizomes or barks of high medicinal value are more vulnerable, since these plant parts are vital for sustaining the physiology and reproduction of the respective species. The problem is particularly sharp in higher altitudes, where the overall harshness of the environment limits the regenerative capacity of plants. Rare species like the high-altitude “Salam Panja” orchid (Orchidaceae: Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D. Don) Soó) whose tuber yields a juice that is traditionally used as a tonic is listed as “critically rare” under the CITES Appendix II (CITES 2019). The same applies to Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth.

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(Plantaginaceae) whose rhizome is used in Ayurvedic treatments of digestive problems. Both of these plant species have been reported to have been harvested from the wild to near extinction; therefore, they now enjoy special conservation status. The degradation of the fragile mountain ecosystems proceeds at alarming rates due to forest fires and the overexploitation of forest biomass serving the needs of local communities in animal fodder and wood (Dhyani and Dhyani 2016). Dominant but slow growing trees such as Quercus leucotrichophora A. Camus are lopped for wood and fodder at such an excessive degree, that they are failing to regenerate. These degraded forests are rapidly invaded by chir pine Pinus roxburghii Sarg., altering the hydrological regimes and above-ground biomass production. These alterations generate further impacts to the vegetal cover leading to soil erosion and reduced discharge of springs and streams (Valdiya 1998). Changes in weather patterns and precipitation due to anthropogenic climate change lead to reduced water availability for irrigation, hence affecting the agricultural productivity and crop cycles in the region (Negi et al. 2012; Dhanai et al. 2014). They also alter soil moisture conditions and overall fertility, which in turn influence the growth and regeneration of the largely herbaceous forest vegetation. The unpredicted frequency and intensity of forest disturbances due to climate change also include insect or pest outbreaks and invasive species which may reduce the overall forest rigor. Besides the impact on the fragile natural habitats of Garhwal, the effects of global warming in the Western Himalaya are felt in the entire Indian subcontinent. Highelevation Himalayan areas above 4000 masl underwent amplified warming at a rate of about 0.5 °C/decade since the 1950s (Sabin et al. 2020). As a result, Himalayan glaciers have lost a significant amount of their mass in the past 40 years, with the average rate of ice loss doubled during the twenty-first century compared to the end of the twentieth century (Maurer et al. 2019). Depending on the terrain and meteorological patterns, the annual glacial retreat ranges from a few meters to almost 61 m (Kulkarni and Karyakarte 2014). Garhwal’s largest glacier, Gangotri, which provides a significant source of meltwater for the Ganges, has reportedly retreated at a rate of about 30 m every year during recent decades (Rai and Gurung 2005). These dramatic effects not only cause major landscape alterations and natural disasters in the Himalayan region, but also affect streamflow and fresh water availability for drinking and irrigation, hence threatening the water and food security of millions of people living along their courses (Kaser et al. 2010; Pritchard 2017). The depletion of water resources is visible in many areas of Garhwal, especially in the hilly districts which entirely depend on rainfed agriculture. More than one third of the natural springs that contribute to the Ganges river system are drying up, and several once perennial streams have now become seasonal (Tiwari and Joshi 2012). The threads to the biocultural richness of the region are not only of environmental nature. Although the state of Uttarakhand has witnessed economic growth at high rates since its formation in 2000, development has been lopsided towards districts that lie in the plains of the state. The urban dependency of rural populations for higher education and healthcare has led to an increase in migration from the hills, often leading to the abandonment of entire villages and the agricultural land

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surrounding them. Active farm plots interspersed with inactive ones are difficult to manage in the interconnected terraced system of Garhwal. Consequently, people shift away from traditional subsidence farming and as the land becomes barren, it is taken over by invasive species such as Lantana camara L. (Verbenaceae) and Parthenium hysterophorus L. (Asteraceae). Migration from the villages is affecting the overall rural way of life, which for centuries has been based on the strength of community and the deep indigenous knowledge on sustainable management and use of forest resources.

Conclusion The intricate relationship between ecosystems and human communities is so strong in the Garhwal Himalaya, so the region is only livable when balance in the human ecology is maintained. The value of the goods and services provided by plant resources in Garhwal is immeasurable and the livelihoods of the locals are directly dependent on the sustainable use of these resources. Therefore, the conservation of plant wildlife and the rejuvenation of local ethnobotanical knowledge and indigenous culture are imperative. The remoteness of indigenous communities in the remote mountainous areas of Garhwal can be turned into comparative advantage by making use of their biodiversity and local knowledge. The rich ethnomedicinal heritage of the region can be a major driver for self-directed development in the region, averting the alarming trends of migration and ecosystem degradation. The international market for medicinal and aromatic plants, but also for ornamental species and exotic fruits, is booming and the demand is higher than the supply. This opens new opportunities for sustainable collection from the wild as well as for organic cultivation, especially for poor families and small land owners. The people of Garhwal are experts in the cultivation of plants in hilly terrain and can benefit greatly from capacity building programs for the sustainable production and cooperative marketing of a number of medicinal and aromatic plants. The local medicinal flora represents a variety of species which are suitable for growing in almost every agro-climatic condition. The shifting cultivation traditionally practiced in the region, leaves large areas as fallow land which can be profitably used for the cultivation of annual or perennial plants. Taking advantage of the different habits of the recorded medicinal species in the area, the application of regenerative growing practices is possible in adapted agroforestry systems, including multi-tier cropping and intercropping. Such cultivation will not only help meet the increasing demand for medicinal and aromatic plant-based raw ingredients, but can also conserve this valuable resource and even add to its current productivity, while restoring the wider ecosystem. For centuries, everything from soil-related work to harvest has been done collectively in the villages of Garhwal. This long tradition of community-based agriculture can potentially drive a new wave of social entrepreneurship for increasing efficiency, minimizing transaction costs, and diversifying incomes for the people of Garhwal.

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As a matter of fact, some pioneering efforts in this direction start to emerge in Garhwal with the prioritization of some medicinal and aromatic plants for cultivation. Among them are Picrorhiza kurroa ex Benth. (Plantaginaceae), Nardostachys jatamansi (D. Don) DC. (Caprifoliaceae), Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle (Ranunculaceae), Swertia chirayita (Roxb.) H. Karst. (Gentianaceae), and Podophyllum hexandrum Royle (Berberidaceae). The opportunities arising from tackling the interconnected sustainability challenges in Garhwal make the region an exciting research domain on sustainable rural development, ecosystem conservation, and landscape restoration. From preserving indigenous knowledge to improving livelihoods and connecting the region to markets, the Garhwal Himalaya awaits ethnobotanical workers who are keen in exploring and documenting human-plant relationships in one of the most magnificent mountain landscapes on Earth.

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Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Nepal, Bhutanese, and Tibetan Himalayas Ripu M. Kunwar, Bhishma P. Subedi, Sushim R. Baral, Tek Maraseni, Chris LeBoa, Yagya P. Adhikari, and Rainer W. Bussmann

The Nepal Himalaya Plant use in the Nepal Himalaya, recorded in the 6500-year-old text of the Rigveda, ranks among the earliest uses of medicinal plants (Malla and Shakya 1984). Another early account, the Saushrut Nighantu, is perhaps the oldest Nepali medicinal plant book, which was produced during the rule of the Great King Mandev in the fifth century, and records the uses of 278 Nepalese medicinal plants (Subedi and Tiwari R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal B. P. Subedi Asia Network for Sustainable Agriculture and Bioresources, Kathmandu, Nepal S. R. Baral Maijubahal-7 Chabahil 7, Kathmandu, Nepal T. Maraseni University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD, Australia Northwest Institute of Eco-Environment and Resources, Lanzhou, China C. LeBoa Department of Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA Y. P. Adhikari Department of Biogeography, BayCEER, University of Bayreuth, Bayreuth, Germany Department of Disturbance Ecology, BayCEER, University of Bayreuth, Bayreuth, Germany R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_5

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2000; Gewali and Awale 2008). Later compendia of herbal pharmacopoeias such as Chandra Nighantu and Nepali Nighantu published in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, respectively, described 750 plants and 971 articles (IUCN Nepal 2004). During 1802–1803, a French botanist Francis Buchanan-Hamilton who visited Nepal was the first foreigner to catalogue the useful plants of this country. Later the books Prodromus Florae Nepalensis by D. Don in 1825 and Tentamen Florae Nepalensis by N. Wallich were noteworthy in presenting the records of useful plants of Nepal. Due to its geographical location and the isolationist policies of its Rana rulers, Nepal remained inaccessible to much of the outside world and became known as a “land of mystery.” After the Anglo-Nepalese war (1814–1816), the government made slight concessions and allowed a few British botanists to visit Kathmandu, but the area remained mostly off limits to outsiders (Bhatt 1964). The inaccessibility of Nepal to foreigners was well versed by Hooker (1855) and Heim and Gansser (1939). The situation changed in 1950 when the Rana rule came to an end. While the collection of plants for different purposes dated back to centuries, the research on medicinal and food plants from eastern Nepal by ML Banerji in 1955 (Banerji 1955) was considered to be the first publication on Nepal’s ethnobotany. Since then, many researchers have studied the medicinal and edible wild plants of Nepal. The seminal early works on medicinal plants of Nepal come from BD Pandey (1964), PR Pande (1964), Devkota (1968), and Malla and Shakya (1984), while the paper by Singh (1968) on wild food plants was also influential to the field (Rajbhandary and Winkler 2015). There have been approximately 1000 ethnobotanical studies carried out in Nepal: mostly about medicinal plants. A review of 822 publications made between 1968 and 2014 done by Rajbhandary and Winkler (2015) revealed that 44% of published studies were associated with ethnomedicine and 23% with ethnobotany. Another review by Ghimire (2008) reported that 53% studies were related to inventory and use of medicinal plants. There are other review studies on ethnobotany in Nepal such as Rajbhandari (2001), Shrestha et al. (2004), and Kunwar and Bussmann (2008); however, none is attempted to analyze the spatial coverage of ethnobotanical studies in Nepal. Recently, a few accounts ventured into describing the ethnobotany at spatial scales. Kunwar et al. (2020) documented the ethnobotany of Paris polyphylla Sm. from 51 districts, and Charmakar et al. (2020) reported that of Valeriana jatamansi Jones from 55 districts out of 77 districts in Nepal. Medicinal plants have long been collected and used in Nepal and are mostly from the wild. There are a large number of policies on sustainable harvesting of medicinal plants, but they are not strictly implemented. As a result, many high-value medicinal plants, on which local livelihoods depend, are depleting. Sustainable management of medicinal plants with commercial potential and their effective integration in development plans is urgently needed to improve local livelihoods and the national economy. Similarly, studies focusing on applied and conservation ethnobotany are of urgent need, as most of the ethnobotanical studies carried out to date are traditional, only documenting the knowledge and inventory of the resources (Figs. 1 and 2).

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Fig. 1 Alpine ecosystem, Manang. (Photo Krishna R Bhattarai)

Fig. 2 Shey Phoksundo National Park, Dolpa, November, 2006. (Photo Ripu Kunwar)

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Physiography Nepal’s geological history has given rise to the country’s complex biogeography reinforced by its location at the crossroads of two biogeographic realms: Palearctic in the north and Paleotropic in the south (Udvardy 1975). It is a small landlocked country which lies along the slopes of the Himalayan mountain between China and India between 80° 040 –88° 120 E and 26° 220 –30° 270 N. Being laid at the lap of the lofty Himalayas, the country has the largest elevational gradient in the world (Li and Feng 2015), extending from tropical alluvial plains as low as 59 m above sea level (m asl) in the lowland Tarai to the world’s highest summit Mt. Everest (8848 m) in a distance of only 150–200 km (Hagen 1969). Thus, Nepal’s terrain is extremely complex with steep geographical gradients. Broadly, the country is divided into three longitudinal zones (East 80° 040 –83°, Central 83°–86°300 , and West 86°300 –88°120 ) (Stearn 1960). Vertically, there are distinct five eco-physiographical regions: the Himalayas (23% of total area and above 5000 m), High Mountains (20% of total area, between 3000 and 5000 m), the Middle Mountains (30% of total area, between 1000 and 3000 m), Siwalik Hills (12.8% of total area, between 500 and 1000 m asl), and the flat lowlands of Tarai (13.7% of total area, up to 500 m asl), representing nival, alpine, temperate, subtropical, and tropical bioclimate, respectively (Dobremez 1976; LRMP 1986; IUCN 2000). There are 71 mountains of over 6000 m in Nepal among which Mt. Everest, Mt. Kangchenjunga, Mt. Lhotse, and Mt. Makalu are the world’s first, third, fourth, and fifth highest peaks, respectively. You will behold the magnificent vista of these snow-capped mountains at the northern part of the country (Figs. 3 and 4).

Geo-ecology All the mountains within the nival zone, above 5000 m, are covered with perpetual snow and treeless vegetation and are characterized by Precambrian metamorphosed gneisses, mica schist, limestone, and shale of different ages (Pariyar 2008). This biome includes some dry inner-Himalayan valleys and arid plateaus in Mustang, Manang, and Dolpa districts (NBSAP 2014). There are over 400 plant species recorded from above 5000 m of the Everest region (Miehe 1989). The highest recorded flowering plant Ermania himalayensis (Cambess.) O.E. Schulz (Brassicaceae) is found at around 6000 m (Bhuju et al. 2007). Saussurea gnaphalodes (Royle ex DC.) Sch. Bip. (Asteraceae), Lepidostemon everestianus Al-Shehbaz (Brassicaceae), Arenaria bryophylla Fernald (Caryophyllaceae), and Androsace khumbuensis Dentant (Primulaceae) are found up to elevations of 6400 m on the northern and southern slopes of Mt. Everest (Dentant 2018), the highest recorded elevation of any living plants in the world. The High Mountains Zone (3000–5000 m) is characterized by biologically diverse summer grazing pastures ranging from luxuriant natural conifer and mixed forests in some locations (Aryal et al. 2014). The soils can be characterized by phyllite, schist, gneiss, and quartzite of different ages. The Middle Mountain (also known as Mid-Hills) is characterized by a great variety of terrain types and intensive

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Fig. 3 Physiographic map of Nepal. (Photo Bhagawat Rimal)

Fig. 4 Range of hills and mountains, taken from Bipyakatal, Baitadi. (Photo Ripu Kunwar)

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farming on hillside terraces between 1000 and 3000 m. This region has the greatest diversity of ecosystems and species in Nepal (BPP 1995). It covers 2.25 million hectares of forest, about 38% of the country’s total forest cover (DFRS 2015), and contains several fertile and densely populated valleys, including Kathmandu and Pokhara. It is a highly populated (38% of total population) region and borders the lowland Tarai (41%) (CBS 2011). The Siwalik zone, the southernmost Himalayan foothills, is characterized by steep hills of unstable geomorphology. These hills are primarily semi-consolidated tertiary sandstone, siltstone, shale, and conglomerate. The Siwalik is the youngest mountain range in the Himalayas (Dahal et al. 2010) and extends across four countries including Pakistan, India, Nepal, and Bhutan (Taral et al. 2018). In Nepal, the Siwalik spreads from east to west across 36 different districts and covers 12.78% of Nepal’s area, of which 72.56% are forests (DFRS 2015). A fossilized tooth of a Ramapithecus, an extinct group of primates, found in 1980 at the bank of Tinau river (Butwal), Siwalik Hills, dated as the second oldest in the world at 9.0–9.5 million years (Munthe et al. 1983), which connotes prehistoric habitation of the western Nepal (Pradhan 1998). A group of early settlers (Aryans) advanced into the western parts of Nepal in 1100 AD (Chaturvedi and Singh 1986) is considered one of the early accounts of human civilization and forest and plant exploitation in Nepal (Shrestha 2001; Kunwar et al. 2019) (Figs. 5 and 6). Lowland Tarai comprises of a narrow belt of fertile flat land with recent and post Pleistocene alluvial deposits (Carson et al. 1986) in the southernmost part of the country up to 500 m (NBSAP 2014). It is considered as a rice bowl of the country (Gauchan and Pandey 2011). The fertile alluvial lands in Tarai and riverbanks in the Mid-Hills are highly suitable for mixed farming of rice, millet, maize, wheat, as well as other cash crops and dairy products and different forest practices. Dense broadleaved Shorea robusta (Sal) forest and riverine Dalbergia sissoo-Acacia catechu forests support the lush biodiversity of the area and boast large number of charismatic animals including tiger (Panthera tigris), one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), etc. which are found only in South Asia and Southeast Asia (Jnawali et al. 2011) (Figs. 7 and 8).

Water Resources The Himalayas, also known as the “third pole” or the “water tower of Asia,” is the most glaciated area in the world outside of the Polar Regions, with vast stocks of fresh water in the forms of snow and ice. Nepal’s glaciers, snow, and ice-melt waters feed more than 6000 rivers including rivulets and tributaries across the country (WECS 2011). The major perennial river systems in Nepal are Mahakali, Karnali, Gandaki, and Koshi rivers, all of which originate from the Himalayas. All of Nepal’s rivers flow into the Ganges, a river of great cultural and religious significance and the most populous river basin in the world. These river systems contain water resources with tremendous potential for productive ecosystems, hydropower, and irrigation development. Nepal is rich in hydro-resources, with one of the highest per capita hydropower potentials in the world. The estimated theoretical power potential is

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Fig. 5 Churia-Siwalik Hills, youngest hills in the Himalayas, taken from Motahaldu, Dadeldhura. (Photo Ripu Kunwar)

Fig. 6 Women carrying Murraya koenigii (Asare) for processing, Baitada, Kanchanpur. (Photo Ripu Kunwar)

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Fig. 7 Endangered Ailurus fulgens (red panda) at Polangpati, Langtang National Park, Nepal. (Photo Hari P Sharma)

Fig. 8 Mussaenda macrophylla and butterfly, Pokhara-5, Kaski, Nepal. (Photo Mira Dhakal)

approximately 83,000 MW. However, the economically feasible potential has been evaluated at approximately 43,000 MW (Adhikari 2006). All these river systems harbor 42 globally threatened species (CSUWN 2009) with over 25% of the country’s total flora (Kunwar et al. 2015).

Climate Nepal exhibits a wide range of climatic conditions varying from tropical at southern lowland to alpine/arctic in the north due to its topographic extremes. The climate is predominantly influenced by three major factors: altitude, monsoon, and western disturbances (GoN 2014). The year in Nepal is characterized by four distinct seasons, namely, the pre-monsoon (March–May), monsoon

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(June–September), post-monsoon (October–November), and winter (December– February) (WECS 2011). Nepal receives average annual rainfall of around 1600 mm, but this number varies widely by region. The southern flanks of the Himalayas, such as Pokhara, receive the highest amount of rainfall (3345 mm), while the rain shadow areas of Dolpa and Mustang receive less than 10% of that amount (295 mm). Total annual rainfall increases with altitude up to approximately 3000 m and then diminishes at higher elevations (MoSTE 2014). The high-altitude regions of Nepal are most sensitive to climate change and have been warming the most quickly (WWF 2005). Climate vulnerability indices have shown that Nepal is one of the most climatevulnerable countries worldwide (Maplecroft 2011; Christensen et al. 2013; Kreft et al. 2015). According to Nepal Climate Vulnerability Study Team (NCVST), the mean annual temperatures could increase by a mean of 1.4 °C (with a range of 0.5 °C–2.0 °C) by the 2030s, rising to an increase of 4.7 °C (3.0 °C–6.3 °C) by the 2090s. Cities are warming faster than the surrounding outskirts (Baidya et al. 2007). In this same time period, precipitation levels are expected to change dramatically. Some reports posture that they may decline by 34% or rise by 22% by the 2030s, decline by 36% or rise by 67% by the 2060s, and decline by 43% or rise by 80% by the 2090s (NCVST 2009). It is also generally expected that there will be an increase in interannual variability in monsoon rainfall and an increase in the occurrence of extreme (or heavy) rainfall events (Christensen et al. 2013). Between 1990 and 2014, approximately 3.4 million Nepalese were affected by floods, droughts, and landslides (MoE 2010b). It is estimated that more than 1.9 million people are highly vulnerable to climate change, while 10 million are at increasing risk due to climate impacts (MoE 2010a). Mean annual temperatures and precipitation are expected to change in Nepal over the remainder of this century. The country is also vulnerable to seasonal foods, drought, and landslides (WECS 2011) and seismic and developmental disasters (Klein et al. 2019) (Figs. 9, 10, and 11).

Biodiversity Aided by diverse terrain and topography, Nepal’s variety of climatic conditions has spurred the evolution of unique flora, fauna, livelihoods, and cultures across the country. This cornucopia of endemic features aid in creating a diversity of rich and unique ecosystems and human-nature interactions (Maraseni et al. 2006). The country possesses about 0.1% of the Earth’s terrestrial land, but it harbors about 2% share of the world’s biodiversity and ranks 25th position in terms of species richness (Bhuju et al. 2007). The feature is associated with the dense tropical monsoon forests of the Tarai, deciduous and coniferous forests of the Mid-Hills and, and subalpine and alpine pastures and rugged/arid landscape of the Himalayan range. The rugged topography has created geographic isolation and numerous ecological niches to which different ethnic groups have adapted (Manzardo 1977) and high-value medicinal plants are refuged (Subedi 2006).

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Fig. 9 Drying chilis on house floor, Pahada, Dolpa, 1750 m. (Photo Ripu Kunwar)

Fig. 10 Local people harvesting buckwheat, Kagbeni, Mustang. (Photo Nipesh Dhaka Adhikari)

There are a large variety of forest types and different ecosystems across the different landscapes of Nepal (Dobremez 1976; Stainton 1972). This includes

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Fig. 11 Drying rice on house floor, Jhyari, Rara National Park, Mugu, 2800 m. (Photo Ripu Kunwar)

more than 10,630 plant and 3000 wildlife species living in 118 different ecosystem types, 75 vegetation types, and 35 forest types (NBSAP 2014). There are over 6500 species of flowering plants (Press et al. 2000; DPR 2001; Ghimire 2008; Kunwar et al. 2010; MoFSC 2014; Shrestha and Bajracharya 2019; Shrestha 2020) including over 2300 useful and medicinal plant species (Baral and Kurmi 2006; Rokaya et al. 2010; Kunwar et al. 2018). Useful plants along with non-timber forest products (NTFPs) from Nepal have a total export value of over US$ 700 million annually and account for 11% of the country’s total exports (DPR 2001). This number is only 40– 50% of the NTFPs harvested, since approximately the same amount is either consumed within households or sold in local markets without ever being recorded. Of 312 endemic flowering plants in Nepal (Rajbhandari and Rai 2017), about 63% are from the high mountains, and 38% are from the Mid-Hills (Press et al. 2000). Indicator species such as the Indian horse chestnut (Aesculus indica (Wall. ex Cambess.) Hook.) and Deodar cedar (Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D. Don) G. Don) are predominantly found in the west, while broad-leaved evergreen (Castanopsis hystrix Miq.) and the Sikkim larch (Larix griffithiana) are predominantly found in eastern and central Nepal (Bhuju et al. 2007). The plant family with the largest number of species are Orchidaceae (450 species) followed by Asteraceae (395 species), Poaceae (366 species), Fabaceae (304 species), and Cyperaceae (191 species)

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Fig. 12 Paris polyphylla (Satuwa) flower bud, Daman, Makawanpur. (Photo Giridhar Amatya)

(Miehe et al. 2015). Medicinal plants are an integral part of indigenous medical systems and livelihoods and have long been collected, consumed, and conserved by indigenous populations, leading to a wealth of accumulated indigenous knowledge (Singh et al. 1979) (Figs. 12, 13, and 14).

Population, Ethnicity, and Religion Nepal is inhabited by 30 million people and has an annual growth rate of 1.32% per year between 2001 and 2011. Socioculturally, the country has over 125 ethnic groups and castes, including Chepang, Raute, etc., and 123 languages (CBS 2012). The Raute are the last nomadic people of Nepal (Fortier 2009). Nepali language, derived from Sanskrit, is the national and official language of the country. Over 80% of Nepalese are Hindus and about 10% are Buddhists. Hindu mythology considers the Himalayas to be the home of the gods. Three principal Hindu deities, Brahma (the creator), Vishnu (the caretaker), and Shiva (the destroyer), are worshipped equally. Pashupatinath, a large Shiva temple in Kathmandu, is one of the holiest sites in Nepal and attracts Hindu pilgrims all over the world. Similarly, being the birthplace of Lord Buddha, Nepal is an international pilgrimage site to the Buddhist all over the world. Buddhists visit Lumbini – the birthplace located some 300 km south west of Kathmandu. Hindus consider Buddha as one of the incarnations of Lord Vishnu and worship him.

Socioeconomy About 70% of the population lives in rural, mountainous areas and the Mid-Hills region; both zones characterized with a fragile and remote physiography and low

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Fig. 13 Mucuna pruriens (Kauso) pods, Parigaon, Kanchanpur. (Photo Prem Budha and Ripu Kunwar)

Fig. 14 Debregeasia salicifolia (Tusare) fruits, Chatiwon, Doti. (Photo Giridhar Amatya)

economic productivity (Abington 1992; CBS 2011). Limited access foments the regional disparities in development and discrepancies in income and education between rural and urban area. Nepal’s Human Development Index (0.579) and Gender Inequality Index put the country in the medium human development category (UNDP 2019). The Government of Nepal put forward an ambitious goal of graduating from the least developed country (LDC) status by 2022 (GoN 2013) (Figs. 15, 16, 17, and 18). Nepal’s economy, strongly backed up by agriculture and remittances from working abroad, is growing but varies greatly year to year (GoN 2014). The economy is

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also dependent on the use of natural resources, including farmed areas, pastures, and forests. Agriculture including forestry and fishery remains the country’s principal economic activity. Majority of the population are subsistence farmers and grow paddy, wheat, maize, millet, barley, vegetables, and potato. Rice and wheat are the two main crops grown in the Tarai region along with other cash crops such as sugarcane, jute, cotton, and mangoes. Animals such as cow, buffalo, and goats are reared by most of the households, while some households also keep chickens and pigs (Figs. 19, 20, 21, and 22). At higher altitudes, agro-pastoralism prevails and yaks and sheep are reared, and the number a person owns symbolizes their family’s wealth. Moreover, the mountains and rivers of the Himalayas are valued as sacred sites, and the alpine meadows, pastures, and forests are treasured for transhumance, livestock grazing, and collecting of high-value medicinal plants like Himalayan caterpillar fungus, Ophiocordyceps sinensis (Berk.) G.H. Sung; Himalayan yew, Taxus contorta Griff.; and love apple, Paris polyphylla Sm. (Kunwar et al. 2020). Many of the plants are collected and used for cultural practices, livelihood and primary health care under theoretical and practical traditional knowledge, and mores and beliefs of surrounding health, illness, and sociocultural values and because of limited access to other healthcare options (Kunwar et al. 2013). Plants collected for socioeconomic gain, cultural heritage, and drug development (Farnsworth and Morris 1976), are now been threatened due to local peoples’ changing perceptions (Bhattarai 1992; Fig. 15 Buddhist flag at Swayambhu, Kathmandu. (Photo Yagya Adhikari)

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Fig. 16 A woman in traditional attire, Sundamunda village, Khar, Darchula. (Photo Yadav Uprety)

Fig. 17 Women collecting hey grass during famine in winter, Dhap, Darchula. (Photo Ripu Kunwar)

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Fig. 18 Nomadic Raute tribe, Khanikhola, Dailekh. (Photo Nipesh Dhaka Adhikari)

Fig. 19 Terrace cultivation, Nayagaun, Kavre, with mountain range of Mt. Gaurishankar and Jugal. (Photo Bijaya Khadka)

Bussmann and Sharon 2006; Byg et al. 2010). Some medicinal plants are severely threatened, as changing climatic gradients, land-use patterns, and socioeconomic and cultural changes force plant species to either adapt, move, or perish (Parmesan and Yohe 2002; Alves and Rosa 2007; Cameron 2010) (Figs. 23 and 24).

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Fig. 20 Agroforestry and primitive round house, Astam, Kaski. (Photo Ripu Kunwar)

Fig. 21 A rural village livelihood in the Mid-Hills, Gurja Khani, Myagdi. (Photo Ripu Kunwar)

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Fig. 22 Transhumance and pastoral life, Budhi, Darchula. (Photo Ripu Kunwar)

Forest exploitation was severe before the 1970s (Robbe 1954; Ekholm 1975) because the government forests were considered open commodity and harvesting of NTFPs and medicinal plants was free or could be done with the payment of a nominal fee (Chaudhary et al. 2017). Forest management structures such as community forests, beginning in late 1970s, and local (indigenous) participatory forest management initiatives are meant to control the degradation of government-managed forests, but the loss has remained substantial (Kunwar et al. 2019). As a result, the country is successful in restoring forests that cover about 43% of the land area (DFRS 2015). The community forestry in Nepal has often been hailed and reported as one of the successful forestry programs in South Asia (Karki et al. 2017). Community forestry covers 40% of the total forest cover of the country, providing immediate goods and services to marginalized and disadvantaged communities of rural and remote areas of the country (Bhattarai et al. 2019). In its Master Plan of Forestry Sector, Nepal has identified 61% of the total forests of the country that have potential for community forestry and provide the possibility for rural communities to be engaged in NTFP-based enterprise activities while maintaining the overall forest health for generations to come (Subedi and Tiwari 2000). However, these forests are coming under existential threats from invasive species and changing land-use patterns and climate change (Figs. 25 and 26).

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Fig. 23 Mule train transporting goods, Rara National Park, Mugu, April 2011. (Photo Ramesh Basnet)

Fig. 24 Sky islands, the mountain at foreground is a reservoir of medicinal plants, Hilsa, Humla, 3200 m. (Photo Dipesh Pyakurel)

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Fig. 25 Schima-Castanopsis forest, Godawari, Lalitpur. (Photo Yagya Adhikari)

Way Forward There are few studies that explore the opportunities generated by ethnobotany to aid in cultivating sustainable use of forest resources and complement local livelihoods and the national economy. This book, Mountain Ethnobotany in Nepal, is a co-created project among botanists, foresters, environmentalists, naturalists, and pharmacists of Nepal and abroad to share opportunities and knowledge that will contribute to the advancement of sustainable conservation and development in the country. We hope policy-makers will become increasingly aware of the critical role of traditional knowledge, ethnobotany, and medicinal plants of Nepal can play in building the resilience and adaptive capacities of the country’s population and economy against the challenges of climate change, socio-acculturation, and landuse change. Understanding the function of mountain ethnobotany and appreciating its important services will enhance our ability to guide policies on conservation and sustainable management of flora resources. This communication will hopefully strengthen the network of botanists, foresters, ethnobiologists, environmentalists, anthropologists, forest managers, and cultural heritage policy-makers working to developing strategies that might lead in the future to increased recognition, preservation, and renewal of traditional practices in Nepal. And we hope it will help you, the reader, better appreciate the scope of ethnobotany and its role in the conservation of ecosystems through the harmony of human-nature interactions.

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Fig. 26 Rhododendron-Quercus forest, Sigas, Baitadi. (Photo Ripu Kunwar)

The Eastern Himalaya: Bhutan and Tibet Of the 34 biodiversity hotspots in the world, the Eastern Himalayan range is one of the richest with nearly 750,000 sq. km area covering Nepal, Bhutan, the Indian states of West Bengal, Sikkim, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh, southeast Tibet (China), and northern Myanmar. The region is in the limelight as a part of crisis ecoregions, biodiversity hotspots, endemic bird areas, megadiverse countries, and the Global 200 Ecoregions. This area is geologically young and shows high altitudinal variation resulting in the formation of the tallest alluvial grasslands among the world and subtropical broadleaf forest in the foothills to temperate broadleaf forest in the Mid-Hills, conifer forest in the higher hills, and alpine meadows above the tree line. The Indo-Burma hotspot itself is home to 7000 endemic plants and has 1.9% of the world’s total endemic vertebrates. More than 7000 plants species have been recorded from the region, which alone consists of many endemic and endangered flora and fauna (Banerjee and Bandopadhyay 2016) (Fig. 27). During the Quaternary period, the Tibetan Plateau underwent the greatest changes of any region in the world. Since the Neogene, a series of enormous and drastic geologic and climatic events has occurred. The Indian plate collided with the Eurasian plate; the highest mountain and plateau region in the world arose from the ancient sea, the Tethys Sea, which was forced far to the west; atmospheric circulations changed their routes, and some new systems were formed; and mountain glaciers progressed and withdrew repeatedly. As a result of these changes,

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Fig. 27 Main Central-Eastern Himalayan Range with Mt. Everest. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

large-scale movement and exchange took place in the floras and vegetations on the Plateau. After passing through this period of harsh natural selection and evolution, some of the specialized young plateau vegetation types emerged, for instance, the high-cold desert, steppe, and meadow. But there remain some ancient forest vegetation types which have been reestablished somewhat to the south. In particular, the vegetational gradient or zonal system now peculiar to the Plateau developed (Chang 1981).

Climate The climate of the Eastern Himalaya is extremely diverse. This variation in climatic conditions and average temperature is maintained by two main factors – the vast differences in altitude and influence of the North Indian monsoons. Mountain peaks are permafrost, and lower valley regions are cool in summer owing to the highaltitude terrain. In the far northern part of the kingdom, the weather is cold during winter. In the central areas of the country, the climate is cooler, changing to deciduous and temperate forests with warm summers and cool, dry winters. While the Tibetan Plateau and the peak regions are cool to cold, southern Bhutan has a hot, humid, subtropical climate, static the whole year. The Indian summer monsoon stays from late June to late September and is mostly limited to the southern border areas of Bhutan, resulting in heavy rain and high humidity in the region. They bring 60–90% of total rainfall of the western region. Annual precipitation varies extensively in different areas of the country. The northern border area and Tibet get about 40 mm of precipitation per year, which is mainly snow. In the temperate central regions, a yearly average of 1000 mm precipitation occurs, whereas 7800 mm/year

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precipitation is registered in the humid, subtropical south, resulting in thick tropical forests and savannas (Banerjee and Bandopadhyay 2016). The latitudinal differences in solar radiation and temperature are basic determinants of the plateau vegetation zones in Tibet. Although the enormous height of the Plateau may tend to diminish the latitudinal temperature differences, the relief (which is higher in the northwest and lower in the southeast) compounds the effects of the latitudinal gradient of heat. Therefore, on the southern slope, there are tropical and subtropical mountain forests; in the central part, mesothermal steppe and desert vegetation prevail; and there are high-cold steppes and deserts in the north. The main ridge of the Great Himalaya provides the northern limit of tropical mountains. In the east, the Himalayas extends to 29° north latitude. This is almost the northernmost limit of the tropical zone on earth. The extensive mountains, which protect the area to the south from cold air masses that move across interior Asia, permit this northward extension of the Tropics. The limit between mesothermal and high-cold climate or vegetation corresponds approximately to the mean July isotherm of 9 °C in the west and 11 °C in the east. South of this limit on the Plateau, or in the mountains below it, temperate vegetation occurs in mesothermal or mesomicrothermal forest, steppe, or desert. North of this limit on the Plateau, or above it on the mountains, the vegetation changes to alpine meadow, low scrub, high-cold steppe, or desert types. However, moisture affects the plateau vegetation even more strongly than temperature. Precipitation decreases from southeast to northwest and provides a moisture gradient from humid and subhumid to semiarid and arid corresponding to a vegetational gradation from forest and meadow to steppe and desert. The gradients of temperature and precipitation interact to form seven plateau vegetation zones, of which five are plateau zones. These are the humidhot tropical montane forest zone on the southern slope of the Himalayas, the moist-warm subtropical montane forest zone in southeastern Tibet, the moist-cryophilic highcold meadow and low scrub of eastern Tibet and western Sichuan, the arid mesothermal montane steppe and shrubland zones in the Tsangpo River Valley of southern Tibet, the arid and cryophilic high-cold steppe zone of Chiangtang (northern Tibet) and western Qinghai, the arid and mesothermal montane desert zone of western Ali, and the very arid and cryophilic high-cold desert zone of northwestern Tibet. Among these the boundary between the moist meadow and forest zones and the semiarid steppe zone corresponds approximately to the annual isohyet of 400 mm in the north and of 500 mm in the Tsangpo River Valley. The aridity index at this limit is about 1.0. The limit between the semiarid steppe zone and very arid desert zone corresponds approximately to the 100 mm isohyet and an aridity index of 3.5. The particular features of the atmospheric circulation above the Plateau have a major effect on these climatic conditions. With the uplift of the mountains during the Quaternary, the Tibetan Plateau became a “hot island” in the troposphere, impeding atmospheric circulations and bringing about significant changes in climate and vegetation both on the Plateau and in surrounding areas. The uplift disrupted the planetary wind system resulting from the Earth’s rotation and changed atmospheric circulation resulting from the temperature effects caused by the heating of the

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Plateau. Anomalous patterns thus caused are the Tibetan Highland which forms at high elevations on the Plateau; the Mongolian-Siberian anticyclone, which develops to the north in the winter; and the summer Southwest Monsoon in the south. The climate of the Plateau, then, is largely controlled by a strong high-pressure center with continental climate characteristics. It is also strongly influenced by two other major circulations: the tropical maritime Southwest Monsoon coming from the Indian Ocean which drenches the southeastern part of Tibet in the summer but rapidly weakens toward the inner reaches of the Plateau and the westerlies which control the climate of the Plateau during the winter (Chang 1981). The southeastern mountains of Tibet, including the southern slopes of the Eastern Himalaya and the southern part of the Traverse Mountain Ranges (Hengduan Mountains), face the humid Southwest Monsoon in summer and receive abundant rainfall. Even in winter, there is a warm and moist region of convergence with low pressure and high precipitation. Due to the protection afforded by the northern mountains and the Plateau, the influences of the dry west wind and northern cold current are minimal. The humid Southwest Monsoon may extend along valleys of the Tsangpo River and the Three Rivers (Nu, Lancang, and Jinsha) into the southeastern part of the Plateau. Luxuriant montane forest vegetation grows in those parts of Tibet which are influenced by the humid maritime monsoon. Forest vegetation occurs in peripheral valleys and on the southern slopes of the Plateau, but it is never found on the level of the Plateau itself with its cold continental climate (Chang 1981).

Ecoregions The Eastern Himalaya is among the 234 globally outstanding ecoregions of the world, according to a comprehensive analysis of global biodiversity by the World Wildlife Fund. Bhutan is also an exclusive biodiversity hotspot in the world where forest coverage has increased to 72% of the country’s total area. It has six major agro-ecological zones equivalent to certain altitudinal ranges and climatic environments: alpine, cool temperate, warm temperate, dry subtropical, humid subtropical, and wet subtropical. The country is gifted with large forest coverage of 70.46% of the total land area. Bhutan is also unique for its conservation policy and its varied altitudinal and climatic range. The country can be broadly divided into the following three zones: (i) alpine zone (4000 m and above, Fig. 28) with no forest cover, (ii) temperate zone (2000–4000 m) with conifer or broadleaf forests (Figs. 29 and 30), and (iii) subtropical zone (150–2000 m) with tropical/subtropical environment. The forest types include fir, mixed conifer, blue pine forest, chir pine, broadleaf with conifer, highland hardwood, lowland hardwood, and tropical lowland forests (Banerjee and Bandopadhyay 2016) (Figs. 28, 29, and 30). The vegetation of the Tibetan Plateau also cannot be considered to belong to the mountain vertical zonal vegetation. The Plateau vegetation shows the following characteristics in zonation, ecological conditions, and vegetation physiognomies which are very different from the general mountain vegetation. The vegetation

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Fig. 28 Alpine lake, Nepal. (Photo R.E. Hart)

Fig. 29 Coniferous forest zone, Bumthang, Bhutan. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

zones on the mountains surrounding the Plateau fit into the mountain vertical zonal scheme, yet the main zonal differences in the vegetation on the Plateau are not caused by differences in elevation but by horizontal gradients in moisture and temperature conditions. Nevertheless, the altitudinal variations do introduce further

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Fig. 30 Over-aged coniferous forest, Bhutan. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

modifications. The widths of the vegetation zones on the Plateau are much greater than those of mountain vegetation zones. Mountain vertical vegetation zones are known for their narrow width, rapid transition, extensive fragmentation, and complex interdigitation of their vegetation types. These characteristics are due to the complex relief of mountains. The vegetation zones on the Plateau are horizontally extensive; they are usually several hundred kilometers wide. They also have more internal continuity and uniformity and more gradual transitions than mountain vegetation zones. In these respects, at least, the zonation of plateau vegetation is similar to the usual horizontal lowland vegetational zonation (Chang 1981).

Vegetation and Flora The region includes the mountain forests along the southeastern periphery of Tibet and the southern slopes of the Himalayas. To the east, it contacts the subtropical montane forests in western Sichuan and northern Yunnan. To the west, it connects with the tropical montane forests of Bhutan, Sikkim, Nepal, and western India on the southern slopes of the Himalayas. Wherever there are high mountains and gorges in the area, they are watered by the Southwest Monsoon. The major components of the vegetation are the Indo-Malayan floral element and the Sino-Himalayan floral element of Eastern Asia. If the main ridge of the Himalayas is viewed as a limit between tropical and subtropical zones, then this region may be divided into two montane forest zones (Chang 1981).

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Tropical Montane Forest Zone of the Himalayan Southern Slope The southern slope of the Eastern Himalaya faces the Southwest Monsoon and receives abundant rainfall. Its annual rainfall generally exceeds 2500 mm. The mean annual temperature on the lower mountains exceeds 20 °C. Although there is a relatively dry season of 2–3 months (during which monthly rainfall is less than 100 mm), the area is always fog-bound in these months which keeps the air moist. The range in elevation in this narrow area is more than 7000 m (from 200 to 7765 m). Consequently, one of the most complex and perfect systems of mountain vertical vegetation zones on earth has developed on its slopes, with tropical montane rain forest in the basal zone. The vertical vegetation zonal spectrum is as follows. The tropical lower montane rain forest and semievergreen forest zone includes the lower mountains and hills, below 1100 m, in the Eastern Himalaya. The luxuriant tropical rain forest in the valleys consists mainly of Dipterocarpus turbinatus, Mesua ferrea, Canarium resiniferum, Artocarpus chaplasha, Tetrameles nudiflora, Dillenia indica, and Talauma phelocarpa. Most of these are evergreen trees belonging to the Indo-Malayan floral element. Some of them have prominent tropical characteristics such as plank buttresses on roots and cauliflory. Lianas (Dendrocalamus hamiltonii, Calamus spp.) and epiphytes are abundant in these forests. Usually Bambusa pallida is found in the understory, and Pandanus furcatus is present in gaps. On the slopes of the lower mountains, 600–1000 m, there are tropical montane semi-evergreen forests mainly consisting of semi-deciduous gigantic trees, such as Dysoxylum gobara, Terminalia myriocarpa, and Altingia excelsa, and luxuriant lower tropical evergreen trees (e.g., Beilschmiedia, Cinnamomum). Lianas and epiphytes are also abundant (Chang 1981). The montane evergreen broadleaf forest zone lies at elevations between 1100 and 2200 m and can be divided into upper and lower parts. The lower subzone is dominated by Castanopsis hystrix and C. indica and is mixed with many tropical evergreen broadleaf trees, such as Machilus, Machilia, Cinnamomum, and Phoebe, belonging to the Lauraceae, and Magnolia, Engelhardtia spicata, and Schima wallichii. The forests of the upper subzone consist mainly of Quercus lamellosa, Quercus glauca var. gracilis, and Lithocarpus xylocarpus. In addition to some further species of evergreen broadleaf trees, deciduous trees are increasingly common. These include Acer spp., Alnus nepalensis, Mallotus nepalensis, Carpinus viminea, and the arborescent Rhododendron. The zone of the montane evergreen broadleaf forest is very humid, with annual rainfall that may exceed 3000 mm. Trunks of trees and the ground are often fully covered by thick mosses. It can be called a “mossy forest,” but it differs from the low “elfin” forests and the mossy forests in other tropical mountains in its much taller trees (Chang 1981). The montane mixed coniferous and broadleaf forest zone is between 2200 and 2800 m and is dominated by Tsuga dumosa, which sometimes mixes with Quercus pachyphylla and Quercus lamellosa to form mixed evergreens, coniferous, and broadleaf forests. Also present are Taxus baccata, Magnolia campbellii, Acer campbellii, Acer pectinatum, and Rhododendron spp. Arundinaria griffithii often is present in the understory, and ferns are very abundant in ground herbaceous layers (Fig. 27).

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The upper montane dark coniferous forest is located between 2800 and 3600 (up to 3900) m. The climate is wet, cold, and always foggy. The vegetation is dominated by Abies delavayi var. motuoensis and has a large amount of Rhododendron spp. and Sinarundinaria as understory. Larix griffithii often is present on open ground and Betula utilis “krummholz” at the upper forest line. The subalpine Rhododendron shrubland and meadow zone is situated between 3600 (3900) and 4000 (4200) m and transition from forests to the alpine zone. The luxuriant subalpine shrubland consists especially of Rhododendron campanulatum, Rhododendron barbatum, Rhododendron lepidotum, and others, with deciduous shrubs such as Salix, Rosa, Cotoneaster, Viburnum, and Lonicera, and interspersed luxuriant forb meadows (Chang 1981). The alpine scrub and meadow zone is between 4000 (4200) and 4600 m. The alpine dense scrub consists of lower Rhododendron setosum and Rhododendron nivale. The alpine meadow contains abundant species of colorful forbs. Most of them belong to the Sino-Himalayan floral element. Because the seasonal changes are great, and in the winter there is a thick snow deposit on the alpine zone of the Himalayas, the alpine vegetation there does not have tropical characteristics and belongs to subtropical or temperate types. West of Bhutan, the climate of the Himalayas becomes progressively drier, and there is a well-developed arid season. The tropical monsoon forest consists of deciduous Shorea robusta instead of the tropical rain forest on the lower hills. In the upper montane coniferous zone, the more drought-resistant Picea smithiana and Larix griffithii occur. In the alpine zone, the eastern Himalayan forb meadow is replaced by a Kobresia meadow (Chang 1981).

Subtropical Montane Coniferous Forest Zone of Southeastern Tibet The zone includes mountains and valleys along the middle reaches of the Tsangpo (Brahmaputra) River, its tributaries (Niyan, Yegongqu, and Polong-Tsangpo), and three eastern rivers (Nu, Lancang, and Jinsha). These rivers cut deeply into the southeastern part of the Plateau. The humid Southwest Monsoon passes through their valleys and penetrates into this corner of the Plateau. The dense forest vegetation is distributed correspondingly on the valley slopes. The rainfall is obviously less than that on the southern slopes of the Himalayas, varying between 500 and 1000 mm. Northward along the upper rivers onto the inner part of the Plateau, the forest vegetation becomes sparse and vanishes as a consequence of decreasing moisture. The lowest elevation in this area is above 2000 m, and the basic topography is of mountains and valleys (the Plateau has been strongly eroded, and only fragments of the original surface remain). The vegetation belongs to the montane vertical-zoned types. Subtropical evergreen broadleaf forests, which are distributed widely along the eastern periphery of the Plateau (Western Sichuan and Northern Yunnan), occur in only a very limited region in Tibet: the Tongmai Valley to the north of the great curvature of the Tsangpo River which is reached by humid and hot air currents and supports subtropical evergreen broadleaf forests between 2000 and 2500 m. These

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forests consist mainly of oaks (Quercus incana and Quercus gilliana) and contain abundant subtropical Eastern Asian floral elements. Because the elevation of most valleys in this region exceeds 2500 m, the subtropical broadleaf zone usually is not present here (Chang 1981). From 2500 to 3200 m, there is a lower montane mixed coniferous and broadleaf forest zone or coniferous forest zone. On southern slopes, it is composed of forests of Pinus densa, Quercus aquifolioides, or mixed forest of both species. Forests of Pinus armandii exist where it is more humid. On northern slopes, forests composed mainly of Picea balfouriana (in the eastern part) or Picea likiangensis var. linzhiensis (in the western part) extend from 2500 to 3200 m. Usually this is the basic subzone of the upper montane dark coniferous forest zone. The biomass of this spruce forest is immense. The height of trees may be more than 60 m, and the timber volume can reach over 1500 m3/ha. Under spruce forest canopies, there is abundant undergrowth: Enkianthus deflexus, Lindera cercidifolia, Litsea cubeba, Acer campbellii, Rhus succedanea, Deutzia corymbosa, Rhododendron spp., and Sinarundinaria spathiflora. The moss layer is very well developed (Chang 1981). From 3200 to 4000 m or somewhat higher, there is a dark-colored coniferous forest zone consisting of Abies delavayi (in the eastern part, Fig. 31) or Abies spectabilis (in the western part). The most common undergrowth species are Rhododendron houlstani, Rhododendron przewalskii, Sorbus spp., Rosa omeiensis, Lonicera succata, Deutzia corymbosa, and Sinarundinaria spathiflora. Most of these undergrowth and herb species in the coniferous forests belong to Eastern Asian floral elements (Sino-Himalayan element). Some boreal elements (Vaccinium spp., Bergenia, Chamaenerion angustifolium, Circaea alpina, Fragaria vesca, Polygonum viviparum, Thalictrum alpinum, especially, and some mosses) appear in the upper montane forest regions, and the subtropical evergreen broadleaf forest floral element dominates in the lower montane regions (Chang 1981) (Fig. 31). In the northern part of this forest region, the climate becomes drier and colder. In the upper part, particularly on southern slopes, the forests are often composed of Juniperus tibetica and Juniperus convallium. Their upper limits reach 4300 or even 4600 m. On the western edge of this region where the forest vegetation changes gradually to steppe, the humid dark coniferous forest zone disappears, and a sparse coniferous forest of Cupressus gigantea is present and merges into steppe vegetation (Chang 1981). The transitional alpine vegetation above treeline is low Rhododendron scrub (Rhododendron ramosissimum, Rhododendron nivale, Rhododendron anthopogon) on northern slopes and Cassiope fastigiata scrub on southern slopes. The alpine meadow which consists mainly of Kobresia angusta and Kobresia pygmaea occupies higher areas above the scrub vegetation. Some alpine herbs are often present in the meadow, among them Polygonum viviparum, Anaphalis nepalensis, Gentiana spp., Meconopsis horridula, Oxygraphis polypetala, and Thalictrum alpinum. In the hot and dry valleys of the Three Rivers, the coniferous forest vegetation is distributed only on upper slopes, whereas the valley bottoms are occupied by xeric thorny scrub which consists mainly of Sophora vicinijolia and Elsholtzia capituligera, sometimes with cacti (introduced Opuntia) (Chang 1981).

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Fig. 31 Mixed Abies-Rhododendron forest, Yunnan, China. (Photo R.E. Hart)

The High-Cold Vegetation Region The extensive plateau between the Himalayan and Kunlun Mountain ranges has relatively low mountains, platform plateaus, and lake and valley basins. The elevation of the main plateau level is about 500 m in the southeast and over 5000 m in the northwest. Some valleys in the south may extend down to approximately 3000 m. The Plateau is controlled by the Westerlies in the winter half of the year and has an arid, cold, and continental climate. From east to west, with increasing drought, the high-cold meadow, steppe, and desert vegetation occur in sequence. The flora of the eastern meadow zones is dominated by Tibetan endemic species and SinoHimalayan elements. The flora of the central and western steppe and desert zones is dominated by Central Asiatic (Tethys) elements and Tibetan endemic species (Chang 1981).

Naqu¨ (Eastern Tibet) High-Cold Meadow and Scrub Plateau Zone The elevation of the Plateau in eastern Tibet is approximately 4000–4500 m. Although the landscape is more eroded here than in western Tibet, it remains a prominent and relatively complete plateau plain. The climate is cold and somewhat moist. The annual mean temperature is between 3.0 °C and 0 °C. The mean temperature of the warmest month is 8–10 (12)°C and the frostless season from 20 to 100 days. The annual rainfall is 400–700 mm. There are thunderstorms with hailstones in the summer and relatively abundant snow accumulation in the winter

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and spring. Judged by its vertical zones, vegetation of this Plateau zone seems much like an extension of the upper part of the preceding mountain forest zonation onto the Plateau. In the valleys of its southeastern part, fragmentary coniferous forests persist. On the Plateau proper, there is extensive high-cold meadow which consists mainly of low-growing Kobresia pygmaea and Kobresia humilis, usually associated with Polygonum sphaerostachyum and other forbs, including Thalictrum alpinum, Anaphalis xylorrhiza, Leontopodium pusillum, Carex atrata var. glacialis, Meconopsis horridula, Polygonum viviparum, Potentilla stenophylla, Pedicularis, and Gentiana, and cushion plants such as Arenaria musciformis and Androsace tapete. High-cold evergreen sclerophyllous scrubs, composed of microphyllous Rhododendron cephalanthus and Rhododendron setosum on northern slopes, and deciduous shrubs of Salix spp., Potentilla fruticosa, and Caragana jubata in valleys or on southern slopes are always found in conjunction with the high-cold meadow. In level areas and swampy valleys, there occur high-cold swampy meadows with a mound-like growth form of Kobresia littledalei. Westward, as the climate becomes drier, the importance of mesic forbs decreases gradually, leaving almost pure Kobresia meadow. Finally, some steppe species appear in the community, and the Rhododendron scrub disappears to be replaced by Juniperus spp. on the inner Plateau (Chang 1981). The high-cold Kobresia meadows differ in floristic composition, community structure, and other ecological features from the humid dicotyledonous alpine meadows of the Alps or other moist-temperate mountains and the alpine tundra of higher latitudes. This vegetation is referred to as Tibetan high-cold meadow. It has evolved under drier and harsher high mountain and plateau conditions with continental climates. By its ecological features and phytogeographic situation, Kobresia meadows appear to be a transitional or intermediate type between cryo-mesic alpine meadow and cryo-xeric high-cold steppe. They develop a compact tussock physiognomy and have a series of typical mesic meadow species, but its dominant, Kobresia, has xeromorphic characteristics and contains some xeric steppe species. In fact, the Kobresia meadow zone is situated between the humid alpine meadow and mountain forest vegetation zone in the east and the arid high-cold steppe plateau zone in the west. The range of Kobresia meadow is mainly the Tibetan Plateau and its surrounding mountain regions such as the Pamir, Kunlun, Tian Shan, Qilian, Altai, Hangai, and Traverse Mountains, northward to the Ural and Caucasus. Most species of Kobresia belong to SinoHimalayan elements endemic to Tibet and Central Asia (Chang 1981).

Tsangpo (Upper Brahmaputra) Valley Xeric Shrubland and Steppe Plateau Zone The Tsangpo Valley, located between the northern piedmont of the Himalayas and Nyenchen Tanglha and Gangdisi Mountains, is a subduction zone at the margin of two continental plates. It extends east-west through the south section of the Plateau. Its altitude increases westward from 3500 m to 4500 m. Because of the rain shadow

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effect of the Himalayas, annual precipitation is generally between 300 and 500 mm and decreases gradually. Above about 4400 m, the slope vegetation changes from mesothermal steppe to high-cold steppe which is dominated by Stipa purpurea. The shrubland vegetation of Potentilla fruticosa, Lonicera tibetica (in the east), and Caragana versicolor (in the west) occurs widely in this range in conjunction with the steppe communities. On the southern slopes of the Gangdisi and Nyenchen Tanglha ranges, there are extensive Juniperus shrubland communities in the steppe zone (Chang 1981). From 4600 to 5400 m in the east and 5000 to 5600 m in the west, the mountains and plateaus are occupied by high-cold meadow and cushion plant vegetation. These are composed mainly of Kobresia pygmaea and the cushion plants Arenaria musciformis, Androsace tapete, and Oxytropis chiliophylla. The Kobresia meadow usually occupies relatively flat or gentle, stable slopes with rather well-developed soil. On the steep or rocky slopes, there is sparse cushion plant vegetation. The latter extends down into the lower steppe zone and forms a special cushion plantsteppe vegetation type there (Chang 1981). Above 5400 (5600) m and to approximately 6000 m, there is a subnival zone where sparse alpine forbs (Saussurea, Saxifraga, Gentiana, Draba, Braya, Androsace, Potentilla) grow in rock fractures and on slopes of rock debris. The surfaces of rocks are covered with lichens (e.g., Rhizocarpon geographicum, Glypholecia scabra, Caloplaca elegans, Parmelia conspersa). The nival zone begins between 5800 and 6200 m. Along the western edge of the valley steppe region, in the Pulan Valley and the basin of Mafamutso and Langaktso lakes, the climate and vegetation tend toward desert. Mountain desert-steppe vegetation consisting of Stipa glareosa and Ceratoides latam occurs there and is characteristic of the transition from steppe plateau zone to desert plateau zone (Chang 1981).

Chiangtang (Northern Tibet) High-Cold Steppe Plateau Zone Chiangtang extends between the Gangdisi, Nyenchen Tanglha, and Kunlun ranges. It is a whole plate which uplifted at the end of the Tertiary and is a landform consisting of a plateau basin of gently undulating plains with abundant scattered lakes. The level of the plateau rises gradually from 4500 m in the south to 5200 m in the north. The climate is cold, arid, and quite windy. The mean annual temperature ranges between 2 °C and 0 °C; the mean temperature of the warmest month ranges between 6 °C and 10 (12)°C. During 6–7 months, the mean temperatures remain below 0 °C. The temperature is much lower northward, and continuous permafrost is widespread. The diurnal and annual temperature ranges are very high. The annual precipitation varies between 100 and 300 mm concentrated in the summer and decreasing from southeast to northwest (Chang 1981). The most extensive vegetation zone on the plateau is the steppe of Stipa purpurea, the center of distribution for which is the Chiangtang Plateau. The typical high-cold steppe community of purple feathergrass is rather sparse, with plant coverage never more than 20%. Usually there are some cushion plants (Arenaria

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musciformis, Androsace tapete, Thylacospermum rupifragum) in the community. On different parts of the Chiangtang Plateau, the high-cold steppe of purple feathergrass shows some prominent ecological differentiation. Along the east and southeast periphery of Chiangtang, there is a transitional section between the high-cold meadow zone and the highcold steppe zone. There, Kobresia pygmaea and some mesic forbs occur in the steppe communities, and the plant cover in general is somewhat more complete. Northward, since the altitude increases, the climate becomes colder and drier, and the vegetation gradually changes to high-cold desert; Carex moorcroftii becomes more important with increasing altitude. Finally, the high-cold desertsteppe of Carex moorcroftii and Ceratoides compacta is dominant in the northernmost part of Chiangtang. Conversely, in the southern part of Chiangtang, since the climate is a little warmer and moister, some mesothermal plant elements (e.g., Orinus thoroldii, Pennisetum flaccidum, Artemisia wellbyi, the shrub Caragana vmicolor) are present. Westward, as the climate becomes drier and warmer, in large lake basins are found steppes of Stipa glareosa (of the desertsteppe flora of Central Asia) and Stipa subsessiliflora var. basiplumosa. Here, the steppe vegetation is transitional toward desert. However, the plain and the lower mountains of the Plateau are still dominated by the steppe vegetation of purple feathergrass (Chang 1981).

Western Ali Mountain Desert Plateau Zone On the western edge of Tibet, between the northwestern Himalaya and Karakoram ranges, there is a series of mountains and valleys called the Ali region. The elevation of the valleys is 3000 m in the south and 4300 m in the north. This region experiences the driest climate in Tibet. The center of the summer thermal low of Tibet is located here, and this is also the hottest region on the Plateau. The July mean temperature is 15 °C but may be as low as 10 °C in the winter. The annual precipitation is no more than 50–75 mm. The aridity is in the range of 3.4–6, with a drought period of between 5 and 6 months during the growing season. Therefore, this region has a cold temperate steppe-desert or desert climate (Chang 1981). The plateau zonal vegetation is a desert community which consists of suffrutescent Ceratoides latens (Tethys flora), Ajania fruticulosa (Central Asiatic flora), and the endemic perennial Christoka crassifolia. The driest core of desert is in the Bangong Mountains and the Chiangchenmo Mountains which surround Bangong Tso and Spangul Tso in the northwestern part of the region. This is a region of rocky desert with almost no vegetation; there is only a very sparse growth of Ceratoides latens. Above 4500 m, some feathergrasses (Stipa glareosa, Stipa subsessiliflora, Stipa breviflora) enter the desert community with Ceratoides latens, changing the vegetation to steppe-desert, and this community extends up to 5200 m on Mount Chiangchenmo. This may be the world’s highest desert. In south Ali, the climate is a little more humid. The Shiquanhe (lndus) River Valley, Ge’erqu River Valley, Xiangquanhe (Sutlej) River Valley, and the surrounding lower mountains are occupied by mountain steppe-desert vegetation which consists mainly of Ceratoides

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latens, Ajania fruticulosa, Stipa glareosa, and some xeric shrubs (Ephedra gerardiana and Caragana versicolor). The desert community develops vigorously there because of relatively abundant snowfall in the winter and the spring. Some ephemeral plants (Tauscheria lasiocarpa, Koelpinia linearis) are present in the desert (Chang 1981). In the southwestern comer of Ali, where the Xiangquanhe Valley falls to 2900 m, the climate is warmer. Some Mediterranean subtropical elements, such as Colutea arborescens, are present there. The dominants of the desert vegetation are species with more Tethystic and Central Asiatic affinities such as Artemisia salsoloides, Artemisia sacrorum, Scorzonera, Ceratoides latens, Capparis spinosa, Kochia, Polygonum paronychioides, and Stipa stapfii. These reflect a change toward the subtropical desert in the Kashmir Valley. The vertical zonation of mountain vegetation in western Ali has a spectrum of desert types, too. The structure of the vertical zones is as follows: desert or steppe-desert zone (basic zone), giving way to steppe zone, giving way to high-cold cushion plant vegetation zone, finally yielding to the subnival zone (Chang 1981). The mountain steppe zone can be divided into two or three subzones. The lower one is a desert-steppe subzone, which is mainly composed of Stipa glareosa and Ceratoides latens, the former being the dominant. The intermediate subzone exists only in southern mountains of the area and is formed by the conjunction of mountain shrublands (consisting of Caragana versicolor) and steppe communities (the dominants are Stipa glareosa, Stipa breviflora, and Stipa purpurea). The upper subzone is a high-cold steppe subzone which consists of Stipa purpurea and Carex moorcroftii. North of about latitude 33° in Ali, the shrubland of Caragana versicolor disappears, leaving the steppe zone with only the two other subzones (Chang 1981). The high mountains of Ali usually lack alpine meadows except for some isolated patches under moist conditions. The typical high mountain vegetation there is of sparse cushion plants, mainly Arenaria musciformis and Thylacospermum caespitosum. The upper vegetation line reaches almost to 5600 or 5700 m. The upper limit of the agricultural cultivation is also very high. On the southern slopes of the Karakoram Range at latitude 34°, bare barley is grown to 4780 m and can be harvested in most years (Chang 1981).

Northwestern Tibetan High-Cold Desert Plateau Zone The northwestern part of the Chiangtang Plateau is located between the Kunlun and Karakoram ranges. The elevation of the Plateau and lake basins is over 5000 m. Here is the coldest and driest climate of the Plateau. The mean annual temperature is about 8 to 1 0 °C. There are 9–10 months in which the mean monthly temperature is lower than 0 °C, with no frostless season in the year. Even in the warmest part of the year, there are heavy frosts every night, and an extensive permafrost horizon generally exists there. The annual and diurnal temperature ranges are rather high. The mean annual precipitation is only 20–50 mm, all in frozen forms. Eastward, the precipitation is somewhat greater, about 100–150 mm. The wind is very strong and

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frequent (Chang 1981). Because of the extremely severe ecological conditions and the shorter history of vegetation development after the uplift of the Plateau, the vegetation is very sparse and rather poor in species. Usually one is presented with a vast expanse of plateau gravel or Gobi without plants or many bare rocky slopes and hilltops. The plateau zonal vegetation is sparse high-cold desert, which has evolved during the time since the Plateau was uplifted. It is composed of cryophytic-xeric cushion-like nano-suffruticose Ceratoides compacta. These plants exist on debris or gravel slopes and especially on vast ancient lake plains formed by lake sediments. The soil contains high concentrations of salt and has permafrost. The salt in the soil may be due to the evaporation of an ancient salt lake, coupled with the low precipitation which causes continual salt accumulation (Chang 1981). Very low temperatures, very short or non-existent growing season, severe drought, high wind, and barren, rocky, and salty soil are typical ecological conditions for the high-cold desert plateau zone. The plant coverage of a high-cold desert community of Ceratoides compacta usually is never more than 8% and often as little as 1–2%. Companion species are very few (Pegeophyton scapiflorum, Hedinia tibetica). The only woody plant in the highcold desert zone is Myricaria hedinii, which grows along riverbeds. Its branches and trunks are entirely underground, and only its branchlets with small leaves are exposed on the ground surface. This plant forms a dense cushion, no more than 1 cm above the ground (Chang 1981). Eastward from longitude 80° on the Plateau, the highcold desert vegetation prevails. The wide lake plain is occupied by high-cold desert of Ceratoides compacta, but the piedmont slopes and steppes are covered by high-cold desert-steppe which is dominated by Carex moorcroftii with some Ceratoides compacta. The vegetation on the mountainsides on both sides of the lake plain is more vigorous than on the plain itself. This may be caused by a persistent temperature inversion. The structure of the vertical zonal spectrum is very simple. Above the basic vegetation zone of high-cold desert and desert-steppe, there is a narrow zone of high-cold steppe consisting of Carex moorcroftii. Its vertical range is not wider than 200 m and its upper limit is at 5300 m. Above this, a subnival zone with some sparse alpine herbs (such as Saussurea gnaphalodes, Melandrium apetalum, and cushion plants) is found. The snowline lies between 6000 and 6200 m (Chang 1981).

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Part II Plants

Abies pindrow (Royle ex D. Don.) Royle Abies spectabilis (D. Don) Spach PINACEAE Achyut Tiwari, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Wahid Hussain, and Arshad Mehmood Abbasi

Synonyms Abies pindrow (Royle ex D. Don.) Royle: Abies webbiana var. pindrow (Royle ex D. Don) Brandis; Pinus pindrow Royle ex. D. Don Abies spectabilis (D. Don) Spach: Abies webbiana (Wall. ex D. Don) Lindl; Pinus scpectabilis D. Don; Pinus webbiana Wall. ex D. Don

A. Tiwari Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_6

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Local Names Abies pindrow: Pashto: Bejoor; Jammu and Kashmir: Raga Abies spectabilis: Jammu and Kashmir: Morinda; Gurung: Kye; English: Himalayan Silver Fir; Hindi: Kandamorinda, Morinda, Raga, Talispatra, Talispatri, Tapispatra, Ttosh, Rai, Span, talispatra; Malayalam: Talisapatram, Taleesaptram; Nepali: Talispatra, Gobre Salla; Sanskrit: Talisam, Talisapatra, Talisapatram, Dhatripatra, Manduparani, Sukodara, Talisa, Talisapatradya; Sherpa: Thaasing; Tamil: Talisapatri, talispatri; Telugu: Thaalespathri, Talispatri; Tibetan: ba-lu; Urdu: talispatar, zarnab.

Botany and Ecology Abies pindrow: Trees up to 30 m tall or more, with a narrow pyramidal shape. Bark fissured, light gray to brown. Leaves spiral, 2–4 cm long, upper surface grooved, dark green, shiny. Male cones 1–2 cm long, axillary, ellipsoid, reddish-green; microsporophyll with 2 linear sporangia; microspores winged. Female cones 8– 12 cm long, solitary or in pairs, narrowly oblong, violet-purple; megasporophyll obovate, 2 cm long. Seeds 1–1.2 cm long; wing twice as long as the seed. “Silver fir” is common and gregarious in the Himalaya up to 3100 m, usually on the North aspect. Cones ripen in September. E. Afghanistan, Himalaya eastward to W. Nepal (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020; Kunwar et al. 2015, 2018a, b, 2019, 2020). The species is endangered due to habitat loss and harvesting (Ahmad Jan et al. 2019; Aumeeruddy-Thomas et al. 2004) (Figs. 1 and 2). Abies spectabilis: Trees to 50 m tall; trunk to more than 1.5 m diameter; bark rough, scaly; branchlets yellowish gray, brown, or reddish brown, furrowed, pubescent or glabrous, densely leafy; winter buds globose or ovoid, resinous. Leaves ascending on upper side of cone-bearing branchlets, pectinately arranged in 2 lateral sets on young and vegetative branchlets, bright green adaxially, linear, 2–6 cm  2–2.5 mm, stomatal lines in 2 white bands abaxially, resin canals 2, marginal, apex emarginate or 2-cleft. Seed cones dark purple, maturing to dark brown or blue-brown with a little purple, cylindric, 8.5–20  4.5–7.5 cm. Seed scales at middle of cones flabellatetrapeziform, 2.3–2.8  2.8–3.4 cm, margin auriculate and thin laterally. Bracts included spatulate, 1/3–1/2 as long as seed scales, apex with an acute, short cusp. Seeds about 1 cm; wing broadly cuneate, longer than seeds, apex truncate (Mulk Khan et al. 2014; O’Neill et al. 2017; Wu et al. 1994–2013, Yadav et al. 2004). It has been suggested to ban export in Nepal top reduce harvest pressure (Gurung and W. Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan e-mail: [email protected] A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan e-mail: [email protected]

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Fig. 1 Abies pindrow (Pinaceae) branch, Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

Fig. 2 Abies pindrow (Pinaceae) cones and size comparison by the author, Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

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Fig. 3 Abies spectabilis (Pinaceae) plant, Nepal. (Photo Achyut Tiwari)

Pyakurel 2017). Press et al. (2000) reported four species: Abies densa Griff. ex Parker, Abies pindrow Royle, Abies spectabilis (D. Don) Mirb., and Abies spectabilis var. langtanensis Silba from the Nepal Himalaya; however, there still exists the chances of more varieties in the Himalaya (Figs. 3 and 4). Abies spectabilis is the dominant tree in the forests of the central and western Himalaya, especially from 3000 to 4000 m, with occasional occurrences on ridges below this height. It needs cool moist conditions at the roots, thus growing better on north facing slopes and often giving way to grass or shrubs on south facing ones. This species is found in Afghanistan (Hindu Kush), Pakistan (Karakoram Range), China (West Tibet), India (Kashmir Himalaya), and Nepal (from the MilkeDanda ridge westwards). It commonly occurs as a canopy dominant species in very wet forest, accompanied by species of Rhododendron including R. campanulatum, R. lepidotum, and R. anthopogon, as well as Betula utilis (Yadav et al. 2004, Chhetri 2008), and at lower elevations associated with Pinus wallichiana (Tiwari et al. 2017). Abies spectabilis trees reach up to 50 m in height and form extensive forests on the wet, south-facing slopes of the Himalayas. The canopy is dense, and the understory is open with lots of mosses on the forest floor. In the wettest valleys the trees are festooned with gray Usnea lichen, which hangs from the branches. It is a mountain species,

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Fig. 4 Abies spectabilis (Pinaceae) habitat where the plant grows luxuriantly, Nepal. (Photo Achyut Tiwari)

where it is usually the dominant species favoring the cooler soil of north-facing slopes, at elevations from 2700 to 3900 m (DPR 1993). A. spectabilis is the most intensively studied tree species in dendrochronological studies from central Himalaya, ranging from growth climate relationship, climate reconstruction, stable isotope studies of tree rings, and studying treeline dynamics in Nepal Himalaya (Schmidit et al. 1999; Sano et al. 2002; Yasue et al. 2002; Khanal and Rijal 2002), thus showing great potentiality of this species in dendro science. In many locations A. spectabilis forests in Nepal have been found to be extending its closed canopy and upper treeline forest to higher elevations in response to climate change (Tiwari et al. 2017; Sigdel et al. 2018). A. spectabilis is an important constituent of cool-moist upper temperate to subalpine forests and treeline in Himalaya extending from Afghanistan to the eastern parts of India (Sahni 1990). A. spectabilis used to include Abies densa Griff. in the past, but this is now treated as a distinct species here. This species is closely related to Abies pindrow and may be no more than a high-altitude form of that species (Zheng and Fu 1978). Although the species is very widespread, its conservation status has been assessed as “Near Threatened” because it has suffered a population decline of about 25% in recent times. Rampant logging is a major cause in declining population. Himalayan silver fir oil also popularly known as Abies oil is extracted by steam distillation of the needles and young twigs of Abies spectabilis (D. Don) Mirb., responsibly harvested

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from the Himalayan forests of Nepal. The plant is classified as “Near Threatened” in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (2013). Abies spectabilis forests have suffered severe depletion, especially at the lower elevations, from logging and deforestation. A population decline of approximately 25% over the past three generation has occurred. This tree is therefore listed as Near Threatened approaching Vulnerable A2 (Zhang et al. 2011). Logging has been the principal threat with declines of up to 30% reported from some areas. The development of tourist infrastructure to support trekking and climbing industries has been, and still is one of the drivers for the decline. It is included in some nature reserves in Nepal and India. Greater regulation of infrastructure development is also required and has been initiated in some areas where tourism is increasing (Byers 2014).

Phytochemistry Major components include Î-pinene, limonene, Î2-pinene, cam-phene, bornyl acetate, and carvone. Plants of this genus show high diversity in their secondary metabolites as well as pharmacological effects (Yang et al. 2008). Previous reports mentioned the occurrence of a unique sesquiterpenoid, a novel biflavanol, some diterpenoids, norditerpenoids, triterpenoids, and other compounds from three different Abies plants of A. georgei, A. delabayi, and A. chensiensis (Wu et al. 2010; Yang et al. 2008). The phytochemical study has isolated 3 new and 69 known chemical components from A. spectabilis, along with the cytotoxic activities of all three new compounds against four tumor cell lines.

Local Medicinal Uses Abies pindrow: Bark extract used for cough and bronchitis (Bhat et al. 2013; Kunwar et al. 2019; Malik et al. 2015), asthma (Muhammad et al. 2019), fever (Malik et al. 2015), and diabetes (Ullah et al. 2019). It is used in Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh for constipation, asthma, astringent, bronchitis, cold, cough, antispasmodic, carminative, expectorant, stomachic, as tonic, cuts, rheumatism, ulcers, and wounds (Gairola et al. 2014). Abies spectabilis: Used for fever and as antiseptic (Singh et al. 2017), for bone fractures (Rajbhandari et al. 2007). The needle oil is valued for colds and nasal congestions. Leaf decoction is used for cough and bronchitis. The plant is considered to be used for asthma, bronchitis, cough, rheumatism, anorexia, abdominal lump, indigestion, and tuberculosis (Kunwar et al. 2010a,b). The dried leaves are also reported to improve digestion and have also been used as an aphrodisiac. Juice from the leaves is taken to treat asthma and bronchitis and is also given to infants suffering from fever and chest infection. The essential oil distilled from the leaves is used for colds, aching joints, and nasal congestion (Chopra et al. 1986; Manandhar 2002). The leaf juice is used in the treatment of asthma, bronchitis (Manandhar 2002; DPR 1993), also for cough (Bhattarai 1989, 1992), bronchitis and respiratory problems (Joshi and Edington 1990; Joshi and Joshi 2009; Uprety et al. 2010; Kunwar et al.

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2010; Malla et al. 2015), as expectorant (Kunwar and Duwadee 2003), as tonic and for tuberculosis (Ghimire and Nepal 2008), and bone fractures (Kunwar et al. 2015; Manandhar 1986; Sacherer 1979). Abies nordmanniana is used to heal eczema and applied to the diseased skin. The species is also used to stop bleeding from a wound. The needles are prepared as tea and to cure tuberculosis and ulcers (Bussmann 2017).

Local Food Uses Abies pindrow: A useful timber tree for building purposes. The wood is used for making matches and paper pulp (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Abies pindrow: Commonly used timber species. Abies spectabilis: Used as timber (Singh et al. 2017). Common fuelwood and timber species, frequently being used in mountainous regions of Nepal. A. spectabilis is used for paper, furniture making, and firewood; the wood is used for construction and thatching roof, and it is also used for fuel and resins (Chopra et al. 1986; Manandhar 2002). The leaves are astringent, carminative, expectorant, stomachic,

Fig. 5 Abies spectabilis (Pinaceae) timbers ready for translocation at Kagbeni Mustang, 2804 m. (Photo A. Tiwari, August 2018)

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Fig. 6 Abies spectabilis (Pinaceae) forest floor after rampant logging at Chimang Mustang, 3300 m. (Photo A. Tiwari, September 2014)

and tonic. This practice is extremely wasteful, as only 10% of the tree can be used for shingles, and the rest would be left to rot. Nowadays it is more common to use corrugated iron for roofs. An essential oil is obtained from the plant, though the report does not give yields or uses. The dried leaves, mixed with other ingredients, are used in making incense. Younger fruits are used for production of dyes (Manandhar 2002; DPR 1993). Also used as incense (Sherpa 2001) (Figs. 5 and 6).

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Acantholimon lycopodioides (Girard) Boiss. PLUMBAGINACEAE Wahid Hussain, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Acantholimon lycopodioides (Girard) Boiss: Statice lycopodioides Girard

Local Names Acantholimon lycopodioides: Trans-Himalaya: Longze; Ladakh: Lonze, Longzey

Botany and Ecology Acantholimon lycopodioides: Shrublets, densely pulvinate. Cushions 30–100 cm wide. Leaf blade glaucous, linear, (1–)1.5–3  0.1–0.2(–0.3) cm, rigid, glabrous, apex shortly awned. Inflorescences unbranched, 3–4(–5) cm, densely pubescent; spikes dense, distichous, with 5–8 spikelets; spikelets 2 or 3 flowered; bracts broadly W. Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_7

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Fig. 1. Acantholimon lycopodioides (Plumbagonaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

ovate, 4–5 mm, pubescence very short; first bractlet 6–7 mm, broadly membranous, pubescence very short, apex with a very short awn. Calyx 6–8 mm, funnelform, tube densely velvety between ribs; limb white with red-purple veins, veins pubescent or glabrescent. Corolla pink to pinkish. Flowering July–August, fruiting August– September (Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Fig. 1).

Local Medicinal Uses Acantholimon lycopodioides: is used to treat cardiac disorders (Gairola et al. 2014; Kala et al. 2005a, b), also used as abortifacient and for muscular pain (Gairola et al. 2014). Acantholimon hohenackeri: A decoction of flowers is used for diarrhea. A decoction of flowers is used for the normalization of blood pressure and in cases of allergy (Mehdiyeva et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Acantholinum hirsutum serves as fodder for livestock (Ari et al. 2015).

References Ari S, Temel M, Kargıoğlu M, Konuk M. Ethnobotanical survey of plants used in AfyonkarahisarTurkey. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2015;11:84. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-015-0067-6. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1) Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86.

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Kala CP. Ethnomedicinal botany of the Apatani in the Eastern Himalayan region of India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2005a;1:11. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-1-11. Kala CP. Indigenous use, population density, and conservation of threatened medicinal plants in protected areas of the Indian Himalayas. Conserv Biol. 2005b;19(2):368–78. Mehdiyeva N, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Acantholimon hohenackeri (Jaub. & Spach) Boiss. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-49412-8_96. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press. 1994–2013.

Achillea millefolium L. ssp. millefolium ASTERACEAE Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Achillea millefolium L. ssp. millefolium: Achillea alpicola (Rydb.) Rydb.; Achillea arenaria A. Heller; Achillea borealis subsp. arenicola (A. Heller) D.D. Keck; Achillea borealis subsp. californica (Pollard) D.D. Keck; Achillea californica Pollard; Achillea gigantea Pollard; Achillea lanulosa Nutt.; Achillea lanulosa subsp. alpicola (Rydb.) D.D. Keck; Achillea lanulosa var. alpicola Rydb.; Achillea laxiflora Pollard & Cockerell; Achillea megacephala Raup; Achillea millefolium subsp. borealis (Bong.) Breitung; Achillea millefolium subsp. occidentalis (DC.) Hyl.; Achillea millefolium var. alpicola (Rydb.) Garrett; Achillea millefolium var. arenicola (A. Heller) Nobs; Achillea millefolium var. asplenifolia (Vent.) Farw.; Achillea millefolium var. borealis (Bong.) Farw.; Achillea millefolium var. californica (Pollard) Jeps.; Achillea millefolium var. gigantea (Pollard) Nobs; Achillea millefolium var. lanulosa (Nutt.) Piper; Achillea millefolium var. litoralis Ehrend. ex Nobs.; Achillea millefolium var. maritima Jeps.; Achillea millefolium var. megacephala B. Boivin; Achillea millefolium var. nigrescens E. Mey.; Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis DC.; Achillea millefolium var. pacifica (Rydb.) H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_8

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G.N. Jones; Achillea millefolium var. puberula (Rydb.) Nobs; Achillea nigrescens (E. Mey.) Rydb.; Achillea occidentalis (DC.) Raf. ex Rydb.; Achillea pecten-veneris Pollard; Achillea puberula Rydb.; Achillea rosea Desf.; Achillea subalpina Greene; Achillea sudetica Opitz; Chamaemelum millefoilum (L.) E.H.L. Krause

Botany and Ecology Achillea millefolium: Perennial. Rhizome slender, creeping, branched; whole plant more or less covered with fine white hairs; stems few or solitary, usually weakly pubescent (finely floccose), (5)20–60(120) cm high, erect or ascending from base, erect, less often flexuous, simple or branched above, cylindrical, finely sulcate, with short leafy branches in axils of upper and middle cauline leaves. Leaves lanceolate, oblong-lanceolate, or almost linear, punctate-alveolate, twice or thrice pinnately cut, with numerous more or less remote segments (1.5–10 mm apart); lower cauline leaves and leaves of nonflowering branches 10–40 cm long, 0.8–5 cm wide, rachis 1–2 mm wide, leaves usually in upper part with solitary teeth between basal segments; lobes and teeth lanceolate, less often linear, 0.5–1.5 mm long, 0.3–0.4 (0.5) mm wide, terminating in short cartilagenous cusp. Capitula in numerous, unequal, compound corymbs, 2–15 cm in dia. Involucre oblong to almost ovoid, 3–4(6) mm long, (2)3–4(5) mm in dia; involucral bracts green, carinate, with prominent midrib, membranous along margin, often brownish; bracts ovate to oblong-elliptical, membranous, floccose above, with scattered hairs on dorsal surface. Ligules of outer florets white, pink, or red. (1)2–4 mm long, 1.5–3.0(4.5) mm wide, more or less rotund, 2- to 3-toothed at apex, limb a half as long as involucre; tubular florets up to 20, glandular-hairy on outside. Flowering July–October. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, on dry forest edges, clearings, in open forests, on dry meadows, slopes, railroad embankments, along roads, on the outskirts of fields (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8).

Phytochemistry Carbohydrates (glucose, galactose, arabinose, inositol), organic acids (aconite, amber), essential oils (azulene, caryophyllene, eucalyptol, borneol, bornylacetate, pinene, limonene, a-thujone, terpineol, aljojoen, cadinene, camphene, camphor, copaene, cumIn aldehyde, cymol, eugenol, farnesene, furfural, gumulene, isoartemisiacetone, isobutyl acetate, limonene, menthol, myrcene, sabinene, a-terpinene, y-terpinene, terpinol-4, terpinolene), sesquiterpenoids (acetoxyartabsin, acetylbalkanolide, achillicine, achilline, austricine, balkhanide, dihydroacetoxytamatcine, hydroxyachilline, leucodine, millefine, millepholide), alkaloids (betaine, choline, trigonelline, achilleine), cyanogenic compounds, steroids (sitosterol, sitosterol acetate), phenolic compounds, tannins, phenolcarbonic acids (salicylic, coffee), coumarins, flavonoids (apigenine, luteoline, cosmosyne, luteoline, artemethine, kasticine, isoramnetine, vitexine, sertizine, orientine, quercetine, isovitoxine, apigenine, isoeryentin, vicenin),

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Fig. 1 Achillea millefolium (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

fatty acids (myristic, palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleicc), coumarins, terpenoids (azulene, geraniol, citral, menton, carvone, a-thuyone, achilline) (Sokolov 1993).

Local Medicinal Uses Achillea millefolium: Used for fever and cold (Gilani et al. 2006), toothache, as tonic, dysentery (Akhtar et al. 2018; Shah and Khan 2006); cough,profuse mucous discharges (Kayani et al. 2014); piles and leucorrhoea (Amjad et al. 2017), toothache, earache, tuberculosis, stomach disorders, fever (Ahmad and Habib 2014), as diaphoretic, stimulant, tonic, to treat fever, cold, hemorrhoids, headaches, diuretic, urinary disorders and menstrual problems (Shaheen et al. 2012), for wound healing, digestion, earache, toothache, tuberculosis (Ahmad et al. 2017); as tonic, astringent, stomachic, fever, cough, diarrhea flu, chest pain, black fever, and cough (Ch et al. 2013), also to treat stomachache (Mahmood et al. 2012). The species has decongestant, astringent, healing, diaphoretic, antipyretic, and anti-inflammatory properties. The whole plant (including flowers) is prepared in

126 Fig. 2 Achillea millefolium (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Achillea millefolium (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Achillea millefolium L. ssp. millefolium Fig. 4 Achillea ptarmicifolia (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Achillea ptarmicifolia (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 6 Achillea ptarmicifolia (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 7 Achillea latiloba (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

infusion and is taken to promote menstruation, as a stimulant and against hemorrhoids. It is also used to relieve the symptoms of indigestion, flatulence, and colitis. The whole plant is used to treat acne, boils, bot fly infestations, bruises, gallbladder,

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Fig. 8 Achillea latiloba (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

gastritis, strengthens digestive system, healing wounds, hemorrhage, hemorrhoids, lack of appetite, menstrual colic, nosebleed, skin ulcers, sores, and as analgesic and tonic; the Wwole plant, leaves, and flowers are used to treat indigestion, inflammation, spasms and as emmenagogue; leaves and flowers are used for blood cleansing. The infusion of flowers and roots is used to treat diarrhea and empacho. Fresh flowers and leaves are used to treat gastritis, diabetes, blood, and cholesterol. The plant is also widely used for psychosomatic and nervous system disorders, gstrointestinal problems, liver and gallbladder ailments and spiritual cleansing, as well as inflammations and shows antibacterial and antifungal properties. It is also used as remedy for diabetes and cancer. The preparations exhibit low toxicity (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). Species of Artemisia are also widely used in the Caucasus (Bussmann et al. 2020; Bussmann 2015). Widely used as wound healing agent and included in a variety of official pharmacopoeiae. In the Altai the leaves are chewed for toothache, and the plants are used as diuretic, antitumor, and wound-healing agent. In the Ural, the decoction is used as hemostatic for internal bleeding and nosebleeds, as laxatives, for gastric problems, hemorrhoids, gastritis, stomach ulcers, kidney and urinary diseases, skin diseases and burns. In Middle Asia, the leaves are used for rheumatism, bronchial asthma, heart disease, kidney disease, as diuretic, hemostatic, and antipyretic as well as anthelmintic, for anemia, diarrhea, and amenorrhea (Liu et al. 2020). Used for digestive problems (Ari et al. 2015). Smoke is applied to treat fever and respiratory tract problems (Mohagheghzadeh and Faridi 2006). An infusion and a decoction of the aerial parts and flowers of Achillea filipendulina are used as a treatment for diarrhea, dysentery, gastrointestinal diseases, gynecological diseases, and as an appetizer. To prepare an infusion, one teaspoon of the flowers or aerial parts is infused in 200 ml of boiled water for 15 min. For a decoction, two teaspoons of flowers or aerial parts are added to half a liter of water and boiled for 5 min. Sugar and honey are added to change the taste. To treat diarrhea and dysentery, half a glass of the infusion is taken before each meal for 7 days. A decoction of flowers is added to soups and taken in case of diarrhea or dysentery. A bath with a decoction is taken against gynecological diseases, such as colpitis, inflammation of the female genital organs, itching skin, or allergy in or around the vagina. To treat gynecological diseases (colpitis), it is used together with

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Capparis spinosa var. herbacea L. and Amaranthus retroflexus L. It is also used to treat cardiovascular diseases. A decoction of dried flowers is used as a children’s digestive aid, and also to treat stomach-ache and cough (Liu et al. 2020). Achillea setacea is used for conjunctivitis and for diseases of the stomach. A leaf infusion is used in Middle Asia for diseases of the cardiovascular system, stomach problems, for hemorrhoids, amenorrhea, metrorrhagia, toothache, and as galaktogogue (Liu et al. 2020). Achillea grandiflora: The leaves and the whole plant are used for wound care (Bussmann et al. 2020; Bussmann 2015). Achillea micrantha: The leaves and the whole plant are used for wound care (Bussmann et al. 2020; Bussmann 2015). Achillea nobilis: The leaves and whole pant are being used for wounds. The root extract is used to treat rheumatism (Bussmann et al. 2020; Bussmann 2015). Achillea biebersteinii is used against headaches, colds, stomach-ache, ulcers (Tetik et al. 2013). Achillea schischkinii is employed to treat pain and hemorrhoids (Tetik et al. 2013). Achillea wilhelmsii serves for digestive problems, hemorrhoids, and high colesterol (Tetik et al. 2013). Achillea teretifolia is used for digestive problems, skin diseases, and acne (Ari et al. 2015).

Local Food Uses Achillea extracts are used to produce bitter liqueurs (Liu et al. 2020). Achillea millefolium / Achillea latiloba: The whole plant is used as filling for Khachapuri. The flowers are used as tea (Bussmann et al. 2020; Bussmann 2015). Achillea filipendulina: Boiled flowers are added to flour soup and are given to women after delivery (Liu et al. 2020).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Achillea asiatica: Fodder for cattle, sheep, horses, and camels. Planted as ornamental (Liu et al. 2020). Achillea filipendulina is widely used in pest management. For this purpose, 800 g of the aerial parts including the flowers are infused in 10 l of boiled water for 40 min. Before application, 40 g of soap is added to the infusion. The infusion is sprayed on vegetables and/or trees in the evening, before sunset. The aerial parts of the plant, including the flowers, are also put within the furrows of vegetables to deter pests (Liu et al. 2020).

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References Ahmad KS, Habib S. Indigenous knowledge of some medicinal plants of Himalaya Region, Dawarian village, Neelum valley, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. Univ J Plant Sci. 2014;2(2):40–7. Ahmad KS, Hamid A, Nawaz F, Hameed M, Ahmad F, Deng J, Mahroof S. Ethnopharmacological studies of indigenous plants in Kel village, Neelum Valley, Azad Kashmir, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13(1):68. Akhtar R, Mir TA, Showkat S. Ethnomedicinal observations among the inhabitants of sarf naar area of Shiekhpora-Kreeri, Baramulla, Jammu and Kashmir. J Med Plants. 2018;6(3):78–81. Amjad MS, Arshad M, Saboor A, Page S, Chaudhari SK. Ethnobotanical profiling of the medicinal flora of Kotli, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan: empirical reflections on multinomial logit specifications. Asian Pac J Trop Med. 2017;10(5):503–14. Ari S, Temel M, Kargıoğlu M, Konuk M. Ethnobotanical survey of plants used in AfyonkarahisarTurkey. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2015;11:84. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-015-0067-6. Bussmann RW. Taxonomy – an irreplacable tool for the validation of herbal medicine. In: Mukherje PK, editor. Evidence-based validation of herbal medicine. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 2015. p. 87–118. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Ghorbani A, Nasab FK, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D. Achillea grandiflora M. Bieb.; Achillea micrantha Willd.; Achillea millefolium L.; Achillea nobilis L.; Achillea ptarmicifolia (Willd.) Rupr. ex Heimerl. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions Far Eastern Europe. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020. https:// doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77088-8_5-2. Ch MI, Ahmed F, Maqbool M, Hussain T. Ethnomedicinal inventory of flora of maradori valley, district forward Khahuta, Azad Kashmir, Pakistan. Am J Res Commun. 2013;1(6):239–61. Gilani SA, Qureshi RA, Gilani SJ. Indigenous uses of some important ethnomedicinal herbs of Ayubia National Park, Abbottabad, Pakistan. Ethnobot Leafl. 2006;2006(1):32. Kayani S, Ahmad M, Zafar M, Sultana S, Khan MPZ, Ashraf MA, Yaseen G. Ethnobotanical uses of medicinal plants for respiratory disorders among the inhabitants of Gallies–Abbottabad, Northern Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;156:47–60. Liu B, Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Akobirshoeva A, Ghorbani A, Kool A. Achillea asiatica Serg.; Achillea filipendulina Lam.; Achillea millefolium L.; Achillea setacea Waldst. & Kit. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions Central Asia and Altai. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020. Macbride JF, Weberbauer A. Flora of Peru. Chicago: Field Museum; 1936–1995. Mahmood A, Mahmood A, Malik RN. Indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants from Leepa valley, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2012;143(1):338–46. Mohagheghzadeh A, Faridi P. Medicinal smokes. J Ethnopharmacol. 2006;108:161–84. Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, Romero C. Achillea millefolium L. In: Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions – ethnobotany of the Andes. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77093-2_6-1. Shah GM, Khan MA. Checklist of medicinal plants of Siran Valley, Mansehra, Pakistan. Ethnobotan Leafl. 2006;2006(1):6. Shaheen H, Shinwari ZK, Qureshi RA, Ullah Z. Indigenous plant resources and their utilization practices in village populations of Kashmir Himalayas. Pak J Bot. 2012;44(2):739–45. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 7. Family Asteraceae (Compositae). Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1993. 352 p. (in Russian). Tetik F, Civelek S, Cakilcioglu U. Traditional uses of some medicinal plants in Malatya (Turkey). J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;146:331–46.

Acmella calva (DC.) R.K. Jansen ASTERACEAE Man D. Bhatt, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Acmella calva (DC.) R.K. Jansen: Ceratocephalus javanicus (Schultz-Bipontinus ex Miquel) Kuntze, Colobogyne langbianensis Gagnep, Spilanthes acmella var. calva (DC.) Clarke ex Hooker f., Spilanthes callimorpha A.H. Moore, Spilanthes calva DC., Spilanthes javanica Schultz-Bipontinus ex Miquel, Spilanthes langbianensis (Gagnep.) Stuessey, Spilanthes rugosa Blume ex De Candolle, Spilanthes rugosa var. truncata Miq.

M. D. Bhatt Botany Department, Siddhanath Science Campus, Tribhuvan University, Kanchanpur, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_9

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Local Names Acmella calva: Nepali: Marati, Marethi, Moreti, Saru, Gorakhpan, Banmara; Hindi: Eripacha, Akkarakaaram, Akravu, Kala avizal, Niakoppu, Naimanjal, Akrkara Pipulka, Paracress, Mandal PooChedi; Bangladeshi: Shormoni, Vhadalika, Kanlu, Jhummosak; Naga: Okensencha; English: Toothache plant.

Botany and Ecology Acmella calva: Perennial herb, stoloniferous, glabrous to densely hairy, between 20 and 30(120) cm tall. Stem creeping or erect, rooting at the nodes. Petiole up to 4.5 cm long, winged, leaf blade ovate to linear-lanceolate or elliptical, 1–6 cm long, 0.7–2 cm wide, obtuse to acute or sometimes acuminate at the apex, cuneate to truncate at the base, entire margin to denticulate or serrated, ciliate, trinervate (with three veins) or triplinervate, membranous, glabrous, or densely hairy on both sides. Flower heads solitary or grouped by few at the ends of the branches, peduncles up to 25 cm long, involucre cylindrical to subhemispheric, the bracts arranged in 2 series, ovate to lanceolate, 2.5–7 mm long, blunt to acuminate at the apex, ciliated, receptacle conical at maturity, until 10 mm long, paleae oblong, 2.5–4.5 mm long. Flowers ligulate usually 11, but varying from 5 to 19, tube 1–2 mm long, hairy, the elliptic-oblong sheet, 2–4(–7) mm long, yellow-orange, glabrous; tubular flowers 70–300, 1.5–3 mm long, ligules up to 10 mm long, yellow-orange, glabrous, anthers about 1 mm long, dark brown to blackish. Achenae oblong, compressed, 1–2 mm long, black or blackish, callous margins and often ciliated, glabrous on the faces (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995). (Fig. 1). Flowering: December–April; fruiting: May–June. Spilanthes Jacq. (Moore 1907) is primarily a woody genus of 30–40 species of Asteraceae in the new and old-world tropics. The genus has been traditionally divided into two sections, that is, Spilanthes and Acmella Rich (De Candolle 1836; Moore 1907). Spilanthes was described in 1760 by Jacquin to include S. insipidia and the lactotype species S. urens. In 1807 Richards described Acmella as a distinct but closely related genus of five species that differed from species of Spilanthes in Fig. 1 Spilanthes paniculata (Asteraceae) at canal side of Bhimdutta-18, Kanchanpur, Nepal. (Photo Man Dev Bhatt)

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possessing ray florets and in the absence of pappus. Cassini (1822) discussed the relationship between these two genera and suggested that Acmella might be treated better as section within Spilanthes. He found that the pappus difference between these two genera did not hold but he regarded the presence or absence of ray florets as valid. In fact, he moved all radiate taxa of Spilanthes into Acmella. De Candolle (1836) followed the suggestion and also described many new species in both section Spilanthes (sect. Salivaria by De Candolle) and section Acmella (Jansen 1981). Spilanthes is distributed globally in tropical and subtropical America, North Australia, Africa, Indo-Malaysia, Borneo, India, Nepal, Indonesia, Myanmar, Philippines, Thailand, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka (Jansen 1981). This plant commonly grows on stream-sides, marshes, and moist forest margins, fields of Tropical and Subtropical areas. It is distributed within 300–2300 m Central Eastern and Western Nepal (Press et al. 2000).

Phytochemistry Several species in this genus are tropical and are used extensively in traditional medicine and in flavoring foods tuffs. They are predominantly used as extracts in personal care products, traditional medicines, and the pharmaceutical and culinary areas (Paulraj et al. 2013). In this genus, the major phytochemicals present are saturated and unsaturated alkyl ketones, alkamides, hydrocarbons, acetylenes, lactones, alkaloids, terpenoids, flavonoids, and coumarins. They are the main constituents considered responsible for the pharmacological activity (Paulraj et al. 2013). The roots, flower heads, and whole aerial part yield a compound known as spilanthol, which is a powerful stimulant, sialogogue, and local anesthetic. The other compounds reported as Carbohydrate, Alkaloid, Phenolic compounds, Flavonoids, Tannins, Glycoside, Steroid, Protein and Amino acids, Saponin-Gum, and Acidic compounds in Spilanthes calva (Ramprashad et al. 2019). Similarly, the phytochemistry of Spilanthes acmella contain Caryophyllene oxide, Caryophyllene, Limonene, Myrcene, Sabinene-cis-ocimene, β -pinene Compounds (Begum et al. 2008). Chemical analysis shows that Spilanthes acmella contain major pungent compounds, spilanthol (N-isobutyl-2E, 6Z, 8E-decatrienamide) which is naturally occurring insecticide, and ButylatedHydroxytoluene (Leng et al. 2011). Antioxidant, Butylatedhydroxytoluene (BHT), and fatty acids (n-Hexadecanoic acid and tetradecanoic acid) could be obtained from extracts of mother plant of flower heads (Leng et al. 2011). The leaves contain alkaloids, carbohydrates, pungent amide tannins, steroids, carotenoids, essential oil, amino acids, etc. (Savadi et al. 2010). Besides the alkamides, pungent nonvolatile sesquiterpenoids have been found, such as polygodial and eudesmanolide II. The pungent flavor of Spilanthes acmella is due to an unsaturated alkamid; spilantholthat is present in its highest concentration (1%) in the flowers. Essential oils were isolated from the flower of S. acmella, whose main constituents were limonene, β-caryophyllene, Z-β-ocimene, γ-cadinen, thymol, germacrene D, and myrcene. The crude ethyl acetate of S. acmella was purified by chromatographic methods to give acetylaleuritolic acid, vanillic acid, and sitostenone (Nabi et al. 2016).

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Local Medicinal Uses Acmella calva. is a plant species with widespread medicinal values. A study conducted in Nepal showed the leaves of the species are used to treat cuts and mud infection (Acharya and Pokhrel 2006). Bhattarai et al. (2009) found out the use of flowers of Spilanthes in treatment of cough, cold, and gingivitis. The fruit decoction is useful in control of toothache and on boils and wounds (Pushpangadan and Atal 1986). The root of the species is used in various forms; the juice of root is used in tuberculosis (Atiqur et al. 2007) while the whole root is used for dental caries (Badgujar et al. 2008). The leaves and flower decoction of Acmella oleracea is used in curing stammering, toothache, stomatitis, and throat complaints (Chadha 2008) and in malaria (Ahua et al. 2007). Acmella paniculata is used in treatment of constipation, liver troubles, toothache, worm infection, and as an tonic during jaundice (Kala 2005). Different extracts of Acmella calva are known to have potent medicinal values. The flower is used for the toothache and dysentery (Jadeja and Nakar 2010), to treat and cure stammering in children, leucorrhoea (Jondiko 1986), flu, cough, rabies, and tuberculosis. The flowers are also known to have antifungal property (Rani and Murty 2005). The whole plant extracts are used as bio-insecticides (Sharma and Pegu 2011; Raquel 2007), local anesthetic (Broussalis et al. 1999), fast acting muscle relaxant and antiwrinkle agent (Belfer 2007; Schubnel 2007). It has also been used to relieve pain, which includes headache, toothache, and muscle pain (Mollik et al. 2010). A study by Revathi and Parimelazhghan (2010) has found that plant is helpful in cases of tuberculosis. The leaves are used as remedial agent for snakebite and in articular rheumatism (Kadir et al. 1989). Similarly, other studies have found plants can be used as digestive (Leng et al. 2011; Sahu et al. 2011) and antimalarials and antibacterials (Haw and Keng 2007). Root paste is used in throat related ailments (Biswas et al. 2010). Sold as medicinal species (Kunwar et al. 2013). Flowers chewed for toothache in Nagaland (Kichu et al. 2015). Used against snakebites and as appetizer (Kunwar et al. 2012, 2015). Acmella caulirhiza is used for liver problems (Yineger et al. 2008) and tonsillitis (Giday et al. 2010). Acmella ciliata is used for internal bleeding, renal bleeding, and colds with high mucus (Bussmann and Sharon 2006).

Local Food Uses The species is eaten as vegetable (Dangol et al. 2017).

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Atiqur RM, Uddin SB, Wilcock CC. Medicinal plants used by Chakma tribe in hill tracts districts of Bangladesh. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2007;3:508–17. Badgujar SB, Mahajan RT, Kosalge SB. Traditional practice for oral health care in Nandurbar District of Maharashtra, India. Ethnobot Leafl. 2008;12:1137–44. Begum J, Bhuiyan MNI, Chowdhury JU. Essential oil from inflorescence of Spilenthes calva DC. Bangladesh J Bot. 2008;37(2):217–8. Belfer WA. Cosmetic compositions comprising peptides and Acmella oleracea extract to accelerate repair of functional wrinkles. US patent 2007048245. 2007. Bhattarai S, Chaudhary RP, Taylor SL. Ethnomedicinal plants used by the people of Nawalparasi District, Central Nepal. Our Nature. 2009;7:82–99. Biswas A, Bari MA, Roy M, Bhadra SK. Inherited folk pharmaceutical knowledge of tribal people in the Chittagong hill tracts, Bangladesh. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2010;9:77–89. Broussalis AM, Ferraro GE, Martino VS, Pin-Zon R, Coussio JD, Alvarez JC. Argentine plants as potential source of insecticidal compounds. J Ethnopharmacol. 1999;67:219–23. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in Northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing culture. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:47. Cassini H. Spilanthes. In: Dictionnaire de sciences naturelles, vol. 24. Paris: Le Normant; 1822. p. 328–31. Chadha ML. Indigenous vegetables of India with a potential for improving livelihoods. In: International symposium on underutilized plants for food security, nutrition, income and sustainable development, ISHS Acta Horticulturae, 806. 2008. http://www.actahort.org/books/ 806/80672.htm Dangol DR, Maharjan KL, Maharjan SK, Acharya AK. Wild edible plants in Nepal. In: Joshi BK, Bahadur KCH, Acharya A, editors. Conservation and utilization of agricultural plant genetic resources of Nepal. Dhulikhel: NAGRC; 2017. p. 390–407. De Candolle AP. Spilanthes. In: Prodromus systematis naturalisregni vegetabilis, vol. 5. Paris: Treuttel and Wurtz; 1836. p. 620–6. Giday M, Asfaw Z, Woldu Z. Ethnomedicinal study of plants used by Sheko ethnic group of Ethiopia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010;1321:75–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2010.07.046. Haw AB, Keng CL. Micropropagation of Spilanthes acmella L., a bio-insecticide plant, through proliferation of multiple shoots. J Appl Hort. 2007;5:65–8. Jacquin NJ. Enumeratio systematica plantarum. Leiden: T. Haak; 1760. Jadeja BA, Nakar RN. Study on ethno-medico botany of weeds from Saurashtra region, Gujarat, India. Plant Arch. 2010;10(2):761–5. Jansen R. Systematics of Spilanthes (Compositae: Heliantheae). Syst Bot. 1981;6(3):231–57. https://doi.org/10.2307/2418284. Jondiko IJ. A mosquito larvicide in Spilanthes mauritiana. Phytochemistry. 1986;25:2289–90. Kadir HA, Zakaria MB, Kechil AA, Azirun MS. Toxicity and electrophysiological effects of Spilanthes acmella Murr. Pestic Sci. 1989;25:329–35. Kala CP. Ethnomedicinal botany of the Apatani in the Eastern Himalayan region of India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2005;1:11, 1–8. Kichu A, Malewska T, Akter K, Imchen I, Harrington D, Kohen J, Vemulpad SR, Jamie JF. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of Chungtia village,Nagaland, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;166:5–17. Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Sharma LN, Shrestha KP, Kominee H, Bussmann RW. Underutilized plant species in far-west Nepal – a valuable resource being wasted. J Mt Sci. 2012;9:589–600. Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Acharya RP, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants, traditional medicine, markets and management in far-west Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:24. Kunwar RM, Acharya RP, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plant dynamics in indigenous medicines in Farwest Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;163:210–9. Leng TC, Ping NS, Lim BP, Keng CL. Detection of bioactive compounds from Spilanthes acmella (L.) plants and its various in vitro culture products. J Med Plant Res. 2011;5:371–8. Macbride JF, Weberbauer A. Flora of Peru. Chicago: Field Museum; 1936–1995. Mollik MAH, Hossan MSH, Paul AK, TaufiqUr-Rahman M, Jahan R, Rahmatullah M. A comparative analysis of medicinal plants used by folk medicinal healers in three districts of Bangladesh and inquiry as tomode of selection of medicinal plants. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2010;8:195–218.

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Aconitum balfourii Stapf. Aconitum ferox Wall. ex. Ser. Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle Aconitum laeve Royle Aconitum naviculare (Bru¨hl) Stapf. Aconitum spicatum Stapf. Aconitum violaceum Jacq. ex Stapf var. violaceum RANUNCULACEAE Hassan Sher, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Ikram Ur Rahman, Wahid Hussain, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Synonyms Aconitum balfourii Stapf.: Aconitum atrox (Brühl) Mukerjee; Aconitum atrox Goris; Aconitum ferox var. atrox Brühl; Caltha codua Buch.-Ham. (Hassler 2020) Aconitum ferox Wall. ex. Ser.: Aconitum atrox Walp; Aconitum virosum D. Don (Hassler 2020) Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle: Intraspecific taxa: Aconitum heterophyllum subsp. heterophyllum; Aconitum heterophyllum subsp. parciflorum R.A. Qureshi & M.N. Chaudhri; Aconitum heterophyllum var. roylei L.B. Chaudhary & R.R. Rao (Hassler 2020) Aconitum laeve Royle: Aconitum lycoctonum Besser; Aconitum vitifolium Royle ex Stapf. H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan W. Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_10

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Aconitum naviculare (Brühl) Stapf.: Aconitum bhutanicum Y. Kadota; Aconitum creagromorphum Lauener; Aconitum ferox var. naviculare Brühl; Intraspecific taxon: Aconitum naviculare var. leiocarpum Tamura (Hassler 2020) Aconitum spicatum Stapf.: Aconitum ferox var. spicata Brühl (Hassler 2020) Aconitum violaceum Jacq. ex Stapf var. violaceum: Aconitum multifidum Koch ex Rchb.; Aconitum multifidum Royle; Intraspecific taxon: Aconitum napellus var. multifidum (Royle) Hook. fil. & Thoms.; Aconitum violaceum var. robustum Stapf; Aconitum violaceum var. weileri (Gilli) H. Riedl. (Hassler 2020); Aconitum violaceum var. multifidum (Royle) Qureshi & Chaudhri

Local Names Aconitum balfourii: English: Balfour’s Monkshood; Nepali: Gobaree; Hindi: Meetha; Bhotiya: Meetha jari, Mithabish. Aconitum ferox: English: Indian aconite, Monk’s hood; Hindi: Bachhnag, Mithabish; Nepali: Bis, Bikh, Nilo Bikh, Kaalo Bis; Kham: Dutsi loma; Tibetan: Bong-nag, zinpa; Sanskrit/Ayurvedic: Vatsanaavah; Unani: Bishnaag; Siddha/ Tamil: Vasanaavi, Karunaab-hi; Sikkim: Bikhma; Lepcha: Nyine. Aconitum heterophyllum: English: Atis root; Nepali: Atis; Sanskrit: Ativisha; Hindi: Atis, Arand, Ataicha; Tibetan: Bon-na, bon-na dhar-po; Malayalam: Athividayam; Ayurvedic: Ativishaa, Arunaa, Vishaa, Shuklakandaa; Siddha/ Tamil: Athividayam; Urdu: Atis talkh; Gilgit-Baltistan: Patrees; Sikkim: Bikhma; North Pakistan: Mohri; Ladakh: Atees; Buwan, Paunkar, Boga-karpo, Boi; Jammu: Patrees; Kashmir: Pivak, Patis, Patrees, Paewakh, Bandalnag. Aconitum laeve: Pashto: Zahamora ‫ﺯﻩﺭﻡﻭﺭﺍ‬, Hindi: Bariyara, Gulsakari Pakistan: Maniree, Ayurvedic: Vatsanaabha, Telugu: Nagabala.

R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia

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Aconitum naviculare: Gurung: Ponkar, Boknar; Tamang: Mongar; Chinese: Chuan kui wu tou; Tibetan: Bong-nga kar-po; Amchi: Bongkar, Bongnga karpo. Aconitum spicatum: English: Nepal Aconite; Nepali: Bikh; Gurung: Galtu; Kham: Tsen dug; Sherpa: Dug, Memen; Chinese: ya dong wu tou. Aconitum violaceum: Pashto: Zaharmora; Urdu: Atees, Jadwar, English: Violet Monkshood; Nepali: Madhubish; Hindi: Bokar, Kali-Patish, Bauva (in Uttarakhand);North Pakistan: Booma, Mohri; Jammu: Mori, Patrishi; Kashmir: Atis, Bishmool, Mohand, Mori; Ladakh: Boga-karpo, Boga-nagpo, Jhimba, Yangtso, Jhimba.

Botany and Ecology Aconitum species are mostly distributed in subalpine and alpine moist pastures, shady places and some species in temperate and subalpine forest edges (Singh et al. 2012). Aconitum balfourii: Erect glabrous herb, up to 2 m tall. Stem simple or branched, lower leaves long-stalked, upper leaves short-stalked. Inflorescence many-flowered racemes with yellowish tomentum, up to 30 cm long; sepals 5, blue, pubescent, uppermost helmet-shaped; petals glabrous. Flowering and fruiting September to November (Gaur 1999). Aconitum ferox: Erect perennial herb, 1–2 m tall. Leaves palmate, with 5 ovate or wedge-shaped lobes. Flowers deep blue, 2–3 cm long, in spike. Flowering and fruiting in August – November. Mostly found in shady and moist places, shrub land, moist forests between 2100–3800 m in the temperate, subalpine and alpine Himalayan regions (Polunin et al. 1987; Ghimire et al. 2008). Aconitum heterophyllum: Biennial with 2 tubers. Stem (15–)25–70(–90) cm high, simple or with a few branches in the lower part, glabrous with a few very short crispate hairs above. Lower most leaves with long petioles, orbicular-cordate to ovate-cordate in outline, usually deeply 5-lobed with crenate lobes, the others with short petioles or sessile, semi-amplexicaul, irregularly crenate-dentate, rarely lobate. Inflorescence a loose raceme, rarely subpaniculate. Lower bracts similar to upper leaves, the others ovate to lanceolate, crenate or entire. In the longer peduncles the bracteoles are elliptical or usually entire. Sepals blue to violet, glabrous. Lateral sepals obliquely obovate with dark tips, 14–20  12–20 mm, not stipitate, lower ones narrower. Petals (nectaries) with a long (16–18 mm) claw and short (4 mm) very wide hood, lobed or entire. Filaments winged above the middle, 6–8 mm long. Carpels 5, oblong-elliptical, pubescent, abruptly contracted to the style of about equal length. Follicles straight, 16–18 mm, glabrescent or glabrous. Seeds obpyramidate, 3–4 mm long with almost winged angles. Common on grassy meadows, rocky moist areas, alpine dry scrubs, grassy and shady slopes between 2400–4500 m (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020; Bhat et al. 2014) (Fig. 1). Aconitum laeve: Root elongate, cylindrical. Stem erect, up to 1.5 m high, simple or with a few branches, in the upper part hairy and viscid, glabrous below. Basal leaves with very long petioles, usually withered at flowering time, stern-leaves gradually

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Fig. 1 Aconitum heterophyllum (Ranunculaceae), Kalam Mehodand valley, Swat, Pakistan. (Photo I. Ur-Rahman & H. Sher)

decreasing in size toward the inflorescence, deeply five- to nine-palmatisect with obovate to obovate-oblong segments, coarsely dentate or sometimes incised again, orbicular to orbicular-reniform in outline, up to 30 cm wide, glabrous, uppermost merging with floral leaves. Inflorescence composed of branched racemes, up to 50 cm, with leafy apices. Bracteole linear to filiform. Helmet from a wide base suddenly tapering to a cylindrical hood, straight or slightly recurved at apex, 12– 16 mm high, 3.5 mm wide, yellowish. Petals (nectaries) with a narrowly conical straight gibbulose or recurved hood, 5 mm long, with deflexed, oblong, shortly bilobed lips. Filaments winged to the middle. Follicles 3, 10–13 mm, spreading, glabrous or with yellowish hairs. Seeds elliptic-oblong, compressed, shiny, finely transversely rugose, 2.5–3 mm long. Flowering July–August. (Ali and Qaiser 1995– 2020; Polunin et al. 1987; Chaudhary and Rao 1998) (Fig. 2). Aconitum laeve is found in forest edges, open meadows, and partially on shaded places (Khan et al. 2012; Kumar et al. 2020). Aconitum naviculare (Brühl) Stapf: Perennial herb, 10–30 (45) cm tall. Basal leaves, petiolate, petiole 2.5–21 cm, orbicular-cordate, deeply 3–5 lobed, upper leaves 1 or 2, much smaller, sub-sessile, deeply 3-lobed. Flowers in loose racemes, dull reddish purple/violet blue, with dark purple veins. Flowering September – early October, fruiting October (Stainton 1997; Ohba et al. 2008). Found in alpine meadows and shrublands between 4000 and 4800 m in semiarid and trans-Himalayan regions in open, relatively dry and sunny south facing slopes (Shrestha and Jha 2009, 2010). Aconitum spicatum: Shrub, 1–1.5 m tall, usually simple, sparsely pubescent. Proximal cauline leaves withered at anthesis, middle ones slightly long petiolate, leaf blade cordate-pentagonal, 7  9.5 cm, both surfaces appressed pubescent, 3-parted; central lobe rhombic, 3-fid; lateral lobes obliquely flabellate, unequally 2-fid. Inflorescence 6–15 cm, many flowered; rachis and pedicels densely spreading yellowish pubescent and shortly glandular pubescent; bracts leaflike or lanceolate-linear to

Aconitum balfourii Stapf. . . .

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Fig. 2 Aconitum laeve (Ranunculaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

linear. Pedicels 2–8 cm, oblique upward, proximally with 2 bracteoles; bracteoles narrowly linear, about 4 mm. Sepals purple, abaxially densely pubescent; lower sepals about 1.6 cm; lateral sepals 1.5–1.7 cm; upper sepal galeate or lower galeate, 1.5–2 cm high, around 1.7 cm from base to beak, lower margin slightly concave. Petaline claw sparsely pubescent; lip about 5 mm, slightly concave; spur slightly incurved, ca. 1.5 mm. Stamens sparsely pubescent; filaments entire. Carpels 5, densely yellowish pubescent. Flowering September, up to 4000 m (Ghimire et al. 2008; Wu et al. 1994–2013). Aconitum violaceum: Biennial with geminate tubers. Stem 10–30 cm high, usually simple, erect in the lower part, glabrous or hairy. Leaves forming a dense cluster near the base, rarely equally distributed throughout the whole length, with  long petioles, orbicular, five-palmatipartite to the base, primary segments deeply bi-pinnatisect, lobes of the last order linear, acute or subobtuse,  glabrous, the upper leaves much reduced in size. Inflorescence a dense or  lax, simple raceme, rarely with a single branch. Bracts similar to upper leaves, but much reduced. Lower pedicels 4( 5) cm with spreading hairs. Sepals violet, rarely blue or yellowish-green with blue veins, pubescent, helmet 14–20 mm high, 18–24 mm long (including beak), lateral sepals broadly obovate, oblique, 12–16  10–14 mm, lower ones

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elliptical, 10–12 mm, deflexed. Petals (nectaries) glabrous, claw 12–18 mm, hood gibbous dorsally, with truncate recurved lips. Filaments hairy in the upper part, winged in the lower, wings ending in tiny teeth. Two varieties can be distinguished. Open and damp places, forests, and meadows 3000–4500 m in Pakistan. Distributed in Nepal, NE India, China, Kashmir, and Northern Parts of Pakistan. Locally found in the high altitude of Swat Dir, Chitral, Gilgit, and Hazara Division. Harvesting time: August and September. Threatened (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020; Jabeen et al. 2013) (Figs. 3, 4 and 5). Mostly found in rhododendron forest edges, rocky moist areas, open grassy alpine slopes, and alpine pastures of central Himalaya from 3600–4800 m in Jammu Kashmir and 4000–4500 m asl in Nepal (Sharma et al. 2014; Sabir et al. 2016; Rajbhandary and Rai 2017).

Phytochemistry Aconitum balfourii: Contains pseudoaconitine, aconitine (Sharma and Gaur 2012), balfourine, (Khetwal et al. 1992; Khetwal and Pande 2004), norditerpenoid alkaloids (Khetwal et al. 1994). Aconitum ferox: Tubers ferox: Tubers contain pseudaconitine, bikhaconitine, veratroyl pseudaconine, diacetyl pseudaconitine, norditerpenoid alkaloids (Hanuman and Katz 1993a), quinolinones (Hanuman and Katz 1993b), lipoalkaloides (Hanuman and Katz 1994a). Other compounds include 14-Oacetylsenbusine A, norditerpenoid alkaloids-chasmaconitine, crassicauline-A, falconericine, bikhaconine, pseudaconine, neoline, senbusine-A, isotalatizidine and columbianine (Hanuman and Katz 1994b). Aconitum heterophyllum: Contains alkaloids heterophyllisine, heterophylline, heterophyllidine, atidine, F-dihydroatisine, hetidine, hetisinone, atisine and hetisine heteratisine (Pelletier et al. 1968; Aneja et al. 1973), the diterpenoid lactone atisenol (Pelletier et al. 1982), 6-dehydroacetylsepaconitine and 13-hydroxylappaconitine, lycoctonine, delphatine, lappaconitine (Ahmad et al. 2008). Aconitum laeve: Contains 8-methyllycaconitine, 14-demethyllycaconitine, and Ndeethyllycaconitine-N-aldehyde, swatinine, delphatine, lappaconitine, puberanine, N-acetylsepaconitine (Shaheen et al. 2005; Ulubelen et al. 2002), lappaconitine, puberanine, swatinine, N-acetylsepaconitine (Shaheen et al. 2005). Also flavonol glycosides (quercetin-3-O-ß-D-glucopyranoside -7-O-ά-L-rhamnoside and quercetin-3-O-rutinoside-7-O-rhamnoside) (Kumar and Verma 2011, swatinine-A, swatinine-B (Begum et al. 2014). Aconitum naviculare: A very well researched species from which alkaloids (e.g., navirine, isoatisine, hordenine, atisine, hetisinone and delfissinol), flavonoid glycosides, and phenol glycosides have been reported (Gao et al. 2004; Shrestha and Dall’Acqua 2010; He et al. 2017). Cao et al. (2008) reported naviculine A and B, Dall’Acqua et al. (2008) navirine B, navirine C and chellespontine. He et al. (2017) found navicularine A, B, and C, chellespontine, hetisine, and heteratisine.

Aconitum balfourii Stapf. . . . Fig. 3 Aconitum violaceum (Ranunculaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

Fig. 4 Aconitum violaceum (Ranunculaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Haider Ali)

Fig. 5 Aconitum violaceum (Ranunculaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Haider Ali)

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Aconitum spicatum: Especially in the root tubers aconitine, bikhaconitie, mesaconitine, hypaconitine, deoxyaconitine, spicatine A, spicatine B (Gao et al. 2005). Aconitum violaceum: Contains diterpenes, flavonoids, fatty acids, aconitine, indaconitine, and polysaccharide such as starch, indaconitine, atisine (Bahuguna et al. 2000; Yadav and Verma 2010) and aconitine (Rawat et al. 2014).

Local Medicinal Uses Aconitum balfourii Stapf: Mostly roots. Aconitum ferox Wall. ex Ser.: The whole plant is used but root tubers are more preferred. Aconitum heterophyllum Wall.: Mostly harvested for tubers. Aconitum laeve Royle: Both aerial parts and roots are used. Aconitum naviculare (Brühl) Stapf: Entire plant parts but the tuberous root is more preferred than aerial parts. Aconitum spicatum (Brühl) Stapf: Whole plant but mostly harvested for tubers. Aconitum violaceum Jacq. ex Stapf: Whole plant but tubers are preferred.

Traditional Medicinal Uses Aconitum balfourii Stapf: Used to cure arthritis (Joshi 2016), fever and rheumatism (Kumar et al. 2015; Rawat 2005; Bisht et al. 2013), leprosy (Phondani et al. 2010) and boils (Uniyal 2003). Taken orally with lukewarm water for stomach acidity and the decoction with Picrorhiza kurroa for stomachache (Boktapa and Sharma 2010). Root powder [of Aconitum atrox (Bruchi) Mukherjee. (syn.)] prepared after drying in sunlight is mixed with tobacco and smoked to cure cough (Jain and Saklani 1991). Aconotum balfourii roots are used to treat snakebites, boils, gout, scorpion stings and insect bites (Singh et al. 2017). Aconitum ferox: Used to treat fever, cuts, and inflammation (Ghimire et al. 2001), to treat joint pain (Uprety et al. 2010), leprosy, fever and cholera (Kunwar et al. 2006) and digestive problems and fever (Tiwari et al. 2009). The root material needs to be detoxified by boiling with water for 24 hours or more (Pradhan and Badola 2008). In India, dried tubers are detoxified by boiling in alcohol and used to treat like high fever, stomachache, tonsillitis and throat pain, and cheilitis (Tsering and Tag 2005), as analgesic and antipyretic (DPR 2007), antidote lethal poisons, ear and nose discharge, typhoid, body pain, rheumatism (Singh et al. 2002), and rabies (Quattrocchi 2012). In Sikkim it is used for asthma, blood clots, cough, diabetes, rheumatism, snakebites, stomachache, and toothache (Tamang et al. 2017). The Lepcha use the species to treat asthma, cough, leprosy, fever, and muscular rheumatism (Palit and Banerjee 2016). Aconitum heterophyllum: Used to treat diarrhea dysentery and hemorrhoids; used against fever, sexual weakness, as anthelminthic (Ahmad et al. 2014), for flu, cough and abdominal pain, dysentery, cirrhosis, vomiting and stomach disorders, for colds and

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cough (Kayani et al. 2014), as tonic, febrifuge, and aphrodisiac (Ali et al. 2011). Also employed to treat stomach pain, gastric trouble, typhoid, tuberculosis (Bano et al. 2014; Waseem et al. 2006), bronchitis, pneumonia, constipation, stomachache, and toothaches (Mahmood et al. 2012), and as general body tonic (Sher and Hussain 2009). Roots ‘Ativisa’ used widely in ayurvedic medicines to treat fever, cough, asthma, and digestive problems (Shah and Joshi 1971; Kunwar and Duwadee 2003; Palit and Gurung 2008; Khan et al. 2010), diarrhea, dysentery, headache, cough, and cold (Rokaya et al. 2010), and to cure constipation (Tiwari et al. 2009). Tubers boiled in milk are used for fever, flu, digestive problems, and vomiting, and with mustard oil to cure arthritis (Lone et al. 2014), snakebites and Aconitum poisoning (Tsering and Tag 2005). They serve as antiperiodic, aphrodisiac, astringent, and tonic (DPR 2007) and sometimes are chewed as an aphrodisiac, vermifuge, anthelmintic, and febrifuge (Quattrocchi 2012). In Pakistan, root powder is given against kidney stones, for toothache, and rheumatism (Ahmad et al. 2009), and menstrual problems (Kumar et al. 2009). A decoction of Aconitum heterophyllum roots is used to cure diarrhea and to enhance memory (Sher et al. 2016). The dried roots are eaten by women during pregnancy to have a male child. In India the plant is used externally to treat wounds, cuts and boils, and headache, and ingested to treat fevers, stomach aches, and as anthelminthic (Singh et al. 2017). Also used to treat bile, remedy headache, colds, fever, and clean the digestive tract. In Sikkim it is used for snakebites, as antidote for food-poisoning, stomachache, anti-periodic, to treat piles, body-ache, could, cough, nose discharge, sore-throat, and as contraceptive (Tamang et al. 2017). In Ladakh used for fever and cough (Ballabh et al. 2008; Malik et al. 2015). In India the species is applied for body-ache, colic (Kala 2005; Kala et al. 2004). In Northern Pakistan it is used for fever, snakebite, joint pain, diarrhea, cough, and stomachache (Kayani et al. 2015). Aconitum laeve Royle: Plant is used for kidney stone and other kidneys problem, as anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, and antioxidant (Quattrocchi 2012) and in the treatment of diarrhea, vomiting, cough, and cold (Srivastava et al. 2010). Also for the treatment of sciatica in Ladakh (Kala 2006), against kidney stones, kidney problems, nervous disorders. Aconitum naviculare: Often used by Amchis (traditional Tibetan medicine practitioners) (Shrestha and Dall’Acqua 2010; Bhattarai et al. 2007; Shrestha et al. 2007; Ghimire et al. 2020). In Dolpa (western Nepal), used against poisoning (Lama et al. 2001), for gall bladder problems in Mustang (Chetri et al. 2006), against fever, headache, jaundice, high blood pressure, and cold in Manag (Bhattarai et al. 2006; Shrestha et al. 2007). In Tibet, used as a sedative, analgesic, and febrifuge (Gao et al. 2004), and for gastritis, hepatitis, and nephritis (Cao et al. 2008). The species is also widely used Bhutan (Nawang 1996) and Sikkim (Shrivastava 1998). In Kashmir, Ladakh and Jammu used as aphrodisiac, astringent, to treat cough, diarrhea, dysentery, dyspepsia, inflammations, as tonic, for abdominal ailments, abdominal pain, as anthelmintic, anti-periodic, to remedy arthritis, fever, general weakness, headache, hysteria, male impotence, intestinal inflammation, intestinal worms, joint pain, malarial fever, piles, skin problems, spleen enlargement, stomach ailments, stomach ache, throat infections, throat swelling, as tonic, for toothache, urinary infection, and vomiting (Gairola et al. 2014).

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Aconitum spicatum: Although very toxic, the species is used as antipyretic and analgesic (Kunwar and Duwadee 2003), and to treat cough, bile fever, lung and intestine infection, headache, cuts, and wounds (Lama et al. 2001), as well as fever and headache (Uprety et al. 2010). The roots are detoxified by boiling them with Terminalia chebula Retz. (Ghimire et al. 2008), and roots are mixed with fruits of Terminalia bellerica (Gaertn.) Roxb. and roots of Stellera chamaejasme L. for joint pain and arthritis (Ghimire et al. 2008). The roots are also used for allergies, boils, cuts, wounds, and liver problems (Kunwar and Adhikari 2005; Bhattarai et al. 2010), the leaf paste for fever and headache (Kunwar and Adhikari 2005). Aconitum spicatum is used in Nepal as antidote and analgesic (Kunwar et al. 2006, 2016). Aconitum violaceum: Roots used to treat rheumatism, stomachache, colds (Kumar et al. 2015). The root powder is eaten with sugar to treat stomachache and acute cough in children (Uniyal 2003), a root decoction in milk or ghee serves to treat fever, asthma, cough, and rheumatism, abscess, boils, and skin diseases (Noor et al. 2012), and rheumatism (Akhtar et al. 2013). In Kashmir ‘Khambir’ is prepared by fermenting sundried petals and sugar for 10–15 days, and serve to treat cough, cold, fever, stomach, and liver disorders, and root pieces are applied to cavities to treat toothache, and a mixture of roots and oil for boils and joint pains (Lone et al. 2014), as well as the root powder for sciatica and as analgesic, and the root juice used for snake and scorpion bites (Thakur et al. 2016). Roots are also used to remedy heart problems and high blood pressure (Rana et al. 2013; Sharma et al. 2010). It is used in Northern Pakistan to treat snakebites, scorpion stings, infections, cold, cough and fever (Kayani et al. 2015). In Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh for toothache, colds, cough, fever, liver ailments, stomach problems, as anthelmintic, appetizer, to treat asthma, gastric disorders, gastrointestinal disorders, joint pain, renal pain, rheumatism, as stomachic (Gairola et al. 2014). In Middle Asia Aconitum extracts are used to treat tumors, rheumatism, and tuberculosis. In Kyrgyz medicine the infusion of the tubers in fermented horse milk or water is used for tuberculosis, radiculitis, headaches, and cancer. An infusion of the roots of Aconitum talassicum is used to treat rheumatism and malaria. (Bussmann et al. 2020). Root powder of Aconitum atrox prepared after drying in sunlight is mixed with tobacco and smoked to cure cough (Jain and Saklani 1991). The plant is also used for fever, rheumatism, and abdominal pain (Malik et al. 2015). Aconitum chasmanthum is used as body tonic (Kayani et al. 2015), neuralgia, rheumatism, beurological problems, and as anthelminthic (Gairola et al. 2014). Aconitum rotundifolium serves as a remedy for joint pain, liver disorders, jaundice, and headache (Kayani et al. 2015), and as an antidote and anti-pyretic.

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Aconitum ferox: Used to poison arrowheads (Rokaya et al. 2010) and as insecticide (Rana et al. 2015). Aconitum spicatum is used as an arrow poison in Nepal (Manandhar 1986; Rokaya et al. 2010). In Kangchenjunga, roots are tied on babies and mothers as ‘buti’ (amulet) against evil powers (Sherpa 2001).

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Aconitum heterophyllum sometimes serves as fodder, and has high economic value (Wali et al. 2019). Aconitum laeve: It is also used as veterinary medicine in Kashmir, where the roots are used to treat stomach and internal disorders (flukes, worms), and also as a tonic to treat weakness after diarrhea and delivery of cattle (Khuroo et al. 2007). In veterinary medicine some species are used to treat wounds and ulcers. All species are highly toxic. (Bussmann et al. 2020). In the Himalayas Aconitum is used to poison arrows. Many species are heavily collected, and by now endangered due to overharvesting (Jan et al. 2019), and high economic revenue (Aumeeruddy-Thomas et al. 2004; Gurung and Pyakurel 2017; Mulk Khan et al. 2014; Olsen 2005; O’Neill et al. 2017).

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Aconogonon coriarium (Grig.) Sojak. Aconogonon tortuosum (D.Don) Hara var. tibetanum (Meisn.) S.-P.Hong POLYGONACEAE Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

Synonyms Aconogonon coriarium (Grig.) Sojak.: Polygonum coriarium Gilg. Aconogonon tortuosum (D.Don) Hara var. tibetanum (Meisn.) S.-P.Hong: Polygonum tortuosum D. Don

Local Names Aconogonon alpinum: Jammu: Palkrach Aconogonon molle: Nepali: Thotne

H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_11

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Botany and Ecology Aconogonon coriarium: An erect, 1–1.5 ( 2.5) m tall perennial herb. Stem somewhat divaricately and profusely branched, mostly glabrous or with few hairs usually below the nodes. Leaves (3.5–) 4–12  2–4.5 ( 5) cm, ovate to ovate-lanceolate, petiole 3– 4 mm long, acute to acuminate, broadly cuneate or rounded at the base, mostly entire, ciliate at the margin, glabrous above, sparsely to densely pubescent below. Ochrea 1.5 ( 1.8)-2.8 ( 3) cm long, ovate to orbicular, membranous, caducous, glabrous or pilose, brown. Inflorescence a branched terminal panicle with numerous dense flower clusters, 5–12 cm long, branches nodding in fruit. Flowers creamy white, 3.0–3.5 mm across, pedicel 2–5 mm long. Ochreolae ovate-orbicular, brown, membranous, pellucid, glabrous. Tepals 5, subequal, obovate, rounded or blunt at the apex, 3–5 ( 6)  1.5–3 ( 3.5) mm. Stamens 8, filaments much longer than the anthers. Ovary, 3.0–4.0  1.75– 2.75 mm, lanceolate ovate-trigonous with 3, very small styles; stigmas capitate. Nuts subsessile, ovate, trigonous, not beaked 3–5  2–3.5 mm, smooth,  dull brownish, included or slightly exserted from the tepals. Flowering June–July. Grows in between the altitudinal ranges of 1400 and 3500 m on damp slopes along with the streams; Distribution: Kazakstan, Tadzhikistan, Uzbekstan, Turkemenistan, Afghanistan, and Pakistan (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020; Figs. 1, 2, and 3). Aconogonon tortuosum: Erect, 30–150 cm high, branched, pubescent to hairy, perennial subshrub with  elongated rhizome. Stem  terete, profusely, dichotomously branched from base or above, pubescent to hairy or glabrous, woody. Leaves (1–) 1.5–4 ( 6.8)  (0.9–) 1.0–3 ( 3.5) cm, elliptic, lanceolate-ovate, acute, or

Fig. 1 Polygonum aviculare (Polygonaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Polygonum aviculare (Polygonaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

obtuse at the apex, margin entire or undulate, ciliate or scabrous or glabrous; glabrous or pubescent on both sides with slightly rough or coriaceous texture, petiole 0.5–4.0 mm long. Ochrea 5.0–15 mm long, ovate-broadly ovate, entire to dentate, tubular, truncate, hairy. Inflorescence many flowered, dense, pubescent, up to 2.0 cm long pedunculate, terminal or axillary panicles; panicles (0.8–) 1.5–5 ( 7) cm long. Flowers 2–3.5 mm across, pedicel 1–2.5 mm long, slightly longer in fruit. Ochreolae 1.5–3 mm long, lanceolate, cartilaginous, ciliate, hairy. Tepals 5, creamy white, subequal, 1.5–3.5  0.75–1.25 mm, ovate to ovate elliptic, obtuse, entire, parallel veined, veins 3. Stamens 8, subexserted, filaments long, equal. Ovary 0.5–1.5  c. 1.0 mm, oblanceolate, trigonous with three short styles and capitate stigma. Nuts (2–) 2.5–4  1.5–1.9 mm, ovate, brown, shining, included or slightly exserted from the tepals. Two varieties are recognized in our region (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020).

Phytochemistry Catechins. flavonoids (kaempferol, quercetine), carbohydrates, anthocyanines (delphinide, emoine), steroids, catcheins, saponins, alkaloids, organic acids (oleic, oxalic, malic, citane, lemon), vitamins (C, carotene), phenolic compounds, tannins, phenolcarbonic acids, coumarins (Fedorov 1949).

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Fig. 3 Polygonum aviculare (Polygonaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses Aconogonon coriarium: In the Altai the plants are used to treat arthritis, cough, liver and urinary diseases, and tuberculosis. In Middle Asia the infusion used to treat stomach spasms, intestinal infections, diarrhea, as tonic, hemostatic, and diuretic. The plant is used in a bath to treat bacterial and fungal skin diseases and rashes. The fresh herb is put on tumors, wounds, and skin ulcers (Bussmann et al. 2020a, b, c; Fedorov 1949). Aconogonon tortuosum: Controls painful urination (Ballabh et al. 2008). Aconogonon alpinum: Used for joint pain and arthritis (Gairola et al. 2014).

Local Food Uses Aconogonon coriarium: The young shoots are boiled like spinach, always with a large number of other species (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2020a, b, c; Fedorov 1949). The aboveground parts until flowering are used boiled. The plant can also be used dried form for cooking dovga (is a soup cooked from curdled milk (yogurt), various greens, a small amount of rice and egg. In some regions of the country also a small amount of peas is added. It is considered good for digestion and for intestinal cramps). Leaves of the plant are used as one of the ingredients added to plov (a common dish in the east. In Azerbaijan rice is boiled on a small fire until soft,

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in combination with other ingredients like meat, birds, fish, dried fruits, greens, beans). Such dish possesses constipating properties and is often cooked with the purpose to treat intestinal disorders (Damirov et al. 1988). Aconogonon molle: Young shoots are eaten as vegetable (Dangol et al. 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Aconogonon coriarium: The leaves yield green, blue and yellow dyes for wool and silk. Used as fodder (Fedorov 1949). Polygonum aviculare is used in poultry farming. The seeds are good feed for poultry, mainly for geese (Akhundov et al. 1989). A dark blue color is obtained from the root for dyeing wool (Akhundov et al. 1989). Good nectariferous plant, producing much nectar (Akhundov et al. 1989).

References Akhundov QF, Mahammadli BR, Asadov KS. Useful wild-growing plants. Baku: Maarif; 1989. (in Azeri). Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan and Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995–2020. Ballabh B, Chaurasia OP, Ahmed Z, Singh SB. Traditional medicinal plants of cold desert Ladakh – used against kidney and urinary disorders. J Ethnopharmacol. 2008;118:331–9. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Polygonum alpinum All.; Polygonum aviculare L.; Polygonum carneum C. Koch; Polygonum hydropiper L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-49412-8_80. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z. Polygonum aviculare L.; Polygonum coriarium Grig. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions Central Asia and Altai: Springer International Publishing; 2020a. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3319-77087-1_108-1. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D. Bistorta officinalis Delarbre; Polygonum carneum C. Koch. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions far Eastern Europe. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020b. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Ghorbani A, Nasab FK, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D. Polygonum aviculare L. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions far Eastern Europe. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020c. https://doi.org/10.1007/9783-319-77088-8_108-2. Damirov IA, Prilipko LI, Shukurov DZ, Kerimov YB. Medicinal plants of Azerbaijan. Baku; 1988. (in Russian). Dangol DR, Maharjan KL, Maharjan SK, Acharya AK. Wild edible plants in Nepal. In: Joshi BK, Bahadur KCH, Acharya A, editors. Conservation and utilization of agricultural plant genetic resources of Nepal. Dhulikhel: NAGRC; 2017. p. 390–407. Fedorov AA. The herbs applied in traditional medicine of the Talysh. Baku: Publishing House of AS of USSR; 1949. (in Russian). Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86.

Aegopodium alpestre Ledeb. APIACEAE Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

Synonyms Aegopodium alpestre Ledeb.: Aegopodium alpestre fo. scabrum Kitag.; Aegopodium alpestre fo. tenerum Hara; Aegopodium alpestre fo. tenuisectum Kitag.; Aegopodium alpestre var. daucifolium Gorovoj; Carum aplestre (Ledeb.) Koso-Pol.; Pimpinella kashmirica R.R. Stewart ex Dunn

Botany and Ecology Aegopodium alpestre: Plants (20–)30–100 cm. Roots fibrous from an elongate, slender rootstock. Stem hollow. Basal petioles 5–13 cm; blade broad-triangular in outline, 3–9  3.5–12 cm, ternate-2-pinnate; ultimate segments long-ovate or ovateH. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_12

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lanceolate, 1.5–3.5  0.7–2 cm, sessile, base cuneate, irregularly sharp-serrate, apex acute to acuminate. Umbels 3–8 cm across; peduncles 7–15 cm; rays 9–17, 2–4.5 cm; umbellules 10–15 mm across, many-flowered; pedicels 3–10 mm, unequal. Petals white. Styles 2–3  stylopodium. Fruit oblong or oblong-ovoid, 3–3.5  1.8–2.5 mm. Flowering and fruiting June–August (Wu et al. 1994–2013).

Local Food Uses Aegopodium alpestre is sometimes eaten as vegetable. The leaves of Aegopodium podagraria are used as salad (Kalle and Sõukand 2016; Kolosova et al. 2017; Łuczaj and Szymański 2007; Sõukand et al. 2017; Vogl-Lukasser et al. 2010).

References Kalle R, Sõukand R. Current and remembered past uses of wild food plants in Saaremaa, Estonia: changes in the context of unlearning debt. Econ Bot. 2016;70:235–53. Kolosova V, Svanberg I, Kalle R, Strecker L, Gençler Özkan AM, Pieroni A, Cianfaglione K, Molnár Z, Papp N, Łuczaj Ł, Dimitrova D, Šeškauskaitė D, Roper J, Hajdari A, Sõukand R. The bear in Eurasian plant names: motivations and models. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13:14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0132-9. Łuczaj Ł, Szymański WM. Wild vascular plants gathered for consumption in the Polish countryside: a review. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3:17. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-3-17. Sõukand R, Hrynevich Y, Vasilyeva I, Prakofjewa J, Vnukovich Y, Paciupa J, Hlushko A, Knureva Y, Litvinava Y, Vyskvarka S, Silivonchyk H, Paulava A, Kõiva M, Kalle R. Multi-functionality of the few: current and past uses of wild plants for food and healing in Liubań region, Belarus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13:10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0139-x. Vogl-Lukasser B, Vogl CR, Gütler M, Heckler S. Plant species with spontaneous reproduction in homegardens in Eastern Tyrol (Austria): perception and management by women farmers. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2010;8:1–15. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. St. Louis: Science Press, Beijing & Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013.

Aesculus indica (Wall. ex Cambess.) Hook. SAPINDACEAE Hem Raj Paudel, Prakash Poudel, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Aesculus indica (Wall. ex Cambess.) Hook.: Aesculus indica var. concolor Browicz; Pavia indica Royle; Pawia indica (Colebr.) Kuntze; Pavia indica Wall. ex Cambess.

H. R. Paudel (*) National Herbarium and Plant Laboratories, Department of Plant Resources, Godawari, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] P. Poudel (*) Department of Pharmacy, Novel Academy, Purbanchal University, Pokhara, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_13

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Local Names Aesculus indica: Nepali: panger, karu, pangra, lekh pangro, pangro, pangrya, Ghode pangro-Nepali (Manandhar 1986; Kunwar et al. 2010; Manandhar 1993; Bhattarai 1992; Kunwar and Duwadee 2003; Press et al. 2000); Sanskrit: naaru; Jammu: ban khodi, gugu, van khodi, bankhar, ban khor, khori; Himachal Pradesh: khanor, bankhor, tatwokhar; Hindi: fangar, bankhor, gugu, kanor, pankor; Kashmir: hane, hanudun; Punjab: kanur, gun, kanor; English: Indian horse chestnut.

Botany and Ecology Aesculus indica: Tree, 20 m or more tall. Petiole 10–15 cm long; petiolule 0.5–2 cm long. Leaflets 5–7( 9), elliptic to oblong-lanceolate, 10–20 cm long, 2.5–7 cm broad, acuminate, the middle one the largest, subserrate, cuneate, glabrous. Panicles 15– 30 cm long, puberulous to tomentose. Calyx tube about 5 mm long, campanulate, puberulous; lobes acute or rounded, 1.5–2 mm long. Petals 4, unequal, white, tinged yellow, 1.3–2.3 cm long, clawed, puberulous on the outside. Disc anterior, lobed. Anthers 2–2.5 mm long, oblong, sparsely pubescent; filaments about the size of the petals or longer, slightly curved, glabrous. Ovary elongated, about 5 mm long, puberulous; style about as long as the filaments. Capsule more or less ovoid; 3–4.5 ( 5) cm long, smooth. Seeds 2.7–3.5 cm broad, dark brown, and shiny. Flowering April–May; fruiting October–November. Afghanistan, Pakistan, and the W. Himalayas from Kashmir to Nepal (Ali and Qaiser 1995-2020) (Figs. 1, 2, 3 and 4).

Phytochemistry The seeds, which constitute the edible portion of the fruit, contain 50.5% moisture. The total sugar content is 5.58%, whereas the reducing and non-reducing sugars are 4.59 and 0.94%, respectively. The protein and mineral contents are 0.388 and 1.934%, respectively (Parmar and Kaushal 1982). β-Sitosterol and quercetin occur R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia

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Fig. 1 Aesculus indica (Sapindaceae), plant, Nepal. (Photo Hem R Paudel)

in the leaves, rutin and astragalin in the stems (Srijayanta et al. 2014), and aescin in the seeds (Khan et al. 1995) are important phytochemicals of A. indica. It contains the most active chemical constituent called aescin, which is a mixture of triterpenoid saponin with excellent anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. Naturally, aescin which exists in the water-insoluble and water-soluble fraction is used in the preparation of therapeutic agents required for oral administration (Sood et al. 2015).

Local Medicinal Uses Aesculus indica: The bark is astringent and used as a tonic and febrifuge. The leaves are used as fodder. The fruit is officinal and applied in rheumatic pains (Ali and Qaiser 1995-2020). Fruit powder is used for abdominal pain and as tonic, intestinal colic, and as astringent (Yousufzai et al. 2010). Fruits are anthelmintic and given to horses for colics; plant oil is externally used against rheumatism (Akhtar et al. 2013). The seed endocarp is crushed and mixed with wheat flour

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Fig. 2 Aesculus indica (Sapindaceae), plant in flowering stage, Nepal. (Photo Hem R Paudel)

and is given to horses to relieve stomach pain (Shah and Khan 2006). Seeds are used for the complaints of ulcers and hemorrhoids (Jamal et al. 2017). Leave extracts are used to treat whooping cough (Malik et al. 2019). The bark is used for colic and chest anemia (Muhammad et al. 2019). The fruit is used to cure abdominal pain and seed powder for jaundice (Khan et al. 2019). Fruit powder is used for general weakness and as stimulant (Ahmed and Murtaza 2015). Powdered fruits are eaten before breakfast and considered as anthelmintic. Oil extract from the fruit is externally applied to treat rheumatism (Sher et al. 2010). Dried ground leaves are mixed in oil and used to treat scabies in children less than 10 years. Dried ground fruits are taken orally to treat anorexia and constipation (Sher et al. 2016), used to treat rheumatism (Bhat et al. 2013) and to treat pain and skin problems (Kunwar et al. 2010), and used as astringent and tonic and for boils, burns, skin eruptions, headache, hair growth, joint pain, skin rashes, and wounds (Gairola et al. 2014). They are used to cure rheumatism, but for this purpose, the oil extracted from the seeds is preferred (Parmar and Kaushal 1982). In France and Germany, the bark of the tree is used to treat patients suffering from intermittent fever and ague. The nuts are used in the case of piles and obstinate constipation. An extract of leaves has been found to be useful in whooping cough

Aesculus indica (Wall. Ex Cambess.) Hook. Fig. 3 Aesculus indica (Sapindaceae), flowers, Nepal. (Photo Hem R Paudel)

Fig. 4 Aesculus indica (Sapindaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

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(Parmar and Kaushal 1982). Fruits and seeds are used in inflammation, foot injury, headache, cough, and cold and anthelmintic. Fruit paste is applied externally for skin diseases. Seed oil is applied in the case of skin diseases; oilcake is smeared on the forehead to relieve headache in Jumla (Manandhar 1986); and seed oil is valued for joint pain and skin problems (Kunwar et al. 2010). About 10–15 cotyledons are fed to cattle as an anthelmintic medicine (Manandhar 1993); the seed oil is smeared, regularly, on the affected parts to treat cutaneous infections like scabies and ringworm. The oil cake is made into a paste with water and applied to the forehead, which is supposed to relieve severe headache (Bhattarai 1992). Seed oil is used to cure rheumatism (Kunwar and Duwadee 2003), skin diseases (Kunwar and Adhikari 2005), and joint pain (Bhattarai et al. 2011). Fruit eases urination of livestock (Kunwar et al. 2018). Plant bark is used in colic and chest anemia (Muhammad et al. 2019), and leave extracts are used to treat whooping cough in Pakistan (Malik et al. 2019). The crushed seeds are used for washing clothes in Himachal Pradesh, India (Rajasekaran and Singh 2009).

Local Food Uses Aesculus indica: The seeds can be eaten (Ali and Qaiser 1995-2020). Flour from nuts is used for special food for pregnant women (Thakur et al. 2017). In some parts of Himachal Pradesh, the seeds are dried and ground into flour, which is called tattawakhar. This flour, which is bitter, is used for making halwa. Its bitterness is removed by soaking it in water for about 12 hours. The bitter component gets dissolved in water and is removed when the water is decanted. The halwa prepared from the flour is taken as phalahar (non-cereal food) during fasts. The fruits are used as a medicine for animals as well as for human beings. They are also fed to cattle after steeping them in water and also sometimes after mixing them with flour. The leaves are lopped and used as a fodder for cattle. The drinking cups are also sometimes made of it (Parmar and Kaushal 1982).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Aesculus indica: The Himalayan “horse chestnut” is found wild and is also cultivated as an ornamental tree, from 1200 to 3300 m. (Ali and Qaiser 1995-2020). Nuts are used against colic and to cure chest diseases in horses, donkeys, and mules (Akhtar et al. 2013). Used for timber and furniture (Aumeeruddy-Thomas et al. 2004; Mulk Khan et al. 2014). The fruits are given to horses suffering from colic. This tree has a magnificent appearance and is very ornamental on the account of its foliage and beautiful multicolored flowers. Because of these qualities, it is very suitable as an avenue tree (Parmar and Kaushal 1982). The leaves of the plant are given to livestock as fodder (Rana et al. 2019). Crushed seeds when fed to cattle are reported to improve the quality and quantity of milk (Syed et al. 2016). Plant wood is used for construction purpose in western Nepal (Kunwar and Duwadee 2003) (Fig. 5).

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Fig. 5 Aesculus indica (Sapindaceae), local collector processing nuts, Sakhra valley, Swat, Pakistan. (Photo I. Ur-Rahman & H. Sher)

References Ahmed MJ, Murtaza G. A study of medicinal plants used as ethnoveterinary: harnessing potential phytotherapy in Bheri, district Muzaffarabad (Pakistan). J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;159:209–14. Akhtar N, Rashid A, Murad W, Bergmeier E. Diversity and use of ethno-medicinal plants in the region of swat, North Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1):25. Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan and Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995-2020. Aumeeruddy-Thomas Y, Shinwari ZA, Ayaz A, Ahmad Khan A. Ethnobotany and the management of fodder and fuelwood at Ayubia National Park, north west Frontier Province, Pakistan. In: People and plants working paper 13. WWF: Surrey; 2004. Bhat J, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath wildlife sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:1. http://www.ethnobiomed.com/content/9/1/1 Bhattarai KR, Måren I, Chaudhary RP. Medicinal plant knowledge of the Panchase region in the Middle Hills of the Nepalese Himalayas. Banko Janakari. 2011;21(2):31–9. Bhattarai NK. Medical ethnobotany in the Karnali zone, Nepal. Econ Bot. 1992;46:257–61. https:// doi.org/10.1007/BF02866624. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Jamal Z, Pervez A, Hussain M, Shah GM, Shah SH, Ahmed M. Ethnomedicinal plants used for gastrointestinal ailments by the rural communities of Kaghan Valley, Mansehra, Pakistan. J Appl Environ Biol Sci. 2017;7(12):41–8.

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Khan L, Ahmad KD, Kifayatullah Q, Arfan M. Commercial extraction of aescin. Int J Pharmacognosy. 1995;33:344–5. Khan WM, Shah SZ, Khan MS, Akhtar N. Evaluation of indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants from tall Dardyal Hills, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. J Herbal Med. 2019;100314 Kunwar RM, Adhikari N. Ethnomedicine of Dolpa district, Nepal: the plants, their vernacular names and uses. Lyonia. J Ecol Appl. 2005;8(1):43–9. Kunwar RM, Duwadee NPS. Ethnobotanical notes on flora of Khaptad National Park (KNP) far-Western Nepal. Himal J Sci. 2003;1(1):25–30. Kunwar RM, Fadiman M, Cameron M, Bussmann RW, Thapa-Magar KB, Rimal B, Sapkota P. Cross-cultural comparison of plant use knowledge in Baitadi and Darchula districts, Nepal Himalaya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14 https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-018-0242-7. Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Bussmann RW. Traditional herbal medicine in far-West Nepal: a pharmacological appraisal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:35. https://doi.org/10.1186/17464269-6-35. Malik, K., Ahmad, M., Zafar, M., Sultana, S., Tariq, A., & Rashid, N.. Medicinal plants used for treatment of prevalent diseases in northern Pakistan of Western Himalayas. In Medicinal Plants-Use in Prevention and Treatment of Diseases. IntechOpen. 2019. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89932 Manandhar NP. Ethnobotany of Jumla District, Nepal. Int J Crude Drug Res. 1986;24(2) https://doi. org/10.3109/13880208609083311. Manandhar, N.P. 1993. Ethnobotanical note on folk-lore remedies of Baglung district, Nepal, contribution to Nepalese studies, http://himalay.socanth.cam.ac.uk. Muhammad N, Ali N, Uddin N. Ethno-veterinary practices used for treatment of various ailments in hilly areas of Melagah valley district swat KPK, Pakistan. Int J Bot Stud. 2019;4(3):171–9. Mulk Khan S, Page S, Ahmad H, Harper D. Ethno-ecological importance of plant biodiversity in mountain ecosystems with special emphasis on indicator species of a Himalayan Valley in the northern Pakistan. Ecol Indic. 2014;37:175–85. Parmar C, Kaushal ML. Aesculus indica. In: Wild Fruits. New Delhi: Kalyani; 1982. p. 6–9. Press JR, Shrestha KK, Sutton DA. Annotated checklist of the flowering plants of Nepal. London: Natural History Museum; 2000. Rajasekaran A, Singh J. Ethnobotany of Indian horse chestnut (Aesculus indica) in Mandi district, Himachal Pradesh. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2009;8(2):285–6. Rana D, Bhatt A, Lal B. Ethnobotanical knowledge among the semi-pastoral Gujjar tribe in the high altitude (Adhwari’s) of Churah subdivision, district Chamba, Western Himalaya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2019;15:10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-019-0286-3. Shah GM, Khan MA. Common medicinal folk recipes of siran valley, Mansehra, Pakistan. Ethnobot Leafl. 2006;2006(1):5. Sher H, Alyemeni MN, Wijaya L, Shah AJ. Ethnopharmaceutically important medicinal plants and its utilization in traditional system of medicine, observation from the northern parts of Pakistan. J Med Plants Res. 2010;4(18):1853–64. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni groups in Chitral District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Sood S, Mishra M, Sood A, Thakur V. Hypoglycaemic and hypocholesterolimic efficacy of horse chestnut (Aesculus indica) using rat models. J Clin Nutr Diet. 2015;1(6) ISSN 2472-1921 Srijayanta S, Raman A, Goodwin BL. A comparative study of the constituents of Aesculus hippocastanum and Aesculus indica. J Med Food. 2014;2(2):45–50. Syed IR, Sukhcharn S, Saxena DC. Evaluation of physical and compositional properties of horsechestnut (Aesculus indica) seed. J Food Proc Technol. 2016;7(3) https://doi.org/10.4172/21577110.1000561. Thakur D, Sharma A, Uniyal SK. Why they eat, what they eat: patterns of wild edible plants consumption in a tribal area of Western Himalaya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13:70. https:// doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0198-z. Yousufzai SA, Khan N, Wahab M, Ajaib M. Ethnomedicinal study of Marghazar Valley, Pakistan. Int J Biol Biotechnol. 2010;7:409–16.

Ageratina adenophora (Spreng.) R.M. King & H. Rob. ASTERACEAE Mohan Siwakoti, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Ageratina adenophora (Spreng.) R.M. King & H. Rob.: Ageratina trapezoides (Kunth) R.M. King & H. Rob; Eupatorium adenophora Spreng.; Eupatorium aenophorum Spreng; Eupatorium adenophorum var. peruvianum Harms; Eupatorium glandulosum Kunth; Eupatorium glandulosum Sch. Bip. ex Baker; Eupatorium padadendse Parish; Eupatorium trapezoideum Kunth.

M. Siwakoti Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_14

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Local Names Ageratina adenophora: Nepali: Banmara, Kalo banmara, Kaloharam, Kalimunte, Kalo tite, Raune, Hawe, Assame, Barmeli; English: Crofton weed, Eupatory, Sticky snakeroot, Mexican devil.

Botany and Ecology Ageratina adenophora: Shrubs or perennial herbs, 30–90( 200) cm tall. Stems erect; branches opposite, obliquely ascending, white or ferruginous puberulent, upper part and peduncles more densely so, glabrescent or glabrous in lower part by anthesis. Leaves opposite, long petiolate; blade abaxially pale, adaxially green, ovate, triangular-ovate, or rhombic-ovate, 3.5–7.5  1.5–3 cm, thin, both surfaces sparsely puberulent, more densely so abaxially and on veins, basally 3-veined, base truncate or slightly cordate, margin coarsely crenate, apex acute. Synflorescences terminal, corymbose or compound-corymbose, to 12 cm in diameter. Capitula numerous, 2–4 cm, 40–50-flowered; involucre broadly campanulate, about 3  4 mm; phyllaries 2-seriate, linear or linear-lanceolate, 3.5–5 mm, apex acute or acuminate; receptacle convex to conical; corollas purplish, tubular, about 3.5 mm. Achenes black-brown, narrowly elliptic, 1–1.5 mm, 5-angled, without hairs and glands; pappus setae 10, basally connate, white, fine, equal to corolla. Flowering and fruiting April–October (Siwakoti and Varma 1999; Wu et al. 1994–2013). The plant reproduces both by seeds and vegetative growth. It can produce 7,000 to 10,000 seeds per plant, of which 70–85% seeds are viable (Parsons and Cuthbertson 2001). When the plant introduced in new habitat, it can spread rapidly as an invasive weed due to adaptation of short and long distance seed dispersal by wind and water, discontinuous seed germination and prolonged viability, high stress tolerance, growth by root stock and stem fragment, high phenotypic plasticity, competitive ability through its allelopathy nature (Wu et al. 2004; Wang et al. 2011; Inderjit et al. 2011; Poudel et al. 2019). It invades in moist, open, and disturbed landscapes along the margins of forests, fallow-lands, and agricultural lands and causes huge economic losses and ecological impacts. During 1800s, the Mexican native plant was introduced in various countries as an ornamental plant in gardens; later on, it escaped to natural habitats and colonized rapidly as a problematic invasive plant throughout the world, and it invaded almost 40 countries in Asia, Oceania, Africa, and Europe (Wu et al. 2004; Muniappan et al. 2009; Poudel et al. 2019). In India, it was introduced in garden during 1924 (Tripathi et al. 1981) but the herbarium specimen of Central National Herbarium (CAL) showed in 1914 (Poudel et al. 2019). It is considered that the plant was introduced in Nepal via India and the first report was in 1952 (Tiwari et al. 2005). In Nepal, the plant occurs in subtropical and temperature regions (Siwaliks and Midhills) in West, Central, and East along the elevation of 400–3280 m (Tiwari et al. 2005; Siwakoti et al. 2016; Shrestah 2016). It is profusely grown in the wet places, roadsides, and walking trails (Figs, 1 and 2).

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Fig. 1 Ageratina. adenophora (Asteraceae), Nepal. (Photo Bharat Shrestha)

Phytochemistry The plant synthesizes a number of secondary metabolites along with 45 kinds of volatile compounds, mainly from the aerial parts (Subba and Kandel 2012; Ma et al. 2015). Researchers reported 8 monoterpenoids, 3 diterpenoids, 6 triterpenoids, 26 sesquiterpenes, 6 steroids, 8 of flavonoids, 25 phenolic acid derivatives, as well as other compounds such as fatty acids, alcohol, anhydrides, and ketones, which are known from this plant (Ma et al. 2015; Poudel et al. 2019). The allelochemicals properties of plant can inhibit the seed germination of many native species including forages and crops (Tripathi et al. 1981; Inderjit et al. 2011; Poudel et al. 2019).

Local Medicinal Uses Ageratina adenophora: Considered as one of the worst invasive alien plant species, so there is only a limited economic use of the plant, but it has been introduced in local pharmacopoeia (Kunwar et al. 2015, 2019). The leaf juice is used to stop

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Fig. 2 Ageratina adenophora (Asteraceae), population in habitat, Nepal. (Photo Bharat Shrestha)

bleeding of cut and wounds, forming clots, also used to pour into the eye to treat insomnia, and root juice is prescribed to treat fever (Subba and Kandel 2012). The plant also used for cattle bedding and composting (Tiwari et al. 2005; Baral et al. 2017; Shrestha et al. 2018). The extract is used to massage the body, and for cuts and wounds (Raj et al. 2018).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Ageratina adenophora: The biomass of this weed is used for making bio-briquettes (Baral et al. 2017). In China, the plant is used as a substrate to produce domestic fungus, as well as to make dye (Sun et al. 2004). The plant has poisonous effect on domestic animals such as horses. It is known to cause respiratory disease in horses and may result in death if horses continue to feed upon it for prolonged periods (O’Sullivan 1979). The plant in flowering stage is more toxic than juvenile stage (O’ Sullavan 1985). Researchers have also reported the potential uses of this weed as insecticides, water purifiers, sources of bioactive natural products, and substrate for mushroom cultivation, thereby opening ways for its extensive utilization (Poudel et al. 2019). Health hazards to human and other livestock have not been reported yet (Poudel et al. 2019). The gallfly (Procecidochares utilis) and leaf spot fungus (Passalora ageratinae) have been considered effective to suppress the growth of the

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plant (Poudel et al. 2019), and the growth of perennial native grasses (e.g., Setaria sphacellata and Lolium perenne) is beneficial to competitively suppress the invasion of the plant (Poudel et al. 2019).

References Baral S, Adhikari A, Khanal R, Malla Y, Kunwar R, Basnyat B, Guali K, Acharya RP. Invasion of alien plant species and their impact on different ecosystems of Panchase area, Nepal. Banko Janakari. 2017;27:31–42. Inderjit EA, Crocoli C, Bajpai D, Kaur R, Feng Y, Silva C, Carrean JT, Valient-Banquet A, Gershenzon, Callaway RM. Volatile chemicals from leaf litter associated with invasiveness of a neo-tropical weed in Asia. Ecology. 2011;92:316–24. Kunwar RM, Acharya RP, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plant dynamics in indigenous medicines in Farwest Nepal. J Ethnopharnacol. 2015;163:210–9. Kunwar RM, Shrestha K, Malla S, Acharya T, Sementelli A, Kutal D. Ethnobotany. Relation of medicinal plants, their use patterns and availability in the lower Kailash Sacred Landscape, Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;187. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.6.1-14. Ma QP, Cheng CR, Li XF, Liang XY, Ding J. Chemistry, pharmacological activities and analysis of Ageratina adenophora. Asian J Chem. 2015;27:4311–6. Muniappan R, Raman A, Reddy GVP. Ageratina adenophora (Sprengel) King & Robinson (Asteraceae). In: Muniappan R, Raman A, Reddy GVP, editors. Biological control of tropical weeds using arthropods. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press; 2009. p. 63–73. O’Sullavan BM. Investigations into Crofton weed (Eupatorium adenophorum) toxicity in 638 horses. Aust Vet J. 1985;62:30–2. O’Sullivan BM. Crofton weed (Eupatorium adenophorum) toxicity in horses. Aust Vet J. 1979;55:19–21. Parsons WT, Cuthbertson EG. Noxious weeds of Australia. 2nd ed. Collingwood: CSIRO Publishing; 2001. p. 239–42. Poudel AS, Jha PK, Shrestha BB, Muniappan R. Biology and management of the invasive weed Ageratina adenophora (Asteraceae): current state of knowledge and future research needs. Int J Weed Biol Ecol Vegetat Manag. 2019;1–14. https://doi.org/10.1111/Wre.12. Raj AJ, Biswakarma B, Pala NA, Shukla G, Vineeta V, Kumar M, Chakravarty S, Bussmann RW. Indigenous uses of ethno-medicinal plants among forest dependent communities of Northern Bengal, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;141:8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002018-0208-9. Shrestah BB. Invasive alien plant species in Nepal. In: Jha PK, Siwakoti M, Rajbhandary SR, editors. Frontiers of botany. Kathmandu: Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University; 2016. p. 269–84. Shrestha BB, Shrestha UB, Sharma KP, Thapa-Parajuli RB, Devkota A, Siwakoti M. Community perception and prioritization of invasive alien plants in Chitwan-Annapurna landscape, Nepal. J Environ Manag. 2018;229:38–47. Siwakoti M, Varma SK. Plant diversity of eastern Nepal: Flora of plains of eastern Nepal. Dehradun: Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh; 1999. 202p Siwakoti M, Shrestha BB, Devkota A, Shrestha UB, Thapa-Parajuli RB, Sharma KP. Assessment of the effects of climate change on distribution of invasive alien plant species in Nepal. In: Bhuju DR, McLaughlin K, Siuapati J, Devkota BD, Shrestha N, Ghimire GP, Neupane PK, editors. Building knowledge for climate resilience in Nepal: research brief. Kathmandu: Nepal Academy of Science and Technology; 2016. p. 66–72. Subba B, Kandel RC. Chemical composition and bioactivity of essential oil of Ageratina adenophora from Bhaktapur District of Nepal. J Nepal Chem Soc. 2012;30:78–86.

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Sun XY, Lu ZH, Sang WG. Review on studies of Eupatorium adenophorum - an important invasive species in China. J Forest Res. 2004;15:319–22. Tiwari S, Adhikari B, Siwakoti M, Subedi K. An inventory and assessment of invasive alien species of Nepal. Kathmandu: IUCN; 2005. Tripathi RS, Singh RS, Rai JPN. Allelopathic potential of Eupatorium adenophorum - a dominant ruderal weed of Meghalaya. Proc Indian Natl Sci Acad. 1981;B47:458–65. Wang R, Wang JF, Qiu ZJ, Meng B, Wan FH, Wang YZ. Multiple mechanisms underlie rapid expansion of an invasive alien plant. New Phytol. 2011;191:828–39. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. St. Louis: Science Press, Beijing & Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Wu ZH, Qin GL, Deng TJ. Invasion and establishment of Eupatorium adenophorum Spreng. and its risk appraisal in some areas of Guangxi. Southwest China J Agric Sci. 2004;469–471.

Ajuga brachystemon Maxim. Ajuga parviflora Benth. in Wall. LAMIACEAE Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms: Bulga brachystemon (Maxim) Kuntze

Local Names Ajuga brachystemon: Garhwal: neelkanthi, rajpatti; Buner: boote; Urdu: gooti; Kashmir: janiadam, jain-i-adam; Jammu: jo-aaran, neel kanthi.

R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_15

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Botany and Ecology Ajuga parviflora: Annual or short-lived perennial. Stems spreading or ascending, 10–25 cm, usually unbranched, with a sparse to dense eglandular indumentum of long villous multicellular hairs. Leaves rosette-forming or not, variable in size, up to 45  25 mm, obovate-spathulate to elliptic, entire to crenate, narrowed into petiole, entire to irregularly crenate, with multicellular eglandular hairs, thin-textured; petiole on basal leaves up to 20 mm; cauline leaves smaller than basal and decreasing up the stem. Inflorescence unbranched of up to 18 distant or approximating 8–12flowered verticillasters. Calyx 2.5–4 mm with a similar indumentum to stem and with or without sessile oil globules, campanulate; teeth triangular lanceolate, acute, as long as tube; basally enlarged as nutlets mature. Corolla pink, bluish white to

Fig. 1 Ajuga bracteosa (Lamiaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hassan Sher & Ikram Ur Rahman)

Fig. 2 Ajuga genevensis (Lamiaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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white, 5–6( 8) mm, pilose; tube slender, shortly exserted from calyx lobes. Stamens usually included in corolla tube. Nutlets pale brown, transversely rugose with prominent ridges, about 1.5  1 mm. Flowering March–June. E. Afghanistan, Pakistan, Kashmir, NW India. (Ali and Qaiser 1995-2020) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Fig. 3 Ajuga genevensis (Lamiaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Ajuga genevensis (Lamiaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Local Medicinal Uses The leaves of Ajuga brachystemon are used in India to treat fevers (Kumar et al. 2011) and in Jammu and Kashmir as astringent, blood-purifier, anthelminthic, diuretic, styptic, stimulant, tonic, hair tonic, hair wash, and anthelminthic and for abdominal pain, diarrhea, fever, gastric disorders, headache, jaundice, leukorrhea, malaria, oral ulcers, wounds, stomach ache, and rheumatism (Gairola et al. 2014). Also employed to remedy hypertension, jaundice, fever, joint swelling (Jan et al. 2017) and stomach ache (Malik et al. 2015). Ajuga turkestanica: A leaf decoction is used as anti-inflammatory agent and for wounds, burns, tonsilitis, diseases of the stomach, and rheumatism (Bussmann et al. 2020). Ajuga integrifolia leaves are masticated in Pakistan against throat ache, and a decoction is given to women to ease labor (Sher et al. 2015) and to treat diabetes (Ullah et al. 2019). Ajuga remota is used in Kenya as antimalarial and anthelminthic and for colds and flu and stomach problems (Njoroge et al. 2004; Njoroge and Bussmann 2006a, b). Ajuga parviflora: In Jammu and Kashmir, it is used to treat cough, fever, intestinal infections, indigestion, stomach disorders, piles, malaria, and gonorrhea and as purgative and diuretic (Gairola et al., 2014). Ajuga integrifolia is used for diarrhea, malaria, and wound care (Gedif and Hahn 2003), to expel a retained placenta and treat ascariasis (Giday et al. 2009a, b), and for wounds, amoebiasis, and boils (Giday et al. 2010). Ajuga alba serves to treat earache (Yineger et al. 2008). Ajuga chamaepitys is used as tonic, anti-pyretic, emmenagogue, and diuretic and against hemorrhoids and for wound care (Altundaga and Oztürk 2011).

Local Food Uses Ajuga turkestanica: The leaves are eaten in soups and as a salad (Bussmann et al. 2020).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Ajuga turkestanica: Fodder for cattle (Bussmann et al. 2020). Ajuga remota is used in Kenya in veterinary medicine for cattle (Njoroge and Bussmann 2004; 2006c).

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References Ahmad L, Semotiuk A, Zafar M, Ahmad M, Sultana S, Liu Q-R, Zada MP, Ul Abidin SZ, Yaseen G. Ethnopharmacological documentation of medicinal plants used for hypertension among the local communities of DIR lower, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;175:138–46. Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan and Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995-2020. Altundaga E, Oztürk M. Ethnomedicinal studies on the plant resources of East Anatolia, Turkey. Proc Soc Behav Sci. 2011;19:756–77. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z. Ajuga sp.; Ajuga turkestanica Briq. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions Central Asia and Altai. Cham: Springer International Publishing International Publishing; 2020. https:// doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77087-1_15-1. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Gedif T, Hahn H-J. The use of medicinal plants in self-care in rural Central Ethiopia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2003;87:155–61. Giday M, Asfaw Z, Woldu Z, Teklehaymanot T. Medicinal plant knowledge of the bench ethnic group of Ethiopia: an ethnobotanical investigation. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2009a;5:34. https:// doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-5-34. Giday M, Asfaw Z, Woldu Z. Medicinal plants of the Meinit ethnic group of Ethiopìa: an ethnobotanical study. J Ethnopharmacol. 2009b;124:513–21. Giday M, Asfaw Z, Woldu Z. Ethnomedicinal study of plants used by Sheko ethnic group of Ethiopia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010;1321:75–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2010.07.046. Jan AH, Wali S, Ahmad L, Jana S, Ahmad N, Ullah N. Ethnomedicinal survey of medicinal plants of Chinglai valley, Buner district, Pakistan. Eur J Integr Med. 2017;13:64–74. Kumar M, Bussmann RW, Mukesh J, Kumar P. Ethnomedicinal uses of plants close to rural habitation in Garhwal Himalayan, India. J Med Plant Res. 2011;511:2252–60. Malik ZA, Bhat J, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhat AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44. Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Herbal usage and informant consensus in ethnoveterinary management of cattle diseases among the kikuyus Central Kenya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2006a;108:332–9. Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Phytotherapeutic management of diversity and utilization of antimalarial ethnophytotherapeutic remedies among the kikuyus Central Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006b;2:8. Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Traditional management of ear, nose and throat ENT diseases in Central Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006c;2:54. Njoroge GN, Barbara G, Bussmann RW, Newton LE, Ngumi VW. Utilization of weed species as source of traditional medicines in Central Kenya: optimizing resource efficiency R.U.E. in agroecosystems. Lyonia. 2004;72:71–87. Sher H, Aldosari A, Bussmann RW. Morels of Palas Valley, Pakistan: a potential source for generating revenue, income and improving livelihood of mountain communities. Econ Bot. 2015;69(4):345–59. Ullah M, Mehmood S, Ali M, Bussmann RW, Aldosari A, Ali Khan R, Ullah R, Hussain W, Rahman Shah MA. An ethnopharmacological study of plants used for treatment of diabetes in the southern and tribal regions of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18(8):1–20. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.8.1-20. Yineger H, Kelbessa E, Bekele T, Lulekal E. Plants used in traditional management of human ailments at Bale Mountains National Park, southeastern Ethiopia. J Med Plants Res. 2008;26:132–53.

Allium carolinianum DC. Allium griffithianum Boiss. Allium humile Kunth Allium jacquemontii Regel Allium oreoprasum Schrenk AMARYLLIDACEAE Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Synonyms Allium carolinianum DC.: Allium aitchisonii Baker, Allium aitchisonii Regel, Allium blandum Wall., Allium obtusifolium Klotzsch, Allium platyspathum var. falcatum Regel, Allium platystylum Regel, Allium polyphyllum Kar. & Kir., Allium thomsonii Baker. Allium griffithianum Boiss.: Allium rubellum var. grandiflorum Boiss. Allium humile Kunth: Allium govanianum Wall. ex Baker, Allium nivale Jacquem. ex Hook. f. & Thomson.

Local Names Allium carolinianum: Pashto: jangli wezai; Baltistan: broq chong; chong; Northwest Pakistan: khokhai; Jammu: arum, kotse, skiche; Kashmir: praan, gogcheegma. H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_16

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Allium griffithianum: Kurram: payazaki. Allium humile: Garhwal: pangri. Allium jacquemontii: Kurram: zangali, payaz. Allium oreoprasum: Nepali: lungho. Allium sativum: Pashto: woga; Khyber Pakhtunkhwa: werzenu; Kashmir: gande, gundh, rohun, gand, rhoon, rohan, ruhan; Jammu: pyaaz, ganda, thoom, Ladakh: tsong, gogps, sgogpa, skokpa. Allium cepa: Pashto: payz.

Botany and Ecology Allium carolinianum: Bulbs usually paired, ovoid to ovoid-cylindric, 1–2.5 cm in diameter; tunic brown to yellowish-brown, leathery, apex separated, usually fibrous. Leaves broadly linear, usually falcate, shorter than scape, (3–)5–15-mm wide, flat, smooth, apex obtuse. Scape 20–40( 60) cm, terete, covered with leaf sheaths for about half its length. Spathe 2-valved, persistent. Umbel globose, densely many flowered. Pedicels subequal, slightly shorter than to twice as long as perianth, bracteolate or ebracteolate. Perianth pale red to purple-red or white; segments oblong to narrowly so, (4.5–)6–8( 9.4)  1.5–3 mm, apex obtuse, sometimes retuse; inner ones subequaling to slightly longer than outer. Filaments subulate, slightly shorter than to twice as long as perianth segments, connate at base and adnate to perianth segments for about 1 mm; inner ones wider than outer at base. Ovary subglobose, with concave nectaries at base. Style exserted. Flowering and fruiting June to September (Wu et al. 1994-2013). Allium griffithianum: Plants up to 40 cm tall. Bulb ovoid, outer coats coriaceous, fibrous grayish-black; inner coats membranous; bulblets present, few, large. Leaves 2–3, linear, semicylindrical, fistular, grooved, 1–2 mm broad, glabrous. Umbels hemispherical, dense flowered. Pedicels very unequal, 5–20 mm long. Tepals broadly lanceolate to oval, 6–7-mm long, white to light pink or light purple, acute to obtuse, veins prominent; inner tepals shorter than the outer, distinctly gibbous at the base. Filaments entire, about 1/3 the length of the tepals, about 2/3 of the filaments united, upper 1/3 free; inner filaments broad, ovate, outer narrower, triangular. Flowering March to April. Central Asia, Afghanistan, India, and Pakistan. A very common species (Ali and Qaiser 1995-2020). Allium humile: Bulb solitary, cylindric; tunic brown, reticulate or subreticulate. Leaves 4–7, linear, 4–5-mm wide, flat, solid, fleshy, apex obtuse. Scape 5–15 cm, slightly compressed, covered with leaf sheaths only at base. Umbel hemispheric, many flowered. Pedicels subequal, 1.5–2 times as long as perianth. Perianth broadly exposed, white; segments with yellowish-green midvein, lanceolate, 7–8 ( 10)  about 2 mm. Filaments equal, about 1/2 as long as perianth segments. Ovary obconical-globose. Style short; stigma slightly three-cleft. Flowering June (Wu et al. 1994-2013). Allium jacquemontii: Plants 15–35 cm tall. Bulb ovoid, 0.5–1.2 cm broad; outer coats coriaceous, striate, black-brown; inner membranous. Scapes slender, glabrous.

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Leaves 2–3, linear, fistular, 0.5–1.5 mm broad, glabrous. Umbels dense flowered, about 3 cm across. Pedicels filiform, about 15-mm long. Tepals rose colored, about 5–mm long, oval, acute. Filaments about 2/3 the length of the tepals, entire, inner broader, triangular; anthers dark violet colored. Style included; stigma capitate. Flowering March to April: Central Asia, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and India. A common species in the plains and the foothills (Ali and Qaiser 1995-2020). Allium oreoprasum: Bulbs clustered, narrowly ovoid-cylindric, 0.5–1 cm in diameter; tunic yellowish-brown, reticulate. Leaves narrowly linear, shorter than (sometimes half as long as) scape, 1–3( 4)-mm wide. Scape 11–30( 40) cm, terete, covered with leaf sheaths only at base. Spathe 1- or 2-valved, persistent. Umbel fascicled to hemispheric, few flowered. Pedicels subequal, 1.5–3 times as long as perianth, bracteolate. Perianth pale red to white; segments with dark purple midvein, obovate-elliptic to broadly so, 4.2–7  2.5–4 mm, apex with a conduplicate and reflexed point; inner ones usually shorter and wider than outer. Filaments 1/2–3/4 as long as perianth segments, connate at base and adnate to perianth segments for 1.2– 1.5 mm; outer ones narrowly triangular, slightly shorter than inner and about half as wide at base; inner ones broadly triangular. Ovary subglobose, without concave nectaries at base. Style not exserted; stigma slightly three-cleft. Flowering and fruiting June to August (Wu et al. 1994-2013).

Local Medicinal Uses Many species of wild onion with garlic scent are widely used in folk medicine. The tincture has antimicrobial properties and is used in atherosclerosis, colitis, and diarrhea. Fresh or cooked onions are applied topically for certain skin diseases (abrasions, sores). Fresh juice from the leaves and bulbs with sugar is used for the treatment of diseases of the upper respiratory tract. Onion improves vision; onion juice prevents the development of cataracts in the early stages. Alcohol tinctures regulate blood pressure and improve the elasticity of capillaries (Bussmann 2017; Fayvush et al. 2017). Allium carolinianum serves to remedy diabetes (Ullah et al. 2019), as appetite stimulant and tonic and to treat jaundice and skin and eye inflammations (Pawera et al. 2015). It is also used for joint pain and gastrointestinal disorders (Abbas et al. 2016). In Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh, it is used for constipation, female ailments, joint pain, indigestion, and swollen joints (Gairola et al. 2014). Allium griffithianum serves to remedy colic and vomiting (Muhammad et al. 2019). Allium jacquemontii: Fresh leaves are plucked though they are bitter in taste, but when eaten raw or cooked along with other pot herbs, it is a good remedy for gastrointestinal disorders especially stomachache (Jan et al. 2017). Rhizome is used for stomach disorder (Muhammad et al. 2019), unequal mammary glands and hypertension (Ahmad et al. 2015), as well as stomach disorders (Muhammad et al. 2019). Allium oreoprasum: In Nepal it is used to treat colds, cough, and sore throat. The species showed antiviral properties (Rajbhandari et al. 2007).

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Allium ursinum is used for wound healing in the form of a decoction, gargle, and applications as disinfectant and wound healing remedy in diseases of the skin and women’s diseases and for abscess. The plant is used raw in scurvy. Allium species are used as anthelminthic (Bussmann 2017; Fayvush et al. 2017). Allium victorialis is used for infectious diseases: Used in the fresh form as antimicrobial and anthelmintic remedy (Bussmann 2017; Fayvush et al. 2017). In Jammu and Kashmir, it is used for toothache and diarrhea (Gairola et al. 2014). Allium giganteum: During the spring people use its fresh leaves in traditional foods such as Ugro, Oshi Burida, Otala, Hirik, Oshi tupa, and Mastoba. It provides a unique taste, and people believe it has health benefits (nutraceutical). Local people also dry its leaves and use it in different traditional foods as a spice during winter times. The bulbs are collected and pickled. Onion pickles are very popular in Tajikistan (Bussmann et al. 2020). Allium karataviense: In Middle Asia it is used for lung problems. The decoction of bulbs is used in traditional medicine for pulmonary diseases and strong shortness of breath (Bussmann et al. 2020). Allium proliferum: In Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh, it is used for joint health (Gairola et al. 2014). Allium stipitatum: Used as ornamental, in traditional medicine, and as a vegetable. The plants are applied in folk medicine against skin diseases. Plants are baked or cooked in honey and used against several diseases. The bulbs have disinfectant properties and are used to treat rheumatism and high blood pressure and as a booster in the digestive tract (Bussmann et al. 2020). Allium cepa: In popular medicine it is considered as a great disinfectant, and in this way it is used in the form of plasters on the affected part and in cases of bites and insect bites. The onion is also considered effective to reduce inflammation and disinfect the respiratory tract: it is used especially to treat hoarseness, sore throats, and inflammation of the nasal mucosa. Consuming it as juice or broth mixed with a little sugar and drunk in glasses, combined with the application of plasters, is used successfully to treat inflammations, wounds, boils, abscesses, and fistulas. Fresh bulbs are used to treat high blood pressure, varicose veins, diabetes, rheumatism, asthma, and cough for blood cleansing. Fresh bulbs are used to treat cough. In Peru it is used for cough and bronchial problems (Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2020). In Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh, it is used for hair health (Gairola et al. 2014). Allium przewalskianum: In Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh, it is given to women after delivery to improve strength and is used for dysentery, stomachache, abdominal gas, hypertension, and stomach pain (Gairola et al. 2014). Allium rubellum: In Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh, it is used for earache, giddiness, insect bites, and respiratory troubles and as expectorant (Gairola et al. 2014). Allium consanguineum: In Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh, it is used as aphrodisiac and stimulant (Gairola et al. 2014). Allium odorum is used in Peru for bronchitis, asthma, and bruises (PaniaguaZambrana et al. 2020). Allium sativum: Commonly used against intestinal worms, to reduce blood pressure and blood sugar, as an antispasmodic, to lower levels of cholesterol in the blood, and

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for intestinal diseases. It is usually used raw and as a disinfectant and a tonic for the pituitary gland. It is a plant that also relieves diabetes and rheumatism in general. Garlic is also used to regulate liver function and cure hemorrhoids, varicose veins, gastrointestinal infections, and dysentery. The whole plant is used for witchcraft and good luck. Fresh bulbs are used for blood cleansing; to treat arthritis, rheumatism, high blood pressure, diabetes, high cholesterol, hemorrhage, bronchitis, cough, gastritis, intestinal infections, liver problems, and cancer; and as analgesic, circulatory stimulant, tonic, and vermifuge. Fresh bulbs are used to treat high blood pressure, cough, tonsillitis, and hemorrhage and for cultural illnesses (e.g., that the kari kari (a spirit) stays away and to stay young). Fresh bulbs are used to treat cough, bronchitis and colds, and other respiratory disorders. Its antibacterial activity has been confirmed (Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2020). It is used in Pakistan to treat blood pressure and menopausal problems, as aphrodisiac (Sher et al. 2016), and for indigestion and goiter (Reang et al. 2016). Allium gilgiticum serves to treat pain and headache (Wali et al. 2019).

Local Food Uses Allium carolinianum is eaten as vegetable (Ahmad et al. 2015; Ullah et al. 2019) and used as condiment (Abbas et al. 2019). Young leaves and stems of Allium paradoxum together with the bulbs in fresh or pickled form are used as seasoning for various dishes. The leaves and stems of Allium paradoxum together with bulbs are used as one of the ingredients for cooking the national dishes Dovga (a soup cooked from yogurt, various greens, a small amount of rice, and eggs. In some regions of the country, a small amount of peas is added to it. It is considered good for digestion and for treatment of intestinal cramps and has warming and diaphoretic effects), Kutab (various edible greens baked in a thin rolled dough. In some regions of the country, white cheese, or cottage cheese. Before it is eaten, the rolls are greased with butter, often mixed with yoghurt), and Kuku (an omelet with various greens, sometimes with added meat or fish, and often mixed with yoghurt. This food is believed to strengthen the organism and stimulates libido, especially if eaten with cinnamon and fried onions). Allium humile and Allium stracheyi: Used as food in Garhwal (Thakur et al. 2017). Allium victorialis has a very strong garlic taste. It is used fresh, fermented, and salted (Bussmann 2017; Fayvush et al. 2017). Allium ursinum is used raw and in the form of a marinade with salt and vinegar. Young leaves of Allium ursinum are fried thoroughly in oil with onions (with either walnuts or eggs added in some regions) and are eaten with yoghurt (Bussmann 2017; Fayvush et al. 2017). The consumption of leaves of Allium ursinum and A. victorialis is widespread in the Caucasus. A. ursinum is consumed at lower and A. victorialis at higher altitudes. The use of the latter species is more frequent. It was customary to eat the leaves pickled (Bussmann 2017; Fayvush et al. 2017).

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Allium karataviense: In Tajikistan the whole plant is eaten (Sokolov 1994). Leaves and bulbs are widely used in traditional foods such as Oshi burida, Oshi tuppa, and Alafjush (Bussmann et al. 2020). Allium rosenbachianum: Local people use fresh leaves as well as dried leaves depending on the season in Tajik national dishes such as Oshi burida, Ugro, Umoch, Otalla, Birinjoba, and Hirik (Bussmann et al. 2020). Allium stipitatum: Young and undeveloped bulbs are pickled in aromatic vinegar (Tajik “pijozi anzur,” Uzbek “anzur pijoz,” Persian “mu-sir,” Dari “toshi”) and used as appetizer and with meals (Bussmann et al. 2020). Allium tenuissimum: A very widely used species. The inflorescence and seeds can be used as condiments. All kinds of livestock like to eat; it is an excellent forage plant. Zama is widely distributed, but most popular in Central Inner Mongolia, the Loess Plateau area. It comes from Mongolian phonetic translation, but after the spread of the Han people, it has become zemeng, zameng, and other similar names. This species has very fine and narrow leaves and is extremely drought-tolerant (Bussmann et al. 2020). Allium trautvetterianum: People use the leaves of this onion species fresh as well as dried depending the season. It is important in Tajik national foods, such as Modeloba, Oshiburida, Oshitupa, Umoch, Ugro, and Mastoba (Bussmann et al. 2020). Allium cepa and A. sativum are used as a seasoning and as a food (Wali et al. 2019; Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2020). Lots of Allium species serve as seasoning for the Naxi in Yunnan (Zhang et al. 2016). Allium gilgiticum is a vegetable in Gilgit-Baltistan (Wali et al. 2019).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Allium giganteum: The plant produces a big umbel of flowers and is used in horticulture as an ornamental plant (Bussmann et al. 2020). Allium karavatiense: It is a highly appreciated ornamental plant for its beautiful inflorescence (Bussmann et al. 2020). Allium stipitatum: Piyozi anzur is used as ornamental plant because of its flower umbels. However, overharvesting of bulbs from natural populations for different uses has resulted in inclusion of this species in the Red Book of Tajikistan (Bussmann et al. 2020). Allium rosenbachianum: The plant is used as an ornamental (Bussmann et al. 2020). Allium trautvetterianum: This is very rarely offered as ornamental (Bussmann et al. 2020). Allium odorum and Allium sativum are used in Peru for bad air/mal aire and to cleanse the house of spirits (Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2020). In Ethiopia it is used to treat hepatitis in livestock (Yineger et al. 2007). Allium gilgiticum can be used as forage (Wali et al. 2019) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, and 23).

Allium carolinianum DC. . . . Fig. 1 Allium cepa (Amaryllidaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Allium fistulosum (Amaryllidaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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190 Fig. 3 Allium fistulosum (Amaryllidaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Allium fistulosum (Amaryllidaceae), Pankisi gorge, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Allium fistulosum (Amaryllidaceae), Pankisi gorge, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Allium carolinianum DC. . . . Fig. 6 Allium victorialis (Amaryllidaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 7 Allium victorialis (Amaryllidaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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192 Fig. 8 Allium victorialis (Amaryllidaceae), pickled, Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 9 Allium sativum (Amaryllidaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Allium carolinianum DC. . . . Fig. 10 Allium schoenoprasum (Amaryllidaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 11 Allium schoenoprasum (Amaryllidaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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194 Fig. 12 Allium karataviense (Amaryllidaceae), Tajikistan. (Photo M. Boboev)

Fig. 13 Allium karataviense (Amaryllidaceae), Tajikistan. (Photo M. Boboev)

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Allium carolinianum DC. . . . Fig. 14 Allium sp. (Amaryllidaceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 15 Allium rosenbachianum (Amaryllidaceae), Tajikistan. (Photo M. Boboev)

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196 Fig. 16 Allium rosenbachianum (Amaryllidaceae), Tajikistan. (Photo M. Boboev)

Fig. 17 Allium cepa (Amaryllidaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Allium carolinianum DC. . . .

Fig. 18 Allium rosenbachianum (Amaryllidaceae), Tajikistan. (Photo M. Boboev) Fig. 19 Allium stipitatum (Amaryllidaceae), Tajikistan. (Photo M. Boboev)

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198 Fig. 20 Allium stipitatum (Amaryllidaceae), Tajikistan. (Photo M. Boboev)

Fig. 21 Allium stipitatum (Amaryllidaceae), Tajikistan. (Photo M. Boboev)

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Fig. 22 Allium tenuissimum (Amaryllidaceae), Local Mongolians grow Zama Allium tenuissimum on their roof, where no fierce competition with other species. (Photo Runkuan Liu & Shuanlian Pu)

Fig. 23 Wild semiarid habitat of Allium tenuissimum accompanied by Fabaceae sp. (Photo Runkuan Liu & Shuanlian Pu)

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References Abbas Z, Mulk Khan S, Mehmood Abbasi A, Pieroni A, Ullah Z, Iqbal M, Ahmad Z. Ethnobotany of the Balti community, Tormik valley, Karakorum range, Baltistan, Pakistan. Abbas et al. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12(38) https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0114-y. Abbas, Z., Alam, J., Muhammad, S., Bussmann, R.W., Mulk Khan, S., Hussain, M. 2019. Phytocultural diversity of the Shigar valley Central Karakorum Baltistan, northern Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl 1832 https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.31.1-18. Ahmad L, Semotiuk A, Zafar M, Ahmad M, Sultana S, Liu QR, et al. Ethnopharmacological documentation of medicinal plants used for hypertension among the local communities of DIR lower, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;175:138–46. Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan and Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995-2020. Bussmann, RW; Batsatsashvili, K; Kikvidze, Z; Boboev, M; Ghorbani, A; de Boer, H; Kool, A; Liu, B; Zhao, L; Ma, Z (2020). Allium giganteum Regel; Allium karataviense Regel.; Allium rosenbachianum Regel; Allium stipitatum Regel; Allium suworowii Regel; Allium trautvetterianum Regel. In: Batsatsashvili, K; Kikvidze, Z; Bussmann, RW (Eds.) Ethnobotany of mountain regions Central Asia and Altai. Springer International Publishing International Publishing Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77087-3_16-1. Bussmann RW (ed.). Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1). Fayvush G, Aleksanyan A, Mehdiyeva N, Alizade V, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Allium paradoxum (M. Bieb.) G. Don; Allium ursinum L.; Allium victorialis L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/978-3-319-49412-8_135. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Jan HA, Wali S, Ahmad L, Jan S, Ahmad N, Ullah N. Ethnomedicinal survey of medicinal plants of Chinglai valley, Buner district, Pakistan. Eur J Integr Med. 2017;13:64–74. Muhammad S, Hussain M, Abbas Z, Saqib Z, Bussmann RW, Shah GM. An ethnomedicinal appraisal of the Kurram agency, tribal area, Pakistan. Indian J Tradit Knowl (IJTK). 2019;18(4):631–47. Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, Romero ABOUT. Allium cepa L.; Allium fistulosum L.; Allium ramosum L.; Allium sativum L. In: Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions – Ethnobotany of the Andes. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77093-2_15-1. Pawera L, Verner V, Termote C, Sodombekov I, Kadanov A, Karabaev N, Skalicky M, Polesny Z. Medical ethnobotany of herbal practitioners in the Turkestan range, southwestern Kyrgyzstan. Acta Soc Botan Polon. 2015; https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3483. Rajbhandari M, Mentel R, Jha PK, Chaudhary RP, Bhattarai S, Gewali MB, Karmacharya N, Hipper M, Lindequist U. Antiviral activity of some plants used in Nepalese traditional medicine. eCAM. 2007:1–6. https://doi.org/10.1093/ecam/nem156. Reang I, Goswami S, Pala NA, Kumar K, Bussmann RW. Ethnoveterinary applications of medicinal plants by traditional herbal healers in Reang tribe of South district Tripura, India. Med Aroma Plant. 2016;5–2. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni groups in Chitral District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Sokolov PD. (ed.). Plant resources of Russia and adjacent states: Flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 8. Families Butomaceae - Typhaceae. Akademia Nauk, Leningrad, 1994;271 p. (in Russian).

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Thakur D, Sharma A, Uniyal SK. Why they eat, what they eat: patterns of wild edible plants consumption in a tribal area of Western Himalaya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13:70. https:// doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0198-z. Ullah M, Mehmood S, Ali M, Bussmann RW, Aldosari A, Ali Khan R, Ullah R, Hussain W, Rahman Shah MA. An ethnopharmacological study of plants used for treatment of diabetes in the southern and tribal regions of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18(8) https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.8.1-20. Wali R, Rahman K, Raja NI, Qureshi R, Bussmann RW, Mashwani ZUR. A quantitative medico botanical expedition of fairy meadows National Park, Diamir, Gilgit Baltistan, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019, 1835; https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.35.1-30. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994-2013. Zhang L, Chai Z, Zhang Y, Geng Y, Wang Y. Ethnobotanical study of traditional edible plants used by the Naxi people during droughts. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:39. https://doi.org/10. 1186/s13002-016-0113-z.

Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br. APOCYNACEAE Man D. Bhatt, Ripu M. Kunwar, Bijendra Basnyat, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br.: Alstonia constricta F. Muell.; Alstonia kurzii Hook. f.; Alstonia spectabilis Kurz; Echites pala Buch.-Ham. ex Spreng.; Echites scholaris L.; Pala scholaris (L.) Roberty.

M. D. Bhatt Botany Department, Siddhanath Science Campus, Tribhuvan University, Kanchanpur, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] B. Basnyat NARMA Consultancy, Kathmandu, Nepal R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_17

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Local Names Alstonia scholaris: Nepali: chhatiwan, chhalamani, palimara, chhatiun, aak chhataun, chhatni (Press et al. 2000); Sanskrit: bahucchada, bishmachhad, brihatvak, saptaparna; Hindi: chhattiwan, satiwan, saptaparnna, datyuni, chhatium, Japanese: shima sokei; Chepang: chhataun, Tamil: elilaip-palai, paalooram pattai; Bhengali: chatian; Lepcha: purbo, Naga: loomi; Mooshar: chhatamain, Newar: chhatiwansin, Rai: wallun; English: devil’s tree, white cheese wood, verbal, milkwood pines, milkwood, milky pine, blackboard tree, dita bark. The species epithet scholaris was derived from the use of its wood in making blackboards for schools in Southeast Asia (Arulmozhi et al. 2007; Baliga 2010, 2012) (Figs. 1 and 2). Fig. 1 Alstonia scholaris (Apocynaceae), Pipara, Chitwan, Nepal. (Photo Ripu M. Kunwar)

Fig. 2 Alstonia scholaris (Apocynaceae), DodharaChandani area, Kanchanpur, Nepal. (Photo Ripu M. Kunwar)

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Phytochemistry The chemical constituents of the A. scholaris contain alkaloids, coumarins, flavonoids, leucoanthocyanins, reducing sugars, simple phenolics, steroids, saponins, and tannins. Leaf extract contain Cu, Zn, Fe, Ca, Cr, Mn, and Cd. Ethanolic extract of leaves contain four picrin-type monoterpenoids indole alkaloids, 5β-methoxyaspidophylline, picrinine, picralinal, 5-methoxystrictamine; methanolic extract of leaves contains the first seco-uleine alkaloids. The hydro-alcoholic extract of leaves contain 2,3-secofernane triterpenoids, alstonic acids A and B, together with an indole alkaloid, N-methoxymethyl picrine. Alkaloids – alstonamine, akuammiline, vallesamine (Watanabe et al. 2005), akuammicin, diamine, ditamine, echitamidine, echitamine, macrocarpamine, nareline, Nb-demethylechitamine, Nb-oxide and Nb-methiodide, picrinine, picralinal, pseudoakuammigine, rhizine, strictamine, tetrahydroalstonine, and tubotaiwin (GoN 2007; Hussain et al. 1992; Prajapati et al. 2006). Leaves contain betulin, ursolic acid and β-sitosterol, and betulene (Asolkar and Chakre 1965-1981), and bark contains glucoside of venoterpine, triterpenes, lupeol, stigmasterol, sitosterol acetate, and amyrin (Joshi 2006). The analysis of phytochemical constituents was by Banerji and Banerji (1975), Banerji and Chakrabarti (1994), Dutta et al. (2010), and Thankamani (2011). Alkaloids are one of the major constituents of the species (Dutt, 19; Cai et al. 2010). Among different alkaloids, echitamine (Govindachari and Rajappa 1961), echitamine chloride (Kamarajan et al. 1991), rhazine (Chatterjee et al. 1969), nareline (Morita et al. 1977), pseudo-akuammigine (Banerji and Banerji 1977), scholarine (Banerji and Siddhanta 1981), scholaricine (Banerji 1981), dihydrocondylocarpine (Rahman et al. 1968), picrinine (Ghosh et al. 1988), alschomine and isoalschomine (Abe et al. 1989), mataranine A and B (Hadi 2009), monoterpenoid indole alkaloids (Cai et al. 2008), picralinal of picralima group (Rastogi and Mehrotra 1970-1979), picrinine-type alkaloids (Cai et al. 2008), N1-methoxymethyl picrinine (Wang et al. 2009), etc. have been reported. Other chemical constituents have been reported from different parts of the plant such as bark (Gupta et al. 2002; Feng et al. 2009), leaves (Chatterjee et al. 1965; Banerji and Banerji 1977; Rahman et al. 1968), roots (Boonchuay and Court 1976), flowers (Dutta et al. 1976), and fruits (Wongseripipatana et al. 2004). Among the other constituents, Isookanin-7-o-alpha-lrhamnopyranoside, a new flavanone glycoside (Chauhan et al. 1985), and alstonoside, a secoiridoid glucoside (Thomas et al. 2008), have been recorded. Iridoids, coumarins, flavonoids, leucoanthocyanins, reducing sugars, simple phenolics, steroids, saponins, and tannins were also found in the plant (Khyade et al. 2014). Presence of agr-amyrin, bgr-amyrin, lupeol acetate, venenative, rhazine, and yohimbine has been noted (Gupta et al. 2002). Linalool, cis- and trans-linalool oxides (furanoid and pyranoid), alpha-terpineol, 2-phenylethyl acetate and terpinen-4-ol have been reported (Dung et al. 2001), alstonic acids A and B and steroids lupeol acetate (Gupta et al. 2005), flavonoids (Hui et al. 2009); monoterpene, triterpene (Chakravarti et al. 1960; Wang et al. 2009); iridoids (Feng et al. 2008) have been reported from the plant. Apart from those, two C13-norisoprenoids, namely, megastigmane-3β, 4α, 9-triol and 7-megastigmene-3,6,9-triol (Xu et al. 2009), and C13-norisoprenoid (Xu et al. 2009) are among the other phytoconstituents of the species.

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Botany and Ecology Alstonia scholaris: Trees to 40 m tall, glabrous. Bark gray; branchlets copiously lenticellate. Leaves in whorls of 3–10; petiole 1–3 cm; leaf blade narrowly obovate to very narrowly spatulate, 7–28 X 2–11 cm, leathery, base cuneate, apex usually rounded; lateral veins 25–50 pairs, at 80–90° to midvein. Cymes dense, pubescent; peduncle 4–7 cm. Pedicel usually as long as or shorter than calyx. Corolla white, tube 6–10 mm; lobes broadly ovate or broadly obovate, 2–4.5 mm, overlapping to left. Ovaries distinct, pubescent. Follicles distinct, linear, to 57 cm X 2–5 mm. Seeds oblong, margin ciliate, ends with tufts of hairs 1.5–2 cm. Flowering June to November, fruiting October to December (Grierson and Long 1984; Wu et al. 1994-2013), vulnerable (Gurung and Pyakurel 2017).

Local Medicinal Uses Alstonia scholaris: The pharmacological action of the stem bark is hypotensive and anticancerous (Chandel et al. 1996). It paralyzes peripheral motor nerve filaments as a property of ditaine which it contains. Picrinine showed CNS depressant action (Joshi 2006). It is used in diarrhea of malarial origin and for chronic intermittent fevers suppressed by quinine (Joshi 2006). The plant species is highly medicinal in reference to local uses. In Ayurveda plant is considered as astringent, stomachic, laxative, and insecticidal and is used for wound, cough, skin diseases, asthma, and abdominal mass and also as blood purifier (Misra 1993). The different parts of plant is used as medicine like bark, leaves, wood, sap, gum, roots and milky exudates. Seed and bark: powdered with cornflower is given to cattle for strength and vigor (Manandhar 1989, 2002); given to nursing women for increasing milk; also used as febrifuge, laxative, and appetizer (Siwakoti and Siwakoti 1998); used to cure malarial fever (Siwakoti and Siwakoti 2000) and treat sprain (Dangol and Gurung 2000); given after childbirth to improve lactation (Joshi 2006; Manandhar 1986, 2002); used as febrifuge, anthelmintic, and alterative; used for diarrhea, dysentery, chronic ulcers (IUCN 2004; Devkota 1968), malarial fever, leprosy, and skin diseases (GoN 2007; LISP 2004; Sacherer 1979); and given to women after childbirth as astringent and for lactation, bronchitis, and pneumonia (Warrier et al. 1994; Watanabe et al. 2005). Decoction of the bark is tonic and anticholeric (Joshi 2006; Manandhar 2002). Roots: used in tumor and cancer (Asolkar and Chakre 1965-1981; Dutta 2007; Joshi 2006). Leaves: sap is rubbed on the chest to cure chest pain, heart pain, and lung problems (Chaudhary 2001), latex mixed with mustard oil is applied on boils and areas with rheumatic pain, and a few drops are put in the ear to relieve earache (Joshi 2006; IUCN 2004; Manandhar 2002); it is used for snakebite (GoN 2007) and fever of parturient women (Siwakoti and Siwakoti 1998). Antileishmanial activity has been shown (Rocha et al. 2005). In Bengal it is used for cough and cold and as anthelminthic (Raj et al. 2018). It is used for hypertension, diabetes, and malaria (Ahmad and Ismail 2003), applied to swellings and used as abortifacient (Ayyanar and Ignacimuthu 2005), used for leucorrhea (Bhandary et al. 1995), used

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to treat piles and as galactagogue (Debbarma et al. 2017; Ignacimuthu et al. 2006), and proposed as cancer remedy (Graham et al. 2000). In Mizoram it is used to treat malaria, diarrhea, heart problems, and hypertension (Sharma et al. 2001). It is applied to snakebites (Houghton and Osibogun 1993). In Nagaland it is used for gastritis, as liver tonic, and for jaundice (Kichu et al. 2015). In India it is used to treat asthma, bronchitis, chest pain, cholera, diarrhea, eye complaints, fever, malaria, pneumonia, rheumatism, snakebite, stomachache, ulcer of mouth, cholera, headache, neuralgia, and pain in legs and aids in childbirth (Verma et al. 2007). In Nepal it is used to treat fever, headache, and asthma (Kunwar et al. 2009, 2013; Kunwar and Bussmann 2009). Alstonia boonei is used to treat tuberculosis (Sharifi-Rad et al. 2017).

Local Food Uses Alstonia scholaris: In Bengal it is used as ingredient in alcoholic beverages (Raj et al. 2018).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Alstonia scholaris: The plant has been investigated as a source of biocrude and solid fuel (Sharma and Prasad 1986), alternative energy (Augustus et al. 2003), and isoprene emission (Padhy and Varshney 2005). The tree is still being overharvested in the past for timber in Malaysia and adjoining countries. The bark is harvested to prepare incense sticks in India and Nepal as the bark has adhesive properties. As a result of overharvesting, IUCN keeps this in the red list as “rare” in 1998, and later, it was assigned “least concern” (IUCN 2020). The CAMP kept this under vulnerable category. In Nepal, its local population is least known. It is used to treat cough and cold and as anthelminthic in livestock (Raj et al. 2018) and used in ceremonial practice.

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Amomum subulatum Roxb. ZINGIBERACEAE Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

Local Names Amomum subulatum: Lepcha: Bara alainchi; Pashto: Kholanjan; Mizoram: Alaidum

Botany and Ecology Amomum subulatum: Plants 1–2 m tall. Ligule 3–4 mm, membranous, apex rounded, emarginate; petiole absent or nearly so on proximal leaves, 1–3 cm on distal ones; leaf blade oblong-lanceolate, 25–60  3.5–11 cm, glabrous, base rounded or cuneate, apex long cuspidate. Spikes subturbinate, about 5 cm in diameter; peduncle 0.5–4.5 cm, scalelike sheaths brown; bracts pale red, ovate, H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_19

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Fig. 1 Amomum subulatum (Zingiberaceae), Kanju, Swat, Pakistan. (Photo H. Sher & I Ur-Rahman)

about 3 cm, apex obtuse with horny cusp; bracteoles tubular, about 3 cm, apex acute, emarginate. Calyx glabrous, 3-cleft to middle; lobes subulate. Corolla tube equaling calyx; lobes yellow, central one subulate at apex. Lateral staminodes red, subulate, about 2 mm. Labellum with yellow midvein, oblong, about 3 cm, white pubescent, veins conspicuous, apex involute. Filament about 5 mm; anther about 1 cm; connective appendage elliptic, entire, about 4 mm. Capsule purple or red-brown, globose, 2– 2.5 cm in diameter, with 10 undulate wings, apex with persistent calyx. Flowering May–June, fruiting June–September (Wu et al. 1994–2013; Fig. 1).

Local Medicinal Uses Amomum subulatum: Used to treat infections in teeth and gum, as well as gonorrhea (Palit and Banerjee 2016; Ur-Rahman et al. 2019). The species is also used to treat snakebites (Houghton and Osibogun 1993). Already mentioned in classic reek texts (Grivas 2018). Part of traditional Chinese medicine (Wu 2005). Decotion of the rhizome is taken orally in diarrhea, dysentery, stomach colic, food poisoning, and jaundice. The juice of the rhizome is used externally as antiseptic. The rhizome decoction is one of the components of a formulation used externally in the treatment of measles (Sharma et al. 2001). Amomum tsaoko: is used for intestinal diseases and stomach problems (Ma et al. 2019). Amomum aromaticum serves to treat piles (Kala 2005).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Amomum tsaoko: Used in tea agroforestry (Ahmed et al. 2010; O’Neill et al. 2017).

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References Ahmed S, Stepp JR, Toleno RAJ, Peters CM. Increased market integration, value and ecological knowledge of tea agroforests in the Akha highlands of Southwest China. Ecol Soc. 2010;15(4):27. Grivas C. Non-native herbal materia medica in Greek texts of the roman period. Medicina nei secoliarte e scienza. J Hist Med. 2018;30(2):531–78. Houghton PJ, Osibogun IM. Flowering plants used against snakebite. J Ethnopharmacol. 1993;39:1–29. Kala CP. Ethnomedicinal botany of the Apatani in the Eastern Himalayan region of India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2005;1:11. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-1-11. Ma Y, Liu D, Cheng H, Bussmann RW, He H, Guo Z, Liu B. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by Miao people in Jijiezi, Yunnan, China. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18(26) https:// doi.org/10.32859/era.18.26.1-14. O’Neill AR, Badola HK, Dhyani PP, Rana SK. Integrating ethnobiological knowledge into biodiversity conservation in the Eastern Himalayas. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13:21. https://doi. org/10.1186/s13002-017-0148-9. Palit D, Banerjee A. Traditional uses and conservative lifestyle of Lepcha tribe through sustainable bioresource utilization – case studies from Darjeeling and Norgh Sikkim, India. Int J Conserv Sci. 2016;7(3):735–52. Sharma HK, Chhangte L, Dolui AK. Traditional medicinal plants in Mizoram, India. Fitoterapia. 2001;72:146–61. Ur-Rahman I, Sher H, Bussmann RW, editors. Reference guide on high value medicinal and Aromatic plants – sustainable management and cultivation practices. Mingora: University of Swat, Pakistan; 2019. (ISBN 978-969-23419-0-5). Wu JN. An illustrated Chines Materia Medica. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2005. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013.

Ampelocissus latifolia (Roxb.) Planch. VITACEAE Mohan Prasad Panthi, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Ampelocissus latifolia (Roxb.) Planch.: Ampelocissus latifolia (Roxb.) Planch.; Vitis glabrata Roth in Schult., Vitis latifolia Roxb.

Local Names Ampelocissus latifolia: Nepali: Pureni पुरेनी; Satar: Chimbers; Sanskrit: Amlavetasah, Paniyavalli, Sitalata; Hindi: Pani-bel, Katti-bel, Bechuti, Bhinura; Bengali: Gowalia lata; Marathi: Ran draksha; Oriya: Dibroli; English: Wild Grape vine M. P. Panthi Kathmandu-32, Pepsicola, 44600, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_18

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Botany and Ecology Ampelocissus latifolia: A weak herbaceous climber, with a tuberous root stock; stem and branches hollow more or less glabrous, young parts puberulous. Leaves orbicular or broadly cordate 7–15  8–15 cm, 3–7 lobed, lobes acute, serrate-dentate,  glabrous on both sides; petiole 3–5 cm long, stipules minute, deciduous. Inflorescence a compact thyrsoid cyme; peduncle 6–7 cm long, ending in a long bifurcate tendril. Flowers numerous, deep reddish. Calyx truncate or obscurely 5 toothed. Petals 5, oblong. Ovary 10-lobed at apex, sunken in the disc, style absent; stigma cup shaped. Berry globose, black, 6–7 mm, 2 seeded, rarely 3 seeded. Seeds elliptical, margin rugose, transversely with a linear tubercle on the back and bluntly ridged on the face. Flowering May–August, fruiting October. N.W. India, Assam, Sylhet, Bengal, Bihar, sub Himalayan tracts, from Ravi east ward, Kashmir & Nepal (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020; Nazimuddin and Qaiser 1982) (Figs. 1 and 2). Native in Indian continent It is distributed in the Himalaya (Kumaun, Uttar Pradesh to Nepal); Western Ghats, India. There are five species of Ampelocissus in Nepal. A. latifolia (Roxb.) Planch is found throughout Nepal between 300 m and

Fig. 1 Ampelocissus latifolia (Vitaceae), fresh plant collected for its medical use in Arghakhanchi district, Nepal. (Photo Mohan Panthi)

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Fig. 2 Ampelocissus latifolia (Vitaceae), plant close up view. (Photo Mohan Panthi)

1600 m elevation and common along the streams side mixed with forests (Press et al. 2000). A. latifolia contains some pharmacologically active constituents that have antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory activities (Anand and Patni 2016). The plant also exhibits antibacterial (Pednekar and Raman 2013), antiproliferative, cytogenotoxic (Chaudhuri and Ray 2014, 2015), anti-inflammatory, and allelopathic activities (Chaudhuri et al. 2015; Chaudhuri and Ray 2016). The phytochemical analysis revealed the presence of various compounds like phenolics, flavonoids, terpenoids, anthraquinones, etc. having antioxidant activities (Pednekar and Raman 2013). Fruit extracts of A. latifolia has shown the presence of abundant phenolics and flavonoids imparting various bioactivities including excellent free radical scavenging and ferric reducing activities, anti-elastase, anticollagenase, antityrosinase, and antiinflammatory activities using in vitro assays (Singh et al. 2015). Stem and fruit powder analysis of Ampelocissus (FT-IR process) showed the alkanes, alkenes, alcohols, esters, amines, ketones, aldehydes (Kalaivani and Sumathi 2018), etc. Crude extract of A. latifolia has shown a source of antioxidant activity (Chaudhuri and Ray 2020).

Local Medicinal Uses Ampelocissus latifolia: reported to be one of the most effective wild plants used to treat eye infection in West Nepal. Local healers take fresh young stem of the plant and drop 3–4 drops of juice into patient’s eyes by blowing stem pipe to cure eyes

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suffering from wounds and contamination. Users said it has cooling properties and very effective against infection. Similarly, grazing animals are also treated same way when whiteness appears on eye balls due to contaminations locally called “Phulo parnu.” If Ampelocissus latifolia is not easily available, in that case people prefer to use second plant as an alternative, i.e., Ampelocissus rugosa. The plant has high medicinal value and is used for indigenous treatment of numerous diseases including bone fractures, dysentery, leukorrhea, dental problems (Patil and Patil 2012), stomach pain, gout, tuberculosis, dyspepsia, indigestion, body weakness, and for bone strengthening. It is used as an antidote for snake-bite, applied on wounds, abscess, and for easy labor and delivery of a baby (Patil and Patil 2005). Paste of the roots is applied to cuts and wounds (Manandhar 2002). In Ayurveda, it has been reported to be used as Kustha, Kamala, Sotha, and Vrana (Kirtikar and Basu 1998). The plant has high medicinal value and is used for indigenous treatment of numerous diseases including bone fractures, dysentery, leukorrhea, dental problems (Patil and Patil 2012), stomach pain, gout, tuberculosis, dyspepsia, indigestion, body weakness, and for bone strengthening. It is used as an antidote for snake-bite, applied on wounds, abscess, and for easy labor and delivery of a baby (Patil and Patil 2005). Paste of the roots is applied to cuts and wounds (Manandhar 2002). According to Manandhar (2002), there are four species of Ampelocissus in Nepal which are in ethnobotanical uses: Ampelocissus divaricata: Juice of the root is used for snake or scorpion bites; Ampelocissus rugosa: Paste of the stem is applied for muscular swellings and sprains and also used to set dislocated bones.

Local Food Uses Ampelocissus sikkimensis: Ripe frits are eaten fresh.

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Ampelocissus latifolia: Used as dye. Ampelocossus multistriata is used as fishing poison (Neuwinger 2004).

References Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan and Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995–2020. Anand DC, Patni V. Ampelocissus latifolia (Roxb) planch. A traditional plant with enormous medicinal and economic importance. Int J Pharm Bio Sci. 2016;7(3):303–7. Chaudhuri A, Ray S. Evaluation of phytotoxic and cytogenotoxic potentials of leaf aqueous extract of Ampelocissus latifolia (Roxb.) Planch. in relation to its total polyphenol content. Int J Pharma Bio Sci. 2014;5(4):225–35.

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Chaudhuri A, Ray S. Antiproliferative activity of phytochemicals present in aerial parts’ aqueous extract of Ampelocissus latifolia (Roxb.) Planch. on apical meristem cells. Int J Pharma Bio Sci. 2015;6(2):99–108. Chaudhuri A, Ray S. Allelopathic potential of tannic acid and its equivalent phenolics extracted from aerial parts of Ampelocissus latifolia (Roxb.). Planch. IOSR J Agric Vet Sci. 2016;9(7):90–100. Chaudhuri A, Ray S. In vitro free radical scavenging activities of aerial parts’ aqueous extract and extract fractions of Ampelocissus latifolia (Roxb.) Planch. in relation to total phenolics and flavonoid contents. J King Saud Univ Sci. 2020;32:732–9. Chaudhuri A, Kundu LM, Dutta S, Chatterjee S, Goswami S, Roy GC, Ray S. Allelopathic effects of aerial parts’ aqueous extract of Ampelocissus latifolia (Roxb.) Planch. in apical meristem cells. Asian J Plant Sci Res. 2015;5(3):11–6. Kalaivani V, Sumathi R. Antifungal, phytochemical, protein and FT-IR analysis of Ampelocissus latifolia (ROXB.) planch. Int J Pharm Biol Sci. 2018;8(4):339–43. Kirtikar KR, Basu BD. Indian medicinal plants. 2nd ed. Dehradun: International Book Distributor; 1998. Manandhar NP. Plants and people of Nepal. Portland: Timber Press; 2002. Nazimuddin S, Qaiser M. In: Nasir E, Ali SI, editors. Lahore: Flora of Pakistan, vol. 147. 1982. p. 1–16. Neuwinger HD. Plants used for poison fishing in tropical Africa. Toxicon. 2004;44:417–30. Patil MV, Patil DA. Ethnomedicinal practices of Nasik district, Maharashtra. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2005;4(3):287–90. Patil KJ, Patil SV. Biodiversity of vulnerable and endangered plants from Jalgaon district of North Maharashtra. Asian J Pharm Life Sci. 2012;2(2):144–50. Pednekar PA, Raman B. Antimicrobial and antioxidant potential with FTIR analysis of Ampelocissus latifolia (Roxb.) Planch. leaves. Asian J Pharm Clin Res. 2013;6(1):157–62. Press JR, Shrestha KK, Sutton DA. Annotated checklist of the flowering plants of Nepal. London: Natural History Museum; 2000. Singh H, Lily MK, Dangwal K. Evaluation and comparison of polyphenols and bioactivities of wild edible fruits of north-west Himalaya, India. Asian Pac J Trop Dis. 2015;5(11):888–93.

Anacyclus pyrethrum (L.) DC. ASTERACEAE Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

Local Names Anacyclus pyrethrum: Pashto: Peli ponar; Aqar qarha

Botany and Ecology Anacyclus pyrethrum: Annual. Stem erect or ascending, branched, weakly hairy, sometimes almost glabrous in lower part, to 40 cm high. Leaves weakly pubescent, oblong, twice pinnately cut into more or less sparse, entire, 2–3-fid, acute, linear, and linear-subulate, divergent, 4–10 mm long lobes. Capitula about 1 cm in diameter, solitary at apices of main stem and branches, on long, thickened, short pilase

H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_20

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peduncles. Involucre hemispherical, short-pilose; bracts oblong, with whitemembranous margin; outer bracts acute, inner somewhat obtuse. Receptacle convex, with membranous cuneate-obovate, short cuspidate scales, shorter than corolla tubes. Outer florets with elliptical ligules, 8–13 mm long, sometimes absent (var. discoidea), white above and reddish below; disk florets bisexual, tubular, lemon-yellow, corolla tubes of ali florets glabrous. Achenes flat, deltoid-obovate, 2.5–3.0 mm long and 2.0– 2.5 mm in diameter, with wide wings extended above into broadly deltoid auricles in outer achenes, much narrower and lacking auricles in inner achenes. Flowering July to August.

Local Medicinal Uses Anacyclus pyrethrum: Used to treat sore throat, as eye wash, and for toothache (Ur-Rahman et al. 2019; Wali et al. 2019).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Anacyclus pyrethrum: Used as forage (Wali et al. 2019).

References Ur-Rahman I, Sher H, Bussmann RW, editors. Reference guide on high value medicinal and Aromatic plants – sustainable management and cultivation practices. Mingora: University of Swat, Pakistan; 2019. (ISBN 978-969-23419-0-5). Wali R, Rahman K, Raja NI, Qureshi R, Bussmann RW, Mashwani ZUR. A quantitative medico botanical expedition of Fairy Meadows National Park, Diamir, Gilgit Baltistan, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18(35) https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.35.1-30.

Anaphalis adnata DC. Anaphalis busua (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) DC. Anaphalis contorta (D. Don) Hook. f. Anaphalis triplinervis (Sims) C.B. Clarke ASTERACEAE Sheetal Vaidya and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Anaphalis adnata DC.: Gnaphalium adnatum (Wall. ex DC.) DC. ex Kitam.; Gnaphalium sericeoalbidum Vaniot; Gnaphalium esquirolii H. Lev.; Anaphalis sericeoalba (Vaniot) H. Lev. Anaphalis esquirolii (H. Lev) H. Lev.; Gnaphalium formosanum Hayata.; Anaphalis sericeo-abida (H. Lev. & Vaniot) H. Lev.; Pseudognaphalium adnatum (DC.) Y.S. Chen Anaphalis busua (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) DC.: Gnaphalium busua Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don; Gnaphalium busum Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don; Antennaria semidecurrens DC.; Antennaria villosissima D. Don; Anaphalis busua (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) Hand.-Mazz.; Gnaphalium villosissima D. Don; Gnaphalium semidecurrens Wall. ex DC.; Anaphalis semidecurrens (Wall. ex. DC.) DC. Anaphalis contorta (D. Don) Hook. f.: Anaphalis contorta var. pellucida (Franch.) Y. Ling., Anaphalis falconeri C.B. Clarke, Anaphalis franchetiana Diels, Anaphalis tenella DC., Antennaria contorta D. Don, Gnaphalium contortum (D. Don) Buch.-Ham., Gnaphalium pellucidum Franch. Anaphalis triplinervis (Sims) C.B. Clarke: Antennaria triplinervis Sims, Gnaphalium cynoglossoides Trevis, Gnaphalium perfoliatum Wall., Gnaphalium quintuplinerve Buch.-Ham. ex DC.; Gnaphalium nepalense Hort. ex DC.; Gnaphalium cuneatum Wall ex DC.

S. Vaidya Department of Botany, Patan Multiple Campus, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Nepal R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_21

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Local Names Anaphalis adnata: Nepali: Buki phul Anaphalis busua: Napal Bhasha: Bu-swan, Tamang: Taptap Mhendo, Nepali: Bhuko Anaphalis contorta: Gurung: Phosorasan, Nepali: Buko Anaphais triplinervis: Tamang: Taptap, Tibetan: Taygun, Nepali: Buki phul; Hindi: Bugla

Botany and Ecology Anaphalis adnata: Perennial woolly herb, 10–60 cm tall. Stem simple or branched, spreading, densely tomentose. Leaves adnate to semi-amplexicaul, yellowish green, lanceolate to oblong, 3–5 cm long, 2–2.5 wide, attenuate, mucronate, entire, 1–3 veined, both surfaces with long curly unicellular hairs and multicellular uniseriate hairs with long dry tips. Inflorescence terminal and axillary, compound lax corymb, peduncles lanate, 2–5 mm in length, peduncular bract partly scarious, about 2 mm long, 0.5 mm wide. Capitula 6–8, about 3–5 mm in diameter. Phyllaries multiseriate, outermost ones white with golden yellow streaks at base, lanceolate, about 4.5 mm long, 1.5 mm wide, obtuse; middle ones white, ovate, about 5 mm long, 2.5 mm wide, obtuse; innermost ones white with greenish base, lanceolate, 2.5 mm long, 0.5 mm wide, obtuse. Pistillate florets about 2.5 mm in length, corolla lobes golden yellow and slender, with unicellular glandular hairs. Staminate florets about 2 mm in length, corolla lobes golden yellow and spreading at mouth. Pappus about 3 mm in length, bristles capillary, cilia short. Cypselae oblong, 440 μm long, 175 μm wide, twin clavate hairs sparse and narrow, each 28 μm in length; stylopodium 62 μm and carpopodium 67 μm in diameter. Flowering and fruiting August–January. Along the Himalayan range of Kashmir to Bhutan including Nepal, Assam, Myanmar, Bangladesh, Indo-China, Philippines, Taiwan. Occasional in sunny steep slopes and on shady forest floor, between 800 and 2500 in Western, Central, and Eastern regions of Nepal Himalaya (Vaidya et al. 2018; Fig. 1). Anaphalis busua: Perennial wooly white herb, 10–60 cm tall. Stem simple and branched, spreading, some lateral branches sterile, densely tomentose. Basal leaves rosulate and linear. Upper leaves ash green, linear, 2–10 cm long, 0.2–0.8 cm wide, base strongly decurrent on stem, mucronate, entire, 1-veined, both surfaces with long aduncate unicellular hairs, flagellate multicellular hairs with long dry tips and multicellular glandular hairs. Inflorescence axillary compound corymb. Capitula more than 8–10 in each corymb, about 2–4 mm in diameter. Phyllaries multiseriate, outermost ones white, ovate, about 5
2 mm, obtuse; middle ones opaque white, oblong, about 6 mm long, 2 mm wide, obtuse and innermost ones transparent white, spathulate, 4 mm long, 1.5 mm wide, obtuse. Pistillate florets about 3 mm in length, corolla lobes golden yellow and slender, with unicellular glandular hairs. Staminate florets about 1.5 mm in length, corolla lobes golden yellow with prominent glandular hairs. Pappus about 3–4 mm in length, bristles capillary, basal projections long and

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Fig. 1 Anaphalis adnata (Asteraceae), Kakani, Kathmandu, Nepal. (Photo S. Vaidya)

prominent. Cypselae oval, about 285 μm long, 160 μm wide, twin hairs absent, epidermal cells forming outward projecting papillae; stylopodium 52 μm and carpopodium 90 μm in diameter. Flowering and fruiting June–December. China, India, Nepal. Occasional in sunny steep slopes, on mossy rocks and sandy dry river banks, between 1000 and 2260 in Western, Central, and Eastern regions of Nepal (Vaidya et al. 2018; Fig. 2). Anaphalis contorta: Perennial lanate stoloniferous herb, 6–40 cm tall. Stem slender, erect or decumbent, tomentose, branched, base usually with densely tomentose leafy buds. Leaves adnate to semiamplexicaul, dark green, linear, 0.6–3 cm long, 0.2– 0.5 cm wide, cordate and auriculate, mucronate, margin revolute, 1-veined, both surfaces with multicellular hairs with long dried tips entangled with unicellular long curly hairs. Inflorescence terminal, in compound lax corymbs, peduncles lanate, about 0.5 mm long, peduncular bracts uniformly green. Capitula dense, about 4–5 mm in diameter. Phyllaries multiseriate, outermost ones greenish to purple red at base, densely cottony, about 2.5 mm long, 0.8 mm wide; middle ones milky white, about 3.5 long, 1.5 mm wide; innermost ones about 2.5 mm long, 0.6 mm wide. Pistillate florets light yellow, 1.5–2.5 mm long, corolla lobes with capitates hairs. Staminate florets dark yellow, 1–2 mm long. Neuter florets brown, about 1 mm long. Pappus 2 mm in length, bristles capillary, basal cilia prominent. Cypselae oblong, about 310 μm long, 140 μm wide, epidermal cells bulging evenly and twin hairs dense and short, about 20 μm long, stylopodium 40 μm and carpopodium 50 μm in

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Fig. 2 Anaphalis busua (Asteraceae), Mude Bazar, Sindhupalchowk. (Photo S. Vaidya)

Fig. 3 Anaphalis contorta (Asteraceae), Tal, Manang, Nepal (Photo S. Vaidya)

diameter. Fruiting and flowering March to December. Pakistan, China, India, Nepal, Bhutan, and Philippines. Frequent on sunny steep slopes, mossy rocks, sunny dry riverbanks between 1400 and 3300 in Western, Central, and Eastern regions of Nepal (Vaidya et al. 2018; Wu et al. 1994–2013, Fig. 3). Anaphalis triplinervis: Perennial, wooly stoloniferous herb, 4–50 cm tall. Stem erect, floccose to tomentose, branches very few, occasionally simple. Leaves amplexicaul to sheathing, grayish green, oblong to obovate, 2–12 cm long, 0.5– 4 cm wide, attenuate, mucronate, entire, 3–7 veined, lower surface tomentose,

Anaphalis adnata DC. . . .

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Fig. 4 Anaphalis triplinervis (Asteraceae), Kalinchowk, Dolakha, Nepal. (Photo S. Vaidya)

upper surface floccose, both surfaces with long curly unicellular hairs, multicellular uniseriate hairs with dried long tips and multicellular uniseriate short glandular hairs. Inflorescence terminal, axillary or both, simple lax compound or simple corymb, peduncles lanate, peduncular bract scaly, about 4 mm long, 1 mm wide. Capitula 6– 8, or 2–3, or just one in number, 8–10 mm in diameter. Phyllaries multiseriate, outermost ones about 8 long, 2 mm wide, middle ones about 9 long, 2 mm wide and innermost ones about 7 mm long, 0.4 mm wide. Pistillate florets about 4 mm long, corolla light brown, corolla lobes with multicellular, long stalked glandular hairs. Staminate florets about 3.5 mm long, corolla dark brown, lobes with glandular and non-glandular hairs. Pappus about 5 mm long, bristles capillary, basal cilia prominent. Cypselae oblong, 600 μm long, 210 μm wide, twin hairs sparse and narrow, 30 μm in length, stylopodium 70 μm and carpopodium 75 μm in diameter. Flowering and fruiting August–December. Afghanistan, N. W. Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan, China. Abundant on sunny steep slopes, mossy rocks, sandy river banks and shady forest floors between 1000 and 3600 in Western, Central and Eastern regions of Nepal (Vaidya et al. 2018; Wu et al. 1994–2013; Fig. 4).

Phytochemistry Caryophyllene oxide (Pande et al. 2008; Sharma et al. 2019), caryophyllene alcohol, α-cadinol, 14-hydroxyl-9-epi-ß-caryophyllene, γ-muurolene, ar-curcumine, ß-bisabolene (Pande et al. 2008), anaphalisqualenol, anapharenosoic acid, araneosol, isoquercitrin, astragalin, anaphalol, 5-hydroxy7-O-30 -methyl bute 20 -enylpthalide, 5,7-dihydroxyphalide, 5-methoxy-7-hydroxyphalide, ß-sitosterol, tiliroside, sitigmasterol (Ratauri et al. 2012), E-caryophyllene, ß-himachalene, δ-cardinene, α-pinene (Rawat et al. 2017), epi-α-cadinol, valencene, 1,10-epoxyfuranoeremophilane,

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α-humulene, α-farnesene, β-vetivone, germacrene D, β-caryophyllene, p-cymene, (Z)-β-ocimene, β-elemene, humulene epoxide II (Sharma et al. 2019).

Local Medicinal Uses Anaphalis adnata: Juice of the leaves is applied on fresh cuts and wounds, which are then covered with crushed wooly leaves (Manandhar 2003). Anaphalis busua: The plant infusion is taken orally as antipyretic, dry leaves mixed with ash are burnt for moxibution therapy (Ghimire et al. 2001; Rokaya et al. 2010); juice from the whole plant is applied to cuts and wounds (Manandhar 2003); infusion made by the leaves and flowers is used for cough, cold, and sore throat (Rajbhandari et al. 2009). Anaphalis contorta: Used for cuts, boils wounds, and as insect repellent (Bhat et al. 2013a, b). Paste of the whole plant is taken orally for curing cough and cold (Manandhar 2003; Uprety et al. 2010); paste of the root is applied to cuts and wounds (Manandhar 2003); infusion of the roots is taken to cure diarrhea (Balami 2004). In Pauri Garhwal, Uttrakhand of India, the paste of leaves of A. contorta is applied on cuts, wounds, and boils; and the whole plant is used as the insect repellent (Pala et al. 2010). The indigenous people of Manali wildlife sanctuary in north western Himalaya of India use the leaves of A. busua for hematoma; they use the flowers of A. contorta for antibacterial treatment and also to check the bleeding (Rana & Samant 2011). In Kedarnath wildlife sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India, the paste of leaves and flower heads of A. contorta is used on cuts, wounds, and boils; the smoke produced by burning the whole plant of this species is used to repel the insects. In Manoor valley of Northern Pakistan, the roots, leaves, and flower heads of A. contorta are used cure indigestion, diarrhea, and the inflammation of the stomach (Rahman et al. 2016). Anaphalis triplinervis: Used for cuts, wounds, and as antiseptic (Singh et al. 2017). For lacerations of toes, and wounds (Bhat et al. 2013a, b). Paste of flower heads is applied to wounds (Manandhar 2003); infusion of roots is taken for curing diarrhea (Balami 2004); leafs and flowers are used as the diuretic, for curing food poisoning and during heat therapy (Pandey 2006). The inhabitants of Khunjerab national park of Pakistan use the dried leaves and flowers of A. triplinervis as a herbal tea for flu, fever, and nausea; they also cure eye infections with the smoke produced by burning its dried flower heads (Khan et al. 2011). Anaphalis margaritacae: Used for cuts, wounds, and boils (Bhat et al. 2013a, b).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Anaphalis busua: The whole plant with flower heads is used for worshipping special deities during festivals such as Janhai Poornima, Indra Jatra, and Dashain (Figs. 5 and 6).

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Fig. 5 Anaphalis busua (Asteraceae) (wrapped around the wooden log, which represents God Indra during Indra Jatra festival. (Photo S. Vaidya)

Fig. 6 Offerings of Anaphalis busua (Asteraceae) during Dashain. (Photo S. Vaidya)

Anaphalis contorta: The floral stalks are made into long garlands, which are tied above the main door to keep the evil spirits away (Fig. 7). Anaphalis triplinervis: The flower heads are offered in everyday worship.

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Fig. 7 Anaphalis contorta (Asteraceae) strings on the main entrance. (Photo S. Vaidya)

References Balami N. Ethnomedicinal uses of plants among the Newar community of Pharping village of Kathmandu District, Nepal. Tribhuvan Univ J. 2004;24(1):13–9. https://doi.org/10.3126/tuj. v24i1.251. Bhat J, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013a;9:1. http://www.ethnobiomed.com/content/9/1/1. Bhat JA, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath wildlife sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013b;9:1. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-9-1. Ghimire SK, Lama SK, Tripathi YC, Schmitt S, Aumeeruddy-Thomas Y. Conservation of plant resources, community development and training in applied ethnobotany at Shey-Phoksundo national park and its buffer zone, Dolpa. Kathmandu: WWF Nepal Program; 2001. 2001: Report Series 41. Khan B, Abdukadir A, Qureshi R, Mustafa G. Medicinal uses of plants by the inhabitants of Khunjerab national park, Gilgit, Pakistan. Pak J Bot. 2011;43(5):2301–10. Manandhar NP. Plants and people of Nepal. Portland: Timber Press; 2003. Pala NA, Negi AK, Todaria NP. Traditional uses of medicinal plants of Pauri Garhwal, Uttrakhand. Nat Sci. 2010;8(6):57–61. Pande C, Joshi RK, Sammal SS. Chemical composition of the essential oil of Anaphalis contorta Hook. f. J Essent Oil Res. 2008;20(5):444–5. https://doi.org/10.1080/10412905.2008.9700054. Pandey MR. Use of medicinal plants in traditional Tibetan therapy system in Upper Mustang, Nepal. Our Nat. 2006;4:69–82. Rahman IU, Ijaz F, Afzal A, Iqbal Z, Ali N, Khan SM. Contributions to the phytotherapies of digestive disorders: traditional knowledge and cultural drivers of Manoor Valley, Northern Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;192:30–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.06.049. Rajbhandari M, Mentel R, Jha PK, Bhattarai S, Gewali MB, Karmacharya N, Hipper M, Lindequist U. Antiviral activity of some plants used in Nepalese traditional medicine. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2009;6(4):517–22. https://doi.org/10.1093/ecam/nem156. Rana MS, Samant SS. Diversity, indigenous uses and conservation status of medicinal plants in Manali wildlife sanctuary, north western Himalaya. Indian J Tradit Know. 2011;10(3):439–59.

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Ratauri R, Sati S, Singh H, Sati M, Badoni P. Phytochemical examination of Anaphalis busua leaves. In: Khemani L, Srivastava M, Srivastava S, editors. Chemistry of phytopotentials: health, energy and environmental perspectives. Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer; 2012. p. 105–6. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-23394-4_22. Rawat K, Prasad K, Bisht G. Phytochemical analysis and antioxidant activity essential oil of Anaphalis contorta from Uttrakhand Himalayas. J Anal Pharm Res. 2017;6(2):00172. https:// doi.org/10.15406/japlr.2017.06.00172. Rokaya MB, Münzbergová Z, Timsina B. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants from the Humla district of western Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010;130(3):485–504. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.jep.2010.05.036. Sharma RK, Kaur H, Singh M, Kumar M, Sharma R, Shah GC, Sharma P. Chemical composition and antimicrobial properties of essential oil Anaphalis triplinervis from western Himalaya. Chem Nat Compd. 2019;55:751–3. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10600-019-02800-w. Singh S, Youssouf M, Malik ZA, Bussmann RW. Sacred groves: myths, beliefs and biodiversity conservation a case study from Western Himalaya, India. Int J Ecol. 2017:3828609. https://doi. org/10.1155/2017/3828609. Uprety Y, Asselin H, Boon EK, Yadav S, Shrestha KK. Indigenous use and bio-efficacy of medicinal plants in the Rasuwa District, Central Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:3. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-6-3. Vaidya S, Shakya LR, Pandey AK. The genus Anaphalis DC. (Asteraceae: Gnaphalieae) in Nepal Himalaya. In: Das AP, Bera S, editors. Plant diversity in the Himalaya hotspot region, vol. 1. Dehradun: Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh; 2018. p. 233–65. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013.

Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f.) Wall. ACANTHACEAE Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Justicia paniculata Burm. f.

Local Names Andrographis paniculata: Benghali: Kalmegh, Chirawta; Mizoram: Hnahkhapui; Hindi: Nelaveum; Cebuano: Maribilus; English: Creat; Nepali: Kitatikta, Kalmegh, Sanskrit: Bhunimbah; Tamil: Siriynanangai; Jammu: Kaalmegh, Kiryata; Laos: Sarm phan pee.

R. M. Kunwar (*) Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_22

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Botany and Ecology Andrographis paniculata: Herbs to 50 cm tall, annual, much branched. Stems 4– angled, glabrous. Petiole 0.3–1 cm; leaf blade ovate-lanceolate, lanceolate, or narrowly elliptic, 1.5–7  1–2.5 cm, both surfaces glabrous, abaxially pale green, adaxially green, secondary veins 3–5 on each side of midvein, base attenuate and decurrent onto petiole, margin entire, apex acute to shortly acuminate. Inflorescences terminal, leafy panicles of secund racemes; rachis glabrous to sparsely pubescent; bracts triangular to subulate, 1–1.5 mm; bracteoles linear to subulate, 1–1.5 mm. Pedicel 2–9 mm, sparsely pubescent with gland-tipped and non-glandular trichomes (gland-tipped pubescent). Calyx 2.5–3 mm, outside glabrous or gland-tipped pubescent, lobes subulate. Corolla white, 0.9–1.5 cm, outside gland-tipped pubescent; tube basally funnelform for 4–8 mm; lower lip with purple dots, 5–7 mm, erect, lobes about 3 mm; upper lip 5–7 mm, reflexed, 2-lobed, lobes about 1 mm. Stamens exserted from corolla tube. Style 6–10 mm, sparsely pilose toward base. Capsule ellipsoid-compressed, 1.5–2  0.3–0.4 cm, glabrous or sparsely pubescent with gland-tipped trichomes, about 12-seeded. Seeds about 2  1.5 mm, rugose. Flowering and fruiting throughout year. (Kala and Singh Sajwan 2007; Wu et al. 1994-2013).

Local Medicinal Uses Andrographis paniculata: The species is very widely used, including in ayurvedic and traditional Chines medicine (Wu 2005; Farnsworth et al. 1985). Antibacterial activities have been shown (Ahmad et al. 2006; Chomnawang et al. 2005). The species also acts as anticoagulant (Yoon et al. 2002), has antidiabetic properties (Muthu et al. 2006; Ullah et al. 2019), and is used to treat tuberculosis (Sharifi-Rad et al. 2017), diabetes, liver problems, fever, cough and cold, stomach pain, malaria, fever, insect bites and scorpion stings, menstrual disorders, skin boils, and leucoderma (Raj et al. 2018). Andrographis has shown inhibiting activity against snake venom (Houghton and Osibogun 1993; Perumal Samy et al. 2012). It is also used to treat neurological conditions (Dey et al. 2017). In Tripura and the Eastern Himalayas, it is used to treat dog bites, diarrhea, and dysentery (Debbarma et al. 2017; Kala 2005). It can be used for liver disorders (Singh et al. 2002). In Mizoram, it is employed for malaria and fever, as stomachic and in stomach trouble (Sharma et al. 2001), and in other areas of India to treat asthma (Savithramma et al. 2007). Also employed as antidote, for dermatological ailments and as snakebite remedy (Ignacimuthu et al. 2006; Pandikumar et al. 201). The plant is useful for curing malarial and intermittent fever, dysentery and liver disorders, and dermatological problems (Kunwar et al. 2010), and kidney disorders (Gairola et al. 2014). Sometimes as panacea (Delang 2007), and against hairlos (Ayyanar and Ignacimuthu 2005).

Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f.) Wall.

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses Andrographis paniculata: Planted in agroforestry systems (Kabir and Webb 2008; Langenberger et al. 2009).

References Ahmad I, Aquil F, Owais M. Modern phytomedicine. Weinheim: Wiley; 2006. Ayyanar M, Ignacimuthu S. Traditional knowledge of Kani tribals in Kouthalai of Tirunelveli hills, Tamil Nadu, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102:246–55. Chomnawang MT, Surassmo S, Nukoolkarn VS, Gritsanapan W. Antimicrobial effects of Thai medicinal plants against acne-inducing bacteria. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;101:330–3. Debbarma M, Pala NA, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in tribes of Tripura, Northeast India. Afr J Tradit Complement Altern Med. 2017;144:156–68. Delang CO. The role of medicinal plants in the provision of health care in Lao PDR. J Med Plants Res. 2007;1(3):5–59. Dey A, Gorai P, Mukherjec A, Dhan R, Kumar Modak B. Ethnobiological treatments of neurological conditions in the Chota Nagpur plateau, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2017;198:33–44. Farnsworth NR, Akerele O, Bingel AS, Soejarto DD, Gua Z. Medicinal plants in therapy. Bull World Health Organ. 1985;63/6:965–81. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Houghton PJ, Osibogun IM. Flowering plants used against snakebite. J Ethnopharmacol. 1993;39:1–29. Ignacimuthu SS, Ayyanar MM, Sankara Sivaraman KK. Ethnobotanical investigations among tribes in Madurai District of Tamil Nadu (India). J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:25. Kabir ME, Webb EL. Can Homegardens conserve biodiversity in Bangladesh? Biotropica. 2008;40(1):95–103. Kala CP. Ethnomedicinal botany of the Apatani in the eastern Himalayan region of India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2005;1(11) https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-1-11. Kala CP, Singh Sajwan B. Revitalizing Indian systems of herbal medicine by the National Medicinal Plants Board through institutional networking and capacity building. Curr Sci. 2007;93(6):797–806. Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Bussmann RW. Traditional herbal medicine in far-West Nepal: a pharmacological appraisal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Pandikumar P, Chellappandian M, Mutheeswaran S, Ignacimuthu S. 2011. Consensus of local knowledge on medicinal plants among traditional healers in Mayiladumparai block of Theni District, Tamil Nadu, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010;134:354–62. Langenberger G, Prigge V, Martin K, Belonias B, Sauerborn J. Ethnobotanical knowledge of Philippine lowland farmers and its application in agroforestry. Agrofor Syst. (2009. 2009;76:173–94. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-008-9189-3. Muthu C, Ayyanar M, Raja N, Ignacimuthu S. Medicinal plants used by traditional healers in Kancheepuram District of Tamil Nadu. India J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2(43) Pawera L, Verner V, Termote C, Sodombekov I, Kandakov A, Karabaev N, Polesny Z. Medical ethnobotany of herbal practitioners in the Turkestan range, southwestern Kyrgyzstan. Acta Soc Botan Polon. 2016; https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3483. Perumal Samy R, Gopalakrishnakone P, Chow VTK. Therapeutic application of natural inhibitors agaisnt snake venom phospholipase A2. Bioinformation. 2012;8(1) Raj AJ, Biswakarma B, Pala NA, Shukla G, Vineeta V, Kumar M, Chakravarty S, Bussmann RW. Indigenous uses of ethno-medicinal plants among forest dependent communities of northern Bengal, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;141(8) https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-018-0208-9.

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Savithramma N, Sulochana C, Rao KN. Ethnobotanical survey of plants used to treat asthma in Andhra Pradesh, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;113:54–61. Sharifi-Rad J, Salehi B, Stojanović-Radić ZZ, Tsouh Fokou PV, Sharifi-Rad M, . Mahady GB, Sharifi-Rad M, Masjedi M-R, Lawal TO, Ayatollahi SA, Masjedi J, Sharifi-Rad R, Setzer WN, Sharifi-Rad M, Kobarfard F, Rahman AU, Choudhary MI, Atar A, Iriti M 2017. Medicinal plants used in the treatment of tuberculosis – Ethnobotanical and ethnopharmacological approaches. Biotechnol Adv https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biotechadv.2017.07.001. S07349750(17)30077-0. Sharma HK, Chhangte L, Dolui AK. Traditional medicinal plants in Mizoram, India. Fitoterapia. 2001;72:146–61. Singh AK, Raghubanshi AS, Singh JA. Medical ethnobotany of the tribals of Sonaghati of Sonbhadra district, Uttar Pradesh, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2002;81:31–41. Ullah M, Mehmood S, Ali M, Bussmann RW, Aldosari A, Ali Khan R, Ullah R, Hussain W, Rahman Shah MA. An ethnopharmacological study of plants used for treatment of diabetes in the southern and tribal regions of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18(8) https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.8.1-20. Wu JN. An illustrated chines Materia Medica. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2005. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994-2013. Yoon S-J, Pereira MS, Pavao MSG, Hwang J-K, Pyun YR, PAS M. The medicinal plant Porana volubilis contains polysaccharides with anticoagulant activity mediated by heparin cofactor II. Thromb Res. 2002;106:51–8.

Angelica glauca Edgew. APIACEAE Bandana Awasthi, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Angelica glauca Edgew.: Angelica archangelica subsp. norvegica (Rupr.) Nordh.; A. commutata (C.A. Mey. ex Rupr.) M. Hiroe; Angelica discocarpa (Fr.) M. Hiroe; Angelica intermedia Schult. ex Steud.; Angelica litoralis (Wahlenb.) Fr.; Angelica major Gilib. [Invalid]; Angelica norwegica (Rupr.) Nyman; Angelica officinalis Moench; Angelica procera Salisb.; Angelica sativa Mill.; Archangelica archangelica (L.) H.Karst. [Invalid]; Angelica discocarpa Fr.; Angelica commutata C.A. Mey. ex Rupr.; Angelica litoralis C. Agardh; Angelica littoralis C. Agardh ex DC.; Angelica norwegica Rupr.; Angelica officinalis Hoffm.; Angelica officinalis subsp. litoralis (DC.) Dostál; Angelica sativa (Mill.) Besser; Angelica slavica G. Reuss; Angelica spuria B. Awasthi DAI/USAID Nepal Paani Program, Kathmandu, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_23

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Wahlenb.; Ligusticum angelica Stokes (http://www.theplantlist.org); Archangelica officinalis monstr. Phyllomana Lange.; Selinum archangelica (L.) Vest

Local Names Angelica glauca: Ayurveda: Chandaa, Chandaamshuka, Kathachoraa (Khare 2008); Danish: Kvan (Bhat et al. 2011); Doteli: Gannano; Garwhal: Chora; Dutch: grote-engelwortel (Bhat et al. 2011); German: Echt-Engelwurz; Hindi: Choraka bheda, Dudhachoraa (Bhat et al. 2011); Nepali: Ganannu, Gannano (Kunwar et al. 2010a, b, 2018); Sanskrit: Laghu Coraka; Swedish: Kvanne (Bhat et al. 2011); Jammu: Chora, Chorua; Kashmir: Chora, Chorche

Botany and Ecology Angelica is a large and taxonomically complex genus, with 90–110 species and varieties, under the Apiaceae family (Feng et al. 2009). There are over 60 species under the genus recognized globally for the medicinal properties (Forycka and Buchwald 2019) however, have mentioned A. archangelica as the only species that is officially used for medicinal purpose and as spice. In Nepal, there are only four species of Angelica: A. archangelica, A. cyclocarpa, A. harae and A. nubigena (Press et al. 2000). Angelica archangelica is native to north and northeast Europe, Russia, Iceland, Greenland and the Himalayas. Angelica glauca: Plants 1–2.5 m, glabrous, aromatic. Root thick, long-conic. Stem stout, ribbed. Leaves long-petiolate; blade triangular, 20–30
20–25 cm, 2–3ternate-pinnate, primary pinnae long-petiolulate, proximal pinnules 3-foliolose; leaflets subsessile, ovate to oblong-ovate, 3–5
1.5–2.5 cm, base cuneate, margin mucronulate-serrate, glaucous abaxially. Peduncles 15–25 cm; bracts 5, linear, 1.5– 2.5 cm, reflexed; rays 15–20, 2–6 cm, subequal; bracteoles 6–10, linear, ca. 6 mm, reflexed. Calyx teeth obsolete. Petals white, obovate. Fruit oblong-ellipsoid, 8– 12
4–6 mm; dorsal ribs prominent, thick, obtuse-rounded, lateral ribs broadwinged; vittae 1 in each furrow, 2–4 on commissure. Flowering and fruiting June– August (Kaul 1997; Bhat et al. 2011; Joshi 2016; Wilson 2016; Wu et al. 1994– 2013; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7). The species is native to Syria (Khare 2008; Wilson 2016), distributed in some regions of Temperate Asia, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Hungary, Iceland, Poland and Central Russia, and is reported to have an occasional to common distribution in Western Himalayas. Found at an altitude from 1000 to 4000 m along slow-moving streams, damp meadows and forest gullies in rocky substrate (Kaul 1997). Critically endangered due to over-harvesting (Jan et al. 2019, Kala et al. 2004, Kala 2005).

Angelica glauca Edgew. Fig. 1 Angelica archangelica (Apiaceae), a rural villager describing plant and its uses, Nepal. (Photo Ripu Kunwar)

Fig. 2 Angelica ternata (Apiaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

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242 Fig. 3 Angelica adzharica (Apiaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Angelica adzharica (Apiaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Angelica adzharica (Apiaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Angelica glauca Edgew. Fig. 6 Angelica adzharica (Apiaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 7 Angelica archangelica (Apiaceae), Abisko, Sweden. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

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Phytochemistry Roots: Oils: α-phellandrene, α-pinene, furfural, diacetyl-α-terpineol, borneol, angelica lactone, angelic acid, exaltolide, α-bisabolol, farnesol, elemol and eudesmol (Kaul 1997); β-phellandrene (Barnes et al. 2008; Wilson 2016); sabinene and 3-carene (Holm et al. 1997); thujene, β-pinene, limonene, linalool, borneol (Barnes et al. 2008); coumarins (angelicin, xanthotoxin, xanthotoxol, bergapten, oxypeucedanin, imperatorin, osthol, oreoselone, umbelliferone, umbelliprenin, archangelicin, 20 -angeloyl-3’isovaleryl vaginate, osthenol, hernaclenol) (Härmälä et al. 1991; Ojala 2001; Barnes et al. 2008; Wilson 2016; Kowal et al. 2017; Oliveira et al. 2019); several phenols (Wilson 2016); and archangelenone (Barnes et al. 2008; Sood et al. 2010). Kowal et al. (2017) also reported of have derived isoquercitrin for the first time from a food supplement manufactured from A. archangelica. Leaves: isopimpinellin, imperatorin and bergapten (Steck and Bailey 1969) and α- and β-pinene and β-phellandrene. Seeds: Essential oil: α- and β-phellandrene, sabinene, myrcene, α-pinene and limonene (Holm et al. 1997) and coumarins. Fruits: imperatorin, isoimperatorin and bergapten (Mathos et al. 2015) and β-phellandrene.

Local Medicinal Uses Angelica is included in a variety of official herbal pharmacopoeiae. In the Ural the roots are used as diuretic and expectorant; for bronchitis, neurasthenia, insomnia, gastritis and ascites; and as tincture for rheumatism, gout and sciatica, as well as with otitis and toothache (Sokolov 1988). Angelica glauca: In Nepal, its roots are used for cold, cough, gastric, stomachache, joint ache and constipation and as an effective remedy for indigestion in the northwest region (Kunwar et al. 2010, 2018). On a global scale, all parts of A. archangelica are reported to be traditionally used for various problems such as asthma, loss of appetite, flatulent dyspepsia (Sigurdsson et al. 2005), nervous headache, fever, skin rashes, wounds, rheumatism and toothaches. Its introduction as a medicine for plague in Europe is well cited in literatures (Crellin et al. 1990). Researches have shown that the leaves possess anti-proliferative and anti-tumour properties as well (Sigurdsson et al. 2005). Roots possess stimulant, expectorant and diaphoretic properties (Wilson 2016). The roots are reported to have abortifacient property as well, so it is suggested to restrict its frequent use during pregnancy (Duke 2002). To treat constipation bronchitis and stomach disorders (Malik et al. 2015). Used also for flatulence, indigestion and oedema (Thakur et al. 2014). Used in Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh for dyspepsia, flatulence, as stimulant, for asthma, dysentery, as expectorant, to treat influenza, stomach disorders, stomach pain, toothache, vomiting, mental disorders and as cardiac stimulant (Gairola et al. 2014). The roots of Angelica archangelica are used for gastric problems (Kunwar and Bussmann 2009; Kunwar et al. 2013, 2016, 2018, 2019) and as anthelminthic and for stomachache (Kunwar et al. 2010, 2015).

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Local Food Uses Angelica glauca: In many parts of the world, the oil of roots is used for flavouring cakes, candy, beverages, perfumery and in medicine (Sood et al. 2010; Wilson 2016). Kaul (1997) cited its use as the main flavouring ingredient of gin. The fruit powder is used as spices in flavouring food articles (Kaul 1997). Crushed roots to flavour food (Thakur et al. 2014, 2017). Angelica adzharica/ Angelica tatianae: The young shoots are eaten raw and pickled. The seeds are used as spice. In Northern Armenia highly valued as edible plant. The leaf petioles with spicy bitter taste are eaten raw and rarely salted and probably also have medicinal properties (Bussmann et al. 2020).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Angelica glauca: is used in Nepal for the treatment of asthma, cough and colds (Kunwar et al. 2015, 2016) and oedema, gastric problems and as anthelminthic (Thakur et al. 2014). Angelica adzharica/Angelica tatianae: The essential oils are used for perfumes. (Sokolov 1988). The young stems are eaten as pickle (Bussmann et al. 2020).

References Barnes J, Anderson LA, Phillipson JD. Herbal medicines-third edition. Am J Homeopath Med. 2008;101(1):52. Bhat ZA, Kumar D, Shah MY. Angelica archangelica Linn. is an angel on earth for the treatment of diseases. Int J Nutr Pharmacol Neurol Dis. 2011;1(1):36. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D. Angelica adzharica Pimenov; Angelica tatianae Bordz. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions far eastern Europe. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3319-77088-8_11-2. Crellin JK, Philpott J, Bass AT. Herbal medicine past and present: a reference guide to medicinal plants, vol. 2: Raleigh/Durham: Duke University Press; 1990. p. 97–101. Duke JA. Handbook of medicinal herbs. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2002. Feng T, Downie SR, Yu Y, Zhang X, Chen W, He X, Liu S. Molecular systematics of Angelica and allied genera (Apiaceae) from the Hengduan Mountains of China based on nrDNA ITS sequences: phylogenetic affinities and biogeographic implications. J Plant Res. 2009;122(4):403–14. Forycka A, Buchwald W. Variability of composition of essential oil and coumarin compounds of Angelica archangelica L. Herba Polonica. 2019;65(4):62–75. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Härmälä P, Kaltia S, Vuorela H, Hiltunen R. A furanocoumarin from Angelica archangelica. Planta Med. 1991;58(3):287–9. Holm Y, Vuorela P, Hiltunen R. Enantiomeric composition of monoterpene hydrocarbons in n-hexane extracts of Angelica archangelica L. roots and seeds. Flavour Fragr J. 1997;12(6):397–400.

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Jan HA, Jan S, Bussmann RW, Wali S, Sisto F, Ahmad L. Complementary and alternative medicine research, prospects and limitations in Pakistan: a literature review. Acta Ecol Sin. 2019; https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.chnaes.2019.12.005. Joshi RK. Angelica (Angelica glauca and A. archangelica) oils. In: Essential oils in food preservation, flavor and safety: Cambridge: Academic Press; 2016. p. 203–8. Chapter 21. Kala CP. Indigenous use, population density, and conservation of threatened medicinal plants in protected areas of the Indian Himalayas. Conserv Biol. 2005;19(2):368–78. Kala CP, Farooquee NA, Dhar U. Prioritization of medicinal plants on the basis of available knowledge, existing practices and use value status in Uttaranchal, India. Biodivers Conserv. 2004;13:453–69. Kaul MK. Medicinal plants of Kashmir and Ladakh: temperate and cold arid Himalaya. New Delhi: Indus Publishing; 1997. Khare CP. Indian medicinal plants: an illustrated dictionary. New York: Springer Science & Business Media; 2008. Kowal NM, Eyjolfsson R, Olafsdottir ES. Investigations on the constituents of SagaPro tablets, a food supplement manufactured from Angelica archangelica leaf. Die Pharmazie-an international. J Pharm Sci. 2017;72(1):3–4. Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Medicinal, Aromatic and Dye Plants of Baitadi and Darchula Districts, Nepal Himalaya: status, uses and management. In: Hartmann M, Weipert J, editors. Biodiversität, Naturausstattung im Himalaya, Bd. III. Erfurt; 2009. p. 475–89. Kunwar RM, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants in farwest Nepal: indigenous uses and pharmacological validity. Med Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010a;4(1):28–42. Kunwar RM, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants in Farwest Nepal: their indigenous uses and pharmacological validity. Med Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010b;4 (special issue 1):28–42. Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Acharya RP, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants, traditional medicine, markets and management in far-west Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:24. Kunwar RM, Acharya RP, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plant dynamics in indigenous medicines in Farwest Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;163:210–9. Kunwar RM, Baral K, Paudel P, Acharya RP, Thapa-Magar KB, Cameron M, Bussmann RW. Landuse and socioeconomic change, medicinal plant selection and biodiversity resilience in far western Nepal. PLoS One. 2016; https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0167812. Kunwar RM, Fadiman M, Cameron M, Bussmann RW, Thapa-Magar KB, Rimal B, Sapkota P. Cross-cultural comparison of plant use knowledge in Baitadi and Darchula districts, Nepal Himalaya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14(1):40. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-018-0242-7. Kunwar RM, Fadiman M, Hindle T, Suwal MK, Adhikari YP, Baral K, Bussmann RW. Composition of forests and vegetation in the Kailash Sacred Landscape, Nepal. J Forest Res. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11676-019-00987-w. Malik ZA, Bhat J, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhat AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44. Mathos MJ, Santana L, Uriarte E, Abreu OA, Molina E, Yordi EG. Coumarins – an important class of phytochemicals. Phytochemicals-isolation, characterisation and role in human health. 2015. 113–140. Ojala T. Biological screening of plant coumarins. Academic dissertation, Division of Pharmacognosy, University of Helsinki; 2001. Oliveira CR, Spindola DG, Garcia DM, Erustes A, Bechara A, Palmeira-dos-Santos C, Smaili SS, Pereira GJ, Hinsberger A, Viriato EP, Marcucci MC, Sawaya ACHF, Tomaz SL, Rodrigues EG, Bicoletto C. Medicinal properties of Angelica archangelica root extract: cytotoxicity in breast cancer cells and its protective effects against in vivo tumor development. J Integr Med. 2019;17(2):132–40. Press JR, Shrestha KK, Sutton DA. Annotated checklist of the flowering plants of Nepal. London: Natural History Museum Publications; 2000.

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Sigurdsson S, Ögmundsdóttir HM, Hallgrimsson J, Gudbjarnason S. Antitumour activity of Angelica archangelica leaf extract. In Vivo. 2005;19(1):191–4. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1988. 357 p. (in Russian). Sood SK, Gupta P, Kumar S. Flavouring and fragrant resources of India. New Delhi: Scientific Publishers; 2010. Steck W, Bailey BK. Leaf coumarins of Angelica archangelica. Can J Chem. 1969;47(13):2425– 30. Thakur KS, Kumar M, Bawa R, Bussmann RW. Ethnobotanical study of herbaceous flora along an altitudinal gradient in Bharmour Forest Division, District Chamba of Himachal Pradesh, India. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2014; https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/946870. Thakur D, Sharma A, Uniyal SK. Why they eat, what they eat: patterns of wild edible plants consumption in a tribal area of Western Himalaya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13:70. https:// doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0198-z. Wilson L. Spices and flavoring crops: fruits and seeds. In: Caballero B, Finglas P, Toldrá F, editors. Encyclopedia of food and health. Boca Raton: Cambridge Academic Press; 2016. p. 73–83. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013.

Anisomeles indica (L.) Kuntze LAMIACEAE Sabina Gyawali, Sanjeev Luintel, Santosh Thapa, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Anisomeles indica (L.) Kuntze: Anisomeles ovata R. Br.; Epimeredi indicus (L.) Rothm.; Marrubium indicum (L.) Burm. f.; Nepeta indica L.

Local Names Anisomeles indica: Hindi: Ramtulsi, Gopali; Bengali: gobura, gopali, apang; Hindi: काला भंग्रा Kala bhangra, Gobara; Kannada: Mangamari Soppu; Konkani: गोपाली Gopali; Nepali: रातो चारपात Raato Chaarapaate, Udaira – Tharu, Nirepati, S. Gyawali · S. Luintel Amrit Science College, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal S. Thapa Tri-Chandra College, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_24

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Jhusule, Rato Pat; Jinting (Sh); Manipuri: থোইদিঙঅঙৌবা Thoiding angouba; Marathi: गोपाली Gopali; Malayalam: Chedayan; Others: Gopali, Malabar Catmint, Indian Catmint, Chedayan, Karinthumba; Telugu: adabeera; Kannada: Mangamari soppu; English: Indian Catmint, Malabar catmint

Botany and Ecology Anisomeles indica: Stems erect, 1–2 m tall, branched, densely appressed white pubescent. Petiole 1–4.5 cm; leaf blade broadly ovate, 4–9
2.5–6.5 cm, adaxially finely strigose especially on veins, abaxially densely white minutely tomentose, tomentose on veins, base broadly truncate-cuneate, margin irregularly dentate, apex acute or short acuminate. Spikes about 2.5 cm in diam.; floral leaves short petiolate or  sessile, longer than verticillasters; bracts 3–4 mm. Calyx about 6 mm, hirsute, glandular pubescent, yellow glandular; teeth purple-red, triangular-lanceolate, about 2.7 mm, ciliate. Corolla purplish, about 1.3 cm, glabrous outside; tube funnelform, mouth to 3.5 mm wide; upper lip oblong, 4.5–5
3 mm, margin entire; lower lip subhorizontally spreading, about 9
5 mm; middle lobe obcordate, about 3
4.5 mm, slightly undulate, bearded; lateral lobes ovate. Ovary glabrous. Nutlets about 1.5 mm in diameter. Flowering August–September, fruiting September– November (Wu et al. 1994–2013). The genus Anisomeles has not been recorded on any of the islands of the southern Pacific Ocean, except as a naturalized alien (Bean 2015). Most members of the Anisomeles are confined to the tropics while only A. indica extends north of the Tropic of Cancer. The species diversity is greatest in tropical Australia, especially the “Top End” of Northern Territory and in northern Queensland. It is a widespread and common species. It is indigenous in southern Asia, including Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Maldives, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Burma, Thailand, Laos, Malaysia, Vietnam, China, Taiwan, Japan, Philippines, and Indonesia (including Papua). Its native range is Tropical and Subtropical Asia. It grows on a wide range of habitats from steep mountain slopes to alluvial flats, and on sandy or clayey soils. The African Plants Database (APD 2013) states that A. indica is naturalized in Madagascar. Hedge (1998) cited two specimens for Madagascar, commenting that “Perhaps A. indica is present in Madagascar, but this has never been confirmed, even as an introduced species.” Baker (1877) stated that the occurrences of A. ovata (¼ A. indica) on nearby Mauritius were naturalizations. Naturalized populations also occur at Fiji, Samoa, Trinidad, and Jamaica.

Phytochemistry The plant has 14-membered carbocyclic diterpenoids ovatodiolide (I, R ¼ β-H) (II) and isoovatodiolide (I, R ¼ α-H) (Manchand and Blount 1977); tetracosane, tetracosanol, β-amyrin, friedelin, and betulonic, macrocyclic diterpenes, ovatodiolide, and anisomelic acid, anisomelin (40 ,5- dihydroxy-30 ,6,7-trimethoxyflavone) (Ansari and Dobhal 1982); 5-hydroxy-30 ,40 ,6,7-tetramethylflavone, anisomelin, and apigenin

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(Rao et al. 1983); palmitic acid (23.334%), stearic acid (22.749%), lignoceric acid (21.54%), linalyl acetate (15.3%), and α-thujone (11.9%) (Yogesh et al. 2011); 2-(3-methoxy-4-hydroxy) phenyl-ethanol 1-O-α-L-[(1 ! 3)- rhamnopyranosyl-6feruloyl] glucoside (I) along with known 2-(3, 4-dihydroxy) Ph ethanol1-O-α-L[(1 ! 3)-rhamnopyranoside-4-O-caffeoyl] glucoside (verbascoside) (II), and 2-(3,4-dihydroxy) Ph ethanol (1 ! 1) (2 ! 2)-[(1 ! 3)- rhamnopyranoside-4-Ocaffeoyl] glucoside (oraposide) (III) (Wang and Luan 1994); One cembrane-type diterpenoid (3), two benzenoids (4 and 5), five flavonoids (1, 2, 6, 7, and 14), and six phenyl propanoids (8–13) (Rao et al. 2009); alanine, anisomelic acid, apigenin, amyrin, b sitosterol, behemic acid, betulin, cerotic acid, malabaric acid, ovatodiolide, pedallitin, stearic acid, stigmasterol (Kunwar et al. 2010). Mono- and sesquiterpenes, α-Bisabolol oxide B, a sesquiterpene oxide, dihydro-β-ionone, hexyl butanoate, tetracosane, and vitispirane (Batish et al. 2012); chloroform (4.20% w/w), ethyl acetate (4.23% w/w), and aqueous decoction (12.11% w/w) (Sundriyal et al. 2013); farnesyl acetone, nootkatone, and jasmatone (Basappa et al. 2015); oxygenated diterpenes and diterpene hydrocarbons (54.7%), abietadiene (20.5%), βcaryophyllene (8.8%), (E, E)-α-farnesene (5.5%), linoleic acid (8.7%), trans-ferruginol (8.1%), and abietol (6.1%) (Melkani et al. 2016); six triterpenoids (1–6), 4 megastigmanes (7–10), and 5 hydroxycinnamic acid derivs, 2α,3α,19α-trihydroxyurs-12,20(30)-dien-28-oic acid (Liu et al. 2019).

Local Medicinal Uses Anisomeles indica: It is used to treat nervous disorders and fever (Singh et al. 2002), urinary problems (Kunwar et al. 2010; Purkayastha et al. 2005), and also as tonic, astringent, and for uterine problems (Kunwar et al. 2010), as well as for body ache (Kala 2005). The extract showed anti-HIV activity (Ahmad et al. 2006). Leaf juice is put in the ear to stop pus formation inside (Manandher 1998); sore throat, diarrhea, dysentery, fever (Oli and Nepal 2003; Uprety et al. 2016), urinary problem (Kunwar and Duwadee 2003a, b; Kunwar et al. 2015); stomachache (Acharya and Pokhrel 2006); leaf extract is useful for urinary complaints, plant is astringent, tonic and its juice is useful for urinary affections (Kunwar et al. 2010) and as tonic (Joshi 2014).

References Acharya E, Pokhrel B. Ethno-medicinal plants used by Bantar of Bhaudaha, Morang, Nepal. Our Nat. 2006;4(1):96–103. Ahmad I, Aquil F, Owais M. Modern phytomedicine. Weinheim: Wiley; 2006. Ansari S, Dobhal MP. Chemical-constituents of the roots of Anisomeles indica Ktz. Pharmazie. 1982;37(6):453–4. APD. African Plants Database (version 3.4.0). Conservatoire et Jardin botaniques de la Ville de Genève and South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria. 2013. http://www.ville-ge. ch/musinfo/bd/cjb/africa/. Accessed 22 Dec 2013. Baker JG. Flora of Mauritius and the Seychelles. London: L. Reeve & Co.; 1877.

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Basappa G, Kumar V, Sarojini BK, Poornima DV, Gajula H, Sannabommaji TK, Rajashekar J. Chemical composition, biological properties of Anisomeles indica Kuntze essential oil. Ind Crop Prod. 2015;77:89–96. Batish DR, Singh HP, Kaur M, Kohli RK, Singh S. Chemical characterization and phytotoxicity of volatile essential oil from leaves of Anisomeles indica (Lamiaceae). Biochem Syst Ecol. 2012;41:104–9. Bean AR. A taxonomic revision of Anisomeles R. Br.(Lamiaceae). Austrobaileya. 2015:321–81. Hedge IC. Anisomeles. In: Morat P, editor. Flore de Madagascar et des Comores 175. Paris: Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle; 1998. p. 42–4. Joshi N. Utilization pattern and conservation status of plant resources of Makawanpur District, Central Nepal. 2014. Kala CP. Indigenous use, population density, and conservation of threatened medicinal plants in protected areas of the Indian Himalayas. Conserv Biol. 2005;19(2):368–78. Kunwar RM, Duwadee NPS. Ethnobotanical notes on Flora of Khaptad National Park (KNP), FarWestern, Nepal. Him J Sci. 2003a;1(1):25–30. Kunwar RM, Duwadee NPS. Ecology and economy of NTFPs in Nepal: a case study from Dolpa and Jumla. Bot Orientalis. 2003b;3:89–97. Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Bussmann RW. Traditional herbal medicine in Far-West Nepal: a pharmacological appraisal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6(1):35. Kunwar R, Acharya RP, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plant dynamics in indigenous medicines in Far-West Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;163:210–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jep.2015.01.035. Liu QW, Chen CH, Wang XF, Jiang K, Qu SJ, Dai YR, Tan CH. Triterpenoids, megastigmanes and hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives from Anisomeles indica. Nat Prod Res. 2019;33(1):41–6. Manandher NP. Ethnobotanical census on herbal medicines of Banke district, Nepal. Contribut Nepal Stud. 1998;25:57–63. Manchand PS, Blount JF. Chemical constituents of tropical plants. 10. Stereostructures of the macrocyclic diterpenoids ovatodiolide and isoovatodiolide. J Org Chem. 1977;42(24):3824–8. Melkani AB, Mohan L, Pant CC. Diterpene rich essential oil from Anisomeles indica (L.) O. Kuntz. and its antimicrobial activity. World J Pharm Res. 2016;5(5):932–43. Oli BR, Nepal BK. Non-timber forest products from the Kangchenjunga conservation area: aspects of trade and market opportunities. Kathmandu: WWF Nepal Programme; 2003. Purkayastha J, Nath SC, Islam B. Ethnobotany of medicinal plants from Dibru-Saikhowa biosphere reserve of Northeast India. Fitoterapia. 2005;76:121–7. Rao LJM, Kumari GK, Rao NP. 6-Methoxy flavones from Anisomeles ovata (syn. Anisomeles indica). J Nat Prod. 1983;46(4):595–8. Rao YK, Fang SH, Hsieh SC, Yeh TH, Tzeng YM. The constituents of Anisomeles indica and their anti-inflammatory activities. J Ethnopharmacol. 2009;121(2):292–6. Singh AK, Raghubanshi AS, Singh JA. Medical ethnobotany of the tribals of Sonaghati of Sonbhadra district, Uttar Pradesh, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2002;81:31–41. Sundriyal A, Bijjem KRV, Kalia AN. Antiepileptic potential of Anisomeles indica (Linn.) Kuntze aerial parts in pentylenetetrazole-induced experimental convulsions in Wistar rats. 2013. Uprety Y, Poudel RC, Gurung J, Chettri N, Chaudhary RP. Traditional use and management of NTFPs in Kangchenjunga landscape: implications for conservation and livelihoods. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12(1):19. Wang Y, Luan X. Phenethyl alcohol glycosides in Epimeredi indica. Chin Tradit Herb Drug. 1994;32(12):1325. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Yogesh U, Krishnakant P, Navin S. Analysis of fatty acid in Anisomeles species by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Pharm J. 2011;3(22):44–7.

Aquilaria sinensis (Loureiro) Sprengel Aquilaria yunnanensis S. C. Huang THYMELAEACEAE Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Aquilaria sinensis (Loureiro) Sprengel: Aquilaria grandiflora Bentham; Aquilaria ophispermum Poiret.; Ophispermum sinense Loureiro; Agallochum sinense (Loureiro) Kuntze

Local Names Aquilaria sinensis: Chinese: 土沉香 tu chen xiang; English: Chinese eaglewood Aquilaria yunnanensis: Chinese: 云南沉香 yun nan chen xiang, English: Yunnanese eaglewood

R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_25

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Botany and Ecology Aquilaria sinensis: Trees 5–15 m tall. Bark dark gray, smooth; branchlets terete, rugose, puberulous, glabrescent. Petiole 5–7 mm, pubescent; leaf blade dark or purple-green, glossy adaxially, light green abaxially, orbicular or elliptic to oblong, sometimes obovate, 5–9  2.8–6 cm, leathery, both surfaces glabrous, but sometimes puberulous along margin, base broadly cuneate, apex acuminate or acute, apiculate; lateral veins 15–20 pairs, more conspicuous abaxially, veins and veinlets slender, subparallel, obscure. Inflorescence terminal, a loose panicle of umbels, many flowered. Flowers fragrant at night; pedicel 5–10 mm, densely yellow-gray pubescent. Calyx yellowish green; tube narrowly campanulate, 5–6 mm, exterior and interior densely pubescent; lobes 5, ovate, 3–5 mm, both surfaces pubescent, apex rounded and obtuse, or acute. Petaloid appendages 10, scalelike, inserted at throat of tube, obviously densely pilose at anthesis. Stamens 10; filaments about 1 mm; anthers linear-oblong, about 1.5 mm. Ovary ovoid, densely grayish white hairy; style obsolete or nearly so; stigma capitate. Capsule shortly stipitate, ovoid, 2–3  about 2 cm, densely yellow pubescent, base tapering, apex apiculate; pericarp thin, smooth when dried. Seeds dark brown, ovoid, about 10  7.5 mm, white sericeous or glabrous; funicle conspicuous, about 1.5  0.4 cm, longer than seed, tapered at base, broad and compressed below seed. Flowering spring-summer, fruiting summer-autumn. Lowland forests, sunny places on slopes or along roadsides. Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan. Aquilaria sinensis has been very heavily exploited and is listed as vulnerable by the IUCN (de Boer et al. 2014; Hamilton 2004; Wu et al. 1994–2013). Aquilaria yunnanensis: Trees small, 3–8 m tall. Branchlets dark brown, puberulous. Petiole 4–5 mm, pubescent; leaf blade elliptic-oblong or oblong-lanceolate, rarely obovate, 7–11  2–4 cm, leathery, glabrous, glabrescent, or puberulous only on midrib, base cuneate or narrowly cuneate, apex caudate-acuminate, acumen 1–1.5 cm; veins usually branched, dense, conspicuous and raised abaxially, obscure adaxially. Inflorescence terminal or axillary, consisting of 1 or 2 umbels. Flowers fragrant; pedicel about 6 mm, slender. Calyx light yellow; tube campanulate, 6–7 mm, exterior pubescent, interior 10-ribbed, ribs pubescent; lobes 5, ovateoblong, about 3 mm, nearly as long as tube, inside densely pubescent. Petaloid appendages about 1.5 mm, puberulous, apex rounded. Stamens 10, 1.5–2 mm; anthers linear, shorter than or equaling filaments. Ovary subglobose, about 3 mm, shiny, pubescent; style obscure; stigma capitate. Capsule obovoid, about 2.5  1.7 cm, base tapering and enclosed by erect, persistent calyx, corky when dried, apex rounded and apiculate; pericarp thickened, slightly rugose when dried, yellow pubescent. Seeds 1 or 2, ovoid, densely brown-yellow pubescent, apex obtuse; funicle 0.8–1 cm, slightly shorter or longer than seed. Valley forests; about 1200 m. Yunnan. This species has been confused with Aquilaria sinensis and is probably exploited in the same way (Wu et al. 1994–2013).

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Local Medicinal Uses Aquilaria sinensis: The species is used for stomach pain, constipation, scrotal hernia, impotence., cold, lower back pain, and knee pain (Wu 2005). Aquilaria yunnanensis: The species is used for stomach pain, constipation, scrotal hernia, impotence, cold, lower back pain, and knee pain (Wu 2005).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Aquilaria sinensis: The bark is used to make paper; the heart wood is prized for its fragrance (Wu et al. 1994–2013; Wu 2005). Aquilaria yunnanensis: The bark is used to make paper; the heart wood is prized for its fragrance (Wu et al. 1994–2013; Wu 2005).

References de Boer H, Ouarghidi A, Martin G, Abbad A, Kool A. DNA barcoding reveals limited accuracy of identifications based on folk taxonomy. PLoS One. 2014;9(1):e84291. Hamilton AC. Medicinal plants, conservation and livelihoods. Biodivers Conserv. 2004;13:1477– 517. Wu JN. An illustrated chines Materia Medica. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2005. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013.

Arisaema flavum (Forssk.) Schott ARACEAE Kalyan Panta, Hassan Sher, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Ikram Ur Rahman, Wahid Hussain, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

K. Panta (*) Prithivi Narayan Campus, Tribhuvan University, Pokhara, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan W. Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_26

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Synonyms Arisaema abbreviatum Schott, Arum flavum Forssk., Arisaema pertusum Riedl.; Dochafa flava (Forssk.) Schott.

Local Names Arisaema flavum: Gurung: Timtry; Pashto: Marjarai, Nepali: Banko, Sarpa ko Makai; English: Cobra lily, Jack-in-the pulpit, Green dragon.

Botany and Ecology Arisaema flavum was collected by P. Forskal from the mountains of the Arabic peninsula (nowadays N. Yemen) and described in 1775. Schott described it as Arisaema abbreviatum collected from western Himalaya, from the region of Shimla. It was the new species to the plant taxonomy. Later, the new born genus Arisaema Mart. (he) was merged to A. abbreviatum with an old name Arum flavum. Then it got the name Arisaema flavum (Forsk.) Schott on the basis of morphological similarities of floral characters (Gusman 1997). The species epithet flavum means yellow in Latin and indicates its flower color (Harrison 2012). Since A. flavum differs with all other Arisaemas, Schott created a new genus DOCHAFA. Arisaemas indeed differ from all other aroids by their sex changes from year to year (Gusman 1997). Forskål mentioned in his “Flora Ægyptiaco Arabica sive descriptiones plantarum” that Dochaf referred to Arum flavum Forsk. and Arum pentaphyllum Forsk. A short life appeared in the genus Dochafa merged with Arisaema (Engler 1920). Also reused the term Dochafa and retained the name genus Arisaema. Arisaema flavum: Plants monoecious and male. Tuber subglobose, 1.5–2.5 cm in diameter. Cataphylls 3–5, green, 8–25 cm. Leaves 1 or 2; petiole green to purplish, unmarked, 11–35 cm, sheathing for about 4/5 length forming pseudostem; leaf blade pedate; leaflets 5–11(
15), sessile, glaucous abaxially, green adaxially, oblonglanceolate or obovate-lanceolate, base cuneate, apex acuminate; central leaflet largest, 9–12  3–5 cm; outer (lateral leaflets) gradually decreasing to outermost (1.5– 4  1–1.2 cm). Peduncle emerging from pseudostem, green, 15–30 cm. Spathe smallest in genus, 2.5–6 cm in total; tube yellowish green, ovoid to globose, 1– 1.5  1–1.4 cm, constricted at dark purple throat with nectar inside; limb yellow or green, inside dark purple at least at basal part, oblong-ovate, 1.5–4.5  0.8–2 cm, apex acuminate, slightly incurved. Spadix bisexual or male, very short, 1–2 cm in total; female zone proximal, 3–7  5–7 mm; ovaries congested, greenish, obovoid; stigma sessile; male zone distal, light yellow, cylindric, 3–7  2–3 mm; synandria congested, usually consisting of 2 anthers; thecae sessile, dehiscent by apical pore. Appendix yellowish or yellow green, ellipsoid, 2–5  about 1.5 mm, very short, rugose when dry. Mature infructescence nodding, subglobose, about 4 cm in diameter. Berries obovoid, 3–4  3–5 mm. Seeds 3, pale yellowish, 2–2.5 mm. Flowering

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Fig. 1 Arisaema flavum (Araceae) plant, Nepal. (Photo Hari P Gurung) Fig. 2 Arisaema flavum (Araceae) Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

May–June. Open places rocky slopes 1800 to 3500 m in Pakistan. Distributed in Nepal, NE India, China, Kashmir and northern parts of Pakistan. Locally found in high altitude of Malakand and Hazara divisions. Harvesting time September to March (Wu et al. 1994-2013; Mayo and Gilbert 1986; Kunwar et al. 2010a, b). The flowers are either male or monoecious (Anonymous 1994) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Ecology Arisaema comprises about 150 species in the world (Murata 1984; Gusman and Gusman 2006). About 140 species are found in the Himalayas, southern India, China, Sri Lanka, Japan, Korea, and South East Asia. There are 95 species of

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Fig. 3 Arisaema flavum (Araceae) Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

Fig. 4 Arisaema flavum (Araceae) Pakistan. (Photo Haider Ali)

Arisaema reported in the Flora of China (http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx? flora_id¼2) and 24 species in Nepal (Press et al. 2000; Renner et al. 2004). Across Saudi Arabia and Oman to east Africa, five or six species are endemic, and three are endemic to North America (Renner et al. 2004). It is also found in Southern Arabia, Oman, Yemen, and Saudi Arabia (Kletter and Kriechbaum 2001). Besides these, Ethiopia, Somalia, Arabian Peninsula, Pakistan, Nepal, and Assam are native home to them (Govaerts and Frodin 2002; Gusman and Gusman 2006). These species are confined to cool temperate environment, including montane grasslands. Few species

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have found thriving well between 4200 and 4500 m asl in the Himalayan range and at 3200 m in East Africa. Arisaema flavum is found in the tropical region. It prefers to thrive well in a cool and moist peaty soil in the bog, woodland, or a sheltered border in semi shade (Rice 1998; Huxley 1992). This species prefers a loamy or peaty soil (Chittendon 1951). A. flavum is found growing well in the mountain slopes of tropical to subalpine regions between 3500 to 4300 m above sea level. It is a perennial monocot flowering plant. It comes under the family Araceae (Arum family). The plant looks like insectivorous pitcher plant. The inflorescence of the plant is attractive. It is supposed to live a 100 years. The plant is known by many names due to its peculiar flowering habit and the shape of its attractive inflorescence. Expression of sex in Arisaema is dependent on edaphic factors, especially nutritional conditions during a plant’s life. Large plants are bisexual or only possess pistillate flowers (female) but small plants may be only staminate flowers. As demonstrated experimentally the sex is influenced by root storage (Bierzychudek 1984). All Arisaema species have found exchanging each other their genetic characters consistently through producing male and female flowers simultaneously (http://www.umsl.edu/-biosrenn/). Arisaema demonstrates “sex change” and is the characteristics of Araceae, and rarely found among angiosperms that are labile to sex determination. Environment and life history of the plant determine sex of this plant (Charnov and Bull 1977; Freeman et al. 1980). However, Murata (1990) found sex-changing populations of A. flavum, described as subspecies tibeticum, leaving the remaining two subspecies of A. flavum. Germination of Arisaema flavum seeds usually takes place about 1–6 months at 15 °C. These may remain viable for at least a year. They grow well during spring season (Rice 1998). Pollination is usually performed by a fungus gnats (Mycetophilidae) and sciarid gnats (Sciaridae). Besides these, nectar feeding small bees may also pollinate (Murata et al. 1993; Vogel and Martens 2000).

Phytochemistry Arisaema flavum possesses alanine, ariseminone, asparagine, cysteine, glycine, norvaline, and ornithine (Rastogi and Mehrotra 1979). Seeds were found to contain 13-phenyltridecanoic acid (an ω-phenyalkanoic acid) among other saturated and unsaturated straight chain fatty acid (Kletter and Kriechbaum 2001). Plant species also found to have four triterpenoids: α-amyrin, β-amyrin, lup-20 (29)-en-3β-ol, lup-20 (29)-en-3β-yl acetate, two sterols β- sitosterol, β-setosteryl galactoside (Ahmad et al. 2003). It is assumed that calcium oxalate raphides which cause minute lesions in the mouth due to the toxicity in this plant affect the circulatory system of human blood. Some chemical compounds found in the species were saponins, proanthocyanidins, cinnamic acids, flavonoids, cyanogenic glucosides, alkaloids, and amines. Irritant compounds: protocatechuic aldehyde, homogentisic acid and their glycosides (Alocasia, Colocasia, Pinellia), and allergenic 5-alkyl-and 5-alkenylresorcinols

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(Philodendron) are also reported from this plant. Besides these, flavonoids and anthocyanins are such as C-glycoflavones, flavonols, and procyanidins are present, while flavones are present in limited amount. The chemistry of the Araceae resemble to Liliiflorae. 1, 2-O-diacyl-3-O-beta-D-galactopyranosyl glycerols and 1, 2-Odiacyl-3-O-[alpha-D-galactopyranosyl-(100 ! 60 )-O-beta-D-galactopyranosyl] glycerols were isolated from Arisaema amurense. These compounds have shown cytotoxicities against P388 and DLD-1 (Jung et al. 1996).

Local Medicinal Uses Arisaema flavum: Poisonous sedative and relives body pain. The tubers are crushed, and a paste is made which is applied against foot and mouth diseases in cattle. The paste is also applied for snake bite (Shaheen et al. 2012). Fruit is used for cough and cold (Haq et al. 2011). Rhizome and red fruit are poisonous causing numbness of tongue. It is also believed to help in tracing bears (Hamayun 2007). Leaf extract is applied over snake bite to act as an antidote. It also saves milk from being stale when mixed with each other and dried roots of the plant is put in the container to have the milk from getting stale (Sabeen and Ahmad 2009). Possesses antioxidant properties. Methanol extract of Arisaema flavum leaves showed promising antioxidant activity (Bhagat et al. 2014). This species also has immunomodulatory potential. Methanolic extract of Arisaema flavum leaves showed immune enhancing effect in mice (Bhagat et al. 2014). Mitogenic activity and antiproliferative activity are shown by Arisaema. The isolated and purified Lectin from Arisaema flavum tubers demonstrated a strong mitogenic activity for BALB/c splenocytes and human lymphocytes in comparison to Con A, a plant mitogen. The species also showed in vitro antiproliferative activity. It had potency to inhibit the growth of P388D1 and J774 macrophage cancer cell lines to 65% and 74%, respectively, while a partial response was observed in the case of both B-cell and T-cell lymphoma (WEHI-279 and A20, respectively) murine cancer cell lines (Singh et al. 2004). Methanolic tuber extracts of A. flavum contained weak antiviral property (Rajbhandari et al. 2007). Antibacterial activity against all bacterial strains except Staphylococcus aureus was found (Bibi et al. 2011). It has medicinal values as an expectorant and is also used in the treatment of chronic tracheitis, tetanus, bronchiectasis, and epilepsy. Used for wounds and skin problems (Rajbhandari et al. 2007). Tubers of Arisaema species are used to treat fractures, traumatic injuries, and swellings. Arisaema heterophyllum serves to treat hypertension, headache, constipation (Ma et al. 2019). Arisaema propinquum is used to treat diabetic neuropathy and rheumatic arthritis (Sher et al. 2016). Arisaema jaquemontii serves for cough, kidney stones, and to treat snake bites (Malik et al. 2015), to increase muscular strength, for body pain and skin problems (Kayani et al. 2015).

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Arisaema consanguineum, Arisaema speciosum, and Arisaema triphyllum are used to treat snakebites (Houghton and Osibogun 1993). Arisaema schimperianum is used to treat glandular tuberculosis (Yineger et al. 2008). Arisaema tortuosum is used to treat snakebites and bone fractures (Jain et al. 2005; Katewa et al. 2004).

Local Food Uses Arisaema flavum: The young leaves are plucked and cooked as a vegetable in limited amount however; some caution is advised (Dangol et al. 2017; Manandhar 2002). The roots of Arisaema tortuosum and Arisaema jaquemontii, and shoots of Arisaema utile, Arisaema consanguineum, and Arisaema erubescens are eaten (Dangol et al. 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Arisaema flavum: Leaves infusion is used against mouth and foot diseases of cattle (Ahmed and Murtaza 2015). Cultivated as ornamental. The fruits of Arisaema murrayi are used to heat cattle (Waghchaure et al. 2006). Arisaema species have been used as a pesticide (Zahang 1982).

References Ahmad VU, Hussain H, Hussain J, Ullah F. Chemical constituents from Arisaema flavum. Proc Pakistan Acad Sci. 2003;40(1):85–90. Ahmed MJ, Murtaza G. A study of medicinal plants used as ethnoveterinary: harnessing potential phytotherapy in Bheri, district Muzaffarabad (Pakistan). J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;159:209–14. Anonymous. Flora of China, Missouri botanical garden Press. St, Louis; 1994. Bhagat M, Sudan R, Gupta S, Kaul A, Singh J. Antioxidant and immunomodulatory potential of cobra lily species of north-western Himalayan region: a comparative analysis mitogenic activity and antiproliferative activity. J Biol Active Prod Nat. 2014;4(3):179–87. Bibi Y, Nisa S, Chaudhary FM, Zia M. Antibacterial activity of some selected medicinal plants of Pakistan. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2011;11:52. Bierzychudek P. Determinants of gender in Jack-in-the-pulpit: the influence of plant size and reproductive history. Oecologia. 1984;65:14–8. Charnov EL, Bull J. When is sex environmentally determined? Nature. 1977;266:828–30. Chittendon F. RHS dictionary of plants plus supplement, 1956: Oxford University press; 1951. Dangol DR, Maharjan KL, Maharjan SK, Acharya, AK. 2017. Wild edible plants in Nepal. in: Joshi BK, Bahadur KC H, Acharya A (eds). Conservation and utilization of agricultural plant genetic resources of Nepal. NAGRC, Dhulikhel. 390-407. Engler A. Das Pflanzenreich 73(IV, 23 F): 172. Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann; 1920. Freeman DC, Harper KT, Charnov EL. Sex change in plants: old and new observations and new hypotheses. Oecologia. 1980;47:222–32.

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Govaerts R, Frodin DG. World checklist and bibliography of Araceae (and Acoraceae): 1-560. Kew: The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens; 2002. Gusman, G. (1997). Some remarks on Arisaema flavum and its subspecies, Faculte des Sciences, Universite Libre de Bruxelles (CP 233) bd. du Triomphe, B -1050 Bruxelles, Belgium. Gusman G, Gusman L. The genus Arisaema, a monograph for botanists and nature lovers, 2nd edt. 1-474: A.R.G. Gantner Verlag K.G., Ruggell; 2006. Hamayun M. Traditional uses of some medicinal plants of Swat Valley, Pakistan. Indian J Trad Knowl. 2007;6(4):636–41. Haq F, Ahmad H, Alam M. Traditional uses of medicinal plants of Nandiar Khuwarr catchment (district Battagram), Pakistan. J Med Plants Res. 2011;5(1):39–48. Harrison L. RHS Latin for gardeners. United Kingdom: Mitchell Beazley; 2012. Houghton PJ, Osibogun IM. Flowering plants used against snakebite. J Ethnopharmacol. 1993;39:1–29. Huxley A. The new RHS dictionary of gardening, 1992. Mac Millan Press. In: ISBN 0-332-4749-5; 1992. Jain A, Katewa SS, Galav PK, Sharma P. Medicinal plant diversity of Sitamata wildlife sanctuary, Rajasthan, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102:143–57. Jung JH, Lee H, Kang SS. Diacyl-glyceryl-galactosides from Arisaema amurense. Phytochemistry. 1996;42(2):447–52. Katewa SS, Chaudhary BL, Jain A. Folk herbal medicines from tribal area of Rajasthan, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2004;92:41–6. Kayani S, Ahmad M, Sultana S, Khan Shinwari ZM, Yaseen G, Hussain M, Bibi T. Ethnobotany of medicinal plants among the communities of alpine and sub-alpine regions of Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;164:186–202. Kletter C, Kriechbaum M. DWA BA-Arisaema, Typhonium. In: Tibetan medicinal plants: Medpharma Scientific Publisher; 2001. p. 77–84. Kunwar RM, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants in Farwest Nepal: their indigenous uses and pharmacological validity. Med Arom Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010a;4(special issue 1):28–42. Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Bussmann RW. Traditional herbal medicine in far-West Nepal: a pharmacological appraisal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010b;6:35. Ma, Y., Liu, D., Cheng, H., Bussmann, R.W., He, H., Guo, Z., Liu, B. 2019. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by Miao people in Jijiezi, Yunnan, China. Ethnobot Res Appl 1826 https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.26.1-14. Malik ZA, Bhat J, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhat AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44. Manandhar, N. P. Plants and people of Nepal. Timber Press, Oregon; 2002. ISBN 0-88192.527-536. Mayo SJ, Gilbert M. A preliminary revision of Arisaema (Araceae) in tropical Africa and Arabia. Kew Bull. 1986;41(2):261–78. https://doi.org/10.2307/4102929. Murata J. An attempt at an infrageneric classification of the genus Arisaema (Araceae). J. Fac. Sci. Univ. Tokyo, Sect. 3, Bot. 1984;13:431–82. Murata J. Three subspecies of Arisaema flavum (Forssk.) Schott (Araceae). Jpn J Bot. 1990;65 Murata J, Ren C, Murata H, Ogawa S. Arisaema flavum, a honey producing Araceae. Abstract 1203, 15th international botanical congress. Yokohama: Jp; 1993. p. 224. Press JR, Shrestha KK, Sutton DA. Annotated checklist of the flowering plants of Nepal. London: The Natural History Museum; 2000. Rajbhandari M, Mentel R, Jha PK, Chaudhary RP, Bhattarai S, Gewali MB, Karmacharya SB, Hipper N, Lindequest U. Antiviral activity of some plants used in Nepalese traditional medicine. eCAM. 2007;6(4):517–22. https://doi.org/10.1093/ecam/nem156. Rastogi RP, Mehrotra BN. A compendium of medicinal plants, vol. 2. New Delhi: Central Drugs Research Institute, Lucknow and Publication and Information Directorate; 1979. p. 833.

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Renner S, Zhang L, Murata J. A chloroplast phylogeny of Arisaema (Araceae) illustrates tertiary floristic links between Asia, North America, and East Africa. Am J Bot. 2004;91(6):881–8. Retrieved June 14, 2020, from www.jstor.org/stable/4122703 Rice G. Growing from seed, vol. 2: Thompson and Morgan Publishers; 1998. Sabeen M, Ahmad SS. Exploring the folk medicinal flora of Abbotabad city. Pakistan Ethnobot Leafl. 2009;2009(7):1. Shaheen H, Shinwari ZK, Qureshi RA, Ullah Z. Indigenous plant resources and their utilization practices in village populations of Kashmir Himalayas. Pak J Bot. 2012;44(2):739–45. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni groups in Chitral District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Singh J, Singh J, Kamboj SS. A novel mitogenic and antiproliferative lectin from a wild cobra lily, Arisaema flavum. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2004;318(4):1057–65. Vogel S, Martens J. A survey of the function of the lethal kettle traps of Arisaema (Araceae), with records of pollinating fungus gnats from Nepal. Bot J Linn Soc. 2000;133:61–100. Waghchaure CK, Tetali P, Gunale VR, Antia NH, Bird TJ. Sacred groves of Parinche Valley of Pune District of Maharashtra, India and their importance. Anthropol Med. 2006;13(1):55–76. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D e. Flora of China. St. Louis: Science Press, Beijing & Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994-2013. Yineger H, Kelbessa E, Bekele T, Lulekal E. Plants used in traditional management of human ailments at Bale Mountains National Park, southeastern Ethiopia. J Med Plants Res. 2008;26:132–53. Zahang J. Alpine plants of China. New York: Gordeon & Breach; 1982. ISBN 0-677-60190-5

Arnebia euchroma (Royle) I. M. Johnst. BORAGINACEAE Hammad Ahmad Jan, Wahid Hussain, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Arnebia euchroma (Royle) I. M. Johnst.: Arnebia euchroma var. grandis Kazmi; Lithospermum euchromum Royle ex Benth.; Macrotomia euchroma (Royle ex Benth.) Paulsen; Macrotomia oginoi Kitam.; Macrotomia perenmnis Boiss.

Local Names Arnebia euchroma: Ladakh: Lali-Jadi; Hindi: Dedmok; Chitrali: Phosuk ‫ﭖﻭﺱﻭﮎ‬

H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan W. Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_27

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Botany and Ecology Arnebia euchroma: Herbs perennial. Roots stout, to 2 cm in diam., containing copious purple dye. Stems usually 1 or 2, erect, branched above, sheathed with remaining bases of leaves, 15–40 cm tall, spreading white or pale yellow hirsute. Leaves sessile, sparsely semiappressed hirsute. Basal leaves linear to linearlanceolate, 7–20 cm  0.5–1.5 cm, base sheathlike, apex short acuminate; stem leaves lanceolate to linear-lanceolate, smaller without sheathlike base. Cymes terminal, 2–6 cm at anthesis, many flowered; bracts lanceolate. Flowers heterostylous. Calyx lobes linear, 1.2–1.6 cm, to 3 cm in fruit, densely pale yellow hirsute on both sides, apex subacute. Corolla dark purple, sometimes pale yellow and purple-red tinged, tubular-campanulate, glabrous or sparsely short pubescent outside; tube straight, 1–1.4 cm; limb 6–10 mm wide; lobes spreading, ovate. Anthers ca. 2.5 mm. Style apex 2-lobed; stigmas 2, obovate. Nutlets black-brown, broadly ovate, ca. 3.5  3 mm, scabrous reticulate lined, with few tubercles, adaxially almost flat, center line prominent, abaxially convex, apex subacute; attachment scar somewhat triangular. Flowering and fruiting June–August (Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Figs. 1 and 2).

Fig. 1 Arnebia inconspicua (Boraginaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Huassain)

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Fig. 2 Arnebia euchroma (Boraginaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Phytochemistry A high content of pyrrolizidine alkaloids has been reported (Ahmad et al. 2018a, b).

Local Medicinal Uses Arnebia euchroma: Root and stem are used for cuts, burns, and wounds (Malik et al. 2015; Tariq et al. 2019). Also employed to treat tuberculosis, cold, cough, and flu (Ballabh and Chaurasia 2007; Pawera et al. 2015). Used in traditional Chinese medicine (Wu 2005) and displayed strong anti-HIV activity in vitro (Ahmad et al. 2006). Used as general tonic (Kala et al. 2004), and for kidney and urinary disorders (Ballabh et al. 2008). Uses include alopecia, as antiphlogistic, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, vomiting with blood, cold, cough, cuts, earache, eye ailments, gynecological disorders, kidney complaints, renal bleeding, lung problems, toothache, wounds¡, back-ache, and as toothbruch (Gairola et al. 2014). Arnebia benthamiana: Used to treat fever (Kala et al. 2004; Kala 2005). Arnebia guttata is used as inferior replacement for the same uses as Arnebia euchroma (Ballabh and Chaurasia 2007).

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses Arnebia benthamiana: Used as hair tonic (Kala et al. 2004; Kala 2005). Arnebia euchroma: Used as hair tonic (Kala et al. 2004; Kala 2005).

References Ahmad I, Aquil F, Owais M. Modern phytomedicine. Weinheim: Wiley; 2006. Ahmad L, He Y, Hao J-C, Semotiuk A, Liu Q-R, Mazar P. Toxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids provide a warning sign to overuse of the ethnomedicine Arnebia benthamii. J Ethnopharmacol. 2018a;210:88–94. Ahmad L, He Y, Semotiuk AJ, Liu Q-R, Hao J-C. Survey of pyrrolizidine alkaloids in the tribe Lithospermeae (Boraginaceae) from Pan-Himalaya and their chemotaxonomic significance. Biochem Syst Ecol. 2018b;81:49–57. Ballabh B, Chaurasia OP. Traditional medicinal plants of cold desert Ladakh – used in treatment of cold, cough and fever. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;112(2):341–9. Ballabh B, Chaurasia OP, Ahmed Z, Singh SB. Traditional medicinal plants of cold desert Ladakh – used against kidney and urinary disorders. J Ethnopharmacol. 2008;118:331–9. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Kala CP. Indigenous use, population density, and conservation of threatened medicinal plants in protected areas of the Indian Himalayas. Conserv Biol. 2005;19(2):368–78. Kala CP, Farooquee NA, Dhar U. Prioritization of medicinal plants on the basis of available knowledge, existing practices and use value status in Uttaranchal, India. Biodivers Conserv. 2004;13:453–69. Malik ZA, Bhat J, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhat AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44. Pawera L, Verner V, Termote C, Sodombekov I, Kadanov A, Karabaev N, Skalicky M, Polesny Z. Medical ethnobotany of herbal practitioners in the Turkestan Range, southwestern Kyrgyzstan. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2015; https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3483. Tariq F, Ul-Haq SI, Natasha K, Ahmad J, Ahmad F, Adnan, Ali A, Basit A. Ethnomedicinal study of various plants in lone valley, district Chitral, KPK, Pakistan. J Med Plants. 2019;7(3):24–8. Wu JN. An illustrated Chines Materia Medica. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2005. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013.

Artemisia absinthium L. Artemisia biennis Willd. Artemisia bigelovii A. Gray Artemisia brevifolia Wall. ex DC. Artemisia scoparia Waldst. ex Kit. Artemisia vulgaris L. ASTERACEAE Hammad Ahmad Jan, Hassan Sher, Wahid Hussain, Ikram Ur Rahman, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Synonyms Artemisia biennis Willd.: Artemisia biennis var. diffusa Dorn Artemisia bigelovii A. Gray: Artemisia petrophila Wooton & Standl., Artemisis bigelowii (A. Gray) K. Bremer & Humphries H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan W. Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_28

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Artemisia brevifolia Wall. ex DC: Seriphidium brevifoplium (Wall. ex DC.) Y. Ling & Y.-R. Ling Artemisia scoparia Waldst. ex Kit.: Artemisia capillaris fo. angustisecta Pamp., Artemisia capillaris fo. elegans (Roxb.) Pamp., Artemisia capillaris fo. kohatica (Klatt) Pamp., Artemisia capillaris fo. myriocephala Pamp., Artemisia capillaris fo. tenuifolia Pamp., Artemisia capillaris fo. villosa (Korsh.) Pamp., Artemisia capillaris fo williamsonii Pamp., Artemisia capillaris var. scoparia (Waldst. & Kit.) Pamp., Artemisia elegans Roxb., Artemisia kohatica Klatt, Artemisia scoparia fo. sericea Kom., Artemisia scoparia var. heteromorpha Kitag., Artemisia scopariiformis Popov, Olgosporus scoparius (Waldst. & Kit.) Less., Oligosporus scoparius (Waldst. & Kit.) Poljakov Artemisia vulgaris L.: Artemisia opulenta Pamp.; Artemisia vulgaris var. glabra Ledeb.; Artemisia vulgaris var. kamtschatica Besser

Local Names Artemisia absinthium: Jammu: Tethwan; Ladakh: Burse, Burtse-kar, Tethwan Chhuma-jom; Kurram: Mastaya; Gilgit-Baltistan: Khampa; Pashto: Trakha ‫ﺗﺮﺍﺧﺎ‬ Artemisia biennis: Kurram: Jangli, Tarkha; Ladakh: Magrass Artemisia bigelovii: Pashto: Naray Trakha ‫ﻧﺎﺭﻱ ﺗﺮﺍﺧﻪ‬. Artemisia brevifolia: Gilgit-Baltistan: Bustae; Ladakh: Phur-nag; Khampa, Khamchu, Phur-nag; Kashmir: Moori, Joon, Tarkha Artemisia scoparia: Kurram: Tarkhi boti; Khyber-Pakhtumkhwa: Jawkay; Urdu: Doorang; Baltistan: Khobustae; Pashto: Jaukay ‫ﺟﻮﮐﯽ‬. Artemisia vulgaris: Jammu: Jaatu; Kurram: Darlrang; Buner: Goote; Pashto: Tarkha ‫ﺗﺮﺧﻪ‬.

Botany and Ecology Artemisia absinthium: Perennial. Whole plant grayish from short approximate hairs, sericeous-tomentose. Root vertical, thick, perennial. Stem 60–100 cm high, herbaceous, erect, with short branches, leafy, sometimes basally with short nonflowering branches bearing long-petiolate leaves. Leaves with 6–9 cm long and 3–7 cm wide lamina broadly ovate, almost thrice pinnately dissected, terminal lobe lanceolate, short-acuminate; middle cauline leaves short petiolate, lacking lobes at base of petiole, twice pinnately dissected; upper leaves subsessile, simple pinnate or twice ternate; bracteal leaves ternate or simple, undivided, narrowly lanceolate; lobes of all leaves linear-oblong, scarcely acuminate, undivided or with few teeth, usually 3–20 mm long and 1–4 mm wide. Capitula globose, 2.5–3.5 mm in diameter, drooping or spreading into narrowly paniculate inflorescence. Involucral bracts oblong-ovate, [outer] almost as long as inner bracts, hairy on spine, with wide scarious margin. Receptacle convex, hairy. Peripheral florets pistillate, usually 25, their corollas filiform-tubular; stigma lobes exserted from tube, linear, arcuate; disk florets numerous (usually 60), their corollas conical, glabrous, sometimes weakly hairy; anthers

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Fig. 1 Artemisia absinthium (Asteraceae), on roadside, together with Peganum harmala, Swat, Pakistan. (Photo I Ur-Rahman & H. Sher)

Fig. 2 Artemisia absinthium (Asteraceae), Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

linear, apical appendages of anthers obtusely angular, with round apex, basal appendages short, obtuse; stigma lobes broadly linear, after flowering somewhat curved. Achenes about 1 mm long, oblong-cuneate, rather flat, finely sulcate, with a round, slightly convex at apex. Flowering July to August. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, in meadows, steppes, on river banks, forest margins, fields, rocky areas, in crops and fields, in gardens, along irrigation ditches, around settlements as weed, on recent fallow lands, near roads, dwellings, in kitchen gardens and gardens,

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Fig. 3 Artemisia absinthium (Asteraceae), Capadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Artemisia absinthium (Asteraceae), Kartli, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

less often in crop fields, meadows, pastures, and forest edge; in forest, forest-steppe, and steppe zones, as well as in mountains (Shishkin and Boborov 1961) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8). Artemisia biennis: Annuals or biennials, (10–)30–80( 150) cm, not aromatic. Stems 1, erect, often reddish, simple (finely striate), glabrous. Leaves cauline, green or yellow-green (sessile); blades broadly lanceolate to ovate, 4–10

Artemisia absinthium L. . . .

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Fig. 5 Artemisia absinthium (Asteraceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 6 Artemisia absinthium (Asteraceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

( 13)  1.5–4 cm, 1–2-pinnately lobed (ultimate lobes coarsely toothed), faces glabrous. Heads (erect, subsessile) in (leafy) paniculiform to spiciform arrays 12–35 ( 40)  2–4 cm (lateral branches relatively short). Involucres globose, 2–4  (1.5–) 2–4 mm. Phyllaries green broadly elliptic to obovate, glabrous. Florets: pistillate 6–25; bisexual 15–40; corollas pale yellow, ca. 2 mm, glabrous. Cypselae ellipsoid (4–5-nerved), 0.2–0.9 mm, glabrous (Fig. 9).

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Fig. 7 Artemisia absinthium (Asteraceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Artemisia bigelovii: Shrubs, 20–40( 60) cm (branched from bases, rounded), mildly aromatic; not root-sprouting. Stems silvery, canescent (bark gray-brown). Leaves persistent, light gray-green; blades narrowly cuneate, 0.5–3  0.2–0.5 cm, entire or 3( 5)-lobed (lobes 1.5–2 mm, less than 1/3 blade lengths, acute), faces silvery canescent. Heads (usually nodding) in arrays 6–25  1–4 cm (branches erect, somewhat curved). Involucres globose, 2–3  1.5–2.5 mm. Phyllaries (8–15) ovate, canescent or tomentose. Florets pistillate 0–2 (raylike, laminae to 1 mm); bisexual 1–3; corollas 1–1.5 mm (style branches of ray florets elongate, exsert, epapillate, tips acute; of disc florets, short, truncate, papillate). Cypselae (ellipsoid, 5-ribbed) 0.8–1 mm, glabrous (Fig. 10). Artemisia brevifolia: Subshrubs or shrubs, 15–35( 45) cm tall, gray arachnoid pubescent, later glabrescent. Lower stem leaves: petiole 3–5 mm; leaf blade ovate, 1.5–2.5  1-2 cm, 2- or 3-pinnatisect; segments 2–4 pairs; lobules linear, 2–4 mm. Middle stem leaves 2-pinnatisect. Upper leaves and leaflike bracts pinnatisect or entire. Synflorescence a narrow or somewhat broad panicle. Capitula usually 2 or 3 together along branchlets. Involucre ovoid-oblong or ellipsoid, ca. 2 mm in diam.; phyllaries densely pubescent. Florets 3 or 4( 8). Achenes oblong-ovoid or ovoidellipsoid. Flowering and fruiting August-October (Wu et al. 1994–2013). Artemisia scoparia: Herbs, perennial, biennial, or annual, 40–90( 130) cm tall, much branched from lower on stem; branches and leaves gray or yellowish sericeous-pubescent, later glabrescent, strongly aromatic. Lower stem leaves: petiole

Artemisia absinthium L. . . .

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Fig. 8 Artemisia absinthium (Asteraceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 9 Artemisia biennis (Asteraceae), Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

2–4 cm; leaf blade ovate-oblong or elliptic, 1.5–3.5  1–3 cm, 2- or 3-pinnatisect; segments 3 or 4 pairs; lobules 1 or 2 pairs, 3–5  0.2–1 mm. Middle stem leaves sessile; leaf blade oblong or ovate-oblong, 1–2  0.5–1.5 cm, 1- or 2-pinnatisect; segments 2 or 3 pairs; lobules filiform, usually curved, 4–8  0.2–0.3( 0.5)

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Fig. 10 Artemisia bigelovii (Asteraceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 11 Artemisia scoparia (Asteraceae), Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

mm. Uppermost leaves and leaflike bracts 3–5-sect. Synflorescence a broad panicle. Capitula many, shortly pedunculate or sessile. Involucre subglobose, rarely ovoid, 1–1.5( 2) mm in diam. Marginal female florets 5–7. Disk florets 4–10, male. Achenes obovoid or oblong. Flowering and fruiting July-October (Wu et al. 1994– 2013) (Figs. 11 and 12). Artemisia vulgaris: Perennial. Rhizome strong, in upper part thickened; stem herbaceous, erect, (45)65–160 cm high, angular-ribbed, more or less branched, usually brownish-violet, leafy, weakly hairy. Leaves green above, glabrous or not densely arachnoid hairy, grayish, arachnoid hairy beneath, lower-most leaves

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Fig. 12 Artemisia scoparia (Asteraceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 13 Artemisia vulgaris (Asteraceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

petiolate, rest sessile, 3–15 cm long and 1.5–11 cm wide, deeply pinnately dissected or pinnately cut into elliptical-lanceolate or linear-lanceolate, usually deeply incised or toothed, lobes 1–10 cm long and 2.5 cm wide; upper leaves small, floral bracts entire, linear. Capitula oblong or narrowly campanulate, 3–4 mm long and 1.5–3.0 mm in diameter, slightly inclined, less often almost drooping, in dense racemes on secondary branches forming in general, more or less narrow or rather wide panicle. Involucre arachnoid hairy, involucral bracts scarious along margin, outer bracts ovate, acuminate, inner bracts longer, elliptical, obtuse. Receptacle convex. Peripheral pistillate florets 7–10; their corollas narrowly tubular, stigma lobes narrowly linear, straight, erect; disk florets bisexual, (5)8–20, their corollas narrow, cup-shaped conical, smooth, reddish-brownish; anthers linear, on rather long filaments, apical appendages of anthers acute, basal appendages subacute; stigma lobes at maturity slightly exserted from tube, arcuate, thickened upward, truncate,

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Fig. 14 Artemisia vulgaris (Asteraceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

with long dense cilia. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, forest, partly forest-steppe and steppe zones, in coniferous-deciduous open deciduous forests, around forest glades, edges of forests, river valleys, ravins, gullies, mountain slopes, meadows, scrubs, fallow lands, near fields and dwellings, to the upper mountain belt, often as weed. Often cultivated (Shishkin and Boborov 1961) (Figs. 13 and 14).

Local Medicinal Uses Artemisia absinthium: Aerial parts are used for skin problems, itching (Bano et al. 2014). Leaves and flowers are used for stomach pain and worm infection of intestine (Malik et al. 2011). Whole plant is used as stomachic. Tincture of plant is considered good for digestion (Jamal et al. 2017). Whole plant extract is used for tuberculosis, flowers and leaves decoction is used for cough (Kayani et al. 2014). Leaves are used for fever and cold and also as carminative (Shah and Khan 2006). Whole plant is used for skin allergy, diabetes, malaria (Hussain et al. 2018). Whole plant is used to relieve the yellow hove of jaundice from skin (Jan et al. 2009a, b). Flowers are used to enhance digestion as well as worm problems (Khan et al. 2013). Leaves are used for ear pain (Ahmed and Akhtar 2016). It is an aromatic tonic. It was formerly found as a high reputation in debility of the digestive organs. The powdered herb serve to relieve bilious melancholia and will help to disserve the yellow hove of jaundice from skin. Artemisia absinthium is often planted in Ethiopia as medicine (Mekonen et al. 2015), e.g., used for wounds (Yineger et al. 2007). Used also to treat diabetes (Ullah et al. 2019). This plant is used as a promoter of digestion, antispasmodic, antacid, against intestinal worms, against fever, as an appetite stimulant, and also in the treatment of gallbladder affections and intestinal obstructions. Externally, it is used as an antiseptic, for the treatment of blows and insect bites, for ulcers or skin sores. In popular

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medicine, it is used as a general tonic and particularly to treat liver diseases and bilious states. Fresh stems and leaves are used to treat diarrhea, gallbladder, stomachache, gastritis/ulcers, diabetes, thrush, cold, air (cultural illnesses), and as anthelmintic. The whole plant used to treat gallbladder, liver problems, as vermifuge, and tonic; stems, leaves, and flowers are used as analgesic, diuretic, and to treat lack of appetite; leaves are used to treat fright/susto, blood cleansing, for breast care, cough, deafness, diarrhea, flatulence, gallstones, halitosis, headache, indigestion, lung diseases, otitis, insect stings, stomach ache, stomach problems, sunstroke, throat inflammation, toothache, and as tranquilizer and vomitive. The fresh leaves are used to treat body pain, stomach pain. Only for critical illnesses. The infusion of the plant is used to treat liver and kidney problems (stones), indigestion and stomach pain (excess cause dizziness). The infusion of the plant is used to treat bile and nerve problems. It is used to treat liver conditions, inflammation of the kidneys, diabetes, and to level cholesterol. It is used as an antiparasitic Used to treat menstrual colic, and is used to regulate the menstrual cycle, and for nervous system issues. Some antibacterial activity has been reported (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). In the Ural used for cancer of the liver, stomach, spleen, uterus, and leukemia. The root infusion is used for rheumatism and arthritis. In the Altai and Middle Asia, the leaves are used to treat lung diseases, angina, intestinal colics, tuberculosis, respiratory infections, rhinitis. In the Northern Caucasus, the leaves decoction is used to treat gonorrhea, in Armenia diabetes mellitus. The flower infusion is used to treat ulcers of the intestine, epilepsy, hemorrhoids, fever, diarrhea, and enterocolitis, and is in Azerbaijan used for furuncles. (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2020; Bussmann 2017; Liu et al. 2020). Applied as refrigerant (Ali et al. 2019), anti-malarial, anti-diabetic, to increase appetite, for hormonal balance in women, as relaxant, for stomach-ache, asthma, and as lithontriptic (Muhammad et al. 2019; Mustafa et al. 2015). In Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh used for dandruff, intermittent fever, stomach pain, as tonic, vermifuge, abdominal pain, diabetes, joint pain, epilepsy, gastric disorders, gynecological disorders, malaria, obesity, rheumatism (gairola et al. 2014). Artemisia biennis: Used to treat skin ailments (Ali et al. 2019). In Kashmir, Jammu, and Ladakh to treat obesity (Gairola et al. 2014). Artemisia bigelovii: Leaves are used for gastric problem and flowers for stomach pain (Wali et al. 2019). Artemisia brevifolia: In Ladakh used to treat fever (Ballabh and Chaurasia 2007). In Kashmir, Jammu, and Ladakh used as anthelminthic, antiseptic, aphrodisiac, blood purifier, for gastrointestinal disorders, as laxative, anthelminthic, antiseptic, to increase appetite, and for stomach ache (Gairola et al. 2014). Artemisia vulgaris: The plant is applied to tumors. The whole plant powder is given to horses in colic. Dried leaves in very small doses (Mg) are given as anthelmintics (Shah and Khan 2006). Leaves are used as anthelmintic and for skin diseases (Hamayun et al. 2006). Leaves and root are used for liver pain, stomach disorder (Ahmad et al. 2017). Extract of its young shoots is used to regulate monthly cycle (Khan et al. 2013). Leaf infusion is used for fever (Hayat et al. 2009). Leaves extract is used for eye diseases (Waseem et al. 2006). Whole plant is used for cardiac problems (Imtiaz et al. 2013). Leaves are used for stomach pain, hypertension,

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dysentery, scorpion sting, and snakebites (Khan et al. 2018). The leaves are used for skin diseases (Ullah et al. 2014). Decoction of leaves is used for diabetes (Zain-ulAbidin et al. 2018). Used for stomach-ache, hypertension, dysentery, and as poultice for scorpion stings (Ahmad et al. 2015). Used as topical antibiotic and for skin ailments (Ahmad et al. 2017). Also applied as anthelminthic (Muhammad et al. 2019). In Kashmir, Jammu, and Ladakh to treat nosebleeds, cough, and measles (Gairola et al. 2014). Artemisia desertorum: In Kashmir, Jammu, and Ladakh as antiseptic and amnthelminthic (Gairola et al. 2014). Artemisia dracunculus: In Kazahkstan and other parts of Middle Asia the leaves are used as poultice for eczema and burns, and internally for tuberculosis, pneumonia, and bronchitis. (Liu et al. 2020). In Kashmir, Jammu and Ladakh to intestinal disorders, indigstion, bladder irritation, as diuretic, for gynecological disorders, menstrual problems, and toothache (Gairola et al. 2014). Artemisia gmelinii: In Ladakh used for cold, cough, and fever (Ballabh and Chaurasia 2007; Gairola et al. 2014). Artemisia frigida: A cold infusion of the herb is used as a diuretic and mild purgative. In Mongolian medicine, powders, infusion, and decoction are used for ulcers, infected wounds, lymphadenitis, and as baths for diseases of the joints. Internally, the infusion is used to fever, chronic alcoholism, tuberculosis, heart disease, hypoxia, cough (especially in old men), angina, tachycardia, neurasthenia, and epilepsy, and is applied for gastralgia, intestinal colic, headache and toothache, as astringent, anti-helminthic, to stimulate the appetite, with diarrhea, dysentery, and as diuretic. (Liu et al. 2020). Artemisia scoparia: Whole plant is used for fever, bronchitis, cough, jaundice diuretic, purgative and earache. Plant extract is used in cardiac problems. Plant is also used against poisonous insect bites (Mahmood et al. 2011). Used as a purgative and in the treatment of burns (Hussain et al. 2010). Shoot and seeds are used as respiratory stimulant, anthelmintic, purgative, and against earache (Akhtar et al. 2013). Used for the treatment of ear pain. The smoke of twigs is considered good for burns. Considered as fodder for goats (Shedayi and Gulshan 2012). Leaves are used for hepatitis, jaundice, stomach disorders (Ahmad et al. 2017). Used as anathematic, used as medicine against malarial fever (Jan et al. 2009a, b). Stem is used for stomach-ache, anthelminthic, used for healing of wounds (Muhammad et al. 2019). The whole plant decoction is used for fever, vomiting, and motion of children. The tea of its leaves is useful for cough, undetected fever (mubaraki) and for cooling effect. Whole plant is boiled in water and takes the steam (in local language “cultap”) which is useful for the cold. The whole plant paste is used externally to heal cough and other chest problems (Tareen et al. 2010). Plant is used as febrifuge, cure for kidney and liver ailments, blood purifier (Barkatullah et al. 2015). Used for earache, laxative and purgative. The fresh plant boiled in water, then cooled and used for stomach problems and for inflammation of intestines (Khan et al. 2015). In the Altai the leaves are used to treat tuberculosis, pneumonia, bronchitis, laryngitis, pharyngitis, angina, with liver disease, fever, anemia, rheumatism, and as anthelmintic. In Tajikistan the leaf ash is used as expectorant. (Liu et al.

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2020). Used as anthelminthic and to treat urethritis (Abbas et al. 2019). Used to treat diabetes (Ullah et al. 2019), as anthelminthic and to treat seasonal fever (Sher et al. 2016), also as purgative and stomachic (Muhammad et al. 2019). Artemisia afra: Heated plant material is fermented and given to children with sore throat and for fever. Also for indigestion. Boiled roots are used as anthelminthic. The leaf juice serves as emetic. Ash from the whole plant is used as expectorant and for abdominal pain. Extract of boiled leaves drunk for colds, flu, headache, and fever. A steam bath is used for flu and colds. Crushed leaves can be applied for congestion, and leaf juice as ear drops (Kokwaro 2009). A very important medicinal species in Ethiopia, and often sold in local markets and in the medicinal plant trade (Bekalo et al. 2009). The species is also used to treat fever, and burned for colds, when the smoke is inhaled (Yineger et al. 2008). The antibacterial activity of Artemisia afra and Artemisia abyssinica has been shown (Geyid et al. 2005). The species is also used to treat epilepsy (Yineger et al. 2007). Artemisia annua: The infusion is used as relaxant (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). There has been little use in popular herbal medicine before the last 2–3 decades, when Chinese traditional medicine became rather popular in Armenia. In medieval Armenian medicine, it was recommended to treat fevers, hemorrhoids, diseases of the stomach, liver, spleen, and bladder and kidney stones with Artemisia (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017) A tea made from leaves of Artemisia annua helps to cure wounds, when applied as poultice and serves as insect repellant (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017). In Kashmir, Jammu and Ladakh to treat jaundice (Gairola et al. 2014). Artemisia japonica: In Kashmir, Jammu, and Ladakh to treat skin infections and diarrhea (Gairola et al. 2014). Artemisia laciniata: In Kashmir, Jammu, and Ladakh to treat cuts and wounds (Gairola et al. 2014). Artemisia macrocephala: In Kashmir, Jammu, and Ladakh to treat joint pain, rheumatism and skin irritations (Gairola et al. 2014). Artemisia maritima: In Kashmir, Jammu, and Ladakh as anthelminthic, for skin diseases, stomach problems, intestinal parasites, as antiseptic, to treat cuts and wounds, flatulence and gastric disorders (Gairola et al. 2014). Artemisia marcrooftiana: In Kashmir, Jammu, and Ladakh to treat abdominal pain, flatulence, indigestion, malaria, and as anthelminthic (Gairola et al. 2014). Artemisia nilagirica: In Kashmir, Jammu, and Ladakh to treat asthma and neurological disorders (Gairola et al. 2014). Artemisia parviflora: In Kashmir, Jammu, and Ladakh used as diuretic, and for gynecological disorders (Gairola et al. 2014). Artemisia sieversiana: In Kashmir, Jammu, and Ladakh to treat urinary tract inflammation, kidney pain, and skin diseases (Gairola et al. 2014). Artemisia copa: The infusion is used for pain, for gall bladder problems, as digestive, often combined with sodium bicarbonate. The infusion mixed with milk is used for stomach pain, cold and colic. In the form of baths or incense it serves to combat “mal de aire” and toothache. As a bath it serves for bone pain. People attribute to the species the ability to cause vivid dreams. (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020).

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Artemisia fragrans: A decoction and extract as tea is used in to treat colds. Fresh crushed leaves, as well as their decoction and extract are used crushed and as soaking therapy for furuncles and abscess (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017). A decoction and extract is used as tea in dysentery and fever. Also used as anthelminthic: A decoction of the aboveground parts is used against worm (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017). Artemisia roxburghiana is used as antipyretic and tonic (Bhat et al. 2013). In Kashmir, Jammu, and Ladakh to treat allergies and abscesses (Gairola et al. 2014).

Local Food Uses Artemisia absinthium: Ecuador: Used to prepare wormwood liquor (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). The leaves are used as spice, especially to produce aromatic liquor, and as bitter agent in the production of beer. (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017; Liu et al. 2020). Artemisia copa: Used as tea. Produces edible roots (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). Artemisia dracunculus: The leaves are used in cheese production, as spice and for salads, and to make lemonade (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017; Liu et al. 2020). Artemisia annua /frigoida/leucodes/vulgaris: The leaves are used as flavoring agent for liquors and as spice for cooking (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017; Liu et al. 2020).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Artemisia absinthium: Used to treat freight/susto in children, and fend off sorcery (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). Similar uses have been reported from Ethiopia, where the species is used to fend off evil from cattle and against evil eye (Luizza et al. 2013). In the Caucasus Artemisia absinthium is used to treat wounds in animals (Bussmann 2017; Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2020). As fodder for sheep and rabbits. The plant is browsed by cows but gives the milk a very unpleasant taste. The leaves yield lemon yellow, dark green and olive dyes for wool and silk. Planted as ornamental. Toxic, causes dermatoses when crushing and grinding the plant. (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Liu et al. 2020; Bussmann 2017). used as insect repellent (Abbas et al. 2016). Leaves given to cattle, goats, and sheep to prevent indigestion (Ali et al. 2019). The stems of Artemisia brevifolia are used as firewood (Abbas et al. 2016). A tincture made from leaves of Artemisia annua helps to heal wounds of cattle (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017). Flowering shoots are sometimes used as a seasoning for meat and fish dishes (usually as substitute of Artemisia dracunculus). Artemisia annua is used in food as aromatic and tasty seasoning for different meals. Artemisia fragrans is used in food as aromatic and tasty seasoning for different meals also (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017).

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Artemisia copa: People attribute to the species the ability to cause vivid dreams. Also used as dye for green to yellow, and as forage (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). Artemisia scoparia: Shoots are used in making brooms for sweeping lawns and houses (Khan et al. 2015). Artemisia abyssinica has been shown to be acaricidal (Wanzala 2017). The leaves of Artemisia vulgaris are used for sats’ebai (vegetables dipped in sour milk) (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017). Given to horses in cases of colic (Ahmad et al. 2017). Artemisia dracunculus: Fodder for cattle, horses, camels. Planted also as ornamental. (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017; Liu et al. 2020). Artemisia annua/leucodes/vulgaris: Fodder for livestock, especially sheep. goats and camels. A yellow dye for wool is produced from the leaves. Planted as ornamental (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017; Liu et al. 2020). Artemisia scoparia: Fodder for small livestock. Used as ornamental (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017; Liu et al. 2020). Artemisia frigida: The oil is used for soap, and the species serves as winter fodder. (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017; Liu et al. 2020). Artemisia japonica is used as incense (Bhat et al. 2013). Artemisia species are one of the valuable components of winter pastures (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017). (Bussmann et al. 2020; Bussmann 2017; Batsatsashvili et al. 2017, Liu et al. 2020; Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020)

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Asparagus racemosus Willd. ASPARAGACEAE Ram Prasad Acharya, Rose Shrestha, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Wahid Hussain, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Asparagopsis abyssinica Kunth; Asparagopsis acerosa Kunth; Asparagopsis brownei Kunth; Asparagopsis decaisnei Kunth; Asparagopsis floribunda Kunth; Asparagopsis hohenackeri Kunth; Asparagopsis javanica Kunth; Asparagopsis retrofracta Schweinf. ex Baker; Asparagopsis sarmentosa Dalzell & A.Gibson; Asparagopsis subquadrangularis Kunth; Asparagus acerosus Roxb.; Asparagus dubius Decne.; Asparagus fasciculatus R.Br.; Asparagus jacquemontii Baker; Asparagus penduliflorus Zipp. ex Span.; Asparagus petitianus A.Rich.; Asparagus stachyoides Spreng. ex Baker; Asparagus tetragonus Bresler; Asparagus zeylanicus (Baker) Hook.f.; Protasparagus acerosus (Kunth) Kamble; Protasparagus jacquemontii (Baker) Kamble; Protasparagus racemosus (Willd.) Oberm.; Protasparagus racemosus var. javanicus (Kunth) Kamble; Protasparagus racemosus var. subacerosus (Baker) Kamble; Protasparagus zeylanicus (Hook.f.) Kamble; Geitonoplesium scandens Hassk. R. P. Acharya Centre for Sustainable Agricultural Systems, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD, Australia Practical Solutions Consultancy, Kathmandu, Nepal R. Shrestha Department of Plant Resources, Ministry of Forests and Environment, Kathmandu, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Florida, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan W. Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_29

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Local Names Asparagus racemosus: Pashto: Shaghandale ‫ﺷﺎﻏﻨﺪﺍﻟﯥ‬, Nepali: Kurilo, Shatawari, Makuri, Satamule; Kham: Rai Su We; Nepali in Dolpa: Jhinjhelkandi; Sherpa: Pujotoro, Kopi; Tamang: Kobi; Gurung: Pujutoro; Tharu: Saawar Santawar; Tibetan: Nyeshing, Nye Sug Pa; Jammu: Sanspod, Zaru, Manjani; Arabic: Satawar, Shaqaqul; Rajastan: Shatavari; Hindi: Safed-musali, Satamuli, Satawar, Satawari, Shatavir; Tamil: Thanneer vittan kilangu; Sanskrit: Abhiru, Satamuli, Satapadi, Satavari, Satavirya, Shatamuli, Shatapadi, Shatavari, Shvetamuli; Chinese: T’ien-men Dong; Unani: Satawar; Siddha: Seemaithannervittan; English: Indian Asparagus, Wild Asparagus.

Botany and Ecology Asparagus racemosus: Tall climbers or, if without support, tangled shrubs with shiny yellow stems and soft, feathery branches when ‘in leaf, usually bare when in flower. Rhizome woody, small, compact. Roots many, with fusiform swellings near rhizome. Stems straight, smooth. Spines short, recurved, present on stems and main branches. Branches spreading, bearing numerous branchlets, more or less 70 mm long, closely beset with overlapping cladode fascicles. Cladodes more or less 4– 8 per fascicle, unequally long, filiform, 10–16 mm long, thin. Flowers in simple racemes, in multibudded axils of stems and branches, usually several racemes together, racemes more or less 20–30 mm long; tepals attenuate below, more or less 3 mm long, white with a reddish central streak, reflexed in fruit; bracts membranous, acuminate, curved around stalk below; stalk more or less 2 mm long, articulated in middle. Stamens with red (or dark) anthers. Ovary attenuate below. Berry shortly stipitate, more or less 7 mm in diameter, red. (Wu and Raven 2000; DPR 2009a, b) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5).

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia

Asparagus racemosus Willd. Fig. 1 Asparagus racemosus (Asparagaceae), plant, Nepal. (Photo Rose Shrestha)

Fig. 2 Asparagus racemosus (Asparagaceae), flowers with cladodes, Nepal. (Photo Rose Shrestha)

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292 Fig. 3 Asparagus racemosus (Asparagaceae), root tubers, Nepal. (Photo Rose Shrestha)

Fig. 4 Asparagus racemosus (Asparagaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

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Fig. 5 Asparagus racemosus (Asparagaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

1a. Asparagus racemosus var. racemosus Willd. 1b. A. racemosus var. subacerosus Baker,

Key to the Varieties 1a. Cladodes in fascicles of (3-)5-8(-11), V-Shaped, 8–12 mm . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . ..A. racemosus var. racemosus. 1b. Cladodes in fascicles of 1–3, triquetrous, 12–20 mm long . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .A. racemosus var. subacerosus. 1a. Asparagus racemosus var. racemosus Willd. Scrambling sub shrub, hermaphrodite, Cladodes in fasicles of (3–)5–8(–11), V shaped, 8–12 mm, acute. Inflorescence 3–10 cm, simple or branched raceme. Tubers light yellow, slender, 6–20 3 0.8–1 cm. Origin and distribution: Tropical & Subtropical. E Himalaya, S E Asia, N Pakistan, NW India, Sikkim, Kashmir, Malaysia, Australia, Africa, Nepal (West, Central & East). Altitudinal range: 100–2100 m. Ecology: Habitat: Open slopes, forests, shrubberies. Occurrence: Fairly common. Phenology: Flowering: July–September Fruiting: August–November. 1b. A. racemosus var. subacerosus Baker, J. Linn. Soc. Bot. 14: 624 (1875).

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Scrambling or erect sub shrub, hermophrodite. Cladodes in fascicles of 1–3, triquetrous, (8–)15–20(
30)  0.8–1 mm. Inflorescence 1–2 cm, with 2–5 clusterd flowers. Tubers yellowish, stout, usually 6–10  1–1.5 cm. Origin and Distribution: Nepal, N. E. India and Srilanka. Altitudinal range: 140–1500 m. Ecology: Habitat: In forests. Occurrence: Fairly common. Phenology: Flowering: June–August Fruiting: September.

Phytochemistry Steroidal saponins (asparagosides, Sarsasapogenin, Shatavarin I-VI),; Oligospirostanoside Carboxylic acid (Asparagusic acid); Polycyclic alkaloid (Asparagamine A – racemosol & Kaempferol) (Sekine et al. 1994); Isoflavones (8-methoxy-5, 6, 4-trihydroxy isoflavone-7-0-beta-D-glucopyranoside); Cyclic hydrocarbons (Racemosol, Dihydrophenantherene); Furan compound (Racemofuran); Carbohydrates (Polysaccharides, Polyoses, Mucilage and Polyuronoid); Flavonoids (Glycosides of quercitin, rutin and hyperoside); Sterols (Sitosterol, 4, 6-dihydroxy2-O (-2-hydroxy isobutyl) benzaldehyde, Undecanyl cetanoate); Trace minerals (Zinc, Manganese, Copper, Cobalt, Magnesium, Calcium, Potassium, Selenium, Iron); Miscellaneous constituents (Essential fatty acids, Gamma linolenic acid, Vitamins A, B1, B2, C, and E, and minerals like Cu, Mg, P, Ca, Fe, Se, K, Zn, Folic acid, Diosgenin, Arginine, tyrosine, Resin, and Tannin); (Negi et al. 2010; Sharma et al. 2017; Selvaraj et al. 2019; Shrestha et al. 2016), Aminoacids (asparagine, arginine, tyrosine); triterpenoids, tanins (Catecholic tanin, reducing compound, Gallic tannin); Volatile oil, Coumarin, essential oils (Nagamani et al. 2012; Janani and Singaravadivel 2015); Sterols (sitosterol, 4, 6-dihydryxy-2-O (-2-hydroxy isobutyl) benzaldehyde and undecanyl cetanoate) (Singh and Tiwari 1991); Phytosterols, triterpenoids, flavonoids, lactones, glycosides, fatty acids, phenolic compounds, saponins, and tannins (Jayashree et al. 2013).

Local Medicinal Uses Asparagus racemosus: The general Ayurvedic uses of the plant tubers are in hemorrhage, gonorrhea, inflammatory, diseases of heart, liver, and blood. Whole plant is considered to use in diabetes, jaundice, and urinary disorders. (Manandhar 2002; Baral and Kurmi 2006; DPR 2006). In Dolpa, tubers are used as tonic for strength, and in lymph fluid disorders, kidney disorders, diarrhea, dysentery, and excessive menstrual bleeding. A concentrate prepared from it is beneficial for diseases of the skin (Ghimire et al. 2008). Dried root powder is given orally with hot water to cure urinary troubles. Root decoction is given orally after delivery as tonic. Tuberous root powder or paste is given orally as an invigorating tonic to lactating women and livestock in western Nepal and Tharu communities of central

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Nepal. (Rajnhandary 2001; Singh et al. 2012). Roots are used for burning sensation in Rupandehi (Acharya and Acharya 2009), for loss of appetide by Magar in Tanahu (Uprety et al. 2011), in constipation and stomachache in Dang (Sigdel and Rokaya 2011). Tender shoots are used for making soup to cure diarrhea in Centarl Nepal (Bhattarai 1993). Tuber paste taken in diarrhea and dysentery as anthelmintic and to cure diarrhea in Dolpa, Humla, Jumla, and Mustang (Kunwar et al. 2006). Juice taken to increase appetite in Lalitpur (Shrestha and Joshi 1993), and for heel cracks (Ignacimuthu et al. 2006). In Rajastan to avoid uterus prolapse, body-ache, as tonic, aphrodisiac, for leucorrhea (Jain et al. 2005), also as tonic (Katewa et al. 2004), and to prevent skin aging (Kunwar et al. 2019). In Palpa District, about five teaspoonfuls of powder of dry root is taken three times a day for a week to cure urinary troubles. About a cup of root decoction (A tuberous root boiled in water) is taken by women thrice a day for 15 days after delivery as a tonic (Mahato and Chaudhary 2005). Root powder given in acidity and nurshing mother in Khaptad National Park (Kunwar and Duwadee 2003). Root decoction is given as remedy for diarrheal patients; root tubers are fed to cattle to get relief from milching disorder, to increase lactation; Roots used as antipyretic by Sherpas in Helumbu; Decoction of root is given to treat fever in Satar community of Morang and Jhapa districts; (Rajnhandary 2001). Asparagus racemosus is a well-known Ayurvedic rasayana which prevents ageing, increase longevity, impart immunity, improve mental function, vigor, and add vitality to the body. It is mainly known for phytoestrogenic properties and prescribed for correcting menstrual disorders (Ashajyothi et al. 2009). Root tubers are cooling, galactagogue, diuretic, demulcent, antispasmodic, analgesic, stomachic, carminative, appetizer, and aphrodisiac (Alok et al. 2013; Goyal et al. 2003). It is also used in nervous disorders, dyspepsia, tumors, inflammation, neuropathy, hepatopathy (Chawla et al. 2011). It has been used extensively as an adaptogen to increase the nonspecific resistance of organisms against a variety of stresses. Besides use in the treatment of diarrhea and dysentery, the plant also has potent antioxidant immunostimuulant, anti-dyspepsia, and antitussive effects (Velavan et al. 2007). In international market, Asparagus racemosus is used medicinally as a refrigerant, demulcent, diuretic, aphrodisiac, anti-dysenteric (Kirtikar and Basu 1993), galactogogic, bitter-sweet, emollient, cooling, nervine tonic, constipating, and antiseptic (Chaudhary and Kar 1992). The plant is used as diuretic, stomachic, and to treat fever (Shah and Khan 2006a). The juice of the roots of Asparagus given with milk is very effective when a stone has been present in the kidney for a long time. Corm is used to stimulate sexual desire and carminative. Decoction of rhizome is given for fever. The juice of the herb with equal portion of milk is given to remove calculi (Shah and Khan 2006b). Paste of powder is applied for wounds healing (Antiseptic); powders are taken orally to stimulates sexual desire and treat dysentery (Khan et al. 2013). Plant is used as refrigerant, diuretic, stomachache, fever, antiseptic, and galactagogue (Ahmad et al. 2009). Dried roots are burnt and fumed are inhaled twice a day for malaria (Shah et al. 2014). Root powder is used as galaktagogue (Jan et al. 2020; Shinwari et al. 2017). Asparagus racemosa has medicinal applications in Ethiopia (Bekalo et al.

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2009). Used as galactagogue (Kunwar et al. 2006). Asparagus root is tonic, aphrodisiac, diuretic, carminative, appetizer, and antispasmodic. It is useful in mental disorders, dyspepsia, and diarrhea. Tender shoots are tonic and useful in dysentery and rheumatism. Also used in tuberculosis, measles, diarrhea, epilepsy, and liver problems and considered as a galactagogue, aphrodisiac, diuretic, antispasmodic, and nerve tonic. It is also considered to prevent ageing, impart immunity, improve mental functions and add vigor and vitality to the body. Root extract increases mammary gland in post-partum period acting as a galactagogue. Dysmenorrhea and premenstrual syndrome were found to be symptom free after usage of root extract. The plant extract is cardioprotective, antitumor, antifungal, anti-ulcer, immunostimulatory, and diuretic. The crude saponins from the shoots are useful in dyspepsia, and extracts of plant rhizomes reduce blood sugar levels (Kunwar et al. 2009a, b; Raj et al. 2018). Applied as aphrodisiac, and as liver tonic, as well as for jaundice (Singh et al. 2002), and to treat headache (Harsha et al. 2002). Applied to treat tuberculosis (Sharifi-Rad et al. 2017). In Karnataka used to treat diabetes (Bhandary et al. 1995). In Jammu and Kashmir to treat rheumatism and headache (Gairola et al. 2014). Asparagus africanus: Roots chewed as remedy for sore throat and cough. The root infusion is used to treat gonorrhea and other venereal diseases. Leaves are applied to wounds, and a leaf decoction is used to cure bubonic plague (Taita). The root infusion is used to ease childbirth. A decoction of the whole plant is drunk for mental problems (Kokwaro 2009). Juice is put on pimples (Bussmann et al. 2011; Lulekal et al. 2008). Used to treat diarrhea and involuntary weight-loss (Teklehaymanot et al. 2007), as well as skin lesions (Teklehaymanot 2009). Asparagus falcatus: Root tubers used to treat gonorrhea and to cure hernias in children. Also drunk as anthelminthic (Kokwaro 2009). Juice is put on pimples (Bussmann et al. 2011). Asparagus setaceus juice is used to treat herpes (Giday et al. 2009). The leaves are chewed for cough (Njoroge and Bussmann 2006), and the juice is applied to boils (Njoroge and Bussmann 2007). Used also for back pain in women, postpartum pain, and to treat sexually transmitted diseases (Njoroge and Bussmann 2009), as well as abscesses, diarrhea, toothache, wounds, and sores (Njoroge et al. 2004). Used to treat urinary problems in Ethiopia (Wondimu et al. 2007), plant powder for dermal issues (Yineger et al. 2008). Asparagus aethiopicus is used as anti-hypertensive (Desta 1995). The roots of all Asparagus species used as diuretic (Fayvush et al. 2017). Asparagus adscendens also serves as galactagogue (Singh et al. 2017), as aphrodisiac, demulcent, cooling agent, diaphoretic, and weakness (Gairola et al. 2014). Asparagus filicinus is used for diabetes and diarrhea (Bhat et al. 2013), as anthelminthic and to ease delivery (Gairola et al. 2014). Asparagus officinalis: used to ease delivery and against rheumatism (Gairola et al. 2014). Asparagus simulans is used in Madagascar to treat epilepsy and stomach pain (Razafindraibe et al. 2013).

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Local Food Uses Asparagus racemosus: Tender shoots are cooked as vegetable, and candy is prepared from tubers. In Manang, roots are eaten to cure dysentery and diarrhea; and tender shoots are eaten as vegetable (Shrestha et al. 1995). In Langtang region, tender shoots are eaten as vegetable in rejuvenating patients and post-natal mothers (Rajnhandary 2001; Dangol 2002a, b). In lower Kangchenjunga, tender shoots are eaten as vegetable to induce lactation (Shrestha and Ghimire 1996). Decoction of tender shoots are used as tonic in Karnali zone. Tender leaves are eaten as vegetables by tharus in Chitwan (Dangol 2002a, b). Its fruit is eaten to treat pimples in Dhading district (Rajnhandary 2001). The young shoots and boiled tubers are eaten in form of vegetable, pickle, soups (Dangol et al. 2017a, b) (Figs. 6 and 7). Asparagus africanus/Asparagus falcatus: The large root stores lots of water that can be collected (Bussmann et al. 2006).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Asparagus racemosus: The roots are used for fermentation of local beer (Kunwar et al. 2009b), and ethnoveterinary purposes (Reang et al. 2016). Also used to increase sexual desire (as an aphrodisiac). The plant has been shown to aid in the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders and in alcohol abstinence-induced withdrawal symptoms (Bopana and Saxena 2007). Locally, the root is also used to control fleas, and squeezed roots are used for washing clothes (Manandhar 2002; Baral and Kurmi 2006). As galactagogue for cattle (Singh et al. 2002). The dried and processed root tubers of this plant are high demand in local, national, and international markets as well as high interest among local people for commercial cultivation. This is one of the major trade species from Nepal, and mainly companies are Fig. 6 Asparagus racemosus (Asparagaceae), cleaned root tubers ready for processing, Nepal. (Photo Rose Shrestha)

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Fig. 7 Asparagus racemosus (Asparagaceae), processed root tubers ready for use and trade, Nepal. (Photo Rose Shrestha)

involved in the production and trade of Kurilo in Nepal and India. Dabur Nepal, one of the major herbal based industries has given highest priority to this species and put under their priority list of cultivation. This species was abundant in natural forests in the past mainly in Siwalik and Tarai region. Most of the farmers/collectors sell the Kurilo in district headquarters in a semiprocessed form (cleaned, dried, and graded). According to trade statics, a total of 300 MT was exported annually to India in 2009 (DPR 2009a, b). After 2010 onwards, this trend was decreased and limited to 60–80 MT/year in 2015. Currenrly, this trend is below 40–50MT/year (DPR 2014; Acharya and Sharma 2014). The premature and untimely collection, harvesting, illegal collection of root/ tuber, and habitat destruction are common causes of diminishing the Kurilo in Nepal. Moreover, it has been unsustainably harvested by the local communities because of the limited knowledge of its ecology and growth. Moreover, good quality seed supply is limited to cultivate in the private land. Government of Nepal has listed Kurilo as a priority species for cultivation and trade. Kurilo is considered as a vulnerable species in natural conditions (DPR 2006). Asparagus africanus/Asparagus falcatus: Eaten by goats and cattle and threaded for calabashes (Bussmann 2006; Bussmann et al. 2011; Luizza et al. 2013). Asparagus africanus: Used to wash away the spirit of a person who died (Bussmann et al. 2006). Used to make brooms (Bussmann et al. 2011). Also used to treat horses (Giday et al. 2003). The root extract is used as insect repellent (Giday et al. 2007) and to treat rabies (Yineger and Yewhalaw 2007).

