Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe: Ural, Northern Caucasus, Turkey, and Iran (Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions) 3030289397, 9783030289393

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Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions Series Editors: R. W. Bussmann · N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Ketevan Batsatsashvili · Zaal Kikvidze Rainer W. Bussmann  Editors

Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe Ural, Northern Caucasus, Turkey, and Iran

Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions Series Editors Rainer W. Bussmann Department of Ethnobotany Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden Ilia State University Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge La Paz, Bolivia Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden Ilia State University Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia Universidad Mayor de San Andrés La Paz, Bolivia

Ethnobotanical research in recent years has increasingly shifted into applied aspects of the discipline, including climate change research, conservation, and sustainable development. It has by now widely been recognized that “traditional” knowledge is always in flux and adapting to a quickly changing environment. Trends of globalization, especially the globalization of plant markets, have greatly influenced how plant resources are managed nowadays. While ethnobotanical studies are now available from many regions of the world, no comprehensive encyclopedic series focusing on the worlds mountain regions is available in the market. Scholars in plant sciences worldwide will be interested in this website and its dynamic content. The field (and thus the market) of ethnobotany and ethnopharmacology has grown considerably in recent years. Student interest is on the rise, attendance at professional conferences has grown steadily, and the number of professionals calling themselves ethnobotanists has increased significantly (the various societies— Society for Economic Botany, International Society of Ethnopharmacology, Society of Ethnobiology, International Society for Ethnobiology, and many regional and national societies in the field currently have thousands of members). Growth has been most robust in BRIC countries. The objective of this new series on Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions is to take advantage of the increasing international interest and scholarship in the field of mountain research. We anticipate including the best and latest research on a full range of descriptive, methodological, theoretical, and applied research on the most important plants for each region. Each contribution will be scientifically rigorous and contribute to the overall field of study. More information about this series at: https://www.springer.com/series/15885

Ketevan Batsatsashvili • Zaal Kikvidze • Rainer W. Bussmann Editors

Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe Ural, Northern Caucasus, Turkey, and Iran

With 803 Figures

Editors Ketevan Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University Tbilisi, Georgia

Zaal Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University Tbilisi, Georgia

Rainer W. Bussmann Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge La Paz, Bolivia

ISSN 2523-7489 ISSN 2523-7497 (electronic) ISBN 978-3-030-28939-3 ISBN 978-3-030-28940-9 (eBook) ISBN 978-3-030-28941-6 (print and electronic bundle) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9 © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG. The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Preface

Plants provide humankind a majority of our most basic resources, including food and medicines. Plants provide the molecular basis of many pharmaceuticals, directly or via lead compounds, and modern science increasingly blurs the distinction between nutrition and medicine. As human populations increase in numbers and access to markets gets easier, over-harvesting of commercially important medicinal species has increased. Simultaneously, habitat loss, climate change, and invasive species further threaten wild plant populations, while traditional knowledge associated with plant use is being eroded by urbanization. Thus, never before in human history has there been a greater need to discover, understand, conserve, and sustainably use culturally important plant resources. Many important plant species are concentrated in mountain systems, with alpine meadows being a major source of medicinal plants. Global change can lead to dramatic shifts in the distribution of species. The Far Eastern European Regions, the Urals and the Caucasus with its extensions into Turkey and Iran, are striking examples of such plant use diversity, even enhanced by the extreme ethnic and linguistic diversity of the region. The area is also a cradle for human agricultural activities, which date back at least 8000 years. However, since the nineteenth century until the fall of the Soviet Union, much of the region has been under Russian/Soviet control, and especially communist indoctrination and repression of cultural identity have also led to a loss of traditional plant use knowledge in many regions. Nowadays, many peoples of the Northern Caucasus, in Karachay-Cherkessia, Kabardino-Balkaria, Ingushetia, Chechnya, and Dagestan, and the occupied parts of Georgia, namely Abkhazia and Ossetia, are still suffering Russian occupation. With the present volume we aim to provide an in-depth introduction to the plant use knowledge of the peoples of Far Eastern Europe. Following an introduction to the region, over 140 plant chapters feature a modern overview on taxonomy, local names, and information on the ecology and distribution of all species. The ethnobotanical information provides both an overview on historic uses as well as data from the most recent scientific studies of plant use in the region and contains the most up-to-date literature sources.

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We hope that the present volume will give both interested laypeople as well as professionals an opportunity to learn about the fascinating biodiversity and plant use culture of Far Eastern Europe and will spark interest in its further documentation, sustainable use, and conservation. We also hope that it will serve the local populations as a repository of their knowledge, until they can shed the yoke imposed by occupant powers.

Contents

Part I

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1

Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions: Far Eastern Europe . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

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Part II

Regions

Plant Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Achillea grandiflora M. Bieb. Achillea micrantha Willd. Achillea millefolium L. Achillea nobilis L. Achillea ptarmicifolia (Willd.) Rupr. ex Heimerl Ptarmica ptarmicifolia Galushko ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Farzaneh Khajoei Nasab, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

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Aethusa cynapium L. APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

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Alnus barbata C.A. Mey. Alnus incana (L.) Moench. BETULACEAE . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

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Amaranthus hybridus L. Amaranthus palmeri S. Watson Amaranthus spinosus L. Amaranthus retroflexus L. Atriplex hortensis L. AMARANTHACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

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Anchusa azurea Schur. BORAGINACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Seyed Hamed Moazzami Farida, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

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Anethum graveolens L. APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Seyed Hamed Moazzami Farida, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

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Angelica adzharica Pimenov Angelica tatianae Bordz. APIACEAE . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

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Anthriscus cerefolium (L.) Hoffm. Anthriscus sylvestris (L.) Hoffm. APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

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Apium graveolens L. APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Seyed Hamed Moazzami Farida, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

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Arctium lappa L. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

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Armoracia rustica Schur BRASSICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

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Artemisia absinthium L. Artemisia annua L. Artemisia dracunculus L. Artemisia leucodes Schrenk Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Kit. Artemisia vulgaris L. Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Farzaneh Khajoei Nasab, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

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Contents

Arum italicum subsp. albispathum (Steven ex Ledeb.) Prime Arum maculatum L. Araceae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

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Aruncus dioicus (Walter) Fernald ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

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Astragalus caucasicus Pall. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

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Astrantia maxima Pall. APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

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Avena sativa L. POACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

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Beta vulgaris L. AMARANTHACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

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Bilacunaria caspia (DC.) Pimenov & V.N. Tikhom. Bilacunaria microcarpa (M. Bieb.) Pimenov & V.N. Tikhom. BRASSICACEAE . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze Bistorta officinalis Delarbre Polygonum carneum C. Koch POLYGONACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze Borago officinalis L. BORAGINACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Seyed Hamed Moazzami Farida, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

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Contents

Botrychium lunaria (L.) Sw. OPHIOGLOSSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

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Brassica oleracea L. BRASSICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

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Brassica rapa L. BRASSICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

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Bunias orientalis L. BRASSICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

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Bunium persicum (Boiss.) B. Fedtsch. BRASSICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Seyed Hamed Moazzami Farida, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

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Calendula officinalis L. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

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Campanula biebersteiniana C.A. Mey. Campanula rapunculoides L. CAMPANULACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

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Cannabis sativa L. CANNABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

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Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik BRASSICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Farzaneh Khajoei Nasab, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

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Capsicum annuum L. SOLANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

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Cardamine hirsuta L. BRASSICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

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Centaurea behen L. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Somayeh Esmaeili, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

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Chaerophyllum aureum L. Chaerophyllum bulbosum L. Chaerophyllum hirsutum L. APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

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Cicer arietinum L. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

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Cichorium intybus L. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

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Clinopodium vulgare L. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

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Conium maculatum L. APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Seyed Hamed Moazzami Farida, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

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Cordia myxa L. BORAGINACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Seyed Hamed Moazzami Farida, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

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Coriandrum sativum L. APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Seyed Hamed Moazzami Farida, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

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Cornus australis C.A. Mey. Cornus mas L. CORNACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

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Coronilla varia L. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

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Cucumis melo L. CUCURBITACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

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Cucumis sativus L. CUCURBITACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

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Cucurbita pepo L. CUCURBITACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

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Cydonia oblonga Mill. ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

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Danae racemosa (L.) Moench Ruscus hyrcanus Woron. Ruscus hypophyllum L. ASPARAGACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze Daphne caucasica Pall. Daphne glomerata Lam. Daphne mezereum L. Daphne pontica L. THYMELAEACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze Daucus carota L. APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Seyed Hamed Moazzami Farida, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

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Descurainia sophia (L.) Webb ex Prantl BRASSICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Farzaneh Khajoei Nasab, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

379

Dorema ammoniacum D. Don APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Seyed Hamed Moazzami Farida, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

383

Echium amoenum Fisch. & C.A. Mey. Echium maculatum L. BORAGINACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Seyed Hamed Moazzami Farida, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

387

Equisetum arvense L. Equisetum telmateia Ehrh. EQUISETACEAE . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

395

Eruca sativa Mill. BRASSICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

399

Erysimum cheiri (L.) Crantz BRASSICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

403

Fagopyrum tataricum (L.) Gaertn. POLYGONACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

407

Ferula assa-foetida L. APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Seyed Hamed Moazzami Farida, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

411

Ficus carica L. Moraceae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

415

xiv

Contents

Foeniculum vulgare Mill. APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Seyed Hamed Moazzami Farida, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

421

Fraxinus excelsior L. OLEACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

427

Galega orientalis Lam. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

433

Gentiana cruciata L. Gentiana septemfida Pall. GENTIANACEAE . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

441

Glycyrrhiza glabra L. Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch. ex DC. FABACEAE . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Farzaneh Khajoei Nasab, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

447

Helianthus annuus L. Helianthus tuberosus L.ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

453

Helichrysum arenarium (L.) Moench Helichrysum rubicundum (K. Koch) Bornm. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

459

Heliotropium europaeum L. BORAGINACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Seyed Hamed Moazzami Farida, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

467

Helleborus caucasicus A. Braun RANUNCULACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

471

Contents

Heracleum asperum M. B. Fl Heracleum leskovii A. Grossh Heracleum mantegazzianum Sommier & Levier Heracleum persicum Desf. ex Fisch Heracleum sibiricum L. Heracleum sosnowskyi Manden Heracleum sphondylium L. Heracleum wilhelmsii Fisch. & Ave-Lall APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Seyed Hamed Moazzami Farida, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Narel Y. PaniaguaZambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze Hordeum brevisubulatum subsp. violaceum (Boiss. & Hohen.) Tzvelev Hordeum vulgare L. POACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

xv

477

495

Humulus lupulus L. CANNABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

499

Hyoscyamus niger L. SOLANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

505

Hypericum perforatum L. HYPERICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

511

Isatis tinctoria L. BRASSICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

517

Juniperus communis L. Juniperus depressa Raf. Juniperus hemisphaerica J. Presl & C. Presl Juniperus oblonga M. Bieb. Juniperus sabina L. CUPRESSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze Lactuca sativa L. Lactuca serriola L. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

523

533

xvi

Contents

Lapsana communis L. Lapsana grandiflora M. Bieb. ASTERACEAE . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

541

Leonurus quinquelobatus Gilib. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

547

Lepidium sativum L. BRASSICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

551

Levisticum officinale W.D.J. Koch APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

557

Ligusticum alatum Spreng. APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

561

Linum usitatissimum L. LINACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

565

Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. SOLANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

573

Malus orientalis Uglitzk. Malus pumila Mill. ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

581

Matricaria chamomilla L. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

591

Melandrium divaricatum Fenzl CARYOPHYLLACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

597

Contents

xvii

Melilotus albus Medik. Melilotus officinalis (L.) Lam. LAMIACEAE . . . . . Farzaneh Khajoei Nasab, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

603

Melissa officinalis L. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

609

Morus alba L. MORACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

613

Nepeta mussinii Spreng. ex Henckel LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

619

Nicotiana rustica L. Nicotiana tabacum L. SOLANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

623

Oberna lacera (Steven) Ikonn. Oberna wallichiana (Klotzsch) Ikonn. CARYOPHYLLACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

631

Ocimum basilicum L. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

639

Onobrychis viciifolia Scop. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

645

Origanum vulgare L. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

649

xviii

Contents

Panicum milanjanum Rendle POACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

657

Peganum harmala L. NITRARIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Farzaneh Khajoei Nasab, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

663

Persicaria maculosa Gray POLYGONACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

671

Petasites albus (L.) Gaertn Petasites fominii Bordz Petasites hybridus (L.) G. Gaertn., B. Mey. & Scherb. Petasites vulgaris Desf. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

675

Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Fuss APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

683

Phaseolus vulgaris L. Phaseolus sativus Royle FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

689

Pimpinella anisum L. Apiaceae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Seyed Hamed Moazzami Farida, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

695

Pisum sativum L. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

701

Plantago lanceolata L. Plantago major L. PLANTAGINACEAE . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Farzaneh Khajoei Nasab, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

705

Contents

xix

Polygonum aviculare L. POLYGONACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Farzaneh Khajoei Nasab, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

715

Polypodium vulgare L. POLYPODIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

723

Prunus armeniaca L. ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

727

Prunus avium (L.) L. Prunus cerasus L. Prunus divaricata Ledeb. Prunus domestica L. Prunus insititia L. Prunus laurocerasus L. Prunus padus L. Prunus vachuschtii Bregadze ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

735

Pterocarya pterocarpa (Michx.) Kunth ex Iljins. JUGLANDACEAE . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

753

Punica granatum L. LYTHRACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

759

Pyrus caucasica Fed. Pyrus communis L.ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

765

Raphanus sativus L. BRASSICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

777

Rhododendron caucasicum Pall. Rhododendron luteum Sweet Rhododendron ponticum L. ERICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

787

xx

Contents

Ribes biebersteinii Berland. ex DC. Ribes nigrum L. Ribes odoratum H.L. Wendl. Ribes orientalis Desf. Ribes rubrum L. Ribes uva-crispa L. GROSSULARIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

801

Robinia pseudoacacia L. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

811

Rosa canina L. Rosa pimpinellifolia Boiss. ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Farzaneh Khajoei Nasab, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

815

Rubus fruticosus L. Rubus idaeus L. Rubus saxatilis L. ROSACEAE . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

823

Salix alba L. Salix caprea L. SALICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

833

Salvia nemorosa L. Salvia verticillata L. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

841

Satureja hortensis L. Satureja laxiflora C. Koch Satureja spicigera (C. Koch.) Boiss. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

851

Secale cereale L. POACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

859

Serratula quinquefolia Bieb. ex Willd. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

863

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Seseli transcaucasicum Pimenov & Sdobnina APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Manana Khutsishvili, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

867

Sinapis arvensis L. BRASSICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

871

Smilax excelsa L. SMILACACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

877

Solanum melongena L. Solanum nigrum L. Solanum tuberosum L. SOLANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

885

Sonchus asper (L.) Hill Solanum oleraceus L. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

897

Sorbus aucuparia L. ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

905

Swertia iberica Fisch. & C. A. Mey. GENTIANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

915

Tagetes erecta L. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

921

Taraxacum confusum Schischk. Taraxacum officinale F.H. Wigg ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

927

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Tilia begoniifolia Steven Tilia caucasica Rupr. Tilia cordata Mill. MALVACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

937

Tribulus terrestris L. ZYGOPHYLLACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Farzaneh Khajoei Nasab, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

945

Triticum aestivum L. Triticum carthlicum Nevski POACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

951

Ulmus glabra Huds. ULMACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

971

Vaccinium arctostaphylos Vaccinium myrtillus L. Vaccinium oxycoccus L. Vaccinium vitis-idaea L. ERICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

975

Valeriana officinalis L. CAPRIFOLIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

987

Veratrum album L. Veratrum lobelianum Bernh. LILIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

993

Verbascum densiflorum Bertol. Verbascum songaricum Schrenk ex Fisch. & C.A. Mey. Verbascum thapsus L. Verbascum sp. SCROPHULARIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

999

Viburnum lantana L. Viburnum opulus L. ADOXACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1011 Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

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Vicia faba L. Vicia sativa L. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1019 Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze Viscum album L. SANTALACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1025 Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze Vitis labrusca L. Vitis vinifera L. VITACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1029 Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze Zea mays L. POACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1049 Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze Ziziphora clinopodioides Lam. Ziziphora serpyllacea M. Bieb. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1057 Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Farzaneh Khajoei Nasab, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

About the Editors

Dr. Ketevan Batsatsashvili graduated from the Faculty of Biology of Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University (TSU), Georgia, in 1999. She received her doctorate at Tbilisi State University in 2005 for the thesis “Lichens as Bioindicators of Air Pollution in Tbilisi.” Dr. Batsatsashvili joined the Botany Department at TSU as doctoral candidate from 2001 to 2005 and was then Assistant Professor at the Tbilisi Institute of Botany (now Institute of Botany of Ilia State University). From 2008 to 2012 she worked as Assistant Professor at the Institute of Ecology of Ilia State University and became Associate Professor of Botany in 2013. Her major research interests are lichens and plant diversity, biological monitoring of environmental stress, species extinction risk assessment, and ethnobiology. She has authored and coauthored some 20 research papers and over 100 book chapters.

Dr. Zaal Kikvidze graduated in 1978 from the Faculty of Biology, Tbilisi State University (Georgia), and defended his Ph.D. thesis “Functional Properties of Na,K-ATPase” in 1983 at the National Academy of Sciences of Georgia. He worked as a researcher in the National Academy of Sciences of Georgia and in the Institute of Teachers’ Training of Georgia and later graduated in the Certificate Course in Environmental Education at Jordanhill College, Strathclyde University, Glasgow, Scotland, UK. In 1993 he defended a Doctor of Science (Habil.) thesis “Structural and Functional Optimalization in Biological Systems” at the National Academy of Sciences of Georgia. Dr. Kikvidze worked xxv

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as Associate Researcher in Chiba University (Japan), as Ramon-y-Cajal Fellow in the Consejo Superior de las Investigaciones Científicas (Spain), and Associate Professor of the University of Tokyo (Japan). The major lines of his research are plant community ecology, species diversity and geographical distributions on ecological gradients, rules of species coexistence and interactions among organisms, environmental education, ethno-ecology, and socio-ecology. Dr. Kikvidze published over 100 papers in scientific, educational, and scientific-popular journals and over 100 book chapters. Since 2006 he cooperates with Ilia State University, and in 2012 he became Professor of Ecology. Dr. Kikvidze is a Full professor and the Director of the Institute of Ethno-biology and Socio-ecology since 2014.

Dr. Rainer W. Bussmann earned his M.Sc. (Diploma) in Biology at Universität Tübingen, Germany, in 1993, and his doctorate at Universität Bayreuth, Germany, in 1994. He is an ethnobotanist and vegetation ecologist, and currently Affiliate Scientist at Museo Nacional de Historia Natural in La Paz, Bolivia, and Co-director of Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia, as well as Principal Scientist in the Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany, Ilia State University, both of which he co-founded. Before retiring from Missouri Botanical Garden, Dr. Bussmann was Director of the William L. Brown Center at Missouri Botanical Garden, William L. Brown Curator of Economic Botany, and Senior Curator. Before accepting the directorship of WLBC, he held academic appointments as Research Fellow in Geography and the Environment at the University of Texas at Austin from 2006 to 2007, as Associate Professor of Botany and Scientific Director of Harold Lyon Arboretum at the University of Hawaii from 2003 to 2006, and as Assistant Professor at the University of Bayreuth from 1997 to 2003, following a postdoc at the same institution from 1994 to 1997. Dr. Bussmann holds affiliate faculty appointments at Washington University St. Louis, USA; University of Missouri St. Louis, USA; Florida Atlantic University Boca Raton, USA; Universidade Federal da Paraíba, Brazil; Universidád

About the Editors

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Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Perú; and at Ilia State University, Republic of Georgia, and serves as external thesis advisor at multiple other universities worldwide. His work focuses on ethnobotanical research, and the preservation of traditional knowledge, in Bolivia, Peru, Madagascar, the Caucasus, and the Himalayas. To date, Dr. Bussmann has authored over 230 peer-reviewed papers, over 175 book chapters, and authored or edited over 30 books. Dr. Bussmann is a past President of the Society for Economic Botany and has served as board/council member of the International Society for Ethnopharmacology, Society of Ethnobiology, Botanical Society of America, and International Society of Ethnobiology. See more of his work on his website (https://www. cejaandina.org/rainer-w-bussmann/) and download publications from ResearchGate (https://www.researchgate. net/profile/Rainer_Bussmann).

Contributors

Ketevan Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Rainer W. Bussmann Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Somayeh Esmaeili Traditional Medicine and Materia Medica Research Center, Faculty of Traditional Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran Abdolbaset Ghorbani Department of Organismal Biology, Evolutionary Biology Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden Manana Khutsishvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Zaal Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Inesa Maisaia Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Seyed Hamed Moazzami Farida Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Bu-Ali Sina University, Hamedan, Iran Farzaneh Khajoei Nasab Department of Plant Sciences and Biotechnology, Faculty of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia Shalva Sikharulidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia David Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia xxix

Part I Regions

Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions: Far Eastern Europe Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

The Caucasus The Caucasus is generally regarded as the area situated between the Black and Caspian seas, including parts of Southern Russia, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and small parts of Turkey and Iran, and comprises the largest mountain system treated in this volume. The Greater Caucasus harbors Europe’s highest mountain, Mt. Elbrus, R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] A. Ghorbani Department of Organismal Biology, Evolutionary Biology Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_1

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Fig. 1 Main chain of the Greater Caucasus seen from the Lesser Caucasus. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

with 5642 m in the western part of the Greater Caucasus (Fig. 1). The North Caucasus (Ciscaucasia) includes parts of Georgia (especially in Khevsureti, Pshavi, and Tusheti) as well as parts of the Republics of Kabardino-Balkaria, KarachayCherkessia, Ingushetia, North Ossetia, Chechnya and Dagestan of the Russian Federation, and the Southern (Trans) Caucasus. The Lesser Caucasus comprises parts of Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and small parts of Turkey and Iran (Fig. 2) (Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, c, d, 2017a, b, 2018).

Geology The Caucasus started in the Alpine geosyncline in the late Oligocene Epoch, and the region thus reflects the same structural characteristics as the younger mountains of Europe. Therefore, the Greater Caucasus Mountains are mainly composed of Cretaceous and Jurassic rocks with the Paleozoic and Precambrian rocks in the higher regions. Structurally it represents a great anticline uplifted at the margin of the Alpine geosyncline about 25 million years ago and subsequently altered by fresh cycles of erosion and uplift. Hard, crystalline, metamorphosed rocks such as schists and gneisses, as well as pre-Jurassic granites, are characteristic of the western part, while softer, Early and Middle Jurassic clayey schists and sandstones characterize the eastern part. The foot of the Greater Caucasus is built of younger limestones, sandstones, and marls. By contrast, the Lesser Caucasus Mountains are formed predominantly of the Paleogene rocks interspersed by the Jurassic and Cretaceous rocks. The youngest geological structures are represented by the vast volcanic

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Fig. 2 Central Lesser Caucasus at Tabatskuri Lake. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

plateaus in the southern part of the range (Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, c, d, 2017a, b, 2018). Two main plain areas divided the Caucasus ranges – the plains of Colchis and Kura-Aras are also linked to the Alpine geosyncline; the former is related to the formation of the Black Sea and the latter to that of the Caspian. The Colchis plains are mainly represented by deposits broken here and there at the foot of the mountains by the protrusions of slightly older sedimentary rocks. Younger rock also underlies the Kura-Aras Lowland. Overall, three tectonic units can be distinguished by the degree of dislocation of the Earth’s crust: (1) fold system of the Greater Caucasus, (2) the Transcaucasian intermountain area, and (3) the fold system of the Lesser Caucasus. Each of these tectonic units can be further subdivided into finer units (Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, c, d, 2017a, b, 2018).

Terrain The Caucasus’ terrain is extremely complex with steep climatic gradients. Four main units of terrain can be distinguished: (1) mountains of the greater Caucasus (Fig. 3); (2) the intermountain plains between the Greater and Lesser Caucasus mountains (Fig. 4); (3) the mountains of the Lesser Caucasus (Fig. 5); and (4) the volcanic plateau of the Southern Georgia and Northern Armenia (Fig. 6). These primary units can be further subdivided into secondary ones (below). The mountains of the Greater Caucasus contain many ranges, gorges, and depressions. The following secondary units can be distinguished: (1) the main watershed of

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Fig. 3 Greater Caucasus, Racha, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Inner mountain area in Imereti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

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Fig. 5 Lesser Caucasus at Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Fig. 6 Volcanic plateau in Central Lesser Caucasus. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

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Fig. 7 Greater Caucasus chain seen from Telavi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

the Greater Caucasus with peaks over 5000 m (Elbrus, Shkhara, Babis Mta, Chanchakhi, etc.); (2) the ranges south to the main range of the Greater Caucasus running either north to south or east to west (the ranges of Gagra, Bzipi, Chkhalta, Kodori, Shdavleri, Tsalgami, Svaneti, Egrisi, Lechkhumi, Shoda, Kedeli, Racha, Java, Avlevi, Kakheti, etc.) with peaks over 4000 m (e.g., the peak of Lahili elevated to 4010 m) (Fig. 7); and (3) the ranges north to the main range of the Greater Caucasus running either north to south or east to west (the ranges of Khokhi, Piriketi, Kuro, Shavani, Khevsureti, Tusheti, etc.) (Figs. 8 and 9), one of the highest peaks of Georgia, Mkinvartsveri, or Kazbegi (5033 m) (Fig. 10) that is located on the Khokhi range (Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, c, d, 2017a, b, 2018). The intermountain plains. There are two major intermountain plains between the Greater and Lesser Caucasus mountains: those of Colchis (the Western Georgian plains) and Iveria (the Eastern Georgian plains). The terrain of both is rather hilly. The Colchis plains consist of the Colchis lowlands and hilly zones adjacent from north and south. The elevation is 200 m in average, although it can reach 1000–1200 m here or there. The plains of Iveria consist of the Shida (Inner) Kartli, Kvemo (Lower) Kartli, and Alazani or Inner Kakheti valleys. Basically, the elevation ranges 200–800 m, while in the hilly zone, the elevation range can rise up to 500–1500 m. The highest range is Gombori reaching 2000 m (Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, c, d, 2017a, b, 2018). The mountains of the Lesser Caucasus. The mountains of the Lesser Caucasus are considerably lower than those of the Greater Caucasus. The highest peaks here rarely

Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions: Far Eastern Europe

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Fig. 8 Greater Northern Caucasus, Khevsureti, Chechen-Georgian border. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 9 Greater Caucasus chain Gudamakari Valley, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 10 Greater Caucasus around Kazbegi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Fig. 11 Lesser Caucasus Landscape, Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 12 Lesser Caucasus Landscape, Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

exceed 3000 m asl (Mepistskaro, Kheva, Shaviklde, Kanis Mta, Arsiani). The mountains of the Lesser Caucasus are represented by the ranges running east to west (Shavsheti, Meskheti, Trialeti, and Loki) and the range of Arsiani that runs rather diagonally, the Khrami Mountains Middle Knot and the Akhaltsikhe depression (Figs. 11 and 12) (Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, c, d, 2017a, b, 2018). The volcanic plateaus of Southern Georgia and Northern Armenia. These plateaus are featured by their vastness and elevation (1300–2200 m). The terrain is characterized by the sequence of the central volcanoes and lava warping, as well as lava plateaus with the trace of ancient glaciations and eroded canyons. The peaks of some ranges (Erusheti, Nialiskuri, Samsari, and Javakheti) elevate as high as 2950–3300 m. The following units can be distinguished: (1) the range of Erusheti, (2) Javakheti Plateau, (3) the ranges of Samsari and Javakheti, (4) Tsalka Plateau depression, and (4) Khrami Lava Plateau (Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, c, d, 2017a, b, 2018).

Climate The Caucasus climate is determined by its location within a warm temperate zone between the Black and Caspian seas and the complexity of its terrain in which mountain ranges and their orientation play an important part. In the Black Sea

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region, the climate of the coastal zone is warm: the mean temperature is 4–7  C in January and 22–23  C in July. Precipitation is abundant (1500–2000 mm annually), especially in the southern part. At the same time, the Greater Caucasus mountains bar cold air from the north, while warm and moist air from the Black Sea spreads easily into the coastal lowlands from the west till the range of Likhi, which partly impedes further westward movement of the warm and moist airwaves. In the mountains weather conditions change to cool and wet quite steeply with increasing elevation, and above 2100 m, the environment becomes subalpine and alpine; permanent snow and ice are found above 3600 m. Overall, climatically the following provinces can be distinguished: (1) the Western Great Caucasus with humid warm climate; (2) the Eastern Greater Caucasus with continental warm to maritime intermediary climate; (3) the Colchis plains with hyper-humid warm climate where the influence of the Black Sea is most prominent; (4) the plains of Shida Kartli with moderately dry warm climate; (5) the plains of Kvemo Kartli with dry warm climate; (6) Iori Plateau with dry continental climate; (7) the Inner Kakheti with moderately humid warm climate; (8) Meskheti (Samtskhe) with dry continental climate; and (9) Javakheti with continental climate (Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, c, d, 2017a, b, 2018).

Plant Use History The territory of the modern-day Caucasus has been continuously inhabited since the early Stone Age, and agriculture was developed during the early Neolithic era (Javakhishvili 1987). The Georgian name “Sakartvelo” for the “Republic of Georgia” reflects this, being semantically linked to Greek (γεωργία) meaning “agriculture” (Javakhishvili 1987). Human occupation however started in the Early Pleistocene. The 1.7-Myr-old hominid fossils of Dmanisi in Southern Georgia are the earliest known hominid site outside of Africa (Finlayson 2005; Gabunia and Vekua 1995; Gabunia et al. 2000). This specimen has been classified as Late Middle Paleolithic and Early Upper Neanderthal, and modern human occupation are well documented (Adler and Bar-Oz 2009). Upper Paleolithic fossils of Dzudzuana Cave include remnants of wool (Capra caucasica) and dyed fibers of wild flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) dated to ~36–34 Ka BP (Adler and Bar-Oz 2009; Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, c, d, 2017a, b, c, d, 2018). The Caucasus is counted as one of the global biodiversity hotspots (Schatz et al. 2009). Botanical exploration of the Caucasus has a long history, yielding good recent treatments of the area’s vegetation, e.g., for Georgia (Nakhutsrishvili 1999). As such, the region has long been the center point of botanical exploration, with the National Herbarium of Georgia in Tbilisi and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden serving as a hub. The visitor’s log of the garden reads like a “Who is who” of the twentiethcentury botany (Fig. 13). The Caucasus has been occupied since early human history and in the Northern Caucasus in particular shows an interwoven settlement history with traces of many

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Fig. 13 Visitor log Alpine Botanical Garden, Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 14 Ushguli, Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

cultures and high mountain villages with typical architecture, e.g., in Svaneti (Fig. 14), Tusheti (Figs. 15 and 16), Pshavi (Fig. 17) or Khevsureti (Fig. 18). Georgia counts as one of the oldest Christian regions, adopting Christianity around 320 CE. A great example for early church construction is Gergeti Trinity Church, built in the fourteenth century, located at 2170 m at the base of Mount Kazbegi (5047 m), overlooking the narrow valley leading from Georgia to Ingushetia (Fig. 19). However, ancestral shrines are still very common in many regions of the Caucasus, indicating the cultural connections between many peoples of the region (Fig. 20).

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Fig. 15 Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 16 Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

The architecture found in the Northern Caucasus range clearly indicated ethnic links, e.g., Ingush style towers in Tusheti (Figs. 21 and 22), remnants of traditional Georgian watchtowers (Fig. 23), or Chechen style villages, e.g., Shatli in Georgia (Fig. 24).