References Acharya R, Acharya KP. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by Tharu community of Parroha VDC, Rupandehi district, Nepal. Scientific World. 2009;7(7):80–4. Acharya RP, Sharma R. Identification of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) species for commercialization and trade promotion with an aim to supply on sustained basis from wild

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Astilbe rivularis Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don. SAXIFRAGACEAE Ram C. Poudel, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Astilbe rivularis Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don.: Astilbe indica (Blume) Backer; Astilbe speciosa Jungh.; Spiraea barbata Wall. ex Cambess.

Local Names Astilbe rivularis: Nepali: Bansupari, Buro Okhati, Bedango, Budo Okhati, Budo Aushadi, Gane gurjo, Gujargano, Thulo Aushadi, Thulo Okhati; Amchi: Subkha; Newar: Facu waasha; Tamang: Ganchhyung, Mran, Pabale; English: False buck’s R. C. Poudel (*) Molecular Biotechnology Unit, Faculty of Science, Nepal Academy of Science and Technology (NAST), Khumaltar, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_30

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beard, Perennial Spirea (Manandhar 1991, 2002; Acharya 2012; Balami 2004; Bhattarai et al. 2010; Luitel et al. 2014).

Botany and Ecology Astilbe rivularis: Herbs 0.6–2.5 m tall. Stems brown long glandular hairy. Leaves 2- or 3-pinnately compound; common petiole and petiolules brown long pilose; leaflets lanceolate, narrowly to broadly ovate, elliptic or broadly so, rhombic-elliptic, narrowly rhombic-obovate, or obovate, 4–14.5 cm  1.7–8.4 cm, abaxially brown long pilose and glandular hairy along veins, adaxially sparsely brown glandular strigose, base obliquely cordate or rounded to cuneate, margin doubly serrate, apex acuminate. Panicle to 42 cm, many flowered; branches 1–18 cm, brown crisped glandular hairy; bracts 3, subelliptic, 1.1–1.4 mm  0.2–0.6 mm, brown pilose, margin entire or dentate; pedicels 0.6–1.8 mm. Sepals 4 or 5, green, ovate or elliptic to oblong, 1.2–1.5  about 1 mm, submembranous, abaxially subconvex, adaxially subconcave, glabrous, 1-veined. Petals absent, sometimes 1(–5) and obsolescent. Stamens 5–10(–12), 0.2– 2.4 mm. Pistil about 2 mm; carpels 2, base connate; ovary subsuperior; styles divergent. Flowering and fruiting June–November (Wu et al. 1994–2013). Bhutan, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Assam, S. Tibet, Thailand, N. Indo-China, W. China, 2000–3600 m, mainly in subtropical to subalpine areas in forest margins, meadows, and scrubby slopes. Highly collected (O’Neill et al. 2017) (Fig. 1).

Phytochemistry A. rivularis contains alkaloids, coumarins, flavonoids, glycosides, and tannins. Major chemical components reported from this species are aesculatin, astilbic acid, astilbin, aticoside, bergenin, dimethylaesculatin, daucosterol, eucryphin, palmitine, peltoboykinoleic acid, scopoletin, sitosterol, and stilbene (Buckingham 1994; Jain 1994). Rai et al. (2019) have isolated 2-Coumaranone; 2-Buten-1-one, 1-phenyl; undecanoic acid, 2-methyl; 2-Piperidinone, 3,6-bis (1-methyllethenyl)-1-phenyl, trans; crinan 1,2-didehydro; 9-Octadecenoic acid (z)- methyl ester; [1,1-Bicyclopropyl]-2-octanoic acid, 2-hexyl-, methyl ester; 17a-Ethyl-3amethoxy-17a-aza-D-homoandrost-5-ene-17-one and butanedioicacid, 2,3-bis (8-nonen-1-yl)-, dimethyl ester from the rhizome. Similarly the aerial part of this plant contain bergenin, β-amyrin, β-sitosterol, β-peltoboykinolic acid, astilbic acid, and quercetin (Sastry et al. 1987). Other important compounds β-peltoboykinolic acid, astilbic acid, acetyl-β-peltoboykinolic acid, and bergenin have been isolated from the root (Sastry and Rao 1977).

Local Medicinal Uses Astilbe rivularis: Root is used to treat headache, fever, stomachache, gastritis, diarrhea, and dysentry (Manandhar 1991, 2002; Kunwar and Duwadee 2003; Shrestha and Dhilion 2003; Bhattarai et al. 2006; Kunwar et al. 2006, 2008, 2009,

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Fig. 1 Astilbe rivularis (Saxifragaceae). Fruiting plant, Baitadi, Nepal. (Photo R. M. Kunwar)

2010a, b, 2013; Kunwar and Bussmann 2009; Acharya 2012; Ghimire et al. 2018). Root is useful in ascariasis (Acharya 2012). Root is taken as appetizer or to improve digestion (Bhattarai 1991; Acharya 2012). Root juice with honey is given three times a day to the patient of peptic ulcer (Manandhar 2002). Root juice is recommended in case of menstrual disorders, to ease delivery, and check excessive postpartum bleeding (Manandhar 1993, 2002; Rai 2003; Shrestha and Dhilion 2003; Kunwar et al. 2008, 2010; Uprety et al. 2010; Acharya 2012); In central Nepal, some communities are practicing of taking 15 g of root paste with two spoonful of honey twice a day for a week to check postpartum hemorrhage, diarrhea, and dysentry (Bhattarai 1993a, 1994). Tamang and Newar communities of Makawanpur and Kathmandu district, respectively, take root and bark even after delivery for after-delivery recovery (Joshi and Joshi 2008; Luitel et al. 2014). Root powder is also considered as energetic or have aphrodisiac potency (Bhattarai 1993a; Balami 2004). Bhattarai (1993b) reported two or three teaspoonfuls doses of root paste taken orally twice a day for 2 or more days to relieve various types of body ache. The juice of the plant is applied on muscular swelling and sprains (Manandhar 2002). Gurung communities of Manang district take one spoon of root powder with milk once a day for the remedy of dizziness and infertility (Bhattarai et al. 2006). The species is used to treat toothache, internal bleeding, pain during childbirth, to induce

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uterine contraction during birth, for menstrual disorders (abortifacient), as blood purifier (Maity et al. 2004), for headache and to treat infertility (Rajbhandari et al. 2007).

References Acharya R. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of Resunga hill used by Magar community of Badagaun VDC of Gulmi district, Nepal. Sci World. 2012;10(10):54–65. Balami NP. Ethnomedicinal uses of plants among the Newar community of Pharping village of Kathmandu district, Nepal. Tribhuvan Univ J. 2004;24(1):13–9. Bhattarai NK. Folk herbal medicines of Makawanpur district, Nepal. Int J Pharmacogn. 1991;29(4):284–95. Bhattarai NK. Medical ethnobotany in the Rapti zone, Nepal. Fitoterapia. 1993a;64(5):483–93. Bhattarai NK. Folk herbal medicines of Dolakha district, Nepal. Fitoterapia. 1993b;64(5):387–95. Bhattarai NK. Folk herbal remedies for gynaecological complaints in Central Nepal. Int J Pharm. 1994;32(1):13–26. Bhattarai S, Chaudhary RP, Taylor RL. Ethnomedicinal plants used by the people of Manang district, Central Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:41. Bhattarai S, Chaudhary RP, Quave CL, Taylor RSL. The use of medicinal plants in the transHimalayan arid zone of Mustang district, Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:14. Buckingham J. Dictionary of natural products, vol. 7. London: Chapman and Hall; 1994. Ghimire KM, Adhikari M, Uprety Y, Chaudhary RP. Ethnomedicinal use of plants by the highland communities of Kailash Sacred Landscape, far-west Nepal. Acad J Med Plants. 2018;6(11):365–8. Jain SK. Ethnobotany and research on medicinal plants in India. Ciba Found Symp. 1994;185:153–68. Joshi K, Joshi AR. Ethnobotanical studies on some lower plants of the Central Development Region, Nepal. Ethnobot Leafl. 2008;12:32–40. Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Medicinal, aromatic and dye plants of Baitadi and Darchula districts, Nepal Himalaya: status, uses and management. In: Hartmann M, Weipert J, editors. Biodiversität und Naturausstattung im Himalaya III. Erfurt: Naturekunde Museum; 2009. p. 475–89. Kunwar RM, Duwadee NPS. Ethnobotanical notes on flora of Khaptad National Park, far western Nepal. Himal J Sci. 2003;1(1):25–30. Kunwar R, Nepal B, Kshhetri H, Rai S, Bussmann R. Ethnomedicine in Himalaya: a case study from Dolpa, Humla, Jumla and Mustang districts of Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:27. Kunwar RM, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Diversity, utilization and management of medicinal plants in Baitadi and Darchula districts, farwest Nepal. Initiation. 2008;21:157–64. Kunwar RM, Upreti Y, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Indigenous use and ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in Far-west Nepal. Ethnobotany Research and Application 2009;7:5–28. Kunwar RM, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants in farwest Nepal: their indigenous uses and pharmacological validity. Med Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010a;4 (Special issue 1):28–42. Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Bussmann RW. Traditional herbal medicine in far-west Nepal: a pharmacological appraisal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010b;6:35. Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Acharya RP, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants, traditional medicine, markets and management in far-west Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:24. Luitel DL, Rokaya MB, Timsina B, Münzbergová Z. Medicinal plants used by the Tamang community in the Makawanpur district of central Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2014;10:5. Maity D, Pradhan N, Chauhan AS. Folk uses of some medicinal plants from North Sikkim. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2004;3(1):66–71.

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Manandhar NP. Medicinal plant-lore of Tamang tribe of Kabhrepalanchok district, Nepal. Econ Bot. 1991;45(1):58–71. Manandhar NP. Ethnobotanical note on folklore remedies of Baglung district, Nepal. Contrib Nepal Stud. 1993;20(2):183–96. Manandhar NP. Plants and people of Nepal. Portland: Timber Press; 2002. O’Neill AR, Badola HK, Dhyani PP, Rana SK. Integrating ethnobiological knowledge into biodiversity conservation in the Eastern Himalayas. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13:21. https://doi. org/10.1186/s13002-017-0148-9. Rai MB. Medicinal plants of Tehrathum district, Eastern Nepal. Our Nat. 2003;1:42–8. Rai V, Kumar A, Das V, Ghosh S. Evaluation of chemical constituents and in vitro antimicrobial, antioxidant and cytotoxicity potential of rhizome of Astilbe rivularis (Bodho-okhati), an indigenous medicinal plant from Eastern Himalayan region of India. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2019;19(1):200. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12906-019-2621-6. Rajbhandari M, Mentel R, Jha PK, Chaudhary RP, Bhattarai S, Gewali MB, Karmacharya N, Hipper M, Lindequist U. Antiviral activity of some plants used in Nepalese traditional medicine. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2007; https://doi.org/10.1093/ecam/nem156. Sastry BS, Rao EV. Chemical examination of Astilbe rivularis. Indian J Chem Sect B. 1977;15:494–5. Sastry BS, Vykuntam U, Rao E. Chemical examination of the aerial parts of Astilbe rivularis. Indian Drugs. 1987;24:354–9. Shrestha PM, Dhilion SS. Medicinal plant diversity and use in the highlands of Dolakha district, Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2003;86:81–96. Uprety Y, Asselin H, Boon EK, Yadav S, Shrestha KK. Indigenous use and bio-efficacy of medicinal plants in the Rasuwa district, Central Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:3. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013.

Astragalus candolleanus Royle ex Benth. Astragalus chlorostachys Lindl. Astragalus hendersonii Baker Astragalus peduncularis Royle ex Benth. FABACEAE Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Synonyms Astragalus candolleanus Royle ex Benth.: Astragalus latifolius ssp. candolleanus (Boiss.) Ponert Astragalus chlorostachys Lindl.: Astragalus bakeristrobiliferus H. Okashi, Astragalus microdontus Baker, Hedysarum strobiliferum Baker, Hedysarum strobiliferum L. Astragalus hendersonii Baker: Phyllolobium heydeni (Baker) M.L. Zhang & Podlech Astragalus peduncularis Royle ex Benth.: Astragalus corydalinus Bunge

A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_31

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Botany and Ecology Astragalus candolleanus: Shrub, suberect or prostrate, branches pubescent. Leaf imparipinnately compound, up to 12.5 cm long; leaflets 17–25, about 1.2–1.3 cm long, elliptic or oblong, sparsely pubescent or glabrous; stipules about 6–7 mm long, free. Inflorescence a is compact raceme, having sessile or pedunculate peduncle about 5 cm or less. Bracts exceeding the pedicel. Pedicel about 2.5–6 mm long. Calyx about 1.2–1.3 cm long, pubescent; upper calyx teeth 5 mm and lower 6 mm long. Vexillum about 2.5–2.6 mm long. Wing shorter than vexillum and longer than the keel. Fruit about 1.7–2.6 cm long, pubescent, hairs spreading. Flowering June–August. Kashmir; Pakistan (N.W.F. Province) (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020) (Fig. 1). Astragalus chlorostachys: Plants 40–100 cm tall, with appressed to spreading, white to dark brown hairs. Stems 1–1.5 mm thick, erect, hairy, often glabrescent with age. Leaves 6–17 cm; stipules 3–13(–16) mm, narrowly triangular to ovate, mostly spreading, free or in lateral branches sometimes shortly vaginate-connate behind stem, hairy; petiole (0.4–)1.6–2.5 cm, like rachis glabrous or hairy; leaflets in 6–11(–13) pairs, elliptic, 9–40  4–20 mm, both surfaces loosely to rather densely covered with appressed to subappressed white or yellowish hairs, adaxially sometimes glabrescent, apex obtuse to slightly retuse. Racemes densely many flowered, later elongating to 4–11(–14) cm; peduncle 4–8 cm, elongating up to 13 cm with age, with short hairs; bracts soon falling, 3–8 mm, hairy. Bracteoles 0.25–1.5 mm, sometimes absent. Calyx 4–6.5 mm, densely covered with appressed to ascending, dark brown, and white hairs; teeth mostly unequal, triangular, 0.5–1.5 mm, sometimes indistinct. Petals pale yellow, all nearly of same length; standard elliptic to rhombic-elliptic or obovate, 10–13  4–6(–7) mm, apex retuse to emarginate. Style Fig. 1 Astragalus candolleanus (Fabaceae). Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

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with glabrous or very shortly hairy stigma. Legumes with a stipe 6–9 mm, narrowly ellipsoid to oblong, 15–31 mm, 3.5–5.5 mm high and wide, keeled ventrally and dorsally, with a beak 2–4 mm, incompletely to completely two-locular; valves thin, glabrous (Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Fig. 2). Astragalus hendersonii: Root woody, about 3 mm thick, branches about 1–5 cm long. Stipules amplexicaul, about 1.2–2 mm long, about 2–3 mm broad, glabrous. Leaf imparipinnately compound, rachis about 7–10 mm, (including petiole), pilose, and petiole about 2–5 mm long. Leaflets about 11–17, opposite, about 3.5–6 mm long, obovate, oblong, obtuse, densely pilose, and conduplicate. Inflorescence is a 2–3-flowered peduncled raceme, peduncle about 7–12 mm long, pilose, hairs white. Bracts about 3 mm long, densely albo-pilose. Calyx about 5.0–6.0 mm, densely pilose, hairs white, teeth about 2–2.5 mm long. Corolla mauve to purple. Vexillum about 10 mm long. Wing about 8–9.0 mm long, claw about 4–5 mm, blade 5–6 mm long. Keel about 8–9.0 mm long. Fruit stipitate, stipe about 1 mm, fruit about 16– 17 mm long, about 11–12 mm broad (pressed condition), oblong, pilose, hairs white; sutures scarcely intruded. Seeds about 20 per pod. Flowering July–September (Kashmir; Tibet, E. Turkistan) (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020). Astragalus peduncularis: Plants 25–70 cm tall, covered with mostly  medifixed hairs. Stems several, 20–60 cm, often with very short lateral branches, densely hairy; hairs appressed, often flexuous, white, at nodes also black, 0.3–0.5 mm, a few ascending up to 1 mm. Leaves 5–10 cm, subsessile; stipules 6–8 mm, high vaginate-connate behind stem, loosely to rather densely appressed hairy; rachis rather densely white hairy; leaflets in 7–13 pairs, narrowly elliptic, 7–19(–25)  1.5–7 mm, abaxially loosely to densely appressed hairy, adaxially glabrous or subglabrous, apex rounded or obtuse, mostly very shortly mucronulate. Racemes up to 10 cm, rather densely many flowered; peduncle 6–23 cm, hairy like stem; bracts 3–5 mm, black and white hairy. Bracteoles 1–2 mm. Calyx 8–10 mm, loosely covered with appressed to ascending, mostly asymmetrically bifurcate to Fig. 2 Astragalus chlorostachyus (Fabaceae). Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

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subbasifixed, black or mixed white and black hairs; teeth unequal, 1–2 mm. Petals greenish white, standard often  purple tinged; standard obovate, 14–17  6–8 mm, apex emarginate; wings 12–13 mm; keel 11–12 mm. Legumes sessile, nodding, 11– 20 mm, 4–5 mm high and 5–6 mm wide, with a beak 1–2 mm, 1-locular to incompletely 2-locular; valves densely black and white hairy, glabrous with age (Wu et al. 1994–2013).

Local Medicinal Uses Astragalus gilgitensis is used for digestion (Wali et al. 2019). Astragalus caucasicus/Astragalus membranaceus: The roots are used for the treatment of digestive disorders (Bussmann et al. 2017, 2019; Liu and Bussmann 2020). Astragalus arequipensis: The aerial parts mixed with urine, guano of waycho (Agriornis sp.) and lizard meat are elaborated a patch for the treatment of bone breaks (Echeverría et al. 2020). Astragalus cerphalotus serves to treat siabetes and wounds (Tetik et al. 2013). Astragalus sp. are used in the treatment of cancerous and gangrenous wounds (Sezik et al. 2001; Yeşilada et al. 1995). Astragalus jolderensis is used for skin and thyroid gland problems (Ghorbani 2005).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Astragalus caucasicus/Astragalus membranaceus: Used as fodder. The root gum is used in art (Bussmann et al. 2017, 2019; Liu and Bussmann 2020). Astragalus arequipensis: Forage use when dry, if green is toxic. The children use the pods to print marks on the ground in the form of flame footsteps (Echeverría et al. 2020). Astragalus gilgitensis is used for forage (Wali et al. 2019). Astragalus flavescens and Astragalus microcephalus serve as fodder (Ari et al. 2015).

References Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan and Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995–2020. Ari S, Temel M, Kargıoğlu M, Konuk M. Ethnobotanical survey of plants used in AfyonkarahisarTurkey. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2015;11:84. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-015-0067-6. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo Republic of Georgia, Caucasus. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge 2017;161:7–24. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D. Astragalus caucasicus Pall. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z,

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Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions far Eastern Europe. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2019. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77088-8_19-2. Echeverría J, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Astragalus arequipensis Vogel. In: Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions – ethnobotany of the Andes. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-31977093-2_29-1. Ghorbani A. Studies on pharmaceutical ethnobotany in the region of Turkmen Sahra, north of Iran (part 1): general results. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102:58–68. Liu B, Bussmann RW. Astragalus membranaceus Bunge. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions Central Asia and Altai. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77087-1_25-1. Sezik E, Yesilada E, Honda G, Takaishi Y, Takeda Y, Tanaka T. Traditional medicine in Turkey X. Folk medicine in Central Anatolia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2001;75:95–115. Tetik F, Civelek S, Cakilcioglu U. Traditional uses of some medicinal plants in Malatya (Turkey). J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;146:331–46. Wali R, Rahman K, Raja NI, Qureshi R, Bussmann RW, Mashwani ZUR. A quantitative medico botanical expedition of Fairy Meadows National Park, Diamir, Gilgit Baltistan, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019:1835. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.35.1-30. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. St. Louis: Science Press, Beijing & Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Yeşilada E, Honda G, Sezik E, Tabata M, Fujita T, Tanaka T, Takeda Y, Takaishi Y. Traditional medicine in Turkey. V. Folk medicine in the inner Taurus Mountains. J Ethnopharmacol. 1995;46:133–52.

Atriplex hortensis L. Atriplex rosea L. AMARANTHACEAE Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Atriplex hortensis L.: Atriplex nitens Schkuhr Atriplex rosea L.: Atriplex arenicola Hauman; Atriplex arenicola var. albescens Hauman; Atriplex erosa Brueckner & Verdoorn; Atriples spatiosa A. Nelson

Local Names Atriplex hortensis: Russian: Лебеда (lebeda) Atriplex rosea: Pashto: Babara, Ranzaka

H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_32

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Fig. 1 Atriplex hortensis (Amaranthaceae) in a garden in Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R. W. Bussmann and N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Botany and Ecology Atriplex hortensis: Annual, 60–150 cm high; stem erect, mostly branched; leaves, except the lowermost, alternate, petiolate, triangular, broadly hastate at base, entire or more rarely slightly toothed, mostly taper-tipped, green on both sides; flowers in spikes disposed in a leafless panicle; staminate 5-merous; pistillate of two sorts, some ebracteolate with a 5-parted perianth and without bracteoles, others without perianth, others enclosed by a pair of sessile or very short stipitate bracteoles, these rotund or rounded-oval, entire, free; seeds of the former horizontal, convex, black, lustrous, 1–2 mm in diameter, those of the latter vertical, flat, olivaceous-brown, dull, 3–4.5 mm in diameter. Flowering July– September. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, on solonetz soils, rarely on solonchak, steppes, along banks of rivers, on slopes, in ravines, common in gardens and orchards (Bussmann et al. 2020; Komarov and Shishkin 1936) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4). Atriplex rosea: Annual, 30–90 cm high, divaricately branched from base, whitishfarinose at least in upper part; leaves alternate, short-petioled, ovate to ovaterhombic, coarsely sinuate-toothed, entire and cuneate at base, obtuse and often minutely mucronulate, green above, whitish-farinose beneath, the uppermost reduced, narrower and entire; flowers verticillate in a leafy inflorescence; staminate 5-merous; pistillate in axillary glomerules of 5–1 O, with broadly ovate-triangular or broad-rhombic bracteoles; fruiting bracteoles short-stipitate, united in lower half,

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Fig. 2 Atriplex hortensis (Amaranthaceae) in a garden in Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R. W. Bussmann and N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Atriplex hortensis (Amaranthaceae) in a garden in Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R. W. Bussmann and N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

free and toothed above, prominently 3– to 5-nerved; seeds round, dark brown, glabrous, lustrous, ca. 2 mm in diameter. July–September. Weed-infested places and chalky ground (Komarov and Shishkin 1936).

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Fig. 4 Atriplex hortensis (Amaranthaceae) in a garden in Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R. W. Bussmann and N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Atriplex hortensis: Saponins, phenolcarboxylic acids (ferulic), flavonoids (piferol, quercetin), betacyanins (betanine), phenylcarboxylic acids (vanilline, ferulic) (Fedorov 1984).

Local Medicinal Uses Atriplex rosea: Crushed leaves and roots boiled in water given orally two times a day for 2–3 months to increase body weight (Ali et al. 2019). Atriplex sp. is used to strengthen the immune system (Ari et al. 2015). Atriplex hortensis: In the Caucasus, the leaves are used as diuretic and hemostatic (Bussmann et al. 2020).

Local Food Uses Atriplex hortensis: The young leaves are eaten as salad and cooked as herb pie. Leaves (esp. young) of A. hortensis and A. nitens are used as spinach and with sorrel for green soup; they are also eaten boiled with oil/butter (Bussmann et al. 2020). The leaves are used for Pkhali (herb pie) (Bussmann et al. 2020) and as pot herbs (Łuczaj and Szymański 2007; Łuczaj et al. 2012).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Atriplex hortensis: Stems are used to produce blue dye (Bussmann et al. 2020). As silage for cattle and other livestock.

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References Ali A, Aldosari A, Tng DYP, Ullah M, Hussain W, Ahmad M, Hussain J, Khan A, Hussain H, Sher H, Bussmann RW, Shao J-W. Traditional uses of plants by indigenous communities for veterinary practices at Kurram district, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18:24. https://doi. org/10.32859/era.18.24.1-19. Ari S, Temel M, Kargıoğlu M, Konuk M. Ethnobotanical survey of plants used in Afyonkarahisar– Turkey. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2015;11:84. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-015-0067-6. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D. Amaranthus hybridus L.; Amaranthus palmeri S. Watson; Amaranthus spinosus L.; Amaranthus retrofexus L.; Atriplex hortensis L. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions far Eastern Europe. Cham: Springer; 2020. Fedorov AA, ed. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 1. Families magnoliaceae – limoniaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1984, 460 p. (in Russian). Komarov VL, Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, volume 6: Centrospermae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1936 (English 1970), 731 pages, 55 b/w plates, 2 maps. Łuczaj Ł, Szymański WM. Wild vascular plants gathered for consumption in the Polish countryside: a review. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3:17. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-3-17. Łuczaj Ł, Pieroni A, Tardio J, Pardo de Samtayana M, Söukand R, Svanberg I, Kalle R. Wild food plants in 21st century Europe: the disappearance of old traditions and the search for new cuisines involving wild edibles. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2012;81849:359–70.

Atropa acuminata Royle ex Lindl. SOLANACEAE Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Local Names Atropa acuminata: Jammu: Belladona, Brand, Jalakajal, Chella lubbar, Meithkafal, Yabrooj, Nachan Ariel, Pashto: Bargag ‫ﺑﺎﺭګګ‬

Botany and Ecology Atropa acuminata: Herb up to 1.6 m tall, branched. Stem and branches fistular, young shoots puberulous. Leaves 8–17  4.5–8.0 cm, elliptic-lanceolate to ovatelanceolate, acuminate, cuneate. Petiole up to 20 mm long. Calyx 9–15 mm long, up to 20 mm in fruit,  cupular, puberulous; lobes 6–10 mm long, ovate-acute, unequal, persistent. Corolla 20–23 mm long, yellow; lobes obtuse. Stamens included. Anthers c. 3 mm long, oblong filaments 10–11 mm long. Berry globose, 10 mm broad black when ripe. Seeds subreniform, 2 mm long, reticulate, foveolate, brown. Flowering June–July. E. Iran, E. Afghanistan, eastwards to Kashmir, Mongolia (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020) (Fig. 1). H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_33

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Fig. 1 Atropa acuminata (Solanaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Local Medicinal Uses Atropa acuminata: Poultice of leaves is used as pain killer and as antirheumatism (Zeb et al. 2013). Root applied externally in the treatment of gout and rheumatism. Leaves are applied to boils (Shah and Khan 2006). Leaves are narcotic, sedative, diuretic, and anodyne (Hussain et al. 2006). Poultice of leaves against pain and rheumatism (Akhtar et al. 2013). Seeds are used for male contraceptives (Zaman et al. 2020). Plant is used for asthma, rheumatic pain, eye diseases, and cough (Malik et al. 2011). Plant is used for pain and rheumatism as poultice (Latif et al. 2006). The plant is used as sedative and narcotic (Kayani et al. 2017), as analgesic, mydriatic, sedative, narcotic, and antispasmodic (Ghorbani 2005; Mohagheghzadeh and Faridi 2006; Muhammad et al. 2019). Also employed for eye problems (Ghorbani 2005). Employed as analgesic, diuretic, mydriatic, narcotic, sedative, for abdominal-pain, as antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, to treat asthma, burns, cough, as diuretic, for eyeailments, inflammation, joint-dislocation, joint pain, muscular pain, neuralgia, rheumatism (Gairola et al. 2014). Atropa baetica serves as narcotic (Mohagheghzadeh and Faridi 2006). Atropa belladonna serves as antispasmodic (Ahmad and Ismail 2003; Ahmad et al. 2006), for boils, cough, and rheumatism (Gairola et al. 2014).

References Ahmad FB, Ismail G. Medicinal plants used by Kadazandudun communities around Crocker Range. ASEAN Review of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation (ARBEC) January– March 2003. 2003. http://www.arbec.com.my/pdf/art1janmar03.pdf Ahmad I, Aquil F, Owais M. Modern phytomedicine. Weinheim: Wiley; 2006.

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Bauhinia variegata L. Bauhinia vahlii Wight & Arn. FABACEAE Jyoti Bhandari, Dhruba Bijaya GC, Sunita Dhungana, Neeru Thapa, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Bauhinia variegata L.: Bauhinia candida Aiton, Bauhinia chinensis Vogel, Bauhinia decora L. Uribe, Bauhinia variegata var. candida Buch.-Ham., Bauhinia variegata var. chinensis DC., Bauhinia variegata (L.) Benth., Phanera variegata (L.) Benth. Bauhinia vahlii Wight & Arn.: Bauhinia racemosa Lam. J. Bhandari · D. B. GC (*) · S. Dhungana · N. Thapa Institute of Forestry, Tribhuvan University, Pokhara, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_34

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Local Names Bauhinia variegata: Pashto: Kachnar ‫ ;ﮎﺍﭺﻥﺍﺭ‬English: Ebony tree, Buddhist bauhinia; butterfly tree; kachnar; orchid tree; paper mulberry; pink orchid tree; poor man’s orchid; purple orchid tree; Spanish: gorro de Napoleón; mariposa; orchidea de pobre; orquidea de palo; puente de mono; French: arbre à orchidées; arbre de Saint-Thomas; bois de boeuf; sabot boeuf; Chinese: yang zi jing; Naga: Owepanghef; Portuguese: árvore-de-São-Thomaz; Bangladesh: rakta-kamhar; swet-kanchan; Brazil: unha-de-vacca; Cuba: bauhinia; Dominican Republic: flamboyán; orquídea; Haiti: flamboyant; India: Kachnar, Kanchan; Malaysia: akbar tapak kerbau; kotidaram; kupu-kupu; Nepal: koiralo; Baygan (Magar), Ambu, Koiramendo (Tamang), Kachnar, Kovidarah (Sanskrit), Kunopma (Newar), Groinbak (Raji): Jammu: Kaliar, Karal, Kachnar, Kaliari, Kartair, Karar; Pakistan: Kachnar; Puerto Rico: palo de orquídeas; Magar: Baygan; Tam: Ambu, Koiramendo; Newar: Kachnar, Kovidarah, Kunopma; Raji: Groinbak

Botany and Ecology Bauhinia variegata: A medium sized tree with dark brown nearly smooth bark; young shoots pubescent. Leaves petiolate, petiole 2–3.8 cm long; lamina 4.5–15 cm long, as broad as or rather broader than long, with a medium cleft reaching from 1/4 to 1/3 the way down, lobes obtuse, the base is deeply heart shaped, 9–15 nerved, pubescent beneath when young. Inflorescence few flowered pubescent raceme. Pedicel short or absent, bracteole minute; hypanthium slender, 1.2–2.5 cm long. Calyx 2.0–2.7 cm long, tomentose, 5 toothed at the apex. Petals 5–6.3 cm long, obovate, with long rather broad claw, all white or 4 petals pale purple and fifth darker with purple veins. Stamens 5, fertile, no staminodes. Ovary hairy, stipe 10–17 mm long; style long, stigma capitate. Pods 15–30 cm long, about 1–2.5 cm broad, hard, flat, dehiscent 10–15 seeded; stipe glabrous (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5). This species can grow on most soil types and starts to bloom when it is 2 to 3 years old (Bhardwaj et al. 2015). It grows best in the full moon or partial shade. It is prominent greenhouse plants which grows at an altitude of 1800 m in Himalayas (Deswal and Arora 2015). It can easily propagate from seed and by air layering (Ghaisas et al. 2009). Bauhinia variegata has antibacterial (Mishra et al. 2013) and antifungal properties (Bach et al. 2014) and is used in grazing areas (Habib et al. 2016), biomonitoring of environmental pollution (Da Silveira Fleck et al. 2016), and health treatments (Abbasi et al. 2015). Bauhinia variegata can be naturally propagated through the seeds when provided with favorable conditions, whereas artificial propagation is carried out by stump planting, that is, direct sowing of seeds (Khare et al. 2018). The different parts of the plant such as leaves, stems, buds, flowers, barks, seeds, and roots are utilized in the

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Fig. 1 Bauhinia variegata (Fabaceae), Nairobi, Kenya. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Bauhinia variegata (Fabaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

preparation of medicine and apply in treatment for different diseases (Mali and Dhake 2009). Bauhinia vahlii: A huge climber, branches densely hairy, tendrils circinate, usually opposite the leaves. Leaves alternate, petiolate, petiole about 7.5–9 cm long, cordate at the base, lobed at the apex, orbicular in shape, 10–46 cm long and almost as broad, sparsely hairy on the upper and densely hairy on the lower surface. Inflorescence terminal, subcorymbose, densely hairy raceme; bracteoles persistent. Flowers white turning buff with age. Hypanthium about 5–8 mm long. Calyx 3–5 lobed, about 10– 12.5 mm long, splitting into 2–3 parts, densely villous. Petals 5, about 1.7–4.3 cm long, shortly clawed, spathulate, hairy externally. Fertile stamens 3, 2–7 staminodes may be present. Ovary densely tomentose, style hairy. Pod woody, 22.5–30 cm long, 5–7.5 cm broad, dehiscent, rusty velvety, 6–12 seeded. Seed flat, dark brown, polished, about 2.5 cm in diameter. Flowering April–June. W. Pakistan (Punjab); India (Punjab, U.P., Bengal, Behar, Assam, Bombay, Central India, Madras); Nepal; Sikkim (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020).

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Fig. 3 Bauhinia variegata (Fabaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Local Medicinal Uses Bauhinia variegata: The seeds are tonic and aphrodisiac; leaves are demulcent and mucilaginous (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020). Buds locally called “Kalian” are used as vegetable given in digestive problems (Ahmed et al. 2013). Leaves and flowers paste is given to cattle to cure diarrhea (Abbasi et al. 2013). The young leaves, flowers, and fruits are boiled and eaten as a vegetable and useful in skin diseases (Memon et al. 2008). The plant is used as expectorant, sedative, diuretic, hypnotic pertussis (Shah and Khan 2006). Decoction of bark is used for diarrhea and dysentery. Paste of the bark is applied to treat cuts and wounds. Flowers are used as vegetable and have rich protein contents (Mahmood et al. 2012a). Powdered flowers are used to enhance lactation (Jan et al. 2020) and as carminative. As blood purifier and cure poxes (Mahmood et al. 2012b). Bark and seed of the plant is used for scrofula (Ullah et al. 2016). Root of the plant is used for obesity (Rahman et al. 2019). Decoction made from floral buds is given in piles. Buds are also dried to treat diarrhea (Hussain et al. 2017). Hepatoprotective, anthelmintic, antiseptic/Wound healing, nephroprotective, antidiabetic, insecticidal, antigoitrogenic, anti-inflammatory, and antitubercular (Negi et al. 2012).

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Fig. 4 Bauhinia variegata (Fabaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

It is one of the most important tree species used in ayurvedic medicine system It is a nitrogen-fixing tree that helps to enrich the soil fertility. The various parts of the plants are used as medicines to cure variety of diseases. The plant is used for curing bronchitis, leprosy, inflammation, bacterial infection, diarrhea, dysentery, skin diseases, intestinal worms, wounds, ulcer, fungal infection, ulcers, and tumors (Prashar and Kumar 2010). The presence of various chemical constituents in B. variegata may be potential cause of treatment of various disorders (Khare et al. 2017). Plant parts, leaves, barks, seeds, flower buds, flowers, and roots have been used as remedy for asthma, leprosy, flatulence, snake bite, skin diseases, and dysentery (Jackson et al. 1994). It is valued in Nepal as a fodder and human food (Gautam 2012). Juice mixed with juice of Mangifera indica and Aegle marmelos used against diarrhea (Manandhar 1991), dysentery, tooth brush (Kunwar et al. 2006), for wounds, cuts, sprains, and fractures (Kunwar and Bussmann 2009; Kunwar et al. 2009, 2013); for body cooling, bark juice for menstrual disorder (Pant et al. 2005; Uprety et al. 2011, 2012; Parajuli 2011, 2012; Luitel et al. 2014); cure leucorrhoea and mumps (Kunwar et al. 2015; Bhattarai et al. 2012), snake bite (Acharya and Acharya 2009; Acharya 2012); diarrhea, indigestion, tumors (Bhattarai 1990, 1992, 1993; Singh et al. 2012; Atreya et al. 2017); dyspepsia, obesity (Rai 2003), piles, liver disorder (Singh et al. 2011), anthelmintic (Tamang 2003; Gautam 2011; Thapa 2013); hyperthermia, blood purification, cut and wounds (Bhatta 1999; Balami 2004; Subedi 2017);

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Fig. 5 Bauhinia variegata (Fabaceae), distribution in Nepal. (Photo Jyoti Bhandari)

diarrhea, dysentery (Tamang and Sedai 2016; Aryal et al. 2018). The root is carminative and used in dyspepsia and flatulence and as an antidote to snake poison (Gautam 2012). The stem bark is used as astringent, alliterative, antidiabetic, antitumor, tonic and anthelmintic, obesity, and washing ulcers (Prashar and Kumar 2010). The ash of dried leaves is taken against cough (Mali et al. 2007). In Northern India the species is used to treat diarrhea, dysentery, indigestion, laxative, leprosy, malaria, piles (bleeding), skin diseases, snake bite, syphilis, tumors, ulcers and worms (Verma et al. 2007), as astringent, and for skin problems (Joshi et al. 2010. In Nepal the flower juice is taken for dysentery and diarrhea, while dried flowers are given for diarrhea, dysentery and piles, and fresh flowers are used as laxative (Kunwar et al. 2010a, b). The leaves and stem-bark are used for the treatment of diabetes, kidney problems, obesity, diarrhea, and as poultice for skin problems. The plant (particularly the leaves) is used to lower cholesterol, against intestinal worms, in the treatment of stomach pains, as a diuretic, as a reducer of blood pressure and to lower the levels of lipids in the blood. The bark is used as a healing, anti-inflammatory, and antihemorrhagic, and also as a general tonic and in the treatment of skin diseases, relief of ulcers, diarrhea, and to treat dysentery. Infusion of the leaves of different species of Bauhinia is traditionally used in the treatment of diabetes and hypertension and as a diuretic and anthelmintic agent (Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2020). Used to remedy syphilis, leprosy, and skin diseases (Singh et al. 2002). In Nagaland used for gastrointestinal problems (Kichu et al. 2015), and for abdominal tumors (Jain et al. 2005). In Jammu used as

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anthelmintic, bloodpurifier, for flatulence, diarrhea, dysentery, intestinal cramps, as antispasmodic, for cough, as laxative, to treat piles, for skin diseases and toothache (Gairola et al. 2014). Bauhinia racemosa serves for diarrhea (Singh et al. 2002) and as contraceptive (Jain et al. 2005). Bauhinia vahli is used for stomach-pain and diarrhea (Singh et al. 2002). Bauhinia purpurea: Used as carmative, for diarrhea, ulcers, boils and abscesses (Jain et al. 2005).

Local Food Uses Bauhinia variegata: Flowers are cooked as vegetable (Dangol et al. 2017). The leaves are used for the preparation of biddies (Puntambekar 1957). Buds and leaves can be eaten as a vegetable or pickled (Pant and Sharma 2010).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Bauhinia variegata: It is grown as an ornamental plant and also yields tanning material. The foliage is used as fodder and the seeds are eaten; bark yields good fibers for ropes (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020). Often grown as ornamental tree in gardens and along the roadsides. Round log and sawn wood, wood board, gum and fiber production, and recovering degraded areas (Khare et al. 2018). Leaves are often used for feeding cattle (Gautam 2012).

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Berberis aristata DC. Berberis asiatica Roxb. ex DC. Berberis chitria Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Berberis glaucocarpa Stapf Berberis lycium Royle Berberis orthobotrys Bien. ex Aitch. ssp. orthobotrys Berberis vulgaris L. BERBERIDACEAE Hassan Sher, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Ikram Ur Rahman, Wahid Hussain, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Synonyms Berberis aristata DC.: Berberis chitria Buch.-Ham. ex Ker Gawl., Berberis chitria var. sikkimensis C.K. Schneid., Berberis sikkimensis (C.K. Schneid.) Ahrendt, Berberis sikkimensis var. baileyi Ahrendt Berberis asiatica Roxb. ex DC.: Berberis dealbata Lindl., Berberis hypoleuca Lindl., Berberis asiatica var. clarkeana C.K. Schneid., Berberis vinifera T.S. Ying (Harber 2020). Berberis chitria Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don: Berberis chitria var. occidentalis Ahrendt H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan W. Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_35

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Berberis glaucocarpa Stapf: Berberis aristata Sims Berberis vulgaris L.: Berberis baluchistanica Ahrendt

Local Names Berberis aristata: Jammu: Kareel kaimbal, Daruharidra, Kaembu; Kashmir: Kasmal, Dandlether, Dandleder, Kawe dach; Sikkim: Chutro; Lepcha: Sutong, Kung; Nepali: Chutro, Chautari, Barhamase chutro; Newari: Chhuntasi, Maltapyaasi; Tamang: Kerpa, Kerba, Pichyar; Sanskrit: Daruharidra, Daruhaldhi, Rasanjan; Hindi: Chitra, Chotra; English: Barberry, Tree Turmeric Berbneris asiatica: Kashmir: Rasaut, Kasmal; Gharwal: Kingod; Ladakh: Kirmuda; Nepali: Chutro, Aul chutro, Chutra; Newari: Chhuntasi, Maltapyaasi; Sherpa: Namli; Tamang: Kerpa; Sanskrit: Daruharidra, Daruhaldi, Rasanjan; English: Barberry Berberis lycium: Kashmir: Kowdach, Kaodauch, Lawdach, Khawaray; Ladakh: Daruhaldi, Dama; Jammu: Cambel, Kaimal, kamble, Kamblu, Kavelli, Krumbal, Kurmal, Rasaunt, Simblu, Simloo, Simlu; Pashto: Zyar largai ، ‫ﮎﺭﻭﺱﮎﯼ‬, Karoskay ‫ﺯﯾﺎﺭ ﻻﺭګﯼ‬. Berberis vulgaris: Ladakh: Kirsing; Malataya: Karamuk; Pakistan: Shuturum.

Botany and Ecology Berberis aristata: Shrub, 3–4 m tall; stem terete, glabrous, pale yellow, obscurely or very minutely verruculose; internodes 2.5–4.5 cm long; spines mostly simple, rarely 3-fid, 5–10 mm long. Leaves obovate-elliptic, 3–6 (–7.5) cm long, 1–2.5 (–3) cm broad, subsessile to very shortly petioled, usually 4–8 spinose-dentate at margin, pale, slightly reticulately veined. Racemes 2–4 cm long, 15–25–flowered, rigid, R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia

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rarely slightly compound. Flowers 10–12 mm across, pale yellow with petals slightly larger than the inner sepals; pedicels 5–10 mm long in fruit, stout. Prophylls about 1 mm long. Outer sepals about 2 mm long, ovate; middle ones about twice and the inner sepals about thrice as long, obovate. Petals about 7 mm long, 4.5 mm broad, obovate with retuse apices and somewhat clawed base with a pair of marginal glands. Stamens about 5.5 mm long with subapiculate apices. Berries oblongglobose, 7–9 mm long, 6–7 mm broad, black, pruinose-white; style 1 mm long; seeds 3–4, oblong-ellipsoid, 3–4 mm long. Flowering April–May. (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020). Common in forest clearings and disturbed vegetation along forest edges and roadsides at 1300–3400 m altitude (Adhikari et al., 2012). Berberis asiatica: Shrubs, evergreen, 2–3 m tall. Branches pale yellow, terete, sometimes sulcate, glabrous; spines 3-fid, 1.2–2.5 cm. Leaves sessile; leaf blade abaxially shiny, pale green, adaxially dark green or grayish white, elliptic-lanceolate, 1.2–3.2 cm  4–9 mm, leathery, abaxially with conspicuously raised midvein, lateral and reticulate veins inconspicuous, adaxially with slightly raised midvein, lateral veins visible, reticulate veins inconspicuous, base cuneate, margin slightly revolute, slightly undulate, 2–4-spinulose-serrulate on each side, apex acute, aristate. Flowers 2–10-fascicled. Pedicels 1.1–2.2 cm; bractlets ovate, ca. 2  1 mm, apex acuminate. Sepals in 2 whorls; outer sepals ovate, ca. 5  4 mm, apex acute; inner sepals oblongobovate, ca. 7  4.5 mm, rounded, obtuse. Petals obovate, ca. 7  4 mm, base clawed, with separate glands, apex emarginate. Stamens ca. 5 mm; anther connective prolonged, apiculate. Ovules 3 or 4. Berry purplish black, pyriform or ellipsoid, 7–9  5–6 mm, pruinose, style persistent. Flowering May–June, fruiting July (Wu et al. 1994–2013). Common in disturbed vegetation beside roads and trails, and forest clearings at 1000–2700 m altitude (Adhikari et al. 2012). B. asiatica is easily distinguished by other closely related species by its leathery leaves with distinct reticulate venation and glaucous berries Nepal, India, China, Bhutan, Myanmar. Berberis chitria: Shrub, 3–4 m tall, almost deciduous; stem and shoots terete, dark reddish-brown, finely pubescent to subglabrous; internodes 2.5–5 cm long; spines (1–) 3-fid, 1–2( 3) cm long. Leaves obovate to elliptic, 2–6( 10) cm long, 1.5–2.5 ( 4) cm broad, dull to pale green, subsessile, finely reticulate, usually 3–9 spinulose at the margin, sometimes almost entire. Inflorescence (5–)8–12( 17) cm long, 10–20-flowered, loosely corymbose-paniculate, with flowers usually in groups of three, including peduncle (1.5–)4–6( 8) cm long, drooping. Flowers 12–18 mm across, yellow, often tinged with red; pedicels 8–15 mm long, glabrous. Prophylls c. 1.5 mm long, appressed, at middle of pedicel or the base of flower. Sepals obovate, outer 6–7 mm long, inner 9– 10 mm long, Petals 8–9 mm long, broadly elliptic, emarginate and subacute at the apex. Stamens 7 mm long, subapiculate at the apex. Ovules 4–5, with longer stipes. Berries dark red-brown, 10–12 mm long, 4–6 mm broad, narrowly ovoid or oblong-ellipsoid, epruinose, excluding 1–1.5 mm long style. Flowering May–June. Almost throughout the Himalayas. The var. occidentalis, which includes Kashmir plants also and is said to have smaller, entire leaves (2–4.5 cm long) and broader fruits (12 x 6 mm), is not different from it. (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020). Berberis glaucocarpa: Shrub, 3–4 m tall; stem terete, glabrous, pale yellow, obscurely or very minutely verruculose; internodes 2.5–4.5 cm long; spines mostly

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simple, rarely 3-fid, 5–10 mm long. Leaves obovate-elliptic, 3–6 ( 7.5) cm long, 1–2.5 ( 3) cm broad, subsessile to very shortly petioled, usually 4–8 spinosedentate at margin, pale, slightly reticulately veined. Racemes 2–4 cm long, 15–25flowered, rigid, rarely slightly compound. Flowers 10–12 mm across, pale yellow with petals slightly larger than the inner sepals; pedicels 5–10 mm long in fruit, stout. Prophylls c. 1 mm long. Outer sepals c. 2 mm long, ovate; middle ones c. twice and the inner sepals c. thrice as long, obovate. Petals c. 7 mm long, 4.5 mm broad, obovate with retuse apices and somewhat clawed base with a pair of marginal glands. Stamens c. 5.5 mm long with subapiculate apices. Berries oblong-globose, 7–9 mm long, 6–7 mm broad, black, pruinose-white; style 1 mm long; seeds 3–4, oblong-ellipsoid, 3–4 mm long. Flowering April–May. Another very similar species, Berberis lycioides Stapf, with narrower leaves, longer racemes, berries 10–12 mm long, oblong-ovoid, and petals entire and shorter than inner sepals, may also occur within our area. (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020). Berberis lycium: Shrub, 2–3( 4) m tall, erect or suberect, semideciduous; stem and branches pale, whitish to greyish, terete to subsulcate, glabrescent, younger ones obscurely to distinctly puberulous; internodes 1.5–3.5 cm long; spines (1–)3-fid, (6-) 10–20 mm long, yellowish to straw-coloured. Leaves oblanceolate to oblongobovate, (2–) 3–6 cm long, 6–12 mm broad, subsessile, usually conspicuously papillose, grey or white below, entire to 2–4 spinulose at the margins, acute to subacuminate, openly veined. Racemes (6–)10–25-flowered, 3–6( 7) cm long, rarely shorter and subfascicled (2–2.5 cm). Flowers 6–8 mm across, usually paleyellow; pedicels 6–12( 15) mm long, rarely longer, slender, thin, glabrous; bracts 2–2.5 mm. long. Prophylls c. 1 mm long, ovate, reddish. Outer sepals much smaller than the middle and inner sepals; inner sepals 4.5–5 mm long, 3 mm broad, obovate. Petals slightly shorter than the inner sepals, obovate, emarginate, with lanceolate basal glands. Stamens slightly shorter than petals, connectives produced or anthers apiculate. Ovules usually 4, shortly stipitate. Berries 7–8 mm long, c. 5 mm broad, ovoid or obovoid-subglobose, excluding 1 mm long style, blackish with heavy greywhite bloom; seeds 3–4 mm long. Flowering April–June. Distribution: Kashmir, Pakistan and N. W. Himalayas. A variable species said to have replaced Berberis ceratophylla G. Don in Kashmir and Western Himalayas and itself to be replaced by Berberis parkeriana Schneid. in the bordering areas of Kashmir and Pakistan. The varieties subfascicularis Ahrendt and subvirescens Ahrendt with shorter, 5–15flowered inflorescences, racemose to subfascicled, seem to be only variants of the species, the former with leaves like the type variety but the latter with leaves dull greenish below. (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6). Berberis orthobotrys: Shrub, 1(–2) m high, glabrous; stem often dark red, sometimes orange-yellow or pale-brownish; internodes 1–2( 3.5) cm long, sulcate, strict; spines mostly 3–fid, 1–2(–2.5) cm long, orange-yellow to reddish or brownish. Leaves very variable, usually obovate, 1–2.5(–3.5) cm long, 5–15 (–20) mm broad, 5–15(20) spinose-serrulate at the margins, rarely subentire, green, sometimes subpruinose grey beneath, subsessile shortly petiolate (up to 5 mm). Inflorescence racemose, subumbellate, umbellate-racemose or racemose-subfascicled, rarely compound below, highly variable, usually 5–20(–25)-flowered, 1.5–3(–4) cm long,

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Fig. 1 Berberis lycium (Berberidaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi) Fig. 2 Berberis lycium (Berberidaceae), Bhutan. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

obscurely to distinctly peduncled. Flowers 7–12 mm across, yellow to pale-yellow; pedicels (4–)5–12)(–15) mm long, lower often longer than the upper ones, slender rarely stout (and short). Sepals 4–7 mm long, outer smaller, Petals about as long as or slightly shorter than the inner sepals, emarginate to entire, flat to convolute. Stamens about as long as or shorter than the petals, connectives not produced, rarely subconical. Ovules 3–5. Berries oblong, subovoid or subobovoid, rarely oblongorbicular, 7–10 mm long, 5–6 mm broad, very variable, red, sometimes subpruinose or somewhat dark-colored when dried, often 3–seeded; seeds c. 3 mm long, oblongellipsoid. A variable species in leaf size, serrations, fruit size, shape, coloration and length of pedicels. (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020). Berberis vulgaris: Deciduous shrubs up to 3 m tall. Stems long, with short branches bearing spines. Bark of second year stems smooth and gray in color. Bud scales fall

342 Fig. 3 Berberis lycium (Berberidaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 4 Berberis lycium (Berberidaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

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Fig. 5 Berberis lycium (Berberidaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 6 Berberis lycium (Berberidaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

off early. Leaves simple, usually obovate with one midvein and with short petioles, margins flat with shallow teeth tipped with small spines. Flowers in a raceme disposed from short shoots with 10–20 flowers each; anther filaments lack curved teeth. Berries are red to purple, round, juicy and solid. Mainly under cultivation. Found throughout the Caucasus, Central Europe, Mediterranean, the Balkans, Russia, and Central Asia. Introduced to North America. Flowers and fruits from May to June. Berberis vulgaris is an important food for many small birds, which disperse the seeds in their droppings. The species is the alternate host species of the wheat rust fungus (Puccinia graminis), a grass-infecting rust fungus that is a serious fungal disease of wheat and related grains. (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020).

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Phytochemistry Berberis aristata: High concentration of Berberine, especially in the roots (Furrianca et al. 2015, Chander et al. 2017). Also contains aromoline, berbamine, berlambine, columbamine, palmatine, jatrorrhizine, karachine, oxyberberine, taxilamine and oxyacanthine (Bhardwaj & Kaushik 2013; Watanabe et al. 2005), carbohydrates, tannins, phytosterols, flavonoids (quercetin, meratin, rutin), and volatile oils (Furrianca et al. 2015). Berberis asiatica: Contains berberine, berbamine, berbinium, berlambine, palmatine, columbamine, Jatrorrhizine, oxyberberine oxyacanthine, magnoflorine (Watanabe et al. 2005; Bhardwaj & Kaushik 2013; Furrianca et al. 2015), tannins, flavonoids, steroids, saponins, phenols, carbohydrates, proteins, and free amino acids (Patni et al. 2012; Furrianca et al. 2015). reported from root and stem of B. asiatica (Patni et al. 2012; Furrianca et al. 2015).

Local Medicinal Uses Berberis aristana It is also taken as blood purifier and tonic (Watanabe et al. 2005). Bark, wood, and roots are used to treat Jaundice, malarial fever, fever, diabetes, diarrhea, and skin diseases (Rajbhandari 2001; Manandhar 2002; Watanabe et al. 2005; Chapagain et al. 2018). In Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh used as laxative, for backache, fractures, jaundice, rheumatism, as rejuvenating tonic, for eye ailments, fever, and weakness (Gairola et al. 2014). To treat fever, jaundice, malaria, diarrhea, swellings, eye problems, and ravies in Sikkim (Tamang et al. 2017). Used by the Lepcha for skin disorders, jaundice, and gastric problems (Palit and Banerjee 2016). Berberis asiatica fruits are used as mild laxative for children, the roots and bark as astringent, stomatic, diaphoretic, and to remedy piles (Joshi et al. 2010), with similar uses reported by Singh et al. Used for eye problems (Kunwar et al. 2008; Kunwar et al. 2013; 2015) and serves for gastric problems, as anthelminthic, for diabetes and eye infections (Joshi et al. 2010; Kunwar et al. 2009, 2013), and also as mild laxative, especially for children. In Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh used for backache and joint pain (Gairola et al. 2014). In Gharwal to remedy diabetes, eye infections, and kidney stones (Pratap Singh et al. 2019), in Ladakh for gastric problems, diabetes and eye infections (Malik et al. 2015). Applied to snakebites (Houghton and Osibogun 1993) and as ophthalmic (Kumar et al. 2011). The wood, root bark, and the plant extract are alterative, deobstruent, astringent, antiperiodic, and diaphoretic. Decoction of root bark is used in eye disease (Watanabe et al. 2005). It is used as blood purifier and to treat rheumatisms, jaundice, fever, diarrhea and dysentery, and in eye problems (Rajbhandari 2001; Kunwar and Bussmann 2009a, b). It is also used with butter for the treatment of bleeding piles (Bhattacharjee et al. 1980). Studies suggested that several species of Berberis are traded under the same vernacular name (Srivastava and Rawat 2013). Berberis lycium: A brown extract from its roots and lower parts of stem is called “Rasaunt” and is mixed with water for use as cooling agent or tonic. It is also used as

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an eye lotion. (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020). Root is used in jaundice and diarrhea. The bark of the root is used in diabetes, also used as tonic (Gilani et al. 2006). Root and leaves are used for Jaundice and diarrhea (Ahmad et al. 2017). The paste of bark and roots is used to treat fracture and headache. Locally, the dried root is used for the treatment of fractured bones and wounds healing and as general body tonic (Ahmad and Habib 2014). Dried root bark given orally as body tonic (Akhtar et al. 2013). Root of the plant is used for hepatitis, menorrhagia, chronic fever, and jaundice (Ahmad et al. 2014). Leaves and fruit decoction is used for dyspepsia (Wali et al. 2019a, b). Root is febrifuge, used in piles. Leaves are used in jaundice (Hussain et al. 2008). The plant is locally used as carminative, febrifuge, treating eye complaints, chronic diarrhea, piles, toothache and septic gums, jaundice, fencing and hedges, diabetics, and as tonic (Jan et al. 2017). The paste of root bark is externally applied on wounds. Powdered bark is mixed in water and the paste is applied on bone fracture. Crushed bark is soaked in water and the resultant extract is taken early morning to treat diabetes, scabies, boils, and pimples. The extract possesses cooling effect and seldom used in winter season (Ahmed et al. 2013). Root and stem barks are tonic. Decoction of root and stem barks are used against splenic trouble, as intestinal astringent, good for cough, chest, and throat trouble and a good application to boils. The paste of root bark is externally applied on wounds and on bone fracture. Crushed bark is soaked in water and the resultant extract is taken early morning to treat diabetes, scabies, boils, and pimples. The extract possesses cooling effect and seldom used in winter season (Amjad and Arshad 2014). Used to heal wounds (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018), conjunctivitis, and diabetes, eye infections, jaundice, fever and urinary infections (Sher et al. 2016), for bone fractures, pneumonia, headache, stomachic, arthritis, wound healing, to speed delivery (Wali et al. 2019a, b), and blood purification (Muhammad et al. 2019). Used for eye problems and piles (Joshi et al. 2010). In Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh used as cooling agent, to reduce stomach acidity, as coagulant, for constipation, diarrhea, intestinal problems, jaundice, liver ailments, piles, stomach-ache, wounds, antiseptic, for blemishes, throat pain, colds, cough, diabetes, dropsy, eczema, eye ailments, fever, as gastric tonic, for indigestion, irregular bowel moments, as laxative, for toothache, urinary problems wounds, as astringent, for boils, chest problems, and spleen trouble (Gairola et al. 2014). Berberis brandisiana: In Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh used for as tonic and for eye problems (Gairola et al. 2014). Berberis pachyacantha: In Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh to treat fever (Gairola et al. 2014). Berberis pseudumbellata: In Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh used for throat-ache and intestinal disorders (Gairola et al. 2014). Bereris ulicina: In Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh to remedy ringworm, as tonic, for throat problems, diarrhea, intestinal ulcers, lung diseases, eye problems, piles, as tonic, for bloody vomit, and lung diseases (Gairola et al. 2014). Berberis jamesoniana/Berberis vulgaris: In Tajikistan a root infusion is used to treat cardiovascular diseases, gastric diseases, neurasthenia, rheumatism, fevers, and a poultice is used for inflammatory processes of fractures and bruises. In northern

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Tajikistan, the roots are used to treat wounds, bone fractures, rheumatism, radiculitis, heart pain, and stomach aches. In Kazakhstan, the extract of young branches is used for headache. The fruit infusion acts as anticoagulant. In Uzbekistan, the leaves are used as cardiotonic and antipyretic. All over the region, the fruits are used as antipyretic, to relieve thirst. A decoction of the leaves is used to treat kidney stones, tuberculosis, chest pains, and headaches. An infusion of the fruits is used to treat constipation and wounds (Bussmann et al. 2020). Also used to treat high blood pressure and skin problems (Sher et al. 2016; Ur-Rahman et al. 2019). Berberis vulgaris: to treat jaundice, bone fractures, as anthelminthic and laxative (Ghorbani 2005). In Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh used intestinal ulcers, lung disease, diarrhea, and vomiting blood (Gairola et al. 2014). In Matalaya, as anthelminthic and as liver protectant (Tetik et al. 2013), in Pakistan for gastrointestinal problems and sore-throat (Kayani et al. 2015). Berberis orthobotrys: Used as sedative, bronchitis, for fever, and as analgesic (Majid et al. 2019). Berberis parkeriana: For bone fractures, jaundice, back-ache, as tonic, and high blood pressure (Majid et al. 2019). Berberis pseudumbellata: Used to remedy indigestion, typhoid, muscular pain, jaundice, and urinary problems (Kayani et al. 2015). Berberis rigidifolia: The roots are used to treat fevers, as a purgative, as a tonic, against excessive sweating, and especially the root is used to stop bleeding (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). Other species like Berberis glauca and Berberis goudotii are used for constipation, fevers, hemorrhages, as sudorific, to treat malaria, and as skin tonic. The fruit is used in refrigerating syrups (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). Berberis buceronis is used in for liver problems and hepatitis, respiratory and nervous system disorders, and gynecological problems. The plants show antibacterial properties and essentially no toxicity. Most material is used in mixtures with other species. Packages labeled as “Berberis vulgaris” are distributed to patients in the Peruvian social security health system, and Berberis species are widely sold in markets (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). Berberis holstii: Root decoction as remedy for constipation, as laxative, and for chest diseases (Kokwaro 2009).

Local Food Uses Berberis aristata and Berberis asiatica: Fruits are eaten (Dangol et al. 2017). Ripe fruits are eaten fresh and used to make alcoholic drinks. The inner bark of stem and roots are used to make yellow dye. The spiny branches are sometimes used to make fences around fields in villages (Manandhar 2002). Berberis rigidifolia: fruits can be eaten (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020).

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Fig. 7 Berberis vulgaris (Berberidaceae), fresh fruits in market, Gori, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Berberis jamesiana/Berberis vulgaris: The fruits are eaten fresh, and dried for use in sauces, for making jams and sweets, as well as spice (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2020; Bussmann 2017) (Fig. 7). Berberis holstii: The fruits are eaten fresh, and dried for use in sauces, for making jams and sweets, as well as spice (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Fedorov 1984). The fruits of Berberis brandisiana are elso eaten (Abbas et al. 2019).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Berberis rigidifolia Ecuador: The root is used as a dye because it contains yellow berberine. The plant is used as a living fence (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). Berberis jamesiana/Berberis vulgaris: The bark yields yellow, golden, dark violet, dark blue, and olive dyes for wool and silk (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2020; Bussmann 2017). Berberis lycium is also used for forage, and widely sold (Ahmad Jan et al. 2017; Ullah et al. 2019; Wali et al. 2019a, b), and is given to livestock for internal wounds (Ali et al. 2019). Berberis holstii has no use among the Samburu (Bussmann 2006). The bark of many species, however, yields yellow, golden, dark violet, dark blue, and olive dyes for wool and silk (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Fedorov 1984). Berberis balochistanica (Umair et al. 2019). The leaf and bark powder of the spiny branches of Berberis brandisiana are used as fence around gardens, house, and hut material. Whole plant is also used as fuel wood (Abbas et al. 2019) (Fig. 8).

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Fig. 8 Berberis lycium (Berberidaceae) root bark for sale in shop, Bahrain, Swat. (Photo Ikram Ur-Rahman & Hassan Sher)

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Bergenia ciliata Sternb. SAXIFRAGACEAE Hammad Ahmad Jan, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Wahid Hussain, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Bergenia ciliata Sternb.: Bergenia ciliata (Royle) A. Br. ex Engl.; Bergenia ligulata var. ciliata (Royle) Engl.; Bergenia thysanodes (Lindl.) C.K. Schneid.; Megasea ciliata Haw.; Saxifraga ciliata Royle; Saxifraga ligulata Wall.; Saxifraga pacumbis Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don. nom. inval.; Saxifraga thysanodes Lindl. H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan W. Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_36

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Local Names Bergenia ciliata: Baltistan: Schapur; Pashto: Ghat panra, Zakham Parna / ‫;ﺯﺧﻢ ﭘﺎﻧﺎ‬ Amchi: Gadhur; Arabian: Barghienia-mehdiyata, Junteyenah; Assamese: Patharkuchi; Bengali: Himasagara, Pahtarchuri, Patharkuchi, Patrankur; Chitrali: Besabur; Dolpali Nepali: Salipat, Silpari, Simtadi; English: Hairy bergenia, Rockfoil, Stone breaker; Garo: Singkhantha; German: Steinbrech; Gujrati: Pakhanbheda, Pashanbheda; Gurung: Padambet, Pakhanbed, Pakombet; Hindi: Dakachu, Dhoklumbo, Laoo-patra, Pakhanbhed, Pakhanbheda, Pakhenbhed, Pandamdawi, Patharchat, Patharcua, Sadpottar, Silparo, Silpbheda, Silphara, Silpheda; Gharwal: Pashandbhet, Syalmadi, Kaamal; Japanese: Yukinoshita; Kannada: Alepgaya, Hittaga, Hittulaka, Pahanbhedi, Pasanaberu; Kashmiri: Batweyaa, Pashanbhed; Kham: Gatik mukpo; Khasi: La Khowang; Kumaoni: Pakhanbhed, Patharchur; Magar: Haangpaat; Malayalam: Kallorvanchi, Kallurvanchi, Kallurvanni; Marathi: Pashanbheda; Meeteilon: Tatenpiu; Mizoram: Khamdamdawi, Pandamdawi; Nepalese: Dhungri ko jara, Pakanbadha, Pakhanbed, Silparo, Silpu, Simpate, Pakhanbed; Oriya: Pasanbhedi, Pashanabheda; Pahari: Butpawh; Pashto: Barmia, Batpia, Budpiah, But pewa, Gatpanra, Ghata pana, Kamargul, Maknar path, Qamar Panra, Shapur; Persian: Gashah; Punjabi: Batpia, Dharposh, Kachalu, Pashanbhed; Rai: Dhaebotam, Sediwakthosida; Sanskrit: Amabhedaka, Ashmabheda, Nagbhita, Pashanbheda, Silabheda; Sherpa: Chyucha, Chyurpu, Hyoma, Kopsokpa, Silviro; Sinahalese: Pahanabeya; Tamang: Bhramhendo, Bregyal, Pakhenved; Jammu: Kanpar, Sapdotri, Zakhme-e-hayat, Batpaia: Kashmir: Zakhmihayat, Palpati, Pahend, Korasdun; Ladakh: Palpout; Tamil: Sirupilai; Telugu: Kondapindi, Telanurupindi; Tibetan: A-ama-bhe-da, Gadhur, Ghatik mukpo; Unani: Mukha; Urdu: Kachalu, Pakhanabheda, Zakhkme-hayat; Walung: Kopsyokpa (Ahmad et al. 2018; Chauhan et al. 2012; Dutta 2007; Ghimire et al. 2008; Gurav and Gurav 2014; Khan and Kumar 2016; Lama et al. 2001; Manandhar 2002; Singh et al. 2018)

Botany and Ecology Bergenia ciliata: Herb, up to 35 cm tall. Leaves few, spreading, 4–11  3–10 cm, glabrous or hirsute, suborbicular to orbicular or broadly obovate, base cordate or sometimes rounded, apex rounded or sometimes abruptly acuminate; margin entire to occasionally denticulate at top, ciliate. Petiole 1–2( 5)cm long, glabrous or hirsute. Inflorescence a one-sided raceme or corymbose, often subtended by an ovate leafy bract; bract glabrous or sparsely ciliate; scape and inflorescence greenish or pink tinged. Peduncle up to 10 cm long; flowers pink to purplish, pedicellate. Sepals about 7 mm long, oblong. Petals 10  4 mm, unguiculate, limb orbicular. Filaments about 1 cm long, pink to red. Carpels 2. Styles about 7 mm long. Carpels and styles green or pinkish. Capsule 13  6 mm, including styles. Seeds elongated, about 1 mm

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long, brown, minutely tuberculate. Moist rocky ledges, shady places, 1000–3500 m in Pakistan. Distributed in Nepal, NE India, China, Kashmir, and northern parts of Pakistan. Locally found in the high altitude of Swat Dir, Chitral, Gilgt, and Hazara Division. Harvesting time: September to March (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020). The species is highly collected (Kunwar et al. 2016, 2018, 2019) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3). Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb. forma ciliata: Leaves sometimes pubescent above, but always below. The species is found in Quercus forest. Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb. forma ligulata: Leaves glabrous on both surfaces. The species is found in Quercus and Pinus forests (Akiyama et al. 2012).

Fig. 1 Bergenia ciliata (Saxifragaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 2 Bergenia ciliata (Saxifragaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

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Fig. 3 Bergenia ciliata (Saxifragaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Phytochemistry A total of 95 phytochemical compounds have been reported from this plant especially flavonoids, bergenin, tannins, phenolics, alkaloids, gallic acid, and glycosides (Adhikary et al. 2011; Aggarwal et al. 2014; Agnihotri et al. 2014; Ahmed et al. 2016; Ali et al. 2018; Bagul et al. 2003; Bhandari et al. 2019; Byahatti et al. 2010; Chauhan et al. 2012, 2000; Dhalwal et al. 2008; Dutta 2007; Jani et al. 2013; Muzaffar et al. 2020; Patel and Savadi 2014; Pokhrel et al. 2014; Rafi et al. 2017; Rathee et al. 2010; Sadat et al. 2015; Shankar et al. 2016; Shrestha et al. 2015; Shrestha and Pant 2011; Singh et al. 2007, 2016; Srivastava et al. 2015a, b, 2013; Srivastava and Rawat 2007; Ullah et al. 2013; Verma et al. 2014, 2019; Wagle et al. 2016; Walter et al. 2013; Yousaf et al. 2018; Zafar et al. 2019). Other frequently reported compounds are phenols, saponins, carbohydrate, steroids, reducing sugar, terpenoid, (+)-catechin, aminoacids, coumarins, gallicin, protein, β-Sitosterol, cardiac glycosides, catechin, diterpenes, and fatty acids (Adhikary et al. 2011; Bhandari et al. 2019; Byahatti et al. 2010; Dhalwal et al. 2008; Jani et al. 2013; Muzaffar et al. 2020; Patel and Savadi 2014; Pokhrel et al. 2014; Rafi et al. 2017; Rathee et al. 2010; Shankar et al. 2016; Shrestha et al. 2015; Singh et al. 2016; Srivastava et al. 2015b; Ullah et al. 2013; Venkatadri et al. 2010; Verma et al. 2014, 2019; Walter et al. 2013; Yousaf et al. 2018). Also ( )-3-Ogalloylcatechin, ( )-3-O-galloylcatechin, ( )-3-O-galloylepicatechin, [E,Z]-2,4decadienal, [E]-4-hepten-2-one, 11-O-galloylbergenin, 2,4-dimethyl-3-pentanone, 2,4-hexadienal, 2,4-nonadienal, 2-ethyl hexanol, 2-methyl butanoic acid, 2-methyl-1-propanol, 2-nitropropane, 2-pentanol, 2-pentanone, 2-phenylisopropanol, 3-methyl butanol, 3-methyl-4-hexen-2-one, 3-pentanol, 5,6-dihydro-2pyranone, 5-[2-propenyl]-1,3-benzodioxole, acetic acid, afzelechin, albumin, anthocyanins, ash, camphor, decanoic acid, emodins, epicatechin, ethanol, ethyl acetate,

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glucose, glycosaponins, heptanal, heptanoic acid, heptanol, hexanal, hexanenitril, hexanoic acid, hexanol, isobutyrophenone, leucoanthocyanins, leucocyanidin, limonene, linalool, methyl cinnamate, methyl gallate, methyl nonanoate, minerals, morin, mucilage, nonanoic acid, octanoic acid, octanol, pentanoic acid, pentanol, p-hydroxybenzoyl bergenin, polyphenolics, polysaccharides, pyrogallol, quinone, rutin, starch, sterols, tannic acid, trapezoid, vitamins, α-phenylethyl alcohol, α-terpineol, β-caryophyllene, β-phellandrene, and δ-hexalactone (Ali et al. 2018; Bagul et al. 2003; Bhandari et al. 2008; Dutta 2007; Gyawali and Kim 2012; Muzaffar et al. 2020; Sadat et al. 2015; Shankar et al. 2016; Srivastava et al. 2015b; Wagle et al. 2016; Zafar et al. 2019).

Local Medicinal Uses Bergenia ciliata: The species is used as tonic and remedy for fever, diarrhea, and pulmonary infections. The rhizome is crushed and used in all kinds of ulcers mainly stomach and duodenal and also in internal infections. It is also anticancerous (Gilani et al. 2006). Rhizome mixed in milk and sugar is used in colon cancer and muscular pains daily before breakfast. Powdered rhizome is applied over wounds. Powdered rhizomes mixed with honey are given to the children when teething. A powdered rhizome is mixed with wheat flour and sugar is added and cooked in “desi ghee.” This “halwa” is eaten as tonic (Shah and Khan 2006a, b). Leaf juice is used for diarrhea and asthma/breathing problems, and seed paste is used for urinary problems, ophthalmia, and boils (Bano et al. 2014). The root powder is given along with desi ghee in diabetes and skin diseases. The same is used for reducing blood cholesterol (Ahmed et al. 2013). Latex is applied externally for gum diseases, and decoction of rhizome is used in kidney stones (Khan et al. 2013a, b). The root paste is applied on skin as sunscreen and to treat skin diseases (Shah and Hussain 2012). Leaves are used for discharge of pus in animals and relief for muscular pain (Hamayun et al. 2006). Rhizome is used as general body tonic, stomachache, and duodenal ulcers (Haq et al. 2011). Plant rhizome and bark is used for fever, diarrhea, cough, cold, asthma, wounds, dysentery, urinary troubles, and earaches (Kayani et al. 2015a, b). Rhizome is used as antidiabetic and expectorant (Ali et al. 2011) and also used to treat abdominal problems, cuts and wounds, leucorrhea, stomach ailments, and stones (Singh et al. 2017), as well as diarrhea (Palit et al. 2016; Rajbhandari et al. 2007), fever, digestive problems, and skin diseases (Malik et al. 2015), urinary problems, cough, cold, asthma, wounds, and earache (Kayani et al. 2015a, b). Bergenia ciliata is very popular for its wide ethnomedicinal uses most commonly in rural areas of Nepal, India, and Pakistan. Leaves and rhizomes of this plant are widely used for the treatment of fever, diarrhea, kidney stone, wounds, dysentery, and urinary trouble (Abbasi et al. 2010; Adhikary et al. 2011; Adnan et al. 2014; Bhattarai 2018; Bhattarai et al. 2006; Chowdhary et al. 2009; Dutta 2007; Hasan et al. 2013; Idrisi et al. 2010; Joshi and Joshi 2001; Juyal and Ghildiyal 2013; Kala 2005; Khan et al. 2014, 2013a, b; Kumari et al. 2012; Kunwar and Adhikari 2005; Lama et al. 2001; Manandhar 2002; Mehra et al. 2014; Nand and Naithani 2018;

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O’Neil et al. 2017; Pant et al. 2009; Pant and Samant 2010; Pradhan and Badola 2008; Qureshi et al. 2009; Radha 2019; Rai et al. 2000; Rai and Lalramnghinglova 2010; Rajbhandari et al. 2001; Saha et al. 2011; Samal et al. 2010; Shah and Khan 2006a, b; Shaheen et al. 2012; Sharma et al. 2001; Sharma and Sood 2013; Shrestha et al. 2016; Shrestha and Dhillion 2003; Sigdel et al. 2013; Singh and Rawat 2011; Singh et al. 2012; Uniyal et al. 2006; Watanabe et al. 2005). It is also used as anticancerous, antiscorbutic, aphrodisiac, carminative, diuretic, hair tonic, laxative, tonic, and also used to treat arthritis, asthma, astringent, backache, bladder stone, body ache, boils, burns, cold, cough, cuts, diabetes, digestive disorder, earache, eye pain, fracture, gall stone, indigestion, inflammation, intestine disease, liver disorder, muscular pain, ophthalmia, oral inflammation, parasites, piles, pulmonary infection, renal infections, rheumatism, roundworm infestation, septic pimples developed on the head of new born baby, stomachache, swollen joints, tonsils, toothache, ulcers, and vomiting (Adhikary et al. 2011; Adnan et al. 2014; Begum et al. 2014; Bhandari et al. 2008; Bhattarai 2018; Bhattarai et al. 2006; Chowdhary et al. 2009; Dutta 2007; Gairola et al. 2014; Gilani et al. 2014; Hasan et al. 2013; Idrisi et al. 2010; Jacquet et al. 2014; Joshi and Joshi 2001; Kala 2005; Khan et al. 2014; Kumari et al. 2012; Kunwar et al. 2013a, b; Lama et al. 2001; Manandhar 2002; Mehra et al. 2014; O’Neil et al. 2017; Pal et al. 2015; Pant and Samant 2010; Pradhan and Badola 2008; Qureshi et al. 2009; Radha 2019; Rai et al. 2000; Rai and Lalramnghinglova 2010; Rajbhandari et al. 2009, 2001; Shah and Khan 2006a, b; Shaheen et al. 2012; Sharma et al. 2001; Sharma and Sood 2013; Shrestha et al. 2016; Shrestha and Dhillion 2003; Sigdel et al. 2013; Singh and Rawat 2011; Singh et al. 2012; Watanabe et al. 2005). Used for eye problems (Abbas et al. 2019). Also used for treatment of gastritis and gallstones (Kunwar & Bussmann 2009, Kunwar et al. 2008, 2009, 2013a, b, 2015). Some less frequently reported uses are for ache, after childbirth, allergy, analgesic, antispasmodic, appendicitis, bleeding, bile disorder, blindness, blood health, bronchitis, calculus disease, cardiac problems, chronic ulcers, colic, colitis, colon cancer, constipation, cutaneous infections, delivery, demulcent, dysuria, ethno-veterinary medicine, gastrointestinal problems, gum disease, headache, heart disease, hemorrhage, infection, lactation, liver complaints, lung disease, lymphatic system, maternity problem, menstruation, mouth sores, pain, painful urination, pneumonia, postpartum complication, pregnancy, respiratory problems, sexually transmitted infection, skin diseases, spleen enlargement, sprain, stimulant, stomach disease, stone, teething, throat infection, tiredness, tumors, vertigo, and vital tonic (Adnan et al. 2014; Bhattarai 2018; Bhattarai et al. 2006; Chowdhary et al. 2009; Dutta 2007; Jacquet et al. 2014; Joshi and Joshi 2001; Khan et al. 2013a, b, 2014; Kumari et al. 2012; Kunwar and Adhikari 2005; Lama et al. 2001; Manandhar 2002; Nand and Naithani 2018; O’Neil et al. 2017; Pant and Samant 2010; Parajuli 2013; Rai et al. 2000; Rai and Bhujel 2012; Shah and Khan 2006a, b; Shrestha et al. 2016; Shrestha and Dhillion 2003; Watanabe et al. 2005).

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Local Food Uses Bergenia ciliata: The species is used for culinary purposes, and used as vegetable in India and Pakistan (Adnan et al. 2014; O’Neil et al. 2017; Pant and Samant 2010; Sharma and Sood 2013). Pickle of this plant is prepared in the kitchens of India and Nepal (Manandhar 2002; Sharma and Sood 2013). Tea prepared from dry leaves is drunk in India (Ballabha et al. 2013).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Bergenia ciliata: The species is used as fodder as well as fuel plant (Adnan et al. 2014; Begum et al. 2014) in Pakistan. Bergenia ciliata is one of the commercial medicinal plant products harvested in Nepal (Bhattarai and Ghimire 2006a; Olsen 2005). In a study carried out in western Nepal, it was observed that 70.1 tons of this plant was traded from Baitadi district at the rate of NRs. 25.6 per kg in fiscal year 2014 (Pyakurel et al. 2017). For sustainable harvesting of Bergenia ciliata, the rhizomes are collected before flowering from the mature individuals during September to March, leaving immature rhizomes in soil Fig. 4 Bergenia cordifolia (Saxifragaceae), garden, La Paz, Bolivia. (Photo Rainer W. Bussmann)

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(Khanal 2003). 10–15 cm long rhizomes should be left inside the soil while harvesting (Shrestha and Shrestha 2004). The harvestable amount is 70–80% of the mother’s stock (Bhattarai and Ghimire 2006b). Many species, including Bergenia ciliata and Bergenia cordifolia are frequentlly used in horticulture (Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8).

Fig. 5 Bergenia cordifolia (Saxifragaceae), garden, La Paz, Bolivia. (Photo Rainer W. Bussmann)

Fig. 6 Bergenia ciliata (Saxifragaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

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Fig. 7 Bergenia cordifolia (Saxifragaceae), garden, La Paz, Bolivia. (Photo Rainer W. Bussmann)

Fig. 8 Bergenia ciliata (Saxifragaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Haider Ali)

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Betula utilis D. Don BETULACEAE Narayan Ghimire, Ripu M. Kunwar, Wahid Hussain, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Betula utilis D. Don: Betula albosinensis var. septentrionalis C.K. Schneid., Betula bhojpattra Lindl. ex Wall., Betula bhojpattra var. latifolia Regel, Betula jacquemontii Spach, Betula utilis var. jacquemontii (Spach) H.J.P. Winkl., Betula utilis var. prattii Burkill N. Ghimire Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Tribhuvan, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] W. Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_37

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Local Names Betula utilis: Nepali: Bhojpatra; Gilgit-Baltistan: Jonji; Karakorum: Staqpa; Sikkim: Bhojpatra; Jammu: Bhojpatra, Bhuz, Bhujapatra; Kashmir: Burz, Buri; Ladakh: Towa; English: Himalayan birch; Sanskrit: Bhurja, Bahulavalkalah, Bahupata, Bhurjapatraka; Tamil: Bhurjjamaram, Purchcham; Telugu: Bhujapatri; Kannada: Bhuyapathra; Hindi: Bhojpatra; Malayalam: Bhujapatram, Bhurjjamaram; Lepcha: Sanglikung

Botany and Ecology Betula utilis: Trees to 35 m tall; bark dark red-brown, exfoliating in thin flakes. Branches red-brown, glabrous; branchlets brown, densely resinous glandular and pubescent. Petiole 0.8–2 cm; leaf blade ovate, ovate-elliptic, or oblong, 4–9  2.5–6 cm, abaxially densely resinous punctate and pubescent, bearded in axils of lateral veins, adaxially densely villous when young, base rounded or subcordate, margin irregularly and doubly mucronate-serrate, apex acuminate or caudate-acuminate; lateral veins 8–14 on each side of midvein. Female inflorescence 1 or 2 or 3 in a raceme, pendulous, oblong-cylindric, 3–5 cm  7–12 mm; peduncle 0.5–1.5 cm; bracts 5–8 mm, pubescent, ciliate, 3-lobed, middle lobe lanceolate, lateral lobes ovate, about 1/3 as long as middle lobe. Nutlet obovate, 2–3  1.5–2 mm, with membranous wings ca. as wide as nutlet. Flowering June to July; fruiting July to August (Wu et al. 1994–2013). Heavily used and regarded as endangered (Jan et al. 2017). The plant prefers acid, neutral, and basic (alkaline) soils. It can grow in semishade (light woodland) or no shade. It also requires moist soil (Bhattacharyya et al. 2006). Its therapeutic effects constitute antiseptic, aromatic, carminative, and contraceptive. Parts of the plant, including the fungal growth (bhurja-granthi) have also long been used in local traditional medicine (Singh et al. 2012) (Figs. 1, 2, 3 and 4). Betula utilis is a long-lived species which survives more than 400 years (Bhattacharyya et al. 2006). It helps to maintain the fragile ecosystem of the Himalayas by managing soil erosion and creating bio-shield for the rest of the forests and sub-alpine meadows immediately below the treeline zone (Kala 1998). B. utilis, a valuable timber tree of commercial importance commonly found in temperate broad-leaved forests at high altitudes (3500–4200 m), has its distribution range from Inner Mongolia north of China to Yunnan province in the south and over the Himalayan region of Afghanistan, Bhutan, India, and Nepal (Figs. 5, 6 and 7). It is a broad-leaved angiosperm tree species in the Himalayas, which dominates an extensive area at subalpine altitudes (Zobel and Singh 1997). B. utilis (bhojpatra birch) forms treeline vegetation all along the Nepal Himalayas, and extensive stands of this species can be found on northern shady slopes and ravines (TISC 2002). Betula species show a high freezing tolerance (Sakai and Larcher 1987) which enables them to form a treeline in the Himalayas (Zobel and Singh 1997; TISC 2002) as well as in the Scandinavian region (Cairns and Moen 2004).

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Fig. 1 Betula utilis (Betulaceae), natural habitat of Betula utilis at Solukhumbu, Sagarmatha National Park, 3600 m, May 2010. (Photo N P Ghimire and LN Khanal)

Phytochemistry Its phytochemical analysis shows that this species is rich in alkaloids and carbohydrates which show antibacterial activity (Kumaraswamy et al. 2008). Betulin, acetyloheanolic acid, lupeol, oleanolic acid, betulinic acid, lupenone, sitosterol, methyl betulonate, and methyl betulate are the chemical compounds which are extracted from its bark. The essential oil of B. utilis bark shows the presence of geranic acid, selenol, linalool, sesquiphellandrene, champacol, and 1,8-cineole. Fatty acid constituents present in the Betula utilis bark are linoleic (17.66%), myristic (15.9%), palmitic (9.09%), and oleic (11.30%) acid (Mishra et al. 2016). Karachicrustics (triterpenoid) is aromatic and has antiseptic properties (Barnes et al. 1974). The compound betulin shows anticancer activity by suppressing the growth of malignant melanoma and cancer of the liver and lungs (Kikuzaki and Nakatani 1993). The phytochemical constituent of B. utilis is betulinic acid which shows many biological activities. Now, it has been proven that it has tremendous anticancer properties. Thus, this plant plays a significant role in the prevention and treatment of cancer and various other diseases by having various pharmacological activities like antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-HIV (Singh et al. 2012).

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Fig. 2 Betula utilis (Betulaceae), forest in Gaurishankar Conservation Area, Nepal. (Photo Lila Sharma)

Local Medicinal Uses Betula utilis: The bark of B. utilis is widely used in the Ayurveda and Unani systems of medicine in the treatment of various ailments and diseases such as skin infections, diseases of the blood and ear, convulsions, wounds, bronchitis, leprosy, etc. The leaves of the plant show efficacy in treating urinary tract infections and kidney and bladder stones (Khan et al. 2011). The paste of the bark was used to treat wounds, burns, and cuts. The juice of the bark was used to treat fever, cough and cold, internal bleeding, diarrhea, bronchitis, and jaundice. Leaf decoction is taken as diuretics. Bark paper is used to release fear and cure fever (Kunwar and Adhikari 2005). The fungal growth (bhurja-granthi) has also long been used in local traditional medicine. Plant also provides food, gums, and resins (Zaki et al. 2011). It helps in the treatment of asthma, cold, malaria, cough, gout, and rheumatism (Kumar et al. 2015). It is also used on burns, cuts, ear complaints, jaundice, and wounds (Haq 2012). In Ladakh, Kashmir and Jammu used to treat anemia and other blood diseases, as antiseptic, and as carminative for cough, ear ailments, jaundice, hysteria, obesity, rheumatism, leprosy, bronchitis, and burns (Gairola et al. 2014). The bark is used to treat bacterial infections, skin diseases, bronchitis, cough, cuts, wounds and burns, and sore throat, as astringent, and also to ease delivery and to expel the placenta after birth (Kunwar

Betula utilis D. Don Fig. 3 Betula utilis (Betulaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

Fig. 4 Betula utilis (Betulaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

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Fig. 5 Betula litwinowii (Betulaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

et al. 2010; Wali et al. 2019). Betula utilis serves as antiseptic (Kunwar et al. 2013; Tamang et al. 2017) and as tonic and is used to treat convulsions (Palit and Banerjee 2016) and rheumatism (Singh et al. 2017). Betula litwinowii/Betula platyphylla: A decoction and alcoholic extracts of buds and leaves are used as diuretic and choleretic for edemas, diseases of the kidney, and inflammation of the gall bladder and liver. Decoction is used as anthelminthic as well as poultice in case of bad healing wounds and ulcers (Damirov et al. 1988). Birch catkins, young shoots, leaves, and sap are used medicinally. Traditional medicine recommends birch sap as a diuretic and as a treatment for scurvy, tonsillitis, bronchitis, and lung diseases, and also for blood cleansing (Kopaliani 2013). In Zemo Tsageri (Lechkhumi), broth made of birch buds is given to the sick with lung diseases, especially with tuberculosis. Broth or tincture made of bark was used as mouthwash to heal toothache and also scurvy. A leaf and bark extract in water is used against dandruff and hair loss. Leaf tea is used to cure colds and as panacea. The bark is chewed for toothache. The catkins are applied to wounds, and the stem sap helps against goiter (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017; Tang et al. 2020).

Local Food Uses Betula utilis. Betula litwinowii/Betula platyphylla: Sap extracted from the stems can be drunk (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017; Tang et al. 2020).

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Fig. 6 Betula litwinowii (Betulaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Betula utilis: Many insects and beetles live in bark and roots of Betula which provides them niche (Khanday and Buhroo 2015). The bark of Himalayan birch was used as paper for writing lengthy scriptures and texts in Sanskrit and other scripts. The papery bark of B. utilis is also used for making rooftop and umbrella cover (Kala et al. 2004) and baskets for protecting breads from molding. Betula utilis trees are also used for ornamental purpose and beautification of landscape. It is also used in religious Hindu ceremonies (Haq 2012). A portion of papery bark is kept in indoor spaces to get harmony in families (Kunwar and Adhikari 2005). They are also real multipurpose trees in Gilgit-Baltistan (Abbas et al. 2019) used for firewood, timber, and fodder (Singh et al. 2017; Wali et al. 2019). Being a long-lived tree species, at present, it is being used for understating dendroclimatology by establishing its relationships with climate and glacial fluctuations (Dawadi et al. 2013). Leaves are used as fodder and shoots for construction (Manandhar 2002). The local people of its distribution range, traditionally, have been using Betula utilis as a valuable timber for construction of houses and making local bridges. It has hard and dense wood. The high-altitude pastoral communities use its wood for firewood and construction of huts during their stay in the high altitude of the Himalaya. The foliage is used for fodder. The widespread use of this species for firewood and fodder has caused serious habitat degradation and

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Fig. 7 Betula litwinowii (Betulaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

population decline, urging participatory conservation measures. The plant falls into different categories locally according to its percentage of reduction in population size (Ahmad et al. 2012), which considered this plant to be endangered. Betula utilis used excessively in the treatment of malaria, cold, rheumatism, and asthma is placed in the category of critically endangered (Haq 2012). Excessive use for fuel and medicinal purpose considered Betula utilis as a threatened plant (Zaki et al. 2011). B. utilis has been evaluated but not qualified for any category, thus considered to be of the least concern under the IUCN category. Realizing the decline in its population, it has been placed under threatened category locally. However, the threat categories assigned to this species vary in different countries and within different states of the same country (Anonymous 2010) (Fig. 8). Betula litwinowii/Betula platyphylla: A dye solution is prepared from bark, wood, and roots to obtain red-yellow and from leaves for grey-green and greenish-blue color and their shades. The solution is used for dyeing wool, cotton, and silk yarn as well as products from them. The wood is used to make lots of tools, including beer ladles, bowls, candlesticks, cups, dippers, mortars, plows, spinning wheels, spoons, tool handles, vessels to store alcohol and pickles, walking sticks, and yokes. It is also used for making carts, furniture, and sleds, and the branches make good brooms (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017; Tang et al. 2020) (Fig. 9).

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Fig. 8 Betula utilis (Betulaceae) bark used to make a cover to protect bread from molding, Changru, Darchula. (Photo Ripu Kunwar)

Fig. 9 Betula litwinowii (Betulaceae), brooms, Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Manandhar NP. Plants and people of Nepal. Portland: Timber press; 2002. Mishra T, Arya RK, Meena S, Joshi P, Pal M, Meena B. Isolation, characterization and anticancer potential of cytotoxic Triterpenes from Betula utilis bark. PLoS One. 2016;11(7):e0159430. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0159430. Palit D, Banerjee A. Traditional uses and conservative lifestyle of Lepcha tribe through sustainable bioresource utilization - case studies from Darjeeling and North Sikkim, India. Int J Conserv Sci. 2016;7(3):735–52. Sakai A, Larcher W. Frost survival of plants: response and adaptation to freezing stress. Ecol Stud. 1987;62 Singh S, Yadav S, Sharma PA, Thapliyal A. Betula utilis: a potential herbal medicine. Int J Pharm Biol Arch. 2012;3:493–9. Singh S, Youssouf M, Malik ZA, Bussmann RW. Sacred groves: myths, beliefs and biodiversity conservation a case study from Western Himalaya, India. Int J Ecol. 2017:Article ID 3828609. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/3828609. Tamang M, Pal K, Kumar Rai S, Kalam A, Rehan Ahmad S. Ethnobotanical survey of threatened medicinal plants of West Sikkim. Int J Bot Stud. 2017;2(6):V 116–25. Tang Y, Liu B, Bussmann RW. Betula platyphylla Sukaczev. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions Central Asia and Altai: Springer International Publishing International Publishing; 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-31977087-1_28-1. TISC (Tree Improvement and Silviculture Component). Forest and vegetation types in Nepal TISC document: Department of Forest; 2002. Wali R, Rahman K, Raja NI, Qureshi R, Bussmann RW, Mashwani ZUR. A quantitative medico botanical expedition of fairy meadows National Park, Diamir, Gilgit Baltistan, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;1835 https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.35.1-30. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Zaki M, Sofi MS, Kaloo ZA. A reproducible protocol for raising clonal plants from leaf segments excised from mature trees of Betula utilis a threatened tree species of Kashmir Himalayas. Int Multidiscip J. 2011;1:7–13. Zobel DB, Singh SP. Himalayan forests and ecological generalizations. Bioscience. 1997;47:735–56.

Bidens biternata (Lour.) Merr. & Sherff ASTERACEAE Laxmi Khaniya, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Bidens biternata (Lour.) Merr. & Sherff: Bidens biternata var. abyssinica (Sch. Bip.) Sherff; Bidens biternata f. abyssinica Sherff; Bidens biternata var. biternata; Bidens biternata f. biternata; Bidens biternata var. glabrata (Vatke) Sherff; Bidens biternata f. lasiocarpa Sherff; Bidens biternata var. mayebarae (Kitam.) Kitam.

L. Khaniya Center Department of Botany, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_38

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Local Names Bidens biternata: India: Achirchitta, Phutjom, Kerrai, Kathori, Kuro, Indonesia: Agedi, Ketul; Thai: Konchem, Chinese: Jinzhan, Yinpan; Urdu: Dipmal, Phutium; English: Yellow flowered black jack, Spanish needles, black jack, five leaved blackjack, beggar ticks (Zahara et al. 2015).

Botany and Ecology Bidens biternata: Annuals. Stems erect, 30–150 cm tall, subtetragonal, loosely crisp pilose, branched in upper portion. Leaves cauline; median leaves opposite, petiole 3–5 cm, blade 9–15 cm, prominently soft pubescent on both surfaces, once or twice divided into pinnate leaflets, terminal segment ovate, shortly acuminate, rather prominently toothed, lateral segments ovate, sometimes lower one pinnatifid; upper leaves gradually smaller, opposite or alternate, bipinnately parted. Capitula radiate or discoid, 7–10 mm in diam.; peduncle 1.5–5.5 cm; phyllaries 8–10, 1-seriate, herbaceous, linear, 3–6.5 mm, acute; outer chaff calycular bracts 5–6 mm, margin hyaline. Ray florets 0–5, sterile; lamina yellow, ca. 5.5  2.5– 3 mm, tube 1.2–1.5 mm. Disk florets bisexual, fertile; corolla 4–5.5 mm, tube 1.2–2 mm. Achenes linear, 9–19  ca. 1 mm, compressed, 4-angled, shortly strigose; pappus awns 3 or 4, 3–4 mm. Flowering September–November (Shi et al. 2011; Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4). Native to Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, Sudan, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Zaire, Ghana, Nigeria, Angola, Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Arabian Peninsula, China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Indonesia, Philippines, New Caledonia, and Solomon Islands. It grows at elevations between 1100 and 2000 m in moist and shady place in the forest and in Farms, village, along the roadside, cultivated areas and along the bank of small channels. There are eight species of Bidens presence in Nepal (Press et al. 2000; Bhatt et al. 2012; Zahara et al. 2015; Satish and Visahal 2018) (Figs. 5, 6, 7, and 8).

Phytochemistry Bidens biternata is rich in phytochemicals. It contains sesquiterpenes, germacrene-D, β-caryophyllene, β-carotene, isolated sugar, glycosides, flavonoids, alkaloids, phenolics, tannins, steroids, terpenoids, coumarins, saponins, anthraquinones, phlobatannins, iridoids, calcium, magnesium iron, manganese, aluminum, zinc, and copper. It has to have wide range of nutritional factors like carbohydrates, proteins, reducing sugar, amino acids, free fatty acids, crude fiber, lipids, and vitamins A and E. Anti-nutritional factors like phytic acid, total phenol, tannic acid, etc. (Tapas et al. 2008; Sukumaran et al. 2012; Swapna et al. 2014; Zahara et al. 2015; Satish and Visahal 2018).

Bidens biternata (Lour.) Merr. & Sherff Fig. 1 Bidens sp. (Asteraceae), Nepal. (Photo Man D. Bhatt)

Fig. 2 Bidens sp. (Asteraceae), Nepal. (Photo Man D. Bhatt)

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384 Fig. 3 Bidens sp. (Asteraceae), Nepal. (Photo Man D. Bhatt)

Fig. 4 Bidens biternata (Asteraceae), Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

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Bidens biternata (Lour.) Merr. & Sherff Fig. 5 Bidens pilosa (Asteraceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 6 Bidens pilosa (Asteraceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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386 Fig. 7 Bidens pilosa (Asteraceae), fruits, Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 8 Bidens pilosa (Asteraceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Local Medicinal Uses Bidens biternata: It is traditionally being used as a source of medicine. Botanical studies and records of the traditional use of B. biternata are used in over 26 diseases (Zahara et al. 2015). It has been used in traditional medicine as anti-inflammatory, antimalarial, anti-allergic, anti-ulcer, antidiabetic, anticancer, and antibacterial agent. Whole body plant is useful in appendicitis, sore throat, snakebite, diarrhea (Ishaque 2018), cold, ulcers, leprosy, toothache, fever, cough, asthma, liver infection, cutaneous infections, against inflammation, malaria, digestive disorders, detoxification, respiratory tract infections, blood stasis effect, acute jaundice, hepatitis, gastroenteritis, malaria, rheumatoid joint pain, topical cure boils, traumatic swellings, pain, and many others (Sandra et al. 2000; Masako and Yoshiyuki 2006; Parimalakrishnan et al. 2006; Maicon et al. 2008; Durre et al. 2011; Zahara et al. 2015; Satish and Visahal 2018). Leaf juice of B. biternata is used for the treatment of Leprosy at initial stages, lactating mothers, and cuts (Prajapati et al. 2003). In India Bidens pilosa is used for cough and bronchitis, while Bidens bipinnata and Bidens biternata are used to treat leprosy and cuts, for wounds, and the seeds as appetizer (Singh et al. 2002). Bidens pseudocosmos: The seeds are used as remedy for fever (Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2020). Bidens laevis: The infusion is used for lung, gallbladder, and bladder diseases (Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2020). Bidens pilosa: The main medicinal use of this plant is to reduce blood sugar levels, that is, cure diabetes. The decoction of the whole plant is used to treat diseases of the liver, rebound of bile, indigestion, and diarrhea. The leaves prepared in infusion are used for the treatment of dysentery, diarrhea, flu, stomach pain, canker sores, angina pectoris, cough, fevers, diabetes, edema, hepatitis, hypertension, and gastroduodenal ulcers. It has also been used against inflammation and as a diuretic. Externally, the infusion of the leaves is used against fungi of the skin, to heal wounds and sores, as an antiseptic, and to relieve pain in the bones and joints. The whole plant is used to treat diarrhea, indigestion, urinary infections, as diuretic, and to remedy witchcraft; whole plant, stems, leaves, and flowers are used to treat diabetes, gallbladder, and liver problems; stems, leaves, and flowers are used as emenagogue. The whole fresh plant is used to treat liver, infections, and diarrhea. The bath with the infusion of the flowers is used to treat skin allergies. The leaves, in infusion, are used to heal wounds. The juice of the flower is used to treat nerve conditions. The flower macerated with escancel (Amaranthaceae), geranium (Geranium sp.), “Cana yuyu” (Sonchus sp.), and “sacha gola” (Rumex sp.) is used to treat gangrene. Root and buds are used to treat “cold inflammation” (sudden cooling of the body). It serves as a medicine to treat “heat inflammation.” The root is taken in an infusion to calm vaginal bleeding. The flowers, in infusion, are used to treat postpartum conditions and for those affected by the bladder. The leaves are used to treat angina. The infusion of the petals is drunk to treat liver and heart conditions. It serves as a diuretic, to treat rheumatism, osteo-articular and back pain, throat conditions, and canker sores. The whole plant, fresh or dried, is used to treat gallbladder,

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kidney inflammation, inflammation (general), kidneys, prostate, hair loss, diabetes, liver, blood, and heart. More recently used to treat diabetes and cancer, and bacterial and fungal infections due to its antibacterial properties, and low toxicity (PaniaguaZambrana et al. 2020). Used as anthelminthic, coagulant, and to treat diarrhea and stomach problems (Njoroge et al. 2004). In Kenya the species is used for respiratory disorders (Bussmann 2006), to improve fertility (Njoroge and Bussmann 2009), and to treat nosebleeds (Njoroge and Bussmann 2006). Bidens macrocarpa has medicinal uses in Ethiopia (Yineger et al. 2008).

Local Food Uses Bidens biternata: It is a wild edible plant rich in macronutrients and micronutrients. Leaves of the plant are used for combustion. Its young shoots are eaten raw or steamed. In times of scarcity of staple food, local communities use such plants as vegetable (Priyadi et al. 2010; Sukumaran et al. 2012; Zahara et al. 2015; Satish and Visahal 2018). Bidens laevis: Used as infusion/tea mixed with cinnamon (Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2020).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Bidens biternata: The young shoots are eaten as vegetable (Dangol et al. 2017). Bidens laevis: Used for forage (Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2020). Bidens pilosa: The young shoots are eaten as vegetable (Dangol et al. 2017).

References Bhatt JR, Singh JS, Singh SP, Tripathi RS, Kohli RK. Invasive alien plants: an ecological appraisal for the Indian subcontinent. Wallingford: CABI; 2012. Bussmann RW. Ethnobotany of the Samburu of Mt. Nyiru, South Turkana, Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:35. Dangol DR, Maharjan KL, Maharjan SK, Acharya AK. Wild edible plants in Nepal. In: Joshi BK, Bahadur KCH, Acharya A, editors. Conservation and utilization of agricultural plant genetic resources of Nepal. Dhulikhel: NAGRC; 2017. p. 390–407. Durre S, Sami U, Muhammad AR, Uzma S, Asma Y, Sadia G, Naeem A. Acetylcholine esterase and antioxidant potential of some members of Asteraceae and Euphorbiaceae. J Med Plants Res. 2011;5(32):7011–6. Ishaque M. Identification and characterization of antioxidant and cytotoxic activities of selected medicinal plants of Gallyat region, Pakistan. Rawalpindi: Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi; 2018. Maicon RK, Karina BF, Tatiana S, Luiz PLW, Maria HR, Edlayne G, Joana DF, Danilo WF, Rozangela CP. Study of the antitumor potential of Bidens pilosa (Asteraceae) used in Brazilian folk medicine. J Ethnopharmacol. 2008;117:69–75. Masako H, Yoshiyuki S. Antinflammatory and antiallergic activity of Bidens pilosa L. J Health Sci. 2006;52:711–7.

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Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Traditional management of ear, nose and throat ENT diseases in Central Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:54. Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Ethnotherapeutic management of sexually transmitted diseases STDs and reproductive health conditions in Central Province, Kenya. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2009;8(2):262–9. Njoroge GN, Barbara G, Bussmann RW, Newton LE, Ngumi VW. Utilization of weed species as source of traditional medicines in Central Kenya: optimizing resource efficiency R.U.E. in agroecosystems. Lyonia. 2004;7(2):71–87. Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, Echeverría J, Romero C. Bidens laevis (L.) Britton, Stern & Poggenb.; Bidens pilosa L.; Bidens pseudocosmos Sherff; Bidens sp. In: Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions – ethnobotany of the Andes. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77093-2_ 38-1. Parimalakrishnan S, Akalanka D, Anton S, Arul GD, Manavalan R, Sridhar N. Studies of anticancer and antipyretic activity of Bidens pilosa whole plant. Afr Health Sci. 2006;6(1):27–30. Prajapati ND, Purohit SS, Sharma AK, Kumar T. A hand book of medicinal plants. In: Bhakat RK, Sen UK, editors. Traditional uses of medicinal plants of Pauri Garhwal, Uttrakhand. Patnagar: Agribios India; 2003. p. 553. Press JR, Shrestha KK, Sutton DA. Annotated checklist of the flowering plants of Nepal. London: The Natural History Museum; 2000. Priyadi H, Takao G, Rahmawati I, Supriyanto B, Nursal WI, Rahman I. Five hundred plant species in Gunung Halimun Salak National Park, West Java: a checklist including Sundanese names, distribution and use. Bogor: CIFOR; 2010. Sandra MN, Clara L, Colin WW. A review of antimyocobacterial natural products. Phytother Res. 2000;14:303–22. Satish UK, Visahal RM. Study of future food crop Bidens biternata (Lour.) Merr and Sheriff – a nutraceutical approach. Int J Recent Trends Sci Technol. 2018:37–9. Shi Z, Chen YL, Chen YS, Lin YR, Liu SW, Ge XJ, Gao TG, Zhu SX, Liu Y, Yang QE, Humphries CJ, von Raab-Straube E, Gilbert MG, Nordenstam B, Kilian N, Brouillet L, Illarionova ID, DJN H, Jeffrey C, Bayer RJ, Kirschner J, Greuter W, Anderberg AA, Semple JC, Štěpánek J, Freire SE, Martins L, Koyama H, Kawahara T, Vincent L, Sukhorukov AP, Mavrodiev EV, Gottschlich G. Asteraceae (Compositae). In: Wu ZY, Raven PH, Hong DY, editors. Flora of China, volume 20–21 (Asteraceae). Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 2011. p. 1–894. Singh AK, Raghubanshi AS, Singh JA. Medical ethnobotany of the tribals of Sonaghati of Sonbhadra district, Uttar Pradesh, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2002;81:31–41. Sukumaran P, Nair AG, Chinmayee DM, Mini I, Sukumaran ST. Phytochemical investigation of Bidens biternata (Lour.) Merr. and Sheriff.-a nutrient-rich leafy vegetable from Western Ghats of India. Appl Biochem Biotechnol. 2012;167:1795–801. Swapna TS, Nair AG, Mini I, Pradeesh S. Free-radical scavenging activity of leaves of Bidens Biternata (Lour.) Merr. & Sherif. Int J Pharm Res Dev. 2014;6(8):127–35. Tapas AR, Sakarkar DM, Kakde RB. Flavonoids as nutraceuticals: a review. Trop J Pharm Res. 2008;7(3):1089–99. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Yineger H, Kelbessa E, Bekele T, Lulekal E. Plants used in traditional management of human ailments at Bale Mountains National Park, Southeastern Ethiopia. J Med Plants Res. 2008;26:132–53. Zahara K, Bibi Y, Tabassum S, Mudrikah BT, Haider S, Araa A, Ajmal M. A review on pharmacological properties of Bidens biternata: a potential nutraceutical. Asian Pac J Trop Dis. 2015;5(8):595–9.

Bistorta amplexicaulis (D. Don) Greene Bistorta vivipara (L.) S.F. Gray POLYGONACEAE Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Bistorta amplexicaulis (D. Don) Greene: Polygonum amplexicaule D. Don var. amplexicaule Bistorta vivipara (L.) S.F. Gray: Bistorta vivipara subsp. macounii (Small ex J.M. Macouni) Soják, Persicaria vivipara (L.) Ronse Decr., Polygonum viviparum L., Polygonum viviparum var. macounii (Small ex J.M. Macoun) Hultén

H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_39

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Local Names Bistorta amplexicaulis: Jammu: Masloon, Jangli Chai; Kashmir: Machirun, Maachran Chai, Machrum Chai; Pashto: Tarwa panra ‫ﺗﺮﻭﺍﭘﺎﻧړﺎ‬, Anjbar; Urdu: Anjabar; Chitrali: Tarwa panna; Baltistan: Shey lamey; English: Bistort, Mountain fleece Bistorta vivipara: Baltistan: Chenga; Kashmiri: Masloon, Drop, Mashun, Manchiren, Churkee; Ladakh: Langna, Katur

Botany and Ecology Bistorta amplexicaulis: Erect, 35–70 ( 100) cm tall, branched or simple, glabrous, perennial, long rhizomatous herb. Stem simple or branched, erect, with few leaves. Leaves 3.0–15  1.75–10 cm, broadly lanceolate-ovate, serrate, acuminate, ciliate on midrib and margins, cordate or amplexicaule at base, petiole up to 10 cm long. Ochrea 1.5–5.0 cm long, lanceolate, tubular, acuminate, with two to three long acuminate lobes. Inflorescence 1.5–10.0 cm long, terminal, simple (var. speciosa) or branched (var. alba), many flowered, dense pedunculate raceme, peduncles up to 8.0 cm long. Flowers up to 4.0 mm across, pedicel 1–3 mm long. Ochreolae 3–5 mm long, lanceolate, cartilaginous, with long aristate apex and entire margin. Tepals 5, 2–3.5  1.5–2.5 mm, lanceolate to ovate, obtuse, entire, unequal. Stamens 8, filaments thick and short, unequal; anthers dark bluish, subexserted to exserted. Ovary 1–2  0.25–0.5 ( 0.75) mm, lanceolate, trigonous with three, long, filiform winged and free styles and nonprominent stigma. Nuts 3.0–5.5  2.0–3.5 mm, ovate, trigonous and unequal lobes, dark brown to black, glabrous, shining. Open slope, prefer shade in forest, 1500–3000 m. Distributed in Nepal, India, China, and Pakistan. Locally found in the high altitude of Malakand and Hazara Division especially in coniferous forest. Harvesting time: September–March (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020). Highly over collected (Mulk Khan et al. 2014) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8). Bistorta vivipara: Erect, 15–45 ( 50) cm tall, glabrous, simple rarely, branched, perennial herb with thick fibrous rhizomes. Leaves 4–15  0.5–1 ( 1.5) cm, linear, acuminate, entire, upper surface glabrous, lower with few cilia on veins, basal leaves long petiolate, petiole 0.8–6.0 cm long, cauline leaves sessile. Ochrea 0.3–1.0 cm long, ovate, tubular, membranous, entire. Inflorescence 1.0–8.0 cm long, bulbiferous on the lower part, bulbils ovoid, 3–4 mm long; peduncle up to 4.0 cm long. Flowers 1–2.0 mm across, whitish to pink, pedicel 1–2.5 mm long. Ochreolae 2–4 mm long, ovate, long acuminate, dentate, tubular, membranous, glabrous. Tepals 4–5, divided almost to the base, 2–3 mm long, broadly oblanceolate, obtuse, entire, unequal outer surface wrinkled. Stamens 6, filaments long, filiform, unequal, 3 long and 3 short, exserted. Ovary 0.5–1.0  0.25–0.5 mm, biconvex with 2 long, filiform and free styles and capitate stigmas. Nuts 2–3  1.5–2 mm, biconvex, dark brown, glabrous,

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Fig. 1 Bistorta carnea (Polygonaceae). Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Bistorta carnea (Polygonaceae). Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

shining. Flowering June–August. A wide spread and highly variable species. Grows between 2500–4500 m, in moist shady areas and steep slopes, sometimes even as a weed; Distribution: Siberia, Western and Central Asia, Himalaya, Xizang, China, Japan, North America, and Greenland. (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020). Widely commercialized (Overgaard Larsen 2002) (Figs. 9 and 10).

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Fig. 3 Bistorta carnea (Polygonaceae). Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Bistorta carnea (Polygonaceae). Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses Bistorta amplexicaulis: The powdered rhizome of the herb is used to treat chronic diarrhea and excessive bleeding from any part of the body and externally on fresh wounds to stop bleeding. Shoots are used to cure ulcer (Sher et al. 2011). Root

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Fig. 5 Bistorta amplexicaulis (Polygonaceae). Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 6 Bistorta amplexicaulis (Polygonaceae). Pakistan. (Photo Haiser Ali)

powder is used for urinary disorders, cough, sore throat, and joint pain (Ahmad et al. 2014; Jan et al. 2019). Root infusion is used for sore throat, as laryngitis and tonic (Bano et al. 2014). Plant is used for sore throat (Kayani et al. 2014). Root and leaf tea is used for rheumatism, root powder for blood dysentery, nausea and emetic, leaf juice for blood purifier, and root powder for leucorrhea and as a tonic (Mahmood et al. 2012). Rhizome powder mixed with little salt is used for sore throat, swelling of mouth and tongue (Khan et al. 2013). Plant is used as tonic, for gastro-intestinal problems, ulcer, and throat infection (Majid et al. 2019). Plant is used to treat ulcer (Jamal et al. 2017). The rhizome is ground into powdered form and is taken with water for treatment of gout and rheumatism. Special tea is made from the rhizome,

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Fig. 7 Bistorta amplexicaulis (Polygonaceae). Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

Fig. 8 Bistorta amplexicaulis (Polygonaceae). Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

which is then used for fever and flue. The rhizome is also effective to cure ulcers (Razzaq et al. 2013). Plant is used for eczema and measles (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018, 2019). To treaty backache, as stomatic (Wali et al. 2019). Also used as tonic for gastrointestinal disorders, ulcers, and throat infections (Majid et al. 2019); for fever, joint pain, asthma, burns, colds, cough, headache; as heart stimulant; for indigestion, joint inflammations, rheumatism, stomach pain (Gairola et al. 2014).

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Fig. 9 Bistorta vivipara (Polygonaceae). Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Bistorta vivipara: The roots are used for inflammations and cancer problems (Khan et al. 2015). Powder prepared from rhizome taken with milk in fever, body pains, and muscles contraction (Naseer et al. 2017). Plant is used in chronic bronchitis (Alamgeer et al. 2018) and for throat infections and piles (Wali et al. 2019). To remedy diarrhea, lung diseases, fever, sore throat, hemorrhages, abdominal pain, used as astringent, chest complaints, leucorrhea, ulcers, backache, wounds, cuts, and skin eruptions (Gairola et al. 2014). Bistorta carnea: used for gastroenteric diseases, a decoction, and liquid extract of the rhizome, as well as powder is ingested for diseases of the stomach and as astringent in acute and protracted diarrhea. The rhizome is used to treat snakebite. Also used to stop bleeding and as anti-inflammatory agent, also to heal intestinal disorders (dysentery, diarrhea). The flowers and roots are also used to treat lung problems and are externally applied to fractures and bruises. The plant is effective during its flowering period. It is widely used in traditional medicine, mostly to heal renal, liver and stomach illnesses, against fatigue, later catarrh of bladder, old and new wounds. It is believed to be especially effective against gallstones. It can actively remove sand from the body. The residents of Baraleti collect knotgrass, wash it, and keep it in the shade. They consider it as a remedy that drives out salts and “poisons” from the body. A handful of dry knotgrass is put in a ceramic vessel and 1 l of boiling water is added. After 15 min (or boiling 5 min), it is decanted and the resulted broth is drunk instead of water. Alternatively, the sick drinks a wine

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Fig. 10 Bistorta vivipara (Polygonaceae). Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

glass of this broth three times a day. The entire herb is also crushed and is used like a mustard plaster and it is used to prepare a remedy for pancreatitis; the broth is given to heal gastro-intestinal disorders and hemorrhoids (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2020; Bussmann 2017; Batsatsashvili et al. 2017) (Figs. 11 and 12).

Local Food Uses Bistorta carnea: The fried rhizome is also used for food (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2020; Bussmann 2017; Batsatsashvili et al. 2017). Bistorta vivipara: Seeds can be eaten (Wali et al. 2019).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Bistorta amplexicaule is used as galactagogue in cattle, for thatching, and forage (Wali et al. 2019). Bistorta carnea is used for dyeing: Yellow and black colors are obtained from the rhizome. Can be used as decorative in gardens and parks. The rhizome is used for tanning leather (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2020; Bussmann 2017; Batsatsashvili et al. 2017). Bistorta vivipara serves as forage (Wali et al. 2019).

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Fig. 11 Bistorta carnea (Polygonaceae), root tincture as medicine, Zesko, Kvemo Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 12 Bistorta carnea (Polygonaceae), root tincture as medicine, Zesko, Kvemo Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

References Ahmad M, Sultana S, Fazl-i-Hadi S, Ben Hadda T, Rashid S, Zafar M, Yaseen G. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in high mountainous region of Chail valley (District Swat-Pakistan). J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2014;10(1):36.

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Alamgeer, Younis W, Asif H, Sharif A, Riaz H, Bukhari IA, Assiri AM. Traditional medicinal plants used for respiratory disorders in Pakistan: a review of the ethno-medicinal and pharmacological evidence. Chin Med. 2018;13(1):48. Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. Karachi/St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi/Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995–2020. Bano A, Ahmad M, Hadda TB, Saboor A, Sultana S, Zafar M, Ashraf MA. Quantitative ethnomedicinal study of plants used in the skardu valley at high altitude of KarakoramHimalayan range, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2014;10(1):43. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Polygonum alpinum All.; Polygonum aviculare L.; Polygonum carneum C. Koch; Polygonum hydropiper L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-49412-8_80. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D. Bistorta officinalis Delarbre; Polygonum carneum C. Koch. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions far Eastern Europe. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3319-77088-8_24-2. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Jamal Z, Pervez A, Hussain M, Shah GM, Shah SH, Ahmed M. Ethnomedicinal plants used for gastrointestinal ailments by the rural communities of Kaghan Valley, Mansehra, Pakistan. J Appl Environ Biol Sci. 2017;7(12):41–8. Jan AH, Jan S, Bussmann RW, Wali S, Sist F, Ahmad L. Complementary and alternative medicine research, prospects and limitations in Pakistan: a literature review. Acta Ecol Sin. 2019. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.chnaes.2019.12.005. Kayani S, Ahmad M, Zafar M, Sultana S, Khan MPZ, Ashraf MA, Yaseen G. Ethnobotanical uses of medicinal plants for respiratory disorders among the inhabitants of Gallies – Abbottabad, Northern Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;156:47–60. Khan SM, Page S, Ahmad H, Shaheen H, Ullah Z, Ahmad M, Harper DM. Medicinal flora and ethnoecological knowledge in the Naran Valley, Western Himalaya, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1):4. Khan SW, Abbas Q, Hassan SN, Khan H, Hussain A. Medicinal plants of Turmic Valley (Central Karakoram National Park), Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. J Bioresour Manag. 2015;2(2):11. Mahmood A, Mahmood A, Malik RN. Indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants from Leepa valley, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2012;143(1):338–46. Majid A, Ahmad H, Saqib Z, Ur Rahman I, Khan U, Alam J, Hussain Shah A, Ahmad Jan S, Ali N. Exploring threatened traditional knowledge; ethnomedicinal studies of rare endemic flora from Lesser Himalayan region of Pakistan. Rev Bras. 2019;29(6):785–92. Mulk Khan S, Page S, Ahmad H, Harper D. Ethno-ecological importance of plant biodiversity in mountain ecosystems with special emphasis on indicator species of a Himalayan Valley in the northern Pakistan. Ecol Indic. 2014;37:175–85. Naseer A, Masoodi TH, Geelani SM, Wani AA, Ahmad PI. Ethno-medicinal utilization of medicinal plants under Betula utilis forest in North and Central Kashmir Himalayas. Int J Usuf Mngt. 2017;18(1):14–24. Overgaard Larsen H. Commercial medicinal plant extraction in the hills of Nepal: local management system and ecological sustainability. Environ Manag. 2002;29(1):88–101.

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Rahman IU, Afzal A, Iqbal Z, Ijaz F, Ali N, Bussmann RW. Traditional and ethnomedicinal dermatology practices in Pakistan. Clin Dermatol. 2018;36(3):310–9. Razzaq A, Rashid A, Islam M, Iqbal A, Khan H. Ethnomedicinal profile and conservation status of plant biodiversity in Alexander the Great Valley, District Shangla, Pakistan. J Med Plant Res. 2013;7(20):1379–86. Sher Z, Khan Z, Hussain F. Ethnobotanical studies of some plants of Chagharzai valley, district Buner, Pakistan. Pak J Bot. 2011;43(3):1445–52. Ur-Rahman I, Afsal A, Iqbal Z, Ijas F, Ali N, Asif M, Alam J, Majid A, Bussmann RW. Traditional and ethnomedicinal dermatology practices in Pakistan. Clin Dermatol. 2018;36(3):310–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clindermatol.2018.03.018. Ur-Rahman I, Sher H, Bussmann RW, editors. Reference guide on high value medicinal and Aromatic plants – sustainable management and cultivation practices. Mingora, Pakistan: University of Swat; 2019. ISBN 978-969-23419-0-5. Wali R, Rahman K, Raja NI, Qureshi R, Bussmann RW, Mashwani ZUR. A quantitative medico botanical expedition of Fairy Meadows National Park, Diamir, Gilgit Baltistan, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019:1835. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.35.1-30.

Boerhavia diffusa L. NYCTAGINACEAE Kuber Jung Malla, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Boerhavia diffusa L.: Axia cochinchinensis Lour.; Boerhavia adscendens Willd.; Boerhavia caribea Jacq. Boerhavia coccinea Mill.; Boerhavia coccinea fo. parcehirsuta Heimerl; Boerhavia coccinea var. leiocarpa (Heimerl) Standl.; Boerhavia decumbens Vahl; Boerhavia diandra Aubl.; Boerhavia diffusa var. hirsuta (Jacq.) Kuntze; Boerhavia diffusa var. leiocarpa (Heimerl) C.D. Adams; Boerhavia diffusa var. mutabilis R. Br.; Boerhavia diffusa var. paniculata (Rich.) Kuntze; Boerhavia diffusa var. viscosa (Lag. & Rodr.) Heimerl; Boerhavia erecta L.; Boerhavia hirsuta Willd.; Boerhavia ixodes Standl.; Boerhavialaxa Pers.; K. J. Malla Department of Plant Resources, Kathmandu, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_40

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Boerhavia paniculata fo. leiocarpa Heimerl; Boerhavia paniculata Lam.; Boerhavia paniculata Rich.; Boerhavia polymorpha Rich.; Boerhavia ramulosa M.E. Jones.; Boerhavia reopens L.; Boerhavia repens var. diffusa (L.) Heimerl ex Kook. f.; Boerhavia sonorae Rose; Boerhavia squamata Raf.; Boerhavia surinamensis Miq.; Boerhavia viscosa fo. oligadena Heimerl; Boerhavia viscosa Lag. & Rodr.; Boerhavia viscosa subsp. apiculata Standl.

Local Names Boerhavia diffusa: Jammu: Itt-Sitt, Ittsitt, Saandthi, Punarnava, Lal dodal; Punjabi: Itsit; Gharwal: Pundera; Nepali: Punarnava, Sothagni; India: Punarnava, Bashkhira, Punarnava, Sant; Sri Lanka: Chattaranai, Kancharanai, Mukurattai; English: Spreading Hogweed, Red spiderling, Horse purslane, Pigweed

Botany and Ecology Boerhavia diffusa: Herbs perennial. Stems trailing, to 200 cm; stems glabrous or sparsely pubescent. Roots thick, fleshy. Petiole 0.4–2 cm; leaf blade ovate, 1–5
1– 4 cm, both surfaces sparsely pubescent, abaxially gray-yellow, wrinkled when dry, base rounded or cuneate, margin undulate, with stout, muticellular hairs, apex obtuse or acute. Inflorescences terminal, capitate-cymose panicles; peduncle slender, sparsely pubescent. Pedicel short to almost absent. Bracts small, lanceolate, pubescent. Perianth limb bright purple or purple-red, 1.5–2 mm. Stamens 1–3(5), slightly exserted or included. Anthocarp clavate, 3–3.5 mm, 5-ribbed, with viscid glands and sparse pubescence, apex rounded. Flowering and fruiting spring-autumn (Wu et al. 2003, 1994–2013) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4). Fig. 1 Boerhavia diffusa (Nyctaginaceae), plant, Nepal. (Photo Kuber J Malla)

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Fig. 2 Boerhavia diffusa (Nyctaginaceae), flower, Nepal. (Photo Kuber J Malla)

Fig. 3 Boerhavia diffusa (Nyctaginaceae), flower, Nepal. (Photo Kuber J Malla)

B. diffusa is pantropical in distribution. It is recorded in floras of India, Malaysia, and West Pakistan, and in many of the Indian regional floras such as Madras (Gamble 1957), Tamil Nadu Carnatic, Goa, Diu, Daman, and Nagarhaveli (Rao 1986), Tamil Nadu (Henry et al. 1987), Cannanore (Ramachandran and Nair 1988), and Eastern Karnataka (Singh 1988). Open places near sea, dry and warm river valleys; 100–1900 m. Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Hainan, Sichuan, S Taiwan, Yunnan [Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Japan (Ryukyu Islands), Laos,

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Fig. 4 Boerhavia diffusa (Nyctaginaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam; Africa, America, Australia, Pacific Islands] (Wu et al. 2003). Its native range is unclear, and it is widely naturalized. In Nepal, it grows at elevations from sea level to 300–1200 m from east to west Nepal (Press et al. 2000).

Phytochemistry Many bioactive compounds like tannins, flavonoids, alkaloids (punarnavine), glycosides, steroids, terpenoids, phenolic compounds, rotenoids (boeravinones A-O), etc. are reported in B. diffusa plants (Shisode and Kareppa 2011; Krishnamoorthy et al. 2017). Three rotenoids, namely, boeravinone A, B, and C and 3-O-(60 -palmitoyl-β-D-glucopyranosyl) sitosterol, were isolated and their structure was determined by Lami et al. (1990) and Kadota et al. (1989). Boeravinone B was identified and quantified by employing HPLC in hydroalcoholic extracts made from whole plant of B. diffusa and also in its polyherbal formulation (Singh et al. 2017).

Local Medicinal Uses Boerhavia diffusa: Classified as rasayana in Ayurveda. Ayurvedic formulations such as Punarnavasava, Sukumara ghrita, Punarnavadyarishta, Punarnavadi mandura, Sothaghna Lepa, Maha Narayan Taila, Punarnavastaka kvatha curna, Punarnava guggulu, Punarnavadi kvatha curna, and Varuni contain B. diffusa as main ingredient. These formulations are used to treat numerous ailments in humans like heart disease, sciatica, inflammation, diseases of abdomen, spleen and liver disorders, arthritis, etc. (Watanabe et al. 2005; DPR 2007; Mishra et al. 2014). B. diffusa has been traditionally used to treat cardiac diseases in Ayurveda (Kirtikar and Basu 1991) and to treat eye complaints in Nepal (Kunwar 2018) and India (Sadhu et al. 2011). Used in Punjab for dysmenorrhea, cough, snakebites, bronchial

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problems, asthma, kidney failure, and flu (Umair et al. 2019). In India as abortifacient, for anemia, asthma, as blood purifier, body heat, childbirth, cold, cough, dropsy, inflammation, jaundice complaints, liver complaints, menstrual complaints, pain in the abdomen, piles, stomach complaints, urine complaints, and wounds (Verma et al. 2007) and also against rheumatism (Pandikumar et al. 2011). In Gharwal, for asthma, bronchitis, as tonic and for eye complaints (Kumar et al. 2011), the latter also in Rajasthan (Katewa et al. 2004). Used in Jammu and Kashmir for snakebites, asthma, as diuretic, expectorant, for eye ailments, fever, gangrene, inflammation, jaundice, as laxative, and to treat edema (Gairola et al. 2014).

Local Food Uses Boerhavia diffusa: Long thick and fleshy root are eaten by the Aborigines of central Australia. Leaves are cooked as a pot herb or added to soups and also used as a vegetable. Also eaten in Nepal (Dangol et al. 2017).

References Dangol DR, Maharjan KL, Maharjan SK, Acharya, AK. 2017. Wild edible plants in Nepal. in: Joshi BK, Bahadur KCH, Acharya A . Conservation and utilization of agricultural plant genetic resources of Nepal. NAGRC, Dhulikhel. 390–407. Department of Plant Resources. Medicinal plants of Nepal. 2nd ed. Kathmandu: Department of Plant Resources; 2007. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Gamble JS. Flora of the presidency of Madras, vol. II. Calcutta: Botanical Survey of India; 1957. Henry AN, Kumari GR, Chitra V. Flora of Tamil Nadu, India, vol. II. Coimbatore: Botanical Survey of India; 1987. Kadota S, Lami N, Tezuka Y, Kikuchi T. Constituents of the roots of Boerhavia diffusa Linn. I. Examination of sterols and structures of new rotenoids (boeravinones A and B). Chem Pharm Bull. 1989;37(12):3214–20. Katewa SS, Chaudhary BL, Jain A. Folk herbal medicines from tribal area of Rajasthan, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2004;92:41–6. Kirtikar KR, Basu BD. Indian medicinal plants, vol. III. 2nd ed. Allahabad: Lalit Mohan Basu; 1991. p. 2045–8. Periodical Experts Book Agency, Delhi. Krishnamoorthy PKP, Muthukumaran S, Maheswaran A, Sukumaran P. Isolation, purification and characterization of boeravinone B from Boerhavia diffusa Linn. Int Res J Pharm. 2017;8:140–4. Kumar M, Bussmann RW, Mukesh J, Kumar P. Ethnomedicinal uses of plants close to rural habitation in Garhwal Himalayan, India. J Med Plant Res. 2011;511:2252–60. Kunwar RM. Ethnobotany of the Kailash Sacred Landscape, Nepal: implication for conservation through interactions of plants, people, culture and geography. PhD dissertation, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton; 2018. Lami N, Kadota S, Tezuka Y, Kikuchi T. Constituents of the roots of Boerhavia diffusa Linn. II. Structure and stereochemistry of a new rotenoid boeravinone C2. Chem Pharm J. 1990;38(6):1558–62. Mishra S, Aeri V, Gaur PV, Jachak SM. Phytochemical, therapeutic, and ethnopharmacological overview for a traditionally important herb: Boerhavia diffusa Linn. BioMed Res Int. 2014. Article ID 808302:1–19. Hindawi Publishing Corporation.

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Pandikumar P, Chellappandian M, Mutheeswaran S, Ignacimuthu S. Consensus of local knowledge on medicinal plants among traditional healers in Mayiladumparai block of Theni District, Tamil Nadu, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011;134:354–62. Press JR, Shrestha KK, Sutton DA. Annotated checklist of the flowering plants of Nepal. London: The Natural History Museum; 2000. Tribhuvan University, Nepal. Ramachandran VS, Nair VJ. Flora of Cannanore. Ser. 3. Calcutta: Botanical Survey of India; 1988. Rao RS. Flora of Goa, Diu, Daman, Dadra and Nagarhaveli. Ser. 2. Calcutta: Botanical Survey of India; 1986. Sadhu PS, Singh S, Gupta V, Bansal P, Kumar D. Potential herbs used in ocular diseases. J Pharm Sci Res. 2011;3(4):1127–40. Shisode KS, Kareppa BM. In-vitro antioxidant activity and phytochemical studies of Boerhaavia diffusa Linn. roots. Int J Pharm Sci Res. 2011;2:3171–6. Singh NP. Flora of Eastern Karnataka, vol. II. Delhi: Mittal Publications; 1988. Singh A, Sharma H, Singh R, Pant P, Srikant N, Dhiman KS. Identification and quantification of boeravinone-B in whole plant extract of Boerhavia diffusa Linn and in its polyherbal formulation. JNR. 2017;17:88–95. Umair M, Altaf M, Bussmann RW, Abbasi AM. Ethnomedicinal uses of the local flora in Chenab riverine area, Punjab province Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2019;15:7. https://doi.org/10. 1186/s13002-019-0285-4. Verma A, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants in an urban environment: the medicinal flora of Banares Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3:35. Watanabe T, Rajbhandari KR, Malla KJ, Yahara S. A handbook of medicinal plants of Nepal. Bangkok: Kobfai Publishing Project Foundation for Democracy and Development Studies; 2005. 285 p. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Wu ZY, Raven PH, Hong DY, editors. Flora of China. Vol. 5 (Ulmaceae through Basellaceae). Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 2003.

Bombax ceiba L. MALVACEAE Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ikram Ur Rahman, and Maroof Ali Turi

Synonyms Bombax heptaphyllum L., Bombax malabaricum DC., Gossampinus malabarica (DC.) Merr., Salmalia malabarica (DC) Schott ex Endl.

Local Names Bombax ceiba: Urdu: Mocharas.

H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan e-mail: [email protected] M. A. Turi College of Life Science, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu, China e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_212

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Fig. 1 Bombax ceiba (Bombacaceae), habit, Pakistan. (Photo M.A. Turi)

Botany and Ecology Bombax ceiba: Tall trees, trunk usually unbranched up to considerable height. Bark gray, covered with hard small conical prickles, usually disappearing with age. Petiole 10–30 cm long, pulvinate at the base; stipules triangular, 5–10 mm  4 mm with hairy margin, caducous. Leaflets 5–7, glabrous, entire, elliptic-lanceolate, acuminate, attenuate at base, more or less leathery, unequal, 5–20 cm  2–8 cm; petiolule 1–3 cm long. Inflorescence many fascicles of 1–4 flowers borne, at or near the end of branches. Flowers large, showy, red (occasionally yellow or white); pedicel thick, 2– 2.5 cm long. Calyx 3-lobed (rarely 2-lobed), cup-shaped, 3.5–4 cm long, smooth outside, densely silky within. Petals twisted in bud, stellate tomentose outside, sparsely pubescent inside, elliptic-oblong, usually recurved, 8–11 cm  4–5 cm. Stamens c. 75, united at base in 6 phalanges, each of 11–15 stamens, the innermost phalange surrounding the pistil is composed of 15 stamens of which 5-innermost are the largest and forked; filaments 3.5–6 cm long, pink, somewhat tomentose, flattened at base; anthers long, afterward twisted, violet. Ovary conical, green, covered with silky hairs, 0.5–1.2 cm long; style simple, 5.9–6.5 cm long; stigmas 5, filiform. 5– 6 mm long. Capsule 10–12.5 cm long; oblong, woody, 5 valved, profusely to finely tomentose. Seeds brown, smooth, obovid, 6 mm long, embedded in silky white wool. Flowering December–March. Distribution: Commonly cultivated as a roadside and garden tree in Pakistan. Wild in sub-Himalayan tract from Hazara to eastward, up to 1200 m, India, Ceylon, Southeast Asia, China, Australia (Queenslands North Australia) and China (Yunnan) (Ali and Qaiser 1995-2020) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6).

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Fig. 2 Bombax ceiba (Bombacaceae), habit, Pakistan. (Photo M.A. Turi)

Fig. 3 Bombax ceiba (Bombacaceae), flower, Pakistan. (Photo M.A. Turi)

Local Medicinal Uses Bombax ceiba: The flowers are astringent and refrigerant and to treat cutaneous infections. The young roots are diuretic and tonic. They are used in the treatment of cholera, tubercular fistula, coughs, urinary complaints, nocturnal pollution, abdominal pain due to dysentery, and impotency. The gum is astringent, demulcent and tonic. It is used in the treatment of dysentery, hemoptysis in pulmonary tuberculosis, influenza, and menorrhagia. The leaves are hypotensive and hypoglycemic. A decoction of the shoots can be been used to treat ulcers of the palate, syphilis,

412 Fig. 4 Bombax ceiba (Bombacaceae), flower, Pakistan. (Photo M.A. Turi)

Fig. 5 Bombax ceiba (Bombacaceae), flower, Pakistan. (Photo M.A. Turi)

Fig. 6 Bombax ceiba (Bombacaceae), flower, Pakistan. (Photo M.A. Turi)

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leprosy, and spider or snake bites. Combined with the roots of Moghania macrophylla, the fruit of Terminalia chebula and borax, they are used to treat enlarged spleen; they are combined with Capparis zeylanica and Carissa carandas to treat edema; and with Trigonella foenum-graecum to treat corns on the foot. The seedlings have reputed antipyretic activity (when ground with a few leaves of Cassia fistula and Semecarpus anacardium). They are combined with Vitis spp. to treat carbuncle; and with Terminalia alata to treat haematuria. The stem is used on bleeding gums (cooked in mustard oil with the bark of Zyzyphus rugosa and Ichnocarpus frutescens and then eaten). The bark is reputedly used against cholera (usually combined with many other plants), pleurisy, stings, and as a diuretic. It is used in bandages for lasting fractures or given in infusion for toothache before visiting the dentist.

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Bombax ceiba: A fast-growing plant, tolerant of full sun even when small and with a wide range of uses, it can be used as a pioneer when restoring native woodland. It can also be used as a pioneer when establishing a large woodland garden, being able to remain as a canopy tree as the garden matures. The plant is traditionally grown in living fences in the northwestern Himalayas, where it helps to exclude livestock and other animals; mark out land boundaries, while also providing a range of medicinal and other uses. The seed floss is used as a stuffing material for pillows, cushions. It is considered to be vermin-proof. A fiber is obtained from the inner bark, which is suitable for cordage. A transparent gum exudes from the bark and sapling root (Malabar gum). The gum can be mixed with ashes and castor oil and is then used as a cement for caulking iron saucepans. An oil obtained from the seed is used to make soap and for lighting purpose. It can be used as a substitute for cottonseed oil. The fibrous bark is used for making ropes. The greyish, dark-streaked wood is coarse-textured, straight-grained, light in weight, very soft and pithy. It can be used to make packing cases, toys, matches, pencils. Large trunks are often hollowed out to make canoes. The wood is a source of cellulose production. The exudate is sold (Ur Rahman et al. 2019).

References Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan and Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995-2020. Ur-Rahman I, Sher H, Bussmann RW, editors. Reference guide on high value medicinal and aromatic plants – sustainable management and cultivation practices. Pakistan: University of Swat; 2019. (ISBN 978-969-23419-0-5).

Brucea javanica (L.) Merr. SIMAROUBACEAE Kamal Adhikari, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Brucea javanica (L.) Merr.: Ailanthus gracilis Salisb. Brucea amarissima Desv. ex Gomes; Brucea amarissima (Lour.) Merr.; Brucea glabrata Decne.; Brucea gracilis (Salisb.) DC.; Brucea sumatrana Roxb.; Brucea sumatrensis Spreng.; Gonus amarissimus Lour.; Lussa amarissima (Lour.) Kuntze; Rhus affinis Wall.; Rhus amela D. Don; Rhus bucki-amela Roxb.; Rhus fastuosa Salisb.; Rhus javanica L.; Tetradium amarissimum Poir.

K. Adhikari Resource Himalaya Foundation, Lalitpur, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_205

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Local Names Brucea javanica: Nepali: Amilo, Bhaki amilo, Bhangil, Chugo, Chuk amilo, Dudhe bhalayo; English: Nepalese sumac; Hindi: Tatri; Tibetan name: Thanksin; Amchi: Da trig; Bhojpuri: Aanwala; Chepang: Rusi; Danuwar: Bhakiamilo; Gurung: Tiba, Ghursing; Lepcha: Tanghrilchyor; Naga: Tangwa; Limbu: Iseba, Isi; Magar: Muruk; Newari: Supchun; Rai: Mahada, Mara; Sunwar: Bhakari, Kursinglo; Tamang: Tibro, Tipru; Gharwal: Damfel; Tharu: Amil (Manandhar 2002; Ghimire et al. 2008); Pashto: Titarai ‫ﺗﯿﺘﺎﺭﯤ‬

Botany and Ecology Brucea javanica: Shrubs to trees, 2–10 m tall; branchlets ferruginous pubescent, lenticellate. Leaf blade sessile, imparipinnately compound; rachis broadly winged to wingless, ferruginous pubescent; leaflets (5–)7–13; leaflet blade ovate to oblong, increasing in size toward apex, 6–12  3–7 cm, adaxially dark green, sparsely pubescent or glabrescent, abaxially lighter green, glaucous, and ferruginous pubescent, base rounded to cuneate in terminal leaflet, margin dentate, often crenate, apex acute, lateral veins and reticulate venation impressed adaxially and prominent abaxially. Inflorescence many branched, densely ferruginous pubescent, male ones 30–40 cm, female ones shorter. Pedicel about 1 mm, minutely pubescent; flowers white. Male flowers: calyx minutely pubescent, lobes long ovate, about 1 mm, with ciliate margins; petals obovate-oblong, about 2 mm; stamen filaments about 2 mm, anthers ovoid, about 0.7 mm; disk annular; ovary reduced to absent. Female flowers: calyx lobes about 0.6 mm; petals elliptic-ovate, about 1.6 mm; staminodes much reduced; disk annular; ovary ovoid, about 1 mm, densely white pubescent, styles 3, stigma capitate. Drupe globose, slightly compressed, 4–5 mm in diameter, mixed pilose and glandular-pubescent, red at maturity. Flowering August–September, fruiting October (Polunin and Stainton 1984, Ghimire et al. 2008; Wu et al. 1994– 2013; Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Phytochemistry Quassinoids are the main constituents of Brucea javanica. The extract and the isolated compounds especially quassinoids exhibited various biological properties, such as antitumor and antimalarial effects (Zhao et al. 2014). From quassinoid, (i) 4-ethoxycarbonyl-2-quinolone, (ii) bruceine I, (iii) vanillic acid, (iv) quercetin3-O-beta-D-galactoside, and (v) luteolin-7-O-beta-D-glucoside were isolated (Yu and Li 1990). Two new quassinoids namely (1) brujavanol C and (2) brujavanol D, along with six compounds (3) brujavanol A, (4) bruceine E, (5) 5a, 14b, 15b-trihydroxyklaineanone, (6) bruceine D, (7) bruceine H, and

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Fig. 1 Brucea javanica (Simaroubaceae), Dhulikhel, Nepal. (Photo Dipesh Pyakurel)

Fig. 2 Brucea javanica (Simaroubaceae), Rolpa, Nepal. (Photo Kamal Adhikari)

(8) bruceine F were isolated (Chumkaew et al. 2017). Seven compounds isolated from the n-BuOH extract of the dried stem bark are: (i) gallic acid, (ii) methyl gallate, (iii) scopoletin, (iv) scopolin, (v) 1, 2, 3, 4, 6-penta-O-galloyl-B-D-glucose, (vi) orcinol, and (vii) orcinol-B-D-glucoside (Chung et al. 1999). A new quassinoid, yadanziolide S was isolated from the seeds, along with 10 compounds flazin, bruceine D, yadanziolide B, bruceoside A, yadanziolide S, yadanzigan, glycerol 1,3-bisoleate, azelaic acid, ()-8-hydroxyhexadecanoic acid, and vanillin (Su et al. 2002). The fruit also contains gallotannin, gallotannic acid, gallic acid, m-digallic acid, and potassium acid salts (Ahmed 2010; Ghimire et al. 2008).

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Fig. 3 Brucea javanica (Simaroubaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 4 Brucea javanica (Simaroubaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Local Medicinal Uses Brucea javanica: Dry fruits of Nepalese sumac are cut into small pieces, decocted, and the decoction is drunk for asthma, stomach ache, dysentery (Rokayaa et al. 2010; Lama et al. 2001; Bhattarai 1993). Fruits are appetite inducing and eaten for stomach ache, dysentery, and diarrhea (Budha-Magar et al. 2020; Gubhaju and Gaha 2019; Uprety et al. 2016; Kunwar et al. 2013; Parajuli 2013; Acharya 2012; Uprety et al. 2012; Balami 2006; Poudel and Uprety 2004; Kunwar and Duwadee 2003; Shrestha and Dhillion 2003; Manandhar 2002; Lama et al. 2001; Ghimire et al. 2001; Pohle 1990). Fruits are either eaten raw or pickled in Manang (Rajbhandari 2001).

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Fruit powder is given to treat dysentery at Chitwan district; powdered seed is taken with yogurt to cure diarrhea by the Tamangs of Kathmandu valley (Rajbhandari 2001). Powdered fruit is given to treat profuse menstruation at Lamjung district (Rajbhandari 2001; Manandhar 1987). A paste of the galls on the plant is applied to treat swellings and wounds (Mahato and Chaudhary 2005; Manandhar 2002). Powder of fruit bark is used to swollen legs due to mud at Dang district (Rajbhandari 2001). A paste of the galls on the plant is given to treat paralysis (Manandhar 2002). A decoction of fruit is given to animals with foot-and-mouth disease (Acharya et al. 2015; Malla and Chhetri 2009; Manandhar 2002). The fruits are carminative and are recommended in colic (Haq et al. 2011; Haq 2012). Used for cholera, body swellings, and fever (Malik et al. 2015). For gas problems, stomach ache, against mushroom poisoning, dysentery, high blood pressure, rashes (Kunwar et al. 2009, 2010; Kichu et al. 2015). Rhus parviflora is used to treat tooth problems (Pratap Singh et al. 2019), cholera, cough, and fever (Kumar et al. 2011; Malik et al. 2015). Rhus succedanea: Remedy for colic, allergies, tuberculosis (Gairola et al. 2014). Rhus natalensis: Rots are pounded in water and the extract is drunk for flu, abdominal pain and gonorrhea, hookworm and diarrhea. Leaves are used to treat cough, and the steam from boiled leaves is inhaled for colds. The leaf decoction is drunk for stomach-ache, especially in children (Kokwaro 2009). Used to remedy stomachache (Bussmann 2006). The fruits are eaten to prevent chest problems, and the twigs used as toothbrush (Bussmann et al. 2006). The plant serves also as antimalarial (Njoroge and Bussmann 2006a), and to treat back pains, diarrhea, anthrax, postpartum pains and toothache (Njoroge et al. 2004). Rhus tenuinervis: Young shoots and leaves chewed for heartburn (Kokwaro 2009). Rhus vulgaris: Boiled fruits are used for diarrhea. Boiled stems applied to wounds. Powdered roots are used for gonorrhea, the leaves for hemorrhoids (Kokwaro 2009). The fruit decoction is used for diarrhea (Beentje 1994). The plant serves also as antimalarial (Njoroge et al. 2004; Njoroge and Bussmann 2006). Rhus ruspolii: Used to remedy stomachache (Bussmann 2006) and to treat wounds (Giday et al. 2009).

Local Food Uses Brucea javanica: Ripe fruits are eaten either raw or pickled (Dangol et al. 2017), as well as appetizer (Kunwar et al. 2012). Rhus natalensis: The fruit is eaten (Beentje 1994; Bussmann 2006). Rhus tenuinervis: The fruit is eaten (Beentje 1994). Rhus vulgaris: The fruit is eaten (Beentje 1994). Rhus ruspolii: The fruit is edible (Bussmann 2006). Rhus coriaria is used as spice (Yeşil et al. 2019).

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses Brucea javanica: The plant is used as fodder, fuelwood, furniture, and agricultural implements (Kunwar and Duwadee 2003). Fruits eaten by livestock (Kunwar et al. 2012). Rhus roxburghii: Causes contact dermatitis (Kichu et al. 2015). Rhus natalensis: A bark infusion is given to livestock with East Coast Fever (Kokwaro 2009). The leaves are browsed by livestock (Bussmann 2006). Burnt for its good smell and used as firewood (Bussmann et al. 2006). Given top livestock to treat endometritis and foot and mouth disease (Muthee et al. 2011). Produces excellent charcoal (Tian et al. 2017). Rhus vulgaris: A root decoction is used for diarrhea in livestock (Kokwaro 2009). Rhus ruspolii: The leaves are browsed by livestock (Bussmann 2006). Rhus glutinosa is used as fuelwood (Mekonnen et al. 2015).

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Bupleurum thomsonii C.B. Clarke APIACEAE Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Botany and Ecology Bupleurum thomsonii: Erect, 1 or more stems from the base, 10–75 cm tall. Lower leaves linear to lanceolate, up to 14 cm long, veins 5–7; upper leaves lanceolate to ovate, up to 10 cm long, veins numerous, base broad, amplexicaul, cordate. Involucral bracts lacking or 1–3, linear to lanceolate, acuminate bractlets, as long or longer than the flowering umbellet, veins 3. Flowers about 20, yellow. Pedicels 3–4 times longer than the carpels. Fruit 6–7 mm long; ridges winged; furrows 3-vittate. Himalayas in India and W. Pakistan (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Local Medicinal Uses Bupleurum thomsonii: In traditional Chines medicine, Bupleurum is used in mixture with other plants for diarrhea, constipation, alternating chills, and fever caused by cold, dry throat, flank pain, vomiting, emotional instability, menstrual H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_41

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Fig. 1 Bupleurum sp. (Apiaceae), Zhibiani, Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Bupleurum sp. (Apiaceae), Zhibiani, Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

problems, irregular menstruation, hemorrhoids, anal or uterine prolapse (Liu et al. 2016; Wu 2005). A decoction of above-ground parts of Froriepia subpinnata (Bupleurum subpinnatum) is used in gastric diseases as a tea (Mehdiyeva et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017). Bupleurum chinense is used as analgesic (Almeida et al. 2001). Bupleurum rigidum has antiviral activity (Ahmad et al. 2006).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Froriepia subpinnata (Bupleurum subpinnatum): The above-ground parts are used as seasoning for meat and fish dishes (Mehdiyeva et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017).

Bupleurum thomsonii C.B. Clarke Fig. 3 Bupleurum sp. (Apiaceae), Zhibiani, Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Bupleurum sp. (Apiaceae), Zhibiani, Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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References Ahmad I, Aquil F, Owais M. Modern phytomedicine. Weinheim: Wiley; 2006. Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan and Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995–2020. Almeida RN, Navarro DS, Barbosa-Filho JM. Plants with central analgesic activity. Phytomedicine. 2001;8(4):310–22. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Liu B, Bussmann RW, Li F, Li J, Hong L, Long C. Ethnobotanical approaches of traditional medicine studies in Southwest China: a literature review. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;186:343–50. Mehdiyeva N, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Froriepia subpinnata (Ldb.) Bail. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-49412-8_49. Wu JN. An illustrated Chines materia medica. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2005.

Buxus wallichiana Baill. BUXACEAE Hammad Ahmad Jan, Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

Local Names Buxus wallichiana: Pashto: Shamshad ‫ﺷﻤﺸﺎﺩ‬

Botany and Ecology Buxus wallichiana: An evergreen shrub or small tree, sometimes up to 10 m tall. Stem straight, bark ash grey, young shoots tetragonal, hirsute, hairs spreading. Leaves lanceolate oblanceolate or very narrowly obovate or elliptic oblong, 1.5–6 cm long, 0.8–l.2 cm broad, attenuate at the base, obtuse or somewhat H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_42

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emarginate or apiculate at the apex, glabrous except the hirsute petiole and midrib on upper side, veins conspicuous. Racemes 6–8 mm long, rounded. Floral parts akin to those of last species. Capsule ovoid, walnut brown, 7–10 mm long, 5–6 mm in diameter, horns divergent, c. 2–3 mm long. Flowering March–May. 1–3000 m., in moist hills in Afghanistan, Pakistan, India (Punjab, U.P., Kumaon) Nepal, and Bhutan (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020) (Figs. 1 and 2).

Local Medicinal Uses Buxus wallichiana: The extract of leaves used against edema (Irfan et al. 2018). Leaves of the plant are used as anti-rheumatic, diaphoretic, and febrifuge (Barkatullah et al. 2015). The plant is used as diaphoretic, poisonous (Sher et al. 2011), and for gastrointestinal disorders (Murad et al. 2011).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Buxus wallichiana: The leaves have been reported to be fatal to cattle and other browsing animals except goats. They taste bitter due to the presence of alkaloids like buxines. The wood is uniformly light yellow to brownish yellow, smooth, hard, even Fig. 1 Buxus wallichiana (Buxaceae), Pakistan. (Photo H.A. Jan)

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Fig. 2 Buxus wallichiana (Buxaceae), Pakistan. (Photo H.A. Jan)

textured, with silky lustre and without distinction between sap wood and heart wood. Boxwood is highly durable and is used for engravings, fine carving, turning and for manufacturing drawing, geometrical and musical instruments, snuff boxes, and combs (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020).

References Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan and Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995–2020. Barkatullah, Ibrar M, Rauf A, Hadda TB, Mubarak MS, Patel S. Quantitative ethnobotanical survey of medicinal flora thriving in Malakand Pass Hills, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;169:335–46.

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Irfan M, Nabeela IK, Kamil M, Ullah S, Khan S, Shah M, Jan G. Ethnobotanical survey of the Flora of Tehsil Balakot, District Mansehra, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. J Appl Environ Biol Sci. 2018;8(8):1–13. Murad W, Ahmad A, Gilani SA, Khan MA. Indigenous knowledge and folk use of medicinal plants by the tribal communities of Hazar Nao Forest, Malakand District, North Pakistan. J Med Plants Res. 2011;5(7):1072–86. Sher Z, Khan Z, Hussain F. Ethnobotanical studies of some plants of Chagharzai valley, district Buner, Pakistan. Pak J Bot. 2011;43(3):1445–52.

Caesalpinia decapetala (Roith) Alston FABACEAE C. M. Chaudhary, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Caesalpinia decapetala (Roith) Alston: Biancaea decapetala (Roth) O. Deg.; Biancaea scnadens Tod.; Biancaea sepiaria (Roxb.) Todaro; Caesalpinia cristata L.; Caesalpinia decapetala var. japonica (Siebold & Zucc.) H. Ohashi; Caesalpinia decapetala var. japonica (Siebold & Zucc.) Isley; Caesalpinia var. pubescens (Tang & F.T. Wang) P.C. Huang; Caesalpinia japonica Siebold & Zucc.; Caesalpinia sepiaria Roxb.; Caesalpinia sepiaria var. japonica (Siebold & Zucc.) Gagnep.; Caesalpinia sepiaria var. japonica (Siebold & Zucc.) Makino; Caesalpinia sepiaria C. M. Chaudhary Environmental Services Nepal Private Limited, Thapathali, Kathmandu, Nepal H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_43

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var. pubescens Tang & F.T. Wang; Reichardia decapetala Roth; Reichardia decapetala Wight ex Steud.

Local Names Caesalpinia decapetala: Malagasy: Roimainty, Roinombilahy, Tsiafakomby, Tsifakombilahy; South Africa: Kaffer-wag-n-bietjie, Kraaldoring, Mauritiusdoring; Hawaian: Puakelekino; Chinese: Ma tou, Tien tou, Yun shi, Yun shih; India: Aila, Airi, Alai, Arlu, Bara durghar, Cakkarakarakam, Cakkirakarakam, Cakkirakarakkoti, Cakkirakaram, Chilhar, Chillara, Chillari, Chillur, Goddakorinda, Gajalige, Gajalike, Gajalikke, Gajilikke, Gajjiga, Gilo, Goodda-korinda, Good-sige, Hunnula, Hunnulla, Ikai, Ikkai, Indu, Inga, Inku, Inna, Intai, Intu, Iraittu, Iraittumakkoti, Iraittumam, Iyacceti, Iyai, Iyakkoti, Kadinyindu, Kinder, Kanderi, Kando, Karacam, Karanj, Karanjika, Karongsi, Kathet, Kencige, Kenjige, Kilgach, Kingan, Kundugajjikai, Kurudu gejjuga, Kurudugajjida, Kurudugajjiga, Kurudugajjige, Kuruttugajjigai, Kurutugajjika, Puli tatukki, Pulitadukki, Pulitatukki, Pulithaduki-kodi, Pulithadukki, Pulititakki, Pulittodakki, Pulittotakki, Puliyukili, Puthadukki, Ralan, Relan, Relu, Sagargoti, Totari, Unalla, Undla, Uppili, Uri, Urn; Bhasa: Areuy mata hiyang gunung, Secang lembut; French: Arrete-boeuf, Bois sappan; Nepali: Arile kanda, Ulte kanda, Karanga, Lata, Arille, Lata kanda, Arari kanda, Arile; English: Mauritius thorn, Mysore thorn, Wait-a-bit, Water honey locust, Wild honey; Pashto: Jara ‫ﺝﺍړﻩ‬

Botany and Ecology Caesalpinia decapetala: Climbers, with copious prickles. Bark dull red. Branches, rachis of leaves, and inflorescence with recurved prickles and pubescent. Leaves 20– 30 cm; pinnae 3–10 pairs, opposite, with prickles in pairs at base; stipules obliquely ovate, apex acuminate, caducous; leaflets 8–12 pairs, oblong, 1–2.5 cm
6–12 mm, membranous, both surfaces puberulent, glabrescent when old, both ends obtuserounded. Racemes terminal, 15–30 cm, with abundant flowers; rachis densely prickly. Pedicels 3–4 cm, hairy, jointed at apex so flowers easily fall off. Sepals 5, oblong, puberulent. Petals reflexed at anthesis, yellow, orbicular or obovate, 1– 1.2 cm, membranous, base shortly clawed. Stamens subequal to petals in length; filaments compressed at base, lanate in lower part. Ovary glabrous. Legume chestnut-brown, shiny, oblong-ligulate, 6–12
2.5–3 cm, fragile-leathery, glabrous, dehiscent, and thickened to a narrow wing along ventral suture when ripe, apex prolonged into a sharp beak. Seeds 6–9, brown, elliptic, about 11
6 mm. Flowering and fruiting April–October (Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4). Caesalpinia decapetala occurs on bushy hillsides, uplands, and along streams in temperate and tropical regions (Hao et al. 2004). C. decapetala invades forest margins and gaps, plantations, roadsides, and watercourses (PIER 2002). In the Pacific, the plant is confined to dry to mesic lowland habitats (PIER 2002).

Caesalpinia decapetala (Roith) Alston Fig. 1 Caesalpinia decapetala (Fabaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 2 Caesalpinia decapetala (Fabaceae), Nawalparasi, Nepal. (Photo CM Chaudhary)

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Fig. 3 Caesalpinia decapetala (Fabaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 4 Caesalpinia decapetala (Fabaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

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Phytochemistry Aliphatic natural products: Eicosanoic acid (flower [Imamura et al. 1980]); Heptacosane (flower [Imamura et al. 1980]); Nonacosane (flower [Imamura et al. 1980]). Carbohydrates: 1-(4-Hydroxybenzoyl)glucose; β-D-form (flower [Imamura et al. 1980]). Simple aromatic natural products: Protosappanin A (wood [Namikoshi et al. 1987]); Protosappanin B (wood [Namikoshi et al. 1987]); Protosappanin C (wood [Namikoshi et al. 1987]). Flavonoids: Apigenin (stem [Imamura et al. 1980]); Brazilin; (+)-form (wood [Namikoshi et al. 1987]); Butein (wood [Namikoshi et al. 1987]); 30 -Deoxy-4-0-methylsappanol (wood [Namikoshi et al. 1987]); 3-(3,4-Dihydroxybenzylidene)-7-hydroxy-4-chromanone (wood [Namikoshi et al. 1987]); 40 ,7-dihydroxyflavone (stem [Imamura et al. 1980]); Episappanol (wood [Namikoshi et al. 1987]); Isoliquiritigenin (wood [Namikoshi et al. 1987]); 4–0Methylepisappanol (wood [Namikoshi et al. 1987]) 4–0-Methylesappanol (wood [Namikoshi et al. 1987]); Sappanchalcone (wood [Namikoshi et al. 1987]); Sappanol (wood [Namikoshi et al. 1987]); Sappanone B; ®-form (wood [Namikoshi et al. 1987]). Terpenoids: β-Carotene (flower [Imamura et al. 1980]). Steroids: β-Sitosterol (stem [Imamura et al. 1980]). Aminoacids and peptides: 2-Amino-3(3-carboxyphenyl)propanic acid; (S)-form (seed [Watson and Fowden 1973]); 2-Amino-4-ethylidenepentanedioic acid; (S)-(E)-form (seed [Watson and Fowden 1973]); 2-Piperidinecarboxylic acid; (S)-form (seed [Evans and Bell 1978; Watson and Fowden 1973]).

Local Medicinal Uses Caesalpinia decapetala: Seed powder is used for malaria (Shah et al. 2013). Seed paste is used to remove freckles from face (Shah et al. 2013). Plant root is used as a purgative (Hassan et al. 2020). Used in Ayurveda and Sidha. Bark decoction abortifacient. Roots, stems, and pods used for relieving pain. Roots purgative; roots juice decoction applied to treat sprain and muscular swellings. Leaves as emmenagogue; bruised leaves applied to burns. Seeds astringent, anthelmintic, analgesic, antipyretic, antimalarial; seeds and roots insecticide. Flowers infusion in bronchitis, asthma, and malarial fevers. Caesalpinia sepiaria leaves decoction given in stomach disorders. The roots of C. decapetala (Roth) Alston are used in folk medicine to treat bronchitis, prevent colds, and as an antimalarial agent (Wagner et al. 1999). A bath with decoction of C. decapetala is valuable for the treatment of jaundice (Bhadoriya et al. 2012). Leaves are used for the treatment of burns, biliousness and stomach disorders. Leaves and roots are also used as a purgative and emmenagogue. Other uses of C. decapetala are as laxative, tonic, anti-pyretic and carminative (Pawar and Surana 2010). The anti-oxidant, anti-tumor and antifertility activities of C. decapetala have been reported (Pawar and Surana 2010; Bhadoriya et al. 2012; Xiao et al. 2013). Anthelmintic, antiperiodic, astringent, febrifuge (Gupta 1945). The leaves are emmenagogue and laxative (Chopra et al. 1986; Department of Medicinal Plants 1993). They are applied externally to burns

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(Chopra et al. 1986; Department of Medicinal Plants 1993). The root is purgative (Chopra et al. 1986; Department of Medicinal Plants 1993), used for diarrhea (Waghchaure et al. 2006). The roots are employed for colds and rheumatic pain. The seeds are highly toxic (Ma et al. 2019). Caesalpinia volkensii: Decoction used for malaria (Beentje 1994; Kokwaro 2009). Leaf decoction also applied for pregnancy pain and stomach problems. Roots chewed or boiled as aphrodisiac. Buds crushed and applied for eye problems (Kokwaro 2009). Used as antimalarial (Njoroge and Bussmann 2006a). The root sap is inhaled in the nostrils to treat nose and throat problems (Njoroge and Bussmann 2006c). Caesalpinia bonducella serves as anthelminthic, febrifuge, and antibacterial agent (Kumar et al. 2006).

Local Food Uses Caesalpinia decapetala fruits can be eaten, but the seeds are toxic (Dangol et al. 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Caesalpinia decapetala: Caesalpinia decapetala is used as a landscaping plant as a hedge or an ornamental in China and elsewhere. The bitter tasting stems and roots can be used medicinally, while other parts of the plant are useful in the chemical industry (Hao et al. 2004). The fruits and bark are rich in tannin. With an oil content of 35%, the seeds serve as a source of lubricant and soap (Hao et al. 2004). Plants are often grown as field boundaries in Nepal (Manandhar 2002). An excellent hedge plant (Chopra et al. 1986). Wood-moderately hard (Gamble 1972). Environmental Uses include: Agroforestry; Boundary, barrier or support; soil improvement. It is used as an ornamental plant. Veterinary medicine, leaves given for sores in the mouth. This species has a symbiotic relationship with certain soil bacteria, these bacteria form nodules on the roots and fix atmospheric nitrogen. Some of this nitrogen is utilized by the growing plant but some can also be used by other plants growing nearby (Huxley 1992). The bark is a rich source of tannin (Gupta 1945; Manandhar 2002). Used as fishing poison (Kunwar et al. 2009, 2010). Planted as life fence (Mekonnen et al. 2015). Caesalpinia volkensii: The leaves are used in ethnoveterinary medicine (Njoroge and Bussmann 2006b). Caesalpinia sp.: The wood is used for tools, especially plows, and also as firewood (Bussmann et al. 2011).

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References Beentje H. Kenya trees and shrubs. Nairobi: National Museums of Kenya; 1994. Bhadoriya U, Sharma P, Solank SS. In vitro free radical scavenging activity of gallic acid isolated from Caesalpinia decapetala wood. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. 2012;2(Suppl 2):833–6. Bussmann RW, Swartzinsky P, Worede A, Evangelista P. Plant use in Odo-Bulu and Demaro, Bale region, Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2011;7:28. Chopra RN, Nayar SL, Chopra IC. Glossary of Indian medicinal plants (including the supplement). New Delhi: Council of Scientific and Industrial Research; 1986. Dangol DR, Maharjan KL, Maharjan SK, Acharya AK. Wild edible plants in Nepal. In: Joshi BK, Bahadur KCH, Acharya A, editors. Conservation and utilization of agricultural plant genetic resources of Nepal. Dhulikhel: NAGRC; 2017. p. 390–407. Department of Medicinal Plants, Nepal. Medicinal plants of Nepal. Government of Nepal, Kathmandu; 1993. Evans CS, Bell EA. ‘Uncommon’ amino acids in the seeds of 64 species of Caesalpinieae. Phytochemistry. 1978;17:1127–9. Gamble JS. A manual of Indian timbers. Dehr Dun: Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh; 1972. Gupta BL. Forest flora of Chakrata, Dehra Dun and Saharanpur. Dehra Dun: Forest Research Institute Press; 1945. Hao Z, Wu Y, Ding J, Binion D, Fu W, Reardon R. Invasive plants of Asian origin established in the United States and their natural enemies, vol. 1. USDA, Washington DC; 2004. Hassan N, Din MU, Hassan FU, Abdullah I, Zhu Y, Jinlong W, Shah SI. Identification and quantitative analyses of medicinal plants in Shahgram valley, district swat, Pakistan. Acta Ecol Sin. 2020;40(1):44–51. Huxley A. The new RHS dictionary of gardening. London: Macmillan Press; 1992. ISBN 0-333-47494-5. Kokwaro JO. Medicinal plants of East Africa. Nairobi: University of Nairobi Press; 2009. Kumar VP, Chauhan NS, Padh H, Raj M. Search for antibacterial and antifungal agents from selected Indian medicinal plants. J Ethnopharmacol. 2006;107:182–8. Kunwar RM, Upreti Y, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Indigenous use and ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in Far-west Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009;7:5–28. Kunwar RM, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants in farwest Nepal: their indigenous uses and pharmacological validity. Med Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010;4 (Special issue 1):28–42. Ma Y, Liu D, Cheng H, Bussmann RW, He H, Guo Z, Liu B. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by Miao people in Jijiezi, Yunnan, China. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019; 18(26). https:// doi.org/10.32859/era.18.26.1-14. Manandhar NP. Plants and people of Nepal. Oregon: Timber Press; 2002. ISBN 0-88192-527-6. Mekonnen T, Giday M, Kelbessa K. Ethnobotanical study of homegarden plants in Sebeta-Awas district of the Oromia Region of Ethiopia to assess use, species diversity and management practices. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2015;11:64. Namikoshi M, et al. Homoisoflavonoids and related compounds. IV. Absolute configurations of homoisoflavonoids from Caesalpinia sappan L. Chem Pharm Bull. 1987;35:3568–75. Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Phytotherapeutic management of diversity and utilization of antimalarial ethnophytotherapeutic remedies among the Kikuyus Central Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006a;2:8. Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Herbal usage and informant consensus in ethnoveterinary management of cattle diseases among the Kikuyus Central Kenya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2006b;108:332–9. Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Traditional management of ear, nose and throat ENT diseases in Central Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006c;2:54.

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Njoroge GN, Barbara G, Bussmann RW, Newton LE, Ngumi VW. Utilization of weed species as source of traditional medicines in Central Kenya: optimizing resource efficiency R.U.E. in agroecosystems. Lyonia. 2004;72:71–87. Pawar CR, Surana SJ. Optimizing conditions for gallic acid extraction from Caesalpinia decapetala wood. Pak J Pharm Sci. 2010;23:423–5. PIER (Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk). Caesalpinia decapetala. 2002. http://www.hear.org/pier/ species/caesalpinia_decapetala.htm. Shah GM, Jamal ZAFAR, Hussain M. Phytotherapy among the rural women of district Abbotabad. Pak J Bot. 2013;45:253–61. Waghchaure CK, Tetali P, Gunale VR, Antia NH, Bird TJ. Sacred groves of Parinche Valley of Pune district of Maharashtra, India and their importance. Anthropol Med. 2006;13(1):55–76. Wagner WL, Herbst DR, Sohmer SH. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii, vol. 2. New York: Bishop Museum Special Publication; 1999. p. 647. Watson R, Fowden L. Amino acids of Caesalpinia tinctoria and some allied species. Phytochemistry. 1973;12:617–22. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Xiao HW, Sheng JY, Na L, De YH, Lin HJ, Wei X. Chemical constituents of Caesalpinia decapetala (Roth) alston. Molecules. 2013;18:1325–36.

Caltha alba Cambess. Caltha palustris L. RANUNCULACEAE Hammad Ahmad Jan, Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

Synonyms Caltha alba Cambess.: Caltha palustris var. alba (Cambess.) Hook. f. & Thomson Caltha palustris L.: Caltha arctica R. Br.; Caltha asarifolia DC; Caltha cornuta Schott, Nyman & Kotschy; Caltha laeta Schott, Nyman & Kotschy; Caltha palustris ssp. arctica (R. Br.) Hultén; Caltha palustris ssp. asariifolia (DC.) Hultén; Caltha palustris var. arctica (R.Br.) Hutch.; Caltha palustris var. asariifolia (DC.) Hutsch., Caltha palustris var. flabelliformis (Pursh) Torr. & A. Gray; Caltha palustris var. palustris; Caltha palustris var. radicans (T.F. Forst.) A. Gray; Caltha radicans T.F. Forst

H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_44

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Local Names Caltha alba and Caltha palustris: Urdu: Pilling; Pashto: Makhan Path ‫;ﻣﺨﻦ ﭘﺖ‬ Jammu: Mameri, Mamiri, Tatnu, Panjali Kanval

Botany and Ecology Caltha alba: Perennial. Stems 20–60 cm high, stout, branched, glabrous. Basal leaves with long petioles and broadly ovate sheath, blade reniform, 4–15 cm wide, margin regularly, rather finely hooked or crenate, stem-leaves smaller, crenate or  irregularly sharply dentate, sessile or with a short petiole. Flowers white, 1–2 or forming few-flowered corymbs; 25–60 mm in diameter. Sepals 5–6, petaloid, narrowly obovate, obovate-oblong or oblong-lanceolate. Stamens numerous. Number of carpels 5–15. Mature follicles  erect, oblong, compressed,  straight for its larger part or convex on both sides, especially ventrally, 8–10 cm long (including style). Style sharply separated from ovary, subulate, ovary rarely tapering into the short narrowly triangular style. Seeds black, rarely brown, 1.6–1.7 ( 2.5) mm long, slightly asymmetrical. Pakistan and Kashmir. (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020) (Fig. 1). Caltha palustris: Perennial, stem stout 15–60 cm high, ascending, rarely documbent, with densely fibrous root-stock. Basal leaves long petioled, 71–2 cm wide, entirely or finely or coarsely toothed upper ones and sessile. Flowers yellow rarely white, 2.5–5 cm in diameter. Sepals 5–6, petaloid,  obovate-oblong or lanceolate. Follicles variable in number with variable length of style. Seeds oblong, black,  shining (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020).

Fig. 1 Caltha alba (Ranunculaceae), Pakistan. (Photo HA Jan)

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Local Medicinal Uses Caltha alba and Caltha palutsris: Used for wound healing (Majid et al. 2019), for muscular pain, skin problems, fever, and toothache (Kayani et al. 2015). To treat inflammation, cough, diuretic, urinary infections, antiseptic, cold, cough, fever, swelling, wounds, ascites, dropsy, and renal pain (Gairola et al. 2014). Leaves are used as a laxative (Akhtar et al. 2013). Root paste is used for toothache and muscular pain (Bano et al. 2014). The leaf powder is used for wounds healing (Majid et al. 2019). Flowering shoots are used as a laxative (Haq et al. 2011). Whole plant powder is used as antispasmodic (Hamayun et al. 2006). A root infusion is used as mouth wash; young shoots and leaves are cooked as vegetable for and considered as digestive (Khan et al. 2013). The extract of the whole plant used as antifebrile and purgative (Khan et al. 2016). Leaves are orally used to stop pain and cramps, for menstrual disorders, as a laxative and diuretic. The leaf extract is used for cleaning skin lesions and sores (Shaheen et al. 2012). Leaves of the plant are used as antispasmodic (Adnan et al. 2007). The plant used as antispasmodic and sedative. It is used to cure backache and costochondritis. The extraction of root used for cough, cold, and fever. It also used as poultice (Khan et al. 2015).

Local Food Uses Caltha alba and Caltha palusris: Sometimes eaten as vegetable (Dangol et al. 2017).

References Adnan SM, Hamayun M, Begum S, Lee IJ. Studies on ethnomedicinal knowledge, market assessment and conservation status of some socio-economically important medicinal plants of Roringar Valley, District Swat, Pakistan. Pakistan Phytopharm Nat Prod. 2007;1(1):67–72. Akhtar N, Rashid A, Murad W, Bergmeier E. Diversity and use of ethno-medicinal plants in the region of Swat, North Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1):25. Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan and Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995–2020. Bano A, Ahmad M, Hadda TB, Saboor A, Sultana S, Zafar M, Ashraf MA. Quantitative ethnomedicinal study of plants used in the skardu valley at high altitude of KarakoramHimalayan range, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2014;10(1):43. Dangol DR, Maharjan KL, Maharjan SK, Acharya AK. Wild edible plants in Nepal. In: Joshi BK, Bahadur KCH, Acharya A, editors. Conservation and utilization of agricultural plant genetic resources of Nepal. Dhulikhel: NAGRC; 2017. p. 390–407. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Hamayun M, Khan A, Afzal S, Khan MA. Study on traditional knowledge and utility of medicinal herbs of district Buner, NWFP, Pakistan. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2006;5(3):407–12.

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Haq F, Ahmad H, Alam M. Traditional uses of medicinal plants of Nandiar Khuwarr catchment (District Battagram), Pakistan. J Med Plants Res. 2011;5(1):39–48. Kayani S, Ahmad M, Sultana S, Khan Shinwari Z, Zafar M, Yaseen G, Hussain M, Bibi T. Ethnobotany of medicinal plants among the communitiesof alpine and sub-alpine regions of Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;164:186–202. Khan SM, Page S, Ahmad H, Shaheen H, Ullah Z, Ahmad M, Harper DM. Medicinal flora and ethnoecological knowledge in the Naran Valley, Western Himalaya, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1):4. Khan MT, Hashim S, Ayub S, Jan A, Marwat KB. A case stud of ethnobotany and biodiversity conservation from Tehsil Barawal, Upper Dir, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Pak J Bot. 2015;47(SI):7–13. Khan MT, Khan I, Khan MI, Hussain Z, Ayub S, Khan N, Khan IA. Ethnobotanical study of wild flora in the remote areas of Nothern Pakistan. Wulfania J. 2016;23(10):149–65. Majid A, Ahmad H, Saqib Z, Ur Rahman I, Khan U, Alam J, Hussain Shah A, Ahmad Jan S, Ali N. Exploring threatened traditional knowledge; ethnomedicinal studies of rare endemic flora from Lesser Himalayan region of Pakistan. Rev Bras. 2019;29(6):785–92. Shaheen H, Shinwari ZK, Qureshi RA, Ullah Z. Indigenous plant resources and their utilization practices in village populations of Kashmir Himalayas. Pak J Bot. 2012;44(2):739–45.

Cannabis sativa L. CANNABACEAE Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Cannabis sativa L.: Cannabis chinense Delile; Cannabis indica Lam.; Cannabis sativa var. indica (Lam.) E. Small & Cronquist

Local Names Cannabis sativa: Naga: Ganja; Punjabi and Jammu: Bhang; Kashmir: Bange, Bang, Bunga, Bangh, Charis; Pashto: Bang ‫ ;ﺏﻥ‬English: Hemp H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_45

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Botany and Ecology Cannabis sativa: Plants 1–3 m tall. Branchlets densely white pubescent. Stipules linear. Leaves alternate; petiole 2–7 cm; leaf blade abaxially whitish green, strigose, and with scattered brownish resinous dots, adaxially dark green and with cystoids hairs; leaflets usually lanceolate to linear, (3–)7–15  (0.2–)0.5–1.5( 2) cm with longest in middle, margin coarsely serrate, apex acuminate. Male inflorescences ca. 25 cm. Male flowers: yellowish green, nodding; pedicel 2–4 mm, thin; sepals ovate to lanceolate, 2.5–4 mm, membranous, with sparse prostrate hairs; petals absent; filament 0.5–1 mm; anthers oblong. Female inflorescences crowded in apical leaf axils among leaflike bracts and bracteoles. Female flowers: green, sessile; calyx sparsely pubescent; ovary globose,  enclosed by appressed calyx, surrounded closely by bract and bracteoles. Persistent bracts yellow. Achene flattened ovoid, 2–5 mm; pericarp crustaceous, finely reticulate. Flowering May–June, fruiting July (Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8).

Phytochemistry Alkaloids (THC, cannabin, cannabinine), tannins, essential oils, vitamins (C), fatty acids (Fedorov 1984). Fig. 1 Cannabis sativa (Cannabaceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Cannabis sativa (Cannabaceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Cannabis sativa (Cannabaceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses Cannabis sativa: is widely used medicinally, e.g., in the Himalayas of Pakistan for constipation, dysentery, as sedative, for snakebites, as intoxicant, to kill lice, as diuretic, purgative, and for asthma (Umair et al. 2019). The leaves are narcotic and

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Fig. 4 Cannabis sativa (Cannabaceae), La Paz, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Cannabis sativa (Cannabaceae), La Paz, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

are used as stimulant (Gilani et al. 2006). Leaves in bandage for wound healing; powdered leaves as anodyne, sedative, tonic, and narcotic; juice added with milk and nuts as a cold drink (“Tandai”) generating a pleasant excitement; “Charas” is also prepared from it (Akhtar et al. 2013). Used for boils, tonic, narcotic, sedative, anodyne, ulcer treatment, and cold and fever of cattle (Jan et al. 2017a). Leaf powder

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Fig. 6 Cannabis sativa (Cannabaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

Fig. 7 Cannabis sativa (Cannabaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

is used for abdominal pain (Jan et al. 2017b). Cannabis is also used for the treatment of number of condition including AIDS, multiple sclerosis, and thermotherapy induced nausea. Its decoction is used for the treatment of the cancer, neuro protection, fever, and high blood pressure. It cause hallucination when drunk in excessive quantity (Ch et al. 2013). Seeds are warmed and eaten as stimulant and tonic (Shah and Hussain 2012). The plant is used for throat infection, chest problems (Kayani et al. 2014). The leaves of Cannabis sativa are collected, dried, and ground. The powder is mixed with water and given twice a day to livestock to relieve abdominal pain (Khan et al. 2011). The plant is used for cough, bronchitis, and chest pain (Shuaib et al. 2019). The leaf extract is used for skin diseases and scabies.

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Fig. 8 Cannabis sativa (Cannabaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

The flower infusion was traditionally used for toothache (Bussmann et al. 2019). Cannabis is widely used medicinally, e.g., in the Himalayas of Pakistan for constipation, dysentery, as sedative, for snakebites, as intoxicant, to kill lice, as diuretic, purgative, and for asthma (Umair et al. 2019). To treat constipation, dysentery, as sedative, to treat snakebites, as diuretic, purgative, and for asthma (Umair et al. 2019), as well as for stomachache (Kichu et al. 2015). For mood disorders and as analgesic (Mohagheghzadeh and Faridi 2006). The leaf juice can be used to control bleeding and for wound healing (Kunwar et al. 2010). In Jammu and Kashmir for alopecia, as anthelmintic, appetizer, to treat arthritis, as blood purifier, against cholera, dandruff, diarrhea, as diuretic, to remedy gastro-enteritis, menstrual disorders, piles, rheumatism, scorpion stings, skin diseases, urinary infections, toothache, as analgesic, to treat cholera, and as sedative (Gairola et al. 2014).

Local Food Uses Cannabis sativa: The seeds are eaten in the Ural and Caucasus and are an ingredient for Svanetian salt (Bussmann et al. 2019). Seeds used for oil and as snack (Zhang et al. 2016). Dried leaves and seeds are used as food in Nepal (Dangol et al. 2017).

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses Cannabis sativa: Whole plant extract is effective cure of livestock dysentery. It is also used for making hashish (Shah and Hussain 2012). Use for euphoria, sedation, and hypnosis. Plant dried and burnt to protect the family members from bad intentions of other people. It is used as narcotic and stimulant (Khan et al. 2015). The stem fibers are traditionally used to make ropes and sacks, packing, strings, nets, canvas, lacework. Poisonous to horses and pigs. The fibers are used to make rope (Bussmann et al. 2019). Also used as narcotic, and to kill external parasites like lice (Gairola et al. 2014; Umair et al. 2019).

References Akhtar N, Rashid A, Murad W, Bergmeier E. Diversity and use of ethno-medicinal plants in the region of Swat, North Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1):25. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D. Cannabis sativa L. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions far Eastern Europe. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2019. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77088-8_33-2. Ch MI, Ahmed F, Maqbool M, Hussain T. Ethnomedicinal inventory of flora of maradori valley, district forward Khahuta, Azad Kashmir, Pakistan. Am J Res Commun. 2013;1(6):239–61. Dangol DR, Maharjan KL, Maharjan SK, Acharya AK. Wild edible plants in Nepal. In: Joshi BK, Bahadur KCH, Acharya A, editors. Conservation and utilization of agricultural plant genetic resources of Nepal. Dhulikhel: NAGRC; 2017. p. 390–407. Fedorov AA, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 1. Families Magnoliaceae – Limoniaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1984. 460 p. (in Russian). Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Gilani SA, Qureshi RA, Gilani SJ. Indigenous uses of some important ethnomedicinal herbs of Ayubia National Park, Abbottabad, Pakistan. Ethnobot Leaflets. 2006;2006(1):32. Jan HA, Wali S, Ahmad L, Jan S, Ahmad N, Ullah N. Ethnomedicinal survey of medicinal plants of Chinglai valley, Buner district, Pakistan. Eur J Integr Med. 2017a;13:64–74. Jan HA, Jan S, Ahmad N, Aysha M. Ethno-medicinal survey of indigenous medicinal plants used by the local population of Goleen Valley, Chitral, Pakistan. SM J Med Plant Stud. 2017b;1(1):1–8. Kayani S, Ahmad M, Zafar M, Sultana S, Khan MPZ, Ashraf MA, Yaseen G. Ethnobotanical uses of medicinal plants for respiratory disorders among the inhabitants of Gallies – Abbottabad, Northern Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;156:47–60. Khan N, Ahmed M, Ahmed A, Shaukat SS, Wahab M, Ajaib M, Nasir M. Important medicinal plants of chitral gol National park (cgnp) Pakistan. Pak J Bot. 2011;43(2):797–809. Khan SM, Din NU, Sohail IU, Rahman FI, Iqbal Z, Ali Z. Ethnobotanical study of some medicinal plants of Tehsil Kabal, District Swat, KP, Pakistan. Med Aromat Plants. 2015;4(189):2167– 0412. Kichu A, Malewska T, Akter K, Imchen I, Harrington D, Kohen J, Vemulpad SR, Jamie JF. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of Chungtia village, Nagaland, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;166:5–17. Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Bussmann RW. Traditional herbal medicine in Far-west Nepal: a pharmacological appraisal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:35. Mohagheghzadeh A, Faridi P. Medicinal smokes. J Ethnopharmacol. 2006;108:161–84.

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Shah SM, Hussain F. Ethnomedicinal plant wealth of Mastuj valley, Hindukush range, District Chitral, Pakistan. J Med Plant Res. 2012;6:4328–37. Shuaib M, Ahmed S, Ali K, Ilyas M, Hussain F, Urooj Z, Hussain F. Ethnobotanical and ecological assessment of plant resources at District Dir, Tehsil Timergara, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Acta Ecol Sin. 2019;39(1):109–15. Umair M, Altaf M, Bussmann RW, Abbasi AM. Ethnomedicinal uses of the local flora in Chenab riverine area, Punjab province Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2019;15:7. https://doi.org/10. 1186/s13002-019-0285-4. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Zhang L, Chai Z, Zhang Y, Geng Y, Wang Y. Ethnobotanical study of traditional edible plants used by the Naxi people during droughts. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:39. https://doi.org/10. 1186/s13002-016-0113-z.

Capparis spinosa L. CAPPARACEAE Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Capparis spinosa L.: Capparis murrayana J. Graham

Local Names Capparis spinosa: Chitrali: Kaveer; Baltistan: Loi margan; English: Caper H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_46

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Botany and Ecology Capparis spinosa: Perennial with vertical root up to 10–12 m long; stems numerous, prostrate, up to 1.5 m long; the stipules are straight or curved yellowish spines; leaves rounded-obovate or elliptic, sometimes acuminate at apex, with short petioles, young leaves and branch tips often covered with white tomentose hairs. Flowers 5– 8 cm in diameter, solitary, axillary, borne on pedicels which frequently exceed the length of the adjoining leaf; calyx of acuminate -ovate concave sepals bearing short hairs on the outside; petals up to 4 cm long, pale rose, white, or rarely light yellowish, gynophore 3–5 cm long; capsule oblong -obovate 2.5–4.5 cm long and 1.5–3 cm broad, tapering in lower part; seeds 3 mm across, grayish brown, punctate. Flowering May–August, fruiting June–August. Ural, especially in the southern Ural extensions and Crimea, Caucasus, Central Middle Asia. Found mostly on sandy soils, along the banks of rivers and lakes, sometimes on old fallow agricultural land, from the plains to the medium-mountain belt. (Bobrov and Bush 1939). Regarded as rare (Jan et al. 2019) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4). Traditionally this species has been remained an important component of Chitrali society cuisine as well as remedy for a variety of human ailments in Chitral. Until in the recent past, there was no conservation issue regarding this species and the plant used to grow abundantly in the foothills and slopes of Chitral. During the last decade, there is drastic decline in the population of this specie in its natural habitat has been observed. It is mainly because of prolong drought conditions and increase in human as well as livestock population in the region. Moreover, the people also become more aware regarding the importance of this specie as medicine as well as food and source of income for the poor people, thus the over exploitation got impetus over a couple of years and because of this species is rapidly declining in the region. Fig. 1 Capparis spinosa (Capparaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

Capparis spinosa L. Fig. 2 Capparis spinosa (Capparaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hassan Sher and Ikram Ur-Rakman)

Fig. 3 Capparis spinosa (Capparaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 4 Capparis spinosa (Capparaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

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Phytochemistry Essential oils, flavonoids, vitamins (C, carotene), alkaloids (stakhydrine, sticjydrine), flavonoids (rutine, quercetine, kaempferol, rutenoside), isothiocyanates (glucleomine, lucocaparine), mustard-oil (Sokolov 1985).

Local Medicinal Uses Capparis spinosa: The plant is also used to treat typhoid and fever (Sher et al. 2016). Fruit of the plant is used as cathartic and antheliminthic, oral contraceptive, and skin diseases (Shah and Khan 2006). Fruit is used as diuretic, dropsy, and joint pain and Root decoction is used for anemia and kidney disinfectants (Bano et al. 2014). Floral buds, meshed with wheat flour, are cooked and eaten to cure fever. Floral buds are soaked in water and taken to treat fever. Root bark is diuretic and expectorant. Used in paralysis, rheumatism, and enlarged spleen. Used for arteriosclerosis, kidney disinfectants, and tonic (Shedayi and Gulshan 2012). The floral buds meshed with wheat flour are cooked to prepare Kaveerogh, which is taken orally to cure typhoid fever. The aqueous extract from floral buds also cures typhoid. The leaves are used as fodder. The flesh fruits are applied as face cosmetics (Khan et al. 2011). A decoction of the floral buds is used to treat typhoid fever and malaria. The vegetable made of the floral buds is considered one of the famous gifts of Chitrali people to the rest the country (Sher et al. 2016). Flower is used for typhoid fever and Fruit is used as face cosmetics (Jan et al. 2017a, b). Leaves are used for arthritis and back ache (Abbas et al. 2017). Flower decoction is used for stomach pain (Wali et al. 2019a). Seed oil used in backache, sciatica, rheumatism, and anti-dandruff (Khan et al. 2013). The unexpanded of half expanded floral buds of kaveer are collected and put in an earthen vessel with water and kept in the roof top under the open sky for atleast 7 days. The floral buds are then separated from the water, dried and stored. A very popular vegetable is prepared from these floral buds locally called kaveerogh, which is used as food. This kaveerogh is also given to the typhoid and malaria sufferers. The water from the earthen vessels is also considered to be very effective against typhoid, malaria, and abdominal pain. The dried fruit locally called Chuntique is collected and mashed up, with few drops of water, and with pestle and mortar into a thick paste. From this paste, small balls are made, dried and stored. These balls later on are used for face pack (puru) to cleanse and clear the face from pimples as well as sun block “Parpi”, a legendary drug, is allegedly collected from the root tip of caper (kaveer) and is, according to local hakeems the remedy of every kind of ailments and diseases. Kaveer is xerophytic and deeprooted species and it is very difficult to dig out the root tip from the soil and is very rarely accessible. Capers are said to reduce flatulence and to be anti-rheumatic in effect. In Ayurvedic system of medicine, Capers are recorded as hepatic stimulants and protectors, improving liver function. Capers have reported uses for arteriosclerosis, as diuretics, as kidney disinfectants, vermifuges and tonics. Capers contain considerable amounts of antioxidant bioflavinoid rutin. The root bark is analgesic,

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anthelmintic, anti hemorrhoidal, aperients, deobstruent, depurative, diuretic emmenagogue, expectorant, tonic, and vasoconstrictive. It is used internally in the treatment of gastrointestinal infections, diarrhea, gout, and rheumatism. Externally, it is used to treat skin conditions, capillary weakness, and easy bruising. The bark is harvested in the autumn and dried for later use. The stem bark is bitter and diuretic. If taken before meals it will increase the appetite. The unopened flower buds are laxative. They are used internally in the treatment of coughs, and externally to treat eye infections. They are harvested before the flowers open and can be pickled for later use. When prepared correctly they are said to ease stomach pain. A decoction of the plant is used is used to treat vaginal thrush. The leaves are bruised and applied as a poultice in the treatment of gout. Used to treat sciatica, rheumatism, backache, as diuretic, to prevent dandruff,and against arthritis (Wali et al. 2019a). The plant showed antileishmanial activity (Rocha et al. 2005). Also used to treat hemorrhoids, as diuretic, for menopausal problems, diarrhea, and gout (Miraldi et al. 2001). To remedy rheumatism, as carminative, for headache, to reduce blood fat and sugar, and treat digestive disorders (Ghorbani 2005), and kidney ailments (Akgul et al. 2018). Most commonly the use is against rheumatism (Adams et al. 2009; Kala 2002, 2005). Capparis tomentosa: Toxic but widely used in traditional medicine throughout the, distribution area of the species. Root powder and root decoctions are taken to treat rheumatism, colds, cough, tuberculosis, apoplexy, stomach complaints, diarrhea, rectal prolapse, schistosomiasis, gonorrhea, syphilis, leprosy, endometritis, menorrhagia, sterility and threatened abortion, and as anodyne, diuretic, anthelmintic, and poison antidote. Also used as emetic, for abdominal pain, cough, and chest pains. Must be used very carefully because the plant is highly toxic (Beentje 1994; Kokwaro 2009). Grounded or powdered roots are applied to wounds, swellings, abscesses, and snakebites, and to treat headache, migraine, skin diseases, and eye complaints including conjunctivitis, ophthalmia, and cataract. Root decoctions are added to baths against hemorrhoids. The smoke of burning bark powder is inhaled to treat tuberculosis, bronchitis, and chest pain. Leaf decoctions are applied to treat skin diseases and wounds, and are taken to treat hepatitis, malaria, convulsions, angina, venereal diseases, asthma, and leprosy. Root macerations are given to cattle to treat diarrhea, whereas a paste made of root ash is applied to udder inflammations. The roots have been used in the preparation of arrow poison and in meat to poison animals. The species is one of the best-known woody species with magico-medicinal properties, and it is commonly used in ritual ceremonies. Leaf decoction used for asthma (Kokwaro 2009). The smoke is used to treat respiratory disorders (Mohagheghzadeh and Faridi 2006). The roots are burnt to treat postpartum bleeding, and tied around the neck for epilepsy (Giday et al. 2007, 2009). The plant is applied externally for skin diseases (Giday et al. 2003). Chewed leaves applied to wounds and burns (Bussmann 2006). Capparis fascicularis is used for toothache (Wondimu et al. 2007). The stems are also used to treat wounds and external injuries, the roots to treat stomachache (Teklehaymanot and Giday 2010). Capparis erythrocarpos is applied to wounds (Giday et al. 2010).

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Capparis spinosa: A decoction of the floral buds is used three times a day for 15 days to treat typhoid fever and malaria. The vegetable made of the floral buds is considered one of the famous gifts of Chitrali people to the rest the country (Bussmann et al. 2020; Sher et al. 2016). Capparis sicula: The roots are in folk medicine used against rheumatisms and brucellosis. Fruits are used as compress for lumbago and sciatica. In Armenian folk medicine, a decoction of the fruit is used for diseases of the thyroid, goiter, hemorrhoids, scurvy, against dental pain. Fresh roots are mashed and a thick mass is applied as poultice for relief of pains and treatment in rheumatism, also for massaging ill joints. Immature fruits are used in the same way, mixed with the fruits of walnut and henna. An infusion of leaves and root is used for bathing of children with rheumatism. The leaves are prepared as water infusion, and the decoction is used for the treatment of eczema, wounds and ulcers. An ointment is prepared from flowers and rhizome and applied for wound healing. Internal diseases: The fruits of capers are used in diseases of the heart, thyroid gland, liver, lien, and gastrointestinal tract, either independently or as infusion in grape vinegar. Leaves with twigs, together with cherry are marinated in salted water and can be stored and used for reducing blood sugar in diabetes. Seeds in a water decoction are applied as antimalarial. An infusion and decoction of leaves, shoots, and roots as well as fruits, and their juice, are used as analeptic. The infusion of twigs with leaves with addition of sour cherry and fennel are used in the treatment of jaundice. The water decoction of the root is used as laxative. The fresh of the fruits or mature marinated fruits are used to internally to treat hemorrhoids (Mehdiyeva et al. 2017). Capparis scabrida fruits are used fresh for inflammation (general), heart palpitation, refresh the liver, reduces anxiety, also good to increase milk production in cows (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010a; Bussmann and Glenn 2011; Paniagua-Zambrana and Bussmann 2020; Rodriguez et al. 2007). The species is also used for respiratory disorders (Bussmann and Glenn 2010). Capparis has slight antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2008, 2009, 2010b, 2011a). Medicinally, the species is mostly used in mixture with other plants (Bussmann et al. 2010c). Both species show toxicity (Bussmann et al. 2011b).

Local Food Uses Capparis spinosa: The flower buds are pickled and used as a flavoring in sauces, salads, etc. The young fruits and tender branch tips can also be pickled and used as a condiment. The flower buds are harvested in the early morning and wilted before pickling them in white vinegar (Bussmann et al. 2020; Dangol et al. 2017). Capparis tomentosa: The leaves are sometimes eaten as a vegetable after cooking in times of food shortage. The fruits can also be eaten (Bussmann 2006). Capparis sicula: Buds in salt marinade are used as flavoring agent and appetizers. The young fruits are used fresh, salted or dried. The plant is known as spicy seasoning. Marinated young shoots, buds, and fruits are used in food (Mehdiyeva et al. 2017).

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses Capparis spinosa: Fruit of the plant is used to make red dye (Shah and Khan 2006). The fruit pulp is applied on face as sunscreen (Shah and Hussain 2012). In-situ conservation by creating awareness regarding the importance of this species among the community and capacity building of the key members of the community in conservation and sustainable management of economically important plant species in the region. Directorate of Non-Timber Forest Products, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Forest Department has conserved this specie in various areas of chitral Economic value: Dioscorides mentioned capers as being a marketable product of the ancient Greeks. Locally dried capers are being sold Rs 1000 to 1500 per kg (dried). Capparis tomentosa: The foliage is browsed by camels and goats, although it has been recorded as toxic to most livestock. The fruit has been reported to be edible and even popular with children, but also to be poisonous to man and many animals. The press-cake made from the seeds is fed to cattle. Stems and branches are used as firewood. Cut branches are sometimes planted to make life fences. It is also a decorative plant for gardens. Also sued to prevent evil eye Teklehaymanot et al. 2007; Teklehaymanot 2009), and given to livestock against anthrax (Teklehaymanot 2009). The species is eaten by livestock and used for construction and fences (Bussmann 2006). Capparis fascicularis is poisonous (Bussmann et al. 2006). Capparis erythrocarpos smoke is also used for evil eye (Giday et al. 2010). Capparis scabrida is widely used to make utensils (Rodriguez Rodriguez et al. 2007). Capparis sicula: Roots are using in traditional handcrafts as source of dark green dye for silk. Black color is obtained from the root, dark green from stems, for dyeing silk and wool. The shrub can be planted on slopes along the road to prevent erosion (Mehdiyeva et al. 2017).

References Abbas Z, Khan SM, Alam J, Khan SW, Abbasi AM. Medicinal plants used by inhabitants of the Shigar Valley, Baltistan region of Karakorum range-Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13(1):53. Adams M, Berset C, Kessler M, Hamburger M. Medicinal herbs for the treatment of rheumatic disorders – a survey of European herbals from the 16th and 17th century. J Ethnopharmacol. 2009;121:343–59. Akgul A, Akgul A, Senol SG, Yildirim H, Secmen O, Dogan Y. An ethnobotanical study in Midyat (Turkey), a city on the silk road where cultures meet. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14:12. https:// doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0201-8. Bano A, Ahmad M, Hadda TB, Saboor A, Sultana S, Zafar M, Ashraf MA. Quantitative ethnomedicinal study of plants used in the skardu valley at high altitude of KarakoramHimalayan range, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2014;10(1):43. Beentje H. Kenya trees and shrubs. Nairobi: National Museums of Kenya; 1994. Bobrov EG, Bush NA. Flora of the USSR, Volume 8: Capparidaceae, Cruceriferae and Resedaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1939 (English 1970). 524 pages, 34 b/w plates, 2 maps.

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Bussmann RW. Ethnobotany of the Samburu of Mt. Nyiru, South Turkana, Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:35. Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Traditional Peruvian medicine for the treatment of respiratory disorders. Rev Peru Biol. 2010;17(2):331–46. Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Fighting pain. Traditional Peruvian remedies for the treatment of Asthma, Rheumatism, Arthritis and sore bones. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2011;10(3):397–412. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in Northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing culture. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:47. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of the four winds – The magic and medicinal flora of Peru. Plantas de los cuatro vientos – La flora mágica y medicinal del Perú. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007. ISBN 978-0-9789962-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Medicinal plants of the Andes and the Amazon – the magic and medicinal flora of Northern Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015a. ISBN 978-0-9960231-2-2. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plantas medicinales de los Andes y la Amazonía – La flora mágica y medicinal del Norte de Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015b. ISBN 978-09960231-3-9. Bussmann RW, Gilbreath GG, Lutura M, Lutuluo R, Kunguru K, Wood N, Mathenge S. Plant use of the Maasai of Sekenani Valley, Maasai Mara, Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:22. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Perez F, Díaz D, Ford T, Rasheed T, Silva R. Antibacterial activity of Northern-Peruvian medicinal plants – a low cost laboratory approach to assess biological activity. Arnaldoa. 2008;15(1):127–48. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Diaz D, Cardenas R, Chait G, Castro M, Regalado S, Del Toro C, R., Malca G., G., Perez A, F., Glenn, A. Antibacterial activity of medicinal plant species in Northern Peru. Arnaldoa. 2009;16(1):93–103. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Glenn A. Healing the body, healing the soul. Traditional remedies for “magical” ailments, nervous system and psychosomatic disorders in Northern Peru. Afr J Pharm Pharmacol. 2010a;4(9):580–629. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Sharon D. Antibacterial activity of medicinal plants of Northern Peru – can traditional applications provide leads for modern science? Indian J Tradit Med. 2010b;9(4):742–53. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Herbal mixtures in traditional medicine in Northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010c;6(10) Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Sharon D, Chait G, Díaz D, Pourmand K, Jonat B, Somogy S, Guardado G, Aguirre C, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Antibacterial activity of Northern Peruvian medicinal plants. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2011a;9:67–96. Bussmann RW, Malca G, Glenn A, Sharon D, Nilsen B, Parris B, Dubose D, Ruiz D, Saleda J, Martinez M, Carillo L, Walker K, Kuhlman A, Townesmith A. Toxicity of medicinal plants used in Northern Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011b;137:121–40. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z. Capparis spinosa L. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions Central Asia and Altai. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020. Dangol DR, Maharjan KL, Maharjan SK, Acharya AK. Wild edible plants in Nepal. In: Joshi BK, Bahadur KCH, Acharya A, editors. Conservation and utilization of agricultural plant genetic resources of Nepal. Dhulikhel: NAGRC; 2017. p. 390–407. Ghorbani A. Studies on pharmaceutical ethnobotany in the region of Turkmen Sahra, north of Iran (part 1): general results. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102:58–68. Giday M, Asfaw Z, Elmqvist T, Woldu Z. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by the Zay people in Ethiopia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2003;85:43–52. Giday M, Teklehaymanot T, Animut A, Mekonnen Y. Medicinal plants of the Shinasha, Agew-awi and Amhara peoples in northwest Ethiopia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;110:516–525.

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Carex canescens L. Carex cardiolepis Nees Carex cruenta Nees CYPERACEAE Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

Synonyms Carex canescens L.: Carex canescens var. alpicola Wahlenb.; Carex canescens var. curta Macloskie; Carex canescens var. dubia L.H. Bailey; Carex canescens var. fallax Kurtz; Carex canescens var. robustior Blytt ex Andersson; Carex cinerea Pollich; Carex curta Gooden.; Carex curta var. robustior (Kük.) B. Boivin; Carex richardii Thuill.; Carex similis d’Urv.; Carex skottsbergii Gand

Botany and Ecology Carex canescens: Rhizome short. Culms tufted, 25–50 cm tall, erect, trigonous, scabrous above, clothed at base with brown bladeless sheaths. Leaves shorter than culm, blades 2–3 mm wide, flat, margins scabrous. Involucral bracts glumelike, H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_47

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proximal ones sometimes setaceous. Spikes 4–7, gynaecandrous, ovate-oblong, 6–10  3–4 mm; upper spikes congested, lower ones remote. Female glumes pale, ovate, about 2 mm, membranous, 1-veined, apex acute. Utricles green-brown, slightly longer than glume, ovate or elliptic, plano-convex, 2–2.2  about 1.2 mm, membranous, glabrous, minutely tuberculate, brown-purple 5–12-veined on both faces, base subrounded, spongy, shortly stipitate, apex abruptly contracted into a slightly scabrous short beak, orifice emarginate. Nutlets tightly enveloped, elliptic or ovate, plano-convex, about 1.5 mm, base shortly stipitate; style base not thickened; stigmas 2. Flowering and fruiting June–August (Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4). Carex cardiolepis: Rhizome obliquely ascending, ligneous, stout. Culms densely tufted, 20–40 cm tall, about 1 mm thick, slightly scabrous. Leaves slightly shorter than or nearly equaling culm, elongating after flowering, flat or plicate, blades 1–2 mm with soft, dark brown persistent sheaths at base. Involucral bracts

Fig. 1 Carex stellata (Cyperaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Carex canescens L. . . .

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Fig. 2 Carex sp. (Cyperaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

spathelike, sheaths green, membranous on margin, shortly leafy at apex. Spikes 3 or 4, remote, rarely lowermost one basal; terminal spike male, clavate-cylindric, 1.5–2 cm, 2–2.5 mm thick, densely many flowered; lateral spikes 2 or 3, female, cylindric, 1–2 cm, about 3 mm thick, laxly many flowered; peduncles filiform, very long exserted from involucral bract sheath. Female glumes brownish laterally, green at middle, obovate-oblong or oblong, 4.3–4.7 mm, papery, 3-veined, margins white hyaline, apex rounded or emarginate, with scabrous awn. Utricles greenish, shorter than or equaling glume, obovate-oblong, inflated trigonous, 4–4.5 mm, papery, densely pubescent, 2-veined laterally and thinly several veined, base gradually narrowed into a short stipe, apex abruptly contracted into a recurved and short beak, orifice entire. Nutlets obovate-oblong, 2.5–2.8 mm, trigonous, base shortly stipitate, apex with recurved and short beak; style base slightly thickened; stigmas 3. Flowering and fruiting May–September (Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Figs. 5, 6, 7, and 8).

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Fig. 3 Carex sp. (Cyperaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Carex cruenta: Rhizome creeping. Culms 20–75 cm tall, erect, acutely trigonous, slender, slightly pendent, clothed at base with brown sheaths. Leaves shorter than culm, blades linear, 3–4 mm wide, flat. Lower involucral bracts leaflike, shorter than inflorescence, long sheathing, upper ones glumelike. Spikes 4–7; upper 1–3 male or mixed with female flowers, sometimes gynaecandrous; remaining spikes female, oblong, 1.5–3 cm, densely many flowered, pendent, with slender peduncles 2–7 cm. Female glumes dark sanguineous, ovate or lanceolate, about 4 mm, midrib stramineous, apex acuminate. Utricles longer than glume, narrowly lanceolate, upper margins scabrous. Nutlets narrowly elliptic, base long stipitate; style base not thickened; stigmas 3. Flowering and fruiting June–July (Wu et al. 1994–2013).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Carex sp. are essentially used as fodder, and straw, sometimes as stuffing for shoes, and also sometimes as thatch.

Carex canescens L. . . . Fig. 4 Carex sp. (Cyperaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Carex sp. (Cyperaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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466 Fig. 6 Carex sp. (Cyperaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 7 Carex sp. (Cyperaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 8 Carex sp. (Cyperaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

References Wu Z, Raven, P.H., Hong D. eds. 1994–2013. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/ Missouri Botanical Garden Press.

Carum carvi L. Carum copticum (L.) Benth. & Hook. f. APIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Carum carvi L.: Carvi careum Bubani Carum gracile Lindl.; Carum rosellum Woronow; Apium carvi Crantz.; Foeniculum carvi (L.) Link Carum copticum (L.) Benth. & Hook. f.: Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague

Local Names Carum carvi: Ladakh: Zeera karpo, Cgagma, Go-sNyod; Khonat, Kosginit, Kosnyot, Kumblik, Seera-karpo, Umbu, Zeera-Karpo; Nepali: Kai jeera (Kunwar et al. 2019); Chinese: 葛缕子 (ge lü zi); English: Caraway

Botany and Ecology Carum carvi: A perennial or biennial herb, erect, and entirely glabrous. Root is spindle-shaped and fleshy. Stems 20–80 cm tall, angled and with ridges. Lower leaves narrow, triangular to oblong and 2-pinnately compound. End segments ovate R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_48

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and deeply lobed. The petiole is shorter than the rachis. Upper leaves sheathing around stem. Leaves with whitish membranous margins, deeply lobed and 2-pinnately compound. Inflorescence of 8–16 rays. Leaves absent from base of inflorescence. Flowers pinkish-white. Fruit to 4 mm long, oblong to ovoid, glabrous with ridges and a blunt tip. Fruit bears persistent styles that are recurved and short. Flowers and fruits from June to July. Found at the edges of open conifer forests, or mixed forests. Found in damp meadows, around houses, and in fields, 1300–4000 m. This species is widely cultivated. Everywhere in Caucasus, most of Europe, North Africa, and Far East and the Himalayas. Introduced to North America and New Zealand. Carum carvi prefers warm, sunny locations and well-drained soil rich in organic matter. In warmer regions, it is planted in the winter months as an annual. In temperate climates, it is planted as a summer annual or biennial. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, on floodplains, the dry valleys, meadows, glades, forest fringes, often on degraded land, along roads (Shishkin 1950) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4). Carum copticum: Plants annual, 20–50(–90) cm, essentially glabrous. Leaves petiolate, petiole 1–5 cm; blade triangular-ovate in outline, 2–8  2–6 cm, 2–3pinnate/pinnatisect; ultimate segments linear–filiform to 15  0.2–0.5 mm. Umbels

Fig. 1 Carum caucasicum (Apiaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Carum carvi L. . . .

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Fig. 2 Carum caucasicum (Apiaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

2.5–5 cm across; bracts 3–8, linear-subulate, 5–7 mm; rays 6–20, 1–3 cm; bracteoles 5–10, linear, 2–3 mm; umbellules about 1 cm across, about 20-flowered; pedicels 0.5–4 mm, unequal. Calyx teeth conspicuous, minute, ovate or obsolete. Petals about 1.3  1.3 mm. Fruit 1.2–2  1.2–1.8 mm, densely covered in whitish minute papillae. Flowering and fruiting May–August (Wu et al. 1994–2013).

Phytochemistry Carbohydrates (umbelliferosis), essential oils (a-pinene, camphenum, y-terpeneene, p-cymol, cadinene, carveol, dihydrocarvone, carvon, a-flalandrane, y-terpinen, mentol, terpine, myristicine, sabinene, a-flalandrane, limonene, y-terpinene, camphor, caryophyllene), coumarins, flavonoids (quercetine, isoramnetin), vitamins (C), flavonoids (kaempferol, quercetine, isoquercetine, rutine), steroids (stigmasterol), phenylcarboxylic acids, coumarins (umbelliferone, scopoletine, herniarine) (Sokolov 1988).

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Fig. 3 Carum caucasicum (Apiaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses Carum carvi: Used for stomach problems (Sher et al. 2016). The extract is good for swellings, as antibacterial, anthelminthic, calmative, and for uterine problems (Kunwar et al. 2010). The seeds are used as sedative, expectorant, diuretic, with flatulence, as carminative, laxative, for bronchial asthma, fevers, and eczema. Carum carvi fruits are used as hypotensive, stimulant, diuretic, antispasmodic, antihelminthic mean. In folk medicine of Armenia an infusion of the fruits is used for functional disorders of the gastrointestinal tract of nervous nature, for diseases of liver and gallbladder, as well as for the treatment of inflammation of the respiratory tract. Carum carvi is used for intestinal diseases; the decoction and infusion of the fruits are applied as laxative and for carminative means. Other use, a decoction of the fruits is also applied as sedative, expectorant, diuretic and anthelminthic. A tincture made from the seeds is used for heartburn and diarrhea (Liu and Bussmann 2020;

Carum carvi L. . . .

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Fig. 4 Carum carvi (Apiaceae), Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Bussmann 2017; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017). Also for stomach problems (Sher et al. 2016). The extract is good for swellings, as antibacterial, anthelminthic, calmative, and for uterine problems (Kunwar et al. 2010, 2016). Used in Daodi medicine (Liu et al. 2016), and very commonly used in the Middle East (Gurib Fakim 2006), especially to lower blood pressure (Gilani and Rahman 2005). Used also as memory enhancer (Adams et al. 2007). Helps with irritable bladder and promotes urination (Ballabh et al. 2008). Used in Ladakh for abdominal pain, abdominal ailments, as carminative, galactagogue, for leukorrhea, menstrual disorders, as stomachic, to treat colds, nose pain, as stimulant, for stomach ache, as tonic, appetizer, bladder irritation, cough, dyspepsia, as febrifuge, to reduce fever, for gastric disorders, gynecological disorders, to promote urination, as stomachic (Gairola et al. 2014). Carum copticum: Used to treat snakebites (Houghton and Osibogun 1993). Mentioned in classic Greek medicinal texts (Grivas 2018). Employed for gynecological problems, mood disorders, and as analgesic (Mohagheghzadeh and Faridi 2006).

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Fig. 5 Carum carvi (Apiaceae), drying for winter, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Food Uses Carum carvi: The seeds are widely used as spice, for sweets, for fermented cabbage and sausages (Liu and Bussmann 2020; Bussmann 2017; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017) (Figs. 5 and 6)

Carum carvi L. . . .

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Fig. 6 Carum carvi (Apiaceae), drying for winter, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

References Adams M, Gmünder F, Hamburger M. Plants traditionally used in age related brain disorders – a survey of ethnobotanical literature. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;113:363–81. Ballabh B, Chaurasia OP, Ahmed Z, Singh SB. Traditional medicinal plants of cold desert Ladakh – used against kidney and urinary disorders. J Ethnopharmacol. 2008;118:331–9. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1

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Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Gilani AH, Rahman AU. Trends in ethnopharmacology. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;100:43–9. Grivas C. Non-native herbal materia medica in Greek texts of the roman period. Medicina nei secoliarte e scienza. J Hist Med. 2018;30(2):531–78. Gurib-Fakim A. Medicinal plants: traditions of yesterday and drugs of tomorrow. Mol Asp Med. 2006;27:1–93. Houghton PJ, Osibogun IM. Flowering plants used against snakebite. J Ethnopharmacol. 1993;39:1–29. Jan HA, Wali S, Ahmad L, Jana S, Ahmad N, Ullah N. Ethnomedicinal survey of medicinal plants of Chinglai valley, Buner district, Pakistan. European Journal of Integrative Medicine 2017;13 64–74 Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Bussmann RW. Traditional herbal medicine in Far-west Nepal: a pharmacological appraisal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:35. Kunwar RM, Baral K, Paudel P, Acharya RP, Thapa-Magar KB, Cameron M, Bussmann RW. Landuse and socioeconomic change, medicinal plant selection and biodiversity resilience in far western Nepal. Plos One. 2016. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0167812. Kunwar RM, Evans A, Mainali J, Ansari AS, Rimal B, Bussmann RW. Change in forest and vegetation cover influencing distribution and uses of plants in the Kailash Sacred Landscape, Nepal. Environ Dev Sustain. 2018. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-018-0254-4 Kunwar RM, Shrestha K, Malla S, Acharya T, Sementelli A, Kutal D, 2019. Relation of medicinal plants, their use patterns and availability in the lower Kailash Sacred Landscape, Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 187. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.6.1-14 Liu B, Bussmann RW. Carum carvi L. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions Central Asia and Altai. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77087-1_36-1. Liu B, Bussmann RW, Li F, Li J, Hong L, Long C. Ethnobotanical approaches of traditional medicine studies in Southwest China: a literature review. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;186:343–50. Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Carum carvi L.; Carum caucasicum Boiss. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3319-49412-8_21. Mohagheghzadeh A, Faridi P. Medicinal smokes. J Ethnopharmacol. 2006;108:161–84. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni groups in Chitral District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Shishkin BK. 1950 (English 1973). Flora of the USSR, Volume 16: Umbelliflorae; Akademia Nauk, Leningrad. 478 pp, 37 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1988. 357 p. (in Russian)

Cassia fistula L. Cassia occidentalis L. FABACEAE Subhas Khatri, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Cassia fistula L.: Bactyrilobium fistula (L.) Willd.; Cassia bonplandiana DC.; Cassia excelsa Kunth; Cassia fistuloides Collad.; Cassia rhombifolia Roxb.; Cathartocarpus excelsus G. Don. Cathartocarpus fistula (L.) Pers.; Cathartocarpus fistuloides (Collad.) G. Don.; Cathartocarpus rhombifolius (Roxb) G. Don. Cassia occidentalis L.: Cassia caroliniana Walter; Cassia ciliata Raf.; Cassia falcata L.; Cassia foetida Pers.; Cassia frutescens Mill.; Cassia geminiflora Schrank; Cassia linearis Michx.; Cassia longispica L. f.; Cassia obliquifolia Schrank; Cassia planislingua L.; Cassia sophera L.; Ditremexa occidentalis (L.) Britton & Rose; Senna occidentalis (L.) Link; Senna occidentalis (L.) Roxb. S. Khatri National Herbarium and Plant Laboratories (KATH), Godawari, Lalitpur, Nepal H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_49

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Local Names Cassia fistula: Pashto: Laandes ‫ ;ﻻﻧډﯿﺲ‬Sanskrit Saraphala, Survanaka, Argwadha, Rajtaru, Sonaru; Nepali: Amaltas, Raaj briksha, ( ), Bandor ko lathi ( ); Chepang: Briksha; Gharwal: Amaltas; Mizoram: Makhazang, Makpazangkang; Raute: Rajbrik; Tharu: Airoks kathwa, Ahirodha; Danuwar: Argho; Tamang: Gle mhendo; Urdu: Amaltas; Bengali: Amaltas, Sondal, Sonali; English: Golden shower, Indian laburnum, Pudding-pipe tree (Verma 2016)

Botany and Ecology Cassia fistula: Trees, deciduous, to 15 m tall. Leaves 30–40 cm, with 3 or 4 pairs of leaflets; leaflets adaxially shiny, broadly ovate or ovate-oblong, 8–13
4– 8 cm, leathery, both surfaces puberulent when young, glabrous when mature, base broadly cuneate, apex acute. Racemes axillary, 20–40(–60) cm, lax, pendent, many flowered; flowers 3.5–4 cm in diam. Pedicels 3–5 cm, slender. Sepals narrowly ovate, 1–1.5 cm, reflexed at anthesis. Petals golden yellow, broadly ovate, subequal, 2.5–3.5 cm, shortly clawed. Stamens 10, 3 long with curved filaments 3–4 cm, anthers ca. 5 mm, exceeding petals, 4 short with straight filaments 6–10 mm, reduced stamens with minute anthers. Ovary stalked, strigulose; stigma small. Legume pendulous, blackish brown, terete, sausageshaped, indehiscent, 30–60 cm, 2–2.5 cm in diam. Seeds numerous, separated by papery septa, glossy brown, elliptic, flattened (Wu et al. 2010; Wu et al. 1994– 2013) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8). The latin name “Cassia” came from the Greek word “kassia” meaning fragrant and aromatic plant (Datiles and Acevedo-Rodríguez 2017; Orwa et al. 2009). It is thought to have originated from South-East Asia and was introduced throughout the tropics. It is escaped cultivation in Costa Rica, Guyana, and French Guiana (Boggan et al. 1997), and are naturalized in many parts of the tropics including the West Indies, Mexico, Ecuador, Belize, and parts of Micronesia. It is considered as an invasive in Queensland, Australia (Datiles and Acevedo-Rodríguez 2017). It prefers on open and dry slope. Flowering: May– August; Fruiting: October. In Nepal, it is distributed between 100 m and 900 m elevation. Cassia occidentalis: Shrub, unarmed slender upright and short-lived annual or biennial, 0.5-2.5 m tall, with fetid smell when damaged, leaves with 3.7 pairs of leaflets, 2–10 cm long and 2–3 cm wide, with pointed tips, and a gland at the base of the leaf stalk. Flowers 2–3 cm in diameter, yellow, with five petals. The fruit a somewhat flattened, straight, or slightly sickle-shaped, pod, 7.5–13 cm long and 8–10 mm wide (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).

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Fig. 1 Cassia fistula (Fabaceae), tree, Nepal. (Photo Subhash Khatri)

Phytochemistry Cassia fistula extracts have been attributed to the primary and secondary metabolites composition. The seeds are rich in primary metabolites glycerides with linoleic, oleic, stearic, and palmitic acids as major fatty acids together with traces of caprylic and myristic acids (Abu Sayeed et al. 1999), stem bark are rich in lupeol, ß-sitosterol, hexacosanol (Sen and Shukia 1968), and arbohydrate lipid and free amino acid contents were of the order of 11.75%, 12%, and 1.42%, respectively (Mondal et al. 1998). The edible fruit tissue are rich source of potassium, calcium, iron, and manganese than fruits like apple, apricot, peach, pear, and orange (Barthakur et al. 1995). Secondary metabolites, notably phenolic compounds (Fistucacidin (3,4,7,8,40 pentahydroxyflavan) are found in heartwood (Padmanabha Rao and Venkateswarlu 1965), Oxyanthraquinone, dihydroxyanthraquinone found in bark (Rani and Kalidhar 1998), (-) epiafzelechin, (-) epiafzelechin-3-O, glucoside, (-) epicatechin, procyanidin, B2, biflavonoids, triflavonoids, rhein, rhein glucoside, sennoside A, sennoside B, chrysophanol, physcion found in leaves (Kashiwada et al. 1996; Kaji

480 Fig. 2 Cassia fistula (Fabaceae), with flowers and pod, Nepal. (Photo Subhash Khatri)

Fig. 3 Cassia fistula (Fabaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

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Fig. 4 Cassia fistula (Fabaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 5 Cassia fistula (Fabaceae), tree Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

et al. 1968; Mahesh et al. 1984.), Kaempferol, leucopelargonidin tetramer (with free glycol unit), rhein, fistulin, alkaloids, triterpenes found in flowers (Narayanan and Seshadri 1972; Gurib-Fakim et al. 1994), Rhein, volatile oil, waxy and resinous derivatives found in fruit pulp (Liptak and Szentagali 1937), Fistulic acid, 3-formyl1-hydroxy-8- methoxy anthaquinone, 3B-hydroxy17-norpimar-8(9)-en-15-one found in pod (Misra et al. 1997), Chrysophanol found in seeds (Khanna and Chandra 1984), Rhamnetin-3-O-gentiobioside found in roots (Vaishnav and Gupta 1996), Proanthocyanidins, flavonoids found in young leaves, old leaves, twigs, bark, flower bud, flower, and pod (Luximon-Ramma et al. 2002).

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Fig. 6 Cassia occdentalis (Fabaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 7 Cassia occdentalis (Fabaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses Cassia fistula: The pulp of fruits is used against constipation. Leaves are used as fodder and dried branches are used for fuel. The fruits are collected by local herb sellers called “Pensaries” and Hakeems and used in various herbal medicines. Pulp

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Fig. 8 Cassia occdentalis (Fabaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

of fruits is also used to relieve constipation in cattle (Ahmed et al. 2013). Employed to remedy chest diseases, stomach troubles, to treat skin infections and fever (Jan et al. 2017). Plant is used as anti-constipation and for chest infection, cure joint pain (Ishtiaq et al. 2015). Used for malaria, rheumatism, bile, constipation, fever, and laxative. Leaves are ground into a paste, are applied to ringworm. Given to children suffering from flatulence (Mahmood et al. 2012). Fruit is used for fever, arthritis, and neural disorders (Ali et al. 2018). The pulp of fruits is used against constipation. Leaves are used as fodder and dried branches are used for fuel. Pulp of fruits is also used to relieve constipation in cattle (Amjad 2015). Leaves are used as laxative, emollient, tonic, febrifuge, and fruit is used for Constipation (Rashid et al. 2015). Fruit is used for colic pain and constipation of child (Amin et al. 2018). The juice of the young leaves is used to cure and root is useful in skin diseases (Mughal et al. 2013). Used to treat leprosy, herpes, skin problems, flatulence, and urinary retention (Sharma et al. 2001), as well as jaundice (Purkayastha et al. 2005), as antiseptic, for asthma and respiratory disorders (Kumar et al. 2011). Antibacterial and antifungal properties have been shown. It is a purgative due to the wax aloin and a tonic (Satyavati and Sharma 1989) and has been reported to treat many other intestinal disorders like healing ulcers (Biswas and Ghosh 1973; Kirtikar and Basu 1975). The plant has a high therapeutic value and it exerts an antipyretic and analgesic effect (Patel et al. 1965). In the Indian literature, this plant has been described to be useful against skin diseases, liver

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troubles, tuberculous glands, and its use in the treatment of hematemesis, pruritus, leukoderma and diabetes has been suggested (Alam et al. 1990; Asolkar et al. 1992). Its extract is used as an anti-periodic agent and in the treatment of rheumatism (Biswas and Ghosh 1973; Kirtikar and Basu 1975) and the leaf extract is also indicated for its anti-tussive and wound healing properties (Bhakta et al. 1998a, 1998b). It has been concluded that plant parts could be used as a therapeutic agent in the treatment of hypercholesterolemia partially due to their fiber and mucilage content (El-Saadany et al. 1991). There are reports indicating its antibacterial activity against a wide spectrum of bacteria, namely, Escherichia Coli, Bacillus mycides, Bacillus subtilis, Mycobacterium smegmatis, Klebsiella aerogenes, Pseudomonas aerogenes, and Proteus vulgaris (Perumal et al. 1998). Antitumor (Gupta et al. 2000), hepatoprotective (Bhakta et al. 1999), antifertility (Yadav and Jain 1999), antioxidant (Chaminda et al. 2001; Siddhuraju et al. 2002; Luximon-Ramma et al. 2002) properties of C. fistula as well as its actions on the central nervous systems (Mazumdar et al. 1998) and inhibitory effect on leukotriene biosynthesis (Sunil Kumar and Müller 1998) have been suggested. The uncooked pulp of the pods is a popular remedy for constipation, thought to be good for the kidneys "as those who use it much remain free of kidney stones" (Perry 1980). In Ayurvedic medicine, Golden Shower Tree is known as "disease killer." Many medicinal uses have been reported for it. Fruit and seed is used to cure hotness of body and urinary problems, diuretic, purgative, rheumatism, respiratory diseases, as well as drink for sensation of internal heat, insomnia, gastric, and diarrhea (Acharya 2012; Rai 2003; Ghimire and Bastakoti 2009). Juice of seeds is given to regulate the stopped urine, snake bite, rheumatism, diuretic, purgative, laxative, about 20 g seed paste is taken with a cup of hot water as a diuretic, for stomachache, diarrhea or dysentery twice a day until recovery, 5 gm of fruit pulp was given to cure harden stool (Manandhar 1990; Bhattarai et al. 2009; Gautam 2011; Sapkota 2008). Leaf juice is used to cure skin diseases (Parajuli 2000). Fruit pulp is used as purgative; well-known laxative and treatment for headache, fruit paste (one teaspoonful) is eaten twice daily for five days to treat the whopping cough; it is also taken to relief diarrhea and dysentery, used to cure jaundice, inflammation in urine, fever, heart disease, headache, constipation, ulcers, arthritis, bronchitis, and tuberculosis while juice of seeds is given to regulate the stop urine (Mahato and Sharma 2015; Kunwar et al. 2012a, b; Acharya 2012; Manandhar 1988; Rai 2004; Dangol and Gurung 1991; Bhattarai and Acharya 2015). Root juice is taken twice a day for 3–4 days to cure fever (Mahato and Sharma 2015.). In Brazil used to treat malaria (Botsaris 2007). Also used for dropsy and swellings (Bhandary et al. 1995). Cassia fistula is used to treat epilepsy and nervous system disorders. In India the species serves as remedy for abdominal pain, anti-fertility, antiseptic, asthma, blindness, blood purifier, burns, chest infection, constipation, cool agent, cough, diarrhea, dog bite, snake bite, dysentery, dysuria, epilepsy, indigestion, jaundice, leprosy complaints, pimples, rheumatism, ringworm, scorpion bite, skin diseases, stomachache, syphilis, tooth ache, vermicide, throat swelling (Verma et al. 2007), and as laxative (Debbarma et al. 2017).

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Cassia occidentalis: This plant is generally considered purgative. The whole decoction plant is used against stomach diseases, to treat diarrhea, fever, and asthma. The root is used as a tonic and has diuretic properties. The leaves lower the fever and are febrífugas. The seeds of this plant are used toasts against fever and malaria, to promote menstruation, and to relieve stomach ailments; They are also used as a diuretic and in the treatment of indigestion, stomach discomfort, and diseases of the prostate. Unroasted seeds are used as a purgative and in poultices to relieve swelling by fluid retention and skin diseases. The infusion of the seeds is administered to treat asthma and against fevers. Externally, seeds are used in the treatment of scabies and to relieve bumps or bruises. With the roasted seeds a drink similar to coffee is made (Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2020). In India used to treat bone fractures, diarrhea, dropsy, dysentery, eczema, fever, gastric complaints, purgative, rheumatism, ringworm, skin diseases, snake bite, throat infection, whooping cough and wounds (Debbarma et al. 2017; Verma et al. 2007). Shrub, unarmed slender upright and short-lived annual or biennial, 0.5–2.5 m tall, with fetid smell when damaged, leaves with 3.7 pairs of leaflets, 2–10 cm long and 2–3 cm wide, with pointed tips, and a gland at the base of the leaf stalk. Flowers 2–3 cm in diameter, yellow, with five petals. The fruit somewhat flattened, straight, or slightly sickle-shaped, pod, 7.5– 13 cm long and 8–10 mm wide (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).

Local Food Uses Cassia fistula: In India, flowers of the golden shower tree are sometimes eaten by people. The leaves have also been used to supplement the diets of cattle, sheep, and goats fed with low-quality forages (Heuze et al. 2018). The edible fruit tissue of the Indian laburnum fruit was reported to be a rich source of potassium, calcium, iron, and manganese than fruits like apple, apricot, peach, pear, and orange (Barthakur et al. 1995; Dangol et al. 2017). The protein (19.94%) and carbohydrate (26.30%) contents (Vasi and Kalintha 1980) are indicative of the potential of the fruit to be an important source of nutrients and energy. The bee collects flowers pollen found at the base of the leaf-stalk that yields a nectar. Cassia tora: Leaves eaten as vegetable (Dangol et al. 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Cassia fistula: 4–6 seeds are mixed with chicken feed and fed to hens for Newcastle disease (Abbasi et al. 2013). Besides its pharmacological and medicinal uses, the plant extract is also recommended as a pest and disease control agents in India (Jaipal et al. 1983; Sharma and Basandrai 1999; Raja et al. 2000). Thus C. fistula is well anchored in its traditional uses and has now found widespread acceptance across the world (Bahorun et al. 2005). The plant is cultivated as an ornamental and shade trees around the houses and along the roadside in various countries like Nepal, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Thailand, West-China, etc. It is both the national tree and

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national flower of Thailand (Royal Thai Government 2001). It is the state flower of Kerala in India. In India, a cathartic made from the pulp is sometimes added to tobacco (Hargreaves and Hargreaves 1970). The wood is hard and durable which is used for props, bridges, farm tools, fuel, and timber as well as fodder. It also provides fuel and good quality charcoal, as well as a hard and heavy timber suited to make furniture, farm implements, posts, wheels, and mortars as well as considered as a firewood source. The reddish wood, hard and heavy, strong and durable, is suited for cabinetwork, farm implements. The bark has been employed in tanning, often in conjunction with avaram (Mondal et al. 2014). Cassia occidentalis: The species is used to treat bad air/mal aire (PaniaguaZambrana et al. 2020).

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Liptak P, Szentagali I. A Cassia fistula hatanyaga. Ber UngarPharm Ges. 1937;13:61–3. Luximon-Ramma A, Bahorun T, Soobrattee MA, Aruoma OI. Antioxidant activities of phenolic, proanthocyanidins, and flavonoid components in extracts of Cassia fistula. J Agric Food Chem. 2002;50:5042–7. Macbride JF, Weberbauer A. Flora of Peru. Chicago: Field Museum (1936–1995). Mahato RB, Sharma BN. Common ethnomedicinal plants of Dhanusha District, Nepal. Bull Dep Plant Res. 2015;37:51–62. Mahesh VK, Sharma R, Singh RS. Anthraquinones and kaempferol from Cassia fistula species. J Nat Prod. 1984;47:733–51. Mahmood A, Mahmood A, Mahmood M. Indigenous wild medicinal plants used by local people of Dudial area, District Mirpur, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. J Med Plant Res. 2012;6(13):2686–90. Manandhar NP. Medicinal plants used by Chepang tribes of Makawanpur district, Nepal. Fitoterapia. 1988;60(1):61–8. Manandhar, N.P. 1990. Traditional phytotherapy of Danuwar tribes of Kamlakhonj in Sinduli district Nepal. Fitoterapia 50(4): 325-331 (46). Mazumdar UK, Gupta M, Rath N. CNS activities of Cassia fistula in mice. Phytother Res. 1998;12:520–2. Misra TR, Singh RS, Pandey HS, Singh BK. A new diterpene from Cassia fistula pods. Fitoterapia. 1997;LXVIII(58):375. Mondal AK, Parui S, Mandal S. Biochemical analysis of four species of Cassia L. pollen. Aerobiologia. 1998;14:45–50. Mondal M, Hossain MM, Rahman MA, Mubarak MS, PK MMU, Islam MS, Das N. Cassia fistula Linn: a review of phytochemical and pharmacological studies. Int J Pharm Sci Res. 2014;5(7):2125–30. Mughal SB, Arshad N, Shoaib M, Irum N, Hussnain N. Ethnobotanical literature survey of plants used to cure skin diseases. World Appl Sci J. 2013;27(4):474–8. Narayanan V, Seshadri TR. Proanthocyanidins of Cassia fistula. Indian J Chem. 1972;10:379–81. Orwa C, Mutua A, Kindt R, Jamnadass R, Anthony S. Agroforestree Database: a tree reference and selection guide version 4.0. Kenya: World Agroforestry Centre; 2009. Padmanabha Rao TV, Venkateswarlu V. “Fistucacidin” from the bark and heartwood of Cassia fistula Linn. Bull Nat Ins Sci. 1965;31:28–33. Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, Romera C. Cassia occidentalis L. In: Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of Mountain regions – Ethnobotany of the Andes. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77093-2_ 58-1. Parajuli SP. Ethnobotanical study at Khandhbari Municipality Sankhuwasabha District, Nepal. Banko Jankari. 2000;10(2):29–34. Patel D, Karbhari D, Gulati D, Gokhale D. Antipyretic and analgesic activities of Aconatum spicatum and Cassia fistula. Pharm Biol. 1965;157:22–7. Perry LM. Medicinal plants of east and Southeast Asia. Cambridge: MIT Press; 1980. Perumal R, Samy S, Iggnacimuthu S, Sen A. Screening of 34 medicinal plants antibacterial properties. J Ethnopharmacol. 1998;62:173–82. Purkayastha J, Nath SC, Islam B. Ethnobotany of medicinal plants from Dibru-Saikhowa Biosphere Reserve of Northeast India. Fitoterapia. 2005;76:121–7. Rai MB. Medicinal plants of Tehrathum District, Eastern Nepal. Our nature. 2003;1:42–8. Rai SK. Medicinal Plants used by Meche People of Jhapa District, Eastern Nepal. Our Nat. 2004;2:27–32. Raja N, Albert S, Ignacimuthu S. Effect of solvent residues of Vitex negundo Linn. and Cassia fistula Linn. on pulse beetle, Callosobruchus maculates Fab. and its larval parasitoid, Dinarmus vagabundus (Timberlake). Indian J Exp Bot. 2000;38:290–2. Rani M, Kalidhar SB. A new anthraquinone derivative from Cassia fistula Linn. Pods Indian J Chem. 1998;37B:1314–5.

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Castanopsis hystrix J. D. Hooker & Thomson ex A. de Candolle Castanopsis indica (Roxburgh ex Lindley) A. de Candolle in Hance Castanopsis tribuloides (Smith) A. de Candolle in Hance FAGACEAE Narayan Prasad Pokharel, Hari Prasad Pandey, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Synonyms Castanopsis hystrix J. D. Hooker & Thomson ex A. de Candolle: Castanea bodinieri H. Léveille & Vaniot; Castanopsis bodinieri (H. Léveillé & Vaniot) Koidzumi; Castanopsis. brunnea (H. Léveillé) A. Camus; Castanopsis lohfauensis Hu; Castanopsis tapuensis Hu; Quercus brunnea H. Léveillé Castanopsis indica (Roxburgh ex Lindley) A. de Candolle in Hance: Castanea indica Roxburgh ex Lindley in Wallich; Castanopsis macrostachya Hu; Castanopsis N. Prasad Pokharel · H. Prasad Pandey Ministry of Forests and Environment, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_50

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sinensis A. Chevalier; Castanopsis subacuminata Hayata; Quercus indica (Roxburgh ex Lindley) Drake Castanopsis tribuloides (Smith) A. de Candolle in Hance: Quercus tribuloides Smith; Castanea tribuloides (Smith) Lindley

Local Names Castanopsis hystrix: Nepali: Chinquapin or chinkapin, Patle Katus, Bara; Tharu: Berkap; Tamang: Kakarpalo Castanopsis indica: Nepali: Dhale Katus, Dhalne Katus Castanopsis tribuloides: Nepali: Musure Katus

Botany and Ecology Castanopsis hystrix: A large tree, young shoots purple-brown, slender, sparsely to densely puberulent and with yellowish brown small lamellate waxy scale like trichomes. Petiole ca. 1 cm or rarely longer; leaf blade lanceolate to obovate-elliptic, 4– 9  1.5–4 cm or rarely smaller or larger, papery to thinly leathery, pubescent when young but early glabrescent, at least adaxially along midvein with very lax and thick or tight and thin, reddish brown to yellowish brown, small, lamellate, waxy scale like trichomes, base sharply acute to rounded and inequilateral, apex mucronate to caudate; midvein adaxially impressed; secondary veins 9–15 on each side of midvein, very slender, evident. Female inflorescence solitary in leaf axil. Infructescence ca. 15 cm. Cupule globose, 2.5–4 cm in diam., splitting into 4 segments, wall ca. 2.5 mm thick; bracts spine like, completely covering cupule, 6–10 mm., sparsely puberulent, base of some connate into bundles. Nut 1 per cupule, broadly conical, 1–1.5  0.8–1.3 cm, glabrous; scar basal. Flowering: April–June, Fruiting: August–November of the following year (Wu and Raven 1999). Castanopsis hystrix is found in broad-leaved evergreen forests; near sea level to 1600 m. It is mostly found in Nepal in between 1000 m and 2500 m from sea level. It is common in SE Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Hainan, SW Hunan, SE Xizang (Mêdog Xian), S Yunnan, and Bhutan. Castanopsis indica: Tall trees; young shoots, petioles, leaf blades abaxially, and rachis of inflorescences yellowish brown puberulent. Petiole 5–10(–15) mm; leaf blade ovate-elliptic, elliptic, or sometimes obovate-elliptic, 9–20  (4–)6–10 cm, thickly papery, abaxially puberulent or glabrescent, base cuneate to rounded and usually inaequilateral, margin serrate except basally entire, apex mucronate to acuminate; midvein adaxially impressed; secondary veins 15–25 on each side of midvein. Female inflorescence ca. 40 cm. Infructescences dense, 10–27 cm. Cupule globose, 3.5–4 cm in diameter, usually splitting into 4 segments when mature, wall ca. 1 mm thick; bracts spine like, entirely covering cupule, to 1.5 cm, straight or bent, base connate into bundles. Nut 1(or 2) per cupule, broadly conical, 1–1.4 cm in diameter, densely hairy; scar covering ca. 1/4 of nut. Flowering: March–May, Fruiting: September–November of following year (Wu and Raven 1999). Grows in Nepal between 1200 m and 2900 m from sea level. It is common in heavy rainfall

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Fig. 1 Castanopsis indica (Fagaceae), from Lamjung, Nepal. (Photo Lila N Sharma)

Fig. 2 Castanopsis indica (Fagaceae), plant twig with leaves and fruits. (Photo Yogendra B Paudel)

area of the country. It is common in broad-leaved evergreen forests; below 1500 m. S Guangdong, S Guangxi, S Hainan, Taiwan, SE Xizang (Mêdog Xian), S Yunnan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, NE India, Laos, Myanmar, Sikkim, Thailand, and Vietnam (Figs. 1 and 2). Castanopsis tribuloides: A medium-sized tree about 5–10 m tall; young branchlets and young leaf blades abaxially pubescent and with glabrescent, rusty brown, waxy scale-like trichomes. Petiole 1–1.5 cm; leaf blade elliptic to ovate, 9–16  3.5–5 cm, abaxially reddish brown but may become gray to grayish brown with age, base acute to rounded, margin entire or rarely with 1 or 2 teeth, apex acute; midvein adaxially impressed; secondary veins 11–14 on each side of mid vein, sometimes impressed. Infructescences ca. 25 cm; rachis slender. Cupules loosely arranged, globose to ellipsoid, 1.6–2.2 cm in diameter, outside covered with brownish, small, lamellate, waxy scale like trichomes, sometimes pubescent, wall to 1 mm thick; bracts spine like, sparsely covering cupule, 3–5 mm, slender, free but a few in bundles. Nut 1 per

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Fig. 3 Castanopsis tribuloides (Fagaceae), Nepal. (Photo Lila N Sharma)

cupule, broadly conical, 1.5–2  1–1.6 cm, glabrous; scar basal, 8–10 mm in diameter. Flowering season: April–May, fruiting season: September–October of the following year (Wu and Raven 1999). This is the most widely distributed species of Castanopsis in Nepal. It grows between 450 m to 2300 m in Nepal. It grows on a variety of soils and under a large range of annual rainfall. Outside Nepal, it usually forms broad-leaved evergreen forests; circa 1300 m. SE Xizang (Mêdog Xian), SW Yunnan, N India, Myanmar, and N Thailand (Figs. 3 and 4).

Local Medicinal Uses Castanopsis indica: A decoction of the leaves applied to treat stomach disorder and skin diseases. Powdered leaves are given to cure indigestion. A plant resin is given to treat diarrhea. A paste of leaves is applied for headache. The leaves are lopped for fodder, and wood is used for fuel and house construction (Malla and Chhetri 2009). Bark paste is applied on chest to control chest pain (Joshi et al. 2011).

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Fig. 4 Castanopsis tribuloides (Fagaceae), catkin. (Photo Lila N Sharma)

Castanopsis tribuloides: A decoction of the leaves applied to treat stomach disorder and skin diseases. Powdered leaves are given to cure indigestion. Bark paste is applied to cure snakebites (Joshi et al. 2011).

Local Food Uses Castanopsis hystrix: The nuts are edible and are sold in local market (Dangol et al. 2017). Castanopsis tribuloides: The nuts are edible (Dangol et al. 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Castanopsis hystrix: The timber is light grayish-brown, hard. It is good for house building and splits readily for shingles. The leaves are used for fodder. In Nepal, it is reasonably popular for planting by farmers as fodder tree, and also for its nuts and timber. It is rather slow growing, which is a disadvantage. Castanopsis indica: The wood is light grayish-brown and hard. It is used for buildings and scaffoldings. The trees are commonly lopped for fodder. Stems and branches are use for plowing tools pulled by ox. Also, stems and branches are used for making carts. Only the mature leaves are used, often mainly for sheep and goats. They are used from December to April, and June to July. The fruit is eaten by cattle. The leaves are used to prepare plates (Tapari in Nepali). Castanopsis tribuloides: The wood is gray and moderately hard, which is used for planking and shingles. The leaves are widely used as fodder.

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References Dangol DR, Maharjan KL, Maharjan SK, Acharya AK. Wild edible plants in Nepal. In: Joshi BK, KCH B, Acharya A, editors. Conservation and utilization of agricultural plant genetic resources of Nepal. Dhulikhel: NAGRC; 2017. p. 390–407. Joshi K, Joshi R, Joshi AR. Indigenous knowledge and use of medicinal plants in Macchegaun Nepal. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2011;10(2):281–6. Malla B, Chhetri RB. Indigenous knowledge on ethnobotanical plants of Kavrepalanchok district. Kathmandu Univ J Sci Eng Technol. 2009;5(II):96–109. Wu ZY, Raven PH, editors. Flora of China. Vol. 4 (Cycadaceae through Fagaceae). Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/ Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1999.

Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D. Don) G. Don PINACEAE Ram C. Poudel, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Wahid Hussain, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Ripu M. Kunwar, and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D. Don) G. Don: Abies deodara (Roxb. ex D. Don) Lindl.; Cedrus deodara f. argentea (J. Nelson) Beissn.; Cedrus deodara f. aurea (J. Nelson) Rehder; Cedrus deodara f. pendula Beissn.; Cedrus deodara f. robusta (C. Lawson) Beissn.; Cedrus deodara var. argentea J. Nelson; Cedrus deodara var. aurea J. Nelson; Cedrus deodara var. compacta Carrière; Cedrus deodara var. fastigiata Carrière; Cedrus deodara var. flava Carrière; Cedrus deodara var. tristis Carrière; Cedrus deodara var. variegata Carrière; Cedrus indica Chambray; Cedrus R. C. Poudel (*) Molecular Biotechnology Unit, Faculty of Science, Nepal Academy of Science and Technology (NAST), Khumaltar, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan W. Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_51

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libani subsp. deodora (Roxb. ex D. Don) P. D. Sell; Cedrus libani var. deodara (Roxb. ex D. Don) Hook. f.; Larix deodara (Roxb. ex D.Don) K. Koch; Pinus deodara Roxb.; Pinus deodara Roxb. ex D.Don; Pinus deodara var. robusta C. Lawson

Local Names Cedrus deodara: Kashmir: Devdoor; Jammu: Diar, Deodar, Devdaru, Devdar, Diyar; Gilgit-Baltistan: Phuloosh; Pashto: Deyar ‫ ;ﺩﺍﺭ‬Nepali: Deudar, Diyar, Dyar; Tibetan: Thang-Shing; English: Himalayan Cedar (Bhattarai 1992; Manandhar 2002; Chaudhary et al. 2017)

Botany and Ecology Cedrus deodara: Trees to 60 m tall; trunk to 3 m; bark dark gray, cracking into irregular scales; branches horizontal, slightly tilted or slightly pendulous; long branchlets usually pendulous, pale grayish yellow and densely pubescent with some white powder in 1st year, thereafter grayish; winter bud scales curved outward at base. Leaves radially spreading on long branchlets, in apparent fascicles of 15–20 on short branchlets, initially pale green, aging dark green, linear but broader distally, triangular in cross-section, 2.5–5 cm
1–1.5 mm, hard, stomatal lines 2 or 3 adaxially and 4–6 abaxially, apex acuminate. Seed cones shortly pedunculate, pale green, initially with some white powder, becoming reddish brown when ripe, ovoid or broadly ellipsoid, 7–12
5–9 cm. Seed scales flabellate-obtriangular, 2.5– 4
4–6 cm, margin auriculate into a claw at base, cuneate in central part, incurved distally. Seeds  triangular, about 1 cm; wing about 1.5
2 cm. (Wu et al. 1994– 2013). Highly used and endangered (Mulk Khan et al. 2014) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).

Phytochemistry Several compounds have been isolated from needles, heartwood, stem wood, stem bark, oleoresin, and oil extracted from needles and wood of Cedrus deodara. The principle constituents of the needle oil were identified as terpenoids: α-Pinene, β-pinene, myrcene, α-myrcene, limonene-α, β-caryophyllene, β-copaene, α-himachalene, β-humulene,γ-muurolene, β-himachalene, germacrene D, α-muurolene, δ-cadinene, γ-amorphene, dl-limonene, trans-caryophyllene, linalyl propionate, dodecanoic acid, caryophyllene oxide,1-dodecanol (Saab et al. 2009; Chung et al. 2014) and wood oil were sesquiterpenes: Himachalol, β-Himachalene, α- Himachalene, Allohimachalol, (+)-longborenol (Singh and Agarwal 1988; Saab et al. 2018). Dihydroflavonol Deodarin (30 , 40 , 5, 6-tetrahydroxy-8-methyl-

Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D. Don) G. Don Fig. 1 Cedrus deodora (Pinaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

Fig. 2 Cedrus deodora (Pinaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

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Fig. 3 Cedrus deodora (Pinaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

dihydroflavonol) was isolated from stem bark (Adinarayana and Seshadri 1965) while three more compounds Cedeodarin (6-methyltaxifolin), dihydromyricetin, and cedrin (6-methyldihydromyrecetin) isolated from wood (Agrawal et al. 1980). Similarly different types of sesquiterpene isolated from the wood were himacholol; Centradol (2β, 7β-dihydroxyhimachal-3-ene); Isocentradol (4β, 7βdihydroxyhimachal-2-one); Atlantone; himaphenolone; atlantolone; deodardione; and atlantone-2, 3-diol (Kar et al. 1975; Kulshreshtha and Rastogi 1975; Chaudhary et al. 2015). Sesquiterpenes like Allohimachalol, himadrol, dewarol dewardiol, and dewarenol were also isolated from the heartwood of Himalayan Cedar (Saab et al. 2018). Two new flavonoid glycosides (Myrecetin-3-O-(600 -O-E-pcoumaroyl)-α-D-glucopyranoside; 30 ,50 -Di-O-methylmyricetin-3-O-(600 -O-acetyl)-αD-glucopyranoside) and few flavonoids (Cedrusone A, myricetin, 2R, 3R-dihydromyricetin, quercetin, 2R, 3R-dihydroquercetin) were isolated and characterized from the needles (Liu et al. 2011a, b). Moreover few polysaccharides such as glucose, arabinose, mannose, and xylose and some miscellaneous compounds viz. 4-allyloxy-2-methyl penta-en-2-ol; 2,2-dimethylpentanal; butyl acetate; 2-methyl-5phenyl-5-pentanonenitrile; benzoic acid; ethyl ester were also isolated from the needles.

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Fig. 4 Cedrus deodora (Pinaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Local Medicinal Uses Cedrus deodara: Plant is used as carminative, diuretic, for fever and piles (Yousufzai et al. 2010). The wood is carminative, diaphoretic, and useful in pulmonary and urinary disorders, rheumatism, piles, and stone in kidney. Bark is astringent, useful in fever, diarrhea, and dysentery (Jan et al. 2009). Small pieces of stem are boiled in water to get oily extract called “Lou” which is used as aphrodisiac. The wood of plant is used for making doors, windows, and cupboards. It is considered very unique for interior woodwork due to its characteristic smell, insect resistance (Ahmed et al. 2013). Locally 2–3 drops of resin extract are taken with a glass of milk early in the morning before breakfast to treat urticaria and other skin diseases (Sher and Hussain 2009). Wood extract is used as anthelmintic (Haq et al. 2011). Plant is used for toothache and skin problems (Mahmood et al. 2012). Plan is used for sexual impotency, as antidote, for arthritis and rheumatism (Ahmed and Akhtar 2016). The decoction of root is used as diaphoretic, anti-rheumatism, anti-renal, and antidote to snake bite. Bark juice is used as astringent and to cure fever, diarrhea and dysentery. Seed oil is employed in ulcers and skin diseases (Ishtiaq et al. 2012). Plant is used locally as a carminative, diaphoretic, astringent, diuretic, leprosy, skin diseases, wound ulcers, and fever (Rashid et al. 2015). The heartwood and oil are used for

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Fig. 5 Cedrus deodora (Pinaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

various ailments. They are digestive, carminative and laxative. The oil is also used in ulcers (Jamal et al. 2017). Essential oil extracted from wood and leaves is widely used for several disease and health disorders. The wood is diuretic, carminative, and expectorant (Manandhar 2002). The wood is rubbed on stone and paste thus obtained is applied on forehead to relieve headache (Manandhar 2002). Essential oil from wood and leaves is applied externally to get rid from scabies, skin diseases, rheumatic pains, and other external muscular pains (Bhattarai 1992; Kunwar and Adhikari 2005; Kunwar et al. 2006; Kunwar et al. 2009). Resin from the wood is also considered to have similar functions (Manandhar 2002). Wood oil is also used as anti-leech and in respiratory troubles. The dried bark decoction is considered effective in fever, diarrhea and dysentery (Kunwar and Adhikari 2005). Pieces of wood are boiled until gelatinous substance is obtained, which is used in the treatment of fever, hemorrhoids, rheumatic pains and pulmonary problems (Manandhar 2002). Wood extract for external parasites and skin diseases of goat, intestinal worms, gum for asthma (Wali et al. 2019). Also employed for

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dermatological problems (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018, 2019) and as analgesic (Almeida et al. 2001). In Jammu and Kashmir used for diarrhea, rheumatic pain, piles, ulcers. skin disorders, toothache, arthritis, itching, external ulcers, skin rashes, body ache, cough, diabetes, kidney stones, and pulmonary disorders (Gairola et al. 2014). Cedrus libani is used as abortifacient (Mohagheghzadeh and Faridi 2006).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Cedrus deodara: The wood is considered durable and resistant to termites therefore preferred for construction (Manandhar 2002). Cedrus tree is widely regarded as scared species in Baitadi, Darchula, and Humla districts of western Nepal thus planted mostly inside the premises of temple (Chaudhary et al. 2017). Wood extract to remove pubic hair and welding of broken pots, wood is sold in market as timber and fuel wood with high prices (Wali et al. 2019).

References Adinarayana D, Seshadri TR. Chemical investigations of the stem bark of Cedrus deodara. Tetrahedron. 1965;21:3727–30. Agrawal PK, Agrawal SK, Rastogi RP. Dihydroflavonols from Cedrus deodara. Phytochemistry. 1980;19:893–6. Ahmed MJ, Akhtar T. Indigenous knowledge of the use of medicinal plants in Bheri, Muzaffarabad, Azad Kashmir, Pakistan. Eur J Integr Med. 2016;8(4):560–9. Ahmed E, Arshad M, Saboor A, Qureshi R, Mustafa G, Sadiq S, Chaudhari SK. Ethnobotanical appraisal and medicinal use of plants in Patriata, New Murree, evidence from Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1):13. Almeida RN, Navarro DS, Barbosa-Filho JM. Plants with central analgesic activity. Phytomedicine. 2001;8(4):310–22. Bhattarai NK. Medical ethnobotany in the Karnali Zone, Nepal. Econ Bot. 1992;46(3):257–61. Chaudhary AK, Ahmad S, Mazumder A. Isolation, structural elucidation and in vitro antioxidant activity of compounds of chloroform extract of Cedrus deodara (Roxb.) Loud. Nat Prod Res. 2015;29:268–73. Chaudhary RP, Bhattarai SH, Basnet G, Bhatta KP, Uprety Y, Bhatta LD, Kotru R, Oli BN, Sharma LN, Khanal S, Sharma UR. Traditional practice and knowledge of indigenous and local communities in Kailash Sacred Landscape, Nepal. ICIMOD working paper 2017/1. Kathmandu: ICIMOD. 2017. Chung IM, Lim JD, Yu BR, Kim SH, Ateeque A. Chemical composition of the essential oil and petroleum ether extract from Korean pine needle leaves of Cedrus deodara. Asian J Chem. 2014;26:3029–32. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Haq F, Ahmad H, Alam M. Traditional uses of medicinal plants of Nandiar Khuwarr catchment (District Battagram), Pakistan. J Med Plants Res. 2011;5(1):39–48. Ishtiaq M, Mumtaz AS, Hussain T, Ghani A. Medicinal plant diversity in the flora of Leepa Valley, Muzaffarabad (AJK), Pakistan. Afri J Biotechnol. 2012;11(13):3087–98. Jamal Z, Pervez A, Hussain M, Shah GM, Shah SH, Ahmed M. Ethnomedicinal plants used for gastrointestinal ailments by the rural communities of Kaghan Valley, Mansehra, Pakistan. J Appl Environ Biol Sci. 2017;7(12):41–8.

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Jan G, Khan MA, Jan F. Traditional medicinal and economic uses of gymnosperms of Dir Kohistan Valleys, NWFP, Pakistan. Ethnobot Leaflets. 2009;12(9). Kar K, Puri VN, Patnaik GK, Sur RN, Dhawan BN, Kulshrestha DK, et al. Spasmolytic constituents of Cedrus deodara (Roxb) Loud: Pharmacological evaluation of Himachalol. Pharm Sci. 1975;64:258–62. Kulshreshtha DK, Rastogi RP. Constitution of sesquiterpenoid centradol. Phytochemistry. 1975;14:2237–40. Kunwar RM, Adhikari N. Ethnomedicine of Dolpa district, Nepal: the plants, their vernacular names and uses. Lyonia. 2005;8(1):19–41. Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Medicinal, aromatic and dye plants of Baitadi and Darchula Districts, Nepal Himalaya: status, uses and management. In: Hartmann M, Weipert J, editors. Biodiversität, Naturausstattung im Himalaya, Bd. III. Erfurt; 2009. p. 475–489. Kunwar RM, Nepal BK, Kshhetri HB, Rai SK, Bussmann R. Ethnomedicine in Himalaya: a case study from Dolpa, Humla, Jumla and Mustang districts of Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:27. Kunwar RM, Uprety Y, Burlakoti C, Chowdhuary CL, Bussmann RW. Indigenous use and ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in Far-west Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009;7:005–28. Liu DY, Shi XF, Wang DD, He FJ, Ma QH, Fan B. Two new myrecetin glycosides from Pine needles of Cedrus deodara. Chem Nat Compd. 2011a;47:704–7. Liu DY, Shi XF, Wang DD, Ma QH, Zhang JM, Li C. A new flavonoid in Pine needles of Cedrus deodara. Chin Herb Med. 2011b;3:5–6. Mahmood A, Mahmood A, Malik RN. Indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants from Leepa valley, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2012;143(1):338–46. Manandhar NP. Plants and people of Nepal. Oregon: Timber Press, Inc.; 2002. Mohagheghzadeh A, Faridi P. Medicinal smokes. J Ethnopharmacol. 2006;108:161–84. Mulk Khan S, Page S, Ahmad H, Harper D. Ethno-ecological importance of plant biodiversity in mountain ecosystems with special emphasis on indicator species of a Himalayan Valley in the northern Pakistan. Ecol Indicators. 2014;37:175–85. Rashid S, Ahmad M, Zafar M, Sultana S, Ayub M, Khan MA, Yaseen G. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinally important shrubs and trees of Himalayan region of Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;166:340–51. Saab AM, Harb F, Koenig W. Essential oil components in the leaves of Cedrus libani and Cedrus deodara from Lebanon. Minerva Biotechnol. 2009;21:201–6. Saab AM, Gambari R, Sacchetti G, Guerrini A, Lampronti I, Tacchini M, et al. Phytochemical and pharmacological properties of essential oils from Cedrus species. Nat Prod Res. 2018;32:1415–27. Sher H, Hussain F. Ethnobotanical evaluation of some plant resources in Northern part of Pakistan. Afr J Biotechnol. 2009;8(17):4066–76. Singh D, Agarwal CH. Himachalol and β-Himachalene: insecticidal principles of Himalayan Cedar wood oil. J Chem Ecol. 1988;14:1145–51. Ur-Rahman I, Afsal A, Iqbal Z, Ijas F, Ali N, Asif M, Alam J, Majid A, Bussmann RW. Traditional and ethnomedicinal dermatology practices in Pakistan. Clin Dermatol. 2018;363:310–9. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.clindermatol.2018.03.018. Ur-Rahman I, Sher H, Bussmann RW, editors. 2019. Reference guide on high value medicinal and aromatic plants – sustainable management and cultivation practices. University of Swat, Pakistan. ISBN 978-969-23419-0-5. Wali R, Rahman K, Raja NI, Qureshi R, Bussmann RW, Mashwani ZUR. 2019. A quantitative medico botanical expedition of Fairy Meadows National Park, Diamir, Gilgit Baltistan, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 1835. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.35.1-30. Wu Z, Raven, P.H., Hong D. eds. 1994–2013. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/ Missouri Botanical Garden Press. Yousufzai SA, Khan N, Wahab M, Ajaib M. Ethnomedicinal study of Marghazar Valley, Pakistan. Int J Biol Biotechnol. 2010;7:409–16.

Celastrus paniculatus Willd. CELASTRACEAE Hammad Ahmad Jan, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Celastrus paniculatus Willd.: Celastrus dependens Wall.; Celastrus euphlebiphyllus (Hayata) Kaneh.; Celastrus multiflorus Roxb.; Celastrus paniculatus subsp. multiflorus Ding Hou; Celastrus paniculatus subsp. serratus (Blanco) Ding Hou; Diosma serrata Blanco; Euonymus euphlebiphyllus Hayata

Local Names Celastrus paniculatus: Pashto: Mal kangni; Rajasthan: Malkangani, Malkagni; Jammu: Kangani, Malkangni; Ladakh: Pangyan-Karpo H. A. Jan (*) Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_52

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Botany and Ecology Celastrus paniculatus: Large deciduous twining shrubs, stem up to 23 cm in diameter; bark pale brown, rough and cracked, exfoliating in small scales; branchlets pubescent or glabrous, with prominent elliptic lenticels; axillary buds small, 1–2 mm, triangular. Petiole 6–16 mm; leaf blade elliptic, oblong, rectangular, ovate, or obovate to suborbicular, 5–10  2.5–5 cm, glabrous, base cuneate, margin serrate, apex mucronate to acuminate; secondary veins 5–7 pairs, rarely abaxially pubescent at axil of veins. Thyrses terminal, 5–10 cm, 1- or 2-ramous; rachis and pedicels occasionally with short tomentum; pedicels 3–6 mm. Flowers greenish, 5-merous, dioecious, 2–3  1.2–1.8 mm; sepals free, imbricate, semiorbicular, ciliate; petals oblong to obovate-rectangular. Disk membranous, cupulate, slightly 5-lobed. Stamens about 3 mm, inserted on margin of disk. Ovary globose. Capsule 1–1.3 cm in diameter, depressed, globose, 3-valved, bright yellow, 3–6-seeded. Seeds elliptic, 3.5–5.5  2–5 mm; aril orange-red. Flowering April–June, fruiting June–September (Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Figs. 1 and 2).

Local Medicinal Uses Celastrus paniculatus: The species is used to treat rheumatism (Gairola et al. 2014; Katewa et al. 2004; Ur-Rahman et al. 2019), for pain and to improve memory (Jain et al. 2005), and for backache and gout (Gairola et al. 2014). Flowers also used as analgesic and anti-inflammatory (Almeida et al. 2001). The species is said to have emetic, diaphoretic, febrifugal, and nerve benefiting properties (Adams et al. 2007). Fig. 1 Celastrus paniculatus (Celastraceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

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Fig. 2 Celastrus paniculatus (Celastraceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

References Adams M, Gmünder F, Hamburger M. Plants traditionally used in age related brain disorders – a survey of ethnobotanical literature. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;113:363–81. Almeida RN, Navarro DS, Barbosa-Filho JM. Plants with central analgesic activity. Phytomedicine. 2001;8(4):310–22. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Jain A, Katewa SS, Galav PK, Sharma P. Medicinal plant diversity of Sitamata wildlife sanctuary, Rajasthan, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102:143–57. Katewa SS, Chaudhary BL, Jain A. Folk herbal medicines from tribal area of Rajasthan, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2004;92:41–6. Ur-Rahman I, Sher H, Bussmann RW, editors. Reference guide on high value medicinal and aromatic plants – sustainable management and cultivation practices. Mingora: University of Swat; 2019. ISBN 978-969-23419-0-5 Wu Z, Raven, PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing & Missouri/St. Louis: Science Press/ Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013.

Celtis australis L. CANNABACEAE Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Celtis caucasica Willd

Local Names Celtis australis: Dir / Northwest Paksitan: Tagha, Thaghah; Gharwal: Khadeek; Kashmir: Brimiji; Jammu: Brimji, Khirakl

A. M. Abbasi (*) Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_53

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Botany and Ecology Celtis australis: Deciduous tree about 15 m tall with slender pendulous branches, young shoots pubescent. Leaves 4–10  2–5 cm, rhomboid-ovate, acuminate, base unequal, rounded, serrate from near the base glabrous or scabrid when mature. Flowers small, pale green. Perianth lobes 4–5, glabrous, lacerate at the apex. Stamens 5, filaments short, opposite the perianth lobes. Ovary glabrous, seated on a hairy disc, style 2-armed, arms unequal, pilose. Drupe c.7 mm, subglobose, reddish-brown, stone slightly reticulately rugose. Peduncles 1.5–2 cm long. Flowering March–May. Caucasus, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, Central Asia, Pakistan, Kashmir, and Nepal. A very variable species (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Local Medicinal Uses Celtis australis: The species is used as blood purifier and tonic (Muhammad et al. 2019), as well as against allergies (Ahmad et al. 2018; Ur-Rahman et al. 2018), amenorrhea (Ahmad and Pieroni 2016; Ahmad et al. 2018; Gairola et al. 2014), and to treat fractures (Malik et al. 2015), colic, and rheumatism (Gairola et al. 2014). Celtis caucasica: A decoction of fruits is applied in acute gastric diseases and in diarrhea. The decoction of seed acts as sudorific (Bussmann 2017; Batsatsashvili et al. 2017). Celtis africana: It is used to treat rheumatism (Yineger et al. 2008). Both this species and Celtis gomphophylla are used as raw material for medicines in Madagascar, especially for diarrhea and digestive system problems (Randrianarivony et al. 2016). Fig. 1 Celtis australis (Ulmaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

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Fig. 2 Celtis africana (Cannabaceae), Bale Mountains National Park, Odo Bulu forest, Ethiopia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

Fig. 3 Celtis africana (Cannabaceae), Bale Mountains National Park, Odo Bulu forest, Ethiopia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

Local Food Uses Celtis caucasica: Fruits are edible. Out of flesh is sweet; core of nucleus resembles the taste of almond. It is used in food in the raw form. Porridge is made from hard baked and milled fruits in flour, and “fruit bread” is baked when 20–30% fruit flour is mixed with simple flour. Bread with such mix has pleasant taste with high content of vitamins (Bussmann 2017; Batsatsashvili et al. 2017).

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Fig. 4 Celtis gomphophylla (Cannabaceae), Bale Mountains National Park, Harenna forest, Ethiopia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Celtis australis: Branches are used as canes (Ahmad et al. 2015). Celtis caucasica: Silkworms are fed with young leaves, and they are as well a good feed for cattle, especially for goats. The species is suitable for construction of park and gardens in dry regions, grows big tree with round crown in culture. A dye solution is prepared from leaves and barks to obtain green and yellow colors. Solution is used for dyeing of wool. Bark is used for tanning. The wood is heavy firm, solid, durable, worm hole stable, cleavable, thick, elastic, and well polishing. Highly applied in joinery, turning and carving; especially valued in vehicleproduction – wheel pub and wheel axis, shaft and other details, wind instruments, cutting for knives, stick, ramrod, and so on. Owing to its elasticity valued as material for production of hoopla hoops. Nectareous, produces nectar and pollen. The plant can be used for strengthening mountain slopes and rockslide especially in dry areas. Iconic, as per beliefs chaplet, beads and other items made of its wood protect against evil eye. Piece of wood and bark is also used against evil eye, which is kept in visible place; object protected against evil eye or hung on neck. The wood was traditionally used to make spindles (Bussmann 2017; Batsatsashvili et al. 2017). Celtis africana: Wood is used for furniture, tool handles, and construction (Beentje 1994). Leaves are given to goats for indigestion (Kokwaro 2009). It is a good source of firewood (Kiefer and Bussmann 2004, 2008). Celtis mildbraedii is used as fish poison (Neuwinger 2004).

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References Ahmad SA, Ahmad AAA. Ethnobotany of the Hawraman region of Kurdistan. Harv Pap Bot. 2015;20(1):85–9. Ahmad K, Pieroni A. Folk knowledge of wild food plants among the tribal communities of Thakhte-Sulaiman Hills, North-West Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:17. https://doi.org/10. 1186/s13002-016-0090-2. Ahmad L, Semotiuk A, Zafar M, Ahmad M, Sultana S, Liu Q-R, Zada MP, Ul Abidin SZ, Yaseen G. Ethnopharmacological documentation of medicinal plants used for hypertension among the local communities of DIR Lower, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;175:138–46. Ahmad L, He Y, Hao J-C, Semotiuk A, Liu, Q-R, Mazar P. Toxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids provide a warning sign to overuse of the ethnomedicine Arnebia benthamii. J Ethnopharmacol. 2018;210 88–94. Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan and Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995–2020. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Celtis caucasica Willd. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Beentje H. Kenya trees and shrubs. Nairobi: National Museums of Kenya; 1994. Bussmann RW e. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1 Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Kiefer S, Bussmann RW. The meaning of regeneration strategies and anthropogenic influence for the forest expansion in East African montane forest ecosystems – a modeling approach. Lyonia 2004;62:161–169. Kiefer S, Bussmann RW. Household energy demand and its challenges for forest management in the Kakamega area, W-Kenya. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2008;6:353–371. Kokwaro JO. Medicinal plants of East Africa. Nairobi: University of Nairobi Press; 2009. Malik ZA, Bhat J, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhat AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44. Muhammad S, Hussain M, Abbas Z, Saquib Z, Bussmann RW, Shah GM. An ethnomedicinal appraisal of Kurram Agency Tribal area Pakistan. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2019;184:631–647. Neuwinger HD. Plants used for poison fishing in tropical Africa. Toxicon 2004;44:417–430. Randrianarivony NT, Randrianasolo A, Andriamihajarivo T, Ramarosandratana AV, Jeannoda VH, Rakotoarivony F, Bussmann RW. Useful plants and tradition for pregnancy, child delivery and for postpartum care used by people living around Analavelona forest located in Southwest Madagascar. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2016;151:68–78. Ur-Rahman I, Afsal A, Iqbal Z, Ijas F, Ali N, Asif M, Alam J, Majid A, Bussmann RW. Traditional and ethnomedicinal dermatology practices in Pakistan. Clin Dermatol. 2018;363:310–9. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.clindermatol.2018.03.018. Yineger H, Yewhalaw D, Teketay D. Ethnomedicinal plant knowledge and practice of the Oromo ethnic group in southwestern Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2008;4:11. https://doi.org/10. 1186/1746-4269-4-11.

Chenopodium album L. AMARANTHACEAE Dharma Raj Dangol, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Chenopodium album L.: Chenopodium centrorubrum Nakai; Chenopodium virgatum Thunb.; Chenopodium iljinii Golosk

D. R. Dangol Institute for Social and Environmental Research Nepal, Chitwan, Nepal H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_54

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Local Names Chenopodium album: Sanskrit: Vastukah; Nepali: Bethe, Bathu, Bethe sag; Newari: Ikancha; Darai: Bethuwa; Tibetan: ni lɔ; Tharu: Bathuwa, Bathuwak sag; Chinese: 藜; Tamang: Gugudhap; Jammu: Bathu, Batwa, Bethusag, Bathua; Ladakh: Neung, Emn; Northern Pakistan: Bathwa; Buner: Sarmai; Pashto: Larmi sarmi saag ‫ ﻝﺭﻡﻱ ﺱﺍﺭﻡﻱ ﺱﺍ‬Gilgit-Baltistan: Kunaw, Snia; English: Bacon weed, Fat-hen, Goose foot, Lamb’s quarters, Lamb’s tongue, Mails, Melgs, Midden, Milds, Miles, Milies, Muck weed, Mutton tops, Myles, Pigweed, Ragjag, White goosefoot, Wild spinach.

Botany and Ecology Chenopodium album: Annual herb 10–300 cm tall. Highly variable in all characteristics. Mealy textured in all parts. Usually much branched. Leaves distinctly longer than broad and usually ovate-deltoid, sometimes rhombic or ovate-lanceolate, entire or toothed. Larger leaves with uneven teeth and lower leaves often 1–3 lobed. Flowers in round clusters disposed in branching spike-like inflorescences disposed from leaf axils. Flowers yellowish-brown to yellowish-green, floral parts rounded on the back and keeled and with pustules. Seeds free from wall of the fruit, seeds tiny, black and shiny with radial furrows. An abundant species in waste areas, roadsides, agricultural fields, or gardens. Cosmopolitan distribution. The species is one of the more robust and competitive weeds, capable of producing considerably crop losses in corn, soybeans, and sugar beets. As a pest control, Chenopodium album is vulnerable to leaf miners, making it a useful trap crop as a companion plant. Growing near other plants, it attracts leaf miners, which might otherwise have attacked the crop to be protected. It is a host plant for the beet leafhopper, an insect that transmits curly top virus to beet crops. Very common weed of winter crops like wheat, potato, lentil, rape mustard, and winter vegetables (Dangol et al. 1988a, b) in the Tarai, Inner Tarai and midhills (Chaudhary 1979; Chaudhary and Shrestha 1981; Dangol 1987, 2013; Dangol and Gurung 1993, Dangol and Gurung 1988; Dangol et al. 1986, 1988a, b; Shivakoti et al. 1977) but also of summer crops in high hills; more abundant in upland fields than in lowland fields. More than 50% coverage in the crops like black mustard (Kavre and Kathmandu valley), rape mustard, buckwheat, and wheat in Inner Tarai (Dangol 1997, 1990, 2001). On compact soils, for example, in zero tillage fields of lentil after rice, it seldom occurs with solitary or very few plants (Dangol 1990). It emerges at the same time as the crop and its seeds mature before the crop harvest, this combined with high densities and coverage makes this species a competitive weed for mustard, wheat, and buckwheat in the early stage (Dangol 1998). The water extract of the whole plant showed nematicidal activity to the root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne javanica under laboratory conditions (Mandal and Bhatti 1983) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6).

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Fig. 1 Chenopodium album (Amaranthaceae). Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R. Bussmann)

Fig. 2 Chenopodium album (Amaranthaceae). Flowers. Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R. Bussmann)

Phytochemistry The plant is very nutritious and rich in protein, vitamin A, vitamin C, calcium, phosphorus, iron, and potassium content (Agrawal et al. 2014). Chemical analysis of Chenopodium album reveals that it contains trypsin, total phenols, simple phenols

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Fig. 3 Chenopodium album (Amaranthaceae). Leaves. Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R. Bussmann)

and tannins, saponin, phytic acid, phytate phosphorus, alkaloids, flavonoids, oxalates, oils, proteins, trace elements, and many other bioactive contents (Al-Snafi 2015; Agrawal et al. 2014). It has anti-inflammatory, analgesic, gastroprotective, hepatoprotective, anticancer, antioxidant, antimicrobial, anthelmintic, insecticidal, and many other effects (Al-Snafi 2015; Agrawal et al. 2014).

Local Medicinal Uses Chenopodium album: A local dish Saag is prepared and is good for somebody whose body is hot. It removes thirst. It is used as emollient. The seeds are used for unconsciousness. They are also used to relieve constipation (Mahmood et al. 2011). Dried powdered plant considered as carminative and diuretic agent (Akhtar et al. 2013). Cooked leaves are used as laxative (Wali et al. 2019a, b). The species is used as laxative to cure constipation, for abdominal pain and jaundice (Jan et al. 2019). Leaf infusion is used for rheumatism, and leaves poultice is used for swollen feet, sunstroke, sunburn, and freckles (Bano et al. 2014). Plant is used as blood purifier, diarrhea, jaundice, laxative, piles, and stomach pain (Hadi et al. 2014). Roots of the plant used in jaundice (Jan et al. 2009). The species is used as a food and also used as a cathartic, anthelmintic, in hepatic disorder, and enlarged spleen. The roots are used to treat urinary disease and rheumatism, and also used as laxative (Khan et al. 2015).

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Fig. 4 Chenopodium foliosum (Amaranthaceae). Kazbegi, Georgia. (Photo R. Bussmann)

Fig. 5 Chenopodium foliosum (Amaranthaceae). Fruits. Kazbegi, Georgia. (Photo R. Bussmann)

The plant is used as laxative, for liver disorder, and pot herb (Zabihullah et al. 2006). The plant is used for ulcer, swellings, and seminal weakness (Shuaib et al. 2019). Whole plant is used in joint ache (Dangol 2010). Cooked seeds are used to treat cough and cold (Dangol 2010). Cold decoction or juice of plants is taken to cure eye troubles (Shrestha and Pradhan 1986; Manandhar 2002). Plant is diuretic, laxative, appetizer, and anthelmintic (Acharya 1996; Siwakoti and Varma 1996). Fried seeds

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Fig. 6 Chenopodium album (Amaranthaceae). Delicacies made from leaves, Nepal. (Photo Dharma Dangol)

are given for stomach pain and gastritis (Dangol and Gurung 1995), and plant juice and the tender part of the plant is taken orally for the treatment of pains in the joints (Dangol and Gurung 1991). Local beer prepared from it is used to stop profuse menstruation (Manandhar 1982). The plant served as a vegetable cleanses the stomach, relieves constipation, and has an invigorating effect of the body; root decoction enhances cleansing of bronchi and lungs after excessive smoking of ganja and tobacco (Müller-Böker 1993). Root juice, about 6 teaspoons three times a day, is given to treat “bloody” dysentery (Manandhar 1985, 2002). The tender aerial parts cooked as vegetable are consumed, regularly, to treat dyspepsia (Bhattarai 1992). The small seeds of this plant are boiled in cows’ milk and drunk for muscle ailments and for gastritis (Coburn 1984). One bowl of dark liquid made by boiling dried leaf is drunk to treat high intoxication due to cannabis (Pradhan 2006). Seeds are chewed in case of urinary trouble and are also useful to relieve the discharge of semen through the urine (Manandhar 2002). The seeds are used as a laxative, and the juice of the plant is used as a digestive and antiparasitic (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). The species is used to treat fevers, flu, constipation, and as anthelmintic (Raj et al. 2018). The species is used to treat constipation and indigestion (Kunwar and Bussmann 2009; Kunwar et al. 2010; Wali et al. 2019a, b), used also as emollient (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018), and for jaundice, abdominal pain, and as laxative (Jan et al. 2017, 2019). It is also used to treat swollen feet, sunstroke, digestive problems, joint pains, (Kayani et al. 2015), as well as swollen gums (Jain et al. 2005). In Jammu and Kashmir, it is used as laxative, to treat painful urination, stomachache, biliousness, eye ailments, piles, anemia, constipation, and as anthelmintic (Gairola et al. 2014). Chenopodium botrys: The species is used for headache, stomach problems, as diuretic, and for liver complaints (Kayani et al. 2015).

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Chenopodium quinoa: The fruits are used for the treatment of twists, fractures, and dislocations by making a paste mixed with alcohol or brandy. It is also recommended to lower body temperature, as a diuretic, and reliever of colic. Quinoa is used especially against gonorrhea and tuberculosis, contusions, and twists. With the seed, washed in water, an effective bitter drink is prepared for the healing of intermittent fevers. The infused plant, along with others, is emmenagogue. The crushed leaves, together with bean leaves and mixed with egg white, are applied to treat the headache. The infusion is drunk to treat rheumatism. Fresh seeds are used for intestines (cleansing), stomach (cleansing), and as nutritional supplement. Quinoa has slight antibacterial activity (Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2020). Chenopodiastrum murale: In infusion used as a mild laxative (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).

Local Food Uses Chenopodium album: Fresh leaves are cooked as vegetable and eaten raw (Abbasi et al. 2013), and as a vegetable (saag) (Khan et al. 2015). Tender portions/tenders/ leaves are cooked as vegetable (DMP 1982; Dangol and Gurung 1995; Manandhar 1982, 2002; Müller-Böker 1993; Shrestha 1983; Shrestha 1988, 1989, Pradhan 2006; Dangol 2010; Lama 2017). The leaves are thoroughly boiled and fried in oil, and eaten as a vegetable or prepared with yogurt and chili as a salad (Pohle 1990). The dried leaves are also consumable as a winter vegetable (Pohle 1990). The tender part of the plant is boiled and put spices and condiments with boiled oil. It is very tasty with beaten rice (shown below). Fruits are used for beer-making (Toba 1975). The consumption of young shoots is widespread in the Caucasus. It is customary to eat them boiled and prepared in a form of mkhal/phkhali (a vegetable spread made from various herbs) (Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b, 2018; Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). The leaves are edible, although they should be consumed ideally cooked. They are usually used as a substitute for chard and spinach in different preparations, including soup (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). The species is eaten as vegetable (Abbas et al. 2019; Dangol et al. 2017; Kang et al. 2016; Thongam et al. 2016; Zhang et al. 2016). Chenopodium foliosum: The species is eaten as vegetable (Abbas et al. 2019). Chenopodium hircinum: The leaves are edible, although they should be consumed ideally cooked (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). Chenopodiastrum murale: The large leaves are consumed as salads (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020) and eaten as vegetable (Dangol et al. 2017). Chenopodium quinoa: Ecuador: The infructescence is edible. Dried seeds are used to prepare soups and washes. Before using them, they are soaked for 2 days and washed. Infructescence is used as a condiment (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020).

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses Chenopodium album: Leaves are rubbed into the skin to remove nicotine stains (i.e., after tobacco harvest) (Müller-Böker 1993). The species is used as forage (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020) and also used as fodder (Wali et al. 2019a, b). Chenopodium hircinum: The species is used as forage (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). Chenopodiastrum murale: The species is used as forage (pig, sheep, and cattle). It is used to make “llipta” (plant ash mixed with urine, used traditionally to chew Coca leaves) (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). Chenopodium quinoa: The plant is used as animal fodder (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). Chenopodium foliosum can be used as dye (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b, 2018; Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020).

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Choerospondias axillaris (Roxb.) B.L. Burtt & A.W. Hill ANACARDIACEAE Krishna C. Paudel, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Choerospondias axillaris (Roxb.) B.L. Burtt & A.W. Hill: Poupartia axillaris (Roxb.) King & Prain; Poupartia fordii Hemsl.; Spondias axillaris Roxb.; Cherospondias axillaris var. japonica (Ohwl) Ohwl; Rhus bodinieri H. Lev.; Spondias lutea Engl.

Local Names Choerospondias axillaris: Nepali: Lapsi; Chinese: Nan Suan Zao; Japanese: Chanchin-Modoki; Vietnamese: Xoan Nhu or Xoan Tra or Lat xoan; Assamese: Hamoitenga, Delam-asing, Khamlimola, Khamlikhali; Kannada: Dieng-Salait K. C. Paudel Institute of Forestry, Tribhuvan University, Tribhuvan, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_55

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Botany and Ecology Choerospondias axillaris: Deciduous trees, 8–20 m tall; branchlets dark purplish brown, minutely pubescent to glabrous, lenticellate. Petiole inflated at base, petiole and rachis minutely pubescent to glabrous; leaf blade 25–40 cm, imparipinnately compound, with 3–6 leaflets; leaflet petiolule slender, 2–5 mm, glabrous to minutely pubescent; leaflet blade ovate to ovate-lanceolate or oblong-ovate, 4–12
2–4.5 cm, papery, glabrous or abaxially with tufts of hair in vein axils, base  oblique, broadly cuneate to rounded, entire or serrate at base, apex long acuminate, lateral veins 8–10 pairs, prominent on both surfaces, reticulate venation obscure. Male inflorescence 4– 10 cm, minutely pubescent to glabrous; floral subtending bracts minute. Male flowers: calyx minutely pubescent to glabrous, lobes triangular, about 1 mm, apically obtuse, with purplish red glandular-ciliate hairs along margin; petals oblong, 2.5–3 mm, with brown venation, recurved at anthesis; stamens equal to petals in length, anthers oblong, about 1 mm. Female flowers solitary in axils of distal leaves, larger than male flowers; ovary about 1.5 mm, 5-locular, style about 0.5 mm. Drupe ellipsoidal or obovate-ellipsoidal, yellow at maturity, 2.5–3 cm, about 2 cm in diameter; endocarp 2–2.5
1.2–1.5 cm (Wu et al. 1994–2013). Wood is soft, reddish when mature, ring porous with distinct growth rings (Xizhou and Zheke 1988), not considered as durable wood compared to many subtropical trees (Chen 1985; Wang et al. 1987) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7). C. axillaris trees producing pistillate flowers and then fruits are locally called female trees in Nepal. Other trees producing staminate flowers, which do not set fruits, are called male trees. Study on the flowers of C. axillaris at different stages of their development, both in glass house and field conditions, from both the types of trees shows no pollens in the anthers borne in pistillate flowers. Whereas the staminate flowers, which lack gynoecium, have adequate pollen grains that ripen within 2–5 days of opening. The anthers borne in pistillate flowers are empty and turn brown 3–5 days after the flower opens. Cross-pollinated, pollens are transported by insects, honeybees and wind in nature (Mehra and Khosla 1969). Study on pollen grains under a scanning electron microscope shows them to be tricolporate, tagillate, subprolate, and medium in size (Paudel 2001). A note on lapsi pollen is also mentioned by others (Pratap 1997). More description about the species is available in various flora and other publications (Hara and Williams 1979; Hooker 1876; HMGN 1967, 1970, 1982, 1986, 1997; Hara 1966; Kanani et al. 1966; Storrs and Storrs 1984). Choerospondias axillaris is one of the lesser studied fruit and medicinal trees of the Asian continent. The tree is native to Nepal (Roxburgh 1832) and is distributed from North East India to Nepal, Bhutan, South East China, Vietnam, Thailand, Hong Kong, and Japan (Paudel 2001). In India, it is found including in Assam, West Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, and Sikkim (indiabiodiversity.org). Brief account of its distribution in parts of China and Vietnam has been reported at a few occasions (Cao Ming Quang 1994). In Nepal, distribution of C. axillaris in 301 Village Development Committees in 29 districts has been mapped (Paudel 2001; Paudel et al. 2002a). In China, it is reported from various parts including Central and South

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Fig. 1 Choerospondias axillaris (Anacardiaceae). Mature Choerospondias axillaris tree with large crown, preferred for fruit production, Chhaimale village, Kathmandu, Nepal. (Photo K.C Paudel)

China, eastern and west southern China, Yuhang in Zhejiang, Hong-He in Yunnan, Fujian Provinces, etc. (Chen et al. 2001). Details of distribution in China are available in Jingyun Jingyun et al. (2011).

Phytochemistry Ten compounds were isolated from the dry fruit of Choerospondias axillaris and their structures were elucidated. The compounds were – dihydroquercetin, quercetin, protocatechuic acid, gallic acid, 3,30 -di-o-methylellagic acid, beta-sitosterol, daucosterol, stearic acid, triacontanoic acid, and octacosanol (Lian et al. 2003). In vitro and in vivo antioxidant activity of aqueous extract from Choerospondias axillaris fruit has been studied and the flavonoid and phenolic contents of the extract are determined (Wang et al. 2008). Accordingly, the total content of phenolics and flavonoid compound was 568 mg of gallic acid equivalents/g dm and 2.9 mg of quercetin equivalents/g dm, respectively. The intragastric administration of the fruit extract in mouse inhibited D-galactose induced oxidative damage and in vitro assays

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Fig. 2 Choerospondias axillaris (Anacardiaceae). Mature Choerospondias axillaris tree with cylindrical and clear bole, preferred for timber production, Ratamata, Parbat, Nepal. (Photo K.C Paudel)

showed a high antioxidant effect. This result support for the empirical use of C. axillaris fruit a medicine for cardiovascular diseases (Hua Wang et al. 2008). Antiarrhythmic action of total flavones of C. axillaris fruit are described in Li et al. (1984). Examination of the antioxidant, antimicrobial, and antiproliferative effects and chemical composition of peel polyphenolic (PP) and flesh polyphenolic (FP) extracts from C. axillaris showed significantly higher phenolics and flavonoids of peel than those of flesh (Li et al. 2016a). Analysis also revealed that (+)-catechin and oligomeric procyanidins were the most abundant compounds in PP and FP. Both extracts exhibited strong ferric-reducing antioxidant power, total antioxidant activity, and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical (DPPH(•))- scavenging ability. PP showed a significantly higher antimicrobial effect against tested strains than that of FP, in a dose-dependent manner (Li et al. 2016a). Choerospondias axillaris fruit peel is described as a potential source of natural chemopreventive agents for the treatment of colorectal cancer (Li et al. 2018). Evaluation of the antioxidant and anti-

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Fig. 3 Choerospondias axillaris (Anacardiaceae). Staminate flowers open for few days and pollen is transferred by insect or wind. Nepal. (Photo K.C Paudel)

Fig. 4 Choerospondias axillaris (Anacardiaceae). Pistillate flowers ready for fertilization. Such flowers appear in the leaf axis and grow together with the new leaves. Anthers do not produce viable pollen. Nepal. (Photo K.C Paudel)

angiogenic activities of a proanthocyanidins (PAs) extract from C. axillaris fruit peels suggest that the peels could be a good source of natural inhibitors to target angiogenesis (production of new blood vessels of cancerous tumors) (Li et al. 2016b). Flavanoidal compounds isolated from stem bark of C. axillaris inhibited the proliferation of tumor cells (16% and 27.3% at 100 μg, mL1) and also showed anti-hypoxia effect at lower concentration (50 μg, mL1) (Chang-wei et al. 2009).

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Fig. 5 Choerospondias axillaris (Anacardiaceae). Immature fruits in the new shoot; they are either solitary or appear in group. Nepal. (Photo K.C Paudel)

Fig. 6 Choerospondias axillaris (Anacardiaceae). Ripen fruits ready to harvest; they turn golden yellow when ripe and remain on the tree for 1–2 months. Nepal. (Photo K.C Paudel)

Nine mineral elements in C. axillaris flesh and peels determined by the inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry (ICP-AES) showed that the contents of Fe, Ca, Zn, Mn, Al, Mg, Cu, K, and P in the flesh were 27.37, 269.88, 1.51, 2.45, 1.95, 195.30, 2.45, 2970.11, and 133.94 μg · g(1), respectively, and in the peel were 40.31%, 11.70%, 21.68%, 4.27%, 10.58%, 15.76%, 68.72%, 42.04%, and 22.59%, respectively. These elements were lower in the flesh than that in the peels (Zhai et al. 2015). Same study also explained about the distribution and release of these minerals from the flesh and the peel under different digestion systems and guided to understand the bioavailability of these minerals for human body.

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Fig. 7 Choerospondias axillaris (Anacardiaceae). Seed germination from a stone. Each stone has five seeds and up to five plants are germinated. Seeds remain viable up to a year. Nepal. (Photo K.C Paudel)

Depending upon the growing condition, stage of fruit maturity and the variety, fruits vary in weight (58–118 fruits/kg), the proportion of pulp (23–45%), peel (18– 33%), and the seed stone (20–38%). Fruit contain all together 71% of edible part (pulp and peel) and 27% seed stone. The edible part contains 83% water (w/w), 4– 10% of total soluble solid and 2.4–5.8% of total titratable acidity (Paudel et al. 2002a). In a different study, C. axillaris fruits contained 165 mg per 100 g of nitrogen, 3.4% of total sugars and 6.76% of titratable acidity. The proportion of glucose, fructose, and sucrose was 1.6, 1.4, and 0.4 g per 100 g of edible part, respectively, and the acid contained included citric acid (6.6 g per 100 g), malic acid (58 mg per 100 g), oxalic acid (36 mg per 100 g), and ascorbic acid (6.7 mg per 100 g). Fruits contained high phenolic compounds (563 mg per 100 g). Fruits are much richer in potassium (355 mg per 100 g), calcium (57 mg per 100 g), and magnesium (34 mg per 100 g) compared to apple, mango, orange, or plum, and they also contained sodium, copper, iron, and zinc at low amount (Paudel et al. 2002b). Total amino acid content was 317 mg per 100 gm for 21essential amino acids. The value for arginine (106 mg per 100 gm), glutamic acid (36 mg per 100 gm), glutamine (32 mg per 100 gm), glycine (28 mg per 100 gm), tyrosine (20 mg per 100 gm), and lysine (8 mg per 100 gm) were higher than those contained in citrus fruits, grapes, or pineapple. Other amino acids contained included – aspartic acid, asparagine, serine, threonine, alanine, methionine, valine, tryptophan, phenylalanine, isoleucine, leucine, ornithine, hydroxyproline, cysteine, and proline (Paudel et al. 2002b). In a study in China, the amount of crude protein, crude fat, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, and Na content in the fruit was 2.7%, 0.60%, 1.6%, 0.7%, 0.2% 0.2%, and 0.13%,

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respectively (Chen et al. 2001). The crude protein and crude fat content in a study in India were reported as 4.11% and 0.05%, respectively (Bhutia et al. 2011). Chemical composition and nutritional values differ between the province, individual trees, the stage of fruit maturity, and method of analysis. All these studies indicate C. axillaris to be a good source of vitamin C, minerals, and essential amino acids to improve the health status of rural people and processing for marketable food and nutritional products.

Local Medicinal Uses Choerospondias axillaris: In Nepal, C. axillaris seed stones are burnt and the ash is mixed with mustard oil and the paste is applied in burnt skin to heal the wound. In Vietnam, water extract from the bark is used in the treatment of second degree burns (Nguyen et al. 1996). According to the traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), fresh fruits and seeds used to move qi (hernia), nourish heart and quiet spirit, dispose accumulation, and resolve toxin (Jiaju et al. (2011). Dry bark used as masticatory. The fruits are used for arrhythmias due to their antiarrhythmic action (Umberto Quattrocchi 2012).

Local Food Uses Choerospondias axillaris: The species is cultivated and the fruits are sold in markets (Dangol et al. 2017; Kunwar et al. 2012, 2013). In Nepal, Choerospondias axillaris, locally known as Lapsi, is largely used for its delicious fruits. It is a good source of vitamin C (Shah 1978). The sweet and sour taste of C. axillaris fruit is liked by all categories of Nepali people, mostly by children and women. Lapsi candy, Lasse pau, Lapsi tart, Lapsi mada, and Titaura are among the favorite processed fruit products in the towns and supermarkets. These products are also famous among the travelers, drivers, and often presented as souvenir to Nepali community abroad. Ripen fruits are consumed fresh but in a limited amount. Raw/ripen fruits are pickled and consumed fresh (Chutney) or preserved to consume throughout the year (Achar). To prepare the pickle for longer duration, ripen fruits are cleaned in fresh water, boiled, peel removed, and cooked in a mixture of salt, sugar, and various spices. The pickle thus cooked is deepen in hot rapeseed or mustard oil and when cold, packed in glass or plastic containers and sold out labelled or in domestic form. Depending on the consumers’ taste, proportion of salt and sugar and combination of various spices are determined. Most common spices used in such pickles include cumin, black pepper, sichuan pepper, cardamom, ginger, fenugreek, ajwain, chilly powder, etc. In middle mountain districts of central Nepal (Kaski and Parbat districts), ripen Lapsi fruits are cleaned and crushed in local meals (Dhiki) to break the pericarp and the flesh so that a thick sticky mat (together with the pulp, pericarp, and seed stone attached, locally called as Mada) is formed. This mat is then thinly spread on to bamboo woven or rice straw mats, dried in sunlight for few days, and stored in a dry

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Fig. 8 Choerospondias axillaris (Anacardiaceae). Seedlings grown in the nursery. Container grown seedlings are planted out in the rainy summer, and grafted plants are usually planted bare root in the winter months. Nepal. (Photo K.C Paudel)

place. Thus prepared Mada is soaked in warm water, mixed in vegetable or fresh pickles as souring agent and consumed as needed. Mada is also soaked in cold water, mixed with sugar and drunk as lapsi juice (locally known as Sarbat) in hot summer months (April–June) while working in the farms (Paudel 2001) (Figs. 8, 9, 10 and 11). For the commercial production of sweet and sour candy, sweet meat, and lapsi tart, good quality and ripen fruits are harvested (September–January), collected, cleaned, and boiled in salt water in large iron drums. The fruit pulp, peel, and seed stones are separated manually or using small local meals. The pulp is mixed with salt, sugar, and various types of spices to suit consumer taste. Sweet candies are made by mixing higher sugar content in the pulp (nearly 50% of the pulp by volume). The proportion of sugar added depends on the fruit maturity and natural sweetness of lapsi fruits. Varieties of spices such as cardamom, cinnamon, ginger, cumin, clove, etc. are added as taste maker. The mixture of such a pulp is churned manually or using small machine to have uniform mixing of added ingredients. Traditionally, thus prepared mixture, like a thick slurry, is thinly spread over wooden planks or on the bamboo mats and sun dried. Currently, few companies use trays and solar driers. Once the pulp is semi-dried, cut in to pieces of different shape and sizes and further dried (till the moisture content is less than 8%), packed, labelled, and marketed. Such products are prepared broadly in sweet

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Fig. 9 Choerospondias axillaris (Anacardiaceae). Boiling C. axillaris fruits in a local container to remove seed stone, separate peel and pulp from the fruits. Nepal. (Photo K.C Paudel)

Fig. 10 Choerospondias axillaris (Anacardiaceae). Traditional way of drying the fruit pulp. Dried mats are used as a base material to produce sour, hot, and spicy mada and titaura products. Nepal. (Photo K.C Paudel)

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Fig. 11 Choerospondias axillaris (Anacardiaceae). Sweet candy, tart, and varieties of other products are prepared in a more hygienic way, often sun dried, packed, labelled, and marketed. Nepal. (Photo K.C Paudel)

(guliyo), sour (amilo), and chilly-hot (piro) forms to suit taste of different category of people. In rural Nepal, C. axillaris fruits and products are preferred more by women and by girls in general and during pregnancy in particular. Such products are fibrous, rich in vitamin C, last longer in mouth while chewing and believed to be harmless souring agents for the pregnant. The fruit peel is dried, powdered, and mixed as souring agent while preparing vegetables and other recipes at household level and also to mix in Momo soup (Momo is a kind of chicken or goat meat stuffed in wheat flour, steamed, and taken while it is hot with chutney or hot soup). In North India and Bhutan, tribal population use the fruits of C. axillaris as fresh or pickled. In eastern part of China, dry fruit processing was tried but not continued. In Hong-He county in Yunnan province, fruit processing has been tried and machines for separating fruit pulp and seed stones are under development. Perhaps Nepal is the only country where C. axillaris fruits are extensively used for local consumption and income generation (Paudel and Parajuli 1999). The tree is planted or protected for fruit production. Research into selection of plus trees, germplasm collection, vegetative propagation, establishment of seed orchards, fruit quality assessment, fruit processing, and marketing is ongoing (Paudel 2001, 2003).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Choerospondias axillaris: In Nepal, seed stones are occasionally used as beads, driver seat back, curtains, buttons, and decorative in a limited scale. Seed stones are dried and used as wood fuel for boiling its fruit while processing, cooking meals, and

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also in brick manufacturing (Paudel et al. 2003). Traditionally goldsmiths use seed stones to melt gold as it contains high calorific value (Paudel 2001). The tree is preferred in agroforestry as shade tree for its light crown and deciduousness, various crops such as maize, millet, rice paddy, turmeric, ginger, etc. are grown underneath. Leaves are sometimes used as fodder for goats only; wood is used as light construction timber and fuelwood; farmers in Nepal prefer timber from female tree (fruit bearing tree) as they consider it to be stronger and attractive in color (Paudel 2001; Paudel et al. 2003). In China, C. axillaris is mostly used as wood/timber, plantations are raised mostly for eco-restoration. Research into use of fruit and bark extract for antioxidant, cardiovascular, anticancer drug development and for food value are reported from China (Li et al. 2016b, 2018; Wang et al. 2008). Nanoporous activated carbon derived from Choerospondias axillaris seed stone is effective to reduce arsenic from ground water. In an experiment, iron impregnated nanoporous activated carbon derived from C. axillaris seed stone decreased arsenic content from ca. 200 ppb to 10 ppb indicating potential for the removal of arsenic from ground water (Rajbhandari et al. 2012).

References Bhutia K, Suresh C, Amar R, Subba P. Nutritional composition of some minor fruits of the Sikkim Himalayas. Proceedings of the international symposium on minor fruits and medicinal plants for health and ecological security (ISMF & MP), West Bengal, vol. 19. 22nd ed. 2011. p. 344–6. Chang-wei, Cheng-bin CUI, Bing CAI, Bing HAN, Ming-ming LI, Ming FAN. Flavanoidal constituents of Choerospondias axillaries and their in vitro antitumor and anti- hypoxia activities. Chinese J Med Chem. 2009;19(1):48–51, 64. ISSN: 1005-0108 CN: 21-1313/R. Chen Y. Natural resistance of 41 Chinese woods attacked by marine wood- destroying organisms. Scientia Silvae Sinicae. 1985;21(3):319–25. Chen YT, iYing LG, iPing HG, Wen FJ, Tong LH. Early performances of eight provenances of Choerospondias axillaris. Forest Res Beijing. 2001;14(3):278–82. Dangol DR, Maharjan KL, Maharjan SK, Acharya AK. Wild edible plants in Nepal. In: Joshi BK, Bahadur KCH, Acharya A, editors. Conservation and utilization of agricultural plant genetic resources of Nepal. Dhulikhel: NAGRC; 2017. p. 390–407. Hara H. The Flora of eastern Himalaya. Result of the botanical expedition to eastern Himalaya organised by the university of Tokyo Japan 1960 and 1963. Tokyo: University of Tokyo; 1966. p. 186. Hara H, Williams LHJ. An enumeration of the flowering plants of Nepal, vol. 2. London: Trustees of British Museum (Natural history); 1979. p. 100. HMGN. Notes on flora of Rajnikunj (Gokarna forest). Bull. Department of Medicinal Plants no. 1. Kathmandu: Thapathali, Ministry of Forest; 1967. p. 11–2. HMGN. Medicinal plants of Nepal. Bull. Department of Medicinal Plants no. 3. Kathmandu: Thapathali, Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation; 1970. HMGN. Wild edible plants of Nepal. Bull. Department of Medicinal Plants no. 9. Kathmandu: Thapathali, Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation; 1982. p. 79. HMGN. Flora of Kathmandu valley. Bull. Department of Medicinal Plants no. 11. Kathmandu: Thapathali, Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation; 1986. p. 231–2. HMGN. Flora of Phulchoki and Godawari. Bull. Department of Plant Resources no. 2. Kathmandu: Thapathali, Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation; 1997. p. 22–3. Hooker JD. Flora of British India, vol 2. International book distributors, Deharadun; 1876. p. 42–3. https://www.India Biodiversity Portal.

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Shah DJ. Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) content of Lapsi-pulp and peel at different stage of maturation. Research Bulletin 2035 BS. Kathmandu: Food Research Section, HMGN, Department of Food and Agriculture Marketing Services; 1978. Storrs A, Storrs J. Discovering trees in Nepal and the Himalayas. Tripureshwor: Sahayogi Press; 1984. p. 80. Umberto Quattrocchi FLS. CRC world dictionary of medicinal and poisonous plants: common names, scientific names, eponyms, synonyms, and etymology. Boca Raton/London/New York: CRC Press; 2012. Wang Y, Youke W, Ye K. An experimental study of the normal acoustic absorptivity coefficient of wood and its products. J Nanjing Forest Univ, no. 2, China. 1987; 85–92. Wang H, Gao XD, Zhou GC, Cai L, Yao WB. In vitro and in vivo antioxidant activity of aqueous extract from Choerospondias axillaris fruit. Food Chem. 2008;106(3):888–95. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Xizhou C, Zheke Z. A preliminary study on the afforestation techniques of Choerospondias axillaris. J Zhejiang Sci Tech China. 1988; 32–34. Zhai Y-x, Chen J, Li T, Liu J-y, Wang X-y, Cheng C, Liu C-m. Determination of mineral elements in Choerospondias axillaris and its extractives by ICP-AES. Guang Pu Xue Yu Guang Pu Fen Xi. 2015;35(4):1052–5.

Cichorium intybus L. ASTERACEAE Hammad Ahmad Jan, Wahid Hussain, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Local Names Cichorium intybus: Khyber Pakhtunkhwa: Shin guly; Urdu: Kasni; Gilgit-Baltistan: Cheti char; Pashto: Han ‫ﻩﺍﻥ‬,; Malataya: Hindiba; English: Chicory.

Botany and Ecology Cichorium intybus: Perennials. Plants 20–150 cm high, green or glaucous-green; stem erect, usually more or less branched, branches often strongly divergent and slightly thickened toward apex, more or less setose or with crisped hairs, often glabrous or almost so. Leaves dorsally setose or crisped hairy, ventrally more or less crisped hairy; H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan W. Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_56

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Fig. 1 Cichorium intybus (Asteraceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

basal leaves usually persisting during flowering, truncinately pinnatipartite to undivided, but more or less toothed, gradually narrowed into winged petiole; cauline leaves (except lowermost; these similar to basal leaves) relatively less numerous and highly reduced, lanceolate-ovate to lanceolate, amplexicaul, with roundish or sagittate, often more or less toothed auricles. Capitula usually numerous, solitary or a few grouped together, terminal on stem and branches, and also in axils of middle and upper cauline leaves. Involucre 8–14 mm long; outer involucral bracts half to two-thirds as long as inner ones and usually more or less divergent, unequal in shape and length, relatively thin coriaceous in lower part, more or less ciliate along margin, more or less hairy on outer side, with simple or glandular hairs, often entirely glabrous; inner bracts usually more or less hairy or ciliate in upper part. Corolla 15–25 mm long, with varying shades of blue, sometimes whitish, rapidly discolored in water. Achenes 2–3 mm long, with 0.2–0.3 mm long pappus. Flowering July–October. Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, in meadows, forest glades, grassy slopes, near roads, in the fields, near settlements, along stony and clay dry creek beds, up to 2000 m above sea level (Boborov and Tzvelev 1964) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Phytochemistry Carotenoids, coumarins (cichorian, esculetine, esculine, scopoletine, umbelliferone), fatty acids, latex, sesquiterpenoids (lactucine, lactukopicrin), triterpenoids (taraxasterol), carbohydrates (inuline, levulose, glucose, fructose, sucrose, intibin, levuline, fructosans, glucofructosans), organic acids, essential oils (benzothiazole, methanol oleate n-pentadecanoic, palmitic, oleic 0.9, linoleic), sesquiterpenoids (lactucine, lactukopicrine), alkaloids, vitamins (C, K, thiamine, riboflavine, nicotinic and pantothenic acid), phenolcarboxylic acids (chlorogenic, neohrogenic,

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Fig. 2 Cichorium intybus (Asteraceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

isochlorogenic), tannins, flavonoids (apigenin, luteolene, quercitine, hyperine), and anthocyanins (cyanidine, delfinidine) (Sokolov 1993).

Local Medicinal Uses Cichorium intybus: Fresh leaves decoction is taken orally for fever, gas trouble, and body swelling (Abbasi et al. 2013). Decoction of fresh root is used for treatment of fever (Akhtar et al. 2013). Root infusion is used for fever, and leaves juice is used for release of gall stones and gastrointestinal problems (Bano et al. 2014). Plant is used as sudorific, stimulant, stomachic, and carminative (Shah and Khan 2006). Flower of plant is used for constipation, fever, jaundice, typhoid, and promote digestion (Hadi et al. 2014). Root extract is drunk to treat intermittent fever (Shah and Hussain 2012). The root of Cichorium intybus is chopped and boiled in water. The decoction is used for typhoid and fever, and to promote digestion (Khan et al. 2011). Decoction of plant is used to cure fever, jaundice, gas trouble, and abdominal swelling (Abbasi et al. 2010). The decoction of fresh root is mixed with sugar and is taken orally for the treatment of jaundice and fever. It is also used in combination with powdered bark of Pistacia integerrima (Sher et al. 2010). The species is used for fever and analgesic and also used as a food (saag) (Khan et al. 2015). Whole plants are boiled to make a decoction for

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Fig. 3 Cichorium intybus (Asteraceae), Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

Fig. 4 Cichorium intybus (Asteraceae), Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

asthma and breathing problems related to high altitudes, and also used in treatment of jaundice and fever (Qureshi et al. 2007). A leaf infusion is used in Middle Asia for the treatment of diseases of the gastrointestinal tract, as anti-inflammatory and astringent. The inflorescences are used to increase the appetite, improve digestion, to treat inflammation of the stomach, diseases of the large and small intestines, gall bladder, kidneys, as well as kidney and gallstones. The inflorescences are also used to treat

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swellings related to heart conditions. The fresh leaf juice is used to improve digestion, stimulation of appetite, with stomach ulcers, gastritis, liver cirrhosis, hepatitis, with diseases of the spleen, kidneys, as diuretic, and for anemia. Externally the leaf extract is applied as cataplasm for rheumatism, arthritis, with wounds, ulcers, swellings, eczema, furunculosis, carbuncles, stomatitis, and conjunctivitis. In the Ural, the decoction of the roots serves as emollient for angina and pneumonia, and as sedative for heart disease. The leaf ash is applied topically to eczema, chicken pox, and skin diseases, and the extract is used as shampoo to strengthen the hair and as remedy for sunburns. The stem extract is used to treat malaria (Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2020a, b; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017; Sokolov 1993). It is also used to treat wounds (Wali et al. 2019). The stem decoction is used for diabetes, hepatitis, and malaria (Ullah et al. 2019), and also for hemorrhoids and stomach disorders (Tetik et al. 2013). It is used as eupeptic, stomachic, depurative, choleretic, laxative, hypotensive, tonic and antipyretic, diuretic, depurative, tonic, stomachic, laxative and eupeptic properties, to treat liver inflammation, anemia and rheumatism (Miraldi et al. 2001), and to treat hypertension (Ahmad and Ahmad 2015). In Jammu and Kashmir, it is used as appetizer, to treat body weakness, joints swelling, as liver tonic, for muscular pain, rheumatism, as anti-inflammatory, for gout, jaundice, liver ailments, menstrual disorders, scabies, spleen disorders, typhoid, wounds, as blood purifier, to lower fever, and to treat stomach ulcers (Gairola et al. 2014).

Local Food Uses Cichorium intybus: The roots are used as coffee surrogate and flavoring agent for sweets (Bussmann 2017; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017; Sokolov 1993). The leaves are cooked as vegetable (Ullah et al. 2019).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Cichorium intybus: The species is used as nematicide in agriculture. It is used as fodder for cattle to increase milk yield (Sokolov 1993). Wounds of domestic animals are dressed with crushed Cichorium stems mixed with oil (Bussmann 2017; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017).

References Abbasi AM, Khan MA, Ahmed M, Zafar M. Herbal medicines used to cure various ailments by the inhabitants of Abbottabad district, north west Frontier Province, Pakistan. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2010;9(1):175–83. Abbasi AM, Khan MA, Shah MH, Shah MM, Pervez A, Ahmad M. Ethnobotanical appraisal and cultural values of medicinally important wild edible vegetables of lesser Himalayas-Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1):66. Ahmad SA, Ahmad AAA. Ethnobotany of the Hawraman region of Kurdistan. Harv Pap Bot. 2015;20(1):85–9.

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Akhtar N, Rashid A, Murad W, Bergmeier E. Diversity and use of ethno-medicinal plants in the region of Swat, North Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1):25. Bano A, Ahmad M, Hadda TB, Saboor A, Sultana S, Zafar M, Ashraf MA. Quantitative ethnomedicinal study of plants used in the skardu valley at high altitude of KarakoramHimalayan range, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2014;10(1):43. Boborov EG, Tzvelev NN. Flora of the USSR, volume 29: compositae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk. 832 pages, 34 plates; 1964 (English 2001). Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z. Cichorium intybus L. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions Central Asia and Altai. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020a. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77087-1_39-1. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Ghorbani A, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D. Cichorium intybus L. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions far Eastern Europe. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020b. https://doi.org/10.1007/9783-319-77088-8_40-2. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Hadi F, Ibrar M, Dastagir G, Arif M, Naveed K, Adnan M. Weed diversity in wheat and maize with special reference to their ethnomedicinal uses at rich valley, Hindukush range, Chitral, Pakistan. Pak J Weed Sci Res. 2014;20(3):335–46. Khan N, Ahmed M, Ahmed A, Shaukat SS, Wahab M, Ajaib M, Nasir M. Important medicinal plants of chitral gol National park (cgnp) Pakistan. Pak J Bot. 2011;43(2):797–809. Khan SM, Din NU, Sohail IU, Rahman FI, Iqbal Z, Ali Z. Ethnobotanical study of some medicinal plants of Tehsil Kabal, district Swat, KP, Pakistan. Med Aromat Plants. 2015;4(189):2167– 0412. Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Alizade V, Aleksanyan A, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Cichorium intybus L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-49412-8_50. Miraldi E, Ferri S, Mostaghimi V. Botanical drugs and preparations in the traditional medicine of West Azerbaijan (Iran). J Ethnopharmacol. 2001;75:77–87. Qureshi RA, Ghufran MA, Sultana KN, Ashraf M, Khan AG. Ethnomedicinal studies of medicinal plants of Gilgit district and surrounding areas. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2007;5:115–22. Shah SM, Hussain F. Ethnomedicinal plant wealth of Mastuj valley, Hindukush range, district Chitral, Pakistan. J Med Plant Res. 2012;6:4328–37. Shah GM, Khan MA. Checklist of medicinal plants of Siran Valley, Mansehra, Pakistan. Ethnobot Leafl. 2006;2006(1):6. Sher H, Alyemeni MN, Wijaya L, Shah AJ. Ethnopharmaceutically important medicinal plants and its utilization in traditional system of medicine, observation from the northern parts of Pakistan. J Med Plants Res. 2010;4(18):1853–64. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 7. Family asteraceae (compositae). Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1993. 352 p. (in Russian). Tetik F, Civelek S, Cakilcioglu U. Traditional uses of some medicinal plants in Malatya (Turkey). J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;146:331–46. Ullah M, Mehmood S, Ali M, Bussmann RW, Aldosari A, Ali Khan R, Ullah R, Hussain W, Rahman Shah MA. An ethnopharmacological study of plants used for treatment of diabetes in the southern and tribal regions of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019; 18(8). https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.8.1-20. Wali R, Rahman K, Raja NI, Qureshi R, Bussmann RW, Mashwani ZUR. A quantitative medico botanical expedition of Fairy Meadows National Park, Diamir, Gilgit Baltistan, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019; 1835. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.35.1-30.

Cinnamomum tamala (Buch.-Ham.) T. Nees & Nees LAURACEAE Dipesh Pyakurel, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Cinnamomum tamala (Buch.-Ham.) T. Nees & Nees: Cinnamomum albiflorum Nees; Cinnamomum lindleyi Lukman.; Cinnamomum pauciflorum var. tazia (Buch.Ham.) Meis; Cinnamomum reinwardtii Nees; Cinnamomum tamala var. elliptifolium Baruah & S.C.Nath; Cinnamomum veitchii Lukman.; Cinnamomum zwartzii Lukman.; Laurus albiflora Wall.; Laurus sailyana Buch.-Ham.; Laurus tamala Buch.-Ham.; Laurus triplinervia Reinw. ex Wall.; Persea tamala Spreng. D. Pyakurel Nepal Herbs and Herbal Products Association, Kathmandu, Nepal Agriculture and Forestry University, Chitwan, Nepal H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_57

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Local Names Cinnamomum tamala: Urdu: Tezpat ‫ ;ﺕﯼﺯﭖﺍﺕ‬Nepali: Tejpat (तेजपात), Dalchini (दालचिनी), Tejbokra (तेजबोक्रा), Sinkouli (सिन्कली); English: Bay leaf, Nepalese cinnamon; Jammu: Tejpattar; Hindi: Tejpatta (तेजपत्ता); Sanskrit: Tamalapattra (तमालपत्र), Patram, Tamal; Bhojpuri: Tejpatta; Danuwar: Tejpat; Gurung: Lepe, Pinge; Lepcha: Sangornyom; Limbu: Sorong tetala; Newari, Tejpat; Rai: Belakhan; Sunwar: Sijakaulisapha; Tamang: Lepte; Sherpa: Shishi; Tibetan: Shing tsha (Manandhar 2002; Ghimire et al. 2008; Flowers of India 2016).

Botany and Ecology Cinnamomum tamala: Trees, up to 20 m tall, to 20 cm d.b.h. Bark gray-brown, scented. Branchlets tea-brown, terete, glabrous, young ones  angled, sparsely gray puberulent initially soon glabrate. Leaves alternate or those on young branchlets sometimes subopposite; petiole 0.5–1.3 cm, slightly sulcate adaxially, glabrous; leaf blade green-white and opaque abaxially, green and shiny adaxially, ovate, oblong, or lanceolate, 7.5–15  (2.5–)3–5.5 cm, thinly leathery, glabrous on both surfaces, triplinerved, midrib extending to leaf apex, basal lateral veins very elevated abaxially, slightly elevated adaxially, transverse veins undulate, veinlets reticulate,  conspicuous on both surfaces, base acute or broadly cuneate, margin entire, apex long acuminate. Panicle axillary or terminal, 5–10 cm, many flowered, branched, apex of branch bearing a 3–5-flowered cyme; peduncle 1–4 cm, peduncle and rachis sparsely finely gray puberulent. Pedicels 4–6 mm, slender, finely gray puberulent. Flowers white-green, up to 6 mm. Perianth sparsely gray puberulent outside but densely so inside; perianth tube obconical, short, less than 2 mm; perianth lobes obovate-oblong, about 4  1.5 mm, obtuse. Fertile stamens 9, about 3.8 mm (of first and second whorls) or about 4 mm (of third whorl); filaments gray villous, about 2.5 mm, those of third whorl each with 2 finely stalked ovate-cordate glands at lower 1/3, others glandless; anthers of first and second whorls ovate-oblong, about 1.3 mm, with introrse cells, those of third whorl oblong, about 1.5 mm, with extrorse cells. Staminodes 3, about 1.7 mm, villous, long stalked, apex triangular-sagittate. Ovary ovoid, about 1.2 mm, villous; style slender, about 3.6 mm; stigma small, inconspicuous. Fruit obovoid or ellipsoid, 10–14 mm; perianth lobes persistent on rim of cupule. Flowering April to May (Polunin and Stainton 1984; Press et al. 2000; Manandhar 2002; Ghimire et al. 2008; Wu et al. 1994–2013). Endangered due to over use (Smith Olsen 2005) (Figs. 1 and 2).

Phytochemistry Cinnamon oil is obtained by steam distillation of leaves of C. tamala. The leaves contain maximum 2% of the cinnamon oil. The oil is pale lemon in color with a clove-like peppery odor and has hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic properties

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Fig. 1 Cinnamomum tamala (Myrtaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 2 Cinnamomum tamala (Myrtaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

(Sharma 1996). Cinnamon leaf oil has the following compounds: α-copaene, α-guaiene, α-gurjunene, α-humulene, α-pinene, α-phellandrene, α-terpineol, α-thujene, β-bisabolene, β-caryophyllene, β-elemene, β-pinene, β-sabinene, δ-cadinene, P-cymene, T-muuralol, γ-cadinene, (Z)-β-ocimene, epi-globulol, aromadendrene, benzaldehyde, bornyl acetate, camphene, carvone, caryophyllene oxide, cinnamyl acetate, citronellal, eugenol, eremophilene, germacrene A, germacrene D, globulol, ledol, limonene, linalool, myrcene, neral, spathulenol, terpinen-4-ol, trans-pinocarveol, trans-sabinene hydrate, trans-verbenol, and viridiflorol. Likewise, bark oil contains cinnamaldehyde, eugenol, benzaldehyde, cuminaldehyde, pinene, cineol, phellandrene, furfurol, cymene, and linalool (CSIR 1986; Ahmed et al. 2000; Mir et al. 2004; Gurung 2009; Heer et al. 2017).

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Local Medicinal Uses Cinnamomum tamala: Leaves are used to treat colic and diarrhea (Manandhar 2002) and also in gastric problems (Kunwar et al. 2015) and to control hyperptyalism, ophthalmia, proctitis, proctalgia, hepatopathy, and splenopathy (Baral and Kurmi 2006). It is locally used as stimulant in rheumatism (Uprety et al. 2016). It is rubbed on the throat to treat throat allergy (Uprety et al. 2016). Bark is used to treat colic and diarrhea (Manandhar 2002); extract is used to treat intestinal disorder in Central Nepal (Rajbhandari 2001). Bark oil is used to treat toothache (Shrestha and Shrestha 2004). Bark is boiled in water and the water is taken to control vomiting, dysentery, and stomachic (Chaudhary 2001; Shrestha and Shrestha 2004). It is useful as remedy for nausea and vomiting (Kunwar et al. 2009, 2015; Kunwar and Bussmann 2009) and useful in gonorrhea, as spice oil is good for remedy for flatulence and to check nausea and vomiting (Dutta 2007). Oil is externally used to treat rheumatism, neuralgia, headache, and toothache and internally for dyspepsia, flatulence, nausea and vomiting, and enteric fever (Kirtikar and Basu 1995). It is used to treat cough and colds (Malik et al. 2015), as astringent, stimulant, and carminative, for diarrhea, colic, stomach pain, eye problems (Kunwar et al. 2009), and rheumatic pain (Gairola et al. 2014). It is widely known across the region (Joshi et al. 2010; Kunwar et al. 2013, 2018, 2019).

Local Food Uses Cinnamomum tamala: Locally bark and leaves are used as condiments and spices in curries, meat, and pickle (Dangol et al. 2017; Joshi et al. 2010; Manandhar 2002; Atreya et al. 2018). Commercial production of Cinnamomum oil has been initiated in few areas of Nepal, but the quantity they consume is negligible compared to raw export. The species is used as spices and condiments in Nepal, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Middle Eastern countries and in many Ayurvedic preparations in different forms (SDVKVS 1999): in powder form, Avipattikara Churna, Jyesthalavangadi Churna, Lavanabhaskara Churna, Raktalavangadi Churna, and Sudarsan churna; semi-solid, Chitraka Haritaki and Chyavanaprasha Avaleha; liquid, Dashmularistha, Draksharishta, and Jeerakadyarishta; and tablet, Chandraprabha Vati, Kanchanara Guggulu, Shringarabhraka Rasa, Sutashekhara Rasa, and Yogaraja Guggulu. Bark is a common adulterant of true cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum), a native plant of Sri Lanka, and is mostly used as an industrial raw material rather than as spices and condiments. Both oils are used in food flavoring, especially in alcohol and soft drinks, and used in making nasal sprays, cough syrups, and dental preparations. The leaf oil is commercially used in toiletry soaps and perfumes (Gurung 2009) (Figs. 3 and 4).

Cinnamomum tamala (Buch.-Ham.) T. Nees & Nees Fig. 3 Cinnamomum tamala (Myrtaceae), commercial cultivation in Makawanpur, Nepal. (Photo Dipesh Pyakurel)

Fig. 4 Cinnamomum tamala (Myrtaceae), sacks of Tejpat for sale in Darchula, Western Nepal. (Photo Dipesh Pyakurel)

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses Cinnamomum tamala: In India, leaf extracts of Tejpat, along with fruits of Phyllanthus emblica, are used as clarifiers in dyeing procedures. Traditionally green dye has been extracted from its leaves. The trade of Cinnamomum tamala dates back to more than two centuries when Nepal used to export Tejpat to India (Kirkpatrick 1811). Since then, both Tejpat and Dalchini are exported to India in crude form and are one of the major exporting medicinal plant products from Nepal (Pyakurel et al. 2018). The trade analysis for 15 consecutive years from FY 2001/ 2002 to 2015/2016 showed that the trade of Tejpat is in increasing trend. The trade becomes substantial from 2005/2006 where more than 114 tons of Tejpat was exported and ranked seventh in terms of traded volume. The highest quantity of 1567 tons was traded in FY 2013/2014. Tejpat ranked from first to third most important MAPs in terms of trade volume from 2007/2008 to 2015/2016. The trade value of Tejpat and Dalchini for FY 2015/2016 was USD 494,100 and USD 32,410, respectively (mean price per kg from https://www.ansab.org.np/sub/ntfpsprice-list). As a result of high international demand, its cultivation has initiated in several lowland districts of Nepal such as Kailali, Palpa, and Udayapur districts. It has a very good commercial potential (Ur-Rahman et al. 2019).

References Ahmed A, Choudhary MI, Farooq A, Demirci B, Demirci F, Can Başer KH. Essential oil constituents of the spice Cinnamomum tamala (Ham.) Nees & Eberm. Flavour Fragr J. 2000;15(6):388–90. Atreya K, Pyakurel D, Thagunna KS, Bhatta LD, Uprety Y, Chaudhary RP, et al. Factors contributing to the decline of traditional practices in communities from the Gwallek–Kedar area, Kailash sacred landscape, Nepal. Environ Manag. 2018;61(5):741–55. Baral SR, Kurmi PP. A compendium of medicinal plants in Nepal. Kathmandu: Mrs Rachana Sharma; 2006. Chaudhary NK. Knowledge system on the use of indigenous medicinal plants in Tharu community: anthropological case study of Bachhauli VDC of Chitwan District, Narayani zone. A Master’s thesis, Department of Sociology/Anthropology, Tri-Chandra Campus, Ghantaghar, Kathmandu. 2001. CSIR. The useful plants of India. New Delhi: Publications & Information Directorate, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR); 1986. Dangol DR, Maharjan KL, Maharjan SK, Acharya AK. Wild edible plants in Nepal. In: Joshi BK, Bahadur KCH, Acharya A, editors. Conservation and utilization of agricultural plant genetic resources of Nepal. Dhulikhel: NAGRC; 2017. p. 390–407. Dutta IC. Non timber Forest products of Nepal: identification, classification, ethnic uses and cultivation. Kathmandu: Hill Side Press; 2007.484p. Flowers of India. Flowers of India. 2016. http://www.flowersofindia.net/. Accessed 20 May 2020. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh BY. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Ghimire SK, Sapkota IB, Oli BR, Parajuli-Rai R. Non-timber forest products of Nepal Himalaya: database of some important species found in the mountain protected areas and surrounding regions. Kathmandu: WWF Nepal; 2008.

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Gurung K. Essential oils in Nepal: a practical guide to essential oils and aromatherapy. Kathmandu: Himalayan Bio Trade Limited; 2009. Heer A, Guleria S, Razdan VK. Chemical composition, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities and characterization of bioactive compounds from essential oil of Cinnamomum tamala grown in north-western Himalaya. J Plant Biochem Biotechnol. 2017;26(2):191–8. Joshi M, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal uses of plant resources of the Haigad watershed in Kumaun Himalaya. Med Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010;4(special issue 1):43–6. Kirkpatrick W. An account of the Kingdom of Nepal: being the substance of observations made during a mission to that country in the year 1793. London: William Miller; 1811. Kirtikar KR, Basu BD. Indian medicinal plants, vol. IV. Deharadun: International Book Distributors; 1995. Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Medicinal, aromatic and dye plants of Baitadi and Darchula Districts, Nepal Himalaya: status, uses and management. In: Hartmann M, Weipert J, editors. Biodiversität, Naturausstattung im Himalaya, vol. III, Erfurt: Universität Erfurt; 2009, p. 475–89. Kunwar RM, Upreti Y, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Indigenous use and ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in Far-west Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009;7:5–28. Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Acharya RP, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants, traditional medicine, markets and management in far-west Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:24. Kunwar RM, Acharya RP, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plant dynamics in indigenous medicines in farwest Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;163:210–9. Kunwar RM, Fadiman M, Cameron M, Bussmann RW, Thapa-Magar KB, Rimal B, Sapkota P. Cross-cultural comparison of plant use knowledge in Baitadi and Darchula districts, Nepal Himalaya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14:40. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-018-0242-7. Kunwar RM, Shrestha K, Malla S, Acharya T, Sementelli A, Kutal D. Relation of medicinal plants, their use patterns and availability in the lower Kailash Sacred Landscape, Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18:7. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.6.1-14. Malik ZA, Bhat J, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhat AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44. Manandhar NP. Plants and people of Nepal. Portland: Timber Press; 2002. Mir SR, Ali M, Kapoor R. Chemical composition of essential oil of Cinnamomum tamala Nees et Eberm. leaves. Flavour Fragr J. 2004;19(2):112–4. Olsen CS. Valuation of commercial central Himalayan medicinal plants. Ambio. 2005;34(8):607–10. Polunin O, Stainton JDA. Flowers of the Himalaya. London: Oxford University Press; 1984. Press JR, Shrestha KK, Sutton DA. Annotated checklist of the flowering plants of Nepal. London: The Natural History Museum; 2000. Pyakurel D, Sharma IB, Smith-Hall C. Patterns of change: the dynamics of medicinal plant trade in far-western Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2018;224:323–34. Rajbhandari KR. Ethnobotany of Nepal. Kathmandu: Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal; 2001. SDVKVS. Ayurvedic products of Singha Durbar Vaidhyakhana Vikas Samiti. Kathmandu: Singhadurbar Vaidyakhana Vikas Samiti Anamnagar; 1999. Sharma SR. Hypoglycaemic and hypolipidemic effects of Cinnamomum tamala Nees leaves. Indian J Exp Biol. 1996;34:372–4. Shrestha UB, Shrestha S. Major non timber forest products of Nepal. Kathmandu: Bhudipuran Prakasan; 2004. Uprety Y, Poudel RC, Gurung J, Chettri N, Chaudhary RP. Traditional use and management of NTFPs in Kangchenjunga landscape: implications for conservation and livelihoods. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12(1):19. Ur-Rahman I, Sher H, Bussmann RW, editors. Reference guide on high value medicinal and aromatic plants – sustainable management and cultivation practices. Swat: University of Swat; 2019. ISBN 978-969-23419-0-5. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013.

Cirsium verutum (D. Don) Spreng. ASTERACEAE Gopal Lamichhane, Prakash Poudel, Hem Raj Paudel, Rashmi Thapa, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Cirsium verutum (D. Don) Spreng.: Carduus involucratus Wall., Carduus trilobatus Bunch.-Ham. ex DC., Cirsium involucratum DC., Cnicus verutus D. Don, Cnicus involucratus Wall. Ex DC., Cirsium argyracanthum DC., Cnicus argyracanthus (DC.) C. B. Clarke, and Cnicus involucratus var. horrida

G. Lamichhane Department of Oriental Pharmacy, Wonkwang University, Iksan, Republic of Korea P. Poudel Department of Pharmacy, Novel Academy, Purbanchal University, Pokhara, Nepal H. R. Paudel (*) National Herbarium and Plant Laboratories, Department of Plant Resources, Godawari, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. Thapa (*) Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, School of Health and Allied Sciences, Pokhara University, Pokhara, Nepal R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_58

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Local Names Cirsium verutum: Nepali, Dhandekanda, Dhaadekanda, Dhodekanda, SungureKanda, Thakai, Thakal, Thakailo, kareli, Thakil, and Thotanekanda (Bhattarai 1992; Burlakoti and Kunwar 2008; Kunwar et al. 2010; Manandhar 1993, 1995a, b; Rai and Singh 2015); Rai, Churbham; Tamang, Chokam; Newar, Chwackan; Gurung, Popuchu (Manandhar 1991; Balami 2004; Gurung et al. 2008); India, Kardra, Kandaya (Gairola et al. 2010; Suyal et al. 2010; Ghildiyal and Gairola 2013), Kandaru (Sharma et al. 2018) Biskandaru, Biskanara (Phondani et al. 2010), Soh-chila, Ch-eih-keng (Singh and Borthakur 2011; Jaiswal 2010), Brongzome (Tsering et al. 2017), Khibsha (Singh et al. 2009), Bhrus, Kanta (Sharma and Kala 2018); Bhutan, spyang-'tshernag-Po (Wangchuk et al. 2016); Chinese, bao ye ji (Wu et al. 2010); English, common thistle, creeping thistle, plume thistle (Kunwar et al. 2010; Maikhuri et al. 2000).

Botany and Ecology Cirsium verutum: Herbs 1–1.5 m tall, perennial. Stems erect, branched, unwinged, with long multicellular hairs. Leaves concolorous, green, abaxially glabrous or sparsely cobwebby and with long multicellular hairs, adaxially rough and sparsely to densely spinulose. Middle cauline leaves sessile, oblanceolate, 15–20
3–9 cm, pinnatipartite, semiamplexicaul; segments about 10 pairs, ovate to elliptic, with unequal triangular teeth with 1–2 mm lateral spinules and a 3–5 mm apical spine, basal teeth sometimes spiniform. Upper cauline leaves similar but ovate to narrowly elliptic, segments or teeth with a 5–10 mm apical spine. Bracts ovate, margin spiny or with spiny teeth. Capitula corymbose. Involucre campanulate, 3–3.5 cm in diam., glabrous or sparsely cobwebby. Phyllaries imbricate, in about 7 rows, lacking wings and scarious appendage; outer and middle phyllaries 1.2–2.5
0.2–0.3 cm, basal portion triangular to lanceolate, apical portion subulate, 1–1.2 cm, and patent to reflexed; inner phyllaries linear-lanceolate, about 2.5
0.2 cm, apex long acuminate. Florets bisexual. Corolla reddish-purple, about 2.8 cm, tube about 1.5 cm. Achene dark, about 3.5 mm. Pappus bristles brownish, to 2 cm. Flowering and fruiting July to September (Sultan-Ud-Din et al. 2016; Kapkoti et al. 2016; Wu et al. 2010; Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6). Cirsium is a very complex genus containing 481 verified species (http://www. theplantlist.org/1.1/browse/A/Compositae/Cirsium/). Species verutum is less valued perennial plant distributed throughout dry slope, dry alpine pasture, moist alpine slope, subalpine forest, and subtropical to temperate region of Himalayas (Sharma and Kala 2018; Kapkoti et al. 2016; Borah et al. 2019; Rai et al. 2012). This species is distributed in Nepal, Himalayan part of India, Myanmar, Tibet, Vietnam, Afghanistan, Bhutan, and Alpine meadow of Pakistan (Dangol 2013). It is a common weed that grows in surrounding of cultivated beds, under forest, forest clearings, wayside,

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Fig. 1 Cirsium verutum (Asteraceae), in its natural habitat, Hemja, Kaski, Nepal. (Photo Prakash Paudel)

water courses, open spaces, degraded site, woodland, garden, dappled shade, slopes, forest margins, shady edge, and bolder (Kapkoti et al. 2016; Singh and Samant 2010; Kaur et al. 2010; Dangol 2013).

Phytochemistry The major constituents of Cirsium are cicin, monogalactosyl, diacylglycerol, sterols, terpenes, flavonoids, phenolic acids, lignans, sesquiterpenoids, triterpenoids, alkaloid, glycosides, acetylene, polyacetylene, and hydrocarbon (Kunwar et al. 2010; Lee et al. 2002; Sahli et al. 2017). Major triterpenoid reported are lupeol, taraxasterol acetate, 25-hydroperoxycycloart-23-en-3-β-ol, and 24-hydroperoxycycloart-25-en-3-β-ol (Sahli et al. 2017). Flavone identified are pectolinarigenin, pectolinarin, luteolin, 5,40 -dihydroxy-6,7,30 -trimethoxyflavone (cirsilineol) 40 -monoglucoside, 5,30 ,40 -trihydroxy6,7-dimethoxyflavone (cirsiliol) 40 -monoglucoside, cirsitakaoside, and cirsitakaogenin (Morita et al. 1973; Lin et al. 1978; Lim et al. 2008). Species of genus Cirsium also possess furan such as hydroxymethyl-2-furancarboxaldehyde, 5-methoxymethyl-2furancarboxaldehyde, cirsiumaldehyde, and cirsiumoside (Shen and Mu 1990).

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Fig. 2 Cirsium verutum (Asteraceae), flower, Hemja, Kaski, Nepal. (Photo Ripu Kunwar)

Local Medicinal Uses Cirsium verutum: Root juice is used for urinary trouble by the Newari community of the Pharping Village of Kathmandu (Balami 2004). People in Jajarkot District of Nepal chew the pieces of root to alleviate mouth and nose bleeding during hot and dry summer season, whereas people in Sikles Village of Kaski District chew root pieces to treat abdominal pain, and chest pain (Manandhar 1995a, b; Gurung et al. 2008). Rai community in Bhojpur, an eastern part of Nepal, uses raw juice of root and latex in case of eye pain and measles (Rai and Singh 2015). Similarly, root and inner portion of stem have been used for cooling effect as well as to relieve burning sensation during urination by people in the Karnali region of Nepal. People of the Karnali region also prescribe cooked aerial soft parts of this plant to postnatal women as purgative and galactagogue (Bhattarai 1992). Six teaspoonfuls of root juice 2 times a day is prescribed by the people in the Baglung District of Nepal as well as Tamang of the Kavrepalanchok District to treat fever, whereas at Kathmandu root paste is prescribed (Dani and Tiwari 2018; Manandhar 1991, 1993). In the Mahakali region of Nepal, people take this plant for abdominal pain and also as refreshing and calming agents (Kunwar et al. 2010). In Machhapuchchhre rural municipality of Kaski District, root juice is used orally for sore throat, nose

Cirsium verutum (D. Don) Spreng. Fig. 3 Cirsium verutum (Asteraceae), fruits and seeds, Hemja, Kaski, Nepal. (Photo Prakash Poudel)

Fig. 4 Cirsium verutum (Asteraceae), fresh root, Hemja, Kaski, Nepal. (Photo Prakash Poudel)

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Fig. 5 Cirsium arvense (Asteraceae). Racha, Georgia. (Photo R. Bussmann)

bleeding, typhoid, and diabetes mellitus (Adhikari et al. 2019). In Myagdi District root juice mixed together with the juice of Drymaria diandra and Cheilanthes albomarginata is taken to treat fever. Root juice is also famous for a stomach disorder (Manandhar 1995a, b). In Uttaranchal and Himachal provinces of India, the root is used traditionally in cuts (Bisht et al. 2006). People of Himachal province also use its fruit and root to treat constipation, dyspepsia, skin ailments, chest pain, and as a tonic (Singh et al. 2009). Leaf extract is used in curing gastrointestinal problems mainly diarrhea and dysentery by the tribal community of Meghalaya (Singh and Borthakur 2011). Monpa the community of Arunachal province eats inflorescence to treat severe stomachache (Tsering et al. 2017). They externally apply a paste of raw root together with the raw root of Cirsium falconeri and Onopordum acanthium to treat arthritis (Chakraborty et al. 2017). Similarly in Uttaranchal, India, C. verutum have also been used in veterinary medicine to treat chest pain, respiratory troubles, wound, sores, and hematuria (Pande et al. 2007). People of Bhotiya tribal community of central Himalaya, India, locally apply a decoction of this plant mixing with 1–2 spoonful of Cedrus deodara oil to treat rheumatism. These Bhotiya tribal also use macerate of the root of C. verutum together with Saussurea costus root and Paeonia emodi leaves to treat tuberculosis (Phondani et al. 2010). Also, juice of the fresh leaves in mustard oil is applied to the affected areas to treat wounds, cuts, and boils. Fruit and root of this plant are popular for constipation, dyspepsia, skin ailments, and chest pain and as a tonic in a tribal

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Fig. 6 Cirsium arvense (Asteraceae). Seeds. Racha, Georgia. (Photo R. Bussmann)

community of Himachal province (Singh et al. 2009). Tribal community of Meghalaya prefers this plant for treating diarrhea, dysentery, and gastrointestinal disorder (Singh and Borthakur 2011). In Bhutan, local people use this plant as an emetic and purgative and also for indigestion swelling and phlegm disorder (Wangchuk et al. 2016). It is used as carminative and refresher, for stomach and abdominal pain (Kunwar et al. 2009, 2010, 2015; Kunwar and Bussmann 2009). Cirsium arvense serves as emetic, for headache, indigestion, and vomiting (Gairola et al. 2014). The methanolic extract of Cirsium japonicum was found to alleviate alcohol toxicity in rats by enhancing oxidation of ethanol (Park et al. 2004). Aqueous extract obtained from leaves of Cirsium rivulare was found to have antibacterial activity against gram-positive bacteria (Nazaruk and Jakoniuk 2005). Pectolinarigenin and pectolinarin isolated from Cirsium chanroenicum possess anti-inflammatory activity in raw cell model (Lim et al. 2008). It is also reported to have antioxidant and antidiabetic activity in root of Cirsium japonicum (Yin et al. 2008). Plant extract and several compounds isolated from Cirsium species have shown vasorelaxant, astringent, hepatoprotective, and anticancer activities (Demirtas et al. 2017). A water infusion of Cirsium is applied topically for skin diseases and as cataplasm for piles. The leaves are used to make an extract to treat hemorrhoids (Bussmann 2017; Batsatsashvili et al. 2017).

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Cirsium italicum seeds are used to treat anal fistula (Yesilada et al. 1999). Cirsium lapskyle is used to treat indigestion (Kala 2005). Cirsium englerianum is used for respiratory tract problems, stomachache, and headache (Giday et al. 2009).

Local Food Uses Cirsium verutum: It has edible root, aromatic seed, leaves, and oil (Jaiswal 2010; Sharma et al. 2018). Cirsium arvense: Thistle leaves are used to make sats’ebai (a dish with vegetables dipped in sour milk) (Bussmann 2017; Batsatsashvili et al. 2017). Stems are sometimes eaten raw (Ahmad and Pieroni 2016). Cirsium vulgare flower receptacles can be eaten (Pieroni et al. 2020). Cirsium rivulare was used as famine potherb (Łuczaj and Szymański 2007).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Cirsium verutum: Flowers provide suitable switch for pollinating insects to new forage as the flowering of this plant begins during the culmination period of the mustard blooms. This plant also supports a range of other emerging insects (Kapkoti et al. 2016). Cirsium verutum supports the diversity of emerging insect taxa and also serves as an immediate source for switching pollinators. A variety of insect taxa particularly bees and butterflies feed on this plant to grow. Hence it is necessary to acknowledge its role in pollination management plans (Kapkoti et al. 2016). Cirsium dender serves as fodder for donkeys (Bussmann et al. 2011). Cirsium englerianum is employed in cough and diarrhea in cattle (Giday et al. 2009).

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Citrus medica L. RUTACEAE Rajendra Gyawali, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Citrus medica L.: Aurantium medicum (L.) M. Gómez; Citreum vulgare Torn. ex Mill.; Citrus x aurantium subvar. amilbed Engl.; Citrus x aurantium subvar. ckakotra Engl.; Citrus x limon (L.) Osbeck; Citrus x limon var. digitata Risso; Citrus x limonia (L.) Osbeck; Citrus x limonum Risso; Citrus alata (Tanaka) Tanaka; Citrus cedra Link; Citrus cedrata Raf.; Citrus fragrans Salisb.; Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck; Citrus medica fo. monstrosa Guillaumin; Citrus medica subsp. bajoum H. Perrier; Citrus medica var. alata Tanaka; Citrus medica var. digitata Risso; Citrus medica var. ethrog Engl.; Citrus medica var. limon L.; Citrus medica var. proper Hook. f.; Citrus medica var. sarcodactylis (Hoola van Nooten) Swingle; R. Gyawali Kathmandu University, Dhulikhel, Kavre, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_59

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Citrus odorata Roussel; Citrus sacrodactulis Hoola van Nooten; Citrus tuberosa Mill; Sarcodactilis helicteroides Gaertn.

Local Names Citrus medica: Arabic: Tuffâhh mâhî, Kabbad, Turung, Rhobs el arsa, Toranj, ‘atraj (‫)ﺃﺕﺭﺝ‬, ‘ataranaj (‫)ﺃﺕﺭﻥﺝ‬, ‘utruj (‫)ﺃﺕﺭﺝ‬, ‘utrunj (‫ ;)ﺃﺕﺭﻥﺝ‬Brazil: Cidra; Bengali: Jambira (্বি), Taba (াবা); Burmese: Shauk ping, Rhauk ping, Shouk ta kwah; Chinese: Gou yuan (枸 橼), Gou yuan (枸櫞), Xiang yuan (香橼), Zhi qiao, Wan fo shou gan (丸佛手 柑), Jǔ yuán (枸橼), Jǔ yuán zi (枸橼子), Xiāng yuán (香橼); Croatian: Četrun; Czech: Citroník Cedrát; Danish: Cedrat, Sukat, Cedrattrae; Dutch: Cederappel, Ceders, Cedraat, Cederatboom, Muskuscitroenboom, Sukadeboom; Fijian: Moli, Moli Karokaro; Finnish: Sitruunapuu, Sukaattisitruunat, Sukaattisitruuna, Sukaattisitruunapuu; French: Cédrat, Limettier De Perse, Cédratier, Limettier Tahiti; German: Zedrate, Zedratfrucht, Zedratzitronen, Echte zitrone, Cedratzitrone, Medischer Apfel, Cedratzitronenbaum, Zitronatzitrone, Zedrat-Zitrone, Zitronatzitronenbaum; Hindi: Bara nibu (बड़ा नीबु), Bijaura (बिजरा), Bijaura nimbu, Bijora nimbu, Karna, Khatta, Puurak (पूरक), Turanj (तुरन्ज), Vetas (वेतस); Hungarian: Citronát, Cedrátcitrom, Keseru Citrom; Indonesia: Djěrook Bodong,Djěrook Honjè; Italian: Cedrato, Cedro; Japanese: Maru busshukan, Maru bushukan (マ ルブシカン), Shitoron (シ トン), Toronji (ト ル ンジ), Yuzu (ゆず), Busshukan (ブッシカン), Yuzu (ユ), Bushukan (仏手柑), Yuzu (柚), Yuzu (柚子); Laos: Manao Ripon; Laotian: Vëëx; Malayalam: Cerunaarakam (െചറുനാരകം); Nepalese: Bimiro (बिमिरो); Persian: Dabbé; Polish: Cytron; Portuguese: Cidra, Cidrão, Cidreira; Russian: Tsitron, Sladkiy limon (Сладкий лимон), Tsedrat, Cedrat, Цедрат, Цитрон; Sanskrit: Amlakesar (अम्‍लकेसर), Beejand (बीजाण्‍ड), Jambhiir (जम्भीर), Lung (लुंग), Lumga, Mahaphala (महाल), Matulunga (मातुलुङ्ग), Puraka (पूरक), Ruchak (रुचक), Suman:phal (सुमनःल.); Slovak: Cedrát; Spanish: Cidra, Cidrero, Cidro, Poncil, Poncilero; Swedish: Äkta citron, Sötcitron, Cedratcitron, Suckatcitron; Thai: Manao khwai (มะนาว ควาย), Som saa, Som ma ngua (ส้มมะงว), Mawo yao; Turkish: Ağaç kavunu; Vietnamese: Cẩu duyên, Hương duyên, Chỉ xác, Quả cẩu duyên, Thanh yên, Quả chỉ xác.; Jammu: Garghal; English: Citron, Buddha’s hand, Cedrat Lemon, Cedrat.