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Fig. 17 Gudamakari valley, Pshavi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 18 Roshka, Khevsureti Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

The archaeological findings from Neolithic and Early Bronze periods are rich with plant fossils and seeds of both wild species and local landraces, and agricultural implements, e.g., threshing sleds (Figs. 25 and 26), have been maintained until

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Fig. 19 Gergeti Trinity Church, Kazbegi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Fig. 20 Ancestral shrine, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 21 Ingush architecture towers in Dartlo, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 22 Ingush architecture towers, Girevi, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 23 Georgian style watchtower ruin, Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 24 Chechen-Dagestani style architecture, Shatli, Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 25 Threshing sled, Museum of Ethnography, Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

recently. Similar implements can be found all the way from the Caucasus through Georgia, the Eastern Mediterranean to Spain, indicating the close links of the Caucasico-Mediterranean Agricultural Complex, where seeds were traded together with agricultural know-how. Seven species of cultivated wheat – Triticum aestivum L., T. carthlicum Nevski, T. compactum Host, T. dicoccum Schrank, T. macha Dekapr. & Menabde, T. monococcum L., T. spelta L., one wild relative, Aegilops cylindrica Host., as well as millet – Panicum milliaceum L., barley – Hordeum vulgare L., Italian millet – Setaria italica L.) P. Beauv., oats – Avena sativa L., wild lentil – Lens ervoides (Brignolidi & Brunhoff) Grande, and pea – Pisum sativum L. have been discovered in Arukhlo, dating back to the 6th – 2nd millennium BC (Melikishvili 1970). The earliest grapevine seeds indicating cultivation were excavated in Southern Georgia and date to ~8.000 years BP (Ramishvili 1988). Due to its long tradition, agriculture in Georgia is characterized by a great diversity of landraces and endemic species of crops. These show a high level of adaptation to local climatic conditions and often-high

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Fig. 26 Threshing sled, Museum of Ethnography, Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

disease resistance. Early research documented this great variety (Akhalkatsi et al. 2012; Dekaprelevich and Menabde 1929; Ketskhoveli 1928, 1957; Ketskhoveli et al. 1960; Menabde 1938, 1948), but a rapid loss of local cultivars of cereals, legumes, and flax began in the 1950s with the Soviet agricultural reform (Akhalkatsi 2009; Akhalkatsi et al. 2010). Despite the long cultural history, recent studies on cultivated plants are rather scarce (e.g., Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, c, d, 2017a, b, c, d, 2018; Pistrick et al. 2009; Zhizhizlashvili and Berishvili 1980). Grapes – Vitis vinifera L. (Vitaceae) – show genetic diversity in the region, with about 600 varieties known only from Georgia (Javakhishvili 1987; Ketskhoveli et al. 1960; Ramishvili 1988; This et al. 2006), and in most regions the population takes great pride to produce their own wine and share it with visitors. Hardly any house in the Georgian lowlands is without at least some grapes in its garden or backyard. Today, 41 cultivars of grapevine are used as commercial varieties (Bedoshvili 2008), and good wine is readily available, but the history of grape cultivation and winemaking goes back millennia (Figs. 27 and 28). Like in other parts of Europe,

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Fig. 27 Wine grapes, Imereti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Caucasian grapes were devastated by the Phylloxera vastatrix (Planchon) Signoret, and after the infestation in the 1860s, most Georgian grape varieties are now grafted on rootstocks of American grapes resistant to Phylloxera. Wheat – Triticum L. (Poaceae): In the 1940s, 16 species, 144 varieties, and 150 forms of wheat were registered in Georgia alone (Menabde 1948). This diversity has however greatly diminished, and most species had already disappeared by the 1960s, when introduced cultivars were favored in Soviet kolkhoz systems. At present, none of these species are sown in Georgian commercial agriculture. Pistrick et al. (2009) report some traditional varieties of bread wheat in Tusheti, Meskheti, Javakheti, and Svaneti. Barley – Hordeum vulgare L. (Poaceae) – is also an ancient agricultural crop in the region and had particular importance in beer production, as well a function in religious rituals and traditional medicine (Badr et al. 2000; Javakhishvili 1987). Caucasian rye – Secale cereale L. (Poaceae) – used to be cultivated in the high mountain regions (1800–2200 m) and entered into bread and beer production, although barley was preferred for beer. Legumes, especially peas (Pisum sativum L.), lentils (Lens cornicularis L.), chickpeas (Cicer arietinum L.), and faba beans (Vicia faba L.), are still commonly grown in home gardens, and green pea (Pisum sativum) is thought to have originated in the Southern Caucasus. Traditional vegetables like garden lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.), beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum L.), peppermint (Mentha x piperita L.), onions (Allium cepa L.), sugar beets (Beta vulgaris L.), spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.), carrots (Daucus carota L.), radishes (Raphanus sativus L.),

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Fig. 28 Wine grape ornament on Mtskheta Cathedral, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

turnips (Brassica rapa subsp. rapa L.), Welsh onion (Allium fistulosum L.), amaranth (Amaranthus viridis L.), goosefoot (Chenopodium album L.), leeks (Allium ampeloprasum L.), and garlic (Allium sativum L.) are still very common throughout the region, and herbs like parsley (Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Fuss.), coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.), tarragon (Artemisia dracunculus L.), savory (Satureja hortensis L.), garden cress (Lepidium sativum L.), dill (Anethum graveolens L.), fennel

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Fig. 29 Home garden, Racha, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

(Foeniculum vulgare Mill.), celery (Apium dulce Mill.), Allium fistulosum L., Brassica rapa L. subsp. rapifera Metzger, Lathyrus sativus L., Linum usitatissimum L., Medicago sativa L., Onobrychis transcaucasica Grossh., Pisum arvense L., and Trigonella caerulea (L.) Ser. are cultivated almost everywhere. In addition, introduced species like zucchini (Cucurbita pepo L.), cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.), eggplant (Solanum melongena L.), marigold (Tagetes patula L.), watermelon (Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. & Nakai), sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.), tomato (Solanum lycopersicum (Mill.) Wettst.), pepper (Capsicum annuum L.), potato (Solanum tuberosum L.), and maize (Zea mays L.) were found to be popular ingredients of local cuisine. Nicotiana rustica has been cultivated for a long time and is found in most regions, including high mountain areas. N. tabacum was only introduced during the Soviet period for commercial use. A large number of additional species are traditionally also grown in home gardens (Figs. 29 and 30), e.g., sour plum (Prunus cerasifera var. divaricata) is commonly used as sauce with meat, rose hips (Rosa canina L.) are often used for tea and to make jam, and Staphylea pinnata L. (Bladdernut) inflorescences are a favorite pickle (Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, c, d, 2017a, b, c, d, 2018). However, the species-rich home gardens in the region are not necessarily an indication of an old tradition – small plots are essentially an artifact of Soviet occupation, where people were only allowed to cultivate very small personal plots. Food plays a major role in Caucasus culture and is the core of local hospitality (Figs. 31, 32, and 33).

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Fig. 30 Home garden, Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 31 Ethnobotanical Interview, Barisakho, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

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Fig. 32 Ethnobotanical Interview, Roshka, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Fig. 33 Ethnobotanical Interview, Roshka, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

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Fig. 34 Allium victorialis pickle, Barisakho, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Many wild foods are pickled for winter use, e.g., Allium victorialis (Fig. 34) or Heracleum sp. (Fig. 35), and in spring many herbs are used for vegetable pies (Pkhali, Fig. 36).

Threats to Diversity The process of genetic erosion of ancient crop varieties was originally of little concern for the mountain areas especially of the Northern Greater Caucasus, e.g., the Georgian Dagestani border (Fig. 37), which until the 1990s acted as a depository of ancient crops. Nowadays the main reason for genetic erosion of ancient crop varieties is the demographic decline in mountain regions due to harsh economic conditions and lack of modern infrastructure (Nakhutsrishvili et al. 2009). The shift from ancient cultivars to modern high-yielding crops such as maize and potato, which took place in the

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Fig. 35 Heracleum sp. pickle, Tabatskhuri, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

lowland areas much earlier, began in mountain villages in particular of Georgia after the end of Soviet occupation, when local inhabitants who had been forced to the lowlands returned to their original villages. However, in general many villages at high altitudes in the Caucasus were abandoned under pressure during Soviet occupation (Fig. 38), and while in the south some families have returned at least for the summer, many villages were completely abandoned in the 1980s and remain in ruins. In occupied villages old household utensils like butter barrels are often to be found in storage, but not used anymore. In most areas agricultural terraces are abandoned (Figs. 39 and 40) (Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, c, d, 2017a, b, 2018). Small bridges are still made from wood, but many other wooden household items like beautiful bed headboards are simply discarded. Some implements, e.g., snowshoes or brooms, are still maintained. Agricultural tools such as hay rakes are a common sight in abandoned barns, but more sought afar items like ox-drawn threshing sledges could only be found in museums. While sheep were produced

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Fig. 36 Collecting herbs for Phkhali, Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 37 Northern Caucasus, Dagestani border, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

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Fig. 38 Abandoned village, Kazbegi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Fig. 39 Abandoned terraces, Shenako, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 40 Abandoned terraces, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

on a large scale during Soviet times, leading to widespread overgrazing, nowadays only a few scattered herds remain, connecting the different regions of the Greater and Lesser Caucasus (Figs. 41, 42, and 43). Traditional wool items are getting more and more difficult to find. Sadly, in our own research, we could hardly find grain cultivation anywhere, although old landraces of wheat and barley were formerly preferred to prepare bread and beer for religious rituals, and many abandoned terraces indicate where grain was formerly grown. Many old barns still contain clay-lined grain storage baskets made from Salix sp., which quite often contain old grains (Figs. 44 and 45). However, no grain has been grown in the region for decades. Now villagers buy wheat to distil alcohol or to bake bread or buy commercial beer making mixtures to brew their own beer, while the huge original copper beer vats, made in Dagestan, serve nowadays at most as decoration (Figs. 46, 47, and 48), like traditional wedding dresses that are kept as memory (Fig. 49) (Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, c, d, 2017a, b, 2018). The National Botanical Garden in Tbilisi runs a large seed bank and in situ growing program for rare local species and varieties of Triticum, Panicum, and Sorghum, and some material is grown at the Ethnographic Museum in Tbilisi, where Sorghum is grown and dried and gruel with Prunus sauce is available to visitors (Fig. 50) (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, d, 2017a, b).

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Fig. 41 Azeri shepherds with their flocks, Samtskhe, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 42 Sheep, Northern Caucasus, Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 43 Sheep, Northern Caucasus, Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 44 Wheat, harvested in the 1980s, Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 45 Traditional wheat storage container, Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Flora and Vegetation The Caucasus region contains an amazing variety of vascular plants, with about 6300 described species (Gagnidze et al. 2002). The number of endemic taxa known for the Caucasus region is set at 2791 (Schatz et al. 2009). The botanical exploration of the Caucasus started in the seventeenth century. Jean-Baptiste Chardin (1686) described the gardens in Tiflis, Georgia, as well as the surrounding areas as result of a journey in 1672–1673. Joseph Delaporte published similar impressions in 1768 (Gogolishvili and Skhiereli 1986). Botanist Joseph Pitton de Tournefort published a large treatment of the Caucasus flora and vegetation in 1717. Johann Christian Buxbaum published a five-volume treatment of the region in 1728–1740. The first real flora of the Caucasus region was however prepared by Adolf Marschall von Bieberstein (1808–1819). In the twentieth century, most of the Caucasus region formed part of the former Soviet Union and botanically well studied

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Fig. 46 Traditional copper beer vats made in Dagestan. Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 47 Traditional copper beer vats made in Dagestan. Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

in that time (Grossheim 1928–1934, 1939–1967; Takhtajan 2003–2012). A large number of detailed treatments of the Caucasus flora were compiled by Alexander Grossheim, who published the most complete flora of the Caucasus (1928–1934). Starting in the 1940s, Grossheim produced also a series of volumes on human plant use for Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia (Grossheim 1942, 1943, 1946, 1949,

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Fig. 48 Traditional copper beer vats made in Dagestan. Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

1952). Especially his Manual of the Caucasian Plants (Grossheim 1949) is still a standard reference today. Nakhutsrishvili (1999) produced the most comprehensive vegetation description for the Caucasus. The high biodiversity in the Caucasus is found in a wide variety of vegetation types. A large portion of the region is covered by broad-leaved and coniferous forests (Galushko 1978–1981; Doluchanov 1989; Nakhutsrishvili 1999; Zazanishvili et al. 1999, 2000). In the northern Caucasus, forests are mostly found in the western part, while moving further east forested areas are more and more restricted to areas along streams, and in Dagestan, steppe and shrub formations are prevalent (Livinskaya and Murtazaliev 2009). The forest cover was estimated to be 36% in Georgia (Doluchanov 1989), and forest cover has diminished from 35% to 11% in Azerbaijan (Schatz et al. 2009). However, usage change, especially a reduction of sheep in the Northern Caucasus, as led the timberline to extend upward in many areas (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, d, 2017a, b). What most characterizes Caucasian forests is their taxonomic richness. Broadleaved and coniferous forests are typically composed of a large number of tree species. Almost half of the forested area in the Greater Caucasus range is covered by Fagus orientalis Lipsky (Fagaceae). Other dominant tree species are Abies nordmanniana (Steven) Spach and Picea orientalis (L.) Peterm. (both Pinaceae), as well as a variety of oaks (Menitzky 2005). Quercus castaneifolia C. A. Mey. and Quercus iberica Steven are found in the whole Caucasus region, while Quercus hartwissiana Steven is restricted to the humid Colchic forests on the eastern slopes

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Fig. 49 Traditional Khevsur wedding dress, Juhta, Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

of the Black Sea. Many forest areas also include Fagus orientalis Lipsky and Castanea sativa Mill. (both Fagaceae), the latter however heavily impacted by Chestnut blight and dying back in large areas. In some areas, Zelkova carpinifolia (Pall.) K. Koch) forms dense stands, and Alnus barbata C. A. Mey. is common in wet areas. The Colchis broad-leaved forests along the Black Sea coast represented Pleistocene refugia. Evergreen relicts are well represented in the Caucasus. Representative woody taxa are Alnus barbata C. A. Mey, and Tilia begoniifolia Steven (Tiliaceae). When comparing the Colchis Caucasian forests and mid-European forests, Rikli (1943) found that the number of species in the Colchis forests was almost twice as high as those in European forests. Many relics such as Betula medwediewii Regel (Betulaceae), Betula megrelica Sosn, Quercus pontica K. Koch, Rhamnus imeretina Booth, Petz. & Kircn. (Rhamnaceae), and Corylus colchica Albov (Betulaceae) are still widely used by the local population and face current threats (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, d, 2017a, b; Nakhutsrishvili 1999, 2012).

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Fig. 50 Traditional porridge made from Panicum, Ethnographic Museum Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

In the Lesser Caucasus, mixed forests occur from 550 to 2300 m. Species of oaks such as Quercus iberica Steven and Quercus petraea L. ex Liebl. (Fagaceae) are common and occur together with Carpinus betulus L. (Betulaceae), wild species of apple (Malus L.), and pears (Pyrus L.) (Rosaceae). Quercus macranthera Fisch. & C. A. Mey. is common from 1800 to 2600 m on southern slopes, and Fagus orientalis Lipsky (both Fagaceae) is found on northern slopes (Nakhutsrishvili 1999, 2012). In Eastern Georgia, Southern Armenia, and Azerbaijan, Juniperus sp., especially Juniperus foetidissima Willd. and Juniperus oblonga M. Bieb. (Cupressaceae), are an important component of the vegetation. Other woody taxa, like Cotinus coggygria Scop. (Anacardiaceae), various species of Celtis L. (Ulmaceae), ash, Sorbus aucuparia L., are common (Nakhutsrishvili 2012). Subalpine meadows in the Caucasus are highly diverse and harbor many endemic species. One example in the western Caucasus is Woronowia speciosa (Albov) Juz. (Rosaceae), an endemic monotypic genus. Due to overgrazing, the relict plant community characterized by Woronowia speciosa has been widely replaced by grass communities dominated by Nardus L. (Poaceae). Among the endemic genera that grow in subalpine meadows is Agasyllis latifolia (M. Bieb.) Boiss. (Apiaceae). Other endemic genera include Grossheimia Sosn. & Takht. (Asteraceae) with six species (Schatz et al. 2009). The alpine zone of the Caucasus region usually extends from elevations of 2400–3000 m, while in the Southeastern Caucasus, it reaches from 3200 m. Endemic

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small rosette plants like Pseudobetckea caucasica (Boiss.) Lincz. (Valerianaceae), which has its closest relatives in the Andes, can be found in the alpine zone close to the sow line. Some genera are especially numerous in the Caucasus, among them Campanula L. (Campanulaceae) with at least 70 endemic species, Silene L. (Caryophyaceae) with 70 species, Veronica L. (Scrophulariaceae) with 66 species, and Heracleum L. (Apiaceae) with 30 species (Schatz et al. 2009).

The Mountain Regions of Northern Iran Location and Geology The Iranian highlands extend about 3000 km from northwest to southeast through the dry areas of the northern zone and separate the North African-Arabian from the Turanian-Central Asian desert area. Similar to Asia Minor, it is surrounded by an inner highland interrupted by depressions and sub-basins. In the north, the Elburs mountain range is an extension of the Lesser Caucasus and borders with the highest volcanic elevation, the Dema. By contrast, in the eastern part, east of Ziriat, as well as in the plain and mountains of Gorgan (5604 m), to the Caspian Sea, several parallel mountain chains run to the southeastern to the Zagros Mountains on the southern Iranian border, which also exceed 3000 m. The rivers mostly flow into the Tigris or the Persian Gulf. Mountain ranges in the interior of the country divide the land into mostly fluvial depressions and basins, which are either filled with weathering debris or enriched with saline clays by the constant influx of rivers within this dry space, which has led to extensive salt deserts (e.g., Dasht-e Kavir). Originally parts of Elburs were covered with glaciers, but these have by now mostly disappeared due to the impact of climate change.

Vegetation The elevation division in the Elburs mountains corresponds on the southern slope significantly to the Turkmenian mountain ranges of the Kopet Dag. In the southern foothills of the Elburs mountains, the vegetation takes on a desert-like character. In the lower part of the mountain range, the mountain slopes are occupied by Juniperus and Amygdalus steppes with Amygdalus spartioides, A. scoparia, A. horrida, A. reuteri, A. eburnea, A. spinosissima, Pistacia mutica, P. khinjuk and P. vera, rose species (Rosa), Lonicera persica, Berberis integerrima, and cherries (Cerasus microcarpa and Cerasus prostrata). In contrast, the northern flank of the Elburs receives much more humidity and is characterized by a completely different vegetation with open hyrcanian deciduous forests in the lower parts, dominated by Quercus castaneifolia, Carpinus betulus, Castanea sativa, Zelkova carpinifolia, species of Acer, Ulmus minor, Albizia julibrissin, Parrotia persica, and Juglans regia, with a large number of climbers

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like Vitis vinifera, Hedera helix, Smilax excelsa, and Periploca graeca. In the undergrowth, humidity-loving species like Punica granatum, Paliurus aculeatus, Buxus hyrcana, Prunus laurocerasus, and Ilex spinigera dominate. The montane zone from about 700 to 2400 m, especially on the northern slopes of Elburs, is dominated by hyrcanian/Caspian deciduous montane forests and dominated by Oriental beech (Fagus orientalis), hornbeam (Carpinus betulus), maple species (Acer insigne, A. hyrcanum), yew (Taxus baccata), cherry laurel (Prunus laurocerasus), and with species like Galium odoratum in the undergrowth. In the eastern, drier part, Quercus macranthera replaces Fagus and Carpinus, followed by a subalpine belt with conifers, including Abies nordmanniana, A. bornmuelleriana, Picea orientalis, Acer hyrcanum, and A. monspessulanum. The alpine vegetation is very distinct from European and Caucasian areas and characterized by a lack of dwarf shrubs and alpine pastures, which are replaced by cushion plants, especially Pedicularis, Veronica, Potentilla, Gypsophila, and Saxifraga species.

The Ural Location and Geology The Ural represents a very old, eroded mountain range, stretching over 2000 km in north-south direction, from 68  N to 51  S, encompassing a large range of climatic and ecological zones, with elevations from around 500 m in the middle section, and the highest peaks of 1894 m in the north, and 1638 m in the south. The Polar Urals extend for about 385 km from Mount Konstantinov Kamen in the north to the Khulga River in the south, with an area of about 25,000 km2 and a maximum elevation of 1499 m. The mountains of the Polar Ural have exposed rock with sharp ridges. The Subpolar Urals are higher and much wider extending 225 km south to the Shchugor River and include the highest peaks of the range: Mount Narodnaya with 1895 m, Mt. Karpinsky (1878 m), and Mt. Manaraga (1662 m). Its ridges are sawtooth shaped and dissected by river valleys. The Northern Ural reached elevations of up to 1200 m and extends 560 km to the Usa River. Intensive weathering has produced large areas of eroded rock. The Middle Ural, extending south to the Ufa river, represents the lowest portion of the mountain range, with the highest peak Basegi only reaching 994 m. The Southern Ural is much more complex and reaches a maximum elevation of 1638 m at Mt. Yamantau. The Ural is one of the worlds’ oldest mountain ranges, with an age of up to 300 million years. The range was formed by a collision of the eastern Laurasian plate with the Kazakh plate, which now underlies most of Western Siberia and Kazakhstan. However, unlike most other mountain ranges, the Ural has undergone little extensional collapse. The Ural shows a large diversity of metamorphic rock in its folding systems. The west is generally formed by sandstone, limestone, and dolomite, and features pronounce karstic elements, with many caves, while the Eastern

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parts show a basaltic structure. Due to its geologic structure, the Urals are rich in minerals, ores, coal, oils, and gas.

Climate Due to the large north-south extension of the Ural, it is impossible to generalize on climatic conditions. However, the vegetation period in the forest-free areas is short everywhere. The mountain range receives relatively high precipitations, up to around 800 mm annually. The climate of the Urals is generally continental. The areas west of the Ural Mountains are 1–2  C warmer in winter than the eastern regions due to warming westerly winds, whereas the eastern slopes are chilled by Siberian air masses. The average January temperatures increase in the western areas from 20  C in the Polar areas to 15  C in the Southern Urals, and temperatures in July are around 10  C and 20  C, respectively. The highest precipitation around 800 mm occurs in the Northern Urals with up to 10 m snow. The eastern areas receive around 500–600 mm in the north and 300–400 mm in the south, with generally wet summers and dry winters.

Vegetation The vegetation distribution in the Ural shows great asymmetry, with much wetter western parts. The northernmost slopes are characterized by forest-free tundra vegetation up to around 500 m, with the upper parts covered by cold polar desert vegetation, while the lower and more southern parts are characterized by forest tundra associations, especially with Larix sukaczewii, Picea obovata, and Betula tortuosa, interspersed with Betula nana scrub. Slightly further south, the vegetation changes to a sequence of two forest zones – gymnosperm dominated foothills, mostly dominated by Picea obovata and Betula pubescens, and Ericaceae dominated undergrowth, especially with Ledum palustre, Vaccinium myrtillus, and Empetrum nigrum. On well-drained soils especially on the eastern slopes, such communities are replaced by Pinus sibirica, Pinus sylvestris, and Abies sibirica. The forests of the southwestern Ural are characterized by a mix of Tilia cordata, Acer platanoides, Ulmus scabra, and Ulmus glabra, with a speciesrich herbal and grassy undergrowth up to about 750 m.

References Adler DS, Bar-Oz G. Seasonal patterns of prey acquisition during the Middle and Upper Paleolithic of the southern Caucasus. In: Hublin JJ, Richards M, editors. The evolution of hominid diets: integrating approaches to the study of Palaeolithic subsistence. Leipzig: Springer; 2009. p. 127–40. Akhalkatsi M. Conservation and sustainable use of crop wild relatives in Samtskhe- Javakheti. Final report. Tbilisi: Elkana; 2009.

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Akhalkatsi M, Ekhvaia J, Mosulishvili M, Nakhutsrishvili G, Abdaladze O, Batsatsashvili K. Reasons and processes leading to the erosion of crop genetic diversity in mountainous regions of Georgia. Mt Res Dev. 2010;30(3):304–10. Akhalkatsi M, Ekhvaia J, Asanidze Z. Diversity and genetic erosion of ancient crops and wild relatives of agricultural cultivars for food: implications for nature conservation in Georgia (Caucasus). In: Tiefenbacher J, editor. Perspectives on nature conservation – patterns, pressures and prospects. Zagreb: InTech; 2012. Badr A, Müller K, Schäfer-Pregl R, El Rabey H, Effgen S, Ibrahim HH, Pozzi C, Rohde W, Salamini F. On the origin and domestication history of barley (Hordeum vulgare). Mol Biol Evol. 2000;17(4):499–510. Bedoshvili D. National report on the state of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture in Georgia. 2008. http://www.pgrfa.org/gpa/geo/Georgian report on State of PGR Sep 29, 2008.pdf. Bussmann RW, editor. 2017. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Heidelberg: Springer International Publishing XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ehnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:5. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE, Pieroni A. Your poison in my pie – the use of Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) leaves in Sakartvelo, Georgia (Caucasus) and Gollobordo, Eastern Albania. Econ Bot. 2016c;70(4):431–7. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016d. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017c;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plant and fungal use in Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2017d;86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Buxbaum JC. Plantarum minis cognitarum centuria complectens plantas circa Byzantium & in oriente observatas, vol. I–V. Pertropoli: Ex typographia Academiae; 1728–1740. Chardin J. Journal de Voyage de Chevalier Jean Chardin en Perse. Paris: Daniel Horthemels; 1686. Dekaprelevich L, Menabde V. Study of cereal cultivars in Georgia. I. Racha. Sci Pap Appl Sect Tbilisi Bot Gard. 1929;6(2):219–52. (in Russian).

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Delaporte AJ. La Sibériie – Nouvelle Zemble – la Russie. Vol. II in Le Voyageur Francois ou la Connoissance d l’Ancien et du Nouveau Monde. Paris: I. Cellot; 1768. Doluchanov A. Rastitel’nost’Gruzii, Lesa (the vegetation of Georgia forests). Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1989. (in Russian). Finlayson C. Biogeography and evolution of the genus Homo. Trends Ecol Evol. 2005;20(8):457–63. Gabunia L, Vekua AA. Plio-Pleistocene hominid from Dmanisi, East Georgia, Caucasus. Nature. 1995;373(6514):509–12. Gabunia L, Vekua A, Swisher CC, Ferring R, Justus A, Nioradze M, Ponce de Leon M, Tappen M, Tvalchrelidze M, Zollikofer C. Earliest Pleistocene hominid cranial remains from Dmanisi, Republic of Georgia: taxonomy, geological setting, and age. Science. 2000;288(5578):85–9. Gagnidze I, Gviniashvili T, Shetekauri S, Margalitadze N. Endemic genera of the Caucasian flora. Feddes Repertorium. 2002;113:616–30. Galushko AI. Flora Severnogo Kavkaza: Opredelitel’, 1–3. (Flora of the North Caucasus. A guide, vols. 1–3). Rostov on Don: Rostov University; 1978–1981. (in Russian). Gogolishvili MA, Skhiereli VS. Tsentralnyi Botanicheskii Sad Akademii Nauk Gruzinskoi SSR. Kratkaia Istoria. (The Central Botanical Garden of the Academy of Sciences of the Georgian SSR: a brief history). Tbilisi: Metzniereba; 1986. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Flora Kavkaza. [Flora of the Caucasus], vol. I–IV. Tifkis: Akademia Nauk; 1928–1934. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Flora Kavkaza. [Flora of the Caucasus], vol. I–VII. Baku: Nauka; 1939–1967. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Medicinal plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Publishing house of Azerbaijani Branch of AS; 1942. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Herbs of the Caucasus. Baku: Azerbaijani Branch of AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1943. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant resources of the Caucasus. Baku: Publishing house of AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1946. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Opredelitel’ rasteniy Kavkaza. (Manual of the Caucasian plants). Moscow: Sovietskaia Nauka; 1949. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Javakhishvili I. Economic history of Georgia, vol. 5. 2nd ed. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1987. (in Georgian). Ketskhoveli N. Materials on zonal distribution of cultivated plants in the Greater Caucasus. Tbilisi: Agricultural National Committee Press; 1928. (in Georgian). Ketskhoveli N. Zones of cultivated plants in Georgia. Tbilisi: Georgian Academy of Sciences Press; 1957. (in Georgian). Ketskhoveli N, Ramishvili M, Tabidze D. Amphelography of Georgia. Tbilisi: Georgian Academy of Sciences Press; 1960. (in Georgian). Livinskaya S, Murtazaliev R. Kavkazski Element vo Flore Rossiskogo, Kavkaza: Geographia, Sozologia, Ekologia. (The Caucasian elements within the Flora of the Russian Caucasus: geography, sociology, ecology). Krasnodar: Kuban State University; 2009. (in Russian). Melikishvili G, editor. Historical essays of Georgia. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1970. (in Georgian). Menabde V. Barleys of Georgia. Tbilisi: Georgian Academy of Sciences Press; 1938. (in Georgian). Menabde V. Wheats of Georgia. Tbilisi: Georgian Academy of Sciences Press; 1948. (in Russian). Menitzky YI. Oaks of Asia. Enfield: Science Publishers; 2005. Nakhutsrishvili G. The vegetation of Georgia (Caucasus). Braun-Blanquetia. 1999;15:1–74. Nakhutsrishvili G. The vegetation of Georgia (South Caucasus). Stuttgart: Springer; 2012. Nakhutsrishvili G, Akhalkatsi M, Abdaladze O. Main threats to the mountain biodiversity in Georgia (the Caucasus). Mt Forum Bull. 2009;9(2):18–9. Pistrick K, Akhalkatsi M, Girgvliani T, Shanshiashvili T. Collecting plant genetic resources in Upper Svaneti (Georgia, Caucasus Mountains). J Agric Rural Dev Trop Subtrop. 2009;92 (Suppl):127–35.

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Ramishvili R. Wild grape of the South Caucasus, vol. 1988. Tbilisi: Ganatleba; 1988. (in Russian). Rikli M. Das Pflanzenkleid der Mittehneerland, vol. 1. Bern: H. Huber; 1943. Schatz G, Shulkina T, Nakhutsrishvili G, Batsatsashvili K, Tamanyan K, Ali-zade V, Kikodze D, Geltman D, Ekim T. Development of plant red list assessments for the Caucasus biodiversity hotspot. In: Zazanashvili N, Mallon D, editors. Status and protection of globally threatened species in the Caucasus. Tbilisi: Contour Ltd; 2009. p. 188–92. Takhtajan AL, editor. Caucasian Flora Conspectus, vol. 1–3. St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg University Press; 2003–2012. (in Russian). This P, Lacombe T, Thomas MR. Historical origins and genetic diversity of wine grapes. Trends Genet. 2006;22(9):511–9. von Bieberstein FAM. Flora tauro-caucasica exhibens stirpes phanaerogamas in Chersoneso Taurica et regionibus caucasicis sponte crescents. . ., vol. 1–3. Chaecoiae (Kharkov): Typis Academicis; 1808–1819. Zazanishvili N, Sanadiradze G, Bukhnikashvili A. Caucasus. In: Mittermeier RA, Myers N, Gil PG, Mittermeier CG, editors. Hotspots: Earth’s biologically richest and most endangered terrestrial ecoregions. New York: Conservation International; 1999. p. 269–73. Zazanishvili N, Gagnidze R, Nakhutsrishvili G. Main type of vegetation zonation on the mountains of the Caucasus. Acta Phytogeographica Suecia. 2000;85:7–16. Zhizhizlashvili K, Berishvili T. Study of cultivated plants in Upper Svaneti. Bull Georgian Acad Sci. 1980;100(2):417–9. (in Georgian).

Part II Plant Profiles

Achillea grandiflora M. Bieb. Achillea micrantha Willd. Achillea millefolium L. Achillea nobilis L. Achillea ptarmicifolia (Willd.) Rupr. ex Heimerl Ptarmica ptarmicifolia Galushko ASTERACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Farzaneh Khajoei Nasab, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Achillea millefolium L.: Achillea alpicola (Rydb.) Rydb.; Achillea arenaria A. Heller; Achillea borealis subsp. arenicola (A. Heller) D.D. Keck; Achillea borealis subsp. californica (Pollard) D.D. Keck; Achillea californica Pollard; R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_5

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Achillea gigantea Pollard; Achillea lanulosa Nutt.; Achillea lanulosa subsp. alpicola (Rydb.) D.D. Keck; Achillea lanulosa var. alpicola Rydb.; Achillea laxiflora Pollard & Cockerell; Achillea megacephala Raup; Achillea millefolium subsp. borealis (Bong.) Breitung; Achillea millefolium subsp. occidentalis (DC.) Hyl.; Achillea millefolium var. alpicola (Rydb.) Garrett; Achillea millefolium var. arenicola (A. Heller) Nobs; Achillea millefolium var. asplenifolia (Vent.) Farw.; Achillea millefolium var. borealis (Bong.) Farw.; Achillea millefolium var. californica (Pollard) Jeps.; Achillea millefolium var. gigantea (Pollard) Nobs; Achillea millefolium var. lanulosa (Nutt.) Piper; Achillea millefolium var. litoralis Ehrend. ex Nobs.; Achillea millefolium var. maritima Jeps.; Achillea millefolium var. megacephala B. Boivin; Achillea millefolium var. nigrescens E. Mey.; Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis DC.; Achillea millefolium var. pacifica (Rydb.) G.N. Jones; Achillea millefolium var. puberula (Rydb.) Nobs; Achillea nigrescens (E. Mey.) Rydb.; Achillea occidentalis (DC.) Raf. ex Rydb.; Achillea pecten-veneris Pollard; Achillea puberula Rydb.; Achillea rosea Desf.; Achillea subalpina Greene; Achillea sudetica Opitz; Chamaemelum millefolium (L.) E.H.L. Krause

Local Names Achillea grandiflora: Georgian: ჯორთკუდა (jortk’uda) Achillea micrantha: Georgian: ფარსმანდუკი (parsmanduk’i); Tushetian: მელაკუდა (melakuda) Achillea millefolium: Russian: Деревей (derebei); Azeri: боймадерен (doimaderei); Armenian: хазаратеревук (chazaraterevyk), Мелетник (Meletnik); Persian: Boodko (‫)ﺏﻭﺩﮎﻭ‬, Bum^adar^an, Bum^adar^an hez^ar barg (‫;)ﺏﻭﻡﺍﺩﺭﺍﻥ‬ Georgian: ფარსმანდუკი (parsmanduk’i), კრავისკუდა (k’ravisk’uda), მელაგუნდა (melagunda); Tushetian: მელაკუდა (Melik’uda.), წყლულის ბალახი (ts’q’lulis balakhi) English: Common yarrow; (Makashvili 1991; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Sokolov 1993) N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] A. Ghorbani Department of Organismal Biology, Evolutionary Biology Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] F. K. Nasab Department of Plant Sciences and Biotechnology, Faculty of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran e-mail: [email protected]

Achillea grandiflora M. Bieb. . . .

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Achillea nobilis: Georgian: ტილჭირი (t’ilch’iri), ფარსმანდუკი (parsmanduk’i); Tushetian: მელაკუდა (melik’uda) Achillea ptarmicifolia: Georgian: ველური ტარხუნა (veluri tarkhuna)

Botany and Ecology Achillea grandiflora: Perennial. Rhizome slender, with short underground branches; plants grayish, more or less tomentose; stems 2–3, less often solitary, 20–40(50) cm high, indistinctly angular, usually weakly flexuous, simple, less often weakly branched above, usually with short, densely leafy branches in axils of cauline leaves. Cauline leaves petiolate, linear or oblong, 3–5(10) cm long, often more or less falcate, with wide midrib, pinnately cut; segments usually complicate, often slightly distant in lower and middle cauline leaves, punctate-alveolate on both sides, ovate or oblong, somewhat decurrent, incised or divided in 3–5 ovate, obovate, oblong, rarely lanceolate lobes, entire or sometimes incised toothed, terminating in cartilaginous cusp, less often segments entire. Capitula in compound, dense, somewhat convex, corymbs. Receptacle conical, less often weakly convex. Involucre oblong or oblongovoid, 3–4(5) mm long, 2–3 mm in diameter; usually appressed hairy; involucral bracts yellowish-green; outer bracts ovate, others oblong, carinate, with narrow white membranous border; bracts lanceolate, much shorter than tubular florets, membranous, with narrow white margin, glabrous or glandular outside and with few appressed hairs in upper part. Ligules of outer florets yellow, small, 0.8–1.25 97 mm long, a fourth to a third as long as involucre, rotund-reniform, with 3 obtuse teeth. Achenes cuneate-oblong, apically truncate, finely rugose, 1.25–1.5 mm long. Flowering June–August; fruiting July–September (October). Caucasus, Ural, on sands, sandy soils, less often in steppe pastures and alkaline meadows, from forest-steppe to desert zones (Shishkin and Boborov 1961). Achillea micrantha: Perennial. Rhizome woody; whole plant more or less densely pubescent from slightly appressed hairs; stems less numerous, less often solitary, (25)40–70(120) cm high, erect, ribbed-sulcate, straight or weakly flexuous, simple, less often sparingly branched, densely leafy, very rarely with short branches in axils of cauline leaves. Leaves pubescent, with frequent punctate-alveolate glandular hairs on both sides, wide, oblong-lanceolate, pinnately parted, with decurrent oblonglanceolate, or oblong, crenulate, and obtusely toothed large segments; midrib of leaves serrate-dentate; leaves on nonflowering branches long petiolate, up to 40 cm long; lower cauline leaves petiolate, middle 8–18 cm long, with (0.5)1.5–2.0(3.0)cm-long middle segments, lower segments smaller, more remote; upper leaves sessile, smaller, uppermost about 1 cm long, filiform-linear, serrate-dentate, or entire. Capitula with few or many flowers, in dense, large (to 10 cm in diameter), compound, convex, unequal corymbs. Receptacle convex to oblong-cylindrical. Involucre oblong-obconical, often with elongate base, or oblong-cylindrical, 3–4 to 9–10 mm long and about 2 mm in diameter; involucral bracts deltoid-oblong, pubescent, pale; bracts oblong-lanceolate, much shorter than florets. All flowers tubular, or outer flowers short-ligulate, often irregular, with small (up to 1 mm long) three-lobed reniform-rotund, bright yellow ligules. Achenes oblong, 1.5–1.75 mm

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long. Flowering June–July (September). Caucasus, Middle Asia, on gravel beds in river valleys, on stony, clayey, clayey-sandy soils along irrigation channels, springs and streams, as well as in old fields and open dry mountain slopes, in glades, and along edges of mountain forests and shrub thickets. From foothill plains to upper part of the tree belts (Shishkin and Boborov 1961). Achillea millefolium L.: Perennial. Rhizome slender, creeping, branched; whole plant more or less covered with fine white hairs; stems few or solitary, usually weakly pubescent (finely floccose), (5)20–60(120) cm high, erect or ascending from base, erect, less often flexuous, simple or branched above, cylindrical, finely sulcate, with short leafy branches in axils of upper and middle cauline leaves. Leaves lanceolate, oblong-lanceolate, or almost linear, punctate-alveolate, twice or thrice pinnately cut, with numerous more or less remote segments (1.5–10 mm apart); lower cauline leaves and leaves of nonflowering branches 10–40 cm long, 0.8–5 cm wide, rachis 1–2 mm wide, leaves usually in upper part with solitary teeth between basal segments; lobes and teeth lanceolate, less often linear, 0.5–1.5 mm long, 0.3–0.4(0.5) mm wide, terminating in short cartilaginous cusp. Capitula in numerous, unequal, compound corymbs, 2–15 cm in dia. Involucre oblong to almost ovoid, 3–4(6) mm long, (2)3–4 (5) mm in dia; involucral bracts green, carinate, with prominent midrib, membranous along margin, often brownish; bracts ovate to oblong-elliptical, membranous, floccose above, with scattered hairs on dorsal surface. Ligules of outer florets white, pink, or red. (1)2–4 mm long, 1.5–3.0(4.5) mm wide, more or less rotund, 2–3-toothed at apex, limb a half as long as involucre; tubular florets up to 20, glandular-hairy on outside. Flowering July–October. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, on dry forest edges, clearings, in open forests, on dry meadows, slopes, railroad embankments, along roads, on the outskirts of fields (Shishkin and Boborov 1961; Figs. 1, 2, and 3). Achillea nobilis: Perennial. Rhizome short, many-headed; plants grayish-green, more or less densely lanate-flocculose, sometimes subglabrous; stems few, 3–6, less often up to 12, or solitary, (15)25–35(50) cm tall, erect or slightly ascending, usually sinuate, simple or branched near top, usually densely leafy, finely sulcate, weakly angular and more strongly pubescent below. Leaves ovate or oblongelliptical, twice pinnately cut, punctate-alveolate on both sides, somewhat antrorse, flat, (2)3–6 cm long, sessile, only lower cauline leaves and those on nonflowering branches petiolate; midrib of leaves narrow, with more or less frequent intermediate cuspidate lobes between middle part and apex (between main segments), lanceolate, deltoid or linear, entire or pinnatifid; leaf segments linear, up to 10–15 mm long, few, distant (especially in lower part of lower cauline leaves), divergent, pinnately cut into entire or often pinnatifid lobes, with small, 0.5–1.0(2.0) mm long, lanceolate or linear, acute lobes, terminating in cartilaginous cusp. Capitula in dense, convex, compound corymbs; receptacle more or less convex, often conical at fruiting. Involucre ovoid, less often oblong-ovoid, 2.0–3.0(3.5) mm long, 1.5–2.0(2.5) mm in diameter; involucral bracts pale, carinate, oblong, with narrow white or less often brown (var. marginata C. Koch) membranous margin; bracts membranous, lanceolate, white, transparent, slightly shorter than tubular florets. Ligules of outer florets white or yellowish-white, reniform-rotund, subelliptical or semicircular, truncate at apex, unequal three-toothed, (0.6)1.0–1.6(1.9) mm wide, 1/3–2/7 as long as

Achillea grandiflora M. Bieb. . . . Fig. 1 Achillea millefolium (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Achillea millefolium (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 3 Achillea millefolium (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

involucre. Achenes oblong, about 1 mm long. Flowering June–September. Ural, Caucasus, in steppe and forest-steppe zones on chernozems and saline soils, solonetzes, chalky and stony outcrops, in Stipa and Festuca steppes, steppe meadows, old fields, by roadsides, more rarely in thickets of shrubs, along forest edges and in glades, as well as in riverine meadows. In forest and desert zones as an introduced and weed plant, often on railway embankments and in vacant lots and squares in cities (Shishkin and Boborov 1961). Achillea ptarmicifolia: Perennial. Rhizome creeping, usually with few stems; stems 15–60 cm tall, leafy, branched inflorescence and with long nonflowering branches in leaf axils, glabrous below, in middle part sparsely and above rather densely pubescent with colorless, short, crisped hairs. Leaves green, linear, scattered pubescent beneath with colorless straight hairs; lower leaves 2.5–7.0 cm long, 1.5–4.0 mm wide, biserrate, withering before flowering; upper leaves and those of axillary branches 1–10 cm long, 1–5 mm wide, toothed. Inflorescence corymbose; capitula semiglobose, 4.5–7.0 mm long and 6.5–9.0 mm in diameter (excluding ligules). Involucral bracts imbricate, 3-seriate, broadly lanceolate, 2.3–4.0 mm long and 1.0–1.8 mm wide, with scattered not very long crisped colorless hairs, fimbriatetoothed along margin, yellowish-green in middle, with wide, membranous, light brown frill along margin. Receptacular scales like involucral bracts, reducing from periphery to center. Outer florets 8–12, pistillate, ligulate florets 5.2–10.0 mm long; ligules white, oval, 7–9 mm long and 2.5–3.7 mm wide, with 3 obtuse teeth at apex, disk florets 2.7–3.0 mm long, white, tubular, bisexual, 5-toothed; teeth acute. Achenes broadly oblanceolate, about 2.8 mm long and 1.6 mm wide. Flowering July–August. Caucasus, screes and rocks in subalpine and alpine zones (Shishkin and Boborov 1961; Figs. 4, 5, and 6).

Achillea grandiflora M. Bieb. . . .

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Fig. 4 Achillea ptarmicifolia (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Achillea ptarmicifolia (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 6 Achillea ptarmicifolia (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Carbohydrates (glucose, galactose, arabinose, inositol), organic acids (aconite, amber), essential oils (azulene, caryophyllene, eucalyptol, borneol, bornyl acetate, pinene, limonene, α-thujone, terpineol, aljojoen, cadinene, camphene, camphor, copaene, cuminaldehyde, cymol, eugenol, farnesene, furfural, gumulene, isoartemisia ketone, isobutyl acetate, limonene, menthol, myrcene, sabinene, α-terpinene, γ-terpinene, terpinol-4, terpinolene), sesquiterpenoids (acetoxyartabsin, acetylbalkanolide, achillicine, achilline, austricine, balkhanide, dihydroacetoxytamatcine, hydroxyachilline, leucodine, millefine, millepholide), alkaloids (betaine, choline, trigonelline, achilleine), cyanogenic compounds, steroids (sitosterol, sitosterol acetate), phenolic compounds, tannins, phenolcarbonic acids (salicylic, coffee), coumarins, flavonoids (apigenin, luteolin, cosmosine, artemethine, kasticine, isorhamnetin, vitexin, sertizine, orientin, quercetin, isovitexin, isoorientin, vicenin), fatty acids (myristic, palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic), coumarins, terpenoids (azulene, geraniol, citral, menton, carvone, α-thujone, achilline) (Sokolov 1993).

Local Medicinal Uses All species are widely used as wound-healing agent and included in a variety of official pharmacopoeia. In the Ural the leaves are chewed for toothache, and the plants are used as diuretic, antitumor, and wound-healing agent. In the Ural the decoction is used as hemostatic for internal bleeding and nosebleeds, as laxatives, and for gastric problems, hemorrhoids, gastritis, stomach ulcers, kidney and urinary

Achillea grandiflora M. Bieb. . . .

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diseases, skin diseases, and burns. In the Caucasus the leaves are used for rheumatism, bronchial asthma, heart disease, and kidney disease; as diuretic, hemostatic, and antipyretic as well as anthelmintic; and for anemia, diarrhea, and amenorrhea. In the Northern Caucasus, A. grandiflora is used for conjunctivitis and for diseases of the stomach. A leaf infusion is used in Middle Asia for diseases of the cardiovascular system, stomach problems, hemorrhoids, amenorrhea, metrorrhagia, and toothache and as galactogogue. Achillea millefolium is an old well-known hemostatic (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1993). Many medicinal uses have been reported for A. millefolium in Iran. It is used for menstruation problems and to stimulate menstruation, to stop bleeding, for wound healing, to relieve asthma and constipation, and as diuretic, anthelmintic, and carminative (Mozaffarian 2013). Infusion of aerial parts is used to treat the abdominal pains, diabetes, anemia, and child fever in Saravan region (Sadeghi et al. 2014). Decoction of flowers is used as antidiabetic in Urmia region (Bahmani et al. 2014). Other species of Achillea including A. eriophora DC. and A. wilhelmsii K. Koch are used for similar applications in the other parts of Iran (Mozaffarian 2008; Mosaddegh et al. 2012; Khajoei Nasab and Khosravi 2014; Sadat-Hosseini et al. 2017; Maleki and Akhani 2018) Achillea grandiflora: The leaves and the whole plant are used for wound care (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b, 2018). Achillea micrantha: The leaves and the whole plant are used for wound care (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b, 2018). Fig. 7 Achillea latiloba (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Achillea millefolium: The leaves are used as anti-inflammatory, cholagogic, diuretic, for kidneys, liver, sore throat, stomach, ulcers, and wounds (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b, 2018). The species is widely sold in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2017b). Achillea nobilis: The leaves and whole plant are being used for wounds. The root extract is used to treat rheumatism (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b, 2018).

Local Food Uses The extracts of all species are used to produce bitter liqueurs (Sokolov 1993). Achillea millefolium/Achillea latiloba: The whole plant is used as filling for Khachapuri. The flowers are used as tea (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b, 2018; Figs. 7 and 8).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses All species as fodder for cattle, sheep, horses, and camels. Planted as ornamental (Sokolov 1993). Achillea millefolium: The leaves yield a dye for wool and silk (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b, 2018).

Fig. 8 Achillea latiloba (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Achillea grandiflora M. Bieb. . . .

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References Bahmani M, Zargaran A, Rafieian-Kopaei M, Saki K. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used in the management of diabetes mellitus in the Urmia, Northwest Iran. Asian Pac J Trop Med. 2014;7:348–54. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, Beer, Snuff, Medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ehnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Khajoei Nasab F, Khosravi AR. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of Sirjan in Kerman Province, Iran. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;154:190–7. Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi, Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Maleki T, Akhani H. Ethnobotanical and ethnomedicinal studies in Baluchi tribes: a case study in Mt. Taftan, southeastern Iran. J Ethnopharmacol. 2018;217:163–77. Mosaddegh M, Naghibi F, Moazzeni H, Pirani A, Esmaeili S. Ethnobotanical survey of herbal remedies traditionally used in Kohghiluyeh va Boyer Ahmad province of Iran. J Ethnopharmacol. 2012;141:80–95. Mozaffarian V. Compositae: Anthemideae and Echinopeae. In: Assadi M, Maassoumi AA, Mozaffarian V, editors. Flora of Iran, vol. 59. Tehran: Research Institute of Forests and Rangeland; 2008. p. 90–94. (in Persian). Mozaffarian V. Identification of medicinal and aromatic plants of Iran. Tehran: Farhang-e Moaser Publication; 2013. Sadat-Hosseini M, Farajpour M, Boroomand N, Solaimani-Sardou F. Ethnopharmacological studies of indigenous medicinal plants in the south of Kerman, Iran. J Ethnopharmacol. 2017;199:194–204. Sadeghi Z, Kuhestani K, Abdollahi V, Mahmood A. Ethnopharmacological studies of indigenous medicinal plants of Saravan region, Baluchistan, Iran. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;153:111–8. Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, Volume 26: Compositae Giseke (altern. Asteraceae Dumort). Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1961 (English 1995). 1072 p. Sokolov PD, editors. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; family Asteraceae (Compositae). Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1993. p. 352. (in Russian).

Aethusa cynapium L. APIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Local Names Georgian: მარიამძმარა (mariamdzmara); Russian: кокорыш (kokorish); Armenian: шикарос (shikaros) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991; Sokolov 1988).

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; mananakhuts@yahoo. com; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_6

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Botany and Ecology Biennials or annuals; root thin, fusiform; stems usually single, 30–100 cm high, faintly ribbed, hollow, branching, like leaves glabrous; leaves bi- or tripinnate, dark green, very shiny beneath when fresh; leaflets triangular or ovate, deeply cut or parted; lower leaves on petioles, the upper sessile on dilated sheath. Umbels opposite leaves, long-peduncled; rays 12–18, unequal, scabrous above; involucre absent or of 1–2 leaflets; involucels asymmetrical, of 3 recurved leaflets with scarious base and margins, nearly twice as long (var. gigantea Lej.) or as long as pedicels (var. cynapioides (M.B.) Ficinus et Heynh.); petals white or slightly reddish, obcordate, cuneate at base, elongating in peripheral flowers; stylopodium flat-inflated; fruit 2–3 mm long, 2–2.5 mm wide, with arcuate canals toward commissure. Flowering June–October. Ural, Caucasus, weed, kitchen gardens, gardens, shrubs, felled areas, floodplain forests (Shishkin 1950).

Phytochemistry Alkaloids (Coniine) (Sokolov 1988).

Local Medicinal Uses The leaves are used to treat gum disease (Bussmann et al. 2016, 2017).

Local Food Uses The leaves are used as food (Bussmann et al. 2016).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Aethusa cynapium contains the poisonous alkaloid cynapine and causes poisoning in horses, cows, and pigs who usually avoid the plant because of its disagreeable odor (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1988). The leaves are used to dye wool yellow (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1988).

References Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia

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(Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ehnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plant and fungal use in Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2017;86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 16: Umbelliflorae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1950 (English 1973). 478 p., 37 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1988. 357 p. (in Russian).

Alnus barbata C.A. Mey. Alnus incana (L.) Moench. BETULACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Alnus barbata C.A. Mey.: Alnus glutinosa subsp. barbata (C.A. Mey.) Yalt. Alnus incana (L.) Moench.: Betula alnus var. incana L.

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; mananakhuts@yahoo. com; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_7

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Local Names Alnus barbata: Georgian, თხემლი (tkhemli), თხმელა (thkhmela), მურყანი (murq’ani), ნახო (nakho), რთხმელა (rtkhmela); Svan, ბელყაც (belqhats), თხემლა (tkhemla), თხმელა (tkhmela); Russian, Ольха (olha); Azeri, гызылагач (geiveilagatsh); Armenian, ластени (lasteni) (Fedorov 1984; Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991); English, Caucasian alder Alnus incana: Georgian, ნაცარა მურყანი (natsara murq’ani), რთხმელა (rtkhmela); English, gray alder

Botany and Ecology Trees with oval or obovate-oblong obtuse or acute doubly serrate leaves, with dense yellowish tomentose axillary tufts beneath, both surfaces densely clothed with short hairs; strobiles oblong, 16–20 mm long, 6–8 mm broad, usually as long as or slightly longer than their peduncles. Flowering in April. Caucasus, forms pure and mixed forests on marshy lowlands and along the banks of rivers and water bodies, climbing from valleys to 1500 m (Boborov and Komarov 1936) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3). Fig. 1 Alnus barbata (Betulaceae) Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Alnus barbata C.A. Mey. Fig. 2 Alnus barbata (Betulaceae) Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Alnus barbata (Betulaceae) Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Triterpenoids (tarakserol, glutinol, betuline), tannins (Fedorov 1984).

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Local Medicinal Uses In the Caucasus Alnus is used as diaphoretic, as astringent, for gastrointestinal problems, and for diarrhea (Fedorov 1984). Alnus barbata: The leaves are used for the treatment of wounds (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

Local Food Uses Alnus barbata: The leaves are used to make tea (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Alnus barbata: The fruits and leaves yield black, grayish-yellow, red, and yellow dyes for silk and wool. The leaves and bark are also used for tanning, and the branches for weaving baskets and fences. The wood is very rot resistant and used for constructions in wet areas, e.g., bridges. In early spring the trees produce a lot of pollen. The pollen mixed with sugar and honey can serve as a feed for bees (Fedorov 1984; Grossheim 1952). The wood is used for construction, especially for posts, as well as for firewood. The inner bark and leaves yield black and brown dyes. The wood is used to make utensils like tool handles and wine presses, and the fruits are applied in veterinary medicine (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017) (Figs. 4 and 5). Alnus incana: The wood is used in construction and as fuel (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017). Fig. 4 Alnus barbata (Betulaceae) young fruits, Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 5 Alnus barbata (Betulaceae) old fruits, Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

References Bobrov EG, Komarov VL. Flora of the USSR, Volume 5: Dicotyledoneae, Subclass I: Archichlamydeae, Order Piperales-Polygonales, Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1936 (English 1970). 593 p, 49 b/w plates. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer; 2017. XXVII, 746p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1). Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plant. 2016a;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016b;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – Plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Fedorov AA, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: Flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 1. Families Magnoliaceae – Limoniaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1984, 460 p. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Metsniereba: Tbilisi; 1991. (in Georgian).

Amaranthus hybridus L. Amaranthus palmeri S. Watson Amaranthus spinosus L. Amaranthus retroflexus L. Atriplex hortensis L. AMARANTHACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Amaranthus hybridus L.: Amaranthus caudatus L.; Amaranthus chlorostachys var. hybridus S. Watson; Amaranthus chlorostachys Willd.; Amaranthus cruentus L.; Amaranthus edulis Speg.; Amaranthus leucocarpus S. Watson; Amaranthus R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_8

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leucospermus S. Watson; Amaranthus mantegazzianus Pass.; Amaranthus hecticus Willd.; Amaranthus hybridus var. chlorostachys Beck; Amaranthus hybridus var. quitensis (Kunth) Covas; Amaranthus hypochondriacus L.; Amaranthus laetus Willd.; Amaranthus paniculatus L.; Amaranthus quitensis Kunth; Amaranthus retroflexus subsp. quitensis (Kunth) Bolós & Vigo; Amaranthus retroflexus var. chlorostachys A. Gray; Amaranthus sanguineus L.; Amaranthus speciosus L.; Amaranthus strictus Willd.; Galliaria hybrida (L.) Nieuwl. Amaranthus spinosus L.: Amaranthus caracasanus Kunth, Amaranthus diacanthus Raf., Galliaria spinosa (L.) Nieuwl. Atriplex hortensis L.: Atriplex nitens Schkuhr

Local Names Amaranthus hybridus: Georgian: წითელი ხალი (ts’iteli mkhali), წითელი ჯიჯლაყა (ts’iteli jijlaq’a) (ts’iteli ¼ red), წითელი ჯიჯლაყა (tsiteli jijlaq’a), თათრულა ფხალი (tatrula pkhali), წითელი ფხალი (ts’iteli pkhali), ჯიჯლაყა-ყვავილი (jijlaq’aq’vavili); Ossetian: ლერტაგიჭი (lertagich’I) Amaranthus palmeri: Georgian: ჯიჯილაყი (jijilaqhi) Amaranthus retroflexus: Georgian: ჩვეულებრივი ჯიჯლაყა (chveulebrivi jijlaq’a) (cveulebrivi ¼ common), ჭიჭლაყა (ch’ich’laq’a); ჯიჯლაყა (jijlaq’a), ჯიჯლაყა (jinjlaq’a), თეთრი მხალი (tetri mkhali), თვითმავალა (tvitmavala), მხალი-ბალახი (mkhali-balakhi), რუხვფერია (rukhvperia), წითელი ფხალი (ts’iteli pkhali), ლიხანა ფხალი (likhana pkhali), წოწნარა (ts’ots’nara), წოწნარა ფხალი (ts’ots’nara pkhali), წრიანტელი (ts’riant’eli), ჭიჭლაყა (ch’ich’laq’a; Laz: ხალე (khale); Russian: Щирица (shuriza); Armenian: гавакатар (gawakatar) (Fedorov 1984; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991) Amaranthus speciosus: Georgian: წითელი მხალი (ts’iteli pkhali); Tushetian, თათაბო (tatabo) Atriplex hortensis: Russian, Лебеда (lebeda); Azeri: сиркен (sirken); Armenian: мохрателук (mochrateluk); Georgian: წითელი მხალი (ts’iteli pkhali); Tushetian: ათაბო (tatabo) (Fedorov 1984; Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991).

Botany and Ecology Amaranthus cruentus/Amaranthus hybridus/Amaranthus palmeri: Annual, mostly pale green, sometimes reddish-tinged, 20–80 cm high; stem erect, simple or branched, grayish by dense short hairs, slightly angled; leaves rather large, ovate-rhombic, obtuse or slightly notched at apex, smooth above, shortly hairy beneath, on the margin, and on the petiole, this as long as or somewhat longer than the blade; flowers in glomerulus crowded in a green dense and very compact paniculate inflorescence, disposed mainly at the summit of the stem, branched in lower part, oblong-cylindric or ovoidpyramidal; bracts lanceolate, slenderly long-pointed, nearly twice as long as the perianth; five tepals, surpassing the fruit, in staminate flowers lanceolate, in pistillate

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Fig. 1 Amaranthus hybridus (Amaranthaceae) in a garden in Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

oblong-linear, spatulately enlarged toward apex, obtuse or retuse, mucronulate, whitish-membranous, the slender pale gray midrib mostly failing to reach the apex; five stamens; one-seeded capsule, circumscissile, shorter than perianth; seed 1 mm long, black or blackish-brown, very shining, sharp-margined. Flowering in June– August. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, in kitchen gardens, fallow areas, along roads and rivers, often in settlements in irrigated fields, from the lowland to the mid-mountain belt, up to 2200 m (Komarov and Shishkin 1936; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6). Amaranthus spinosus: Stipules turned into sharp spines. Atriplex hortensis: Annual, 60–150 cm high; stem erect, mostly branched; leaves, except the lowermost, alternate, petiolate, triangular, broadly hastate at base, entire or more rarely slightly toothed, mostly taper-tipped, green on both sides; flowers in spikes disposed in a leafless panicle; staminate 5-merous; pistillate of two sorts, some ebracteolate with a five-parted perianth and without bracteoles, others without perianth, others enclosed by a pair of sessile or very short-stipitate bracteoles, these rotund or rounded-oval, entire, free; seeds of the former horizontal, convex, black, lustrous, 1–2 mm in diameter, those of the latter vertical, flat, olivaceous-brown, dull, 3–4.5 mm in diameter. Flowering in July–September. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, on solonetz soils, rarely on solonchak, steppes, along banks of rivers, on slopes, in ravines, common in gardens and orchards (Komarov and Shishkin 1936; Figs. 7, 8, and 9).

Phytochemistry Amaranthus cruentus/Amaranthus hybridus/Amaranthus palmeri: alkaloids, betacyanins (amaranthantine, isoamaratine, betanin, isobethane), fatty acids (myristic, palmitic, stearin, linolenic) (Fedorov 1984).

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Fig. 2 Amaranthus hybridus (Amaranthaceae) in a garden in Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Amaranthus hybridus (Amaranthaceae) in a garden in Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Atriplex hortensis: saponins, phenolcarboxylic acids (ferulic), flavonoids (piferol, quercetin), betacyanins (betanin), phenylcarboxylic acids (vanillin, ferulic) (Fedorov 1984).

Amaranthus hybridus L. . . . Fig. 4 Amaranthus hybridus (Amaranthaceae) in a garden in Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Amaranthus sp. (Amaranthaceae) in a garden in Kartli, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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74 Fig. 6 Amaranthus hybridus var. paniculatus (Amaranthaceae) in a garden in Kakheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 7 Atriplex hortensis (Amaranthaceae) in a garden in Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 8 Atriplex hortensis (Amaranthaceae) in a garden in Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 9 Atriplex hortensis (Amaranthaceae) in a garden in Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses Amaranthus cruentus/Amaranthus hybridus/Amaranthus palmeri: The leaves are used in the Ural as diuretic and for dysentery. An infusion is used to treat colitis and intestinal colic, as a laxative for constipation, as hemostatic to treat hemoptysis and menstrual and hemorrhoid hemorrhages, as anti-protist and antibacterial, to treat guinea worm and jaundice, and to treat headaches (Fedorov 1984).

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Atriplex hortensis: In the Caucasus the leaves are used as diuretic and hemostatic (Fedorov 1984).

Local Food Uses Amaranthus cruentus/Amaranthus hybridus/Amaranthus palmeri: The young leaves are cooked as herb pie. Young stems are used as a source of vitamins. The seeds are eaten and contain fat, 8.9%; protein, 19%; and starch, 41% (Fedorov 1984; Grossheim 1952). Pshavi people pickle mekendzala მეკენძალა Aruncus vulgaris Raf., ghimi ღიმი Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., etc. Shup’q’a შუპყა Heracleum asperum M. Bieb., ts’iteli jijilaq’a წითელი ჯიჯილაყა Amaranthus hybridus L., and ghimi ღიმი Chaerophyllum bulbosum L. (Bakhtadze and Koghuashvili 2009) are used as food. In Tianeti District jijilaq’a ჯიჯილაყა Amaranthus hybridus L., tvitmavala თვითმავალა Amaranthus retroflexus L., and mch’ivana მჭივანა Silene wallichiana Klotzsch are used for mkhali (pkhali). Amaranthus cruentus: The leaves are used for Pkhali (herb pie) (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017). Amaranthus palmeri: The leaves are used for Pkhali (herb pie) (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017). Amaranthus hybridus: The leaves and shoots are used for Pkhali (herb pie) (Bussmann et al. 2014, 106a, b, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017). Atriplex hortensis: The young leaves are eaten as salad and cooked as herb pie. Leaves (esp. young) of A. hortensis and A. nitens are used as spinach and with sorrel for green soup; they are also eaten boiled with oil/butter (Fedorov 1984; Grossheim 1952). Atriplex hortensis: The leaves are used for Pkhali (herb pie) (Bussmann et al. 2014, 106a, b; 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017). Amaranthus retroflexus/Atriplex hortensis: In Khevi many species are mixed together for Pkhali: ghoris nats’q’la-i ღორის ნაწყლა-ი Sonchus ssp., mch’ivana-i მჭივანა-ი Silene wallichiana Klotzsch, maq’randutsa-i მაყრანდუცა-ი Anthriscus sylvestris (L.) Hoffm., maq’rats’ela მაყრაწელა-ი, diq’inch’ora-ghrich’ola დიყინჭორა-ღრინჭოლა/j’q’imi’ ჭყიმი Anthriscus nemorosa (M. Bieb.) Spreng, k’ats’a-i კაწა-ი Campanula rapunculoides L. (its root is also edible), ts’iteli pkhali წითელი/jijilaq’a წითელი ჯიჯილაყა Amaranthus hybridus L., nadirmkhalai ნადირმხალაი Aruncus vulgaris Raf., saskhep’iai სასხეპიაი Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., ch’inch’ari ჭინჭარი Urtica dioica L., gholo ღოლო Rumex ssp., tatami, თათამას Atriplex hortensis L. Khevi people use the following plants as food: shalgi შალგი Brassica campestris L., khakhot’i ხახოტი Bunias orientalis L., mamula მამულა Artemisia vulgaris L., ts’its’mat’ura წიწმატურა Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik., and khboshublai ხბოშუბლაი Galega orientalis Lam. (Bakhtadze and Koghuashvili 2009; Kavtaradze 1985; Sujashvili and Pitskhelauri 2005). People of Kazbegi mostly bake various herbs together: Ch’inch’ari ჭინჭარი Urtica dioica L., cha’ak’ari ჭაკარი (gholo ღოლო) Rumex ssp., tatami თათამა Atriplex hortensis L., and ts’vril mkhala წვრილ მხალა Stellaria media (L.) Vill. are

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cut, mixed with cheese and clarified butter, wrapped in a dough, and baked (Javakhishvili 1986). Mkhlovani მხლოვანი herb pie was originally widely baked. This type of pie was prepared from a several pkhali plants cut in thin pieces: kvishamkhalai ქვიშამხალაი Silene lacera Sims., khboshublai ხბოშუბლაი Galega orientalis Lam. (there is another species of this genus in the list), tatamai თათამაი Atriplex hortensis L., mch’vanai მჭივანაი Silene wallichiana Klotzsch, and ghoris nats’lavai ღორის ნაწლევი Sonchus spp. (Bakhtadze and Koghuashvili 2009; Kavtaradze 1985, Sujashvili and Pitskhelauri 2005). In Mtiuleti-Gudamakari boiled mkhali is mixed with clarified butter, then wrapped in a dough, and baked in a furnace or on ketsi კეცი (a clay plate-shaped pan for baking). Mkhali plants are ch’inch’ari ჭინჭარი Urtica dioica L., natsarkatama ნაცარქათამა Chenopodium album L., tik’niq’ura თიკნიყურა Myosotis sparsiflora J.C. Mikan ex Pohl, bolok’ai ბოლოკაი (reddish without bulbs) Rapistrum rugosum (L.) All., tskhenis sakhvremela ცხენის სახვრემელა Sonchus ssp., gholo ღოლოს Rumex ssp., gvirila გვირილა Pyrethrum ssp. (the “ramashka” “რამაშკა” flowers are discarded), tetra mkhalai თეთრაი მხალაის Amaranthus retroflexus L., and ts’itelai mkhalai წითელაი მხალაი Amaranthus hybridus L. (Javakhishvili 1986). In Pshavi plants used for mkhali (pkhali) are მხალეულად იყენებენ Amaranthus albus L., tetrmkhala თეთრმხალა Amaranthus retroflexus L., ts’itelmkhala წითელმხალა Amaranthus hybridus L., mek’endzela მეკენძელას Aruncus vulgaris Raf., khipkhlis q’iva ხიფხლის ყივა Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., shup’q’a შუპყა Heracleum asperum M. Bieb., k’enk’esha კენკეშას Campanula lactiflora M. Bieb., and khipkhola ხიფხოლა (q’int’ora ყინტორა) Chaerophyllum aureum L. (Bodzashvili 1988; Maghalashvili 1970; Makalatia 1933). In Khevsureti the local population uses a variety of plants growing in wild for cooking mixed mkhali, e.g., dzirkhvena ძირხვენა Arctium lappa L.; k’enk’esha კენკეშა Campanula lactiflora M. Bieb. young, peeled shoots are used as food; tvitmavala თვითმავალა Amaranthus retroflexsus L. grows in vegetable gardens and ruderal places; the aboveground parts of the plant are harvested; boiled; mixed with clarified butter, onions, and herbs; and eaten; ckhenis sakhvremi ცხენის სახვრემი Sonchus ssp., mochik’ais t’ari მოჩიკაის ტარი Campanula rapunculoides L., mch’ivana მჭივანა Silene wallichiana Klotzsch (Bakhtadze and Koghuashvili 2009; Chincharauli 2005). Plants used as mkhali Kaheti: tatruli mkhali თათრული მხალი Amaranthus hybridus L., ts’ots’nara mkhali წოწნარა მხალს Amaranthus retroflexus L., khach’ich’ora ხაჭიჭორა Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik., vazisdzira ვაზიძირა Lapsana grandiflora M. Bieb., bolok’a ბოლოკა Rapistrum rugosum (L.) All., q’int’ora ყინტორა Chaerophyllum aureum L., natsarkatama ნაცარქათამა Chenopodium album L., shalgi შალგი (shelga შელგა) Brassica campestris L., sve სვე Humulus lupulus L., khboshubla ხბოშუბლა Galega orientalis Lam. ნორჩ, ch’inch’ari ჭინჭარი Urtica dioica L., ghoris kada ღორის ქადა Lactuca serriola L., balba ბალბა Malva neglecta L., natsarkatama ნაცარქათამა or dzaghltzhola ძაღლთჟოლა Chenopodium foliosum, tatabo თათაბო Atriplex hortensis L., saghvidzla საღვიძლა or burbushela ბურბუშელა Taraxacum confusum Schischk., tskhenis tsertsvela ცხენის ცერცველა Vicia narborensis, vazis dzira ვაზის ძირა

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Lapsana grandiflora M. Bieb., mravaldzarghva მრავალძარღვა Plantago major L., babuats’vera ბაბუაწვერა Taraxacum ssp., gareuli ts’its’mat’i გარეული წიწმატი Cardamine hirsuta L., and ghinch’a-ghinch’a ღინჭა-ღინჭა Sonchus ssp. (Javakhishvili 1986; Menteshashvili 1943). In Kartli kalak’oda ქალაკოდა Arum orientale M. Bieb., shavmkhala შავმხალა Amaranthus retroflexus L., kharik’bila ხარიკბილა/khach’mach’ich’a ხაჭმაჭიჭა/ odelia-khali ოდელია-ხალი Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik., shalgi შალგი Brassica campestris L., ghrinch’ola ღრინჭოლა Anthriscus nemorosa (M. Bieb.) Spreng., kalak’oda ქალაკოდა Arum orientale M. Bieb., and ghoriskona-khali ღორისქონა-ხალი Sonchus ssp. are used for pkhali (Javakhishvili 1986). In spring people in Apkhazeti collected young shoots of jampezia (ჯამფეზია, Phytolacca americana L.) mixed with green sot’eia (სოტეია Amaranthus hybridus L.). It (was like a red pkhali) is then boiled, pressed, minced, and mixed with mats’oni, salt, chili pepper, and coriander (Ivelasvili 1991). In Apkhazeti natsarkatama ნაცარქათამა (Chenopodium album L.) and jijilaq’a (Amaranthus retroflexus L.) were boiled together, put to drain on a colander, after draining we pressed out the remaining water with our hands and put aside the pressed handfuls; seasoned with young t’q’emali, garlic, finely minced green onions and young coriander either ground through meat-grinding machine or finely minced together with garlic and chili pepper, added vinegar and salt to your taste (Javakhishvili 1986). In Svaneti natsarkatama ნაცარქათამა (Chenopodium album L.) and jijilaq’a ჯიჯილაყა (Amaranthus retroflexus L.) are boiled together; after boiling, water is pressed out well; and mats’oni, svan salt, minced green coriander, and green onion are added (Javakhishvili 1986). Racha people used wild plants as food from ancient times and made herb pie of ts’iteli pkhali წითელი ფხალი Amaranthus hybridus L., jijilaq’a ჯიჯილაყა Amaranthus retroflexus L., khbosshubla ხბოსშუბლა Galega orientalis Lam., and burt’q’ila ბურტყილა Lapsana grandiflora M. Bieb (Gobejishvili 2017). In Samegrelo ch’riant’eli ჭრიანტელი (Amaranthus spp.), babuats’vera ბაბუაწვერა (Taraxacum ssp.), jumena ჯუმენა Amaranthus hybridus L., natsarkatama ნაცარქათამა (Chenopodium spp.), ბალბა (Malva silvestris L.), ch’inch’ari ჭინჭარი (Urtica dioica L.), machit’a მაჩიტა (Campanula rapunculoides L.), ginishjonjgho გინიშჯღონჯღო Sonchus ssp., and mumlish k’vaji მუმლიშ კვაჯი Ficaria ssp. are often boiled together for Phkhali. Soft shoots of jumena ჯუმენა Amaranthus hybridus L., when cooled down after boiling, are pressed and seasoned with walnuts, garlic, pepper salt, and young t’q’emali or mats’oni (yoghurt) for taste (Javakhishvili 1986). Plants mixed together for pkhali in Adjara include dvarula dvalura დვარულა დვალურა Polygonum carneum C. Koch, dondoli დონდოლი Gadellia lactiflora (M. Bieb.), ch’inch’ari ჭინჭარი Urtica dioica L., katamnatsara ქათამნაცარა Chenopodium album L., ch’ich’laq’a ჭიჭლაყა Amaranthus retroflexus L., perapera ფერაფერა Phytolacca americana L., k’uk’umzhava კუკუმჟავა, svint’ri სვინტრი Polygonatum ssp., and ch’arbadelo ჭარბადელო Arctium lappa L. and also young leaves of motsvi მოცვი Vaccinium ssp., venakhi ვენახი Vitis vinifera L.,