Botany and Ecology Citrus medica: The latest research indicates that it could be a direct cross between bitter orange and Buddha’s hand. The origin of the Buddha’s hand is a mystery, but it could be located in northwestern India, northern Burma, and China. Description: The Buddha’s hand tree is a tree of medium to large size, vigorous, and with habit of open growth. It has abundant small spines on the branches. Although more resistant to cold than Mexican lime and Buddha’s hand, it is more sensitive than other commercial citrus. The young shoots are deep purple. Large pale green leaves, which give off

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Fig. 1 Citrus medica (Rutaceae) grown at Dang, Central Nepal. (Photo Prabin Timilsena)

Fig. 2 Citrus medica (Rutaceae) grown at Assam, North East India. (Photo AR Barbhuiya)

a pleasant scent of Buddha’s hand when squeezed. Shape of the elliptical limbus and dentate margin. Petiole not winged or with presence of very small wings. Large flowers, purple petals, yellow anthers and in large percentage staminated by abortion of the pistil. If conditions are favorable, you may have several florations per year. The fruit is light yellow, ellipsoidal, with a more or less pronounced mamelon in the apical zone. Bark smooth or slightly rough. It may have a neck at the base of the fruit. Pulp yellow and juicy, very acidic. Solid or semisolid central axis. It presents seeds with a low degree of polyembryony. Uses: Buddha’s hand is mainly used in juice and essential oils. The first one, as an ingredient for Buddha’s handade and other soft drinks, as well as pastry and restoration; the oils, both of the leaf and the fruit, in perfumery. In the past, it was of great importance in maritime navigation to prevent scurvy, a disease caused by the lack of vitamin. Citrus Buddha’s hand juice is widely known as diuretic, astringent, and febrifuge. The wood is compact and easy to work with. In Mexico, it is used to carve chess pieces, toys, small spoons, and other items (Grierson and Long 1991; Swingle and Reece 1967; Zhukovskii 1971) (Figs. 1 and 2).

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Buddha’s hand is the oldest known citrus fruit with the long history of introduction. The Buddha’s hand has been cultivated since ancient times. It probably originated in the sub-Himalayan region of northeastern India and upper Burma, spreading through Persia to western world and also eastwards China (Vaughan and Geissler 2009). It occurs as wild and cultivated populations in forest and private lands in the foothills of the Himalayas (Hooker 1875; Tanaka 1958; Nair and Nayar 1997). Buddha’s hand first appeared in the Latin literature in the Cloanzius Verus under “citrum” in the second century BC. The great roman poet Virgil gave a poetic description of the Buddha’s hand fruit. The first scientific description of the Buddha’s hand in western literature was by the Greek philosopher Theophrastus, in the third century BC. He explained that the plant in Persia which produces a fruit and gave an excellent morphological description and utilization of the Buddha’s hand tree (Fersini et al. 1973). Buddha’s hand was spread to west, apparently through Persia and the Southern Levant and then to the western Mediterranean (Weisskopf et al. 2013). It was the first of the citrus species to reach Europe, about 300 BC. Buddha’s hand was familiar to Europeans and remained the only representative of the citrus there until the seventh century BC (Talon et al. 2019). The earliest references to Buddha’s hand appear in the Vajasaneyi, a collection of sacred Hindu texts called Yajur-Veda written in India around the eighth century BC (Simoons 1991). A large number of studies suggest that the primary center of origin of citrus is south and south-east Asia, particularly the region extending from northeast India, eastward through the Malayan Archipelago to China and Japan, and southward to Australia (Tanaka 1958; Swingle and Reece 1967; Scora 1975). Buddha’s hand is cosmopolitan in distribution although they are tropical plant. The best distribution of the Buddha’s hand is those countries without extreme temperatures as it is very sensitive to frost. Commercial planting is limited in some of the countries such as in India, Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Japan, China, Vietnam, Laos, Burma, Turkey, Costa Rica, Taiwan, Jamaica, Cuba, Peru, Bolivia, Australia, Mexico, Nicaragua, Ecuador, Haiti, Dominican Republic, Venezuela, Colombia, Trinidad and Tobago, Honduras, New Caledonia, Africa, Guinea, Cameroon, Fiji, Marquesas Isl., Mauritius, USA (Florida), Southern Europe, Croatia, Spain, Portugal, Finland, Madeira, Mauritania, Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia. The Buddha’s hand genotypes are frequent in Southeast Asia, Southwestern China, Burma, Northeastern India, and Nepal. Wild types were reported in Assam and Bhutan, with varieties in Yunnan, Vietnam, and Thailand, as well as in the Middle East (Froelicher et al. 2011). Genetically variable type of Buddha’s hands is found among the wild and domesticated populations (Barbhuiya et al. 2016). The Buddha’s hand group appeared to be monophyletic, which also indicated that some Buddha’s hands have a higher level of heterozygosity. The large number of natural populations in the wild forests in Himalayan region give indications for the origin of citrus species (Langgut 2014). Assuming that Buddha’s hand originated in Northeastern India, Southwestern China or adjacent regions, it may be that the Buddha’s hands from the Mediterranean and Western areas derive from ancestors of Indian

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origin, which may differ genetically from the Buddha’s hands now growing in China (Karp and Hu 2018). Buddha’s hands clusters from populations of Mediterranean ancestry are genetically distinct from Buddha’s hands of Chinese origin. Among Buddha’s hand accessions of Chinese Buddha’s hand, substantial heterozygosity and genetic diversity is there (Curk et al. 2016; Ramadugu et al. 2015; Yang et al. 2015). Citrus germplasm in northeast India indicate their persistence and diversification in the region of origin. Favorable environmental conditions in this area, currently in the “Indo-Burma biodiversity hot spot” favored its growth and further spreading to other parts of the world (Tanaka 1969). In the Himalayan ranges, it is cultivated in Garhwal, Kumaon Sikkim and Western Ghats, India, and subtropical mountains of Nepal and China. In the northeastern parts of India and middle mountain of Nepal, small fruited Buddha’s hand plants are found in a semi-wild state along ravines, forest fringes, and abandoned places. Buddha’s hand is raised by leafy cuttings taken from 2- to 4-year-old branches and also by seeds. The climate suitable for commercial Buddha’s hand productions is tropical and subtropical climate with winter rain. It is cultivated in 700–1200 m and many countries with such climate. Plant prefers a deep, moistureretentive, well-drained loamy soil in a pH in the range 6.5–7. The optimal temperatures for cultivation range between 15 and 27 °C, with the coldest month having an average minimum of at least 15 °C. Buddha’s hand flowers throughout the year, in the subtropics most abundantly in spring. If there are dry periods of more than 3 months, then irrigation will be necessary. Buddha’s hand is very sensitive to frost and to intense heat and drought. It starts producing when 2–3 years old, reaches a maximum in 8–15 years and has an economical life of 25–30 years. Low hanging branches are pruned to prevent the fruit touching the soil. Flowering occurs during March–April, and these flowers produce a large fruit during May–June. The fruit is dark-green when young, takes few months to turn yellow. To retain the green color, firmness and uniformity desired by the dealers in candied Buddha’s hand, the fruit must be picked when only 12.5–15 cm long and 7.5–10 cm wide. Mature trees produce about 40 kg fruit per year, but yields up to 100 kg per year per tree have been obtained (Huxley 1992). Most citrus pests also attack Buddha’s hand; mites and scales are often troublesome. The Buddha’s hand tree is undoubtedly subject to most of the pests that attack other Citrus species. One of the most problematic diseases of Buddha’s hand is mal secco (Phoma tracheiphila), a vascular fungal disease that causes collapse of the tree. The citrus bud mite (Eriophyes sheldoni), citrus rust mite (Phyllocoptruta oleivora), snow scale (Unaspis citri), and fungus (Sphaeropsis tumefaciens) are among its major enemies. Other significant diseases of Buddha’s hand in China include anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides), citrus scab (Elsinoë fawcettii Bitanc. & Jenkins), and green mold (Penicillium digitatum [Pers.:Fr.] Sacc.) (Li et al. 2011). Since Buddha’s hand is among the most cold tender of citrus crops, damage from freezing weather is a significant problem in districts with cool winters (Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10).

572 Fig. 3 Citrus medica (Rutaceae) grown on roadsides, fallow land, and transition land. (Photo Ripu Kunwar)

Fig. 4 Citrus medica (Rutaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

Fig. 5 Citrus maxima (Rutaceae), Beni, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 6 Citrus maxima (Rutaceae), Granada, Spain. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 7 Citrus maxima (Rutaceae), Granada, Spain. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Buddha’s hand has long been known to contain many important nutritional components such as phenolics, terpenoids, and vitamins, which are recognized as potent antioxidants. The fruit peel essential oil contains limonene as a major constituent and

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Fig. 8 Citrus pomelo (Rutaceae), market, Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 9 Citrus sinensis (Rutaceae), Beni, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

citral, β-myrcene, neryl acetate, γ-terpinene, α-terpineol components are found in significant amount. The fruit juice is rich in vitamins and minerals, particularly vitamin A, vitamin C, niacin, and thiamin (Bhuiyan et al. 2009). Very little carotenoid are found in the Buddha’s hand fruit. The roots of Buddha’s hand contain campesterol, stigmasterol, sitosterol, and cholesterol (Douglas and Illman 1985). Leaf essential oil contains erucylamide, limonene, solimonene, citral, neryl acetate,

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Fig. 10 Citrus sinensis (Rutaceae), market, Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

citronellal, citronellol, methoprene, 1,2-cyclohexanediol, and 1methyl-4(1methylethenyl) are the major constituents (Chhikara et al. 2018). C. medica L. var. 1 and 2 fruit contains the flavonoids eriodictyol-7-O-rutinoside, phloretin30, 50-di-C-glucoside, hesperetin-7-O-rutinoside, diosmetin-7-O-rutinoside, hesperetin-7-O-neohesperidoside, diosmetin-6, 8-di-C-glucoside, and diosmetin-6C-glucoside. The C-glycosylated flavones, apigenin-6, 8-di-C-glucoside, diosmetin6, 8-di-C-glucoside, diosmetin-6-C-glucoside, as well as C-glycosylated flavonoids are also present in fruits (Roowi and Crozier 2011). C. medica L. var. sarcodactylis contains various compounds such as: citrumedin-C, 5,7-dimethoxycoumarin, stigmasterol, and β-sitosterol, xanthyletin, 6,7-dimethoxycoumarin, leptodactylone, 7-methoxycoumarin, nordentatin, and cis-p-coumaric acid (Chan et al. 2009, 2010).

Local Medicinal Uses Citrus medica: Citrus juice is widely known as diuretic, astringent, and febrifuge. The fresh shoots, leaves, flowers, fruits, and seeds of Buddha’s hand are utilized for number of traditional medicinal preparations. The juice of the fruit is used in the Indian system of medicine as an anthelmintic, appetizer, tonic, in cough, rheumatism, dysentery, vomiting, flatulence, beat halitosis, malaria, hemorrhoids, skin diseases, expellant of poison, stimulating, flavoring, and stomachic. Fruit juice of plant 20 ml, sugar 20 g, water 50 ml, syrup is useful for burning sensation (Bhutya 2011). Local application of water-based paste of seeds of the Buddha’s hand is beneficial for skin. Paste of five flowers of plant with few crystals of potassium permanganate is useful in scorpion sting. Paste of leaves with castor oil is useful for local pains. Root powder of the plant 2 g, two times a day is useful to remove intestinal worms, vomiting, and urinary bladder calculi. It is also used as astringent

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(Ayyanar and Ignacimuthu 2005; Kunwar et al. 2009, 2010a, b) and to treat asthma (Savithramma et al. 2007) and tonsillitis (Gairola et al. 2014). In Traditional Chinese Medicine, Foshou, Chinese name of Buddha’s hand, is used to regulate the Qi, also called vital energy, flow of the liver and stomach, and pain relief. It is used to treat stagnation of Qi of the liver and stomach marked by distending pain in the chest and hypochondriac regions, stuffiness feeling in the stomach, poor appetite, and vomiting (PPRC 2010; Wu 2005). The peel is used as a stomachic, stimulant, expectorant, and tonic in China. In Africa, the Buddha’s hand is utilized only like a medication, particularly towards rheumatism. A decoction of the shoots of wild plants is administered to enhance appetite, reduce stomachache, and discharge intestinal worms. Decoctions of the roots are reportedly used to treat respiratory problems and backache in China. In Nepal, root and fruit juice are given orally for the digestion and removal of intestinal worms, and leaf is used as antipyretic (Kunwar et al. 2010a, b; Gaire and Subedi 2011). Dried fruits are used to treat gallbladder, gallstones, cold, cough, diabetes, and for rage. The fruit of citron is used as a stimulant and corrective of digestion. Bathing with an infusion of branches reduces fever. Roasted fruit is scrubbed on the part affected by scabies. The fruit is used to treat the holland (viral skin disease). Roasted fruit is effective in treating cough. The fruit juice is used to clean wounds and treat inflammations of the mouth and throat. The juice of the fruit, mixed with different remedies, is taken to treat nausea and lower fever. Fruit juice is used to lower uric acid levels and treat gout; in addition, it relieves diarrhea, colds, respiratory conditions, and lowers fever. The fruit juice has antiscorbutic, refrigerant, and febrifuge properties. It is used to clarify the view. It is used to treat foot fungus. It is used to treat arthritis, rheumatism, influenza, angina, cuts, mumps, nosebleeds, and gallbladder pain. Extracts of Buddha’s hand have been found to have anti-inflammatory activity (Negi et al. 2010) and to inhibit cholinesterase activity (Conforti et al. 2007). Essential oil of Buddha’s hand fruits has a strong antibacterial effect, with good thermal stability and effectiveness (Guo et al. 2009). Leaves possess estrogenic and anthelmintic activities; fruit has analgesic, antiulcer, and anticancer activities. Heneicosane and β-sitosterol rich leaves possess a significant estrogenic activity (El-Alfy et al. 2012). The fruit juice exerts antimutagenicity and anticancer effect (Entezari et al. 2009). Peel has many activities including hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic, antimicrobial, anticholinesterase, hypocholesterolemic, and anthelmintic; seed has antidiabetic, hypolipidemic, anticoagulant, hypocholesterolemic, and estrogenic activities (Panara et al. 2012; Chhikara et al. 2018). Two coumarins, bergapten and citropten of C. medica cv. Diamante, peel active against the A375 cell line and strong antiproliferative activity demonstrated with bergapten (Menichini et al. 2010). Buddha’s hand-based alcoholic beverages have potential anticancer and antioxidant properties (Prompona et al. 2012). Buddha’s hand fruit has an insulin secretagogue effect in rats, and stated that it would be very beneficial to patients with type 2 diabetes (Peng et al. 2009). Buddha’s hand fruit syrup as a traditional Persian remedy is effective for decreasing pain intensity and duration of attacks in migraine headache and the effectiveness is comparable to propranolol (Jafarpour et al. 2016).

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The use of Buddha’s hand in the Indian subcontinent started thousands of year back, as described in the ancient book “Ayurveda.” According to Ayurveda, Buddha’s hand fruits were used in Ayurvedic treatment for treating several illnesses. Mātuluṅga, a Sanskrit name of Buddha’s hand, is used throughout Ayurvedic literature such as the Caraka-saṃhitā and the Suśruta-saṃhitā. According to Suśruta, among all the fruits, pomegranates, emblic myrobalan, grapes, dates, parūṣaka, rājādana, and mātuluṅga are considered as the best. Mātuluṅga is mentioned as being beneficial in the dravyaguṇāguṇa-kathana, which contains the dietetic effects of different food articles according to the prominent Ayurvedic treatises. Under the drugs and cosmetics act, the Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India (API-2001; Bhutya 2011), Part-I, Vol. III, is the book of standards for single crude drugs, which included the Mātuluṅga. According to Ayurvedic records, the unripe fruits increases the Pitta, Vata, Kapha, and Rakta. Charak Sutrasthana 27/154 mentions that the Buddha’s hand fruits are useful in colic pain, anorexia, constipation, impairment of digestion, cough, vomiting disorders relating to faces and such other diseases as arise from the vitiated Vata as well as Kapha. In the Charaka samhita, it is described as Hrudya, a group of herbs that act as cardiac tonic, congenial for heart, Chhardinigrahana-group of herbs useful in vomiting. In Susruta dna Bhagavat, it is categorized as Phala varga or a group of fruits, while in Kaiyadeva nighanthu, it is classified as pancha pallava or a group of five fresh leaf sprouts. In Ayurvedic formulations with Buddha’s hand as ingredient are Ksara Taila, Hinguvadi Curna, Kankayana Gutika, Tarunarka Rasa, Sankha Dravaka, and Madiphala Rasayana. It is widely used in Ayurveda for the treatment of Raktapitta, Svasa, Kasa, Aruci, Trsna, Udara Roga, Vibandha, Madatyaya, Hikka, and Agnimandya. In Ayurveda, Buddha’s hand is claimed for properties of Rasa: Madhura, Amla; Guna: Laghu, Snigdha; Virya: Usna; Vipaka: Amla; and Karma: Kanha Sodhaka, Chardigrahana, Dipana, Hrdya, Jihvasodhaka, Kaphahara, Medhya, Pittahara, Vatahara, Varnanasaka.

Local Food Uses Citrus medica: The most important part of the citron is the fruit, which is a fairly important article in international trade. The fleshy mesocarp of the fruit is acidic, eaten fresh with salt and chilly. The candied peel is sun dried or pickled, as well as widely used in food industry as an aromatic ingredient. The fruits are halved, immersed in seawater or ordinary salt water to ferment for food. Juice obtained from citron is used as souring agent in pickles in India and Nepal. The fruit of the matured citron is pickled in Himalayan countries. In Guatemala, it is used as flavoring for carbonated soft drinks (Hodgson 1967). In Malaya, citron juice is used as a substitute for the juice of imported, expensive Buddha’s hands. A product called “citron water” is made in Barbados and shipped to France for flavoring wine and vermouth. In Puerto Rican, green-mature fruits are made into marmalade, jelly, and fruit bars. Tonghai, in Yunnan China, has a long history of making candied citron peel, which is a famous local product. Other products made from citron

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include soft drinks, wine, juice concentrate, tea, and essential oils. The citron gets halved as well as depulped, then its rind is cooked in sugar, diced, and utilized as a confection. It is utilized to make tea that supposedly helps you to suppress coughing, reduce hangovers, and is also great at treating indigestion. It provides the energy 29 kcal, carbohydrate 9.32 g, protein 1.1 g, fat 0.3 g, dietary fibers 2.8 g, riboflavin 0.02 mg, thiamine 0.01 mg, vitamin C 53 mg, sodium 2.5 mg, potassium 138 mg, calcium 26 mg, iron 0.6 mg, and magnesium 8 mg per 100 g of the fruit pulp (Komor and Devi 2016).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Citrus medica: The wood is compact and easy to work with. In Mexico, it is used to carve chess pieces, toys, small spoons, and other items. The varieties of citron have been utilized by various indigenous cultures. Chinese considered the citron to be a symbol of happiness, wealth, and longevity. They prized it for New Year’s gifts and placed it as an offering at the shrines of household gods in their homes, or on altars at their temples, and as an alternative to incense, to perfume the air (Tolkowsky 1938; Simoons 1991). The elite group of families displays the citron in their households on platters and mats as rare fruits from a distant quarter. The fruit looks like a fist or a hand is often assumed to have been brought to China from India by Buddhist monks. In mutant variety in which carpels are not fused and resembles fingers came to be known as “Buddha’s Hand.” In the Qing era, fingered citron was the fruit most frequently carved in bamboo by Chinese artists. Citron fruit has been used since Roman times as a perfume and moth repellent, and to flavor. The citron fruits are sanctified in the Hindu and Christian religions. Citron was used for worship by Jews in the feast of Tabernacles since about 1 BC, which was supported archeological as well as literature records (Nicolosi et al. 2005). In Nepal, the citron has a long tradition as a ceremonial plants. Citron fruit is being worshipped during the time of Fig. 11 Citrus medica (Rutaceae). Citrus fruit being worshipped during the time of religious ritual Tihar (Deepawali) festival in Nepal. (Photo Rajendra Gyawali)

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Bhai Tika, an important religious ritual that honors brother-sister relationship, where citron has its own significance in Hindu mythology. Since the thick albedo allows citron a long shelf life, so the fruit symbolizes the longevity of bond between brother and their sister. It is also used as insect repellant (Kunwar et al. 2010a, b; Gaire and Subedi 2011) (Fig. 11).

References API. The ayurvedic pharmacopoeia of India. New Delhi: Government of India, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Department of Ayurveda, Yoga & Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha and Homoeopathy; 2001. I (III), p. 27–8. Ayyanar M, Ignacimuthu S. Traditional knowledge of Kani tribals in Kouthalai of Tirunelveli hills, Tamil Nadu, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102:246–55. Barbhuiya AR, Khan ML, Dayanandan S. Genetic structure and diversity of natural and domesticated populations of Citrus medica L. in the eastern Himalayan region of Northeast India. Ecol Evol. 2016;6(12):3898–911. Bhuiyan MNI, Begum J, Sardar PK, Rahman MS. Constituents of peel and leaf essential oils of Citrus medica L. Int J Sci Res. 2009;1(2):387–92. Bhutya RK. Ayurvedic medicinal plants of India, vol. 1. New Delhi: Scientific Publishers; 2011. Chan YY, Wu TS, Kuo YH. Chemical constituents and cytotoxicity from the stem bark of Citrus medica. Heterocycles. 2009;78:1309–16. Chan YY, Li CH, Shen YC, Wu TS. Anti-inflammatory principles from the stem and root barks of Citrus medica. Chem Pharm Bull. 2010;58:61–5. Chhikara N, Kour R, Jaglan S, Gupta P, Gat Y, Panghal A. Citrus medica: nutritional, phytochemical composition and health benefits – a review. Food Funct. 2018;9(4):1978–92. Conforti F, Statti GA, Tundis R, Loizzo MR, Menichini F. In vitro activities of Citrus medica L. cv. Diamante (Diamante citron) relevant to treatment of diabetes and Alzheimer’s disease. Phytother Res. 2007;21:427–33. Curk F, Ollitrault F, Garcia-Lor A, Luro F, Navarro L, Ollitrault P. Phylogenetic origin of limes and Buddha’s hands revealed by cytoplasmic and nuclear markers. Ann Bot. 2016;117(4):565–83. Douglas TJ, Illman RJ. Free sterols of citrus roots. Phytochemistry. 1985;24(10):2469–70. El-Alfy TS, Hetta MH, Yassin NZ, Rahman RFA, Kadry EM. Estrogenic activity of Citrus medica L. leaves growing in Egypt. J Appl Pharm Sci. 2012;2(8):180–5. Entezari MA, Majd F, Falahian S, Mehrabian M, Hashemi A, Lajimi. Antimutagenicity and anticancer effects of Citrus medica L. fruit juice. Acta Med Iran. 2009;47(5):373–7. Fersini A, Giorlando A, Tuoto G. Il cedro (Citrus medica, L.). Bologna: Patron Editore; 1973. Froelicher Y, Mouhaya W, Bassene JB, Costantino G, Kamiri M, Luro F, Morillon R, Ollitrault P. New universal mitochondrial PCR markers reveal new information on maternal citrus phylogeny. Tree Genet Genomes. 2011;7:49–61. Gaire BP, Subedi L. Medicinal plant diverisity and their pharmacological aspects of Nepal Himalayas. Pharm J. 2011;3:6–17. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh BY. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Grierson ACJ, Long DG. Flora of Bhutan. Published by Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, Edinburgh; 1991. Guo WD, Zheng JS, Deng G, Chen WR, Sun J. Antibacterial effects of essential oil from fingered citrons. J Chin Cereals Oils Assn. 2009;24(8):103–7. Hodgson RW. Horticultural varieties of citrus. In: Reuther, et al., editors. The citrus industry, vol. I. Berkeley: University of California Press; 1967. p. 431–591. Hooker JD. The flora of British India, vol. 1. London: Reeve & Co.; 1875.

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Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt CUCURBITACEAE Prakash Prasad Sapkota, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt: Bryonia grandis L.; Bryonia sinuosa Wall.; Cephalandra grandis Kurz; Cephalandra moghadd (Asch.) Broun & Massey; Cephalandra schimperi Naudin; Coccinea indica Whight & Arn.; Coccinia grandis var. wightiana (M. Roem.) Greb.; Coccinia helenae Buscal. & Muschl.; Momordica bicolor Blume.

P. P. Sapkota Dhawalagiri Multiple Campus, Baglung, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_60

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Local Names Coccinia grandis: Nepali: Golkakri; Majhi: tilkot; Satar: tilkocha; Marathi: tendli; Golan: tindora bimb, gol; Hindi: kanturi, kunderi, teedori, etc.; Malayalam: covel, kokva, kwel, etc.; Sanskrit: tunderi, tundika, bimbi, vira, bimbfa, govhi, katuka, tundi, kamboja, etc.; Tamil: acoki, avantim cutakatti, matupari, pimpikai, vimpi, covay, etc.; Arabic: kabare-hindi; Farsi: kabare-hindi, Urdu bikh kabar; Pashto: Watani Badrang ‫ ;ﺏﺍﺩﺭﻥ ﻭﻁﻥ‬Bengali: telakucha; Tibetian: bi mbe; English: baby watermelon; ivy gourd.

Botany and Ecology Coccinia grandis: Roots robust. Stem slender, slightly woody, many branched, angular, glabrous. Tendrils filiform, glabrous, simple. Petiole slender, 2–5 cm; leaf blade broadly cordate, 5–10  5–10 cm, usually 5-angled or 5-lobed, base with several glands, apex obtuse. Plants dioecious; flowers solitary. Male pedicel slender, 2–4 cm, glabrous; calyx tube broadly campanulate, 4–5 mm; segments linearlanceolate, about 3 mm; corolla white or slightly yellow, 2.5–3.5 cm; segments ovate, outside glabrous, inside pubescent; filaments and anthers connate; filaments 2–3 mm; anthers subglobose, 6–7 mm. Female pedicel slender, 1–3 cm; staminodes 3, 1–3 mm, nearly subulate, villous at base; ovary fusiform, 12–15 mm; style 6– 7 mm; stigmas 3, 5–6 mm. Fruit red when mature, fusiform, about 5  2.5 cm. Seeds yellow, oblong, 6–7  2.5–4 mm, about 1.5 mm thick, both surfaces densely punctate, apex rounded. Flowering and fruiting summer (Wu et al. 1994–2013). The fruit turns to a pink color due to initiation of ripening and loses its weight due to rapid wilting during storage (Kulkami and Vijayanand 2012). Coccinia grandis can be spread by its seeds, which can be carried by birds, rodents, and possibly pigs. It can also be spread by it tuberous roots and soil movement (Englberger 2009). Stems of C. grandis readily strike roots as nodes when they come into contact with soil (Muniappan et al. 2009). The plant is used in medicine and as food and so is often deliberately introduced by humans accounted for much of the long distance dispersal (Englberger 2009). Coccinia grandis, a native of East Africa, has been spread in different parts of tropical Asia, America, and pacific, but it has become invasive only in the Hawaian and Mariana Islands of pacific. Small populations are scattered throughout Western Australia, the northern territory and the northern coastal parts of Queensland (Maurice and Kumar 2012). In Nepal, it is found in western, central, and eastern tropical region (Baral and Kurmi 2006). Coccinia grandis grows aggressively can smother and kill other native vegetation, including mature trees. It is quickly spreads through disturbed sites, smoothing both trees and understory vegetation. Socially this plant can cover fences, power poles, and other human-made structures in residential neighborhoods and agricultural areas (Muniappan et al. 2009) (Figs. 1 and 2).

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Fig. 1 Coccinia grandis (Cucurbitaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Phytochemistry The chemical composition of C. grandis was studied by Khutan et al. (2012). C. grandis contains lupeol, taraxerol, β-carotene, lycopene, cryptoxanthin, xyloglucan, carotenoids, and β-sitosterol. It contains active constituents like taraxerone, amyran, glucoside, and cucurbitacin B (Meyer et al. 1982). The tender, green fruits are nutritious and are good source of protein, calcium, fiber, beta-carotene, and vitamin A (Harine 2017). The extract of C. grandis contains alkaloids, carbohydrates, glycosides, tannin, saponins, flavonoids, and other phytoconstituents such as cephalandrol, lupeol, sigma 7-en-3-one, taraxerone, and taraxerol (Sutar et al. 2010). Root – the root of the C. grandis contain resin, alkaloids, starch, fatty acids, carbonic acid, triterpenoid, saponin coccinoside, flavonoid, glycoside, lupeol, β-amyrin, β-sitosterol, and teraxerol. Leaf and stem contain heptacosane, cephalandrol, β-sitosterol, alkaloids, and cephalandrins A&B. Umamaheswari and Chatteree (2008) concluded that all the fractions of the hydro-methanolic extract of the leaves showed strong antioxidant activity, reducing power ability, free radical scavenging

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Fig. 2 Coccinia grandis (Cucurbitaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

activity, metal chelating ability, and inhibition of β-carotene bleaching when compared to standards such as ascorbic acid, α-tocopherol, curcumin, and butylated hydroxyl toluene. As the various fractions of C. grandis exhibited different reactive oxygen species scavenging activities, they may be different percentage of phytochemical constituents present in the fraction. The fruit contains β-amyrin acetate, lupeol, cucurbitacin B, taraxerone, taraxerol, β-carotene, lycopene, cryptoxanthin, xyloglucan, carotenoids, β-sitosterol, and stigma-7-en-3-one. Seed – seed fat mainly contains palmitic (16.3%), oleic (22.4%), and linoleic (58.6%) acids (Munasinge et al. 2011; Mulpa et al. 2014).

Local Medicinal Uses Coccinia grandis: Coccinia grandis has been listed in the indigenous system of medicine as potential antioxidant, anti-hypoglycemic agent, laxative, antimalarial, anticancer, and immune system modulator (Singh and Parab 2014). This

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plant lowers blood sugar levels by 20% in type 2 diabetics helps in regulating body temperature during fever, used to treat chronic sinus infections, used in decoction for gonorrhea (Orech et al. 2005), used to treat inflammation, dyspnea cough, emaciation, fever with burning sensation, convulsion, syphilis; pulse and flowers are used in jaundice (Harine 2017). Harine (2017) stated that flavonoids in a plant as indication of its antioxidant, antiallergic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and anticancer properties. However, glycoside derivatives showed very promising activity in vitro and in vivo (Keller et al. 1971) and two of them, ethylident derivative teniposide (Van des Berg et al. 1997), were developed as anticancer drugs. Terpenoids and steroids are capable of preventing cancer (Raju et al. 2004) because of their anticarcinogenic effects (Yun et al. 1996). Anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antipyretic activity of fruit and leaves were studied and found to be significant. The different part of the plant is used to cure different diseases. Leaf of the plant is use in antidiabetic, larvicidal, GI disturbances, cooling effect to eye, gonorrhea, hypolipidemic, skin disease, and urinary tract infections. Stem is used in expectorant, antispasmodic, asthma, bronchitis, GIT disturbance, urinary tract infection, and skin diseases. Similarly, fruit is used in hypoglycemic, analgesic, antipyretic, hepatoprotective, tuberculosis, eczema, and anti-inflammatory. Flavonoids present in a C. grandis with the extract of its root and ethanol is responsible for antioxidant activity. Similarly, the extract of fruit with methanol shows antioxidant property (Moideeen et al. 2011). In methanolic extract, aqueous extract and powder of the leaves of the plant were tested for antioxidant activity. Powder form and methanolic extract showed good antioxidant property. Methanol extract and leaf powder contain the antioxidant principle (Mujumdar et al. 2008). The antioxidant activity of C. grandis is due to the reducing power ability and hydrogen peroxide scavenging potential (Deshpande 2011). Against some species of the bacteria, like as Shigella flexneri, Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, Salmonella choleraesuis, Shigella dysmetria, and Shigella flexneri aqueous extract of leaves of C. grandis is for antibacterial activity. Ethanol extract of C. grandis showed high antibacterial against S. pigeon, E. coli, B. cereus, K. pneumoniae, and S. aureus (Sivaraj 2011). Bhattacharya evaluated the antifungal activity of the Coccinia grandis leaf extract with Candida albicans-II. Aqueous extract is more sensitive for both strains of Candida albicans, and ethanolic extract is more sensitive for Aspergillus niger and both strains of Candida albicans (Bhattacharta et al. 2010). Methanolic extract of C. grandis possesses anthelmintic activity. The extract of the plant acts through paralyzing the worms and leads to their death. The extract of C. grandis leaf with methane showed excellent antiplasmodial activity against the Plasmodium falciparum It is used as larvicide against the Plasmodium berghei parasite. The extract also shows antipyretic activity by influencing the prostaglandin considered as a regulator of body temperature. Aqueous leaf extract of C. grandis leaves shows significant reduction in ulcer index, free acidity, and gastric (Grish et al. 2011).

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The aqueous extract of fresh leaves produced marked analgesic activity comparable to morphine, which suggests the involvement of central nervous system It established the anti-inflammatory activity, analgesic, and antipyretic activity and, thus the ethnic uses of the plant were justified (Niazi et al. 2009). Deshpande (2011) evaluate the aqueous extract of C. grandis leaves and stem and said, it helps to decrease inflammatory activity. It was observed that 60% methanolic extract of C. grandis produced maximum anti-inflammatory activity even more than the standard drug, diclofenac sodium after 3 h (Chatterjee and Chatterjee 2012). Anticancer: Due to the antioxidant nature of C. grandis, it significantly reduced viable cell count and increased nonviable cell count suggesting comparable anticancer property with that of the reference drug (Nanasombat and Teckchuen 2009; Mayank et al. (2017) showed effectiveness and safety of this plant parts and derived formulation for antidiabetic effect, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antipyretic activity of fruit and leaves were also found to be significant. Coccinia grandis is reported to have a wide range of medicinal properties. It has been used in Ayurveda medicine in Nepal, India, and Sri Lanka to treat diabetes from ancient times (Mayank et al. 2017). People of rural area used the plant juice to cure ear pain. It is highly valued for antidiabetic potential. Roots are cooling, aphrodisiac, and are useful in vomiting, burning sensation, and uterine discharges. Leaves are carminative, antipyretic, viriligenic, galactagogue, and roborant. Dried bark is good cathartic. In Siddha system it is used against infective hepatitis. Stem juice is used against cataract of eye, and that of leaves, fruits, and roots in toothache (Baral and Kurmi 2006). All parts of this plant is important in medicinal value of as it is used in the treatment of various kinds of skin diseases, bronchial catarrh, bronchitis, and Unani systems of medicine for ring worms, psoriasis, small pox, scabies, and other itchy skin eruptions and ulcers (Deshpande 2011). In many countries, people use various part of the plant to get relief from asthma and cough (Pattanayak and Priyashree 2009). Oil of this plant is used as an injection into chronic sinuses. The entire plant product has been reported to be useful for the treatment of syphilis, sores, and bacterial infections. The ash of the root is applied for skin complaints (Bal 1932; Munasinge et al. 2011). The species is used as salad for lowering blood pressure and also used to reduce obesity. Seed syrup is taken for digestion (Khan et al. 2016). Plant is effective against snakebites (Asad et al. 2011; Ayyanar and Ignacimuthu 2005). Fresh juice of root and leaves is used in the morning for diabetes (Munir and Qureshi 2018). It is also used to treat diabetes (Debbarma et al. 2017; Jain et al. 2005), skin diseases (Muthu et al. 2006), and sore throat (Jain et al. 2005).

Local Food Uses Coccinia grandis: The immature fruit and shoot tips are used in Asian cooking (Muniappan et al. 2009), and unripe fruit is used as curry and ripe fruit is eaten directly by the people in Nepal (Dangol et al. 2017), India, and Ethiopia (Addis et al. 2013; Rani et al. 2013). It is commonly used as a wild vegetable in rural areas.

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C. grandis is well known vegetable cultivate and grown in the coastal which is high in nutritive value (Mayank et al. 2017). It provides vitamin, protein, carbohydrate, and minerals. This plant is high in protein (Addis et al. 2013).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Coccinia grandis: The leaf juice is given to livestock for urinary problems (Kunwar et al. 2012).

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Codonopsis clematidea (Schrenk ex Fisch. & C.A. Mey.) C.B. Clarke CAMPANULACEAE Hammad Ahmad Jan, Wahid Hussain, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Codonopsis clematidea (Schrenk ex Fisch. & C.A. Mey.) C.B. Clarke: Codonopsis clematidea var. obtusa Kitam.; Codonopsis obtusa (Chipp) Nannf.; Codonopsis ovata var. cuspidata Chipp; Codonopsis ovata var. obtusa Chipp; Codonopsis ovata var. ramosissima Hook. f. & Thomson; Glosocomia clematidea (Schrenk ex Fisch. & C.A. Mey.) Fisch. ex Regel; Wahlenbergia clematidea Schrenk ex Fisch. & C.A. Mey.

Local Names Codonopsis clematidea: Balti: Loo sunma; Chitrali: Gondostak ‫ ﮒﻭﻥﺩﻭﺱﭦﮎ‬, H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan W. Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_61

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Botany and Ecology Codonopsis clematidea: Roots carrot-shaped, 25–45  1–3 cm. Stems single or caespitose, erect or ascending, or slightly procumbent, 50–100 cm tall; branches slender, erect, or slightly spreading, mostly at lower part but those at upper part usually fertile, hispidulous when young. Leaves on main stems smaller and alternate, those on branches opposite; petiole up to 2.5 cm, sparsely hispidulous; blade ovate, oblong, broadly lanceolate, or lanceolate, 1–3.5( 5.2)  0.8–2( 3.2) cm, abaxially densely hispidulous, adaxially sparsely or densely hispidulous, base slightly cordate or rounded, margin entire or occasionally crenulate or sinuate, apex acute. Flowers solitary, terminal on main stems and branches, long pedicellate; pedicels sparsely white hispidulous. Calyx tube adnate to ovary up to middle, hemispheric, 10-ribbed, glabrous or rarely sparsely white scaberulose; lobes ovate, elliptic, or lanceolate, 10– 20  6–8 mm, glabrous or apex sparsely puberulent, margin entire, apex acute; sinus between calyx lobes narrow and pointed. Corolla pale blue with dark blue veins and purple spots inside, broadly campanulate, 1.7–2.6 cm, glabrous. Stamens glabrous; filaments slightly dilated at base, 5–6 mm; anthers oblong, 5–6 mm. Capsule semiglobose below, conical above, rostrum acute, 15–20  12–15 mm in total; persistent calyx lobes much enlarged, revolute. Seeds numerous, pale brown-yellow to brown, narrowly ellipsoid or oblong, terete, smooth. Flowering and fruiting July– October (Wu et al. 1994–2013). Very widely collected for medicinal purposes (Aumeeruddy-Thomas and Shengji 2003) (Fig. 1).

Local Medicinal Uses Codonopsis clematidea: Locally plant is used to cure malaria and abdominal pain (Ahmad et al. 2006). A decoction of the plants is used to treat indigestion and reduce malaria fever (Sher et al. 2016). In traditional Chinese medicine, in mixture with other species, used against vomiting, for spleen and stomach problems, colds, Fig. 1 Codonopsis clematidea (Campanulaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Codonopsis clematidea (Schrenk ex Fisch. & C.A. Mey.) C.B. Clarke

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abdominal pain due to spleen problems, anorexia, convulsions (Salick et al. 2009; Wu 2005). Codonopsis ovata is used for nosebleeds (Kala et al. 2004). For blood diseases, chest congestion, liver ailments, lung problems, bruises, ulcer, wounds (Gairola et al. 2014). Codonopsis rotundifolia is used as aphrodisiac and for cutaneous eruptions (Gairola et al. 2014).

Local Food Uses Codonopsis convolvulacea: Used as vegetable and healthy food (Zhang et al. 2016).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Codonopsis clematidea: Frequently browsed by sheep (Abbas et al. 2019).

References Abbas Z, Alam J, Muhammad S, Bussmann RW, Mulk Khan S, Hussain M. Phyto-cultural diversity of the Shigar valley Central Karakorum Baltistan, Northern Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18(32) https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.31.1-18. Ahmad S, Ali A, Beg H, Dasti AA. Ethnobotanical studies on some medicinal plants of Booni valley, district Chitral, Pakistan. Pak J Weed Sci Res. 2006;12(3):183–90. Aumeeruddy-Thomas Y, Shengji P. Applied ethnobotany: case studies from the Himalayan region. People and plants working paper 12. Surrey: WWF; 2003. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Kala CP, Farooquee NA, Dhar U. Prioritization of medicinal plants on the basis of available knowledge, existing practices and use value status in Uttaranchal, India. Biodivers Conserv. 2004;13:453–69. Salick J, Zhendong F, Byg A. Eastern Himalayan alpine plant ecology, Tibetan ethnobotany, and climate change. Glob Environ Chang. 2009;19(2):147–55. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni groups in Chitral District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Wu JN. An illustrated Chines materia medica. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2005. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. St. Louis/Beijing: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Zhang L, Chai Z, Zhang Y, Geng Y, Wang Y. Ethnobotanical study of traditional edible plants used by the Naxi people during droughts. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:39. https://doi.org/10. 1186/s13002-016-0113-z.

Coelogyne barbata Lindl. ex Griff. Coelogyne corymbosa Lindl. Coelogyne cristata Lindl. Coelogyne fimbriata Lindl. Coelogyne flaccida Lindl. Coelogyne fuscescens Lindl. Coelogyne nitida (Wall. ex D. Don) Lindl. Coelogyne ovalis Lindl. Coelogyne prolifera Lindl. Coelogyne punctulata Lindl. Coelogyne stricta (D. Don) Schltr. ORCHIDACEAE Kamal Prasad Acharya, Yagya P. Adhikari, and Ripu M. Kunwar Synonyms Coelogyne barbata Lindl. ex Griff.: Pleione barbata (Lindl. ex Griff) Kuntze Coelogyne corymbosa Lindl.: Pleione corymbosa (Lindl.) Kuntze Coelogyne cristata Lindl.: Cymbidium speciosissimum D. Don; Coelogyne cristata var. hololeuca Rchb. f.; Pleione speciosissima (D. Don) Kuntze; Coelogyne cristata f. hololeuca (Rchb. f.) M. Wolff & O. Gruss K. P. Acharya (*) Department of Sport, Food and Natural Sciences, Western Norway University of Applied Sciences, Bergen, Norway e-mail: [email protected] Y. P. Adhikari (*) Department of Biogeography, BayCEER, University of Bayreuth, Bayreuth, Germany Department of Disturbance Ecology, BayCEER, University of Bayreuth, Bayreuth, Germany e-mail: [email protected] R. M. Kunwar (*) Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_62

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Coelogyne fimbriata Lindl.: Pleione fimbriata (Lindl.) Kuntze Coelogyne flaccida Lindl.: Pleione flaccida (Lindl.) Kuntze; Coelogyne lactea Rchb.f.; Pleione lactea (Rchb.f.) Kuntze; Coelogyne huettneriana var. lactea (Rchb.f.) Pfitzer; Coelogyne flaccida var. longiracemosa Roeth Coelogyne fuscescens Lindl.: Pleione fuscescens (Lindl.) Kuntze; Coelogyne cycnoches C.S.P. Parish & Rchb.f.; Pleione cycnoches (C.S.P. Parish & Rchb.f.) Kuntze; Coelogyne fuscescens var. integrilabia Pfitzer; Coelogyne fuscescens var. viridiflorum Pradhan Coelogyne nitida (Wall. ex D. Don) Lindl.: Cymbidium nitidum Wall. ex D. Don; Pleione nitida (Wall. ex D. Don) Kuntze; Coelogyne ochracea Lindl.; Coelogyne conferta Annon.; Pleione ochracea (Lindl.) Kuntze; Coelogyne nitida f. candida Roeth Coelogyne ovalis Lindl.: Coelogyne decora Wall. ex Voigt; Coelogyne fuliginosa Lodd. ex Hook.; Coelogyne pilosissima Planch.; Coelogyne longeciliata Teijsm. & Binn.; Pleione fuliginosa (Lodd. ex Hook.) Kuntze; Coelogyne arunachalensis H.J. Chowdhery & G.D. Pal; Coelogyne mishmensis Gogoi Coelogyne prolifera Lindl.: Pleione prolifera (Lindl.) Kuntze; Coelogyne flavida Hook.f. ex Lindl.; Pleione flavida (Hook.f. ex. Lindl.) Kuntze Coelogyne punctulata Lindl.: Cymbidium nitidum Roxb.; Coelogyne ocellate Lindl.; Coelogyne brevifolia Lindl.; Coelogyne goweri Rchb.f.; Coelogyne punctulata var. conferta (C.S.P. Parish & Rchb.f.) Tang & F.T. Wang; Coelogyne punctulata var. hysterantha Tang & F.T. Wang; Coelogyne punctulata f. brevifolia (Lindl.) S. Das & S.K. Jain Coelogyne stricta (D. Don) Schltr.: Cymbidium strictum D. Don; Coelogyne elata Lindl.; Pleione elata (Lindl.) Kuntze

Local Names Coelogyne barbata: Chinese: Xuchunbeimu Lan, Ranmaobeimu Lan; Fengian (Chinese medicinal name); English: Beard Coelogyne Coelogyne corymbosa: Nepali: Jobanti, Chandigava, Jhaupate; Newari: Tuyu kenbu swan; Chinese: Yanbanbeimu Lan (eye spotted pearl shell orchid), Zhixueguo (haemostatic fruit), Shibajio (stone palm leaves), Xiaoluji (small green Chinese elder); Chinese medicinal name: Beimu Lan (perl shell orchid), Guoshangye (leaves above the fruit); English: Umberlla-like Coelogyne Coelogyne cristata: Nepali: Bhalu kera, chandi gava; Chepang: Jhyanpate, Ban maiser; Tamang: Syabal; Indian: Hadjojen (bone joiner); Chinese: Beimu Lan (perl shell orchid), Guoshangye (leaves above the fruit) Coelogyne fimbriata Lindl.: Nepali: Jiwanti; Chinese: Liusubeimu Lan (tassels pearl shell orchid); Myanmar: Ngwe hnin phyu myo kywe; English: Fringed Coelogyne Coelogyne flaccida Lindl.: Nepali: Thurgava, Chandigava; Chinese: Lilinbeinu Lan (chestnut scales pearl shell orchid), Guoshangye (leaves above the fruit); Chinese medicinal name: Jidatui; English: Loose Coelogyne

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Coelogyne fuscescens Lindl.: Nepali: Bankera; Chinese: Hechunbeimu Lan; Thailand: Sing to, Phaya rat, Phao hin; English: Yellow Coelogyne Coelogyne nitida (Wall. ex D. Don) Lindl.: Nepali: Chandigava, Para Phul, Ban Lasun, Thuur; Chepang: bhyan pat; Gurung: Salida, Sanit; English: Shining Coelogyne Coelogyne ovalis Lindl.: Indian: Jeevanti; Chinese: Changlinbeimu Lan; English: Fringed Coelogyne Coelogyne prolifera Lindl.: Nepali: Thur gaujo; Common name: The rich fruit coelogyne Coelogyne punctulata Lindl.: English: Lip eye-shaped spotted Coelogyne Coelogyne stricta (D. Don) Schltr.: Nepali: Banpyaj; Indian: Harjojan; English: Rigid Coelogyne

Botany and Ecology The genus Coelogyne (Greek: kilos ¼ hollow and gyne ¼ female) is first described by Lindley in 1821 because of the concave stigma found in these species. The genus is distinguished by a free, never-saccate lip with high lateral lobes over the entire length of the hypochile and smooth, papillose, toothed or warty keels (Gravendeel et al. 2005). It is generally common in southeast Asia. According to the Plant List (http://www.theplantlist.org/, retrieved on April 30, 2020) lists a total of 202 accepted species of Coelogyne. Recent literatures mention 15 species of Coelogyne from Nepal Himalaya (12 species are reported, and 3 species have high possibility to be present in Nepal) (Rokaya et al. 2013; Acharya 2020). The species that are reported so far from Nepal are: C. barbata Lindl. ex Griff.; C. corymbose Lindl.; C. cristata Lindl.; C. fimbriata Lindl.; C. flaccida Lindl.; C. fuscescens Lindl.; C. longipes Lindl.; C. nitida (Wall. ex D. Don) Lindl.; C. ovalis Lindl.; C. prolifera Lindl.; C. punctulate Lindl.; C. stricta (D. Don) Schltr. In addition to these, Kew Checklist (http://apps.kew.org/wscp/home.do) mentions that C. hitendrae S. Das & S. K. Jain; C. raizadae S. K. Jain & S. Das; and C. schultesii S. K. Jain & S. Das have high possibility to be present in Nepal. Coelogyne barbata: Free-flowering robust plant with roundish egg-shaped pseudobulbs, pale green clustered, sparse, usually narrowly ovoid-oblong, 7–11.5  1– 2.5 cm, with 2 leaves at apex and several sheaths at base; sheaths ovatelanceolate, 6– 9 cm, often fibrously lacerate when old. Leaf blade oblanceolate-oblong or suboblong, 22–28  4–6 cm, 5-veined, apex acuminate or shortly cuspidate; petiole (4.5–)6–14 cm. Inflorescence hysteranthous, 20–26 cm; imbricate, convolute, sheathing sterile bracts at interface between peduncle and rachis forming a tube 4– 5 cm  7–8 mm; rachis 9–12-flowered, slightly flexuose; floral bracts deciduous when all flowers opened, broadly ovate-rhombic, slightly conduplicate and cymbiform, 2.5–3  ca. 2 cm. Flowers white, with brown spots on lip. Sepals narrowly ovate-oblong or suboblong, 33–36  8– 10 mm, 7–9-veined, acute; lateral sepals often slightly narrower than dorsal sepal. Petals linear-lanceolate, ca. 34  2.5 mm, 3-veined; lip subovate, 25–30  24–28 mm, 3-lobed; lateral lobes erect,

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nearly suborbicular; mid-lobe ovate to suboblong, ca. 10  7–8 mm, margin long fimbriate; callus with 3 lacerate-fimbriate lamellae extending to middle or near apex of mid-lobe; fimbriate hairs to 2 mm. Column arcuate, 19–22 m, both sides winged; wings widened from base to apex, upper part 2.5–3 mm wide on one side, apex irregularly finely toothed. Capsule obovoid, ca. 4  1.5 cm, slightly 3-ridged. The species is distributed in Assam, Bangladesh, China South-Central, East Himalaya, Myanmar, Nepal, and Tibet. It is shade loving orchid and grows as epiphyte on trees in forests or on cliffs. Flowering occurs from October to November (Bose et al. 1999; Wu and Hong 2009; Joshi et al. 2017; Govert 2020). Coelogyne corymbosa: Pseudobulbs oblong or ovoid cylindric, closely spaced, (1–) 2–4.5 cm  6–13 mm, with 2 leaves at apex and several sheaths at base. Leaf blade oblong-oblanceolate to obovate-oblong, 4.5–15  1–3 cm, sub-leathery, adaxially with raised transverse veinlets, apex often acuminate; petiole 1–2 cm. Inflorescence proteranthous to synanthous, 7–15 cm (elongated when fruiting), embraced by sheaths below middle; raceme 2- or 3(or 4)-flowered; floral bracts caducous. Flowers white or slightly tinged with yellowish green, with 4 yellow eyelike blotches surrounded by reddish orange. Sepals oblong-lanceolate, 18–22(–35)  7–8 mm, apex acute or obtuse; lateral sepals somewhat narrower than dorsal sepal. Petals linear-lanceolate, 18–22  2.5–4 mm; lip sub-ovate, 16–28  12–25 mm, 3-lobed; lateral lobes erect, suborbicular or nearly sub-ovate; mid-lobe ovate or ovatelanceolate, 6–9 mm; 2 or 3 low lamellae extending from base to mid-lobe. Column slightly arcuate, 10–20 mm, both sides winged; wings widened from base to apex, upper side ca. 1.7 mm wide on one side, apex obtuse. Capsule sub-obovoid, slightly trigonous, 2.2–5  0.9–1.3 cm. The species grows as epiphyte on Quercus semicarpifolia, Lyonia ovalifolia, Rhododendron sp. or lithophyte on humid rocks. It is distributed in Assam, China South-Central, East Himalaya, Myanmar, Nepal, and Tibet. In Nepal it is distributed in central and eastern Nepal at an altitude from 1500 to 2900 m. Flowering occurs from May to July (Rajbhandari and Bhattarai 2001; Wu and Hong 2009; Rokaya et al. 2013; Govert 2020) (Fig. 1). Fig. 1 Coelogyne corymbosa (Orchidaceae), Nepal. (Photo S Devkota)

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Coelogyne cristata: Rhizome somewhat rigid, 4–6 mm in diameter, branched, with dense, lucid, leathery, scaly sheaths. Pseudobulbs clustered, 1.5–3 cm apart on rhizome, oblong or ovoid, (1–)2.5–6  (0.5–)1–1.7 cm, corrugate and deeply channeled when dried, with 2 leaves at apex and several sheaths at base; sheaths ovate or ovate-lanceolate, 2–6 cm, leathery. Leaf blade linear-lanceolate, (5–)10–17  (0.4–)0.7–1.9 cm, papery, base attenuate to inconspicuous petiole, apex long acuminate. Inflorescence heteranthous, 8–12 cm, basal half embraced in sheaths; raceme 5–7 cm, 2–10-flowered; floral bracts not deciduous at anthesis, ovatelanceolate, cymbiform, 2.5–3.5 cm, papery; pedicel and ovary 20–25 mm. Flowers white, rather large. Sepals lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate, 30–40  10–15 mm, abaxially  carinate, apex acute. Petals similar to sepals, 9–11 mm wide; lip ovate, concave, nearly as long as sepals, 3-lobed; lateral lobes erect, sub-ovate, nearly entire; mid-lobe broadly obovate or sub-oblate, 12–15 mm, margin nearly entire, apex obtuse or emarginate; callus with 5 fimbriate lamellae extending from base of lip to base of mid-lobe, 2 inner lateral lamellae continuing to apex of mid-lobe, elevated, platelike, and crenulate, median lamella continuing as a prominent vein. Column slightly arcuate, 20–30 mm, both sides winged; wings widened from base to apex, ca. 1.5 mm wide on one side in upper part, apex emarginate or sub-truncate. The species grows as epiphyte on Castanopsis indica, Schima wallichii, Quercus glauca and lithophyte on humid rocks. It is distributed in Assam, Bangladesh, East Himalaya, Nepal, Tibet, and West Himalaya. In Nepal it is distributed in western and central Nepal at an altitude from 1000 to 2400 m. Flowering occurs from February to May (Rajbhandari and Bhattarai 2001; Wu and Hong 2009; Rokaya et al. 2013; Adhikari et al. 2016; Govert 2020). Coelogyne fimbriata: Rhizome slender, pseudobulbs 2–4.5(–8) cm apart on rhizome, not lucid when dried, narrowly ovoid to nearly cylindric, 2– 3(–4.5) cm  5– 15 mm, with 2 leaves at apex and 2 or 3 sheaths at base; sheaths ovate, 1–2 cm, deciduous when old. Leaf blade oblong or oblong-lanceolate, 4–10  1–2 cm, papery, apex acute; petiole 1–1.5(–2) cm. Inflorescence heteranthous; peduncle 5– 10 cm, base covered with several tubular sheaths; sheaths equitant, closely embracing inflorescence; rachis often with 1 or 2 flowers opening successively, apex of rachis enclosed in several white bracts; floral bracts caducous; pedicel and ovary 1– 1.2 cm. Flowers pale yellow or nearly white, only with red stripes on lip. Sepals oblong-lanceolate, 16–20  4–7 mm. Petals filiform or narrowly linear, 16–20  0.7–1 mm; lip ovate, 13–18 mm, 3-lobed; lateral lobes erect, sub-ovate; mid-lobe nearly elliptic, 5–7  5–6 mm, margin fimbriate, apex obtuse; callus with 2 irregularly undulate lamellae extending from base to near apex of mid-lobe and between them at base of callus with 1 short lamella, sometimes a further 2 much shorter lamellae outside others on mid-lobe. Column slightly arcuate, 10– 13 mm, both sides with wings; wings widened toward column apex, one side 1–1.3 mm wide, apex irregularly incised or dentate. Capsule obovoid, 1.8–2  ca. 1 cm; fruiting pedicel 6– 7 mm. The species grows as epiphyte on Schima wallichii or lithophyte on rocks along streamlines, in forests and forest margins. It is distributed in China, Eastern Himalaya, Nepal, Assam, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Brunei, Malaysia, and Sumatera. In Nepal it is distributed in central Nepal at an altitude from

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500 to 2300 m. Flowering occurs from August to October (Wu and Hong 2009; Rokaya et al. 2013; Govert 2020). Coelogyne flaccida: Pseudobulbs conical or ovoid-cylindrical, 6–12.5  1.5–3.2 cm, 2 leaves at apex and several sheaths at base; sheaths 5–8  2.5–3 cm. Leaf blade oblong-lanceolate to elliptic-lanceolate, 13–19  3–4.5 cm, leathery, apex sub-acuminate or shortly cuspidate; petiole 4.5–8 cm. Inflorescence heteranthous, 16–32 cm, basal half enclosed in sheaths; rachis 11–21 cm, sparsely 8–10-flowered; floral bracts caducous, obovate-elliptic, ca. 2.5 cm; pedicel and ovary 17–20 mm. Flowers pale yellow to white, with yellow and pale reddish brown spots on lip. Dorsal sepal oblong or oblong-lanceolate, 21–24  6–7 mm; lateral sepals slightly narrower, abaxially  carinate. Petals linear-lanceolate, 20–22  2–3 mm; lip sub-ovate, 16–20  ca. 15 mm, 3-lobed; lateral lobes erect, sub-ovate, apex obtuse; mid-lobe sub-oblong, 6–7  ca. 4 mm, margin  crisped; callus with 3 crisped-incised lamellae extending from base of lip to basal half of mid-lobe. Column slightly arcuate, ca. 13 mm, both sides with wings; wings widened toward column apex, ca. 1.5 mm wide on one side in upper part. The species grows as epiphyte on Schima wallichii, Shorea robusta trees. It is distributed in Nepal to China, India, Myanmar, Laos, Vietnam, and Thailand. In Nepal it is distributed in central Nepal at an altitude from 900 to 1000 m. Flowering occurs from April to June (Wu and Hong 2009; Joshi et al. 2017; Govert 2020). Coelogyne fuscescens: Pseudobulbs erect, closely spaced on rhizome, fusiform, 8– 10 x 1–2 cm, 2 leaves at apex, sheathing at base; sheaths brown, 1.5–2 cm. Leaf blade oblong-oblanceolate, 11.5–13.5  1.3–2 cm, leathery, contracted at base into a petiole 1–2 cm, apex obtuse or acute. Inflorescence proteranthous, rarely synanthous, 12–14 cm, initially enclosed in sheaths at base; rachis 4–6 cm, usually 2-flowered; floral bracts often embracing pedicel and ovary, oblong-lanceolate,  cymbiform, 2–2.5 cm, membranous; pedicel and ovary 2–2.5 cm. Flowers ca. 4 cm in diameter. Sepals sub-oblong, 25–28  7–9 mm, 5-veined, apex acuminate or shortly cuspidate. Petals linear, 22–24  2.5–3 mm; lip ovate, 25–28 mm, concave at base, 3-lobed; lateral lobes sub-ovate, nearly entire; mid-lobe ovate, 10–13  6–7 mm; callus with 3 fleshy, undulate longitudinal lamellae extending to base of mid-lobe, then continuing as branched veins converging at tip of lip. Column ca. 20 mm, both sides with narrow wings. The species grows as epiphyte on Castanopsis tribuloides, Schima wallichii, Rhododendron sp., or on moist rocks. It is distributed in Assam, Bangladesh, East Himalaya, Laos, Myanmar, Nepal, and Vietnam. In Nepal it is distributed in central Nepal at an altitude from 1200 to 2100 m. Flowering occurs from October to December (Rajbhandari and Bhattarai 2001; Wu and Hong 2009; Joshi et al. 2017; Govert 2020). Coelogyne nitida: Pseudobulbs ovoid to conical, 3–10  1–1.5 cm, 2 leaves at apex. Leaf blade narrowly elliptic, ca. 7  1.5 cm, leathery, base attenuate into petiole ca. 2 cm, apex acuminate. Inflorescence proteranthous, ca. 6 cm, lower part enclosed in leathery sheaths; rachis 2- or 3-flowered; floral bracts caducous; pedicel and ovary ca. 16 mm. Flowers white or slightly tinged yellowish, lip with 2 eyelike colored blotches. Sepals oblong, 17–19  4–5 mm, apex acuminate. Petals nearly broadly linear or narrowly oblong, ca. 15  2–3 mm; lip ovate, ca. 15  10 mm, 3-lobed;

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Fig. 2 Coelogyne nitida (Orchidaceae), Nepal. (Photo YP Adhikari)

Fig. 3 Coelogyne nitida (Orchidaceae), Nepal. (Photo YP Adhikari)

lateral lobes erect, sub-obovate; mid-lobe nearly elliptic, ca. 5  4 mm, with 3 longitudinal inconspicuous lamellae extending from base of lip, lateral lamellae thick, median lamella inconspicuous. Column slightly arcuate, ca. 12 mm, both sides winged; wings widened from base to apex, upper side ca. 1 mm wide on one side. The species grows as epiphyte on Schima wallichii, Lyonia ovalifolia, Rhododendron sp. or lithophyte on mossy rocks. It is distributed in Nepal, India, Bhutan, Bangladesh, China (Yunnan), Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam. In Nepal it is distributed in western, central, and eastern Nepal at an altitude from 1300 to 2400 m. Flowering occurs from April to June (Rajbhandari and Bhattarai 2001; Wu and Hong 2009; Rokaya et al. 2013; Govert 2020) (Figs. 2 and 3). Coelogyne ovalis: Pseudobulbs ovoid-fusiform to fusiform, 3–8  1.5–2.5 cm, deeply sulcate, sheathing at base, with 2 leaves at apex. Leaf blade narrowly elliptic, ca. 7  1.5 cm, leathery, base attenuate into petiole ca. 2 cm, apex acuminate. Inflorescence proteranthous, ca. 6 cm, lower part enclosed in leathery sheaths; rachis 2- or 3-flowered; floral bracts caducous; pedicel and ovary ca. 16 mm. Flowers white

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or slightly tinged yellowish, lip with 2 eyelike colored blotches. Sepals oblong, 17– 19  4–5 mm, apex acuminate. Petals nearly broadly linear or narrowly oblong, ca. 15  2–3 mm; lip ovate, ca. 15  10 mm, 3-lobed; lateral lobes erect, subobovate; mid-lobe nearly elliptic, ca. 5  4 mm, with 3 longitudinal inconspicuous lamellae extending from base of lip, lateral lamellae thick, median lamella inconspicuous. Column slightly arcuate, ca. 12 mm, both sides winged; wings widened from base to apex, upper side ca. 1 mm wide on one side. The species grows as epiphyte on Schima wallichii, Sapium insigne, Quercus sp., Rhododendron sp., Castanopsis indica, Ficus sp., Engelhardtia spicata or lithophyte on rocks. It is distributed in Nepal to China (W. Yunnan), Assam, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam. In Nepal it is distributed in western and central Nepal at an altitude from 1300 to 2100 m. Flowering occurs from August to November (Rajbhandari and Bhattarai 2001; Wu and Hong 2009; Rokaya et al. 2013; Govert 2020). Coelogyne prolifera: Pseudobulbs 2.5–4 cm apart on rhizome, somewhat lucid when dried, narrowly ovoid-oblong, 2.2–3.7  1–1.2 cm, with 2 leaves at apex and several sheaths at base. Leaf blade oblong-lanceolate or sub-oblong, 8–13  1.6–2.1 cm, apex acuminate; petiole 2–2.5 cm. Inflorescence hysteranthous, 10– 15 cm and elongated at fruiting, with imbricate, convolute, sheathing sterile bracts at interface between peduncle and rachis; rachis 4–6-flowered, lower part often slightly thickened; floral bracts almost deciduous at anthesis, ca. 1.2 cm; pedicel and ovary 8–10 mm; rachis continuing to develop and producing a further set of sterile bracts at interface between peduncle and rachis and flowers annually. Flowers green or yellowish green, ca. 10 mm in diameter. Dorsal sepal oblong, 6–7  ca. 2.8 mm, 3-veined, apex obtuse; lateral sepals ovate-oblong, similar to dorsal sepal in size. Petals linear, slightly narrowed toward base, 5–6  ca. 0.6 mm, 1-veined; lip sub-ovate, 6–7  ca. 5 mm, base concave and shallowly saccate, 3-lobed; lateral lobes erect, ovate; mid-lobe nearly elliptic, ca. 4  3 mm, margin crisped, apex emarginate; callus with 2 inconspicuous longitudinal lamellae extending from base of mid-lobe and then diminishing. Column almost erect, sub-clavate, ca. 5 mm, apex narrowly winged and irregularly notched. Capsule oblong, 1.2–1.4  0.5–0.6 cm. The species grows as epiphyte on Shorea robusta, Schima wallichii, Sapium insigne, Quercus sp., Rhododendron sp., Castanopsis indica, Ficus sp., and Engelhardtia spicata. It is distributed in Nepal to China (W. Yunnan), Assam, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam. In Nepal it is distributed in central and eastern Nepal at an altitude from 1000 to 2300 m. Flowering occurs from March to May (Rajbhandari and Bhattarai 2001; Wu and Hong 2009; Rokaya et al. 2013; Govert 2020). Coelogyne punctulata: Pseudobulbs turbinately obovoid, 2.5–4 cm  7–13 mm, with 2 leaves at apex and several sheaths at base; sheaths ovate-oblong, 2–5 cm, papery. Leaf blade lanceolate or narrowly oblong-lanceolate, 8–14  1.3–2.5 cm, adaxially often with dense raised transverse veinlets, apex acuminate; petiole 2–4 cm. Inflorescence hysteranthous, slightly recurved, 8–15 cm; rachis 2–4-flowered; floral bracts caducous, suboblong-lanceolate, 2–3.5 cm; pedicel and ovary 13–17 mm. Flowers white, with deep-colored eyelike blotches on lip. Sepals lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate, 18–20  4–5 mm, apex acute. Petals linear, 18–20  ca. 1.5 mm;

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lip ovate, 16–18  ca. 10 mm, 3-lobed; lateral lobes erect, nearly suborbicular, apex rounded; mid-lobe ovate-lanceolate, ca. 7  5–6 mm, with 2 longitudinal, dentate lamellae extending from base of lip to mid-lobe and a short median lamella between them. Column slightly arcuate, ca. 12 mm, both sides winged; wings widened from base to apex, upper part 1.5–2 mm wide on one side, apex subtruncate or obtuse. Capsule obovoid-oblong, ca. 2.2  0.8–0.9 cm. The species grows as epiphyte on tree branches or lithophyte. It is distributed in Nepal to China (W. Yunnan), Assam, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam. In Nepal it is distributed in eastern Nepal at an altitude from 200 to 2900 m. Flowering occurs in November (Wu and Hong 2009; Rokaya et al. 2013; Govert 2020). Coelogyne stricta: Pseudobulbs sparse, oblong or narrowly ovoid, 7–13  2.5–5 cm, with 2 leaves at apex. Leaf blade sub-oblong, 14–27  4–5 cm, leathery; petiole 3–6.5 cm. Inflorescence hysteranthous, 15–21 cm, with imbricate, convolute, sheathing sterile bracts at interface between peduncle and rachis; raceme 7–12 cm, several to 10-flowered; floral bracts caducous. Flowers white, lip with yellow spots, lamellae tinged with red in apical part. Sepals oblong, 15–25  4–10 mm, acute; lateral sepals carinate abaxially. Petals narrowly oblong, 14–23  4–10 mm, acute; lip nearly ovate-oblong, ca. 22 mm, 3-lobed; mid-lobe irregularly undulate-dentate on margin; callus with 2 longitudinal lamellae extending from base to midlobe; lamellae crisped and slightly crenulate. Column slightly arcuate, ca. 14 mm, slightly expanded into a hood with small wings, notched at sides, front 3-lobed and margin irregular. The species grows as epiphyte on Schima wallichii and lithophyte on mossy rocks. It is distributed in Nepal, South Central China, Assam, Bangladesh, Laos, Myanmar, and Vietnam. In Nepal it is distributed in central and eastern Nepal at an altitude from 1400 to 2000 m. Flowering occurs from May to June (Rajbhandari and Bhattarai 2001; Wu and Hong 2009; Joshi et al. 2017; Govert 2020).

Phytochemistry Phenanthrenoid: coelogin and coeloginin; Phenanthrene: Coeloginanthridin (3,5,7trihydroxy-1,2-dimethoxy-9,10-dihydrophenanthrene), a 9,10-dihydrophenanthrene derivative, Coeloginanthrin ( 3,5,7-trihydroxy-1,2-dimethoxyphenanthrene); Flaccidin (9,10-dihydrophenanthropyran derivative); Callosin (2,6-dihyroxy-4,7dimethoxy-9,10- dihydrophenanthrene); Isoflaccidinin (2,7-dihydroxy-6-methoxy5H-phenanthro [4,5-bcd] pyran-5-one); isooxoflaccidin (2,7-dihydroxy-6-methoxy9,10-dihydro-5H-phenanthro [4,5-bcd] pyron-5-one); Phenanthrene (2,5-dihydroxy6,7-dimethoxy-phenanthrene-4-carboxylic acid); Ochrolide (2,6-dihydroxy 7,8-dimethoxyphenanthro(4,5-bcd) pyran-5-one); Bibenzyl: 3´-0-methylbatatasin III. 2,7-dihydroxy-3,4,6-trimethoxy-9,10-dihydrophenanthrene; coelogin, coeloginin, flavidin, flavidinin, batatasin III, imbricatin, beta-sitosterol and its glycoside (Anuradha et al. 1994; Bhaskar et al. 1989; Majumder and Laha 1981; Majumder and Maiti 1988, 1991; Majumder et al. 1982, 1995, 2001; Sachdev and Kulshreshtha 1986; Sargent and Stanojevic 1984).

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Local Medicinal Uses Ten Coelogyne species are used in traditional medicinal practice in Nepal. Pseudobulbs of some of the species are sold openly for medicinal use at the streets of Kathmandu valley (Acharya and Rokaya 2005). Coelogyne corymbose: The juice from pseudobulb is used in wounds, and paste is applied on forehead to reduce headache. The entire plant is used to treat fractures and soft tissue injuries. It is taken to stop coughs, flu, and bronchitis. It is also eaten raw for cooling body and applied to cure boils (Shrestha 2000; Vaidya et al. 2000; Manandhar 2002; Malla and Chhetri 2012; Pant 2013; Pant and Raskoti 2013; Subedi et al. 2013; Malla et al. 2015; Teoh 2016; Joshi et al. 2017; Vaidya 2019). Coelogyne cristata: Paste/juice from pseudobulbs are given to treat constipation in Nepal, whereas infusion of its pseudobulbs is used to treat dysentery and diarrhea in Myanmar. It is also used as an aphrodisiac in Nepal. In addition, juice is applied in wounds, gum sore, and boils. Juice is also put in the hooves of animals (Vaidya et al. 2000; Joshi and Joshi 2001; Manandhar 2002; Baral and Kurmi 2006; Thakur et al. 2010; Pant and Raskoti 2013; Subedi et al. 2013; Teoh 2016; Joshi et al. 2017; Vaidya 2019). Coelogyne fimbriata: Powder from pseudobulbs is used in tonic preparation. Whole plant paste is used to reduce heat in Chinese herbal medicine (Pant and Raskoti 2013; Subedi et al. 2013; Teoh 2016; Joshi et al. 2017). Coelogyne flaccida: Paste from pseudobulb is applied to forehead to reduce headache, juice is taken for indigestion, and paste is used for boils. In China, plant is used to clear heat, counter dryness, promote production of body fluids, and to stop coughs (Manandhar 2002; Rao 2004; Thakur et al. 2010; Pant 2013; Pant and Raskoti 2013; Subedi et al. 2013; Teoh 2016; Joshi et al. 2017; Vaidya 2019). Coelogyne fuscescens: It is used in abdominal pain (Vaidya et al. 2000; Manandhar 2002; Baral and Kurmi 2006; Pant 2013; Pant and Raskoti 2013; Subedi et al. 2013; Joshi et al. 2017; Vaidya 2019). Coelogyne nitida: Juice of pseudobulb is taken in case of stomach ache (Pant 2013; Pant and Raskoti 2013; Subedi et al. 2013; Joshi et al. 2017; Vaidya 2019). Coelogyne ovalis: The paste from pseudobulb is used to relieve fever and headache, aphrodisiac, and juice is used for urinary tract problem and is also used to treat coughs and eye disorders (Vaidya et al. 2000; Manandhar 2002; Baral and Kurmi 2006; Thakur et al. 2010; Pant and Raskoti 2013; Joshi et al. 2017; Vaidya 2019). Also used for brain disorders (Adams et al. 2007). Coelogyne pedata is used for burns (Kala 2005). Coelogyne prolifera: Paste of pseudobulb is applied to reduce backaches and to treat boils in Nepal (Vaidya et al. 2000; Manandhar 2002; Pant and Raskoti 2013; Rajbhandari 2014; Subedi et al. 2013; Joshi et al. 2017; Vaidya 2019). Coelogyne punctulata: Dried powder from pseudobulbs is applied on healing wounds, treating burns, and reducing pain. In Vietnam, it is used to treat dry coughs and bleeding resulting from trauma (Teoh 2016; Vaidya 2019). Coelogyne stricta: A paste of pseudobulb is applied to reduce headache and fever. Plant paste is used for healing of bones and is applied externally to fractured limbs

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(Shrestha 2000; Vaidya et al. 2000; Baral and Kurmi 2006; Teoh 2016; Pant 2013; Pant and Raskoti 2013; Subedi et al. 2013; Joshi et al. 2017; Vaidya 2019).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The use of tissue culture technique is important for orchid not only for rapid and large-scale production but also for ex situ conservation (Chugh et al. 2009). Use of tissue culture technique for propagation of orchids in Nepal intensified after 2009 (de Silva and Acharya 2014). Till now four species, C. cristata, C. flaccida, C. fuscescens, and C. stricta are used for in vivo production. Pant et al. (2008) studied in vitro seed germination and seedling development in C. cristata in agargelled Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium. The seedlings were obtained after 8 weeks of the experiment. Koirala et al. (2013) studied in vitro seed germination and plantlet regeneration in C. fuscescens. They used MS medium supplemented with BM, BAP, NAA and different combinations of these growth hormones. Ninety percent of seeds started to germinate after about 6 weeks, protocorms after 10 weeks, shoots after 13 weeks, and roots after 23 weeks. Parmar and Pant (2015) studied in vitro seed germination and seedling development in C. flaccida. They used MS medium supplemented with different concentration of growth hormones BAP and NAA. Germination started after 6 weeks of culture and complete plantlet obtained after 22 weeks of culture. Parmar and Pant (2016a) studied in vitro seed germination and seedling development in C. stricta. For culture they used MS medium supplemented with different concentration and combination of BAP and NAA. Ninety percent of seeds started to germinate after about 6 weeks, protocorms after 11 weeks, shoots after 13 weeks, and roots after 23 weeks. Furthermore, Parmar and Pant (2016b) studied acclimatization in C. flaccida and C. stricta. They found that C. flaccida showed best survival rate (about 80%) on the substrate mixture consisting of tree fern powder and sphagnum moss in the ratio of 2:1 followed by (about 70%) mixture of coco-peat, sphagnum moss, and sand in the ratio of 2:1:1. C. stricta showed best survival rate (about 90%) on the substrate mixture consisting of coco-peat, sphagnum moss, and sand in the ration of 2:1:1, followed by (about 80%) on tree fern powder and sand in the ration of 2:1.

References Acharya KP. http://nepaliorchids.blogspot.com/p/orchid-of-nepal-checklist.html. Assessed 02.05.2020. Acharya KP, Rokaya MB . Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants traded in the streets of Kathmandu valley. Sci World. 2005;3:44–48. Adams M, Gmünder F, Hamburger M. Plants traditionally used in age related brain disorders – a survey of ethnobotanical literature. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;113:363–381 Adhikari YP, Fischer A, Fischer HS. Epiphytic orchids and their ecological niche under anthropogenic influence in central Himalayas, Nepal. J Mt Sci. 2016;13:774–84. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s11629-015-3751-z.

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Anuradha V, Prakasa Rao NS, Udaya Bhaskar M. Ochrolic acid, a precursor to phenanthropyrones, from Coelogyne ochracea. Phytochemistry. 1994;36:1515–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/S00319422(00)89753-8. Baral SR, Kurmi PP. Compendium of medicinal plants in Nepal: Rachana Sharma, Kathmandu; 2006. Bhaskar MU, Mohan Rao LJ, Rao NSP, Rao PRM. Ochrolide, a phenanthropyrone from Coelogyne ochracea. Phytochemistry. 1989;28:3545–3546. https://doi.org/10.1016/0031-9422(89)80389-9. Bose TK, Bhattacharjee SK, Das P, Basak UC. Orchids of India. Calcutta: Naya Prakash Bidhan Sarani; 1999. Chugh S, Guha S, Rao IU. Micropropagation of orchids: a review on the potential of different explants. Sci Hortic. 2009;122:507–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2009.07.016. de Silva JAT, Acharya KP. In vitro propagation of Nepalese Orchids: a review. J Hortic Res. 2014;22:47–52. Govert R. 2020. https://wcsp.science.kew.org/prepareChecklist.do?checklist¼selected_families% 40%40131100520201014006. Aassessed 28 Apr 2020. Gravendeel B, de Vogel EF, Schuiteman A. Coelogyninae. In: Pridgeon AM, Cribb PJ, Chase MW, Rasmussen FN, editors. Genera Orchidacearum. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press; 2005. p. 44–51. Joshi KK, Joshi SD. Genetic heritage of medicinal and aromatic plants of Nepal Himalayas. Kathmandu: Buddha Academic Publishers; 2001. Joshi N, Dhakal K, Saud D. Checklist of CITES listed flora of Nepal. Department of Plant Resources, Thapathali, Kathmandu; 2017. Kala CP. Ethnomedicinal botany of the Apatani in the Eastern Himalayan region of India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2005;1:11. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-1-11. Koirala D, Pradhan S, Pant B. Asymbiotic seed germination and plantlet development of Coelogyne fuscescens Lindl., a medicinal orchid of Nepal. Sci World. 2013;11:97–100. Majumder PL, Laha S. Occurrence of 2,7-dihydroxy-3,4,6-trimethoxy-9,10-dihydrophenanthrene in Coelogyne ovalis, a high altitude himalayan orchid: application of C-13 NMR spectroscopy in structure elucidation. J Indian Chem Soc. 1981;58:928–9. Majumder PL, Maiti D. Flaccidin, a 9, 10-dihydrophenanthropyran derivative from the orchid Coelogyne flaccida. Phytochemistry. 1988;27:899–901. https://doi.org/10.1016/0031-9422(88) 84115-3. Majumder PL, Maiti DC. Isoflaccidinin and isooxoflaccidin, stilbenoids from Coelogyne flaccida. Phytochemistry. 1991;30:971–4. https://doi.org/10.1016/0031-9422(91)85289-C. Majumder PL, Bandyopadhyay D, Joardar S. Coelogin and coeloginin: two novel 9,10dihydrophenanthrene derivatives from the orchid Coelogyne cristata. J Chem Soc. 1982;1:1131–6. https://doi.org/10.1039/P19820001131. Majumder PL, Banerjee S, Maiti DC, Sen S. Stilbenoids from the orchids Agrostophyllum callosum and Coelogyne flaccida. Phytochemistry. 1995;39:649–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/00319422(95)00942-Z. Majumder PL, Sen S, Majumder S. Phenanthrene derivatives from the orchid Coelogyne cristata. Phytochemistry. 2001;58:581–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0031-9422(01)00287-4. Malla B, Chhetri R. Indigenous knowledge on medicinal non-timber forest products (NTFP) in Parbat district of Nepal. Indo Global J Pharm Sci. 2012;2:213–25. Malla B, Gauchan DP, Chhetri RB. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by ethnic people in Parbat district of western Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;165:103–17. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jep.2014.12.057. Manandhar NP. Plants and people of Nepal. Portland: Timber Press; 2002. Pant B. Medicinal orchids and their uses: tissue culture a potential alternative for conservation. Afr J Plant Sci. 2013;7:448–67. Pant B, Raskoti BB. Medicinal orchids of Nepal: Himalayan Map House, Kathmandu; 2013. Pant B, Swar S, Karanjeet A. Micropropagation of Coelogyne cristata. Lindl. J Orchid Soc India. 2008;22:45–8.

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Colchicum aitchisonii (Hook. f.) Nasir Colchicum luteum Baker COLCHICACEAE Hassan Sher, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Ikram Ur Rahman, Wahid Hussain, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Colchicum aitchisonii (Hook. f.) Nasir: Merendera aitchisonii Hook. f., Merendera persica Boiss. Colchicum luteum Baker

H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan W. Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_63

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Local Names Colchicum luteum: Pashto: Kaimat gullai ‫ﮐﯿﻤﺘګﻠﯥ‬, Suranjan-e-talkh

Botany and Ecology Colchicum aitchisonii: Corm ovoid; sheath dark reddish-brown, neck long. Leaves 2–6, appearing with the flowers, linear, acute, 2–5 cm long at the flowering stage, up to 12 cm at the fruiting stage. Scape covered by leaf sheath, buried in the ground. Flowers 1–3; perianth white to pale purple, segments split to the base, lanceolate, acute, claw longer than the blade; perianth tube short, surrounded by leaf sheaths. Stamens 6, attached at the base of the perianth; anthers linear, up to 1 cm long, basifixed, greenish; filaments as long as or slightly shorter than the anthers. Ovary 3-locular; styles 3, filiform. Fruit capsular, ovoid with recurved beaks. Seeds numerous, globose. Flowering late January–February. Afghanistan, Pakistan. A fairly common plant in the Margalla Hills and the Salt Range during the early spring season. The plant, like Colchicum luteum, also contains Colchicine (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020) (Fig. 1). Colchicum luteum: Corm ovoid, oblong, 1.5–3.5  1–2 cm, flattened at the base, longitudinal groove on one side; coat brown to dark-brown, membranous. Leaves 3–6, appearing at flowering time, linear to broadly linear, 10–20  0.5–2 cm, apex obtuse. Flowers yellow, infundibuliform, 3–4 cm across. Tepals 6, united below into a long, narrow tube, up to 9 cm long; segments linear to oblanceolate, 2–3 cm long, acute to obtuse. Stamens 6, attached at the base of the perianth segments, included; filaments 4–5 mm long; anthers yellow, linear, 1–1.5 cm long, basifixed. Ovary Fig. 1 Colchicum aitchinsonii (Colchicaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

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Fig. 2 Colchicum luteum (Colchicaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

superior, trilocular; styles 3, filiform, longer than the stamens; stigma minute. Ovules many. Fruit capsular, ovoid, up to 3 cm long, dehiscence septicidal with recurved beaks; seeds numerous, globose, 2 mm in diameter. Flowering February to May depending on the altitude. Central Asia, Afghanistan, Himalayas in Pakistan and India. An early flowering species, soon after the snow melts. Fairly common from 1500 to 3000 m altitude (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020) (Figs. 2, 3, and 4).

Local Medicinal Uses Colchicum aitchinsonii and Colchicum luteum: The seeds and the corm contain the alkaloid, Colchicine, which is used in medicine to relieve pain and inflammation and in plant breeding work to induce doubling of chromosomes (Ali and Qaiser 1995– 2020). The corms are dried and grinded to powder form, and then it is mixed with ghee and used externally for lessening inflammation and pain (Shah and Khan 2006). The local people mix the corm of Colchicum luteum with egg and fry it with cow’s ghee. It is given to aged men and women in the evening before going to bed, and is considered as remedy for joints pain (Sher and Hussain 2009). The plant is used for bronchial diseases (Kayani et al. 2014), and the cure of rheumatism (Abbasi et al. 2010). The plant is used as blood purifier, laxative, aphrodisiac, and for joints pain (Akhtar et al. 2013). Fresh ground corms are taken orally by nursing mother to improve lactation. Dried ground seeds are taken orally to improve digestion and to treat anorexia. Dried ground corms are mixed in food and taken orally with water to treat knee pain (Sher et al. 2016). Very small amount of powder is given by Hakims (specialist people) in local oils as aphrodisiac and in joint pains and spleen and liver diseases (Khan et al. 2013). The powdered bulb used as antidiabetic, blood purifier, purgative, for flatulence, and liver disorder (Kahn et al. 2016). The dried and powdered corm is used for gout. It is also used as carminative in low doses (Ali

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Fig. 3 Colchicum luteum (Colchicaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 4 Colchicum luteum (Colchicaceae), Kalam Valley, Swat, Pakistan. (Photo Hassan Sher & Ikram Ur-Rahman)

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Fig. 5 Colchicum luteum (Colchicaceae), dried corms, Mingoira Pansar Store, Swat, Pakistan. (Photo Hassan Sher & Ikram Ur-Rahman)

et al. 2018). The powdered herb is used orally for joint pains and arthritis. The plant extract is useful in digestive and gastric problems and also efficacious in liver and spleen disorders (Sabeen and Ahmad 2009). Used to treat anorexia, improve digestion, as galactagogue, for keen pain, abdominal pain, and as body tonic (Jan et al. 2019; Khan et al. 2014; Sher et al. 2016; Ur-Rahman et al. 2019). For cough, dandruff, fever, gout, liver problems, rheumatism, gynecological problems, skin diseases, spleen problems, constipation, stomach (Gairola et al. 2014) (Fig. 5).

References Abbasi AM, Khan MA, Ahmed M, Zafar M. Herbal medicines used to cure various ailments by the inhabitants of Abbottabad district, North West Frontier Province, Pakistan. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2010;9(1):175–83. Jan AH, Jan S, Bussmann RW, Wali S, Sist F, Ahmad L. Complementary and alternative medicine research, prospects and limitations in Pakistan: a literature review. Acta Ecol Sin. 2019. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.chnaes.2019.12.005. Akhtar N, Rashid A, Murad W, Bergmeier E. Diversity and use of ethno-medicinal plants in the region of Swat, North Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1):25. Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. Pakistan/St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi/Missouri Botanical Garden. 1995–2020. Ali A, Badshah L, Hussain F. Ethnobotanical appraisal and conservation status of medicinal plants in Hindukush Range, District Swat, Pakistan. J Herbs Spices Med Plants. 2018;1–24. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Kahn MT, Khan I, Khan MI, Hussain Z, Ayub S, Khan N, Khan IA. Ethnobotanical study of wild flora in the remote areas of Northern Pakistan. Wulfania J. 2016;23(10):149–65. Kayani S, Ahmad M, Zafar M, Sultana S, Khan MPZ, Ashraf MA, Yaseen G. Ethnobotanical uses of medicinal plants for respiratory disorders among the inhabitants of Gallies – Abbottabad, Northern Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;156:47–60. Khan SM, Page S, Ahmad H, Shaheen H, Ullah Z, Ahmad M, Harper DM. Medicinal flora and ethnoecological knowledge in the Naran Valley, Western Himalaya, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1):4. Mulk Khan S, Page S, Ahmad H, Harper D. Ethno-ecological importance of plant biodiversity in mountain ecosystems with special emphasis on indicator species of a Himalayan Valley in the northern Pakistan. Ecol Indicators. 2014;37:175–85.

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Sabeen M, Ahmad SS. Exploring the folk medicinal flora of Abbotabad city, Pakistan. Ethnobotanical Leaflets. 2009;2009(7):1. Shah GM, Khan MA. Common medicinal folk recipes of Siran valley, Mansehra, Pakistan. Ethnobotanical Leaflets. 2006;2006(1):5. Sher H, Hussain F. Ethnobotanical evaluation of some plant resources in Northern part of Pakistan. Afr J Biotechnol. 2009;8(17) Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni groups in Chitral District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Ur-Rahman I, Sher H, Bussmann RW, editors. Reference guide on high value medicinal and Aromatic plants – sustainable management and cultivation practices. University of Swat, Pakistan; 2019. ISBN 978-969-23419-0-5.

Cordia dichotoma G. Forst. BORAGINACEAE Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Cordia dichotoma G. Forst.: Cordia latifolia Roxb.

Botany and Ecology Cordia dichotoma: Trees 3–4(–20) m tall. Petiole 2–5 cm; leaf blade ovate to broadly ovate or elliptic, 6–13  4–9 cm, sparsely pubescent or glabrous, base rounded to broadly cuneate, margin usually subundulate to undulate dentate, rarely entire, apex obtuse to mucronate. Inflorescences terminating leafy lateral branches, dichotomously branched into corymbose cymes, widely spaced, 5–8 cm wide. Flowers dimorphic, sessile. Calyx campanulate, 5–6 mm, 5-lobed; lobes unequal, triangular. Corolla white, about as long as calyx; lobes shorter than tube, margin somewhat undulate. Filaments of staminate flowers about 3.5 mm, filaments of bisexual flowers 1–2 mm. Rudimentary pistil globose. Style united portion 1–1.5 mm, first branches about 1 mm, second branches 2–3 mm; stigma spatulate. H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_64

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Fig. 1 Cordia africana (Boraginaceae), Mt. Kenya National Park, Kenya. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

Drupes yellow or reddish, subglobose, 1–1.5 cm in diameter, with sticky mesocarp, surrounded by persistent calyx. Flowering February–April, fruiting June–August (Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).

Local Medicinal Uses Cordia dichotoma: Used to treat ulcers. Cordia gharaf is chewed for toothache and general debility (Katewa et al. 2004). Cordia wallichii is given to remove a retained placenta after birth (Sharma et al. 2001). Cordia africana: Leaf decoctions are administered to treat headache, nose bleeding, dizziness and vomiting during pregnancy, wounds, and worms. Fresh bark is applied to fractures and bark extracts and taken against fatigue. Root decoctions are drunk to treat jaundice, venereal diseases, and schistosomiasis (Giday et al. 2007, 2009; Kokwaro 2009). Wood ash is applied to skin diseases. Used as vitamin supplement and to treat measles (Muthee et al. 2011). Cordia monoica: Leaves used for earache. Pounded roots applied to wounds. Steam baths are used to remedy leprosy, and the leaf paste is also applied as poultice. The root decoction is used for malaria and vomiting in children. The leaf extract is given to expel the placenta (Kokwaro 2009). Used in fractures, as splint (Bussmann 2006). Used for back pain and gonorrhea (Muthee et al. 2011). The species is used in Ethiopia to treat the febrile condition “mich,” and for eye diseases (Giday et al. 2003). Cordia sinensis: Roots are boiled with milk and drunk for malaria. Larger amounts of chewed roots used for abortion. Bark and root decoction to remedy stomach ache (Kokwaro 2009). The roots are boiled for chest pain (Lulekal et al. 2008; Teklehaymanot et al. 2007; Teklehaymanot and Giday 2010).

Cordia dichotoma G. Forst. Fig. 2 Cordia africana (Boraginaceae), Mt Kenya National Park, Kenya. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

Fig. 3 Cordia africana (Boraginaceae), Mt Kenya National Park, Kenya. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

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Fig. 4 Cordia lutea (Boraginaceae), Trujillo, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Cordia lutea (Boraginaceae), Trujillo, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Cordia ovalis is used in Ethiopia to treat the febrile condition “mich” (Wondimu et al. 2007). Cordia lutea: Flowers, fresh or dried used to treat liver, bladder, hepatitis, inflammation of the kidneys, and prostate inflammation. Cordia lutea is very widely used in Northern Peru and a common component of local markets. The species has antibacterial properties (Bussmann and Sharon 2006).

Local Food Uses Cordia dichotoma: The fruits are sometimes eaten.

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses Cordia africana: The wood is commonly used for joinery, interior trim, paneling, furniture, cabinet work, drums, beehives, boxes, mortars, and canoes. The gum is used as glue (Beentje 1994). It is suitable for light construction, ship building, vehicle bodies, toys, novelties, vats, draining boards, food containers, matches, veneer, plywood, hardboard, particle board, and pulp for paper making. It is also used as firewood. The leaves serve as fodder for livestock. Cordia africana is planted as a shade tree in coffee plantations, and as roadside tree, ornamental shade tree, and boundary marker. The leaves make a good mulch. The flowers provide nectar for honeybees. Sold as expensive timber species (Balemie and Kebebew 2006; Bekalo et al. 2009). Cordia monoica: Leaves used as sandpaper (Beentje 1994). The leaf extract is given to livestock to expel the placenta. Used in rituals (Luo, Samburu) (Kokwaro 2009). Eaten by livestock, used for construction, fences, firewood, ceremonial (Bussmann 2006). In Madagascar, used for building, construction of carts, and for blessings during circumcision (Randrianarivony et al. 2016). Cordia sinensis: Root decoction to treat conjunctivitis in cattle. The bark infusion is dripped in infected eyes of cattle. Ash from twigs is applied to infected udders with mastitis (Kokwaro 2009). To treat corridor disease in livestock the roots are boiled and the extract given to the animal (Kioko et al. 2015). Cordia curassavica leaves are used as tick repellent in livestock (Wanzala et al. 2017).

References Balemie K, Kebebew F. Ethnobotanical study of wild edible plants in Derashe and Kucha Districts, South Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:53. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-2-53. Beentje H. Kenya trees and shrubs. Nairobi: National Museums of Kenya; 1994. Bekalo TH, Demissew Woodmata S, Asfaw Woldemariam Z. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by local people in the lowlands of Konta Special Woreda, southern nations, nationalities and peoples regional state, Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2009;5:26. https:// doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-5-26. Bussmann RW. Ethnobotany of the Samburu of Mt. Nyiru, South Turkana, Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:35. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in Northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing culture. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:47. Giday M, Asfaw Z, Elmqvist T, Woldu Z. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by the Zay people in Ethiopia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2003;85:43–52. Giday M, Teklehaymanot T, Animut A, Mekonnen Y. Medicinal plants of the Shinasha, Agew-awi and Amhara peoples in Northwest Ethiopia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;110:516–25. Giday M, Asfaw Z, Woldu Z. Medicinal plants of the Meinit ethnic group of Ethiopìa: an ethnobotan ical study. J Ethnopharmacol. 2009;124:513–21. Katewa SS, Chaudhary BL, Jain A. Folk herbal medicines from tribal area of Rajasthan, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2004;92:41–6. Kioko J, Baker J, Shannon A, Kiffner C. Ethnoecological knowledge of ticks and treatment of tickborne diseases among Maasai people in Northern Tanzania. Veterinary World 812. 2015.

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Kokwaro JO. Medicinal plants of East Africa. Nairobi: University of Nairobi Press; 2009. Lulekal E, Kelbessa E, Bekele T, Yineger H. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in Mana Angetu District, southeastern Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2008;4:10. https://doi.org/10. 1186/1746-4269-4-10. Muthee JK, Gakuya DW, Mbaria JM, Kareru PG, Mulei CM, Njonge FK. Ethnobotanical study of anthelmintic and other medicinal plants traditionally used in Loitoktok district of Kenya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011;135:15–21. Randrianarivony TN, Andriamihajarivo TH, Rakotoarivony F, Rabarimanarivo M, Randrianasolo A, Bussmann RW. Guide des plantes utiles d’Analavelona et de ses environs, vol. 1. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2016. ISBN 978-0-9960231-4-6 Sharma HK, Chhangte L, Dolui AK. Traditional medicinal plants in Mizoram, India. Fitoterapia. 2001;72:146–61. Teklehaymanot T, Giday M. Quantitative ethnobotany of medicinal plants used by Kara and Kwego semi-pastoralist people in lower Omo River Valley, Debub Omo Zone, Southern Nations, nationalities and peoples regional state, Ethiopia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010;130:76–84. Teklehaymanot T, Giday M, Medhin G, Mekonnen Y. Knowledge and use of medicinal plants by peoplearound Debre Libanos monastery in Ethiopia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;111:271–83. Wanzala W. Potential of traditional knowledge of plants in the management of arthropods in livestock industry with focus on Acari ticks. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2017; Article ID 8647919, 33 pp. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/8647919. Wondimu T, Asfaw Z, Kelbessa E. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants around ‘Dheeraa’ town, Arsi Zone, Ethiopia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;112:152–61. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013.

Corydalis govaniana Wall. PAPAVERACEAE Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Ikram Ur Rahman, and Hammad Ahmad Jan

Synonyms Corydalis govaniana Wall: Corydalis swatensis Kitam.

Local Names Corydalis govaniana: Pashto: Mamera ‫ ;ﻡﺍﻡﯼﺭﺍ‬Jammu and Kashmir: Inderajatta; Urdu: Cheri pawa; Ladakh: Ralchhat nagpo

H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_65

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Botany and Ecology Corydalis govaniana: Herbs, perennial, caespitose, dark green, 15–35(–50) cm tall, glabrous or finely papillose-puberulent at base. Rootstock  vertical, elongate, thick, fibrous, multistranded, with 1 or several heads, densely crowned by membranous remnants of old leaf sheaths and cataphylls. Stems 1 to few from radical leaf axils, erect, without leaves or with 1 or usually 2 opposite leaves below middle. Radical leaves many; petiole 5–10 cm, base vaginate; blade ovate to triangular-ovate, 6– 14  3–7 cm, bi-(tri-)pinnate; pinnae 4 or 5 pairs, shortly petiolulate; pinnules 3–5, sessile, deeply divided; ultimate lobes oblong to lanceolate, obtuse to acute,  mucronate. Cauline leaves usually much smaller, vaginate. Raceme 5–15 cm, densely 10–25(–35)-flowered; bracts oblong, (1–)1.5–3( 4)  0.5–1 cm, cuneate, pinnatipartite, upper ones smaller and less divided or entire, all longer than pedicels. Pedicel 1–2(–3) cm, at fruiting arcuately recurved. Sepals whitish, 0.5–2  0.5– 1.5 mm, deeply dentate. Corolla yellow; outer petals with rhombic-acute limb, crest 0.5–1.5 mm wide, shortly decurrent, not reaching spur; upper petal 17–25 mm; spur tapering, 8–12 mm; nectary extended through ca. 1/2 of spur; inner petals 9–11 mm, claw slightly shorter than limb. Stigma square, apex slightly emarginate, apical papillae distinct or often confluent, laterally and on basal lobes with geminate papillae. Capsule obovoid, 10–15  3–4 mm, 4–8-seeded. Seeds in 2 rows, 1.5– 2 mm, smooth. Flowering and fruiting June (Wu et al. 1994–2013). Pakistan (Chitral, Dir, Swat, Hazara, Gilgit), Kashmir, India, Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, and China grassy hill tops between 2600 and 4000 (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Local Medicinal Uses Corydalis govaniana: The root is used as antiperiodic, appetizer, diuretic, and skin tonic. It is used in the treatment of syphilis and cutaneous affections, disorders from poisoning, swelling of the limbs, and stomach/intestinal pain due to worm infestation (Shaheen et al. 2012; Ur-Rahman et al. 2019). Juice of the plant is used as diuretic; powders of flowers are used in treating eye diseases (Khan et al. 2013). Flower juice is applied externally on forehead against headache. Roots are given to cattle to handle dysenteric and dietary problems (Jeelani et al. 2013). Floral shoots are used for ophthalmic problems (Hamayun et al. 2006). Plant is used as a laxative (Khan et al. 2018). It is also used for fever, liver problems, and eye infections (Kayani et al. 2015; Singh et al. 2017). It is used in traditional Chinese medicine (Liu et al. 2016; Wu 2005). The species is also used to treat fever (Ballabh and Chaurasia 2007), asthma, chest infections, respiratory disorders, whooping cough, headache, as anthelmintic, antipyretic, febrifuge, for fever, muscular pain, gastric disorders, and diuretic (Gairola et al. 2014). Corydalis carinata is used as astringent (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018). Corydalis pakistanica serves for eye problems (Majid et al. 2019) as well as Corydalis stewardii (Kayani et al. 2015).

Corydalis govaniana Wall. Fig. 1 Corydalis govaniana (Papaveraceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 2 Corydalis govaniana (Papaveraceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

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Fig. 3 Corydalis govaniana (Papaveraceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hassan Sher & Ikram Ur-Rahman)

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Corydalis govaniana: The plant has ceremonial purposes (Kayani et al. 2015).

References Ballabh B, Chaurasia OP. Traditional medicinal plants of cold desert Ladakh – used in treatment of cold, cough and fever. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;112(2):341–9. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Hamayun M, Khan A, Afzal S, Khan MA. Study on traditional knowledge and utility of medicinal herbs of district Buner, NWFP, Pakistan. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2006;5(3):407–12. Jeelani SM, Wani MP, Kumari S, Gupta RC, Siddique MAA. Ethnobotany of some polypetalous plants from the Kashmir Himalaya. J Med Plants Res. 2013;7(36):2714–21. Kayani S, Ahmad M, Sultana S, Khan Shinwari Z, Zafar M, Yaseen G, Hussain M, Bibi T. Ethnobotany of medicinal plants among the communities of Alpine and Sub-alpine regions of Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;164:186–202. Khan SM, Page S, Ahmad H, Shaheen H, Ullah Z, Ahmad M, Harper DM. Medicinal flora and ethnoecological knowledge in the Naran Valley, Western Himalaya, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1):4. Khan WR, Arif M, Shakoor S, Nazre M, Muslim M. Therapeutic characteristics of Murree plants: an emerging feature. Plant Hum Health. 2018;1:719–29. Liu B, Bussmann RW, Li F, Li J, Hong L, Long C. Ethnobotanical approaches of traditional medicine studies in Southwest China: a literature review. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;186:343–50. Majid A, Ahmad H, Saqib Z, Ur Rahman I, Khan U, Alam J, Hussain Shah A, Ahmad Jan S, Ali N. Exploring threatened traditional knowledge; ethnomedicinal studies of rare endemic flora from lesser Himalayan region of Pakistan. Revista Brasileira de Farmacognosia 29 (2019) 785–792 Shaheen H, Shinwari ZK, Qureshi RA, Ullah Z. Indigenous plant resources and their utilization practices in village populations of Kashmir Himalayas. Pak J Bot. 2012;44(2):739–45. Singh S, Youssouf M, Malik ZA, Bussmann RW. Sacred groves: myths, beliefs and biodiversity conservation a case study from Western Himalaya, India. Int J Ecol. 2017:Article ID 3828609. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/3828609.

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Ur-Rahman I, Afsal A, Iqbal Z, Ijas F, Ali N, Asif M, Alam J, Majid A, Bussmann RW. Traditional and ethnomedicinal dermatology practices in Pakistan. Clin Dermatol. 2018;363:310–9. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.clindermatol.2018.03.018. Ur-Rahman I, Sher H, Bussmann RW, editors. Reference guide on high value medicinal and Aromatic plants – sustainable management and cultivation practices. University of Swat, Pakistan; 2019. ISBN 978-969-23419-0-5. Wu JN. An illustrated Chines Materia Medica. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2005. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013.

Cotoneaster uniflorus Bunge ROSACEAE Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

Synonyms Cotoneaster uniflorus Bunge: Cotoneaster integerrimus var. uniflorus (Bunge) C.K. Schneid., Cotoneaster vulgaris var. uniflorus (Bunge) Regel

Botany and Ecology Cotoneaster uniflorus: Erect shrub with wide spreading crown, not more than 1.5 m high; shoots densely appressed-pubescent when young; leaves on flowering shoots 0.9–4 cm long, 0.4–2.7 cm broad, broadly ovate, less often oblong-ovate, shortacuminate, with cartilaginous cusp, light green at the apex, dull, less often sparsely hairy above, whitish or grayish-tomentose below; flowers mostly in pairs, less often H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_66

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solitary or 3(4 ) in nodding raceme, always shorter than leaves, with slightly villoustomentose axis and pedicels and with glabrous hypanthium; stamens 20, styles 3 or 4; fruit purple-red at maturity, from subglobose to ovoid or obovoid, 8–11 mm long, with (2) 3 or 4 nutlets, hairy at the apex; style arising above the middle, less often from the middle. Flowering June, fruiting from September. Stony mountain slopes, taluses, and rocks (Yuzepchuk 1939).

Local Medicinal Uses Cotoneaster bacillaris is used to strengthen the teeth (Malik et al. 2015), and to treat rheumatic arthritis (Kumar et al. 2011). Cotoneaster nummularia is used as expectorant (Cakiliioglu et al. 2011). Cotoneaster acuminatus is used for hypertension (Ahmad et al. 2015). Cotoneaster microphyllus serves as stringent (Gairola et al. 2014).

Local Food Uses Cotoneaster uniflorus fruits are eaten. The fruits of Cotoneaster franchetii are eaten in China (Zhang et al. 2016). The fruits of Cotoneaster microphyllus, Cotoneaster minutus, and Cotoneaster priuinosus are eaten (Ahmad and Pieroni 2016).

References Ahmad K, Pieroni A. Folk knowledge of wild food plants among the tribal communities of Thakhte-Sulaiman Hills, North-West Pakistan. J Ethnobiol and Ethnomed. 2016;12:17. https://doi.org/ 10.1186/s13002-016-0090-2. Ahmad L, Semotiuk A, Zafar M, Ahmad M, Sultana S, Liu Q-R, Zada MP, Ul Abidin SZ, Yaseen G. Ethnopharmacological documentation of medicinal plants used for hypertension among the local communities of DIR Lower, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;175:138–46. Cakilcioglu U, Khatun S, Turkoglu I, Hayta S. Ethnopharmacological survey of medicinal plants in Maden (Elazig-Turkey). J Ethnopharmacol. 2011;137:469–86. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Kumar M, Bussmann RW, Mukesh J, Kumar P. Ethnomedicinal uses of plants close to rural habitation in Garhwal Himalayan, India. J Med Plant Res. 2011;511:2252–60. Malik ZA, Bhat J, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhat AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44. Yuzepchuk S.V. 1939 (English 1971). Flora of the USSR, Volume 9: Rosales and Sarraceniales; Akademia Nauk, Leningrad. 425 pages, 30 plates with b/w line drawings, 2 b/w fold-out maps. Zhang L, Chai Z, Zhang Y, Geng Y, Wang Y. Ethnobotanical study of traditional edible plants used by the Naxi people during droughts. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:39. https://doi.org/10. 1186/s13002-016-0113-z.

Crateva unilocularis Buch.-Ham. CAPPARACAE Kedar Baral, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Local Names Crateva unilocularis: Nepali: Siplikan, Sipligan, Barun brikshya; Sanskrit: Varun; Newaari: Khai chovh; Gujarati: Vayvarno; Japanese: Jaranan; Sumatra: Sibaluak; Malaysia: Kepayan, Kemantu, Kemantu hitam, Dangla; Cambodia: Salingbobog, Balai-lamok, Tonliëm; Laos: Kumz; Thailand: Kum-bok, kum nam, Vietnam: Bun thieu, Bun lo; English: Sacred Garlic Pear, Caper, Temple plant, Three leaved capper (trade name)

K. Baral Division Forest Office, Tanahun, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_67

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Botany and Ecology Crateva unilocularis: Trees 5–10(–20)[–30] m tall. Twigs grayish brown, often hollow, with sparse whitish lenticels. Petiole (3–)5.5–9 cm, glands adaxially toward rachis; petiolules (2.5–)4–7 mm; leaflet blades elliptic, (6.5–)8–10  3–4(-5) cm, 2–2.5  as long as wide, subleathery, glossy, abaxially drying gray, adaxially drying to brown, midvein reddish, secondary veins 5–8(-10) on each side of midvein, apex acuminate to abruptly acuminate. Inflorescences racemes or corymbs, 13–25(–35)flowered, with a few leaves on basal part; rachis (2–)3–5(-7) cm, after flowering with little increase in length, often with pedicel scars. Pedicel 2–4 cm. Sepals linear to narrowly lanceolate, (3–)4–6  2–3 mm. Petal white to creamy but drying pinkish, claw 3–7 mm, blade 1.4–2.4 cm. Stamens 16–20; filaments (2–)3–4.5 cm; anthers 2–3 mm. Gynophore 4–6 cm; ovary oblong-ellipsoid, 3–4  1–2 mm. Fruit globose, 3–4 cm; pericarp 2–3 mm thick, apically scabrous, with nearly circular small ash-yellow flecks; stipe 3–7 mm in diam., thickened, woody. Seeds 30–50 per fruit, dull brown, lens-shaped, 8–10(–12)  4–10 mm, smooth. Flowering March– July, fruiting July–August (Wu et al. 2008, 1994–2013) (Figs. 1 and 2). Crateva is a Linnean genus (Linnaeus, 1753) named in honor of the Greek botanist Crataevas, an obscure writer on medicinal plants, at the beginning of the first century Fig. 1 Crateva unilocularis (Capparaceae), Damauli, Tanahun, Nepal. (Photo Kedar Baral)

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Fig. 2 Crateva unilocularis (Capparaceae), flower. (Photo N Tiwari)

BC (Raghavan and Venkatasubban 1941). Crataeva is represented by eight species worldwide, four of which are found in India (Sharma et al. 2003) and five in China. There is only one species in Nepal, C. unilocularis (Press et al. 2000). It is also found in India mainly in western India, Gangetic Plains, and Eastern India up to Tripura, Manipur and Maharashtra (Sharma 1993; Survase and Raut 2011). In Nepal this species is distributed on the elevation of 100 to 1800 m from mean seal level (Pandey et al. 2013a, b). Typically it is found in midhills region of central and western Nepal (IUCN Nepal 2000). It grows well in sun or partial shade and normally prefers moist, rich, neutral to acidic soil (Srinivas et al. 2018). This species is native to Andaman Island, Assam, Bangladesh, Cambodia, China South-Central, China Southeast, East Himalaya, Hainan, India, Laos, Myanmar, Nepal, Nicobar, and Vietnam. It is commonly cultivated in Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan, Yunnan of China and Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, India, Laos, Myanmar, Nepal, and Vietnam. In Nepal, it has limited distribution (Devkota 2018), found in Jajarkot, Chitwan, Tanahun, Kaski, Rupandehi, Kathmandu, and Lalitpur districts.

Phytochemistry Pytochemical analysis of leaf extract shows that it has alkaloids, cardiac glycosides, anthraquinones, steroids, tannins, saponins, flavonoids, reducing sugars, and phlobatannin, so it could be used as source of antimalarial compounds (Tsado et al. 2015). Crude protein, total amino acids, and the essential amino acids were 74.5 mg/g, 27.2 mg/g, and 11.2 mg/g, respectively, and were found to be the major nutritional compounds in C. unilocularis (Sha et al. 2008).

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Local Medicinal Uses Crateva unilocularis: Crateva magna is used as abortifacient (Jain et al. 2005). The leaf extract is useful for wound healing (Srinivas et al. 2018; Ajali et al. 2010), antibacterial use (Ajali et al. 2010), antimutagenic activity (ChichiocoHernandez and Noemi 2009), and antioxidant and anthelmintic activity (Pandey et al. 2013a, b). The bark has properties of laxative, stomachic, and antiperiodic, and the juice of young leaves is used traditionally for the treatment of helminth infestations (Manandhar and Manandhar 2002). Bark is also used to make medicines for demulcent, diuretic, antipyretic, alterative diseases, and tonic useful in calculus affections (IUCN Nepal 2000). Leaves decoction are used in urinary infection. Fresh leaves and root bark have rubefacient properties (IUCN 2000). Bark powder is also used for itch, epilepsy, and asthma (Sivarajan and Balachandran 1994), urinary organ disorder, urinary tract infections, pain in micturition, renal and vesical calculi (Nwosu 2000). In Nepal young shoots, leaves, and flowers are mostly used as vegetables and pickle (Dangol et al. 2017a, b). Leaves paste about 5 teaspoons twice a day is given to cure rheumatism. Stem bark juice is consumed to cure urinary disorder and kidney problem. Young twigs are cooked as vegetable to cure high blood pressure (Malla et al. 2015), diabetes, and expel kidney stones (Singh 2015). Chepang people use plant bark for liver problems (Rijal 2011). The juice of fruit, leaves, and bark is applied to cure snakebite, infected wounds, and cuts. It increases appetite and controls other skin diseases (Sapkota 2003). In India, it is used for curing prostate hyperplasia, restless leg syndrome, weight loss, astringent, cholagogue, strengthens bones, urination and excretion, lower risk of heart problems, proper growth, antiemetic, antidote in snake-bite, improves digestion, increases appetite and biliary secretion, laxative, convulsions, swelling and burning sensation in the soles of feet, vesicant, and neurologic pains (Srinivas et al. 2018). It is one of the important plants for Ayurveda in Indian subcontinent. Leaves, root bark, and steam bark are used for different medicinal purposes (Nadkarni and Nadkarni 1976). Traditionally, the plant is used in rheumatic fever in kidney stones, bladder stone, and as tonic (Ghani 1998). Crateva adamsonii serves as appetizer, laxative, stimulant, and to treat urinary infections (Gairola et al. 2014).

Local Food Uses Crateva unilocularis: sometimes eaten as vegetable (Dangol et al. 2017a, b). Leaves, young shoots, and flowers are used as vegetable and pickle in Nepal. Young dried leaves are sold to local markets as dried vegetables (Malla 2015) (Fig. 3).

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Fig. 3 Crateva unilocularis (Capparaceae), young shoots and tender leaves are used for cooking as vegetable, Kathmandu. (Photo Ripu M Kunwar)

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Crateva unilocularis: The plant is considered as religious, supported by its plant name Barun brikshya (Devkota 2018). Leaves are used for fodder and animal feed and branches as fuelwood. Fruits of this tree are also used as spice because of its garlic taste (Seidmann 2005). The tree is also used for the ornamental plantation and wood for craved materials, timber, boxes, cases, match sticks, musical instruments, pencils, toy, fiber board, hard boards, etc. Its attractive flowers make it an ornamental tree for gardening and landscaping (Kher et al. 2016).

References Ajali U, Ezealisiji KM, Onuoha EO. Studies on wound healing properties of Crateva religiosa leaf extract. J Pharm Allied Sci. 2010;7(4):1158–61. Chichioco-Hernandez C, Noemi P. Antimutagenic potential and phytochemical analysis of selected Philippine plants. Pharmacogn Mag. 2009;5(20):388–93. Dangol DR, Maharjan KL, Maharjan SK, Acharya AK. Wild edible plants in Nepal. In: Joshi BK, Bahadur KCH, Acharya A, editors. Conservation and utilization of agricultural plant genetic resources of Nepal. Dhulikhel: NAGRC; 2017a. p. 390–407. Dangol DR, Maharjan KL, Maharjan SK, Acharya AK. Conservation and utilization of agricultural plant genetic resources in Nepal. In: Joshi BK, HB KC, Acharya AK, editors. Proceedings of 2nd national workshop, 22–23 May 2017. Dhulikhel; NAGRC, FDD, DoA and MoAD; Kathmandu, Nepal. 2017b. Devkota MP. Crateva religiosa G.Forst.: a mythological sacred tree from Nepal and its medicinal values. J Plant Res. 2018;16(1):130–3. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86.

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Ghani A. Medicinal plants of Bangladesh with chemical constituents and uses. 2nd ed. Dhaka: Asiatic Society of Bangladesh; 1998. p. 184. IUCN Nepal. National register of medicinal plants. Kathmandu: IUCN Nepal; 2000. ix+ 163 pp Jain A, Katewa SS, Galav PK, Sharma P. Medicinal plant diversity of Sitamata wildlife sanctuary, Rajasthan, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102:143–57. Kher MM, Nataraj M, da Silva JAT. Micropropagation of Crataeva species. Rend Fis Acc Lincei. 2016;27:157–67. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12210-015-0478-2. Malla B. Ethnobotanical study on medicinal plants Iin Parbat District of Western Nepal. PhD dissertation, Kathmandu University. 2015. Malla B, Gauchan DP, Xhhetri RB. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by ethnic people in Parbat district of Western Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;165:103–17. Manandhar NP, Manandhar S. Plants and people of Nepal. Oregon: Timber Press; 2002. Nadkarni AK, Nadkarni KM. Indian Materia Medica. With ayurvedic, unani- tibbi, siddha, allopathic, homeopathic, naturopathic & home remedies, vol. 1 & 2. 3rd ed. Bombay: Popular Prakashan; 1976. Nwosu M. Plant resources used by women as herbal medicines and cosmetics in Southeastern Nigeria. Arztezeitschrift Naturopathy. 2000;41:11. Pandey KH, Khadka P, Thapa SK, Panta S. Phytochemical screening and analysis of antioxidant activity of Crateva unilocularis Buch. Ham. Leaf. Int J Pharm Res Sch. 2013a;2(4):123–30. Pandey KH, Khadka P, Thapa SK, Baral P, Pandit A, Panta S. Analysis of anthemmintic activities of Crateva unilocularis HAM. LEAF. 2013b. Press JR, Shrestha KK, Sutton DA. Annotated checklist of the flowering plants of Nepal (The Natural History Museum, London) and Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Nepal. 2000. Raghavan TS, Venkatasubban KR. Studies in the Cappari-daceæ. VII. The floral morphology of Crataeva religiosa Forst. Proc Natl Acad Sci India Sect B Biol Sci. 1941;13:235–43. Rijal A. Surviving on knowledge: ethnobotany of Chepang community from mid- hills of Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2011;9:181–215. Sapkota J. Biologically active penta-cyclic-triterpeneslupeol and their current medicine significations. J Appl Biomed. 2003;31:7–12. Seidmann J. World spice plants: economic usages, botany, taxonomy. (e-book). 2005. Retrieved from https://www.springer.com/us/book Sha S, Wang YH, Gao C, Shen SK, Ma MX. Analysis of nutritional components in wild vegetable Crateva unilocularis. J West China For Sci. 2008;1. Sharma BD. Flora of India (F. India). Calcutta: Botanical Survey of India; 1993. Sharma PK, Tyagi P, Sharma KC, Kothari SL. Clonal micropropagation of Crataeva adansonii (DC.) Prodr.: a multi-purpose tree. In Vitro Cell Dev Biol Plant. 2003;39:156–60. https://doi. org/10.1079/IVP2002384. Singh AG. Survey of some medicinally important leafy vegetables in Rupandehi District of Western Nepal. Int J Appl Sci Biotechnol. 2015;3(1):111–8. https://doi.org/10.3126/ijasbt.v3i1.12220. Sivarajan VV, Balachandran I. Ayurvedic drugs and their plant sources. Delhi: Oxford and IBH Publishing Company Pvt. Ltd; 1994. Srinivas V, Surendra G, Anjana M, Kiran AS. A scientific review on Crateva religiosa. IJAPBC. 2018;7(1). Survase SA, Raut SR. Ethnobotanical study of some tree medicinal plants in Marathwada, Maharashtra. J Ecobiotechnol. 2011;3(2):17–21. Tsado AN, Bashir L, Mohammed SS, Famous IO, Yahaya AM, Shu’aibu M, Caleb T. Phytochemical composition and antimalarial activity of methanol leaf extract of Crateva adansonii in Plasmodium berghei infected mice. Biotechnol J Int. 2015;6(4):165–73. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Wu ZY, Raven PH, Hong DY, editors. Flora of China. Vol. 7 (Menispermaceae through Capparaceae). Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 2008.

Cucumis sativus L. Cucumis sativus var. hardwickii (Royle) Alef CUCURBITACEAE Mathura Khanal, Hari Datt Lekhak, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Cucumis sativus L.: Cucumis esculenta Salisb.; Cucumis hardwickii Royle; Cucumis muricatus Willd.; Cucumis rumphii Hassk.; Cucumis sativus fo. albus Hiroë; Cucumis sativus fo. albus Pangalo; Cucumis sativus fo. australis Kitam.; Cucumis sativus fo. Kitam.; Cucumis sativus fo. brunnescens Gabeav; Cucumis sativus fo. pallescens Gabeav.; Cucumis sativus fo. tuberculatus Hiroë; Cucumis sativus fo. typicus Gabaeev; Cucumis sativus sativus grex viridis (Ser.) Alef.; Cucumis sativus subsp. agrestis Gabaev; Cucumis sativus subsp. gracilior Gabaev; Cucumis sativus subsp. rigidus Gabaev; Cucumis sativus var. albus Ser.; Cucumis M. Khanal Foresters’ Association of Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal H. D. Lekhak Botanical Society of Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_68

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sativus var. anatolicus Gabaev; Cucumis sativus var. anglicus L.H. Bailey; Cucumis sativus var. arakis Forssk.; Cucumis sativus var. asiaticus Gabaev; Cucumis sativus var. battich-djebbal Forssk.; Cucumis sativus var. brullos Forssk.; Cucumis sativus var. chatte Forssk.; Cucumis sativus var. cilicicus Gabaev; Cucumis sativus var. curtus Alef.; Cucumis sativus var. donii Alef.; Cucumis sativus var. ennemis Forssk.; Cucumis sativus var. europaeus Gabaev; Cucumis sativus var. excellens Alef.; Cucumis sativus var. fakus Forssk.; Cucumis sativus var. falcatus Gabaev; Cucumis sativus var. fastigatus Ser.; Cucumis sativus var. flavus Ser.; Cucumis sativus var. flexuosus Alef.; Cucumis sativus var. gracilior Gabaev; Cucumis sativus var. grossularioudes Tkachenko; Cucumis sativus var. hardwickii (Royle) Gabaev.; Cucumis sativus var. hollandicus Alef.; Cucumis sativus var. indo-europaeus Gabaev; Cucumis sativus var. irano-turanicus Gabaev; Cucumis sativus var. izmir Gabaev; Cucumis sativus var. longus Harz; Cucumis sativus var. opheocarpus Harz; Cucumis sativus var. orasiaticus Gabaev; Cucumis sativus var. pallidus Gabaev; Cucumis sativus var. praecox Alef.; Cucumis sativus var. rossicus Alef.; Cucumis sativus var. schemmam Forssk.; Cucumis sativus var. serotinus Alef.; Cucumis sativus var. setosus Alef.; Cucumis sativus var. sikkimensis Hook. f.; Cucumis sativus var. sikkimiae Harz; Cucumis sativus var. smilli Forssk.; Cucumis sativus var. squamosus Gabaev; Cucumis sativus var. destudaceus Gabaev; Cucumis sativus var. tuberculatus Gabaev; Cucumis sativus var. turcicus Alef; Cucumis sativus var. variegatus Ser.; Cucumis sativus var. viridis Ser.; Cucumis sativus var. vulgaris Alef; Cucumis sativus var. xishuangbannensis Qi Chuzhang & Yuan Zhenzhen; Cucumis setosus Cogn.; Cucumis sphaeroarpus Gabaev; Cucumis vilorrinii Sprenger Cucumis sativus var. hardwickii (Royle) Alef: Cucumis hardwickii Royle, Cucumis muricatus Willd., Cucumis rumphii Hassk., Cucumis setosus Cogn., and C. sativus L. var. sikkimensis Hook.f.

Local Names Cucumis sativus Nepali Ban Kankro, Airelu; Hindi: Badhi Indrayan, Badhi Indrafal, Elaroo; Sanskrit: Pitapuspi, Mahendrabaruni, Mahafala, Ramya, Chitrafala, Atmarachha, Dirghabali; English: Wild cuciumber (Devkota 1968; Press et al. 2000)

Botany and Ecology The genus Cucumis is a member of Cucurbitaceous family and is a herbaceous climber which is characterized by extensively branched shallow root system. It has a soft hollow and angled stem with bicollateral vascular bundles and hairy surface. The leaves are large, alternate, simple, long petiolated, and palmately lobed. Borne is the leaf axil are flowers, a leafy branch and a tendril. Yellow

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colored flowers occur singly on monoecious plants, but dioceous and romonoecious (plants with male as well as biosexual flowers, but never female) forms are common. Male flowers in fascicles of 3–5, pedicel up to 1 cm long. Calyx tube compannulas, hispid, petals about 7 mm long, obovate yellow. Three stamens show a varying degree of cohesion, often fused all along their length forming a staminal column (synandrous) with variously twisted thecal (anther) lobes. Female flowers solitary, calyx, corolla similar to male flowers. The gynoecium consist of a tricarpellary, syncarpous inferior, ovary unilocular, parietal placentation, ovules many. Fruit is a pepo 3.5 x 2.5 cm, oblong, soft, scattered spinous, greenish yellow with white stripes, seeds many. Flowering and fruiting occurs from September to March. Mature fruit is spiny very bitter and in fully compatible with Cucumis sativus (Sasidharan 2004). Cucumis sativus: Plants scandent or creeping. Stem and branches angular, white hispid. Tendrils slender, simple. Petiole 10–16(–20) cm; leaf blade broadly ovatecordate, 7–20  7–20 cm, membranous, margin 3–5-angular or -lobed; lobes triangular, dentate, apex acute or acuminate; sinus half-orbicular. Plants monoecious. Male flowers fasciculate; pedicel filiform, 5–15 mm, puberulent; calyx tube narrowly campanulate, 8–10 mm, densely white pubescent; segments subulate; corolla yellow-white, about 2 cm; segments oblong-lanceolate, acute; anthers 3–4 mm; connective about 1 mm. Female flowers solitary or fascicled; pedicels pubescent, 1–2 cm; ovary fusiform, muricate. Fruit yellow-green, oblong or cylindric, (5–)10– 30(–50) cm, muricate, usually verrucose. Seeds white, small, narrowly ovate, 5– 10 mm, emarginate, both ends acute. Flowering and fruiting summer (Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Figs. 1 and 2). Cucumis sativus var. hardwickii is a wild sympatric botanical variety of Cucumis sativus L. var. sativus has long been grown in the foothills of the western Himalayas and is believed to be either a progenitor or feral relative of the cultivated cucumber. Natural crosses between Cucumis var. hardwickii  Cucumis sativa var. sativus were observed, indicating the existence of free gene flow between these two taxa. It indicates the presence of high genetic diversity for useful traits. Hence, Cucumis sativa var. hardwickii has high potential for the improvement of cultivated cucumber (Bisht et al. 2004). Considering the cross compatibility between C. sativus var. hardwickii and cultivated cucumber, the resistance trait can be easily transferred to cultivated species through simple backcross breeding (Munshi et al. 2008). Plants of C. sativus var. hardwickii are generally distinct in being more delicate, with bitter fruits, but appear to link up in their morphological characters with the cultivated var. sativus (with many cultivars). However, the two botanical varieties have their own isozyme patterns (Knerr and Staub 1991; Kirkbride 1993). It may be a source of several valuable genes for the improvement of cultivated cucumber (Bisht et al. 2004; Daryono et al. 2010). Cucumis sativus is a morphologically variable annual herbaceous climber that mostly grows on moist, well-drained (sandy) soils rich in organic matter and slightly alkaline. It prefers full sun exposure in warm and humid climates and frost intolerant.

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Fig. 1 Cucumis sativus (Cucurbitaceae), Nepal. (Photo Hari D Lekhak and M Khanal)

Cucumber requires a warm climate. In cool, temperate countries it is grown in greenhouses; only during hot summers it can be grown in the open. The optimum temperature for growth is about 30°C and the optimum night temperature is 18–21° C; the minimum temperature for good development is 15°C. Cucumber needs a fair amount of water but it cannot stand waterlogging. Low relative humidity results in high plant evaporation due to the large leaf area, and sufficient irrigation is then very important. The soil should be fertile, well-drained, with a pH of 6.0–7.0 for cucumber cultivation (Luijk 2004). Cucumis sativus is believed to have originated in the southern Himalayan foothills region of Asia. The wild Cucumis sativus var. hardwickii (Royle) Gabaev (synonym: Cucumis hardwickii Royle), which is seen as the possible progenitor, can still be found there. An alternative view, however, suggests that var. hardwickii is a derivative that escaped from cultivation. The plant is of Asian origin and the progenitor may be closely related to its wild relative Cucumis hardwickii, first found in the Himalayan Mountains (foothills of

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Fig. 2 Cucumis sativus (Cucurbitaceae), garden, Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Cucumis sativus (Cucurbitaceae), pickled, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Nepal) and used by native peoples of neighborhood as a laxative (Deakin et al. 1971). Cucumis sativus var. hardwickii, the wild variety, was accepted by Jeffrey (1980) and Kirkbride (1993) as occurring in NE India, Nepal, S. China, Myanmar, and Thailand.

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Phytochemistry Leaf and fruit of Cucumis sativus var. hardwickii are rich source of ash, carbohydrate, carotenoids, nitrate, trypsin, tannins, phytic acid, fat, fiber, and proteins. Appreciable amounts of Vitamin C and Vitamin E. Leaves extracted with methanol had higher amount of phenols and flavonoids than fruit. Tannic acid, gallic acid, and hydroxybenzoic acid were also quantified in leaf and fruit (Umangani and Savaliram 2015). C. sativus var. hardwickii contains very good amount of protein (11.9  1.36%), carbohydrate (12.57  1.65%) and minerals in various amount. The heavy metals Pb and Cr were detected in very low amount and Cd and Hg were not detected in this fruit. The total phenolic and flavonoid content were found 540.12  1.72 mg/100 g and 74.34 mg/100 g, respectively, in the plant. The plant contains a very good amount of vitamin C (130.76  0.05 mg/100 g) along with water soluble B vitamins ranged between 0.27 to 1.61 mg/100 g. The HPLC (High Pressure Liquid Chromatography) analysis also showed the presence of phenolic acids and flavonoids in various amounts in this wild edible plant (Seal et al. 2017).

Local Medicinal Uses Cucumis sativus: Plant leaves, tender shoots, fruits, and seeds are used in traditional medicine. Paste prepared from leaves, tender shoot, or the fruits is used in treating wounds, pimples, scabies, and other skin diseases in Nepal. The juice extracted from fruit is used for the treatment of fever, cough, glands, asthma, gastric disorder, and throat diseases (Devkota 1968). Ethnobotanical explorations revealed that this plant is used for the treatment of diabetes and intestinal worms (Sidhu and Thakur 2015). Some wild cucurbits like Citrullus colosynthis and Cucumis hardwickii growing naturally around the household are utilized for the treatment of various human ailments (Chatterjee and Maitra 2014). Cucumis hardwickii is a medicinal plant with very bitter fruit. Diabetic people use juice made from its ripe fruits to control blood sugar. Ripe cucumber fruits are also used to cure jaundice. In Indo-China cooked immature fruits are given to children to treat dysentery. The seed has some anthelmintic property. Cucumber peel when eaten by cockroaches is reported to kill them after several nights (Luijk 2004). Cucumis sativus L. [Internet] Record from PROTA4U. Grubben, G.J.H. & Denton, O.A. (Editors). PROTA (Plant Resources of Tropical Africa / Ressources végétales de l’Afrique tropicale), Wageningen, Netherlands. Cucumis dipsaceus: Fruits, fresh used for dandruff, hair loss (prevention), stopping baby from breastfeeding. Also used for reproductive problems (Bussmann and Sharon 2006; Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2020), and hepatitis (Teklehaymanot et al. 2007). Cucumis hardwickii is used for fever and urine retention (Malik et al. 2015). Cucumis ficifolius is used to treat meningitis, rabies, warts, external blows and stomach ache (Teklehaymanot 2009), eczema, anthrax, and snake bites (Teklehaymanot et al. 2007).

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Local Food Uses Cucumis sativus: Widely eaten. Both flowers and fruits are eaten, the fruits often also pickled (Bussmann et al. 2019; Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2020; Bussmann 2017) (Fig. 3).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Cucumis dipsaceeus: Fruits, fresh used for adding shine and beauty to hair, (Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2020). Cucumis ficifolius is employed to treat blackleg in livestock (Yineger et al. 2007).

References Bisht IS, Bhat KV, Tanwar, Bhandari DC, Joshi K, Sharma AK. J Hortic Sci Biotechnol. 2004;79:5. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1 Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in Northern Peru: Tracking two thousand years of healing culture. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:47. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D. Cucumis sativus L. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of Mountain regions far Eastern Europe. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2019. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77088-8_47-2. Chatterjee R, Maitra S. An inventory of the diversity and ethnomedicinal properties of Cucurbitaceous vegetables in the Homestead Gardens of Sub Himalayan Districts of West Bengal, India. Research and reviews. J Bot Sci. 2014;3:40–5. Daryono BS, Kumalawati DA, Abdullah S. Chromosome characterization of Celebes local cucumber (Cucumis spp.). Acta Hortic. 2010;871:165–70. Deakin JR, Bohn GW, Whitaker TW. Interspecific hybridization in Cucumis. Econ Bot. 1971;25:195–211. Devkota K. Nepali Nighantu: Royal Nepal Academy, Kathmandu; 1968. p. 9–10. Jeffrey C. The Cucurbitaceae of Eastern Asia. Kew: Royal Botanic Gardens; 1980. p. 60. Kirkbride JH. Biosystematic Monograph of the Genus Cucumis (Cucurbitaceae). Boone: Parkway Publishers; 1993. p. 159. Knerr LD, Staub JE. A multivariate re-evaluation of biochemical genetic diversity in Cucumis sativus L. Cucurbit Genetics Cooperative. 1991;14:25–8. Luijk MN. Cucumis sativus L. [Internet] Record from PROTA4U. In: Grubben GJH, Denton OA, editors. PROTA (Plant Resources of Tropical Africa / Resources végétales de l’Afrique tropicale). Netherlands: Wageningen; 2004. Malik ZA, Bhat J, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhat AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44. Munshi AD, Panda B, Mandal B, Bisht IS, Kumar R, Rao ES. Genetics of resistance to Cucumber mosaic virus in Cucumis sativus var. hardwickii R. Alef. Euphytica. 2008;164:501–7. Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, Romero C. Cucumis sativus L. In: Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions – Ethnobotany of the Andes. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020.

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Press JR, Shrestha KK, Sutton DA. Annotated checklist of the flowering plants of Nepal. The Natural History Museum, London. 2000;pp. 359. Sasidharan N. Biodiversity documentation for Kerala Part 6: flowering plants. Peechi: Kerala Forest Research Institute; 2004. Seal T, Chaudhuri K, Basundhara P. Nutraceutical and antioxidant properties of Cucumis hardwickii Royle: a potent wild edible fruit collected from Uttarakhand, India. J Pharmacogn Phytochem. 2017;6(6):1837–47. Sidhu MC, Thakur S. Documentation of antidiabetic medicinal plants in district Mandi of Himachal Pradesh (India). Int J Pharm Technol Res. 2015;8:164–9. Teklehaymanot T. Ethnobotanical study of knowledge and medicinal plants use by the people in Dek Island in Ethiopia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2009;124:69–78. Teklehaymanot T, Giday M, Medhin G, Mekonnen Y. Knowledge and use of medicinal plants by people around Debre Libanos monastery in Ethiopia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;111:271–83. Umangani AA, Savaliram GG. Proximate composition, antioxidant activities and phenolic composition of Cucumis sativus form hardwickii (Royle) W. J. de Wilde & Duyfjes. Int J Phytomed. 2015;9(1):101. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Yineger H, Kelbessa E, Bekele T, Lulekal E. Ethnoveterinary medicinal plants at Bale Mountains National Park, Ethiopia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;112:55–70.

Curculigo orchioides Benth. HYPOXIDACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Curculigo orchioides Benth.: Curculigo brevifolia Dryand. ex W.T. Aiton, Curculigo densa W. Bull; Curculigo firma Kotschy & Peyr.; Curculigo malabarica Wight, Curculigo orchioides var. minor Benth.; Curculigo pauciflora Zipp. ex Span.; Curculigo petiolata Royle; Curculigo stans Labill.; Hypoxis dulcis Steud. ex Baker; Hypoxis orchioides (Gaertn.) Kurz.

Local Names Curculigo orchioides: Nepali: Kalo musali; Chinese: Xian Mao; Hindi: Kalimisali, Kalimusli, Muslikand, Nallatadi; Sanskrit: Hemapushpi, Kanchanapushpika; Urdu: Moosli siyah; Japanese: Kin-bai-zasa; Rajastani: Kajoorior ra pana; English: Golden eye grass, Ground palm.

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_69

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Botany and Ecology Curculigo orchioides: Perennial herb, rhizomes erect, subcylindric, 10 × 1 cm. Leaves sessile or shortly petiolate; leaf blade lanceolate to linear, usually 10–45 (–90) × 0.5–2.5 cm, laxly pilose or glabrous, base tapering, apex narrowly acuminate. Flowering stems nearly enclosed in base of sheathing petiole, 6–7 cm, pilose; bracts lanceolate, 2.5–5 cm, margin ciliate. Inflorescences umbel-like racemes, 4–6flowered. Pedicel ca. 2 mm. Perianth yellow; segments oblong-lanceolate, 8–12 × 2.5–3 mm, outer ones sometimes abaxially laxly pilose. Stamens ca. 1/2 as long as perianth segments; filament 1.5–2.5 mm; anther 2–4 mm. Ovary narrowly oblong, to 7.5 mm, pilose. Stigma lobes longer than style. Berry subfusiform, 1.2–1.5 × ca. 0.6 cm; beak ca. 2.5 mm. Flowering and fruiting April to September. Forests, open grassy slopes; near sea level to 1600 m. Chiona, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Japan, Laos, Myanmar, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam (Wu et al. 1994–2013; Shrestha et al. 2008, 2011; Behera and Misra 2006; Bhat and Murali 2001; Noltie 1994; Press et al. 2000; Ji and Meerow 2020). Highly harvested (Smith Olsen 2005).

Phytochemistry Curculigo orchioides contains xylose, glucose, polysaccharides, hemicellulose, mucilage (Tiwari and Misra 1976), glycosylated phenolics (syringic acid, 2,6 dimethoxybenzoic acid, orcinol (5-methyl resorcinol) glycosides; Wu et al. 2005; Garg et al. 1989), orchioside A-B, curculigosides A-D (Shrestha et al. 2008), curculigosides J, curculigine J-L (Wang et al 2014), orcinosides I-J, curculigine J-N (Chen et al. 2017), curculigine P-Q (Deng et al. 2020). Also triterpenic saponins (curculigol and curculigosaponins A-M; Shrestha et al. 2008), 27-hydroxytriacontan-6one, 23-hydroxytriacontan-2-one (Misra et al. 1984a), 21-hydroxytetracontan-10-one and 4-methylheptadecanoic acid (Misra et al. 1984b), flavones, alkaloids, and polysaccharides (Nie et al. 2013).

Local Medicinal Uses Curculigo orchioides: Extracts of Curculigo orchioides showed a range of bioactivities, suggesting and validating several traditional medicinal uses of this plant. For example, the rootstock showed antioxidative (Tang et al. 2004; Wu et al. 2005), immunostimulatory (Lakshmi et al. 2003; Bafna and Mishra 2006), estrogenic (Vijayanarayana et al. 2007), and anti-ostioporotic (Wang et al. 2017, 2019) activities. It also has wound healing capacity in streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice (Singh et al. 2015) and showed xanthine oxidase inhibitory (Chen et al. 2017) and 5reductase activities (Deng et al. 2020).

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Traditional Medicinal Uses Used as alterative, demulcent, diuretic, restorative, coolant, and aphrodisiac (Chopra et al. 1956; Kirtikar and Basu 1994; Ramawat et al. 1998; Singh et al. 2002 against asthma, jaundice, pruritis (etching), dysentery, piles, hemorrhoids, diarrhea, leucorrhea, bronchitis, white discharge in urine, nose bleeding, epilepsy, ring worm infection, peptic ulcer, gonorrhea, syphilis, male sterility, diabetes, unconsciousness, and bleeding during ((Kunwar et al. 2009; Shrestha et al. 2008). This is also; Ur-Rahman et al. 2019), and to treat dysentery (Manandhar 1985; Shrestha and Dhillion 2003). Sometimes a decoction with fruit of Trachyspermum ammi (Apiaceae) is given to unconscious children (Parrotta 2001). In Rajasthan used as eye tonic and to increase potency (Jain et al. 2004), also to treat ringworm infection (Chendurpandy 2006). Used for bone injuries (Reang et al. 2016). For skin complaints, gastritis, piles, white vaginal discharge, dysepsia, venereal diseases, impotence, jaundice and as galactagogue (Kunwar et al. 2013; Maity et al. 2004; Singh et al. 2002; Wu 2005), and for asthma (Savithramma et al. 2007). The root decoction is used to treat paralysis (Kunwar and Bussmann 2009) and syphilis (Jain et al. 2005), as well as wounds and to strengthen the body (Ayyanar and Ignacimuthu 2005).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Curculigo orchioides: Used as a galactagogue for cattle (Shrestha et al. 2008).

References Ayyanar M, Ignacimuthu S. Traditional knowledge of Kani tribals in Kouthalai of Tirunelveli hills, Tamil Nadu, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102:246–55. Behera SK, Misra MK. Aboveground tree biomass in a recovering tropical Sal (Shorea robusta Gaertn. F.) forest in eastern Ghats, India. Biomass Bioenergy. 2006;30:509–21. Bhat DM, Murali KS. Phenology of understorey species of tropical moist forest of Western Ghats region of Uttara Kannada district in South India. Curr Sci. 2001;81:799–805. Chen X, Zuo A, Deng Z, Huang X, Zhang X, Geng C, Li T, Chen J. New phenolic glycosides from Curculigo orchioides and their xanthine oxidase inhibitory activities. Fitoterapia. 2017;122:144–9. Chendurpandy P. Studies on ethnomedicinal plants of Kanyakumari district, Tamilnadu with special reference to skin diseases [Ph.D. dissertation]. Tirunelveli: Manonmanian Sundaranar University; 2006. 123pp. Chopra RN, Nayar SL, Chopra IC. Glossary of Indian medicinal plants. New Delhi: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR); 1956. Deng XL, Zheng RR, Han ZZ, Gu LH, Wang ZT. New chlorophenolic glycoside from Curculigo orchioides and their activities on 5α-reductase. J Asian Nat Prod Res. 2020. https://doi.org/10. 1080/10286020.2020.1731800. Garg SN, Misra LN, Agarwal SK. Corchioside a: an orcinol glycoside from Curculigo orchioides. Phytochemistry. 1989;28:1771–2.

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Jain A, Katewa SS, Chaudhary BL, Galav P. Folk herbal medicines used in birth control and sexual diseases by tribal of southern Rajasthan, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2004;90:171–7. Jain A, Katewa SS, Galav PK, Sharma P. Medicinal plant diversity of Sitamata wildlife sanctuary, Rajasthan, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102:143–57. Ji Z, Meerow MW. Amaryllidaceae. In: Flora of China, vol. 24. 2020. http://www.efloras.org/ florataxon.aspx?flora_id¼2&taxon_id¼200028043. Accessed 16 July 2020. Kirtikar KR, Basu BD. Indian medicinal plants. Vol. IV, 4th reprint edition. Allahabad: Lalit Mohan Basu; 1994. p. 2395–761. Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Acharya RP, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants, traditional medicine, markets and management in far-west Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:24. Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Medicinal, aromatic and dye plants of Baitadi and Darchula Districts, Nepal Himalaya: status, uses and management. In: Hartmann M, Weipert J, editors. Biodiversität, Naturausstattung im Himalaya, Bd. III. Erfurt; 2009. p. 475–489. Kunwar RM, Upreti Y, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Indigenous use and ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in far-west Nepal. Ethnobot Res and Appl. Erfurt. 2009;7:5–28. Lakshmi V, Pandey K, Puri A, Saxena RP, Saxena KC. Immunostimulant principles from Curculigo orchioides. J Ethnopharmacol. 2003;89:181–4. Maity D, Pradhan N, Chauhan AS. Folk uses of some medicinal plants from North Sikkim. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2004;3(1):66–71. Manandhar NP. Ethnomedicinal notes on certain medicinal plants used by Tharus of DangDeukhuri District, Nepal. Int J Crude Drug Res. 1985;23(4):153–9. Misra TN, Singh RS, Tripathi DM. Aliphatic compounds from Curculigo orchioides rhizomes. Phytochemistry. 1984a;23:2369–71. Misra TN, Singh RS, Upadhyay J, Tripathi DM. Aliphatic hydroxy-ketones from Curculigo orchioides rhizomes. Phytochemistry. 1984b;23:1643–5. Nie Y, Dong X, He Y, Yuan T, Han T, Rahman K, Qin L, Zhang Q. Medicinal plants of genus Curculigo: traditional uses and a phytochemical and ethnopharmacological review. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;147(3):547–63. Noltie HJ. Flora of Bhutan, vol. 3, part 1. Edinburgh: Royal Botanical Garden; 1994. Olsen CS. Valuation of commercial central Himalayan medicinal plants. Ambio. 2005;34(8):607–10. Parrotta JA. Healing plants of peninsular India. Oxon/New York: CABI Publishing; 2001. Press JR, Shrestha KK, Sutton DA. Annotated checklist of the flowering plants of Nepal. London: Natural History Museum; 2000. Reang I, Goswami S, Pala NA, Kumar K, Bussmann RW. Ethnoveterinary applications of medicinal plants by traditional herbal healers in Reang tribe of South district Tripura, India. Medicinal and Aromatic Plants. 2016; 5–2. https://doi.org/10.4172/2167-0412.1000234. Savithramma N, Sulochana C, Rao KN. Ethnobotanical survey of plants used to treat asthma in Andhra Pradesh, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;113:54–61. Shrestha BB, Dall’Acqua S, Gewali MB, Jha PK, Innocenti G. Biology and phytochemistry of Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. In: Jha PK, Karmacharya SB, Chettri MK, Thapa CB, Shrestha BB, editors. Medicinal plants in Nepal: an anthology of contemporary research. Kathmandu: Ecological Society; 2008. p. 50–67. Shrestha BB, Jha PK, Kandel DR. Reproductive ecology and conservation prospects of a threatened medicinal plant Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. in Nepal. Trop Ecol. 2011;52(1):91–101. Shrestha PM, Dhillion SS. Medicinal plant diversity and use in the highlands of Dolakha district, Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2003;86:81–96. Singh A, Bajpai S, Singh N, Kumar V, Gour JK, Singh PK, Singh RK. Wound healing activity of standardized extract of Curculigo orchioides in streptozotocin–induced diabetic mice. Asian Pac J Trop Dis. 2014;4:S48–53. Singh AK, Raghubanshi AS, Singh JS. Medical ethnobotany of the tribals of Sonaghati of Sonbhadra district, Uttar Pradesh, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2002;81:31–41. Tiwari RD, Misra G. Structural studies of the constituents of the rhizomes of Curculigo orchioides. Planta Med. 1976;29:291–4.

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Ur-Rahman I, Sher H, Bussmann RW, editors. Reference guide on high value medicinal and aromatic plants – sustainable management and cultivation practices. Pakistan: University of Swat Mingora; 2019. ISBN 978-969-23419-0-5. Wang X, Zhang M, Zhang D, Wang S, Yan C. An O -acetyl-glucomannan from the rhizomes of Curculigo orchioides: structural characterization and anti-osteoporosis activity in vitro. Carbohydr Polym. 2017;174:48–56. Wang ZH, Ma XC, Li GY, Niu C, Ma YP, Kasimu R, Huang J, Wang JH. Four new phenolic glucosides from Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. Phytochem Lett. 2014;9:153–7. Wu Q, Fu DX, Hou AJ, Lei GQ, Liu ZJ, Chen JK, Zhou TS. Antioxidative phenols and phenolic glycosides from Curculigo orchioides. Chem Pharm Bull. 2005;53:1065–7. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Wu JN. An illustrated chinese Materia Medica. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2005.

Curcuma aromatica Salisb. Curcuma longa L. Curcuma zedoaria (Christm.) Roscoe ZINGIBERACEAE Hari Prasad Devkota, Anjana Adhikari-Devkota, Tarun Belwal, Rajan Logesh, Niranjan Das, Prakash Poudel, Dhaka Ram Bhandari, and Rainer W. Bussmann Synonyms Curcuma aromatica Salisb.: Curcuma wenyujin Y.H. Chen & C. Ling Curcuma longa L.: Amomum curcuma Jacq.; Curcuma brog Valeton; Curcuma domestica Valeton; Curcuma longa var. vanaharidra Velay., Pandrav., J.K. George & Varapr.; Curcuma ochrorhiza Valeton; Curcuma soloensis Valeton; Curcuma tinctoria Guibourt; Kua domestica Medik.; Stissera curcuma Giseke; Stissera curcuma Raeusch. H. P. Devkota · A. Adhikari-Devkota Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] T. Belwal College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, Key Laboratory for Agro-Products Postharvest Handling of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Zhejiang Key Laboratory for Agro-Food Processing, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China R. Logesh TIFAC-CORE in Herbal Drugs, Department of Pharmacognosy and Phytopharmacy, JSS College of Pharmacy (JSS Academy of Higher Education and Research), Udhagamandalam, Tamil Nadu, India N. Das Department of Chemistry, Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar College, Belonia, S. Tripura, India P. Poudel Department of Pharmacy, Novel Academy, Purbanchal University, Pokhara, Nepal D. R. Bhandari (*) Institute of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Justus Liebig University, Giessen, Germany e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_70

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Curcuma zedoaria (Christm.) Roscoe: Amomum latifolium Lam.; Amomum latifolium Salisb.; Amomum zedoaria Christm.; Costus luteus Blanco; Costus nigricans Blanco; Curcuma malabarica Velay., Amalraj & Mural.; Curcuma pallida Lour.; Curcuma raktakanta Mangaly & M. Sabu; Curcuma speciosa Link; Erndlia zerumbet Giseke; Roscoea lutea (Blanco) Hassk.; Roscoea nigrociliata Hassk.

Local Names Curcuma aromatica: Nepali: Ban haledo; Bengali: Vana Haridra; Hindi: Jangli haldi; Jammu: Ban Haldi, Haldi; Sanskrit: Bana haridra; English: Wild turmeric, aromatic turmeric (Watanabe et al. 2013) Curcuma longa: Nepali: Besar, Haledo, Haldi; Bengali: Halud; Gharwal: Haldu, Turmeric; Hindi: Haldi, Haridra; English: Turmeric Curcuma zeodaria: Nepali: Kachur, Sathee; Bengali: Sutha; English: Zedoary; Jammu: Daru haldo, Adrak, Sitruit; Hindi: Kachur

Botany and Ecology Curcuma aromatica: Plant ca. 1 m tall. Rhizomes yellow inside, elliptic or narrowly so, fleshy, aromatic; roots with fusiform tubers. Petiole equaling leaf blade; leaf blade oblong, 30–60
10–20 cm, adaxially glabrous, abaxially pubescent, base attenuate, apex narrowly caudate. Inflorescences on separate shoots arising from rhizomes, usually appearing before leaves; spike cylindric, ca. 15
8 cm; fertile bracts pale green, ovate, 4–5 cm; coma bracts white, tinged with red, narrowly oblong, pubescent, apex mucronate. Calyx sparsely hairy, 0.8–1.5 cm. Corolla tube funnelform, 2.3–2.5 cm, villous at throat; lobes pinkish white, oblong, ca. 1.5 cm. Lateral staminodes yellowish, obovate-oblong, ca. 1.5 cm. Labellum yellow, obovate, ca. 2.5 cm, apex emarginate. Ovary villous. Flowering From April to June. 2 n ¼ 42 (Wu and Raven 2000) (Fig. 1). Distributed in India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, China, and Myanmar between 700 and 1100 m (Watanabe et al. 2013). Curcuma longa: Plants about 1 m tall. Rhizomes many branched, orange or bright yellow, cylindric, aromatic; roots tuberous at tip. Petiole 20–45 cm; leaf blade green, oblong or elliptic, 30–45(–90)
15–18 cm, glabrous, base attenuate, apex shortly acuminate. Inflorescences terminal on pseudostems; peduncle 12–20 cm; spike cylindric, 12–18
4–9 cm; fertile bracts pale green, ovate or oblong, 3–5 cm, apex obtuse; coma bracts spreading, white and green, sometimes tinged reddish purple, apex acute. Calyx white, 0.8–1.2 cm, puberulent, apex unequally 3-toothed. Corolla pale yellow; tube to 3 cm; lobes deltoid, 1–1.5 cm, central one larger, apex mucronate. Lateral staminodes shorter than labellum. Labellum yellowish with central, yellow band, obovate, 1.2–2 cm. Anther spurred at base. Ovary sparsely hairy. Flowering August (Wu et al. 1994–2013; Wu and Raven 2000) (Fig. 2). It is widely distributed in Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Lao People’s Democratic

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Fig. 1 Curcuma aromatica (Zingiberaceae), Kumamoto, Japan. (Photo Hari P Devkota and Masato Watanabe)

Republic, Madagascar, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Viet Nam (WHO 1999) (Figs. 3, 4, and 5). Curcuma zeodaria: Leaf blades narrowly ovate or elliptical, 45–67
15–22 cm. Inflorescences erect, 11–23
5–10 cm; bracts of main axis whitish proximally, green (proximal bracts) or pink (distal bracts) distally; proximal bracts ovate to rectangular, deeply saccate, 4–4.5
4 cm, apex obtuse or truncate-apiculate; distal

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Fig. 2 Curcuma longa (Zingiberaceae), Kumamoto, Japan. (Photo Hari P Devkota)

bracts narrowly ovate, 8–9
4–4.5 cm, apex rounded. Flowers: perianth white or spotted with purple; staminodes pale yellow with yellow streak down center of lip (Morin 2000) (Fig. 6). It is native to Bangladesh, India, and Sri Lanka, and is cultivated in Brazil, China, Japan, Nepal, and Thailand (Lobo et al. 2009).

Curcuma aromatica Salisb. . . . Fig. 3 Curcuma longa (Zingiberaceae), cultivation, Ooty, India. (Photo Logesh Rajan)

Fig. 4 Curcuma longa (Zingiberaceae), fresh rhizomes, Ooty, India. (Photo Logesh Rajan)

Fig. 5 Curcuma longa (Zingiberaceae), dried rhizomes, Ooty, India. (Photo Logesh Rajan)

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Fig. 6 Curcuma zeodariaI (Zingiberaceae), Kumamoto, Japan. (Photo Hari P Devkota)

Phytochemistry Curcuma aromatica: Rhizomes contain many sesquiterpenoids, e.g., isozedoarondiol, methylzedoarondiol, neocurdione, germacrone, curdione, (4S, 5S)-germacrone 4,5-epoxide, dehydrocurdione, procurcumenol, zedoarondiol,

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Fig. 7 Mass spectrometry imaging of the rhizome from the C. longa a) the optical image of the transverse section of the rhizome from C. longa, the dash area shows the selected region for MS imaging. b) MS image of the main chemical species, curcumin in the TS of the rhizome, [C21H20O6 + K]+ m/z 407.0891  5 ppm. The MS imaging experiment was carried out with an atmospheric-pressure scanning-microprobe matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization imaging source (AP-SMALDI10, TransMIT GmbH, https://www.smaldi.de/) coupled to a Fourier-transform orbital trapping mass spectrometer (Q Exactive HF, Thermo Fisher Scientific GmbH) at the mass resolution (R) of R ¼ 120,000 at m/z of 200 with a pixel size of 20 μm. The MS image was generated using Metaspace, a platform for metabolite annotation of imaging mass spectrometry data (https://metaspace2020.eu/)

curcumenone (Kuroyanagi et al. 1987), epiprocurcumenol, isoproprocurcumenol, neoprocurcumenol, (4S9-13-acetoxydehydrocurdione, (4S)-13-hydroxydehydrocurdione, (4S,5S)-13-hydroxygermacrone 4,5-epoxide, (4S,5S)-13-acetoxygermacrone 4,5-epoxide, (4S,5S)-12-acetoxygermacrone 4,5-epoxide, acetoxyneocurdione, curcumadione, isocurcumadione, 13-hydroxygermacrone (Kuroyanagi et al. 1990), 9-oxo-neoprocurcumenol (Etoh et al. 2003). Curcuma longa: The rhizomes contain diarylheptanoids known as curcuminoids (1.5–5%) which are the coloring principles responsible for yellow color (Evans 2002; Anand et al. 2008; Prasad et al. 2014; Li et al. 2020). Curcumin, which is the main constituent, along with demethoxycurcumin and bisdemethoxycurcumin, constitutes about 50–60% of these curcuminoids (WHO 1999). A representative Mass spectrometry (MS) imaging of the rhizome from the C. longa is presented in Fig. 7. The volatile oil (about 5%) of the rhizomes is pale yellow or orange-yellow and is composed of several sesquiterpenoids (e.g., α and β-turmerone, α-tumerone and zingiberene), monoterpenes among others (WHO 1999; Evans 2002). Curcuma zedoaria: Rhizomes are rich in sesquiterpenes, e.g., furanodiene, furanodienone, zederone, curzerenone, curzeone, germacrone, 13-hydroxygermacrone, dehydrocurdione, curcumenone, zedoaronediol (Makabe et al. 2006), isoprocurcumenol (Etoh et al. 2003). Curcuminoids such as curcumin, dihydrocurcumin, tetrahydrodemethoxycurcumin, and tetrahydrobisdemethoxycurcumin were also reported from the rhizomes (Syu et al. 1998). The essential oil of rhizome has been reported to constitute curzerenone, 1,8-cineole, germacrone cymene, a-phellandrene, b-eudesmol, etc. (Lobo et al. 2009).

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Local Medicinal Uses Curcuma aromatica: Rhizome is used as carminative, appetizer, and tonic and used for the treatment of cough and bronchitis (Adhikari et al. 2007; Singh et al. 1983; Agarwal 1986). In Nepal, rhizome paste is externally applied to bruises, sprains, leukoderma, and other skin diseases (Watanabe et al. 2013; Agarwal 1986). In the regions of Assam, India, the rhizomes are used in the treatment of fever, indigestion, intestinal worms, pain, helps to remove the dead fetus from the womb, rheumatism, and also used as a medicine for childbirth (Rao 1981a, b; Tarafder 1987; Kumar et al. 1987). The rhizomes are externally applied to burns and swelling. The tribals also use the oil as medicine as massage to relieve body pain (Agarwal 1986). The juice of the rhizome is given for indigestion and as a strong remedy against rheumatism. The rhizome juice is mixed with juice of Curcuma montana, Zingiber sp., and Kaempferia galangal, which is administered for smooth delivery and also used to remove the dead child from the uterus (Rao 1981b). In Northeast India, the local people use the paste of rhizome with milk for blood dysentery and stomach ache. It is also used as an antidote for snakebite, and to treat intestinal worms (Houghton and Osibogun 1993; Tushar et al. 2010). Leaves are also used as medicine for the treatment of wounds and fractured bones. Khasi and Garo tribes of Meghalaya, India, use the paste of rhizomes to prevent intestinal worm infections. This plant is also used in cosmetic formulations and traditional medicinal applications as an anti-inflammatory agent, to promote blood circulation, to enhance complexion, and to remove blood stasis (Sikha et al. 2015). Applied to wounds (Gairola et al. 2014). Curcuma longa: Rhizomes are used as spice and medicine all over the world. The rhizomes are aromatic, anti-helminthic, carminative, diuretic, expectorant, and stomachic (Adhikari et al. 2007; Singh et al. 1983). It is used as a tonic, blood purifier, and antiseptic (Singh et al. 1983; Agarwal 1986). Used for the treatment of cold and cough, inflammation, jaundice, and liver diseases (Evans 2002; Prasad et al. 2014; Singh et al. 1983). It is used externally to treat sprains and wounds (Adhikari et al. 2007; Singh et al. 1983; Agarwal 1986). The rhizomes of the plant are used in the treatment of cough, headache, insect stings, leprosy, migraine, body pain and swelling, pimples and freckles on the face (Lal and Yadav 1983; Purohit et al. 1985; Shah and Joshi 1971; Banerjee 1977; Tiwari et al. 1979; Tarafder 1984; Gaur et al. 1980). The rhizomes of the plant are being used in the treatment of arthritis mainly in the parts of India (Chandra and Gupta 1972; Weiner 1990). The Irula tribes of Nilgiri Hills use the burnt rhizome smoke, which is inhaled to relieve the headache caused by cold and is used twice daily in the morning and evening for 3 days or until relieve headache (Rajan and Sethuraman 2008). The Kattunayaka tribes of Nilgiri Hills use the dried rhizome, which is made into powder and a pinch of powder is mixed with coconut nut (Cocos nucifera) oil (one teaspoonful) is warmed and cooled. The cooled oil is (2–3 drops) directly poured to ear as a cure for earache and is used daily once in the morning for three days (Rajan 2010). The powder of rhizome, mixed with lemon and water is used to treat swellings due to inflammation. For the treatment of cough, cold, and tonsillitis, about half a teaspoon of rhizome powder is

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boiled in 2 cups of water for about 5 minutes and lukewarm water is used as a gargle (Manandhar 2002). The rhizome is used edible as a condiment, carminative, antiperiodic, cuts, and swellings. The flowers of the plant are used in the antifertility treatment (Sharma 1981). The leaf is used in the treatment of colds, fever, and pneumonia (Tarafder 1986). The fresh plant juice is used as an anthelmintic and also useful in skin diseases. The oil is used in the treatment of bladder diseases (Agarwal 1986). In India, this plant has been traditionally used primarily for arthritic and muscular disorders, while in China it has been used as a topical analgesic and for the treatment of flatulence, colic, and ringworm to hepatitis and chest pain (Kumar and Kumar Sakhya 2013). Applied to wounds as antiseptic (Raj et al. 2018; Singh et al. 2017), also used in Madagascar for jaundice, malaria, yellow fever, pregnancyrelated problems, stomach ache, and to increase albumin (Razafindraibe et al. 2013; Rakotoarivelo et al. 2015; Rabearivony et al. 2015; Randrianarivony et al. 2017). Applied for headache (Dey et al. 2017). Widely used in Chinese Traditional Medicine (Wu 2005). In Mizoram used as cancer remedy (Sharma et al. 2001). Used for toothache (Gairola et al. 2014). Anti-parasitic activity has been shown (Ahmad et al. 2006; Desrivot et al. 2007). In mixture with other species for skin ailments, dropsy, and hemorrhoids (Bhandary et al. 1995). Curcuma zedoaria: Rhizomes are aromatic, carminative, cooling, diuretic, stimulant, and stomachic (Adhikari et al. 2007). C. zedoaria is frequently used to promote blood circulation and to relieve pain in Korea, China, and Japan (Etoh et al. 2003). The rhizomes of the plant are used as a blood purifier and as well as in the treatment of jaundice (Malhotra and Moorthy 1973; Rao 1981a). The rhizomes are used as a cooling agent, diuretic, antiseptic applied to the pains and cuts. The paste is used as a medicine in throat troubles applied to swelling and also acts as an insect repellent (Agarwal 1986). The crushed rhizome mixed with water and used while bath in the treatment of jaundice and also the juice is rubbed on the body (Chaudhuri and Pal 1981). In Northeast India, the rhizome extract is used as a blood purifier and antiseptic, and for the treatment of cough, enlargement of spleen, indigestion, leukoderma, tuberculosis, and wounds. It is also given for promoting menstruation (Tushar et al. 2010). Oil of rhizome is used for the treatment of vomiting and menstrual hematometra, fresh roots are used for the treatment of leucorrheal discharge, tuber juice is used for the treatment of worms in children, leaf juice is used for the treatment of dropsy and leprosy, and leaf paste is used for the treatment of dropsy and leprosy (Lobo et al. 2009). Curcuma angustifolia: Root paste applied for paralysis, and to sprains and bruises (Kunwar et al. 2010).

Local Food Uses Curcuma longa: In Nepal, India, and many South Asian countries, turmeric powder is used daily as a spice for making curry recipes and other food products (Eigner and Scholz 1999; Manandhar 2002; Basnet and Skalko-Basnet 2011). Also used as food coloring (Langenberger et al. 2009).

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References Adhikari MK, Shakya DM, Kayastha M, et al.. Bulletin of the Department of Plant Resources No. 28. Medicinal Plants of Nepal (Revised). Kathmandu: DPR. 2007. Agarwal VS. Economic Plants of India. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh and Kailash Prakashan, Calcutta. 1986. Ahmad I, Aquil F, Owais M. Modern phytomedicine. Weinheim: Wiley; 2006. Anand P, Thomas SG, Kunnumakkara AB, et al. Biological activities of curcumin and its analogues (Congeners) made by man and Mother Nature. Biochem Pharmacol. 2008;76:1590–611. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.bcp.2008.08.008. Banerjee DK. Observations on ethnobotany of Araku valley. Vishakhapatnam district, Andra Pradesh. J Sci Club. 1977;33:14–21. Basnet P, Skalko-Basnet N. Curcumin: an anti-inflammatory molecule from a curry spice on the path to cancer treatment. Molecules. 2011;16:4567–98. Bhandary MJ, Chandrashekar KR, Kaveriappa KM. Medical ethnobotany of the Siddis of Uttara Kannada district, Karnataka, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 1995;47:149–58. Chandra D, Gupta SS. Anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritic activity of volatile oil of Curcuma longa (haldi). Indian J Med Res. 1972;60:138–42. Chaudhuri RHN, Pal DC. Plants in Folk religion and Mythology. In: Jain SK, editor. Glimpses of Indian Ethnobotany. New Delhi: Oxford & IBH Publishing Co; 1981. p. 57–68. Desrivot J, Waikedre J, Cabalion P, Herrenknecht C, Bories C, Hocquemiller R, Fournet A. Antiparasitic activity of some New Caledonian medicinal plants. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;112:7–12. Dey A, Gorai P, Mukherjec A, Dhan R, Kumar Modak B. Ethnobiological treatments of neurological conditions in the Chota Nagpur Plateau, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2017;198:33–44. Eigner D, Scholz D. Ferula asa-foetida and Curcuma longa in traditional medical treatment and diet in Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 1999;67:1–6. Etoh H, Kondoh T, Yoshioka N, et al. 9-Oxo-neoprocurcumenol from Curcuma aromatica (Zingiberaceae) as an Attachment Inhibitor against the Blue Mussel, Mytilus edulis. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem. 2003;67:911–3. https://doi.org/10.1271/bbb.67.911. Evans WC. Trease and Evans Pharmacognosy. 15th. 2002. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Gaur RD, Shrama MP, Semwal JK. Ethnotoxic plants of Garhwal hills in India. East Anthrop. 1980;33:159–63. Houghton PJ, Osibogun IM. Flowering plants used against snakebite. J Ethnopharmacol. 1993;39:1–29. Kumar N, Kumar Sakhya S. Ethnopharmacological properties of Curcuma longa: a review. Int J Pharm Sci Res. 2013;4:103–12. Kumar Y, Fancy S, Rao RR. Further contribution to the ethnobotany of Meghalaya: plants used by War Jaintia of Jaintia Hill district. J Econ Taxon Bot. 1987;11:65–70. Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Bussmann RW. Traditional herbal medicine in Far-west Nepal: a pharmacological appraisal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:35. Kuroyanagi M, Ueno A, Ujiie K, Sato S. Structures of Sesquiterpenes from Curcuma aromatica Salisb. Chem Pharm Bull. 1987;35:53–9. https://doi.org/10.1248/cpb.35.53. Kuroyanagi M, Ueno A, Koyama K, Natori S. Structures of Sesquiterpenes of Curcuma aromatica SALISB. II. (1) Studies on Minor Sesquiterpenes. Chem Pharm Bull. 1990;38:55–8. https://doi. org/10.1248/cpb.38.55. Lal SD, Yadav BK. Folk medicines of Kurukshetra District (Haryana). Indian Econ Bot. 1983;37:299–305. Langenberger G, Prigge V, Martin K, Belonias B, Sauerborn J. Ethnobotanical knowledge of Philippine lowland farmers and its application in agroforestry. Agroforest Syst. 2009;76:173– 94. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-008-9189-3.

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Li H, Sureda A, Devkota HP, et al.. Curcumin, the golden spice in treating cardiovascular diseases. Biotechnol Adv. 2020;38:107343. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biotechadv.2019.01.010. Lobo R, Prabhu KS, Shirwaikar A, Shirwaikar A. Curcuma zedoaria Rosc. (white turmeric): a review of its chemical, pharmacological and ethnomedicinal properties. J Pharm Pharmacol. 2009;61:13–21. https://doi.org/10.1211/jpp.61.01.0003. Makabe H, Maru N, Kuwabara A, et al. Anti-inflammatory sesquiterpenes from Curcuma zedoaria. Nat Prod Res. 2006;20:680–5. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786410500462900. Malhotra SK, Moorthy S. Some useful and medicinal plants of Chandrapur district (Maharashtra State). Bull Bot Surv India. 1973;15:13–21. Manandhar NP. Plants and people of Nepal. Portland: Timber Press Inc.; 2002. Morin NR. Flora of North America: North of Mexico Volume 22: Magnoliophyta: Alismatidae, Arecidae, Commelinidae (in Part), and Zingiberidae. New York: Oxford University Press. 2000. Prasad S, Gupta SC, Tyagi AK, Aggarwal BB. Curcumin, a component of golden spice: from bedside to bench and back. Biotechnol Adv. 2014;32:1053–64. Purohit VP, Silas RA, Gaur RD. Ethnobotanical studies of some medicinal plants used in skin diseases from Raath (pauri) Garhwal Himalaya. J Sci Res Plant Med. 1985;6:39–47. Rabearivony ADN, Razafiarison ZL, Raharimalala F, Rakotoarivony F, Randrianarivony T, Rakotoarivelo N, Randrianasolo A, Kuhlman A, Bussmann RW. Ethnobotanical study of the plants known by men at Ambalabe, Madagascar. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2015;14:123–38. Raj AJ, Biswakarma B, Pala NA, Shukla G, Vineeta V, Kumar M, Chakravarty S, Bussmann RW. Indigenous uses of ethno-medicinal plants among forest dependent communities of Northern Bengal, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;141:8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002018-0208-9. Rajan S. Plants in ethnomedicine of Nilgiri tribes in Tamil Nadu, India. New Delhi: Central Council for Research in Homoeopathy; 2010. Rajan S, Sethuraman M. Folk medicine of the Nilgiri Hills in Southern India. Survey of Medicinal Plants and Collection Unit. Udhagamandalam: Emerald and Hill Area Development Programme; 2008. Rakotoarivelo NH, Kuhlman A, Rakotoarivony F, Ramarosandratana AV, Jeannoda V, Randrianasolo A, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants used to treat the most frequent diseases in the Ambalabe rural commune. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2015;1168. Randrianarivony TN, Ramarosandratana VA, Andriamihajarivo TH, Rakotoarivony F, Jeannoda V, Randrianasolo A, Bussmann RW. The most used medicinal plants by communities in Mahaboboka, Amboronabo, Mikoboka, Southwestern Madagascar. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0147-x. Rao RR. Ethnobotanical studies on the Flora of Meghalaya-some interesting reports of herbal medicine. In: Jain SK, editor. Glimpses of Indian Ethnobotany. New Delhi: Oxford & IBH Publishing Co; 1981a. p. 137–48. Rao RR. Ethnobotany of Meghalaya – medicinal plants used by Khasi and Garo tribes. Econ Bot. 1981b;35:4–9. Razafindraibe HM, Razafiarison ZL, Raharimalala F, Rakotoarivony F, Randrianarivony T, Rakotoarivelo N, Randrianasolo A, Kuhlman A, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants used by women from Agnalazaha littoral forest Southeastern Madagascar. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:73. Shah NC, Joshi MC. An ethnobotanical study of Kumaon region of India. Econ Bot. 1971;25:414–22. Sharma PC. Folklore antifertility plant drugs of Bihar. Bull Medico-ethnobot Res. 1981;4:14–28. Sharma HK, Chhangte L, Dolui AK. Traditional medicinal plants in Mizoram, India. Fitoterapia. 2001;72:146–61. Sikha A, Harini A, Hegde Prakash L. Pharmacological activities of wild turmeric (Curcuma aromatica Salisb): a review. J Pharmacogn Phytochem. 2015;3:1–4. Singh U, Wadhwani AM, Johri BM. Dictionary of economic plants in India. New Delhi: The Council of Agricultural Research; 1983.

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Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. CONVOLVULACEAE Razan Mahat, Asmita Thapa, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Wahid Hussain, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Cuscuta reflexa Roxb.: Cuscuta elatior Choisy; Cuscuta gigantea Griff.; Cuscuta grandiflora Wall.; Cuscuta hookeri Sweet; Cuscuta macrantha G. Don.; Cuscuta megalantha Steud.; Cuscuta reflexa var. grandiflora Engelm.; Cuscuta verrucosa Sweet; Monogynella reflexa (Roxb.) Holub.

R. Mahat · A. Thapa Trichandra Multiple Campus, Tribhuvan University, Ghantaghar, Kathmandu, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan W. Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_71

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Local Names Cuscuta reflexa: Urdu: Machi, Chambe; Nepali: Akasbeli, Aakash beli; Sanskrit: Amaruela, Aakasavalli, Amaravalli, Khavalli; Bengali: Akashbel; Hindi: Amarabela; Punjabi: Zarbut; Tamil: Verillakothan

Botany and Ecology Cuscuta reflexa: Stems yellow or yellowish green, stout, 2–3 mm in diameter, with brown spots. Inflorescences lateral, few to many flowered, in racemes or panicles 1.5–3 cm, branched; bracts and bractoles scalelike. Pedicel 2–4 mm, together with peduncle, brown spotted or tuberculate. Calyx cupular; sepals 5, broadly ovate, equal, 2–2.5 mm, with a few tubercles abaxially, apex rotund. Corolla white or creamy, fragrant, tubular, 5–9 mm; lobes early deciduous, often reflexed, sometimes erect, triangular-ovate, shorter than tube. Stamens inserted at throat; filaments shorter than anthers or absent; anthers elliptic-ovate; scales oblong, reaching middle of tube, short and densely fimbriate. Ovary ovate-conical. Style 1, very short or absent; stigma divergent or erect, elongated, ligulate, longer than style. Capsule conicalglobose, subquadrate when mature, 5–10 mm in diameter, circumscissile. Seeds 1–4, dark brown, oblong, about 4 mm (Wu et al. 2006) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3). Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. is a twinning parasite making a tangled mass covering the host plants. It is a perennial plant and has stem and seed only. The species is hermaphrodite. Cuscuta spp. thrives in regions with a warm and more humid climate where the highest Cuscuta-dependent crop yield losses also occur (Dawson et al. 1994). Nevertheless, Cuscuta species can be found on all continents; for example, five species are native to central Europe (Mabberley 1997), of which C. europaea is the most prominent. C. reflexa is found in Hunan, Sichuan, Xizang, Yunnan, China, Afghanistan, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Sikkim, Sri Lanka, and Thailand within 900–2800 m. Fig. 1 Cuscuta reflexa (Convolvulaceae), on Chromolaena odorata, Nepal. (Photo Hari Devkota)

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Fig. 2 Cuscuta reflexa (Convolvulaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

Phytochemistry Cuscuta reflexa is known to contain a number of alpha-glucosidase inhibitory compounds. A new flavanone- reflexin, tetrahydrofuran derivatives and a coumarin have been isolated from stems of the plant. Methanol extracts of the stem reportedly demonstrated anti-steroidogenic and antibacterial activities. Other minor compounds in this species are as follows: Kaempferol, Kaempferol-3-O-glucoside (Astragalin), Myricetin, Myricetin glucoside, Quercetin, Quercetin-3-O-glucoside, Kaempferol3-O-galactoside, Quercetin-3-O-galactoside, Isorhamnetol, Azaleatin, Cuscutalin, Cuscutin, Linolenic acid, Linoleic acid, Oleic acid, Stearic acid, Palmitic acid, Amarbelin, Beta sitosterol, Bergenine, Dulcitol, Myricetin, Myricetin glucoside, Luteolin, Coumarin, Maragenin, n-Pentacosane, n-Heptacosane, Cusctutamine, n-Octacosane, n-Nonacosane, n-Triacontane, n-Hentriacontane, 1-Triacontane, Cuscutoside-A, Cuscutoside-B, Arbutin Chlorogenic acid, Caffieic acid, p-Coumaric acid, Stigmasterol, Avenasterol, Campesterol, Matrine, Saphoronal, Methylcytisine, Cus-1, Cus–2,3,5 Dicaffeoyl quinic acid, 4,5 Dicaffeoyl quinic acid, Laceeroic acid Australiside A, Cuscutic acid A, Cuscutic acid B, Cuscutic acid C, Cuscutic acid D, Hydroxyoleanane, 6,7,8- Trimethoxy-2H-1-benzopyran-2one Lupeol, Alpha-Amyrin, Beta-Amyrin, Alpha Amyrin Acetate, Beta Amyrin Acetate, Oleanolic acetate, Oleanolic acid, Sesamin, Trihydroxy auran, Daucosterol, Propenamide, 7-Propenamide, 6,7-Dimethoxy-2H-1-benzopyran-2-one, Ethyl

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Fig. 3 Cuscuta reflexa (Convolvulaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

3-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-2-propeonate 3–2-Propenol, 2–3-5-dihydroxy-7-0-beta-Dglucopyranoside -4H-1-benzopyran-4-one (Vijikumar et al. 2011).

Local Medicinal Uses Cuscuta reflexa: A decoction is used to treat diabetes (Ullah et al. 2019). Mixed with the twigs of Vitex negundo L. applied as fomentation on the abdomen of kwarsiokor children, fever, itch, as antiviral, anti-HIV, analgesic, relaxant, anti-steroidogenic, antibacterial activity (Nugraha et al. 2020). Used to treat jaundice (Kunwar & Bussmann 2009; Kunwar et al. 2009, 2013, 2019). Serves also to treat ever, asthma, bronchitis, headache, rheumatism, itches, skin diseases, and bilious disorders. Seed is carminative, anthelmintic, and purgative (Kala 2005; Kunwar & Bussmann 2009). Leaves are used for rheumatic pain, and indigestion. Decoction of the plant is used for urine control, diabetes, and blood purification; plant extract used as anti-lice (Akhtar et al. 2013). Plant is used for bronchitis (Kayani et al. 2014). It is used for paralyses and is useful to lower the sugar level, that is, useful for diabetes. The plant

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is also used for toothache and septic gums. Dried powder of this plant is used to cure sexual disorders especially premature ejaculation (Mahmood et al. 2011). Juice extracted from plan is used in jaundice (Jan et al. 2009). Plant is used as insecticide and antilice agent (Jan et al. 2010). Stem powder of the plant is used as blood purifier, diuretic, purgative, antidiabetic, and anthelmintic (Yousufzai et al. 2010). The powdered plant is taken with a glass of milk twice a day after meal for the treatment of diabetes (Sher et al. 2010). Paste of the whole plant is used for galactagogue (Abbasi et al. 2013). Plant root and leaves are dried, crushed, and boiled in mustered oil. Then filtered and dried again. Filled in capsules and administered orally on daily basis for 7 days as carminative (Jamal et al. 2017). The seeds of Cuscuta reflexa are alternative, anthelmintic, and carminative. They are used in the treatment of bilious disorders. While the stem is purgative, it is used internally in treating protracted fevers and externally in the body pains and itchy skins (Kunwar et al. 2009). In rural areas of Nepal, people use the Cuscuta’s plant juice for treating jaundice and its warm paste is applies in rheumatism, gout, and other affected part of the body. Mixture of Cuscuta reflexa and Saccharum officinarum’s juice is used in the treatment of impotence, premature ejaculation, frequent eurination, ringing in the ears, lower back pain, and vaginal discharge (Pande 2007). Used for fractures, lockjaw (Pande 2007), jaundice, cough, diabetes, eczema (Atiqur Rahman 2007), as anthelminthic (Kunwar et al. 2018), for scabies and dandruff (Kurmi & Baral 2004), stomach problems (Joshi & Edington 1990), headache, and body ache (Kunwar et al. 2009), dandruff (Thapa 2012), rheumatism and fever (Dangol and Gurung 1991, Ghimire & Bastakoti 2009), as abortifacient (Mahato & Sharma 2015), toothache (Shrestha and Dhilion 2003), and gastritis (Coburn 1984). Cuscuta australis serves as emollient, sedative, sudorific and tonic agents, urinary complaint. Seeds: sedative agent, diabetes, cornea opacity, acne, dandruff (Nugraha et al. 2020). Cuscuta americana is used as cooling agent (Lans 2006).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Cuscuta reflexa: Used to treat foot and mouth disease in cattle (Malla & Chhetri 2012).

References Abbasi AM, Khan SM, Ahmad M, Khan MA, Quave CL, Pieroni A. Botanical ethnoveterinary therapies in three districts of the lesser Himalayas of Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1):84. Akhtar N, Rashid A, Murad W, Bergmeier E. Diversity and use of ethno-medicinal plants in the region of Swat, North Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1):25. Atiqur Rahman M. Medicinal plants used by Chakma tribe in Hill Tracts District of Bangladesh. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2007;3:3. Coburn B. Some native medicinal plants of western Gurung. Kailash. 1984;11(1–2):55–88.

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Cyathea spinulosa Wall. ex Hook. CYATHEACEAE Man K. Dhamala, Dipak Khadka, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Cyathea spinulosa Wall. ex Hook.: Alsophila fauriei H. Christ; Alsophila spinulosa (Wall.ex Hook.) R.M. Tryon; Cyathea taiwaniana Nakai; Alsophila decipiens Jcott ex Bedd.; Amphicosmia decipiens (J. Scott ex Bedd.) Bedd. M. K. Dhamala Central Department of Environmental Science, Tribhuvan University, Tribhuvan, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] D. Khadka (*) Guangdong Key Laboratory for Innovative Development and Utilization of Forest Plant Germplasm, College of Forestry and Landscape Architecture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China Golden Gate International College, Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_72

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Local Names Cyathea spinulosa: Nepali: Chhatre, Thulo Unyu; Hindi: Kandewala Tree Fern; English: Tree Fern

Botany and Ecology Cyathea spinulosa: Trunk 5–15 m or sometimes more than 20 m, 10–20 cm in diam. or more, densely covered by adventitious roots. Fronds 2-pinnate-pinnatifid; stipes persistent and forming an irregular skirt, lustrous, greenish, purple-black toward base, 30–50 cm, with spines and lustrous brown scales; scales on trunks and stipes dark brown, lustrous, several cells thick, stiff, narrowly lanceolate, apex dark brown, setose, with pale and thin toothed margins, scales falling off leaving sharp prickles at base. Lamina 2-pinnate-pinnatisect, oblong-obovate; middle pinnae oblong, 40– 50
14–18 cm; pinnules 18–20 pairs, basal pinnules shorter, middle ones lanceolate, 9–12
1.2–1.6 cm, base cuneate, sessile or shortly stipitate, apex long acuminate and caudate, pinnatisect; pinnule segments 18–20 pairs, ascending, basal segments shorter, middle ones falcate, up to 7
4 mm, margin dentate, apex acute or mucronate; veins pinnate. Lamina papery, green; abaxial side with small membranous pale scales, adaxial side of rachis, costa, and midvein densely hairy. Sori at forks of lateral veinlets; indusia globose, thin, membranous, completely enveloping sori from base when young, irregularly falling off at maturity (Wu et al. 1994–2013; Singh and Sahu 2015) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Fig. 1 Cyathea spinulosa (Cyatheaceae) growing in natural habitat in Panchase, Kaski. (Photo Roshan Poudel)

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Fig. 2 Cyathea spinulosa (Cyatheaceae) planted as ornamental plant in a house at Aashe Tribeni Phoolbari, Taplejung. (Photo Dipak Khadka)

The species has good colonizing capacity. Regeneration of gametophyte is common which remains bisexual and sporophyte production is successful through intragametophytic selfing (Kharel et al. 2005). The gene flow in this type of species is carried out by spore dispersal (Tryon 1986). In Taiwan, high gene flow, high spore production, higher dispersal rate, and longtime spore viability were found in C. spinulosa (Cheng et al. 2008). A study done in China had also found high interregional gene flow (Su et al. 2005). A study using RAPD markers showed low genetic diversity and was with founder effect (Wang et al. 2003). The chloroplast genome found in C. spinulosa Wall. ex Hook. is 156,661 base pairs (bp) in size with 117 different genes encoding 85 proteins, 4 rRNAs, and 28 tRNAs as well as pseudogenes of ycf66 and trnT-UGU (Gao et al. 2009). Tree ferns are widely distributed in different habitats from damp, sheltered slopes, and moist gullies to high altitudes in cloud forests and from cool temperate forest to tropical rain forest (Mishra and Behera 2020). Cyathea spinulosa Wall. ex Hook. inhabits humus soils in shadowed forest locations and are mostly recorded from shady and moist places. Availability of moisture stands critical from early stages to different transition stage in its life cycle (Unwin and Hunt 1997).

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Fig. 3 Cyathea manniana (Cyatheaceae), Mt. Kenya National Park, Kenya. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

Cyathea spinulosa Wall. ex Hook. has been reported from China, Taiwan, Hongkong, Southern Japan, Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar (Burma), N-Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, and Philippines (Chandran 2008; Khoila et al. 2013; Singh and Sahu 2015). In Nepal Cyathea spinulosa Wall. ex Hook. has been recorded from 300 m to 2250 m in central and eastern Nepal (Gurung 1991; Bhuju and Joshi 2009). The species were recorded from moist area, that is, near the stream. Fraser-Jenkins et al. (2015) recorded species from Manang, Palpa, Parbat, Kaski, Tanahu, Gorkha, Dhading, Kathmandu, Bhaktapur, Dolakha, Solukhumbu, Sankhuwasabha, Bhojpur, Ilam, and Taplejung. Other districts from which different authors recorded C. spinulosa Wall. ex Hook. include Lamjung, Lalitpur, Syangja, Chitwan, Jhapa, and Morang (Bhuju and Joshi 2009; Bhattarai and Rajbhandary 2017). In recent survey, the authors recorded species from a new district of Nepal viz. Kavre.

Phytochemistry Arai et al. isolated (1994) hopan-29.17α-olide (1), hopan-17α, 29-epoxide (2), 3α-hydroxyfilic-4(23)-ene (3), and 2-oxofilic-3-ene (4), hop-22(29)-ene (5), fern-7ene (6), fern-9(11)-ene (7), filic-3-ene (8), hydroxyhopane (9), dryocrassol (10),

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Fig. 4 Cyathea pallescnes (Cyatheaceae), Laguna El Jardín, Leymebemba, San Martín, Perú. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

tetrahymanol (11), and cyclolaudenyl palmitate (12) from dry leaves of Cyathea spinulosa. Cheng et al. (2011) isolated vitexin, isorientin and an organic acid (3,4,6trihydroxy-1-ring vinyl carboxylic acid from Cyathea spinulosa Wall. ex Hook. Likewise, Jiang et al. (2012) extracted stigmast-4-ene-3,6-dione, stigmast-3,6dione, ergosterol, protocatechuic aldehyd, 1-O-Beta-D-glucopyranosyl(2S,3R,4E,8Z)-2-[(2-hydroxyoctadecanoyl) amido]-4,8- octadecadiene-1,3-diol, (2S,3S, 4R)-2-[(2’R) -20 -hydroxytetracosanoylamino]-1,3,4-octadecanetriol, betasitosterol and daucosterol. Lu et al. (2013) extracted 16 chemicals from stem which are 30-O-β-D-xylopyranosyl-dryocrassol, pimaric acid, 9α-hydroxy-1β-methoxycaryolanol, 6β-hydroxy-24-ethyl-cholest-4-en-3-one, 1-O-hexadecanolenin, clovandiol, decumbic acid, n-tetracosane, 4-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-pcoumaric acid, (E)-4-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl caffeic acid, cyathenosin A, protocatechualdehyde, protocatechuic acid, stigmastane-3, 6-dione, β-sitosterol, and daucosterol. The species belongs to Cyatheaceae is listed in Appendix II of Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) and listed in threatened category of IUCN Red Data Book in 1998. China has kept Cyathea spinulosa Wall. ex Hook. in a National Protection Category on the Red List in China (Fu 1991). It has not been assessed for special protection in Nepal. Tree ferns are used for various socio-economic purposes throughout the world and hence are under great threat of extinction due to overexploitation. Habitat destruction and change in land use pattern are other major threats to tree ferns. To save this unique group of plants, these are placed in the appendix II of CITES (Convention of International Trade on Endangered Species), globally listed in IUCN (International

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Unio for Conservation of nature and Natural resources) Red data books, mentioned as negatively listed plants, high conservation priority plants, etc., throughout the world, though few species are locally common at many places or within their general range of distribution. Other natural and anthropogenic factors posing threats to Cyathea spinulosa Wall. ex Hook. include climate change (CBD 2008). Deforestation, mining, road, and trail construction are some of the observed threats for Cyathea spinulosa Wall. ex Hook. in Nepal. The trend of displacing tree fern from natural population to home garden which was observed in Taplejung and Lamjung is a serious threat to its natural population. Cyatheaceae have varieties of utilization throughout the world (Rybczynski and Mikula 2011). It has a rich ethnobotanical history including use in handicraft, ornaments (Hensley et al. 2003). It has been used around the world for various socioeconomic purposes such as for ornament, horticulture, food, and medicine (Dixit and Singh 2004). Sureshkumar et al. (2018) have provided a comprehensive review and account on the medicinal uses of Cyathea spinulosa Wall. ex Hook. The whole plants are used as ornamental in many places including Nepal.

Local Medicinal Uses Cyathea manniana: The stem mucus is used as anthelminthic (Kokwaro 2009). Cyathea marattioides is used to relief back pain (Rabearivony et al. 2015).

Local Food Uses Cyathea spinulosa: Local people of all the regions of Nepal were found using young fronds for pickle and curry. Thapa et al. (2017) reported that the young fronds are used as food (pickles, achar), fodder, and fibers. In India, pith from the trunks is used as a food a food production and also stem as food and is used in making pots (Singh and Upadhyay 2010). Fresh soft pith and root are edible and used in the preparation of local drinks are locally applied on wounds leaves are locally applied on wounds (Singh and Sahu 2015). Important uses of Cyathea spinulosa Wall. ex Hook. as medicinal plant includes hair tonic, sudorific, and aphrodisiac (Singh and Upadhyay 2012, 2014), wounds (Singh 2005; Rawat 2007), cuts and wounds (Sen and Ghosh 2011), tonic (Upreti et al. 2009; Kumari et al. 2011), and sores and wounds (Jain 1991). In eastern Nepal in Ilam, Nayabazar, cooked young leaf was used to cure Menorrhagia excessive bleeding in menstruation (Bhattarai and Khadka 2016). In central Nepal, Machhapuchchhre Rural Municipality of Kaski District, Nepal, soft pith decoction prepared in ghee is taken orally to cure fracture, body ache (Adhikari et al. 2019). In Kathmandu Valley, the plant is used as hair tonic, sudorific, and aphrodisiac (Paudel et al. 2018). In Madhya Pradesh state of India powder of stem of the Cyathea spinulosa Wall. ex Hook. is given orally to cattle to cure indigestion and hair loss (Singh and Upadhyay 2010) and given orally to human to cure Rheumatic Arthritis. The stem can be used in traditional Chinese medicine for eliminating

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dampness and strengthening muscles and joints (Mishra and Behera 2020). The leaves are used in traditional Chinese medicine to eliminate dampness and to strength muscles and joints (Mishra and Behera 2020).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Cyathea spinulosa: Used as roof thatch (Keller and Prance 2015). Mixture of stem powder of Angiopteris helferiana C. Presl and Cyathea spinulosa Wall. ex Hook. is administered orally with water to the cattle in cases of indigestion and hair loss due to various reasons. Little amount of the potion is also applied on the skin for rapid growth of hairs (Singh and Upadhyay 2010). Cyathea spinulosa Wall. ex Hook. has hard wood, it has ornamental value in Nepal (Fig. 2) and in world. People were using stem to make flowerpot in Ilam and Taplejung. People use stem as a pillar of the house in Ilam due to its hard wood. In Panchase, Kaski people use it as a pillar of gate called as Tagaro (fences especially for cattle). People of Lamjung, Taplejung, and Ilam have planted Cyathea spinulosa Wall. ex Hook. in near their houses. Some people were using it to cultivate orchid in Ilam, Taplejung, and Lamjung. In Ilam, Cyathea spinulosa Wall. ex Hook. were found planted near the garden of Temple and near the pond for decorative purpose. In Taplejung people have used Cyathea spinulosa Wall. ex Hook. as a pole to tight pipe of water and also hanged shop pot in its stem. The leaves were used as fodder in Panchase (Thapa et al. 2017). In Madhya Pradesh India, the trunk is used for orchid cultivation. Trunk fibers are used for orchid tissue culture media (Singh and Upadhyay 2010). The Limbu community of Eastern Nepal Taplejung belief it is not good to plant tree fern near the house it symbolizes bad sign. Gurung community of the Panchase regions use this plants in birth and death rituals with different beliefs. In Central India especially in Pachmarhi, Tree ferns are integral parts of all religious ceremonies of local tribal communities (Singh and Sahu 2015). Cyathea divergens is used for handcrafts (Keller and Prance 2015).

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Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf POACEAE Kalyan Gauli, Shiva Kumar Sharma, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf: Abdropogon cerifer Hack.; Andropodon citratus DC.; Andropogon citratus DC. ex Nees; Andropogon citriodorum hort ex Desf.; Andropogon nardus subsp. ceriferus (Hack.) Hack.; Andropogon roxburghii Nees ex Steud.; Andropogon schoenanthus L.; Cymbopogon nardus (L.) Rendle; Cymbopogon nardus subvar. citratus (DC.) Roberty

K. Gauli · S. K. Sharma The Resource Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_73

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Local Names Cymbopogon citratus: Nepal: Kagati ghaans, Pirhe ghaans, Lemongrass; Chinese: xiang mao; India: bhustarah; gandhabene; gandhatran; injippullu; khavi; lilacha; majjigehallu; nimmagaddi; vasanapullu; Thailand: cha khrai; khrai; soet-kroei; English: citron grass; citronella grass; fever grass; lemongrass

Botany and Ecology Cymbopogon citratus: Perennial, shortly rhizomatous. Culms tufted, robust, up to 2 m tall, about 4 mm in diameter, farinose below nodes. Leaf sheaths glabrous, greenish inside; leaf blades glaucous, 30–90  0.5–2 cm, both surfaces scabrid, base gradually narrowed, apex long acuminate; ligule about 1 mm. Spathate compound panicle large, lax, up to 50 cm, drooping, branches slender; spatheoles reddish or yellowish brown, 1.5–2 cm; racemes 1.5–2 cm; rachis internodes and pedicels 2.5– 4 mm, loosely villous on margins; pedicel of homogamous pair not swollen. Sessile spikelet linear-lanceolate, 5–6  about 0.7 mm; lower glume flat or slightly concave toward base, sharply 2-keeled, keels wingless, scabrid, veinless between keels; upper lemma narrow, entire, and awnless, or slightly 2-lobed with about 0.2 mm mucro. Pedicelled spikelet 4–5 mm. (KC 2014; Press et al. 2000; Wu et al. 1994– 2013). Flowering starts from the month of January and February and flowers develop into fruits in month of March and April (GoN 2007). Each spikelet contains several flowers. It is generally propagated through seeds, vegetative propagation, and rooted slips (Kunwar 2006; Shah et al. 2011; Cope and Gray 2009; Kellogg 2002; Watson 1990) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3). The plant is native to the tropical and semitropical countries of Asia and South and Central America and Africa. It is mainly cultivated in the poor, marginal, waste lands, and under forest lands. Ideal conditions for growing lemongrass are sunny, warm, humid conditions. It is drought tolerant and commonly grown in soils with higher acidity (Nambiar and Matela 2012). It is grown on a large scale in parts of tropical Asia and South America for the lemon-scented oil extracted from its leaves. The oil is used for both medicinal and culinary purposes. Flowers are seldom produced (Shouliang and Phillips 2006) (Fig. 4).

Phytochemistry The essential oils of C. citratus contain (α-Pinene, β –Pinene, β-caryophyllene, citronellal, general acetate, citral α (geranial) and Citral β (neral), myrcene, geranial, geraniol, limonene, nerol, terpinolene, terpinol, methylheptenone, borneol, linalyl acetate) (Viturro 1998). Other components have also been identified from leaves and roots are; alkaloids (Methaheptanol, 1.8–cineole and menthol, octacosanol, dotriacontanol, and

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Fig. 1 Cymbopogon citratus (Poaceae), Pusac, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

triacontanol, triacontanol also isolated hexacosanol, ester laurate, nerolic and geranic acids, alkaloids in the rhizomes of this plant), sterioids (β-sitosterol, tracontanol, fucosterol, a pranthocyanidin), flavonoids (luteolin, cynaroside, O-rhamnosyl isorientin, hydroquinone, quercetin, kaempferol, apigenin, isoscoparin, chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, swetiajaponin, and orientin), ketone and sugars (Negrelle and Gomes 2007; Faruq 1994; Bharti et al. 2013; Aftab et al. 2011; Shah et al. 2011).

Local Medicinal Uses Cymbopogon citratus: Cymbopodon was introduced worldwide from Africa and has become a very widely used medicinal species. Leaves, roots and stems, fresh or dried are used to treat cold, cough, nerves, flu, varicose veins, stomach pain, colics, blood circulation and cancer (Bussmann and Sharon 2006), to remedy anxiety and anger (Monigatti et al. 2013). Lemon grass is sold in markets everywhere (Bussmann and

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Fig. 2 Cymbopogon citratus (Poaceae), plant, Parbat district, Nepal. (Photo Kalyan Gauli)

Sharon 2006). The extract has antibacterial activity (Bussmann and Sharon 2006). Often other species are added to lemongrass preparations (Bussmann and Sharon 2006). Cymbopogon is now also used for the treatment of illnesses like diabetes and cancer (Bussmann and Sharon 2006). In Madagascar it is used to treat fevers (Razafindraibe et al. 2013). Leaves also used for the treatment of tuberculosis (Sharifi-Rad et al. 2017), and hepatitis (Yineger et al. 2007). The leaves of lemongrass are a source of good quality essential oil. The oil is reddish yellow color with strong smell and taste of lemon. This is due to high content of citral, 70–80% (GoN 2007). The oil is used as an external treatment for skin complaints like ringworm, athlete’s foot, and scabies. It is also highly used for the treatment of lice, dandruff, acne, pimples, blackheads, oily skin, scabies, and jaundice (Acharya 2012). Medicinal uses of lemongrass are country wise different. In Nepal and India, it has been used in the treatment of gastrointestinal disturbances, prevention of platelet aggregation (in treatment of diabetes), anxiety, headache, fever, flu, pneumonia, and aromatherapy (Shah et al. 2011; Nambiar and Matela 2012). Dry leaves are commonly used to make tea and good for cough and cold (Shrestha and Dhilion 2003; Singh et al. 2012). The oil is used as pesticides, antifungal, and preservative

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Fig. 3 Cymbopogon citratus (Poaceae), distribution in Nepal. (Photo Kalyan Gauli)

Fig. 4 Cymbopogon citratus (Poaceae), cultivated in field, Bara district, Nepal. (Photo Kalyan Gauli)

purposes. Root juice is applied to treat pyorrhea (Manandhar 1988). It is also being used to cure diarrhea (Malla et al. 2015). In African and other Asian countries, it is being used for treating backache, sprain, stomachic, antiseptic, and hemoptysis (Nambiar and Matela 2012).

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Fig. 5 Cymbopogon citratus (Poaceae), distillation plant, Bara district, Nepal. (Photo Kalyan Gauli)

Fig. 6 Cymbopogon citratus (Poaceae), Mark after distillation, Bara district, Nepal. (Photo Kalyan Gauli)

Local Food Uses Cymbopogon citratus: Very frequently used as aromatic tea. Lemongrass is used as flavors for nonvegetable dishes (meat, fish chicken), nonalcoholic beverages, confectionary, and bakery preparations. In addition, leaves are used as tea in Nepal.

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Cymbopogon citratus: The species is often a main ingredient in emolientes (healthy, hot beverages used for breakfast especially; Bussmann et al. 2015). Used to treat blackleeg in livestock (Yineger et al. 2007). Lemongrass oil is extensively used in

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perfumes, bath soap, cosmetics, and toilet soaps and as a flavoring substance. It is also a source of alfa Ionone which is a necessary for Vitamin A synthesis (Bhattarai and Ghimire 2006). It is also demonstrated that the use of Cymbopogon residue as feed for cows increased 23% of the milk production (Manurung et al. 2015). It is also used as a soil conservation measure on steep lands. Furthermore, it is also being used as a mosquito repellent (Oyedele et al. 2002) (Figs. 5 and 6).

References Acharya R. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of Resunga Hill used by magar community of Badagaun VDC of Gulmi district, Nepal. Sci World. 2012;10(10):54–65. Aftab K, Ali MD, Aijaz P, Beena N, Gulzar HJ, Sheikh K, Tahir Abbas S. Determination of different trace and essential element in lemon grass samples by x-ray fluorescence spectroscopy technique. Int Food Res J. 2011;18:1. Bharti SK, Kumar A, Prakash O, Krishnan S, Gupta AK. Essential oil of Cymbopogon citratus against diabetes: validation by in vivo experiments and computational studies. Bioanal Biomed. 2013;5:194–203. Bhattarai KR, Ghimire MD. Cultivation and sustainable harvesting of commercially important medicinal and aromatics plants of Nepal. Kathmandu: Heritage Research and Development Center; 2006. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in Northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing culture. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:47. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Castañeda Sifuentes RY, Prado Velazco YA, Mandujano J. Health in a pot – the ethnobotany of emolientes and emolienteros in Peru. Econ Bot. 2015;69:83–8. Cope T, Gray A. Grasses of the British Isles. London: Botanical Society of Britain and Ireland; 2009. ISBN 9780901158420. Faruq MO. TLC technique in the component characterization and quality determination of Bangladeshi lemongrass oil (Cymbopogon citratus (DC) Stapf.). Bangladesh J Sci Ind Res. 1994;29(2):27–38. GoN. Medicinal plants of Nepal. Bulletin of Department of Plant Resources No 28. Kathmandu: Department of Plant Resources; 2007. p. 193–7. KC R. Prominent non-wood forest products of Terai and Siwalik regions in Nepal. Kathmandu, Nepal: FAO; 2014. Kellogg EA. Classification of the grass family. In: Flora of Australia, vol. 43. 2002. p. 19–36. Kunwar RM. NTFPs of Nepal: a sustainable management approach. Tokyo, Japan: CBC Nepal and ITTO; 2006. 423 p. Malla B, Gauchan DP, Chhetri RB. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by ethnic people in Parbat district of western Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;165:103–17. Manandhar NP. Medicinal plants used by Chepang tribes of Makawanpur district, Nepal. Fitoterapia. 1988;60(1):61–8. Manurung R, Melinda R, Abduh MY, Widiana A, Sugoro I, Suheryadi D. Potential use of lemongrass (Cymbopogon winterianus) residue as dairy cow feed. Pak J Nutr. 2015;14(12):919–23. Monigatti M, Bussmann RW, Weckerle CS. Medicinal plant use in two Andean communities located at different altitudes in the Bolivar Province, Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;145(2): 450–64. Nambiar VS, Matela H. Potential functions of lemon grass (Cymbopogon citratus) in health and disease. Int J Pharm Biol Arch. 2012;3(5):1035–43. Negrelle RRB, Gomes EC. Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf: chemical composition and biological activities. Rev Bras Plantas Medicinais. 2007;9(1):80–92.

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Oyedele OA, Gbolade AA, Sosan MB, Adewoyin FB, Soyelu OL, Orafidiya OO. Formulation of an effective mosquito-repellent topical product from Lemongrass oil. Phytomedicine. 2002;9(3):259–62. Press JR, Shrestha KK, Sutton DA. Annotated checklist of flowering plants of Nepal. London: The Natural History Museum; 2000. Razafindraibe HM, Razafiarison ZL, Raharimalala F, Rakotoarivony F, Randrianarivony T, Rakotoarivelo N, Randrianasolo A, Kuhlman A, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants used by women from Agnalazaha littoral forest southeastern Madagascar. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:73. Shah G, Shri R, Panchal V, Sharma N, Singh B, Mann AS. Scientific basis for the therapeutic use of Cymbopogon citratus, Stapf (Lemongrass). J Adv Pharm Technol Res. 2011;2(1):3–8. Sharifi-Rad J, Salehi B, Stojanović-Radić ZZ, Tsouh Fokou PV, Sharifi-Rad M, Mahady GB, SharifiRad M, Masjedi M-R, Lawal TO, Ayatollahi SA, Masjedi J, Sharifi-Rad R, Setzer WN, SharifiRad M, Kobarfard F, Rahman AU, Choudhary MI, Atar A, Iriti M. Medicinal plants used in the treatment of tuberculosis – ethnobotanical and ethnopharmacological approaches. Biotechnol Adv. 2017; S0734-9750(17)30077-0; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biotechadv.2017.07.001. Shouliang C, Phillips S. Cymbopogon Sprengel. In: Flora of China, vol. 22. 2006. p. 624–31. Shrestha PM, Dhilion SS. Medicinal plant diversity and use in the highlands of Dolakha district, Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2003;86:81–96. Singh AG, Kumar A, Tewari DD. An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used in Terai forest of western Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2012;8:19. Viturro C. Composition of the essential oil of Cymbopogon citratus. Anales de la Asociación Química Argentina, vol. 86; 1998. p. 45–8. Watson L. The grass family, Poaceae. In: Reproductive versatility in the grasses. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1990. pp. 1–31. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. 1994–2013. St. Louis/Beijing: Science Press/ Missouri Botanical Garden Press. Yineger H, Kelbessa E, Bekele T, Lulekal E. Ethnoveterinary medicinal plants at Bale Mountains National Park, Ethiopia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;112:55–70.

Cyperus difformis L. Cyperus rotundus L. CYPERACEAE Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Cyperus difformis L.: Cyperus difformis fo. maximus C.B. Clarke, Cyperus difformis var. breviglobosus Kük., Cyperus difformis var. subdecompositus Kük., Cyperus lateriflorus Torr. Cyperus rotundus L.: Chlorocyperus rotundus (L.) Palla, Cyperus agrestis Willd. ex Spreng. & Link, Cyperus bicolor Vahl, Cyperus hexastachyos Rottb., Cyoerus hydra Michx., Cyperus rotundus var. quimoyensis L.K. Dai, Cyperus rubicundus Vahl, Cyperus tetrastachyos Desf., Cyperus tuberosus Rottb.

Local Names Cyperus rotundus: Nepali: Nagarmothe, siru, Jammu: Dila; Sanskrit: Nagarmusta; English: Round sedge H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_74

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Botany and Ecology Cyperus difformis: Annuals. Roots fibrous. Culms tufted, 2–65 cm tall, slightly thick or flaccid, compressed triquetrous, smooth, few leaved at basal part. Leaves shorter than culm; sheath brown, slightly long; leaf blade 2–6 mm wide, flat or folded. Involucral bracts 2(or 3), leaflike, longer than inflorescence. Inflorescence a simple or rarely compound anthela; rays 3–9, mostly to 3(–5) cm, unequal in length, each with many spikelets at apex densely aggregated into a capitulum. Capitulum of spikelets globose, 0.5–1.5 cm in diam. Spikelets narrowly ovoid to linear, 2–8  1–1.2 mm, compressed orbicular, 8- to 28-flowered; rachilla wingless. Glumes dark reddish purple to dark grayish brown on both surfaces but middle yellowish, less than 1 mm, slightly spreading, obscurely 3-veined, margin white hyaline, apex rounded. Stamens (1 or)2; anthers ellipsoid; connective not prominent beyond anthers. Style very short; stigmas 3, short. Nutlet yellowish, obovoidellipsoid, nearly as long as subtending glume, 3-sided. Flowering and fruiting July–October (Wu et al. 1994–2013). Cyperus rotundus: Perennials. Stolons slender, with ellipsoidal tubers. Culms solitary, rarely 2 laxly tufted, 15-90 cm tall, slightly slender, triquetrous, smooth, base swollen into a tuber, leaved at basal part. Leaves equaling or shorter than culm; sheath brown, usually disintegrating into fibers; leaf blade bluish green, 2–5 mm wide,  flat. Involucral bracts 2 or 3(-5), longer to sometimes shorter than inflorescence. Inflorescence a simple or compound anthela; rays (2 or)3–10, mostly to 12 cm, unequal in length, spreading. Spikes obdeltoid, with 3–10 slightly laxly arranged spikelets. Spikelets obliquely spreading, linear, 1–3 cm  1.5–2 mm, 8- to 28-flowered; rachilla wings white, slightly broad, hyaline. Glumes blood-red to purplish brown on both surfaces but middle green, subdensely imbricate, ovate to oblong-ovate, about 3 mm, 5- to 7-veined (fading some distance before margin), apex acute to obtuse and muticous. Stamens 3; anthers linear; connective prominent beyond anthers. Style long; stigmas 3, longer than style, exserted from glume. Nutlet obovoid-oblong, 1/32/5 as long as subtending glume, 3-sided, puncticulate. Flowering and fruiting May– November (Wu et al. 1994–2013).

Local Medicinal Uses Cyperus difformis is used to treat diarrhea (Gairola et al. 2014). Cyperus rotundus: The species is already mentioned as medicinal plant in classic Greek herbals (Grivas 2018), as well as in the bible (Dafni and Böck 2019), and is also commonly used in Chines traditional medicine (Wu 2005). The tubers are used for poor digestion, catarrh of the lungs and urinary difficulties, as well as sudorific. Cyperus is an ingredient of many traditional medicines. The plant is also applied as hypnotic for children. Tubers are normally collected from plants washing up at lakeshores (Bussmann 2017; Kunwar et al. 2009; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017). Also used to treat snakebites (Houghton and Osibogun 1993). Used as galactagogue and to treat scorpion bites (Muthu et al. 2006). The smoke of the burnt plant is used for

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Fig. 1 Cyperus amauropus (Cyperaceae). (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

analgesic purposes (Mohagheghzadeh and Faridi 2006) and used as cooling agent (Lans 2006). The species has some antibacterial activities (Kunwar et al. 2010). Rhizomes extract is used in fever, diarrhea, dysentery, and blood disorders. Tuberous roots are used in indigestion, cholera, and fever. It is astringent, anthelmintic, stomachic, and diuretic. Plant is used in inflammation. Tuber has diuretic, astringent, anthelmintic, digestive, and galactogogue properties. Rhizome extract is used to lower blood glucose. Beta-sitosterol possessed anti-inflammatory and antipyretic activity (Kunwar et al. 2009; Kunwar and Bussmann 2009). In Turkey the species is used as digestive (Altundaga and Öztürk 2011). (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8).

Local Food Uses Cyperus rotundus: Tubers are used as spice (Bussmann 2017; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Cyperus rotundus: Used to male household tools (Mekonnen et al. 2015).

690 Fig. 2 Cyperus circumlusus (Cyperaceae). (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Cyperus cyperoides (Cyperaceae). (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Cyperus difformis L. . . . Fig. 4 Cyperus distans (Cyperaceae). (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Cyperus involucratus (Cyperaceae). (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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692 Fig. 6 Cyperus obtusifolius (Cyperaceae). (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 7 Cyperus pinguis (Cyperaceae). (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 8 Cyperus vestitus (Cyperaceae). (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

References Altundaga E, Öztürk M. Ethnomedicinal studies on the plant resources of east Anatolia, Turkey. Procedia Soc Behav Sci. 2011;19:756–77. Bussmann RW e. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1 Dafni A, Böck B. Medicinal plants of the bible – revisited. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2019. https://doi. org/10.1186/s13002-019-0338-8 Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Grivas C. Non-native herbal materia medica in Greek texts of the roman period. Medicina nei secoliarte e scienza. J Hist Med. 2018;30(2):531–78. Houghton PJ, Osibogun IM. Flowering plants used against snakebite. J Ethnopharmacol. 1993;39:1–29. Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Medicinal, aromatic and dye plants of Baitadi and Darchula Districts, Nepal Himalaya: status, uses and management. In: Hartmann M, Weipert, J, editors. Biodiversität, Naturausstattung im Himalaya, Bd. III. Erfurt; 2009. p. 475–89. Kunwar RM, Upreti Y, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Indigenous use and ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in Far-west Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009;7:5–28. Kunwar RM, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants in far-west Nepal: their indigenous uses and pharmacological validity. Med Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010;4 (special issue 1):28–42.

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Lans CA. Ethnomedicines used in Trinidad and Tobago for urinary problems and diabetes mellitus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:45. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-2-45. Mehdiyeva N, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Cyperus rotundus L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Mekonnen T, Giday M, Kelbessa K. Ethnobotanical study of homegarden plants in Sebeta-Awas District of the Oromia Region of Ethiopia to assess use, species diversity and management practices. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2015;11:64. Mohagheghzadeh A, Faridi P. Medicinal smokes. J Ethnopharmacol. 2006;108:161–84. Muthu C, Ayyanar M, Raja N, Ignacimuthu S. Medicinal plants used by traditional healers in Kancheepuram District of Tamil Nadu, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:43. Wu JN. An illustrated Chines Materia Medica. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2005. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013.

Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D. Don) Soo ORCHIDACEAE Yagya Raj Paneru, Pratikshya Chalise, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D. Don) Soo: Dactylorhiza hatagirea var. doniana (Soó) Soó; Dactylorhiza hatagirea var. schlaginweitii (Soó) Soó, Orchis hatagirea D. Don; Orchis latifolia var. indica Lindl.; Orchis graggeriana Sod; Orchis hatagirea var. doniana Soó; Orchis hatagirea var. schlaginweitii Soó

Y. R. Paneru (*) Department of Botany, Capital College and Research Centre, Koteshwor, Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] P. Chalise National Herbarium and Plant Laboratories, Department of Plant Resources, Ministry of Forests and Environment, Godawari, Lalitpur, Nepal H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_75

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Local Names Dactylorhiza hatagirea: Nepali: Paanchaule (पाँचऔंले), Panc angule (पाँच अंगुले), Saalampanjaa (सलामपन्जा), Varila (वारिला), Arila (अरिला), Hatte (हट्ट)े , Hathijara (हत्तीजरा); Amchi: Aangolakpa, Wang Po lagpa; Kashmir: Hatapanja, Wangbolakpa, Salam panja, Salab, and Hathpanja; Ladakh: Sanchu, Ambolkapa; Gurung: Pancaaule (पाँच आउले), Loba (लोबा); Sherpa: Ongu lakpa; Limbu: Nahasihukchok; Sikkim: Panchamle; Tamang: Oungla, Nisangpa; Sanskrit: Bhunjatak (भुन्जटाक), Salap (सलाप), Aralu (अरालु); Hindi: Salampanja; Kumaon: Hatajari, Hattajandee; Kashmiri: Salem panja; Tibetan: dbang-po-lag; Amchi: Wonglak; Urdu: Salap (सलाप), salep; Chinese: Kuanyehongmen lan (broad leaf red door orchid), Hongmen lan (red door orchid), Mengguhongmen lan (Mongolian red door orchid), zhanglie lan; Spanish: Palma Christi; English: Marsh orchid, Himalayan Marsh orchid, orchis, salep.

Botany and Ecology The name Dactylorhiza is derived from the Greek word daktylos (finger) and rhiza (root); meaning digitate tuber (Teoh 2016). Dactylorhiza hatagirea is endemic to the Hindu Kush Himalaya and is categorized as Endangered in CAMP Pokhara (2001) conservation list and strictly banned for collection, utilization, and sale in Nepal. It is listed in appendix II of CITES for controlled trade. The species has great demand in national as well as international market due to high medicinal value. Habitat degradation, illegal trade, grazing, and unsustainable harvesting along with climate change are the major threats for declining population (Paneru 2019). The plant shows slow growth and poor regeneration due to pollinator specificity and requirement for mycorrhizal association for germination (Bhatt et al. 2005). Dactylorhiza hatagirea: Plants slender to robust, 10–40 cm tall. Tubers palmately 3–5lobed. Stem erect, stout, hollow in robust plants, with 2 or 3 tubular sheaths at base, 3– 6-leaved. Leaves erect or spreading, clustered and subopposite near base of stem, widely spaced and alternate above, green, not spotted, oblong to linear-lanceolate, (5–)8–15  0.8–3 cm, apex obtuse or acuminate. Rachis 2–15 cm, subdensely several to densely many flowered; floral bracts lanceolate, basal ones to 4 cm, becoming smaller above, exceeding ovary, apex acuminate. Flowers not secund, lilac to purplish rose, medium-sized; ovary and pedicel 8–14 mm. Sepals and petals lilac or purplish rose; dorsal sepal erect, ovate-oblong, concave, 5.5–7( 9)  3–4 mm, 3-veined, apex obtuse; lateral sepals ovate-lanceolate to ovate-oblong, oblique, 6–8( 9.5)  4–5 mm, N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia

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Fig. 1 Dactylorhiza hatagirea (Orchidaceae), plant and its habitat, ManangBhimthan, Nepal. (Photo YR Paneru)

3–5-veined, apex obtuse. Petals erect, forming a hood with dorsal sepal, ovatelanceolate, slightly oblique, 5.5–7  3–5 mm, 2- or 3-veined, apex obtuse; lip ovate to suborbicular, 6–9  6–10 mm, usually slightly broader than long, base spurred, margin entire to shallowly 3-lobed toward apex, margin slightly crenulate, apex or mid-lobe obtuse, disk minutely papillose, purplish red to rose, sometimes whitish toward base with a spoon-shaped patch of dark purple spots or lines; spur pendulous,  straight to slightly curved forward, cylindric to conic, to 12 mm, equaling to slightly shorter than ovary, apex obtuse. Flowering June to August (Raskoti 2009; Zhengyi and Deyuan 2009; Wu et al. 1994–2013). Heavily collected and regarded as endangered (Hamilton 2004; Kunwar et al. 2008, 2018; Malik et al. 2015; Mulk Khan et al. 2014) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8).

Phytochemistry Mucilage, starch, albumen, volatile oil and ash of potassium and lime (Saroya 2011), dactylorhin A, dactylorhin B, dactylorhin C, dactylorhin D, dactylorhin E, dactyloses A, dactyloses B, (2R)-2-hydroxy-2-(2-methylpropyl)butanedioic acid, militarine, loroglossin and 4-(β-D-glucopyranosyloxy) benzyl alcohol, β-sitosterol, 4-hydroxybenzylmethyl ether, 4-hydroxybenzaldehyde, pyrocatechol, hydroquinone, 4-hydroxybenzyl alcohol, and β-sitosterol-3-0-β-D-glucopyranoside (Kizu et al. 1999).

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Fig. 2 Dactylorhiza hatagirea (Orchidaceae), inflorescence, ManangBhimthan, Nepal. (Photo YR Paneru)

Local Medicinal Uses The bulb extract of Dactylorhiza hatagirea is widely used to treat cuts and wounds, especially to stop bleeding (Kunwar et al. 2006, 2009, 2010a, b, 2013; Singh et al. 2017). The tubers of Dactylorhiza have a very high value in Ayurveda, Tibetan, Unani, as well as traditional medicine (Ghimire et al. 2008). Tubers are used as nervine tonic and considered as expectorant, astringent, aphrodisiac, and demulcent (IUCN Nepal 2004; Watanabe and Rajbhandari 2005; Baral and Kurmi 2006). They are widely used to cure a variety of diseases and disorders such as dysentery, diarrhea, chronic fever, cough, stomachache, cuts and wounds, burns, fractures, general weakness, etc. and also used to cure urinary trouble (Chauhan 1999; IUCN Nepal 2004; Watanabe and Rajbhandari 2005; Pant and Rinchen 2012), nervous disorders, and paralytic affections (Chauhan 1999). The powder of the tuber is spread over cuts and wounds to control bleeding (Watanabe and Rajbhandari 2005), used to treat gastritis (Kunwar et al. 2006), and also used to cure bone fracture (Kala et al. 2004). Decoction of root is used to treat stomach problems (Manandhar 1986). Traditionally, the paste of tubers is applied over the cuts, wounds, as well as burns as balm (Pohle 1990). In Unani system of medicine, decoction of salep with sugar and flavored with spices is given during seminal debility, chronic diarrhea, and general weakness to women after delivery (Chauhan 1999). It is beneficial for the

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Fig. 3 Dactylorhiza hatagirea (Orchidaceae), inflorescence, ManangBhimthan, Nepal. (Photo YR Paneru)

Fig. 4 Dactylorhiza hatagirea (Orchidaceae), tuber, Manang-Bhimthan, Nepal. (Photo YR Paneru)

spleen, kidney, and stomach, relieves thirst, improves appetite, and is also used to treat irregular menstruation, anemia, and dizziness (Wu 1994). Rhizomatous part shows resistance against bacterial infection (Ranpal 2009). It is also used to increase testosterone level and also helps to increase sexual desire (Kala et al. 2004, 2007;

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Fig. 5 Dactylorhiza hatagirea (Orchidaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hassan Sher & Ikram Ur-Rahman)

Fig. 6 Dactylorhiza euxinia (Orchidaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Bancroft 2005; Ghimire et al. 2008). In Sikkim, it is used to treat diarrhea, fever, diabetes, cuts and wounds, body ache, gastritis, and bone fractures (Maity et al. 2004; Tamang et al. 2017), and in Ladakh it is especially employed to treat cough and fever (Ballabh and Chaurasia 2007), as well as kidney problems (Ballabh et al.

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Fig. 7 Dactylorhiza euxinia (Orchidaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

2008). In Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh, it is used as blood purifier, to treat colds, cough, and diarrhea; as aphrodisiac and tonic, for wound healing, boils, against roundworms, for kidney complaints, backache, burning sensation in urination, fever, fractures, gynecological disorders, and headache; and as diuretic, sedative, and stomachic, to treat weakness after delivery (Gairola et al. 2014). In Middle Asia a tuber decoction of Dactylorhiza umbrosa is used to treat gastritis and kidney disease. In the Ural, it is used as a diuretic, as well as to treat fevers and gynecological diseases. The crushed tubers are mixed with lard and used for abscesses, or fresh applied for toothaches, and to stimulate hair growth. In Tajikistan the decoction of the tubers is used to treat convulsions, paralysis, stomach catarrh, and kidney stones and to stimulate blood production. The boiled roots are used to rejuvenate the elderly and to treat tuberculosis. An infusion of the tubers is used to treat coughs and inflammation of the respiratory tract, to increase energy, to calm nerves, and to treat impotence and gastrointestinal tract problems (Bussmann et al. 2020). Dactylorhiza incarnata is used for cough, cuts, wounds, and nervous system problems and as aphrodisiac (Gairola et al. 2014).

Local Food Uses Dactylorhiza umbrosa: The tubers are used to produce salep for soft drinks, ice-cream, and sweets (Bussmann et al. 2020).

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Fig. 8 Dactylorhiza euxinia (Orchidaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Dactylorhiza hatagirea: The tubers are highly nutritive (Watanabe and Rajbhandari 2005; Shrestha and Shrestha 2004) so they are also used as food (IUCN 2004; Teoh 2019). In Nepal, the tubers are boiled in water and locally consumed as food (Shrestha and Shrestha 2004). Rhizomes are considered to be highly nutritious and rich in vitamins (Pohle 1990). In some parts of Nepal, young leaves and shoot are cooked as vegetables (Ghimire et al. 2008; Manandhar 2002). Root paste is applied to hair to promote growth and blackness. The tubers of this orchid produce a special compound called “Syalep” which is used during silk processing in different parts of India (Kala et al. 2004; Ghimire et al. 2008). Dactylorhiza umbrosa and other species serve as fodder for livestock (Bussmann et al. 2020).

References Ballabh B, Chaurasia OP. Traditional medicinal plants of cold desert Ladakh – used in treatment of cold, cough and fever. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;112(2):341–9. Ballabh B, Chaurasia OP, Ahmed Z, Singh SB. Traditional medicinal plants of cold desert Ladakh – used against kidney and urinary disorders. J Ethnopharmacol. 2008;118:331–9.

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Paneru YR. Distribution and population ecology of threatened Himalayan orchid Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D.Don) Soó in central Nepal. A dissertation submitted for the partial fulfillment of the requirement for the Masters of Science in Botany. 2019. Pant S, Rinchen T. Dactylorhiza hatagirea: a high value medicinal orchid. J Med Plants Res. 2012;6(19):3522–4. Pohle P. Useful plants of Manang district: a contribution to the ethnobotany of the Nepal Himalaya. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag Wiesbaden GMBH; 1990. Ranpal S. An assessment of status and antibacterial properties of Dactylorhiza hatagirea in Annapurna conservation area (a case study of Paplekharka, Lete VDC, Mustang). B.Sc. Forestry Research Thesis Submitted to Tribhuvan University, Institute of Forestry, Pokhara, Nepal. 2009. Raskoti BB. The orchids of Nepal. Kathmandu: Raskoti BB and Ale R; 2009. Saroya AS. Herbalism, phytochemistry and ethnopharmacology. Enfield: Science Publishers; 2011. Shrestha UB, Shrestha S. Major non-timber forest products of Nepal. Kathmandu: Bhudipuran Prakashan; 2004. Singh A, Nautiyal MC, Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal plants used by local inhabitants of Jakholi Block, Rudraprayag district, Western Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13:49. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0178-3. Tamang M, Pal K, Kumar Rai S, Kalam A, Rehan Ahmad S. Ethnobotanical survey of threatened medicinal plants of West Sikkim. Int J Bot Stud. 2017;2(6):116–25. Teoh SE. Medicinal orchids of Asia. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2016. Teoh SE. Orchids as aphrodisiac, medicine or food. Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland AG; 2019. Watanabe T, Rajbhandari KR. A handbook of medicinal plants of Nepal. Bangkok: Kobfa Publishing Project; 2005. Wu XR. A concise edition of medicinal plants in China. Guangdong: Guangdong Higher Education Publication House; 1994. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Zhengyi W, Deyuan H. Orchidaceae. In: Wu CY, Raven PH, Hong DY, editors. Flora of China, vol. 25. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 2009. p. 1–570.

Daphne bholua Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don. Daphne mucronata Royle Daphne papyracea Wall. ex G. Don. THYMELAEACEAE Shambhu Charmakar, Ripu M. Kunwar, Megh Nath Kafley, Dhirendra Kumar Pradhan, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Daphne bholua Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don.: Daphne cannabina var. bholua (Buch.Ham. ex D.Don) Keiss. Daphne mucronata Royle: Daphne acuminata Boiss. & Hohen., Daphne acuminata Boiss. & Hohen. ex Sticks, Daphne acuminata var. kochii Meisn., Daphne angustifolia K. Koch., Daphne angustifolia var. affghanica (Meisn.) Keissl., Daphne mucronata var. affghanica Meisn., Daphne oleoides Schreb. Daphne papyracea Wall. ex G. Don.: Daphne papyracea var. crassiuscula Rehder; Daphne papyracea var. duclouxii Lecomte; Daphne papyracea f. grandiflora S. Charmakar (*) Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Kathmandu, Nepal Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy e-mail: [email protected] R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] M. N. Kafley · D. Kumar Pradhan Forest Research and Training Center, Ministry of Forests and Environment, Kathmandu, Nepal H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_76

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Meisn. ex Diels; Daphne papyracea var. grandiflora (Meisn. ex Diels) C. Yung Chang

Local Names Daphne bholua/Daphne papyracea: Nepali: Lokta, Baruwa, Kagate, Gore, Kagat pate, Baluwa, Seto Balua, Kalo Balua; Hindi: Satpura, Setburwa, Setburosa, Bhanchoi; Dzongkha: De shing; Tshangla: Shogo shing, Shugu shing; English: Nepali paper plant, daphne (ANSAB 2003; Burlakoti and Kunwar 2008) Daphne mucronata: Urdu: Nik; Kashmir: Kutelal; Pashto: Laighonai ‫ﻝﻍﻭﻥ‬/ Kottilal ‫ﮎﻭټﯼﻝﺍﻝ‬ Daphne oleoides: Jammu: Kalishadi; Kashmir: Vethur, Gandhlenu; Pashto: Laighonai ‫ﻝﻍﻭﻥ‬/Kottilal ‫ﮎﻭټﯼﻝﺍﻝ‬ Daphne papyracea: Jammu: Muhtatta sangulu, Sattpura

Botany and Ecology Daphne species grow slowly as understory shrubs (Jeanrenaud 1985; Kharal et al. 2011). Highest density occurs between 2100 m and 2800 m on north-facing slope. On east- and west-facing slopes, the tendency is toward stands of medium density, whereas the south-facing slopes have scattered population (Jeanrenaud 1984b). They generally favor sites, with Quercus, Rhododendron, Hemlock (Tsuga dumosa), or fir (Abies species) (Jeanrenaud 1984a, b; FSRO 1984), and are also found to a lesser extent in upper mixed broad-leaved forests. They are almost completely absent in forest dominated by blue pine (Pinus wallichiana), deodar (Cedrus deodara), and spruce (Picea smithiana). They prefer medium to light crown cover and usually avoid sites with dense crown cover not more than 70% or large open areas (Dhungana and Khatri-Chhetri 1995). They appear to thrive on a wide range of soil types but generally favor moist sites with rich organic humus layer overlying well-drained sandy loam or brown earth (Jackson 1994; ANSAB 2003). R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia

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Daphne bholua: Shrubs evergreen or deciduous, creeping or erect, 1–2.6 ( 4) m tall. Branches brownish, becoming dark brown suffused with purple, sparsely hirsute, soon glabrescent. Leaves alternate, clustered at stem apex; petiole 1– 5 mm; leaf blade dull dark green, narrowly elliptic or oblong-lanceolate, (3.5–)5– 17  (1–)1.7–3.2 cm, thinly leathery, both surfaces glabrous, base broadly cuneate, margin sometimes slightly revolute and/or undulate, apex acute, rarely acuminate or obtuse; veins 6–16 pairs. Inflorescences terminal or axillary, (5–)7–12( 15)-flowered; peduncle almost absent; bracts paired, caducous, broadly lanceolate or oblongovate, 14–18  about 4 mm, sericeous, apex caudate. Flowers fragrant; pedicel absent or to 4 mm, articulate, densely sericeous. Calyx purplish red or red at least abaxially; tube cylindric, 7–10( 12) mm, exterior densely sericeous; lobes 4, ovate, 5–7  3–5 mm, abaxially pubescent, apex slightly retuse to subacute. Stamens 8, lower whorl inserted above middle of calyx tube, upper whorl reaching mouth; filaments about 0.5 mm; anthers about 2 mm. Disk cupular, about 1 mm wide, margin entire. Ovary cylindric-pyriform, about 4 mm, glabrous, shortly stipitate; style about 0.5 mm; stigma capitate. Drupe black, ovoid, 7–8  about 5 mm. Flowering January to March, fruiting April to May (Subedi et al. 2006; Khadgi et al. 2013; Jeanrenaud 1984; Wu et al. 1994–2013, 2007) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3). Daphne bholua extends from Uttar Pradesh in India, through Nepal, Southern Tibet, Northern Assam Bengal, Sikkim, and Bhutan to Southwest China. It occurs between 1800 m and 3600 m and occasionally extends up to 4000 m in the east Nepal (Subedi et al. 2006). However, in the west, where annual precipitation is less and the tree line correspondingly lower, it rarely exceeds 3000 m. Daphne bholua appears more gregariously in the moist conifer and broad-leaved forests of the temperate Himalayas (Jeanrenaud 1984a; Jackson 1994; ANSAB 2003). Similarly, the distribution of D. papyracea, which extends from Pakistan to Central Nepal, occurs between 1600 m and 2500 m and occasionally extends up to 3000 m (Jeanrenaud 1984b; Jackson 1994). However, it is less frequent than Daphne bholua both horizontally and vertically and appears to be generally less gregarious in habit. Heavily collected (Kunwar et al. 2013, 2020) (Figs. 4 and 5). Fig. 1 Daphne bholua (Thymelaeaceae), plant at Bhitteri CF, Dolakha district, Nepal. (Photo Shambhu Charmakar)

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Fig. 2 Daphne bholua (Thymelaeaceae), flowering plant, Nepal. (Photo Kalyan Gauli)

Fig. 3 Daphne bholua (Thymelaeaceae), flowering plant, Nepal. (Photo Kalyan Gauli)

Daphne mucronata: Shrubs up to 2.5 m tall. Younger branches often tomentose. Leaves alternate or scattered, 3–5.8 cm long, 0.4–1 cm broad, elliptic-oblong to lanceolate, mucronate, less often obtuse, coriaceous, sessile. Flowers white, in axillary or terminal clusters, subsessile. Corolla tube 6–8 mm long, tomentose, dilated at the base, 4-lobed; lobes ovate to obovate, c. 4 mm long, spreading. Stamens 8, 2-seriate, upper 4 antisepalous, subsessile. Ovary ovoid, c. 2.5 mm long, pubescent. Style absent; stigma capitate. Berry subglobose, c. 10 mm long, pubescent, orange. Flowering April to September. From Garhwal westward to Murree, 1–3000 m alt. s.m.; Afghanistan, W. Pakistan, Iran, N. Africa, and S. Europe. A xerophytic shrub common along riverbanks from 800 to 3000 m; in trans-Indus, Hazara, Kaghan, Poonch, etc. The leaves are poisonous but are tolerated by goats; can be applied for abscesses (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020). The species is regarded as vulnerable (Ahmad Jan et al. 2019) (Figs. 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12).

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Fig. 4 Daphne bholua (Thymelaeaceae), potential Lokta habitat distribution in Nepal

Fig. 5 Daphne bholua (Thymelaeaceae), FSC-certified Lokta habitat in Dolakha. (Photo Shambhu Charmakar)

Daphne papyracea: Shrubs evergreen, to 1.5 m tall. Branches grayish brown or black or purplish red or brown, glabrous or tomentose. Leaves alternate; petiole 1–15 mm, glabrescent; leaf blade ovate, lanceolate, elliptic, or oblanceolate,

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Fig. 6 Daphne mucronata (Thymelaeaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

6–16  1.5–4 cm, thinly leathery, membranous, or papery, both surfaces glabrous, base cuneate, apex acuminate or obtuse; veins 6–15 pairs. Inflorescences terminal, fasciculate, 3–10( 12)-flowered; peduncle about 2 mm, sericeous; bracts caducous, ovate, 7–15  3–4 mm, sparsely sericeous, apex acuminate. Flowers not fragrant; pedicel about 2 mm, densely sericeous. Calyx white or greenish white, sometimes flushed pink; tube narrowly funnel-shaped, (5–)10–15( 18) mm, exterior sericeous; lobes 4, ovate, 4–11  2–5 mm, apex acute or obtuse. Stamens 8, lower whorl inserted at middle of calyx tube, upper whorl in throat; filaments short; anthers oblong, 1–2 mm; upper ones partly exserted from calyx tube. Disk cup-shaped, margin slightly undulate to obscurely serrate. Ovary cylindric, 2–4 mm, glabrous; style very short; stigma capitate, papillose. Drupe red, ovoid-pyriform, 8–10 mm. Flowering November to January, fruiting April to May (Jeanrenaud 1984; Wu et al. 1994–2013, 2007) (Fig. 13).

Local Medicinal Uses Daphne bholua contains toxic resins. Taraxerone has been isolated from the leaves such as the daphnoretin, and β-sitosterol could be isolated from the bark, stem, and roots. Daphnin, sterol, and three glycosides (G-1, G-2, and amorphous G-3) have been isolated from the roots of Daphne papyracea. G-1 and G-3 are identified as flavonoid glucosides but not characterized. Daphnetin, daphnetin-8-β-glucoside,

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Fig. 7 Daphne mucronata (Thymelaeaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 8 Daphne mucronata (Thymelaeaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

taraxerol and its acetate taraxerone, daphnetin, and β-sitosterol-D-glucoside have been isolated from aerial parts (Rastogi and Mehrotra 1979). Daphne bholua is used to treat fever and as anthelminthic (Kunwar et al. 2010), as well as to treat respiratory disorders (Mohagheghzadeh and Faridi 2006).

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Fig. 9 Daphne mucronata (Thymelaeaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 10 Daphne mucronata (Thymelaeaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Daphne mucronata: Roots and fruit are used for stomach and intestinal problems and vomiting (Irfan et al. 2018). Plant is used for weakness and disease in milk production of cattle (Khan et al. 2019). Fruits are narcotic (Hussain et al. 2006). Fruit and bark of the plant are used as anti-inflammatory (Barakatullah et al. 2015). Whole

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Fig. 11 Daphne mucronata (Thymelaeaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 12 Daphne mucronata (Thymelaeaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

plant is used in jaundice and rheumatism (Irfan et al. 2018). Fruit and root of the plant are used for gonorrhea and as anthelmintic. Plant is used in treatment of rheumatic disorders (Malik et al. 2018). Leaves of the plant are used for diarrhea and dysentery for cattle and goats (Farooq et al. 2012). Fruit is edible. Its poultice is used for rheumatism (Hamayun 2003). Plant leaves and fruits are used against rheumatism (Akhtar et al. 2013). Fruit pulp is used to remove pimples and freckles (Bano et al. 2014). The powdered plant material is used for wound healing. When bones are fractured, it is used as a plaster and also used against hepatitis. Powdered leaf is used for body pains. Its use is highly praised as a building material (Khan et al. 2015a, b). Plant fruit and bark are used as anti-inflammatory and purgative and for rheumatism (Khan et al. 2015a, b). Fruit powder is used to cure pimples and freckles (Ahmad et al. 2006). The plant is used as purgative, for swellings, and for

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Fig. 13 Daphne papyracea (Thymelaeaceae), Baruwa in Khaptad. (Photo Ripu Kunwar)

gastrointestinal disease (Hassan et al. 2017). Dried ground fruits are used orally for quick wound healing and also for lumbago (Sher et al. 2016). Plant is used as anthelmintic (Muhammad et al. 2019). Plant powder is used for wounds, abdominal pain, swellings, and gastrointestinal disease (Hassan et al. 2019). Daphne mucronata serves to treat hair loss (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018), large kidney stones, eye problems, and toothache (Mükemre et al. 2015; Wali et al. 2019), as well as rheumatism (Mükemre et al. 2015). It is used in Kashmir to treat boils (Gairola et al. 2014). Daphne papyracea: The flavonoid compounds found in this plant, exhibit sedative and hypotensive effects (Katti and Tandon 1979). Its ethanol extracts exhibit strong cytotoxic effects (Basu and Nasipuri 1962). Compounds isolated from the plant exhibit inhibitory activity against the hepatitis C virus (HCV) (Ying et al. 2018). The identification of economic value of its chemical components and their uses are yet to be known in Nepal. It is used for wound treatment (Sher et al. 2016). It is used also for gonorrhea and skin diseases and as febrifuge and purgative (Gairola et al. 2014). Daphne caucasica: The stems are chewed for toothache (Bussmann et al. 2019; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017). Daphne glomerata: A bark extract is used for rheumatism and gout. The leaves are chewed for toothache (Bussmann et al. 2019; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017). Daphne mezereum: The leaves are used for treating jaundice and dysentery. A root extract is used as hypnotics and antiepileptic, as well as for malignant tumors. In Armenia Daphne is used to treat colitis and gastrointestinal diseases. Fruits and leaves are used as antiseptic and fungicide in scab, fungus diseases, and insect bite. An ointment is used externally in vitiligo and applied to ulcerous wound mixed with honey. The decoction of all plant parts is used in urethritis and as anthelmintic. An infusion and decoction is also applied for toothache and hemorrhages. The exudate of the bark, collected in early spring, is used as external sedative for neuralgic and

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rheumatic problems. The leaves are chewed for toothache (Bussmann et al. 2019; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017). Daphne pontica: In Georgia (Abkhazia) an infusion of the leaves is used as emetic. The leaves are used as purgative tea (Bussmann et al. 2019; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017). Daphne oleoides: It is used for skin diseases and as purgative (Gairola et al. 2014).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Traditionally, Lokta leaves are used as a fodder for goats, and the stem, after extracting the bark, is used as a fuel wood to cook the food (Charmakar et al. 2014). Seeds are taken for stomachache and as anthelmintic (Kunwar et al. 2010). A decoction of the bark is used to treat fevers (GoN 2007) and expel leeches from the noses of cattle (Bhandary and Shrestha 1984); root extract is used for intestinal disorder (Burlakoti and Kunwar 2008) and powder from its seeds are used as an anthelmintic (Rajbhandari 2001; Manandhar 2002). Similarly, the Lokta handmade papers from its bark are used in preparing horoscopes of the children, dressing wounds, and wrapping the incense that is used in most of the worshipping function in Nepal since centuries (Subedi et al. 2006). Locally, handmade paper has been used for government records, religious texts, and literature in Nepal for many years. The inner fibrous bark of these species is commonly used for the manufacture of handmade paper (Jeanrenaud 1984b). Handmade paper is used as raw materials to produce different types of end products, for instance, greeting cards, stationery products (notebooks, printing paper, envelops), lampshades, wrapping papers, boxes and bags, thankas (traditional Tibetan painting), wallpapers, Christmas cards, and exported to several countries. Handmade paper has been praised for its attractive texture, durable character, anti-pest properties, and eco-friendly nature (Subedi et al. 2006, 2014). Further, its cultural attachment to the host country is another important aspect of the products that attract international buyers (Subedi et al. 2015). Daphne species are available in 487,378 hectares of forests in 55 districts of Nepal, of which 25 districts witness its abundant supply (Subedi et al. 2014). The Department of Forest Research and Survey under the Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation has estimated the total stock of Lokta bark in the country is 110,481 t, which can support the sustainable production of over 950 t of paper every year (Subedi et al. 2006). It is more than six times the volume of around 150 t of handmade paper produced in the country in 2014. Normally, the Lokta are available in both community- and government-managed forests; thousands of poor families collect its bark from wild habitat and sell; and small-scale local producers make Lokta paper individually or in groups. Out of 22,266 community forests in Nepal, a total of 89 (12, 282 ha) from Dolakha and Bajhang districts have been FSC certified for Non-Timber Forest Products including Lokta. The history of papermaking as a rural-based cottage industry in Nepal can be traced back to the twelfth century AD (Jeanrenaud 1984). Handmade paper was

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probably the only paper available that time, especially for its use in religious texts and legal documents (Subedi et al. 2006). After the 1930s, mass production of modern paper initiated in India and China, handmade paper has become a niche product with increasing demand from socially and environmentally conscious international and national consumers. It is one of the key sources of income for thousands of poor families, women, and marginalized communities living in the remote areas of the country (Charmakar et al. 2014). HANDPASS (2003) stated that handmade paper products are exported to 60 countries, major importers being the USA, the UK, France, Japan, and Switzerland, with an export value of nearly NRs 550 ml (about US$5 ml) in 2012/2013 (Subedi et al. 2014). According to the NTIS 2010, the EU contributes to about 60% of the total export of Nepalese handmade paper. The top export items to the EU are office paper, writing pads, files, folders, binders, and envelopes (Subedi et al. 2015). Subedi et al. (2015) reported that Himalayan Bio Trade Limited, one of the FSC-certified companies, exported handmade Lokta paper worth of US$ 0.25 ml in 2014. These products are sold through retail outlets in urban areas of Nepal or exported (Figs. 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, and 22). The trade of the last two decades shows that the supply is decreasing in trend. The annual collection and trade volume was recorded about 136 MT in average during 2000–2009 where it decreased to 21.54 MT during 2010–2017 (DoF 2017). An average of 180 t of Lokta were collected and traded in 2004 and peaked to 322 t in 2009. Since 2009, its collection and trade was dramatically declined and plummeted to 10 t in 2017 (DoF 2017). This entire pattern hinted us clearly that the production and collection of Lokta is quite unsustainable. The price of dried bark for harvesters reached NRs 160/kg in 2020 from NRs. 25/kg in 2000. Likewise, the processor price was NR 500 for 1 Kori of paper (200 sheets) in Terhathum District in the fiscal year 1993/1994 and ranges from NRs 1000 to NRs 2000 per Kori in Kathmandu (Dutta 1994), whereas market price of a Kori handmade paper was recorded to be NRs. 2200 to NRs. 6000 depending on its weight and quality in 2019.

Fig. 14 Transportation and primary processing of Lokta bark, Nepal. (Photo Shambhu Charmakar)

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Fig. 15 Papermaking by women in Hasta Argeli Processing Enterprise, Dolakha, Nepal. (Photo Shambhu Charmakar) Fig. 16 Daphne harvesting. (Photo Kalyan Gauli)

While the overall status of Daphne (Lokta) conservation is not known, the positive trend is apparent toward the mitigation of threats and promotion of conservation practices. There are examples in Dolakha and Bajhang, where some community forest user groups (CFUGs) are managing the Lokta forest that meet the international standards of sustainability, which have been certified under FSC certification. The other actors including paper producers and manufactures have increased awareness and concerns about sustainable supply of Lokta. Some companies have already established connection with CFUGs, and a few of them participated in FSC chain-of-custody certification (Subedi et al. 2014). However,

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Fig. 17 Daphne primary processing. (Photo Kalyan Gauli)

Fig. 18 Boiling Daphne bark. (Photo Kalyan Gauli)

overharvesting and lack of sustainable management practices, in most of other government-managed, community-managed, and private forests in Nepal, are key to depleting wild population of Lokta. This, as shade demanding understory species, is dependent on the forest ecosystem for their habitat, and thus their management must be viewed in this wider context (Jeanrenaud 1984a, b) for the sustainability of the handmade paper industries and livelihood of the dependent local communities in Nepal. Daphne mucronata: The bark is used in bone diseases and for washing hair. Gunpowder charcoal is said to be made from its wood. The fruit can be eaten and is used as a dye for leather (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020). Fresh leaves and flowers are taken and are shade dried for 15 days and subjected to powder which is then mixed with gurr and

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Fig. 19 Cleaning Daphne after boiling. (Photo Kalyan Gauli)

Fig. 20 Daphne papermaking. (Photo Kalyan Gauli)

flour and given for the expulsion of worms in cattle and buffalo (Aziz et al. 2018). Extract of leaves is used to kill lice on animals’ body hairs (Irfan et al. 2018). The bark of many species can be used to weave small baskets and hats. All species are planted as ornamentals. All parts of all the species are poisonous and skin irritants. Very good honey plants (Bussmann et al. 2019; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017). Daphne caucasica: The extract is used against ectoparasites in veterinary medicine (Bussmann et al. 2019; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017). Daphne mezereum: Leaves and stems are boiled, and the concoction is applied against ectoparasites. It has a beautiful shrub, mainly during flowering season (flowers have fragrant flavor). It can be used in parks and gardens. A dye solution is prepared from the bark and fruits to obtain yellow and beige colors. The dye is

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Fig. 21 Daphne paper. (Photo Kalyan Gauli)

Fig. 22 Daphne paper. (Photo Kalyan Gauli)

used for dyeing wool yarn as well as products made of wool. Small wickers are made from branches. It is a nectariferous plant (Bussmann et al. 2019; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017).

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Datura stramonium L. SOLANACEAE Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Datura stramonium L.: Datura bertolonii Parl. ex Guss.; Datura inermis Juss. ex Jacq.; Datura lurida Salisb.; Datura nigra Hassk; Datura parviflora Salisb.; Datura pseudostramonium Sieber ex Bernh.; Datura stramonium var. tatula (L.) Torr.; Datura tatula L.; Stramonium foetidum Scop.; Stramonium spinosum Lam.; Stramonium tatula (L.) Moench; Stramonium vulgatum Gaertn.

Local Names Datura stramonium: Jammu: Datura; Kashmir: Datur; Miao: gouhe tao 曼陀; 罗 man tuo luo; Naga: Kohima sangjem; Baltistan: Tandouro; English: Datura; Pashto: Daltora ‫ډﺎﻟﺘﻮﺭﺍ‬ H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_77

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Botany and Ecology Datura stramonium: Annual. Plant (12)20–100(120) cm tall, fetid. Root fusiform, with numerous slender branches, white. Stem simple or dichotomously branched above, green, glabrous; branches pubescent on inner side, usually diverging at acute angle. Leaves with petioles equaling lamina or about half as long; basal leaves up to 20 cm long and broad, ovate, acuminate, cuneate at base, margin with large unequal acute or acuminate teeth, simple, rarely incised, upper surface dark green, lighter beneath, both surfaces sparsely puberulent, slightly more densely underneath (or pubescent only underneath). Flowers solitary in bifurcations of stem and branches, on straight, erect, pubescent, 7–12-mm-long pedicels. Calyx 4–6 cm long, pale green, 5-angled, tubular, slightly inflated, with 5 acuminate teeth. Corolla 6–10(12) cm long, white, infundibuliform, with long narrow tube and plicate broad limb, cleft into 5 (very rarely 6) short broadly triangular lobes, sharply tapering above into slender 5–8-mm-long cusp. Ovary densely covered with soft bristles, style slender, long. Fruit ovoid or subglobose capsule, surrounded below by recurved persistent, calyx base, spiny, often sparsely so in lower part, spines distinctly longer and thicker at apex. Seeds reniform 3(3.5) mm long, black, with very finely pitted reticulate surface and large shallow indentations, mainly near bulging external margin. Flowering April to September, fruiting July to October. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, weedy, near human settlements, garbage, on wasteland, along roads, as weed in crops, to the mid-mountain belt. Sometimes cultivated (Shishkin and Boborov 1955) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8).

Fig. 1 Datura stramonium (Solanaceae), Bale, Ethiopia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

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Fig. 2 Datura stramonium (Solanaceae), Cusco, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Alkaloids (scopolamine, hyoscyamine, hyosuine, tropine, acetyltropine, bellaradine, atropine, apoatropine, noratropine, noryosuyamine, tigloidin, meteloidine, belladonnanine, apogiosuine, 2,6-dihydroxytropane, tigloidine), lectins, steroids, phenylcarboxylic acids, flavonoids, steroids (28-isofucosterol, fucosterol, 28-isocytostadienol, citrostadienol, cholesterol, campesterol, stigmasterol, sitosterol, 24-ethylidene cholesterol), fatty acids (linoleic, oleic, palmitic, stearic, palmitooleic, arachidonic) (Sokolov 1990).

Local Medicinal Uses Datura stramonium: In the Altai, it is used for depression, convulsions, hiccups, stuttering, tetanus, whooping cough, epilepsy, mental illnesses, and externally for ulcers, burns, tumors, mastitis, conjunctivitis, and erysipelas. In the Northern Caucasus, Datura is used for pleurisy and as anthelmintic. In the Ural, the extract serves to treat asthma, rheumatism, arthritis, pleurisy, stomach ulcers, burns, toothache, and eczema (Sokolov 1990). The leaves are crushed and applied to abscesses with pus,

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Fig. 3 Datura stramonium (Solanaceae), Lagodekhi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Datura stramonium (Solanaceae), Lagodekhi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

deep thorns, and infected swollen wounds. This will extract the thorn/pus (Bussmann et al. 2011). The leaves can be applied to boils and sores, and the flowers are used to remedy dandruff and hair loss (Joshi et al. 2010; Kunwar et al. 2009). In Kenya the extract is used for tonsillitis (Njoroge et al. 2004; Njoroge and Bussmann

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Fig. 5 Datura stramonium (Solanaceae), Lagodekhi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 6 Datura stramonium (Solanaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

2006) and skin swellings (Njoroge et al. 2004; Njoroge and Bussmann 2007). Poultice of flowers is applied to wounds to reduce pain; seeds are narcotic in nature (Akhtar et al. 2013). Green leaves are applied for the softening of the boils. Juice of

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Fig. 7 Datura stramonium (Solanaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 8 Datura stramonium (Solanaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

the fruit is applied to scalp for falling hairs and as antidandruff. Juice of the flower is used in earache. One drop is poured in the ear at night (Shah and Khan 2006). Plant is used for asthma and bronchitis (Kayani et al. 2014). The peeled off dried stems and shoots are placed over affected joints and burned to treat rheumatic problems (Shah

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and Hussain 2012). Locally plant is used for softening of the boils and earache (Haq et al. 2011). Flower juice is used for earaches. Fruit juice is used to treat dandruff and hair loss. Seeds are burned then placed on a toothache or are used as an antispasmodic and narcotic. A paste of dried leaves is applied to boils and sores (Qureshi et al. 2007). Seeds contain alkaloids which are anodyne, viz., relieves pain from the body (Irfan et al. 2018). The petals and leaves are mixed and crushed and obtained juice is administered for ulcers (Jamal et al. 2017). Seeds are used as narcotic, while leave extract is used for toothache and headache. Generally it is a poisonous plant (Hassan et al. 2015). Leave poultice is used to cure breast inflammation (Jan et al. 2020). The seeds and the leaves are thought to be poisonous for both cattle and men. The seeds are used also in hamlets for spiritual healing (Abbas et al. 2019). Used against dandruff, toothache, earache, as anthelminthic and to treat wounds (Teklehaymanot and Giday 2007; Wali et al. 2019), for rheumatic problems, asthma, tuberculosis, digestive disorders, wounds, burns and hemorrhoids (Kunwar et al. 2015; Mohagheghzadeh and Faridi 2006; Miraldi et al. 2001), and to relieve back pain (Kichu et al. 2015). For respiratory infections, it is also used as sedative and emetic, for cough, against tremors in the elderly, frigidity, jaundice, and hypertension (Kharchoufa et al. 2018). In Ethiopia it is used to treat tinea versicolor (Yineger et al. 2008), gum ailments, rabies, fungal skin infections (Wondimu et al. 2007), toothache (Giday et al. 2009), hemorrhoids, and weight loss in children (Giday et al. 2007). It is used by the Miao to treat bronchitis, asthma, toothache, and stomach pain (Ma et al. 2019). It is applied as blood purifier (Kala et al. 2004) and externally for mumps (Harsha et al. 2002). In Jammu and Kashmir used as antispasmodic, to treat asthma, boils, bronchitis, ear ailments, impotence, insect bites, intestinal worms, jaundice, as analgesic, for respiratory disorders, swellings, headache, skin diseases, as anthelmintic, antiseptic, cough, frostbite, joint pain, as tonic, toothache, as aphrodisiac, to remedy insanity (Gairola et al. 2014). Datura metel is used to treat wounds, leprosy, cough, and gonorrhea and as anthelmintic (Jain et al. 2005), for dandruff, hair loss, skin infections, asthma, and whooping cough (Gairola et al. 2014). Datura inoxia is used for pain relief (Gairola et al. 2014). Datura ferox, Datura metel, Datura inoxia, and Datura wrightii are all used to treat respiratory tract diseases (Mohagheghzadeh and Faridi 2006).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Datura stramonium: In veterinary medicine, the extract is used topically as antispastic and for wound healing. The extract is used as insecticide for aphids, spider mites, bedbugs, and caterpillars. This plant is highly toxic (Sokolov 1990). The species has been used as magical plant for a long time (Bussmann 2016), and also as narcotic, and hallucinogen (Kharchoufa et al. 2018). It is also used as mosquito repellent (Karunamoorthi et al. 2009).

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References Abbas Z, Alam J, Muhammad S, Bussmann RW, Khan SM, Hussain M. Phyto-cultural diversity of the Shigar valley (Central Karakorum) Baltistan, Northern Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18:1–18. Akhtar N, Rashid A, Murad W, Bergmeier E. Diversity and use of ethno-medicinal plants in the region of Swat, North Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1):25. Bussmann RW. Magic plants. In: Albuquerque U, Alves R, editors. Introduction to ethnobiology. Heidelberg: Springer International Publishing; 2016. p. 163–9. Bussmann RW, Swartzinsky P, Worede A, Evangelista P. Plant use in Odo-Bulu and Demaro, Bale region, Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2011;7:28. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh BY. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Giday M, Teklehaymanot T, Animut A, Mekonnen Y. Medicinal plants of the Shinasha, Agew-awi and Amhara peoples in Northwest Ethiopia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;110:516–25. Giday M, Asfaw Z, Woldu Z. Medicinal plants of the Meinit ethnic group of Ethiopìa: an ethnobotanical study. J Ethnopharmacol. 2009;124:513–21. Habib-Ul-Hassan WM, Ahmad N, Tariq A, Khan I, Akhtar N, Jan S. Indigenous uses of the plants of Malakand valley, district Dir (Lower), Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Pak J Weed Sci Res. 2015;21(1):83–99. Haq F, Ahmad H, Alam M. Traditional uses of medicinal plants of Nandiar Khuwarr catchment (District Battagram), Pakistan. J Med Plants Res. 2011;5(1):39–48. Harsha VH, Hebbar SS, Hegde GR, Shripathi V. Kunabi tribe of Karnataka in India. Fitoterapia. 2002;73:281–7. Irfan M, Khan I, Ali A, Khan R, Ali A, Jan G. Ethnomedicinal uses of the plants of tehsil Laalqilla, district lower Dir, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. J Appl Environ Biol Sci. 2018;8(6):61–6. Jain A, Katewa SS, Galav PK, Sharma P. Medicinal plant diversity of Sitamata wildlife sanctuary, Rajasthan, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102:143–57. Jamal Z, Pervez A, Hussain M, Shah GM, Shah SH, Ahmed M. Ethnomedicinal plants used for gastrointestinal ailments by the rural communities of Kaghan Valley, Mansehra, Pakistan. J Appl Environ Biol Sci. 2017;7(12):41–8. Jan HA, Jan S, Bussmann RW, Ahmad L, Wali S, Ahmad N. Ethnomedicinal survey of the plants used for gynecological disorders by the indigenous community of District Buner, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2020;19:1–18. Joshi M, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal uses of plant resources of the Haigad watershed in Kumaun Himalaya. Med Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010;4(special issue 1):43–6. Kala CP, Farooquee NA, Dhar U. Prioritization of medicinal plants on the basis of available knowledge, existing practices and use value status in Uttaranchal, India. Biodivers Conserv. 2004;13:453–69. Karunamoorthi K, Mulelam A, Wassie F. Assessment of knowledge and usage custom of traditional insect/mosquito repellent plants in Addis Zemen Town, South Gonder, North Western Ethiopia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2009;121:49–53. Kayani S, Ahmad M, Zafar M, Sultana S, Khan MPZ, Ashraf MA, Yaseen G. Ethnobotanical uses of medicinal plants for respiratory disorders among the inhabitants of Gallies – Abbottabad, Northern Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;156:47–60. Kharchoufa L, Merrouni IA, Yamani A, Elachouri M. Profile on medicinal plants used by the people of North Eastern Morocco: toxicity concerns. Toxicon. 2018;154:90–113. Kichu A, Malewska T, Akter K, Imchen I, Harrington D, Kohen J, Vemulpad SR, Jamie JF. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of Chungtia village, Nagaland, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;166:5–17. Kunwar RM, Upreti Y, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Indigenous use and ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in Far-west Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009;7:5–28.

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Kunwar RM, Acharya RP, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plant dynamics in indigenous medicines in Farwest Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;163:210–9. Ma Y, Liu D, Cheng H, Bussmann RW, He H, Guo Z, Liu B. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by Miao people in Jijiezi, Yunnan, China. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18:26. https:// doi.org/10.32859/era.18.26.1-14. Miraldi E, Ferri S, Mostaghimi V. Botanical drugs and preparations in the traditional medicine of West Azerbaijan (Iran). J Ethnopharmacol. 2001;75:77–87. Mohagheghzadeh A, Faridi P. Medicinal smokes. J Ethnopharmacol. 2006;108:161–84. Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Traditional management of ear, nose and throat (ENT) diseases in Central Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:54. Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Ethnotherapeutic management of skin diseases among the Kikuyus of Central Kenya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;111:303–7. Njoroge GN, Barbara G, Bussmann RW, Newton LE, Ngumi VW. Utilization of weed species as source of traditional medicines in Central Kenya: optimizing resource efficiency (R.U.E.) in agro-ecosystems. Lyonia. 2004;7(2):71–87. Qureshi RA, Ghufran MA, Sultana KN, Ashraf M, Khan AG. Ethnomedicinal studies of medicinal plants of Gilgit District and surrounding areas. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2007;5:115–22. Shah SM, Hussain F. Ethnomedicinal plant wealth of Mastuj valley, Hindukush range, District Chitral, Pakistan. J Med Plant Res. 2012;6:4328–37. Shah GM, Khan MA. Common medicinal folk recipes of siran valley, Mansehra, Pakistan. Ethnobot Leafl. 2006;1:5. Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, Volume 22: Solanaceae and Scrophulariaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk. 1955 (English 1993). 745 p. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 5. Families of Caprifoliaceae – Plantaginaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1990, 328 p. (in Russian). Teklehaymanot T, Giday M. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by people in Zegie Peninsula, Northwestern Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3:12. https://doi.org/10.1186/ 1746-4269-3-12. Wali R, Rahman K, Raja NI, Qureshi R, Bussmann RW, ZUR M. A quantitative medico botanical expedition of Fairy Meadows National Park, Diamir, Gilgit Baltistan, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18:35. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.35.1-30. Wondimu T, Asfaw Z, Kelbessa E. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants around ‘Dheeraa’ town, Arsi Zone, Ethiopia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;112:152–61. Yineger H, Kelbessa E, Bekele T, Lulekal E. Plants used in traditional management of human ailments at Bale Mountains National Park, Southeastern Ethiopia. J Med Plants Res. 2008;26:132–53.

Debregeasia longifolia (Burm. f.) Wedd. URTICACEAE Giridhar Amatya, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Debregeasia longifolia (Burm. f.) Wedd.: Boehmeria angustata (Bl.) Hassk.; Boehmeria dichotoma (Bl.) Hassk.; Conocephalus niveus Wight; Debregeasia angustifolia C. B. Rob.; Debregeasia dichotoma (Bl.) Wedd.; Debregeasia libera Chien & C.J. Chen in C.J. Chen; Debregeasia luteocarpa Elmer; Debregeasia velutina Gaud.; Leucocnide affinis Miq.; Leucocnide angustata (Bl.) Bl.; Leucocnide dichotoma (Bl.) Miq.; Leucocnide sororia Miq.; Missiessya velutina (Gaud.) Wedd.; Morocarpus affinis Bl.; Morocarpus angustatus Bl. Subedi R. Ethnobotanical study of panchase protected forest, Kaski district, Central Nepal. 2017. Zoll.; Morocarpus dichotomus (Bl.) Bl.; Morocarpus longifolius (N. L. Burm.) Bl.; Morocarpus sororius Miq.; Morocarpus G. Amatya Mooswan Herby Industry, Kathmandu, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_78

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velutinus Blume; Trema lancifolia Ridl.; Urtica angustata Bl.; Urtica dichotoma Bl.; Urtica longifolia Bur. f.; Urtica muricata Heyne ex Wall.; Urtica verrucosa Moon

Local Names Debregeasia longifolia: Hindi: Tusara, Sausaru; Nepali: Tushaare; Chepang: Tipromsi; Gurung: Algudi; Magar: Chimsai; Tamang: Kalengu, Balwapoungi; Gharwal: Shanru; Naga: Natsulawa; Pashto: Alajai; Kumnaun: Tusar; English: Orange Wild Rhe

Botany and Ecology Debregeasia longifolia: Shrubs or small trees 3–6 m tall, dioecious or monoecious. Branchlets slender, reddish, or purplish brown; branchlets and petiole densely spreading hirtellous. Stipules oblong-lanceolate, 6–10 mm, 2-cleft in distal 1/3; petiole 1–4 cm; leaf blade adaxially dark green, oblong- or obovate-lanceolate, sometimes linear or narrowly ovate, 7–18( 23)  1.5–5( 6.5) cm, papery, sometimes thinly so, 3-veined, lateral ones straight, reaching to middle, secondary veins 5–8( 10) on each side from basal 1/3, anastomosing at margin, abaxial surface thinly greenish gray or gray-white tomentose, densely hirtellous on veins, adaxial surface sparsely appressed strigose, sometimes rugose, base rounded or subcordate, rarely broadly cuneate, margin finely serrulate or denticulate throughout, apex acuminate. Inflorescences borne on current and previous years’ branches, 2–4dichotomously branched, 1–2.5 cm; peduncle 0.3–3 cm, spreading hirtellous; glomerules globose, 3–4 mm in diam.; bracts triangular-ovate, about 1 mm, membranous. Male flowers shortly pedicellate, obovoid in bud, 1.2–1.5 mm in diam.; perianth lobes 4, broadly ovate, puberulent abaxially, connate at middle, apex acute; rudimentary ovary sessile, obovoid, about 0.5 mm. Female flowers sessile, obovoid, about 0.8 mm; perianth tube membranous, 4-denticulate at apex. Achene reddish or orange, about 1–1.5 mm, enclosed by fleshy perianth and adnate to it. Flowering August–December, fruiting September–February (Wu et al. 1994–2013, 2003). W.C. & E Nepal. Forests and in shady moist places along the bank of streams and rivulets. Distributed in Nepal, India, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, China, Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Malaysia, at an altitude between 500 and 2600 m (Manandhar 2002; Rajbhandari and Rai 2019) (Fig. 1).

Phytochemistry The leaves are a rich source of main bioactive component. Fruits contain phenolic compounds and flavonoids with potential antioxidant activity. The fruit contains (16.19%) ash, (65.56%) moisture, (2.39%) crude fat, (1.26%) crude fiber, (11.99%) protein, (68.15%) carbohydrate (Mohamed and Mahmoud 2019).

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Fig. 1 Debregeasia salicifolia (Urticaceae), Budar, Doti, Farwestern Nepal. (Photo Giridhar Amatya, 2 Nov 2004)

Local Medicinal Uses Debregeasia longifolia: The juice of the leaves is applied to areas of the skin affected by scabies. The tree tender leaves are taken as a vegetable during dysentery, while the crushed leaves paste is used as a poultice for arthritis. The plant used for therapy for digestive disorders, as a cure for skin illnesses, indigestion, and sunburn (Manandhar 2002; Mohamed and Mahmoud 2019). The bark is used to treat fractures (Joshi et al. 2010; Malik et al. 2015). The leaf decoction is taken orally to treat diabetes, fever, and high blood pressure (Kichu et al. 2015). Used for urticaria and skin problems (Ahmad et al. 2014, 2015). Debregeasia saeneb is used to treat tuberculosis (Gairola et al. 2014).

Local Food Uses Debregeasia longifolia: Ripe fruits are eaten fresh. Boiled leaves are eaten as a delicacy (Kichu et al. 2015). Debregeasia saeneb leaves are eaten (Ahmad et al. 2016).

References Ahmad K, Pieroni A. Folk knowledge of wild food plants among the tribal communities of Thakhte-Sulaiman Hills, North-West Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:17. https://doi.org/10. 1186/s13002-016-0090-2. Ahmad L, Semotiu, Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86.

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Ahmad L, Semoutik A, Zafar M, Ahmad M, Sultana S, Liu Q-R, Zada MP, Ul Abidin SZ, Yaseen G. Ethnopharmacological documentation of medicinal plants used for hypertension among the local communities of DIR Lower, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;175:138–46. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Joshi M, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal uses of plant resources of the Haigad watershed in Kumaun Himalaya. Med Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010;4(Special issue 1):43–6. Kichu A, Malewska T, Akter K, Imchen I, Harrington D, Kohen J, Vemulpad SR, Jamie JF. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of Chungtia village,Nagaland, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;166:5–17. Malik ZA, Bhat J, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhat AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44. Manandhar NP. Plants and people of Nepal. Portland: Timber Press; 2002. p. 190. Mohamed N, Mahmoud O. Debregeasia longifolia: biochemistry, functions and utilization. In: Wild fruits: composition, nutritional value and products. 2019. p. 371–377. http://www.researchgate. net/deref/ https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-31885-7_29. Rajbhandari KR, Rai SK. A handbook of the flowering plants of Nepal, vol. 2. Kathmandu: Department of Plant Resources; 2019. p. 268. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Wu ZY, Raven PH, Hong DY, editors. Flora of China. Volume 5 (Ulmaceae through Basellaceae). Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 2003.

Delphinium brunonianum Royle Delphinium himalayae Munz Delphinium roylei Munz Delphinium vestitum Wall. ex Royle RANUNCULACEAE Hammad Ahmad Jan, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Wahid Hussain, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Synonyms Delphinium brunonianum Royle: Delphinium brunonianum var. aitchisoni Huth; Delphinium brunonianum var. jacquemontianum (Cambess.) Huth; Delphinium brunonianum var. nordhagenii (Wendelbo) Qureshi & Chaudhri; Delphinium foetidum Lomakin; Delphinium jacquemontianum Cambess.; Delphinium minjanense Rech. f.; Delphinium moschatum Munro ex Hook. f. & Thomson f.; Delphinium moschatum Munro ex Hook. f. & Thomson H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan W. Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_79

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Delphinium himalayae Munz: Delphinium himalayense Chowdhury ex Mukerjee (Ghimire et al. 2008). Delphinium roylei Munz: Synonyms: Delphinium incanum E.D. Clarke Delphinium vestitum Wall. ex Royle: Delphinium chitralicum Qureshi & Chaudhri; Delphinium rectivenium Royle; Delphinium vestitum var. sphenolobum Bruhl ex Huth (The Plant List 2013).

Local Lames Delphinium brunonianum: Gilgiti: Makhotun, ‫ ﻣﺎﺧﻮﺗﺎﻧﮓ‬Makhoting; ‫ ﻣﺎﺧﻮﺗﻦ‬Nepali: िवषािद घाँस (Bishadi ghans), Maure; Gurung: (Ponmar); English: musk larkspur, rocket larkspur; Hindi: मखोटी (Makhoti); Urdu: मु कदाना (Mushk Dana), गुलएमामुन (Gul-e-Mamoon); Tibetan: Jagopoe; Chinese: 囊距翠雀花 (nang ju cui que hua) (Wencai and Warnock 2001; Bhattarai et al. 2006; Ghimire et al. 2008); GilgitBaltistan, Makhotimng; Saboonay tokay Delphinium himalayae: Nepali: अितस (Atis), (Nirmansi); Tamang: Bhongmar; Tibetan: Ati Mue, Atik, Atimyue (Kunwar et al. 2006; Ghimire et al. 2008; Uprety et al. 2010). Delphinium roylei: Kashmir: Mameri, Mamri, Morri; Jammu: Mori, mameri Delphinium vestitum: Nepali: िवष (Bish), अितश (Atish), मेवारमुल (Mawar-mul); English: hairy delphinium, clothed delphinium; Hindi: जुहा (Juha), कलुलु (Kalulu); Chinese: 浅裂翠雀花 (qian lie cui que hua) (Wencai and Warnock 2001; Rokaya et al. 2010)

Botany and Ecology Delphinium brunonianum: Perennial herb Stem 10–34 cm tall, puberulent, generally mixed with yellow, glandular hairs, leaves 4–8  5–9 cm wide, base delkete cuneate, moderately to deeply 5-lobed, central lobe broadly rhombic, 3-lobulate, distally incised dentate, apex acute, ultimate lobules narrowly ovate, Flowers blue to purple with broad blunt spurs, woolly-haired, often conspicuously veined; 2–4 in corymb, puberulent and yellow glandular puberulent. Bracts leaflike, oblong. Pedicels 5.5–7 cm; bracteoles distal, elliptic or oblong, up to 2.5 cm. Sepals persistent, pale bluish purple, with shortly conical spur 6–10 mm long. Flowering and fruiting July to October. Himalayan endemic. North-East Afghanistan, Pakistan, Kashmir, North-West and North-East India, West and Central Nepal, South-East Tibetan Plateau. Stony, grassy or gravelly slopes, screes, drier areas, morainic deposits. 3500–6000 m (Polunin and Stainton 1984; Wencai and Warnock 2001; Ghimire et al. 2008; Ƭba et al. 2008; Parajuli 2009; Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Figs. 1, 2 and 3). Delphinium himalayae: Perennial herb up to 80 cm tall; stems erect, simple, rarely branched above middle, sparsely strigose. Leaves deeply 5–9-lobed. Inflorescences terminal racemes 5–18 cm, rachis straight, retrorsely strigose; bracts linear,

Delphinium brunonianum Royle . . .

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Fig. 1 Delphinium brunonianum (Ranunculaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Haider Ali)

Fig. 2 Delphinium brunonianum (Ranunculaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

lanceolate or often 3-lobed, 1–1.8 cm long, strigose. Flowers purplish-blue, 2–9 per raceme; 2–3 cm in diameter. Sepals purple, bluish, spur 2–2.5 cm, down-curved. Upper petals purplish-blue, bristly-hairy outside but hairless inside, obtuse, lower petals blackish purple. Flowering and fruiting occur in July to November. Nepal endemic; West and Central Nepal. Open slopes, most often among tall herbs or shrubs (Parajuli 2012) in subalpine and alpine meadows. 2300–4500 m (Polunin and Stainton 1984; Ghimire et al. 2008; Ƭba et al. 2008).

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Fig. 3 Delphinium brunonianum (Ranunculaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Delphinium roylei: Herb 50–100 cm high, stem simple or with a few branches, densely strigulose. Petioles of lower leaves about 10 cm, blade 5–8 cm in diameter, palmately multipartite, segments cuneate, sharply incised, with lobes 1.5–3 mm wide, pointed, upper leaves smaller, shortly stalked to subsessile. Inflorescence composed of a long, dense central raceme and few short looser lateral racemes. Bracts linear, 5–10 mm long, pedicels 10–25 mm long, recurved at apex, bracteoles 2.5–3 mm, near base of pedicel. Sepals deep blue, strigulose, upper sepal 13– 14  8–9 mm, pointed, spur 15–16 mm long, 3–3.5 mm wide at base, cylindric, horizontal, lateral sepals broadly elliptic-ovate, obtuse, 15  16 mm, lower sepals 15–16  8–9 mm, subovate, pointed. Upper petals pale, lamina glabrous, oblique, 8 mm long, shallowly bidentate, spur 14 mm long, lower petals with deep blue, bearded, roundish lamina 6 mm long, lobed for 3 mm, claw 5 mm long. Stamens 5– 7 mm long, subglabrous. Follicles 3, strigose, 10–15  3–4 mm wide. Seeds 1 mm long, 3-angled, usually with 5 rows of scales. Flowering July to August. Pakistan, Kashmir. Found from 2300 to 2800 m. (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020). Delphinium vestitum: Perennial herb. Root fibrous, often branched. Stems erect, solitary, 20–35 cm tall. Leaves 1–3, 4–9  8–14 cm, shallowly 5–7-lobed. Sepals dull purple to bluish. Spur tubular-conic, 1.2–1.4 cm, base 5–6 mm in diameter. Flowering and fruiting in August to October. Himalayan endemic. Pakistan,

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Kashmir, North-West India, Nepal, Tibetan Plateau. Forest margins subalpine pastures (Parajuli 2012) and open grassy slopes in alpine meadows. 2700– 4700 m (Polunin and Stainton 1984; Wencai and Warnock 2001; Parajuli 2009; Wu et al. 1994–2013).

Local Medicinal Uses Delphinium brunonianum: Used to treat pneumonia, headache, stomachache wounds (Bano et al. 2014), as hair tonic (Abbas et al. 2016, 2017), against arthritis, asthma, backbone ache, and as coolant (Wali et al. 2019). A flower extract is used for cough, chest problems, throat problems, piles, and blood pressure (Khan et al. 2015). In Nepal, the spcies is used to remedy fever, headache, dysentery, jaundice, body swellings, wounds, and to treat appetite loss (Lama et al. 2001; Bhattarai et al. 2006; Ghimire et al. 2008), as well as dysentery (Sacherer 1979), and for toothache (Kunwar et al. 2012). Employed for fever and jaundice (Rajbhandari et al. 2007), to treat pneumonia, headache, and stomachache in Karakoram, Pakistan (Bano et al. 2014). Delphinium himalayae is a species endemic to Nepal, and heavily impacted by collection, especially for sale (Kunwar et al. 2006; Ghimire et al. 2006, 2008; Uprety et al. 2010). Used to treat snakebite, cough, fever, liver problems, bile disorders, headache, stomach pain, wounds (Kunwar and Adhikari 2005; Kunwar et al. 2006; Ghimire et al. 2008), appetite loss, diarrhea, cold, cough, and fever (Rokaya et al. 2010; Uprety et al. 2010). Delphinium vestitum: Used as anthelmentic, antiseptic, and to treat headache, fever, and diarrhea (Bhattarai 1992; Manandhar 2002; Baral and Kurmi 2006; Rokaya et al. 2010), body swellings (Bhat et al. 2013), snakebites, cuts, wounds (Samant et al. 2007). Delphinium cashmerianum is used to treat colics and throat ache (Kala 2005). Delphinium denundatum is used for painful piles, muscular atrophy, and gout (Jeelani et al. 2013), as well as against snakebite and scorpion stings (Phondani et al. 2010). Delphinium nordhagenii serves to induce vomiting, to remedy urinary problems, and as anthelminthic (Kayani et al. 2015). Delphinium roylei: for backache, rheumatism, toothache, and skin eruptions (Gairola et al. 2014). Delphinium vestitum helps to remedy menstrual problems (Kayani et al. 2015). Delphinium denudatum: Used as anthelminthic and for liver ailments, toothache, fever, gout, muscular atrophy, piles, skin eruptions, ulcers, and urinary disorders (Gairola et al. 2014). Delphinium elatum: used as anthelminthic (Gairola et al. 2014). Delphinium viscosum used to treat joint pain, edema, inflammation, cold, cough, and fever (Gairola et al. 2014).

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses Delphinium brunonianum: Used sometimes as forage (Wali et al. 2019), and to treat dysentery in cattle (Ghimire et al. 2008). The leaves are used to kill ticks in livestock (Polunin and Stainton 1984). Delphinium himalayae: Used to treat diseases in hooves of cattle (Rokaya et al. 2010). Delphinium cashmerianum, Delphinium Denundatum, and Delphinium roylei are used as an insecticide in different parts of India (Kala 2005; Jeelani et al. 2013).

References Abbas Z, Mulk Khan S, Mehmood Abbasi A, Pieroni A, Ullah Z, Iqbal M, Ahmad Z. Ethnobotany of the Balti community, Tormik valley, Karakorum range, Baltistan, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12(1):38. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0114-y. Abbas Z, Khan SM, Alam J, Khan SW, Abbasi AM. Medicinal plants used by inhabitants of the Shigar Valley, Baltistan region of Karakorum range-Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13(1):53. Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan and Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995–2020. Ambasta SSP. The useful plants of India. New Delhi: Publications & Information Directorate CSIR; 1986. Asif H, Alamgeer, Bukhari IA, Vohra F, Afzal S, Khan SW, et al. Phytochemical analysis of crude extract of Delphinium brunonianum and its effect on hypertension and metabolic perturbations in fructose fed rats. Nat Prod Res. 2019; 1–5. Bano A, Ahmad M, Hadda TB, Saboor A, Sultana S, Zafar M, Ashraf MA. Quantitative ethnomedicinal study of plants used in the skardu valley at high altitude of KarakoramHimalayan range, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2014;10(1):43. Baral SR, Kurmi PP. A compendium of medicinal plants in Nepal. Kathmandu: Mrs. Rachana Sharma; 2006. Bhandary KK, Ramasubbu N, Joshi BS, Desai HK, Pelletier SW. Structure of delvestine: a norditerpenoid alkaloid from Delphinium vestitum Wall. Acta Crystallogr Sect C Cryst Struct Commun. 1990;46:1704–7. Bhat JA, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:1. Bhattarai NK. Medical ethnobotany in the Karnali zone, Nepal. Econ Bot. 1992;46:257–61. Bhattarai S, Chaudhary RP, Taylor RSL. Ethnomedicinal plants used by the people of Manang district, central Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:41. Deng W, Sung WL. Three new C19-diterpenoid alkaloids, delbrunine, delbruline and desbrusine from Delphinium brunonianum Royle. Heterocycles (Sendai). 1986;24:873–6. Desai HK, El Sofany RH, Pelletier SW. Isodelectine: a new norditerpenoid alkaloid from Delphinium vestitum. J Nat Prod. 1990;53:1606–8. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Ghimire SK, Mckey D, Aumeeruddy-Thomas Y. Himalayan medicinal plant diversity in an ecologically complex high altitude anthropogenic landscape, Dolpo, Nepal. Environ Conserv. 2006;33:128–40. Ghimire SK, Sapkota IB, Oli BR, Parajuli-Rai R. Non-timber forest products of Nepal Himalaya: database of some important species found in the mountain protected areas and surrounding regions. Kathmandu: WWF Nepal; 2008.

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Jeelani SM, Wani MP, Kumari S, Gupta RC, Siddique MAA. Ethnobotany of some polypetalous plants from the Kashmir Himalaya. J Med Plants Res. 2013;7:2714–21. Kala CP. Indigenous use, population density, and conservation of threatened medicinal plants in protected areas of the Indian Himalayas. Conserv Biol. 2005;19(2):368–78. Kayani S, Ahmad M, Sultana S, Khan Shinwari Z, Zafar M, Yaseen G, Hussain M, Bibi T. Ethnobotany of medicinal plants among the communities of Alpine and Sub-alpine regions of Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;164:186–202. Khan SW, Abbas Q, Hassan SN, Khan H, Hussain A. Medicinal plants of turmic valley (Central Karakoram National Park), Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. J Bioresource Manage. 2015;2(2):11. Kunwar RM, Adhikari N. Ethnomedicine of Dolpa district, Nepal: the plants, their vernacular names and uses. Lyonia. 2005;8:43–9. Kunwar RM, Nepal BK, Kshetri HB, Rai SK, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicine in Himalaya: a case study from Dolpa, Humla, Jumla and Mustang districts of Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:27. Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Sharma LN, Shrestha KP, Kominee H, Bussmann RW. Underutilized plant species in Far-West Nepal – a valuable resource being wasted. J Mt Sci. 2012;9:589–600. Lama YC, Ghimire SK, Aumeeruddy-Thomas Y. Medicinal plants of Dolpo: Amchi’s knowledge and conservation. Kathmandu: WWF Nepal Program; 2001. Manandhar NP. Plants and people of Nepal. Portland: Timber Press; 2002. Parajuli R. Revision of the genus Delphinium L. (Ranunculaceae) of Nepal. Kirtipur: Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University; 2009. Parajuli R. Facilitative role of Berberis mucrifolia in maintaining plant species diversity at highaltitude Langtang valley of Central Nepal. Kirtipur: Tribhuvan University; 2012. Paudel A, Markwith SH, Konchar K, Shrestha M, Ghimire SK. Anthropogenic fire, vegetation structure and ethnobotanical uses in an alpine shrubland of Nepal’s Himalaya. Int J Wildl Fire. 2020;29:201–14. Phondani PC, Maikhuri RK, Rawat LS, Farooquee NA, Kala CP, Vishvakarma SCR, et al. Ethnobotanical uses of plants among the Bhotiya tribal communities of Niti Valley in Central Himalaya, India. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2010;8:233–44. Polunin O, Stainton JDA. Flowers of the Himalaya. New Delhi: Oxford University Press; 1984. Rajbhandari M, Mentel R, Jha PK, Chaudhary RP, Bhattarai S, Gewali MB, Karmacharya N, Hipper M, Lindequist U. Antiviral activity of some plants used in Nepalese Traditional Medicine. eCAM. 2007; 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1093/ecam/nem156. Rokaya MB, Münzbergová Z, Timsina B. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants from the Humla district of western Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010;130:485–504. Rokaya MB, Uprety Y, Poudel RC, Timsina B, Münzbergová Z, Asselin H, et al. Traditional uses of medicinal plants in gastrointestinal disorders in Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;158:221–9. Sacherer J. The high altitude ethnobotany of the Rolwaling Sherpas. Contrib Nepal Stud. 1979;6:45–64. Samant SS, Pant S, Singh M, Lal M, Singh A, Sharma A, et al. Medicinal plants in Himachal Pradesh, north western Himalaya, India. Int J Biodivers Sci Manag. 2007;3:234–51. Ƭba H, Iokawa Y, Śarmā L. Flora of Mustang, Nepal. Kathmandu: Kodansha Scientific; 2008. The Plant List. The plant list. Version 1.1. Available at: http://www.theplantlist.org/. (2013). Last accessed 25 May 2020. Tripathee HP, Sharma RP, Timilsina YP, Pathak R, Devkota KP. An assessment of ethnomedicinal use, chemical constituents analysis and bioactivity evaluation on high altitude medicinal plant Delphinium brunonianum of Manang district. Nepal J Sci Technol. 2011;12:111–8. Ulubelen A, Desai HK, Teng Q, Mericli AH, Meriçli F, Kolak US, et al. Delbruninol, a new norditerpenoid alkaloid from Delphinium brunonianum Royle. Heterocycles. 1999;8:1897–903. Uprety Y, Asselin H, Boon EK, Yadav S, Shrestha KK. Indigenous use and bio-efficacy of medicinal plants in the Rasuwa District, Central Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:3. Wali R, Rahman K, Raja NI, Qureshi R, Mashwani ZR. A quantitative medico-botanical expedition of Fairy Meadows National Park, Diamir, Gilgit Baltistan, Pakistan. BioRxiv 2019a; 507848.

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Wali R, Rahman K, Raja NI, Qureshi R, Bussmann RW, Mashwani ZUR. A quantitative medico botanical expedition of Fairy Meadows National Park, Diamir, Gilgit Baltistan, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019b;18(35) https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.35.1-30. Wencai W, Warnock MJ. Delphinium L. Flora China. 2001;6:223–74. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013.

Dendrobium nobile Lindl. ORCHIDACEAE Yagya P. Adhikari, Prakash Bhattarai, Kamal Prasad Acharya, Ripu M. Kunwar, and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Dendrobium nobile Lindl.: Dendrobium nobile var. alboluteum Huyen & Averyanov; Dendrobium nobile var. formosanum Reichenbach.f.; Dendrobium nobile var. nobilius H. G. Reichenbach.f. Dendrobium nobile f. nobilius (H. G. Reichenbach) M. Hiroe; Dendrobium nobile var. nobilius Burb.; Dendrobium nobile var. pallidiflorum Hook Y. P. Adhikari Department of Biogeography, BayCEER, University of Bayreuth, Bayreuth, Germany Department of Disturbance Ecology, BayCEER, University of Bayreuth, Bayreuth, Germany e-mail: [email protected] P. Bhattarai (*) Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] K. P. Acharya Department of Sport, Food and Natural Sciences, Western Norway University of Applied Sciences, Bergen, Norway e-mail: [email protected] R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_80

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Local Names Dendrobium nobile: Bengali: Maha Dendrobium; Persian: orchid dendrobium (‫ ﺍﺭﮎﯼﺩﻩ ﺩﻥﺩﺭﻭﺏﯼﻭﻡ‬:‫ ;)ﻑﺍﺭﺱﯼ‬Japanese: Dendrobium Nobil (日本語: デンドウ
ノル); Vietnamese: Double messages (Tiếng Việt: Phi điệp kép); Chinese: 石斛 (Shi hu); Nepali: Manidana; Miao: yun nan tie pi; English: Noble Dendrobium

Botany and Ecology Dendrobium is one of the largest diverse (containing more than 1800 species) and most important not only for ornamental (the magnificent flowers of great delicacy and beauty) and medicinal (cure for many diseases) orchid genera (Bose et al. 1999; Silva et al. 2015; WCSP 2020). This generus has range of variations in the principle characteristics, such as size, habitat, form of stem and leaf and shape and color of flowers (Bose et al. 1999; WCSP 2020; Zhu et al. 2020). Dendrobium nobile: Pseudobulbs erect, steam-like, furrowed with age, 90 cm long, jointed, leafy. Leaves distichous, star-shaped or 7–11 cm long, 1–3 cm broad, oblong coriaceous. Inflorescence 1–3 flowered, short, arises from the upper nodes of the old leafless pseudobulbs Flowers 10 cm across, fragrant, long lasting waxy, white tinted with amethyst; sepals linear-oblong, obtuse; petals ovate-oblong, obtuse margins entire or slightly undulate. Lip maroon at the base then yellow or white with a mauve or purple margin, convolute at the base, obovate-oblong, pubescent above and below. Column with acute stelidia, greenish-white, its foot white with purple lines, mentum short, obtuse. Flowering time April–May (Bose et al. 1999; Rajbhandari and Bhattarai 2001) (Figs. 1). Dendrobium nobile Lindl. is mostly an epiphytic orchid but some are lithophytes. It is native to southern China, the Himalayas, and Indochina (Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam). In Nepal it is distributed from 400 to 1500 m (Rokaya et al. 2013). Other parts of Himalaya region, it is distributed in Bhutan, NE India (Assam), Sikkim, and Bangladesh (Wood 2006; Lucksom 2007; Huda 2007; Raskoti and Ale 2009; Choudhary et al. 2012). It is naturalized orchid species in Hawaii (Ackerman 2012). D. nobile occurs in lowland and mountain forests, often on mossy limestone rocks. It is a sympodial orchid, which forms pseudobulbs. When the life cycle of the mother plant ends, it produces little offsets, continuing the life of the plant. The new plant then goes through the same cycle. The stem is erect and during the flowering period blooms form along the whole length of the stem. The plant has thin white roots which attach themselves to another plant making it an epiphytic plant. The suitable host plants are Schima wallichii, Ilex excelsa (Acharya et al. 2011; Adhikari et al. 2012; Rokaya et al. 2013). D. nobile does not show any special ecological niche regarding the site analyzed conditions (Adhikari et al. 2016). It is a highly prized orchid species for its economic and medicinal importance (Bhattacharyya et al. 2014).

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Fig. 1 Dendrobium nobile (Orchidaceae), Nepal. (Photo MYP Adhikari)

Phytochemistry Extract of D. nobile yields dendrobine, moscatilin, gigantol, denbinobine, and different phenanthrenes. These compounds from leaves and stems of D. nobile have greatly increased its medicinal importance (Bhattacharyya et al. 2014), and these compounds have strong antimutagenic properties and have been found to be anticarcinogenic against lung carcinoma, ovary adenocarcinoma, and promyelocytic leukemia (Lee et al. 1995). It contains various active compounds such as phenolics, benzyls, flavonoids, alkaloids, nobilin, and tannins. They play a significant beneficial role in human health and serve as important remedies of various inflammatory disorders, cancer, and diabetes (Bhattacharyya et al. 2014). The extract of the stems of D. nobile yielded 17 phenanthrenes (including 3,4,8-trimethoxyphenanthrene-2,5-diol, 2,8-dihydroxy3,4,7-trimethoxyphenanthrene, 3-hydroxy-2,4,7-trimethoxy-9,10-dihydrophenanthrene, 2,8-dihydroxy-3,4,7-trimethoxy-9,10-dihydrophenanthrene, 2-hydroxy-4,7-dimethoxy9,10-dihydrophenathrene, 2,20 -dihydroxy-3,30 ,4,40 7,70 -hexamethoxy-,90 ,10,100 0 tetrahydro-1,1 -biphenanthrene, and 2,3,5-trihydroxy-4,9-dimethoxyphenanthrene) (Yang et al. 2007; Hwang et al. 2010).

Local Medicinal Uses Dendrobium nobile: In Nepal, the paste of the pseudobulbs is used to clear scars and marks in face. The steam has been used as herbal tea in the hilly region of Nepal (Acharya and Rokaya 2005; Personal observation YPA). Used as tonic (Vaidya et al. 2000), and has antidiabetic (Li et al. 2015), anticancer, and anti-inflammatory

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properties (Hwang et al. 2010). Alkaloids from D. nobile produced better neurobehavioral performance (Li et al. 2011). It is one of the important herbs used in traditional Chinese medicine, known as shí hú (Chinese: 石斛) or shí hú lán (Chinese: 石斛兰). D. nobile is called as “gold in medicine.” It is highly regarded as the number one of the nine “Chinese immortality herbs”. It has been used as herbal medicine in China. It treats a variety of diseases caused by deficiency of yin and body fluid. It is rich in polysaccharides that enhance immune function. Similarly, it has benefits for replenishing spleen and stomach, protecting liver and gallbladder, strengthening tendons and lowering lipid, lowing blood sugar, inhibiting tumors, improving eyesight, nourishing the skin, and prolonging life. Used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat fatigue, bloody stool (Wu 2005). Can induce aptosis (Williams et al. 2012). Nourishing lung and kidney, antioxidant, and anticancer (Ma et al. 2019). Dendrobium macrei is used against snakebites (Houghton and Osibogun 1993). Dendrobium moniliforme is used to remedy brain disorders (Adams et al. 2007).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Dendrobium nobile: D. nobile is the state flower of Sikkim. It has become a popular cultivated decorative house plant, because it produces colorful blooms in winter and spring, at a time when little else is in flower. D. nobile is one of the most widespread ornamental members of the orchid family. Its blooms are variegated in color, shading from white through pink and purple, and the many different cultivated varieties produce different sized and colored blooms mostly (Rokaya et al. 2013). The large numbers of D. nobile collected for ornamental and medicinal purposes from lower (subtropical) belts of Nepal and are traded in the major cities, which leads to population depletion (Acharya and Rokaya 2005).

References Acharya KP, Rokaya MB. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants traded in the streets of Kathmandu valley. Sci World. 2005;3:44–8. Acharya KP, Vetaas OR, Birks HJB. Orchid species richness along Himalayan elevational gradients. J Biogeogr. 2011;38:1821–33. Ackerman JD. Orchids gone wild. Discovering naturalized orchids in Hawaii. Orchids Mag Am Orchid Soc. 2012;81:88–93. Adams M, Gmünder F, Hamburger M. Plants traditionally used in age related brain disorders – a survey of ethnobotanical literature. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;113:363–81. Adhikari YP, Fischer HS, Fischer A. Host tree utilization by epiphytic orchids in different land-use intensities in Kathmandu valley, Nepal. Plant Ecol. 2012;213:393–1412. https://doi.org/10. 1007/s11258-012-0099-0. Adhikari YP, Fischer A, Fischer HS. Epiphytic orchids and their ecological niche under anthropogenic influence in Central Himalayas, Nepal. J Mt Sci. 2016;13:774–84. https://doi.org/10. 1007/s11629-015-3751-z.

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Bhattacharyya P, Reemavareen SK, Tandon DP. Genetic stability and phytochemical analysis of the in vitro regenerated plants of Dendrobium nobile Lindl., an endangered medicinal orchid. Meta Gene. 2014;2:489–504. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mgene.2014.06.003. Bose TK, Bhattacharjee SK, Das P, Basak UC. 1999. Orchids of India. Naya Prakash Bidhan Sarani, Calcutta. Choudhary RK, Srivastava RC, Das AK, Lee J. Floristic diversity assessment and vegetation analysis of upper Siang district of eastern Himalaya in North East India. Korean J Plant Taxon. 2012;42:222–46. Houghton PJ, Osibogun IM. Flowering plants used against snakebite. J Ethnopharmacol. 1993;39:1–29. Huda MK. An updated enumeration of the family Orchidaceae from Bangladesh. J Orchid Soc India. 2007;21:35–49. Hwang JS, Lee SA, Hong SS, Han XH, Lee C, Kang SJ, Lee D, Kim Y, Hong JT, Lee MK, Hwang BY. Phenanthrenes from Dendrobium nobile and their inhibition of the LPS-induced production of nitric oxide in macrophage RAW 264.7 cells. Bioorg Med Chem Lett. 2010;20:3785–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bmcl.2010.04.054. Lee YH, Park JD, Beak NI, Il Kim S, Ahn BZ. In vitro and in vivo antitumoral phenanthrenes from the aerial parts of Dendrobium nobile. Planta Med. 1995;61:178–80. Li Y, Li F, Gong Q, Wu Q, Shi J. Inhibitory effects of Dendrobium alkaloids on memory impairment induced by lipopolysaccharide in rats. Planta Med. 2011;77:117–21. Li MM, Zhang BX, He SB, Zheng R, Zhang YL, Wang Y. Elucidating hypoglycemic mechanism of Dendrobium nobile through auxiliary elucidation system for traditional Chinese medicine mechanism. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi. 2015;40:3709–12. Lucksom SZ. The orchids of Sikkim and North East Himalaya: 1-984. S.Z. Lucksom. 2007. Ma Y, Liu D, Cheng H, Bussmann RW, He H, Guo Z, Liu B. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by Miao people in Jijiezi, Yunnan, China. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18:26. https:// doi.org/10.32859/era.18.26.1-14. Rajbhandari KR, Bhattarai S. Beautiful orchids of Nepal. Kathmandu: Government of Nepal; 2001, p. 220. Raskoti BB, Ale R. The orchids of Nepal. Kathmandu: Government of Nepal; 2009, p. 252. Rokaya MB, Raskoti BB, Timsina B, Münzbergová Z. An annotated checklist of the orchids of Nepal. Nord J Bot. 2013;31:511–50. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1756-1051.2013.01230.x. Silva JAT, Cardoso JC, Dobránszki J, Zeng S. Dendrobium micropropagation: a review. Plant Cell Rep. 2015;34(5):671. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00299-015-1754-4. Vaidya B, Shrestha M, Joshee N. Report on Nepalese orchid species with medicinal properties in The Himalayan plants, can they save us? In: Proceeding of Nepal–Japan joint symposium on conservation and utilization of Himalayan medicinal resources. 2000, p. 146–152. WCSP. World Checklist of Selected Plant Families. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published on the Internet. http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/. Accessed 20 May 2020. Williams RB, Martin SM, Hu J-F, Garo E, Rice SM, Norman VL, Lawrence JA, Hough GW, Goering MG, OʼNeil-Johnso M, Eldridge GR, Courtney M. StarksIsolation of apoptosisinducing Stilbenoids from four members of the Orchidaceae Family. Planta Med. 2012;78:160–5. Wood HP. The Dendrobiums: 2006;1-847. A.R.G. Gantner Verlag K.G., Ruggell. Wu JN. An illustrated chines materia medica. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2005. Yang H, Sung SH, Kim YC. Antifibrotic phenanthrenes of Dendrobium nobile stems. J Nat Prod. 2007;70:1925–9. https://doi.org/10.1021/np070423f. PMID 18052323. Zhu G, Ji Z, Wood JJ, Howard P. Dendrobium (石斛属 shi hu shu). Flora of China. Retrieved 26 May 2020. 57.

Didymocarpus aromaticus Wall. ex D. Don GESNERIACEAE Astha Tuladhar, Ripu M. Kunwar, and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Didymocarpus aromaticus Wall. ex D. Don: Didymocarpus subalterans Wall. ex R. Br., Henckelia aromatica (Wall. ex D. Don.) Spreng., Henckelia aromatica Spreng., Roettlera aromatica(D.Don) Kuntze,

Local Names Didymocarpus aromaticus: Nepali: Kumkum, पाखान भितता Paakhaan Bhittaa, Pakhanbhetta, Ranigovindhi; Hindi: Kumkum, Kumkuma The original version of this chapter was revised. An correction to this chapter can be found at https:// doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_267 A. Tuladhar College of Liberal Arts and Sciences, Mie University, Tsu, Japan International Society of Horticultural Sciences (ISHS), Leuven, Belgium R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021, corrected publication 2022 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_81

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Botany and Ecology Didymocarpus aromaticus: Stems 7–12( 25) cm, appressed puberulent. Leaves mostly opposite, basal 2 often alternate; petiole 0.1–3.5 cm; leaf blade ovate to elliptic, rarely triangular, 2–6.8( 11)  1.3–4.2( 5.6) cm, thin papery to papery, adaxially appressed puberulent, sometimes yellow glandular, abaxially puberulent along veins, sometimes yellow glandular, base broadly cuneate to subcordate, margin dentate to serrate or crenate, apex acute to obtuse; lateral veins 4 or 5 on each side of midrib. D. aromaticus leaves are easily distinguishable from other species by the position of their leaves; in D. aromaticus the leaves are distant and alternate in the lower part of the stem (Adhikari and Möller 2020). A characteristic of this special group within Didymocarpus is the presence of brown or gold colored glands on the vegetative parts, especially on the underside of its leaves. Also, the name Didymocarpus is coming from the Greek didymos “double” and karpos “fruit,” the capsule is divided into two parts, through the center (Umberto 2012). Cymes 2- to 5-flowered; peduncle 2.5–3.5( 7) cm, sparsely glandular puberulent; bracts free, ovate to orbicular-ovate, 2–2.5( 5) mm, sparsely glandular puberulent, margin entire. Pedicel 5–14 mm. Calyx slightly zygomorphic, 3–4 mm; limb indistinctly 2-lipped, 5-lobed; tube about 2.5 mm; lobes nearly equal, triangular, 1.5–3  about 1.5 mm, outside sparsely glandular puberulent, inside glabrous, margin entire. Corolla purple-red, about 1.6 cm, glabrous; tube nearly tubular, about 1.2 cm  4 mm; adaxial lip about 2.2 mm; abaxial lip about 5.5 mm. Stamens glabrous; filaments about 4 mm; anthers about 2 mm; staminodes 3, 2.5–4 mm. Pistil about 1.3 cm, glabrous; ovary about 1 cm. Capsule 2.5–3 cm. Flowering August. Grassy slopes, on rocks; 2500–2800 m. S Xizang, N India, Nepal (Wu et al. 1994– 2013). Didymocarpus aromatica native to grassy slopes and rocky alpine meadows in the eastern Himalayas between 2500 and 2800 m. Nepal and Kumaon were mentioned as native regions by Wallich in 1825. The distribution of its genus in the Himalayan range includes southern China, Bhutan, Myanmar, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, Vietnam, and the Malay Peninsula. Recent study notes that the genus Didymocarpus comprises over 100 species (Möller 2019; Souvannakhoummane et al. 2019) distributed in the Himalayas (Nepal, Bhutan, Northeast India), Myanmar, South and Southwest China, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, Malay Peninsula, and North Sumatra (Weber and Burtt 1998; Möller et al. 2017). The genus is most diverse in China, India and Thailand, with 35, 24, and 23 species recorded, respectively (Nangngam and Maxwell 2013; Nangngam and Middleton 2014; Möller et al. 2017; Möller 2019; Souvannakhoummane et al. 2019). Twelve species were reported from Nepal (Hara 1977; Press et al. 2000), 8 from Bhutan (Hilliard 2001), and several from Myanmar, Malay Peninsula, Indonesia, Vietnam, and Laos. The discovery of Didymocarpus nepalensis Bh. Adhikari & Mich. Möller brings the total number of Didymocarpus species in Nepal to 13 (Adhikari and Möller 2020)

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Phytochemistry The root, stem, inflorescence, and flowers of Didymocarpus aromaticus Wall. contain saponins, alkaloids, and flavonoids.

Local Medicinal Uses Didymocarpus aromaticus: used for respiratory problems in children and for chronic asthma. Has some antibacterial properties (Kunwar and Bussmann 2009). Didymocarpus villosus is used for respiratory problems in children and for chronic asthma. Has some antibacterial properties (Kunwar and Bussmann 2009, 2010). Didymocarpus pedicellatus Juice of leaves is used to treat kidney troubles (Devkota et al. 2017).

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Didymocarpus primulifolius known as “Paharo ko kan” in Nepalese, is used as an antiviral to treat flu in Nepal. An experiment confirming the cytotoxicity from this plant’s extracts showed potential antiviral properties and responding to Sindbis virus (Taylor et al. 1996).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Didymocarpus pedicellatus: Power of root and rhizome is used as incense (Devkota et al. 2017).

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References Adhikari B, Möller M. Didymocarpus nepalensis (Gesneriaceae), a new species from eastern Nepal. J Indian Assoc Angosperm Taxon. 2020;30(1):128–34. Devkota HP, Adhikari-Devkota A, Takano A, Yahara S, Basnet P. HPLC and TLC fingerprints of selected Nepalese natural medicines and medicinal plants. J Nepal Pharm Assoc. 2017;28:1. Hara H. Proposal (423) to change the citation of the type species of 7810 Didymocarpus Wallich (Gesneriaceae). Taxon; 1977, p. 146. Hilliard OM. Gesneriaceae. In: Grierson AJC, Long DG, editors. Flora of Bhutan: including a record of plants from Sikkim, vol. 2(3). Edinburgh: Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh; 2001. p. 1296–330. Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Medicinal, aromatic and dye plants of Baitadi and Darchula Districts, Nepal Himalaya: status, uses and management. In: Hartmann M, Weipert J, editors. Biodiversität, Naturausstattung im Himalaya, vol. III. Erfurt: Universität Erfurty; 2009, p. 475–89. Kunwar RM, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants in Far-West Nepal: their indigenous uses and pharmacological validity. Med Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010;4 (Special issue 1):28–42. Manandhar NP. An inventory of some herbal drugs of Myagdi District, Nepal. Econ Bot. 1995;49(4):371–9. Möller M. Species discovery in time: an example from Gesneriaceae in China. Guangxi Sci. 2019;26(1):1–16.

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Möller M, Namphy S, Janeesha AP, Weber A. The Gesneriaceae of India: consequences of updated generic concepts and new family classification. Rheedea. 2017;27(1):23–41. https://doi.org/10. 22244/rheedea.2017.27.1.5. Nangngam P, Maxwell JF. Didymocarpus (Gesneriaceae) in Thailand. Gardens’ Bull. 2013;65:185–225. Nangngam P, Middleton DJ. Five new species of Didymocarpus (Gesneriaceae) from Thailand. Thai Forest Bull Bot. 2014;42:35–42. Press JR, Shrestha KK, Sutton DA. Annotated checklist of the flowering plants of Nepal. London: Natural History Museum Publications; 2000. Souvannakhoummane K, Souladeth P, Tagane S, Yang CJ, Yahara T. Flora of nam kading national protected area vi: Didymocarpus middletonii (Gesneriaceae), a new species from limestone. Edinb J Bot. 2019;76(1):45–54. Taylor RSL, Manandhar NP, Hudson JB, Towers GHN. Antiviral activities of Nepalese medicinal plants. J Ethnopharmacol. 1996;52(3):157–63. Umberto Q. CRC World dictionary of medicinal and poisonous plants. London: CRC Press; 2012. p. 1398. Weber A, Burtt BL. Remodelling of Didymocarpus and associated genera (Gesneriaceae). Beitr. Bioi. 1998. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013.

Digitalis lanata Ehrh. PLANTAGINACEAE Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

Local Names Digitalis purpurea: Jammu: Tilmophri; Chinese: 毛地黄 mao di huang

Botany and Ecology Digitalis lanata: Biennial or more often perennial, 3–10 dm, villous in the infl; cauline lvs narrowly oblong, sessile, entire or nearly so, glabrous beneath; sep lanceolate, densely villous,7–10 mm; white to pale yellow 2–3 cm, the tube strongly inflated, veined with brown or violet, the lower median lobe prolonged, 8–13 mm, much surpassing the lateral ones; Native of southern Europe, rarely escaped from cult. in our range (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4). H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_82

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Fig. 1 Digitalis ciliata (Plantaginaceae), Bakuriani Alpine Botanical garden, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Digitalis purpurea: Annuals or perennials, 60–120 cm tall, gray-white pubescent and glandular hairy except for corolla and sometimes for subglabrous stems. Stems 1 or few and cespitose. Basal leaves mostly rosulate; petiole narrowly winged, to 15 cm; leaf blade ovate to oblong-elliptic, 5–15 cm, base tapering, margin crenate and rarely serrate, apex acuminate to obtuse. Stem leaves similar to basal leaves,

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Fig. 2 Digitalis ciliata (Plantaginaceae), Bakuriani Alpine Botanical garden, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

decreasing in size upward, sessile or short petiolate, and forming bracts. Calyx campanulate, ca. 1 cm; segments free, oblong-ovate. Corolla purple to white, 3–4.5 cm, inside spotted, lobe apex white pubescent. Capsule ca. 1.5 cm. Seeds clavate, puberulent. Flowering May-June. Native to Europe but sometimes naturalized in disturbed areas. (Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Figs. 5, 6, and 7).

764 Fig. 3 Digitalis ferruginea (Plantaginaceae), Bakuriani Alpine Botanical garden, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Digitalis ferruginea (Plantaginaceae), Bakuriani Alpine Botanical garden, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Digitalis lanata Ehrh. Fig. 5 Digitalis purpurea (Plantaginaceae), regular form, garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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766 Fig. 6 Digitalis purpurea (Plantaginaceae), regular form, garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 7 Digitalis purpurea (Plantaginaceae), white form, garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses Digitalis lanata: Adulterant! Sometimes used erroneously as replacement for Plantago lanceolata, with deadly consequences (Bussmann 2015). In traditional medicine used as cardiac stimulant and tonic. Digitalis purpurea is widely used as heart tonic, for epilepsy, cardiac problems, eyesight, urinary problems, and wound treatment (Gairola et al. 2014).

References Bussmann RW. Taxonomy – an irreplaceable tool for the validation of herbal medicine. In: Mukherje PK, editor. Evidence-based validation of herbal medicine. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 2015. p. 87–118. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013.

Dioscorea bulbifera L. Dioscorea deltoidea Wall. ex Kunth DIOSCOREACEAE Nirmala Joshi, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Dioscorea bulbifera L.: Dioscorea anthropophagorum A. Chev. ex Jum., Dioscorea bulbifera var. anthropophagorum (A. Chev. ex Jum.) Prain & Burkill ex Summerh., Dioscorea bulbifera var. sativa Prain, Dioscorea dodecaneura Vell., Dioscorea hoffa Cordem., Dioscorea hofika Jum. & H. Perrier, Dioscorea latifolia Benth., Dioscorea longipetiolata Baudon, Dioscorea perrieri R. Knuth, Dioscorea pilosiuscula Bertero ex Spreng., Dioscorea sativa L., Dioscorea sativa Thunb., Dioscorea violacea Baudon, Helmia bulbifera (L.) Kunth

N. Joshi Department of Plant Resources, Thapathali, Kathmandu, Nepal H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_83

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Dioscorea deltoidea Wall. ex Kunth: Dioscorea deltoidea var. orbiculata Prain & Burkill:; Dioscorea nepalensis Sweet; Tamnus nepalensis Jacquem. ex Prain & Burkill (Hara et al. 1978).

Local Names Dioscorea bulbifera: Chepang: Lac; Mizoram: Ram-bhara; Nepali: Ban Tarul, Gitta, Githa, Kukurtarul; Manipur: Lam-haa; Magar: Lakhuwa (Tite-Khach, Mithe-Japcha); Garhwal, Genthi; Jammu: Ratalu; Rajastan: Jangli nagar bel; Gurung: Kamaalo; Tamang: Nagitise; Tharu: Ratalu (Rajbhandari 2001; Joshi and Joshi 2001; Sharma and Bastakoti 2009; Rajbhandari and Baral 2010; Joshi and Sharma Dhakal 2013; DPR 2016). English: air potato, potato yam, aerial yam, bulb bearing yam Dioscorea deltoidea: Nepali: Kukur tarul, Bhyaakur, Kande vyakur; Chepang: Kui goi, Pas; Danuwar: Githa; Kashmir: Kraeth, Dioscore, Kruch, Krech; Jammu: Kinns, Kreench, Singlimingli; Gurung: Gine Mauro, Time; Sikkim: Bantarul; Rai: Kamanduki; Tamang, Ridme; Tharu: Githaa (Rajbhandari 2001; Sharma and Bastakoti 2009; Ghimire et al. 2008; Joshi and Sharma Dhakal 2013). Swat: Kaniz; Urdu: Kunji, Yam; English: wild yam, deltoid yam

Botany and Ecology Dioscorea bulbifera: Tubers usually solitary, renewed annually, ovoid or pear-shaped, 4–10 cm thick; cork black; roots fibrous. Stem twining to left, glabrous, smooth. Bulblets purplish brown with orbicular spots, globose or ovoid, variable in size, weight to 300 g. Leaves alternate, simple; petiole 2.5–5.5 cm; leaf blade broadly cordate, 8–15 (
26)  2–14(
26) cm, glabrous, margin entire or slightly undulate, apex caudateacuminate. Male spikes usually clustered in leaf axils or along leafless, axillary shoots, drooping, sometimes branched. Male flowers: solitary,  contiguous along rachis; bract and bracteole ovate; perianth purple, lobes lanceolate; stamens 6, inserted at base of perianth, filaments nearly as long as anthers. Female spikes often 2 or more together, similar to male ones, 20–30 cm. Female flowers: staminodes 6, ca. 1/4 as long as perianth lobes. Capsule reflexed or drooping, straw-colored, densely purplish dotted, oblong-globose, 1.5–3 cm, glabrous, base and apex rounded; wings 0.25–0.7 cm wide. Seeds inserted near apex of capsule, dark brown; wing pointing toward capsule base, oblong, 1.2–1.6  ca. 0.5 cm. Flowering July to October, fruiting August to November (Shu 2000; Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Fig. 1). Dioscorea deltoidea: Rhizome horizontal, ginger-shaped, 1.2–1.5 cm thick. Stem twining to left, drying light brown to purplish brown, grooved. Leaves alternate, simple; petiole 4–10(
15) cm; leaf blade drying gray-green, triangular or triangular-ovate, usually 3-lobed, 5–9  4–5.5 cm, adaxially glabrous, abaxially papillose-setulose along veins, basal veins 3–7, outermost ones much shorter, base shallowly cordate (with very broad sinus) to subtruncate, apex of middle lobe acuminate, apex of lateral lobes rounded. Male spike solitary, sometimes branched, 9–16 cm. Male flowers: solitary

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Fig. 1 Dioscorea bulbifera (Dioscoreaceae), Godawari, Lalitpur, Nepal. (Photo N Joshi)

Fig. 2 Dioscorea deltoidea (Dioscoreaceae), Godawari, Lalitpur, Nepal. (Photo N Joshi)

or paired, sessile; bracts broadly ovate, membranous, apex acute; perianth saucershaped, 3–3.5 mm in diam., lobes ovate, ca. 0.8 mm wide; stamens 6, inserted at base of perianth, anthers 3 introrse and 3 extrorse, connectives not fork-shaped. Female spike to 5 cm, 4–6-flowered. Female flowers: staminodes present. Capsule reflexed, brown at maturity, purplish brown spotted, globose or oblong-obovoid, (1.5–)1.8– 2.2 cm, base rounded, apex emarginate or rounded; wings (0.7–)1.2–1.4 cm wide. Seeds inserted near middle of capsule, ovate, winged all round. Flowering May to June, fruiting June to September (Shu 2000; Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Fig. 2).

Phytochemistry Dioscorea bulbifera: Flavonoids, clerodane diterpenoids, and steroidal saponins and phenolic compounds (Salehi et al. 2018); Bibenzyl type-2,5,20 ,50 -tetrahydroxy-30 methoxybibenzyl and diarylheptanone containing a dihydrophenanthrene moiety

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named diobulbinone A and along with 16 known compounds (Liu et al. 2011). Nine norclerodane diterpenoids were isolated from the tubers of D. bulbifera L. including two new compounds (diosbulbin N and diosbulbin P) and a naturally occurring compound (diosbulbin O) along with six known diosbulbins A–D, F, and G (Tang et al. 2014). Another study also showed the molecular changes of liver dysfunction and revealed overall metabolic and physiological mechanisms of the subchronic toxic effect of Dioscorea bulbifera rhizome (Zhao et al. 2018); D-sorbitol, furanoid, norditerpines-diosbulbins A–D, 2,6.7-tetrahydroxy-, 10-dihydrophenanthrene, and 2,4,5,6-tetrahydroxyphenanthrene, diosgenin, leucine, neoxanthine, violaxanthine zeaxanthine, auroxanthine, and cryptoxanthine (Husain et al. 1992). Dioscorea deltoidea: Rhizome contains diosgenin and its glycoside; smilagenin, epismilagenin, alkanes, and diosgenin-3-0-β-D-glucopyranosyl (1–3)-0-β-Dglucopyranosy (1–4)-β-D-glucopyranoside. Leaves contain steroidal saponin detofolindiosgenin-3-0-α-L-β-D-glucopyranoside (Husain et al. 1992; DPR 2016).

Local Medicinal Uses Dioscorea bulbifera: Tubers are eaten for haemoptysis, epistaxis, pharyngitis, goiter, scrofula, sprains and injuries (Anonymous 1989; Joshi and Joshi 2001; IUCN 2000), piles, dysentery, syphilis, and ulcers (DPR 2016). The boiled tubers are eaten to treat “dokha,” which is an illness with fever, loss of appetite, general debility and immediate vomiting after taking food (Bhattarai 1989, 1992); pneumonia, throat sore, dysentery (Joshi and Edington 1990; Shrestha and Dhillion 2003; Balami 2004), tuber is vermifuge (Kunwar et al. 2006); tonic (Sigdel and Rokaya 2011) anthelmintic (Manandhar 1995, 1998, 2002; Rijal 2008; Rokaya et al. 2010; Thapa 2013), Vegetable (Uprety et al. 2012); stomachache (Sapkota 2008), gastritis (Acharya 2012), piles, ulcer (Malla and Chhetri 2009; Tamang 2003), cough and cold (Bhattarai 1993; Mahato and Sharma 2015), fever (Chaudhary et al. 2017). In India Dioscorea bulbifera is used as expectorant, for asthma and bronchitis, diarrhea, urinary discharge, leucoderma and as febrifuge (Joshi et al. 2010), as well as jaundice (Raj et al. 2018), to treat fever and boils (Singh et al. 2017), also used as expectorant, for asthma and bronchitis, diarrhea, urinary discharge, leucoderma and as febrifuge (Joshi et al. 2010), as well as jaundice (Raj et al. 2018), to treat fever and boils (Singh et al. 2017), and ulcers (Singh et al. 2002). In Mizoram, it is used for treating hemorrhoids, leprosy, and gonorrhea and as anthelmintic (Sharma et al. 2001). It is also used to treat indigestion (Kala et al. 2004; Kala 2005) and for abdominal pain, boils, piles, diarrhea, and bone fractures (Gairola et al. 2014; Jain et al. 2005). Dioscorea deltoidea: The tubers are used as a vermifuge and an anthelmintic. Tubers are used for the extraction of diosgenin to manufacture of steroid hormones and corticosteroids (IUCN 2000; Joshi and Joshi 2001). In Manang, tubers are used for the treatment of piles (Manandhar 2002; Ghimire et al. 2008). Vegetable, tuber juice is used as oral contraceptive (Shrestha and Ghimire 1996; Uprety et al. 2012;

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Parajuli 2013). Root bark is used in cooking breads (Kunwar et al. 2015) and for hyperthermia and burn wound (Subedi 2017). It is used as anthelmintic and gastric (Manandhar 1995, 2002; Balami 2004; Rijal 2008; Acharya and Acharya 2009; Kunwar et al. 2010) and to kill lice (Acharya 2012). In India Dioscorea bulbifera is used as expectorant, for asthma and bronchitis, diarrhea, urinary discharge, and leucoderma, and as febrifuge (Joshi et al. 2010), as well as jaundice (Raj et al. 2018), to treat fever and boils (Singh et al. 2017). Dioscorea deltoidea is used as anthelmintic (Kunwar et al. 2010, 2015; Ur-Rahman et al. 2019) and for urogenital disorders and cough (Malik et al. 2015). It is used in Sikkim as oral contraceptive and to treat lice (Tamang et al. 2017). To remedy ophthalmic infections, rheumatism, for birth control, to kill lice, for rheumatism, swellings, arthritis, asthma, constipation, joint pain (Gairola et al. 2014). Dioscorea hispida: As antidote for dog bites and to treat boils (Jain et al. 2005). Dioscorea dodecaneura: Boiled tubers are given to children for measles (Kokwaro 2009). Dioscorea dumentorum: Roots are dried and ground, and powder that is mixed with water is used for bilharzia. Tubers must be soaked at least overnight to remove toxins (Kokwaro 2009). Dioscorea quartiniana is used medicinally in Ethiopia (Lulekal et al. 2008). Dioscorea species are used medicinally at a global scale, and new species have been described recently (Romero Hernández et al. 2019). Dioscorea trifida: Fresh tuber is used to treat inflammations, renal disease, uterus disease and discharge, cysts, internal inflammation, cancer of the uterus, inflammation of the ovaries, vaginal discharge, and inflammation of the kidneys (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2015a, b). The species has antibacterial properties (Bussmann et al. 2010). Dioscorea hamiltonii: to treat constipation (Kala et al. 2004; Kala 2005). Dioscorea belophylla is a remedy for body and stomach pain and pneumonia (Raj et al. 2018). Dioscorea pentaphylla serves to treat rheumatism, bile problems, asthma (Jain et al. 2005; Singh et al. 2002), and joint swellings (Gairola et al. 2014). Dioscorea melanophyma is used to treat rheumatism (Gairola et al. 2014). Dioscorea alata is used to remedy syphilis and hemorrhoids (Sharma et al. 2001), as well as indigestion (Kala et al. 2004; Kala 2005).

Local Food Uses Dioscorea bulbifera: There are sweet and bitter varieties of D. bulbifera; sweet tuber is consumed just after boiling, whereas bitter type of tube can be consumed by boiling with ash two to three times and washing with running water (Sharma and Bastakoti 2009). Bulbils are eaten as vegetable or as snack (Sharma and Bastakoti 2009). Tubers are cooked as vegetable (Rajbhandari 2001; Manandhar 2002; Joshi et al. 2007). Bulbils are cooked as vegetable (Dangol et al. 2017; Uprety et al. 2012).

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Dioscorea deltoidea: Tuber is cooked as vegetable after thorough boiling (Rajbhandari 2001; Manandhar 2002; Joshi et al. 2007; Uprety et al. 2012). Tubers are edible (Ghimire et al. 2008). Dioscorea hamiltonii: Tubers and roots are eaten (Dangol et al. 2017). Dioscorea alata: Used as vegetable (Khumbongmayum et al. 2005). Dioscorea delavayi and Dioscorea hemsleyi are eaten as vegetables and healthy food in China (Zhang et al. 2016). Dioscorea praehensilis and other species are eaten as famine food (Balemie and Kebebew 2006; Giday et al. 2009). Dioscorea soso and Dioscorea ovinala are frequently eaten in Madagascar (Randrianarivony et al. 2016). The same holds true for Dioscorea fandra and Dioscorea sansibarensis, after careful detoxification (Randrianarivony et al. 2016). Dioscorea belophylla is eaten as appetizer (Raj et al. 2018).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Dioscorea deltoidea: Tubers are crushed and used as soap. It was also used to wash clothes before soap was available (Sharma and Bastakoti 2009). Tuber paste is applied to kill body lice (Ghimire et al. 2008; Sharma and Bastakoti 2009). It is also used as fish poison (Joshi and Joshi 2001). A variety of Dioscorea species are eaten by cattle (Bussmann et al. 2011). Dioscorea sansibarensis is used as poison in Madagascar (Randrianarivony et al. 2016a, b), and, like Dioscorea bulbifera, sometimes used as fish poison (Neuwinger 2004).

References Acharya R. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of Resunga Hill used by Magar community of Badagaun VDC of Gulmi District, Nepal. Scientific World. 2012;10(10):54–65. Acharya R, Acharya KP. Ethnomedicinal plants used by Tharu Community of Parroha VDC, Rupandehi district, Nepal. Scientific World. 2009;7:80–4. Anonymous. Medicinal plants in China. Compiled by the Institute of Chinese Materia Medica. China academy of traditional Chinese medicine, WHO regional publications, Western Pacific series no. 2. Manila: World Health Organization; 1989. Balami NP. Ethnomedicinal uses of plants among the Newar community of Pharping village of Kathmandu District, Nepal. Tribhuvan University Journal. 2004;24(1):13–9. Balemie K, Kebebew F. Ethnobotanical study of wild edible plants in Derashe and Kucha districts, South Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:53. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-2-53. Bhattarai NK. Traditional phytotherapy among Sherpas of Helambu, central Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 1989;27:45–54. Bhattarai NK. Folk herbal remedies of sindhupalchok district central Nepal. Fitoterapia. 1992;63(2):145–55. Bhattarai NK. Folk herbal medicines of Dolakha district, Nepal. Fitoterapia. 1993;64(5):387–95. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing culture. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:47.

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Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Medicinal plants of the Andes and the Amazon – the magic and medicinal flora of northern Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015a. ISBN 978-0-9960231-2-2. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plantas medicinales de los Andes y la Amazonía – La flora mágica y medicinal del Norte de Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015b. ISBN 978-09960231-3-9. Bussmann RW, Malca G, Glenn A, Sharon D, Chait G, Díaz D, Pourmand K, Jonat B, Somogy S, Guardado G, Aguirre C, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A, Effio-Carbajal J, FríasFernandez F, Benito M. Minimum inhibitory concentration of medicinal plants used in northern Peru as antibacterial remedies. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010;132:101–8. Bussmann RW, Swartzinsky P, Worede A, Evangelista P. Plant use in Odo-Bulu and Demaro, Bale region, Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2011;7:28. Chaudhary RP, Bhattarai SH, Basnet G, Bhatta KP, Uprety Y, Bhatta LD, Kotru R, Oli BN, Sharma LN, Khanal S, Sharma UR. Traditional practice and knowledge of indigenous and local communities in Kailash sacred landscape, Nepal, ICIMOD working paper 2017/1. Kathmandu: ICIMOD; 2017. Dangol DR, Maharjan KL, Maharjan SK, Acharya AK. Wild edible plants in Nepal. In: Joshi BK, Bahadur KCH, Acharya A, editors. Conservation and utilization of agricultural plant genetic resources of Nepal. Dhulikhel: NAGRC; 2017. p. 390–407. DPR. Prioritize medicinal plants for economic development in Nepal. Kathmandu: Department of Plant Resources, MoFSC, Government of Nepal; 2006.(in Nepali). DPR. Medicinal plants of Nepal. 2nd ed. Kathmandu: Government of Nepal, MoFSC, Department of Plant Resources; 2016. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Ghimire SK, Sapkota IB, Oli B, Rai Parajuli R. Non-timber forest products of Nepal Himalaya. Kathmandu: WWF Nepal; 2008. Giday M, Asfaw Z, Woldu Z, Teklehaymanot T. Medicinal plant knowledge of the Bench ethnic group of Ethiopia: an ethnobotanical investigation. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2009;5:34. https:// doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-5-34. Hara H, Stearn W, Williams LHJ, editors. An enumeration of the flowering plants of Nepal, vol. 1. London: British Museum of Natural History; 1978. p. 67–8. Dioscoreaceae. Husain A, Virmani OP, Popali SP, Kishara LN, Gupta MM, Srivastava GN, Abraham Z, Singh AK. Dictionary of Indian medicinal plants. Lucknow: Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plant; 1992. IUCN. National register of medicinal plants. Kathmandu: IUCN Nepal; 2000. Jain A, Katewa SS, Galav PK, Sharma P. Medicinal plant diversity of Sitamata wildlife sanctuary, Rajasthan, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102:143–57. Joshi AR, Edington JM. The use of medicinal plants by two village communities in the central development region of Nepal. Econ Bot. 1990;44(1):71–83. Joshi KK, Joshi SD. Genetic heritage of medicinal and aromatic plants of Nepal Himalayas. Kathmandu: Buddha Academic Publishers and Distributers; 2001. Joshi N, Sharma (Dhakal) K. Taxonomy and ecological features of Dioscorea L. (Dioscoreaceae) in Nepal, Plant resources (a scientific publication), Journal of Department of Plant Resources No. 35. Kathmandu: Government of Nepal, Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation, Department of Plant Resources; 2013. p. 1–8. Joshi N, Kehlenbeck K, Maass BL. Traditional, neglected vegetables of Nepal: their sustainable utilization for meeting human needs. Paper submitted to Deutscher Tropentag, 9–11 Oct 2007. 2007. www.tropentag.de/2007/abstracts/full/322/pdf Joshi M, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal uses of plant resources of the Haigad watershed in Kumaun Himalaya. Med Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010;4(Special Issue 1):43–6. Kala CP. Ethnomedicinal botany of the Apatani in the eastern Himalayan region of India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2005;1:11. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-1-11.

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Diploknema butyracea (Roxb.) H.J. Lam. SAPOTACEAE Bhola Bhattarai, Roshan Chikanbanjar, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Diploknema butyracea (Roxb.) H.J. Lam.: Aesandra butyracea (Roxb.) Baehni; Bassia butyracea Roxb., Illipe butyracea (Roxb.) Engl., Madhuca butyracea (Roxb.) J.F. Macbr., Mixandra butyracea (Roxb.) Pierre; Mixandra butyracea (Roxb.) Pierre ex L. Planch

B. Bhattarai (*) National Advocacy Forum, NAFAN Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal R. Chikanbanjar Bhattarai, Bhola, NAFAN, Kathmandu, Nepal National Advocacy Forum, Kathmandu, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_84

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Local Names Diploknema butyracea: Nepali: Chyuri, Chiuri, Cheuri; Sanskrit: Madhupuspa; Hindi: Phulwara, Madhuca, Chiura; Bengal: Gophal; Bhutanese: Yika Shing; Chepang: Yoshi; Tamang: Chyumli; Rai: Isi; Limbu: Imseva; Tharu: Chihuli; Newar: Ibuchi Pu Ma; English: Butter nut

Botany and Ecology Diploknema butyracea: Trees to 25 m tall. Branchlets thick, terete to subterete, striate and with lenticels, yellowish brown or brown pubescent to subglabrous. Stipules lanceolate, about 5 mm, brown to pale yellow pubescent, early deciduous; leaf blade elliptic-oblong, ovate, or ovate-oblong, (6–)17–35
(3–)8–17 cm, leathery, yellowish-brown to brown pubescent, base cuneate, apex obtuse to obtuseacuminate. Flowers axillary, clustered, solitary to 6. Pedicel 2–4.5 cm, to 5 cm in fruit, pubescent. Sepals (4 or)5(or 6), ovate, 0.9–1.5
0.6–1 cm, outside pubescent, inside scattered lanate, apex obtuse. Corolla 1.5–2 cm; lobes 8–10, oblong, ovate, or narrowly obovate, (7–)8–10
(4–)5–8 mm, apex obtuse to acute, margin usually irregularly crenulate. Stamens (18–)20–40, 0.9–1.2 cm, glabrous or brown lanate; anthers sagittate, apex awned. Ovary conical, about 2
5 mm, rust colored sericeous, 7- to 12-locular. Style 1.5–5 cm, glabrous. Fruit ovoid-globose to oblong, 2–2.5
1–1.5 cm, smooth, apex acute; exocarp fleshy; 1–3(5)-seeded. Seeds brown, oblong-obovoid, about 1.3
1
0.6 cm, smooth, shiny; scar lanceolate (Wu et al. 1994–2013). D. butyracea is native to the sub-Himalayan tracts of India, China, Nepal, and Bhutan and has been reported by almost whole range of Himalaya and grows mainly in the sub-Himalayan tracts on steep slopes, narrow shady valleys or gorges and cliffs at an altitude ranging from 300 to 1500 m (Majumder et al. 2012; Kunwar and Thakur 2017). The tree is usually found scattered in wastelands, pastures, and cultivated fields near the villages. The tree also occurs separately or in small groups as a natural element of broadleaved forests, especially in association with sal (Shorea robusta), saj (Terminalia alata), padke (Carpesium nepalensis), koiralo (Bauhinia variegata), simal (Bombax ceiba), amla (Embelica officinalis), buddhairo (Lagerstroemia parviflora), dhayo (Woodfordia fruticosa), tatari (Dillenia pentagyna), barro (Terminalia bellirica), tanki (Bauhinia purpurea), Bhalayo (Rhus succedanea), etc. The major associated species are Artillary plant (Pilea symmena), Currant (Ribes takare), Mug-wort (Artemisia indica). D. butyracea plays important role in soil conservation because it is considered to be a good soil binder (Joshi 2010). It grows well on poor rocky ridges wherever the roots lead into the clefts. It grows higher on southwest-facing slopes. Chiuri seedlings grow best in shaded sites. Seeds from the fruits eaten up by jackals, bats, wolves, etc., conjointly germinate well. The large number of animals and insects depend on Chiuri

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Fig. 1 Diploknema butyracea (Sapotaceae), tree habit, Nepal. (Photo Bhola Bhattarai)

trees for food and shelter. Children, monkeys, and langur shake the flowers and collect nectar for drinking. A large number of honeybees, wasps, hornets, and other insects are found collecting nectar (Patil et al. 2004) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Phytochemistry The quantitative analysis of the seed extracts showed the presence of phytochemical constituents such as alkaloid, tannin, glycosides, fixed oils, fats, flavonoids, sterols, phenol, terpenoids, and saponins (Tyagi and Tyagi 2015). The presence of flavonoids in the plant indicates that it may have antioxidant and free-radical scavenging properties (Winkel-Shirley 2002). Saponins are linked to antibacterial activity and glycosides are associated with lowering of blood pressure (Lu et al. 2004). The fats like palmitic acid methyl ester, linoleic acid methyl ester, Oleic acid methyl ester, and steric acid methyl ester are found. Kernel is rich in nutritional value as different

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Fig. 2 Diploknema butyracea (Sapotaceae), seedlings planted by Chepangs, Nepal. (Photo Bhola Bhattarai)

Fig. 3 Diploknema butyracea (Sapotaceae), seed, Nepal. (Photo Bhola Bhattarai)

components like total soluble solids, nonreducing sugars, reducing sugars, and Vitamin C are contained in it (Devkota et al. 2012). The nutrition values found in its fruits are ash, protein, fat, carbohydrate, sugar, phosphorus, sodium, potassium, calcium, and iron (Sundriyal and Sundriyal 2004).

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Fig. 4 Diploknema butyracea (Sapotaceae), flower Nepal. (Photo Bhola Bhattarai)

Local Medicinal Uses Diploknema butyracea: The juice of the bark is used to treat indigestion and as anthelmintic. The seed fat is applied for headache, rheumatism, boils, and pimples. It is also used as emollient for chapped hands and feet in winter (Devkota et al. 2017). The nectar obtained by Chiuri flowers is considered of great medicinal as well as nutritional use especially during famine. The Chiuri honey is used in the treatment of diabetes and asthma (Patil et al. 2004). Seed fat (Chiuri butter) is used for the treatment of headaches, rheumatism boils, pimples, burns and used as emollient for chapped hands and feet during winter (Manandhar 2002; Adhikari et al. 2007; Watanabe et al. 2013). The stem has been used as a toothbrush to remove the foul smell, a decoction prepared by the inner bark is used to treat amenorrhea and diarrhea in Maharastra, India. Leaves have been used to treat mouth ulcers and to relieve muscular pain. The dried petals have been used against dysuria, cold, and cough. Moreover, the wine has been prepared by the local tribal from the petal and sometimes used during child delivery. Likewise, the juice prepared from the seeds in water is applied against chronic headache, whereas the seed powder can be used for curing constipation and throat infection (Patil et al. 2004).

Local Food Uses Diploknema butyracea: The fruits and seeds are eaten. The flowers serve for nectar (Dangol et al. 2017). The plant is well known for its butter (commonly known as Chiuri Gheu/Ghee or Phulwara butter). The butter has traditionally been used for daily cooking and also for lighting lamps (Patil et al. 2004).

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses Diploknema butyracea: The Chiuri cake is used as manure with pesticidal properties, as fish poison, and as feed for animals after detoxification. Chiuri trees produce good fuelwood, hard and durable timber, and the leaves are used as tree fodder in many areas in Nepal (Patil et al. 2004). Fruits are used as a dietary supplement for the Chepang people. Chepangs use bark and oil cake as fish poison. Oil cake is also used as fertilizer to protect crops from pests and worms (Shakya 2000). The tree is given as a dowry to daughters in Chepang community. The Chepangs have a particularly close relationship with the Chiuri tree (which they call “Yoshi”). A family is considered more or less rich depending on how many trees it has, and the traditional knowledge on the techniques of sowing, harvesting the various fruits and derivatives and their use is of great interest because it is extremely specialized and culturally characterized. It can undoubtedly be said that Chepang culture is closely associated with Chiuri. A legend tells Chepang that: “long ago, a hoax ran away from his stable at night and went to eat in the millet field until it was completely saturated. But at the time of returning, since it was dark, the hoax failed to find his way and fell into a dangerous precipice, and he got stuck there halfway. Nobody managed to extract the hoax, and therefore she died there. In the same place, fertilized by the carcass, the first Chiuri tree was born.” According to this legend, traces of its origin can be read in Chiuri: the fruit of Chiuri gives a white juice, which is the milk of the buffalo, and the oil obtained from the seeds is buffalo butter. The small black grains found in the fruit are the millet eaten by the buffalo during the night. Even today, the Chepang says that Chiuri is like a “milk buffalo for us.” People in Chiuri growing areas of Nepal generally do not chop up or fell the Chiuri trees. Particularly the Chepang, a minority group of semi-nomadic people intensively consume and conserve the trees. Chepang are able to live in the infertile upper slopes of the Mahabharat hills since they have the knowledge of applications of plants. The Chepangs are highly dependent on forest resources, partly for their use and partly for barter and sale (Bhattarai 1995; Chhetri et al. 1997). They are very good at weaving baskets, leaf umbrellas, and other handicrafts. Besides this, they know wild plants and processing methods to detoxify foods. Yet, there are a few documentations on the Chepangs’ use of natural resources (Bhattarai 1995; Rai and Chaudhary 1975; SNV/SECOW 1995; Thapa 1979). In fact, Chiuri could be the best option for livelihood for Chepangs if we could document the traditional ideas of Chiuri conservation along with modern technique of agroforestry systems. Similarly, the conservation of chiura should be interlinked with the other species of trees, fruits, bamboos, and fodder plants so that they can generate additional income from agriculture and animal husbandry. It could change the living standard of the local people who are still living under poverty line. Chiuri still represents a nonsecondary source of income for the Chepang (and other populations). It is normal for each family to have at least some Chiuri trees, from 5 to 10–20 for the wealthiest families. The possession of the tree is detached from the possession of the land; a family may own trees on the land that is not its own; this possession gives her the right to use the trees first for the collection of fruits

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and seeds, etc., until the month of Saun masanta (mid-July), after which the tree becomes the common property and anyone can exploit it, although there are usually inter-family agreements to regulate the exploitation (this type of common management of property and modification of ownership is typical of the Chepang who stand out from the rest of the Nepalese populations even for a small gap between man and woman concerning rights). The tree is treated as a member of the family, and family trees are inherited and divided equally among members of the family itself. The link with this plant is so strong that, when a tree is sick, it is treated by the local healers just as it would cure a human being. Seed-derived ghee is the main livelihood for many Chepang; it constitutes the main source of dietary fat, and the Chepang prefer large families also because these mean more labor for the fruit harvest. Production ranges from 15 to 60 kg of ghee per year, of which 3–10 are sold on the market. The sale of ghee represents a potentially very important source of subsistence for the Chepang. People earn very less income from Chiuri ghee as they do not get enough price in the market. The problem is that while supply and demand for ghee are sufficient, brokers have for many years taken advantage of farmers’ ingenuity to increase their profit. Poor and marginalized Chepangs should get the sufficient amount. For the same market linkage should be made and there should be direct contact of the Chepangs with the trader. The Chiuri produces oil seeds, rich in oil contents, which at lower temperature transforms into fat and looks like butter or ghee which has a great nutritional and medicinal value (Figs. 5 and 6). Chiuri ghee is used as vegetable oil as well as for lightening the lamps. The oil thus obtained is also used for making chocolate, soap, and candles. The fruit of Chiuri is a berry, oval with three seeds. A conventional method is used for making gur (jaggery) from thick and soft pulp of pericarp by crushing it and drying by boiling. The gur is reported tasty and sold in the local market at remunerative prices. People feed the residuals to animals by mixing it with feedstuff. The fruit pulp is also edible and widely eaten by the native villagers and also by many birds, flies, and wild animals. The green leaves of Chiuri are available during the dry months of the year and are thus preferred by the cattle to feed on. These leaves are even traditionally considered good for lactating cattle. The wild animals like macaque species and langurs also love to feed on the leaves of this tree. Traditionally the flower of Chiuri is considered good for the foraging of various pollinators including bees, birds, and bats. Beekeepers of Chitwan district first bring their bee colonies to Dang valley, and then they bring back their colonies due to alterations in flowering time, and place in Lothar, Silinge, and Shaktikhor area of Makwanpur and Chitwan districts for production of Chiuri honey. The honey produced by the honeybees after foraging on Chiuri flowers is sold as Chiuri honey by the natives at a good cost thus being a good source of income. The nectar from the flowers is also harvested directly to produce jaggery, which is highly prized in Uttarakhand (Khadka et al. 2010). The flowers are also used as a source of alcohol. The honey produced by the honeybees after foraging on Chiuri flowers is sold as Chiuri honey by the natives at a good cost thus being a good source of income. The roots are used as a tonic. The roots are cleaned and messed and dipped in water and kept for the whole night or day and thereafter the juice thus

786 Fig. 5 Diploknema butyracea (Sapotaceae), ghee (fat) extraction, Nepal. (Photo Bhola Bhattarai)

Fig. 6 Diploknema butyracea (Sapotaceae), ghee (fat), Nepal. (Photo Bhola Bhattarai)

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prepared is taken as a tonic. The Chiuri products are commercially used in different fields such as confectionery, pharmaceutical (as a soothing cream for healing cracked skin), vegetable ghee production, candle manufacturing, and soap making. It is also found effective for rheumatism and also used as an adulterant in animal ghee. The cake produced after processing of Chiuri is used as manures that are applied on paddy and banana plantations. Chiuri butter could be a high demand product for the European consumers. For example, during the period 2011 to 2016, an estimated 20 tons of Chiuri butter has been exported from Nepal annually to the European market. Products made using Chiuri butter are already in the European market and listed by the Raw materials for COSMOS-standard cosmetics. Different companies have already launched cosmetic products in the market using Chiuri butter as a base for creams, ointment, and lotion. Officina Naturae and Cime (International companies) and Alternative Herbal Products (P) Ltd., Deuti Herbal Industry, and Himalayan Bio-Trade Pvt. Ltd. (national companies) are working together to produce herbal products from the butter (Rythkonen 2016). Polygon Chemicals Pvt. Ltd. (India) is also working in medicines and cosmetics (Nautiyal 2009).

References Adhikari MK, Shakya DM, Kayastha M, Baral SR, Subedi MN. Bulletin of Department of Plant Resources no. 28. In: Medicinal Plants of Nepal (revised). Kathmandu: Department of Plant Resources; 2007. p. 112. Bhattarai TR. Chepangs: status, efforts and issues: A Syo’s perspective. In: Bhattarai TR, editor. Chepang resources and development. Kathmandu: Netherlands Development Organisation in Nepal (SNV)/ School for Ecology, Agriculture and Community Works (SEACOW); 1995. p. 5–11. Chhetri NS, Ghimire S, Gribnau C, Pradhan S, Rana S. Can Orange trees bloom on a barren land. Identification of development potentials of Praja communities in Chitwan District. Kathmandu: The Netherlands Development Organisation (SNV); 1997. Dangol DR, Maharjan KL, Maharjan SK, Acharya AK. Wild edible plants in Nepal. In: Joshi BK, KCH B, Acharya A, editors. Conservation and utilization of agricultural plant genetic resources of Nepal. Dhulikhel: NAGRC; 2017. p. 390–407. Devkota HP, Watanabe T, Malla KJ, Nishiba Y, Yahara S. Studies on medicinal plant resources of the Himalayas: GC-MS analysis of seed fat of Chyuri (Diploknema butyracea) from Nepal. Pharm J. 2012;4:42–4. Devkota HP, Adhikari-Devkota A, Takano A, Yahara S, Basnet P. HPLC and TLC fingerprints of selected Nepalese natural medicines and medicinal plants. J Nepal Pharm Assoc. 2017;28:1. Joshi SR. Resource analysis of Chyuri (Aesandra butyracea) in Nepal (MEDEP-NEP 08/006). Kathmandu: Micro-Enterprise Development Programme; 2010. Khadka M, Tewari L, Kumar S, Singh L, Nailwal TK. Extraction of high quality Dna from Diploknema butyracea. Researcher. 2010;2(9):19–20. Kunwar A, Thakur A. In-vitro callus regeneration and rhizogenesis in Diploknema butyracea: a valuable tree borne oilseed. Indian J Res Pharm Biotechnol. 2017;5(3):239–41. Lu L, Liu SW, Jiang SB, Wu SG. Tannin inhibits HIV-1 entry by targeting gp41. Acta Pharm Sin. 2004;25(2):213–8. Majumder K, Dutta B, Shanlar U. Establishing continuity in distribution of Diploknema butyracea (Roxb.) H. J. Lam in Indian subcontinent. J Res Biol. 2012;2(7):660–6. Manandhar NP. Plants an people of Nepal. Portland: Timber Press; 2002. p. 205.

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Nautiyal S. Indian butter tree paves way for entrepreneurship despite economic slump. 2009. Retrieved from Your Story. https://yourstory.com/2009/02/indian-butter-tree-paves-way-forentrepreneurship-despite-economic-slump-2?utm_pageloadtype¼scroll Patil DA, Pawar S, Patil MV. Mahuwa tree and the aborigines of North Maharashtra. Nat Prod Radiance. 2004;3:356–8. Rai NK, Chaudhary J. A survey of the socioeconomic development of the Chepangs. Kathmandu: Centre for Economic Development and Administration, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur; 1975. Rythkonen A. Forest-based value chains in Nepal. 2016. Retrieved from https://www.eda.admin.ch/ dam/countries/countries-content/nepal/en/Forest_based_Value_Chains-EN.pdf Shakya MR. Chepangs and chiuri, the use of non timber forest products in Nepal. Food Chain. 2000;26:3–5. SNV/SECOW. Chepang resources and development. Kathmandu: SNV/SECOW; 1995. Sundriyal M, Sundriyal RC. Wild edible plants of the Sikkim Himalaya: marketing, value addition and implications for management. Econ Bot. 2004;58:300–15. Thapa BB. Chepang Jatiko Adharvut Awasyakta: a case study of Makaisingh Village development committee. Kathmandu: Department of Anthropology, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur; 1979. Tyagi R, Tyagi S. Phytochemical standardization of Diploknema butyracea (Roxb.) H.J. Lam. Seeds by HPTLC technique. Indian J Nat Prod Resour. 2015;6(4):299–304. Winkel-Shirley B. Biosynthesis of flavonoids and effects of stress. Curr Opinion Plant Biol. 2002;5(3):218–23. Watanabe T, Rajbhandari KR, Malla KJ, Devkota HP, Yahara S. In: Ayurseed EI, editor. A handbook of medicinal plants of Nepal supplement I. Kanagawa: Life Environmental Institute; 2013. p. 124–5. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013.

Drosera peltata Thunb. DROSERACEAE Gauri S. Bhandari, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Drosera peltata Thunb.: Drosera gracilis Hook.f. ex Planch.; Drosera peltata var. gracilis (Hook.f. ex Planch.) Benth.; Drosera lunata Buch.-Ham. ex DC.; Drosera peltata var. lunata (Buch.-Ham. ex DC.) C. B. Clarke; Drosera peltata var. gunniana Planch.; Drosera lobbiana Turcz.; Drosera peltata var. glabrata Y. Z. Ruan; Drosera peltata var. multisepala Y. Z. Ruan; Drosera. nipponica Masam.; Drosera peltata var. nipponica (Masam.) Ohwi ex E. Walker; Drosera peltata Willd. nom. illeg. hom.

G. S. Bhandari The Research Institute of Basic Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_85

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Local Names Drosera peltata: Chinese: 珍珠草 zenzhucao, qurenlong, kujimahu, caoniwa, Mao gao cai; Nepali: Jhinga jaale; Hindi: Chitra, Mukhajali; Japanese: Ishi-Mochi-so; Korean: Kkeun-kkeun-i-gwi-gae; English: Shield Sundew, Pale Sundew

Botany and Ecology Drosera peltata: Herbs perennial, forming aerial portion only for a few months during early summer. Stem erect or climbing, branched distally, 9–32 cm, forming a tuber to 8 mm in diam. below ground, glabrous or with black, papillose glands. Basal leaves densely whorled, or absent in some populations, exstipulate, yellowish green to green; petiole 2–8 mm; leaf blade peltate, orbicular to suborbicular, 2–4
6–8 mm; some leaves reduced, linear, about 2 mm. Cauline leaves alternate, remote, exstipulate, yellowish green; petiole 0.8–1.3 cm; leaf blade peltate or lunate to semiorbicular, 2–3
4–5 mm, margin glandular hairy. Inflorescence terminal; cincinnus 2–6 cm, 3- to 22-flowered; bracts cuneate to oblanceolate or subulate; pedicels 0.6–2 cm. Sepals 5–7, united near base, yellowish green, lanceolate to ovate, 2–4 mm
about 1.5 mm, glabrous to glandular hairy, apex 5–7-fid. Petals usually white, rarely pink or red, oblong-cuneate, 4–6
2–3 mm. Stamens 5, 2–4 mm. Ovary subglobose, about 1.5 mm in diam.; placentas 3; styles 3, 2- to 5-parted, about 0.8 mm; stigma 2- or 3-fid. Capsule subglobose, (2 or)3(5)-valved, 2–4 mm. Seeds ellipsoid-ovoid to globose, about 0.4 mm; venation scrobiculate. Flowering and fruiting June–September (Wu et al. 1994–2013, Ohwi 1965; Lianli and Kondo 2001; Giri and Watson 2012). Drosera peltata is a carnivorous plant that boosts nutrient intake by trapping insects with sticky glandular hairs, killing them, and absorbing nutrients from their decayed body. The perennial underground tubers sprout in around April and produce aerial plant. By December, the aerial plants die off and revert to dormant winter tubers. Drosera peltata is widely distributed with the species reported from China, India, Japan, Nepal, South Korea, Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, South-western and eastern Australia, and New Zealand. The plants grow in an altitudinal range of 900–4000 m in streamsides, roadsides, wet cliffs, wet meadows, sunny open places, and sparse pine forests (Ohwi 1965; Lianli and Kondo 2001; Giri and Watson 2012) (Fig. 1).

Phytochemistry Naphthoquinones and Flavonoids are the main constituents of D. peltata. The main Naphthoquinones isolated from D. peltata are; (i) Plumbagin (5-hydroxy-2-methyl1,4-naphthoquinone); (ii) Ramentaceone or 7-methyljuglone (5-hydroxy-7-methyl-1, 4-naphthoquinone); (iii) Droserone (3,5-dihydroxy-2-methyl-1,4-naphthoquinone), (iv) Droserone 5-O-glucoside (3,5-dihydroxy-2-methyl-1,4-naphthoquinone-5-glucoside),

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Fig. 1 Drosera peltata (Droseraceae), Taplejung, Nepal. (Photo Hem Raj Paudel)

and (v) hydroxydroserone (3,5,8-trihydroxy-2-methyl-1,4-napthoquinone) (Leclercq and Angenot 1984; Wang et al. 1998; Schlauer et al. 2005; Li et al. 2012; Tian et al. 2014). Among the flavonoids, the presence of quercetin, kaempferol, gossypetin, gossypin, and isogossypitrin (gossypetin-7-O-α-D-glucoside), gossypitrin, herbacetin-3-O-glucoside, quercetin-7-O-glucoside, kaempferol-3-O-(600 -Ogalloyl)-glucoside, herbacetin-7O-glucoside and herbacetin in D. peltata have been reported (Wu et al. 1994–2013; Braunberger et al. 2013). Flavonoids such as isoquercitrin, quercetin-3-O-(600 O-galloyl)-β-D-glucoside, and quercetin-3-digalactoside were isolated from D. peltata var. glabrata (Hu et al. 1994). Additionally, Braunberger et al. (2013) reported ellagic acid from D. peltata. Peltatone A, of the indanone class has been isolated from D. peltata var. lunata (Gascoigne et al. 1948). The extract of D. peltata and the isolated compounds including naphthoquinone, plumbagin, exhibit antimicrobial activity against oral bacteria Streptococcus mutans, S. sobrinus, S. rattus, and S. cricetus (Didry et al. 1998). Plumbagin is also reported to have antifungal activity (Tian et al. 2014). These compounds have contributed to the diverse utilization of sundews in traditional medicine systems worldwide. It is the source of crude drug herba drosera used in the treatment of cough and ailments of the respiratory tract in the southern Hemisphere (Wawrosch et al. 1993; Schilcher

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et al. 2010). In Europe, D. rotundifolia L., D. intermedia Hayne, and D. anglica Huds. are increasingly becoming rare and D. peltata is being used as a substitute to the European species as a source of herba drosera (Krenn et al. 1995; Paper et al. 2005).

Local Medicinal Uses Drosera peltata: Decoction of whole plant against indigestion and traumatic injuries (Geck 2011). The plant is anodyne, blood tonic and carminative. It is used in making gold bhasma, which is antisyphilitic, alterative, and tonic. The crushed leaves, with or without salt, have been used as a blistering agent (Chopra et al. 1986). This can be of value as a poultice since it brings more blood to the area and helps speed the clearance of toxins in arthritis and rheumatism (Chevallier 1996). It is also used in treating rheumatism, malaria, bruise, scabies, and tumor. D. peltata is rare in distribution, resulting in its limited use. In Nepal, this plant is used in treatment of Syphillis in western Nepal (Achham, Bajhang, Bajura and Doti districts: Kunwar and Duwadee 2003) and spread to get rid of flies (Jumla: Manandhar 1986).

References Braunberger C, Zehl M, Conrad J, Fischer S, Adhami H-R, Beifuss U, Krenn L. LC-NMR, NMR, and LC-MS identification and LC-DAD quantification of flavonoids and ellagic acid derivatives in Drosera peltata. J Chromatogr B. 2013;932:111–6. Chevallier A. The encyclopedia of medicinal plants. London: Dorling Kindersley; 1996. Chopra RN, Nayar SL, Chopra IC. Glossary of Indian medicinal plants (including the supplement). New Delhi: Council of Scientific and Industrial Research; 1986. Didry N, Dubreuil L, Trotin F, Pinkas M. Antimicrobial activity of aerial parts of Drosera peltata Smith on oral bacteria. J Ethnopharmacol. 1998;60(1):91–6. Gascoigne RM, Ritchie E, White DE. A survey of anthocyanins in the Australian flora. J Proc R Soc NSW. 1948;82:44. Geck MS. Access and benefit sharing in the context of ethnobotanical research. MSc thesis, University of Zurich, Zurich. 2011. Giri A, Watson MF. Droseraceae. In: Watson MF, Akiyama S, Ikeda H, Pendry CA, Rajbhandari KR, Shrestha KK, editors. Flora of Nepal, web edition. Edinburgh: Royal Botanic Gardens; 2012. Hu XB, Yang PQ, Liu WJ. Study on flavonoids in lunate Peltate sundew herb from Tibet. Chin Trad Herbal Drugs. 1994;25:49–50. Krenn L, Länger R, Kopp B. Qualitätsprüfung von Sonnentaukraut. Deutsche Apothekerzeitung. 1995;135:867–70. Kunwar and Duwadee. Ethnobotanical notes on Flora of Khaptad National Park (KNP), Far-western, Nepal. Him J Sci. 2003;1(1):25–30. Leclerq L, Angenot J. A propos du Drosera peltata et de la standardisation de la teinture de Drosera. J Pharm Belg. 1984;39:269. Li J, Shen L, Lu F, Qin Y, Chen R, Li J, Li Y, Zhan H, He Y. Plumbagin inhibits cell growth and potentiates apoptosis in human gastric cancer cells in vitro through the NF-κB signaling pathway. Acta Pharmacol Sin. 2012;33:242–9.

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Lianli L, Kondo K. Droseraceae. In: Flora of China, vol. 8. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/ Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 2001. p. 199–201. Manandhar NP. Ethnobotany of Jumla District, Nepal. Int J Crude Drug Res. 1986;24(2):81–9. Ohwi J. Flora of Japan. Washington, DC: Smithonian Institute; 1965. Paper DH, Karall E, Kremser M, Krenn L. Comparison of the anti-inflammatory effects of Drosera rotundifolia and Drosera madagascariensis in the HET-CAM assay. Phytother Res. 2005;19(4):323–6. Schilcher H, Kammerer S, Wegener T. Leitfaden Phytotherapie. 4th ed. München: Urban & Fischer; 2010. p. 303. Schlauer J, Nerz J, Rischer H. Carnivorous plant chemistry. Acta Bot Gallica. 2005;152:187–95. Tian J, Chen Y, Ma B, He J, Tong J, Wang Y. Drosera peltata Smith var. lunata (Buch.-Ham.) C. B. Clarke as a feasible source of plumbagin: phytochemical analysis and antifungal activity assay. World J Microbiol Biotechnol. 2014;30:737–45. Wang QA, Su JY, Ceng LM. Chemical constituents of Drosera peltata Smith var. lunata (Buch.-Ham.) C.B. Clarke collected in Tibet. J Chin Mat Med. 1998;23:683–5. Wawrosch C, Steinberger B, Markotai J, Kopp B. In vitro propagation of Drosera species. Planta Med. 1993;59:A653. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D e. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013.

Drymaria cordata (L.) Willd. ex Schult. CARYOPHYLLACEAE Anjana Devkota, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Drymaria cordata (L.) Willd. ex Schult.: Alsine rotundifolia Stokes, Bufonia rotundifolia Buch. Ham. Ex Steud; Drymaria adenophora Urb., Drymaria cordata subsp. diandra (Sw.) J.A. Duke, Drymaria cordata var. diandra (Sw.) Grieseb., Drymaria cordata var. pacifica Mizush., Drymaria cordata var. puberula Triana & Planch., Drymaria diandra (Sw.) Macfad., Drymaria diandra Blume, Drymaria procumbens Rose, Holosteum cordatum L., Holosteum diandrum Sw., Stellaria adenophora (Urb.) León

A. Devkota (*) Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_86

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Local Names Drymaria cordata: Nepali, Abhiijaalo; Tamil, Kodi charai; Naga, Pipivula; Gharwal, Daidya, Pithpara; China, You me cai, Qing zhe zu, He lian dou cao, Chuan xian she, Shuo qing cao; Philippines, Bakalanga, kamra-kamra; English, chickweed, heartleaf drymary, West Indian chickweed.

Botany and Ecology Drymaria cordata: Plants annual. Stems straggling, sometimes subscandent, usually rooting at lower nodes, 60–90 cm, mostly glabrous, minutely papillose toward inflorescence. Stipules membranous, splitting into few whitish setae. Petiole poorly defined, 3–7 mm; leaf blade ovate-cordate, (0.5–)1–3( 3.5)  0.6–3 cm, prominently 3–5-veined from base. Bracts lanceolate, scarious. Pedicel 3–5 mm, slender, glandular hairy. Sepals lanceolate-ovate, 2–3.5( 5) mm, margin membranous, 3-veined, glandular hairy, apex subacute. Petals white, obovate-cuneate, about 2.5 mm, deeply 2-cleft; segments narrow, apex  acute. Stamens 2 3( 5), shorter than sepals. Styles 3, connate at base. Capsule ovoid, (1.5–)2–3 mm in diam., 3-valved. Seed dark brown, suborbicular, about 1.5 mm, regularly densely tuberculate. Flowering April to October, fruiting June to December (Wagner et al. 1990; Wu et al. 1994–2013). The key features of this species are the opposite, heart-shaped to circular leaves and the small white flowers with split petals that are shorter than the sepals (Kashyap et al. 2014) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5). Drymaria cordata originates from tropical America (Holm et al. 1997) but is now widely distributed throughout the tropics and subtropics. In Nepal, most of the species of Drymaria are found in tropical and subtropical parts, extending from southern plane region to northern Himalayan region up to an elevation of 2100 m height (Singh et al. 2012). D. cordata grows best in moist and shaded habitats at low to middle elevations (from 10 to 2000 m). It is a weed of cultivated areas, which invades tea, coffee plantations, as well as riverbanks, ditches, and sandbars in rivers. The plant is abundantly or commonly distributed in foothill plain areas and gradually decreases in higher elevations (Ridley 1930). It is tolerant to a wide range of soil textures including sandy, loam, and clay soils with pH ranging from 6.1 to 7.8 and to seasonal waterlogging (Holm et al. 1997).

Phytochemistry It contains active chemical constituents (alkaloid, glycosides, saponins, essential oils, bitter principles, tannins, and mucilages) in its parts like root, stem, leaves, bark, fruit, and seed, which produces a definite curing physiological response in the treatment of various ailments in humans and other animals, which is why it is regarded as medicinal plant. D. cordata is rich in saponins especially the pentacyclic triterpenoid types (Evans 1989). Murdiati and Stoltz (1987) detected the presence of

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Fig. 1 Drymaria cordata (Caryophyllaceae), Nepal. (Photo Anjana Devkota)

Fig. 2 Drymaria cordata (Caryophyllaceae), Nepal. (Photo Anjana Devkota)

alkaloid-like (pyrrolizidine) compounds in the plant. An extensive work by Hu et al. (1982) detected the presence of succinic acid (crystal 28), alpha-spinasterol (crystal 1), and a mixture containing caproic, caprylic, capric, lauric, myristic, palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, and linolenic fatty acids (ether-insoluble residue) in

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Fig. 3 Drymaria cordata (Caryophyllaceae), Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Drymaria cordata (Caryophyllaceae), Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

D. cordata. The presence of alkaloids and saponins was also reported by Volponi (1985). The principal chemical compound found in this plant is methoxycanthin. However, it also contains starch and other compounds. The presence of succinic acid (crystal 28), alpha-spinasterol (crystal 1), and a mixture containing caproic, caprylic,

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Fig. 5 Drymaria cordata (Caryophyllaceae), Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

capric, lauric, myristic, palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, and linolenic fatty acids (ether-insoluble residue) was also detected (Adeyemi et al. 2008). Cordatamine and the antileukemic substance, cordacin I have also been isolated and characterized from the plant (Lin and Yang 1974). Due to its medicinal properties, a number of biologically active compounds have been isolated from the leaves of D. cordata including, norditerpenes and norditerpene glycosides (Tejavathi and Indira 2011), flavonoid glucosides (Ding et al. 1999), and cyclopeptides (Ding et al. 2000). The presence of alkaloids, reducing sugar, flavonoids, saponin, and anthraquinone was also reported by Venkatesan et al. (2003). Ding et al. (2005) have also discussed the presence of 3 cyclic peptides and 4 flavone glucosides (drymareatins A, B, C, and D) in D. cordata plant.

Local Medicinal Uses Drymaria cordata: Drymaria cordata has been traditionally used in various parts of the world like Africa and Asia as folk medicine. In tropical Africa, its preparations are used for the treatment of diverse ailments, including cold, headache, bronchitis, as poultice on sore (to treat aching, inflamed or painful parts), leprosy, tumors, as fumigant for eye troubles, as cerebral stimulant and antifebrile agent (Burkil 1985). In west Cameroon, the plant is called “Ton tchikou or Ndougo” (Bangangté) and “Mtokia” (Baham) where it is respectively used to cure peptic ulcer, headaches, nephritis (Noumi and Dibakto 2000), and female infertility (Telefo et al. 2011). D. cordata is used in Nigerian folk medicine to treat sleeping disorders, convulsions, and febrile conditions in children (Adeyemi et al. 2008). It has been found that the local tribes from Garo Hills and Khasia of Meghalaya, India, use this herb as an antitussive. The herb is kept on some big leaves, folded, tied, and put over fire, and the inside material is heated; the vapor is then inhaled for the relief of cough,

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sinusitis, pneumonia, or in acute cold attack (Bhattarai and Khadka 2017). The plant is used as an appetizer, depurative, emollient, febrifuge, laxative, and stimulant (Burkil 1985). It has an aromatic pungency leading it to be much used in many countries for treating respiratory chest ailments, colds, and bronchitis (Burkil 1985). This herb is also used for snakebite and is applied topically for burns, skin diseases, and muscular sprain (Rao 1981; Asolkar et al. 1992; Arya et al. 2017). In North East India, the plant has been traditionally used as an antidote, appetizer, depurative, emollient, febrifuge, laxative, and stimulant in both human and animals (Saklani and Jain 1994). The boiled plant was used for diarrhea of children, while the fresh juice of the plant was also used in nasal bleeding (Devi 1995). The plant is diuretic, stomachic, and vesicant (Burkil 1985; Ruffo et al. 2002). The plant is an ingredient of a decoction administered as a cerebral stimulant, especially for children (DeFilipps et al. 2008). The plant is scalded and the steam is used as an eye fumigation for eye troubles (Burkil 1985). The plant is applied externally to edemas of the feet and to leprosy; it is used as a poultice on injuries, sores, and tumors. Topical applications must be carried out with caution since prolonged treatment causes burning of the skin (Burkil 1985). Leaf paste of the whole plant is applied on tongue for fungal infection; juice is given for sinusitis (Gogoi and Zaman 2013). In Nepal it has been used for various ailments, especially cold, pneumonia, tonsillitis, freshness, and cool (Burlakoti and Kunwar 2008; Limbu and Rai 2013), fever, diarrhea, dysentery (Singh et al. 2012; Singh 2013; Luitel et al. 2014), cuts (Lamichhane et al. 2014), gastritis (Shresth and Dhillion 2003; Rijal 2008; Gaire and Subedi 2011; Bhattarai et al. 2011; Acharya 2012; Bhandan et al. 2013; Dwa 2013). It is used to treat herpes, fever, headache (Singh et al. 2017), and cough (Kunwar et al. 2009, 2010), as well as vomiting due to fever (Purkayastha et al. 2005). It is sometimes applied to snakebites (Houghton and Osibogun 1993) and for bile problems (Kumar et al. 2011). The Naga people use the species to treat ringworm, contact dermatitis, angular cheilitis, and sinusitis (Kichu et al. 2015). It is also used to treat fever (Joshi et al. 2010) and cracked heels (Ignacimuthu et al. 2006). In Ethiopia, it is used for arthritis (Giday et al. 2009, 2010).

Local Food Uses Drymaria cordata: It is highly nutritious, with a protein content of 15–20%. Leaves are rich in iron and a good source of calcium, chromium, cobalt, molybdenum, magnesium, manganese, silicon, zinc, and vitamins C and A. Leaves can be eaten raw or cooked. The taste is very mild, and it is highly nutritious, being particularly high in iron, vitamins A and C, and antioxidants (Grubb and Raser-Rowland 2012). It is used in a refreshing salad. The tender leaves and shoots are chopped and cooked alone or with other vegetables such as amaranth or Bidens and served with a staple such as rice (Ruffo et al. 2002). Leaves are eaten as vegetable (Dangol et al. 2017).

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses Drymaria cordata: It has been found useful, however, as a ground cover to prevent erosion, especially on steep slopes (Burkil 1985). It also serves as fodder (Bussmann 2006; Bussmann et al. 2011).

References Acharya R. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of Resunga hill used by Magar community of Badagaun VDC, Gulmi district, Nepal. Sci World. 2012;10:54–65. https://doi.org/10.3126/sw. v10i10.6863. Adeyemi OO, Akindele AJ, Ndubuisi N. Anti-inflammatory activity of Drymaria cordata extract. J Nat Rem. 2008;8:93–100. Arya OP, Pandey A, Samal PK. Ethnobotany and nutritional importance of four selected medicinal plants from Eastern Himalaya, Arunachal Pradesh. J Med Plants Stud. 2017;5(1):45–9. Asolkar LV, Kakkar KK, Chakre OJ. Second supplement to glossary of Indian medicinal plants. New Delhi: Publication and Information Directoratem, C.S.I.R.; 1992. Bhandan SK, Shrestha P, Chaudhary SR, Rashid TSM. Ethnomedicinal investigation on herbal drugs used in Dang district Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed Photon. 2013;119:501–14. Bhattarai KR, Khadka MK. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants from Ilam district, East Nepal. Our Nat. 2017;14(1):78–91. Bhattarai KR, Maren IE, Chaudhary RP. Medicinal plant knowledge of the Panchase region in the middle hills of the Nepalese Himalayas. Banko Janakari. 2011;21:31–9. https://doi.org/10.3126/ banko.v21i2.9127. Burkil HM. The useful plants of West Tropical Africa. Kew: Royal Botanic Gardens; 1985. Burlakoti C, Kunwar RM. Folk herbal medicines of Mahakali Watershed Area, Nepal. In: Jha PK, Karmacharya SB, Chettri MK, Thapa CB, Shrestha BB, editors. Medicinal plants in Nepal: an anthology of contemporary research. Kathmandu: Ecological Society (ECOS); 2008. p. 187–93. Bussmann RW. Ethnobotany of the Samburu of Mt. Nyiru, South Turkana, Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:35. Bussmann RW, Swartzinsky P, Worede A, Evangelista P. Plant use in Odo-Bulu and Demaro, Bale region, Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2011;7:28. Dangol DR, Maharjan KL, Maharjan SK, Acharya AK. Wild edible plants in Nepal. In: Joshi BK, Bahadur KCH, Acharya A, editors. Conservation and utilization of agricultural plant genetic resources of Nepal. Dhulikhel: NAGRC; 2017. p. 390–407. DeFilipps RA, Maina SL, Crepin J. Medicinal plants of the Guianas, Smithsonian Museum; Washington, DC. 2008. Devi LD. Folk Lore on the use of indigenous plants & animals in Manipur. Imphal: Dr. L. Dhanapati Devi Publications; 1995. DIing ZT, Yang XQ, Cao QE, Li F. New flavone glycosides from Drymaria diandra. J Integr Plant Biol. 2005;47:1140–4. Ding Z, Zhou J, Tan N. A novel flavonoid glycoside from Drymaria diandra. Planta Med. 1999;65:578–9. Ding Z, Zhou J, Tan N, Teng R. Two new cyclic peptides from Drymaria diandra. Planta Med. 2000;66:368–88. Dwa OP. Study of traditional uses of medicinal plants (Herbs) of hilly areas of Lekhnath Municipality. Jan J Inter Stud. 2013;2(1):82–9. Evans WC. Trease and evans pharmacognosy (13th edn). Philadelphia: Tindall Press; 1989. p. 245–65.

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Drynaria propinqua (Wall. ex Mett.) Bedd. POLYPODIACEAE Rashmi Thapa, Prakash Poudel, Ripu M. Kunwar, and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Drynaria propinqua (Wall. ex Mett.) Bedd.: Aglaomorpha propinqua (Wall. ex Mett.) Hovenkamp & S. Linds.; Drynaria prolifera P. C. Pande & H. C. Pande; Phymatodes propinqua C. presl; Phymatodes wallichiana C. Presl; Polypodium dimorphum Zoll.; Polypodium faberi Christ; Polypodium propinquum Wall.

Local Names Drynaria propinqua: Nepali: Kamaro, Kamari, Uneu, Harpasaro; Tamang: Nakabhyak, Nakahyapsing; Chepang: Hadjoda; Lamas and Amchis: Bejang reral; Gyalpo reral, Hatpusaro, Hatpaharo (Manandhar 2002; Sedai 2010; Uprety R. Thapa Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, School of Health and Allied Sciences, Pokhara University, Pokhara, Nepal P. Poudel (*) Department of Pharmacy, Novel Academy, Purbanchal University, Pokhara, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_263

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et al. 2010; Shrestha and Khadgi 2019; Malla et al. 2015; Tamang et al. 2017; Lama et al. 2001; Quattrocchi 2012); Bhutan: Kha-ri-shog-pa (Wangchuk et al. 2017); India: Monpa tribe of Arunachal Pradesh: So; China: Gu-sui-bu, Shi lian jiang hu jue (Liu et al. 1994; Hong et al. 2015); English: Oak-leaf fern (Sedai 2010).

Botany Drynaria propinqua is an epiphytic or terrestrial fern of the family Polypodiaceae (Fig. 1). Rhizome is long, wide, creeping, terete, 1–2 cm in diameter; scales appressed, brown, peltate, 3–6 mm  1–1.5 mm, margin dentate; fronds dimorphic, glabrous; basal fronds orbicular or ovate, 10–20 cm  7–18 cm, pinnatifid up to 2/3 or more, margin irregularly dentate. Foliage fronds stalked, stipe 8–20(–25) cm, slightly winged; lamina pinnatifid up to ca. 2 mm from costa, (20–)30–50(– 60)  (12–)20–30 cm, apex not aborted; pinnae 7–15 pairs, margin dentate, apex acute. Sori are yellowish brown in a single row between costa and margin along the midvein. Spores verrucate and with spines. It is propagated by spores or by nodal rootings (Manandhar 2002). D. propinqua is found as epiphyte on moss-covered tree trunks and rarely lithophytic on mossy rock surfaces of moist forest near streams. Its habitat ranges from 500 to 3500 m (Singh et al. 2012; Tsering et al. 2016). It is native to Himalayan Fig. 1 Drynaria propinqua (Polypodiaceae), Whole plant, Godawari, Lalitpur, Nepal. (Photo Hem Raj Paudel)

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region and distributed in Nepal, Bhutan, Tibet, South and Central China, Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia, Myanmar, and North India. In Nepal, it is commonly found in forests of hilly and trans-Himalayan regions of Western, Central, and Eastern parts of Nepal ranging from 800 to 3500 m. It is even reported from Dolpo region of NorthWest Nepal at the border of the Tibet Autonomous Region of China, which is taken as one of the last and most intact sanctuaries of medicinal plants in Western Nepal covered by Shey Phoksundo National Park (Lama et al. 2001). In India, it is mostly found in Northern and North-Eastern parts including Kashmir, Uttaranchal, Sikkim, Darjeeling, Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur, and Tripura (Negi et al. 2009; Singh et al. 2012). In China, it occurs in Guangxi, Guizhou, Sichuan, Xizang, and Yunnan. Large and old host trees are needed for its growth and development. Though the plant is a widespread species and is not listed as vulnerable species, its improper harvesting may reduce its availability to local inhabitants. The environmental factors that influence its number include old forest with high canopy cover, high bark rugosity (water holding capacity), high bark pH, and abiotic factors like altitude (Adhikari et al. 2017). Thus, care is to be given to the national forests to preserve tall and old trees as host for the effective conservation and protection of medicinal pteridophyte plants like D. propinqua (Kandel and Fraser-Jenkins 2020).

Phytochemistry Four compounds are reported from the rhizomes: propinqualin, that is, (–)epiafzelechin-3-O-β-D-allopyranoside, 4-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl caffeic acid, βsitosterol-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside and sucrose (Liu et al. 1992, 1994). The methanolic extract of rhizome contains a significant amount of total phenolic content (173.9  0.1 mg gallic acid/g dry extract) and flavonoid content (208.2  0.1 mg quercetin equivalent/g dry extract) (Parajuli et al. 2012).

Local Medical Uses Drynaria propinqua: In the Western part of Nepal, a paste of the rhizome is applied to treat backache and dislocated bones. A paste of the rhizome is considered good for sprains and is also applied to the forehead to relieve headaches (Manandhar 2002; Malla et al. 2015). In the Chepang community in Dhading, Gorkha, Chitwan, and Makwanpur districts of Nepal, powder of the rhizome is taken for bone fractures. Also in Tanahu District, a paste of the rhizome is applied to broken bones and applied in hip pain. The sap of the plant is used in sprain and headache (Tamang et al. 2017; Sedai 2010). In Rasuwa District, infusion of the rhizome is taken during fever and headache. Amchis of the Dolpo region of Dolpa District use the rhizome against food poisoning and as a massaging agent to relieve pain due to wounds. The paste of the rhizome is also applied to the fractured bones of cattle in Tamang Community in Central Nepal (Uprety et al. 2010; Lama et al. 2001; Shrestha and Khadgi 2019). In Kaski, Prabat, Syangja, and Tanahu Districts of Nepal, we found that dry powder of

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rhizome is mixed with cooked rice flour in butter (locally known as Puwa) and is taken during backbone ache, sprain, and bone fracture. The Monpa tribe of Arunachal Pradesh and local people of other parts of India take the decoction of the rhizome to treat cold, fever, dyspepsia, and cough. The rhizomes in combination with other medicinal plants are used to treat kidney-related problems. Also, it is regarded as an anti-poison plant and its decoction is used to treat meat poisoning and reduce fever arising from poisoning (Tsering et al. 2016; Sureshkumar et al. 2018). In the lower Kheng region in Bhutan, the stem is used as antidote and detoxifier during food poisoning (Wangchuk et al. 2017; Nugraha et al. 2020). In China, Maonan people use rhizome to prepare medicinal liquor to treat rheumatic arthritis, blood stasis, traumatic injury, and bone fracture. Also, in China, this plant is mixed with Hancockii rolfe an orchid along with other medicinal plants like Lycium chinense Mill., Drynaria fortunei (Kunze) J. Sm., Drynaria baronii (Christ) Diels, Davilla orientalis C. Chr., Davilla mariesii Moore, Pseudodrynaria coronans (Wall.) Ching, or Phymatodes Iucida (Roxb) Ching to treat redness, swelling, and pain of teeth and gums (Hong et al. 2015; Hew et al. 1997). The Ethnomedicinal value of D. propinqua is well documented but the pharmacological property is not well established. Methanolic extract of rhizome is reported to have good antiradical activity against DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical (Parajuli et al. 2012).

Local Food Uses Drynaria propinqua: The fresh rhizome is juicy and is eaten during thirst by local people. The taste of the rhizome is bitter and cool. The rhizomes are collected from matured plants during July to September and are stored in dry form for further use. Rhizome is considered to be nontoxic. In Monpa of Arunachal Pradesh of India, extract of the rhizomes is taken as an antidote against toxicities caused by food and meat poisoning (Tsering et al. 2016). In different parts of Western Nepal, the paste of the rhizome is taken as a natural remedy against food and meat poisoning and antipyretic during foodborne diseases. Considering this fact from traditional uses, D. propinqua is found to be safe for human use.

Handicraft and Other Uses Drynaria propinqua: Local farmers prefer D. propinqua as litter for cattle to lie on during winter. Dry leaves are used for mulching in the home garden to conserve soil moisture and to control weed growth. A fresh plant is used to make compost manure.

References Adhikari YP, Fischer A, Fischer HS, Rokaya MB, Bhattarai P, Gruppe A. Diversity, composition and host-species relationships of epiphytic orchids and ferns in two forests in Nepal. J Mt Sci. 2017;14(6):1065–75. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-016-4194-x.

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Hew CS, Arditti J, Lin WS. Three orchids used as herbal medicines in China: an attempt to reconcile Chinese and Western pharmacology. In: Orchid biology. Dordrecht: Springer; 1997. p. 213–83. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-2498-2_6. Hong L, Guo Z, Huang K, Wei S, Liu B, Meng S, Long C. Ethnobotanical study on medicinal plants used by Maonan people in China. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2015;11(1):32. https://doi.org/10. 1186/s13002-015-0019-1. Kandel DR, Fraser-Jenkins CR. Fern and fern-allies of Nepal-3. Kathmandu: National Herbarium and Plant Laboratories, Department of Plant Resources, Ministry of Forest and Environment; 2020. p. 191. Lama YC, Ghimire SK, Aumeeruddy-Thomas Y. Medicinal plants of Dolpo. Amchis’ knowledge and conservation. Katmandu: WWF-Nepal Program; 2001. Liu SQ, Xiao ZY, Feng R. Chemical constituents of Drynaria propinqua (Wall) J. Sm. China J Chin Mater Med. 1992;17:737–9. Liu S, Xiao Z, Feng R. A flavanol glycoside from Drynaria propinqua. Phytochemistry. 1994;35(6):1595–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0031-9422(00)86903-4. Malla B, Gauchan DP, Chhetri RB. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by ethnic people in Parbat district of western Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;165:103–17. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jep.2014.12.057. Manandhar NP. Plants and people of Nepal. Portland: Timber Press; 2002. p. 74–447. Negi S, Tewari LM, Pangtey YP, Kumar S, Martolia A, Jalal J, Upreti K. Taxonomic studies on the family Polypodiaceae (Pteridophyta) of Nainital Uttarakhand. N Y Sci J. 2009;2(5):47–83. Nugraha AS, Triatmoko B, Wangchuk P, Keller PA. Vascular epiphytic medicinal plants as sources of therapeutic agents: their ethnopharmacological uses, chemical composition, and biological activities. Biomolecules. 2020;10(2):181. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom10020181. Parajuli S, Pun NT, Parajuli S, Jamarkattel-Pandit N. Antioxidant activity, total phenol and flavanoid contents in some selected medicinal plants of Nepal. J Health Allied Sci. 2012;2(1):27–31. Quattrocchi U. CRC world dictionary of medicinal and poisonous plants: common names, scientific names, eponyms, synonyms, and etymology (5 volume set). 1st ed. New York: CRC Press; 2012. p. 1483. Sedai CP. A resource survey report on Non-Timber Forest Products in Tanahu District. For Nepal. 2010;2010:1–3. Shrestha I, Khadgi P. Herbal veterinary practices by Tamang community in Central Nepal. NUTA J. 2019;6(1–2):5–11. Singh B, Singh VN, Phukan SJ, Sinha BK, Borthakur SK. Contribution to the pteridophytic flora of India: Nokrek Biosphere Reserve, Meghalaya. J Threat Taxa. 2012;26:2277–94. https://doi.org/ 10.11609/JoTT.o2751.2277-94. Sureshkumar J, Silambarasan R, Bharati KA, Krupa J, Amalraj S, Ayyanar M. A review on ethnomedicinally important pteridophytes of India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2018;219:269–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2018.03.024. Tamang R, Thakur C, Koirala D, Chapagain N. Ethno-medicinal plants used by Chepang community in Nepal. J Plant Res. 2017;15(1):21. Tsering J, Tag H, Gogoi BJ, Veer V. Traditional anti-poison plants used by the Monpa tribe of Arunachal Pradesh. In: Herbal insecticides, repellents and biomedicines: effectiveness and commercialization. New Delhi: Springer; 2016. p. 189–203. Uprety Y, Asselin H, Boon EK, Yadav S, Shrestha KK. Indigenous use and bio-efficacy of medicinal plants in the Rasuwa district, Central Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6(1):3. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-6-3. Wangchuk P, Yeshi K, Jamphel K. Pharmacological, ethnopharmacological, and botanical evaluation of subtropical medicinal plants of Lower Kheng region in Bhutan. Integr Med Res. 2017;6(4):372–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.imr.2017.08.002.

Dryopteris cochleata (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) C. Chr. Dryopteris filix-mas (L.) Schott DRYOPTERIDACEAE Hira Shova Shrestha, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Dryopteris cochleata (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) C. Chr.: Aspidium cochleatum (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don.) Christ, Aspidium erythrosorum var. souliei Christ, Aspidium filix-mas var. cochleatum (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don.) Christ, Dryopteris chrysocoma var. squamosa (C. Chr.) Ching, Dryopteris filix-mas var. cochleata (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don.) Alderw., Dryopteris heleopteroides Christ, Lastrea cochleata (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don.) T. Moore, Lastrea filix-mas var. cochleata (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don.) Bedd., Nephrodium cochleatum Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don., Nephrodium filix-mas var. cochleatum (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don.) Hook. Dryopteris filix-mas (L.) Schott: Polypodium filix-mas L.; Polypodium nemorale Salisb.; Polypodium heleopteris Borkh.; Polystichum filix-mas (L.) Roth; Aspidium H. S. Shrestha Department of Science, Sanothimi Campus, Bhaktapur, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_87

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filix-mas (L.) Sw.; Nephrodium filix-mas (L.) Rich.; Polypodium umbilicatum Poir.; Aspidium depastum Schkuhr; Aspidium erosum Schkuhr; Aspidium umbilicatum (Poir.) Desv.; Nephrodium crenatum Stokes; Datisca glabra Stokes; Aspidium nemorale (Salisb.) Gray; Datisca nepalensis D. Don; Aspidium expansum D. Dietr.; Lastrea filix-mas (L.) C. Presl; Aspidium opizii Wierzb.; Aspidium mildeanum Göpp.; Polystichum polysorum Tod.; Aspidium veselskii Hazsl. ex Domin; Dryopteris patagonica Diem

Local Names Dryopteris cochleata: Nepali: Dhante nyuro, Gheu neuro, Kuthurke; Hindi: Choti bhulan, Hanvanthlal, Hathajodi, Jatashankar; Chinese: er xing lin mao jue Dryopteris filix-mas: Kashmir: Dade, Kunji; Naga: Nachav; English: wood fern

Botany and Ecology Dryopteris cochleata: Plants 60–70 cm tall. Rhizome creeping, densely clothed with linear-lanceolate, entire, bright scales. Fronds approximate, dimorphic; stipe of sterile frond stramineous, 20–30 cm, sparsely clothed with linear and linearlanceolate, brown scales; lamina ovate, 30–40 cm, widest (about 22 cm wide) at base, bipinnatipartite, base cordate, apex acuminate; pinnae 10–12 pairs, remote, basal pair deltoid-lanceolate, 10–12  3–4 cm, shortly stalked, apex acuminate; pinnules (segments) 10–12 pairs, oblique, oblong or subfalcate, margin incisedserrate, apex obtuse, basiscopic pinnules longer than acroscopic ones, base of basiscopic side undeveloped; pinnae above second pair lanceolate, base cordate, shortly stalked, apex acuminate, basiscopic pinnules similar to acroscopic ones. Lamina herbaceous; rachis and costa subglabrous, with sparse, linear, brown scales; veins pinnate, not forked, obscure adaxially, distinct abaxially. Stipe of fertile frond stramineous, base clothed with linear-lanceolate, brown scales, glabrous upward. Fertile lamina oblong-lanceolate, bipinnate, base slightly narrowed or not, apex acuminate; pinnae 10–12 pairs, about 1 cm apart, barred, about 1.5 cm  2–3 mm, stalked, apex obtuse. Sori in 2 regular rows on each pinnule (segment); indusia ferruginous, orbicular-reniform, entire. (Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3). Dryopteris filix-mas: Evergreen fern, with an upright habit and up to 150 cm long, with a single crown on each rootstock. Stems covered with orange-brown scales. Leaves (fronds) bipinnate with 20–35 pinnae on each side of the leaf rachis; leaves tapering at both ends, with the basal pinnae about half the length of the middle pinnae; pinnules rather blunt and equally lobed all around. Sori located on the abaxial surface of the mature blade, 5 to 6 developed in two rows; when the spores are ripe the indusium starts to shrivel, releasing the spores. A common fern of the temperate Northern Hemisphere, native to much of Europe, Asia, and North America. It prefers damp shaded areas in the understory of woodlands but also shady places on hedge-banks, rocks, and screes (masses of small loose stones that form or cover a slope on a mountain). It is much less abundant in North America than in

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Fig 1 Dryopteris cochleata (Dryopteridaceae) plant at Banepa, Kavre, Nepal. (Photo Resham Shrestha)

Fig 2 Dryopteris cochleata (Dryopteridaceae). Spores of Dryopteris cochleata (magnified image). (Photo Hira Shova Shrestha)

Europe. Dryopteris filix-mas hybridizes easily with D. affinis (scaly male fern) and D. oreades (mountain male fern). The species prefers sandy, loamy, and clay soils and can grow in nutritionally poor soil. It can grow in semi-shade (light woodland). It prefers dry or moist soil and can tolerate drought (Figs. 4, 5, and 6).

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Fig 3 Dryopteris cochleata (Dryopteridaceae) young fronds. (Photo Resham Shrestha)

Fig. 4 Dryopteris filix-mas (Dryopteridaceae). Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R. Bussmann)

Phytochemistry Alkaloids, phenolic/tannin, flavonoids, protein/amino acids, carbohydrates, fats/oils, sterols, saponins, terpenoids, anthraquinones, vitamin C, ascorbic acid, ethyl acetate, chloroform, petroleum, ether, acetone, glycosides, pentose sugar, reducing sugar,

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Fig. 5 Dryopteris filix-mas (Dryopteridaceae). Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo N. PaniaguaZambrana)

Fig. 6 Dryopteris filix-mas (Dryopteridaceae). Georgia. (Photo R. Bussmann)

methanol, antioxidants, 1H-3a,7-methanoazulene, octahydro-1,4,9,9-tetramethyl-, phenol, 2,6-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)-4-methyl-, methylcarbamate, 1,6,10-dodecatrien-3-ol, 3,7,11-trimethyl-, [S-(Z)]-, phytol, 1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid, butyl octyl ester, oxirane, tetradecyl (Kathivel and Sujatha 2016), antimicrobial property that may be used as a traditional medicine to treat infectious diseases (Kathivel et al. 2014), and cytotoxic activity (Thakur and Ahirwar 2017). Antioxidant activity, estimation of phytoconstituents, antimicrobial potential of various solvent (hexane, chloroform, ethyl acetate, acetone, methanol, and water). Many aliphatic ester and ketones, heterocyclic, alkaloids, alkanes, terpene, phenolics, flavonoids, and silane. Minerals like calcium, magnesium, silicon, carbon, oxygen, aluminum, iron strontium, nitrogen, barium, sodium, hydrogen, and potassium. Extracts of D. cochleata rhizome and its elemental analysis, many aliphatic ester and ketones, heterocyclic, alkaloids, alkanes, terpene, phenolics, flavonoids, and silane compounds have been identified. Ethanol, cyclohexasiloxane-dodecamethyl, diphenyl ether, cycloheptasiloxane, and tetradecamethyl (Kale 2019).

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Local Medicinal Uses Dryopteris cochleata: The rhizomes of D. cochleata exhibit various therapeutic values to treat many ailments such as epilepsy, leprosy, cuts, wounds, ulcers, swelling, etc. D. cochleata extracts possess antimicrobial and antioxidant property and are also used to treat gonorrhea, muscular pain, rheumatism, and throat problems and as antidote for snake and dog bites. It is used for mental disorder (Srivastava 2007). The rhizome is reported to be antibacterial and antiepileptic (Singh 2003), for treating diarrhea and eczema, and as an anthelmintic (Goswami et al. 2016). Dimethyl sulfoxide has been identified to be used against cancer. It has been used in pharmaceutical science as anti-inflammatory and antioxidant agent (Heena and Achaleshwar 2010). Germacrene D has anti-inflammatory properties (Easa 2003). It has antimicrobial property that may be used as a traditional medicine to treat infectious diseases (Kathivel and Sujutha 2016). Whole plant is crushed and the extract is taken for snakebite; leaves and roots are applied on the bites and wounds to prevent infection. Rhizome antibacterial, powdered rhizome used for treating stomach ailments, rheumatism, epilepsy, leprosy and dog bite; root juice given to treat amoebic dysentery. The plant also has magicoreligious applications, spiritual, emotional, ritual and ceremonial values. Dryopteris filix-mas: It is a highly poisonous plant. An infusion of the rhizome is used as anthelmintic (taeniacide) and externally as bath and application in rheumatism, hemorrhoids, septic wounds, and ulcers. Dryopteris rhizome was used to prepare powders and extracts for pharmaceutical laboratories as a remedy against flatworms. The rhizome is collected after mid-October; collecting in early spring is also possible. The roots of Dryopteris are used to reduce fever. The male fern was used from the most ancient times in traditional medicine against worms. In traditional medicine an infusion or a syrup was prepared from the leaves and used to heal cough and catarrh (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017). It is applied as antifungal to skin problems (Luizza et al. 2013) and mostly used as vermifuge (Gairola et al. 2014). Dryopteris barbigera is used to remedy constipation (Gairola et al. 2014). Dryopteris wallichiana is used as skin moisturizer and to treat dermatitis (Ur_Rahman et al. 2018). Dryopteris juxtaposita serves to treat stomach pain and urinary infections and to reduce fever (Sher et al. 2016).

Local Food Uses Dryopteris cochleata: Tender shoots are used as a vegetable (Dangol et al. 2017; Kunwar 2003; Aryal et al. 2009) (Fig. 7). Dryopteris filix-mas: The leaves are eaten as phkhali (vegetable spread with walnuts) and pickled (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017) (Fig. 8).

Dryopteris cochleata (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) C. Chr. . . . Fig 7. Dryopteris cochleata (Dryopteridaceae) young fronds used as vegetable in Rasuwa. (Photo Ripu Kunwar)

Fig. 8 Dryopteris filix-mas (Dryopteridaceae). Pickles. Lower Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo N. PaniaguaZambrana)

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses Dryopteris inaequalis: serves in veterinary medicine (Yineger et al. 2007). Dryopteris filix-mas: A dye solution is prepared from the leaves to obtain olive color and used for dyeing wool (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017). It is used as fishing poison and insecticide (Kichu et al. 2015). Sometimes Dryopteris sp. serves as fodder (Luizza et al. 2013).

References Aryal K, Berg Å, Ogle B. Uncultivated plants and livelihood support–a case study from the Chepang people of Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009;7:409–22. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Dryopteris filix-mas (L.) Schott. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Dangol DR, Maharjan KL, Maharjan SK, Acharya AK. Wild edible plants in Nepal. In: Joshi BK, Bahadur KCH, Acharya A, editors. Conservation and utilization of agricultural plant genetic resources of Nepal. Dhulikhel: NAGRC; 2017. p. 390–407. Easa PS. Biodiversity documentation for Kerala Part 5: Pteridophytes. KRFRI hand book, 17. Peechi: Kerala Forest Research Institute; 2003. p. 27. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Goswami HK, Sen K, Mukhopadhyay R. Pteridophytes: evolutionary boon as medicinal plants. Plant Genetic Resources. 2016;14(4):328–55. Heena P, Achaleshwar B. In vitro antimicrobial activity of fronds (leaves) of some important pteridophytes. J Microbiol Antimicrob. 2010;2(2):19–22. Kale M. Study of bioactive compound in rhizome extract of Dryopteris cochleata D.Don C. Chr. by using GC-MS analysis. Indian J. 2019; 30–36. Kathirvel A, Sujatha V. Phytochemical studies, antioxidant activities and identification of active compounds using GC–MS of Dryopteris cochleata leaves. Arabian J Chem. 2016;9:S1435–42. Kathirvel A, Rai AK, Maurya GS, Sujatha V. Dryopteris cochleata rhizome: a nutritional source of essential elements, phytochemicals, antioxidants and antimicrobials. Int J Pharm Pharm Sci. 2014;6:179–88. Kichu A, Malewska T, Akter K, Imchen I, Harrington D, Kohen J, Vemulpad SR, Jamie JF. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of Chungtia village, Nagaland, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;166:5–17. Kunwar RM. Ethnobotanical notes on flora of Khaptad National Park (KNP), far-western Nepal. Himal J Sci. 2003;1(1):25–30. Luizza MW, Young H, Kuroiwa C, Evangelista P, Worede A, Bussmann RW, Weimer A. Local knowledge of plants and their uses among women in the Bale Mountains, Ethiopia. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2013;11:315–39. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni groups in Chitral District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Singh HB. Economically viable pteridophytes of India. In: Chandra S, Srivastava M, editors. Pteridology in the new millennium. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic; 2003. p. 421–46. Srivastava K. Importance of ferns in human medicine. Ethnobotanical Leaflets. 2007;1:26. Thakur RS, Ahirwar B. Ethnopharmacological evaluation of medicinal plants for cytotoxicity against various cancer cell lines. Int J Pharm Pharm Sci. 2017;9(5):198–202.

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Ur-Rahman I, Afsal A, Iqbal Z, Ijas F, Ali N, Asif M, Alam J, Majid A, Bussmann RW. Traditional and ethnomedicinal dermatology practices in Pakistan. Clin Dermatol. 2018;363:310–9. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.clindermatol.2018.03.018. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Yineger H, Kelbessa E, Bekele T, Lulekal E. Ethnoveterinary medicinal plants at Bale Mountains National Park, Ethiopia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;112:55–70.

Duchesnea indica (Andews) Teschem. ROSACEAE Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Duchesnea indica (Andews) Teschem.: Duchesnea fragidormis G. Don, Fragaria indica Andrews, Potentilla durandii Torr. & A. Gray, Potentilla indica (Andrews) Th. Wolf, Potentilal indica var. mayor Makino

Local Names Duchesnea indica: Language: Hindi: Bhuikafal; Pashto: Zamky toot ‫;ﺗﻮﺕ ﺯﻣﮑﯥ‬ English: Indian Strawberry H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan e-mail: [email protected] A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_88

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Botany and Ecology Duchesnea indica: Herbs perennial. Rhizome robust, short. Stolons 30–100 cm, together with petioles and pedicels spreading hairy or densely villous. Stipules narrowly ovate to broadly lanceolate, 5–8 mm; petiole 1–5 cm; leaflets petiolulate, obovate to rhombic-oblong, 1–5  1–3 cm, both surfaces hairy, or adaxially glabrous or densely villous, margin obtusely serrate, apex rounded. Flowers 1–2.5 cm in diam.; pedicel 0.2–6 cm, pilose or densely villous. Sepals ovate, apex acute; epicalyx segments obovate, longer than sepals, apex usually 3–5-serrate. Petals rounded at apex. Stamens 20–30. Carpels numerous, free. Aggregate fruit ripening red, shining, 1–2 cm in diam., spongy. Achenes shining when fresh, ovoid, ca. 1.5 mm, glabrous or inconspicuously papillate. Flowering June–August fruiting August–October (Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Local Medicinal Uses Duchesnea indica: Fruit paste (lepa) applied for treatment of white patches, and skin diseases, as it acts as refrigerant (cooling effect) (Singh et al. 2017), for cough and throat-ache (Ahmad et al. 2017). In China used as anticancer herb (Graham et al. 2000). Leaves are used for mental disorders and sexual weakness (Ahmad et al. 2014). Leaf decoction is used for Cough and Throat ache (Khan et al. 2015). Leaf decoction is taken for Cough and throat ache (Abbasi et al. 2013). The plant is used for diarrhea, as nerve tonic and as laxative (Ijaz et al. 2016). Leaf decoction is used to cure Cough and throat-ache (Ahmad et al. 2017). Leaves are diuretic and astringent Fig. 1 Duchesnea indica (Rosaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

Duchesnea indica (Andews) Teschem. Fig. 2 Duchesnea indica (Rosaceae), flower, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 3 Duchesnea indica (Rosaceae), fruits, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

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used in sore throat. Leaves and fruits are used in stomach diseases. Fruits are edible. Fruit extract is slightly laxative, astringent, and nerve tonic (Amjad et al. 2017). Fruit is used as tonic, and for eye infection treatment (Barakatullah et al. 2015). Leaf extract is used to improve blood circulation (Hussain et al. 2017).

Local Food Uses Duchesnea indica: Fruits sometimes eaten (Dangol et al. 2017).

References Abbasi AM, Khan MA, Khan N, Shah MH. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinally important wild edible fruits species used by tribal communities of lesser Himalayas-Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;148(2):528–36. Ahmad M, Sultana S, Fazl-i-Hadi S, Ben Hadda T, Rashid S, Zafar M, Yaseen G. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in high mountainous region of Chail valley (district swat-Pakistan). J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2014;10(1):36. Ahmad, Jan H, Wali S, Ahmad L, Jana S, Ahmad N, Ullah N. Ethnomedicinal survey of medicinal plants of Chinglai valley, Buner district, Pakistan. Eur J Integr Med. 2017;13:64–74. Amjad MS, Arshad M, Saboor A, Page S, Chaudhari SK. Ethnobotanical profiling of the medicinal flora of Kotli, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan: empirical reflections on multinomial logit specifications. Asian Pac J Trop Med. 2017;10(5):503–14. Barakatullah, Ibrar M, Rauf A, Hadda TB, Mubarak MS, Patel S. Quantitative ethnobotanical survey of medicinal flora thriving in Malakand Pass Hills, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;169:335–46. Dangol DR, Maharjan KL, Maharjan SK, Acharya AK. Wild edible plants in Nepal. In: Joshi BK, KCH B, Acharya A, editors. Conservation and utilization of agricultural plant genetic resources of Nepal. Dhulikhel: NAGRC; 2017. p. 390–407. Graham JG, Quinn ML, Fabricant DS, Farnsworth NR. Plants used against cancer – an extension of the work of Jonathan Hartwell. J Ethnopharmacol. 2000;73:347–77. Hussain S, Murtaza G, Mehmood A, Qureshi RA. Conservation of indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants of Western Himalayan region Rawalakot, Azad Kashmir, Pakistan. Pak J Pharm Sci. 2017;30(3):773–82. Ijaz F, Iqbal Z, Rahman IU, Alam J, Khan SM, Shah GM, et al. Investigation of traditional medicinal floral knowledge of Sarban Hills, Abbottabad, KP, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;179:208–33. Khan MPZ, Ahmad M, Zafar M, Sultana S, Ali MI, Sun H. Ethnomedicinal uses of edible wild fruits (EWFs) in Swat Valley, northern Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;173:191–203. Singh A, Nautiyal MC, Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal plants used by local inhabitants of Jakholi block, Rudraprayag district, Western Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13:49. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0178-3. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013.

Duhaldea cappa (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) Pruski & Anderb. Inula nervosa Wall. ex DC. ASTERACEAE Ramesh Basnet, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Duhaldea cappa (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) Pruski & Anderb: Baccharis chinensis Lour.; Blumea arnottiana Steud.; Blumea chinensis Hook. & Arn.; Conyza argentea Wall.; Conyza cappa Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don; Conyza dentata Blanco; Conyza eriophora Wall.; Conyza lanuginosa Wall.; Duhaldea chinensis DC.; Duhaldea eriophora Steetz; Duhaldea lanuginosa (C.C. Chang) Anderb.; Eupatorium lanatum Spreng. ex DC.; Helenium cappa Kuntze; Helenium salviodorum Kuntze; Inula eriophora DC.; Inula intermedia C.C. Chang & Y.C. Tseng; Inula lanuginosa C.C. Chang; Inula oblonga DC.; Inula pseudocappa DC.; Inula salviodora Sch. R. Basnet Plant Research Centre, Jumla, Nepal Department of Plant Resources (DPR), Thapathali, Kathmandu, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_125

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Bip.; Moquinia eriosematoides Walp.; Pteronia marginata C.B. Clarke; Vernonia congesta Benth., Vernonia eriosematoides Walp. Inula nerviosa Wall. ex DC: Aster macilentus Vaniot, Aster vellereus Franch., Duhaldea nervosa (Wall. ex DC.) Anderb., Inula asperrima Edgew., Inula esquirolii H. Lév., Inula nitida Edgew., Inula venosa Hand.-Mazz., Inula verrucosa Klatt.

Local Names Duhaldea cappa: Chepang: Danesar, Ridang; Gurung: Tigaji; Majhi: Gaitihare; Nepali: Gaitihare, Dware, Kanpate, Marcha Jhar; Newari: ChappaSwaan; Rai: Maachram; Sanskrit: Rasna, Suravi; Sherpa: Lyahikarpo; Tamang: Ranavang (Shrestha 1998; IUCN 2004).

Botany and Ecology Duhaldea cappa: Herb 30–100 cm tall and distributed at open, dry and sunny mountain region (200–3200 m asl). Stems lanate-tomentose, branched. Petiole ca. 5 mm (rarely to 20 mm); leaf blade elliptic, lanceolate, or narrowly oblong, 8–23
2.5–5.5 cm, thick, rather papery, whitish lanate abaxially, obscuring minor veins, green and sparsely coarsely pubescent adaxially, base rounded (rarely tapered), margin remotely serrulate, apex acute or shortly acuminate. Capitula radiate or disciform, in dense corymbs. Involucre 6-seriate; phyllaries lanceolate, tomentose, inner ones 4.5–6
ca. 0.7 mm. Ray florets few; corollas yellow, usually 4.5–5.3 mm, tubular and erect or curved outward or with short lamina to 1
1 mm, rarely tube 2.9–3.5 mm with lamina 2.3–2.9 mm. Disk floret corollas yellow, 4.7–6
4–6 mm. Achenes cylindric, ca. 1.8 mm, white tomentose. Pappus whitish, sometimes brownish tipped, 4–5 cm. Flowering June–October, fruiting August– December (Shi et al., 2011; Qaiser and Abid 2005) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6). Fig. 1 Duhaldea cappa (Asteraceae), in natural forest at Dadeldhura, Nepal. (Photo Ripu M. Kunwar)

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Fig. 2 Inula helenium (Asteraceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Inula nervosa: Hairy perennial herb, with stems simple or branched, 1–3 ft. Leaves are stalkless or nearly so, elliptic or elliptic-lanceshaped, pointed at both ends, rough above, nerves nearly parallel with the margin. They are 5–10 cm long, 2–3.5 cm wide, remotely toothed. Flower-heads are white, 0.8–2.5 cm across, arising either singly or in stalked corymbs. Bracts just below the flower-heads are linearlanceshaped, hairy, erect, or curved back, outermost somewhat leaf-like. VeinedLeaf Inula is found in the Himalayas, frp, Garhwal to Bhutan, Khasia, Assam, Burma, Thailand, Indo-China, W. China, at altitudes of 1200–2900 m.

Phytochemisytry Duhaldea cappa: Main chemical components are flavones, essential oil, total ash ¼ 2.54%, total insoluble ash ¼ 0.43% (Rajbhandari et al. 1995). βCaryophyllene, cis-dihydro-mayurone, β-bisaboleneβ-farnesene (Priydarshi et al. 2016). Its properties are anticarcinogenic, antibacterial, and useful in all rheumatic diseases (Adhikari 1998; DPR 2016). Roots can be used as a potent antiinflammatory and immunomodulatory agent (Kalola et al. 2017). The Inula genus has good antioxidant activity to combat several oxidative stress-related human diseases (Tavares and Seca 2019).

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Fig. 3 Inula helenium (Asteraceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Inula helenium (Asteraceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses Duhaldea cappa: The local people particularly Magar Women of Rapti, the Western Nepal use the leaf for making fermenting agent (Yeast/ Marcha in Nepali Language) to make alcoholic beverages. The Marcha is also used to cattle for protecting from cold. The traditional practice for preparing yeast is that the dried leaf powder and the

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Fig. 5 Inula helenium (Asteraceae), Racha, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 6 Inula helenium (Asteraceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

rice flour (1:1) mixture. Then, it is spread yeast powder on the mixture as starter and bread (6–8 cm diameter) is prepared. After this, it is dried by covering straw or pine leaves 2–4 days. These breads should be dried both sides and ready for use (Basnet 2010). In the other hand, the cultural aspect of the leaf is that it is used in holy rope (Toran) in Gaitihar (Cow Festival) in Salyan. The Chepang community of the Central Nepal has also practiced it as Yeast/Marcha from its both flower and leaf. They also have applied it for jaundice and blood clotting (Tamang et al. 2017), leaf juice for increasing appetite in Baram (Baramu) community, a minor ethnic community of Nepal, scattered in Gorkha and neighboring districts (Tamang and Sedai 2016). The bark-juice of Gaaitihare (I. cappa), Khanyu (Ficus semicordata), and Kafal (Myrica esculanta) (1:1:1) is used to prevent for menstrual disorder. Similarly, the root juice is used in peptic ulcer. The general dose is 4 spoons with 3 times a day (Manandhar 2002). Leaf decoction 50–100 ml can be used morning and evening, twice a day and it can be appliedas a paste for rheumatism (Adhikari 1998; DPR 2016). Likewise, it has been used to treat rheumatism, laryngotracheitis, and

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abdominal pain (JNMC 1977). The other species of Inula, I. racemosa Hook.f (local name-Rasna and Tibetan name-Manu), its root part is used in gastritis (Bhattarai et al. 2009); moreover, whole plant is used for phlegm and blood disorder with the frequency of uses as 3 times a day (Malla et al. 2003). Serves to remedy urinary retention (Bhat et al. 2013). Inula britannica: In the whole region, the infusion is used to treat cystitis, diabetes, jaundice, respiratory catarrh, bone tuberculosis, rheumatism, and hemorrhoids, and is used as a vermifuge, hemostatic for uterine bleeding, and to improve the appetite. In Mongolian medicine the decoction is used as tonic, restorative, for stimulating the metabolism, as anthelmintic. The juice serves as antitussive, and topically for wound healing. In the Ural, the plant is used for with liver diseases, in Turkmenistan with diseases of the stomach. In Kyrgyzstan, the infusion is used to improves digestion, as diaphoretic, and diuretic (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2020). Inula helenium: In traditional medicine, the plant is sued widely to treat diabetes, problems of stomach and pancreas, gall bladder, acute respiratory infections, gastric ulcers, hemorrhoids, liver cirrhosis, pneumonia, bronchitis, bronchial asthma, angina, gastrointestinal diseases, malaria, cystitis, tuberculosis, rheumatism, radiculitis, tonsillitis, laryngitis, psoriasis and acne, and is also used for wound care. Flowers in the form of a water infusion (tea) are applied as expectorant in bronchitis, cold, inflammation and tuberculosis. Root and flowers are prepared as water infusion and used in diseases of gastrointestinal tract as emollient, and for stomachache. An infusion of leaves and roots is used as diuretic in dropsy. Powder from dry roots is applied to trophic ulcers, and as ointment to furuncles, carbuncles and septic wound. The roots are used to heal eye pains by external application; elecampane is also used to heal renal disorders. Stumps were collected in autumn, stringed on threads and dried on air. A broth from the roots and leaves sweetened with sugar was used to reduce fever and help stomach pains. Elecampane was also used to heal upper respiratory tract diseases. The roots, seeds, and oil of elecampane were used to heal renal disorders, urinary incontinence, nosebleed, and tachycardia. The modern medicine uses the rhizomes of this plant for lung diseases as an expectorant. It also enhances metabolism. In Adjara (Kobuleti District), it is still in use against snakebites and the local name can be translated as “the remedy against snake bite.” The rhizome of elecampane is washed and then crushed. Then water is added and squeezed, the filtrate is given to the snakebite to drink. Once drunk, the sick starts vomiting. Meanwhile the leaves of elecampane are boiled in a vinegar or wine, put on the bitten place and banded. By the traditional belief, the zigzagged white lines on the leaves of elecampane is an infallible sign that this plant can cure snake bites. The root decoction is used to treat gastro-intestinal disorders, as well as respiratory tract infections and asthma. Leaves and roots are used as panacea, and to treat cough (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018, 2020). As analgesic, carminative, emollient, for gout and jaundice (Miraldi et al. 2001), as well as stomach-ache (Majid et al. 2019), applied to snakebites (Houghton and Osibogun 1993). Used also as anti-tussive, anthelminthic, tonic, and backache (Altundaga and Oztürk 2011).

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Inula orientalis: In Middle Asia the root decoction is used to treat with brucellosis, tuberculosis, diseases of the gastrointestinal tract, gastric ulcer, female diseases, rheumatism, skin diseases, scabies, and is also employed as anthelmintic. (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2020). Used for cough, sore throat, infections, diabetes, and toothache (Pawera et al. 2015). Inula racemosa is used to treat stomach problems, dysentery, and blood pressure (Kunwar et al. 2009). Inula anatolica is used for hemorrhoids (Ari et al. 2015). Inula confertifolia is used as antidote for poisoning (Yineger et al. 2007). Inula heterolepis is used for headache (Altundaga and Oztürk 2011). Inula oculus-christi serves for kidney stones and urethra infections (Altundaga and Oztürk 2011).

Local Food Uses Inula helenium: In the western Ural, the leaf oils are used for aromatization of alcoholic and nonalcoholic beverages, for candies, baked goods, jelly, puddings. The root is boiled and eaten. Can be used as source for obtaining sugar due to availability of inulin in the roots (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a,b,c, 2017a, b, 2018, 2020).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Duhaldea cappa: Its price is NRs. 5–7/ piece at local market of Kapurkot, Salyan (Basnet 2010). The leaf is one of the major components of Ayurvedic Medicine, namely, Rasnadi Oil, RasnadiKwath, Aswagandharist, Dashmularistha (Adhikari 1998). So, it has a good potential to become as an emerging plant for socioeconomic opportunities. In recent years, people are aware of organic and natural product to maintain their health wellbeing. The medicinal plants are valuable source to fulfill the demand in the national and global market. However, it needs assessment of conservation status for sustainable harvesting, along with effective mechanism mainly by monitoring, research, and law enforcement regarding on fair and equitable sharing of benefits. Alternatively, it can be produced at commercial scale with maintaining Good Agriculture and Cultivation Practices/GACP (WHO 2003). Inula helenium: The oils are used to make soaps and perfumes. The plant yields a blue dye for wool and silk. Planted also as ornamental.. A dye solution is prepared from roots and flowers to obtain yellow, golden-yellow, bright-yellow, brownorange, coffee, olive, grey-green, dark blue, bluish-brown, and other different colors and shades and used for dyeing wool, cotton, and silk yarn as well as its products. The leaves are sometimes smoked (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2020).

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Inula orientalis: In veterinary medicine, the root decoction serves to remedy coughing, constipation, scabies, brucellosis, and the leaf oils are used for ascaridosis of pigs and as general anthelmintic. The plant yields yellow dyes for wool and silk. Can be used as fodder for livestock. (Sokolov 1993). Used to treat colds, cough, and internal infestations in livestock (Pawera et al. 2015).

References Adhikari S. Health Protection from Local MAPs. Mahendra Sanskrit University, Dang, Nepal. 1998. Altundaga E, Oztürk M. Ethnomedicinal studies on the plant resources of East Anatolia, Turkey. Procedia Soc Behav Sci. 2011;19:756–77. Ari S, Temel M, Kargıoğlu M, Konuk M. Ethnobotanical survey of plants used in AfyonkarahisarTurkey. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2015;11:84. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-015-0067-6. Basnet R. Inula cappa -Plant Introduction-21, Newsletter)13(3), Department of Plant Resources/ DPR, Kathmandu, Nepal. 2010. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Inula helenium L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-49412-8_89. Bhat JA, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. 2013;9(1). Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus, vol. XXVII. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. 746p. ISBN 978–3–319-49411-1 Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, republic of Georgia Sakartvelo, Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromatic Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo Republic of Georgia, Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;161:25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo Republic of Georgia, Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;161:7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo Republic of Georgia, Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;171:7–33. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z. Inula britannica L.; Inula helenium L.; Inula orientalis Lam. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions Central Asia and Altai: Springer International Publishing; 2020. https://doi. org/10.1007/978-3-319-77087-1_74-1.

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DPR/Department of Plant Resources. Medicinal Plants of Nepal (Second Edition). Department of Plant Resources/DPR, Kathmandu, Nepal. 2016. Houghton PJ, Osibogun IM. Flowering plants used against snakebite. J Ethnopharmacol. 1993;39:1–29. IUCN Nepal. National Register of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (Revised and Updated). IUCNThe World Conservation Union, Nepal. 2004. JNMC/ Jiangsu New Medical College. Dictionary of Chinese Herbal Medicine.Shanghai People’s Publishing House, Shanghai, 2, China. 1977. Kalola J, Shah R, Patel A, Lahiri SK, Shah MB. Anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory activities of Inula cappa roots (Compositae). J Complement Integr Med. 2017;14(3) https:// doi.org/10.1515/jcim-2016-0083 Kunwar RM, Upreti Y, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Indigenous use and ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in far-West Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009;7:5–28. Majid A, Ahmad H, Saqib Z, Ur Rahman I, Khan U, Alam J, Hussain Shah A, Ahmad Jan S, Ali N. Exploring threatened traditional knowledge; ethnomedicinal studies of rare endemic flora from lesser Himalayan region of Pakistan. Rev Bras. 2019;29(6) Malla, K.J., Uprety, R.K., Watanabe, T. 2003. Survey of medicinal plants in upper Mustang, Nepal. Bulletin of Department of Plant Resources. Department of Plant Resources/DPR, Kathmandu, Nepal. Manandhar NP. Plants and People of Nepal. Timber Press, Inc. Portland, Oregon 97204, USA. 2002. Miraldi E, Ferri S, Mostaghimi V. Botanical drugs and preparations in the traditional medicine of West Azerbaijan (Iran). J Ethnopharmacol. 2001;75:77–87. Pawera L, Verner V, Termote C, Sodombekov I, Kadanov A, Karabaev N, Skalicky M, Polesny Z. Medical ethnobotany of herbal practitioners in the Turkestan range, southwestern Kyrgyzstan. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2015; https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3483. Priydarshi R, Melkani AB, Mohan L, Pant CC. Terpenoid composition and antibacterial activity of the essential oil from Inula cappa (Buch-Ham. ex. D. Don) DC. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 2016;28:2, 172–176. https://doi.org/10.1080/10412905.2015.1090935 Rajbhandari TK, Joshi NR, Shrestha T, Joshi SKG, Acharya B. Medicinal Plants of Nepal for Ayurvedic Drugs. Department of Plant Resources/DPR, Kathmandu, Nepal. 1995. Shrestha K. Dictionary of Nepalese Plants Names. Mandala Book Point, Kathmandu, Nepal. 1998. Sokolov PD (ed.). Plant Resources of the USSR: Flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 7. Family Asteraceae (Compositae). Akademia Nauk, Leningrad, 352 p. (in Russian). 1993. Tamang R, Sedai DR. Documentation of Ethnomedical Knowledge on Plant Resources used by Baram Community in Arupokhari VDC, Gorkha District, Central Nepal. Journal of Plant Resources. Department of Plant Resources/DPR, Kathmandu, Nepal. 2016. Tavares WR, Seca ANL, Inula L. Secondary Metabolites against Oxidative Stress-Related Human Diseases. Antioxidants. 2019;8(5). https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox8050122 WHO/World Health Organization. Guidelines on Good Agricultural and Collection Practices (GACP) for medicinal plants. Geneva, Switzerland. 2003. Yineger H, Kelbessa E, Bekele T, Lulekal E. Ethnoveterinary medicinal plants at Bale Mountains National Park, Ethiopia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;112:55–70.

Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. ASTERACEAE Jyoti Sherchan, Prakash Poudel, Biswas Sapkota, Hammad Ahmad Jan, and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Eclipta prostrata (L.) L.: Artemisia viridis Blanco; Eclipta prostrata Lour.; Eclipta prostrata f. aureoreticulata Y.T. Chang; Eclipta prostrata f. prostrata; Eclipta prostrata var. prostrata; Eclipta prostrata var. undulata (Willd.) DC.

Local Names Eclipta prostrata: English: False daisy (Puri 2003; PROSEA 2016), Ink plant (PROSEA 2016); French: Eclipta couche (Lansdown and Beentje 2017), Eclipte blanche (CABI 2020; Lansdown and Beentje 2017), Herba á l’ encre (PROSEA 2016); Spanish: Hierba prieta (CABI 2020), Yerba de tago (Lansdown and Beentje 2017); Portuguese: Erva-portao, Verbesina (CABI 2020); Nepal: Bhringaraja (Ayurnepal), Kal jinra; India: Bhringraj (Rownak et al. 2014); Bangladesh: Bhringoraj (Rownak et al. 2014); Ayurveda: Bhringaraj (Puri 2003), Bhringoraaja (Rownak et al. 2014); Unani: Bhangraa (Rownak et al. 2014); Siddha: J. Sherchan · B. Sapkota Department of Pharmacy, Novel Academy, Pokhara, Nepal P. Poudel (*) Department of Pharmacy, Novel Academy, Purbanchal University, Pokhara, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_89

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Karissalaankanni (Rownak et al. 2014); China: Ecliptae herba (Puri 2003); Africa: Moblua (Malan and Neuba 2011); Indonesia: Orang-aring (Javanese), Urang-aring (Sundanese), Daun sipat (Moluccas); Malaysia: Biu, Keremak jantan, Nigus (PROSEA 2016); Papua New Guinea: Whiteheads (Pidgin) (PROSEA 2016); Philippines: Higis-manok (Tagalog), Karim-buaya (Ilokano), Pia (Ifugao) (PROSEA 2016); Laos: Hoomz kèèwx (PROSEA 2016); Thailand: Kameng, Yaa sap, Hom kieo (PROSEA 2016); Vietnam: Co muc, Co mho noi, Han nien thiao (PROSEA 2016); Brazil: Erva-portao (CABI 2020); Germany: Mehlblume (CABI 2020); Japan: Takasaburo (CABI 2020); Jammu: Bhiringraj; Tamil: Karisalanganni; Sanskrit: Kesaranjan, Bhringraj; Pashto: Bhangra, Skha botay, ‫ﺏﻩﻥګﺭﻩ ﺱﺥﺍﺏﻭټ‬

Botany and Ecology Eclipta prostrata: Annual. Stem 10–50 cm high, usually branched from base, ascending or prostrate, with fine appressed hairs, more densely above. Leaves oblong-lanceolate or oblong, sessile, serrate-toothed, teeth directed upward, sometimes only sinuate, covered with numerous fine appressed hairs. Capitula 6–8 mm wide; involucre of oblong, long, outer bracts and shorter, oblong-lanceolate, inner bracts; involucral bracts covered with fine appressed hairs, with thick, light-colored (yellowish), longitudinal veins. Ligulate florets short, half as long as involucre; bracts setose, ventrally pubescent. Achenes prismatic, somewhat swollen above, 2–3 mm long, 1.0–1.5 mm wide, smooth, without tubercles or sometimes with few inconspicuous tubercles along fine ventral rib, dark grayish-brown, along edges fringed, light yellowish-brown. Flowering June. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, meadows, steppes, river valleys, forests, sandy shores, gravelly slopes, rocks, fields, near settlements, as weed (Mithun et al. 2011; Neeraja and Margaret 2012; USDA NRCS 2014; Orchard and Cross 2013; Shishkin and Boborov 1961) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5). It is a pantropical weed grows up to 1600 m elevation (Wu et al. 2011). In Nepal, it is found in eastern, central, and western parts. West: PSW 1215; Tabata et al. 469. Cent.: SSW 5227; Tabata et al. 7638; Nakao s.n. East: Williams 1079; Numata 1631; TI 6306247 (Press et al. 2000). It grows in riversides, fields, abandoned ponds, and roadsides. It is native to Central, North, and South America; introduced in Africa, Asia, Australia, Europe, and Pacific islands. It prefers wet and moist place, so typically grows on the banks of pools and lakes, on the edge of rivers, swamps and ditches, and seasonally flooded depressions. It is also perceived as a weed in irrigated agricultural land such as rice fields (Lansdown and Beentje 2017). The plant has a wide distribution in tropical, subtropical, and warm temperate regions areas such as Asia, Africa, and South America (Holm et al. 1977; Mithun et al. 2011). In the USA, it is widely distributed around Southwest, Midwest, and East coast regions (USDA NRCS 2014).

Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. Fig. 1 Eclipta prostrata (Asteraceae) whole plant, Pokhara, Nepal. (Photo J. Sherchan)

Fig. 2 Eclipta prostrata (Asteraceae) leaves and flowers, Pokhara, Nepal. (Photo J. Sherchan)

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838 Fig. 3 Eclipta prostrata (Asteraceae) fruits, Pokhara, Nepal. (Photo J. Sherchan)

Fig. 4 Eclipta prostrata (Asteraceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

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Fig. 5 Eclipta prostrata (Asteraceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Phytochemistry Different types of chemical compounds such as alkaloids, alkenynes, cardiac glycosides, coumestans, flavonoids, lipids, phytosterol, polyacetylene, saponins, steroidal alkaloids, steroids, thiophenes, and triterpenoids have been isolated and identified from E. prostrata. Among them coumestans, flavonoids, steroids, thiophenes, and triterpenoids are regarded to be primary constituents. However, the amount of chemical compounds present in E. prostrata depends on various factors such as environmental factors, geographical sources, harvest time, and storage time (Chung et al. 2017). Coumestans: Coumestan is an organic compound that is a derivative of coumarin. Coumestan forms the central core of variety of natural compounds known collectively as coumestans. E. prostrata is rich in coumestans. The isolated coumestans include wedelolactone (1), demethyl wedelolactone (2), isodemethyl wedelolactone (3), coumestan (4), and demethyl wedelolactone-glucoside (5) (Yuan et al. 2009, 2011; Zhang and Guo 2001). Among them, wedelolactone (1) is the most typical

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compound which has been used as a marker compound for quality evaluation of E. prostrata and extensively researched for its bioactivities. The Chinese Pharmacopoeia standardizes the E. prostrata based on the content of wedelolactone (1) in the aerial parts of the plant which should be not less than 0.04% by HPLC analysis (Li et al. 2019). Flavonoids: Numerous flavonoids have also been identified from E. prostrata in the form of flavonols, flavones, and isoflavones. Quercetin (6) is one of the flavonol obtained from aerial parts of the plant by silica gel column chromatography and HPLC (Zhao et al. 2002). Apigenin (7), luteolin (8), diosmetin (12) and their glycosides (9–11) are the isolated flavones (Kim et al. 2015; Singh et al. 2001; Wu et al. 2008; Lee et al. 2009). Pratensein (14), orobol (17) and their derivatives (13, 15–16 and 18–20) are the isolated isoflavones (Han et al. 2013; Kim et al. 2015; Lee et al. 2009; Tewtrakul et al. 2011; Morel et al. 2017; Xi 2013). Steroids: Altogether 13 steroids have been identified from E. prostrata so far (Li et al. 2019). Among them eight steroidal alkaloids: 20-epi-3-dehyroxy-3-oxo5,6-dihydro-4,5-dehydroverazine (21), verazine (22), ecliptalbine (23), 20-epi-4β-hydroxyverazine (24), 20-epi-25β-hydroxyverazine (25), 20-epi-verazine (26) 4β-hydroxyverazine (27), and 25β-hydroxyverazine (28) were isolated from bioassayguided fractionation of the methanol extract of the leaves with verazine (22) as the major component (Abdel-Kader et al. 1998). Other types of steroids are: stigmasterol-3-O-β-D-glucoside (29), daucosterol (30), stigmasterol (31), 3-O-(6-Opalmitoyl-β-D-glycopyranosyl)-stigmasterol (32), and β-sitosterol (33) have also been isolated (Zhang and Chen 1996b; Zhang and Guo 2001; Yuan et al. 2011; Xi 2013). Thiophenes: Thiophenes are hydrophobic, sulfur-containing compounds. They are one of the essential compositions of E. prostrata. About 18 thiophenes have been isolated from the plant so far (Li et al. 2019). They are classified as monothiophene, dithiophenes, and terthiophenes based on the number of sulfur-containing ring/s. The plant consists of 1 monothiophene {(2-(penta-1,3-diynyl)-5-(3,4-dihydroxy-but-1-ynyl)-thiophene (34)}; 6 dithiophenes {5-(but-3-yne-1,2-diol)-50 -hydroxymethyl-2,20 -bithiophene (35), 50 -isovaleryloxymethyl-5-(4-isovaleryloxy-but-1-ynyl)-2,20 -bithiophene (36), 5(300 ,400 -dihydroxy-100 -butynyl)-2,20 -bithiophene (37), 5-(3-butene-1-ynyl)-50 -ethoxymethyl-2,20 -bithiophene (38), 5-methanol-50 -(3-butene-1-ynyl)-2,20 -bithiophene (39), and 5-aldehyde-50 -(3-butene-1-ynyl)-2,20 -dithiophene (40)}; and 11 terthiophenes {5methoxymethyl-2,20 :50 ,200 -terthiophene (41), 5-ethoxymethyl-2,20 :50 ,200 -terthiophene (42), 30 -hydroxy-2,20 :50 ,200 -terthiophene-30 -O-β-D-glucopyranoside (43), α-terthienyl (44), α-formylterthienyl (syn. Ecliptal) (45), α-terthienylmethanol (46), 30 -methoxy2,20 :50 ,200 -terthiophene (47), 2,20 ,500 ,200 -terthiophene-5-carboxylic acid (48), 0 0 00 5-hydroxymethyl-(2,2 :5 ,2 )-terthienyl tiglate (49), 5-hydroxymethyl-(2,20 :50 ,200 )terthienyl agelate (50), and 5-hydroxymethyl-(2,20 :50 ,200 )-terthienyl acetate (51)} based on their chemical structure (Xi 2013; Xi et al. 2014a; Kim et al. 2015; Ma et al. 2015; Han et al. 2013; Singh et al. 2001; Tewtrakul et al. 2011; Li et al. 2019). Triterpenoids: Large number of triterpenoids have also been identified from Eclipta prostrata. They usually exists in the form of glucosides, namely triterpenoid saponins. Till date 37 triterpenoids have been purified from this plant (Li et al. 2019).

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They all consists of pentacyclic ring system and are divided into four skeleton types: (a) oleanane-type (β-amyrane type), (b) taraxerane-type, (c) ursane-type (α-amyrane type), and (d) lupine-type. Oleanane-type (β-amyrane type) consists of eclalbasaponins I–VI and XI–XIII (52–60), ecliptasaponin A–D (61–64), oleanolic acid (65), echinocystic acid (66), eclalbatin (67), β-amyrin (68), 3,16,21-trihydroxyolean-12-en-28-oic acid (69), 3-oxo-16α-hydroxy-olean-12-en-28-oic acid (70), β-amyrone (71), 3β,16β,29-trihydroxy oleanane-12-ene-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (72), 3,28-di-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-3β,16β-dihydroxy oleanane-12-ene-28-oleanlic acid (73), silphioside B (74), silphioside E (75), echinocystic acid-28-O-β-Dglucopyranoside (76), echinocystic acid-3-O-(6-O-acetyl)-β-D-glucopyranoside (77), 3-O-(2-O-acetyl-β-D-glucopyranosyl) oleanolic acid-28-O-(β-Dglucopyranosyl) ester (78), 3-O-(6-O-acetyl-β-D-glucopyranosyl) oleanolic acid28-O-(β-D-glucopyranosyl) ester (79), 3-O-(β-D-glucopyranosyl) oleanolic acid-28O-(6-O-acetyl-β-D-glucopyranosyl) ester (80), and 3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl(1 ! 2)-β-D-glucopyranosyl oleanlic-18-ene acid-28-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (81). Taraxerane-type consists of eclalbasaponin VII (82), eclalbasaponin VIII (83), eclalbasaponins IX (84), and eclalbasaponin X (85). Ursane-type (syn. α-amyrane type) consists of ursolic acid (86) and α-amyrin (87). Lupine-type consists of 28-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl betulinic acid 3β-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (88) (Yahara et al. 1994, 1997; Zhao et al. 2001, 2002; Zhang and Chen 1996a, b; Zhang et al. 1997; Upadhyay et al. 2001; Yuan et al. 2011; Sun et al. 2010; Xi et al. 2014a, b; Han et al. 2013; Kim et al. 2015). The most diverse form of triterpenoids are the oleanane-type triterpenoids. Eclalbasaponins and ecliptasaponins are typical compounds of E. prostrata. Ecliptasaponin A (61) and eclalbasaponin II (53) are the identical compound and ecliptasaponin D (64) is the C-16 epimer of Ecliptasaponin A (61). Eclalbasaponins V (56), VI (57), XII (59), IX (84), and X (85) are all sulfated triterpenoid saponins (Zhang et al. 1997). Volatile oils: A total of 55 volatile compounds in aerial parts of E. prostrata were isolated by hydrodistillation and analyzed by GC-MS. They consists of the major part (91.7%) of the volatiles which were identified by matching mass spectra with a mass spectrum library (NIST 05.L). The main components were listed as follows: heptadecane (14.78%), 6,10,14-trimethyl-2-pentadecanone (12.80%), n-hexadecanoic acid (8.98%), pentadecane (8.68%), eudesma-4(14),11-diene (5.86%), phytol (3.77%), octadec-9-enoic acid (3.35%), 1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid diisooctyl ester (2.74%), (Z,Z)-9,12-octadecadienoic acid (2.36%), (Z)-7,11dimethyl-3-methylene-1,6,10-dodecatriene (2.08%), and (Z,Z,Z)-1,5,9,9-tetramethyl-1,4,7-cycloundecatriene (2.07%) (Lin et al. 2010). Apart from the above-described compounds, the presence of sesquiterpene lactones, terthienyl aldehyde, fatty alcohols, polyacetylenes, and phenolic acids were also reported (Chung et al. 2017). Elemental analysis of E. prostrata leaves by ICP-MS confirmed the presence of pharmaceutically essential elements such as B, Na, Mg, P, K, Ca, Cr, Mn, Fe, Se, Mo, Co, Ni, Cu, and Zn (Kamble and Pawar 2017). E. alba leaf powder (3 g per day, 60 days) administered on mildly hypertensive male subjects (40–55 age) did not show any detrimental side effects (Rangineni et al. 2007). Acute oral toxicity, dermal irritation, and eye irritation was not observed at

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highest dose of 2000 mg/kg body weight oral administration in Sprague Dawley rats; acute dermal and eye irritation performed on New Zealand white rabbits of E. alba aqueous extract (Udayashakar et al. 2016).

Local Medicinal Uses Eclipta prostrata: E. prostrata has been used widely in various traditional medical systems. In order to verify its role in various ethnomedicine, extensive research has been performed over a period of time to study the pharmacological activities of its extracts and isolated compounds based on its most common traditional uses. The major pharmacological activities such as antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory and analgesic, antimicrobial, anti-osteoporotic, antitumor and cytotoxic, cardiovascular, hair growth promoting, hepatoprotective, hypolipidemic, nephroprotective, and neuroprotective activities of the plant will be discussed in this book to provide relevance for traditional uses. WHO estimates diabetes as the seventh leading cause of death in 2016. Diabetes mellitus or simply diabetes is a metabolic disorder characterized by high serum glucose level over a prolonged period of time due to the impairment in insulin secretion or insulin action that subsequently lead to various alteration in intermediary metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids (Hemalakshmi et al. 2012). The ethanol extract (250 mg/kg, 21 days) of E. alba combats hyperglycemia and its complication, diabetic nephropathy, in streptozotocin-induced rat model by inhibiting the activity of α-glucosidase in a noncompetitive manner and eye lens aldose reductase with IC50 values of around 54 and 4.5 μg/mL, respectively (Jaiswal et al. 2012). Furthermore, eclalbasaponin VI (57) was potent uncompetitive inhibitor of α-glucosidase (Ki ¼ 26.1 μM) (Kumar et al. 2012). Anti-inflammatory agents reduce inflammation or swelling and analgesic agents relieve pain. Anti-inflammatory drugs make up about half of analgesics that relieve pain by reducing inflammation. The anti-inflammatory activity of E. prostrata was closely related to the regulation of NF-κB pathway and pro-inflammatory mediators (Morel et al. 2017). The ethanol extract (250 or 500 mg/mL) and the total alkaloids (150 mg/mL) of E. alba showed good peripheral and central analgesic activity by the tail clip, the tail flick method, and acetic acid-induced writhing response assay (Sawant et al. 2004). Similarly, the compound orobol (17), with an IC50 value of 4.6 μM, exhibited higher inhibition of NO than known NF-κB inhibitor: caffeic acid phenethylester (IC50 ¼ 5.0 μM), nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug: indomethacin (IC50 ¼ 20.1 μM), and NO synthase inhibitor: L-nitroarginine (IC50 ¼ 59.0 μM) (Tewtrakul et al. 2011). The petroleum ether extract of aerial parts of E. prostrata have marked antifungal activity against Microsporum canis, Microsporum gypseum, and Trichophyton rubrum with a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) value of 0.15 mg/mL (Nagabhushan and Raveesha 2013). In the same way, the alkaloids isolated from leaves E. alba suppressed the growth of five human pathogenic bacteria including

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Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Shigella boydii, Staphylococcus aureus, and Streptococcus faecalis with MICs in the order of 42, 82, 61, 57, and 89 μg/mL, respectively, by broth microdilution assay (Gurrapu and Mamidala 2017). Similarly, eclalbasaponin isolated from E. alba showed antibacterial activity against Bacillus subtilis and Pseudomonas aeruginosa with MIC values of 93.7 and 187.5 μg/mL, respectively, and with minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) values of 187.5 and 375 μg/mL, respectively, using streptomycin sulfate (1 mg/mL) as a positive control (Ray et al. 2013). Osteoporosis is a disease in which bone weakening increases the risk of broken bone. It is caused by excessive osteoclastic bone resorption or deficient osteoblastic bone formation that destroys the balance between bone resorption and formation. Ovariectomized rats treated with aqueous Eclipta herba extract (EHE) at the highest tested dose (1.4 g/kg, 12 weeks) effectively increased bone mass without any adverse effect (Zhang et al. 2013). Antitumor agents prevent or inhibit the growth of tumors, and cytotoxic agents destroy cancer cells. The methanolic extract (7 mg/kg, 32 weeks) of E. alba reduced the number, incidence, and multiplicity of tumors by inhibiting the processes integral to cancer development and inducing p53-mediated apoptosis skin cancer mice (Ali et al. 2014). Similarly, the hydroalcoholic extract of E. alba displayed cytotoxicity against HepG2, A498, and C6 cells with IC50 values of 22, 25, and 50 μg/mL, respectively (Chaudhary et al. 2011). The 30% ethanol fraction and eclalbasaponin I (52) exhibited dose-dependently growth-inhibitory effects on hepatoma cell smmc7721 with IC50 74.2399 and 111.1703 μg/mL, respectively, which is stronger than 5-fluorouracil (IC50 ¼ 195.3131 μg/ml) (Liu et al. 2012). The alcoholic extracts (100, 200, or 400 μg/mL) of E. alba showed dose-dependent cytotoxic effects on multiple cancer cell lines including MDA-MB-231 (breast), HeLa (cervical), SK-OV-3 (ovary), SW620 (colon), DU145 (prostate), A549 (lung), and PANC-1 (pancreatic) with the strongest inhibitory effect on breast cancer cells (Yadav et al. 2017). α-Terthienylmethanol (46) isolated from aerial parts of E. prostrata induced better apoptosis in human ovarian cancer cells with an IC50 value of 7.73 μM as compared to cisplatin (IC50 ¼ 11.25  0.27 μM) (Kim et al. 2015). Cardiovascular agents are used to treat medical conditions associated with the heart or the circulatory system (blood vessels), such as arrhythmias, blood clots, coronary artery disease, high or low blood pressure, high cholesterol, heart failure, and stroke. E. alba leaf powder (3 g per day, 60 days) administered on mildly hypertensive male subjects (40–55 age) showed marked reduction in arterial pressure (15%), total cholesterol (17%), low-density lipoprotein (24%), triglycerides (14%), very low-density lipoprotein (14%), and plasma lipid peroxides (18%), and a marked increase in urine volume (34%), urine sodium (24%), serum vitamin C (17%), and serum tocopherols (23%) compared with placebo. It suggests E. alba possessed diuretic, hypotensive, and hypocholesterolemic properties and helps in the alleviation of oxidative stress-induced complications in hypertensives (Rangineni et al. 2007). Alopecia is a dermatological disorder with psychosocial implications on patients with hair loss. Many of the traditional and folk medicine has been using E. prostrata

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as hair tonic. Similarly many researchers have reported the hair growth initiating and promoting effects of the plant. The petroleum ether extract (incorporated into ointment base in concentration of 5%) reduced time required for hair growth initiation and complete hair growth, and increase the number of anagenic hair follicles, which were better than 2% minoxidil treatment via topical application on shaved denuded skin of rats after 30 days (Roy et al. 2008). The petroleum ether extract (PEE) induced a marked increase in hair coverage area and density from day 8 on nude mouse skin with inherited hair follicular abnormalities by stimulating follicular keratinocyte proliferation and delaying terminal differentiation by downregulating TGF-β1 expression, suggesting it might be useful for treating certain types of alopecia (Begum et al. 2014). Hepatoprotective agents prevent damage of liver. Hepatotoxicity has now become the most serious liver disorder, which accounts for about 15% of the world’s burden of diseases. E. prostrata has been commonly used to treat hepatitis, jaundice and related hepatic diseases, and used as liver tonic. One of the possible mechanisms involves the regulation of hepatic microsomal drug-metabolizing enzyme, namely aminopyrine N-demethylase (Saxena et al. 1993). 50 or 100 mg/kg wedelolactone (1) reduced liver inflammation and hepatocytes apoptosis and attenuated leukocyte infiltration, and T-cell activation in ConA-induced hepatitis mice suggests hepatoprotective activity (Luo et al. 2018). Hypolipidemic agents also known as cholesterol-lowering drugs or antihyperlipidemic agents or lipid-lowering drugs are a diverse group of pharmaceuticals that are used in the treatment of high levels of fats (lipids), such as cholesterol, in the blood (hyperlipidemia). Hyperlipidemia is a key risk for cardiovascular disease along with increased levels of total cholesterol (TC), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), very low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (VLDL-C), and triglycerides (TG), and decreased level of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) in the blood circulation. An ethyl acetate fraction (50 μg/mL) separated from the ethanol extract was effective on the inhibition of adipogenesis and dyslipidemia that markedly inhibited adipocyte differentiation and promoted lipolysis by inducing cell cycle arrest in G1 and S phase, causing blockade of mitotic clonal expansion and inhibiting AKT/mTOR pathway (Gupta et al. 2017). The total alcoholic extract (150 mg/kg, 30 days) treated to cholesterol-induced hyperlipidemic rats (Santhosh et al. 2006) and aqueous leaf extract (100 or 200 mg/kg, 45 days) treated to atherogenic diet-induced rats also exhibited hypolipidemic activity (Dhandapani 2007). Ecliptal (45) (20 μM) inhibited adipogenesis and adipocyte differentiation in vitro by causing cell cycle arrest, activating Wnt-pathway, and downregulating AKT pathway. Ecliptal at a dose of 100 mg/kg for 7 days also reduced the weight gain, energy intake, and levels of TC, TG, and LDL in HFD-induced hamsters, demonstrating a potential drug candidate for obesity (Gupta et al. 2018). Nephroprotective agents reduce or prevent damage or toxicity to the kidney. So far very few studies have been performed to observe nephroprotective activity of E. prostrata (Li et al. 2019). The methanol extract of the leaves (300 or 600 mg/kg, 7 days) alleviated gentamicin-induced nephrotoxicity in rats (Dungca 2016). Similarly, the therapeutic effect of wedelolactone (1) on renal damage significantly

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slowed down the abnormal proliferation of human renal mesangial cells induced by LPS at concentrations ranging from 2.5 to 20 μmol/L (Shen et al. 2017). Neuroprotective agents protect the nervous system from injury and damage. The potential of E. prostrata to enhance human memory and prevent chronic neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and Parkinson’s disease has been reported using scopolamine-induced cholinergic blockade model since scopolamine is an antagonist of muscarinic receptor. The ethanolic extract (100 mg/kg) protected against learning and memory injure induced by scopolamine and also enhanced hippocampal LTP at dose of 100 μg/mL, which partly resulted from the activation of Akt-GSK-3β pathway (Jung et al. 2016). The decrease in neurotransmitter formation and increase in oxidative stress that comes with aging will affect memory and recognition, and may cause dementia (Ho et al. 2010). Likewise, in the cesarean-derived rats, the butanol fraction of methanol extract (50 or 100 mg/kg, 6 weeks) increased the formation of neurotransmitter acetylcholine and inhibited oxidative stress in the brain and serum (Kim et al. 2010). Eclalbasaponin II (53) (10 or 20 mg/kg) significantly ameliorated the cognitive dysfunction induced by scopolamine (1 mg/kg) in mice by inhibiting AchE activity and stimulating Akt-GSK-3β signal in the hippocampus (Jung et al. 2018). Luteolin (8) (10 or 20 mg/kg) isolated from E. alba prevented PTZ-induced acute and chronic epilepsy as compared to diazepam (2 mg/kg) (Tambe et al. 2016). Moreover, wedeloactone (1) showed anticonvulsant activity because of its affinity to benzodiazepine binding site of the GABA receptor (Pôças et al. 2006). Vitiligo is the most common disorder of depigmentation and characterized by a progressive loss of melanocytes from the epidermis and follicular reservoir. The aqueous extract of Eclipta herba (100 μg/mL) enhanced melanin synthesis in melanocytes and promoted melanocyte migration by elevating the expression of microphthalmia transcription factor (MITF, an important factor of melanocyte differentiation, proliferation, and survival, and highly coupled with melanogenesis), that supports the traditional use for vitiligo (Xu et al. 2017). The components from E. prostrata containing 45.88% wedelolactone (1) and 23.74% demethylwedelolactone (2) at the dose of 80 μg/mL significantly improved 10% cigarette smoking extract (CSE)-induced cell viability of normal human bronchial epithelial (NHBE) cells by blocking autophagy flux (Ding et al. 2018). The ethanol extract of leaves of E. prostrata showed antiplatelet effect on adenosine diphosphate (ADP)-induced platelet aggregation in vitro, with IC50 value of 59.02 mg/mL that supports the traditional uses for treating hemorrhage and coronary heart disease (Sandhiutami 2018). Besides the extracts or isolated compounds of E. prostrata also showed other pharmacological activities such as antivenom (Melo et al. 1994; Mors et al. 1989; Pithayanukul et al. 2004, 2007), anti-HIV (Tewtrakul et al. 2007), immunity enhancement (Christybapita et al. 2007), and antimalarial activity (Bapna et al. 2007). E. alba leaf powder (3 g per day, 60 days) administered on mildly hypertensive male subjects (40–55 age) did not show any detrimental side effects (Rangineni et al. 2007). Acute oral toxicity, dermal irritation, and eye irritation was not observed at highest dose of 2000 mg/kg body weight oral administration in Sprague Dawley rats;

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acute dermal and eye irritation performed on New Zealand white rabbits of E. alba aqueous extract (Udayshankar et al. 2016). Used also as tonic, emetic, purgative, deobstruent in hepatic and spleen enlargement. Leaves are used in scorpion sting. Roots are applied externally as antiseptic to ulcers and wounds. The plant juice in combination with aromatics is administered for jaundice. The oil prepared with this herb is of great use as a hair dye and has cooling effect in the brain (Mahmood et al. 2011). Juice is used in fever and liver problems. Leaves are used for cough, headache, and as a hair restorer (Hussain et al. 2008). Plant is used for cough (Kayani et al. 2014). Whole plant infusion is used for prevention of miscarriage (Jan et al. 2020). The root is purgative (Jamal et al. 2017). The species is regarded as a weed of ethnomedicinal significance. It is known for its medicinal values in alternative systems of medicine (Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha, Homeopathy, Chinese, African) holistic health and herbal medicine. Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India considers it as hepatoprotective (Khare 2007). In Ayurveda, the plant is used to reduce kapha, vata, and is considered a powerful liver tonic, rejuvenator, and good for the healthy hair. In Unani, the plant is used for treating various types of body pain and for healthy hairs. Similarly, the plant is extensively used in Siddha medicine to cure hair loss, body pain, diminution of vision, indigestion, jaundice, liver diseases, spleen, skin diseases, scorpion stings, etc. (Nagabhushan and Raveesha 2013). In Nepal, plant juice is topically applied in cuts and wounds (Panthi and Singh 2013) and mixed with essential oil to treat catarrhal problems and jaundice. Leaves are used in the treatment of scorpion stings (Neeraja and Margaret 2012). Similarly, the plant has broad medicinal values and is mainly used for the therapy of respiratory disorders (e.g., bronchitis, asthma, and cough), skin diseases (e.g., burns, dermatitis, and wounds), microbial infections, liver and spleen enlargement, fever, hair loss and graying of hair, fatigue, diabetes, jaundice, snakebite, and scorpion sting, and the juice of the root is applied for conjunctivitis in India (Khan and Khan 2008; Rahmatullah et al. 2009, Panghal et al. 2010; Khan et al. 2014; PROSEA 2016). Many ancient Chinese medical books, such as Sheng Ji Zong Lu (1117), Dian Nan Ben Cao (1436), Yi Fang Ji Jie (1682), and Tang Ben Cao (659), have documented the medicinal uses of E. prostrata. According to Chinese Pharmacopoeia (Wu 2005), it is sweet and sour in flavor, cold in property, and attributives to the liver and kidney meridians. The main functions are to nourish liver and kidneys, cool blood, and stanch bleeding. Thus, it has been used to treat hepatic and renal diseases, hemorrhagic diseases, loose teeth, whitening of hair, dizziness, tinnitus, and weakness of waist and knees since ancient times (Li et al. 2019). The traditional uses of E. prostrata in Korea are similar to those in China (Park et al. 2017). It is also used as an antidote for snakebites (Lansdown and Beentje 2017). It is used for snakebite and scorpion sting, cuts, wounds, jaundice (Siwakoti and Siwakoti 2000; Rai 2003; Gautam 2011); dyspepsia (Kunwar et al. 2015a, b; Kunwar and Bussmann 2009a, b); asthma (Savithramma et al. 2007); foot cracks (Kunwar et al. 2015a, b); cuts, wounds, pimples, skin ailments, as emetic and purgative, for eye problems, liver tonic, antiseptic, for jaundice, filariasis, and as antiviral (Gairola et al. 2014; Kala 2005; Kunwar et al. 2009; Kunwar and Bussmann 2009a, b); cough, fever, and

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headache (Khumbongmayum et al. 2005); anthelmintic (Manandhar 1985; Balami 2004); chronic fever (Singh 2013); and bleeding (Adhikari et al. 2019). It is also used for itch, pustules, and louse infestation (Ruysschaert et al. 2009), and as snakebite antidote (Houghton and Osibogun 1993; Perumal Samy et al. 2012). In Thailand, different parts of the plants are used for different purposes, such as leaves are used for hair dying and skin diseases; the stems are used as a blood tonic or to treat tuberculosis, amoebiasis, and asthma; whereas the roots are used as an antibacterial and hepato-protectant agents. It is also used as self-medication for AIDS patients (Tewtrakul et al. 2007). In Bangladesh, the leaf is used to prevent hair falling (Rahmatullah et al. 2010) and treat skin infection and chicken pox (Azam et al. 2013). The leaves of the plant are also mixed with other herbs is used to treat diabetes (Rahmatullah et al. 2009). The leaf paste is applied topically in case of allergy, athlete’s foot, and ringworm in Pakistan (Arshad et al. 2011). In Philippines, decoction of the dried plant or tincture is used in hemorrhagic diseases, dysentery, sprains, furuncle, and dermatitis (Neeraja and Margaret 2012), whereas decoction of the roots is mixed with cumin is given to women after labor in Malaysia (PROSEA 2016). In Vietnam, stonemasons rub the plant on their hands to stop irritation caused by chalk. The fresh juice of the plant is drunk with water to treat tuberculosis, and the roots are used for their purgative and emetic properties (PROSEA 2016). The plant is usually used in the treatment of periodontal diseases in rural provinces (Nguyen et al. 2016). In Brazil, it is widely used for the treatment of pulmonary disorders such as asthma, bronchitis and cough, diarrhea, snakebites, syphilis, filariasis, and leprosy (Morel et al. 2017). The whole plant is used to ensure fetal development and facilitate childbirth (Malan and Neuba 2011), whereas roots and leaves are used internally for liver and spleen complaints and edema in Africa, (PROSEA 2016).

Local Food Uses Eclipta prostrata: The leaves are cooked as vegetable in Indonesia and Africa. Similarly, the leaves are used in chutneys in some parts of India (PROSEA 2016). It is also eaten in Nepal (Dangol et al. 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Eclipta prostrata: The plant is commonly used in hair oil all over India for healthy black and long hair (Roy et al. 2008). In Senegal, sheep graze on E. prostrata, while in Kenya, it is eaten by cattle. The juice of the plant is also used for dyeing hair black and in tattooing too (PROSEA 2016). It is used to bathe children with malnutrition (Lans 2006) and applied to the scalp to have healthy black hair (Muthu et al. 2006). In India, more than 2000 metric ton per year is consumed by herbal industries (Lansdown and Beentje 2017). In Indonesia, an estimated 80–120 kg of dried leaves of E. prostrata were traded annually for herb medicine, both locally and internationally between 1984 and 1990 (PROSEA 2016).

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Udayshankar AC, Rajini SB, Nandhini M, Suhas YS, Niranjana SR, Lund OS, Prakash HS. Acute oral toxicity, dermal irritation and eye irritation study of Eclipta alba aqueous extract in Sprague Dawley rats and New Zealand white rabbits. Int Res J Pharm. 2016;7(6):103–9. https://doi.org/ 10.7897/2230-8407.07674. Upadhyay RK, Pandey MB, Jha RN, Pandey VB. Eclalbatin, a triterpene saponin from Eclipta alba. J Asian Nat Prod Res. 2001;3(3):213–7. USDA National Resources Conservation Service. The PLANTS database. Greenboro: National Data Team; 2014. http://plants.usda.gov Wu JN. An illustrated chines materia medica. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2005. Wu J, Hou WB, Zhang TJ, Han YM. Chemical constituents of E. prostrata. Chin Tradit Herb Drugs. 2008;39(6):814–6. Wu ZY, Raven PH, Hong DY, editors. Flora of China, Volume 20–21: 869 (Asteraceae). 2011. Xi FM. Studies on the chemical constituents of E. prostrata (L) and their antihyperglycemic activity (D). Shanghai: Second Military Medical University; 2013. Xi FM, Li CT, Han J, Yu SS, Wu ZJ, Chen WS. Thiophenes, polyacetylenes and terpenes from the aerial parts of Eclipata prostrata. Bioorg Med Chem. 2014a;22(22):6515–22. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.bmc.2014.06.051. Xi FM, Li CT, Mi JL, Wu ZJ, Chen WS. Three new Olean-type triterpenoid saponins from aerial parts of Eclipta prostrata (L.). Nat Prod Res. 2014b;28(1):35–40. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 14786419.2013.832674. Xu P, Su S, Tan C, Lai RS, Min ZS. Effects of aqueous extracts of Ecliptae herba, Polygoni multiflori radix praeparata and Rehmanniae radix praeparata on melanogenesis and the migration of human melanocytes. J Ethnopharmacol. 2017;195:89–95. Yadav NK, Arya RK, Dev K, Sharma C, Hossain Z, Meena S, Arya KR, Gayen JR, Datta D, Singh RK. Alcoholic extract of Eclipta alba shows in vitro antioxidant and anticancer activity without exhibiting toxicological effects. Oxidative Med Cell Longev. 2017:1–18. https://doi.org/10. 1155/2017/9094641. Yahara S, Ding N, Nohara T. Oleanane glycosides from Eclipta alba. Chem Pharm Bull. 1994;42(6):1336–8. Yahara S, Ding N, Nohara T, Masuda K, Ageta H. Taraxastane glycosides from Eclipta alba. Phytochemistry. 1997;44(1):131–5. Yuan JC, Jiang Y, Shen ZB. Advances in studies on the chemical constituents of E. prostrata (L). Asia Pac. Tradit Med. 2009;5(1):125–8. Yuan HX, Zhao YL, Yan Y, Yu ZG. Studies on chemical constituents of herba Ecliptae. Chin J Exp Tradit Med Formulae. 2011;17(16):103–5. Zhang M, Chen YY. Isolation and identification of ecliptasaponin a and ecliptasaponin B from Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk. Acta Pharm Sin. 1996a;31(3):196–9. Zhang M, Chen YY. Study on the chemical constituent of Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk. China J Chin Mater Med. 1996b;21(8):480–1. Zhang JS, Guo QM. Studies on the chemical constituents of E. prostrata (L). Acta Pharm Sin. 2001;36(1):34–7. Zhang M, Chen YY, Di XH, Liu M. Isolation and identification of ecliptasaponin D from Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk. Acta Pharm Sin. 1997;32(8):633–4. Zhang ZG, Bai D, Liu MJ, Li Y, Pan JH, Liu H, Wang WL, Xiang LH, Xiao GG, Ju DH. Therapeutic effect of aqueous extract from Ecliptae herba on bone metabolism of ovariectomized rats. Menopause. 2013;20(2):232–40. https://doi.org/10.1097/gme. 0b013e318265e7dd. Zhao YP, Tang HF, Jiang YP, Wang ZZ, Yi YH, Lei QY. Triterpenoid saponins from Eclipta prostrata. Acta Pharm Sin. 2001;36(9):660–3. Zhao YP, Tang HF, Jiang YP, Wang ZZ, Yi YH, Lei QY. Studies on the chemical constituents of Eclipta prostrata. Chin Pharmaceut J. 2002;37(1):17–9.

Elaeagnus angustifolia L. var. angustifolia L. ELAEAGNACEAE Hammad Ahmad Jan, Wahid Hussain, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Elaeagnus angustifolia L. var. angustifolia L.: Elaeagnus angustifolia fo. culta Sosn., Elaeagnus angustifolia var. caspica Sosn., Elaeagnus angustifolia var. virescens Sosn., Elaeagnus hortensis M. Bieb., Elaeagnus hortensis subsp. moorscroftii (Wall. ex Schltr.) Servett., Elaeagnus moorcroftii Wall. ex Schltr., Elaeagnus oleaster L.

H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan W. Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_90

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Local Names Elaeagnus angustifolia: Chinese: 沙枣 (sha zao); Pashto: Suzoom, Sinzali ‫ﺱﯼﻥﺯﻝ‬ ‫ ﺵﻭﻥﺝﻭﺭ‬Chitrali: Shounjur,

Botany and Ecology Elaeagnus angustifolia: Shrubs or small trees, 3–7(–10) m tall. Bark reddish brown; spines absent or sharp, 0.7–3 cm; young branches and both leaf surfaces silvery white, densely stellate-scaly, or adaxially grayish green or green and nearly without scales (var. virescens). Petiole 5–8 mm, 1/5–1/4 as long as blade; leaf blade oblonglanceolate to linear-lanceolate, sometimes elliptic-lanceolate, ovate, or oblong-ovate, (2.5–)4–8(–10)  0.4–3.2(–4) cm, adaxially dull green, or both surfaces silvery, with only white scales, base usually broadly cuneate, apex obtuse or subacute. Flowers 1–3 in axils of older leaves. Pedicel short, ca. 2 mm. Flowers fragrant, outside silvery white, with dense white scales and sparse small yellowish glands, inside yellow. Calyx tube campanulate or broadly campanulate (f. culta), ca. as long as limb, 5–6  2.5–3(–5) mm; lobes lanceolate, ovate, or triangular-lanceolate, slightly shorter than tube, inside yellow and glabrous, with sparse small brownish glands, distinctly 3-veined, apex  acute. Filaments short; anthers oblong. Style base enclosed by tubular disk, curved in upper part, ca. as long as calyx. Drupe yellowish brown, globose-ovoid, globose, or subglobose (var. caspica), 0.7–2.5  0.5–1.3 cm, densely silvery scaly when young, subglabrous when mature; scales sparse, brownish; flesh sweet, mealy; stone oblong, oblong-ovoid, or narrowly cylindric (f. culta), both ends obtuse or pointed. Flowering May–June, fruiting August–October (Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).

Phytochemistry Flavonoids; Coumarins; Alkaloids: (Eleanarine (tetrahydroharman), tetrahydroarmol); Catechins; Tannins; Essential oils; Sugars: (fructose, sucrose, pectin); Vitamins (C); Steroids (Sokolov 1988).

Local Medicinal Uses Elaeagnus angustifolia: The species is used in Kazakhstan as thermostatic. The leaves serve as anti-inflammatory, for colds and fever, as rinse for wounds and oral diseases; as poultices for rheumatic pain and gout. In Tajikistan, an infusion is used to treat diseases of the stomach and colitis, and as antipyrectic and to treat measles (Sokolov 1988). Also used to treat diarrhea (Sher et al. 2016). For colds, cough, asthma, fever, mental relaxation (Wali et al. 2019), and conscience widening (Tetik et al. 2013). The whole plant may be used. The fruit is eaten raw or boiled for sour

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Fig. 1 Elaeagnus angustifolia (Elaeagnaceae), Tree, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 2 Elaeagnus angustifolia (Elaeagnaceae), Sinzali, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

throat and treatment of cough, flu, colds, and various types of fevers. Gum is used for an asthma treatment (Qureshi et al. 2007). Plant is used for headache, heartburn, skin infections (Ahmad et al. 2014). The fruit is collected and boiled in water for 1 h and the juice is extracted by crashing the fruit through a cloth. The juice is stored in the bottles for the use against dyspepsia and blood purification. The gum of this tree locally called Luchak, it is ground and powdered, which is use as shampoo and hair

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Fig. 3 Elaeagnus angustifolia (Elaeagnaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 4 Elaeagnus angustifolia (Elaeagnaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

tonic by girls and considered very effective for long and shiny hairs (Khan et al. 2011). Plant is used for sorethroat (Kayani et al. 2014). Fruit decoction is used for bronchitis (Abbas et al. 2017). Dried ground fruits are mixed with chicken broth and

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Fig. 5 Elaeagnus angustifolia (Elaeagnaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

taken orally for relieving arthritis pain (Sher et al. 2016). Herbal tea made from fresh bark is drunk to improve digestion. The fruits are warmed and eaten to treat throat problems (Shah and Hussain 2012). The fruits extract is used against dyspepsia and used as blood purifier. Fruits are directly eaten for throat infections and cough as well (Hadi and Ibrar 2016). Fruit is used for soar-throat and high fever (Jan et al. 2017). Boiled branches used for healing of inappropriately healed bones and rheumatic relieve (Khan et al. 2013). Elaeagnus parviflora is used to treat colds and cough as well as bronchitis (Bhat et al. 2015). Elaeagnus rhamnoides fruits are used to treat diabetes, arthritis, and obesity (Sher et al. 2016). Elaeagnus umbellata is used for dermatological ailments (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018), and as anthelminthic (Sher et al. 2016).

Local Food Uses Elaeagnus angustifolia: The fruit contains 10–55% protein, and high amounts of glucose and fructose, as well as a large amount of potassium and phosphorus salts. It is widely consumed, both in its natural state and as a seasoning, in soups, gruel, a kind of bread, and stewed fruit. The fruit is distilled into a very strong alcoholic drink which combines a wine-like flavor with the headiness of vodka. One hundred kilogram of fruit yields 12–13 l of alcohol. The leaves are used as tea substitute. The fruits are also used for making flour, bread, confectionery, porridge, compotes, pastries, syrup, and kvas (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017; Sokolov 1988). Eaten raw as snack, and the leaves used as tea (Yeşil et al. 2019).

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses Elaeagnus angustifolia: Aromatic, used as fragrance (Wali et al. 2019). The gum is used for printing. Suitable for tanning leather, and to dye fabric brown and black. The wood is suitable in the construction of the underwater part of bridges, manufacturing musical instruments, joinery, and turning products. The leaves are fodder for sheep and goats (Sokolov 1988). Sometimes children are bathed in a fruit extract so that they would gain weight (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017).

References Abbas Z, Khan SM, Alam J, Khan SW, Abbasi AM. Medicinal plants used by inhabitants of the Shigar Valley, Baltistan region of Karakorum range-Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13(1):53. Ahmad M, Sultana S, Fazl-i-Hadi S, Ben Hadda T, Rashid S, Zafar M, Yaseen G. An Ethnobotanical study of Medicinal Plants in high mountainous region of Chail valley (District Swat-Pakistan). J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2014;10(1):36. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Pinus kochiana Klotzsch ex K. Koch. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Bhat J, Malik ZA, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhatt AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus, vol. XXVII. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1 Hadi F, Ibrar M. Fruit plant diversity with special reference to their medicinal uses in the historical Kalash valley, District Chitral, Hindukush range, Pakistan. J Sci Tech Univ Peshawar. 2016;40(1):11–8. Jan HA, Jan S, Ahmad N, Aysha M. Ethno-medicinal survey of indigenous medicinal plants used by the local population of Goleen Valley, Chitral, Pakistan. SM J Med Plant Stud. 2017;1(1):1–8. Kayani S, Ahmad M, Zafar M, Sultana S, Khan MPZ, Ashraf MA, Yaseen G. Ethnobotanical uses of medicinal plants for respiratory disorders among the inhabitants of Gallies – Abbottabad, Northern Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;156:47–60. Khan N, Ahmed M, Ahmed A, Shaukat SS, Wahab M, Ajaib M, Nasir M. Important medicinal plants of chitral gol National park (cgnp) Pakistan. Pak J Bot. 2011;43(2):797–809. Khan T, Khan IA, Rehman A, Alam J, Ali S. Exploration of near-extinct folk wisdom on medicinally important plants from Shinaki Valley Hunza, Pakistan. Int J Biosci. 2013;3(10):180–6. Qureshi RA, Ghufran MA, Sultana KN, Ashraf M, Khan AG. Ethnomedicinal studies of medicinal plants of Gilgit District and surrounding areas. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2007;5:115–22. Shah SM, Hussain F. Ethnomedicinal plant wealth of Mastuj valley, Hindukush range, District Chitral, Pakistan. J Med Plant Res. 2012;6:4328–37. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among the Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni ethnic groups in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1988, 357 p. (in Russian). Tetik F, Civelek S, Cakilcioglu U. Traditional uses of some medicinal plants in Malatya (Turkey). J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;146:331–46.

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Ur-Rahman I, Afsal A, Iqbal Z, Ijas F, Ali N, Asif M, Alam J, Majid A, Bussmann RW. Traditional and ethnomedicinal dermatology practices in Pakistan. Clin Dermatol. 2018;36(3):310–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clindermatol.2018.03.018. Wali R, Rahman K, Raja NI, Qureshi R, Bussmann RW, Mashwani ZUR. A quantitative medico botanical expedition of Fairy Meadows National Park, Diamir, Gilgit Baltistan, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019; 1835. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.35.1-30. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Yeşil Y, Çelik M, Yılmaz B. Wild edible plants in Yeşilli (Mardin-Turkey), a multicultural area. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2019;15:52. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-019-0327-y.

Engelhardia spicata Lesch. ex Blume JUGLANDACEAE Shreehari Bhattarai, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Engelhardia spicata Lesch. ex Blume: Engelhardtia acerifolia (Reinw.) Blume; Gyrocarpus pedulus Blanco; Juglans pterococca Roxb.; Pterilema aceriflorum Reinw.

Local Names Engelhardia spicata: Nepali: Nahua; Chepang: Baksi; Tamang: Gundu; Limbu: Yakpapma; English: Great Malay bean S. Bhattarai (*) Agriculture Forest University, Hetauda, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_91

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Botany and Ecology Engelhardia spicata: Trees to 7(–20) m tall. Leaves 15–25 cm; petiole 2–6 cm; petiole and rachis tomentose, rarely glabrescent; leaflets 4–10, petiolule to 1 cm or leaflets rarely sessile, blade broadly elliptic-ovate or broadly elliptic-obovate to long elliptic, 7–15
3–7 cm, abaxially tomentose or rarely glabrescent, base oblique, broadly cuneate or rounded, apex obtuse or sometimes acute. Fruiting spike 13– 18 cm, densely pubescent. Nutlets globose, 4–6 mm, hispid; wings hispid at base, middle wing 1.9–3 cm, lateral wings 1–1.5 cm. Flowering January–April, fruiting March–August(–October) (Malla et al. 1986; Storrs 1990; Polunin and Stainton 2012; Wu et al. 1994–2013). The plant is distributed in the eastern and central subtropical Himalaya up to 1800 m (Fig. 1).

Phytochemistry Oleanolic acid and engelhardtione are the major compounds isolated from the species (Kunwar et al. 2010). The plant also contains total phenolic and total flavonoid contents (Thokchom and Choudhury, 2018). Phytochemical screening of the bark contains 5-hydroxy-4-(hydroxymethyl)-pyran-2-one, gallic acid, quercetin3-O-α-L-ramnopyranoside, astilbin, myrictrin, quercetin-3-O-β-glucopyranoside, 3,30 -di-O-methyl ellagic acid-4-O-β-D-xylopyranoside, 3,30 -di-O-methyl ellagic acid, and oleanolic acid (Sajan et al. 2016).

Local Medicinal Uses Engelhardia spicata: The latex is applied to wounds. Plant juice is useful for dysentery and rheumatism, and the plant latex is used for bilious dyspepsia (Kunwar et al. 2012, 2019). Bark is used against diarrhea and piscicidal (Malik Fig. 1 Engelhardia spicata (Juglandaceae), plant with hanging catkins, Nepal. (Photo Shreehari Bhattarai)

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et al. 2015; Tangjitman et al. 2015). The paste prepared from bark is used in the treatment of bone fracture (Limbu and Rai 2013). Flower juice is used in abdominal pain (Kunwar et al. 2010; Bhattarai et al. 2011; Luitel et al. 2014) and also as a raw material for manufacturing local wine. Fruit juice is used in the treatment of abdominal pain (Burlakoti and Kunwar 2008). The paste prepared form buds is used in tinea pedis (Bhattarai et al. 2011; Gaire and Subedi 2011; Singh et al. 2017). The plant also possesses antitubercular activities (Talwar et al. 2008). The latex extracted from the plant is demulcent (Bhattarai et al. 2011). Traditionally, it is also used as an ingredients of folk medication practices as the mixture of leaves and bark of Psidium guajava, Shorea robusta, and Engelhardia spicata is used in stomach pain and dysentery, whereas the mixture of bark of Abelmoschus esculentus, Schefflera impressa, and Engelhardia spicata is applied in paralysis (GoN 2016).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Engelhardia spicata: Though the wood is not durable, lumber is highly valuable for light indoor construction, carving, and agricultural implements. The young shoots and bark are crushed and used by local peoples for fish poisoning in various areas. About 2–3 kg of young leaves are beaten, mixed in stagnant water, and left for an hour for fish poisoning (Chaudhary et al. 2002; Joshi and Joshi 2005; Kunwar et al. 2006; Chapagain and Tamang 2017; Chapagain et al. 2018). The ash from burnt leaves and branches is used as a fertilizer (Storrs 1990). The plant is also used in agroforestry system for fodder purpose and considered as one of the good fodder species in terms of nutrient it contains (Panthi 2013; Shrestha et al. 2018). The plant is also used as a source of fiber (Singh Shrestha 2014).

References Bhattarai KR, Maren IE, Chaudhary RP. Medicinal plant knowledge of the Panchase region in the middle hills of the Nepalese Himalayas. Banko Janakari. 2011;21:31–9. Burlakoti C, Kunwar RM. Folk herbal medicines of Mahakali watershed area, Nepal. In: Medicinal plants in Nepal: an anthology of contemporary research, vol. 7. Kathmandu: Ecological Society; 2008. p. 187–93. Chapagain NH, Tamang R. Ethnobotany on Chepang community in Nepal. Makawanpur: District Plant Resources Office; 2017. Chapagain NH, Tamang R, Thakur C. Ethnobotany of Tamang community in Nepal. Makawanpur: District Plant Resources Office; 2018. Chaudhary RP, Nepal M, Gupta VNP, Vetaas OR. Traditional use of plants by the indigenous peoples of Makalu-Barun region, eastern Nepal. In: Chaudhary RP, Subedi BP, Vetaas OR, Aase TH, editors. Vegetation and society: their interaction in the Himalayas. Kathmandu/Norway: Tribhuvan University/University of Bergen; 2002. p. 83–97. Gaire BP, Subedi L. Medicinal plant diversity and their pharmacological aspects of Nepal Himalayas. Pharm J. 2011;3(25):6–17. Government of Nepal. Knowledge diversity and healing practices of traditional medicine in Nepal. Kathmandu: Nepal Health Research Council; 2016.

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Joshi AR, Joshi K. Piscicidal plants of the Bagmati watershed, Nepal: traditional uses and indigenous practices. Ethnobotany. 2005;17:184–6. Kunwar RM, Nepal BK, Sigdel KP, Balami N. Contribution to the Ethnobotany of Dhading District, Central Nepal. Nepal J Sci Technol. 2006;7:65–9. Kunwar RM, Shrestha K, Bussmann RW. Traditional herbal medicine in Far-west Nepal: a pharmacological appraisal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:35. Kunwar RM, Shrestha K, Malla S, Acharya T, Sementelli A, Kutal D. Relation of medicinal plants, their use patterns and availability in the lower Kailash Sacred Landscape, Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;187. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.6.1-14. Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Sharma LN, Shrestha KP, Kominee H, Ethnobotany. Underutilized plant species in far-West Nepal – a valuable resource being wasted. J Mountain Sci. 2012;9:589–600. Limbu DK, Rai BK. Ethno-medicinal practices among the Limbu community in Limbuwan, eastern Nepal. Glob J Hum Soc Sci Interdiscip. 2013;13:2. Luitel DL, Rokaya MB, Timsina B, Münzbergová Z. Medicinal plants used by the Tamang community in the Makawanpur district of central Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2014;10:5. Malik ZA, Bhat JA, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44. Malla SB, Rajbhandari SB, Shrestha TB, Adhikari PM, Adhikari SR, Shakya PR, editors. Flora of Kathmandu Valley, Bulletin/Nepal, Department of Medicinal Plants, vol. 11. Kathmandu: Nepal Department of Medicinal Plants; 1986. Panthi MP. Indigenous knowledge on use of local fodder trees in mid hills of west Nepal. Tribhuvan University Journal. 2013;XXVIII(1–2):171–80. Polunin O, Stainton A. Flowers of the Himalaya. New Delhi: Oxford University Press; 2012. Sajan SL, Marasini S, Tamang T, Bajracharya GB, Adhikari A, Manandhar MD, Choudhary MI. Abstracts of the Seventh National Conference on Science and Technology, 29–31 Mar 2016. Kathmandu: Nepal Academy of Science and Technology; 2016. Shrestha KK, Bhattarai S, Bhandari P. Handbook of flowering plants of Nepal (Volume 1. Gymnosperms and angiosperms: Cycadaceae-Betulaceae). Jodhpur: Scientific Publishers; 2018. Singh Shrestha S. Floristic study and vegetation analysis of Shivapuri national park, central Nepal. PhD thesis submitted to Central Department of Botany. Kathmandu: Tribhuvan University; 2014. Singh A, Nautiyal MC, Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal plants used by local inhabitants of Jakholi block, Rudraprayag district, western Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13:49. Storrs AAJ. Trees and shrubs of Nepal and the Himalayas. Kathmandu: Pilgrims Book House; 1990. Talwar GP, Dar SA, Rai MK, Reddy KV, Mitra D, Kulkarni SV, Doncel GF, Buck CB, Schiller JT, Muralidhar S, Bala M, Agrawal SS, Bansal K, Verma JK. A novel polyherbal microbicide with inhibitory effect on bacterial, fungal and viral genital pathogens. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2008;32:180. Tangjitman K, Wongsawad C, Kamwong K, Sukko T, Trisonthi C. Ethnomedicinal plants used for digestive system disorders by the Karen of northern Thailand. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2015;11:27. Thokchom AD, Choudhury MD. Determination of phenolics and flavonoids contents of the ethyl acetate and methanol bark and leaves extract of Engelhardtia spicata Lechen ex Blume. Pharm Innov J. 2018;7(7):04–7. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013.

Ephedra gerardiana Wall. ex Stapf EPHEDRACEAE Wahid Hussain, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Ephedra gerardiana Wall. ex Stapf: Ephedra distachya L., Ephedra vulgaris Willk.

W. Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_92

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Local Names Ephedra gerardiana: Pashto, Asmani bootai, ‫ ;ﺱﻭﻡﺍﻥﯼ‬Ladakh, Chapat; Sikkim, Somlata; Gilgit-Baltistan, Soontal; Chitrali, Somani ‫ﺏﻭټﻱ ﺍﺱﻡﺍﻥ‬

Botany and Ecology Ephedra gerardiana: Shrubs small, to 15 cm; woody stems buried in soil, parts above ground scabrous, rarely almost smooth; branchlets directed upward, dark green, later brown, short, stout, usually with 1–3 nodes, internodes 1–1.5(–2) cm  1.5–2 mm, longitudinally furrowed, often scabridulous. Leaves opposite, 2–3 mm, connate for about 2/3 their length. Pollen cones solitary or 2 at nodes, small, 2–5  about 2 mm, sessile; bracts in 3 or 4(–6) pairs; staminal column exserted for about 1/2 its length, with 8 sessile anthers. Seed cones solitary, sessile or shortly pedunculate, subglobose at maturity, 5–7 mm in diam.; bracts in 2 or 3 pairs, connate for 1/4–1/3 their length, the apical pair for about 2/3 their length, red and fleshy at maturity; integument tube short, about 1 mm. Seeds 1 or 2, oblong or obovoid-oblong, 4–6  1.5–3 mm, exserted, apex obtuse or subacuminate. Pollination July, seed maturity August to September (Wu et al. 1994–2013). Over-collected and endangered (Ahmad Jan et al. 2019; Khan et al. 2013) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).

Fig. 1 Ephedra gerardiana (Ephedraceae), Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

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Fig. 2 Ephedra gerardiana (Ephedraceae), Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

Fig. 3 Ephedra gerardiana (Ephedraceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammand Ahmed Jan)

Phytochemistry Alkaloids (pseudoephedrine, ephedrine), flavonoids, tannins, essential oils (cineole), vitamins (C) (Sokolov 1994).

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Fig. 4 Ephedra gerardiana (Ephedraceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammand Ahmed Jan)

Fig. 5 Ephedra gerardiana (Ephedraceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammand Ahmed Jan)

Local Medicinal Uses The infusion of Ephedra sp. is used to treat acute rheumatism, scabies, malaria, ulcers, gastric diseases, altitude sickness, fever, heart diseases, and bronchial asthma (Sokolov 1994). Ephedra gerardiana: Stem decoction is used for burns, eczema, rheumatism, and syphilis, and fruit juice is used for respiratory disorders and asthma/breathing

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problem and as tonic (Bano et al. 2014). Plant is locally used for mouth diseases, stomach pain, sunburn, wounds, cold, cough, and skin problems and as blood purifier and tonic (Kayani et al. 2015). The branches are burned and ash mixed with tobacco to make naswar (a specific type of snuff). It is used for respiratory tract infections especially in the Astore area. The whole plant is boiled in water and the paste applied on bone fractures that are not healing properly. This helps to “de-heal” inappropriately healed bones. An interviewee (old lady) indicated that she was using crushed material boiled and mixed with common salt applied to relieve painful joints (Qureshi et al. 2007). Plant is used for hay fever, cold, asthma, tuberculosis, and bronchitis (Kayani et al. 2014). Powder of the crushed plant and sometime its tea is used for tuberculosis, asthma, and relaxation of bronchial muscles and as astringent (Khan et al. 2013). The extract of branches is locally used for pneumonia and gastric problem (Ahmad et al. 2006). The plant is used to cure asthma, bronchitis, and rheumatism, and tincture is used as cardiac circulatory stimulant (Hamayun 2007). Branches are locally used for backache (Jan et al. 2017). Decoction of the plant is used for gastric problems (Wali et al. 2019a, b). Dried ground stems are taken orally with water to cure diarrhea and all kind of chest problems (Sher et al. 2016). It is used to treat cough, colds, and flu (Wali et al. 2019a, b). It is used to remedy low blood pressure, fever, asthma, cuts, indigestion, and headache (Ballabh and Chaurasia 2007; Tamang et al. 2017). It is also used to treat colds, cough, mouth diseases, urinary problems, sunburn, and stomach pain and as tonic and blood purifier (Kayani et al. 2015), as well as to treat liver ailments (Gairola et al. 2014). Ephedra intermedia: Twigs and roots are used for the treatment of gum and mouth cavity inflammation, toothache, and gynecological diseases such as colpitis and inflammation of the female genital organs. To prepare a cure for stomatitis, 100 g of twigs or roots is boiled for 10 min in 1 l of water and/or milk. The resulting decoction is used to rinse the mouth two times a day, in the morning and the evening after the meal. Fresh twigs are crushed and cooked in a traditional oven, then mashed and mixed with milk, and applied on the gums against stomatitis and periodontitis. A bath using the decoction is taken against gynecological diseases (colpitis) (Akobirshoeva 2009, 2012; Akobirshoeva and Kuznetsova 2013; Akobirshoeva and Dalmamatov 2015; Ali and Akabirshoeva 2015). Locals believe that Ephedra has a detoxifying effect and uses it for disinfection (fumigation) of rooms (Hojimatov 1989). It is also used for bronchial asthma and hypertension. For that purpose, an infusion of dried twigs is used three times a day (Haidarov 1988). Ephedra americana: Often sold as falsification of “Cola de caballo” (Equisetum sp.). Leaves and branches are used to treat liver problems, uterus, cysts in the uterus, kidney and urinary tract infection, prostate, high pressure and varices (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). It is used as an anti-syphilitic and to treat over-birth (sic). The whole plant, fresh or dried, is used to treat bruises, fractures, broken bones, and external injuries. Ephedra can be found in local markets. It has antibacterial properties. It is often used as admixture with other plants (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). Ephedra breana: It is a remedy for ovaries, kidneys, colds, anemia, and stomach pain, as a purgative, and against urinary problems (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020).

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Ephedra multiflora: It is a remedy for the kidneys, cooling and for the “bad air” (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). Ephedra rupestris: Liver, stomachache, childbed, abortive, uterus prolapse, menstrual pain, “regla blanca,” kidney infection, purgative, diuretic, prostate. Often sold as falsification of “Cola de caballo” (Equisetum sp.) (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020).

Local Food Uses Ephedra americana: Ecuador, The fruit is edible (unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura, Pichincha) (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). Ephedra multiflora: The fruits are edible (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Ephedra is used as a source of fuel. Ash, made from the green stems, is used in the preparation of snuff. Although the plant is considered poisonous by some herdsmen, it is grazed by sheep and goats (Vanselow 2011). Ephedra gerardiana: Sometimes smoked (Wali et al. 2019a, b). Ephedra americana: Used as fodder for goats (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). Ephedra breana: It serves as firewood and the tender bud is eaten by animals. The fleshy fruit is also consumed by goats and birds (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). Ephedra multiflora: The stem bites to firm the teeth when they are distempered (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020).

References Ahmad Jan H, Jan S, Bussmann RW, Wali S, Sist F, Ahmad L. Complementary and alternative medicine research, prospects and limitations in Pakistan: a literature review. Acta Ecol Sin. 2019; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chnaes.2019.12.005. Ahmad S, Ali A, Beg H, Dasti AA. Ethnobotanical studies on some medicinal plants of Booni valley, district Chitral, Pakistan. Pak J Weed Sci Res. 2006;12(3):183–90. Akobirshoeva A. Biodiversity of medicinal plants of Rushan district and peculiarities of their use by native people. News of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tajikistan. Department of Biological and Medical Sciences, 2009 4 (169):58–64. (in Russian). Akobirshoeva A. Medicinal plants of Rushan district. GBAO, Tajikistan; LAP Academikerverlag GmbH & Co. KG, Germany, 105p. (in English). 2012. Akobirshoeva A, Dalmamatov S. Common medicinal plants and how to prepare them. In: Oudenhoven FV, Haider J, editors. With our own hands (a celebration of food and life in the Pamir mountains of Afghanistan and Tajikistan). Utrecht: LM Publishers; 2015. p. 357–60. Akobirshoeva A, Kuznetsova N. Ethnomedicine of Rushan District of Tajikistan (wild-growing herbs of Rushan District). J News Buryat Scient Centre Siberian Dep Russian Acad Sci. 2013;1(13):218–27. Ali A, Akabirshoeva A. Status and potential use of medicinal plants in the Pamir Region of Tajik and Afghan Badakhshan. In: Romeo R, Vita A, Manuelli S, Zanini E, Freppaz M, Stanchi S,

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editors. Understanding mountain soils: a contribution from mountain areas to the international year of soils. Rome: FAO; 2015. p. 128–30. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/3/a-i4704e.pdf. Ballabh B, Chaurasia OP. Traditional medicinal plants of cold desert Ladakh – used in treatment of cold, cough and fever. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;112(2):341–9. Bano A, Ahmad M, Hadda TB, Saboor A, Sultana S, Zafar M, Ashraf MA. Quantitative ethnomedicinal study of plants used in the skardu valley at high altitude of KarakoramHimalayan range, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2014;10(1):43. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Haidarov K. Medicinal plants of Tajikistan. Dushanbe: Irfon Publications; 1988. p. 88. (in Russian) Hamayun M. Traditional uses of some medicinal plants of Swat Valley, Pakistan. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2007;6(4):636–41. Hojimatov M. Wild growing medicinal plants of Tajikistan. Dushanbe. Sovetskaya enciklopedia. 365 p. (in Russian). 1989. Jan HA, Jan S, Ahmad N, Aysha M. Ethno-medicinal survey of indigenous medicinal plants used by the local population of Goleen Valley, Chitral, Pakistan. SM J Med Plant Stud. 2017;1(1):1–8. Kayani S, Ahmad M, Zafar M, Sultana S, Khan MPZ, Ashraf MA, et al. Ethnobotanical uses of medicinal plants for respiratory disorders among the inhabitants of Gallies – Abbottabad, Northern Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;156:47–60. Kayani S, Ahmad M, Sultana S, Khan Shinwari Z, Zafar M, Yaseen G, Hussain M, Bibi T. Ethnobotany of medicinal plants among the communities of Alpine and Sub-alpine regions of Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;164:186–202. Khan SM, Page S, Ahmad H, Shaheen H, Ullah Z, Ahmad M, Harper DM. Medicinal flora and ethnoecological knowledge in the Naran Valley, Western Himalaya, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1):4. Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, Echeverría J. Ephedra americana Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.; Ephedra breana Phil.; Ephedra multiflora Phil. ex Stapf; Ephedra rupestris Benth. In: Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions – ethnobotany of the Andes. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/9783-319-77093-2_109-1. Qureshi RA, Ghufran MA, Sultana KN, Ashraf M, Khan AG. Ethnomedicinal studies of medicinal plants of Gilgit District and surrounding areas. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2007;5:115–22. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni groups in Chitral District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of Russia and adjacent states: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, Families Butomaceae-Typhaceae, vol. 8. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1994. 271 p (in Russian). Vanselow KA (2011) The high-mountain pastures of the Eastern Pamirs (Tajikistan) – An evaluation of the ecological basis and the pasture potential. Doctoral dissertation, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität, Erlangen-Nürnberg, Germany. Tamang M, Pal K, Kumar Rai S, Kalam A, Rehan Ahmad S. Ethnobotanical survey of threatened medicinal plants of West Sikkim. Int J Bot Stud. 2017;2(6):V 116–25. Wali R, Rahman K, Raja NI, Qureshi R, Bussmann RW, Mashwani ZUR. A quantitative medico botanical expedition of Fairy Meadows National Park, Diamir, Gilgit Baltistan, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019a, 1835; https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.35.1-30. Wali S, Jan HA, Bussmann RW. Quantitative ethnomedicinal study of indigenous medicinal plants used for digestive disorders of Laspur Valley, Chitral, Northern Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019b;18:1–18. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. St. Louis: Science Press, Beijing & Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013.

Epilobium angustifolium L. Epilobium latifolium L. ssp. latifolium L. Epilobium leiophyllum Hausskn. Epilobium royleanum Hausskn. ONAGRACEAE Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Synonyms Epilobium angustifolium L.: Chamerion angustifolium (L.) Scop. Epilobium royleanum Hausskn.: Epilobium himalayense Hausskn.; Epilobium lividum Hausskn.; Epilobium roseum var. dalhousieanum C.B. Clarke; Epilobium royleanum var. glabrum P.H. Raven; Epilobium royleanum var. glandulosum P.H. Raven

Local Names Epilobium angustifolium: Tibetan: ŋo tɕo la

H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_93

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Botany and Ecology Epilobium angustifolium: Stout erect perennial, forming large colonies by vigorous growth from a thick rootstock or by sprouting from spreading horizontal roots; stems simple, 30–250 cm, glabrous throughout or densely strigillose above. Leaves narrowly lanceolate or lanceolate, 2.5–20  0.4–3.5 cm, glabrous or sometimes with strigillose hairs on the abaxial midvein, obscurely denticulate, spirally arranged, subsessile or attenuate to short petiolate. Inflorescence a simple elongate lax raceme. Flowers drooping in bud; ovaries densely white canescent, 10–18 mm, on pedicels 7–12 mm long. Sepals 9–13  1.6–2 mm, acute, canescent. Petals 12–15  7–8 mm, entire, deep pink or magenta or rarely white. Styles l0–20 mm long, initially sharply deflexed, becoming erect after anthers dehisce and reflex, longer than stamens. Stigma deeply 4-lobed and recurved, exserted beyond anthers. Capsules 4–7 cm long, on pedicels 0.7–1.5 cm long. Seeds 1–1.3  0.32–0.4 mm, surface irregularly foveolate, the chalazal collar short and inconspicuous; coma 9–12 mm long, white, not markedly deciduous. This exceedingly widespread and variable species is common in the flora region. The pattern of variation in the Himalayan region is not so clearly defined, either geographically or morphologically, and there is no significant number of chromosome counts. It seems best, therefore, to treat this species in the Himalayan region without subspecific rank, at least until more critical studies have been carried out. Flowering July–September, fruiting August– September; distribution: circumboreal, in North America south along the Cordillera to Mexico, throughout Europe to North Africa, and in Asia to Turkey, Iran, Pakistan, and throughout the Himalayas to southern China (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020). Epilobium latifolium: Clumped perennial, forming large colonies by sprouting from woody rootstock; stems simple or moderately branched, glabrescent to dense strigillose, especially on inflorescence, 4–70 cm tall. Leaves elliptic to lanceolateelliptic, 1–4.5(–7.5)  0.5–1.5(–2.5) cm, glabrous or sparse strigillose on upper leaves, especially on veins and margins, entire or sparsely denticulate, spirally arranged, strongly attenuate to shortly petiolate or subsessile. Inflorescence erect, 1–7(–12)-flowered, leafy. Flowers strongly recurved before anthesis, ovaries densely canescent, 12–20 mm, on pedicels 10–18 mm. Sepals 11–16  3–3.8 mm, acute, sparse to moderately pubescent. Petals 13–32  6–23 mm, entire, bright rose-purple to pale pink. Style 3.5–10 mm, sharply deflexed, becoming erect after anthers dehisce, glabrous to quite pubescent around the base. Stigma deeply 4-lobed and recurved, exserted beyond the anthers or sometimes surrounded by them. Capsules 4.5–7.5 cm long, on pedicels 1–1.8 cm long. Seeds 1.3–2.1  0.44–0.58 mm, acuminate, surface irregularly foveolate, the chalazal collar quite conspicuous, 0.1–0.16 mm long; coma 9–12 mm long, white, not markedly deciduous. Type from Kamtchatka (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020). Epilobium leiophyllum: Delicate low-growing perennial herb, forming clumps by vigorous soboliferous growth; stems 5–12 cm tall, branched from the base, subglabrous or sparsely strigillose, with indistinct lines decurrent from the margins of the petioles. Leaves elliptic to subovate, 1–2.2  0.5–1 cm, subglabrous with scattered hairs on the margins, indistinct serrulate, rounded at both ends, subsessile.

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Inflorescence suberect, glabrescent, or sparsely strigillose. Ovaries 1.2–1.8 cm long, moderate strigillose and glandular pubescent. Sepals 2.8–3.3  0.9–1.2 mm. Petals 3–4.5 mm long, purplish-rose. Style 1.2–1.9 mm long. Stigma clavate, surrounded by anthers at anthesis. Capsules 3–4.5 cm long, on pedicels 0.4–1.2 cm long. Seeds 0.9–1.1  0.36–0.4 mm, obovoid, barely papillose, inconspicuous chalazal collar; comas 4–5 mm long, white, deciduous. Western Himalaya from Chitral to Baltistan and Ladak. More collections of the small alpine plants of Himalayan region are needed before any definitive treatment of these plants will be possible. Flowering July–September, fruiting July–September(–October) (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020). Epilobium royleanum: Ascending or erect perennial herb, forming fleshy soboles basally, which leave brown scales at base of larger plants; stems 6–65 cm tall, simple or well-branched above, covered all around with dense strigillose hairs, rarely with glandular hairs, or rarely subglabrous. Leaves lanceolate to ovate, 2–7.5  1–3.3 cm, not much reduced in size on the inflorescence, dense strigillose, especially on upper leaves and on margins and veins, dense serrulate, subcoriaceous, acute to subacuminate apex, .with distinct petiole 2–8 mm long. Inflorescence suberect. Ovaries dense strigillose, sometimes mixed with glandular hairs, 2–3 cm long, on pedicels 0.2–0.5 cm long. Sepals 3.5–4.5  1.2–1.8 mm, dense pubescent. Petals 4–6.5 mm long, rose-purple or pale pink. Style 3–4 mm long. Stigma capitate, surrounded by anthers at anthesis. Capsules 4–6.5 cm long, pedicels 0.4–0.8 cm long. Seeds 0.7– 1.2  0.32–0.46 mm, obovoid, papillose, with inconspicuous chalazal collars; coma 4.5–6 mm long, dull white, detaching easily. North-eastern Afghanistan (Nuristan) throughout the Himalaya to Yunan, China; rare in the east. The most distinctive feature of E. royleanum, which sets it apart from all other species in the region, is the pattern of vestiture, with the stems being covered with strigillose hairs all around, and lacking the raised lines from the margins of the petioles. Flowering July– September, fruiting July–October (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020).

Local Medicinal Uses Epilobium angustifolium: The plant is used for headache, hypertension, and kidney disease (Sõukand et al. 2017). It is also used for abdominal pain, intestinal complaints, renal complaints, astringent, hepatic diseases, intestinal diseases, renal diseases, and stomachache (Gairola et al. 2014). The plant is locally used for skin diseases, in cattle for milk production, and as tonic (Khan et al. 2018). Other species are used for similar applications.

Local Food Uses Epilobium angustifolium: The plant is used as recreational tea and vitamin supplement (Sõukand et al. 2017). It is also used as famine food in Tibet (Kang et al. 2016).

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References Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan and Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995–2020. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–986. Kang J, Kang J, Ji X, Guo Q, Jacques G, Pietras M, Łuczaj N, Li D, Łuczaj Ł. Wild food plants and fungi used in the mycophilous Tibetan community of Zhagana (Tewo County, Gansu, China). J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:21. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0094-y. Khan KU, Shah M, Ahmad H, Khan SM, Rahman IU, Iqbal Z, Aldubise A. Exploration and local utilization of medicinal vegetation naturally grown in the Deusai plateau of Gilgit, Pakistan. Saudi J Biol Sci. 2018;25(2):326–31. Sõukand R, Hrynevich Y, Vasilyeva I, Prakofjewa J, Vnukovich Y, Paciupa J, Hlushko A, Knureva Y, Litvinava Y, Vyskvarka S, Silivonchyk H, Paulava A, Kõiva M, Kalle R. Multifunctionality of the few: current and past uses of wild plants for food and healing in Liubań region, Belarus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13:10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0139-x.

Equisetum diffusum D. Don Equisetum ramosissimum Desf. EQUISETACEAE Hira Shova Shrestha, Ripu M. Kunwar, Maroof Ali Turi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Equisetum diffusum D. Don: Equisetum diffusum var. paucidentatum C.N. Page, Equisetum mekongense C.N. Page Equisetum ramosissimum Desf.: Equisetum ramosissimum Desf. subsp. debile (Roxb. ex Vaucher) Hauke, Equisetum debile Roxb. ex Vaucher, Equisetum ramosissimum Desf. subsp. incanum (Vaucher) Pinatti, Equisetum x wallichianum C.N. page, Hippochaete debilis (Roxb. ex Vaucher) Holub, Hippochaete ramosissima (Desf.) Börner subsp. debilis (Roxb. ex Vaaucher) A. Löve & D. Löve H. S. Shrestha (*) Department of Science, Sanothimi Campus, Bhaktapur, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] M. A. Turi College of Life Science, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu, China R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_94

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Local Names Equisetum diffusum: Chinese: Tu mu zei; India: Athi sina, Badjuri, Harjor, Harjora, Kurkure jhar, Nikshu ninmat, asali-bisali, norahna, salli; Indonesia: Bibitungan, Iorogan haji, Petungan, Rumput betung, Sempol, Sendep-sendep, Sodlisoan, Tataroponagn, Tepung balung, Tikel balung, Tropongan; Japanese: Inu-dokusa; Nepali: Anakhle jhar, Ankhachiukan, Ankhli, Biru tapo tabo, Chhuche, Had Jorni, Ibang, Kurkure, Kurkure Ghas, Lahar jokka, Mudhu chhi, Nimran, Onsai, Purpure, Purpure simdhungri, Talche jhar, Simdhunri, Yo phuli; English: branched horsetail. Equisetum ramosissimum: Naga: Avpenba; Northern India: Naljora

Botany and Ecology Equisetum diffusum: Plants small- to medium-sized. Rhizome creeping, erect, or ascending, blackish brown, nodes and roots with dense long yellowish-brown trichomes or glabrous. Aerial stems annual, monomorphic, 10–30(
70) cm tall, 1– 2 mm in diam. at middle, much branched; internodes 1.5–6 cm, green but those of lower 1–3 nodes blackish brown, not lustrous. Main stem 4–10-ridged; each side of ridge raised and forming edges reaching lower sheath teeth; each edge with a row of tubercles reaching sheath teeth; sheath tubes long, narrow, grayish green in lower portion, blackish brown in upper portion, with a deep groove going through back of sheath; sheath teeth 5–10, blackish brown, lanceolate, leathery, caudate at apex, persistent. Lateral branches slender, rigid, terete, 4–8-ridged; each side of ridge with edges and tubercles; sheath teeth 4–6, grayish green, deltoid, leathery, persistent. Strobilus terete, 1–9 cm, 4–8 mm in diam., apex blunt; stalk prolonged when mature and 1–3 cm (Shrestha 2017, Wu et al. 1994–2013; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5). Equisetum ramosissimum: Plants vigorous large with vertical habit, terrestrial often on wetland and in riparian zones of rivers. Perennial, evergreen herb. Rhizome erect, creeping or ascending, black at base while blackish brown at upper side near stem, branched, having node and internodes, nodes densely covered with roots having unicellular brown trichomes; internodes distances at 0.9–1.9 cm. Stem monomorphic, aerial erect, cylindrical, perennial, 1.5–4 m tall, 0.4–1.4 cm diameter having lateral branches or rarely spirally arranged lateral branches 20.8–31.6 cm  0.5– 1 mm, jointed, no. of node ranges from 26 to 34, solid, sterile, while internode at a distance of 2.6–8.4 cm; node having 15–26 ridged with tiny scale like leaves and sheath, fistular, having longitudinal ridges and grooves with shallow depression, sheath teeth lanceolate, 5–10 in number, deltoid, margin membranous, 3– 5 mm  0.5–1 mm, united at base along with 4–5 ridges on it, transparent while acute blackish apex, 15–26, small. Homosporous; sporangia grouped in strobili. Sporangia short-stalked (2 mm  0.5 mm), solitary in axil of sporophylls, opening in distal slit; microsporangia at the apex while megasporangia at the base. Strobilus ovate of cone shaped, 1 cm  (0.4–0.8 cm) with sporangiophore 0.2 cm  2 mm, blackish brown, apex with small black acute apex. The cone withers by late summer

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Fig. 1 Equisetum arvense ssp. diffusum (Equisetaceae), Nepal. (Photo Hira S Shrestha)

after the spores have been dispersed (Shrestha 2017). Nepal at mid- to upper mid-altitudes (1300–1800 m), Heilongjiang, Central America, and North America. The plants often grow on wetland and riparian zones. Plant height 1 m or more than 1 m, having unicellular brown trichome; node with sheath teeth persist on maturity (Figs. 6 and 7).

Phytochemistry Sterile stem contains silicic acid and silicates, potassium, calcium, aluminum, sulfur, magnesium, and manganese (Sandhu et al. 2010). Styrylpyrones accumulate in rhizomes of sporophytes and gametophytes of E. arvense subsp. diffusium as major constitutive metabolites. Styrylpyrone accumulation is only response to mechanical wounding or microbial attack. Rhizomes also contain 30 -deoxyequisetumpyrone(34-hydroxy-6-(40 -hydroxy-D-styryl)-2-pyrone-3-O-Dglucopyranoside) and 40 -omethylequisetumpyrone (3,4-hydroxy-6-(30 -hydroxy4’methoxy-Estyryl)-2-pyrone-3-O-D-glucopyranoside) (Beckert et al. 1997). Vegetative stems contain equisetumpyrone. Various flavonoids that are present are kaempferol 3-O-sophoroside-7-O-glucoside and kaempferol 3-O-(6”-O malonylglucoside)-7-O-glucoside. Kaempferol 3-O-sophoroside, quercetin-3O-glucoside, apigenin, apigenin 5-O-glucoside, luteolin, luteolin 5-O-glucoside,

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Fig. 2 Equisetum arvense ssp. diffusum (Equisetaceae), Nepal. (Photo Hira S Shrestha)

genkwanin 5-O-glucoside, and isoquercitrin. Sterile stems also contain triterpenoids such as isobauerenol, taraxerol, germanicol, ursolic acid, oleanolic acid, and betulinic acid. Fertile sprouts of E. arvense contain phenolic glycosides such as equisetumoside A, equisetumoside B, and equisetumoside C. Phenolic petrosins like onitin and onitin9-O-glucoside are isolated from this plant. Some of the European species contain quercetin-3-O-sophoroside, genkwanin 40 -O-β-D-glucopyranoside, and protogenkwanin 40 -O-β-D-glucopyranoside. Di-E-caffeoyl-meso-tartaric acid has been isolated from the methanolic extract of the barren sprouts of E. arvense as the main hydroxycinnamic acid derivative. Alkaloids such as nicotine, palustrine, and palustrinine have also been reported from this plant. Sterile stems are also rich in phytosterols such as cholesterol, epicholestanol, 24-methylenecholesterol, isofucosterol, campesterol, and β-sitosterol. As an antioxidant and free radical scavenger: water and ethanolic extract of top (strobilus) and body portions of E. arvense shows antioxidant activity. Carbohydrate, terpenoids, phenols, tannins, saponin, anthraquinones, glycosides, protein, saponin, phlobatannins, antioxidant, and reducing activity (Subba and Rai 2018). Flavonoids (equisetrine, luteolin, and glycosides of luteolin, quercetin, kaempferol), saponins (equisetonin), alkaloids (equisetin, nicotine), resins, organic acids (malic, aconitic, oxalic), silicic acid, vitamins (C, carotene), and tannins (Sokolov 1994).

Equisetum diffusum D. Don. . . Fig. 3 Equisetum sp. (Equisetaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Equisetum arvense (Equisetaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 5 Equisetum sp. (Equisetaceae), Kazbegi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana) Fig. 6 Equisetum ramosissimum (Equisetaceae), Nepal. (Photo Hira S Shrestha)

Local Medicinal Uses Equisetum arvense subsp. diffusium is reported to be useful in the treatment of osteoporosis because of its high silica content. The hydro-methanolic extract of E. arvense has been shown to reduce human osteoclast development and function,

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Fig. 7 Equisetum telmateja (Equisetaceae), Nepal. (Photo Maroof Ali Turi)

both in osteoclast precursor cell cultures and in co-cultures of osteoclastic and osteoblastic cells (Badole and Kotwal 2015). Hydro-methanolic extract of E. arvense subsp. diffusium promoted osteoblastic response while preventing the risk of infection at the biomaterial/bone interface of the local delivery system (Badole and Kotwal 2014). Because of its anti-inflammatory action, it is used for arthritis, chilblains, cystitis, gout, inflammation of the lower urinary tract, renal gravel, etc. It is also used for benign enlargement of the prostate gland. The tea made from horsetail is used as a gargle for mouth and gum inflammation. Whole plant decoction is drunk for dysentery; plant paste is used to treat liver problems, dislocated bone, warts, and chest complaints; stem juice is drunk by people who lose appetite. Root juice for indigestion and urinary troubles; root decoction is drunk for the treatment of madness, psychosis, and hysteria; root paste is applied to set the dislocated bones; root of E. arvense subsp. diffusium mixed with the root of Potentilla kleiniana is squeezed and the liquid given to relative fever. Dried leaf powder mixed with water is used as mosquito or insect repellent. The species is used in magico-ritual beliefs, rituals, ceremonial, spiritual, emotionally used to worship. Stems and shoot paste are locally used for broken limbs, fracture, and dislocation of bones. Whole plant is pounded with Sida cordata and paste applied on site of bone dislocation or fracture; plant juice is given for bone fracture. Root is antipyretic and anti-inflammatory and used for rheumatism, arthritis, joint pain, kidney stones, dysentery, and urinary disorders; root juice is given to treat malaria and fevers and to increase lactation. Expression of genes involved mRNA translation, dru transport, metabolism of energy reserve, phospholipid metabolism, and cellular stress response (Cook et al. 2013).

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In Nepal, Equisetum has been of various uses ranging from scabies, cuts, wounds, and bone problems to urinary complaints to gonorrhea and leucorrhea. The plant paste and roots are applied to the wound once a day for 1 week to cure the joint wounds (Rana et al. 2015; Subedi 2017). Root and stem pieces are mixed with algae and Rumex acetosella roots and grunt then wrapped in cotton and hang around child’s neck during fever (Budha-Magar et al. 2020). It is used as diuretic, antiinflammatory, astringent, hemostatic, and disinfectant and to increase metabolism and treat skin wounds, kidney and bladder diseases, edema, rheumatism, and stomach and intestinal tumors (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018; Bussmann et al. 2020). It is also used as antiseptic and depurative (Cakilcioglu et al. 2011) and to break up kidney stones (Abbas et al. 2019; Jan et al. 2017). Equisetum debile: Root or whole plant is used for gonorrhea (Kunwar and Duwadee 2003), burns, scabies, leucorrhea (Thapa 2012), and balancing hotness and coldness in the body (Acharya 2012). Equisetum diffusum: Stem and plant paste for fractures, sprains, urinary troubles (Parajuli 2013), gonorrhea (Kunwar et al. 2010, 2015), dislocated bones (Manandhar 1985). Equisetum ramosissimum: Plant is mixed with Dryopteris cordata for bone fractures (Purkayastha et al. 2005; Rai 2004) and rheumatism (Tetik et al. 2013) and also to remedy kidney problems (Kichu et al. 2015). Equisetum hyemale: Applied for kidney problems and skin and mouth dryness (Wali et al. 2019). Equisetum bogotense: Leaves and branches used to treat stomachache, foot pain, fractures, “Makurka,” childbed infections, postpartum washing, abortive, and kidney infection. In Bolivia the species is frequently confused with Ephedra americana, which is sold in markets under the same vernacular name, potentially leading to toxicity of patients. The infusion of the plant is used as a diuretic, healing, antiinflammatory, and anti-hemorrhagic; also to wash wounds, nose, and mouth; for vaginal and intestinal hemorrhages; and against fever. It is used in the treatment of dysentery and to prevent hair loss. Horsetail is also used to stop uterine bleeding, for problems of the ovaries, in periodontitis, and as an antiseptic of the urinary tract. It is used externally to cure skin problems. The stems are also used to heal bleeding, for dysentery, and to prevent hair loss. Prepared in infusion and consuming them, they are used as a diuretic and anti-inflammatory and for the treatment of pulmonary diseases. The whole plant is used to treat varicose veins, vaginal infections, urinary infection, throat inflammation, sweating, indigestion, hemorrhage, dysentery, cystitis, sores, rickets, muscular pain, lung diseases, liver problems, laryngitis, kidney infection, inflammation, wound, flu, arteriosclerosis, and alopecia and as an analgesic, diuretic, and circulatory stimulant; stems are used for blood cleansing and diarrhea; leaves are used to treat halitosis. The whole fresh plant is used to treat kidneys and for washing of wounds. The spores are used to calm pain. A rhizome infusion is taken to relieve kidney pain. The infusion of the plant is used to treat liver and kidney conditions. The infusion of the plant, mixed with watercress and a tablet of Andrews Salts, is taken to soothe kidney pain. It is used to treat headaches, stomach and back pain, high blood pressure, excessive menstruation, nosebleeds,

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and inflammations. The plant treats indeterminate conditions. It is used to purify the blood. Dried stems are used to treat inflammation of the kidneys, wounds (cleansing), stomachache, urinary tract infection, kidneys, kidney stones, and inflammations (general). It is also used for internal inflammations, infections, stomach inflammation, intestinal infection, vaginal infection, ovary inflammation, puerperal care, and vaginal washings or cataplasms. Horsetail is one of the most commonly collected and sold plants in Northern Peru. Antibacterial activity has been confirmed. Often the species forms part of emolientes (warm beverages used for breakfast) (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). Equisetum giganteum. Stems and leaves are used to treat liver, rheumatism, varicose veins, blood cleansing, high pressure, white vaginal discharge, waist pain, uterus, kidney infection, prostate and as diuretic and purgative, also for diarrhea, liver and stomach problems. It is used as diuretic, for kidney disorders, as digestive, as antianemic, for gastrointestinal problems, as anti-inflammatory agent, for treating urinary tract infections, as an astringent, as an antifungal, and for impotence and sterility. In Colombia, it has the same properties and medicinal uses mentioned for E. bogotense. In general, this plant is used as a diuretic and anti-inflammatory. The root has healing, anti-inflammatory, and anti-hemorrhagic properties, as well as diuretic and digestion-promoting. Externally it is used in the form of infusions and decoctions for the washing of wounds and sores. The decoction of the stem and the fresh leaves powdered or macerated in wine is consumed to treat gastrointestinal and genitourinary affections. Stems and leaves are used to treat alopecia, dysentery, hemorrhage, and lung diseases and as diuretic. It is used to treat pimples and liver, kidney, and urinary system conditions. Mixed with Plantago sp., a species of Malvaceae and Amaranthus sp. is used to treat headache and liver, blood, and kidney conditions. The infusion of the stem and leaves is diuretic. Together with Lasiocephalus ovatus, Plantago major, Myrcianthes hallii, Alternanthera lanceolata, and two unidentified species, it treats liver conditions. A bath with the infusion of the plant serves to relieve irritated areas and also as a purgative and disinfectant (unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha). It is used as an emmenagogue and for the treatment of people who expectorate blood, dropsy, hemorrhages, cystic ulcerations, and lung and kidney conditions. The ashes of the plant and the rhizome are used as astringent and diuretics, to calm heartburn and other digestive conditions. The infusion is applied to wash wounds and to treat inflammations in the mouth and gums, excoriation, and other skin conditions. It is used to stabilize the tissue that is healing, due to its content of silica acid. The infusion is useful for treating kidney diseases. The plant treats indeterminate conditions. The plant is used to treat chronic cough. The leaves are used to clean the blood. Grass is used by sorcerers. Dried stems are used to treat inflammation of the kidneys, wounds (cleansing), stomachache, urinary tract infection, kidney stones, and other inflammations (general). It is also used for internal inflammations, infections, stomach inflammation, intestinal infection, vaginal infection, ovary inflammation, puerperal care, and vaginal washings or cataplasms. Horsetail is one of the most commonly collected and sold plants in Northern Peru. Antibacterial activity has been confirmed. Often the species forms part of emolientes (warm beverages used for breakfast) (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020).

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Local Food Uses Equisetum giganteum: Peeled rhizome is edible (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Equisetum hyemale is sometimes used as forage (Wali et al. 2019). Equisetum ramosissimum is used as fodder (Kargıoğlu et al. 2010).

References Abbas Z, Alam J, Muhammad S, Bussmann RW, Mulk Khan S, Hussain M. Phyto-cultural diversity of the Shigar valley Central Karakorum Baltistan, Northern Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18(32) https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.31.1-18. Acharya R. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of Resunga Hill used by Magar community of Badagaun VDC, Gulmi district, Nepal. Sci World. 2012;10(10):54–65. Badole S, Kotwal S. Equisetum arvense: ethnopharmacological and phytochemical review with reference to osteoporosis. Int J Pharm Sci Health Care. 2014;1:131–41. Badole S, Kotwal S. Biochemical, hematological and histological changes in response to graded dose of extract of Equisetum arvense in adult female wistar rats. Int J Pharm Sci Res. 2015;6(8):3321. Beckert C, Horn C, Schnitzler JP, Lehning A, Heller W, Veit M. Styrylpyrone biosynthesis in Equisetum arvense. Phytochemistry. 1997;44(2):275–83. Budha-Magar S, Bhandari P, Ghimire SK. Ethno-medicinal survey of plants used by Magar (Kham) community, Rolpa district, Western Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2020;19:1–29. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z. Equisetum arvense L.; Equisetum telmateia Ehrh. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions Central Asia and Altai: Springer International Publishing International Publishing; 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77087-1_54-1. Cakilcioglu U, Khatun S, Turkoglu I, Hayta S. Ethnopharmacological survey of medicinal plants in Maden (Elazig-Turkey). J Ethnopharmacol. 2011;137:469–86. Cook R, Hennell JR, Lee S, Khoo CS, Carles MC, Higgins VJ, Govindaraghavan S, Sucher NJ. The Saccharomyces cerevisiae transcriptome as a mirror of phytochemical variation in complex extracts of Equisetum arvense from America, China, Europe and India. BMC Genomics. 2013;14(1):445. Jan HA, Wali S, Ahmad L, Jana S, Ahmad N, Ullah N. 2017. Ethnomedicinal survey of medicinal plants of Chinglai valley, Buner district, Pakistan. European Journal of Integrative Medicine 13 64–74 Kargıoğlu M, Cenkci S, Serteser A, Konuk M, Vural G. Traditional uses of wild plants in the middle Aegean region of Turkey. Hum Ecol. 2010;38:429–50. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10745-0109318-2. Kichu A, Malewska T, Akter K, Imchen I, Harrington D, Kohen J, Vemulpad SR, Jamie JF. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of Chungtia village, Nagaland, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;166:5–17. Kunwar RM, Duwadee NPS. Ethnobotanical notes on flora of Khaptad National Park (KNP), farwestern, Nepal. Himal J Sci. 2003;1(1):25–30. Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Bussmann RW. Traditional herbal medicine in Far-west Nepal: a pharmacological appraisal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:35.

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Kunwar R, Acharya RP, Chaodhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plant dynamics in indigenous medicines in farwest Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;163:210–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep. 2015.01.035. [Internet]. Elsevier, PMID: 25655999. Manandhar NP. Ethnobotanical notes on certain medicinal plants used by Tharus of Dang-Deokhuri District, Nepal. Int J Crude Drug Res. 1985;23(4):153–9. Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, Romero C. Equisetum bogotense Kunth; Equisetum giganteum L. In: Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions – ethnobotany of the Andes. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020. https://doi. org/10.1007/978-3-319-77093-2_110-1. Parajuli R. Indigenous knowledge on medicinal plants: Maipokhari, Maimajhuwa and Mabu VDCs of Ilam district, eastern Nepal. J Dept Plant Resour. 2013;35(2013):50–8. Purkayastha J, Nath SC, Islam B. Ethnobotany of medicinal plants from Dibru-Saikhowa biosphere Reserve of Northeast India. Fitoterapia. 2005;76:121–7. Rai SK. Medicinal plants used by Meche people of Jhapa district, eastern Nepal. Our Nat. 2004;2:27–32. Rana SK, Oli PS, Rana HK. Traditional botanical knowledge (TBK) on the use of medicinal plants in Sikles area, Nepal. Asian J Plant Sci Res. 2015;5(11):8–15. Sandhu NS, Kaur S, Chopra D. Equisetum arvense: pharmacology and phytochemistry – a review. Asian J Pharm Clin Res. 2010;3(3):146–50. Shrestha HS. Floristic study of fern and fern allies in altitudinal gradient from Besisahar to Lower Manang, Central Nepal. MSc thesis submitted to Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Nepal; 2017. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of Russia and adjacent states: Flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 8. Families Butomaceae – Typhaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1994, 271 p. (in Russian). Subba AR, Rai SK. Phytochemical screening, physico-chemical analysis and antioxidant activity of some ethnomedicinal plants from Sikkim Himalaya. Indian J Nat Prod Resour. 2018. Subedi R. Ethnobotanical study of panchase protected forest, Kaski District, Central Nepal. Thesis, Tibhuvan University, Central Department of Botany; 2017. Tetik F, Civelek S, Cakilcioglu U. Traditional uses of some medicinal plants in Malatya (Turkey). J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;146:331–46. Thapa S. Medico-ethnobotany of Magar community in Salija VDC of Parbat district, central Nepal. Our Nat. 2012;10(1):176–90. Ur-Rahman I, Afsal A, Iqbal Z, Ijas F, Ali N, Asif M, Alam J, Majid A, Bussmann RW. Traditional and ethnomedicinal dermatology practices in Pakistan. Clin Dermatol. 2018;363:310–9. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.clindermatol.2018.03.018. Wali R, Rahman K, Raja NI, Qureshi R, Bussmann RW, Mashwani ZUR. A quantitative medico botanical expedition of Fairy Meadows National Park, Diamir, Gilgit Baltistan, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18(35) https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.35.1-30. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013.

Erigeron alpinus L. ASTERACEAE Hassan Sher, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Local Names Erigeron bonariensis: Jammu: Shesherda Erigeron canadensis: Kashmir: Shallut, Zarkash; Jammu: Jari Erigeron multicaulis: Ladakh: Rayhanda Erigeron poncinsii: Ladakh: Luchehugba, Lukchung

Botany and Ecology Erigeron alpinus: Perennial herb to 25(–35) cm high; stems green to purplish, striate, densely white-pubescent. Achenes 1–2 mm long; pappus with setae 3–6 mm long. Capitula 7–13 mm long, 1–3(–10) in lax corymbs; peduncle in H. Sher (*) Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal R. W. Bussmann Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_95

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Kenyan material up to 3 cm long, elsewhere much longer, densely pubescent; phyllaries green, distally lilac to purple, 35–80, linear-lanceolate, 5–9 mm long, 1– 1.3 mm wide, acute, pubescent. Florets trimorphic; ray florets 60–150, pale purple, the tube 2.5 mm long, the rays 3.5–6 mm long, 0.5–1.2 mm wide, style about 5.2 mm long; disc florets many, yellow, the outer female and filiform, 5.5–7.5 mm long with styles 3–4 mm long, the inner hermaphrodite with a tube of 4.5–4.8 mm long and lobes 0.25–0.4 mm long, anthers 1.2–1.5 mm long, style 5–5.5 mm long. Leaves rosulate and cauline; proximal leaves petiolate (sessile in Kenyan material), the midrib and apex purple-brown, linear to narrowly spatulate, 1–12 cm long, 0.3– 1.2 cm wide, obtuse to acute, ciliate and with dense crispate hairs on both surfaces, but occasionally the oldest leaves glabrescent; cauline leaves up to 11(–16), lanceolate (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6).

Local Medicinal Uses Erigeron alpinus: The plant is used for cough, cooling effect, fever, internal injuries, stomach gases, styptic, astringent, bronchial catarrh, cystitis, diarrhea, diuretic, dysentery, haemostatic, scabies, and as stimulant. Erigeron bonariensis: It is used as decongestant (Kala 2005) and also to treat heartburn (Gairola et al. 2014). Erigeron canadensis: The plant is used for cough, cooling effect, fever, internal injuries, stomach gases, styptic, astringent, bronchial catarrh, cystitis, diarrhea, diuretic, dysentery, haemostatic, scabies, and as stimulant (Gairola et al. 2014). Erigeron multicaulis: It is used as brain tonic, and for renal pain and stomach pain (Gairola et al. 2014). Erigeron poncinsii: It is used as anthelmintic and for wound treatment (Gairola et al. 2014).

Erigeron alpinus L. Fig. 1 Erigeron alpinus (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Erigeron alpinus (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 4 Erigeron alpinus (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Erigeron alpinus L. Fig. 5 Erigeron alpinus (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 6 Erigeron alpinus (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

References Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Kala CP. Indigenous use, population density, and conservation of threatened medicinal plants in protected areas of the Indian Himalayas. Conserv Biol. 2005;19(2):368–78.

Erythrina arborescens Roxb. FABACEAE Krishna Ram Bhattarai, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Erythrina arborescens Roxb.: Ciorallodendron arborescens (Roxb.) Kuntze

Local Names Erythrina arborescens: Bhutan: Chhasey, Chassee, Roringa, Khelmazhosha; Chinese: Ying ge hua (鹦哥花); Indian: Mandero, Dieng song, Dahuldhak; Nepali: Phaledo, Theki kath; English: Indian coral tree, Himalayan coral tree, Mochi tree, Flame tree K. R. Bhattarai Department of Plant Resources, Thapathali, Kathmandu, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_96

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Botany and Ecology Erythrina arborescens: Trees. Trunk and branches with prickles. Stipules small; petiole longer than leaflets, without or with a few prickles; terminal leaflet reniform, 8–20(–25) cm, both surfaces glabrous, base truncate or almost cordate, margin entire, apex acute; lateral leaflets obliquely broadly cordate. Raceme solitary in axil of terminal leaf, erect, longer than leaves. Flowers in clusters of 3, red, pendulous; bract 1, ovate. Calyx turbinate, truncate or unequally 2-lobed. Corolla red; standard subovate, boat-shaped, about 3.2 cm; wings obliquely ovate, shorter than keels; keels ca. 1/2 as long as stamens. Filament slightly shorter than standard, connate near base. Ovary long stipitate; style as long as stamens. Legume curved, 12–19
2–3 cm, with obvious beak and stipe. Seeds 5–10, white or brown, reniform, about 2 cm. Flowering July–September, fruiting August–February (Polunin and Stainton 1984; Wu et al. 1994–2013). The species is deciduous, broad leaved, not threatened (NE), native from the Indian subcontinent to SC China. It is naturally distributed in Assam, Bangladesh, Bhutan, South-Central China, East Himalaya, Hainan, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Thailand, Tibet, West Himalaya from 1300 to 3000 m (Grierson and Long 1987; Shrestha 1999; Figs. 1 and 2).

Phytochemistry Erythrina arborescens is a prominent source of secondary metabolites particularly alkaloids and flavonoids. Many phytochemical compounds such as alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, pterocarpans, triterpenes, lectins, and steroids have been isolated from seeds, pods, flowers, leaves, stem, bark, and roots of Erythrina (Hussain et al. 2016; Osman and Konozy 2017). Twenty-five alkaloids including 8 undescribed Fig. 1 Erythrina arborescens (Fabaceae), agricultural farm from mid-hills of east Nepal. (Photo K.R. Bhattarai)

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Fig. 2 Erythrina arborescens (Fabaceae), inflorescence, Nepal. (Photo K.R. Bhattarai)

ones were obtained from the flowers of E. arborescens (Wu et al. 2017) and 37 alkaloids including 7 undescribed ones were obtained from its leaves (Zhang et al. 2019). The alkaloids such as erysodine, 8-oxo-11β-methoxyerysodine, erysotrine, 10,11-dioxoerysotrine, 11-hydroxyerysotrine, 10-hydroxy-11oxoerysotrine, 11β-methoxyerysotrine, erysovine, erythraline, oxoerythraline, erythraline N-oxide, 10-oxoerythraline, 8-oxo-erythraline, 10-oxo-erythraline-11O-β-D-glucose, 11-methoxyerythraline, 10,11-dioxoerythraline, 8-oxo-11β-methoxyerythraline, erythrinine, 8-oxo-erythrinine, erythrinine N-oxide, erymelanthine, β-erythroidine, erytharbine, erysotramidine, 11β hydroxyerysotramidine, crystamidine, norreticuline, erybidine, erysothrine, turcomanidine, cristanine A, isoboldine, erythrivarine B, erythriarborine B, 11β-hydroxyerythratidine, erythratine, erythrartine N-oxide, erythrartine-11-O-β-D-glucose, erytharborine A, erytharborine B, erythratine, erythratidinone, and erysovine were reported from E. arborescens (Wu et al. 2017; Zhang et al. 2019; Hussain 2020). Bhattacharyya et al. (1981) reported D-galactose-binding lectins protein from seeds of E. arborescens. Many flavonoids have been derived from Erythrina such as flavanones, chalcones, cinnamoylphenols, stilbenoids, isoflavones, isovlavans, isoflavanones, pterocarpans, isoflav-3-enes, 3-phenoxychromones, coumastans, 3-phenyl-coumarins, lignans, cinnamate esters, simple phenolics, triterpenes, sesquiterpenes, longchain carboxylic acids, and long-chain alcohols (Fahmy et al. 2018). A number of pterocarpans – Erybraedin A, 2-(50 -Hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-6-hydroxy-5metho-xybenzofuran, Isoneorautenol, Erymelanthine, Erypoegin F, Erypoegin H, Erypoegin I, Erypoegin J, Cristacaprin, Dimethylmedicaprin, Eryvarin D, Folitenol, Erystagallin C, Eryvarin A, Erystagallin A, Erycristagallin, 1-Methoxyerythrabissin, Erythrabissin-I, Erythrabissin-II, Erybraedin B, Hydroxycristacarpone, Phaseollin, Eryvarin E, Dihydrofolinin, Orientanol-B, Phaseollidin, and Eryzerins E; some triterpenes and steroids – Oleanolic acid, Erythrodiol, Stigmasterol, Sophoradiol,

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Stigmasta-4-en-3-one, Stigmasta-4,22-dien-3-one, 3β-hydroxystigmasta-5,22-dien7-one, Melilotigenin C, Lupeol, Soyasapogenol B, Epilupeol are reported in Erythrina (Hussain et al. 2016).

Local Medicinal Uses Erythrina arborescens: Bark is used for stomach problems and as anthelmintic (Kunwar et al. 2012a, b). E. arborescens is traditionally used in Nepal for the treatment of various ailments, such as boils, anthelmintic, and microbial infections. Leaf juice is dropped in ear to cure earache (Baral and Kurmi 2006), and the leaf juice (Baral and Kurmi 2006) and bark juice (Manandhar 2002) are applied in boils. Bark decoction is taken as an anthelmintic (Manandhar 2002; Baral and Kurmi 2006) and used against dysentery (Tamang et al. 2017). Bhattarai et al. (2010) reported that stem bark paste is applied to skin abrasions. In western Nepal, Malla (2015) reported the use of bark extract on boils and bark tea preparation as an anthelmintic. In Bhutan, the seeds are used as febrifuge, for renal and urinary disorders, back pain, giddiness, hearing disability, and inability to walk (Wangchuk et al. 2011). In Meghalaya of India, leaf paste mixed with ginger is applied for skin diseases of pigs, especially to cure hair fall (Rao 1981). The Tharu tribe of Uttarakhand reported to use bark in fever, inflammation, rheumatism, and promotion of gastrointestinal absorption (Bajpai et al. 2016). In Uttarakhand, bark extract is used in skin diseases, and leaf extract is given in suppressed menses and also for intestinal worms (Bisht 2017). In addition, Quattrocchi (2012) documented the further uses of E. arborescens in various parts of the world such as twigs used as toothbrush to relive toothache; seed paste applied in swelling, rheumatism, dislocation of bones; and powder of dried seeds mixed with lemon juice applied to treat ringworm. Erythrina abyssinica: Bark of young stems is used for eye inflammation and also to treat gonorrhea. Root decoctions are used for malaria, syphilis, and snakebite and abdominal pain. Roasted bark is applied to swellings. Bark decoctions remedy gall and kidney problems and stones, as well as duodenal ulcers (Bekalo et al. 2009; Kokwaro 2009). It is also used to treat infertility and urinary tract problems (Muthee et al. 2011). The bark is boiled to relieve postpartum pain (Njoroge and Bussmann 2009). The extract is also used for wound treatment and has shown antibacterial activity (Njoroge and Bussmann 2007). The boiled bark extract is also used as antimalarial (Njoroge and Bussmann 2006a) and for cough and nosebleeds (Njoroge and Bussmann 2006b). In Ethiopia, it is used for gastrointestinal problems (Giday et al. 2007).

Local Food Uses Some species, e.g., Erythrina edulis, are eaten (Bussmann and Sharon 2006).

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses Erythrina arborescens: Leaves are used as fodder for livestock (Kunwar et al. 2012a, b). It is a multipurpose tree used for timber, fuelwood, fodder, and ornamental (Shrestha 1999). It is a common fodder tree (Dhakal and Aizz 1996; Chaudhary 1998; Kunwar et al. 2012a, b; Malla 2015) and hedge tree (Chaudhari 1993) whose leaflets are also used for making cups and plates (Bisht 2017). It is used in agroforestry by hill farmers (Chaudhary 1998) as it fixes nitrogen. It is also planted to prevent soil erosion (Chaudhary 1998; Malla 2015) and as ornamental (Chaudhary 1998) and ceremonial whose flowers are used in Brahman rituals in Ilam, east Nepal (Niraula 2016).

References Bajpai O, Pandey J, Chaudhary LB. Ethnomedicinal uses of tree species by Tharu tribes in the Himalayan Terai region of India. Res J Med Plant. 2016;10(1):19–41. Baral SR, Kurmi PP. A compendium of medicinal plants in Nepal. Kathmandu: Rachana Sharma; 2006. Bekalo TH, Demissew Woodmata S, Asfaw Woldemariam Z. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by local people in the lowlands of Konta Special Woreda, southern nations, nationalities and peoples regional state, Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2009;5:26. https:// doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-5-26. Bhattacharyya L, Das PK, Sen A. Purification and properties of D-galactose-binding lectins from some Erythrina species: comparison of properties of lectins from E. indica, E. arborescens, E. suberosa, and E. lithosperma. Arch Biochem Biophys. 1981;211:459–70. Bhattarai S, Chaudhary RP, Taylor RSL. Ethnomedicinal plants used by the people of Nawalparasi district, Central Nepal. Our Nature. 2010;7:82–99. Bisht AS. Assessment of Angiosperm taxa at Bharsar and its adjoining area of district Pauri Garhwal, Uttarakhand, India with emphasis on ethnomedicinal uses. Asian J For. 2017;1(1):1–17. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing culture. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:47. Chaudhari AB. Forest plants of eastern India, vol. 215. New Delhi: Asish Publishing House; 1993. Chaudhary RP. Biodiversity in Nepal: status and conservation. Saharanpur: S. Devi/Tecpress Books; 1998. Dhakal MR, Aizz A. General survey of fodder trees and shrubs of Biratnagar and surrounding locality. Banko Janakari. 1996;19:11–82. Fahmy NM, Al-Sayed E, El-Shazly M, Singab AN. Comprehensive review on flavonoids biological activities of Erythrina plant species. Ind Crop Prod. 2018; 123:500–38. https://www. sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1572599505800705 Giday M, Teklehaymanot T, Animut A, Mekonnen Y. Medicinal plants of the Shinasha, Agew-awi and Amhara peoples in northwest Ethiopia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;110:516–25. Grierson ACJ, Long DG. Flora of Bhutan. Edinburgh: Royal Botanical Garden; 1987. Hussain MM. A further comprehensive review on the phytoconstituents from the genus Erythrina. Bangladesh Pharm J. 2020;23(1):65–77. Hussain MM, Tuhin MTH, Akter F, Rashid MA. Constituents of Erythrina – a potential source of secondary metabolities: a review. Bangladesh Pharm J. 2016;19(2):237–53. Kokwaro JO. Medicinal plants of East Africa. Nairobi: University of Nairobi Press; 2009. Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Sharma LN, Shrestha KP, Kominee H, Bussmann RW. Underutilized plant species in Far West Nepal. J Mt Sci. 2012a;9:589–600.

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Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Sharma LN, Shrestha KP, Kominee H. Underutilized plant species in Far-West Nepal – a valuable resource being wasted. J Mt Sci. 2012b;9:589–600. Malla B. Ethnobotanical study on medicinal plants in Parbat district of western Nepal. Ph.D. dissertation. Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Kathmandu University, Nepal, 2015. Manandhar NP. Plants and people of Nepal. Portland: Timber Press; 2002. Muthee JK, Gakuya DW, Mbaria JM, Kareru PG, Mulei CM, Njonge FK. Ethnobotanical study of anthelmintic and other medicinal plants traditionally used in Loitoktok district of Kenya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011;135:15–21. Niraula G. The religious use and protection of plants among the Brahmin and Limbu people of Ilam, Nepal. Masters dissertation, Department of ecology and natural resource management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, 2016. Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Phytotherapeutic management of diversity and utilization of antimalarial ethnophytotherapeutic remedies among the Kikuyus Central Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006a;2:8. Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Traditional management of Ear, Nose and Throat ENT diseases in Central Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006b;2:54. Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Ethnotherapeutic management of skin diseases among the Kikuyus of Central Kenya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;111:303–7. Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Ethnotherapeutic management of sexually transmitted diseases STDs and reproductive health conditions in Central Province of Kenya. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2009;8:255–61. Osman MEM, Konozy EHE. Insight into Erythrina Lectins: properties, structure and proposed physiological significance. Open Bioact Compd J. 2017;5:57–71. Polunin O, Stainton A. Flowers of the Himalaya. New Delhi: Oxford University Press; 1984. Quattrocchi U. CRC world dictionary of medicinal and poisonous plants: common names, scientific names, eponyms, synonyms, and etymology. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2012. Rao RR. Ethnobotany of Meghalaya: medicinal plants used by Khasi and Garo tribes. Econ Bot. 1981;35(1):4–9. Shrestha KK. Diversity and phytogeography of legumes in Nepal. In: Majpuria TC, Majpuria RK, editors. Nepal nature’s paradise (new edition). Gwalior: M Devi; 1999. Tamang R, Thakur CK, Koirala DR, Chapagain N. Ethno-medicinal plants used by Chepang community in Nepal. J Plant Res. 2017;15(1):21–30. Wangchuk P, Pyne SG, Keller PA. Ethnobotanical authentication and identification of Khrog-sman (Lower Elevation Medicinal Plants) of Bhutan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011;134:813–23. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. St. Louis: Science Press, Beijing & Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Wu J, Zhang BJ, Xiao WN, Bao MF, Cai XH. Alkaloids from the flower of Erythrina arborescens. RSC Adv. 2017;7:51245–51. Zhang BJ, Xiao WN, Chen J, Bao MF, Schinnerl J, Wang Q, Cai XH. Erythrina alkaloids from leaves of Erythrina arborescens. Tetrahedron. 2019;75:130515.

Euphorbia hirta L. Euphorbia pilosa L. Euphorbia royleana Boiss. EUPHORBIACEAE Mukti Ram Paudel, Babita Paudel, Hari Datta Bhattarai, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Maroof Ali Turi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Synonyms Euphorbia hirta L.: Anisophyllum piluliferum (L.) Haw.; Chamnaesyce gemnella (Lag.) Small; Chamnaesyce hirta (L.) Millsp.; Chamnaesyce hirta (L.) Small.; Chamnaesyce hirta fo. glaberrima (Koidz.) Hurus.; Chamnaesyce hirta var. glaberrima (Koidz.) H. Hara; Chamnaesyce hirta var. laeticincta Croizat; Chamnaesyce karwinskyi (Boiss.) Millsp.; Chamnaesyce microcephala (Boiss.) Croizat; Chamnaesyce pilulifera (L.) Small; Chamnaesyce pilulifera var. glaberrima (Koidz.) H. Hara; Chamnaesyce rosei Millsp.; Euphorbia bancana Miq.; Euphorbia M. R. Paudel (*) · H. D. Bhattarai Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] B. Paudel Center for Natural and Applied Sciences, Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan M. A. Turi College of Life Science, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu, China R. W. Bussmann Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_97

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capitata Lam.; Euphorbia chrysochaeta W. Fitzg.; Euphorbia gemella Lag.; Euphorbia globulifera Kunth; Euphorbia hirta var. destitutra L.C. Wheeler; Euphorbia hirta var. glaberrima Koidz.; Euphorbia hirta var. typica L.C. Wheeler; Euphorbia karwinskyi Boiss., Euphorbia microcephala Boiss.; Euphorbia nodiflora Steud.; Euphorbia obliterata Jacq.; Euphorbia pilulifera A. Chev.; Euphorbia pilulifera Jacq.; Euphorbia pilulifera L.; Euphorbia pilulifera var. arechaveletae Herter; Euphorbia pilulifera var. glabrescens Engelm.; Euphorbia pilulifera var. glabrescens Thell.; Euphorbia pilulifera var. hirta (L.) Thell.; Euphorbia pilulifera var. obliterata (Jacq.) Hitchc.; Euphorbia verticillata Vell.; Tithymalus pilulifer (L.) Moench; Tithymalus piluliferus (L.) Moench Euphorbia royleana Boiss.: Euphorbia pentagona Haw.; Euphorbia pentagona Royle

Local Names Euphorbia hirta: Nepali: Aankle jhar, Dudhe Jhar; Hindi: Dudhi; Sanskrit: Dugdhika, Kshirini, Ksheerani, Svaduparni; Malaysia: Ambin Jantin; Indonesia: Daun Biji Kcang; Philippines: Botobotonis; Thailand: Nam Nom, Raatchasee; China: Feiyangcao; English: Asthuma weed; Pashto: Zmakin ghoz ‫ﺯﻡﮎﯼﻥ ﻍﻭﺯ‬ Euphorbia royleana: Naga: Takterak

Botany and Ecology Euphorbia is the largest genus of the family Euphorbiaceae consisting of more than 1600 species. Euphorbia hirta is an annual herb grows up to 40 cm high (Narbona et al. 2002). It has a slender hairy stem with spreading many branches, erect, and reddish or purple. Leaves are opposite, elliptic-oblong to oblong-lanceolate, acute or sub-acute, 1–2.5 cm long, dark green on the adaxial surface whereas pale green on abaxial surface, blotched with purple in the middle, and toothed at the edge. A cluster of flowers, in an inflorescence at terminal or axillary, called a cyathium. Flowers are unisexual, male flowers are sessile, females have short pedicel, and fringed. The fruits are yellow, three-celled, hairy, keeled capsules, 1–2 mm in diameter, containing three brown, four-sided, angular, wrinkled seeds (Ghosh et al. 2019). Euphorbia hirta: Herbs, annual, 30–60(–70) cm tall, usually few branched. Root fibrous, 3–5 mm. Stem branched from middle or above, ascending to erect, rarely N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia

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prostrate, about 3 mm thick, with mixture of long yellow-brown multicellular hairs and much shorter white hairs. Leaves opposite; stipules membranous, triangular, 0.8–1.7 mm, caducous; petiole 1–3.5 mm; leaf blade lanceolate-oblong, long elliptic, or ovate-lanceolate, 10–50  3–16 mm, adaxially green to red, sometimes with purple blotch along midrib, abaxially gray-green, both surfaces pilose, denser abaxially, base slightly oblique, margin entire or few serrulate below middle, finely serrulate above middle, apex acuminate or obtuse. Cyathia in dense, often head-like, pedunculate cymes at upper nodes, peduncle to 25 mm, all parts very hairy; involucre campanulate, about 1  1 mm, pilose, marginal lobes 5, triangularovate; glands 4, red, rounded to transversely elliptic, center slightly sunken, appendages white to reddish, narrowly elliptic to obdeltoid, to 0.3  0.2 mm, margin entire to slightly undulate. Male flowers 4 or 5; anthers red. Female flower: pedicel short, exserted from involucre; ovary 3-angular, sparsely pilose; styles free; stigma slightly 2-lobed. Capsule 3-angular, 1–1.5  1–1.5 mm, smooth, shortly pilose; fruiting peduncle to 1.5 mm. Seeds subglobose-tetragonal, 0.7–0.9  0.4–0.5 mm, reddish, sides transversely furrowed; caruncle absent. Flowering and fruiting June–December (Wu et al. 1994–2013; Singh and Kumari 2019; Saha et al. 2020; Prasad and Tomar 2020; Ijaz et al. 2020) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4). Euphorbia pilosa: Perennial plants, 30–80(100) cm high; root fusiform-tuberous; stems solitary or rarely 2–3, pubescent (especially above) with long spreading white hairs, branching above, bearing numerous axillary peduncles but without sterile branches; basal leaves squamiform, oblong, obtuse, brown; cauline leaves sessile, somewhat increasing upwards, dense, tapered or rounded at base, oblong-obovate, 3–12 mm long, 1–3.5 cm wide, widest above middle, obtuse except for the shortacuminate upper leaves, subentire, finely serrate at apex only, scarious, covered with spreading hairs especially beneath or when young, rarely subglabrous. Inflorescence corymbiform; terminal peduncles few, short, inconspicuous; axillary peduncles, like the terminal, 3-branched, then bifurcate; upper cauline leaves (subtending peduncles) and leaves of involucre yellow at anthesis, later usually becoming green; leaves of involucels small, elliptic or obovate, yellow at anthesis, the lower 3 in number, unequal, the upper small, usually 2; cyathium broadly campanulate, 4–5 mm in diameter, glabrous outside, lanate inside, lobes orbicular-ovate, obtuse, glabrous; nectaries transversely elliptic, golden yellow, later becoming brown; styles connate, thickly 2-lobed; schizocarp globulose, about 4 mm in diameter, not sulcate, with dark red subulate-conical processes 1.5–2 mm long; seeds compressed-ovate, 2–2.5 mm long, smooth, dark brown, with oblique flattened subsessile appendage. May–June. Forest edges and grass plots, subalpine meadows (Shishkin and Boborov 1949). Euphorbia royleana: Small trees or shrubs, 5–7 m tall, glabrous except for cyathia. Stems 4–7 cm thick, green, 5–7-angled, many branching from upper parts; ribs with rounded teeth/tubercles. Leaves alternate, apically clustered; stipules prickle-like, spines paired, 3–5 mm; petiole absent; leaf blade oblanceolate to spoon-shaped, 5– 15  1–4 cm, slightly succulent, base attenuate, margin entire, apex obtuse or subtruncate; veins inconspicuous. Cyathia in subterminal cymes, yellow, peduncle about 5 mm; cyathophylls as long as involucre, membranous; involucre about

906 Fig. 1 Euphorbia hirta (Euphorbiaceae), plant, Nepal. (Photo Yogendra B. Poudel)

Fig. 2 Euphorbia hirta (Euphorbiaceae), inflorescence, Nepal. (Photo Yogendra B. Poudel)

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Euphorbia hirta L. . . .

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Fig. 3 Euphorbia hirta (Euphorbiaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 4 Euphorbia hirta (Euphorbiaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Maroof Ali Turi)

2.5  2.5 mm; glands 5, transversely elliptic, dark yellow. Capsule 3-lobed, 1–1.2  1–1.5 cm, smooth and glabrous. Seeds 3–3.5  2.5–3 mm, brown, adaxially striate; caruncle absent. Flowering and fruiting May–July (Wu et al. 1994–2013).

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Phytyochemistry Many active phytochemical constituents have been isolated from E. hirta. Some of the examples are afzelin, quercitrin, myricitrin, rutin, quercetin, euphorbin-A, euphorbin-B, euphorbin-C, euphorbin-D, kaempferol, 2,4,6-tri-O-galloyl-β-D-glucose, 1,3,4,6-tetra-O-galloyl-β-D-glucose, gallic acid, protocatechuic acid, β-amyrin, 24-methylenecycloartenol, β-sitosterol, heptacosane, monacosane, shikmic acid, tinyatoxin, choline, camphol, and quercitol (Kumar et al. 2010a; Huang et al. 2012; Ragasa and Cornelio 2013).

Local Medicinal Uses Euphorbia hirta: Various biological activities have been reported by different solvent extracts and purified compounds of E. hirta. The ethanol extract has shown potent antibacterial activity against various gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria (Sudhakar et al. 2006; Ogbulie et al. 2007; Suresh et al. 2008; Abubakar 2009; Annamalai et al. 2013). Ethanolic extract of E. hirta was reported to have shown antifungal activity against various fungal pathogens (Mohamed et al. 1996; Suresh et al. 2008). Similarly, very high antimalarial activity had been shown by natural compounds afzelin, quercitrin, and myricitrin isolated from E. hirta (Liu et al. 2007). It has also antiviral activity including against dengue virus (Perera et al. 2018). Ethanol extract of E. hirta has also been described to have shown anti-allergic activity (Singh et al. 2006; Youssouf et al. 2007) and antidiabetic activity (Kumar et al. 2010b; Widharna et al. 2010). Importantly, the aqueous extract of E. hirta has been described to have shown antidiarrheal activity (Hore et al. 2006), anti-amoebic activity (Tona et al. 2000), anti-inflammatory activity (Lanhers et al. 1991), analgesic activity (Lanhers et al. 1991), diuretic activity (Johnson et al. 1999), and antimutagenic activity (Loh et al. 2009). Anticancer and antitumor activity of methanol extract, ethanol extract, and purified compounds has also been well described (Brindha et al. 2010; Ragasa and Cornelio 2013; Sharma et al. 2014). Similarly, some pure compounds isolated from E. hirta showed antidiarrheal activity (Galvez et al. 1993) and anti-inflammatory activity (Martínez-vázquez et al. 1999; Ekpo and Pretorius 2007; Sharma et al. 2014). Genotoxic activity of methanol extract of E. hirta has also been observed (Ping et al. 2012). E. hirta is used in traditional medicines since the Vedic period. It is employed to cure gastrointestinal disorders, bronchial and respiratory diseases, diuretic and kidney stones, genital disorders, ocular disorders, skin and mucous problems, and tumor. Its latex is used as ear drops, in the treatment of boils, score, and wounds. The latex is often used to treat warts and cuts to prevent pathogen infection (Singh et al. 2012). A decoction of leaves induces milk flow. The plant is also effective in treating ulcers. Plant juice is useful for boils, cuts, and wounds and is also considered to be used in treatment of asthma, cough, and diarrhea. It is also useful for cardiovascular complaints and spleen disorders (Kunwar and Duwadee 2003; Kunwar et al. 2010).

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The plant is used for asthma, respiratory disorders, and cough (Kayani et al. 2014). Leaf extract is used for asthma, cough, sores, dysentery, and diarrhea. The plant is useful for wounds and lip cracks. Milk is used to cure sexual disorders (Mahmood et al. 2011). Plant is used for cough, as diuretic, and expectorant (Hassan et al. 2017). Plant is used to cure skin disease (Barkatullah et al. 2015). The extract of whole plant is used as expectorant, diuretic, and also used for curing pulmonary complaints. Plant powder is mixed with water and used to treat diarrhea (Amjad et al. 2017). Latex used on inflammation site reduces bacterial infection (Ahmed et al. 2014). Whole plant powder is used for asthma and bronchitis, and latex is used for premature ejaculation (Mahmood et al. 2012). It is used as expectorant, anthelmintic, and also used in bronchial affections, cough, asthma, bowel complaints, and against worms (Ahmad Jan et al. 2017). The latex of the plant increases flow of milk in women and is used for curing vaginal thrush. The plant is boiled in water and then used for the treatment of dysentery. The infusion of the plant is used for curing cold, cough, and skin disease (Khan et al. 2015). Fresh plant extract or decoction is used for hypertension (Ahmad et al. 2015). Euphorbia hirta is used for bronchial infections, asthma, and warts (Kumar et al. 2011; Kunwar et al. 2010a, b, 2015). In Madagascar, the species serves to treaty urine retention and gonorrhea (Razafindraibe et al. 2013; Rabearivony et al. 2015), and for bronchitis in infants, as well as premature closure of the fontanelle (Randreanarivony et al. 2016a, b). In Pakistan, it is used to treat diabetes (Ullah et al. 2019). It is also used to treat cuts, wounds, scabies, eczema, skin problems, and boils (Kala et al. 2004), and also for lip cracks (Muthu et al. 2006) and respiratory tract diseases (Mohagheghzadeh and Faridi 2006). It is used as anthelmintic in children (Singh et al. 2002) and to treat snakebites (Houghton and Osibogun 1993). Euphorbia royleana: It is used for skin problems and body pain (Kichu et al. 2015). Euphorbia neriifolia: It is used as anthelmintic and for asthma and toothache (Gairola et al. 2014). Euphorbia seguieriana: It is a poisonous plant. A tea is used to treat malaria, and the decoction as laxative and emetic. The latex of the plant is used for the same purposes. The latex is used externally for removal of warts and callus (Mehdiyeva et al. 2017). Euphorbia klotzschii: The secreted latex is used to heal wounds and to remove warts on the skin (Echeverría et al. 2020). Euphorbia esula: The powdered plant material is used to treat external tumors, tuberculosis, and syphilis. The milky juice is applied externally to remove warts and calluses, and to relieve leishmaniasis and scabies. A root broth is used as laxative, for jaundice and heart disease, and topically to treat rabies and wounds (Sokolov 1985). The latex is also used to treat warts (Bussmann 2017; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017). Euphorbia candelabrum: A stem decoction is used after childbirth to expel the placenta. The bark is used for skin diseases (Kokwaro 2009). A decoction of the pith is used after childbirth (Maasai) (Beentje 1994). The latex is used for wounds and warts (Njoroge and Bussmann 2007). The species serves also to treat joint pain, general venereal diseases, and infertility (Muthee et al. 2011). It is used to treat gonorrhea (Wondimu et al. 2007).

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Euphorbia tirucalli: The juice is used for sore throat and stomach problems. The boiled root is eaten as emetic to treat snakebite and also to treat sterility in women. The plant is highly toxic, and any use requires high care (Kokwaro 2009). It is used for female health (Delbanco et al. 2017) and also used for malaria (Njoroge and Bussmann 2006a). The latex is used for warts (Njoroge and Bussmann 2007). It is also used to treat gonorrhea, hemorrhages, and help to ease delivery (Wondimu et al. 2007; Teklehaymanot et al. 2007). Many other species of Euphorbia are used medicinally. Euphorbia schimperiana is used to treat syphilis and Euphorbia dumalis is also used for the same purpose (Bussmann et al. 2011). Euphorbia chamaesyce is used to treat constipation and dysentery in children (Bhat et al. 2013). Euphorbia hypericifolia is used to treat menorrhagia and diarrhea (Bhat et al. 2013). Euphorbia pilosa is used to treat constipation and is used as an emetic in cases of food poisoning (Bhat et al. 2013). Euphorbia macroceras serves for tooth pain (Bussmann et al. 2018). Euphorbia royleana latex is used to treat arthritis (Kunwar et al. 2009, 2010a, b, 2013, 2016, 2019; Kunwar and Bussmann 2009), for fractures (Singh et al. 2019), and as antiseptic (Malik et al. 2015). Euphorbia thomsoniana is employed in Pakistan for wet and dry eczema (Sher et al. 2016). Euphorbia dracunculoides is used against skin parasites, acne, snakebites, and epilepsy (Umair et al. 2019). Euphorbia prostrata has traditional uses for diarrhea, hepatic ulcers, eczema, bladder stones, and is used as blood purifier (Umair et al. 2019), and to treat diabetes (Ullah et al. 2019). Euphorbia pilulifera serves for cough, bronchial asthma, diarrhea, indigestion, pain, burns, cuts, and wounds (Umair et al. 2019). Euphorbia helioscopia serves to treat fungal infections like athlete’s foot, eye sores, asthma, cholera, and constipation, and serves as anthelmintic (Muhammad et al. 2019; Umair et al. 2019). Euphorbia heterochroma serves to treat fever and glandular problems (Delbanco et al. 2017). Euphorbia ampliphylla latex is used for warts (Giday et al. 2010; Mekonnen et al. 2015) and to treat rabies (Giday et al. 2007). Euphorbia crotonoides serves for stomach problems (Giday et al. 2003). Euphorbia joyae is used for tonsillitis (Njoroge and Bussmann 2006b) as well as postpartum hemorrhages (Njoroge and Bussmann 2007). Euphorbia cuneata is used for gonorrhea (Muthee et al. 2011). Euphorbia alluaudii is used in Madagascar for dental treatments (Randreanarivony et al. 2016a, b). Euphorbia abyssinica serves to remedy venereal diseases and rabies (Teklehaymanot et al. 2007), and ringworm (Teklehaymanot 2009). Euphorbia breviarticulata is used for trachoma and other eye problems (Teklehaymanot et al. 2010).

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Local Food Uses Euphorbia hirta: Sometimes eaten as vegetable (Dangol et al. 2017). Euphorbia klotzschii: The aerial parts are consumed as salads and soup accompanied with potatoes (Solanum tuberosum) and in soups (Echeverría et al. 2020). Euphorbia tirucalli: Young branches may be roasted and chewed (Kokwaro 2009).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Euphorbia esula: These plants can be used to dye silk and wool in black, yellow, and green. The seed oil can be used for paints. The plant is poisonous, especially seeds and roots. The latex irritates the skin and mucous membranes (Sokolov 1985). In Pakistan, Euphorbia helioscopia is used to repel the devil and diseases (Sher et al. 2016). Euphorbia seguieriana: A khaki-colored dye is obtained from the leaves of the plant (Mehdiyeva et al. 2017). Euphorbia klotzschii: It is used as forage (bitter and toxic) (Echeverría et al. 2020). Euphorbia candelabrum: Roasted bark is applied to infected wounds and for brucellosis in livestock, and the sap is applied to calves’ cheeks to treat East Coast Fever (Kokwaro 2009). Euphorbia tirucalli: It is used as fish poison and often planted as hedge (Beentje 1994; Neuwinger 2004). Euphorbia helioscopia and Euphorbia schimperiana are used for skin problems in livestock (Ali et al. 2019; Bekalo et al. 2009) and to treat anthrax (Yineger et al. 2007). In Pakistan, Euphorbia helioscopia is used to repel the devil and diseases (Jan et al. 2019; Sher et al. 2016). Many species of Euphorbia are used to kill ectoparasites in livestock (Kioko et al. 2015; Wanzala 2017). Euphorbia mandravioky is used to better handle cattle and as glue to catch birds (Randrianarivony et al. 2016a, b).

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Evolvulus alsinoides (L.) L. CONVOLVULACEAE Man D. Bhatt, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Maroof Ali Turi

Synonyms Evolvulus alsinoides (L.) L.: Candemia alsinoides Scop.; Convolvulus alsionoides L.; Convolvulus linifolius L.; Convolvulus valerianoides Blanco; Evolvulus albiflorus M. Martens & Galeotti; Evolvulus alsinoides var. choisyanus Meisn.; Evolvulus alsinoides var. debilis (Kunth) Ooststr.; Evolvulus alsinoides var. linnaeanus Meisn.; Evolvulus azureus Vahl. ex Schumach. & Thonn.; Evolvulus chinensis Choisy; Evolvulus debilis Kunth; Evolvulus filiformis Willd. ex Standl.; Evolvulus filipes Mart.; Evolvulus fugacissimus Hochst.; Evolvulus hirsutulus Choisy; Evolvulus linifolius (L.) L.; Evolvulus modestus Hance ex Walp.; Evolvulus M. D. Bhatt Botany Department, Siddhanath Science Campus, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia M. A. Turi College of Life Science, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu, China © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_99

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pilosissimus M. Martens & Galeotti; Evolvulus pimulus Span.; Evolvulus pimulus Span.; Evolvulus pseudoincanus Span.; Evolvulus pudicus Hance ex Walp.; Evolvulus pumilus Span.; Evolvulus ramiflorus Boj. ex Choisy in DC; Evolvulus remulosus M.E. Jones; Evolvulus tenuis Mart. ex Choisy; Evolvulus tenuis subsp. yucatanensis Ooststr.

Local Names Evolvulus alsinoides: Hindi: Nili shankhpushpi; Nepali: Akasbeli, Aanhuri phul; Sanskrit: Vishnukravitra, Syamkranta; Rajasthani: Bhumari; English: Bush morning glory

Botany and Ecology Evolvulus is an American genus, with its 100 species originally confined to the New World (Ooststroom 1934). Evolvulus nummularius is now introduced to the Old World but it arrived recently (Austin 1980). More problematical is Evolvulus alsinoides that became known to science in the late 1600s and early 1700s. The first reports of Evolvulus alsinoides found in the Americas are Linnaeus (1737, 1753) and Browne (1756). Evolvulus alsinoides was created by Linnaeus (1762) from the Bahamas; Browne knew Evolvulus alsinoides in Jamaica. However, the species was based by Linnaeus (1753) on a specimen collected by Paul Hermann between 1670 and 1677 near Colombo in Sri Lanka (Trimen 1888; Lourtig 1966; Stearn 1972). Evolvulus alsinoides in the Old World was first thought to be an Alsine (Burman 1737). Thus, the species was gathered in India perhaps 60–67 years before being recorded in the Americas. In the only revision of Evolvulus, Ooststroom (1934) pointed out that the specimen on which Linnaeus based Evolvulus alsinoides was typical of the Indian plants. He added that those plants (var. alsinoides) also occurred in Southeastern Asia, the Philippines, the Netherlands Indies, Madagascar, and tropical East Africa. Ooststroom (1934) was probably the first to comment that Evolvulus alsinoides was introduced outside the New World. He pointed out that the genus has its greatest diversity in Brazil, and that the “center of development” lies in western South America. Thus, relationships of Evolvulus alsinoides indicate that the species originally was native to the new world (Austin 2008). The genus Evolvulus L. (Convolvulaceae) with two taxa Evolvulus alsinoides (L.) L. and Evolvulus nummularius (L.) L. is used in Asian herbal medicine (Ketjarun et al. 2016). There are two species of Evolvulus reported from China (Wu et al. 1995). Press et al. (2000) and GoN (2001a) reported two species, i.e., E. alsinoides and E. nummularius from Nepal. The global distribution of this genus is tropical east Africa, South China, Indo-China, Thailand, Malaysia, Philippines, Australia, Bangladesh, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Japan, Laos, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Vietnam, Africa, North America, Pacific Islands, and South America (Baral and Kurmi 2005). The detailed

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information related to Evolvulus alsinoides (L.) L. species was collected by visiting National Herbarium and Plant Laboratories, Kathmandu (KATH), Nepal. A total of three E. alsinoides herbarium specimens, collected from Nepal, were studied in the herbarium between 1996 and 2013. Based on the herbarium specimens of KATH study, it has been found that the Evolvulus alsinoides has been collected from three districts (Palpa, Dhankuta, and Bardiya) of Nepal. Evolvulus alsinoides: Herbs perennial. Stems several to numerous, prostrate or ascending, slender, with appressed and spreading hairs. Leaves petiolate or subsessile, 0.7–2.5 cm  5–10 mm. Cymes 1- to few flowered; peduncles filiform, 2.5– 3.5 cm; bracts linear-subulate to linear-lanceolate, 1.5–4 mm. Sepals lanceolate, 3– 4 mm, villous. Corolla rotate, 7–10 mm in diameter. Stamens included; filaments filiform, adnate to base of corolla tube. Ovary glabrous. Styles 2, free. Capsule globose, 4-valved. Seeds 4 or fewer, black, smooth. Flowering and fruiting year round (Wu et al. 1995; Wood et al. 2020; Wu et al. 1994–2013). This plant commonly grows on sandy soil, dry slopes, cultivated areas, maritime areas, grasslands, thickets, and roadsides of tropical and subtropical forest. It is distributed within 550–1100 m from east to west Nepal (GoN 2001a) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Phytochemistry The plant is bitter and acrid. The phytochemistry of Evolvulus alsinoides indicates the composition of the following compounds. Cyclic hydrocarbons; Tricyclo [2.2.1.0(2,6)] heptane, 1,7,7-trimethyl Alfa-copaene Cyclohexene,1-methyl-4(1methylethenyl)-(r), Substituted aromatic hydrocarbons; 1-methyl-5-m(-)-5oxatricyclo [8.2.0.0(4,6)] dodeca 1hcyclopropa [A] Naphthalene 1a, Hydrocarbon; Dotriacontane, Squalene, Sesquiterpene; Caryophyllene 1,6-cyclodecadiene, Saturated fatty acid; Tetradecanoic acid, 2,6,10-trimethyl,14-ethylene-14-pe, Icosanoic acid, Unsaturated alcohol; 3,7,11,15-tetramethyl-2-hexadecen-1-ol, Unsaturated long chain fatty acid; Oleic acid, 9-octadecenoic acid (z), Long chain dicarboxylic acid; Nonanedioic acid, Ester; dibutyl ester, L-(+)-Ascorbic acid 2,6 dihexadecanoate, methyl ester, Long chain saturated hydrocarbons; Heptadecanoic acid, Alcohol; Behenic alcohol, Phytol isomer, Long chain dicarbo oxalic acid; Cis-11,14-eicosadienoic acid, Long chain fatty acid; Nonadecanoic acid, Hexadecanoic acid, Pentadecanoic acid, Unsaturated acid; 2hydroxy-1,3, Octadec-9enoic acid, Carboxylic acid derivative; 2-Hydroxy-3-[(9e)-9-Octadecenoyl, Glycidyl fatty acid ester; Glycidol stearate. The prevailing compounds were Squalene, 2-Hydroxy-3[(9e)-9-Octadecenoyl, Oleic acid, Octadecanoic acid, 1-(+)Ascorbic acid 2,6dihexadecanoate, and Caryophyllene (Sundaramurthi and Packiam 2017). Similarly, according to Ketjarun et al. (2016), there are several compounds found in E. alsinoides, i.e., flavonols, flavonoids, alkaloids, cardiac glycosides, saponins, the alkanes pentatriacontane and triacontane, the phytosterol, β-sitosterol, phenolics, and tannins (Austin 2008; Naikawadi et al. 2016), and the plant is used as brain and memory tonic herb (Naikawadi et al. 2016), an anti-asthmatic, for treating uterine

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Fig. 1 Evolvulus alsinoides (Convolvulaceae), plant. (Drawing Man Bhatt)

bleeding (Khare 2007), insanity, epilepsy and nervous debility (Auddy et al. 2003), for antibacterial, antifungal, and antiulcer properties (Ketjarun et al. 2016).

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Fig. 2 Evolvulus alsinoides (Convolvulaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Maroof Ali Turi)

Local Medicinal Uses Evolvulus alsinoides: It is used to treat memory loss (Dey et al. 2017). The plant powder is used orally, one spoonful per day with water or milk, as nerve tonic, febrifuge, vermifuge, antispasmodic, and aphrodisiac. Leaf paste is also advised for the treatment of asthma, insanity, epilepsy, bleeding, and spermatorrhea. (Singh et al. 2002). Smoke is used as sedative (Mohagheghzadeh and Faridi 2006). A decoction of the plant is taken for increase memory. Ash of the plant is spread on boils and pimples. Plant paste is applied on scorpion sting, burns, and scabies. Plant is brain stimulant, aphrodisiac, anthelmintic, and antidysenteric (Kunwar et al. 2010). In Rajasthan, it is used to treat fever (Katewa et al. 2004). Powder of whole plant along with the leaves of Wrightia tinctoria, Alstonia scholaris, and Euphorbia hirta is used to cure venereal diseases (Ayyanar and Ignacimuthu 2005). The plant is used as brain stimulant in Kenya (Bussmann et al. 2006). It is used for asthma, bronchitis, diarrhea, fever, and indigestion (Gairola et al. 2014). Evolvulus alsinoides is locally known as Shankha pushpi and Ankhuri phul. In Sanskrit, Shankha pushpi means the plant with flowers shaped like a conch or Shankha. Plant is bitter tonic, febrifuge, vermifuge, anthelmintic, and antidysentric. It is specific for all kinds of fevers. Plant

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Fig. 3 Evolvulus alsinoides (Convolvulaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Maroof Ali Turi)

Fig. 4 Evolvulus alsinoides (Convolvulaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Maroof Ali Turi)

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juice mixed with massage oil is applied as hair tonic. Leaves and flowers made into cigarettes are smoked in chronic bronchitis and asthma. Flowers are good for uterine bleeding (Regmi 1991; Joshi 2000; GoN 2001a, b; Baral and Kurmi 2005). Both herbarium records and ethnobotanical records showed that the species is distributed in Achham, Bajura, Baitadi, Bajhang, Bardiya, Dang, Dadeldhura, Darchula, Dhankuta, Doti, Palpa, and Panchthar districts of Nepal. It is used for scabies (Manandhar 1985), bitter tonic, febrifuge, vermifuge, anthelmintic, antidysenteric, and specific for all kinds of fevers (Regmi 1991). Aqueous extract of the flower petal was found to possess antifungal properties, and leaves were found to be intellectpromoting, and efficacious in nervine affections, epilepsy, insanity; spermatorrhea and internal hemorrhage (Husain et al. 1992). Leaves and flowers are smoked in chronic bronchitis and asthma (GoN 2001b, 2007), for memory longevity (Kunwar and Duwadee 2003), as febrifuge and aphrodisiac (Gautam 2011), for joint pain (Kunwar et al. 2015), and as brain tonic (Austin 2008; Naikawadi et al. 2016).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Evolvulus alsinoides: Whole plant is boiled in oil until it turns brown, then the oil is used as a hair growth promoter. (Singh et al. 2002). It is used for sacrificial fires in Kenya (Bussmann et al. 2006). Plant juice mixed with massage oil is applied as hair tonic (Joshi 2000).

References Auddy B, Ferreira M, Blasina F, Lafon L, Arredondo F, Dajas F, Tripathi PC, Seal T, Mukherjee B. Screening of antioxidant activity of three Indian medicinal plants, traditionally used for the management of neurodegenerative diseases. J Ethnopharmacol. 2003;84:131–8. Austin DF. Convolvulaceae. In: Dassenayake MD, Fosberg FR, editors. A revised handbook of the Flora of Ceylon, vol. 1. New Delhi: Amarind Publishing Co.; 1980. p. 288–363. Austin DF. Evolvulus alsinoides (Convolvulaceae): an American herb in the Old World. J Ethnopharmacol. 2008;117:185–98. Ayyanar M, Ignacimuthu S. Traditional knowledge of Kani tribals in Kouthalai of Tirunelveli hills, Tamil Nadu, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102:246–55. Baral SR, Kurmi PP. A compendium of medicinal plants in Nepal. Kathmandu: Mrs Rachana Publishers; 2005. p. 189. Browne P. The civil and natural history of Jamaica. New York: Arno Press; 1756. (Reprinted 1972). Burman J. Thesaurus zeylanicus: exhibens plantas in insula Zeylana nascentes. Amstelaedami: Apud Janssonio-Waesbergios & Salomonem Schouten; 1737. Bussmann RW, Gilbreath GG, Lutura M, Lutuluo R, Kunguru K, Wood N, Mathenge S. Plant use of the Maasai of Sekenani Valley, Maasai Mara, Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:22. Dey A, Gorai P, Mukherjec A, Dhan R, Kumar Modak B. Ethnobiological treatments of neurological conditions in the Chota Nagpur Plateau, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2017;198:33–44. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Gautam TP. Indigenous uses of some medicinal plants in Panchthar district, Nepal. Nepalese J Biosci. 2011;1:125–30.

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GoN. Flowering plants of Nepal (Phanerograms). Kathmandu: Department of Plant Resources, Thapathali; 2001a. GoN. Medicinal plants of Nepal (supplementary volume, bulletin no. 10). Thapathali, Kathmandu: Department of Medicinal Plants; 2001b. p. 98. GoN. Medicinal plants of Nepal. Thapathali, Kathmandu: Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation, Department of Plant Resources; 2007. http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/record/tro-8500038 Husain A, Virmani OP, Popali SP, Mishra LN, Gupta MM, Srivastava GN, Abraham Z, Singh AK. Dictionary of Indian medicinal plants. Lucknow: Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (CIMAP); 1992. Joshi SG. Medicinal Plants. New Delhi: Mohan Primlani for Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd.; 2000. Katewa SS, Chaudhary BL, Jain A. Folk herbal medicines from tribal area of Rajasthan, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2004;92:41–6. Ketjarun K, Staples GW, Swangpol SC, Traiperm P. Micro-morphological study of Evolvulus spp. (Convolvulaceae): the Old World medicinal plants. Bot Stud. 2016;57:25. https://doi.org/10. 1186/s40529-016-0141-y. Khare CP. Indian medicinal plants an illustrated dictionary. 1st ed. Heidelberg: Springer Science Business Media; 2007. Kunwar RM, Duwadee NPS. Ethnobotanical notes on Flora of Khaptad National Park (KNP), Far-western, Nepal. Him J Sci. 2003;1(1):25–30. Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Bussmann RW. Traditional herbal medicine in Far-west Nepal: a pharmacological appraisal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:35. Kunwar R, Acharya RP, Chaudhary CL. Medicinal plant dynamics in indigenous medicines in Farwest Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;163:210–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2015.01.035. PMID: 25655999. Linnaeus C. Hortus Cliffortianus Amstelaedami, 354. 1737. Linnaeus C. Species plantarum. 2 vols. Facsimile edition with introduction by W.T. Stearn, 1957. London: Royal Society; 1753. Linnaeus C. Species Plantarum, EditioSecunda, 2 vols. Holmiae: Laurentii Salvii; 1762. Lourtig A. L’Herbier de Paul Hermann, base du Thesarus Zeylanicus de Johan Burman. Taxon 15, 23–32. 1966. Manandhar NP. Ethnobotanical notes on certain medicinal plants used by Tharus of Dang Deokhuri District, Nepal. Int J Crude Drug Res. 1985;23:153–9. Mohagheghzadeh A, Faridi P. Medicinal smokes. J Ethnopharmacol. 2006;108:161–84. Naikawadi VB, Ahire ML, Lahiri A, Nikam TD. In vitro propagation and cell cultures of memory tonic herb Evolvulus alsinoides: a best source for elicited production of scopoletin. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 2016;100:3463–76. Ooststroom SJV. A monograph of the genus Evolvulus, Mededeelingen van het botanisch museum en herbarium van de rijks universiteit te Utrecht, vol. 14. Utrecht: Kemink en zoon n.v; 1934. p. 1–267. Press JR, Shrestha KK, Sutton DA. Annotated checklist of the flowering plants of Nepal. London: The Natural History Museum; 2000. Regmi PP. Glossary of some important plants and animals names in Nepal. Kathmanu: Agriculture Projects Service Center (APROSC); 1991. p. 181. Singh AK, Raghubanshi AS, Singh JA. Medical ethnobotany of the tribals of Sonaghati of Sonbhadra district, Uttar Pradesh, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2002;81:31–41. Stearn WT. Typification of Evolvulus nummularius, E. convolvuloides, and E. alsinoides (Convolvulaceae). Taxon. 1972;21:647–50. Sundaramurthi P, Packiam KK. A review on pharmacognosy and pharmacology of Evolvulus alsinoides (L.) L. Int Res J Pharm. 2017; 8(7). www.irjponline.com Trimen H. Hermann’s Ceylon Herbarium and Linnnaeus’s “Flora Zeylanica”. Linn Soc Lond. 1888;24:129–55.

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Wood JRI, Muñoz-Rodríguez P, Williams BRM, Scotland RW. A foundation monograph of Ipomoea (Convolvulaceae) in the New World. PhytoKeys. 2020;143:1–823. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. St. Louis: Science Press, Beijing & Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D. Flora of China, vol. 16. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1995. p. 275–7.

Fagara oxyphylla (Edgew.) Engl. RUTACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ripu M. Kunwar

Synonyms Fagara oxyphylla (Edgew.) Engl.: Zanthoxylum oxyphyllum Edgew.

Local Names Fagara oxyphylla: Pashto: Ban timur, Timur

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_100

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Botany and Ecology Fagara oxyphylla: Shrubs or small trees. Branchlets and leaf rachises with prickles. Leaf rachises adaxially and midvein of leaflet blades adaxially pubescent. Old leaves subglabrous. Leaves 11–19-foliolate; petiolules up to 2 mm; leaflet blades alternate or opposite, lanceolate or rarely ovate, 5–12  1.5–2.5 cm, abaxially gray when dry, oil glands numerous, midvein impressed adaxially, secondary veins anastomosing near margin, reticulate veinlets ridged when dry, base cuneate, margin serrulate, apex acuminate. Inflorescences terminal, cymose-corymbose, to 30-flowered. Perianth in 2 series. Sepals 4, purplish green. Petals ca. 3 mm. Male flowers: rudimentary gynoecium 2–4-parted, lobes linear. Fruit pedicel 1–1.5 cm, 1–1.5 mm in diameter; follicles purplish red, 6–7 mm, oil glands impressed when dry, apex beaked. Seeds ca. 5 mm in diameter. Flowering May–June, fruiting September–October (Wu et al. 1994–2013).

Local Medicinal Uses Fagara oxyphylla: Bark and stem are chewed for toothache (Malik et al. 2015).

References Malik ZA, Bhat J, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhat AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D. editors. Flora of China. St. Louis: Science Press, Beijing & Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013.

Fagonia bruguieri DC Fagonia indica var. schweinfurthii Hadidi ZYGOPHYLLACEAE Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

Synonyms Fagonia indica var. schweinfurthii Hadidi.: Fagonia cretica L.

Botany and Ecology Fagonia bruguieri: A profusely branched, pale green biennial or perennial shrublet, up to 30 cm tall, covered over by minute unicellular acute hairs or capitate glands. Branches prostrate to erect, distinctly sulcate and 4-angled, internodes up to 4.5 cm long. Basal leaves mostly trifoliolate, upper unifoliolate; leaflets fleshy, ovate-

H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_101

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Fig. 2 Fagonia indica (Zygophyllaceae). Abdal Khel District, Lakki Marwat, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. (Photo I. Ur Rahman & H. Sher).

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Fagonia bruguieri DC. . .

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Fig. 3 Fagonia indica (Zygophyllaceae), Dera Ismail Khan Daraban desert, Pakistan. (Photo H. Sher and I. Ur-Rahman)

oblong or linear-lanceolate, 4–12 mm long, sharp mucronate; subsessile or with up to 5 mm long petiole; stipular spines recurved, mostly longer than the leaves, 6– 12 mm long. Flowers small, about 8–10 mm across, pale-pink or purplish, shortly pedicellate, pedicel up to 5 mm. Sepals lanceolate-ovate, 2–2.5 mm long, about 1 mm broad, acute-acuminate, pubescent, persistent. Petals spathulate, 3.5–4(–6) mm long, obtuse. Stamens with about 6 mm long filaments. Capsule up to about 4 mm long, 3–4 mm broad, pubescent. Pakistan westwards to North and tropical Africa in arid and semiarid regions (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020). Fagonia indica: Annual to biennial, up to 25 cm tall, glandular to glabrous shrublet. Stem basally woody, branches prostrate to erect, terete, striate, with up to 1–3(–3.5) cm long internodes. Lower leaves trifoliolate, petiole, up to 10–12(–15) mm long terminal leaves unifoliolate, with up to 5 mm long petiole; leaflets linear-oblong, up to 3.5 cm long, acute, central the largest; stipular spines aculeate, shorter than leaves and internodes, patent, not reflexed. Flowers pinkish-purple, about 8–10 mm across, pedicel up to 6 mm long. Sepals ovate, 3–4 mm long, sparsely glandular hairy outside, deciduous or semi-persistent. Petals obovate, 4–6 mm long, about 2–3 mm broad, obtuse. Stamens with 3–4 mm long filaments. Capsule about 4 mm long pubescent, pedicel about twice as long as fruit. Flowering almost throughout the year. India, Pakistan, Iran, Aden, Eritrea, Aethiopia, Sudan, Somalia, and Kenya (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020) (Fig. 1, 2 and 3).

Local Medicinal Uses Fagonia indica is used for treating diabetes (Ahmad et al. 2019; Ullah et al. 2019) and diarrhea (Katewa et al. 2004), as astringent, and febrifuge (Muhammad et al. 2019). Fagonia arabica is used for smallpox and sore mouth (Kumar et al. 2006).

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References Ahmad Jan H, Jan S, Bussmann RW, Wali S, Sist F, Ahmad, L. Complementary and alternative medicine research, prospects and limitations in Pakistan: a literature review. Acta Ecol Sin. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chnaes.2019.12.005. Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan and Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995–2020. Katewa SS, Chaudhary BL, Jain A. Folk herbal medicines from tribal area of Rajasthan, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2004;92:41–6. Kumar VP, Chauhan NS, Padh H, Raj M. Search for antibacterial and antifungal agents from selected Indian medicinal plants. J Ethnopharmacol. 2006;107:182–8. Muhammad S, Hussain M, Abbas Z, Saquib Z, Bussmann RW, Shah GM. An ethnomedicinal appraisal of Kurram agency (Tribal area) Pakistan. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2019;18(4):631–47. Ullah M, Mehmood S, Ali M, Bussmann RW, Aldosari A, Ali Khan R, Ullah R, Hussain W, Rahman Shah MA. An ethno pharmacological study of plants used for treatment of diabetes in the Southern and Tribal regions of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019; 18(8). https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.8.1-20.

Ferula assa-foetida L. Ferula narthex Boiss. APIACEAE Hassan Sher, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

Synonyms Ferula assa-foetida L.: Ferula foetida Regel; Ferula foetida St.-Lag.; Scorodosma foetidum Bunge

H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_102

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Local Names Ferula assa-foetida: Russian: Фepулa вoнючaя (Ferula vonyuchaya); Arabic: Halatayta (‫ ;)ﺓﺕﻱﺕﻝﺡ‬English: Giant fennel Ferula narthex: Pashto: Rawe

Botany and Ecology Ferula assa-foetida: Perennial; root inflated, ovoid, monocarpic plant; stem thick, about 1 m high, robust, branching in upper part to produce dense globular panicle; lower leaves alternate, upper disposed in few whorls; leaves soft, early withering, mostly glabrous above, more or less soft-haired beneath; radical leaves with short thick petioles; blade broad, ternately dissected, its lobes bipinnatisect into large oblong or oblong-lanceolate or lanceolate, 15 cm long, 5 cm wide decurrent lobules, rounded at apex, entire or deeply cut into few, often entire segments; cauline leaves much smaller, upper reduced to sheaths; sheaths oval, flat, chartaceous, covered with curly hairs outside. Umbels variable, terminal sessile or on reduced pedicels, of 25 rays, spherical, 15–20 cm wide, lateral on long pedicels in groups of 3–6; umbellets 15-flowered, dense, hairy, without involucre; calyx edentate; petals pale yellow, nearly cream, oval, flat, 3.5 mm long; stylopodium elongate; stigmas flattened-capitate; mericarps piano-compressed, with broad margin, pubescent, ellipsoid or globular- ovoid, emarginate, 16–22 mm long, 16–12 mm wide; ribs filiform, slightly protruding; canals very narrow, sometimes hardly distinguishable, numerous. Flowering March–April, fruiting April–May. In Middle Asia, Iran, and Afghanistan. On loess and loess piedmont plains, sand, often in large groups (Shishkin 1951) (Fig. 1). Ferula narthex: Plants 1.5–2 m tall. Root thick, fusiform. Stem base fibrous. Leaves large, bipinnate; segments oblong; margin entire to sinuate. Umbels axillary, regularly distributed from the base to the top of the plant, not pubescent. Rays up to 30. Petals yellow, deciduous. Fruit 10–12 mm long; furrows 1–(2)-vittate; vittae large, sometimes branched; commissure 4–6-vittate, unequal and variable (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020) (Figs. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8).

Phytochemistry Essential oils (butylpropyl disulfide, dimethyl trisulfide, 2-butylmethyl disulfide, 2-butylmethyl trisulfide, di-2-butyl-disulfide, di-2-butyl-trisulfide, di-2-butyl-tetrasulfide) and flavonoids (luteolin, 7-glucoside luteolin) (Sokolov 1988).

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Local Medicinal Uses Ferula assa-foetida: Resin is used for epilepsy (Dey et al. 2017), digestive and respiratory disorders (Ahmad Jan et al. 2019; Alqethami et al. 2017). It is also employed to treat colds, cough, and fever (Ballabh and Chaurasia 2007). Ferula narthex is used in Pakistan to improve eyesight and for digestive problems (Sher et al. 2016; Ur-Rahman et al. 2019). It is also reported as an abortifacient (Quave 2013). In Middle Asia, Ferula leaves are used as anticonvulsant, choleretic, bronchial asthma, tuberculosis, diabetes, liver problems, syphilis, malignant tumors, vermifuge, for nervous diseases, and wounds as well as dermatoses (Sokolov 1988). Ferula violacea is rich in vitamins and is used to aid digestion and to treat gastrointestinal problems. F. violacea is also used as a medicine to treat digestive system disorders and as an anthelmintic against gastrointestinal worms (Boboev et al. 2013; Bussmann et al. 2020a, b).

Local Food Uses Ferula assa-foetida: It is used as spice (Bussmann et al. 2020a, b; Gurib-Fakim 2006). Local people use leaves and stems in traditional foods. The smell of dried Ferula violacea is very pleasant and people use it during the winter in different meals. The fresh and young sprouts of Ferula violacea are widely used as a fresh vegetable. Leaves are used in preparing national Tajik dishes, e.g., Oshi burida, Otala, Birinjoba, and Mastoba (Boboev et al. 2013; Bussmann et al. 2020a, b). Fig. 1 Ferula assa-foetida (Apiaceae), Swat, Pakistan. (Photo Haider Ali)

936 Fig. 2 Ferula narthex (Apiaceae), Swat, Pakistan. (Photo Hassan Sher & Ikram Ur-Rahman)

Fig. 3 Ferula violacea (Apiaceae), Tadjikistan. (Photo M. Boboev)

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Ferula assa-foetida L. . . . Fig. 4 Ferula violacea (Apiaceae), Tadjikistan. (Photo M. Boboev)

Fig. 5 Ferula violacea (Apiaceae), Tadjikistan. (Photo M. Boboev)

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Fig. 7 Ferula violacea (Apiaceae), Tadjikistan. (Photo M. Boboev)

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Ferula assa-foetida L. . . .

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Fig. 8 Ferula violacea (Apiaceae), Tadjikistan. (Photo M. Boboev)

Local Handicraft and Other Uses In veterinary medicine, the species is used for wound healing (Sokolov 1988).

References Ahmad Jan H, Jan S, Bussmann RW, Wali S, Sist F, Ahmad L. Complementary and alternative medicine research, prospects and limitations in Pakistan: a literature review. Acta Ecol Sin. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chnaes.2019.12.005. Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan and Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995–2020. Alqethami A, Hawkins JA, Teixidor-Toneu I. Medicinal plants used by women in Mecca: urban, Muslim and gendered knowledge. Alqethami et al. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13:62. https:// doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0193-4. Ballabh B, Chaurasia OP. Traditional medicinal plants of cold desert Ladakh – used in treatment of cold, cough and fever. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;112(2):341–9.

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Boboev T, Boboev МТ, Saidov K. Rastanihoi gizoi va davoii Tojikistoni Janubi va rohhoi parvarishu muhofizati onho. Kulob, 48 p [In Tajik]. 2013. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Boboev M, Ghorbani A, de Boer H. Ferula foetida Regel; Ferula kuhistanica Korovin; Ferula moschata (H. Reinsch) Koso-Pol.; Ferula violacea Korovin; Ferula sp. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions Central Asia and Altai. Cham: Springer International Publishing International Publishing; 2020a. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77087-1_60-1. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Moazzami Farida SH, Ghorbani A, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D. Ferula assa-foetida L. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions far Eastern Europe. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020b. https://doi.org/10.1007/ 978-3-319-77088-8_59-1. Dey A, Gorai P, Mukherjec A, Dhan R, Kumar Modak B. Ethnobiological treatments of neurological conditions in the Chota Nagpur Plateau, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2017;198:33–44. Gurib-Fakim A. Medicinal plants: traditions of yesterday and drugs of tomorrow. Mol Asp Med. 2006;27:1–93. Quave CL. Medicinal plant monographs. Atlanta: Emory University; 2013. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni groups in Chitral District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 17: Umbelliflorae (continued) Peucedaneae-Dauceae & Nyassaceae, Cornaceae; Akademia Nauk, Leningrad. 285 pages, 25 plates with b/w line drawings; 2 b/w fold-out maps. 1951 (English 1974). Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, vol. 4. Akademia Nauk, Leningrad: Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae; 1988. 357 p. (in Russian) Ur-Rahman I, Sher H, Bussmann RW. editors. Reference guide on high value medicinal and aromatic plants – sustainable management and cultivation practices. Mingora: University of Swat, Pakistan; 2019. ISBN 978-969-23419-0-5.

Fragaria nubicola (Hook. f.) Lindl. ex Lacaita ROSACEAE Sangita Shresta, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Fragaria nubicola (Hook. f.) Lindl. ex Lacaita.: Fragaria vesca var. nubicola Hook. f.; Potentilla nubicola Lindl. ex Hook. f.

S. Shresta Red River Trail, Valley Ranch, Irving, Texas, USA R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_103

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Local Names Fragaria nubicola: Pashto: Zmakin toot ‫ ;ﺕﻭﺕ ﻡﮎﯼﻥ ﺫ‬Bhutan: Bri-rta-sa-zin; China: Xi Zang Cao Mei; India: Jungli-istaber, Bhawila, Bhula, Gand-kaphal, Aakhe; Nepal: Juphal, Bhui ainselu, Bhulkafal; Gharwal: Gand-kaphal; Kashmir: Budmew; Baltistan: Bursai; Pakistan: Zamaki-toot, Panjakha; Budi meva; Urdu: Budemewa; English: Wild strawberry, Himalayan Strawberry (Roshan et al. 2019)

Botany and Ecology Beginning in the earliest years of the 1400s, the Western European monks were using the round-fruited wild strawberry in their “Illuminated Manuscripts.” It has been held that the monks first began drawing the strawberry plant because of its graceful form and pure colors. The French King Charles V was the patron of Miniaturists, who had collected and grown 12,000 strawberry plants in his Royal Garden by 1386 (Darrow 1966). The genus Fragaria L., comprising about 20 species, is distributed all over the north temperate or Holarctic zone (Staudt 1999). Diploid, tetraploid, hexaploid, and octaploid species exist with the basic chromosome number of n ¼ 7. Fragaria nubicola grows in the valley forests, forest margins, meadows on mountain slopes, varying the ranges between 2500 and 3900 m. Fragaria nubicola is distributed in Nepal, Afghanistan, Bhutan, Kashmir, Myanmar, Pakistan, and Sikkim. Fragaria nubicola: Herbs perennial, 4–25 cm tall. Stems appressed white sericeous. Petiole appressed (rarely spreading) white sericeous; leaf blade 3-foliolate; leaflets shortly petiolulate or sessile, elliptic or obovate, 1–6  0.5–3 cm, abaxially appressed white sericeous, sparsely so between veins, adaxially appressed pilose, base broadly cuneate or rounded, margin sharply incised serrate, apex obtuse. Inflorescence 1- to several flowered. Pedicel appressed white sericeous. Sepals ovate-lanceolate or ovate-oblong, apex acuminate; epicalyx segments lanceolate, abaxially sparsely villous, margin entire, rarely dentate, apex acuminate. Petals obovate-elliptic. Stamens about 20. Carpels numerous. Aggregate fruit ovoid; persistent sepals appressed to aggregate fruit. Achenes ovoid, glabrous or rugose. Flowering and fruiting (Wu et al. 2003, 1994–2013) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6).

Phytochemistry Leaves and fruits of Fragaria nubicola are reported to be rich in flavonoids, tannins, borneol, ellagic acid, and polyphenolic compounds, many of which have been proven to be potent antioxidants that can be used in prevention and treatment of many diseases including cancer (Madhuri and Pandey 2009; Rakhunde and Ali 2014; Roshan et al. 2019). A range of polyphenolics (phenolics, flavonoids, flavonols, tannins, proanthocyanidines) have been described from Fragaria nubicola fruits having vital antioxidants activities (ABTS, DPPH, FRAP, NO, and OH)

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Fig. 1 Fragaria nubicola (Rosaceae) plant with a ripe fruit, Nepal. (Photo Krishna Ram Bhattarai)

(Bahukhandi et al. 2019). The fresh berries were recorded exceptionally rich in bioactive constituents in comparison to dried berries and pomace. Fresh juice of Fragaria nubicola fruit has neuroprotective effect on ischemia reperfused brain injury and is beneficial in stroke (Rakhunde and Ali 2014). It is reported to accelerate the activities of various enzymes such as catalase and super oxide dismutase and decrease nitrite and malondialdehyde, indicating Fragaria nubicola have the power to decrease the free radical formation and have antioxidant properties. The groups of rats treated with fresh fruit juice of F. nubicola showed a statistically significant improvement in the neurobehavioral parameters such as motor performance. Antioxidant and hyperlipidemic activity of F. nubicola were evaluated (Anees et al. 2018). All in vitro antioxidant activities were found to be concentration dependent when compared with standard antioxidants BHT and vitamin C. At

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Fig. 2. Fragaria nubicola (Rosaceae) flower, Nepal. (Photo Krishna Ram Bhattarai)

concentration of 700 μg/Ml, the DPPH radical scavenging activity of methanol extract was more than that of aqueous ethyl acetate extract. Hyperlipidemic activity was assessed in rat’s model with 35 rats divided into 7 groups. Significant reduction in total cholesterol, triglyceride, LDL, and rise in HDL levels were observed in all groups under study. Lipid-lowering capacity of methanol extract was more than that of aqueous extracts. Antimicrobial activity of dried powder of Fragaria nubicola acetone extract against E. coli, S. aureus, Aspergillus spp., and Penicillium spp. has been studied. Highest zone of inhibition (10.75 mm) was observed for E. coli, but moderate (9.75 mm) inhibition was shown for S. aureus (Gazala et al. 2016).

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Fig. 3 Fragaria nubicola (Rosaceae) Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

Fig. 4 Fragaria nubicola (Rosaceae) Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Two novel benzyl derivatives have been isolated from ethyl acetate fraction of F. nubicola through successive column chromatography, and structural elucidation was based on spectroscopic data through IR, UV, 1H-NMR, 13C-NMR along with

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Fig. 5 Fragaria nubicola (Rosaceae) Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 6 Fragaria nubicola (Rosaceae) Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

two dimensional (2D) techniques HMBC, HMQC, and COSY (Naz et al. 2017). The structures of these compounds were elucidated to be 5-(4-hydroxy-3methoxyphenethyl)-7-methoxy-2H-chromen-3-ol (Compound 1) and 5-(4-hydroxy3-methoxyphenethyl)-4,7-dimethoxy-2H-chromen-3-ol (Compound 2) based on spectroscopic data. Both compounds 1 and 2 were studied in tail suspension and forced swim tests for antidepressant like effects. Both compounds exhibited significant dosedependent antidepressant-like effect by causing spontaneous anti-immobility in various test doses upon intraperitoneal administration. Compound 1 was isolated as colorless oil with molecular formula C19H20O5. Compound 2 was isolated as colorless oil from ethyl acetate fraction of F. nubicola. Its molecular formula was C20H22O6.

Local Medicinal Uses Fragaria nubicola: The leaves and fruit are mixed with the leaves of Berberis lycium and used in cure of stomach ulcers and also used as an antiseptic (Gilani et al. 2006a, b). Leaves and root are used for skin infections, urinary disorders, and diarrhea (Ahmad et al. 2014). Whole plant juice is used for stomach ulcers, as an antiseptic, and for diarrhea (Kayani et al. 2015). Leaves and fruits are used as carminative, for

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stomach ulcers, and as an antiseptic (Haq et al. 2011). Plant juice is used to treat profuse menstruation and tongue blemishes. The fruit mixed with Berberis lycium leaves is used to treat stomach ulcers and as an antiseptic. Leaves are mildly astringent and diuretic, used in children’s diarrhea, and infections of the urinary organs. Tea is prepared from the roots and leaves (Amjad 2015). Fruit juice of it is considered as antidiarrheal and antidysenteric. It is also used in diabetes and sexual diseases (Khan et al. 2013). The fruit is used as laxative and purgative (Ch et al. 2013). Leaves and fruit are eaten in diarrhea and dysentery (Jamal et al. 2017). Fruit is taken in for abdominal problems, and leaves are used as an antiseptic on the wounds. The leaves and fruits are mixed with the leaves of Berberis lycium and used in the cure of stomach ulcers (Sabeen and Ahmad 2009). The juice of the plant is used in the treatment of profuse menstruation. The unripe fruit is chewed to treat blemishes on the tongue. The leaves and fruit are mixed with the leaves of Berberis lycium and used in cure of stomach ulcers, and also used as an antiseptic. Leaves are mildly astringent and diuretic, and are used in children’s diarrhea and affection of the urinary organs (Shaheen et al. 2012). The plant paste is applied to wounds and skin problems, the fruits are used as diuretic and astringent (Kunwar and Bussmann 2009; Kunwar et al. 2010, 2013), as well as for stomach ulcers, as an antiseptic, and against diarrhea (Kayani et al. 2015), and for hypertension (Ahmad et al. 2015). Whole plants, herbs, fruits, leaves, and roots are used traditionally to treat different ailments. Whole plant is emetic (Ali and Qaisar 2009). Plant Juice is useful for inflammation of the nerves and lungs (Kunwar et al. 2010). Fresh fruits of F. nubicola, dried leaves of Potentilla peduncularis, and dried roots of Geumelatum elatum are crushed together to prepare paste and taken orally to treat cold, cough, and fever in Arunachal Pradesh, India (Chakraborty et al. 2017). Plants are used by Tibetan doctors to treat neuropsychiatric disorders and nerve inflammation (Antonio et al. 2013). Decoction of stem is used for curing fever in Himachal Pradesh, India (Uniyal 2006). The fruits are edible and have laxative, digestive, purgative, astringent, and diuretic effects (Kunwar and Adhikari 2005; Qureshi et al. 2007; Bhattarai et al. 2011). Raw fruits are used in tonsillitis by Magar community of Nepal (Thapa 2012). Fragaria nubicola fruits having antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties have been used in skin diseases and curing wounds (Kunwar et al. 2010). In Panchase region of mid-hills, Nepal, the fruit paste is used for healing wound (Bhattarai et al. 2011) and in other parts of the country, and the fruit juice is used to cure inflammation of nerves and lungs (Baral and Kurmi 2006). In Pakistan, fruits are also used as carminative and antiseptic in stomach ulcers (Haq et al. 2011) and also used as laxative and purgative in the hilly regions (Qureshi et al. 2007). Fruit juice is also used for diarrhea, dysentery, and in sexual diseases in Pakistan (Khan et al. 2012). For diarrhea, the juice of fruit is taken twice a day till recovery in Kashmir (Bhat et al. 2012). The berries are reported to be of great benefit for rheumatic gout and sunburn in Pakistan (Khan et al. 2012). Fruits are also used for liver disorders and anemia. Fruit juice is given to small children for accelerating recovery from weakness after illness or high fever (Quattrocchi 2016). Leaves are used as carminative and antiseptic in stomach ulcers in Poonch valley, Pakistan (Haq et al. 2011). Mixture of leaves of F. nubicola and Berberis lycium are used to cure

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stomach ulcers and also used as an antiseptic in Abbottabad, Pakistan (Gilani et al. 2006a, b). The aqueous leaf extract is used as laxative, diuretic, and astringent, and the leaf decoction is used to stop diarrhea and dysentery (Khan et al. 2012). Leaves are used for boils, mouth ulcers, and leaf juice is used internally in ear to relieve earache (Quattrocchi 2016). In Nepal, root paste is used to control bleeding, cough, and cold (Kunwar and Adhikari 2005). Root paste is reported to be diuretic, laxative, diaphoretic, astringent, and used for headache (Quattrocchi 2016). Rhizome is used to cure tonsillitis in Kashmir, where fresh rhizome is ground to a fine powder and mixed with sugar (2–5 mg) and used for a month (Shinwari et al. 2004). Decoction of leaves and roots are used to cure diarrhea and dysentery (Khan et al. 2012). For tonsillitis, rhizome is crushed into powder and mixed with honey and taken twice for 20–25 days. For rheumatism, dried roots are cut into pieces and used to make tea and one cup of tea is taken every morning for few weeks in Kashmir, India (Bhat et al. 2012). Roots are used to treat earache in India (Singh et al. 2009). It is also used to treat earache (Singh et al. 2017).

Local Food Uses Fragaria nubicola: The fruit is edible and has a very pleasant strawberry flavor (Amjad 2015, Ch et al. 2013; Wali et al. 2019; Abbas et al. 2019; Ahmad et al. 2009; Dangol et al. 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Fragaria nubicola: The plant is grazed by cattle and is used as fodder for livestock (Ilyas et al. 2013; Wali et al. 2019). Fruits are gathered and sold by local children (Ali and Qaisar 2009).

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Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Medicinal, aromatic and dye plants of Baitadi and Darchula districts, Nepal Himalaya: status, uses and management. In: Hartmann M, Weipert J, editors. Biodiversität, Naturausstattung im Himalaya, Bd. III. Erfurt: Universität Erfurt; 2009. p. 475–89. Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Bussmann RW. Traditional herbal medicine in Far-West Nepal: a pharmacological appraisal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:35. http://www.ethnobiomed.com/ content/6/1/35 Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Acharya RP, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants, traditional medicine, markets and management in far-west Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:24. Madhuri S, Pandey G. Some anticancer medicinal plants of foreign origin. Curr Sci. 2009;46(6):779–83. Naz S, Farooq U, Khan A, Karim N, Sarwar R, Hussain J, Rauf A. Antidepressent effect of two Benzyl derivatives from Wild Strawberry Fragaria vesca var. nubicola Lindl. ex. Hook.f. Front Pharmacol. 2017;8:469. Quattrocchi U. CRC World dictionary of medicinal and poisonous plants: common names, scientific names, eponyms, synonyms, and etymology. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2016. Qureshi RA, Ghufran MA, Gilani SA, Sultana K, Ashraf M. Ethnobotanical studies of selected medicinal plants of Sudhan Gali and Ganga Chotti hills, District Bagh Azad Kashmir, Pakistan. J Bot. 2007;39(7):2275–83. Rakhunde PB, Ali SA. Antioxidant and cytoprotective effect of Fragaria nubicola on ischemia reperfusion induced brain injury. Ann Exper Biol. 2014;2(4):33–8. Roshan R, Ahmed S, Hasan M. Fragaria nubicola (Rosaceae): a review of medicinal uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology. J Pharm Phytochem. 2019;8(4):3390–3. Sabeen M, Ahmad SS. Exploring the folk medicinal flora of Abbotabad city, Pakistan. Ethnobot Leaflets. 2009;2009(7):1. Shaheen H, et al. Indigenous plant resources and their utilization practices in village populations of Kashmir Himalayas. Pak J Bot. 2012;44(2):739–45. Shinwari Z, Khuroo A, Dar G. Ethnomedicinal survey of Uri, Kashmir Himalaya. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2004;3(4):351–7. Singh A, Lal M, Samant S. Diversity, indigenous uses and conservation prioritization of medicinal plants in Lahaul valley, proposed Cold Desert Biosphere Reserve, India. Int J Biodivers Sci Manag. 2009;5(3):132–54. Singh S. Youssouf M., Malik ZA, Bussmann RW. Sacred Groves: myths, beliefs and biodiversity conservation a case study from Western Himalaya, India. Int J Ecol. 2017;3828609. https://doi. org/10.1155/2017/3828609. Staudt G. Systematics and geographical distribution of American Strawberry species. Taxonomic studies in the genus Fragaria (Rosaceae: Potentilleae). Botany Vol. 81. Los Angeles/London: University of California Publication/University of California Press Berkeley; 1999. Thapa S. Medico-ethnobotany of Magar communityin Salija VDC of Parbat district, Central Nepal. Our Nat. 2012;10:176–90. Uniyal SK. Traditional use of medicinal plants among the tribal communities of Chhota Bhangal, Western Himalayas. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2(1):14. Wali R, Rahman K, Raja NI, Qureshi R, Bussmann RW, Mashwani ZUR. A quantitative medico botanical expedition of Fairy Meadows National Park, Diamir, Gilgit Baltistan, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 1835. 2019. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.35.1-30. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Wu ZY, Raven PH, Hong DY, editors. Flora of China. Vol. 9 (Pittosporaceae through Connaraceae). St. Louis: Science Press, Beijing, and Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 2003. 338 p.

Fraxinus excelsior L. Fraxinus xanthoxyloides (G. Don) DC. OLEACEAE Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Fraxinus excelsior L.: Fraxinus apetala Lam., Fraxinus hookeri Wenz. Fraxinus xanthoxyloides (G. Don) DC.: Fraxinus dimoprphus Coss. & Durieu; Ornus xanthoxyloides G. Don.

Local Names Fraxinus excelsior: Russian: Ясень (jasen)

Botany and Ecology Fraxinus excelsior: Tree, up to 30 m tall, the trunk up to 1 or rarely 2 m in diameter, the light gray bark with slender cracks; branchlets stout, the dark yellow bark verrucose-punctate; buds black, glabrous, rough; leaves imparipinnate, with 3–5 pairs of leaflets, the rachis dark red, paler toward the end; leaflets oblong-ovate, H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_104

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ovate-lanceolate, broadly lanceolate, or rarely lanceolate, 5–20 cm long, serrulate, long-mucronate, cuneate or rarely somewhat rounded at base, sessile or borne on very short petioles, not anastomosing, the primary veins covered with long straight whitish or rufescent hairs, the base of leaflet with a tuft or sometimes a complete ring of tangled tomentum; young leaflets thin, becoming coriaceous in age, green above, pale green to glaucescent beneath; flowers polygamous; stigma 2-lobed; samara 28– 35 mm long, up to 9 mm broad, narrowly obovate, truncate or round-tipped or slightly emarginate, the body half the total length. Flowering April; fruiting September. Ural, Caucasus, Middle Asia, in Quercus and broadleaves Picea forests, up to 2000 m (Shishkin and Boborov 1952) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4). Fraxinus xanthoxyloides: Shrubs or small trees to 7 m. Branchlets terete and smooth. Leaves 8–12 cm, sometimes only 2 cm on shrubby twigs; petiole 1– 1.5 cm; axis with winged ridges; leaflets (5–)7–11(–13), sessile or subsessile; leaflet blade ovate-lanceolate or narrowly elliptic, (0.5–)3–4(–5.5)  0.5–1.5 cm, subleathery, glabrous except for white puberulent abaxial base of midrib, base cuneate, slightly oblique, margin crenate, lower part entire, apex obtuse or acute; primary veins about 4 on each side of midrib. Cymose panicles lateral at branches of previous year, about 5 mm. Flowers polygamous, appearing before leaves. Corolla absent. Staminate flowers without calyx. Bisexual flowers with a minute, cupular calyx persistent in fruit. Samara oblong-linear, 3–5 cm  about 5 mm; wing decurrent to lower part of nutlet. Flowering April, fruiting October (Wu et al. 1994–2013).

Phytochemistry Carbohydrates (mannitol, sorbitol, galactose, glucose, sucrose, raffine, mannitol, stachyose), syringoside, coumarins (fraxetine, fractine, esculine, cichorian, escueteine, fractinol), flavonoids (quercetine, suberine, rhamnoglucoside, Fig. 1 Fraxinus excelsior (Oleaceae), Manglisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fraxinus excelsior L. . . . Fig. 2 Fraxinus excelsior (Oleaceae), Manglisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Fraxinus ornus (Oleaceae), Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Fraxinus ornus (Oleaceae), Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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kaempferol, rhamnovoglucoside), organic acids, saponins, vitamins (C, B1, carotenoids), and tannins (Sokolov 1988).

Local Medicinal Uses Fraxinus excelsior: In the Ural and Northern Caucasus, the leaf decoction is used for wound healing, diarrhea, as diuretic, laxative, rheumatism, kidney disease, arthritis, and gout. In Middle Asia, it used as an astringent (Sokolov 1988). Fraxinus floribunda is used for gout and bone fractures (Tamang et al. 2017). Fraxinus rhynchophylla is used in Chinese traditional medicine (Wu 2005). Fraxinus chinensis seeds are nourishing, used for liver and kidney, and stomatitis. Bark treats burns and roots treat rheumatism (Ma et al. 2019). Fraxinus malacophylla is used to diminish inflammation, as diuretic, aperient, for digestion, and as stomachic (Ma et al. 2019).

Local Food Uses Fraxinus excelsior: The leaves are sometimes pickled (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017; 2018; 2019; Bussmann 2017; Sokolov 1988), and the fruits are also pickled (Łuczaj et al. 2012).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Fraxinus excelsior: The wood is strong, elastic, heavy, flexible, and easy to polish and is used for shipbuilding, construction, interior decoration, wagons, musical instruments, caskets, and household utensils. The species is used as fodder for sheep, goats, cattle, horses, pigs (fruits) and also planted as ornamental. Black and brown dyes can be obtained from the bark (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1988). Fraxinus syriaca is used to make walking sticks (Ahmad and Ahmad 2015).

References Ahmad SA, Ahmad AAA. Ethnobotany of the Hawraman region of Kurdistan. Harv Pap Bot. 2015;20(1):85–9. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1 Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ehnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2.

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Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plant. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D. Fraxinus excelsior L. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions far Eastern Europe. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2019. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77088-8_62-2. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian) Łuczaj Ł, Pieroni A, Tardio J, Pardo de Samtayana M, Söukand R, Svanberg I, Kalle R. Wild food plants in 21st century Europe: the disappearance of old traditions and the search for new cuisines involving wild edibles. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2012;81(4):359–70. Ma Y, Liu D, Cheng H, Bussmann RW, He H, Guo Z, Liu B. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by Miao people in Jijiezi, Yunnan, China. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18:26. https:// doi.org/10.32859/era.18.26.1-14. Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, Volume 18: Metachlamydeae; Akademia Nauk, Leningrad; 1952 (English 1967). 600 p. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, vol. 4. Akademia Nauk, Leningrad: Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae; 1988. 357 p. (in Russian) Tamang M, Pal K, Kumar Rai S, Kalam A, Rehan Ahmad S. Ethnobotanical survey of threatened medicinal plants of West Sikkim. Int J Bot Stud. 2017;2(6):116–25. Wu JN. An illustrated Chines Materia Medica. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2005. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. St. Louis: Science Press, Beijing & Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013.

Fritillaria cirrhosa D. Don. LILIACEAE Hem Raj Paudel, Laxmi Raj Joshi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Fritillaria cirrhosa D. Don.: Baimo cirrhosa (D. Don) Raf; Fritillaria cirrhosa var. bonatii (H. Lev.) S.C. Chen; Fritillaria cirrhosa var. brachyantha C. Marquand & Airy Shaw; Fritillaria cirrhosa var. dingreinsis Y. K. Yang & J. Z. Zhang; Fritillaria cirrhosa var. jilongensis Y. K. Yang & Gesan; Fritillaria cirrhosa subsp. roylei (Hook.) Ali; Fritillaria cirrhosa var. viridiflava S. C. Chen; Fritillaria duilongdequingensis Y. K. Yang & Gesan; Fritillaria gulielmi-waldemarii Klotzsch; Fritillaria lhiinzeensis Y. K. Yang & al.; Fritillaria polyphylla Fortune; Fritillaria roylei Hook.; Fritillaria zhufenensis Y. K. Yang & J. Z. Zhang; Lilium bonatii H. Lev.; Melorima cirrhosa (D. Don) Raf.

H. R. Paudel (*) National Herbarium and Plant Laboratories, Department of Plant Resources, Godawari, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] L. R. Joshi National Trust for Nature Conservation, Bardia Conservation Program, Kathmandu, Nepal R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_105

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Local Names Fritillaria cirrhosa: Nepali: ban lasun, kakoli, kakuli, ghade bish, bhodaya, bhuin saro, easagari; Kham/Magar: gha; Tamang: tiru; Sanskrit: kakoli, ksirakakol, ksirasukla, payasya; Tibetan: gha ludue dorje nagkpo, Chinese: chuan-beimu; English: snake’s head fritillary, yellow Himalayan fritillary, chess flower; Hindi: kakoli; Gujarati: kakoli; Malayalam: kakoli; Jammu: kshirakakoli; Kashmir: sheethkar; Tamil: kakoli; Telugu: kakoli (Anonymous 1997; Anonymous 2007; Rajbhandari 2001; IUCN 2004; Uprety et al. 2010; Paudel 2014; Kunwar et al. 2014; Chaudhary et al. 2017; Ghimire et al. 2001).

Botany and Ecology Fritillaria cirrhosa: Bulb of 2 scales, 1–2 cm in diam. Stem 15–60 cm. Leaves 7–11, opposite or sometimes also 3- or 4-whorled and alternate; leaf blade linear to linearlanceolate, 4–12 cm  3–5( 15) mm, apex often curved or cirrose. Inflorescence 1 ( 3)-flowered; bracts 3, apex curved or cirrose. Flower nodding, campanulate or narrowly so; pedicel much shorter than tepals. Tepals yellow or yellowish green, slightly or heavily spotted or tessellated with purple, usually oblong-elliptic, 3– 5  1.2–1.8 cm; nectaries elliptic to ovate, 3–5  2–3 mm, projecting abaxially. Stamens 2–3 cm; filaments sometimes slightly papillose. Style 3-lobed; lobes 3– 5 mm. Capsule narrowly winged; wings 1–1.5 mm wide. Flowering May–July; fruiting August–October (Wu et al. 1994-2013). Climate change is already affecting the range of the species (Kunwar et al. 2015) (Figs. 1 and 2). It mainly occurs in forests, alpine thickets, meadows, flood lands, and moist places (Xinqi et al. 2000). However, it became endangered because of limited habitats, over-harvesting, and the weak physiological competitive (Li and Chen 2009). It is a high-value medicinal plant, and trade of it is increasing. Due to the over-harvesting and habitat loss the species is regarded as vulnerable (CAMP 2001). It is cultivated as a medicinal plant in SE China. F. cirrhosa is a vulnerable species in family Liliaceae, and it mainly grows in temperate Himalayas. Its origin is SinoJapanese or eastern Asiatic and distributed in Nepal (Western, Central, and Eastern, Figs. 3 and 4), Sikkim, Bhutan, South and Eastern Tibet, Northern Myanmar, and China.

Phytochemistry The major pharmacologically active constituents of F. cirrhosa are steroidal alkaloids. The chemical constituents in Fritillaria have been extensively investigated, which contained alkaloids, saponin, terpenoids, steroids, succinic acid, thymidine, adenisine, etc. The chemical and pharmacological research in recent years showed isosteroidal alkaloids are the main bioactive ingredients of Fritillaria species (Wang and Li 2013; Agrawal and Agrawal 1986), among which peimine (verticine) and

Fritillaria cirrhosa D. Don. Fig. 1 Fritillaria cirrhosa (Liliaceae), flowers, Nepal. (Photo Hem R Paudel)

Fig. 2 Fritillaria cirrhosa (Liliaceae), bulbs, Nepal. (Photo Hem R Paudel)

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Fig. 3 Fritillaria cirrhosa (Liliaceae), habit and habitat, Western Nepal. (Photo Hem R Paudel)

Fig. 4 Fritillaria sp. (Liliaceae). Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R. Bussmann)

peiminine (verticinone) are the major active alkaloids of it (Fig. 5). The bioactive compounds in its bulb, i.e., isosteroidal alkaloids, are greatly influenced by environmental conditions and fluctuate in content and concentration with plant age and reproductive stage (Konchar et al. 2011).

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More than ten isosteroidal alkaloids have been identified in different literatures, including imperialine, ebeiedine, ebeiedinone, ebeienine, verticine, verticinone, isoverticine, hupeheninoside, ebeiensine, and puqiedinone (Li et al. 2006; Watanabe et al. 2013). The major starches reported are amylose, amylopectin, etc. (Fatokun 2019). It also contains volatile oil, which is an important part of medicinal plants for pharmaceutical industries (Wang and Li 2013). Benzofuran, 4,7-dimethyl; 3-buten-2-one, 3-methyl-4-phenyl-; 1-phthalanol, 1,3,3-trimethyl; 1-dodecene; 1-hexadecanol; 1-octadecene; 1-eicosanol; n-hexadecanoic acid; oxirane, hexadecyl-; 9-octadecynoic acid, methyl ester; ethanol, 2-(9-octadecenyloxy)-; (Z)-Z-2-tetradecen-1-ol acetate; pentatriacontane; bis-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate.

Local Medicinal Uses Fritillaria cirrhosa: According to Ayurveda, this species is mentioned in Astavarga (group of 8 medicinal plants). Astavarga plants are also reported to restore health immediately and work as antioxidants in the body. It acts as rejuvenator, aphrodisiac, and tonic (Marde and Mishra 2019). Bulbs are sweet, bitter, refrigerant, galactagogue, aphrodisiac, and tonic. They are used in seminal weakness, hyperdipsia, intermittent fever, hematemesis, rheumatalgia, and general debility. Its bulb, named “chuan-beimu” in Chinese, has been used as an antitussive, anti-asthmatic, and expectorant for more than 2000 years in East Asia (Lin et al. 2006). It is commonly used for the treatment of cough in traditional Chinese medicine. They are cooked together with peeled orange scale and sugar for the tuberculosis and asthma. Practitioners of Chinese medicine believe that it affects the heat and lung meridians or energy pathways in the body and use it primarily to treat various lung conditions including asthma, bronchitis, tuberculosis, and cough of any type. It also moistens dry mucous membrane, resolve phlegm, and control coughing. It is thought to be most effective for cough accompanied by reduced appetite and a stifling sensation in the chest and upper abdomen. It is used as a lymphatic decongestant to reduce swellings, nodules, fibrocystic breasts, goiter, and swollen lymph glands. Plant juice is taken for stomach disorders (Gaire and Subedi 2011). In Dolpa (Western Nepal), fruit powder is mixed with nine other herbs, and the mixture is rolled to prepare small pills with honey. The pills are prescribed for treating different disorders (Ghimire et al. 2001). Bulb powered and boiled with orange skin is used for tuberculosis and asthma (Anonymous 1997). Plant juice is used in stomach disorder in Rasuwa district, Central Nepal (Uprety et al. 2010). Bulbs are used to increase memory power, gastritis, and fever at Karnali region of Nepal (Paudel 2014). The plant is used to reduce stomach pain in Rolwaling, Eastern Nepal (Rajbhandari 2001). The dried bulbs are used in asthma, bronchitis, and tuberculosis (Anonymous 2007). Dried bulbs are used in stopping blood flow from wounds and curing pimples (IUCN 2004). Tuber powder is taken orally to treat headache. The boiled plants are eaten as tonic (Rokaya et al. 2010) and to relieve various types of abdominal pains. It is also applied regularly on cuts and

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wounds as an antiseptic (Bhattarai 1993). Local healers use rhizome paste of F. cirrhosa (ban lasun) mixed with either rapeseed (sarsoo) or fat of Himalayan marmot (phyau musa, Marmota bobak) to treat leg/arm swelling and pain (Chaudhary et al. 2017). Plant juice is taken to cure gastritis/stomach disorders (Uprety et al. 2010) and for earache, as tonic, to relieve asthma, and to treat tuberculosis (Ghimire et al. 2018) and used in bronchitis and respiratory-related ailments, applied to reduce swelling, and eaten as health tonic (Tsering and Tag 2015). Powder is taken for bronchitis and asthma (Dorga et al. 2015). Powder is taken for tuberculosis and asthma (Lepcha and Das 2011). Decoction is taken orally for expectorant, astringent, and demulcent (Ijaz et al. 2019), is used as general health tonic (Kala et al. 2004; Kala 2005), and is used in Jammu and Kashmir as anthelminthic, for asthma and cardiac ailments, as diuretic, and to treat mumps and tuberculosis (Gairola et al. 2014). It is endangered due to over-collection (Mulk Khan et al. 2014). Fritillaria collina: The bulbs are eaten for heart ailments and to treat hangover (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017). Fritillaria imperialis serves as emollient and diuretic (Gairola et al. 2014).

Local Food Uses Fritillaria cirrhosa: Bulbs are edible after boiling and roasting, which is considered to be slightly bitter in taste; fresh gynoeceum is chewed (Ghimire et al. 2001; Cunningham et al. 2018). Fritillaria collina: The plant is eaten. Immature fruits are eaten raw at the beginning of summer in alpine areas of East Georgia (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017).

References Agrawal BL, Agrawal R. Rheumatic Fever: Clinical Profile of the Initial Attack in India/B. L. Agrawal & Rajeev Agrawal. Bull World Health Organ. 1986;64(4):573–8. https://apps. who.int/iris/handle/10665/47044 Anonymous. The wealth of India, vol. 4. New Delhi: Raw Materials, CSIR; 2007. p. 63. Anonymous. Medicinal plants of Nepal. Bull Dep Plant Res. 1997;3:23. Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Fritillaria collina Adams. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. https://doi.org/10.1007/ 978-3-319-49412-8_37. Bhattarai NK. Folk herbal medicines of Dolkha District, Nepal. Fitoterapia. 1993;64(5):387–95. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. CAMP. Proceeding of “Conservation Assessment and Management Plan” workshop. Government of Nepal: International Development Research Center (IDRC), Canada and Ministry of Forest and Environment; 2001.

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Fumaria indica Pugsley PAPAVERACEAE Hammad Ahmad Jan, Wahid Hussain, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Fumaria indica Pugsley: Fumaria parviflora Lam.; Fumaria vaillantii var. indica Hausskn.

Local Names Fumaria indica: Pashto: Paprha, Papra; Urdu: Shatera; Kashmir: Shahtar; Jammu: Parpata, Pit papra, Pit-pappada

H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan W. Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_106

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Botany and Ecology Fumaria indica: Small, delicate, much branched, leafy, diffuse herb, 5–25(–40) cm long, glaucous, glabrous. Leaves (2–)3–10 cm long, (1–)2–5 cm broad, long-stalked to subsessile, much dissected, 2–3-pinnatisect or decompound, with (2–)3–5 pairs of lateral pinnae and a terminal one; pinnae long-petioluled to subsessile; 1–3 cm long, 0.5–2(–2.5) cm broad, often ternately lobed with each lobe deeply, finely lobuled into linear ultimate segments (lobules) up to 5(–8) mm long, 1 mm broad, flat to slightly channelled. Racemes shortly peduncled to subsessile, leaf-opposed, 6–12(–15)-flowered, 10–20 mm long; bracts as long as or slightly longer than pedicels; linear, submembranous, whitish. Pedicel erect, 1.5–2(–2.5) mm long, with midian ridge and somewhat expanded margins, slightly broader below the fruit or at its apex. Flowers 5–6 mm long, usually white or pale pinkish. Sepals minute, less than 1 mm long, 0.5 mm broad, sometimes obsolete or inconspicuous, laciniate-dentate, whitish, membranous. Upper petal with very short suborbicular, slightly oblong and obscurely downcurved spur, c. 1.5 mm long (or about ½ of the lamina of upper petal). Fruit c. 2 mm in diameter, suborbicular, with usually rounded apex when mature (slightly or minutely apiculate when young), slightly or obscurely keeled (on the margins corresponding to pedicel margins), keel more distinct in slightly young fruits, somewhat rugose when dried and with 2 obscure apical pits, 1-seeded; seed 1–1.5 mm in diameter, brownish. Flowering March June. India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and C. Asia; introduced elsewhere (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020) (Figs. 1 and 2).

Fig. 1 Fumaria indica (Papaveraceae), Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

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Fig. 2 Fumaria indica (Papaveraceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Local Medicinal Uses Fumaria indica: The species is used as blood purifier (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020) and to treat skin acne (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018). The dried, ground rhizomes are used to treat body weakness (Sher et al. 2016). It is also employed for constipation and diarrhea (Ahmad Jan et al. 2019; Gilani and Rahman 2005); to treat fever, dyspepsia, hypertension, as antipyretic, antispasmodic, and to treat vomiting (Ahmad et al. 2015; 2017); and also to treat asthenia, asthma, as blood purifier, body weakness, breathing problems, vision problems, urination problems, digestive ailments, as diuretic, for dropsy, dyspepsia, fever, male impotence, jaundice, liver ailments, as liver tonic, for menstrual irregularities, nausea, palpation of the heart, pus, skin diseases, skin rashes, and vomiting (Gairola et al. 2014). Locally the plant is used as blood purifier, for high fever, and chest pain (Ahmad et al. 2014). The species is used for common fever, dyspepsia, hypertension, antipyretic, vomiting, and antispasmodic (Jan et al. 2017). The species is used as diuretic, diaphoretic, and recommended in leprosy (Hussain et al. 2008). The species is used for fever, boils, and constipation (Abbasi et al. 2010). Locally plant is used for fever, constipation, pimples, eruption, skin infections, and purify blood (Amjad et al. 2017). The species

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is used for jaundice and as a blood purifier (Ali et al. 2011). The plant is diuretic, diaphoretic, and aperient. An extract is used for cooling purpose, used externally also for the same purpose (Amjad 2015). The plant decoction is used as blood purifier, diuretic, anthelmintic, dyspepsia, and skin acne (Yousufzai et al. 2010). Shoots are shade dried, crushed, and herbal tea is made, which is drunk to relive abdominal pain (Shah and Hussain 2012). The species is given to animals to cure diarrhea (Abbasi et al. 2013).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Fumaria indica: The species is used as fodder (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020).

References Abbasi AM, Khan MA, Ahmed M, Zafar M. Herbal medicines used to cure various ailments by the inhabitants of Abbottabad district, North West Frontier Province, Pakistan. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2010;9(1):175–83. Abbasi AM, Khan SM, Ahmad M, Khan MA, Quave CL, Pieroni A. Botanical ethnoveterinary therapies in three districts of the Lesser Himalayas of Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Thnomed. 2013;9(1):84. Ahmad Jan H, Wali S, Ahmad L, Jana S, Ahmad N, Ullah N. Ethnomedicinal survey of medicinal plants of Chinglai valley, Buner district, Pakistan. Eur J Integ Med. 2017;13:64–74. Ahmad Jan H, Jan S, Bussmann RW, Wali S, Sist F, Ahmad L. Complementary and alternative medicine research, prospects and limitations in Pakistan: a literature review. Acta Ecol Sin. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chnaes.2019.12.005. Ahmad M, Sultana S, Fazl-i-Hadi S, Ben Hadda T, Rashid S, Zafar M, Yaseen G. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in high mountainous region of Chail valley (District Swat-Pakistan). J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2014;10(1):36. Ahmad L, Semotiuk A, Zafar M, Ahmad M, Sultana S, Liu Q-R, Zada MP, Ul Abidin SZ, Yaseen G. Ethnopharmacological documentation of medicinal plants used for hypertension among the local communities of DIR Lower, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;175:138–46. Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan and Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995–2020. Ali H, Sannai J, Sher H, Rashid A. Ethnobotanical profile of some plant resources in Malam Jabba valley of Swat, Pakistan. J Med Plant Res. 2011;5(18):4676–87. Amjad MS. Ethnobotanical profiling and floristic diversity of Bana Valley, Kotli (Azad Jammu and Kashmir), Pakistan. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. 2015;5(4):292–9. Amjad MS, Faisal Qaeem M, Ahmad I, Khan SU, Chaudhari SK, Malik NZ, . . . Khan AM. Descriptive study of plant resources in the context of the ethnomedicinal relevance of indigenous flora: a case study from Toli Peer National Park, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. PloS One. 2017;12(2): e0171896. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Gilani AH, Rahman AU. Trends in ethnopharmacology. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;100:43–9. Hussain K, Shahazad A, Zia-ul-Hussnain S. An ethnobotanical survey of important wild medicinal plants of Hattar district Haripur. Pak Ethnobot Leaflet. 2008;2008(1):5. Jan HA, Wali S, Ahmad L, Jan S, Ahmad N, Ullah N. Ethnomedicinal survey of medicinal plants of Chinglai valley, Buner district, Pakistan. Eur J Integ Med. 2017;13:64–74.

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Shah SM, Hussain F. Ethnomedicinal plant wealth of Mastuj valley, Hindukush range, District Chitral, Pakistan. J Med Plant Res. 2012;6:4328–37. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni groups in Chitral District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Ur-Rahman I, Afsal A, Iqbal Z, Ijas F, Ali N, Asif M, Alam J, Majid A, Bussmann RW. Traditional and ethnomedicinal dermatology practices in Pakistan. Clin Dermatol. 2018;363:310–9. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.clindermatol.2018.03.018. Yousufzai SA, Khan N, Wahab M, Ajaib M. Ethnomedicinal study of Marghazar Valley, Pakistan. Int J Biol Biotechnol. 2010;7:409–16.

Gentiana kurroo Royle GENTIANACEAE Wahid Hussain, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Gentiana kurroo Royle: Gentianodes kurroo (Royle) Omer, Ali & Qaiser

Local Names Gentiana kurroo: Urdu: neel kanth; Kashmir: neel kanth, tikta; Gilgit-Baltistan: cheti char

Botany and Ecology Gentiana kurroo: Perennial, with thick rhizome, up to 25.0-cm-high herb. Stem glabrous, branched from base. Basal leaves rosulate, 3–11  0.4–12 cm, oblonglinear, margin entire-crenate, little reflexed, acute, connate at base, univeined. Cauline leaves 0.8–3.5  0.1–02 cm, linear, entire, acute, connate at the base forming a tube. Inflorescence terminal. Flowers solitary, pedicellate, showy, 2–6W. Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_107

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cm-long campanulate. Calyx 22–45 cm long; tube 1–2.5 cm long; lobes unequal, 0.8–2.0  0.05–0.2 cm, linear, entire, acute; sinuses between lobes obtuse. Corolla 2–6 cm long, blue; tube 1.5–5.0 cm long; lobes 03–1.25  0.4–0.9( 1.0) cm, ovate, entire, acute; plicae 0.2–0.4  0.085–0.15 cm, ovate, entire-wavy, acute. Stamens 5; filaments slender, adnate at the middle of the corolla tube, slightly winged at base; anthers dorsifixed, bibbed,  sagittate. Ovary 1–2  0.2–0.75 cm, lanceolate, shortly stipitate; style not distinct; stigma bibbed, prominent. Nectaries at the base of ovary. Capsule stalked, 2–3.5  0.45–1.0 cm, lanceolate. Seeds numerous, oval, reticulate. Flowering September–November. Distribution: Pakistan, Kashmir, and India (Simla, Jaunsar, Chamba, and Garhwal). A Sino-Japanese species, restricted to Pakistan, Kashmir, and parts of Indian Himalayas. A late flowering species with large and showy flowers, common in the sub-alpine regions in the months of September–November. A perennial species growing on slopes with dry and pasture grasslands under pines and junipers, in between the elevations of 1500 and 7500 ft. (Ali and Qaiser 1995-2020) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6).

Phytochemistry Alkaloids (gentysflavin, rencianine, rentsyanadin, rentsiopuntin), iridoids (rentiopicrin), flavonoids (orientin, isovitexin), carbohydrates (fructose, glucose, sucrose, ganziobiosis, gentianosis), vitamins (C) (Sokolov 1990).

Fig. 1 Gentiana kurroo (Gentianaceae). Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

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Fig. 2 Gentiana cruciata (Gentianaceae). Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo Rainer W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses Gentiana kurroo: It is used for liver ailments and to increase body vigor (Kayani et al. 2015); in Gilgit-Baltistan for general healing, removal of dead cells, boils, headache, cols, fever, and malaria (Wali et al. 2019); and in Jammu, Ladakh, and Kashmir as blood purifier and for cough, fever, headache, and liver ailments (Gairola et al. 2014). Gentiana cruciata: In the area, it is traditionally used for epigastric pains, rabies, and plague, as anti-febrile and anthelmintic, and for wound healing, rheumatoid arthritis, gout, and early chlorosis and topically for purulent wounds. In the Middle Urals, the infusion is used for headache and as anthelmintic. In the Transcaucasus, the root decoction is used for diseases of the stomach, malaria, hemorrhoids, and infertility and as hemostatic (Sokolov 1990). The leaves are used for liver, gallbladder, and stomach ailments (Bussmann et al. 2018). Gentiana septemfida: The roots are prepared as water extract and the decoction is used to treat malaria and for stomach problems (Damirov et al. 1988). The leaves are prepared as tea and used as cholagogic, for stomach pain, and for liver and gallbladder ailments (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2020a, b; Bussmann 2017).

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Fig. 3 Gentiana cruciata (Gentianaceae) Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo Rainer W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Gentiana cruciata (Gentianaceae). Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo Rainer W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Food Uses Gentiana cruciata: It is used as bittering agent (Bussmann et al. 2020a, b, Sokolov 1990).

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Fig. 5 Gentiana cruciata (Gentianaceae). Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo Rainer W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 6 Gentiana septemfida (Gentianaceae). Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo Rainer W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Gentiana kurroo: It sometimes serves as forage (Wali et al. 2019). Gentiana septemfida: It can be used as ornamental in parks and gardens (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2020a, b). In China, Gentiana cephalantha, Gentiana nigrescens, and Gentiana szechenyii are used as fermenting agents (Zhang et al. 2016).

References Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan and Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995-2020.

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Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Gentiana septemfida Pall. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-49412-8_84. Bussmann RW. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing International Publishing; 2017. p. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1 Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – Ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5(5) Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti. Acta Sociatatis Botanicae Poloniae: Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus; 2016c. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D. Gentiana cruciata L.; Gentiana septemfida Pall. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions far Eastern Europe. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020a. https://doi.org/10.1007/9783-319-77088-8_77-2. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z. Gentiana macrophylla Pall. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions Central Asia and Altai: Springer International Publishing International Publishing; 2020b. https://doi.org/10.1007/9783-319-77087-1_64-1. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Kayani S, Ahmad M, Sultana S, Khan Shinwari ZM, Yaseen G, Hussain M, Bibi T. 2015. Ethnobotany of medicinal plants among the communities of alpine and sub-alpine regions of Pakistan J Ethnopharmacol 164 186–202. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 5. Families of Caprifoliaceae - Plantaginaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1990, 328 p. (in Russian) Wali R, Rahman K, Raja NI, Qureshi R, Bussmann RW, Mashwani ZUR. A quantitative medico botanical expedition of fairy meadows National Park, Diamir, Gilgit Baltistan, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019, 1835; https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.35.1-30. Zhang L, Chai Z, Zhang Y, Geng Y, Wang Y. Ethnobotanical study of traditional edible plants used by the Naxi people during droughts. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:39. https://doi.org/10. 1186/s13002-016-0113-z.

Gentianodes tianschanica (Rupr. ex Kusn.) Omer, Ali & Qaiser GENTIANACEAE Hassan Sher, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

Synonyms Gentianodes tianschanica (Rupr. ex Kusn.) Omer, Ali & Qaiser: Gentiana decumbens L. f.; Gentiana glomerata Kusnezow; Gentiana regelii Maximowicz ex Kusnezow; Gentiana regelii Kusnezow var. glomerata Kusnezow; Gentiana tianschanica var. glomerata Kusnezow; Gentiana tianschanica var. intermedia Kusnezow; Gentiana tianschanica var. pumila Kusnezow; Gentiana tianschanica Rupr. H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_108

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Botany and Ecology Gentianodes tianschanica: Perennials 15–25 cm tall. Roots up to 1.5 cm in diameter. Stems ascending, simple, glabrous. Basal leaves petiole 2–5 cm, membranous; leaf blade linear-elliptic to elliptic-lanceolate, 8–16  0.8–1.8 cm, base narrowed, margin smooth or scabrous, apex acuminate, veins 3–5. Stem leaves 3–5 pairs; petiole 0.5–2.5 cm, shortened toward apex; leaf blade linear to linear-lanceolate, 3.2–7 cm  5–9 mm, base obtuse, margin smooth or scabrous, apex acuminate, veins 1–3. Cymes axillary or terminal, forming a narrow panicle, axillary cymes sometimes on peduncle-like branches; peduncle purple, to 4 cm. Flowers sessile, rarely with pedicel to 1 cm. Calyx tube 7–9 mm, membranous, sometimes split on 1 side; lobes linear to linear-subulate, 7–10 mm, unequal. Corolla pale blue or yellow, funnelform, 2–3(–3.5) cm; lobes ovate-elliptic to ovate, 4–6 mm, margin entire, apex obtuse; plicae narrowly triangular, 2–2.5 mm, 2 cleft. Stamens inserted at middle of corolla tube; filaments 0.9–1.2 cm; anthers narrowly ellipsoid, 2–3 mm. Style 2–2.5 mm; stigma lobes narrowly ellipsoid. Capsules narrowly ellipsoid, 1.2– 1.5 cm; gynophore 7–10 mm. Seeds light brown, ellipsoid, 1.2–1.5 mm. Flowering and fruiting August–September. Along streams, grassland slopes, forests; 1200– 3900 m (Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Figs. 1 and 2).

Fig. 1 Gentianodes tianschanica (Gentianaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Haider Ali)

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Fig. 2 Gentianodes tianschanica (Gentianaceae), roots drying for sale, Pakistan. (Photo Haider Ali)

Local Medicinal Uses Gentianodes tianschanica: The species is used as astringent. Gentianodes cachemirica: It is used to increase appetite and against throat infections (Majid et al. 2019). Gentianodes eumarginata: The species is used to treat stomachache, bronchitis, respiratory disorders, and itching (Majid et al. 2019). Gentianodes nasirii: It is used against throat infections (Majid et al. 2019).

References Majid A, Ahmad H, Saqib Z, Ur Rahman I, Khan U, Alam J, Hussain Shah A, Ahmad Jan S, Ali N. Exploring threatened traditional knowledge; ethnomedicinal studies of rare endemic flora from Lesser Himalayan region of Pakistan. Rev Bras. 2019;29(6):785. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. St. Louis: Science Press, Beijing & Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013.

Gentianopsis paludosa (Munro ex Hook. f.) Ma Gentianopsis vvedenskyi (Grossh.) V.V. Pis. GENTIANACEAE Hassan Sher, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

Synonyms Gentianopsis paludosa (Munro ex Hook. f.) Ma: Gentiana detonsa var. paludosa Munro ex Hook. f.; Gentiana detonsa var. stracheyi C.B. Clarke; Gentiana paludosa Munro ex Hook. f.; Gentiana stracheyi (C.B. Clarke) Kitam. Gentianopsis vvedenskyi (Grossh.) V.V. Pis.: Gentiana stricta Willd. ex Schultes; Gentiana vvedenskyi Grossh.; Gentiana vvedenskyi (Grossh.) Harry Sm.

H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_109

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Local Names Gentianopsis paludosa: Ladakh: Chubeething

Botany and Ecology Gentianopsis paludosa: Annuals 3.5–40 cm tall. Stems ascending to erect. Basal leaves 3–5 pairs; petiole flattened, to 6 mm; leaf blade spatulate, 0.4–3 cm  2–9 mm, base cuneate, margin scabrous, apex rounded, veins 1–3. Stem leaves 1–4 pairs, sessile, lanceolate to oblong, 0.5–5.5 cm  2–14 mm, base and apex obtuse, margin scabrous, veins 1–3. Pedicel erect, 1.5–30 cm, elongated in fruit. Calyx 1–3.5 cm; lobes subequal; outer lobes narrowly triangular, 5–12 mm; inner lobes ovate, 4–10 mm; all lobes with margin membranous, apex acute, midvein strong and keeled. Corolla blue or yellowish white to yellow, sometimes pale yellow at base, broadly tubular, 1.6–6.5 cm; lobes broadly oblong, 1.2–1.7 cm, apex rounded, margin laciniate-fringed basally. Nectaries suborbicular, nodding. Filaments 1–1.5 cm; anthers ellipsoid, 2–3 mm. Style 3–4 mm. Capsules narrowly ellipsoid, as long as to longer than corolla; gynophore long. Seeds blackish, ellipsoid to subglobose, 0.8–1 mm in diameter. Flowering and fruiting July–October (Wu et al. 1994–2013). Gentianopsis vvedenskyi: Erect, annual-biennial, 20–43 cm long branched or unbranched herb. Stem canaliculate, smooth. Basal leaves rosulate, 0.75– 4.5 x 0.3–0.8 cm, obovate-oblong, obtuse-rounded, entire, margin revolute, dying off at flowering, cauline leaves 1.5–6.0 x 0.2–0.6 cm, linear-lanceolate, obtuse-acute, entire, sessile. Inflorescence solitary on long capitate or axillary peduncles, up to 6.0 cm long. Floral buds ellipsoidal. Flowers never exceeding 4.5 cm, 4-merous. Calyx distichously unequal, tube longer than lobes, two smaller lance shaped 0.75– 2.0 x 0.2–0.5 cm, acute-acuminate, entire, each lobe slightly carinate from middle, the two longer lanceolate lobes slightly longer than lance shaped lobes, 1–2.5 (–2.75) x 0.1–0.25 cm, lanceolate, acute, entire. Corolla blue, funnel-shaped to campanulate, 20–45(–60) mm, tube one-third the length, lobes oblong-obovate, obtuse, marginal ciliae not many. Ovary 0.4–0.8 x 0.1–0.3 cm, gynophore present, stigma prominent, subsessile or style very small. Capsule oval-oblong. Seeds small, numerous, papillose. Flowering and fruiting June–August. Former USSR, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Tibet, China, India, Nepal, and Bhutan. A uniregional species of Irano-Turanian region, extending into Sino-Japanese region. Grows in wet grass lands at an elevation of 2000–4000 m in sandy soils. This species is closely related to Gentianopsis barbata (Froel.) Ma, but the two are readily distinguishable. In Gentianopsis barbata (Froel.) Ma, the habit is robust and calycine lobes are broader, whereas Gentianopsis vvedenskyi (Grossh.) Omer bears less robust habit and lanceshaped calycine lobes (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020; Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Fig. 1).

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Fig. 1 Gentianopsis vvedenskyi (Gentianaceae), Pakistan. (Photo H. Sher and I Ur-Rahman)

Local Medicinal Uses Gentianopsis paludosa: The species is used to treat nausea, cough, fever, and headache (Gairola et al. 2014). Gentianopsis detonsa is used for boils (Gairola et al. 2014).

References Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan and Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995–2020. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D. editors. Flora of China. St. Louis: Science Press, Beijing & Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013.

Geranium collinum Stephan ex Willd. Geranium nepalense Sweet Geranium wallichianum D. Don ex Sweet GERANIACEAE Hammad Ahmad Jan, Wahid Hussain, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Synonyms Geranium collinum Stephan ex Willd.: Geranium collinum var. euglandulosum Ledeb.; Geranium collinum var. glandulosum Ledeb.; Geranium pseudoaconitifolium Blatt. Geranium nepalense Sweet: Geranium jinchuanense Z.M. Tan; Geranium lavergneanum H. Lév.; Geranium lavergneanum var. cinerascens H. Lév.; Geranium H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan W. Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_110

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nepalense var. oliganthum (C.C. Huang) C.C. Huang & L.R. Xu; Geranium pallidum Royle ex Ediger; Geranium patens Royle ex Edgew. & Hook. f.; Geranium radicans DC.

Local Names Geranium collinum: Pashto: Srazela ‫ﺱﺭﺍﺯﯼﻝﺍ‬ Geranium nepalense: Jammu: Bhanda, Bandaa; Chinese: 五星草 Wuxingcao; Wupanshei, Sazihu, Mazocao; Baltistan: Ratanjot, Geraben; Gharwal: Phori; Kashmiri: Jandorunu ‫ﺝﻥﺩﻭﺭﻭﻥﻭ‬ Geranium wallichianum: Jammu: Rattan Jot, Lal Jargi, Rattanjyot, Gul-e-Sanobar, Ang jari, Laal jehari, Swucha fullal; Kashmir: Ratanjog, Rathen joth, Ashud, Ratanjot, Kawashud; Baltistan: Ratanjot; Pashto: Srazela ‫ﺱﺭﺍﺯﯼﻝﺍ‬

Botany and Ecology Geranium collinum: Perennials. Rootstock
horizontal, 0.6–1.4 cm in diameter, not tuberculate, with thickened roots along rootstock. Stem 18–70(–100) cm tall, erect, not rooting at nodes, with 0.2–0.6 mm retrorse appressed nonglandular trichomes and sometimes 0.2–0.6 mm patent glandular trichomes. Stipules lanceolate, distinct. Leaves opposite; petiole with 0.2–0.6 mm retrorse appressed nonglandular trichomes and sometimes 0.5–0.6 mm patent glandular trichomes; leaf blade 2.4–4.5 (–9.4) cm, palmately cleft, ratio of main sinus/middle segment length 0.76–0.85, pilose with appressed nonglandular trichomes; segments 5(or 7), rhombic, 2–7.4 (–10) mm wide at base, 4–13-lobed in distal half, ratio of second sinus/middle segment length ¼ 0.19–0.48. Cymules solitary, 2-flowered; peduncle 3.2–15.3(– 16) cm. Pedicel 0.5–5.2 cm, with 0.2–0.6 mm retrorse appressed nonglandular trichomes and sometimes 0.2–0.7 mm patent glandular trichomes; bracteoles linear-lanceolate. Sepals 4.8–7.3(–9.3) mm, mucro 0.8–1.4(–2.5) mm, ratio of mucro/sepal length ¼ 0.11–0.37, outside with 0.2–0.5 mm antrorse
appressed nonglandular trichomes and sometimes 0.3–0.7 mm patent glandular trichomes, inside glabrous. Petals purplish, (0.8–)1–1.6(–1.8) cm, erect to patent, both surfaces glabrous, margin basally ciliate, apex rounded. Staminal filaments pinkish, lanceolate with a broadly triangular base and an abruptly narrowed apex, glabrous except proximal half with some 0.1–0.6 mm cilia; anthers yellowish or pinkish, 0.9– 3.4 mm. Nectaries 5, hemispheric, abaxially glabrous, apex with a tuft of trichomes. Stigma pinkish. Fruit 2.1–3.1 cm, erect when immature; mericarps smooth but usually with 1 or 2 transversal veins at apex, with a basal callus, with 0.2–0.6 mm
appressed nonglandular trichomes and rarely 0.7–0.8 mm patent glandular trichomes; rostrum 1.6–2.2 cm, with a 2.8–4.5 mm narrowed apex; stigmatic remains 1.3–2.2 mm. Seeds 2.6–2.9 mm. Flowering July–August, fruiting August– September (Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Fig. 1). Geranium nepalense: Perennials. Rootstock
vertical, 2–5.8 mm in diameter, not tuberculate, without thickened roots. Stem 27–72 cm tall, trailing or ascending,

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Fig. 1 Geranium collinum (Geraniaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

sometimes rooting at nodes, with 0.2–1.4 mm patent or retrorse appressed nonglandular trichomes. Stipules lanceolate to subulate, distinct. Leaves opposite; petiole with 0.2–1.5 mm patent to retrorse nonglandular trichomes; leaf blade 2.3– 4.1 cm, palmately cleft, ratio of main sinus/middle segment length ¼ 0.78–0.89, pilose with appressed nonglandular trichomes; segments 5, broadly rhombic, 3.7– 6.5 mm wide at base, 6–12-lobed in distal half, ratio of second sinus/middle segment length ¼ 0.15–0.27. Cymules solitary, (1 or)2-flowered; peduncle 1.2–8.3 cm. Pedicel 1.1–2.5 cm, with 0.2–1 mm patent to retrorse nonglandular trichomes; bracteoles linear-lanceolate. Sepals 4.1–5.8 mm, mucro 0.4–1 mm, ratio of mucro/ sepal length ¼ 0.09–0.21, outside 0.4–1.1 mm with
patent nonglandular trichomes, inside glabrous. Petals white, pale pink, or rarely deep pink, 5.1–5.9 (–6.3) mm, erect to patent, both surfaces and margin with a few trichomes, apex rounded or slightly notched. Staminal filaments whitish, lanceolate with an abruptly narrowed apex, abaxially pilose and proximal half ciliate, trichomes 0.1–0.4 mm; anthers violet, 0.3–0.9 mm. Nectaries 5, hemispheric, glabrous. Stigma reddish. Fruit 1.4–1.8 cm, erect when immature; mericarps smooth with 1 transversal vein at apex, with a basal callus, with 0.3–1.3 mm
patent nonglandular trichomes; rostrum 0.9–1.2 cm, with a 1–2 mm narrowed apex; stigmatic remains 0.8–1.4 mm. Seeds 1.9–2.3 mm. Flowering Apil–September, fruiting May–October (Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Fig. 2). Geranium wallichianum: Perennials. Rootstock
vertical, 5.8–8.8 mm in diameter, not tuberculate, with many fibrous roots. Stem 24–50 cm tall, trailing or ascending, not rooting at nodes, with 0.3–1.7 mm patent to retrorse nonglandular trichomes and sometimes scattered 1.4–2 mm patent glandular trichomes. Stipules broadly ovate, connate. Leaves opposite; petiole with 0.4–1.5 mm patent to retrorse nonglandular trichomes and sometimes scattered 1.5–2 mm patent glandular trichomes; leaf blade 3.8–7.2 cm, palmately cleft, ratio of main sinus/middle segment length ¼ 0.75–0.86, pilose with appressed nonglandular trichomes; segments 3 or 5, rhombic, 0.8–1.4 cm

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Fig. 2 Geranium nepalense (Geraniaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

wide at base, 9–17-lobed in distal half, ratio of second sinus/middle segment length ¼ 0.14–0.23. Cymules solitary, 2-flowered; peduncle 3.3–15.3 cm. Pedicel 3.1– 8.4 cm, with 0.2–1.5 mm patent to retrorse nonglandular trichomes and sometimes scattered 1.5–2.1 mm patent glandular trichomes; bracteoles broadly lanceolate. Sepals 6.4–10.1 mm, mucro 2.3–4.6 mm, ratio of mucro/sepal length 0.24–0.58, outside with 0.3–1.2 mm antrorse
appressed nonglandular trichomes, inside glabrous. Petals deep pink, purplish, or blue, (1.2)1.4–2.2 cm, erect to patent, inside basally with trichomes, margin basally ciliate, apex emarginate with a 0.4– 1.4 mm notch. Staminal filaments blackish at least at tip, lanceolate, base slightly dilated, abaxially pilose and proximal half ciliate, trichomes 0.3–0.6 mm; anthers black, 2.2–3 mm. Nectaries 5, hemispheric, abaxially glabrous, apex with a tuft of trichomes. Stigma blackish. Fruit 3–3.9 cm, erect when immature; mericarps smooth, with a basal callus, with 0.6–1.6 mm
patent nonglandular trichomes; rostrum 2–2.6 cm, with a 2.9–4.6 mm narrowed apex; stigmatic remains 5–7.6 mm. Seeds 3.6–3.9 mm. Flowering June–July, fruiting August–September (Wu et al. 1994–2013). Endangered due to overharvesting (Ahmad Jan et al. 2019; Mulk Khan et al. 2014; Overgaard Larsen 2002) (Figs. 3, 4, and 5).

Local Medicinal Uses Geranium collinum: It is used for jaundice, fever, cough, and as tonic (Hussain et al. 2006). The rhizome is dug out, dried, and made into powder by grinding. Mixing the rhizome powder with wheat flour, sugar, and desi ghee makes halwa (sweet dish). The halwa is taken at nighttime as a tonic (Hamayun et al. 2003). Flower extract is used in headache (Hussain et al. 2017). Plant decoction is used as antipyretic, tonic, and for cold and cough (Hamayun et al. 2006).

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Fig. 3 Geranium wallichianum (Geraniaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 4 Geranium wallichianum (Geraniaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

Geranium nepalense: Fruit juice is used for renal disease, and root poultice is used for rheumatic pain, toothache, wounds, and cuts (Bano et al. 2014). Root poultice is used for rheumatic pain. Fruit juice is used for kidney disease, cuts and wound healing (Amjad et al. 2017). Rhizome’s powder and decoction of aerial parts are used for the treatment of renal infections and as contraction of uterine muscles (Kayani et al. 2015; Khan et al. 2013). It is used to treat diarrhea, ulcers and wounds (Singh et al. 2017), also to treat cholera (Kayani et al. 2015) and as blood purifier (Kala et al. 2004), and for body pain and muscle numbness (Geck 2011). It is also used as astringent and for kidney problems (Gairola et al. 2014). Geranium wallichianum: Pashto: Rhizome is used for backache, mouth ulceration, and chronic diarrhea (Ahmad et al. 2014). The root is dried and is crushed; then it is mixed with milk and sugar and is used in backache, gout, and also used in strengthening of the body muscles and bones (Gilani et al. 2006). The rhizomes of

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Fig. 5 Geranium wallichianum (Geraniaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

the plants are dug out, dried, grinded into powder form, mixed in wheat flour, gur or sugar, and desi ghee (animal fat) in order to make halwa. The halwa is eaten once in a day at nighttime as tonic for backache. Powdered root with milk or oil is also used as tonic (Shah and Khan 2006). Rhizome powder is used for fever, cough, cold, as astringent, and kidney diseases (Yousufzai et al. 2010). Plant rhizome is used for eye problem (Waseem et al. 2006). The rhizome powder is used to promote lactation in cows and buffaloes (Hassan et al. 2014). Plant root is used for wound healing (Ahmad et al. 2017). Cooked root are used as a tonic after delivery (Jan et al. 2020). Rhizome decoction is used to cure cough (Shah et al. 2015). Boiled powder is used in high blood pressure, uterine diseases, and stomach disorders. It is also considered as tonic (Khan et al. 2013). The plant is used in the Himalayas for colds, diarrhea, and eye problems (Bhat et al. 2013; Malik et al. 2015). It is used also to improve muscle strength, as styptic, blood purifier, to treat vision problems, rheumatic pain, toothache, abdominal pain, backache, delivery pain, diarrhea, dysentery, fever, general weakness, jaundice, joint pain, kidney problems, spleen problems, throat infection, as tonic, astringent, and for conjunctivitis (Gairola et al. 2014). Geranium mascatense is used as astringent and diuretic (Gairola et al. 2014). Geranium pratense improves hair growth, and remedies diarrhea, fever, flu, swellings, pneumonia, and is used as analgesic (Gairola et al. 2014). Geranium rivulare is employed to treat insect bites, for rheumatism, colds, cough, fever, headache, and diarrhea, and as blood purifier (Gairola et al. 2014). Geranium sibircum helps for diarrhea (Gairola et al. 2014). Geranium tuberaria serves to treat painful urination (Gairola et al. 2014). Geranium ayavacense: The whole plant, fresh or dried, is used to treat diabetes. Antibacterial activity has been confirmed (Paniagua Zambrana and Bussmann 2020).

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Geranium humboldtii: The whole fresh plant is used to treat inflammation and cramps (Paniagua Zambrana and Bussmann 2020). Geranium sessiliflorum: The whole plant, fresh or dried, is used to treat diabetes. Antibacterial activity has been confirmed (Paniagua Zambrana and Bussmann 2020). Geranium ocellatum serves for liver problems and fever (Kumar et al. 2011). Geranium rotundifolium is used in Pakistan to treat stomachache and jaundice (Sher et al. 2016). Geranium rotundifolium is used in Pakistan for stomachache and jaundice (Sher et al. 2016).

Local Food Uses Geranium collinum: Mixing the rhizome powder with wheat flour, sugar, and desi ghee makes halwa (sweet dish) (Hamayun et al. 2003). Geranium wallichianum: Geranium leaves are sometimes cooked and eaten (Bussmann et al. 2018, 2020).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Geranium collinum: The extract can be used as dye for wool and silk, and for tanning leather. Fodder for sheep and goats. It is also planted as ornamental (Sokolov 1988). Geranium wallichianum: Pashto: The rhizome powder is used to promote lactation in cows and buffaloes (Hassan et al. 2014). Geranium pratense: The leaves yield a green dye for wool and silk. It is also used as fodder for livestock and planted as ornamental (Abbas et al. 2019; Sokolov 1988). Geranium humboldtii: It is used to treat bad air (mal aire) (Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2020).

References Abbas Z, Alam J, Muhammad S, Bussmann RW, Mulk Khan S, Hussain M. Phyto-cultural diversity of the Shigar valley Central Karakorum Baltistan, Northern Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18:32. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.31.1-18. Ahmad M, Sultana S, Fazl-i-Hadi S, Ben Hadda T, Rashid S, Zafar M, Yaseen G. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in high mountainous region of Chail valley (District Swat-Pakistan). J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2014;10(1):36. Ahmad KS, Hamid A, Nawaz F, Hameed M, Ahmad F, Deng J, Mahroof S. Ethnopharmacological studies of indigenous plants in Kel village, Neelum Valley, Azad Kashmir, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13(1):68.

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Amjad MS, Arshad M, Saboor A, Page S, Chaudhari SK. Ethnobotanical profiling of the medicinal flora of Kotli, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan: empirical reflections on multinomial logit specifications. Asian Pac J Trop Med. 2017;10(5):503–14. Bano A, Ahmad M, Hadda TB, Saboor A, Sultana S, Zafar M, Ashraf MA. Quantitative ethnomedicinal study of plants used in the skardu valley at high altitude of KarakoramHimalayan range, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2014;10(1):43. Bhat JA, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1) Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z. Geranium collinum Stephan ex Willd.; Geranium pratense L. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions central Asia and Altai. Springer International Publishing International Publishing; 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77087-1_65-1. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Geck MS. Access and benefit sharing in the context of ethnobotanical research. MSc thesis, University of Zurich, Zurich; 2011. Gilani SA, Qureshi RA, Gilani SJ. Indigenous uses of some important ethnomedicinal herbs of Ayubia National Park, Abbottabad, Pakistan. Ethnobot Leaflets. 2006;2006(1):32. Hamayun M, Khan A, Khan MA. Common medicinal folk recipes of District Buner, NWFP, Pakistan. Ethnobot Leaflets. 2003;2005(1):45. Hamayun M, Khan A, Afzal S, Khan MA. Study on traditional knowledge and utility of medicinal herbs of district Buner, NWFP, Pakistan. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2006;5(3):407–12. Hassan H, Murad W, Tariq A, Ahmad A. Ethnoveterinary study of medicinal plants in Malakand Valley, District Dir (Lower), Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Ir Vet J. 2014;67(1):6. Hussain F, Islam M, Zaman A. Ethnobotanical profile of plants of Shawar Valley, District Swat, Pakistan. Int J Biol Biotechnol. 2006;3(2):301–7. Hussain S, Murtaza G, Mehmood A, Qureshi RA. Conservation of indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants of Western Himalayan region Rawalakot, Azad Kashmir, Pakistan. Pak J Pharm Sci. 2017;30(3):773–82. Jan HA, Jan S, Bussmann RW, Wali S, Sist F, Ahmad L. Complementary and alternative medicine research, prospects and limitations in Pakistan: a literature review. Acta Ecol Sin. 2019; https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.chnaes.2019.12.005. Jan HA, Jan S, Bussmann RW, Ahmad L, Wali S, Ahmad N. Ethnomedicinal survey of the plants used for gynecological disorders by the indigenous community of District Buner, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2020;19:1–18. Kala CP, Farooquee NA, Dhar U. Prioritization of medicinal plants on the basis of available knowledge, existing practices and use value status in Uttaranchal, India. Biodivers Conserv. 2004;13:453–69. Kayani S, Ahmad M, Sultana S, Khan Shinwari Z, Zafar M, Yaseen G, Hussain M, Bibi T. Ethnobotany of medicinal plants among the communities of Alpine and Sub-alpine regions of Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;164:186–202. Khan SM, Page S, Ahmad H, Shaheen H, Ullah Z, Ahmad M, Harper DM. Medicinal flora and ethnoecological knowledge in the Naran Valley, Western Himalaya, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1):4. Kumar M, Bussmann RW, Mukesh J, Kumar P. Ethnomedicinal uses of plants close to rural habitation in Garhwal Himalayan, India. J Med Plant Res. 2011;5(11):2252–60. Malik ZA, Bhat J, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhatt AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44. Mulk Khan S, Page S, Ahmad H, Harper D. Ethno-ecological importance of plant biodiversity in mountain ecosystems with special emphasis on indicator species of a Himalayan Valley in the northern Pakistan. Ecol Indic. 2014;37:175–85.

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Girardinia diversifolia (Link) Friis URTICACEAE Prabhat Sapkota, Ram C. Poudel, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Girardinia diversifolia (Link) Friis: Girardinia adoensis (Hochst. ex Steud.) Wedd.; Girardinia condensata (Hochst. ex Steud.) Wedd.; Girardinia condensata var. adoensis (Hochst. ex Steud.) De Wild.; Girardinia erosa Decne.; Girardinia erosa var. occidentalis Leandri; Girardinia formosana Hayata ex Yamam.; Girardinia furialis Blume; Girardinia heterophylla (Vahl) Decne.; Girardinia heterophylla subsp. adoensis (Hochst. ex Steud.) Cufod.; Girardinia leschenaultiana Decne.; Girardinia longispica Hand.-Mazz.; Urtica adoensis Hochst. ex Steud.; Urtica condensata Hochst. ex Steud.; Urtica diversifolia Link.; Urtica furialis Bojer ex Blume; Urtica heterophylla D. Don.; Urtica heteropohylla Vahl; Urtica palmata Forssk.

P. Sapkota Division Forest Office, Gulmi, Nepal R. C. Poudel (*) Molecular Biotechnology Unit, Faculty of Science, Nepal Academy of Science and Technology (NAST), Khumaltar, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_111

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Local Names Girardinia diversifolia: Nepali: Allo, Chalne Sisnu, Bhangre Sisnu, Thulo Sisnu; Chepang: Malemau; Gurung: Naipolo, Puwa; Magar: Ghyo; Newari: Nelau, Kisi nhyakan, Dya nhakan; Rai: Potale; Sherpa: Lo; Sunwar: Pale; Tamang: Pachyar, Pancherpolo (Basnet et al. 2001; Manandhar 2002; Balami 2004; Rijal 2008); Jammu: Bada bichu, Cell kinji; English: Large nettle

Botany and Ecology Girardinia diversifolia: Herbs, annual or perennial, dioecious or monoecious. Stems often woody at base, straight, branched or not, 5-angled, 25–200 cm tall; stems and petioles spreading pubescent and armed with stinging and stigose hairs. Stipules oblong-ovate, 1–3 cm, sparsely strigose abaxially; petiole 2–15 cm; leaf blade light green, elliptic, ovate or oblate in outline, sometimes 3-lobed, 5–25  4–23 cm, herbaceous, 3-veined, lateral veins 3–5 each side, anastomosing before margin, abaxially sparsely pubescent and with armed stinging and setulose hairs, adaxially sparsely appressed strigose and armed with short stinging hairs, base cordate or subtruncate, margin usually 3-, 5-, or 7-lobed or, rarely, regularly serrate or sometimes doubly serrate at leaf base, apex short acuminate or acute; cystoliths minutely punctiform. Glomerules densely armed with stinging hairs. Male inflorescences in proximal axils, spicate, cymose-racemose or subpaniculate, 5–11 cm; female ones in distal axils of stem or in same axils as male, sometimes solitary, racemelike or paniculate, rarely long spicate, 1–28 cm, strigose and spreading hirsute. Male flowers subsessile or pedicellate, in bud 1 mm; perianth lobes 4, ovate, concave, setulose abaxially, apex acute, stamens 4; rudimentary ovary cupular. Female flowers about 0.5 mm; perianth lobes unequal, the larger connate lobe cymbiform, 0.4 mm, enlarged to 1 mm at fruit, sparsely strigillose on outside, apex 3-toothed, the smaller lobe linear. Achene dark brownish to gray-brown, subcordate to broadly ovoid, slightly compressed, 1.5–3 mm in diameter, conspicuously verrucose. Flowering September–October, fruiting October–November (Wu et al. 1994– 2013). 1700–3000 m, from west to east Nepal mainly in subtropical to temperate areas on shady banks and water courses. Africa, Bhutan, China, India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Indonesia, Myanmar, and Vietnam (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Phytochemistry Phytochemical analysis of the shoot tips extracts of G. diversifolia detected phytosterols, fatty acids, carotenoids, polyphenols, and saponins. Phytosterols and triterpenes, with β-sitosterol, γ-sitosterol, campesterol, fucosterol, and sitostanol were detected as the most abundant constituents. Other compounds identified in the plant extract were erythrodiol, uvaol, hydroxy cycloartenol, cycloartenol, brassicasterol, α-cryptoxanthin, carotenoid, phytoene, β-carotene

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Fig. 1 Girardinia diversifolia (Urticaceae), Kaski, Nepal. (Photo Ram C Poudel)

Fig. 2 Girardinia diversifolia (Urticaceae), Kailali, Nepal. (Photo Ram C Poudel)

epoxide, zeaxhantin, cryptoxanthin, and ketocarotenoid. Additionally organic acids such as ascorbic acid, citric acids, quinic acids, and gluconic acid; flavonoids (iso-orientin, vitexin and its derivatives, and kaempferol glucoside); phenolic derivatives, mostly caffeoylquinic acid esters, and kaempferol glucoside were also detected. Fatty acids with an abundant portion of unsaturated derivatives (linoleic and linolenic acid), vitamin C and vitamin B2 were also reported (Sharan Shrestha et al. 2020). Three compounds β-sitosterol, γ-sitosterol, and ursolic acid were isolated and identified from the root of this species (Tripathi et al. 2013).

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Fig. 3 Girardinia diversifolia (Urticaceae), Kailali, Nepal. (Photo Ram C Poudel)

Local Medicinal Uses Girardinia diversifolia: It is used for headache and joint pain (Dangol et al. 2017; Gairola et al. 2014; Kunwar et al. 2012), also for gonorrhea, fever, and joint swelling (Gairola et al. 2014). Root paste of is used to treat sprained, fractured bones, and swollen parts (Rokaya et al. 2010; Kunwar et al. 2018). Root powder is taken orally for blood purification and in the treatment of possible internal injury (Rokaya et al. 2010). Leaf juice is used to cure anemia, fever, headache, joint aches, and menstrual problems (Manandhar 2002; Acharya 2012). Bark juice is effective in diabetes (Balami, 2004). Root juice mixed with double amount of Oxalis corniculata and an equal amount of the bark of Myrica esculenta is boiled and given four table spoonfuls two times a day for a week in the treatment of gastric (Manandhar 1995; Atreya et al. 2017). Root juice is taken orally to treat gastric disorder and chest burn (Manandhar 2002; Rana et al. 2015). Root juice is helpful to relieve from constipation (Manandhar 2002). Root juice is applied on cuts and wounds (Manandhar 1995). Leaf and fruits are given to increase body warmth and hemoglobin in blood (Ghimire et al. 2018). Root is considered to be effective in the treatment of snakebite and as a tonic (Rijal 2008, 2011). Ash of the plant is applied in ring worm and eczema (Manandhar 2002).

Local Food Uses Girardinia diversifolia: Tender shoots, inflorescences, and young leaves cooked as vegetable (Kunwar et al. 2012). Young parts like tender leaves and shoots are cooked as vegetable (Manandhar 1986; Basnet et al. 2001; Aryal et al. 2018). Young leaves are very good source of vitamins and other nutrition. This plant is also considered highly nutritious for cows and buffaloes and believed to increases milk production (Atreya et al. 2017).

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses Girardinia diversifolia: Traditionally it is used as a good source of fibers to make rough clothes, bags, carpets, jackets, sacks, fish nets, ropes, and other household good (Rokaya et al. 2010; Chaudhary et al. 2017).

References Acharya R. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of Resunga Hill used by Magar community of Badagaun VDC of Gulmi district, Nepal. Sci World. 2012;10(10):54–65. Aryal KP, Poudel S, Chaudhary RP, Chettri N, Chaudhary P, Ning W, Kotru R. Diversity and use of wild and noncultivated edible plants in the Western Himalaya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14:10. Atreya K, Pyakurel D, Thagunna KS, Bhatta LD, Uprety Y, Kotru R, Oli BN, Rimal S, Chaudhary RP. Traditional agricultural and medicinal practices in the Kailash Sacred Langscape, Nepal. ICIMOD working paper 2017/12. Kathmandu: ICIMOD; 2017. Balami NP. Ethnomedicinal uses of plants among the Newar community of Pharping village of Kathmandu District, Nepal. Tribhuvan Univ J. 2004;24(1):13–9. Basnet BK, Joshi R, Lekhak HD. Ethnobotanical survey of chepang tribe of Makawanpur district, Nepal. Ecol Soc Nepal (ECOS). 2001:245–52. Chaudhary RP, Bhattarai SH, Basnet G, Bhatta KP, Uprety Y, Bhatta LD, Kotru R, Oli BN, Sharma LN, Khanal S, Sharma UR. Traditional practice and knowledge of indigenous and local communities in Kailash Sacred Landscape, Nepal. ICIMOD working paper 2017/1. Kathmandu: ICIMOD; 2017. Dangol DR, Maharjan KL, Maharjan SK, Acharya, AK. Wild edible plants in Nepal. In: Joshi BK, Bahadur KC H, Acharya A, editors. Conservation and utilization of agricultural plant genetic resources of Nepal. Dhulikhel: NAGRC; 2017, p. 390–407. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Ghimire KM, Adhikari M, Uprety Y, Chaudhary RP. Ethnomedicinal use of plants by the highland communities of Kailash Sacred Landscape, Far-West Nepal. Acad J Med Plants. 2018;6(11):365–8. Kunwar RM, Fadiman M, Cameron M, Bussmann R, Thapamagar KB, Rimal B, Sapkota P. Crosscultural comparison of plant use knowledge in Baitadi and Darchula districts, Nepal Himalaya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14:40. Kunwar, R.M., Mahat, L., Sharma, L.N., Shrestha, K.P., Kominee, H., Ethnobotany 2012. Underutilized plant species in Far-West Nepal – a valuable resource being wasted. J Mt Sci 9:589-600. Manandhar NP. An inventory of some Herbal Drugs of Myagdi district, Nepal. Econ Bot. 1995;49(4):371–9. Manandhar NP. Ethnobotany of Jumla District, Nepal. Int J Crude Drug Res. 1986;24(2):81–9. Manandhar NP. Plants and people of Nepal. Timber Press, Inc., Oregon, USA; 2002. Rana S, Oli PS, Rana H. Traditional botanical knowledge (TBK) on the use of medicinal plants in Sikles area, Nepal. Asian J Plant Sci Res. 2015;5(11):8–15. Rijal A. Living knowledge of the healing plants: ethno-phytotherapy in the Chepang communities from the Mid-Hills of Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2008;4:23. Rijal A. Surviving on knowledge: ethnobotany of Chepang community from midhills of Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2011;9:181–215. Rokaya MB, Münzbergováa Z, Timsina B. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants from the Humla district of Western Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010;130:485–504.

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Sharan Shrestha S, Sut S, Ferrarese I, Barbon Di Marco S, Zengin G, De Franco M, Pant DR, Mahomoodally MF, Ferri N, Biancorosso N, Maggi F, Dall Acqua S, Rajbhandary S. Himalayan Nettle Girardinia diversifolia as a Candidate ingredient for pharmaceutical and nutraceutical applications – phytochemical analysis and in vitro bioassays. Molecules. 2020;25:1563. https:// doi.org/10.3390/molecules25071563. Tripathi N, Kumar S, Singh R, Singh CJ, Singh P, Varshney VK. Phytoconstituents from the roots of Girardinia heterophylla (Decne). Int J Biomed Adv Res. 2013;4:545–50. https://doi.org/10. 7439/ijbar. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D. editors. Flora of China. Science Press, Beijing & Missouri Botanical Garden Press, St. Louis; 1994–2013.

Grewia disperma Rottler ex Spreng. MALVACEAE Khadka B. Bhandari, Suresh Subedi, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Grewia disperma Rottler ex Spreng.: Grewia multiflora Juss.

Local Names Grewia disperma: Assamese: kukur-huta; Bengali: panisara; Chepang: Jalma; Hindi: bhansuli; Khasi: dieng tiewster, dieng tyrbhong; Malayalam: anakkottimaram, kallayi; Marathi: kawri; Nepali: bhimal; Sanskrit: Todan K. B. Bhandari Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal S. Subedi (*) Arkansas Tech University, Russellville, AR, USA e-mail: [email protected] R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_112

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Tamil: anaikatti maram, narathi; Telugu: pegala, potriki, tegali; English: Serrulateleaved grewia

Botany and Ecology There are about 90 species in tropical regions of Old World and 27 species (13 endemic) in China (Wu et al. 2007; Press et al. 2000). Previously, there was a debate on the taxonomic status of Grewia. Botanists were argued on whether the two genera (Grewia and Microcos) should be combined (Ridley 1922; Kochummen 1973; Ashton 1988; Argent et al. 1997), kept separate (Backer and van den Brink 1964; Phengklia 1986, 1993), or subdivided into subgenera or sections (King 1891) since the publication of Burret’s monograph of Tiliaceae (Burret 1926). However, after Chung (2001, 2002, 2003) and Chung et al. (2003, 2005, b) identified a total of 42 macro-morphological and micro-morphological characters which, in combination, can be used to distinguish Grewia species from those of Microcos species from peninsular Malaysia and Borneo, and confirmed that two genera are taxonomically distinct. This is consistent with the conclusions reached by several other authors – Burret (1926) and Bayer and Kubitzki (2003) based on the morphology of inflorescences, flowers, and fruits; Chattaway (1934) based on wood anatomy; Zhang and Chen (1984) based on pollen morphology; and Bayer et al. (1999) based on combined analysis of plastid atpB and rbcL DNA sequences. To date, a total of 690 binomials for Grewia have been published, representing taxa from tropical Africa, Madagascar, Arabia, the Himalaya, Pakistan, India, China, Myanmar, Thailand, Indo-China, Malaysia, the pacific islands (Tonga & Samoa), and northern Australia (Bayer and Kubitzki 2003; Chung 2006). Grewia disperma: Tree or shrubs. Branchlets usually are stellate. Leaves alternate; stipule minute, caducous; petiole short; leaf blade basal veins 3–5, margin serrate or rarely lobed. Flowers bisexual, polygamous, or unisexual (plants monoecious), usually arranged in 3- to many-flowered cymes, solitary or fascicled, axillary or opposite leaves, rarely terminal. Peduncle and pedicel is usually hairy. Bracts caducuous. Sepals 5, yellow, white, or lilac, rarely brown, free, valvate, abaxially hairy, adaxially usually glabrous, rarely hairy. Petals 5, mostly yellow or white; area, shorter than sepals; glands usually scale-like, borne on base of the petals, margin usually villous. Androgynophore short, usually glabrous. Stamens are many, free, irregular in length; anthers globose, dorsifixed, dehiscence longitudinal. Ovary 2–4 loculed; ovules 2–8 per locule; style simple; stigma swollen, peltate, entire or 2–4lobed. Drupe usually with 2 or 4 drupelets, endosperm copious; cotyledons flat (Wu et al. 2007). Flowering season May–August, the fruiting season from August to November (Chung 2001). Seed germination is epigeal, with emergent cotyledons leaf-like, hypocotyl elongated, first pair of leaves sometimes subopposite (Phengklia 1993) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6). Grewia is distributed in tropical Africa, Madagascar, Himalaya, China, Taiwan, India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, western pacific (Marianas, Fiji, Samoa, New Caledonia), and the northern parts of Australia (Chung 2006).

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Phytochemistry The major constituents are quercetin, β-sitosterol, lupeol, and stigmasteroletc (Rehman et al. 2013). Grewia has been found to possess mainly triterpenoids, fatty component, flavonoids, steroids, saponins, and tannins. These compounds were isolated from the various species such as Grewia asiatica, Grewia bicolor, Grewia bilamellata, Grewia elyseoi, Grewia flavescens, and Grewia mollis (Goyal 2012).

Local Medicinal Uses Grewia disperma: The wood or branches are chewed as anthelmintic in Rukum district. The plant parts are used as fuelwood and firewood. Root juice and bark paste is taken as expectorant during cough and cold (Baral and Kurmi 2006). Root juice is also used for controlling bleeding and bronchitis (Ambasta et al. 1992). Wood paste is used for skin disease (Kunwar et al. 2010). Fruits are valued as cardiotonic (CSIR 1998). G. sapida (Syn. G. pumila) fruit juice is given to dysentery (Dangol and Gurung 1991). G. sapida root is used for cough and cold G. optiva bark extraction is given to pregnant women for smooth delivery and constipation (Watanabe et al. 2013). Wood paste is used skin diseases (Burlakoti and Kunwar 2008). Grewia disperma serves to stop bleeding and to treat bronchitis (Kunwar et al. 2010). Grewia kakothamnos is used for chest pain, tuberculosis, coughing with blood, chest pain, and rheumatism (Teklehaymanot and Giday 2010). Methanol and aqueous extracts of leaf, root, and bark of Grewia asiatica use for showing analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects (Paviaya et al. 2013; Khanal et al. 2016). Ethanolic extract of leaves of Grewia asiatica reduces blood glucose level in an alloxan-induced diabetic Wister rats (Patil et al. 2011). The roots of Grewia abutilifolia are applied to abscesses (Joshi et al. 1971). The fruit of G. asiatica is astringent and cooling. Infusion of bark is demulcent, while leaves are used in pustular eruptions (Goyal 2012). 50% ethanolic extract of aerial parts of G. asiatica showed hypotensive activity, and the aqueous extract of stem bark is reported to be antidiabetic (Bhakune et al. 1971). Its seed extract and seed oil exhibited antifertility activity (Asolkar et al. 1992). The ethanolic extract of stem bark of Grewia elastica showed CNS depressant activity (Bhakune et al. 1987). Various parts of Grewia asiatica is used as analgesic and antipyretic, and threatened by overharvesting (Ahmad Jan et al. 2017, 2019; Kumar et al. 2014). Grewia hirsuta is used in headache, eye complaints, sores, and cholera, and ethanolic extract of stem bark exhibited antiviral and diuretic activity (Dhawan et al. 1980). This plant is also used during childbirth by the Yoruba tribe in Nigeria (Dalziel 1937). Grewia bicolor: The species has a wide range of applications in African traditional medicine. The bark is used as a vermifuge, diuretic, and laxative, and to treat boils and sores, intestinal inflammation, and syphilis. In Senegal, a macerate or decoction

1004 Fig. 1 Grewia bicolor (Malvaceae), Mt. Kenya National Park, Naro Moru, Kenya. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

Fig. 2 Grewia bicolor (Malvaceae), Mt. Kenya National Park, Naro Moru, Kenya. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

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Fig. 3 Grewia cf. similis (Malvaceae), Mt. Kenya National Park, Naro Moru, Kenya. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

of the bark is credited with both inebriating and tranquillizing effects and is also taken to counter fatigue. In Kenya, the bark is applied in case of itching, while in Tanzania, it is chewed and put on wounds as a bandage. The wood is credited with anthelmintic activity. In Côte d’Ivoire, a decoction of the leaves is drunk and put into baths against pain in the chest, after which sap from pounded roots is rubbed on the patient. In East Africa, a cold infusion of the root is drunk to treat anemia, chest complaints, cold, diarrhea, snakebites, mental illness, hernia, and female infertility. The bark paste is applied to skin itches (Kokwaro 2009). In Sudan, a poultice of the root is applied on pustulent skin lesions, and the root is taken as a tranquillizer. A decoction of the root is given in case of a delayed afterbirth. In Niger, the powdered root bark is applied on burns, and in Mali, the juice or a decoction of the inner bark of the roots is applied on wounds. In Namibia, a syrup prepared from the roots is rubbed onto swollen legs. The plant is also used in veterinary medicine, e.g., to treat stomach problems. It is also used as toothbrush (Bussmann et al. 2006). In Ethiopia, it is used for venereal diseases including syphilis (Teklehaymanot and Giday 2010). Grewia similis: It is used as toothbrush (Bussmann et al. 2006).

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Fig. 4 Grewia cf. tembensis (Malvaceae), Mt. Kenya National Park, Naro Moru, Kenya. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

Grewia tembensis: A root decoction is used to cure cough (Turkana) (Beentje 1994). It is also used as toothbrush (Bussmann et al. 2006). Grewia tenax: The bark gum is used as insect repellent. Roots are mixed with roots of Diospyros scabra and the decoction is drunk for tuberculosis (Kokwaro 2009). Grewia villosa: A leaf and twig decoction is used for rheumatism (Borana), and the bark infusion against diarrhea (Samburu) (Beentje 1994). The roots are used for stomachache and lower abdominal pain. Leaves are applied to earache and spleen pain. The roots are boiled to treat diarrhea and aching bones (Kokwaro 2009). It is also used for boils and fever (Teklehaymanot and Giday 2010). Grewia ferruginea is used as anthelmintic (Assefa et al. 2010; Desta 1995) and to treat gonorrhea (Wondimu et al. 2007). Grewia mollis serves to treat constipation (Bekalo et al. 2009) and for wounds (Flatie et al. 2009). Grewia lavanalensis is used in Madagascar during pregnancy (Randrianarivony et al. 2016a).

Grewia disperma Rottler ex Spreng. Fig. 5 Grewia cf. tenax (Malvaceae), Mt. Kenya National Park, Naro Moru, Kenya. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

Fig. 6 Grewia sp. (Malvaceae), Mt. Kenya National Park, Naro Moru, Kenya. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

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Local Food Uses Grewia bicolor: The sweet, mealy fruit pulp is eaten fresh, or dried as candy (Beentje 1994). Juice from the fruit is drunk fresh, added to porridge, fermented into beer or distilled into liquor. The mucilaginous leaves and fibers from the leaf are used as binding agent in sauces. Fresh leaves are made into a kind of tea. In Burkina Faso, the bark or leaf fibers are used in the preparation of sorghum beer to make it clean and to remove bitterness. The fruit can be eaten (Bussmann et al. 2006). Grewia similis: The fruit can be eaten (Bussmann et al. 2006). Grewia tembensis: The fruit is edible (Beentje 1994; Bussmann et al. 2006). Grewia tenax: The fruit is edible (Beentje 1994). Grewia villosa: The fruit is edible (Beentje 1994).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Grewia disperma: It is one of the major fodder species for domestic animals such as buffaloes, goats (Figs. 7, 8, and 9). Grewia optiva is used as a good fodder and fiber plant (Rijal 2011). In western Nepal, bark fiber of Grewia disperma is used to make ropes and its fruits are edible (Bhatta 1999). Grewia helicterifolia fruits are edible and useful in diarrhea and dysentery. Grewia optiva branches are used for making handles of sickles and axes. Bark yields a fiber used for making cordage. Grewia bicolor: The bark is used to clarify muddy water. The bark fiber is made into cordage and used for weaving. The fresh and dry leaves, young stems and fruits serve as forage for domestic animals. The leaves and ash from burnt leaves are sometimes used as soap and for cleaning garments. The tree is also used as an ornamental, as a shade tree, and as bee forage. The wood is used in house construction (poles, beams) and made into a range of articles including tool handles, herding staffs and walking sticks, bows, arrows, spear shafts, knobkerries and clubs, pegs, rakes, and saddle frames. It is used for carving, and in Kordofan (Sudan), the wood is hollowed out to make bowls and boards for the “kalah” game, and the stems are made into picture frames. In Burkina Faso, sticks are woven into baskets. The wood is also used for firesticks, as fuelwood, and made into charcoal. It is also excellent for spears, bows, arrows, and rungus (clubs) (Beentje 1994). The root decoction is used to expel the placenta in cattle (Kokwaro 2009). The species is eaten by goats and cows but must not be cut as fodder. Bark is used to join sticks (Bussmann et al. 2006). It also serves as firewood (Bussmann et al. 2011). Grewia similis: The species makes good sticks (Bussmann et al. 2006) and serves as firewood (Bussmann et al. 2011).

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Fig. 7 Grewia disperma (Tiliaceae), Grewia, a good fodder tree plant in Nepal. (Photo K Bhandari)

Grewia tembensis: It is eaten by goats and cows but must not be cut as fodder. Bark is used to join sticks (Bussmann et al. 2006). The plant also serves as firewood (Bussmann et al. 2011). Grewia tenax: The wood is also used for firesticks, as fuelwood, and made into charcoal. It is also excellent for spears, bows, arrows, and rungus (clubs) (Beentje 1994) and also serves as firewood (Bussmann et al. 2011). Grewia villosa: The wood is used for construction (Beentje 1994) and also serves as firewood (Bussmann et al. 2011; Tian 2017).

1010 Fig. 8 Grewia disperma (Tiliaceae), fiber for making rope and cordage, extracted from Grewia bark. (Photo K Bhandari)

Fig. 9 Grewia disperma (Tiliaceae), locally made cordage for fastening cattle. (Photo K Bhandari)

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Grewia glandulosa is used in Madagascar for construction and tools (Randrianarivony et al. 2016b).

References Ahmad Jan H, Wali S, Ahmad L, Jana S, Ahmad N, Ullah N. Ethnomedicinal survey of medicinal plants of Chinglai valley, Buner district, Pakistan. Eur J Integrat Med. 2017;13:64–74. Ahmad Jan H, Jan S, Bussmann RW, Wali S, Sist, F, Ahmad, L. Complementary and alternative medicine research, prospects and limitations in Pakistan: a literature review. Acta Ecol Sin. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chnaes.2019.12.005. Ambasta SP, Ramchandran K, Kashyapa K, Chand R. The useful plants of India. New Delhi: Council of science and industrial Research (CSIR); 1992. Argent G, Saridan A, Campbell EJF, Wilkie P, editors. Manual of the larger and more important non- dipterocarp trees of central Kalimanrtan Indonesia, vol. 2. Samarinda: Forest Research Institute; 1997. Asolkar LV, Kakkar KK, Chakre OJ. Indigofera tinctoria. In: Second supplement to Glossary of Indian medicinal plants with active principles. New Delhi: Publication Information Directorate; 1992, 368 p. Assefa B, Glatzel G, Buchmann C. Ethnomedicinal uses of Hagenia abyssinica (Bruce) J.F.Gmel. among rural communities of Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:20. https://doi.org/10. 1186/1746-4269-6-20. Asthon PS. Manual of the non-dipterocarp trees of Sarawak, vol. 2. 1st ed. Kuching: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Sarawak Branch; 1988. Backer CA, van den Brink RCB. Flora of Java, vol. 1. Groningen: Wolters- Noordhoff; 1964. Baral SR, Kurmi PP. A compendium of medicinal plants in Nepal. Kathmandu: Mrs Rachana publishers; 2006. Bayer C, Kubitzki K. Malvaceae. In: The families and and genera of vascular plants, Vol 5: flowering plants, Dicotyledons. Berling: Springer; 2003. p. 225–311. Bayer C, Fay MF, De Bruu AY, Savolainen V, Morton CM, Kubitzi K, Alverson WS, Chase MW. Support for an expanded family concept of Malvaceae within a recircumscribed order Malvales: a combined analysis of plastid atpB and rbcL DNA sequences. Bot J Lnn Soc. 1999;129:267–303. Beentje H. Kenya trees and shrubs. Nairobi: National Museums of Kenya; 1994. Bekalo TH, Woodmata SD, Asfaw Woldemariam Z. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by local people in the lowlands of Konta special Woreda, southern nations, nationalities and peoples regional state, Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2009;5:26. https://doi.org/10.1186/ 1746-4269-5-26. Bhakune DS, Dhar ML, Dhar MM, Dhawan BN, Gupta B, Srimal RC. Screening of Indian plants for biological activities: Part III. Indian J Exp Biol. 1971;9:91. Bhakuni RS, Shukla YN, Thakur RS. Chemical constituents of Melochia chorchorifolia Linn. Indian J Chem. 1987;26B:1161. Bhatta LR. Ethnobotanical study in a village at Rukum District, Nepal. Banko Janakari. 1999;9(2):40–3. Burlakoti C, Kunwar RM. Folk herbal medicines of Mahakali watershed area, Nepal. In: Jha PK, Karmacharya SB, Chettri MK, Thapa CB, Shrestha BB, editors. Medicinal plants in Nepal: an anthology of contemporary research. Kathmandu: Ecological Society; 2008. p. 187–93. Burret M. Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Tiliaceae I. Notizbl Bot Gart Berl-Dahl. 1926;9:592–880. Bussmann RW, Gilbreath GG, Lutura M, Lutuluo R, Kunguru K, Wood N, Mathenge S. Plant use of the Maasai of Sekenani Valley, Maasai Mara, Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:22. Bussmann RW, Swartzinsky P, Worede A, Evangelista P. Plant use in Odo-Bulu and Demaro, Bale region, Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2011;7:28.

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Chattaway MM. Anatomical evidence that Grewia L. and Microcos L. are distinct gernera. Trop Wood. 1934;38:9–11. Chung RCK. Taxonomic and micromorphological studies of Grewia L. and Microcos L. (Tiliaceae) in peninsular Malaysia and Borneo. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur. 2001. Chung RCK. Leaf epidermal micromorphology of Grewia L. and Microcos L. (Tiliaceae) in Peninsular Malaysia and Borneo. Gard Bull Singapore. 2002;54:263–86. Chung RCK. New Taxa and new combinations of Microcos (Tiliaceae) from peninsular Malaysia and Borneo. Kew Bull. 2003;58:329–49. Chung RCK. Revision of Grewia (Malvaceae- Grewioideae) in Peninsular Malaysia and Borneo. Edinb J Bot. 2006;62(1&2):1–27. Chung RCK, Soepadmo E, Lim AL. A synopsis of the Bornean species of Microcos L. (Tiliaceae). in peninsular Malaysia and Borneo. Gard Bull Singapore. 2005;57:101–30. CSIR. Wealth of India: raw materials, vol. 1–10. New Delhi: Council of Scientific and Industrial Research; 1998. Dalziel K. The useful plants of West Africa. London: Crown Agents; 1937, 1. 98. Dangol D, Gurung SB. Ethnobotany of the Tharu tribe of Chitwan District, Nepal. Int J Pharmacogn. 1991;29(3):203–9. Desta B. Ethiopian traditional herbal drugs. Part I: studies on the toxicity and therapeutic activity of local taenicidal medications. J Ethnopharmacol. 1995;45:27–33. Dhawan BM, Dubey MP, Mehrotra BN, Rastogi RP, Tandon JS. Screening of Indian plants for biological activity, Part V. Indian J Exp Biol. 1980;18:594. Flatie T, Gedif T, Asres K, Gebre-Mariam T. Ethnomedical survey of Berta ethnic group Assosa zone, Benishangul-Gumuz regional state, mid-west Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2009;5:14. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-5-14. Goyal PK. Phytochemical and pharmacological properties of the genus Grewia: a review. Int J Pharm Pharm Sci. 2012;4(Suppl 4):72–8. Joshi MC, Patel MB, Mehta PJ. Screening of Indian plants for biological activity: Part III. Indian J Exp Biol. 1971;9:91. Khanal DP, Raut B, Kafle M. A comparative study on phytochemical and biological activities of two Grewia species. J Manmohan Mem Instit Health Sci. 2016;2091–1041(2):53–60. King G. Materials for a Flora of the Malayan peninsula. order XIX. Tiliaceae. J Roy As Soc Beng Part II. 1891;60:95–140. Kochummen KM. Tiliaceae. In: Whitmore TC, editor. Tree Flora of Malaysia, vol. 2. Kuala Lumpur: Longman Malaysia Sdn. Bhd; 1973. p. 392–412. Kokwaro JO. Medicinal plants of East Africa. Nairobi: University of Nairobi Press; 2009. Kumar Semwal D, Semwal RB, Vermaak I, Viljoen A. From arrow poison to herbal medicine – the ethnobotanical, phytochemical and pharmacological significance of Cissampelos Menispermaceae. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:1011–28. Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Bussmann RW. Traditional herbal medicine in Far-West Nepal: a pharmacological appraisal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:35. Patil P, Patel M, Bhavsar C. Preliminary phytochemical and hypoglycemic activity of leaves of Grewia asiatica L. Res J Pharm, Biol Chem Sci. 2011;2:516–20. Paviaya US, et al. Analgesic and anti-inflammatory activity of root bark of Grewia asiatica Linn. in rodents. Anc Sci Life. 2013;32(3):150. Phengklia C. Study in Thi Flora: Tiliaceae. Thi For Bull (Bot). 1986;16:2–118. Phengklia C. Flora of Thailand, vol. 6, Part 1: Taccaceae and Tiliaceae. Bangkok: Royal Forest Department; 1993. Press JR, Shrestha KK, Sutton DA. Annotated checklist of the flowering plant of Nepal. London: The Natural History Museum; 2000. Randrianarivony TN, Andriamihajarivo TH, Rakotoarivony F, Rabarimanarivo M, Randrianasolo A, Bussmann RW. Guide des plantes utiles d’Analavelona et de ses environs, vol. 1. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2016a. ISBN 978-0-9960231-4-6.

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Randrianarivony NT, Randrianasolo A, Andriamihajarivo T, Ramarosandratana AV, Jeannoda VH, Rakotoarivony F, Bussmann RW. Useful plants and tradition for pregnancy, child delivery and for postpartum care used by people living around Analavelona forest located in Southwest Madagascar. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2016b;151:68–78. Rehman J, Khan IU, Asghar MN. Antioxidant activity and GC-MS analysis of Grewia optiva. E3 J Biotechnol Pharma Res. 2013;4(1):14–21. Ridley HN. The Flora of Malay Peninsula, Vol. 1: Polypetalae. London: L. Reeve; 1922. Rijal A. Surviving on knowledge: ethnobotany of Chepang community from mid- hills of Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2011;9:181–215. Teklehaymanot T, Giday MM. Quantitative ethnobotany of medicinal plants used by Kara and Kwego semi-pastoralist people in lower Omo River Valley, Debub Omo zone, Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Regional State, Ethiopia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010;130:76–84. Tian X. Ethnobotanical knowledge acquisition during daily chores: the firewood collection of pastoral Maasai girls in Southern Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13:2. https://doi.org/ 10.1186/s13002-016-0131-x. Watanabe T, Rajbhandari KR, Malla KJ, Devkota HP, Yahara S. A handbook of medicinal plants of Nepal: supplement. Department of Plant Resources, Nepal, Kumamoto University, Japan and Kochi University of Technology, Japan. 2013. Wondimu T, Asfaw Z, Kelbessa E. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants around ‘Dheeraa’ town, Arsi zone, Ethiopia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;112:152–61. Wu ZY, Raven PH, Hong DY, editors. Flora of China. Vol. 12 (Hippocastanaceae through Theaceae). St. Louis: Science Press, Beijing, and Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 2007. Zhang YL, Chen YS. Studies on pollen morphology in Tiliaceae of China. Act Phytotaxonomica Sinica. 1984;22:367–77.

Hedychium spicatum Buch.-Ham. ex Sm. ZINGIBERACEAE Razan Mahat, Asmita Thapa, Rameshwar Bhattarai, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Hedychium spicatum Buch.-Ham. ex Sm.: Gandasulium sieboldii (Wall.) Kuntze; Gandasulium spicatum (Sm.) Kuntze; Hedychium acuminatum Roscoe; Hedychium album Buch.-Ham. ex Wall; Hedychium coronarium J. Koenig; Hedychium flavescens Lodd. ex Lindl.; Hedychium sieboldii Wall.; Hedychium spicatum var. acuminatum (Roscoe) Wall.; Hedychium spicatum var. khasianum C.B. Clarke ex Baker; Hedychium spicatum var. spicatum; Hedychium spicatum var. trilobum (wall. ex Roscoe) Wall.; Hedychium tavoyanum Horan.; Hedychium trilobum Wall. ex Roscoe

R. Mahat · A. Thapa Trichandra Multiple Campus, Tribhuvan University, Ghantaghar, Kathmandu, Nepal R. Bhattarai Asian Center for Development, Kathmandu, Nepal R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_114

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Local Names Hedychium spicatum: Nepali: Dudh Kewra, Sati, Seto saro, Pakha phool, Pani saro, Saisya, Kyaro; Jammu: Daru haldi, Sitruit, Adrak; Hindi: Syodu, Banhaldu, Gandhamoolika, Sandharlika, Kapur kachri; Chepang: Pani sarro, Pakha phool, Saisya, Kyaro, Yuk Musai; Manipuri: Takhellei; Magar: Tunti; Mandarin: Cao Guo Yao; English: Spiked Ginger lily, Perfume Ginger

Botany and Ecology Hedychium spicatum: Pseudostems 1–3 m. Leaves sessile; ligule 2–3 cm, membranous; leaf blade oblong-lanceolate or lanceolate, 20–40  4.5–8 cm, adaxially glabrous, abaxially finely pubescent or thinly hairy, base acute, apex long acuminate. Spikes ellipsoid, 10–20  4–8 cm; bracts imbricate, ovate, 4.5–5  2.5–4 cm, 2- or 3-flowered. Flowers white, fragrant. Calyx about 4 cm, split on 1 side. Corolla tube about 8 cm, slender; lobes lanceolate, about 5 cm, central one spatulate, apex mucronate. Lateral staminodes oblong-lanceolate, about 5 cm. Labellum white, pale yellow at base, obcordate, 4–6  4–6 cm, apex 2-cleft. Filament about 3 cm; anther about 1.5 cm. Ovary sericeous. Flowering August–December (Polunin and Stainton 2005; Press et al. 2000; Wu et al. 1994–2013; Wu and Raven 2000). Hedychium spicatum is a small hardy rhizomatous herb. It is a perennial flowering plant that grows to around 1–2 m, with green leaves and large orange whitish flowers (Rasool and Maqbool 2019). It is a native herb of South-East Asian countries near to Himalayan region. It has wide distribution in Nepal, India, Bhutan, China, Japan, and Pakistan (Figs. 1 and 2).

Phytochemistry The rhizome extract has been reported to contain essential oil, starch, resins, organic acids, glycosides, albumen, and saccharides. Rhizome contains about 4% of essential oil and its phytochemical investigations have shown the presence of a variety of terpenoids (monoterpenoids, sesquiterpenoids, and diterpenoids). Various chemical constituents reported in Hedychium spicatum essential oil are α-pinene, β-pinene, limonene, β-terpinol, borneol, β-caryophyllene, γ-cadinene, humulene, 1,8-cineole, 2-alkanones, linalool, camphor, linalyl acetate, terpinolene, p-cymene, benzyl cinnamate, benzyl acetate, lindylacteate, γ-terpinene, β-phellandrene, methyl paracumarin acetate, cinnamic ethyl acetate, ethyl-pmethoxycinnamate, ethyl cinnamate, d-sabinene, sesquiterpene-cadinene, sesquiterpene alcohols, sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, drimane and labdane derivatives, hedychenone, 7-hydroxyhedychenone, spicatanoic acid, spicatanol, and spicatanolmethyl ether (Rasool and Maqbool 2019).

Hedychium spicatum Buch.-Ham. ex Sm. Fig. 1 Hedychium spicatum (Zingiberaceae), plant. (Photo Laxmi R Joshi)

Fig. 2 Hedychium spicatum (Zingiberaceae), flower, close-up view. (Photo Laxmi R Joshi)

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Local Medicinal Uses Hedychium spicatum: Rhizomes applied for treatment of joint pain, burns, boils, and skin diseases. The fresh rhizome extract/juice can be used for treatment of cuts and wounds and boils. Leaves paste (lepa) applied for treatment of headache (Singh et al. 2017). It is used for the treatment of snakebites (Houghton and Osibogun 1993). The species also serves to treat asthma (Savithramma et al. 2007), and cuts and wounds (Kala 2005). It is used to remedy hypoglycemia and serves as anti-inflammatory (Gairola et al. 2014). It is one of the plant species which is commonly used in the preparation of indigenous medicine. It contains essential oil, organic acids, starch, resins, glycosides, albumen, and saccharides, which is treated for blood purification, bronchitis, indigestion, treatment of eye diseases, and inflammations (Srimal et al. 1984; Prakash and Singh 2001). While the rootstock is carminative, emmenagogue, expectorant, stimulant, stomachic, and tonic, it is useful in the treatment of liver diseases and poor circulation due to thickening of blood (Chauhan 1999). Rhizome is anti-asthmatic and antiseptic. It has insect repellent properties and also used as a dye and perfume for making abir powder. Plant rhizome is folkloric for diarrhea, vomiting in Sikkim (Lepcha and Das 2011). In Nepal, it has been used for fever, cough, cold, respiratory problems, menstrual disorders, stomachache, and abdominal pain. The species is used for cough and cold (Balami 2004); abdominal pain (Basnet et al. 2001); menstrual problem (Bhattarai et al. 2009); with ghee and honey for stomachache, constipation, and indigestion (Thapa 2013); and diarrhea, vomiting (Uprety et al. 2016). It helps to treat body ache (Kala 2005). Dried root powder is taken for diabetes and diphtheria (Bhandary et al. 1995). Dudh kewara, Tunti (Magar); Root paste is applied as antidote for allergic effect of Rhus succedeana. Beads woven on rope are put around child’s neck to relieve fever (Budha-Magar et al. 2020). Hedychium ellipticum: The species is used for indigestion, fever (Malla et al. 2015), and respiratory problems (Bhattarai et al. 2010). Hedychium dekianum serves to treat stomach disorders (Kala 2005).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Hedychium spicatum: The root has a special religious significance at marriage ceremonies. Its decoction is applied to the body of the bride and groom to keep them cool. Origanum vulgare is another medico-religious plant which is offered to Lord Vishnu and Shiva in Badn’nath and Kedarnath temples (Aumeeruddy-Thomas and Shengji 2003).