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babuats’vera ბაბუასწვერა Taraxacum ssp., kajiloja ქაჯილოჯა Daucus carota L., ts’its’marit’a წიწმარიტა Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik., and burt’q’ila ბურტყილა Lapsana grandiflora M. Bieb.; the plants used by Adjara people as food are ajark’ela აჯარკელა Lathyrus roseus Steven, ajorik’a აჯორიკას Aruncus vulgaris Raf. (young leaves are pickled), bobots’vera ბობოწვერა Taraxacum ssp. (ground roasted dry roots used instead of Cichorium), dilq’a დილყა Heracleum sp. (shoots are peeled and eaten), k’onst’ant’ila კონსტანტილა (white roots are edible), ozaghina ოზაღინა Chaerophyllum aureum L. (young leaves are pickled), ghima ღიმა Chaerophyllum bulbosum L. (mixed with leek or ajorik’a აჯორიკა Aruncus vulgaris Raf. and pickled), and dvalura დვალურა Polygonum carneum (Baramidze 1987; Kakhidze 2007; Kokhreidze 1947; Nizharadze 1971). Wild pkhali plants can be cooked in various ways: can be pickled, boiled, and seasoned with vinegar, walnuts, and various spice herbs (Kokhreidze 1947). In Imereti the following plants are mixed together for cooking “meadow pkhali” “მინდვრის ფხალი”: natsarkatama ნაცარათამა Chenopodium album (a lot), jijilaq’a ჯიჯილაყა Amaranthus retroflexus L. (a lot), ts’its’marit’a წიწმარიტა or kharik’bila ხარიკბილა Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik (a lot), andzla ანძლა Cirsium incanum (S.G. Gmel.) Fisch. (a lot), katmikona ქათმიქონა Valerianella locusta (L.) Laterr. (a lot), dedaput’k’ara დედაფუტკარა Lamium album L. (a few), msukana მსუქანა Portulaca oleracea L. (a lot, makes pkhali slimy), birk’abalakhi ბირკაბალახი Xanthium spinosum L. (a few, early spring), zhunzhruk’o ჟუნჟრუკო Stellaria media (L.) Vill., mat’it’ela მატიტელა Polygonum aviculare L. (moderately), ხვართქლა Convolvulus arvensis L. (moderately), k’obchkhila კობჩხილა, bat’ispekhebi ბატისფეხები Falcaria vulgaris Bernh. (a few), ჭინჭარი Urtica dioica L. (a lot), ch’inch’ris deda ჭინჭრის დედა Lamium album (a few, adds bitterness), samq’ura სამყურა Trifolium ssp. (a few), ionja იონჯა Medicago ssp. (a few), tavshava თავშავა Origanum vulgare L. (a few), purtskhala ფურცხალა Sonchus ssp. (a few), young leaves of potato k’art’opili კარტოფილი (a few, slimy), ia ია Viola ssp. (a few, makes slimy and dangerous if used a lot, can be in a way intoxicating), babuats’vera ბაბუაწვერა Taraxacum ssp. (a few, adds bitterness), leaves of endro ენდრო Rubia tinctorum L. (a few), msukana მსუქანა Portulaca oleracea L., khbosshubla ხბოშუბლა Galega orientalis Lam., ia ია Viola sp. dedabrik’onk’a დედაბრიკონკა Lamium purpureum L. (a few), vardk’ach’ach’i ვარდკაჭაჭი Cichorium intybus L. (a few, makes bitter), gholo ღოლო Rumex (a few, makes the dish brown), q’aq’acho ყაყაჩო Papaver ssp. (a few), mzhauna მჟაუნა Rumex acetosa L. (a few, makes sour), balba ბალბა Malva sylvestris L., Malva neglecta Wallr. (a lot, makes slimy), and ch’lak’vi ჭლაკვი (Allium fistulosum). The herbs are only gathered in early spring and during summer and even autumn, until tomatoes, eggplants, spinach, and cucumbers can be harvested. By this time, the ingredients of pkhali (mostly weeds) loose softness, tenderness, and taste; they become rough already producing seeds and probably for this reason are not collected by late autumn. In early spring they taste very differently than in summer. While making pkhali, some finely minced kitchen herbs are added after boiling the main herbs: a little dill (კამა), a little tseretso dill (ცერეცო), a little p’rasa პრასა, coriander,

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parsley, celery, green onions, estragon, and mint. All these herbs are mixed with finely crushed walnuts; the boiled pkhali will be minced, desirably on a wooden gobi (wide shallow bowl with a flat bottom), and seasoned with herbs and walnuts and may be added with salt and pepper by your taste (Javakhishvili 1986). In Guria, wild plants used as food together include dzigura ძიგურა (ek’ala ეკალა) Smilax excelsa L., chit’istava ჩიტისთავა Ornithogalum woronowii Krasch., moloka მოლოქა Malva sylvestris L., mt’redis ok’nat’ua მტრედის ოკნატუა Ficaria ssp., wild ts’its’mat’i წიწმატი Cardamine hirsuta L., dedlis kona დედლის ქონა Ranunculus chius DC., and khokhbismk’erda ხოხბისმკერდა. To cook pkhali, people crush walnuts and mix it with vinegar (t’q’emali or pomegranate sauce), coriander, garlic, and salt and mix and season the pkhali with it. jijilaq’a ჯიჯილაყა Amaranthus retroflexus L. if young must be seasoned with mk’ukhi მკუხი (juice from crushed green grapes added as seasoning); if grapes are already mature, vinegar is used (Javakhishvili 1986). Other pkhali plants in Guria are jijilaq’a ჯიჯილაყა Amaranthus retroflexus L., svint’ri სვინტრი Polygonatum ssp., ch’q’ana ჭყანა Anthriscus cerefolium (L.) Hoffm., ch’andua ჭანდუა, ch’inch’ari ჭინჭარი Urtica dioica L., molokai მოლოქაი Malva sylvestris L., umbalo უმბალო Mentha pulegium L., dedlikonai დედლიქონაი Ranunculus chius DC., pshalai ფშალაი Humulus lupulus L., ek’ala ეკალა Smilax excelsa L., katanatsarai ქათანაცარაი Chenopodium album L., khvartklai ხვართქლაი Convolvulus arvensis, katmikonai ქათმიქონაი Valerianella locusta (L.) Laterr., danduri დანდური Portulaca oleracea L., dzrokhis-ena ძროხის-ენა Phyllitis scolopendrium (L.) Newman, k’at’a კატა, k’at’abarda კატაბარდას Clematis orientalis L., C. vitalba L., sukana სუქანა, tz’q’lis niakhura წყლის ნიახურა Ranunculus repens L., dedliskona დედლისქონა Ranunculus chius DC., ok’nat’ua ოკნატუა Ficaria ssp., tavshava თავშავა Origanum vulgare, asistava ასისთავა Genista ssp., ch’q’ima-mkhali ჭყიმა-მხალი Anthriscus nemorosa (M. Bieb.) Spreng., chit’is tava ჩიტის თავა Ornithogalum woronowii Krasch., jijilaq’a ჯიჯილაყა Amaranthus retroflexus L., ch’inch’ari ჭინჭარი Urtica dioica L., danduri დანდური Portulaca oleracea L., ek’ala ეკალა Smilax excelsa L., and jokhia ჯოხია Matteuccia struthiopteris (L.) Tod. (Gvaramadze 1997). Sometimes all these were mixed to cook pkhali; but only young shoots and leaves can be used. They are washed, boiled and minced, and seasoned with vinegar, salt, and pepper at your taste. Crushed walnuts or hazelnuts are added (Makalatia 1933). The leaves and shoots are used for Pkhali (herb pie) (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Amaranthus hybridus/Amaranthus palmeri: As fodder for pigs and to make brooms (Fig. 10). Amaranthus retroflexus: Used as ornamental (Bussmann et al. 2014, 106a, b, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017). Atriplex hortensis: Stems are used to produce blue dye (Grossheim 1952). As silage for cattle and other livestock.

Amaranthus hybridus L. . . .

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Fig. 10 Amaranthus hybridus (Amaranthaceae) broom in Telavi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

References Bakhtadze D, Koghuashvili P. Nutrition culture of the Georgians. Tbilisi: 2009. (ბახტაძე დ., კოღუაშვილი პ. 2009. ქართველთა კვების კულტურა. თბილისი, in Georgian.). Baramidze J. Adjarian dishes. Batumi: Sabchota Adjara; 1987. (ბარამიძე ჯ. 1987. აჭარული კერძები. ბათუმი: საბჭოთა აჭარა in Georgian.). Bodzashvili L. Pshavi and Pshavians. Tbilisi: Sabchota Sakartvelo; 1988. (ბოძაშვილი ლ. 1988. ფშავი და ფშაველები. თბილისი: გამომცემლობა საბჭოთა საქართველო in Georgian.). Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, Beer, Snuff, Medicine and loss of diversity – Ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ehnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – Plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33.

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Chincharauli A. Dictionary of Khevsurian dialect. Tbilisi: Kartuli ena; 2005. (ჭინჭარაული ა. 2005. ხევსურული ლექსიკონი. თბილისი: ქართული ენა in Georgian.). Fedorov AA, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: Flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 1. Families Magnoliaceae – Limoniaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1984. 460 p. (in Russian) Gobejishvili V. Racha from my view. Tbilisi; 2017. Gobejishvili V. 2017. (გობეჯიშვილი ვ. 2017. ჩემი თვალით დანახული რაჭა. თბილისი in Georgian.). Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow, Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Gvaramadze K. Results of the study of the Guria region. Tbilisi; 1997. (გვარამაძე კ. 1997. გურია მხარის კვლევა-ძიების შედეგები. თბილისი in Georgian.). Ivelasvili T. Folk cuisine in South Georgia. Tbilisi: Sadara; 1991. (იველაშვილი თ. 1991. ხალხური სამზარეულო სამხრეთ საქართველოში. თბილისი: სადარა in Georgian.) Davituliani M. My village Bareuli. Tbilisi; 2012. (დავითულიანი მ. 2012. ჩემი სოფელი ბარეული. თბილისი in Georgian.). Javakhishvili I. Materials for the history of household industry and handicraft, vol. V, part 2: Food and drinks. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1986. (ჯავახიშვილი, ი. 1986. მასალები შინა მრეწველობისა და ხელოსნობის ისტორიისათვის, ტ. V ნაწ. 2: საჭმელ in Georgian.) Kakhidze N. The oldest and old historical sources of Adjara – ethnographic data. Essays on history of south-western Georgia, Adjara 1. Tbilisi; 2007. (კახიძე ნ. 2007 აჭარის უძველესი და ძველი ისტორიის წყაროები ეთნოგრაფიული 1. მონაცემები. სამხრეთ-დასავლეთ საქართველოს ისტორიის ნარკვევები აჭარა თბილისი in Georgian.) Kavtaradze I. Mokhevian dialect of the Georgian language. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1985. (ქავთარაძე ი. 1985. ქართული ენის მოხევური დიალექტი. თბილისი: მეცნიერება in Georgian.). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971– 2011. (in Georgian). Kokhreidze V. Wild food plants of Adjara (mkhaleuli). Batumi: Adjaris sakhelgami; 1947. 8კოხრეიძე ვ. 1947. აჭარაში ველურად მოზარდი საკვები მცენარეები (მხალეული). ბათუმი: აჭარის სახელგამი in Georgian.). Komarov V L, Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 6: Centrospermae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1936(English 1970). 731 pages, 55 b/w plates, 2 maps. Maghalashvili T. Useful plants of Telavi district. Acad. S. Janashia State Museum of Georgia XXVI–XXVII. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1970. (8 მაღალაშვილი თ. 1970. თელავის რაიონის სასარგებლო მცენარეები . აკად . ს . ჯანაშიას სახელობის საქართველოს სახელმწიფო მუზეუმის მოამბე XXVI–XXVII – A. თბილისი : მეცნიერება in Georgian.). Makalatia S. Tusheti. Tbilisi: Sakhelgami; 1933. მაკალათია ს. 1933. თუშეთი. ტფილისი: სახელგამი in Georgian.). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian) Menteshashvili S. Dictionary of Kizikian dialect. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1943. (მენთეშაშვილი ს. 1943. ქიზიყური ლექსიკონი -თბილისი: მეცნიერება). Nizharadze Sh. Adjarian dialect of the Georgian language. Tbilisi: Batumi; 1971. (ნიჟარაძე შ. 1971. ქართული ენის აჭარული დიალექტი. ბათუმი in Georgian.). Sujashvili N, Pitskhelauri I. Dictionary of Mokhevian dialect. Tbilisi; 2005. (სუჯაშვილი ნ., ფიცხელაური ი. 2005. მოხევური ლექსიკონი. თბილისი).

Anchusa azurea Schur. BORAGINACEAE Seyed Hamed Moazzami Farida, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Anchusa azurea Schur.: Anchusa italica Retz.; Anchusa paniculata Aiton

Local Names Russian, Aнxузa итaльянcкaя (Ankhuza ital’yanskaya), Воловик (volovnik); Azeri, сюмюрген (cjumjurgen); Armenian, гаважинак (gavazhinak) (Grossheim 1952); English, Italian bugloss, large blue alkanet (Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991; Sokolov 1990). S. H. Moazzami Farida Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Bu-Ali Sina University, Hamedan, Iran e-mail: [email protected] A. Ghorbani Department of Organismal Biology, Evolutionary Biology Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_9

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Botany and Ecology Perennial; multicapital; stem thick, erect, 40–100 cm high, usually spreadingpaniculately branching, with long, coarse, spreading bristles; radical leaves 10–30 cm long, up to 5–6 cm wide, oblong-elliptic, gradually tapering at base, with sparse but long and very coarse bristles; cauline leaves oblong-lanceolate or lanceolate, median and upper leaves sessile, all acute and bristly. Inflorescence paniculate, partly leafy; cymes loose, few-flowered, very early straightening, only below with small bracts; pedicels distinct, bristly; thickening and elongating to 0.5–1 and even 1.5 cm in fruit; calyx in flower 7–10 mm long, subtubular, dissected to base into linear, acute, long-white-bristly lobes, becoming lanceolate and reaching 15 (18) mm in fruit; corolla rather large, sky-blue, tube slightly longer than calyx, the limb 10–15 mm across, nearly flat, with ovate-semiorbicular lobes; scales protruding, white, villous; style exserted from calyx after falling of corolla; nutlets large, ca. 7 mm long, trihedral-oblong, with abrupt ventral keel, rugose with large angular wrinkles on the inflated wall and sides, beakless, nearly obtuse, slightly tapering beneath under basal ring, brown. Flowering April–May. Middle Asia, fields, deserts, gardens, irrigation ditches, sometimes in crops in arid nonirrigated serozem or montane chestnut soils (Yuzepchuk and Shishkin 1953) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4). Fig. 1 Anchusa azurea (Boraginaceae), Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]

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Fig. 2 Anchusa azurea (Boraginaceae), Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Saponins, dyes (alkannin, anchusin), anchusa acid, resins, waxes, fatty acids (linolenic, stearidonic) (Sokolov 1990).

Local Medicinal Uses An infusion of the flowers is used to treat chest aches, neurasthenia, and asthma, as laxative and febrifuge, and for cough. Its poultice is used as hemostatic and to treat wounds. In Iraq, a decoction of the flowers is used as a sedative, analgesic, sudorific, and diuretic (Sokolov 1990).

Local Food Uses Young leaves are eaten as a vegetable (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1990).

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Fig. 3 Anchusa azurea (Boraginaceae), Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Anchusa azurea (Boraginaceae), Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Bees collect the nectar. The alkannins of the roots yield a beautiful red dye but have mostly been replaced by Rubia tinctoria. The flowers yield green dye (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1990). It is used as honey plant (Fayvush et al. 2017).

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References Fayvush G, Aleksanyan A, Bussmann RW. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus – Armenia. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer; 2017. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols., Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Metsniereba: Tbilisi; 1991. (in Georgian). Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: Flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 5. Families of Caprifoliaceae - Plantaginaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1990, 328 p. (in Russian). Yuzepchuk SV, Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 19: Tubiflorae, Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1953 (English 1974). 563 p, 40 b/w plates, 2 maps.

Anethum graveolens L. APIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Seyed Hamed Moazzami Farida, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Anethum graveolens L.: Anethum arvense Salisb.; Anethum graveolens subsp. sowa (Roxb. ex Fleming) N.F. Koren; Anethum graveolens var. anatolicum N.F. Koren; Anethum sowa Roxb. ex Fleming; Angelica graveolens (L.) Steud.; Ferula graveolens (L.) Spreng.; Ferula marathrophylla Walp.; Peucedanum anethum Baill.; Peucedanum graveolens (L.) Hiern.; Peucedanum sowa (Roxb. ex Fleming) Kurz; Selinum anethum Roth; Selinum graveolens (L.) Vest

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] S. H. Moazzami Farida Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Bu-Ali Sina University, Hamedan, Iran e-mail: [email protected] A. Ghorbani Department of Organismal Biology, Evolutionary Biology Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_10

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Local Names Russian, Укроп (ukrop); Azeri, шюют (shjujut), шивит (shivit); Armenian, самит (samit); Georgian, კამა (k’ama), ცერეცო (tseretso), (დიდი კამა (didi k’ama), რუსული კამა (rusuli k’ama) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991; Sokolov 1988); Farsi, (mitkham), (shabat), (shevet), (shevid), (toragh); English, Dill.

Botany and Ecology Annual; entire plant glabrous, dark green, with distally indistinct blue striae with pungent spicy odor; root thin, fusiform; stem 40–12 cm high, single, erect, branching or nearly simple, thinly furrowed, with alternate narrow whitish and green striae, branching above, curved between branches; leaves tri- or quadripinnate, ovate, lobules of last order linear-filiform or nearly setaceous; lower leaves with petioles expanding to oblong, 1.5–2-cm-long sheath with broad scarious margin; upper leaves with smaller and less dissected blade, sessile on sheath. Umbels to 15 cm across, of 30–50 smooth, nearly equal rays; involucre and involucels lacking; calyx teeth very short; petals yellow, tapering to flat, hardly notched involute lobule; stylopodium pale yellow, pulviniform; styles very short, nearly erect at flowering, becoming recurved in fruit, stigma claviform-capitate; fruit ovoid or broadly ellipsoid, dorsally compressed, 3–5 mm long, 1.5–3.5 mm wide; mericarps with three prominent, carinate, dorsal ribs, lateral ribs extended into thin, straw-colored margin; canals solitary in valleculae, two toward commissure; albumen semi-elliptic in cross section, nearly flat toward commissure. Flowering June–July. Ural, Caucasus, cultivated and escaped near dwellings, kitchen gardens, fields, and roads (Shishkin 1951) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Phytochemistry Essential oils (carvone) (Sokolov 1988)

N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]

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Fig. 1 Anethum graveolens (Apiaceae) in garden in Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses The seed and leaves of A. graveolens help to treat digestive problems such as gastritis and nausea (Ghorbani 2005; Sharififar et al. 2010; Mikaili et al. 2011; Dolatkhahi et al. 2012; Dolatkhahi and Nabipour 2013, 2014; Amiri et al. 2014) and respiratory system disorders such as dyspnea (Mikaili et al. 2011). Infusion of leaves is used against bloating and hiccup (Mahdavi Meimand and Mirtajadini 2010; Sharififar et al. 2010; Amiri et al. 2014; Moein et al. 2015). They also serve as

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Fig. 2 Anethum graveolens (Apiaceae) in garden in Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

carminative and digestive (Moein et al. 2015). The leaves and seeds are used as a diuretic and against hyperlipidemia (Amin 2005), and the leaves are eaten to relieve abdominal pain, back pain (Mikaili et al. 2011), and joint pain (Sharififar et al. 2010). It has a positive influence on the cardiovascular system (Dolatkhahi et al. 2012). It can cause abortion (Amiri et al. 2014). In Iranian traditional medicine, the leaves and seeds are used to treat amenorrhea (missed period), menstrual cramps,

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Fig. 3 Anethum graveolens (Apiaceae) in garden in Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

dysmenorrheal problems, and impotence (Mikaili et al. 2011; Dolatkhahi and Nabipour 2013; Khajoei Nasab and Khosravi 2014), to reduce blood sugar (Sharififar et al. 2010), and to increase lactation in nursing mothers (Mahdavi Meimand and Mirtajadini 2010; Dolatkhahi and Nabipour 2013; Amiri et al. 2014). The leaves are also used to cure genitourinary system problems, for example, bladder inflammation and nephritis (kidney inflammation) (Mikaili et al. 2011).

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Fig. 4 Anethum graveolens (Apiaceae) in garden in Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

The leaves and shoots are used for digestive system disorders (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017). Similar uses are, e.g., recorded in India (Raj et al. 2018), and Anethum is known for its antibacterial properties (Malik et al. 2018).

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Fig. 5 Anethum graveolens (Apiaceae) in market in Telavi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Food Uses The young shoots are used as vegetables, often as a seasoning for food and pickles. The seeds are used as flavoring agent for liquor and as spice. Used as spice for meals but also for canning and liquor (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1988). A. graveolens leaves are eaten fresh and dry as vegetable, and the leaves can be used as a condiment (Hooper et al. 1937; Mozaffarian 2013). The seeds and leaves are an important ingredient of Svanetian salt (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017). Anethum is known for its vitamin C content and used as food in Nepal (Kunwar et al. 2010) (Figs. 5 and 6).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The seed oil is used in soaps (Sokolov 1988).

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Fig. 6 Anethum graveolens (Apiaceae) leaves ready to eat, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

References Amin G. The most common medicinal plants in Iran. Tehran: Medical Ethics and History of Medicine Research Center; 2005. Amiri MS, Joharchi MR, TaghavizadehYazdi ME. Ethno-medicinal plants used to cure jaundice by traditional healers of Mashhad, Iran. Iran J Pharm Res. 2014;13(1):157. Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Chenopodium album L., Chenopodium foliosum L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing XXVII; 2017, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1.

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Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, Beer, Snuff, Medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ehnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plant and fungal use in Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2017a;86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Dolatkhahi M, Nabipour I. Systematically study of medicinal plants in Bushehr province, Southern Iran. J Herb Drug (Int J Med Herbs). 2013;3(4):209–22. Dolatkhahi M, Nabipour I. Ethnobotany evaluation of medicinal plants in Catchment area of Northeastern Persian Gulf. J Med Plants. 2014;2(50):129–53. Dolatkhahi M, Ghorbani Nahouji M, Mehrafarin A, Amininejad G, Dolatkhahi A. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants from Kazerun: identification, distribution and traditional uses. J Med Plants. 2012;2(42):163–78. Ghorbani A. Studies on pharmaceutical ethnobotany in the region of Turkmen Sahra, north of Iran: (part 1): general results. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102(1):58–68. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Hooper D, Field H, Dahlgren BE. Useful plants and drugs of Iran and Iraq. Chicago: Field Museum of Natural History; 1937. Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Khajoei Nasab F, Khosravi AR. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of Sirjan in Kerman Province, Iran. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;154(1):190–7. Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Bussmann RW. Traditional herbal medicine in Far-west Nepal: a pharmacological appraisal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:35. Mahdavi Meimand Z, Mirtajadini M. Collection and identification of some plant species in Kerman province for the herbarium of medicinal plants Faculty of Pharmacy (stage 1). J Herb Drug. 2010;2:1–24. Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Malik K, Ahmad M, Bussmann RW, Ahmad M, Zafar M, Tariq A, Alqahtani A, Shahat A, Ullah R, Rashid N, Zafar M, Sultana S, Nasar Shah S. Ethnobotany of hypertensive plants used in Northern areas of Pakistan. Front Pharmacol. 2018;9(789). https://doi.org/10.3389/ fphar.2018.00789. Mikaili P, Shayegh J, Asghari MH, Sarahroodi S, Sharifi M. Currently used traditional phytomedicines with hot nature in Iran. Ann Biol Res. 2011;2(5):56–68. Moein M, Zarshenas MM, Khademian S, Razavi AD. Ethnopharmacological review of plants traditionally used in Darab (south of Iran). Trends Pharm Sci. 2015;1(1):39–43.

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Mozaffarian V. Identification of medicinal and aromatic plants of Iran. Tehran: Farhang Moaser; 2013. Raj AJ, Biswakarma B, Pala NA, Shukla G, Vineeta V, Kumar M, Chakravarty S, Bussmann RW. Indigenous uses of ethno-medicinal plants among forest dependent communities of Northern Bengal, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14(1):8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002018-0208-9. Sharififar F, Kouhpaieh A, Mottaghi MM, Amir Khosravi A, Pourmohseni Nasab E. Ethnobotanic study of medicinal plants in Sirjan, Kerman province. J Herb Drug. 2010;3:19–28. Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 17: Umbelliflorae (continued) Peucedaneae-Dauceae & Nyssaceae, Cornaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1951 (English 1974). 285 pages, 25 plates with b/w line drawings; 2 b/w fold-out maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1988, 357 p. (in Russian).

Angelica adzharica Pimenov Angelica tatianae Bordz. APIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Angelica tatianae Bordz.: Xanthogalum tatianae Schischk.

Local Names Georgian: ანგელოზა (angeloza); Russian: Дудник (dudnik); Armenian: кех (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991; Sokolov 1988). R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_11

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Botany and Ecology Perennials; stem 100–120 cm tall, with whorled branches above, hollow, to 1 cm wide, glabrous, scabrous-hairy only under umbels; radical leaves on thick short cylindrical petioles, shorter than broadly triangular, ternately pinnate, ca. 30 cm long and almost equally wide blade; primary lobes broadly ovate, 20–25 cm long, 10–15 cm wide, deeply pinnatifid into ovate acute lobules 6–8 cm long, 3–5 cm wide, short-haired beneath and along margins, unequally acutely toothed, slightly scabrous along nerves above, cauline leaves sessile on strongly inflated sheath hairy outside along nerves; blade ternately parted with pinnate lobes of the second order, terminal lobes oblong-lanceolate, acuminate, 10–12 cm long, 2–3.5 cm wide; reduced in upper leaves. Umbels 10–15 cm across, of 25–35 unequal rays, scabrous above, spreading at flowering, more or less crowded in fruit; involucre absent; umbellets 10–15 mm across; involucels of 3–5 subulate or filiform, caducous leaflets; petals yellowish-greenish, acute or slightly notched, ca. 1 mm long; stylopodium shortconical, with undulant-notched edge; styles reflexed, slightly longer than stylopodium; fruit (young) broadly ovoid, 6 mm long, 5 mm wide; dorsal ribs narrowly, marginal broadly winged. Flowering July, fruiting August. Caucasus, in tall-grass meadows, Betula forests (Shishkin 1951) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).

Phytochemistry Carbohydrates (umbelliferosis), essential oils (a-thuyen, a-pinene, camphene, p-cymol, cineole, y-terpinene, 3-thujone, camphor, 3-phellandrene, a-fellandren, borneol, 3-fellandren, 3-carene, limonene, cis-ozymene, p-cymene, 3-pinene, sabinene,

Fig. 1 Angelica adjarica (Apiaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

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Fig. 2 Angelica adjarica (Apiaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Fig. 3 Angelica adjarica (Apiaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

terpinolene, y-terpinene, a-fenghon, trans-ocimene, cis-alloocymene, trans-alloocymen, santen, carvacrol, pentadecanolide, linalool, bisabolene, bizabolol, 3-caryophyllene, 3-terpineol, 2-nitro-p-mentadien, cis-6-nitro-p-mentadien), organic acids (malic, angelic, acetic, wine, aconite, lemon, oxalate), terpenoids, steroids (sitosterol, arachinate-asitosterine), phenylcarboxylic acids (coffee, chlorogenic, protocatechal), coumarins (umbellipeline, ostenol, xanthatexol, xanthatexine, emperorin, oxypexeden, angelicine,

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Fig. 4 Angelica adjarica (Apiaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

archangeline, oroscelon, umbelliferon, archicine), flavonoids (quercetine), macrocyclic lactones (exaltolide, canolide, heptadecanolide, decanolide), fatty acids (behenic, palmitic, lauric, tridecanoic, myristic, pentadecanoic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, linolenic acids), vitamins (C), (angelitsin, emperorin, isopimpinellin, xanthotoxine, oxypeucedanin) (Sokolov 1988).

Local Medicinal Uses Angelica is included in a variety of official herbal pharmacopoeia. In the Ural the roots are used as diuretic and expectorant for bronchitis, neurasthenia, insomnia, gastritis, and ascites and as tincture for rheumatism, gout, sciatica, as well as otitis and toothache (Sokolov 1988).

Local Food Uses The young shoots are eaten raw and pickled. The seeds are used as spice. In Northern Armenia it is highly valued as an edible plant. The leaf petioles with spicy bitter taste are eaten raw, rarely salted (Jaroshenko) and probably also have medicinal properties (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1988). In Khevsureti dutsi დუცი (Angelica tatianae Bordz.) petioles are peeled and used as food. In Tusheti many herbaceous plants are used as food and are kept for winter, either dried or pickled, to make mixed mkhali and sauces and to accompany the main

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Fig. 5 Angelica archangelica (Apiaceae), Abisko, Sweden. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

dishes, including kumeli ქუმელი q’va ყვა. It is used all-year round and is made of roasted keri ქერი (barley) grains. Can be made of ipkli იფქლი (Georgian endemic wheat), corn, svili სვილი (rye), kersvili ქერსვილი (mixture of barley and rye) and tertsvi ცერცვი (faba bean), when mixed with corn: giera-i გიერა-ი Brassica campestris subsp. oleifera (DC.) Schübl. & Mart., gomat’i გომატი Bunias orientalis L., dutsi დუცი Angelica tatianae Bordz., kharnuq’a-i ხარნუყა-ი Lactuca serriola L., buera ბუერა Petasites ssp., shubq’a-i შუბყა-ი Heracleum asperum M. Bieb., khap’ara-i ხაპარა-ი Cichorium intybus L., mariamdzmara მარიამძმარა Ligusticum alatum (M. Bieb.) Spreng. ch’imi ჭიმი Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., diq’i დიყი Heracleum ssp., jortk’uda-i ჯორთკუდა-ი Artemisia vulgaris L., sagvidzla საღვიძლა Taraxacum officinale (L.) Weber ex F.H. Wigg., dzirkhvena ძირხვენა Arctium lappa

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L., ch’ivana ჭივანა Silene wallichiana Klotzsch, kvishamkhala ქვიშამხალა Silene laera (Stev.) Sims, khavrat’ai ხავრატაი Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik., jorik’udai ჯორიკუდაი Artemisia vulgaris L., and giera გიერა Sinapis arvensis L. (Makalatia 1933). There are several ways to season mkhali in Tusheti: (1) Wellcleaned plants are placed in a pot and cooked without water. The cooked plants are placed on a sieve to cool and cut into pieces. After that the dish is seasoned with onions and browned in clarified butter, eggs, and salt. (2) After cooking the plants in the same way, fresh cottage cheese, onions browned in clarified butter, eggs, and salt are added. (3) After boiling the mkhali is seasoned with vinegar, garlic, and salt. Normally, in Tusheti mkhali is not seasoned with walnuts and vinegar (Makalatia 1933). Chave ჩავე is made in Tusheti using saghvidzlia საღვიძლია or sajaraq’i საჯარაყი Taraxacum officinale (L.) Weber ex F.H. Wigg., gomat’i გომატი Bunias orientalis L., dutsi დუცი Angelica tatianae Bordz., kharnuq’a ხარნუყა Lactuca serriola L. (another name is mts’aria მწარია because it is bitter; “mts’are” means “bitter” in Georgian), and buera ბუერა Petasites ssp., p’it’na პიტნა Mentha ssp., gholo ღოლო Rumex ssp., sasuka სასუქა Seseli transcaucasicum Pimenov & Sdobnina, vashlisula ვაშლისულა Primula woronowii Losinsk., boiled together, with added milk, sach’irai საჭარაი (sheep internal fat), and flour thinned with milk or water, as well as salt and garlic. In Tusheti ch’imi ჭიმი Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., giera გიერა Brassica campestris subsp. oleifera (DC.) Schübl. & Mart., machigt’ara მაჩიგტარა Campanula rapunculoides L., khap’ara ხაპარა ვარდკაჭაჭა Cichorium intybus L., diq’i დიყი Heracleum ssp., shup’q’a შუპყა Heracleum asperum M. Bieb., ap’q’i აპყი Heracleum leskovii Grossh., dutsi დუცი Angelica tatianae Bordz., giera გიერა Sinapis arvensis L., jortk’uda ჯორთკუდა (wild estragon) Artemisia vulgaris L., mariamdzmara მარიამძმარა Ligusticum alatum (M.Bieb.) Spreng., and kharnuq’a ხარნუყა Lactuca serriola L. are eaten raw and also dipped in sour milk. These herbaceous plants for dipping (sats’ebaci, sats’ebi “chatseba” means “dip” in Georgian) are harvested, and a bowl with curd “shegdebul ze” “შეგდებულზე” is filled; then leaves and young shoots from the mentioned herbaceous plants are plucked, dipped in the curd, and eaten (Sokolov 1988).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The essential oils are used for perfumes (Sokolov 1988). The young stems are eaten as pickle (Bussmann et al. 2016, 2017). Angelica glauca is used in Nepal for the treatment of asthma, cough and colds (Kunwar et al. 2015, 2016), edema, and gastric problems and as anthelminthic (Thakur et al. 2014). The roots of Angelica archangelica are used for gastric problems (Kunwar and Bussmann 2009; Kunwar et al. 2009, 2013, 2018a, b) and as anthelminthic and for stomachache (Kunwar et al. 2010).