References Aumeeruddy-Thomas Y, Shengji P. Applied ethnbobotany: case studies from the Himalayan region, People and plants working paper 12. Surrey: WWF; 2003. Balami NP. Ethnomedicinal uses of plants among the Newar community of Pharping village of Kathmandu district, Nepal. Tribhuvan Univ J. 2004;24(1):13–9.

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Basnet BK, Joshi R, Lekhak HD. Ethnobotanical survey of chepang tribe of Makawanpur district, Nepal. Kathmandu: Ecological Society of Nepal; 2001. Bhandary MJ, Chandrashekar KR, Kaveriappa KM. Medical ethnobotany of the Siddis of Uttara Kannada district, Karnataka, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 1995;47:149–58. Bhattarai S, Chaudhary RP, Taylor RL. Ethno-medicinal plants used by the people of Nawalparasi District, Central Nepal. Our Nature. 2009;7:82–99. Bhattarai S, Chaudhary RP, Quave CL, Taylor RSL. The use of medicinal plants in the transhimalayan arid zone of Mustang district, Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:14. Budha-Magar S, Bhandari P, Ghimire SK. Ethno-medicinal survey of plants used by Magar (Kham) community, Rolpa district, Western Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2020;19:1–29. Chauhan NS. Medicinal and aromatic plants of Himachal Pradesh. New Delhi: Indus Publishing; 1999. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Houghton PJ, Osibogun IM. Flowering plants used against snakebite. J Ethnopharmacol. 1993;39:1–29. Kala CP. Ethnomedicinal botany of the Apatani in the Eastern Himalayan region of India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2005;1:11. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-1-11. Lepcha SR, Das AP. Ethno-medicobotanical exploration along the international borders to Tibet Autonomous Region of China and the kingdom of Bhutan with special reference to the Pangolakha Wildlife Sanctuary. In: East Sikkim: Recent studies in biodiversity and traditional knowledge in India; 2011. p. 257–70. Malla B, Gauchan DP, Chhetri RB. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by ethnic people in Parbat district of western Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;165:103–17. Polunin O, Stainton A. Concise flowers of the Himalaya. 3rd ed: Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2005. Prakash A, Singh KK. Eukaryotic translesion synthesis DNA polymerases. J Med Aroma Plant Sci. 2001:22–23.519. Press JR, Shrestha KK, Sutton DA. Annotated checklist of the flowering plants of Nepal. London: The Natural History Museum; 2000. Rasool S, Maqbool M. An overview about Hedychium spicatum: a review. J Drug Deliv Therapeut. 2019;9(1-s):476–80. Savithramma N, Sulochana C, Rao KN. Ethnobotanical survey of plants used to treat asthma in Andhra Pradesh, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;113:54–61. Singh A, Nautiyal MC, Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal plants used by local inhabitants of Jakholi Block, Rudraprayag district, Western Himalaya, India. J Etnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13:49. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0178-3. Srimal RC, Sharma SC, Tandon JS. Synthesis of (+) – coronarin E. Indian J Phamacol. 1984;16:143. Thapa LB. Medicinal plants used by Raji ethnic tribe of Nepal in treatment of gastrointestinal disorders. Our Nature. 2013;11(2):177–86. Uprety Y, Poudel RC, Gurung J, Chhetri N, Chaudhary RP. Traditional use and management of NTFPs in Kangchenjunga landscape: implications for conservation and livelihoods. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:19. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0089-8. Wu ZY, Raven PH, editors. Flora of China. Vol. 24. Flagellariaceae through Marantaceae. St. Louis: Science Press, Beijing, and Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 2000. p. 370. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. St. Louis: Science Press, Beijing & Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013.

Heracleum candicans Wall. ex DC. APIACEAE Hassan Sher, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Local Names Heracleum candicans: Pashto: Polia

Botany and Ecology Heracleum candicans: Plants 40–100(–200) cm tall, pubescent or tomentose. Root stout, cylindrical. Stem solitary, branched. Basal and lower leaves pinnate; pinnae 2–3 pairs, ovate-oblong, 5–7(–20)  3–5 cm, pinnatifid, abaxially silvery, densely white tomentose, margins serrate, apex mucronate or obtuse. Upper leaves reduced, H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_115

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Fig. 1 Heracleum sp. (Apiaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

sessile, 3-lobed on expanded sheaths. Peduncles 15–30 cm, pubescent; bracts 1–3, linear, caducous; rays 15–25(–35), unequal, 3–7(–10) cm, pubescent; bracteoles 5–8, linear; umbellules 20–25-flowered. Calyx teeth minute. Petals white, outer flowers of umbels radiant. Fruit obovoid, 5–8(–10)  4–6 mm, glabrous when mature; vittae solitary in each furrow, 2 on commissure, clavate, extending to 2/3 length of mericarp. Seed face plane. Flowering May–July, fruiting August– September (Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6).

Local Medicinal Uses Heracleum candicans is used as antifungal in Pakistan (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018) and for snakebites in India (Kayani et al. 2015; Thakur et al. 2014). It is used for backache, as stomatic, digestive (Wali et al. 2019), and skin diseases (Kayani et al. 2015). It also serves as aphrodisiac, nerve tonic, to treat malaria, as sedative, antineoplastic agent, for gynecological disorders, joint pain, and leukoderma (Gairola et al. 2014).

Heracleum candicans Wall. ex DC. Fig. 2 Heracleum sp. (Apiaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Heracleum sp. (Apiaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Heracleum sp. (Apiaceae), seeds, Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 5 Heracleum sp. (Apiaceae), seeds, Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 6 Heracleum wilhelmsii (Apiaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Heracleum wallichii is used for gastritis and diarrhea (Tamang et al. 2017). Heracleum lanatum is used as nerve tonic in the Himalayas (Singh et al. 2019). Heracleum gorganicum serves for digestive disorders (Ghorbani 2005).

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Fig. 7 Heracleum sp. (Apiaceae), pickled stems, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Heracleum alpinum: The leaves, seeds, and stems are used to treat hemorrhoids (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017, 2020; Bussmann 2017). Heracleum asperum: A decoction of roots was mentioned by a local healer in Svaneti as a remedy purifying the body and used to cure cancer (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a and c, 2017a and b). Heracleum asperum roots are chewed for toothache. The roots are used to treat toothache (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2018, Bussmann 2017). Heracleum persicum: The seeds are used to relieve dyspepsia, flu, and hiccup (Ahvazi et al. 2012; Zolfeghari et al. 2012; Mozaffarian 2013; Amiri et al. 2014; Gholipour et al. 2014). It has appetizer, carminative, stomach tonic, vermifuge, and diuretic properties (Amin 2005, Mikaili et al. 2011, Zolfeghari et al. 2012, Amiri et al. 2014, Gholipour et al. 2014). Decoction and infusion of seeds and leaves are used as carminative and for treatment of gastritis in children (Ahvazi et al. 2012). In NW of Iran, the root of H. persicum is used for the treatment of skin diseases (Zolfeghari et al. 2012). It is also used to ease digestion and as mouthwash (Amin 2005; Mikaili et al. 2011; Zolfeghari et al. 2012).

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Fig. 8 Heracleum sp. (Apiaceae), pickled stems, Javakheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Heracleum sibiricum: In the Ural, a decoction is used as antiseptic, antiinflammatory, for epilepsy, neurosis, dyspepsia, colitis, respiratory problems, and externally for skin diseases and toothache (Sokolov 1988). Heracleum sosnowskyi: In Georgian Ajara, the root decoction is used for lung diseases. The leaves are used as poultice for wounds. In Georgia, a decoction of roots was mentioned by a local healer in Svaneti as a remedy purifying the body and used to cure cancer (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a and b). Hieracium asperum roots are chewed for toothache (Sokolov 1988). The roots are used to treat cancer and tumors (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2018; Bussmann 2017). Heracleum sphondylium/Heracleum wilhelmsii: In the Ural, the species is used for epilepsy, bronchial hemorrhage, enteritis, dyspepsia, dysentery, and topically for the treatment of furuncles, dermatomycosis, and itchy dermatoses. It is also used for high blood pressure (Pawera et al. 2015). Heracleum wilhelmsii: In Georgia, the roots are used to treat stomach ailments. (Sokolov 1988) Hieracium wilhelmsii roots are used to treat stomach ailments (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, 2020). The roots are used to treat stomach problems (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2018, Bussmann 2017).

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Fig. 9 Heracleum sp. (Apiaceae), pickled stems, Javakheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Heracleum sp. The leaves are used to treat mastitis (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2018, Bussmann 2017).

Local Food Uses Heracleum wallichii: Inflorescences and seeds are eaten (Dangol et al. 2017). Heracleum apiifolium: Stalks are used as food in Dagestan (Kaliszewska and Kołodziejska-Degórska 2015). Heracleum asperum: The leaves are widely used as food. The stems are pickled or used in sats’ebai (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2018, Bussmann 2017). Heracleum gorganicum is used as spice (Ghorbani 2005). Heracleum leskovii: The stems are pickled (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2018, Bussmann 2017). Heracleum mantegazzianum: The young shoots are pickled (Sokolov 1988). The stems are pickled (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2018, Bussmann 2017).

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Fig. 10 Heracleum sp. (Apiaceae), pickled stems, Javakheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Heracleum persicum: The seeds of Heracleum are commonly used as spice and condiment in the Persian cuisine and also in the pickles (Mozaffarian 2013; Amiri et al. 2014). Heracleum sibiricum/sosnowskyi/sphondylium/wilhelmsii: The young stems and leaves are eaten, especially in cabbage soup, herb pies, and pickled. Especially in Georgia, the species are widely used as food (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a and c, 2017a and b, 2018, Bussmann 2017, Łuczaj and Szymański 2007) (Figs. 7, 8, 9, and 10).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Heracleum candicans: The plant is used as forage (Wali et al. 2019).

References Ahvazi M, Akbarzadeh M, Khalighi-Sigaroodi F, Kohandel A. Introduce some of the medicinal plants species with the most traditional usage in East Mazandaran region (Persian). J Med Plants. 2012;4(44):164–76. Amin G. The most common medicinal plants in Iran. Tehran: Medical Ethics and History of Medicine Research Center; 2005.

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Amiri MS, Joharchi MR, TaghavizadehYazdi ME. Ethno-medicinal plants used to cure jaundice by traditional healers of Mashhad, Iran. Iran J Pharm Res. 2014;13(1):157. Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Heracleum asperum M. B. Fl.; Heracleum leskovii A. Grossh. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-49412-8_55. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus, vol. XXVII. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017, 746 p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1). Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ehnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:5. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016c;86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo Republic of Georgia, Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;171:7–33. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Moazzami Farida SH, Ghorbani A, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D. Heracleum asperum M. B. Fl.; Heracleum leskovii A. Grossh.; Heracleum mantegazzianum Sommier & Levier; Heracleum persicum L.; Heracleum sibiricum L.; Heracleum sosnowskyi Manden.; Heracleum spondylium L.; Heracleum wilhelmsii Fich. & Ave-Lall. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions far Eastern Europe. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020. Dangol DR, Maharjan KL, Maharjan SK, Acharya AK. Wild edible plants in Nepal. In: Joshi BK, Bahadur KCH, Acharya A, editors. Conservation and utilization of agricultural plant genetic resources of Nepal. Dhulikhel: NAGRC; 2017. p. 390–407. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Ghorbani A. Studies on pharmaceutical ethnobotany in the region of Turkmen Sahra, north of Iran (Part 1): general results. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102:58–68. Gholipour A, Ghorbani Nahouji M, Rasouli N, Habib M. Ethnobotanic study of medicinal plants in Zaramroud-e Neka (Mazandaran province). J Med Plants. 2014;4(52):101–21. Kaliszewska I, Kołodziejska-Degórska I. The social context of wild leafy vegetables uses in Shiri, Daghestan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2015;11:63. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-015-0047-x. Kayani S, Ahmad M, Sultana S, Shinwari ZK, Zafar M, Yaseen G, Hussain M, Bibi T. Ethnobotany of medicinal plants among the communities of Alpine and Sub-alpine regions of Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;164:186–202.

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Łuczaj Ł, Szymański WM. Wild vascular plants gathered for consumption in the Polish countryside: a review. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3:17. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-3-17. Mikaili P, Shayegh J, Asghari MH, Sarahroodi S, Sharifi M. Currently used traditional phytomedicines with hot nature in Iran. Ann Biol Res. 2011;2(5):56–68. Mozaffarian V. Identification of medicinal and aromatic plants of Iran. Tehran: Farhang Moaser; 2013. Pawera L, Verner V, Termote C, Sodombekov I, Kadanov A, Karabaev N, Skalicky M, Polesny Z. Medical ethnobotany of herbal practitioners in the Turkestan Range, southwestern Kyrgyzstan. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2015; https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3483. Singh S, Bhat JA, Malik ZA, Youssouf M, Bussmann RW, Kunwar RM. Sacred groves in Western Himalaya, India: community-managed nature refuges for conservation of biodiversity and culture. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18:15. https://doi.org/10.17348/era.18.15.1-21. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1988, 357 p. (in Russian). Tamang M, Pal K, Kumar Rai S, Kalam A, Rehan Ahmad S. Ethnobotanical survey of threatened medicinal plants of West Sikkim. Int J Botany Stud. 2017;2(6):116–25. Thakur KS, Kumar M, Bawa R, Bussmann RW. Ethnobotanical study of herbaceous flora along an altitudinal gradient in Bharmour Forest Division, District Chamba of Himachal Pradesh, India. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2014; https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/946870. Ur-Rahman I, Afsal A, Iqbal Z, Ijas F, Ali N, Asif M, Alam J, Majid A, Bussmann RW. Traditional and ethnomedicinal dermatology practices in Pakistan. Clin Dermatol. 2018;36(3):310–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clindermatol.2018.03.018. Wali R, Rahman K, Raja NI, Qureshi R, Bussmann RW, Mashwani ZUR. A quantitative medico botanical expedition of Fairy Meadows National Park, Diamir, Gilgit Baltistan, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18:35. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.35.1-30. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. St. Louis: Science Press, Beijing & Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Zolfeghari E, Adeli I, Mozafarian V, Babaiy S, Habibi Bibalan G. Identification of Arasbaran medicinal plants and ethnobotanical study of rural people knowledge (Case Study: Arasbaran forest, Mardanaghom watershed). Iran J Med Aromat Plants. 2012;28(3):534–50.

Hippolytia dolichophylla (Kitam.) K. Bremer & Humphries ASTERACEAE Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

Synonyms Hippolytia dolichophylla (Kitam.) K. Bremer & Humphries: Chrysanthemum dolichophyllum Kitam.; Chrysanthemum longifolium Rech. f.; Tanacetum dolichophyllum (Kitam.) Kitam.; Tanacetum himachalense Aswal & Mehrota; Tanacetum longifolium Wall. ex DC.

Botany and Ecology Hippolytia dolichophylla: Perennial. Plant 10–35 cm high, with thick woody rhizome producing stems and condensed nonflowering shoots, more or less covered with appressed bifid hairs. Stems few or solitary, ascending or erect, weakly leafy, branched only at apex (in inflorescence). Leaves dull green, relatively sparsely hairy H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_116

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(to subglabrous), with indistinct punctate glands; basal leaves to 8–12 cm long and 4 cm wide, with rather long (often longer than lamina) petiole strongly thickened at base, broadly obovate to almost round, twice pinnately cut (or divided) up to narrowly winged rachis with 2–4 pairs of approximate lateral lobes; terminal lobes oblong to linear, usually to 1.5 mm, in plants from shady places up to 3 mm wide, subobtuse or subacute; cauline leaves few, reduced, with short petiole or sessile, usually pinnately parted or pinnately lobed; uppermost leaves undivided. Capitula (1)3–12(15), aggregated at stem apex into compact, often subglobose, simple or compound corymb, with up to 1 cm, less often up to 2 cm long peduncles. Involucre 7–11 mm in diameter and 5–7 mm long, usually finely tomentose near base; involucral bracts herbaceous, outer broadly lanceolate with narrow, dark brown or brownish, membranous border; inner oblong-linear, with wide border of same color, appendiculately rounded at apex. Corolla of tubular florets 2.8–3.6 mm long. Achenes 2.5–3.2 mm long and about 0.6–0.8 mm wide, lacking corona. Flowering July–August. Rocks, stony slopes, above 2000 m.

Local Medicinal Uses Hippolytia dolichophylla and Hippolytia senecioides are used for earache, colic, and otorrhea (Gairola et al. 2014).

Local Food Uses The leaves of Hippolytia delavayi are eaten as vegetable (Zhang et al. 2016).

References Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Zhang L, Chai Z, Zhang Y, Geng Y, Wang Y. Ethnobotanical study of traditional edible plants used by the Naxi people during droughts. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:39. https://doi.org/10. 1186/s13002-016-0113-z.

Hippophae rhamnoides L. ssp. turkestanica Rousi Hippophae rhamnoides L. Hippophae salicifolia D. Don Hippophae tibetana Schltdl. ELAEAGNACEAE Youba Raj Pokharel, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Arshad Mehmood Abbasi Synonyms Hippophae rhamnoides L.: Elaeagnus rhamnoides (L.) A. Nelson Hippophae salicifolia D. Don: Elaeagnus salicifolia (D. Don) A. Nelson; Hippophae conferta Wall.; and Hippophae rhamnoides subsp. salicifolia (D. Don) Servettaz; Hippophae tibetana Schltdl.

Y. R. Pokharel Ministry of Forests and Environment, Kathmandu, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_117

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Local Names Hippophae rhamnoides: English: Seabuckthorn; Baltistan: Buro, Karsoq; Ladakh: Tsestallullu, Tarbu, Chakdum; Kashmir: Charma, Tirku, Buru Hippophae salicifolia: Hindi: Chharma, Chuk, Tarwa; Magar: Amilchi; Nepali: Dalechuk, Tarachuk, Shankhadhara; Sanskrit: Aasuka; Thakali: Chichi; Tibetan: Tarbu, Tarbusatar; Ladakh: Tarboo, Aami; English: Seabuckthorn Hippophae tibetana: Ladakh: Chitaka, Chharboo

Botany and Ecology In 1971, Finish taxonomist Arne Rousi recognized three species of Hippophae, namely, H. rhamnoides L., H. salicifolia D. Don, and H. tibetana Schlecht (Rongsen 1992). Press et al. (2000) and GoN (2001) catalogue that there only two species of Hippophae in Nepal. They are H. salicifolia D. Don and H. tibetana Schltdl. Hippophae rhamnoides: Shrubs or trees, 1–15(–18) m tall. Bark brownish green, yellowish brown, or black; branches many, spines 2–7 cm. Leaves alternate; petiole  absent; leaf blade abaxially silvery white suffused with brown or yellow, adaxially dark grayish green, linear or linear-lanceolate, 2–8  0.2–0.8 cm,  narrowed at base, abaxially with white and brown stellate scales, margin  revolute, apex subobtuse. Male inflorescence a minute spike, 5–8  4–6 mm. Male flowers: calyx lobes greenish brown, ovate-orbicular, 3–4  3–3.5 mm, concave, outside with numerous brown and sparse white stellate scales; stamens 1/2–2/3 as long as calyx; anthers nearly sessile, oblong-linear, about 1.5 mm. Female flowers 2–5 in axils of branchlets; pedicels about 0.5 mm, to 5 mm in fruit; calyx brown, tubular, oblong-obovate, 2.5–4  1–1.5 mm, outside with stellate brown and few white scales, lobes obtuse, interior with rather long white hairs, dense in upper part; Ovary globose-ovoid, 1–2 mm, about 1/2 as long as calyx, glabrous; style about 0.5 mm; stigma oblong, 0.5–1 mm, exserted. Peduncle 1–7 mm. Fruit orange or reddish, globose, ovoid, globose-ovoid, or ellipsoid, terete, 4–9(–10)  3–8 mm, glabrous, succulent and aromatic. Endocarp easy to separate from seed. Seed dark brown, sometimes nearly black, glossy, ovoid-oblong, or oblong-ellipsoid, 4–7  1.5–2 or 4–5 mm. Flowering April–May, fruiting September–October (Barbour et al. 1980; Kershaw and Loonley 1985; Li 2002; Pollunin and Stainton 1997; Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Fig. 1). Hippophae salicifolia: Shrubs or trees, 2–3(–10) m tall. Trunk to more than 30 cm in diam. Petiole 2–3 mm; leaf blade abaxially whitish with usually reddish-brown midrib, adaxially  green, linear-oblong, 4.2–6.2  0.6–1.2 cm, abaxially tomentose, adaxially stellate-hairy, margin usually revolute. Male flowers 2.5–3(–4) mm; anthers 2–2.5 mm. Female calyx about 2 mm. Peduncle 1–4 mm. Fruit orangeyellow to greenish brown or yellow to deep red, globose, terete, 5–7  5–7 mm. Endocarp easy to separate from seed. Seed broadly ellipsoid to ovoid,  flattened, 2.8–5.2 mm. Flowering June, fruiting October (Barbour et al. 1980; Kershaw and

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Fig. 1 Hippophae rhamnoides (Eleagnaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

Fig. 2 Hippophae salicifolia (Eleagnaceae), fruiting bush of H. salicifolia, Jumla, Nepal. (Photo Youba Raj Pokharel)

Loonley 1985; Li 2002; Pollunin and Stainton 1997; Wu et al. 1994–2013). Climate change has already caused an upshift in the range of the species (Kunwar et al. 2015) (Fig. 2).

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Fig. 3 Hippophae tibetana (Eleagnaceae), H. tibetana bushes, with ripen berries, Solukhumbu, Nepal. (Photo Youba Raj Pokharel)

Hippophae tibetana: Shrubs, small, sometimes rhizomatous, (5–)10–60(–80) cm tall. Older stems dark gray, thick, with regularly spaced scars of deciduous leafy branches; leafy stems slender, unbranched, spine tipped. Leaves mostly in whorls of 3; petiole about 1 mm; leaf blade abaxially whitish, adaxially grayish, linear-oblong, 1.2–2  0.25–0.4 cm, densely scaly, abaxially with scattered subentire, reddishbrown scales and reddish-brown midrib, margin flat. Male flowers about 2 mm; anthers about 1.5 mm. Peduncle 1–2 mm. Fruit yellowish green, globose to elliptic, terete, 8-–11  6–9 mm. Endocarp difficult to separate from seed. Seed somewhat flattened, 4–5.6  1.9–2.8 mm. Fruiting May (Barbour et al. 1980; Kershaw and Loonley 1985; Li 2002; Pollunin and Stainton 1997; Wu et al. 2007; 1994–2013). Dry gravelly or stony places, especially on riverbeds and flood plains; 3600–4700 m. China, Bhutan, N India, Nepal (Fig. 3). All species grow on hills and hillsides, in valleys, and river beds, along sea coasts and islands, in small isolated or large continuous pure stands or in mixed stands with other shrub or tree species. It is a dioecious species with male and female flowers on separate trees. Pollination is anemophylous. The fruit is tightly clustered on 2–3year-old branches. Phenological studies show clear clonal variations in growth, hardiness, and height according to the geographic distribution, i.e., higher the latitude, shorter the growth period and plant height (Yao and Tigerstedt 1995; Gupta et al. 2000; Pokharel 2004).

Phytochemistry Hippophae salicifolia: The fruits, leaves, and twigs revealed the presence of alkaloids and absence of saponins and flavonoids whereas the stem bark showed the presence of flavonoids and was devoid of saponins and alkaloids. The bark has been reported to contain β-sitosterol, saturated aliphatic long-chained hydrocarbon, and a sterol glycoside. The presence of two alkaloids harmol and harman were also detected in the bark (Kaur et al. 2017; Ji et al. 2020). It was reported that the

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crude protein content in the leaves of H. salicifolia (21.6%) was significantly higher than those of the H. rhamnoides biotypes as fodder values of the plants of sea buckthorn and fat content varies from 3.5% to 4.8% in H. rhamnoides to 4.6% in H. salicifolia. Natural detergent fiber value in the leaves of H. salicifolia (32.7%) was higher than the biotypes of H. rhamnoides (Kaur et al. 2017). Hippophae tibetana: The fruit is a very rich source of Vitamins A, C, and E, flavonoids and other bio-active compounds. It is being investigated as food, which is capable of reducing the incidence of cancer (Ji et al. 2020). A red cosmetic is obtained from the ripe fruit (Kaur et al. 2017). Fruit juice is rich in sugar, amino acids, essential fatty acids, phytosterol, flavonoids, vitamins, and mineral elements. Besides vitamin C, the juice is also rich in vitamin A, vitamin E, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, vitamin B6, and vitamin B2. Eighteen kinds of free amino acids have been found in juice, of which eight are essential for human body. Seed oil is rich in oleic acid and ratio of omega-3 to omega-6 is almost 1:1 and also contains omega-7 and omega-9 fatty acids (Rongsen 1992). Leaves are rich in carotenoids, esterified sterols, triterpenides, and isoprenol and contains about 15–20% proteins. As compared to fruits, leaves have much higher antioxidative, antistress, adaptogenic, immunoprotective, and radiation protective activities; hence, have much higher therapeutical potential. There are more than a hundred Seabuckthorn-based formulations in various pharmacopeias of Sowa Rigpa (Tibetan Medicine) (Rongsen 1992).

Local Medicinal Uses Hippophae rhamnoides: In the Altai and Mongolia, the leaf extract is used for the treatment of colitis and diarrhea both in humans and livestock. In Middle Asia poultices and lotions are made from the leaves and fruits to treat with rheumatism and gout. The flowers are used in Tajikistan as emollient. The fruit juice is used as analgesic, for wound healing, vitamin supplement, ulcers and other diseases of the stomach, dysentery, and cancer, and as poultice for eczema, lupus and other skin diseases, burns and frostbite, to improve digestion, and to treat scurvy. The seeds are used as laxative. Oil from seeds and fruits is used for healing wounds, and as antiulcer agent (gastric and stomach ulcers). It is used in cancer therapy, the treatment of burns and radiation injury of the skin. Fruits contain vitamin C. Fruits in the form of juice, water decoction, and syrup, as well as oil made of them are ingested to remedy the lack of vitamins. Buckthorn oil is ingested to treat gastric ulcers. A water infusion of the fruits and oil is externally used in stomatitis, different skin diseases and persistent wounds, as well as women’s diseases. The fruits are eaten as vitamin supplement and to treat diabetes (Fayvush et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017; Xu et al. 2020). As anti-cancer remedy, for cough, skin care, headache, bronchial congestion, antibacterial. Antiviral, antioxidant (Graham et al. 2000; Wali et al. 2019). For gastro-intestinal disorders and skin ailments (Abbas et al. 2019). To treat cold, for memory restoration, anti-ageing, as energy booster, for abdominal ailments, bronchial-asthma, eye-ailments, gynecological disorders, hepatic enlargement, liver ailments, lung diseases, stomach upset, tumors (Gairola et al. 2014).

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Fig. 4 Hippophae tibetana (Eleagnaceae), Local people collecting H. tibetana berries, Solukhumbu, Nepal. (Photo Youba Raj Pokharel)

Hippophae salicifolia: to remedy vomiting, and also chewed to remove foul smell from the mouth (Maity et al. 2004). To remedy vomiting and as appetizer (Gairola et al. 2014). Hippophae tibetana: In the eighth century, the medicinal use of Seabuckthorn was mentioned in the Tibetan medical classic the rGyudbzi-the four parts of pharmacopoeia, written by Yu Tuo Yuan Dan Kong Bu and completed during the Chinese Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD). The Gyudbzi gives 84 different sets of prescriptions for the preparation of Seabuckthorn medicines (Rongsen 1992). Seabuckthorn is used extensively as traditional medicine in the high mountains of northwest Nepal (Pokharel 2004). To revitalize and as appetizer (Gairola et al. 2014). Seabuckthorn berries are good for skin diseases, stomach illness, ulcers and the prevention of heart diseases. Fruits are used in skin diseases, as tooth pain reliever, killing warms, stomach disorders, removal of teeth staining (mixed with ash), in menstrual irregularity, in swelling & muscular pain, for cough & cold, and in blood pressure. It is also used for treatment for Jaundice, to control dysentery, asthma, and to join broken and damaged parts of domestic animals. Other uses of the plant are to cure of poison effects, to high altitude sickness, and to lung troubles and constipation (Vaidya 1999). Fruit juice along with plant ingredients like Rosa and other plants is used for treating skin diseases and blood purifier. Fenugreek pickle mixed with Seabuckhorn concentrate juice is found good for controlling blood sugar. Leaf is applying as herbal tea in different districts and to be believed to cure tuberculosis. The concentrated juice is said to be good medicine for those children who cannot speak in due time (Vaidya 1999) (Fig. 4).

Local Food Uses Hippophae rhamnoides: The fruits are eaten raw, and used for jams, juices, sweet. They also serve as food coloring (Fayvush et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017; Tetik et al. 2013; Xu et al. 2020).

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Fig. 5 Hippophae tibetana (Eleagnaceae), Prepared Seabuckthorn juice, Solukhumbu, Nepal. (Photo Youba Raj Pokharel)

Hippophae tibetana: Seabuckthorn berries are among the most nutritious and vitamin-rich fruits found in the flora. Several studies confirm numerous beneficial characteristics and more than 190 bio-active compounds. The plant is not only important to protect soil and to improve the environment but also useful for valueadded products from the berries and other plant parts. Due to immense use, it has aptly been called a wonderful plant, magic plant, supper food, functional food, bank of vitamins, etc. (Rongsen 1992). A number of products can be prepared from the pulp used as subsidiary food items in the domestic level like; juice, jam, sausage, pickles, squash, wine, beverages etc. Seabuckthorn beverage is considered good for people like sportsman, manual workers, children, aged and pregnant woman to enhance strength. Leaves of Seabuckthorn are used as tea (Rongsen 1992) (Fig. 5).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Hippophae rhamnoides: In veterinary medicine the plant is also applied for wound healing, with burns, and internally for gastroenterocolitis. The wood can be used for carpentry. Browsed by camels. Planted as ornamental. A dye solution is prepared from leaves and young shoots to obtain black brown, but from leaves-yellow, orangeyellow, orange, green, brown, coffee, chestnut, turquoise, light-blue, sea-green, olive, and other different colors and shades. The solution is used for dyeing wool, cotton, and silk yarn as well as its products. The shrubs with their silvery leaf and compact crown are used in gardens and parks. The wood is fine-grained, dense, enough strong, yellow, used for fine joinery and turnery. The ash contains much potash. Good species for erosion prevention on slopes, and roadsides (Fayvush et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017; Xu et al. 2020). To construct live fences (Wali et al. 2019).

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Fig. 6 Hippophae tibetana (Eleagnaceae), uprooted bushes used as fence material, Upper Mustang, Nepal. (Photo Youba Raj Pokharel)

Hippophae tibetana: Seabuckthorn, especially those species growing into larger sizes such as H. salicifolia, is the source of fuel wood in the areas where it exists. Leaves and twigs are the source of the fodder for cattle and sheep. But in case of H. tibetana, it has thorns at the tip of the branches and animals generally avoid browsing it though the leaves are source of food. Therefore, it is used as the live fencing by farmers around their agriculture field boundary to protect crop from grazing and browsing (Thomson et al. 1996). Sea-buckthorn is easy to propagate by seed or cuttings. Though it prefers sandy and neutral soil, they survive in soils with pH values from 5–9 (Schroeder 1995) and even tolerate casual seawater flooding. It is a pioneer species and often the first woody species colonizing open areas such as abandoned farmland, wasteland, and rocky islands (Rousi 1971; Yao and Tigerstedt 1995). Sea-buckthorn is an attractive ornamental plant too with bright orange fruits and narrow, silver green leaves. Characters such as wide ecological adaptation, fast growth, strong coppicing and suckering habit coupled with efficient nitrogen fixation make Sea-buckthorn well suited in soil conservation, soil improvement and, marginal land reclamation (Thomson et al. 1996) (Fig. 6).

References Abbas Z, Alam J, Muhammad S, Bussmann RW, Mulk Khan S, Hussain M. Phyto-cultural diversity of the Shigar valley Central Karakorum Baltistan, Northern Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18:32. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.31.1-18. Barbour MG, Burk HJ, Pitts GW. Terrestrial plant ecology. Menlo Park: The Benzamin/Cummings Pub Co; 1980. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus, vol. XXVII. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017, 746 p. ISBN 978–3–319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo Republic of Georgia, Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;161:25–34.

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Fayvush G, Aleksanyan A, Mehdiyeva N, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Hippophae rhamnoides L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Graham JG, Quinn ML, Fabricant DS, Farnsworth NR. Plants used against cancer – an extension of the work of Jonathan Hartwell. J Ethnopharmacol. 2000;73:347–77. Gupta A et al. An ecological assessment of Seabuckthorn (Hippophae spp) resource in Mustang and Manang districts, TISC, Kathmandu;2000. Ji M, Gong X, Wang C, Li M. Advanced research on the antioxidant activity and mechanism of polyphenols from Hippophae species – a review. Molecules. 2020;25:917. Kaur T, Singh G, Kapoor DN. A review on pharmacognostic, phytochemical and pharmacological data of various species of Hippophae (Sea buckthorn). Int J Green Pharm. 2017;11(1):S62–75. Kershaw KA, Loonley JHH. Quantitative and dynamic plant ecology. 3rd ed. New Delhi: Oxford and IBH Publishing Co; 1985. Kunwar RM, Acharya RP, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plant dynamics in indigenous medicines in Farwest Nepal. J Ethnopharnacol. 2015;163:210–9. Li TSC. Product development of Sea buckthorn (PDF). Trends in new crops and new uses. Alexandria: ASHS Press; 2002. p. 393–8. Maity D, Pradhan N, Chauhan AS. Folk uses of some medicinal plants from North Sikkim. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2004;3(1):66–71. Nepal VP, Poudyal DP, Ghimire S, Adhikari K, Subedi CK, Gupta VN. Ecology and distribution of Seabuckthorn (Hippophae spp.) Resource in Northwest Nepal. Tree Improvement and Silviculture Component, Hattisar, Kathandu;2000. Pokharel YR. Seabuckthorn: a source of income generating non-timber forest product for the mountain people. 4th community forestry national workshop, August 4–6, 2004, Kathmandu;2004. Pollunin O, Stainton A. Flowers of the Himalaya. Delhi: Oxford University Press; 1997. Rongsen, L. (1992). Seabuckthorn- a multipurpose plant for fragile mountains. ICIMOD occasional paper no: 20. International Center for Integrated Mountain Development, Kathmandu. Rousi A. The genus Hippophae L. a taxonomic study. Ann Bot Fenn. 1971;8:177–227. Schroeder WR. Improvement and conservation of trees and shrubs. PFRA Shelterbelt Centre Supp. Rpt. 95-1; 1995, 42 p. Tetik F, Civelek S, Cakilcioglu U. Traditional uses of some medicinal plants in Malatya (Turkey). J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;146:331–46. Thomson TH et al. Sea-buckhorn (Hippophae Linn. Spp.) in the Mustang district of Nepal: observations on occurrence, use and potential. Kathmandu: HMG/Danida, Tree Improvement programme;1996. Vaidya BN. Seabuckthorn appropriate for Himalayan region. Kathmandu: HMG/DANIDA/TISC; 1999. Wali R, Rahman K, Raja NI, Qureshi R, Bussmann RW, Mashwani ZUR. A quantitative medico botanical expedition of Fairy Meadows National Park, Diamir, Gilgit Baltistan, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019, 1835; https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.35.1-30. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. St. Louis: Science Press, Beijing & Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Wu ZY, Raven PH, Hong DY, editors. Flora of China. Vol. 13 (Clusiaceae through Araliaceae). St. Louis: Science Press, Beijing, and Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 2007. Xu R, Liu B, Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z. Hippophae rhamnoides L. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions Central Asia and Altai. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3319-77087-1_71-1. Yao Y, Tigerstedt PMA. Geographic variation of growth rhythm, height and hardiness and their relations in Hippophae rhamnoides. J Am Soc Hort Sci. 1995;120(4):691–8.

Holarrhena pubescens Wall. ex G. Don APOCYNACEAE Ram C. Poudel, Ripu M. Kunwar, and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Holarrhena pubescens Wall. ex G. Don: Chonemorpha antidysenterica (Roth) G. Don; Chonemorpha pubescens (Wall.) G. Don; Echites adglutinatus Burm. f.; Echites antidysentericus Roth; Echites antidysentericus Roxb. ex Fleming; Echites pubescens Buch.-Ham.; Elytropus pubescens (Wall.) Miers; Holarrhena antidysenterica (Roth) Wall. ex A. DC.; Holarrhena antidysenterica Wall.; Holarrhena antidysenterica Wall. ex DC.; Holarrhena antidysenterica var. macrantha Kerr; Holarrhena antidysenterica var. pubescens (Wall.) J.L. Stewart & Brandis; Holarrhena codaga G. Don; Holarrhena febrifuga Klotzsch; Holarrhena fischeri K. Schum.; Holarrhena glaberrima Markgr.; Holarrhena glabra Klotzsch; Holarrhena macrocarpa (Hassk.) Fern.-Vill.; Holarrhena malaccensis Wight; Holarrhena perrotii Spire; Holarrhena pierrei Spire; Holarrhena tettensis Klotzsch;

R. C. Poudel (*) Molecular Biotechnology Unit, Faculty of Science, Nepal Academy of Science and Technology (NAST), Khumaltar, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_118

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Holarrhena villosa Aiton ex Loudon; Nerium antidysentericum L.; Nerium sinense Hunter ex Ridl; Physetobasis macrocarpa Hassk.

Local Names Holarrhena pubescens: Nepali: Bankhirra, Desikhirra, Indrajau, Ban Khirro, Indrajau, Karingi, Khirro, Kura, Kurchi, Mahesi Khirro, Sano Khirro; Sanskrit: Indrabriksha, Kutaj, Watsak; Rajastani: Karontita; Chepang: Dutyalo, Khirsi, mauchherchi; Danuwar: Korahiya; Khaling: Khaksalap; Magar: Dude Khirro-; Maghi: Dude; Tamang: Dedon; Tharu: Dude; Tibetan: Tug-mo-nyung (Manandhar 2002); Jammu: Kogar, Kura, Inderjoe; English: Easter tree, iIory tree, Conessi bark, Kurchi

Botany and Ecology Holarrhena pubescens: Shrubs or trees to 10 m tall. Trunk to 20 cm in diam.; branchlets with whitish, dotlike lenticels. Petiole 1–5 mm, grooved, glandular inside groove; leaf blade ovate or elliptic, 10–24  4–11.5 cm, membranous, pubescent, sometimes densely so abaxially, base rounded, apex acute or obtuse; lateral veins 10–15 pairs. Cymes 5–8 cm; peduncle 1–2 cm. Pedicel 0.3–3 cm. Sepals elliptic to linear, 2–12 mm. Corolla white, pubescent, tube 0.9–1.9 cm; lobes oblong, 1–3 cm. Anthers included, narrowly ovate, base rounded. Follicles linear, 20–43  0.5– 1.5 cm, with whitish, dotlike lenticels. Seeds 0.9–1.6 cm, coma 2.5–4.5 cm. Flowering April–July, fruiting June–December (Wu et al. 1994–2013). Already mentioned in classic Greek medicinal texts (Grivas 2018). 100–1500 m, in the tropical forester area from west to east Nepal; Bhutan, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Myanmar, Indo-China, Malaya (Figs. 1, 2, and 3). Fig. 1 Holarrhena pubescens (Apocynaceae), Kailali, Nepal. (Photo Ram C Poudel)

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Fig. 2 Holarrhena pubescens (Apocynaceae), Kailali, Nepal. (Photo Ram C Poudel)

Fig. 3 Holarrhena pubescens (Apocynaceae), Kailali, Nepal. (Photo Ram C Poudel)

Phytochemistry Holarrhena antidysenterica contains significant amounts of phytochemicals like steroidal alkaloids, coumarins, ergostenol, flavonoids, phenolic acids, resin, tannin, triterpenoids, and saponins (Sinha et al. 2013). Several compounds have been isolated from stem, bark, leaves, and seeds of the plant. Conessine, isoconessine, conessimine/ isoconessimine, and conarrhimine were isolated from stem, bark, and seeds (Yang et al. 2012). About 46 compounds: holarrifine; kurchamide; kurcholessine; 7 Trimethylconkurchine; (3),-N-Methylholarrhimine; (20),-N-methylholarrhimine; NNN’N0Tetra- methylholarrhimine; conessidine; holarrhidine; kurchenine; holarrhessimine; holarrhine; conkurchi nine; kurchamine; 7a-hydroxyconessine; kurchilidine; neoconessine (isomer of conessine); holadysenterine; kurchessine; lettocine; kurchimine; holarrhenine; holarrhimine/kurchicine; holacine; holafrine; holadysone; holacetine; 3a-amino- conan-5-ene; dihydroisoconessimine; conamine; conkurchine; pubadysone;

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puboestrene; pubamide; holadiene; kurchinidine; kurchinine; pubescine; norholadiene; pubescimine; holonamine, regholarrhenine A; regholarrhenine B; regholarrhenine C; regholarrhenine D; regholarrhenine E; regholarrhenine F were isolated from stem bark (Stephenson 1948; Alauddin and Martin-Smith 1962; Usmani 1995; Siddiqui et al. 2001; Daniel 2006; Kumar et al. 2007). Rajalakshmi (2018) has identified additional 22 compounds (N-2-carbamoyloxy ethyl carbamic acid; 3-dimethyl amino Benzene methanol; trimethoquinol; 9-butyl-9,10-dihydro Acridine; 2,7 dimethyl carbazole; 2-phenyl 3-pyridinol; pirlindole; silanamine1,1,1-trimethyl –N(4-trime); 10,13Eicosadienoic acid methyl ester; 2-[2-(4-chlorophenyl)-3-morpholin-4yl-3]; methyltribenzocentrotriquinanol; 1-[2-(4-bromophenoxy) ethyl]pyrrolidine; 9,10-diphenyl anthracene; 3,18 Bis acetyloxy pregn-16-en-20-one; 4-imino-1,5,5-triphenyl-2imidazolidinon; 1-triethyl siloxyheptadeccane; 5,9,10 -2H,6H-Pyrano[3,2-b] xanthen6-one; dl-alpha-toccopherol succinate; desmosterol; campsterol; cholesta-22,24-dien-5ol; and lanosta-8,24-dien-3-one) from the bark. Similarly holantosine-A; holantosine-B; holantosine-C; holantosine-D; holantosine-E; holantosine-F; holarosine A; holarosine B; holarricine; kurchiphyllamine; kurchaline; kurchiphylline were isolated from leaves (Usmani 1995; Dev 2006; Panda et al. 2012) and conimine; antidysentericine; lupeol; stigmasterol, betulinaldehyde; betulinic acid were isolated from seeds of H. antidysenterica (Kumar et al. 2007; Bhattachartya et al. 2009; Verma et al. 2011).

Local Medicinal Uses Holarrhena pubescens: Bark is antidiarrheal, antipyretic, and anthelmintic. Seed powder is uses for fevers. The seeds are used in fever, jaundice, diarrhoa, intestinal worms, and gallstones. Root bark is used in dysentery and leaves are used in bronchitis, boils, ulcers, and dysentery. Bark and seeds show astringent, antipyretic, expectorant, and stomachic effects and are taken for diarrhea and dysentery. Seeds are used for treating jaundice, and intermittent fever (Kunwar and Bussmann 2009; Kunwar et al. 2009, 2015). In Rajasthan, used for diarrhea, dysentery, abdomen-ache bronchitis, cough and cold (Jain et al. 2005). Almost all parts of H. antidysenterica are locally used for different diseases and health problems. Decoction of root bark is given in dysentery with bloody stools (Kunwar et al. 2009; Singh et al. 2011). Communities of Kavrepalanchok, however, boil bark with milk and uses the mixture for the remedy of dysentery with bloody stools (Manandhar 1991). In few districts of central Nepal seeds powdered is given with honey or molasses twice a day for 3–5 days to treat chronic dysentery (Bhattarai 1993). Use of infusion of flower and seed in diarrhea and intestinal worms have been reported from Rupendehi district (Singh et al. 2011). Uses of latex have also documented to cure diarrhea (Basnet et al. 2001). Bark, leaf, and seeds of H. antidysenterica are astringent, antipyretic, anthelmintic, febrifugal, and useful for dysentery (Rai 2003; Rijal 2008; Acharya and Acharya 2009; Kunwar et al. 2009; Gautam 2011). Bark and seed are considered effective for gastric troubles (Gautam 2011). Bark paste is applied on rheumatic inflammation (Ghimire and Bastakoti 2009; Singh et al. 2011). Tharu community of Bardiya district take bark juice orally for abortion (Uprety et al. 2010). Tribals of Lamjung

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districts use seed paste to heal boils on the tongue (Manandhar 1987, 2002). Communities of Banke district take bark juice during cough and cold (Manandhar 1998). The same community uses seed powder with milk two times a day in the case of asthma (Manandhar 1998). Leaves are used in chronic bronchitis (Singh et al. 2011). Danuwar tribe of Sindhuli district uses fruits to cure malarian fever (Manandhar 1990). Seed powder is uses for fevers (Kunwar et al. 2009). Latex collected from the wounded part of the stem is used to apply on the effected part to treat from scabies and cut (Bhattarai 1991; Uprety et al. 2010). Also as antispasmodic and anthelminthic (Gairola et al. 2014).

Local Food Uses Holarrhena pubescens: The leaves and flowers are eaten as vegetable (Dangol et al. 2017).

References Acharya R, Acharya KP. Ethnomedicinal plants used by Tharu Community of Parroha VDC, Rupandehi district, Nepal. Sci World. 2009;7:80–4. Alauddin M, Martin-Smith M. Biological activity in steroids possessing nitrogen atoms. J Pharm Pharmacol. 1962;14:469e495. Basnet BK, Joshi R, Lekhak HD. Ethnobotanical survey of chepang tribe of Makawanpur district, Nepal. Ecol Soc Nepal (ECOS). 2001:245–52. Bhattachartya S, Saswati T, Saha CN. Triterpenoids and steroids from Holarrhena pubescens seeds. Pharmacogn Mag. 2009;5(20):407–11. Bhattarai NK. Folk herbal medicines of Makawanpur District, Nepal. Int J Pharmacogn. 1991;29(4):284–95. Bhattarai NK. Folk herbal remedies for diarrhoea and dysentery. Fitoterapia. 1993;50(3):243–50. Dangol DR, Maharjan KL, Maharjan SK, Acharya AK. Wild edible plants in Nepal. In: Joshi BK, Bahadur KCH, Acharya A, editors. Conservation and utilization of agricultural plant genetic resources of Nepal. Dhulikhel: NAGRC; 2017. p. 390–407. Daniel M. Medicinal plants: chemistry and properties. Enfield: Science; 2006. Dev S. A selection of prime ayurvedic plant drugs: ancient-modern concordance. New Delhi: Anamaya; 2006. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Gautam TP. Indigenous uses of some medicinal plants in Panchthar district, Nepal. Nepalese J Biosci. 2011;1:125–30. Ghimire K, Bastakoti RR. Ethnomedicinal knowledge and healthcare practices among the Tharus of Nawalparasi district in Central Nepal. For Ecol Manag. 2009;257:2066–72. Grivas C. Non-native herbal materia medica in Greek texts of the roman period. Medicina nei secoliarte e scienza. J Hist Med. 2018;30(2):531–78. Jain A, Katewa SS, Galav PK, Sharma P. Medicinal plant diversity of Sitamata wildlife sanctuary, Rajasthan, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102:143–57. Kumar N, Singh B, Bhandari P, Gupta AP, Kaul VK. Steroidal alkaloids from Holarrhena antidysenterica (L.) Wall. Chem Pharm Bull. 2007;55(6):912–4. Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Medicinal, aromatic and dye plants of Baitadi and Darchula Districts, Nepal Himalaya: status, uses and management. In: Hartmann M, Weipert J, editors.

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Biodiversität, Naturausstattung im Himalaya, Naturkundemuseum, vol. III. Erfurt; 2009. p. 475–89. Kunwar RM, Uprety Y, Burlakoti C, Chowdhuary CL, Bussmann RW. Indigenous use and ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in Far-West Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009;7:5–28. Kunwar RM, Acharya RP, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plant dynamics in indigenous medicines in Farwest Nepal. J Ethnopharnacol. 2015;163:210–9. Manandhar NP. Traditional medicinal plants used by tribals of Lamjung district, Nepal. Int J Crude Drug Res. 1987;25(4):236–40. Manandhar NP. Traditional phytotherapy of Danuwar tribes of Kamlakhonj in Sinduli district Nepal. Fitoterapia. 1990;50(4):325–31. Manandhar NP. Medicinal plant-lore of Tamang tribe of Kabhrepalanchok District, Nepal. Econ Bot. 1991;45(1):58–71. Manandhar NP. Ethnobotanical census of herbal medicine of Banke district, Nepal. Contrib Nepaleses Stud. 1998;25(1):57–63. Manandhar NP. Plants and people of Nepal. Oregon: Timber Press, Inc.; 2002. Panda SK, Patra N, Sahoo G, Bastia AK, Dutta SK. Antidiarrhoeal activities of medicinal plants of Similipal Biosphere Reserve, Odisha, India. Int J Med Arom Plants. 2012;2(1):123e134. Rai MB. Medicinal plants of Tehrathum District, Eastern Nepal. Our Nature. 2003;1:42–8. Rajalakshmi C. GC MS analysis of the bark of Holarrhena antidysenterica. J Pharmacogn Phytochem. 2018;7(4):797–800. Rijal A. Living knowledge of the healing plants: ethno-phytotherapy in the Chepang communities from the Mid-Hills of Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2008;4:23. Siddiqui BS, Usmani SB, Ali ST, Begum S, Rizwani GH. Further constituents from the bark of Holarrhena pubescens. Phytochemistry. 2001;58:1199–204. Singh AG, Panthi MP, Tewari DD. Ethno medicinal plants used by the Tharu and Magar communities of Rupandehi District, Western Nepal. Curr Botany. 2011;2(2):30–3. Sinha S, Sharma A, Hemalatha Reddy P, Rathi B, Prasad NVSRK, Vashishtha A. Evaluation of phytochemical and pharmacological aspects of Holarrhena antidysenterica (Wall.): a comprehensive review. J Pharm Res. 2013;6(4):488–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jopr.2013.04.004. Stephenson RP. The pharmacological properties of conessine, isoconessine and neoconessine. Br J Pharmacol. 1948;3:237–45. Uprety Y, Boon EK, Poudel RC, Shrestha KK, Rajbhandary S, Ahekhan A, Tiwari NN. Non-timber forest products in Bardiya District of Nepal: indigenous use, trade and conservation. J Hum Ecol. 2010;30(3):143–58. Usmani SB. Studies on the chemical constituents of Holarrhena antidysenterica L. and the b-carboline series of bases and their pharmacological activity. Thesis. Karachi: H.E.J. Research Institute of Chemistry, University of Karachi; 1995. Verma G, Dua VK, Agarwal DD, Atul PK. Anti-malarial activity of Holarrhena antidysenterica and Viola canescens, plants traditionally used against malaria in the Garhwal region of northwest Himalaya. Malar J. 2011;10:20. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. St. Louis: Science Press, Beijing & Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Yang ZD, Duan DZ, Xue WW, Yao XJ, Li S. Steroidal alkaloids from Holarrhena antidysenterica as acetylcholinesterase inhibitors and the investigation for structure activity relationships. Life Sci. 2012;90:929–33.

Holboellia latifolia Wall. LARDIZABALACEAE Razan Mahat, Asmita Thapa, Bhagawat Rimal, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Holboellia latifolia Wall: Holboellia acuminata Lindl., Holboellia latifolia var. acuminata (Lindl.) Gagnep., Holboellia ovatifoliolata C.Y. Wu & T. Chen ex S.H. Huang, Stauntonia latifolia (Wall.) R. Br. ex Wall.

R. Mahat · A. Thapa Trichandra Multiple Campus, Tribhuvan University, Ghantaghar, Kathmandu, Nepal B. Rimal College of Applied Sciences (CAS)-Nepal, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_119

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Local Names Holboellia latifolia: Ladakh: Gonfla; Naga: Mezetsuk; Bhutia: Domhyem; English: Sausage vine, Broad-leaved sausage vine; Gurung: Malkati; Hindi: Gomphal, Gukhnial; Khaling: Paktasi; Khasi: Mirang ksa/Soh lyngkait; Nepali: Gulfa/Gufala, Bagul, Malkati; Sikkim: Kaolrik.

Botany and Ecology Holboellia latifolia: Evergreen. Stems and branches conspicuously striate. Petiole slender, 3.5–12 cm; leaf blade palmately 3–9-foliolate; petiolules slender, 2–4 cm; leaflets 4–13
1–7 cm, papery or leathery, abaxially pale green, adaxially dark green and shiny, base rounded, broadly cuneate, or sometimes subtruncate, apex acuminate to caudate-acuminate; veins abaxially conspicuously prominent; secondary veins 5–8 pairs, anastomosing near margin. Inflorescences several, fascicled racemes; bracts broadly ovate to suborbicular, scaly, persistent; peduncle 1–3.5(5) cm. Flowers several per raceme. Male flowers: sepals greenish white; outer 3 sepals oblong, 11–15
4–5 mm, apex obtuse; inner 3 sepals oblong-lanceolate, apex acute. Petals obovate to elliptic, less than 1 mm. Stamens 8–12 mm; filaments linear, 5.5–7 mm, slightly thick; anthers 3.5–5 mm; connective apical appendage short, apiculate. Pistillodes ovoid-subulate, ca. 1.5 mm. Female flowers: sepals purple; outer 3 sepals ovate-oblong, 16–22
7–9 mm; inner 3 sepals narrower and shorter. Staminodes minute; anthers clavate. Carpels oblong to conical. Stigma sessile, oblique. Fruit reddish purple at maturity, irregularly oblong to ellipsoid, (3–)5–7
ca. 4 cm, densely and minutely tuberculate, obtuse at both ends, apex often mucronate. Seeds numerous, obovoid; seed coat brown. Flowering April–May, fruiting July–September (Wu et al. 1994–2013, 2001). The genus Holboellia was described in 1824 by Nathaniel Wallich (1786–1854), who coined the name Holboellia in honor of Frederik Ludvig Holbøll (1765–1829), superintendent of the Copenhagen Royal Botanic Garden (Wallich 1824; Christenhusz 2012). Now it is popular in Europe but little known and used in Nepal (www.tradenep.com). Stauntonia latifolia is widespread in the Himalayas and Qin (1997) recognized two subspecies (S. latifolia chartacea and S. latifolia latifolia) that are not geographically isolated. Press et al. (2000) recognized two varieties of Holboellia latifolia in Nepal: H. latifolia var. latifolia and H. latifolia var. angustifolia; Shrestha et al. (2018) enumerated two species of Holboellia from Nepal: Holboellia angustifolia Wall., and Holboellia latifolia Wall. Although these names are still popularly used in various literature, including latest one (Ozukum et al. 2019; Wu et al. 1994–2013), however, it would be worth to accept new name of the species Stauntonia angustifolia (Wall.) Christenhusz; and Stauntonia latifolia (Wall.) Christenhusz accordingly, based on phylogenetic analysis of the genus (Christenhusz 2012; www.catalogueoftheworld.org; www.gbif.org). Holboellia comprises 25 species in the world. It is widely distributed throughout the Himalayas, from West Himalaya to Nepal, East Himalaya, Tibetan Plateau, Assam, Burma,

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S Asia, and E Asia (Christenhusz 2012; Shrestha et al. 2018). It mostly prefers moist areas along streams in valley, in mixed forests on mountain slopes or forest edges. Distribution: 1500–4000 m (Polunin and Stainton 2005).

Phytochemistry Holboellia latifolia closely related to Holboellia fargesii (Holboellia angustifolia), belonging to Lardizabalaceae family, contains five triterpenoid saponins, fargosides A–E, which are potential for medicinal compounds. The structures of fargosides A–E were elucidated on the basis of chemical and physicochemical evidence and found to be 3β, 20α-dihydroxy-29-norolean-12-en-28-oic acid 3-O-β-D-xylopyranosyl-(1 ! 2)-β-D-glucopyranoside (1), 3β, 20α, 24-trihydroxy-29-norolean12-en-28-oic acid 23-O-β-D-fucopyranosyl-(1 ! 2)-[α-L-arabinopyranosyl(1 ! 3)]-β-D-glucopyranoside (2), 3β, 23-dihydroxy-30-norolean-2, 20(29)-dien28-oic acid 3-O-α-L-arabinopyranosyl-(1 ! 2)-[β-D-glucopyranosyluronic acid(1 ! 3)]-α-L-arabinopyranoside (3), 3β, 23-dihydroxy-30-norolean-12, 20(29)dien-28-oic acid 3-O-methyl β-D-glucopyranosyluronate-(1 ! 3)-α-Larabinopyranoside (4), and 3β, 23-dihydroxy-olean-12-en-28-oic acid 3-O-methyl β-D-glucopyranosyluronate-(1 ! 3)-α-L-arabinopyranoside (5), respectively (Fu et al. 2001; Hongzheng et al. 2001; Lei et al. 2009) (Figs. 1 and 2).

Local Medicinal Uses Holboellia latifolia: The species is used to treat burns (Kichu et al. 2015). In Nepal, Holboellia latifolia root is used as medicine (Shrestha et al. 2018). In Eastern part of Nepal, the plant stems are used in orthopedic problems. Roots of Holboellia latifolia are believed to be effective for rheumatism (Lepcha and Das 2011; Kunwar 2018) Fig. 1 Holboellia latifolia ripe fruits at Ilam district, Nepal. (Photo Ram C Poudel and Krishna K Shrestha)

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Fig. 2 Holboellia latifolia at Gaurishankar Conservation Area, Nepal. (Photo Lila Sharma)

and stems are used to make bangles which are believed to be useful for orthopedic problems (Chettri and Sharma 2011; Uprety et al. 2016). Species of Holboellia are mainly used as medicines in India or Tibet. In Yunnan folk medicine, the stems, roots, and fruits are reported to be used internally for hernia, cough, and nephritis (Hart and Bussmann 2019). Ripe fruit pulp is consumed for the treatment of dyspepsia and flatulence (Sahoo and Ansari 2009), and for the treatment of stomach disorders, and as a tonic (Ozukum et al. 2019).

Local Food Uses The fleshy fruits of most plants in Lardizabalaceae are eaten. In Nepal, Holboellia latifolia, fruits are used as food (Shrestha et al. 2018). In western part of Nepal, fruits are eaten ripe (Aryal et al. 2018).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Holboellia latifolia: The species is used to treat cuts and wounds in cattle (Hart and Bussmann 2019; Malik et al. 2015). In Nepal, Holboellia latifolia plants are used as fodder for cattle (Shrestha et al. 2018). This plant is a best forage for bees in Dolakha, Nepal (Bista and Shivakoti 2001). The leaf paste is applied to heal wounds of cattle (Juyal and Ghildial 2013).

References Aryal KP, Poudel S, Chaudhary RP, Chettri N, Chaudhary P, Ning W, Kotru R. Diversity and use of wild and non-cultivated edible plants in the Western Himalaya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14(1):10.

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Bista S, Shivakoti GP. Honeybee flora at Kavre, Dolakha district, Nepal. Nepal Agric Res J. 2001;4 & 5(2000/2001):18–25. Chettri, N. and Sharma, E.. Non-timber forest produce: utilization, distribution and status in the Khangchendzonga biosphere reserve, Sikkim, India; 2011. p. 165–180. Christenhusz M. Stauntonia latifolia. Curtis’s Bot Mag. 2012;29(3):297–302. Fu H, Koike K, Zheng Q, Misunaga K, Jia Z, Nikaido T, Lin W, Guo D, Zhang L. Fargosides A-E, triterpenoid saponins from Holboellia fargesii. Chem Pharma Bull. 2001;49:999–1002. Hart R, Bussmann R. Trans-Himalayan transmission, or convergence? Stauntonia (Lardizabalaceae) as an ethnoveterinary medicine. Med Secoli. 2019;30:329–48. Hongzheng FU, Oike KK, Heng QZ, Itsunaga KM, Ia ZJ, Ikaido TN, Hang LZ. Fargosides A – E, Triterpenoid Saponins from Holboellia fargesii five new triterpenoid saponins, fargosides a, B, C, D, and E, were isolated from the roots of Holboellia fargesii. Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo). 2001;49(August):999–1002. Juyal P, Ghildial JC. Indigenous animal health care practices from Garhwal Himalaya. J Med Plants Stud. 2013;1(4):148–51. Kichu A, Malewska T, Akter K, Imchen I, Harrington D, Kohen J, Vemulpad SR, Jamie JF. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of Chungtia village, Nagaland. India J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;166:5–17. Kunwar RM. Ethnobotany in the Kailash sacred landscape. Ph. D. Dissertation. Boca Raton: Florida Atlantic University; 2018. 229 p Lei H, Tian Q, Lu C, Yang J, Su W. Supercritical extraction of Holboellia fargesii Reaub seed oil and its quality assessment. China Oils Fats. 2009;34:71–4. Lepcha SR, Das AP. Ethno-medicobotanical exploration along the international borders to Tibet autonomous region of China ad the kingdom of Bhutan with special reference to the Pangolakha wildlife sanctuary, East Sikkim. In: Ghosh C, Das AP, editors. Recent studies in biodiversity and traditional knowledge in India. Kolkata: Gour Mahavidyalaya & Sarat Impression Pvt Ltd; 2011. p. 257–70. Malik ZA, Bhat J, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhat AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44. Ozukum A, Changkija S, Tripathi SK. Ethnobotanical studies on the Khiamniungan tribe in Tuensang district of Nagaland, Northeast India: Ethnomedicinal plants. Pleione. 2019;13(1): 70–81. Polunin O, Stainton A. Concise flowers of the Himalaya (fifth): Oxford University Press; 2005. Press JR, Shrestha KK, Sutton DA. Annotated checklist of the flowering plants of Nepal. London: The Natural History Museum; 2000. Qin H-N. A taxonomic revision of the Lardizabalaceae. Cathaya. 1997;8–9:1–214. Sahoo AK, Ansari AA. Less known ethnic uses of plants of South Sikkim. Nelumbo. 2009;51:219–22. Shrestha KK, Bhattarai S, Bhandari P. Handbook of flowering plants of Nepal (Vol. 1, gymnosperm and angiosperms: Cycadaceae to Betulaceae): Scientific publishers; 2018, 648 p Uprety Y, Poudel RC, Gurung J, Chettri N, Chaudhary RP. Traditional use and management of NTFPs in Kangchenjunga landscape: implications for conservation and livelihoods. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016; https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0089-8. Wallich N. Tentamen florae Nepalensis Illustratae, consisting of botanical descriptions and lithographic figures of select Nipal plants. fasc. 1. India: Calcutta & Serampore; 1824. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Wu ZY, Raven PH, Hong DY, editors. Flora of China. Vol. 6 (Caryophyllaceae through Lardizabalaceae). Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 2001.

Hydrocotyle nepalensis Hook. ARALIACEAE Laxmi Mahat Kunwar, Roshni Mahat, Asmita Thapa, Razan Mahat, Ripu M. Kunwar, and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Hydrocotyle nepalensis Hook.: Hydrocotyle javanica Thunb.; Hydrocotyle polycephala Wight & Arn.

Local Names Hydrocotyle nepalensis: Nepali: Khochade, Khochadye, Sano ghortapre; Sanskrit: Zupha; Chepang: Ghortapre; Tamang: Tilikoshyo; English: Hyssop

L. Mahat Kunwar · R. Mahat Kathmandu, Nepal A. Thapa · R. Mahat Trichandra Multiple Campus, Tribhuvan University, Ghantaghar, Kathmandu, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_120

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Botany and Ecology Hydrocotyle nepalensis: Prostrate. Stems robust, decumbent 5–45 cm long. Petioles 4–27 cm, distally densely pubescent; leaf blade orbicular or reinform, 2–5  3.5– 9 cm, shallowly 5–7 lobed, thin-papery, both surfaces strigose, base cordate, palmately 7–9 nerved, lobes triangular to rounded, crenate. Umbels several to numerous, fascicled in axils and end of stems; each umbel densely capitate, 20–60 flowered; peduncles 0.5–2 cm, shorter than petioles, puberulous; bracts ovate or obovate, minute, membranous. Pedicels very short, 0.5–1.5 to 2 mm in fruit. Petals white or with purplish red stains. Stylopodium depressed; styles incurved when young, spreading in fruit. Fruits pale brown or deep purple with dark stains when mature, broadly oblate-globose, 1–1.2  1.5–1.8 mm. Tropical Asia to Indonesia, Australia, Pacific Islands, China, Korea, Himalayas. This species has not been collected from West Pakistan but it grows in the adjoining areas of Kashmir extending to the Eastern Himalayas from 600 to 2000 m (Ali and Qaiser 1995– 2020; Wu et al. 2005). Globally Hydrocotyle nepalensis Hook. extends from East Nepal to Japan and South through Indonesia into Australia. In tropics and temperate zones, 300–3600 m, Hydrocotyle grows mostly in mountain sloppy, wet grassy places. It has long creeping stems that forms dense mats near ponds, lakes, rivers, marshes, coastal areas, and luxuriantly colonizes in overgrazed areas (Grossman 1984) (Figs. 1 and 2).

Fig. 1 Hydrocotyle javanica (Apiaceae), plant. (Photo Prakash Poudel)

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Fig. 2 Hydrocotyle javanica (Apiaceae), decumbent H. javanica plant with 5–7 crenate lobed leaves. (Photo Prakash Poudel)

Local Medicinal Uses Hydrocotyle nepalensis: Leaves are used for urinary problems, cuts, and wounds. Plant is mixed with Coccinia grandis for treatment of piles. Leaf juice is given to livestock for urinary problems (Kunwar et al. 2012). Hydrocotyle nepalensis Hook. has reputed medicinal values. Juice of the plant mixed with hot water is used as a bath to relieve the fever of child (Manandhar 1995) and cough (Manandhar 1992). The ethnic communities of Manipur, India, use the whole plant to cure stomach ulcer, urinary troubles, digestive complaints, dysentery, and skin diseases (Ashalatha et al. 2005). The leaf juice is also used as eye drops to cure eye infection, leaf paste is used in dressing of wounds to reduce swellings, and juice of shoot is used to treat gastritis and constipation (Mandal et al. 2017). It is useful as blood purifier (Sharmila et al. 2016). Its leaves are used in Akha’s traditional medicine in China and Thailand as liniment on rashes (Inta et al. 2008). Leaf juice is often used as eye drops to cure eye infection, leaf paste was used in dressing of wounds to reduce swelling, and juice of shoots can treat gastritis and constipation as reported to be used by local people of Darjeeling (Mandal et al. 2016). Hydrocotyle mannii is used for eye infections (Giday et al. 2010) and colds (Giday et al. 2009).

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References Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan and Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995–2020. Ashalatha DK, Khan ML, Tripathi RS. Ethnomedicinal plants in sacred groves of Manipur, India. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2005;4(1):21–32. Giday M, Asfaw Z, Woldu Z, Teklehaymanot T. Medicinal plant knowledge of the bench ethnic group of Ethiopia: an ethnobotanical investigation. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2009;5:34. https:// doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-5-34. Giday M, Asfaw Z, Woldu Z. Ethnomedicinal study of plants used by Sheko ethnic group of Ethiopia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010;1321:75–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2010.07.046. Grossman LS. Pheasants, subsistenc ecology and development in the highlands of the Papua New Guinea. Princeton: Princeton University Press; 1984. Inta A, Shengji P, Baslev H, Wangpakakpattananwong P, Trisonthi C. A comparative study on medicinal plants used in Ankha’s traditional medicone in China and Thailand, cultural cogerence or ecological divergence. J Ethnopharmacol. 2008;116(3):508–17. Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Sharma LN, Shrestha KP, Kominee H, Bussmann RW. Underutilized plant species in far-West Nepal – a valuable resource being wasted. J Mt Sci. 2012;9:589–600. Manandhar NP. Folklore medicine of Dhading district, Nepal. Fitoterapia. 1992;63(2):163–77. Manandhar NP. A survey of medicinal plants of Jajarkot District,Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 1995;48(1):1–6. Mandal M, Paul S, Uddin R, Mondal MA, Mandal S, Mandal V. In vitro antibacterial potential of Hydrocotyle javanica Thunb. Asian Pac J Trop Dis. 2016;6(1):54–62. Mandal M, Mishra D, Ghosh NN, Mandal V. Physiological and elemental studies of Hydrocotyle javanica Thunb. for standarization herbal drug. Asian Pac J Trop Dis. 2017;7(11):979–86. Sharmila S, Kalaichelvi K, Premamalini P. Therapeutically important plants in Thiashola, Manjoor, Western Ghats, Tamil Nadu, India. Eur J Pharmaceut Med Res. 2016;3(12):411–6. Wu ZY, Raven PH, Hong DY, editors. Flora of China. Vol. 14 (Apiaceae through Ericaceae). St. Louis: Science Press, Beijing, and Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 2005.

Hyoscyamus niger L. SOLANACEAE Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Hyoscyamus niger L.: Hyoscyamus agrestis Kit. ex Schult.; Hyoscyamus bohemicus F.W. Schmidt; Hyoscyamus niger var. annuus Sims; Hyoscyamus niger var. chinensis Makino

Local Names Hyoscyamus niger: Pashto: Landungstwa; Chitrali: Ajwain-e- Khurasani

R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_121

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Botany and Ecology Hyoscyamus niger: Biennial. Winter plant covered with soft, viscid, patent bloom; fetid. Root vertical up to 2(3) cm thick, branched, soft, sometimes almost spongy, rugose, with thickened collar. Stem 20–115 cm tall, 1.5(2) cm thick at base, green, simple only in weak stunted plants, but usually branched. Leaves soft, nonglossy, dark green above, grayish underneath, lighter, densely hairy along veins and margin; basal leaves (rosette) long petiolate, oblong-ovate or elliptical, sinuate-pinnatifid; cauline sessile, semi-amplexicaul, oblong-lanceolate, sinuate-lobed or deeply incised, with triangular or triangular-lanceolate, acuminate or acute, generally 4–5, lobes or teeth. Flowers sessile crowded at end of stem and branches in leafy helicoid cymes, elongated after flowering; floral leaves sessile, oblong, or narrowly lanceolate, with a few teeth or entire. Flowering calyx herbaceous, 10–22 mm long, tubular below, broadened and campanulate above middle, with broad triangular sharp teeth; fruiting calyx accrescent, 21–32 mm long, hardening, urceolate, broadening and densely patently pilose in lower part, with constriction above middle and rather widespread, short, aristate sharp teeth, (1/6)1/5–1/4(2/7) as long as tube. Corolla 2– 4.5 cm long, infundibuliform, dull yellowish or rarely whitish, with purple reticulate veins, throat and upper part of tube purple-violet, lobes obtuse, somewhat unequal. Stamens unequal, 2 shorter, 3 longer, slightly exceeding throat; filaments inserted in middle of tube, pilose in lower part: ovary glabrous; style pilose in lower part. Capsule broad at base, closely enclosed within calyx, latter twice as long. Seeds numerous (up to 500) brownish gray, finely pitted. Flowering May–August, fruiting June–August. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia (except Pamir, ruderal, on vacant lots, garbage places, near settlements, along roads, in kitchen gardens and as weed on arable land (Shishkin and Boborov 1955).

Phytochemistry Flavonoids (spiroside, quercitrine, hyperoside, rutine), fatty acids (linoleic, palmitic, stearic, myristic, oleic, phospholipids), alkaloids (rioscyamine, rioscine, apogiascine, riospine, skimianine, scopolamine, apoatropine, a-belladonin, tropine), cyclitols (ficine), steroids (Sokolov 1990) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Local Medicinal Uses Hyoscyamus niger: In the Himalayas decoctions of the fruits are used to treat epilepsy and headache, and the leaves, boiled with leaves of Plantago ovata, are used to treat backache and lumbago (Sher et al. 2016). In the Altai, Hyoscyamus extract is used to treat anthrax, erysipelas, inflammations, diphtheria, as a sedative, anticonvulsant, analgesic for Parkinson disease, neuralgia, convulsions, headaches, bronchial asthma, pneumonia, and spasms of the bladder. Especially in the Mongolian Altai, the plat is used for tumors of the cervix, rectum, urethra, for cutaneous and

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Fig. 1 Hyoscyamus niger (Solanaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana) Fig. 2 Hyoscyamus niger (Solanaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

venereal diseases, scabies, eczema, dermatomycosis, syphilis, as anthelmintic, as a sedative, for gout, furunculosis, respiratory infections, and pleurisy. In Central Asia, this plant is used as analgesic, to treat tumors and earaches, the seeds are burnt for toothaches and convulsions. As poultice, the leaves are used for abscesses (Bussmann et al. 2019, 2020; Sokolov 1990). Hyoscyamus extract is used to treat anthrax, erysipelas, inflammations, diphtheria, as a sedative, anticonvulsant, as analgesic for Parkinson disease, neuralgia, convulsions, headaches, bronchial asthma, pneumonia, spasms of the bladder. Especially in the Mongolian Altai, the plant is used for tumors of the cervix, rectum,

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Fig. 3 Hyoscyamus niger (Solanaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

urethra, for cutaneous and venereal diseases, scabies, eczema, dermatomycosis, syphilis, as anthelmintic, as a sedative, for gout, furunculosis, respiratory infections, and pleurisy. The plant is also used as analgesic, to treat tumors and earaches, the seeds are burnt for toothaches and convulsions. As poultice the leaves are used for abscesses. The leaves are used as painkiller and sedative, remedy for asthma, hepatic stones, and rheumatism. (Bussmann et al. 2019, 2020; Sokolov 1990). The leaves are locally used as antifungal. The seeds are used to treat toothache (Bussmann et al. 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020). In the Himalayas, decoctions of the fruits are used to treat epilepsy and headache, and the leaves, boiled with leaves of Plantago ovata, are used to treat backache and lumbago (Bussmann et al. 2019, 2020; Sher et al. 2016). The seeds are used to treat toothache (Abbas et al. 2019; Mohagheghzadeh and Faridi 2006). Flowers used as anti-inflammatory (Rajbhandari et al. 2007). Used to treat respiratory diseases (Mohageghzadeh and Faridi 2006). For gastric cramps, diarrhea, cough, asthma, skin inflammation, depression, and eye problems (Kayani et al. 2015). Hyoscyamus aureus: Used to treat eye problems (Mohagheghzadeh and Faridi 2006). Hyoscyamus muticus: Used as narcotic (Mohagheghzadeh and Faridi 2006). Hyoscyanus reticulatus: Toothache remedy (Mohagheghzadeh and Faridi 2006).

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Fig. 4 Hyoscyamus niger (Solanaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Hyoscyamus niger: Used as insecticide (decoction, powder) for aphids, moths, spider, mites. Highly toxic (Sokolov 1990). Hyoscyamus is a very old ceremonial plant (Bussmann 2016), and the leaves are still locally used as hallucinogenic (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020).

References Abbas Z, Alam J, Muhammad S, Bussmann RW, Mulk Khan S, Hussain M. Phyto-cultural diversity of the Shigar valley Central Karakorum Baltistan, Northern Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18:32. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.31.1-18. Bussmann RW. Magic plants. In: Albuquerque U, Alves R, editors. Introduction to ethnobiology. Heidelberg: Springer; 2016. p. 163–9. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313.

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Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ehnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D. Hyoscyamus niger L. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions far Eastern Europe. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2019. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77088-8_74-2. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z. Hyoscyamus niger L. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions Central Asia and Altai: Springer International Publishing; 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77087-1_72-1. Kayani S, Ahmad M, Sultana S, Khan Shinwari Z, M, Yaseen G, Hussain M, Bibi T. Ethnobotany of medicinal plants among the communitiesof Alpine and Sub-alpine regions of Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;164:186–202. Mohagheghzadeh A, Faridi P. Medicinal smokes. J Ethnopharmacol. 2006;108:161–84. Rajbhandari M, Mentel R, Jha PK, Chaudhary RP, Bhattarai S, Gewali MB, Karmacharya N, Hipper M, Lindequist U. Antiviral activity of some plants used in Nepalese traditional medicine. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2007:1–6. https://doi.org/10.1093/ecam/nem156. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among the Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni ethnic groups in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. (English 1993). Flora of the USSR, Volume 22: Solanaceae and Scrophulariaceae; Akademia Nauk, Leningrad. 745 pages. 1955. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 5. Families of Caprifoliaceae – Plantaginaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1990, 328 p. (in Russian).

Hypericum perforatum L. HYPERICACEAE Hammad Ahmad Jan, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Wahid Hussain, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Hypericum perforatum L.: Hypericum nachitschevianicum Grossh.; Hypericum perforatum var. cinfertiflorum Debeaux; Hypericum perforatum var. microphyllum H. Lév.

H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan W. Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_122

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Local Names Hypericum perforatum: Kashmir: Bassam, Balsana, Therma; Jammu: Basant, Bassant, Basanti phool; Pashto: Sheen chai ‫ﺵﯼﻥ ﭺﺍﯼ‬ Hypericum oblongifolium: Jammu: Basantharad

Botany and Ecology Hypericum perforatum: Perennial, glabrous throughout, green or sometimes glaucescent (var. songaricum (Rchb.) G. Woron.); stem erect, 2-edged, branched at top, 30–100 cm long; leaves oval or elliptic or oblong-ovate or oblong, 0.7–3 cm long, 0.3–1.5 cm broad, or broadly elliptic (var. songaricum (Rchb.) G. Woron.), subcordate, or rather narrow, oblong-linear or oblong (var. veronense (Schrank) Beck, and var. collinum G. Woron.), subobtuse, flat or more or less revolute-margined, furnished with numerous pellucid and few black glandular dots; flowers numerous, forming a broadly paniculate, almost corymbose inflorescence 7–11 cm long and 5–11 cm broad; bracts lanceolate, 0.5 cm long, acute; calyx deeply parted, 5 mm long, about 2–3 times shorter than corolla; sepals lanceolate or narrowly lanceolate (var. vulgare (Schimp. et Spann.) Neilr.), or linear, or linear-lanceolate (var. veronense (Schrank) Beck, and var. collinum G. Woron.), 4(5) mm long, 1 mm broad, as long as ovary (var. veronense (Schrank) Beck.) or longer (var. collinum G. Woron.), acute or acuminate, sparingly furnished with black glandular mostly oval dots, margin smooth or sparsely toothed; petals oblong to oblong-elliptic, inequilateral, 1.2–1.5 cm long, 0.5–0.6 cm broad, with numerous black glandular dots and lines on margin in upper part, surface with numerous yellow glandular dots, thin lines and stripes, or without black dots (var. vulgare (Schimp. et Spann.) Neilr.); stamens numerous, in 3 bundles; ovary ovoid, 3–5 mm long; styles 3, distinct, twice as long as ovary; capsule oblong-ovoid, 6 mm long, 5 mm broad, or small, 3–4 mm long and 3 mm broad, broad-ovoid or rounded-ovoid (var. collinum G. Woron.), brown, with yellow glandular longitudinal streaks and lines; seed 1 mm long, cylindric, brown, minutely pitted longitudinally. May–August. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia. Found in forests and bushland, on meadows, stony slopes, subalpine lawns, in mountain forests, steppes, on the outskirts of fields and among crops (Shishkin 1949) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10).

N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia

Hypericum perforatum L. Fig. 1 Hypericum perforatum (Hypericaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Hypericum perforatum (Hypericaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Hypericum perforatum (Hypericaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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1068 Fig. 4 Hypericum androsaemum (Hypericaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Hypericum androsaemum (Hypericaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 6 Hypericum androsaemum (Hypericaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 7 Hypericum perforatum (Hypericaceae) Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Phytochemistry Mannitol 1.1–2%, essential oils (a-pinene, myrcene, cineole, capric aldehyde), saponins, alkaloids, vitamins (C, carotene), phenols (pyrogallol, floroglucin), phenylcarboxylic acids, tannins, flavonoids (quercetine, rutine, hyperine, isocercitrine, rutiozide, arabinoside, avicularyine), anthocyanins, anthraquinones (hypericine, prothegipericine, pseudo-adipergicine, cumarins) (Sokolov 1985).

Local Medicinal Uses Hypericum perforatum: Plant is used as diuretic, analgesic, astringent, anthelmintic, and anti-hypertension (Yousufzai et al. 2010). Used as diuretic and its tea is stimulant and analgesic (Akhtar et al. 2013). Its decoction is used for gastric disorders, irregular menstruation; leaves are used to treat piles; prolapsed uterus and anus and diarrhea. In the past it was used as green tea by the local people (Hazrat et al. 2011). Tea prepared of young shoots is used in gastric disorders, respiratory and urinary difficulties. Roots powders are used in irregular menstruation (Khan et al.

1070 Fig. 8 Hypericum perforatum (Hypericaceae) Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 9 Hypericum perforatum (Hypericaceae) Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

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Fig. 10 Hypericum perforatum (Hypericaceae) Mahodand valley, Swat, Pakistan. (Photo Hassan Sher and Ikram Ur-Rahman)

2014). Plant leaves are used as stimulant and carminative (Ali et al. 2011). Shoot decoction of plant is used as diuretic (Hamayun et al. 2006). Locally green tea is prepared from their leaves and is considered as a stimulant and carminative agent (Sher and Hussain 2009). The boiled extract of the plant body is used to increase body temperature of cattle particularly of cows (Hassan et al. 2014). Leaves are tonic and used as beverage (Razzaq et al. 2013). Leaves and fruit are used for skin infection, muscular ache, and joints inflammation (Ahmed and Akhtar 2016). Hypericum perforatum is part of the pharmacopoeia of Russia, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Romania, Poland, France, and Germany. The plant is used for its stimulating activity, heart and tissue regeneration, and as a diuretic, for wound healing and as rheostatic, as well as with neurasthenia and neuralgia, and for gynecological diseases. Other traditional applications are stomach ulcers, increased acidity, gout, sciatica, rheumatism, hemorrhoids, nocturnal enuresis in children, and diarrhea. In Central Asia, the decoction is especially used as an astringent, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, tonic, as hemostatic, for kidney diseases, heart diseases, diarrhea, and hemoptysis. In the Ural, the plant is employed to treat cancer of the liver, stomach, and ovaries, and for the treatment of goiter, while in the Northern Caucasus H. juice serves to treat bronchial asthma, colds, stomach ulcers, and duodenal ulcers. in Karachaevo-Circassia Hypericum serves for the treatment of hypertonia and the prophylaxis of scurvy. In Uzbekistan, the ash of the whole plants is used as ointment for skin diseases. The seeds have a strong laxative effect. The leaves and flowers are used to produce creams make the skin soft. (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1985). Infusion of flowers and leaves are used as anti-depressant, duretic, pain killer, wound healing, and as sedative, relaxant (Amin 2005; Ghorbani 2005). In Pshavi, Hypericum sp. flowers are boiled and drunk as tea. (Magalashvili 1970). The leaves are used to treat nervous system problems and as sedative. The leaves and shoots act as anti-inflammatory, and to treat diarrhea, gum inflammations, hemorrhoids, and liver problems (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, 2020). The species is often sold as medicine in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2017b). To remedy stomachache, digestion, high blood pressure, headache, jaundice, scabies

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(Pawera et al. 2015), as sedative and relaxant (Ghorbani 2005), and for rheumatism (Adams et al. 2009). To treat toothache, joint-pain, uterine problems, as anthelmintic, astringent, for bruises, s diuretic, for dysentery, as emmenagogue, against general weakness, rheumatism, and to treat wounds (Gairola et al. 2014). Hypericum scabrum: Used to treat sores, eczema, for burns, gastric ulcers, hemorrhoids, incontinence, stomach-ache, and wound healing (Tetik et al. 2013). Hypericum oblongifolium: As antispasmotic and bronchodilatator (Gairola et al. 2014). Hypericum triquetrifolium: Used as antiseptic, antispasmodic, for constipation, sedative, wound healing (Tetik et al. 2013). Hypericum laricifolium: Ecuador: The stem and flower contain dyes such as hypericin and quercetin. Quercetin is a potent antibiotic for gram positive and gram negative bacteria (unspecified ethnicity–- Pichincha). The decoction of the plant is drunk to treat the cold. The infusion of the leaves is used in postpartum baths and to treat the flu. It is used, as an infusion, as a tranquilizer, and to treat skeletal pain. It is used, in infusion, to treat headache. Environmental: The plant is used as a boundary and is part of living fences. It is used as fertilizer. The plant is used to combat bad luck and as a protector against spirits. The altars are adorned with the branches, together with the cypress (Cupressus sp.) And the willow (Salix sp.), During Holy Week and Christmas (Paniagua-Zambrana and Bussmann 2020). Hypericum revolutum: Dried leaves and stems soaked in water for rheumatism and diarrhea. Pounded bark is applied to wounds and burns (Kokwaro 2009). The leaves are boiled and given to babies with stomach problems, and to make them stop crying (Bussmann et al. 2011).

Local Food Uses Hypericum perforatum: The flowers serve as tea surrogate. (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, 2020; Sokolov 1990).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Hypericum perforatum: In veterinary medicine, Hypericum is employed as an anthelmintic. The flowers can be used to dye wool in silk in golden, yellow and green tones. The whole plant is toxic for sheep and can be lethal when causing hypertrophic liver cirrhosis and nephritis. Photosensitization has been observed in white sheep. (Bussmann et al. 2020; Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1990). Hypericum aciculare: Fresh leaves and stems are used “So that you should get all you want.,” In infusion it serves to wounds and furuncles of animals (Paniagua Zambrana and Bussmann 2020). Hypericum laricifolium: The leaves are food for animals. It is used to make charcoal. The dry stem is lit on the tip and the natives use it to carve figures in pumpkins. The stem and flower contain dyes such as hypericin and quercetin. The

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wood is used in the construction of houses and pens, and for the manufacture of plows, yokes, rudders, ropes, teleras, beams, screeds, boards and furniture. The plant, in cooking, is used to dye clothes in different colors. The cooked leaves (mixed with the leaves of Miconia caelata) are used to dye green threads or wool fabrics. The whole fresh plant is used as fragrance, for good luck in love and work, bad air/mal aire, love, business relations, protection, good fortune, and good health. The species is often sold in local markets. Hypericum has some antibacterial activity. The species is part of many herbal mixtures (Paniagua Zambrana and Bussmann 2020). Hypericum revolutum: Used as construction timber, especially for house posts. Leaves sometimes browsed by cattle (Bussmann 2006; Bussmann et al. 2011).

References Adams M, Berset C, Kessler M, Hamburger M. Medicinal herbs for the treatment of rheumatic disorders – a survey of European herbals from the 16th and 17th century. J Ethnopharmacol. 2009;121:343–59. Ahmed MJ, Akhtar T. Indigenous knowledge of the use of medicinal plants in Bheri, Muzaffarabad, Azad Kashmir, Pakistan. Eur J Integrat Med. 2016;8(4):560–9. Akhtar N, Rashid A, Murad W, Bergmeier E. Diversity and use of ethno-medicinal plants in the region of Swat, North Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1):25. Ali H, Sannai J, Sher H, Rashid A. Ethnobotanical profile of some plant resources in Malam Jabba valley of Swat, Pakistan. J Med Plant Res. 2011;5(18):4676–87. Amin G. The most common traditional medicinal plants of Iran. Tehran: Tehran University of Medical Sciences Publication; 2005. Bussmann RW. Ethnobotany of the Samburu of Mt. Nyiru, South Turkana, Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:35. Bussmann RW, Swartzinsky P, Worede A, Evangelista P. Plant use in Odo-Bulu and Demaro, Bale region, Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2011;7:28. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ehnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia). Caucasus Medicinal and Aromatic Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/ 10.4172/2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D. Hypericum perforatum L. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z,

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Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions far Eastern Europe. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77088-8_75-2. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Ghorbani A. Studies on pharmaceutical ethnobotany in the region of Turkmen Sahra, north of Iran (Part 1): general results. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102:58–68. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Hamayun M, Khan A, Afzal S, Khan MA. Study on traditional knowledge and utility of medicinal herbs of district Buner, NWFP, Pakistan. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2006;5(3):407–12. Hazrat A, Nisar M, Shah J, Ahmad S. Ethnobotanical study of some elite plants belonging to Dir, Kohistan valley, Khyber Pukhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Pak J Bot. 2011;43(2):787–95. Kokwaro JO. Medicinal plants of East Africa. Nairobi: University of Nairobi Press; 2009. Maghalashvili T. Useful plants of Telavi district. Acad. S. Janashia State Museum of Georgia XXVI-XXVII. Metsniereba: Tbilisi; 1970. (in Georgian) Mulk Khan S, Page S, Ahmad H, Harper D. Ethno-ecological importance of plant biodiversity in mountain ecosystems with special emphasis on indicator species of a Himalayan Valley in the northern Pakistan. Ecol Indic. 2014;37:175–85. Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Hypericum aciculare Kunth; Hypericum laricifolium Juss.; Hypericum thesiifolium Kunth. In: Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions – ethnobotany of the Andes. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77093-2_144-1. Pawera L, Verner V, Termote C, Sodombekov I, Kadanov A, Karabaev N, Skalicky M, Polesny Z. Medical ethnobotany of herbal practitioners in the Turkestan Range, southwestern Kyrgyzstan. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2015. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3483. Razzaq A, Rashid A, Islam M, Iqbal A, Khan H. Ethnomedicinal profile and conservation status of plant biodiversity in Alexander the Great Valley, District Shangla, Pakistan. J Med Plant Res. 2013;7(20):1379–86. Sher H, Hussain F. Ethnobotanical evaluation of some plant resources in northern part of Pakistan. Afr J Biotechnol. 2009;8:17. Shishkin BK. (English 1974). Flora of the USSR, Volume 15: Malvales, Parietales, Myrtiflorae; Akademia Nauk, Leningrad; 1949. 565 pages, 33 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 2. Families Paeoniaceae – Thymelaeacea. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1985, 336 p. (in Russian). Tetik F, Civelek S, Cakilcioglu U. Traditional uses of some medicinal plants in Malatya (Turkey). J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;146:331–46. ul Hassan H, Murad W, Tariq A, Ahmad A. Ethnoveterinary study of medicinal plants in Malakand Valley, District Dir (Lower), Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Ir Vet J. 2014;67(1):6. Yousufzai SA, Khan N, Wahab M, Ajaib M. Ethnomedicinal study of Marghazar Valley, Pakistan. Int J Biol Biotechnol. 2010;7:409–16.

Hypotrachyna nepalensis (Taylor) Divakar, A. Crespo, Sipman, Elix & Lumbsch PARMELIACEAE Shiva Devkota and Christoph Scheidegger

Synonyms Cetrariastrum nepalense (Taylor) W. L. Culb. & C. F. Culb.; Everniastrum nepalense (Taylor) Hale ex Sipman; Parmelia nepalensis (Taylor) W. L. Culb. & C. F. Culb.

Botany and Ecology The molecular phylogenetic analyses, delimitating the Hypotrachyna clade, were conducted by Divakar et al. (2014) and as a result the genera Cetrariastrum, Everniastrum, and Parmelinopsis were reduced to synonymy with Hypotrachyna. Hypotrachyna nepalensis is a fruticose macrolichen (झ्याउ in Nepali) consisting of an ascomycete fungus and a chlorococcoid algal partner living together in a symbiotic relationship. Commonly known as black fungus, it usually grows on the bark and twigs of trees, and bushes, mainly growing in open and dry cool places. Major morphological and microscopical characters: Thallus: pale grey to grey-brown thallus, suberect to pendulous to 7–12 cm across, dichotomously laciniate 2–5 mm wide, lobate, lobes linear, tapering apically; lacking isidia and soredia; lower surface black-brown, densely rhizinate, rhizinae short, simple, loosely adnate to the substratum, isidia and soredia absent; Apothecia: common, rounded and laminal, up to 10 mm in diameter, entire to cracked, disc brown, asci 8-spored, ascospores simple to ellipsoid, colourless, 15–22 μm
5–9 μm in size (Culberson and Culberson 1981; Awasthi 2007; Thapa and Rajbhandary 2012; Rai et al. 2019). Nepal (1410– S. Devkota (*) Global Institute for Interdisciplinary Studies (GIIS), Kathmandu, Nepal C. Scheidegger Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research WSL, Birmensdorf, Switzerland e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_265

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3600 m), India (1300–3600 m), Bhutan, China, Thailand, Vietnam, Russian Federation, Angola, Ecuador, Mexico.

Phytochemistry Compounds: Atranorin, chloroatranorin, salazinic acids, methyl β-orcinolcarboxylate, ethyl haematommate, dimethyl terepthalate, protolichesteric acid, and zeorin (Culberson and Culberson 1981; Sipman 1986; Kumar et al. 1996). Chemical spot tests: Medulla K + yellow turning red, C, KC , P+ orange-red. K ¼ Potassium hydroxide (KOH); C ¼ Aqueous solution of calcium hypochlorite (Ca(ClO)2); P ¼ Aqueous solution of p-phenylenediamine (C6H4(NH2)2)

Local Medicinal Uses Some of the metabolites isolated from this species are found to be potent antiproliferative agents against human keratinocyte line HaCaT and also inhibited the leukotriene B4 biosynthesis by a nonredox mechanism (Kumar and Müller 1999) and also found as a good antioxidant, antimicrobial and anticancer (toxic) potential (Jha et al. 2017). In Nepal and India, the lichen mixture powder together with this species is applied on wounds (topical antiseptic) to promote healing (Devkota et al. 2017a; Crawford 2019). In Sikkim, India, it is used as a medicine for respiratory health (O’Neill et al. 2017). In China, it is being used as a raw material for antibiotics and spice (Wang and Qian 2013).

Local Food Uses It is an edible lichen and has a history of use to prepare a variety of food items among some ethnic communities mostly in Nepal and India. In Nepal, the species is used in preparing pickle, soups curry, and sausage mixing with Hypotrachyna cirrhatum (¼ Everniastrum cirrhatum) and Parmotrema cetratum mostly among the Limbu and Rai communities residing in north-east hilly regions (Devkota et al. 2017a). Lichens are also considered a valuable gift item in these communities. Freshly harvested (Fig. 1) or purchased lichens (about 250 g) are boiled for about 1 h with ash (about 50 g), rinsed in clean cold water until any yellow colour is washed out, sun-dried on bamboo woven baskets (Fig. 2) and placed in closed containers in a dry place. Boiled and dried lichens can be stored for a year. For bread making, boiled, dried, and powdered lichens are mixed mainly with wheat or barley flour (1:3 mixed lichens and flour). Limbu people prepare a special traditional dish called Sargyangma made of lichens to celebrate their special gatherings and social functions like Dashain, Tihar, and in some cases, when a pig is slaughtered in the community. Sargyangma

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Fig. 1 Hypotrachyna nepalensis (Parmeliaceae). Freshly collected Hypotrachyna nepalensis, Khodpe, Baitadi, Nepal. (Photo Shiva Devkota)

Fig. 2 Hypotrachyna nepalensis (Parmeliaceae). The Rai man (Nepal’s most ancient indigenous ethnolinguistic group) holding a bamboo basket with the lichens, Ila Danda, Taplejung, Nepal. (Photo Shiva Devkota)

is a kind of sausage made up of minced pork, pork’s blood, eggs, fat, rice grains (optional), spices, onion, garlic, chilly, turmeric powder, ginger, salts, and lichens inserted in the pork’s big intestines (Maden et al. 2011; Limbu 2013). Filling of ingredients should not be compact. Boiled and dried lichens are ground fine and mixed with other ingredients. Sometimes, Sargyangma is specially prepared for elderly people during the festivals who cannot eat meat because of their weaker teeth. In India, it is very common to find lichens in local grocery shops in most cities of India and this species complex is highly consumed for their culinary values (Upreti et al. 2005). Sold by the name of “Chharilia,” with the mixture of two or three species of Everniastrum are used as spices and provide a special fragrance to meat, pulse and other vegetables (Upreti et al. 2015). In China, the species is eaten fried or used to make soup and spice (Wang and Qian 2013).

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Local Other Uses Dying Agent: As the thalli of this species contain salazinic acid, it produces brown dye through ammonia fermentation method (AFM) and orange dye with boiling water method (BWM) (Shukla and Upreti 2015). Perfumery: In Uttar Pradesh, India, about 30 lichens including this species are collected from the Himalayas are exhaustively being used as a raw material for the preparation of perfumes called “Hina” and “Attar” in different traditional perfumery industries (Singh et al. 2015). Since 9 February 2011, the collection of lichens for commercial purposes and lichen trade has been completely banned in Nepal though their harvest and trade are closely associated with the livelihood of most of the rural people in Western Nepal. Before it was banned, about 20 commercially important lichen species including Hypotrachyna nepalensis were identified from different trading centres in Nepal. During 2000–2011, Nepal legally exported 2020 tons of lichens and collected NRs 25,293,305 (USD 240,000) (Devkota et al. 2017b). Despite the present ban on lichens collection still being traded informally, often camouflaged with other products (Pyakurel et al. 2019). In India, this species has been reported to be collected from the regions of Ramanagar and Tanakpur of the Uttar Pradesh, India, for commercial use (Shah 2014). Conservation Status: Least Concern (LC) (Devkota and Weerakoon 2017). In Nepal where the species is considered Vulnerable (VU), the main threat for this species is habitat loss due to overexploitation of natural forests, harvesting widely for trade and ethnical uses. The situation in Nepal has a minor effect on the global population.

References Awasthi DD. A compendium of the macrolichens from India, Nepal and Sri Lanka. Dehradun: Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh; 2007. Crawford SD. Lichens used in traditional medicine. In: Rankovie B, editor. Lichen secondary metabolites: bioactive properties and pharmaceutical potential. 2nd ed. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2019. p. 31–98. Culberson WL, Culberson CF. The genera Cetrariastrum and Concamerella (Parmeliaceae): a chemosynthetic synopsis. Bryologist. 1981;84:273–314. https://doi.org/10.2307/3242843. Devkota S, Weerakoon G. Everniastrum nepalense. IUCN Red List Threat Species. 2017;8235:e. T 1 0 9 4 2 5 8 7 5 A 1 0 9 4 2 5 8 9 2 . h t t p s : / / d o i . o rg / 1 0 . 2 3 0 5 / I U C N . U K . 2 0 1 7 - 3 . R LT S . T109425875A109425892.en. Devkota S, Chaudhary RP, Werth S, Scheidegger C. Indigenous knowledge and use of lichens by the lichenophilic communities of the Nepal Himalaya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017a;13:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0142-2. Devkota S, Chaudhary RP, Werth S, Scheidegger C. Trade and legislation: consequences for the conservation of lichens in the Nepal Himalaya. Biodivers Conserv. 2017b;26:2491–505. https:// doi.org/10.1007/s10531-017-1371-3. Divakar PK, Crespo A, Nunez-Zapata J, et al. A molecular perspective on generic concepts in the Hypotrachyna clade (Parmeliaceae, Ascomycota). Phytotaxa. 2014;132:21–38. https://doi.org/ 10.11646/phytotaxa.132.1.2.

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Jha BN, Shrestha M, Pandey DP, et al. Investigation of antioxidant, antimicrobial and toxicity activities of lichens from high altitude regions of Nepal. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2017;17:282. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12906-017-1797-x. Kumar SKC, Müller K. Lichen metabolites. 1. Inhibitory action against leukotriene B4 biosynthesis by a non-redox mechanism. J Nat Prod. 1999;62:817–20. https://doi.org/10.1021/np9803777. Kumar SKC, Banskota AH, Manandhar MD. Isolation and identification of some chemical constituents of Parmelia nepalensis. Planta Med. 1996;62:93–4. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2006957822. Limbu RK. Exploring indigenous knowledge system and Limbu cultural identity in Nepal. J Univ Grants Comm. 2013;2:122–37. Maden K, Kongren R, Limbu TM. Documentation of indigenous knowledge, skill and practices of Kirata nationalities with special focus on biological resources. Report, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu; 2011. O’Neill AR, Badola HK, Dhyani PP, Rana SK. Integrating ethnobiological knowledge into biodiversity conservation in the Eastern Himalayas. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13:1–14. https:// doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0148-9. Pyakurel D, Smith-Hall C, Sharma-Bhattarai I, Ghimire SK. Trade and conservation of Nepalese medicinal plants, fungi and lichen. Econ Bot. 2019;73:505–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12231019-09473-0. Rai H, Khare R, Upreti DK, Ahti T. Terricolous lichens of India: taxonomic keys and description. In: Rai H, Upreti DK, editors. Terricolous lichens in India, volume 2: morphotaxonomic studies. 1st ed. New York/Heidelberg/Dordrecht/London: Springer; 2019. p. 17–294. Shah NC. Lichens of commercial importance in India. Scitech J. 2014;01:32–6. Shukla P, Upreti DK. Lichen dyes: current scenario and future prospects. In: Upreti D, et al., editors. Recent advances in lichenology. Lucknow: Springer; 2015. p. 209–29. Singh S, Upreti DK, Lehri A, Paliwal AK. Quantification of lichens commercially used in traditional perfumery industries of Uttar Pradesh, India. Indian J Plant Sci. 2015;4:29–33. Sipman HJM. Notes on the lichen genus Everniastrum (Parmeliaceae). Mycotaxon. 1986;26:235– 51. Thapa KB, Rajbhandary S. Apothecial anatomy of some Parmelia species of Namobuddha, Kavrepalanchowk district, Central Nepal. J Nat Hist Mus. 2012;26:146–54. Upreti DK, Divakar PK, Nayaka S. Commercial and ethnic use of lichens in India. Econ Bot. 2005;59:269–73. https://doi.org/10.1663/0013-0001(2005)059[0269:CAEUOL]2.0.CO;2. Upreti DK, Bajpai R, Nayaka S. Lichenology: current research in India. In: Bahadur B, Rajam MV, Sahijram L, Krishnamurthy KV, editors. Plant biology and biotechnology: volume I: plant diversity, organization, function and improvement. New Delhi: Springer; 2015. p. 263–80. Wang LS, Qian ZG. 中国药用地衣图鉴 (Zhong guo yao yong di yi tu jian ¼ Illustrated medicinal lichens of China). Kunming Shi: Yunnan ke ji chu ban she; 2013.

Incarvillea emodi Chatterjee BIGNONIACEAE Hammad Ahmad Jan, Hassan Sher, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Incarvillea emodi Chatterjee: Amphicome emodi Royle ex Lindl.

H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_123

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Local Names Incarvillea emodi: Pashto: Gule barbaq ‫ﻝ ﺏﺍﺭﺏﺍﻕ‬

Botany and Ecology Incarvillea emodi: Perennial, glabrous or pubescent herbs. Rootstock short, leafy. Leaves imparipinnate; leaflets opposite or subopposite, 8–9, ovate-oblong, (8–)10– 32  7–22 mm, undersurface glandular, punctate. Racemes terminal, 4–12(–15)-flowered, pendent. Scape fairly stout. Bract lanceolate, (3–)4–9 mm long; bracteoles smaller and narrower, glabrous. Pedicels 5–22 mm long. Calyx truncate or 5-fid, campanulate, 4.5–6 (–7) mm long, 5-ribbed, persistent. Corolla rosy-pink with a yellow throat, deciduous; tube 3–3.5 cm long, abruptly dilated towards base; lobes 5, spreading; obtuse. Stamens 4, with a fifth staminode; filaments arched, of longer stamens c. 20 mm long; anther lobes oblong, c. 2.5 mm long, spreading, villous, connective produced into an obtuse short appendage. Ovary broad-linear, 5–6 mm long; style filiform, 24–26 mm long; stigma patelliform, 2–2.5 mm long. Capsule broad-linear, 12–18(–20  0.4– 0.45 cm. Seeds many, linear-oblong, 2–2.5 mm long, produced and fibrillate at both ends horizontally, rugose-papillate. Flowering April–early May. Afghanistan, Pakistan, Kashmir, Nepal, and India. A rock crevice species with attractive rosy-pink flowers and worth cultivating. Found from 600–2700 m (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020) (Figs. 1 and 2).

Fig. 1 Incarvillea emodi (Bignoniaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

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Fig. 2 Incarvillea emodi (Bignoniaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Local Medicinal Uses Incarvillea emodi: Decoction of whole plant is used as febrifuge (Hassan et al. 2020). Whole plant is used for treatment of hepatitis, diarrhea, and infectious diseases (Wazir et al. 2018). Locally plant is used as febrifuge (Ijaz et al. 2018).

References Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan and Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995–2020. Hassan N, Din MU, Hassan FU, Abdullah I, Zhu Y, Jinlong W, Shah SI. Identification and quantitative analyses of medicinal plants in Shahgram valley, district swat, Pakistan. Acta Ecol Sin. 2020;40(1):44–51. Ijaz F, Rahman IU, Iqbal Z, Alam J, Ali N, Khan SM. Ethno-ecology of the healing forests of Sarban Hills, Abbottabad, Pakistan: an economic and medicinal appraisal. Plant Human Health. 2018;1:675–706. Wazir AR, Shah SM, Razzaq MA. Ethno botanical studies on plant resources of Razmak, North Waziristan, Pakistan; 2018. https://botanyconference2018.uoch.edu.pk/papers/asif%20raza% 20wazir.pdf

Indigofera heterantha Wall. ex Brandis FABACEAE Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Wahid Hussain, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Indigofera heterantha Wall. ex Brandis: Indigofera heterantha var. gerardiana (Wall.ex Baker in Hook. f.) Ali; Indigofera gerardiana Graham

H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan e-mail: [email protected] A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan e-mail: [email protected] W. Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_124

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Local Names Indigofera heterantha: Pashto: Ghorija, Kaintay, Kainthi, Kinatai ‫ ;ﮎﯼﻥﺕ‬Nepali: Sakino (Kunwar et al. 2019)

Botany and Ecology Indigofera heterantha: Shrubs, 1–2(–3) m tall. Stems grayish brown, terete, with rounded lenticels, covered with appressed medifixed trichomes; young branches angular, with slightly spreading white medifixed symmetrically 2-branched trichomes. Stipules linear, ca. 3 mm, caducous, with appressed brown trichomes. Leaves 6–7 cm, (9–)13–25-foliolate; petiole and rachis adaxially grooved, with appressed medifixed trichomes; petiole 1–9 mm; stipels subulate, ca. 1 mm; petiolules ca. 1 mm; leaflet blades opposite, elliptic, obovate, or oblanceolate, 5–15(– 25)  2–10(–15) mm, papery, both surfaces with appressed white medifixed trichomes, midvein abaxially prominent and adaxially flat, secondary veins not visible, base broadly cuneate to rounded, apex obtuse to truncate and mucronate. Racemes 3–8 cm; peduncle (0.5–)1.4–2(–3) cm; young inflorescences in bud grayish green with few brownish hairs, rachis with dense appressed medifixed trichomes; bracts minute, caducous. Pedicel 1.5–3 mm, hairy, deflexed in fruit. Calyx 2.5–3.5(–4) mm, with appressed medifixed trichomes; tube ca. 1.5 mm; teeth triangular-lanceolate, 1.5–2.5 mm. Corolla purple to light purple; standard elliptic, 7.5–9(–13)  4–5 mm, outside hairy; wings 7.5–10 mm, margin ciliate; keel 0.7–1.3 cm, outside apically hairy, margin ciliate, spur ca. 1 mm. Stamens (6–)7–11.5 mm; anthers ovoidglobose, base hairy. Ovary hairy, with 10 ovules. Legume brown, linear, cylindric, 1–1.5(–2) cm, glabrescent; endocarp purple blotched. Seeds 6–10 per legume, oblong, about 2.5 mm. Flowering May–June, fruiting July–October (Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3). Fig. 1 Indigofera heterantha (Fabaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

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Fig. 2 Indigofera heterantha (Fabaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

Fig. 3 Indigofera heterantha (Fabaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Local Medicinal Uses Indigofera heterantha: Used for abdominal pain (Tariq Khan et al. 2018), gastric disorders, as diuretic, for headache and chest pain (Jan et al. 2017; Khan et al. 2014). Employed for skin allergies, warts, leprosy, as anti-cancerous agent (Kayani et al. 2015), asthma, toothache, abdominal pain, cough, and muscular pain (Gairola et al. 2014). Leaves are crushed and the extract is used in the internal body disorders

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(Gilani et al. 2006). Dried powdered root taken with glass of water against scabies; leaves against stomach problems (Akhtar et al. 2013). Powdered leaves and flowers are used as vermifuge (Amjad and Arshad 2014). Flowers and leaves powder used for scabies and diabetes (Ajaib et al. 2010). Leaves are rubbed on skin allergy. Leaves are given to cattle to treat dysentery (Ahmad and Habib 2014). The plant decoction is used for skin allergy, dysentery disorders, warts, leprosy, and anticancerous (Kayani et al. 2015). Fruit and leaves are used in hepatitis and respiratory diseases. Leaf powder is vermifuge (Amjad et al. 2017). Braches are used for jaw swelling and leaves for toothache (Rahman et al. 2016). Bark used for an internal wound, throat infection, against diabetes, and toothache. Leaves are also chewed for toothache and jaw swelling (Ur-Rehman 2006). Locally the plant is used for scabies and stomach problems (Ijaz et al. 2016).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Indigofera heterantha: Grazed by livestock (Mulk Khan et al. 2014).

References Ahmad KS, Habib S. Indigenous knowledge of some medicinal plants of Himalaya Region, Dawarian village, Neelum valley, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. Univ J Plant Sci. 2014;2(2):40–7. Ajaib M, Khan Z, Khan NH, Wahab M. Ethnobotanical studies on useful shrubs of district Kotli, Azad Jammu & Kashmir, Pakistan. Pak J Bot. 2010;42(3):1407–15. Akhtar N, Rashid A, Murad W, Bergmeier E. Diversity and use of ethno-medicinal plants in the region of Swat, North Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1):25. Amjad MS, Arshad M. Ethnobotanical inventory and medicinal uses of some important woody plant species of Kotli, Azad Kashmir, Pakistan. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. 2014;4(12):952–8. Amjad MS, Arshad M, Saboor A, Page S, Chaudhari SK. Ethnobotanical profiling of the medicinal flora of Kotli, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan: empirical reflections on multinomial logit specifications. Asian Pac J Trop Med. 2017;10(5):503–14. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Gilani SA, Qureshi RA, Gilani SJ. Indigenous uses of some important ethnomedicinal herbs of Ayubia National Park, Abbottabad, Pakistan. Ethnobot Leaflets. 2006;2006(1):32. Ijaz F, Iqbal Z, Rahman IU, Alam J, Khan SM, Shah GM, Afzal A. Investigation of traditional medicinal floral knowledge of Sarban Hills, Abbottabad, KP, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;179:208–33. Jan AH, Wali S, Ahmad L, Jana S, Ahmad N, Ullah N. Ethnomedicinal survey of medicinal plants of Chinglai valley, Buner district, Pakistan. Eur J Integrat Med. 2017;13:64–74. Kayani S, Ahmad M, Sultana S, Khan Shinwari Z, Hussain M, Yaseen G, Hussain M, Bibi T. Ethnobotany of medicinal plants among the communities of Alpine and Sub-alpine regions of Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;164:186–202.

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Khan MS, Page S, Ahmad H, Harper D. Ethno-ecological importance of plant biodiversity in mountain ecosystems with special emphasis on indicator species of a Himalayan Valley in the northern Pakistan. Ecol Indic. 2014;37:175–85. Kunwar RM, Shrestha K, Malla S, Acharya T, Sementelli A, Kutal D, Bussmann RW. Relation of medicinal plants, their use patterns and availability in the lower Kailash Sacred Landscape, Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18:7. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.6.1-14. Rahman IU, Ijaz F, Iqbal Z, Afzal A, Ali N, Afzal M, Asif M. A novel survey of the ethno medicinal knowledge of dental problems in Manoor Valley (Northern Himalaya), Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;194:877–94. Tariq Khan M, Ahmad L, Rashid W. Ethnobotanical documentation of traditional knowledge about medicinal plants used by indigenous people in the Talash Valley of Dir Lower, northern Pakistan. J Intercult Ethnopharmacol. 2018; 7(1). https://doi.org/10.5455/jice.20171011075112. Ur-Rehman E. Indigenous knowledge on medicinal plants, village Barali Kass and its allied areas, District Kotli Azad Jammu & Kashmir, Pakistan. Ethnobot Leaflets. 2006;2006(1):27. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. St. Louis: Science Press, Beijing & Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013.

Ipomoea hederacea Jacq. CONVOLVULACEAE Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Ikram Ur Rahman, and Wahid Hussain

Synonyms Ipomoea hederacea Jacq.: Convolvulus hederaceus L.; Convolvulus nil L.; Ipomoaea desertorum House; Ipomoea nil (L.) Roth; Pharbitis githagina Hoschst. ex Choisy; Pharbitis hederacea (L.) Choisy; Pharbitis nil (L.) Choisy; Pharbitis purpurea Asch. in Schweinf.

Local Names Ipomoea hederacea: Pashto: Kaladana, Esqpecha. H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan W. Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_126

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Fig. 1 Ipomoea hederacea (Convolvulaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

Ipomoea hederacea: Annual climbers, densely to scattered pubescent with large trichomes throughout. Leaves cordate-ovate, entire or 3-lobed, 4–15 cm long, basally cordate, apically acuminate to acute, pubescent. Flowers in 1 or few-flowered cymes. Sepals long-lanceolate, 20–30 mm long, abruptly narrowed and spreading or curved at least in fruit, usually with some long erect trichomes on the base. Corolla lavender to blue with a white centre in wild plants, varying to red or purple in cultivated races, 3–5 cm long. Fruit capsular, subglobose to globose, 8– 10 mm long. Seeds pyriform, black. Flowering September–October. Originally from the United States, now widely introduced into tropical and subtropical regions. Not always becoming established (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020) (Fig. 1).

Local Medicinal Uses Ipomoea hederacea: Used as analgesic (Ur-Rahman et al. 2019). Ipomoea leari is used as analgesic (Almeida et al. 2001).

References Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan and Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995–2020. Almeida RN, Navarro DS, Barbosa-Filho JM. Plants with central analgesic activity. Phytomedicine. 2001;8(4):310–22. Ur-Rahman I, Sher H, Bussmann RW, editors. Reference guide on high value medicinal and Aromatic plants – sustainable management and cultivation practices. University of Swat, Pakistan; 2019. (ISBN 978-969-23419-0-5).

Isatis stocksii Boiss. BRASSICACEAE Hassan Sher, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Ikram Ur Rahman, Maroof Ali Turi, Wahid Hussain, Manzoor Ullah, Hammad Ahmad Jan, and Arshad Mehmood Abbasi

Synonyms Isatis stocksii Boiss.: Pachypterygium macranthum Rchb. f.; Pachypterygium stocksii (Boiss.) Hedge.

H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan M. A. Turi College of Life Science, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu, China © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_127

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Botany and Ecology Isatis stocksii: Annual, 5–45 cm tall, erect, branched, apparently glabrous, glaucous, somewhat hairy above with short, simple hairs. Basal leaves few, oblanceolate or oblong-elliptic, 30–60 mm long, 7–20 mm broad, sessile or subsessile, entire or subentire, obtuse; upper leaves oblong-lanceolate, 5–40 mm long, 1.5–20 mm broad, distant, auricled at base, amplexicaul, obtuse or acute, entire or subentire; all leaves glabrous, glaucous, subfleshy. Racemes 20–30-flowered, ebracteate, up to 15 cm long in fruit. Flowers 3–4 mm across, yellow; pedicel 3–6 mm long in fruit, spreading or deflexed, about hairy. Sepals 2–2.5 mm long, about 1 mm broad, oblong, obtuse, about hairy. Petals 4–4.5 mm long, about 1.5 mm broad, obovateoblong, apex obtuse. Stamens about 2.5:3 mm long; anthers about 0.5 mm. Siliculae lampshaped or lanceolate with broad, about ovate base and oblong apex, 7–9 mm long, 2.5–3 mm broad, hairy; wing narrow, often about ciliate with short simple white hairs; locule wall usually with short, subglandular hairs, rarely glabrous; seed about 2 mm long, 1 mm broad, oblong-ellipsoid, brown. Flowering April–August. Afghanistan and Pakistan (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).

Phytochemistry Thioglycosides (sinigrine), saponins, vitamins (C, B2, carotene), indigoids (indigotine), flavonoids (isoscoparine), fatty acids (Sokolov 1985).

Local Medicinal Uses In Pakistan,the leaves of Isatis stocksii are eaten by pregnant women to ease pain in childbirth (Sher et al. 2016). Isatis tinctoria: In traditional medicine used as a syrup for measles. A leaf decoction is used to treat wounds; furuncles, tumors, and dermatomycosis, internally for spleen problems, as emetic and laxative. In large quantities toxic, causing renal colic

W. Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan M. Ullah Department of Botany, University of Science and Technology, Bannu KP, Pakistan H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan

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Fig. 1 Isatis tinctoria (Brassicaceae), Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

(Bussmann et al. 2019). For wound healing and arthralgia (Altundaga and Oztürk 2011). Isatis indigotica has antibacterial properties (Rajbhandari et al. 2007).

Local Food Uses Isatis tinctoria: Oil from the seeds is close to linseed and can be used as food (Bussmann et al. 2019).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Isatis stocksii: Used as fodder for camels and goats (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020). Isatis tinctoria: In the Eastern Caucasus used for dyeing the eyebrows. The leaves yield blue and green colors (indigo) that can be used as dyes for wool, cloth, and silk. Suitable as fodder for cattle and sheep (Bussmann et al. 2019) (Fig. 6).

1096 Fig. 2 Isatis tinctoria (Brassicaceae), Kazbegi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Isatis stocksii Boiss. Fig. 3 Isatis tinctoria (Brassicaceae), Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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1098 Fig. 4 Isatis tinctoria (Brassicaceae), Kazbegi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Isatis tinctoria (Brassicaceae), Kazbegi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 6 Isatis tinctoria (Brassicaceae), dyed wool, Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

References Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan and Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995–2020. Altundaga E, Oztürk M. Ethnomedicinal studies on the plant resources of East Anatolia, Turkey. Proc Soc Behav Sci. 2011;19:756–77. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D. Isatis tinctoria L. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions far Eastern Europe. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2019. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77088-8_76-2. Rajbhandari M, Mentel R, Jha PK, Chaudhary RP, Bhattarai S, Gewali MB, Karmacharya N, Hipper M, Lindequist U. Antiviral activity of some plants used in Nepalese Traditional Medicine. eCAM. 2007; 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1093/ecam/nem156. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni groups in Chitral District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 2. Families Paeoniaceae - Thymelaeacea. Akademia Nauk, Leningrad; 1985. 336 p. (in Russian).

Ixiolirion tataricum (Pall.) Herb. IXIOLIRONACEAE Hassan Sher, Wahid Hussain, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Botany and Ecology Ixiolirion tataricum: Bulbs globose, c. 2 cm in diameter, covered with brownish scales. Plants up to 1 m tall. Leaves c. 5 mm broad. Flowers in 2–6 umbellate clusters, bracteate. Bracts up to 1 cm long with broad membranous margins. Pedicels 1–2 cm long. Tepals free, 2–3(5) cm long, blue-violet, linear to lanceolate, 3-veined, long acuminate. Stamens free, unequal in length, filaments purple, free to the base; anthers slightly sagittate, c. 1 mm long. Style filiform, purple, stigmas 3, purple.

H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan W. Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_128

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Fig. 1 Ixiolirion tataricum (Ixioloronaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

Fruit capsular, oblong to clavate; seeds many. Flowering March–April. Egypt, Turkey to Central Asia, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan. Common in wheat and grain fields in the lower northern parts of the country. Worth cultivating for its attractive flowers (Ali and Qaiser 1995-2020) (Fig. 1).

Local Medicinal Uses Ixiolirion tataricum: The species is used as astringent (Cakilcioglu et al. 2011).

Local Food Uses Ixiolirion tataricum: The flower nectar and latex are used as recreational food (Akgul et al. 2018).

References Akgul A, Akgul A, Senol SG, Yildirim H, Secmen O, Dogan Y. An ethnobotanical study in Midyat (Turkey), a city on the silk road where cultures meet. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14:12. https:// doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0201-8. Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan and Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995-2020. Cakilcioglu U, Khatun S, Turkoglu I, Hayta S. Ethnopharmacological survey of medicinal plants in Maden (Elazig-Turkey). J Ethnopharmacol. 2011;137:469–86.

Jasminum humile L. OLEACEAE Bindu K. C., Sabina Gyawali, Sanjeev Luintel, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Jasminum humile L.: Jasminum humile var. microphyllum (L.C. Chia) P.S. Green; Chrysojasminum humile ND; Jasminum farreri Gilmour; Jasminum wallichii Jacques; Jasminum Jasminum wallichianum Lindl.; Jasminum italicum Dippel; Jasminum revolutum Sims; Jasminum mairei H. Lév. Press et al. (2000) Jasminum humile var. glabrum (DC.) Kobuski; Jasminum inodorum Jacquem. ex Decne.; Jasminum pubigerum beta glabrum DC.; Jasminum wallichianum Lindl.

B. K. C. · S. Gyawali · S. Luintel Amrit Science College, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_130

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Local Names Jasminum humile: Pashto: Zyar rambil chambil ‫ ;ﭺﺍﻡﺏﯼﻝ ﺫﯼړﺭﺍﻡﺏﯼﻝ‬Arabic: Geelbosjasmyn, yasimin ‘asfar (‫ ;)ﻱﺍﺱﻡﻱﻥ ﺃﺹﻑﺭ‬Azerbaijani: Аlçаqboy jаsmin; Buner: Ramble chambel; Bengali: Svarnajui, Sbarṇacāmēlī (স্ব্া); Chinese: Ai tan chun (矮探春); English: Italian jasmine, Italian yellow jasmine, yellow Jasmine, Nepal jasmine; French: Jasmin jaune; German: Niedriger Jasmin; Jammu: Sanairad, Jard Siyoon; Hindi: Peeli Chameli (पीली चमेली), Son Chameli, Nepal jasmine, Peela jui, Malto; Hungarian: Alacsony jázmin; Kannada: Hasarumallige; ࠪ ࠠࠍߪ Kumaon: Sonajahi; Malayalam: Ponmallika, jāsmīnaṁ humail (ࠁࠞࠜࠒ ࠝࠡࠒࠦൽ); Nepali: Masino Jaai (मसिनो जाल), Jaaee (जा); Portuguese: Jasmim; Sanskrit: Svarnajuthica, Hemapushpika; Spanish: Jazmín de Italia; Tamil: Semmallingai; Telugu: Pachche adavimalle.

Botany and Ecology Jasminum is a genus of flowering climbing shrubs and vines (family Oleaceae). Genus Jasminum composed of over 2,000 plants distributed all over the world, the flowers are mostly white in color except a few are yellow. The genus Jasminum belongs to clade Eudicots of Asterids under the order Lamiales of family Oleaceae and they are native to Eurasia especially Italy, Iran, India, and Mediterranean region (Xuejun et al. 2011). There are eight species in Bhutan (Grierson and Springate 2001) and 43 species in China (Xuejun et al. 2011). Jasminum humile: Shrubs or small trees 0.3–3 m, sometimes scandent. Branchlets angular, along with petiole, pedicel, and calyx glabrous, pubescent, or puberulent. Leaves alternate, compound or simple; petiole 0.5–2 cm; leaf and leaflet blades leathery or papery, glabrous or adaxially short setose and abaxially pubescent along veins; leaflets 3–9( 13), usually 5; leaflet blade ovate to lanceolate, rarely obovate, terminal one 0.6–6  0.2–2 cm, lateral ones 0.2–4.5  0.2–2 cm, with 2–4 primary veins on each side of midrib, base rounded or cuneate, margin sometimes spinyciliate, apex acute to caudate. Cymes terminal, in umbels, corymbs, or panicles cymose, 1–10( 15)-flowered, rarely with linear bracts 2–4 mm. Pedicel 0.2–3 cm. Calyx lobes deltate to subulate, shorter than tube. Corolla yellow, nearly funnelform; tube 0.8–1.6 cm; lobes orbicular or ovate, 3–7 mm, often rounded at apex. Berry ripening purple-black, ellipsoid or globose, 6–11  4–10 mm (Xuejun et al. 2011, Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3). Native to Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Pakistan, Nepal, Burma (Myanmar), the Himalayas, and South West China (Gansu, Guizhou, Sichuan, Xizang (Tibet), Yunnan) (Kindersley 2008). It is native to Europe and Eurasia especially Italy, Iran, and the Mediterranian region, Australasia, and Oceania (Ernst et al. 2002). It grows naturally from the tropical to subalpine range having little moist dry climate.

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Fig. 1 Jasminum humile (Oleaceae) plant, Nepal. (Photo Hem R Paudel)

Fig. 2 Jasminum humile (Oleaceae) flower, Nepal. (Photo Ripu M Kunwar)

Phytochemistry Leaves of Jasminum humile contains friedelin, lupeol, botulin, betulinic acid, α-amyrin, ursolic acid, oleanolic acid, and β-sitosterol (Dan and Dan 1985); Alkaloids, Tannin, Coumarins, and Glycoside (Adhikary et al. 2011); JH ethyl acetate, JH

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Fig. 3 Jasminum humile (Oleaceae) flowers and leaves are offered to deities, Nepal. (Photo Hem R Paudel)

n-butanol, JH n-hexane, DA chloroform, DA n-hexane, n-Propyl gallateb, t-BHAc (Khan et al. 2014); Tanins, Flavonoids, and Steroids (Paudel and Gyawali 2014); Saponins, Carbohydrate (Sengar et al. 2015); Ethanol, Methanol (Shekhar and Prasad 2015); Ocimene (27.7%), p-cymene (13.3%), pinene (13.1%), and carvone (12.2%) and other compounds present in appreciable amounts are terpinene (8.4%), fenchol (7.3%), linalool (6.1%), and fenchone (3.6%) (Mirza and Baher Nik 2004); 7-methyl oleoside, oleoside type iridoids (Connolly 2006); 9-Z-Octadecenoic acid methyl ester (30.19%), 9, 12-Z, Z-Octadecadienoic acid methyl ester (23.96%), Hexadecanoic acid methyl ester (15.853%), Methyl stearate (13.22%) (Ayoub 2017).

Local Medicinal Uses Jasminum humile: Flowers are sun dried and powdered and boiled in water. The decoction is used for blood purification and jaundice (Jan et al. 2009). Powdered roots as anthelmintic and diuretic; juice extracted from flowers against skin diseases,, and mouth rash (Akhtar et al. 2013). Root decoction of the plant is used for ring worms, and sinusitis (Rashid et al. 2015). Plant is locally known to use as repellant for insects

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(Ishtiaq et al. 2015). Flowers are astringent (Arshad and Ahmad 2004). Plant in known to be used for intestinal problems and for treatment of ringworm (Jan et al. 2017). Flowers extract used for the removal of kidney stones (Irfan et al. 2018). Decoction of roots is used in ringworms. Flower powder is used as paste for skin infections (Hussain et al. 2019). Plant is used as anthelminthic (Sher et al. 2011). Locally, flowers are used as tonic for heart problems, and root juice to remove ringworms (Ijaz et al. 2016). Flowers and leaves are astringent. Tender shoots and leaves are used as tea (Kunwar et al. 2012a, b, 2015); throat pain (Shrestha and Dhillion 2003); leaves are used for ringworm infestation and stomach disorder (Kala 2005). Jasmine flowers are astringent and a tonic for the heart and bowels. A paste made from the flowers is considered effective in the treatment of intestinal problems. The juice of the root is used in the treatment of ringworm and as tonic (Gairola et al. 2014). The milky juice of the plant is used for destroying the unhealthy lining walls of chronic sinuses and fistulae. To treat intestinal problems and toothache (Ahmad Jan et al. 2017). Jasminum auriculatum: The dried root powder is used in the treatment of skin diseases especially for ringworms. Fresh young leaves are chewed to cure ulceration of mouth. Flowers are used in the treatment of tuberculosis by applying its paste externally (Singh 2017). Jasminum mesneyi: Leaf juice is given to get rid of fever (Shrestha and Joshi 1993). Jasminum humile is used as astringent (Kunwar et al. 2012a, b). Jasminum multiflorum: Fruit paste is used to treat wounds between toes caused by walking bare foot in rainy seasons (Manandhar 1993), and also as emetic, for ulcers and snakebites (Gairola et al. 2014). Jasminum sambac: Flowers as in infusion for fever (Ali 2019); leaves and root paste is used for anti-inflammatory and analgesic activity (Sengar et al. 2015). Used to treat fever, as detoxicant, and analgesic (Ma et al. 2019). Jasminum officinale is employed against ringworm (Gairola et al. 2014). Jasminum grandiflorum is used to treat wounds (Wondimu et al. 2007). Jasminum abyssinicum is applied to snakebites (Mekonnen et al. 2015; Teklehaymanot et al. 2007; Teklehaymanot and MirMutse 2010) and used to treat wounds (Bussmann et al. 2006).

Local Food Uses Jasminum humile: Flowers are mixed with tea for its pleasant smell (Arshad and Ahmad 2004; Kunwar et al. 2012a, b). Jasminum officinale: flowers are edible (Ali 2019).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Jasminum humile: The plant is considered as highly toxic. Touching the flowers may produce allergic reaction. Excessive doses may cause respiratory depression, giddiness, double vision, and death (healthbenefitstimes.com). Flowers yield essential oil used in perfumery; it is harvested from the wild for local use as a food,

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medicine, and source of materials. The leaves are used as a condiment. A tea is made from the leaves and bark (Kunwar et al. 2012a, b). Plant leaves and flowers are offered to gods for praying. Jasminum leptophyllum is used against ectoparasites in livestock (Majid et al. 2019). Jasminum sp. is often planted as fragrant ornamental in graveyards (Dafni and Böck 2019). Jsaminum abyssinicum, Jasminum floribundum, and Jasminum fluminense are all eaten by livestock, used as firewood, and to join sticks (Bussmann 2006).

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Jatropha curcas L. EUPHORBIACEAE Chandra Kanta Subedi, Ram Prasad Chaudhary, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Jatropha curcas L.: Castiglionia lobata Ruiz & Pav.; Curcas adansonii Endl.; Curcas curcas (L.) Britton & Millsp.; Curcas drastica Mart.; Curcas indica A. Rich.; Curcas purgans Medic.; Jatropha acerifolia Salisb.; Jatropha afrocurcas Pax; Jatropha condor Wall.; Jatropha edulis Cerv.; Jatropha moluccana Wall.; Jatropha tuberosa Elliot; Jatropha yucatanensis Briq.; Manihot curcas (L.) Crantz; Ricinus americanus Mill.; Ricinus jarak Thunb.

C. K. Subedi · R. P. Chaudhary Research Centre for Applied Science and Technology (RECAST), Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_131

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Local Names Jatropha curcas: Bengali: Bagbherenda, Erandagachh; Bhutnese: Ching-da-lee; Chepang: Dulching, Niguri; Chinese: Yu-lu-tzu; Danuwar: Akakgachha, Arari; Gujrati: Jamalgota, Ratanjota; Gurung: Rajani geri, Sajin, Satiman; Hindi: Jangaliarandi, Safedarand, Beligida, Bherenda, Kulajara; Kannada: Adaluharalu, Bettadaharalu, Maraharalu, Karnocchi; Magar: Ratyun; Maithali: Kattavanakka, Kadalavanakka; Majhi: Aril; Marathi: Mogalierenda, Ranayerandi; Mooshar: Baghandi; Nepali: Aren, Arin, Baghandi. Deshi Khirro, Inna, Kadam, Nimte, Sajiwan, Saijon, Saruwa; Pakistan: Jamal Gota, Japlota; Rai: Kadam; Raute: Dekiro; Sanskrit: Kananaeranda, Prbhataranda; Tamang: Desya, Gada, Gyagar; Tamil: Kadalamanakku, Kattamanakku; Telegu: Nepalamu, Peddanepalamu, Adaviamidamu; Tharu: Ramjeevan, Ramjoti, Ratanjot (Sastri 1959; Manandhar 2002; Baral and Kurmi 2006; Subedi and Pandey 2017); English: Barbados nut, Curcas nut, Nutmeg plant, Physic nut, Purging nu.

Botany and Ecology Jatropha curcas: Trees, 8–15 m tall, monoecious. Stems: green in younger branches but grey-green in older, erect, somewhat succulent, leaf scars crescent-shaped; latex copious, clear in younger branches but cloudy in older. Leaves deciduous in drier, cooler climates but semi-evergreen to evergreen in warmer, moist regions; stipules caducous but narrowly lanceolate when present on actively growing shoots; petioles 9–19 cm long and 1.4–3 mm in diameter; blades cordate to orbicular in outline, shallowly 3–5-lobed or sometimes unlobed, 9–15 cm wide and long, membranous, base cordate, apex acuminate, margins entire or eophylls and young leaves with few glands, venation palmate with 3–5( 7) primary veins, both surfaces glabrous or occasionally sparsely pubescent on abaxial veins. Inflorescences: bisexual, terminal becoming subterminal to lateral with continued growth, many-flowered, compound, capitate cymes, flowers predominantly staminate, peduncles of main florescences 0.5–1 cm long and those of co-florescences 1.5–5 cm; bracts 3–10 mm long; bracteoles 1.5–2 mm long; pedicels 1–3 mm long. Staminate flowers with ovateelliptic sepals, 4–6 x 2–3 mm, connate at base, margins entire; apex acute, glabrous on both surfaces; corollas campanulate, greenish white to greenish yellow, petals 4–5 x 2–2.5( 3) mm, distinct or connate, ovate-oblong, apex round and strongly reflexed, tomentose on adaxial side but glabrous on abaxial; stamens 10,  biseriate (5 + 5), filaments of outer series 3–4.5 mm long and those of inner series 3–5 mm, anthers 1.4–2 mm long. Pistillate flowers like staminate but slightly larger and much fewer in number, infrequently with fertile staminodes; sepals 5–7.5 x 2–2.5 mm, connate; petals 6–8 x 2–3.5 mm, glabrous on both surfaces; carpels 3, styles connate, 0.5–1.5 mm long, stigmas 3-lobed, lobes bifurcate; ovary usually unlobed but sometimes slightly 3-lobed. Capsules: ellipsoid, 2.6–3 x 2.2–2.8 cm, trilocular, drupaceous, black at maturity, tardily dehiscent. Seeds black or black mottled with some white spots, oblong-ellipsoidal, 1.8–2 x 1.1–1.3 cm wide, seed coat smooth,

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Fig. 1 Jatropha curcas (Euphorbiaceae), 950 m, inflorescence & flower, South Pokhara, Nepal, 2020.05.11. (Photo Prabin Bhandari)

Fig. 2 Jatropha curcas (Euphorbiaceae), 510 m, fruiting, Khairenitar, Tanahun, Nepal, 2010.06.29. (Photo Chandra Kanta Subedi)

caruncle small to nearly vestigial. (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936-1995; Becker and Makkar 2008). Its life expectancy is up to 50 years (Achten et al. 2010). (Figs. 1, 2, and 3). Pollination cross (entomophily). Propagation by seeds or vegetative means (Fig. 3) (Grierson and Long 1987; Heller 1996; Manandhar 2002; Achten et al. 2007; Kumar and Sharma 2008; Divakara et al. 2010; Sunil et al. 2013; Bahadur et al. 2013; Abdelgadir and Van Staden 2013). There is controversy regarding center of origin of Jatropha curcas. However, it is supposed to be native of Mexico and continental Central America (Heller 1996). It was later introduced to Africa and Asia by Portuguese ships via the Cape Verde Islands and Guinea Bissau as an oil yielding plant (Dehgan and Webster 1979; Heller 1996). It is distributed in tropical and subtropical part of eastern, central, and western Nepal at an altitude of 500–1200 m asl (Press et al. 2000; Baral and Kurmi 2006). It

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Fig. 3 Jatropha curcas (Euphorbiaceae), 520 m, Nursery, Khairenitar, Tanahun, Nepal, 2010.07.01. (Photo Chandra Kanta Subedi)

Fig. 4 Jatropha curcas (Euphorbiaceae), 510 m, planted as bio-fence, Khairenitar, Tanahun, Nepal 2010.06.29. (Photo Chandra Kanta Subedi)

is familiar as living fence around agricultural field (Fig. 4), toothbrush and entertainment for children in blowing bubbles from the sap (Grierson and Long 1987; Subedi and Pandey 2017). It is a drought tolerance, pest and disease resistance low-nutrient requirement plant, and naturally grow in monsoon climate and temperate climates without dry season with hot summer. It is not recorded in semiarid and arid climate. The mean temperature and rain fall of their natural habitat ranges from 19.3–27.2 °C and 994– 3,121 mm, respectively. The length of growing season ranges from 5 to 11 months (Achten et al. 2010). It grows along the roadside, near settlement and riverside under natural condition (Grierson and Long 1987). It is also planted around the agricultural field as living fence to protect crops from cattle. Usually it grows under open area. However, the luxuriant growth of the plant is also reported as understory of forest in plantation in Nepal (Fig. 5).

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Fig. 5 Jatropha curcas (Euphorbiaceae), 510 m, understory plantation, Khairenitar, Tanahun, Nepal, 2010.06.29. (Photo Chandra Kanta Subedi)

Photochemistry The solvent extracts (aqueous extract, ethanol extract, methanol extract, and ethyl acetate extract) of leaves, stem bark, and root revealed that the phytochemical composition of Jatropha curcas includes alkaloids, cardiac glycosides, carotenoids, coumarins, cyanates, flavonoids, oxalates, phlobatannins, phytates, polyacetylated compounds polyphenols, saponins, steroids, tannins, terpenoids, triterpenoid saponins, and volatile organic compounds. They also contain considerable amount of total carbohydrate, crude protein, crude fiber, ash content, crude fat, moisture, and total reducing sugar. Iron, calcium, sodium, magnesium, potassium, aluminum, zinc, phosphorus, and silicon are the minerals present in leaf, stem bark, and root (Asuk et al. 2015). On dry matter basis seed (Kernel) contain fat, protein, crude fiber, carbohydrate, moisture, and ash. Trypsin inhibitor, phytate, tannins, and oxalate are antinutrient contents of the seed (Oseni and Akindahunsi 2011). The physical properties and fatty acid composition of seed oil is suitable for complementing the biodiesel. Fatty acid of seed oil contains saturated (tetradecanoic, hexadecanoic, heptadecanoic, octadecanoid, eicosanoic, decosanoic, and tetracosanoic), monounsaturated (9-hexadecenoic, cis-9-octadenoic and cis-11-eicosenoic), and polyunsaturated fatty acids (cis-9, 12-octadecadienoic and 9, 12, 15-octadecatrienoic) (Becker and Makkar 2008).

Local Medicinal Uses Jatropha curcas: In Nepal used against arthritis (Kunwar et al. 2013). In India the latex is used for cuts and wounds, the seeds as digestive, and the branches for tooth and gum problems, night blindness, and rheumatic pain (Raj et al. 2018). In

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Madagascar, the plant is used to help expelling the placenta, for asthma, dental problems, and pneumonia (Razafindraibe et al. 2013), for post-partum recovery (Randrianarivony et al. 2016). Different parts and their products of plant such as leaves, stem, and its bark, latex, root and its bark, flower, fruit, seed, and seed oil can be used for human healthcare (Kumar and Tewari 2015). Abdelgadir and Van Staden (2013) reviewed the ethnomedicinal uses of Jatropha curcas in the world. They reported that the plant is used to cure 100 different types of diseases, important uses among them includes as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, antiviral, anticancer, antidiabetic, anticoagulant, hepatoprotective, and analgesic and abortifacient effects in many countries in Africa, Asia, South America, and Middle East. The following compilation incudes the traditional medicinal practice of Jatropha curcas in Bhutan, India, Pakistan, and Nepal. The whole plant is used for whitlow and cuts (Bhat et al. 2012). The plant juice is used to cure whitlow, convulsion, neuralgia, dropsy, anasarca, pleurisy, syphilis, and pneumonia (Baral and Kurmi 2006; Malla et al. 2014). The juice obtained by crushing the stem is applied to cut, wounds, burn, mud bite (wounds caused by walking barefooted in muddy water during rainy season), and athletes foot (Dangol and Gurung 1991; Dhami 2008; Uprety et al. 2011). The twig of the plant as tooth brush is applied to cure gum problem, gingivitis, bad breadth, bleeding gum, toothache, strengthening teeth, and mouth infection (Mueller-Boeker 1993; Joshi and Joshi 2000; Acharya and Pokhrel 2006; Dhami 2008; Ghimire and Bastakoti 2009; Joshi et al. 2011; Chetri 2019; Rajbanshi and Thapa 2019). Fresh bark is cut into small pieces and chewed or kept inside the mouth for about 1–2 h to treat pyorrhea (Manandhar 2002). Root bark or its paste or extract is used as antidiarrheal, dysentery, rheumatism, anti-inflammatory, bleeding gum, toothache, eczema, and ringworm (Duke and Ayensu 1985; Mujumdar and Misar 2004; Baral and Kurmi 2006; Malla et al. 2014). The decoction of root bark is used as mouth wash to treat toothache, sore throat and as abortifacient (Jain and Srivastava 2005; Yesodharan and Sujana 2007). Stem juice is applied to wounds, anticoagulant, toothache, ulcer, rheumatism, gingivitis, tonsillitis, and sore throat (Manandhar 1991; Baral and Kurmi 2006; Rajendran et al. 2008; Tripathi and Srivastava 2010; Adhikari et al. 2019). Chewing of stem bark is used for mouth sore (Jeeva et al. 2006). The juice or paste of stem bark is applied to scabies muscular pain, diarrhea, and dysentery (Borah et al. 2006; Purkayastha et al. 2007; Jeeva et al. 2006; Kamble et al. 2010). About 1 teaspoonful juice of the bark is taken with milk or hot water three times a day in cases of malarial fever (Manandhar 2002). Crude leaf or its different form such as paste, infusion, poultice are used to cure whitlow, cuts, jaundice and liver problem, diabetes, furuncle, hair loss, decayed teeth, swelling, tumor, scabies, gingivitis, tonsillitis, sore throat, chest inflammation, congestion, headache, hypertension, galactogogue, and wounds (Manandhar 1987; Jain and Srivastava 2005; Baral and Kurmi 2006; Kunwar et al. 2006; Sharma et al. 2010; Nath and Choudhury 2010; Jaiswal 2010; Bhat et al. 2012; Prabhu et al. 2014; Adhikari et al. 2019). The tender leaf is applied for headache (Udayan et al. 2007). Latex from the plant is widely used to treat different type of ailments. Fresh latex obtain from the plant is used to cure ailments such as toothache, swelling testis, mud bite, scabies, eczema, inflammation, cuts, whitlow, mouth ulcer, itching of genital

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organs, burns, chapped skin, gum infection, sprains (Manandhar 1987, 1991; Mueller-Boeker 1993; Rai 2004; Mujumdar and Misar 2004; Ghimire and Bastakoti 2009; Samuel and Andrews 2010; Meena and Yadav 2010; Uprety et al. 2011; Bhat et al. 2012). Latex mixed with mustard oil is applied for eczema, scabies, cuts, and burned wounds (Joshi and Joshi 2000, 2007; Manandhar 2002; Joshi 2004). Latex mixed with salt is applied for headache, eczema, scabies, wounds, burn, cancer, toothache, mouth ulcer, cracked lips, otorrhea, cold and cough, itching of genital organs (Ganesan et al. 2004; Jain and Srivastava 2005; Verma and Chauhan 2007; Ganesan et al. 2006; Yesodharan and Sujana 2007; Silja et al. 2008; Rajendran et al. 2008; Tripathi and Srivastava 2010; Meena and Yadav 2010; Nath and Choudhury 2010; Samuel and Andrews 2010). The fruit is used as anthelmintic, chronic dysentery, abdominal complaints, anemia, and fistula (Baral and Kurmi 2006). The fruit powder is taken orally to cure constipation (Sharma et al. 2010). Seeds are used against warts and cancer (Baral and Kurmi 2006). The whole seed is used to prevent gingivitis, constipation, scabies, eczema, inflammation, and wounds (Mujumdar and Misar 2004; Wangchuk et al. 2017; Thorn et al. 2020). Seed decoction and seed extract powder is helpful to cure stomach disorder and cholera (Singh et al. 2014). Seed paste is used to treat burnt part of body and inflammation (Manandhar 1998; Dhami 2008; Prabhu et al. 2014). Seed oil is applied to cure eczema, skin diseases, rheumatism, leukoderma, sores, pimple, massage for arthritis, paralytic affections, leprosy, and boils (Baral and Kurmi 2006; Pawar and Patil 2006; Jeeva et al. 2006; Burlakoti and Kunwar 2008; Kunwar and Bussmann 2009; Shiddamallayya et al. 2010; Tripathi and Srivastava 2010; Dey et al. 2012). A paste of the cotyledon is taken as an appetizer (Manandhar 2002). Dried seeds are used as laxative and to getting rid of laziness. Jatropha shows antibacterial activity (Bussmann and Sharon 2006; Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2020).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Jatropha curcas: Jatropha curcas is a multipurpose plant species. It is useful to control soil erosion, improve soil infiltration, and reclaim wasteland, phytoremediation of contaminated soils, live fence around agricultural fields, green manure, carbon sequestration, and environmental development (Kumar and Tewari 2015). Tender shoots are cooked as a vegetable (Manandhar 2002). Seeds contain nonvolatile oil that is also used as lighting the house in the rural areas without electrification, and the cotyledons are used by villagers as candles (Manandhar 2002; Subedi and Pandey 2017). The oil and oil cake can be used to make soap. The oil cake can also be used as biofertilizer in agricultural fields (Subedi and Pandey 2017). The seeds of the plant contain 27–40% of toxic oil (Achten et al. 2007) that can be easily converted into biodiesel that attract attention of investor worldwide (Tiwari et al. 2007) to develop industry. Due to this property of oil, nowadays it is considered as the promising alternate to fossil fuels like petroleum products (Subedi and Pandey 2017).

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Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, Romero C. Jatropha curcas L.; Jatropha gossypifolia L.; Jatropha multifida L. In: Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions – ethnobotany of the Andes. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77093-2_154-1. Pawar S, Patil DA. Folk remedies against rheumatic disorders in Jalgaon district, Maharashtra. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2006;5:314–6. Prabhu S, Vijayakumar S, Yabesh JM, Ravichandran K, Sakthivel B. Documentation and quantitative analysis of the local knowledge on medicinal plants in Kalrayan hills of Villupuram district, Tamil Nadu, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;157:7–20. Press JR, Shrestha KK, Sutton DA. Annotated checklist of the flowering plants of Nepal. London: Natural History Museum; 2000. Purkayastha J, Dutta M, Nath SC. Ethnomedicinal plants from Dibru–Saikhowa biosphere reserve, Assam. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2007;6:477–80. Rai SK. Medicinal plants used by Meche people of Jhapa district, eastern Nepal. Our Nat. 2004;2(1):27–32. Raj AJ, Biswakarma B, Pala NA, Shukla G, Vineeta V, Kumar M, Chakravarty S, Bussmann RW. Indigenous uses of ethno-medicinal plants among forest dependent communities of Northern Bengal, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14(1):8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002018-0208-9. Rajbanshi N, Thapa LB. Traditional knowledge and practices on utilizing medicinal plants by endangered Kisan ethnic group of eastern Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18:1–9. Rajendran K, Balaji P, Basu MJ. Medicinal plants and their utilization by villagers in southern districts of Tamil Nadu. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2008;7:417–20. Randrianarivony NT, Randrianasolo A, Andriamihajarivo T, Ramarosandratana AV, Jeannoda VH, Rakotoarivony F, Bussmann RW. Useful plants and tradition for pregnancy, child delivery and for postpartum care used by people living around Analavelona forest located in Southwest Madagascar. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2016;15(1):68–78. Razafindraibe HM, Razafiarison ZL, Raharimalala F, Rakotoarivony F, Randrianarivony T, Rakotoarivelo N, Randrianasolo A, Kuhlman A, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants used by women from Agnalazaha littoral forest (Southeastern Madagascar). J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:73. Samuel JK, Andrews B. Traditional medicinal plant wealth of Pachalur and Periyur hamlets Dindigul district, Tamil Nadu. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2010;9:264–70. Sastri BN. The wealth of India. A dictionary of Indian raw materials and industrial products. Raw materials, Vol. V: H-K. New Delhi: Council of Scientific & Industrial Research; 1959. Sharma A, Saxena S, Rani U, Rajor S, Batra A. Broad-spectrum antimicrobial properties of medicinally important plant Jatropha curcas. Int J Pharmaceut Sci Rev Res. 2010;4:11–4. Shiddamallayya N, Yasmeen A, Gopakumar K. Hundred common forest medicinal plants of Karnataka in primary healthcare. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2010;9:90–5. Silja VP, Varma KS, Mohanan KV. Ethnomedicinal plant knowledge of the Mullu kuruma tribe of Wayanad district, Kerala. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2008;7:604–12. Singh A, Singh P, Singh G, Pandey AK. Plant used in primary health practices in Vindhya region of eastern Uttar Pradesh, India. Int J Herbal Med. 2014;2(2):31–7. Subedi CK, Pandey DP. Evaluation of works on Sajiwan (Jatropha sp. L) in Nepal. IJHRG. 2017;1(2):10–8. Sunil N, Kumar V, Varaprasad KS. Origin, domestication, distribution and diversity of Jatropha curcas L. In: Jatropha, challenges for a new energy crop. New York: Springer; 2013. p. 137–51. Thorn JP, Thornton TF, Helfgott A, Willis KJ. Indigenous uses of wild and tended plant biodiversity maintain ecosystem services in agricultural landscapes of the Terai Plains of Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2020;16(1):1–25. Tiwari AK, Kumar A, Raheman H. Biodiesel production from Jatropha (Jatropha curcas) with high free fatty acids: an optimized process. Biomass Bioenergy. 2007;31(8):569–75.

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Juglans regia L. JUGLANDACEAE Dhruba Bijaya GC, Jyoti Bhandari, Deepak Gautam, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Juglans regia L.: Juglans regia var. chinensis D. DC.; Juglans duclouxiana Dode; Juglans fallax Dode; Juglans kamaonia (C. DC.) Dode; Juglans orientis Dode; Juglans sinensis (C. DC.) Dode

D. B. GC (*) · J. Bhandari Institute of Forestry, Tribhuvan University, Pokhara, Nepal e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] D. Gautam Institute of Forestry, Tribhuvan University Pokhara Campus, Pokhara, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_132

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Local Names Juglans regia: Nepali: ओखर , okhar; English: Persian walnut, English walnut, Carpathian walnut, Madeira walnut, common walnut; Hindi: अखरोट; Chinese: 核 ੋ Akharōṭa; Marathi: Akrōḍa; Lepcha: kanola; Kashmir: 桃; Punjabi: ਅਖਰਟ akhrot, doon, doon kul, diunkul; Jammu: akhrot, ban akhrot; Ladakh: starga; Garhwal: acharot; Gilgit-Baltistan: ashoei, starga; Afghani: charmaz, charmarghz; Farsi: gerdoo; Unani: akhrot; Vietnamese: danh tu, quaoccho; Pashto: chazghai ‫ﻍﻭﺫ‬, ghwoz, ‫ﭼﺰﻏﯥ‬: Urdu: ‫ﺍﺧﺮﻭﭦ‬ े ाखर hade okhar; Gurung: kadau; Juglans regia var. kamaonia Nepali: हाडे अ◌ Magar: khaasai; Rai: kursi; Sherpa: ko-te; Tamang: kaato.

Botany and Ecology Juglans regia: A big tree, to 20 m high, with a straight upright trunk to 1.5–2 m and even up to 4–7 m in diameter, dark gray fissured bark, and a large spreading crown. Leaves compound, alternate, usually with 3–5 pairs of leaflets, these elongate-ovate, slightly crenate, apex acuminate, glabrous above, hairy below in the axils of veins. Male flowers in drooping catkins with lanceolate bracts; flowers 6-lobed; stamens 12–18, equaling the perianth lobes. Female flowers terminal in clusters of 2 or 5; these flowers sessile with a small-toothed outer perianth and a glabrous inner perianth. Fruit with a greenish exocarp, glabrous; nut yellowish, ovoid, slightly pointed, reticulately rugose, sometimes obtusely ridged, usually with rather thin shell and a large kernel. On banks of streams, bottoms of ravines and valleys, and mixed broad-leaved woods on mountain slopes. Found in the Caucasus (West, South, and East Transcaucasia, Talysh), Central Asia (Montane Turkmenistan, Balkan Peninsula, and Iran). A tree species native to the region stretching from the Balkans eastward to the Himalayas and Southwest China. The largest forests are in Kyrgyzstan, where trees occur in extensive, nearly pure walnut forests at 1000– 2000 m, particularly at Arslanbob in Jalal-Abad Province. It is widely cultivated across Europe. Juglans regia is native to the mountain ranges of Central Asia, extending from Xinjiang province of Western China, parts of Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, and southern Kirghizia and from lower ranges of mountains in Nepal, Bhutan, Tibet, northern India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka, through Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, and Iran to portions of Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia, and eastern Turkey. In these countries, there is a great genetic diversity, in particular ancestral forms with lateral fruiting. During its migration to Western Europe, the common walnut lost this character and became large trees with terminal fruiting. A small remnant population of Juglans regia trees have survived the last glacial period in Southern Europe, but the bulk of the wild germplasm found in the Balkan peninsula and much of Turkey was most likely introduced from eastern Turkey by commerce and settlement several thousand years ago. Flowering April–May; fruiting September. Ural, Caucasus,

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Fig. 1 Juglans regia (Juglandaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

Middle Asia, Altai, mountain river banks, rarely on slopes (Boborov and Komarov 1936; Stonehouse 2011) (Figs. 1,2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8). Juglans regia, the Persian walnut, English walnut, Carpathian walnut, Madeira walnut, or, especially in Great Britain, common walnut, is an Old World walnut tree species. The vegetative origin of the walnut tree is the Eastern Balkans to the Himalayas and Southwest China and is widely distributed across Southern and Eastern Europe and Asia (Zhao et al. 2014). Juglans regia is native to the mountain ranges of Central Asia, extending up to Western China, parts of Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, and southern Kyrgyzstan and from lower ranges of mountains in Nepal, Bhutan, Tibet, northern India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka through Afghanistan (Loacker et al. 2007). It is a Himalayan species distributed from Kashmir to Bhutan, Khasia, S. Tibet including Nepal, at elevations between 1200 m and 2100 m (GoN 2019). Juglans regia is globally assessed as “Least Concerned” species according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species (Rivers and Allen 2017). Juglans regia is a light-demanding species, demonstrating strong positive phototropism, at both young and adult stages (Mohni et al. 2009). Propagation in walnut is more difficult, compared to most fruit species (Gandev 2007).

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Fig. 2 Juglans regia (Juglandaceae), distribution map of Juglans regia in Nepal

Phytochemistry α-Hydrojuglone, juglone, β-hydrojuglone, flavonoids (hyperoside, quercetin, arabinoside), vitamins (A, C, B1, E, carotene), tannins, essential oils, fatty acids (linoleic, oleic acids), coumarins (gallic and ellagic acids) (Fedorov 1984). Juglone (C10H6O3, 1,4-naphthoquinone, 5-hydroxy-(8CI)) is an aromatic compound be found in Juglans regia, J. nigra, and Juglans cineraria and in other species of the family Juglandaceae such as Carya oliviaeformis, Pterocarya caucasica, and P. stenoptera (Thakur 2011; Thomson 1959). Walnut is a medicinal plant with different properties having great therapeutic potential in the traditional medicine (Delaviz et al. 2017; Jahanban-Esfahlan et al. 2019). The species contains amino acids (aspartic acid, glutamic acid, valine, threonine, serine, proline, glycine, alarine, methionine, leucine, tyrosine, phenylalanine, nistidine, lysine, and arginine) (Savage 2001), phenolic compunds (phenolic acids, gallic, syringic, caffeic, ellagic, p-coumaric, tannins, 5-occaffeoygaint, feuralic, sinapic acids, and tannins, vitamins A,B,C, carvaninin, stepophyllarin (Fukuda et al. 2003). It is worth mentioning that walnuts are rich in linoleic acid (58%) and linolenic acid (12%); both are essential fatty acids in sustaining a healthy body. Walnut kernel contains about 14.5–24% of protein and rises to 61–66% in dry, defatted cake. Every 100 grams of edible walnut contains 14.4 grams of protein, of which most are of good quality and are therefore easy to digest (Milind and Deepa 2011).

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Fig. 3 Juglans regia (Juglandaceae), Dhruba, Nepal Juglans okhar fruit. (Photo Dhrub B GC)

The most common compounds are phenolic acids, tannins, essential fatty acids, ascorbic acid, flavonoids, caffeic acid, paracomaric acid, juglone (Amaral et al. 2003, 2004; Gupta et al. 2019; Savage 2001). Flavonoids: quercetin galactoside, quercetin pantocid derivatives, quercetin arabinoside, quercetin xyloside, and quercetin rhamnoside (Amaral et al. 2003, 2004; Gupta et al. 2019; Savage 2001). Emulsion, glucose, organic materials such as citric acid, malic acid, phosphate, and calcium oxalate (Cosmulescu et al. 2010; Gupta et al. 2019; Jaymand et al. 2004). Fatty acids, tocopherols, phytosterols, total phenolic (tannins), antioxidant activity (Devkota et al. 2015; Gupta et al. 2019; Zhao et al. 2014). Glutelins, globulins, albumin, and prolamins (Delaviz et al. 2017; Gupta et al. 2019; Zhao et al. 2014).

Local Medicinal Uses Juglans regia: Nearly all the parts of Juglans regia like bark, kernel, flowers, leaves, green husk, septum, and oil have their own medicinal properties (Gupta et al. 2019). Its fruit is a valuable and nutritional nut, whose oil is rich in unsaturated fatty acids, tocopherols, and phytosterols (Amaral et al. 2008). The tree has great socio-

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Fig. 4 Juglans regia (Juglandaceae), matured tree, Nepal. (Photo Dhrub B GC)

economic importance being frequently cultivated in temperate zones of the world mainly because of its edible seed, whose oil is rich in unsaturated fatty acids, phytosterols, and tocopherols (Amaral et al. 2003, 2005, 2008) and whose consumption has recently been related to health benefits (Anderson et al. 2001; Fukuda et al. 2004). That is why it has been classified as strategic species for human nutrition and included in the FAO list of priority plants (Gandev 2007). Nuts are described as a leading source of phenolic compounds with high antioxidant activity, particularly walnuts, pecans, pistachios, hazelnuts, almonds, and peanuts (Jahanban-Esfahlan et al. 2019). The seeds are eaten raw or used in confections, cakes, ice cream, and others. It is, thus, commercially grown for its nuts. The walnut husk is an agroindustrial residue that is available after walnut farming and processing activities (Maleita et al. 2017). It is widely used in traditional medicines around the globe. It is also a lipidlowering agent, and it has good antioxidant, antiatherogenic, anti-inflammatory, and antimutagenic properties (Anderson et al. 2001). Walnuts do not appear to affect antioxidant status when measured in the fasted state after chronic feeding but may increase antioxidant capacity post-prandially, and the inclusion of walnuts in the diet may improve endothelial function (Stonehouse 2011). Leaves are easily available and in abundant amounts, and they can be used for the treatment of skin inflammation and anthelmintic, depurative, antiseptic, antibacterial, astringent, and chemo-

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Fig. 5 Juglans regia (Juglandaceae), Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

preventive purposes (Eidi et al. 2013). Walnuts can nourish brain cells to improve human memory. In Nepal, the bark paste is used to treat arthritis, skin diseases, and toothache and to promote hair growth; the seed coat is used for healing wounds (Kunwar and Adhikari 2005). Other parts of the plant are also employed as traditional Chinese medicines (Bi et al. 2016). Used for tooth cleaning and against toothache (Kunwar et al. 2009, 2010; Malik et al. 2015; Singh et al. 2019) and to treat scabies (Kunwar and Bussmann 2009; Kunwar et al. 2009, 2010, 2013). The bark is used for cancer treatment (Palit and Banerjee 2016). In the Himalayas, walnuts are used for toothache (Bhat et al. 2015). The bark is used in Pakistan to clean teeth. The seeds are used to stimulate the immune system and reduce cholesterol and throat inflammations and to improve bone health (Sher et al. 2016). In India, the bark and fruit shells are also used to clean the teeth and to treat wounds, cuts, and pyorrhea (Singh et al. 2017). The bark also serves for skin aliments, wounds, and allergies in Nepal, as well as for the treatment of tuberculosis and as anthelminthic (Kunwar et al. 2006). It is used in Jammu, Ladakh, and Kashmir as anthelmintic; for constipation, gum problems, liver ailments, skin diseases, tooth cleaning, toothache, wounds, constipation, alopecia, sore throat, and frostbite; against hair fall, joint pain, skin eruptions, and anemia; as anthelmintic and astringent; to prevent baldness, chilblain, conjunctivitis, diarrhea, eye irritation, leukorrhea, rheumatism, mouth and ulcers; and as antiseptic (Gairola et al. 2014).

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Fig. 6 Juglans regia (Juglandaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

The root of the plant is used as anti-diarrheal and demulcent (Shah and Khan 2006). The fruit and bark are used as antiseptic and tonic and for cleaning teeth (Yousufzai et al. 2010). Dried fruit mixed with coconut and honey is used as tonic; bark (locally called dandasa) for cleaning and sparkling of teeth; and decoction of leaves against eczema and intestinal worms (Akhtar et al. 2013). The ripened fruit is used as a brain tonic. The bark of stem and root is used for cleansing teeth and gums (Ahmad and Habib 2014). The plant is locally known to be used for cough, weakness in legs, and constipation (Abbasi et al. 2013). The leaf decoction is used for skin infection and stomach problems; the raw fruit is used as astringent, emollient, carminative, thermogenic, aphrodisiac, tonic, and diuretic and for dysentery and gonorrhea; and the fruit powder is used for asthma and piles (Rashid et al. 2015). The bark is used for cleaning teeth. The leaves are also used as lipsticks (Khan et al. 2011). Decoction of the bark is used to stop mammary secretions (Hamayun et al. 2003). The bark (locally called dandasa) is used for cleaning and sparkling of teeth and tooth whitening and teeth infection (Khan et al. 2018). The plant is used as antihyperglycemia and anti-microbial and for toothache, gummosis, piles, and syphilis (Ishtiaq et al. 2015). The bark and leaves are used in infusion to treat wounds, chronic eczema, dermatomycoses, furuncles, and lupus. In Iran, the bark tincture serves to treat hemorrhoids. A decoction of the fruits is used to relieve high arterial pressure and

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Fig. 7 Juglans regia (Juglandaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 8 Juglans regia (Juglandaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

cardiac diseases and as mouthwash for gingivitis. The fruit bark juice is used for external ulcers, eczema, and itchy dermatosis. The leaf infusion is drunk for diabetes, scrofula, and rickets and externally as a vermifuge and for skin diseases, venereal diseases, gastrointestinal problems, and tuberculosis (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017;

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Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Fedorov 1984). In the Himalayas, walnuts are used for toothache (Bhat et al. 2015). The bark is used in Pakistan to clean teeth. The seeds are used to stimulate the immune system and reduce cholesterol and throat inflammations and to improve bone health (Sher et al. 2016). In India, the bark and fruit shells are also used to clean the teeth and to treat wounds, cuts, and pyorrhea (Singh et al. 2017). The bark also serves for skin aliments, wounds, and allergies in Nepal, as well as for the treatment of tuberculosis and as anthelminthic (Kunwar et al. 2006, 2010). In Gilgit-Baltistan, it is used as a brain tonic and for cardiac problems (Wali et al. 2019).

Local Food Uses Juglans regia: The seeds are widely eaten and used for sweets and cooking (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b, 2018, 2020 Bussmann 2017; Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020; Dangol et al. 2017; Wali et al. 2019) (Figs. 9 and 10).

Fig. 9 Juglans regia (Juglandaceae), fruits, Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 10 Juglans regia (Juglandaceae), ready to eat, Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 11 Juglans regia (Juglandaceae), household utensils, Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Juglans regia: The bark can be used to dye wool and silk in yellow and brown. It is also used for tanning leather. The wood is used in carpentry and for furniture, household utensils, and musical instruments. In veterinary medicine, it is used to treat gastrointestinal diseases (Abbas et al. 2019; Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014; 2016a, b, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017). The bark is used in Pakistan to paint the lips (Sher et al. 2016) and used as dye and insect repellent (Wali et al. 2019). The bark and leaves are used as detergent (Palit and Banerjee 2016) and used also as hair dye (Gairola et al. 2014) (Figs. 11, 12, 13, 14, and 15).

1134 Fig. 12 Juglans regia (Juglandaceae), household utensils, Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 13 Juglans regia (Juglandaceae), wardrobe, Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 14 Juglans regia (Juglandaceae), shells for sale, Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 15 Juglans regia (Juglandaceae), dying wool, Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

References Abbas Z, Alam J, Muhammad S, Bussmann RW, Mulk Khan S, Hussain M. Phyto-cultural diversity of the Shigar valley Central Karakorum Baltistan, northern Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;1832 https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.31.1-18. Abbasi AM, Khan MA, Khan N, Shah MH. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinally important wild edible fruits species used by tribal communities of lesser Himalayas-Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;148(2):528–36.

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Juncus articulatus L. JUNCACEAE Hassan Sher, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

Synonyms Juncus articulatus L.: Juncus articulatus var. obtusatus Engelm.; Juncus articulatus var. stolonifer (Wohll.) House; Juncus lampocarpus Ehrh. ex Hoffm.; Juncus lampocarpus var. senescens Buchenau; Juncus subartyiculatus Zak. & Novonpokr. H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan e-mail: [email protected] R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_133

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Local Names Juncus articulatus: Ladakh: Imbuke.

Botany and Ecology Juncus articulatus: Plants perennial, tufted or rhizome creeping, (10–)15–40( 60) cm tall. Stems terete, 0.8–1.5 mm in diam. Cataphylls absent to 2. Cauline leaves 2– 6; leaf sheath auricles well developed, acute, free part ca. 2 mm, membranous; leaf blade terete or somewhat laterally compressed, 2.5–7.5( 10) cm  0.8–1.4 mm, perfectly septate. Inflorescences usually broad; branches rigid, spreading; involucral bract erect to ascending, 0.7–3 cm; heads 5–30, hemispheric to toplike, 5–10( 15)flowered. Perianth segments reddish brown with greenish midvein, lanceolate, 2.5–3 mm, subequal, apex acute. Stamens 6, ½–3/4 as long as perianth; filaments 0.7–0.9 mm; anthers oblong, 0.5–1 mm. Capsule dark brown, shiny, trigonous ovoid, 3–3.5 mm, apex sharply acute and tapered to a conspicuous tip. Seeds ovoid, 0.5–0.7 mm, reticulate. Flowering June–July, fruiting August–September (Wu et al. 1994–2013).

Local Medicinal Uses Juncus articulatus: Used to treat bone dislocations and fractures (Gairola et al. 2014). Used for diseases of urogenital organs. An infusion and decoction of flowers and fruits is applied as diuretic, as well as in woman’s diseases and diarrhea (Bussmann 2017; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017). The inflorescence and root of Juncus articulatus are used as hypnagogic, sedative, spasmolytic, local anesthetic, and anticancer agent (Bussmann 2017; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017).

References Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1 Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Mehdiyeva N, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Juncus acutus L.; Juncus articulatus L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. St. Louis: Science Press, Beijing & Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013.

Juniperus communis L. Juniperus excelsa M. Bieb. Juniperus indica Bertol. Juniperus pseudosabina var. turkestanica (Kom.) Silba Juniperus recurva Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Juniperus sibirica Burgsd. Juniperus squamata Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don CUPRESSACEAE Ila Shrestha, Ripu M. Kunwar, Wahid Hussain, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Synonyms Juniperus excelsa: M. Bieb: Juniperus macropoda Boiss.; Juniperus polycarpos K. Koch Juniperus indica Bertol.: Juniperus pseudosabina Fischer & Meyer; Juniperus wallichiana Hook. f. & Thomson ex E. Brandis; Juniperus wallichiana Hook. f. & Thomson ex Parl.; Juniperus wallichiana var. meionocarpa Hand.- Mazz.; Sabina indica (Bertol.) L.K. Fu & F. Yu; Sabina wallichiana (Hook.f. & Thomson ex

I. Shrestha Botany Department, Patan Multiple Campus, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] W. Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_134

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Brandis) W.C. Cheng & L.K. Fu; Sabina wallichiana var. meionocarpa (Hand.Mazz.) W.C. Cheng & L.K. Fu Juniperus pseudosabina var. turkestanica (Kom.) Silba: Juniperus turkestanica Komarov Juniperus recurva Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don: Juniperus recurva var. (A.B.. Jacks.) Melville; Juniperus recurva var. densa carriere; Juniperus recurva var. recurva; Juniperus recurva var. squamata (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) Parl.; Juniperus recurva var. tenuifolia Spach; Juniperus recurva var. uncinata R.P. Adams Juniperus sibirica Burgsd.: Juniperus communis L. var. montana Aiton; Juniperus. communis var. nana (Willd.) Baumgarten; Juniperus nana Willdenow; Juniperus communis L. var. saxatilis Pallas; Juniperus albanica Penzes,; Juniperus argaea Balansa ex Parl.,; Juniperus borealis Salisb.; Juniperus caucasica Fisch ex Gordon; Juniperus communis var. arborescens Gaudin; Juniperus communis var. arborescens Gaudin; Juniperus communis var. aurea G.Nicholson; Juniperus communis f. aurea var. (G.Nicholson) Rehder; Juniperus communis var. brevifolia Sanio; Juniperus communis subsp. brevifolia (Sanio) Penzes. Juniperus squamata Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don: Juniperus squamata var. fargesii Rehder & E. H. Wilson; Juniperus squamata var. fargesii Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don; Juniperus squamata subsp. fargesii (Rehder & E.H. Wilson) Silba; Juniperus squamata var. hongxiensis Y.F.Yu & L.K.Fu; Juniperus squamata var. loderi (Hornibr) Hornibr.; Juniperus squamata var. meyeri Rehder; Juniperussquamata var. morrisonicola (Hayata) H.L.Li & H.Keng; Juniperus squamata var. parvifolia Y.F.Yu & L.K.Fu; Juniperus squamata var. prostrata Hornibr.;Juniperus squamata f. prostrata (Hornibr.) Rehder; Juniperus squamata f. Wilsonii Rehder; Juniperus squamata subs. Wilsonii (Rehder) Silba.

Local Names Juniperus communis: Ladakh: Sukapa, Sukpa; Jammu: Bithur, Bitru, Mithro; Kashmir: Beter, Bethri, Dhoop, Nuch, Pama, Wethur; Urdu: Bhentri; Gilgit-Baltistan: Muthari. A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia

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Juniperus excelsa: Khyber Pakhtunkhwa: Ghondolik; Urdu: Chalai; Gilgit-Baltistan: Shupka, Chilli; Chitrali: Saroz ‫ﺱﺭﻭﺯ‬. Juniperus indica: Amchi: Shuk pa, Lha shuk, Tseerma chen, Shuk pal, Shuk Tser, De shuk, Shug Pa; English: Black Juniper; Japan: Indo Nezu-no-ki; Nepali: Dhupi; Newar; Dhunma; Sherpa: Shukp-pa; Kashmir: Guugal; Tamang: Pama, Pamo. Juniperus recurva: Hindi: Bettar, Thelu, Bettar, Thelu; Nepali: Dhupi; Sherpa: Chhersyukpa; Tamang: Syukpa; Ladakh: Sukpa, Lha-shook; Jammu: Bitru, Bithar, Itru; English: Drooping juniper, Weeping blue juniper. Juniperus sibirica: Nepali: Dhupi Phar; Sanskrit: Hapushaa; Tamang: Pama; English: Himalayan pencil cedar, Common juniper. Juniperus squamata: Amchi: Shuk tser; Nepali: Dhupi, ukkri; Sherpa: Chher syukpa; English Juniper.

Botany and Ecology Juniperus communis: Trailing shrubs, diocecious. Branches partly decumbent, partly ascending. Leaves strongly odoriferous; acicular leaves lance-linear, spinypointed; imbricated leaves lustrous, rhombic to rhombic-lanceolate, apex acute to obtuse, with a keel and an oval gland on the back. Inflorescence composed of ovaloid aments, with round scales, pale yellow. Fruits solitary, profuse, small, 6–8 mm long, 5–6 mm wide, rounded-ovate, brownish, pruinose, with 4–6 scales; seeds mostly 2, though occasionally 1, 3, 4, or 6, ovoid, prominently keeled below. Growing on wind-blown sand, chalk, rocks, exposed southern slopes, and stony slopes of hills and low mountains, more often in steppe than in the forest belt. Found in the Caucasus and Central Asia, South and Central Europe, and North Mongolia. Both species are native to the mountains of central and southern Europe and western and central Asia, from Spain to eastern Siberia, typically growing at altitudes of 1000– 3300 m. All parts of the plant are poisonous due to several toxic compounds including ethereal oils. Found in montane to subalpine coniferous forests of Larix, Picea, and Pinus, gradually replacing these where under human-imposed grazing regimes; also invading into alpine meadows when old grazing patterns are changed, e.g., intensified. This species is most abundant on sunny, dry slopes in mountains with a mesic climate like the Alps; its drought tolerance accounts for its wider distribution in Asia into the Artemisia steppe and desert zones. It is often found on limestone substrates but occurs on granitic rock as well, especially on drier slopes. Distributed in the regions of Guba and Eastern Greater Caucasus and mountainous part of Nakhchivan. Grows in upper mountain, subalpine, and alpine belts. Found on stony slopes, landslides, and among shrubs (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961). Regarded as endangered (Ahmad Jan et al. 2019) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4). Juniperus excelsa: Monoecious medium sized trees. Leaves on upper branches scale-like, opposite, decussate, 1.5–2-mm long, broadly ovate, closely appressed, on the lower branches subulate, 6–8-mm long, pungent. Male cones terminal on branchlets, scales imbricate. Berries subglobose, blue-black when ripe, 10 mm broad. Seeds 3–5, brownish-yellow, testa thick. Pencil cedar’ is fairly common,

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Fig. 1 Juniperus communis (Cupressaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

Fig. 2 Juniperus communis (Cupressaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

forming open forests in Baluchistan and the inner drier valleys of the Himalaya from 2000–4000 m. The wood is used for fuel, beams and for pencil-making. Also used as an incense. Fruit is medicinal. The seed number varies from 2–5. Common name: “Shupa, Shur.” Flowering May, fruiting October;. S.W. Europe, Caucasus, Iran, Arabia, Afghanistan, Baluchistan, N. W. & W. Himalaya, Nepal (Figs. 5, 6, 7, and 8). Juniperus indica: Shrubs erect or procumbent, to 2 m, rarely small trees, dioecious; ultimate branchlets densely arranged, mostly straight, usually 4-angled, sometimes terete. Leaves both scalelike and needlelike; needlelike leaves usually present on

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Fig. 3 Juniperus communis (Cupressaceae), Verwall, Austria. (Photo Rainer W. Bussmann)

young trees, in whorls of 3, ascending, 3–8 mm, apex acuminate; scale-like leaves decussate or sometimes in whorls of 3, closely appressed, rhombic, 1.2–2 mm, abaxial gland central, or basal in needlelike leaves, oblong or linear, depressed, leaf apex obtuse. Pollen cones subglobose or ovoid, 2–3 mm; microsporophylls 6–8, each with 2 or 3 pollen sacs. Seed cones erect, black-brown when ripe, subglobose or ovoid, 6–13  5–8 mm, 1(or 2)-seeded. Seeds ovoid, slightly flattened, 5–6  ca. 4 mm, smooth or obscurely ridged (Wu et al. 1994–2013). Juniperus pseudosabina: Tree to 18 m (averaging 8 m) or low shrub to 2 m tall; crown dense; bark brownish-gray, thinly scaling; branches suberect to horizontally drooping; leafy branchlets erect, 1.5–2 mm thick; leaves 2 mm long, oval, sharppointed, with a prominent dorsal gland, rarely glandular, prominently keeled and obtuse-tipped; fruit juicy, with a high sugar content, globose or oblong, 10–15 mm long, 8–10 mm broad, black, glossy, slightly pruinose; seeds oblong to globoseoblong, tapering toward base, obtusely rounded at apex, sometimes slightly concave at the middle, rarely flat, very rarely short-pointed, 6–10 mm long, 5–7 mm broad, with a dark shiny strip in upper part and lateral grooves, the woody coat very thick. Some trees are aged 300–500 years. Middle Asia (Pamir-Alai and Tien Shan), forming juniper woods by itself or mixed with Juniperus semiglobosa, at altitudes of 900–3200 m. (Iljin 1934).

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Fig. 4 Juniperus communis (Cupressaceae), Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo Rainer W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana) Fig. 5 Juniperus excelsa (Cupressaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Juniperus recurva: Shrubs or trees monoecious or rarely dioecious; bark light grayish brown or brown; crown conical or broadly pyramidal; branches ascending in apical part of plant and spreading toward base; branchlets pendulous, curved. Leaves in whorls of 3, loosely appressed, greenish white or slightly glaucous

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Fig. 6 Juniperus excelsa (Cupressaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

Fig. 7 Juniperus excelsa (Cupressaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

adaxially, all needlelike, nearly straight, slightly incurved, 3–10  ca. 1 mm, concave adaxially, base decurrent, convex with longitudinal grooves at base abaxially, apex sharply pointed. Pollen cones axillary, yellow, ovoid-oblong or ellipsoid-ovoid; microsporophylls 10–16, decussate, each with 3 pollen sacs. Seed cones axillary, slightly glaucous when young, maturing purplish black and not

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Fig. 8 Juniperus excelsa (Cupressaceae), fruits and leaves, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

glaucous, ovoid, 6–12  5–9 mm, 1-seeded. Seeds ovoid or conical-ovoid, 5–9  3– 6 mm (Wu et al. 1994–2013). Juniperus sibirica: Perennial. Evergreen prostrate shrubs, up to 70 cm–2 m height with reddish brown bark; branchlets densely arranged, 3-angled, thick, ca. 2 mm in diam. Leaves in whorls of 3, ascending, lanceolate or linear, usually subfalcate, 4–10  1–2 mm, slightly concave adaxially with a single white stomatal band broader than green marginal bands, keeled abaxially, base jointed, not decurrent. Flowers small axillary, supported by small imbricating bracts, the catkin ovoid, yellow, amentiferous scales broad ovate, acuminate. Pollen cones axillary, subglobose or ellipsoid, 3–5 mm; microsporophylls 9–12, each with 3–6 pollen sacs. Seed cones brownish black when ripe, glaucous, globose or subglobose, 4–7 mm in diam. Seeds 1–3 per cone, 3–4 mm. Propagated by seeds. Flowering: April –May and fruiting: April–June. Plants are occurring in dry steppe in an altitude 2700–2900 m. Juniperus squamata: Perennial. A dwarf spreading prostrate evergreen shrub or small trees to 1–2 m tall; branches ascending or horizontally spreading; branchlets densely arranged, straight or curved, usually short, not angled. Leaves in whorls of 3, spreading or ascending, sometimes nearly appressed, needlelike, straight or slightly curved, (2.5–) 5–10  1–1.5 mm, slightly concave, with white stomatal bands adaxially, obtusely ridged with longitudinal, thin groove on ridge or at base abaxially, base decurrent, apex acute or acuminate. Pollen cones ovoid, 3–4 mm; microsporophylls 9–12, each with 3 pollen sacs. Seed cones black or bluish black when ripe, ovoid or subglobose, 4–8  4–6 mm, 1-seeded. Seeds ovoid, 3.5– 6  2–5 mm, ridged, with resin pits. Propagated by seeds. Flowering and fruiting: June –August. It grows in dry open, forests, thickets, valleys, and roadsides in mountain areas; 1600–4500 m. S Anhui, W Fujian, S Gansu, E Guizhou, W Hubei, Shaanxi, Sichuan, Taiwan, Xizang, Yunnan [Afghanistan, Bhutan, N India, Kashmir, N Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Sikkim (Fig. 9).

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Fig. 9 Juniperus sp. (Cupressaceae), Juniperus scrub at Langtang National Park, Nepal. (Photo Ila Shrestha)

Local Medicinal Uses Juniperus communis: Used for colds, fever (Wali et al. 2019), dermatitis (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018), as well as rheumatism (Adams et al. 2009). Serves also as sedative, to regulate urine discharge, and to control burning sensation in urination (Ballabh et al. 2008). Used also to treat joint pain, skin diseases, tuberculosis, diabetes, asthma, bronchitis, liver, and spleen problems (Kayani et al. 2015). In Jammu, Ladakh, and Kashmir, used as carminative, diuretic, for dysmenorrhea, skin diseases, as stimulant, for asthma, against tumors, warts, as anthelmintic, carminative, to treat dropsy, gynecological disorders, kidney complaints, toothache (Gairola et al. 2014). Juniperus excelsa: Fruit is diuretic, carminative, stimulant, used in dropsy, gonorrhea, leucorrhea, and for skin diseases. Wood ash is mixed with tobacco to make good quality of “Naswar” (Snuff) (Ishtiaq et al. 2013). Berries are used for tuberculosis and diabetes. The berries are burnt over coal and smoke is spread in all corners of the house for repelling evils. The paste of berries is applied on painful joints and swellings (Qureshi et al. 2007). Fruit is used for stomach ulcer and fever (Abbas et al. 2016). The aqueous extract from crushed fruits is anthelmintic (Khan et al. 2011a, b). Fruit juice is used to remove kidney stone, rheumatism, respiratory

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disorders, and backache (Bano et al. 2014). Berries are used for tuberculosis and diabetes. The berries are burnt over coal and smoke is spread in all corners of the house for repelling evils. The paste of berries is applied on painful joints and swelling (Shedayi and Gulshan 2012). Fruit is used as diuretic, carminative, stimulant, used in dropsy, gonorrhea, gleets, leucorrhea and some cutaneous diseases, stomach cramps, and asthma. Extract from shoots is anthelmintic. While fruit extract is drunk in case of abdominal pain (Shah and Hussain 2012). Fruits are used for as urinary, venereal, uterine, and digestive troubles as well as gleets. The decoction of fresh berries is used for abdominal pain. Leaves are burnt and the ash is mixed with grinded tobacco to make snuff. Its leaves are still considered sacred and burnt to produce smoke to prevent houses from evil spirits (Khan et al. 2011a, b). Used to treat diabetes, tuberculosis, rheumatism, burns, cold, fever, arthritis, typhoid, wounds, and kidney stones (Tetik et al. 2013; Wali et al. 2019). Dried cones taken with milk for abdominal pain (Sher et al. 2016; Ur-Rahman et al. 2019). Used also for stomach ulcers and fever (abbas et al. 2019). For joint pain, to remove kidney stones, asthma, dropsy, gonorrhea, leucorrhea, as diuretic, for stomach cramps, and skin diseases (Kayani et al. 2015). Juniperus indica: to treat colds, cuts and fever (Singh et al. 2017). Juniperus recurva smoke is inhaled to remedy vomiting and headache (Tamang et al. 2017). Promotes kidney function (Ballabh et al. 2008; Gairola et al. 2014), for cough, as emetic, paralysis, skin problems, diarrhea, indigestion, and rheumatism (Gairola et al. 2014). Juniperus sabina: is used for diseases of the skin. A powder from the leaves is used externally for the treatment purulent ulcers. Fresh crushed leaves are pulverized and applied with sweet butter on scabies and for the elimination of warts. A water infusion is used against worm in small doses. The fruits are used as diuretic, for prostate problems, urinary problems, and to treat toothache. The leaves are used to treat skin problems. The roots are employed for blood cleansing, as detoxicant, for gallbladder ailments and urinary system problems (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2020a, b; Bussmann 2017). An infusion of the fruits is used for urogenital diseases, kidneys and bladder problems, kidney stones, liver diseases, rheumatism, scurvy, jaundice, stomach ulcers, and to improve the appetite. A decoction of the roots is used for stomach ulcers, bronchitis, tuberculosis, kidney stones, and skin illnesses and arthritis. The bark infusion is also used for male impotence. The cones and green branches are used as baths for rheumatism. Juniperus squamata is used to treat dermatitis (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018), fever, cough, colds and dermatitis, and the species shows antiviral activity (Rajbhandari et al. 2007). Juniperus pseudosabina var. turkestanica: The fruit decoction is used mouth-wash for gingivitis, eczema, skin diseases, and internally as diuretic (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2020a, b; Bussmann 2017). Juniperus seravschanica: Smoke from burning branches is used in Middle Asia for rheumatism. Powdered material is inhaled to treat headaches. The oil is used for wounds and skin diseases. Internally an infusion of dry fruits is used for urogenital problems, scurvy, liver disease, rheumatism edema, and nervous disorders. Fresh

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fruits are eaten to treat stomach ulcers and to increase the appetite. The bark decoction is used as choleretic to treat jaundice. The root infusion is used to remedy stomach ulcers, bronchitis, tuberculosis, kidney stones, treat arthritis, male impotency. A decoction of the fruits and green branches is used as bath for rheumatism (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2020a, b; Bussmann 2017). In Georgia, decoctions of needles and fruits of Juniperus sp. were widely used in folk medicine to treat diseases of the genitourinary apparatus as anti-inflammatory and diuretic remedy. It was considered effective for urinary retention. Decoction was also used to treat rheumatism and skin diseases incl. dermatitis. One of the sources indicates use of juniper “water” as a painkiller for various pains, however, the plant part used is not specified. Fruit and oil made of fruit are used in folk medicine. Its “water” (presumably, infusion or possibly decoction, but unclear of which plant part) was used as a painkiller for various pains. Decoction of needles and fruit was used to treat urinary retention. Decoctions are widely used in folk medicine to treat chronic inflammation of kidneys and urinary bladder as well as rheumatism, skin diseases including dermatitis. Used to treat diseases of the genitourinary apparatus (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2020a, b; Bussmann 2017). Juniperus polycarpos Used to treat gynecological problems, kidney inflammation and bleeding and urinary disorders (Gairola et al. 2014). Juniperus depressa: The fruits are used as medicine (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2020a, b; Bussmann 2017). Juniperus hemisphaerica: The branches are used for blood cleansing, kidney problems, and the urinary system in general (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2020a, b; Bussmann 2017). Juniperus oblonga: The branches are used for blood cleansing, kidney problems, and the urinary system in general. (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2020a, b; Bussmann 2017).

Local Food Uses Juniperus communis: Used to make beer in Poland (Madej et al. 2014). Juniperus semiglobosa: The fruits are used to increase appetite, aid in digestion, as diuretic, disinfectant of the urinary system, anti-inflammatory, for pneumonia, as analgesic and expectorant. The oils are used for skin problems (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2020a, b; Bussmann 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Juniperus communis: Ash used as snuff, also for thatch (Wali et al. 2019). Juniperus excelsa: For furniture, thatch, snuff, and as firewood (Wali et al. 2019). The ash is mixed with tobacco and best quality “Naswar” (Snuff) is prepared (Hussain et al. 2006).

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Fig. 10 Juniperus sp. (Cupressaceae), Juniperus twigs are used as incense at Gosaikunda lake area, Rasuwa, Nepal. (Photo Ripu Kunwar)

Juniperus sabina is used for dyeing: A dye solution is prepared from needless young shoots and immature fruits to obtain olive color. The dye is used for dyeing wool and silk in yellow and grey shades, and for scented soaps. The leaves serve as diuretic and for dermatological problems in veterinary medicine (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2020a, b; Bussmann 2017). Juniperus depressa: The stems are used for smoking ham (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2020a, b; Bussmann 2017). Juniperus oblonga: The stems are used as firewood (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2020a, b; Bussmann 2017). In Georgia a decoction of species of Juniperus is used as diuretic for cattle, as well as to treat skin infections and skin parasites. A dye solution is prepared from needless young shoots and immature fruits to obtain olive color. The dye is used for dyeing wool and silk in yellow and grey shades In Georgia a decoction of species of Juniperus is used as diuretic for cattle, as well as to treat skin affections and skin parasites. A dye solution is prepared from needless young shoots and immature fruits to obtain olive color. The dye is used for dyeing wool and silk in yellow and grey shades (Fig. 10).

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Ahmad Jan H, Jan S, Bussmann RW, Wali S, Sist F, Ahmad L. Complementary and alternative medicine research, prospects and limitations in Pakistan: a literature review. Acta Ecol Sin. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chnaes.2019.12.005. Ballabh B, Chaurasia OP, Ahmed Z, Singh SB. Traditional medicinal plants of cold desert Ladakh – used against kidney and urinary disorders. J Ethnopharmacol. 2008;118:331–9. Bano A, Ahmad M, Hadda TB, Saboor A, Sultana S, Zafar M, Ashraf MA. Quantitative ethnomedicinal study of plants used in the skardu valley at high altitude of KarakoramHimalayan range, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2014;10(1):43. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Juniperus communis L.; Juniperus sabina L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-49412-8_129. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017; XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1 Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D. Juniperus communis L.; Juniperus depressa Raf.; Juniperus hemispherica J. Presl & C. Presl; Juniperus oblonga M. Bieb.; Juniperus sabina L. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions far Eastern Europe. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020a. https://doi.org/10.1007/9783-319-77088-8_77-2. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z. Juniperus pseudosabina var. turkestanica (Kom.) Silba.; Juniperus sabina L.; Juniperus semiglobosa Regel; Juniperus seravschanika Kom. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions Central Asia and Altai. Springer International Publishing; 2020b. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-31977087-1_77-1. Flora of Azerbaijan, vols I–VIII. Baku, AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1950–1961. (in Russian). Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Hussain M, Shah GM, Khan MA. Traditional medicinal and economic uses of Gymnosperms of Kaghan valley, Pakistan. Ethnobotanical Leaflets. 2006;2006(1):7. Iljin MM. Flora of the USSR, vol 1: Archegoniatae and Embryophyta. Akademia Nauk, Leningrad; 1934 (English 1968); 244pp, 14 b/w plates, 2 maps. Ishtiaq M, Iqbal P, Hussain T. Ethnobotanical uses of Gymnosperms of Neelam valley and Muzaffarabad of Kashmir. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2013;12(3):404–10. Kayani S, Ahmad M, Sultana S, Shinwari ZK, Zafar M, Yaseen G, Hussain M, Bibi T. Ethnobotany of medicinal plants among the communities of Alpine and Sub-alpine regions of Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;164:186–202. Khan B, Abdukadir A, Qureshi R, Mustafa G. Medicinal uses of plants by the inhabitants of Khunjerab National Park, Gilgit, Pakistan. Pak J Bot. 2011a;43(5):2301–10. Khan N, Ahmed M, Ahmed A, Shaukat SS, Wahab M, Ajaib M, Nasir M. Important medicinal plants of chitral gol National park (cgnp) Pakistan. Pak J Bot. 2011b;43(2):797–809. Madej T, Pirożnikow E, Dumanowski J, Łuczaj Ł. Juniper beer in Poland: the story of the revival of a traditional beverage. J Ethnobiol. 2014;34(1):84–103. Qureshi RA, Ghufran MA, Sultana KN, Ashraf M, Khan AG. Ethnomedicinal studies of medicinal plants of Gilgit District and surrounding areas. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2007;5:115–22. Rajbhandari M, Mentel R, Jha PK, Chaudhary RP, Bhattarai S, Gewali MB, Karmacharya N, Hipper M, Lindequist U. Antiviral activity of some plants used in nepalese traditional medicine. eCAM. 2007;1–6. https://doi.org/10.1093/ecam/nem156 Shah SM, Hussain F. Ethnomedicinal plant wealth of Mastuj valley, Hindukush range, District Chitral, Pakistan. J Med Plant Res. 2012;6:4328–37. Shedayi AA, Gulshan B. Ethnomedicinal uses of plant resources in Gilgit-Baltistan of Pakistan. J Med Plant Res. 2012;6(29):4540–9. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni groups in Chitral District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059.

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Jurinea dolomitica Galushko ASTERACEAE Suman Aryal, Bishnu Hari Poudyal, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Jurinea dolomitica Galushko: Dolomiaea macrocephala DC. ex Royle; Jurinea macrocephala Royle.

S. Aryal Institute for Agriculture and the Environment, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD, Australia B. H. Poudyal Institute for Agriculture and the Environment, University of Southern Queensland, Darling Heights, QLD, Australia Forest Action Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_135

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Local Names Jurinea dolomitica: Gharwal: Masi; Nepali: Bhutkes, Dhup, Dhupjadi; Kashmir: Dupha, Thandi Jaid, Guggal Dooph; Jammu: Gugga (Press et al. 2000; Banday et al. 2014; Chauhan 1999; Gewali 2009).

Botany and Ecology Jurinea dolomitica: A prostrate perennial herb with a dense central domed cluster to 10 cm across, of rather large purple flower-heads, and a rosette of long spreading lobed leaves with purple mid-veins, root long and tuberous. Leaves oblong blunt in outline, pinnately lobed, the lobbed toothed or shallowly lobed, white woolly beneath, stalked, arising from a stout taproot and radiating to 30 cm. Flower-heads to 4 cm long, very shortly stalked, in an umbel-like head; involucre with outer bracts lanceolate, hairy, the inner narrower long-pointed, dark red, papery (Polunin and Stainton 1984). Jurinea dolomiaea is a prime indicator plant of alpine region and often found in open grassy alpine slopes. J. dolomiaea helps existence of other associated species by maintaining habitat stability. Ahmed et al. (2020) have reported that about 60 plant species of 50 genera and 25 families are found in association with J. dolomiaea in the western Himalayan highlands of Kashmir. Jurinea dolomiaea is endemic to the Himalayas and is an indicator species of alpine phytodiversity (Ahmed et al. 2020). According to Chauhan (1999), it is distributed from Pakistan to East Nepal in open slopes having elevational range between 3000 m and 4300 m asl. The species is reported from India, Pakistan, and Nepal (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1 Jurinea dolomiaea (Asteraceae), at Monsoon mela, Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve, Nepal. (Photo Ripu Kunwar)

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Phytochemistry Various chemical compounds have been extracted from Jurinea dolomiaea Boiss. Extract from the root of J. dolomiaea revealed flavonoid and phenolic contents (Riaz et al. 2018; Shah et al. 2014; Singh et al. 2015) having antioxidant potential. The antioxidant activity of J. dolomiaea has a potential use for oxidative stress related disorders (Shah et al. 2014). The root extract of J. dolomiaea has also shown some antibacterial properties (Singh et al. 2015).

Local Medicinal Uses Jurinea dolomitica: Used to treat fever (Malik et al. 2015). Root decoction is taken in stomachache and diarrhea. Root is used for stomachache and diarrhea. Root juice is taken for cough and cold (Kunwar et al. 2006a, b, 2010a, b; Kunwar and Bussmann 2009). Used to treat arthritis, cold, fever, gout, headache, rheumatism, skin eruptions, wounds, boils (Gairola et al. 2014). Jurinea dolomiaea has been traditionally used for several medicinal purposes across the Himalayas. Sharma et al. (2010) have reported various uses of J. dolomiaea from the Parvati Valley of Kullu district in the western Himalayas of India. According to them, the aromatic roots of J. dolomiaea are used as incense and they form a chief ingredient of incense industry. The roots are considered stimulant and given in fever after childbirth. A decoction of the root is given in colic. Aromatic oil from the roots is used in gout and rheumatism. The use of aromatic oil from the root for gout and rheumatism has also been reported by Kala (2011) in Uttarakhand state of India. Powder mixtures were prepared from the rhizomes of J. dolomiaea, Rheum emodii, and the root of Valeriana jatamansi for nervous debility in Azad Kashmir of Pakistan (Ahmed and Akhtar 2016). Previous studies have reported that J. dolomiaea is used for various medicinal purposes in Nepal. The species is used as incense and ethnomedicine for diarrhea and stomachache in Dolpa, Jumla, Humla, Baitadi, and Darchula district (Kunwar et al. 2006a, b, 2010a, b). Similar use of J. dolomiaea was reported from Humla district of Nepal (Rokaya et al. 2010) where powder made from the whole plant is used with hot water to treat diarrhea and stomachache and root is used as incense and Dolpo (Lama et al. 2001).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Jurinea dolomitica: Used for the preparation of incense (Malik et al. 2015). The use of J. dolomiaea for incense, and the juice of the roots for the treatment of fevers have been reported in Nepal (Manandhar 2002). The plant is kept in the house to ward-off the evil spirits in Jumla (Manandhar 1986). Jurinea dolomiaea has both ecological and economic values (Basnet 2006; Ghimire et al. 2006). Owing to its medicinal value and common raw constituent in dhup industry, J. dolomiaea has been

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commercially traded in the market. J. dolomiaea is the highest extracted plant in Holi and Bharmour of Himachal Pradesh of India where the harvested material of this plant is mostly sold to middlemen locally and sometime at regional market for income generation (Thakur et al. 2016). The market price of J. dolomiaea in cold deserts of Himachal Pradesh in India was reported Rs. 55 per kg in 2011 (Chauhan 2011). In Nepal, commercial harvesting of J. dolomiaea was first reported by Olsen (1998) from Gorkha district, central Nepal. It is one of the 20 most traded medicinal plant species from the Dolpa district (Gewali 2009). Due to widespread use of Jurinea dolomiaea for various local purposes, a large-scale harvest of the plant is made in the flowering season which is the main conservation challenge. Jurinea dolomiaea was reported as a high-ranking threatened species from Johar Valley of Kailash Sacred Landscape of India (Pandey et al. 2019). In Holi and Bharmour of Himachal Pradesh, India, local people believe that it has been heavily extracted and considered vulnerable (Thakur et al. 2016). It has also been reported threatened in Azad Kashmir, Pakistan, due to excessive extraction and smuggling (Ahmed and Akhtar 2016). However, it was reported in low risk category from the Mandakini Valley of Uttarakhand (Gargya and Gargya 2011). Lama et al. (2001) had reported that the threat status for J. dolomiaea is unknown in Dolpo, Nepal. However, another study (Ghimire et al. 2006) from the same area reported that the species was commonly found both to the close and further distance from the summer house used for livestock grazing unlike other rare medicinal plants species which were only found in further distance from the summer house. This indicates that J. dolomiaea is not threatened in that area. Banday et al. (2014) have reported that J. dolomiaea can be efficiently propagated through rhizome cutting in ex situ condition. This suggests that even with the widespread use J. dolomiaea, and there is a possibility for meeting its commercial and domestic demand of with ex situ production without excessive pressure in its natural habitat (Thakur et al. 2016).

References Ahmed MJ, Akhtar T. Indigenous knowledge of the use of medicinal plants in Bheri, Muzaffarabad, Azad Kashmir, Pakistan. Eur J Integrat Med. 2016;8(4):560–9. Ahmed MJ, Murtaza G, Shaheen H, Habib T. Distribution pattern and associated flora of Jurinea dolomiaea in the western Himalayan highlands of Kashmir: an indicator endemic plant of alpine phytodiversity. Ecol Indic. 2020;116:106461. Banday A, Nawchoo IA, Kaloo ZA, Shabir PA, Rather AA. Efficient propagation of an endangered medicinal plant Jurinea dolomiaea Boiss in the North Western Himalaya using rhizome cuttings under ex situ conditions. J Plant Breed Crop Sci. 2014;6(9):114–8. Basnet K. Effects of anthropogenic disturbances on biodiversity: a major issue of protected-area management in Nepal. In: Spehn EM, Liberman M, Korner C, editors. Land use change and mountain biodiversity. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2006. p. 293. Chauhan NS. Medicinal and aromatic plants of Himachal Pradesh. Delhi: Indus Publishing; 1999. Chauhan NS. Economic, medicinal and aromatic plants: their distribution, trade and utilization in the cold desert areas of Himachal Pradesh. HImalayan Ecol. 2011;19:17. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Gargya G, Gargya LD. Status of Medicinal Plants in Mandkini Valley of Rudraprayag District in Uttarakhad. Himalayan Ecol. 2011;19(7).

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Gewali MB. Studies on the most traded medicinal plants from the Dolpa District of Nepal. Toyama: University of Toyama; 2009. Ghimire SK, Mckey D, Aumeeruddy-Thomas Y. Himalayan medicinal plant diversity in an ecologically complex high altitude anthropogenic landscape, Dolpo, Nepal. Environ Conserv. 2006;33(2). http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:60474670-2. Accessed on 17 June 2020. Kala CP. Medicinal plants used for dermatological disorders: a study of Uttarakhand state in India. Aust J Med Herbal. 2011;23(3):132–7. Kunwar RM, Nepal BK, Kshetri HB, Rai SK, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicine in Himalaya: a case study from Dolpa, Humla, Jumla and Mustang districts of Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006a;2:27. Kunwar RM, Nepal BK, Kshhetri HB, Rai SK, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicine in Himalaya: a case study from Dolpa, Humla, Jumla and Mustang districts of Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006b;2(1):27. Kunwar RM, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants in farwest Nepal: their indigenous uses and pharmacological validity. Med Aromatic Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010a;4 (special issue 1):28–42. Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Bussmann RW. Traditional herbal medicine in far-West Nepal: a pharmacological appraisal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010b;6(1):35. Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Medicinal, Aromatic and Dye Plants of Baitadi and Darchula Districts, Nepal Himalaya: status, uses and management. In: Hartmann, M., J. Weipert: Biodiversität, Naturausstattung im Himalaya, Bd. III. Erfurt: Universität Erfurt; 2009, pp. 475–489. Lama YC, Ghimire SK, Aumeeruddy-Thomas Y. Medicinal plants of Dolpo. Kathmandu: People and Plants Initiative - WWF Nepal Program; 2001. Malik ZA, Bhat J, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhat AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44. Manandhar NP. Plants and people of Nepal. Portland: Timber Press; 2002. Manandhar NP. Ethnobotany in Jumla district, Nepal. Int J Crude Drug Res. 1986;24(2):81–9. Olsen CS. The trade in medicinal and aromatic plants from Central Nepal to northern India. Econ Bot. 1998;52(3):279–92. Pandey A, Chandra Sekar K, Joshi B, Rawal R. Threat assessment of high-value medicinal plants of cold desert areas in Johar valley, Kailash sacred landscape, India. Plant Biosyst Int J Deal All Aspects Plant Biol. 2019;153(1):39–47. Polunin O, Stainton A. Flowers of the Himalayas. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, Oxford India Paperbacks; 1984. Press JR, Shrestha KK, Sutton DA. Annotated checklist of the flowering plants of Nepal. London: The Natural History Museum; 2000. Riaz M, Altaf M, Khan MQ, Manzoor S, Shekheli MA, Shah MA, et al. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Jurinea dolomiaea and biological activities. J Nanosci Nanotechnol. 2018;18(12):8386–91. Rokaya MB, Münzbergová Z, Timsina B. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants from the Humla district of western Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010;130(3):485–504. Shah, N. A., Khan, M. R., Naz, K., & Khan, M. A. (2014). Antioxidant potential, DNA protection, and HPLC-DAD analysis of neglected medicinal Jurinea dolomiaea Roots. BioMed Res Int 2014. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/726241. Sharma P, Chauhan N, Lal B, Husaini A, Silva Td. Conservation of phytodiversity of paravti valley in northwestern Himalaya of Himachal Pradesh India. In: AM H, editors. Medicinal plants of the Himalayas: advances and insights. Vol. 4, Vol. 1. UK: Global Science Books; 2010. p. 47–63. Singh P, Singh R, Sati N, Sati OP, Kumar N. Antioxidant and antibacterial activity of Jurinea dolomiaea Boiss. extracts. Int J Life-Sci Scientific Res. 2015;1. Thakur K, Munesh K, Pala N. Utilization of valuable higher altitude plants as a source of income generation and traditional medicine in Bharmour forest division, Himachal Pradesh. Med Aromatic Plants. 2016;5(226).

Justicia adhatoda L. ACANTHACEAE Laxmi Raj Joshi, Suneeta Bhatta, Hem Raj Paudel, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Justicia adhatoda L.: Adhatoda adhatoda (L.) Huth; Adhatoda arborea Raf.; Adhatoda pubescens Moench; Adhatoda vasica Nees; Adhatoda zeylanica Medik.; Dianthera latifolia Salisb.; Ecbolium adhatoda (L.) Kuntze; Ecbolium latifolium (Benth. & Hook. f.) Kuntze; Gendarussa adhadota Steud.; Justicia caracasana Sieber ex Nees.

Local Names Justicia adhatoda: Pashto: Bekar ‫ ;ﺏﯼﮎړ‬Nepali: Asuro; Tamang: Vashak; Tharu: Asur, Darai: Asuro; Raute/Doteli: Wasing; Newari: Aalcha; Urdu: Baikar; China: Ya-Zui-Hua; Sanskrit: Shwetavasa, Vasa, Vasaka; Hindi: Arusha, L. R. Joshi (*) National Trust for Nature Conservation, Bardia Conservation Program, Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] S. Bhatta Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal H. R. Paudel (*) National Herbarium and Plant Laboratories, Department of Plant Resources, Godawari, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_136

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Bansa, Baansa, Adulsa, Basuti; Bengali: Basak; Manipuri: Nongmangkha-agouba; Gujarati: Alduso; Telugu: Adasaramu; Tamil: Adadodai; Kannada: Adusoge; Malayalam: Atalotakam,; Bangali: Shada bashok; Thai: Sa niat (Manandhar 1998; Kabir et al. 2014; Singh et al. 2011; Sobia et al. 2018; Ranjitkar 2005; Maneenoon et al. 2015).

Botany and Ecology Justicia adhatoda: Shrubs to 4 m tall. Branches thickened,  4-angled, lenticellate, pubescent when young but soon glabrescent. Petiole 0.8–3 cm, puberulent; leaf blade ovate to elliptic-ovate, 7–18  2–7 cm, abaxially puberulent, adaxially densely tomentose when young but glabrescent except tomentose along veins, secondary veins 9–12 on each side of midvein and meeting near margin, base broadly cuneate, margin entire, apex acuminate and sometimes slightly falcate. Spikes terminal or axillary, ovoid to broadly ovoid, 3–7 cm; peduncle 3–7 cm; bracts imbricate, ovateoblong, 1–2  0.5–1.5 cm, puberulent, 3–7-veined, margin ciliate, apex acute; bracteoles linear-lanceolate, 1–1.4  about 0.4 cm, puberulent, 3–5-veined, margin ciliate, apex acute. Calyx 5-lobed; lobes linear-oblong, about 10  3 mm, margin narrowly scarious and ciliate. Corolla white or pink with purplish or pinkish stripes outside, broadly tubular, 2.5–3 cm, outside pilose; tube basally cylindric and about 5 mm wide for about 5 mm and then slightly inflated and bent upward; upper lip ovate-oblong, about 1.8 cm, erect, shallowly 2-lobed; lower lip oblong-circular, spreading, 3-lobed, middle lobe subcircular and about 9  5 mm, lateral lobes ovate and about 8  4.5 mm. Stamens exserted; filaments about 1.5 cm, declinate, glabrous except basally sericeous; anther thecae ellipsoid, about 3.5 mm, equal, superposed, lower one spurred at base. Ovary pubescent especially at tip; style about 2.5 cm, recurved, basal part pubescent; stigma simple. Capsule obovoid, 2.5–4  about 0.5 cm. Seeds circular in outline. Flowering January–March, fruiting June–July (Wu et al. 1994-2013) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia

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Fig. 1 Justicia adhatoda (Acanthaceae). Distribution of J. adhatoda in Nepal. Analyses of herbarium samples deposited in National Herbarium and Plant Laborateris (KATH) has revealed that the species is so far reported from 24 districts in Nepal as shown in the figure. The actual collection site is not shown here as most of the herbarium samples lack coordinates

Fig. 2 Justicia adhatoda (Acanthaceae) Thakurdwara, Bardia, Nepal. (Photo L. R. Joshi)

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Fig. 3 Justicia adhatoda (Acanthaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

Phytochemistry Justicia adhatoda contains major group of compounds, such as alkaloids, polyphenolics, glycosides, and phytosterols. Leaves contain two major alkaloids, i.e., vasicinone and vasicine. These alkaloids exhibit antiallergic and antiasthmatic activity (Sharma and Kumar 2016). Leaves also yield an essential oil and are rich in carotene and vitamin C (Sobia et al. 2018). Moreover, adhatodic acid, betaine, fats,and resins are also present in leaves. Roots contain vasicine, vasicinol, and essential oil. Flowers contain vasicine, vasicinone, and quercitin. Seed contains fatty oil, linoleic, oleic, and cerotic (Motaleb 2011). Both vasicine and vasicinone possess sucrose inhibitory activity indicating that they can be explored as natural antidiabetic agent (Gantait and Panigrahi 2018). The leaves, stems, roots contain essential oils and have shown antimicrobial activities against different organism (KC and Rao 2008). The phytochemical screening of leaf extract shows the presence of secondary metabolites such as alkaloid, flavonoids, tannins, and phenol indicating antibacterial potential of plant (Shahzad et al. 2020). Four quinazoline alkaloids-vasicoline, adhatodine, vasicolinne, and ansotine from leaves, and one each, i.e. vasicinone and vasicol have been isolated from inflorescence and leaves, respectively (Sharma and Kumar 2016). The plant contains rich source of phenolic compounds and flavonoids which are responsible for strong antioxidant properties that help in prevention and therapy of various oxidative stress related diseases (Sharma and

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Fig. 4 Justicia adhatoda (Acanthaceae) Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Kumar 2016). The total carbohydrate and protein content of the plant is 3.45 mg/g and 5.2 mg/g, respectively (Singh et al. 2011). The total nutritious value of Justicia adhatoda leaves is 106.00 Cal/100 g (Kumar et al. 2013; Sobia et al. 2018).

Local Medicinal Uses Justicia adhatoda: Dried leaves powder are used for cough, asthma, tuberculosis, and indigestion. Fresh leaves paste is given to cattle for diarrhea, dysentery, and gas trouble (Abbasi et al. 2010). Leaves, bark, and root are used for wounds, leaves decoction is antispasmodic, expectorant, and powerful abortifacient (Ajaib et al. 2010). Leaves are used for blood purification (detoxifier). The dry powdery leaf is used for wound healing (Khan et al. 2015). The decoction of leaves is antispasmodic, expectorant, abortifacient, and also used for curing dysentery in cattle (Jan et al. 2008). Plant is used for rheumatism, pneumonia, cough, used in snakebites, eye and ear ailments (Ali et al. 2011). Leaf decoction is antispasmodic, expectorant, arbortifacient, and used in skin diseases and diabetes. Root bark and leaves are

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Fig. 5 Justicia adhatoda (Acanthaceae) Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

used in wound infections (Amjad et al. 2017). Leaves and root of plant are used for asthma, bronchitis, cough, rheumatism, antispasmodic, and expectorant (Haq et al. 2011). Used as expectorant, antispasmodic tuberculosis, chronic bronchitis, asthma, fresh wounds, inflammatory swellings, neuralgia, headache, stop bleeding from the nose and anthelmintic (Ahmad Jan et al. 2017). Plant is used for fever, hepatitis, typhoid, and cough suppressant (Shah et al. 2016). Justicia adhatoda is a wellknown plant in traditional Ayurvedic, Unani, and Siddha medicine system (Sobia et al. 2018) as well as modern pharmaceutical industries. It is mostly used for treating diverse respiratory disorders like cold, cough, bronchitis and asthma, pneumonia, tuberculosis, rheumatism, and anemia from centuries (Ahmad et al. 2016; Claeson et al. 2000; Maneenoon et al. 2015; Rajbhandary 2001; Sobia et al. 2018). It cures jaundice, arthritis, blood dysentery, hemorrhage, hemorrhoid, inflammation, tuberculosis, and vomiting (Motaleb 2011). The leaf juice is used to cure diarrhea, dysentery, asthma, skin diseases (Burlakoti and Kunwar 2008), fever, and other enteric bacteria (Rai 2003; Ranjitkar 2005). Leaves extract of the plant inhibits most of the snake venom enzymes (Malathi et al. 2019). To treat joint ache during fever (Manandhar 1993); applied to sprains (Bhattarai and Khadka 2016); to cure cough, bronchitis, asthma, and to relieve rhematic pain (Joshi 2004); to cure malaria (Kabir

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et al. 2014; Nagendrappa et al. 2013), for rheumatic pain, bronchitis, cough, fever, headache, respiratory ailments, and skeleto-muscular (Joshi and Joshi 2000). The leaves, mixed with roots of Solanum surrattense and fruits of Piper longum to treat asthma (Savithramma et al. 2007), the leaf juice to relieve intermittent fever (Manandhar 1998), eliminates sputum, cough, and fever (Maneenoon et al. 2015). The leaves are bolied and the solution is used for taking bath for curing itching and stopping bleeding (Raj et al. 2018), used to cure cough, cold, and asthma in Jammu Kashmir (Rashid et al. 2018). In Western Terai, the decoction of leaves is used to treat asthma, Juice of fresh leaves along with honey is given as expectorant, inhaled for sinusitis, used also to treat bronchitis and cough (Bhandary et al. 1995; Bhattarai and Khadka 2016; Singh et al. 2012), to cure sore throat, skin diseases, diarrhea, dysentery, and rheumatism (Ahmad et al. 2016; Singh and Huidrom 2013). A poultice of leaves has been applied to fresh wounds, inflammatory swellings, and rheumatic joints (Sobia et al. 2018). In India, it has been used to cure paralysis and allergy (Raj et al. 2018). The root extract is used in cough, liver disorders, and diabetes, relieves cramps of convulsions and muscular spasms, stimulates contraction of the uterine muscle, and used to lower the blood pressure (Sobia et al. 2018). Juice from the leaf and bark is used for treating vomiting and used as an anthelmintic (Sobia et al. 2018). In Srilanka, it is used for curing menorrhagia and extreme phelgum (Sobia et al. 2018). Similarly, In Bangladesh, the plant is used by the healers to treat skin infections (Kabir et al. 2014). In Uttarpradesh, India, about 70% of women had been reported to consume leaves of J. adhatoda to induce abortion (Claeson et al. 2000). In Himanchal Pradesh of India, leaves of Justicia adhatoda are ground along with the leaves of Vitex negundo, Artemisia nilagirica, Scurrula pulverulenta, and Murraya koenigii and given to cattle to treat digestive disorders (Thakur et al. 2016). It helps treatment of various aliments of cattle such as appetite loss, boating, constipation, diarrhea, digestive disorders, joint pain, heat stress, liver and kidney problems, respiratory disorders, and wounds (Thakur et al. 2016). Justicia adhatoda has strong inhibitory effect on germination as well as root and hypocotyls growth of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) (Devkota and Sharma 2014). The flower has attractive petals streaked with purple on lower lip and used as herbicide to kill termites, flies, mosquitoes, and other insects (Motaleb 2011).

Local Food Uses Justicia adhatoda: The use of Justicia adhatoda as a food source has been ill discovered. Little evidences suggest that the plant is edible in some parts of South East Asia owing to its health benefits. The leaves and flowers of the plant are cooked as vegetable in India and Nepal by the Khasi tribe (Sobia et al. 2018). Fruit is consumed as pickle in case of body-ache by the Darai tribe of Chitwan District, Nepal (Rajbhandary 2001). The mature leaves and inflorescence of the plant are fried in mustard oil and eaten by the Meitei community of Manipur, India (Singh and Huidrom 2013).

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References Abbasi AM, Khan MA, Ahmed M, Zafar M. Herbal medicines used to cure various ailments by the inhabitants of Abbottabad district, North West Frontier Province, Pakistan. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2010;9(1):175–83. Ahmad Jan H, Wali S, Ahmad L, Jan S, Ahmad N, Ullah N. Ethnomedicinal survey of medicinal plants of Chinglai valley, Buner district, Pakistan. Eur J Integrat Med. 2017;13:64–74. Ahmad M, Khan MPZ, Mukhtar A, Zafar M, Sultana S, Jahan S. Ethnopharmacological survey on medicinal plants used in herbal drinks among the traditional communities of Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;184:154–86. Ajaib M, Khan Z, Khan NH, Wahab M. Ethnobotanical studies on useful shrubs of district Kotli, Azad Jammu & Kashmir, Pakistan. Pak J Bot. 2010;42(3):1407–15. Ali H, Sannai J, Sher H, Rashid A. Ethnobotanical profile of some plant resources in Malam Jabba valley of Swat, Pakistan. J Med Plant Res. 2011;5(18):4676–87. Amjad MS, Arshad M, Saboor A, Page S, Chaudhari SK. Ethnobotanical profiling of the medicinal flora of Kotli, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan: empirical reflections on multinomial logit specifications. Asian Pac J Trop Med. 2017;10(5):503–14. Bhandary MJ, Chandrashekar KR, Kaveriappa KM. Medical ethnobotany of the Siddis of Uttara Kannada district, Karnataka, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 1995;47:149–58. Bhattarai KR, Khadka MK. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants from Ilam district, East Nepal. Our Nature. 2016;14(1):78–91. Burlakoti C, Kunwar RM. Folk herbal medicines of Mahakali watershed area, Nepal. In: Jha PK, Karmacharya SB, Chettri MK, Thapa CB, Shrestha BB, editors. Medicinal plants in Nepal: an anthology of contemporary research. Kathmandu: Ecological Society; 2008. p. 187–93. Claeson UP, Malmfors T, Wikman G, Bruhn JG. Adhatoda vasica: a critical review of ethnopharmacological and toxicological data. J Ethnopharmacol. 2000;72(1–2):1–20. Devkota A, Sharma S. Allelopathic potential of medicinal plants: Costus speciosus Koen ex. Retz and Justicia Adhatoda Linn. J Nat Hist Mus. 2014;28:57–65. Gantait S, Panigrahi J. In vitro biotechnological advancements in Malabar nut (Adhatoda vasica Nees): achievements, status and prospects. J Genetic Eng Biotechnol. 2018;16(2):545–52. Haq F, Ahmad H, Alam M. Traditional uses of medicinal plants of Nandiar Khuwarr catchment (district Battagram), Pakistan. J Med Plants Res. 2011;5(1):39–48. http://theplantlist.org/. Retrieved on 16 March, 2020 Jan G, Khan MA, Gul F. Ethnomedicinal plants used against diarrhea and dysentery in Dir Kohistan valley (NWFP), Pakistan. Ethnobot Leaflets. 2008;2008(1):84. Joshi K. Documentation of medicinal plants and their indigenous uses in Likhu sub watershed, Nepal. J Non-Timber Forest Prod. 2004;11(2):86–93. Joshi AR, Joshi K. Indigenous knowledge and uses of medicinal plants by local communities of the Kali Gandaki watershed area, Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2000;73:175–83. Kabir MK, Hasan N, Rahman MM, Rahman MA, Khan JA, Hoque NT, Bhiyan MRQ, Mou SM, Jahan R, Rahmatullah M. A survey of medicinal plants used by the Deb barma clan of the Tripura tribe of Moulvibazar district, Bangladesh. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2014;10:19. KC S, Rao GP. Antimicrobial activity of essential oils of Adhatoda vasica (Basaka) fresh and shade dried leaves and roots from Anantapur District, Andhra Pradesh. Indian J Microb World. 2008;10:86–90. Khan SM, Din NU, Sohail IU, Rahman FI, Iqbal Z, Ali Z. Ethnobotanical study of some medicinal plants of Tehsil Kabal, District Swat, KP, Pakistan. Med Aromat Plants. 2015;4(189):2167– 0412. Kumar M, Dandapat S, Kumar A, Sinha MP. Determination of nutritive value and mineral elemants of five-leaf chaste tree (Vitex negundo L.) and Malabar nut (Adhatoda vasica Nees). Acad J Plant Sci. 2013;6(3):103–8.

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Malathi R, Kaviyarasan D, Chandrasekar S. Evaluation of in vitro anti snake venom activity of Justicia adhatoda leaves extract against Russell’s viper snake venom. J Drug Deliv Therapeut. 2019;9(4):116–22. Manandhar NP. Ethnobotanical note on folk-lore remedies of Baglung district, Nepal. CNAS J. 1993;20(2):183–96. Manandhar NP. Native phytotherapy among the Raute tribes of Dadeldhura district, Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 1998;60:199–206. Maneenoon K, Khuniad C, Teanuan Y, Saedan N, Prom-in S, Rukleng N, Kongpool W, Pinsook P, Wongwiwat W. Ethnomedicinal plants used by traditional healers in Phatthalung Province, Peninsular Thailand. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2015;11:43. Motaleb MA. Selected medicinal plants of Chittagong hill tracts. IUCN Bangladesh; 2011.pp 116. Nagendrappa PB, Naik MP, Payyappallimana. Ethnobotanical survey of malaria prophylactic remedies in Odisha, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;146:768–72. Rai MB. Medicinal plants of Tehrathum district, eastern Nepal. Our Nature. 2003;1(1):42–8. Raj AJ, Biswakarma S, Pala NA, Shukla G, Vineeta KM, Chakravarty S, Bussmann RW. Indigenous uses of ethnomedicinal plants among forest-dependent communities of Northern Bengal, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14:8. Rajbhandary KR. Ethnobotany of Nepal. Kathmandu: Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal; 2001. Ranjitkar S. Taxonomic and pharmacognostic treatment on some commercially important medicinal plants of Kathmandu Valley. 2005; MSc. Dissertation, Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur; pp.56. Rashid N, Gbedomon RC, Ahmad M, Salako VK, Zafar M, Malik K. Traditional knowledge on herbal drinks among indigenous communities in Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14:16. Savithramma N, Sulochana C, Rao KN. Ethnobotanical survey of plants used to treat asthma in Andhra Pradesh, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;113:54–61. Shah SA, Shah NA, Ullah S, Alam MM, Badshah H, Ullah S, Mumtaz AS. Documenting the indigenous knowledge on medicinal flora from communities residing near Swat River (Suvastu) and in high mountainous areas in Swat-Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;182:67–79. Shahzad Q, Sammi S, Mehmood A, Naveed K, Azeem K, Ahmed Ayub MH, Hussain M, Ayub Q, Shokat O. 43. Phytochemical analysis and antimicrobial activity of adhatoda vasica leaves. Pure Appl Biol (PAB). 2020;9(2):1654–61. Sharma A, Kumar A. Pharmacognostic studies on medicinal plants: Justicia adhatoda. World J Pharmaceut Res. 2016;5:1674–704. Singh SJ, Huidrom D. Ethnobotanical uses of medicinal plant, Justicia adhatoda L. by Meitei community of Manipur India. J Coastal Life Med. 2013;1:322–5. Singh TP, Singh OM, Singh HB. Adhatoda vaisca Nees: phytochemical and pharmacological profile. Nat Products J. 2011;1:29–39. Singh AG, Kmar A, Tewari DD. An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used in Terai forest of western Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2012;8:19. Sobia NH, Khan S, Nadeem F. Use of Malabar nut (Justicia adhatoda L.) from traditional medicine to current pharmacopeia-a review study. Int J Chem Biochem Sci. 2018;13:46–51. Thakur M, Asrani RK, Thakur S, Sharma PK, Patil RD, Lal B, Prakash O. Obserservations on traditional usage of ethnomedicinal plants in human and animals of Kangra and Chamba districts of Himanchal Pradesh in North-Western Himalalaya, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;191:280–300. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013.

Lamium album L. LAMIACEAE Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Lamium album L.: Lamium petiolatum Royle ex Benth.; Lamium brachyodon (Bordz.) Kuprian.; Lamium turkestanicum Kuprian.; Lamium dumeticola Klokov

Local Names Lamium album: Pashto: Speen gulaka ‫ ;ﻝﺍﮎﺍ ﺱﭖﻥ‬Ladakh: Tilka; Kashmiri: Zakhwi dawa; Malataya: Balibaba; English: White dead nettle.

Botany and Ecology Lamium album: Perennial, with creeping rhizome (10) 30–140 cm high, sparsely covered with spreading soft whitish hairs. Stem erect, simple or sparingly branched. Petiole 1–2 (4) cm long. Leaves ovate or cordate, (2) 3–8 (10) cm long, 1.5–5 (8) cm H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_138

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wide, more or less rugose, rarely hairy, base attenuate, margins sharply serrate. Flowers numerous, subsessile; verticillasters loosely 8–9 flowered, distant, in the axis of upper leaves, 2–2.5 cm long, 2–3 cm wide; bracts 1.5 mm long, 0.4 mm wide, linear, acute, the margin ciliate; calyx campanulate, 0.9–1.3 (1.5) cm long, 2–3 mm wide, occasionally violet-tinged at base, with scattered hairs or almost villous, the teeth lanceolate, subulate-pointed, slightly exceeding the tube, glabrous or pubescent, with ciliate margin; corolla ochroleucous or dingy white, spotted at base of lower lip, (1.8) 2–2.5 cm long, densely pubescent outside specially in upper part, the tube 0.8–1.4 cm long, 2–2.5 cm wide, about equaling or exceeding the calyx, attenuate and slightly curved at base, expanded at throat, with an oblique ring of hairs inside; upper lip obovate, 0.7–1 cm long, 0.6 cm wide, obtuse; lower lip 1–1.2 cm long, the middle lobe 4–6 mm long and 3–4(5) mm wide, obreniform, attenuate at base, deeply emarginate at apex, the margin long-ciliate, the lateral lobes rounded, 2 mm long, each with one linear-subulate appendage 1 mm long; filaments glandular-hairy; anthers blackish-violet, hairy above. Nutlets elongate-ovoid, subtrigonous, 3–3.5 mm long, 1.5–1.7 mm wide, dark gray, covered with whitish excrescences. In deciduous, rarely coniferous forests, forest margins and coppices. Widely distributed (Arctic, Europe, Caucasus (Ciscaucasia, Dagestan, West, East and South Transcaucasia, Talysh), Central Asia, Scandinavia, Central and Atlantic Europe, Mediterranean, Balkan Peninsula and Asia Minor, Lesser Armenia and Kurdistan, India, Pakistan, Nepal, Mongolia, Japan, China, Korean Peninsula and Northeastern China, and North America (Canada). A species commonly found as weed in orchards and truck gardens, at roadsides and near dwellings, Lamium album is native throughout Europe and Asia, growing in a variety of habitats from open grassland to woodland, generally on moist, fertile soils. The flowers are visited by many types of insects, but mostly by bees. Bees, especially bumblebees, are attracted to the flowers which are a good source of early nectar and pollen, and hence the plant is sometimes called the Bee Nettle (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Local Medicinal Uses Lamium album: Applied for respiratory tract problems, as antipyretic, astringent, bronchitis, diuretic, emollient, expectorant, insomnia, pains, sciatica, and vasodilator (Tetik et al. 2013), and for intestinal problems (Miraldi et al. 2001). The plant is used to stop bleeding after childbirth and believed to be a contraceptive (Malik et al. 2015), as astringent, for nosebleeds, burns, and wounds (Gairola et al. 2014). Flowers as tea and alcoholic extract are used as hemostatic in pneumonic and uterine hemorrhages, as well as sedative and weak hypnotic agent. The infusion of flowers is used as gargle in angina, as well as externally for washings, to treat hemorrhoids, hives, ulcers, and burns. Leaves are used in gynecological practice (to treat vaginal discharge) and against bleeding in internal organs. Used to bathe small children and to treat hair loss (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017). Plant leaves and shoots are used for trauma, fracture, paralysis, hypertension, and uterine hemorrhage (Ahmad et al. 2015).

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Fig. 1 Lamium album (Lamiaceae). Racha, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

Local Food Uses Lamium album: Young shoots of Lamium album are eaten boiled and prepared in a form of mkhali (a vegetable spread of mixed herbs) separately, or in a mixture of various other herbs such as Chenopodium album L., Amaranthus retroflexus L., Urtica dioica L., Cardamine hirsuta L., Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik., Cirsium incanum Fisch., Ranunculus chius D.C., Portulaca oleracea L. and Malva sylvestris L., M. neglecta Wallr. When cooking L. album shoots, the water is changed after 10 min of boiling. The herb can also be cooked in soup with beaten egg (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Lamium album: Very good nectariferous plant, producing much nectar and pollen (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017).

1176 Fig. 2 Lamium album (Lamiaceae). Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

Fig. 3 Lamium album (Lamiaceae). Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

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Fig. 4 Lamium album (Lamiaceae). Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

References Ahmad I, Jan S, Begum A, Wali S. Taxonomic diversity and ethnobotanical characteristics of the family Lamiaceae of Swat, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Pure Appl Biol. 2015;4(4):465. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Lamium album L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Malik ZA, Bhat J, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhat AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44. Miraldi E, Ferri S, Mostaghimi V. Botanical drugs and preparations in the traditional medicine of West Azerbaijan (Iran). J Ethnopharmacol. 2001;75:77–87. Tetik F, Civelek S, Cakilcioglu U. Traditional uses of some medicinal plants in Malatya (Turkey). J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;146:331–46.

Launaea procumbens (Roxb.) Ramayya & Rajagopal ASTERACEAE Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Launaea procumbens (Roxb.) Ramayya & Rajagopal: Launea fallax (Jaub. & Spach.) Kuntze; Microrhynchus fallax Jaub. & Spach.; Paramicroshynchus procumbens (Roxb.) Kirp.; Prenanthes procumbens Roxb.; Sonchus lakouensis S.Y. Hu; Youngia alashanica H.C. Fu; Zollikoferia fallax (Jaub. & Spach) Boiss.

Local Names Launaea procumbens: Pashto: Shwadi betai; Shuda pai ‫ ;ﺵﻭﺩﺍﭖ‬Urdu: Sondrashi.

H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_139

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Fig. 1 Launaea procumbens (Asteraceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Botany and Ecology Launaea procumbens: Herbs, perennial, rosulate, branched from base, procumbent to ascending. Taproot with shoot-bearing lateral roots. Stems 5–30 cm, divaricately branched, puberulent or glabrous, with few leaves or leafless. Rosette leaves spatulate, 5–7  2–3 cm, sinuate-dentate to variously pinnately lobed, tapering into a narrow base, margin white cartilaginous denticulate; lateral lobes 3 or 4 pairs, elliptic to triangular, apex rounded to obtuse; terminal lobe lanceolate to elliptic, apex obtuse. Stem leaves smaller, base often clasping, otherwise similar to rosette leaves. Synflorescence divaricately paniculiform, with capitula frequently clustered. Capitula with 15–20( 30) florets. Involucre cylindric, 10–12  about 3 mm. Phyllaries glabrous, margin broadly white scarious, apex acute to obtuse; outer phyllaries triangular-ovate to linear-lanceolate, to 2/3 as long as inner phyllaries; inner phyllaries 8. Achenes dimorphic, 2–4 mm, apex pointed to subtruncate; outer achenes grayish to brown,  fusiform,  compressed, with 5 main ribs, transversely wrinkled; inner achenes whitish to grayish, columnar, with 4 thick, soft main ribs, smooth. Pappus 8–9 mm, caducous with pappus disk. Flowering and fruiting June–October (Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Fig. 1).

Local Medicinal Uses Launaea procumbens: The powder made from the aerial parts is used to treat diabetes (Ullah et al. 2019). Mixture of powdered leaves with sugar to enhance lactation in livestock (Akhtar et al. 2013). Fresh leaves are taken for painful micturition (Abbasi et al. 2013a). The leaves are used as fodder for goats and for washing milk utensils (Barkatullah and Hussain 2009). Leaf paste is used for

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external worms (skin infection) (Abbasi et al. 2013b). Plant used as to enhance milk in animals and diuretic (Ullah et al. 2016).

Local Food Uses Launaea procumbens: Consumed raw as recreational food (Ahmad and Pieroni 2016).

References Abbasi AM, Khan MA, Shah MH, Shah MM, Pervez A, Ahmad M. Ethnobotanical appraisal and cultural values of medicinally important wild edible vegetables of lesser Himalayas-Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013a;9(1):66. Abbasi AM, Khan SM, Ahmad M, Khan MA, Quave CL, Pieroni A. Botanical ethnoveterinary therapies in three districts of the lesser Himalayas of Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013b;9(1):84. Ahmad K, Pieroni A. Folk knowledge of wild food plants among the tribal communities of Thakhte-Sulaiman Hills, north-West Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:17. https://doi.org/10. 1186/s13002-016-0090-2. Akhtar N, Rashid A, Murad W, Bergmeier E. Diversity and use of ethno-medicinal plants in the region of Swat, North Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1):25. Barkatullah IM, Hussain F. Ethnobotanical studies of plants of Charkotli Hills, Batkhela District, Malakand, Pakistan. Front Biol China. 2009;4(4):539–48. Ullah F, Ullah A, Sohail A. Medicinal and ecological diversity of weeds in wheat crop at Lower Dir, Pakistan. Pak J Weed Sci Res. 2016;22(4):627–37. Ullah M, Mehmood S, Ali M, Bussmann RW, Aldosari A, Ali Khan R, Ullah R, Hussain W, Rahman Shah MA. An ethnopharmacological study of plants used for treatment of diabetes in the Southern and Tribal regions of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18(8). https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.8.1-20. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. St. Louis: Science Press, Beijing & Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013.

Leea indica (Burm. f.) Merr. VITACEAE Laxmi Khaniya, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Leea indica (Burm. f.) Merr.: Aquilicia ottilis Gaertn.; Aquilicia sambucina L.; Leea biserrata Miq.; Leea celebica C.B. Clarke; Leea divaricata T. & B.; Leea expansa Craib; Leea fuliginosa Miq.; Leea gigantea Griff.; Leea gracilis Lauterb.; Leea longifolia Merr.; Leea naumannii Engl.; Leea novoguineensis Val.; Leea ottilis (Gaertn.) DC.; Leea palambanica Miq.; Leea pubescens Zipp. ex Miq.; Leea ramosii Merr.; Leea robusta Blume; Leea roehrsiana Sanders ex Masters; Leea sambucifolia Salisb.; Leea sambucina (L.) Willd.; Leea sambucina var. biserrata (Miq.) Miq.; Leea sambucina var. heterophylla Zipp. ex Miq.; Leea sambucina var.occidentalis C.B. Clarke; Leea sambucina var. robusta Miq.; Leea sambucina var. roehrsiana (Sanders ex Masters) Chitt.; Leea sambucina var. simplex Miq.; Leea sambucina var. L. Khaniya Center Department of Botany, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_140

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sumatrana (Miq.) Miq.; Leea staphylea Roxb.; Leea sumatrana Miq.; Leea sundaica Miq.; Leea sundaica var. fuliginosa (Miq.) Miq.; Leea sundaica var. pilosiuscula Span. ex Miq.; Leea sundaica var. subsessilis Miq.; Leea umbraculifera C.B. Clarke; Leea viridiflora Planch; Staphylea indica Burm. f.

Local Names Leea indica: Lepcha: Puntom; Timorese: Ai-asu ulun (Collins et al. 2006); Rajastani: Hastipalash; English: Bandicoot berry; Malay Memali; Chinese: huo tong shu; Thai: Katangbai; Hindi: Hastipalash (Bais 2013).

Botany and Ecology Leea indica: Erect shrubs to small trees. Branchlets terete, longitudinal ridges obtuse, glabrous. Leaves 2- or 3-pinnate, glabrous; stipules broadly obovate, 2.5– 4.5  2–3.5 cm, apex rounded, glabrous; petiole 13–23 cm, central petiolules 2– 5 cm, lateral petiolules shorter, 0.2–0.5 cm, glabrous; leaf axis 14–30 cm, glabrous; leaflets elliptic, elongate elliptic, or elliptic-lanceolate, 6–32  2.5–8 cm, base rounded, or rarely broadly cuneate, margin with irregular or slightly regular teeth, teeth sharp, apex acuminate or caudate; lateral veins 6–11 pairs, abaxial veinlets conspicuous but not protruding. Inflorescences opposite to leaves, compound dichasial or umbelliform; peduncle 1–2 cm, with brown hairs. Involucre ellipticlanceolate, ca. 0.8  0.3–0.8 cm, apex acuminate, glabrous; bracts oval ellipticlanceolate, 3–4  2.5–3 mm, apex shortly acute and acuminate, glabrous, deciduous. Pedicel 1–2 mm, ferruginous pubescent; buds 1.5–2 mm, apex suborbicular. Calyx tube urceolate; sepal triangular, glabrous. Petals elliptic, 1.8–2.5 mm, glabrous, white or greenish white. Staminodial tube 0.5–1 mm, with lower fused part 0.2– 0.3 mm, upper 0.3–0.7 mm, lobes 0.1–0.2 mm. Stamens 5; filaments 0.5–0.8 mm; anthers elliptic, 0.8–1.5  0.4–0.8 mm. Ovary globose; style 0.5–0.7 mm; stigma expanded slightly. Berry 0.8–1 cm in diameter, 4–6-seeded. Flowering April–July, fruiting August–December (Grierson and Long 1987; Wu et al. 2007; Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Figs. 1 and 2). Leea indica (Burm.f.) Merr. native to China, India, Malaysia, Thailand, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, Laos, Nepal, New Guinea, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Vietnam, N Australia, Pacific islands, and Indonesia. It grows at elevations 200– 1,200 m. It is commonly found in forests and shrub lands (Press et al. 2000; Yusuf et al. 1994; Ghani 2003; Rahman 2010; Raihan et al. 2011; Bais 2013).

Phytochemistry Leea indica is a rich in phytochemicals. It contains β-sitosterol, β-D-xyloside, β-amyrin, β-sitosterol, lupeol, dibutyl, di-n-octyl phthalate, dibutyl phthalate, di-nbutyl phthalate, ursolic acid, gallic acid, palmitic acid, phthalic acid, palmitic acid,

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Fig. 1 Leea sp. (Leeaceae), Rupakot, Gulmi, Nepal, July 15, 2020. (Photo Laxmi Khaniya)

mollic acid α-L-arabinoside, phthalic acid esters, farnesol, lupeol, 1-eicosanol lycopersen, heptadecane, isooctyl, butyl-2-phthalate, butyl-2-ethylhexyl phthalate, butyl gallate, triterpenes, α-tocopherol, n-tetratriacontane, n-tritetracontane, alkaloid, terpenoids, steroids, antioxidant, antimicrobial, cytotoxic phenolic, flavonoid 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl, dimethyl sulfoxide superoxide iron, antibacterial, antifungal, alkaloids, glycosides, cardiac glycosides, tannins, antioxidative, antimicrobial, cycloartane, triterpenoid, quercetin, hexane, ethyl acetate, and solanesol (Dhar et al. 1968; Saha et al. 2004; Saha et al. 2005; Rahman et al. 2007; Srinivasan et al. 2008; Yusuf et al. 2008; Srinivasan et al. 2009; Srinivasan et al. 2010; Wong et al. 2012; Singh et al. 2019; Mahboob et al. 2020).

Local Medicinal Uses Leea indica: Bandaged over the fractured or sprained limbs, relives pain, body ache, and helps for swellings (Bhandary et al. 1995; Palit and Banerjee 2016). As digestive, for spleen problems, antiviral and anticancer (Kunwar et al. 2009, 2010). Diarrhea, dysentery, and expectorant, chest bulging in children (Jain et al. 2005). Plant widely used in diarrhea, dysentery, colic, ulcers, skin diseases, vertigo, and headache, diabetes, cardiac diseases, fever, dizziness, soreness, eczema, sprain,

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Fig. 2 Leea sp. (Leeaceae) inflorescens, Rupakot, Gulmi, Nepal, July 15, 2020. (Photo Laxmi Khaniya)

leprosy, bone fracture, body pain, muscle spasm, leucorrhea, intestinal cancer, uterus cancer, itchy skin, body aches, and obstetric diseases (Ridsdale 1974; Ridsdale 1976; Burkill 1966; Chatterjee and Prakashi 1994; Yusuf et al. 1994; APG 2003; Ghani 2003; Prajapati et al. 2003; Pullaiah and Naidu 2003; Zhang 2004; Rahman et al. 2007; Rahman 2010; Bais 2013). Leea macrophylla: Bone fractures, body pain, sprains, as hemostatic, for wound treatments (Jain et al. 2005). Leea crispa: As astringent and for sores (Singh et al. 2002).

Local Food Uses Leea indica: The fruits of this and other species are eaten (Dangol et al. 2017).

References Angiosperm phylogeny Group (APG). An update of the angiosperm phylogeny group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II. Bot J Linn Soc. 2003;141(4):399–436. Bais S. A phytopharmacological review on an important medicinal plant: L. indica. Cancer. 2013;15:16.

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Bhandary MJ, Chandrashekar KR, Kaveriappa KM. Medical ethnobotany of the Siddis of Uttara Kannada district, Karnataka, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 1995;47:149–58. Burkill H. A dictionary of the economic products of the Malay peninsula. London: Crown Agents; 1966. Chatterjee A, Prakashi SC. The treatise on Indian medicinal plants, vol. 3. New Delhi: NISCAIR; 1994. p. 173–4. Collins S, Martins X, Mitchell A, Teshome A, Arnason JT. Quantitative ethnobotany of two east Timorese cultures. Econ Bot. 2006;60(4):347–61. Dangol DR, Maharjan KL, Maharjan SK, Acharya AK. Wild edible plants in Nepal. In: Joshi BK, Bahadur KCH, Acharya A, editors. Conservation and utilization of agricultural plant genetic resources of Nepal. Dhulikhel: NAGRC; 2017. p. 390–407. Dhar ML, Dhar MM, Dhawan BN, Mehrotra BN, Ray C. RayScreening of Indian medicinal plants for biological activity. Indian J Exp Biol. 1968;6(4):232–47. Ghani A. Medicinal plants of Bangladesh, vol. 181. Dhaka: The Asiatic Society of Bangladesh; 2003. p. 502–4. Grierson AJ, Long DG. Flora of Bhutan, including a record of plants from Sikkim. Volume 1 part 3. Edinburgh: Royal Botanical Garden Edinburgh; 1987. Jain A, Katewa SS, Galav PK, Sharma P. Medicinal plant diversity of Sitamata wildlife sanctuary, Rajasthan, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102:143–57. Kunwar RM, Upreti Y, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Indigenous use and ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in far-West Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009;7:5–28. Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Bussmann RW. Traditional herbal medicine in far-West Nepal: a pharmacological appraisal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:35. Mahboob T, Nawaz M, MDL P, Chye T, Samudi C, Sekaran SD, Wiart C, Nissapatorn V. PLGA nanoparticles loaded with Gallic acid- a constituent of Leea indica against Acanthamoeba triangularis. Sci Rep. 2020;10:8954. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-65728-0. www. nature.com/ Palit D, Banerjee A. Traditional uses and conservative lifestyle of Lepcha tribe through sustainable bioresource utilization - case studies from Darjeeling and Norgh Sikkim, India. Int J Conserv Sci. 2016;7(3):735–52. Prajapati ND, Purohit SS, Sharma AK, Kumar T. A handbook of medicinal plants a complete source book. Jodhpur: Agrobios (I); 2003. p. 309–10. Press JR, Shrestha KK, Sutton DA. Annotated checklist of the flowering plants of Nepal. London: The Natural History Museum; 2000. Pullaiah T, Naidu KC. Antidiabetic plants in India and herbal based antidiabetic research. New Delhi: Daya Books; 2003. Rahman MA. Indigenous knowledge of herbal medicines in Bangladesh. Treatment of skin diseases by tribal communities of the hill tract districts. Bangladesh J Bot. 2010;39:169–77. Rahman MA, Uddin SB, Wilcock C. Medicinal plants used by Chakma tribe in tracts districts of Bangladesh. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2007;6:508–17. Raihan MO, Habib MR, Brishti A, Rahman MM, Saleheen MM, Manna M. Sedative and anxiolytic effects of the methanolic extract of L. indica (Burm. F.) Merr. Leaf. Drug Discov Ther. 2011;5(4):185–9. Ridsdale CE. A revision of the family Leeaceae. Blumea. 1974;22(1):57–100. Ridsdale CE. Leeaceae. Flora Malesiana. Series1. 1976;7:775–782. Saha K, Lajis NH, Israf DA. Evaluation of antioxidant and nitric oxide inhibitory activities of selected Malaysian medicinal plants. J Ethno Pharmacol. 2004;92:263–267. Saha K, Lajis NH, Shaar Ki K, Hamzah AS, Israf D. Chemical constituents of Leea indica (Burm. f.) Merr. (Leeaceae). Malays J Sci. 2005;24:75–8. Singh AK, Raghubanshi AS, Singh JA. Medical ethnobotany of the tribals of Sonaghati of Sonbhadra district, Uttar Pradesh, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2002;81:31–41. Singh D, Siew YY, Chong TL, Yew HC, Wei Ho SS, Lim CSE, Tan WX, Neo SY. Identification of Phytoconstituents in Leea indica (Burm. F.) Merr. Leaves by high performance liquid chromatography micro time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Molecules. 2019;24:714. https://doi.org/10. 3390/molecules24040714.

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Srinivasan GV, Ranjith C, Vijayan KK. Identification of chemical compounds from the leaves of Leea indica. Acta Pharma. 2008;58(2):207–14. Srinivasan GV, Sharanappa P, Leela NK, Sadashiva CT, Vijayan KK. Chemical composition and anti microbial activity of the essential oil of Leea indica (Burm.f.) Merr. flowers. Nat Product Radiance. 2009;8(5):488–493. Srinivasan GV, Sharanappa P, Vijayan KK. Validated high performance thin layer chromatography method for simultaneous determination of quercetin and gallic acid in Leea indica. Int J Biomed Res Anal. 2010;1:92–95. Wong YH, Kadir HA, Ling SK. Bioassay-guided isolation of cytotoxic Cycloartane triterpenoid glycosides from the traditionally used medicinal plant Leea indica. Evid Comp Alt Med. 2012;2012:1–11. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/164689. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. St. Louis: Science Press, Beijing & Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Wu ZY, Raven PH, Hong DY, editors. Flora of China. Vol. 12 (Hippocastanaceae through Theaceae). St. Louis: Science Press, Beijing, and Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 2007. Yusuf M, Wahab MA, Chowdhury JW, Japripa B. Medicinal plants of Bangladesh. Chittagong: BCSIR Laboratory Press; 1994. p. 72–3. Yusuf M, Wahab MA, Yousuf MD, Chowdhury JU, Begum J. Some tribal medicinal plants of Chittagong Hill tracts, Bangladesh. Bangladesh J Plant Taxon. 2008;14:117–28. Zhang ZJ. Therapeutic effects of herbal extracts and constituents in animal models of psychiatric disorders. Life Sci. 2004;75:1659–99.

Lepidium apetalum Willd. Lepidium sativum L. BRASSICACEAE Wahid Hussain, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Lepidium spetalum: Willd.: Lepidium chitungense Jacot Guill.; Lepidium incisum Roth ex M. Bieb.; Lepidium micranthum Ledeb.; Thlaspi apetalum (Willd.) Poir. Lepidium sativum L.: Cardamon sativum (L.) Fourr.; Crucifera nasturtium E.H.L. Krause; Lepia sativa (L.) Desv.; Lepidium hortense Forssk.; Lepidium sativum subsp. sativum Thell.; Lepidium sativum subsp. spinescens Thell.; Lepidium sativum var. crispum DC.; Lepidium sativum var. spinescens Jafri; Lepidium sativum var. typicum Thell.; Lepidium spinescens DC.; Nasturtium crispum Medik.; Nasturtium sativum (L.) Moench; Nasturtium spinescens Kuntze; Thlaspi sativum (L.) Crantz; Thlaspidium sativum (L.) Spach.

W. Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_141

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Local Names Lepidium sativum: Jammu: Halian; Russian: Кресссалат (kressalat); English: Garden cress.

Botany and Ecology Lepidium apetalum: Herbs annual or biennial, (5–)10–25( 40) cm tall, puberulent with clavate or capitate trichomes. Stems erect, branched basally and above. Petiole of basal leaves (0.5–)1–3 cm; leaf blade oblong, lanceolate, or oblanceolate, 1.5–4 ( 5)  0.7–1.2( 1.5) cm, pinnatifid, sinuate, or dentate. Upper cauline leaves sessile; leaf blade narrowly lanceolate, linear-oblong, or linear, 0.6–3( 4) cm  1–3( 5) mm, base subauriculate or sometimes cuneate, margin remotely serrate or entire, apex acute to subobtuse. Fruiting pedicels slender, often recurved, 2–4( 5) mm, puberulent only adaxially with clavate or capitate trichomes, slightly flattened or narrowly winged. Sepals caducous, oblong, 0.7–0.8  0.3–0.4 mm, glabrous or puberulent, white at margin and apex. Petals absent, or rudimentary, linear, about 0.3 mm. Stamens 2; filaments 0.7–0.8 mm; anthers broadly ovate, 0.1– 0.2 mm. Fruit broadly elliptic, 2.2–3.1  1.7–2.3 mm, widest at middle, apex narrowly winged; apical notch 0.1–0.3 mm; style 0.05–0.15 mm, included in apical notch. Seeds reddish brown, ovate-oblong, 1.1–1.3  0.6–0.8 mm, wingless, finely papillate; cotyledons incumbent. Flowering April–August, fruiting May–September (Wu et al. 1994–2013). Lepidium sativum: Annual, usually glabrous; stem solitary, erect, paniculate, with erect branches; radical leaves irregularly pinnate or bipinnatisect or lobate, rarely only dentate, obovate; upper leaves linear, entire, acute. Flowering racemes strongly elongated, loose, axis usually completely glabrous; pedicels cylindrical, glabrous, one-half to one-third as long as silicle; petals white or pinkish, 3 mm long; silicles orbicular-ovate, emarginate, winged from the middle or from the lower third up to the apex, 5–6 mm long, ca. 4 mm broad, style nearly as long as notch; seeds ovate, only slightly flattened, nearly smooth, not marginate, dark rufous. Flowering April– May. In Cultivated areas, field borders, wild or cultivated (Boborov and Bush 1939). The exact origin of Lepidium sativum is unknown but is thought to be in Ethiopia and neighboring countries or in western Asia. Domestication presumably took place in western Asia. Cultivation was already known from antiquity in Greece and Italy, possibly also in Egypt. At present it is cultivated all over the world, including most African countries, mostly on a small scale as a garden crop. It can also be found in the wild as an escape from cultivation, but it is not known whether it occurs anywhere truly wild (Boborov and Bush 1939) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).

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Fig. 1 Lepidium sativum (Brassicaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Vitamins (C, E, carotene), flavonoids (kaempferol, quercetine), mustard oil, isothiocyanates (benzylglucosinolate, 2-phenylethylglucosinolate), carbohydrates (xyloabraine, L-arabinose, xylose, D-galactose, L-rhamnose, D-galacturonic acid, 4-O-methyl D-gluconic acid) triterpenoids (cucurbitacins), steroids (a-sitosterol, campesterol, methylene cholesterol, cholesterol, stigmasterol) fatty acids (Sokolov 1985).

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Fig. 2 Lepidium sativum (Brassicaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses Lepidium apetalum: In Chinese traditional medicine used for cough with copious sputum, insomnia, and edema, and as diuretic (Wu 2005). Lepidium sativum: The species has shown antimicrobial activity (Ahmad et al. 2006; Ahmad Jan et al. 2019), and is used to treat wounds (Giday et al. 2009). Used for bone fractures, and to ease delivery (Gairola et al. 2014). The extract is used to treat asthma, coughing with phlegm, hemorrhoidal hemorrhage, tumors of the uterus, nasal polyps and other neoplasms, warts, furuncles, dermatomycosis, wounds, ulcers, sciatica, and dysmenorrhea. The seeds are used as an abortive, galactogogue, and to treat impotence, for malaria, syphilis, and as a diuretic. A paste of the seeds with water is applied to chapped lips, and also against sunburn and other skin problems of humans and animals. The paste is also taken internally with honey to treat amoebic dysentery and given to animals with stomach problems. The seeds are chewed to treat sore throat, cough, asthma, and headache, and in large quantities to induce abortion. They are also applied externally as an insect repellent.

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Fig. 3 Lepidium sativum (Brassicaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

The mucus of germinating seeds allays the irritation of the intestines in dysentery and diarrhea, and germinating seeds are used for constipation (Bussmann 2017; Batsatsashvili et al. 2017). Lepidium didymum: for arthralgia, joint dislocation, stomachache, and vomiting (Gairola et al. 2014). Lepidium latifolium: To treat rheumatism, abscesses, kidney bleeding, rheumatism, and wounds (Giday et al. 2014). Lepidium bonariense: The infusion of the aerial parts is used for the treatment of diarrhea and fever (Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2020). Lepidium virginicum: Ecuador: Whole fresh plant used to treat fright (children)/ espanto (niños), protection during childbirth and post-partum protection. Whole fresh plant used to treat pock marks (facial), sunspots, malnutrition blemishes, skin blemishes (facial), and washings (wounds) (Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2020).

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Fig. 4 Lepidium sativum (Brassicaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Food Uses Lepidium sativum: Lepidium can be eaten as salad and spicy seasoning, and the seed oil can be used too. Used as a seasoning for salads. In the Caucasus young shoots of Lepidium campestre (L.) R.Br. are peeled and eaten. The leaves are being eaten (Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2019; Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2020).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Lepidium sativum: Can be used as fodder for all types of farm animals. Yields honey. Traditionally the seed oil is used as fuel and for and soap making (Bussmann 2017; Batsatsashvili et al. 2017).

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Fig. 5 Lepidium sativum (Brassicaceae), garden, Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

References Ahmad I, Aquil F, Owais M. Modern phytomedicine. Weinheim: Wiley; 2006. Ahmad Jan H, Jan S, Bussmann RW, Wali S, Sist F, Ahmad L. Complementary and alternative medicine research, prospects and limitations in Pakistan: a literature review. Acta Ecol Sin. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chnaes.2019.12.005. Bobrov EG, Bush NA. Flora of the USSR, Volume 8: Capparidaceae, Cruceriferae and Resedaceae; Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1939 (English 1970). 524 pages, 34 b/w plates, 2 maps. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1 Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D. Lepidium sativum L. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions far Eastern Europe. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2019. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77088-8_81-2. Giday M, Asfaw Z, Woldu Z. Medicinal plants of the Meinit ethnic group of Ethiopìa: an ethnobotanical study. J Ethnopharmacol. 2009;124:513–21. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, Echeverría J. Lepidium bonariense L.; Lepidium virginicum L. In: Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions – ethnobotany of the Andes. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020. https://doi. org/10.1007/978-3-319-77093-2_166-1.

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Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 2. Families Paeoniaceae - Thymelaeacea. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1985, 336 p. (in Russian) Wu JN. An illustrated chines materia medica. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2005. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. St. Louis: Science Press, Beijing & Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013.

Ligusticopsis wallichiana (DC.) Pimenov & Kljuykov Selinum vaginatum C.B. Clarke APIACEAE Deepa Khatri, Sumit Bahadur Baruwal Chhetri, Rashmi Thapa, Hari Prasad Devkota, Prakash Poudel, Ripu M. Kunwar, and Rainer W. Bussmann Synonyms Ligusticopsis wallichiana (DC.) Pimenov & Kljuykov: Cortia wallichiana (DC.) Leute; Laserpitium coniifolium Wall.; Ligusticopsis coniifolia (DC.) Pimenov & Kljuykov; Ligusticum coniifolium DC.; Oreocome candolleana Edgew.; Oreocome candollei Edgew.; Oreocome cicutaria (Lindl.) Edgew.; Oreocome elata Edgew.; D. Khatri Department of Pharmacy, Nobel Academy, Purbanchal University, Pokhara, Nepal S. B. Baruwal Chhetri Department of Pharmacy, School of Health and Allied Sciences, Pokhara University, Pokhara, Nepal R. Thapa Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, School of Health and Allied Sciences, Pokhara University, Pokhara, Nepal H. P. Devkota Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan e-mail: [email protected] P. Poudel (*) Department of Pharmacy, Novel Academy, Purbanchal University, Pokhara, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_223

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Peucedanum wallichianum DC.; Pleurospermum cicutarium Lindl.; Selinum wallichianum (DC.) Raizada & H.O. Saxena, Selinum tenuifolium Salisb.; Selinum cicutarium (Lindl.) Benth. & Hook.f.; Selinum elatum (Edgew.) M. Hiroe

Local Names Ligusticopsis wallichiana: Nepali: Bhutkesh, Bhadraji, Jwaneghans; Sanskrit: Kanthaparna; Tibetan: Tunak; Hindi: Bhootheshi, Bhootkeshi, Dhoopkesh, Kher and Khishan; English: Ragwort, Wallich Milk Parsley; Bhutanese: Bam-po (Pandey 2006; Quattrocchi 2012; Wangchuk et al. 2016) Selinum vaginatum: Kashmir: Bhutkesh Selinum tenuifolium: Sikkim: Bhutkesh; Kashmir: Mour; Mathosal

Botany and Ecology Ligusticopsis wallichiana: Plants 1–2 m tall, glabrous. Stem base fibrous. Lower leaves long petioled, 2–3 pinnate, sheathing, up to 20 cm long; upper leaves gradually shorter; pinnae of the upper leaves sessile, deeply incised; segments lanceolate to oval; veins on the under surface pubescent. Involucre of 1 or 2 linear bracts or lacking. Rays 15–30, scabrid. Involucel of 5–10 white margined, linear bractlets, as long as the flowering umbellet. Calyx teeth prominent. Petals white. Fruit pedicels 5–10 mm long. Fruit dorsal and intermediate ridges narrowly winged; dorsal furrows 1-vittate, lateral 1–2-(3)-vittate; commissure 4–6 vittate. Inner seed face plane (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020). Flowering: July–September; Fruiting: August–November; Harvesting: August–September (Cullen et al. 2011; Lama et al. 2001; Srivastava et al. 2018). Distributed in Alpine, Subalpine, and Temperate region, usually in pasture lands, forest shades at altitudes range of 2700–4800 m, widely distributed in Himalayas of Nepal, India, Bhutan, Tibet, West Pakistan, and Myanmar (Chauhan 1999). In Nepal, L. wallichiana is found in various districts such as Dolpa, Humla, Dolakha, Tehrathum, Upper Mustang, Manang, Jumla, Mugu, Kalikot, Ilam, Parbhat, etc. (Bhattarai and Khadka 2016; Bhattarai 1992; Rai 2003; Pandey 2006; Sherpa 2001) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4). Selinum vaginatum: Plants 20 cm to 1 m tall, glabrous. Stem base fibrous. Stem stout. Leaves up to 30 cm long, glabrous, bipinnate; pinnae 1–3 cm long., lanceolate to oval, pinnatifid to pinnatisect; leaf sheath oblong, up to 8 cm long; lower leaves long petioled; upper sessile on the sheath. Upper part of the peduncle pubescent. Involucre of 1 or 2 linear bracts or lacking. Rays 10–30, stout, glabrescent to pubescent, 2–5 cm long. Involucel of 10–12 pinnate, pubescent bractlets, longer than the umbellet. Calyx teeth linear. Fruit 5 mm long, 2 mm broad, elliptic to subquadrate; ridges winged; vittae obscure. Inner seed face plane. Himalayas in India and W. Pakistan (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020).

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Fig. 1 Selinum wallichianum (Apiaceae) in natural habitat, Dolakha, Nepal. (Photo Hari P Devkota)

Fig. 2 Selinum wallichianum (Apiaceae), Dolakha, Nepal. (Photo Hari P Devkota)

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Fig. 3 Selinum wallichianum (Apiaceae) Flowers, Dolakha, Nepal. (Photo Hari P Devkota) Fig. 4 Selinum wallichianum (Apiaceae) Roots, Dolakha, Nepal. (Photo Hari P Devkota)

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Phytochemistry Ligusticopsis wallichiana: Roots consist of volatile oils such as limonene, terpineol, geraniol, elemol, eudesmol, β-phellandrene, sabinene, α-phellandrene, 3,5-nonadiyne, nona-3,5-diyn-2-one, nona-4,6-diyn-3-one, nona-3,5-diyn-2-ol and nona-4,6-diyn-3-ol (Sood et al. 1978a; Dev et al. 1984; Tewari and Mathela 2003; Chauhan et al. 2012; Joshi et al. 2018); coumarins such as bergapten, heraclenin, heraclenol, oxypeucedanin, isoimperatorin, osthole, imperatorin, angelicin, xanthotoxol, isopteryxin, anomalin, and marmesinin (Adityachaudhury et al. 1974a, b; Sood et al. 1978b; Saharia et al. 1979; Adhikari et al. 2016); glycosides such as bhutkesoside A, bhutkesoside B, dehydrodiconiferyl alcohol-4-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, 5,7-dihydroxy-2-methylchromone-7-O-rutinoside and schumanniofioside B; phenolic compounds such as chlorogenic acid, 5-O-p-coumaroyl-quinic acid, 3,5-di-O-caffeoylquinic acid and ferulic acid; other compounds such as 4-hydroxy-7-methoxyphenylethanol and falcarindiol (Adhikari et al. 2016). Leaves contain of volatile constituents such as 3,5-nonadiyne, β-selinene, α-funebrene, (Z)-falcarinol, (E)-β-farnesene, β-eudesmol (Tewari and Mathela 2003; Padalia et al. 2012) and nonvolatile constituents such as bhutkesoside A, falcarindiol, ferulic acid, cnidioside A, quercetin 3-O-β-Dglucopyranoside, rutin, 40 -O-methylquercetin-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, scopoletin, umbelliferone, eugenol 4-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, and pumilaside A (Devkota et al. 2018). Aerial parts contain essential oils such as 3,5-nonadiyne, (Z)-falcarinol, αbisabolol, p-cymene, (E)-β-ocimene, α-funebrene, α-copaene, 2-methylbuthyl isovalerate, p-cymen-8-ol, farnesol, sabinene, β-phellandrene, germacrene D, citronellyl propanoate, α-bisabolol oxide B, β-farnesene, limonene, etc. (Padalia et al. 2012; Mohan et al. 2013; Joshi 2016; Joshi et al. 2018).

Local Medicinal Uses Ligusticopsis wallichiana: Roots have traditionally been used in the Himalayas of Nepal and India for various therapeutic purposes such as treatment of body pain, fever, cough, and cold (Kunwar et al. 2016, 2018a, b; Singh et al. 2012; Watanabe et al. 2013). In Dolpa, Mustang, Jumla, Mugu, and Kalikot district of Nepal, a decoction of the root is used for the treatment of cough, cold, fever, gastritis, and intestinal pain, whereas powdered or paste of the root is used as antiseptic and antihemorrhagic (Manandhar 2002; Lama et al. 2001; Pandey 2006; Bhattarai 1992). In the Ilam district of Nepal, roots and stem powder are taken orally with milk for the treatment of high blood pressure and circulatory diseases (Bhattarai and Khadka 2016). The fruits are used as an aphrodisiac, sedative, and antirheumatic drug by the people of Tehrathum district of Nepal (Rai 2003). In the Sikkim state of India, fruits are used for the treatment of skin diseases such as leprosy and scabies (Uprety et al. 2016). The tribal communities of Chhota Bhangal, India, apply the paste of powdered root and mustard oil on women’s bodies to treat swelling that develops after the delivery (Uniyal et al. 2006). In Bhutan, seeds are traditionally used to allay inflammation and heal the tumor (Wangchuk

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et al. 2016). In Myanmar, leaf and root are used to regulate the stomach and intestinal function (DeFilipps and Krupnick 2018). In the Himalayas of India, the powdered roots are used as a fumigant in tantric rituals to cure epilepsy, nervous breakdown, and hysteria (Quattrocchi 2012). The essential oil obtained from the aerial part of L. wallichiana possesses potent antimicrobial activity against various microorganisms such as Streptococcus pyrogens, Escherichia coli E-3382, Escherichia coli E-3376, Enterobacter agglomerans, etc. (Singh et al. 2012). The methanolic extract of a root possesses antibacterial activity against Gram-positive bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis) and Gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa) (Bhattarai et al. 2009). The two phenolic compounds 3, 5-di-O-caffeoyl-quinic acid and chlorogenic acid isolated from the dried root (Adhikari et al. 2016) and two flavonoids, rutin, and quercetin-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside isolated from leaves of showed potent antioxidant activity against DPPH free radical (Devkota et al. 2018). The two phenolic compounds,3, 5-di-O-caffeoyl-quinic acid and chlorogenic acid isolated from the dried root (Adhikari et al. 2016) and two flavonoids, rutin, and quercetin-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside isolated from leaves showed potent antioxidant activity against DPPH free radicals (Devkota et al. 2018). The dried roots are generally used for trade purposes. In 1997/98, a total of 37.834 tons of medicinal and aromatic plant (MAP) was traded from Dolpo, among them; 12,435 kg was L. wallichiana (Lama et al. 2001). The price of the dried part of L. wallichiana per kilogram is NRs 150 in the Kathmandu market and NRs 170 in the Nepalgunj market (http://www.ansab.org.np/). Selinum vaginatum: For toothache (Malik et al. 2015). Selinum tenuifolium is burnt and the smoke inhaled to remedy fainting, headache and fever. Very aromatic (Mohagheghzadeh and Faridi 2006; Tamang et al. 2017). Also used to treat asthma, cough, and toothache (Malik et al. 2015).

Local Food Uses Ligusticopsis wallichiana: Roots are used as an ingredient in the preparation of local alcoholic beverage called “Dheli” by the indigenous people of the Himachal Pradesh, India (Chauhan 1999; Mukerji 2006). Selinum vaginatum has religious importance (Kala 2005; Malik et al. 2015). Selinum tenuifolium is kept in the house to get rid of evil eye and ghosts (Malik et al. 2015).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Ligusticopsis wallichiana: The Magar communities of Parbat district of Nepal either take the rhizome juice orally or inhaled the smoke from burning rhizome to cure the diseases caused by the evil spirit (Thapa 2012). In Taplejung district of Nepal, roots are used as nutritious fodder for cattle (Sherpa 2001). In the Kumaon region of India,

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aromatic roots are used as incense in Magico-religious rites (Shah and Joshi 1971). In Himachal Pradesh, India, the smoke produced from the roots is used as an insect repellent and air-purifier (Chauhan 1999; Mukerji 2006).

References Adhikari B, Devkota HP, Joshi KR, Watanabe T, Yahara S. Two new diacetylene glycosides: bhutkesoside A and B from the roots of Ligusticopsis wallichiana. Nat Prod Res. 2016;30(14):1577–84. Adityachaudhury N, Chowdhury A, Das AK. Investigation on the coumarins of Selinum tenuifolium. Indian J Chem Chem. 1974a;12(12):1327. Adityachaudhury N, Ghosh D, Choudhuri A. Coumarin constituents of Selinum tenuifolium. Phytochemistry. 1974b;13(1):235–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0031-9422(00)91301-3. Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan and Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995–2020. Bhattarai NK. Medical ethnobotany in the Karnali zone, Nepal. Econ Bot. 1992;46:257–61. Bhattarai KR, Khadka MK. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants from Ilam district, east Nepal. Our Nat. 2016;14(1):78–91. Bhattarai S, Chaudhary RP, Taylor RS, Ghimire SK. Biological activities of some Nepalese medicinal plants used in treating bacterial infections in human beings. Nepal J Sci Technol. 2009;10:83–90. https://doi.org/10.3126/njst.v10i0.2830. Chauhan NS. Medicinal and aromatic plants of Himachal Pradesh. Indus Publishing; 1999. p. 374–5. Chauhan RS, Nautiyal MC, Tava A, Mella M. Chemical composition of the volatile oil from the roots of Selinum tenuifolium Wall. HelvChimActa. 2012;95(5):780–7. https://doi.org/10.1002/ hlca.201100480. Cullen J, Knees SG, Cubey HS, Shaw JM, editors. The European garden flora flowering plants: a manual for the identification of plants cultivated in Europe, both out-of-doors and under glass. Cambridge University Press; 2011. p. 261. DeFilipps RA, Krupnick GA. The medicinal plants of Myanmar. PhytoKeys. 2018;102:1–341. Dev V, Oka M, Mathela CS, Murari ND, Stevens TH. The volatile constituents of the roots of Selinum tenuifolium. J Nat Prod. 1984;47(5):904–5. Devkota HP, Adhikari B, Watanabe T, Yahara S. Nonvolatile chemical constituents from the leaves of Ligusticopsis wallichiana (DC.) Pimenov & Kljuykov and their free radical-scavenging activity. J Anal Methods Chem. 2018;2018:e1794650. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/1794650. Joshi RK. Volatile oil composition of aerial parts of Selinum tenuifolium Wall ex CB Clarke from western Himalaya of Uttrakhand. India J Med Plant Stud. 2016;4(5):8–10. Joshi D, Melkani AB, Nailwal MK, Prasad R, Bisht LS. Terpenoid composition of essential oil from a new chemotype of Selinum wallichianum Raizada & Saxena. Nat Prod Res. 2018;32(3):362–5. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2017.1356831. Kala CP. Indigenous use, population density, and conservation of threatened medicinal plants in protected areas of the Indian Himalayas. Conserv Biol. 2005;19(2):368–78. Kunwar RM, Baral K, Paudel P, Acharya RP, Thapa-Magar KB, Cameron M, Bussmann RW. Landuse and socioeconomic change, medicinal plant selection and biodiversity resilience in far western Nepal. PlosONE. 2016; https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0167812. Kunwar RM, Evans A, Mainali J, Ansari AS, Rimal B, Bussmann RW. Change in forest and vegetation cover influencing distribution and uses of plants in the Kailash Sacred Landscape, Nepal. Environ Dev Sustain. 2018a; https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-018-0254-4. Kunwar RM, Fadiman M, Cameron M, Bussmann RW, Thapa-Magar KB, Rimal B, Sapkota P. Cross-cultural comparison of plant use knowledge in Baitadi and Darchula districts, Nepal Himalaya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018b;14:40. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-018-0242-7.

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Lama YC, Ghimire SK, Aumeeruddy-Thomas Y. Medicinal plants of Dolpo. Amchis’ knowledge and conservation. Kathmandu: WWF Nepal Program; 2001. p. 121. Malik ZA, Bhat J, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhat AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44. Manandhar NP. Plants and people of Nepal. Portland: Timber Press; 2002. Mohagheghzadeh A, Faridi P. Medicinal smokes. J Ethnopharmacol. 2006;108:161–84. Mohan M, Singh P, Gupta VK, Lohani H, Gupta S. Chemical composition of Selinum tenuifolium Wall ex CB Clarke: a new source of α-bisabolol from north-western Himalaya. J Essent Oil Bear Pl. 2013;16(4):439–42. https://doi.org/10.1080/0972060X.2013.831567. Mukerji KG. Current concepts in botany. New Delhi: IK International; 2006. p. 185. Padalia RC, Verma RS, Chauhan A, Chanotiya CS, Yadav A. Variation in the volatile constituents of different plant parts of Ligusticopsis wallichiana from western Himalaya, India. Nat Prod Commun. 2012;7(8):1934578X1200700828. https://doi.org/10.1080/0972060X.2013.831567. Pandey MR. Use of medicinal plants in traditional Tibetan therapy system in upper Mustang, Nepal. Our Nat. 2006;4(1):69–82. https://doi.org/10.3126/on.v4i1.505. Quattrocchi U. CRC world dictionary of medicinal and poisonous plants: common names, scientific names, eponyms, synonyms, and etymology (5 Volume Set). Boca Raton: CRC Press Taylor and Francis Group; 2012. p. 3394. Rai MB. Medicinal plants of Tehrathum district, eastern Nepal. Our Nat. 2003;1(1):42–8. Saharia GS, Sharma P, Sharma BR. Chemical components of Selinum tenuifolium roots. Indian J For. 1979;2(1):59–60. Shah NC, Joshi MC. An ethnobotanical study of the Kumaon region of India. Econ Bot. 1971;25(4):414–22. Sherpa S. The high-altitude ethnobotany of the Walung people of Walangchung Gola, Kanchanjunja Conservation Area, east Nepal. Master thesis, Nepal: Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu; 2001. Singh BR, Singh V, Singh RK, Toppo S, Haque N, Ebibeni N. Antimicrobial activity on common pathogens in essential oil of aerial parts of Selinum wallichianum. Nat Prod Indian J. 2012;8:233–7. Sood S, Chopra MM, Jamwal RK. Essential oil of Selinum tenuifolium. Indian Perfum. 1978a;22:127–9. Sood S, Gupta BD, Banerjee SK. Coumarins from Selinum tenuifolium. Indian J Pharm Sci. 1978b;40(3):98–101. Srivastava RP, Dixit P, Singh L, Verma PC, Saxena G. Comparative morphological and anatomical studies of leaves, stem, and roots of Selinum vaginatum CB Clarke and Selinum tenuifolium Wall. Flora. 2018;248:54–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.flora.2018.08.017. Tamang M, Pal K, Kumar Rai S, Kalam A, Rehan AS. Ethnobotanical survey of threatened medicinal plants of West Sikkim. Int J Bot Stud. 2017;2(6):116–25. Tewari M, Mathela CS. Chemical composition of the leaf and root oils of Selinum tenuifolium. Indian Perfum. 2003;47:343–5. Thapa S. Medico-ethnobotany of Magar community in Salija VDC of Parbat district, central Nepal. Our Nat. 2012;10(1):176–90. Uniyal SK, Singh KN, Jamwal P, Lal B. Traditional use of medicinal plants among the tribal communities of Chhota Bhangal, Western Himalaya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2(1):14. Uprety Y, Poudel RC, Gurung J, Chettri N, Chaudhary RP. Traditional use and management of NTFPs in Kangchenjunga landscape: implications for conservation and livelihoods. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12(1):19. Wangchuk P, Namgay K, Gayleg K, Dorji Y. Medicinal plants of Dagala region in Bhutan: their diversity, distribution, uses and economic potential. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12(1):28. Watanabe T, Rajbhandari KR, Malla KJ, Devkota HP, Yahara S. A handbook of medicinal plants of Nepal supplement I. Kanagawa: Ayurseed Life Environmental Institute; 2013. p. 180–1.

Lobelia pyramidalis Wall. CAMPANULACEAE Bikash Baral, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Lobelia pyramidalis Wall.: Dortmannia pyramidalis (Wall.) Kuntze; Lobelia nicotianifolia Roth ex Schult.; Lobelia pyramidalis var. wallichiana (C. Presl) Steud.; Lobelia seguinii var. arakana E. Wimm.; Lobelia wallichiana (C. Presl) Hook. f. & Thomson; Rapuntium pyramidale (Wall.) C. Presl; Rapuntium wallichianum C. Presl.

B. Baral Research, Community Development and Conservation Center (C3DR), Pokhara, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_143

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Local Names Lobelia pyramidalis: Sanskrit: Aklebir; Nepali: Yeklebir, Eklebir एक्लेबिर.

Botany and Ecology Lobelia pyramidalis: Herbs, shrubby, 0.4–3 m tall. Stems glabrous. Leaves alternate, subleathery, sessile or shortly petiolate; basal leaves spatulate; lower ones oblong, up to 25 cm; middle and upper ones narrowly elliptic or narrowly oblong, 12–31  1–4 cm, both surfaces glabrous, base attenuate, margin serrulate, apex acuminate. Racemes terminal, paniculate; flowers dense, oriented toward one side. Pedicels 0.6–2.4 cm, arched, bibracteolate or sometimes ebracteolate; bracts linear, often shorter than flowers, entire. Hypanthium campanulate or broadly ellipsoid (rarely obconic), length slightly greater than width, 2–4  2–4 mm, glabrous; calyx lobes subulate or linear-triangular, 8–16  1–1.8 mm, margin entire. Corolla white, rose, or bluish, 1.1–2.1 cm, outside glabrous, inside tube densely villous, nearly 2-lipped; lobes of upper lip linear, ca. 2/3 as long as total length of corolla; those of lower lip elliptic or lanceolate, ca. 1/3 as long as total length of corolla. Stamens connate into tube above base; filament tube glabrous; anther tube about 5 mm, densely villous along sutures, lower 2 anthers barbate at top. Capsule subglobose, oblate, or broadly ovoid, 3.5–6.5 mm in diameter, glabrous, often pendulous. Seeds elliptic, obviously compressed, margin pale in color. Flowering January–May (Deyuan and Lammers 2011; Joshi et al. 2011; Press et al. 2000; Wu et al. 1994– 2013). Found on grassy slopes, scrub, and the roadsides, generally at an altitude of 1500–3000 m. These plants are found in Nepal, China, Bhutan, North India, Myanmar, and Thailand (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1 Lobelia pyramidalis (Lobeliaceae), Nepal. (Photo Ripu M Kunwar)

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Phytochemistry Major phytochemical constituents of this plant are lobeline and radicamine. Other phytochemical constituents of this plant are alkaloids, reducing sugars (Shrestha et al. 2015). Other phytochemicals found in this plant are 1,10-decanediol, 1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid, 1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid, 1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid, 2,5,9-trimethyl decane, acetophenone, allyl nonanoate, bis (2-methylpropyl) ester, butyl-2-ethylhexyl ester, butyl2-methylpropyl ester, camphorquinone, dibutyl phthalate, isobornyl isobutanoate, isophytol, limonene, myrcene, n-tetracosane, ntetradecane, O-methoxycinnamaldehyde, perilla ketone, thujopsene, vestitenone, α-phellandrene, δ-carene (Joshi et al. 2011; Shrestha et al. 2015).

Local Medicinal Uses Lobelia pyramidalis: Leaves and inflorescence are pounded and infusion is taken for several days as antispasmodic (Lepcha and Das 2011) and used for asthma, as an expectorant for curing bronchitis, rheumatism, and fever (Manandhar 1991), intestinal spasms, indigestion, stomach problem, etc. (Joshi and Edington 1990), body ache (Joshi and Edington 1990; Kunwar and Duwadee 2003). Juice of leaves and flowers is also rubbed on body parts during body ache (Lepcha and Das 2011). Whole plant part is used for sciatica and back pain. Essential oil of this plant displays broad antimicrobial activity, which is active against Trichophyton mentagrophytes, Staphylococcus aureus, Candida parapsilosis, and Candida albicans (Joshi et al. 2011). In addition, the juice of roots and young shoot are consumed as forms of medication, while the paste is applied to cure swollen body and treat epilepsy (Rai and Singh 2015). Furthermore, roots are used for treating cough, rheumatism, and fever. The whole plant powder is also used as insecticides (Balami 2004), expectorant, asthma, chronic bronchitis, and vomiting (Hasan et al. 2013). In addition, it is also used for curing leprosy, gastrointestinal disorder, dermatological disorder (Subedi 2017; Balami 2004), eaten for infertility in women (Coburn 1984), tonic, urinary problem, fever (Manandhar 1991), cough, asthma, jaundice (Acharya 2012). Lobelia is also reported to possess respiratory stimulant, anti-asthmatic, antispasmodic, expectorant, and emetic properties. Even though it does have huge therapeutic importance, the main chemical constituent namely lobeline is known to have some side effects, such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea (Bhattarai et al. 2010). Juice of leaves and flowers is rubbed on body parts for body ache. Leaves and inflorescence are antispasmodic and used for asthma, bronchitis, and fever. Leaves and flowers are anti-spasmodic and are used as an expectorant. Plant is used for sciatica and back pain (Kunwar et al. 2010). Lobelia chinensis and Lobelia nicotianaefolia are used to treat snakebites (Harsha et al. 2002; Houghton and Osibogun 1993), and generally in traditional Chinese medicine (Wu 2005). Lobelia rhynchopetalum is used medicinally in Ethiopia (Yineger et al. 2007), other species for malaria (Giday et al. 2007). Lobelia

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heyneana serve to treat skin problems (Ignacimuthu et al. 2006). Lobelia inflata has been shown to be antibacterial (Farnsworth et al. 1985).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Lobelia holstii is browsed by livestock and used to stuff mattresses (Bussmann 2006).

References Acharya R. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of Resunga Hill used by Magar community of Badagaun VDC, Gulmi district, Nepal. Scientific World. 2012;10(10):54–65. Balami NP. Ethnomedicinal uses of plants among the Newar community of Pharping village of Kathmandu District, Nepal. Tribhuvan Univ J. 2004;24:13–9. Bhattarai S, Chaudhary RP, Quave CL, Taylor RS. The use of medicinal plants in the transhimalayan arid zone of mustang district, Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:14. Bussmann RW. Ethnobotany of the Samburu of Mt. Nyiru, South Turkana, Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:35. Coburn B. Some native medicinal plants of the western Gurung. 1984. http://www.dspace.cam.ac. uk/handle/1810/227148. Deyuan H, Lammers TG. Lobelia Linnaeus. Fl China. 2011;19:554–62. Farnsworth NR, Akerele O, Bingel AS, Soejarto DD, Gua Z. Medicinal plants in therapy. Bull World Health Organ. 1985;63/6:965–81. Giday M, Teklehaymanot T, Animut A, Mekonnen Y. Medicinal plants of the Shinasha, Agew-awi and Amhara peoples in Northwest Ethiopia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;110:516–25. Harsha VH, Hebbar SS, Hegde GR, Shripathi V. Kunabi Tribe of Karnataka in India. Fitoterapia. 2002;73:281–7. Hasan MK, Gatto P, Jha PK. Traditional uses of wild medicinal plants and their management practices in Nepal-a study in Makawanpur district. Int J Med Aromat Plants. 2013;3:102–12. Houghton PJ, Osibogun IM. Flowering plants used against snakebite. J Ethnopharmacol. 1993;39:1–29. Ignacimuthu SS, Ayyanar MM, Sankara Sivaraman KK. Ethnobotanical investigations among tribes in Madurai District of Tamil Nadu (India). J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:25. Joshi AR, Edington JM. The use of medicinal plants by two village communities in the central development region of Nepal. Econ Bot. 1990;44:71–83. Joshi S, Mishra D, Bisht G, Khetwal KS. Essential oil composition and antimicrobial activity of Lobelia pyramidalis wall. EXCLI J. 2011;10:274–9. Kunwar, Duwadee. Ethnobotanical notes on Flora of Khaptad National Park (KNP), far- western, Nepal. Him J Sci. 2003;1(1):25–30. Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Bussmann RW. Traditional herbal medicine in far-West Nepal: a pharmacological appraisal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:35. Lepcha SR, Das AP. Ethno-medicobotanical exploration along the international borders to Tibet autonomous region of China and the kingdom of Bhutan with special reference to the Pangolakha Wildlife Sanctuary, East Sikkim. Recent Stud Biodivers Tradit Knowl India. 2011;257:257–70. Manandhar NP. Medicinal plant-lore of Tamang tribe of Kabhrepalanchok district, Nepal. Econ Bot. 1991;45:58–71. Press JR, Shrestha KK, Sutton DA. Annotated checklist of the flowering plants of Nepal. London: The Natural History Museum; 2000.

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Rai R, Singh NB. Medico-ethnobiology in Rai Community: a case study from Baikunthe Village Development Committee, Bhojpur, Eastern Nepal. J Inst Sci Tech. 2015;20:127–32. Shrestha P, Adhikari S, Lamichhane B, Shrestha BG. Phytochemical screening of the medicinal plants of Nepal. J Environ Sci. 2015;1:11–7. Subedi R. Ethnobotanical study of Panchase Protected Forest, Kaski District, Central Nepal. Kathmandu: Tribhuvan University; 2017. Wu JN. An illustrated chines Materia Medica. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2005. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. St. Louis: Science Press, Beijing & Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Yineger H, Kelbessa E, Bekele T, Lulekal E. Ethnoveterinary medicinal plants at Bale Mountains National Park, Ethiopia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;112:55–70.

Luculia gratissima (Wall.) Sweet RUBIACEAE Hari Krishna Sainju, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Luculia gratissima (Wall.) Sweet: Cinchona gratissima Wall.; Mussaenda luculia Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don

Local Names Luculia gratissima: Tamang: Ban Kangiyo, Doware phool, Durbare phool, Bhra mhendo; Newari: Lukuli Swa.

Botany and Ecology Luculia gratissima: Shrubs or small trees, to 5 m tall, with thin pale brown bark; branches somewhat flattened to subterete, pilosulous to glabrous, sometimes with sparse elliptic lenticels. Petiole 0.8–2 cm, pilosulous to glabrous; leaf blade drying H. K. Sainju Department of Biotechnology, Asian Institute of Technology and Management, Lalitpur, Nepal R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_144

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papery or thinly leathery, elliptic, lanceolate-elliptic, lanceolate, or elliptic-oblong, 5– 15  2–6 cm, adaxially glabrous, abaxially pilosulous at least along principal veins, base cuneate or acute, apex acute to acuminate; secondary veins 8–12 pairs, sometimes with pilosulous domatia; stipules lanceolate to narrowly lanceolate, 6–8 mm, glabrous to strigillose, acute to acuminate. Inflorescence corymbiform, many flowered, villosulous to pilosulous; peduncle 2–3 cm; branched portion 3–5  6–8 cm (not including corollas); bracts linear to narrowly ligulate, 4–7 mm, acute; pedicels 4–5 mm. Calyx glabrous to densely hirtellous; ovary portion obovoid, 3–4 mm; lobes lanceolate, oblanceolate, or narrowly ligulate, 10–16 mm, acute. Corolla red, outside glabrous; tube 30–50 mm, slenderly cylindrical; lobes suborbicular to broadly elliptic, 11– 12  12–15 mm, rounded. Capsule 1–2  1–1.5 cm, pilosulous to glabrous; seeds 2–3 mm, spongy-reticulate. Flowering and fruiting April–November (Grierson and Long 1987; Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Figs. 1 and 2). Observations on the floral biology of L. gratissima showed that this species is distylous with complementary positioning of anthers and stigmas in the two floral forms. Unusual features of distyly in this species include the larger size of the corolla, the stigma surface, and the stigmatic papillae in the thrum flowers compared to the pin ones. Stigmatic surfaces have similar secretions but they appear more copious in thrum than pin. The floral dimorphism was accompanied by a very effective self-incompatibility system, and no seed was set on selfing. Seed number per capsule on crossing was significantly greater in thrum flowers compared to pin. Incompatible pollen tubes were inhibited within 24 h at the base of the stigma/top of

Fig. 1 Luculia gratissima (Rubiaceae), Kakani, Rasuwa, Nepal taken on 18 Oct. 2014; 1800 m. (Photo La Dorchee Sherpa)

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Fig. 2 Luculia gratissima (Rubiaceae), Pani Muhan, Shivapuri National Park, Nepal taken on 30 Oct. 2015; 1700 m. (Photo La Dorchee Sherpa)

the style in both morphs. Amputation of this region of the gynoecium removed the self-incompatibility reaction in thrum but not pin flowers. Pollination with a mixture of compatible and incompatible pollen and sequential pollination with self followed by cross pollen showed that there were interactions between the two types of pollen tube. The presence of compatible tubes was found to cause the excessive swelling of the pollen-tube tip of the incompatible ones. The incompatible tubes did not appear to have any effect on the growth of compatible ones (Murray 1990). Luculia gratissima is best suited to warm temperate climates with little frost and cooler summers. This species is confined to loam and limestone, growing between rocks on open, sun-exposed ridges, rocky outcrops, or cliffs. It prefers south or west facing slope. It grows in moist but well drained soil (RHS 2020). Nepal, altitude: 1000–2100 m, Himalayas (Nepal, Bhutan, NE India), China (Tibet, Yunnan) Myanmar, Thailand (North Chiang Rai, Chiang Mai, Nan), and N. Vietnam.

Photochemistry Twenty volatile compounds were identified, representing 99% of the total emission of the flowers in L. gratissima. The major components are γ-muurolene (46.3%), 3-carene (23.5%), and trans-isoeugenol (14.4%), which occupy the top three

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components, respectively, and dominate the fragrance of the flower. It is suggested that L. gratissima would be fully qualified as a delightfully fragrant houseplant, and it has potential for essential oil extraction and usage (Weidong and Sang 2016).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Luculia gratissima: Luculia gratissima is a popular ornamental plant due to its scented pink flowers (RHS 2020). Traditionally Newar community uses its flowers to worship Laxmi (goddess of wealth) during Tihar festival. Bark juice is anthelmintic to cattle; fruit juice is given in case of indigestion (Toba 1975; Manandhar 2002). Luculia gratissima has attractive sweet-scented pink flowers. For its cultivation, afternoon sun has to be avoided as it tends to burn the leaves in summer. The moist soil with fertilizer has shown to promote mass blooming. The plant requires a minimum temperature 7 to 10 °C. It is best to prune after flowering. Vegetative propagation had been done from semi-hardwood cuttings. Seed propagation can be done by seed sowing in winter in vented containers in green house (RHS 2020). At present, many flower companies are dedicated to developing Luculia gratissima as indoor ornamentals. Consequently, the questions are raised: is it appropriate to cultivate this plant species as an indoor fragrant potted flower and could it serve as potential source of essential oil plants (Weidong and Sang 2016).

References Grierson ACJ, Long DG. Flora of Bhutan. Published by RBGE and RGoB. 1987. Manandhar NP. Plant and people of Nepal. Oregon: Timber Press; 2002. p. 500. Murray BG. Heterostyly and pollen-tube interactions in Luculia gratissima (Rubiaceae). Ann Bot. 1990;65(6):691–8. RHS. 2020. https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/89320/i-Luculia-gratissima-i/Details. Toba S. Plant names in Khaling, a study in ethnobotany and village economy. Kailash. 1975;3(2):145–69. Weidong L, Sang L. Floral scent composition in Luculia gratissima (Wallich) sweet, analyzed by HS-SPME-GC-MS. J Essential Oil Bear Plants. 2016;19(7):1801–6. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 0972060X.2016.1238783. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. St. Louis: Science Press, Beijing & Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013.

Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall.) Drude ERICACEAE Prabin Bhandari, Krishna Kumar Shrestha, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall.) Drude: Andromeda ovalifolia Wall.; Andromeda capricida Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don; Andromeda cordata Royle; Andromeda squamulosa D.Don; Arbutus herpetica Coleb. ex Roxb.; Lyonia neziki Nakai & Hara; Pieridia ovalifolia (Wall.) Peterm.; Pieris ovalifolia (Wall.) D. Don; Xolisma ovalifolia (Wall.) Rehder P. Bhandari Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal K. K. Shrestha Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_145

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Local Names Lyonia ovalifolia: Gharwal: Anyar; Nepali: Aayanr, Angeree, Anger, Anyar, Agneri, Thaune, Thainyar, Surti; Jammu: Allan, Aon; Gurung: Chyarsi, Chyarno, Chesin; Magar: Angare, Pakasing; Sherpa: Rongle; Tamang: Tomasing; Tibetan: Chuayme; Chinese: Zhen Zhu Hua; English: Fetterbrush, Staggerbush

Botany and Ecology Lyonia ovalifolia: Shrubs or trees, deciduous or evergreen, 1–4 m tall. Twigs glabrous or pubescent. Buds narrowly ovoid, (1–)3–9( 11.5) mm, glabrous. Petiole 4–9 mm, glabrous or pubescent; leaf blade ovate, narrowly to broadly elliptic, lanceolate, or suborbicular, 3–20  2–12 cm, papery to thinly leathery, both surfaces  with white or brown hairs, rarely abaxially densely white villous on midvein or subglabrous, veins prominently raised to slightly depressed or nearly obscure, base obtuse, cuneate, or sometimes cordate, apex acuminate. Inflorescences 5–20 cm, pubescent; lower 1–3(or 4) bracts leaflike or not. Pedicel 2–10 mm, densely pubescent. Calyx lobes oblong or triangular, 2–6 mm, densely or sometimes sparsely pubescent. Corolla tubular, 8–11 mm, abaxially densely pubescent; lobes about 1 mm. Filaments 5–8 mm, pilose, with 2 spurs at apex. Ovary glabrous or pubescent. Capsule globose or ovoid, 3–5 mm in diameter, with thick sutures or not, glabrous to densely pubescent. Flowering May–June, fruiting July–September (Kunwar et al. 2019; Judd 1981; Wu et al. 2005; Wu et al. 1994–2013; Figs. 1 and 2). Lyonia ovalifolia usually occurs in cool to warm Temperate Broadleaf forest: Oak-Rhododendron forest, Rhododendron thickets, Schima-Castanopsis forest; Pine-Oak forest, Picea-Pinus forest, Symplocos-Tsuga forest, Abies spectabilis forest (Judd 1981); preferably grows in mountain ridges, dry or rocky slopes, along streams, forest, forest margin, and thickets (Mani 1974; Wu et al. 2005). It prefers light sand soil to medium loamy soil and grows in acidic (Brickell 1989; Chandrashekar 2012; Li et al. 2016) and nutrient-poor soils (Tang 2015). Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, India, Japan, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Thailand, Vietnam (Press et al. 2000, Wu et al. 2005, BGCI and IUCN 2019). Elevation range: 200–3400 m (Nepal: 900–3300 m).

Photochemistry Alkaloids, flavonoids (astilbin, eriodictyol, quercetin), glucosides, glycosides (lyoniside), lignans (lyoniresinol, ovafolinins), phenols, phytosterols, monoterpenoids (iridoids) diterpenoids (lyoniols), triterpenoids (maslininc acid, oleanolic acid, ursolic acid) (Yasue et al. 1961, 1974; Kato et al. 1984; Wiart 2006; Rahman

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Fig. 1 Lyonia ovalifolia (Ericaceae) habitat, June 2018, Jugu, Dolakha District, 1700 m, Central Nepal. (Photo Prabin Bhandari)

Fig. 2 Lyonia ovalifolia (Ericaceae) flowering branch, June 2018, Jugu, Dolakha District, 1700 m, Central Nepal. (Photo Prabin Bhandari)

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et al. 2007; Kashima et al. 2010; Acharya et al. 2014; Lv et al. 2016; Yang et al. 2017; Hussain et al. 2018; Zhao et al. 2018; Lv et al. 2019; Subba and Timilsina 2019).

Local Medicinal Uses Lyonia ovalifolia: Used to treat dermatitis and other skin irritations (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018). Also used to remedy wounds, boils, and burns (Kumar et al. 2011; Malik et al. 2015). Applied to skin eruptions (Gairola et al. 2014). Freshly collected young shoots, leaves, and stem bark are crushed and the prepared paste is applied externally on the skin during cutaneous diseases such as ringworm, scabies, and eczema (Rajbhandari 2001; DPR 2007; Ghimire et al. 2008; Joshi and Joshi 2009; Dangwal et al. 2010; Uprety et al. 2010; Sharma et al. 2012; Acharya et al. 2014; Subba and Basnet 2014; Subba et al. 2016; Uprety et al. 2016; Dahal and Borthakur 2017; Kunwar et al. 2018; Nand and Naithani 2018; Rahman et al. 2018; Adhikari et al. 2019; Bhardwaj et al. 2019). Juice of the leaves is taken to treat scabies and itching (Rajbhandari 2001, Manandhar 2002; Malla et al. 2015). Young leaf exudate is applied in affected porting of skin, 3–4 times a day for 3–4 days to cure blisters (Sahoo and Ansari 2009). Bud paste is grounded and mixed with mustard oil and rubbed in the affected part during itching; and paste made from the buds of Lyonia ovalifolia with the bark of “Jangli akhrot,” mixed with mustard oil is applied to treat baldness (Phondani et al. 2010). Coal, rubbed in stone is applied to cure boils (Manandhar 1982; Rajbhandari 2001), while tender leaves paste is applied in the affected parts to treat boils, pimples, and skin eruption (Pant and Samant 2010; Shrestha et al. 2014; Singh et al. 2017). Seeds are pounded and applied to cure wounds and boils (Dangwal et al. 2010; Malik et al. 2015). The root is ground and the paste is used as an antidote against dog bite (Bhattarai 1989), and the paste of young leaves is applied to cure Scorpion bite (Kurmi and Baral 2004). The leaves and seeds of Lyonia ovalifolia are used as invigorate despite the toxic nature (Wiart 2006). A paste of fresh leaves and tender shoots is applied externally in the infestation of ticks and lice in dog and calf (Sharma et al. 2012; Baskota and Khanal 2013; Acharya and Kaphle 2015; Dahal and Borthakur 2017; Bhardwaj et al. 2019). The young leaves are used as an insect repellant (Lepcha and Das 2011; Sahu and Arya 2017), and placed above the grain storage bins (bhakari), which will repel the grain feeding beetles and moths (DPR 2007; Joshi and Joshi 2009). The leaves are crushed along the stream and river, aiming to kill fishes (Joshi and Joshi 2009). The leaves have toxic substances, andromedoxin, and are insecticidal (Gamble 1902; Khare 2008; Sharma et al. 2012; Dahal and Borthakur 2017). Lyoniol-A, a toxic component isolated from Lyonia ovalifolia, decelerate rigidity and electroencephalogram in rats (Yasue et al. 1961; Fukuda et al. 1972). Alkaloids extract of leaves has been reported to be effective for antibacterial activities against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhi, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Acharya et al. 2014). The glucosides isolated from twigs and leaves displayed strong antibacterial, antiviral, and anti-inflammatory activities (Lv et al. 2017, 2019). A newly

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isolated iridoids from aerial parts of L. ovalifolia, namely lyonofolin is tested to prove as a new insulin secretagogue for the treatment of diabetes (Hussain et al. 2018). All these evidences support the traditional uses of Lyonia ovalifolia as a natural remedy for various ailments.

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Lyonia ovalifolia: The extract of young shoos is used to treat skin ailments in livestock (Kunwar et al. 2012). The wood of Lyonia ovalifolia has little value, do not burn well resulting in poor charcoal (Gamble 1902; Manandhar 2002). However, some research mentioned, Lyonia ovalifolia is considered as a more suitable firewood species (Bhatt and Todaria 1990; Dangwal et al. 2010; Pant and Samant 2010), because of the low ash content and low moisture content. Although the young leaves and young shoots are poisonous to goats and sheep (Gamble 1902; Sah and Khakural 2013; Subba et al. 2016; Rajbhandari 2001; Manandhar 2002; DPR 2007), dried leaves are collected for animal bedding (Sahu and Arya 2017). Leaves are used as tobacco wrapper and smoked (Rajbhandari 2001; Uprety et al. 2016), and also lopped for green manure in Garhwal Himalaya (Dangwal et al. 2010). In Eastern Nepal, stems are used in making poles and agricultural implements (Chaudhary et al. 2002). In West Himalaya, honey from Lyonia ovalifolia flowers is believed to be poisonous (Gamble 1902; Khare 2008).

References Acharya KP, Kaphle K. Ethnomedicinal plants used by yak herders for management of health disorders. J Intercult Ethnopharmacol. 2015;4(4):270. Acharya SR, Shrestha A, Gautam B, Maharjan S, Basyal D, Gyawali R. Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Properties of Leaves of Lyonia ovalifolia. Int J Pharm Biol Arch. 2014;5(4):76–81. Adhikari M, Thapa R, Kunwar RM, Devkota HP, Poudel P. Ethnomedicinal Uses of Plant Resources in the Machhapuchchhre Rural Municipality of Kaski District, Nepal. Medicines. 2019;6(2):69. Baskota N, Khanal DR. Study on ethno veterinary practices in Jumla. Livest Fish Res. 2013;30:277. Bhardwaj M, Sood SK, Thakur R, Sharma C, Kumar V. International Journal of Research Volume VIII, Issue VI, JUNE/2019, 1157–1161. 2019. Bhatt BP, Todaria NP. Fuelwood characteristics of some mountain trees and shrubs. Biomass. 1990;21(3):233–8. Bhattarai NK. Traditional phytotherapy among the Sherpas of Helambu, Central Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 1989;27(1–2):45–54. Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) & IUCN SSC Global Tree Specialist Group. Lyonia ovalifolia. The IUCN red list of threatened species 2019: e.T145822234A145822236. 2019. https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-2.RLTS.T145822234A145822236.en. Downloaded on 20 June 2020. Brickell C. Royal horticultural Society gardeners’ encyclopedia of plants and flowers. London: Dorling Kindersley; 1989. Chandrashekar JS. Soil fertility management in a mid-altitudinal village landscape of Garhwal Himalaya, India. Bull Environ Sci Res. 2012;1(1):3–10.

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Chaudhary RP, Nepal M, Gupta VNP, Vetaas OR. Traditional use of plants by the indigenous peoples of Makalu-Barun Region, Eastern Nepal. In: Chaudhary RP, Subedi BP, Vetaas OR, Aase TH, editors. Vegetation and Society: their interaction in the Himalaya. Kathmandu/Bergen: Tribhuvan University/University of Bergen; 2002. p. 83–97. Dahal S, Borthakur SK. Medicinal plants genetic resources of Kyongnosla alpine sanctuary, Sikkim, India. Int J Curr Res. 2017;9(8):56277–88. Dangwal LR, Sharma A, Rana CS. Ethno-medicinal plants of the Garhwal Himalaya used to cure various diseases: a case study. New York Sci J. 2010;3(12):28–31. DPR. Medicinal plants of Nepal (Revised), Bulletin Department of Plant Resources no. 28. Kathmandu: Government of Nepal, Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation, Department of Plant Resources; 2007. Fukuda H, Watanabe K, Tsugutaka ITO. Effect of lyoniol-A on decerebrate rigidity and electroencephalogram in rats. Jpn J Pharmacol. 1972;22(4):457–65. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh BY. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Gamble JS. A manual of Indian timbers. London: Sampson, Low, Marsdon & Co.; 1902. 856 p. Ghimire SK, Sapkota IB, Oli BR, Parajuli RR. Non-timber forest products of Nepal Himalaya. Kathmandu: WWF Nepal; 2008. Hussain N, Hameed A, Ahmad MS, Yousuf S, Ali Z, Rahman MH, Choudhary MI. New iridoids from Lyonia ovalifolia and their anti-hyperglycemic effects in mice pancreatic islets. Fitoterapia. 2018;131:168–73. Joshi AR, Joshi K. Plant diversity and ethnobotanical notes on tree species of Syabru village, Langtang national park, Nepal. Ethnobot Leaflets. 2009;2009(5):12. Judd WS. A monograph of Lyonia (Ericaceae). J Arnold Arboretum. 1981;62(3):315–436. Kashima K, Sano K, Yun YS, Ina H, Kunugi A, Inoue H. Ovafolinins A–E, five new lignans from Lyonia ovalifolia. Chem Pharm Bull. 2010;58(2):191–4. Kato Y, Kato N, Baba M. Phenolic constituents of Lyonia ovalifolia. Pharmazie. 1984;39(6):425–6. Khare CP. Indian medicinal plants: an illustrated dictionary. New York: Springer Science & Business Media; 2008. Kumar M, Bussmann RW, Mukesh J, Kumar P. Ethnomedicinal uses of plants close to rural habitation in Garhwal Himalayan, India. J Med Plant Res. 2011;511:2252–60. Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Sharma LN, Shrestha KP, Kominee H. Ethnobotany 2012. Underutilized plant species in far-west Nepal – a valuable resource being wasted. J Mt Sci. 2012;9:589–600. Kunwar RM, Fadiman M, Cameron M, Bussmann RW, Thapa-Magar KB, Rimal B, Sapkota P. Cross-cultural comparison of plant use knowledge in Baitadi and Darchula districts, Nepal Himalaya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14(1):40. Kunwar RM, Fadiman M, Hindle T, Suwal MK, Adhikari YP, Baral K, Bussmann RW. Composition of forests and vegetation in the Kailash Sacred Landscape, Nepal. J For Res. 2019; https://doi.org/10.1007/s11676-019-00987-w. Kurmi PP, Baral SR. Ethnomedical uses of plants from Salyan District, Nepal. Banko Janakari. 2004;14(2):35–9. Lepcha SR, Das AP. Ethno-medicobotanical exploration along the international borders to Tibet Autonomous Region of China and the kingdom of Bhutan with special reference to the Pangolakha Wildlife Sanctuary, East Sikkim. In: Ghosh S, Das AP, editors. Recent studies in biodiversity and traditional knowledge in India. Gour Mahavidyalaya, New Delhi; 2011. p. 257–270. Li J, Xiong G, Xu W, Xie Z. Distribution of shrublands in relation to soil and climate in mid-subtropical China. J Plant Ecol. 2016;9(4):393–401. Lv XJ, Li Y, Ma SG, Qu J, Liu YB, Li YH, ... Yu SS. Antiviral triterpenes from the twigs and leaves of Lyonia ovalifolia. J Nat Prod. 2016;79(11):2824–2837. Lv XJ, Li Y, Ma SG, Qu J, Liu YB, Li L, ... Yu SS. Isopimarane and nor-diterpene glucosides from the twigs and leaves of Lyonia ovalifolia. Tetrahedron. 2017;73(6):776–784.

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Lv XJ, Li Y, Ma SG, Qu J, Liu YB, Li YH, ... Yu SS. Bioactive megastigmane glucosides and monoterpenes from Lyonia ovalifolia. J Asian Nat Prod Res. 2019;21(6):559–572. Malik ZA, Bhat JA, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhatt AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133– 44. Malla B, Gauchan DP, Chhetri RB. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by ethnic people in Parbat district of western Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;165:103–17. Manandhar NP. An ethnobotanical study of Nuwakot, Nepal. In: Proceedings of first national science & technology congress, 22–24 September 1982, Kathmandu; 1982. p. 72–79. Manandhar NP. Plants and people of Nepal. Portland: Timber press; 2002. Mani MS, editor. Ecology and biogeography in India. The Hague: Dr. W. Junk b.v., Publishers; 1974. Nand K, Naithani S. Ethnobotanical uses of wild medicinal plants by the local community in the Asi Ganga Sub-basin, Western Himalaya. J Complement Med Res. 2018;9(1):34–46. Pant S, Samant SS. Ethnobotanical observations in the Mornaula reserve forest of Komoun, West Himalaya, India. Ethnobot Leaflets. 2010;2010(2):8. Phondani PC, Maikhuri RK, Rawat LS, Farooquee NA, Kala CP, Vishvakarma SR, ... Saxena KG. Ethnobotany Research & Applications 8:233–244; 2010. Press JR, Shrestha KK, Sutton DA. Annotated checklist of the flowering plants of Nepal. London: Natural History Museum; 2000. Rahman MA, Katayama T, Suzuki T, Nakagawa T. Stereochemistry and biosynthesis of (+)lyoniresinol, a syringyl tetrahydronaphthalene lignan in Lyonia ovalifolia var. elliptica I: isolation and stereochemistry of syringyl lignans and predicted precursors to (+)-lyoniresinol from wood. J Wood Sci. 2007;53(2):161–7. Rahman IU, Afzal A, Iqbal Z, Ijaz F, Ali N, Bussmann RW. Traditional and ethnomedicinal dermatology practices in Pakistan. Clin Dermatol. 2018;36(3):310–9. Rajbhandari KR. Ethnobotany of Nepal. Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal. 2001. Sah RP, Khakural GP. Identification of poisonous plants in Mustang district. Livest Fish Res. 2013;30:266. Sahoo AK, Ansari AA. Less Known Ethnic uses of Plants of South Sikkim. Nelumbo. 2009;51:219–22. Sahu N, Arya KR. Ethnobotanical and ethnopharmacological activities of Artemisia nilagirica, Lyonia ovalifolia, Sarcococca saligna and Taraxacum officinale. Int J Pharm Sci Res. 2017;8(11):4818–25. Sharma TP, Sabita D, Borthakur SK. Documentation of ethno-veterinary practices in Sikkim, India. Pleione. 2012;6(2):353–8. Shrestha N, Prasai D, Shrestha KK, Shrestha S, Zhang XC. Ethnomedicinal practices in the highlands of central Nepal: a case study of Syaphru and Langtang village in Rasuwa district. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155(2):1204–13. Singh A, Nautiyal MC, Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal plants used by local inhabitants of Jakholi block, Rudraprayag district, western Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13(1):49. Subba B, Basnet P. Antimicrobial activity of some medicinal plants from east and central part of Nepal. Int J Appl Sci Biotechnol. 2014;2(1):88–92. Subba B, Timilsina MP. Scientific validation of some Nepalese medicinal plants from Nangle Bhare of Kathmandu, Nepal. Asian J Pharm Clin Res. 2019;12(2):205–9. Subba B, Srivastav C, Kandel RC. Scientific validation of medicinal plants used by Yakkha community of Chanuwa VDC, Dhankuta, Nepal. SpringerPlus. 2016;5(1):155. Tang CQ. The subtropical vegetation of southwestern China: plant distribution, diversity and ecology, vol. 11. Dordrecht: Springer; 2015. Uprety Y, Asselin H, Boon EK, Yadav S, Shrestha KK. Indigenous use and bio-efficacy of medicinal plants in the Rasuwa District, Central Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6(1):3.

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Maesa chisia Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don. PRIMULACEAE Ila Shrestha, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Maesa chisia Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don.: Maesa prodigiosa C. Chen

Local Names Maesa chisia: Nepali: Bialauni, Kanige, Thinge; (Shrestha 1998); Gurung: Chhotne, Chhyonre, tushi; Rai: Cherlaem; Gurung: Chhonre, Chhoude; Limbu: Yongigwa; Magar: Bilauni; Tamang: Bhijin, Busing; Tibetan: Khemona; Chepang: Bilauni, Tamang I. Shrestha Botany Department, Patan Multiple Campus, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_146

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Maesa macrophylla: Nepali: Bhogate, Paha phal, Phogate Maesa montana: Nepali: Kriminghana phal, Thinke; Tamil: Vamarai

Botany and Ecology Maesa chisia: Shrubs 1–2(–6) m tall. Branchlets angular, sparsely brown scaly, glabrescent, lenticellate; pith solid. Petiole slightly canaliculate, 0.7–1.5 cm; leaf blade oblong, elliptic-lanceolate, to oblanceolate, 8.5–14  2.5–5.5 cm, papery, glabrous, base cuneate, margin serrate, densely and minutely orange punctatelineate, apex caudate-acuminate, acumen 0.8–2 cm; midrib and lateral veins prominently raised abaxially, lateral veins ca. 10 on each side of midrib, ending in teeth, submarginal vein absent. Inflorescences axillary on biennial branches, paniculate, 1.5–4 cm in fruit, many branched, glabrous; bracts lanceolate, about 0.5 mm; bracteoles ovate, glabrous. Flowers unknown. Pedicel 1–2 mm in fruit, glabrous. Fruit globose, 3–4 mm in diameter, somewhat fleshy, glabrous, not punctate; persistent calyx lobes ovate-triangular, glabrous, punctate at tip, ciliate. Sparse broadleaved forests, shrubby areas, sunny hillsides; ca. 600–2200 m. China (SE Xizang, W Yunnan), Bhutan, India, Myanmar, Nepal (HMG 1986a, b, Wu et al. 1994–2013; Figs. 1 and 2). Maesa macrophylla: Perennial. A large shrub about 2–5 m or small tree, branches pubescent. Leaves 5–16 cm long and 3–12 cm broad, alternate orbicular, denticulate, acute, softly hairy on both surfaces, petiole, large, broadly elliptic ovate or obovate or rounded; 15–20 cm, with more or less heart-shaped bases, cordate, margin denticulate softly hairy on both surfaces. Petiole 1.5–3 cm long, regularly toothed. Flowers white small, in axillary and terminal panicked racemes. Panicles 10–20 cm long, pubescent. Calyx persistent, 2 bracteolate, teeth 5, minute. Corolla campunulate, limb 5 and round, Stamen 5; filaments short; anther ellipsoid. Style short. Stigma simple. Ovary inferior. Fruit 0.2 cm in diameter or cream to yellowish, Fig. 1 Maesa chisia (Myrsinaceae), rampantly grown at Ghandruk, Nepal. (Photo Ila Shrestha)

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Fig. 2 Maesa chisia (Myrsinaceae), branch with flowers and young fruits. Nepal. (Photo Ripu M. Kunwar)

in large panicles in lax much-branched clusters often as long as or longer than the leaves. Fruits small, globose, brown, seeds many. Berry pinkish-white. Occurs on moist and shady or open place. Plants are distributed in E. Himalaya Nepal to Bhutan (HMG 1986a, b). Maesa montana: Perennial. Much- branched shrub about 3.5 m high. Leaves stalked 3–15.5 cm long, 1.5–7 cm wide, ovate-oblong or elliptic-lanceolate, acute, acuminate, serrate-dentate, glabrous or with a few scattered hairs on the nerves beneath, tip narrowed, tapering toward the base. Flowers very small, whites, faintly fragrant, numerous, in compound panicked, usually glabrous racemes, pedicels, 1.25–2 mm. long; bract 1 below the pedicel, narrowly ovate acute. Calyx 1.5 mm long, divided rather more than half-way down. Corolla white, 2.5 mm long, marked with colored lines divided to the middle, lobes ovate. Berry globose, creamy white about 3 mm diameter. Seed black. Flowering and fruiting: April–December. Propagated by seeds. Distributed throughout Nepal at 250–1500 m in moist hill forest; also in northwestern India, Bhutan, and Western China (Press et al. 2000; Kirtikar and Basu 1981).

Phytochemistry Maesa chisia: α-spinasterol, α-spinosterol-0-β-D-glucopyranoside, and maesaquinone are reported from this species (Buckingham 1994; DPR 2007). Triterpenoid and acylated prosaponins were reported from leaves (Ajit et al. 1987). Maesa macrophylla: Flavonoid, Tannin, Saponin Monoterpene alcohol, 2, 5-dihydroxy-3-methyl-6-n-nonyl-1, 4-benzoquinone were isolated from leaf (Chandrasekhar et al. 1970).

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Local Medicinal Uses Maesa chisia: The plant of roots barks and leaves are used for insecticidal purposes in most part of Nepal. Roots are used in syphilis, and anthelmintic; the roots barks and leaves of plants are reported to be insecticidal, and some local people use them for fish poisoning (Mierow and Shrestha 1978; Singh et al. 1983; HMG 1986a, b). Leaves are used as fodder but if taken in excess causes vomiting and debility. Its fruit taken in large quantity is said to be toxic and especially children are more fatality but low quantity dose make no harm. Its stem, leaves, and fruits are poisonous to insects and fishes. Local people take precaution even in using it as firewood as it is said that even the smoke causes eye infection, headache, and giddiness (Bhandary and Shrestha 1982; Shrestha 1985). Root bark and leaf are used to poison fish. Plant juice is efficacious to treat ringworms at Gorkha District (Dahal and Das 2000; Manandhar 1989b, 1990a; Toba 1975; Manandhar 1987; Rajbhandari 2001). Plant juice is applied on the skin to treat ringworm (Sharma and Joshi 2000). Leaf and root juice is taken for fever twice a day for 1–2 days. Fruit is given to treat cough twice a day for 1–2 days (Shrestha et al. 2000–2001). Fruit juice is used for scabies (Shakya 2000). Root bark is used in insecticidal and also used in syphilis (Joshi and Joshi 2001). Bark is boiled in water about 10 min, and the filtered water is taken as an anthelmintic. Juice of the bark is applied to treat ringworm. A paste of ripe fruit is applied to treat scabies (Manandhar 2002). Plant juice is applied on the skin to treat ringworm (Joshi 2004). Paste of ripe fruit is applied to treat scabies (Joshi and Joshi 2001). Root bark, branches and leaves are used as insecticidal, anthelmintic, ringworm, and scabies (Lamichhane et al. 2014). Decoction of plant parts has insecticidal properties, used as an anthelmintic, bark juice is applied to treat ringworm (Baral and Kurmi 2006; DPR 2007; Shrestha and Shrestha 2008; Shrestha 2017; Chapagain et al. 2016). Juice of freshly crushed stem is applied on cuts and wounds for rapid healing, decoction of bark is used to treat tonsillitis (Joshi 2000), and as diuretic (Kunwar et al. 2012). Maesa macrophylla: Fruit paste, mixed with the fruit of Heynea trijuga, is applied to treat scabies at Dhading District; fruit juice is given to treat diphtheria of the cattle; leaf juice is used to stupefy fishes in the ditches at Lamjung District; fruit juice is applied on the affected part by the Chepangs of Makawanpur District to treat scabies; fruit juice is given by the Danuwars of the Sindhuli District to cure blood poisoning due to hemorrhage of animals; leaves are roasted in an earthen pot, powdered, and applied in case of boils at Gorkha District (Manandhar 1987, 1989a, b, 1990a, b; Toba 1975; Rajbhandari 2001; RIFWY 1986). Bark paste is applied to boils and pimples, and bark juice is mixed in equal amount with that of Trichilia connaroides, warmed, and given three teaspoons three times a day for diarrhea and dysentery; leaves are roasted in an earthen pot and powdered is applied to boils; juice of the fruit is applied to treat scabies (Baral and Kurmi 2006; Manandhar 2002, Toba 1975). Maesa montana: Root is given in syphilis, fruit is considered anthelmintic, and other parts are used for fish poison (Kirtikar and Basu 1981; Regmi 1991). Maesa indica is applied as hemostatic to cuts and wounds (Kichu et al. 2015), and to treat jaundice (Purkay et al. 2005).

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Maesa lanceolata serves to treat snakebite and eczema and is also used as anthelminthic (Tadesse et al. 2009; Teklehaymanot et al. 2007). In Madagascar used to remedy diarrhea and vomiting (Rakotoarivelo et al. 2013, 2015).

Local Food Uses Maesa chisia: Young leaves and shoots are used as vegetable (Arora 1964). Leaves are used in curries in N. Kanara, and fruits are edible (Singh et al. 1983). Maesa macrophylla fruits are eaten (Dangol et al. 2017). Maesa montana: Ripe fruit is edible (Manandhar 2002).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Maesa chisia: The plant is lopped for fodder and is important when other species are scare, especially during winter. Root and bark are used as fish poison; bark, root, and leaf have insecticidal purposes; the plant is an undesirable fuel wood because the smoke causes eye infection, headaches, and giddiness; villagers cover pots of locally made alcohol and beer with the leaves, believing they add good taste to the beverage (Manandhar 2002). Roots, bark, branches, and leaves are used as insecticides; leaves are used as pesticides (HMG Nepal 1986a, b; Joshi and Joshi 2005; Bhandary and Shrestha 1981, 1986). Maesa macrophylla: The leaf is used to poison fish, and juice of the fruit is given in cases of diphtheria of cattle (Manandhar 2002). Leaves are given to the cattle to increase the secretion of milk; flowering twig is used in ritual ceremonies by the Aathpahariya Rai of Dhankuta District (Baral and Kurmi 2006). Plants are used for medicine, and barks and leaves are used for fish poisoning (Chapagain et al. 2016; Tamang et al. 2017). Plants are used as fodder in Mulpani, Salyan District, and also reported as fodder (DPR 2003). Maesa lanceolata leaves are inserted into cosmetic cuts to yield good scarring (Yineger et al. 2007).

References Ajit K, Chakravarty BD, Satyes CP. Triterpenoid prosaponins from leaves of Maesa chisia var. angustifolia. Phytochemistry. 1987;26(8):2345–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/SOO31-9422(00) 84716-0. Areas with application of remote sensing and geographic information. Patan Pragya J. 2013;2(1):283–289. Arora RK. Native food plants of the Northern tribals. In: Glimpses of Indian ethnobotany, Mohan Primian. New Delhi: Oxford & IBH Publishing Co.; 1964. p. 91–106. Baral SR, Kurmi PP. A compendium of medicinal plants in Nepal. Kathmandu: Rachana Sharma, Maiju Bahal, Chabahil; 2006.

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Mallotus philippensis (Lam.) Mu¨ll.-Arg. EUPHORBIACEAE Ram C. Paudel, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Mallotus philippensis (Lam.) Müll.-Arg.: Echinus philippinensis Baill.; Rotlera tinctoria Roxb.

R. C. Paudel (*) Molecular Biotechnology Unit, Faculty of Science, Nepal Academy of Science and Technology (NAST), Lalitpur, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_147

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Local Names Mallotus philippensis: Nepali: Rhohini, Roina, Sindure; Bengali: Pethali; Chepang: Dusi, Paras, Sindurya; Kashmir: Rohindhan; Danuwar: Sunphunari; Darai: Raini; Gurung: Sindare; Lepcha: Puroa, Tukla; Magar: Sinduri; Buner: Kambela; Gharwal: Ruina; Maghi: Dude; Newari: Kamila; Raute: Rohinya; Satar: Rora; Tamang: Pyongla, Sililin, Sindri; Manipur: Ureiromlaba; Tharu: Rohini (Manandhar 2002); English: Kamala dye tree; Tamil: Kutthu senkalai; Jammu: Kameela, Kamla, Camela; Pashto: Kambela ‫ﮎﺍﻡﺏﯼﻝﺍ‬

Botany and Ecology Mallotus philippensis: Shrubs or small trees, 2–15 m tall. Branchlets, petiole, and inflorescences yellow-brownish stellate-tomentose. Stipules small, about 1 mm; petiole 2–9 cm; leaf blade ovate to lanceolate, 5–20
3–6 cm, leathery, adaxially glabrescent, abaxially gray-yellow tomentulose and sparsely red glandular-scaly, base cuneate or obtuse, with 2–4 basal glands, margin subentire, apex acuminate; basal veins 3. Male inflorescences unbranched, 5–10 cm; bracts triangular, about 1 mm. Male flowers 1–5-fascicled; pedicel 1–2 mm; calyx lobes 3 or 4, oblong, about 2 mm, tomentulose; stamens 15–30. Female inflorescences 3–8 cm, 10–15 cm in fruit; bracts triangular, about 1 mm. Female flowers: pedicel about 2 mm; calyx lobes 3–5, subovate, about 3 mm, tomentose; ovary tomentose and red glandularscaly; styles 3, 3–4 mm, plumose. Capsule subglobose, 8–10 mm in diameter, (2 or) 3-locular, covered with a red glandular-scaly layer. Seeds subglobose, about 4 mm in diameter, black. Flowering March–May, fruiting June–August (Wu et al. 1994– 2013; Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Phytochemistry Mallotus philippinensis contains different natural compounds like avonoids, cardenolides, coumarin, diterpenoids, isocoumarins, phenols, steroids, and triterpenoids (Gangwar et al. 2014). Among them major chemical constituent isolated from M. philippinensis are phloroglucinol derivatives: kamalins, rottlerin, and isorallorottlerin (Lounasmaa et al. 1975; Zaidi et al. 2009). Seed contains cardenolids, corotoxigenin L-rhamnoside, and corogl-aucigenin L-rhamnoside (Roberts et al. 1963). Triterpenoids: betulin-3-acetate (lupeol acetate and lupeol); pentacyclic terpenoids: acetylaleuritolic acid; olean-18-ene triterpene: 3b-Acetoxy-22bhydroxyolean-18-ene and ursane type triterpenoid: α-Amyrin was isolated from stem and bark (Bandopadhyay et al. 1972; Nair and Rao 1993). Heartwood was found to be rich in steroids such as β-Sitosterol (Nair and Rao 1993). Similarly phenolic compound Bergenin an isocourmarin was isolated from bark, leaves, and heartwood (Bandopadhyay et al. 1972). New flavonoids, i.e., chalcone derivatives: Kamalachalcone A; Kamalachalcone B; Mallotophilippen A, or 1-[5,7-dihydroxy-

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Fig. 1 Mallotus philippensis (Euphorbiaceae), fruit, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 2 Mallotus philippensis (Euphorbiaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

2,2-dimethyl-6-(2,4,6-trihydroxy-3-isobutyryl-5-methyl-benzyl)-2H-chromen-8-yl]2-methyl-butan-1-one; Mallotophilippen B or 1-[6-(3-acetyl-2,4,6-trihydroxy-5methyl-benzyl)-5,7-dihydroxy-2,2-dimethyl-2H-chromen-8-yl]-2-methyl-butan-1-one;

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Fig. 3 Mallotus philippensis (Euphorbiaceae), fruiting specimen, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Mallotophilippen C or (1-[6-(3,7-dimethyl-octa-2,6-dienyl)-5,7-dihydroxy-2,2-dimoethyl-2H-chromen-8-yl]-3-(4-hydroxy-phenyl)-propenone), R ¼ H; Mallotophilippen D or 3-(3,4-dihydroxy-phenyl)-1-[6-(3,7-dimethyl-octa-2,6-dienyl)-5,7-dihydroxy-2,2dimethyl-2H-chromen-8-yl]-propenone, R ¼ OH; Mallotophilippen E or 1-[5,7dihydroxy-2-methyl-6-(3-methyl-but-2-enyl)-2-(4-methyl-pent-3-enyl)-2H-chromen-8yl]-3-(3,4-dihydroxy-phenyl)-propenone from fruits and other parts of the M. philippensis (Lounasmaa et al. 1975; Furusawa et al. 2005; Zaidi et al. 2009; Mai et al. 2010). From seeds different fatty acids, triply-unsatured hydroxy acid, kamlolenic acid, glyceride, volatile oils, tannin, gum, citric acid, and oxalic acid have been reported.

Local Medicinal Uses Mallotus philippensis: Fruit is used as anthelmintic and anti-nematodes in calves and goats (Ch et al. 2006). Fruit is purgative for animal (Zabihullah et al. 2006). Dried seeds powder is used for constipation and for killing intestinal worms (Abbasi et al. 2010). Leaves used as demulcent, aphrodisiac, laxative; bark used as astringent, diuretic; seed used as expectorant, laxative (Ahmad et al. 2009). The powder of fruits

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is used as vermifuge, purgative, and in certain skin diseases. The leaves and barks are used for poulticing in cutaneous diseases (Arshad and Ahmad 2004). Leaves decoction is used as anthelmintic, carminative, and leaves poultice for skin diseases (Rashid et al. 2015). The crushed fruits are used to increase body temperature (charmaikh) (Hassan et al. 2014). Bar of the plant is used for abdominal pain (Jan et al. 2017). Fruit powder of the plant is used for intestinal worms (Abbasi et al. 2013). The fruits are crushed and used orally to treat bloody diarrhea (Amjad et al. 2015). Root, stem, bark, fruits, and seeds of M. philippensis are locally used as medicine by different communities of Nepal. Root juice is taken orally to cure gastritis (Dangol and Gurung 1991; Acharya 2012). Root, stem, and seed are antihelmintic (Manandhar 2002; Rijal 2008). Tharu community of Nawalparasi district uses fruits and leaf powder to get rid from tape worms (Ghimire and Bastakoti 2009). Communities in central Nepal take 1.5–2 g of fruit powder with butter and molasses once a day from 3 to 4 days for intestinal worms (Bhattarai 1992; Bhattarai 1993). The Tharu and Magar communities of Rupandehi district take decoction of red powdered seeds to expel tapeworms (Singh et al. 2011a, b). Bark juice is taken orally to treat diarrhea, dysentery, gastric, stomach disorders, typhoid, meningitis, and bronchitis (Manandhar 1988; Manandhar 1990; Manandhar 1998; Uprety et al. 2008; Acharya and Acharya 2009; Ghimire and Bastakoti 2009; Singh et al. 2011a, b; Thapa 2013; Luitel et al. 2014; Mahato and Sharma 2015). Mahato and Chaudhary (2005) have documented detailed mode of use of bark juice as 3–4 teaspoonful three times a day for 7 days to treat diarrhea and dysentery. In the same way have also reported boiled bark powder mix in fruit pulp juice of bel to be effective against gastric. Bark is used for curation/abortion (Luitel et al. 2014). Bark decoction is taken as a remedy of bronchitis, meningitis, and typhoid (Manandhar 2002). Chepang communities of midhills use leaf, steam, and bark to treat dysentery, abdominal spasm, and diarrhea (Rijal 2008). Leaves paste and juice is used to cure skin diseases, fungal infection of skin, and constipation (Manandhar 2002; Sigdel and Rokaya 2011). Fruit and bark are used in the treatment of asthma, dandruff, ringworm, scabies (Kunwar et al. 2009a, b; Kunwar and Bussmann 2009; Acharya 2012). Fruit powder is also applied externally in case of itches and scabies (Joshi and Joshi 2007). Fruit powder is regarded as purgative and vermifuge (Manandhar 2002). Seed decoction is considered effective for stomachache and body cooling (Uprety et al. 2011). Used in Gharwal to treat neck pain (Singh et al. 2019), and in Kashmir and Kammu to treat constipation and as anthelminthic (Gairola et al. 2014; Malik et al. 2015), and for abdominal pain (Ahmad Jan et al. 2017; Ayyanar and Ignacimuthu 2005). Mallotus tetracoccus has medicinal use in Northern Bengal (Raj et al. 2018). Mallotus barbatus serves to treat postpartum abdominal pain; postpartum secondary hemorrhages, and hemorrhages after miscarriage (de Boer et al. 2014).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Mallotus philippensis: The leaves are used as fodder. The glandular fruits are used as dye (Manandhar 2002). Used also in rituals (Khumbongmayum et al. 2005).

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Mallotus subulatus is used as fishing poison (Neuwinger 2004). Mallotus barbatus is regarded as Buddha tree (Hongmao et al. 2002).

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Singh AP, Kumar M, Nagar B, Pala NA, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal use of plant resources in Kirtinagar block of Tehri Garhwal in Western Himalaya. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18:14. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.14.1-11. Thapa LB. Medicinal plants used by Raji ethnic tribe of Nepal in treatment of gastrointestinal disorders. Our Nature. 2013;11(2):177–86. Uprety Y, Boon EK, Poudel RC. Traditional use of plant resources by Bankariya ethnic group in Makawanpur District. Munchen: GRIN Verlag; 2008. Uprety Y, Poudel RC, Asselin H, Boon E. Plant biodiversity and ethnobotany inside the projected impact area of the Upper Seti Hydropower Project, Western Nepal. Environ Dev Sustain. 2011;13:463–92. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St.Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Zabihullah Q, Rashid A, Akhtar N. Ethnobotanical survey in kot Manzaray Baba valley Malakand agency, Pakistan. Pak J Plant Sci. 2006;12(2):115–21. Zaidi SF, Yoshida I, Butt F, Yusuf MA, Usmanghani K, Kadowaki M, Sugiyama T. Potent bactericidal constituents from Mallotus philippinensis against clarithromycin and metronidazole resistant strains of Japanese and Pakistani helicobacter pylori. Biol Pharm Bull. 2009;32(4):631–6.

Malva neglecta Wallr. MALVACEAE Hammad Ahmad Jan, Maroof Ali Turi, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Local Names Malva neglecta: Pashto: Panerak ‫ﭖﻥﯼﺭﮎ‬, English: Mallow. Malva sylvestris: Pashto: English: Mallow.

H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan M. A. Turi College of Life Science, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu, China R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_148

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Fig. 1 Malva neglecta (Malvaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Botany and Ecology Malva neglecta: Perennial. The plant stands 8–45 cm tall, grayish-downy. It has a thick taproot. The stems are numerous, ascending or procumbent, very rarely erect, often woody at base, branched except at ends, terete, usually turning dark purple in lower part, rarely green throughout, densely clothed from base with stellate down. The leaves are long-petioled, petiole mostly many times length of blade. The leaf blade about 30 mm broad and 25 mm long. The flowers mostly 3 or 4 in axils, rarely solitary. The fruit somewhat nodding, terete, joined near the flower, several times the length of the flower, but shorter than subtending leaf. The lobes ovate-triangular, somewhat accrescent and closing above the fruit. The corolla is pink and two or three times the length of the calyx. The petals are ovate, notched at the apex, claw-longfringed at the base. The seeds are dark brown, very finely wrinkled, reniform, and whitish at the hilum. The plant can be found in the gardens, roads, and fences, and waste places generally. Caucasus: Ciscaucasia, Dagestan, Eastern and Southern Transcaucasia (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Malva neglecta Wallr.

Fig. 2 Malva neglecta (Malvaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Maroof Ali Turi)

Fig. 3 Malva neglecta (Malvaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Maroof Ali Turi)

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Malva sylvestris: Biennial, rarely perennial or annual. The plant is 30–120 cm high. The stem is erect, rarely ascending, mostly branched, covered with scattered, rather long, simple, 2-pronged hairs. They are usually interspersed with smaller stellate hairs, forming a densely hairy coat, or conversely the stem is almost smooth, or very rarely is almost naked on the stem, calyx, and pedicels. The petioles are very long, those of lower and middle leaves greatly exceeding blade, mostly glabrous or only along groove, above densely hairy, more rarely sparsely hairy throughout. The leaf blade is orbicular, cordate or rarely in upper leaves truncate at base, 5–7 lobed, occasionally in lower and middle leaves lobeless, lobes semicircular or broadly ovate, not extending 1/3 the diameter of the blade, rarely resembling the fig leaf or current leaf. The young leaves are covered by hairs on both sides. They become more smooth as they age. The stipules are oblong to lanceolate, acute, pale green, parallelnerved, margin long-ciliate. The flowers are several, rarely solitary. There are small stellate hairs interspersed with the longer 2-pronged hairs on the flower. The corolla is pink, drying lilac, 3–4 times the length of the calyx. The petals are 20–25 mm long. They are oblong to obovate, deeply notched. The seeds are reniform, with broad flat back, 1.5–2 mm long and broad, reddish-brown. They ripen to a dark brown, thin, fine, and uniformly wrinkly. The plant is found in shrub thickets, open woods, parks, gardens, waste places, orchards, cereal fields, field borders, waysides, and along fences. Caucasus: Ciscaucasia, Dagestan, Western, Eastern and Southern Transcaucasia (Figs. 4 and 5).

Fig. 4 Malva sylvestris (Malvaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Maroof Ali Turi)

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Fig. 5 Malva sylvestris (Malvaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Maroof Ali Turi)

Local Medicinal Uses Malva neglecta: Root is used as purgative for young cattle (Hadi et al. 2014). Plant is used as vegetable and antispasmodic (Jan et al. 2010). Leaves are used for constipation (Ahmad et al. 2006). Leaves decoction is used as antispasmodic (Hamayun et al. 2006). Plant is used for constipation, pile, diabetes, dry cough, urinary tract, and bladder problems (Mahmood et al. 2012). Roots are boil and use as purgative for domestic animals. Plants were used for the care of cough and cold, also used in joshanda (Shuaib et al. 2014). Root is used as purgative for young cattle (Haq et al. 2011). Plant is used as a local vegetable (Sag) to remove constipation and enhance digestion (Sher et al. 2010). Root decoction is used as purgative (Jan et al. 2017). Decoction of leaves is used as a laxative. Crushed root in water is given to cows and buffaloes to facilitate detachment and expulsion of placenta after delivery. Decoction of the roots is used as an egg-white substitute for making meringue. The plant is an excellent laxative for young children (Shaheen et al. 2012). A poultice of fresh ground leaves is applied to treat toothache (Sher et al. 2016).

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Malva sylvestris: Leaves of all species are used in traditional medicine. A decoction of leaves is taken for stomachache and menstrual disorders, and the fresh leaves are cooked and eaten for abdominal pain in Merzifon. Fruits, leaves, and roots are used to treat asthma, abdominal pain, ulcer, colds, sore throat, constipation, abscesses, inflammation, infertility in women, and edema, and as an emmenagogue. They also serve as stomachic and digestive and are used to treat wounds, gynecologic problems, and hemorrhoids. All species are used as antiinflammatory: A decoction of leaves and roots is used to gargle to treat inflammations of the upper airways, and the tincture is also applied externally for skin inflammation, ulcers, blastema, and hemorrhoids. Applied as mitigative, laxative, and for wound healing. Malva sylvestris is also used for gastro-intestinal diseases. An infusion of flowers and leaves is internally taken to treat colds and inflammatory process of the digestive tract, as well as constipation. An infusion of flowers is used in cough and as expectorant. Sick people were given mkhali (vegetable spread) made of M. sylvestris during fasting periods (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017). Common mallow is used for its anti-inflammatory, expectorant, and laxative properties. It is used in the treatment of bronchitis, constipation, abscesses, cough, burns, and inflammation of the oropharyngeal cavity. Externally it is used to reduce edema. The root or branches in cooking is used to relieve colds, coughs, lung catarrh, and acute inflammatory diseases; it is both soothing and very useful against diarrhea. This same cooking applied in the form of compresses is applied to relieve inflammations, abscesses, and ulcers. The flower of Malva is very used to treat the diseases of the respiratory organs, and they have anti-inflammatory, pectoral, and sudorific properties. To reduce the swelling of the face, warm compresses of water and mauve plasters are applied. The mucilage found in all parts of this plant acts as a desirritant of the mucous membranes of the intestine applied in the form of washes and also taken in small portions. The decoction of the plant is used as a mild laxative to treat constipation in young children. The whole plant is used to treat constipation, intestinal inflammations, cough, treat lung diseases, flu, diarrhea, and colic. Used also as laxative, for stomach pain, the disinfection of wounds (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). In Pakistan used as paste to treat toothache (Sher et al. 2016), for constipation, as abortifacient, for sore throat, cough, febricity, and scorpion bites (Umair et al. 2019), and as emollient (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018). In Ethiopia used for wound care (Luizza et al. 2013). The whole fresh plant used as laxative. The leaves and flowers, in plasters or infusion, are used to reduce fever, drunkenness, to wash wounds and treat fractured areas. Leaves and stems, fresh or dried are used to treat heart, nerves, tachycardia, epilepsy (initial stages), vaginal and intestinal cleansing. The species shows antibacterial activity and no toxicity (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). Malva parviflora: Branches and leaves are used to treat stomach infection, fever, urinary infections, for wound healing, cold. The stems and leaves are prepared in Colombia as infusion for diseases of the kidneys, internal tumors, and fevers. Fresh leaves are used to treat fever. The whole plant, infused and mixed with “cashamarucha,” is used to treat inflammation of the liver. Liver problems,

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inflammation, cough, bronchitis, coughing with blood. The species shows antibacterial activity, and no toxicity. Used also as laxative, for stomach pain, the disinfection of wounds (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). In Pakistan used as paste to treat toothache (Sher et al. 2016), for constipation, as abortifacient, for sore throat, cough, febricity, and scorpion bites (Umair et al. 2019), and as emollient (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018). In Ethiopia and Turkey used for wound care (Luizza et al. 2013; Yeşilada et al. 1999).

Local Food Uses Malva neglecta/Malva sylvestris: All species have edible fruits and leaves. Mainly fresh and cooked leaves and young fruits; traditional soup is preparing as well. Tender leaves and stems are consumed all over the Caucasus. Young leaves all species are used as food in the form of a green soup (Batello et al. 2010; Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2017; Yeşil et al. 2019). Both species are used to make Sarma (Dogan et al. 2015).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Malva neglecta/Malva sylvestris: A dye solution is prepared from flowers. Malva neglecta yields pink and lilac colors and shades. Solution is used for dyeing wool yarn as well as products made of wool. Malva sylvestris yields black-blue, darkviolet, or grey color and shade is obtained from flowers (depending on stain) for dyeing wool and its products. All species are used as nectariferous plant and produce much nectar and pollen (Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2017). The leaves are food for animals, especially pigs (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). Malva parviflora: For “susto” (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020).

References Ahmad S, Ali A, Beg H, Dasti AA. Ethnobotanical studies on some medicinal plants of Booni Valley, District Chitral Pakistan. Pak J Weed Sci Res. 2006;12(3):183–90. Batello C, Avanzato D, Akparov Z, Kartvelishvili T. Gardens of Biodiversity. Rome: FAO; 2010. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Aleksanyan A, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Malva neglecta Wallr.; Malva sylvestris L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-49412-8_115. Bussmann RW e. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing International Publishing; 2017; XXVII, 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Dogan Y, Nedelcheva A, Łuczaj Ł, Drăgulescu C, Stefkov G, Maglajlić A, Ferrier J, Papp N, Hajdari A, Mustafa B, Dajić-Stevanović Z, Pieroni A. Of the importance of a leaf: the ethnobotany of sarma in Turkey and the Balkans. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2015;11:26. https:// doi.org/10.1186/s13002-015-0002-x.

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Hadi F, Ibrar M, Dastagir G, Arif M, Naveed K, Adnan M. Weed diversity in wheat and maize with special reference to their ethnomedicinal uses at rich valley, Hindukush range, Chitral, Pakistan. Pak J Weed Sci Res. 2014;20(3):335–46. Hamayun M, Khan A, Afzal S, Khan MA. Study on traditional knowledge and utility of medicinal herbs of district Buner, NWFP, Pakistan. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2006;5(3):407–12. Haq F, Ahmad H, Alam M. Traditional uses of medicinal plants of Nandiar Khuwarr catchment (District Battagram), Pakistan. J Med Plants Res. 2011;5(1):39–48. Jan G, Khan MA, Gul F, Ahmad M, Jan M, Zafar M. Ethnobotanical study of common weeds of Dir Kohistan valley, Khyber Pakhtoonkhwa, Pakistan. Pak J Weed Sci Res. 2010;16(1):81–8. Jan HA, Jan S, Ahmad N, Aysha M. Ethno-medicinal survey of indigenous medicinal plants used by the local population of Goleen Valley, Chitral, Pakistan. SM J Med Plant Stud. 2017;1(1):1–8. Luizza MW, Young H, Kuroiwa C, Evangelista P, Worede A, Bussmann RW, Weimer A. Local knowledge of plants and their uses among women in the Bale Mountains, Ethiopia. Ethnobotany Research and Application. 2013;11:315–339. Mahmood A, Mahmood A, Malik RN. Indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants from Leepa valley, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2012;143(1):338–46. Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, Romero C. Malva parviflora L.; Malva sylvestris L. In: Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions – ethnobotany of the Andes. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/9783-319-77093-2_179-1. Shaheen H, Shinwari ZK, Qureshi RA, Ullah Z. Indigenous plant resources and their utilization practices in village populations of Kashmir Himalayas. Pak J Bot. 2012;44(2):739–45. Sher H, Alyemeni MN, Wijaya L, Shah AJ. Ethnopharmaceutically important medicinal plants and its utilization in traditional system of medicine, observation from the Northern Parts of Pakistan. J Med Plants Res. 2010;4(18):1853–64. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni groups in Chitral District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Shuaib M, Khan I, Sharifullah RK, Hashmatullah SM, Naz R. Ethnobotanical studies of spring flora of Dir Lower, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Pak J Weed Sci Res. 2014;20(1):37–49. Umair M, Altaf M, Bussmann RW, Abbasi AM. Ethnomedicinal uses of the local flora in Chenab riverine area, Punjab province Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2019;15:7. https://doi.org/10. 1186/s13002-019-0285-4 Ur-Rahman I, Afsal A, Iqbal Z, Ijas F, Ali N, Asif M, Alam J, Majid A, Bussmann RW. Traditional and ethnomedicinal dermatology practices in Pakistan. Clin Dermatol. 2018;363:310–9. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.clindermatol.2018.03.018. Yeşil Y, Çelik M, Yılmaz B. Wild edible plants in Yeşilli (Mardin-Turkey), a multicultural area. Yeşil et al. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2019;15:52. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-019-0327-y. Yeşilada E, Sezik E, Honda G, Takaishi Y, Takeda Y, Tanaka T. Traditional medicine in Turkey IX: Folk medicine in north-west Anatolia. J Ethnopharmacol. 1999;64:195–210.

Meconopsis aculeata Royle Meconopsis horridula Hook. f. and Thomson Meconopsis latifolia (Prain) Prain Meconopsis quintuplinervia Regel Meconopsis simplicifolia (D. Don) Walpers PAPAVERACEAE Mukti Ram Poudeyal, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Synonyms Meconopsis horridula Hook. f. and Thomson: Meconopsis rudis (Prain) Prain: Meconopsis horridula var. spinulifera L.H. Zhou: Meconopsis horridula var. rudis Prain: Meconopsis prattii (Prain) Prain: Meconopsis rudis (Prain) Prain: Meconopsis sinuata var. prattii Prain Papaver horridulum (Hook. f. and Thomson) Christenh. & Byng Meconopsis latifolia (Prain) Prain: Meconopsis sinuata var. latifolia Prain Meconopsis simplicifolia (D. Don) Walpers: Meconopsis nyingchiensis L.H. Zhou; Papaver simplicifolium D. Don M. R. Poudeyal Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_149

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Local Names Meconopsis aculeata: Chinese: 皮刺绿绒蒿 pi ci lü rong hao. Meconopsis horridula: Sikkim: Kesar; Nepali Kyaasar (Sof), Sherpa: Dangin-da; Tamang: Chargun; Tibetan: Tasargaunin; English: Prickly blue poppy. Rajbhandari 2001; Egan et al. 2012); Chinese: 多刺绿绒蒿 duo ci lü rong hao. Meconopsis latiofolia: Meconopsis quintuplinervia: Chinese: 五脉绿绒蒿 wu mai lü rong hao. Meconopsis simplicifolia: Bhutia: Upal mentook; Chinese: 单叶绿绒蒿 dan ye lü rong hao.

Botany and Ecology Meconopsis aculeata: Herbs, monocarpic, 30–60 cm tall in flower. Taproot long and narrow, or napiform, to 13 cm. Basal leaves in a deciduous rosette; petiole 10–15 cm, basally expanded and sheathing stem; blade variously shaped, oblong or cordate to deltoid, 10–20
3.5–5 cm, pinnatifid or irregularly pinnatisect, rarely bipinnatifid, usually broadly incised among lower lobes, both surfaces with rather sparse, simple bristlelike hairs, apex obtuse, or rounded to acute. Lower cauline leaves similar to basal ones but upper cauline leaves sessile, smaller and with fewer divisions. Inflorescence a raceme with up to 20 flowers, all but uppermost bracteate or in axils of leaves. Flowers shallowly cup-shaped, lateral-facing to semi-nutant. Pedicel erect, 2.5–13.5 cm. Petals usually 4, rarely 5 or 6, sky blue or rarely blue-purple or red, obovate or suborbicular, about 3.7
3.7 cm. Filaments filiform, of same color as petals but deeper; anthers golden. Ovary globose to elliptic, densely golden fulvous to bristly, bristles at first appressed, later ascending to subspreading; styles distinct, about 1.2 cm, basally thickened in fruiting; stigma lobes free or connate, oblong or spherical. Capsule spheroidal to elliptic-oblong, densely bristly, (3 or)4–6 (8)-valvate for a short distance from apex. Seeds reniform. Flowering June– August. Rocky habitats, scree, stream margins; 2400–4200 m. SW Xizang, NW India, Pakistan (Wu et al. 1994–2013). Meconopsis horridula: Herbs, monocarpic, to 30 cm tall in flower, (often rather taller in fruit), overall with fulvous or yellowish, firm, sharp, spreading, strawcolored bristles, 5–10 mm, generally dark blackish or purplish black and somewhat enlarged at base. Taproot plump, prolonged, terete, to 20 cm or longer, 1–2 cm in diameter at top. Leaves all basal, deciduous; petiole 1–11 cm; blade lanceolate to elliptic-oblanceolate or oblanceolate, 5–12
1–3.6 cm, both surfaces with fulvous or yellowish compressed spines, base attenuate to petiole, margin entire, or undulate, occasionally slightly lobed or toothed, apex obtuse or acute. Flowers solitary on scape, 4–8.2 cm in diameter, semi-nutant, to 29 per plant, erect, these sometimes partly agglomerated especially in lower 1/2; scapes green or purplish, 10–27 cm, firm, with fulvous spreading bristles. Flower buds nodding, globose, 8–12 mm in diameter Sepals adaxially bristly. Petals 5–10, indigo, pale to deep blue, purplish, lilac, violet-blue, or occasionally wine-purple, broadly obovate, 2–4
1.5–3.4 cm.

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Fig. 1 Meconopsis horridula (Papaveraceae) a flowering individual, Dudhakunda, 4700 m, Langtang National Park, Central Nepal. (Photo Mukti Ram Poudeyal)

Filaments of similar color as petals, often rather darker, filiform, 10–14 mm; anthers yellow or orange-yellow, oblong, 1.5–2 mm. Ovary conical, with fulvous compressed- or inclined spines; styles 6–7 mm, slightly exceeding stamens; stigmas yellow, conical, 2.5–4 mm. Capsule obovoid or elliptic-oblong, rarely broadly ovate, 1.2–2
0.6–1.1 cm, with rubiginous or fulvous spreading spines, spine bases thickened, usually 3–5-valvate to 1/3 its length from apex. Seeds reniform, seed coat clathrate-tessellate. Flowering June–September. Grassy slopes, scree, rock ledges, stabilized moraines; 3600–5400 m. W Gansu, Qinghai, W Sichuan, Xizang, Bhutan, NE India, N Myanmar, Nepal (Egan et al. 2012; Grey-Wilson 2014; Wu et al. 1994–2013; Figs. 1 and 2). Meconopsis latifolia: Perennial prickly herbs, 30–120 cm tall, with thick fusiform root stock and simple leafy ridged stem. Radical leaves caducous, cauline leaves alternate, linear-oblong to oblong, obtuse, shallowly dissected with narrowed base, green above, glaucous beneath, 10–18 cm long, 3–5 cm broad; upper leaves gradually becoming smaller and sessile; petiole of the lower leaves 3–6.5 cm long. Flowers in raceme-like cymes, arranged in basipetal succession, 5–6 cm in diameter, bracteate except the uppermost; bracts foliaceous, sessile, lanceolate-oblong, 1.5– 4 cm long, 5–7 mm broad, with wavy margin; pedicel 3–7 cm long, prickly. Sepals

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Fig. 2 Meconopsis horridula (Papaveraceae) habitat location, Dudhakunda, 4700 m, Langtang National Park, Central Nepal. (Photo Mukti Ram Poudeyal)

2, ovate, c. 1.6 cm long, 1.8 cm broad, prickly outside. Petals 4, blue, broadly ovate, sometimes slightly cuspidate, 3.5–3.8 cm long, 3–3.3 cm broad. Stamens multiseriate; filaments filiform, 7–8 mm long, glabrous, deep blue; anthers dithecous, basifixed, 1.5–2 mm long, oblong, yellow or pale orange. Ovary 1–1.5 (1.8) cm long, ovoid, prickly, 4–6 mm broad; style glabrous, c. 3 mm long; stigma globose capitate with 4, oblong, radiating united rays. Capsule obconic, prickly, 2.5–3 (3.5) cm long (including persistent stigma and style), 6–10 mm broad; seeds numerous, obovate to plano-convex, 1–1.5 mm long. Endemic to Kashmir (Ali & Qaiser 1995–2020). Meconopsis quintuplinervia: Herbs, perennial, 30–50 cm tall in flower, basally with persistent leaf bases, accompanied by dense, yellowish or brown barbellate setae. Roots fibrous. Leaves all basal, forming a rosette, deciduous; petiole 3–9.8 cm; blade obovate to lanceolate, 2–10
1.4–2.2 cm, both surfaces with dense yellowish or brown barbellate setae, obviously longitudinally 3- to 5-veined, base attenuate and decurrent into petiole, margin entire, apex acute or obtuse. Flowers solitary on scape, up to 3 per leaf rosette, pendent. Scape costate, with fulvous, barbellate, deflexed setae, denser toward top. Flower buds broadly ovoid. Sepals about 2
1.5 cm, adaxially densely fulvous barbellate-setose. Petals 4–6, pale lilac-blue to purple, obovate or suborbicular, 3–4
2.5–3.7 cm. Filaments of same color as petals or white, filiform, 1.5–2 cm; anthers yellowish, oblong, 1–1.5 mm. Ovary spheroidal,

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ovoid, or oblong, 5–8 mm, with dense, fulvous, barbellate setae; styles short, 1– 1.5 mm; stigmas capitate, 3- to 6-lobed. Capsule elliptic or oblong-elliptic, 1.5– 2.5 cm, densely appressed barbellate-setose, slightly 3- to 6-valvate for a short distance from apex. Seeds black-brown, narrowly ovoid, about 3 mm, seed coat tessellate, and corrugate. Flowering June–September. Grassy slopes, often among shrubs, alpine grasslands, forest understories, and margins, meadows; 2300–4600 m. S and SW Gansu, W Hubei, NE Qinghai, Shaanxi, NW Sichuan, NE Xizang (Wu et al. 1994–2013). Meconopsis simplicifolia: Herbs, monocarpic, 20–50 cm tall in flower (to 85 cm in fruit), basally with dense tuft of old leaf remains accompanied by rufous or golden barbellate bristles. Taproot about 13 cm, slender, or absent and fibrous-rooted. Leaves all basal, forming a rosette, deciduous; petiole linear, about 20 cm, basally ampliate; blade oblanceolate or lanceolate to ovate-lanceolate, 4.5–16
0.9–3.5 cm, both surfaces shortly barbellate-villous, abaxially midvein and lateral veins distinct, base attenuate into petiole, margin entire or irregularly serrate or crenate, apex acute or obtuse. Flowers solitary on scape, up to 5 per rosette, occasionally more, seminutant, barbellate-setose, hairs at first appressed, later spreading to deflexed. Flower buds broadly ovoid. Sepals adaxially densely spreading, barbellate-setose. Petals 5– 8, purple to deep sky blue, obovate, 3.3–4.8
2.4–4.4 cm. Filaments of same color as petals, filiform, 1–1.5 cm; anthers orange, golden, or yellow, oblong, about 2 mm. Ovary narrowly elliptic to oblong-elliptic, 1.5–2 cm, glabrous or setose; styles distinct, 4–9 mm; stigmas green, brownish, or whitish, capitate or subclavate, 4- to 9-lobed. Capsule narrowly oblong to oblong-elliptic, 4.2–6.5
1.3–2.8 cm, reflexed barbellate-setose, 4- to 9-valvate for about 1/3 its length from apex. Seeds elliptic or reniform, seed coat densely papillose. Flowering June–August. Grasslands on slopes, among shrubs, rock crevices, tree line margins, streamsides; 3300–4500 m. SE and SCentral Xizang, Bhutan, India (Sikkim), Central Nepal (Wu et al. 1994–2013). Although the distribution range is wide, the habitat amplitude of Meconopsis species is quite constricted to the nearly neutral to alkaline soil, free of zonal vegetation. Also, due to its distribution in a narrow geographical band at optimum vegetation limit, the plant can be considered to be intolerable to the competition pressure created by surrounding vegetation and thus, can be considered as climate change indicator species. As different research findings indicated that alpine species are the most extinction prone species and M. horridula could be considered as topmost threatened species to the alpine flora. Inherently plant has a distinct physiological capacity to bloom even in accumulated snow; however, at the same time plant is unable to adapt by a small increment of temperature (Zhang 2010). Global warming and glacier receding could be a major threat to the future regeneration of the population. Research indicated that plants can bloom even at 10 °F and physiologically all enzymatic activities are functional. Also, the plant prefers to grow in intense solar radiation combination with sufficient moisture conditions (Zhang 2010). Thus, to determine the optimum requirement for cultivation is considered to be more challenging as compared to other species of low-elevation Meconopsis (Zhang 2010).

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Due to presences of alkaloids, it has a deep physiological dormancy. The dormancy is usually broken down when seeds get a strong prechilled effect by snow on its habitat prior to the germination (Sulaiman 1993). Thus, the frozen water content in the form of permafrost might be necessary to break down the dormancy, which is normally available at the winter season. Thus, if any deviation takes place in winter weather from the present climatic scenario, the population may deteriorate very soon from the natural condition. Researchers also indicated that increasing temperatures creating competition by the low land competitor species which are moving towards the habitat of the M. horridula and may replace the populations very soon. The researchers also reported that the species is unmovable towards the higher range because of its habitat specificity within the certain range of soil characters, precipitation, and microenvironmental factors that are inherently integrated. It also noted that habitat has a very less amount of organic matter due to almost null vegetation presence in their rocky banyan habitat. Thus, several empirical assessments may need to manage the populations at the natural condition. The major threat to the population of Meconopsis species might be unsustainable harvesting for medicinal uses. Moreover, habitat area is heavily influenced by human-induced disturbances such as livestock grazing (Poudeyal and Ghimire 2011). Thus, any level of encroachment is less tolerable to the habitat; thus, extinction is the ultimate option. Recent years, due to wider exploration of medicinal properties, the plant is gaining popularities and considered to be increasing market prices, thus have an increasing commercial demand. Local people including herders are engaged in the harvesting of plants before maturation. According to local herders (at Langtang area, central Nepal), a single person can collect 30–40 kg at the prices 350–500 Nrs/kg dry weight in a season. It is important to mention here that several trials have been failed to establish cultivated populations (Zhang 2010).

Phytochemistry Phytochemical analysis provided that the plant has strong properties of antimalarial capacity and can be used as antibacterial drug production. Besides these, due to the abundant presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, and phenylpropanoids, the plant showed strong anticancerous functions. Alkaloids are the main bioactive compounds. Among the many species of Meconopsis tested for biological activities, M. horridula showed the highest level of tumor inhibition activities (Fan et al. 2015). O-Methylflavinantine, Oleracein E, Mecambridine, Berberine, 8,9-Dihydroprooxocryptochine, Magnofloring, 6-Methoxy-17-methyl-2,3-[methylenebis(oxy)]-morphinan-5-en-7-one, Reframoline, Mecambroline, Amurensine, Meconoquintupline, Cryptopine, and Corysamine are also found in plant extract (Zhou et al. 2009). Liu et al. (2014) conducted a comprehensive analysis and reported that there are 40 phytochemicals (17 flavonoids, 15 alkaloids, and eight phenylpropanoids) in which flavonoids and alkaloids response to cancerous cells. They detected Citric acid, Cinnamic acid, Caffeic acid glucoside, Caffeic acid, Simplicifoli anine,

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Magnoflorine, p-hydroxycinnamic acid esters, p-hydroxycinnamic acid, 6,7-dihydroxycoumarin, 6-Methoxy-17-methyl-2,3-[methylenebis(oxy)]-morphinan-5en-7-one, Crytopine, O-Methylflavinantine, Scoulerine, Amurine, Cinnamamide, Alborine, Protopine, Amurensinine N-oxideA, Amurensinine N-oxideB, Hydnocarpin, Sinactine, Stylopine, Copticine, Quercetin, Quercetin-3-o-gentiobioside, Quercetin-3-O-[α-Lrhamnopyranosyl(1 ! 2)]-β-D-glucopyranoside, Quercetin-3-O-[β-D-galactopyranosyl (1 ! 2)]-β-D-glucopyranoside, Hyperoside, Isoquercetin, N-p-hydroxyl-transcoumaroyltyramine, Kaempferol-3-O-[β-D-glucoy-ranosyl(1 ! 2)-β-D-glucopyranoside, Kaempferol-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, Kaempferol, Kaempferide, Tricin-7-O-β-Dglucopyranoside, Tricin, Luteolin-7-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, Luteolin, and Apigenin, 3-(kaempferol-8-yl)-2,3-epoxyflavanone from the dried powder of the plant. Zhou et al. (2009) further reported the presence of O-Methylflavinantine, Oleracein E, Mecambridine, Berberine, 8,9-Dihydroprooxocryptochine, Magnofloring, 6-Methoxy-17-methyl-2,3[methylenebis(oxy)]-morphinan-5-en-7-one, Reframoline, Mecambroline, Amurensine, Meconoquintupline, Cryptopine, and Corysamine in the plant extract. Guo et al. (2014) determined the presence of alkaloid cavidilinine and pentacyclic triterpenoids in the M. horridula and argued that Fumarioideae and Papaveroideae should be merged into a single family Papaveraceae.

Local Medicinal Uses Meconopsis aculeata: Used widely to treat cardiac ailments, backache, headache, liver ailments, lung diseases, pharyngitis, stomach-ache, ulcers, as narcotic, for gynecological disorders, renal colic, and wounds (Gairola et al. 2014). Meconopsis horridula: To treat bone fractures, fever, back pain, lung and skin diseases, sinusitis, bile disease, and wounds (Tamang et al. 2017). Meconopsis horridula is not only prized for its ornamental value but also highly popular in traditional medicines for hundreds of years as a Tibetan folk remedy. Plant- used to treat fevers, colds, headaches, sinusitis, itching, wounds healing, skin and bile diseases, and fractures in almost all highland areas from east to west in Nepal. The plant in combination or single is used in herbal treatment for headaches, inflammation, analgesia, and healing fracture (Zhang 2010; Fan et al. 2015). It also used as a cooling agent, relieve pain, cardiac disorder, blood circulation, respiratory problems – cough and asthma – analgesia, and to treat bruises. The modern pharmacological test also approved as the plant has sedative, anti-inflammatory, antiShigella activities, osteomyelitis, and liver disease (Fan et al. 2015). The whole part of the plant is used for medicinal uses. Meconopsis latifolia is used as tonic and analgesic (Majid et al. 2019). Meconopsis quintuplinervia serves for muscle contractions, stomach problems, and lung diseases (Aumeeruddy-Thomas & Shengii 2003). Meconopsis simplicifolia serves as tonic and to treat renal problems (Maity et al. 2004).

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Local Food Uses Meconopsis horridula: As per the author field-based observation, seeds are fried and pickled for edible use in the Langtang area central Nepal.

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Meconopsis horridula: Seeds are also provided to sheep to protect them from cold and cold diarrhea.

References Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan and Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995–2020. Aumeeruddy-Thomas Y, Shengji P. Applied ethnobotany: case studies from the Himalayan region. People and plants working paper 12. Surrey: WWF; 2003. Egan PA, Pendry CA, Shrestha S. Papaveraceae. In: Watson MF, Akiyama S, Ikeda H, Pendry CA, Rajbhandari KR, Shrestha KK, editors. Flora of Nepal. Edinburgh: Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh; 2012. p. 1–14. Fan J, Wang Y, Wang X, Wang P, Tang W, Yuan W, Kong L, Liu Q. The antitumor activity of Meconopsis Horridula Hook, a traditional tibetan medical plant, in Murine leukemia L1210 cells. Cell Physiol Biochem. 2015;37:1055–65. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Grey-Wilson C. The genus Meconopsis blue poppies and their relatives. Kew: Royal Botanical Garden; 2014. Guo Z, Guo Q, Zhang S, Li C, Chai X, Tu P. Chemical constituents from the aerial parts of Meconopsis horridula (Papaveraceae). Biochem Systemat Ecol. 2014;55:329–32. Liu J, Wu H, Zheng F, Liu W, Feng F, Xie N. Chemical constituents of Meconopsis horridula and their simultaneous quantification by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. J Sep Sci. 2014;37:2513–22. Maity D, Pradhan N, Chauhan AS. Folk uses of some medicinal plants from North Sikkim. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2004;3(1):66–71. Majid A, Ahmad H, Saqib Z, Ur Rahman I, Khan U, Alam J, Hussain Shah A, Ahmad Jan S, Ali N. Exploring threatened traditional knowledge; ethnomedicinal studies of rare endemic flora from Lesser Himalayan region of Pakistan. Revista Brasileira de Farmacognosia. 2019;29(6). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bjp.2019.03.005 Poudeyal MR, Ghimire SK. Habitat differentiation and population traits variation between the rare Meconopsis napaulensis and the common congener M. paniculata: implications for rare plant management. Botanica Orientalis. J Plant Sci. 2011;8:57–69. Rajbhandari KR. Ethnobotany of Nepal. Kathmandu: Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal; 2001. Sulaiman IM. Seed germination studies in three species of threatened, ornamental, Himalayan poppy, Meconopsis Vig. (Papaveraceae). Seed Sci Technol. 1993;21:593–603. Tamang M, Pal K, Kumar Rai S, Kalam A, Rehan Ahmad S. Ethnobotanical survey of threatened medicinal plants of West Sikkim. Int J Bot Stud. 2017;2(6):116–25. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013.

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Zhang S. Temperature acclimation of photosynthesis in Meconopsis horridula var. racemosa Prain. Bot Stud. 2010;51:457–64. Zhou Y, Song J-Z, Choi FF, Wu H-F, Qiao C-F, Ding L-S, Gesang S-L, Xu H-X. An experimental design approach using response surface techniques to obtain optimal liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry conditions to determine the alkaloids in Meconopsis Species. J Chromatogr A. 2009;1216:7013–23.

Medicago sativa L. FABACEAE Hammad Ahmad Jan, Wahid Hussain, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Medicago sativa L.: Medica sativa Lam., Medicago afhganica Vassilcz., Medicago agrypyretorum Vassilcz., Medicago alaschanica Vassilicz., Medicago asiatica subsp. sinensis Sinskaya, Medicago beipinensis Vassilcz., Medicago grandiflora Vassilcz., Medicago kopetdaghhi Vassilcz., Medicago ladak Vassilcz., Medicago mesopotamica Vassilcz., Medicago orientalis Vassilcz., Medicago pekinensis Vassilcz., Medicago polia Vassilcz., Medicago praesativa Sinskaya., Medicago praesativa subsp. spontanea Sinskaya., Medicago rivularis Vassilcz, Medicago roborovskii Vassilcz, Medicago sativa fo. alba Benke, Medicago sativa fo. grex H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan W. Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_150

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afghanica Board., Medicago sativa fo. grandiflora Grossh., Medicago sativa fo. tibetana Alef., Medicago sogdiana Vassilcz., Medicago tibetana (Alef.) Vassilcz.

Local Names Medicago sativa: Pashto: Shpeshtai ‫ﺵﭖﯼﺵﺕ‬, English: Alfalfa

Botany and Ecology Medicago sativa: Perennial herbs, 30–100 cm. Stems erect, ascending, rarely prostrate, quadrangular, glabrous or puberulent, much branched. Stipules ovatelanceolate, base entire or with 1 or 2 denticles, apex acute; leaflets long ovate, obovate, to linear-ovate, (5–)10–25( 40)  3–10 mm, papery, appressed pubescent abaxially, glabrous adaxially, lateral veins 8–10 pairs, base tapering, margin serrulate in upper 1/3, apex rounded, mucronate with a denticle from midrib. Heads or racemes with 5–30 flowers, 1–2.5 cm; peduncles straight, longer than leaves; bracts equal to pedicels, about 2 mm. Corolla variable in color, white, deep blue, to dark purple; standard oblong, retuse. Ovary linear; ovules numerous. Legume tightly coiled in 2–4( 6) spirals, 5–9 mm in diameter, center solid or nearly so, brown when ripe, veins thin and inconspicuous. Seeds 10–20, yellow or brown, ovoid, 1–2.5 mm, smooth. Flowering May–July, fruiting June–October (Wu et al. 1994–2013; Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Local Medicinal Uses Medicago sativa: The plant is tonic. Used to treat anemia, hemorrhage, earache, and jaundice. It is also considered as antibacterial (Shedayi and Gulshan 2012).The plant is said to increase milk productivity in livestock (Khan et al. 2011). Plant is used for constipation, blood pressure and for stomachache (Shedayi et al. 2014). Fresh and dried plant is cooked and eaten as vegetable, considered as treatment of menopauses related problems (Akhter et al. 2016). Leaves are used for gas-trouble (Rahman et al. 2019a, b). Seeds are used for joint pain, gout, and indigestion and also used as a general tonic (Hussain et al. 2013). Plant is used as astringent (Zaman et al. 2018). Leaves are used to treat female problems and digestion (Ijaz et al. 2018). The whole plant is used to treat anemia, iron deficiency, strengthen the bones, as galactagogue, sexual potency, kidney infection, diuretic, and gallbladder. The juice extracted from the root of Alfalfa and mixed with panela water and two egg whites, and is used as an antidote in intoxicated with strychnine. All the plant prepared in decoction is considered nutritious and is used to promote milk production in lactating women.

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Fig. 1 Medicago sativa (Fabaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

Dried and reduced to powder is considered a great food. The whole plant is used to treat obesity, liver problems, high blood pressure and hemorrhage; seeds used to treat rickets, gum pain, dental health, cavities and as restorative; root used to treat urinary infection and for blood cleansing . The juice of the leaves is drunk on an empty stomach with honey, to treat brain weakness. The flower is used to accelerate labor contractions; it is boiled in water with a flower Prunus serotina, pumpkin seeds (Cucurbita maxima), Pouteria sp., and bones. The pure juice is drunk on an empty stomach to clean the liver, kidneys, bladder, and urethral canal. The juice of the leaves and the stem is used to treat bleeding. Juice of tender alfalfa is supplied to the animal as a purgative (unspecified ethnic group-Azuay, Cañar). It is used to improve eyesight and to treat hemorrhages (as a restorative), rheumatism, menstrual cramps, brain, and spine pain and liver and kidney conditions. The juice of the fresh leaves and the fruit is used to treat anemia. The juice of the crushed leaves, mixed with orange, is used to treat bleeding and anemia. The juice of the leaves is used as a purgative and, in plasters, beverages or concoctions, it is useful for lowering the fever. The juice extracted from the leaves is supplied to the cattle to soothe the belly pains of the beasts that have consumed the same alfalfa in excess. It is digestive and stomach stimulant. Taken regularly it helps treat peptic ulcers. Leaf juice is used to

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Fig. 2 Medicago sativa (Fabaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

maintain good mood in people. The infusion of the flower is drunk to treat cough in children. The juice serves as a tonic, diuretic, and coagulant, to prevent high blood pressure and to treat colds, conditions of the brain, liver, and blood. It is an abundant source of vitamins and proteins. It is used to increase milk production in cows. The leaves are liquefied with orange or orange juice and raw egg to stimulate circulation and appetite. The seeds are used to strengthen the. The leaves and flowers are used to treat bleeding of the body and irritation of the liver and kidneys. The juice or tea of the leaves, stem, and fruits is used to purify the blood, and it is drunk on an empty stomach. Fresh flowers and leaves are used fresh to treat bronchitis. Also used as tonic, for nosebleeds, anemia, and hemorrhages. Its antibacterial activity has been confirmed (Bussmann and Sharon 2006; Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). Used to treat cuts (Ghorbani 2005), cardiovascular problems (Oztürk et al. 2018), and gynecological disorders (Gairola et al. 2014).

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Fig. 3 Medicago sativa (Fabaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Local Food Uses Medicago sativa: Leaves used for food. The leaves (buds) and flowers are edible, and they are used to prepare salads and milkshakes (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Medicago sativa: The stem and leaves are used as fodder for guinea pigs, rabbits, horses, cattle, and other quadrupeds. It has beekeeping use. The plant serves as fertilizer for the earth because its roots fix nitrogen from the atmosphere (like all legumes); it is also used as a climatic protector and to prevent soil erosion (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). Used as galactagogue, fodder, and forage (Wali et al. 2019).

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Fig. 4 Medicago sativa (Fabaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

References Akhter N, Akhtar S, Kazim S, Khan T. Ethnomedicinal study of important medicinal plants used for gynecological issues among rural women folk in district gilgit. Nat Sci. 2016;14:30–4. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in Northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing culture. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:47. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Ghorbani A. Studies on pharmaceutical ethnobotany in the region of Turkmen Sahra, north of Iran (Part 1): general results. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102:58–68. Hussain AM, et al. A survey of important indigenous medicinal plants of district Bhimber Azad Jammu & Kashmir, Pakistan. Int J Adv Res. 2013;1:635–44. Ijaz F, Rahman IU, Iqbal Z, Alam J, Ali N, Khan SM. Ethno-ecology of the healing forests of Sarban Hills, Abbottabad, Pakistan: an economic and medicinal appraisal. Plant Hum Health. 2018;1:675–706. Khan B, Abdukadir A, Qureshi R, Mustafa G. Medicinal uses of plants by the inhabitants of Khunjerab National Park, Gilgit, Pakistan. Pak J Bot. 2011;43(5):2301–10. Oztürk M, Altundag E, Jamshid S, Ibadullayeva SA, Altaya V, Aslanipour B. A comparative analysis of medicinal and aromatic plants used in the traditional medicina of Igdir (Turkey), Nakhchivan (Azerbaijan) and Tabriz (Iran). Pak J Bot. 2018;50(1):3367–43.

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Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, Romero C. Medicago sativa L. In: Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions – ethnobotany of the Andes. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77093-2_ 186-1. Rahman IU, Afzal A, Iqbal Z, Hart R, Abd Allah EF, Hashem A, Bussmann RW. Herbal teas and drinks: folk medicine of the Manoor Valley, Lesser Himalaya, Pakistan. Plan Theory. 2019a;8(12):581. Rahman IU, Hart R, Afzal A, Iqbal Z, Ijaz F, Abd Allah EF, Bussmann RW. A new ethnobiological similarity index for the evaluation of novel use reports. Appl Ecol Environ Res. 2019b;17(2):2765–77. Shedayi AA, Gulshan B. Ethnomedicinal uses of plant resources in Gilgit-Baltistan of Pakistan. J Med Plants Res. 2012;6(29):4540–9. Shedayi AA, Xu M, Gulraiz B. Traditional medicinal uses of plants in Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. J Med Plant Res. 2014;8(30):992–1004. Wali R, Rahman K, Raja NI, Qureshi R, Bussmann RW, Mashwani ZUR. A quantitative medico botanical expedition of Fairy Meadows National Park, Diamir, Gilgit Baltistan, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18(35) https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.35.1-30. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Zaman SU, Ali K, Khan W, Ali M, Jan T, Nisar M. Ethno-botanical and geo-referenced profiling of medicinal plants of Nawagai Valley, District Buner (Pakistan). Biosyst Divers. 2018;26(1): 56–61.

Mentha arvensis L. Mentha longifolia (L.) L. Mentha royleana Benth. Mentha viridis (L.) L. LAMIACEAE Hammad Ahmad Jan, Hassan Sher, Wahid Hussain, Ikram Ur Rahman, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Synonyms Mentha arvensis L.: Calamintha arvensis (L.) Garsault.; Mentha agrestis Sole; Mentha alberti Sennen; Mentha angustifolia Schreb.; Mentha arvensis ssp. parietariifolia (Becker) Briq.; Mentha arvensis var. villosa (Benth.) S.R. Stewart; Mentha austriaca Jacq.; Mentha lapponica Wahlenb.; Mentha parietariifolia Becker ex Steud. Mentha longifolia (L.) L.: Mentha asiatica Boriss.; Mentha caucasica Gand.; Mentha kopetdaghensis Boriss.; Mentha sylvestris L.; Mentha vagans Boriss Mentha royleana Benth.: Mentha afghanica Murata; Mentha longifolia subsp. hymalaiensis Briq.; Mentha longifolia subsp. royleana (Benth.) Briq.; Mentha royleana subsp. hymalaiensis Briq.; Mentha royleana var. afghanica (Murata) Rech. f.; Metha sylvestris var. royleana Hook. Mentha viridis (L.) L.: Mentha spicata L. H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan W. Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_151

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Local Names Mentha arvensis: Pashto: Podina ‫ ;ﭖﻭﺩﯼﻥﻩ‬Gharwal: Paudina Mentha longifolia: Pashto: Velanai ‫ ;ﻭﯼﻝﻥ‬Balti: Phileel Mentha spicata: Nepal: Pudina, Tulsi pate; Sanskrit: Putitha; Malataya: Nane, Narpiz Mentha x piperita: Malataya: Nane

Botany and Ecology Mentha arvensis: Perennial; rhizome creeping; stems 15–50 (100) cm long, mostly prostrate, more rarely erect, assurgent or decumbent, simple or mostly branched, with elongated shoots, sometimes reddish, usually villous-pubescent with retrorse hairs or subglabrous; leaves ovate, ovate-oblong, oblong-elliptical to lance-oblong, 2–7 cm long, 1–3.5 cm broad, acute, serrate-dentate, short-petioled or the upper sessile, rounded or cordate or cuneate base, hairy and glandular on both sides or subglabrous; bracts linear-lanceolate or lanceolate, ciliate and hairy, acute, about equaling or slightly exceeding the pedicels; verticillate distant, usually numerous and many-flowered, spherical; pedicels hairy, rarely glabrous; calyx campanulate, ca. 2.5 mm long, often violet, hairy, with glabrous throat, the teeth erect, short, triangular, one-third the length of the tube, acute; corolla broadly tubular, lilac or rose-lilac, hairy outside and inside, 3.5–5 mm long, the tube included or slightly exserted to twice as long as calyx, the lower lobe obtuse, subtruncate, the uppermost broadest, emarginate; stamens equaling the corolla or slightly exceeding the tube; nutlets globose, ca. 1 mm long and as broad, obtuse at apex, smooth, not keeled. Flowering and fruiting from April to August. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, in shady forests, on the banks of the rivers, in meadows, fields, marshy areas, to the middle mountain belt (Shishkin and Borisova 1954). Mentha longifolia: Perennial, with creeping rhizome; stems erect, branched or nearly simple, 30–100 (180) cm long, usually sharply 4-angled, whitish, densely covered (especially in upper part) with short soft usually retrorse hairs, sometimes tomentose-hairy with sub-reflexed woolly hairs or sparsely hairy; leaves sessile or the lower short-petioled, ovate-oblong to oblong-lanceolate or lanceolate, (3) R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia

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Fig. 1 Mentha longifolia (Lamiaceae), Gurnai valley, near Bahrain, Swat, Pakistan. (Photo Hassan Sher & Ikram Ur Rahman)

5–15 cm long, 1.5–5 cm broad, often rather thick, acute or acuminate, more rarely triangular, mostly unevenly and coarsely serratedentate, smooth, glaucescent or cinereous above, rather densely covered with soft appressed hairs, sometimes at length glabrescent, white-tomentose or lanate, rounded or subcordate at base, amplexicaul; floral leaves resembling the bracts, linear-subulate; peduncles pubescent; verticillate approximate at ends of stems and branches; inflorescences dense, leafless, spiciform-cylindrical, pointed at summit, 3–5 cm long; lower verticillate sometimes distant; pedicels densely tomentosehairy; calyx campanulate, about as long as pedicel and corolla tube, soft-haired to base, the teeth linear-subulate, connivent in fruit, about as long as the tube; corolla 4–5 mm long, rose-lilac or lilac, sparsely and finely pubescent outside, glabrous inside, the tube about as long as the lobes, upper lobe oblong-ovate, emarginate or crenate, the other lobes narrower, oblong, obtuse; stamens included in corolla; nutlets alveolate, rounded and hairy at apex, ovoid. Flowering July–September. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, banks of rivers, lakes, edges of bogs, ditches, meadows, gorges, in damp deciduous woods, ravines, banks of streams and canals, on limestone, in mountains up to 2500 m (Shishkin and Borisova 1954; Figs. 1, 2, and 3). Mentha royleana: Perennial with a musty or aromatic smell, extremely variable in almost all characters. Stems erect or ascending, 30–120 cm, much branched or rarely simple, leafy, with a range of hair types, from soft pilose to crisped to retrorse. Leaves very variable in size, color and indumentum, 2–8  0.5–3 cm, broadly ovate to lanceolate to narrow oblong-elliptic, green, white or discolorous, serrulate to coarsely dentate, cordate, rounded or cuneate,  acute, sessile or lower leaves shortly petiolate, densely to lightly gland-dotted on abaxial surface. Inflorescence of usually numerous congested many-flowered verticillasters forming terminal spikes, few or numerous. Bracts linear to linear-subulate, as long as to longer than flowers. Calyx 1.5–3 mm, narrow campanulate, softly pilose with eglandular hairs, with or without oil globules; teeth subequal, narrow triangular to linear-subulate, shorter than to as long as tube. Corolla 3–4.5 mm, light purple, violet, mauve, or

1268 Fig. 2 Mentha longifolia (Lamiaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

Fig. 3 Mentha longifolia (Lamiaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

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Fig. 4 Mentha royleana (Lamiaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

white. Nutlets about 0.8  0.6 mm, ovoid, apically rounded, pale to dark brown, delicately reticulate, slightly mucilaginous on wetting. Flowering May–November. Europe and Asia (except Far East and SE Asia) southern Africa. A remarkably variable species in which, throughout its range, a huge number of infra-specific taxa (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020; Figs. 4, 5, 6, and 7). Mentha viridis: Perennial with a pleasantly aromatic smell, green. Stems 30–60 cm, erect, quadrangular, leafy, usually branched above, glabrous. Leaves ovate-oblong to narrow lanceolate, 2–6  0.5–1.5 cm, serrate, broadly cuneate, acute to acuminate, glabrous, gland-dotted below; petiole  absent to 2 mm. Verticillasters not in upper leaf axils, forming long slender elongated spikes, distant or approximating above. Bracts linear to linear-lanceolate, shorter than to as long as flowers. Calyx 1.5–2 mm, glabrous and gland-dotted, or with eglandular-ciliate hairs on teeth; teeth more or less equal, narrow triangular. Corolla white or pale pink, about 2.5 mm. Nutlets dark brown (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020).

Phytochemistry Mentha arvensis: Essential oils (pinene, limonen, caryophyllene, cadinene, sabinene, sabinenhydrate, terpene, camphene, terpinolene, tuyen, fellandren, caren, cymol, santen, thujone, pulegon, piperitone, menthone, menton, isomenton, piperithenone, isopulegon, carvomenton, carvone, entofuralactone, mentofuran,

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Fig. 5 Mentha spicata (Lamiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 6 Mentha spicata (Lamiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

2-isopropylcyclopentanone, menthylcyclohexane, linalool, linalyl acetate, octanol, nonadien, cineole, citronellol, nerol, geraniol, furfural), phenylcarboxylic acids (coffee, ferulic, p-coumaric), anthocyanins, fatty acids (Sokolov 1991).

Mentha arvensis L. . . .

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Fig. 7 Mentha spicata (Lamiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Mentha longifolia/Mentha spicata: Carbohydrates (stachyose), essential oils (menton, isenton, camphene, pinene, myrcene, limonene, pulegon, carvone, piperite, piperitenone, allocymene, cymene, piperitene, citral, linalool, menthol, terpineol, linalyl, menthyl, isomenton, neomenthol, neoisanthal, carvacrol, thymol, phenol), triterpene saponins, cardenolides, vitamins (C, E, K, carotene), coumarins, flavonoids (quercetine, gesperidine, isoroyfoline, metoside, pipertosidide, luteoline, apigenin, acacetine, rhiodictyol), triterpenoids (ursolic and oleanolic acid, uviol, erythrodiol), steroids, phenylcarboxylic acids (rosemary, chlorogenic, coffee), flavonoids (luteoline, apigenine, acacetin, diosmIn rutinoside, hesperetin, eriodictyol), anthocyanins, tannins, fatty acids (oleic, palmitic, stearic, linoleic, linolenic) (Sokolov 1991). Mentha x piperita: Essential oils (pinene, limonen, caryophyllene, cadinene, sabinene, sabinenhydrate, terpene, camphene, terpinolene, tuyen, fellandren, caren, cymol, santen, thujone, pulegon, piperitone, menthone, menton, isomenton, piperithenone, isopulegon, carvomenton, carvone, entofuralactone, mentofuran, 2-isopropylcyclopentanone, menthylcyclohexane, linalool, linalyl acetate, octanol, nonadien, cineole, citronellol, nerol, geraniol, furfural), phenylcarboxylic acids (coffee, ferulic, p-coumaric), anthocyanins, fatty acids.

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Local Medicinal Uses Generally mint species are widely used as infusion as spasmolytic, diuretic, antipyretic, with gastric disorders as diarrhea and gastric colics, as anti-inflammatory, for wound-healing, geostatic, for gastritis, dysentery, diarrhea, gastric colic, gastralgia, respiratory infections, whooping cough, mastitis, and toothache (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017a, 2020; Bussmann 2017). Mint species are even mentioned in the bible (Dafni and Böck 2019), and have long been part of official pharmacopoeia (Farnsworth et al. 1985). Mentha arvensis: Leaves are used as anti-acidic agent, flavoring agent as a carminative (Khan et al. 2015). Plant is locally used as emollient, operient, and demulcent (Shah and Khan 2006a). Dried leaves are taken with curd to control dysentery. Tea of dried leaves is drunk for stopping vomiting and nausea (Shah and Khan 2006b). The plant is used to treat liver and spleen disorder, asthma, and jaundice (Shedayi and Gulshan 2012). Leaves paste is used for pimples and pustules (Abbas et al. 2017). In early spring, the young leaves are collected and used as salad. Tea is made from the root and dry leaves (Khan et al. 2011). Leaves are used as condiment and anthelmintic (Ahmad et al. 2006a, b). Leaves are used for gastric problems (Jan et al. 2017). The plant along with lemon grass is boiled in water to obtain extract that is given in fever. The plant is mixed with funnel seeds and boiled in water (Foeniculum vulgare) which is given in diarrhea, vomiting, and cholera (Ahmad and Habib 2014). Plant is used as carminative, stomachic, diuretic, and stimulant (Hassan et al. 2017). Mentha arvensis is used for indigestion and diarrhea (Kumar et al. 2011). The plant is widely used in folk medicine in Tajikistan. It increases appetite, improves digestion, reduces the acidity of gastric fluid, weakens or stops pain and cramps of the stomach and intestines. It is used to treat dysentery, diarrhea, gastritis, dyspepsia, and gastrointestinal colic. An infusion of herbs and decoction of the leaves is used to treat coughs, pulmonary tuberculosis, and as an expectorant for diseases of the upper respiratory tract. A decoction of leaves is used to normalize the menstrual cycle, reduce pain, and during menopause to reduce the discomfort associated with hormonal changes (Bussmann et al. 2020). Employed for vomiting and indigestion (Kumar et al. 2011). Mentha longifolia is used in Pakistan to treat indigestion and diarrhea, vomiting, and abdominal pain (Jan et al. 2017; Sher et al. 2016). Plant is used in cholera, carminative, and digestive (Ibrar et al. 2007). Leaves are used for joint pain, and digestive disorders (Ahmad et al. 2014). Leaves are used for diarrhea and vomiting and also used as food and carminative (Khan et al. 2015). Plants are dried, powdered, and used for diarrhea (Jan et al. 2010). Leaves are used for cholera, indigestion, and vomiting (Abbasi et al. 2010). Tea from leaves is used to treat migraines, headaches, colds, nasal catarrh, fever, indigestion, and profuse mucus discharge. The leaves and flowers heads are used as a carminative and stomachic, astringent, and antirheumatic and to treat whooping cough, asthma, and respiratory inflammation (Qureshi et al. 2007). Plant paste is used for diarrhea, dysentery, dyspepsia, abdominal pain, and to prevent vomiting (Yousufzai et al. 2010). Dry powder leaves is used as stomachic as carminative, in diarrhea, dysentery, and various gastric problems (Zeb et al. 2013).

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Plant is used for diarrhea and vomiting (Ali et al. 2011). Leaf powder is used for dysentery, abdominal pain, and vomiting (Jan et al. 2017). Used as styptic (Yeşilada et al. 1993, 1999). For toothache, nausea, cough, fever, diarrhea, intestinal worms, blood purifier, used for blood reduction, healing of wounds (Wali et al. 2019), as well as diabetes (Ullah et al. 2019). Mentha spicata is used for asthma and as diuretic in Nepal (Kunwar et al. 2009, 2013; Kunwar and Bussmann 2009), also to stop hemorrhages and treat diarrhea, dysentery, stopping vomiting, carminative, for nausea, hemorrhoids, as febrifuge and diuretic, for wounds, eye diseases, for gum diseases and mouth sores (Ahmad et al. 2017). Stems and leaves, fresh or dried, are used to treat stomachache, for blood cleansing, and as anthelmintic and laxative. Used as a colic and antiflatulent painkiller, for the treatment of stomach pain, nausea, fever, and headache. The leaves and flowers are used as antispasmodic, against excessive sweating and to promote digestion. The leaves are prepared in decoction and are consumed to promote a good functioning of the stomach, avoid colics and gases, and in general as a good digestive. In the form of plasters or poultices are used to combat abdominal pain, toothache, and pain in general. The leaves are given to the children to smell or placed under the pillow to relieve worm attacks, although it is not a vermifuge. The whole plant is used for good luck; leaves used to treat toothache, stomach problems, spasms, liver, inflammation, indigestion, gallbladder, flatulence, dizziness, cramps, burns, as stimulant, as muscle relaxant, as analgesic, as vermifuge, and as tranquilizer. The whole fresh plant is used to treat stomachache. The infusion of the plant or leaves is used to relieve pain in the lower abdomen, cramps, stomach pain, and cramps. It is used to aid digestion and treat stomach conditions. With the infusion heals animals with belly pains. It is used as a tranquilizer of the nervous system, to eliminate gases and treat headache. It is used, in infusion, as anthelminthic, and to treat prostate problems. The whole plant is used fresh against parasites, colic, stomachache, gastritis, indigestion, colic of the stomach, tapeworms, intestinal worms, headache, aphrodisiac, gases, and bad breath. Mint species show limited antibacterial activity (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). For colds, flu, and respiratory problems (Tetik et al. 2013). Mentha x piperita: Carminative, dyspepsia, abdominal pain, cholera, diarrhea, as a purgative, influenza, and palpitation of heart (Ahmad et al. 2017). Fresh stems and leaves are used to treat gastritis/ulcers, swellings of the stomach and for blood cleansing, or stomach gas, stomach pain, and as digestive. Used as a colic and antiflatulant painkiller, for the treatment of stomach pain, nausea, fever, and headache. The leaves and flowers are used as antispasmodic, against excessive sweating, and to promote digestion. The leaves are prepared in decoction and are consumed to promote a good functioning of the stomach, avoid colics and gases, and in general as a good digestive. In the form of plasters or poultices are used to combat abdominal pain, toothache, and pain in general. The leaves are given to the children to smell or placed under the pillow to relieve worm attacks, although it is not a vermifuge. The whole plant, stems, and leaves are used to remedy menstrual colics, flatulence, and digestive problems. The whole plant is used to treat nerves and for diarrhea; stems and leaves serve as tranquilizer; leaves help to treat vomit, as vermifuge, for

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toothache, to strengthen the digestive system, for stomachache, as sedative, for indigestion, hemorrhage, asthma, and as analgesic. The whole plant, fresh is used to treat stomachache. The infusion is used to treat animals with stomach pains. The infusion is used in baths and combined with frame, rue and nettle, to treat colds. In addition, the infusion is used to treat blood pressure. The leaves, in infusion, serve as stomach, carminative, and antispasmodic. It is used to facilitate the evacuation of urine and to treat insect bites, digestive conditions (gas, intestinal cramps, vomiting), strong cough, insomnia, influenza, and chest and heart pain. The whole plant, fresh or dried, is used for colic, stomach pain, also for colds, respiratory infections, cough, bronchitis, nausea, and stomach pain. Mint species show limited antibacterial activity (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). Peppermint is a common ingredient in emolientes (warm herbal beverages taken for breakfast) (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). As antispasmodic, for colds, and flu (Tetik et al. 2013). Mentha suaveolens: The infusion of the aerial parts is used for stomach pain (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020).

Local Food Uses Mint species are widely used as tea (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, 2018, 2020; Bussmann 2017), and often sold in markets (Bussmann et al. 2017b), and collected as wild vegetable (Ghorbani 2005). Mentha arvensis is taken as tea (Mahishi et al. 2005). Mentha x piperita: It is used to prepare an infusion as aromatic water. With the leaves, meat and other dishes are seasoned. Especially in the Eurasia used as tea (Bussmann et al. 2014, Bussmann et al. 2016b; Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). Mentha spicata: The infusion of the leaves is used as aromatic water. The leaves are used as a condiment in the locro (soup) with tripe. It serves as a condiment in the preparation of black pudding (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). The leaves are used for tea (Dangol et al. 2017). Mentha longifolia serves as spice (Yeşil et al. 2019). Mentha pulegium is used as spice (Mekonnen et al. 2015).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Often Mint species are used in veterinary medicine and the leaves are used for mastitis in cows. Fodder for goats, sheep, and horses (Bussmann et al. 2020; Bussmann 2017; Batsatsashvili et al. 2017). Mentha piperita: It is used to treat “evil eye” (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). Mentha spicata: For good luck. It is used to wash beef and sheep tripe. It is used for good luck baths (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). Mentha longifolia is used as fragrance (Mekonnen et al. 2015).

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Morchella conica Pers. ex Fr. Morchella esculenta (Fr.) I.R. Hazll MORCHELLACEAE Sailesh Ranjitkar, Nani Maiya Sujakhu, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Wahid Hussain, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Morchella esculenta (Fr.) I.R. Hazll: Phallus esculentus L.; Helvella esculenta (L.) Sowerby; Morellus esculentus (L.) Eaton; Morilla esculenta (L.) Quél.; Phalloboletus esculentus (L.) Kuntze; Morchella rotunda var. esculenta (L.) Jacquet.; Morchella prunarii Schulzer; Morchella esculenta var. prunarii (Schulzer & Hazsl.) Sacc.; Phallus esculentus var. albus Bull.; Morchella vulgaris var. alba (Bull.) Clowez; Phallus esculentus var. cinereus Bull.; Phallus esculentus var. fuscus Bull.; Phallus tremelloides Vent.; Morchella tremelloides (Vent.) Pers.; Morilla tremelloides (Vent.) Quél.; Morchella vulgaris var. tremelloides (Vent.) Boud. PhalS. Ranjitkar NGene, Solutions of Natural Innovation, Kathmandu GPO 44614, Nepal Honghe Center for Mountain Futures, Kunming Institute of Botany, Honghe County 654400, Yunnan, China Faculty of Humanities and Social Science, Mid-Western University, Lalitpur, Nepal N. M. Sujakhu National Centre for Borderland Ethnic Studies in Southwest China, Yunnan University, Kunming, China R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_152

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lus esculentus var. rotundus Pers.; Morchella esculenta var. rotunda (Pers.) Sacc.; Morchella rotunda (Pers.) Boud.; Morchella esculenta f. rotunda (Pers.) Reichert; Morchella conica Pers.; Morchella esculenta var. conica (Pers.) Fr.; Morilla conica (Pers.) Quél.; Morchella esculenta var. alba Mérat; Morchella rotunda var. alba (Mérat) Sacc.; Morchella esculenta var. cinerea Mérat; Morchella esculenta var. fulva Fr.; Morchella esculenta subsp. pubescens Pers.; Morchella pubescens (Pers.) Krombh.; Morchella rotunda var. pubescens (Pers.) Boud.; Morchella esculenta var. pubescens (Pers.) Sacc. & Traverso; Morchella esculenta var. grisea Pers.; Morchella conica var. metheformis Pers.; Morchella esculenta var. stipitata Lenz; Morchella conica var. pusilla Krombh.; Morchella conica var. rigida Krombh.; Morchella rigida (Krombh.) Boud.; Morchella rotunda var. rigida (Krombh.) Jacquet.; Morchella esculenta var. rigida (Krombh.) I.R. Hall; Morchella conica var. ceracea Krombh.; Morchella esculenta var. violacea Lév.; Morchella distans Fr.; Morchella conica var. distans (Fr.) Clowez; Morchella esculenta var. corrugata Sacc.; Morchella esculenta var. ovalis Fr. ex Sacc.; Morchella viridis Leuba; Morchella esculenta var. viridis (Leuba) Sacc. & D. Sacc.; Morchella abietina Leuba; Morchella esculenta var. abietina (Leuba) Sacc. & Trotter; Morchella lutescens Leuba; Morchella esculenta var. lutescens (Leuba) Sacc. & Traverso; Morchella conica var. elata Henn.; Morchella rotunda var. cinerea Boud.; Morchella umbrina Boud.; Morchella esculenta var. umbrina (Boud.) S. Imai; Morchella vulgaris var. albida Boud.; Morchella esculenta var. albida (Boud.) Sacc.; Morchella vulgaris var. cinerascens Boud.; Morchella rotunda var. alba Boud.; Morchella vulgaris var. alba Boud.; Morchella conica var. serotina Peck; Morchella conica var. angusticeps Peck; Morchella cylindrica Velen.; Morchella conica f. cylindrica (Velen.) Svrček; Morchella rotunda var. cinerea Grelet; Morchella rotunda var. fulva Grelet; Morchella vulgaris var. parvula Bánhegyi; Morchella esculenta var. atrotomentosa M.M. Moser; Morchella distans f. longissima Jacquet.; Morchella distans f. spathulata Jacquet.; Morchella umbrina f. macroalveola Jacquet.; Morchella esculenta f. alba Galli; Morchella rotunda var. pallida Jacquet.; Morchella rotunda var. crassipes Jacquet.; Morchella rotunda var. minutula Jacquet.; Morchella rotunda var. pallida Jacquet.; Morchella ovalis W. Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia

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f. pallida (Jacquet.) Clowez & Luc Martin; Morchella esculenta f. dunensis Castañera; Morchella dunensis (Castañera, J.L. Alonso & G. Moreno) Clowez; Morchella esculenta var. dunensis (Castañera, J.L. Alonso & G. Moreno) BlancoDios; Morchella dunensis f. sterilis Picón [as ‘sterile’]; Morchella esculenta f. sterilis (Picón) Blanco-Dios; Morchella vulgaris var. aucupariae Clowez & J.-M. Moingeon; Morchella esculenta var. aurantiaca Clowez; Morchella esculenta var. brunnea Clowez; Morchella esculenta var. mahoniae Clowez & R. Durand bis; Morchella esculenta var. roseostraminea Clowez; Morchella esculenta var. rubroris Clowez & Luc Martin; Morchella esculenta var. theobromichroa Clowez & Vanhille; Morchella esculenta var. umbrinoides Clowez; Morchella vulgaris var. atrogrisea Clowez; Morchella vulgaris var. griseosordida Clowez & Franç. Petit; Morchella conica var. cilicicae Clowez, Baş Serm. & Işıloğlu; Morchella conica var. crassa Clowez; Morchella conica var. flexuosa Clowez & Luc Martin; Morchella conica var. meandriformis Clowez & Moyne; Morchella conica var. nigra Clowez & Moyne; Morchella conica var. pygmaea Clowez & Delaunoy; Morchella conica var. violeipes Clowez & Y. Mourgues; Morchella vulgaris var. parvipilea Clowez

Local Names Morchella esculenta: Bhutan: (gyep shamu); Mandarin: ১剎唾 (yáng dǔ jūn); Bai: 剥㱍㬩 (young fuq serq); Naxi: Yu duqmei muq; Tibetan: shong si, khu khu sha mo; Yi: yo qy tie hmu; Hindi: Chuunchru; Gucchi, zande guech; batta guchi; Nepali: Gucchi chyā’u; Thakali: Phartimu; Other: Khoya chyā’u, Phuikhane chyā’u, Chhohada chyā’u, Urdu: ‫( ﻏﺫﺍﺋﯽ ﮐﻬﻣﺑﯽ‬ghazai cumbi); Pastho: ‫( ﻣﻐﺫﻱ ﻣﺭﺧﻳړ‬gujay); Other: spina guchhi, kerkichoke, khosay; English: Morel, Common morel, True morel, Morel mushroom, Yellow morel, Sponge morel, Molly moocher, Haystack, Dryland fish. Pashto: Goujai; Urdu: Khumbi

Botany and Ecology Morchella is a sac fungus that belongs to the family Morchellaceae of the Ascomycota. Index Fungorum (http://www.indexfungorum.org) listed 350 names in the genus Morchella, which include species, subspecies, and varieties. This group of edible mushrooms is one of the most readily recognized because of its fruiting body that begins as a tightly compressed, sponge with lighter ridges, and expands to form a large sponge with large pits and ridges raised on a large stem. However, within the group, Morchella exhibit uncertainties in taxonomy due to highly polymorphic fruiting bodies, even molecular phylogenetic techniques give rise to new controversies in taxonomy (Loizides 2017). Due to insufficient microscopic characteristics and high levels of variability in form and color of ascocarps (Du et al. 2014), affected by ecological and climate factors, the species number in Morchella varies from 3 to 50 or more, which has caused confusing use of homonyms and synonyms (Du et al. 2015). Most of them were described from Europe and the USA, with only a

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few described in Asia. In the Himalayan region, its distribution and taxonomy are not very clearly defined because of limited study. However, Morchella spp. are largely restricted to temperate regions in the Himalayas. Figure 1 shows the potential range of Morchella in the Himalayas, where Morchella esculenta (L.) Pers. and Morchella conica Pers. ex Fr. are major species documented in the local literature. Morchella spp. are recorded and reported to harvested from northwest Yunnan, southern Xizang, Assam, Bhutan, Darjeeling, Western Nepal, Northwest India, and Northeast (Choudhary et al. 2015; Cunningham 2012; Devkota 2009; Du et al. 2012; Hamayun et al. 2006a; Pyakurel et al. 2018; Rana et al. 2019; Saqib and Sultan 2005; Sarma et al. 2010; Singh et al. 2019; Vidyarthi et al. 2013). However, its status and collection from Myanmar and eastern Nepal are uncertain. However, the potential distribution map that we generated using bioclimatic and geophysical data showed suitable habitat of Morchella throughout the temperate zone of the Himalayas between the Mekong River in the east and Indus River in the West. Morchella esculenta and Morchela conica are both species of fungi in the Morchellaceae of the Ascomycota. Morels are one of the most readily recognized of all the edible mushrooms and highly sought after (Figs. 2, 3, 4, and 5). Fig. 1 Morchella sp. (Morchellaceae) growing at Kunyang, Kunming, Yunnan, China PR. (Photo Asanka R Bandara)

Fig. 2 Potential range of Morchella in the Himalayas

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Fig. 3 Morchella esculenta (Morchellaceae), growing at Lalitpur, Nepal. (Photo Susan Karmacharya)

Fig. 4 Morchella conica (Morchellaceae) collection and drying at Darchula, Nepal. (Photo Ripu M. Kunwar)

Morchella conica The cap is usually conical in shape and the surface of the head consists of a honeycomb of sharp ridges and deep pits. Caps measure up to 4–10 cm but may occasionally be larger. The ridges are rich brown or blackening from the early stage of growth. It has a sponge-like structure and is hollow. The taxonomic

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Fig. 5 Morchella sp. (Morchellaceae) dried Morchella at Kunming airport prices in July 2019, Yunnan, China. (Photo Anthony Cunningham)

Fig. 6 Morchella conica (Morchellaceae) Pakistan. (Photo Hassan Sher & Ikram Ur-Rahman)

status of M. conica is uncertain, although ethnobotanical literature from a different location in the Himalayas documented it. According to expert (personal communication), M. esculenta is very frequently reported as M. conica throughout the region. It grows on chalky soil in grassy woodlands, roadside verges. M. conica is collected and gathered in April and May (Fig. 6). Morchella esculenta is a type species of genus Morchella. M. esculenta (Fig. 3) has a large pitted yellow-brown cap (pileus). Caps are hollow and irregularly arranged, up to 7–9 cm long and 4–5 cm wide (Negi 2006). Ridges not blackening. The fungus occurs under hardwoods and conifers during a short period in the spring, depending on the weather, and is also associated with old orchards, woods, and disturbed grounds. It is collected and gathered from March till late May or early

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Fig. 7 Morchella esculenta (Morchellaceae) Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

June. However, it is reported to harvest in spring, summer, as well as autumn, depending on location (Liu et al. 2018; Fig. 7). Each fruit body begins as a tightly compressed, grayish sponge with lighter ridges, and expands to form a large yellowish sponge with large pits and ridges raised on a large white stem. The pitted yellow-brown caps measure 2–7 cm (0.8–2.8 in) broad by 2–10 cm (0.8–3.9 in) tall, and are fused to the stem at its lower margin, forming a continuous hollow. The pits are rounded and irregularly arranged. The hollow stem is typically 2–9 cm (0.8–3.5 in) long by 2–5 cm (0.8–2.0 in) thick and white to yellow. The fungus fruits under hard woods during a short period in the spring, depending on the weather, but it is also associated with old orchards, woods, disturbed grounds, and burnt areas. Although a process was reported in 1982 to grow the fruit bodies under controlled conditions, attempts to cultivate the mushroom commercially have only been partially successful. Cap: 3–6 cm diameter, 4–8 cm long; pale brownish cream, yellow to tan or pale brown to greyish brown; globosely to ovoid; surface covered with irregularly interwoven pits of various shapes, framed by irregular ridges following the pits; edges of the ridges usually not darker than the pits. Stem: 2–8 cm long, 2–4 cm in diameter, glabrous, round, much larger at the base, wrinkled, and grooved longitudinally, covered with small scurfy tufts just beneath the cap, whitish, becoming ochraceous in age, fragile, hollow. Asci: long cylindrical, hyaline, 280–320  18–22 μm. Flesh: waxy, thin, whitish. Spores: 18– 25  11–15 μm, ellipsoid, smooth.

Phytochemistry The rich nutrient content is reported in species of Morchella including M. esculenta and M. conica (Singh et al. 2019). Morals contain seven essential amino acids viz. isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, and valine, in addition to protein (7.5–11.52 g), fat (2.2–3.9 g), ash (6.7–14.6 g), and carbohydrates (74.55–80.5 g) per 100 g dry weight of various Morchella species (Heleno et al. 2013; Vieira et al. 2016). Morals contain a high level of ergosterol provitamin (Phillips et al. 2011). In M. esculenta, ergosterol content per 100 g dried mushroom

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is about 13.4 mg as ergosterol peroxide (Krzyczkowski et al. 2009). It also contains other sterol compounds such as brassicasterol, and campesterol in addition to ergosterol (Singh et al. 2019). Several groups of chemicals have been reported from morels such as amino acids, carotenoids, polyphenols, steroids, and tocopherols (Singh et al. 2019; Tietel and Masaphy 2018). A nonprotein amino acid, cis-3-amino-l-proline has been found in both the fruiting bodies and mycelia of M. esculenta (Moriguchi et al. 1979) and various γ-glutamyl compounds in mycelia (Moriguchi et al. 1979, 1986). This amino acid is also reported in the extracts of M. conica (Moriguchi et al. 1979). A water-soluble polysaccharide, MEP (MEP-1, MEP-2, and MEP-3) were obtained from M. esculenta (Cui et al. 2011; Wei et al. 2000; Yang et al. 2015), and polysaccharide NMCP-2 was obtained from M. conica (Xu et al. 2018). Lipoxygenase, an enzyme that has potential biotechnological applications for the bioconversion of lipid-rich byproducts into natural flavors, is reported in M. esculenta (Bisakowski et al. 2000). Fatty acids detected in M. esculenta include palmitic acid, stearic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid, and α-linolenic acid (Heleno et al. 2013). Tocopherols are reported in morals that include α-, γ-, and δ-tocopherols, and phenolic acids include protocatechuic and p-hydroxybenzoic (Heleno et al. 2013; Tietel and Masaphy 2018; Vieira et al. 2016).

Local Medicinal Uses Morels (Morchella esculenta and Morchella conica) have been in use in traditional medicine for centuries, due to their health-related benefits. Both species are used as a general body tonic, to relief joins aches or potency, insomnia, enterogastritis, indigestion, poor appetite, and also considered an aphrodisiac agent by local inhabitants of Swat district the junction of Himalayas and Karakoram in Pakistan (Hamayun et al. 2006a; Sher et al. 2015, 2016, 2017). Tribal people of Kashmir Himalayas used M. conica for heart ailments, brain tonic, arthritis, general weakness, and sex-stimulant. They used dried M. esculenta for heart ailments, general weakness, as a brain tonic, and local remedy for arthritis (Malik et al. 2017; Ur-Rahman et al. 2019). Local people take it with a glass of lukewarm milk for enhancing the sexual potency of men (aphrodisiac) (Pala et al. 2013). The dried M. esculenta is boiled in milk and given to a person suffering from cold and cough in Himachal Pradesh (Rana et al. 2019). In several villages of Northwest India, M. conica and M. esculenta are harvested to use in folk medicine. Morals are believed to enhance postpartum recovery of women; therefore, it is popular in the villages to feed morals after childbirth (Kumar et al. 2014). Used as tonic and immunostimulant (Kunwar and Bussmann 2009) and as aphrodisiac (Kunwar et al. 2006, 2008, 2009, 2010). Both of the species are also used as culinary (Winkler 2008). M. esculenta is used as tonic and immunostimulant by the ethnic community in western districts in Nepal (Kunwar et al. 2010). Local villagers in Manang, Nepal use M. conica as a general tonic and also taken to relief from stomachache and wound healing (Gewali 2008).

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Amchis (traditional healers) in the Mustang, Nepal prescribed M. esculenta to treat heart diseases (Bhattarai et al. 2010). M. esculenta and M. conica are used as medicinal mushrooms by Tibetan people. In traditional Chinese medicine, morels are believed to help reduce phlegm and boost immunity. Yi community in Yunnan used M. esculenta as a nutritional supplement and for its medicinal value. They believe it to protect the stomach, nourish the lungs, and strengthen immunity (Liu et al. 2018). Many studies reported antitumor activity in the extract of M. esculenta mycelium, which confirmed the effectiveness against both ascites and solid tumors (Kim et al. 2011; Liu et al. 2016; Nitha et al. 2007; Nitha and Janardhanan 2005). Mau et al. (2004) reported high antioxidant activity in the extracts prepared from the mycelia of M. esculenta. Similar activity has also been reported in M. conica (Farrukh et al. 2017; Nitha et al. 2010). Anti-inflammatory properties are reported in the extracts of M. esculenta and M. conica (Liao et al. 2017; Nitha et al. 2007).

Local Food Uses Morchella esculenta is most important species found in the area with tremendous export potential. The dried morels are directly sold to wholesalers or retailers without using it as food or medicine. Morels are edible mushrooms appreciated worldwide for their savory flavor. Morels are rich in protein, fiber, vitamins, and calories (Heleno et al. 2013; Singh et al. 2019; Vieira et al. 2016), and because of their nutrient composition regarded as the superior mushrooms. M. esculenta is used as a food throughout the Himalayas; however, mode of preparation differs with location. M. esculenta is used as a seasonal vegetable in several places in Pakistan (Saqib and Sultan 2005). Due to its unique flavor and taste, local people cook it with rice and vegetable. Mostly used as a flavoring in soup, used as a salad and side dishes. The most common method to prepare side dishes is to fry the morals in locally prepared butter (Ajmal et al. 2015). In northwest India, several traditional recipes are prepared using morals, such as “chaschni” (a local dessert), “thunthoo pilau” (rice pilaf with morals), “thunthoo kheer” (rice pudding with morals). Morels are added in local wine as flavor and morels pickle are also the traditional way of consuming it in different tribes of northwest India (Singh et al. 2019). The mushroom is cooked as a vegetable in Manang, Nepal. Alternatively, soup is made from dried mushroom (Gewali 2008). Morals are combined with a wide variety of food to prepare different dishes in China, including the Sino-Himalayan region. Examples are morals and asparagus Sauté, soup of moral and chicken, fried with bacon, an ingredient in hotpots. Moral chicken soup a traditional food famous in China Lui et al. 2018) and consumed across the country. Both Morchella elata and Morchella conica are regarded as rare and endangered in Pakistan (Jan et al. 2019) as well as the Central Himalaya (Smith Olsen 2005). Morchella elata is used as food, but mostly sold (Kang et al. 2016; Figs. 8, 9, 10, and 11).

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Fig. 8 Morchella esculenta (Morchellaceae) collection, Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

Fig. 9 Morchella esculenta (Morchellaceae) cleaned Morels, Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Morels become the world’s most prized edible fungi because of their desirable flavor and short fruiting season. M. esculenta is the most important and precious fungal plant which plays an important role in the economy of Pakistan. The price depends on the quality and the season of the collection (Hamayun et al. 2006b). The highest price in the national market of Pakistan was 120 USD per kg of dried morals (Sher et al. 2014). The price of dry morels was about 88 USD per kg (Negi 2006), while at

Morchella conica Pers. ex Fr. . . . Fig. 10 Morchella esculenta (Morchellaceae) Morels prepared as food, Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

Fig. 11 Morchella esculenta (Morchellaceae) Morels prepared as food, Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

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present the price of morels per kg ranges from 105 to 158 USD in India. Morels are one of the important fungal species collected from wild, locally dried, and traded in western Nepal (Kunwar et al. 2013a, b; Pyakurel et al. 2018). According to NTFPs price list 2020 reported in Asia Network for Sustainable Agriculture and Bioresources (ANSAB) (https://www.ansab.org.np/sub/ntfps-information-sheets), the price of morals are 91 and 108 USD in two major towns in Nepal. However, the price ranges from 132 to 165 in the national market depending upon the location and quality (Raut et al. 2019). In China, the annual export of dried morels increased fivefold in 2014 compared to the past 5 years, and the price average about 160 USD per kg (Du et al. 2015). According to the FAOSTAT database accessed in May 2020 (http://www.fao.org/faostat), China tops the list of the world’s largest producers of mushrooms and truffles with an annual production of about four million tons. The Yunnan province is the leading producer of wild mushrooms, including morals in China (Cunningham 2012; Du et al. 2014, 2015). A large quantity of it is harvested commercially for internal consumption that is sold in large mushroom markets and exported extensively (Du et al. 2015; Figs. 12 and 13).

Fig. 12 Morchella sp. (Morchellaceae) Dried Morchella at mushroom market. Kunming, Yunnan, China. (Photo Sailesh Ranjitkar)

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Fig. 13 Morchella sp. (Morchellaceae) collection workshop, Swat, Pakistan. (Photo Hassan Sher & Ikram Ur-Rahman

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Morus alba L. Morus serrata Roxb. MORACEAE Kiran Timalsina, Arjun Bhusal, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Morus alba L.: Morus alba var. tatarica (L.) Ser.; Morus arabica Koidz., Morus atropurpurea Roxb.; Morus australis Poir.; Morus chinensis Lodd., Morus indica L.; Morus intermedia Perr.; Morus macrophylla Hort. ex Steud., Morus multicaulis Perr.; Morus pumila Balb. Morus tatarica L. Morus serrata Roxb.: Morus alba var. serrata (Roxb.) Bureau, Morus gyirongensis S.S. Chang, Morus pabularia Decne.; Morus vicorum Jacquem. ex Decne.

K. Timalsina · A. Bhusal Green Governance Nepal, Baneshwor, Kathmandu, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_153

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Local Names Morus alba: English: White mulberry (Fedorov 1984); Malataya: Dut; Pashto: Peban maroch, Sho Maroch; Jammu: Jeet tut; Kashmir: Shantul, Til. Morus serrata: Nepali: Kimbu, Kiukafal, Kambu, Magmeru; Tharu: Tathimashlari; Limbu: Khokyoma; Newari: Kimbuma; Dhimal: Michiri; Tamang: Namun; Chamling Rai: Makrama; Dumi Rai: Naptim; Gurung: Myapala; Magar: Chhikurmas; Maithili: Tuit; Bhojpuri: Tut, Shahtut; Hindi: Toot; Darchula: Kimu; English: Himalayan Mulberry.

Botany and Ecology Mulberry (Morus spp.), belongs to the Rosales (Zhang et al. 2011), is distributed in a wide range of areas worldwide (Tutin 1996). The taxonomy of Morus has been disputed (Vijayan et al. 2011a) because of its wide geographical distribution, morphological plasticity hybridization among species (Burgess et al. 2005), long history of domestication, and introduction and naturalization of species (Toyo 1985). Therefore, although as many as 68 (Sanjappa, 1985; Datta 2000) to 150 (Butt et al. 2008) species have been reported in Morus, only 10–16 are generally cited and accepted (Zeng et al. 2015). Morphologically, mulberry is a fast growing deciduous woody perennial tree with deep root system. Morus alba: Tree, 15–20 m tall, branches grayish-brown. The bark of the trunk and lateral branches is gray, light gray, or gray-brown with longitudinal cracks. Fast growing shoots longer (80–100 cm) with larger leaves than slower growing branches. These are much shorter than the first (10–15 cm) with smaller and coarser leaves. Buds ovoid or broadly ovoid, sessile, with a length of 6–6.5 mm, width 3.8– 4.3 mm. The deciduous leaves are alternate, entire, sometimes lobed, their length varies from 90 to 110 mm with a width of 70–100 mm. Petiole 45–55 mm long, 1.0– 2.0 mm thick. Male catkins 10–25 mm long, with a short hairy pedicel. Female catkins shorter, 5–15 mm long, styles glabrous. Fruits 10–25 mm, fleshy, usually white. Seeds ca. 2 mm long, light brown (Mubalieva 2010). Leaves ovate, truncate, or rounded or subcordate at base, acute at apex, on young shoots mostly undivided, on fruiting and annotinous branches lobed or sinuate, crenate-dentate with rounded teeth, thin, soft, mostly glabrous; fruiting perianth light-colored, glabrous outside; stigma papillose, not villous; fruit white (var. vulgaris Bureau) or purple-black (var. tatarica Seringe ¼ Morus tatarica Pall.). Flowering April-June. Ural, Caucasus, often cultivated, along rivers and lakes, forests, up to 1500 m. (Boborov and Komarov 1936). Common in many areas of Central Asia, Northern India, Afghanistan, Iran, the Caucasus, Turkey, China, and many other countries. According to Smolski (1935), the origin of white mulberry is considered to be China, Manchuria, and Korea. Mulberry is widely naturalized and cultivated in all areas of Tajikistan from 800 m to 2400 m asl., except Murgab region. Mulberry trees are cultivated in gardens, on roadsides, and on mountain slopes. They prefer dry and sandy soils (Mubalieva 2010) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Morus alba L. . . . Fig. 1 Morus alba (Moraceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Morus alba (Moraceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Morus alba (Moraceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 4 Morus serrata (Moraceae), tree, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal. (Photo Kiran Timalsina)

Morus serrata: Trees to 15 m tall. Branchlets densely pubescent. Stipules lanceolateovate, 1.5–2 cm. Petiole 4v6 cm, densely white pubescent; leaf blade broadly ovate, unlobed, 10–14  6–10 cm, abaxially densely white pubescent along midvein and basal lateral veins, adaxially glabrous, base cordate, margin toothed with teeth triangular and apically shortly acuminate, apex acuminate to caudate; basal lateral veins 2, extending to basal half. Female inflorescences axillary, single; peduncle 0.5–1.5 cm. Female flowers: calyx lobes ovate-orbicular, adaxially pubescent; style absent; stigmas without mastoidlike protuberance, 2-branched, pubescent. Syncarp red when mature, shortly cylindric. Achenes ovoid,  compressed, glabrous. Flowering and fruiting May-June (Wu et al. 1994–2013, 2003) (Figs. 4 and 5). In general, this species has dark brown bud color, bud size of 19.40–79.20 mm2, grey branch color, semi-erect branching, dark green leaf colur with rough leaf surface, 2–5 cm long inflorescence, and red fruit color (Vijayan et al. 2011b). The inflorescence in mulberry is a catkin with pendent or drooping peduncle bearing unisexual flowers. Male catkins are usually longer than the female catkins. Female inflorescence is usually short and the flowers are arranged compactly. There are four persistent perianth lobes. The ovary is single celled and the stigma is bifid. The ovules are pendulous. Pollination is anemophilous. The seed is light yellow or brown in color, oval shaped with a nearly flat surface in the micropylar region. Leaves of M. serrata are considered too rough,

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Fig. 5 Morus serrata (Moraceae), plant, Parbat district, Nepal. (Photo Arjun Bhusal)

leathery, and thick to be used for silkworm rearing (Vijayan et al. 2011b). Depending on the agro-climatic distribution, the morphological parameters showed wide variation (Tikader and Dandin 2005). The fruit is very sweet to taste after ripening. Mucilage juice is the special character of the species (Tikader and Thangavelu 2003). Wide range of variability observed in different leaf anatomical parameters. The stomata frequency ranges from 255.82 to 416.30 mm2, whereas idioblast frequency 13.90– 35.86 mm2 (Tikader and Dandin 2005). Mulberry (Morus spp.) was originated at the Himalayan foothills of northern hemisphere, later spread toward the tropics of southern hemisphere. Today, Morus is present in Asia, Europe, North and South America, and Africa (Press et al. 2000; Vijayan et al. 2011b). It is grows in temperate and subtropical regions of northern hemisphere and tropics of southern hemisphere in wide range of climatic, topographical, and soil conditions (Imran et al. 2010). Morus serrata is native to N. Pakistan to S. Tibet and W. and Central Himalaya of Nepal and India (http://powo.science.kew.org/ taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:854715-1). Nair (1977) documented the occurrence of M. serrata in the sub-Himalayan belt up to an altitude of 3,00 m. This species possesses drought tolerant characters like leaf rolling, abundant xylem, less stomata per unit area, and slow growth in response to moisture stress (Tikader and Dandin 2005).

Phytochemistry Triterpenoids (betulic acid), steroids (sitosterol), vitamins (B1, B2, C, E), flavonoids (malberrine, cyclomalberrine), phenols (resorcine), tannins, flavonoids (kaempferol, quercetine, rutin), steroids (sistosterol), organic acids (oxalic, tartaric, lemon, amber, apple), fatty acids (enanthic, myristic, palmitosine, stearic, oleic, linoleic, linolenic). (Fedorov 1984). Fruit of Morus serrata are good source of the nutrients, minerals, and phyotchemicals along with superior antioxidant potential. Fruit of M. serrata contains 85.4  5.17% moisture, 7.25  2.04% proteins, 8.37  2.46% fats, 80.5  8.27% carbohydrates, and 3.89  1.62% ash with energy value of

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416  33.8 kcal/100 g (Mehmood Abbasi et al. 2016). It contains 335.67  6.10 mg GAE/100 g FW of total phenolic content (TPC) and 458.33  15.10 mg CE/100 g FW of total flavonoid content (TFC) (Singh et al. 2015). It contains 53.2  8.37 mg RE/100 g, FW of flavonols and 3.88  1.08 mg AAE/100 g, FW ascorbic acid (Mehmood Abbasi et al. 2016). The leaf of mulberry plant is a rich source of natural isoprenoid substituted phenolic compounds including flavonoids. These compounds have been studied by many investigators with structural, biological, and pharmacological interests (Venkatesh Kumar and Chauhan 2008). Mulberry leaf contains 13.53% of protein, 3.53% of fat, and 13.73% of fiber content with relatively high flavones protein concentration (5–6 g/100 g fresh) (Buhroo et al. 2018). M. serrata root contains compounds like β-Amyrin acetate, betunilic acid, cerylalcohol, querectin, and morin (Venkatesh Kumar and Chauhan 2008). Health risk assessment showed no significant noncarcinogenic or carcinogenic health risk associated with the consumption of fruits of M. serrata (Mehmood Abbasi et al. 2016). It has a unique nutritional profile containing proteins, phenolics, flavonoids, and anthocyanins that enhance its significance as promising nature’s functional tonic (Buhroo et al. 2018).

Local Medicinal Uses Morus alba: In Middle Asia the bark serves in decoction to treat hypertension, urinary diseases, angina, dysentery, anemia, as diuretic, as hemostatic for uterine bleeding, and as expectorant. The latex is used in wound healing, as laxative and anthelmintic. In Azerbaijan Mulberry is used to treat diabetes. In the Ural, the species is used to remedy vomiting, pulmonary diseases, and fever. (Fedorov 1984). The roots are used to treat sore throat and cough, and as brain and heart stimulant in India (Raj et al. 2018), and for cough, constipation, snakebites and for hyperglycemia, ulcers, and tonsilitis in Pakistan (Umair et al. 2019). Fruits, leaves, and roots are used for medicinal purposes. The fruits are used to enhance immunity and as an anthelmintic. They are used as a prophylactic against colds and a variety of infectious diseases. It is also used for its positive effect on the stomach and intestines and to treat enterocolitis, gastritis with low acidity, dysbacteriosis, and dysentery (Akobirshoeva 2012). Unripe berries are used against heartburn. Mulberry leaves are applied against diseases of the oral cavity (stomatitis) and throat. It is used as a mild diuretic to help with kidney diseases (Yusufbekov 1969). The fruits are recommended against constipation. A decoction of the bark is used to normalize blood pressure, calms the nervous system, and helps with depression and in stressful situations (Akobirshoeva 2012). Mulberry fruit is also used to treat mental and physical overload as a restorative. Green fruits are used for diarrhea and ripe dried fruits are used for diseases of the throat and gastric tract (Talyshinsky 1990). In folk medicine of the Western Pamir, the stems are used against hypertension and inflammation of the kidneys (Akobirshoeva 2012). An infusion of the fruit is taken for

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kidney disease and spleen problems (Mubalieva 2010). In Malataya as antidiabetic, antiseptic, astringent, cicatrizing, constipation, diarrhea, digestive, gastritis, hypoglycaemiant, insect repellent, intestinal laxative, neuritis, oil for burn, purgative, respiratory infections, ulcer, vermifuge, worms (Tetik et al. 2013). As hypoglycemiant and tonic, for asthma, colds, cough, bronchitis, weaknesst, to treat dysmenorrhea or amenorrhea (Yesilada et al. 1999). Leaves and stems, fresh or dried used to treat diabetes. Mulberry is sold widely in Northern Peru. The leaves have antibacterial activity (Paniagua et al. 2020; Bussmann & Sharon 2006). The latex is used to treat toothache. In Madagascar used for urine retention and stomachache (Rabearivony et al. 2015) and anorexia (Randriamiharisoa et al. 2015). For cough, facial dropsy, throat infections, jaundice and as memory enhancer (Ahmad Jan et al. 2017; Wali et al. 2019). Used to treat snakebites (Houghton and Osibogun 1993). In Jammu and Kashmir as anthelmintic, purgative, blood enrichment, dyspepsia, refrigerant, for sore throat, as appetizer, for hair growth, jaundice, constipation, as laxative, for stomach problems, boils, burns, sores, wounds (Gairola et al. 2014). Morus serrata: Fruit juice of Morus possesses many medicinal properties such as antiphlogistic, antivinous, astringent, bactericide, diaphoretic, ditiretic, emollient, escharotic, expectorant, fungicide, laxative, nervine, purgative, refrigerant, restorative, sedative, tonic, and vermifuge (Duke and Wain 1981). As it contains resveratrol, fruit powder works as an anti-mutagen, which can inhibit the mutation of healthy normal cells into cancerous cells (Hou 2003). Anthocyanins present in the fruit possess antioxidative properties (Imran et al. 2010). Morus fruits are reported to possess antidiabetic properties (Kim et al. 1998). The leaves of Morus species are antibacterial, astringent, diaphoretic (increase perspiration), hypoglycaemic (abnormal decrease of sugar in the blood), odontalgic (relating to or marked by toothache) and ophthalmic (relating to, or situated near the eye) (Buhroo et al. 2018). Studies had suggested that leave extract of Morus species can provide viable treatment in diseases like Alzheimers disease, hyperlipidemia, and atherosclerosis (Iyengar 2007). Barks of roots and stem of Morus have purgative, anthelmintic, and astringent properties. Root bark having a bitter acid taste possessed cathartic and anthelmentic properties. Root of some Morus is one of the constituents of drug named, “Glucosidase” which is used in high blood pressure (Venkatesh Kumar and Chauhan 2008). Medicinal properties of M. serrata are yet to be studied in detail. M. serrata is being used in the traditional medicines in its range countries. In Central Terai of Nepal, root paste is used for cure of diarrhea. Root and bark are boiled and decoction is drunk to cure typhoid fever (Bhattarai et al. 2009). Root juice of M. serrata is being used as anthelmintic (Kunwar et al. 2012; Bhattarai et al. 2009; Dhami 2008). Bark juice is used in cut wounds and ripe fruits are used in indigestion and constipation in Western Terai region of Nepal (Dhami 2008). One teaspoon of root juice of Morus spp. is taken twice a day for intestinal worm in Magar community in Western Mid-hills (Thapa 2012). Bark of the plant is used as astringent, carminative, and antiseptic. Decoction of bark is useful in asthma, lungs infection, chronic bronchitis, diarrhea, and dysentery (Subba and Basnet 2014). Bark of the

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plant is used as astringent and a carminative. Decoction of bark is useful in cure of asthma, lungs infection, chronic bronchitis, diarrhea, and dysentery (Subba et al. 2016). Mulberry leave tea is known for antidiabetic and cholesterol reducing properties (Buhroo et al. 2018). The leaf juice of Morus species has refrigerant and laxative properties. It is also used as a febrifuge, in diarrhea, cold, endemic, malaria, and amoebiosis (Venkatesh Kumar and Chauhan 2008).

Local Food Uses Morus alba: The fruits are eaten fresh, dried for use in sauces, sweets, and the production of alcohol, and used for jams. (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b, c, 2020a, b; Fedorov 1984). Often planted as fruit tree (Dangol et al. 2017; Mekonnen et al. 2015). The leaves are used to make sarma (Dogan et al. 2017). Morus serrata: Fruits commonly eaten (Dangol et al. 2017) (Figs. 6, 7, and 8).

Fig. 6 Morus alba (Moraceae), harvest, Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 7 Morus alba (Moraceae), harvest, Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 8 Morus alba (Moraceae), harvest, Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Morus alba: The wood is used in construction, for ships, furniture, and musical instruments, as well the production of paper. The leaves are the main forage for silkworms. The bark yields a yellow, yellowish red, and greenish dye for wool and silk (Fedorov 1984). The leaves are used to feed silkworms, and the wood is used in construction, for tool handles and musical instruments (panduri) (Bussmann et al. 2016a, 2016b, 2017a, 2018). Mulberry leaves are sold in medicinal plant markets (Bussmann et al. 2017b). Mulberry is a widely used plant. Almost all parts of the plant are used. Leaves are used for feeding silkworms. Fresh and dried fruits are used as food, and fruits, leaves, branches, bark, and wood are important in the informal economy. Young branches are used for weaving baskets (Mubalieva 2010). The density of mulberry wood is 600–700 kg/cubic meter, which is comparable to beech

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wood. Mulberry wood has an appealing color and texture and is valued by age, the older the tree, the more valuable the wood, and things made of such wood are exclusive. In some villages, young branches of mulberry are used to weave baskets for household needs and fishing. Wood of middle-aged individuals is used for the manufacture of musical instruments. It is also used to make household items, such as spoons, scoops, saucers (Yusufbekov 1969; Usmanov et al. 1975; Mubalieva 2010). Mulberry wood is also used as a source of yellow dye for dying fabrics (Mubalieva 2010). Morus serrata: M. serrata is grown in home gardens of Nepal and is mainly used for fodder for livestock (Baul et al. 2013). Raw fruits of M. serrata also consumed during fruiting season (Shrestha and Dhillion 2006). It is being also used as low quality fuel wood (Fonzen and Oberholzer 1984). It is one of the underutilized plant species of Nepal (Kunwar et al. 2012). As M. serrata is considered wild and useless in the sericulture industry. However, this wild species have been used for other nonsericulture purposes such as horticulture and agro-forestry (Vijayan et al. 2011b). Features like higher leaf thickness, greater moisture retention, resistance to biotic stress from diseases and pests, and abiotic stresses like drought and frost make it agronomically important plant for farmers (Tikader and Dandin 2001; Vijayan et al. 2011b). The fruits are being used in modern medicine, that is, for the preparation of syrup, to add flavors and natural color in medicines (Singh and Benchamin 2001; Singh and Suryanarayna 2003). Syrup of ripe fruits is useful in heart diseases, bleeding disorder, burning sensation, debility, and antiaging (Buhroo et al. 2018). Fruits of the mulberry are rich in sugar and vitamin C. They can be fermented to prepare special wine and beer (Buhroo et al. 2018). Mulberry fruits are rich in anthocyanins and can be used for the industrial production of natural color to be used in the food industry (Buhroo et al. 2018). Mulberry leaf contains 13.53% of protein, 3.53% of fat, and 13.73% of fiber content pressure (Venkatesh Kumar and Chauhan 2008). Technology of utilizing mulberry fruits as feed blocks for animals can be developed as an income-generating microenterprise. Bast fiber of mulberry has been considered as environmentally friendly new fiber source in pulp and paper industries (Li et al. 2009). These fibers are very large (6–20 mm; average 10 mm) and provide great strength to paper (Walia 2013). So, M. serrata trees can be grown as one of the renewable and sustainable resources of cellulose fibers. Mulberry fruit contains high sugar and vitamin C contain and hence best for preparation of jams, jellies, and other sweet products (Buhroo et al. 2018). Morus spp. wood is known for shock resistance ability, strength, and hardiness (Vijayan et al. 2011b). Hardwood of M. serrate is being used for making sports goods like hockey sticks, tennis rackets, squash rackets, cricket stumps, and bats, etc., due to the presence of fine grains (Buhroo et al. 2018). It is also suitable for construction, agricultural implements, furniture, spokes, poles, shafts, and bent parts of carriage and carts. The wood is also found suitable for low-grade plywood and for paneling, carving and turnery, tea boxes, and toys (Vijayan et al. 2011b).

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Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. FABACEAE Kumar Shrestha, Dammar Singh Saud, Shankar Pant, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC.: Carpogon capitatus Roxb.; Carpogon niveus Roxb.; Carpopogon pruriens (L.) Roxb.; Dolichos pruriens L.; Marcanthus cochinchinense Lour.; Mucuna atropurpurea sensu auct.; Mucuna axillaris Baker; Mucuna bernieriana Baill.; Mucuna cochinchinense (Lour.) A.Chev.; Mucuna cochinchinensis (Lour.) A.Chev.; Mucuna esquirolii H.Lev.; Mucuna luzoniensis Merr.; Mucuna lyonii Merr.; Mucuna minima Haines.; Mucuna nivea (Roxb.) DC.; K. Shrestha (*) Department of Plant Biology, Ecology and Evolution, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, USA e-mail: [email protected] D. Singh Saud Department of Plant resources, Thapathali, Kathmandu, Nepal S. Pant Texas A&M AgriLife Research and Extension Center, Weslaco, TX, USA Agricultural Research Service, US Department of Agriculture, Stillwater, OK, USA H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_154

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Mucuna prurita (L.) Hook.; Mucuna sericophylla Perkins; Mucuna utilis Wall. ex Wight.; Mucuna velutina Hassk.; Negretia mitis Blanco; Stizolobium capitatum (Roxb.) Kuntze; Stizolobium cochinchinense (Lour.) Burk; Stizolobium niveum (Roxb.) Kuntze; Stizolobium pruriens (L.) Medico.; Stizolobium pruritum (Wight) Piper; Stizolobium velutinum (Hassk.) Piper & Tracy. (Hara et al. 1978).

Local Names Mucuna pruriens: Pashto: Pesho ghut ‫ﭖﺵﻭﻍﻭټ‬, Nepali: Kaauso, Kaause Simi, Kauchho; Tharu: Kausva, Kewanch; Hindi: Goncha, Kiwach, Kaunch; Sanskrit: Etka, Adhyunda, Atmagupta, Kapikachhu, Shukhashimbha; Jammu: Jajooli; Rai: Somang (Dahal 2000; Department of Plant Resources [DPR] 2016. English: Monkey tamarind, velvet bean, Bengal velvet bean, Florida velvet bean, Mauritius velvet bean, Yokohama velvet bean, cowage, cowitch, itch weed, lacuna bean, Lyon bean.

Botany and Ecology Mucuna pruriens: Semiwoody twining vines. Stems and branchlets slender, with dense long fine hairs and often coarser longer hairs, later glabrous. Leaves up to 46 cm; petiole 8–26 cm, hairy like stem; stipels robust, tapering to tip, 4–5 mm; leaflets papery, adaxially sparsely or abundantly hairy when young, later glabrous, abaxially clothed with short white silky hairs, lateral veins 5–8 on each side, slender, straight or slightly curved, running into margin; terminal leaflet elliptic or ovaterhombic, (3–)14–16  (4.5–)8–10 cm, base broadly cuneate to rounded, apex rounded, acute, or shortly acuminate; lateral leaflets 7–19 cm, width ratio of abaxial to adaxial halves 2–3:1, abaxial half with base  truncate or rarely cordate. Inflorescence axillary, long and pendulous, 15–35 cm, with (2–)5–20 nodes, all in upper 2/3 of inflorescence with no bracts or scars in lower part; pedicels 2–4( 6) mm, densely adpressed hairy and often bristly; bracts and bracteoles linear-lanceolate 6–9 mm, hairy, caducous before flowers open. Calyx with dense soft adpressed pale hairs and often irritant orange bristles; tube about 5  10 mm; lateral 2 lobes broadly triangular, 2–4  1.5–3( 3.5) mm, lowest narrowly triangular, 6-10  2–3 mm. Corolla deep purple; standard 1.6–2.5 cm, 1/2–2/3 of keel length; wings 2–4  about 1.2 cm, shorter than or subequal to keel; keel 2.8–4.2( 4.5) cm. Legume linearoblong and slightly swollen around seeds or misshapen with irregular swellings around seeds, to 9  1( 2) cm, about 5 mm thick, densely covered with soft pale hairs or orange to brown irritant caducous bristles, margin thickened, surface with or without longitudinal ridges. Seeds 3–6( 8), white to light yellow-brown, orange, brown, or black, sometimes mottled in various colors, elliptic, 0.9–1.78( 2)  0.4– 1.3 cm, (3–)4–10 mm thick; hilum 3–6 mm, about 1/8 of seed circumference, with aril forming a raised orange border. Flowering September-January, fruiting OctoberApril. (DPR 2016, Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6).

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Fig. 1 Mucuna pruriens (Fabaceae), plant, Nepal. (Photo DS Saud)

Phytochemistry L-DOPA (approximately 5%) (Vadivel and Pugalenthi 2008), mucunadine, mucnain, mucunine, prurienidine, prurieninine, fatty acids (archidic, behenic, lecithin, myristic, palmitic, stearic, oleic linolenic, vernolic, hexanoic, undecanoic, 2,5-dimethyl, n-decanoic acid, undecanoic acid, tetradecanoic acid, ethyl ester and linoleic acids) (Tavares et al. 2015), alkaloids (3-Carboxysalsolinol, ( )-3-carboxy1,1-dimethyl-7,8-dihydroxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinoline, serotonin, harmine, β-carboline, Bufotenine, Indole-3-alkylamine), amino acids (aspartic acids, glutamic acids, glycine, arginine, histidine, Isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, proline, serine, threonine, trypsin, tyrosine, valine), tannins, hydrogen cyanide, phytic acids, phenolics (Siddhuraju et al. 1996), organic acids (niacin, 4-dodecanol, adipic acid, bis(2-ethylhexyl)ester), phenolic acid (gallic acid), steroids (squalene, glutathione), tryptamine alkaloids (methoxybufotenin, dimethyltryptamine, dimethyltryptamine-N-oxide, 5-Methoxy-N, N-dimethyltryptamine-Noxide), vitamins (riboflavin, thiamin), choline, saponins, serotonin, diethyl acetal, 4-hepatanol, 2-methyl, 3,4-hexanediol, 4-ethoxybenzhydrazide, 1-(+)-ascorbic acid 2,6-dihexadecanoate, (Z,Z)-, 3-methyl-2-(2-oxopropyl) furan, 6,8-dodecadien-1-ol (6Z,8E), triarachine, diisooctyl ester, glycerol (4, 5).

Local Medicinal Uses Mucuna pruriens: It has aphrodisiac and antidepressant properties and is locally used as a vegetable (Mehmood et al. 2018). All the parts, roots, stem, leaves, seed pods, and seeds of the black velvet have medicinal values. Roots are used in dysentery, uterine trouble, and as a tonic. In the central mid-hills of Nepal, fresh

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Fig. 2 Mucuna pruriens (Fabaceae), flower Nepal. (Photo DS Saud)

Fig. 3 Mucuna pruriens (Fabaceae), fruits, seed pods Nepal. (Photo Rajesh Tamang)

roots are fed to the livestock to pave the way for effective conception in future mensuration cycles and increase sexual virility in males, hence act as a good aphrodisiac. The root decoction is useful in frequent urination. Roots are used as a tonic and stimulant (Kunwar and Bussmann 2009). Roots used for dysentery, fever, and urinary troubles. Seeds are aphrodisiac, nerve tonic, anthelmintic, antipyretic, and purgative (Bajracharya 1979; Dash 2002). Root juice is a nervous system

Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. Fig. 4 Mucuna pruriens (Fabaceae), seeds, Nepal. (Photo DS Saud)

Fig. 5 Mucuna pruriens (Fabaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

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Fig. 6 Mucuna pruriens (Fabaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

stimulant (Chandel et al. 1996). Leaves are aphrodisiac, anthelmintic, and useful also in ulcers, inflammation, and general debility. The leaf decoction is given orally in weakness and headache. Seeds are aphrodisiac, tonic, anthelmintic, and cure blood diseases. Male human consumes hot water extracts of seeds orally as an aphrodisiac, seminal weakness, and impotence. Hairs covering the pod are vermifuge against roundworms. Bristles, which cover the fruits, are irritant and itching when they come in contact with the body (DPR 2016). In the case of stomach worms to children, they are given hot water extract of dried fruits in controlled doses, overdoses are fatal. Seeds are used as an aphrodisiac, purgative, and tonic and in scorpion stings. Pod is most active anthelmintic against tapeworms (Baral and Kurmi 2006). Seed powder has been reported to be anti-diabetic (Pant et al. 1968; Dhawan et al. 1980) and is useful in Parkinson’s disease (Manyam et al. 1995). Seeds or whole plants fed to cattle by the Aathpahariya Rai of Dhankuta District to overcome infertility (Dahal 2000). Used to treat snakebites (Houghton and Osibogun 1993), for neurological problems (Dey et al. 2017) and to relief cough (Mohagheghzadeh and Faridi 2006), as well as eye disorders (Kala 2005). Also employed as anthelminthic (Bhandary et al. 1995) and analgesic (Almeida et al. 2001). To treat fevers, rheumatism, and paralysis (Gairola et al. 2014). Mucuna urens: Used to treat snakebites (Houghton and Osibogun 1993).

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Local Food Uses Mucuna pruriens: The seeds and fruits of the plant are edible (Dangol et al. 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Mucuna pruriens: In the mid-hills of Nepal, the plant parts, leaves, and stems are used as fodder. The plants are used as fodder when the pods are still young usually up to 3 months after sowing.

References Almeida RN, Navarro DS, Barbosa-Filho JM. Plants with central analgesic activity. Phytomedicine. 2001;8(4):310–22. Bajracharya MB. Ayurvedic medicinal plants and general treatment. Kathmandu: Piyusavarsi Ausadhalaya; 1979. p. 21-21. Baral SR, Kurmi PP. Compendium of medicinal plants in Nepal: Rachana Sharma; 2006. Bhandary MJ, Chandrashekar KR, Kaveriappa KM. Medical ethnobotany of the Siddis of Uttara Kannada district, Karnataka, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 1995;47:149–58. Chandel KPS, Shukla G, Sharma N. Biodiversity in medicinal and aromatic plants in India. Pusa: Indian Council for Agricultural Research; 1996. Dahal M. Ethnobotany of Aathpahariya rai in and around Dhankuta bazar-phase second. In: BIO-technology applications for reforestation and biodiversity conservation. Proceedings of the 8th international workshop of BIO-REFOR, Kathmandu, Nepal, November 28-December 2, 1999. Kathmandu: BIO-REFOR, Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation; 2000. p. 310–1. Dangol DR, Maharjan KL, Maharjan SK, Acharya AK. Wild edible plants in Nepal. In: Joshi BK, KCH B, Acharya A, editors. Conservation and utilization of agricultural plant genetic resources of Nepal. Dhulikhel: NAGRC; 2017. p. 390–407. Dash VB. Materia Medica of Ayurveda: based on: Madanapala’s Nighantu. New Delhi: B. Jain Publishers; 2002. Department of Plant Resources. Medicinal plants of Nepal. 2nd ed. Kathmandu: Government of Nepal, MoFSC, Department of Plant Resources; 2016. Dey A, Gorai P, Mukherjec A, Dhan R, Kumar Modak B. Ethnobiological treatments of neurological conditions in the Chota Nagpur plateau, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2017;198:33–44. Dhawan BN, Dubey MP, Mehrotra BN, Tandon JS. Screening of Indian plants for biological activity: part IX. Indian J Exp Biol. 1980;18:594–602. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Hara, H., Stearn, W. T., & Williams, L. H. J.. An enumeration of the flowering plants of Nepal; a joint project of the British Museum (Natural History) and the Univ. of Tokyo-v. 1: (Gymnospermae and Angiospermae (Monocotyledones)); 1978. Houghton PJ, Osibogun IM. Flowering plants used against snakebite. J Ethnopharmacol. 1993;39:1–29. Kala CP. Ethnomedicinal botany of the Apatani in the eastern Himalayan region of India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2005;1:11. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-1-11. Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Medicinal, aromatic and dye plants of Baitadi and Darchula districts, Nepal Himalaya: status, uses and management. In: Hartmann M, Weipert J, editors. Biodiversität, Naturausstattung im Himalaya, vol. III. Erfurt; 2009. p. 475–89. Manyam BV, Katrak SK, Rao V, Wadia NH. An alternative medicine treatment for Parkinson’s disease: results of a multicenter clinical trial. Altern Complement Med. 1995;1(3):249–55.

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Mehmood SI, Majeed S, Jannat Z, Habib T. Imaging based ethno botanical studies of district Poonch, Azad Jammu and Kashmir. Int J Herbal Med. 2018;6(6):81–91. Mohagheghzadeh A, Faridi P. Medicinal smokes. J Ethnopharmacol. 2006;108:161–84. Pant MC, Uddin I, Bhardwaj UR, Tewari RD. Blood sugar and total cholesterol lowering effect of Glycine soja (Sieb and Zucc.), Mucuna pruriens (DC) and Dolichos biflorus (Linn.) seed diets in normal fasting albino rats. Indian J Med Res. 1968;56:1808–12. Siddhuraju P, Vijayakumari K, Janardhanan K. Chemical composition and protein quality of the little-known legume, velvet bean (Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC.). J Agric Food Chem. 1996;44(9):2636–41. Tavares RL, Silva AS, Campos ARN, Schuler ARP, de Souza Aquino J. Nutritional composition, phytochemicals and microbiological quality of the legume, Mucuna pruriens. Afr J Biotechnol. 2015;14(8):676–82. Vadivel V, Pugalenthi M. Effect of various processing methods on the levels of antinutritional constituents and protein digestibility of Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. var. utilis (wall. Ex Wight) baker ex Burck (velvet bean) seeds. J Food Biochem. 2008;32(6):795–812. Wu Z, Raven, P.H., Hong D. eds. Flora of China. Science Press, Beijing & Missouri Botanical Garden Press, St. Louis; 1994–2013.

Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng. RUTACEAE Sangita Gautam, Laxmi Kunwar, Namraj Dhami, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Bergera koenigii L.; Camunium koenigii (L.) Kuntze; Chalcas koenigii (L.) Kurz; Chalcas siamensis (Craib) Tanaka; Murraya foetidissima Teijsm. & Binn; Murraya siamensis Craib; Nimbo melioides Dennst. (POWO 2020).

Local Names Murraya koenigii: Nepali: Mitho neem, Mechiya saag, Asaare, Desi neem, Mitha neem, Ganiuele, Mechiya sag; Hindi: Curry patta, Mitha neem, Kathnim, Karepaku, Gandela; Sanskrit: Mahanimb, Surabhinimba, Girinimba, Krishnanimba, Alakavhayah, Suravi S. Gautam · L. Kunwar · N. Dhami School of Health and Allied Sciences, Pokhara University, Pokhara, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_155

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(Jain et al. 2017), Maharista, Mahanimba; Chinese: Ma jiao ye, Ga li ye; Arabic: Warak al akri; Indonesian: Daun kari; Italian: Fogli de cari; Vietnamese: Cari; Thai: Hom khaek, Som, Mo noi (Porcher 2011); Cambodia: xantroc; Laos: dok kibi (CABI 2019); English: Curry leaf tree, Curry leaves, Sweet neem.

Botany and Ecology Murraya koenigii: Tree, p to 5–6 m in height with a thin, smooth, short trunk of 15– 40 cm in diameter (Fig. 1). It has a brown to greyish bark which comprises longitudinal strains of the whitish bark underneath. Leaves are 15–30 cm long, exstipulate, bipinnately compound, reticulate venation, bearing 11–25 leaflets that are 2.5–5 cm long, 1–2 cm broad alternate, ovate, lanceolate, and oblique base. The leaflet margins are irregularly serrate with 2–3 mm long petiole. Inflorescences are terminal cymes with 60–90 pedunculate flowers. Flowers are white, pentamerous, complete, regular, funnel-shaped, bisexual, stalked, sweet-scented, ebracteate, fully opened flower with average diameter of 1.12 cm, actinomorphic. The calyx is deeply five-clefted, green, inferior, persistent, and pubescent. The corolla is white and inferior with 5-petals, polypetalous, lanceolate in shape and bearing glabrous glands, 5 mm long. The androecium is polyandrous, inferior, stamen-10, dorsifixed, smaller Fig. 1 Murraya koenigii (Rutaceae) tree in Pokhara, Nepal. (Photo N Dhami)

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Fig. 2 Murraya koenigii (Rutaceae) Fruiting branch of Murraya koenigii during July 2020. (Photo N Dhami)

stamens are about 4 mm long, and longer are 5–6 mm long, free filament, and bear small short anthers. The gynoecium is 5–6 mm long with a hypogynous 2 celled ovary, 1–2 ovules in each cell; elongated, thick, articulate, cylindrical style; stigma is sticky, bright, capitate, or grooved. Fruits are round to oblong or subglobose, wrinkled, or rough with glands, occurs in a cluster, each cluster contains 32–80 numbers of fruits, glandular, 1.4–1.6 cm long, 1–1.2 cm diameter, color turns green to red to purplish-black with a shiny surface on ripening, the mucilaginous pulp is enclosed by a thin pericarp which encloses 1–2 seeds. Seeds are nonendospermic, 10–11 m long, 7–8 mm in diameter, spinach green in color (Batool et al. 2020). Flowering April to May and fruiting June to August (Wu et al. 1994–2013). Murraya koenigii is a perennial, deciduous shrub, or a small tree (Fig. 1). It is native to South Asia and commonly found in Nepal, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and other South Asian countries (Fig. 2). It grows in sunny to semi-shaded areas of tropical and subtropical regions. It prefers well-drained soil enriched with organic materials.

Phytochemistry Contains minerals such as calcium, sodium, zinc, potassium, phosphorous, and iron. Different parts comprise vitamins, including beta carotene (vitamin A), niacin (vitamin B3), thiamin (vitamin B1), and vitamin C (Verma and Singh 2020). The mature leaves of M. koenigii contain total sugars 18.92%, starch 14.6%, fat 6.15%,

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total nitrogen 1.15%, crude fibre 6.8%, ash 13.06%, acid insoluble ash 1.35%, alcohol soluble ash 1.82%, cold water soluble extractive 27.33%, and hot water soluble extractive 33.45%. The major phytochemicals include alkaloids, flavonoids, phenols, glycosides, tannins, terpenoids, phlobatannis, saponins, triterpenoids, steroids, and volatile oils (Igara et al. 2016). Some of the compounds isolated from the different parts of M. koenigii are as follows. Alkaloids; Bicyclomahanimbicine, Bismahanine, Eustifoline D, Girinimbilol (mukoenine A), Girinimbine, Glycozoline, Isolongifolene, Isomahanimbine, Isomahanine, Isomurrayazoline, Koenidine, Koenimbidine, Koenigicine, Koenigine, Koenimbine, Koenine, Koenoline, Kurryam, Mahanimbilol, Mahanimbine, Mahanimboline, Mahanine, Mukoeic acid, Mukoline, Mukonal, Mukonicine, Murrayacine, Murrayakonine A, Murrayakonine B, Murrayakonine C, Murrayakonine D, Murrayaline, Murrayanine, Murrayanol, Murrayazolidine (Curryanine, Cyclomahanimbine), Murrayazoline, Murrayone (coumarin), O-Methyl murrayanine A, PyrayafolineD, 9-formyl-3-methyl carbazole (Jain et al. 2017) (Utaipan et al. 2017) (Bhandari 2012; Chauhan et al. 2017) (Bhandari 2012; Balakrishnan et al. 2020; Jain et al. 2017) (Gahlawat et al. 2014) (Iyer and Devi 2008) (Samanta et al. 2018). Flavonoids: Apigenin, Catechin, Kaempferol, Myricetin, Quercetin, Rutin, 1-O-β-D-Rutinosyl-2(R)-ethyl-1-pentanol, 4-O-β-D-Rutinosyl-3-methoxyphenyl-1propanone, 8-Phenylethyl-O-β-D-rutinoside (Samanta et al. 2018; Balakrishnan et al. 2020). Leaf essential oils: Allo-ocimene, Carvone, Eucalyptol, E-β-ocimene, Limonene, Linalool, Linalyl acetate, Sabinene, p-cymene, 3-carene, (Z)-β-ocimene, α-amorphene, α-eudesmol, α-pinene, α-terpineol, α-thujene, β-elemene, β-eudesmol, β-pinene, γ-terpinene (Tripathi et al. 2018; Salikutty et al. 2012).

Local Medicinal Uses Murraya koenigii: The essential oil, various extracts, and pure compounds obtained from the different parts of M. koenigii have shown potential pharmacological activities. Analgesic activity; petroleum ether, ethanol, and distilled water extracts of M. koenigii leaves showed greater analgesic activity as compared to ethanol and water extracts (Brar et al. 2015). Antibacterial activity; essential oil from M. koenigii leaves showed antibacterial activity against Proteus mirabilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Enterobacter aerogenes (Rajendran et al. 2014). Silver nanoparticles from aqueous extract from M. koenigii leaves (MK-AgNPs) were antibacterial against Escherichia coli (Qais et al. 2019). Antidiabetic activity; ethanolic extract of M. koenigii leaves showed dose-dependent antidiabetic activity in Streptozotocin and Nicotinamide induced rats (Husna et al. 2018). Also, aqueous extract of M. koenigii decreased blood glucose level and maintained the normal body weight, renal and endocrine protective effects (Al-Ani et al. 2017).

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Antidiarrheal activity; carbazole alkaloid obtained from the n-hexane extract of M. koenigii seeds exhibited significant and dose-dependent antidiarrheal activity comparable with standard drug diphenoxylate (Mandal et al. 2010). Antifungal activity; the essential oil from M. koenigii leaves showed Antifungal against Alternaria alternate, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus parasiticus, Fusarium oxysporum, Fusarium moniliforme, Mucor mucedo, Penicillium notatum, Penicillium funiculosum, and Trichoderma viride (Tripathi et al. 2018). Anti-inflammatory activity; the alkaloids obtained from chloroform:methanol (1:1) extract of M. koenigii stem and leaves inhibited the induction of pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α and IL-6 (Nalli et al. 2016). Antioxidant activity; the hydroalcoholic extracts of M. koenigii leaves were rich in flavonoids and phenolics and showed promising antioxidant capacity (Aju et al. 2017). Also, alkenes isolated from M. koenigii leaves exhibited significant antioxidant activity (Ma et al. 2016). Cytotoxic activity; the hot water extract of M. koenigii leaf, stem, and fruits exhibited dose dependent cytotoxic effect on lymphocytes (Nagaraj et al. 2018). Hepatoprotective activity; the ethanolic extract of M. koenigii leaves showed a significant reduction in the serum levels of aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, and alkaline phosphatase suggesting a potential hepatoprotective effect against paracetamol induced liver injuries in rats (Sangale and Patil 2017). Hypolipidemic activity; the aqueous extract of M. koenigii leaves Significantly reduced the level of triglycerides and cholesterol level in alloxan induced diabetic rats which is comparable to Atorvastatin (Buchineni et al. 2016). Immunomodulatory effects; the aqueous extract of M. koenigii leaves showed potent immunostimulant activity against cytotoxic drugs which stimulates both specific and nonspecific immune responses by activating macrophages, cellular, and humoral mediated responses (Shah and Juvekar 2010). Aqueous extract showed immunomodulation through antioxidant and immunosuppressant mechanisms in wistar rats. The extract decreased cell-mediated immune response (suppression of inflammation) and reduction of antibodies (Sathaye et al. 2011). Larvicidal activity; the hexane, chloroform, and ethyl acetate extracts of M. koenigii leaves showed up to 96.40% mortality against larvae of Culex quinquefasciatus (Kovendan et al. 2012). Likewise, the selenium nanoparticles from aqueous extract of M. koenigii berries showed a promising larvicidal activity against the mosquito vector Aedes aegypti (Yazhiniprabha and Vaseeharan 2019). Memory enhancing activity; the ethanolic extract of M. koenigii leaves significantly improved the impaired memory and learning capabilities in experimental rats with normal pyramidal cells, clear and well-defined nucleus in cerebral ischemia induced rats (Azzubaid and Al-Ani 2019). Nephroprotective effects; the methanolic extract of M. koenigii leaves showed nephroprotective activity against cyclophosphamide induced nephrotoxicity in rats by maintaining the levels of blood urea nitrogen (BUN), serum creatinine (Cr), lipid peroxide (LOP), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and glutathione (GSH) with normal glomerulus, PCT, DCT structures, and renal tubules (Mahipal and Pawar 2017). Radioprotective activity; the methanolic extract of M. koenigii leaves reduced the gamma radiation caused lipid peroxidation

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and maintained the GSH and enzymes level suggesting radioprotective property (Deeper and Devi 2009). Anticancer; Apigenin, Girinimbine, Isomahanine, Kaemferol, Koenimbine, Koenoline, Mahanimbine, Mahanine, Murrayazoline, O-methylmurrayamine A, Pyarayafoline-D, Quercetin, Rutin (Samanta et al. 2018; Ghasemzadeh et al. 2014; Iman et al. 2017). Antidiabetic; Isomahanine, Mahanimbine, Mahanimbicine, Mahanimboline, Murrayacine (Handral et al. 2012). Antidiarrheal; Koenimbine, Koenidine, Kurryam (Gahlawat et al. 2014). Antiinflammatory; Currayanine; Glycozoline; Murrayanol; O-methylmurrayamine A, Murrayanine Handral et al., 2012, Nalli et al., 2016). Antimicrobial; Girinimbine, Girinimbilol, Isomahanine, Mahanine, Mahanimbine, Mahanimbicine, Isomahanimbine, Mahanimboline, Murrayacine, Murrayanine (Gahlawat et al. 2014; Handral et al. 2012). Antioxidant; Bismahanine, Capsianoside V 7, Isolongifolene, Isomahanine, Koenine, Koenimbine, Koenigine, Lutein, Mahanine, Mahanimbine, Mukoeic acid, Mukonicine, O-methyl murrayamine A, Murrayacine, 9-formyl-3-methyl carbazole, (3S, 4E, 6E, 10R)-2, 10-dihydroxy-2-hydroxy-2-methylethyl-6, 10-dimethyl-4, 6, 11-sencolaninic-3-β-D-glucopyranoside, (3R, 5S, 6E, 8S, 10E)-3, 7, 11-trimethyl-1, 6, 10- dodecatriene3, 5, 8-trio (3E, 6S, 7E, 9R, 10S, 11S, 17R)Octadeca-3, 7-diene-6, 9, 10, 11, 17- pentaol (Handral et al. 2012; Gahlawat et al. 2014; Balakrishnan et al. 2020; Ma et al. 2016). Hepatoprotective; Girinimbine, Isomahanimbine, Murrayazoline, Murrayazolidine, Tocopherol (Gahlawat et al. 2014). Hypolipidemic; Isomahanine, Mahanimbine, Murrayacine (Handral et al. 2012; Mitra and Mahadevappa 2010). Immunomodulatory; Isomurrayazoline (Handral et al. 2012). M. koenigii is a high-value plant, particularly for its aromatic smelling leaves. The fresh and dried leaves or leaf (Salikutty et al. 2012) powder is generally used for flavoring several cuisines, including pulses curry and soups (Kumar et al. 2013; Handral et al. 2012). Essential oil and leaf powder are used for seasoning food items, particularly ready to eat foods (Gupta et al. 2011). The ripe fruits are also eaten raw (Pant et al. 2005). Used to treat gastroenteritis (Raj et al. 2018), to promote hair growth (Mary et al. 2011), as snakebite remedy (Houghton and Osibogun 1993), and against vomiting (Muthu et al. 2006). Also used to treat scabies (Bhandary et al. 1995), indigestion (Kala 2005), and more recently against cognitive problems and age-related dementia (Eckert 2010; Gurib 2006). Applies also as anthelminthic, for skin diseases and blood disorders (Kunwar et al., 2009, 2013, Kunwar & Bussmann 2009), and as laxative, for stomach problems, malaria, eruptions and diarrhea (Verma et al. 2007).

Local Food Uses Murraya koenigii is a high-value plant, particularly for its aromatic smelling leaves. The fresh and dried leaves or leaf (Salikutty et al. 2012) powder is generally used for flavoring several cuisines, including pulses curry and soups (Dangol et al. 2017; Kumar et al. 2013; Handral et al. 2012). Essential oil and leaf powder are used for

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seasoning food items, particularly ready to eat foods (Gupta et al. 2011). The ripe fruits are also eaten raw (Pant et al. 2005).

References Aju B, Rajalakshmi R, Mini S. Evaluation of antioxidant activity of Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng using different in vitro methods. J Pharm Phytochem. 2017;6(4):939–42. Al-Ani IM, Santosa RI, Yankuzo MH, Saxena AK, Alazzawi KS. The antidiabetic activity of curry leaves “Murraya koenigii” on the glucose levels, kidneys, and islets of Langerhans of rats with Streptozotocin induced diabetes. Makara J Health Res. 2017;21(2):54–60. Azzubaid MS, Al-Ani IM. Mnemonic and histopathological assessment of the neuroprotective effects of Murraya koenigii leaves extract in rats with partial global cerebral Ischaemia. Int Med J Malays. 2019;18(2):74–85. Balakrishnan R, Vijayraja D, Jo S-H, Ganesan P, Su-Kim I, Choi D-K. Medicinal profile, phytochemistry, and pharmacological activities of Murraya koenigii and its primary bioactive compounds. Antioxidants. 2020;9(2):101. Batool S, Khera RA, Hanif MA, Ayub MA, Memon S. Curry leaf. In: Hanif MA, Nawaz H, Khan MM, Byrne HJ, editors. Medicinal plants of South Asia: Elsevier; 2020. p. 179–90. https://doi. org/10.1016/B978-0-08-102659-5.00014-8. Bhandari PR. Curry leaf (Murraya koenigii) or cure leaf: review of its curative properties. J Med Nutr Nutraceut. 2012;1(2):92–7. Bhandary MJ, Chandrashekar KR, Kaveriappa KM. Medical ethnobotany of the Siddis of Uttara Kannada district, Karnataka, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 1995;47:149–58. Brar B, Duhan JS, Rakha P. Analgesic activity of various extracts of leaves of Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng. World J Pharm Pharm Sci. 2015;4(10):1255–62. Buchineni M, Kudagi B, Mohan PR, Haritha M, Anjani DN. Hypolipidemic activity of Murraya koenigii in alloxan induced diabetic rats. J Pharm Innov. 2016;5(5, Part B):101–3. CABIMurraya koenigii (curry leaf tree); 2019. https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/35175. Accessed 3rd May, 2020. Chauhan B, Dedania J, Mashru R. Review on Murraya koenigii: versatile role in management of human health. World J Pharm Pharm Sci. 2017;6(3):476–93. Dangol DR, Maharjan KL, Maharjan SK, Acharya AK. Wild edible plants in Nepal. In: Joshi BK, Bahadur KCH, Acharya A, editors. Conservation and utilization of agricultural plant genetic resources of Nepal. Dhulikhel: NAGRC; 2017. p. 390–407. Deeper I, Devi PU. Radioprotective activity of Murraya koenigii on cellular antioxidants in Swiss albino mice. J Pharm Res. 2009;2(3):495–501. Eckert RP. Traditional used plants against cognitive decline and Alzheimer disease. Front Pharmacol. 2010:1663–9812. Gahlawat DK, Jakhar S, Dahiya P. Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng: an ethnobotanical, phytochemical and pharmacological review. J Pharmacogn Phytochem. 2014;3(3):109–19. Ghasemzadeh A, Jaafar HZ, Rahmat A, Devarajan T. Evaluation of bioactive compounds, pharmaceutical quality, and anticancer activity of curry leaf (Murraya koenigii L.). Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2014;2014:873803. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/873803. Gupta P, Nahata A, Dixit VK. An update on Murraya koenigii spreng: a multifunctional Ayurvedic herb. J Chin Integr Med. 2011;9(8):824–33. Gurib-Fakim A. Medicinal plants: traditions of yesterday and drugs of tomorrow. Mol Asp Med. 2006;27:1–93. Handral HK, Pandith A, Shruthi S. A review on Murraya koenigii: multipotential medicinal plant. Asian J Pharm Clin Res. 2012;5(4):5–14. Houghton PJ, Osibogun IM. Flowering plants used against snakebite. J Ethnopharmacol. 1993;39:1–29.

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POWO (2020) Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng. http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/774433-1. Accessed 3rd May 2020. Qais F, Shafiq A, Khan H, Husain F, Khan R, Alenazi B, Alsalme A, Ahmad I. Antibacterial effect of silver nanoparticles synthesized using Murraya koenigii (L.) against multidrug-resistant pathogens. Bioinorg Chem Appl. 2019;2019:4649506. Raj AJ, Biswakarma B, Pala NA, Shukla G, Vineeta V, Kumar M, Chakravarty S, Bussmann RW. Indigenous uses of ethno-medicinal plants among forest dependent communities of northern Bengal, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;141:8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002018-0208-9. Rajendran MP, Pallaiyan BB, Selvaraj N. Chemical composition, antibacterial and antioxidant profile of essential oil from Murraya koenigii (L.) leaves. Avicenna J Phytomed. 2014;4(3):200–14. Salikutty J, Peter KV, Divakaran M Curry leaf. In: Peter KV (ed) handbook of herbs and spices (second edition). Woodhead publishing, 2012, p 260-74. https://doi.org/10.1533/ 9780857095671.260. Samanta SK, Kandimalla R, Gogoi B, Dutta KN, Choudhury P, Deb PK, Devi R, Pal BC, Talukdar NC. Phytochemical portfolio and anticancer activity of Murraya koenigii and its primary active component, mahanine. Pharmacol Res. 2018;129:227–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phrs.2017. 11.024. Sangale P, Patil R. Hepatoprotective activity of alkaloid fractions from ethanol extract of Murraya koenigii leaves in experimental animals. J Pharm Sci. 2017;3(1):28–33. Sathaye S, Amin P, Mehta V, Zala V, Kulkarni R, Kaur H, Redkar R. Immunomodulatory activity of aqueous extract of Murraya koenigii, L in experimental animals. Int J Toxicol Pharmacol Res. 2011;3(4):7–12. Shah A, Juvekar A. Immunostimulatory activity of aqueous extract of Murraya koenigii (Linn.) Spreng. Leaves. Indian J Nat Prod Resour. 2010;1(4):450–5. Tripathi Y, Anjum N, Rana A. Chemical composition and in vitro antifungal and antioxidant activities of essential oil from Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng. Leaves. Asian J Biomed Pharmaceut Sci. 2018;8(65):6–13. Utaipan T, Athipornchai A, Suksamrarn A, Jirachotikoon C, Yuan X, Lertcanawanichakul M, Chunglok W. Carbazole alkaloids from Murraya koenigii trigger apoptosis and autophagic flux inhibition in human oral squamous cell carcinoma cells. J Nat Med. 2017;71(1):158–69. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11418-016-1045-6. Verma AK, Singh S. Phytochemical analysis and in vitro cytostatic potential of ethnopharmacological important medicinal plants. Toxicol Rep. 2020;7:443–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. toxrep.2020.02.016. Verma A, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants in an urban environment: the medicinal flora of Banares Hindu university, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3:35. Wu Z, Raven, P.H., Hong D. eds. 1994–2013 Flora of China. Science Press, Beijing & Missouri Botanical Garden Press, St. Louis. Yazhiniprabha M, Vaseeharan B. In vitro and in vivo toxicity assessment of selenium nanoparticles with significant larvicidal and bacteriostatic properties. Mater Sci Eng C Mater Biol Appl. 2019;103:109763. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2019.109763.

Mussaenda frondosa L. Mussaenda macrophylla Wall. RUBIACEAE Prakash Poudel, Rashmi Thapa, Jyoti Sherchan, Biswas Sapkota, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Cinchona gratissima Wall.; Mussaenda luculia Buch.- Ham. ex D. Don

Local Names Mussaenda macrophylla: Nepal: Chepang – Dhobi jhar; Gurung – Nanimaiso, Tarkbeta; Nepali – Dhobini, Dhoeni ghans, Dware, Setpate, and Assaree (Sedai 2010); Bhutan: Dhobini phul, Tumberh; Bangladesh: Magballi, Dhobi tree P. Poudel (*) Department of Pharmacy, Novel Academy, Purbanchal University, Pokhara, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. Thapa Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, School of Health and Allied Sciences, Pokhara University, Pokhara, Nepal J. Sherchan · B. Sapkota Department of Pharmacy, Novel Academy, Pokhara, Nepal R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_156

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(Chowdhury et al. 2013); Philippines: Hah-li do (Balangcod and Balangcod 2011); India: Vakep, Dieng salynthiah, Sapaklarinaro (Sharma et al. 2001; Lepcha and Das 2011; Quattrocchi 2012); China: Da ye yu ye jin hu (Wu et al. 2011); Thailand: Kaem on song si (Chantaranothai 2015); Myanmar: Jyula, Pwint-tu-ywet-tu, Lelu (DeFilipps and Krupnick 2018); Manipur: Hanureio; English: Sweet root, Large-leaf mussaenda, Round-petal mussaenda

Botany and Ecology Mussaenda frondosa: Climbing shrubs; branches terete to compressed, moderately to densely pale red sericeous to hirsute becoming glabrescent, red-brown or brown, rather densely lenticellate. Leaves opposite; petiole 4–10 mm, densely sericeous; blade drying thinly papery or leathery, adaxially dark green to brownish green, abaxially pale green to yellowed, broadly elliptic, elliptic-oblong, ovate, or oblanceolate, 8–15
3–8 cm, both surfaces sparsely strigillose on lamina and strigose to sericeous on principal veins, base acute, obtuse, or rounded, apex acute to caudateacuminate; secondary veins 7–10 pairs, tertiary venation visible and reticulate; stipules persistent, triangular, 5–10 mm, densely strigose to pilose, deeply 2-lobed, lobes lanceolate to narrowly triangular, acute to acuminate. Inflorescences congestedcymose becoming lax with lateral axes elongating markedly, 4–8
8–20 cm with lateral axes to 8 cm, sparsely to moderately pubescent with 2 types of pubescence, mixed strigillose to appressed puberulent and hirsute to villous, pedunculate or sessile and 3-partite; peduncles 1–3 cm; bracts triangular or elliptic, 4–10 mm, usually 2- to multifid, acute to acuminate; pedicels 1–6 mm. Flowers pedicellate, biology not noted. Calyx with hypanthium portion ellipsoid, 3–4 mm, strigose to sericeous; lobes narrowly triangular to narrowly ligulate, 7–12 mm, hirsute, acute to acuminate, with 1 lobe of 1–4 flowers per inflorescence sometimes expanded into calycophyll, blade elliptic-oblong to ovate, 6–8
2.5–5 cm, both surfaces glabrescent on lamina and strigillose on principal veins, base acute to cuneate, stipe 10–30 mm, apex acute or acuminate. Corolla salverform, outside hirsute; tube 22–25 mm; lobes ovate, 6–7 mm, acuminate. Berry ovoid or ellipsoid, ca. 10
7 mm, strigose to glabrescent, calyx limb deciduous. Flowering April–May (Wu et al. 1994–2013). Mussaenda macrophylla: Erect or climbing shrubs; branches terete to quadrangular, sparsely to moderately sericeous. Leaves opposite; petiole 4–35 mm, sparsely hirsute to glabrescent; blade drying membranous to papery, green to brownish, paler below when specimen well preserved, elliptic-oblong, elliptic, or ovate, 12–21
8–11 cm, both surfaces sparsely strigillose to pilose on lamina and moderately hirsute along principal veins, base cuneate to obtuse, apex acute to acuminate; secondary veins 6–8 pairs, without domatia, tertiary venation reticulate; stipules deciduous, ovate to triangular, 5–8 mm, sparsely brown hirsute to glabrescent, deeply 2-lobed, lobes acute to acuminate. Inflorescences laxly cymose, 6–15 cm, hirsute, sessile with arching lateral axes; bracts lanceolate or 2- or 3-parted, 5–10 mm, obtuse to acuminate. Flowers subsessile, biology not noted. Calyx with hypanthium portion campanulate to obconic, 3–4 mm, densely brown strigose to sericeous; lobes lanceolate, ligulate, or oblanceolate, 4–11
1.5–3 mm, often unequal on an

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Fig. 1 Mussaenda macrophylla (Rubiaceae) in its natural habitat, Kaski, Nepal. (Photo P. Poudel)

individual flower, densely to moderately strigillose to strigose, acute, with 1 lobe on 1 to several flowers in each inflorescence expanded into white calycophyll, blade broadly ovate or rhombic, 5–12 cm, both surfaces sparsely hirsute to glabrescent on lamina and moderately to densely pilosulous to puberulent on principal veins, base obtuse to truncate, stipe 18–37 mm, apex obtuse to shortly acuminate. Corolla orange-yellow to golden yellow, salverform, outside densely sericeous; tube 20– 25 mm; lobes ovate, 7–10 mm, acute to acuminate. Berry ellipsoid, 10–15 mm, strigose, lenticellate, calyx limb deciduous. Flowering June–July, fruiting August– November (Suwal 1969; Dinda et al. 2008; Deb 1983; Wu et al. 2011) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3). Mussaenda macrophylla is categorized under the family Rubiaceae. Rubiaceae are trees, shrubs, or infrequently herbs comprising about 609 genera with 31,357 recorded species. The genus Mussaenda consists of 272 recorded species (Press et al. 2000a, b). Among them M. macrophylla is a very common species found widely in Central and Eastern Nepal. M. macrophylla is found widely in Central and Eastern Nepal to about 1800 m in moist places in association with other herbs and shrubs. In Nepal based on ethnobotanical records, it has been reported from 12 districts including Baglung, Gorkha, Ilam, Kangchenjunga, Kaski, Lalitpur, Lamjung, Makawanpur, Palpa, Prabat, Syangja, and Tanahu district (Uprety et al. 2016; Bhandari et al. 2018; Shrestha and Joshi 1993; Tamang and Sedai 2016; Bhattarai and Tamang 2017; Sedai 2010). Outside Nepal, it is found in Northern India, Northeast India, Southeastern China, Myanmar, Philippines, Burma, Yunnan, Malaysia, Bhutan, and Taiwan (Islam et al. 2012; DeFilipps and Krupnick 2018).

Photochemistry Mussaenda macrophylla: The root and leaves of this plant contains different secondary metabolites like alkaloids, polyphenols, quinines, flavonoids, cardiac glycosides, saponins, tannins, steroids, terpenoids, and reducing sugar. The aqueous

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Fig. 2 Mussaenda macrophylla (Rubiaceae) leaves and flowers, Kaski Nepal. (Photo P. Poudel)

Fig. 3 Mussaenda macrophylla (Rubiaceae) dried roots, Kaski, Nepal. (Photo P. Poudel)

extract of leaves contain significant amount of total phenolic content (387.61  14.10 mg gallic acid/g) and flavonoid content (5,761.65  38.5 mg quercetin equivalent/g), (Shrestha et al. 2008; Lalremruati et al. 2019). Stem bark possesses irridoid glycoside (6-epi-barlerin and 6-epi-barlerin pentaacetate), aplysterol, aplysterol galactoside, barlerin, acetyl barlerin, 6,9-epi-8-O-acetyl shanzhiside methyl ester, 6-O-acetyl minoprpside, and β-Sitosterol (Dinda et al. 2008). Its root bark contains four triterpenoid glycosides including 3-O-β-Dglucopyranosyl-28-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-16α-hydroxy-23-deoxyprotobassic acid, 28-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-16α-hydroxy-23-deoxyprotobassic acid, 3-O-βD-glucopyranosyl-28-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-16α-hydroxyprotobassic acid, 3-O-[β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1!6)]-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1!2)-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1!2)-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1!3)-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-cycloarta-22,24-dien-27-oic acid (mussaendoside W), and other four triterpenoids

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like 3-O-acetyloleanolicacid, 3-O-acetyldaturadiol, rotundic acid, and 16α-hydroxyprotobassic acid (Kim et al. 1999).

Local Medicinal Uses Mussaenda macrophylla: Antibacterial activity: Triterpenoid and their glycosides present in the root bark possess antimicrobial activity against oral pathogenic bacteria, Porphyromonas gingivalis. Six different compounds present in this plant 3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-28-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-16α-hydroxy-23-deoxyprot obassic acid, 28-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-16α-hydroxy-23-deoxyprotobassic acid, 3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-28-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-16α-hydroxyprotobassic acid, 3-O-[β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1!6)]-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1!2)-O-βD-glucopyranosyl-(1!2)-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1!3)-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-cy cloarta-22,24-dien-27-oic acid (Mussaendoside W), 3-O-acetyloleanolicacid, and 3-O-acetyldaturadiol are found to be responsible for its antibacterial property (Kim et al. 1999). One study revealed that petroleum ether, ethanolic, 1-butanolic, and aqueous extracts of its root bark has significant antimicrobial activity against a periodontopathic bacterium, Porphyromonas gingivalis. The carbon tetrachloride soluble fraction of leaves showed antimicrobial activity against Salmonella paraty phi and Aspergillus niger (Chowdhury et al. 2013). Antioxidant activity: Methanolic and aqueous extracts of root and leaves has strong antiradical and antioxidant properties. It also has protective effects against hemolysis and lipid peroxidation. The aqueous extract has the highest scavenging properties for ABTS (2,2’-azinobis-(3ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid), DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical), and superoxide radical with IC50 value of 4.12  0.94 μg/ml, 25.92  0.33 μg/ml, and 17.20  0.50 μg/ml, respectively. Study performed by Lalremruati et al. 2019 demonstrated that radical scavenging property of its aqueous extract against ABTS and O2• is more effective than ascorbic acid. Also from the ferric chloride method it was found that the methanolic extract has good reducing power. From ex vivo antioxidant assay also, aqueous extract of this plant showed significant anti-hemolytic property in mice erythrocyte with the inhibition rate of 80.53%. Similarly it also has promising inhibitory activity against lipid peroxidation in the liver homogenate with an inhibition rate of 65.33% (Lalremruati et al. 2019; Shrestha et al. 2008; Islam et al. 2012). Antidiabetic and anti-inflammatory activity: In one hypoglycemic activity test it was demonstrated that rotundic acid, a triterpenic acid which is present in this plant has substantial lipid-lowering activity and mild anti-inflammatory property, but it does not possess glucose lowering effect. Antidiabetic value of this plant as stated in traditional medicine may be due to other compounds (Hsu et al. 2015). Methanolic extract has good thrombolytic and membrane stabilizing activity (Islam et al. 2013). Toxicology: In the brine shrimp lethality bioassay, the carbon tetrachloride soluble fraction of methanolic extract of its leaves showed significant cytotoxicity activity with LC50 value of 0.546 μg/ml as compared with vincristine sulfate, which exhibited LC50 value of 0.451 μg/ml (Islam et al. 2012). From time immemorial,

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this plant has been used as fodder plants for domesticated animals so traditionally this plant is found to be safe for livestock use. There is no reported toxic nature of any product prepared from this plant for human use in recommended doses as stated in traditional practice. Various parts of M. macrophylla wall. have been used to treat sore mouth, sore throat, diabetes, and fever (Kim et al. 1999). In Gorkha and Makawanpur districts of Nepal, roots are used in typhoid fever (Tamang and Sedai 2016; Bhattarai and Tamang 2017). Root barks are used in loss of appetite (Aryal et al. 2016). In different parts of Nepal, juice of the root, about 6 teaspoons three times a day, is given in cases of fever. It is also used in stomach acidity and diabetes. In Tanahu district of Nepal, the root juice is used in headache and acidity (Sedai 2010). In Lalitpur district of Nepal, root juice is given to treat fever (Shrestha and Joshi 1993). In Kangchenjunga landscape, root juice is taken for jaundice, hyperacidity, diabetes, and fever (Uprety et al. 2016). In Illam district of east Nepal, 5–7 grams of root pieces is used to prepare decoction or paste and is taken orally during fever and pneumonia (Bhattarai and Khadka 2016). In Bangladesh, decoction prepared from its leaves and betel-nut is taken orally for coughs in the dose of 10–15 mL 2–3 times daily. 5–10 ml decoction of its root is also taken 3 times a day to relief from cough (Chowdhury et al. 2013). In India, juice of the leaves and roots is applied topically to heal chronic or obstinate ulcer and to treat snakebites (Sharma et al. 2001). Also in some parts of India, leaves are used in diarrhea, dysentery, indigestion, and cancers. The root paste together with Claoxylon khasianu, Ardisia paniculata, Clerodendrum wallichii, and Trevesia palmata is used in the treatment of abdominal troubles and tumor (Rosangkima and Jagetia 2015; Quattrocchi 2012). In Nagaland of India, Khiamniungan tribe uses leaf paste as haemostatic and aqueous extract of the leaves as mouth ulcer healing agent and appetizer (Ozukum et al. 2019). In Philippines, leaf paste is used for wound healing property and to stop gum bleeding. They also used leaves extract spray to kill dog fleas (Balangcod and Balangcod 2011). In Sikkim, root extract is used in jaundice (Lepcha and Das 2011). In Myanmar, leaves are used for dysentery (DeFilipps and Krupnick 2018). It is used to treat colds, cough, and snakebites (Khumbongmayum et al. 2005; Sharma et al. 2001). Mussaenda arcuata is used to treat eczema (Nugraha et al. 2020). Mussaenda roxburghii leaves are applied to cuts and wounds (Kichu et al. 2015). Mussaenda philippica is used to treat snakebites (Houghton and Osibogun 1993). Mussaenda hirsutissima leaf powder is applied to treat cracks on the soles of the feet. The bark powder is taken to cure infertility in man and women (Ayyanar and Ignacimuthu 2005).

Local Food Uses Mussaenda macrophylla: The root bark has a sweet taste when taken with water. We observed that in Kaski district of Nepal, local people chewed fresh root barks for refreshment, to treat thrust, and to enhance appetite.

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses Mussaenda macrophylla: In Nepal, aerial parts of this plant is used to feed cows, buffaloes, and goats. This plant is extensively used as all-season evergreen nutritious fodder plants in mid-hills and upper-mid hills area of Nepal. It is taken as priority fodder species by the local farmer as they believe it increases milk and meat production in animals. One study showed that this plant collected from Lamjung district is palatable to cattle and goats and has good milk productivity which is supported by its nutritious value as: dry matter (28.0%), crude protein (12.3%), total digestible nutrients (50.0%), neutral detergent fiber (65.8 %), acid detergent fiber (45.8%), calcium (1.22%), and phosphorus (0.53%) (Singh et al. 2020). The plant has an ornamental value as it has typical small golden yellow-crowed flowers. One of the sepals of this plant is leafy, large, and showy-white, due to this unique characteristic. It is found to be grown in parks and public gardens.

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Myrica esculenta Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don. MYRICACEAE Keshab R. Goutam, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Myrica sapida Wall.; Myrica. farqhariana Wall. (Kabra et al. 2019); Myrica nagi auct. Non Thunb. (Jackson 1994); Myrica integrifolia Roxb. (Patel and De 2006).

Local Names Myrica esculenta: Mizoram: Keifang; Nepali: Hade Kaphal, Kafal, Kaphal; Sanskrit: Katphala; Kumbhi, Kaidaryama; English: Box Myrtle, Bay Berry, Wax Myrtle (IUCN 2000, Jackson 1994). K. R. Goutam (*) Ministry of Forests and Environment, Kathmandu, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_157

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Botany and Ecology The genus Myrica consists of about 97 species, and they are globally distributed in subtropical and temperate regions (Yanthan and Misra 2013; Sood and Shri 2018). M. esculenta is widely distributed in the Himalayan region, extending to Malaya, Singapore, China, and Japan. In the western Himalaya, it occurs mainly in Pinus roxburghii, Quercus leucotrichophora, and mixed Quercus forests (Bhatt et al. 2000). In Nepal, it is distributed between 700 and 2300 m above mean sea level, usually near village and in cultivated areas, and more or less throughout the country. It is found to colonize pine plantations and also grows in degraded SchimaCastanopsis forest (Jackson 1994). Myrica esculenta: Trees evergreen, dioecious, usually (2–)4–10 m tall; trunk to 40 cm d.b.h.; bark gray. Branchlets and buds tomentose. Petiole 0.3–2 cm, pubescent to tomentose; leaf blade narrowly elliptic-obovate or lanceolate-obovate to cuneateobovate, 4–18
1.5–4.5 cm, leathery, abaxially pale green, dark punctate, occasionally sparsely golden glandular, adaxially dark green, rarely glandular, pubescent along midvein, base cuneate, margin entire or sometimes serrate in apical 1/2, apex obtuse to acute. Male inflorescences much branched, erect or pendulous at apex, 4–9 cm; individual spikelets to ca. 1 cm; peduncle densely pubescent; bracts overlapping, ciliate and usually golden glandular. Male flowers without bracteoles. Stamens 3–7; anthers red, ellipsoid. Female inflorescences erect, 1–3.5 cm, many flowered; flowers in short, axillary fascicles well spaced at maturity; rachis densely pubescent and golden glandular; bracts ciliate, golden glandular. Female flowers with 2 bracteoles, ciliate and golden glandular. Ovary velutinous; stigmas 2, bright red. Drupes many per infructescence, red at maturity, usually ellipsoid, papilliferous. Flowering August–February, fruiting November–May (Gurmachhan 2019; Jackson 1994, Wu and Raven 1999, Wu et al. 1994-2013) (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1 Myrica esculenta (Myricaceae), Nepal. (Photo Ripu M. Kunwar)

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Phytochemistry M. esculenta constitutes several active phyto-constituents like tannins, phenolic acids, flavonoids, terpenes, glycosides, steroids, alkaloids, saponins, volatile oils, and amino acids (Srivastava et al. 2016; Kabra et al. 2017; Gurmachhan et al. 2019). Tannins and phenolic acids include gallic acid (bark and fruit), epigallocatechin 3-Ogallate, epigallocatechin-(4β ! 8)-epigallocatechin3-O-gallate, 3-O-galloylepigallocatechin-(4β ! 8)-epigalloc-atechin3-O-gallate, castalagin (bark), catechin, chlorogenic acid, ρ-coumaric acids, ferulic acids (fruit), ethyl-β-D-glucopyranoside, 3-hydroxybenzaldehyde, isovanillin, 4-(hydroxymethyl)-phenol, and 4-methoxybenzoic acid (leaf) (Sun et al. 1988; Singh et al. 2009; Rawat et al. 2011; Wei et al. 2011; Mann et al. 2015). Flavonoids include flavone 40 -hydroxy-30 ,5,50 -trimethoxy-7-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl(1 ! 4)-α-L-rhamnopyranoside, flavone 30 ,40 -dihydroxy-6-methoxy-7-O-α-L-rhamnopyranoside (leaf), myricetin-3-O-(200 -Ogalloyl)-α-L-rhamnopyranoside, myricetin 3-O-(200 -O-galloyl)-α-L-rhamnopyranoside (bark), myricetin 3-O-rhamnoside (bark and leaf), and quercetin (leaf) (Nguyen et al. 2010; Wei et al. 2011; Mann et al. 2015; Dawang et al. 1991; Bamola et al. 2009). The species contains monoterpenoid myresculoside (4-hydroxy-1,8-cineole 4-O-β-dapiofuranosyl (1 ! 6)-β-D-glucopyranoside) (leaves) and triterpenoids (lupeol, oleanolic acid, trihydroxytaraxaranoic acid, dihydroxytaraxerane, dihydroxytaraxaranoic acid, tetrahydroxytaraxenoic acid, 3-epi-ursonic acid, and arjunolic acid) (bark and leaf) (Nguyen et al. 2010; Singh et al. 2009; Agnihotri et al. 2016). It also contains volatile compounds like nerolidol, α-pinene, α-selinene, β-caryophyllene, β-selinen, α-caryophyllene, α-cadinol, linalool (leaf), n-hexadecanol, eudesmol acetate, and n-octadecanol (bark) (Agnihotri et al. 2016; Hui-fen et al. 2011); proanthocyanidins like proanthocyanidin acetate, proanthocyanidin methyl-ether, and prodelhinidin (Krishnamoorthy and Seshadri 2001; Mei et al. 2009); diaylheptanoids like myricanol, myricnone (bark and leaf), 5-O-β-D-glucopyranosylmyricanol (leaf), and 13-oxomyricanol (root) (Sun et al. 1988; Shrestha and Dhillion 2003; Krishnamoorthy and Seshadri 2001); and steroids like β-rosasterol, daucosterol, β-sitosterol-β-D-glucopyranoside (leaf), taraxerol, and stigmasterol (bark) (Patel et al. 2017; Wei et al. 2011; Bamola et al. 2009; Malterud and Anthonsen 1980). Amino acids, 1-ethyl-4-methylcyclohexane, myo-inositol, methyl-d-lyxofuranoside, 2-furancarboxyaldehyde, 2,5-furandionedihydro-3-methylene, furfural, and oxirane are also present in fruits (Chandra et al. 2012; Mann et al. 2015).

Local Medicinal Uses Myrica esculenta: The extract from M. esculenta possesses a range of pharmacological activities. Due to the presence of phenolic acids and flavonoids, it has highly active antioxidant potential (Kabra et al. 2019). Other pharmacological activities include analgesic (Pant et al. 2014), antiasthmatic (Patel et al. 2013),

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anticancer (Mann et al. 2015; Saini et al. 2013), antidepressant (Khan et al. 2008; Syed et al. 2013), antidiabetic (Bhandari et al. 2008; Rawat et al. 2013), antidiarrheal (Nayak et al. 2017), anthelmintic (Jain and Jain 2010), antihypertensive (Shrestha and Dhillion 2003), anti-inflammatory (Patel et al. 2011), antimicrobial (Mann et al. 2015; Agnihotri et al. 2012; Chandra et al. 2012), antipyretic (Middha et al. 2016), antiulcer (Swathi and Prasad 2015), anxiolytic (Khan et al. 2008), and wound healing (Nainwal and Kalra 2009). It is used as remedy for asthma, cough, and fever (Singh et al. 2017). The bark juice is used externally as astringent and antiseptic, and internally as carminative. It is also given orally 5–10 ml, 3–5 times daily for fever, asthma, and cough. The powdered bark is sniffed in catarrh with headache. It is also taken orally in the treatment of cholera (Sharma et al. 2001). The leaves are applied to wounds (Kichu et al. 2015). Bark is useful for cough, asthma, sinusitis and chronic bronchitis, diarrhea, and dysentery. The fruits are eaten for dysentery (Joshi et al. 2010; Kunwar et al. 2010). It can be eaten for indigestion and applied to skin eruptions (Kala 2005). The bark is chewed for toothache (Joshi et al. 2010). M. esculenta has been traditionally used in ayurvedic medicines. In Nepal and India, all parts of this plant – roots, bark, leaves, flowers, and fruits – are used as ethno-medicine. The bark is astringent, carminative, antiseptic (IUCN 2000), useful in fever (Gurmachhan 2019, Jackson 1994), asthma, dysentery, diarrhea (DPR 2016; Gubhaju and Gaha 2019; Rai 2003), throat infection, urinary discharges, anemia, cholera, and ulcer (Gurmachhan 2019). The bark decoction is used in bronchitis (Bhatta 1999, Kunwar et al. 2010), sinusitis (IUCN 2000), and for massage to get relief from rheumatic pain (Thapa 2012). Bark powder is mixed with tobacco and snuffed to treat sinusitis (Gautam 2011). Bark powder paste is applied on chest for cough and cold (Parajuli 2012). Fruits are eaten for diarrhea and dysentery (Bhatta 1999, Kunwar et al. 2010). They are also used to control cough and cold and excessive bleeding during menstruation (Paudel and Gyawali 2014). All parts, i.e., bark, leaf, flower, and fruit, are used in stomach problem, including diarrhea (Singh et al. 2017). Kabra et al. (2019) show a wide range of ethno-medicinal uses of M. esculenta in different parts of India, such as to treat anemia, sore, toothache, sprain, mental illness, cholera, cardiac debility, cardiac edema (bark), inflammation of vocal cord, redness of mucosa (leaf), earache (flower), ulcer, body ache, bronchitis, dysentery (fruit), jaundice (root, bark, leaf, and fruit), fever (bark, leaf, and fruit), inflammation, paralysis (bark, leaf, and flower), headache (bark and fruit), asthma, chronic bronchitis, and lung infection (bark and leaf), and as antiseptic and carminative (bark).

Local Food Uses Myrica esculenta: The fruits are eaten (Dangol et al. 2017; Kichu et al. 2015; Sheikh et al. 2020; Singh et al. 2017). It is a good source of vitamin C (Joshi et al. 2010).

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses Myrica esculenta: It is used as dye plant (Kunwar et al. 2019). The species is used for timber and fuelwood. Wood of this species is considered as hard wood and blacksmiths of Nepal collect this wood to make charcoal. The fruit is edible; it is sold at local markets in various parts of Nepal. Because of its sour taste (GoN 1982), fruits are used as raw materials for the production of wine (MoFE 2018). In India, bark is used as fish poison, and a tanning and dyeing agent (Pala et al. 2010). This species is considered as one of the most potential carbon sequestration species in Nepal and India (Pandey et al. 2017). Fruits are collected from the wild and sold at local markets by farmers. About 35 tons of bark was exported in 1970 (Jackson 1994). It is one of the underutilized plants of Nepal (Karki et al. 2017).

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Nardostachys grandiflora DC. CAPRIFOLIACEAE Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Nardostachys chinensis Batalin; Nardostachys grandiflora DC; Nardostachys jatamansi (D. Don) DC.

Local Names Nardostachys grandiflora: Sikkim: Jatamasi, Jatamansi; Nepal: Bhulte, Jatamansi; Sanskrit: Jatamasi, Gandhamasi.

R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_159

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Botany and Ecology Nardostachys grandiflora: Caudices erect or oblique. Flowering stems 5–50 cm tall. Rosulate leaves narrowly spatulate or linear-oblanceolate; petiole subequal to leaf blade in length; blade 3–25  0.5–2.5 cm, glabrous or sparsely puberulent, veins 3, base attenuate, margin entire, apex obtuse. Cauline leaves mostly 2- or 3-paired, lowermost elliptic to obovate, base attenuate into petiole; uppermost sessile, oblanceolate to lanceolate, sometimes sparsely serrate. Capitula 1.5–2 cm in diameter; primary peduncles sometimes elongated; involucral bracts 4–6, lanceolate; bracts narrowly ovate to ovate, subequal to flowers in length. Calyx 5-lobed; lobes semiorbicular to triangular-lanceolate, enlarged in fruit, usually ciliate. Corolla purplered, pink, or magenta, campanulate, 4.5–9 mm, 5-lobed; lobes broadly ovate to oblong, 2–3.8 mm, outside  villous, occasionally glabrous. Stamens subequal to corolla in length; filaments villous. Style subequal to stamens in length; stigma capitate. Achenes obovoid, 3–4 mm, partially or uniformly white hispid or glabrate; calyx lobes deltoid to ovate, 1.5–2.5 mm, prominently and reticulately veined. Flowering late June–August, fruiting August–September (Wu et al. 1994-2013). The species is heavily overharvested (Aumeeruddy-Thomas and Shengji 2003; Hamilton 2004; Kafle et al. 2018; Kala 2005; Kunwar et al. 2018; Olsen 2005; Varghese and Ticktin 2008).

Local Medicinal Uses Nardostachys grandiflora: It is used for skin disease, leprosy, ulcers, cold, cough, fever, high blood pressure, stomach problems, dysentery, and constipation (Tamang et al. 2017). The species is used for bronchial problems, liver, colds, cough, urinary system problems, fever and heart problems (Maity et al. 2004), and epilepsy and mental problems (Kunwar and Bussmann 2009; Kunwar et al. 2009, 2010, 2013). It is also used for altitude sickness, wounds, fever, high blood pressure, swellings, stomach problems, measles, respiratory disorders, as carminative, antispasmodic, and diuretic (Kunwar and Bussmann 2008; Kunwar et al. 2006, 2008, 2009).

References Aumeeruddy-Thomas Y, Shengji P. Applied Ethnbobotany: case studies from the Himalayan region. In: People and plants working paper 12. WWF: Surrey; 2003. Hamilton AC. Medicinal plants, conservation and livelihoods. Biodivers Conserv. 2004;13: 1477–517. Kafle G, Bhattarai Sharma I, Siwakoti M, Kumar Shrestha A. Demand, end-uses, and conservation of alpine plant Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora (Pennell) D. Y. Hong in central Himalaya. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. Article ID 6024263. 2018; https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/ 6024263. Kala CP. Indigenous use, population density, and conservation of threatened medicinal plants in protected areas of the Indian Himalayas. Conserv Biol. 2005;19(2):368–78.

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Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Ethnobotany in the Nepal Himalaya: a review. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2008;4:24. Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Medicinal, aromatic and dye plants of Baitadi and Darchula districts, Nepal Himalaya: status, uses and management. In: Hartmann M, Weipert J, editors. Biodiversität, Naturausstattung im Himalaya, vol. III. Erfurt; 2009. p. 475–89. Kunwar RM, Nepal BK, Kshetri HB, Rai SK, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicine in Himalaya: a case study from Dolpa, Humla, Jumla and mustang districts of Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:27. Kunwar RM, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Diversity, utilization and management of medicinal plants in Baitadi and Darchula districts, farwest Nepal. Initiation. 2008;21:157–64. Kunwar RM, Upreti Y, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Indigenous use and ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in far-West Nepal. Ethnobot Res Applic. 2009;7:5–28. Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Bussmann RW. Traditional herbal medicine in far-West Nepal: a pharmacological appraisal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:35. Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Acharya RP, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants, traditional medicine, markets and management in far-West Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:24. Kunwar RM, Fadiman M, Cameron M, Bussmann RW, Thapa-Magar KB, Rimal B, Sapkota P. Cross-cultural comparison of plant use knowledge in Baitadi and Darchula districts, Nepal Himalaya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14:40. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-018-0242-7. Maity D, Pradhan N, Chauhan AS. Folk uses of some medicinal plants from North Sikkim. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2004;3:1). 66–71. Olsen CS. Valuation of commercial central Himalayan medicinal plants. Ambio. 2005;34(8): 607–10. Tamang M, Pal K, Kumar Rai S, Kalam A, Rehan Ahmad S. 2017. Ethnobotanical survey of threatened medicinal plants of West Sikkim. Int J Bot Stud 2(6), V 116–125. Varghese A, Ticktin T. Regional variation in non-timber Forest product harvest strategies, trade, and ecological impacts: the case of black dammar (Canarium strictum Roxb.) use and conservation in the Nilgiri biosphere reserve, India. Ecol Soc. 2008;13(2):11. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. St. Louis: Science Press, Beijing & Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994-2013.

Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora (Pennell) D.Y. Hong PLANTAGINACEAE Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora (Pennell): Picrorhiza scrophulariifolia Pennell.

Local Names Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora: Nepali: Kutki.

R. M. Kunwar (*) Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_160

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Botany and Ecology Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora: Perennials, 4–12 cm tall. Rhizomes to 1 cm in diameter, coarsely rooting from nodes. Petiole short; leaf blade spatulate to ovate, 3–6 cm, black when dry, base tapering, margin serrate or rarely double serrate. Scape brown glandular hairy; spike 1–2 cm. Pedicel 2–3 mm. Calyx 4–6 mm, to 1 cm in fruit; lobes lanceolate to obovate-oblong, upper lobe sublinear, brown glandular hairy. Corolla dark purple, 8–10 mm, outside pubescent; tube abaxially 2–3 mm, adaxially 4–5 mm; lower lip ca. 1/2 as long as upper, 3-lobed, lateral lobes with 2 or 3 small teeth; upper lip hooked, emarginate. Filaments glabrous, anterior 2 ca. 7 mm, posterior 2 ca. 4 mm. Ovary 1–1.2 mm. Style 5–6 X as long as ovary. Capsule narrowly ovoid, 8–10 mm. Flowering July–August, fruiting August–September (Wu et al. 1994-2013). Highly overharvested and endangered (Kafle et al. 2018; Kunwar et al. 2006, 2010, 2018, 2019; Malik et al. 2015; Olsen 2005; Varghese and Ticktin 2008).

Local Medicinal Uses Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora: It is used for fever, cough, and tonsillitis. The species has antiviral properties (Kunwar et al. 2013; Liu et al. 2016; Rajbhandari et al. 2007). The roots are used for fever and stomachache (Kunwar and Bussmann 2009). Roots and rhizomes are anthelmintic, antiperiodic, stomachic, purgative, digestive, and used in constipation, dyspepsia, colic, cough, asthma, jaundice, diabetes, and skin diseases. The plant is used for fever, cough, jaundice, liver and blood disorders, and hepatitis. Rhizomes and roots are used for bile diseases, high blood pressure, sore throat, cough and cold, and gastritis (Kunwar and Bussmann 2008, 2009). Kunwar et al. 2008, 2009, 2020).

References Kafle G, Bhattarai Sharma I, Siwakoti M, Kumar Shrestha A. Demand, end-uses, and conservation of alpine plant Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora (Pennell) D. Y. Hong in central Himalaya. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2018; https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/6024263. Article ID 6024263. Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Ethnobotany in the Nepal Himalaya: a review. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2008;4:24. Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Medicinal, aromatic and dye plants of Baitadi and Darchula districts, Nepal Himalaya: status, uses and management. In: Hartmann M, Weipert J, editors. Biodiversität, Naturausstattung im Himalaya, vol. III. Erfurt: Verein der Freunde und Förderer des Naturkundemuseums; 2009. p. 475–89. Kunwar RM, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Diversity, utilization and management of medicinal plants in Baitadi and Darchula districts, farwest Nepal. Initiation. 2008;21:157–64. Kunwar RM, Fadiman M, Thapa S, Acharya RP, Cameron M, Bussmann RW. Plant use values and phytosociological indicators: implications for conservation in the Kailash sacred landscape, Nepal. Ecol Indic. 2020;108:105679. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2019.105679.

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Kunwar RM, Fadiman M, Cameron M, Bussmann RW, Thapa-Magar KB, Rimal B, Sapkota P. Cross-cultural comparison of plant use knowledge in Baitadi and Darchula districts, Nepal Himalaya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14:40. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-018-0242-7. Kunwar RM, Nepal BK, Kshetri HB, Rai SK, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicine in Himalaya: a case study from Dolpa, Humla, Jumla and mustang districts of Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:27. Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Acharya RP, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants, traditional medicine, markets and management in far-west Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:24. Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Bussmann RW. Traditional herbal medicine in far-West Nepal: a pharmacological appraisal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:35. Kunwar RM, Upreti Y, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Indigenous use and ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in far-West Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009;7:5–28. Liu B, Bussmann RW, Li F, Li J, Hong L, Long C. Ethnobotanical approaches of traditional medicine studies in Southwest China: a literature review. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;186:343–50. Malik ZA, Bhat J, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhat AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44. Olsen CS. Valuation of commercial central Himalayan medicinal plants. Ambio. 2005;34(8):607–10. Rajbhandari M, Mentel R, Jha PK, Chaudhary RP, Bhattarai S, Gewali MB, Karmacharya N, Hipper M, Lindequist U. Antiviral activity of some plants used in Nepalese traditional medicine. eCAM. 2007:1–6. https://doi.org/10.1093/ecam/nem156. Varghese A, Ticktin T. Regional variation in non-timber forest product harvest strategies, trade, and ecological impacts: the case of black dammar (Canarium strictum Roxb.) use and conservation in the Nilgiri biosphere reserve, India. Ecol Soc. 2008;13(2):11. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D e. Flora of China. St. Louis: Science Press, Beijing & Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994-2013.

Nepeta brachyantha Rech. f. & Edelb. Nepeta cataria L. Nepeta connata Royle ex Benth. Nepeta leucolaena Benth. ex Hook. f. Nepeta hindostana (Roth.) Hainus. Nepeta podostachys Benth. LAMIACEAE Wahid Hussain, Hassan Sher, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Synonyms Nepeta cataria L.: Calamintha albiflora Vaniot; Nepeta bodinieri Vaniot; Nepeta calaminthoides Benth. Nepeta leucolaena Benth. ex Hook. f.: Nepeta royleana R.R. Stewart; Nepeta salviifolia Royle ex Benth.; Nepeta stewartii Raizada. W. Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan R. M. Kunwar (*) Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_161

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Nepeta hindostana (Roth.) Hainus.: Glechoma hindostana Roth; Nepeta ruderalis Buch.-Ham. ex Benth.

Local Names Nepeta cataria: Pashto: Mutrich; Kashmir: Gand soi, Barei gassa.

Botany and Ecology Nepeta brachyantha: Perennial with a thick woody rootstock. Stems many usually not or little branched, 10–25 cm, slender, erect-ascending, leafy, with a pilose or vinous eglandular indumentum. Leaves grayish, small, about 7–10  7–10 mm, ovate-triangular, serrulate, truncate to subcordate, nervation prominent,  densely lanate-floccose below with numerous sessile oil globules; petiole 2–12 mm. Inflorescence of many  loose 3–5-flowered long-pedunculate cymes arising from arils of upper leaves. Bracts linear subulate. Pedicels subabsent to 1 mm. Calyx 4–5.5 mm, tubular, thin-textured, throat oblique, eglandular or glandular pilose with sessile oil globules; teeth unequal, narrow triangular, acute to acuminate, shorter than to subequalling tube. Corolla mauve to violet blue, 8–9.5 mm; tube exserted from calyx. Nutlets 1.7  0.8 mm, pale brown, ellipsoid, tuberculate, with a U-shaped areole extending almost its entire length. Flowering May–June. E Afghanistan, NW Pakistan. Usually growing in rock crevices, ledges, or scree (Ali and Qaiser 1995-2020). Nepeta cataria: Plants perennial. Stems 40–150 cm, white pubescent. Petiole 0.7–3 cm, slender; leaf blade ovate to triangular-cordate, 2.5–7  2.1–4.7 cm, adaxially yellow-green, hirtellous, abaxially whitish pubescent especially on veins, base cordate to truncate, margin coarsely crenate to dentate, apex obtuse to acute. Cymes axillary basally, upper ones in loose or compact, interrupted terminal panicles; bracts and bracteoles subulate, minute. Calyx tubular, about 6  1.2 mm, white pubescent; teeth hirsute inside, subulate, 1.5–2 mm, posterior teeth longer, urceolate in fruit. Corolla white with purple spots on lower lip, white villous; throat pubescent inside, about 7.5 mm; tube slender, about 0.3 mm in diameter, abruptly dilated into broad throat; upper lip about 2  3 mm, apex emarginate; middle lobe of lower lip subcircular, about 3  4 mm, cordate, margin coarsely dentate. Stamens included. Nutlets nearly triquetrous, ovoid, about 1.7  1 mm. Flowering July–September, fruiting September–October (Wu et al. 1994-2013). Nepeta connata: Sturdy erect perennial with a woody rootstock (or tuber?). Stems (17)30–80 cm mostly solitary and unbranched, quadrangular, glabrous, with very short adpressed retrorse hairs or with numerous villous hairs, leafy. Leaves linear to linear-lanceolate, (30–)80–160 x 3–20 mm, sessile, cordate or not, amplexicaul or connate, entire-margined, acute-acuminate, thick-textured, with a prominent mid-vein, glabrous or pilose. Inflorescence a short or elongated  continuous

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spike, 4–12 cm long, showy. Inner bracts linear, membranous, almost as long as calyces. Flowers congested. Pedicels 1–12 mm. Calyx 11–16 mm, thin-textured, slender, with short glandular and long villous eglandular hairs; throat straight; teeth subequal as long as or longer than tube, linear, with long awns, ciliate. Corolla mauve to blue violet, 20–25 mm; tube exserted, somewhat curved, widening to about 4 mm wide at throat; upper lip hooded; lower lip reflexed, sometimes violet. Nutlets about 1.5  1.3 mm, chestnut-brown, smooth, shining, oblong-orbicular, somewhat flat-trigonous with a small areole. Flowering July–September. Pakistan, Kashmir, NW India. A handsome and distinct species almost restricted to Kashmir where it is common (Ali and Qaiser 1995-2020). Nepeta leucolaena: Herbs perennial. Stems slender, ascending, gray pubescent. Leaves short petiolate, broadly ovate to ovate-cordate, about 1.2  1 cm, occasionally to 2.2  2 cm, densely puberulent, adaxially green, abaxially gray, with yellowish glands, base subcordate, margin crenate, apex obtuse. Spikes ovoid or cylindric, continuous or basally interrupted, 3–5.5 cm; bracts oblong-linear, spiny, as long as calyx, ciliate. Flowers sessile. Calyx about 8 mm, pubescent; tube about 4 mm, throat oblique; teeth awned-lanceolate, about as long as tube, posterior teeth slightly longer, margin densely white villous. Corolla purple, glabrous or slightly villous on upper lip, about 1.4 cm; tube slender, about 1 cm, throat to 2.5 mm wide. Flowering July–August (Wu et al. 1994-2013). Nepeta hindostana: Annual or short-lived perennial. Stems erect or ascending rather slender, 30–50 cm, with a rather dense eglandular retrorse or spreading indumentum. Leaves broad ovate or triangular-ovate up to about 25 x 25 mm, truncate cuneate or subcordate, crenate-dentate, all petiolate; petiole on lowermost leaves to 20 mm. Inflorescence lax, of many clearly pedunculate cymes, at least below, or verticillasters, lowermost arising from leaf roils, mostly distant. Pedicels up to 3 mm. Bracts linearsubulate, about as long as calyces, ciliate. Calyx 3.5–4 mm, often purplish, with spreading villous hairs, narrow tubular; throat oblique; teeth about 1/3–1/4 length of tube, subulate. Corolla lilac to purplish, about 8 mm. Nutlets about 1  0.6 mm, oblong-ellipsoid, palish brown, depressed-tuberculate, with a bilobed basal areole, mucilaginous on wetting. Pakistan, India (Ali and Qaiser 1995-2020). Nepeta podostachys: Suffruticose perennial, aromatic, clump-forming. Stems erect or ascending, 15–40 cm, branched or not, with a sparse eglandular indumentum of short or long eglandular hairs or  glabrous. Leaves green, concolorous, somewhat thick-textured, 10–20  8–15 mm, glabrous to pilose, oblong, oblong-ovate to oblong-triangular, broad truncate to subcordate, crenulate or crenate, rarely entire, acute; petiole 8–10 mm on lower leaves, or rarely all leaves sessile. Inflorescence a congested ovoid to oblong spike, usually distant from upper leaves. Calyx 5–7 mm, green or purplish, obtriangular tubular, pilose to  villous with eglandular hairs or glandular-papillose; throat scarcely oblique; teeth subequal 1/2 to as long as calyx, ciliate, attenuate-subulate. Corolla white, cream or lilac-blue, 12–14 mm. Nutlets about 1.2  8 mm, ellipsoid, brown, smooth. Afghanistan, Pakistan. Nepeta podostachys is at the center of a particularly difficult complex, concentrated in Afghanistan (Ali and Qaiser 1995-2020) (Figs. 1 and 2).

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Fig. 1 Nepeta cataria (Lamiaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

Phytochemistry Essential oils (citralal, caryophyllene), iridoids (epinepine petalactone), flavonoids, essential oils, steroids, and tannins (Sokolov 1991).

Local Medicinal Uses Nepeta cataria: The species has already been traded internationally for its medicinal potential in the nineteenth century (Cook 1869). It is used for lumbago and external injuries (Ahmad et al. 2006; Sher et al. 2016; Ur-Rahman et al. 2019), and as stomach stimulant (Altundaga and Oztürk 2011), also for arthritis, diarrhea, dysentery, fever, toothache, vomiting, as anthelmintic, for abdominal pain, body ache, cough, and wounds (Gairola et al. 2014). Nepeta discolor: The species is used to treat cold, cough, and fever (Ballabh and Chaurasis 2007). Nepeta floccosa: It is used to treat cold, cough, and fever (Ballabh and Chaurasis 2007). Nepeta podostachys: It is employed to improve kidney function (Ballabh et al. 2008). Nepeta longibracteata: It is used to remedy abdominal pain, acidity, kidney complaints, liver ailments, respiratory disorders, stomach ailments, and fever (Gairola et al. 2014).

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Fig. 2 Nepeta sp. (Lamiaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Nepeta leucolaena: It is used as cerebral tonic and to treat madness (Gairola et al. 2014). Nepeta glutinosa: It is used to remedy diarrhea, stomachache dysentery, fever, and pneumonia (Gairola et al. 2014). Nepeta laevigata: The species is used to treat diarrhea (Gairola et al. 2014). Nepeta eriostachya: It is used for eyesight and eye redness (Gairola et al. 2014). Nepeta floccosa: It is used as blood purifier, fever, for colds, cough, and as tonic (Gairola et al. 2014). Nepeta ciliaris: It is used as cardiotonic, carminative, and stimulant (Gairola et al. 2014). Nepeta coerulescens: The species is used to remedy dysentery, eye ailments, and stomachache (Gairola et al. 2014). Nepeta discolor: It is used to remedy colds, cough, and fever (Gairola et al. 2014).

Local Food Uses Nepeta mussinii: The leaves are used as spice for salads (Sokolov 1991). The leaves are also used as tea (Bussmann et al. 2016; 2017).

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses Nepeta mussinii: The leaves yield greenish and greenish-yellow dyes for wool and silk. The flowers yield good honey. The species is planted as ornamental and is also used to flavor liquor and cognacs (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1991).

References Ahmad I, Aquil F, Owais M. Modern phytomedicine. Weinheim: Wiley; 2006. Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan and Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995-2020. Altundaga E, Oztürk M. Ethnomedicinal studies on the plant resources of East Anatolia, Turkey. Proc Soc Behav Sci. 2011;19:756–77. Ballabh B, Chaurasia OP. Traditional medicinal plants of cold desert Ladakh—used in treatment of cold, cough and fever. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;112(2):341–9. Ballabh B, Chaurasia OP, Ahmed Z, Singh SB. Traditional medicinal plants of cold desert Ladakh – used against kidney and urinary disorders. J Ethnopharmacol. 2008;118:331–9. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ehnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Cook WMH. Physio-medical dictionary. WHM Cook: Cincinnatti; 1869. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow; 1952. (in Russian). Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni groups in Chitral District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Sokolov P.D. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 6. Leningrad, 200 p: Families Hippuridaceae-Lobeliaceae. Akademia Nauk; 1991. (in Russian). Ur-Rahman I, Sher H, Bussmann RW, editors. Reference guide on high value medicinal and Aromatic plants – sustainable management and cultivation practices. Pakistan: University of Swat; 2019. (ISBN 978-969-23419-0-5) Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. St. Louis: Science Press, Beijing & Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994-2013.

Nigella sativa L. RANUNCULACEAE Peter Bridgewater, Suraj Upadhaya, Beeju Poudyal, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Nigella sativa L.: Nigella cretica Mill.; Nigella indica Roxb.; Nigella indica Roxb. ex Flem.; Nigella truncata Viv. P. Bridgewater Faculty of Science and Technology, Institute for Applied Ecology, University of Canberra, Bruce, ACT, Australia e-mail: [email protected] S. Upadhaya (*) Department of Natural Resource Ecology and Management, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA Himalayan Conservation and Research Institute, Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] B. Poudyal Himalayan Conservation and Research Institute, Kathmandu, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_162

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Local Names Nigella sativa: Arabic: Haba sawda; Pakistan: Kalwangi; Nepal: Mungrelo, Mugrelo, Kalo Jeera; Bhasa: Jinten hitan; English: Black-caraway, Black-cumin, Fennel-flower, Nigella, Nutmeg-flower, Roman-coriander (Benkaci-Ali et al. 2007; Petruzzello 2017; USDA-ARS 2020).

Botany and Ecology Nigella sativa: Herb, 15–40 cm tall. Annual. Leaves 2–3 cm long. Bi- or tripinnately dissected into short linear divergent lobules. The sepals are oblong, 1–1.5 cm long, obtuse, basally narrowing into a short stalk. Petal-nectaries with a short stalk, slightly hairy, with the upper lip oblong, tapering upwards into a linear cusp, slightly shorter than the lower lip, the latter part of the middle, or deeper into 2, base apically with callous thickenings at the apex. Anthers are obtuse or slightly acuminate. 1.5 cm long, dorsally rounded with a ribbed longitudinally beaked as long as the ovary. The seeds have a three-edged shape. The plant is found in cultivated in fields, gardens, and steppe slopes. Ural, Caucasus, on steppes, in fields and gardens (Riedl and Nasir 1991; Shishkin and Boborov 1937) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4). The leaves are somewhat like fennel – Foeniculum vulgare. While not related in any way taxonomically, its similar appearance has given it a common name of small fennel in some places (Zohary 1983; Qureshi and Chaudhri 1988). N. sativa is native to north Africa and southwest Asia. There are many cultivars, some spontaneous, others deliberately selected for – especially in India (Prajapati et al. 2003). It is widely cultivated throughout its natural distribution but also cultivated across the Mediterranean, central Europe, South, and south-eastern Asia (Prajapati et al. 2003). Many species in the genus have quite limited natural distributions. Nigella sativa Linn. is a common species among 28 others in the genus Nigella. While no species are native to Nepal, three species of Nigella are introduced: N. damascena L., N. glandulifera Freyn et Sint, and N. sativa L. (Press et al. 2000; Singh 2017). While all three may have similar biochemicals, only N. sativa has been used for culinary and medical purposes (Singh 2017). Zohary (1983) noted that two varieties are recognized throughout the range of the species, but these may not be particularly stable taxa.

Phytochemistry Vitamins (C), steroids (cholesterol, stigmasterol, a-spinasterol, sitosterol), triterpene saponins, coumarins, quinones (thymoquinone), fatty acids, essential oils (thymoquinone, cymene, carvacrol, trans-anethole, 4-terpineol and longifoline), flavonoids (quercetin, camphorol), and alkaloids (Fedorov 1984). The main identified compounds of N. sativa oil are p-cymene (36.2%), thymoquinone (11.2%), and α-thujene (10.0%) (D’Antuono et al. 2002; Gharby

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Fig. 1 Nigella sativa (Ranunculaceae) seed. (Photo Gayatra Khanal Sharma Gyawali)

Fig. 2 Nigella sativa (Ranunculaceae), Leutkirch, Germany. (Photo R. W. Bussmann and N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

et al. 2015). A lower level of p-cymene (14%) was detected by Nickavar et al. (2003) in the oil of Iranian Nigella sativa. Thymoquinone, dithymoquinone, thymohydroquinone, and thymol were the major phenolic compounds

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Fig. 3 Nigella sativa (Ranunculaceae), Leutkirch, Germany. (Photo R. W. Bussmann and N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

(Venkatachallam et al. 2010). Traces of the esters of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids were also found in the essential oil (Burits and Bucar 2000). Two monoterpenoids, including cis- and trans-4-methoxythujane, were identified in the essential oil (Wajs et al. 2008). Four terpenoids, namely trans- (1), cis-sabinene hydrate methyl ether (2), 1,2-epoxy-menth-4-ene (3), and 1,2-epoxy-menth-4(8)-ene (4) were recently elucidated in N. sativa essential oil by NMR (Bourgou et al. 2012). The plant has vitamins (C), steroids (cholesterol, stigmasterol, a-spinasterol, sitosterol), triterpene saponins, coumarins, quinones (thymoquinone), fatty acids, essential oils (thymoquinone, cymene, carvacrol, trans-anethole, 4-terpineol, and longifoline), flavonoids (quercetin, camphorol), and alkaloids (Fedorov 1984). Okoye et al. (2014) noted that much of the biological activity of the seeds has been shown to be due to thymoquinone. Thymoquinone has been reported to possess anticonvulsant as well as anticancer effects. Reported pharmacological actions of the seeds and some of its active constituents include protection against nephrotoxicity and hepatotoxicity, as well as analgesic anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, antimicrobial, antineoplastic, immunological, antihypertensive, respiratory stimulating, hematinic,

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Fig. 4 Nigella sativa (Ranunculaceae), Leutkirch, Germany. (Photo R. W. Bussmann and N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

and trypanocidal activities. The seeds extract has exhibited a low degree of toxicity and has been shown not to induce significant adverse effects on liver or kidney functions. The beneficial effects of the use of the seeds and thymoquinone might be related to their cytoprotective and antioxidant actions, and to their effect on some mediators of inflammation. Hassanien et al. (2015) observed that the oil exhibited different biological activities, including antifungal, antibacterial, and antioxidant potential. Scientific research has focused its interest on essential oils from medicinal plants as natural sources of antimicrobial agents and antioxidants. Medicinal plants and oilseeds have been used as spices and condiments to confer aroma and flavor to food and beverages. Due to their bioactive constituents, those plants can act as stabilizers, increasing the shelf life of foods and beverages (Salgueiro et al. 2010). Ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans were aware of the therapeutic characteristics of N. sativa seeds and its essential oil. Seeds have a pungent, bitter taste and smell. It is used primarily in confectionery and liquors. N. sativa is also used in Armenian string cheese and in a braided string cheese called Majdouleh or Majdouli in the Middle East. Seeds can be ground and used with near abandon like black pepper.

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Local Medicinal Uses Nigella sativa: Seeds have been long used in different parts of Nepal to cure different common health issues due to its various medicinal properties such as thermogenic, aromatic, carminative, diuretic, emmenagogue, anodyne, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, deodorant, appetizing, digestive, anthelmintic, constipating, sudorific, febrifuge, stimulant, and expectorant (Prajapati et al. 2003). The seed of this species is useful against hemorrhoids, cephalalgia, jaundice, inflammation, fever, paralysis, ophthalmia, halitosis, anorexia, dyspepsia, flatulence, diarrhea, dysentery, cough, amenorrhea, dysmenorrhea, helminthiasis especially tapeworm, strangury, and intermittent fevers (Prajapati et al. 2003). The seed are widely used in the Dolpa region for galactagogues purposes. People also use it to keep them warm from extreme cold during winter. Seeds are useful in coughs and colds (Kunwar et al. 2015). In addition to Nepal, seeds are widely used in other parts of the world too. In the Malay Peninsula, the seeds are a component of poultices for abscesses, rheumatism, otitis, ulcerated nose, and headache; part of a lotion to wash fever patients and a gargle; and taken internally in combination with other drugs as an antiemetic and laxative (Perry 1980). Additionally, “they are in prescriptions in the Medical Book of Malayan Medicine for debility, blood poisoning, enlarged liver, nausea, colic, constipation, for women after childbirth, and various other troubles.” In Indonesia, they are added to astringent medicines for abdominal disease (Perry 1980). It is used to treat diabetes (Mati and de Boer 2011; Ullah et al. 2019), respiratory distress, shortness of breath, and immune diseases (Alqethami et al. 2017; Süleyman et al. 2015). Hepatoprotective properties have been shown (Martkoplishvili et al. 2015). It also serves to treat snakebites (Houghton and Osibogun 1993). Its medicinal properties for skin problems are recognized in southern Ethiopia (Bekalo et al. 2009; Giday et al. 2007; Yineger et al. 2007), and it is used as adjuvant (Pandikumar et al. 2011), as well as medicinal smoke (Mohagheghzadeh and Faridi 2006), and for cough and cold (Kunwar et al. 2015). Seeds are used as anthelmintic (Altundaga and Oztürk 2011) and analgesic (Almeida et al. 2001). Nigella segetalis: The species is used to treat diabetes and ulcers (Altundaga and Oztürk 2011).

Local Food Uses Nigella sativa: The seed of this species are extensively added to vegetable and dhal (lentil) dishes as well as in chutneys in Nepal. The seeds are sprinkled on to naan bread before baking (Singh 2017; Bussmann 2017; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2020). Nigella is an ingredient of some hot spices (garam masalas) and is one of the five spices in panch phoran (Pruthi 2001; Qureshi and Chaudhri 1988). This is one of the famous spice mixes, including cumin, fennel, mustard, fenugreek in the Indian subcontinent (Pruthi 2001) and also widely used in different

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parts of the world. Duke (2007) and Dafni and Böck (2019) noted that N. sativa is almost certainly the Hebrew Ketzah, supported by the custom of sprinkling the seeds over bread and cakes. Duke further adds that in the Middle East, N. sativa seeds maybe even more important to Muslims than Jews or Christians since, according to an old Arab proverb. It has been recommended for use regularly in Al-Tibb-Al-Nabwi or Prophetic Medicine (Hassanien et al. 2015). In the Middle East, Nigella is added to bread dough and is an essential constituent of the Middle East Choereg rolls. The dried seeds of Nigella are the major commercial product being used in foods, pickles, baked goods, confectionery, pharmaceutical, and perfumery industries. Owing to their preservative qualities, the seeds of Nigella have been used as a spice from ancient times in the preparation of pickles, and seeds are scattered between folds of cloth to stop insect attack. The major commercial products from Nigella seed are Nigella oil and fixed oils. In Europe also widely used as spice (Łuczaj and Szymański 2007).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Nigella sativa is known to grow wild and cultivated in Nepal, India, Egypt, and the Middle East. Primarily it is exported mainly from the Indian subcontinent and Egypt (Malhotra 2004). India is considered as the largest producer of Nigella in the world (Malhotra 2004). Dried seeds (Fig. 1) are the only commercially viable products and mainly used to produce the essential oil (Malhotra 2004). Commercially the seed of N. sativa is produced by cold pressing of raw or lightly roasted seeds (Kamal-Eldin 2009). The oil is traded in the market in the form of liquid, capsules, soft gels, and powder (Smith 2019). Most of the market is covered by a liquid form of Nigella seeds oil. In Nepal, farmers are mainly focused on supplying seeds to their own families. Very few farmers are trading it in the local market. Generally, Nigella seeds are imported to Nepal from India. N. sativa can thrive on a wide range of soils, which are rich in organic matter and free from waterlogging. Plants are frost-sensitive at any growth stage, and this limits its range in Europe and highland areas of the tropics. It is usually shade-intolerant and a typical ruderal species. As for cultivation, N. sativa is sown in late spring-early summer, but in regions with wet and dry seasons, just after the first rains. Regional cultivars can be grown from sea level to 2500 m. It is a cool-season crop, requiring a frost-free growing season. N. sativa is propagated by seed, with a temperature of 20– 25 °C desirable during sowing, and the crop requires warm sunny weather during seed formation (Malhotra 2002; Pruthi 2001). N. sativa is propagated by seed. Seeds are sown at a row spacing of 30 cm and plant spacing of 15–20 cm, and a seed rate of 8 kg/ha is required. Under India and Nepal’s conditions, sowing during October has been found appropriate. The ripe seeds germinate relatively quickly, and germination time usually is 12 days (Malhotra 2001, 2002). The species makes for an excellent value aromatic plant to improve local livelihoods (Sher et al. 2016; Ur-Rahman et al. 2019).

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Ocimum gratissimum Lam. LAMIACEAE Arati Gurung, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Ocimum gratissimum Lam.: Ocimum guineense Schumach. & Thonn; Ocimum suave Willd.; Ocimum urticifolium Roth; Ocimum viride Willd.

Local Names Ocimum gratissimum: Hindi: Ram tulsi, Ghode Tulsi, Gandhe Tulsi; Nepali: Ban tulsi, Ram tulsi, Babari (DPR 2007); Sanskrit: Ajaka, Bilvaparni, Doshakleshi, Vriddhu Tulasi (Effraim et al. 2003; Rai 2004; Kunwar et al. 2013); English: East Indian basil, Shrubby basil, Tree basil, Tea bush, Clover basil A. Gurung Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_163

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Botany and Ecology Ocimum gratissimum: Subshrubs, erect, up to 2 m, glabrous to softly pubescent on the younger branches. Leaves ovate or elliptic, acute, crenate to subentire, the bases rounded and weakly attenuate or obtuse, up to 7 cm long and 4.5 cm wide, resindotted, glabrous above and sparsely pubescent on the veins beneath; petioles to ca 4.5 cm long, pubescent. Inflorescences verticils, each ca 6-flowered, 0.5–1 cm distant, the false racemes 10–15 cm long, the bracts more or less deltoid, 2–3 mm long, pubescent. Flowers with pedicels ca 1–2 mm long; bracteoles not apparent; calyx 3–4 mm long, membranaceous, resin-dotted, pubescent on the veins and at the base, naked within, the upper lip entire, 3-veined, lateral margins decurrent only on upper 1/3 of tube, the lower lip 5–7-veined; corolla tubular, white and purple, ca 2.5 mm long overall; stamens exserted, lower filament pair with conspicuously pubescent appendages at the base, the anthers ca 0.6 mm long; ovary 4-lobed, gynobase weakly lobed, the style bifid near the-tip, the branches equal. Nutlets (3–)4, spherical or slightly elongated, ca 1.2 mm long, the pericarp warty (Bhat 2003; Prabhu et al. 2009) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Fig. 1 Ocimum sp. (Lamiaceae), Bale Mountains National Park, Demaro, Ethiopia. (Photo R. W. Bussmann)

Ocimum gratissimum Lam. Fig. 2 Ocimum sp. (Lamiaceae), Bale Mountains National Park, Demaro, Ethiopia. (Photo R. W. Bussmann)

Fig. 3 Ocimum sp. (Lamiaceae), Bale Mountains National Park, Demaro, Ethiopia. (Photo R. W. Bussmann)

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Fig. 4 Ocimum sp. (Lamiaceae), Bale Mountains National Park, Demaro, Ethiopia. (Photo R. W. Bussmann)

Ocimum gratissimum L. is a perennial herb found throughout the tropics and subtropics, both wild and cultivated. Its native range is tropical and subtropical Old World. However, it is considered invasive on a number of Pacific and Caribbean Islands (van der Burg et al. 2012; Oviedo Prieto and González-Oliva 2015). It occurs at elevations from sea level up to 2300 m and can be found in coastal scrubland, lakeshores, savannas, submontane forest, disturbed areas around villages and along roadsides and streams. It can also be found cultivated as an ornamental and hedge plant in the home gardens. In South East Asia, flowers can be found throughout the year (PROSEA 2018). In Nepal, it is found throughout the country between 400 and 1200 m (Press et al. 2000).

Phytochemistry Major metabolites are eugenol, rosmerinic acid, apigenin, carnosic acid, etc. Thymol and flavonoids in the form of orintin and vicenin are also present in great amount. It also contains terpenes, lactone, and xanthenes (Ijaduola et al. 1980). It has been

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observed that proportion of eugenol (Adams 1995) is maximum (57.82%) amongst all the constituents present in basil, followed by (Z)-α-Bisabolene (17.19%) and Thymol (9.80%). γ-Terpinene (3.06%), β-Caryophyllene (3.03%), p-Cymene (2.11%) and cis-β-Guaieno (1.06%) (Van Den Dool and Kratz 1963), pinene, limonene, phallandrene, myrcene, terpene 4-ol, carveol, carvene, geranylacetate, caryophyllene, isoeugenol, methyleugenol, caryoplyllene oxide (Singh 2009); tannins, saponins, alkaloids, phlobatanins, terpenoids, steroids, and cardiac glycosides (Alexander 2016); and camphene, linalool, humulene, selinene, and cloven (Husain et al. 1992).

Local Medicinal Uses Ocimum gratissimum: Essential oil from the plant has been reported to possess an interesting spectrum of antifungal properties (Dubey et al. 2000). Plant leaf extract possess antinociceptive, hypnotic-sedative potentiating, anxiolytic and muscle relaxant properties with probable anticonvulsant (Sarraf et al. 2013), and analgesic properties (Rabelo et al. 2003; Kumar et al. 2011). Ueda-Nakamura et al. (2006) found antileishmanial activity of eugenol-rich essential oil from O. gratissimum. Methanol extract of leaf of O. gratissimum L. demonstrated significant anticonvulsant activity in mice (Okoli et al. 2010). O. gratissimum L. has long been used for medicinal purposes. Mostly it is grown for the essential oil that is extracted from its leaves and stems. In Nepal, fresh leaves are eaten and used as tea whereas the whole plant is taken as diuretic, for asthma, and rheumatism (Kunwar et al. 2013, 2016). Seeds are used in headache and neuralgia (DPR 2007). The decoction of O. tenuiflorum is used in fever (Chaudhary and Rajbhandary 2020) and jaundice (Kunwar et al. 2018a, b). It is utilized as wash for sore throats and tonsillitis. It is likewise utilized as an expectorant and a cough appetite suppressant. The plant extract is employed against gastrointestinal helminths of creatures and man (Fakae et al. 2000; Chitwood 2003). In the coastal areas of Nigeria, the plant is used in the treatment of epilepsy, high fever, and diarrhea. In India, the whole plant has been used for the treatment of headache, sunstroke influenza, as a diaphoretic, antipyretic and for its anti-inflammatory activity (Prajapati et al. 2003; Ueda-Nakamura et al. 2006) and aphrodisiac, antineuralgic, antispasmodic, carminative, and digestive (Singh 2009). Leaves are boiled and the decoction is drunk for constipation (Bekalo et al. 2009; Kokwaro 2009). Leaves are also used to treat cough (Beentje 1994), nose congestion, flu, and colds (Nankaya et al. 2020; Njoroge et al. 2004; Tabuti 2008), as well as otitis media (Njoroge and Bussmann 2006a, b). It is widely used as medicine in the Himalayas as diuretic, for asthma, and rheumatism (Kunwar et al. 2012, 2015, 2018). In Madagascar, it is used to expel the placenta after birth (Randrianarivony et al. 2016a, b). It is also used for severe headache, wounds, as abortifacient, colds, low calcium, dental problems, digestion, chest complaints, diarrhea, vomiting, and as an antiseptic (Rabearivony et al. 2015; Razafindraibe et al. 2013; Randriamiharisoa et al. 2015), colds and headaches (Muthu et al. 2006), and for rheumatism (Yineger et al. 2008).

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It is also used to treat snakebites (Houghton and Osibogun 1993). It is used to treat cough (Purkayastha et al. 2005; Waghchaure et al. 2006) and as anthelmintic (Tadesse et al. 2009). Ocimum kilimandscharicum: Leaves are boiled, and the steam is inhaled for colds. The leaves can be crushed and sniffed for colds and coughs, and the infusion is applied to sore eyes. The Luo use it as bath for measles. The leaf decoction serves for diarrhea (Kokwaro 2009). The leaves are used for cough (Beentje 1994). Ocimum canum is used for eye problems (Flatie et al. 2009). Ocimum lamiifolium serves for diarrhea and cough (Gedif and Hahn 2003), and fever (Giday et al. 2007, 2009a, 2010; Mekonnen et al. 2010; Teklehaymanot et al. 2007; Teklehaymanot 2009; Wondimu et al. 2007), as well as cutaneous leishmaniasis (Giday et al. 2009b). Ocimum urticifolium is used for fever (Giday et al. 2003), toothache, oral thrush, ear infections, mouth infections in children, and tongue infections (Giday et al. 2010; Mekonnen et al. 2010). Ocimum sanctum is one of the most widely used medicinal plants on the Indian subcontinent for cough, colds, gastroenteritis, neck pain, and cancer. It is used for snakebites (Houghton and Osibogun 1993) and also to treat piles (Purkayastha et al. 2005).

Local Food Uses Ocimum gratissimum: It is used as tea (Beentje 1994). Ocimum obovatum is used as spice in Ethiopia to make “Berbere” (Bussmann 2002; Luizza et al. 2013).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Ocimum gratissimum: Planted for hedges and as a mosquito repellent (PROSEA 2018). This species is often planted as ornamental, culinary and medicinal plant, and leaves are eaten in salads and used as a condiment. Ocimum gratissimum L. can be grown in disturbed sites, waste areas, pastures, and along roadsides and trails. This species may reveal the invasive property to the natural vegetation. The leaf infusion is applied to the eyes of livestock infected with Thelazia sp. (eyeworm) (Kokwaro 2009). The leaves of Ocimum suave are smoked and serve as fodder (Bussmann 2006), and as acaricide (Wanzala 2017). Ocimum lamiifolium is used for diarrhea and hepatitis in livestock (Yineger et al. 2007), and also to treat evil eye (Teklehaymanot et al. 2007).

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References Adams RP. Identification of essential oil component by chromatography/mass spectroscopy. 4th ed. Carol Steam: Allured Publishing Co.; 1995. Alexander P. Phytochemical screening and mineral composition of the leaves of Ocimum gratissimum (scent leaf). Int J Appl Sci Biotechnol. 2016;4(2):161–5. https://doi.org/10.3126/ ijasbt.v4i2.15101. Beentje H. Kenya trees and shrubs. Nairobi: National Museums of Kenya; 1994. Bekalo TH, Woodmata SD, Woldemariam ZA. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by local people in the lowlands of Konta Special Woreda, southern nations, nationalities and peoples regional state, Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2009;5:26. https://doi.org/10.1186/ 1746-4269-5-26. Bhat KG. Flora of Udupi. 1st ed. Udupi: Indian Naturalist; 2003. Bussmann RW. Islands in the desert – forest vegetation of Kenya’s smaller mountains and highland areas Nyiru, Ndoto, Kulal, Marsabit, Loroghi, Ndare, Mukogodo, Porror, Mathews, Gakoe, Imenti, Ngaia, Nyambeni, Loita, Nguruman, Nairobi. J East Afr Nat Hist. 2002;91(1/2):27–79. Appendices 1–7 at www.naturekenya.org/JournalEANH.htm. Bussmann RW. Ethnobotany of the Samburu of Mt. Nyiru, South Turkana, Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:35. Chaudhary C, Rajbhandary S. Ethnobotanical study of traditional medicinal plants of Tharu Community in Swathi village, Nawalparasi District. In: Ethnobiology in Himalaya. New York: Springer; 2020. Chitwood DJ. Phytochemical based strategies for nematode control. Annu Rev Phytopathol. 2003;40:221–49. DPR. Medicinal plants of Nepal (revised), vol. 28. Kathmandu: Department of Plants Resources; 2007. p. 402. Dubey NK, Tiwari TN, Mandin D, Andriamboavonjy H, Chaumont JP. Antifungal properties of Ocimum gratissimum essential oil (ethyl cinnamate chemotype). Fitoterapia. 2000;7(15):567–9. Effraim KD, Jacks TW, Sodipo OA. Histopathological studies on the toxicity of Ocimum gratissimum leave extract on some organs of rabbit. Afr J Biomed Res. 2003;6:21–5. Fakae BB, Campbell AM, Barrett J, Scott IM, Teesdale-Spittle PH, Liebau E, Brophy PM. Inhibition of glutathione-S-transferases (GSTs) from parasitic nematodes by extracts from traditional Nigerian medicinal plants. Phytother Res. 2000;114:630–4. Flatie T, Gedif T, Asres K, Gebre-Mariam T. Ethnomedical survey of Berta ethnic group Assosa Zone, Benishangul-Gumuz regional state, mid-west Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2009;5:14. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-5-14. Gedif T, Hahn H-J. The use of medicinal plants in self-care in rural central Ethiopia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2003;87:155–61. Giday M, Asfaw Z, Elmqvist T, Woldu Z. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by the Zay people in Ethiopia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2003;85:43–52. Giday M, Teklehaymanot T, Animut A, Mekonnen Y. Medicinal plants of the Shinasha, Agew-awi and Amhara peoples in northwest Ethiopia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;110:516–25. Giday M, Asfaw Z, Woldu Z, Teklehaymanot T. Medicinal plant knowledge of the Bench ethnic group of Ethiopia: an ethnobotanical investigation. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2009a;5:34. https:// doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-5-34. Giday M, Asfaw Z, Woldu Z. Medicinal plants of the Meinit ethnic group of Ethiopìa: an ethnobotanical study. J Ethnopharmacol. 2009b;124:513–21. Giday M, Asfaw Z, Woldu Z. Ethnomedicinal study of plants used by Sheko ethnic group of Ethiopia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010;1321:75–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2010.07.046. Houghton PJ, Osibogun IM. Flowering plants used against snakebite. J Ethnopharmacol. 1993;39:1–29.

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PROSEA. Plant Resources of South-East Asia. Bogor: PROSEA Foundation; 2018. http:// proseanet.org/prosea/ Purkayastha J, Nath SC, Islam B. Ethnobotany of medicinal plants from Dibru-Saikhowa Biosphere Reserve of Northeast India. Fitoterapia. 2005;76:121–7. Rabearivony ADN, Razafiarison ZL, Raharimalala F, Rakotoarivony F, Randrianarivony T, Rakotoarivelo N, Randrianasolo A, Kuhlman A, Bussmann RW. Ethnobotanical study of the plants known by men at Ambalabe, Madagascar. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2015;14:123–38. Rabelo M, Souza EP, Soares PMG, Miranda AV, Matos FJA, Criddle DN. Antinociceptive properties of the essential oil of Ocimum gratissimum L. (Labiatae) in mice. Braz J Med Biol Res. 2003;36(4):521–4. Rai SK. Medicinal plants used by Meche people of Jhapa district, Eastern Nepal. Our Nat. 2004;2(1):27–32. Randriamiharisoa MN, Kuhlman AR, Jeannoda V, Rabarison H, Rakotoarivelo N, Randrianarivony T, Raktoarivony F, Randrianasolo A, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants sold in the markets of Antananarivo, Madagascar. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2015;11:60. https://doi. org/10.1186/s13002-015-0046-. Randrianarivony TN, Andriamihajarivo TH, Rakotoarivony F, Rabarimanarivo M, Randrianasolo A, Bussmann RW. Guide des plantes utiles d’Analavelona et de ses environs – vol. 1. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2016a. ISBN 978-0-9960231-4-6. Randrianarivony NT, Randrianasolo A, Andriamihajarivo T, Ramarosandratana AV, Jeannoda VH, Rakotoarivony F, Bussmann RW. Useful plants and tradition for pregnancy, child delivery and for postpartum care used by people living around Analavelona forest located in Southwest Madagascar. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2016b;151:68–78. Razafindraibe HM, Razafiarison ZL, Raharimalala F, Rakotoarivony F, Randrianarivony T, Rakotoarivelo N, Randrianasolo A, Kuhlman A, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants used by women from Agnalazaha littoral forest Southeastern Madagascar. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:73. Sarraf DP, Rainiar GP, Sangraula H. Effect of leaf extract of Ocimum gratissimum on central nervous system in mice and rats. Health Renaiss. 2013;11(3):198–204. Singh V. Ethnobotany and medicinal plants of Indi and Nepal, vol. 3. Jodhpur: Scientific Publishers; 2009. p. 338. Tabuti JRS. Herbal medicines used in the treatment of malaria in Budiope county, Uganda. J Ethnopharmacol. 2008;116:33–42. Tadesse M, Eguale T, Giday M, Mussa A. Ovicidal and larvicidal activity of crude extracts of Maesa lanceolata, and Pleactranthus punctatus against Haemonchus contortus. J Ethnopharmacol. 2009;122:240–4. Teklehaymanot T. Ethnobotanical study of knowledge and medicinal plants use by the people in Dek Island in Ethiopia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2009;124:69–78. Teklehaymanot T, Giday M, Medhin G, Mekonnen Y. Knowledge and use of medicinal plants by peoplearound Debre Libanos monastery in Ethiopia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;111:271–83. Ueda-Nakamura T, Mendonça-Filho RR, Morgado-Díaz JA, Korehisa Maza P, Prado Dias Filho B, Aparício Garcia Cortez D, et al. Antileishmanial activity of eugenol-rich essential oil from Ocimum gratissimum. Parasitol Int. 2006;55(2):99–105. Van Den Dool H, Kratz PD. Generalization of the retention index system including linear temperature programmed gas–liquid partition chromatography. J Chromatogr A. 1963;11:463–71. van der Burg WJ, de Freitas J, Debrot AO, Lotz LAP. Naturalised and invasive alien plant species in the Caribbean Netherlands: status distribution, threats, priorities and recommendations. Report of a joint IMARES/CARMABI/PRI project. Wageningen: Plant Research International; 2012. p. 82. http://www.ciasnet.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/C185-11%20Invasive%20plants% 20Dutch%20Caribbean.pdf Waghchaure CK, Tetali P, Gunale VR, Antia NH, Bird TJ. Sacred groves of Parinche valley of Pune district of Maharashtra, India and their importance. Anthropol Med. 2006;13(1):55–76.

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Olea ferruginea Royle OLEACEAE Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Olea ferruginea Royle: Olea europaea ssp. cuspidata (Wall. ex G. Don) CIf.

Local Names Olea europaea: Jammu: kav. Olea ferruginea: Jammu: kaow; Urdu: shwawan; Khyber Pakhtunkhwa: khona; Pashto: khonu ‫ﺧﻮﻧﻮ‬.

H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_164

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Botany and Ecology Olea ferruginea: Trees, often 3–14 m high, sometimes stunted bushy growths; branchlets verrucose. Leaves with a tendency for the sides to curl downward as well as marginal rim being reflexed, dark green above, paler beneath where it is densely covered, rarely fairly sparsely so, with small silvery, golden, or pale green scales, linear-lanceolate or narrowly oblong-elliptic, narrowed at base and apex (apex sometimes bluntly rounded), 1.9–8.5 cm long and 0.7–1.5 cm broad, rarely broader (see Clanwilliam and Barberton specimens), mucronate; midrib impressed above, prominent beneath; lateral veins obscure or faintly obvious, loops forming a more or less continuous line within the margin; petiole usually 3–10 mm long. Panicles axillary, sometimes a short terminal panicle present, varying in size, usually shorter than the subtending leaf, the branches verrucose and scaly; bracts deciduous. Flowers small, white. Calyx cupular, up to 1 mm long, very shortly and obscurely four-toothed. Corolla with a short tube, about 1 mm long; lobes more or less connivent, eventually spreading to reflexed, about 2 mm long, 1.5 mm broad, margins narrowly infolded. Stamens inserted on the corolla, filaments under 1 mm long, more or less terete, anthers attached near the base, 1.5 mm long, 1 mm broad. Ovary subglobose, narrowing into a short style; stigma two-lobed forming a conicoglobose head; ovules pendulous. Drupe green with whitish spots turning black or prune-colored, subglobose to oblong in outline, up to 1 cm by 9 mm on dry specimens (Wu et al. 1994-2013) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7).

Local Medicinal Uses Olea ferruginea: Young leaves are crushed and chewed to sure gums, throat ache (Abbasi et al. 2013a). Fruit is used as astringent (Hassan et al. 2017). Decoction of leaves as gargle is considered as remedy for toothache and mouth and gum diseases (Akhtar et al. 2013). Leaves are used in the early days to make tea. It was especially used against cough, cold, flu, and skin diseases. Young leaves are chewed to avoid toothache and mouth ulcers. Young branches are used as Miswak (Amjad and Arshad 2014). The leaves are boiled in water, and the hot decoction is used for toothache usually at night time (Hamayun et al. 2003). Oil is used for rheumatism and body ache. Leaves are used for toothache, fever, and sensitive teeth (Shah et al. 2016). Leaf decoction is used to cure toothache (Jan et al. 2017). Decoction of the fresh leaves is retained in the mouth for some time to remove toothache and gum disorders. Oil extracted from fruits is applied externally to treat rheumatism. Toothbrush is made from its young shoot and is considered as antiseptic (Sher et al. 2010). Locally the plant is used for mouth ulcer, throat pain, diabetes, and toothache (Qaseem et al. 2019). Fruit extract is used for indigestion in cattle (Abbasi et al. 2013b). It is used to treat diabetes in Pakistan (Ullah et al. 2019) and for the removal of renal calculi and heart problems (Sher et al. 2016). It is also used as remedy for body weakness (Jan et al. 2017) as well as for toothache (Jan et al. 2017), hypertension, and liver problems (Jan et al. 2017). It is applied as antipyretic and

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Fig. 1 Olea ferruginea (Oleaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

astringent and for body debility, fever, gonorrhea, and whooping cough (Gairola et al. 2014). Olea capensis: In East Africa, bark decoctions are used as an emetic and anthelmintic and to treat malaria, venereal diseases, and female sterility; bark ash is applied as a dressing to wounds. In Swaziland, bark decoctions are taken to treat peptic ulcers, and in South Africa, the bark is used for skin lightening. In southern Africa, root powder is applied to fractures and joint swellings and leaf infusions to treat infections of the respiratory tract and pains. The boiled bark serves as remedy for stomach problems and as anthelminthic (Bussmann 2006). Olea europaea ssp. africana: The leaves have been used for a long time to clean wounds. Olive leaves are applied to lower blood pressure and to help improve the function of the circulatory system. Root decoction is used to treat malaria (Beentje 1994). The bark is soaked in water overnight, and the infusion is used to treat tapeworms and as general anthelminthic. The decoction is also drunk and used as steam bath for rashes. The leaf decoction remedies liver problems (Delbanco et al. 2017; Kokwaro 2009; Yineger et al. 2008). They are also taken as a mild diuretic and may be used to treat conditions such as cystitis. Having some ability to lower blood sugar levels, the leaves have been taken to treat diabetes. The oil is traditionally taken with lemon juice in teaspoonful doses to treat gallstones. The leaf powder is applied for ear problems (Lulekal et al. 2008; Teklehaymanot et al. 2007; Teklehaymanot 2017). The boiled bark serves as remedy for stomach problems

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Fig. 2 Olea ferruginea (Oleaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

and as anthelminthic (Bussmann 2006; Nankaya et al. 2020) and is also used for malaria, colds, respiratory problems, and flu (Nankaya et al. 2020; Njoroge and Bussmann 2006a). It is also used for anaplasmosis and to expel a retained placenta after birth. Sometimes it is used for the treatment of diarrhea, as toothbrush (Gafna et al. 2017), and for toothache (Gairola et al. 2014).

Local Food Uses Olea ferruginea: The fruits are eaten, and the leaves are used as tea (Ahmad et al. 2016). Olea capensis: The oily fruits are edible and are used in southern Africa in the preparation of beer and lemonade (Beentje 1994; Bussmann et al. 2011). Olea europaea ssp. africana: The edible oil is extracted from the mesocarp (pulp) of the fruit and commonly used as a cooking and salad oil and in the preservation of various foods.

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Fig. 3 Olea europaea ssp. europaea (Oleaceae), leaves, garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Olea capensis: The heartwood, often traded as “ironwood,” is in high demand for flooring, carpentry, and paneling and is widely used for house and bridge construction, countertops and tabletops, railway sleepers, tool handles, and wagon parts. It produces beautiful furniture, turnery, and sliced veneer and is often used by African artists. It is suitable for interior trim, sporting goods, toys, novelties, and agricultural implements (Beentje 1994). In South Africa, it has been used traditionally to make assegais. It is also used as firewood and for charcoal production. The foliage serves as fodder, especially during the dry season. The flowers produce nectar for honeybees. In South Africa, Olea capensis has been used as stock for grafting olive cultivars from the Mediterranean region. The tree is considered sacred by the Maasai people and is commonly used in ceremonies. The smoke is used to sterilize and give fragrance to milk containers (Tian 2017). It is an excellent timber for construction (Bussmann et al. 2011) and used as firewood (Kiefer and Bussmann 2004, 2008). The leaves are eaten by livestock. It is used for construction and fences. The wood makes excellent rungus (war clubs), spears handles and sticks, and firewood (Bussmann 2006). Olea europaea ssp. africana: The wood is valuable, hard, and fairly durable, but it is rarely available in large sizes. It is used for turnery and furniture and is much

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Fig. 4 Olea europaea ssp. europaea (Oleaceae), flowers, garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Olea europaea ssp. europaea (Oleaceae), flowers, garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

appreciated for handicrafts; in larger sizes, it is also used for flooring and railway sleepers (Beentje 1994). The Maasai people of East Africa use it to make clubs and for poles for houses. It makes excellent fuelwood and charcoal (Beentje 1994). The bark decoction is used as enema to expel the placenta in cows (Kokwaro 2009).

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Fig. 6 Olea europaea ssp. europaea (Oleaceae), habit, garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana) Fig. 7 Olea europaea ssp. africana (Oleaceae), war club (rungu), made from Olea wood, Sekenani camp, Maasai Mara, Kenya. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Olive trees are planted for ornamental purposes, as firebreaks, and to control soil erosion. The smoke is used to sterilize and give fragrance to milk containers (Tian 2017) and for fragrance in general (Mekonnen et al. 2015). The leaves are eaten by livestock and used to treat endoparasites in cattle (Njoroge and Bussmann 2006b). It is used for construction and fences. The wood makes excellent rungus (war clubs), spears handles and sticks, and also excellent firewood (Bussmann 2006; Kiefer and Bussmann 2004, 2008).

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References Abbasi AM, Khan MA, Khan N, Shah MH. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinally important wild edible fruits species used by tribal communities of Lesser Himalayas-Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013a;148(2):528–36. Abbasi AM, Khan SM, Ahmad M, Khan MA, Quave CL, Pieroni A. Botanical ethnoveterinary therapies in three districts of the Lesser Himalayas of Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013b;9(1):84. Akhtar N, Rashid A, Murad W, Bergmeier E. Diversity and use of ethno-medicinal plants in the region of swat, North Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1):25. Amjad MS, Arshad M. Ethnobotanical inventory and medicinal uses of some important woody plant species of Kotli, Azad Kashmir, Pakistan. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. 2014;4(12):952–8. Beentje H. Kenya trees and shrubs. Nairobi: National Museums of Kenya; 1994. Bussmann RW. Ethnobotany of the Samburu of Mt. Nyiru, South Turkana, Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:35. Bussmann RW, Swartzinsky P, Worede A, Evangelista P. Plant use in Odo-Bulu and Demaro, Bale region, Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2011;7:28. Delbanco AS, Burgess ND, Cuni_Sanchez A. Medicinal plant trade in northern Kenya: economic importance, uses, and origin. Econ Bot. 2017;711:13–31. Gafna DJ, Dolos K, Mahiri IO, Mahiri JG, Obando JA. Diversity of medicinal plants and anthropogenic threats in the Samburu central sub-county of Kenya. Afr J Tradit Complement Altern Med. 2017;14(5):72–9. https://doi.org/10.21010/ajtcam.v14i5.10. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Hamayun M, Khan A, Khan MA. Common medicinal folk recipes of district Buner, NWFP, Pakistan. Ethnobot Leafl. 2003;2005(1):45. Hassan N, Nisar M, Kakar SUR, Hassan F, Zhiwei Z, Nong L, Wang D. Determination of informant consensus factor of medicinal plants used as therapy in district Dir lower Pakistan. J Med Plant stud. 2017;5(4):183–8. Jan HA, Wali S, Ahmad L, Jan S, Ahmad N, Ullah N. Ethnomedicinal survey of medicinal plants of Chinglai valley, Buner district, Pakistan. Eur J Integr Med. 2017;13:64–74. Kiefer S, Bussmann RW. The meaning of regeneration strategies and anthropogenic influence for the forest expansion in east African montane forest ecosystems – a modeling approach. Lyonia. 2004;62:161–9. Kiefer S, Bussmann RW. Household energy demand and its challenges for forest management in the Kakamega area, W-Kenya. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2008;6:353–71. Kokwaro JO. Medicinal plants of East Africa. Nairobi: University of Nairobi Press; 2009. Lulekal E, Kelbessa E, Bekele T, Yineger H. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in Mana Angetu District, southeastern Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2008;4:10. https://doi.org/10. 1186/1746-4269-4-10. Mekonnen, T., Giday, M., Kelbessa, K. 2015. Ethnobotanical study of homegarden plants in Sebeta-Awas District of the Oromia region of Ethiopia to assess use, species diversity and management practices J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 1164. Nankaya J, Gichuki N, Lukhoba C, Balslev H. Medicinal plants of the Maasai of Kenya: a review. Plants (Basel). 2020;9:44. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9010044. Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Phytotherapeutic management of diversity and utilization of antimalarial ethnophytotherapeutic remedies among the kikuyus Central Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006a;2:8. Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Herbal usage and informant consensus in ethnoveterinary management of cattle diseases among the kikuyus Central Kenya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2006b;108:332–9. Qaseem M, Qureshi R, Amjad MS, Ahmed W, Masood A, Shaheen H. Ethno-botanical evaluation of indigenous flora from the communities of rajh mehal and goi union councils of district Kotli, Azad Jammu Kashmir Pakistan. Appl Ecol Environ Res. 2019;17(2):2799–829.

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Shah SA, Shah NA, Ullah S, Alam MM, Badshah H, Ullah S, Mumtaz AS. Documenting the indigenous knowledge on medicinal flora from communities residing near Swat River (Suvastu) and in high mountainous areas in swat-Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;182:67–79. Sher H, Alyemeni MN, Wijaya L, Shah AJ. Ethnopharmaceutically important medicinal plants and its utilization in traditional system of medicine, observation from the northern parts of Pakistan. J Med Plants Res. 2010;4(18):1853–64. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni groups in Chitral District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Teklehaymanot T, Giday M, Medhin G, Mekonnen Y. Knowledge and use of medicinal plants by peoplearound Debre Libanos monastery in Ethiopia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;111:271–83. Tian X. Ethnobotanical knowledge acquisition during daily chores: the firewood collection of pastoral Maasai girls in southern Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13:2. https://doi.org/10. 1186/s13002-016-0131-x. Ullah M, Mehmood S, Ali M, Bussmann RW, Aldosari A, Ali Khan R, Ullah R, Hussain W, Rahman Shah MA. An ethnopharmacological study of plants used for treatment of diabetes in the southern and tribal regions of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18(8) https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.8.1-20. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994-2013. Yineger H, Yewhalaw D, Teketay D. Ethnomedicinal plant knowledge and practice of the Oromo ethnic group in southwestern Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2008;4:11. https://doi.org/10. 1186/1746-4269-4-11.

Onosma hispida Wall. ex G. Don BORAGINACEAE Wahid Hussain, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Local Names Onosma hispida: Pashto: Sharong, Gao saban; Urdu: Soi; Balti: Kangmar; Ladakh: Demok; Kashmir: Ratanjot, Ratmundi, Hundheu

Botany and Ecology Onosma hispida: A perennial herb up to 70 cm tall with a prominent tap root. Stem(-s) many, mostly simple, hollow, densely hairy with long spreading hairs 3.5–5 m long, with tuberculate bases, intermixed with shorter thinner hairs. Basal leave 90–350  5–10 mm, linear to oblanceolate, middle cauline leaves often larger uppermost smaller. Inflorescence a terminal cyme, dense at anthesis, elongating to 12 cm in fruit. Bracts lanceolate, leaf-like, but smaller. Pedicel short, densely hairy, up to 10 mm in fruit. Calyx 11–13 mm long, up to 20 mm in fruit, densely hairy; lobes lanceolate. Corolla creamish-white to light yellow, tubular-campanulate, 20–30 mm long, W. Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_165

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Fig. 1 Onosma hispida (Boraginaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

puberulous to the outside; lobes 1.5–1.8 mm long, deflexed. Filaments attached 7– 12 mm from corolla base, 5–9 mm long, flattened, the decurrent base 4–5 mm long. Anthers united laterally to form a tube up to 1.6 mm long, sterile tips 1.5–2 mm long. Nectary forming an annular collar, 0.2–0.3 mm high, glabrous. Style up to 20 mm long, glabrous. Nutlets 5–6 mm long, shiny. Flowering May June. Afghanistan, Pakistan, Kashmir. Fairly common from 1000 to 3400 m (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020). An interesting source of Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids (Ahmad et al. 2018) (Fig. 1).

Local Medicinal Uses Onosma hispida: Used to treat throat infections, menses, stomachic, general pain in body, asthma (Wali et al. 2019). Powdered whole plant is taken with a glass of milk for quick recovery after delivery (Sher et al. 2016). Used also for jaundice and constipation (Abbas et al. 2019), for lung disorders, asthma, heart problems (Kayani et al. 2015). In Kashmir used for abdominal ulcers, bladder-stones, hair treatment, kidney stones, rheumatism, ulcers, as antiallergic, for cardiac ailments, rheumatism, as stimulant and tonic (Gairola et al. 2014).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Onosma hispida: Used for hair and face coloring, lipstick, forage (Wali et al. 2019).

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References Abbas Z, Alam J, Muhammad S, Bussmann RW, Mulk Khan S, Hussain M. Phyto-cultural diversity of the Shigar valley Central Karakorum Baltistan, Northern Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;1832 https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.31.1-18. Ahmad L, He Y, Semotiuk AJ, Liu Q-R, Hao J-C. Survey of pyrrolizidine alkaloids in the tribe Lithospermeae (Boraginaceae) from Pan-Himalaya and their chemotaxonomic significance. Biochem Syst Ecol. 2018;81:49–57. Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan and Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995–2020. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Kayani S, Ahmad M, Sultana S, Khan Shinwari ZM, Yaseen G, Hussain M, Bibi T. Ethnobotany of medicinal plants among the communitiesof Alpine and Sub-alpine regions of Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;164:186–202. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni groups in Chitral District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Wali R, Rahman K, Raja NI, Qureshi R, Bussmann RW, Mashwani ZUR. A quantitative medico botanical expedition of Fairy Meadows National Park, Diamir, Gilgit Baltistan, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18(35) https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.35.1-30.

Ophiocordyceps sinensis (Berk.) G.H. Sung, J.M. Sung, Hywel-Jones & Spatafora OPHIOCORDYCIPITACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Ophiocordyceps sinensis (Berk.) G.H. Sung, J.M. Sung, Hywel-Jones & Spatafora: Cordyceps sinensis (Berk.) Sacc.; Hirsutella sinensis X.J. Liu, Y.L. Guo, Y.X. Yu & W. Zeng; Sphaeria soinensis Berk.

Local Names Ophiocordyceps sinensis: Tibetan: Yarsagunbu; Chinese: dōng chóng xià cǎo; Hindi: Keedajadi, Kirajadi, Keeda ghas; Nepali: Yarsa, Yarcha, Yarsagumba, Jiwanbuti, Kira; Bhutanese: Yartsa guenboob; English: Caterpillar fungus

Botany and Ecology Ophiocordyceps sinensis: The caterpillar fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis is one of the most valuable medicinal fungi in the world and parasitizes a large number of larvae of moths belonging to the order Lepidoptera, especially Hepialus/Thitarodes. The infected larva is converted into a sclerotium covered by the intact exoskeleton of the insect to withstand the winter, which is regarded as “winter worm.” In the late spring or summer of the next year, a clavate stroma of the fungus grows from the sclerotium and emerged from the ground appearing as a herb, which is regarded as “summer grass.” Ophiocordyceps sinensis is endemic to the Tibetan Plateau, with a R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_166

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distribution covering five provinces in China, i.e., Gansu, Qinghai, Sichuan, Tibet, and Yunnan. It may be found in alpine meadow and shrub habitat from an altitude of 3000 m up to the snowline (Pegler et al. 1994; Wang and Yao 2011; Yao 2004). It is unclear how the spores of the parasitic fungus enter the body of the host caterpillar. The parasite fills the caterpillar’s body with mycelium until the caterpillar dies and becomes mummified. In early spring, the fungal fruiting body emerges from the caterpillar head. Ophiocordyceps also reproduces asexually, the respective anamorph has been described as Hirsutella sinensis (Liu et al. 1989; Wang and Yao 2011). The species is endemic to the Tibetan Plateau and adjacent Himalaya regions, covering China, Nepal, Bhutan, and India. In China, it is mainly found in the northern Yunnan, eastern Qinghai, western Sichuan, eastern Tibet, and southwestern Gansu provinces. In Nepal, the species occurs in Dolpa, Darchula, Bajhang, Humla, Jumla, Mugu, Rukum, Myagdi, Sindhupalchok, Rasuwa, Sankhuwasabha, Gorkha, and Manang. It is found in the alpine and sub-alpine pastures between 3500 and 5200 m. Due to the huge market demand, the fungus is sold at an extremely high price up to $40,000 per kg in the name of Himalayan Gold making the global trade worth 5.5–11.5 billion dollars (Shrestha 2012). Overharvesting combined with climate change has resulted in the depletion of this fungus (Klein et al. 2014; Kunwar et al. 2015, 2018a, b, 2019, 2020; Shrestha and Bawa 2013). Citing its wide-scale overharvesting and depletion, IUCN has categorized this fungus as a vulnerable species in 2020. The species might be heavily affected by climate change (Hopping et al. 2018).

Phytochemistry The species contains cordycepin, adenosine, guanosine, cordymin, lovastatin, γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), sitosterol, ergosterol, ergosta-4,6,8, 22-tetraen-3-one (ergone), 5α,8α-epidioxy-22E-ergosta-6,22-dien-3β-ol, 5α, 8α-epidioxy-22E-ergosta-6,9, 22-trien-3β-ol, 5α,6α-epoxy-5α-ergosta-7,22-dien-3β-ol, 5α,8α-epidioxy24(R)-methylcholesta-6,22-dien-3β-D-glucopyranoside, 6-epoxy-24(R)-methylcholesta-7,22-dien-3β-ol, myriocin, melanin, cordysinin A, cordysinin B, cordysinin C, cordysinin D, cordysinin E, and serine protease (Lo et al. 2013).

Local Medicinal Uses Ophiocordyceps sinensis: The species is an important ingredient in traditional Amchi (Tibetan) medicine. It is widely used and promoted as panacea to treat asthma, bronchial problems, lung inflammation, as immunomodulatory, immunosuppressive, anticomplementary, antitumor, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antibacterial, hepatoprotective, anti-diabetic, hypo-cholesterolemic, antiarteriosclerotic, antithrombic, hypotensive, vasorelaxant, photoprotective, anti-

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depressant, anti-osteoporetic, to prevent cerebral ischemia, against fatigue, for steroidogenesis and erythropoiesis, to treat arrhythmia, as antiaging compound, to stimulate testosterone production, as sedative, to treat bowel problems, promote sexual endurance (“Himalayan Viagra”), improve learning and memory functions, prevent allograft rejection, and alleviate lupus (Liu et al. 2017, 2018; Lo et al. 2013; Winkler 2009).

References Hopping KA, Chignell SM, Lambin EF. The demise of caterpillar fungus in the Himalayan region due to climate change and overharvesting. 2018. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1811591115. Klein JA, Hopping KA, Yeh ET, Nyima Y, Boone RB, Galvin KA. Unexpected climate impacts on the Tibetan Plateau: local and scientific knowledge in findings of delayed summer. Glob Environ Chang. 2014;28:141–52. Kunwar RM, Acharya RP, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plant dynamics in indigenous medicines in Farwest Nepal. J Ethnopharnacol. 2015;163:210–9. Kunwar RM, Fadiman M, Cameron M, Bussmann RW, Thapa-Magar KB, Rimal B, Sapkota P. Cross-cultural comparison of plant use knowledge in Baitadi and Darchula districts, Nepal Himalaya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018a;14:40. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-018-0242-7. Kunwar RM, Evans A, Mainali J, Ansari AS, Rimal B, Bussmann RW. Change in forest and vegetation cover influencing distribution and uses of plants in the Kailash Sacred Landscape, Nepal. Environ Dev Sustain. 2018b; https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-018-0254-4. Kunwar RM, Shrestha K, Malla S, Acharya T, Sementelli A, Kutal D, Bussmann RW. Relation of medicinal plants, their use patterns and availability in the lower Kailash Sacred Landscape, Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18(7) https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.6.1-14. Kunwar RM, Fadiman M, Thapa S, Acharya RP, Cameron M, Bussmann RW. Plant use values and phytosociological indicators: implications for conservation in the Kailash Sacred Landscape, Nepal. Ecol Indic. 2020;108:105679. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2019.105679. Li F-S, Weng J-K. Demystifying traditional herbal medicine with modern approaches. Nat Plants. 2017;3:17109. https://doi.org/10.1038/nplants.2017.109. Liu XJ, Guo YL, Yu YX, Zeng W. Isolation and identification of the anamorphic state of Cordyceps sinensis (Berk.) Sacc. Acta Mycol Sin. 1989;8(1):35–40. Liu D, Chen H, Bussmann RW, Guo Z, Liu B, Long C. An ethnobotanical survey of edible fungi in Chuxiong City, Yunnan, China. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14:42. https://doi.org/10.1186/ s13002-018-0239-2. Lo HC, Hsieh C, Lin FY, Hsu TH. A systematic review of the mysterious caterpillar fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis in DongChongXiaCao (冬蟲夏草 Dōng Chóng Xià Cǎo) and related bioactive ingredients. J Tradit Complement Med. 2013;3(1):16–32. Pegler DN, Yao YJ, Li Y. The Chinese Caterpillar Fungus. Mycologist. 1994;8(1):3–5. Shrestha UB. Asian medicine: a fungus in decline. Nature. 2012;482(7383).:35–35. Shrestha UB, Bawa KS. Trade, harvest, and conservation of caterpillar fungus (Ophiocordyceps sinensis) in the Himalayas. Biol Conserv. 2013;159:514–20. Shrestha B, Zhang W, Zhang Y, Liu X. What is the Chinese caterpillar fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis (Ophiocordycipitaceae)? Mycology. 2010;1(4):228–36. Wang XL, Yao YJ. Host insect species of Ophiocordyceps sinensis: a review. Zookeys. 2011;127:43–59. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.127.802 Winkler D. Caterpillar fungus (Ophiocordyceps sinensis) production and sustainability on the Tibetan Plateau and in the Himalayas. Asian Med. 2009;5(2):291–316. Xia EH, Yang DR, Jiang JJ, Zhang QJ, Liu Y, Liu YL, Zhang Y, Zhang HB, Shi C, Tong Y, Kim C. The caterpillar fungus, Ophiocordyceps sinensis, genome provides insights into highland adaptation of fungal pathogenicity. Sci Rep. 2017;7(1):1–11.

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Xu R, Liu B, Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z. Hippophae rhamnoides L. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of Mountain regions central Asia and Altai. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020. Yao YJ. Conservation and rational use of the natural resources of Cordyceps sinensis. Science News 2004;15:28–29. [In Chinese] Zhang Y, Li E, Wang C, Li Y, Liu X. Ophiocordyceps sinensis, the flagship fungus of China: terminology, life strategy and ecology. Mycology. 2012;3(1):2–10.

Orobanche vulgaris Poir. OROBANCHACEAE Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

Synonyms Orobanche vulgaris Poir.: Orobanche caryophyllacea Sm.; Orobanche galii Duby

Botany and Ecology Orobanche vulgaris: Herbs 35–50 cm tall. Stems 15–30 cm, sparsely glandular pubescent upward. Leaves ovate-lanceolate or lanceolate, 2–2.5 cm  4–6 mm, glabrous adaxially, glandular pubescent at margin and abaxially. Inflorescences spicate, 10–20 cm; bract ovate-lanceolate, 2–3 cm  4–5 mm, along with calyx densely glandular pubescent; bractlets absent. Calyx 1–1.2 cm, irregularly 2-parted; segments lanceolate, entire or 2-lobed; lobes linear-lanceolate, unequal, 4–8 mm, usually 3-veined, apex long acuminate. Corolla yellow, 2–3.5 cm; tube not H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_167

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Fig. 1 Orobanche minor (Orobanchaceae), Ushguli, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

constricted, distinctly enlarged upward; upper lip slightly emarginate or mucronate; lobes subrounded, unequal, glandular pubescent at margin and on both sides, margin irregularly dentate or sinuolate. Filaments 1.2–1.4 cm, white villous proximally, glabrescent distally; anthers oblong, 1.8–2 mm, white pubescent. Pistil ca. 1.6 cm; ovary narrowly ellipsoid. Style ca. 1 cm, glandular pubescent; stigma 2-lobed, lobes globose, about 1 mm in diameter. Capsule oblong, 1–1.2 cm. Seeds oblong, 0.4– 0.5  about 0.3 mm. Flowering May–July, fruiting July–September (Wu et al. 1994– 2020) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Local Medicinal Uses Orobanche vulgaris: The species is used as astringent, to treat freckles, cancer, fever, and spleen disorders (Shi et al. 2020). Orobanche alba is used for digestive disorders, as anthelmintic, and for joint inflammations (Ghorbani 2005).

Orobanche vulgaris Poir. Fig. 2 Orobanche sp. (Orobanchaceae), Ushguli, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Orobanche sp. (Orobanchaceae), Ushguli, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 4 Orobanche vulgaris (Orobanchaceae), Pakistan. (Photo H. Sher and I. Ur-Rahman)

References Ghorbani A. Studies on pharmaceutical ethnobotany in the region of Turkmen Sahra, north of Iran (part 1): general results. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102:58–68. Shi R, Zhang C, Gong X, Yang M, Ji M, Jiang L, Leonti M, Yao R, Li M. The genus Orobanche as food and medicine: an ethnopharmacological review. J Ethnopharmacol. 2020; https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jep.2020.113154. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. St. Louis/Beijing: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013.

Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz BIGNONIACEAE Keshab Shrestha, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz: Arthrophyllum ceylanicum Miq.; Arthophyllum reticulatum Blume Miq.; Bignonia indica L.; Bignonia lugubris Salisb.; Bignonia pentrandra Lour.; Bignonia quadripinnata Balnco; Bignonia tripinnata Noronha; Bignonia tuberculata Roxb. ex DC.; Calosanthes indica (L.) Blume; Hippoxylon indica (L.) Raf.; Oroxylum flavum Rehder; and Spathodea indica (L.) Pers.

K. Shrestha Natural History Museum, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_168

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Local Names Oroxylum indicum: Ayurvedic: Shayonakkul; Assamese: Toguna; Chinese: Hanyu pinyin, Mu hudie; English: Midnight Horror, Tree of Damocles, Trumpet Flowers, Indian Caper, Broken Bone Tree, Oroxylum, Calosanthes, Butterfly Tree, Pharrai; Duddha Tree; Hindi: Patrorna, Putiveriksha, Shallaka, Shuran, Son, Vatuk, Arlu, Urnu, Sauna; Malaysia: Bonglai; Nepali: Tatelo, Sanna; Sri Lanka: Totila, Thotila; Thai: Phe kaa; Vietnam: Nu’c Na0 c, So’ do; Karnataka: Ane-mungu; Malaylam: Palakappayyani, Vella, Pathiri; Sanskrit: Aralu, Shyonaka; Tamil: Cai-kinnai, Kalai-y-utacicci, Puta-puspam, Achi, Pana, Pei-maram, Venga maram, Peruvaagai; Telegu: Manduka-paramu, Pampena, Suka-nasamu, Dundi lamu, Pampini, Newati, Chettu; Others: Kompong, Sonapatta, Sonnapaathaa, Tatpalengu, Kinnauri phool, Shoshana, Tuntuka, Kutunata, Mandukparna, Bhalluka, Prthushimba, Katvan (Chauhan 1999; Khare 2004; Harminder et al. 2011); Bengali: Kanaidingi, Totola, Surimala (Raj et al. 2018); Kailsah: Tata, Faltate; naga: Ochamiliau; Rajasthani: Shivnath; Jammu: Tantu

Botany and Ecology Oroxylum indicum is a monotypic genus of family Bignoniaceae (Jacaranda Family) generally found in the subtropical regions up to 1200 m, mostly in Asian countries. It is a small deciduous tree occasionally reaching about 10–15 m high with branchless cylindrical stem below (Fig. 1). It has shoe-like fruits tapering both sides. In some countries, it has grown as a garden and roadside tree for its ornamental value. Oroxylum indicum: Trees 6–10 m tall. Trunk 15–20 cm in diameter; bark graybrown. Leaves 2(4)-pinnately compound, borne nearly at stem apex, 60–130 cm; leaflets triangular-ovate, 5–13  3–10 cm, glabrous, becoming blue after drying, base subrounded or cordate, oblique, margin entire, apex short acuminate; lateral veins 5 or 6 on each side of midrib. Inflorescences 40–150 cm. Flowers usually open at night, with foul smell. Pedicel 3–7 cm. Calyx purple, campanulate, 2.2–4.5  2– 3 cm, glabrous, membranous, becoming subwoody in fruit, apex truncate. Corolla purple-red; tube fleshy, 3–9  1–1.5 cm; mouth 5.5–8 cm in diameter; upper lip 2-lobed, lower lip 3-lobed, lobes slightly reflexed. Stamens inserted at middle of corolla tube; filaments about 4 cm, slightly exserted from corolla tube, tomentose basally; anthers ellipsoid, 8–10 mm, slightly divergent. Disc large, fleshy, 5-lobed, 4–5 mm thick, about 1.5 cm in diameter. Style 5–7 cm; stigma 2-parted, about 7  5 mm. Capsule woody, 40–120  5–9 cm, about 1 cm thick; valves with midrib, margin convex. Seeds rounded, including papery wing 6–7  3.5–4 cm. Flowering September–December (Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Fig. 2). Seeds very numerous, 2–2.5 in across, including the papery wing all round the seeds The fruit remains on the tree till the next year without leaves. When the pods bursts, the seeds flutter to the ground often travelling to some distance looking like butterflies. The fresh root bark is soft and juicy; it is sweet becoming bitter later. On drying, the bark shrinks, adhere closely to the wood and becomes faintly fissured (Warrier et al. 1995; Daniel 2006).

Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz

Fig. 1 Oroxylum indicum (Bignoniaceae), plant. (Photo Ripu Kunwar)

Fig. 2 Oroxylum indicum (Bignoniaceae), fruits. (Photo Kedar Baral)

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It is found in many parts of India, Nepal, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, in the Andaman, southern China, Bhutan, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines. In the outer sub-Himalayan tracts, it ascends up to 1200 m, along the river valley and foothills. In Nepal, this tree is found from Panchkhal (East Nepal) to Dadeldhura (Farwest Nepal). It is usually found in the plain and hillock area in the subtropical tracts in the moist riverine deciduous forest area, e.g., on the river valley in Arun, Rapti, Babai, Seti, Mahakali, and others (Kunwar et al. 2019).

Phytochemistry The root and stem contain three flavones, oroxylin – A (5,7-diOH, 6-OMe flavone), baicalein (5,6,7-triOH flavone) and chrysin (5,7-diOH flavone), sitosterol, and tannin. Seeds yield a fatty acid (of oleic acid 80% and rest saturated acids), baicalein and its glucoside tetuin. Root bark contains chrysin, scutellarin-7-rutino-side, traces of alkaloids, sitosterol, galactose, baicalein, biochanin-A, ellagic acid, oroxylin – A and a yellow chrystalline, coloring matter 5,7-dihydroxy-6-methoxy flavone. Heartwood contains prunetin and sitosterol. Fruit pods contain oroxylin A, chrysin, baicalein, a triterpene carboxylic acid, and ursolic acid. Seeds contain oils and flavonoids such as chrysin, oroxylin A, baicalein, baicalein-7-o-diglucoside (Oroxylin B), baicalein – 7-O-glucoside, apigenin, terpenes, alkaloids, saponnins, tetuin, the 6-glucoside of baicolein, benzoic acid, and fatty acids. A new flavone glucoronide-oroxindin and chrysin-7-o-diglucoside were also isolated. The seed oil contains caprylic, lauric, myristic, palmitic, palmotoleic, stearic, oleic, and linoleic acids (Subramanian and Nair 1972a, b; Nakahara et al. 2001; Khandar et al. 2006; Upaganlawar and Tende 2007; Upaganlawar et al. 2009; Dinda et al. 2014).

Local Medicinal Uses Oroxylum indicum: The species is used in the case of diarrhea and dysentery, rheumatism, headache, cough, piles, ulcers, skin diseases, edema, tonic. The root bark is used in diarrhea and dysentery. Small part of root bark is crushed into paste and mixed with a cup of water to drink. Piled bark and leaves is made a paste to be used in the joints to cure rheumatism. The bark and fruit are also used as a mordant in tanning and dyeing (Dey et al. 1978; Chauhan 1999; Daniel 2006; Harminder et al. 2011). Researches showed that the plant exhibit ant-iinflammatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, anticancer, antimutagenic, photocytotoxic, antiarthritic, immunostimulant, hepatoprotective, and antiproliferative activities. Flavonoids obtained from the plant have various biological activities such as apoptosis induction, cell cycle arrest, antiproliferative, anti-angiogenesis, and antioxidation. Flavonoids are known for their antiinflammatory and antiallergic effect. Chrysin is a flavone which have biological activities such as antibacterial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiallergic, anticancer,

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antiestrogenic, and anxiolytic activity. Oroxylin-A exhibits many biological activities such as COX-2 inhibition, cytotoxic, and antimicrobial. It also demonstrated anti-HIV and lipid peroxidation inhibition activities (Dey et al. 1978; O’Neill et al. 2017; Tomimori et al. 1988; Nakahara et al. 2002a, b). It is used for dysentery and rheumatism. A seed paste is applied to treat boils and wounds. The root is astringent, antiinflammatory, aphrodisiac, expectorant, anthelmintic, and tonic. The bark is diuretic and stomachic and useful in diarrhea and dysentery, carminative, tonic, diaphoretic, and astringent. Root bark is also used to treat bile problems and cough. The fruit is spasmolytic. The plant extract is considered as a source of anticancer compounds (Kunwar and Bussmann 2009; Kunwar et al. 2009). It is also used as purgative and to treat headache (Kala 2005). In Rajasthan, it used as an antidote, abortifacient; for diarrhea and dysentery. Some antimutagenic activity has been shown (Ahmad et al. 2006). Employed in Jammu for cough, cardiac ailments, piles, stomachache, and scabies (Gairola et al. 2014).

Local Food Uses Oroxylum indicum: In Thailand, leaves are eaten and are sold in market. Young leaves, pods, flowers, and seeds are used as vegetable. It is also an ingredient in Chyawanprash as food tonic (Nakahara et al. 2001). Flowers, fruits, and pods are eaten (Dangol et al. 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Oroxylum indicum: Lama, Tamang, Sherpa, Kirantis, and Buddhist Newar use its seed for holy purposes and offer to their deities. In this way, it is a religious plant in Nepal. Garland prepared from the seeds is offered for deities and in Buddhist monasteries (Fig. 3), and used in marriage and funeral time as well. In Kimdol Swayambhu (Nepal), the seeds are sold. Its use in the monasteries is very frequent (Hongmao et al. 2002; McCann Charles 1959). The seeds are found to be used in lining umbrella and hat. The hard-curved part of the fruit is used in removing dung in cattle hut (Goth) in villages. Fuel, pulp, matchboxes are other uses of this tree (Dinda et al. 2014). It is reported that in Philippines and Singapore, the plant is grown as a roadside ornamental tree. In Nepal, it is grown as a garden plant and in front of the house. But recently the trend has been decreasing attributed to overcrowding of concrete buildings and may also be due to its short survival rate. Its growth rate is 50% when soaked in water for 3–4 weeks. It is fast growing and also dies early (McCann Charles 1959). In Dadeldhura and Dhankuta, it is used as fodder.

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Fig. 3 Oroxylum indicum (Bignoniaceae), garland prepared from the seeds of O. indicum are offered in Buddhist monasteries, Nepal. (Photo Keshab Shrestha)

References Ahmad I, Aquil F, Owais M. Modern phytomedicine. Weinheim: Wiley; 2006. Averi M, Khandhar A, Jain S. Quantification of Baicalein, Chrysin, Biochanin-A and Ellagic acid in root bark of Oroxylum indicum by RP-HPLC with UV. J Anal Chem. 2008;3:245–57. Chauhan NS. Medicinal and aromatic plants of Himalchal Pradesh. 1st ed. New Delhi: Indus Publishing; Oroxylum indicum; 1999. p. 96–298. Dangol DR, Maharjan KL, Maharjan SK, Acharya AK. Wild edible plants in Nepal. In: Joshi BK, Bahadur KCH, Acharya A, editors. Conservation and utilization of agricultural plant genetic resources of Nepal. Dhulikhel: NAGRC; 2017. p. 390–407. Daniel M. Medicinal plants: chemistry and properties. Enfield/Jersey/Plymouth: Science Publishers; 2006. Printed in India. Dey AK, Mukherjee A, Das PC, Chatterjee A. Occurrence of aloe-emodin in the leaves of Oroxylum indicum Vent. Indian J Chem. 1978; 16B:1042. Dinda B, Silsarma I, Dinda M, Rudrapaul P. Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz, an important Asian traditionalmedicine: from traditional uses to scientufic data for its commercial exploitation. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;161:255–78. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Harminder VS, Singh V, Chaudhary AK. A review on the taxonomy, ethnobotany, chemistry and pharmacology of Oroxylum indicum Vent. Indian J Pharm Sci. 2011;75(5):483–90.

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Hongmao L, Zaifu X, Youkai X, Wang J. Practice of conserving plant diversity through traditional beliefs: a case study in Xishuangbanna, southwest China. Biodivers Conserv. 2002;11:705–13. Kala CP. Ethnomedicinal botany of the Apatani in the Eastern Himalayan region of India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2005;1:11. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-1-11. Khandar M, Shah M, Santoni D, Jain S. Antiulcer activity of the root bark of Oroxylum indicum against experimental gastric ulcer. Pharm Bio. 2006;44:363–70. Khare CP. In: Khare CP, editor. Indian herbal remedies: rational western therapy, ayurvedic and other traditional usage, botany. 4th ed. New York: Springer Berlin/Handelberg; 2004. p. 340–1. Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Medicinal, aromatic and dye plants of Baitadi and Darchula districts, Nepal Himalaya: status, uses and management. In: Hartmann M, Weipert J, editors. Biodiversität, Naturausstattung im Himalaya, Bd. III. Erfurt, Naturkundemuseum Erfiurt; 2009, p. 475–89. Kunwar RM, Upreti Y, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Indigenous use and ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in Far-west Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009;7:5–28. Kunwar RM, Shrestha K, Malla S, Acharya T, Sementelli A, Kutal D, Bussmann RW. Relation of medicinal plants, their use patterns and availability in the lower Kailash Sacred Landscape, Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18(7) https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.6.1-14. McCann Charles FLS. 100 beautiful trees of India. Bomboy: D.B. Taraporevala Sons & Co.; 1959. Nakahara K, Onishi-Kameyama M, Ono H, Yoshida M, Trakoontivakon G. Antimutagenic activity against Trp-P-I of the edible Thai plant, Oroxylum indicum Vent. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem. 2001;165:2358–60. Nakahara K, Roy MK, Alzoroky NS, Thalang V, Trakoontivakorn G. Inventory of indigenous plants and mior crops in Thailand based on bioactivities. 9th JIRCAS international symposium – value addition to agricultural product. 135-9 [Google Scholar]; 2002a. Nakahara K, Trakoontivakorn G, Alzoreky NS, Ono H, Onishi Kameyama M, Yoshida M. Antimutagenicity activity of some edible Thai plants, and a bioactive carbazole alkaloid, mahanine, isolated from Micromelum minutum. J Agri Food Chem. 2002b;50:4796–802. O’Neill AR, Badola HK, Dhyani PP, Rana SK. Integrating ethnobiological knowledge into biodiversity conservation in the Eastern Himalayas. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13:21. https://doi. org/10.1186/s13002-017-0148-9. Raj AJ, Biswakarma B, Pala NA, Shukla G, Vineeta V, Kumar M, Chakravarty S, Bussmann RW. Indigenous uses of ethno-medicinal plants among forest dependent communities of Northern Bengal, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14(1):8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002018-0208-9. Subramanian SS, Nair AG. Flavonoids of leaves of Oroxylum indicum and Pajanelia longifolia. Phytochemistry. 1972a;11:439–70. Subramanian SS, Nair AG. Flavonoids of the stem bark of Oroxylum indicum. Curr Sci. 1972b;41:62–3. Tomimori T, Imoto Y, Ishida KH, Namba T. Studies on the Nepalese crude drug. VIII. On the flavonoid constituents the seed of Oroxylum indicum. shoyakugaku Zasshi. 1988;42:98–101. Upaganlawar AB, Tende CR. In vitro antioxidant activity of leaves of Oroxylum indicum Vent. Bio Med. 2007;2:300. Upaganlawar AB, Tende CR, Yeole PG. Antiinflammatory activity of aqueous extract of Oroxylum indicum Vent leaves extract-preliminary study. Pharmacol Online. 2009;1:22–6. Warrier PK, Nambiar VP, Ramankutty C, Vasudevan R, editors. Indian medicinal plants: a compedium of 500 species. 1st ed. Chennai: Orient Longaman Private, Oroxylum indicum; 1995. p. 186–90. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. St. Louis: Science Press, Beijing & Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013.

Osmanthus fragrans (Thunb.) Lour. OLEACEAE Shandesh Bhattarai, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Osmanthus fragrans (Thunb.) Lour.: Notelaea posua D. Don; Olea fragrans Thunb.; Olea ovalis Miq.; Osmanthus longibracteatus H.T. Chang; Osmanthus macrocarpus P.Y. Bai

Local Names Osmanthus fragrans: Chinese: 金桂 jingui, 四季桂 sijigui; Nepali: Siringe, Bakalpate; Hindi: Silang; Sanskrit: Brihatbakula, Vasuka; Tibetan: Bu ga; English: Fragrant olive S. Bhattarai Nepal Academy of Science and Technology, Lalitpur, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_169

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Botany and Ecology Osmanthus fragrans: Trees or shrubs 3–5(
10) m, glabrous. Petiole 0.8–1.2 (
1.5) cm; leaf blade elliptic to elliptic-lanceolate, 7–14.5  2.6–4.5 cm, base cuneate or broadly cuneate, margin entire or usually serrulate along distal half, apex acuminate; midrib and 6–8(
10) primary veins adaxially impressed and abaxially raised. Cymes fascicled in leaf axils, many flowered; bracts broadly ovate, 2–4 mm. Pedicel 4–10 mm. Calyx about 1 mm. Corolla yellowish, yellow, or orange, 3–4 mm; tube 0.5–1 mm. Stamens attached to middle of corolla tube; connective elongated into an obscure mucro. Drupe purple-black, ellipsoid, oblique, 1–1.5 cm. Flowering September–October, fruiting March (Wu et al. 1994–2013). According to Press et al. (2000), there are two species in Nepal: O. fragrans var. longifolius (DC.) H. Hara, O. suavis King ex C.B.Clarke. Rajbhandari et al. (2019) listed O. fragrans var. longifolius in the book of flowering plants discovered from Nepal. Osmanthus fragrans was first introduced to Europe in 1789, when it was brought to Kew as Olea fragrans, but this early introduction was from southern China, and did not thrive or flower well in England. Osmanthus fragrans was formally described by João de Loureiro, a Portuguese Jesuit missionary, whose Flora Cochinchinensis published in 1790, included descriptions of plants from Cochinchina (in southern Vietnam), China, and Mozambique. Osmanthus is a genus of about 30 species of flowering plants in the family Oleaceae. Most of the species are native to eastern Asia (China, Japan, Korea, Indochina, the Himalayas, etc.) with a few species from the Caucasus, New Caledonia, and Sumatra. About 23 species are found in China (Wu et al. 2001). Osmanthus fragrans is distributed in Himalaya (Uttar Pradesh to Bhutan), NE India, N. Myanmar, N. Thailand, W. China. In Nepal, it is distributed in West and Central Nepal up to 2400–3300 m (Press et al. 2000) (Figs. 1, 2 and 3).

Phytochemistry By Silica gel, Sephadex LH-20 and other materials for isolation and purification and by physicochemical methods and spectral analysis for structural identification, 32 compounds were isolated and identified from ethyl acetate portion of alcohol extract of the Osmanthus fragrans. Their structures were identified as boschniakinic acid (1), ursolaldehyde (2), augustic acid (3), arjunolic acid (4), 5-hydroxymethyl-2furancarboxaldehyde (5), isoscutellarein (6), 6, 7-dihydroxycoumarin (7), 2α-hydroxy-oleanolic acid (8), quercetin-3-0-β-D-glu-copyranoside (9), D-allito (10), 5, 40 -dihydroxy-7- methoxyflavone-3-0-β-D-glucopyranoside (11), 5,7-dihydroxychromone (12), lupeol (13), naringenin (14), acetyloleanolic acid (15), chlorogenic acid (16), kaempferol-3-0-β- D-glucopyranoside (17), oleanolic acid (18), kaempferol-3-0-β-D-galactopyanoside (19), 30 , 7-dihydroxy-40 -methoxyisoflavon (20), ergosta-4,6,8 (14), 22-tetraen-3-one (21), p-hydroxycinnamic acid (22), syringaresinol (23), 3,4-dihydroxyacetophenonel

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Fig. 1 Osmanthus fragrans (Oleaceae), Nepal. (Photo Ripu M Kunwar)

Fig. 2 Osmanthus decorus (Oleaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

(24), β-sitosterol (25), ethyl p-hydroxyphenylacetate (26), benzoic acid (27), caffeic acid (28), coelonin (29), p-hydorxy-phenylacetic acid (30), p-hydroxyacetophenone (31), and methyl-p-hydroxphenylacetate (32) (Wei et al. 2015).

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Fig. 3 Osmanthus decorus (Oleaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses Osmanthus fragrans: Infusion of flowers against cold and toothache; decoction of the root against stomachache, toothache, and aching muscles. Decoction of whole plant with red sugar against digestive system disorders and fever; poultice against traumatic injuries; eaten raw or in soup as famine food. (Geck 2011). A paste of stem or bark is used for boils, carbuncles, whooping cough, and retinitis (Manandhar 2002). Leaves juice is taken for fever and cold (Kunwar et al. 2008, 2015). Bark for arthritis (Devkota and Karmacharya 2003). The plant is used as medicine (Sharma 2014). A decoction of the lateral roots is used in the treatment of dysmenorrhoea, rheumatism, bruises, etc. (Duke and Ayensu 1985). In traditional Chinese medicine, osmanthus tea has been used as an herbal tea for the treatment of irregular menstruation (Zhou 2008). The extract of dried flowers showed neuroprotective, free-radical scavenging, antioxidative effects in in vitro assays (Lee et al. 2007).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Osmanthus fragrans: Widely cultivated for flowers. An essential oil is obtained from the flowers (Stuart 1911). Essential oil is highly esteemed for a variety of perfumes (Manandhar 2002). Used as flavoring. The essential oil contains unpleasant polycylic aromatic hydrocarbons, which reduce its quality (Mansfield’s database of Agricultural and horticultural plants, online 2020). The flowers are used in cosmetics for the hair and skin (Duke and Ayensu 1985), but are mostly used to impart a pleasant flavor to other medicines (Duke and Ayensu 1985). The unripe fruits are preserved in brine like olives (Facciola 1990). The fragrant flowers are also added to herbal medicines in order to disguise obnoxious flavors (Stuart 1911). The flowers are antitussive (Duke and Ayensu 1985). In some regions of North India,

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especially in the state of Uttarakhand, the flowers of Osmanthus are used to protect clothes from insects (Gamble 1992).

References Devkota R, Karmacharya SB. Documentation of indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants in Gwallek VDC, Baitadi district, Nepal. Botanica Orientalis. 2003;3:135–43. Duke JA, Ayensu ES. Medicinal plants of China. Algonac. Michigan: Reference Publ., Inc. 1985. Facciola S. Cornucopia-a source book of edible plants. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan; 1990. Gamble JS. A manual of Indian timbers: an account of the growth, distribution, and uses of the trees and shrubs of India and Ceylon, with descriptions of their wood-structure. S. Low, Marston and Company, Timber. London: Originally published 1847–1925, S. Low, Marston and Company; Portland: Timber Press; 1992. p. 868. Geck MS. Access and benefit sharing in the context of ethnobotanical Research. MSc thesis. Zurich: University of Zurich; 2011. Kunwar RM, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Diversity, utilization and management of medicinal plants in Baitadi and Darchula districts, far west Nepal. Initiation. 2008;2(1):157–64. https://doi. org/10.3126/init.v2i1.2538. Kunwar RM, Acharya RP, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plant dynamics in indigenous medicines in farwest Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;163:210–9. Lee H-H, Lin C-T, Yang L-L. Neuroprotection and free radical scavenging effects of Osmanthus fragrans. J Biomed Sci. 2007;14(6):819–27. Manandhar NP. Plants and people of Nepal. Portland: Timber Press; 2002. p. 599. Mansfelds Database of Agricultural and Horticultural Plants. Accessed June 2020. http://mansfeld. ipk-gatersleben.de/pls/htmldb_pgrc Press JR, Shrestha KK, Sutton DA. Annotated checklist of the flowering plants of Nepal. London/ Kathmandu: Natural History Museum/Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University; 2000. Rajbhandari KR, Rai SK, Joshi MD, Khatri S, Bhatt GD, Chhetri R. Flowering plants discovered from Nepal. Kathmandu: Government of Nepal, Ministry of Forests and Environment, Department of Plant Resources; 2019. Sharma BK. Bioresources of Nepal. Kathmandu: Subidhya Sharma; 2014. p. 819. Stuart RGA. 1911. Chinese Materia Medica. Wei Y, Zu-rong S, Jin-qi L, Guo-sheng Z. Chemical constituents of Osmanthus fragrans. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi. 2015;40(4):679–85. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Wu Z, Raven PH, Deyuan H. Osmanthus fragrans Loureiro. In: Flora of China, vol. 15. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden; 2001. p. 292. Zhou S. Flower herbal tea used for treatment of menopathies. J Tradit Chin Med. 2008;28(3):202–4.

Osyris quadripartita Salzm. ex Decne. SANTALACEAE Sajan Lal Shyaula, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Osyris quadripartita Salzm. ex Decne.: Osyris abyssinica Hochst. ex A. Rich.; Osyris arborea var. rotundifolia P.C. Tam; Osyris arborea var. stipitata Lecomte; Osyris arborea Wall. ex A. DC.; Osyris densiflora Peter; Osyris laeta Peter; Osyris lanceolata Hochst. & Steud.; Osyris oblanceolata Peter; Osyris parvifolia Baker; Osyris rigidissima Engl.; Osyris tenuifolia Engl.; Osyris urundiensis De Wild.; Osyris wightiana var. rotundifolia (P.C. Tam) P.C. Tam; Osyris wightiana var. stipitata (Lecomte) P.C. Tam; Osyris wightiana Wall. ex Wight

S. L. Shyaula Faculty of Science, Nepal Academy of Science and Technology, Lalitpur, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_170

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Local Names Osyris quadripartita: Newars and Tamang: Nundhiki; Nepali: Nunadhiki, Baakhre Khursaanee, Ban Chiyaapaate, Banjharee, Bhorekhayar, Dalle Paate, Muse Saakeno; Tamil and Kannada: Paral; Marathi: Chimat, Lotal, Popali; Garhwal and Malayalam: Dalmia

Botany and Ecology Osyris quadripartita: Plants 2–5 m tall. Branches slender, 3-angled when young. Leaf blade grayish green, 1.2–6
0.6–2 cm, leathery, sometimes rugose on both surfaces, with dense glands, base gradually narrowed or obtuse, apex acute to cuspidate or rounded. Male inflorescences 2–4(13)-flowered; peduncle to 11 mm. Female inflorescences 1–3-flowered; bracts minute, caducous. Male flowers: pedicel 4–8 mm; perianth about 4 mm in diam., lobes 3, yellow or green, sometimes flushed brown, about 1.5 mm. Stamens 3, filaments very short, disk fleshy; sterile ovary very small, at center of disk. Female flowers usually solitary, sometimes to 4 in subumbel; pedicel to 25 mm, enlarged at apex; bracteoles 2, linear-spatulate, about as long as ovary, soon caducous, disk and stamens as in male but stamens sterile. Bisexual flowers similar to female but with fertile stamens; stigmas 3. Drupe orange to red when ripe, drying pale blackish, subglobose or pear-shaped, 4.5–10 mm in diameter. Flowering April–June, fruiting October (Wu et al. 2003, 1994–2013) (Figs. 1 and 2).

Phytochemistry The phytochemical investigation of genus Osyris has yielded more than 115 compounds. Major classes of compounds are triterpenes, dihydro-β-agarofuran sesquiterpenes, flavonoids, phenolic acids and phenyl propanoids, pyrrolizidine, and quinolizidine alkaloids. Hexyl and Hexenyl derivatives: Hexyl acetate, (Z)-3-Hexenyl acetate, 1-Hexanol, (E)-3-Hexen-1-ol, (Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol, (Z)-3-Hexenyl propionate, (E)-2-Hexenyl isobutyrate, (Z)-2-Hexen-1-ol, Hexyl butyrate, Hexyl-2-methyl butyrate, (Z)-3Hexenyl butyrate, (Z)-3-Hexenyl-2-methyl butyrate, (Z)-3-Hexenyl hexanoate (Demirci and Baser 2004). Long-chain hydrocarbons and fatty acids: Dotriacontanoic acid, 2-Octanoic acid, 1-Octacosanol, 7-Hydroheptadeca-trans 10,16-diene-8-yonic acid, Santalbinic acid, or Ximimenic acid (Al-Jaber et al. 2010; Mikolajczak et al. 1963; Hegnauer 1973). Pyrolizidine and Quinolizidine alkaloids: N-Methylcytisine, Cytisine, Methyl-12cytisine acetate, Lupaine, Hydroxyl-N-methylcytisine, N-Formylcytisine, Anagyrine, Chysin A, 1-Carboxypyrrolizidine-7-olide, Chysin B, Janfestine, (+)-1Hydroxymethyl-pyrrolizidine butanoic acid ester, ()-1-Hydroxymethylpyrrolizidine butanoic acid ester, Senecionine, Integerrimine, Retrorsine,

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Fig. 1 Osyris wightiana (Santalaceae), plant, Nepal. (Photo Sajan Shyaula)

Senecivernine, 7-Hydroxyisovaleroyl-9-viridifloryl-retronecine, Osyrisine, Sparteine (Al-Jaber et al. 2010; Woldemichael and Wink 2002; Le-Scao et al. 1978). Sesquiterpenes: 7-Epi-α-Cendrene, Cis-α-bergamotene, α-Cendrene, α-Santalene, Trans-α-bergamotene, Epi-β-santalene, β-Santalene, β-Acoradiene, ar-Curcumene, γ-Curcumene, Trans-β-bergamotene, (Z)-α-Bisabolene, β-Bisabolene, (Z)-γ-Bisabolene, ar-Tenuifolene, (E)-α-Bisabolene, Tenuifolene, Epi-cyclosantalal, ()-Epi-α-bisabolol, Cyclosantalal, Lanceoloxide, (S)-(Z)-Lanceol, 2,(7Z,10Z)-Bisabolatrien-13-ol (Naves and Ardizio 1954; Kreipl and Konig 2004). Triterpenes: Octandronic acid, 20-Epikoetjapic acid, β-Sitosterol glucoside, Ursolic acid, Oleanolic acid, β-Sitosterol (Al-Jaber et al. 2010; Yeboah et al. 2010; Shyaula 2009). Dihydro-β-agarofuran sesquiterpene: 1α,9β-Difuranoyloxy-2-oxodihydro-β-agarofuran, 1α,9β-Difuranoyloxy-2-oxo-3-enedihydro-β-agarofuran, 1α,9β-Difuranoyloxydihydro-β-agarofuran, 1β-furanoyloxy-9α-Benzoyloxydihydro-β-agarofurn, 1α-furanoyloxy-9α-Benzoyloxy-2-oxo-dihydro-β-agarofurn, 1β9α-difuranoyloxy-8β-acetoxy-2-oxo-3-ene-dihydro-β-agarofuran, 1β-furanoyloxy-9α-benzoyloxy-8β-acetoxy-2-oxo-3-ene-dihydro-β-agarofuran,1β9α-difruranoyloxy-2,8-dioxo-3-enedihydro-β-agarofuran (Yeboah et al. 2010; Elizabeth et al. 2013). Phenolics and phenyl propanoids: propanoids, Protocatechuic acid, p-Hydroxybenzoic acid, p-Coumaric acid, Isoferullic acid, Syringin, Di-Omethylcrenatin (Le-Scao et al. 1972; Al-Jaber et al. 2010).

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Fig. 2 Osyris lanceolata (Santalaceae). Bale Mountains National Park, Odo-Bulu forests, Ethiopia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

Flavonoids: Isoquercitroside, Kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside, Quercetin-3-Orutinoside or rutoside, Quercetin-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, Vitexin, Schaftoside, Isoschaftoside, Vicenin, Epicatechin, Catechin, Engeletin, Catechin-3-O-α-Lrhamnopyranoside, Salvigenin, Pachypodol, Kumatakillin, Penduletin, Kaempferol-7-methyl ether, Apigenin-6-C-hexoside-8-C-pentoside, Apigenin-6-Chexoside-8-C-pentoside, Naringenin-O-hexoside, Quercetin-3-O-rutinoside, Quercetin-3-O-glucoside (Al-Jaber et al. 2010; Shyaula 2009; Le-Scao et al. 1972; Iwashina et al. 2008; Perkin 1910). Lignans: () Lyoniresinol, 5,50 -Dimethoxylariciresinol, 5-Methoxylariciresinol, () Syringaresinol (Shyaula et al. 2013a, b). Norisoprenoids: Citroside B, Roseoside (Shyaula et al. 22013a, b). Iridoids: 7-Deoxyloganic acid (Shyaula et al. 2013a, b). β-Carboline alkaloids: Harmine (Shyaula 2009). Sugar and its derivatives: D-Mannitol, Ethyl glucoside (Pepe and Castellani 1969). Aminoacid and its derivatives: Cysteine, Aspartic acid, Methionine, cis-4Hydroxy-L-proline (Izhaki 1993; Kuttan et al. 1974). Fluorinated pyrimidine alkaloid: Osanepakidine (Shyaula 2012).

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Local Medicinal Uses Osyris quadripartita: Leaves, roots, barks, fruits, and woods of the shrub are used for different purposes by ethnic groups of different region of Asia, Africa, and Europe. Two kilograms of the leaves are crushed and boiled with constant stirring in 10 l of water. When the amount is reduced to half the volume, it is stressed and the filtrate is evaporated again until a viscous sticky mass is obtained, called “Nundhiki ko khoto.” It is cooled and preserved. The drug (Nundhiki ko khoto) is mixed with double the amount of cow’s butter or Indian rapeseed oil (brassica napus) and used to massage the sprained parts twice a day for relief. The bark is boiled in water, stressed, and boiled again to form a gelatinous mass that is applied in the eyes to relieve inflammation. About 1 teaspoon of this preparation, three times a day, is given to persons suffering from blood dysentery. The juice of bark, and in some places a paste of fruit, is applied to forehead to relieve headache. The juice of bark, about 4 teaspoons three times a day, is given in cases of indigestion (Manandhar 2002). Osyris quadripartida is regraded as anti-bacterial (Geyid et al. 2005), and also used to treat leishmaniasis (Giday et al. 2007; Mekonnen et al. 2015), and for toothache (Yineger et al. 2008). Osyris wightiana: The Tamangs and Newars of Kavre, central part of Nepal, use leaves of O. wightiana as a substitute of tea. The leaves of plant are dried and its infusion in hot water is consumed as tea. Osyris wightiana is locally known as “Nundhiki” in Kavre district of Nepal (Rajbhandari 2001). The tea made from the leaves of O. wightiana stimulates the flow of breast milk and also acts as the laborinducing agent (Osujih 1993). Immature leaves and fruits have emetic properties and contain tannins. In central parts of Nepal, the root paste and bark of O. wightiana is used to plaster around the fractured bone after adjusting it properly. About 100 g of bark is boiled in 3 l of water for an hour to obtain a gelatinous mass and is applied around the dislocated bone. The plaster in then wrapped in a cloth. The whole structure is kept together with the help of thin bamboo-splints (Bhattarai 1990). The root bark is boiled in water for about 10 min, cooled, and stressed; this liquid, about 10 tea spoons three times a day, is given to women after childbirth to stop bleeding and to boost energy, which helps in contraction of uterine muscles (Shrestha and Joshi 1993). The roots are used in case of tingling (Jham garne in Nepali) or neurological problems (Acharya and Rokaya 2005). An infusion of the bark is emetic. Decoction of the bark is taken to treat diarrhea (Wantanabe et al. 2005). Osyris lanceolata: The leaves of O. lanceolata are boiled and served orally in the traditional management of ear, nose, and throat (ENT) diseases (Njoroge and Bussmann 2006). Roots and barks of O. lanceolata are used for the tea and as a tonic in the soup. The root decoction is used to treat diarrhea in Kenya. The decoction of bark and heartwood is used to treat sexually transmitted diseases and anemia in Tanzania. Extracts from the plant can cure certain diseases, including the killer Hepatitis B. In Tanzania, the decoction of O. lanceolata (locally called

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Mdunula) is drunk to cure cough (Kitula 2007). The plant part of Osyris lanceolata is burned and the smoke is directed to either the vagina or the vulva for gynecological complaints of menorrhagia and infertility in South Africa (Steenkamp 2003; http://www.napralert.org/). Some Jordanian traditional healers claim the successful use of this plant in the treatment of amoebic dysentery (Al-Jaber et al. 2010). Less frequently, Osytis lanceolata is also used for the management of malaria in central Kenya (Njoroge and Bussmann 2006a, b). Osyris lanceolata: Pounded leaves in cold water infusion are used for diarrhea. Boiled roots (soup) used for gonorrhea, fever, and diarrhea. The bark decoction is used to treat stomach problems in children (Maasai) (Kokwaro 2009). Bark used to remedy problems in pregnancy and as strengthening soup (Bussmann 2006). Used as strengthening tea (Bussmann et al. 2006). The smoke of the burning bark is also used for gynecological problems (Mohagheghzadeh and Faridi 2006). Used as antimalarial (Njoroge and Bussmann 2006a) and for neck problems (Njoroge and Bussmann 2006b). Sometimes applied for ringworm, impotence, and fatigue (Muthee et al. 2011).

Local Food Uses Osyris lanceolata: The fruits are edible (Beentje 1994).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Osyris quadripartita: The heart wood scent is used in sacred ceremonies and to purify holy places. Incense sticks from the wood are burned in temples and houses. The wood is heavy and fine grained, suitable for curving ornaments, and small utensils like pestles. The heartwood is faintly fragrant and reported to be used for adulterating sandalwood (Suma et al. 2014). Hexenyl derivatives suggested the possible insect attract function (Demirci and Baser 2004). Osyris lanceolata: Cold water leaf infusion for goats with stomach problems (Kokwaro 2009). The roots yield a red dye, and root fibers are used to make baskets. The wood can substitute sandalwood (Beentje 1994). Eaten by livestock, smoking bark put close to swollen udder in cows (Bussmann 2006).

References Acharya KP, Rokaya MB. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants traded in the streets of Kathmandu valley. Sci World. 2005;3:44–8. Al-Jaber HI, Mosleh IM, Mallouh A, Abu Salim OM, Abu Zarga MH. Chemical constituents of Osyris alba and their antiparasitic activities. J Asian Nat Prod Res. 2010;12:814–20. Beentje H. Kenya trees and shrubs. Nairobi: National Museums of Kenya; 1994. Bhattarai NK. Herbal folk medicine of Kabhrepalanchock district, central Nepal. Int J Crude Drug Res. 1990;28:225–31. Bussmann RW. Ethnobotany of the Samburu of Mt. Nyiru, South Turkana, Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:35.

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Bussmann RW, Gilbreath GG, Lutura M, Lutuluo R, Kunguru K, Wood N, Mathenge S. Plant use of the Maasai of Sekenani Valley, Maasai Mara, Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:22. Demirci F, Baser KH. The volatiles of fresh-cut Osyris alba L. flowers. Flavour Fragr J. 2004;19:72–3. Elizabeth MO, Yeboah Runner RT, Majinda. Five new agarofuran sesquiterpene polyesters from Osyris lanceolata. Phytochem Lett. 2013;6(4):531–5. Geyid A, Abebe D, Debella A, Makonnen Z, Aberra F, Teka F, Kebede UK, Yersaw K, Biza T, Haile Mariam B, Guta M. Screening of some medicinal plants of Ethiopia for their antimicrobial properties and chemical profiles. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;97:421–7. Giday M, Teklehaymanot T, Animut A, Mekonnen Y. Medicinal plants of the Shinasha, Agew-awi and Amhara peoples in northwest Ethiopia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;110:516–25. Hegnauer R. Dicotyledoneae: Rafflesiaceae-Zygophyllaceae. Chemotaxonomie der Pflanzen. 1973;6:261–71. Iwashina T, Lopez Saez JA, Kitajima J. Flavonoids from Osyris alba. J Biochem Syst Ecol. 2008;36:146–7. Izhaki I. Influence of non protein nitrogen in fleshy fruits. J Chem Ecol. 1993;19:2605–15. Kitula RA. Use of medicinal plants for human health in Udzungwa Mountains forests: a case study of new Dabaga Ulongambi Forest reserve, Tanzania. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3:7. Kokwaro JO. Medicinal plants of East Africa. Nairobi: University of Nairobi Press; 2009. Kreipl AT, Konig WA. Sesquiterpenes from the east African sandalwood Osyris tenuifolia. Phytochemistry. 2004;65:2045–9. Kuttan R, Pattabhiraman KSV, Radhakrishnan AN. Possible chemotaxonomic significance of the occurrence of cis-4-hydroxy-Lproline in santalaceae. Phytochemistry. 1974;13:453–4. Le-Scao F, Faugeras G, Paris RR. Plant Med Phytother. 1972;6:216–22. Le-Scao F, Faugeras G, Paris RR. Presence of quinolizidine alkaloids in Osyris alba L (Santalaceae). Plant Med Phytother. 1978;12:315–8. Manandhar NP. Plants and people of Nepal. Portland: Timber Press; 2002. Mekonnen T, Giday M, Kelbessa K. Ethnobotanical study of homegarden plants in Sebeta-Awas district of the Oromia region of Ethiopia to assess use, species diversity and management practices. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2015;11:1164. Mikolajczak KL, Earle FR, Wolf IA. The Acetylenic acid in Comandra pallida and Osyris alba seed oils. J Am Oil Chem Soc. 1963;40:342–3. Mohagheghzadeh A, Faridi P. Medicinal smokes. J Ethnopharmacol. 2006;108:161–84. Muthee JK, Gakuya DW, Mbaria JM, Kareru PG, Mulei CM, Njonge FK. Ethnobotanical study of anthelmintic and other medicinal plants traditionally used in Loitoktok district of Kenya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011;135:15–21. Naves YR, Ardizio P. Etudes sur les matieres vegetales Cxxx(1)presencede lanceol dansl’huile essentielle de bois de santal du Kenia (Osyris tenuifolia Engler). Bull Soc Chim Fr. 1954;107:334–7. Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Diversity and utilization of antimalarial ethnophytotherapeutic remedies among the Kikuyus (central Kenya). J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006a;2:8. Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Traditional management of ear, nose and throat (ENT) diseases in central Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006b;2:54. Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Herbal usage and informant consensus in ethnoveterinary management of cattle diseases among the Kikuyus central Kenya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2006c;108:332–9. Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Phytotherapeutic management of diversity and utilization of antimalarial ethnophytotherapeutic remedies among the Kikuyus central Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006d;2:8. Osujih M. Exploration of the frontiers of traditional medical practices: basis for development of alternative medical healthcare services in developing countries. J R Soc Health. 1993;113:190–4. Pepe L, Castellani M. Research on natural substances of Osyris alba L. Boll Chim Farm. 1969;108:546–8. Perkin AG. The identity of osyritrin, myrticolorin,violaquercitrin, and rutin. J Chem Soc. 1910;97:1776–7.

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Rajbhandari KR. Ethnobotany of Nepal. Kathmandu: Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal; 2001. Shrestha I, Joshi N. Medicinal plants of the Lele village of Lalitpur district, Nepal. Int J Pharmacog. 1993;31:130–4. Shyaula SL. Isolation and structure elucidation of bioactive compounds from Osyris wightiana. Pakistan: Ph.D. thesis, Husein Ebrahim Jamal Research Institute of Chemistry, Karachi: The University of Karachi; 2009. Shyaula SL. A review on genus Osyris: phytochemical constituents and traditional uses. J Nat Pharm. 2012;3(2):61–70. Shyaula SL, Manandhar MD, Choudhary MI. Lignans from the Nepalese sandal wood Osyris wightiana Wall ex Wight. J Nep Chem Soc. 2013a;28:24–8. Shyaula SL, Choudhary MI, Manandhar MD. Megastigmane, iridoid, benzyl alcohol and phenyl propanoid glycosides from the Nepalese sandalwood Osyris wightiana Wall. ex Wight. Mosc Univ Chem Bull. 2013b;68:293–7. Steenkamp V. Traditional herbal remedies used by south African women for gynaecological complaints. J Ethnopharmacol. 2003;86:97–108. Suma A, Muralidharan EM, Sujanapal P, Balasundaran M. Identification of market adulterants in east Indian sandalwood using DNA barcoding. Ann For Sci. 2014;71(6):517–22. Wantanabe T, Bhandari KR, Malla KJ, Yahara S. A hand book of medicinal plants of Nepal. Bankok: Kobfai Publishing Project; 2005. Woldemichael GM, Wink M. Concomitant occurrence of pyrrolizidine and quinolizidine alkaloids in the hemiparasite Osyris alba L. Biochem Syst Ecol. 2002;30:139–49. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Wu ZY, Raven PH, Hong DY, editors. Flora of China, Ulmaceae through Basellaceae, vol. 5. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 2003. Yeboah EM, Majinda RR, Kadziola A, Muller A. Dihydro-β-agarofuran sesquiterpenes and pentacyclic triterpenoids from the root bark of Osyris lanceolata. J Nat Prod. 2010;73:1151–5. Yineger H, Kelbessa E, Bekele T, Lulekal E. Plants used in traditional management of human ailments at Bale Mountains National Park, Southeastern Ethiopia. J Med Plants Res. 2008;26:132–53.

Paeonia emodi Wall. ex Royle PAEONIACEAE Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Paeonia emodi Wall. ex Royle: Paeonia emodi fo. glabrata (Hook. f. & Thomson) H. Hara; Paeonia emodi var. glabrata Hook. f. & Thomson

Local Names Paeonia emodi: Pashto: Mamiakh, Mamekh; Urdu: Mamuk, Oode saleeb; Kashmir: Mydh

H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_171

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Botany and Ecology Paeonia emodi: Herbs perennial, to 70 cm tall. Stems glabrous. Proximal leaves 2-ternate; some leaflets segmented; leaflets and segments up to 15, oblong-elliptic or oblong-lanceolate, 9–13  2–3.5 cm, both surfaces glabrous, base cuneate, decurrent, apex acuminate. Flowers 2–4 per shoot, both terminal and axillary, single, 8–12 cm wide, all or only terminal one fully developed. Bracts 3–6, leaflike, lanceolate. Sepals about 3, suborbicular, about 1.5  1.5 cm, apex caudate. Petals white, obovate, about 4.5  2.4 cm. Filaments 1.5–2 cm. Disc annular. Carpel 1 (or 2), pale yellow tomentose, rarely glabrous. Follicles ovoid, 2–3.5  1–2 cm. Seeds black, globose. Flowering May–June, fruiting August–September. Open Slopes in coniferous forest 2000–4000 m in Pakistan. Distributed in Nepal, China, India, Afghanistan, Kashmir, and Pakistan. Locally found in the high coniferous forest of Pakistan. Harvesting time: August–March, (Wu et al. 1994–2013). The Himalayan peony is widely distributed in the W. and N.W. Himalayas up to 3200 m in forest clearings, where it is gregarious. Some authors mention the flower color as pink or red. Endangered due to over-harvesting (Ahmad Jan et al. 2019) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8).

Phytochemistry Organic acids: (benzoic); Essential oils; Monoterpenoids: (peoniflorin, albiflorin, oxypeoniflorin, benzoylpeoniflorin, peoniflorienone); Triterpenoids; Steroids: (sitosterol); Quinones (Sokolov 1985).

Fig. 1 Paeonia emodi (Paeoniaceae), Swat, Pakistan. (Photo Haider Ali)

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Fig. 2 Paeonia emodi (Paeoniaceae), Badgowai valley, Dir, Kohistan, Pakistan. (Photo Ikram Ur-Rahman and Hassan Sher)

Fig. 3 Paeonia emodi (Paeoniaceae), Badgowai valley, Dir, Kohistan, Pakistan. (Photo Ikram Ur-Rahman and Hassan Sher)

Local Medicinal Uses Paeonia emodi: The underground tubers are useful in nervous disorders. The dried flowers are used for stomach complaints (diarrhea) The seeds are purgative and emetic. The roots of Paeonia emodi are widely used in the Himalayas to treat body weakness (Ahmad et al. 2015; Sher et al. 2016a, b), whooping cough, diarrhea, spasms, and uterine problems (Bhat et al. 2013). Also used to treat urinary problems, colic, nervous system disorders, as blood purifier, for heart problems, and to increase body vigor (Kayani et al. 2015). In Kashmir used to treat diarrhea, body-ache, and uterine diseases (Gairola et al. 2014). Paeonia species very commonly used in Chinese traditional medicine (Wu 2005; Yang et al. 2014). Paeonia lactiflora: An infusion of the root is drunk for improvement of appetite and digestion. An extract in alcohol is used to treat diseases of the stomach, especially

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Fig. 4 Paeonia macrophylla (Paeoniaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Paeonia macrophylla (Paeoniaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

gastric ulcers, hemorrhages, and diarrhea. The bark of the root is used as water infusion for regulation of the menstruation cycle. A water extract of the root is used for nervous diseases like epilepsy (Bussmann 2017; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017a, b). The alcoholic extract is also applied as tonic in anemia, as antitussive, antifebrile, sedative, and analgesic, against rheumatism and podagra. Promotes intestinal epithelial regeneration (Li and Weng 2017).

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Fig. 6 Paeonia macrophylla (Paeoniaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 7 Paeonia macrophylla (Paeoniaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

The smoke of burnt Paeoinia officinalis is used to treat mood disorders and as anticonvulsive (Mohagheghzadeh and Faridi 2006). Paeonia suffruticosa extracts showed anti-HIV activity (Ahmad et al. 2006).

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Fig. 8 Paeonia macrophylla (Paeoniaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Paeonia mascula serves as anti-diabetic (Altundaga and Oztürk 2011).

Local Food Uses In Mongolia, the roasted roots and leaves of Paeonia are used as tea substitute (Sokolov 1985).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Often planted as ornamentals.

References Ahmad L, Semotiuk A, Zafar M, Ahmad M, Sultana S, Liu Q-R, Zada MP, Ul Abidin SZ, Yaseen G. Ethnopharmacological documentation of medicinal plants used for hypertension among the local communities of DIR Lower, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;175:138–146. Ahmad Jan H, Jan S, Bussmann RW, Wali S, Sist F, Ahmad L. Complementary and alternative medicine research, prospects and limitations in Pakistan: a literature review. Acta Ecologica Siniabout. 2019; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chnaes.2019.12.005. Ahmad I, Aquil F, Owais M. Modern phytomedicine. Weinheim: Wiley; 2006. Altundaga E, Oztürk M. Ethnomedicinal studies on the plant resources of east Anatolia, Turkey. Procedia Soc Behav Sci. 2011;19:756–77. Bhat JA, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1):1–18. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86.

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Kayani S, Ahmad M, Sultana S, Khan Shinwari Z, Zafar M, Yaseen G, Hussain M, Bibi T. Ethnobotany of medicinal plants among the communities of Alpine and Sub-alpine regions of Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;164:186–202. Li F-S, Weng J-K. Demystifying traditional herbal medicine with modern approaches. Nat Plants. 2017;3:17109. https://doi.org/10.1038/nplants.2017.109. Mehdiyeva N, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Paeonia tenuifolia L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017a. Mehdiyeva N, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Paeonia tenuifolia L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017b. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-49412-8_54. Mohagheghzadeh A, Faridi P. Medicinal smokes. J Ethnopharmacol. 2006;108:161–84. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among the Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni ethnic groups in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016a;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni groups in Chitral district, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016b;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 2. Families Paeoniaceae – Thymelaeacea. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1985. 336 p. (in Russian). Wu JN. An illustrated Chines materia mediabout Oxford. New York: Oxford University Press; 2005. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Yang L, Ahmed S, Stepp JR, Mi K, Zhao Y, Ma J, Liang C, Pei S, Huai H, Xu G, Hamilton CA, Yang ZW, Xue D. Comparative homegarden medical ethnobotany of Naxi healers and farmers in Northwestern Yunnan, China. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2014;10:6. http://www.ethnobiomed. com/content/10/1/6

Papaver dubium L. Papaver nudicaule L. Papaver somniferum L. PAPAVERACEAE Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Papaver dubium L.: Papaver albiflorum Paczoski; Papaver laevigatum M. Bieb.; Papaver litwinowii Fedde ex Bornm.; Papaver nothum Steven Papaver nudicaule L.: Papaver alpinum Iusus var. chinense Regel; Papaver alpinum var. xanthopetalum Trautv.; Papaver chinense (Regel) Kitag.; Papaver croceum Ledeb.; Papaver croceum subsp. chinense (Regel) Rändel; Papaver nudicaule subsp. rubroaurantiacum (Fisch. ex DC.) Fedde; Papaver nudicaule subsp. xanthopetalum Fedde; Papaver nudicaule var. corydalifolium Fedde; H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_172

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Papaver nudicaule var. isopyroides Fedde; Papaver nudicaule var. saxatile Kitag.; Papaver nudicaule var. subcorydalifolium Fedde; Papaver rubro-aurantiacum Fisch. ex DC.; Papaver tenellum Tolm.

Local Names Papaver dubium: Kashmir: Rut Gulala Papaver nudicaule: Ladakh: Tshersngoserpo Papaver somniferaum: English: Opium poppy; Kashmir: Posht, Khas-Khas, Khush-Khash; Buner: Khash Khash Pashto: Afim ‫ﺍﻑﯼﻡ‬

Botany and Ecology Papaver dubium: Annual, (15–) 30–60 cm tall, nearly glabrous to hispid or bristly, simple or sparsely branched from below. Latex usually milky. Leaves pinnatifid (very rarely reaching to pinnatisect condition), (5–) 7–15 cm long, 2–3 cm broad; segments lobed, usually acute. Flower bud ovoid, (5–) 7–10 mm long, often nodding. Flowers (2–) 3–5 ( 7) cm in diam., terminal, on usually 10–20 cm long, appressedly bristly peduncles. Sepals 2, caducous, glabrous or bristly, ovoid. Petals 20–40 mm long, suborbicular-obovate, usually reddish, pinkish or pale scarlet with basal dark blotch or spots, caducous. Stamens as long as the ovary; anthers broad elliptic, about 1 mm long. Capsule oblong, narrowed towards the base, (10–) 15–20 ( 25) mm long, 4–8 mm broad, glabrous, usually distinctly ribbed; stigmatic rays (4–) 7–9 ( 12), falling a little short of the shallowly lobed margin of the disk; seeds very small, kidney-shaped, minutely netted, usually bluish-black or brownish. Flowering March–June. A very variable and complex species, and often split into a number of taxa, whose status seems to be doubtful due to numerous intermediate forms and overlapping of characters. Papaver laevigatum M. Bieb. and Papaver litwinowii Fedde ex Bornm. considered to be intermediate taxa between this species and Papaver decaisnei Hochst. & Steud. ex Boiss., with somewhat glaborus or less bristly habit and pinkish petals with or without black dots, cannot be separated from Papaver dubium after examining many specimens and because of their leaves narrowed below. Papaver dubium seems to be confined to the northern region of W. Pakistan, and its occurrence in Baluchistan seems to be doubtful. Whatever has been called as Papaver dubium from Baluchistan, by previous authors (such as Burkill l.c 6), is perhaps Papaver decaisnei, with clasping and rounded leaf bases (not narrowed ones, which are common features of Papaver dubium). However, detailed biosystematic study seems necessary to clarify many complex problems. It seems to have no narcotic value (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020). Papaver nudicaule: Herbs, perennial, 20–60 cm tall, very variable. Taproot terete, extended, upper part 2–5 mm in diam., attenuate or fusiform toward base; rootstock short, thickened, usually simple. Stems very short or apparently absent. Leaves

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tufted, all basal; petiole (1–)5–12 cm, basally ampliate to sheath, inclined-setose; blade slightly glaucous on both surfaces, ovate to lanceolate, 3–8 cm, both surfaces densely or sparsely gray setose, rarely nearly glabrous, pinnatilobate, pinnatipartite, or pinnatisect; lobes 2–4 pairs, entire or pinnatilobate or pinnatipartite again; lobules narrowly ovate, narrowly lanceolate, or oblong, apex acute, obtuse, or rounded. Scapes 1 to several, erect, terete, densely or sparsely inclined compressed-setose. Flowers solitary, terminal, scapose, cup-shaped, 4–6 cm in diam. Flower buds usually nutant, broadly ovoid to globose, 1.5–2 cm, densely brown setose. Sepals 2, caducous, corymbiform-elliptiabout Petals 4, yellowish, yellow, or orange, rarely red, broadly cuneate or obovate, (1.5–)2–3 cm, basally shortly clawed, margin undulate-crenate. Stamens many; filaments yellow or olivine, subulate, 6–10 mm; anthers yellow-white, yellow, or rarely reddish, oblong, 1–2 mm. Ovary obovoid to narrowly obovoid, 5–10 mm, densely appressed setose; stigmas 4–8, actinomorphiabout Capsule narrowly obovoid, obovoid, or obovoid-oblong, 1–1.7 cm, densely appressed whitish- or red-brown setose, slightly broadly 4–8-costate; stigma disk flat, distantly incised-crenate. Seeds many, brown, almost reniform, small, striate with alveolate foveolae. Flowering May–September (Wu et al. 1994–2013). Papaver somniferum: Annual, biennial, or perennial herbs, usually with stems, rarely stemless. Leaves usually 1– or 2–3 pinnatisect. Usually hairy-bristly, or glabrous. Milky juice white or yellow or orange. Flowers singly on long pedicels or (in stemless species) on stalks, ebracteate, in some species inflorescence paniculate; stamens usually numerous, with slender or clavately expanded filaments above; anthers orbicular to linear, rarely with capitate appendage on connective; pistil of 3– 22 mostly 4–10 carpels; capsule short-cylindrical, clavate, oblong or obovate or globular, sessile or abruptly tapering into a short pedicel, 1-celled; placentas developed as slender, radial, laminae; capsule covered by a pyramidal convex or flat disk, rays opposite placentas usually united by a scarious or coriaceous membrane into a continuous disk. Capsules dehiscing by pores immediately below disk. Seeds small, alveolate-reticulate, without appendage (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5). Fig. 1 Papaver somniferum (Papaveraceae), garden, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Papaver somniferum (Papaveraceae), garden, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Papaver somniferum (Papaveraceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammand Ahmad Jan)

Local Medicinal Uses Papaver dubium: Used as memory enhancer (Gairola et al. 2014). Papaver nudicaule: Used as analgesic and to treat colds (Gairola et al. 2014). Papaver somniferum: Capsules and seeds as narcotic; dried capsule to make tea for cough and fever (Akhtar et al. 2013). Herbal tea made from seeds is drunk to relive cough. The latex obtained from the incised capsule is eaten as sedative (Shah and Hussain 2012). Plant seeds are used as tonic and fruit for flu and fever (Jan et al.

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Fig. 4 Papaver somniferum (Papaveraceae), Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

Fig. 5 Papaver somniferum (Papaveraceae), poppy seeds strudel (cake), Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

2017). Latex of fruit is used for cough, nasal and chest congestion, sunstroke. It is sedative used for wounds healing and scorpion stings (Ahmad et al. 2006). The latex is used as in minute quantity as ethnomedicine to give soothing and relax for hypersensitivity. However, its massive production, use, and sale is prohibited by

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law enforcing agencies of the government. Its seeds with almonds are crushed in milk and dieted to pregnant women for vigor and healthy fetal development (Ishtiaq et al. 2012). Dried capsule is boiled in tea, and is taken orally to cure cough, fever, and headache. Seeds are eaten as a general body tonic (Sher et al. 2015). Latex is obtained from unripe fruit by making incision in it which is narcotic, anodyne, sedative increases excitement and physical vigor (Yeşil et al. 2019). Latex is used as analgesic. Tea made from dried fruit is also effective in asthma, cough, and other diseases of the respiratory tract (Sher et al. 2015). The capsules from which latex has been drawn off are used as narcotic, analgesic, and sedative (Mulk Khan et al. 2014). The juice from this is used for heatstroke (in children), and as rinse for eye problems (Fedorov 1984). Used for gastro-intestinal problems too. An infusion of immature green capsules as tea is used to treat diarrhea, while a decoction of dry capsules helps gastric diseases. The decoction of dry capsules is also used as hypnagogic, and seeds are chewed against cough (Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2020; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017; Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). A decoction is used as tonic, for flu and fever (Jan et al. 2017). Fresh flowers are used to treat vaginal discharge with blood, menstrual regulation, and to purify the blood (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007). Used as analgesic since time immemorial (Kunwar and Bussmann 2008; Kunwar et al. 2009, 2010; Wu 2005), and applied to treat snakebites (Houghton and Osibogun 1993). Applied for diarrhea, bronchitis, as analgesic, to increase male potency, for stomach disorders, cough, and as memory enhancer (Gairola et al. 2014). Papaver orientale is used for gastro-intestinal problems: A water infusion of the petals is used as enveloping and emollient agent in fresh juice from flowers and leaves is used externally on wounds (Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2020; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017). Papaver rhoeas: The juice is used to treat diarrhea (Jan et al. 2017).

Local Food Uses Papaver somniferum seeds are powdered for baking. The leaves of Papaver sp. are sometimes cooked, together with a large number of others pecies, and eaten in spring as herb pie (Bussmann 2017; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017; Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). Papaver orientale: The petals are used as tea surrogate (Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2020; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017). The internal part of immature capsules is used raw (Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2020; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017). Papaver rhoeas aerial parts are boiled and eaten as vegetable (Akgul et al. 2018). Papaver glaucum: Eaten raw as salad (Yeşil et al. 2019). Papaver macrostomum: Eaten raw as salad (Yeşil et al. 2019).

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses Papaver somniferum: A dye solution is prepared from the flowers to obtain purple color. The solution is used for dyeing wool yarn as well as products made of wool (Mehdiyeva et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2020; Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). Opium poppy has a very long use as magic plant (Bussmann 2016; Farnsworth et al. 1985). Papaver nudicaule: Kept in the house as fragrance (Abbas et al. 2019). Papaver orientale is extremely decorative during flowering. (Bussmann et al. 2020). Papaver rhoeas serves as fodder (Akgul et al. 2018).

References Abbas Z, Alam J, Muhammad S, Bussmann RW, Mulk Khan S, Hussain M. Phyto-cultural diversity of the Shigar valley Central Karakorum Baltistan, northern Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18(32) https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.31.1-18. Ahmad S, Ali A, Beg H, Dasti AA. Ethnobotanical studies on some medicinal plants of Booni valley, district Chitral, Pakistan. Pak J Weed Sci Res. 2006;12(3):183–90. Akhtar N, Rashid A, Murad W, Bergmeier E. Diversity and use of ethno-medicinal plants in the region of Swat, North Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1):25. Akgul A, Akgul A, Senol SG, Yildirim H, Secmen O, Dogan Y. An ethnobotanical study in Midyat (Turkey), a city on the silk road where cultures meet. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14:12. https:// doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0201-8. Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan and Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995–2020. Bussmann RW. Traditional medicinal plant use in northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing culture. Cuso: International Society for Ethnobiology; 2008. Bussmann RW. Magic plants. In: Albuquerque U, Alves R, editors. Introduction to ethnobiology. Heidelberg: Springer International Publishing; 2016. p. 163–9. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in Loja province, southern Ecuador. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:44. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of longevity – the medicinal flora of Vilcabamba. Plantas de longevidad – La flora medicinal de Vilcabamba. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z. Papaver orientale L.; Papaver pavoninum Schrenk; Papaver somniferum L.; Roemeria refracta DC. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions Central Asia and Altai. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77087-1_99-1. Farnsworth NR, Akerele O, Bingel AS, Soejarto DD, Gua Z. Medicinal plants in therapy. Bull World Health Organ. 1985;63(6):965–81. Fedorov AA, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 1. Families Magnoliaceae – Limoniaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1984. 460 p. (in Russian). Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh BY. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86.

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Houghton PJ, Osibogun IM. Flowering plants used against snakebite. J Ethnopharmacol. 1993;39:1–29. Ishtiaq M, Mumtaz AS, Hussain T, Ghani A. Medicinal plant diversity in the flora of Leepa Valley, Muzaffarabad (AJK), Pakistan. Afr J Biotechnol. 2012;11(13):3087–98. Jan HA, Wali S, Ahmad L, Jan S, Ahmad N, Ullah N. Ethnomedicinal survey of medicinal plants of Chinglai valley, Buner district, Pakistan. Eur J Integr Med. 2017;13:64–74. Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Ethnobotany in the Nepal Himalaya: a review. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2008;4:24. Kunwar RM, Upreti Y, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Indigenous use and ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in Far-west Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009;7:5–28. Kunwar RM, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants in Farwest Nepal: their indigenous uses and pharmacological validity. Med Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010;4 (special issue 1):28–42. Mehdiyeva N, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Papaver orientale L.; Papaver somniferum L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-49412-8_143. Mulk Khan S, Page S, Ahmad H, Harper D. Ethno-ecological importance of plant biodiversity in mountain ecosystems with special emphasis on indicator species of a Himalayan Valley in the northern Pakistan. Ecol Indic. 2014;37175–185. Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, Romero C. Papaver somniferum L. In: Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions – ethnobotany of the Andes. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-31977093-2_218-1. Shah SM, Hussain F. Ethnomedicinal plant wealth of Mastuj valley, Hindukush range, district Chitral, Pakistan. J Med Plant Res. 2012;6:4328–37. Sher H, Alyemeni MN, Wijaya L, Shah AJ. Ethnopharmaceutically important medicinal plants and its utilization in traditional system of medicine, observation from the northern parts of Pakistan. J Med Plant Res. 2015;4(18):1853–64. Tariq Khan M, Ahmad L, Rashid W. Ethnobotanical documentation of traditional knowledge about medicinal plants used by indigenous people in the Talash Valley of Dir Lower, northern Pakistan. J Intercult Ethnopharmacol. 2018;7(1) https://doi.org/10.5455/jice.20171011075112. Wu JN. An illustrated Chines materia medica. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2005. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Yeşil Y, Çelik M, Yılmaz B. Wild edible plants in Yeşilli (Mardin-Turkey), a multicultural area. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2019;15:52. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-019-0327-y.

Parietaria judaica L. URTICACEAE Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

Synonyms Parietaria judaica L.: Parietaria diffusa Mert. ex W.D.J. Koch; Parietaria jaxartica Pavlov; Parietaria officinalis L.; Parietaria officinalis subsp. judaica (L.) Bég.; Parietaria ramiflora Moench

Botany and Ecology Parietaria judaica: Perennial, pubescent to glabrescent, 10–50 cm tall, basally woody herb. Leaves with 0.3–2 cm long, filiform, hairy petiole; lamina lanceolateovate or ovate-elliptic, 1–3(4) cm long, 0.5–2.0 ( 2.5) cm broad, subtruncate to cuneate or rarely subcordate at the base, apex acute, appressed pubescent to H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_173

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glabrescent. Cymose flower clusters compact, few to many-flowered, subsessile to sessile, solitary, axillary. Flowers greenish, mostly bisexual, c. 3 mm across; bracts ovate-lanceolate or elliptic, 2.5–3 mm long, enlarged in fruit, subconnate at the base, obtuse. Calyx c. 3 mm long, lobes inflexed. Achenes ovoid, 1.5–2 mm long, brown, shining. Flowering July–August. India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, westwards to North Africa and southern Europe (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020).

Local Medicinal Uses Parietaria judaica: For eczema, fresh herbs are pounded in mortar to obtain juice and applied to the affected area. This juice is kept at home for use when necessary (Sezik et al. 2001). Crushed leaves or a poultice with olive oil applied on hematomas, sprains, bruises, and arthritis (Motti and Motti 2017). Shows some antiviral activity, comparable to Parietaria debilis (Kunwar et al. 2009, 2010). Used for hemorrhoids and wounds (Akgul et al. 2018).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Parietaria judaica: To clean bottles and glasses (Motti and Motti 2017), and as fragrance (Akgul et al. 2018). Sometimes browed by livestiock (Bussmann 2006).

References Akgul A, Akgul A, Senol SG, Yildirim H, Secmen O, Dogan Y. An ethnobotanical study in Midyat (Turkey), a city on the silk road where cultures meet. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14:12. https:// doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0201-8. Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan and Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995–2020. Bussmann RW. Ethnobotany of the Samburu of Mt. Nyiru, South Turkana, Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:35. Kunwar RM, Upreti Y, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Indigenous use and ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in Far-west Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009;7:5–28. Kunwar RM, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants in Farwest Nepal: their indigenous uses and pharmacological validity. Med Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010;4 (special issue 1):28–42. Motti R, Motti P. An ethnobotanical survey of useful plants in the agro Nocerino Sarnese (Campania, Southern Italy). Hum Ecol. 2017; https://doi.org/10.1007/s10745-017-9946-x. Sezik E, Yesilada E, Honda G, Takaishi Y, Takeda Y, Tanaka T. Traditional medicine in Turkey X. Folk medicine in Central Anatolia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2001;75:95–115.

Paris polyphylla Sm. MELANTHIACEAE Gyanendra Karki, Ripu M. Kunwar, Ram Prasad Acharya, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Paris polyphylla Sm.: Daiswa polyphylla (Sm.) Raf.; Paris biondii Pamp.; Paris daiswus Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don; Paris debeauxii H. Lév.; Paris kwantungensis R. H. Miao; Paris polyphylla var. emeiensis H. X. Yin, Hao Zhang & D. Xue; Paris polyphylla var. kwantungensis (R. H. Miao) S. C. Chen & S. Yun Liang; Paris polyphylla var. polyphylla; Paris polyphylla var. taitungensis (S. S. Ying) S. S. Ying; Paris polyphylla var. wallichii H. Hara; and Paris taitungensis S. S. Ying G. Karki Agriculture and Forestry University, Rampur, Chitwan, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. P. Acharya Centre for Sustainable Agricultural Systems, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD, Australia Practical Solutions Consultancy, Kathmandu, Nepal R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_174

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Local Names Paris polyphylla: Nepali: satuwa, bako; Kham: tangma; Sikkim: satuwa; Sanskrit: haimavati; Sherpa: dhumbi; Gharwal: dudhyia, sakhjadi, satwa, manyanaru; Tamang: mauro, bajuro, natardap, kalchang; Miao: tai jizi 马槟榔 mabing lang

Botany and Ecology Paris polyphylla: Plants 10–100 cm tall. Rhizome 1–2.5 cm thick. Leaves 5–10 (–22); petiole (0.5–)1.6 cm; leaf blade variable, usually oblong to lanceolate, 6–15 (–30) cm  0.5–5 cm, base rounded to cuneate. Peduncle 5–24(–65) cm. Outer tepals (3–)4–6(–7), green or yellow-green, narrowly ovate-lanceolate to lanceolate, (3–)4.5–7(–11) cm  1–4 cm; inner ones usually yellow-green, narrowly linear, shorter, or longer than outer ones, 1–1.5(5) mm wide. Stamens 2  as many as outer tepals, (6–)8–12(–14) or sometimes more; filaments 4–10 mm; anthers 5–12 mm; free portion of connective usually 0.5–4 mm. Ovary subglobose, ribbed, 1-loculed, sometimes tuberculate. Style short, base enlarged, purple to white; stigma lobes, (4 or) 5. Capsule globose, sometimes tuberculate. Seeds enveloped by red, succulent aril. Flowering and fruiting, March to November (Liang and Soukup 2000; Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Figs. 1 and 2). Paris is a small and very complex genus of about 27 species of understory perennial herb distributed in temperate and tropical zones of Eurasia (Ji et al. 2007). Out of the approximate 27 species, more than 2 or 3 species are restricted to East Asia (Liang and Soukup 2000). The center of diversity of this genus is the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau, China, with 12 endemic species (Li 1998). Paris polyphylla Sm. is native to the southwest of China (Ji et al. 2006). Globally, it is distributed in Bhutan, China, north-eastern India, Laos, Myanmar, Nepal, Thailand, Vietnam, and one collection from Pakistan (Liang and Soukup 2000). It Fig. 1 Paris polyphylla (Melianthaceae), plant, Ilam District, Nepal. (Photo Ripu Kunwar)

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Fig. 2 Paris polyphylla (Melianthaceae), plant, Baitadi District, Nepal. (Photo Ripu Kunwar)

is found throughout Nepal below the tree line at altitudes between 1800 and 3500 m. As P. polyphylla was found produced and distributed in 51 districts, its use reports were recorded only from 38 districts, and trade was documented only from 39 districts (Kunwar et al. 2020a, b).

Phytochemistry The major active constituents of P. polyphylla are ß-sitosterol, daucosterol, diosgenin, kaempferol, luteolin, and quercetin, which show immunoregulatory, anticancer, and cardiovascular activities (Devkota et al. 2007; Zhang et al. 2014). Steroidal saponins in the genus Paris are active compounds revealing hemostatic and anthelmintic effects and exhibiting potential for ethnopharmacological uses (Devkota 2005; Yun et al. 2007).

Local Medicinal Uses Paris polyphylla rhizome has long been used in Nepal for primary health care as an active ingredient of anthelmintic and antidote for centuries. Frequent ailments treated by P. polyphylla were stomachache, cuts and wounds, and fever. It is used

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as anthelmintic, antispasmodic, digestive, and expectorant and to treat vermifuge problems, headache, and intestinal worms (Bajracharya 1979; IUCN 2004; Bhattarai and Ghimire 2006; KC et al. 2010; Uprety et al. 2010; Kunwar et al. 2013, 2018a, b). The rhizome of this species is also medicinally important and indigenously used in Nepal against snakebites, insect bites, wounds, fever, and food poisoning and to alleviate narcotic effects (Dutta 2007; KC et al. 2010). The rhizome is also fed to cattle to lessen diarrhea and dysentery (Baral and Kurmi 2006). The rhizome of P. polyphylla is extensively used in Nepal. It is used in headache (Atreya et al. 2018), stomachache (Bista and Webb 2006), diarrhea and dysentery (Parajuli 2013), and insect bites and snakebites (Bishokarma et al. 2001; Devkota and Karmacharya 2003; Panthi and Chaudhary 2003; Kunwar and Bussmann 2009a, b, c) and as tonic, febrifuge (Bhattarai 1992; Watanabe et al. 2005; Bhattarai and Khadka 2016; Uprety et al. 2016), antiseptic (Kunwar et al. 2013), anthelmintic (Manandhar 1986; Malla 1994; Pant and Panta 2004; Panthi and Chaudhary 2006; Uprety et al. 2010; Sigdel et al. 2013; Chapagain et al. 2014), galactogogue, (Bhattarai 1991), and antidoting (Coburn 1984; Aryal et al. 2018; Paudel et al. 2019). It is frequently used in burns, cuts, wounds, poisoning (Sapkota 2008; Joshi et al. 2018), epilepsy, vomiting (Kunwar et al. 2009, 2016; Luitel et al. 2014), boils, carbuncle (Bhattarai 1993), cough, tumor, paralysis, gallstones (Chaudhary et al. 2017), breast cancer (Ghimire et al. 2018), and joint pain (Bhattarai and Chaudhary 2011). In Sikkim it is used to treat stomachache, fever, diarrhea, dysentery (Tamang et al. 2017), cuts, and wounds and as a tonic (Maity et al. 2004; Singh et al. 2017). It is also used for skin diseases, poisonous bites, and diarrhea (Maity et al. 2004) and to nourish the throat and lungs and to speed up delivery (Ma et al. 2019). It can also be applied to snakebites (Houghton and Osibogun 1993). Roots are used for epilepsy, shock, fever, and vomiting control. Its paste is applied on snakebites. The plant is anthelmintic and can be used as a tonic. The rhizome is used as expectorant, antispasmodic, digestive, tonic, and alterative (Kunwar et al. 2008, 2009, 2013, 2015; Kunwar and Bussmann 2009a, b, c) (Figs. 3 and 4). Before 2000, medicinal plants were locally used, bartered for grains, and traded at trans-boundaries and low land areas, and all these non-commercial transactions were not readily documented. The limited exports of P. polyphylla before 2000 were mostly to India. The trade of P. polyphylla rhizome from Nepal remained quite significant after 2010. Medicinal plants collected from hilly and mountainous districts are often marketed and traded through the border districts (Pyakurel et al. 2014). For both local uses and markets, P. polyphylla in Nepal is harvested mainly from wild populations, and thus its stock is gradually diminishing (Kanel et al. 2017). Of the total quantity traded, the most about two thirds goes to China and the rest to India and local markets. The volume and value of trade of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs), including P. polyphylla, has rapidly expanded due to increasing demand from international markets and from Indian and Chinese pharmaceutical and aromatic industries (Vasisht et al. 2016). Because of its high medicinal value, there has been large-scale and unregulated harvesting of P. polyphylla from the wild to meet its ever-increasing demand for drug formulation by pharmaceutical industries (Kunwar et al. 2016, 2018a, b, 2019, 2020a, b).

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Fig. 3 Paris polyphylla (Melianthaceae), mature plant with ripe seed. (Photo Ripu Kunwar)

Fig. 4 Paris polyphylla (Melianthaceae), rhizome. (Photo Ripu Kunwar)

Old-growth habitat decline and fragmentation were major causes threatening the population of P. polyphylla. Market-driven collection also results in rushed and premature collection and habitat degradation. Moreover, it has been unsustainably harvested by the local communities because of the limited knowledge of its ecology and growth (Pyakurel et al. 2017). Local communities opined that the need of escalated market demand for its medicinal, biological, and pharmaceutical purposes can be met once the P. polyphylla be sustainably harvested and cultivated with the active involvement of local communities and application of sustainable harvesting guidelines. Proper management of habitat of P. polyphylla distributed within the attitudinal range between 1500 m and 3500 m asl which is one of the important

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characteristics for large-scale cultivation under the suitable climatic condition is pertinent (Kunwar et al. 2020a, b).

Local Food Uses Paris polyphylla: sometimes used as vegetable (Singh et al. 2017).

References Aryal K, Poudel S, Chaudhary RP, Chettri N, Chaudhary P, Ning W, Kotru R. Diversity and use of wild and non-cultivated edible plants in the Western Himalaya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14 https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-018-0211-1. Atreya K, Pyakurel D, Singh K, Laxmi T, Bhatta D, Uprety Y. Factors contributing to the decline of traditional practices in communities from the Gwallek–Kedar area, Kailash Scared Landscape, Nepal. Environ Manag. 2018; https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-018-1009-6. Bajracharya M. Ayurvedic medicinal plants and general treatment. Kathmandu: Piyusavarsi Ausadhalaya Mahaboudha; 1979. Baral S, Kurmi P. A compendium of medicinal plants in Nepal. Kathmandu: Mrs Rachana Sharma Press; 2006. Bhattarai N. Folk herbal medicines of Makawanpur district, Nepal. Int J Pharmacogn. 1991;29:284–95. https://doi.org/10.3109/13880209109082899. Bhattarai N. Medical ethnobotany in the Karnali Zone, Nepal. Econ Bot. 1992;46:257–61. Bhattarai N. Folk herbal medicines of Dolakha district, Nepal. Fitoterapia. 1993;64:387–95. Bhattarai KR, Chaudhary RP. Medicinal plant knowledge of the Panchase region in the Middle Hills of the Nepalese Himalayas. Ban Janak. 2011;21:31–9. Bhattarai KR, Ghimire M. Commercially important medicinal and aromatic plants of Nepal and their distribution pattern and conservation measure along the elevation gradient of the Himalayas. Banko Janakari. 2006;16:3–13. https://doi.org/10.3126/banko.v16i1.357. Bhattarai KR, Khadka MK. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants from Ilam. Our Nat. 2016;14:78–91. Bishokarma B, Kinsey C, Dangol D, Chaudhary P. Folk use of plant resource at Madi valley of Chitwan District, Nepal. Banko Janakari. 2001;15:28–33. Bista S, Webb E. Collection and marketing of non-timber forest products in the far western hills of Nepal. Environ Conserv. 2006;33:244. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0376892906003195. Chapagain SP, Rai JK, Pathak A, Dahal K. Satuwa (Paris polyphylla Smith): potential for commercial cultivation in Nepal. Kathmandu: RRN and Forest Action Nepal; 2014. Chaudhary R, Bhattarai S, Basnet G, Bhatta K, Uprety Y, Bhatta L, Kotru R, Oli B, Sharma L, Khanal S, Sharma U. Traditional practice and knowledge of indigenous and local communities in Kailash Sacred Landscape, Nepal. Lalitpur: ICIMOD; 2017. Coburn B. Some native medicinal plants of the western Gurung. Kailash. 1984;11:55–88. Devkota K. Bioprospecting studies on Sarcococca hookeriana Bail, Sonchus wightianus DC, Paris polyphylla Smith and related medicinal herbs of Nepal. Karachi: University of Karachi; 2005. Devkota R, Karmacharya S. Documentation in indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants in Gwallek VDC, Baitadi, Nepal. Bot Orient. 2003;3:135–43. Devkota K, Khan M, Ranjit R, Lannang A, Choudhary M. Tyrosinase inhibitory and antileishmanial constituents from the rhizomes of Paris polyphylla. J Nat Prod. 2007;21:321–7. Dutta I. Non timber forest products of Nepal: identification, classification, ethnic uses and cultivation. Kathmandu: Hillside Press; 2007. Ghimire K, Adhikari M, Uprety Y, Chaudhary R. Ethnomedicinal use of plants by the highland communities of Kailash Sacred Landscape, far-west Nepal. Acad J Med Plants. 2018;6(11):365–78. https://doi.org/10.15413/ajmp.2018.0171.

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Houghton PJ, Osibogun IM. Flowering plants used against snakebite. J Ethnopharmacol. 1993;39:1–29. IUCN. National register of medicinal plants. Kathmandu: IUCN Nepal; 2004. Ji Y, Fritsch P, Li H, Xiao T, Zhou Z. Phylogeny and classification of Paris (Melanthiaceae) inferred from DNA sequence data. Ann Bot. 2006;98:245–56. https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcl095. Ji Y, Zhou Z, Le H. Four new synonyms in the genus Paris (Trilliaceae). Acta Phytotaxon Sin. 2007;45:388–90. https://doi.org/10.1360/aps06163. Joshi A, Kalauni D, Bhattarai S. Survey on usage of medicinal plants: a case study from Chitwan district of Nepal. SAARC J Agric. 2018;16:129–41. Kanel K, Kunwar R, Bhattarai R, Baral S. Status study/mapping of important medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) of Nepal and preparation of document for Jadibuti Program. Babarmahal, Kathmandu: Department of Forests and Soil Conservation; 2017. Kunwar RM, Bussmann R. Medicinal, aromatic and dye plants of Baitadi and Darchula districts, Nepal Himalayas: status, uses and management. In: Biodiversitat und Naturausstattang im Himalaya, vol. III. Erfurt: Naturkunde Museum; 2009a. p. 43–50. Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Medicinal, aromatic and dye plants of Baitadi and Darchula districts, Nepal Himalaya: status, uses and management. In: Hartmann M, Weipert J, editors. Biodiversität, Naturausstattung im Himalaya, vol. III. Erfurt: Naturkunde Museum; 2009b. p. 475–89. Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants and quantitative ethnomedicine: a case study from Baitadi and Darchula districts, farwest Nepal. J Nat Hist Mus. 2009c;24:73–82. Kunwar RM, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Diversity, utilization and management of medicinal plants in Baitadi and Darchula districts, farwest Nepal. Initiation. 2008;21:157–64. Kunwar RM, Upreti Y, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Indigenous use and ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in far-west Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009;7:5–28. Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Acharya RP, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants, traditional medicine, markets and management in far-west Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:24. https://doi.org/10.1186/ 1746-4269-9-24. Kunwar RM, Acharya RP, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plant dynamics in indigenous medicines in farwest Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;163:210–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep. 2015.01.035. Kunwar RM, Baral K, Paudel P, Acharya RP, Thapa-Magar KB, Cameron M, Bussmann RW. Land-use and socioeconomic change, medicinal plant selection and biodiversity resilience in far western Nepal. PLoS One. 2016; https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone. 0167812. Kunwar RM, Evans A, Mainali J, Ansari AS, Rimal B, Bussmann RW. Change in forest and vegetation cover influencing distribution and uses of plants in the Kailash Sacred Landscape, Nepal. Environ Dev Sustain. 2018a; https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-018-0254-4. Kunwar RM, Fadiman M, Cameron M, Bussmann RW, Thapa-Magar KB, Rimal B, Sapkota P. Cross-cultural comparison of plant use knowledge in Baitadi and Darchula districts, Nepal Himalaya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018b;14:40. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-018-0242-7. Kunwar RM, Shrestha K, Malla S, Acharya T, Sementelli A, Kutal D. Relation of medicinal plants, their use patterns and availability in the lower Kailash Sacred Landscape, Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18(7):1–14. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.6.1-14. Kunwar RM, et al. Distribution, use, trade and conservation of Paris polyphylla Sm. in Nepal. Glob Ecol Conserv. 2020a;23:e01081. Kunwar RM, Fadiman M, Thapa S, Acharya RP, Cameron M, Bussmann RW. Plant use values and phytosociological indicators: implications for conservation in the Kailash Sacred Landscape, Nepal. Ecol Indic. 2020b;108:105679. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2019.105679. Li H. The genus Paris (Trilliaceae). Bejing: Science Press; 1998. p. 8–65. Liang S, Soukup V. Flora of China. In: Flagellariaceae through Marantaceae. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanic Garden Press; 2000. p. 88–95. Luitel DR, Rokaya MB, Timsina B, Münzbergová Z. Medicinal plants used by the Tamang community in the Makawanpur district of central Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2014;10:5. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-10-5.

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Ma Y, Liu D, Cheng H, Bussmann RW, He H, Guo Z, Liu B. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by Miao people in Jijiezi, Yunnan, China. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18:26. https:// doi.org/10.32859/era.18.26.1-14. Madhu KC, Phoboo S, Jha PK. Ecological study of Paris polyphylla Sm. Ecoprint. 2010;17:87–93. Maity D, Pradhan N, Chauhan AS. Folk uses of some medicinal plants from North Sikkim. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2004;3(1):66–71. Malla S. Medicinal herbs in the Bagmati Zone, Nepal. Lalitpur: ICIMOD; 1994. Manandhar N. Ethnobotany of Jumla district, Nepal. Int J Crude Drug Res. 1986;24:81–9. Pant SR, Panta IR. Indigenous knowledge on medicinal plants in Bhagawati Village, Darchul, Nepal. Bot Orient. 2004;4:79–81. Panthi M, Chaudhary R. Ethnomedicinal plant resources of Arghakhanchi district, West Nepal. Ethnobotany. 2003;15:71–86. Panthi M, Chaudhary R. Antibacterial activity of some selected folklore medicinal plants from west Nepal, Arghakhanchi district. Sci World. 2006;4:16–21. Parajuli R. Indigenous knowledge on medicinal plants: Maipokhari, Maimajhuwa and Mabu VDCs of Ilam District, Eastern Nepal. J Dep Plant Resour. 2013;35:50–8. Paudel HR, Koirala S, Pant LD. Report on documentation of plant diversity in Chhathar Jorpati Rural-Municipality, Dhankuta. Kathgmandu: Biodiversity Associates for Research, Development and Action-Nepal (BARDAN); 2019. Pyakurel D, Oli B, Thapa Magar M. Feasibility study of commercially valuable medicinal plants of farwestern Nepal, Thapathali, Kathmandu. Biodiversity Associates for Research, Development and Action-Nepal(BARDAN), Kathgmandu; 2014. Pyakurel D, Sharma IB, Ghimire SK. Trade and conservation of medicinal and aromatic plants in western Nepal. Bot Orient. 2017;11:27–37. Sapkota PP. Ethno-ecological observation of Magar of Bukini, Baglung, Nepal, Dhaulagiri. J Sociol Anthropol. 2008;2:227–52. Sigdel SR, Rokaya MB, Timsina B. Plant inventory and ethnobotanical study of Khimti Hydropower Project, Central Nepal. Sci World. 2013;11:105–12. Singh A, Nautiyal MC, Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal plants used by local inhabitants of Jakholi Block, Rudraprayag district, Western Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13:49. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0178-3. Tamang M, Pal K, Kumar Rai S, Kalam A, Rehan Ahmad S. Ethnobotanical survey of threatened medicinal plants of West Sikkim. Int J Bot Stud. 2017;2(6):V116–25. Uprety Y, Asselin H, Boon EK, Yadav S, Shrestha KK. Indigenous use and bio-efficacy of medicinal plants in the Rasuwa district, Central Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:3. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-6-3. Uprety Y, Poudel R, Gurung J, Chettri N, Chaudhary R. Traditional use and management of NTFPs in Kangchenjunga Landscape: implications for conservation and livelihoods. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12 https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0089-8. Vasisht K, Sharma N, Karan M. Current perspective in the international trade of medicinal plants material: an update. Curr Pharm Des. 2016;22:4288–336. https://doi.org/10.2174/ 1381612822666160607070736. Watanabe T, Rajbhandari KR, Malla KJ, Yahara S. A handbook of medicinal plants of Nepal. Bangkok: Kobfai Publishing Project; 2005. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Yun H, Lijian C, Wenhong Z, Yuhong D, Yongli W, Qiang W, Ding Z. Separation and identification of steroidal compounds with cytotoxic activity against human gastric cancer cell lines in vitro from the rhizomes of Paris polyphylla var. chinensis. Chem Nat Compd. 2007;43:672–7. Zhang W, Zhang D, Ma X, Liu Z, Li F, Wu D. Paris saponin VII suppressed the growth of human cervical cancer Hela cells. Eur J Med Res. 2014;19(1):41. https://doi.org/10.1186/2047-783X19-41.

Parnassia nubicola Wall. ex Royle. CELASTRACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Local Names Parnassia nubicola: Ladakh: Futka; Nepali: Mamira

Botany and Ecology Parnassia nubicola: Stems 3 or 4(or 5), (5–)13–40 cm, with 1 leaf near base or in proximal 1/4. Basal leaves 3–8; petiole 3–7( 13) cm; leaf blade abaxially greenish, adaxially deep green or brown-green, elliptic or ovate-oblong, rarely oblong, (2–) 2.5–7.5  (1.5–)2–3.8 cm, thick textured or thin and papery, base subcuneate, sometimes truncate, apex acute or shortly acuminate. Cauline leaf similar to basal ones but smaller, often with a few rusty brown appendages at base. Flower 2.8– 3.4 cm in diam.; hypanthium campanulate. Sepals densely brown punctate, ovateoblong or ovate-lanceolate, ca. 8  3 mm, margin entire, apex obtuse. Petals white, purple-brown punctate, broadly ovate, 1.2–1.6 cm  8–10 mm, base contracted into a claw 2–3 mm, margin entire or erose proximally, apex rounded. Anthers ellipsoid, 0.8–1.1 mm; filaments ca. 4.5 mm; staminodes flat, 4–5 mm, stalk ca. 2  1 mm, lamina 3-lobed for 1/5–1/4( 1/2) its length, lobes lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate. R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_175

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Ovary semi-inferior, ovoid; style ca. 2 mm; stigma 3-lobed. Capsule ovoid, 3- or 4-lobed. Seeds brown, glossy, oblong. Flowering August–September, fruiting September (Gierson and Long 1983; Parajuli 2012; Polunin and Stainton 1984; Shu et al. 2017; Wu et al. 2003; Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6).

Phytochemistry The species contains alkaloids, sterol, oils, reduced sugars, resin, Vitamin C (Kapoor et al. 1975; Sudhanshu et al. 2012), polysaccharides, saponins, and flavonoids (Kapoor et al. 1975).

Local Medicinal Uses Parnassia nubicola: Used to treat vomiting and snakebites (Malik et al. 2015). The root paste is applied for eye inflammation for wounds, body ache, headache (Kunwar et al. 2010), and food poisoning (Kala et al. 2004). P. nubicola is used for different ethnomedical purposes in various regions of the Himalaya. In Dolpa, Nepal used to Fig. 1 Parnassia palustris (Celastraceae) Kazbegi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Parnassia palustris (Celastraceae) Kazbegi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Parnassia palustris (Celastraceae) Kazbegi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

treat headache, liver ailments (Ghimire et al. 2001, 2008), also for eye problems, inflammation, as an antiseptic for cuts and wounds (Kunwar & Adhikari 2005). Rhizomes are consumed as tonic (Ghimire et al. 2001, 2008).

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Fig. 4 Parnassia palustris (Celastraceae) Kazbegi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Parnassia palustris (Celastraceae) Kazbegi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

In Garhwal, the species is used for snakebites and boils (Singh and Rawat 2011; Bhat et al. 2013; Pant and Samant 2006). In Bhutan used to treat bile disorders and ganglion problems (Yeshi et al. 2019). In Pakistan, it is used for treating low blood pressure and gastric problems (Abbas et al. 2017).

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Fig. 6 Parnassia palustris (Celastraceae) Kazbegi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Parnassia ovata is used for cold, cough, dysepsia, fever, and as stomatic (Gairola et al. 2014).

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Kala CP, Farooquee NA, Dhar U. Prioritization of medicinal plants on the basis of available knowledge, existing practices and use value status in Uttaranchal, India. Biodivers Conserv. 2004;13:453–69. Kapoor SL, Mitra R, Kapoor LD. Pharmacognostic study of the root and rhizome of Parnassia nubicola Wall. ex Royle (fam.: Parnassiaceae), a species used as “Mamira”. Bullatin Bonical Surv India. 1975;17:1–6. Kunwar RM, Adhikari N. Ethnomedicine of Dolpa district, Nepal: the plants, their vernacular names and uses. Lyonia. 2005;8:43–9. Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Bussmann RW. Traditional herbal medicine in Far-west Nepal: a pharmacological appraisal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:35. Malik ZA, Bhat J, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhat AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44. Parajuli R. Facilitative role of Berberis mucrifolia in maintaining plant species diversity at highaltitude Langtang Valley of Central Nepal. Kirtipur: Tribhuvan University; 2012. Polunin O, Stainton JDA. Flowers of the Himalaya. New Delhi: Oxford University Press; 1984. Shu Y, Yu H, Mu X, Zhang Z. Checklist and typification of Parnassia (Celastraceae). Phytotaxa. 2017;309:1–22. Singh G, Rawat GS. Ethnomedicinal survey of Kedarnath wildlife sanctuary in western Himalaya, India. Indian J Fundam Appl Life Sci. 2011;1:35–46. Sudhanshu RN, Mittal S, Menghani E. Evaluation of anti-malarial and antioxidant effect of Parnassia nubicola methanolic extract. Int J Curr Pharm Res. 2012;4:77–9. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D. Flora of China. Volume 9: Pittosporaceae through Connaraceae. Beijing: Science Press; 2003. Yeshi K, Gyal Y, Sabernig K, Phuntsho J, Tidwell T, Jamtsho T, et al. An integrated medicine of Bhutan: Sowa Rigpa concepts, botanical identification, and the recorded phytochemical and pharmacological properties of the eastern Himalayan medicinal plants. Eur J Integr Med. 2019; 29.

Pedicularis albida Penn. OROBANCHACEAE Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

Botany and Ecology Pedicularis albida: Herbs perennial, 5–30 cm tall, drying slightly black. Roots fusiform. Stems single and erect or more than 10, unbranched, with 4 lines of hairs. Basal leaf petiole to 3–4 cm. Stem leaves in whorls of 4; petiole 0.5–2 cm; leaf blade linear-lanceolate, 0.7–4 cm  2.5–8 mm, pinnatisect; segments 8–12 pairs, ovate-lanceolate to linear-lanceolate, pinnatifid, double dentate or inciseddentate. Inflorescences subcapitate or spicate and elongated to 10 cm, sometimes interrupted basally; bracts leaflike, about as long as flowers basally. Pedicel more or less sessile. Calyx 8–9 mm, about 1/3 cleft anteriorly, densely pilose along veins; lobes 5, unequal, posterior one triangular, entire, lateral lobes larger, serrate. Corolla purple-red to white, sometimes yellow; tube almost erect when young, becoming bent at a right angle basally, to 1.1–1.4 cm; galea falcate, about 1 cm, apex with a H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_176

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Fig. 1 Pedicularis comosa (Orobanchaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

short conical beak or beakless; lower lip 8–10 mm  1–1.2 cm, lobes rounded. Filaments sparsely pubescent basally, glabrous apically. Capsule lanceolatetriangular, about 1.6 cm  5.5 mm, about 1/2 exceeding calyx. Seeds about 2 mm. Flowering June–August, fruiting July–September (Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).

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Fig. 2 Pedicularis comosa (Orobanchaceae), BorjomiKharagauli National Park, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses Pedicularis albida and pectinata are used for cardiac problems and as stomatic (Wali et al. 2019), for chest problems, diarrhea, as diuretic, for backache, body-ache, fever, as sedative, and to increase urine flow (Gairola et al. 2014).

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Pedicularis albida Penn. Fig. 4 Pedicularis wilhelmsiana (Orobanchaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 5 Pedicularis wilhelmsiana (Orobanchaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

References Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Wali R, Rahman K, Raja NI, Qureshi R, Bussmann RW, Mashwani ZUR. A quantitative medico botanical expedition of Fairy Meadows National Park, Diamir, Gilgit Baltistan, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18(35) https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.35.1-30. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013.

Peganum harmala L. NITRARIACEAE Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Peganum harmala L.: Harmala multifida All.; Harmala peganum Crantz; Harmala syriaca Bubani; Peganon harmalum (L.) St.-Lag.; Peganum dauricum L.

Local Names Peganum harmala: Pashto: Speelanai; Urdu: Spenalai, Sponda; Khyber: Ispandur; Kashmir: Isband; Jammu: Harnmal, Sepan, Ispand H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_177

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Botany and Ecology Peganum harmala: Perennial. The radix is up to 2 mm long, producing few stems. The stems are 20–50 cm high, straight or flexuose, spreading, strongly branching, glabrous, smooth, slightly sulcate. The stipules of lower leaves more distinct, small, lanceolate, sometimes incised. The leaves are ovate, 3–6 cm long, dissected into 3–5 lanceolate-linear acuminate lobes 1–3.5 cm long, 1.5–3 mm wide lobes slightly incised. Flowers 1–3 apical at many branches, on 1–2 cm long pedicels thickened at apex. The calyx deeply 5-sect, lobes linear, 1.5–2 cm long sometimes slightly incised or nearly ternate. The corolla pale yellow. The petals are elliptic, obtuse, 1.5–2 cm long, 6–9 mm wide. The capsules are globose, slightly flattened above, distinctly 3-valved, 0.6–1 cm in diameter. The seeds are numerous, and dark brown. The plant can be found in the southern steppe zone, in semideserts and deserts, usually found in farming areas near huts or pastureland, oases. In the mountain ranges and reaching the submontane belt. Caucasus, Middle Asia, Ural, Altai. On dry slopes, ruderal habitats, sandy banks of rivers and lakes, and very often on overgrazed pastures. In lower and middle mountain belts, on an elevation 400– 1800 m. Flowers from May to June, and fruits from July to August. (Shishkin and Boborov 1949) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).

Phytochemistry Alkaloids (harmine, harmaline, harmalol, peganine, vasicinone, deoxypeganine, pegamine, peganidine, peganol, dipegene) (Sokolov 1988).

Local Medicinal Uses Peganum harmala: Seed powder is used as anthelmintic (Jan et al. 2017). The smoke of leaves of Skimmia laureola and branches of Peganum harmala is locally believed to be useful remedy to repel evils (Hamayun et al. 2003). Leaves are used as narcotic, emetic, anodyne, hypnotic, anti-lice, and to fumigate small pox patients (Hamayun et al. 2006). Dried seeds are burnt to smoke to repel evil eyes (Shah and Hussain 2012). Extract of the plant is applied on the body of animal to kill lice (Shah et al. 2012). The juice of fresh roots is given in jaundice. The same mixing with rice water is given to treat menorrhagia. The paste of leaves, stem and roots is applied on snakebite. Its smoke is used as fragrance and also as insect repellant (Khan et al. 2011). Leaves are used for joint pain (Abbasi et al. 2013). Plant used for abdominal pain, eye irritation, and red eye (Khan et al. 2013). In Middle Asia used as analgesic especially for sciatia, in baths to treat rheumatism, scabies, and other skin diseases. A decoction is used for colds, malaria, fever, syphilis, neurasthenia, epilepsy, and as a mouth wash for gum disease. The smoke of the burning herb is applied for headaches and epilepsy. In Tajikistan,the smoke is used to treat paralysis. The seed decoction treats asthma and syphilis, and it is used as

Peganum harmala L. Fig. 1 Peganum harmala (Nitrariaceae), Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Peganum harmala (Nitrariaceae), flower, Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 3 Peganum harmala (Nitrariaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mahmood Abbasi)

Fig. 4 Peganum harmala (Nitrariaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

diuretic and diaphoretic. The leaves are used as a poultice to treat swellings (Sokolov 1988). Syrian Rue has anti-inflammatory, analgesic, stimulant, diuretic, diaphoretic, insecticidal, anthelmintic, abortive properties, and stimulates the central nervous system. Stem, seeds and roots are all used medicinally. Usually the plant serves to treat epilepsy and Parkinson’s disease, colds, malaria, fever, syphilis, rheumatism,

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Fig. 5 Peganum harmala (Nitrariaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

scabies, and skin diseases, as well cataracts. From seeds and aboveground parts of Syrian rue one can extract harmin, which is used as remedy for the treatment of several nervous system disorders and epilepsy. Mixed with wine and other herbs the seeds are used to relief unpleasant cardiac sensations (Amirdovlat 1927; Isotova et al. 2010; Gabrielyan 2001; Gammarman and Grom 1976; Grossheim 1952; Gubanov et al. 1976; Harutyunyan 1990; Mardjanyan 2008; Nosal and Nosal 1991; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2014; Turova and Sapojnikova 1982; Vardanyan 1979; Zolotnitskaya 1958–1965). Seeds contain harmaline, flowers, and stems – peganine (Gammarman and Grom 1976; Grossheim 1952; Gubanov et al. 1976; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2014; Turova and Sapojnikova 1982; Zolotnitskaya 1958–1965). M. Heraci (Harutyunyan 1990) indicated the use of the seeds to lower high temperature, Amasiaci (Amirdovlat 1927) mentioned that the seeds were mixed with wine and used for epilepsy and rheumatism. He mentioned that this plant is intoxicant. Mixed with honey and applied externally it strengthens the eyesight; internally, it is used as expectorant and diuretic, for cough, throat diseases, and “fears.” The plant is considered a contraceptive, abortive, and menstruating remedy. It helps to relieve congestion, dries and improves ulcers, helps bone pain, pus blisters, and mange (Isotova et al. 2010; Gabrielyan 2001).

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The infusion of Peganum is used as diuretic and sudorific. The smoke of burnt dried Peganum is inhaled to treat headache (Fedorov 1949). The seeds are used to treat cardiac pains, muscle spasm, food poisoning, rabies and as snake repellent in Turkmen Sahra region. They are administered in the form of smoke, demulcent, or as taken orally like pills (Ghorbani 2005). Powder and decoction of seeds are used to cure toothache, gynecological infections, and menstruation disorders (Mosaddegh et al. 2012). The local people of Saravan (SW Iran) use macerated leaves or seed powder for healing effects on diabetes and has antiseptic and wound healing properties (Sadeghi et al. 2014). The raw fruit capsules are used for treatment of malaria and smoke of capsules and seeds as an antiseptic and air freshener (Khajoei Nasab and Khosravi 2014). In Taftan area (SW Iran), the aerial parts, flowers, leaves, and roots are used to treat stomachache, toothache, hypertension, rheumatism, kidney stone, bladder stone, bee stings, scorpion stings, and hand and foot pains (Maleki and Akhani 2018). Applied to treat gout, fever, rheumatism, as anthelminthic, for asthma, bladder irritation, eye sores, fever, gynecological disorders, flu, stomach-ache, menstrual disorders, and measles (Gairola et al. 2014). Used also for joint pain, back pain (Mati and Boer 2011), and pulmonary disorders (Tetik et al. 2013), skin problems, scabies, cough and bronchitis (Pawera et al. 2015), and for diabetes (Ullah et al. 2019).

Local Food Uses Peganum harmala: Leaves are used as appetizer and joint pain (Abbasi et al. 2013). The seeds are used as a spice (Grossheim 1952; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2007).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Peganum harmala: Plant is used for rituals like protection from evil eye, etc. famous for good aroma (Ali et al. 2018). The seed is burned in a mixture with the leaves of Skimmea laureola and considered to repel the devil and the evil eye (Sher et al. 2016). The smoke is used to protect from the evil eye (Sokolov 1988). The seeds contain fatty oils suitable for lighting and paint preparation. An extract of the seeds sometimes is used as source of bright red, and yellow dye for coloring wool, silk, and cotton. The oils of seeds are used in production of soaps and varnishes. As a powerful insecticide, the plant extract has large use in agriculture (Grossheim 1952). A dye solution is prepared from the seeds to obtain orange, orange-yellow, brownorange, orange-coffee, orange-red, pinkish, grey-orange, and other different colors and shades. The solution is used for dyeing wool, cotton, and silk yarn as well as its products (Qasimov 1980; Grossheim 1946). Dry Peganum is hung in visible places as protection against devil eye. Dried Peganum leaves and fruits are smoked by

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anybody who wants to protect themselves from evil eye. The whole plant yields a yellowish-brown and pinkish dye. In Middle Asia it is used for coloring skullcaps. (Grossheim 1952). The seed capsules of harmel are threaded and made into decorations that are hang on the walls to protect against devil eyes. The seeds and capsules are burned, and the smoke is used to repel the devil eyes and bad spirits (Ghorbani 2005; Maleki and Akhani 2018). Peganum is a well-known ritual plant (Bussmann 2016) and is widely used to repel the evil eye, e.g., by hanging it on doors, or burning it as incense (Akgul et al. 2018; Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2020a, b; Fayvush et al. 2017; Kargıoğlu et al. 2010; Mati and Boer 2011; Sezik et al. 2001). This practice is also common in the wider region, e.g., Pakistan (Sher et al. 2016). Also used as air purifier (Mohagheghzadeh and Faridi 2006) (Figs. 6 and 7).

Fig. 6 Peganum harmala (Nitrariaceae), protection against evil eye. Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 7 Peganum harmala (Nitrariaceae), protection against evil eye. Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

References Abbasi AM, Khan SM, Ahmad M, Khan MA, Quave CL, Pieroni A. Botanical ethnoveterinary therapies in three districts of the Lesser Himalayas of Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1):84. Akgul A, Akgul A, Senol SG, Yildirim H, Secmen O, Dogan Y. An ethnobotanical study in Midyat (Turkey), a city on the silk road where cultures meet. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14:12. https:// doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0201-8. Ali K, Khan N, Rahman IU, Khan W, Ali M, Uddin N, Nisar M. The ethnobotanical domain of the Swat Valley, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14(1):39. Amirdovlat A. Angitats anpet. Vienna; 1927. (in Armenian). Bussmann RW. Magic plants. In: Albuquerque U, Alves R, editors. Introduction to ethnobiology. Heidelberg: Springer International Publishing; 2016. p. 163–9. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 74 6 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1.

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Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z. Peganum harmala L. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of Mountain regions central Asia and Altai. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020a. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77087-1_ 101-1. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Ghorbani A, Nasab FK, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D. Peganum harmala L. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of Mountain regions far eastern Europe. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020b. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3319-77088-8_99-2. Fayvush G, Aleksanyan A, Mehdiyeva N, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Peganum harmala L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-49412-8_134. Fedorov AA. The herbs applied in traditional medicine of the Talysh. Baku: Publishing house of AS of USSR; 1949. (in Russian) Gabrielyan E. Herbal medicine national register. Yerevan; 2001. (in Armenian). Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Gammarman A, Grom I. Wild medicinal plants of the USSR. Moscow; 1976. (in Russian). Ghorbani A. Studies on pharmaceutical ethnobotany in the region of Turkmen Sahra, north of Iran (Part 1): general results. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102:58–68. Grossheim AA. Plant resources of the Caucasus. Baku: Publishing house of AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1946. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow; 1952. (in Russian). Gubanov I, Krilova I, Tikhonova V. Wild useful plants of the USSR. Moscow; 1976. (in Russian). Hamayun M, Khan A, Khan MA. Common medicinal folk recipes of district Buner, NWFP, Pakistan. Ethnobot Leafl. 2003;2005(1):45. Hamayun M, Khan A, Afzal S, Khan MA. Study on traditional knowledge and utility of medicinal herbs of district Buner, NWFP, Pakistan. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2006;5(3):407–12. Harutyunyan H. Medieval armenian phytotherapy herbs. Yerevan; 1990. (in Armenian). Isotova MA, Sarafakova NA, Mkscho BI, Ionova AA. Great encyclopedia of traditional medicine. Moscow; 2010. (in Russian). Jan HA, Jan S, Ahmad N, Aysha M. Ethno-medicinal survey of indigenous medicinal plants used by the local population of Goleen Valley, Chitral, Pakistan. SM J Med Plant Stud. 2017;1(1):1–8. Kargıoğlu M, Cenkci S, Serteser A, Konuk M, Vural G. Traditional uses of wild plants in the middle Aegean region of Turkey. Hum Ecol. 2010;38:429–50. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10745-0109318-2. Khajoei Nasab F, Khosravi AR. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of Sirjan in Kerman Province, Iran. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;154:190–7. Khan B, Abdukadir A, Qureshi R, Mustafa G. Medicinal uses of plants by the inhabitants of Khunjerab National Park, Gilgit, Pakistan. Pak J Bot. 2011;43(5):2301–10. Khan T, Khan IA, Rehman A, Alam J, Ali S. Exploration of near-extinct folk wisdom on medicinally important plants from Shinaki Valley Hunza, Pakistan. Int J Biosci. 2013;3(10):180–6. Maleki T, Akhani H. Ethnobotanical and ethnomedicinal studies in Baluchi tribes: a case study in Mt. Taftan, southeastern Iran. J Ethnopharmacol. 2018;217:163–77. Mardjanyan KS. Stepanos Shahrimanyan’s botany of Flora of Armenia. Yerevan; 2008. (in Russian). Mati E, de Boer H. Ethnobotany and trade of medicinal plants in the Qayseri Market, Kurdish Autonomous Region Iraq. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011;133:490–510. Mohagheghzadeh A, Faridi P. Medicinal smokes. J Ethnopharmacol. 2006;108:161–84. Mosaddegh M, Naghibi F, Moazzeni H, Pirani A, Esmaeili S. Ethnobotanical survey of herbal remedies traditionally used in Kohghiluyeh va Boyer Ahmad province of Iran. J Ethnopharmacol. 2012;141:80–95.

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Nosal M, Nosal I. Medicinal plants and methods for their use by people. Leningrad; 1991. (in Russian). Pawera L, Verner V, Termote C, Sodombekov I, Kadanov A, Karabaev N, Skalicky M, Polesny Z. Medical ethnobotany of herbal practitioners in the Turkestan Range, southwestern Kyrgyzstan. Acta Soc Botan Polon. 2015; https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3483. Qasimov MA. Dye plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Azerbaijan State Publishing House; 1980. (in Azeri). Sadeghi Z, Kuhestani K, Abdollahi V, Mahmood A. Ethnopharmacological studies of indigenous medicinal plants of Saravan region, Baluchistan, Iran. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;153:111–8. Sezik E, Yesilada E, Honda G, Takaishi Y, Takeda Y, Tanaka T. Traditional medicine in Turkey X. Folk medicine in Central Anatolia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2001;75:95–115. Shah SM, Hussain F. Ethnomedicinal plant wealth of Mastuj valley, Hindukush range, district Chitral, Pakistan. J Med Plant Res. 2012;6:4328–37. Shah GM, Ahmad M, Arshad M, Khan MA, Zafar M, Sultana S. Ethno-phyto-veterinary medicines in northern Pakistan. J Animal Plant Sci. 2012;22:791–7. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni groups in Chitral District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, volume 14: Geraniales, Sapindales, Rhamnales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1949 (English 1974). 616 pages, 39 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1988. 357 p. (in Russian). Tetik F, Civelek S, Cakilcioglu U. Traditional uses of some medicinal plants in Malatya (Turkey). J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;146:331–46. Tsaturyan T, Gevorgyan M. Wild edible plants of Armenia. Yerevan; 2007. (in Armenian) Tsaturyan T, Gevorgyan M. Wild medicinal plants of Armenia. Yerevan; 2014. (in Armenian) Turova A, Sapojnikova E. Medicinal plants of the USSR and their use. Moscow; 1982. (in Russian) Ullah M, Mehmood S, Ali M, Bussmann RW, Aldosari A, Ali Khan R, Ullah R, Hussain W, Rahman Shah MA. An ethnopharmacological study of plants used for treatment of diabetes in the Southern and Tribal regions of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18(8) https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.8.1-20. Vardanyan S. Pharmacology in ancient Armenia. Hist Philol J. 1979;2:179–94. (in Armenian) Zolotnitskaya S. Medicinal resources of the flora of Armenia, vol. 1–2. Yerevan; 1958–1965. (in Russian).

Periploca aphylla Decne. APOCYNACEAE Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Wahid Hussain

Botany and Ecology Periploca aphylla: Erect branched shrub c. 1.8–3.0 m tall, generally leafless, juice milky. Leaves (when present) 6–7 mm long, ovate-oblong, acute, thick, nerve obscure. Flowers in 1.2–2.5 cm long cymes on thick peduncles, fragrant. Bracts ovate, margin scarious, breaking off about the middle leaving the lower portion. Calyx lobes 2.5 mm long. Corolla greenish outside, dark purple within. Tube very short, lobes 2.2–6 mm long, oblong, obtuse, densely hairy near the tip. Corona lobes c. 6 mm long, filiform, glabrous, recurved at the apex. Follicles 5–10 cm  5–6 mm, rigid woody, widely divergent, pointed. Seeds 6–6.5 mm long, oblong, compressed, coma about 2.5 cm long. Flowering March–May. Distribution: Pakistan, India,

H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia W. Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_178

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Fig. 1 Periploca aphylla (Apocynaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Arabia and Egypt. The flower buds are sometimes eaten. The milky juice in Sind is reputed to have some medicinal properties and the stem fibers are used for making ropes (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020) (Fig. 1).

Local Medicinal Uses Periploca aphylla: Used for constipation and stomach ulcers (Muhammad et al. 2019). Periploca graeca has antileishmanial activity (Rocha et al. 2005). Periplica lineariifolia is used as antimalarial (Bussmann 2006; Njoroge and Bussmann 2006), for venereal diseases, warts, rituals, pneumonia, cancer, diarrhea, fertility, and to treat skin diseases (Jeruto et al. 2008).

References Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan and Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995–2020. Bussmann RW. Ethnobotany of the Samburu of Mt. Nyiru, South Turkana, Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:35. Jeruto P, Lukhoba C, Ouma G, Otieno D, Mutai C. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by the Nandi people in Kenya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2008;116:370–6.

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Muhammad S, Hussain M, Abbas Z, Saquib Z, Bussmann RW, Shah GM. An ethnomedicinal appraisal of Kurram Agency (Tribal area) Pakistan. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2019;18(4):631–47. Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Phytotherapeutic management of diversity and utilization of antimalarial ethnophytotherapeutic remedies among the Kikuyus Central Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:8. Rocha LG, Almeida JRGS, Macedo RO, Barbosa-Filhob JM. A review of natural products with antileishmanial activity. Phytomedicine. 2005;12:514–35.

Perovskia abrotanoides Karel. LAMIACEAE Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

Synonyms Perovskia abrotanoides Karel.: Perovskia artemisioides Boiss.

Local Names Perovskia abrotanoides: Ladakh: Iskiling, s’Tarobu

H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_179

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Botany and Ecology Perovskia abrotanoides: Plants perennial. Stems ca. 1 m tall, woody at base, ca. 5 mm in diam., densely simple or branched white pubescent, sparsely golden yellow glandular. Petiole 5–8 mm; leaf blade ovate-oblong, 4–7  2.5 cm, 2-pinnatipartite; lobes oblong to oblong-linear, 2–4  0.5–1.4 mm, glabrous or sometimes sparsely pubescent, densely golden yellow glandular, apex obtuse. Verticillasters in lax panicles 27–40 cm; floral leaves 8–30  3–8 mm; bracts lanceolate-linear, 1–1.5  0.5 mm, pilose, apex acute. Pedicel ca. 0.5 mm, pubescent, spreading, pendulous after anthesis. Calyx ca. 4.5 mm, purple, base densely white or purple pilose, glandular, apex sparsely hairy or subglabrous, tube 4  1.5–2 mm; upper lip short,  entire to 3-denticulate, ca. 1  2 mm; lower lip as long, margin densely ciliolate. Corolla rose, 0.9–1.1 cm, sparsely pubescent, tube 5–6.5  2 mm; upper lip 2.5–3  6.5–7 mm, lobes ovate to subcircular, 1.5–2  2 mm; lower lip oblong-ovate, ca. 3.5  2 mm, margin entire, apex obtuse. Nutlets 1.8–2  1 mm. Flowering June–July (Wu et al. 1994–2013).

Local Medicinal Uses Perovskia abrotanoides: Used to control painful urination and fever (Ballabh et al. 2008; Gairola et al. 2014). Perovskia scophularioides is used to remedy high blood pressure, scabies, wounds, and skin problems (Pawera et al. 2015).

References Ballabh B, Chaurasia OP, Ahmed Z, Singh SB. Traditional medicinal plants of cold desert Ladakh – used against kidney and urinary disorders. J Ethnopharmacol. 2008;118:331–9. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Pawera L, Verner V, Termote C, Sodombekov I, Kadanov A, Karabaev N, Skalicky M, Polesny Z. Medical ethnobotany of herbal practitioners in the Turkestan range, southwestern Kyrgyzstan. Acta Soc Botan Polon. 2015; https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3483. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013.