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References Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ehnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plant and fungal use in Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2017;86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Medicinal, Aromatic and Dye Plants of Baitadi and Darchula Districts, Nepal Himalaya: status, uses and management. In: Hartmann M, Weipert J, editors. Biodiversität, Naturausstattung im Himalaya, vol. III. Erfurt: Verein der Freunde und Förderer des Naturkundemuseums; 2009. p. 475–89. Kunwar RM, Upreti Y, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Indigenous use and ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in Far-west Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009;7:5–28. Kunwar RM, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants in Farwest Nepal: their indigenous uses and pharmacological validity. Med Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010;4 (special issue 1):28–42. Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Acharya RP, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants, traditional medicine, markets and management in far-west Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:24. Kunwar RM, Acharya RP, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plant dynamics in indigenous medicines in Farwest Nepal. J Ethnopharnacol. 2015;163:210–9. Kunwar RM, Baral K, Paudel P, Acharya RP, Thapa-Magar KB, Cameron M, Bussmann RW. Landuse and socioeconomic change, medicinal plant selection and biodiversity resilience in far western Nepal. PLoS One. 2016; https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0167812. Kunwar RM, Fadiman M, Cameron M, Bussmann RW, Thapa-Magar KB, Rimal B, Sapkota P. Cross-cultural comparison of plant use knowledge in Baitadi and Darchula Districts, Nepal Himalaya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018a;14:40. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-018-0242-7. Kunwar RM, Evans A, Mainali J, Ansari AS, Rimal B, Bussmann RW. Change in forest and vegetation cover influencing distribution and uses of plants in the Kailash Sacred Landscape, Nepal. Environ Dev Sustain. 2018b; https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-018-0254-4. Makalatia S. Tusheti. Tbilisi: Sakhelgami; 1933. (მაკალათია ს. 1933. თუშეთი. ტფილისი: სახელგამი in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 17: Umbelliflorae (continued) Peucedaneae-Dauceae & Nyassaceae, Cornaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1951 (English 1974). 285 pages, 25 plates with b/w line drawings; 2 b/w fold-out maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1988, 357 p. (in Russian). Thakur KS, Kumar M, Bawa R, Bussmann RW. Ethnobotanical study of herbaceous flora along an altitudinal gradient in Bharmour Forest Division, District Chamba of Himachal Pradesh, India. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2014; https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/946870.

Anthriscus cerefolium (L.) Hoffm. Anthriscus sylvestris (L.) Hoffm. APIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Anthriscus cerefolium (L.) Hoffm.: Anthriscus longirostris Bertol. Anthriscus sylvestris (L.) Hoffm.: Anthriscus aemula Schischk.; Anthriscus nemorosa (M. Bieb.) Spreng.; Anthriscus sylvestris subsp. aemula Kitag.

Local Names Anthriscus cerefolium: Georgian: ჭყიმა-ფხალი (ch’q’ima-pkhali) Anthriscus sylvestris: Georgian: მათუთი (matuti); ჭყიმი (ch’q’imi), მაწარა (matsara); ღიმის დედა (g’imis deda); Svan: ლიმი (limi); Russian: Бутень

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; mananakhuts@yahoo. com; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_12

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(buten); Armenian: хидатерев (khidaterev), (mandag); (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991; Sokolov 1988).

Botany and Ecology Perennials; root 1–5 cm thick, hollow; stem solitary, 50–120 cm tall, 1–1.5 cm thick, hollow, ribbed, covered below with numerous scattered white stiff hairs, glabrous above, branching; radical leaves on long hairy petioles much longer than blades, these triangular, 13–25 cm long, 15–30 mm wide, tripinnate; terminal lobe on long hairy petiole, the lateral lobes on shorter petioles, their blades twice pinnatipartite; secondary lobes ovate, 2–3 cm long, 1.5–2 cm wide, the lower on short petioles, the upper sessile, slightly decurrent, pinnatipartite, nerves with sparse stiff hairs beneath; upper leaves sessile, the slightly inflated sheath covered with long hairs. Umbels 3–8 cm across, of 811 thin glabrous rays; umbellets with glabrous pedicels; involucels of five light green ovate acuminate reflexed leaflets with ciliate margins; marginal petals ca. 3.5 mm long; fertile flowers 2–4 per umbellet; fruit cylindricaloblong, 7 mm long, 2–3 mm wide, shiny, tapering to short beak, glabrous or covered with short antrorse bristles sessile on very small tubercles, crown at base of fruit with white bristles; stylopodium conical; styles erect at first, becoming recurved below, much longer than stylopodium. Flowering May–July. Ural, Caucasus, in forests, on floodplains and subalpine meadows, in thickets, and often as weed on hayfields and pastures, to 3200 m (Shishkin 1950; Figs. 1 and 2).

Phytochemistry Carbohydrates (umbelliferosis), essential oils (eugenol, 3-myrcen, limonen, y-terpinene, p-cymol, linalool, 3-farnesene), polyacetylene compounds, coumarins (apterine), terpenoids (13-myrcen, limonene, p-cymene, u-terpinene, terpinolene, aphene), sesquiterpenes, steroids (stigmasterol, sterol, campesterine, stigmasterolD-glucoside), vitamins (C, carotene), phenols phenol carboxylic acids (coffee), lignans (anthricine, isoantricine, butyrolactone, savinine, nemorosine), coumarins (apterine), flavonoids (luteolin, hierophylline), anthocyanins (cyanidin), phenolcarboxylic acids, fatty acids (stearic, petroseline, oleic, linoleic, petrozelidine) (Sokolov 1988). N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]

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Fig. 1 Anthriscus sylvestris (Apiaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Anthriscus sylvestris (Apiaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses Traditionally the leaves are used as poultice for burns and abscesses. The seeds help to treat problems of the gastrointestinal tract, female diseases, tuberculosis, scrofulosis, and eczema and are used as anticonvulsant (Sokolov 1988).

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Local Food Uses Anthriscus cerefolium: Leaves and shoots are used for Pkhali (herb pie) (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017a, b, c; Bussmann et al. 2016, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017). Anthriscus sylvestris: The leaves and young shoots are eaten in salads, the stems pickled. Boiled roots are eaten (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1988). In Khevi many species are mixed together for Pkhali: ghoris nats’q’la-i ღორის ნაწყლა-ი Sonchus ssp., mch’ivana-i მჭივანა-ი – Silene wallichiana Klotzsch; maq’randutsa-i მაყრანდუცა-ი Anthriscus sylvestris (L.) Hoffm. maq’rats’ela მაყრაწელა-ი; diq’inch’ora-ghrich’ola დიყინჭორა-ღრინჭოლა / j’q’imi’ჭყიმი Anthriscus nemorosa (M. Bieb.) Spreng; k’ats’a-i კაწა-ი Campanula rapunculoides L. (its root is also edible), ts’iteli pkhali წითელი / jijilaq’a წითელი ჯიჯილაყა Amaranthus hybridus L., nadirmkhalai ნადირმხალაი Aruncus vulgaris Raf., saskhep’iai სასხეპიაი Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., ch’inch’ari ჭინჭარი Urtica dioica L., gholo ღოლო Rumex ssp., tatami თათამას Atriplex hortensis L., Khevi people use as food the following plants: shalgi შალგი Brassica campestris L., khakhot’i ხახოტი Bunias orientalis L., mamula მამულა Artemisia vulgaris L., ts’its’mat’ura წიწმატურა Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik., khboshublai ხბოშუბლაი Galega orientalis Lam. (Bakhtadze and Koghuashvili 2009; Kavtaradze 1985; Sujashvili and Pitskhelauri 2005). In Mtiuleti, raw-eaten plants are vardutsa ვარდუცა, alkvasha ალქვაშა Campanula latifolia L., k’ank’esha კანკეშა Gadellia lactiflora (M.Bieb.) Schulkina, dutsi დუცი Agasyllis latifolia Boiss, mzhavana მჟავანა Rumex acetosa L., pkholis taxa ფხოლის თავა Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., diq’i დიყი Heracleum ssp., t’q’is niori ტყის ნიორი Galanthus ssp., ღოლო gholo Rumex ssp., maq’valdzirgha მაყვალღირძა Anthriscus sylvestris (L.) Hoffm., dzirkhvena ძირხვენა, machik’a მაჩიკას Campanula rapunculoides L., mits’is vashli მიწის ვაშლს Helianthus tuberosus L. (Makalatia 1930). In Pshavi young peeled shoots and leaves of maq’alordza მაყალორძა Anthriscus nemorosa (M. Bieb.) Spreng. are eaten, while the flowers are still in buda (Maghalashvili 1970). Other Pkhali plants in Guria are jijilaq’a ჯიჯილაყა Amaranthus retroflexus L., svint’ri სვინტრი Polygonatum ssp., ch’q’ana ჭყანა Anthriscus cerefolium (L.) Hoffm., ch’andua ჭანდუა, ch’inch’ari ჭინჭარი Urtica dioica L., molokai მოლოქაი Malva sylvestris L., umbalo უმბალო Mentha pulegium L., dedlikonai დედლიქონაი Ranunculus chius DC., pshalai ფშალაი Humulus lupulus L., ek’ala ეკალა Smilax excelsa L., katanatsarai ქათანაცარაი Chenopodium album L., khvartklai ხვართქლაი Convolvulus arvensis, katmikonai ქათმიქონაი Valerianella locusta (L.) Laterr., danduri დანდური Portulaca oleracea L., dzrokhis-ena ძროხის-ენა Phyllitis scolopendrium (L.) Newman, k’at’a კატა, k’at’abarda კატაბარდას Clematis orientalis L., C. vitalba L., sukana სუქანა, tz’q’lis niakhura წყლის ნიახურა Ranunculus repens L., dedliskona დედლისქონა Ranunculus chius DC., ok’nat’ua ოკნატუა Ficaria ssp., tavshava თავშავა Origanum vulgare, asistava ასისთავა Genista ssp., ch’q’ima-mkhali ჭყიმა-მხალი Anthriscus nemorosa (M.Bieb.) Spreng., chit’is tava ჩიტის თავა Ornithogalum woronowii Krasch., jijilaq’a ჯიჯილაყა Amaranthus

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retroflexus L., ch’inch’ari ჭინჭარი Urtica dioica L., danduri დანდური Portulaca oleracea L., ek’ala ეკალა Smilax excelsa L., jokhia ჯოხია Matteuccia struthiopteris (L.) Tod. (Tedoradze 1930). Sometimes all these were mixed to cook Pkhali; but only young shoots and leaves can be used. They are washed, boiled, and minced and seasoned with vinegar, salt, and pepper at your taste. Crushed walnuts or hazelnuts are added. Leaves and shoots are used for Pkhali (herb pie). The young stems and shoots are pickled. However, the plant is regarded as slightly toxic and used with a large number of other species to reduce toxicity (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017a, b, c; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses A. silvestris gives essential oil with anise aroma but its oil output is low. Its stems and leaves produce various yellow colors with aluminum mordant (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1988).

References Bakhtadze D, Koghuashvili P. Nutrition culture of the Georgians. Tbilisi; 2009. (ბახტაძე დ., კოღუაშვილი პ. 2009. ქართველთა კვების კულტურა. თბილისი, in Georgian.). Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Portulaca oleracea L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017a. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Amaranthus retroflexus L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017b. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Matteuccia struthiopteris (L.) Todd. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017c. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24.

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Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Kavtaradze I. Mokhevian dialect of the Georgian language. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1985. (ქავთარაძე ი. 1985. ქართული ენის მოხევური დიალექტი. თბილისი: მეცნიერება in Georgian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Maghalashvili T. Useful plants of Telavi district. Acad. S. Janashia State Museum of Georgia XXVI–XXVII. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1970. (8 მაღალაშვილი თ. 1970. თელავის რაიონის სასარგებლო მცენარეები. აკად. ს. ჯანაშიას სახელობის საქართველოს სახელმწიფო მუზეუმის მოამბე XXVI–XXVII – A. თბილისი: მეცნიერება in Georgian.). Makalatia S. Mtiuleti. Tbilisi: Sakhelgami; 1930. (8მაკალათია ს. 1930. მთიულეთი. ტფილისი: სახელგამი in Georgian.). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 16: Umbelliflorae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1950 (English 1973). 478 pages, 37 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1988. 357 p. (in Russian). Sujashvili N, Pitskhelauri I. Dictionary of Mokhevian dialect. Tbilisi; 2005. (სუჯაშვილი ნ., ფიცხელაური ი. 2005. მოხევური ლექსიკონი. თბილისი). Tedoradze G. Five years in Pshav-Khevsureti. Tbilisi; 1930. (თედორაძე გ. 1930. ხუთი წელი ფშავ-ხევსურეთში. ტფილისი in Georgian).

Apium graveolens L. APIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Seyed Hamed Moazzami Farida, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Apium graveolens L.: Apium celleri Gaertn., Apium decumbens Eckl. & Zeyh., Apium dulce Mill., Apium graveolens var. bashmensis Hosni, Apium graveolens var. butronensis D.Gómez & G.Monts., Apium graveolens var. butronensis D. Gómez & G. Monts., Apium graveolens subsp. butronensis (D. Gómez & G. Monts.) Aizpuru, Apium graveolens var. dulce (Mill.) DC., Apium graveolens var. lusitanicum (Mill.) DC., Apium graveolens f. lusitanicum (Mill.) J. Helm, Apium graveolens var. maritimum Dumort., Apium graveolens subsp. rapaceum (Mill.) P.D. Sell, Apium R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] S. H. Moazzami Farida Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Bu-Ali Sina University, Hamedan, Iran e-mail: [email protected] A. Ghorbani Department of Organismal Biology, Evolutionary Biology Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_13

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integrilobum Hayata, Apium lusitanicum Mill., Apium maritimum Salisb., Apium palustre Thore, Apium rapaceum Mill., Apium vulgare Bubani, Carum graveolens (L.) Koso-Pol., Celeri graveolens (L.) Britton, Libanotis graveolens G.Don, Selinum graveolens (L.) E.H.L. Krause, Seseli graveolens (L.) Scop., Sium apium Roth, Sium graveolens (L.) Vest

Local Names Russian: Сельдерей (celderei); Azeri: кэревюз (kerevjuz); Armenian: нехур (nekhur); Georgian: ნიახური (niakhuri), დიდი ნიახური (didi niakhuri) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991; Sokolov 1988); Persian: Karafs ‫ ;ﮎﺭﻑﺱ‬English: Celery

Botany and Ecology Annual or biennial; root fusiform, branching, lignifying in second year, cultivated forms with fleshy, cylindrical-turnip-shaped root; stem erect, 30–100 cm high, furrowed, often hollow, strongly branching, with spreading branches; leaves longpetioled (petioles sometimes fleshy), the lowermost leaves trifid, becoming pinnate, resembling cauline leaves; upper cauline leaves sometimes opposite, subsessile, on short sheaths with white scarious margins; in lower leaves first-order lobes rounded, obtuse at base, three lobate or tripartite, incised-dentate with acute teeth, these of cauline leaves cuneate at base, with acute whitish-cartilaginous teeth. Umbels numerous, small, on short peduncles or subsessile, of 6–12 glabrous rays; involucre and involucels none; petals white, ca. 0.5 mm long; fruit 1.5–2 mm long, nearly as wide. Flowering July–September. Ural, Caucasus, along creeks, often as a weed in wet places, widely cultivated. Apium is originally endemic to the Mediterranean region and was already cultivated in ancient times. In Europe it was known in the Middle Ages, but its widespread cultivation began only in the eighteenth century. Celery occurs wild in Europe, the Mediterranean region, and in Asia west of the Himalayas. The ancient Greeks and Egyptians already cultivated celery. It was probably first grown as a medicinal plant, later for the leaves as flavoring. Celery has a long history in China, dating back to at least the sixth century AD. In Central Europe cultivated celery was recorded in 1623 in France (Shishkin 1950; Figs. 1 and 2). N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]

Apium graveolens L. Fig. 1 Apium graveolens (Apiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Apium graveolens (Apiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Phytochemistry Carbohydrates (mannitol), organic acids (amber, apple, lemon, tartar, oxalic), essential oils (4-ethylhexane, a-pinene, 3-pinene, camphen, sabinene, myrcene, limonene, cis-ocimene, y-terpene, trans-ocimene, terpinolene, n-pentylcyclohexadiene, allocymene, alimene, pentyl benzene, terpinol, caryophyllene, humylen, a-terpineol, 3-selenene, butylidenaphthalide, 3-n-butyl-phthalene, ligustilide), phthalides (butylphthalide, butylidene, butylidenephthalide, sidanonic acid, clodidyl, neocyanidyl, senkiunolide), phenylcarboxylic acids (chlorogenic), organic acids (oxalic, acetic), coumarins (bergapten, zoopineline), flavonoids (luteoline, apigenine, apiin, apion, quercetine), anthocyanins (feruloyl, synapoyil, cyanidin), vitamins (K), coumarins (bergapten, Zanthatexine, isopimpinelline, apiometine, retine, selerine, selerosid) (Sokolov 1988).

Local Medicinal Uses In the Northern Caucasus the roots are used as diuretic and antiscorbutic, and against rheumatism. Celery seed extract aids in the elimination of uric acid and is often used for the relief of symptoms of arthritis, rheumatism and inflammation of the joints. Its diuretic properties assist in relieving fluid retention. Celery seeds also relieve pain (Sokolov 1988). Aerial parts of A. graveolens help to relieve asthma, headache and low back pain (Hooper et al. 1937; Ghorbani 2005; Mahdavi Meimand and Mirtajadini 2010). This species is used as carminative, diuretic, sedative and general tonic (Hooper et al. 1937; Amin 2005; Mahdavi Meimand and Mirtajadini 2010). It is also used to treat rheumatic diseases and to stimulate menstruation (amenorrhea) (Amin 2005; Amiri et al. 2014). These plants were thought to be efficient remedies for urinary tract infection (Mahdavi Meimand and Mirtajadini 2010). The roots are used as diuretic (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b, 2018).

Local Food Uses The young stems are pickled, the seeds used as spice. The most common use of celery is for its thick, succulent leaf stalks that are used, often with a part of the leaf blades, in soups, cooked dishes, and salads. Celery seeds can be used as flavoring or spice either as whole seeds or ground and mixed with salt. Celery salt can also be made from an extract of the roots. Roots used as soup spice and leaves as spice for various dishes (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1988). Young leaves of celery are commonly used as a vegetable (Mozaffarian 2013). Leaves and stems are eaten, added to a dish while cooking or fresh after cooking. The roots are eaten raw or cooked (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b, 2018).

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References Amin G. The most common medicinal plants in Iran. Tehran: Medical Ethics and History of Medicine Research Center; 2005. Amiri MS, Joharchi MR, TaghavizadehYazdi ME. Ethno-medicinal plants used to cure jaundice by traditional healers of Mashhad, Iran. Iran J Pharm Res. 2014;13(1):157. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus – Georgia. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Springer International Publishing, Cham; 2017b. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Ghorbani A. Studies on pharmaceutical ethnobotany in the region of Turkmen Sahra, north of Iran: (part 1): general results. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102(1):58–68. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Akadrmia Naukl, Moscow; 1952. (in Russian). Hooper D, Field H, Dahlgren BE. Useful plants and drugs of Iran and Iraq. Chicago: Field Museum of Natural History; 1937. Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Mahdavi Meimand Z, Mirtajadini M. Collection and identification of some plant species in Kerman province for the herbarium of medicinal plants Faculty of Pharmacy (stage 1). J Herb Drugs. 2010;2:1–24. Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Mozaffarian V. Identification of medicinal and aromatic plants of Iran. Tehran: Farhang Moaser; 2013. Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 16: Umbelliflorae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1950 (English 1973). 478 p, 37 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, Volume 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1988. 357 p. (in Russian).

Arctium lappa L. ASTERACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Arctium lappa L.: Arctium chaorum Klokov; Arctium lappa subsp. majus Arènes; Arctium leiospermum Juz. & Ye. V. Serg.; Arctium majus (Gaertn.) Benth.; Lappa major Gaertn.; Lappa vulgaris Hill.

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_14

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Local Names Georgian: ოროვანდი (orovandi); ძირხვენა (dzirxvena); Armenian: кратук (kratuk); Russian: Лопух (lopuch); Azeri: пытраг (pytrag); (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991; Sokolov 1993).

Botany and Ecology Biennial. Plants 60–150 cm tall, reaching up to 3 m. Root branched, fleshy, thick, fusiform, up to 60 cm long. Stem erect, strong, longitudinally sulcate, often reddish; branches numerous, erect, spreading, covered with papilliform hairs mixed with glandular hairs, but mostly arachnoid-hairy. Leaves petiolate, broadly cordate-ovate, sparsely crenate toothed or entire, green and sparsely pubescent above, finely gray tomentose beneath with scattered yellowish glandular hairs; basal leaves up to 50 cm long, on ridged, tumid, more than 30 cm long petioles; cauline leaves abruptly reduced, uppermost somewhat cordate at base. Capitula borne sparsely in corymbose-racemose inflorescence, sometimes on peduncles up to 10 cm or longer, and almost at same height at tips of branches, globose, large, 13–20 mm wide excluding cusp, with cusps 20–35 mm long. Involucral bracts glabrous or weakly arachnoid-hairy; lower bracts lanceolate, carinate, 1–1.5 mm wide, weakly ciliate-toothed along margin, narrowed into linear-lanceolate, erect spiny tip; middle bracts appressed-pubescent; inner lanceolate, green, sometimes purple, pubescent, gradually narrowed into weak apical hook as long as or longer than floret. Corolla purple-red, abruptly narrowed into 5–6 mm long tube, limb 4–5 mm with 1.5–2 mm long lobes; apical appendage of anthers 0.2 mm long, narrow and pointed, basal appendages 0.75 mm long, simple or bifid. Achenes 6–6.5 mm long, 2.5–2.75 mm wide, narrow-obovate, with narrow areole, pappus attachment surrounded by four to six tubercles; achenes longitudinally ribbed, transversely rugose near upper and, to lesser extent, at lower end, grayish to brown, with zigzag dark brown to almost black pattern; pappus 3–3.5 mm long. Flowering August–September. Ural, Caucasus, garbage dumps, near inhabited areas, along roads and fences, banks of rivers and rivulets, rarely in cultivated fields (Shishkin and Boborov 1962; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).

Local Medicinal Uses Root decoction sometimes used as diuretic (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1993). The flowers have antibiotic properties, and the leaves are used as antiinflammatory, especially for arthritis, as well as antibiotic (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

Achillea grandiflora L. Fig. 1 Arctium lappa (Asteraceae), Racha, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N. Y Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Arctium lappa (Asteraceae), Racha, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N. Y Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 3 Arctium lappa (Asteraceae), Racha, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N. Y Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Food Uses Young roots are used for food raw or boiled in salted water and further prepared with butter and vinegar. When boiled with sour milk, sorrel, vinegar, etc., inulin in finely chopped roots transforms into sugar (laevulose). Thus, the roots can be used to make sweet puree. Dried and finely ground roots are used to make flour; 30% of burdock root flour can be added to wheat or rye flour to bake bread. Roots can be used to make coffee-like drink. Young shoots and leaves are used for food as salad or are put into borsch (Grossheim 1952). In Pshavi young shoots and the roots of dzirkhvena ძირხვენა Arctium palladini (Marcow.) R.E.Fr. & Soderb. and Arctium platylepis (Boiss. & Bal.) Sosn. ex Grossh. are eaten (Maghalashvili 1970). In Khevsureti the local population uses a variety of plants growing in wild for cooking mixed mkhali, e.g., dzirkhvena ძირხვენა Arctium lappa L.; k’enk’esha კენკეშა Campanula lactiflora M. Bieb. young, peeled shoots are used as food; tvitmavala თვითმავალა Amaranthus retroflexsus L. grows in vegetable gardens

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Fig. 4 Arctium lappa (Asteraceae), Racha, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N. Y Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Arctium lappa (Asteraceae), Racha, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N. Y Paniagua-Zambrana)

and ruderal places he aboveground parts of the plant are harvested, boiled, mixed within clarified butter, onions, herbs and eaten; ckhenis sakhvremi ცხენის სახვრემი Sonchus ssp., mochik’ais t’ari მოჩიკაის ტარი Campanula rapunculoides L.,

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mch’ivana მჭივანა Silene wallichiana Klotzsch (Bakhtadze and Koghuashvili 2009; Chincharauli 2005). In Tusheti many herbaceous plants are used as food and are kept for winter, either dried or pickled, to make mixed mkhali and sauces and to accompany the main dishes, including kumeli ქუმელი q’va ყვა. It is used all-year round and is made of roasted keri ქერი (barley) grains. Can be made of ipkli იფქლი (Georgian endemic wheat), corn, svili სვილი (rye), kersvili ქერსვილი (mixture of barley and rye) and tsetsvi ცერცვი (faba bean, when mixed with corn: giera-i გიერა-ი Brassica campestris subsp. oleifera (DC.) Schübl. & Mart., gomat’i გომატი Bunias orientalis L., dutsi დუცი Angelica tatianae Bordz., kharnuq’a-i ხარნუყა-ი Lactuca serriola L., buera ბუერა Petasites ssp., shubq’a-i შუბყა-ი Heracleum asperum M. Bieb., khap’ara-i ხაპარა-ი Cichorium intybus L., mariamdzmara მარიამძმარა Ligusticum alatum (M. Bieb.) Spreng. ch’imi ჭიმი Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., diq’i დიყი Heracleum ssp., jortk’uda-i ჯორთკუდა-ი Artemisia vulgaris L., sagvidzla საღვიძლა Taraxacum officinale (L.) Weber ex F.H. Wigg., dzirkhvena ძირხვენა Arctium lappa L., ch’ivana ჭივანა Silene wallichiana Klotzsch, kvishamkhala ქვიშამხალა Silene laera (Stev.) Sims, khavrat’ai ხავრატაი Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik., jorik’udai ჯორიკუდაი Artemisia vulgaris L., and giera გიერა Sinapis arvensis L. (Makalatia 1933). There are several ways to season mkhali in Tusheti: (1) wellcleaned plants are placed in a pot and cooked without water. The cooked plants are placed on a sieve to cool and cut into pieces. After that the dish is seasoned with onions and browned in clarified butter, eggs, and salt. (2) After cooking the plants in the same way, fresh cottage cheese, onions browned in clarified butter, eggs, and salt are added. (3) After boiling the mkhali is seasoned with vinegar, garlic, and salt. Normally, in Tusheti mkhali is not seasoned with walnuts and vinegar (Makalatia 1933). The raw roots of dzirkhvenai ძირხვენაი Arctium lappa L. are eaten in Tusheti (Makalatia 1933). In Racha tiorshi თიორში, dilkhami დილხამი Arctium lappa L., mek’endzala მეკენძალა Aruncus vulgaris Raf., kalak’oda ქალაკოდა Arum orientale M. Bieb. Humulus lupulus L., and many others kept for winter woven in double braids and hung from a pillar to pillar, long as the song sung by women during the kalak’oda ქალაკოდა (Arum orientale collection party) (Gvaramadze 1997; Pruidze 1986). Plants mixed together for pkhali in Adjara include dvarula dvalura დვარულა დვალურა Polygonum carneum C. Koch, dondoli დონდოლი Gadellia lactiflora (M. Bieb.), ch’inch’ari ჭინჭარი Urtica dioica L., katamnatsara ქათამნაცარა Chenopodium album L., ch’ich’laq’a ჭიჭლაყა Amaranthus retroflexus L., perapera ფერაფერა Phytolacca americana L., k’uk’umzhavaკუკუმჟავა, svint’ri სვინტრი Polygonatum ssp., ch’arbadelo ჭარბადელო Arctium lappa L., and also young leaves of motsvi მოცვი Vaccinium ssp., venakhi ვენახი Vitis vinifera L., babuats’vera ბაბუასწვერა Taraxacum ssp., Kajiloja ქაჯილოჯა Daucus carota L., Ts’its’marit’a წიწმარიტა Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik., burt’q’ila ბურტყილა Lapsana. grandiflora M. Bieb., the plants used by Adjara people as food are: ajark’ela აჯარკელა Lathyrus roseus Steven, ajorik’a აჯორიკას Aruncus vulgaris Raf. (young leaves are pickled), bobots’vera ბობოწვერა Taraxacum ssp. (ground roasted dry roots used instead of cichorium), dilq’a დილყა Heracleum sp. (shoots are peeled

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and eaten), k’onst’ant’ila კონსტანტილა (white roots are edible), ozaghina ოზაღინა Chaerophyllum aureum L. (young leaves are pickled), ghima ღიმა Chaerophyllum bulbosum L. (mixed with leek or ajorik’a აჯორიკა Aruncus vulgaris Raf. and pickled), and dvalura დვალურა Polygonum carneum (Baramidze 1987; Kakhidze 2007; Kokhreidze 1947; Nizharadze 1971). Wild pkhali plants can be cooked in various ways: pickled, boiled, and seasoned with vinegar, walnuts, and various spice herbs (Kokhreidze 1947). The leaves are used in small amounts in pkhali (herb pie), together with lots of other species. The stems can be pickled (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Good melliferous plants producing nectar and pollen (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1993).

References Bakhtadze D, Koghuashvili P. Nutrition culture of the Georgians. Tbilisi; 2009. (ბახტაძე დ., კოღუაშვილი პ. 2009. ქართველთა კვების კულტურა. თბილისი, in Georgian). Baramidze J. Adjarian dishes. Batumi: Sabchota Adjara; 1987. (ბარამიძე ჯ. 1987. აჭარული კერძები. ბათუმი: საბჭოთა აჭარა, in Georgian). Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Chenopodium album L., Chenopodium foliosum L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017a. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Falcaria vulgaris Bernh. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017b. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Aleksanyan A, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Malva neglecta Wallr.; Malva sylvestris L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017c. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Polygonum alpinum All.; Polygonum aviculare L.; Polygonum carneum C. Koch; Polygonum hydropiper L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017d. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Stellaria media (L.) Vill. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017e. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Urtica dioica L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017f.

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Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Lamium album L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017g. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Rubia tinctorium L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017h. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1). Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, Beer, Snuff, Medicine and loss of diversity – Ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobotany Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Chincharauli A. Dictionary of Khevsurian dialect. Tbilisi: Kartuli ena; 2005. (ჭინჭარაული ა. 2005. ხევსურული ლექსიკონი. თბილისი: ქართული ენა in Georgian)./ Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Gvaramadze K. Results of the study of the Guria region. Tbilisi; 1997. (გვარამაძე კ. 1997. (გურია მხარის კვლევა-ძიების შედეგები. თბილისი in Georgian). Kakhidze N. The oldest and old historical sources of Adjara – ethnographic data. Essays on history of south-western Georgia, Adjara 1. Tbilisi; 2007. (კახიძე ნ. 2007 აჭარის უძველესი და ძველი ისტორიის წყაროები ეთნოგრაფიული მონაცემები. სამხრეთ-დასავლეთ საქართველოს ისტორიის ნარკვევები აჭარა 1. თბილისი in Georgian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Kokhreidze V. Wild food plants of Adjara (mkhaleuli). Batumi: Adjaris sakhelgami; 1947. 8კოხრეიძე ვ. 1947. აჭარაში ველურად მოზარდი საკვები მცენარეები (მხალეული). ბათუმი: აჭარის სახელგამი in Georgian). Maghalashvili T. Useful plants of Telavi district. Acad. S. Janashia State Museum of Georgia XXVI–XXVII. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1970. (8 მაღალაშვილი თ. 1970. თელავის რაიონის სასარგებლო მცენარეები. აკად. ს. ჯანაშიას სახელობის საქართველოს სახელმწიფო მუზეუმის მოამბე XXVI–XXVII – A. თბილისი: მეცნიერება in Georgian). Makalatia S. Tusheti. Tbilisi: Sakhelgami; 1933. (მაკალათია ს. 1933. თუშეთი. ტფილისი: სახელგამი in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Nizharadze Sh. Adjarian dialect of the Georgian language. Batumi; 1971. (ნიჟარაძე შ. 1971. ქართული ენის აჭარული დიალექტი. ბათუმი in Georgian). Pruidze L. Racha in the view of an ethnographer. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1986. (ფრუიძე ლ. 1986. რაჭა ეთნოგრაფის თვალით. თბილისი: მეცნიერება in Georgian). Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, Volume 27: Compositae, Tribes Anthemidea, Senecioneae, Calanduleae, Arctolidae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1962 (English 1996). 913 p. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: Flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 7. Family Asteraceae (Compositae). Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1993. 352 p. (in Russian).

Armoracia rustica Schur BRASSICACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Local Names Georgian: პირშუშხა (p’irshushkha), ხრენი (khreni); Russian, Хрен (chren); Azeri, гытыготу (gytygotu) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991).

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; mananakhuts@yahoo. com; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_15

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Botany and Ecology Perennial, with stout, fleshy root; stem erect, branching, 0.5–1.5 m high; radical leaves very large, oblong or oblong-ovate, crenate, cordate, lower cauline leaves pinnatipartite, middle leaves oblong-lanceolate, the upper linear, subentire. Sepals ca. 3 mm long; petals ca. 6 mm long, white, short-clawed; fruiting racemes elongated, pedicels erect; silicles oblong-ovate, inflated, 5–6 mm long, one-fourth to one-fifth as long as pedicels; valves netted-veined, without midrib, cells with four seeds, style very short. Flowering June. Originally all over Ural, and planted in the Caucasus, on damp meadows, along the banks of rivers and on abandoned farmland (Bobrov and Bush 1939; Figs. 1 and 2).

Phytochemistry Especially in the roots carbohydrates (glucose, galactose, arabinose, xylose, sucrose, lentozans, polysaccharides, galacturonic, acid); some alkaloids, saponins, vitamins (C, B1, B2), flavonoids (camphorol, quercetin, kaempferol, quercetine), thirolokosides (sinigrin, ryukonsturtisine), saponins (Sokolov 1985).

Local Medicinal Uses The roots are part of the official central Uralian herbal pharmacopoeia. In the Caucasus gruel, fresh juice and infusions are used to induce gastric emptying, improve digestion, and remedy liver diseases, urinary problems, and as antiscorbutic and expectorant. Poultices are employed for skin cancer and other skin diseases. The root is used for toothache and as anti-inflammatory. Decoctions serve to treat diseases of the throat, mucous membranes, otitis, purulent wounds, rheumatism, radiculitis, neuralgia, sciatica, baldness, seborrhea, and urticaria. For cosmetic purposes, the plant is used to remove freckles and pigmentary spots and contains Fig. 1 Armoracia rusticana (Brassicaceae), Svaneti, Georgia (R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Armoracia rusticana (Brassicaceae), leaves ready to eat, Svaneti, Georgia (R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

l,zacime in the roots that acts as antibacterial (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1985). The roots are chewed for gum inflammations (Bussmann et al. 2016).

Local Food Uses As spice and seasoning for food, and in the canning industry, Armoracia extract help to preserve fruits, vegetables, and meat (Sokolov 1985). The roots and leaves are used as spice; the leaves are eaten raw (Bussmann et al. 2016).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Sometimes planted as ornamental. In large doses, the plant extract causes renal cramping and can lead to poisoning of cattle and pigs (Sokolov 1985).

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References Bobrov EG, Bush NA. Flora of the USSR, Volume 8: Capparidaceae, Cruciferae and Resedaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1939 (English 1970). 524 p, 34 b/w plates, 2 maps. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, Volume 2. Families Paeoniaceae – Thymelaeacea. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1985. 336 p. (in Russian).