Persicaria amphibia (L.) Delarbre Persicaria barbata (L.) H. Hara Persicaria capitata (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) H. Gross Persicaria hydropiper (L.) Spach Persicaria nepalensis (Meisn.) H. Gross POLYGONACEAE Khadka B. Bhandari, Durga Kutal, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Synonyms Persicaria amphibia (L.) Delarbre: Persicaria amphibia var. emersa (Michx.) J. C. Hickman, Persicaria amphibia var. stipulacea (N. Coleman) H. Hara, Persicaria coccinea (Muhl. ex Willd.) Greene, Persicaria hartwrightii (A. Gray) Greene, Persicaria muhlenbergii (Meisn.) Small, Polygonum amphibium L., Polygonum amphibium ssp. laevimarginatum Hultén, Polygonum amphibium var. emersum Michx., Polygonum amphibium var. natans Michx., Polygonum amphibium var. stipulaceum N. Coleman, Polygonum coccineum Muhl. ex Willd., Polygonum coccineum var. pratincola (Greene) Stanford, Polygonum coccineum var. rigidulum (E. Sheld.) Stanford, Polygonum emersum (Michx.) Britton, Polygonum hartwrightii A. Gray, Polygonum natans Eaton Persicaria barbata (L.) H. Hara: Polygonum barbatum L. Persicaria capitata (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) H. Gross: Cephalophilon capitatum (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don), Polygonum capitatum Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don, Polygonum K. B. Bhandari Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal D. Kutal (*) University of Wisconsin-Whitewater, Whitewater, WI, USA e-mail: [email protected] R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_180

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repens Meisn, Polygonum robynsii (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) and Trullum capitatum (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) Persicaria hydropiper (L.) Spach: Polygonum hydropiper L., Polygonum hydropiper L. var. projectum Stanford Persicaria nepalensis (Meisn.) H. Gross: Polygonum alatum Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don, Polygonum nepalense Meisn., Polygonum punctatum var. alatum Buch.Ham. ex D. Don

Local Names Persicaria barbata: Manipur: yelang; Pashto: palpolak ‫ﭘﺎﻟﭙﻮﻟﮏ‬ Persicaria capitata: Hindi: ranagaya; Nepali: ratnaulo, ratnyaule jhar, pire, pirrhe jhar; English: pinkhead smartweed, pink knotweed

Botany and Ecology Persicaria (L.) Mill., a genus within the tribe Persicarieae Dumort., consists of approximately 100 species. It is characterized by many-flowered spicate, capitate or panicle inflorescence, a simple leaf, chartaceous ochrea entire or ciliate, 4–5 tepals, and 4–8 stamens (Haraldson 1978; Freeman and Reveal 2005). Persicaria has often been suggested as a member of Polygonum L. s.l. (Li et al. 1998, 2003; Zhu et al. 2007), while various morphological and molecular data support the independence of the genus Persicaria from Polygonum s.l. based on the inflorescence, ochrea type, tepal venation, or filament shape (Haraldson 1978; Ronse-Decraene and Akeroyd 1988; Ronse-Decraene et al. 2000; Frye and Kron 2003). Persicaria amphibia: Plants perennial, 20–120 cm tall in terrestrial plants to 3 m in some aquatic plants; roots also sometimes arising from proximal nodes; rhizomes or stolons usually present. Stems prostrate to ascending or erect, simple or branched, ribbed, glabrous or strigose to hirsute. Leaves: ocrea tan to dark brown, cylindric or flared distally, 5–50 mm, chartaceous or, sometimes, foliaceous distally, base H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia

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inflated, margins truncate to oblique, glabrous or ciliate with hairs 0.5–4.5 mm, surface glabrous or appressed-pubescent to hirsute, not glandular-punctate; petiole 0.1–3(–7) cm, glabrous or appressed-pubescent to hirsute, leaves sometimes sessile; blade without dark triangular or lunate blotch adaxially, ovate-lanceolate to elliptic or oblong-lanceolate, 2–15(–23) cm  1–6(–8) cm, base usually tapered to acute or rounded, rarely cordate, margins antrorsely scabrous, apex acute to acuminate, faces glabrous or sparingly strigose, midveins glabrous or strigose, not glandular-punctate. Inflorescence: terminal, ascending to erect, uninterrupted or interrupted proximally, 10–150 mm  8–20 mm; peduncle 10–50 mm, glabrous or strigose to hirsute, often stipitate-glandular; ocreolae overlapping except sometimes proximal ones, margins ciliate with bristles to 1 mm. Pedicels ascending, 0.5–1.5 mm. Flowers bisexual or functionally unisexual, some plants having only staminate flowers, others with only pistillate flowers, 1–3(–4) per ocreate fascicle, heterostylous; perianth roseate to red, glabrous, not glandular-punctate, slightly accrescent; tepals 5, connate about 3 their lengths, obovate to elliptic, 4–6 mm, veins prominent, not anchor-shaped, margins entire, apex rounded to acute; stamens 5, included or exserted; anthers pink or red, elliptic; styles 2, included or exserted, connate 2–3 their length. Achenes included, dark brown, biconvex, (2–)2.2–3 mm  (1.5–)1.8–2.6 mm, shiny or dull, smooth or minutely granular (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020). Persicaria barbata: Erect, 30–60(–75) cm tall, sometimes decumbent or prostrate simple-branched, annual, herb. Stem glabrous, lineolate-canaliculate. Leaves 1.5– 15 cm  0.25–3.0 cm, linear to linear-lanceolate, acuminate, glabrous except margin, midrib and veins ciliate, sessile to subsessile, petiole 2–4(–6) mm long. Ochrea 1.0–3.5 cm long, tubular, brownish, strigose, cilia equaling or larger than the ochreae. Inflorescence 5–10 cm long, many flowered, branched raceme with 1–6 spikes in each raceme, peduncle 0.5–3.0(–5.0)-cm long, glabrous. Flowers white, 1.0–2.0 mm across, pedicel, 0.75–1.5 mm long. Ochreolae 1.5–3.5-mm long, tubular, ovate, compact, not interrupted, ciliate, cilia almost the same size as that of ochreolae. Tepals 5, 1.5–2.5 cm  0.75–1.25 cm, oblanceolate-obovate, obtuse, biseriate, unequal, eglandular. Stamens 5–8, filaments long, equal. Ovary 1.0– 2.0 mm  0.75–1.5 mm, broadly ovate-orbicular, trigonous, styles three, long, filiform and free till half of the length with capitate stigmas. Nuts trigonous, 1.8–2 (–2.25) mm  1.2–1.5 mm, glabrous, black, shining (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020) (Figs. 1 and 2). Persicaria capitata: Plants annual or perennial, 5–50 cm; roots also often arising from proximal nodes. Stems prostrate, glabrous, or glandular-pubescent. Leaves: ocrea brown or reddish-brown, cylindric to funnelform, 5–12 mm, chartaceous, base inflated or not, margins oblique, eciliate, or ciliate with bristles to 1.5 mm, surface lanate, sometimes also glandular-pubescent; petiole 2–5 mm, winged distally; blade ovate to elliptic, 1.5–4(–6) cm  0.6–2.5(–3.3) cm, base cuneate or tapering, margins ciliate with reddish, multicellular hairs, apex acute, faces glandularpubescent abaxially and adaxially, not glandular-punctate. Inflorescence terminal, 5–20 mm  7–18 mm; peduncle 10–40 mm, glabrous or stipitate-glandular in distal 5; ocreolae overlapping, margins eciliate. Pedicels spreading, 0.5–1 mm. Flowers 1– 5 per ocreate fascicle; perianth greenish-white proximally, pinkish distally, urceolate,

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Fig. 1 Polygonum barbatum (Polygonaceae), stem, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

glabrous, nonaccrescent; tepals 5, elliptic, 2–3 mm, apex acute to obtuse; stamens 8, filaments distinct, free; anthers pink to red, elliptic; styles 3, connate to middle or distally. Achenes included, reddish-brown to brownish-black, 3-gonous, 1.5– 2.2 mm  1–1.5 mm, shiny, smooth, or minutely punctate (Ali and Qaiser 1995– 2020; Ali and Qaiser 2001; Hsu et al. 2004). It is a fairly uncommon plant that grows on moist rocks between the altitudes of 1200–2200 m and is recorded from different parts of the world such as China, Bhutan, North India, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Sikkim, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Vietnam (Li et al. 2003). Its native range is from the Indian Subcontinent to South China and Indo-China. It’s native in the subtropical and temperate Himalayas, cultivated as a garden ornamental, becoming naturalized in the Azores, Madeira, West and Northwest Iberian Peninsula, and occasionally in Central and Western Europe (Press et al. 2000) (Figs. 3 and 4). Persicaria hydropiper: Erect, 30–45(–50)-cm high with tufted roots branched from base or above, or sometimes simple, annual to perennial herb. Stem: glabrous, brown, sometimes shining. Leaves: 1.5–8(–10) cm  0.4–1.5(–2) cm, linearlanceolate to lanceolate, acuminate, margin ciliate, surface glabrous or scabrous or slightly pubescent beneath the midrib and reddish punctate gland-dotted on both surfaces, petiole 0.2–0.4 cm long. Ochreae 0.25–1.5(–2.0) cm long, glabrous, cilia at the mouth of ochrea 1–4 mm long. Inflorescence 3–7 cm long, lax, flowers  distant, erect, not drooping pedunculate raceme; peduncles 1.0–6.5 cm long. Flowers 1.0–

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Fig. 2 Polygonum barbatum (Polygonaceae), flowers, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 3 Persicaria capitata (Polygonaceae), close up, Nepal. (Photo Khadka Bhandari)

2.0 mm across, pedicellate; pedicel 0.5–1.25 mm long. Ochreolae 1.0–2.0 mm long, ovate, dentate-entire, gland-dotted. Tepals 5, pink, 1.0–3.0 mm  0.75–1.5 mm, obovate, obtuse, red gland-dotted. Stamens: 6, filaments long, unequal. Ovary 0.5– 1.5 mm  0.5–0.75 mm, trigonous, elliptic with 3 or sometimes 2 styles united in the upper half, then free; stigma capitate. Nuts 2.5–3.5(–4) mm  1.5–2.0 mm, mostly

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Fig. 4 Persicaria capitata (Polygonaceae), flowers, Nepal. (Photo Khadka Bhandari)

trigonous, sometimes biconvex within the same raceme, dark brownish, pubescent. Flowering April to September. It is a fairly common and widespread species that grows in ditches, on banks, and on moist shady places from plains to 2000 m. It is easily recognized by its red glandular-punctate leaves and red glandular perianth and interrupted racemes. Nuts are variable. Trigonous and biconvex nuts are sometimes found within the same raceme. It is widely distributed in Northwest Africa, Temperate Asia, Pakistan, India, extending to the far east up to Japan, and North America (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020) (Fig. 5). Persicaria nepalensis: Ascending-erect, 20–30(–50)-cm high, glabrous to glandular hairy, annual herb. Stem simple or branched with striate internodes. Leaves 1.8–5 cm  0.5–3 cm, lower ones often  rhomboid with a rotundate base, upper ones petiolate, cordate to amplexicaul with an auricled base, petiole 1 cm long, slightly to moderately winged. Ochrea tubular-truncate, glabrous to glandular or hairy at base 4–5 mm long, brownish. Inflorescence terminal corymbose head, head 6–7 mm in diameter, substanded by an involucral leaf. Involucral leaf sessile, subamplexicaul, ovate to lanceolate, 6.5–12.5 mm  2.5–5 mm. Ochreolae 4– 5 mm  2–3 mm, ovate, acute. Flowers 2.0–2.5(–3) mm across shortly pedicellate. Tepals 4–5, obovate, obtuse, light pink-blue, 2.0–2.5 mm  1.0–1.5 mm. Stamens 5–6, filaments short, fused at the base. Ovary biconvex or trigonous, with 2–3 unequal styles, styles united at base; stigma rounded or capitate. Nuts biconvex or trigonous, shining, 1.75–2.0 mm  1.75–2.0 mm, black, enclosed within slightly

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accrescent  papery perianth. Flowering June to September. It is one of the most common species of Persicaria in our region that grows along water canals, in moist shady places, and among rocks and stones from 1200 to 3500 m and is common in Tropical Africa, Afghanistan, Himalaya, Pakistan, India, and China extending to Japan. It is a highly variable species particularly in the indumentum, size of the heads, involucral leaves, and biconvex or trigonous nuts (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020) (Figs. 6 and 7).

Phytochemistry Species in genus Persicaria have been reported to produce oleanane- and arboranetype triterpenoids. These include the rhizomes of P. bistorta (Manoharan et al. 2005) and the whole plants of P. capitata (Huang et al. 2015) and P. nepalensis (Rathore Fig. 5 Persicaria maculosa (Polygonaceae), Imereti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 6 Polygonum carneum (Polygonaceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 7 Polygonum carneum (Polygonaceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

et al. 1986). Arborinone together with other arborane-type triterpenoids was found in the roots of P. bistorta (Sun et al. 2007), suggesting a close relationship between P. bistorta and P. sagittata. Meanwhile, steroids with stigmastane skeleton seem to accumulate in the aerial parts of P. barbata (Mazid et al. 2011) and the whole plants of P. capitata (Yang et al. 2015). The dominant classes of compounds including phenolics, flavonoids, phenylpropanoids, and sesquiterpenoids have been highlighted among the species of genus Persicaria (Granica and Hinc 2015; Huang et al. 2015; Huq et al. 2014). The plant is reported to contain different antioxidant models and compounds which have been screened and identified, e.g., gallic acid, progallin, kaempferol, quercetin, tricosanol, lignoceric acid, oleanolic acid, etc.

Local Medicinal Uses Persicaria barbata: The seeds are used as laxative and as spasm relief (Jamal et al. 2017). The plant root, leaf, and seeds are used to control bleeding from wounds, for colic pain and ulcer, and as a cooling agent (Aasim et al. 2019). It can also be used as astringent and for colics (Sharma et al. 2001), boils, and pimples (Kunwar et al. 2009, 2010a, b; Kunwar and Bussmann 2009) (Fig. 8). Persicaria capitata: The mechanism of P. capitata involves enhanced macrophage activity and a possible alteration of TCA cycle in macrophages. This suggests that P. capitata may act as an immunomodulator to augment the host immune response (Han et al. 2018). The plant is traditionally used in China in the treatment of urinary tract infections and is reported to contain antibacterial and anti-inflammatory agents (Liao et al. 2011). In vivo pharmacological experiment showed that aqueous extract of Polygonum capitatum (P. capitata) decreased the WBC and RBC level in urine of pyelonephritis mode in rats, the death rate of E. coli-infected mice, and the temperature of feverish rabbits. After oral administration of Polygonum capitatum, the animal urine inhibited the growth of E. coli (Pêgo et al. 2013).

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Fig. 8 Polygonum carneum (Polygonaceae), root tincture, Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Traditionally, the inflorescence part of this plant is used against bites (Lokho and Narasimhan 2013). The leaves of this plant are rubbed with mustard oil, which turns into a thick paste. The prepared paste is then applied as treatment for diseases such as herpes (Singh et al. 2017). The juice of the plant is used in stomach disorders (Manandhar 2002). In Tibetan medicine, Artemisia vestita, Coix lacryma-jobi, Equisetum ramosissimum, Oxalis corniculata, Persicaria capitata, Uncaria rhynchophylla, and Uncaria scandens are used to treat the same ailments (Database 2014; Li et al. 2020). The whole plant is mixed with water to make a paste and is then applied to boils (Kunwar 2018). Chemical and biological analysis should be undertaken for corroborating the local uses (Bhanumathi et al. 2000). It can also be applied to ant bites (Kayani et al. 2015). Persicaria affinis is used for fever (Wali et al. 2019). Persicaria hydropiper is used to treat fungal and other skin infections (Kichu et al. 2015). Persicaria maculosa: In rare cases the leaves are employed as medicine (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b). Polygonum plebeium is used for eczema, as galactagogue, for pneumonia, as liver tonic, for heartburn (Umair et al. 2019), and for cough, diarrhea, and gastric problems (Verma et al. 2007). Polygonum arenarium serves to treat kidney stones (Tetik et al. 2013).

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Local Food Uses Persicaria barbata: sometimes cooked as vegetable (Thongam et al. 2016)

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Persicaria barbata: Plant is used as fish poison (Neuwinger 2004; Zaman et al. 2018), and it is poisonous (Sher et al. 2011). Persicaria capitata: This plant is known as good forage (Nautiyal et al. 2017). These species have high ornamental value, but little is known about them, and there is no scientific study to enable the production of this plant. Therefore, the more detailed study of this plant is necessary to enable the propagation and productions of P. capitata. It is a common weed of wheat crop (Manandhar 1978; Numata 1982; Sthapit 1986; Ranjit et al. 2006; Dangol et al. 2017) that grows rampant along the Chameliya (DNPWC 2019) and Mahakali river banks (Kunwar et al. 2015). Its controlled use helps local biodiversity and livelihood. As P. capitata is useful for various purposes, its intensive utilization is important as the strategy has a good scope for enterprise development and employment generation at the local level and management of invasive species and biodiversity in the longer run (Baral et al. 2017). Persicaria affinis is used as thatch and forage (Wali et al. 2019).

References Aasim M, Khawar KM, Ahmed SI, Karataş M. Multiple uses of some important aquatic and semiaquatic medicinal plants. Plant Hum Health. 2019;2:541–77. Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. Volume 205, Polygonaceae. Karanchi/St. Louis: University of Karanchi/Missouri Botanical Garden; 2001. Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. Karachi/St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi/Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995–2020. Baral S, Adhikari A, Malla Y, Kunwar R, Gauli K, Acharya K. Invasion of alien plant species and their impact on different ecosystems of Panchase Area. Banko Janakari. 2017;27(1):31–42. https://doi.org/10.3126/banko.v27i1.18547. Bhanumathi N, Berit SP, Vibeke K. An ethnopharmacological study from Kulu District, Himachal Pradesh, India: traditional knowledge compared with modern biological science. Pharm Biol. 2000;38(2):129–38. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Dangol DR, Maharjan KL, Maharjan SK, Acharya AK. Wild edible plants in Nepal. In: Joshi BK, Bahadur KCH, Acharya A, editors. Conservation and utilization of agricultural plant genetic resources of Nepal. Dhulikhel: NAGRC; 2017. p. 390–407.

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Li S, Zhang Y, Guo Y, et al. Monpa, memory, and change: an ethnobotanical study of plant use in Mêdog County, South-east Tibet, China. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2020;16:5. https://doi.org/10. 1186/s13002-020-0355-7. Liao SG, Zhang L, Sun F, Zhang JJ, Chen AY, YuLan Y, Yong-Jun L, Wang A, He H, Xiong Y, Dong L, Chen XJ, Li YT, Zuo L, Want YL. Antibacterial and anti-inflammatory effects of extracts and fractions from Polygonum capitatum. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011;134(3):1006–9. Lokho K, Narasimhan D. Ethnobotany of Mao–Nago tribe of Manipur, India. Pleione. 2013;7(2):314–24. Manandhar NP. A study of weeds on the river banks of Kathmandu Valley. Bull Bot Surv India. 1978;20(1–4):36–47. Manandhar NP. Plants and people of Nepal. Portland: Timber Press; 2002. Manoharan KP, Benny TK, Yang D. Cycloartane type triterpenoids from the rhizomes of Polygonum bistorta. Phytochemistry. 2005;66(19):2304–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phytochem.2005. 07.008. Mazid MA, Datta BK, Nahar L, Bashar SK, Bachar SC, Sarker SD. Phytochemical studies on Polygonum barbatum (L.) Hara var. barbata (Polygonaceae). Rec Nat Prod. 2011;5(2):143. Nautiyal M, Tiwari JK, Rawat DS. Exploration of some important fodder plants of Joshimath area of Chamoli district of Garhwal, Uttarakhand. Curr Bot. 2017;8:144–9. Neuwinger HD. Plants used for poison fishing in tropical Africa. Toxicon. 2004;44:417–30. Numata M. A methodology for the study of weed vegetation. In: Holzner W, Numata N, editors. Biology and ecology of weeds. The Hague: Dr. W. Junk Publishers; 1982. p. 21–34. Pêgo RG, Oliveira LG, Garde GP, Grossi JAS. Ornamental characteristics and vegetative propagation of Persicaria capitata. Acta Hortic. 2013. https://doi.org/10.17660/ActaHortic.2013.1000.32. Press JR, Shrestha KK, Sutton DA. Annotated checklist of the flowering plants of Nepal. Kirtipur/London: Tribhuvan University/The Natural History Museum; 2000. Ranjit JD, Bellinder RR, Hobbs P, Rajbhandari NK, Kataki P. Mapping Phalaris minor under the rice–wheat cropping system in different agro-ecological regions of Nepal. Nepal Agric Res J. 2006;7:54–63. Rathore A, Sharma SC, Tandon JS. Flavanones from Polygonum nepalense. Phytochemistry. 1986;25(9):2223–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/0031-9422(86)80096-6. Ronse-Decraene LP, Akeroyd JR. Generic limits in Polygonum and related genera (Polygonaceae) on the basis of flora characters. Bot J Linn Soc. 1988;98:321–71. Ronse-Decraene LP, Hong SP, Smets E. Systematic significance of fruit morphology and anatomy in tribes Persicarieae and Polygoneae (Polygonaceae). Bot J Linn Soc. 2000;134:301–33. Sharma HK, Chhangte L, Dolui AK. Traditional medicinal plants in Mizoram, India. Fitoterapia. 2001;72:146–61. Sher Z, Khan Z, Hussain F. Ethnobotanical studies of some plants of Chagharzai Valley, District Buner, Pakistan. Pak J Bot. 2011;43(3):1445–52. Singh A, Nautiyal MC, Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal plants used by local inhabitants of Jakholi block, Rudraprayag district, western Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13:49. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0178-3. Sthapit BR. Herbicidal control of various hill weeds in the wheat field. Nepal J Agric. 1986;17:125–7. Sun XB, Zhao PH, Xu YJ, Sun LM, Cao MA, Yuan CS. Chemical constituents from the roots of Polygonum bistorta. Chem Nat Compd. 2007;43(5):563–6. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10600007-0193-z. Tetik F, Civelek S, Cakilcioglu U. Traditional uses of some medicinal plants in Malatya (Turkey). J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;146:331–46. Thongam B, Konsam S, Kumar Handique A. Assessment of wild leafy vegetables traditionally consumed by the ethnic communities of Manipur, northeast India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0080-4. Umair M, Altaf M, Bussmann RW, Abbasi AM. Ethnomedicinal uses of the local flora in Chenab riverine area, Punjab province Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2019;15:7. https://doi.org/10. 1186/s13002-019-0285-4.

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Phlomis bracteosa Royle ex Benth. LAMIACEAE Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Wahid Hussain

Synonyms Phlomis bracteosa Royle ex Benth.: Phlomis bracteosa var. longifolia Hook.; Phlomis lamiifolia Royle ex Benth.; Phlomis latifolia Mill.

Local Names Phlomis bracteosa: Jammu: Neel trath.

H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia W. Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_181

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Fig. 1 Phlomis bracteosa (Lamiaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

Botany and Ecology Phlomis bracteosa: Perennial with a rather slender rootstock. Stems few, 20–50 ( 100) cm, usually unbranched, with an indumentum of simple usually retrorse eglandular hairs, sometimes also with irregularly rayed branched hairs. Leaves ovate, herbaceous, aromatic; lamina 5–10  4–7 cm, more or less regularly crenate, deeply cordate to truncate, above with short eglandular unbranched hairs, below with unbranched and irregularly rayed branched hairs; nervation inconspicuous; petiole 3–8 cm on lower leaves, less above. Verticillasters at least lower-most in axils of upper leaves, distant, about 14–20-flowered, 2–4 ( 5), 2.5–4 cm in diameter. Bracts numerous, slightly shorter than calyces, herbaceous, more or less adpressed to calyx, linear, acuminate to spinulose, fimbriate with long simple eglandular hairs only or also with irregularly rayed branched hairs. Calyx 10–12 mm, with a similar indumentum to bracts, sometimes glabrescent; teeth 3–4 mm, subulate to spinulose. Corolla rose, or pinkish purple or violet, 1.5–2 cm; upper lip falcate densely white-villous, inner margin white-bearded, laterally denticulate. Mature nutlets not seen. E. Afghanistan, Pakistan, Kashmir to Nepal, Central Asia. This is a variable species in its indumentum, bract, and calyx characters. Phlomis bracteosa appears to be a high-altitude plant (from 3100 to 3700 m in Kashmir) of dry rocky slopes (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020) (Fig. 1).

Local Medicinal Uses Phlomis bracteosa: Used for toothache and as laxative (Gairola et al. 2014).

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Phlomis armeniaca is used as analgesic (Ari et al. 2015), and for colds, stomachache, as antipyretic, for asthma and bronchitis (Altundaga and Oztürk 2011; Mükemre et al. 2015). Phlomis armeniaca serves for wound healing (Mükemre et al. 2015). Phlomis rotata is used for fractures and swellings (Gairola et al. 2014). Phlomis umbrosa is used to treat dementia and other brain disorders (Adams et al. 2007).

Local Food Uses Phlomis armeniaca is used as tea (Licata et al. 2016).

References Adams M, Gmünder F, Hamburger M. Plants traditionally used in age related brain disorders—A survey of ethnobotanical literature. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;113:363–381. Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan and Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995–2020. Altundaga E, Oztürk M. Ethnomedicinal studies on the plant resources of east Anatolia, Turkey. Procedia Soc Behav Sci. 2011;19:756–77. Ari S, Temel M, Kargıoğlu M, Konuk M. Ethnobotanical survey of plants used in AfyonkarahisarTurkey. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2015;11:84. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-015-0067-6. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Licata M, Tuttolomondo T, Leto C, Virga G, Bonsangue G, Cammalleri I, Gennaro MC, La Bella S. A survey of wild plant species for food use in Sicily (Italy) – results of a 3-year study in four regional parks. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:12. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-015-0074-7. Mükemre M, Behçet L, Çakılcıoğlu U. Ethnobotanical study on medicinal plants in villages of Çatak (Van-Turkey). J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;166:361–74.

Phyllanthus emblica L. PHYLLANTHACEAE Bishnu Hari Poudyal, Suman Aryal, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Phyllanthus emblica L.: Cicca emblica (L.) Kurz.; Diasperus emblica (L.) Kuntze; Dichelactina nodicaulis Hance; Emblica arborea Raf.; Emblica officinalis Gaertn.; Phyllanthus glomeratus Roxb. ex Wall.; Phyllanthus mairei H.Lév.; Phyllanthus mimosifolius Salisb.; Phyllanthus taxifolius D. Don

Local Names Phyllanthus emblica: Pashto: lashora ‫ ;ﻝﺍﺵﻭړﺍ‬Nepali: amala, aunla, rikhiya; Newari: amb; Raute: aurya; Tamil: nelli; Garhwal: anwla; Naga: lher; Maithili: dhatric; Sanskrit: dhatri, aadiphala, amlika, adifala; Other parts of India: usirikaya

B. H. Poudyal Institute for Agriculture and the Environment, University of Southern Queensland, Darling Heights, QLD, Australia Forest Action Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] S. Aryal Institute for Agriculture and the Environment, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD, Australia R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_183

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Botany and Ecology Phyllanthus emblica: Phyllanthus emblica is a very popular medicinal plant found in Terai and sub-tropical climate along the east-west border of Nepal spanning between 100 m and 1600 m altitudinal range. Nearly 350 species of Phyllanthus are identified in the world, and 11 of them are found in Nepal. Nepal government has listed Phyllanthus emblica as one of the priority medicinal plants among 30 most important non-timber forest products of Nepal (GoN 2006). Trees 3–8(–23) m tall, to 50 cm d.b.h., monoecious, deciduous; bark brownish; main stems terete, sparsely lenticellate, with very reduced short shoots producing groups of leafy shoots; leafy shoots angular, tawny pubescent, at start of growing season often with poorly developed leaves and densely flowered, later with fewer flowers and betterdeveloped leaves. Leaves distichous; stipules triangular-ovate, 0.8–1.5 mm, brown, margins entire or denticulate, ciliate; petiole 0.3–0.7 mm; leaf blade oblong or linear-oblong, 8–23 mm  1.5–6 mm, papery to leathery, paler abaxially, green adaxially, drying reddish or brownish, base shallowly cordate and slightly oblique, margin narrowly revolute, apex truncate, rounded or obtuse, mucronate or retuse at tip; lateral veins 4–7 pairs. Fascicles with many male flowers and sometimes 1 or 2 larger female flowers. Male flowers: pedicels 1–2.5 mm; sepals 6, membranous, yellow, obovate or spatulate, subequal, 1.2–2.5 mm  0.5–1 mm, apex obtuse or rounded, margin entire or shallowly denticulate; disk glands 6, subtriangular; stamens 3; filaments coherent into column, 0.3–0.7 mm; anthers erect, oblong, 0.5– 0.9 mm, longitudinally dehiscent, apex mucronate. Female flowers: pedicels about 0.5 mm; sepals 6, oblong or spatulate, 1.6–2.5 mm  0.7–1.3 mm, apex obtuse or rounded, thicker, margin membranous,  lobate; ovary ovoid, about 1.5 mm, 3-celled; styles 3, (1–)2.5–4 mm, connate at base, deeply bifid, lobes divided at tip. Fruit a drupe, globose, 1–1.3 cm in diameter, exocarp fleshy, pale green or yellowish-white, endocarp crustaceous. Seeds reddish, 5–6 mm  2–3 mm. H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia

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Fig. 1 Phyllanthus emblica (Phyllanthaceae), with ripen fruits at Tappari, Chidika, Arghakhanchi district, Nepal 2009. (Photo Suman Aryal)

Fig. 2 Phyllanthus emblica (Phyllanthaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Flowering April to June, fruiting July to September (Wu et al. 1994–2013, 2008) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4). Phyllanthus grows well in woodland savanna and dry deciduous forest and in cultivated areas throughout tropical Asia and is native to tropical Southeast Asia (Variya et al. 2016). Phyllanthus emblica grows well on dry and open sparse forests or scrub in wider altitudes up to 2300 m asl. This species is widespread in Nepal,

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Fig. 3 Phyllanthus emblica (Phyllanthaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 4 Phyllanthus emblica (Phyllanthaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

China, Bhutan, India, Indonesia, Laos, Cambodia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, and Thailand. P. emblica is native to tropical southeastern Asia, particularly in central and southern India, Nepal, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, Malaya, Myanmar, and the Mascarene Islands. It is abundant in deciduous forests

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of Madhya Pradesh. Originally, it was cultivated in Madagascar (Gaire and Subedi 2014). In Nepal, it is commonly found from Terai to mid-hills east to west up to 1600 m (Rajendra 2014).

Phytochemistry Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is the most abundant constituents of P. emblica fruit. Besides this, other phytochemicals isolated from this plant include fixed oils, phosphatides, essential oils, tannins, minerals, vitamins, amino acids, fatty acids, glycosides, etc. Fatty acids reported from P. emblica include linolenic, linoleic, oleic, stearic, palmitic, and myristic acids. D-glucose, D-fructose, D-myo-inositol, D-galacturonic acid, D-arabinosyI, D-rhamnosyl, D-xylosyI, D-glucosyI, D-mannosyl, and D-galactosyI residues are the sugars (Variya et al. 2016). Emblicanin A, emblicanin B, pedunculagin, and punigluconin are the major tannins reported from this plant. Other compounds isolated from this plant are gallic acids, amlaic acid, arginine, aspartic acid, astragalin, β-carotene, β-sitosterol, chebulagic acid, chebulic acid, chebulaginic acid, chebulinic acid, corilagic acid, corilagin, cysteine, ellagic acid, emblicol, gibberellins, glutamic acid, glycine, histidine, isoleucine, kaempferol, leucodelphinidin, methionine, phenylalanine, phyllantidine, phyllemblic acid, quercetin, riboflavin, rutin, thiamin, threonine, tryptophan, tyrosine, valine, zeatin, etc. (Gaire and Subedi 2014).

Local Medicinal Uses Phyllanthus emblica: Traditionally used as an important herbal drug in Ayurvedic systems of medicine. Almost all parts of this plant are used for different medicinal purposes. Especially, fruits are most commonly used for treating several diseases including diarrhea, jaundice, and inflammation. Since the fruits are sour, astringent, bitter, acrid, sweet, cooling, anodyne, ophthalmic, carminative, digestive, stomachic, laxative, aphrodisiac, rejuvenative, diuretic, antipyretic, and tonic, they contain multiple medicinal characteristics. They are useful in diabetes, cough, asthma, bronchitis, cephalalgia, ophthalmopathy, dyspepsia, diuretic, anemia, biliousness, colic, flatulence, hyperacidity, peptic ulcer, erysipelas, skin diseases, leprosy, hematogenesis, inflammations, anemia, emaciation, hepatopathy, jaundice, strangury, dysentery, hemorrhages, leucorrhoea, menorrhagia, cardiac disorders, intermittent fevers, and grayness of hair (Khan 2009; Variya et al. 2016; Lanka 2018; Rajendra 2014; Gaire and Subedi 2014). The leaves are used as aphrodisiac and antipyretic and are useful in biliousness, asthma, bronchitis, and vomiting. The roots, bark, and the ripe fruit are astringent, whereas flowers are refrigerant and aperient. Juice of the fresh bark with honey and turmeric is given to people with gonorrhea (Gaire and Subedi 2014). As a main source of vitamin C, the fruits are one of the important components of Ayurvedic medicine “Triphala” and “Chayavanprash” (Bhattarai et al. 2014). Pulp of the fruit is also used to cure headache, snakebite, and scorpion sting (Gaire and Subedi 2014).

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Fruit is used as cooling, diuretic, laxative, and asperative. Dried fruit is used to cure diarrhea, dysentery, jaundice, dyspepsia, and anemia. Fruit juice is used for eye inflammation. Seeds are used against asthma, bronchitis, and biliousness. Flowers are refrigerant and aperient (Ishtiaq et al. 2007). Fruit is used in pickles, its oil as hair tonic, as appetizer, and for gas trouble (Zabihullah et al. 2006). Fruit pulp is used as refrigerant, diuretic, purgative, and astringent and for anemia, diarrhea, dysentery, dyspepsia, hemorrhage, and jaundice. Fruit paste is anti-inflammatory, seed powder is used for asthma and bronchitis, and root and bark decoction is used as astringent (Rashid et al. 2015). Phyllanthus emblica, Melia azedarach, and Terminalia chebula are mixed and are used for piles, boils, and blood purification (Abbasi et al. 2010). Fruit is used for diarrhea and dysentery (Tariq et al. 2015). Plant is used as antihysteric, for dysentery, and as anti-amoebic (Ghani et al. 2012). Fruit juice is used as tonic for eyes, conjunctivitis, and other eye complaints (Ahmed et al. 2007). Fruit can be used as astringent, refrigerant, diuretic, laxative, and aperients. Fruit is useful in chronic diarrhea, dysentery, hemorrhages, anemia, jaundice, and dyspepsia. It is used as a heart and brain tonic (Ahmad et al. 2009) and used in treatment of jaundice, dysentery, fever, internal body inflammation, and indigestion (Saqib et al. 2014). In Jammu and Kashmir used to treat bronchitis, stomach pain, acidity, acne, as appetizer, asthma, as astringent, blood purifier, cold, constipation, for cooling, cough, as diuretic, eyesight, gynecological disorders, hair fall, jaundice. Laxative, vomiting (Gairola et al. 2014). It is also used for nasal hemorrhages, leucorrhea, gonorrhea, syphilis (Jain et al. 2005), constipation (Katewa et al. 2004), cold and cough (Muthu et al. 2006), as well as asthma (Savithramma et al. 2007) and against snakebites (Houghton and Osibogun 1993). In Nagaland it is used to remedy cough, high blood pressure, and kidney and bladder problems and as laxative (Kichu et al. 2015). In Garhwal it is used for digestive problems, asthma, and hair loss (Malik et al. 2015), against constipation (Singh et al. 2019), as diuretic, for colds and cough, and as laxative (Kunwar and Bussmann 2009; Kunwar et al. 2008, 2009, 2010, 2013). Phyllanthus amarus is used for neurological disorders (Dey et al. 2017) and against snakebites (Houghton and Osibogun 1993) (Figs. 5 and 6).

Local Food Uses Phyllanthus emblica: The fruit is edible with laxative properties (Shah et al. 2015). Fruits of P. emblica are widely used to make pickles in Nepal and India (Rajendra 2014). Fruits and young shoots can be eaten (Dangol et al. 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Phyllanthus is one of the commonly traded NTFPs in Nepal. Dominant commercial trade is done by Dabur Nepal (a private company engaged in cultivation and business of NTFPs). Records show that annual average of 70 tons of amala fruits are collected and exported from Nepal (Bhattarai et al. 2014). However, Rajendra

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Fig. 5 Phyllanthus emblica (Phyllanthaceae), women selling Phyllanthus fruits at Sisneri, Makawanpur district, Nepal, 2012. (Photo Ripu Kunwar)

(2014) has reported that average annual export of amala fruits from central Tarai region was 88,104 kg from 2006 to 2014, ranging from 18,400 kg in Fiscal Year 2011–2012 to 155,915 kg in Fiscal Year 2009–2010 (Rajendra 2014). Likewise, Pyakurel et al. (2017) reported the trade of 49,000 kg in Baitadi (relatively remote far western district) in 2014/2015 with an average local price of 55.6 NRs/kg. Fruits are directly collected from the natural forests as well as from cultivated lands, community forests, and private lands and supplied to the local industries. Major city centers have demand of fresh amala fruits or preparation of titaura and pickle. Value chain of amala consists of six different functions, i.e., input supply, production, collection, whole-selling, retailing, and consumption, and the key actors are farmers/collectors, collection agents/commission agents, local traders, retailers, consumers, and input suppliers (Bhattarai et al. 2014). Trade of Phyllanthus has played an important role to generate incomes for the rural poor. The local collectors/harvesters represent the poorer groups of community including children, women, and elderly and disadvantaged people. Although many of them use the fruits for their household needs, some of them are making this a good source of income by selling them in the market. Market price of Phyllanthus fruits vary in different districts based on the availability of the trees and access to the market. In 2014, average price of green fruits in central Terai of Nepal was 70–80 Nepalese Rupees, whereas the price of amala in 2020 was NRs 200/kg in Kathmandu and 140 in Nepalgunj (ANSAB 2020).

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Fig. 6 Phyllanthus emblica (Phyllanthaceae), Triphala churna, a powder made from Phyllanthus emblica, Terminalia chebula, and Terminalia bellirica, Nepal, 2012. (Photo Ripu Kunwar)

The majority of the Phyllanthus trees in Nepal are wild either in natural forests or in the private lands. Cultivation of this species for commercial purpose is not much in common except promotion of few demonstrated projects in certain areas of Nepal. Although this species is not listed as endangered or vulnerable and is commonly found in wider altitudinal range, sustainable management and harvesting has been a challenge due to its widespread use. Moreover, these species are being removed from private lands and forests to promote other timber species. In addition, deliberate forest fires and deforestation as well as impact of climate change on plant phenology, range, and growth behavior are challenging the sustainable conservation of Phyllanthus emblica (Kunwar et al. 2013). Another key challenge to conserve Phyllanthus in sustainable manner is the harvesting behavior of people. Mostly, people damage the branches while harvesting fruits not considering the future production and growth of trees (Rajendra 2014). The trees need regular pruning for optimum production and care to protect them from disease and pests including aphid, white fly, bug, leaf roller, and rusts, but even the trees grown in the private lands do not receive this attention. Likewise, these trees are considered as wild fruits and a common pool resource indicating overexploitation (Pyakurel et al. 2017).

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References Abbasi AM, Khan MA, Ahmed M, Zafar M. Herbal medicines used to cure various ailments by the inhabitants of Abbottabad district, North West Frontier Province, Pakistan. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2010;9(1):175–83. Ahmad SS, Mahmood F, Dogar Z, Khan ZI, Ahmad K, Sher M, Valeem EE. Prioritization of medicinal plants of Margala Hills National Park, Islamabad on the basis of available information. Pak J Bot. 2009;41(5):2105–14. Ahmed M, Khan MA, Zafar M, Sultana S. Treatment of common ailments by plant-based remedies among the people of district Attock (Punjab) of Northern Pakistan. Afr J Tradit Complement Altern Med. 2007;4(1):112–20. ANSAB. NTFPs price list of January 2020. https://www.ansab.org.np/market-information/ntfpsprice-list%2D%2Djanuary-2020 (2020). Viewed 29 May 2020. Bhattarai NK, Baral SR, Karki G, Rimal B, Baral SR, Karki G, Rimal B, Dhakal S. Status mapping and feasibility study for cultivation promotion of wild MAPs/NTFPs in the Chure and adjacent areas of Makwanpur, Bara, Parsa, Rautahat, Sarlahi, Sunsari, Morang and Jhapa Districts. PSPL, Nepal and DPR, Thapathali, Kathmandu; 2014. Dangol DR, Maharjan KL, Maharjan SK, Acharya AK. Wild edible plants in Nepal. In: Joshi BK, Bahadur KC, Acharya A, editors. Conservation and utilization of agricultural plant genetic resources of Nepal. Dhulikhel: NAGRC; 2017. p. 390–407. Dey A, Gorai P, Mukherjec A, Dhan R, Kumar Modak B. Ethnobiological treatments of neurological conditions in the Chota Nagpur Plateau, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2017;198:33–44. Gaire BP, Subedi L. Phytochemistry, pharmacology and medicinal properties of Phyllanthus emblica Linn. Chin J Integr Med. 2014:1–8. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Ghani A, Ali Z, Ishtiaq M, Maqbool M, Parveen S. Estimation of macro and micro nutrients in some important medicinal plants of Soon Valley, District Khushab, Pakistan. Afr J Biotechnol. 2012;11(78):14386–91. GoN. Nepal ko Aarthik Bikaska lagi Prathamikata Prapta Jadibutiharu. Thapathali, Kathmandu: Government of Nepal, Department of Plant Resources; 2006. p. 125. Houghton PJ, Osibogun IM. Flowering plants used against snakebite. J Ethnopharmacol. 1993;39:1–29. Ishtiaq M, Hanif W, Khan MA, Ashraf M, Butt AM. An ethnomedicinal survey and documentation of important medicinal folklore food phytonims of flora of Samahni valley (Azad Kashmir), Pakistan. Pak J Biol Sci. 2007;10(13):2241–56. Jain A, Katewa SS, Galav PK, Sharma P. Medicinal plant diversity of Sitamata wildlife sanctuary, Rajasthan, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102:143–57. Katewa SS, Chaudhary BL, Jain A. Folk herbal medicines from tribal area of Rajasthan, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2004;92:41–6. Khan KH. Roles of Emblica officinalis in medicine – a review. Bot Res Int. 2009;2(4):218–28. Kichu A, Malewska T, Akter K, Imchen I, Harrington D, Kohen J, Vemulpad SR, Jamie JF. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of Chungtia village, Nagaland, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;166:5–17. Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Medicinal, aromatic and dye plants of Baitadi and Darchula districts, Nepal Himalaya: status, uses and management. In: Hartmann M, Weipert J, editors. Biodiversität, Naturausstattung im Himalaya, vol. III. Erfurt: Naturekunde Museum; 2009. p. 475–89. Kunwar RM, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Diversity, utilization and management of medicinal plants in Baitadi and Darchula districts, farwest Nepal. Initiation. 2008;21:157–64. Kunwar RM, Upreti Y, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Indigenous use and ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in far-west Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009;7:5–28.

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Kunwar RM, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants in farwest Nepal: their indigenous uses and pharmacological validity. Med Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010;4 (Special issue 1):28–42. Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Acharya RP, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants, traditional medicine, markets and management in far-west Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1):24. Lanka DS. A review on pharmacological, medicinal and ethnobotanical important plant: Phyllanthus emblica Linn. (syn. Emblica officinalis). WJ Pharm Res. 2018;7(4):380–96. Malik ZA, Bhat J, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhat AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44. Muthu C, Ayyanar M, Raja N, Ignacimuthu S. Medicinal plants used by traditional healers in Kancheepuram district of Tamil Nadu, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:43. Pyakurel D, Sharma IB, Ghimire SK. Trade and conservation of medicinal and aromatic plants in western Nepal. Bot Orient. 2017;11:27–37. Rajendra KC. Prominent non-wood forest products of Terai and Siwalik regions in Nepal. Kathmandu: FAO; 2014. Rashid S, Ahmad M, Zafar M, Sultana S, Ayub M, Khan MA, Yaseen G. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinally important shrubs and trees of Himalayan region of Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;166:340–51. Saqib Z, Mahmood A, Naseem Malik R, Mahmood A, Hussian Syed J, Ahmad T. Indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants in Kotli Sattian, Rawalpindi district, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;151(2):820–8. Savithramma N, Sulochana C, Rao KN. Ethnobotanical survey of plants used to treat asthma in Andhra Pradesh, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;113:54–61. Shah A, Rahim S, Bhatti KH, Khan A, Din N, Imran M, Hussain S. Ethnobotanical study and conservation status of trees in the district Sargodha, Punjab, Pakistan. Phyton. 2015;84(1):34–44. Singh AP, Kumar M, Nagar B, Pala NA, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal use of plant resources in Kirtinagar Block of Tehri Garhwal in Western Himalaya. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18:14. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.14.1-11. Tariq A, Mussarat S, Adnan M, Abd-Allah EF, Hashem A, Alqarawi AA, Ullah R. Ethnomedicinal evaluation of medicinal plants used against gastrointestinal complaints. Biomed Res Int. 2015;2015:1–14. Variya BC, Bakrania AK, Patel SS. Emblica officinalis (Amla): a review for its phytochemistry, ethnomedicinal uses and medicinal potentials with respect to molecular mechanisms. Pharmacol Res. 2016;111:180–200. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Wu ZY, Raven PH, Hong DY, editors. Flora of China. Vol. 11 (Oxalidaceae through Aceraceae). Beijing: Science Press; St. Louis: Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 2008. Zabihullah Q, Rashid A, Akhtar N. Ethnobotanical survey in Kot Manzaray Baba valley Malakand Agency, Pakistan. Pak J Plant Sci. 2006;12(2):115–21.

Physochlaina praealta Hook. SOLANACEAE Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

Synonyms Physochlaina praealta Hook.: Belenia praelata Decne; Hyoscyamus praelatus (Decne.) Walp.; Physochlaina grandiflora Hook.; Physochlaina urceolata Kuang & A.M. Lu; Scopolia praelata (Decne.) Dunal

Local Names Physochlaina praealta: Ladakh: Langthang, Langtan

H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_182

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Botany and Ecology Physochlaina praealta: Plants 30–50 cm tall. Roots terete, ca. 2 cm in diam. Stems much branched, glandular pubescent. Petiole 1–6 cm; leaf blade ovate, ovate-elliptic, ovate-deltate, or deltate, 4–13  3–8 cm, sparsely glandular pubescent, base cuneate, cordate, or sometimes truncate, margin entire and sinuate, apex obtuse or somewhat acute. Inflorescences few flowered, paniculate; bracts leaflike, 0.5–1.5 cm. Pedicel 1–1.5 cm. Calyx short campanulate or tubular-urceolate, glandular pubescent, ca. 6  5 mm; lobes deltate, ca. 2 mm. Corolla yellow with purple veins, campanulate or tubular-campanulate, ca. 2–3 cm. Stamens somewhat unequal, exserted; anthers ca. 2 mm. Style exserted. Fruiting calyx thick, tubular to campanulate or urceolate, 2.5–3.5 cm, slightly inflated near base, contracted and tubular upwards, teeth erect, slightly spreading, subequal, ca. 3.5–6 mm. Capsules oblong, 1.2–1.5 cm. Seeds subreniform, somewhat compressed, ca. 3.5  2.5 mm. Flowering June–July, fruiting July–August (Wu et al. 1994–2013).

Local Medicinal Uses Physochlaina praealta: The seeds are chewed to remedy toothache (Gairola et al. 2014; Kala 2005). Also used to treat ulcers and boils (Gairola et al. 2014).

References Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Kala CP. Indigenous use, population density, and conservation of threatened medicinal plants in protected areas of the Indian Himalayas. Conserv Biol. 2005;19(2):368–78. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013.

Picea smithiana (Wall.) Boiss. PINACEAE Devi K. Thapa-Magar, Khum B. Thapa-Magar, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Wahid Hussain

Synonyms Picea smithiana (Wall.) Boiss: Abies khutrow (Royle ex Turra) Loudon; Abies morinda (Link) Wender.; Abies smithiana (Wall.) Lindl.; Picea khutrow (Royle ex Turra) Carrière; Picea morinda Link; Picea khutrow Royle ex Turra; Pinus morinda Gordon & Glend.; Pinus pendula Griff.; Pinus smithiana Wall D. K. Thapa-Magar Nobel College, Kathmandu, Nepal K. B. Thapa-Magar Department of Forest and Rangeland Stewardship, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia W. Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_184

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Local Names Picea smithiana: Kashmir: Raga; Pashto: Kachal; jammu: Toos, Padtal roi, Riar; Nepali: Jhuse sallo, Jule sallo, Thingo sallo, Jhunde sallo; English: Himalayn spruce, West Himalayan spruce, Morinda spruce; Hindi: Rai, Bijur, Kachhal; Chinese: Changye yunshan

Botany and Ecology Picea smithiana: Trees to 60 m tall; trunk to 2 m d.b.h.; bark pale brown, breaking into irregular plates; crown conical; branchlets pendulous, pale brown or pale gray when young, glabrous; winter buds reddish brown, conical or ovoid, scales slightly open, rarely appressed at base of branchlets. Leaves spreading radially, directed obliquely forward, quadrangular-linear, slender, curved, quadrangular or subquadrangular in cross-section, 3.3–5.5 cm
1.3–1.8 mm, stomatal lines 2–5 along each surface, apex acute or acuminate. Seed cones green, maturing brown, lustrous, cylindric or fusiform-cylindric, 10–18
4.5–5 cm. Seed scales broadly obovate, thick, about 3
2.4 cm, rigid, base cuneate, apex entire, broadly triangular-obtuse. Seeds dark brown, about 5 mm; wing ovoid-oblong, 1–1.5 cm, apex pointed (Wu and Raven 1999; Wu et al. 1994–2013; Figs. 1 and 2). Picea smithiana was first described by Nathaniel Wallich (1884) and Pierre Edmond Boissier (1810–1885), in the fifth edition of Flora Orientalis. It is native of western Himalaya from northeast Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, India to central Nepal. This species prefers warm temperate climate in mountain area with abundant precipitation; however, it also grows in drier climate in western part of its range. Picea smithiana makes up their own forest but can make companion with other conifer for example with Abies spectabilis and Pinus wallichiana in the eastern part of the range, and with Abies pindrow and Cedrus deodara in the western part. Afganistan, Pakistan, India, South Tibet, and Nepal (Wu and Raven 1999). Elevation range: 2300–3600 m (Figs. 3, 4, and 5).

Phytochemistry Picea smithiana extracts contains alkaloids, sterols, carbohydrates,terpenoids, flavonoids, tannis, glycosides, phenols, saponins, ethyl acetate, acetone, methanolic, chloroform, n-hexane, resins, quinones, and anthraquinone (Sati and Joshi 2013; Sati et al. 2015; Rahman et al. 2016; Bhagat et al. 2017; Ahmadi et al. 2019; Ali et al. 2020). Mass spectroscopy showed Picea smithian contain the essential oils of delta3-carene, limonene, beta pinene, α-pinene, camphene, Alpha-terpinolene, P-cymene, beta phellandrene, monoterpene compounds, a-bisabolol, L-bornyl acetate, and α-salinene as the major components (Shah and Dar 2014; Gupta et al. 2017).

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Fig. 1 Picea smithiana (Pinaceae), Jumla district, Nepal Jumla district, Nepal. (Photo Dipesh Pyakurel)

Local Medicinal Uses Picea smithiana: To treat asthma, diarrhea, tuberculosis, diabetes (Wali et al. 2019). Resin used to treat cuts and sores (Malik et al. 2015). Also used for joint and stomach pains (Kayani et al. 2015). Resin applied to wounds and cracked heels (Gairola et al. 2014). Picea smithiana extracts medicinally used for the treatment of rheumatism, kidney stone, and heat problem (Khan and Khatoon 2007; Sher and Al-Yemeni 2011). Cone powder in hot water is used to treat chest pain. Heated resins of Picea smithiana is applied externally or cover with cloth to treat skin boil and crack skin (Rokaya et al. 2010; Ghimire et al. 2001). Phytochemicals found in Picea smithiana have antibacterial, antimicrobial, antifungal, antiproliferative, and cytotoxic properties. For example, essentials oils, ethyl acetate, ethanol, and acetone were significantly active against all bacterial strains including Micrococcus luteus, Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas alcaligenes, and against antifungal including Bipolaris spicifera and Curvularia lunata (Sati and Joshi 2013; Sati et al. 2015; Gupta et al. 2017; Verma and Nailwal 2018; Ali et al. 2020). Further, essential oil of Picea species is used in the treatment of catarrhal

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Fig. 2 Picea smithiana (Pinaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

diseases of children by inhalation with hot water and for rheumatic and neuralgic (Pauli and Schlicher 2004). The flavanonol, for example, quercetin, dihydroquercetin, and dihydromyricetin is significantly active against urease (Bashir et al. 2017). It is believed that some phytochemicals have the properties of phytotoxicity and cytotoxicity which can be used for human tumor cell control like human monocyte (THP-1), lung carcinoma (A-549), liver adenocarcinoma (HEP-1), and ovarian carcinoma (IGR-OV-a) (Sati and Joshi 2013; Shah and Dar 2014; Ahmadi et al. 2019). Pinus schraenkeana: An infusion of needles and cones is used to treat persistent common colds, and as bath for rheumatism. An infusion of young branches in alcohol is used to treat tuberculosis. The bark is ground and applied as poultice for furuncles (Eisenman et al. 2012).

Local Food Uses Picea smithiana: Young male catkins of Picea smithiana are used as flavoring. The mature female cones – especially the central portion is sweet and syrupy. Powder of inner bark is used as thickener in soups and added to cereals in making bread. A refreshing tea is made from young shoot tips. Pinus schraenkeana: The needles are eaten for their content of vitamin C. and the resin is used as masticate instead of chewing gum (Eisenman et al. 2012). The pollen of Picea orientalis is eaten for bronchitis, while a spruce needle concoction is drunk

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Fig. 3 Picea schrenkeana (Pinaceae), Almaty, Kazakhstan. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

to cure tuberculosis and ulcers. The resin is applied to wounds (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017a, b; Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Picea smithiana: Gum used to repair broken pots, hair removing (Wali et al. 2019). Woods are used in construction work, railway-sleepers, cabinet-making, packing cases, wood-pulp, shingles, crates, etc. (Manandhar 1986; Jan et al. 2009). Bark is very water resistant, so it is used for roofing and making water troughs. Leaves are used in making mats (Ali et al. 2018). The extracted essential oil is being used in room spray, deodorants (Conifer Specialist Group 1998). Sawdust of Picea smithiana can be used to adsorb heavy metal of lead, chromium, and cadmium bio-adsorption (Mittal et al. 2015; Mahmood-Ul-Hassan et al. 2018). Pinus schraenkeana: Spruce used in construction, especially for roof shingles and planks. Spruce along with fir and pine was used to make rafts, a traditional ancient handicraft. Spruce wood was considered the best material for making roof boards.

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Fig. 4 Picea orientalis (Pinaceae), Almaty, Kazakhstan. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Picea orientalis (Pinaceae), Almaty, Kazakhstan. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

The wood serves also for tool handles, sleds, and walking sticks, as well as for roof shingles, walls, and household utensils (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017a, b; Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

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References Ahmadi B, Bashir K, Rauf A, Hussain A, Herrera-Calderon O, Mabkhot YN. Cytotoxic effect of Picea smithiana (wall) Boiss on human tumor cell lines. J Med Spice Plants. 2019;23(3):143–5. Ali K, Khan N, Inayat-Ur R, Khan W, Ali M, Uddin M, Nisar M. The ethnobotanical domain of the Swat Valley, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14:39. Ali M, Latif A, Rehman NU, Zaman K, Mehsud S, Akbar N, Ahmand M, Arfan M. Evaluation of antioxidant and antimicrobial activities on various extracts of Himalayan medicinal plants. Pak J Pharm Sci. 2020;33(2):695–703. Bashir K, Ahmad B, Rauf A, Bawazeer S, Rahman KU, Rehman T, Saleem M, Ahmen RS, Linfang H, Ikram B. Urease inhibition potential and molecular docking of dihydroquercetin and dihydromyricetin isolated from Picea smithianaina (wall) Boiss. Biomed Res. 2017;28(22):10026–32. Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Picea orientalis (L.) Peterm. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017a. Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Picea orientalis (L.) Peterm. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017b. https://doi.org/10. 1007/978-3-319-49412-8_69. Bhagat M, Gupta S, Sudan R. In vitro evaluation of antioxidant activity of Picea smithiana growing in Bhaderwah region of Jammu and Kashmir. Cell Cell Life Sci J. 2017;2:1. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017, XXVII, 746 p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1). Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, SamtskheJavakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Conifer Specialist Group. IUCN red list of threatened species, IUCN 2006. 1998. Eisenman SW, Zaurow DE, Struwe L, editors. Medicinal plants of Central Asia: Uzbekistan and Kyegyzstan. Stuttgart: Springer Scientific; 2012. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Ghimire SK, Lama YC, Tripathi GR, Schmitt S, Aumeeruddy-Thomas Y. Conservation of plant resources, community development and training in applied ethnobotany at Shey-Phoksundo national park and its buffer zone, Dolpa. Report series no. 41. Kathmandu: WWF Nepal Program; 2001. Gupta S, Bhagat M, Sudan R, Bindu K. Bioautography guided isolation and characterization of antimicrobial compounds of Picea smithiana. JSM Biol. 2017;2(2):1012. Jan G, Khan MA, Jan F. Traditional medicinal and economic uses of gymnosperms of Dir Kohistan Valleys, NWFP, Pakistan. Ethnobot Leaflets. 2009;13:1509–21. Kayani S, Ahmad M, Sultana S, Khan Shinwari Z, Zafar M, Yaseen G, Hussain M, Bibi T. Ethnobotany of medicinal plants among the communities of alpine and sub-alpine regions of Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;164:186–202.

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Khan SW, Khatoon S. Ethnobotanical studies on useful trees and shrubs of Haramosh and Bugrote valleys, in Gilgit northern areas of Pakistan. Pak J Bot. 2007;39(3):699–710. Mahmood-Ul-Hassan M, Yasin M, Yousra M, Ahmad R, Sarwar S. Kinetics, isotherms, and thermodynamic studies of lead, chromium, and cadmium bio-adsorption from aqueous solution onto Picea smithiana sawdust. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2018;25(13):12570–8. Malik ZA, Bhat J, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhat AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44. Manandhar NP. Ethnobotany of Jumla District, Nepal. Int J Crude Drug Res. 1986;24:81–9. Mittal S, Vaid U, Najar GN, Babu JN. Removal of hexavalent chromium from aqueous solution: a comparative study of cone biomass of Picea smithiana and activated charcoal. Desalin Water Treat. 2015;57(24):11081–95. Pauli A, Schilcher H. Specific selection of essential oil compounds for treatment of children’s infection diseases. Pharmaceuticals. 2004;1:1–30. Rahman TU, Uddin G, Khattak KF, Liaqat W, Choudhary MI. Pharmacological investigation of leaves extracts of Picea smithiana. J Chem Pharma Res. 2016;8(1):425–8. Rokaya MB, Munzbergova Z, Timsina B. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants from the Humla district of western Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010;130:485–504. Sati SC, Joshi S. Studies on Himalayan spruce, Picea smithiana (Wall.) for its antimicrobial potential: Antibacterial activity. Novus Int J Pharm Technol. 2013;2(3):11–7. Sati SC, Kumar P, Joshi S. The bark extracts of Himalayan gymnosperm Picea smithiana (Wall.): A natural source of antibacterial and antioxidant agent. Int J Pharm Photon. 2015;106:445–52. Shah WA, Dar MY. Antiproliferative and antioxidant activities of Picea smithiana (Wall) Boiss oil. Int J Chem Pharm Sci. 2014;2(1):541–6. Sher H, Al-Yemeni M. Economically and ecologically important plant communities in high altitude coniferous forest of Malam Jabba, Swat, Pakistan. Saudi J Biol Sci. 2011;18:53–61. Verma U, Nailwal TK. Phytochemical characterization, In-vitro antimicrobial efficacy of Picea smithiana (Himalayn spruce) needles from Kumaun Himalaya. Eur J Biomed Pharm Sci. 2018;6(1):4074–417. Wali R, Rahman K, Raja NI, Qureshi R, Bussmann RW, Mashwani ZUR. A quantitative medico botanical expedition of Fairy Meadows National Park, Diamir, Gilgit Baltistan, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18(35) https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.35.1-30. Wu Z, Raven HP. Flora of China, volume 4. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden; 1999. http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id¼2&taxon_id¼200005321 Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013.

Picrorhiza kurrooa Royle ex Benth. PLANTAGINACEAE Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

Local Names Picrorhiza kurrooa: Garwhal: Kadway; Himal Pradesh: Karoo; Pashto Gutki; Urdu: Kutki; Hindi: Tikhi Jari, Karu, Kutka; English: Kutki

Botany and Ecology Picrorhiza kurrooa: The species is native of India, Nepal, Bhutan, China, Tibet, and Pakistan. This is high altitude perennial herb of Hindokush Himalaya found at 3000– 4500 m elevation. In Pakistan, the species is naturally distributed in subalpine and areas. P. kurrooa grows in moist, rocky slopes as well as in organic soils. It prefers

H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_185

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rocky crevices; sloppy and cliffy mountains. The generic name is derived from the bitter root, which is used in native medicine. In Greek, “picros” means bitter, while “rhiza” means root. The vernacular name Kutki is derived from “Karu,” the Punjabi name of the plant, which means bitter. The leaves of the plant are coarse, oval, and sharply serrated; grow mostly at the base and up to 15 cm long. Flowers are small, pale or purplish blue born on almost leafless erect stems and with longer stamens. The plant flowers in June through August. The rhizome of Kutki is woody up to 25 cm long and has a long, creeping rootstock growing in rock crevices and moist, sandy soil. The active constituents are obtained from the root and rhizomes. The rhizome is dug out and collected using required implements as per procedure for harvest of root/rhizome, that to never cut the whole root/rhizome but to leave enough underground for re-growth. Rootlets are removed and buried in there. The root/ rhizome is harvested after October in dormant stage of the plant growth. The collected root/rhizome is washed and cleaned from soil and dust. Before drying the material is cut to proper size of about 10–15 cm. The root/rhizome of Kutki is sun dried (Ahmad Jan et al. 2019; Ur-Rahman et al. 2019).

Local Medicinal Uses Picrorhiza kurrooa: Root or stolon paste (lepa) applied in cuts and wounds, oils, burns and burning sensation, headache (leaves paste also used for same action). Fresh or dried root extract / juice (swarasa) for treatment of fever, and also used as refrigerant. Root dipped in cow urine (2–4 h) is used for treatment of pimples, the root powder is used as anthelminthic, and galactagogue, and the root extract / juice for treatment of stomach-ache (Kafle et al. 2018; Singh et al. 2017). The species shows antileishmanial activity (Rocha et al. 2005). Root powder consumed during stomach-ache, jaundice, and diarrhea. Chewing of 2–3 leaves acts as antipyretic (Thakur et al. 2014). In Jammu and Kashmir for rheumatic arthritis, as hepatoprotective, antiperiodic, appetizer, bile, dropsy, fever, intestinal infection, joint pain, rheumatic arthritis, anthelminthic, whooping cough, appetizer, bronchial asthma, cold, urinary complains, cough, dyspepsia, fever, gynecological disorders, Inflammation and bleeding of kidney, jaundice, kidney complaints, liver ailments, liver tonic, purgative, scorpion stings, stomach ailments, stomachache, stomachic, tonic, urinary disorder aphrodisiac, liver ailments, stomach ailments (Gairola et al. 2014). Also used to treat for autoimmune disorders (Ahmad et al. 2006).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Picrorhiza kurrooa: The decoction of leaves is sprinkled in fields of wheat against insect attacks (Thakur et al. 2014).

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References Ahmad Jan H, Jan S, Bussmann RW, Wali S, Sist F, Ahmad L. Complementary and alternative medicine research, prospects and limitations in Pakistan: a literature review. Acta Ecol Sin. 2019; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chnaes.2019.12.005. Ahmad I, Aquil F, Owais M. Modern phytomedicine. Weinheim: Wiley; 2006. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Kafle G, Bhattarai Sharma I, Siwakoti M, Kumar Shrestha A. Demand, end-uses, and conservation of alpine medicinal plant Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora (Pennell) D. Y. Hong in Central Himalaya. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2018; https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/. Article ID 6024263. Rocha LG, Almeida JRGS, Macedo RO, Barbosa-Filhob JM. A review of natural products with antileishmanial activity. Phytomedicine. 2005;12:514–35. Singh A, Nautiyal MC, Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal plants used by local inhabitants of Jakholi Block, Rudraprayag district, Western Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13:49. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0178-3. Thakur KS, Kumar M, Bawa R, Bussmann RW. Ethnobotanical study of herbaceous flora along an altitudinal gradient in Bharmour Forest Division, District Chamba of Himachal Pradesh, India. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2014; https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/946870. Ur-Rahman I, Sher H, Bussmann RW, editors. Reference guide on high value medicinal and aromatic plants – sustainable management and cultivation practices. Mingora: University of Swat, Pakistan; 2019. (ISBN 978-969-23419-0-5).

Pinus gerardiana Wall. ex Lamb. Pinus roxburghii Sarg. Pinus wallichiana A. B. Jacks. PINACEAE Hammad Ahmad Jan, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Wahid Hussain, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Synonyms Pinus roxburghii Sarg.: Pinus longifolia Salisb. Pinus wallichiana A. B. Jacks.: Pinus excelsa Lam., Pinus excelsa Wall. ex D. Don, Pinus griffithii McClell., Pinus nepalensis Chambray

H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan W. Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_186

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Local Names Pinus gerardiana: Nepal: nut; Gilgit-Baltistan: chalgoza, tholesh; Kohistani: chaghz (swat/dir); Shina: garoli; Northwest Pakistan: zangozai; Urdu: chalghoza, naiza; Pashto: changhozi; Other local names: noos, neoza; English: Himalayan pine nut, chilgoza pine Pinus roxburghii: Jammu: chir; Kashmir: chad; Nepal: sallo, khote salla, sarala, rani salla; Pashto: nakhter ‫ﻧﺨﺘﺮ‬ Pinus wallichiana: Northwest Pakistan: nakhter, nakhtar, nashtar; Kashmir: kayur, kayiur; Urdu: kail; Jammu: biar, chew, kail; Gilgit-Baltistan: chee

Botany and Ecology Pinus gerardiana: Trees bark white, fissured into irregular, thin plates; first-year branchlets pale green-yellow, glabrous, with projected leaf scars. Needles 3 per bundle, triangular-flabellate in cross section, 6–10 cm, stiff, vascular bundle 1, resin canals 5–7, marginal, base with sheath shed. Seed cones shortly pedunculate, almost brown at maturity, oblong or ovoid, 12–20 cm  9–11 cm. Seed scales 4– 5 cm; apophyses broad, swollen,  recurved, obviously ridged; umbo dorsal, apex obtuse. Seeds cylindric, about 2.5 cm; wing rudimentary, usually adhering to adjacent scale. The tree is evergreen medium-size conifer growing at a slow rate. It is in leaf in January, in flower from May to June, and the seeds ripen in October. The flowers are monoecious (individual flowers are either male or female, but both sexes can be found on the same plant) and are pollinated by wind. Chilgoza pine is native to the Hindu Kush Himalaya found in eastern Afghanistan, Pakistan, and northwest India, growing at elevations between 1800 and 3350 m. It often occurs in association with blue pine (Pinus wallichiana) and deodar (Cedrus deodara) and also makes some mixture with oak (Quercus ilex) and juniper (Juniperus excelsa). Suleiman Range contains the world’s largest pure stands of chilgoza pine spreading more than 250 km2. It is hardy pine and can withstand considerable cold and drought. By nature, it is light demander and wind firm. The tree can grow on dry barren rocky hillsides with shallow soil, so it helps in conservation of soil in the hills; otherwise it would be bare rocks. Seeds in the wild are dispersed by a Eurasian nutcracker, Nucifraga caryocatactes subsp. multipunctata. The cones are 10–18-cm long, 9–11-cm wide when open. The seeds in the cone have a thin shell and a rudimentary wing. The tree flowers in May to June, and the cones ripen during September to October of the next year. Every year is not a good seed year for chilgoza pine as with many pine species. The seeds are yellowish to light brown in color. From mature ripened cones of 100 kg, the average gain of nuts is 5 kg. The scales of the cones open by heating and the seeds are shaken out easily. Mature cones are harvested with the help of cone harvesters without damaging the young cones and growing shoots. The traditional way of breaking the branches and damaging tree is very destructive, and collecting all available cones from a tree diminishes chances of regeneration. Ripe cones are plucked green prior to open (Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Figs. 1 and 2).

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Fig. 1 Pinus gerardiana (Pinaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

Fig. 2 Pinus gerardiana (Pinaceae), Swat, Pakistan. (Photo Haider Ali)

Pinus roxburghii: Trees to 55 m tall; trunk to over 1 m in diameter; bark dark red-brown, thick, deeply and longitudinally fissured, scaly; winter buds brown, small, ovoid, not resinous. Needles 3 per bundle, slender, flabellate-triangular in cross section, 20–30 cm  about 1.5 mm, resin canals 2, median, base with persistent sheath 2–3 cm. Seed cones shortly pedunculate, ovoid, 10–20 cm  6–9 cm. Seed scales oblong, thick, stiff; apophyses strongly swollen, conspicuously transversely ridged; umbo triangular, protruding. Seeds 8–12 mm; wing about 2.5 cm. Seed maturity October to November (Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Figs. 3, 4, and 5).

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Fig. 3 Pinus roxburghii (Pinaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Pinus wallichiana: Trees to 70 m tall; trunk to 1 m or more d.b.h.; bark dark graybrown, minutely scaly and flaking; crown broadly pyramidal; first-year branchlets green (drying red-brown), shiny, faintly whitish bloomed, glabrous; winter buds red-brown, cylindric-obovoid or cylindric-conical, slightly resinous. Needles 5 per bundle, pendulous, slender, triangular in cross section, (6–)11–18(–20) cm  about 1 mm, soft, adaxial surface dark green, vascular bundle 1, resin canals 3, adaxial 2 marginal, abaxial 1 always median. Seed cones pendulous, pedunculate (peduncle 2.5–4 cm), cylindric, straight or curved, 10–30 cm  3–4 cm (5–9 cm wide when open), resinous. Seed scales cuneate-obovate, 3–5 cm  2–3 cm at the middle of cone; apophyses shiny, often glaucous, rhombic, slightly thickened; umbo dark brown, slightly projecting, apex obtuse, obviously incurved. Seeds brown or black-brown, ellipsoid-obovoid, 3–9 mm  4–5 mm; wing 1–3 cm  8–9 mm. Pollination April to May, seed maturity autumn of second year (Wu et al. 1994– 2013) (Figs. 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10).

Local Medicinal Uses Pinus gerardiana: Seeds are used for diabetes (Ullah et al. 2019) and eaten for joint health especially in the elderly (Sher et al. 2016) and used also for wound healing and against bronchitis (Kunwar et al. 2006, 2009, 2010; Kunwar and Bussmann

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Fig. 4 Pinus roxburghii (Pinaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

2009). Extract is applied to wounds and ulcers and used as stimulant and tonic (Kayani et al. 2015). Pinus roxburghii: Bark paste is used as emollient, stimulant, antiseptic, anthelmintic, liver tonic, diaphoretic, and diuretic (Rashid et al. 2015). Juvenile apex of the stem is ground and is used against bloody diarrhea. Tuberculosis patients are advised to keep sitting under its shade for quick recovery. The wood of the plant is used for timber and fuel purposes. The resin obtained is used in soap industry. The seeds are edible. Dried leaves and logs are used in roof thatching (Amjad and Arshad 2014). Resin of the plant is used topically to stop bleeding (Abbasi et al. 2010). Female cone decoction is for diabetes and scorpion sting (Jan et al. 2017). Plant is known to be used locally for inflammation and pain (Ijaz et al. 2016). Wood resin and oil are used against loss of appetite and intestinal worms (Jamal et al. 2017). Resin is used as stimulant and in ulcer, skin diseases, snakebites, and scorpion stings (Haq et al. 2011). Resin is employed as a stimulating application for ulcer and abscesses and as basis for plaster. Past is used for painful chest. Wood and resin used in snakebite and scorpion sting (Arshad and Ahmad 2004). Decoction of its wood is used to treat urinary disorders and fever. Resin is used for relief in stomach pain (Ali et al. 2018) and for headache (Wali et al. 2019). Resin is applied to snakebites (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018) and to wounds and burns (Kunwar et al. 2009, 2013). Decoction is used for diabetes and against scorpion stings (Ahmad Jan et al. 2017) and also for chronic bronchitis, cracked heels, ulcers, and general weakness (Gairola et al. 2014) (Figs. 11 and 12).

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Fig. 5 Pinus roxburghii (Pinaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

Fig. 6 Pinus wallichiana (Pinaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

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Fig. 7 Pinus wallichiana (Pinaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

Pinus wallichiana: In Gilgit-Baltistan it is used for heart problems, wounds, kidney problems, stomachache, urinary problems, bronchial diseases, congestion, and asthma (Wali et al. 2019). It is used against cough and to treat scorpion stings, fever, asthma, and snakebites (Kayani et al. 2015). It is used in Jammu and Kashmir as anthelminthic and for boils, colds, cough, wounds, respiratory problems, intestinal infections, flu, cuts, and cracked heels (Gairola et al. 2014).

Local Food Uses Pinus gerardiana: The seeds are edible (Ahmad and Pieroni 2016). Pinus roxburghii: The seeds are edible (Amjad et al. 2015; Dangol et al. 2017). Pinus wallichiana: The seeds are edible (Ahmad and Pieroni 2016). Pinus kochiana: Local people make honey and jam from young pinecones. This is also used as medicine for cough. In the Caucasus children cut off the bark of young pine trees called “zhina” and eat the slimy inner layer called “mots’i,” which is sweet and tasty. The resin is used as masticate (instead of chewing gum). Leaves and young cones are sometimes eaten (Bussmann 2017; Batsatsashvili et al. 2017). Pinus sylvestris is used to make syrup (Łuczaj and Szymański 2007) (Figs. 13, 14, and 15).

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Fig. 8 Pinus kochiana (Pinaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Fig. 9 Pinus kochiana (Pinaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Pinus roxburghii: Ash is used as detergent, wood as fuel and to make furniture, and gum to remove hair (Wali et al. 2019). The wood of the plant is used for timber and fuel and also to make soap.

Pinus gerardiana Wall. ex Lamb. . . . Fig. 10 Pinus kochiana (Pinaceae), Kazbegi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 11 Pinus kochiana (Pinaceae). Male cones collected and dried. Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 12 Pinus kochiana (Pinaceae). Pollen for sale. Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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1528 Fig. 13 Pinus kochiana (Pinaceae). Syrup made from flowers. Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 14 Pinus kochiana (Pinaceae). Syrup. Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 15 Pinus kochiana (Pinaceae). Chewing gum made from resin and inner bark. Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Pinus kochiana: A dye solution is prepared from the bark and cones to obtain pink and beige colors. The solution is used for dyeing wool and silk. Pine is used in construction, especially for posts and roof shingles (Bussmann 2017; Batsatsashvili et al. 2017).

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Biodiversität, Naturausstattung im Himalaya, vol. III. Erfurt: Naturekunde Museum; 2009. p. 475–89. Kunwar RM, Nepal BK, Kshetri HB, Rai SK, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicine in Himalaya: a case study from Dolpa, Humla, Jumla and Mustang districts of Nepal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2006;2:27. Kunwar RM, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal Plants in Farwest Nepal: Their Indigenous Uses and Pharmacological Validity. Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Science and Biotechnology 2010;4 special issue 1:28–42. Kunwar RM, Upreti Y, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Indigenous use and ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in far-west Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009;7:5–28. Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Acharya RP, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants, traditional medicine, markets and management in far-west Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:24. Łuczaj Ł, Szymański WM. Wild vascular plants gathered for consumption in the Polish countryside: a review. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3:17. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-3-17. Rashid S, Ahmad M, Zafar M, Sultana S, Ayub M, Khan MA, Yaseen G. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinally important shrubs and trees of Himalayan region of Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;166:340–51. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni groups in Chitral District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Ullah M, Mehmood S, Ali M, Bussmann RW, Aldosari A, Ali Khan R, Ullah R, Hussain W, Rahman Shah MA. An ethnopharmacological study of plants used for treatment of diabetes in the Southern and Tribal regions of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18(8). https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.8.1-20. Ur-Rahman I, Afsal A, Iqbal Z, Ijas F, Ali N, Asif M, Alam J, Majid A, Bussmann RW. Traditional and ethnomedicinal dermatology practices in Pakistan. Clin Dermatol. 2018;363:310–9. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.clindermatol.2018.03.018. Wali R, Rahman K, Raja NI, Qureshi R, Bussmann RW, Mashwani ZUR. A quantitative medico botanical expedition of Fairy Meadows National Park, Diamir, Gilgit Baltistan, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18(35):1–30. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.35.1-30. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013.

Pistacia atlantica Desf. Pistacia integerrima Stewart ex Brandis Pistacia khinjuk Stocks ANACARDIACEAE Hassan Sher, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Ikram Ur Rahman, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Local Names Pistacia integerrima: Tibbi: kakarasingi; Talash: shany; Jammu: kandar, kakarshingi; Pashto: shnai ‫ ;ﺷﻨﯥ‬Other names: kakar singhi, kakkar, kakra, kakring, kakroi, karkatashringi, shringi, karkatashringikaa, karkata; English: Turk terebint, wild pistachio

H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_187

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Botany and Ecology Pistacia atlantica: A tree up to 7 m tall. Twigs puberulous with a rusty pubescence. Leaves imparipinnate. Leaflets (3–)5–9 in number, 26–70 mm  8–22 mm, lanceolate; petiole winged, puberulous. Panicles extra-axillary, 7–13 cm long, puberulous. Bracts 1–2-mm long, lanceolate, scarious, deciduous, brown. Ovary ovoid, about 1 mm long. Styles 3, reflexed. Drupe 5–6.5 mm long, suborbicular-oblique in outline, compressed, apiculate; epicarp nervose, yellowish-brown. Flowering May. South Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020). Pistacia integerrima: Dioecious tree up to 17 m or more tall. Leaves pari- or imparipinnate, 16–25 cm long. Leaflets opposite or subopposite, subsessile, 7–9 in number, 90–120 mm  22–32 mm, lanceolate, acuminate, glabrous, pale green on the under-surface. Lateral nerves 14–20 pairs, arcuate. Male panicles 8–12-mm long, drooping at post-anthesis, female longer and erect. Flowers unisexual, bracteate. Bracts 1.2-mm long, lanceolate, apex pubescent. Bracteoles 2, linear, shorter. Sepals 4, less than anthers in length, linear. Stamens 5; anthers about 1.8-mm long, oblong, reddish. Styles 3-parted to almost the base; stigmas recurved. Drupe 5–6 mm broad, glabrous, dry, rugose, grayish-brown in color. Flowering March to May. Eastern slopes of the Suliman range, hills of Trans-Indus territory, and around the Peshawar Valley, between 300 and 1500 m Salt Range, the Siwalik Tract and outer Himalaya, between 300 and 3000 m from Eastern Afghanistan, Pakistan, northwestern and western Himalaya to Kumaon. The species is occasionally found on exposed hilly slopes from 450 to 1980 m. Cultivated in the plains for its attractive foliage, which is bright red when young. Healthy trees provide valuable wood for furniture. Often blackish irregular-shaped galls appear on the leaves and petioles (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020). P. integerrima is mainly Asiatic and shows a preference for dry slopes with shallow soils. The tree does not tolerate fire and is strongly susceptible to acidic soils. However it is wind firm, termite resistant, frost hardy, and moderately drought resistant (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4). Pistacia khinjuk: Tree or shrub up to 6 m tall. Young shoots puberulous. Leaves imparipinnate. Leaflets 3–7 in number, coriaceous, opposite to subopposite, subsessile, 45–76 mm  26–55 mm, ovate to ovate-oblong, glabrous (young leaves puberulous), apiculate or subacuminate, base often oblique; terminal leaflet larger than the laterals; rachis  terete, sparsely puberulous. Panicles extra-axillary, suberect, 14–16( 22)-cm long. Drupe 4–6-mm long, suborbicular in outline, compressed, apiculate, epicarp nervose, but not prominently so. Flowering March to April. Turkey, North Iraq, North Syria, Egypt, Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan. Found in dry rocky areas from 1524 to 2438 m (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020). Regarded as threatened (Ahmad Jan et al. 2019).

Local Medicinal Uses The fruits of Pistacia atlantica are digestive, used for mouth diseases, and the latex for wound healing (Altundaga and Oztürk 2011).

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Fig. 1 Pistacia integerrima (Anacardiaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammand Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 2 Pistacia integerrima (Anacardiaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammand Ahmad Jan)

Pistacia integerrima: Leaves are used for asthma, cough, and diarrhea (Abbasi et al. 2010). Galls are burnt to ash and mixed with honey or sugar. One spoon is given daily to cure whooping cough and asthma. The bark is torn from the tree and boiled in water. This boiled extract is cooled and used as refrigerant and in jaundice. The galls are powdered and used as an antidote to snake venom and scorpion sting. Galls are crushed and mixed with wheat flour and gur and given to buffaloes with intestinal colic (Shah and Khan 2006). The galls are powdered and fried in Ghee and given to treat dysentery (Jan et al. 2008a, b). Leaf galls are taken for cough and asthma (Abbasi et al. 2013). Galls are tonic and expectorant, used in cough and asthma (Jan et al. 2008). Bark decoction of the plant is used for jaundice (Jan et al. 2017). Gall powder is used for scorpion sting and snakebite (Butt et al. 2015). Local healers use its decoction to cure jaundice (Ali et al. 2018). Fresh fruits are crushed and mixed

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Fig. 3 Pistacia integerrima (Anacardiaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammand Ahmad Jan)

with water. It is used for jaundice and hepatitis (Abbasi et al. 2009). Leaf galls are burnt on oven to become ash and is mixed with sugar for asthma, cough, and other diseases of the respiratory tract (Shah et al. 2015). It is applied to chronic wounds and used to treat liver disorders and for jaundice (Ahmad Jan et al. 2017). It is also used to treat gout (Ahmad Jan et al. 2019) and applied to snakebites (Houghton and Osibogun 1993). In Jammu and Kashmir, it used for appetite loss, asthma, cough, diarrhea, dyspepsia, fever, respiratory problems, asthma, cough, flatulence, scorpion stings, snakebites, and vomiting (Gairola et al. 2014). Fruits of Pistacia khinjuk are used for jaundice (Sher et al. 2016). The same species is used to treat cough and asthma, its gum to remove phlegm, and the gum smoke for eye problems (Wali et al. 2019). Pistacia aethiopica: Twigs are uses as toothbrush. The root infusion is drunk as tea (Beentje 1994). The leaves are boiled to treat common cold (Njoroge and Bussmann 2006). Pistacia terebinthus smoke is used to cure eye diseases (Mohagheghzadeh and Faridi 2006), and the leaves are used to remedy sunstroke (Yeşilada et al. 1995). It is used also to treat colds, flu, and ulcers, as diuretic, for wound healing, to remedy

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Fig. 4 Pistacia integerrima (Anacardiaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

high blood pressure (Akgul et al. 2018), to treat colds and flu, and for urinary system problems, inflammations, and cough (Altundaga and Oztürk 2011). Pistacia mutica: A decoction of leaves is used in diarrhea and for stomach pains (Mehdiyeva et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017). A plaster is made of the gum mixed with wax and butter, which is applied for the treatment of wounds. The gum is used externally as analgesic (Mehdiyeva et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017). The gum “saqqiz” is used as chewing gum for mechanical cleaning and strengthening of the teeth (Mehdiyeva et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017).

Local Food Uses Pistacia khinjuk fruits are eaten (Ahmad and Pieroni 2016). Pistacia chinensis fruits are eaten (Ahmad and Pieroni 2016). Pistacia aethiopica: The wood serves as poles, and the trunk yields excellent mastic (Beentje 1994). The roots of Pistacia mutica yield a dye used for wool (Bussmann et al. 2016; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017). Pistacia erythrocarpa is used as condiment (Ahmad and Ahmad 2015). Pistacia terebinthus fruits are used as raw snack (Yeşil et al. 2019), and leaves are eaten as raw salad. The fruits are sometimes roasted and used like coffee (Cakilcioglu and Turkoglu 2010; Cakilcioglu et al. 2011), the leaves in soup (Akgul et al. 2018).

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses Pistacia khinjuk gum is used to mend broken pots and as glue, the wood is used as firewood and often sold, and the leaves serve as forage (Wali et al. 2019). Pistacia lentiscus smoke is used to purify the air (Mohagheghzadeh and Faridi 2006). Pistacia integerrima: Shoots and leaves are used as medium-quality fodder, fuel wood, and charcoal. Timber is used in house construction, carving, furniture manufacture, farm implements, musical instruments, and thatch. The timber can also be used in veneer and plywood manufacture. Tannin or dyestuff is obtained from insect galls, bark, and leaves. The essential oil obtained by steam-distillation of Kakra Singi, the indigenous drug prepared from P. integerrima, contains alpha-pinene (25%), camphene (27%), di-limonene (4–5%), 1:8-cineol (10%), alpha-terpineol (20%), and aromadendrene (4–5%) and also a small percentage of a lactonic stearoptene. Fifteen percent by volume of the oil is caprylic acid. P. integerrima galls are used in traditional medicine to treat coughs, asthma, diarrhea, dysentery, fever, vomiting, appetite loss, nose bleeding, snakebites, and scorpion stings. The plant extracts are used in treating livestock diseases. Pistacia mutica: A dye solution is prepared from the bark to obtain gray and grayblack colors and is used for dyeing wool yarn as well as products made of wool. It is a beautiful tree, mainly in autumn, with its specific wide round or half-round crown and can be used in the construction of parks and gardens. The wood is very valuable, firm, heavy, solid with beautiful texture and pleasant odor, and wellpolished and used in joinery and turnery. Charcoal from Pistacia is very strong and keeps the heat for a long time. The fruits contain about 60% oil, suitable for use as fuel and raw material in the production of soap (Mehdiyeva et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017). Pistacia erythrocarpa is used to extract gum, and the fruits are dried to make prayer necklaces (Ahmad and Ahmad 2015). It is also used as soap to relieve dandruff (Altundaga and Oztürk 2011).

References Abbasi AM, Khan MA, Ahmad M, Zafar M, Khan H, Muhammad N, Sultana S. Medicinal plants used for the treatment of jaundice and hepatitis based on socio-economic documentation. Afr J Biotechnol. 2009;8(8):1643–50. Abbasi AM, Khan MA, Ahmed M, Zafar M. Herbal medicines used to cure various ailments by the inhabitants of Abbottabad district, North West Frontier Province, Pakistan. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2010;9(1):175–83. Abbasi AM, Khan MA, Khan N, Shah MH. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinally important wild edible fruits species used by tribal communities of Lesser Himalayas–Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;148(2):528–36. Ahmad SA, Ahmad AAA. Ethnobotany of the Hawraman region of Kurdistan. Harv Pap Bot. 2015;20(1):85–9. Ahmad Jan H, Wali S, Ahmad L, Jana S, Ahmad N, Ullah N. Ethnomedicinal survey of medicinal plants of Chinglai valley, Buner district, Pakistan. Eur J Integr Med. 2017;13:64–74.

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Ahmad Jan H, Jan S, Bussmann RW, Wali S, Sist F, Ahmad L. Complementary and alternative medicine research, prospects and limitations in Pakistan: a literature review. Acta Ecol Sin. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chnaes.2019.12.005. Ahmad K, Pieroni A. Folk knowledge of wild food plants among the tribal communities of Thakhte-Sulaiman Hills, North-West Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:17. https://doi.org/10. 1186/s13002-016-0090-2. Akgul A, Akgul A, Senol SG, Yildirim H, Secmen O, Dogan Y. An ethnobotanical study in Midyat (Turkey), a city on the silk road where cultures meet. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14:12. https:// doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0201-8. Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. Karachi/St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi/Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995–2020. Ali A, Badshah L, Hussain F. Ethnobotanical appraisal and conservation status of medicinal plants in Hindukush Range, District Swat, Pakistan. J Herbs Spices Med Plants. 2018;24(4):1–24. Altundaga E, Oztürk M. Ethnomedicinal studies on the plant resources of East Anatolia, Turkey. Procedia Soc Behav Sci. 2011;19:756–77. Beentje H. Kenya trees and shrubs. Nairobi: National Museums of Kenya; 1994. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer; 2017. XXVII, p. 746. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia Sakartvelo, Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0110-2. Butt MA, Ahmad M, Fatima A, Sultana S, Zafar M, Yaseen G, Kayani S. Ethnomedicinal uses of plants for the treatment of snake and scorpion bite in Northern Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;168:164–81. Cakilcioglu U, Turkoglu I. An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants in Sivrice (Elazıg-Turkey). J Ethnopharmacol. 2010;132:165–75. Cakilcioglu U, Khatun S, Turkoglu I, Hayta S. Ethnopharmacological survey of medicinal plants in Maden (Elazig-Turkey). J Ethnopharmacol. 2011;137:469–86. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Houghton PJ, Osibogun IM. Flowering plants used against snakebite. J Ethnopharmacol. 1993;39:1–29. Jan G, Khan MA, Gul F. Ethnomedicinal plants used against diarrhea and dysentery in Dir Kohistan Valley (NWFP), Pakistan. Ethnobot Leafl. 2008a;2008(1):84. Jan S, Khan MA, Ud-din S, Murad W, Hussain M, Ghani A. Herbal remedies used for gastrointestinal disorders in Kaghan Valley, NWFP, Pakistan. Pak J Weed Sci Res. 2008b;14(3–4):169–200. Jan HA, Wali S, Ahmad L, Jan S, Ahmad N, Ullah N. Ethnomedicinal survey of medicinal plants of Chinglai valley, Buner district, Pakistan. Eur J Integr Med. 2017;13:64–74. Mehdiyeva N, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Pistacia mutica Fisch. & C. A. Mey. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-49412-8_118. Mohagheghzadeh A, Faridi P. Medicinal smokes. J Ethnopharmacol. 2006;108:161–84. Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Traditional management of ear, nose and throat (ENT) diseases in Central Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:54. Shah GM, Khan MA. Common medicinal folk recipes of Siran Valley, Mansehra, Pakistan. Ethnobot Leaf. 2006;2006(1):5. Shah GM, Hussain M, Abbasi AM. Medicinal plants used to treat respiratory tract illness in Kaghan Valley, Himalayan Region–Pakistan. SMGE book; 2015. p. 5. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni groups in Chitral District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Wali R, Rahman K, Raja NI, Qureshi R, Bussmann RW, Mashwani ZUR. A quantitative medico botanical expedition of Fairy Meadows National Park, Diamir, Gilgit Baltistan, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18(35):1–30. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.35.1-30.

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Plantago depressa Willd Plantago lanceolata L. Plantago major L. Plantago ovata Forssk. PLANTAGINACAE Archana M. Kattel, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Wahid Hussain, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Synonyms Plantago depressa Willd.: Plantago depressa f. magnibracteata (Tosh.) Tanaka & T. K. Zhen, Plantago depressa subsp. turczaninowii (Ganesch.) Tzvelev, Plantago paludosa Turcz. ex Ledeb., Plantago sibirica Poir., Plantago tibetica Hook. f. & Thomson, Plantago depressa var. eudepressa Ganesch., Plantago depressa f. glaberrima Kom., Plantago depressa f. minor Kom., Plantago tibetica Hook. f. Plantago lanceolata L.: Plantago lanceolata fo. eriophora (Hoffmanns & Link) Beck; Plantago lanceolata var. sphaerostachya Mert. & W. D. J. Koch; Plantago sinuata Lam. Plantago major L.: Plantago borysthenica Wissjul.; Plantago dregeana Decne; Plantago gigas H. Lév.; Plantago intermedia Gilib.; Plantago jehohlensis Koidz.; Plantago latifolia Salisb.; Plantago macronipponica Yamam.; Plantago major fo. A. M. Kattel Shakti Global, LLC, Orlando, FL, USA H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan W. Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_188

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scopulorum (Fr. & Broberg) Pilg.; Plantago major ssp. pleiosperma Pilg.; Plantago major var. borysthenica Rogow; Plantago major var. gigas (H. Lév.) H. Lév.; Plantago major var. jehohlensis (Koids.) S. H. Li; Plantago major var. kimurae Yaman.; Plantago major var. paludosa Bég.; Plantago major var. pauciflora (Gilib.) Bég.; Plantago major var. sawadai Yamam.; Plantago major var. sinuate (Lam.) Decne.; Plantago officinarum Crantz; Plantago pauciflora Gilib.; Plantago sawadai (Yamam.) Yamam.; Plantago sinuata Lam.; Plantago villifera Kitag Plantago ovata Forssk.: Plantago ispaghula Roxb. ex Fleming

Local Names Plantago depressa: Nepal, India: ishabgol; Garhwal: syamatu; Sanskrit: ashvagola; Tharu: bhatbhadwa; Newari: isagol; Arabic: bajkathuna; Chinese: 平 车前; English: Indian plantago, songel seeds, psyllium Plantago lanceolata: Gilgit-Baltistan: khapoy patey; Pashto: jabai, naray jabai ‫ﺝﺏ‬ ‫ﻥﺍﺭ‬ Plantago major: Nepal: ishabgol; Sanskrit: ashvagola, snigdhabija; Pashtro: ghwa jabai ‫ﻏﻮﺍ ﺟﺒﯥ‬

Botany and Ecology Plantago depressa: Herbs, annual, winter annual, or perennial. Taproot long,
fleshy or becoming woody when old. Leaves basal, sparsely or densely white pubescent; petiole 2–7 cm; leaf blade elliptic, elliptic-lanceolate, obovateelliptic, or ovate-lanceolate, 3–15 cm  1–5.5 cm, papery, veins 5 or 7, base cuneate and decurrent onto petiole, margin repand-crenate, irregularly serrate, dentate, or entire, apex acute to obtuse. Spikes narrowly cylindric, 6–12 cm, densely flowered, R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia

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interrupted basally; peduncle 5–18 cm, white pubescent; bracts triangular-ovate, 2– 3.5 mm, glabrous, keel extending near or to apex. Sepals 2–2.5 mm, glabrous, keel not extending to apex; lower sepals narrowly obovate-elliptic to broadly elliptic; upper sepals obovate-elliptic to broadly elliptic. Corolla white, glabrous; lobes elliptic to ovate, 0.5–1 mm, patent to reflexed. Stamens adnate to near apex of corolla tube, exserted; anthers white, ovoid-ellipsoid to broadly ellipsoid, 0.6– 1.5 mm. Pyxis ovoid-ellipsoid to conic-ovoid, 4–5 mm, circumscissile near base, with 4 seeds. Seeds yellowish brown to black, ellipsoid, 1.2–1.8 mm, ventral face prominent to slightly flat; cotyledons parallel to ventral side. Flowering May to July, fruiting July to September (Wu et al. 2011; Wu et al. 1994–2013). Wind-pollinated and propagates primarily by seeds. This herb is usually found under tree shade on waste ground, in the Himalayas. Range East Asia – China and Korea – indigenous to Asia and the Mediterranean region specially Southern Europe, North Africa, and West Asia including Nepal (Sood and Thakur 2015). Plantago lanceolata: Perennial. Plant 8–70 cm tall, with well-developed tap root and with several or numerous (25–30) erect or ascending leaves, elliptic-lanceolate, lanceolate or linear-lanceolate, 3–5(–7)-veined, gradually narrowed toward base and apex, acute, with short or fairly long petioles; entire, rarely sparsely dentate, glabrous or densely hairy or lanate. Scapes distinctly longitudinally sulcate, usually pubescent, upward appressed hairy. Spikes dense, compact, capitate or cylindrical, 0.5– 7 cm long. Bracts ovate or elliptic, membranous, with distinct herbaceous keel not reaching the tip of bracts, short or long acuminate, equaling or exceeding calyx, glabrous or sparsely hairy. Calyx lobes 2.5–3.5-mm long, membranous, all with distinct herbaceous keel, glabrous, rarely more or less hairy along back, 2 anterior calyx lobes connate, forming a broad, shortly bilobed scale with 2 keels. Corolla lobes ovate or oblong-ovate, acuminate, about 1.2-mm long. Capsule elliptic, about 3-mm long, 2-seeded. Seeds oblong or oblong-elliptic, with one side convex, the other sulcate. Flowering April to September (October). Caucasus, Ural, dry meadows, wastelands, roadsides, banks of river and irrigation ditches, fallow land, open dry slopes, etc., usually on plains as well as in mountains, reaching to high mountain zones (Shishkin 1953) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3). Fig. 1 Plantago lanceolata (Plantaginaceae), Iran. (Photo Farzaneh Khajoei Nasab)

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Fig. 2 Plantago lanceolata (Plantaginaceae), Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R. W. Bussmann and N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Plantago lanceolata (Plantaginaceae), Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R. W. Bussmann and N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Plantago major: Perennial. Plant 8–30 cm tall, with well-developed tap root and with several erect or prostrate leaves, elliptic, 3–5(–7)-veined, with short petioles; entire, rarely sparsely dentate, glabrous or densely hairy or lanate. Scapes distinctly longitudinally sulcate, usually pubescent, upward appressed hairy. Spikes dense, compact, capitate or cylindrical, 2–7-cm long. Bracts ovate or elliptic, membranous, with distinct herbaceous keel not reaching the tip of bracts, short or long acuminate,

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equaling or exceeding calyx, glabrous or sparsely hairy. Calyx lobes 2.5–3.5-mm long, membranous, all with distinct herbaceous keel, glabrous, rarely more or less hairy along back, 2 anterior calyx lobes connate, forming a broad, shortly bilobed scale with 2 keels. Corolla lobes ovate or oblong-ovate, acuminate, about 1.5-mm long. Capsule elliptic, about 3-mm long, 2-seeded. Seeds oblong or oblong-elliptic, with one side convex, the other sulcate. Flowering April to September (October). Caucasus, Ural, vacant lots, garbage places, near settlements, forest meadows, glades, banks of reservoirs, along roads (Shishkin 1953) (Figs. 4, 5, and 6). Plantago ovata: Herbs, annual. Taproot long and tenuous, rigid. Stem short, branched basally, internode 2–15 mm, densely white villous-lanate. Leaves spirally alternate, sparsely to densely white villous-lanate; petiole 2–5 cm, tenuous; leaf blade linear to linear-lanceolate, 3–15 cm  1–6 mm, papery, veins 3, base attenuate and decurrent onto petiole, margin entire or remotely denticulate, apex with 1.5– 5 mm subulate tip. Spikes ovoid and 0.5–2 cm at anthesis but narrowly ovoid to shortly cylindric and to 5 cm after anthesis, densely flowered; peduncle 3–22 cm, villous-lanate; bracts broadly ovate to orbicular, 3–4 mm, usually glabrous, keel extending to or near apex. Sepals 2.5–3 mm, keel extending to or near apex; lower sepals obovate-elliptic, glabrous or pubescent; upper sepals elliptic, glabrous. Corolla white, glabrous; lobes orbicular-ovate, 2.5–2.8 mm, patent to reflexed, apex acute. Stamens adnate to near apex of corolla tube, exserted; anthers yellowish-brown when dry, ovoid, 0.9–1.3 mm. Pyxis ellipsoid, 4–5 mm, circumscissile near middle, with 2 seeds. Seeds yellowish-brown, ellipsoid to ovoid-ellipsoid, 2.5–3 mm, with a groove Fig. 4 Plantago major (Plantaginaceae), Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R. W. Bussmann and N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 5 Plantago major (Plantaginaceae), Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R. W. Bussmann and N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

on ventral face; cotyledons vertical to ventral side. Flowering May to June, fruiting June to July (Wu et al. 1994–2013).

Phytochemistry Plantago constituents include acids (e.g., benzoic, caffeic, chlorogenic, cinnamic, p-coumaric, fumaric, salicylic, ursolic, vanillic, ascorbic), alkaloids (i.e., boschniakine), and amino acids (e.g., alanine, asparagine, histidine, lysine). The carbohydrates such as saccharose, stachyose, sorbitol, and tyrosol have also been reported (Newall et al. 1996). A variety of sugar and polysaccharide components of the seed mucilage including galactose, glucose, xylose, arabinose, and rhamnose are reported (Brautigam and Franz 1985). Chemical research of Plantago depressa Willd. led to one new phenylethanoid glucoside with α-L-rhamnosyl (1 ! 2)-β-D-glucose structure, together with four known compounds. The chemotaxonomic significance of cerebrosides was also discussed (Yu et al. 2013). Additionally, the seeds contain fixed oil, protein, iridoids, and tannins (Bisset 1994). Flavonoids found in plantago include apigenin, baicalein, and scutellarein (Newall et al. 1996). Other components of the plant include choline, fat, resin, steroids, volatile compounds, triterpenoids, phenolic acids, flavonoids, and vitamins (Duke 1989). There are also iridoids (aucubin, aucuboside, melittoside, catalpol), alkaloids,

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Fig. 6 Plantago major (Plantaginaceae), Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R. W. Bussmann and N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

flavonoids (apyrenine, luteolin, scutellarin, baicalein, luteolin, baikalin, apienylene, rispiduline, romotratinine, nepitrin, rhamnopyranoside, methoxyflavone), steroids (sitosterol, stimasterin, cholesterol, campesterine), fatty acids (linoleic), carbohydrates (pectic acid, mannitol, sorbitol), phenols (tyrosol), phenolcarboxylic acids (lilac, vanillic, hydroxbenzoic, ferulic, p-coumaric, rentisine, salicylic, benzoin, cinnamic, chloroenic), steroids (sitosterol, stigmasterol, cholesterol, campesterol), and nitrogen-containing compounds (allantoin) (Sokolov 1990).

Local Medicinal Uses Plantago species have been used traditionally as herbal remedies. The herb is astringent, anti-toxic, antimicrobial, antifungal, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, anti-histamine, as well as demulcent, expectorant, styptic, and diuretic (Samuelsen 2000). Externally, a poultice of the leaves is useful for insect bites, poison ivy rashes, minor sores, boils, and snakebite. The leaves are used as a remedy to prevent infection on cuts and scratches because of its antiseptic properties. The leaves were used as a cure for blisters resulting from friction (such as caused by tight shoes, etc.) and as a relief on mosquito bites. Plantago seed husks expand and become mucilaginous when wet, which is used in common over-the-counter bulk laxative and fiber supplement products. The gel-forming fraction of the seed was effective in prolonging release rates of tetracycline

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in vitro (Singla and Singh 1990). There are many psyllium products used for constipation. Mucilage is obtained by grinding off the husk, also known as psyllium, which is commonly sold as isabgol, a laxative which is used to control irregular bowel syndrome and constipation (Sangwan et al. 2011). It has been used as an indigenous Ayurvedic and Unani medicine for a whole range of bowel problems. Psyllium supplements are typically used in powder form, taken daily along with adequate amounts of fluids (water or juice), and also used for management of elevated cholesterol. A polyphenolic compound from plantago leaves exhibited hypocholesterolemic activity (Maksiutina et al. 1978; Miettinen and Tarpila 1989; Blumenthal and Busse 1998). According to many reports, psyllium can be helpful in treating various types of hyperlipidemia (Generali 1989; Bell et al. 1989). The plant has been used for glycemic control in type 2 diabetic patients by giving psyllium for 6–12 weeks (Gibb et al. 2015). An aqueous extract of plantago 3–6 g/day as a tea has been used to treat respiratory infections like chronic bronchitis, asthma, cough, and cold (Newall et al. 1996). This plant is used to cure epilepsy and to improve nervous pains using drops or massage of mucilage or nasal inhalation (Avicenna 2009). Plantago plant extract has been found effective in anticancer studies (López et al. 2009; Velasco-Lezama et al. 2006; Najafian et al. 2018). Plantago depressa: The leaf juice is applied to the affected parts of a snakebite, eight to ten times as an antidote (Bhattarai 1993). The crushed leaves are applied to cuts and wounds as a hemostatic and antiseptic to promote healing (Joshi and Edington 1990). The whole plant, seed, seed husk, leaves, etc., have been used to treat coughs and bronchitis, by boiling the plant in water. Also it is used to treat fever, diarrhea, and dysentery (Acharya and Acharya 2009). The mucilage of the seed is used as laxative, demulcent, expectorant, and diuretic (Rokaya et al. 2010; Acharya 2012). The infusion of the plant has been given to drink three times a day to treat urinary disorders (Joshi and Joshi 2000). A decoction of root prepared by boiling 7–10 g of the root in 300–400 ml of water and drinking the warm decoction twice a day for 3 or more days has been in practice as an antipyretic drug (Bhattarai 1993). Plant juice is given to treat fever and leucorrhoea (Manandhar 1990). Use of root, leaf, and seed has been in practice to treat diarrhea, dysentery, intestinal problems, fever, bruises, and overheat and as a tonic (Kunwar et al. 2010; Pandey 2006; Thapa 2012). Also, in some villages of Nepal the root paste is applied on to boils, on joints, and on the forehead to treat fever and headache (Kunwar and Adhikari 2005). A small piece (about 1 g) of root chewed daily before meal is a method to treat gastritis. Plantago lanceolata: The plant is used as emollient in Pakistan (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018), as well as against diarrhea (Sher et al. 2016). Leaves and fruits are used for urinary disorders, dysentery, skin sores, burns, and wounds (Ahmad et al. 2014). Fresh leaf paste is applied topically on sores. Seed husk along with sugar (gur) is mixed in water and taken orally for jaundice, internal body inflammation, and constipation (Abbasi et al. 2013). Leaves are applied to treat bedsores, inflamed surfaces, and candidiasis (Akhtar et al. 2013). Flower infusion is used for diarrhea and dysentery, and leaf decoction is for asthma/breathing problem, bronchitis, and gastritis (Bano et al. 2014). Leaf extract is applied to sores, wounds, and inflamed surfaces. It is a laxative and is used for dysentery and mouth diseases (Jan et al. 2008). Plant is used for dysentery, laxative, and mouth diseases (Hadi et al. 2014).

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Plant is used for piles and stomach and intestinal problems and as laxative (Mahmood et al. 2012). Decoction of boiled leaves is used for respiratory problems. Seeds are taken with milk to ease digestion (Khan et al. 2013). Seeds are used for constipation, loose motion, and diarrhea (Ahmad et al. 2006). Seeds are used with sugar as a purgative; leaves are applied on sore wounds and inflamed surfaces (Hussain et al. 2006). It is also used for herpes and burns, boils, skin diseases, ulcers, constipation (Singh et al. 2017), wound healing (Kumar et al. 2006), dysmenorrhea, and stomachache (Sher et al. 2016). The leaf extract is used as contraceptive and for gonorrhea. The roots are used to treat cystitis, gastric problems, tuberculosis, headache, and snakebites. In the Northern Caucasus, the leaf decoction is used to treat tuberculosis, pleurisy, and wounds, as spasmolytic and expectorant, and for enteritis, enterocolitis, gastric ulcers, liver disease, malaria, bronchitis, whooping cough, bronchial asthma, acute respiratory diseases, anemia, hemorrhoids, and scrofulosis. Topically, as cataplasm the leaves are used for furuncles, ulcers, infected wounds, and edema. Plantago has a weak expectorant effect. (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1990). The leaves are used to treat digestive problems, wounds, gastritis, and stomach ailments and are used as antiinflammatory (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2017; Bussmann 2017). The plant is used as emollient in Pakistan (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018), as well as against diarrhea (Sher et al. 2016). The leaves are used as a demulcent to treat dermal wounds, cutting, dermal inflammation, and wart (Ghorbani 2005). Powdered seeds are used for coughs and powdered leaves are used for hemorrhages, infections, wounds, and pains (Naghibi et al. 2014). Decoction, infusion, and raw form of leaves and seeds are used to strengthen the body and treat the enuresis in children, constipation, common cold, and anemia (Khajoei Nasab and Esmailpour 2018). Poultice made from leaves are used for headaches and seeds boiled in water for common cold (Khajoei Nasab and Khosravi 2014). Soaked leaves and seeds in water are used for scabies, sore throat, wounds, hemorrhage, and infection (Mosaddegh et al. 2016). It is also used to stop hemorrhages (Wali et al. 2019), as emollient (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018), and to treat rheumatism and bruises (Ahmad and Ahmad 2015). Plantago major: In the Himalayas the leaves and seeds are used for diarrhea and indigestion (Kunwar and Bussmann 2009). Leaves are applied to treat bedsores and candidiasis (Akhtar et al. 2013). Leaves are warmed and added to warm wet flour of maize and placed on the ulcer for rupture (Jan et al. 2010). Powder of leaves is given for abdominal pain and indigestion. Dry seeds soaked in water are given in to cure dysentery. The paste of tuber is used as antidandruff agent (Ahmad and Habib 2014). Root powder is considered to be a very effective pain remedy for toothache and gum problems, chronic dysentery, diarrhea, and constipation. Seeds and leaves are also used (Qureshi et al. 2007). Seeds are collected, cleaned, dried, and stored. Whenever someone has got stabbing pains in the family, these seeds are fried with butter or apricot kernel oil and by adding water and flour, a soup is made and is given to the patient before going to bed at night (Khan et al. 2011). Leaves are astringent and used for inflammation of the skin, malignant ulcer, and intermittent fever. Seeds are used in chronic dysentery, diarrhea and constipation, kidney disorder, and gonorrhea (Shedayi and Gulshan 2012). Leaves are cooked and taken orally to cure seasonal fevers. Chopped leaves are used as poultice to cure wounds. Seeds are considered as

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Fig. 7 Plantago lanceolata (Plantaginaceae), fresh harvested, Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R. W. Bussmann and N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

tonic. Root decoction and infusion is taken as anti-dysenteric and leaf decoction for breathing problems (Khan et al. 2013). Seeds are soaked in water and taken to treat diarrhea (Shah and Hussain 2012). Aerial parts are used as pain killer, carminative, and purgative and for stomach disorders (Hassan et al. 2019). Leaves and seeds are used for skin discoloration and dysentery (Tariq et al. 2019). Plantago major leaves are used for gonorrhea and the roots for fever due to snakebites. In the Altai the leaf extract is mixed with milk for kidney and respiratory infections and tuberculosis, enuresis, diarrhea, anthrax, and lung cancer and as powder for wound healing. In the Caucasus the leaves and roots are employed for gastritis, colitis, enterocolitis, tuberculosis, and pleurisy and as an expectorant for bronchitis, bronchial asthma, and pertussis, as well as for epilepsy in children. Plantago has a weak expectorant effect (Sokolov 1990). The leaves are used to treat wounds; for cough, digestive disorders, and gastritis; and as hemostatic and anti-inflammatory. The roots are used to treat stomach ailments (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2017; Bussmann 2017). In the Himalayas the leaves and seeds are used for diarrhea and indigestion (Kunwar and Bussmann 2009). The infusion of leaves and seed is used as demulcent of cuttings, for wart, and orally for cough and as expectorant for respiratory system problems (Ghorbani 2005; Mosaddegh et al. 2016). Decoction of seeds is used to treat constipation, common cold, and cough and for strengthening babies (Khajoei Nasab and Khosravi 2014). Decoction or infusion of seeds is used to strengthen the body; to treat enuresis in children, common colds, anemia, lumbago, and leg pain (Khajoei Nasab and Esmailpour 2018); to treat rheumatism and bruises (Ahmad and Ahmad 2015); and for stomach problems (Ahmad Jan et al. 2017). It is also applied for diarrhea and indigestion (Kunwar and Bussmann 2009) (Figs. 7 and 8).

Local Food Uses Plantago depressa: The leaves contain calcium and other minerals, with 100 g of plantain containing approximately the same amount of beta-carotene as a large carrot (Scott and Buhner 2010). Some varieties are used as a leaf vegetable for salads and

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Fig. 8 Plantago lanceolata (Plantaginaceae), drying for winter, Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R. W. Bussmann and N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

green sauce. Also, tender young plantago leaves can be eaten raw, and older leaves can be cooked. The seeds can be cooked like rice (Nyerges 2016) The leaves are boiled with water and used as tea. In China, it is used as health food and vegetable (Zhang et al. 2016). Plantago lanceolata: Used for sarma (Dogan et al. 2015, 2017) Plantago major: The leaves and shoots are used in phkhali (herb pie), normally with other species (Batsatsashvili 2017a, b, c; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2017; Bussmann 2017). Dried and ground Plantago major is used for cooking sauces, as seasoning for soup, and in meat and fish dishes and sugared with milk (Sokolov 1990). It is also used for sarma (Dogan et al. 2015, 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Plantago depressa: The mature plant contains pliable and tough fibers that can be used in survival situations to make small cords, fishing line, sutures, or braids (Tilford 1997). The leaves are used with coconut oil as lotion. Also, the leaves are used on the shoe as a sole. Plantago lanceolata and Plantago major: These can be used as fodder for cattle, sheep, and camels. The whole plant is rich in tannins and is often used for tanning (Sokolov 1990).

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Mosaddegh M, Esmaeili S, Hassanpour A, Malekmohammadi M, Naghibi F. Ethnobotanical study in the highland of Alvand and Tuyserkan, Iran. Res J Pharmacogn. 2016;3:7–17. Naghibi F, Esmaeili S, Malekmohammadi M, Hassanpour A, Mosaddegh M. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used traditionally in two villages of Hamedan, Iran. Res J Pharmacogn. 2014;1:7–14. Najafian Y, Hamedi SS, Farshchi MK, Feyzabadi Z. Plantago major in Traditional Persian Medicine and modern phytotherapy: a narrative review. Electron Physician. 2018;10(2):6390– 9. https://doi.org/10.19082/6390. Newall CA, Anderson LA, Phillipson JD, editors. Herbal medicines: a guide for health-care professionals. London: Pharmaceutical Press; 1996. Nyerges C. Foraging wild edible plants of North America: more than 150 delicious recipes using nature’s edibles. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield; 2016. p. 142. ISBN 978-1-4930-1499-6. Pandey MR. Use of medicinal plants in traditional Tibetan therapy system in Upper Mustang, Nepal. Our Nat. 2006;4:69–82. Qureshi RA, Ghufran MA, Sultana KN, Ashraf M, Khan AG. Ethnomedicinal studies of medicinal plants of Gilgit District and surrounding areas. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2007;5:115–22. Rokaya MB, Münzbergováa Z, Timsina B. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants from the Humla district of western Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010;130:485–504. Samuelsen AB. The traditional uses, chemical constituents and biological activities of Plantago major L. A review. J Ethnopharmacol. 2000;77(1–2):1–21. Sangwan YS, Sngwan S, Jalwal P, Murti K, Kaushik M. Mucilages and their pharmaceutical applications: an overview. Pharmacol Online. 2011;2:1265–71. Scott TL, Buhner SH. Invasive plant medicine: the ecological benefits and healing abilities of invasives. Rochester: Inner Traditions/Bear & Co; 2010. p. 253. Shah SM, Hussain F. Ethnomedicinal plant wealth of Mastuj valley, Hindukush range, District Chitral, Pakistan. J Med Plant Res. 2012;6:4328–37. Shedayi AA, Gulshan B. Ethnomedicinal uses of plant resources in Gilgit-Baltistan of Pakistan. J Med Plant Res. 2012;6(29):4540–9. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among the Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni ethnic groups in Chitral District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, volume 23: Bignoniaceae – Valerianaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1953. (English 2000). Singh A, Nautiyal MC, Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal plants used by local inhabitants of Jakholi block, Rudraprayag district, western Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13(1):49. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0178-3. Singla A, Singh Y. Effect of ispaghula husk on the release rate of tetracycline in vitro. Indian J Hosp Pharm. 1990;27:29–33. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 5. Families of Caprifoliaceae – Plantaginaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1990. p. 328. (in Russian). Sood SK, Thakur R. Book herbal resources of India and Nepal: tonic, memory booster and mood swing. Jodhpur: Scientific Publishers; 2015. p. 282. Tariq F, Inzimam-ul-haq S, Natasha K, Ahmad J, Ahmad F, Adnan., Ali, A., & Basit, A. Ethnomedicinal study of various plants in lone valley, district Chitral, KPK, Pakistan. J Med Plants. 2019;7(3):24–8. Thapa LB. Indigenous knowledge on common medicinal plants among Raji community of Surkhet district, mid-western Nepal. Nepal J Biosci. 2012;2:88–92. Tilford GL. Edible and medicinal plants of the West. Missoula: Mountain Press; 1997. p. 112. ISBN 9780878423590. Ur-Rahman I, Afsal A, Iqbal Z, Ijas F, Ali N, Asif M, Alam J, Majid A, Bussmann RW. Traditional and ethnomedicinal dermatology practices in Pakistan. Clin Dermatol. 2018;36(3):310–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clindermatol.2018.03.018.

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Pleione humilis (Sm.) D. Don. ORCHIDACEAE Prakash Bhattarai, Yagya P. Adhikari, Ripu M. Kunwar, and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Pleione humilis (Sm.) D. Don.: Coelogyne humilis (Sm.) Lindl., Coelogyne humilis var. albata Rchb. f., Coelogyne humilis var. tricolor Rchb. f., Epidendrum humile Sm., Pleione diantha Schltr., Pleione humilis var. adnata Pfitzer, Pleione humilis var. pulchella E.W. Cooper, Pleione humilis var. purpurascens Pfitzer

Local Names Pleione humilis: Dadeldhura, Baitadi: Manidana; Nepali: Bhuisungava; Magar: Ghabeto P. Bhattarai Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] Y. P. Adhikari (*) Department of Biogeography, BayCEER, University of Bayreuth, Bayreuth, Germany Department of Disturbance Ecology, BayCEER, University of Bayreuth, Bayreuth, Germany e-mail: [email protected] R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_190

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Botany and Ecology Pleione is one of the rare and endangered (few species of Pleione have been Red listed in IUCN as an endangered) groups of the orchid family with member species terrestrial, epiphytic, or lithophytic in nature (Chakrabarti 2009; Sympli et al. 2018). This is a genus of small but exceedingly attractive deciduous, comprises about 25 species. This delightful cool-growing genus has various habitat range; ground, on rocks or trees and are closely allied to Coelogyne. This generic name is dedicated to Pleione, mother of the Pleisdes. Pseudobulbs are one-clustered, small, often peculiar in form and sometimes mottled with black. Leaves are one or two, membranous, plicate, and deciduous. Peduncles arise from the base of each pseudobulbs, one or two flowered. Flowers are bright with delicate tints. Sepals and petals are narrow and spreading. Lip is oblong, more or less rolled over the column at the base and traversed longitudinally by 5–7 fringed keels. Anthers have short filaments and four pollinia. The optimum temperature for its suitable growth is 15.5° to 26.5 °C. This genus has normal growth except dry season December to February (Bose et al. 1999). In this chapter we are dealing one of the important orchid species found in the Himalaya, which has high medicinal values (Pleione humilis (J. E. Sm.) D. Don). Pleione humilis: Herbs, epiphytic or lithophytic. Pseudobulb olive-green, flask-shaped with a long neck, 2–6  0.8–2 cm, apex with 1 leaf. Leaf oblanceolate to elliptic, 18–25  2.8–3.5 cm, apex acute. Inflorescence produced before leaf, 1- or 2-flowered; peduncle clothed in scarious sheaths; floral bract obovate, 20–32  8–12 mm, apex subacute to obtuse. Flowers spreading to nodding; sepals and petals white, lip white, spotted and streaked with crimson or yellow-brown with a central pale yellow zone; pedicel and ovary 2–3 cm. Dorsal sepal linear-oblanceolate, 34–47  6–7 mm, apex subacute; lateral sepals obliquely oblanceolate, 40–53  70–90 mm, apex subacute. Petals obliquely linear-oblanceolate, 31–42  5–7 mm, apex rounded; lip oblong-elliptic, obscurely 3-lobed in front, 34–44  25–31 mm, base saccate, margin lacerate in apical half, apex emarginate; lateral lobes erect-incurved, callus consisting of 5–7 barbate lamellae. Column 26–28 mm, broadly winged, apex irregularly dentate (Wu et al. 1994–2013; Chen et al. 2009). Flowering time September to November (Bose et al. 1999; Fig. 1). Pleione humilis is mostly epiphytic in moss, grows on the mosses of trees species often forming a rings or collars around trunks or branches. It is a spring blooming species (Zhu et al. 1998), generally flowering from late winter to spring. A single white flower (occasionally two) with crimson or reddish-brown marking on the lips with fragrance occurs before a leaf. The native distribution of the species occurs in the Himalaya from Nepal to Northeast India (Assam, Manipur, Sikkim), Eastern Tibet, and Myanmar from an altitudinal range between 2400 m asl to 3000 m asl (Press et al. 2000). It is reported from 5 districts (Rolpa, Darchula, Dadeldhura, Bajhang, Baitadi) out of 77 districts in Nepal (Kunwar et al. 2010).

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Fig. 1 Pleione humilis (Orchidaceae) habitat, pseudobulb and flowers, at Khaptad. (Photo RM Kunwar)

Local Medicinal Uses Pleione humilis has been used as a traditional medicine in Nepal and Northeast India. The paste of pseudobulbs is used to treat cuts and wounds (Manandhar 2002; Pyakurel and Grung 2008; Pant et al. 2018; Sympli et al. 2018). Plant pseudobulb is used as galactogogue for livestock (Kunwar et al. 2010); bone fracture (BudhaMagar et al. 2020). However, no study has been conducted so far to know the actual compound present in the species. Proper scientific research has to be initiated to verify the medicinal value of the Pleione species. Though phytochemical studies have already been done in many orchids species, the lack of such study for the genus Pleione makes it difficult for making proper conservation strategies for the species. Pleione bulbocoides is used against snakebite (Houghton and Osibogun 1993), and to treat tumors (Graham et al. 2000).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Pleione humilis is one of the promising ornamental orchids of value in northeast region, India. It is one of the important species which has high commercial value and it plays important role in the international floriculture trade as cut flowers (Medhi and Chakrabarti 2009). It is listed as one of the suitable breeding orchid species (Kumar and Sheela 2007). In 2009 P. humilis live plants were exported in South Africa, Germany, the USA, and Canada for trade purpose (CITES Annual Report 2009). The pseudobulbs are used as galactagogue for livestock (Kunwar et al. 2012).

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References Bose TK, Bhattacharjee SK, Das P, Basak UC. Orchids of India. Calcutta: Naya Prakash Bidhan Sarani; 1999. Budha-Magar S, Bhandari P, Ghimire SK. Ethno-medicinal survey of plants used by Magar (Kham) community, Rolpa district, Western Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2020;19:1–29. Chakrabarti S. Conservation of orchids by the people of North Eastern India. NeBIO. 2009;1:48–52. Chen X, Cribb P, Gale S. Pleione. In: Flora of China 25 (Orchidaceae). Beijing: Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 2009. CITES Annual Report Government of India Ministry of Environment and Forests 2009. Graham JG, Quinn ML, Fabricant DS, Farnsworth NR. Plants used against cancer – an extension of the work of Jonathan Hartwell. J Ethnopharmacol. 2000;73:347–77. Houghton PJ, Osibogun IM. Flowering plants used against snakebite. J Ethnopharmacol. 1993;39:1–29. Kumar KM, Sheela VL. Status of breeding in orchids – a review. J Ornamental Hortic. 2007;10:199–208. Kunwar RM, Burlakoti C, Chaudhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants in Farwest Nepal: indigenous uses and pharmacological validity medicinal and aromatic. Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010;4:28–42. Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Sharma LN, Shrestha KP, Kominee H. Ethnobotany 2012. Underutilized plant species in far-west Nepal – a valuable resource being wasted. J Mt Sci. 9:589–600. Manandhar NP. Plants and people of Nepal. Portland: Timber Press; 2002. Medhi RP, Chakrabarti S. Traditional knowledge of NE people on conservation of wild orchids. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2009;8:11–6. Pant B, Paudel MR, Chand MB, Pradhan S, Malla BB, Raskoti BB. Orchid diversity in two community forests of Makawanpur District, central Nepal. J Threat Taxa. 2018;10:12523–30. Press JR, Shrestha KK, Sutton DA. Annotated checklist of the flowering plants of Nepal: Natural History Museum Publications, London; 2000. Pyakurel D, Grung K. Enumeration of orchids and estimation of current stock of traded orchids in Rolpa district. Final report. District forest office Rolpa. 2008. p. 38. Sympli HD, Choudhury MG, Borah VV, Gardens T, Kamarkuchi S. A review of the unexplored medicinal orchids of the genus Pleione. MIOS J. 2018;19:3–12. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Zhu G, Chen S, Chen X. Humiles, a new section of Pleione (Orchidaceae). Novon. 1998;8:461–3.

Pleurospermum candollei (Wall. ex DC.) Benth. ex C.B. Clarke APIACEAE Hassan Sher, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

Local Names Pleurospermum candollei: Pashto: Braqshundun Pleurospermum bupleuroides: Jammu: Kalu kaa, Jalu.gha, Jhudu-mudu

H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_191

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Botany and Ecology Pleurospermum candollei: Plants 10–30 cm tall. Tap root thick. Stem base covered with persistent leaf bases. Stem ca. 1 cm thick in older plants, fistular. Leaves petiolate, pinnate; pinnae like Adiantum leaflets, opposite, ovate, sinuate; leaf base sheathing; sheath lanceolate-ovate, 1–3 cm long. Involucral bracts leaf-like or lacking. Rays 5–15. Involucel of 10–15 oblong to obovate bractlets, obtuse, broadly white margined, longer than the flowering umbellet. Fruit oblong, 5 mm long, narrowly winged; furrows 2–3 vittate, commissure 6-vittate. Inner seed face deeply grooved. Himalayas in India and West Pakistan. It is common on the inner ranges from 3000 to 5000 m (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020).

Local Medicinal Uses Pleurospermum candollei: A decoction is used to treat jaundice (Abbas et al. 2019). Pleurospermum bupleuroides: Used for hematuria, and as tonic (Gairola et al. 2014).

Local Food Uses Pleurospermum angeloides: The leaves are eaten in Nepal as vegetable (Dangol et al. 2017).

References Abbas Z, Alam J, Muhammad S, Bussmann RW, Mulk Khan S, Hussain M. Phyto-cultural diversity of the Shigar valley Central Karakorum Baltistan, Northern Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18(32) https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.31.1-18. Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan and Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995–2020. Dangol DR, Maharjan KL, Maharjan SK, Acharya AK. Wild edible plants in Nepal. In: Joshi BK, Bahadur KCH, Acharya A, editors. Conservation and utilization of agricultural plant genetic resources of Nepal. Dhulikhel: NAGRC; 2017. p. 390–407. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86.

Podophyllum hexandrum Royle BERBERIDACEAE Pratikshya Chalise, Yagya Raj Paneru, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Wahid Hussain, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Podophyllum hexandrum Royle: Dysosma emodi (Wall. ex Royle) Hiroe; Podophyllum emodi Wall.; Podophyllum emodi Wall ex Hook.f. & Thoms.; Podophyllum emodi var. hexandrum (Royle) Chatterjee & Mukerjee; Podophyllum hexandrum var. axillare (R. Chatterjee & Mukerjee) Browicz; Podophyllum hexandrum var. bhootanense (Chatterjee & Mukerjee) Browicz; Podophyllum hexandrum var. emodi (Hook.f. & Thoms.) Selivan; Podophyllum hexandrum var. jaeschkei (R. Chatterjee & Mukerjee) Browicz; Sinopodophyllum emodi (Wall. ex Royle) T. S. Ying; Sinopodophyllum hexandrum (Royle) Ying.

P. Chalise National Herbarium and Plant Laboratories, Department of Plant Resources, Ministry of Forests and Environment, Godawari, Lalitpur, Nepal Y. R. Paneru (*) Department of Botany, Capital College and Research Centre, Koteshwor, Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan W. Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_192

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Local Names Podophyllum hexandrum: Pashto: kakora; Urdu: bankakri; Swat: kakora; Nepali: laghupatra, ban bhanta, papra, ban kakri, golapani, hatkaudo; Gurung: shin mendo, shin menda; Sherpa: haamung; Dolpali: meme gudhruk; Khyber Pakhtunkhwa: sheringut; Sanskrit: laghu patra; Hindi: papra, papri, banbaigan, bakrachimaka, bhananbakra, ban kakdi, aindri; Jammu: ban-kakdi; Ladakh: tandik, drenmokukshu, demokusu, papra, ol-mose, radani, draimukushu, tenumookusoo; Kashmir: wanwangun, chhmadeh, bankakru, rhodadari; Amchi: wol mo se, wolmose; Sikkim: laghu patra; Garhwal: bankakhri; Ayurveda: bantrapushi, giriparpat; Japanese: Himalayan hakkakuren; Chinese: tao er qi, tao er qi shu; English: Himalayan mayapple, Himalayan mayapple, Indian mayapple, podophyllum, Indian podophyllum.

Botany and Ecology The name Podophyllum is derived from two words “podos” meaning foot and “phyllon” meaning leaf, due to the presence of duck’s foot-shaped leaf (Gupta and Sethi 1983). The plant is categorized as rare in IUCN red list (IUCN 1993) and is listed in CITES Appendix II (Joshi et al. 2017). Podophyllum hexandrum: Plants 20–50 cm tall. Stems solitary, angulate, glabrous. Leaf petiole 10–25 cm; leaf blade orbicular, not peltate, 11–20  18–30 cm, thinly papery, abaxially pubescent, adaxially glabrous, base cordate, 3–5-dissected to about midway or more, often partitions 2- or 3-lobed, apex of lobes acute or acuminate, margin entire or coarsely dentate, teeth apiculate. Petals obovate or obovate-oblong, 2.5–3.5  1.5–1.8 cm, apex slightly sinuolate. Stamens about 1.5 cm; filaments slightly shorter than anthers, 4–6 mm; anthers linear, 5–7  1.2–1.9 mm, apex rounded, obtuse; anther connective not prolonged. Pistils about 1.2 cm; ovary with parietal placentation; style short, 1–3 mm. Berry red, ovoid-globose, 4–7  2.5– 4 cm, fleshy. Seeds maroon, ovoid-triangular. Flowering May to June, fruiting July to September. Open and shady places in coniferous forest 2000–4000 m. Distributed

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia

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in Nepal, India, China,and Pakistan including Kashmir. Locally found in the highaltitude coniferous forest of Pakistan. Harvesting time: September to March. Highly threatened due to over-harvesting (O’Neil 2017). Export banned in Pakistan (Joshi et al. 2017, Wu et al. 2011; Wu et al. 1994-2013) (Figs. 1,2, 3, 4, and 5).

Fig. 1 Podophyllum hexandrum (Berberidaceae), Nepal. (Photo Pratikshya Chalise)

Fig. 2 Podophyllum hexandrum (Berberidaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

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Fig. 3 Podophyllum hexandrum (Berberidaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

Fig. 4 Podophyllum hexandrum (Berberidaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Haider Ali)

Phytochemistry The rhizome of Podophyllum is rich in chemical constituents such as podophyllin, podophyllotoxin, quercetin, 4-dimethylpodophyllotoxin, podophyllotoxin glucoside, 4-dimethyl podophyllotoxin glucoside, kaempferol, picropodophylotoxin, isopicropodophyllone, 4-methyl deoxypodophyllotoxin, α-peltatin and S-peltatin

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Fig. 5 Podophyllum hexandrum (Berberidaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Haider Ali)

(Singh and Shah 1994), as well as podophyllotoxin 4-O-glucopyranoside and dehydropodophyllotoxin (Sharma and Arora 2015).

Local Medicinal Uses Podophyllum hexandrum: It is used as hepatic stimulant, cholagogue, and purgative. This plant has attracted attention recently due its reported cancer-curing properties. Podophyllum hexandrum is considered as a divine drug in the Indian traditional system of medicine, the Ayurveda, traditional Chinese medicine, Japanese medicine, and Eastern folk medicine (Wong et al. 2000; Liu et al. 2007). Rhizome extract shows significant anti-oxidant (Ganie et al. 2010), antiinflammatory (Prakash et al. 2005), antiviral (Giri and Narasu 2000) and antineoplastic activities (Liu et al. 2007). Rhizome and roots are hepatic stimulant, cholagogue, purgative, and bitter tonic (Chauhan 1999; GoN 2016). It is anticancerous in action (Chauhan 1999); it inhibits the formation of the microtubules (Chaudhari et al. 2014). The plant is used for treatment of various disorders such as monocytic leukemia, Hodgkin’s lymphoma, bacterial and viral infections (Cobb 1990), venereal warts (Beutner and Von Krogh 1990), rheumatoid arthralgia associated with numbness of the limbs and pyogenic infection of skin tissues, AIDSassociated Kaposi’s sarcoma, and different cancers of the brain, lungs, and bladder (Blasko and Cordell 1998). The paste of rhizomes is applied to the vagina to treat gynecological infections, menstrual disorders (Watanabe et al. 2005), worm infections, and bleeding (Kunwar and Adhikari 2005; Kunwar et al. 2006); is used for kidney problems, skin diseases, and fever (Shrestha and Shrestha 2061); and is also useful during childbirth and expulsion of placenta (Lama et al. 2001; IUCN 2004). Powder of rhizome is applied as an antiseptic and is also used to cure small tumors and for healing wounds (Mahmood et al. 2011). The root juice is used during liver problems (Kunwar and Duwaadee 2003; Kunwar et al. 2010). The ripened fruits of

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Podophyllum are edible but the roots and leaves are poisonous (Hedrick 1972). Leaves and roots are used to treat fever and gastric problems (Kumar et al. 2009). In Nepal and India, the fresh leaf is warmed till it becomes soft and is applied to boils for quick recovery (Singh 2009). Fruits are used to control menstrual disorders, cold, and cough (Kunwar and Adhikari 2005) and as mild laxative (Watanabe et al. 2005). The fruit powder is used externally to cure burns and wounds (Joshi and Joshi 2001). Podophyllotoxin found in the resin of rhizome is used for the preparation of semisynthetic derivatives that are clinically applied as cytostatics in the treatment of several types of malignancies (Liu et al. 2007). Podophyllotoxin is also used in the production of anticancer drugs like etoposide (Issell 1982; Shrestha and Shrestha 2004) and teniposide (Issell 1982). It shows effectiveness toward constipation, cold, biliary fever, septic wounds, burning sensation, insect bite, mental disorders, rheumatism, and plague and also provides relief in some allergic and inflammatory conditions of the skin (Pugh et al. 2001; Ganie et al. 2012). Podophyllum resin is also used topically for various skin lesions such as warts and condylomas (Chauhan 1999). The alcoholic extract of podophyllotoxin is used as topical treatment for venereal warts (condyloma acuminata), an ailment caused by a papilloma virus (Kaplan 1942). In Sikkim it is used to treat diabetes (Tamang et al. 2017). It is used for cuts, wounds, and skin diseases (Singh et al. 2017). In Khyber it is used for lumbago, myalgia, and female infertility (Sher et al. 2016). In the Western Himalaya, it used to treat wounds (Malik et al. 2015). Despite possible hepatotoxicity traditionally it is used as hepato-protectant (Kunwar et al. 2010). In Pakistan it is used for colds, constipation, sepsis, wounds, burning sensation, nervous disorders, joint pain, skin allergies, skin inflammations, and cancerous conditions (Kayani et al. 2015). In Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh it is used for skin diseases, constipation, bloody dysentery, chest congestion, diarrhea, dyspepsia, fever, gastric disorders, inflammation and bleeding of the kidney, kidney complaints, stomach ulcers, and boils; to control urination; as hepatic stimulant and purgative; for gynecological disorders, menstrual disorders, and tumors; and against stomach acidity, eczema, hepatic disease, and hepatic enlargement (Gairola et al. 2014).

Local Food Uses Podophyllum hexandrum: The fruits are eaten raw (Kang et al. 2016; Lama et al. 2001; Shrestha and Shrestha 2004).

References Beutner KR, Von Krogh G. Current status of podophyllotoxin for the treatment of genital warts. Semin Dermatol. 1990;9(2):148. Blasko G, Cordell GA. Recent developments in chemistry of plant derived anticancer agents. In: Wagner H, Hiroshi H, Fransworth NR, editors. Economics and medicinal plant research. Academics press. London; 1998.

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Polygonatum cirrhifolium (Wall.) Royle Polygonatum multiflorum (L.) All. Polygonatum verticillatum (L.) All. ASPARAGACAE Rameshwar Bhattarai, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Ripu M. Kunwar, Maroof Ali Turi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Synonyms Polygonatum cirrhifolium (Wall.) Royle: Campydorum verticillatum (L.) Salisb.; Convallaria leptophylla D. Don; C. stellifolia Peterm.; C. verticillata L.; Evallaria verticillata (L.) Neck.; Polygonatum angustifolium Bubani; P. erythrocarpum Hua; P. jacquemontianum Kunth; P. kansuense Maxim. ex Batalin; P. leptophyllum (D. Don) Royle; P. macrophyllum Sweet; P. minutiflorum H. Lév.; P. roseum Hook.; P. verticillatum var. gracile Baker ex Aitch.; P. verticillatum ssp. stellifolium (Peterm.) K. Richt.; Sigillum verticillatum (L.) Montandon; Troxilanthes angustifolia Raf. Polygonatum multiflorum (L.) All.: Convallaria multiflora L. Polygonatum verticillatum (L.) All.: Convallaria verticillata L.; Polygonatum erythrocarpum Hua; Polygonatum kansuense Maximowicz ex Batalin; Polygonatum minutiflorum H. Léveillé. R. Bhattarai Asian Center for Development, Kathmandu, Nepal H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] M. A. Turi College of Life Science, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu, China © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_193

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Local Names Polygonatum cirrhifolium: Chinese: 卷叶黄精, Nepali: khiraula; Sanskrit: meda. Polygonatum multiflorum: Urdu: shaqaqal; Pashto: nooryalam; Ladakh: ra-mnye. Polygonatum verticillatum: Urdu: shakakul; Pashto: nooryalam; Ayurveda: mahameda; Chinese: lun ye huang jing; English: Solomon’s seal, whorled Solomon’s seal; Hindi: basuchidra, devamani, pandura, shakakul, seal, vasuchhidra, mahameda; Nepali: keruwa, khinraula, SetakChini, setakchini; Pahari: salam mishri; Sanskrit: meda, tridanti, devamani, vasuchhidra; Urdu: nor-e-alam; Pashto peramole; Ladakh: ra-mnye; Kashmir: salam dana, mishri, mithadodhu.

Botany and Ecology There are 60 species of Polygonatum in China and 10 in Nepal (Press et al. 2000; Ohara et al. 2007). Polygonatum cirrhifolium: Rhizome moniliform or tuberous terete, 1–2-cm thick. Stem erect or scandent, 30–90 cm, glabrous. Leaves in whorls of 3–6, rarely also a few alternate in proximal part of stem, sessile, narrowly linear to linear-lanceolate, very rarely oblong-lanceolate, 4–9( 12) cm  2–8( 15) mm, apex usually cirrose at anthesis. Inflorescences usually 2-flowered; peduncle 3–10 mm; bracts 1–2 mm, scarious, veinless, or bract absent. Flowers pendulous; pedicel 3–8 mm. Perianth white, greenish, or pale purple, subcylindric, slightly constricted in the middle, 8–11 mm; lobes about 2 mm. Filaments 0.6–0.8  about. 0.15 mm, papillose; anthers 2–2.5 mm. Ovary about 2.5 mm. Style about 2 mm. Berries red or purplered, 8–9 mm in diameter, 4–9-seeded. Flowering May to July, fruiting September to October (Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4). Polygonatum multiflorum: Rhizomes terete, 5–9 mm broad, profusely covered by roots. Stems 15–90 cm, terete, glabrous. Leaves alternate, sessile or shortly petiolate, 5–15  2–7.5 cm, elliptic, oblong or ovate, glabrous, entire, tip subacute to obtuse. Inflorescence 2–3-flowered, peduncle 10–12 mm, glabrous, pedicel 6–7 mm, gla-

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia

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Fig. 1 Polygonatum cirrhifolium (Asparagaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Maroof Ali Turi)

Fig. 2 Polygonatum cirrhifolium (Asparagaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Maroof Ali Turi)

brous. Perianth 14–15 mm, somewhat contracted in the middle, filaments sparsely puberulent. Berry bluish-black, c. 7–9 mm in diameter. Flowering May to June. Found in North America, Europe to Caucasus Mountains, Turkey, Himalayas, and Hindukush. It contains steroidal saponins and flavonoids. It is used in wound healing being antibacterial and also used as an expectorant (Ali and Qaiser 1995-2020).). Polygonatum verticillatum: Rhizome usually shortly branched, usually tuberous terete, very rarely moniliform, 0.7–1.5-cm thick. Stem erect, (20–)40–80 cm,

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Fig. 3 Polygonatum cirrhifolium (Asparagaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Maroof Ali Turi)

Fig. 4 Polygonatum cirrhifolium (Asparagaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Maroof Ali Turi)

glabrous. Leaves in whorls of 3, occasionally alternate near base of stem, sometimes opposite near apex of stem, subsessile, oblong-lanceolate to linear, 6–10  0.5– 3 cm, apex acute to acuminate, not cirrose. Inflorescences 1 or 2–4-flowered; peduncle 1–2 cm; bracts small or absent. Flowers pendulous; pedicel 3–10 mm. Perianth pale purple (or white or pale yellow, but probably only when dry), cylindric, 0.8–1.2 cm; lobes 2–3 mm. Filaments 0.5–1( 2) mm, papillose; anthers about 2.5 mm. Ovary about 3 mm. Style 2.5–3 mm. Berries red, 6–9 mm in diam., 6– 12-seeded. Flowering May to June, fruiting August to October. Forests, grassy slopes; 2100–4000 m. Polygonatum verticillatum is found in the temperate Himalayas in Nepal, India, China, Pakistan, Bhutan, Afghanistan, Korea, Russia, and other Himalayan countries of Europe and West Asia at the altitudes of 1200–4700 m and the best suited at the altitudes of 1600 m–3600 mm in Nepal Himalaya (Bhattarai and Thapa 2018; Wu et al. 1994–2013; Wu and Raven 2000). Regarded as endangered (Ahmad Jan et al. 2019) (Figs. 5 and 6).

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Fig. 5 Polygonatum verticillatum. (Asparagaceae), flowers, Nepal. (Photo Rameshwar Bhattarai)

Fig. 6 Polygonatum verticillatum. (Asparagaceae) Nepal. (Photo Santosh Thapa)

Phytochemistry Polygonatum verticillatum contains many photochemical isolated from its different parts like the compound diosgenin isolated from rhizome of the plant (Khan et al. 2012a). The rhizome also contains glucose, galactose, sucrose, and

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fructose (Khan et al. 2012b), and the parts contain saponins, alkaloids, phenols, flavonoids, tannins (Khan et al. 2013), anthraquinones, and terpenoids (Khan et al. 2012a). In nutritional constituents the plant contains significant amount of proteins, fats, fiber, carbohydrates, ascorbic acid along with ash and moisture content (Khan et al. 2012b). The plant contains significant amount of both micronutrients like Zn, Cu, Cr, Fe, Pb, Mn, and Ni and macronutrients like Ca, Na, K, etc. (Saeed et al. 2010).

Local Medicinal Uses Polygonatum cirrhifolium: Out of the species occurring in Himalayan Region (HR), two (P. verticillatum and P. cirrhifolium) are imperative ingredients of Asthaverga. Polygonatum cirrhifolium: Used as tonic, appetizer, and aphrodisiac (Kunwar and Bussmann 2009). Polygonatum multiflorum: Used to improve eyesight and for abdominal pain; Solomon’s seal has been used for thousands of years in herbal medicine. It is used mainly in the form of a poultice and is believed to prevent excessive bruising and to stimulate tissue repair. The root is astringent, demulcent, emetic, and tonic. An infusion is healing and restorative; it is good in the treatment of stomach inflammations, chronic dysentery, etc. It is used with other herbs in the treatment of pulmonary problems, including tuberculosis, and women’s complaints. The powdered roots make an excellent poultice for bruises, piles, inflammation, etc. The root is harvested in the autumn and dried for later use. The plant should not be used internally except under professional supervision. A distilled water made from the whole plant has been used as a skin tonic and is an ingredient of expensive cosmetics. The dried powdered roots and flowers have been used as a snuff to promote sneezing and thus clear the bronchial passages. It is used in Ladakh and Kashmir as astringent and tonic, for female weakness and gynecological disorders, and to treat painful urination (Gairola et al. 2014). Polygonatum verticillatum: The plant is diuretic and contains glucoside of digitalis group. Ethnobotanically, the plant is very important. Different parts of the plant in crude form or with some other ingredients are used for the cure of different diseases. For example, in some parts, the root of the plant is utilized with milk and ghee as general tonic (Vashishtha 2006). In some other regions, gastric flatulence and allergies are treated by the oral administration of this plant. In Nepal and India, this plant is used for the cure of spermatorrhoea and piles (Bhattarai & Thapa 2019). For this the fresh roots are broken into smaller pieces and kept in water overnight and then crushed in same water and taken daily in morning (Kala 2015). In some areas of Nepal and India, the root power of this plant is taken daily with water for leucorrhea; the root paste is applied on wounds. In some places the whole herb is utilized to cure various health troubles as cardiotonic, antiperiodic, demulcent, diuretic, energizer, aphrodisiac, sedative, hypoglycemic, antitumor, cooling, emollient, galactagogue, appetizer, pain reliever, general tonic, nervine tonic, and nervier tonic for kidney trouble and to restore body strength (Kala 2015; Radha et al. 2013). In Ladakh and

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Fig. 7 Polygonatum verticillatum. (Asparagaceae), fresh collected raw rhizomes. (Photo Ripu Kunwar)

Kashmir, it is used for asthma, tuberculosis, gynecological problems, and painful urination, as appetizer, and to treat backache and menstrual irregularities (Gairola et al. 2014) (Figs. 7, 8, and 9).

Local Food Uses Polygonatum cirrhifolium: In China the rhizome is consumed as health food (Zhang et al. 2016); in Nepal the leaves serve as vegetable (Dangol et al. 2017). Polygonatum verticillatum: Rhizome is valued as a salep, a strength-giving food. The species is a valuable endangered medicinal plant from temperate Himalaya. The species is facing threat in Asia including Nepal due to high anthropogenic pressure, pre-harvesting, overexploitation, habitat destruction, and habitat fragmentation (Lohani et al. 2011). In some Himalayan regions, this plant is considered as wild vegetable, and the root of the plant is eaten raw, and in some areas the whole plant is cooked and utilized in raw form (Hamayun et al. 2006). This species prefers a fertile humus-rich moisture-retentive well-drained soil in cool shade or semi-shade. Plants are intolerant of heat and drought but tolerate most other conditions. Members of this genus are rarely if ever troubled by browsing deer or rabbits. The young shoots are very attractive to slugs (Lohani et al. 2011, 2013). Best sown as soon as it is ripe in early autumn in a shady part of a cold greenhouse. Sow stored seed as early in the year as possible. Germination can be slow, they may not come true to type, and it takes a few years for them to reach a good size. When they are large enough to handle, prick the seedlings out into individual pots and grow them on in a shady position in the greenhouse for at least their first winter. Plant them out into their permanent positions in late spring or early summer, after the last expected frosts.

1576 Fig. 8 Polygonatum verticillatum (Asparagaceae), dried rhizomes ready for sale, Nepal. (Photo Rameshwar Bhattarai)

Fig. 9 Polygonatum verticillatum (Asparagaceae), dried rhizomes, Nepal. (Photo Rameshwar Bhattarai)

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References Ahmad Jan H, Jan S, Bussmann RW, Wali S, Sist F, Ahmad L. Complementary and alternative medicine research, prospects and limitations in Pakistan: a literature review. Acta Ecologica Siniabout. 2019; Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan and Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995-2020. Bhattarai R, Thapa S. Status and Value chain study of Important three MAPs Zanthoxylum armataum, Polygonatum verticillatum (L.) All., Sapindus mukorossi of Achham, Nepal. GEPL, 2019. Bhattarai R, Thapa S. Study report on resource inventory of important MAPs of Gaumul rural municipality. Nepal. GEPL: Bajura; 2018. Dangol DR, Maharjan KL, Maharjan SK, Acharya AK. Wild edible plants in Nepal. In: Joshi BK, Bahadur KCH, Acharya A, editors. Conservation and utilization of agricultural plant genetic resources of Nepal. Dhulikhel: NAGRC; 2017. p. 390–407. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Hamayun M, Khan SA, Ey S, Lee IJ. Folk medicinal knowledge and conservation status of some economically valued medicinal plants of district swat, Pakistan. Lyonia. 2006;11:101–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chnaes.2019.12.005 Kala CP. Medicinal and aromatic plants of tons watershed of Uttarakhand Himalaya. Appl Ecol Env Sci. 2015;3:16–21. Khan H, Saeed M, Gilami AH, Muhamaad N, Haq I, Ashraf N, et al. Antipyretic and anticonvulsant activity of Polygonatum verticillatum (Linn.) All. : Comparison of rhizomes and aerial parts. Phytother Res. 2013;27:468–71. Khan H, Saeed M, Muhamaad N, Khan F, Ibrar M, Hussan S, et al. Comprehensive nutrients analysis of rhizomes of Polygonatum verticillatum (Linn.) All. Pak J Pharm Sci. 2012a;25:871– 5. Khan H, Saeed M, Muhammad N, Ghaffar R, Khan SA, Hussan S. Antimicrobial activities of rhizomes of Polygonatum verticillatum (Linn.) All.: attributed to its total falvonoidal and phenolic contents. Pak J Pharm Sci. 2012b;25:463–7. Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Medicinal, aromatic and dye plants of Baitadi and Darchula districts, Nepal Himalaya: status, uses and management. In: Hartmann M, Weipert J, editors. Biodiversität, Naturausstattung im Himalaya, vol. III. Erfurt: Verein der Freunde und Förderer des Naturkundemuseums; 2009. p. 475–89. Lohani N, Kumar R, Tiwari LM, Joshi GC. Ex-situ conservation of Polygonatum verticillatum (Linn.) All. Allioni under different types of organic treatments. Int J. Biodivers Conserv. 2011;4:22–31. Lohani N, Tiwari LM, Kumar R, Joshi GC, Chandra J, Kshore K, et al. Population studies, habitat assessment and threat categorization of Polygonatum verticillatum (L.) All. Allioni in Kumaun Himalaya. J Ecol Nat Environ. 2013;5:74–82. Ohara MM, Tamura T, Hirose KH, Kawano S. Life-history monographs of Japanese plants. 8: Polygonatum odoratum (Miller) Druce var. pluriflorum (Miq.) Ohwi (Convallariaceae). Plant Species Biology. 2007;22:59–64. Press JR, Shrestha KK, Sutton DA. Annotated checklist of the flowering plants of Nepal. London: The Natural History Museum; 2000. Radha B, Songh RD, Tiwari JK, Gairola A. Wild edible plant resources of the Lohba range Kedarnath Forest division (KFD), Garhwal Himalayas. India, Int Res J Biol Sci. 2013;2:65–73. Saeed M, Khan H, Khan MA, Khan F, Khan SA, Muhammad N. Quantification of various metals and cytotoxic profile of aerial parts of Polygonatum verticillatum (Linn.) All. Pak J Bot. 2010;42:3995–4002. Vashishtha RK. Ecophysiology and Agrotechnology of two Himalayan herbs: Angelica glauca Edgew and Angelica archangelica Linn. (dissertation). Shreenagar: H.N.B., Garhwal University; 2006.

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Potentilla fulgens Wall. ex Hook. ROSACEAE Shiva Pariyar, Hem Raj Paudel, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Potentilla fulgens Wall. ex Hook.: Potentilla lineata Trevir., Potentilla fulgens Wall. ex Hook. var. macrophylla Card., Potentilla fulgens Wall. ex Hook. var. acutiserrata (Yu & Li) Yii & Li, Potentilla fulgens var. acutiserrata (T.T. Yu & C.L. Li) T.T. Yu & C.L. Li, Potentilla lineata ssp. exortiva Soják, Potentilla martini Ltv., Potentilla martinii H. Lév., Potentilla siemersiana Lehm., Potentilla siemersiana Lehm. var. acutiserrata Yu et Li, Potentilla splendens Wall. ex D. Don. (Ikeda 2012; Ikeda and Ohba 1993).

S. Pariyar Ministry of Industry, Tourism, Forest and Environment, Pokhara, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] H. R. Paudel (*) National Herbarium and Plant Laboratories, Department of Plant Resources, Godawari, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_195

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Local Names Potentilla fulgens: Sanskrit: kanthamuna, bajdradanti; Hindi: bajradanti, vajradanti; Assamese: bajradanti; Khasi: lynniangbru, lynniang kynthei; Gurung: phorse; Tamang: dapse; Nepali: supari jhar, ganephul, dantamanjari; English: Himalayan cinquefoil, Silver leaf (Choudhary et al. 2013; Dutta 2007; Kundu et al. 2016; Laloo et al. 2013a; Rai 2003; Shrestha 1998).

Botany and Ecology Potentilla fulgens: Herbs perennial. Flowering stems 5–40 cm tall, together with petioles densely spreading villous and pubescent. Radical leaves 4–30 cm including petiole; auricles of stipules free, apex acute; leaf blade interrupted pinnate with 5–13 pairs of leaflets; terminal leaflet oblong or broadly obovate, 1.5–4
0.8–1.5 cm, abaxially densely white sericeous or tomentose, adaxially appressed pilose, margin sharply serrate; cauline leaves: auricles of stipules herbaceous, abaxially white sericeous; leaf blade resembling that of radical leaves but pairs of leaflets fewer higher up stem. Inflorescence corymbose-cymose. Flowers 1–1.5 cm in diameter; pedicel 2–4 cm, with gland-tipped, multicellular hairs and unicellular hairs. Sepals entire at margin; epicalyx segments entire at margin or with 3–6 teeth. Petals yellow, obovate to broadly so, apex rounded. Style sub-basal. Achenes not seen. Flowering and fruiting June to October (Ikeda 2012; Ikeda and Ohba 1993; Wu et al. 1994– 2013). P. lineata is grown in a temperate climate with its wider distribution in West Himalaya, East Himalaya, Tibetan Plateau, Burma, East Asia, and Southeast Asia (Ikeda 2012; Ikeda and Ohba 1993). In India, this species is commonly found at temperate and higher altitudes (1800–4350 m) of the northern and northeastern regions particularly in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, West Bengal, Meghalaya, Assam, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh, and Manipur (Bhattarai 1993; Laloo et al. 2013a). This medicinal herb finds its habitat in open meadows, forest margins, and grassy slopes of hilly areas (Timilsina 2014). In its wild habitats, it has been reported to have a symbiotic association with an endophytic fungus Penicillium verruculosum (Bhagobaty et al. 2010). This fungus contributes to the vigorous growth of the plant, even in extreme rainfall habitats (Ikeda and Ohba 1993) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).

Phytochemistry P. fulgens contains carotene, flavonoids, polyphenols, and triterpene in the roots and rhizomes (Bhattarai et al. 2013; Choudhary et al. 2015). Roots contain flavans, including oligomeric flavanols, as major constituents (Choudhary et al. 2015) as well as hyptadienic, tormentic, and rosamultic acids (Kumar et al. 2013). Roots also include various unique diagnostic characters such as druse-type calcium oxalate crystals, simple

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Fig. 1 Potentilla fulgens (Rosaceae), hole plant of in Jumla, Nepal. (Photo Chandra Mohan Gurmachhan)

Fig. 2 Potentilla sp. (Rosaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

and compound starch with central hilum, and concentric lamellae (Laloo et al. 2013a). Phytochemical investigation of the aerial parts isolated two new triterpenes, namely, potentene A and potentene B; and compounds such as afzelechin4α ! 8΄΄  catechin and epiafzelechin as a flavan-3-ols; and rutin as a flavan-4-one (Jaitak et al. 2010). Tannins, ellagic acid, flavone, mucilage, gum, pyroxydase, and citric, oxalic, tartaric, and volatile acids can also be found in all the parts (Dutta 2007). Some polyphenols such as (+)-catechin, ellagic acid, kaempferol, and quercetin have also been detected (Anal et al. 2014). The species also contains organic acids, essential oils, triterpenoids (quinic acid, tormentozide), phenols (pyrocatechol, pyrogallol, floroglucine), phenol carbonic acids (gallic, coffee, p-coumaric, 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic), catechins (gallocatechin, epigallocatechin, gallocatechin gallate, epigallocatechin gallate), flavonoids (kaempferol), anthocyanins (cyanidin), fatty acids (lauric, pentadecane, palmitic, palmitoleic, stearic, oleic, linoleic), and vitamins (C). (Sokolov 1987).

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Fig. 3 Potentilla sp. (Rosaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Potentilla erecta (Rosaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses Potentilla fulgens has a plethora of pharmacological properties. Both the aerial and the root portion of P. fulgens have been reported to possess antidiabetic, antidiarrheal, antioxidant, anticancer, antihyperlipidemic, hypoglycemic, antihyperglycemic, anthelmintic, and gastroprotective properties (Choudhary et al. 2017, 2013; Kumar et al. 2013; Laloo et al. 2013b; Majaw et al. 2018; Majaw and Syiem 2016; Pal et al. 2016; Radhika et al. 2012; Roy et al. 2010; Syiem et al. 2002; Syiem and Majaw 2010; Tangpu et al. 2014). It has been considered as a source of anticariogenic agents for maintaining oral hygiene (Choudhary et al. 2017). Antioxidative agent found in this herb can alleviate the age-associated oxidative stress and related diseases (Saio et al. 2016) and is useful for food and nutraceutical products (Choudhary et al. 2013). This is also useful for the treatment of eye disorders induced by traumatic brain injury (Hüseyin et al. 2017). All the safer,

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Fig. 5 Potentilla erecta (Rosaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

biodegradable, and eco-friendly plant extracts obtained from P. fulgens are used to control fascioliasis epidemic through the killing of Fasciola larval infected snail without the killing of host snail in vivo (Kumar et al. 2020). P. fulgens is a therapeutically and commercially important plant species used commonly in traditional medicine by denizens of northeast India, Nepal, and Bhutan (Choudhary et al. 2015, 2013). It is used for diarrhea and gum diseases and as spasmolytic and sometimes anti-cancer (Joshi et al. 2010; Kunwar et al. 2010a, 2010b; Singh et al. 2017). Its roots, rhizome, leaves, and whole plants are used to treat different types of ailments. Fresh roots are consumed to get relief from cough, sore throats, toothache, high blood pressure, and abdominal pain, while dried roots are eaten for dentifrice (Dutta 2007). Dried root powder and organic extracts also have effective molluscicidal activity and molluscicides for freshwater vector snail Lymnaea acuminata (Kumar et al. 2017). Root paste, charred root powder, and juice are used for treating stomach troubles, toothache, jaundice, cough and colds, peptic ulcer, stomatitis, aphthae, gingivitis, skin inflammation, and other respiratory problems (Bhattarai et al. 2013; Dutta 2007; Farooqui et al. 1998; Jaitak et al. 2010; Joshi and Joshi 2000; Manandhar 2002; Pala et al. 2010; Roy et al. 2010; Sambyal et al. 2006; War Nongkhlaw and Joshi 2014). In Ayurvedic system of medicine, they are also used for treatment of diarrhea and gastric problems (Syiem et al. 2003, 2002), and the masticated leaves are used for pyorrhea (Sambyal et al. 2006). The roots of P. fulgens are used to treat wounds and tiger bites because polyphenolic extracts of

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P. fulgens is attributed to promote cellular re-epithelialization, cell proliferation, and collagen deposition (Kau et al. 2011; Kundu et al. 2016). Because of its high medicinal value, Vicco laboratory has manufactured Vicco Vajradanti toothpaste and powder in India (Choudhary et al. 2013). Root decoctions are used in Middle Asia for diarrhea, stomatitis, angina, internal bleeding, ulcers, burns, wet eczemas, periodontal disease, menorrhagia, diarrhea, hematuria, ulcerative colitis, kidney disease, menorrhagia, diarrhea, hematuria, and laryngitis and topically as ointment for wounds, skin and lip cracks, and burns (Sokolov 1987). Potentilla gerardiana is used for wounds (Kumar et al. 2011). An extract of Potentilla erecta has a vasoconstrictor effect, it is used for burns, diarrhea, and other skin diseases and diseases of the oral cavity. An alcoholic tincture made from the rhizomes is used for intestinal and pulmonary problems and to stop uterine bleeding. It also relieves dysentery, diarrhea, tuberculosis, joint pain, rheumatism, and liver disease and is used for the treatment of heart disease. The extract is issued also as analgesic, expectorant, and antibiotic for wounds. A leaf tincture is also used for stomach and intestinal inflammation and to stop bleedings, and Potentilla erecta and Potentilla reptans are used for diseases of the throat and mouth cavity: a decoction and liquid extract of the rhizome are used as gargle for angina, gum bleeding, and inflammation of the mouth cavity, throat, and pharynx and in stomatitis. A decoction and liquid extract of the rhizome are used for baths, and powdered rhizome is applied to burns and hemorrhages. A decoction is used internally for diarrhea and dysentery. All plant parts are hemostatic, vaso-hypertonic, astringent, and diuretic and show anthelmintic properties (Bussmann et al. 2018; Bussmann 2017; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017). It is also used as antipyretic and tonic (Altundaga et al. 2011) and for headache (Gairola et al. 2014).

Local Food Uses Potentilla anserina is used for a highly valued ceremonial dish in Tibet (Kang et al. 2016). The young shoots are used as salad (Łuczaj and Szymański 2007).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses In veterinary medicine Potentilla canescens is used as a rheostatic and anthelmintic and for diarrhea. It is used to yield red, black, fawn, and brown dyes for wool. It is suitable for leather tanning and fodder for cattle, goats, and sheep. Potentilla canescens is toxic (Sokolov 1987).

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Ahmad I, Aquil F, Owais M. Modern Phytomedicine. Weinheim: Wiley; 2006. Altundaga E, Oztürk M. Ethnomedicinal studies on the plant resources of East Anatolia, Turkey. Proc Soc Behav Sci. 2011;19:756–77. Anal JMH, Majeed R, Bez G, Syiem D, Hamid A, Saxena AK. In vitro cytotoxicity of the polar extracts of potentilla fulgens L. against human cancer cell lines: detection and isolation of bioactive phenolics. J Chem Pharm Res. 2014;6:89–95. Bhagobaty RK, Joshi SR, Kumar R. Penicillium verruculosum RS7PF: a root fungal endophyte associated with an ethno-medicinal plant of the indigenous tribes of eastern India. African J Microbiol Res. 2010;4:766–70. Bhattarai KR, Måren IE, Chaudhary RP. Medicinal plant knowledge of the Panchase region in the Middle Hills of the Nepalese Himalayas. Banko Janakari. 2013;21:31–9. https://doi.org/10. 3126/banko.v21i2.9127. Bhattarai NK. Folk medicinal use of plants for respiratory complaints in Central Nepal. FITOTERAPIA-MILANO. 1993;64:163. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017a. XXVII, 746p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1 Bussmann RW e. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus, vol. XXVII. Cham: Springer international publishing international publishing; 2017b, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z. Kikodze. D. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z. Potentilla inclinata Vill. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions Central Asia and Altai: Springer International Publishing International Publishing; 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77087-1_111-1. Cakilcioglu U, Turkoglu I. An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants in Sivrice (Elazıg-Turkey). J Ethnopharmacol. 2010;132:165–75. Choudhary A, Bihade U, Mittal AK, Chatterjee A, Banerjee UC, Singh IP. Anticariogenic potential of Potentilla fulgens extract and its chemical constituents. Int J Phytomed. 2017;9:83. https:// doi.org/10.5138/09750185.1939. Choudhary A, Mittal AK, Radhika M, Tripathy D, Chatterjee A, Banerjee UC, Singh IP. Two new stereoisomeric antioxidant triterpenes from Potentilla fulgens. Fitoterapia. 2013;91:290–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fitote.2013.09.008. Choudhary A, Radhika M, Chatterjee A, Banerjee UC, Singha IP. Qualitative and quantitative analysis of Potentilla fulgens roots by NMR, matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionisation with time-of-flight MS, electrospray ionisation MS/MS and HPLC/UV. Phytochem Anal. 2015;26:161–70. https://doi.org/10.1002/pca.2547. Dutta IC. Non-timber forest products of Nepal: identification, classification, ethnic uses and cultivation. Institute of Forestry: Pokhara; 2007. Farooqui AHA, Jain SP, Shukla YN, Ansari SR, Kumar S. Medicinal plants in oral health care in India. J Med Arom Pl Sci. 1998;20:441–50. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Geck MS. Access and benefit sharing in the context of ethnobotanical research. MSc thesis: University of Zurich, Zurich; 2011. Hüseyin Ö, Engin D, Özevren H, Deveci E. Effects of Potentilla fulgens on the changes made in the retinal damage induced by traumatic head injury. Int J Morphol. 2017;35:840–4. Ikeda H. Potentilla L. In: Watson MF, Akiyama S, Ikeda H, Pendry CA, Rajbhandari KR, Shrestha KK, editors. Flora of Nepal. Edinburgh: Royal Botanic Garden; 2012. Ikeda H, Ohba H. A systematic revision of Potentilla fulgens and allied species (Rosaceae) in the Himalaya and adjacent regions. Bot J Linn Soc. 1993;112:159–86. https://doi.org/10.1111/j. 1095-8339.1993.tb00315.x. Jaitak, V., Kaul, V.K., Himlata, Kumar, Singh, B., Dhar, J., Sharma, O.P., 2010. New hopane triterpenes and antioxidant constituents from Potentilla fulgens Nat Prod Commun 5, 1561– 1566. https://doi.org/10.1177/1934578x1000501009. Joshi AR, Joshi K. Indigenous knowledge and uses of medicinal plants by local communities of the Kali Gandaki watershed area, Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2000;73:175–83. https://doi.org/10. 1016/S0378-8741(00)00301-9.

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Joshi M, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal uses of plant resources of the Haigad watershed in Kumaun Himalaya. Med Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010;4(1):43–6. Kau, K., Jaitak, V., Kaul, V.K. Review on pharmaceutical properties and conservation measures of Potentilla fulgens Wall. ex Hook. – A medicinal endangered herb of higher Himalaya. Indian J. Nat. Prod. Resour. 2011. Kumar D, Ghosh R, Pal BC. α-Glucosidase inhibitory terpenoids from Potentilla fulgens and their quantitative estimation by validated HPLC method. J Funct Foods. 2013;5:1135–41. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.jff.2013.03.010. Kumar M, Bussmann RW, Mukesh J, Kumar P. Ethnomedicinal uses of plants close to rural habitation in Garhwal Himalayan India. India J Med Plant Res. 2011;5(11):2252–60. Kumar P, Sunita K, Singh DK. Efficacy of Potentilla fulgens root powder and their different organic extract against fresh water vector snail Lymnaea acuminata. Asian J Anim Vet Adv. 2017;13:30–4. https://doi.org/10.3923/ajava.2018.30.34. Kumar P, Sunita K, Singh RN, Singh DK. Fasciola larvae: anthelmintic activity of medicinal plant Potentilla fulgens against Sporocyst, Redia and Cercaria. Asian. J Adv Res. 2020:24–30. Kundu A, Ghosh A, Singh NK, Singh GK, Seth A, Maurya SK, Hemalatha S, Laloo D. Wound healing activity of the ethanol root extract and polyphenolic rich fraction from Potentilla fulgens. Pharm Biol. 2016;54:2383–93. https://doi.org/10.3109/13880209.2016.1157192. Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Acharya RP, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants, traditional medicine, markets and management in far-West Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:24. Kunwar RM, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants in Farwest Nepal: their indigenous uses and pharmacological validity. Med Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol 4 special issue. 2010a;1:28–42. Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Bussmann RW. Traditional herbal medicine in far-West Nepal: a pharmacological appraisal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010b;6:35. Laloo D, Kumar M, Prasad SK, Hemalatha S. Quality control standardization of the roots of Potentilla fulgens Wall ex Hook.: a potent medicinal plant of the Western Himalayas and North-Eastern India. Pharm J. 2013a;5:97–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phcgj.2013.04.002. Laloo D, Prasad SK, Krishnamurthy S, Hemalatha S. Gastroprotective activity of ethanolic root extract of Potentilla fulgens Wall ex Hook. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013b;146:505–14. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.jep.2013.01.015. Łuczaj Ł, Szymański WM. Wild vascular plants gathered for consumption in the polish countryside: a review. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3:17. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-3-17. Majaw S, Challam SK, Syiem D. Effect of Potentilla fulgens L. on selected enzyme activities and altered tissue morphology in diabetic mice. J Morphol Sci. 2018;35:153–60. https://doi.org/10. 1055/s-0038-1669934. Majaw S, Syiem D. In vitro aldose reductase inhibitory potential of fractions isolated from Potentilla fulgens roots. J Appl Pharm Sci. 2016;6:102–9. https://doi.org/10.7324/JAPS.2016. 60816. Manandhar NP. Plants and people of Nepal: Timber press; 2002. Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Potentilla erecta (L.) Raeusch; Potentilla reptans L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. https://doi.org/10.1007/ 978-3-319-49412-8_122. Pal S, Mishra A, Rawat AK, Gautam S, Maurya R, Srivastava AK. Antidiabetic potential of Potentilla fulgens roots in validated animal models of diabetes. Brazilian Arch Biol Technol. 2016. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-4324-2016150259. Pala NA, Negi AK, Todaria NP. Traditional uses of medicinal plants of Pauri Garhwal. Uttrakhand Nat Sci. 2010;3:61–5. Radhika M, Ghoshal N, Chatterjee A. Comparison of effectiveness in antitumor activity between flavonoids and polyphenols of the methanolic extract of roots of Potentilla fulgens in breast cancer cells. J Complement Integr Med. 2012;9. https://doi.org/10.1515/1553-3840.1644. Rai MB. Medicinal plants of Tehrathum district. eastern Nepal Our Nat. 2003;1:42–8.

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Primula denticulata Sm. Primula macrophylla D. Don Primula reptans Hook. ex Watt PRIMULACEAE Hammad Ahmad Jan, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Synonyms Primula macrophylla D. Don: Primula moorcroftiana Wall. ex Klatt

H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_196

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Local Names Primula denticulata: Urdu: mamera; Jammu: chandi chama; Kashmir: chailaduer; Ladakh: tarla-uchin, khilche-Karoo, khilchekarpo; Pashto: mmamera ‫ﻡﺍﻡﯼﺭﺍ‬. Primula macrophylla: Ladakh: khi-chey; sulumentok; Gilgit-Baltistan: mabera.

Botany and Ecology Primula denticulata: Herbs perennial, encircled at base with broadly ovate (1.5– 4  1–2 cm), subfleshy bud scales. Leaves forming a rosette; petiole broadly winged, indistinct to nearly as long as leaf blade; leaf blade oblong to oblanceolate, 3–15  1.5–4 cm, enlarging to 20 cm or longer at fruiting, abaxially pubescent along veins or subglabrous, sometimes white or yellow farinose at fruiting, adaxially puberulous or glabrescent, base attenuate, margin denticulate, apex rounded to obtuse. Scapes 5–30 cm, elongating to 45 cm in fruit, glabrous or puberulous, efarinose or farinose in upper half; umbels capitate, many flowered; bracts numerous, lanceolate, 5–10 mm, base overlapping and slightly gibbous. Pedicel 1–5 mm. Flowers heterostylous. Calyx narrowly campanulate, 5–10 mm, farinose or minutely glandular, parted to middle or below; lobes often tinged with purple, oblonglanceolate, ciliolate. Corolla purple to pinkish purple, rarely white, with a yellow eye, exannulate; tube 0.8–1.2 cm; limb 1–2 cm wide; lobes obovate, deeply emarginate. Pin flowers: stamens about 3 mm above base of corolla tube; style 6–7 mm. Thrum flowers: stamens about 6 mm above corolla tube; style 1.5–2 mm. Capsule subglobose, shorter than calyx (Wu et al. 1994-2013) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5). Primula macrophylla: Herbs perennial, with a long stock formed by overlapping petioles and basal bud scales, with fibrous remains of leaves at base. Leaves forming a rosette; petiole broadly winged, portion exserted from basal bud scales very short to nearly as long as leaf blade; leaf blade lanceolate to oblanceolate, 4–25  0.5– 4.5 cm, abaxially farinose, base cuneate-attenuate, margin entire to denticulate, usually narrowly revolute, apex acute to obtuse. Scape 10–25 cm, farinose toward apex; umbels 5- to many flowered; bracts lanceolate, 1–3.5 cm. Pedicel 1–3 cm,  farinose. Flowers heterostylous. Calyx tubular, 0.8–1.5 cm, parted slightly below the middle or to 3/4; lobes lanceolate to oblong, usually stained with purple outside, white farinose inside, apex acute to subobtuse. Corolla violet to purple; limb about 2-cm wide; lobes suborbicular to obovate, margin entire to emarginate. Pin flowers: corolla tube slightly longer than calyx; stamens about 4 mm above base of corolla tube; style about as long as calyx. Thrum flowers: corolla tube about 1.5 X as long as calyx; stamens at upper 1/3 of corolla tube; style about half as long as calyx. Capsule cylindric, 1–1.3 cm, about 2 x as long as calyx (Wu et al. 1994-2013). Primula reptans: A stoloniferous dwarf creeper, forming dense to loose mats, efarinose, glabrous to minutely puberulous. Leaves spathulate, lamina orbicularcuneate, 2–4-mm long, lobulate; lobes obtusish, irregular, some recurved. Petiole 0.5–1.1 cm long, winged. Scape absent or up to 1.5-cm long. Flowers solitary, heteromorphic, purple-pink to violet. Bracts 2, lanceolate, 2–3-mm long, glabrous.

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Fig. 1 Primula denticulata (Primulaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammand Ahmad Jan)

Pedicel 2–4-mm long. Calyx campanulate; lobes 2.5-mm long, well exceeding the calyx; limb about 13-mm broad, lobes 4–7  4–6 mm, emarginate, throat puberulose, exannulate, white. Style 3-mm long (in pin-eyed flowers). Capsule not seen. Flowering June to mid-August. Northwestern Himalaya from Kashmir to West Nepal. The species forms dense mats on rocks and steep places from 4000 to 4300 m (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020).

Local Medicinal Uses Primula denticulata: Infusion of young stem base is used as ophthalmic (Akhtar et al. 2013). A leaf infusion is used for diabetes and urinary ailments and the root poultice for eye problems and wound healing (Bano et al., 2014). The whole plant is used for improving eye sight and controlling ophthalmic problem (Ali et al., 2011). Powdered rhizome mixed with honey is used to cure various eyes disorders (Khan et al., 2013; (Haq et al., 2011). Whole plant decoction is used for hepatic fever, dysuria, and hemoglobinuria (Ahmed and Murtaza, 2015). The rhizome is expectorant and antibacterial (Razzaq et al., 2015). Flowers are used to sharpen the eyesight and as antibacterial (Adnan et al., 2007). Leaf extract is used for eye diseases

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Fig. 2 Primula denticulata (Primulaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

Fig. 3 Primula denticulata (Primulaceae), Swato Sar, Mindam valley, Pakistan. (Photo I. Ur-Rahman & H. Sher)

(Muhammad et al., 2019). Roots are crushed to make powder and used for cough and bronchitis (Shah et al., 2015). It is used to remedy diabetes, urinary problems, colds, gastric problems, and headache, as anodyne, and for giddiness, piles, and pulmonary diseases (Gairola et al. 2014). Primula macrophylla is used for eye problems (Wali et al. 2019), as well as cold, cough (Ballabh and Chaurasia 2007; Gairola et al. 2014), and joint pain (Gairola et al. 2014).

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Fig. 4 Primula denticulata (Primulaceae), Swato Sar, Mindam valley, Pakistan. (Photo I. Ur-Rahman & H. Sher)

Fig. 5 Primula denticulata (Primulaceae), sprouting in spring, Swato Sar, Mindam valley, Pakistan. (Photo I. Ur-Rahman & H. Sher)

Primula inayati is used against ringworm (Gairola et al. 2014). Primula rosea is used in Ladakh to treat muscular pain (Gairola et al. 2014). Primula macrocalyx is used as vitamin supplement, the leaves are used to treat hypo- and avitaminosis, as well as scurvy to decrease the bleeding of the gums, and to improve vision and increase appetite. The plant has also diuretic properties (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b; Bussmann 2017; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017). Primula macrocalyx/Primula woronowii: Raw roots of all species are used against cough. Leaves are used to cure barrenness. The leaves and flowers are also used against cough and to cure kidney problems (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b, c, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017).

Local Food Uses Primula macrophylla: used as forage and smoked like tobacco (Wali et al. 2019).

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Primula macrocalyx: In spring fresh leaves are used in food as salad and also in soups. A tea is prepared from the flowers. In Adjara plants are washed and boiled in salted water, and drained and chopped, then walnut is crushed with garlic, red pepper, salt, and coriander and mixed with vinegar and then with the boiled herbs. Primula macrocalyx is eaten raw, or boiled as mkhali (herb spread), or mixed with salted melted butter. Some people chop this herb, boil it in water, and add “sapaneli” (coarse flour) to make a meal called “chave” (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b; Bussmann 2017; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017). Leaves of Primula macrocalyx and Primula woronowii are often served in spring in phkhali (a mixture of cut herbs and walnuts). The leaves can also be pickled (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b; Bussmann 2017; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017). Primula acaulis is eaten in Poland (Łuczaj et al. 2012).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Primula macrocalyx/Primula woronowii: used for dyeing. A dye solution is prepared from flowers to obtain yellow color and its shades. The solution is used for dyeing wool yarn as well as products made of wool. It is extremely decorative during flowering. It is used in gardens and parks. It is a good nectariferous plant producing much nectar (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b; Bussmann 2017; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017; Kaliszewska and Kołodziejska-Degórska 2015).

References Adnan SM, Hamayun M, Begum S, Lee IJ. Studies on ethnomedicinal knowledge, market assessment and conservation status of some socio-economically important medicinal plants of Roringar Valley, district swat, Pakistan. Pakistan Phytopharm Nat Prod. 2007;1(1):67–72. Akhtar N, Rashid A, Murad W, Bergmeier E. Diversity and use of ethno-medicinal plants in the region of swat, North Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1):25. Ali H, Sannai J, Sher H, Rashid A. Ethnobotanical profile of some plant resources in Malam Jabba valley of Swat, Pakistan. J Med Plants Res. 2011;5(18):4676–87. Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. Karachi/St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi/Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995–2020. Ballabh B, Chaurasia OP. Traditional medicinal plants of cold desert Ladakh – used in treatment of cold, cough and fever. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;112(2):341–9. Bano A, Ahmad M, Hadda TB, Saboor A, Sultana S, Zafar M, Ashraf MA. Quantitative ethnomedicinal study of plants used in the skardu valley at high altitude of KarakoramHimalayan range, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2014;10(1):43. Bussmann RW e. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing International Publishing; 2017. p. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1 Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plant and fungal use in Tusheti, Khevsureti and

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Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2017a;86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017c;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ehnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – Ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Haq F, Ahmad H, Alam M. Traditional uses of medicinal plants of Nandiar Khuwarr catchment (district Battagram), Pakistan. J Med Plants Res. 2011;5(1):39–48. Jamil Ahmed M, Murtaza G. A study of medicinal plants used as ethnoveterinary: harnessing potential phytotherapy in Bheri, district Muzaffarabad (Pakistan). J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;159:209–14. Kaliszewska I, Kołodziejska-Degórska I. The social context of wild leafy vegetables uses in Shiri, Daghestan. Kaliszewska and Kołodziejska-Degórska. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2015;11(63) https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-015-0047-x. Khan SM, Page S, Ahmad H, Shaheen H, Ullah Z, Ahmad M, Harper DM. Medicinal flora and ethnoecological knowledge in the Naran Valley, Western Himalaya, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1):4. Łuczaj Ł, Pieroni A, Tardio J, Pardo de Samtayana M, Söukand R, Svanberg I, Kalle R. Wild food plants in 21st century Europe: the disappearance of old traditions and the search for new cuisines involving wild edibles. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2012;81849:359–70. Mehdiyeva N, Alizade V, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Primula macrocalyx Bunge; Primula woronowii Losinsk. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-49412-8_85. Muhammad N, Ali N, Uddin N. Ethno-veterinary practices used for treatment of various ailments in hilly areas of melagah valley district swat KPK, Pakistan. Int J Bot Stud. 2019;4(3):171–9. Razzaq A, Hadi F, Rashid A, Ibrar M, Ali U. Exploration of medicinal plants and their conservation status at higher altitude of district Shangla, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Am Eurasian J Agric Environ Sci. 2015;15:328–31. Shah GM, Hussain M, Abbasi AM. Medicinal plants used to treat respiratory tract illness in Kaghan Valley, Himalayan Region-Pakistan. SMGE book, vol. 5; 2015. Wali R, Rahman K, Raja NI, Qureshi R, Bussmann RW, Mashwani ZUR. A quantitative medico botanical expedition of fairy meadows National Park, Diamir, Gilgit Baltistan, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;1835:1–30. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.35.1-30. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994-2013.

Prinsepia utilis Royle ROSACEAE Sony Baral, Kalyan Gauli, Ripu M. Kunwar, Maroof Ali Turi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Local Names Prinsepia utilis: Chinese: 扁核木; Nepal: Bhekhal, Bhekhla, Bhenkal, Bhekali, Dhatelo, Dhatyal; Gharwal: Bhainkal; Jammu: Burkhui, Bhekla, Bhikal, Bekkra, Cherara.

S. Baral The Resource Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal Institute of Silvilculture and University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria K. Gauli The Resource Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] M. A. Turi College of Life Science, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu, China R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_197

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Botany and Ecology Prinsepia utilis: Shrubs 1–5 m tall. Branches grayish green, robust; branchlets green to grayish green, angled, brown pubescent to subglabrous; spines to 3.5 cm, subglabrous, usually leafy. Winter buds purplish red, ovoid to oblong, subglabrous. Stipules not seen. Petiole about 5 mm, glabrous; leaf blade oblong to ovatelanceolate, 3.5–9
1.5–3 cm, base broadly cuneate to subrounded, margin serrulate, apex acute to acuminate. Racemes axillary or on short branchlets, 3–6 cm, manyflowered; peduncle brown pubescent, soon glabrescent; bracts and bracteoles lanceolate, brown pubescent, glabrescent. Flowers about 1 cm in diameter. Pedicel 4– 8 mm, to 1 cm in fruit, brown pubescent, soon glabrescent. Hypanthium cup-shaped, outside brown pubescent. Sepals semiorbicular to broadly ovate, outside brown pubescent when young and densely so on margin. Petals white, broadly obovate, base shortly clawed, margin apically erose. Stamens in 2 or 3 whorls. Ovary glabrous. Style short. Drupe purplish brown to blackish purple, oblong to obovoid-oblong, about 8 mm in diameter. Flowering April–May, fruiting August– September (Wu et al. 1994–2013). Fruits are mainly harvesting manually by hands, time demanding work. Usually potential yield ranges from 918 to 110 g of fruits per plant/year. The plant can be easily cultivated through seeds (Maikhuri et al. 1994; Watanabe et al. 2013). Before sowing, seeds should be soaked in water for 24–36 h to soften the hard seedcoat Chauhan (1999). Seeds can be sown in autumn, otherwise in late winter or early spring in light shade. Germination may be inhibited by light. The seedling can prick out when they are large enough to handle into individual pots. The seed can be grown in the greenhouse and can plant them out in late spring or early summer of the following year. Prinsepia utilis is distributed in China, India, Bangladesh, Taiwan, and Nepal in South Asia. In Nepal, it is distributed throughout the Himalayan range from West to East between 1600 and 3000 m elevation or more in secondary scrub and commonly in sunny places (Chauhan 1999). Central Himalaya of Nepal has diverse physiographic zones, climatic contrasts, and altitudinal variations and lies between 260 220 and 300 270 N latitude and 800 040 and 880 120 E longitude. It grows naturally and also cultivated in the hedge rows, waste land, or abandon land. This is listed in least concern species of IUCN list (Adhikari et al. 2017). It is a medicinal shrub which produces very useful edible oil from seed (Pandey and Daudi 2015; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10).

Phytochemistry The oil from the seed kernels is a semidrying and pale yellow in color; seeds have 37.2% yield (Maikhuri et al. 1994). It is edible fatty oil. The physiochemical characteristics of the oil are; specific gravity 0.9215 at 20 °C; refractive index 1.4625 at 20 °C; iodine content 109.8; saponification value 200.2; acid value 23.1; acetylation value 12.3; hehner value 98.3; unsaponifiable material 0.5% (Maikhuri

Prinsepia utilis Royle Fig. 1 Prinsepia utilis (Rosaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Maroof Ali Turi)

Fig. 2 Prinsepia utilis (Rosaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Maroof Ali Turi)

Fig. 3 Prinsepia utilis (Rosaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Maroof Ali Turi)

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Fig. 4 Prinsepia utilis (Rosaceae), Nepal. (Photo Sony Baral)

Fig. 5 Prinsepia utilis (Rosaceae), Nepal. (Photo Sony Baral)

et al. 1994). The fatty acid composition of the oil consists of 1.8% myristic, 15.2% palmitic, 4.5% stearic, 0.9% lignoceric, 32.6% oleic, and 43.6% linoleic acids. Resin acid is about 1.4%. The unsaponifiable matter contains sitosterol (Maikhuri et al. 1994). The physicochemical properties of oil resemble closely to those of olive oil.

Local Medicinal Uses Prinsepia utilis: An oil from the seed is rubefacient. It is applied externally as a treatment for rheumatism and muscular pain caused by hard work (Kunwar and Adhikari 2005; Kunwar et al. 2006), sore throat (Swar 2014), rheumatism cold, cough (Bhattarai 1992; Rokaya et al. 2010); root bark for stomach disorder (Kunwar and Duwadee 2003). The oil is also applied to the forehead and temples in the treatment of coughs and colds. The heated oilcake is applied as a poultice to the abdomen in the treatment of stomach aches (Manandhar 2002). A paste of this

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Fig. 6 Prinsepia utilis (Rosaceae), Nepal. (Photo Sony Baral) Fig. 7 Prinsepia utilis (Rosaceae), Nepal. (Photo Sony Baral)

seedcake is used as a poultice to treat ringworm or eczema (Manandhar 2002; Joshi et al. 2011). In addition, the oil is used as sedative and used during pregnancy for easy delivery (Kunwar and Adhikari 2005). Chinese and Indian folk used the oil to treat skin diseases, rheumatism inflammation, and leprosy (Guan et al. 2014). The seedcake paste is applied in the treatment of ringworm or eczema, and an hot oil cake is given to relieve in stomach aches (Joshi and Edington 1990; Manandhar 1995, 2002), women (Shrestha and Sthapit 2014). To treat rheumatism, stomach ache, and diarrhea (Malik et al. 2015). Oil used to treat cough and colds, also as anthelminthic, laxative (Kunwar et al. 2009, 2013). To remedy allergies, tonsillitis, stomach ache, rheumatism, skin diseases, and tumors (Gairola et al. 2014).

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Fig. 8 Prinsepia utilis (Rosaceae), Nepal. (Photo Sony Baral) Fig. 9 Prinsepia utilis (Rosaceae), Nepal. (Photo Sony Baral)

Local Food Uses Prinsepia utilis: Children of Dolpa, Jumla, and Mugu districts eat the ripe fruits (Baral and Kurmi 2006). The oil is used for cooking purposes and as an illuminant in the hills. Fruit are either raw or cooked like by children. It has rather an astringent flavor. The fruit is up to 17 mm long and contains a single large seed. The seed oil is used in cooking and externally used in the treatment of coughs and colds (Pandey and Daudi 2015). Oil used for cooking, leaves as vegetable (Dangol et al. 2017; Zhang et al. 2016). Also eaten as raw snack (Kang et al. 2016).

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Fig. 10 Prinsepia utilis (Rosaceae), Nepal. (Photo Sony Baral)

Fig. 11 Prinsepia utilis (Rosaceae), small-scale processing, Nepal. (Photo Sony Baral)

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Prinsepia utilis: Plants are also grown as a hedge in Himalayas (Manandhar 2002), which support to exclude the livestock and mark the land boundaries and also have the extended roots use for binding the soil (Manandhar 2002). The oil is also being used for the lighting (Chopra et al. 1986). It is suitable for hydrogenation and soap making for washing clothes. A deep purple color obtained from the fruits is used for painting windows and walls. Paste of fruit is applied on warts (Joshi et al. 2011). Used to fend off evil spirits (Geck 2011). For the harvesting and processing of Prinsepia oil, mostly women are involved. The harvesting of cherries and extraction of oil traditionally is time taking process, producing 2 l of oil in a day from the karnels. Nevertheless, portable machines have increased the efficiency, producing 3–5 l of oil in 30 min. This has not only reduced the drudgery and workload of women but also increased income of poor (Fig. 11).

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References Adhikari B, Pendry CA, Måren IE, Bhattarai KR, Chaudhary RP. Distribution and preliminary conservation assessments of commonly used forest species in the Nepalese Himalayas. Banko Janakari. 2017;27(1):43–54. Baral SR, Kurmi PP. Compendium of medicinal plants in Nepal. Kathmandu: Rachana Sharma; 2006. Bhattarai NK. Medical ethnobotany in the Karnali Zone, Nepal. Econ Bot. 1992;46(3):257–61. Chauhan NS. Medicinal and aromatic plants of Himachal Pradesh. New Delhi: Indus Publishing; 1999. Chopra RN, Nayar SL, Chopra IC. Glossary of Indian medicinal plants (including the supplement). New Delhi: Council of Scientific and Industrial Research; 1986. 9788172360481. Dangol DR, Maharjan KL, Maharjan SK, Acharya AK. Wild edible plants in Nepal. In: Joshi BK, Bahadur KCH, Acharya A, editors. Conservation and utilization of agricultural plant genetic resources of Nepal. Dhulikhel: NAGRC; 2017. p. 390–407. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Geck MS. Access and benefit sharing in the context of ethnobotanical research. Zurich: MSc thesis, University of Zurich; 2011. Guan B, Li T, Xu XK, Zhang XF, Wei PL, Peng CC, Yan SK. γ-Hydroxynitrile glucosides from the seeds of Prinsepia utilis. Phytochemistry. 2014;105:135–40. Joshi AR, Edington JM. The use of medicinal plants by two village communities in the central development region of Nepal. Econ Bot. 1990;44(1):71–83. Joshi K, Joshi R, Joshi AR. Indigenous knowledge and uses of medicinal plants in Macchegaun, Nepal. Indian J Trad Knowl. 2011;10(2):281–6. Kang J, Kang Y, Ji X, Guo Q, Jacques G, Pietras M, Łuczaj N, Li D, Łuczaj Ł. Wild food plants and fungi used in the mycophilous Tibetan community of Zhagana (Tewo County, Gansu, China). J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:21. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0094-y. Kunwar RM, Adhikari N. Ethnomedicine of Dolpa district, Nepal: the plants, their vernacular names and uses. Lyonia. 2005;8(1):43–9. Kunwar RM, Duwadee NPS. Ethnobotanical notes on flora of Khaptad National Park, Far western Nepal. Himal J Sci. 2003;1(1):25–30. Kunwar RM, Nepal BK, Kshhetri HB, et al. Ethnomedicine in Himalaya: a case study from Dolpa, Humla, Jumla and Mustang districts of Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:27. https://doi. org/10.1186/1746-4269-2-27. Kunwar RM, Upreti Y, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Indigenous use and ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in Far-west Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009;7:5–28. Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Acharya RP, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants, traditional medicine, markets and management in far-west Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:24. Maikhuri RK, Singh A, Semwal RL. Prinsepia utilis Royle: a wild, edible oil shrub of the higher Himalayas. Plant Genet Resour Newslett. 1994;98:5. Malik ZA, Bhat J, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhat AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44. Manandhar NP. A survey of medicinal plants of Jajarkot district, Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 1995;48(1):1–6. Manandhar NP. Plants and people of Nepal. Portland: Timber Press; 2002. Pandey V, Daudi P. Propagation techniques of Prinsepia utilis Royle. Int Adv Res J Sci Eng Technol. 2015;2(10) https://doi.org/10.17148/IARJSET.2015.2101991. Rokaya MB, Münzbergováa Z, Timsina B. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants from the Humla district of Western Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010;130:485–504. Shrestha P, Sthapit S. Conservation by communities–the CBM approach. LEISA India. 2014;16(1):11–3.

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Swar S. Study of traditional medicinal practice in Bridhim VDC of Rasuwa District, Central Nepal. Bull Dept Plant Resour N. 2014;36:68–71. Watanabe T, Rajbhandari KR, Malla KJ, Devkota HP, Yahara S. A handbook of medicinal plants of Nepal supplement I. Tokyo: Non-Profit Organization Ayurseed Life Environmental Institute, Japan; 2013. ISBN: 9784990657208. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Zhang L, Chai Z, Zhang Y, Geng Y, Wang Y. Ethnobotanical study of traditional edible plants used by the Naxi people during droughts. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:39. https://doi.org/10. 1186/s13002-016-0113-z.

Prunella vulgaris L. LAMIACEAE Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Maroof Ali Turi

Local Names Prunella vulgaris: Pashto: Harswa; Chinese: Xia Ku Kao

Botany and Ecology Prunella vulgaris: Stems 20–30 cm, ascending, base much branched, purple-red, sparsely strigose or subglabrous. Petiole 0.7–2.5 cm, upper ones shorter; leaf blade lanceolate to ovate, 1.5–6  0.6–2.5 cm, glabrous to sparsely villous, base truncate to broadly cuneate-decurrent, margin undulate to entire, apex obtuse to rounded. Spikes 2–4 cm, sessile; floral leaves similar to cauline leaves, sessile or short petiolate, subovate; bracts purplish, broadly cordate, about 7  11 mm, cuspidate, veins sparsely hispid. Calyx campanulate, about 1 cm, sparsely hispid, tube about 4 mm; upper lip suboblate, subtruncate; lower lip narrower, teeth acuminate. Corolla H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia M. A. Turi College of Life Science, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu, China © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_198

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Fig. 1 Prunella vulgaris (Lamiaceae), Pakistan. (Photo M. Ali Turi)

purplish or white, about 1.3 cm, slightly exerted, glabrous; tube about 7 mm, base about 1.5 mm wide, gradually dilated to about 4 mm wide at throat; upper lip subcircular, about 5.5 mm in diameter,  galeate, emarginate; lower lip about 1/2 as long as upper lip, middle lobe subobcordate, fringed; lateral lobes oblong, spreading, minute. Anterior stamens very long. Nutlets oblong-ovoid, about 1.8  0.9 mm, slightly 1-furrowed. Flowering April–June, fruiting July–October (Wu et al. 1994–2013; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6).

Local Medicinal Uses Prunella vulgaris: Used against rheumatism, cardiac problems and to treat colds (Yesilada et al. 1993). Also employed for wound healing, as expectorant and antiseptic (Ahmad Jan et al. 2019; Altundaga and Oztürk 2011; Singh et al. 2017), and to remedy colds and asthma (Ahmad and Ahmad 2015). In Chinese traditional medicine, normally in combination with other herbs, used to treat for edema, dysuria, subcutaneous nodulae, scrofula, eyesight, liver problems, sciatica, rheumatic arthritis, rheumatic injuries, dizziness, swellings with pus, sores, and mastitis (Wu 2005). In Pakistan for stomach pain, urinary problems, as tonic, and for sore throat (Kayani et al. 2015). In Jammu and Kashmir for cough, diarrhea, fever, frost bite, muscular pain, sore throat, to treat wounds and abscesses, as blood purifier, body aches, cerebral disorders, colds, gastric disorders, hair growth, muscular problem, wounds, anthelmintic, brain disorders, breathing problems, cold, headache, liver ailments, lung troubles, piles, rheumatism, swellings (Gairola et al. 2014), and as source of anti-HIV compounds (Ahmad et al. 2006).

Prunella vulgaris L. Fig. 2 Prunella vulgaris (Lamiaceae), Pakistan. (Photo M. Ali Turi)

Fig. 3 Prunella vulgaris (Lamiaceae), Pakistan. (Photo M. Ali Turi)

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Fig. 5 Prunella vulgaris (Lamiaceae), Pakistan. (Photo M. Ali Turi)

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Fig. 6 Prunella vulgaris (Lamiaceae), Pakistan. (Photo M. Ali Turi)

References Ahmad SA, Ahmad AAA. Ethnobotany of the Hawraman region of Kurdistan. Harv Pap Bot. 2015;20(1):85–9. Ahmad Jan H, Jan S, Bussmann RW, Wali S, Sist F, Ahmad L. Complementary and alternative medicine research, prospects and limitations in Pakistan: a literature review. Acta Ecol Sin. 2019; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chnaes.2019.12.005. Ahmad I, Aquil F, Owais M. Modern phytomedicine. Weinheim: Wiley; 2006. Altundaga E, Oztürk M. Ethnomedicinal studies on the plant resources of east Anatolia, Turkey. Procedia Soc Behav Sci. 2011;19:756–77. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Kayani S, Ahmad M, Sultana S, Khan Shinwari Z, Zafar M, Yaseen G, Hussain M, Bibi T. Ethnobotany of medicinal plants among the communities of alpine and sub-alpine regions of Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;164:186–202. Singh S, Youssouf M, Malik ZA, Bussmann RW. Sacred groves: myths, beliefs and biodiversity conservation. a case study from Western Himalaya, India. Int J Ecol. 2017; https://doi.org/10. 1155/2017/3828609. Article ID 3828609. Wu JN. An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2005. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Yesilada E, Honda G, Sezik E, Tabata M, Goto K, Ikeshiro Y. Traditional medicine in Turkey IV. Folk medicine in the Mediterranean subdivision. J Ethnopharmacol. 1993;39:31–8.

Pyracantha crenulata (D. Don) M. Roem. ROSACEAE Ganga D. Bhatta, Ripu M. Kunwar, and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Pyracantha crenulata (D. Don) M. Roem.: Mespilus crenulata D. Don; Crataegus crenulata (D. Don) Roxb.; Cotoneaster crenulatus (D. Don) K. Koch

Local Names Pyracantha crenulata: Nepali: Ghangaru, Gangaru, Kaathgedi; Sherpa: Mharu; Gurung: Bhonpujo, Chento, Rishinpojo; Tamang: Chhernekanda Magar: Ghangaru; Hindi: Ghingaru (Manandhar 2002). English: Nepalese White Thorn, Fire thorn, Nepalese fire thorn, Himalayan fire thorn (Manandhar 2002); Pashto: Khra sharavo (Ahmad and Pieroni 2016).

G. D. Bhatta National Herbarium and Plant Laboratories (KATH), Godawari, Lalitpur, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_199

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Botany and Ecology Pyracantha crenulata: Thorny evergreen shrubs or small trees, to 5 m tall, with thorny branches. Branches dark brown when old, initially rusty pubescent, glabrous when old. Petiole 3–6 mm, glabrous; leaf blade oblong or oblanceolate, rarely ovatelanceolate, 2–7  0.8–1.8 cm, both surfaces glabrous, base broadly cuneate or slightly rounded, margin crenulate or sparsely so, apex acute or obtuse. Compound corymb 3–5 cm in diameter, many flowered; peduncle initially brown pubescent basally, glabrescent; bracts caducous, lanceolate. Pedicel 4–10 mm, glabrous. Flowers 6–9 mm in diameter Hypanthium campanulate, glabrous. Sepals triangular, 1–1.2 mm, abaxially glabrous, apex acute. Petals orbicular, 4–5  3–4 mm, apex rounded. Stamens 20; filaments 2–3 mm. Ovary densely white pubescent apically; styles nearly as long as stamens. Pome orangish yellow or orangish red when mature, nearly globose, 3–8 mm in diameter; sepals persistent, erect (Wu et al. 1994–2013; Pendry 2011) (Figs. 1 and 2). Pyracantha crenulata is native to temperate Himalaya (Northwest India and Central and Southern China) (http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org). It is growing in open slopes, Alnus-Catanopsis – Quercus and Chir pine forest margins, stream sides, grassy places, valleys, roadsides, and abandoned cultivated areas. It prefers good well-drained, moisture retentive loamy soil. Flowers from April–June and

Fig. 1 Pyracantha crenulata (Rosaceae), habitat at Godawari, Lalitpur, 1550 m, Nepal. (Photo Ganga Datt Bhatt)

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Fig. 2 Pyracantha crenulata (Rosaceae), fruiting twig. (Photo Ganga Datt Bhatt)

fruits ripe in August–September (Pendry 2011; Daudi and Pandey 2015). India, Nepal, Bhutan, China, and Myanmar. In Nepal, it is distributed from west to east in between 800 and 2800 m asl (Kunwar et al. 2019; Pendry 2011; Shrestha et al. 2018; Rajbhandari and Rai 2019).

Phytochemistry Glycoside, alkaloids, carbohydrate, tannins, amino acids, sterols, terpenoid, flavonoid, β-sitosterol, cis-3, 4-dioxyethylene-5- methoxycinnamic acid, lanost-54-en-2β, 3β-diol 26-oic acid, β-carotene, lycopene (Saklani et al. 2011; Pal et al. 2013; Sati 2017; Sultana et al. 2017).

Local Medicinal Uses Pyracantha crenulata: The powder of dried fruit with yoghurt is used in the treatment of bloody dysentery (Dangol et al. 2017; Kunwar et al. 2010a; Manandhar 2002; Joshi 2008; Pendry 2011). The local people of Far-Western Province (Baitadi, Bajhang, Dadeldhura and Darchula) and Panchase region of Gandaki Province eat fruits for treatment dysentery (Kunwar et al. 2010b; Bhattarai et al. 2011). The fruits are used in anemia (Mehra et al. 2014). The leaves are used to prepare herbal teas, sun burn creams, and facial creams and taken as a nervine tonic (Sultana et al. 2017). Bark decoction is administered to treat stomach wound and pain (Yogi 2072 B.S.).

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Local Food Uses Pyracantha crenulata: The ripe fruits are eaten fresh (Ahmad and Pieroni 2016; Sharma et al. 2003; Pant et al. 2005; Pendry 2011, Sigdel et al. 2013; Shrestha et al. 2018). Pyracantha angustifolia and Pyracantha fortuneana fruits are eaten (Zhang et al. 2016).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Pyracantha crenulata: Branches are used as walking sticks and also used to make agricultural implements (Giretho in Far-western Province of Nepal). Branches are used as fuelwood. The plant is used to make excellent hedge and planted as ornamentals for their showy fruits (Polunin and Stainton 1984; Manandhar 2002; Sharma et al. 2003; Pendry 2011; Shrestha et al. 2018).

References Ahmad K, Pieroni A. Folk knowledge of wild food plants among the tribal communities of Thakhte-Sulaiman Hills, North-West Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:17. https://doi.org/10. 1186/s13002-016-0090-2. Bhattarai KR, Måren IE, Chaudhary RP. Medicinal plant knowledge of the Panchase region in the middle hills of the Nepalese Himalayas. Banko Janakari. 2011;21:31–9. Dangol DR, Maharjan KL, Maharjan SK, Acharya AK. Wild edible plants in Nepal. In: Joshi BK, Bahadur KCH, Acharya A, editors. Conservation and utilization of agricultural plant genetic resources of Nepal. Dhulikhel: NAGRC; 2017. p. 390–407. Daudi P, Pandey V. Propagation techniques of Pyracantha crenulata (D. Don.) M. Roem. Int J Technol Enhanc Emerg Eng Res. 2015;3(9):97–100. Joshi KR. Ethnomedicinal uses of plants: a case study of Sarmoli VDC, Darchula District, Nepal. In: Medicinal plants in Nepal: an anthology of contemporary research. Kathmandu: ECOS; 2008. Kunwar RM, Shrestha K, Bussmann R. Traditional herbal medicine in far-west Nepal: a pharmacological appraisal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010a;6:35. Kunwar RM, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants in farwest Nepal: their indigenous uses and pharmacological validity. Med Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010b;4 (Special issue 1):28–42. Kunwar RM, Shrestha K, Malla S, Acharya T, Sementelli A, Kutal D. Ethnobotany 2019. Relation of medicinal plants, their use patterns and availability in the lower Kailash Sacred Landscape, Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18(7) https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.6.1-14. Manandhar NP. Plants and people of Nepal. Portland: Timber Press; 2002. Mehra A, Bajpai O, Joshi H. Diversity, utilization and sacred values of Ethno-medicinal plants of Kumaun Himalaya. Trop Plant Res. 2014;1(3):80–6. Pal RS, Kumar RA, Agrawal PK, Bhatt JC. Antioxidant capacity and related phytochemicals analysis of methanolic extract of two wild edible fruits from north Western. Indian Himalaya. Int J Pharm Bio Sci. 2013;4(2):113–23. Pant SR, Dhami NR, Panta IR. Wild edible plants of Lekam area, Darchula, Far Western Nepal. Sci World. 2005;3(3):73–7.

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Pendry CA. Pyracantha. In: Flora of Nepal, Vol. 3 (Magnoliaceae –Rosaceae). Edinburgh: Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, U.K; 2011. Polunin O, Stainton A. Flowers of the Himalaya. New Delhi: Oxford University Press; 1984. Rajbhandari KR, Rai SK. A handbook of the flowering plants of Nepal, vol. 2. Kathmandu: Department of Plant Resources, Thapathali; 2019. Saklani S, Chandra S, Mishra AP. Evaluation of nutritional profile, medicinal value and qualitative estimation in different parts of Pyrus pashia, Ficus palmata and Pyracantha crenulata. J Glob Trends Pharm Sci. 2011;2(3):350–4. http://www.jgtps.com. Sati DC. Pharmacognostical and phytochemical screening of leaf and fruit extract of Pyracantha crenulata. J Pharmacogn Phytochem. 2017;6(5):2563–8. www.Phytojournal.com. Sharma I, Joshi N, Roy B, Shrestha R. Flora of Royal Botanical Garden (Phanerogams). Godawari: Department of Plant Resources, Royal Botanical Garden; 2003. p. 62. Shrestha KK, Bhattarai S, Bhandari P. Handbook of flowering plants of Nepal (Volume 1. gymnosperms and angiosperms: Cycadaceae – Betulaceae). Jodhpur: Scientific Publishers; 2018. Sigdel SR, Rokaya MB, Timsina B. Plant inventory and ethnobotanical study of Khimti hydropower project, Central Nepal. Sci World. 2013;11(11):105–12. Sultana S, Ali M, Mir SR. Cinnamic acid and lanostenoic acid derivatives from the leaves of Pyracantha crenulata (D. Don) M. Roem. J Pharm Biol Sci. 2017. http://www.jpabs.org/ Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Yogi D. Ayurvedic – herbal Science (IV editions). Kathmandu: Vidyarthi Publication Pvt. Ltd., Kamal Pokhari. 2072 B.S. (in Nepali). Zhang L, Chai Z, Zhang Y, Geng Y, Wang Y. Ethnobotanical study of traditional edible plants used by the Naxi people during droughts. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:39. https://doi.org/10. 1186/s13002-016-0113-z.

Pyrus communis L. Pyrus pashia Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don. ROSACEAE Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Local Names Pyrus communis: English: pear. Pyrus paschia: Gharwal: mehal; Kashmir: moul; Jammu: kenti, batangi; Nepali: sano mayal.

Botany and Ecology Pyrus communis: Tree to 20–30 m high, sometimes a shrub; branches with or without spines; buds and shoots glabrous, less often pubescent; petioles about as long as the leaf blade, 2–7-cm long, initially more or less pubescent, later glabrous; leaves 2–7 cm long, 1.5–2.5 cm broad, suborbicular or oval, rounded or obscurely cuneate at base, short-tapering, acuminate apex, entire or serrulate or crenate on whole or part of margin, initially white-arachnoid-pubescent, A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_200

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especially below, later quite glabrous or subglabrous, with a stronger pubescence, masking the teeth only along the veins and the leaf margin, lustrous green, lighter below, drying black; pedicels 3.5-cm long, pubescent or glabrous; flowers 2.5– 3 cm in diameter; sepals triangular-lanceolate, densely pubescent like the ovary, erect; petals short-clawed, ca. 1.5-cm long, 1 cm broad; fruits pyriform or subglobose, very variable in size and shape, to 3–4 cm long, 1.5–2 cm broad, green, sometimes reddening, less often yellow. Flowering April to May. Ural, Caucasus, in forests, mostly on clearings. Widely cultivated (Yuzepchuk 1939) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12). Pyrus pashia: Trees to 12 m tall, with branches often armed. Branchlets purplishbrown or dark brown when old, terete, lanate when young, glabrous when old; buds ovoid, apex obtuse; scales puberulous along margin. Stipules caducous, linearlanceolate, 4–8 mm, membranous, adaxially pubescent, margin entire, apex acuminate; petiole 1.5–3 cm, initially pilose, soon glabrescent; leaf blade ovate or narrowly ovate, rarely elliptic, 4–7  2–5 cm, tomentose when young, glabrescent, base rounded, rarely broadly cuneate, margin obtusely serrate, apex acuminate or acute. Raceme umbel-like, 7–13-flowered; peduncle initially tomentose, glabrescent; bracts caducous, linear, 8–10 mm, membranous, both surfaces tomentose, margin entire, apex acuminate. Pedicel 2–3 cm, initially tomentose, glabrescent. Flowers 2–5 cm in diameter. Hypanthium cupular, abaxially tomentose. Sepals triangular, 3–6 mm, both surfaces tomentose, margin entire, apex acute, acuminate, or obtuse. Petals white, obovate, 8–10  4–6 mm, base shortly clawed, apex rounded. Stamens 25–30, slightly shorter than petals. Ovary 3–5-loculed, with 2 ovules per locule; styles 3–5, nearly as long as stamens, glabrous. Pome brown, with pale dots,

Fig. 1 Pyrus caucasica (Rosaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Pyrus communis L. . . .

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Fig. 2 Pyrus caucasica (Rosaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

subglobose, 1–1.5 cm in diameter; sepals caducous; fruiting pedicel 2–3 cm, subglabrous. Flowering March to April, fruiting August to September (Wu et al. 19942013) (Figs. 13 and 14).

Phytochemistry Triterpenoids (friedelin, epifridinal), steroids (sitosterol), carbohydrates (sorbitol, sucrose, glucose, fructose, pectin), vitamins (C, carotene), phenols (hydroquinone, arbutin, acetylarbutin, pyroside, isopyrozide), phenylcarboxylic acids (chlorine, isochlorogenic, neochlorenovic, p-coumaroline, ridrolizate), catechins (epicatechin), flavonoids (quercetin, isoquercitrin, astrarealine, riperine), tannins. (Sokolov 1987).

1622 Fig. 3 Pyrus caucasica (Rosaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Pyrus caucasica (Rosaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Pyrus communis L. . . . Fig. 5 Pyrus caucasica (Rosaceae), Samtskhe, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 6 Pyrus caucasica (Rosaceae), Pshavi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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1624 Fig. 7 Pyrus caucasica (Rosaceae), Pshavi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 8 Pyrus communis (Rosaceae), Pshavi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 9 Pyrus communis (Rosaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Pyrus communis L. . . . Fig. 10 Pyrus communis (Rosaceae), in espalier, Leutkirch, Germany. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 11 Pyrus communis (Rosaceae), in espalier, Leutkirch, Germany. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 12 Pyrus communis (Rosaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 13 Pyrus pashia (Rosaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

Local Medicinal Uses Pyrus communis: The leaves are used for their antibacterial and antifungal properties, as contraceptive, and for malignant tumors, diarrhea, dysentery, nephritis, cystitis, and wound healing. The fruits have astringent and fixative properties (Alalbarov 2008). A decoction of fruits is applied externally on wounds (Alalbarov 2008). A fruit decoction was used to treat diarrhea in children, inflammatory disorders of the gastro-intestinal tract (Kopaliani 2013; Burduli 2010), and tuberculosis (Kopaliani 2013). Juice and infusion were thought to be efficient remedies for urinary stones (Kopaliani 2013). Pyrus leaves with radish root, white alum, and complete basil plant were crushed and mixed, and the mixture was used to treat sores (Melikishvili 1976). Pyrus was used to treat diarrhea in children (Jikia 1991). The fruit decoction was also used to treat gastro-intestinal inflammation and tuberculosis; juice and infusion were thought to be efficient remedies for urinary stones (Kopaliani 2013:); and the plant was used to treat stomachache in West Georgia (Burduli 2010).

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Fig. 14 Pyrus communis (Rosaceae), mortar made from pear wood, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

The fruits are used for diabetes and to treat urinary problems (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, c; 2018, 2020; Bussmann 2017). Pyrus pashia: Used to treat diabetes (Singh et al. 2017) and stomach disorders (Kumar et al. 2011; Kunwar et al. 2012, 2013; Malik et al. 2015). The fruits are used as astringent, the bark is used as anthelminthic and febrifuge, the flowers are used to stop nosebleeds (Joshi et al. 2010). In Jammu it is used for dyspepsia and flatulence and as aperitive (Gairola et al. 2014). Pyrus caucasica: The fruits have astringent and fixative properties. A decoction of fruits is applied externally on wounds. A fruit decoction was used to treat diarrhea in children, inflammatory disorders of the gastro-intestinal tract, and tuberculosis. Juice and infusion were thought to be efficient remedies for urinary stones. Pyrus leaves with radish root, white alum, and complete basil plant were crushed and mixed, and the mixture was used to treat sores. Pyrus was used to treat diarrhea in children. The fruit decoction was also used to treat gastro-intestinal inflammation and tuberculosis; juice and infusion were thought to be efficient remedies for urinary stones, and the plant was used to treat stomachache. The fruits are used for diabetes and to treat

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urinary problems (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, b, c; 2018, 2020; Bussmann 2017). Pyrus elaeagnifolia is used to treat hypertension and cardiovascular diseases (Ari et al. 2015).

Local Food Uses Pyrus communis: The leaves are used as tea and coffee replacement. The fruits are eaten and used for alcohol production. The fruits are used fresh, processed (as sauces, jam, pastes, juices), or dried and also to produce fruit wine and vodka. Crushed fruits are added to flour for bread (Grossheim 1952; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2007). The fruits contain sugars, citric acid, malic acid, carotene, vitamin C, pectins, and tannins (Grossheim 1952; Budantseva 1994-1996; Sokolov 1984-1993; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2007; Zolotnitskaya 1958-1965). Fruits are used raw or boiled and for bakery. Jam and wine are made of fruits (Grossheim 1946). The fruit was used to make winter preserves (Bidzinashvili 2013). The fruits are also used to make alcohol and syrup and can be included in phkhali (a vegetable spread with walnuts) (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016ab, c, 2017ab, c; 2018, 2020; Bussmann 2017). The fruits are eaten and are a base for kvass and soft drinks. The dried seeds are sometimes used to make a coffee substitute (Grossheim 1952). In Adjara the fruits Pyrus caucasica were roasted in the furnace and were preserved for the winter. Pyrus pashia: The fruits are eaten (Dangol et al. 2017). Pyrus caucasica: The fruits are used fresh, processed (as sauces, jam, pastes, juices), or dried and also to produce fruit wine and vodka. Crushed fruits are added to flour for bread (Grossheim 1952; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2007). The fruits contain sugars, citric acid, malic acid, carotene, vitamin C, pectins, and tannins (Grossheim 1952; Budantseva 1994-1996; Sokolov 1984-1993; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2007; Zolotnitskaya 1958-1965). Fruits are used raw or boiled and for bakery. Jam and wine are made of fruits (Grossheim 1946). The fruit was used to make winter preserves (Bidzinashvili 2013). The fruits are also used to make alcohol and syrup and can be included in phkhali (a vegetable spread with walnuts) (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014 2016a, b, c, 2017ab, c; 2018, 2020; Bussmann 2017). Pyrus pyrifolia fruits are eaten by the Naxi during droughts (Zhang et al. 2016).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Pyrus communis: The wood is used for carpentry. The bark yields brownish dyes for wool and silk. It is used as fodder (shoots, leaves, fruits) for cattle and pigs. Pear has flexible and lustrous wood that is usually used for preparing precious goods (Grossheim 1952). Musical instruments are made of this wood, which includes zurna (band), kamancha, and saz (bow and strings). Wooden spoons, tubs, and

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other household objects are made from pear. It is considered to be moderate nectariferous plant, producing much nectar (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950-1961). A dye solution is prepared from bark and leaves to obtain yellow and beige colors. The solution is used for dyeing wool yarn as well as products made of wool (Qasimov 1980). The wood serves for construction and to make tough household utensils, e.g., mortars, and sometimes used as firewood (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016ab, c, 2017ab, c; 2018; 2020; Bussmann 2017). The wood is heavy and burns well, and its charcoal keeps the heat for a long time. Pear wood is used for joinery and turning work (Grossheim 1952). Pyrus pashia: It is used as firewood and the leaves are used as fodder (Singh et al. 2017). It is used to treat eye problems in cows (Malik et al. 2015). Fruits are given to livestock against diarrhea (Kunwar et al. 2012). Pyrus caucasica: Pear has flexible and lustrous wood that is usually used for preparing precious goods (Grossheim 1952). Musical instruments are made of this wood, which includes zurna (band), kamancha, and saz (bow and strings). Wooden spoons, tubs, and other household objects are made from pear. It is considered to be moderate nectariferous plant, producing much nectar (Flora of Azerbaijan 19501961). A dye solution is prepared from bark and leaves to obtain yellow and beige colors. The solution is used for dyeing wool yarn as well as products made of wool (Qasimov 1980). The wood serves for construction and to make tough household utensils, e.g., mortars, and is sometimes used as firewood (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017ab, c; 2018; 2020; Bussmann 2017).

References Alalbarov AU. One thousand and one secret of the east. Nurlan: Baku; 2008. (in Russian) Ari S, Temel M, Kargıoğlu M, Konuk M. Ethnobotanical survey of plants used in AfyonkarahisarTurkey. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2015;11(84). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-015-0067-6. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Pyrus caucasica Fed. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Bidzinashvili R. Medicinal uses of food and fruit-berry crops. Tbilisi; 2013. (in Georgian) Budantseva AL (editor). Plant resources of Russia and neighboring countries, vol. 1–2. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1994-1996. (in Russian). Burduli M.. Traditional Georgian folk medicine.. Akhaltsikhe; 2010. (in Georgian). Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ehnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:5. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti. Caucasus.

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Acta Sociatatis Botanicae Poloniae: Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia); 2016c. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – Ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. p. XXVII, 746p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1 Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus – the region. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017c. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D. Pyrus caucasica fed.; Pyrus communis L. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions far Eastern Europe. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77088-8_ 113-2. Dangol DR, Maharjan KL, Maharjan SK, Acharya, AK. Wild edible plants in Nepal. In: Joshi BK, Bahadur KCH, Acharya A, editors. Conservation and utilization of agricultural plant genetic resources of Nepal. Dhulikhel: NAGRC; 2017. p. 390–407. Flora of Azerbaijan. Volumes. I-VIII. Baku, AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1950-1961. (in Russian). Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Grossheim AA. Plant resources of the Caucasus. Baku; Publishing house of AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1946. . (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian) Jikia N. The use of wild plants and vegetables as traditional food in the eastern Georgia’s mountains. Tbilisi: Bulletin of the State Museum of Georgia, XLI-B; 1991. (in Georgian) Joshi M, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal uses of plant resources of the Haigad watershed in Kumaun Himalaya. Med Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol 4 special issue. 2010;1:43–6. Kopaliani L. Forest plants of Georgia (trees, shrubs, herbs). Kutaisi: Publishing Center; 2013. (in Georgian) Kumar M, Bussmann RW, Mukesh J, Kumar P. Ethnomedicinal uses of plants close to rural habitation in Garhwal Himalayan, India. J Med Plant Res. 2011;511:2252–60. Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Acharya RP, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants, traditional medicine, markets and management in far-West Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:24. Kunwar, R.M., Mahat, L., Sharma, L.N., Shrestha, K.P., Kominee, H., Ethnobotany 2012. Underutilized plant species in far-West Nepal – a valuable resource being wasted. J Mt Sci 9:589–600. Malik ZA, Bhat J, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhat AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44. Melikishvili M. Dye, medicinal and food plants Sagarejo District. Tbilisi: Bulletin of the State Museum of Georgia XXIX -A; 1976. (in Georgian) Qasimov MA. Dye plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Azerbaijan State Publishing House; 1980. (in Azeri)

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Quercus baloot Griff. Quercus dilatata Lindl Quercus incana W. Bartram Quercus lanata Sm. FAGACEAE Nabin Joshi, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Synonyms Quercus baloot Griff.: Quercus ilex L., Quercus ilicifolius Griff. Quercus incana W. Bartram: Quercus cinerea Michx., Quercus dealbata Wall., Quercus leucotrichophora A. Camus, Quercus oblongata D. Don Quercus lanata Sm.: Quercus tungmaiensis Y.T. Chang

N. Joshi Asia Network for Sustainable Agri-Bioresources, Kathmandu, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_201

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Local Names Quercus baloot: Urdu: sayreye; Pashto: spin banj ‫ﺳﭙﯿﻦ ﺑﻨﺞ‬ Quercus dilatata: Pashto: toor banj ‫ﺕﻭﺭ ﺏﻥﺝ‬ Quercus incana: Nepali: sano banjh or banj; Buner: thor banj; Gharwal: baanj; Gilgit-Baltistan: bani; Jammu: banj, banjh, ree, chidhaar; Hindi: banj or ban oak; English: banj oak, Himalayan oak, blackjack oak, white oak Quercus lanata: Nepali: bhanjhkar, baanjh, latyaz (Kunwar et al. 2018).

Botany and Ecology Quercus baloot: An evergreen small tree or a shrub, 2.5–8 m tall. Young branches and shoots grayish tomentose. Leaves coriaceous, oblong-ovate to obovate or elliptic or sub-orbiculate, 2.5–7.5  2.5–8 cm, entire or spiny-toothed, upper surface green, lower pale green; petiole 3–4-mm long. Male flowers in catkins, 3.3–5-cm long, lax, pubescent; stamens 5–7; anthers hairy, oblong about 1.2-mm long, filaments 2-mm long. Female flowers on 2–4.2-cm long peduncles; styles 3–5. Cupule 1.2–1.3 cm broad, enclosing 1/2 to 3/4 of the nut; acorn 1.5–1.7-cm long, yellowish-brown, glabrescent. Flowering April to May. Kashmir, Pakistan, and Afghanistan. A hardy tree found in the inner dry valleys of the Himalayas from 1800 to 3000 m. Usually gregarious and often associated with blue pine. The wood is used for construction purposes and the bark yields tannin (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020) (Fig. 1). Fig. 1 Quercus baloot (Fagaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

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Quercus dilatata: Tree up to 20 m tall. Leaves elliptic-ovate to broadly lanceolate, coriaceous, 4–12  1.6–5.5 cm, entire to spiny-toothed, acute or obtuse; nerves 9–12 pairs, forked at the extremities, both surfaces green, glabrous, glaucous, base often oblique; petiole 0.3–1-cm long, glabrous. Male flowers in lax catkins, up to 5-cm long; bract lanceolate, about 1.5-mm long, shorter than the perianth, tomentose; stamens 4–8, subsessile; anthers glabrous. Styles 3–5. Cupule 2–2.4 cm broad, covering half the nut, pubescent. Nut ovoid, brownish, glabrescent, tipped with an umbo. Flowering April to May. Afghanistan, Pakistan, temperate Himalayas from Kashmir to Nepal The “holly oak” is fairly common in the Murree Hills, the Hazara Dist., and Swat from 1600 to 2900 m. The leaves are used for fodder. The wood is used as firewood and for making charcoal (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020) (Figs. 2 and 3).

Fig. 2 Quercus dilatata (Fagaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 3 Quercus dilatata (Fagaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

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Quercus incana: Trees 6–18 m tall. Shoots puberulous to tomentose. Winter buds 1.5–2-cm long, covered with brown scales. Leaves elliptic-lanceolate to ovatelanceolate, 6–15  1.7–4.7 cm, coarsely serrate but not at the base, acuminate, penni-nerved, nerves 11–20 pairs, upper surface dark green, lower white tomentose; petiole 0.4–1.5-cm long. Male flowers in catkins, 6–14-cm long; bract ovate-oblong to oblong-orbiculate, about 2-mm long; perianth tomentose, segments about 1-mm long, obtuse or acute; stamens 4–6; anthers about 1-mm long, hairy, oblong, apiculate. Cupule about 1.2 cm broad, sub-globose, enclosing half the nut at maturity. Nut 1–2-cm long, canescent, umbo tipped, glabrescent. Flowering April to May, fruiting August to September. Outer and temperate Northwestern Himalayas to Nepal, Upper Burma. Common and often gregarious on the southern slopes of the Himalayas from 1000 to 2700 m. Earlier studies (Rana et al. 1989; Singh and Rawat 2012; Singh and Singh 1986; Zobel and Singh 1997) have reported the occurrence of banj oak between 1000 and 2500 m elevations, with high abundance around 2000 m elevation. The mild climatic conditions of this elevation zone are favorable for settlement, and the region is therefore densely populated. It is one of the species found in regrowth of degraded Schima-Castanopsis woodland. Banj is among the main forest-forming species in the densely populated mid-altitudinal zones of the Central Himalaya and provides a variety of ecosystem services. High calorific value of banj wood makes it an excellent fuel, and its leaves are palatable and the major source of cattle fodder in the winter and dry seasons (Thandani 1995) (Figs. 4 and 5). Quercus lanata: Trees to 30 m tall, evergreen. Young branchlets densely grayishbrown pubescent, glabrescent. Petiole 0.5–1.5 cm, grayish-brown tomentose, glabrescent; leaf blade narrowly ovate-lanceolate to narrowly elliptic, 9–20  3– 8.5 cm, thinly leathery, abaxially densely with grayish stellate hairs but glabrescent, adaxially densely pubescent especially on midvein, base rounded to broadly cuneate, margin sharply serrate, apex acuminate; secondary veins 12–17 on each side of midvein; tertiary veins abaxially conspicuous. Female inflorescences axillary on young shoots, 4–14 cm; cupules 10 or more. Cupule cupular, 0.6–1  0.8–1.5 cm, enclosing 1/4–1/2 of nut, wall about 1-mm thick; bracts triangular, about 1 mm, basal bracts abaxially tuberculate, grayish-brown pubescent. Nut ovoid-conical, 1.5– 2  1–1.2 cm, glabrous; scar about 4 mm in diameter, slightly raised; stylopodium about 1 mm. Flowering June to July, fruiting June to July of the following year. Important component of chir pine forests (Kumar et al. 2011b; Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Figs. 6 and 7).

Phytochemistry Quercus leucotrichophora: Twenty-three constituents, amounting to 93.0% of the total detected contents of the volatile extract, were identified. The volatile extract contained approximately 86.36% monoterpenoids, 6.53% sesquiterpenoids and 0.11% aliphatic aldehydes. 1,8-Cineol (40.359%) followed by γ-terpinene (16.369%) were the major monoterpene constituents of the volatile extract (Sati

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Fig. 4 Quercus incana (Fagaceae), Baitadi district, Nepal. (Photo Nabin Joshi)

et al. 2012). The residue of volatile extract (0.00025–250 μg mL 1) exhibited a potent antimicrobial activity against Streptococcus pyogenes ATCC 19615. This study concludes that residues of the volatile extract of Q. leucotrichophora could serve as an important bioresource for the extraction and isolation of monoterpenoids exhibiting antimicrobial activity, and thus has good potential for use in the pharmaceutical industry (Sati et al. 2012). The hexane extract of oak barks can be defined as a mixture of invaluable hydrocarbons and also it was reported that the main component of oak bark volatile oil is (E)-2-hexenal, while monoterpene and sesquiterpene were found among the minor components. (Vrkočová et al. 2000)

Local Medicinal Uses Quercus baloot: A little amount is powdered and taken with desi ghee. It is used in urinary infections, especially when urine oozes drop by drop (Shuaib et al. 2014). Plant fruit is for diarrhea and gonorrhea (Safeer et al. 2017). Eating of fruits is helpful to prevent involuntary urination in adults. Seeds are used as diuretic and astringent and for sore throat (Wazir et al. 2018). It is also used to treat diabetes (Ullah et al. 2019). Quercus dilatata: The fruits in the powdered form are used to treat gonorrhea and urinary tract infections (Sarwat and Ahmad 2012). The dried roasted acorns are used

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Fig. 5 Quercus incana (Fagaceae), mother tree for seed production, Baitadi district, Nepal. (Photo Nabin Joshi)

Fig. 6 Quercus iberica (Fagaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

as anti-inflammatory and in diarrhea and urinary disorders (Yousufzai et al. 2010). Plant is used for indigestion, asthma, and urinary tract disease (Ali et al. 2011). Fruit is used for gonorrhea, astringent, diuretic, diarrhea, indigestion, and asthma (Haq et al. 2011). Galls produced on the tree are strongly astringent and are used in the

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Fig. 7 Quercus iberica (Fagaceae), male flowers, Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

treatment of chronic diarrhea, joint swelling, and dysentery. Wood is very strong and durable (Amjad et al. 2015). Seeds are used as astringent and diuretic. Seeds are also used in diarrhea and indigestion (Razzaq et al. 2013). Fruit powder is used for urinary problem (Muhammad et al. 2019). Plant is used for diarrhea (Ali et al. 2017). Quercus incana is used in the treatment of gonorrheal and digestive disorders (Kumar et al. 2011a, b). Different parts of the banj oak plant (bark, leaves, fruits, and resins) are variably used in treating wide range of diseases such as urinary infection, toothache, piles, astringent, diarrhea, stomachache, gonorrhea, asthma, dysentery, and stomach pain (Joshi and Juyal 2017). In traditional medicines, gum is used against cold and considered as analgesic (Heuzé and Tran 2016). The acorns are edible, and the seeds can be roasted to make a coffee substitute. A potential antitumor and pro-oxidant substance “gallic acid” has been obtained from galls that developed on leaves (Patni et al. 2012). The gum from old trees is used in ethnomedicine for treating colds and as an analgesic (Heuzé and Tran 2016). It is used for constipation (Singh et al. 2019), fever (especially children), stomachache, as laxative and refrigerant, for leukorrhea and abdominal pain (Singh et al. 2017), for urinary infections (Ahmad et al. 2017), and for gonorrhea and gastro-intestinal disorders (Kumar et al. 2011a, b). In Jammu it is used for toothache, piles, diarrhea, and stomachache and as astringent (Gairola et al. 2014). Quercus lanata is used as laxative and for body ache and diarrhea (Kunwar et al. 2010). Quercus leucotrichophora and Quercus oblongata are widely used as medicine in the Himalayas, especially for the treatment of fever, stomachache, and leukorrhea and as laxative and refrigerant (Singh et al. 2017). Quercus floribunda and Quercus semecarpifolia serve to treat bedwetting and kidney stones in Pakistan (Sher et al. 2016), used for chronic diarrhea and muscular pains, and used to stop hemorrhage (Kayani et al. 2015). Quercus castanopsis is used to treat neck pain (Raj et al. 2018).

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Quercus iberica is used to treat diabetes. A liquid extract from acorns lowers blood sugar (Damirov et al. 1988). The decoction of the bark has astringent and antiinflammatory properties. In traditional medicine a broth of oak bark, leaves, and stem sap is used as antidiarrheal and to heal rhinitis, poisoning, renal, and spleen problems and can be applied against toothache (Kopaliani 2013). Acorns were used mostly as internal medicine as antidiarrheal and to stop bleeding from the throat (Tsutsunava 1960). Oak bark, birch, and ash were used for toothache and scurvy (Mindadze 2013). Quercus cerris is used to treat fungal infections (Tetik et al. 2013). Quercus infectoria is used for toothache (Tetik et al. 2013). Quercus floribunda: is used to treat bedwetting in children and to remove kidney stones (Sher et al. 2016). Quercus semecarpifolia is used to treat bedwetting in children and to remove kidney stones (Sher et al. 2016).

Local Food Uses Quercus baloot: Fruits are edible, either eaten roasted or unroasted mostly in winter’s chilly nights (Wazir et al. 2018). Leaves are used as fodder. In some hilly parts, the plant is immensely used for fuel purposes (Habib-ul-Hassan et al. 2015). Quercus dilatata: The seeds are roasted and eaten (Aziz et al. 2016; Farooq et al. 2012). The ground acorns are used as coffee substitute. It is also used for timber and as windbreak (Fedorov 1984). Quercus iberica leaves are used for cucumber pickling. Powdered fruits are mixed with flour and seeds for preparing gin and other alcohol (Grossheim 1952; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2007). The bark contains tannins and organic acids (Grossheim 1952; Budantseva 1994–1996; Sokolov 1984–1993; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2007; Zolotnitskaya 1958–1965. The leaves are used as seasoning in marinating vegetables (Grossheim 1946). The acorns are sometimes dried and ground to produce flour (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017). Acorns of Quercus aegilops are roasted and eaten in winter (Ahmad and Ahmad 2015).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Quercus incana: The banj oak is a multipurpose tree. Banj oak foliage is a major source of fodder and the trees are lopped from December to June. The acorns are edible and can be dried, ground, and used to thicken stews or to make bread. The seeds can be roasted to prepare a coffee substitute (Heuzé and Tran 2016). The wood is a poor timber but a valuable fuel and is also used for making agricultural

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implements and in low-grade construction. The banj oak re-translocates low amounts of nutrients prior to leaf senescence, and the nutrient-rich leaf litter decomposes quickly and helps produce an excellent compost fertilizer which is widely used by local farmers and results in the removal of a large quantities of leaf litter across the landscape (Thandani 1995). It thrives on loamy and clayey soils but not on sandy acidic soils. It does better on soils with a pH ranging from neutral to basic (alkaline soils). Young trees do well under shade, while older trees require more sunlight. The banj oak tree does better on moist soils, with maximum temperature 35 °C and minimum temperature: 100 per berry, (1.8–) 2.2–3 (5) mm in diameter, flattened, rounded to subreniform, yellowish tan (Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4). Solanum nigrum L. var. nigrum: Erect or widely spreading annual to short-lived perennial, sometimes forming dense clumps up to 2 m across and 1.5 m high, (5) 25– 70 (150) cm tall, sometimes flushed with purple, pubescent to villous with simple, curved, usually appressed, eglandular or glandular hairs, glabrescent. Branches  angular to narrowly winged, the edges smooth or with widely spaced short teeth or prickle-like hairs. Leaves solitary or sometimes paired; petiole 0.3–6.5 cm long,  narrowly winged distally; lamina 2–14
0.7–7.3 cm, elliptic to ovate-lanceolate or ovate, base sub-truncate or rounded to cuneate, oblique,  decurrent into the petiole, Fig. 1 Solanum aculeatissimum (Solanaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Maroof Ali Turi)

Solanum aculeatissimum Jacq. . . . Fig. 2 Solanum aculeatissimum (Solanaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Maroof Ali Turi)

Fig. 3 Solanum aculeatissimum (Solanaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Maroof Ali Turi)

Fig. 4 Solanum aculeatissimum (Solanaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Maroof Ali Turi)

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apex acute or obtuse,  acuminate, entire to sinuate-dentate, both surfaces  pubescent, with more numerous hairs along the veins and towards the margins, glabrescent. Cymes lateral, unbranched, lax and often extended, (3) 5–10-flowered; peduncle 0.3–2 cm long, slender, erect or ascending, in fruit occasionally elongated a little, ascending to deflexed; pedicels 3–8.5 mm long, slender, decurved to ascending, in fruit elongated to 12 mm, deflexed. Calyx 1.2–2.5 mm long, campanulate, in fruit elongated to 3.5 mm; lobes 0.3–1.2
0.3–1.2 mm, obovate, semi-elliptic or ovate to  triangular, rounded to acute, sparsely pubescent with more numerous hairs towards the apex outside, in fruit enlarged to 3
2 mm, appressed or scarcely reflexed. Corolla white, cream or yellowish, with or without a conspicuous yellow-green eye, rarely flushed with purple or pale blue, (4) 5–7 (9) mm across, rotate or stelliform; lobes 1.5–4
0.8–2.3 mm, oblong or ovate to lanceolate, rarely linear,  acute, puberulous outside. Stamen filaments 0.3–1.5 mm long; anthers 1.5–2.5 (2.8) mm long, oblong. Ovary 1 mm in diameter,  globose to ellipsoid, glabrous; style 2–4.5 mm long, straight or sigmoidal, the stigma level with the tip of the anthers or protruding by up to 2 mm. Fruits often dull, black or purplish-black to yellow-green, opaque, 6–10 mm in diameter, usually broadly ovoid, smooth, usually without sclerotic granules, glabrous, edible when mature. Seeds with light bone colour and sometimes flushed with purple, 1.7–2.4 mm long,  obovate in outline, minutely pitted all over (POWO 2020; Särkinen et al. 2018; Shishkin and Boborov 1955). S. nigrum is a common weed in crop fields and also found in open areas in forests and roadsides from the tropical to temperature climatic regions between sea levels to 2200 elevation globally (Särkinen et al. 2018). It is native to Eurasia and introduced to the rest of the world. Nearly 180,000 occurrences of S. nigrum have been reported from across the globe as of the June 2020 (GBIF 2019). It can grow naturally in different soil types, including dry, stony, shallow or deep soils and also semi-cultivated in a few countries like Africa, North America and Indonesia by sowing the seeds during April– May (Jain et al. 2011) (Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, and 14). Solanum surattense: Herbs erect or creeping, sometimes woody at the base, 50–70 cm tall, copiously armed with sturdy, needle-like, broad-based prickles 0.5–2 cm
0.5–1.5 mm, pubescent with 7–9-rayed stellate hairs, overall Fig. 5 Solanum nigrum (Solanaceae). Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R. Bussmann)

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Fig. 6 Solanum nigrum (Solanaceae). Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R. Bussmann)

Fig. 7 Solanum nigrum (Solanaceae). Flowers. Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo N. PaniaguaZambrana)

glabrescent. Leaves unequally paired; petiole 2–3.5 cm, prickly, with sessile stellate hairs; leaf blade ovate-oblong, 4–9
2–4.5 cm, pubescent and prickly along veins, glabrescent, base subcordate or unequal, margin usually 5–9-lobed or pinnately parted, lobes unequal, sinuate, apex acute. Inflorescences elongate racemes 4–7 cm; peduncle unbranched, copiously armed. Pedicel ca. 1 cm. Calyx campanulate, ca. 1 cm in diam.; lobes oblong, pubescent, prickly. Corolla blue-purple, rotate, 1.4–1.6
2.5 cm; lobes ovate-deltate, 6–8 mm, densely pubescent with stellate hairs. Filaments ca. 1 mm; anthers ca. 8 mm. Style ca. 1 cm. Fruiting pedicel 2–3.6 cm, with prickles and sparse stellate hairs. Fruiting calyx prickly, sparsely pubescent. Berry pale yellow, 1.3–2.2 cm in diam. Seeds subreniform, ca. 1.5 mm in diam. Flowering November–May, fruiting June–September (Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Figs. 15, 16, and 17).

1888 Fig. 8 Solanum nigrum (Solanaceae). Fruits. Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo N. PaniaguaZambrana)

Fig. 9 Solanum nigrum (Solanaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

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Solanum aculeatissimum Jacq. . . . Fig. 10 Solanum nigrum (Solanaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Maroof Ali Turi)

Fig. 11 Solanum nigrum (Solanaceae), plant in natural habitat from Pokhara 12 Ranipauwa, 33700, Nepal. (Photo N Dhami)

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1890 Fig. 12 Solanum nigrum (Solanaceae), plant with flowers and fruits (plant from Pokhara 12 Ranipauwa, 33700, Nepal. (Photo N Dhami)

Fig. 13 Solanum nigrum (Solanaceae), mature fruits of Solanum nigrum (Solanaceae) plant Pokhara 12 Ranipauwa, 33700, Nepal. (Photo N Dhami)

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Fig. 14 Solanum nigrum (Solanaceae), Global occurrence Fig. 15 Solanum surattense (Solanaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Local Medicinal Uses Solanum nigrum: Various extracts and purified compounds obtained from the different parts of S. nigrum have shown a wide range of pharmacological activities in in vitro and in vivo experiments. Antiallergic activity: the petroleum ether extract of S. nigrum berries showed effectiveness in treating asthma on mice and guinea pig models (Nirmal et al. 2012). Anticancer activity: the polyphenolic extract of S. nigrum ripe berries inhibited the growth of prostate cancer cell lines causing cell cycle arrest and apoptosis (Nawab et al. 2012). The organic and aqueous extract of berries caused cytotoxicity in leukemic cancer cell lines. Various compounds isolated from the different parts of

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Fig. 16 Solanum surattense (Solanaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

Fig. 17 Solanum surattense (Solanaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

S. nigrum have also shown promising anticancer activity such as solasodine, quercetin, rutin, kaempferol, protocatechuic acid, p-hydroxy benzoic acid, scopoletin, alphasolanine (Kaunda and Zhang 2019). Also, deglactotigonin (DGT) was found effective in osteosarcoma cells through modulation of GSK3β inactivation-mediated repression of hedgehog/Gli1 pathway (Zhao et al. 2018a). The aqueous extract of S. nigrum plant was effective against human breast cancer cell line MCF7 (Ling et al. 2019). The phytochemicals alpha-solanine; physalin B, C, F, G and H; and kisophysalin B showed

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cytotoxic activity (Kaunda and Zhang 2019). Likewise, the steroidal glycosides isolated from S. nigrum showed a promising cytotoxicity to MGC-803 cells and are useful in gastric cancer treatment (Ding et al. 2013). The polysaccharide fraction of S. nigrum stem induced nitric oxide in RAW murine macrophage 264.7 cells and, therefore, stimulated tumour necrosis factor α and interleukin-6 showing a promising antitumor activity (Razali et al. 2014). Antidiabetic activity: aqueous extract of S. nigrum leaves lowered the blood glucose level in guinea pig models with no side effects up to 270 mg/kg (Kasali et al. 2016). Likewise, aqueous extract of S. nigrum berries lowered the blood glucose level in rat models with regeneration of pancreatic beta cells (Umamageswari et al. 2017). The silver nanoparticles from the S. nigrum leaf extract improved the dyslipidemic condition with a reduction in the blood glucose level (Sengottaiyan et al. 2016). Antifungal activity: the ethanolic extract of S. nigrum fruits showed antifungal activity against various fungal strains (Mazher et al. 2017) including solasodine and solasodine-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (SG)-alkalized intracellular vacuoles of Candida albicans (Chang et al. 2017b). Anti-inflammatory activity: solanine A (steroidal alkaloid) obtained from methanolic extract of fruit of S. nigrum showed potent anti-inflammatory activity in LPS/IFNγ-activated macrophage and inhibition of NF-KB, ERK 1/ ERK 2, AKT and STAT1 signalling pathways in inflammation induced mice (Zhao et al. 2018a). The steroidal saponins, e.g. solanigroside, which were isolated from the methanolic fractions of unripe green fruits of S. nigrum showed an inhibitory effect on nitric oxide and IL-6 and IL-1β production in macrophage RAW 264.7 cell lines (Wang et al. 2017). The key anti-inflammatory phytochemicals were medioresinol, pinoresinol, pinoresinol 4-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, syringaresinol-40 -O-β-D-glucoside (Kaunda and Zhang 2019), solanigrosides (Y1, Y2, Y3, Y4, Y5, Y6, Y7, Y8, Y9) (25R)-26-O-β-D-glucopyranosylfurost-5(6)-ene-3p,22a,26-triol-3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl(1-2)-[β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1-3)]-β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1-4)-β-D-galactopyranoside and six isotypes (Wang et al. 2017). Antimicrobial activity: the methanolic extract of S. nigrum fruits showed effectiveness against gram-positive (Micrococcus varians, Micrococcus luteus, Micrococcus staphylococcus, Micrococcus aureus) and gram-negative bacteria (such as Salmonella typhi, Pasteurella multocida, Escherichia coli) and fungi (Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus fumigatus) (Abbas et al. 2014). Also, alcoholic extract of leaves showed growth inhibition of cariogenic organisms including Streptococcus mutans, Streptococcus sanguis, Streptococcus salivarius, Streptococcus mitis and Lactobacillus acidophilus (Sunitha et al. 2017). The phytochemicals including khasianine, solamargine and solanigrosides P, A and B showed an antimicrobial property (Kaunda and Zhang 2019). Antioxidative activity: various alkaloid and flavonoid fractions of S. nigrum leave extracts prevented an increase in liver enzyme levels and normalized the biochemical parameters when treated against restraint stress in the rat’s liver (Zaidi et al. 2019). The zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO-NP) prepared from S. nigrum leaves showed a promising antioxidant activity (Muthuvel et al. 2020). Lunasin from S. nigrum seeds

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showed a protective effect on DNA from oxidation (Jeong et al. 2010). The crude extract of S. nigrum fruit and leaves scavenges free radicals in the brain due to physical and psychological stress (Miraj 2016). The isolated compounds such as β-1solasonine, Des-N-26-methylene-dihydrotomatidin, isovanillic acid, syringic acid and hexanoic acid also showed a promising antioxidant activity (Jabamalairaj et al. 2019). Cardioprotective activity: the aqueous extract of stem and leaves of S. nigrum decreased cardiac serum markers in rats with no loss of myofibrils (Varshney et al. 2016). Likewise, ethanol/water (7:3) extract of S. nigrum plant had reduced CKMB, LDH, SGOT, SGPT, troponin T to normal values in myocardial infraction induced rats in a dose-dependent manner (Shaik et al. 2015). Estrogenic activity: the defatted methanol extract and glycosides obtained from the dried S. nigrum fruits showed an ability to bind estrogen receptor in vitro (Jisha et al. 2011). The aqueous extract of S. nigrum leaves in estrus-induced female rat models showed a relaxant activity in the uterus (Agoreyo et al. 2017). Hepatoprotective activity: the hydroalcoholic extract of aerial parts of S. nigrum plant bearing ripe fruits showed cellular homeostasis in CCl4-induced liver damage (Krithika and Verma 2018). Also, aqueous extract of S. nigrum herb showed protection to hepatocytes’ integrity reducing the release of GSTA1 in ethanolinduced liver damage in mice (Liu et al. 2016). The methanolic extract of S. nigrum leaves showed reduction in liver marker enzymes in hepatocarcinoma in Wistar albino male rats (Ayyanar et al. 2017). Larvicidal activity: the chloroform/methanol (1:1 v/v) extract of S. nigrum leaves showed high mortality rate in the third instar larvae of Culex vishnui and Anopheles subpictus which was attributed to the presence of phytochemicals such as 3,7,11,15tetramethyl-2-hexadecen-1-ol, dodecanoic acid, 1-hexadecanol, benzenedicarboxylic acid, 1,2-,dibutyl phthalate, Pregn-16-en-20-one and sarsasapogenin 3-tosylate (Rawani et al. 2017). The crude extract from the leaves and berries of S. nigrum showed a high mortality rate within 24 h in the fourth instar hatchlings of Aedes aegypti which can be due to the presence of eugenol and (E)-6-hydroxy-4,6dimethyl-3-heptene-2-one (Patel et al. 2018). Toxic effects: different parts of S. nigrum cause a mild to a severe toxicity, which is mainly associated with the glycoalkaloids and nitrates. Solanine is a common alkaloid causing the toxic effects. The solanine toxicity is due to its interaction with mitochondrial membrane that decreases membrane potential and increases concentration of k+ in cytoplasm, which results apoptosis and cell damage. Nitrates present in S. nigrum tissues cause N-NO toxicity and interact with –N-H groups. Some symptoms of toxicity are diarrhoea, nausea, headache, burning of throat inflammation, joint pain, thyroid problem, jaundice and loss of sensation and potentially cause paralysis and death. Alpha-solanine causes neurological and gastrointestinal disorders at a dose more than 200 mg/kg of fresh berries. Toxic symptoms start to appear at a dose of 2–5 mg/kg and high dose up to 3–6 mg/kg is considered fatal (Jagtap et al. 2013). Green unripe berries are generally more toxic than ripe berries. By boiling the plant, toxic compound can be destroyed (Jain et al. 2011).

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The different parts of S. nigrum have been used in oriental systems of medicine for treating several ailments as an antitumorigenic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, diuretic and antipyretic agent. Leaves are used for rheumatic and gouty joints, skin diseases, tuberculosis, nausea and nervous disorders (Rani et al. 2017). Fruits are used as tonic, laxatives and appetite stimulant and for excessive thirst. The plant is also found effective in curing leprosy, cardiopathy, haemorrhoids, nephropathy, dropsy and general debility. The juice of berries is used as antidiarrhoeal, ophthalmopathy and hydrophobia. Roots are used in otopathy, ophthalmopathy, rhinopathy and hepatitis. Decoction of plant depresses CNS and reflexes of the spinal cord (Saleem et al. 2009). The plant possesses nematocidal activity, and root extracts are used in the treatment of animal worms and abdominal pain (Oplos et al. 2018). In Nepal plant juice is used to treat fever, wounds and urinary disorders, unripe fruit paste used to treat ringworm, and ripe fruit used to treat constipation (Dhami 2008). In India, leaves are used to treat indigestion, liver complications, stomachache, stomach ulcer, rabies, wound healing and cough (Sivaperumal et al. 2010). Juice of routes are extracted for treating asthma and whooping cough in Assam of India (Sikdar and Dutta 2008). S. nigrum root boiled with sugar is used to increase fertility in women around the Thar Desert of India (Upadhyay et al. 2007). In China, whole plant is taken for treating stomachache, headache, hot eyes, GI effects and faucitis (Chang et al. 2017b). In Tanzania, leaves are topically used for the treatment of ringworm and dressing of warts, and ripe fruit are used in an edible form to stop kid’s bed wetting problem (Moshi et al. 2010). In Tunisia, sap is used for treating acute streptococcus bacterial infection called erysipelas (Leporatti and Ghedira 2009). In the United Republic of Congo, whole plant is used in maceration to treat snakebite or sting of venomous animal (Chifundera 1998). In Algeria, the infusion of berries is used to treat blindness, conjunctivitis, glaucoma, trachoma and cataract, and decoction of plant is used in burns and dermal infections (Kool et al. 2012). In Kenya, unripe berries are used to cure toothache and also squeezed into gums of babies to ease the pain of teething (Jagtap et al. 2013). In Europe, it is used as a remedy for convulsion (Jagtap et al. 2013). In Bohemia, the leaves are placed near the baby’s cradle to make them sleep (Edmonds and Chweya 1997). In South America, flowers and leaves are used in fever and, due to moderate narcotic action, used in excess alcohol effects (Jagtap et al. 2013). In the Philippines, the leaf extract is used in restoring body skin pigmentation (Edmonds and Chweya 1997). In Zimbabwe, plants are used for treating malaria, dysentery and black water fever and ointment for foul ulcers (Edmonds and Chweya 1997). The different parts of S. nigrum have been used in various herbal formulations recommended for the management of different diseases such as: (i) Ear disease: Indu vati, Makshikadi vati, Sarivadi vati, Kushthanikruntana Rasa (ii) Skin diseases: Chandarudra Rasa (iii) Jaundice: Chandrasuryatmaka Rasa, Paniya Vatika, Vishweshwara Rasa, Vishamjwarantaka Lauha (Brihat)

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(iv) Fever: Shankari Jwarankusha, Sheetajwarari Rasa, Loknatha Rasa, Sarvajwarahara Lauha (Brihat) (v) Haemorrhoids: Piyushasindhu Rasa (vi) Paediatric diseases: Baalarasa, Baalarogantaka Rasa (vii) Diarrhoea due to vata dosha, Maharasa (viii) Disorder of female reproductive systems: Nashtapushpantaka Rasa (ix) Gynaecological diseases: Ratnaprabha Vatika (x) Inguino scrotal swelling: Rasarajendra (xi) Puerperal diseases: Rasashardula Rasa (xii) Diseases of spleen: Loknatha Rasa (Brihat) (xiii) Diseases due to vata dosha: Vyadhigajakeshari Rasa, Rasaraja, Swachchhandamayaka Rasa (xiv) Leucoderma: Shwetari Rasa (xv) Cardiac disorders: Hridayarnava Rasa, Shankar Vati (xvi) Tuberculosis: Swayamagni Rasa (xvii) Cough and breathlessness: Agnikumara Rasa (xviii) Rejuvenator: Siddhayogeshwara (xix) (xvix) Cures all diseases: Rasashradula Rasa (xx) Skin diseases: Chaturangulparnadi Lepa, Ankolabeejadi Lepa (xxi) Erysipelas: Aaragvadhadi Lepa (Jagtap et al. 2013) In Pakistan the species is used to treat leprosy (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018), as well as breast cancer, diarrhoea, febricity, ulcers, chicken pox, hyperglycaemia, piles, cardiac pain, sore eyes, cuts and wounds (Umair et al. 2019), gastralgia and infertility (Sher et al. 2016a, b). In the Himalayas Solanum nigrum is employed for diarrhoea, vomiting, asthma, fever, bronchitis, cuts, wounds and involuntary urinary discharge (Raj et al. 2018), while the species serves as typhoid treatment in Kenya (Njoroge et al. 2004). In traditional Indian medicine, the species serves as antidote for opium, ingestion, boils, cough, diarrhoea, dysentery, ear complaints, eye complaints, fever, goitre, heart ailment, jaundice, liver complaints, inflammation (scrotum, kidney and bladder), sores, nostril complaints, piles, rheumatism, skin diseases, sprain, stomachache, swelling, throat trouble, ulcers in the mouth and urine complaints (Verma et al. 2007), and the fruits are used for heart disease and toothache (Kunwar et al. 2009, 2012). It is expectorant, antiseptic, diuretic and laxative. Juice of its berries is best cure for jaundice. It is used to treat teeth problems, gum infection and pyorrhoea. Leaves are applied externally on burn wounds. Its fruit juice along with Ocimum sanctum juice is used to break kidney and bladder stone. Cooked at home as Saag that is energetic (Mahmood et al. 2011a, b, c). Leaf extract is used for washing painful eyes (Abbasi et al. 2013). Leaf paste is applied to treat skin inflammation, and fruits against fever (Akhtar et al. 2013). Plant local uses are antiseptic, tonic in fever, dyspepsia, scabies, skin infection and dental problem (Shah and Khan 2006). Fruits of the plant are used for toothache (Abbas et al. 2016). Vegetative parts are used in jaundice (Jan et al. 2009). Juice of berries is used for jaundice, and fruit are used as blood purifier (Mahmood et al. 2011a, b, c). Used for curing hepatitis and sore throat (Jan et al. 2010). The juice of the ripen berries of Solanum nigrum is

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applied on the skin and used to remove pimples (Khan et al. 2011). This herb is used for fever skin problems, wounds, diabetes, stomach problems and tumours. Rubbing the seeds on the cheeks to remove freckles (Shedayi and Gulshan 2012). The juice of fresh plants and fruits together with sour milk is used for healing sordid wound and abscess. Leaves, stems and fruits are prepared as infusion and decoction and used in diseases of respiratory organs as sedative and expectorant. Intestinal diseases: for infusion and decoction, leaves, stems and fruits are used as laxative. An infusion of fruits is used as diuretic in dropsy and oedemas and as antipyretic in malaria. The fruits serve as vitamin supplement in scurvy. The stems and roots are chewed to relieve toothache and inflammations of the gums (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017; Zou et al. 2020). In Pakistan the species is used to treat leprosy (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018), as well as breast cancer, diarrhoea, febricity, ulcers, chicken pox, hyperglycaemia, piles, cardiac pain, sore eyes, cuts and wounds (Umair et al. 2019), gastralgia and infertility (Sher et al. 2016a, b). In the Himalayas Solanum nigrum is employed for diarrhoea, vomiting, asthma, fever, bronchitis, cuts and wounds and involuntary urinary discharge (Raj et al. 2018), while the species serves as typhoid treatment in Kenya (Njoroge et al. 2004). In traditional Indian medicine, the species serves as antidote for opium, ingestion, boils, cough, diarrhoea, dysentery, ear complaints, eye complaints, fever, goitre, heart ailment, jaundice, liver complaints, inflammation (scrotum, kidney and bladder), sores, nostril complaints, piles, rheumatism, skin diseases, sprain, stomachache, swelling, throat trouble, ulcers in the mouth and urine complaints (Verma et al. 2007), and the fruits are used for heart disease (Kunwar et al. 2012). Used for skin and liver diseases, as well as hypertension, testicle inflammation, tongue inflammation and jaundice (Ahmad et al. 2017). Also applied to decaying teeth (Abbas et al. 2019). Used in Ladakh to promote urination (Ballabh et al. 2008) and to relieve cold and cough (Ballabh and Chaurasia 2007). In Jammu and Kashmir to remedy ulcers, as tonic, for stomach ailments, rheumatism, as laxative, to treat heart disease, headache, fever, asthma, diarrhoea, as appetizer, for goitre, abdominal pain, boils, acne, eye problems, oedema, pimples, kidney inflammation, piles, painful urination, gynaecological disorders, jaundice, heart palpitations, colds, constipation and cough (Gairola et al. 2014). For fever and skin diseases (Singh et al. 2002). Used also to treat diabetes (Ullah et al. 2019) and piles. In Rajasthan used for liver complaints, as blood purifier, antidote, for acne, boils, psoriasis, as anti-emetic, for diarrhoea, eye infections and rabies (Jain et al. 2005). Solanum surattense: Root for kidney stones, tuberculosis, liver complaints, and leaf for haemostat (Shah and Khan 2006). Fruit is used as abortifacient and root decoction is used for haematuria (Muhammad and Khan 2008; Ishtiaq et al. 2006). Decoction of fresh stem is used for indigestion, fever, cough and asthma (Abbasi et al. 2010). The decoction of plant is used for sore throat, body pains, fever, rheumatism, cough and chest complaints. The seeds are smoked like cigarette to expel tooth worms. The ripe fruits are directly placed in between the aching teeth for few minutes to relieve pain. The seeds are boiled in milk and taken to treat stomach pain (Mahmood et al. 2011a, b, c). Root used to treat kidney stones, tuberculosis, liver problems; leaves used as haemostatic (Ahmad et al. 2009). Plant is locally used

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for toothache, broken organs, phlegmatic, fevers and coughs (Jan et al. 2017). Whole plant decoction used for sore throat, general aches, antipyretic, cough and chest complaints (Shuaib et al. 2019). The extract of leaves is applied on body swellings to get relief. Its seeds are burnt in “Chehlum”, and the smoke is inhaled to get relief from toothache. Fruits and leaves are boiled, and the decoction is mixed in water and used for taking bath against skin diseases (Amjad 2015). It is expectorant, diuretic and anti-gonorrhoea. The plant is used for stomachache, against cough, fever and chest pain (Amjad et al. 2017). For stomachache, chronic cough and in ophthalmia and toothache and fever (Ahmad et al. 2017). In Jammu and Kashmir for toothache, arthralgia, intestinal infections and swollen testicles (Gairola et al. 2014). In Rajasthan used as abortifacient (Jain et al. 2005). Solanum marginatum has medicinal uses in Ethiopia, especially for swellings (Desta 1995; Teklehaymanot and Giday 2007). Solanum aculeastrum, Solanum bendnerianum, Solanum renschii, Solanum schumannianum and Solanum terminale are used for fever, throat infections and wounds (Bussmann 2006). Solanum dasyphyllum is used to remedy cough and trypanosomiasis (Bekalo et al. 2009) and for nosebleed (Giday et al. 2010). Solanum adoense serves as treatment for nosebleeds, stomach problems and scabies (Yineger et al. 2008). Solanum hastifolium serves as treatment for diarrhoea, amoebic dysentery with blood and stomachache (Teklehaymanot and Giday 2010). Solanum mauritianum is applied to skin rashes (Njoroge et al. 2004). Solanum campylacanthum serves as treatment for scabies and eczema (Gedif and Hahn 2003). Solanum aculeastrum: Root decoction to treat gonorrhoea (Beentje 1994). Roots are also used to treat bronchitis (Kokwaro 2009). For back pain, diarrhoea, tonsillitis, toothache and wounds (Njoroge et al. 2004). Solanum incanum: Widely used as analgesic. Throughout tropical Africa used for sore throat, angina, stomachache, colic, headache, painful menstruation, liver pain and pain caused by onchocerciasis, pleurisy, pneumonia and rheumatism. The leaf, root and fruit decoctions are gargled or drunk; roots are chewed; sap is swallowed; leaf paste, root infusions and pounded fruits are applied externally or rubbed into scarifications; leaf sap is used for washing painful areas; and ash of burnt plants is mixed with fat and applied externally. For relief of toothache, a root infusion is used as mouth wash, fruit or root is rubbed on the gums or smoke of burning seeds is inhaled. Hiccups are suppressed by licking a mixture of the ash of burned leaves and salt. Another widespread use is in the treatment of venereal diseases. The root powder is mixed with food or rubbed into scarifications, root infusions or decoctions are drunk, roasted pulverized roots are taken in water, leaf decoctions and fruit sap are drunk and fruit sap is applied externally. Different plant parts are also widely used in the treatment of skin problems, including skin infections, whitlow, ringworm, burns, sores, rashes, wounds, warts, carbuncles, ulcers and benign tumours. In Senegal a maceration of the leaves is used as an eye bath to cure ophthalmia; in Malawi fruit sap is rubbed into scarifications around the eye to treat conjunctivitis. In Senegal pounded seeds are mixed with pulped fruits to massage aching ears. In Uganda, Tanzania and South Africa, extracts of leaves or flowers are used as ear drops to cure inflammations. In Senegal, Kenya, Uganda and Zimbabwe, different

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plant parts are used to treat snakebites: a decoction of the roots is drunk, roots are chewed, sap is swallowed and young leaves are chewed or pulped fresh roots are applied to the bite wound. In Kenya the fruit pulp is applied to bleeding wounds, warts and for toothache (Beentje 1994). The root decoction is also used for abdominal pain, dyspepsia, fever, stomachache, indigestion and toothache. Young leaves are chewed and applied to snakebites, and leaf juice is applied to earache. The fruit juice is applied to fresh wounds, for skin problems, as well as ringworm, and taken for syphilis. The fruits are used as emetic but are toxic and need to be used with care. Formerly also used to treat polio (Kokwaro 2009). The juice is applied to wounds and cults (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, c). Used for fever, throat infections and wounds (Bussmann 2006). Used also to treat cough (Bekalo et al. 2009, Wondimu et al. 2007). For chest pain, diarrhoea, amoebic dysentery with blood and stomachache (Nankaya et al. 2019, 2020; Njoroge et al. 2004; Teklehaymanot 2009; Teklehaymanot and Giday 2010); external wounds (Nankaya et al. 2019, 2020; Teklehaymanot 2009); also for heartburn, body pain, colds, cough, dyspepsia and ringworm (Lulekal et al. 2008; Nankaya et al. 2019, 2020); and especially throat infections (Muthee et al. 2011). Leaves are chewed for digestion (Luizza et al. 2013). Sometimes used also to remedy snakebites and chest pain (Giday et al. 2003). Solanum anguivi: The fruits are chewed for chest pains and cough. Roots chewed for toothache (Kokwaro 2009). Used to treat tinea versicolor, earache, eczema, fever, haemorrhoids, stomach problems and tuberculosis (Yineger et al. 2008) and for lymphadenitis (Giday et al. 2009).

Local Food Uses Solanum aculeastrum: Fruits are edible but bitter (Beentje 1994). Solanum incanum: Selection for larger, less toxic fruits and leaves has taken place over time, whereas the wild types produce small, bitter and toxic fruits, and cultivated types are available, especially in West Africa, of which the fruits and leaves can be safely eaten in soup and as a vegetable. Leaves are added to soup to improve the flavour. The large variation in toxicity makes it dangerous to transfer specific uses from one region to another. The fruit juice can be used to clot milk (Borana) (Beentje 1994). Solanum nigrum: Mature fruits with sweetish taste are used in food raw (limited) (Bussmann et al. 2011) and to make jam. Young leaves are used like spinach (Balemie and Kebebew 2006; Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017). Leaves are used as vegetable in various countries like India, China, Southeast Asia and Europe, but when comes in association with deadly nightshade, Atropa belladonna can be poisonous (Särkinen et al. 2018). The ripe berries are eaten raw and, also, used to make jam (Viljoen 2011). Mature fruits with sweetish taste are used in food raw (limited) (Bussmann et al. 2011) and to make jam. Young leaves are used like spinach (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017; Zou et al. 2020). Tender shoots are eaten in Nepal (Dangol et al. 2017). Solanum surattense: Fruits are eaten (Dangol et al. 2017).

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses Solanum aculeastrum: Used for hedges (Beentje 1994) and as fishing poison (Neuwinger 2004). Solanum nigrum: A dye solution is prepared from flowers, leaves and fruits to obtain yellow and orange colours and used for dyeing wool yarn as well as products made of wool (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017; Zou et al. 2020). Solanum incanum: In Niger, Sudan, Rwanda and Namibia, the fruits are used as an ingredient of arrow poison and in Mozambique as fish poison. In Ethiopia fruit sap is mixed with butter and applied to cattle to control ticks. The fruit juice is squeezed into sheep’s nostrils to treat cough and into the eyes for conjunctivitis, as well as to wounds (Kokwaro 2009). Used to treat nasal bots in livestock and is used as acaricide (Wanzala 2017). Makes for very bad firewood (Tian 2017). Treats blackleg in livestock (Yineger et al. 2007) and is used as fishing poison (Neuwinger 2004). In livestock employed to treat hearty water (Kioko et al. 2015). Leaves are applied to baking pans to avoid sticking of the dough (Luizza et al. 2013).

References Abbas K, Niaz U, Hussain T, Saeed MA, Javaid Z, Idrees A, Rasool S. Antimicrobial activity of fruits of Solanum nigrum and Solanum xanthocarpum. Acta Pol Pharm. 2014;71(3):415–21. Abbas Z, Khan SM, Abbasi AM, Pieroni A, Ullah Z, Iqbal M, Ahmad Z. Ethnobotany of the Balti community, Tormik valley, Karakorum range, Baltistan, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12(1):38. Abbas Z, Alam J, Muhammad S, Bussmann RW, Mulk Khan S, Hussain M. Phyto-cultural diversity of the Shigar valley Central Karakorum Baltistan, Northern Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18:32. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.31.1-18. Abbasi AM, Khan MA, Ahmed M, Zafar M. Herbal medicines used to cure various ailments by the inhabitants of Abbottabad district, North West Frontier Province, Pakistan. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2010;9(1):175–83. Abbasi AM, Khan MA, Shah MH, Shah MM, Pervez A, Ahmad M. Ethnobotanical appraisal and cultural values of medicinally important wild edible vegetables of Lesser Himalayas-Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1):66. Agoreyo FO, Ohimai BR, Omigie MI. Effect of Solanum nigrum on uterus of non-gravid rats. Ethiop J Health Sci. 2017;27(3):239–44. Ahmad Jan H, Wali S, Ahmad L, Jana S, Ahmad N, Ullah N. Ethnomedicinal survey of medicinal plants of Chinglai valley, Buner district, Pakistan. Eur J Integr Med. 2017;13:64–74. Ahmad H, Khan SM, Ghafoor S, Ali N. Ethnobotanical study of upper Siran. J Herbs Spices Med Plants. 2009;15(1):86–97. Akhtar N, Rashid A, Murad W, Bergmeier E. Diversity and use of ethno-medicinal plants in the region of Swat, North Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1):25. Amjad MS. Ethnobotanical profiling and floristic diversity of Bana Valley, Kotli (Azad Jammu and Kashmir), Pakistan. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. 2015;5(4):292–9. Amjad MS, Arshad M, Saboor A, Page S, Chaudhari SK. Ethnobotanical profiling of the medicinal flora of Kotli, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan: empirical reflections on multinomial logit specifications. Asian Pac J Trop Med. 2017;10(5):503–14. Ayyanar P, Murugan R, Manoharan N. Protective role of Solanum nigrum L leaf methanol extract on male wistar albino rats against N-nitrosodiethyl amine induced hepatocarcinoma. Eur J Biomed Pharm Sci. 2017;4(12):365–73.

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Solena heterophylla Lour. CUCURBITACEAE Sushmita Poudel, Sarah Albright, and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Solena heterophylla Lour.: Melothria delavayi Cogn.; Solena amplexicaulis (Lam.) Ghandi; Solena delavayi Cogn.

Local Names Solena heterophylla: Nepali: Golkankr, Bankakro; Magar: Bidumbâ; Sanskrit: Sukakandah; Jammu: Kakhri; English. Creeping cucumber

Botany and Ecology Solena heterophylla: Roots fusiform, 1.5–2 cm in diam. Stem and branches glabrous. Petiole slender, 4–10 mm, puberulent at first, glabrescent; leaf blade very variable, ovate, oblong, ovate-triangular, or hastate, undivided or 3–5-lobed, leathery; lobes oblong-lanceolate, lanceolate, or triangular, 8–12
1–5 cm, abaxially densely setose or almost glabrous, adaxially densely setose or scabrous, base cordate, margin entire or dentate, apex obtuse or acuminate. Tendrils slender. Male flowers umbellate or subumbellate; peduncle very short, apically 10–20-flowered; S. Poudel · S. Albright University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, USA e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_231

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pedicels 2–8 mm; calyx tube 3–5 mm, ca. 3 mm in diam.; segments subulate, 0.2– 0.4 mm; corolla yellow or yellow-white; segments triangular, 1–1.5 mm, apex obtuse or acute; filaments filiform, ca. 3 mm; anther cells curved or conduplicate, puberulent. Female flowers usually solitary; pedicel 2–10 mm, puberulent; calyx and corolla as in male flowers; ovary ovoid, 2.5–3.5
2–3 mm; stigmas 3. Fruit red-brown, broadly ovoid, oblong, or subglobose, 2–6
2–5 cm. Seeds graywhite or gray-brown, suborbicular or obovate, 5–7
5–6.5 mm, smooth or slightly tuberculate. Flowering May–Aug, fruiting June–November (Wu et al. 1994–2013). The genus Solena consists of three species: S. amplexicaulis, S. heterophylla, and S. umbellata (De Wilde and Duyfjes 2004) with a wide distribution that occurs in Nepal, India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, China, Vietnam, and Thailand (Wu et al. 2011; Janbaz et al. 2015). Like other members of Solena genus, this plant grows in diverse habitats ranging from 600 to 2600 m and including mixed broadleaf and coniferous forests, thicket grasslands, roadsides, and mountain slopes (Khare 2007). S. heterophylla is a climbing perennial herb that grows best in a seasonal environment. Flowering typically occurs between March and November and fruits can appear in April at the earliest and November at the latest (De Wilde and Duyfjes 2004). Fruits start green with thin white stripes and turn red/orange when ripe. Herbivorous insects are known to consume the leaves, flowers, and fruits of plants in Solena, including S. heterophylla (Karmakar et al. 2020) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3). Because S. heterophylla is a wild growing plant and is not grown for agricultural production, there is limited knowledge about its conservation status. The forests of Nepal hold many valuable resources that local communities depend on. Increasing trends of forest degradation and fragmentation are leading to declines in natural resources,including some medicinal plants (Panta et al. 2008; Kunwar et al. 2020). Therefore, shifting or elimination of forest habitat may pose a risk to the abundance and distribution of S. heterophylla. However, S. heterophylla is widely distributed and can grow in a variety of habitats (Wu et al. 2011; Janbaz et al. 2015; De Wilde

Fig. 1 Solena heterophylla (Cucurbitaceae). Flowers, leaves, and stems of S. heterophylla, Deurali, Dolakha, Nepal; 2,347 m. (Photo Saroj Jumar Kasaju; September 6th, 2017)

Solena heterophylla Lour.

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Fig. 2 Solena heterophylla (Cucurbitaceae). Unripe green fruit with thin irregular white stripes, Thula Khet, Pokhara, Nepal; 853 m. (Photo Saroj Jumar Kasaju; August 10th, 2017)

Fig. 3 Solena heterophylla (Cucurbitaceae). Ripe fruit in red orange color, Pharping, Kathmandu, Nepal; 1,372 m. (Photo Saroj Jumar Kasaju, August 24th, 2013)

and Duyfjes 2004). Herbivorous insect pests may threaten wild populations, but the extent is unclear (Karmakar et al. 2020).

Local Medicinal Uses Solena heterophylla: The fruits and roots of S. heterophylla have been traditionally used to treat a variety of gastrointestinal, respiratory, and vascular ailments (Janbaz et al. 2015). Typically, the roots are crushed into a juice to relieve stomach/toothaches, indigestion, or the seeds are pounded to be used as both a cooling agent and a treatment for sore throats (Coburn 1984; Manandhar 1995; Ghimire and Bastakoti 2009; Budha-Magar et al. 2020). The root juice can also be useful in treating painful urination (dysuria) and spermatorrhoea. The fruits are used to treat fever, common cold, and pneumonia in children. S. heterophylla extracts have also been proven to

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help prevent and restore liver damage (Kunwar et al. 2010). The leaves are known to have anti-inflammatory properties that help inflamed skin (Karmakar et al. 2020). Modern pharmacological studies have validated many of S. heterophylla’s medicinal properties, including its relaxant effects on gastrointestinal contractions (Janbaz et al. 2015). The root paste of S. heterophylla is also frequently used in veterinary medicine to treat mastitis in livestock. The paste is applied to the infected and inflamed breast tissue 3–4 times daily (Acharya and Acharya 2010; Dangol 2002). The fruits are eaten especially by children to treat colds, also for throat pain and fever. The root extract serves for dysuria and spermatorrhoea (Kunwar et al. 2010). Also used for diarrhea (Gairola et al. 2014).

Local Food Uses Solena heterophylla: There are a few tribal communities in West Bengal (Rajbanshi, Kheria, Oraon, Rabha, and Santhal) that are known to consume the leaves and unripe fruits of S. heterophylla. These are considered vegetables in their diet (Bandyopadhyay and Mukherjee 2009). The Magar and Majhi communities in the Western Chitwan of Nepal consume the fruits for both vegetable and medicinal uses (Dangol 2008; Dangol et al. 2017; Malla et al. 2015). The Chepang and Magar communities in Nepal also consume the fruits as vegetables (Aryal et al. 2009; Budha-Magar et al. 2020).

References Acharya KP, Acharya M. Traditional knowledge on medicinal plants used for the treatment of livestock diseases in Sardikhola VDC, Kaski, Nepal. J Med Plant Res. 2010;4(3):235–9. Aryal K, Berg Å, Ogle B. Uncultivated plants and livelihood support–a case study from the Chepang people of Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009;7:409–22. Bandyopadhyay S, Mukherjee SK. Wild edible plants of Koch Bihar district, West Bengal. Natl Prod Radiance. 2009;8(1):64–72. Budha-Magar S, Bhandari P, Ghimire SK. Ethno-medicinal survey of plants used by Magar (Kham) community, Rolpa district, Western Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2020;19:1–29. Coburn B. Some native medicinal plants of the western Gurung. Kaitash. 1984;11(1–2):55–88. Dangol DR. Economic uses of forest plant resources in western Chitwan, Nepal. Banko janakari. 2002;12(2):56–64. Dangol DR. Traditional uses of plants of common land habitats in Western Chitwan, Nepal. J Inst Agric Anim Sci. 2008;29:71. Dangol DR, Maharjan KL, Maharjan SK, Acharya AK. Wild edible plants in Nepal. In: Joshi BK, Bahadur KCH, Acharya A, editors. Conservation and utilization of agricultural plant genetic resources of Nepal. Dhulikhel: NAGRC; 2017. p. 390–407. De Wilde WJJO, Duyfjes BEE. Review of the genus Solena (Cucurbitaceae). Blumea-Biodivers Evol Biogeogr Plants. 2004;49(1):69–81. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh BY. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Ghimire K, Bastakoti RR. Ethnomedicinal knowledge and healthcare practices among the Tharus of Nawalparasi district in central Nepal. For Ecol Manage. 2009;257(10):2066–72.

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http://envis.frlht.org/plantdetails/e0edb76955a6abd237b1813c02710d5c/23dc3f9bc968d0be4e1be d2630222e9b http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id¼2&taxon_id¼220012657 Janbaz KH, Akhtar T, Saqib F, Imran I, Zia-Ul-Haq M, Jansakul C, Moga M. Pharmacological justification of use of Solena heterophylla Lour. in gastrointestinal, respiratory and vascular disorders. J Transl Med. 2015;13(1):134. Karmakar A, Mitra P, Koner A, Das S, Barik A. Fruit volatiles of creeping cucumber (Solena amplexicaulis) attract a generalist insect herbivore. J Chem Ecol. 2020;46(3):275–87. Khare CP. Indian medicinal plants: an illustrated dictionary. Berlin: Springer; 2007. p. 729. Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Bussmann RW. Traditional herbal medicine in Far-west Nepal: a pharmacological appraisal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:35–53. Kunwar RM, Evans A, Mainali J, Ansari A, Rimal B, Bussman R. Change in forest and vegetation cover influencing distribution and uses of plants in the Kailash Sacred Landscape, Nepal. Environ Dev Sustain. 2020;22:1397–412. Malla B, Gauchan D, Chhetri R. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by ethnic people in Parbat district of western Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;165:103–17. Manandhar N. An inventory of some herbal drugs of Myagdi district, Nepal. Econ Bot. 1995;49(4):371–9. Panta M, Kim K, Joshi C. Temporal mapping of deforestation and forest degradation in Nepal: applications to forest conservation. For Ecol Manage. 2008;256(9):1587–5. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Wu ZY, Raven PH, Hong DY. Flora of China. Vol. 19 (Cucurbitaceae through Valerianaceae, with Annonaceae and Berberidaceae). Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 2011.

Sophora mollis (Royle) Baker FABACEAE Asmita Thapa, Razan Mahat, Laxmi Mahat Kunwar, Ripu M. Kunwar, and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Edwardsia hortensis Boiss. and Buhse; Edwardsia mollis Royle; Keyserlingia buxbaumii Boiss.; Keyserlingia hortensis (Boiss. and Buhse) Yakovlev; Keyserlingia mollis (royle) Boiss.; Sophora buxbaumii (Bunge) B.Fedtsch.; Sophora griffithii subsp. hortensis Yakovl.; Sophora hortensis (boiss. and Buhse) Rech.f.

Local Names Sophora mollis: Pashto: Beshu, Ghuger; Nepali: Chunnjado; Hindi: Peeli sakina, Kharzeer; Shina: Popshing, English: Himalayan laburnum

A. Thapa · R. Mahat Trichandra Multiple Campus, Tribhuvan University, Ghantaghar, Kathmandu, Nepal L. Mahat Kunwar Kathmandu, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_232

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Botany and Ecology Sophora mollis: Shrubs, ca. 1 m high. Branchlets gray-white hairy. Leaves 12– 25 cm; petiole base slightly inflated; leaflets (11–)19–35, ovate, elliptic, oblong, or lanceolate, (10–)15–22( 27)  5–9( 15) mm, leathery, sparsely hairy or glabrescent, base cuneate to rounded, apex rounded or retuse. Racemes 5–10 cm. Flowers 20–26 mm; pedicel 5–20 mm; bracts linear-lanceolate to ovate, 2–3( 3.5) mm. Calyx sparsely hairy; teeth short to absent. Standard rounded, claw equal to 1/2 of petal; wings oblong, rugose in upper part; keel similar to wings, 1-auriculate. Stamens 10, free. Legumes winged, obviously constricted, quadrangular. Seeds 1–7, red-brown, oblong, about 8 mm. (Wu et al. 1994–2013, 2010). Sophora mollis is a perennial herb. Sophora is a genus of about 52 species of small trees and shrubs and contains about 19 varieties and 7 forms (Krishna et al. 2012). Sophora mollis belongs to the pea family Fabaceae. It is widely distributed in Southwestern China, Pakistan, India, Iran, Pakistan, and Nepal (Fei et al. 2009). It ranges from an altitude 700–1500 m (Srivastava et al. 2016). It mainly found on the shaded moist slopes of forest edges. Its native range is Iran to China (Yunnan) and NW and India.

Phytochemistry Sophora mollis contains cystine, matrine, rutin as principal chemical compounds (Kunwar et al. 2010a, b). Cytosine, Quinolizidine alkaloids, and flavonoids were isolated from S.mollis (Bown 1995). Aerial part of S. mollis contain 1: (E)-Phytyl Epoxide; C20H40O2, Colorless oil. 2: 7,11,15-Trimethyl-3-methylenehexadecane1,2-diol; C20H40O2, Colorless oil. 3: Loliolide; C11H16O3, Colorless needles. 4: Scopoletin; C10H8O4, Colorless needles. 5: Hexacosanol; C26H54O, White lamellar. 6: Octacosanol; C28H58O, White lamellar. 7: β-sitosterol; C29H50O, Colorless crystals. 8: Daucosterol; C35H60O6, White amorphous powder (Fei et al. 2009).

Local Medicinal Uses Sophora mollis: Leaf paste used to treat eczema (Sher et al. 2016), as analgesic, and blood purifier (Majid et al. 2019). To treat rheumatism and colds (Kunwar and Bussmann 2009; Kunwar et al. 2010a, b, 2013). The species is also used as remedy for hepatitis (Kayani et al. 2015). Sophora species are commonly used in traditional Chinese medicine, for example, as antiseptic, for diuresis and to treat indigestion (Ma et al. 2019; Wu 2005). Sophora possesses an outstanding pharmacological properties, especially as anticancer and anti-inflammatory drugs, in addition to its antioxidant, it has antibacterial (Manzoor et al. 2013), antifungal, and antiviral properties (Aly et al. 2019). It is used internally for jaundice, diarrhea, and urinary infections; externally for vaginitis, eczema, pruritus, ringworm, leprosy, syphilis, scabies, and allergies (Jabeen et al. 2015). Matrine is anti-inflammatory, anti-

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diarrheal, analgesic, and anti-tumorous, and it inhibits liver fibrosis (Tan and Zhang 1985; Zhang et al. 2001) and reduces body weight (Cheng et al. 2006). Rutin, a flavonoid protects heart (Chopra and Singh 1994), relieves acute and chronic inflammations (Lee et al. 2000) and strengthens capillary walls (Sharma 2004). Leaf and stem paste are used as medicine (Shrestha et al. 2018) against skin allergies; and as insecticide and pesticide (Jabeen et al. 2015). Root is used for rheumatism and cold (Kunwar et al. 2010a, b). The burnt roots are styptic and used to cure kidney and liver diseases and promote hair growth and dark hair color. Flowers are useful for kidney diseases, lumbago, gleet, and urinary discharges (Mamgain 1999).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Sophora mollis: Used as fodder and fuel wood (Majid et al. 2019). Seed is used for destroying vermin (Chopra et al. 1986). Roots and flowers of Sophora mollis used in making hair care dye (Gulshan et al. 2012). Plant is used as fuelwood (Gamble 1972), fodder, medicines and for roof thatching (Tareen et al. 2010). It is used traditionally as fuel wood in Chitral and was a best soil binder (Awan et al. 2001). In Northern America Sophora sp. (mescal bean), seeds were traditionally used as psychotropic (Bussmann 2016).

References Aly SH, Elissawy AM, Eldahshan OA, Elshanawany MA, Efferth T, Singab ANB. The pharmacology of the genus Sophora (Fabaceae): an updated review. Phytomedicine. 2019;64:153070. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phymed.2019.153070. Awan MR, Shah M, Akbar G, Ahmed S. Traditional uses of economically important plants of Chitral, Malakand Division, NWFP, Pakistan. J Botany. 2001; (special issue):587–98. Bown D. Encyclopaedia of herbs and their uses. London: Dorling Kindersley; 1995. 0-7513-020-31. Bussmann RW. Magic plants. In: Albuquerque U, Alves R, editors. Introduction to ethnobiology. Heidelberg: Springer International Publishing; 2016. p. 163–9. Cheng H, Xia B, Zhang L, Zhou F, Zhang YX, Ye M, Hu ZG, Li J, Wang ZL, Li C, Guo QS. Matrine improves 2,4,6 TNB sulphonic acid- induced colitis in mice. Pharmacol Res. 2006;53:202–8. Chopra K, Singh M. Involvement of oxygen free radicals in cardiopro- tective effect of rutin-a naturally occurring flavonoid. Indian J Pharmacol. 1994;26:13–8. Chopra RN, Nayar SL, Chopra IC. Glossary of Indian medicinal plants (including the supplement). New Delhi: CSIR; 1986. Fei DQ, Arfan M, Rafiq J, Gao K. Chemical constituents from the aerial parts of Sophora mollis. Chem Nat Compd. 2009;45(6):896–7. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10600-010-9477-9. Gamble JS. A manual of Indian timbers. Dehra Dun: Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh; 1972. Gulshan AB, Dasti AA, Hussain S, Atta MI, Amin M. Indigenous uses of medicinal plants in rural areas of Dera Ghazi Khan, Punjab, Pakistan. ARPN J Agric Biol Sci. 2012;7(9):750–62. Jabeen N, Ajaib M, Siddiqui MF, Ulfat M, Khan B. A survey of ethnobotanically important plants of district Ghizer, Gilgit-Baltistan. FUUAST J Biol. 2015;5(1):153–60. https://doi.org/10.4314/ njp.v40i1.14.

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Kayani S, Ahmad M, Sultana S, Khan Shinwari Z, Zafar M, Yaseen G, Hussain M, Bibi T. Ethnobotany of medicinal plants among the communitiesof Alpine and Sub-alpine regions of Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;164:186–202. Krishna PM, Rao KNV, Sandhya S, Banji D. A review on phytochemical, ethnomedical and pharmacological studies on genus Sophora, Fabaceae. Braz J Pharmacogn. 2012;22(5):1145– 54. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0102-695X2012005000043. Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Medicinal, aromatic and dye plants of Baitadi and Darchula districts, Nepal Himalaya: status, uses and management. In: Hartmann M, Weipert J. Biodiversität, Naturausstattung im Himalaya, Bd. III. Naturkundemuseum Erfurt; 2009, p. 475–89. Kunwar RM, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants in Farwest Nepal: their indigenous uses and pharmacological validity. Med Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010a; 4(Special issue 1):28–42. Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Bussmann RW. Traditional herbal medicine in Far-west Nepal: a pharmacological appraisal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010b;6:35. Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Acharya RP, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants, traditional medicine, markets and management in far-west Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:24. Lee BG, Kim SH, Zee OP, Lee KR, Lee HY, Han JW, Lee HW. Sup- pression of inducible nitric oxide synthase expression in RAW 264.7 macro- phages by two beta carboline alkaloids extracted from Melia azedarach. Eur J Pharmacol. 2000;406:301–9. Ma Y, Liu D, Cheng H, Bussmann RW, He H, Guo Z, Liu B. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by Miao people in Jijiezi, Yunnan, China. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;1826 https://doi. org/10.32859/era.18.26.1-14. Majid A, Ahmad H, Saqib Z, Ur Rahman I, Khan U, Alam J, Hussain Shah A, Ahmad Jan S, Ali N. Exploring threatened traditional knowledge; ethnomedicinal studies of rare endemic flora from Lesser Himalayan region of Pakistan. Rev Bras. 2019;29(6) Mamgain S. Phenological observation and conservation of Sophora mollis Royle (Papilionaceae) an endangered multipurpose legume of north west Himalaya. TAIWANIA-TAIPEI. 1999;44:137–44. Manzoor M, Manzoor M, Bibi S, Zaibunisa. Antibacterial activity of Sophora mollis against Escherichia coli and phytochemical tests of plant. ARPN J Agric Biol Sci. 2013;8(7):525–30. Sharma R. Agro techniques of medicinal plants. New Delhi: Daya Publishing; 2004. p. 264. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni groups in Chitral District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Shrestha KK, Bhattarai S, Bhandari P. Handbook of flowering plants of Nepal, Gymnosperm and angiosperms: cycadaceae to betulaceae, vol. 1. Jodhpur: Scientific Publishers; 2018. 648 p. Srivastava A, Srivastava S, Dangwal LR, Garhwal S. NeBIO. (January); 2016;7(4):179–184. Tan HR, Zhang BH. Experimental study of the anti-inflammatory effect of matrine. Zhong Xi Yi Jie He Za Zhi. 1985;5:108–9. Tareen RB, Bibi T, Khan MA, Ahmedand M, Zafar M. Indigenous knowledge of folk medicines by the women of Kalat and Khuzdar regions of Baluchistan, Pakistan. Pakistan J Botany. 2010;42(3):1465–85. Wu JN. An illustrated Chines Materia Medica. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2005. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Wu ZY, Raven PH, Hong DY, editors. Flora of China. Vol. 10 (Fabaceae). Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 2010. Zhang JP, Zhang M, Jin C, Zhou B, Xie WF, Guo C. Matrine inhibits production and actions of fibrogenic cytokines released by mouse peritoneal macrophages. Acta Pharmacol Sin. 2001;22:765–8.

Sorbus cuspidata (Spach) Hedl. ROSACEAE Bindu K. C., Sabina Gyawali, Sanjeev Luintel, Hari P. Sharma, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Sorbus cuspidata (Spach) Hedl.: Crataegus cuspidata Spach Pyrus crenata Lindl.; Pyrus vestita Wall.; Pyrus vestita Wall. ex Hook. f; Sorbus vestita Lodd.

B. K. C. · S. Gyawali · S. Luintel Amrit Science College, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal H. P. Sharma (*) Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_233

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Local Names Sorbus cuspidata: English: Himalayan white beam; French: Alisier blanc de l’Himalaya, alisier du Ne’pal; German: Himalaja- Mehlbeere; India: Mouli glue; Italian: Sorbo cuspidato; Nepali: Cheuli, Lek Mayel.

Phytochemistry Triterpenoids (lupeol, betuline, 23-hydroxibetuline, ursolic acid, a-amirine), cyanogenic compounds, phenylcarboxylic acids (chlorogenic, isochlororene, coffee, p-kumaric), flavonoids (rutine, astraaline, kaempfero, isocvcitritrine, quercinthine, isoquercitine, meratine, hyperoside), anthocyanins, carbohydrates (glucose, fructose, sucrose, L-sorbose, sorbitol, mannitol), organic acids (apple, lemon, wine, sorbic, ursolic, oleanolic), vitamins (C, B 2, E, carotene), catechins (epicatechIn gallate, epigallocatechine, epirallocatechallate), phenolcarbonic acids (coffee, chlorogenic, pseudochlorogenic, neochlorogenic, isochlorogenic, ferulic, oumaric), tannins, leucocyanidins, and fatty acids (Sokolov 1987).

Botany and Ecology Sorbus is a genus of 382 species (GBIF) of trees and shrubs in the rose family, Rosaceae. The genus Sorbus belongs to Clade Rosids of order Rosales in Family Rosaceae of subfamily Amygdaloideae of tribe Maleae of subtribe Malinae (APG IV 2016) and there are 21 species of Sorbus reported from Nepal (Press et al. 2000) and 12 species from Bhutan (Grierson and Springate 2001). S. cuspidata is an ornamental plant with attractive, large clusters of white flowers, and most bear colorful fruits (Xuejun et al. 2011). The word Sorbus commonly called fruit of the “service tree,” in 1520s, from French sorbe, from Latin Sorbum “service –berry” (small, edible fruit of the European mountain ash). Sorbus species are found around Bhutan, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Sikkim and native throughout the cool temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere, with the highest species diversity in the Himalaya, southern Tibet, and parts of western China. Sorbus is widely distributed throughout temperate regions of Europe and North America (Rushforth 1999; Xuejun et al. 2011). It grows on forests slopes, forest margins within 1350–3700 m elevation. It grows naturally in mixed forest, woodland Garden canopy, and sunny edges. It is one of the major associated species of upper Oak forest (Negi 1994). It was collected from the central Nepal in 1949 (Tilamn 1952). There is one collection of S. vestita from Nepal in 1979 housed in GBIF database (Telenius and Shah 2020) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6). Sorbus cuspidata: Shrubs 7–8 m tall. Branchlets purplish brown when young, grayish brown when old, grayish white tomentose when young, glabrous when old; buds ovoid, 0.7–1.4 cm, glabrous, apex acute; scales imbricate, several, brown. Leaves simple; petiole 1–2.5 cm, stout, white tomentose; stipules brownish, lanceolate, 0.8–1.2 cm, membranous, tomentulose; leaf blade elliptic,

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Fig. 1 Sorbus aucuparia (Rosaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Sorbus aucuparia (Rosaceae), Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 3 Sorbus aucuparia (Rosaceae), Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Sorbus aucuparia (Rosaceae), Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

12–22  7–12 cm, lateral veins 10–15 pairs, nearly parallel and terminating in marginal teeth, abaxially densely white tomentose, adaxially puberulent when young, glabrate, base rounded or broadly cuneate, margin unevenly serrate or doubly serrate, sometimes  lobed, apex acute or  obtuse, rarely shortly acuminate. Compound corymbs 5–8  (5–)7–10 cm, 30–45-flowered; rachis and pedicels initially white tomentose, glabrescent. Pedicel 5–8 mm. Flowers 7–8 mm in diam. Hypanthium campanulate, abaxially white pubescent except at base. Sepals

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Fig. 5 Sorbus aucuparia (Rosaceae), Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 6 Sorbus aucuparia (Rosaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

triangular or lanceolate, 2.5–3  1.5–2.5 mm, apex acute. Petals white, obovate, 6–8  4–6 mm, adaxially puberulent, base shortly clawed. Stamens 20–25, slightly shorter than petals; anthers purple. Styles 3–5, basally connate and tomentose. Fruit dark red, globose, 1.5–2 cm in diam., 3–5-loculed, with many conspicuous lenticels; sepals persistent; seeds brown, lanceolate, compressed, 7–8  3–4 mm. Flowering June–July, fruiting August–September (Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Figs. 7 and 8).

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Fig. 7 Sorbus cuspidata (Rosaceae) tree with fruits, Rara National Park, Mugu, Nepal. (Photo Ripu Kunwar)

Fig. 8 Sorbus cuspidata (Rosaceae) fruits. (Photo Lila N Sharma)

Local Medicinal Uses Sorbus cuspidata: The root paste is applied on boils (Manandhar 2003; Rai and Mares 2003). Bark decoction is used for fever treatment (Bhat et al. 2013; Malik et al. 2015). Sorbus aucuparia: A decoction of the flowers is used to remedy with liver disease, kidney and urinary tract infections, problems of the gastrointestinal tract, for metabolic disorders, hemorrhoids, colds, and coughs. The fruits serve as diuretic, laxative, hemostatic, contraceptive, and for malignant tumors. Especially in the Western Ural fruit extracts are used to treat diseases of the liver, kidneys, ascites, diarrhea, rheumatism, metabolic disorders, hypovitaminosis, whooping cough, throat disease, and glaucoma, and are applied externally for wound-healing (Sokolov 1987). In the wider region, Sorbus aucuparia is used for complex therapies in thyrotoxicosis,

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diabetes, hypertension and atherosclerosis, decreased immunity, gastritis with low acidity, hypertension and anemia. The fruit juice contributes to strengthening the walls of blood vessels, but significantly increases blood clotting (Sokolov 1987). The plant has antitumor, antisclerotic, anti-inflammatory, hypotensive, pressure regulating properties, regulates digestion, promotes the removal of heavy metals and radioactive materials from the body, and affects the body’s hematopoietic activity. The leaves contain bitter that contribute to formation and removal of bile. Sorbus aucuparia is used for colds. A water infusion of fruits is used as sudorific and antipyretic. The juice of fresh fruits or a water infusion of dried fruits is applied in gastro enteric diseases, especially in dysentery and as laxative. The juice of fresh fruits, or a water infusion and decoction of dried fruits is also used as diuretic, for the treatment of diabetes, and against hemorrhoids. A water extract has anastaltic properties. Fruits, both dried and fresh are used as vitamin supplement. Sorbus sp. fruits, flowers and leaves are in use as antidiarrheal, anti-inflammatory, a remedy for abdominal distention; the flowers are used to heal urolithiasis, while ripe fruits can help atherosclerosis. A leaf decoction is used to relieve cramps, and the fruit tincture is applied to relieve heart problems, hypertension, and applied to disinfect wounds, and for digestive disorders. Sometimes they can be found in local markets (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b, 2018, 2020a, b; Bussmann 2017). The fruits are also used to treat cough and colds (Bhat et al. 2013).

Local Food Uses Sorbus cuspidata: The fruits are eaten as raw or cooked (Shrestha et al. 2018). Sorbus aucuparia: Fruits are edible fresh form only after the first frost. The fruits are eaten fresh and used to make sweets. In the Caucasus the fruits are used to make alcohol, and as replacement for tea and coffee (Sokolov 1987). Sorbus aucuparia fruits are used usually after the first frost or dried (Sokolov 1987). From fresh fruits jam, marmalade, kvass, wine, and vinegar are prepared, and the fruits are used for some cakes, brandy, and liquor, as well as tea. Fruits contain sugars, organic acids, carotene, vitamin C. P. tannins, essential oils, etc. The seeds contain glycosides and amygdaline. Fruits become sweet in late autumn and are used to prepare jams and juice after the first frost (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b, 2018, 2020a, b; Bussmann 2017). Sorbus fruits are fermented to make alcohol, as well as added to beer, eaten fresh (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b, 2018, 2020a, b; Bussmann 2017; Łuczaj and Szymański 2007; Sokolov 1987) (Figs. 9 and 10).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Sorbus cuspidata: This plant is considered as rare in India (Bhat et al. 2013). The fruits are consumed by red panda (Yonzon 1989; Pradhan et al. 2001; Sharma et al. 2014). Female red panda occasionally consumes Sorbus fruits probably to add

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Fig. 9 Sorbus aucuparia (Rosaceae), drying for winter, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 10 Sorbus aucuparia (Rosaceae), jam, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

proteinase food to increase lactation for their cubs. Both red panda and Sorbus occur in the same habitat from east Ilam to west Mugu (Yonzon 1989; Sharma and Belant 2009; Thapa and Basnet 2015; Sharma et al. 2019). Both species are under the high priority of conservation in protected areas and community forest system of Nepal.

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Sorbus aucuparia: In veterinary medicine, the fruits are used in The Ural to treat diarrhea in calves. The wood is used in carpentry, for furniture, and for musical instruments. The bark is used to dye wool and silk in red-brown and black tones. Sorbus aucuparia has reddish wood that is hard and flexible and is used for furniture and musical instruments. Honey and decorative plant, perspective species for reforestation and landscaping. Sorbus aucuparia is also used for dyeing. Black color is obtained from young branches. This is a beautiful tree, mainly in the period of flowering and fruiting, as well as in autumn with bright coloration of the leaves (Sokolov 1987). Good nectariferous plant, producing much nectar and pollen. All parts of plant and especially the bark contain tannins and are used to cure leather. The fine-grained wood is firm, solid, and used in turnery. Different national musical instruments are made of it. The wood is used to manufacture furniture, tool handles, and for household utensils, and also in construction, especially for fences (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b, 2018, 2020a, b; Bussmann 2017). The wood of the mountain ash is quite heavy, resistant, firm, dense, elastic, caustic, thin layer, reddish colors that are well polished. Burns, bright, but strongly smokes; good quality charcoal. Used in the manufacture of rollers, blocks, cylinders, machine teeth, and small carpentry. Often used for making musical instruments and furniture. In veterinary medicine the fruits are used in Middle Asia to treat diarrhea in calves. The wood is used in carpentry, for furniture, and for musical instruments. The bark is used to dye wool and silk in red-brown and black tones (Sokolov 1987).

References APG (Angiosperm Phylogeny Group). An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV. Bot J Linn Soc. 2016;181:1–20. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Sorbus aucuparia L.; Sorbus torminalis (L.) Crantz. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-49412-8_133. Bhat JA, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:1. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-9-1. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia Sakartvelo, Caucasus. J Ehnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Medicinal Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10. 4172/2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo Republic of Georgia, Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;161:25–34.

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Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo Republic of Georgia, Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;161:7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo Republic of Georgia, Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;171:7–33. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z. Sorbus aucuparia L.; Sorbus tianschanica Rupr. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions Central Asia and Altai. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020a. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3319-77087-1_131-1. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D. Sorbus aucuparia L. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions far eastern Europe. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020b. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77088-8_130-2. Grierson AJC, Springate LS. Flora of Bhutan. Royal Botanical Garden Edinburgh and Royal Government of Bhutan, vol. 1(3). Edinburgh: Royal Botanical Garden Edinburgh; 2001. p. 592–9. Łuczaj Ł, Szymański WM. Wild vascular plants gathered for consumption in the polish countryside: a review. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3:17. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-3-17. Malik ZA, Bhat J, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhat AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44. Manandhar NP. Native use of herbal drugs for treatment of skin diseases in Nepal. In: Plant-derived antimycotics: current trends future prospects. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2003. p. 429. Negi SS. Forests and forestry in Nepal. Punjabz: Aashish Publishing House; 1994. Pradhan S, Saha GK, Khan JA. Ecology of the red panda Ailurus fulgens in the Singhalila National Park, Darjeeling, India. Biol Conserv. 2001;98(1):11–8. Press JR, Shrestha KK, Sutton DA. Annotated checklist of the flowering plants of Nepal. London: The Natural History Museum; 2000. Rai MK, Mares D. Plant-derived antimycotics: current trends and future prospects. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2003. Rushforth K. Trees of Britain and Europe. London: Collins; 1999. ISBN 0-00-220013-9. Sharma HP, Belant JL. Distribution and observations of red pandas Ailurus fulgens fulgens in Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve, Nepal. Small Carniv Conserv. 2009;40:33–5. Sharma HP, Swenson J, Belant JL. Seasonal food habits of the red panda (Ailurus fulgens) in Rara National Park, Nepal. Hyxtrix Italian J Mammal. 2014;25(1):47–50. Sharma HP, Belant JL, Shaner PJL. Attitudes towards conservation of the endangered red panda Ailurus fulgens in Nepal: a case study in protected and non-protected areas. Oryx. 2019;53(3):542–7. Shrestha KK, Bhattarai S, Bhandari P. Handbook of flowering plants of Nepal, Gymnosperm and Angiosperms: Cycadaceae to Betulaceae, vol. 1. Jodhpur: Scientific Publishers; 2018. 648 p. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 3. Hydrangeaceae-Haloragaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1987. 326 p. (in Russian). Telenius A, Shah M. Phanerogamic botanical collections (S). GBIF-Sweden. Occurrence dataset; 2020. https://doi.org/10.15468/yo3mmu. Accessed via GBIF.org on 2020-06-11. https://www. gbif.org/occurrence/1096702980 Thapa A, Basnet K. Seasonal diet of wild red panda (Ailurus fulgens) in Langtang National Park, Nepal Himalaya. Int J Conserv Sci. 2015;6(2) Tilamn HW. Nepal Himalaya. New York: Cambridge University Press; 1952. 268 p. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Xuejun J, Kirschner J, Štěpánek J. Jasminum F.H. Wiggers. In: Wu ZY, Raven PH, Hong DY, editors. Flora of China, 163, vol. 9. Saint Louis/Beijing: Missouri Botanical Garden Press/ Science Press; 2011. Yonzon PB. Ecology and conservation of the red panda in the Nepal-Himalayas. Doctoral thesis, University of Maine, Orono; 1989.

Spondias pinnata (L. f.) Kurz ANACARDIACEAE Yadav Uprety, Dhruba Khakurel, and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Evia amara Comm. ex Bl.; Mangifera pinnata L.f., Poupartia pinnata (L.f.) Blanco; Spondias acuminata Roxb.; Spondias amara Lam.; Spondias cytherea Sonn; Spondias bivenomarginalis K.M. Feng & P.I. Mao Spondias mangifera Willd.; Spondias paniculata Roxb. ex Wight & Arn.; Spondias pinnata (L.f.) Kurz; Tetrastigma megalocarpum W.T. Wang; Wirtgenia decandra Jungh. (Roskov et al. 2019).

Local Names Spondias pinnata: Chepang: Pakmaru, Dambaka; English: Golden Apple, Hog plum, Indian Hog Plum; Hindi: Ambara, Amda, mra, Ambari, Pashu-haritaki; Nepali: Amaro; Sanskrit: Aamraata, Metula, Amraatakah, Pitan, Pitavraksha; Tharu: Amar.

Y. Uprety WWF Nepal Program, Baluwatar, Kathmandu, Nepal D. Khakurel Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_234

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Botany and Ecology Spondias pinnata: Deciduous trees, 10–25 m tall; branchlets yellowish brown, glabrous. Petiole 10–15 cm, petiole and rachis glabrous; leaf blade 30–40 cm, imparipinnately compound with 5–11 opposite leaflets; leaflet petiolule 3–5 mm; leaflet blade ovate-oblong to elliptic-oblong, 7–12  4–5 cm, papery, glabrous on both sides, base cuneate to rounded, often oblique, margin serrate or entire, apex acuminate, lateral veins 12–25 pairs, slightly impressed adaxially, prominent abaxially, joined with submarginal collecting vein. Inflorescence paniculate, terminal, 25–35 cm, glabrous, basal first-order branches 10–15 cm. Flower sessile or subsessile, white, glabrous. Calyx lobes triangular, ca. 0.5 mm. Petals ovate-oblong, ca. 2.5  1.5 mm, apically acute. Stamens ca. 1.5 mm. Ovary subglobose, ca. 1 mm; styles 4 or 5, free, ca. 0.5 mm. Drupe ellipsoid to elliptic-ovoid, yellowish orange at maturity, 3.5–5  2.5–3.5 cm; inner part of endocarp woody and grooved, outer part fibrous; mature fruit usually with 2 or 3 seeds. Flowering April–June, fruiting August–September (Wu et al. 1994-2013). The fruit is an ellipsoid to ellipticovoid drupe, olive green to yellowish orange at maturity, 35–70*25–35 mm; inner part of endocarp woody and grooved, outer part fibrous; mature fruit usually have two or three seeds (Tinalu and Barfod 2008) (also see Figs. 1 and 2). The only reliable characters which distinguish S. pinnata from the rest members of the genus are the very short pedicellate flowers and the hard, dense, fibrous outer layer of the endocarp. The dense clusters of subsessile flowers give the inflorescences of S. pinnata a very distinctive appearance (Tinalu and Barfod 2008). Spondias pinnata is a tree species naturally distributed in southern Yunnan, China, and also widely cultivated and naturalized in Bhutan, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Laos, Peninsular Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam from 300–1400 m (Tinalu and Barfod 2008).

Phytochemistry A total of 40 components were identified by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC-MS), representing 95.19% of the EOSP, with furfural (17.14%), α-terpineol (13.09%), and ethyl benzoate (9.05%) as the main constituents (Li et al. 2020). The fruits and leaves are also utilized in Thailand, Malaysia, Nepal, and India and have been identified as a potential source of neutraceutical and flavoring agents because of their high content of flavonoids and phenolic compounds and their strong antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. Crude extracts of its fruit have been reported to have high nutrient value, antioxidant and antimicrobial activity, as well as hypoglycemic effects (Satpathy et al. 2011; Hazra et al. 2008; Debnath et al. 2013; Judprasong et al. 2013; Sameh et al. 2019). Flavonoids of the plant have been known to inhibit intestinal motility and hydroelectrolytic secretion, which are known to alter for diarrheal conditions. The analysis of the edible portion of the fruit has yielded food energy 189–203 kcal/g, crude fat 12.23–12.54%, crude fiber

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Fig. 1 Spondias pinnata (Anacardiacceae), grown along the agricultural farm in mid-hills of Nepal. (Photo Yadav Uprety)

Fig. 2 Spondias pinnata (Anacardiacceae), in lowland Tarai of Nepal. (Photo Ripu Kunwar)

3.13–4.03%, total carbohydrate 23.54–16.30%, sodium 1.38–0.96%, calcium 0.93– 0.15%, iron 1.5–1.3%, and copper 0.9–1.23 0% (Andola and Purohit 2010). Phytochemical studies have yielded several constituents such as flavonoids, tannins, saponins, and terpenoids. Essential oil from the pulp yielded carboxylic acids and esters, alcohols, and aromatic hydrocarbons. Fruits yield ßamyrin, oeanolic acid, glycine, cystine, serine, alanine, and leucine. Aerial parts yield lignoceric acid, ß-sitosterol, and its glucoside (Mondal and Dash 2009). Likewise,

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Chalise et al. (2010) showed most potent antioxidants as compared with vitamin C based on the DPPH radical assay and with high TPC. Major constituents are derived as alanine, amyrin, cystine, lignoceric acid, oleanolic acid, serine, etc. (Joshi 2006).

Local Medicinal Uses Spondias pinnata: The plant juice is applied for cuts and wounds by different communities of Nepal (Manandhar 2002). Similarly, bark has various uses. Paste is applied on rheumatism by the Magar community of Baglung (Sapkota 2008) and Tanahun (Uprety et al. 2011, 2012). Juice is taken in rheumatism, constipation, and dysentery by Tharu community of Nawalparasi (Ghimire and Bastakoti 2009). Manandhar has also reported use of bark juice in dysentery (Manandhar 2002). Juice is taken orally or fruits are chewed to treat cough in Dang. Raji community of Kailali. Kanchanpur, Surkhet and Bardiya use bark in abdominalache (Thapamagar and Neupane 2016). Likewise, fruit is taken to cure cough, rheumatism, constipation, and dysentery or juice is used in constipation and cough by Tharu community of Nawalparasi (Ghimire and Bastakoti 2009). Fruits are also used in cough, rheumatism, and as insecticidal in Baglung (Sapkota 2008). Latex is used in Ayurveda as demulcent (Joshi 2006). It is applied in wounds and cuts by Chettri and Thakuri communities of Far-west Nepal (Kunwar et al. 2010). Latex is also reported to be used for bilios dyspepsia (Baral and Kurmi 2006). Seeds are roasted and chewed to cure cough, more particularly whooping cough by Sherpa and Tamang communities of Sindhupalchok district (Bhattarai 1992). The plant parts are also used elsewhere in various ways. Leaves are considered as an integral part of the Balinese ethnobotanical knowledge and used in the making of herbal medicinal beverage to treat heartburn, urolithiasis, diabetes, and to improve body health (Sujarwo and Keim 2019; Sujarwo et al. 2015). Similarly, in Sri Lanka, leaves are used for earache; bark is used for treating dysentery, muscular rheumatism and diabetes mellitus and the fruit is an antiscorbutic and used for the bilious dyspepsia (Jayaweera 1982). The stembark juicev is used as anthelminthic (Bhandary et al. 1995). Used to treat stomach and ear pain (Malik et al. 2015). Ripe fruits as liver tonic and to increase appetite, unripe fruits to treat gastrointestinal disorders (Kichu et al. 2015). The latex is applied to cuts and wounds, the plant juice is useful for dysentery and rheumatism, the plant latex is also used for bilious dyspepsia (Kunwar et al. 2010).

Local Food Uses Spondias pinnata: Ripe fruits are eaten and used to make pickle by Magar community of Tanahun district (Uprety et al. 2011, 2012) and Makawanpur district (Basnet et al. 2001). Flowers are also used to make curry and for flavoring (Ghimeray et al. 2010). Often planted in home-gardens (Das and Das Kumar 2015; Kabir and Webb 2008; Langenberger et al. 2009). The flowers are also eaten (Dangol et al. 2017).

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References Andola HC, Purohit VK. Nutritive and mineral value of ripe fruits evaluation of nutritive and mineral value in ripe fruits of Spondias pinnata from two location of Western Himalaya, India. Med Plants Int J Phytomed Relat Ind. 2010;2(3):233–6. Baral SR, Kurmi PP. A compendium of medicinal plants in Nepal. Kathmandu: Mrs Rachana Publishers; 2006. Basnet B, Joshi R, Lekhak HD. Ethnobotanical survey of Chepang tribe of Makawanpur district, Nepal. In: Jha PK, Baral SR, Karmacharya SB, Lekhak HD, Lacoul P, Baniya CB, editors. Environ Agric Biodivers Agric Pollut South Asia, vol. 2001. Kathmandu: Ecological Society (ECOS); 2001. p. 245–52. Bhandary MJ, Chandrashekar KR, Kaveriappa KM. Medical ethnobotany of the Siddis of Uttara Kannada district, Karnataka, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 1995;47:149–58. Bhattarai NK. Folk herbal remedies of Sindhupalchok district Central Nepal. Fitoterapia. 1992;63(2):145–55. Chalise JP, Acharya K, Gurung N, Bhusal RP, Gurung R, Skalko-Basnet N, Basnet P. Antioxidant activity and polyphenol content in edible wild fruits from Nepal. Int J Food Sci Nutr. 2010;61(4):425–32. Dangol DR, Maharjan KL, Maharjan SK, Acharya AK. Wild edible plants in Nepal. In: Joshi BK, Bahadur KCH, Acharya A, editors. Conservation and utilization of agricultural plant genetic resources of Nepal. Dhulikhel: NAGRC; 2017. p. 390–407. Das T, Kumar Das A. Conservation of plant diversity in rural Homegardens with cultural and geographical variation in three districts of Barak Valley, Northeast India. Econ Bot. 2015;69(1):57–71. Debnath PK, Bezbaruah BK, Devi D. To evaluate the hypoglycemic effect of the fruit pulp extract of Spondias pinnata Linn. Kurz on experimental model of diabetes mellitus. Indian J Pharmacol. 2013;2013(45):S74. Ghimeray AK, Sharma P, Ghimire B, Lamsal K, Ghimire B, Cho DH. Wild edible flowering plants of the Ilam Hills (eastern Nepal) and their mode of use by the local community. Kor J Plant Taxonomy. 2010;40(1):1–4. Ghimire K, Bastakoti RR. Ethnomedicinal knowledge and healthcare practices among the Tharus of Nawalparasi district in Central Nepal. For Ecol Manag. 2009;257:2066–72. Hazra B, Biswas S, Mandal N. Antioxidant and free radical scavenging activity of Spondias pinnata. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2008;8:63. Jayaweera DM. Medicinal plants (indigenous and exotic) used in Ceylon. Colombo: National Science Foundation in Sri Lanka; 1982. p. 56. Joshi SG. Medicinal plants. New Delhi: Oxford & IBH Publishing; 2006. p. 491. Judprasong K, Charoenkiatkul S, Thiyajai P, Sukprasansap M. Nutrients and bioactive compounds of Thai indigenous fruits. Food Chem. 2013;140:507–12. Kabir ME, Webb EL. Can homegardens conserve biodiversity in Bangladesh? Biotropica. 2008;40(1):95–103. Kichu A, Malewska T, Akter K, Imchen I, Harrington D, Kohen J, Vemulpad SR, Jamie JF. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of Chungtia village, Nagaland, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;166:5–17. Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Bussmann R. Traditional herbal medicine in far-West Nepal: a pharmacological appraisal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:35. Langenberger G, Prigge V, Martin K, Belonias B, Sauerborn J. Ethnobotanical knowledge of Philippine lowland farmers and its application in agroforestry. Agrofor Syst. (2009. 2009;76:173–94. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-008-9189-3. Li R, Yang J, Song XZ, Wang YF, Corlett RT, Xu YK, Hu HB. Chemical composition and the cytotoxic, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory activities of the fruit Peel essential oil from Spondias pinnata (Anacardiaceae) in Xishuangbanna, Southwest China. Molecules. 2020;25:343.

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Malik ZA, Bhat J, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhat AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44. Manandhar NP. Plants and people of Nepal. Portland: Timber Press; 2002. Mondal S, Dash GK. Hypoglycemic activity of the bark of Spondias pinnata. Pharmacogn Mag. 2009;5(19):42–5. Roskov, Y., Abucay, L., Orrell, T., Nicolson, D., Bailly, N., Kirk, P.M., Bourgoin, T., DeWalt, R.E., Decock, W., DeWever, A., Nieukerken, E.V., Zarucchi, J. & Penev, L. 2019. Species 2000 & ITIS catalogue of life, 20 May 2020. www.catalogueoflife.org/col. Accessed on 20–28 May 2020. Sameh S, Al-Sayed E, Labib RM, Singab ANB. Comparative metabolic profiling of essential oils from Spondias pinnata (L. f.) Kurz and characterization of their antibacterial activities. Ind Crop Prod. 2019;137:468–74. Sapkota PP. Ethno-ecological observation of Magar of Bukini, Baglung, Western, Nepal. Dhaulagiri J Soc Anthropol. 2008;2:227–52. Satpathy G, Tyagi YK, Gupta RK. Preliminary evaluation of nutraceutical and therapeutic potential of raw Spondias pinnata an exotic fruit of India. Food Res Int. 2011;44:2076–87. Sujarwo W, Keim AP. Spondias pinnata (L. f.) Kurz. (Anacardiaceae): profiles and applications to diabetes. In: Bioactive food as dietary interventions for diabetes; 2019. p. 395–405. Sujarwo W, Keim AP, Savo V, Guarrera PM, Caneva G. Ethnobotanical study of Loloh: traditional herbal drinks from Bali (Indonesia). J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;169:34–48. Thapamagar MS, Neupane S. Documentation of indigenous knowledge on medicinal use of plants by Raji Community in West Nepal. Bull Dep Plant Res. 2016;38:65–72. Tianlu M, Barfod A. Anacardiaceae. In: Flora of China, vol. 11. Beijing/St. Louis: Flora of China Editorial Committee/Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 2008. p. 335–57. Uprety Y, Poudel RC, Asselin H, Boon E. Plant biodiversity and ethnobotany inside the projected impact area of the upper Seti hydropower project, Western Nepal. Env Dev Sust. 2011;13:463–92. Uprety Y, Poudel RC, Shrestha KK, Rajbhandary S, Tiwari NN, Shrestha UB, Asselin H. Diversity of use and local knowledge of wild edible plant resources in Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2012;8:16. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994-2013.

Stephania elegans Hook. f. & Thomson MENISPERMACEAE Yagya P. Adhikari, Dhaka M. Adhikari, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Local Names Stephania elegans: Nepali: Taro lahara, Baatule paati, Baatulapaate; Tamang Paathaa, Tam Barki, Laharache; Hindi: Nagbel, Rajpatha, Dudhiya, Sankhjadi, Satwa, Myanaru; English Elegant Tape Vine (Jain and Jain 2018).

Y. P. Adhikari Department of Biogeography, BayCEER, University of Bayreuth, Bayreuth, Germany Department of Disturbance Ecology, BayCEER, University of Bayreuth, Bayreuth, Germany e-mail: [email protected] D. M. Adhikari (*) Sustainable Environmental and Ecosystem Management, Lalitpur, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_235

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Botany and Ecology The genus Stephania Loureiro (1790: 608) (Menispermaceae) was described by the Portuguese botanist João de Loureiro based on two species, namely, S. rotunda Loureiro (1790: 608) and S. longa Loureiro (1790: 609). There are 71 genera and ca. 350 species in family Menispermaceae (Forman 1991; Semwal et al. 2010). More than 60 species of Stephania are currently recognized (Hu et al. 2008). They are distributed in tropical and subtropical Asia, tropical Africa, and Oceania, with a center of diversity located in South-East Asia. Among them, 37 species are recorded in China (Hu et al. 2008), 15 in Thailand (Forman 1991), and seven species in Nepal and Laos each (Press et al. 2000; Newman et al. 2007). Stephania elegans: Herbaceous vines. Branches slender, striate, glabrous, or subglabrous. Petiole 2–4 cm; leaf blade conspicuously peltate, narrowly triangular or ovate-triangular (sometimes subtriangular), 5–10
2.5–5.5 cm, papery, usually brown when dry, adaxially glossy, both surfaces glabrous, base subtruncate to slightly concave, sometimes cordate, apex slightly acuminate, sometimes obtuse, minutely mucronate, upward and downward each palmately 4- or 5-veined, raised abaxially, reticulation slightly conspicuous. Inflorescences simple (or compound) umbelliform cymes; peduncles slender and straight; flowers with pedicels, light green or purple. Male flowers: sepals 6, dark purple, obovate, ca. 1.6
1 mm, glabrous. Female flowers: perianth as in male flowers. Drupes red, broadly obovateglobose, ca. 7 mm, base subtruncate; endocarp 5–6 mm; condyle not perforate. Fruiting November. (Hu et al. 2008; WCSP 2020; Wu et al. 1994-2013). Stephania elegans is one of the seven species reported in Nepal and commonly distributed in mixed subtropical forests, altitude up to 1000–1700 m a.s.l. (above sea level) (Press et al. 2000) and sometimes up to 2500 m a.s.l. (Fig. 1). Stephania elegans Hook.f. & Thomson is accepted species and its native range is Himalaya to China (Yunnan) and Indo-China. It is distributed in Nepal, Sikkim, NE-India, Fig. 1 Stephania abyssinica (Menispermaceae), Mt. Kenya National Park, Kenya. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

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Bangladesh, Bhutan, N-Thailand, Myanmar, China (Yunnan), and Jammu & Kashmir. Genetically, it has (n ¼ 18) chromosome number (Verma et al. 2018). It is found nearby village, open forest, cliff of forest, limestone mountains, secondary forest, and on river-banks. It occurs as a small herbaceous climbing shrub. Based on herbarium specimens, it is distributed in Doti, Panchthar, and Sindhuli districts and the river-sides of Marsyangdi, Bagmati and Koshi (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Fig. 2 Stephania abyssinica (Menispermaceae), Mt. Kenya National Park, Kenya. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

Fig. 3 Stephania abyssinica (Menispermaceae), Mt. Kenya National Park, Kenya. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

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Fig. 4 Stephania abyssinica (Menispermaceae), flowers, Mt. Kenya National Park, Kenya. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

Phytochemistry Semwal et al. (2010) stated that this genus contains alkaloids, gindarudine, tetrahydropalmitine, flavonoids lignans, steroids, terpenoids, and coumarins. Nine alkaloids are isolated from the leaves, stems, and roots; they are epihernandolinol, hasubanonine, aknadinine (Brossi 1988), N-methylcorydalmine, cyclanoline, magnoflorine, isotetrandrine, isochondodendrine, and cycleanine (Singh et al. 1981; Singh et al. 2004).

Local Medicinal Uses Stephania elegans: The root is used for headache, cuts (Pant and Pant 2004), stomachache (Manandhar 1986, 1987), postpartum hemorrhage (Adhikari et al. 2019). Similarly leaves and steam buds are used to reduce blood in urine, appetizer, bodyache, backache, high bleeding during menstruation, gastritis, and abdominal pain (Adhikary et al. 2011). S. elegans is frequently used in traditional medicine because it contains alkaloids compound on its leaves, stems, and roots. It has traditionally been used for the treatment of asthma, tuberculosis, dysentery, hyperglycaemia, cancer, malaria, fever, intestinal complaints, sleep disturbances, and inflammation in Asian and African countries (Chopra et al. 1958; Gaur 1999; Kirtikar and Basu 2004; Semwal et al. 2010). The leaf of the plant is used to cure boils, blood and dysentery as ethnomedicine of Bantar, one of the dominant ethnic groups of Morang district, Nepal (Acharya and Pokhrel 2006). Root paste used to treat cuts and wounds (Singh et al. 2017). The methanolic extract of Stephania elegans showed antioxidant and anticancer capabilities (Sharma et al. 2017).

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Stephania abyssinica: Leaves are crushed and applied to wounds, especially tortoise bites. The roots serve as aphrodisiac. The plant powder is rubbed into small cuts on aching body parts (Kokwaro 2009). Used to treat headaches and fever (Singh et al. 2017). Root decoction used to remedy gonorrhea (Yineger et al. 2008). The leaf decoction is used to treat rabies (Giday et al. 2010), to treat stomachache, and expel a retained placenta after birth (Giday et al. 2009). Root powder is applied to wounds, and the root tonic used against impotence (Giday et al. 2007). Stephania tetrandra is used to treat snakebites (Houghton and Osibogun 1993), and the species is commonly used in Chinese traditional medicine (Wu 2005). It is evident that Stephania species possess anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antidiarrheal, antimicrobial, insecticidal, anti-nociceptive, neuro-protective, analgesic, and anti-hyperglycaemic activities (Das et al. 2019). Ethanolic extract of Stephania glabra and Stephania hernandifolia have been reported to exhibit free radical scavenging activity (Sharma et al. 2010; Singh et al. 2014).

Local Food Uses Stephania elegans: The leaves are eaten as vegetable (Singh et al. 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Stephania elegans: Extracts from the leaves have shown mild insecticidal properties against fruit flies in Thailand. The leaves are sometimes harvested from the wild for medicinal purposes and to make a jelly. The active constituent in Chinese “Jin Bu Huan Anodyne” tablets contain alkaloid (tetrahydropalmatine) comes from species of Stephania. These tablets are exported to western market from China (Aronson 2016). The whole plant is used as fodder for cattle in Dhading district of Nepal (Shah et al. 2018). Plant is ritual (Shrestha et al. 2018). The propagation of Stephania plants is possible by seeds. Root juice of Stephania elegans is also used as anthelminthic in calves in Nepal (Dangol 2008) and India (Quattrocchi 2012). Stephania abyssinica: The extract of the whole plant is used for mastitis in cattle (Kokwaro 2009). The stem fibers are used for baskets (Beentje 1994). Eaten by livestock (Bussmann 2006). The stems are used to make ropes to tie house-posts, tools, to make milk containers (Bussmann et al. 2011). Various uses in ethnoveterinary medicine (Teklehaymanot and Giday 2007; Teklehaymanot et al. 2007). The leaf decoction is used to treat rabies (Giday et al. 2010). Stephania dinklagei is used as fish poison (Neuwinger 2004).

References Acharya E, Pokhrel B. Ethno-medicinal plants used by Bantar of Bhaudaha, Morang. Nepal Our Nat. 2006;4:96–103.

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Adhikari M, Thapa R, Kunwar RM, Devkota HP, Poudel P. Ethnomedicinal uses of plant resources in the Machhapuchchhre rural municipality of Kaski District, Nepal. Medicines. 2019;6(2):69. Adhikary P, Roshan KC, Kayastha D, Thapa D, Shrestha R, Shrestha TM, Gyawali R. Phytochemical screening and anti-microbial properties of medicinal plants of Dhunkharka community, Kavrepalanchowk, Nepal. Int J Pharm Biol Archiv. 2011;2(6):1663–7. Aronson JK. Meyler’s side effects of drugs. Int Enc Adverse Drug React Interact, 2016, 16th Edition, 7: p 7674. Beentje H. Kenya trees and shrubs. Nairobi: National Museums of Kenya; 1994. Brossi A. The alkaloids, vol. 33. Boston: Academic Press; 1988. Bussmann RW. Ethnobotany of the Samburu of Mt. Nyiru, South Turkana, Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:35. Chopra RN, Chopra IC, Handa KL, Kapur LD. Chopra’s indigenous drugs of India. 2nd ed. Calcutta: Char UN and Sons Ltd; 1958. p. 412. Dangol DR. Traditional uses of plants of common land habitats in western Chitwan, Nepal. J Inst Agric Anim Sci. 2008;29:71–8. Das A, Molla S, Sykat M, Ali M, Haque M, Rahman M, Babu I, Islam M, Md I. Phytochemical and pharmacological review on Stephania japonica. Biomed J Sci Tech Res. 2019;14:1–4. https:// doi.org/10.26717/BJSTR.2019.14.002500. Forman, LL. Menispermaceae. Flora of Thailand. 5(3): Smitinand, T. Larsen, K (eds.), The Forest herbarium, Royal Forest Department, Bangkok. 1991, 300–365. Gaur RD. Flora of district Garhwal north west Himalaya. 1st ed. Srinagar Garhwal: Trans Media; 1999. p. 76–7. Giday M, Teklehaymanot T, Animut A, Mekonnen Y. Medicinal plants of the Shinasha, Agew-awi and Amhara peoples in Northwest Ethiopia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;110:516–25. Giday M, Asfaw Z, Woldu Z. Medicinal plants of the Meinit ethnic group of Ethiopìa: an ethnobotan ical study. J Ethnopharmacol. 2009;124:513–21. Giday M, Asfaw Z, Woldu Z. Ethnomedicinal study of plants used by Sheko ethnic group of Ethiopia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010;1321:75–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2010.07.046. Houghton PJ, Osibogun IM. Flowering plants used against snakebite. J Ethnopharmacol. 1993;39:1–29. Hu, CM., Lo, HS., Chen, T., and Gilbert, MG. 2008. Menispermaceae. Flora of China. Vol. 7. Menispermaceae though Capparaceae. Wu, ZY., Raven, PH., Hong, DY (eds.), Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press, Beijing/St Louis. Pp. 1–31. Jain V, Jain SK. Dictionary of local-botanical names in Indian folk life. Jodhpur: Scientific publishers; 2018. Kirtikar KR, Basu BD. Indian medicinal plants. 2nd ed. Allahabad: L. M. Basu; 2004. p. 94. Kokwaro, JO. Medicinal plants of East Africa. Nairobi: University of Nairobi Press; 2009. Manandhar NP. A contribution to the ethnobotany of Mushar tribes of Dhanusa district, Nepal. J Nat Hist Mus. 1986;10(1–4):53–64. Manandhar NP. Traditional medicinal plants used by tribals of Lamjung District, Nepal. Int J Crude Drug Res. 1987;25(4):236–40. Neuwinger HD. Plants used for poison fishing in tropical Africa. Toxicon 2004;44:417–430. Newman M, Ketphanh S, Svengsuksa B, Thomas P, Sengdala K, Lamxay V, Armstrong K. A Checklistof the vascular plants of Lao PDR. Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, Edinburgh; 2007. p. 230–2. Pant SR, Pant IR. Indigenous knowledge on medicinal plants in Bhagawati VDC, Darchula, Nepal. Bot Orient. 2004;4:79–81. Press JR, Shrestha KK, Sutton DA. Annotated checklist of the flowering plants of Nepal. London: Tribhuvan University, Nepal and Natural History Museum; 2000. Quattrocchi U. Medicinal and poisonous plants: common names and scientific names. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2012.

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Semwal DK, Badoni R, Semwal R, Kothiyal SK, Singh GJP, Rawat U. The genus Stephania (Menispermaceae): chemical and pharmacological perspectives. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010;132:369–83. Shah S, Lamichhane D, Panthi R, Nepali KB. Traditional knowledge of Tamang community on utilization of plant resources in Dhading District, Central Nepal. J Plant Res. 2018;16:134–40. Sharma U, Sahu RK, Roy A, Golwala DK. In vivo antidiabetic and antioxidant potential of Stephania hernandifolia in streptozotocin-induced-diabetic rats. J Young Pharm. 2010;2:255–60. Sharma R, Chandan G, Chahal A, Saini RV. Antioxidant and anticancer activity of methanolic extract from Stephania elegans. Int J Pharm Pharm Sci. 2017;9(2):245–9. Shrestha KK, Bhattarai S, Bhandari P. Handbook of flowering plants of Nepal (Vol. 1, gymnosperm and angiosperms: Cycadaceae to Betulaceae). Jodhpur: Scientific publishers; 2018, 648 p Singh RS, Kumar P, Bhakuni DS. The alkaloids of Stephania elegans. J Nat Prod. 1981;44:664–7. Singh RS, Kumar P, Bhakuni DS. The alkaloids of Stephania elegans. J Nat Prod. 2004;44(6) https://doi.org/10.1021/np50018a006. Singh L, Najmi AK, Sara U, Singh V, Majhi S. In vitro antioxidant activity of ethanolic extract of Stephania glabra (Roxb) Mier tubers. Pharma Res. 2014;12:1–11. Singh A, Nautiyal MC, Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal plants used by local inhabitants of Jakholi block, Rudraprayag district, Western Himalaya, India. J Etnobiol Ethnomed. 2017:1349. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0178-3. Teklehaymanot T, Giday M. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by people in Zegie peninsula, northwestern Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3:12. https://doi.org/10.1186/ 1746-4269-3-12. Teklehaymanot T, Giday M, Medhin G, Mekonnen Y. Knowledge and use of medicinal plants by peoplearound Debre Libanos monastery in Ethiopia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;111:271–83. Verma AK, Mishra M, Singh H, Bharati KA. Database on chromosome count of some Indian plants. Chromosome Bot. 2018;13:37–60. https://doi.org/10.3199/iscb.13.37. WPCS. The International Plant Names Index and World Checklist of Selected Plant Families 2020. Published on the Internet at http://www.ipni.org and http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/. Assessed 17.06.2020. Wu JN. An illustrated chines Materia Medica. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2005. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994-2013. Yineger H, Kelbessa E, Bekele T, Lulekal E. Plants used in traditional management of human ailments at Bale Mountains National Park, southeastern Ethiopia. J Med Plants Res. 2008;26:132–53.

Sterculia villosa Roxb. MALVACEAE Ripu M. Kunwar and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Sterculia villosa Roxb.: Sterculia armata Mast.; Sterculia latasangensis H.H. Hu; Sterculia ornata Wall. ex Kurz

Local Names Sterculia villosa: Reang: Phatchhi; Benghali: Udal

Botany and Ecology Sterculia villosa: Trees; bark gray-white. Branchlets robust, with leaf scars, brown stellate pubescent when young. Leaves simple; stipules lanceolate, ca. 1 cm; petiole robust, ca. 16 cm, pilose; leaf blade palmately 3–7-lobed, 17–22 cm, abaxially densely yellow-brown stellate tomentose, adaxially sparsely pubescent, base broadly cordate, central lobe broadly ovate, ca. 8  8 cm at base, apex caudate. Inflorescence subterminal on branchlets, paniculate, densely ferruginous stellate tomentose. Calyx R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_236

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yellow, campanulate, ca. 1 cm, tube ca. 4 mm, abaxially pubescent, adaxially glabrous, lobes lanceolate, apex acuminate, ca. 6 mm, spreading outward. Male flowers: androgynophore curved, glabrous. Stamens 10. Female flowers: ovary globose. Style curved downward, hairy. Follicles narrowly ellipsoid, 3–5 cm, both surfaces densely ferruginous villous, apex shortly beaked. Seeds black, oblong. Flowering February, fruiting April–October (Wu et al. 1994–2013).

Local Medicinal Uses Sterculia villosa: Used to treaty diarrhea and seminal weakness (Raj et al. 2018). The root is soaked in water whole night and taken on empty stomach for urinary disorders and kidney stones. The fresh leaves are soaked in a full glass of water overnight and taken on empty stomach for women suffering from menstruation pain (Das et al. 2015; Debbarma et al. 2017). Applied externally as paste to infected wounds and furuncles (Singh et al. 2002). Also applied to skin problems (Kunwar et al. 2010).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Sterculia villosa: In ethnoveterinary medicine used in Northern India (Reang et al. 2016).

References Das T, Kumar, Das A. Conservation of plant diversity in rural Homegardens with cultural and geographical variation in three districts of Barak Valley, Northeast India. Econ Bot. 2015;69 (1):57–71. Debbarma M, Pala NA, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in tribes of Tripura, Northeast India. Afr J Tradit Complement Altern Med. 2017;144:156–68. Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Bussmann RW. Traditional herbal medicine in Far-West Nepal: a pharmacological appraisal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:35. Raj AJ, Biswakarma B, Pala NA, Shukla G, Vineeta V, Kumar M, Chakravarty S, Bussmann RW. Indigenous uses of ethno-medicinal plants among forest dependent communities of Northern Bengal, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;141:8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002018-0208-9. Reang I, Goswami S, Pala NA, Kumar K, Bussmann RW. Ethnoveterinary applications of medicinal plants by traditional herbal healers in Reang tribe of South district Tripura, India. Med Aromat Plants. 2016;5:1–4. Singh AK, Raghubanshi AS, Singh JA. Medical ethnobotany of the tribals of Sonaghati of Sonbhadra district, Uttar Pradesh, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2002;81:31–41. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013.

Swertia angustifolia Burkill Swertia chirayita Buch.-Ham. ex C.B. Clarke Swertia cordata (G. Don) Clarke Swertia petiolata D. Don GENTIANACEAE Hammad Ahmad Jan, Wahid Hussain, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Synonyms Swertia angustifolia Burkill: Swertia angustifolia var. angustifolia; Swertia angustifolia var. hamiltoniana Burkill Swertia cordata (G. Don) Clarke: Ophelia cordata var. laxa Grieseb.; Opheliua cordata Wall. ex G. Don Swertia petiolata D. Don: Swertia obtusipetala Grüning; Swertia subspeciosa Burkill

Local Names Swertia angustifolia: Nepali: Bhale chiraito, (Rokaya et al. 2010), Chiraito, Tite, Goru tite (IUCN 2004; Rokaya et al. 2010); Newari: Khalu (IUCN 2004); Sanskrit: Kirattikta, Kirat (IUCN 2004); Sherpa: Tiktaa (Press et al. 2000; IUCN 2004); Rai: H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan W. Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_237

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Khupil (Press et al. 2000; IUCN 2004); English: Chiretta (IUCN 2004); Tamang: Kampman, Timda (Shrestha et al. 2014); Chinese: Xiaoqingyedan (Lee et al. 2008) xia ye zhang ya cai (Kshirsagar et al. 2019) Swertia chirayita: Sikkim: Chiraito; Jammu: Chireta Swertia marginata: Baltistan: Bangra Swertia petiolata: Jammu: Chirayetta; Ladakh: Tikta, Tikya; Kashmiri: Brama ‫ﺑﺮﺍﻣﺎ‬

Botany and Ecology Swertia angustifolia: Annuals 20–80 cm tall. Roots yellow, fibrous. Stems erect, subquadrangular, narrowly winged on angles, branched. Leaves sessile, lanceolate to elliptic-lanceolate, 2–6 cm
3–12 mm, both ends attenuate, veins 1–3. Inflorescences panicles of cymes, spreading branched, many flowered. Flowers 4merous. Pedicel erect, 3–7 mm. Calyx tube 1–2 mm; lobes linear-lanceolate, 6–8 mm, apex acute, midvein 1–3. Corolla white or pale yellow, with brown spots, 8–9 mm in diam., tube 1–2 mm; lobes 4–6.5 mm, apex obtuse and apiculate. Nectaries 1 per corolla lobe, pocket-shaped, with an orbicular scale and many minutely hairy short fimbriae at apex of pocket. Filaments 3.5–4 mm; anthers ellipsoid, ca. 1 mm. Style short, distinct; stigma lobes capitate. Capsules ovoid, 5–7 mm. Seeds brown, ellipsoid, ca. 0.6 mm. Flowering and fruiting August–November (Ghimire et al. 2008; Rijal 2010; Wu et al. 1994–2013). Swertia chirayita: Description: Annual or biennial herbs, 60–125 cm high. Stem robust, branching, cylindrical below, 4-angled upwards and contain a large pith. Leaves opposite decussate, broadly ovate or lanceolate, 3.5–10
1.5–4 cm, glabrous, obtuse or cordate at base, acuminate at apex, margins entire, usually with 3–7 prominent lateral veins. Inflorescences of large leafy panicles of solitary-axillary or axillary and terminal clusters of 3–5 flowers. Flowers yellowish-green outside, purple inside, tetramerous, drooping or erect, 5–8 mm across. Fruit a capsule, ovoid or ellipsoid. Seeds numerous, minute, globose, brownish; testa close, alveolate. Flowering and fruiting July–August / September–October. Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, and Sikkim between altitudinal ranges of 1400–3270 m, China, Nepal, and Bhutan occurs sporadically in subtropical and temperate forests, in open forest margins, cool and moist places, or in shady moist slopes among tall grasses. Endangered. The major threats to the wild population of this plant species are loss of habitat and harvesting of the plant for medicinal uses (Figs. 1, 2, and 3). Swertia cordata: Annuals 30–60 cm tall. Roots yellow, fibrous. Stems erect, subquadrangular, with wings on angles, branched. Basal leaves withered at anthesis. Stem leaves sessile, ovate to ovate-cordate, 0.8–2.3
0.5–1.2 cm, base cordate and subamplexicaul, margin scabrous, apex acute, veins 3–5. Inflorescences narrow, dense, many-flowered thyrses 13–40 cm. Flowers 5merous. Pedicel 3–10 mm, striate. Calyx tube 1–2 mm; lobes lanceolate to ovate-lanceolate, 5.5–7 mm, margin scabrous and usually slightly revolute, apex acute, veins 3. Corolla pale purple, with

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Fig. 1 Swertia iberica (Gentianaceae), Svaneti, Ushguli, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Swertia iberica (Gentianaceae), Svaneti, Ushguli, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

dark purple veins, 1–1.5 cm in diam., tube 1–2 mm; lobes narrowly elliptic to elliptic-lanceolate, 8–10 mm, apex acute. Nectaries 1 per corolla lobe, rhomboid to orbicular, reduced to a naked gland patch. Filaments ca. 5 mm; anthers ellipsoid, ca. 5 mm. Style short, distinct; stigma lobes capitate. Capsules ovoid-ellipsoid, 6–8 mm. Seed coat cristate. Flowering September–October (Wu et al. 1994–2013).

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Fig. 3 Swertia iberica (Gentianaceae), Svaneti, Ushguli, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Swertia petiolata: Perennial. Stem 15–50 cm. Basal leaves 7–15
1–3 cm, obovateoblong to ovate-spathulate, or elliptic-spathulate. Cauline leaves 5–10
1–2 cm, ovate-spathulate or obovate, obtuse or acute, opposite, connate. Calyx lobes 5– 7
1–2 mm, ovate to narrowly ovate, acute,  free. Corolla bluish white or lurid grey, tube 1–2 mm, lobes 8–12
1–3 mm, elliptic-oblong, obtuse or erose. Glands two per lobe, saccate fimbriate. Filaments 5–6 mm, squamellate at the base, anthers ovate-oblong. Ovary 6–7 mm. Capsule 8–10 mm. Flowering and fruiting July– November, 2500–5500 m (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020) (Figs. 4 and 5).

Phytochemistry Swertia species contain xanthonoids, terpenoids, flavonoids, alkaloid, irridoidiridoids, and seco-Irridoidiridoid glycosides (Goutam et al. 2004), including xanthone (2-C-β-D-glucopyranosyl-1,3,6,7- tetrahydroxyxanthone (mangiferin) (Kshirsagar et al. 2016; Prabhjot et al. 2019), terpenoids (oleanolic acid) (Kshirsagar et al. 2015), ursolic acid (Gupta et al. 2011; Kshirsagar et al. 2015), betulinic acid (Kshirsagar et al. 2015; Prabhjot et al. 2019)), terpenes (araxerol) (Kaur et al. 2019), secoiridoids (swertiamarin) (Zhu et al. 2012; Khanal et al. 2015; Prabhjot et al. 2019), gentiolactone (Suhr et al. 1978), gentiogenal (Van der Nat et al. 1982),

Swertia angustifolia Burkill . . . Fig. 4 Swertia petiolata (Gentianaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 5 Swertia petiolata (Gentianaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

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(R)-gentianol (Nie and He 1982; Wang et al. 2008), 4-carboxy-boonein (Guiso et al. 2007), amarogentin (Prabhjot et al. 2019), angustioside, sweroside, epi-eustomoside (Kshirsagar et al. 2019), angustiamarin (Luo and Nie 1992), and coumarins (erythrocentaurin) (He et al. 2015).

Local Medicinal Uses Swertia angustifolia is often used as adulterant of Swertia chirayita (Cunningham et al. 2018). The species is nevertheless an ingredient in Ayurbvedic and Amchi medicine (Manandhar 2002; Ghimire et al. 2008; Joshi and Joshi 2008), and applied fever (Lama et al. 2001; Prasai 2007; Shrestha et al. 2014), to remedy gallbladder problems fever, colds, cough (Lama et al. 2001; Ghimire et al. 2008), for respiratory tract problems, asthma, flu (Manandhar 2002; Joshi 2008; Rokaya et al. 2010), and as panacea (Joshi 2008; Pradhan and Badola 2015). Sometimes employed to remedy malaria (Kirtikar and Basu 1918), and for mental disorders (Bhattacharya et al. 1976) as well as epilepsy (Chopra et al. 1956; Ghosal et al. 1978). The species serves also as blood purifier (Garg 1987), bitter tonic (Chopra et al. 1956), antioxidant (Kshirsagar et al. 2014; Schimmer and Mauthner 1996), and to treat diabetes (Samad et al. 2009). Swertia angustifolia serves to treat blood diseases and fever (Devoka et al. 2017; Kunwar et al. 2008, 2011, 2013), as well as asthma (Kunwar et al. 2012, 2015). Swertia chirayita is used in the Himalayas for malaria and as blood purifier (Bhat et al. 2013), as well as anthelminthic, stomatic, laxative, for jaundice and skin ailments and as hypoglycemic (Kunwar et al. 2009). Used to treat fever, colds, cough, inflammation, and dysepsia (Gairola et al. 2014; Tamang et al. 2017). Swertia ciliata serves to lower fever (Bhat et al. 2013). Swertia cordata: is used as antipyretic, for cough, joint pain, leukoderma, and stomachache (Gairola et al. 2014). Swertia petiolata: Root paste is used for ophthalmia and leaves decoction for scleritis, stomach inflammation, and liver tonic (Bano et al. 2014). The root of plant is bitter and household tonic for cooling, anthelmintic, antipyretic, antiperiodic, and laxative. The decoction of plant cures leukoderma, inflammations, pain in the body, urinary discharges, ulcers, asthma. The powder of plant is effective remedy for bronchitis, leucorrhea, piles, bad taste in the mouth, vomiting in pregnancy (Ch et al. 2013). Root extract is used for eye pain (Gorsi and Miraj 2002). Plant is used for diabetes, typhoid, anticancer, pneumonia, and malaria (Sabeen and Ahmad 2009). Plant is used for stomach pain and liver disorders (Ahmad et al. 2017). Plant is used for wounds (Khuroo et al. 2007). Powder of plant is used for irregularity or infrequency of passing feces as well as stomach burn (Naseer et al. 2017). Used as anthelminthic, for cough, as antipyretic, for asthma, bronchitis, inflammation, as cooling agent, laxative, to treat poles, leukoderma, ulcers, and urinary discharge (Gairola et al. 2014). Swertia marginata: Used as stomatic, to treat cancer, fever, as diuretic (Wali et al. 2019).

Swertia angustifolia Burkill . . .

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Swertia multicaulis: To remedy fever, cold, cough, bodyache, internal injuries, cuts, and wounds (Tamang et al. 2017). Swertia hookeri: Used in Sikkim to treat jaundice (Tamang et al. 2017). Swertia thomsonii is used to remedy malaria (Majid et al. 2019), abdominal pain, fever, headache, stomach-ache, and stomach disorders (Gairola et al. 2014).

Local Food Uses Swertia iberica: The leaves are sometimes used in chave (Bussmann et al. 2020).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Swertia angustifolia is widely traded and regarded as endangered (Bhattarai et al. 2001; Phoboo and Jha 2010; Khanal et al. 2014; (IUCN 2004; Shrestha and Shrestha 2012), despite its significant share in medicinal plant trade (Joshi and Joshi 2008), and often used as adulterant of Swertia chirayita (Garg 1987; Phoboo and Jha 2010). Nepal 45% of the global trade volume (Barakoti 2004; Joshi and Dhawan 2005; Joshi 2008). Swertia species have very high commercial value (Kala et al. 2004; Kunwar et al. 2019, 2020; O’Neill et al. 2017; Olsen 2005). Swertia iberica: In the Northern Caucasus (Ossetia) the root extract is used as anthelminthic and for wound infections by fly larvae in cattle. Very bitter, used in liquors (Bussmann et al. 2020). Swertia marginata: Smoked like tobacco and used as forage (Wali et al. 2019).

References Ahmad KS, Hamid A, Nawaz F, Hameed M, Ahmad F, Deng J, Mahroof S. Ethnopharmacological studies of indigenous plants in Kel Village, Neelum Valley, Azad Kashmir, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13(1):68. Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan and Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995–2020. Bano A, Ahmad M, Hadda TB, Saboor A, Sultana S, Zafar M, Ashraf MA. Quantitative ethnomedicinal study of plants used in the skardu valley at high altitude of KarakoramHimalayan range, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2014;10(1):43. Barakoti T. Attempts made for domestication conservation and sustainable development of Chiretta (Swertia chirayita). A compilation report. Pakhribas, Dhankuta: NARC, ARS; 2004. Bhat JA, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1):1. Bhattacharya SK, Reddy P, Ghosal S, Singh AK, Sharma PV. Chemical constituents of gentianaceae XIX: CNS-depressant effects of swertiamarin. J Pharm Sci. 1976;65:1547–9. Bhattarai NK, Tandon V, Ved DK. Highlight and outcomes of the conservation assessment and management planning (CAMP) workshop, Pokhara Nepal. In: Bhattarai N, Karki M, editors. Proceedings of the Regional Workshop Held as Pokhara, Nepal (21–23 January) 2001 on

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sharing local and national experience in conservation of medicinal and aromatic plants in South Asia. New Delhi: IDRC South Asia Regional Office; 2001. p. 46–53. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D. Swertia iberica Fisch. & C.A. Mey. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions far Eastern Europe. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77088-8_ 131-2. Ch MI, Ahmed F, Maqbool M, Hussain T. Ethnomedicinal inventory of flora of Maradori valley, district forward Khahuta, Azad Kashmir, Pakistan. Am J Res Commun. 2013;1(6):239–61. Chopra RN, Nayar SL, Chopra IC, Asolkar L, Kakkar K. Glossary of Indian medicinal plants. New Delhi: Council of Scientific and Industrial Research; 1956. Cunningham AB, Brinckmann JA, Schippmann U, Pyakurel D. Production from both wild harvest and cultivation: the cross-border Swertia chirayita (Gentianaceae) trade. J Ethnopharmacol. 2018;225:42–52. Devoka S, Chaudhary RP, Werth S, Scheidegger C. Trade and legislation: consequences for the conservation of lichens in the Nepal Himalaya. Biodivers Conserv. 2017;26:2491–505. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh BY. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Garg S. Gentianaceae of the North West Himalaya, a revision. New Delhi: Today & Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers; 1987. Ghimire SK, Sapkota IB, Oli BR, Parajuli RR. Non-timber Forest products of Nepal Himalaya: database of some Imporant species found in the mountain protected areas and surrounding region. Baluataar, Kathmandu: WWF Nepal; 2008. Ghosal S, Sharma PV, Jaiswal DK. Chemical constituents of Gentianaceae XXIII: Tetraoxygenated and Pentaoxygenated Xanthones and Xanthone 0-Glucosides of Swertia angustifoh Buch.-Ham. S. J Pharm Sci. 1978;67:55–60. Gorsi MS, Miraj S. Ethnomedicinal survey of plants of Khanabad village and its allied areas, district Gilgit. Asian J Plant Sci. 2002;1(5):604–15. Goutam B, Mondal S, Gangopadhyay A, Gorai D, Mukhopadhyay B, Saha S, et al. Swertia (gentianaceae): chemical and pharmacological aspects. Chem Biodivers. 2004;1:1627–51. Guiso M, Tassone G, Nicoletti M, Serafini M, Bianco A. Chemotaxonomy of iridoids in Linaria vulgaris. Nat Prod Res. 2007;21:1212–6. Gupta M, Bisht D, Khatoon S, Srivastava S, Rawat AKS. Determination of ursolic acid a biomarker in different Swertia species through high performance thin layer chromatography. Chin Med. 2011;02:121–4. He K, Cao TW, Wang HL, Geng CA, Zhang XM, Chen JJ. Chemical constituents of Swertia patens. Zhongguo Zhong yao za zhi¼ Zhongguo zhongyao zazhi¼ China J Chin Mater Med. 2015;40:4012. IUCN. National Register of medicinal and aromatic plants (revised and updated). Kathmandu: IUCN; 2004. Joshi K. Swertia L. (Gentianaceae) in Nepal: ethnobotany and agenda for sustainable management. Ethnobot Leafl. 2008;12:1–6. Joshi P, Dhawan V. Swertia chirayita – an overview. Curr Sci. 2005;89:635–40. Joshi K, Joshi A. Swertia L. (Gentianaceae ) in Nepal Himalaya: checklist, phytogeography, ethnobotany and conservation status. Ethnobot Leafl. 2008;12:361–72. Kala CP, Farooquee NA, Dhar U. Prioritization of medicinal plants on the basis of available knowledge, existing practices and use value status in Uttaranchal, India. Biodivers Conserv. 2004;13:453–69. Kaur P, Gupta RC, Dey A, Kumar Pandey D. Simultaneous quantification of oleanolic acid, ursolic acid, betulinic acid and lupeol in different populations of five Swertia species by using HPTLCdensitometry: comparison of different extraction methods and solvent selection. Ind Crop Prod. 2019;130:537–46. Khanal S, Shakya N, Nepal N, Pant D. Swertia chirayita: the Himalayan herb. Int J Appl Sci Biotechnol. 2014;2:389–92.