Artemisia absinthium L. Artemisia annua L. Artemisia dracunculus L. Artemisia leucodes Schrenk Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Kit. Artemisia vulgaris L. Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. ASTERACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Farzaneh Khajoei Nasab, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Artemisia annua L.: Artemisia chamomilla Winkl. Artemisia dracunculus L.: Artemisia aromatica A. Nelson; Artemisia dracunculina S. Watson; Artemisia dracunculoides Pursh; Artemisia dracunculoides var. dracunculina (S. Watson) S.F. Blake; Artemisia dracunculus subsp. dracunculina (S. Watson) H.M. Hall & Clem.; Artemisia glauca Pall. ex Willd.; Artemisia glauca var. megacephala B. Boivin; Oligosporus dracunculus (L.) Poljakov Artemisia leucodes Schrenk: Artemisia leucodes (Schrenk) Poljakov

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_16

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Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Kit.: Artemisia capillaris fo. angustisecta Pamp.; Artemisia capillaris fo. elegans (Roxb.) Pamp.; Artemisia capillaris fo. kohatica (Klatt) Pamp.; Artemisia capillaris fo. myriocephala Pamp.; Artemisia capillaris fo. tenuifolia Pamp.; Artemisia capillaris fo. villosa (Korsh.) Pamp.; Artemisia capillaris fo. williamsonii Pamp.; Artemisia capillaris fo. scoparia (Waldst. & Kit.) Pamp.; Artemisia elegans Roxb.; Artemisia kohatica Klatt; Artemisia scoparia fo. sericea Kom.; Artemisia scoparia var. heteromorpha Kitag.; Artemisia scopariiformis Popov; Oligosporus scoparius (Waldst. & Kit.) Less.; Oligosporus scoparius (Waldst. & Kit.) Poljakov Artemisia vulgaris L.: Artemisia opulenta Pamp.; Artemisia vulgaris var. glabra Ledeb.; Artemisia vulgaris var. kamtschatica Besser Eclipta prostrata (L.) L.: Artemisia viridis Blanco

Local Names Artemisia absinthium: Iran: Afsantin (‫( )ﺍﻑﺱﻥﻁﯼﻥ‬Mozaffarian 2013), Agh-suzeh, Eshek-bozqan (Ghorbani 2005); Russian: Пoлыньгopькaя (Polyn’ gor’kaya); Полыньабсент (polinabsent) (Russian), аджыйовшан (adshiyovshan) (Azeri); ошиндр (oshindr) (Armenian); abzinda (Georgian) (Grossheim 1952); English: common wormwood, absinthe (Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991; Sokolov 1993) Artemisia annua: Georgian: უჯანგარი (ujangari); Russian: Пoлынь oднoлeтняя (Polyn’ odnoletnyaya); English: sweet sage; wort, sweet wormwood, sweet annie, Chinese wormwood Artemisia dracunculus: Georgian: ტარხუნა (t’arkhuna), აბზინდა (abzinda), ავშანი (avshani); მიწავაშლა (mits’avashla); მწარე აბზინდა (mts’are anzinda); Tushetian: Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] F. Khajoei Nasab Department of Plant Sciences and Biotechnology, Faculty of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran e-mail: [email protected] A. Ghorbani Department of Organismal Biology, Evolutionary Biology Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]

Artemisia absinthium L. . . .

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გიეში (gieshi), ხმატურა (khmat’ura); Russian: Пoлынь Эcтpaгoн (Polyn’ estragon), эстрагон (estragon); Azeri: тархун (terkhun); Armenian: тархуни (tarragon) (Armenian) (Grossheim 1952); English: Russian tarragon, wild tarragon, estragon, silky wormwood (Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991; Sokolov 1993) Artemisia leucodes: Russian: Пoлыньбeлoвaтaя (Polyn’ belovataya) (Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991; Sokolov 1993) Artemisia scoparia: Russian: Пoлыньмeтёльчaтaя (Polyn’ metyol’chataya); English: redstem wormwood (Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991; Sokolov 1993) Artemisia vulgaris: Georgian: ჯორთკუდა (jortk’uda), ავშანი (avshani); Svan: ველური ტარხუნა (veluri t’arkhuna); Russian: Пoлынь oбыкнoвeннaя (Polyn’ obyknovennaya); English: common mugwort (Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991; Sokolov 1993) Eclipta prostrata: Russian: Пoлыньзeлёнaя (Polyn’ zelyonaya); Kyrgyz: Maмыp шыбaк (Mamyr shybak); English: wormwood (Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991; Sokolov 1993)

Botany and Ecology Artemisia absinthium: Perennial. Whole plant grayish from short approximate hairs, sericeous-tomentose. Root vertical, thick, perennial. Stem 60–100 cm high, herbaceous, erect, with short branches, leafy, sometimes basally with short nonflowering branches bearing long-petiolate leaves. Leaves with 6–9 cm long and 3–7 cm wide lamina broadly ovate, almost thrice pinnately dissected, terminal lobe lanceolate, short-acuminate; middle cauline leaves short petiolate, lacking lobes at base of petiole, twice pinnately dissected; upper leaves subsessile, simple pinnate or twice ternate; bracteal leaves ternate or simple, undivided, narrowly lanceolate; lobes of all leaves linear-oblong, scarcely acuminate, undivided or with few teeth, usually 3–20 mm long and 1–4 mm wide. Capitula globose, 2.5–3.5 mm in diameter, drooping or spreading into narrowly paniculate inflorescence. Involucral bracts oblong-ovate, outer almost as long as inner bracts, hairy on spine, with wide scarious margin. Receptacle convex, hairy. Peripheral florets pistillate, usually 25, their corollas filiform-tubular; stigma lobes exserted from tube, linear, arcuate; disk florets numerous (usually 60), their corollas conical, glabrous, sometimes weakly hairy; anthers linear, apical appendages of anthers obtusely angular, with round apex, basal appendages short, obtuse; stigma lobes broadly linear, after flowering somewhat curved. Achenes about 1 mm long, oblong-cuneate, rather flat, finely sulcate, with a round, slightly convex at apex. Flowering July to August. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, in meadows, steppes; on river banks, forest margins, fields, rocky areas; in crops and fields; in gardens; along irrigation ditches; around settlements as weed; on recent fallow lands; near roads and dwellings; in kitchen gardens and gardens; less often in crop fields, meadows, pastures, and forest edge; in forest, forest steppe, and steppe zones; as well as in mountains (Shishkin and Boborov 1961; Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

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Fig. 1 Artemisia absinthium (Asteraceae), Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Artemisia absinthium (Asteraceae), Kartli, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Artemisia absinthium L. . . .

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Fig. 3 Artemisia absinthium (Asteraceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Artemisia annua: Annual. Plant aromatic, green, glabrous, or with scattered, small, approximate hairs. Stems erect, ribbed, brownish or violet-brown, 30–100 cm high. Leaves alveolate-punctate-glandular; lower leaves petiolate, 3–5 cm long and 2–4 cm wide, ovate, thrice pinnately cut, their lobules oblong-lanceolate, short-acuminate, entire or with 1–2 teeth, 1–2 mm long, and 0.5 mm wide; middle and cauline leaves twice pinnately cut; upper leaves sessile smaller and less compound; uppermost leaves bracteal, simple, or with fewer lateral lobes. Capitula globose, 2.0–2.5 mm in diameter, numerous, divergent or drooping, on short peduncles, approximate on short branches, usually in long pyramidal paniculate inflorescence. Involucre glabrous. Outer involucral bracts linear-oblong, green; inner oval or almost round, with wide scarious border, lustrous. Receptacle convex, glabrous. Peripheral florets pistillate, 10–20, filiform, punctate-glandular; their stigma lobes narrowly linear, obtuse, exserted from corolla tube; disk florets bisexual, 12–30, their corollas cup-shaped tubular, glabrous; anthers narrowly linear, apical appendages of anthers long, acute, basal appendages very short, subacute; style shorter than stamens, stigma lobes linear, straight, weakly divergent, apically ciliate. Achenes 0.8–0.6 mm long, oblongovate, flattened, with small round areola at apex, scarcely bordered. Flowering August–September. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, in meadows, sandy areas, on rocks, solonetzous steppes, floodplain forests, river valleys and on their shores, fields, near settlements, along roads as weed (Shishkin and Boborov 1961).

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Artemisia dracunulus: Perennial. Rhizome woody, 0.5–1.5 cm thick, sparsely covered with rootlets and sometimes with well-developed stolons; whole plant glabrous, smooth, green, less often hairy when young. Stems erect, solitary or few, 20–150 cm high, ribbed, usually branched, lower branches sterile. Leaves undivided, linear-lanceolate or almost linear, 1.5–8.0 cm long and 1–10(14) mm wide; lowermost cauline leaves sometimes with three lobes at apex. Capitula numerous, globose, drooping, (2)2.5–4.0 mm in dia, at apices of stem and branches in racemes, forming paniculate inflorescence. Involucral bracts smooth, outer bracts oblong or sublanceolate, inner bracts round-oval, with wide scarious margin. Peripheral florets pistillate, usually seven; their corollas tubular, expanded toward base; stigma lobes narrowly linear, subacute, exserted from corolla tube, divergent; disk florets staminate, 11–14, their corollas conical, with five teeth; anthers linear, apical appendages of anthers obtuse-angled, subacute, basal appendages shorter, subobtuse; stigma of abortive pistil not lobed, funnel-shaped at apex. Achenes small, 0.6 mm long, somewhat flat, ovoid, finely sulcate, brown. Flowering July–August. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, alkaline meadows, near birch groves, river terraces of meadows, steep valley slopes and old fallow lands, forest steppe and steppe zones, as well as meadow slopes, on solonetzous soils, floodplain meadows, forest edges, forests, thickets in steppes, meadow steppes, along river banks, river terraces, stony slopes, to the upper mountain belt, sometimes as weed. Widely planted in kitchen gardens (Shishkin and Boborov 1961; Figs. 4, 5, 6, and 7). Artemisia leucodes: Biennial or annual. Densely covered with white, long, semi-erect hairs up to end of vegetative period. Root slender, vertical. Stems solitary or few, 30–60(70) cm high, 2–5 mm thick, erect, branched almost from base or in lower half, with more or less straight, upwardly directed branches. Lower cauline leaves petiolate, 3–7 cm long and 2.5–4.0 cm wide, with petioles as long as or longer than lamina, divided up to base into three palmately or pinnately parted lobes; terminal lobes lanceolate-linear, acute, 5–10 mm long and 1.0–1.5 mm wide; middle cauline leaves sessile, like auricles divided into ternate, simple, linear lobes; uppermost leaves undivided, sessile, linear-lanceolate. Capitula in lax spreading panicle, remote, less often approximate, 2–3, sessile, upright, ovoid-oblong, 5–7 mm long. Involucral Fig. 4 Artemisia dracunculus (Asteraceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Artemisia absinthium L. . . .

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Fig. 5 Artemisia dracunculus (Asteraceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 6 Artemisia dracunculus (Asteraceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 7 Artemisia dracunculus (Asteraceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

bracts, excluding innermost, pubescent, outer bracts small, broadly deltoid or oval, inner larger, broadly lanceolate or oblong, with narrow, brown scarious border. Middle Asia, desert sands, as well as outcrops of sandstones and different gypsiferous deposits. On sandy, gravelly, clayey slopes (Shishkin and Boborov 1961). Artemisia scoparia: Annual or biennial. Root slender, straight, vertical. Stem 30–70 cm high, solitary, less often 2–3, erect, pubescent, later glabrous, reddish-violet or brown, strongly branched in middle and upper parts, with divergent branches. Young leaves pubescent, older ones glabrous; lower leaves petiolate, twice or thrice pinnately incised into linear lanceolate-acute lobes, withering before anthesis; middle cauline leaves sessile, 1–4 cm long, with narrowly linear or filiform-linear lobes. Capitula small, 1.5–2.0 mm long, ovate or broadly ovate, on short peduncles, divergent or drooping, on branches in secondary racemes forming pyramidal panicle. Involucral bracts glabrous, with scarious margin; upper bracts oval, inner larger, green, oblong or broadly lanceolate, glabrous, glaucous. Peripheral florets pistillate, 6, their corollas narrowly tubular, stigma lobes narrowly linear, acuminate, divergent; disk florets 6, staminate, their corollas conical, anthers linear, stigma of abortive pistil not lobed. Achenes 0.6 mm long, ovoid, somewhat flat, finely ribbed, brown. Flowering August. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, alkaline steppe meadows, light sandy loamy and sandy soils, as weed in fields, pastures, old fields, open pine groves, and also in irrigated fields, along river valleys on rubbly slopes, in forest steppe and desert zones, and also in lower mountain zone in steppes (Shishkin and Boborov 1961).

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Artemisia vulgaris: Perennial. Rhizome strong, in upper part thickened; stem herbaceous, erect, (45)65–160 cm high, angular-ribbed, more or less branched, usually brownish-violet, leafy, weakly hairy. Leaves green above, glabrous or not densely arachnoid hairy, grayish, arachnoid hairy beneath, lower-most leaves petiolate, rest sessile, 3–15 cm long and 1.5–11 cm wide, deeply pinnately dissected or pinnately cut into elliptical-lanceolate or linear-lanceolate, usually deeply incised or toothed, lobes 1–10 cm long and 2.5 cm wide; upper leaves small, floral bracts entire, linear. Capitula oblong or narrowly campanulate, 3–4 mm long and 1.5–3.0 mm in diameter, slightly inclined, less often almost drooping, in dense racemes on secondary branches forming in general, more or less narrow or rather wide panicle. Involucre arachnoid hairy, involucral bracts scarious along margin, outer bracts ovate, acuminate, inner bracts longer, elliptical, obtuse. Receptacle convex. Peripheral pistillate florets 7–10; their corollas narrowly tubular, stigma lobes narrowly linear, straight, erect; disk florets bisexual, (5)8–20, their corollas narrow, cup-shaped conical, smooth, reddish-brownish; anthers linear, on rather long filaments, apical appendages of anthers acute, basal appendages subacute; stigma lobes at maturity slightly exserted from tube, arcuate, thickened upward, truncate, with long dense cilia. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, forest, partly forest steppe and steppe zones, in coniferous-deciduous open deciduous forests, around forest glades, edges of forests, river valleys, ravins, gullies, mountain slopes, meadows, scrubs, fallow lands, near fields and dwellings, to the upper mountain belt, often as weed. Often cultivated (Shishkin and Boborov 1961). Eclipta prostrata: Annual. Stem 10–50 cm high, usually branched from base, ascending or prostrate, with fine appressed hairs, more densely above. Leaves oblong-lanceolate or oblong, sessile, serrate-toothed, teeth directed upward, sometimes only sinuate, covered with numerous fine appressed hairs. Capitula 6–8 mm wide; involucre of oblong, long, outer bracts and shorter, oblong-lanceolate, inner bracts; involucral bracts covered with fine appressed hairs, with thick, light-colored (yellowish), longitudinal veins. Ligulate florets short, half as long as involucre; bracts setose, ventrally pubescent. Achenes prismatic, somewhat swollen above, 2–3 mm long, 1.0–1.5 mm wide, smooth, without tubercles or sometimes with few inconspicuous tubercles along fine ventral rib, dark grayish brown, along edges fringed, light yellowish brown. Flowering June. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, meadows, steppes, river valleys, forests, sandy shores, gravelly slopes, rocks, fields, near settlements, as weed (Shishkin and Boborov 1961).

Phytochemistry Artemisia absinthium: Cyclitols (quiberachite), organic acids, essential oils (cadinene, guaiazulene, ketopelenolide a, ketopelenolide b, hydroxyketopelenolide, caryophyllene, selenene, a-pinene, nerol, thujone, tujol, p-cymene, camphene, cineole, phellandrene, geraniol, elemol, a-chymachalene, a-cadine, limonene, eucalyptol, y-terpinene, linalool, isoborneol, camphor, a-bizabolol, hamazulene, methylhamazulene, ethylhamazulene, tuyen, sabinene, a-terpinene, ocimene, terpinolene, n-hexanol, nonanal, farnesene, lavandulol, a-curcumine, germacrene D, sabinol),

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sesquiterpenoids (absintine, anabsintine, artamarine, artamaridine, artamaridinine, artamarinin, artabsine, artbine, arabsine, anabsine, artemoline, absintolide, isoabsintine, ketopelenolide, artbine, arabine, arlatine, arenolide, parsirIn B, parsherIn C), lignans (lyrioresinol A, lyrioresinol C, sezartemine, episazeartemIn A, episepartemIn B, diazezartemine, sesamin, epieudesmine, fargesine, yangambin, epiangambine, diayangambine, askhantine, epiaschantine), flavonoids (artemetine, quercetin, kaempferol, isoramnetine, apigenin), fatty acids (lauric, myristic, palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, arachidic), carbohydrates (inulin), polyacetylene compounds, phenolcarboxylic acids, vitamins (C), steroids, coumarins (scopoletin, umbelliferon), fatty acids (lauric, myristic, palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, arachidic), tannins (Sokolov 1993). Artemisia dracunculus: Essential oils (sabinene, methylhavicol, eugeol, cis-ocimene, trans-ocimene, cis-allocymene, trans-allocymene, linalool, limonene, geraniol, a-tuyen, a-pinene, p-pinene, camphene, sabinene, a-terpinene, p-cymol, y-terpene, trans-sabinenhydrate, cis-sabinenhydrate, terpinolene, terpinol, citronellyl acetate, geranyl acetate, methyl eugenol, elemycine, farnesene, spatulenol), phenylcarboxylic acids (coffee, chlorogenic, vanilline), coumarins (herniarin, artidine, aridiodiol, arethynol, scocarone, scopoletin, isocoumarin), flavonoids (quercetin, hyperoside, luteolin, kaempferol, biokovertsetine, rutine), steroids, tannins (Sokolov 1993). Artemisia annua/leucodes/vulgaris: Essential oils (cineole, limonene, terpinolene, fenchone, citral a, citral b, geraniol, aromadendrene, linalool, thujone, a-pinene, p-pinene, myrcene, p-cymol, a-thujone, p-thujone, camphor, terpinol-4, a-copene, caryophyllene, a-terpineol, borneol, bornylacetate, y-cadinene, vulgarol, camphene, a-terpinene, artemisia ketone, isoborneol), sesquiterpenoids (psilostahyine, psilostahyIn B and C), triterpenoids (a-amyrin, fernenol), steroids (sitosterol, stimasterine), coumarins (esculine, esculetin, umbelliferone, scopoletin, methylenedioxycoumarin) (Sokolov 1993). Artemisia scoparia: Essential oils (a-pinene, cineole, carvone, thujone, cadinene, furfural, caryophyllene, eugenol, isoeugenol, methyleugenol, sabinene, camphene, a-flalandrene, p-flalandrane, limonene, p-cymol, longicylen, longifene, santalene, a-chymachalene, 6-bisabolene, 6-cadinene, curcumin, camphor, carvone, linalool, borneol, thymol, cis-eugenol, trans-eugenol, scoparone, myrcene, cadinene, isoeugenol), phenylcarboxylic acids (chlorogenic), coumarins (scoparone, dimethoxycoumarin, esketine, scopoletin), flavonoids (methyl aromodendrin, ramnocitrine, eupalinine, cirsimaritin, eupatholithine, rutine, quercetin, kappeprol), organic acids (oxalic), steroids (sitosterol), tannins (Sokolov 1993).

Local Medicinal Uses Artemisia absinthium: In the Ural the species is used for cancer of the liver, stomach, spleen, uterus, and leukemia. The root infusion is used for rheumatism and arthritis. In the Altai and Middle Asia, the leaves are used to treat lung diseases, angina, intestinal colics, tuberculosis, respiratory infections, and rhinitis. In the

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Northern Caucasus, the leaves decoction is used to treat gonorrhea and in Armenia for diabetes mellitus. The flower infusion is used to treat ulcers of the intestine, epilepsy, hemorrhoids, fever, diarrhea, and enterocolitis and is in Azerbaijan used for furuncles. Tincture is used as appetizer and digestion facilitator and anthelminthic and for wound healing (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1993). Artemisia absinthium is considered tonic, appetizer, digestion stimulant, menstruation regulator, anthelminthic, diuretic, and antipyretic (Mozaffarian 2013). In Turkmen Sahra area, decoction of leaves and flowering heads are used for constipation in children, as laxative and for intestinal parasites (Ghorbani 2005). Also, condensed decoction is used externally as poultice to relief body pains and constipation in children (Ghorbani 2005). The leaf extract is used to treat colds and flu, sore throat, and bedwetting in children. Leaves and stems are used as sedative, as aphrodisiac and to increase the appetite, and for their antibiotic properties (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017, 2018). Artemisia dracunculus: In the Ural the leaves are used as poultice for eczema and burns and internally for tuberculosis, pneumonia, and bronchitis (Sokolov 1993). The leaves and roots are used as digestive (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017, 2018). Artemisia annua/leucodes/vulgaris: Traditionally Artemisia vulgaris is used in the Ural as anthelmintic, for intestinal colics, diarrhea, and gastralgia. The extract and fresh leaves are also applied externally on wounds and burns. In the Altai extracts are used for testicle and uterus cancer. In Azerbaijan an extract is used to treat fractures. In the Northern Caucasus and parts of the Ural, Artemisia annua leaves are used as anthelmintic, for respiratory infections, fever, dysentery, and externally for rheumatism and scabies (Sokolov 1993). Artemisia vulgaris: The leaves are used as diuretic and to treat gallbladder problems. The extract also serves to kill lice (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017, 2018). Artemisia scoparia: In the Ural the leaves are used to treat tuberculosis, pneumonia, bronchitis, laryngitis, pharyngitis, angina, with liver disease, fever, anemia, rheumatism, and as anthelmintic. The leaf ash is used as expectorant (Sokolov 1993.

Local Food Uses Artemisia absinthium: The leaves are used as spice, especially to produce aromatic liqueur, and as bitter agent in the production of beer. In the Talysh, and in other areas of the Caucasus, the leaves are used as a seasoning for food (Grossheim 1952). In the Talysh, and in other areas of the Caucasus, the leaves are used as a seasoning for food (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1993). The leaves are used as food (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017, 2018; Fig. 8). Artemisia dracunculus: The leaves are used in cheese production, as spice and for salads, and to make lemonade. Well-known spice is used as a seasoning for salads (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1993). The leaves and fruits are eaten and used as spice, especially for meat, added either while cooking or fresh (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017, 2018; Figs. 9 and 10).

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Fig. 8 Artemisia absinthium (Asteraceae), drying for winter, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 9 Artemisia dracunculus (Asteraceae), ready to eat, Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Artemisia annua/leucodes/vulgaris: The leaves are used as flavoring agent for liquors and as spice for cooking. In Khevi many species are mixed together for Pkhali: ghoris nats’q’la-i ღორის ნაწყლა-ი Sonchus ssp., mch’ivana-i მჭივანა-ი Silene wallichiana Klotzsch; maq’randutsa-i მაყრანდუცა-ი Anthriscus sylvestris (L.) Hoffm. maq’rats’elaმაყრაწელა-ი; diq’inch’ora-ghrich’ola დიყინჭორა-ღრინჭოლა/ j’q’imi’ჭყიმი Anthriscus nemorosa (M. Bieb.) Spreng; k’ats’a-i კაწა-ი Campanula

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Fig. 10 Artemisia dracunculus (Asteraceae), leaves ready to eat, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

rapunculoides L. (its root is also edible), ts’iteli pkhali წითელი/jijilaq’a წითელი ჯიჯილაყა Amaranthus hybridus L., nadirmkhalai ნადირმხალაი Aruncus vulgaris Raf., saskhep’iai სასხეპიაი Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., ch’inch’ari ჭინჭარი Urtica dioica L., gholo ღოლო Rumex ssp., tatami თათამას Atriplex hortensis L. Khevi people use as food the following plants: shalgi შალგი Brassica campestris L., khakhot’i ხახოტი Bunias orientalis L., mamula მამულა Artemisia vulgaris L., ts’its’mat’ura წიწმატურა Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik., and khboshublai ხბოშუბლაი Galega orientalis Lam (Bakhtadze and Koghuashvili 2009; Kavtaradze 1985; Sujashvili and Pitskhelauri 2005). In Tusheti many herbaceous plants are used as food and are kept for winter, either dried or pickled, to make mixed mkhali and sauces and to accompany the main dishes, including kumeli ქუმელი q’va ყვა. It is used all-year round and is made of roasted keri ქერი (barley) grains. Can be made of ipkli იფქლი (Georgian endemic wheat), corn, svili სვილი (rye), kersvili ქერსვილი (mixture of barley and rye), and tsetsvi ცერცვი faba bean), when mixed with corn: giera-i გიერა-ი Brassica campestris subsp. oleifera (DC.) Schübl. & Mart., gomat’i გომატი Bunias orientalis L., dutsi დუცი Angelica tatianae Bordz., kharnuq’a-i ხარნუყა-ი Lactuca serriola L., buera ბუერა Petasites ssp., shubq’a-i შუბყა-ი Heracleum asperum M. Bieb., khap’ara-i ხაპარა-ი Cichorium intybus L., mariamdzmara მარიამძმარა Ligusticum

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alatum (M. Bieb.) Spreng., ch’imi ჭიმი Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., diq’i დიყი Heracleum ssp., jortk’uda-i ჯორთკუდა-ი Artemisia vulgaris L., sagvidzla საღვიძლა Taraxacum officinale (L.) Weber ex F.H. Wigg., dzirkhvena ძირხვენა Arctium lappa L., ch’ivana ჭივანა Silene wallichiana Klotzsch, kvishamkhala ქვიშამხალა Silene laera (Stev.) Sims, khavrat’ai ხავრატაი Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik., jorik’udai ჯორიკუდაი Artemisia vulgaris L., and giera გიერა Sinapis arvensis L. (Makalatia 1933; Bochoridze 1993; Kurdghelaidze 1983; Maghalashvili 1970). There are several ways to season mkhali in Tusheti: (1) well-cleaned plants are placed in a pot and cooked without water. The cooked plants are placed on a sieve to cool and cut into pieces. After that the dish is seasoned with onions browned in clarified butter, eggs, and salt. (2) After cooking the plants in the same way, fresh cottage cheese, onions browned in clarified butter, eggs, and salt are added. (3) After boiling the mkhali is seasoned with vinegar, garlic, and salt. Normally, in Tusheti mkhali is not seasoned with walnuts and vinegar (Makalatia 1933). In Tusheti ch’imi ჭიმი Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., giera გიერა Brassica campestris subsp. oleifera (DC.) Schübl. & Mart., machigt’ara მაჩიგტარა Campanula rapunculoides L., khap’ara ხაპარა (ვარდკაჭაჭა) Cichorium intybus L., diq’i დიყი Heracleum ssp., shup’q’a შუპყა Heracleum asperum M. Bieb., ap’q’i აპყი Heracleum leskovii Grossh., dutsi დუცი Angelica tatianae Bordz, giera გიერა Sinapis arvensis L., jortk’uda ჯორთკუდა (wild estragon) Artemisia vulgaris L., mariamdzmara მარიამძმარა Ligusticum alatum (M. Bieb.) Spreng., and kharnuq’a ხარნუყა Lactuca serriola L. are eaten raw and also dipped in sour milk (Makalatia 1933; Oshoradze 1969). These herbaceous plants for dipping (sats’ebaci, sats’ebi “chatseba” means “dip” in Georgian) are harvested, and a bowl with curd “shegdebul ze” “შეგდებულ ზე” is filled; and then leaves and young shoots from the mentioned herbaceous plants are plucked, dipped in the curd, and eaten. In Kartili young shoots of telkharshi თელხარში Heracleum leskovii Grossh., melidzvala მელიძვალა Serratula quinquefolia M. Bieb. ex Willd, and saptskvnela საფცქვნელა Artemisia vulgaris L. are peeled and eaten (Berozashvili et al. 1981). Artemisia annua: The leaves and fruits are eaten and used as spice, especially for meat, added either while cooking or fresh (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017, 2018). Artemisia vulgaris: The leaves are used as spice for Sats’ebai (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017, 2018).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Artemisia sp.: The stems and leaves are dried and used as brooms (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017, 2018). Artemisia absinthium: As fodder for sheep and rabbits. The plant is browsed by cows but gives the milk a very unpleasant taste. The leaves yield lemon yellow, dark green, and olive dyes for wool and silk. Planted as ornamental. Toxic, causes dermatoses when crushing and grinding the plant (Sokolov 1993). The leaves and stems are given rabbits to treat toothache. The leaves serve to treat fever in animals and serve as antibiotic (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017, 2018).

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Artemisia dracunculus: Fodder for cattle, horses, and camels. Planted also as ornamental (Sokolov 1993). Artemisia annua/leucodes/vulgaris: Fodder for livestock, especially sheep. Goats and camels. A yellow dye for wool is produced from the leaves. Planted as ornamental (Sokolov 1993). Artemisia annua: The leaf extract serves to treat wounds in animals and as insect repellant (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017, 2018). Artemisia scoparia: Fodder for small livestock. Used as ornamental (Sokolov 1993). In general good silage is obtained from species of wormwood, and the consumption of this does not affect the quality of milk and butter that occurs when animals eat wormwood fresh. Wormwood oils are suitable for soap making (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1993).

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Maghalashvili T. Useful plants of Telavi district. Acad. S. Janashia State Museum of Georgia XXVI–XXVII. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1970. (8 1970. მაღალაშვილი თ. თელავის რაიონის სასარგებლო მცენარეები. აკად. ს. ჯანაშიას სახელობის საქართველოს სახელმწიფო მუზეუმის მოამბე XXVI–XXVII – A. თბილისი: მეცნიერება in Georgian). Makalatia S. Tusheti. Tbilisi: Sakhelgami; 1933. (მაკალათია ს. 1933. თუშეთი. ტფილისი: სახელგამი in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Mozaffarian V. Identification of medicinal and aromatic plants of Iran. Tehran: Farhang-e Moaser; 2013. Oshoradze V. Characteristics of wild mkhaleuli and greens of Tusheti and possibility of their cultivation. Candidate of Agricultural Sciences dissertation thesis. Tbilisi. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1969. 1969. ოშორაძე ვ. თუშეთის ველურად მოზარდი მხალეულ-მწვანილეული მცენარეების ( . დახასიათება და მათი კულტურაში დანერგვის შესაძლებლობა სადისერტაციო ნაშრომი სოფლის მეურნეობის მეცნ. კანდიდატის სამეცნიერო ხარისხის მოსაპოვებლად. თბილისი in Georgian). Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, Volume 26: Compositae Giseke (altern. Asteraceae Dumort). Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1961 (English 1995). 1072 pages. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, Volume 7. Family Asteraceae (Compositae). Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1993. 352 p. (in Russian). Sujashvili N, Pitskhelauri I. Dictionary of Mokhevian dialect. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 2005. (სუჯაშვილი ნ., ფიცხელაური ი. 2005. მოხევური ლექსიკონი. თბილისი).

Arum italicum subsp. albispathum (Steven ex Ledeb.) Prime Arum maculatum L. Araceae Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze Synonyms Arum italicum subsp. albispathum (Steven ex Ledeb.) Prime: Arum albispathum Steven ex Ledeb.; Arum orientale subsp. albispathum (Steven ex Ledeb.) K. Richt.; Arum orientale subsp. albispathum (Steven ex Ledeb.) Nyman; Arum orientale var. albispathum (Steven ex Ledeb.) Engl. Arum maculatum L.: Arum maculatum fo. spathulatum Terpó; Arum maculatum fo. tetrellii (Corb.) Terpó; Arum maculatum fo. karpatii Terpó; Arum orientale (Engl.) R.R. Mill; Arum orientale subsp. amoenum (Engl.) R.R. Mill; Arum R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_17

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pyrenaicum Dufour; Arum trapezuntinum Schott ex Engl.; Arum vulgare Lam.; Arum zelebori Schott

Local Names Allium italicum: Georgian: ნიუკა (niuk’a), დაჭრილა (dach’rila), ქალაკოდა (kalak’oda); ქალაკოდა (Qalakoda). Allium maculatum: Svan: ქალაკოდა (qalakoda); Russian: Аройник (Aroinik); Azeri: дана-аягы (dana-ayagy); Armenian: конг (kong) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991; Sokolov 1994).

Botany and Ecology Arum italicum: Perennial; tuber ovoid to elongate; leaves very large, to 70 cm long, the blade to 23 cm long, with short obtuse lateral leaflets, the petioles very long (twice as long as the blades), forming a short broad sheath at base; scape half as long as the leaf petiole; spathe with an ovate to oblong acuminate limb, very large, white, greenish on the back; spadix half as long as the spathe; summit of spadix cylindrical, yellow, shorter than the stalk. Flowering April–May. Ural, Caucasus, in shady Fagus and Carpinus forests, thickets, shrubland, on grassy slopes, up to the mid-mountain belt (Komarov and Shishkin 1935; Figs. 1 and 2). Arum maculatum: Perennial; tuber globular-flattened; leaf blade broadly hastatecordate, about half as long to as long as the petiole, 7–7.5 cm in length, the lateral leaflets 2.4–4.4 cm, the blade often broader than long; spadix longer than long, dark brownish-purple, greenish-white at base; summit of spadix cylindrical (to 2 cm long), dark reddish-purple, shorter than to equaling its slender stalk. Flowering April–May. Ural, Caucasus, in shady Fagus and Carpinus forests (Komarov and Shishkin 1935; Figs. 3 and 4). Fig. 1 Arum sp. (Araceae), Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

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Fig. 2 Arum sp. (Araceae), Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Fig. 3 Arum sp. (Araceae), Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Phytochemistry Carbohydrates (glucose, fructose, raffinose, sucrose, mannose, rhamnose), alkaloids, vitamins (C), saponins, cyanogenic (trilochinine), phenolcarboxylic acids (coffee), flavonoids (apyrenene, luteolin, glucoside, quercitrin, rutin, orientin, iso-oriene, vitexin, isovitinexin, saponarin) (Sokolov 1994).

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Fig. 4 Arum sp. (Araceae), Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses In the Ural, Arum is externally for eczema, sunburn erythema, herpes, and bleeding gums and insect bites. The decoction is ingested to treat gastritis, bronchitis, heartburn, liver diseases, gout, and hemorrhoids (Sokolov 1994). Arum maculatum: In Georgia, the leaf extract is used for cancer treatments (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017).

Local Food Uses In the Caucasus, the young leaves are used for herb stew, soups, and salads and the tubers are dried and ground as flour. The plants are toxic and cannot be eaten without processing. Fresh tuber-like rhizomes of Araceae are very poisonous, but boiling and drying remove the poison, so that they can be eaten and ground into flour. In Northern Armenia, young leaves of A. orientale are dried and shortly boiled; broth is removed to remove bitter taste, and leaves are further boiled to make souse of soup. The product is highly valued by population as a delicacy (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1994).