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Khanal S, Shakya N, Thapa K, Pant DR. Phytochemical investigation of crude methanol extracts of different species of Swertia from Nepal. BMC Res Notes. 2015;8:1–9. Khuroo AA, Malik AH, Dar AR, Dar GH, Khan ZS. Ethnoveterinary medicinal uses of some plant species by the Gujjar tribe of the Kashmir Himalaya. Asian J Plant Sci. 2007;6(1):148–52. Kirtikar KR, Basu BD. Indian medicinal plants. Allahabad: Indian Press; 1918. Kshirsagar P, More T, Arvindekar A, Gaikwad N. Antioxidant, antihyperglycemic and antiglycation properties of some Swertia species from Western Ghats. Int J Pharm Pharm Sci. 2014;6:303–6. Kshirsagar PR, Pai SR, Nimbalkar MS, Gaikwad NB. Quantitative determination of three pentacyclic triterpenes from five Swertia L. species endemic to Western Ghats, India, using RP-HPLC analysis. Nat Prod Res. 2015;29:1783–8. Kshirsagar PR, Gaikwad NB, Panda S, Hegde HV, Pai SR. Reverse phase-ultra flow liquid chromatography-diode array detector quantification of anticancerous and antidiabetic drug mangiferin from 11 species of Swertia from India. Pharmacogn Mag. 2016;12:S32–6. Kshirsagar PR, Jagtap UB, Gaikwad NB, Bapat VA. Ethanopharmacology, phytochemistry and pharmacology of medicinally potent genus Swertia: an update. S Afr J Bot. 2019;124:444–83. Kumar M, Bussmann RW, Mukesh J, Kumar P. Ethnomedicinal uses of plants close to rural habitation in Garhwal Himalayan, India. J Med Plant Res. 2011;511:2252–60. Kunwar RM, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Diversity, utilization and management of medicinal plants in Baitadi and Darchula districts, farwest Nepal. Initiation. 2008;21:157–64. Kunwar RM, Upreti Y, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Indigenous use and ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in Far-West Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009;7:5–28. Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Sharma LN, Shrestha KP, Kominee H. Underutilized plant species in Far-West Nepal – a valuable resource being wasted. J Mt Sci. 2012;9:589–600. Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Acharya RP, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants, traditional medicine, markets and management in Far-West Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:24. Kunwar RM, Acharya RP, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plant dynamics in indigenous medicines in Farwest Nepal. J Ethnopharnacol. 2015;163:210–9. Kunwar RM, Shrestha K, Malla S, Acharya T, Sementelli A, Kutal D. Relation of medicinal plants, their use patterns and availability in the lower Kailash Sacred Landscape, Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18(7):1–14. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.6.1-14. Kunwar RM, Fadiman M, Thapa S, Acharya RP, Cameron M, Bussmann RW. Plant use values and phytosociological indicators: implications for conservation in the Kailash Sacred Landscape, Nepal. Ecol Indic. 2020;108:105679. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2019.105679. Lama YC, Ghimire SK, Aumeeruddy-Thomas Y. Medicinal plants of Dolpo: Amchi’s knowledge and conservation. Kathmandu: WWF Nepal Program; 2001. Lee S, Xiao C, Pei S. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants at periodic markets of Honghe prefecture in Yunnan Province, SW China. J Ethnopharmacol. 2008;117:362–77. Luo LH, Nie RL. Iridoid glycosides from Swertia angustifolia. Yaoxue Xuebao. 1992;27:125–9. Majid A, Ahmad H, Saqib Z, Ur Rahman I, Khan U, Alam J, Hussain Shah A, Ahmad Jan S, Ali N. Exploring threatened traditional knowledge; ethnomedicinal studies of rare endemic flora from lesser Himalayan region of Pakistan. Rev Bras. 2019;29(6):785. Manandhar N. Plants and people of Nepal. Portland: Timber Press; 2002. Naseer A, Masoodi TH, Geelani SM, Wani AA, Ahmad PI. Ethno-medicinal utilization of medicinal plants under betula utilis forests in North and Central Kashmir Himalayas. Int J Usuf Mngt. 2017;18(1):14–24. Nie RL, He RY. The erythrocentaurin and swermirin from Swertia mileensis. Acta Bot Yunn. 1982;6:325–8. O’Neill AR, Badola HK, Dhyani PP, Rana SK. Integrating ethnobiological knowledge into biodiversity conservation in the eastern Himalayas. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13:21. https://doi. org/10.1186/s13002-017-0148-9. Olsen CS. Valuation of commercial central Himalayan medicinal plants. Ambio. 2005;34(8):607–10. Phoboo S, Jha PK. Trade and sustainable conservation of Swertia chirayita (Roxb. ex Fleming) h. Karst in Nepal. Nepal J Sci Technol. 2010;11:125–32.

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Prabhjot K, Devendra P, Gupta RC, Dey A. Simultaneous microwave assisted extraction and HPTLC quantification of mangiferin, amarogentin, and swertiamarin in Swertia species from Western Himalayas. Ind Crop Prod. 2019;132:449–59. Pradhan BK, Badola HK. Local knowledge on the use of Swertia chirayita as traditional medicine: conservation challenges in Sikkim Himalaya, India. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2015;14:345–55. Prasai D. Ethnomedicinal knowledge of Tamang communities in Rasuwa District, Nepal. Kathmandu: Trribhuvan University; 2007. Press JR, Shrestha KK, Sutton DA. Annotated checklist of the flowering plants of Nepal. London: Natural History Museum Publications; 2000. Rijal DP. Taxonomic study of some medicinally important species of Swertia L. (Gentianaceae) in Nepal. Bot Orient J Plant Sci. 2010;6:18–24. Rokaya MB, Münzbergová Z, Timsina B. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants from the Humla district of western Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010;130:485–504. Sabeen M, Ahmad SS. Exploring the folk medicinal flora of Abbotabad city, Pakistan. Ethnobot Leafl. 2009;2009(7):1. Samad A, Shams M, Ullah Z, Wais M, Nazish I, Sultana Y, et al. Status of herbal medicines in the treatment of diabetes: a review. Curr Diabetes Rev. 2009;5:102–11. Schimmer O, Mauthner H. Polymethoxylated xanthones from the herb of Centaurium erythraea with strong antimutagenic properties in Salmonella typhimurium. Planta Med. 1996;62:561–4. Shrestha N, Shrestha KK. Vulnerability assessment of high-valued medicinal plants in langtang national park, Central Nepal. Biodiversity. 2012;13:24–36. Shrestha N, Prasai D, Shrestha KK, Shrestha S, Zhang XC. Ethnomedicinal practices in the highlands of Central Nepal: a case study of Syaphru and Langtang village in Rasuwa district. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:1204–13. Suhr J, Arends P, Jensen B. Gentiolactone, a secoiridoid dilactone from Gentiana purpurea. Phytochemistry. 1978;17:135–8. Tamang M, Pal K, Kumar Rai S, Kalam A, Rehan AS. Ethnobotanical survey of threatened medicinal plants of West Sikkim. Int J Bot Stud. 2017;2(6):116–25. Van der Nat J, Van der Sluis WG, Labadie RP. Gentiogenal, a new antimicrobial iridoid derived from gentiopicrin (gentiopicroside). Planta Med. 1982;45:161–2. Wali R, Rahman K, Raja NI, Qureshi R, Bussmann RW, Mashwani ZUR. A quantitative medico botanical expedition of Fairy Meadows National Park, Diamir, Gilgit Baltistan, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18:35. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.35.1-30. Wang Z, Tang S, Ma C, Toyooka N, Kida H, KAWASAKI M, et al. Determination of novel nitrogen-containing metabolites after oral administration of swertiamarin to rats. J Tradit Med. 2008;25:29–34. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Zhu BK, Zhe W, Duan YQ, Wang MF, Gao Y, Wei GZ, et al. Two new xanthones from Swertia angustifolia. J Asian Nat Prod Res. 2012;14:154–8.

Syringa emodi Wall ex G. Don. OLEACEAE Ripu M. Kunwar, Wahid Hussain, and Rainer W. Bussmann

Local Names Syringa emodi: Urdu: Shafoori, Ghiya

Botany and Ecology Syringa emodi: Shrub up to 5 m high. Bark of branchlets silver-grey, lenticellate. Leaves up to 9 cm long and 5 cm broad, entire, elliptic-oblong, shortly acuminate, base acute, coriaceous, dark green and glabrous above, whitish beneath, slightly pubescent when young; venation prominent, closed. Flowers scented, in dense thyrsoid panicles usually arising from a terminal bud, with basal leaves. Corolla white or purple, tube 1 cm long, lobes shorter, valvate, linear-oblong, hooded at the tips. Anthers about one-half exserted. Capsule 15 mm long, 4 mm broad, cylindrical, acute, slightly curved, opening into 2 halves. Flowering May–July, fruiting September–October. Western Himalaya, from Pakistan to Kumaon. Common in the hills up to the subalpine zone, 2000–3000 m, all over the northern parts of R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] W. Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_238

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Fig. 1 Syringa afghanica (Oleaceae), Pakistan. (Photo W. Hussain)

Pakistan. Sometimes cultivated in gardens for flowers, leaves, used as fodder for goats (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020) (Fig. 1).

Local Medicinal Uses Syringa emodi: Flowers and seeds are used to treat fever (Malik et al. 2015).

References Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan and Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995–2020. Malik ZA, Bhat J, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhat AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44.

Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels MYRTACEAE Abdul Sahim Ansari, Usha Thakuri, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels: Calyptranthes capitellata Buch.-Ham. ex Wall.; Calyptranthes caryophyllifolia (Lam.) Willd.; Calyptranthes cumini (L.) Pers.; Calyptranthes cuminodora Stokes; Calyptranthes jambolana (Lam.) Willd.; Calyptranthes jambolifera Stokes; Calyptranthes oneillii Lundell; Calyptranthes pedunculata Forsyth f.; Calyptranthes tenuis Buch.-Ham. Ex Wall.; Caryophyllus corticosus Stokes; Caryophyllus jambos Stokes; Eugenia brachiata Roxb.; Eugenia calyptrata Roxb. ex Wight & Arn.; Eugenia caryophyllifolia Lam.; Eugenia cumini (L.) Druce; E. djouat Perr.; E. fruticosa (DC.) Roxb.; Eugenia jambolana Lam.; A. S. Ansari Birgunj Metropolitan City Ward 4, Birta, Parsa, Nepal U. Thakuri Hetauda Sub Metropolitan City Ward-14, Mayurdhap, Makawanpur, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_239

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Eugenia jambolana var. caryophyllifolia (Lam.) Duthie; Eugenia jambolifera Roxb. ex Wight & Arn.; Eugenia obovata Poir.; Eugenia obtusifolia Roxb.; E. odorata Wight; E. tenuis Duthie; Eugenia tsoi Merr. & Chun; Jambolifera chinensis Spreng.; J. coromandelica Houtt; Jambolifera pedunculata Houtt.; Myrtus corticosa Spreng.; Myrtus cumini L.; Myrtus obovata (Poir.) Spreng.; Syzygium caryophyllifolium (Lam.) DC.; Syzygium cumini var. caryophyllifolium (Lam.) Khanna; Syzygium cumini var. obtusifolium (Roxb.) Khanna; Syzygium cumini var. tsoi (Merr. & Chun) HT Chang & RH Miao; S. fruticosum DC.; Syzygium jambolanum (Lam.) DC.; S. jambolanum var. axillare Gamble; Syzygium obovatum (Poir.) DC.; Syzygium obtusifolium (Roxb.) Kostel.; S. pseudojambolana Miq.; S. tenue (Duthei) N.P. Balakar.

Local Names Syzygium cumini: Nepal: Jamun, Jamu; Benghal: Jamura, Jam, Jamur, Jamun; Sanskrit: Brahspati, Jambhu, Jambul; Jammu and Kashmir: Tallay; English: Black berry; Java plum

Botany and Ecology Syzygium cumini: Trees or shrubs, 6–20 m tall or more. Weakly compressed twigs; smooth white bark. Leaves ovate, elliptical or oblong, the blades 8–17  3.5–7 cm, 1.5–3.3 times longer than broad, coriaceous, olive green or brownish yellow, concolor when dry, the upper part shiny; medium vein flattened or concave to sulcate in the bundle, convex on the underside; side ribs 40 per side; marginal ribs similar to lateral ribs, straight, a c. 1 mm from the margins; small glands, frequently dotted, numerous on both surfaces or more numerous on the underside; cuneate, obtuse or rounded base, the tip obtusely sharp; petioles 15–30 mm, concave to adaxially impressed. Inflorescences terminal, axillary or in the nodes without leaves, solitary, cimosas or paniculate, 1–3 times compound; axis 15–60 mm, lateral branches 15–20 mm; shaft and branches compressed, glandular; flowers 15–100, arranged tenderly at the tips of the branches; bracts 1–1.5 mm, deciduous long before anthesis, triangular, apex acuminate; buttons 4–5 mm, claviform. Sessile flowers; bracts similar to bracts, deciduous long before anthesis; Hypanthus 3–5 mm, 2–3 mm diameter at the mouth of the tube, crateriform, the base abruptly contracted to form a pseudopedicle c. 1 mm; calyx wolves c. 0.5  0.5 mm, deciduous on anthesis or shortly after, scarious margins; petals fused, forming a calyptra that falls as a unit in the anthesis, white; stamens 50–100, 3–5 mm, white; style 6–7 mm. Fruits 15–20  7–10 mm, ellipsoidal; fleshy pericarp; calyx tube reduced to a persistent apical ring 1–2 mm in diameter; black-purple color at maturity. Cultivated, occasionally escaped (Wu et al. 2012, 1994–2013). This evergreen tree has a total life span of 60 years (Reddy 2015), and it is fully grown in nearly 40 years (Nair 2017). Total height attains of mature tree vary from 15 m to 40 m with the trunk girth of 0.5 m to 2.5 m diameter. Dense foliage covers

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the whole throughout the year. Bark is rough, cracked, flaking, and discolored on the lower portion of the stem, whereas on upper portion, it is light gray or grayish brown, and smooth. Wood is hard, durable, and whitish. This evergreen species retains a full foliage during summer (April to August). Sessional defoliation starts from December to January, and the lowest amount of foliage is observed in the month of January to February (Reddy 2015). However, trees never become completely leafless. In Sri Lanka, the blooming begins from May to August, and the fruits ripen during November to December (Morton 1987). Syzygium cumini is principally found in a wide range of climatic zones of tropical and subtropical environment conditions all around the globe. Distribution of Syzygium cumini is from a sea level to hills (1200 m) and can grow in a variety of soils and geological formation such as alluvial, lateritic, sandy alluvia, marl and oolitic limestones. It is native to Nepal, Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Indonesia, which is in the wild and cultivation (Nair 2017) (Figs. 1 and 2).

Phytochemistry Stem bark: betulinic acid, friedelin, epi-friedelanol, β-sitosterol, eugenin, and fatty acid ester of epi-friedelanol, β-sitosterol, quercetin, kaempferol, myricetin, gallic acid, ellagic acid, bergenins, flavonoids, and tannins (Sengupta and Das 1965; Bhargava et al. 1974; Bhatia and Bajaj 1975). Flowers: kaempferol, quercetin, myricetin, isoquercetin (quercetin-3-glucoside), myricetin-3-L-arabinoside, quercetin-3-D-galactoside, dihydromyricetin, oleanolic acid, acetyl oleanolic acid, eugenol-triterpenoid A, and eugenol-triterpenoid B (Nair and Subramanian 1974). Roots: Flavonoid glycosides and isorhamnetin 3-O-rutinoside. Fruits: vitamin A, vitamin C, raffinose, glucose, fructose, citric acid, malic acid, gallic acid, anthocyanins, delphinidin-3gentiobioside, malvidin-3-laminaribioside, petunidin-3, cyanidin diglucoside, petunidin, and malvidin (Sharma and Seshadri 1955; Anonymous 2002; Teixeira et al. 2006). Seed: gallic acid, glycoside jamboline, jambosine, triterpenoid B, pentacyclic triterpenoid (friedelin), tannins, ellagic acid, β-sitoterol, gallitanins, terpenes (1-limonene, dipentene), corilagin, 3,6-hexahydroxydiphenoylglucose, 4,6-hexahydroxydiphenoylglucose, 1-galloylglucose, 3-galloylglucose, quercetin, and elements such as zinc, chromium, vanadium, potassium, and sodium (Chopra et al. 1956; Gupta and Agrawal 1970; Bhatia and Bajaj 1975; Anonymous 2002). Sagrawat et al. (2006) suggested that extract seed holds various pharmacological properties, which include antibacterial, antifungal, hepatoprotective, and cardioprotective. Seeds have been used to cure various diseases.

Local Medicinal Uses Syzygium cumini: A decoction of dry leaves and seeds is hypoglycemic (Grover et al. 2000, Prince et al. 1998). A plant extract is antibacterial (Shafi et al. 2002). An ethanolic extract is anti-inflammatory (Muruganandan et al. 2001). Whole parts of

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Fig. 1 Syzygium cumini (Myrtaceae), plant, Bara, Nepal. (Photo Abrar Ansari)

S. cumini are utilized for medicinal and edible purposes. This evergreen, fastgrowing tree is famous for various medicinal purposes, wood, firewood, pharmaceuticals, ornamental, and so on. In Ayurveda, the plant has astringent, carminative, diarrheic, dysenteric, and stomachic properties (Dash and Gupta 1994; Dey 1998; Joshi 2006). Juice is useful in jaundice and liver diseases (Menon 1993), diabetes, hyperglycemia, blood purification, malaria, and bacterial infection (Chauhan 2019). Bark: to treat women suffering from leucorrhea and urine bleeding (Kapur et al. 1968). Herb: For strengthening the teeth and gum and improves sexual weakness, sore throat, and mouth ulcer (Chauhan 2019). Leaves: the leaves are used to help in strengthening the teeth and gums (Baral and Kurmi 2006), strengthen the teeth and gums, and treat various skin diseases (Nadkarni 1954). A seed powder and bark decoction are used in diarrhea, dysentery, diabetes, and inflammatory activity (Kunwar et al. 2009a, b) and to treat menstrual disorders, vaginal disorders, the

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Fig. 2 Syzygium cumini (Myrtaceae), fruits and flowers, Nepal. (Photo Ripu M Kunwar)

female productive system disorders, uterine bleeding, and piles (Kapur et al. 1968) (Menon 1993) and reduce sugar in urine (Singh and Rao 1983). Juice of the leaves and bark: to remedy dysentery, chronic diarrhea, and diabetes (Dastur 1962; Singh and Rao 1983). Flowers and leaves with other ingredients: treat throat cancer (Kapur et al. 1968). Flower powder to stop bleeding from wound (Raj et al. 2018; Variyar 2011). Used to treat diabetes (Pratap Singh et al. 2019; Ullah et al. 2019). Also for diarrhea, diabetes, inflammations; to strengthen the teeth and gums; as astringent, carminative, diuretic, anthelminthic, and stomatic (Kunwar et al. 2009a, b; Kunwar and Bussmann 2009); also for headache (Jain et al. 2005); and oral ulcers and piles (Gairola et al. 2014). Syzygium cordatum: In traditional medicine, a root decoction is drunk against amenorrhea. Ash of the burned wood is rubbed on the forehead against headache. Decoctions of the root bark and stem bark are taken for the treatment of malaria. Root and bark infusions are taken to treat cough, root, and bark decoctions to treat indigestion, abdominal pain, stomachache, and venereal diseases (Kokwaro 2009). The bark is used as an emetic and to treat diarrhea, stomach problems, headache, amenorrhea, wounds, and respiratory problems. A leaf extract is drunk against cough, and an infusion of the leaves against diarrhea and stomach complaints and as a purgative. Ground leaves, bark, and roots steeped in water are applied as a poultice as a galactagogue.

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Syzygium guineense: With ample application in African traditional medicine but can be dangerous, as the bark may be poisonous, and death after its use has been recorded. The root is soaked in water for drinking and bathing to treat epilepsy. A root infusion is drunk for the treatment of stomachache. Root extracts are taken as a purgative, anthelmintic, and taeniacide, also for stomachache. Bark decoctions are used against stomachache, diarrhea, and malaria; they are considered mildly laxative and are applied in draught or in baths as a tonic. An infusion is taken against coughs, asthma, throat problems, and intercostal pain. The powdered bark is used as an antispasmodic, purgative, and anthelmintic and used for the treatment of diarrhea, stomachache, broken bones, and wounds. The fruits are eaten for diarrhea (Kokwaro 2009). In Cameroon the bark is used for the treatment of snakebites. Twig bark preparations are applied against paralysis. A decoction of twigs and leaves is drunk or used as an enema for its purgative properties and against colic, diarrhea, and abdominal pain. It is also used as drink or bath against insanity, amenorrhea, and cerebral malaria. The crushed leaf is applied on wounds and boils. Leaf decoctions are taken against intestinal parasites and stomachache, used as an enema against diarrhea, and used as an embrocation to bathe and then massage into areas of sprain. Leaf decoctions or pulverized leaves are given as tonic to pregnant women. The leaf is chewed against stomachache. A liquid of chewed leaves mixed with water is used as eye drops to treat ophthalmia. The fruit is used for treating dysentery. The bark decoction is used for diarrhea (Bekalo et al. 2009). A leaf paste is applied to swellings, and the powder is ingested for diarrhea (Flatie et al. 2009) (Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8). Syzygium aromaticum is part of a mixture used in Indian medicine for tuberculosis, smallpox, measles, skin diseases, rheumatism, and cardiac problems and as antifungal (Mohagheghzadeh and Faridi 2006).

Fig. 3 Syzygium guineense (Myrtaceae), flowering specimen, Bale Mountains National Park, Demaro forest, Ethiopia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels Fig. 4 Syzygium guineense (Myrtaceae), bark cut, Bale Mountains National Park, Demaro forest, Ethiopia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

Fig. 5 Syzygium guineense (Myrtaceae), flowering branch, Bale Mountains National Park, Demaro forest, Ethiopia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

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Fig. 6 Syzygium guineense (Myrtaceae), flowers, Bale Mountains National Park, Demaro forest, Ethiopia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

Fig. 7 Syzygium guineense (Myrtaceae), flowers, Bale Mountains National Park, Demaro forest, Ethiopia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

Local Food Uses Syzygium cumini: Health drinks, wine, jellies, squashes, and preservatives are made through edible ripe fruit (Warrier and Nambiar 1996). The seasonal ripe fruit is a high source of iron, vitamin A, and vitamin C (Chauhan 2019). Fruits can be eaten (Dangol et al. 2017). Syzygium cordatum: The fruit is edible, but it has a rather bland taste. It is popular with children. The fruit is also made into jellies and alcoholic drinks (Beentje 1994). Sometimes an extract is used as fish poison (Neuwinger 2004) and to give strength (Bussmann 2006a, b).

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Fig. 8 Syzygium guineense (Myrtaceae), flowers, Bale Mountains National Park, Demaro forest, Ethiopia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

Syzygium guineense: The fruit is edible. It has been described as sweet and juicy but also as having a rather bland taste and not being appreciated. It is sought after especially by children, and in Ethiopia and Kenya, the fruit is sold on the markets (Bussmann et al. 2011). The fruit is made into a beverage and vinegar and added to spirits for flavoring. In Sudan a meal is made from roasted and ground fruits.

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Syzygium cumini: Timber is hard and durable and used to build house, furniture, and agriculture tools (Morton 1987; Subedi et al. 2014) and fuelwood (Subedi et al. 2014). Syzygium cumini has been recognized as a major species as handy crafting and wood carving for national and international market to increase livelihood of forestbased community. It has been also reported that its berries are exported to India from Nepal Terai for the use in pharmaceutical companies. A lot of traders and intermediaries are involved in its trade in the plains of Nepal. Syzygium cumini has been recognized as major NTFP in Terai belt of Nepal. It is observed that, specially, farmers from Bara, Sunsari, and Rutahat districts have planted this tree species on the banks of their farmlands. It is also seen that people in Nepal Terai have also raised this multipurpose tree in their kitchen gardens for domestic purposes and hence this species has been given conservation significance due to its multi-faced merits. Syzygium cordatum: The wood is used for mortars, utensils, construction, beams, rafters, poles, furniture, window frames, and beehives (Beentje 1994). Its durability in water makes it especially suitable for boat building, and in South Africa, the logs are traditionally used to make the jetties and slipways around the swamps in the Kosi Bay area. The wood is also suitable for flooring, interior trim, joinery, toys, novelties,

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turnery, railway sleepers, mine props, veneer, and plywood. It is popular as fuelwood and used for charcoal-making. Smoke from burning wood is used to season milk containers. The flowers provide nectar for honeybees. The pulverized bark is sprinkled on water as fish poison. Syzygium guineense: The wood is used for construction, flooring, paneling, furniture, utensils, tool handles, plates, stools, carvings, and poles (Beentje 1994). Its flexibility makes it suitable for bows and ribs of canoes. The bole is made into dugout canoes. In East Africa the wood has been used for railway sleepers. It is also suitable for vehicle bodies, interior trim, joinery, toys, novelties, boxes, crates, mine props, veneer, plywood, hardboard, and particle board. It is a good fuelwood and used for charcoal-making. The bark is used for tanning and dyeing. Bark extracts are sometimes used to harden lateritic floors or to glaze pottery. The leaves and fruits are used as fodder for livestock, and the flowers are a source of nectar for honeybees. The tree is used as a shade tree in coffee cultivation in Ethiopia. The crushed leaf is taken to treat insanity and possession. Used as firewood, for construction, and is an excellent honey (Bussmann et al. 2011). The root is tied around the neck against evil spirits (Giday et al. 2007). Sometimes an extract is used as fish poison (Neuwinger 2004).

References Anonymous. Wealth of India: a dictionary of Indian raw materials and industrial products. Raw materials 10. New Delhi: National Institute of Science Communication, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research; 2002. p. 100–7. Baral SR, Kurmi PP. A compendium of medicinal plants in Nepal. Kathmandu: Mrs Rachana Sharma Publication; 2006. Beentje H. Kenya trees and shrubs. Nairobi: National Museums of Kenya; 1994. Bekalo TH, Demissew Woodmata S, Asfaw Woldemariam Z. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by local people in the lowlands of Konta Special Woreda, southern nations, nationalities and peoples regional state, Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2009;5:26. https:// doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-5-26. Bhargava KK, Dayar R, Sheshardi TR. Chemical components of Eugenia jambolana stem barks. Curr Sci. 1974;43:645–6. Bhatia IS, Bajaj KL. Cumini., Chemical constituents of the seeds and bark of Syzygium. Planta Med. 1975;28:346–52. Bussmann RW. Islands in the desert – forest vegetation of Kenya’s smaller mountains and highland areas Nyiru, Ndoto, Kulal, Marsabit, Loroghi, Ndare, Mukogodo, Porror, Mathews, Gakoe, Imenti, Ngaia, Nyambeni, Loita, Nguruman, Nairobi. J East Afr Nat Hist. 2002a;91(1/2):27–79, appendices 1–7 @ www.naturekenya.org/JournalEANH.htm Bussmann RW. Succession and regeneration patterns in East African Mountain forests – a review. Syst Geogr Plants. 2002b;712:959–74. Bussmann RW. Vegetation zonation and nomenclature of African Mountains An overview. Lyonia. 2006a;111:41–66. Bussmann RW. Ethnobotany of the Samburu of Mt. Nyiru, South Turkana, Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006b;2:35. Bussmann RW, Swartzinsky P, Worede A, Evangelista P. Plant use in Odo-Bulu and Demaro, Bale region, Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2011;7:28. Chauhan M. Jamun, Java plum (Syzygium cumini) – properties, benefits, uses, dosage. (2019, April 24). Retrieved 5 July 2020, from https://www.planetayurveda.com/library/jamun-syzygium-cumini/

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Chopra RN, Nayar SI, Chopra C. Glossary of Indian medicinal plants. New Delhi. New Delhi: CSIR-Publication and Information Department; 1956. p. 238. Dangol DR, Maharjan KL, Maharjan SK, Acharya AK. Wild edible plants in Nepal. In: Joshi BK, Bahadur KCH, Acharya A, editors. Conservation and utilization of agricultural plant genetic resources of Nepal. Dhulikhel: NAGRC; 2017. p. 390–407. Dash VB, Gupta KK. Materia medica of ayurveda. New Dehli: B Jain Publishers; 1994. Dastur JF. Medicinal plants of India and Pakistan. Bombay: D. B. Taraporevala Sons & Co.; 1962. Dey AC. Indian medicinal plants used in ayurvedic preparation. Dehra Dun: Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh; 1998. Flatie T, Gedif T, Asres K, Gebre-Mariam T. Ethnomedical survey of Berta ethnic group Assosa Zone, Benishangul-Gumuz regional state, mid-west Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2009;5:14. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-5-14. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Giday M, Teklehaymanot T, Animut A, Mekonnen Y. Medicinal plants of the Shinasha, Agew-awi and Amhara peoples in northwest Ethiopia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;110:516–25. Grover JK, Vats V, Rathi SS. Anti-hyperglyce-mic effect of Eugenia jambolana and Tinospora cordifolia in experimental diabetes and their effects on key metabolic enzymes involved in carbohydrate metabolism. J Ethnopharmacol. 2000;73:461–70. Gupta DR, Agrawal SK. Chemical examination of the unsafonicable matter of the seed fat of Syzygium cumini. Sci Cult. 1970;36:298. Jain A, Katewa SS, Galav PK, Sharma P. Medicinal plant diversity of Sitamata wildlife sanctuary, Rajasthan, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102:143–57. Joshi SG. Medicinal plants. New Delhi: Oxford & IBH Publishing; 2006. Kapur SK, Nanon S, Sarin YK. Ethnobotanical uses of RRL Herbarium 1. J Ecol Taxon Bot Addl Ser. 1968;10:479–93. Kokwaro JO. Medicinal plants of East Africa. Nairobi: University of Nairobi Press; 2009. Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Medicinal, aromatic and dye plants of Baitadi and Darchula Districts, Nepal Himalaya: status, uses and management. In: Hartmann M, Weipert J, editors. Biodiversität, Naturausstattung im Himalaya, Bd. III. Erfurt: Universität Erfurt; 2009. p. 475–89. Kunwar RM, Upreti Y, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Indigenous use and ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in Far-west Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009a;7:5–28. Kunwar RM, Uprety Y, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Indigenous use and ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in Far-west Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009b;7:005–28. Menon KVM. Chikitsa Kauthukam. In: Textbook written in Malayalam through compilation of selected single, simple, large combinations prescribed for various diseases from the original text references from the classical books. Coimbatore: Loka Swasthya Parambara Samvardhan Samithi; 1993. p. 65–1010. Mohagheghzadeh A, Faridi P. Medicinal smokes. J Ethnopharmacol. 2006;108:161–84. Morton JF. Fruits of warm climates. Miami: Creative Resource Systems; 1987. Muruganandan S, Srinivasan K, Chandra S, Tandan SK, Lal J, Raviprakash V. Anti-inflammatory activity of Syzygium cumini bark. Fitoterapia. 2001;72:369–75. Nadkarni KM. Indian materia medica, vol. I. Bombay: Popular Book Depot; 1954. Nair KN. The genus Syzygium: Syzygium cumini and other underutilized species. 2017. https://doi. org/10.1201/9781315118772. Nair AGR, Subramanian SS. Chemical examination of the flowers of Eugenia jambolana. J Sci Indust Res. 1974;21B:457–8. Neuwinger HD. Plants used for poison fishing in tropical Africa. Toxicon. 2004;44:417–30. Prince PS, Menon VP, Pari L. Hypoglycemic activity of Syzygium cumini seeds: effect on lipid peroxidation in alloxan diabetic rats. J Ethnopharmacol. 1998;61:1–7. Raj AJ, Biswakarma B, Pala NA, Shukla G, Vineeta V, Kumar M, Chakravarty S, Bussmann RW. Indigenous uses of ethno-medicinal plants among forest dependent communities of Northern Bengal, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;141:8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002018-0208-9.

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Reddy J. Jamun Farming Information (Indian Black Plum)|Agri Farming. (2015). Retrieved July 21, 2020, from https://www.agrifarming.in/jamun-farming Sagrawat H, Maan AS, Kharya M. Pharmacological potential of Eugenia jambolana: a review. Pharmacog Mag. 2006;2:96–105. Sengupta P, Das PB. Terpenoids and related compounds. Part IV. Triterpenoids from the stem bark of Syzygium cumini. Ind Chem Soc. 1965;42:255–8. Shafi PM, Rosamma MK, Jamil K, Reddy PS. Antibacterial activity of Syzygium cumini and S. travan-corinum leaf essential oils. Fitoterapia. 2002;73:414–6. Sharma JN, Seshadri. Survey of anthocyanins from Indian sources: part II. J Sci Ind Res. 1955;14:211–4. Singh SK, Rao DN. Evaluation of the plants for their tolerance to air pollution. In: Proceedings of the symposium on air pollution control. Delhi: IIT; 1983. Singh AP, Kumar M, Nagar B, Pala NA, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal use of plant resources in Kirtinagar Block of Tehri Garhwal in Western Himalaya. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18:14. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.14.1-11. Subedi BP, Ghimire PL, Koontz A, Khanal SC, Katwal P, Sthapit KR, Mishra SK. Private sector involvement and investment in Nepal’s forestry: status, prospects and ways forward, March. 2014. Kathmandu: Multi Stakeholder Forestry Programme (MSFP). Teixeira CC, Fuchs FD, Weinert LS, Esteves J. The efficacy of folk medicines in the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus: results of a randomized controlled trial of Syzygium cumini (L). Skeels. J Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2006;31:1–5. Ullah M, Mehmood S, Ali M, Bussmann RW, Aldosari A, Ali Khan R, Ullah R, Hussain W, Rahman Shah MA. An ethnopharmacological study of plants used for treatment of diabetes in the Southern and Tribal regions of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18(8) https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.8.1-20. Variyar KR. Aarogyakalpadrumam. In: Textbook of pediatrics in Ayurveda based on original text written in Sanskrit by Vak Dasa-Malyalam translation (Syamla, B.). Thrisivaperoor: Sambrat Publications; 2011. Warrier P, Nambiar V. Indian medicinal plants. Hyderabad: Orient Longman; 1996. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D., editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D. Flora of China vol. 13. Missouri Botanical Garden. (2012). Retrieved from Flora of China @ eFloras.org.

Tamaricaria elegans (Royle) Qaiser & Ali TAMARICACEAE Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Ikram Ur Rahman

Synonyms Tamaricaria elegans (Royle) Qaiser & Ali: Myricaria elegans Royle var. elegans; Myricaria elegans Royle

Botany and Ecology Tamaricaria elegans: Shrub to 4–4. 5 m high, with reddish-brown bark; branches straight, more or less spreading, densely leafy; leaves flat, 0.5–1.5 cm long, 2–4 mm broad, lanceolate or oblong-ovate, subobtuse, narrowed at base, sessile, mostly

H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_240

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1968 Fig. 1 Tamaricaria elegans (Tamaricaceae), habit, Pakistan. (Photo H. Sher)

Fig. 2 Tamaricaria elegans (Tamaricaceae), mature branch, Pakistan. (Photo H. Sher)

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Tamaricaria elegans (Royle) Qaiser & Ali

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Fig. 3 Tamaricaria elegans (Tamaricaceae), flower, Pakistan. (Photo H. Sher)

spreading; racemes lateral, rarely terminal, loose, 6–14 cm long, 1–1.4 cm broad; pedicels exceeding calyx; bracts ovate, acute, 2.5 mm long, equaling or slightly exceeding pedicels, margins scarious and slightly crenulate at base; calyx l. 5 mm long, one-third as long as petals; sepals triangular or ovate, obtusish, broadly scarious-margined; petals white, pale pink or pink, oblong-oval, 5 mm long, 2.5 mm broad, obtuse, narrowed at base; stamens shorter than petals; filaments connate only at slightly expanded base; anthers acutish, 1.5 mm long; ovary trilateral, 4 mm long, with sessile capitate stigma; capsule elongate-pyramidal, 5–7 mm long, 2 mm broad, 3–4 times length of calyx; seeds small, 1 mm long, acutish, beaked at summit, beak 1.5–2 mm long, hairy from middle. July–August (Shishkin and Boborov 1949) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Tamaricaria elegans: Used as firewood, for household utensils, and hut construction (Abbas et al. 2019)

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References Abbas Z, Alam J, Muhammad S, Bussmann RW, Mulk Khan S, Hussain M. Phyto-cultural diversity of the Shigar valley Central Karakorum Baltistan, Northern Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18:32. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.31.1-18. Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, Volume 14: Geraniales, Sapindales, Rhamnales. Akademia Nauk, Leningrad; 1949 (English 1974). 616 p, 39 b/w plates, 2 maps.

Tamarix arceuthoides Bunge TAMARICACEAE Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Ikram Ur Rahman

Synonyms Tamarix arceuthoides Bunge: Tamarix askabadensis Freyn; Tamarix bungei Boiss.; Tamarix florida var. kotschyi Bunge; Tamarix karakalensis var. myriantha Freyn; Tamarix karakarensis var. verrucifera Freyn

Local Names Tamarix arceuthoides: Mandarin: 柽柳 (cheng liu)

Botany and Ecology Tamarix arceuthoides: Shrubs or small trees, 2–4( 5) m tall. Branchlets spreading, dense; branches of current year mostly ascending. Leaves of vegetative branches subamplexicaul, ovate, ovate-lanceolate, or nearly triangular-ovate, 1–2  ca. 0.6 mm, base slightly decurrent, margin often cartilaginous, apex long acuminate or acute; those of growing branches semiamplexicaul, narrowly ovate, base H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_241

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subrounded or decurrent, faintly auriculate, apex shortly acuminate. Racemes mostly in branches of current year, 3–6( 9) cm  2.5–4 mm; flowers small and dense, usually clustered in fascicles, sometimes in lax terminal panicles, appearing in early summer and lasting to September, sometimes (in mountain areas) racemes appearing in spring on branches of previous year; bracts ovate-subulate or linear-lanceolate, 1– 1.5 mm, equaling or exceeding calyx, apex acuminate. Pedicels 0.5–0.7 mm, shorter than or subequaling calyx. Calyx 5-fid; sepals ovate-triangular, 0.5–0.7  ca. 0.3 mm, ca. 1/2 shorter than petals, margin membranous, subentire, apex slightly obtuse; outer 2 more obtuse than inner 3, tightly enveloping ovary after anthesis. Petals 5, completely open, white or pink to purple, obovate or elliptic, 1–1.7 ( 2)  ca. 0.5 mm, deciduous after anthesis. Disk often purple-red, 5-fid; lobes often retuse at apex or deeply subdivided into 10 lobules. Stamens 5; filaments long, often 1.2–2  exceeding petals, slender, usually inserted between disk lobes; anthers small, apex obtuse or sometimes mucronate. Ovary narrowly conic, 0.7–1.3 mm; styles 3, short, 1/3–1/2 as long as ovary. Capsule small, ca. 3 mm, narrow. Flowering May–September (Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4). Fig. 1 Tamarix sp. (Tamaricaceae), Kvemo Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

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Fig. 2 Tamarix sp. (Tamaricaceae), Kvemo Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

Local Medicinal Uses Tamarix arceuthoides, Tamarix chinensis: The leaves are analgesic, antipyretic, antivinous, carminative, depurative, diuretic, febrifuge. Aids measles rash surfacing. The wood is used in the treatment of anthrax-like sores (Pawera et al. 2015). Tamarix aphylla is used for wound treatments, boils, eye infections, colds, and cough (Ghorbani 2005; Umair et al. 2019). Tamarix dioica serves for piles, cough, diarrhea, as antiseptic, for spleen and liver problems (Umair et al. 2019). Tamarix gallica smoke is used for skin diseases (Mohagheghzadeh and Faridi 2006).

1974 Fig. 3 Tamarix sp. (Tamaricaceae), Kvemo Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

Fig. 4 Tamarix sp. (Tamaricaceae), Kvemo Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

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Tamarix arceuthoides Bunge

1975

References Ghorbani A. Studies on pharmaceutical ethnobotany in the region of Turkmen Sahra, north of Iran (part 1): general results. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102:58–68. Mohagheghzadeh A, Faridi P. Medicinal smokes. J Ethnopharmacol. 2006;108:161–84. Pawera L, Verner V, Termote C, Sodombekov I, Kadanov A, Karabaev N, Skalicky M, Polesny Z Medical ethnobotany of herbal practitioners in the Turkestan range, southwestern Kyrgyzstan. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2015. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3483. Umair M, Altaf M, Bussmann RW, Abbasi AM. Ethnomedicinal uses of the local flora in Chenab riverine area, Punjab province Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2019;15:7. https://doi.org/10. 1186/s13002-019-0285-4. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St.Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013.

Taraxacum campylodes G.E. Haglund Taraxacum officinale F.H. Wigg Taraxacum sikkimense Hand.-Mazz. ASTERACEAE Sanjeev Luintel, Sabina Gyawali, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Taraxacum campylodes G.E. Haglund: Taraxacum lapponicum Kihlm. ex Hand.Mazz. Taraxacum officinale F.H. Wigg: Leontodon taraxacum L.; Leontodon vulgare Lam.; Taraxacum dens-leonis Desf.; Taraxacum mexicanum DC.; Taraxacum officinale var. palustre Blytt; Taraxacum retroflexum H. Lindb.; Taraxacum subspathulatum A.J. Richards; Taraxacum sylvaticum R. Doll.; Taraxacum taraxacum (L.) H. Karst.; Taraxacum tenejapense A.J. Richards; Taraxacum vulgare Schrank

S. Luintel · S. Gyawali Amrit Science College, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_242

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Local Names Taraxacum officinale: Bengali: Pitachumki; English: Bitterwort, Dandelion; French: Dent de lion meaning “lion’s tooth” (Potter and Sorgent 1973); Gurung: Neta dha; Hindi: Dudhi, Baran, dudal, Dudh-batthal, Dudhal; Kannada, Kaadu shaavanthi; Kashmiri: ‫ ﻫﻨﺪ‬Hand, ‫ ﻫﻨﺪﺭی‬Handri, Haend, Handh, madan, Hund, Handri, Sanma, Zear-gulay; Jammu: Shershi, Bathur, Phul dudhli, Handh, Pili jhari, Khusra; Ladakhi: ཧན Han, Kharchu, Khurchot, Khurmano, Khursa, Kurmang, Panghi, rasuk, Sanma, Yamngi; Nepali: टुक फूल Tukee Phool, दधु झार Dudhe Jhaar, कणफुिल Karnaphuli, फुली झार Phulee Jhaar, टु नु Tuknu, Hyomran, Tujiful; Sanskrit: Dugdhapheni, Lootari, Payasvini; Urdu: Sher gul; Kurram: Chechopaska; Ziargulae; Tibetan: Khurmang; Telugu: Patri; Urdu, Bathur; Gilgit-Baltistan: Shanta, Khosmas; Tamang: Nedhap; Taraxacum sikkimense: Kashmir: Hundh; Ladakh: Han, Khur-mang-karpo

Botany and Ecology The genus Taraxacum F.H. Wigg is the largest genus in the family Asteraceae that consists of 2814 species worldwide (APG-III 2009). The genus Taraxacum belongs to subtribe Crepidinae under tribe Cichorieae of subfamily Cichoriodeae (APG-III 2009). Mostly the species are distributed in the arctic and temperate zones of the northern hemisphere with main diversity in mountains of Eurasia and a few species in temperate regions of the southern hemisphere (Xuejun et al 2011; Daniela et al. 2009; Hara et al. 1982; Press et al. 2000; GoN 2001). Taraxacum campylodes: Perennial. Plant 5–25 cm high, with rather thick, ascending or vertical, root; collar covered with brownish remnants of dead leaves, usually with weak, not always noticeable, pubescence of long flexuous hairs in their axils. Leaves 5–20 cm long and 1–3 cm wide, on short broad-winged petioles, glabrous, usually runcinately pinnatipartite or pinnatilobate, with more or less deflexed, entire, less often more or less toothed, lateral segments or lobes, and rather large terminal lobe, often with long-acuminate teeth between lobes, less often undivided, with remote large teeth. Scapes glabrous or with fewer flexuous hairs below capitula. Involucres 12–16 mm long, dark green; involucral bracts without comides; outer bracts lanceolate-ovate or broadly lanceolate, long-acuminate, more or less appressed to inner bracts (but often recurved in fruits), almost as wide or slightly wider than them, often somewhat glaucescent, with very arrow scarious border; inner bracts oblonglinear, usually one and onehalf times as long as longest outer bracts. Florets yellow, with subglabrous corolla; peripheral florets with dark stripes on the lower side of ligules. Achenes light yellowish-brown; body 4.0–4.5 mm long, covered with acute tubercles in the upper third, often fewer and coalesced in transverse ridges; cone 0.6– 0.8 mm long; beak 6–9 mm long; pappus about 7 mm long, white. Flowering July to August. Meadows, gravel beds along banks of reservoirs, sandy and stony slopes. Arctic, all regions; European part, Karelia-Lapland (northern part), Dvina-Pechora (northern part); Western Siberia: Oh’ River area (northern part); Eastern Siberia, Lena-Kolyma; Far East, Okhotsk, Uda Region, Zeya-Bureya. General distribution:

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Scandinavia; Spitsbergen. Described from northern Finland (Boborov and Tzvelev 1964). Taraxacum officinale: Perennial. Plants. 5–50 cm high, with more or less thick, usually vertical root; root collar more or less woolly, less often glabrous. Leaves 10– 25 cm long and 1.5–5.0 cm wide, pinnatipartite or pinnatilobate, with more or less deflexed, often toothed, lateral lobes and larger terminal lobes, less often undivided, sinuate-toothed, scatteredly hairy to entirely glabrous. Scapes with more or less profuse arachnoid hairy tomentum. Involucre 13–20 mm long, green, outer involucral bracts broadly lanceolate to lanceolate-linear, more or less recurved, almost as wide as inner or wider, without scarious border or with very narrow membranous border, without cornicle; inner involucral bracts oblong-linear, one and one-half times or less as long as longest outer bracts without cornicle, less often with indistinct cornicle. Florets yellow with profuse long hairs in middle part of corolla; peripheral florets usually with dark stripes on lower side of ligules. Achenes light brown or brownish, body of achenes 3–4 mm long, covered with acute tubercles in upper half; cone 0.4–0.6 mm long, beak 7–12 ram long; pappus 6–8 mm long, white. Flowering April to June. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, meadows, gardens and parks, near roads, weed (Boborov and Tsvelev 1964) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9). Taraxacum sikkimense: Herbs 4–22 cm. Petiole 1–2 cm, pale green, unwinged, narrowly oblong. Leaves 1–4  0.3–1.5 cm, oblong; lateral lobes three to four pairs, recurved; terminal lobes long, narrow, triangular sagitate, arachnoid, apex obtuse, margin narrowly triangular. Scapes 3–8  0.2–0.3 cm, purple, arachnoid. Involucre 6–9  4–10 mm, narrowly rounded. Capitulum 0.5–1 cm, 1–2 in number. Outer phyllaries 3–11  2–5 mm, grayish green, callose at apex, base broad; inner phyllaries 7–21  2–3 mm, grayish green, irregular, base linear with single vein on middle. Ligules 8–20 mm, pale yellow. Stigma 13–20 mm, dark green, bifurcate length 0.2–0.27 mm. Anther 2–11 mm, base bifurcate 3–5 mm, bifurcate appendages 0.5–0.6 mm, polliniferous. Achene 1–2.5  1–2 mm wide, deep red, deeply spinulose ca 8–9 spines number, spine on ribs 3 or more, base narrowly conic, acute. Beak 3–8 mm. Pappus 1–3 mm, 2–82 number, yellowish white, branched. Distribution range: India, Sikkim, Nepal (C). 2000–4000 m. On open ground, along road trails, growing beside track. Flowering May to July (Fig. 10).

Phytochemistry Sitosterol, stigmasterol, campesterol, esters, 4,4-dimethyl sterol esters; glycosides, 4-demethyl sterols; sitosterol ester, cycloartenol ester, 24-methylene cycloartanol ester (Lynne and Roddick 1981); phenolic compounds, e.g., dicaffeoyltartaric (chicoric acid) and its isomer, monocaffeoyltartaric, 4-caffeoylquinic, chlorogenic, caffeic, p-coumaric, ferulic, p-hydroxybenzoic, protocatechuic, vanillic, syringic, and p-hydroxyphenylacetic acids, as well as coumarins, e.g., umbelliferone, esculetin, and scopoletin; sesquiterpenes as well as p-hydroxyphenylacetic acid and b-sitosterol (Kuusi et al. 1985); triterpene (taraxasterol, w-taraxasterol, their acetates, and 16-hydroxy derivatives such as arnidol, faradiol, and a- and b-amyrin);

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Fig. 1 Taraxacum confusum (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

phytosterols such as b-sitosterol, its b-D-glucopyranoside, and stigmasterol (Akashi et al. 1994); flavonoid glycosides such as luteolin 7-O-glucoside, luteolin 7-Orutinoside, isorhamnetin 3-O-glucoside, quercetin 7-O-glucoside, and apigenin 7-O-glucoside (Williams et al. 1996; Wolbis and Krolikowska 1985; Wolbis et al. 1993; Kristo et al. 2002); hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives, in particular caffeic acid esters such as chlorogenic, chicoric, and monocaffeoyltartaric acids (Williams et al. 1996; Budzianowski 1997); sesquiterpenes such as eudesmanolide, guaianolide, and germacranolide derivatives (Kisiel and Barszcz 2000); di- and triglycosylated flavonoids (Schütz et al. 2006); methanol; saponins, flavonoids, alkaloids, phenols, steroids (Mir et al. 2013); hydroxycinnamic acids (HCAs); and sesquiterpene lactones (SLs), 4-hydroxyphenylacetate inositol esters (PIEs) (Jedrejek et al. 2019). Carbohydrates (sucrose, raffinose, fructose, inuline, arabinose, xylose), vitamins (B1, B2, C, carotene), phenolcarboxylic acids (coffee, pyocumite, ferulic, vanillic), coumarins (coumarine, scopoletin, esculetin), flavonoids (gentsiobiozide, quercetin,

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Fig. 2 Taraxacum confusum (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

nonine, cosmosine, luteolin), steroids (stigmasterol, sitosterol, campesterol, cycloartanol, androsterine, homoandrosterine, homotaracsasterine, kuyanol, taraxasterine), lactones (taraxacoside), fatty acids (linolenic, Melissa, palmitic, oleic, linoleic, caprylic, lauric, myristic, palmitic, stearic, oleic, cerotinic), quinones (Sokolov 1993).

Local Medicinal Uses Taraxacum officinale: In India the root extract is used for migraine, headaches, and hepatitis and as blood purifier (Bhat et al. 2013). It is also used to treat body aches (Luintel et al. 2014) and fever (Bhatarai et al. 2010) and for its cooling effect on the abdomen (Mahato and Sharma 2015). The plant is bitter, vulnerary, digestive, stomachic, anthelmintic, aperient, liver tonic, sudorific, antibacterial, depurative,

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Fig. 3 Taraxacum confusum (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

cholagogue, and tonic. Roots are used to treat liver and spleen ailments and to stimulate appetite. Juice of the fresh plant is effective against liver disease, chronic hepatitis, visceral congestion, intermittent fever, nephropathy, strangury, leprosy, gout, stiff joints, insomnia, hypochondria, jaundice, renal calculi, and other hepatic diseases. Flowers are used as tea, which are beneficial in heart diseases, and as blood purifier, analgesic, and health tonic and for dermatology (Ata et al. 2011). Root decoction is taken to cure jaundice and kidney disorder (Joshi and Joshi 2001). Plant juice is considered to use to treat insomnia Kunwar et al. (2006). Plant paste is used for highaltitude sickness. Roots, leaves, and flowers are used for the medicinal purposes (Humagain and Shrestha 2009) and also to treat chronic disorders of the kidney and liver and also used as tonic, laxative, and anti-rheumatic (Pandey 2006). The root is diuretic, tonic, and slightly aperient and is used as laxative, anti-rheumatic, and remedies for chronic disorders of the kidney and liver (Joshi and Joshi 2001), ulcer, chronic fever, poisoning, eye infection, and bile and stomach disorders. It is also used

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Fig. 4 Taraxacum officinale (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

as galactagogue. Milky sap cures poisoning from precious stones and metals. Plant juice is valued for chronic hepatitis, visceral congestion, intermittent fever, and hypochondria (HMG 2001; Ghimire et al. 2001; IUCN Nepal 2004). The crushed plant is used for stomach and intestinal disorders and boiled root extract for kidney disorders (Joshi and Edington 1990). The fresh root is eaten raw, regularly, for its alleged cooling property. It is also said to relieve gastritis (Bhattarai 1992). The species is part of many official herbal pharmacopoeia in wider Europe. In the whole region, it is used as bitters for diseases of the hepatobiliary system and organs of the gastrointestinal tract, and diabetes; as expectorant and anti-inflammatory for atherosclerosis, anemia, rheumatism, and arthritis; and as a sedative, laxative, and anthelmintic for tuberculosis, bronchitis, bronchial asthma, and kidney and bladder diseases. It is also used topically for varicose veins, skin diseases, acne, eczema, warts, and insect bites. In the Altai, the leaves are used in infusion to treat diarrhea, anorexia, liver disease, and stomach colics (Sokolov 1993). The flowers are used as remedy for colds and the leaves for gallstones and as laxative and diuretic for oral inflammations and toothache. The roots are used for liver problems, and the whole plant serves as medicinal tea (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017a, b, 2018, 2019, 2020; Bussmann 2017; Gurung and Pyakurel 2017; Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). It is also used to treat constipation (Wali et al. 2019), diabetes (Ullah et al. 2019; Ur-Rahman et al. 2019), and hepatitis (Mustafa et al. 2015). In Kurram, it is used to improve gastrointestinal and liver function, as diuretic and stimulant (Muhammad et al. 2019), as well as for skin problems (Ali et al. 2019). In Garhwal, it is used to treat headaches, migraines, and hepatitis and as blood purifier (Bhat et al. 2013). Taraxacum sikkimense: Flower is used as galactagogue (Ghimire and Nepal 2008). Taraxacum tibetanum: Leaf and flowers are used in ulcer, chronic fever, poisoning, eye infection, and bile and stomach disorders. It is also used as galactagogue. Milky sap cures poisoning from precious stones and metals (Lama et al. 2001). Taraxacum eriopodum: The whole plant is used for fever (Bhatarai et al. 2010).

1984 Fig. 5 Taraxacum officinale (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 6 Taraxacum officinale (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 7 Taraxacum officinale (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Food Uses Taraxacum officinale: The roasted roots are used as coffee surrogate and as flavoring agents and included in sweets. The young leaves are eaten as salad (Sokolov 1993). The herbs are only gathered in early spring, during summer, and even autumn, until tomatoes, eggplants, spinach, and cucumbers can be harvested. By this time, the ingredients of pkhali (mostly weeds) lose softness, tenderness, and taste; they become rough already producing seeds and probably for this reason are not collected by late autumn. They taste very differently in early spring than in summer. While making pkhali, some finely minced kitchen herbs are added after boiling the main herbs: a little dill, a little Tseretso dill, a little p’rasa, coriander, parsley, celery, green onions, estragon, and mint. All these herbs are mixed with finely crushed walnuts; the boiled pkhali will be minced, desirably on a wooden

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Fig. 8 Taraxacum officinale (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana) Fig. 9 Taraxacum officinale (Asteraceae), Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

Gobi (wide shallow bowl with a flat bottom), and seasoned with herbs, walnuts, and salt and pepper by your taste. The flowers are boiled with sugar as substitute for honey. The leaves and shoots are eaten as salad and, in chave and pkhali (herb pie), cooked with eggs and yoghurt as soup and as tea (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017a, b, 2018, 2019, 2020; Bussmann 2017; Guarrera and Savo 2016). Leaves are chopped

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Fig. 10 Taraxacum sikkimense (Asteraceae), Nepal. (Photo Sanjeev Luintel)

and fried with spices (Abbas et al. 2016, 2019; Gurung and Pyakurel 2017; Thakur et al. 2017) and used as stimulant to treat alcoholism, digestive system, indigestion, and intestinal worms; as laxative for liver ailments, mouth blisters, and stomach disorders; as tonic for backache, vertigo, vitiligo, and ulcers; as blood purifier for body ache, bone fractures, diarrhea, gastric ulcers, general weakness, jaundice, swellings, urinary irritation, abdominal pain, chest infection, cold, dropsy, headache, and hepatic stimulant; as anti-pyretic for blood diseases; and as sedative for rheumatism (Gairola et al. 2014). Taraxacum sikkimense: In Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh, it is used to treat anemia, fever, warts, as sedative, to regulate urination, against burning sensation in urination (Gairola et al. 2014).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Taraxacum officinale: Fodder for livestock. The stems are used by children to make whistles (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017a, b, 2018, 2019, 2020; Bussmann 2017).

References Abbas Z, Mulk Khan S, Mehmood Abbasi A, Pieroni A, Ullah Z, Iqbal M, Ahmad Z. Ethnobotany of the Balti community, Tormik valley, Karakorum range, Baltistan, Pakistan. Abbas et al. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:38. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0114-y. Abbas Z, Alam J, Muhammad S, Bussmann RW, Mulk Khan S, Hussain M. Phyto-cultural diversity of the Shigar valley Central Karakorum Baltistan, Northern Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18:32. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.31.1-18. Akashi T, Furuno T, Takahashi T, Ayabe SI. Biosynthesis of triterpenoids in cultured cells and regenerated and wild plant organs of Taraxacum officinale. Phytochemistry. 1994;36(2):303–8. Ali A, Aldosari A, Tng DYP, Ullah M, Hussain W, Ahmad M, Hussain J, Khan A, Hussain H, Sher H, Bussmann RW, Shao J-W. Traditional uses of plants by indigenous communities for

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veterinary practices at Kurram District, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18:24. https://doi. org/10.32859/era.18.24.1-19. Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG). An update of the angiosperm phylogeny group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III. Bot J Linn Soc. 2009;161:105–21. Ata S, Farooq F, Javed S. Elemental profile of 24 common medicinal plants of Pakistan and its direct link with traditional uses. J Med Plants Res. 2011;5(26):6164–8. Bhat J, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath wildlife sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:1. http://www.ethnobiomed.com/content/9/1/1 Bhatarai S, Chaudhary RP, Quave CL, Taylor RL. The use of medicinal plants in the trans-Himalaya arid zone of Mustang district, Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:14. Bhattarai NK. Medical ethnobotany in the Karnali zone, Nepal. Econ Bot. 1992:257–61. Boborov EG, Tzvelev NN. Flora of the USSR, Volume 29: Compositae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1964 (English 2001). 832 p, 34 plates. Budzianowski J. Coumarins, caffeoyltartaric acids and their artifactual methyl esters from Taraxacum officinale leaves. Planta Med. 1997;63:288. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2006-957681. Bussmann RW. ed. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Springer International Publishing: Cham; XXVII, 2017:746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D. Taraxacum confusum Schischk.; Taraxacum officinale F.H. Wigg. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions far Eastern Europe. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2019. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3319-77088-8_133-2. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z. Taraxacum officinale F.H. Wigg. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions Central Asia and Altai. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77087-1_ 137-1. Daniela W, Christian SG, Carolin R, Florence F, Richard M, Twyman, Bruno M, Rainer F, Jost M, Dirk P. Polyphenoloxidase silencing affects latex coagulation in Taraxacum species. Plant Physiol. 2009;151(1):334–46. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Ghimire SK, Nepal BK. Developing a community-based monitoring system and sustainable harvesting guidelines for non-timber Forest products (NTFPs) in Kangchenjunga conservation area (KCA). East Nepal. Unpublished report. Kathmandu: WWF Nepal; 2008.

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Ghimire SK, Lama YC, Tripathi GR, Schmitt S, Aumeeruddy Thomas Y. Conservation of plant resources, community development and training in applied ethnobotany at Shey-Phoksundo National Park and its Bufferzone, Dolpa. Fourth Year. WWF/Nepal Program, report series no. 41. Kathmandu: WWF Nepal Program; 2001. GoN. Nepal Rajpatra (section 50, No 43, Part 3: February 12, 2001). His Majesty’s Government of Nepal, Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation, Kathmandu, Nepal; 2001. Guarrera PM, Savo V. Wild food plants used in traditional vegetable mixtures in Italy. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;185:202–34. Gurung K, Pyakurel D. Identification manual of commercial medicinal and aromatic plants of Nepal. Kathmandu: Nepal Herbs and Herbal Products Association (NEHHPA); 2017. Hara H, Stearn WT, Williams LHJ. An enumeration of the flowering plants of Nepal, vol. III. London: Trustees of British Museum (Natural History); 1982. p. 46–7. HMG. Nepal Rajpatra (section 50, no 43, part 3: February 12, 2001). Kathmandu: His Majesty’s Government of Nepal, Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation; 2001. (In Nepali). Humagain K, Shrestha KK. Medicinal plants in Rasuwa district, Central Nepal: trade and livelihood. Bot Oriental J Plant Sci. 2009;6:39–46. IUCN Nepal. National Register of medicinal and aromatic plants (revised and updated). Kathmandu: IUCN Nepal; 2004. Jedrejek D, Lis B, Rolnik A, Stochmal A, Olas B. Comparative phytochemical, cytotoxicity, antioxidant and haemostatic studies of Taraxacum officinale root preparations. Food Chem Toxicol. 2019;126:233–47. Joshi AR, Edington J. The use of medicinal plants by two village communities in the central development region of Nepal. Econ Bot. 1990;44(1):71–83. Joshi KK, Joshi SD. Genetic heritage of medicinal and aromatic plants of Nepal Himalayas. Kathmandu: Buddha Academic Publishers and Distributers; 2001. Kisiel W, Barszcz B. Further sesquiterpenoids and phenolics from Taraxacum officinale. Fitoterapia. 2000;71:269–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0367-326X(99)00158-6. Kristo SZT, Ganzler K, Apati P, Szoke E, Kery A. Analysis of antioxidant flavonoids from Asteraceae and Moraceae plants by capillary electrophoresis. Chromatographia. 2002;56:121– 6. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02494124. Kunwar RM, Balami N, Sigdel K. Contribution to the ethnobotany of Dhading district, Central Nepal. Nepal J Sci Technol. 2006;7:65–9. Kuusi T, Pyysalo H, Autio K. The bitterness properties of dandelion. II. Chemical investigations. Lebensmittel-Wissenschaft Technol. 1985;18:347–9. Lama YC, Ghimire SK, Aumeeruddy - Thomas Y. Medicinal plants of Dolpa. Amchis knowledge and conservation. Kathmandu: WWF Nepal; 2001. p. 150. Luintel DR, Rokaya MB, Timsina B, Münzbergová Z. Medicinal plants used by the Tamang community in the Makawanpur district of Central Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2014;10(1):5. Lynne W, Roddick J. Annual variation in sterol levels in leaves of Taraxacum officinale Weber. Plant Physiol, 1981;68(4), 872–75. Retrieved April 20, 2020, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/ 4267007 Mahato RB, Sharma BN. Common ethnomedicinal plants of Dhanusha District, Nepal. Bull Depart Plant Res. 2015;37:51–62. Mir MA, Sawhney SS, Jassal MMS. Qualitative and quantitative analysis of phytochemicals of Taraxacum officinale. Wudpecker J Pharm Pharmacol. 2013;2(1):1–5. Muhammad S, Hussain M, Abbas Z, Saquib Z, Bussmann RW, Shah GM. An ethnomedicinal appraisal of Kurram agency tribal area Pakistan. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2019;184:631–47. Mustafa B, Hajdari A, Pieroni A, Pulaj B, Koro X, Quave QL. A cross-cultural comparison of folk plant uses among Albanians, Bosniaks, Gorani and Turks living in South Kosovo. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2015;11:39. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-015-0023-5. Pandey MR. Use of medicinal plants in traditional Tibetan therapy system in upper Mustang, Nepal. Our Nat. 2006;4(1):69–82.

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Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, Romero C. Taraxacum officinale F.H. Wigg. In: Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions – ethnobotany of the Andes. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-31977093-2_280-1. Potter S, Sorgent L. Pedigree: essays on the etymology of words from nature. Collins New Naturalist series. Harper Collins, New York, vol. 56. 1973. Press JR, Shrestha KK, Sutton DA. Annotated checklist of flowering plants of Nepal. London: The Natural History Museum; 2000. p. 69–70. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 7. Family Asteraceae (Compositae). Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1993. 352 p. (in Russian). Thakur D, Sharma A, Uniyal SK. Why they eat, what they eat: patterns of wild edible plants consumption in a tribal area of Western Himalaya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13:70. https:// doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0198-z. Ullah M, Mehmood S, Ali M, Bussmann RW, Aldosari A, Ali Khan R, Ullah R, Hussain W, Rahman Shah MA. An ethnopharmacological study of plants used for treatment of diabetes in the southern and tribal regions of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18:8. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.8.1-20. Ur-Rahman I, Afzal A, Iqbal Z, Hart R, Abd Allah EF, Hashem A, Alsayed MF, Ijaz F, Ali N, Shah M, Bussmann RW, Calixto ES. Herbal teas and drinks: folk medicine of the Manoor Valley, lesser Himalaya, Pakistan. Plan Theory. 2019;8:581. https://doi.org/10.3390/ plants8120581. Wali R, Rahman K, Raja NI, Qureshi R, Bussmann RW, Mashwani ZUR. A quantitative medico botanical expedition of Fairy Meadows National Park, Diamir, Gilgit Baltistan, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18:35. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.35.1-30. Williams CA, Goldstone F, Greenham J. Flavonoids, cinnamic acids and coumarins from the different tissues and medicinal preparations of Taraxacum officinale. Phytochemistry. 1996;42:121–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/0031-9422(95)00865-9. Wolbis M, Krolikowska M. Polyphenolic compounds of dandelion (Taraxacum officinale). Acta Pol Pharm Drug Res. 1985;42:215–21. Wolbis M, Krolikowska M, Bednarek P. Polyphenolic compounds in Taraxacum officinale. Acta Pol Pharm Drug Res. 1993;50:153–9.

Taxus baccata (L.) Borkh. Taxus contorta Griff. Taxus mairei (Leme´e & H. Le´v.) S.Y. Hu Taxus wallichiana Zucc. TAXACEAE Ram C. Poudel, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Synonyms Taxus baccata (L.) Borkh.: Taxus baccata L. subsp. wallichiana (Zucc.) Pilger; Taxuscontorta var. mucronata Spjut; Taxus wallichiana var. yunnanensis (W.C. Cheng & L.K. Fu) C.T. Kuan; Taxus yunnanensis W.C. Cheng & L.K. Fu; R. C. Poudel (*) Molecular Biotechnology Unit, Faculty of Science, Nepal Academy of Science and Technology (NAST), Khumaltar, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_243

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Taxus wallichiana var. wallichiana (Zucc.) W.C. Cheng & L.K. Fu; Taxus virgata Wall. ex Hook. f. Taxus contorta Griff.: Taxus fuana Nan Li & R.R. Mill Taxus mairei (Lemée & H. Lév.) S.Y. Hu: Tsuga mairei Leme ́e & H. Le ́veille ́; Taxus chinensis (Pilger) Rehder var. mairei (Leme ́e & H. Le ́veille ́) W.C. Cheng & L.K. Fu; Taxus speciosa Florin; Taxus wallichiana var. mairei (Leme ́e & H. Le ́veille ́) L.K. Fu & Nan Li; Taxus chinensis var. mairei (Leme ́e & H. Le ́veille ́) W.C. Cheng & L.K. Fu. Taxus wallichiana Zucc.: Taxus baccata L. subsp. wallichiana (Zucc.) Pilger; Taxuscontorta var. mucronata Spjut; Taxus wallichiana var. yunnanensis (W.C. Cheng & L.K. Fu) C.T. Kuan; Taxus yunnanensis W.C. Cheng & L.K. Fu; Taxus wallichiana var. wallichiana (Zucc.) W.C. Cheng & L.K. Fu; Taxus virgata Wall. ex Hook. f.

Local Names Taxus baccata: Chinese: 红豆杉属 (hong dou shan shu); Pashto: Bermi, Banrya, Thum; North West India: Thuner, Rakhal (Singh et al. 1990; Lanker et al. 2010; Phondani et al. 2010; Kandari et al. 2012); Nepal: Luit, Luith (Magar), Jemmersing, Chhembersing (Thakali), Singi, (Gurung, Tamang), Salin (Gurung) Dhengre, Lauthsalla, (Nepali), Talispatra (Sanskrit), Bhyambarsing, Sangsing, Tongsing (Sherpa), Kadeloti (Dolpa), (Manandhar 2002; Kunwar and Adhikari 2005; Poudel et al. 2012); Urdu: Barmi, Thuna, Birmi, Bermi, Barmi, Chodan (Ahmed et al. 2004; Saqib and Sultan 2004; Ishtiaq et al. 2012; Haq 2012); English: common yew Taxus mairei: India: Sehblei, Sohblei, Ksheh (Sajem et al. 2008; Jaiswal 2010); Nepal: Dhengre, Lauthsalla, Barme salla, Pate salla, Machhindra pati (Nepali), Singi (Nepali-Tamang), Talispatra (Sanskrit) (Poudel et al. 2012) Taxus wallichiana: Bhutan: Keyrang-shing, Dhengrey salla (Norbu 1996); Jammu: Barmi; Kashmir: Postul, Brammi; North East India: Dhegresalla, Dhengre, Tesiang, Tesing (Hussain and Hore 2007; Nimachow et al. 2010); Sikkim: Dhengre salla; Nepal: Silingi, Salin, (Nepal-Gurung), Silting (Nepal-Tamang), Sanga sing, Tonga sing (Nepal-Sherpa), Dhengre, Lauthsalla, Thingre, Barme salla (Nepali), Laswa (Nepal-Newari), Talispatra (Sanskrit) (Manandhar 2002; Poudel et al. 2012)

Botany and Ecology Taxus baccata: Distribution of different yew species in Hindu-Kush Himalaya region that encompasses areas of Pakistan, NW and NE India, Nepal, Bhutan, North Myanmar and NW Xizhang, China had been elucidated by Poudel et al. (2012) using morphological, climatic, and molecular data. Three species of yews with distinct morphology are present in Himalaya region with their nonoverlapping distributions in different geographic areas. Shah et al. (2008) and Farjon (2010) including its latest update Farjon (2017) support the finding of Poudel et al. (2012).

Taxus baccata (L.) Borkh. . . .

1993

Fig. 1 Taxus baccata (Taxaceae), male cones, Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

The majority of yew-related literature cited here precedes Poudel et al. (2012). Among the cited publications, many used synonyms of actual yew species Taxus baccata is not found in the Himalayas. Given clear geographic delimitation among different species of yews, literature dealing with western Himalaya (Pakistan, NW India, and western Nepal) and eastern Himalaya (central Nepal, Bhutan, and NE India) are referred to Taxus contorta and Taxus wallichiana, respectively. Poudel et al. (2012) has reported the third species of yew, viz., Taxus mairei, which grows dominantly in south east China and extends toward Himalaya through the low altitudinal areas of Vietnam, Myanmar, Meghalaya of India, and in Mahabharat range of Nepal. Flowering March–May. In the Crimea, Caucasus, in mountain woods, from the seashore up to 1700 m above sea level (Iljin 1934) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3). Taxus contorta: Trees or shrubs to 30 m tall; trunk to 1.3 m d.b.h.; bark variably colored, grayish brownish, reddish, or purplish, peeling off in strips or cracking and falling off as thin scales; winter bud scales early deciduous or some persistent at base of branchlets, triangular-ovate, with or without longitudinal ridges abaxially. Leafy branchlets  flat in living state, 3–9  1.5–6 cm in outline. Leaves borne at (50–)60– 90° to branchlet axis, subsessile or with petiole to 1 mm; blade dark green and glossy adaxially, paler abaxially, linear to lanceolate, gradually tapered distally, usually falcate, (0.9–)1.5–3.5( 4.7) cm  (1.5–)2–4( 5) mm, midvein slightly elevated adaxially, 0.1–0.2 mm wide, densely and evenly papillate abaxially, or with papillae scattered on midvein or in 1-several lateral rows adjacent to stomatal band, or midvein not papillate, stomatal bands pale yellowish, 0.6–0.9 mm wide, densely and evenly papillate, marginal bands 0.1–0.4 mm wide, base cuneate or attenuate, asymmetric, margin flat to revolute, apex gradually acuminate or abruptly tapered

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Fig. 2 Taxus baccata (Taxaceae), female cones, Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Taxus baccata (Taxaceae), female cones, Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

and indistinctly mucronate, mucro 0.1–0.5 mm. Pollen cones scattered along second year branchlet axis,  sessile or shortly pedunculate (peduncle ca. 0.5 mm), pale yellowish, ovoid, 5–6  ca. 3 mm; bracts usually 6, broadly ovate, pale green; microsporophylls 8–14, each with (4 or)5 or 6( 8) pollen sacs. Seed-bearing structures borne toward distal end of branchlet axis. Aril red or orange when ripe, often  translucent. Seed ovoid or obovoid, occasionally columnar-oblong, sometimes slightly flattened, 5–8  3.5–5 mm, usually with obtuse ridges (sometimes trigonous and 3-ridged); apex with small mucro; hilum elliptic to suborbicular or rounded-trigonous. Pollination September–April, seed maturity August–December (Wu et al. 1994–2013). Grows naturally in temperate conifer and broadleaved forest at an altitude of 2000–3500 m. This species is understory tree and found mostly along north and northwest facing moist slopes and gullies with Abies, Tsuga, Pinus, Acer, Quercus, and Rhododendron. Distributed in temperate region of northern

Taxus baccata (L.) Borkh. . . .

1995

Fig. 4 Taxus contorta (Taxaceae), Nepal. (Photo Ram C Poudel)

Fig. 5 Taxus contorta (Taxaceae), Nepal. (Photo Ram C Poudel)

Pakistan, north-west India, and north-west to north–central Nepal (Kunwar et al. 2016, 2019a, b, 2020; Poudel et al. 2012) (Figs. 4 and 5). Taxus mairei: Evergreen tree of 5–25 m. Bark peeling off in stripes. Bud scales few and persistent at base of the branchlets. Leaves arranged on two lateral rows on branchlets, leaf angle 60–80°, broadly lanceolate, thin, falcate-sigmoid, 1.9–3.1 cm long 2–3 cm wide, leaf edges incurving-revolute, base asymmetric, apex obtuse, mucro indistinct, without papilla or rarely papillate below, midrib and leaf margin underneath shiny. Loosely to compactly arranged 11–16 stomatal bands, margin revolute when dried. Male and female flowers grow in different individual trees. The male cones are globose and scattered along branchlets. Wind pollinated. Seed arises

1996

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Fig. 6 Taxus mairei (Taxaceae), Nepal. (Photo Ram C Poudel)

from the base of leaves, ovoid, enclosed by a fleshy aril, which turns red when ripen; seed bilaterally flattened. Flowering March–May, fruiting September–November. Grows naturally in broadleaved forest along the Mahabharat range at an altitudinal range from 1900 to 2200 m. T. mairei is associated with Alnus, Pinus, Rhododendron, Schima, Castanopsis, Lyonia, and Myrica. This species is few in number in central Nepal and Meghalaya hills of India. Rare occurrence reported from Bhutan (Poudel et al. 2012; Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Figs. 6, 7, and 8). Taxus wallichiana: Evergreen tree up to 30 m. Densely branched and are mostly recurved or bent downward around. Branches are reddish. Bud scales many, persistent, triangular. Leaves arise from both side of branches, leaf angle 60–90°,arranged in two lateral rows, lanceolate to narrowly lanceolate, 1.7–3.1 cm long 1.8–3 cm wide, leaf edges revolute, tapering toward apex, falcate, base asymmetric, apex pointed, mucro distinct, midrib and leaf margin underneath not shiny. Stomatal bands 11–17, densely arranged, pale. Male and female flower in separate individual trees. Male flower globose, creamy and dense. Wind pollinated female cone borne on branchlet axis, seed slightly flattened, pointed toward apex, enclosed partly by red edible fleshy aril. Flowering January–April, fruiting September–November. This species grows naturally at an altitudinal range of 2200–3500 m in temperate conifer and broadleaved forest. Prefers to grow mostly on north-east and south facing moist slopes and gullies with Abies, Acer, Bamboo, Ilex, Pinus, Quercus, Rhododendron, and Tsuga. In the Himalayas, this species is distributed in Central-East Nepal,

Taxus baccata (L.) Borkh. . . . Fig. 7 Taxus mairei (Taxaceae), Nepal. (Photo Ram C Poudel)

Fig. 8 Taxus mairei (Taxaceae), Nepal. (Photo Ram C Poudel)

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Bhutan, and North East India (Poudel et al. 2012). Raw export is banned in Nepal due to overharvesting (Gurung and Pyakurel 2017; Hamilton 2004; O’Neill et al. 2017).

Phytochemistry Yew bark and leaves contain mainly taxol, ecdysterone, β-sitosterol, campesterol, ephedrine, millosine, and taxine A and B. Abeobaccatin IV derivatives were isolated from the stem barks. Taxicatin, (+) – abscisic acid, ursolic acid, cyanogenic glycoside amygdalin, and beta-sitosterol glucoside were isolated from seeds. Phenyl propanoid 2-(3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl) – propane-1, 3-diol 1 and (+) catechin 3 were isolated from the bark; taxols – taxol 1, baccatin III 2, baccatin IV 3, taxusin 4, a C-14 oxygenated taxoid 5, 1 beta-hydroxy baccatin I 6, pentacetoxy taxadiene 7, a dibenzoylated rearranged taxoid 8, 7-xylosyl-10-deacetyl-taxol C9, and three phenolic compounds seco-isolariciresinol 11, taxiresinol 12, and isotaxiresinol 13 were isolated from the roots (Chattopadhyay et al. 1994, 1996a, b, c, 1997, 1999a, b, c, 2002).

Local Medicinal Uses Taxus baccata: This species is not found in the Himalayas. All citations here given for this species in the Himalayas are likley mis-identifications. The species is used for fractures and headache (Bhat et al. 2013, Malik et al. 2015), also used for asthma, bronchitis, epilepsy, hiccup, diarrhea, and headache. The arilles, removed from their seeds, have diuretic and laxative effects. It was use medicinally to treat viper bites, hydrophobia (rabies), heart ailments, and as abortifacient. In the central Himalayas, the plant is used as a treatment for breast and ovarian cancer. The leaves are used in traditional medicine against rabies and heart ailments. It can be used for diseases of the cardiovascular system. Seeds contain essential and fatty oils (Bussmann 2017; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017). The water decoction of needles is used internally in heart diseases and as gastric remedy. A water decoction of needles is used externally as antirheumatic. The species is used for asthma, bronchitis, epilepsy, hiccup, diarrhea, and headache. It is also used as blood purifier (Kala et al. 2004). Taxus contorta: In Garhwal, India, dried bark is powdered and boiled with refined butter and salt and taken as tea for vigor and vitality (Singh et al. 1990). Indigenous communities of Miandam Valley, Pakistan, use powdered bark as emmenagogue and antispasmodic. People in Dolpa and Humla districts of Nepal use leaf in skin diseases, cancer, asthma, bronchitis, joint problem, and muscular pain (Manandhar 2002; Kunwar and Adhikari 2005; Kunwar et al. 2006; Rokaya et al. 2010). In Garahwal, India, the leaves paste is also given orally for treating asthma and other bronchial disorders and indigestion (Singh et al. 1990). In Allai Valley, local people use bark in cancer and pneumonia. They use leaves in bronchitis, whooping cough,

Taxus baccata (L.) Borkh. . . .

1999

and asthma (Haq 2012). As in western Nepal communities here also take steam bath of leaves for the treatment of rheumatism (Haq 2012). Leaves of 1 year plant are kept in between teeth to treat toothache by local people of Humla, Nepal (Rokaya et al. 2010). Indigenous communities of Leepa Valley, Pakistan, use the decoction of leaf with honey in hay fever, flatulation, epilepsy, and asthma (Ishtiaq et al. 2012). Communities residing Galliyat areas of Pakistan take decoction of stem early morning to treat tuberculosis (Ahmed et al. 2004). Traditional Vaidyas of Uttaranchal, India, give 20 g formulation of yew three times a day to patients having stomachache. The formulation is prepared with 10 g of Thuner bark powder mixed with 100 g leaf powder of Megacarpaea polyandra heated on fire with two and half spoon of butter (Kala et al. 2005). The Bhotiya tribe of Niti Valley, North West India, take namkeen tea twice a day for 1 year for the treatment of high blood pressure. Namekeen tea was made using 1 g dry powder of bark mixed with 1 g salt, one spoonful ghee, and one cupful of water. The community treats bone fracture by applying paste prepared from yew bark and yolk of the fresh egg around the fractured part for 28–35 days (Phondani et al. 2010). People residing inside Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve, North West India, also apply the paste prepared from bark as a plaster on fractured bone and also apply externally on the forehead to provide relief from headache (Kandari et al. 2012). Similar use of bark paste was also reported from the same region by Lanker et al. (2010) (Singh et al. 1990; Manandhar 2002; Ahmed et al. 2004; Saqib and Sultan 2004; Jabeen et al. 2009; Jaiswal 2010; Poudel et al. 2012). Leaves and bark are used in the treatment for cough, bronchitis, headache, giddiness, coldness, diarrhea, hiccough, indigestion, piles, severe biliousness, hysteria, epilepsy, nervousness, and asthma, bronchitis, cancer, fever, toothache, cough, cold, skin disease, joint problems, piles, and muscular pain (Phole 1990; Ghimire et al. 2001; Manandhar 1986, 2002; Kunwar and Duwadee 2003; Kunwar and Adhikari 2005; Bhattarai et al. 2006, 2010, 2012; Kunwar et al. 2006, 2010a, b; Ghimire and Nepal 2007; Rokaya et al. 2010; Poudel et al. 2012; IUCN 2000; Joshi and Joshi 2001; Uprety et al. 2010; Luitel et al. 2014; Malla and Chhetri 2009). Taxus mairei: Local communities of North Cachar hills district of Assam, India, use stem in the treatment of septic wounds (Sajem et al. 2008). Jaintia tribes of Meghalaya, India, use leaves as an aphrodisiac, in the treatment of epilepsy and irregular menstruation (Jaiswal 2010). Taxus wallichiana: In Sikkim and Darjeeling of India, leaves are considered antispasmodic. Leaf is used in the treatment of nervousness, hysteria, epilepsy, headache, giddiness, diarrhea, and liver disorder (Hussain and Hore 2007). Another study from Sikkim, India, reported use of bark paste around the fractured bone for treatment (Bharati and Sharma 2010). Several ethnic communities of Nepal too use leaf decoction in several gastrointestinal disorders, respiratory problems, muscular pain, and rheumatism (Poudel et al. 2012). The species is used for arthritis, asthma, bronchitis, giddiness, headache, as antiseptic, sedative, for epilepsy, cough, and indigestion (Gairola et al. 2014; Tamang et al. 2017; Ur-Rahman et al. 2019). It is also used to treat piles, muscular pain, fever, diarrhea, and liver problems (Tamang et al. 2017), boils, cuts, and wounds (Singh et al. 2017).

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Local Food Uses Taxus baccata: The red aril surrounding the seed can be eaten. In India, local people use the bark as a tea substitute. The red fruit mantle is edible and eaten raw or as jam, while all other parts of the tree are highly toxic (Bussmann 2017; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017). Local people of Palas Valley, Pakistan, use bark of Taxus contorta to make tea (Saqib and Sultan 2004). Similar use was also reported in western Nepal (Poudel et al. 2012; Kunwar 2018). Ripen red aril of all the three species of yew that covers seed around is eaten in Bhutan, India, Nepal, and Pakistan (Singh et al. 1990; Manandhar 2002; Ahmed et al. 2004; Saqib and Sultan 2004; Jabeen et al. 2009; Jaiswal 2010, Poudel et al. 2012) Generally the red aril is edible (Phole 1990; Ghimire et al. 2001; Manandhar 1986, 2002; Kunwar and Duwadee 2003; Kunwar and Adhikari 2005; Bhattarai et al. 2006, 2010, 2012; Kunwar et al. 2006; Ghimire and Nepal 2007; Kunwar et al. 2010 Rokaya et al. 2010; Poudel et al. 2012; IUCN 2000; Joshi and Joshi 2001; Uprety et al. 2010; Luitel et al. 2014; Malla and Chhetri 2009).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses All species are used as fuelwood (Aumeeruddy-Thomas et al. 2004). Taxus baccata: Yew is a very useful tree for hedging and topiary as it can be closely trimmed. It tends to become a very large bush without trimming. It is used as a wind break. Leaves are poisonous to cattle; however, in parts of western Himalayas, the trees are lopped for cattle fodder. The foliage and seeds contain several alkaloids (taxine) and glycoside (texicatine), very poisonous, which alters to hydrotaxine by hydrolysis. In Europe, poisoning is frequent in animals such as horses, asses, and mules which are extremely sensitive, while rabbits, guinea pigs, and cats are insensitive. In humans, the yew generates digestive, nervous, respiratory, and cardiovascular disorder. The wood is hard, fine, even grained, and moderately heavy (about 7 kg per m). The timber is very valuable and is known for its resistance against rooting. It is used mainly for turnery, marquetry, and wood carvery. The colorful wood (red heart wood, white sap wood) was used to veneer furniture, to make lute bodies, bowls, tankards, combs, tool handles, pegs, and various art objects. In the UK, yew veneers is in high demand for its decorative value. It is used for caring poles, bows, and furniture. The fine-grain yellowish-red or brownishred wood, with a rather narrow layer of white or yellowish sapwood, is very hard and durable. It provides good material for carpentry and turning. The bark yields a glue used for bird catching. The leaves are deadly poisonous to horses, cows, and goats. Common yew has high quality wood, which is used in construction and furniture. A dye solution is prepared from fruits and wood to obtain violet color. The solution is used for dyeing wool. Good nectariferous plant, producing much nectar. The wood is very hard and used for tool handles. It also serves as posts in constantly wet areas (Bussmann 2017; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017).

Taxus baccata (L.) Borkh. . . .

2001

Communities of Miandam Valley, Pakistan, often sell dried leaves of Taxus contorta for its use to prepare shampoo. Communities of Leepa Valley, Pakistan, use T. contorta leaves and root extract to poison and catch fish from rivers and dams (Ishtiaq et al. 2012). In Uttarakhand of India, red color extracted from the bark of T. contorta is believed to be superior for dyeing woolen and silk fabrics (Gaur 2008). Along the Himalayas, wood of all the three species of yew is regarded as hard and durable for making furniture, carving, windows, door, and as house construction material (Lanker et al. 2010; Poudel et al. 2012). Several agriculture implements like grain pounders, plough, sickle handles, and household items such as milk/whey and water containers are made of yew (Singh et al. 1990; Norbu 1996; Manandhar 2002; Poudel et al. 2012). Indigenous people of Bhutan, India, Nepal, and Pakistan use yew as a good fodder for cattle (Norbu 1996; Jabeen et al. 2009; Nimachow et al. 2010; Poudel et al. 2012).The dried zig-zag branches are used for decoration in Garhwal Himalaya, India (Singh et al. 1990). Yew trees are normally protected in and around religious area like in the premises of temple, monastery, or shrines (Poudel et al. 2012). Wood is used to make agriculture implements and incense, as well as firewood (Phole 1990; Ghimire et al. 2001; Manandhar 1986, 2002; Kunwar and Duwadee 2003; Kunwar and Adhikari 2005; Bhattarai et al. 2006, 2010, 2012; Kunwar et al. 2006, 2010 Ghimire and Nepal 2007; Rokaya et al. 2010; IUCN 2000; Joshi and Joshi 2001; Ghimire and Nepal 2007; Uprety et al. 2010; Luitel et al. 2014; Poudel et al. 2012).

References Ahmed E, Arshad M, Ahmad M, Saeed M, Ishaque M. Ethnopharmacological survey of some medicinally important plants of Galliyat areas of NWFP, Pakistan. Asian J Plant Sci. 2004;3:410–5. Aumeeruddy-Thomas Y, Shinwari ZA, Ayaz A, Ahmad Khan A. Ethnobotany and the management of fodder and fuelwood at Ayubia National Park, north west Frontier Province, Pakistan. People and plants working paper 13. Surrey: WWF; 2004. Bharati KV, Sharma BL. Some ethnoveterinary plant records for Sikkim Himalaya. Indian J Tradit Know. 2010;9:344–6. Bhat JA, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath wildlife sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1):1. Bhattarai S, Chaudhary RP, Quave CL, Taylor RSL. The use of medicinal plants in the transhimalayan arid zone of Mustang district, Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:14. Bhattarai KR, Måren IE, Chaudhary RP. Medicinal plant knowledge of the Panchase region in the Middle Hills of the Nepalese Himalayas. Banko Janakari. 2012;21(1):31–9. Bhattarai S, Chaudhary RP, Taylor RL. Ethnomedicinal plants used by the people of Manang district, Central Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:41. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017.XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Chattopadhyay SK, Tripathi VK, Thakur RS, Sharma RP, Jain SP. Isolation of taxol, 10-deacetylbaccatin III and ( )-betuligenol from Taxus baccata. Indian J Chem. 1994;33B (4):409–11. Chattopadhyay SK, Saha GC, Kulshrestha M, Sharma RP, Kumar S. Studies on the Himalayan Yew Taxus wallichiana: part II. Indian J. Chem. 1996a;35B(2):175–7.

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Chattopadhyay SK, Saha GC, Kulshrestha M, Sharma RP, Kumar S. Studies on the Himalayan Yew Taxus wallichiana: part III – first report on isolation of a basic taxane. Indian J Chem. 1996b;35B(5):508–9. Chattopadhyay SK, Saha GC, Kulshrestha M, Sharma RP, Roy R. Studies on the Himalayan Yew Taxus wallichiana: part IV – isolation of dihydrotaxol and dibenzoylated taxoids. Indian J Chem. 1996c;35B(7):754–6. Chattopadhyay SK, Saha GC, Kulshrestha M, Sharma RP, Roy R. Studies on the Himalayan Yew Taxus wallichiana: part V – isolation of a new rearranged taxoid. Indian J Chem. 1997;36B(9):831–2. Chattopadhyay SK, Kulshrestha M, Saha GC, Tripathi V, Sharma RP. Studies on the Himalayan Yew Taxus wallichiana: part VI – isolation of nontaxoid constituents. Indian J Chem. 1999a;38B:246–7. Chattopadhyay SK, Kulshrestha M, Saha GC, Tripathi V, Sharma RP, Mehta VK. Studies on the Himalayan Yew Taxus wallichiana: part VII – the Taxoids and phenolic constituents of the roots of Taxus wallichiana. Indian J Chem. 1999b;38B:749–51. Chattopadhyay SK, Tripathi V, Shawl AS. Studies on the Himalayan Yew Taxus wallichiana: part VII – isolation of additional taxoids and panasterone from the leaves of Taxus wallichiana. Indian J Chem. 1999c;38B:874–6. Chattopadhyay SK, Tripathi V, Sashidhara KV, Mehta VK, Joshi BS, Roy R. Studies on the Himalayan Yew Taxus wallichiana: part IX – the chemical constituents of the seeds of Taxus wallichiana. Indian J Chem. 2002;41B(1):225–7. Farjon A. A handbook of the world’s conifers. Leiden: Brill; 2010. Farjon A. A handbook of the world’s conifers. Revised and undated edition. Leiden: Brill; 2017. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Gaur RD. Traditional dye yielding plants of Uttarakhand, India. Nat. Prod. Radiance. 2008;7:154–65. Ghimire SK, Nepal BK. Developing a community based monitoring system and sustainable harvesting guidelines for non timber forest products (NTFPs) in Kangchenjunga Conservation Area (KCA), East Nepal. First Phase. Unpublished Report, WWF Nepal Program Kathmandu, Nepal 2007. Ghimire SK, Lama YC, Tripathi GR, Schmitt S, Thomas YA. Conservation of plant resources. Community development and training in applied ethnobotany at Shey Phoksundo National Park and its buffer zone Dolpa. Report series no. 41. Kathmandu: WWF Nepal; 2001. Gurung K, Pyakurel D. Identification manual of commercial medicinal and aromatic plants of Nepal. Kathmandu: Nepal Herbs and Herbal Products Association (NEHHPA); 2017. Hamilton AC. Medicinal plants, conservation and livelihoods. Biodivers Conserv. 2004;13:1477–517. Haq F. The ethnobotanical uses of medicinal plants of Allai valley, western Himalaya, Pakistan. Int J Plant Res. 2012;2:21–34. Hussain S, Hore DK. Collection and conservation of major medicinal plants of Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalaya. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2007;6:352–7. Iljin MM. Flora of the USSR, volume 1: Archegoniatae and Embryophyta; Akademia Nauk, Leningrad. 244 pages, 14 b/w plates, 2 maps. 1934 (English 1968). Ishtiaq M, Mumtaz AS, Hussain T, Ghani A. Medicinal plant diversity in the flora of Leepa Valley, Muzaffarabad (AJK), Pakistan. Afr J Biotechnol. 2012;11:3087–98. IUCN. National register of medicinal plants. Kathmandu: IUCN; 2000. Jabeen A, Khan MA, Ahmad M, Zafar M, Ahmad F. Indigenous uses of economically important flora of Margallah Hills National Park, Islamabad, Pakistan. Afr J Biotechnol. 2009;8:763–84. Jaiswal V. Culture and ethnobotany of Jaintia tribal community of Meghalaya, Northeast India – a mini review. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2010;9:38–44. Joshi KK, Joshi SD. Genetic heritage of medicinal and aromatic plants of Nepal Himalaya. Kathmandu: Buddha Academic Publishers and Distributors; 2001. Kala CP, Farooquee NA, Dhar U. Prioritization of medicinal plants on the basis of available knowledge, existing practices and use value status in Uttaranchal, India. Biodivers Conserv. 2004;13:453–69.

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Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. Terminalia chebula Retz. COMBRETACEAE Rose Shrestha, Ram Prasad Acharya, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb.: Buceras bellirica (Gaertn.) Lyons; Myrobalanus bellirica Gaertn.; Myrobalanus laurinoides (Teijsm. & Binn.) Kuntze; Terminalia bellirica var. laurinoides (Teijsm. & Binn.) C.B. Clarke; Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Wall.; Terminalia biticaria Roxb.; Terminalia chebula Willd. ex Flem.; Terminalia glandulosa Roxb. ex C. B. Cl.; Terminalia gella Dalz.; Terminalia laurinoides Teijsm. & Binn.; Terminalia moluccana Roxb.; Terminalia punctata Roth. Terminalia chebula Retz.: Myrobalanifera citrina Houtt., Myrobalanus chebula (Retz.) Gaertn., Myrobalanus gangetica (Roxb.) Kostel., Terminalia gangetica Roxb., Terminalia reticulata Roth.

R. Shrestha Department of Plant Resources, Ministry of Forests and Environment, Kathmandu, Nepal R. P. Acharya Centre for Sustainable Agricultural Systems, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD, Australia Practical Solutions Consultancy, Kathmandu, Nepal R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_244

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Local Names Terminalia bellirica: Sikkim, Barra; Hindi, Baheral; Mizoram, Thingvandawt; Benghal, Boir, Bahera, Barra; Jammu, Bhera, Bahera; Gharwal, Behera; Rajastan, Bahara; Karnataka, Taremara; Lepcha, Kanom, Kong Terminalia chebula: Nepal, Sele, Harado, Harro; Hindi, Harra; Karakkaya; Naga, Ningka; Sikkim, Harra; Jammu, Harad, Harar; Tamil, Kadukkai maram; Rajastan, Sadar; Sanskrit, Avaya, Haritaki; Karnataka, Mattimara; Benghal, Harra, Haritaki; Gharwal, Haida

Botany and Ecology Terminalia bellirica: Trees deciduous, to 35 m tall; trunk to 1 m d.b.h., with large buttresses. Bark gray, longitudinally ridged. Branchlets with conspicuous, spirally ascending leaf scars. Leaves spiraled, crowded into pseudowhorls at apices of branchlets; petiole 3–9 cm, glabrous but ferruginous tomentose when young, especially at base, with two glands above middle; leaf blade glossy, obovate, 18–26
6– 12 cm, both surfaces glabrous except ferruginous tomentose when young, base obtuse-rounded or attenuate, apex obtuse or mucronate; lateral veins in five to eight pairs. Inflorescences axillary, simple spikes, 5–18 cm, often grouped at branchlet apex and forming a panicle; axis densely ferruginous tomentose. Calyx tube distally shallowly cupular, 4–5 mm, abaxially tomentose, adaxially long villous; lobes 5. Stamens 10, exserted, 4–5 mm. Fruit shortly stipitate, subglobose to broadly ellipsoid or ovoid, weakly to strongly 5-ridged, 2–3
1.8–2.5 cm, densely and finely velutinous or sericeous; stipe about 2 mm. Flowering March to April, fruiting May to July (Wu et al. 2007, 1994–2013; Singh et al. 2018) (Figs. 1 and 2). Tropical and subtropical species are distributed in China (S Yunnan), Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam and Northern Australia and introduced in Eastern Africa.

Fig. 1 Terminalia bellirica (Combretaceae), Nepal. (Photo Ripu Kunwar)

Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. . . .

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Fig. 2 Terminalia bellirica (Combretaceae), fruits, Nepal. (Photo Ram P Acharya)

Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. is native to Indian subcontinent to China (S. Yunnan) and W. Malaysia (Wu et al. 2007). In Nepal, it is distributed in both natural forests and farmlands between altitudes of 300–1400 meter. It grows chiefly in moist valleys and sunny mountain slopes. It is a common associate of sal (Shorea robusta) and teak (Tectona grandis) in tropical and dry deciduous forests (Wu et al. 2007; DPR 2016). Terminalia chebula: Trees to 30 m tall; trunk to 1 m d.b.h. Bark grayish black to gray, coarsely split and thick. Branchlets conspicuously white or yellowish long lenticellate, glabrous, or tomentose or appressed villous at least when young, hairs tawny, rarely silvery. Leaves alternate or subopposite, spaced along branchlets; petiole 1–3 cm, moderately stout, with 2–4 glands 1–5 mm below apex; leaf blade elliptic, 7–18
4.5–10 cm, both surfaces glabrous, or appressed (and rarely silvery) villous at least when young, base obtuse-rounded or cuneate, oblique, apex mucronate; lateral veins in 6–12 pairs. Inflorescences axillary or terminal, simple spikes, 5– 10 cm, numerous flowered, sometimes grouped at branchlet apex and forming a panicle; axis glabrous or sparsely hairy, with denser hairs near base of flowers. Flowers slightly fragrant, bisexual. Calyx tube distally cupular, 2.5–3.5 mm, abaxially glabrous, adaxially tawny tomentose; lobes 5, apex mucronate to aristate. Stamens 10, exserted, 3–4 mm. Fruit not stipitate, blackish brown when ripe, ovoid or broadly so, ellipsoid, or cylindric-ovoid, obtusely 5-ridged, 2–4.5
1.2–2.5 cm, rigid, becoming deeply wrinkled when dry, glabrous. Flowering May to June and September, fruiting July to December (Wu et al. 1994–2013).

Phytochemistry Glycosides (glucoside galangin-3-0-[β-D-galactopyranosyl-(1–4)]-α-L-rhamnopyranoside, 2,4,30 ,50 -tetrahydroxystilbene, and lupeol acetate bellericanin, belleric acid, bellericosides); flavonoids (galangin, galangin-7- α-L-rhamnopyranoside,

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7-hydroxy 30 40 (methylenedioxy) flavone, and anolignanB); tannins (gallic acid, phyllemblin, ellagic acid, ethyl gallate, chebulinic acid); phenols (lignans, termilignan, and thannilignan); saponin; triterpene (α-gallotannic acid, belleric acid); coloring amyrin acetate and cycloartenol lupeol0; phytosterols (β-sitosterol); carbohydrates (galloyl glucose, galactose, mannitol, glucose, fructose, and rhamnose); proteins. Fatty acid (palmitic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid); oxalic acid (Abraham et al. 2014; Katare et al. 2015; DPR 2016; Deb et al. 2016; Kumar and Khurana 2018; Singh et al. 2018). Seeds are rich in essential oil (13.25%), but very poor quantity of phenolics (0.65 gallic acid equivalent [GAE]) and flavonoids (0.77 quercetin equivalent [QE]) is present compared to epicarp (139.05 GAE and 141.26 QE) and mesocarp (135.23 GAE and 142.05 QE). In addition to that, qualitative phytochemical screening revealed that seeds are void of steroids and lignans (Hazra 2019).

Local Medicinal Uses Terminalia bellirica: Plant and plant parts are used in the traditional systems of medicines like Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani, and Chinese medicine. Fruit powder is one of the ingredients of well-known Ayurvedic drug “Triphala.” In Ayurvedic practice, Triphala is used to treat gastrointestinal disorders such as dyspepsia, malabsorption, constipation, and ulcerative colitis; it is also a colon cleanser and tonic. Triphala is also useful in treating ailments such as anemia, asthma, cough, fever, jaundice, leucorrhea, pyorrhea, and obesity (Mahato 2014; Peterson et al. 2017). Belleric is a rejuvenating and laxative. It helps in loss of appetite, flatulence, thirst, piles, and worms and works as antibacterial and anti-diarrheal. It proves beneficial for hair, throat, and eyes. It is used as anthelmintic, digestive, tonic (Burlakoti and Kunwar 2008), laxative (Manandhar 2002; Hasan et al. 2013; Katare et al. 2015), analgesic, antioxidant, hepatoprotective, antibacterial, anticancer and immune-modulatory antidepressant, anti-diabetic, and anti-ulcer and is used in asthma, bronchitis, cold, cough and tonsillitis blood diseases by Limbu, Bahun, Chhettry, Rai, Tamang, and Magar (Oli et al. 2005; Elizabeth 2005; Singh et al. 2018; Dharmaratne et al. 2018). Belleric extracts stimulate insulin secretion, enhance insulin action, and inhibit both protein glycation and starch digestion (Kasabri et al. 2010). Bark powder is applied to sores to draw out purulent matter and infusion applied to pimples and cracked skin and fresh wound to stop bleeding. Bark juice is applied externally in cut, wounds, and skin diseases. Gum of the bark is demulcent and purgative. The bark is mildly diuretic and is useful in anemia and leukoderma as well (Baral and Kurmi 2006; Katare et al. 2015). Fruits are laxative, astringent, anthelmintic, and antipyretic; are useful in hepatitis, bronchitis, asthma, dyspepsia, piles, diarrhea, coughs, hoarseness of voice, eye diseases, and scorpion-sting; and are used as hair tonic (Rajbhandari 2001; Acharya and Acharya 2009; DPR 2014; Acharya and Sharma 2014; Deb et al. 2016; Kumar and Khurana 2018). Fruits are also useful in stomach disorders and cough. If taken excessively, it can cause vomiting. Fruit decoction is given to livestock for diarrhea (Kunwar et al. 2012). The triterpenoid present in the fruits possesses significant

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antimicrobial activity. Ripe fruits are aphrodisiac and improve taste and appetite. Fruit pieces are baked and chewed for cough, cold, hoarseness of voice, and asthma. Fruit powder is given orally in cough, cold, respiratory problems, fever, and indigestion (Singh et al. 2012; Katare et al. 2015). Decoction of the green fruit is used for cough. Pulp of the fruit is used in dysenteric diarrhea, dropsy, piles, and leprosy (DPR 2016). Half-ripe fruit is used as purgative. Kernel of the fruit is narcotic. Fruits are used in menstrual disorder in Khagrachari. Raw fruits are taken orally for cough and gastritis in Tamang communities (Luitel et al. 2014). Roasted fruits of belleric are chewed to improve sore throats in Palpa District. They are eaten three times a day for a week to cure cough (Mahato 2014). Fruit powder is consumed frequently orally to treat stomach problems, diarrhea, dysentery, and cough in Dang District (Sigdel and Rokaya 2011; DPR 2016). The paste of the fruit is applied on eyelids, in case of conjunctivitis, and in various eye ailments, such as myopia, corneal opacity, pterygium, immature cataract, and chronic and acute infective conditions. The fruit is anthelmintic, astringent (especially when ripe), digestive, tonic, and laxative (Chevallier 1996; Manandhar 2002; Rokaya et al. 2014; DPR 2014). The fruit is used internally principally in the treatment of digestive and respiratory problems. In Indian herbal medicine, the ripe fruit is used in cases of diarrhea and indigestion, while the unripe fruit is used as a laxative in cases of chronic constipation. The fruit is often used to treat upper respiratory tract infections that cause symptoms of sore throats, hoarseness, and coughs. Externally, the fruit is used to make a lotion for sore eyes (Chevallier 1996). Seeds are purgative and aphrodisiac. Seed oil is used in rheumatism. Kernel oil has purgative action, and its prolonged use was well tolerated in mice (Deb et al. 2016). Seed oil or fruit paste is applied on swollen and painful parts. The decoction of the kernels is used in case of excessive thirst and vomiting. It prevents ageing, imparts longevity, boosts immunity, improves mental faculties, and enhances the body resistance against diseases. It helps in lowering cholesterol and blood pressure (Katare et al. 2015). Fruits are pyretic and seeds are used for bronchitis in Dang District. Fruits are chewed to cure cough and as appetizer in Chitwan District. Dried fruits are mixed with tobacco and smoked for sedative action in Bara District. Fruits are pounded with fruits of Terminalia chebula and cardamom to treat cough and cold by Limbus of Morang district. Fruits are used by Satars of Morang and Jhapa districts to treat bronchitis. Fruit powder is used as digestive and tonic and to treat bronchitis and asthma in Sankhuwasabha District (Rajbhandari 2001). It is used for diarrhea, digestion, dropsy, fever, gynecological problems, leprosy, piles, and urinary disorders (Gairola et al. 2014; Jain et al. 2005) and also employed to strengthen teeth and prevent bleeding gums and for fever, bronchitis, eye infections, bedwetting, asthma, respiratory problems, and headache (Gurung and Pyakurel 2017, Sharma et al. 2001). The paste is applied to burns (Kshirsagar and Singh 2001). In Sikkim, it is used for cough, sore throat, constipation, bronchitis, asthma, diarrhea, as well as respiratory disorders (Savithramma et al. 2007; Tamang et al. 2017),; can be used to treat leukoderma, and anemia (Palit and Banerjee 2016) and can be applied to snakebites (Houghton and Osibogun 1993) and can be used to treat high fever, colds, cholera, and sunstroke (Singh et al. 2002).

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Terminalia chebula: It is used for age-related disorders (Adams et al. 2007), cold, cough, and fever (Ballabh and Chaurasia 2007; Raj et al. 2018), kidney and urinary disorders (Ballabh et al. 2008), and gynecological problems, colds and cough (Gairola et al. 2014; Kunwar et al. 2009, 2012), skin problems, and asthma (Ignacimuthu et al. 2006). In Sikkim, it is used to remedy cough, sore throat, gastritis, mouth ulcers, and diarrhea (Tamang et al. 2017), asthma (Malik et al. 2015), and stomach-ache (Kichu et al. 2015; Kunwar et al. 2009, 2012). It can also be applied to snakebites (Houghton and Osibogun 1993) mouth sores, cardio tonic, and for constipation (Singh et al. 2002). It is useful for hemorrhages (Sharma et al. 2001).

Local Food Uses Terminalia bellirica: The seeds and fruits are edible (Manandhar 2002; Mahato 2014). They can be used for making preservatives (Facciola 1998).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Terminalia bellirica: The fruit contains anthraquinones and tannins (Chevallier 1996). The bark is used for making a dye (Manandhar 2002). The dried fruits contain 20–25% tannin. The fruits yield a dye that is occasionally used together with iron sulfate for dyeing black cloth and matting, as a cheap substitute for indigo, and for preparation of ink (Gamble 1972). The leaves are a source of tannins. The seeds yield about 40% of clear yellow oil, composed of 12% palmitic acid, 16% stearic acid, 43% oleic acid, and 29% linoleic acid. It is used for hair oil and in the manufacture of soap. The seed oil gives excellent results in skin diseases and premature graying of hair. Belleric fruits and kernels are used in making medicated hair oil, used to alleviate pain and burning sensation, boost hair growth, and impart black color to the hair (Katare et al. 2015). The timber is yellowish-gray, lacking heartwood, light to moderately heavy, fairly straight-grained, and very coarsetextured. It is not durable and very prone to insect attack, though durability is said to be improved by immersing the wood in water. Large-sized stems are used for dug-out canoes. It is used for construction and agricultural implements, especially in regions where other timber is scarce or expensive. The wood is valued for fuel and for making charcoal (Manandhar 2002). The fruit produces tannins and is used for tanning of leather, dyeing of clothes, and as inks. The leaves are used as fodder. The tree is a source of good quality firewood and charcoal with caloric value of sapwood being 5000 kcal/kg. The kernel produces nonedible oil used in toilet soap and is good for hair (Saraswathi et al. 2012). The fruit of this plant is in demand in local, national, and international markets. This is one of the major ingredients of the Triphala powder. This species is abundant in natural forests mainly in Siwalik and Tarai region. Most of the farmers/collectors collect and sell the Baheda in the local markets (cleaned, dried, and graded).

Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. . . .

2011

Fig. 3 Terminalia bellirica (Combretaceae), fruits are crushed for folklore, Begnas, Kaski, Nepal. (Photo Ripu Kunwar)

According to a study conducted by DPR, a total of 109 MT can be sustainably harvested from the eight Tarai and Chure districts (Makawanpur, Bara, Parsa, Sarlahi, Rautahat, Sunsari, Morang, and Jhapa) annually (DPR 2014) (Fig. 3). This species does not have conservation concerns; however, premature and untimely collection and harvesting and habitat destruction are common causes of decreasing the resource base in Nepal. Moreover, it has been noticed that whole trees are harvested by the local communities because of the limited knowledge of its ecology and growth. Government of Nepal has listed Barro as a priority species for cultivation and trade. Terminalia arjuna is used for stomach pain and heart problems and as tonic (Jain et al. 2005). It is also applied to snakebites (Houghton and Osibogun 1993) and in some regions to remedy earache, fever, diarrhea, and cholera (Singh et al. 2002). Terminalia tomentosa serves for bone fractures, hemorrhages, and bronchitis (Jain et al. 2005) and liver problems (Kumwar et al. 2011). It is also applied to snakebites (Houghton and Osibogun 1993). Terminalia crenulata serves to remedy diarrhea (Kshirsagar and Singh 2001).

Local Food Uses Terminalia bellirica: The roasted or unripe cotyledons are eaten (Dangol et al. 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Terminalia alata: It is used to clean hoof infections in livestock (Singh et al. 2002). Terminalia chebula: It is used as hair colorant (Gairola et al. 2014) and dye (Kunwar and Bussmann 2009). In Sikkim, it is used to remedy diarrhea in cattle (Tamang et al. 2017).

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References Abraham A, Mathew L, Samuel S. Pharmacognostic studies of the fruits of Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. J Pharmacognosy Phytochem. 2014;3(2):45–52. Acharya R, Acharya KP. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by Tharu Community of Parroha VDC, Rupandehi District, Nepal. Sci World. 2009;7(7):80–4. Acharya RP, Sharma R. Identification of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs) species for commercialization and trade promotion with an aim to supply on sustained basis from wild and cultivation area under IN-MAPS districts i.e. Pyuthan, Dang, Surkhet, Banke, Kailali, and Kanchanpur. Jadibuti Association of Nepal. Nepalgunj, Banke; 2014. Adams M, Gmünder F, Hamburger M. Plants traditionally used in age related brain disorders – a survey of ethnobotanical literature. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;113:363–81. Ballabh B, Chaurasia OP. Traditional medicinal plants of cold desert Ladakh – used in treatment of cold, cough and fever. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;112(2):341–9. Ballabh B, Chaurasia OP, Ahmed Z, Singh SB. Traditional medicinal plants of cold desert Ladakh – used against kidney and urinary disorders. J Ethnopharmacol. 2008;118:331–9. Baral SR, Kurmi PP. A compendium of medicinal plants in Nepal. Kathmandu: Rachana Sharma; 2006. Burlakoti C, Kunwar RM. In: Jha PK, Karmacharya SB, Chettri MK, Thapa CB, Shrestha BB, editors. Folk herbal medicines of Mahakali watershed area, Nepal. Medicinal plants in Nepal: an anthology of contemporary research. Kathmandu: Ecological Society; 2008. p. 187–93. Chevallier A. The encyclopedia of medicinal plants. London: Dorling Kindersley; 1996. ISBN 9-780751-303148. Dangol DR, Maharjan KL, Maharjan SK, Acharya AK. Wild edible plants in Nepal. In: Joshi BK, Bahadur KCH, Acharya A, editors. Conservation and utilization of agricultural plant genetic resources of Nepal. Dhulikhel: NAGRC; 2017. p. 390–407. Deb A, Barua S, Das B. Pharmacological activities of Baheda (Terminalia bellirica): a review. J Pharmacogn Phytochem. 2016;5:194–7. Dharmaratne MPJ, Manoraj A, Thevanesam V, et al. Terminalia bellirica fruit extracts: in-vitro antibacterial activity against selected multidrug-resistant bacteria, radical scavenging activity and cytotoxicity study on BHK-21 cells. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2018;18(1):325. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12906-018-2382-7. DPR. Status mapping and feasibility study for cultivation promotion of MAPs/NTFPs in the Chure and adjacent areas of Makwanpur, bara, Parsa, Rautahat, Sarlahi, Sunsari, Morang and Jhapa districts. Kathmandu: Department of Plant Resources; 2014. DPR. Medicinal plants of Nepal revised. Department of Plant Resources. Kathmandu: Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation, Government of Nepal; 2016:214p. Elizabeth KM. Antimicrobial activity of Terminalia bellerica. Indian J Clin Biochem. 2005;20(2):150–3. Facciola S. Cornucopia II. California: Kampong Publications; 1998. ISBN: 0-9628087-2-5. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Gamble JSA. Manual of Indian timbers. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh; 1972. Gurung K, Pyakurel D. Identification manual of commercial medicinal and aromatic plants of Nepal. Kathmandu: Nepal Herbs and Herbal Products Association (NEHHPA); 2017. Hasan MK, Gatto P, Jha PK. Traditional uses of wild medicinal plants and their management practices in Nepal-a study in Makawanpur. Int J Med Aromat Plants. 2013;3:102–12. Hazra K. Phytochemical investigation of Terminalia bellirica fruit. Asian J Pharm Clin Res. 2019;12(8):191–4. Houghton PJ, Osibogun IM. Flowering plants used against snakebite. J Ethnopharmacol. 1993;39:1–29. http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:531271-1#synonyms Ignacimuthu SS, Ayyanar MM, Sankara Sivaraman KK. Ethnobotanical investigations among tribes in Madurai District of Tamil Nadu (India). J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:25. Jain A, Katewa SS, Galav PK, Sharma P. Medicinal plant diversity of Sitamata wildlife sanctuary, Rajasthan, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102:143–57.

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Kasabri V, Flatt PR, Abdel-Wahab YHA. Terminalia bellirica stimulates the secretion and action of insulin and inhibits starch digestion and protein glycation in vitro. Br J Nutr. 2010;103:212–7. Katare J, Pichhode M, Nikhil K. Growth of Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. on the Malanjkhand copper mine overburden dump spoil material. Int J Res Granthaalayah. 2015;3(8):14–24. Http://www.granthaalayah.com Kichu A, Malewska T, Akter K, Imchen I, Harrington D, Kohen J, Vemulpad SR, Jamie JF. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of Chungtia village,Nagaland, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;166:5–17. Kshirsagar RD, Singh NP. Some less known ethnomedicinal uses from Mysore and Coorg districts, Karnataka state, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2001;75:231–8. Kumar N, Khurana SMP. Phytochemistry and medicinal potential of the Terminalia bellirica Roxb. (Bahera). Indian J Nat Prod Resour. 2018;9(2):97–107. Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Medicinal, aromatic and dye plants of Baitadi and Darchula districts, Nepal Himalaya: status, uses and management. In: Hartmann M, Weipert J, editors. Biodiversität, Naturausstattung im Himalaya, vol. III. Naturkundemuseum Erfurt; 2009. p. 475–89. Kunwar RM, Upreti Y, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Indigenous use and ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in far-West Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009;7:5–28. Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Sharma LN, Kominee H, Bussmann RW. Underutilized plant species in far West Nepal. J Mt Sci. 2012;9:589–600. Luitel DR, Rokaya MB, Timsina B. Medicinal plants used by the Tamang community in the Makwanpur district of Central Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2014;10:5. https://doi.org/10. 1186/1746-4269-10-5. Mahato RB. Wild edible fruits of Palpa District, West Nepal. J Nat Hist Mus. 2014;28:127–36. Malik ZA, Bhat J, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhat AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44. Manandhar NP. Plants and people of Nepal. Oregon: Timber Press; 2002. Oli BR, Ghimire SK, Bhuju DR. Ethnographic validity and use values of plants locally utilized in the Churiya of East Nepal: a quantitative approach to ethnobotany. Botanica Orientalis. 2005;5:40–7. Palit D, Banerjee A. Traditional uses and conservative lifestyle of Lepcha tribe through sustainable bioresource utilization – cas studies from Darjeeling and Norgh Sikkim, India. Int J Conserv Sci. 2016;7(3):735–52. Peterson CT, Denniston K, Chopra D. Therapeutic uses of Triphala in Ayurvedic medicine. J Altern Complement Med. 2017;23(8):607–14. https://doi.org/10.1089/acm.2017.0083. Raj AJ, Biswakarma B, Pala NA, Shukla G, Vineeta V, Kumar M, Chakravarty S, Bussmann RW. Indigenous uses of ethno-medicinal plants among forest dependent communities of northern Bengal, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;141(8) https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-018-0208-9. Rajbhandari KR. Ethnobotany of Nepal. Kathmandu: Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal; 2001. Rokaya MB, Uprety Y, Poudele RC, Timsina B, Münzbergováa Z, Asselind H, Tiwaric A, Shrestha SS, Sigdel SR. Traditional uses of medicinal plants in gastrointestinal disorders in Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;158:221–9. Saraswathi MN, Karthikeyan M, Kannan M, Rajasekar S. Terminalia bellirica Roxb. A Phytopharmacological review. Int J Res Pharmaceut Biomed Sci. 2012;3(1):96–9. Savithramma N, Sulochana C, Rao KN. Ethnobotanical survey of plants used to treat asthma in Andhra Pradesh, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;113:54–61. Sharma HK, Chhangte L, Dolui AK. Traditional medicinal plants in Mizoram, India. Fitoterapia. 2001;72:146–61. Sigdel SR, Rokaya MB. Utilization of plant resources in Dang district, West Nepal. Banko Janakari. 2011;21(2):45–9. Singh AG, Kumar A, Tewari DD. An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used in Terai forest of western Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2012;8:19. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-8-19. Singh AK, Raghubanshi AS, Singh JA. Medical ethnobotany of the tribals of Sonaghati of Sonbhadra district, Uttar Pradesh, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2002;81:31–41. Singh MP, Gupta A, Sisodia SS. Ethno and modern pharmacological profile of Baheda (Terminalia bellirica): a review. Pharmaceut Chem J. 2018;5(1):153–62.

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Thalictrum cultratum Wall. Thalictrum foetidum L. Thalictrum foliolosum DC. RANUNCULACEAE Sabina Gyawali, Sanjeev Luintel, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Thalictrum cultratum Wall.: Thalictrum cultratum subsp. platycarpum (Hook. f. & Thomson) Brühl; Thalictrum cultratum var. tsangense Brühl; Thalictrum deciternatum B. Boivin; Thalictrum yui B. Boivin Thalictrum foetidum L.: Thalictrum minus var. foetidum (L.) Hook. f. & Thomson; Thalictrum minus var. glandulosum Koch; Thalictrum vaginatum Royle Thalictrum foliolosum DC.: Thalictrum dalingo Buch.-Ham. ex DC.

S. Gyawali · S. Luintel Amrit Science College, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_245

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Local Names Thalictrum cultratum: Chinese: 高原唐松草; Nepali: Peljadi, Dampate, Nagghunensa; Sanskrit: Peet ranga; Dolpali: Chyaag-kyu ngon-po; English: Highland Meadowrue, Knife like Meadow Rue, Dioecious Meadow Rue Thalictrum foetidum: Ladakh: Chak-choo, Maniron; English: Fetid meadow rue Thalictrum foliolosum: Sikkim: Mirmire; Jammu: Mamira; Ladakh: Chakchu

Botany and Ecology The genus Thalictrum L. (Ranunculaceae), commonly known as “meadow-rue,” comprises 150–200 species distributed in temperate regions (Tamura 1995; Fu and Zhu 2001). It is represented by 25 taxa in India (Rau 1993; Santapau and Henry 1973) mostly confined to the Himalayan region. For one of these species, Thalictrum cultratum Wallich (1831, p. 26), the protolog includes two localities (Gossain Than and Kumaon), but no reference to a type specimen. Riedl and Nasir (1991) cited Wall. Cat. 3715 as type without further specifications. The genus Thalictrum belongs to Class Magnoliopsida under clade of eudicots and order of Ranunculales of Family Ranunculaceae of Subfamily Thalictroideae (APG IV). Most of the species of genus Thalictrum are distributed throughout the world mainly in N. temperate and paleotropical, neo-tropical, and S. African distribution and outer Himalayas from Pakistan to Bhutan (Press et al. 2000; Xuejun et al. 2011). Thalictrum cultratum: Plants 50–120 cm tall, glabrous or pubescent. Stems branched distally. Basal and proximal cauline leaves withered at anthesis. Middle cauline leaves petiolate; petiole 1–4 cm; leaf blade 3- or 4-pinnate, 9–20 cm; leaflet blade rhombic-obovate, broadly rhombic, or orbicular, 0.5–1(
1.4)  0.3–1(
1.4) cm, thinly leathery, base rounded or subcordate, apex acute, 3-lobed; lobes entire or 2-toothed; veins raised abaxially. Inflorescence paniculate. Pedicel slender, 4– 14 mm. Sepals deciduous, greenish white, narrowly elliptic, 3–4 mm. Stamens many, 6–8 mm; filament filiform; anther narrowly oblong, 2–2.6 mm, apex mucronate. Carpels 4–9. Achenes sessile; body hemiobovoid, about 3.5 mm; veins about 8. Flowering June–July (Wu et al. 1994–2013). Thalictrum cultratum is distributed between 1700 m and 4200 m elevation in Gansu, Sichuan, Xizang, NW Yunnan, Bhutan, Kashmir, Nepal, Sikkim, Pakistan, Kashmir, S. E. Tibet, and W. China (Wu et al. 2003). Thalictrum foetidum: Perennial; entire plant covered with short glandular pubescence mainly developed on underside of leaves and consisting of short spreading hairs and small glands, very rarely the plant almost glabrous or covered with isolated small glands; stem (15)20–50(65) cm high, often violet proximally, with evenly spaced leaves; leaves 3–4-pinnate, petiolate or subsessile, with 1–4 cm exstipulate petioles, the blade broadly triangular, to 10–20 cm long and about as broad; leaflets small, orbicular, rounded-ovate or obovate, sometimes slightly cordate, trilobate, with ovate entire and obtusely 2–3-dentate lobes, the leaflets 2–15 mm broad;

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Fig. 1 Thalictrum foetidum (Ranunculaceae), Kazbegi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

flowers small, often nutant, in a loose panicle; pedicels 0.5–3(4) cm; perianth segments 4–5, ovate, 3–4 mm long, 1–2 mm broad, violet; stamens numerous, 2.5–3 times as long as pistils; filaments slender, 3–5 mm long; anthers yellow, linear, acuminate, 2–3 mm long; pistils 8–12; ovary 1 mm long, sessile; style 0.5–2 mm long; fruitlets sessile, ovoid or ovoid-oblong, flattened, 2–3.5 mm long, 1.5–2.5 mm broad, glandular-pubescent, longitudinally ribbed; beak about 1 mm long, straight or slightly curved. Flowering June–July. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, on stony slopes, cliffs, pebbles, limestone, forest fringes, along rivers, in the subalpine and alpine belts (Shishkin and Boborov 1937) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5). Thalictrum foliolosum: Plants 0.9–1.2 m tall, glabrous. Stems branched. Petiole 1.5–5 cm; leaf blade 3-ternate, about 35 cm; leaflet blade rhombic-elliptic or ovate, 1–2.5  0.5–1.5 cm, leathery, abaxially not white powdery, base rounded or subcordate, apex obtuse or rounded, 3-lobed; lobes few; veins slightly raised abaxially, flat adaxially. Inflorescence terminal or axillary, paniculate, about 20 cm, many flowered. Sepals 4, early deciduous, yellow, greenish tinged, narrowly elliptic, 3–4.5 mm. Stamens many, 6–7 mm; filament filiform; anther narrowly oblong, about 2.5 mm, apex mucronate. Carpels 4–6; style equaling ovary; stigma linear. Achenes sessile; body fusiform, about 3 mm; veins about 8. Flowering August–September (Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Figs. 6 and 7).

2018 Fig. 2 Thalictrum foetidum (Ranunculaceae), Racha, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Thalictrum foetidum (Ranunculaceae), Racha, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 4 Thalictrum minus (Ranunculaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Alkaloids (beberine, talphine, talline, isoboldin, fetidine, talipetidine, berbamine, thalicmine, thalicmidine, thalicmitrine, tolmetin, argemonine, thalisopine, thalisopidine, dehydrothalicmine, thalicmine, thalicminine, cryptopine, magnoflorine), cyanogenic compounds, tannins, flavonoids, organic acids, and coumarins (Fedorov 1984). Berberine is highly abundant in the root and rhizome of T. cultratum (Xiao and Wang 1965); new benzyl-aporphine alkaloids, benzyl-aporphine alkaloids, thaliculine, and 6a,7-dehydrothaliculine; Berberis sargentiana 5–15, Mentha haplocalyx 15–25, Gentiana scabra 2–10, F, compound fertilizer containing amino acid (Kang et al. 2019); bisbenzylisoquinoline (
)-2-northalmine, dimer (
)-thalrugosinone (Hussain et al. 1985); bisbenzylisoquinolines-(
)-thalictine, (
)-thalrugosidine, (+)-0-methylthalicberine, (+)-thaliphylline, (
)-thalrugosaminine, (
)-thalisopine [¼ (
)-thaligosine], (+)-thalsivasine (Hussain et al. 1986); norbisbenzylisoquinolines (+)-20 -noroxyacanthine and (+)20 -northaliphylline, the diphenolic imine (+)-cultithalminine, and the six N-oxides (+)-neothalibrine-20 -ot-N-oxide, (
)-thalrugosaminine-2-a-N-oxide, (
)thaligosine-2-a-N-oxide, (+)-thaliphylline-20 -ß-oxide, (+)-thalidasine-2-a-N-oxide, and (
)-5-hydroxythalidasine-2-oc-N-oxide (Herath et al. 1987); protocatechuic

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Fig. 5 Thalictrum minus (Ranunculaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 6 Thalictrum reniforme (Ranunculaceae), habit, Murkuti hill, Dang, Nepal. (Photo Sushil Lamichhane)

acid, caffeic acid, coumaric acid, kaempferol, and β-sitosterol (Gao et al. 1999); flavonoids are distributed extensively in Thalictrum, mostly in the form of flavone glycoside and flavonol glycoside. Flavone O-glycosides such as apigenin, luteolin, and acacetin 7-O-glycosides are commonly found (Khamidullina et al. 2006; Mayeku et al. 2013).

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Fig. 7 Thalictrum reniforme (Ranunculaceae), flowers, Murkuti hill, Dang, Nepal. (Photo Sushil Lamichhane)

Alkaloids are commonly accumulated in the root and rhizome, benzylisoquinoline alkaloids isoquinoline monomer and dimer, i.e., B1 and B2 types. B1 types; (1) simple isoquinoline, (2) benzylisoquinoline, (3) aporphinoids, (4) protoberberine, (5) protopine, (6) pavine, (7) morphine, and (8) phenanthrene. B2 classification is as follows: (1) bisbenzylisoquinoline (BBI), (2) aporphinebenzylisoquinoline (ABI), (3) aporphinepavine, (4) aporphine-substituted benzene, (5) protoberberine-benzylisoquinoline, and (6) protoberberine-aporphine; 3-O-glycosides, phenylpropanoids, and lignins (Lee et al. 2013). Cycloartane-type tetracyclic triterpenoids (Hao et al. 2015; Jiang et al. 2017) and oleananetype pentacyclic triterpenoids, C-17 acyclic side chain, C-17THF (tetrahydrofuran) ring, C-20 THF ring, and C-17 cyclopentane ring; dimeric alkaloids have intriguing structures and bioactivities; 11 thalifaberine-type aporphine-benzylisoquinoline alkaloids, thalicultratines A-K, a tetrahydroprotoberberineaporphine alkaloid, thalicultratine L, and five other known ones have been isolated from the roots of T. cultratum (Li et al. 2017); aporphinebenzylisoquinoline alkaloids, thalicultratines A
K, a tetrahydroprotoberberine-aporphine alkaloid, thalicultratine, etc. (Li et al. 2017).

Local Medicinal Uses Many species are generally used in Middle Asia and the Altai to treat ulcers and gastric diseases (Fedorov 1984). Thalictrum foetidum: The leaves are used as an antiemetic. It is also used to treat epilepsy, jaundice, edema, tuberculosis, nose bleeds, gastrointestinal ailments, colds, and gynecological diseases. As poultice, it is used to treat bruises, wounds, abscesses, and rheumatism. A decoction of the roots is used as remedy for diarrhea, ulcers, and liver and kidney diseases. A tea of the seeds and herb is used for headache, dizziness, and bronchitis (Fedorov 1984). Root decoction of T. cultratum is used as a tonic (Nautiyal et al. 2001); given to fever and diarrhea

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(for animal only) (Rajbhandari et al. 2009); used in stomachache, dysentery (Kunwar and Bussmann 2009; Kunwar et al. 2010a, b); cough and cold, jaundice, gastric, fever (Kunwar et al. 2015), as well as eye problems (Gairola et al. 2014). Thalictrine has inhibitory effect on lymphoma, sarcolymphoma, and hepatoma (Jain et al. 1991). Berberine is antibacterial and antimalarial (Yamamoto et al. 1993). Juice of root, about 4 teaspoons 3 times a day, is given in case of fever (Manandhar 1995). The species is also used as spices (Jha et al. 1996) and antimicrobial (Omulokoli et al. 1997; Schmeller et al. 1997; Iwasa et al. 1998). Root extract is antiperiodic, diuretic, and purgative (Chauhan 1999). It is also used to treat dysentery, diarrhea, virus hepatitis, and influenza measles (Chen et al. 2003). Plant is used as a substitute of “chyag-kyu ser-po” (Ghimire and Aumeeruddy-Thomas 2009). Thalictrum minus: An infusion of the herb is used to treat various diseases: skin, diarrhea, hepatitis, malaria, epilepsy, tuberculosis, fevers, and is also used as a hemostatic (Fedorov 1984). The species is also used for gout, conjunctivitis, fever, and rheumatism (Gairola et al. 2014). Thalictrum foliolosum is used in the Himalayas for diarrhea, as purgative and diuretic, febrifuge, and eye problems, and for cuts and wounds (Joshi et al. 2010; Kumar et al. 2011). The juice of stem is applied on itching and other medicinal uses (Piya et al. 2011; Sigdel et al. 2013). Root is used in contagious fever and for wounds (Ghimire and Aumeeruddy-Thomas 2009). Plant is ground with black pepper (3:1) and about 3 teaspoons twice a day is given to cure leukorrhea for a week. Root is chewed to get relief from toothache (Malla et al. 2015). It is used for poisoning, fever, wounds, and infections (Tamang et al. 2017). The plant is also used for cataracts and eye complaints (Aumeeruddy-Thomas and Shengji 2003; Kala et al. 2004). The species is used to remedy problems related to eyesight, malaria, gout, and rheumatism (Gairola et al. 2014). Thalictrum cultarum is used for stomach problems and diarrhea (Kayani et al. 2015; Kunwar et al. 2009a, b, 2010, 2013), and also for fever (Rajbhandari et al. 2007). Thalictrum reniforme – Root, leaf, and flowers are used in wounds and infection, fever, antiseptic, and poisoning (Pandey 2006). Thalictrum elegans – Plant paste is used for headache (Gewali and Awale 2008). Thalictrum javanicum – Juice is applied in case of boils and pimples (Manandhar 2003); roots are used in swelling, hotness, fever, and poisoning (Bhattarai 2004). Thalictrum pedunculatum serves as tonic, for fever and urinary problems (Kayani et al. 2015). Thalictrum alpinum serves for eye problems and abdominal pain (Gairola et al. 2014).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The species is used as fodder for cattle and also planted as ornamental (Fedorov 1984). Thalictrum cultratum is used to treat diarrhea in cattle (Rajbhandari et al. 2007).

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References Aumeeruddy-Thomas Y, Shengji P. Applied ethnobotany: case studies from the Himalayan region. People and plants working paper 12. WWF: Surrey; 2003. Bhattarai KR. Study of non-timber Forest products (NTFPs): status and ethno-botanical importance of visitors impacted plant species. Solukhumbu: Sagarmatha National Park; 2004. Chauhan NS. Medicinal and aromatic plants of Himanchal Pradesh. New Delhi: Indus Publication Company; 1999. p. 632. Chen SB, Chen SL, Xiao PG. Ethnopharmacological investigations on Thalictrum plants in China. J Asian Nat Prod Res. 2003;5(4):263–71. Fedorov AA, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 1. Families Magnoliaceae – Limoniaceae, vol. 1. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1984, 460 p. (in Russian). Fu DZ, Zhu G. Thalictrum L. In: Wu ZY, Raven PH, editors. Flora of China, vol. 6. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 2001. p. 289–311. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Gao GY, Chen SB, Xiao PG. Chemical constituents of Thalictrum atriplex. China J Chin Mater Med. 1999;24(3):160–1. Gewali MB, Awale S. Aspects of traditional medicine in Nepal. Toyama: Institute of Natural Medicine. University of Toyama; 2008. Ghimire SK, Aumeeruddy-Thomas Y. Ethnobotanical classification and plant nomenclature system of high altitude agro-pastoralists in Dolpo, Nepal. Bot Orient J Plant Sci. 2009;6:56–68. Hao DC, Gu XJ, Xiao PG. Thalictrum medicinal resources: chemistry, biology and phylogeny. Lishizhen Med Mater Med Res. 2015;26(7):1731–3. Herath WH, Hussain SF, Freyer AJ, Guinaudeau H, Shamma M. Nine bisbenzylisoquinoline alkaloids from Thalictrum cultratum. J Nat Prod. 1987;50(4):721–5. Hussain SF, Guinaudeau H, Freyer AJ, Shamma M. Bisbenzylisoquinoline alkaloids from Thalictrum cultratum. The structures of thalrugosinone and thalpindione. J Nat Prod. 1985;48(6):962–6. Hussain SF, Freyer AJ, Guinaudeau H, Shamma M. Five new bisbenzylisoquinoline alkaloids from Thalictrum cultratum. J Nat Prod. 1986;49(3):488–93. Iwasa K, Nanba H, Lee DU, Kang SI. Structure–activity relationships of protoberberines having antimicrobial activity. Planta Med. 1998;64:748–51. Jain SK, Sinha BK, Gupta RC. Notable plants in ethnomedicine of India. Lucknow/New Delhi: NBRI/Deep Publication; 1991. p. 219. Jha PK, Shrestha KK, Upadhyay MP, Stimart DP, Spooner DM. Plant genetic resources of Nepal: a guide for plant breeders of agricultural, horticultural and forestry crops. Euphytica. 1996;87(3):189–210. Jiang SQ, Zhang YB, Xiao M, et al. Cycloartane triterpenoid saponins from the herbs of Thalictrum. Carbohydr Res. 2017;445:1–6. Joshi M, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal uses of plant resources of the Haigad watershed in Kumaun Himalaya. Med Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010;4(Special issue 1):43–6. Kala CP, Farooquee NA, Dhar U. Prioritization of medicinal plants on the basis of available knowledge, existing practices and use value status in Uttaranchal, India. Biodivers Conserv. 2004;13:453–69. Kang W, Li J, Li D, Li Z, Chen S, Hua H, Bai J. Language: English, Database: CAPLUS. Nat Prod Res. 2019;33(21):3176–9. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2018.1523160. Kayani S, Ahmad M, Sultana S, Khan Shinwari ZM, Yaseen G, Hussain M, Bibi T. Ethnobotany of medicinal plants among the communities of Alpine and Sub-alpine regions of Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;164:186–202. Khamidullina EA, Gromova AS, Lutsky VI, et al. Natural products from medicinal plants: non-alkaloidal natural constituents of the Thalictrum species. Nat Prod Rep. 2006;23(1):117–29.

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Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Medicinal, Aromatic and Dye Plants of Baitadi and Darchula Districts, Nepal Himalaya: status, uses and management. In: Hartmann, M., J. Weipert: Biodiversität, Naturausstattung im Himalaya, Bd. III, 2009. p. 475–489, Erfurt, Naturkundemuseum. Kumar M, Bussmann RW, Mukesh J, Kumar P. Ethnomedicinal uses of plants close to rural habitation in Garhwal Himalayan, India. J Med Plant Res. 2011;5(11):2252–60. Kunwar RM, Uprety Y, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Indigenous use and ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in Far-West Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009a;7:5–28. Kunwar RM, Upreti Y, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Indigenous use and ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in Far-West Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009b;7:5–28. Kunwar RM, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants in Far-West Nepal: indigenous uses and pharmacological validity. Med Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010a;4(1):28–42. Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Bussmann RW. Traditional herbal medicine in Far-West Nepal: a pharmacological appraisal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010b;6:35. Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Acharya RP, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants, traditional medicine, markets and management in Far-West Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:24. Kunwar RM, Acharya RP, Chaodhary CL. Medicinal plant dynamics in indigenous medicines in Far-West Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;163:210–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2015.01.035. Lee EJ, Hagel JM, Facchini PJ. Role of the phloem in the biochemistry and ecophysiology of benzylisoquinoline alkaloid metabolism. Front Plant Sci. 2013;4:182. Li DH, Li JY, Xue CM, Han T, Sai CM, Wang KB, Li ZL. Antiproliferative dimeric aporphinoid alkaloids from the roots of Thalictrum cultratum. J Nat Prod. 2017;80(11):2893–904. Malla B, Gauchan DP, Chhetri RB. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by ethnic people in Parbat district of western Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;165:103–17. Manandhar NP. An inventory of some herbal drugs of Myagdi District, Nepal. Econ Bot. 1995;49(4):371–9. Manandhar NP. Native use of herbal drugs for treatment of skin diseases in Nepal. In: Plant-derived antimycotics: current trends and future prospects. New York: Food Products Press; 2003. p. 429. Mayeku PW, Hassanali A, Kiremire BT, et al. Anti-bacterial activities and phytochemical screening of extracts of different parts of Thalictrum rhynchocarpum. Afr J Tradit Complement Altern Med. 2013;10(5):341–4. Nautiyal S, Maikhuri RK, Rao KS, Saxena KG. Medicinal plant resources in Nanda Devi biosphere reserve in the Central Himalayas. J Herbs Spices Med Plants. 2001;8(4):47–64. Omulokoli E, Khan B, Chhabra SC. Antiplasmodial activity of four Kenyan medicinal plants. J Ethnopharmacol. 1997;56:133–7. Pandey MR. Use of medicinal plants in traditional Tibetan therapy system in upper Mustang, Nepal. Our Nat. 2006;4(1):69–82. Piya L, Maharjan KL, Joshi NP, Dangol DR. Collection and marketing of non-timber forest products by Chepang community in Nepal. J Agric Environ. 2011;12:10–21. Press JR, Shrestha KK, Sutton DA. Annotated checklist of the flowering plants of Nepal. London: The Natural History Museum; 2000. Rajbhandari M, Mentel R, Jha PK, Chaudhary RP, Bhattarai S, Gewali MB, Karmacharya N, Hipper M, Lindequist U. Antiviral activity of some plants used in Nepalese traditional medicine. eCAM. 2007;1–6. https://doi.org/10.1093/ecam/nem156. Rajbhandari M, Mentel R, Jha PK, Chaudhary RP, Bhattarai S, Gewali MB, Lindequist U. Antiviral activity of some plants used in Nepalese traditional medicine. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2009;6(4):517–22. Rau MA. Ranunculaceae. In: Sharma BD, Balakrishnan NP, Rao RR, Hajra PK, editors. Flora of India, vol. 1. Calcutta: Botanical Survey of India; 1993. p. 1–145. Riedl H, Nasir YJ. Ranunculaceae. In: Ali SI, Yasin JN, editors. Flora of Pakistan, No. 193. Karachi: University of Karachi; 1991. p. 1–157. Santapau H, Henry AN. A dictionary of flowering plants in India. New Delhi: Publications & Information Directorate, CSIR; 1973. p. 170.

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Schmeller T, Latz-Bruning B, Wink M. Biochemical activities of berberine, palmatine and sanguinarine mediating chemical defence against microorganisms and herbivores. Phytochemistry. 1997;44:257–66. Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, Volume 7: Ranales to Rhoedales. Akademia Nauk, Leningrad; 1937 (English 1970). 615 p. Sigdel SR, Rokaya MB, Timsina B. Plant inventory and ethnobotanical study of Khimti hydropower project, Central Nepal. Sci World. 2013;11(11):105–12. Tamang M, Pal K, Kumar Rai S, Kalam A, Rehan Ahmad S. Ethnobotanical survey of threatened medicinal plants of West Sikkim. Int J Bot Stud. 2017;2(6):116–25. Tamura M. Ranunculaceae. In: Hiepko P, editor. Engler’s Die Naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien. Berlin: Duncker & Humblot; 1995. p. 223–497. Wallich N. Plantae Asiaticae Rariores, vol. 2. London: Treuttel and Würtz; 1831. p. 26. Wu Z, Raven PH, Hong D, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994–2013. Wu ZY, Raven PH, Hong DY, editors. Flora of China, vol. 6. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/ Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 2003. Xiao PG, Wang WC. A study of the Ranunculaceous medicinal plants in China III. The medicinal plants of genus Thalictrum Linn. Acta Pharm Sin. 1965;12(11):745–9. Xuejun J, Kirschner J, Štěpánek J. Semecarpus F.H. Wiggers. In: Wu ZY, Raven PH, Hong DY, editors. Flora of China, vol. 6. St. Louis/Beijing: Missouri Botanical Garden Press/Science Press; 2011. p. 288. Yamamoto K, Takase H, Abe K, Saito Y, Suzuki A. Pharmacological studies on antidiarrheal effects of a preparation containing berberine and geranii herba. Nippon Yakurigaku Zasshi. 1993;101:169–75.

Thymus linearis Benth. ssp. linearis Jalas Thymus serpyllum L. Thymus vulgaris L. LAMIACEAE Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Maroof Ali Turi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Thymus linearis Benth. ssp. linearis Jalas: Thymus afghanicus Ronniger, Thymus himalaicus Ronniger Thymus serpyllum L.: Thymus angustifolius var. pycnotrichus Uechtr., Thymus pycnotrichus (Uechtr.) Ronniger, Thymus serpyllum subsp. pycnotrichus Uechtr.

H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan M. A. Turi College of Life Science, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu, China R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_246

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Local Names Thymus linearis ssp. linearis: Baltistan: Tumbruk, Tumburu, Tomurom; Kurram: Marwezi, Maweray, Panny; Kashmir: Javen, Jamngli javind, Van Ajwain; Ladakh: Tumburu; Pashto: Sperkai; Urdu: Hasha; Northern Pakistan: Marveiy, Banjwain; Nepali: Akhino Thymus serpyllum: Urdu, Hasha, Jangali Ajwain; Jammu, Banjwain, Jeven, Jangliajwain; Kashmir, Ajwan, jamajunsha, Jangli javind, Jawand, Javen, Marchi; Ladakh, Tumba, Tumbra, Tmumbra, Tumbru, Tumbrak; Pashto, Sperkai, Chai; English, Wild thyme, Creeping thyme Thymus vulgaris: English, Thyme

Botany and Ecology Thymus linearis ssp. linearis: Much branched dwarf,  creeping mat-forming herb. Basal branches procumbent with fascicles of leaves at the nodes and short ascending-erect flowering shoots. Stems  quadrangular, pilose all around the stem or on the angles only with spreading or shortly retrorse eglandular hairs; flowering stems 2–s6 cm long. Leaves elliptic-obovate to linear lanceolate, 5–11 x 2–5 mm, with prominent or  obsolete lateral veins, densely dotted with reddish sessile oil globules above and below, glabrous or with few scattered eglandular pilose hairs. Inflorescence ovoid-capitate. Bracts 0.5–1.5 mm. Calyx 3.5–4 mm, tubular to campanulate, usually purplish, with oil globules; lower teeth up to 2 mm, subulate. Corolla about 6 mm long, pale lilac, pink purplish, or violet. Stamens clearly exserted in hermaphrodite flowers. Nutlets pale brown, ovoid, c.1 x 0.75 mm with a small V-shaped attachment scar (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020) (Fig. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5).

Fig. 1 Thymus linearis (Lamiaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mahmood Abbasi)

Thymus linearis Benth. ssp. linearis Jalas. . .

Fig. 2 Thymus linearis ssp. linearis (Lamiaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Maroof Ali Turi)

Fig. 3 Thymus collinum (Lamiaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Thymus caucasicus (Lamiaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 5 Thymus caucasicus (Lamiaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 6 Thymus serpyllum (Lamiaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Ikram Ur-Rahman & Hassan Sher)

Thymus serpyllum: Diffusely branched, mat-forming perennial, rooting at the nodes; stems woody at base; fl stems  erect, to 1 dm, hairy all around; lvs linear to subrotund, in our wild forms commonly elliptic to oblong-ovate or oblong-obovate, 5–10 mm, shortpetioled; fls aggregated into a continuous or interrupted terminal “spike” 1–4( 15) cm; cal 3–4 mm; cor purple, 4–6 mm; native of Europe, commonly cult. and escaped into upland woods and fields (Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Fig. 6). Thymus vulgaris: Originating from the N. W. part of the Mediterranean region and now widely cultivated. Characterized by the arachnoid indument of the leaf underside; stems uniformly short-haired; leaves oblong-obovate, 5–10 mm long, 2–3 mm broad, with short but quite distinct petiole; inflorescence usually interrupted; pedicels fairly long; calyx 3–5 mm long; corolla lilac, rather pale to almost white. Growing wild in the Mediterranean region (from Portugal to Greece). Cultivated in Europe and the Americas for its essential oil; sometimes naturalized (Fig. 7, 8, 9 and 10).

Thymus linearis Benth. ssp. linearis Jalas. . . Fig. 7 Thymus vulgaris (Lamiaceae), Manglisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 8 Thymus vulgaris (Lamiaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 9 Thymus vulgaris (Lamiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 10 Thymus vulgaris (Lamiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Essential oils (carvacrol, thymol, pinene, cymene, limonene, linalyl acetate, cineole, geraniol, citral, linalool, borneol, terpineol, pinacetate, camphene, citronellol, nerolidol, eukaliptol, bornilacetate, nerilacetate, citronellal, ursolic and oleanolic, terpinene, tsingiberen) (Sokolov 1991).

Local Medicinal Uses Thymus linearis ssp. linearis: It is used to treat dropsy, pneumonia, appetite loss, asthma, chest infections, cold, cough, fever, flatulence, gastrointestinal problems, indigestion, menstrual disorders, stomachache, and menstrual disorders (Gairola et al. 2014; Kayani et al. 2015; Wali et al. 2019) and also to remedy eye infections (Rajbhandari et al. 2007), abdominal pain, and vomiting (Abbas et al. 2019a). It is also applied for asthma, toothache, and digestive disorders (Muhammad et al. 2019). Thymus serpyllum: It is used in Pakistan to treat lung disease and asthma (Sher et al. 2016) and as expectorant, carminative, antiseptic, and anti-convulsive and for whooping cough and kidney and eye problems (Joshi et al. 2010). In Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh, it is used for weak vision, fever, menstrual disorders, hepatic problems, and gastric disorders (Gairola et al. 2014) and to treat catarrh, pneumonia, cough (in children), primary nocturnal enuresis, tongue and oral blisters, kidney pain, dyspnea, pneumonia, flatulence, diabetes, wounds, flatulence, and headache (Mustafa et al. 2015). Thymus vulgaris: In Middle Asia and the Altai Thyme, infusions are used for diseases of the upper respiratory tract, fever, bronchitis, whooping cough, bronchial asthma, fever, and headache, to treat stomatitis and toothaches, and as bath for

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gynecological diseases, neurodermatitis, and eczema and wounds (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017; Sokolov 1991) and cough (Mustafa et al. 2015). Thymus kotschyanus is used for disinfection of the oral cavity and as anthelmintic, as remedy for respiratory diseases, and as hypotensive (Isotova et al. 2010; Gabrielyan 2001; Grossheim 1952; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2014; Zolotnitskaya 1958–1965). Young stem and leaves contain tannins, organic acids, vitamin C, essential oils, saponins, and thymol (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Budantseva 1994– 1996; Bussmann 2017; Grossheim 1952; Miraldi et al. 2001; Sokolov 1984–1993; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2007; Zolotnitskaya 1958–1965). Thymus caucasicus is used for diseases of the upper respiratory passages and lungs: a water infusion of aboveground parts is applied as expectorant, antitussive, as well as diuretic. The same decoction is used externally as gargle for angina and foul smell in the mouth (Damirov et al. 1988). The water infusion of aboveground parts is also used internally to treat apnea and hypertonia and as anthelmintic (Damirov et al. 1988). Thymus collinus has anti-inflammatory properties. A decoction and water infusion of aboveground parts is applied internally to treat colds and as an expectorant (Grossheim 1942). Thymus caucasicus and T. collinus are used as an expectorant to heal diseased upper respiratory tract (Kuchukhidze and Jokhadze 2012). The dry leaves of thyme are used to relieve spasms and crams. Also, its tincture based on spirit was used against rheumatism (Roloff 1887). The leaves are also used for cough and hypertension (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018).

Local Food Uses All species are used as spices and sometimes in recreational tea (Bussmann et al. 2017a, b, 2020). Thymus linearis is used as coffee replacement and as condiment (Abbas et al. 2019b) and as herbal tea (Ahmad and Pieroni 2016; Ur-Rahman et al. 2019). The seeds are used to flavor tea (Thakur et al. 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Thymus linearis: A decoction is used to treat indigestion in cattle (Ali et al. 2019).

References Abbas Z, Mulk Khan S, Mehmood Abbasi A, Pieroni A, Ullah Z, Iqbal M, Ahmad Z. Ethnobotany of the Balti community, Tormik valley, Karakorum range, Baltistan, Pakistan. Abbas et al. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2019a;12:38. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0114-y. Abbas Z, Alam J, Muhammad S, Bussmann RW, Mulk Khan S, Hussain M. Phyto-cultural diversity of the Shigar valley Central Karakorum Baltistan, northern Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019b;1832 https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.31.1-18.

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Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers ex Hook. f. & Thomson. Tinospora sinensis (Lour.) Merr. MENISPERMACEAE Jeevan Pandey, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers ex Hook. f. & Thomson.: Tinospora malabarica (Lam.) Hook. f. & Thomson. Tinospora sinensis (Lour.) Merr.: Campylus sinensis Lour.; Cocculus tomentosus Colebr.; Menispermum cordifolium Willd.; Menispermum malabaricum Lam.; Menispermum tomentosum (Coelbr.) Roxb.; Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers.; Tinospora malabarica (Lam.) Hook. f. & Thomson, Tinospora tomentosa (Colebr.) Hook. f. & Thomson.

J. Pandey Department of Plant Resources, Ministry of Forest and Environment, Government of Nepal, Thapathali, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_247

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Local Names Tinospora sinensis: Nepali: Gurjo; English: Heart-leaved moonseed; Sanskrit: Chakralakshanika; Gharwal: Giley, Giloya; Hindi: Giloya, Gudich, Guduchi, Gurcha; Musahar: Gurunj; Buner: Gilo; Tamil: Seendil; Newari: Gaaleya; Kuchrung (Dolpali); Bengali: Gulancha; Gujarati: Galac; Jammu: Gloe, Gloh, Giloe, Gadoh; Kannada: Thippateega, Amritaballi; Malayalam: Amrita, Chittamrutu; Marathi: Gulvel

Botany and Ecology Tinospora cordifolia: A tall climber. Stem c. 6.5 cm in diameter, smooth, shining, lenticellate, bark light gray, papery, branches pubescent. Leaves c. 7.5–13.8 cm long, 9–17 cm broad, broadly ovate or orbicular, deeply cordate at the base, 7-nerved, subacuminate, young pubescent above, tomentose beneath; petiole 5–12.3 cm long, thickened and twisted at the base. Flowers greenish yellow in racemes 7–14 cm long, pedicels slender, usually solitary in the female, clustered in the male. Male flowers: sepals 6 in 2 series, the outer ones small, ovate-oblong, obtuse, concave, the inner large suborbicular, membranous, flat, 2.5–4 mm long, 2–3 mm broad; petals subequal, 2–3 mm long, 1.2–1.8 mm broad, clawed, membranous, smaller than the sepals; stamens 6, filaments free, 2.5–3 mm long, thickened at the apex. Female flowers: sepals and petals as in the male flowers; staminodes 6; carpels 3. Drupes 1– 3, ovoid, 6–9 mm long, 4–5 mm broad, smooth, crimson, endocarp tubercled (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020). Tinospora sinensis: Deciduous vines, up to 20 m or longer, puberulent when young, often produce very long aerial roots. Old branches fat and thick, bark brownish, membranous, and often glabrous. Stems slightly fleshy, green when young, striate, pubescent; lenticels raised, (2–)4( 6)-dehiscent. Petiole (4–)6–13 cm, puberulent; leaf blade broadly ovate to subrotund, rarely broadly ovate, 7–14  5–13 cm, papery, abaxially tomentulose or slightly tomentulose, adaxially puberulent, base deeply to slightly cordate, margin entire, apex acutely acuminate, palmately 5( 7)-veined at base. Inflorescences appearing when plant is leafless. Male inflorescences solitary or few fascicled, 1–4 cm or longer. Male flowers: sepals 6 in 2 whorls, outer 3 oblong or subelliptic, 1–1.5 mm, inner 3 broadly ovate, to 5 mm, about 3 mm wide; petals 6, rhomboidal, with claw about 1 mm, lobes about 2 mm; stamens 6, filaments about 4 mm. Female inflorescences solitary. Female flowers: sepals and petals as in male; staminodes 6, to 1 mm; carpels 3. Fruiting peduncle 8–11( 15) mm; carpophores 2– 3 mm. Drupes red, subglobose; endocarp semiovoid to hemispherical, 7–9  about 6 mm, broadly keeled at apex with low median ridge abaxially, surface with irregular low tubercles or longitudinal ridges, adaxial aperture elliptic, about 1 mm. Flowering April, fruiting May to June (Press et al. 2000) (Figs. 1, 2, 3 and 4). Gurjo is found naturally in various parts of the world such as Nepal, Northeast India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Southern China, Vietnam, Thailand, Malaya, Nepal, etc., in a land area of 300–500 meters above sea level (Press et al. 2000). In Nepal, it is found spreading from east to west. It prefers dry lands with less water. It is found in

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Fig. 1 Tinospora sinensis (Menispermaceae), cut stem, Nepal. (Photo Jeevan Pandey)

Fig. 2 Tinospora sinensis (Menispermaceae), flowering, Nepal. (Photo Jeevan Pandey)

natural conditions in places with hot to subtropical climate. Sandy and smooth soil with 6.5–7.5 pH is suitable for this plant. Double benefits can be reaped by planting it in the dense forest of tropical and subtropical or around the trees of the field where grass is planted.

Photochemistry A variety of constituents have been isolated from Tinospora cordifolia. They belong to different classes such as alkaloids, diterpenoid lactones, glycosides, steroids, sesquiterpenoid, phenolics, aliphatic compounds, and polysaccharides (Singh et al. 2003). Leaves are rich in protein (11.2%) and are fairly rich in calcium and

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Fig. 3 Tinospora sinensis (Menispermaceae), flowers, Nepal. (Photo Jeevan Pandey)

Fig. 4 Tinospora sinensis (Menispermaceae), seedling, Nepal. (Photo Jeevan Pandey)

phosphorus (Khosa and Prasad 1971). The stem contains clerodane furano diterpene glucoside (amritoside A, B, C, and D) (Sharma et al. 2019), alkaloids (berberine, palmatine D, choline D, tinosporine, magnoflorine, tetrahydropalmatine, isocolumbin) (Padhya, 1986), glycosides (18-norclerodane glucoside, furanoid diterpene glucoside, tinocordiside, cordioside, cordifolioside, syringin, syringin-apiosylglycoside,

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palmatosides) (Maurya et al. 1995), diterpenoid lactones (furanolactone, tinosporon, columbin) (Hanuman et al. 1986a, b), steroids (b-sitosterol, d-sitosterol, g-sitosterol b-hydroxyecdysone, ecdysterone, makisterone, giloinsterol jateorine, columbin) (Pathak et al. 1995), miscellaneous compounds (nonacosan-15-one 3, (a,4-dihydroxy-3-methoxy-benzyl)-4-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxy-benzyl)-tetrahydrofuran, tinosponidine, 6 cordifol, 6 cordifelone, 6 jatrorrhizine) (Choudhary et al. 2013), and lignans (3 (a, 4-dihydroxy-3-methoxybenzyl)-4-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzyl)) (Hanuman et al. 1986).

Local Medicinal Uses Tinospora sinensis: Gurjo is used in Ayurvedic medicine. Especially, its stem is made into powder and used to prolong life and increase intelligence and for the chronically ill. According to Ayurvedic medicine, Gurjo’s stem is used for asthma, cough, bronchitis, diabetes, stomach-related diseases, ulcers, biliary activation, fever, acidosis, jaundice, skin-related diseases, urinary-related diseases, leprosy, hepatitis, urinary incontinence, epilepsy, eye diseases, etc. (Pandey 2014). The plant is commonly used as traditional Ayurvedic medicine and has several therapeutic properties (Meena et al. 2010) to treat problems such as jaundice, rheumatism, urinary disorder, skin diseases, diabetes, anemia, inflammation, and allergic condition and anti-periodic, radioprotective properties, etc. (Sonkamble and Kamble 2015). The root is used as potent emetic and for bowel obstruction. The starch of this plant serves a beneficial household remedy for chronic fever, relieves burning sensation, and increases energy and appetite. Giloya is useful in the treatment of helminthiasis, heart diseases, leprosy, and rheumatoid arthritis and supports the immune system, the body’s resistance to infections, and standard white blood cell structure, function, and levels (Sinha et al. 2004). It also helps in digestive ailments such as hyperacidity, colitis, worm infestations, loss of appetite, abdominal pain, excessive thirst, and vomiting and even liver disorders like hepatitis (Upreti and Chauhan 2018; Salkar et al. 2017). The pharmacological activities of the plant are due to its chemical constituents like diterpenoid lactones, glycosides, steroids, sesquiterpenoid, phenolics, aliphatic compounds, essential oils, a mixture of fatty acids, and polysaccharides and are present in different parts of the plant body, including root, stem, and whole part (Sharma et al. 2019). It is mentioned in the Charak Samhita Sushruta that if its stem is fed in combination with other herbs, it will work against snake and scorpion bites. According to a resident of Salyan, if the oxen are old and cannot be ploughed in the village, they are fed by pressing the stem of the Gurjo. Similarly, in Salyan, wheat flour is mixed with Gurjo powder and eaten as the main food. Gurjo is also used as a strength enhancer and is eaten with milk. Similarly, it has also been used to treat chicken pox. Nowadays, it is considered as a major ingredient in herbal teas, in which bay leaves, lemongrass, camphor, khair, etc. are mixed. The use of Gurjo tea daily can arouse hunger and eliminate the problem of constipation. Gurjo tea has been found to be more useful for asthma patients and also keeps the body fit. Gurjo tea is also believed to be useful in

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Fig. 5 Tinospora sinensis (Menispermaceae), tea powder, Nepal. (Photo Jeevan Pandey)

reducing inflammation in the body. If consumed regularly, people with anemia increase their amount of blood in the body (Pandey 2014). It is also used as refrigerant for fever and diabetes (Kunwar et al. 2009, 2010a, b, Kunwar and Bussmann 2009; Singh et al. 2003; Raj et al. 2018; Singh et al. 2017). It is applied to treat tuberculosis (Sharifi-Rad et al. 2017) and shows anti-leishmanial activity (Rocha et al. 2005). The species is also employed as tonic, diuretic, memory enhancer, and liver protector, for eye diseases and fever (Adams et al. 2007; Ahmad et al. 2006; Ahmad Jan et al. 2017; Katewa et al. 2004), and to treat urinary system problems (Singh et al. 2002). Sometimes it is used for gonorrhea and as aphrodisiac (Sharma et al. 2001). Tinospora has shown antibacterial activity (Perumal Samy et al. 2012) and is used for wound care (Muthu et al. 2006) and as analgesic (Almeida et al. 2001). In India, it is widely used as anti-periodic, antipyretic, aphrodisiac, and tonic and for asthma, bone fracture, cough, diarrhea, diphtheria, dysentery, fever, headache, jaundice, malaria, piles, pulmonary tuberculosis, sex strength, skin diseases, venereal complaints, and stomach diseases (Joshi et al. 2010; Verma et al. 2007). In Karnataka, it is used as anti-inflammatory (Kshirsagar and Singh 2001) and is also employed to remedy leucorrhea (Jain et al. 2005), and in Jammu and Kashimir, it is used as anti-pyretic and to treat asthma, dengue fever, hyperpyrexia, jaundice, stomach problems, and urinary disorders (Gairola et al. 2014) (Fig. 5). Tinospora crispa: It is applied to treat tuberculosis (Sharifi-Rad et al. 2017), as well as diabetes (Paudel et al. 2020).

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Rocha LG, Almeida JRGS, Macedo RO, Barbosa-Filhob JM. A review of natural products with antileishmanial activity. Phytomed. 2005;12:514–535. Salkar K, Chotalia C, Salvi R. Tinospora cordifolia: an antimicrobial and immunity enhancer plant. Int J Sci Res. 2017;6:1603–7. Sharifi-Rad J, Salehi B, Stojanović-Radić ZZ, Tsouh Fokou PV, Sharifi-Rad M, Mahady GB, Sharifi-Rad M, Masjedi M-R, Lawal TO, Ayatollahi SA, Masjedi J, Sharifi-Rad R, Setzer WN, Sharifi-Rad M, Kobarfard F, Rahman AU, Choudhary MI, Atar A, Iriti M. Medicinal plants used in the treatment of tuberculosis - Ethnobotanical and ethnopharmacological approaches. Biotechnol Adv. 2017;S0734-9750(17):30077-0. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. biotechadv.2017.07.001. Sharma HK, Chhangte L, Dolui AK. Traditional medicinal plants in Mizoram, India. Fitoterapia. 2001;72:146–61. Sharma P, Dwivedee BP, Bisht D, Dash AK, Kumar D. The chemical constituents and diverse pharmacological importance of Tinospora cordifolia. Heliyon. 2019; 5(9). Singh AK, Raghubanshi AS, Singh JA. Medical ethnobotany of the tribals of Sonaghati of Sonbhadra district, Uttar Pradesh, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2002;81:31–41. Singh SS, Pandey SC, Srivastava S, Gupta VS, Patro B, Ghosh AC. Chemistry and medicinal properties of Tinospora cordifolia (Guduchi). Indian J Pharm. 2003;35:83–91. Singh A, Nautiyal MC, Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal plants used by local inhabitants of Jakholi block, Rudraprayag district, Western Himalaya, India. J Etnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;1349 https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0178-3. Sinha K, Mishra NP, Singh J, Khanuja SPS. Tinospora cordifolia (Guduchi) a reservoir plant for therapeutic applications. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2004;3:257–70. Sonkamble VV, Kamble LH. Antidiabetic potential and identification of phytochemicals from Tinospora cordifolia. Am J Phytomed Clin Ther. 2015;3:97–110. Upreti P, Chauhan RS. Effect of leaf powder of Giloy (Tinospora cordifolia) in fish feed on survival and growth of post larvae of Catla catla. J Appl Nat Sci. 2018;10:144–8. Verma A, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants in an urban environment: the medicinal flora of Banares Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3:35.

Tribulus terrestris L. ZYGOPHYLLACEAE Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Tribulus terrestris L.: Tribulus bimucronatus Viv.; Tribulus lanuginosus L.; Tribulus saharae A. Chev.; Tribulus terrestris var. sericeus Andersson ex Svenson.

Local Names Tribulus terrestris: Hindi, Mullapalleru; Rajastan, Chota gokharu; Tamil, Nerunchimul; Gilgit-Baltistan, Kunay, Kokjoring; Punjab, Gukhro; Pashto, Markondai, Markundai

H. A. Jan (*) Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_248

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Fig. 1 Tribulus terrestris (Zygophyllaceae), Huanchaco, Cerro Campana, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Botany and Ecology Tribulus terrestris: Summer annual develops a mat of prostrate stems about 30– 90 cm across; it branches frequently at the base and occasionally elsewhere. The round stems are initially green but quickly become brown; they are densely covered with short hairs and sparsely covered with long hairs. The compound leaves are evenly pinnate, consisting of four to eight pairs of leaflets. Each compound leaf is about 5–10 cm in length, and it has a hairy central stalk. The dark green leaflets are up to 2 cm long and 1 cm across; they are oblong, smooth along the margins, and sparsely to moderately hairy. There is a short petiole at the base of each leaflet. The flowers occur individually from the axils of the compound leaves on hairy pedicels about 1–2 cm long. Each flower is about 1.5 cm across, consisting of five yellow petals, five triangular green sepals, ten stamens with yellow anthers, and a pistil with a 5-lobed stigma. The petals are well-rounded and longer than the sepals. Sea level is up to 3600 m (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936-1995) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6).

Tribulus terrestris L. Fig. 2 Tribulus terrestris (Zygophyllaceae), Huanchaco, Cerro Campana, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Tribulus terrestris (Zygophyllaceae), Huanchaco, Cerro Campana, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 4 Tribulus terrestris (Zygophyllaceae), Huanchaco, Cerro Campana, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Tribulus terrestris (Zygophyllaceae), Huanchaco, Cerro Campana, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Flavonoids, alkaloids (harman, harmine), saponins (diosgenin, gitogenin, ruscogenin), vitamins (C), tannins, fatty acids.

Local Medicinal Uses Tribulus terrestris: The plant is used for sexual impotency and weakness (Ishtiaq et al. 2006). The whole plant is used for urinary disorders and body itching (Abbas et al. 2016; Yousufzai et al. 2010). It is used as tonics, aphrodisiac, and diuretic and

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Fig. 6 Tribulus terrestris (Zygophyllaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammand Ahmad Jan)

for urinary disorders and chronic cystitis (Shedayi and Gulshan 2012). The fruit of the plant is used to cure spermatosis (Shah and Hussain 2012). The leaf juice is used for chronic cough (Jan et al. 2017; Khan et al. 2018). The fruit flour is used on pimples (Khan et al. 2013). Leaves are used in the removal of urinary bladder and kidney stones. It is aphrodisiac and carminative. Fruits and seeds are used in conditions such as congestion, headache, hepatitis, kidney problems, and impotence. They are also considered astringent, diuretic, and tonic. They are taken for dysentery and bladder pain (Hussain et al. 2013). Decoction of leaves is used for gonorrhea (Shinwari et al. 2017). In Middle Asia, decoctions and infusions are used as a purgative, diuretic, and tonic and for gonorrhea, headaches, eye inflammations, and strong side pains. The roots are boiled in milk for treatment of malaria. The juice is used to treat gastritis and stomach acidity and as diuretic. A milk decoction is used in Central Asia as fortifying agent in cases of malaria and as tea substitute. In the Caucasus, the decoction of the leaves serves as diuretic for diarrhea, dysentery, gonorrhea, and eye diseases (Bussmann et al. 2020a, b; Sokolov 1988). Concentrated decoction of the aerial parts is used for treating hemorrhoids, kidney stones, and constipation (Ghorbani 2005). Decoction of leaves is used for kidney pain (Safa et al. 2013). Decoction of whole plant is used for reducing fever, appetizing, urinary duct inflammation, whooping cough, gonorrhea in men, kidney and bladder stones,

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bladder infection, inflammation of the prostate, male sexual stimulant, and increasing sperm volume (Sadeghi et al. 2014; Khajoei Nasab and Esmailpour 2018). The use of decoction of seeds for kidney stones and urinary duct complains and as diuretic is very common in traditional medicine of Iran (Mozaffarian 2013; Khajoei Nasab and Khosravi 2014). It is also used also for diarrhea, irregular menstruation, wounds, and dyspepsia in Pakistan (Umair et al. 2019). The infusion of the aerial parts is used for the treatment of hernias (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003) and for sharp pain in any part of the body, inflammation (general), skin, intestine, liver disease, gallbladder disease, tumors, and urinary disease (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b). It is also sold in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007). The species has antibacterial properties (Bussmann et al. 2008) and is normally used as admixture with other species (Bussmann et al. 2010). The roots are used as toothbrush (Bussmann et al. 2011). It is also used for pimples, menses, blood pressure, kidney stones (Wali et al. 2019), diarrhea, irregular menstruation, urodynia, wounds, and dyspepsia (Umair et al. 2019) and for cardiac disorders and hemorrhoids and as vasodilator (Tetik et al. 2013) and for kidney stones and hemorrhoids (Ghorbani 2005; Ari et al. 2015). It is sometimes used for allergies and skin inflammations (Abbas et al. 2019; Pawera et al. 2015) and chronic cough (Ahmad Jan et al. 2017), as well as hypertension (Jan et al. 2017) and asthma (Savithramma et al. 2007). In Tamil Nadu, it is used to treat white vaginal discharge (Muthu et al. 2006) and in Rajastan to treat male impotence (Katewa et al. 2004).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Tribulus terrestris: Forage use (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).

References Abbas Z, Khan SM, Abbasi AM, Pieroni A, Ullah Z, Iqbal M, Ahmad Z. Ethnobotany of the Balti community, Tormik valley, Karakorum range, Baltistan, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12(1):38. Abbas Z, Alam J, Muhammad S, Bussmann RW, Mulk Khan S, Hussain M. Phyto-cultural diversity of the Shigar valley Central Karakorum Baltistan, Northern Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;1832 https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.31.1-18. Ahmad Jan H, Wali S, Ahmad L, Jana S, Ahmad N, Ullah N. Ethnomedicinal survey of medicinal plants of Chinglai valley, Buner district, Pakistan. European Journal of Integrative Medicine. 2017;13:64–74. Ari S, Temel M, Kargıoğlu M, Konuk M. Ethnobotanical survey of plants used in AfyonkarahisarTurkey. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2015;11:84. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-015-0067-6. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in Northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing culture. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:47. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of the four winds – the magic and medicinal flora of Peru. Plantas de los cuatro vientos – La flora mágica y medicinal del Perú. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007. (ISBN 978-0-9789962-3-9).

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Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Medicinal plants of the Andes and the Amazon – the magic and medicinal flora of Northern Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015a. (ISBN 978-0-9960231-2-2). Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plantas medicinales de los Andes y la Amazonía – La flora mágica y medicinal del Norte de Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015b. (ISBN 978-09960231-3-9). Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Vandebroek I, Jones A, Revene Z. Health for sale: the medicinal plant markets in Trujillo and Chiclayo, Northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3:37. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Perez F, Díaz D, Ford T, Rasheed T, Silva R. Antibacterial activity of Northern-Peruvian medicinal plants – a low cost laboratory approach to assess biological activity. Arnaldoa. 2008;15(1):127–48. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Herbal mixtures in traditional medicine in Northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6(10). Bussmann RW, Swartzinsky P, Worede A, Evangelista P. Plant use in Odo-Bulu and Demaro, bale region, Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2011;7:28. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z. Tribulus terrestris L. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions Central Asia and Altai: Springer International Publishing International Publishing; Cham 2020a. https://doi.org/10. 1007/978-3-319-77087-1_142-1. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Ghorbani A, Nasab FK, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D. Tribulus terrestris L. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions far Eastern Europe. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020b. https://doi.org/10.1007/9783-319-77088-8_135-2. Ghorbani A. Studies on pharmaceutical ethnobotany in the region of Turkmen Sahra, north of Iran (part 1): general results. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102:58–68. Hussain AM, Abbasi MS, Hussain N, Majid SA. A survey of important indigenous medicinal plants of district Bhimber Azad Jammu & Kashmir, Pakistan. Int J Adv Res. 2013;1:635–44. Ishtiaq CM, Khan MA, Hanif W. An ethnomedicinal inventory of plants used for family planning and sex diseases treatment in Samahni valley,(AK) Pakistan. Pak J Biol Sci. 2006;9(14):2546–55. Jan HA, Wali S, Ahmad L, Jan S, Ahmad N, Ullah N. Ethnomedicinal survey of medicinal plants of Chinglai valley, Buner district, Pakistan. European Journal of Integrative Medicine. 2017;13:64–74. Katewa SS, Chaudhary BL, Jain A. Folk herbal medicines from tribal area of Rajasthan, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2004;92:41–6. Khajoei Nasab F, Esmailpour M. Ethno-medicinal survey on weed plants in agro-ecosystems: a case study in Jahrom, Iran. Environ Dev Sustain. 2018; https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-018-0128-9. Khajoei Nasab F, Khosravi AR. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of Sirjan in Kerman Province, Iran. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;154:190–7. Khan T, Khan IA, Rehman A, Alam J, Ali S. Exploration of near-extinct folk wisdom on medicinally important plants from Shinaki Valley Hunza, Pakistan. International Journal of Biosciences. 2013;3(10):180–6. Khan MT, Ahmad L, Rashid W. Ethnobotanical documentation of traditional knowledge about medicinal plants used by indigenous people in Talash valley of Dir lower. Northern Pakistan J Intercult Ethnopharmacol. 2018;7(1):8–24. Macbride JF, Weberbauer A. Flora of Peru. Chicago: Field Museum; 1936-1995. Mozaffarian V. Identification of medicinal and aromatic plants of Iran. Tehran: Farhang Moaser; 2013. Muthu C, Ayyanar M, Raja N, Ignacimuthu S. Medicinal plants used by traditional healers in Kancheepuram District of Tamil Nadu, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:43. Pawera L, Verner V, Termote C, Sodombekov I, Kadanov A, Karabaev N, Skalicky M, Polesny Z. Medical ethnobotany of herbal practitioners in the Turkestan range, southwestern Kyrgyzstan. Acta Soc Botan Polon. 2015; https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3483. Rodriguez R, Marticorena C, Alarcón D, Baeza C, Cavieres L, Finot VL, Fuentes N, Kiessling A, Mihoc M, Pauchard A, Ruiz E, Sanchez P, Marticorena A. Catálogo de las plantas vasculares de Chile. Gayana Botánica. 2018;75(1):1–430.

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Sadeghi Z, Kuhestani K, Abdollahi V, Mahmood A. Ethnopharmacological studies of indigenous medicinal plants of Saravan region, Baluchistan, Iran. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;153:111–8. Safa O, Soltanipoor MA, Rastegar S, Kazemi M, Dehkordi K, Ghannadi A. An ethnobotanical survey on Hormozgan province, Iran. Avicenna Journal of Phytomed icine. 2013;3:64–81. Savithramma N, Sulochana C, Rao KN. Ethnobotanical survey of plants used to treat asthma in Andhra Pradesh, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;113:54–61. Shah SM, Hussain F. Ethnomedicinal plant wealth of Mastuj valley, Hindukush range, district Chitral, Pakistan. J Med Plant Res. 2012;6:4328–37. Shedayi AA, Gulshan B. Ethnomedicinal uses of plant resources in Gilgit-Baltistan of Pakistan. J Med Plants Res. 2012;6(29):4540–9. Shinwari S, Ahmad M, Zhang G, Jahan S, Sultana S. Medicinal plant diversity use for gynecological disorders among the rural communities of Northern Pakistan. Pak J Bot. 2017;49(5):1787–99. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1988, 357 p. (in Russian). Tetik F, Civelek S, Cakilcioglu U. Traditional uses of some medicinal plants in Malatya (Turkey). J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;146:331–46. Umair M, Altaf M, Bussmann RW, Abbasi AM. Ethnomedicinal uses of the local flora in Chenab riverine area, Punjab province Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2019;15:7. https://doi.org/10. 1186/s13002-019-0285-4. Villagrán C, Castro V. Ciencia indígena de los Andes del norte de Chile: Editorial Universitaria; Santiago de Chile. 2003. Wali R, Rahman K, Raja NI, Qureshi R, Bussmann RW, Mashwani ZUR. A quantitative medico botanical expedition of fairy meadows National Park, Diamir, Gilgit Baltistan, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;1835 https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.35.1-30. Yousufzai SA, Khan N, Wahab M, Ajaib M. Ethnomedicinal study of Marghazar Valley, Pakistan. Int J Biol Biotechnol. 2010;7:409–16.

Trichodesma indicum (L.) Lehm. BORAGINACEAE Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Ikram Ur Rahman

Synonyms Trichodesma indicum (L.) Lehm.: Trichodesma amplexicaule Roth; Trichodesma hirsutum Edgew.; Trichodesma indicum var. amplexicaule (Roth) T. Cooke

Local Names Trichodesma indicum: Pashto: Gowa jabbai; Urdu: Chhota, Dholi Andholi

Botany and Ecology Trichodesma indicum: An annual herb with spreading and densely hairy branches; hairs dimorphic; shorter ones thin, appressed, up to 0.3 mm long; longer ones stiff, up to 0.6 mm long with smaller bases. Leaves oblanceolate to lanceolate, 3.5– 8.5  0.6–2.0 cm, amplexicaul or nor; middle cauline ones the largest, hairy on both surfaces, the upper surface with hairs up to 1.8 mm long. Inflorescence terminal, lax, few-flowered. Bracts leafy. Pedicel 10–25 mm long. Flowers mauve to pinkish H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_249

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blue or lilac. Calyx 5-partite, hairy, 10–12 mm long, base  auricled; lobes oblong, narrowed towards apex. Corolla exceeding calyx length, infundibuliform, sparsely hairy on outside; lobes suborbicular, subacuminate. Anthers hairy, aristate-the connectives later twisting together. Nutlets 4–5 mm long, ovoid, smooth, white to bluish. Flowering mostly throughout the year. Sporadic, but normally from March to August. (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020).

Local Medicinal Uses Trichodesma indicum: The species is used to treat kidney stones (Muhammad et al. 2019), to treat snakebites (Ahmad Jan et al. 2017), and also used for cough, fever, and flatulence (Gairola et al. 2014).

References Ahmad Jan H, Wali S, Ahmad L, Jana S, Ahmad N, Ullah N. Ethnomedicinal survey of medicinal plants of Chinglai valley, Buner district, Pakistan. Eur J Integr Med. 2017;13:64–74. Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan and Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995–2020. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh BY. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Muhammad S, Hussain M, Abbas Z, Saquib Z, Bussmann RW, Shah GM. An ethnomedicinal appraisal of Kurram agency tribal area Pakistan. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2019;184:631–47.

Trigonella corniculata (L.) L. Trigonella gracilis Benth. FABACEAE Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Local Names Trigonella foenum-graecum: Urdu: Shambreta, Methi; Turkmen: Boy-dana

Botany and Ecology Trigonella corniculata: Erect to procumbent, glabrous or sparingly pubescent. Leaflets 1–4 cm long, 8–35 mm broad, obovate to oblong-cuneate, obtuse to emarginate, glabrous above, sparsely pilose along the nerves below; stipules lanceolate, dentate or incised. Peduncle 1.5–6 cm long, 8–20-flowered, pedicel about 3 mm long. Calyx 3–4 mm long, teeth subequal, shorter than or as long as the tube. Corolla 6–7 mm long, yellow; wings shorter than the keel. Fruit 10–20 mm long, 2– 3 mm broad, linear, acuminate, curved, glabrous, with transverse anastomosing veins, 4–8-seeded. Distribution: Kashmir, Europe, Western Mediterranean area (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020). H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_250

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Trigonella gracilis: Perennial, stem trailing, 15–45 cm long, glabrous. Petiole shorter than the leaflets, leaflets 5–12 mm long, 3–7 mm broad, obovate-cuneate, retuse, minutely toothed, glabrous, sparsely pubescent on the nerves below, stipules linear. Inflorescence 1–5-flowered, peduncle longer than the leaf, ending in an awn.

Fig. 1 Trigonella caerulea (Fabaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Trigonella caerulea (Fabaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 3 Trigonella caerulea (Fabaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Trigonella caerulea (Fabaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Pedicel 2 mm long. Calyx 3.5–4 mm long, teeth almost as long as the tube. Corolla 5 mm long, yellow. Fruit 5–12 mm long, 2.5–3 mm broad, glabrous, marked with distinct transverse veins, 1–3-seeded. Flowering July–September. Pakistan, Kashmir, India (Kumaon, Garhwal) (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

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Local Medicinal Uses Trigonella corniculata: The fruit is astringent, bitter, and styptic. It is applied externally to swellings and bruises. The plant is used in the treatment of diabetes and hypercholesterolemia. Studies have shown that a methanol extraction of the plant is a very effective treatment for diabetes. The plant has been shown to have antioxidant and hepatoprotective activities. Trigonella foenum-graecum is used to treat diabetes (Raj et al. 2018; Ullah et al. 2019), as well as for joint pain, alopecia, diabetes, stomach problems, and ease pregnancy (Gurib-Fakim 2006; Raj et al. 2018).

Local Food Uses Trigonella gracilis: Young seedlings are eaten with oil and salt. The leaves and young plants are eaten cooked. The dried powdered leaves and flowers are used as a flavoring and coloring for bread. They are also used as a condiment in soups and potato dishes. A decoction of the leaves is used as an aromatic tea and as a flavoring for tea. The seeds are used to flavor food. Trigonella foenum-graecum is often used as spice. Trigonella caerulea is widely used as spice (Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017, 2018).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Trigonella foenum-graecum used for diarrhea of animals, increase lactation of cattle, and for joint pain of animals (Raj et al. 2018). Trigonella monantha is used as fragrance (Akgul et al. 2018).

References Akgul A, Akgul A, Senol SG, Yildirim H, Secmen O, Dogan Y. An ethnobotanical study in Midyat (Turkey), a city on the silk road where cultures meet. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14:12. https:// doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0201-8. Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan and Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995–2020. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia Sakartvelo, Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo

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(Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo Republic of Georgia, Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;161:7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo Republic of Georgia, Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;171:7–33. Gurib-Fakim A. Medicinal plants: traditions of yesterday and drugs of tomorrow. Mol Aspects Med. 2006;27:1–93. Raj AJ, Biswakarma B, Pala NA, Shukla G, Vineeta V, Kumar M, Chakravarty S, Bussmann RW. Indigenous uses of ethno-medicinal plants among forest dependent communities of Northern Bengal, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;141:8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002018-0208-9. Ullah M, Mehmood S, Ali M, Bussmann RW, Aldosari A, Ali Khan R, Ullah R, Hussain W, Rahman Shah MA. An ethnopharmacological study of plants used for treatment of diabetes in the Southern and Tribal regions of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18(8):1–20. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.8.1-20.

Trillium govanianum Wall. ex Royle MELANTHIACEAE Til K. Thapa, Ripu M. Kunwar, H. Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Trillium govanianum Wall. ex Royle: Trillidium govanianum (Wall. ex Royle) Kunth

Local Names Trillium govanianum: Hindi: Nag chhatri, Satva, Teen patra; Nepali: Nakali satuwa, Nag chhatri; Pashto: Matar Jarri; Matar zela; Urdu: Dood bachha; English: Himalayan trillium, birthroot T. K. Thapa National Herbarium and Plant Laboratories (KATH), Godawari, Lalitpur, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_251

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Botany and Ecology Trillium govanianum: Rhizome 1–2 cm thick. Stem up to 30 cm tall. Adventitious roots numerous, fibrous. Leaves 3, petiole 0.3–1.6 cm long; lamina oval to ovate or cordate, 3.5–10.8  1.8–10.2 cm, acute to acuminate, glabrous, venation reticulate. Flower 1, terminal, pedicellate; pedicel 0.9–2.3 cm long, stout. Perianth segments dark purple, narrowly lanceolate, outer segments 2–4 mm broad, inner narrower; perianth spreading in flower, reflexed in the fruiting stage. Stamens 6, in 2 whorls, shorter than the perianth; filaments c. 4 mm long; anthers basifixed, 4–5 mm long, curved, dehiscence longitudinal. Ovary superior, 3-locular; styles 3, purple, linear. Fruit a red, globose berry, 1–2 cm in diameter; seeds numerous, oblong, c. 2.5 mm long, with a pulpy lateral appendage. Flowering April–August. Temperate Himalayas in India and Pakistan in humid forest from 2400 to 3200 m elevation. A fairly common plant in the hills during spring and summer months (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020). Trillium species prefer cold, shaded, and moist climate (Case and Case 1997; Ohara et al. 2006). T. govanianum is reported under the canopies of mix temperate (Quercus spp., Abies pindrow, Juglans regia, Cedrus deodara, Picea smithiana, Betula utilis, Rhododendron spp., Juniperus indica, Salix spp.), and subalpine forests (Rhododendron spp.) with thick humus and slowly decomposing litter. Due to the specific habitat requirement, the species has patchy distribution and limited to specific pockets in the Himalayas (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Phytochemistry Govanoside, saponins, borassoside, pennogenins, tannic acid, resins, and starch (Rahman et al. 2015a, b; Chauhan 1999). Fig. 1 Trillium govanianum (Melanthiaceae), flower, Pakistan. (Photo HA Jan)

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Fig. 2 Trillium govanianum (Melanthiaceae), roots collected for sale, Pakistan. (Photo HA Jan)

Fig. 3 Trillium govanianum (Melanthiaceae), Mankial Valley, Swat, Pakistan. (Photo I Ur-Rahman & H. Sher)

Local Medicinal Uses Trillium govanianum: The methanolic extract of the roots and its solid-phase extraction fractions are cytotoxic against four human carcinoma cell lines: breast (MCF7), liver (HEPG2), lung (A549), and urinary bladder (EJ138), with the IC50 values ranging between 5 and 16 μg/mL (Khan et al. 2016). Govanoside A and borassoside E compounds exhibited good to moderate activities against Aspergillus niger ATCC 16888, Aspergillus flavus ATCC 9643, Candida albicans ATCC 18804,

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and Candida glabrata ATCC 90030 (Rahman et al. 2015a, b). The species is one of the most sought-after medicinal species of the western Himalayan region (Uniyal and Datta 2012). The plant is recently explored and got a high sell value for its folkloric use (Sher et al. 2014). Roots contain Trillarin, which on hydrolysis yields 2.5% diosgenin – a corticosteroid hormone which is used in various preparations like sex hormones, cortisone and allied preparation in rheumatism, and regulation of menstrual flow (Sharma et al. 2018). In spite of this, it is also used in stomach-related problems. In traditional medicines, rhizomes of this plant species are used for treating wounds, dysentery, skin boils, infections, and menstrual and sexual disorders by the local inhabitants (Sharma et al. 2018). So, rhizome is key material of trade containing trillarin, which on hydrolysis yield diosgenin and used in preparation of steroidal and sex hormones (Chauhan 1999). The rhizomes of this plant species could serve as potential novel source of compounds effective for alleviating pain and inflammation (Rahman et al. 2016). T. govanianum has analgesic, antiinflammatory activity, anticancer activity, antifungal activity, and antioxidant activity (Sharma 2017). It has also been reported that the powder of the plant is used as anthelmintic (Bhardwaj et al. 2013; Gairola et al. 2014; Lone et al. 2013). Globally, diosgenin is used as anticancer and antiaging agent, besides its use as precursor for the preparation of many steroidal drugs (Chaudhary et al. 2015). In folk medicine, T. govanianum rhizome is used to cure dysentery, backache, healing of wounds, inflammation, skin boils, menstrual and sexual disorders (Gairola et al. 2014; Rani et al. 2013; Mahmood et al. 2012; Sharma and Samant 2014). T. govanianum roots are used for external wounds and allergic skin reactions (Gyawali and Paudel 2017). The root decoction is used for sexual disorders, as emetic and astringent (Ijaz et al. 2019), impotency and tumors (Ahmed and Akhtar 2016), and as tonic and emetic (Ali et al. 2018). The root is used as an alternative medicine and is antiseptic, antispasmodic, diuretic, emmenagogue (to promote menstruation), and ophthalmic. The roots, fresh or dry, may be boiled in milk and used for diarrhea and dysentery. The raw root is grated and applied as a poultice to the eye in order to reduce swelling, or on aching rheumatic joints. The leaves were boiled in lard and applied to ulcers as a poultice, and to prevent gangrene. An infusion of the root is used in the treatment of cramps and a common name for the plant, “birthroot,” originated from its use to promote menstruation. A decoction of the root bark can be used as drops in treating earache. The species is used to facilitate childbirth and to treat other female problems (Ur-Rahman et al. 2019).

Local Food Uses Trillium govanianum: The young edible unfolding leaves are an excellent addition to salad tasting somewhat like sunflower seeds. The leaves can also be cooked as a pot herb.

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References Ahmed MJ, Akhtar T. Indigenous knowledge of the use of medicinal plants in Bheri, Muzaffarabad, Azad Kashmir, Pakistan. Eur J Integr Med. 2016;8(4):560–9. Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan and Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995–2020. Ali A, Badshah L, Hussain F. Ethnobotanical appraisal and conservation status of medicinal plants in Hindukush Range, District Swat, Pakistan. J Herbs Spices Med Plants. 2018;24: 332–55. Bhardwaj AK, Lone PA, Dar M, Parray JA, Shah KW. Ethnoveterinary medicinal uses of plants of district Bandipora of Jammu and Kashmir, India. Int J Tradit Nat Med. 2013;2(3):164–78. Case FW, Case RB. Trilliums. Oregon: Timber Press; 1997. Chaudhary S, Chikara SK, Sharma MC, Chaudhary A, Alam Syed B, Chaudhary PS, Iriti M. Elicitation of diosgenin production in Trigonella foenum-graecum (fenugreek) seedlings by methyl jasmonate. Int J Mol Sci. 2015;16(12):29889–99. Chauhan NS. Medicinal and aromatic plants of Himachal Pradesh. New Delhi: Indus Publishing; 1999. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Gyawali RR, Paudel HR. Plant bio-resources used in ethno-veterinary practices in Jumla District. Nepal Vet J. 2017;34:128–34. Ijaz S, Perveen A, Ashraf S, Kousar S, Bibi A, Azhar N. Wild medicinal plants of Lawat village Neelum valley Azad Kashmir, Pakistan and their uses in ethnomedicine. Wulefnia J. 2019;26(12):27–55. Khan KM, Nahar L, Al-Groshi A, Zavoianu AG, Evans A, Dempster NM. Cytotoxicity of the roots of Trillium govanianum against breast (MCF7), liver (HepG2), lung (A549) and urinary bladder (EJ138) carcinoma cells. Phytother Res. 2016;30(10):1716–20. Lone PA, Bhardwaj AK, Bahar FA. Traditional knowledge on healing properties of plants in Bandipora district of Jammu and Kashmir, India. Int J Recent Sci Res. 2013;4(11):1755–65. Mahmood A, Mahmood A, Malik RN. Indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants from Leepa valley, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2012;143(1):338–46. Ohara M, Tomimatsu H, Takada T, Kawano S. Importance of life-history studies for conservation of fragmented populations: a case study of the understory herb, Trillium camschatcense. Plant Species Biol. 2006;21(1):1–12. Rahman S, Ismail M, Shah MR, Adhikari A, Anis I, Ahmad MS. Govanoside A, a new steroidal saponin from rhizomes of Trillium govanianum. Steroids. 2015a;104:270–5. Rahman S, Ismail M, Shah MR, Iriti M, Shahid M. GC/MS analysis, free radical scavenging, anticancer and β-glucuronidase inhibitory activities of Trillium govanianum rhizome. Bangladesh J Pharmacol. 2015b;10(3):577–83. Rahman S, Adhikari A, Ismail M, Shah R, Khurram M, Shahid M. Beneficial effects of Trillium govanianum rhizomes in pain and inflammation. Molecules. 2016;8:20–1. Rani S, Rana J, Rana P. Ethnomedicinal plants of Chamba district, Himachal Pradesh, India. J Med Plant Res. 2013;7:3147–57. Sharma DK. Review on traditional medicinal plant Trillium govanianum (Nagchatri). J Med Plant Stud. 2017;5(2):120–2. Sharma P, Samant S. Diversity, distribution and indigenous uses of medicinal plants in Parbati valley of Kullu district in Himachal Pradesh, Northwestern Himalaya. Asian J Adv Basic Sci. 2014;2(1):77–98. Sharma OR, Arya D, Goel S, Vyas K, Shinde P. Trillium govanianum Wall. ex D. Don (Nagchatri): an important ethno medicinal Plant of Himalayan region (Himachal Pradesh). J Med Plants Stud. 2018;6(1):11–3. Sher H, Aldosari A, Ali A, Boer HJ. Economic benefits of high value medicinal plants to Pakistani communities: an analysis of current practice and potential. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2014;10:71.

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Uniyal SK, Datta A. Nagchhatri: a plant in peril. J Biodivers Manag For. 2012;1:1. Ur-Rahman I, Sher H, Bussmann RW, eds. Reference guide on high value medicinal and aromatic plants – sustainable management and cultivation practices. University of Swat, Pakistan; 2019. ISBN 978-969-23419-0-5.

Urtica dioica L. URTICACEAE Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Maroof Ali Turi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Urtica dioica L.: Urtica tibetica W.T. Wang; Urtica galeopsifolia Wierzb. ex Opiz.

Local Names Urtica dioica: Naga: Zakutasula; Nepal: Sisno, Sisnu; Jammu: Ghenthein; Kurram: Sizawonki, Sezawookny; Urdu: Sezonky; Kashmir: Sooi, Shadar, Tsoi, Ladakh: Kushak; Jammu: Panayali, Kinji, Soyi; Gilgit-Baltistan: Jomi, Khaeshing; Tibetan: sá tsə; Pashto: Sezonkai ‫ ;ﺱﯼﺯﻭﻥﮎ‬Chinese: 异株荨麻 (yi zhu qian ma); English: Stinging nettle H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan M. A. Turi College of Life Science, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu, China R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_252

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Botany and Ecology Urtica dioica: Perennial. Rootstock creeping underground; stems erect, 60–100 cm long, glabrous or sparingly pubescent, with a dense coating of stinging hairs especially at the nodes. The leaves are ovate-cordate, coarsely serrate with incurved teeth, mostly cordate at base. Acuminate at apex. Stipules free, oblong, scarious, to 12 mm long. The plants are dioecious; the inflorescences are long; they are also branched and covered with simple hairs and scattered stinging hairs. The bracts of the flowers are small. The fruit is 1.25–1.5 mm long and extends beyond the kernel. Ural, Caucasus, Middle Asia. The plant can be found along roadsides, as a weed among crops and near human habitations and in damp woods (Boborov and Komarov 1936).

Local Medicinal Uses Urtica dioica is also used for sciatica, as rheumatism; for boils and skin ailments; as diuretic, for jaundice; as astringent and anthelminthic; and to treat kidney bleeding (Malik et al. 2015; Joshi et al. 2010; Malik et al. 2015; Njoroge et al. 2004). Sometimes the plant is used to treat fractures and blood pressure instabilities (Kunwar et al. 2010, 2013). In Pakistan the plant is used to treat headache, fever, and myalgia (Sher et al. 2016) and as emollient (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018) and for poisonous cause skin itching (Ibrar et al. 2007). The plant is used for joint pain, blood tonic, and pimples (Abbas et al. 2016). Decoction of the plant is astringent and anthelmintic. Leaves cause severe irritation which can be soothed by rubbing leaves of Rumex. Young leaves are used as potherb (Khan et al. 2011). It also reduces allergies, stops bleeding, lowers blood pressure, and heals wounds and is used as a diuretic and to cure rheumatism. Externally it has been used to improve the appearance of the hair and is said to be a remedy for dandruff (Shedayi and Gulshan 2012). Young leaves are cooked as a potherb and added to soups. They can also be dried for winter use. Decoction of root is given to increase milk secretion and reduces prostate enlargement. The decoction of plant is applied on baldness and dandruff (Ahmad and Habib 2014). Decoction of roots and aerial parts is used for dandruff and baldness (Ahmad et al. 2017). It is an allergenic plant. Leaves if touched with the body can cause severe irritation, itching, or swelling of the skin that can be soothed by rubbing the leaves on affected parts (Ch et al. 2013). Plant root is used for toothache (Rahman et al. 2016). Leaves are given to livestock to increase milk production (Haq et al., 2011). It is used for stomach disorders (Ali et al. 2019), joint pain, and pimples and as tonic (Abbas et al. 2016) and for arthritis, nausea, and swellings (Wali et al. 2019). It is also used as digestive and diuretic and for genital disorders and against hemorrhoids (Tetik et al. 2013) and as anthelminthic and astringent (Muhammad et al. 2019), as well as for asthma, anemia, gout, and fungal diseases (Martkoplishvili and Kvavadze 2015). Sometimes the species is applied to bone fractures (Malik et al. 2015), dog as well as snake bites (Kichu et al. 2015), and for swollen legs (Kang et al. 2016). It can be used to regulate blood sugar and as

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galactagogue (Ahmad et al. 2018; Ghorbani 2005). In Jammu and Kashmir, it is used as anthelmintic, blood purifier, hair stimulant, astringent, diuretic, and nephritic for swellings, dandruff, hypertension, boils, rheumatism, skin infections, wounds, jaundice, blisters, toothache, bone fractures, fever, gastric disorders, gout, hyperacidity, skin infections, sprain, and stomach ache (Gairola et al. 2014). Decoction of plant is used as an astringent and anti-helminthic (Jan et al. 2017). Nettle is widely used in allopathic and traditional medicine. Fresh leaves can be used for joint pain. An alcoholic tincture of leaves and stems is a remedy for skin diseases and serves as antiseptic. The tincture of dry leaves is useful for diathesis. Nettle tea is used as sedative and to lower blood pressure. The plant helps to prevent bleeding and gallbladder problems and is a diuretic and anti-inflammatory. It also has estrogen effects and lowers the level of cholesterol in the blood and regulates digestion and carbohydrate exchange. Nettle has positive effects on the cardiovascular system and, in cases of anemia, increases the hemoglobin in the blood and promotes healing of damaged tissues. Nettle preparations are used in dermatology, helping to heal eczema, psoriasis, acne, and oily seborrhea, and serve for hair loss therapies. The tincture of nettle is useful for radiculitis, rheumatism, kidney infections, bladder inflammation, liver disease, and hemorrhoids (Bussmann et al. 2017a, 2020; Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Li et al. 2020). Leaves and stem contain organic acids, starch, sugars, vitamins A, K, B2, and C. The seeds contain fatty oils. A water infusion and decoction of nettle is applied in diseases of the liver, biliary tract, and stone and chronic constipation and as diuretic. The water infusion is used for hemorrhoid, uterine, pneumonic, and intestinal hemorrhages. A water infusion and decoction is also used in dysentery, hemorrhoids, and podagra. A decoction from leaves is used to strengthen hair growth. The leaves have diuretic, purgative, expectorant, anastaltic, anticonvulsant, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, and antipyretic properties. A decoction and powder of leaves are used as diuretic, laxative, expectorant, vasoconstrictor, and hemostatic to treat internal bleeding and hemorrhoids and also to treat rheumatism, stomach diseases, diabetes, and chronic ulcers. It is used in a bath to treat various types of swelling. The roots and fruits are used to treat diarrhea. The leaves are used in a wash to treat hair loss (Bussmann et al. 2017a, 2020; Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Li et al. 2020). Urtica dioica is also used as antirheumatic, diuretic, astringent, and anthelminthic for sciatica, boils, skin ailments, jaundice, and kidney bleeding (Bhat et al. 2013; Joshi et al. 2010; Malik et al. 2015; Njoroge et al. 2004). Sometimes the plant is used to treat fractures and blood pressure instabilities (Kunwar et al. 2010, 2013). In Pakistan the plant is used to treat headache, fever, and myalgia (Sher et al. 2016) and as emollient (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018). In India it is used as diuretic, anti-rheumatic, astringent, anthelminthic, for jaundice, and kidney hemorrhages (Joshi et al. 2010). In Pakistan the species is used for headache, fever, flu, and myalgia (Sher et al. 2016) and as emollient (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018). In the Caucasus, Urtica dioica is used as antiseptic,; for burns, hypertension, joint pain, and nervous system problems; and to increase hemoglobin (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b, 2018). It is one of the few species sold as medicinal plants in markets (Bussmann et al. 2017c). The nettle is used as bactericidal, healing,

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anti-inflammatory, anti-hemorrhagic, and vasodilator and to lower blood sugar. Nettle is used as a stimulant for the production of lymphocytes. The roots are used as a diuretic and in cases of enlargement of the prostate. The leaves of the nettle are used internally as diuretics and in disorders of the biliary tract; externally they are applied as an anti-arthritic to relieve osteomuscular pains and as a cicatrizant. The infusion prepared with the leaves is used in the treatment of inflammation of the urinary tract (Díaz 2003; Giraldo Quintero et al. 2015; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008). It is used against muscle pain (Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a) and for blood purification, fever, rheumatism, arthritis, blood circulation, hemorrhages, hair loss, asthma, hemorrhoids, and inflammation (general) (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b). Nettles are among the most commonly sold medicinal plants in Peruvian markets (Bussmann et al. 2007, 2009; Revene et al. 2008). Urtica echinata: It relieves stiffness of joints caused by arthritis and rheumatism (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003) and used against muscle pain (Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). Stinging nettles are used to treat hematoma, wounds, arthritis, rheumatism cough, bronchitis, and flu (Monigatti et al. 2013). Urtica magellanica: It is used for blood purification, fever, rheumatism, arthritis, blood circulation, hemorrhages, hair loss, asthma, hemorrhoids, and inflammation (general) (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b). Nettles are among the most commonly sold medicinal plants in Peruvian markets (Bussmann et al. 2007, 2009; Revene et al. 2008). Urtica urens: It is used against neurological pain and as blood purifier (Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a) and for vaginal cleansing and prostate problems (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b). Nettles are among the most commonly sold medicinal plants in Peruvian markets (Bussmann et al. 2007, 2009; Revene et al. 2008). Urtica ardens is also used for sciatica, boils, and skin ailments and as rheumatism (Bhat et al. 2013). Urtica massaica is used as antimalarial (Njoroge and Bussmann 2006a), against cold (Njoroge and Bussmann 2006b) and for back pain in women and as aphrodisiac (Njoroge and Bussmann 2009).

Local Food Uses Leaves of both species contain significant quantities of vitamins A, C, and K. Soups, kuku (an omelet with various greens, sometimes with add meat or fish) often eaten with sour milk, and kutab (a mixture of herbs baked in thinly rolled dough in a frying pan are believed to strengthen the organism and stimulate libido, especially if eaten with cinnamon and fried onions, In some regions of the country, white cheese or cottage cheese is added. Before eating the dish, it is greased with butter and often eaten with yoghurt); kirs (dumplings filled with nettle and walnut boiled in salt water) and other national dishes are made of fresh leaves. Juice is extracted from young shoots and leaves and used raw. Usually young leaves are used fresh with salt, and dried leaves and stems are used as a spice for soups and salads. Nettles’

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antiseptic quality helps maintain food freshness. It is use to fill fish for frying and can be put on meat. Especially in mountain regions, young Urtica leaves are often eaten as salad or boiled for herb pies, especially in spring, and often mixed with a large number of other species (Bussmann et al. 2017, 2020; Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Li et al. 2020; Kang et al. 2016; Kunwar et al. 2009; Thakur et al. 2017; Wali et al. 2019). The leaves are eaten as vegetable in Nepal (Kunwar et al. 2008) and are also widely eaten like spinach and pickled in the Caucasus (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Batello et al. 2010; Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b, 2018). Nettle leaves are also used to make sarma (Dogan et al. 2015, 2017). Urtica urens: This plant is used to promote urinary activity, especially to prevent the formation of stones and inflammations of the urinary tract. It is also used in the treatment of rheumatic conditions. The decoction of the plant is used to treat skin diseases and in the relief of allergies such as urticaria: it is used in all allergies. The root is used to treat enlarged prostates and promotes urination. The leaves are used internally as a diuretic and externally to relieve osteomuscular pain. The fruits are crushed and applied as a poultice to treat skin problems and rheumatic conditions. When the farmers want the chickens to hatch eggs, they whip them in the belly with the fresh plant, and after a few days, the chicken is at a temperature to brood (Díaz 2003; Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011; García Barriga 1974; Giraldo Quintero et al. 2015; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Urtica dioica: Leaves are used as fodder (Bussmann et al. 2017, 2020; Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Li et al. 2020) and are used in traditional carpet weaving as source of green and roots as yellow dye. It’s possible to make absolutely harmless green dye for the food industry. Fresh nettle extract increases resistance of plants to diseases and is used in the fight against insects of plants from families Rosaceae and Fabaceae. It also stimulates the chlorophyll production in leaves. From ancient times, magical properties were attributed to nettle. It was believed that items made from nettles keep the house from evil forces, in order to cultivate the land around the fencing, as well as keep as amulet. Nettle is most useful when the plant is still green but already has seeds. Nettle was used in ancient times in the economy and, given the fiber, used to prepare the bags, ropes, and nets. A dye solution is prepared from leaves to obtain green, gray-green, yellow, green-brown, greenish-pink, greenishcoffee, greenish-brown, and other different colors and shades. The solution is used for dyeing wool fabric. In the past, ropes and coarse fabrics (sacking) were made of it (Bussmann et al. 2017, 2020; Batsatsashvili et al. 2017). Urtica massaica is used to treat dietary deficiencies in cattle (Njoroge and Bussmann 2006b). Urtica urens: In curing ceremonies in Peru, it is used to treat bad air/mal aire, fright/ susto, luck in business, casting away bad luck, and fright in children/susto en niños (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7).

2072 Fig. 1 Urtica dioica (Urticaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Urtica dioica (Urticaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Urtica dioica L. Fig. 3 Urtica dioica (Urticaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Urtica dioica (Urticaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

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2074 Fig. 5 Urtica dioica (Urticaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 6 Urtica dioica (Urticaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Maroof Ali Turi)

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Fig. 7 Urtica dioica (Urticaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

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Bhat J, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath wildlife sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:1. http://www.ethnobiomed.com/content/9/1/1 Boborov EG, Komarov VL. Flora of the USSR, volume 5: Dicotyledoneae, subclass I: Archichlamydeae, order Piperales-Polygonales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1936. (English 1970). 593 pages, 49 b/w plates. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus, vol. XXVII. Cham: Springer International Publishing International Publishing; 2017. 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in Loja province, southern Ecuador. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006a;2:44. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing culture. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006b;2:47. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of longevity – The medicinal flora of Vilcabamba. Plantas de longevidad – La flora medicinal de Vilcabamba. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007a. (ISBN 978-09789962-2-2). Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of the four winds – the magic and medicinal flora of Peru. Plantas de los cuatro vientos – La flora mágica y medicinal del Perú. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007b. (ISBN 978-0-9789962-3-9). Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Medicinal plants of the Andes and the Amazon – the magic and medicinal flora of northern Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015a. (ISBN 978-0-9960231-2-2). Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plantas medicinales de los Andes y la Amazonía – La flora mágica y medicinal del Norte de Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015b. (ISBN 978-09960231-3-9). Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Lopez A. Blending traditional and Western medicine: medicinal plant use amongst patients at Clinica Anticona in El Porvenir, Peru. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2007;5:185–99. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Garcia M. From chamomile to aspirin? Medicinal plant use among clients at Laboratorios Beal in Trujillo, Peru. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009;7:399–407. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016a;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Moya Huanca LA, Hart RE. Changing markets – medicinal plants in the markets of La Paz and El alto, Bolivia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016b;193:76–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.07.074. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plant and fungal use in Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2017a;86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017c;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Njoroge G. Urtica massaica Mildbr. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the mountain regions of Africa. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020.

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Valeriana hardwickii Wall. var. hoffmeisteri C.B. Clarke Valeriana jatamansi Jones Valeriana officinalis L. CAPRIFOLIACEAE Bishwa Nath Oli, Shambhu Charmakar, Ripu M. Kunwar, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, and Maroof Ali Turi Synonyms Valeriana jatamansi Jones: Valeriana harmsii Graebn., Valeriana hygrobia Briq., Valeriana jatamansi var. frondosa Hand.-Mazz., Valeriana jatamansi var. glabra Merr., Valeriana jatamansi var. hygrobia (Briq.) Hand.-Mazz., Valeriana mairei Briq., Valeriana wallichii DC., Valeriana wallichii var. violifolia Franch. Valeriana officinalis L.: Valeriana alternifolia Bunge; Valeriana alternifolia f. angustifolia (Kom.) Kitag.; Valeriana alternifolia f. verticillata (Kom.) S.X. Li; Valeriana alternifolia var. angustifolia (Kom.) S.H. Li; Valeriana baltica Pleijel;

B. N. Oli Ministry of Forests and Environment, Kathmandu, Nepal S. Charmakar (*) Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Kathmandu, Nepal Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy e-mail: [email protected] R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_253

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Valeriana chinensis Kreyer ex Kom.; Valeriana coreana Briq.; Valeriana coreana subsp. leiocarpa (Kitag.) Vorosch.; Valeriana dubia Bunge; Valeriana exaltata J.C. Mikan; Valeriana fauriei Briq.; Valeriana fauriei var. leiocarpa (Kitag.) Kitag.; Valeriana leiocarpa Kitag.; Valeriana nipponica Nakai ex Kitag.; Valeriana officinalis subsp. baltica Á. Löve & D. Löve; Valeriana officinalis subsp. exaltata Soó; Valeriana officinalis var. latifolia Briq.; Valeriana palustris Kreyer; Valeriana pseudofficinalis C.Y. Cheng & H.B. Chen; Valeriana stubendorfii f. angustifolia Kom.; Valeriana stubendorfii f. verticillata Kom.; Valeriana stubebdorfii Kreyer ex Kom.; Valeriana subbipinnatifolia A.I. Baranov; Valeriana tianschanica Kreyer ex Hand.-Mazz.

Local Names Valeriana hardwickii: Kashmir: Mushkbala, Budjeeth Valeriana jatamansi: Pashto: Mushk bala, Muskibala ‫ﻣﺸﮑﺒﺎﻻ‬, Shingatai ‫;ﺷﯿﻨګﺎﺗﯥ‬ Urdu: Mushkbala, Asaroon, Tagar; Jammu: Mushkbala, Mushkhibala; Sanskrit: Jatamansi, Natah, Tagarah; Nepali: Simmya, Sugandhawal; Magar: Samayo, Juge jadi, Simme, Tagarah, Nataha, Washim, Sormai jhar, Somaya; Amchi, Kham: Na poe; Northern Pakistan, Mushk, Bala; Kurram: Makhkak; Bhotia: Panye; Gurung: Poti, Mukhkhawata, Jermasi in; Newari: Naswan, Naswa kulcha; Sherpa: Nhakapai, Pangbu, Panakapo; Tamang: Nagbo; Hindi: Balchhari, Musakbala, Mansi, Nihani, Smak, Sumaya, Tagarah; Tamil: Shadamangie, Takaram; Sikkim: Jatamasi; Garhwal: Sumaya, Balchari; Kashmir: Kanpate; Bhutanese: Japae (Shrestha 1998; Rajbhandari 2001; Kanel et al. 2017). Its trade names are Sugandhawal and Samayo (ANSAB 2003). English: Valerian Valeriana officinalis: Jammu: Murma; English: Valerian

N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan M. A. Turi College of Life Science, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu, China

Valeriana hardwickii Wall. var. hoffmeisteri C.B. Clarke . . .

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Botany and Ecology Valeriana hardwickii var. hoffmeisteri: Plants to 150 cm tall. Rhizomes short; roots slender, ca. 1 mm in diam. Stolons 1 to several, or absent. Stems erect, often hispidulous below, glabrous above except at nodes. Basal leaves long petiolate; petiole to 9 cm; blade pinnatisect or pinnatifid, rarely simple and cordate; terminal segment ovate to ovate-lanceolate, 3.5–7
1.5–3 cm, hispidulous to glabrate, base subrounded, margin entire or serrate, apex acuminate; lateral segments 4 or 6, remote, reduced toward petiole. Cauline leaves similar, gradually reduced apically. Inflorescence paniculiform, flowers and fruit in remote dichasial clusters, primary peduncles to 70 cm; bracts linear-subulate; bracteoles deltoid-ovate, ca. 1/2 as long as achenes, margin entire or crenulate. Corolla white, pinkish white, or purplish, campanulate to funnel form, 1.5–2.5(3.5) mm, tube and lobes of equal length. Stamens and style subequal to corolla in length or slightly exserted. Achenes broadly ovoid to ovoid, 2–3
1–1.2 mm, hispidulous or less frequently glabrous. Flowering June to August, fruiting July to October (Wu et al. 1994–2013). Valeriana jatamansi: In 1790, the great orientalist and polymath, Sir William Jones (1746–1794), described a new species of Valeriana L., based on a description and drawing provided by Adam Burt (1761–1814) (Mabberley and Noltie 2014). The item was later interpreted as Patrinia jatamansi and Nardostachys jatamansi. The genus Valeriana belonging to the family Valerianaceae contains around 250 types of species, which is distributed in subtropical and temperate regions of the world (Patan et al. 2018). In Nepal, there are four species of Valeriana: V. barbulata Diels, V. hardwickii Wall., V. jatamansi Jones, and V. stracheyi C.B. Clarke (Press et al. 2000; GoN 2001). Of these four, V. jatamansi is frequently distributed and used in Nepal (Baral and Kurmi 2006; Mabberley 2008) (Figs. 1, 2, 3 and 4). Caudices erect or oblique. Flowering stems 5–50 cm tall. Rosulate leaves narrowly spatulate or linear-oblanceolate; petiole subequal to leaf blade in length; blade 3–25
0.5–2.5 cm, glabrous or sparsely puberulent, veins 3, base attenuate, margin Fig. 1 Valeriana jatamansi (Valerianaceae), plant in flowering condition. (Photo Dipak Lamichhane)

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Fig. 2 Valeriana jatamansi (Valerianaceae), distribution and estimated production of V. jatamansi rhizome in Nepal Fig. 3 Valeriana jatamansi (Valerianaceae), fresh rhizome of V. jatamansi. (Photo Dipak Lamichhane)

entire, apex obtuse. Cauline leaves mostly 2- or 3-paired, lowermost elliptic to obovate, base attenuate into petiole; uppermost sessile, oblanceolate to lanceolate, sometimes sparsely serrate. Capitula 1.5–2 cm in diam.; primary peduncles sometimes elongated; involucral bracts 4–6, lanceolate; bracts narrowly ovate to ovate,

Valeriana hardwickii Wall. var. hoffmeisteri C.B. Clarke . . .

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Fig. 4 Valeriana jatamansi (Valerianaceae), dried rhizomes V. jatamansi. (Photo Dipak Lamichhane)

subequal to flowers in length. Calyx 5-lobed; lobes semiorbicular to triangularlanceolate, enlarged in fruit, usually ciliate. Corolla purple-red, pink, or magenta, campanulate, 4.5–9 mm, 5-lobed; lobes broadly ovate to oblong, 2–3.8 mm, outside  villous, occasionally glabrous. Stamens subequal to corolla in length; filaments villous. Style subequal to stamens in length; stigma capitate. Achenes obovoid, 3– 4 mm, partially or uniformly white hispid or glabrate; calyx lobes deltoid to ovate, 1.5–2.5 mm, prominently and reticulately veined. Flowering late June to August, fruiting Augus to -September. Open slopes, moist places in forest, 1500 m–3500 m. Distributed in Northern parts of Pakistan, Afghanistan, NE India, Nepal, and China. Locally found in the coniferous forest of Miandam, Kalam, Dir, Chitral, Gilgit, Kashmir, and Nathiagali. In Pakistan banned for export in unprocessed form. Highly vulnerable and threat is mainly due to over harvesting and habitat loss (Aumeeruddy-Thomas and Shengji 2003; Geck 2011; Gurung and Pyakurel 2017). Harvesting time: September to February (Wu et al. 2011; Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Figs. 5, 6, 7 and 8). Sugandhawal (Valeriana jatamansi Jones) is a well-known subtropical and temperate medicinal and aromatic plant, which serves as a good source of raw material for primary health care and pharmaceutical and perfumery industries (Dhiman et al. 2020; ANSAB 2005). It is native to temperate zones of the Himalaya and globally distributed in subtropical and temperate regions of Bhutan, Nepal, China (Tibet, Western and Central China), North and Southwest Asia, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Northern India, and Myanmar (Polunin and Stainton 1984; Mabberley and Noltie 2014). It’s native to Afghanistan, China North-Central, China Southeast, East Himalaya, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Thailand, Tibet, Vietnam, and West Himalaya. It is found throughout Nepal at an altitude between 1500 and 3300 m above mean sea level (Manandhar 1976, 2002). The species generally grows on sloppy, moist places, damp woods, and ditches and along the streams (Charmakar et al. 2020). Based on the field observations and reviews of literature, trade records, and the specimens housed in KATH and TUCH herbaria, it is found to be recorded from 55 districts of Nepal.

2084 Fig. 5 Valeriana jatamansi (Valerianaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Maroof Ali Turi)

Fig. 6 Valeriana jatamansi (Valerianaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Maroof Ali Turi)

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Valeriana hardwickii Wall. var. hoffmeisteri C.B. Clarke . . .

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Fig. 7 Valeriana jatamansi (Valerianaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Maroof Ali Turi)

Valeriana officinalis: Perennial. Rhizome very short, indistinct, rarely up to 1– 1.5 cm long, with numerous funiform fibrous roots and, often, depending on soil conditions with more or less prominent underground or, less frequently, on surface stolons (f. stolonifera), from 0.5 to 20 cm long, forming daughter plants at apex. Stems solitary or several, straight and stout, cylindrical, hollow, simple, branched only in inflorescence, greatly varied in size, from 10 to 200 cm but usually 40– 100 cm high, and up to 2 cm in diameter near base, sulcate, pubescent mainly in lower part and along nodes with short, coarse hairs or completely glabrous, green or violet red in lower third, with 4–7 (up to 14) leaf nodes. Leaves usually opposite, but occasionally alternate (f. alternifolia) and sometimes in whorls of 3–4 (f. verticillata) even on the same plant, lower leaves petiolate, upper sessile, odd pinnate, with 1–13 but usually with 3–9 pairs of lobes (segments), terminal lobe especially in lower cauline leaves, often larger and broader than lateral lobes, and on longer petioles, in which case leaf lyrate-pinnate, first leaves of sprouts and shoots rosettes, whereas occasionally lower cauline leaves undivided, sometimes all leaves completely undivided or only with isolated, short, asymmetric lobes (var. integrifolia Ldb.); lobes (segments) on short petioles, sessile or decurrent along rachis of leaf (especially upper segments), from broadly ovate (and often nonequilateral) to narrowly linear (f. angustifolia), obtuse or acute completely entire or dentate, teeth minute and isolated or coarse and remote, on both sides or only on one (often lower) margin; moreover, on the same plant shape of segments varies greatly in leaves from base to

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Fig. 8 Valeriana jatamansi (Valerianaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Maroof Ali Turi)

apex of plant; in basal leaves segments always broader and more prominent dentate than upper leaves, and in upper cauline leaves segments narrow, linear or lanceolate, sessile and mostly entire; leaves glabrous or pubescent in varying degrees with very short, less noticeable or long, setaceous, appressed or upright hairs, predominantly along veins and beneath, but always more or less ciliate or setoseciliate along margin of segments; veins thin and less noticeable beneath at places (in shady plants), or coarse, sharply projecting in form of ribs; size of leaves varying to the same extent as size of entire plant; lower basal leaves attain half the height of plant, segments of leaves in largest specimens 10 cm long and 6–7 cm wide. Inflorescence mostly large, corymbose, with one terminal or, often with additional two to three pairs of axillary, trichotomous lateral cymes, lax and broad, flat or compact and spherical, at nodes setosely pubescent, somewhat expanded at fruiting. Bracteoles linear-lanceolate, lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate, herbaceous, always more or less coarsely ciliate along scarious margin. Corolla usually 4–5 mm long, infundibuliform, from purely white to dark pink and smoky violet. Fruits oblong or oblong-ovate, 2.5–4.5 mm long and 1–1.8 mm wide, completely glabrous or strongly or weakly pubescent on both sides or only one side, with 10–12 rayed pappus, almost one and a half times as long as achene. Flowering from first half of May to August. Fruiting from July to September. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, on meadows, along the banks of rivers and marshes, in forests, on forest edges and glades, among shrubs, in ravines, sometimes on rocks and in tall

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grass, Juniperus shrub, and as weed in gardens, and widely cultivated (Shishkin 1953). Heavily harvested and widely used in the whole region (Kunwar et al. 2018, 2019; Overgaard Larsen 2002; Smith Olsen 2005) (Figs. 9, 10 and 11). Fig. 9 Valeriana tiliifolia (Plantaginaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 10 Valeriana tiliifolia (Plantaginaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 11 Valeriana tiliifolia (Plantaginaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Valeriana is rich in active phyto-constituents such as coumarins, iridoids, liganoids, and sesquiterpenes such as valerenic acid and other derivatives such as valeranone and valerenal. Moreover, liganoids include pinoresinol-4-o-d-glucoside and lignans 80 -hydro-xypinoresinol. Iridoids include valepotriates (valtrate, didrovaltrate, acevaltrate, and isovaleroxyhydroxyvaltrate) (Ying et al. 2009; Wills and Shohet 2009). Alkaloids include chatinine, curcumin, nordelporphine, norphoebine, thaliperphine, nantenine, phenanthrene, phoebine, dehydroaphine, valerine, valeriane, and oxoaporphine. Flavonoids in Valeriana mainly contain acacetin, hesperidin, and methylapigenin, diosmetin, luteolin, quercetin, kaempferol, and luteolin. Other acidic constituents are formic, butyric, palmitic, propionic, and stearic acid and isovaleryl ester of D () – α – hydroxyvaleric acid; essential oil from roots with rootlets contain β-sitosterol (Rastogi and Mehrotra 1993; Gupta et al. 1996). The other constituents are sugar, starch, gum, resin, and ketones (Xu et al. 2011). Hydro-distilled oil obtained from the whole plant consisted of sesquiterpenes, viz., carotol, germacrene B, cis-â-farnesene, á-humulene, and humulene oxide (Agnihotri et al. 2013; Khanal et al. 2018). Essential oils (valeranone, valen, mehrtenol, malaliol, myrhenyl isovalerate, valenol, camphene, a-pinene, b-pinene, limonene, p-cymene, kessane), phenylcarboxylic acids (coffee, chlorogenic, isochlorogenic), diosmetin, flavonoids (luteolin, apyrenine, quercetin), fatty acids (caproic, capric, caprylic, lauric, myristic, palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, linolenic, erucic, behenic, docosadienoic, palmitoleic), carbohydrates (glucose, sucrose, valeroside A), organic acids (isovaleric, valerian), iridoids (valtrate, acevaltrate, isovaleryloxyhydroxy-dicadridate) (Sokolov 1990).

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Local Medicinal Uses Valeriana hardwickii is used for urinary disorders, joint pain, and wounds (Bhat et al. 2013). In Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh, it is used as antispasmodic, carminative, and stimulant for epilepsy and hysteria (Gairola et al. 2014). Valeriana jatamansi: The aqueous and methanolic extracts of V. jatamansi rhizomes have shown to have anti-inflammatory activity (Kour et al. 2014). The rhizomes extract possess cytotoxic (Babu et al. 2015) and anti-mycobacterial properties (Taylor et al. 1995). It is also good for insomnia (Chauffard et al. 1981). Curcumin is a chief constituent for anti-inflammatory activity (Ammon et al. 1993). In Amchi medicine, plant rhizome is used for headache, eye trouble, sore throat, indigestion, wounds, fever, altitude sickness, cough and cold, diarrhea, and stomachache (Lama et al. 2001; Rokaya et al. 2010). In Ayurveda, the plant and rhizomes are used to treat cholera, stomachache, unconsciousness, gastritis, mental disorder, high blood pressure, conjunctivitis, epilepsy, and headache (Malla et al. 2015; Ghimire et al. 2008; Bhattarai 1992). Its rhizomes are commonly used as aphrodisiac, appetizer, and tonic (Manandhar 1987; Kunwar and Duwadee 2003; Balami 2004; Kunwar 2006; Acharya 2012; Kunwar et al. 2015). They are useful in stomachache (Kunwar et al. 2013), rheumatism (Joshi and Edington 1990), burns, cuts, wounds, joint pain, fever, cold (Shrestha and Ghimire 1996), asthma, weakness, and hair fall (Pant and Panta 2004; Kunwar and Adhikari 2005; Bista and Webb 2006; Kunwar et al. 2009; Kunwar and Bussmann 2009a, b; Uprety et al. 2010; Parajuli 2013; Luitel et al. 2014). The rhizome yields economically important aromatic oil, which is used in the preparation of tranquilizers and a remedy for the suppression of urine, and an important ingredient in perfumed powders. Decoction of rhizome is useful in cholera and dysentery. Rhizome is carminative, aromatic, and antispasmodic. It is also recommended in hysteria. The plant is used for stomachache and angina pectoris (Ibrar et al. 2007). Rhizome is used for intestinal pain, neurosis, insomnia, constipation (Ahmad et al. 2014), and epilepsy and as antispasmodic and carminative (Ali et al. 2011; Sher et al. 2007). A decoction of the rhizome is useful in cholera and dysentery as carminative and aromatic. It is antispasmodic. It is also recommended in hysteria (Jan et al. 2008), for constipation, cholera, dysentery (Adnan et al. 2007), rheumatism, and dysentery and as carminative, antispasmodic (Mahmood et al. 2012), and aromatic and for epilepsy (Yousufzai et al. 2010). The plant is used for diarrhea, dysentery, skin infections, as analgesic and carminative (Hassan et al. 2019). Decoction of roots is prepared and used against fever and externally for the skin (Begum et al. 2014). Valeriana jatamansi is one of the most important medicinal plants in the Himalaya. It is used in Nepal for headaches, eye problems, indigestion, and wounds and as analgesic, carminative, antispasmodic, antiseptic, expectorant, diuretic and sedative, and anthelminthic and in India for wounds and blisters (Bhat et al. 2015), abdominal pain, colics, cough, colds, boils, skin diseases, and headache (Singh et al. 2017). In Pakistan the species is used for epilepsy and neurosis (Sher et al. 2016a, b; Ur-Rahman et al. 2019). In Sikkim it is used for fever,

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colds, headache, sore throat, wounds, indigestion, hysteria, epilepsy, cough, and asthma (Tamang et al. 2017), with similar uses in Garhwal (Singh et al. 2017). It is also used also as sedative and against headache and shows some antiviral activity (Rajbhandari et al. 2007). In Northern Pakistan, it is used to enhance sleep and to relieve brain disorders and painful menstruation, for headache and hypertension (Kayani et al. 2015), and as analgesic (Almeida et al. 2001). In Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh, it is used for abdominal pain, diarrhea, epilepsy, fever, gynecological disorders, heart diseases, hysteria, nervous disorders, urinary disorders, and wounds, as antiseptic, antispasmodic, nerve tonic, sedative, and anthelminthic (Gairola et al. 2014). Valeriana species are used medicinally worldwide. Valeriana wallichii is used in India to treat hysteria, hypochondriasis, nervous problems, and itch (Joshi et al. 2010). A variety of Valeriana species, especially Valeriana jatamansi and Valeriana wallichii, are widely used in the Himalayas as sedative, tonic, and anthelminthic (Sher et al. 2016; Singh et al. 2017) (Fig. 12). Valeriana officinalis: Valerian is commonly included in official herbal pharmacopoeia. Traditionally in the region, the plant is used with chronic functional disorders of the central nervous system, hysteria, epilepsy, seizures, acute excitations, migraine, and neuralgia, neurodermatitis; as antiseptic; with chronic coronary problems; for treatment and prevention in early stages of angina pectoris, hypertensive disease, heart disease, diseases of the liver and bile ducts, dysentery and typhoidparatyphoid, endocrine gland disorders, and toothache; and to remove freckles. In Middle Asia, root infusions are used with asthenia, sciatica, dizziness, fainting, tetanus, paralysis, spasmophilia, scarlet fever, weakness of vision, rheumatism, gastrulia, and gastric colic in children; for the improvement of appetite; with diarrhea, dysentery, hemorrhoids, hiccups, tuberculosis, and bites of rabid animals;

Fig. 12 Valeriana jatamansi (Valerianaceae) dried rhizomes V. jatamansi, Nepal. (Photo Dipak Lamichhane)

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and as eyewash. (Sokolov 1990). About 20 species of the genus Valeriana grow in the Caucasus and Ural, but most of them lack the active ingredients of Valeriana officinalis (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1990). The roots are used as antiinflammatory, for cough, colds, heart, and nervous system problems, pleuritis, pneumonia, and skin problems (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017a, 2018a, b; Bussmann 2017). The roots are widely collected and sold (Bussmann et al. 2017b) and applied to wounds and blisters (Malik et al. 2015). This type of Valerian is used as pain reliever, antispasmodic, sedative, ad anti-flatulent and to relieve colic and reduce anxiety, nervous tension, insomnia, and headache. Externally it is applied to relieve skin irritations and rashes and to treat inflamed joints. The roots are used in cases of hysteria and other nervous system disorders.(Díaz 2003; Martínez Correa and Montes Martínez 2017; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008). The root is used to regulate the heart rate and as a tranquilizer (unspecified ethnicity-Pichincha) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Inflorescence is used to treat bronchial diseases and cough; root is used to treat anxiety, epilepsy, seizures, hypochondria, vertigo, headache, indigestion, mouth infections, spasms, throat inflammation, toothache, and menopause and as sedative and as tranquilizer (Bussmann et al. 2018a, b). It is a widely used medicinal plant species in Eurasia, e.g., and used for cough, heart problems, nerves, pleuritis,s and pneumonia (Bussmann et al. 2016b). In Jammu and Kashmir, it is used to treat dandruff (Gairola et al. 2014). Valeriana convallarioides: It is used to treat yellow fever (Béjar et al. 2001; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). Valeriana decussata: It is used to treat heart and nervous system problems (Béjar et al. 2001; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). Valeriana microphylla: This plant is used as a sedative and to treat neuroses (García Barriga 1975). It is also used to treat bone pain and cramps (Béjar et al. 2001; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). Valeriana micropterina: Root is used to treat heartache, nerves, stress, tranquilizer, cramps, gastritis/lcers, prostate, and kidney infection and for “air” (cultural disease) (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, c, Justo Chipana and Moraes 2015, Macía et al. 2005). Valeriana nivalis: The aerial parts are consumed as an infusion used against fever, tuberculosis, and uterine conditions. A plaster of the leaves relieves the bruises or sores and sore feet (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003). Valeriana pilosa: It is used for insomnia, headaches, and nervous system problems (Monigatti et al. 2013). Valeriana plantaginea: The Cogui Indians of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta in Colombia use it to relieve abdominal pain (Carbonó-Delahoz and Dib-Diazgranados 2013), to treat bone pain and cramps (Béjar et al. 2001; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a), and as purgative and laxative (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010a, b). It is sold in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007, 2008, 2009). Valeriana rigida: It is used as relaxant and sleep aid to treat insomnia, nerves, headache, menopause, contusions, mental disorders, schizophrenia, and cerebral pain (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b; Bussmann et al. 2010a, b, 2017a, b). It is sold in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007, 2008, 2009).

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Valeriana scandens: This plant is used for the treatment of anxiety and insomnia (Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011; Fonnegra-Gómez et al. 2012; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008). Valeriana urbanii: Poultices of the leaves are used to heal wounds, broken bones, inflammations, and gangrene (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).

Local Food Uses Valeriana nivalis: The aerial parts are edible (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Valeriana jatamansi: The plant has multiple uses ranging from fodder to edible to incense. Plant is used as common incense in higher hills (Sacherer 1979, Kunwar et al. 2018). Root and rhizome are the sources of essential oils, which are used in shampoo, perfume, and other aromatic products made by cosmetic industries, as an adjunct to certain flavors for tobacco, honey, etc. (Manandhar 2002). The leaves are cooked as a vegetable. The plant is also used as incense and insect repellant. Plant is used to flavor tobacco, beer, and liquors (Gurung 2009). Valerian oil is one of the most expensive essential oils among Nepalese products. In Kurram, it is used to make perfume (Muhammad et al. 2019) and as insecticide and incense in Garhwal (Malik et al. 2015). The collection and trade of dried rhizomes (Fig. 4) of V. jatamansi was dated back to the centuries when the exchange of V. jatamansi rhizome to grains and clothes in lowlands and border district trade centers was practiced (Subedi 1998). The early record of commercial trade of V. jatamansi rhizomes was outlined from 1973. A total of 1.4 tons, 41.6 tons, and 1 ton V. jatamansi rhizomes were traded in 1973, 1976, and 1977, respectively (GoN 1977). The large-scale commercial trade of V. jatamansi was started after 1995. The Department of Forests and Soil Conservation record shows trade volume of 60 tons in 1998 unexpectedly plummeted to 20.93 tons in 2001 and skyrocketed to 85.21 tons in 2003; and then between 2004 and 2015, the trade volume ranges from 6 to 44.5 MT (DOF 2017). Thus, the trade quantity of V. jatamansi in Nepal is highly fluctuated, assuming that the trade is highly influenced by market and demand. About 390 tons of Valeriana rhizomes per year are estimated to be harvested from the forests in Nepal alone (Kanel et al. 2017); however, the exploitation and trade (av. 35 tons/yr) was greatly varied at district level. Since the plant is grown in banks of agricultural fields and conserved in forests, and people are aware about its importance, its rhizome harvesting is not relatively destructive in this decade nor was in the earlier decades (Subedi 1998). However, the trade records at district level (Adhikari 2011; Pyakurel et al. 2017; Kunwar 2018) and that of earlier years (50 tons/yr. Poudel 2007; 60 tons/yr., Sharma and Shrestha 2011) show that the species is vulnerable and declining. We argued that the cultivation/domestication of

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Valeriana offsets the harvesting pressures in the forests. Despite the long cultivation/ domestication practices (Subedi 1999), the scale is rather local, random, limited, and the least commercial (Kanel et al. 2017). The commercial cultivation/domestication has been initiated in the following nine districts: Baglung, Baitadi, Bajura, Dolpa, Jumla, Mugu, Rukum, Dolakha, and Taplejung, complementing the availability of V. jatamansi rhizome in the market (Charmakar et al. 2020). The price of V. jatamansi rhizome took momentum since 2007 due to the decreasing volume of rhizome availability for the trade. Of the collection and trade records, Jumla, Kalikot, Dailekh, Rukum, Achham, Bajura, Bajhang, and Baitadi districts of western Nepal contributed the most, more than a ton each year in average (DoF 2017). Collection and trade of MAPs is the second most important source of cash income after wages of migrant labors in mid and far west of Nepal including those districts (Subedi 2006). The Conservation Assessment and Management Plan in Nepal has listed this species as vulnerable (CAMP 2001). The Government of Nepal has been making efforts toward conservation and management of the species, such as (i) the Forest Regulation, 1995, which has banned the export of V. jatamansi without its processing and (ii) the Government of Nepal which has enlisted the species as one of the 30 prioritized non-timber forest products for research, development, and commercial cultivation (DPR 2006) which contributes to maintain wild population and increase local employment through processing at local level. However, a concrete action on restoration and management of V. jatamansi habitat distributed within the attitudinal range between 1500 m and 3300 m; wide plantation in degraded forests, community lands and private lands, and sustainable harvesting practices in community forests are crucial to maintain sustainable wild population and trade of V. jatamansi in Nepal (ANSAB 2005). Valeriana microphylla: It is used to treat mal aire/bad air (Béjar et al. 2001; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). Valeriana nivalis: Forage use (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003). Valeriana plantaginea: It is used to treat mal aire/bad air (Béjar et al. 2001; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a) and in healing ceremonies to treat mal aire/ bad air and for protection (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010b). Valeriana rigida: It is used as fragrance, for good luck, to always shine, for spiritual flowering, bad air/mal aire, and success (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b; Bussmann et al. 2010b, 2017a, b). In veterinary medicine, Valeriana officinalis is used as infusion and as sedative (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017a, 2018a, b; Bussmann 2017).

References Acharya R. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of Resunga Hill used by Magar community of Badagaun VDC, Gulmi district, Nepal. Scientific World. 2012;10(10):54–65. Adhikari S. Status, use and Management of Sugandhawal (Valeriana jatamansi) in Phoikalika community Forest of Jumla District, Nepal: LAMBERT publication; 2011.

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Adnan SM, Hamayun M, Begum S, Lee IJ. Studies on ethnomedicinal knowledge, market assessment and conservation status of some socio-economically important medicinal plants of Roringar Valley, District Swat, Pakistan. Pak Phytopharm Nat Prod. 2007;1(1):67–72. Agnihotri S, Wakode S, Ali M. Chemical composition, antimicrobial and topical anti-inflammatory activity of Valeriana jatamansi Jones essential oil. J Essential Oil Bearing Plants. 2013;14(4). Ahmad M, Sultana S, Fazl-i-Hadi S, Ben Hadda T, Rashid S, Zafar M, Yaseen G. An Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in high mountainous region of Chail valley (district swat-Pakistan). J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2014;10(1):36. Ali H, Sannai J, Sher H, Rashid A. Ethnobotanical profile of some plant resources in Malam Jabba valley of swat, Pakistan. J Med Plant Res. 2011;5(18):4676–87. Almeida RN, Navarro DS, Barbosa-Filho JM. Plants with central analgesic activity. Phytomedicine. 2001;8(4):310–22. Ammon HP, Safayhi H, Mack T, Sabieraj J. Mechanism of anti-inflammatory actions of curcumin and boswellic acids. J Ethnopharmacol. 1993;38:113–9. ANSAB. Commercially important non-timber Forest products (NTFPs) of Nepal. Published by ANSAB in 2003; 2003. ANSAB. Nepal NTFP alliance. Final report submitted to USAID, Ravi Bhawan, Kathmandu; 2005. Aumeeruddy-Thomas Y, Shengji P. Applied ethnbobotany: case studies from the Himalayan region. People and plants working paper 12, WWF, Surrey; 2003. Babu P, Verma SK, Mathur A. Screening of solvent extracts of Valeriana jatamansi for isolation of antimicrobial compound. Int J Pharm Sci Res. 2015;6:2641–8. Balami NP. Ethnomedicinal uses of plants among the Newar community of Pharping village of Kathmandu district, Nepal. Tribhuvan Univ J. 2004;24(1):13–9. Baral SR, Kurmi PP. A compendium of medicinal plants Nepal: Mrs Rachana Publishers; 2006. 534p. Begum S, AbdEIslam NM, Adnan M, Tariq A, Yasmin A, Hameed R. Ethnomedicines of highly utilized plants in the temperate Himalayan region. Afr J Tradit Complement Altern Med. 2014;11(3):132–42. Béjar E, Bussmann RW, Roa C, Sharon D. Medicinal herbs of southern Ecuador – Hierbas Medicinales del Sur Ecuatoriano, 340p. San Diego: Latino Herbal Press; 2001. Bhat J, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath wildlife sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:1. http://www.ethnobiomed.com/content/9/1/1 Bhat J, Malik ZA, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhatt AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44. Bhattarai NK. Folk herbal remedies of Sindhupalchok District, Central Nepal. Fitoterapia. 1992;63(2):145–55. Bista S, Webb E. Collection and marketing of non-timber forest products in the far western hills of Nepal. Environ Conserv. 2006;33:244. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus: Springer International Publishing XXVII; 2017, 746p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1). Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Medicinal plants used in northern Peru for reproductive problems and female health. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010a;6(30). Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Traditional Peruvian medicine for the treatment of respiratory disorders. Rev Peru Biol. 2010b;17(2):331–46. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in Loja province, southern Ecuador. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006a;2:44. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing culture. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006b;2:47. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of longevity – the medicinal flora of Vilcabamba. Plantas de longevidad – La flora medicinal de Vilcabamba. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007a. (ISBN 978-09789962-2-2). Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of the four winds – the magic and medicinal flora of Peru. Plantas de los cuatro vientos – La flora mágica y medicinal del Perú. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007b. (ISBN 978-0-9789962-3-9).

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Verbascum thapsus L. SCROPHULARIACEAE Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Local Names Verbascum thapsus: Pashto: Kharghwag ‫ ;ﺥﺭﻍﻭ‬Urdu: Tionsh; Manoor: Gidar tambacu; Kurram: Kharkhugi, Kharghugy; Buner: Gedar; English: Common mullein.

H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_254

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Botany and Ecology Verbascum thapsus: Biennial. Plant densely covered with persistent, ash-white, rarely light yellowish, tomentum. Stems erect, leafy, more or less winged. Radical leaves with 3–6 cm long petioles; lamina oblong, 15–30 cm long, 5–10 cm broad, obtuse or short-mucronate, crenate or subentire; cauline leaves with shorter petioles or sessile, decurrent; upper leaves sessile, short, acuminate. Inflorescence dense, terminal spicate raceme, subcylindrical, unbranched; flowers in clusters of 4–7 in lower part of raceme, of 1–4 in the upper part. Bracts rounded at base, lanceolate, acuminate, shorter than floral cluster in fruit. Pedicels thick, short, almost adnate to inflorescence axis. Calyx divided almost to base, with lanceolate lobes. Corolla yellow, 12–20 mm across, with very distinct pellucid glands. Stamens 5, all fertile; filaments of two anterior stamens at early flowering stage suberect, slightly longer and thicker than filaments of other stamens, glabrous or white-villous; anthers of two anterior stamens shortly decurrent. Style filiform. Capsule ellipsoid or obovoid, slightly longer than calyx. Flowering June–July. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, in meadows, forest openings, mainly on sandy soils, as weed on waste land, on riverbanks (Shishkin and Boborov 1955) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12).

Fig. 1 Verbascum sp. (Scrophulariaceae), Ushguli, Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Verbascum sp. (Scrophulariaceae), Ushguli, Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Iridoids (aukubine), carbohydrates (glucose galactose, sucrose, pectine, biose, raffinose, mannotriose, verbascose), saponins, alkaloids, steroids (verbasterine, socatalpol, catalepol), flavonoids, tannins, steroids (a-phytosterol, sitosterol, ergostanen), vitamins (C), triterpenoids, phenolcarboxylic acids (veratrous), and fatty acids (palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, linolenic, arachidonic, behenic) (Sokolov 1990).

Local Medicinal Uses Verbascum thapsus: Poultices are applied to wounds (Bussmann et al. 2016b, 2020a, b; Sokolov 1990). In India, the species is used for asthma, bronchitis, ulcers, tumors, piles, and as analgesic (Bhat et al. 2013), and in Pakistan, it is used for

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Fig. 3 Verbascum sp. (Scrophulariaceae), Ushguli, Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua Zambrana)

wound healing and lumbago (Jan et al. 2017; Sher et al. 2016). Leaves in powder form of poultice are used for healing the wounds. The leaves are warmed and then tightly tied on the joints to relieve the pain and also used for softening the boils. Warm poultice of the fresh leaves is externally applied to blisters and carbuncle (Shah and Khan 2006). It is also used to cure inflammation and wounds (Hadi et al. 2014). Plant is used for diarrhea, dysentery, as analgesic, and for skin infections (Ahmad et al. 2014). Fresh leaves paste is used in diarrhea (Abbasi et al. 2010). Fresh leaves are placed over affected parts to cure wounds and inflammations (Shah and Hussain 2012). The leaves are hot, useful in chest complaints, rheumatism, and diarrhea; the leaves warmed and rubbed with oil are employed as an application to inflamed parts. Flowers and roots are demulcent and astringent (Ur-Rehman 2006). Poultice of leaves and flowers is used in pulmonary diseases. Seeds are aphrodisiac (Amjad et al. 2017). Leaves powder is used for bronchitis, tuberculosis, respiratory tract ailments, and asthma (Mahmood et al. 2012). Root’s powder is considered as

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Fig. 4 Verbascum sp. (Scrophulariaceae), Ushguli, Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Verbascum sp. (Scrophulariaceae), Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua Zambrana)

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Fig. 6 Verbascum sp. (Scrophulariaceae), Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua Zambrana)

Fig. 7 Verbascum sp. (Scrophulariaceae), Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua Zambrana)

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Fig. 8 Verbascum sp. (Scrophulariaceae), Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua Zambrana)

aphrodisiac; leaves paste is used in skin problems; leaves are also smoked to induce sedation by reducing irritability or excitement (Khan et al. 2013). Leaves are crushed to obtain powder. Half teaspoon of this powder twice in a day is recommended for asthma and cough (Arshad and Ahmad 2005). The species is also used as blood purifier (Wali et al. 2019), and to treat diarrhea (Muhammad et al. 2019; Ur Rahman et al. 2019), as well as bronchitis and asthma (Muhammad et al. 2019). Antiviral activity against influenza has been demonstrated (Rajbhandari et al. 2007). In Kashmir, Ladakh and Jammu used for burns, ear ailments, blood diseases, cuts, as diuretic, to treat infections, sores, wounds, abscess, asthma, colds, constipation, dysentery, for mental relaxation, pulmonary problems, sores, as styptic, for inflammation, pulmonary complaints, and gynecological problems (Gairola et al. 2014).

Local Other Uses Verbascum thapsus: The species is sometimes used as forage (Wali et al. 2019). The leaf juice is used for skin problems in cattle and goats (Ali et al. 2019).

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Verbascum thapsus L. Fig. 10 Verbascum sp. (Scrophulariaceae), Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua Zambrana)

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2110 Fig. 11 Verbascum thapsus (Scrophulariaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

Fig. 12 Verbascum thapsus (Scrophulariaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hassan Sher & Ikram Ur-Rahman)

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References Abbasi AM, Khan MA, Ahmed M, Zafar M. Herbal medicines used to cure various ailments by the inhabitants of Abbottabad district, North West Frontier Province, Pakistan. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2010;9(1):175–83. Ahmad M, Sultana S, Fazl-i-Hadi S, Ben Hadda T, Rashid S, Zafar M, Yaseen G. An Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in high mountainous region of Chail valley (District Swat-Pakistan). J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2014;10(1):36. Ali, A., Aldosari, A., Tng, D.Y.P., Ullah, M., Hussain, W., Ahmad, M., Hussain, J., Khan, A., Hussain, H., Sher, H., Bussmann, R.W., Shao, J.-W. 2019. Traditional uses of plants by indigenous communities for veterinary practices at Kurram District, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl 1824 https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.24.1-19. Amjad MS, Arshad M, Saboor A, Page S, Chaudhari SK. Ethnobotanical profiling of the medicinal flora of Kotli, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan: empirical reflections on multinomial logit specifications. Asian Pac J Trop Med. 2017;10(5):503–14. Arshad M, Ahmad M. Ethnobotanical study of Galliyat for botanical demography and bioecological diversification. Ethnobot Leafl. 2005;2004(1):4. Bhat J, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013;9:1 http://www.ethnobiomed.com/content/9/1/1 Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ehnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/ s13002-016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann, R.W. et al. A comparative ethnobotany of Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. 2016c. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z. Verbascum songaricum Schrenk ex Fisch. & C.A. Mey.; Verbascum thapsus L.; Verbascum sp. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions Central Asia and Altai. Cham: Springer International Publishing International Publishing; 2020a. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D. Verbascum sp.; Verbascum thapsus L. In: Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Bussmann RW, editors. Ethnobotany of mountain regions far Eastern Europe. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020b. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh Bedi Y. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Hadi F, Ibrar M, Dastagir G, Arif M, Naveed K, Adnan M. Weed diversity in wheat and maize with special reference to their ethnomedicinal uses at rich valley, Hindukush range, Chitral, Pakistan. Pak J Weed Sci Res. 2014;20(3):335–46. Jan HA, Wali S, Ahmad L, Jana S, Ahmad N, Ullah N. Ethnomedicinal survey of medicinal plants of Chinglai valley, Buner district, Pakistan. Eur J Int Med. 2017; 13:64–74. Khan SM, Page S, Ahmad H, Shaheen H, Ullah Z, Ahmad M, Harper DM. Medicinal flora and ethnoecological knowledge in the Naran Valley, Western Himalaya, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1):4. Mahmood A, Mahmood A, Malik RN. Indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants from Leepa valley, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2012;143(1):338–46. Muhammad S, Hussain M, Abbas Z, Saquib Z, Bussmann RW, Shah GM. An ethnomedicinal appraisal of Kurram agency tribal area Pakistan. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2019;184:631–47.

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Rajbhandari M, Mentel R, Jha PK, Chaudhary RP, Bhattarai S, Gewali MB, Karmacharya N, Hipper M, Lindequist U. Antiviral activity of some plants used in Nepalese traditional medicine. eCAM. 2007:1–6. https://doi.org/10.1093/ecam/nem156. Shah SM, Hussain F. Ethnomedicinal plant wealth of Mastuj valley, Hindukush range, district Chitral, Pakistan. J Med Plant Res. 2012;6:4328–37. Shah GM, Khan MA. Common medicinal folk recipes of siran valley, Mansehra, Pakistan. Ethnobot Leafl. 2006;2006(1):5. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among the Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni ethnic groups in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, Volume 22: Solanaceae and Scrophulariaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1955. 745 pages (English 1993) Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 5. Families of Caprifoliaceae – Plantaginaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1990, 328 p. (in Russian) Ur Rahman I, Afzal A, Iqbal Z, Hart R, Abd Allah EF, Hashem A, Alsayed MF, Ijaz F, Ali N, Shah M, Bussmann RW, Calixto ES. Herbal teas and drinks: folk medicine of the Manoor Valley, Lesser Himalaya, Pakistan. Plan Theory. 2019;8:581. https://doi.org/10.3390/ plants8120581. Ur-Rehman E. Indigenous knowledge on medicinal plants, village Barali Kass and its allied areas, District Kotli Azad Jammu & Kashmir, Pakistan. Ethnobot Leafl. 2006;2006(1):27. Wali R, Rahman K, Raja NI, Qureshi R, Bussmann RW, Mashwani ZUR. A quantitative medico botanical expedition of Fairy Meadows National Park, Diamir, Gilgit Baltistan, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019, 1835; https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.35.1-30.

Vernonia anthelmintica (L.) Willd. ASTERACEAE Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Ascaricida anthelminthica (L.) Sweet; Ascaricida indica Cass.; Baccharoides anthelminthica (L.) Moench; Centratherum anthelminthicum (L.) Gamble; Conyza anthelminthica L.; Dolosanthus sylvaticus Klatt; Phyllocephalum anthelminthicum (L.) S.R. Paul & S.L. Kapoor; Serratula anthelminthica (L.) Roxb.; Vernonia stenolepis Oliv.

Botany and Ecology Vernonia anthelmintica: Herbs, annual, up to 60 cm tall. Stems erect, robust, branched above, conspicuously canaliculate, glandular-pubescent. Leaves ovate, ovate-lanceolate, or lanceolate, 1.5–4.5 cm, membranous, both surfaces shortly pubescent, adaxially glandular, lateral veins 8-paired or more, veinlets fine and dense, reticulate, base attenuate into petiole, margin coarsely or sharply serrate, H. Sher (*) Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_255

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Fig. 1 Vernonia cf. amygdalina (Asteraceae), Bale Mountains National Park, Odo Bulu Forest, Ethiopia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

Fig. 2 Vernonia cf. amygdalina (Asteraceae), Bale Mountains National Park, Odo Bulu Forest, Ethiopia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

apex acute or acuminate. Synflorescences terminal, laxly corymbose. Capitula many, 15–20 mm in diam.; peduncle 5–15 mm, often bearing linear bracts, apically dilated, densely shortly pubescent and glandular. Involucre hemispheric; phyllaries 3-seriate, green, leaflike, subequal, outer slightly patent, 10–12 mm, pubescent and glandular, median oblong-linear, acute, inner oblong, somewhat membranous, acute; all bracts reflexed in fruit. Receptacle flat or rather concave, areolate. Florets 40–50; corolla purplish, tubular, 9–12 mm, with 6–7 mm slender tube and narrowly campanulate limb; lobes 5, lanceolate. Achenes black, cylindric, 4–5 mm, 10-ribbed, pubescent, glandular between ribs. Pappus 2-seriate, reddish; outer setae to 1.8 mm, scalelike, shiny, deciduous; inner setae 5.5–8 mm, rigid, flattened. Flowering November– February (Wu et al. 1994-2013) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6).

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Fig. 3 Vernonia cf. galamensis (Asteraceae), Bale Mountains National Park, Odo Bulu Forest, Ethiopia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

Local Medicinal Uses Vernonia anthelmintica serves for intestinal problems, fever, and skin ailments, as well as anthelmintic. It is used externally against migraine (Dey et al. 2017). Vernonia amygdalina: The species is commonly used in traditional medicine. Leaf decoctions are used to treat fever, malaria, diarrhea, dysentery, hepatitis, cough, as a laxative, and as a fertility inducer. They are also used as a medicine for scabies, headache, and stomachache. Root extracts are also used as treatment against malaria and gastrointestinal disorders. In Nigeria, leaves are placed on a wound as a substitute for iodine. One of the most common medicinal uses of Vernonia amygdalina is as a treatment against intestinal worms including nematodes, especially Enterobius vermicularis (Kokwaro 2009). In Zimbabwe, a root infusion is used to treat sexually transmitted diseases. Bark infusions are also taken to treat fever and diarrhea, dried flowers against stomach disorders. Young twigs are used as toothpicks or chewing sticks (Bekalo et al. 2009), for skin lesions (Kumar et al. 2011; Wondimu et al. 2007; Yineger and Yewhalaw 2007), as antimalarial (Flatie et al. 2009; Tabuti 2008), and for diarrhea (Flatie et al. 2009). It is also applied externally to skin

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Fig. 4 Vernonia cf. galamensis (Asteraceae), Bale Mountains National Park, Odo Bulu Forest, Ethiopia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

rashes and wounds (Gedif and Hahn 2003; Giday et al. 2003, 2009a, b), as anthelmintic (Giday et al. 2007), and for intestinal disorders and skin problems (Kumar et al. 2011). It is used as anthelmintic (Teklehaymanot et al. 2007). Vernonia auriculifera: In Kenya, it is used in traditional medicine in similar manners as Vernonia amygdalina. The Meinit people in Ethiopia apply the root topically against toothache. In Tanzania, the root soaked in water is a purgative for children. In DR Congo, a drop of juice from the crushed stem bark is instilled in each nostril to treat headache. Leaf preparations are used in various countries against dysentery and stomachache. In Uganda, an infusion of the leaves is taken against worms and a leaf decoction is drunk for the treatment of malaria. Leaf extracts are drunk as oxytocic and abortifacient and against postpartum pains. Pulverized leaves are used against impetigo, and in Congo, the dried and pounded leaves are applied on wounds. In Cameroon, the leaf juice is used as eye drops for the treatment of cataract. The leaf infusion is used to treat measles and for indigestion (Kokwaro 2009). Vernonia galamensis: The leaf extract is drunk as a tea to treat chest pain. In Kenya, the plant is used to treat stomach pain. It is used for eye problems (Bussmann 2006),

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Fig. 5 Vernonia cf. galamensis (Asteraceae), Bale Mountains National Park, Odo Bulu Forest, Ethiopia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

applied to external injuries and infected wounds (Teklehaymanot et al. 2010), and also used for tonsillitis (Teklehaymanote et al. 2009). Vernonia cinerea is used for diarrhea, colds and cough (Bhat et al. 2013), and also for cholera, dysentery, constipation, fever, impotency, lactation, malaria, night blindness, piles, skin diseases, threadworm, spleen complaints, and wounds (Verma et al. 2007). Vernonia poissonii sees medicinal use in Madagascar (Randrianarivony et al. 2017), where Vernonia appendiculata is sold in markets for the treatment of fever and nervous system disorders (Randriamiharisoa et al. 2016), as well as dental cavities (Rabearivony et al. 2015; Razafindraibe et al. 2013). Vernonia lasiopus is used for postpartum pain, skin rashes, stomachache, back pain, diarrhea, as anthelmintic (Njoroge et al. 2004; Njoroge & Bussmann 2007), and for common cold and otitis media (Njoroge & Bussmann 2006). Vernonia adoensis is used to treat menstrual disorders, wounds (Teklehaymanot et al. 2007), as well as gastrointestinal problems and poisoning (Giday et al. 2007). Vernonia exserta is used for parasites and chickenpox (Razafindraibe et al. 2013).

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Fig. 6 Vernonia cf. galamensis (Asteraceae), Bale Mountains National Park, Odo Bulu Forest, Ethiopia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

Local Food Uses Vernonia cinerea is used in Nepal as vegetable (Dangol et al. 2017). Vernonia amygdalina: A highly appreciated vegetable in West and Central Africa and can be consumed in various dishes. In Nigeria, where the Yoruba name for this crop is “ewuro” and the Igbo call it “onugbu,” leaves are boiled in soups. Leaves are sometimes sold in the market after being shredded, parboiled, and made into fistsized balls. In Cameroon, the processed leaves are cooked with meat and/or prawns mixed with ground peanuts to make a famous dish called “ndole.” Alternatively, whole leaves are cooked together with cassava or yam tubers, whereas the leaves are also dried and ground to powder for use in soups. In Cameroon, the leaves are sometimes eaten unprocessed and raw mixed with palm oil and salt. Vernonia galamensis: In Tanzania, the leaves are cooked in porridge.

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses Vernonia amygdalina: The leaves are browsed by goats. Dry stems and branches provide fuel. The plant is sometimes grown as a hedge. The branches are used as stakes to line fields. Vernonia amygdalina is also useful as a control agent against diseases in plants. The ash from burnt branches is used to control seed-borne fungi (Curvularia, Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Penicillium spp.) thus ameliorating seed viability and germination capacity. It has also been used for brewing beer as a substitute for hop and as a well-known bee plant. Branches are termite resistant (Beentje 1994, Gachati 1989, Kokwaro 2009). The leaf juice is used as anthelmintic in livestock (Kokwaro 2009). It is used for hut construction, fodder, firewood, and stomach problems in livestock (Bussmann et al. 2011). It is used to treat blackleg in livestock (Wondimu et al. 2007; Yineger et al. 2007) and for psychosomatic disorders like “devil’s sickness” and evil eye (Giday et al. 2010; Teklehaymanot et al. 2007). It is used to make household tools (Mekonnen et al. 2015). Vernonia auriculifera: In Kenya, Maasai use the stems and leaves in hut construction and Kipsigis use these materials to make platforms in hut roofs for grain storage. In Kenya, the leaves are also used for wrapping plant drugs to be roasted and used as a poultice. In Uganda, the leaves are used as a substitute for toilet paper. The stems are burnt as fuel. In Rwanda and DR Congo, the leaves and young twigs are eaten by domestic animals. The stems, leaves, and flowers yield a dye: green colored without mordant or with alum, and golden colored with chrome. Vernonia auriculifera is left to grow or sometimes planted as a fallow plant to improve the soil or as a shadeproviding nurse tree. In Ethiopia, it is said that when the plant flowers, it is time to sow millet. Leaves and stems are used for hut construction (Beentje 1994, Gachati 1989, Kokwaro 2009). It is also used to make medicine containers (Kokwaro 2009). Vernonia galamensis: The high oil content of the seed and the high content of vernolic acid in the oil make it a potential oil crop. The oil, called “vernonia oil,” can be used in the chemical (glue, paint, and plastics), pharmaceutical, and agroindustrial industries. In the paint industry, it is being tested as a component of low volatile-organic-solvent paints. As a component of heat-baked films and coatings, vernonia oil provides outstanding adhesion, flexibility and chipping resistance, and good resistance to alkaline, acid, and nonpolar solvents. In plastics, it can be used as a plasticizer of PVC and as a structural component of polymers. The press-cake is suitable as animal feed. The leaves have been smoked as a substitute for tobacco in Ethiopia. A variety of Vernonia species are used as fishing poisons (Neuwinger 2004).

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Viola biflora L. Viola canescens Wall. Viola odorata L. Viola pilosa Blume Viola rupestris F.W. Schmidt Viola suavis M. Bieb. VIOLACEAE Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur Rahman, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Synonyms Viola biflora L.: Viola reniformis Wall. Viola canescens Wall.: Vioal serpens var. canescens (Wall.) Hook. f. & Thomson. H. Sher (*) Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan I. Ur Rahman Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_258

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Viola pilosa Blume: Viola confusa Champ. ex Benth., Viola pogonantha W.W. Sm., Viola serpens subsp. gurhwalensis W. Becker, Viola serpens var. pseudoscotophylla Biss., Viola serpens Wall. ex Gilg. Viola rupestris F.W. Schmidt: Viola arenaria DC., Viola glaberrima C. Serg., Viola rupestris var. glaberrima Murb. Viola suavis M. Bieb.: Viola pontica W. Becker.

Local Names Viola biflora: Jammu: Banafsha; Kashmir: Banfsha; Kurram: Bilamshah; Pashto: Banafsha ‫ﺏﻥﻓﺸﺎ‬. Viola canescens: Jammu: Banfsha, Banksha, Vanaksha; Gharwal: Sumaya; Pashto: Banafsha ‫ﺏﻥﻓﺸﺎ‬. Viola odorata: Kashmir: Banfsha, Nuposh, Bunfsha; Jammu: Banafsha. Viola pilosa: Jammu: Banafsha, Banaksha; Kashmir: Bunufsha; Gharwal and Ladakh: Banakasha; Manipur: Huikhong, Mansam; Pashto: Banafsha ‫ﺏﻥﻓﺸﺎ‬.

Botany and Ecology Viola biflora: Herbs perennial. Rhizome erect or obliquely ascending, slender or slightly robust, noded, with numerous rootlets. Stems 2 or several fasciculate, erect or obliquely ascending, 10–25 cm tall, slender, 3–5 noded, usually glabrous or sparsely puberulous when young. Basal leaves 2 to several; petiole 4–8 cm; leaf blade reniform, broadly ovate, or suborbicular to orbicular, 1–3  1–4.5 cm, abaxially glabrous, adaxially sparsely puberulous, sometimes puberulous on both surfaces, base cordate or subtruncate, margin obtusely dentate or shallowly repandcrenate, apex obtuse. Stipules free, ovate or ovate-lanceolate, 3–6 mm, margin entire or remotely denticulate, apex acute; cauline leaves shortly petiolate; petiole glabrous or puberulous; leaf blade smaller than basal ones. Flowers yellow, sometimes whitish at late anthesis; pedicels 1–6 cm, slender, 2-bracteolate at upper part; bracteoles lanceolate. Sepals linear-lanceolate or lanceolate, 3–4 mm, apex acute, basal auricles very short, margin membranous, glabrous or shortly ciliate in middle and lower parts. Petals oblong-obovate, 6–8 mm, purple veined, lateral ones inside not barbate, anterior one ca. 1 cm (spur included); spur shortly cylindric, 0.5– 2.5 mm; spur of anterior stamens shortly triangular. Ovary glabrous; styles clavate, base slightly geniculate, deeply 2-lobed in upper half, lobes obliquely spreading, with a conspicuous stigma hole in between lobes. Capsule oblong-ovoid, 4–7 mm, glabrous (Wu et al. 1994-2013) (Fig. 1). Viola canescens: Prostrate, pubescent or subglabrous herb, with long, cylindrical, and branched roots. Stem absent. Leaves basal, 2.0–10 x 1.0–5.0 cm, broadly ovate subreniform, cordate, obtuse to acute, serrate-crenate, five nerved beneath, petiole almost double the length of the lamina, pubescent; stipules free, lanceolate, 5.0–20 x 1.0–3.0 mm, acute-acuminate, reddish at base, laciniate, laciniae as long as broad.

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Fig. 1 Viola biflora (Violaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Flowers small, 1.0–1.8 cm long, violet to pale violet, on erect, pubescent, (3–) 5– 15 cm long peduncle; bracteoles 2, opposite to subopposite, almost at middle of the peduncle, setaceous. Sepals 5, linear-lanceolate, acute, entire, inequal, obscurely trinerved, lateral sepal large, up to 10 mm long, c. 2 mm broad, dentate near base, others c. 8.0 x 3.0 mm. Petals up to 15 mm long, c. 4.0 mm broad, obovate, obtuse, puberulous at the base, upper two cuneate, two lateral narrower and bearded at the base, marked with dark colored streaks, lower most shortest, with dark colored stripes. Spur short, c. 4 mm long, compressed, obtuse, mostly straight or reflexed. Style club shaped; ovary ovate, hairy; capsule globose, pubescent or glabrous, manyseeded. Flowering March–June. Forest margins, meadows, 1500 to 3500 m in Pakistan. Distributed in the Himalayas, China, Nepal, India, Bhutan, and Pakistan. Locally found in both plain and forest areas. Harvesting time: March to June (Ali and Qaiser 1995-2020). Viola canescens Wall. ex Roxb. is widely distributed in Pakistan, India, Nepal, and Bhutan. It is present mostly in the temperate and tropical zones, restricted only to the mountainous areas. In Pakistan, Viola canescens Wall. ex Roxb. is found in the areas of Shawal (North Waziristan), Razmak, Miran Shah (South Waziristan), Parachinar (Kurrum Agency), Teera (Orakzai Agency), Bajour (Khyber Agency), Dara Adam Khel, Fizagut, Swat, and Kaalam (Malakand Agency). The plant is found mostly at an altitude of 2000 m all the way through temperate Himalayas. Locally its presence is recorded from various regions of Pakistan. In Ayyubia National Park (ANP), five plant associations were recognized with different botanical composition. They were recognized on the basis of cluster analysis. V. canescens was present along with other herbs like Podophyllum emodi, Polygonum, Euphorbia wallichii, and Fragaria indica. Another multivariate cluster analysis done in ANP demonstrated the presence of V. canescens in Pinus wallichiana-

2126 Fig. 2 Viola canescens (Violaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mahmood Abbasi)

Fig. 3 Viola canescens (Violaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hassan Sher & Ikram Ur-Rahman)

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Fig. 4 Viola canescens (Violaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hassan Sher & Ikram Ur-Rahman)

Fig. 5 Viola canescens (Violaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Haider Ali)

Geranium nepalense association. The association is distributed above 2282 m and it extends up to 2300 m or sometimes slightly higher at other localities. The species is regarded as vulnerable (Mulk Khan et al. 2014) (Figs. 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6). Viola odorata/Viola suavis: Perennials; rhizome rather thick, short-jointed; stolons to 20–35 cm long, shorter and sturdier than in V. odorata, mostly subterranean flowering in the first year and then rooting and producing leaf-rosette and flowers; leaves round-reniform, cordate or broadly cordate-ovate, broadest in lower third, with deeply cordate base, obtuse or acutish at apex, crenate, puberulent, light green; petioles to 20–25 cm long, covered with hairs; stipules to 23 cm long, elongatelanceolate, pale green, long-fimbriate, subglabrous; flowers large, blue or pale violet, white at center to middle of petals; peduncle with two large fimbriate bracts at middle

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Fig. 6 Viola canescens (Violaceae), drying, Pakistan. (Photo Hassan Sher & Ikram Ur-Rahman)

of peduncle or just below; sepals oblong, obtuse, rather short appendages appressed to peduncle; petals elongate-obovate or (lower petal) broad-obovate, lateral bearded and like the lower notched; spur whitish, 3–4 mm long, thick; ovary glabrous; style with horizontal beak; capsule large, globose, with scattered short hairs; flowering in April. Viola odorata L.: Ural, Caucasus, Middle Asia (Tien Shan). Grows mostly in broad-leaved forests, forest meadows, grassy slopes of the foothills, and on mountain meadows up to 1500 m, in gardens and occasionally as a weed. Viola suavis Bieb.: Known from Ural, Caucasus, Central Middle Asia, and found in forests and on their fringes, on grassy slopes in mountain valleys, along the banks of streams, usually in shady places up to the mid-mountain belt (Shishkin 1949) (Figs. 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11). Viola pilosa: Obliquely ascending, 3–5 cm  1.5–4 mm; internodes conspicuous. Stolon elongated, slender, glabrous, with evenly scattered leaves. Leaves nearly basal; stipules mostly free, brown or green, lanceolate, margin long or shortly fimbriate-dentate, apex long acuminate; petioles nearly as long as blades or lower ones much longer than blades, densely appressed hirsute, more densely hairy in upper part; leaf blade greenish on both surfaces, ovate or narrowly ovate, 2–6  1– 3 cm, sparsely white stiffly hairy, more densely so along veins abaxially, base narrowly and deeply sinuate, lateral auricles conspicuous, margin densely and shallowly obtusely dentate, apex caudate-acuminate or acute. Flowers purplish or white, medium-sized; pedicels usually exceeding leaves, sparsely puberulous or

Viola biflora L. . . . Fig. 7 Viola odorata (Violaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 8 Viola odorata (Violaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 9 Viola suavis (Violaceae), Almaty, Kazakhstan. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

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2130 Fig. 10 Viola suavis (Violaceae), Almaty, Kazakhstan. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

Fig. 11 Viola suavis (Violaceae), Almaty, Kazakhstan. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

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Fig. 12 Viola pilosa (Violaceae), drying, Pakistan. (Photo Hammand Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 13 Viola tricolor (Violaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

subglabrous, 2-bracteolate above middle; bracteoles linear. Sepals lanceolate, 6– 7.5  about 2.5 mm, apex acute, basal auricles 2–2.5 mm, outside usually sparsely white puberulous, margin ciliate, apex remotely and shallowly dentate. Petals oblong-obovate, base narrower, lateral ones bearded, anterior one shorter, inside deep-colored veined; spur saccate, 2–2.5 mm, usually sparsely puberulous; spur of 2 anterior stamens ca. 1.5 mm, angular. Ovary usually puberulous; styles clavate, base slightly geniculate, gradually thickened upward; stigmas  flat, not margined, very inconspicuously short beaked in front, with smaller stigma hole at tip of beak. Capsule subglobose, 5–10 mm, puberulous or glabrous. Seeds with dotted protuberances on surface, conspicuously appendaged on lower lateral side. Flowering February–April, fruiting May–September (Wu et al. 1994-2013). Widely overharvested (Jan et al. 2017) (Figs. 12 and 13).

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Viola rupestris: Herbs perennial, caulescent, 5–10 cm tall, puberulous throughout, rarely sparsely puberulous or glabrous. Rhizome erect, deep brown, short, robust, with nodes and scales; tap root robust, long; roots brown, much branched in lower part; rootlets long, slender. Stems many, fasciculate, obliquely ascending or erect, longitudinally angled. Basal leaves rosulate, long petiolate; cauline leaves similar to basal ones; stipules of basal leaves usually sparsely arranged, lanceolate, fimbriatedentate, those of cauline leaves free, ovate to lanceolate, 3–7  0.8–2.5 mm, margin fimbriate-serrate or sparsely emarginate-serrate, teeth with brown glandular dots at apices, apex acuminate; petiole slender, weak, narrowly winged only in upper part, middle ones much longer than blades, upper ones ca. as long as blades; blade orbicular or ovate-orbicular, 0.8–1.7  0.7–1.8 cm, both surfaces puberulous, with brown glandular dots when dry, base shallowly cordate, margin regularly crenate, apex obtuse. Flowers solitary in upper leaf axils purple or purplish; pedicels much exceeding leaves, 2.5–6 cm, slender, sparsely puberulous, 2-bracteolate above middle; bracteoles subulate or linear, 4–6 mm, fimbriate-dentate at middle and lower parts. Sepals broadly lanceolate or lanceolate, 4–7.5  1–2.5 mm, 3-veined, with dense brown glandular dots, apex acute, basal auricles square, shorter, 0.5– 1.5 mm, with 2 or 3 obtuse teeth at apex. Petals narrowly oblong-ovate, veins deeply colored, lateral petals 0.8–1  ca. 4 mm, distinctly bearded, upper ones subequaling lateral ones, anterior one shorter, 1.3–1.4 cm (spur included), with dense brown glandular dots; spur cylindric, 3–4 mm, ca. 2 mm in diameter, apex rounded, horizontally straight or slightly curved upward. Anthers ca. 1.3 mm, connective appendages ca. 0.7 mm; 2 anterior stamens ca. 3 mm, spur broadly triangular, ca. 2.5  0.8 mm. Ovary deep brown, ovoid, styles clavate, evenly thick, slightly narrower only at base, slightly geniculate forward at base, curved forward at tip and beaked, conspicuously papillose abaxially and on lateral sides of beak; beak horizontal, mouth slightly curved upward, with a larger stigma hole. Capsule oblong, 5– 7 mm, 3–4 mm in diameter, with remains of styles at apex, puberulous or glabrous (Wu et al. 1994-2013).

Local Medicinal Uses Viola biflora: Flowers are diaphoretic, antipyretic, and febrifuge (Sher et al. 2011). Flowers are diaphoretic, antipyretic, and febrifuge. Flowers are also used in epilepsy, nervous disorders, and eczema (Hamayun et al. 2006). Flowers are diaphoretic, antipyretic, and febrifuge. Flowers are also used in epilepsy, nervous disorders, and eczema. Flower syrup is used for coldness and paste in cancer (Hamayun 2007). Flowers decoction is used for fever, cold, and flu; leaves decoction in constipation; and flower juice in liver problems and jaundice (Mahmood et al. 2012). Used against leucorrhea and as aphrodisiac (Muhammad et al. 2019). In Jammu and Kashmir as antiseptic, diaphoretic, for skin irritation, as laxative, to treat asthma, colds, cough, and fever (Gairola et al. 2014). Viola canescens: It is astringent, demulcent, purgative, diaphoretic, antipyretic, and febrifuge, also famous as anticancer. The whole plant is boiled in milk and bandages

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are made from it which is used as poultice for wounds. The flowers are recommended in epilepsy, acnes, and nervous disorder. Also used in common colds in the form of syrup. Flowers and leaves are used in cough, cold, fever, and jaundice (Gilani et al. 2006). The decoction of leaves and flowers is given internally in the treatment of bronchitis, respiratory catarrh, coughs, and asthma to treat. The same is used as gargle to treat mouth and throat infections (Ahmad and Habib 2014). Flowers and leaves are used in cough, cold, fever, and jaundice (Qureshi et al. 2009). Decoction of Root is thought useful in jaundice (Jan et al. 2009). Whole plant cough, cold, fever, and jaundice (Haq et al. 2011). Roots are laxative and diuretic. Flowers are diaphoretic, antipyretic, and febrifuge. Flowers are effective in nervous disorders (Amjad et al. 2017). Leaves paste is used for wounds healing (Jan et al. 2017). Whole plant juice is used as antipyretic, high blood pressure, for asthma, cough, flue, eye diseases, stomach ache, and liver disease, and fruit juice is used for cough, insomnia. Leaf juice is used in jaundice and cough (Farooq et al. 2019). Flowers and leaves are used in cough, cold, fever, and jaundice. Young leaves and flower buds are cooked and used as a vegetable. The leaves are emollient and laxative. The stems and fragrant blossoms are placed in the clothes cupboard to impart a nice smell to the clothes (Shaheen et al. 2012). Flowers are boiled and used as tea for cough, cold, flu, and asthma (Taj et al. 2018). Used in India as expectorant, antipyretic, for colds and pulmonary ailments, ear pain, and skin diseases (Bhat et al. 2013; Joshi et al. 2010). Used to treat “glowing face” in Gharwal (Pratap Singh et al. 2019). Used also to treat wounds (Ahmad et al. 2017), and to treat hypertension (Ahmad et al. 2015) and indigestion (Ali et al. 2019). In Jammu and Kashmir to treat sore throat, cough, and pulmonary problems (Gairola et al. 2014). Viola odorata: The whole plants are used as diaphoretic, antipyretic and as a diuretic, choleretic, and anti-inflammatory agent, especially for urolithiasis, gout, and rheumatism. Viola is also employed as an expectorant, and diaphoretic, and traditional uses for tuberculosis, pneumonia, bronchitis and pleurisy, the treatment of cancer, excretion of warts, and nervous disorders (calming, headaches, hysteria, seizures, epilepsy, nervous attacks, palpitations, insomnia) have been mentioned. The plant serves as remedy for spastic cough, whooping cough, scrofula, and skin diseases as well as for enuresis. The whole plant tincture has been used for throat cancer, tumors of the intestine, and uterus, pertussis, and articular rheumatism. The root extract is employed as expectorant, as well as emetic, laxative, choleretic, and antipyretic, for cancer of the uterus and with jaundice in children. Especially in the Caucasus Viola is often used for fatigue and heart disease. The fresh juice and flowers serve for cough. A syrup is prepared to be used as diuretic, choleretic, anti-inflammatory, expectorant, and to induce sweating. Especially the roots extract serves as emetic and laxative, for coughs, runny nose, eye diseases, and throat and stomach problems. In Turkmenistan decoction with sugar is used to treat heart disease (Bussmann 2017; Sokolov 1985). Used for cough and respiratory disorders (Ahmad et al. 2017). In Jammu and Kashmir to treat bronchitis, chest congestion, cold, cough, as demulcent, for fever, headache, lung diseases, muscular pain, as purgative, for respiratory infections, sore throat, swellings, throat infection, toothache, cervicalgia, as diuretic, expectorant, laxative, purgative, tonic, for jaundice and malaria (Gairola et al. 2014).

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Viola pilosa: Flower and leaves are used for chest pain, high and mild fever and stomach ulcer (Ahmad et al. 2014). Flowers are used as diaphoretic, antiseptic, and febrifuge. Flower decoction is used as blood purifier and cooling agent. Flowers and leaves in mixed decoction used for cough and cold, to cure liver congestion. Root is used in jaundice and also considered as good carminative (Razaq et al. 2010). Decoction of leaves and flowers is used to treat perceived hormonal imbalances in women. Decoction of the flowers is used to improve eyesight (Sher et al. 2016; Ur-Rahman et al. 2019). It is used for the increase of eyesight and also used for the curing of gastrointestinal problems (Sher et al. 2017). Used to remedy cough, respiratory disorders, and stomach ulcers (Khumbongmayum et al. 2005). In Jammu and Kashmir for cough, colds, as demulcent, to remedy jaundice, ling diseases, tonsillitis, toothache, bronchitis, as antipyretic, for ear ailments, eye problems, sore throat, and skin diseases (Gairola et al. 2014). Viola rupestris: Used as purgative (Wali et al. 2019). Viola suavis: A syrup is prepared to be used as diuretic, choleretic, antiinflammatory, expectorant, and to induce sweating. Especially the roots extract serves as emetic and laxative, for coughs, runny nose, eye diseases, and throat and stomach problems (Sokolov 1985). Viola sylvatica: In Jammu and Kashmir, for cold, cough, chest problems, wounds (Gairola et al. 2014). Viola indica: As demulcent, to remedy sore throat, cough, lung problems, throat ache, as diaphoretic, and as antipyretic (Gairola et al. 2014). Viola kunawurensis: Used for heart disease (Gairola et al. 2014).

Local Food Uses Viola pilosa leaves are eaten (Thongam et al. 2016), and the flowers used to flavor tea (Thakur et al. 2017). In the Caucasus the flowers are used to replace tea. Viola odorata is toxic in large doses, causing diarrhea and vomiting (Sokolov 1985). Viola leaves, due to their toxicity always together with other plants, are widely eaten in mountain regions (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017a, b, c, e, f, g, h, i, k; Bussmann et al. 2016, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017a, b).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Viola is also used for honey production and planted as ornamental. The flowers and leaves serve as raw materials for obtaining essential oils used in perfumes. Viola is also used for honey production and planted as ornamental (Bussmann 2017; Sokolov 1985).

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References Ahmad KS, Habib S. Indigenous knowledge of some medicinal plants of Himalaya region, Dawarian village, Neelum valley, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. Univ J Plant Sci. 2014;2(2):40–7. Ahmad M, Sultana S, Fazl-i-Hadi S, Ben Hadda T, Rashid S, Zafar M, Yaseen G. An Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in high mountainous region of Chail valley (district swat-Pakistan). J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2014;10(1):36. Ahmad L, Semotiuk A, Zafar M, Ahmad M, Sultana S, Liu Q-R, Zada MP, Ul Abidin SZ, Yaseen G. Ethnopharmacological documentation of medicinal plants used for hypertension among the local communities of DIR lower, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;175:138–46. Ali SI, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan. St. Louis: Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan and Missouri Botanical Garden; 1995-2020. Ali, A., Aldosari, A., Tng, D.Y.P., Ullah, M., Hussain, W., Ahmad, M., Hussain, J., Khan, A., Hussain, H., Sher, H., Bussmann, R.W., Shao, J.-W. 2019. Traditional uses of plants by indigenous communities for veterinary practices at Kurram District, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl 1824 https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.24.1-19. Amjad MS, Arshad M, Saboor A, Page S, Chaudhari SK. Ethnobotanical profiling of the medicinal flora of Kotli, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan: empirical reflections on multinomial logit specifications. Asian Pac J Trop Med. 2017;10(5):503–14. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Berberis vulgaris L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Heidelberg: Springer International Publishing; 2017a. Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Chenopodium album L., Chenopodium foliosum L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Heidelberg: Springer International Publishing; 2017b. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Falcaria vulgaris Bernh. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Heidelberg: Springer International Publishing; 2017c. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Lamium album L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Heidelberg: Springer International Publishing; 2017e. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Aleksanyan A, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Malva neglecta Wallr.; Malva sylvestris L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Heidelberg: Springer International Publishing; 2017f. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Polygonum alpinum all.; Polygonum aviculare L.; Polygonum carneum C. Koch; Polygonum hydropiper L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Heidelberg: Springer International Publishing; 2017g. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Rubia tinctorium L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Heidelberg: Springer International Publishing; 2017h. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Stellaria media (L.) Vill. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Heidelberg: Springer International Publishing; 2017i.

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Withania coagulans (Stocks) Dunal Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal SOLANACEAE Wahid Hussain, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Withania coagulans (Stocks) Dunal: Puneeria coagulans Stocks Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal: Physalis somnifera L., Withania kansuensis Kunag & A.M. Lu, Withania microphysalis Suess

Local Names Withania somnifera: Pashto: Kotilal ‫ ;ﮎﺕﯼﻝﺍﻝ‬Kurram: Khapyanga; Buner: Ketelal, Sanskrit: Ashwaganda; Jammu: Asgandh Withania coagulans: Kurram: Khapyanga

W. Hussain Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_259

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Botany and Ecology Withania coagulans: Branched shrub up to 1 m tall. Shoots rigid, grayish-green, stellate-tomentose. Leaves 3–8 x 1.4–3.5 cm, elliptic-ovate to elliptic-lanceolate, obtuse or acute, cuneate, leathery, nerves faint. Petiole 5–10 mm long. Bisexual flowers: calyx cupular-campanulate, stellate-tomentose; lobes 1.5–2.5 mm long, acute. Corolla exceeding calyx, campanulate, stellate-tomentose outside, yellowish within. Stamens included. Stigma subexserted. Male flowers: stamens  subexserted. Anthers c. 3.5 mm long; filaments 2.0 mm long. Female flowers: stamens included. Anthers smaller than in male flowers. Style glabrous. Berry globose, 10–12 mm broad, red, included in fruiting calyx. Seeds c. 2.5 mm broad. Reniform, brown, minutely rugose-reticulate to  smooth. Flowering period Jan to April. Distribution: Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and India. Fairly common in dry hot and stony places up to 1700 m. The fruit is emetic and diuretic and also has coagulating properties. Used in parts of India for making cheese (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020) (Fig. 1). Withania somnifera: Herbs perennial, 30–150 cm tall, pubescent with dendritic hairs. Stems woody proximally, erect or reclining, branched, tomentose. Petiole 1–2 cm; leaf blade ovate, obovate, or oblong, 2.5–12  2–7 cm, glabrescent adaxially except along midvein, pubescent abaxially, base cuneate, apex acute. Inflorescences subsessile clusters of four to six flowers; peduncle obsolete. Pedicel ca. 5 mm. Calyx campanulate, 3–5 mm, tomentose; lobes deltate, 1–2 mm. Corolla yellowish green, narrowly campanulate, 5–8 mm, tomentose at throat; lobes ovate, spreading or recurving, 2–2.5 mm. Filaments ca. 1.8 mm; anthers yellow, ovoid, ca. 1 mm, minutely apiculate. Style exserted. Fruiting calyx becoming brown and translucent, globose or ovoid, truncate at base, 1–2.2 cm; lobes short, somewhat urceolate. Berry shiny, scarlet, globose, 5–8 mm. Seeds drying pale brown, reniform discoid, 2–2.5  2 mm. Flowering and fruiting October (Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Figs. 2 and 3).

Fig. 1 Withania coagulans (Solanaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

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Fig. 2 Withania somnifera (Solanaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Both species are regarded as endangered in parts of the Himalayan range (Jan et al. 2019).

Local Medicinal Uses Withania coagulans (Ali et al. 2019; Jan et al. 2019). Plant is used as aphrodisiac (Akhtar et al. 2013). Leaves of the plant are antispasmodic, sedative, emmenagogue, and aphrodisiac (Shah and Khan 2006). Root decoction is used in the weakness of sexual organ, premature ejaculation, leucorrhoea, and frequent miscarriages. Seeds are sedative and narcotic and used in loss of memory, nervous exhaustion, and rheumatic affection. Roots are useful for sexual debility, syphilis, worms, inflammation, bronchitis, constipation, and bole. It is considered best against tumor (Mahmood et al. 2011). Plant is used as aphrodisiac and antiemetic and for diarrhea and dysentery (Yousufzai et al. 2010). Plant poultice is used for swellings and diuretic (Haq et al. 2011). Root powder is used as diuretic and leaves powder for TB patients (Jan et al. 2017). A decoction of the roots is taken orally to treat sterility in women. A decoction of the leaves and roots is used as a tonic and aphrodisiac. A decoction of the leaves and flowers is used to treat rheumatic swellings and in cases of general debility (Sher et al. 2016; Ur-Rahman et al. 2019). Extract of young fruits is used for typhoid (Irfan et al. 2018). Root powder is used for sexual weakness

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Fig. 3 Withania somnifera (Solanaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

(Shinwari et al. 2017). Root decoction and leaves powder is used for hypertension (Ahmad et al. 2015) and also used to treat diabetes (Ullah et al. 2019) and for liver complaints (Muhammad et al. 2019). Withania somnifera: Plant is used as aphrodisiac (Akhtar et al. 2013). Leaves of the plant are antispasmodic, sedative, emmenagogue, and aphrodisiac (Shah and Khan 2006). Root decoction is used in the weakness of sexual organ, premature ejaculation, leucorrhoea, and frequent miscarriages. Seeds are sedative and narcotic and used in loss of memory, nervous exhaustion, and rheumatic affection (Adams et al. 2007). Roots are useful for sexual debility, syphilis, worms, inflammation, bronchitis, constipation, and bole. It is considered best against tumor (Mahmood et al. 2011). Plant is used as aphrodisiac and antiemetic and for diarrhea and dysentery (Yousufzai et al. 2010). Plant poultice is used for swellings and diuretic (Haq et al. 2011). Root powder is used as diuretic and leaves powder for TB patients (Jan et al. 2017). A decoction of the roots is taken orally to treat sterility in women. A decoction of the leaves and roots is used as a tonic and aphrodisiac. A decoction of the leaves and flowers is used to treat rheumatic swellings and in cases of general debility (Sher et al. 2016). Extract of young fruits is used for typhoid (Irfan et al. 2018). Root powder is used for sexual weakness (Shinwari et al. 2017). Root decoction and leaves powder is used for hypertension (Ahmad et al. 2015) and applied as diuretic and to treat diabetes (Jan et al. 2017), as well as asthma (Mahishi et al. 2005) and acne (Lalla et al. 2001). It is also applied to painful swellings

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(Katewa et al. 2004), as sexual stimulant, and to treat male impotence, weakness, gout, sleeplessness, and fever (Gurung and Pyakurel 2017). In Jammu and Kashmir, it is used as memory enhancer and to treat obesity, stomachache, and sexual weakness in women (Gairola et al. 2014) and applied as anthelminthic (Al-Qura’n 2007). Root decoction is used against gonorrhea (Maasai); as child tonic (Pokot); for eye complaints (Kikuyu), colds, skin rashes, excess bile, labor pains, jaundice, rheumatism, and gonorrhea; and to improve health (Beentje 1994; Gachati 1989; Kokwaro 2009; Lulekal et al. 2008; Muthee et al. 2011; Wondimu et al. 2007). Pounded root sap is used for ulcers and stomachache. Heated leaves are applied for sore joints (Kokwaro 2009) and used to treat tumors (Yineger et al. 2007) and for amoebic diarrhea, stomachache, boils, abscesses, and swellings (Teklehaymanot et al. 2010). It is sometimes used to treat excessive menstrual flow (Njoroge and Bussmann 2009) and used as antimalarial (Njoroge and Bussmann 2006) and also for asthma and common cold (Njoroge and Bussmann 2006). It is sometimes used as abortifacient and anti-fungal and for tuberculosis, smallpox, measles, skin diseases, rheumatism, and cardiac problems (Mohagheghzadeh and Faridi 2006). It is applied sometimes as diuretic (Mekonen et al. 2015). Roots are smashed or chewed like a carrot to treat stomach problems (Bussmann et al. 2011) and for chest pain and typhoid (Giday et al. 2003, 2010). It is also applied to treat malaria, stomachache, nightmares, hyperglycemia, asthma, irregular menstruation, breast cancer, and wounds (Umair et al. 2019) and used also to treat infertility, as tonic and aphrodisiac, and for general debility and rheumatic swellings (Sher et al. 2016). It serves as coagulant and for colds and flu and postpartum pains (Njoroge et al. 2004). It is applied as remedy for snakebites (Houghton and Osibogun 1993; Perumal Samy et al. 2012) and used as blood tonic and rejuvenator and for back and joint pain and galactagogue (Kimondo et al. 2015).

Local Food Uses Withania coagulans is used as rennet replacement for making cheese (Ullah et al. 2019).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Withania somnifera: The leaves are burnt as incense as spiritual medicine. When the yoke hurts the back of the oxen and produces a swelling, crush the leaves, and put on the swelling (Bussmann et al. 2011). It is also used to expel evil spirits affecting livestock (Yineger et al. 2007) and to treat “devils’ disease” in babies (Teklehaymanot et al. 2007) and evil eye (Wondimu et al. 2007) (Giday et al. 2003, 2010). It is used as tonic for calves (Kimondo et al. 2015). Withania coagulans is used to treat constipation in cattle (Ali et al. 2019).

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Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz. LYTHRACEAE Mohan Raj Kafle, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Acistoma coccineum Zipp. ex Span., Grislea micropetala Hochst. & Steud., Grislea punctata Buch. Ham. ex Sm., Grislea tomentosa Roxb., Lythrum fruticosum L., Lythrum hunteri DC., Lythrum punctatum Span., Woodfordia floribunda Salisb., Woodfordia fruticosa fo. genunia Kurz ex Koehne, Woodfordia tomentosa Bedd. M. R. Kafle (*) Division Forest Office Lamjung, Lamjung, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_260

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Local Names Woodfordia fruticosa: Hindi: Dhawai, Marathi: Dowari, Tamil: Velakkai, Malayalam: Tatiripuspi, Telugu: Jargi seringi, Godari, Kannada: Tamrapuspi, Oriya: Dhobo, Konkani: Dhauri, Gharwal: Dhaula; Urdu: Jetiko, Gujarati: Dhawani, Sanskrit: Parvati, Bahupuspika, Nepali: Ras Dhayenro, Chepang: Darsing, Danuwar: Chyuhuwa, Gurung: Dhurseli; English: Fire Flame Bush, Red Bell Bush; Jammu: Dhaeen, Dhai, Tavi; Kashmiri: Gaer Kul; Pashto: Tavi ‫ ;ﺗﺎﻭﯤ‬Other Local Names: Agnijwala, Dahai, Dawai, Dawi, Dhai phul, Dhai, Dhaiphal, Dhangera, Dhataki, Dhaula, Dhavdi, Dhayti, Dhenti, Gaddisinka, Gul bahar, Gul, Harwari, Icha, Jargi, Jatiko, Lambohenza, Phuldawai, Phulsatti, Santha, Serinji, Shiranjitea, Tamrapusphi, Tawi, Thai, Thawi, Zhubuli, Aarl puruvu, Anare phul, Bahupuspi, Bajhiya, Birukanda, Chenchev, Chyuhuwa, Daring, Davi, Dha-ta-ki, Dhainra, Dhayati, Dhataki, Malitha, Ghayaro, Jamjasa, Kattathi, Kattattipoo, Phul dhava, Sano dhayaro, Shiranji tea, Syakte, Tamrapushpi, Tatire, Tattiripuvu, Tamrapu, Vahnijvala, Woodfordia.

Botany and Ecology Woodfordia fruticosa: Shrubs, 1–5 m tall. Stems and branches pendulous, long, pubescent when young, becoming glabrous. Leaves lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate, 3–14
1–4 cm, leathery, abaxially sparsely to densely tomentose and orange to black glandular punctate, adaxially glabrous, base rounded to subcordate, apex acuminate. Inflorescences condensed axillary shoots of 1–15 flowers. Floral tube light red, red-orange, or deep red, greenish basally, narrowly cyathiform, 9–15 mm; sepals oblong-ovate or deltate, 2–3 mm; epicalyx segments scarcely present. Petals 6, thin, linear-lanceolate, 1–5 mm, ca. as long as sepals. Stamens 12, inserted above ovary base, long-exserted. Ovary 2-loculed; ovules 100+. Capsules elongate, elliptic. Seeds reddish brown, ca. 1.5 mm. Flowering January–May (mainly March– April), fruiting April–May (Kirtikar and Basu 1935; Shome et al. 1981; Khare 2004; Wu et al. 2007, Wu et al. 1994-2013). W. fruticosa is native to E. Tanzania, Comoros, Madagascar, Tropical and Subtropical Asia. The plant is abundantly present throughout India, ascending up to an altitude of about 1500 m, and also in a majority of the countries of South East and Far East Asia like Malaysia, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, China, Japan, and Pakistan as well as Tropical Africa (Kirtikar and Basu 1935). It is also found in Bhutan, India, Laos, Myanmar, Nepal, and Thailand up to 200–1800 m. It is common in forests and on open slopes (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,6, and 7).

Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz. Fig. 1 Woodfordia fruticosa (Lythraceae), plant, Gulmi, Nepal. (Photo Bikram Gyawali)

Fig. 2 Woodfordia fruticosa (Lythraceae), plant, Lalitpur, Nepal. (Photo Dipesh Pyakurel)

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Fig. 3 Woodfordia fruticosa (Lythraceae), flower close up. (Photo Bikram Gyawali)

Fig. 4 Woodfordia fruticosa (Lythraceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Phytochemistry From the studies of the flower, stem, and leaves the investigators identified phenolics, particularly hydrolysable tannins and flavonoids content predominantly. Desai et al. (1971) first demonstrated the presence of the common plant constituents such

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Fig. 5 Woodfordia fruticosa (Lythraceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 6 Woodfordia fruticosa (Lythraceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

as octacosanol and Beta-sitosterol in the stems. These were subsequently reported from the flowers also (Chauhan et al. 1979a), with sitosterol encountered even in the leaves (Dan and Dan 1984). The other non-phenolic constituents reported include

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Fig. 7 Woodfordia fruticosa (Lythraceae), Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

the steroid sapogenin hecogenin and meso-inositol from the flowers (Chauhan et al. 1979b), in addition to the triterpenoids lupeol, betulin, betulinic acid, oleanolic acid, and ursolic acid from the leaves (Dan and Dan 1984). Besides the flavonoids or tannins, the phenolic constituents so far known to occur in the plant include gallic acid in leaves and stems (Kalidhar et al. 1981; Kadota et al. 1990), ellagic acid in leaves and flowers (Nair et al. 1976), bergenin (a C-glycoside of gallic acid), and the new constituent norbergen in stems (Kalidhar et al. 1981), chrysophanol-8-O-Bdglucopyranoside in flowers (Chauhan et al. 1979a), and the naphthaquinone pigment lawsone in leaves (Saoji et al. 1972). The flavonoid constituents characterized by various groups include six quercetin glycosides [3-rhamnoside from flowers (Chauhan et al. 1979b), 3- B-L-arabinoside (polystachoside) from flowers and leaves (Nair et al. 1976), and 3-O-a-Larabinopyranoside, 3-O- B-D-xylopyranoside and 3-O-(600 -galloyl)-B-d-glucopyranoside, three myricetin glycosides in flowers and leaves (Nair et al. 1976), as also naringenin 7-glucoside and kaempferol 3-Oglucoside in flowers (Chauhan et al. 1979b). Examination of the flowers by Nair et al. (1976) for the orange-red pigmented to the identification of pelargonidin 3,5-diglucoside, while Srivastava et al. (1977) found the anthocyanidin pigment cyanidin 3,5-diglucoside from the same source.

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A large number of new and known hydrolysable tannins have been isolated from the flowers and the structures determined mainly by Yoshida’s group. The known tannins reported are: 1,2,3,6-tetra-O-galloyl- B-D-glucose, 1,2,4,6-tetraO-galloyl-B-D-glucose, 1,2,3,4,6-penta-O-galloyl-B-D-glucose, tellimagrandin, gemin D, heterophylliin A, and oenothein B (Yoshida et al. 1989a, 1990). Novel constituents structurally characterized are: woodfordins A–C (Yoshida et al. 1989b, 1990), woodfordin D, oenothein A (Yoshida et al. 1991), as also isoschimawalin A and woodfordins E–I (Yoshida et al. 1992). Of the new hydrolyzable tannins, isoschimawalin A is monomeric; woodfordins A, B, C, and G–I are dimeric; woodfordins D, E, and oenothein A are trimeric, while woodfordin F is tetrameric. Kadota et al. (1990) obtained woodfruticosin from the leaves, which was found to be identical with woodfordin C. The notable structural feature of the macrocyclic structures of many of these oligomeric tannins is the presence of a novel constituent, the woodfordinoyl group, linking the monomers.

Local Medicinal Uses Woodfordia fruticosa: In Nepal, the flower and leaf of W. fruticosa have exceptionally wide diversity of traditional uses to treat various illnesses. It is used to treat ailments that may be of bacterial origin, for example boils, diarrhea, dysentery, fever, cough, menstrual disorders, urinary disorders, wounds, swellings, cuts, skin diseases (Bhattarai et al. 2011). Knowing the ethno botanical and pharmacological applications of the plant, the main objective of this research is to assess in vitro antimicrobial activity of flower and leaf samples of W. fruticosa against human pathogens (Press et al. 2000). W. fruticosa is of the great importance as it contains the ingredients in Ayurvedic preparations like Asavas and Aristhas. According to the Indian Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, total of 18 aristhas are mentioned among which 17 contain W. fruticosa as Aristhas and is found to be general health tonic in nature, stimulating properties and also treating one or more systemic disorders. It is given with jaiphal and for treating stomach disorders and with honey for pediatric diarrhea (Rani et al. 2015). In Indonesia and Malaysia, crude drug as Sidowava or Sidawayah containing the dried flowers of Woodfordia is used in treating sprue, bowel disease, and as an astringent. It is also incorporated into a preparation, which is used to make barren women fertile (Dey 1984; Burkill 1966). According to Yogaratnakara, the flowers of W. fruticosa have been used as a substituent for Glycyrrhiza glabra which is one of the most renowned treatises on Indian Medicine and local traditional knowledge (Syed et al. 2013). Although all parts of this plant possess valuable medicinal properties, there is a heavy demand for the flowers, both in domestic and international markets specialized in the preparation of herbal medicines (Oudhia 2003). The flower is pungent, acrid, cooling, toxic, alexiteric, uterine sedative, and anthelmintic, and is useful in thirst, dysentery, leprosy, erysipelas, blood diseases, leucorrhoea, menorrhagia, and

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toothache. It is considered as Kapha (mucilage type body secretion) and Pitta (energy-dependent metabolic activity) suppressant in the Ayurvedic concepts of medicine (Sharma 1956). Many marketed drugs comprise flowers, fruits, leaves, and thinner twigs of the plant (Dutt 1922; Nadkarni 1954; Chopra et al. 1956; Ahuja 1965). The flowers are being used in the preparation of Ayurvedic fermented drugs called Aristhas and Asavas (Atal et al. 1982), and very popular in the Indian subcontinent as also in other South Asian countries (Jayaweera 1981; Kroes et al. 1993). It has been used as an astringent to treat dysentery and sprue, and also for the treatment of bowel complaint, rheumatism, dysuria, and hematuria in many South East Asian countries (Burkill 1966; Dey 1984). Tribal people in Chhattisgarh, India, use powdered bark in managing diarrhea. Successful treatment of otorrhea by dried powdered flowers in tribal areas of Chhattisgarh is reported to be popular (Oudhia 2003). In case of fever, decoction of Dawai (a popular name of this plant in this region) leaves in combination with sugar and dried ginger is recommended (Oudhia 2003). Fruit of the plant is used for rheumatism, gout, and diuretic (Shah and Khan 2006). Flowers are used for wounds healing (Abbasi et al. 2010). Flowers are dried and powdered. This powder is used locally by women for abortion. These are also used in small amounts to ease menstrual flow (Amjad and Arshad 2014). Dried flowers are administered for astringent and also used for piles and dysentery (Jamal et al. 2017). Flower powder is used for local to ease menstrual cycle and for abortion. It is also used in general bleeding on body (Amjad et al. 2017). The powder of dried flowers is eaten with rice, which is very useful in dysentery (Ur-Rehman 2006). Flower is used for female menstrual disorders, astringent, depurative, constipating, febrifuge, ulcer wounds, and headache (Jan et al. 2017). To check bleeding from the nose which is locally called “nakseer or haspa” (Ullah et al. 2016). Used to treat respiratory disorders (Randrianarivony et al. 2017). To treat early and late closing of the fontanel and to treat colic, diarrhea and vomiting, headache, epilepsy in children (Randrianarivony et al. 2013), and to treat piles (Malik et al. 2015). Used for menstrual problems, as astringent, depurative, febrifuge, for ulcers, wounds, and headache (Ahmad et al. 2017; Singh et al. 2002). Flowers used to remedy dysentery and fever (Jain et al. 2005; Kunwar et al. 2009a, b, 2010). Sometimes employed for smallpox, cuts, wounds, skin disease, burns, and carbuncles (Kala et al. 2004). Also used to treat hemorrhoids (Bhat et al. 2013). In Kashmir and Jammu for cancer, constipation, diabetes, leukorrhea, as appetizer, to treat diarrhea, dysentery, fever, headache, nausea, skin diseases, ulcers, wounds, and gallbladder problems (Gairola et al. 2014).

Local Food Uses Woodfordia fruticosa: Tender shoots are eaten as vegetable (Saklani and Jain 1994). The flowers are eaten as food and used in the preparation of a cooling drink (Watts 1908).

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses Woodfordia fruticosa: Used in preparation of natural dye (Das et al. 2006). This is a common gregarious shrub which springs up naturally on landslips, abandoned cultivation, and other open places, killing out grass, binding the soil together and acting as a useful soil-improver and a most efficient nurse to tree species, including Sal, which come up freely under its protective cover. It is unable to regenerate by seed in shady places so as the trees grow larger this species gradually dies out. It is not eaten by cattle, and is frost-hardy, and thus appears often in extensive pure masses on open ground subject to grazing. A gum is obtained from the plant. It is similar to gum tragacanth (Uphof 1959; Watts 1908). The flowers contain about 20% tannins (Dymock et al. 1890). They are harvested when open and then dried for later use. When being used for their tannins, the leaves are employed more commonly than the flowers, simply because they are available in greater quantity (Watts 1908). A red dye is obtained from the flowers (Uphof 1959; Gurung et al. 2017; Dymok 1890). It can be used on its own or combined with other dyes where they also act as a mordant. They are most commonly combined with Morinda citrifolia. The wood is used for fuel (Watts 1908). Good honey plant (Dangol et al. 2017) (Fig. 8).

Fig. 8 Woodfordia fruticosa (Lythraceae), plant is collected as bedding materials, Gulmi. (Photo Bikram Gyawali)

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Zanthoxylum armatum DC. Zanthoxylum oxyphyllum Edgew. RUTACEAE Biswas Sapkota, Prakash Poudel, Rashmi Thapa, Jyoti Sherchan, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Zanthoxylum armatum DC.: Fagara armata Thunb; Zanthoxylum alatum Roxb; Zanthoxylum alatum var. planispinum (Siebold & Zucc.) Rehderand E.H. Wilson; Zanthoxylum arenosum Reeder and S.Y. Cheo; Zanthoxylum bungei Hance; Zanthoxylum hostile Wall; Zanthoxylum kibada Siebold; Zanthoxylum violaceum Wall; Zanthoxylum alatum Hemsl; Zanthoxylum alatum var. subtrifoliolatum Franch.; Zanthoxylum planispinum Siebold & Zucc. Zanthoxylum oxyphyllum Edgew.: Fagara oxyphylla (Edgew.) Engl., Zanthoxylum alpinum C.C. Huang, Zanthoxylum taliense C.C. Huang, Zanthoxylum tibetanum C.C. Huang. B. Sapkota · J. Sherchan Department of Pharmacy, Novel Academy, Pokhara, Nepal P. Poudel (*) Department of Pharmacy, Novel Academy, Purbanchal University, Pokhara, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] R. Thapa Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, School of Health and Allied Sciences, Pokhara University, Pokhara, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan A. M. Abbasi Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_261

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Local Names Zanthoxylum armatum: Bhojpuri, Magar: Timur; Chepang: Umpur; Chinese: Ci zhu ye huajiao, Qin jiao, Huan huazhen, Bai zong guan, Shan huajiao, Zhu ye jiao; English: Nepal Pepper, Winged Prickly Ash, Toothache Tree, Sichuan Pepper; German: Nepalpfeffer; Gurung: Prumo; Hindi: Tejphal; Japanese: Fuyu zanshou; Kannada: Jimmi; Korean: Gae san cho; Limbu: Midimba; Nepali: Timur, Boke Timur; Newari: Tebu; Sherpa: Yerma; Telugu: Konda-Kasimi (Kirtikar and Basu 1993; Manandhar 2002; Kunwar 2006; Singh and Singh 2011); Pashto: Dambara ‫ ډﻤﺒﺎﺭﺍ‬Buner: Bangala; Jammu: Timbru, Tirmiru, Timber, Timru, Timro, Temer

Botany and Ecology Zanthoxylum armatum: Shrubs, woody climbers, or trees to 5 m tall, deciduous. Branchlets and leaflet blades abaxially on midvein usually with prickles. Young branchlets and inflorescence rachises glabrous or rust-colored pubescent. Leaves 3–9 (or 11) foliolate; rachis glabrous or rust-colored pubescent, wings to 6 mm on each side; leaflet blades subsessile, opposite, lanceolate, ovate, or elliptic, 3–12  1–3 cm, base attenuate to broadly cuneate, secondary veins 7–15 on each side of midvein and generally faint, margin crenate or entire and often revolute when dry, apex acute to acuminate. Inflorescences terminal on short lateral branchlets and sometimes axillary, 1–7 cm, with less than 30 flowers. Perianth in 2 irregular series or 1 series, with 6–8  undifferentiated 0.3–1.5 mm tepals. Male flowers: stamens 4–6; anthers yellow prior to anthesis; connective apex with oil gland; disk pulvinate; rudimentary carpels lacking. Female flowers: carpels 2 or 3, abaxially often with a conspicuous oil gland; styles recurved; staminodes ligulate or lacking. Fruit follicles usually purplish red, 4–5 mm in diam., with a few protruding oil glands. Seeds blackish brown, 3–4 mm in diam. Flowering April to May, fruiting August to October (Wu et al. 2019; Alam and Us Saqib 2015; Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7). Z. armatum is mainly located in China, Japan, the Republic of Korea, Nepal, India, the Philippines, Malaysia, Pakistan, Bhutan, and Indonesia on the global range with geographical coordinates of 70–140 °E, 8–40 °N, and China has the largest R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia

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Fig. 1 Zanthoxylum armatum (Rutaceae), plant with riped fruits in Dadeldhura district, Nepal. (Photo Ripu Kunwar)

Fig. 2 Zanthoxylum armatum (Rutaceae), quality Z. armatum seeds in Surkhet district, prepared for export to Europe. (Photo Ripu Kunwar)

distribution range (Xu et al. 2019; Medhi et al. 2013). It is distributed in southwestern China in provinces of Sichuan, Chongqing, Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangxi, and Hunan. It is distributed in India from Kashmir to Bhutan at altitudes up to 2500 m and also occurs throughout North East India (Barkatullah et al. 2014; Singh and Singh 2011).It is widely distributed in Nepal from east to west at an altitude of 1100– 2900 m in open places or forest undergrowth (Joshi et al. 2011; Phuyal et al. 2018). It can grow in sandy, loamy, and clay soils, most preferably moist soil neutral and basic pH soils (Kirtikar and Basu 1993; Annappan et al. 2015; Prakash et al. 2012; Chauham 2019; Gupta et al. 2011; Khan et al. 2018; Batool et al. 2010). Zanthoxylum oxyphyllum: Shrubs or small trees. Branchlets and leaf rachises with prickles. Leaf rachises adaxially and midvein of leaflet blades adaxially pubescent. Old leaves subglabrous. Leaves 11–19 foliolate; petiolules to 2 mm; leaflet blades alternate or opposite, lanceolate or rarely ovate, 5–12  1.5–2.5 cm, abaxially gray when dry, oil glands numerous, midvein impressed adaxially, secondary veins anastomosing near margin, reticulate veinlets ridged when dry, base cuneate, margin serrulate, apex acuminate. Inflorescences terminal, cymose-corymbose, to

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Fig. 3 Zanthoxylum armatum (Rutaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 4 Zanthoxylum armatum (Rutaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

30-flowered. Perianth in 2 series. Sepals 4, purplish green. Petals ca. 3 mm. Male flowers: rudimentary gynoecium 2–4-parted, lobes linear. Fruit pedicel 1–1.5 cm, 1–1.5 mm in diam.; follicles purplish red, 6–7 mm, oil glands impressed when dry, apex beaked. Seeds ca. 5 mm in diam. Flowering May to June, fruiting September to October (Wu et al. 1994–2013).

Phytochemistry Various phytochemical constituents like alkaloids, sterols, phenolics, lignins, coumarins, terpenoids, flavonoids, and their glycosides and benzenoids, fatty acids, alkenic acids, amino acids, phenylpropanoid, and aromatic and aliphatic amides have been isolated from this plant (Joshi et al. 2011, 2012; Kanwal et al. 2015; Guo et al. 2018). Flavonoids: tambulin, kaempferol, tambulol, catechin, isovitexin,

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Fig. 5 Zanthoxylum armatum (Rutaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 6 Zanthoxylum armatum (Rutaceae). Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

hesperidin, tambuletin, vitexin, 3,5 and diacetyl tambulin (Ramidi et al. 1998; Bhattacharjee et al. 2019). Essential oil: 1,3,5,7-cyclooctatetraene, α-pinene, sabinene, β-pinene, β-myrcene, limonene, linalool, 2,3-octanedione, 3,7 dimethyl undecane, dodecane, 2-undecanol, undecan-2-one, tridecane, tridecan-2-one, trans-nerolidol, phytol, bornyl acetate, sophytol acetate, linalyl acetate, α-phellandrene, β-phellandrene, transβocimene, γ-terpinene, cis-linalool oxide, 2-nonanone, α-terpinolene, 1-terpineol, α-terpineol, E-nerolidol, δ-carene, β-selinene, α-humulene, α-copaene, camphene, cymene, linalool, cryptone, and piperitone (Ramidi et al. 1998; Waheed et al. 2011; Luong et al. 2003; Bhatt et al. 2017; Negi et al. 2012; Bhatt et al. 2018; Phuyal et al. 2019; Jain et al. 2001). Lignans: L-sesamin, eudesmin, asarinin, epieudesmin, fargesin, kobusin, L-asarinin, magnolin, phylligenin, L-planinin, and planinin (Kalia et al. 1999; Guo et al. 2016). Alkaloids: γ-fagarine, β-fagarine, magnoflorine, laurifoline, nitidine, chelerythrine,

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Fig. 7 Zanthoxylum armatum (Rutaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mahmood Abbasi)

tambatarine, candicine, berberine, dictamnine, haplopine, chelelactam, nevadensin, robustine, sanguinarine, skimmianine, and zanthonitrile (Ranawat et al. 2010; Perry 1980; Southon and Buckingham 1988; Bhattacharjee et al. 2019; Verma and Khosa 2010; Mukhtar and Kalsi 2018). Coumarins: bergapten, umbelliferone, xanthyletin, zanthoxyletin, alloxanthyletin, psoralen, cuminol, cuminaldehyde, phellandrol, 2-tridecanone, and undecan-2-one (Bhattacharjee et al. 2019). Phenols: 3-methoxy-11-hydroxy-6,8-dimethylcarboxylatebiphenyl and 3, 5, 6, 7-tetrahydroxy-3, 4-dimethoxyflavone-5-β-d-xylopyranoside (Akhtar et al. 2009). Sterols and steroids: β-daucosterol, β-sitosterol, stigmasta-5-en-3β-D-glucopyranoside, and β-sitosterol-β-Dglucoside (Ramidi et al. 1998; Ranawat et al. 2010; Akhtar et al. 2009). Amides: armamide, armatamide, hydroxy-α-sanshool, and hydroxy-β-sanshool (Kalia et al. 1999). Terpenoids: α-fenchol, α-tujene, α-thujone, α-terpineol, α-terpinene, α-thujene, β-pinene, β-cymene, α-phellandrene, β-phellandrene, α-copaene, camphene, camphor, carvone, citral, citronellol, 1,8-cineole, α-amyrins, β-amyrone, β-amyrins, lupeol, eucalyptol, citronellal, geraniol, limonene, linalool, β-myrcene, nerol, sabinene, tagetonol, β-terpineol, and terpinen-4-ol (Tiwary et al. 2007; Rynjah et al. 2018; Jothi et al. 2019; Paul et al. 2018; Singh and Singh 2011). Compounds like candicine, 2,6 dimethoxy-4hydroxyphenol 1-O-glucoside, and chlorogenic acid were isolated for the first time (Guo et al. 2018). From the stem bark 1-linoleo-2,3-diolein, α-amyrin acetate, and armatonaphthyl arabinoside were isolated, and armatonaphthyl arabinoside was the new naphthyl glycoside (Agnihotri et al. 2017). An acute toxicity study of the extract showed no effects at 500, 1000, and 2000 mg/ kg body weight in mice (Ibrar and Muhammad 2011; Verma and Khosa 2010).

Local Medicinal Uses Zanthoxylum armatum: The plant is used for digestive disorders, skin infections, gum diseases, and toothache (Ahmad et al. 2014, 2017; Bhat et al. 2013; Malik et al. 2015; Pratap Singh et al. 2019). Fruits are powdered and eaten with boiled

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egg for chest infection. It is mixed with Mentha spp. and salt used as good digestive (Jan et al. 2010). Fruits are used as antipyretic and for treating stomachache (Akhtar et al. 2013). Young fruits are ground with seeds of Punica granatum, leaves of Mentha longifolia, and green chilies to make “Chatni.” Its fruits are highly carminative and also used against stomachache and dyspepsia. Young branches are used as “Miswak” just like toothbrush (Amjad and Arshad 2014). The seeds are dried and grinded and mixed with the powdered leaves of Mentha, and rock salt is mixed. Three to five grams are taken daily to improve digestion and also other stomach problems. The seeds are chewed to cure toothache. Branches are also used as toothbrush “Miswak” (Shah and Khan 2006). Fruit is used for cholera, stomach disorder, gas trouble, and indigestion (Abbasi et al. 2013) and used as a carminative, antacid, tonic, and also antipyretic and some hakim use as an antimalarial, stomachic, and tonic. Fruits are powdered and eaten with boiled egg for chest infection (Khan et al. 2015). The powdered fruit of Zanthoxylum alatum is used to treat gonorrhea and urinary tract infections (Sarwat et al. 2012). Leaves are used for vomiting and indigestion (Abbasi et al. 2013). Fruit powder is used for stomach problems and toothache (Jan et al. 2017). Z. armatum has been used extensively by different ethnic communities in Nepal. Every parts of Z. armatum has its own significant used (Phuyal et al. 2018). Fruits and seeds are used as carminative and for fever, dyspepsia, cholera, toothache (Balami 2004; Kunwar et al. 2006, 2008, 2009, 2013, 2018, 2019) cold, cough, and indigestion (Joshi et al. 2011, 2012; Rajbhandari et al. 2007, 2009) and as tonic, carminative, and antispasmodic and for edema, rheumatism, skin diseases (Timilsina and Singh 2014), diabetes, asthma, expelling roundworms, in malfunction of the liver, highaltitude sickness, tonsillitis, and vertigo/dizziness (Manandhar 1996; Singh and Singh 2011). Leaves are used as carminative and tonic in fever and dyspepsia. Bark is used to relief fever, cholera, and stomach disorder (Malla et al. 2014; Geweli and Awale 2008). The plant has various pharmacological activities like anticancer (Singh et al. 2015), antimicrobial, antifungal, antiseptic, anticonvulsant, antinociceptive (Ibrar et al. 2012a, b Prajapati et al. 2015; Negi et al. 2012), antiinflammatory (Sati et al. 2011), antioxidant, anti-aging (Singh et al. 2013; Kanwal et al. 2015), anthelminthic (Mehta et al. 2012), bronchodilator (Gilani et al. 2010), hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic (Duke 2002; Alam et al. 2018), insecticidal, antileishmanial (Alam and Saqib 2017), hepatoprotective (Verma and Khosa 2010), antiherpetic, antifertility, and larvicidal activities (Gaur 1999; Singh et al. 2013, 2017; Kala et al. 2004; Kala and Farooquee 2005; Kala and Singh 2007; Tiwary et al. 2007). In Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh, it is used as anthelmintic, antispasmodic, appetizer, blood purifier, carminative, digestive, hair lotion, tonic, and anthelmintic to treat cholera, dyspepsia, fever, abdominal pain, asthma, flatulence, indigestion, roundworm, fever, madness, stomach disorders, stomatitis, toothbrush, itching, rheumatism, stomach ache, and toothache (Gairola et al. 2014). It is also used for indigestion (Ur Rahman et al. 2019). In Swat, it is used to treat cough and epilepsy (Sher et al. 2016). Zanthoxylum capense is employed for mood disorders and Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides as febrifuge (Mohagheghzadeh et al. 2006).

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Local Food Uses Zanthoxylum armatum: Seeds are used for condiments and flavoring agents (Phuyal et al. 2018). Fruits are used as pickles, herbal tea, and carminative in cooked food. Timur is generally used in momo, thukpa, chow mein, chicken chili, soups, and other meat dishes to nourish it with lemony flavor and peppery aroma (Dangol et al. 2017; Geweli and Awale 2008; Gurung and Pyakurel 2017; Abbasi et al. 2013). The riped fruits can be eaten raw (Thakur et al. 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Zanthoxylum armatum: It is used as a mosquito repellent (Das et al. 2003), pesticidal, and leech repellent, in snake bite, as anticatarrhal, in perfume industry and aroma therapy, and to reduce skin sensitivity (Bharti and Bhushan 2015; Barua et al. 2018; Gurung and Pyakurel 2017; Jain et al. 2001; van Boecke 2017). Every year, from 850 to 1100 tons, Timur seeds are being collected from the Mid-Hills of Nepal (http://hvap.asdp.gov.np/downloadfile/HVAP_Timur VCA report Final). It is produced commercially from Salyan, Surkhet, Jajarkot, Dailekh, Achham, and Kalikot districts of Nepal. There was a barter system before the 1980s for marketing Timur (Kunwar 2006). The main trade of Timur from Nepal was with India since the ancient time. After the 1980s, the price for 1 kg of dried Timur was 1.8 Nepalese rupees (NRs) for the collector. This price has continuously increased from NRs 9/kg in 1985 to NRs 22/kg in 1993, NRs 45/kg in 1995, NRs 65/kg in 2000, NRs 60/kg in 2006, NRs 90/kg in 2009, NRs 230/kg in 2011, NRs 210/kg in 2013 (Hertog and Wiersum 2000), NRs 450/kg in 2016, and NRs 800/kg in 2018 and started decreasing to NRs 650/kg in 2019 and NRs 375/kg in 2020 (Kunwar 2006; Kunwar et al. 2019, www.ansab. org.np). Essential oil extracted from Timur seed has wide national and international markets. The oils from different regions are collected in Kathmandu, Nepalgunj, Dang, and Bhairahawa and sold to herbal companies or international traders. It is found that 90% of the oil is traded to India and other third countries (European Nation), while only 10% is consumed locally. The price of oil is around 6500 NRs/Kg (van Boecke 2017). Annually from Nepal, 250 kg of Timur oil is exported to overseas market. A 5-year-old plant has an average yield of about 3.5 kg of fruits (Shukla and Shukla 2015). The Timur fruit yield around 6% of essential oil.

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Chauham M. Tuvaraka (Hydnocarpus laurifolia). Plant Ayurveda, Holistic healing through herbs; 2019. Choudhury Barua C, Yasmin N, Cheran RE. A review on effective utilization, phytochemical compounds, the pharmacological intervention of a popularly used plant for developing a new drug: Zanthoxylum armatum with reference to its anticancer activity. MOJ Bioequivalence Bioavailable. 2018;5(3). Dangol DR, Maharjan KL, Maharjan SK, Acharya AK. Wild edible plants in Nepal. In: Joshi BK, Bahadur KCH, Acharya A, editors. Conservation and utilization of agricultural plant genetic resources of Nepal. Dhulikhel: NAGRC; 2017. p. 390–407. Das NG, Baruah I, Talukdar PK, Das SC. Evaluation of botanicals as repellents against mosquitoes. 2003;2:49–53. Duke JA. Handbook of medicinal herbs: CRC Press; 2002. Gairola S, Sharma J, Singh BY. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:925–86. Gaur RD. Flora of district Garhwal, North-Western Himalaya (with ethnobotanical notes), vol. 811. Srinagar: Transmedia; 1999. Geweli MB, Awale S. Aspects of traditional medicine in Nepal: Institute of the Natural Medicine University of Toyama; 2008. p. 140–2. Gilani SN, Khan AU, Gilani AH. Pharmacological basis for the medicinal use of Zanthoxylum armatum in gut, airways, and cardiovascular disorders. Phytother Res Int J Devoted Pharmacol Toxicolog Eval Nat Prod Derivatives. 2010;24(4):553–8. Guo T, Tang XF, Chang J, Wang Y. A new lignan glycoside from the stems of Zanthoxylum armatum DC. Nat Prod Res. 2016;31(1):16–21. Guo T, Song T t, Tang XF, Tan SB, Wang Y, Wang YQ. Chemical constituents of Zanthoxylum armatum. I. Chem Nat Compd. 2018;54(5):998–9. Gupta S, Bhaskar G, Andola HC. Altitudinal variation in essential oil content in leaves of Zanthoxylum alatumRoxb. A high-value aromatic tree from Uttarakhand. Res J Med Plants. 2011;5:348–51. Gurung K, Pyakurel D. Identification manual of commercial medicinal and aromatic plants of Nepal. Kathmandu: Nepal Herbs and Herbal Products Association (NEHHPA); 2017. Hertog WH, Wiersum KF. Timur (Zanthoxylum armatum) production in Nepal. Mt Res Dev. 2000;20(2):136–45. Ibrar M, Muhammad N. Evaluation of Zanthoxylum armatum DC for in-vitro and in-vivo pharmacological screening. Afr J Pharm Pharmacol. 2011;5(14):1718–23. Ibrar M, Muhammad N, Barkatullah HK, Jahan F, Ashraf N. Antinociceptive and anticonvulsant activities of essential oils of Zanthoxylum armatum. Phytopharmacology. 2012a;3(1):191–8. Ibrar M, Muhammad N, Tahir L. Antimicrobial evaluation, determination of total phenolic and flavonoid contents in Zanthoxylum armatum DC. J Med Plants Res. 2012b;6(11):2105–10. Jain N, Srivastava SK, Aggarwal KK, Ramesh S, Kumar S. Essential oil composition of Zanthoxylum alatum seeds from northern India. Flavour Fragrance J. 2001;16(6):408–10. Jan G, Khan MA, Gul F, Ahmad M, Jan M, Zafar M. Ethnobotanical study of common weeds of Dir Kohistan valley, Khyber Pakhtoonkhwa, Pakistan. Pak J Weed Sci Res. 2010;16(1):81–8. Jan HA, Wali S, Ahmad L, Jan S, Ahmad N, Ullah N. Ethnomedicinal survey of medicinal plants of Chinglai valley, Buner district, Pakistan. Eur J Integr Med. 2017;13:64–74. Joshi S, Gyawali A. Phytochemical and biological studies on Zanthoxylum armatum of Nepal. J Nepal Chem Soc. 2012;30:71–7. Joshi K, Joshi R, Joshi AR. Indigenous knowledge and uses of medicinal plants in Macchegaun, Nepal. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2011;10(2):281–6. Jothi G, Keerthana K, Sridharan G. Pharmacognostic, physicochemical, and phytochemical studies on stem bark of Zanthoxylum armatum DC. 2019;12(2). Kala CP. Ethnomedicinal botany of the Apatani in the eastern Himalayan region of India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2005;1:11. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-1-11. Kala CP, Farooquee NA. Dhar. Traditional uses and conservation of Timur (Zanthoxylum armatum DC.) through social institution in Uttaranchal Himalaya, India. Conserv Soc. 2005;3(1):224–30.

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Ziziphus jujuba Mill Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. N. B. Khatri Chhetri, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hammad Ahmad Jan, Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Maroof Ali Turi

Synonyms Ziziphus jujuba Mill: Ziziphus sativa Gaertn; Ziziphus vulgaris Lam, Rhamnus zizyphus L. Ziziphus mauritiana Lam.: Paliurus mairei H. Lév, Rhamnus jujuba L.; Ziziphus aucheri Boiss.; Ziziphus insularis Smith; Ziziphus jujuba (L.) Gaertn., nom. illeg.; Ziziphus jujuba (L.) Lam.; Ziziphus mauritania nom. Illeg.; Ziziphus orthocantha N. B. Khatri Chhetri SOS Hermann Gmeiner School, Sanothimi Bhaktapur, Nepal R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: [email protected] H. A. Jan Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia M. A. Turi College of Life Science, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu, China © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_262

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D.C.; Ziziphus rotundata D.C.; Ziziphus sonoria Roem. & Schult; Ziziphus tomentosa Poir.; Zizyphus mauritiana nom. Illeg.

Local Names Ziziphus jujuba: Pashto: Markhanarai (‫ ;)ﻣﺮﺧﺎﻧړﯥ‬English: Jujube. Ziziphus mucronata: Afghanistan: bera (Pashto, ‫ ;)ﺑﯿﺮﺍ‬Bangladesh: bozoi; kool; kul; Cambodia: Putrea; China: hongtsao; langtsao; ta tsao; tsaotsao; India: ajapriya; badari; ber; Malaysia: bidara; epalsiam; jujub; Mali: domo (Bambara); mgaria (Haussa); ntomono (Bambara); Myanmar: eng-si; zee-pen; zi; ziben; zizidaw; Nepal: Baer; Pakistan: Ber (Urdu); berwarter (Baluchi); jujube; ker; kunar (Baluchi); Sri Lanka: ilanda (Sinhalese); mahadebara (Sinhalese); masaka (Sinhalese); yellande; Vietnam: c[aa]y t[as]o ta; tao; taonhuc; English: Chinese date; Chinese fig; Chinese jujube; cottony jujube; desert apple; Indian cherry; Indian date; Indian jujube; Indian plum; Jujuba; Malay jujube.

Botany and Ecology Ziziphus jujuba: Shrub or mall tree, 3–8 m tall. Spreading-branching spinose plants, branches angularly flexuose, glabrous, red-brown, with paired large acute prickles up to 3 cm long, and with thin erect greenish biseriately, leafy shoots (1–3 on each) like a compound leaf; leaves coriaceous, glabrous, dark green above, shiny, obliquely oblong- ovate to broadly lanceolate usually obtuse, rounded or slightly cordate at base, obtusely and finely dentate, short-petiolate or subsessile, with small stipules at base. Flowers stellate, 3–4 mm in diameter, in dense glomerules on very short peduncles, peduncles, sepals 5, ovate-triangular; petals 5, greenish-yellow, obovate, clawed at base. Fruit globulose, 1–1.5 cm long (in cultivated forms up to 3 cm long, often oblong-oval), to dark cinnamon, reddish-orange to red-purple shiny. Flowering from June–July, fruiting from August. Caucasus, Middle Asia, on dry, gravelly, stony slopes, in open forests, up to 1500 m. Uncommon, occurs in small populations and as solitary individuals (Shishkin and Boborov 1949) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8). Ziziphus mauritiana: Shrubs or trees (usually with multiple trunks), 1–6 (20) m; bark sometimes described as dark brown or ribbed in a braided pattern with white on the striae and red on the channels; plants armed with stipular spines, one single or generally paired, those of the pair generally similar in size, 1–5 (11) mm but different in curvature and orientation, straight and patent to erect and one markedly curving downward; densely tomentose young branches; yolk without scales. Leaves 2.5– 8
1.1–5.7 cm, alternate, those of the distichous, oblong, elliptical, obovate, or orbicular branches, membranous to subchoriaceous, non-rigid, with 0 or 1 (rarely 3) additional pairs of lateral ribs originating from above the base of the leaf visible without magnification, the tertiary ribs frequently visible without magnification, prominent, the glabrous bundle, the underside densely spider-tomentose, the base rounded or wedged, frequently oblique with one side wedged and the other rounded, the serrated or serrated

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Fig. 1 Ziziphus jujuba (Rhamnaceae), Lagodekhi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

margins, each tooth with an apical gland, sometimes the tooth consisting only of the gland, (6) 7–12 teeth/cm, the apex obtuse or rounded; stipules like spines (see above); petiole 3–15 mm. Axillary inflorescences, a single compound top (rarely solitary flowers), 0.5–2 (3–4 in fruit)
0.5–3.5 cm, equal to longer than the underlying petiole, densely tomentose, peduncle absent (?) Up to 0.4 cm; persistent bracteoles in anthesis. Flowers on pedicels 2–8 (11) mm, fruit 7–12 mm; hypanthus 0.5–1.5
1.5–2.5 mm; sepals 1.2–1.5 mm, keel single line; petals clawed 0.25–0.5 mm, 1/3–1/2 length of blade, blade 0.6–1 mm; glabrous disc; ovary at anthesis below disc, glabrous, 2-branch style. Fully mature drupes not seen, semi-mature 10–20 mm, more or less globose with acute apex, obovoids or obloids when younger, reported red-orange, glabrous, smooth but papillary. Flowering April–February. Cultivated or escaped from cultivation, in disturbed areas (Macwan et al. 2012, Shishkin, B.K., Boborov, E.G. 1949). Ziziphus mauritiana is hardy tree that copes with extreme temperatures and thrives under rather dry conditions, roadsides, and former agricultural land, to 600 m in Fiji. In Pier (2002). In India, the tree grows best on sandy loam, neutral or slightly alkaline. It also grows well on laterite, medium black soils with good drainage, or sandy, gravelly, alluvial soil of dry riverbeds where it is vigorously spontaneous (Morton 1987). Even moderately saline soils are tolerated. The tree is remarkable in its ability to tolerate waterlogging as

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Fig. 2 Ziziphus jujuba (Rhamnaceae), Lagodekhi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

well as drought. In China and India, wild trees are found up to an elevation of 1650 m (Morton 1987). There are seven species of Ziziphus in Nepal and Z. mauritiana range between 200 and 1200 m, east to west Nepal (Press et al. 2000) (Figs. 9, 10, 11, and 12).

Phytochemistry Triterpenoids (betulinic acid), leucopelergonidine, tannins, alkaloids (mauritine A, mucronine D, nummularine A, nummularine B, jubanine A, jubanine B), leucoanthocyanins, carbohydrates, organic acids (apple, succinic, wine), saponins, alkaloids (coclaurine, isoboldine, juzifine, juzirine, protopine, berberine), coumarins, catechins, flavonoids, carbohydrates, organic acids (amber), triterpenoids (betulonic, oleanolic, olive, ziziphic acid), steroids, saponins, vitamins (C, B1, folic acid, K, carotene), phenolcarboxylic acids (n-coumaric), coumarins, catechins, steroids (Sokolov 1988). Wood contains leucopelargonidin, betulinic acid, and ceanothic acid. Seeds give saponins-jujubosides A and B. Acid hydrolysis of the saponin affords ebelin lactone which yields the sapogenin-jujubogenin. Bark contains betulinic acid,

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Fig. 3 Ziziphus jujuba (Rhamnaceae), Lagodekhi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Ziziphus jujuba (Rhamnaceae), Lagodekhi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

leucocyanidin, and cyclopeptide alkaloids- mauritines A-F, amphibines A-F, and frangufoline. Leaves give protopine and berberine. Fruits give cyclic AMP and cyclic GMP, zizyphus saponins I, II, and III, and jujuboside B and p-coumaroylates of alphitoleic acid.

2178 Fig. 5 Ziziphus jujuba (Rhamnaceae), market, Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 6 Ziziphus jujuba (Rhamnaceae), habit flowering, Pakistan. (Photo M.A. Turi)

Fig. 7 Ziziphus jujuba (Rhamnaceae), flowering branch, Pakistan. (Photo M.A. Turi)

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Fig. 8 Ziziphus jujuba (Rhamnaceae), habit flowering, Pakistan. (Photo M M.A. Turi)

Fig. 9 Ziziphus mauritiana (Rhamnaceae), flowering, Pakistan. (Photo H.A. Jan)

Local Medicinal Uses Ziziphus jujuba: Plant is used for skin infections and diabetes (Ahmad et al. 2014). Bark macerated in milk is given along with honey for diarrhea and dysentery. It is a major ingredient of “Joshanda” which is used for cough and cold (Jan et al. 2008). Fruit is used as a laxative (Ijaz et al. 2016). Plant is used as astringent, antidiabetic, refrigerant, and diabetes (Yousufzai et al. 2010). Fruit is edible, blood purifier, and used in indigestion. Fruit and leaves decoction is excellent hair wash. Bark is mixed with milk and honey to use in diarrhea and dysentery (Amjad 2015). Leaves and fruit are used against diabetes. Fruits are cough suppressant and used for flu. Leaves are refrigerant (Shah et al. 2016). The powder or decoction of stem bark is given in diarrhea. The root extract is given as purgative. The decoction of root is also given to aid digestion (Jamal et al. 2017).

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Fig. 10 Ziziphus mauritiana (Rhamnaceae, plant, Nepal. (Photo N.B. Khatri)

Fig. 11 Ziziphus mauritiana (Rhamnaceae), fruits, being cooked for pickle at Rajapur, Bardia, Nepal. (Photo R.M. Kunwar)

Leaves decoction is used to cure diabetes (Jan et al. 2017). Leaf paste is used for scabies and boils and decoction of leaves for diabetes. Leaves smoke used for headache. Fruit is used as Laxative (Khan et al. 2018). The leaves of the plant are plucked and chewed by diabetic patient to decrease sugar level (Hamayun et al. 2003). In Middle Asia, a decoction of the fruit is used for anemia, chest pains, asthma, coughs, smallpox, diarrhea, and as an analgesic for diseases of the liver, kidneys, and intestines and also as hypotensive (Sokolov 1988). Has antibacterial

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Fig. 12 Ziziphus mauritiana (Rhamnaceae), ripe fruits, Pakistan. (Photo H.A. Jan)

properties. Used for diarrhea, as blood purifier, to treat cold, constipation, cough, dandruff, pain after delivery, fever, hair-loss, diabetes, rheumatic pain, scabies, skin rashes, jaundice, oral ulcers, pharyngitis, ulcers, wounds (Gairola et al. 2014), as well as malaria (Flatie et al. 2009; Flatie et al. 2009.) Ziziphus mauritiana serves to treat chicken pox, ulcers, diarrhea, asthma, toothaches, and jaundice (Umair et al. 2019). In India the species is used to remedy blood purifier, cholera, colic, diarrhea, digestion, dysentery, eye diseases (conjunctivitis), hair loss, fever, head ache, edema, rheumatism, scorpion sting, sores, spleen complaints, stomach ache, ulcer, wound, and whooping cough (Verma et al. 2007). In Nepal it is used as Root extract is antimycobacterial, anti-conceptive, analgesic, and antidiabetic (Kunwar et al. 2009). Root juice is given in fever, stomach disorder, menstrual disorders, and also applied to treat old wounds, peptic ulcer, and backache. Root decoction is used in fevers and powder is applied to old wounds and ulcers. The Limbus of Morang District use root extraction, mixed with that of Achyranthes aspera and Mimosa pudica to cure measles (Rajbhandari 2001). Bark used in diarrhea, dysentery, and used externally in boils. Fruit cooling, aphrodisiac, tonic, and laxative (Joshi and Joshi 2001). Pulp of ripe fruits is useful for fever, ulcer, wounds, and digestion and also purifies blood (Manandhar 2002). Fruits are aphrodisiac, anodyne, tonic, depurative, appetizer, laxative, and invigorating tonic. They are useful in dyspepsia. Nausea, leprosy, skin diseases, pruritus, wounds, and ulcers. Kernels are sedative, and prescribed to stop nausea and vomiting for relief from abdominal pain in pregnancy leucorrhea, etc. It is used for the Ayurvedic preparation Mritasanjivani Sura. West Nepal: Powdered plant gall is given to control dysentery by the Tharus of Dang District. Central Nepal: Fruit is eaten as pickle, raw or boiled, by the Tharus of Chitwan (Rajbhandari 2001). Fruits are boiled and the decoction is kept overnight and taken in the morning for cooling effect by the Darai tribe of Chitwan District. Root paste is applied to treat backache at Dhading District. Stem bark is boiled in cow’s milk and this milk is given with honey to the diarrheal patient

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for relief. Root juice is given to relieve excessive menses at Lamjung District (Rajbhandari 2001). Root juice is given in case of stoma disorders by the Chepangs of Makwanpur District. Paste of ripe fruit is given to cure fever by the Danuwars of Sindhuli District. Leaf juice is given to regulate abdominal pains, and endosperm paste is taken with honey to act as an antipyretic drug at Makwanpur District. Endosperm is prescribed with milk to a febrile patient having symptoms of measles, to accelerate the emergence of the characteristic pink spots all over the body at Sindhupalchok district (Rajbhandari 2001). East Nepal: Root extraction, mixed with root extraction of Achyranthes aspera and Mimosa pudica, is given to cure measles by the Limbus of Morang District. Extraction of bark is used in diarrhea, and bark powder is used by the Satars of Morang and Jhapa Districts for dressing septic wounds. Decoction of cotyledon is used in fever by the Aathpahariya Rai of Dhankuta district (Rajbhandari 2001). Fruit is for Asthma, as blood purifier, and hepatic tonic (Jan et al. 2018). Fruit is edible, blood purifier, and used in indigestion. Fruits are edible and used as digestive stimulant (Amjad and Arshad 2014). The juice of fresh leaves is given in Jaundice (Jan et al. 2009). Fruit is digestive stimulant and used as blood purifier. Stem bark mixed with honey or milk is used for dysentery/ diarrhea (Amjad et al. 2017). Serves to treat chicken pox, ulcers, diarrhea, asthma, toothaches and jaundice (Umair et al. 2019). In India the species is used to remedy blood purifier, cholera, colic, diarrhea, digestion, dysentery, eye diseases (conjunctivitis), hair loss, fever, headache, edema, rheumatism, scorpion sting, sores, spleen complaints, stomachache, ulcer, wound, and whooping cough (Verma et al. 2007). In Nepal and India it is used as Root extract is antimycobacterial, anti-conceptive, analgesic, and antidiabetic (Jain et al. 2005; Kala et al. 2004; Kunwar et al. 2009). Also used for hypertension. Ziziphus abyssinica is used for jaundice (Teklehaymanot 2009). Ziziphus nummularia is used in Pakistan as tonic, for hyperglycemia, constipation, throat problems, colds, and scabies (Ullah et al. 2019, Umair et al. 2019), and in India the species is used to remedy boils, colds, diarrhea, gum inflammation, and tonsillitis (Verma et al. 2007). Ziziphus spina-christi is used to treat cataracts (Giday et al. 2007).

Local Food Uses Ziziphus jujuba: The fruits are eaten, mostly dried. The fruits contain sugar that is both nutritious and tasty. Since ancient times the plant has been cultivated in gardens throughout its entire distribution area, especially in the East where there are several cultivated strains (Bussmann et al. 2018; Sokolov 1988). Ber fruits are very nutritious and are usually eaten fresh. Relatively unknown, this fruit is a rich source of vitamin C. It is second only to guava and much higher than citrus or apples. It contains 20–30% sugar, up to 2.5% protein, and 12.8% carbohydrates. Fruits are also eaten in other forms, such as dried, candied, pickled, as juice, or as ber butter. In Malawi, dried fruit is used to make a potent distilled alcoholic beverage. Yields of 80 to 130 kg/tree/year have been reported in Africa (von Maydell 1986).

Ziziphus jujuba Mill . . .

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Ziziphus mauritiana: Fruit is eaten fresh or dried and can be made into a floury meal, butter, or a cheese-like paste, used as a condiment. Also used for candy making and pickling. The fruit is a good source of carotene, vitamins A and C, and fatty oils. A refreshing drink is prepared by macerating fruits in water. In Indonesia, young leaves are cooked as a vegetable (Dangol et al. 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Ziziphus jujuba: Used to tan leather, and to dye wool and silk yellow. The wood is used for tool handles. The leaves can be used to feed silkworms. Planted as ornamental (Sokolov 1988). Ziziphus mauritiana: Fodder: In parts of India and north Africa, the leaves of ber are used as nutritious fodder for sheep and goats. Analysis of the chemical constituents on a dry weight basis indicate the leaves contain 15.4% crude protein, 15.8% crude fiber, 6.7% total minerals, and 16.8% starch. In India, the leaves are also gathered as food for silkworms (Gupta 1993). Fuel: Z. mauritiana produces excellent firewood (sapwood has 4900 kcals/kg) and good charcoal. Its drooping branches are easily accessible for harvesting (Orwa et al. 2009). Apiculture: When in bloom it is occasionally a source of pollen, at best a minor one (Orwa et al. 2009). Timber: Z. mauritiana yields a medium-weight to heavy hardwood with a density of 535– 1080 kg/m3. Heartwood is buff colored, pale red, or brown to dark brown, sometimes banded or with dark streaks, not sharply demarcated from pale brown sapwood; grain straight, occasionally wavy; texture fine to coarse; wood fairly lustrous. It seasons well but may split slightly during seasoning; easy to work and takes a high finish (Orwa et al. 2009). Alcohol: A raw, intoxicating spirit is occasionally distilled from the fermented fruit pulp. Ornamental: Z. mauritiana is well suited for home gardens and boundary or barrier or support: Tree useful as a living fence; its spiny stems and branches deter livestock (Orwa et al. 2009). Leaves are used as carminative and sedative (Shah and Khan 2006). Powder of ripe fruits is taken orally with water to cure c (Abbasi et al. 2013). The leaves are used in anti-lice treatment. Local people used the extract of fruit in treatment of blood pressure (seven fruits are placed overnight in water, and the extract is used at morning time) (Alamgeer et al. 2013). Fruit and leaves decoction is an excellent hair wash. Bark is mixed with milk and honey to use for diarrhea and dysentery (Ajaib and Khan 2014). In Pakistan the species is used to treat chicken-pox, jaundice, asthma, ulcers, diarrhea, and toothache (Umair et al. 2019). Ziziphus nummularia is used as disinfectant (Katewa et al. 2004).

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Correction to: Didymocarpus aromaticus Wall. ex D. Don GESNERIACEAE Astha Tuladhar, Ripu M. Kunwar, and Rainer W. Bussmann

Correction to: Didymocarpus aromaticus Wall. ex D. Don GESNERIACEAE in R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_81 Figures 1–5 in this chapter have been removed because the authors do not have permission to publish them.

The updated original version of this chapter can be found at https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_81 © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57408-6_267

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