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In the Tianeti District, ghjimi ღიმი Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., diq’i დიყი Heracleum ssp., khozo ხოზო Chaerophyllum aureum L., kalta-k’ovza ქალთა-კოვზა Arum orientale M. Bieb., and Arum albispathum Steven ex Ledeb. stems are pickled. In Kartli kalak’oda ქალაკოდა Arum orientale M. Bieb., shavmkhala შავმხალა Amaranthus retroflexus L., kharik’bila ხარიკბილა/khach’mach’ich’a ხაჭმაჭიჭა/ odelia-khali ოდელია-ხალი Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik., shalgi შალგი Brassica campestris L., ghrinch’ola ღრინჭოლა Anthriscus nemorosa (M. Bieb.) Spreng., kalak’oda ქალაკოდა Arum orientale M. Bieb., and ghoriskona-khali ღორისქონა-ხალი Sonchus ssp. are used for pkhali (Javakhishvili 1986). A winter dish is “kalak’oda naq’un” (Arum albispathum Steven ex Ledeb.) “ქალაკოდა ნაყუნ.” This needs to be dried because it is not edible when raw. It is braided while raw and hung to dry and then prepared as follows: put in a boiling water. When ready, barley flour “rop” (“როფ”) is added, meld with “zhishkhk’”(“ჟიშხკ”), and seasoned with coriander, mint, and salt (Javakhishvili 1986). In Racha young shoots of kalak’oda ქალაკოდა Arum orientale M. Bieb. (in Racha and Imereti the local name is niuk’a) are used as food to cook pkhali (Dvalidze 2014; Shengelia 1983). In Racha tiorshi თიორში, dilkhami დილხამი Arctium lappa L., mek’endzala მეკენძალა Aruncus vulgaris Raf., kalak’oda ქალაკოდა Arum orientale M. Bieb., and Humulus lupulus L. and many others are kept for winter woven in double braids and hung from a pillar to pillar, long as the song sung by women during the kalak’oda ქალაკოდა (Arum orientale collection party) (Pruidze 1986). People of western Georgia widely use dried niuk’a and kalak’oda Arum orientale as a good pkhali plant (Kopaliani 2013). Arum italicum: Leaves used in phkhali (herb pie) (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017, 2018). Arum maculatum: Leaves and young shoots used in phkhali (herb pie) (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017, 2018).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The pounded plant material is used as bleach for laundry. Planted as ornamentals (Sokolov 1994).

References Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti,

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Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Dvalidze T. Village Bajikhevi. Past, present and future. Tbilisi: Teka & Co; 2014. (დვალიძე ტ. 2014. სოფელი ბაჯიხევი. წარსული, აწყმო და მომავალი გამ-ბა “თეკა & კომპანია“, თბილისი in Georgian). Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow; Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Javakhishvili I. Materials for the history of household industry and handicraft, vol. V, part 2: Food and drinks. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1986. (ჯავახიშვილი, ი. 1986. მასალები შინა მრეწველობისა და ხელოსნობის ისტორიისათვის, ტ. V ნაწ. 2: საჭმელ in Georgian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Komarov VL, Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 3: Cyperaceae-Palmae Spathiflorae, Farinosae, Lilliflorae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1935 (English 1964). 512 p, 30 b/w plates, 2 maps. Kopaliani L. Forest plants of Georgia (trees, shrubs, herbs). Kutaisi; 2013. 8კოპალიანი ლ. 2013. საქართველოს ტყის მცენარეები (ხეები, ბუჩქები, ბალახები). ქუთაისიv). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Pruidze L. Racha in the view of an ethnographer. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1986. (ფრუიძე ლ. 1986. რაჭა ეთნოგრაფის თვალით. თბილისი: მეცნიერება in Georgian). Shengelia Z. Culture of medicinal plants in Georgia. Tbilisi: Sabchota sakartvelo; 1983. (შენგელია ზ. 1983. სამკურნალო მცენარეთა კულტურა საქართველოში. თბილისი: საბჭოთა საქართველო in Georgian). Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of Russia and adjacent states: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, Volume 8. Families Butomaceae – Typhaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1994, 271 p. (in Russian).

Aruncus dioicus (Walter) Fernald ROSACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Aruncus dioicus (Walter) Fernald: Aruncus vulgaris Raf.

Local Names Georgian: Marts’q’vi, მეკენძალა (mek’endzala); Svan: მეჭეხი (metchekhi) (Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991) R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_18

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Botany and Ecology Perennial, 1–2 m high, with thick, woody rhizome developing numerous shoots; leaves long-petioled, to 1 mm long, bipinnate, usually with nine leaflets, the upper leaflets entire, short-petioled, the lower with conspicuous petioles to 5 cm long, pinnatipartite into 3–7 lobes, the lower lobes usually tripinnate; lobes oblong or lanceolate-ovate, the terminal broader, tapering to a long sharp point, cuneate or truncate, rarely cordate, mostly oblique at base, glabrous or sparsely hairy along the veins, biserrate; panicles compound, very large, spreading, to 50 cm long, individual racemes to 15 cm long; racemes of staminate flowers dense, spiciform, those of pistillate flowers sparse; staminate flowers 3–3.5 mm in diameter, with oval or slightly spatulate petals, 1–1.5 mm long, 1 mm broad; pistillate flowers 2.5–3 mm in diameter; follicles 2.5–3 mm long, 1 mm broad, glabrous. Flowering from mid-June to beginning of August, fruiting from mid-August. Ural, Caucasus, forests up to the subalpine zone (Yuzepchuk 1939; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6).

Phytochemistry Cyanogenic glycosides (Sokolov 1987). Fig. 1 Aruncus dioicus (Rosaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Aruncus dioicus (Walter) Fernald Fig. 2 Aruncus dioicus (Rosaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Aruncus dioicus (Rosaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Aruncus dioicus (Rosaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 6 Aruncus dioicus (Rosaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses Leaves and flowers used as antipyretic (Sokolov 1987).

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Local Food Uses In Khevi, many species are mixed together for pkhali: ghoris nats’q’la-i ღორის ნაწყლა-ი Sonchus ssp., mch’ivana-i მჭივანა-ი Silene wallichiana Klotzsch; maq’randutsa-i მაყრანდუცა-ი Anthriscus sylvestris (L.) Hoffm. maq’rats’ela მაყრაწელა-ი; დიყინჭორა-ღრინჭოლა/j’q’imi’ჭყიმი diq’inch’ora-ghrich’ola Anthriscus nemorosa (M. Bieb.) Spreng; and k’ats’a-i კაწა-ი Campanula rapunculoides L. (its root is also edible), ts’iteli pkhali წითელი/jijilaq’a წითელი ჯიჯილაყა Amaranthus hybridus L., nadirmkhalai ნადირმხალაი Aruncus vulgaris Raf., saskhep’iai სასხეპიაი Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., ch’inch’ari ჭინჭარი Urtica dioica L., gholo ღოლო Rumex ssp., and tatami თათამას Atriplex hortensis L. Khevi people use as food the following plants: shalgi შალგი Brassica campestris L., khakhot’i ხახოტი Bunias orientalis L., mamula მამულა Artemisia vulgaris L., ts’its’mat’ura წიწმატურა Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik., and khboshublai ხბოშუბლაი Galega orientalis Lam. (Bakhtadze and Koghuashvili 2009; Kavtaradze 1985; Sujashvili and Pitskhelauri 2005). In Pshavi, plants used for mkhali (pkhali) are მხალეულად იყენებენ Amaranthus albus L., tetrmkhala თეთრმხალა Amaranthus retroflexus L., ts’itelmkhala წითელმხალა Amaranthus hybridus L., mek’endzela მეკენძელას Aruncus vulgaris Raf., khipkhlis q’iva ხიფხლის ყივა Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., shup’q’a შუპყა Heracleum asperum M.Bieb., k’enk’esha კენკეშას Campanula lactiflora M.Bieb., and khipkhola ხიფხოლა (q’int’ora ყინტორა) Chaerophyllum aureum L. (Bodzashvili 1988; Maghalashvili 1970; Javakhishvili 1986). Pshavi people pickle mekendzala მეკენძალა Aruncus vulgaris Raf., ghimi ღიმი Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., etc. They use as food shup’q’a შუპყა Heracleum asperum M. Bieb., ts’iteli jijilaq’a წითელი ჯიჯილაყა Amaranthus hybridus L., and ghimi ღიმი Chaerophyllum bulbosum L. (Bakhtadze and Koghuashvili 2009). In Tianeti District, Q’ovis p’ts’k’ala ყოვის პწკალა Aruncus vulgaris (Maxim.) Raf. ex Pojark. is mostly used for pickling, and preserves, to be used all winter. In Svaneti buera (ბუერა Petasites ssp., Svan name burghvi (ბურღვი)), peeled young leaf stalks are edible. In Lower Svaneti a disk with (Aruncus vulgaris Raf. mech’ekhi naq’un -მეჭეხი ნაყუნ). Leaves are taken away, and the shoot “k’elar” (კელარ) alone is boiled for half an hour and is seasoned only with walnuts and salt (Javakhishvili 1986). In Lechkhumi, soft shoots of mech’ekhi მეჭეხი Aruncus vulgaris Raf. are boiled, the water is then decanted, cold water added, left for 15–20 min, and then taken out of the water, pressed, and cut at desirable size, and then crushed walnuts, garlic, chili pepper, and onion, pennyroyal, vinegar, and salt are added and mixed (Izo GoletianiIremadze, village Zeda Ghvirishi, Tsageri Ditr., 2014). Young branches of Aruncus vulgaris Raf seasoned with vinegar were used to make delicious pkhali (mkhali) (Kopaliani 2013). In Racha, mek’endzala მეკენძალა Aruncus vulgaris Raf. is cooked separately and seasoned with walnuts and vinegar (Dvalidze 2014; Javakhishvili 1986).

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In Racha, tiorshi თიორში, dilkhami დილხამი Arctium lappa L., mek’endzala მეკენძალა Aruncus vulgaris Raf., kalak’oda ქალაკოდა Arum orientale M. Bieb., and Humulus lupulus L. and many others are kept for winter woven in double braids and hung from a pillar to pillar, long as the song sung by women during the kalak’oda ქალაკოდა (Arum orientale collection party) (Pruidze 1986). In Samegrelo, mach’akheia მაჭახეია Aruncus vulgaris Raf. emerges in March, and its young shoots are boiled, pressed, and seasoned with garlic, pepper, salt by taste, walnuts, or hazelnuts. In Adjara, Ajorik’a აჯორიკა Aruncus vulgaris Raf. is used to cook ts’urvili წურვილი. The plant is washed and drained. Separately crushed walnuts, garlic, coriander, and pepper, salt, and q’orao ყორაო (k’vats’arakhi კვაწარახი, sour prune juice) (if not available, vinegar can be used) are then mixed well with the pkhali. Plants mixed together for pkhali in Adjara include dvarula dvalura დვარულა დვალურა Polygonum carneum C. Koch, dondoli დონდოლი Gadellia lactiflora (M. Bieb.), ch’inch’ari ჭინჭარი Urtica dioica L., katamnatsara ქათამნაცარა Chenopodium album L., ch’ich’laq’a ჭიჭლაყა Amaranthus retroflexus L., perapera ფერაფერა Phytolacca americana L., k’uk’umzhava კუკუმჟავა, svint’ri სვინტრი Polygonatum ssp., ch’arbadelo ჭარბადელო Arctium lappa L., and also young leaves of motsvi მოცვი Vaccinium ssp., venakhi ვენახი Vitis vinifera L., babuats’vera ბაბუასწვერა Taraxacum ssp., Kajiloja ქაჯილოჯა Daucus carota L., Ts’its’marit’a წიწმარიტა Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik., and burt’q’ila ბურტყილა Lapsana grandiflora M. Bieb.; the plants used by Adjara people as food are ajark’ela აჯარკელა Lathyrus roseus Steven, ajorik’a აჯორიკას Aruncus vulgaris Raf. (young leaves are pickled), bobots’vera ბობოწვერა Taraxacum ssp. (ground roasted dry roots used instead of cichorium), dilq’a დილყა Heracleum sp. (shoots are peeled and eaten), k’onst’ant’ila კონსტანტილა (white roots are edible), ozaghina ოზაღინა Chaerophyllum aureum L. (young leaves are pickled), ghima ღიმა Chaerophyllum bulbosum L. (mixed with leek or ajorik’a აჯორიკა Aruncus vulgaris Raf. and pickled), and dvalura დვალურა Polygonum carneum (Baramidze 1987; Kakhidze 2007; Kokhreidze 1947; Nizharadze 1971). Wild pkhali plants can be cooked in various ways: can be pickled, boiled, and seasoned with vinegar, walnuts, and various spice herbs (Kokhreidze 1947). The young leaves are used in pkhali, together with many other species. The stems are pickled (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Grossheim 1952; Gvaramadze 1997; Makalatia 1933).

References Bakhtadze D, Koghuashvili P. Nutrition culture of the Georgians. Tbilisi; 2009. (ბახტაძე დ., კოღუაშვილი პ. 2009. ქართველთა კვების კულტურა. თბილისი, in Georgian). Baramidze J. Adjarian dishes. Batumi: Sabchota Adjara; 1987. (ბარამიძე ჯ. 1987. აჭარული კერძები. ბათუმი: საბჭოთა აჭარა in Georgian). Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Smilax excelsa L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017.

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Bodzashvili L. Pshavi and Pshavians. Tbilisi: Sabchota Sakartvelo; 1988. (ბოძაშვილი ლ. 1988. ფშავი და ფშაველები. თბილისი: გამომცემლობა საბჭოთა საქართველო in Georgian). Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Dvalidze T. Village Bajikhevi. Past, present and future. Tbilisi: Teka & Co; 2014. (დვალიძე ტ. 2014. სოფელი ბაჯიხევი. წარსული, აწყმო და მომავალი გამ-ბა “თეკა & კომპანია“, თბილისი in Georgian). Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow; 1952. (in Russian). Gvaramadze K. Results of the study of the Guria region. Tbilisi; 1997. (გვარამაძე კ. 1997. (გურია მხარის კვლევა-ძიების შედეგები. თბილისი in Georgian). Javakhishvili I. Materials for the history of household industry and handicraft, vol. V, part 2: Food and drinks. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1986. (ჯავახიშვილი, ი. 1986. მასალები შინა მრეწველობისა და ხელოსნობის ისტორიისათვის, ტ. V ნაწ. 2: საჭმელ in Georgian). Kakhidze N. The oldest and old historical sources of Adjara – ethnographic data. Essays on history of south-western Georgia, Adjara 1. Tbilisi; 2007. (კახიძე ნ. 2007 აჭარის უძველესი და ძველი ისტორიის წყაროები ეთნოგრაფიული მონაცემები. სამხრეთ-დასავლეთ საქართველოს ისტორიის ნარკვევები აჭარა 1. თბილისი in Georgian). Kavtaradze I. Mokhevian dialect of the Georgian language. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1985. (ქავთარაძე ი. 1985. ქართული ენის მოხევური დიალექტი. თბილისი: მეცნიერება in Georgian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Kokhreidze V. Wild food plants of Adjara (mkhaleuli). Batumi: Adjaris sakhelgami; 1947. 8კოხრეიძე ვ. 1947. აჭარაში ველურად მოზარდი საკვები მცენარეები (მხალეული). ბათუმი: აჭარის სახელგამი in Georgian). Kopaliani L. Forest plants of Georgia (trees, shrubs, herbs). Kutaisi; 2013. 8კოპალიანი ლ. 2013. საქართველოს ტყის მცენარეები (ხეები, ბუჩქები, ბალახები). ქუთაისიv). Maghalashvili T. Useful plants of Telavi district. Acad. S. Janashia State Museum of Georgia XXVI–XXVII. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1970. (8 მაღალაშვილი თ. 1970. თელავის რაიონის სასარგებლო მცენარეები. აკად. ს. ჯანაშიას სახელობის საქართველოს სახელმწიფო მუზეუმის მოამბე XXVI–XXVII – A. თბილისი: მეცნიერება in Georgian). Makalatia S. Tusheti. Tbilisi: Sakhelgami; 1933. (მაკალათია ს. 1933. თუშეთი. ტფილისი: სახელგამი in Georgian).

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Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Nizharadze Sh. Adjarian dialect of the Georgian language. Batumi; 1971. (ნიჟარაძე შ. 1971. ქართული ენის აჭარული დიალექტი. ბათუმი in Georgian). Pruidze L. Racha in the view of an ethnographer. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1986. (ფრუიძე ლ. 1986. რაჭა ეთნოგრაფის თვალით. თბილისი: მეცნიერება in Georgian). Sokolov PD, editor. Plant Resources of the USSR: Flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, Volume 3. Hydrangeaceae-Haloragaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1987, 326 p. (in Russian). Sujashvili N, Pitskhelauri I. Dictionary of Mokhevian dialect. Tbilisi; 2005. (სუჯაშვილი ნ., ფიცხელაური ი. 2005. მოხევური ლექსიკონი. თბილისი). Yuzepchuk SV. Flora of the USSR, Volume 9: Rosales and Sarraceniales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1939 (English 1971). 425 p, 30 plates with b/w line drawings, 2 b/w fold-out maps.

Astragalus caucasicus Pall. FABACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Local Names Georgian გლერძი (glerdzi); Russian Астрагал (astragal); Azeri гёвен (goeven); Armenian газ (gas) (Grossheim 1952) (Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991; Sokolov 1987).

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_19

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Botany and Ecology Astragalus is the largest genus in the Caucasus (about 200 species); with very diverse ecology and external form, a densely branched shrub, 40–50 cm tall; branches up to 20 cm long, with tomentose internodes, densely clothed in stipules and spinescent leaf rachises; spines divergent, pubescent, slender, 2–7 cm long; stipules lanceolate, acuminate, pubescent at first, becoming glabrous, stramineous, subcoriaceous-membranous; leaflets 6–8 pairs, linear-lanceolate to oblong, cineraceous with appressed hairs, glabrate above, 7–10 mm long, to 2 mm broad, terminating in a strong prickle; bracts narrow, linear-navicular, acuminate, hairy on the back, about equaling or somewhat shorter than the calyx; flowers in 2’s or 3’s in the leaf axils, crowded in a cylindric spiciform inflorescence 1–2 cm broad; calyx 7–10 mm long, lanate with white hairs, not splitting, with a distinct tube, commonly glabrous toward base, the pannose-hirsute lanceolate or subulate teeth about equaling or somewhat shorter than Fig. 1 Astragalus fragrans (Fabaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Astragalus fragrans (Fabaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

the tube, corolla about twice the length of the calyx, 12–14 (16) mm long, whitish or yellowish; standard oblong-spatulate, 4–6 mm broad in upper part, retuse, gradually attenuate toward base, the claw broad, but narrower than the limb; wing petals about equaling the standard, the oblong-lanceolate limb about equaling the claw, auriculate at base; keel limb oval, 2/3 as long as the claw; ovary hairy, oblong; style 8 mm long, naked; pods lanate, oblong, 1–2-seeded. Flowering June–September. Caucasus, rocks and stony dry slopes (Komarov and Shishkin 1946; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12).

Local Food Uses The leaves are used as tea (Bussmann et al. 2016, 2017).

164 Fig. 3 Astragalus sp. (Fabaceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Astragalus sp. (Fabaceae), Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Astragalus sp. (Fabaceae), Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Astragalus caucasicus Pall. Fig. 6 Astragalus sp. (Fabaceae), Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 7 Astragalus sp. (Fabaceae), Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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166 Fig. 8 Astragalus sp. (Fabaceae), Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 9 Astragalus sp. (Fabaceae), material for local art, Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 10 Astragalus sp. (Fabaceae), material for local art, Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 11 Astragalus sp. (Fabaceae), material for local art, Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 12 Astragalus sp. (Fabaceae), local art, Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Used as fodder (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1987). The root gum is used in art (Bussmann et al. 2016, 2017).

References Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2.

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Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Komarov VL, Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 12: Leguminosae: Astragalus. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1946 (English 1965). 681 p, 50 b/w plates, 2 maps. Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, Volume 3. Hydrangeaceae-Haloragaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1987, 326 p. (in Russian).

Astrantia maxima Pall. APIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Local Names Georgian ვარსკვლავა (varsk’vlava), თესიგირი (tesigiri); ინგირი (ingiri), უკვდავა (uk’vdava); თესიგირი (tesigiri), ინგირი (ingiri); Russian Звездовка (svesdovka); Armenian астхабуйс (astkhabuys) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991; Sokolov 1988).

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Pasz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Pasz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_20

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Botany and Ecology Perennial; stem 40–70 cm, simple, sometimes with 1–2 small branches above, usually with one fully developed umbel; lower cauline leaves on petioles 3–4 times as long as the tripartite blades, blade with median lobe narrower than lateral, sometimes sublanceolate, 3–5 cm long, 1.5–2.5 cm wide, the lateral asymmetrical, slightly larger, bristly-dentate, with three prominent nerves beneath; rarely lower leaves quadripartite; median and upper cauline leaves sessile or amplexicaul, tripartite or three-lobed, terminal leaves 2–3, ovate or lanceolate, 2–3-lobed or parted. Umbels 2–4.5 cm across; leaflets of involucre 8–13, thinly coriaceous, lanceolate or broadly lanceolate, greenish outside, reddish inside, acuminate, with 5–15 bilateral teeth tapering to 1-mm-long bristles, later subglabrous, leaflets to 2.5 cm long, 1 cm wide, nearly twice as long as flowers; flowers many, pedicels ca. 1 cm, lobes of calyx narrowly lanceolate, stiff, ca. 3 mm long with subulate tip; petals narrowly cuneate, 1.5 mm long; styles in pistillate flowers hardly divergent, half the length of the sepals; fruit ca. 10 mm long, mericarps rounded in cross section, canals very large. Flowering July–August. Caucasus, in subalpine meadows and thickets near the upper timberline, on tall-grass meadow, less often between rocks (Shishkin 1950; Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Phytochemistry Polyacetylene compounds, carbohydrates, organic acids (angelic, apple, malic, oxalic), triterpenoids (gypsogenin, apigenine, oleanolic, and hypsogenic acids), triterpene saponis, phenol carboxylic acids (chlorogenic), flavonoids (quercetine, kaempferol, kaempfgeretrine, astragaline, rutine, isoquercetin), carbohydrates, essential oils, phenylcarboxylic acids (rosemary, chlorogenic) (Sokolov 1988). Fig. 1 Astrantia maxima (Apiaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R:W. Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Astrantia maxima Pall. Fig. 2 Astrantia maxima (Apiaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R:W. Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Fig. 3 Astrantia maxima (Apiaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R:W. Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

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Fig. 4 Astrantia maxima (Apiaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R:W. Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses The roots are used as laxative (Sokolov 1988). The leaves, roots, and stems are used as laxative and digestive. The root is used for diarrhea (Bussmann et al. 2016, 2017, 2018).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses In veterinary medicine used as laxative. Toxic. Perfect melliferous plant producing abundant nectar. Gives light-colored high-quality honey. Decorative (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1988). Used as ornamental (Bussmann et al. 2016, 2017, 2018).

References Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – Plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian).

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Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 16: Umbelliflorae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1950 (English 1973). 478 p, 37 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1988. 357 p. (in Russian).

Avena sativa L. POACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Avena sativa L.: Avena algeriensis Trab.; Avena anglica hort. ex Roem. & Schult.; Avena byzantina K. Koch.; Avena byzantina var. thellungiana (Malzev) E. Morren; Avena chinensis Fisch. ex Roem. & Schult.; Avena chinensis Link; Avena cinerea hort. ex Roem. & Schult.; Avena distans Schur; Avena fatua fo. glaberrima Thell.; Avena fatua subsp. cultiformis Malzev; Avena fatua subsp. macrantha (Hack.)

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_21

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Malzev; Avena fatua subsp. praegravis (Krause) Malzev; Avena fatua subsp. sativa (L.) Thell.; Avena fatua subvar. contracta (Neilr.) Malzev; Avena fatua var. glaberrima (Thell.) Malzev; Avena fatua var. sativa (L.) Hausskn.; Avena flava hort. ex Roem. & Schult.; Avena fusca Schur; Avena fusciflora Schur; Avena georgiana Roem. ex Schult.; Avena georgica Zuccagni; Avena grandis Nevski; Avena heteromalla Haller; Avena hungarica Lucé; Avena macrantha (Hack.) Malzev; Avena macrantha (Hack.) Nevski; Avena nigra Wallr.; Avena nodipilosa (Malzev) Malzev; Avena orientalis Gilib.; Avena persarum Nevski; Avena podolica Bocki; Avena podolica Pascal. ex Zuccagni; Avena ponderosa L. ex B.D. Jacks.; Avena pseudosativa (Thell.) Herter; Avena pseudosativa Thell. ex Malzev; Avena racemosa Thuill.; Avena rubra Zuccnagi; Avena sativa convar. nodipilosa (Malzev) Tzvelev; Avena sativa fo. contracta Neilr.; Avena sativa subsp. contracta (Neilr.) Celak.; Avena sativa subsp. macrantha (Hack.) Rocha Alfonso; Avena sativa subsp. nodipilosa (Malzev) Vasc.; Avena sativa var. chinensis Döll; Avena sativa var. chinensis Vilm.; Avena sativa var. contracta Neilr.; Avena sativa var. glaberrima (Thell.) Maire & Weiller; Avena sativa var. nigra Prov.; Avena sativa var. orientalis (Schreb.) Alef.; Avena sativa var. secunda Alph. Wood; Avena shatilowiana Litv.; Avena sterilis fo. pseudosativa Thell.; Avena sterilis var. thellungiana Malzev; Avena tartarica Ard.; Avena thellungii Nevski; Avena triseta Thunb.; Avena unilateralis Brouss. ex Roem. & Schult.; Avena verna Heuze; Avena volgensis (Vavilov) Nevski

Local Names Georgian: შვრია (shvria); Svan ზინთხ (zinthkh) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991; Sokolov 1994); English oats.

Botany and Ecology Annual. Culms 60–100 cm tall, always with glabrous nodes; leaves and sheaths glabrous. Panicle open, rarely one-sided (var. contracta Neilr.), to 25 cm long; spikelets of medium size, 2–3-flowered, only the lower floret awned, more rarely all florets awnless; glumes to 25 mm long, slightly longer than the floret; all florets of the spikelet without joints; rachilla glabrous; lemma lanceolate, ca. 20 mm long, two-toothed at the tip, glabrescent, with few hairs at base, or entirely glabrous; rachilla slightly bent, or straight, or wanting. Flowering June–August. Widely cultivated and fairly often escaped (Rozhevits et al. 1934). Avena sativa is only known in cultivation and its exact origin is unclear. Oat was not cultivated as early as wheat and barley, and probably it persisted as a weed in fields of these cereals for centuries before it was taken into cultivation. Oat seeds have been found in 4000-year-old remains in Egypt, but these were probably from weeds and not

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Fig. 1 Avena sativa (Poaceae), Maras, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Avena sativa (Poaceae), Akhaltsikhe, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

from cultivated oat. The oldest known cultivated oat remains were found in caves in Switzerland that date back to around 1000 BC. Avena sativa probably evolved in central or northern Europe from wild Avena sterilis L. (Rozhevits et al. 1934; Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

178 Fig. 3 Avena sativa (Poaceae), Akhaltsikhe, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Avena fatua (Poaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Local Food Uses Used mostly as porridge (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b; Bussmann 2017; Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1994).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Oat grain, straw, and herbage are used as fodder products (Sokolov 1994).

References Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014; 12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/21670412.1000266. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Rozhevits RYu, Shishkin BK, Komarov VL. Flora of the USSR, Volume 2: Glumiflorae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1934 (English 1973), 622 p, 50 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of Russia and adjacent states: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, Volume 8. Families Butomaceae – Typhaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1994, 271 p. (in Russian).

Beta vulgaris L. AMARANTHACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Beta vulgaris L.: Beta orientalis L.; Beta vulgaris subsp. orientalis Aellen; Beta vulgaris var. cicla L.

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; mananakhuts@yahoo. com; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_22

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Local Names Beta vulgaris: Georgia ჭარხალი (ch’arkhali); ჭარხალი (marts’q’vi); Khevsur (Kholhnuta); Armenian sokla; Russian Свекла (svekla); Azeri чугундур (tsugundur); Armenian чакндех (tsaknedech) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991); English beet Beta vulgaris L. ssp. cicla: Georgian მანგოლდი (mangoldi); ფოთლოვანი ჭარხალი (phothlovani charkhali); წითელი ფხალი (ts’iteli pkhali); ჭარხალი (ch’arkhali); წითელი ფხალი (ts’iteli pkhali) Beta vulgaris L. ssp. esculenta: Georgian შაქრის ჭარხალი (shakris ch’arkhali); Svan ხულ (khul)

Botany and Ecology Annual or biennial, rarely perennial; roots stout, napiform or fusiform, ranging in color from white to purplish-violet, very rarely more slender than the stem; stem mostly erect, more or less branched or simple, commonly without elongated decumbent or ascending branches; leaves resembling those of the preceding species but in cultivated varieties often larger and varying in color and shape; inflorescence leafy at least in lower part; glomerules containing 1–8 flowers; in other characters resembling the preceding species. Widely cultivated, sometimes naturalized; occasionally in the Caucasus as a weed or ruderal plant (Komarov and Shishkin 1936). The garden beet (Beta vulgaris ssp. esculenta (Salisb.) Gurke) was already grown about 2000 years B.C. as a root vegetable and is widely distributed as a horticultural crop. It is represented by many varieties which differ in root color (white var. alba DC, yellow var. lutea DC, pink or reddish var. rosea (L.) Moq., dark red in a common cultivated form var. rubra (L.) Moq., as well as a leaf vegetable (Beta vulgaris ssp. cicla (L.) Moq.)) (Komarov and Shishkin 1936) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Fig. 1 Beta vulgaris var. cicla (Amaranthaceae), garden, Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Beta vulgaris var. cicla (Amaranthaceae), garden, Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Sugars (saccharose, invertase, raffinose, pectins, fructose, glucose, arabinose, galactose, xylan, dextran, levulan, saccharin, coniferin), organic acids (glycolic, quinic, oxalic, succinic, citric, malic, aconitic, glutaric, adipic, tartaric), aromatic compounds (coniferin, vanillin, catechin), alkannin, amino acids (leucine, asparagine, aspartic acid, glutamine, glutamic acid, tyrosine), lecithin, betaine, xanthine, guanidine, vernine, hypoxanthine, adenine, carnine, arginine, allantoin (Fedorov 1984).

Local Food Uses Leaves eaten as vegetable/Pkhali; roots can be used for sugar extraction (Fedorov 1984; Grossheim 1952).

184 Fig. 3 Beta vulgaris var. cicla (Amaranthaceae), flowering beet, garden, Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Beta vulgaris var. cicla (Amaranthaceae), beet leaves in market, Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Beta vulgaris L. Fig. 5 Beta vulgaris var. cicla (Amaranthaceae), beet diversity, garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 6 Beta vulgaris var. cicla (Amaranthaceae), beet diversity, garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 7 Beta vulgaris var. cicla (Amaranthaceae), beet diversity, garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 8 Beta vulgaris var. cicla (Amaranthaceae), beet diversity, garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 9 Beta vulgaris var. cicla (Amaranthaceae), beet diversity, garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Beta vulgaris L.: The rootstock is eaten cooked or pickled; the leaves are used for Pkhali (herb pie), often together with other species, e.g., Amaranthus (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017). Beta vulgaris L. ssp. cicla: The leaves and stems are used for Pkhali (herb pie), often together with other species, e.g., Amaranthus (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017) (Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12). Beta vulgaris L. ssp. esculenta: The leaves and roots pickled (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

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Fig. 10 Beta vulgaris var. cicla (Amaranthaceae), beet salad, Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 11 Beta vulgaris var. cicla (Amaranthaceae), beet Phkhali, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Beet juice is sometimes used to color wine and as an ingredient of vitamin extracts (Fedorov 1984).

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Fig. 12 Beta vulgaris var. cicla (Amaranthaceae), fermented beets, Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

References Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Amaranthus retroflexus L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Heidelberg: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Heidelberg: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plant and fungal use in Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016c;86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plant and fungal use in Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2017;86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – Plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33.

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Fedorov AA, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: Flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 1. Families Magnoliaceae – Limoniaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1984. 460 p. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Komarov VL, Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 6: Centrospermae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1936 (English 1970). 731 pages, 55 b/w plates, 2 maps. Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian).

Bilacunaria caspia (DC.) Pimenov & V.N. Tikhom. Bilacunaria microcarpa (M. Bieb.) Pimenov & V.N. Tikhom. BRASSICACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze Synonyms Bilacunaria caspia (DC.) Pimenov & V.N. Tikhom.: Hippomarathrum caspicum Grossh.; Hippomarathrum crispum Koch Bilacunaria microcarpa (M. Bieb.) Pimenov & V.N. Tikhom.: Hippomarathrum longilobum B. Fedtsch. ex Grossh.; Hippomarathrum microcarpum Petrov; Cachrys microcarpa M.B. Tabicau; Rumia microcarpa Hoffm.; Aegomarathrum crispum Steud. R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_23

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Local Names Bilacunaria microcarpa: Armenia: Բոխի մանրապտ ղ (Bokhi manraptuh); Azerbaijan: Кiçiкtохum bilакunаriyа; English: small-fruited Bilacunaria (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991)

Botany and Ecology Bilacunaria caspia: Perennial; plant 100–150 cm high, entirely, but especially stems and branches, short-scabrous; stems angular, strongly branching above, with opposite or whorled branches; lower leaves petiolate, oblong-ovate, many times parted into short, linear-subulate lobules; blades 20–30 cm long, 15–20 cm wide; lobules 4–6(9) mm long, 1–1.25 mm wide, stiff, acuminate, nearly spinose; cauline leaves sessile, smaller. Umbels of 7–12 rays; leaflets of involucre and involucels short, linear or linear-lanceolate, acuminate, flowers yellow; petals glabrous; fruit wider than long, the ribs thick, obtuse, verrucose; calyx teeth obtuse, shorter than stylopodium. Flowering June. Caucasus, on meadows (Bobrov and Bush 1939). Bilacunaria microcarpa: Perennial herb 50–150 cm tall and much branched. Plant usually entirely glabrous. Stems thick and with angular ridges, whorled or oppositely branched. Basal leaves obconic, 4–5 ternate and up to 30 cm long and with long petioles. Major lobes 4–8 cm long, these lobed many times into fine, linear lobes with tips. Stem leaves with petioles absent, smaller than basal leaves, also finely linear lobed. Flower umbels disposed from 7 to 15 rays, flower stalks up to 4 cm long. Flowers with yellow glabrous petals. Calyx teeth blunt. Fruit oblong, with warty ribs. Nearly everywhere in hills of the Caucasus but also in Armenia, Kurdistan, and Iran. Flowers and fruits from June to July. An herb common in dry, herbaceous hills. In dry arid climate, mainly on dry slopes in semidesert, steppes, among steppe shrubs in lower and middle mountain belts, on an elevation 700–1400 m. First sprouts in March, flowers from May to July, fruits from June to August. Distributed in Upper Akhuryan, Shirak, Idjevan, Aparan, Sevan, Gegham, Yerevan, Darelegis, Zangezur, and Meghri floristic regions. Distributed in the regions of Guba part of the Greater Caucasus, Samur-Devechi lowlands, Caspian seaside lowlands and Kur-Araz lowlands, Gobustan, Bozgir plateau, Northern Lower Caucasus, mountainous part of Nakhchivan, Diabar. Grows from lowland to middle mountain zone on dry clayey and stony slopes (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961; Takhtadjan 1954–2009).

Phytochemistry Coumarins (ostol, oxypeucedanin, heraclinin, prangene, isoimperatorine, emperorin, xanthotoxine, umbelliferon, bergapten), essential oils, essential oils (Sokolov 1988).

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Local Food Uses Bilacunaria caspia: The leaves are used in Armenia and Azerbaijan (Nakhichevan) as spice (Sokolov 1988). Bilacunaria microcarpa: Mainly young shoots, up to 15 cm long, are marinated in salt water. The dish is used mainly as appetizers. Think stalks, young stems and the leafy outer calyx are cooked or put in salt water to prepare special dishes (Grossheim 1952; Gubanov et al. 1976; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2007). Young shoots are used in the form of marinade in Talish and Nakhchivan.

References Bobrov EG, Bush NA. Flora of the USSR, Volume 8: Capparidaceae, Cruceriferae and Resedaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1939 (English 1970). 524 pages, 34 b/w plates, 2 maps. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Flora of Azerbaijan, vols. I–VIII. Baku: AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1950–1961. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Gubanov I, Krilova I, Tikhonova V. Wild useful plants of the USSR. Moscow: Armenian Academy of Science; 1976. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Bilacunaria microcarpa (M. Bieb.) Pimenov & V.N. Tikhom. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant Resources of the USSR: Flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, Volume 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1988. 357 p. (in Russian). Takhtadjan AL. Flora of Armenia, vols. 1–11. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Science; 1954–2009. (in Russian). Tsaturyan T, Gevorgyan M. Wild edible plants of Armenia. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Science; 2007. (in Armenian).

Bistorta officinalis Delarbre Polygonum carneum C. Koch POLYGONACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Bistorta officinalis Delarbre: Bistorta major Gray; Persicaria bistorta (L.) Samp.; Polygonum bistorta L. Polygonum carneum C. Koch: Bistorta carnea (C. Koch) Kom

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_24

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Local Names Bistorta officinalis: Georgian მატიტელა (matitela); Khevsur ჭიჭიშვილი (tchitchishvili) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991) Polygonum carneum: Azeri Ətrəng bistоrtа, Ətrəng qırхbuğum; Georgian: დვალურა (dvalura), მატიტელა (matitela); Acharian: დვალური (dvaluri); Meshkhetian: უზუნჩიჩაგ (uzunchichag); Khevsurian: ჭიჭიშვილი (tchitchishvili); Svanetian: ქუჩუჩილ (kuchuchil) Polygonum hydropiper: წალიკა (ts’alika); Gurian: ანწლიკა (ants’lika), ჟალტამი (zhaltami); Meskhetian: დათვის ჩაღანდრი (datvis chaghandri); Svanetian: მიარდალორდ (miardalord), მუვერდელოოლ (muverdelool); Imeretian, Rachian: სალდა (salda); Imeretian: სალდა–ბალახი (salda-balakhi); Chanetian: სადრაკი - (sadrak’i), ფსარდაკი (phsardak’i),; Megrelian: სანდაკია (sandak’ia), სანდრაკია (sandrak’ia); Mthiuletian, Rachian: სარდალა (sardala); Ingiloian: ღორი ინაი (ghori inai); Kartlian, Kakhetian: ცხენის ინა (tskhenis ina), წყლის ინა (ts’q’lis ina); Kiziqian: წყლის მატიტელა (ts’q’lis mat’it’’ela) Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991); English knotweed

Botany and Ecology Bistorta officinalis: Perennial; rhizome shorter than in the preceding, tending to tuberiform; stem 25–75 cm (to 1 m) long, sulcate, four nodes, triangulate; leaves oblong to oblong-ovate, more rarely cordate-lanceolate, more or less acuminate, glaucescent, and prominently veined beneath, 12–22 cm long, 2–7 cm broad, the basal long-petioled and cuneate or subcordate at base, the middle ones subsessile or sessile and then amplexicaul, the uppermost small linear acutish, all sparsely pilose beneath; ocreae scarious, brownish, often two-parted at summit; spike cylindric, compact, 2–5 cm long, 1–2 cm thick; bracts brownish, broad, two-lobed at summit, the lobes point-tipped (sometimes with a third point in between); perianth roseate, deeply five-parted; stamens longer than perianth; anthers violet or dark red; achene trigonous, lustrous, elongate, to 5 mm long. Flowering June–August. Caucasus, subalpine and alpine meadows, the upper limits of the forest zone at altitudes of 1500–3500 m (Bobrov and Komarov 1936; Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4). Polygonum carneum: Perennial; rhizome shorter than the preceding, tending to tuberiform; stem 25–75 cm (to 1 m) long, sulcate, four nodes, three angles. Leaves oblong to oblong-ovate, more rarely cordate-lanceolate, more or less acuminate, glaucescent, and prominently veined beneath; 12–22 cm long, 2–7 cm broad, the basal long-petioled and cuneate or subcordate at base, the middle ones subsessile or sessile and then amplexicaul, the uppermost small linear acutish, all sparsely pilose beneath; ocreae scarious brownish, often two-parted at summit; spike cylindric, compact, 2–5 cm long, 1–2 cm thick. Bracts brownish, broad, two-lobed at summit, the lobes point-tipped (sometimes with a third point in between); perianth roseate, deeply five-parted; stamens longer than perianth; anthers violet or dark red. Achene

Bistorta officinalis Delarbre Fig. 1 Bistorta oficinalis (Polygonaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Bistorta officinalis (Polygonaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 4 Bistorta officinalis (Polygonaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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lustrous, elongate, to 5 mm long. Subalpine and alpine meadows, the upper limits of the forest zone at altitudes of 1500–3500 m. Caucasus: Ciscaucasia; Greater Caucasus; Dagestan; Western, Southern, and Eastern Transcaucasia Balkan peninsula and Asia Minor; Lesser Armenia and Kurdistan. Grows in all regions of the Greater and Lesser Caucasus as well as the mountainous part of Nakhchivan. Grows in subalpine meadows. Subalpine and alpine meadows, Rhododendron caucasicum thicket (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011).

Phytochemistry Bistorta officinalis: Anthraquinones, flavonoids (kaempferol, quercetin, 3-lactoside, kaempferol, hyperin), vitamins (Fedorov 1984). Fig. 5 Bistorta officinalis (Polygonaceae), root decoction as medicine, Kvemo Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 6 Bistorta officinalis (Polygonaceae), Kvemo Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses Bistorta officinalis: The extract is used for chronic constipation; for the treatment of hemorrhoids; as diuretic for kidney disease and urolithiasis; diarrhea, colds, and venereal diseases; topically in the form of gargles for strengthening the gums; and for gout, headache, and wound healing (Fedorov 1984). The flowers are used for lung problems and the roots to cure for lung diseases and diarrhea (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b). In Pakistan the species is used topically for skin irritations and dermatitis (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018; Figs. 5 and 6).

Local Food Uses Bistorta officinalis: The roots are used to dye fabrics yellow. Used as insecticide, with the seeds especially being toxic to livestock. Yields honey (Fedorov 1984). Polygonum carneum: The fried rhizome is used for food (Grossheim 1952).

References Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Polygonum alpinum All.; Polygonum aviculare L.; Polygonum carneum C. Koch; Polygonum hydropiper L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Heidelberg: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Bobrov EG, Komarov VL. Flora of the USSR, Volume 5: Dicotyledoneae, subclass I: Archichlamydeae, order Piperales-Polygonales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1936 (English 1970). 593 pages, 49 b/w plates. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, Beer, Snuff, Medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313.

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Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Arom Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Fedorov AA, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, Volume 1. Families Magnoliaceae – Limoniaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1984. 460 p. (in Russian). Flora of Azerbaijan, vols. I–VIII. Baku: AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1950–1961. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Ur-Rahman I, Afsal A, Iqbal Z, Ijas F, Ali N, Asif M, Alam J, Majid A, Bussmann RW. Traditional and ethnomedicinal dermatology practices in Pakistan. Clin Dermatol. 2018;36(3):310–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clindermatol.2018.03.018.

Borago officinalis L. BORAGINACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Seyed Hamed Moazzami Farida, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Local Names Azeri, Огуречнаятрава (ogyretsayatrava) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991; Sokolov 1990); Farsi, ‫( ﮒﻝ ﮒﺍﻭ ﺯﺏﺍﻥ‬Gol-e gav zabane), ‫( ﮒﻝ ﮒﺍﻭ ﺯﺏﺍﻥ ﺍﺭﻭﭖﺍﯼﯼ‬Gol-e gav zabane europaee), ‫( ﺱﯼﺱﻥﮎ‬Sisenak); English, Borage

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] S. H. Moazzami Farida Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Bu-Ali Sina University, Hamedan, Iran e-mail: [email protected] A. Ghorbani Department of Organismal Biology, Evolutionary Biology Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_25

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Botany and Ecology Biennial herb; stem erect or ascending, thick, robust, long-hairy and spreading bristly, usually branching above; leaves finely undulant -dent ate at margin, lower leaves with petioles and oval blades, bristly hairy, 3–7 cm long, 2–5 cm wide, obtuse, upper leaves sessile, oblong. Inflorescence usually corymbiform-paniculate, with few lanceolate, small leaves at base; scorpioid cymes leafless, short, loose, with flowers drooping on long, spreading, bristly pedicels; calyx long white bristly at margins of lobes, 1–12 mm long, up to 15 mm in fruit, lobes lanceolate, obtuse; corolla pale blue, 15–20 mm across, lobes of limb oblong-lanceolate, acute, stellately spreading, incisions between them extending nearly to stamens; anthers dark violet, 5–6 mm long, filaments much dilated at base and much shorter than anthers, with appendages ca. 2,5 mm long; nutlets 5 mm long, erect, oblong, ventrally keeled, dorsally very unequal-sided, with vertical, raised lines of small tubercles along the inflated sides, the apex short, obtuse, compressed; attachment- ring dark, thickened, transversely ribbed; caruncle very large, protruding. Weedy places near residential areas or kitchen gardens (Yuzepchuk and Shishkin 1953; Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Phytochemistry Organic acids (butyric, citric); alkaloids and other nitrogen-containing compounds (amabline, tesinin); fatty acids (Sokolov 1990). Fig. 1 Borago officinalis (Boraginaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]

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Fig. 2 Borago officinalis (Boraginaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses The decoction of the leaves is used mainly to help and facilitate perspiration and especially to relieve cough like an expectorant. The poultices made with the leaves are used to relieve and reduce inflammation of blows or contusions. The leaves in decoction are also used for bronchitis, cough, and infections caused by flu and colds. Infused flowers are used to promote sweating. The leaves are also used for wound dressing, and an extract is used as antipyretic and diuretic and for heart and respiratory diseases, stomach problems, kidney disorders, rheumatism, and depression (Sokolov 1990). The infusion of flowers is used as stomach tonic, as sedative, and as diuretic (Mahdavi Meimand and Mirtajadini 2010; Mozaffari Nejad et al. 2013). It is also applied as an analgesic, as blood purifier, and against measles. The aerial part of this species helps to treat pneumonia, catarrh, swelling of limbs, and cough (Mozaffari

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Fig. 3 Borago officinalis (Boraginaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Nejad et al. 2013). The decoction of fruits is used for the treatment of hypertension (Baharvand-Ahmadi et al. 2016). Ahmadipour et al. (2015) illustrated that the decoction of borage flowers helps to relieve toothache. The decoction of flowers is also effective in the common cold (Parsaei et al. 2016).

Local Food Uses The leaves and stems are parboiled and eaten and also used for salads, for seasonings, like spinach for soups, and as tea substitute. The leaves make a good salad instead of cucumbers, also cooked in for soups (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1990).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses It is used as a honey plant in the North Caucasus (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1990).

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References Ahmadipour S, Mohsenzadeh A, Ahmadipour S, Eftekhari Z, Tajeddini P. Ethnobotanical identification of medicinal plants effective on toothache in Shiraz, South Iran. Pharm Lett. 2015;7 (12):419–26. Baharvand-Ahmadi B, Bahmani M, Tajeddini P, Rafieian-Kopaei M, Naghdi N. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants administered for the treatment of hypertension. J Renal Inj Prev. 2016;5(3):123. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Mahdavi Meimand Z, Mirtajadini M. Collection and identification of some plant species in Kerman province for the herbarium of medicinal plants Faculty of Pharmacy (stage 1). J Herb Drugs. 2010;2:1–24. Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Mozaffari Nejad AS, Kamkar A, Giri A, Pourmahmoudi AA. Ethnobotany and folk medicinal uses of major trees and shrubs in Northern Iran. J Med Plants Res. 2013;7(7):284–9. Parsaei P, Bahmani M, Naghdi N, Asadi-Samani M, Rafieian-Kopaei M, Tajeddini P, SepehriBoroujeni M. Identification of medicinal plants effective on common cold: An ethnobotanical study of Shiraz, South Iran. Scholars Research Library – Der Pharmacia Lettre 2016;8(2):90–97. Sokolov PD (ed.). Plant resources of the USSR: Flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, Volume 5: Families of Caprifoliaceae – Plantaginaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1990. 328 p. (in Russian). Yuzepchuk SV, Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 19: Tubiflorae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1953 (English 1974). 563 pages, 40 b/w plates, 2 maps.

Botrychium lunaria (L.) Sw. OPHIOGLOSSACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Botrychium lunaria (L.) Sw.: Botrychium onondagense Underw.; Botrypus lunaria (L.) Rich.; Osmunda lunaria L.

Local Names Georgian: მარგალიტა (margalit’a), წყლულის ბალახი (ts’q’lulis balakhi) R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_26

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Botany and Ecology Perennial; rhizome creeping; sterile blade oblong, sometimes very small (var. alpinum Kryl.), fleshy, rounded at apex, embracing at the middle the stalk of the fertile portion, pinnately cleft, commonly with several pairs of alternate reniform-rhomboid or crescent-shaped pinnae, these entire (var. normale Roep.) or obtusely toothed and somewhat incised (var. subineisum Roep.), sometimes flabellately arranged and then crenate and with pinnately divided fertile panicle (var. onondagense Clute); fertile portion stalked, from the sheath of the sterile blade; fruiting panicle narrow, twice or thrice pinnate, rarely simply pinnate with few pinnae, 3 to 5–6 cm long; mostly a single leaf produced each year from the rhizome. Ural, Caucasus, meadows, coppices, and woods (Iljin 1934).

Local Medicinal Uses The whole plant is used to cure wounds (Bussmann et al. 2016).

References Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ehnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Iljin MM. Flora of the USSR, Volume 1: Archegoniatae and Embryophyta. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1934 (English 1968). 244 pages, 14 b/w plates, 2 maps.

Brassica oleracea L. BRASSICACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Brassica oleracea L.: Brassica alboglabra L.H. Bailey; Brassica maritima Tardent; Crucifera brassica E.H.L. Krause; Napus oleracea (L.) K.F. Schimp. & Spenn.

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_27

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Local Names Brassica oleracea var. gongylodes: Georgian: კოლრაბი (kohlrabi), შავი ფხალი (shavi pkhali); German: Kohlrabi Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera: Georgian: ბრიუსელის კომბოსტო (briuselis kombosto); English: brussels sprouts Brassica oleracea: Georgian: კეჟერა (k’ezhera), კეჟერა ფხალი (k’ezhera pkhali); კომბოსტო (k’ombost’o), ყვავილოვანი კომბოსტო (q’vavilovani k’ombost’o), ლურჯი კომბოსტო (lurji k’ombost’o); Svan: ლახანა (lachana); Russian: Капуста (kapusta) (Russian); Azeri: келем (kelem); Armenian: кахамб соворакан (kachamb covorakan); (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991; Sokolov 1985); English: cabbage

Botany and Ecology Biennial; stem tall, leafy; lower leaves very large, fleshy, lyratepinnatisect, adjacent, short-petioled, with prominent nerves; middle cauline leaves more or less amplexicaul; whole plant grayish green, glabrous. Raceme with many large flowers; petals yellow; siliques very large, up to 10 cm long, reclinate; beak stout, subobtuse, short, 4–6 mm long, rarely 15 mm; seeds large, dark brown, ca. 2 mm long, spherical, slightly alveolate. Grown widely in vegetable gardens. Cultivation is possible in the subtropics, during the cold season or in the mountains. Its origin and distribution as a wild plant is the Mediterranean area along the coasts. Brassica oleracea was domesticated about 5000 years ago and is now cultivated throughout the world, although in the tropics, it is mostly restricted to higher elevations. Leaf cabbage comprises diverse cultigens developed from wild Brassica oleracea, which has a northern Mediterranean and western European origin. It is probably the first cabbage crop cultivated (Bobrov and Bush 1939) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8).

Fig. 1 Brassica oleracea (Brassicaceae), garden, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Brassica oleracea (Brassicaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Brassica oleracea (Brassicaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses The leaves are often consumed because they are believed to be anticarcinogenic, and they are used to treat gout and rheumatism, whereas the seeds are considered diuretic, laxative, stomachic, and anthelmintic. The leaves are applied topically for wound healing (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1985).

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Fig. 4 Brassica oleracea (Brassicaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Food Uses Leaf cabbage is grown for the consumption of the fresh leaves, mostly after removal of the thick midribs and petioles. The leaves are used as a vegetable dish or prepared into sauces. Young shoots and tips with young inflorescences are occasionally used for these purposes. Traditional preparation involves boiling of shredded leaves in water to which salt and other ingredients such as onions, tomatoes, garlic, hot peppers, peanuts, or sesame are added (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b). In Khevi many species are mixed together for Pkhali: ghoris nats’q’la-i ღორის ნაწყლა-ი Sonchus ssp., mch’ivana-i მჭივანა-ი Silene wallichiana Klotzsch; maq’randutsa-i მაყრანდუცა-ი Anthriscus sylvestris (L.) Hoffm. maq’rats’elaმაყრაწელა-ი; diq’inch’oraghrich’olaდიყინჭორა-ღრინჭოლა/j’q’imi’ჭყიმი Anthriscus nemorosa (M. Bieb.) Spreng; k’ats’a-i კაწა-ი Campanula rapunculoides L. (its root is also edible), ts’iteli pkhali წითელი/jijilaq’a წითელი ჯიჯილაყა Amaranthus hybridus L., nadirmkhalai ნადირმხალაი Aruncus vulgaris Raf., saskhep’iai სასხეპიაი Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., ch’inch’ari ჭინჭარი Urtica dioica L., gholo ღოლო Rumex ssp., tatami თათამას Atriplex hortensis L. Khevi people use as food the following plants: shalgi შალგი Brassica campestris L., khakhot’i ხახოტი Bunias orientalis L., mamula მამულა

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Fig. 5 Brassica oleracea (Brassicaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 6 Brassica oleracea var. sabellica (Brassicaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Artemisia vulgaris L., ts’its’mat’ura წიწმატურა Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik., khboshublai ხბოშუბლაი Galega orientalis Lam (Bakhtadze and Koghuashvili 2009; Kavtaradze 1985; Sujashvili and Pitskhelauri 2005) (Figs. 9 and 10). Brassica oleracea var. gongylodes: The whole plant is eaten (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

216 Fig. 7 Brassica oleracea (Brassicaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 8 Brassica oleracea (Brassicaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 9 Brassica oleracea (Brassicaceae), cabbage leaves filled with meat, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 10 Brassica oleracea (Brassicaceae), cabbage salad, Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera: The leaves are used as food (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017). Brassica oleracea: The leaves are eaten in Phkhali (herb pie and also pickled). The flowers are pickled (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses It is used as fodder (Sokolov 1985).

References Bakhtadze D, Koghuashvili P. Nutrition culture of the Georgians. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 2009. (ბახტაძე დ, კოღუაშვილი პ. 2009. ქართველთა კვების კულტურა. თბილისი, in Georgian.) Bobrov EG, Bush NA. Flora of the USSR, Volume 8: Capparidaceae, Cruceriferae and Resedaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1939 (English 1970). 524 pages, 34 b/w plates, 2 maps. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Springer International Publishing: Heidelberg; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ehnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266.

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Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plant and fungal use in Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016c;86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plant and fungal use in Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2017a;86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus – Georgia. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Springer International Publishing: Heidelberg; 2017b. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – Plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Kavtaradze I. Mokhevian dialect of the Georgian language. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1985. (ქავთარაძე ი. 1985. ქართული ენის მოხევური დიალექტი. თბილისი: მეცნიერება in Georgian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian) Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 2. Families Paeoniaceae – Thymelaeacea. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1985. 336 p. (in Russian). Sujashvili N, Pitskhelauri I. Dictionary of Mokhevian dialect. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 2005. (სუჯაშვილი ნ., ფიცხელაური ი. 2005. მოხევური ლექსიკონი. თბილისი).

Brassica rapa L. BRASSICACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Brassica rapa L.: Brassica campestris L.; Brassica campestris subsp. rapa (L.) Hook. f.; Brassica campestris var. oleifera (Moench) Prain; Brassica campestris var. purpuraria L.H. Bailey; Brassica campestris var. rapa (L.) Hartm.; Brassica chinensis L.; Brassica dubiosa L.H. Bailey; Brassica napella Chaix; Brassica pekinensis Skeels; Brassica purpuraria (L.H. Bailey) L.H. Bailey; Brassica rapa subsp. campestris (L.) Clapham; Brassica rapa subsp. chinensis (L.) Hanelt; Brassica rapa subsp. pekinensis (Lour.) Hanelt; Brassica rapa var. campestris (L.) R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_28

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Peterm.; Brassica rapa var. purpuraria Kitam.; Brassica rutabaga Druce; Crucifera rapa (L.) E.H.L. Krause; Gorinkia campestris (L.) J. Presl & C. Presl; Napus campestris (L.) Schimp. & Spenn.; Napus rapa (L.) Crantz; Sinapis pekinensis Lour.; Sinapis rapa (L.) Brot.

Local Names Brassica rapa subsp. rapifera: Georgian: თალგამი (thalgami); Imeretian: მითსიჩალა (mitsichala); Svan: ქართ (quarth) Brassica rapa var. rapa: Georgian: თალგამურა (thalgamura); Russian: Репа (repa); Azeri: тюрп (tjuro); Armenian: шахкам (shachkam) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991; Sokolov 1985).

Botany and Ecology Biennial; root thickened, fleshy, edible; rosettes of green pubescent leaves develop in the first year (with the exception of some Central Asian varieties with lower glabrous leaves); stems tall, many-leafy. Inflorescence like in the preceding species; petals golden-yellow or a dull pale yellow; siliques larger, beak one-third to one-fourth as long as valves; seeds much larger. Widely cultivated. The origin of Brassica rapa is not known; the area extending from the eastern Mediterranean to Pakistan and eastern China has been suggested. Turnip is the oldest vegetable. It was described at the times of Alexander the Great (356–323 BC), whose empire included the Middle East and Persia. From there it is supposed to have spread to Southeast Asia and Africa via trade routes. The wide variation in Brassica rapa evolved in different parts of the Eurasian continent. Chinese cabbage and pakchoi developed in temperate regions of eastern Asia and caisin probably in subtropical regions of China. Vegetable turnip is highly regarded in Japan and rather popular in Europe. Oil-seed types, including rape and the southern Asian crops sarson and toria, are grown for rapeseed oil (Bobrov and Bush 1939; Figs. 1 and 2).

Local Food Uses In Pshavi the leaves of Brassica rapa L. and bost’ana ბოსტანა Brassica campestris var. oleifera DC. are eaten with a sauce (Maghalashvili 1970). In Tusheti many herbaceous plants are used as food and are kept for winter, either dried or pickled, to make mixed mkhali and sauces and to accompany the main dishes, including kumeli ქუმელი q’va ყვა. It is used all-year round and is made of roasted keri ქერი (barley) grains. It can be made of ipkli იფქლი (Georgian endemic wheat), corn, svili სვილი (rye), kersvili ქერსვილი (mixture of barley and rye), and tsetsvi ცერცვი (faba bean, when mixed with corn: giera-i გიერა-ი Brassica campestris subsp. oleifera (DC.) Schübl. & Mart., gomat’i გომატი Bunias orientalis L., dutsi დუცი Angelica tatianae Bordz., kharnuq’a-i ხარნუყა-ი Lactuca serriola L.,

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Fig. 1 Brassica rapa (Brassicaceae), garden, Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Brassica rapa (Brassicaceae), garden, Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

buera ბუერა Petasites ssp., shubq’a-i შუბყა-ი Heracleum asperum M. Bieb., khap’ara-i ხაპარა-ი Cichorium intybus L., mariamdzmara მარიამძმარა Ligusticum alatum (M. Bieb.) Spreng., ch’imi ჭიმი Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., diq’i დიყი Heracleum ssp., jortk’uda-i ჯორთკუდა-ი Artemisia vulgaris L., sagvidzla საღვიძლა

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Taraxacum officinale (L.) Weber ex F.H. Wigg., dzirkhvena ძირხვენა Arctium lappa L., ch’ivana ჭივანა Silene wallichiana Klotzsch, kvishamkhala ქვიშამხალა Silene laera (Stev.) Sims, khavrat’ai ხავრატაი Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik., jorik’udai ჯორიკუდაი Artemisia vulgaris L., and giera გიერა Sinapis arvensis L. (Makalatia 1933). There are several ways to season mkhali in Tusheti: (1) well-cleaned plants are placed in a pot and cooked without water. The cooked plants are placed on a sieve to cool and cut into pieces. After that the dish is seasoned with onions browned in clarified butter, eggs, and salt. (2) After cooking the plants in the same way, fresh cottage cheese, onions browned in clarified butter, eggs, and salt are added. (3) After boiling the mkhali is seasoned with vinegar, garlic, and salt. Normally, in Tusheti, mkhali is not seasoned with walnuts and vinegar (Makalatia 1933). The young shoots of giera გიერა Brassica campestris subsp. oleifera (DC.) Schübl. & Mart., mariamdzmara მარიამძმარა Ligusticum alatum (M. Bieb.) Spreng., shup’q’a შუპყა Heracleum asperum M. Bieb., diq’i დიყი Heracleum ssp., jortk’uda ჯორთკუდა Artemisia vulgaris L., and kartskhvi ქარცხვს Campanula tridentata Schreb. and k’enk’esha კენკეშას Campanula lactiflora M. Bieb. are pickled in Tusheti. If the cattle eat shup’q’a შუპყას Heracleum asperum M. Bieb., it gives yellow clarified butter (Boch’oridze 1993; Kurdghelaidze 1983; Maghalashvili 1970; Makalatia 1933; Oshoradze 1969). In Tusheti ch’imi ჭიმი Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., giera გიერა Brassica campestris subsp. oleifera (DC.) Schübl. & Mart., machigt’ara მაჩიგტარა Campanula rapunculoides L., khap’ara ხაპარა (ვარდკაჭაჭა) Cichorium intybus L., diq’i დიყი Heracleum ssp., shup’q’a შუპყა Heracleum asperum M. Bieb., ap’q’i აპყი Heracleum leskovii Grossh., dutsi დუცი Angelica tatianae Bordz, giera გიერა Sinapis arvensis L., jortk’uda ჯორთკუდა (wild estragon) Artemisia vulgaris L., mariamdzmara მარიამძმარა Ligusticum alatum (M.Bieb.) Spreng., and kharnuq’a ხარნუყა Lactuca serriola L. are eaten raw and also dipped in sour milk (Makalatia 1933; Oshoradze 1969). These herbaceous plants for dipping (sats’ebaci, sats’ebi “chatseba” means “dip” in Georgian) are harvested, and a bowl with curd “shegdebul ze” “შეგდებულზე” is filled; then leaves and young shoots from the mentioned herbaceous plants are plucked, dipped in the curd, and eaten (Fig. 3). Plants used as mkhali Kaheti: tatruli mkhali თათრული მხალი Amaranthus hybridus L., ts’ots’nara mkhali წოწნარა მხალს Amaranthus retroflexus L., khach’ich’ora ხაჭიჭორა Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik., vazisdzira ვაზიძირა Lapsana grandiflora M. Bieb., bolok’a ბოლოკა Rapistrum rugosum (L.) All., q’int’ora ყინტორა Chaerophyllum aureum L., natsarkatama ნაცარქათამა Chenopodium album L., shalgi შალგი (shelga შელგა) Brassica campestris L., sve სვე Humulus lupulus L., khboshubla ხბოშუბლა Galega orientalis Lam. ნორჩ, ch’inch’ari ჭინჭარი Urtica dioica L., ghoris kada ღორის ქადა Lactuca serriola L., Balba ბალბა Malva neglecta l., natsarkatama ნაცარქათამა or dzaghltzhola ძაღლთჟოლა Chenopodium foliosum, tatabo თათაბო Atriplex hortensis L., saghvidzla საღვიძლა or burbushela ბურბუშელა Taraxacum confusum Schischk., tskhenis tsertsvela ც ხენის ცერცველა Vicia narborensis, vazis dzira ვაზის ძირა Lapsana grandiflora M. Bieb., mravaldzarghva მრავალძარღვა Plantago major L.,

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Fig. 3 Brassica rapa (Brassicaceae), leaves ready to eat, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

babuats’vera ბაბუაწვერა Taraxacum ssp., gareuli ts’its’mat’i გარეული წიწმატი Cardamine hirsuta L., ghinch’a-ghinch’a ღინჭა-ღინჭა Sonchus ssp. (Javakhishvili 1986; Menteshashvili 1943). In Kartli kalak’oda ქალაკოდა Arum orientale M. Bieb., shavmkhala შავმხალა Amaranthus retroflexus L., kharik’bila ხარიკბილა /khach’mach’ich’a ხაჭმაჭიჭა/ odelia-khali ოდელია-ხალი Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik., shalgi შალგი Brassica campestris L., ghrinch’ola ღრინჭოლა Anthriscus nemorosa (M. Bieb.) Spreng., kalak’oda ქალაკოდა Arum orientale M. Bieb., and ghoriskona-khali ღორისქონა-ხალი Sonchus ssp. are used for pkhali (Javakhishvili 1986) Brassica rapa L. subsp. rapifera: The leaves are eaten raw; the fruits serve as spice; the roots are pickled (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b, 2018a, b; Bussmann 2017). Brassica rapa var. rapa: The leaves are eaten raw. The roots are pickled (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b, 2018a, b; Bussmann 2017).

References Bobrov EG, Bush NA. Flora of the USSR, Volume 8: Capparidaceae, Cruceriferae and Resedaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1939 (English 1970). 524 pages, 34 b/w plates, 2 maps. Bochoridze G. Tusheti. Tbilisi; 1993. Boch’oridze G. Tusheti. Tbilisi; 1993. (ბოჭორიძეგ. 1993. თუშეთი. თბილისი in Georgian.)

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Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Springer International Publishing XXVII; 2017. 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, Beer, Snuff, Medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobotany Research and Application. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. Journal of Ehnobiology and Ethnomedicine. 2016a;12:43. https://doi. org/10.1186/s13002-016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia). Caucasus. Medicinal and Aromatic Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/ 10.4172/2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus – Georgia. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus: Springer International Publishing; 2017a. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plant and fungal use in Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Societatis Botanicorum Poloniae. 2017b;86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517. Bussmann RW, et al. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. 2018a. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – Plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge. 2018b;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Javakhishvili I. Materials for the history of household industry and handicraft, vol. V, part 2: Food and drinks. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1986. ჯავახიშვილი, ი. 1986. მასალები შინა. 2: საჭმელ in Georgian.) Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi, Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Kurdghelaidze G. Tusheti – Household, nature, toponymy. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1983. (8კურდღელაიძე გ. 1983. თუშეთი მეურნეობა, ბუნება, ტოპონიმიკა. თბილისი : in Georgian.) Maghalashvili T. Useful plants of Telavi district. Acad. S. Janashia State Museum of Georgia XXVI–XXVII. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1970. (8 მაღალაშვილი თ. 1970. თელავის XXVI–XXVII – A. თბილისი : მეცნიერება in Georgian.). Makalatia S. Tusheti. Tbilisi: Sakhelgami; 1933. (მაკალათია ს. 1933. თუშეთი . in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Menteshashvili S. Dictionary of Kizikian dialect. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1943. (მენთეშაშვილი ს. 1943. ქიზიყური ლექსიკონი-თბილისი : მეცნიერება.). Oshoradze V. Characteristics of wild mkhaleuli and greens of Tusheti and possibility of their cultivation. Candidate of Agricultural Sciences dissertation thesis. Tbilisi; 1969. ოშორაძე ვ. 1969. თუშეთის ველურად მოზარდი მხალეულ-მწვანილეული მცენარეების დახასიათება და მათი კულტურაში დანერგვის შესაძლებლობა. სადის ერტაციო ნაშრომი სოფლის მეურნეობის მეცნ. კანდიდატის სამეცნიერო ხარისხის მოსაპოვებლად. თბილისი in Georgian). Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: Flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 2. Families Paeoniaceae – Thymelaeacea. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1985. 336 p. (in Russian).

Bunias orientalis L. BRASSICACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Bunias orientalis L.: Laelia orientalis Rchb.

Local Names Georgian: ხატოტი (khat’ot’i), ხოხნუტა (khotchadi); Tush: გომატი (gomat’i), გომატი (gomat’i); Khevshur: ხოხნუტა (khokhnuta); Russian: Свербига (sverbiga); Armenian: кцвук (ktsvuk) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991; Sokolov 1994).

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_29

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Botany and Ecology Biennial, 40–80 (120) cm high; stem coarse, erect, branching at upper half, beset with short spreading hairs below and black prominent warts; leaves lanceolate, covered with short branching hairs and dark warts, radical leaves long-petioled, lyrate, pinnatipartite, with lanceolate acute retrorse lateral lobes and a large triangular terminal one, hastate at base, sinuate-dentate along margin; cauline leaves more or less sinuate-dentate along margin, with somewhat larger teeth at base. Flowers bright yellow; sepals lanceolate, spreading at flowering, ca. 3 mm long; petals obovate, twice as long as sepals; silicles irregularly ovate, oblique, longitudinally rugose-tuberculate, declinate to side of short beak, often transversely contracted, 6–8 mm long, 3–4 (5) mm broad; fruiting pedicels 15–20 mm long, ascending. Flowering June. Ural, Caucasus, on forest edges and glades, clearings, limestone slopes, fields, and along roads (Bobrov and Bush 1939; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).

Phytochemistry Alkaloids, vitamins (C), flavonoids (kaempferol, quercetine, rutine), mustard oil, fatty acids (Sokolov 1994).

Fig. 1 Bunias orientalis (Brassicaceae), Bakuriani Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]

Bunias orientalis L. Fig. 2 Bunias orientalis (Brassicaceae), Bakuriani Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Bunias orientalis (Brassicaceae), Bakuriani Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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228 Fig. 4 Bunias orientalis (Brassicaceae), Bakuriani Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Bunias orientalis (Brassicaceae), Bakuriani Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Local Medicinal Uses In Armenia Bunias is used as antiscorbutic and to treat ascariasis (Sokolov 1994). The leaves serve to treat poisoning, hangover, and snakebites (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016, 2017).

Local Food Uses The fresh roots are edible raw in the early spring and used instead of horseradish. If dried they lose their bitterness and are suitable for cooking sauces and seasonings. The young stems are peeled for salads or boiled to replace asparagus, serve for soups, and eaten with mashed potatoes. The leaves are boiled for soups and puree and for the preparation of national Armenian dishes. The leaves are eaten boiled (getzug in Armenian); the young stems are peeled and eaten raw (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1994). In Khevi many species are mixed together for Pkhali: ghoris nats’q’la-i ღორის ნაწყლა-ი Sonchus ssp., mch’ivana-i მჭივანა-ი – Silene wallichiana Klotzsch; maq’randutsa-i მაყრანდუცა-ი Anthriscus sylvestris (L.) Hoffm. maq’rats’ela მაყრაწელა-ი; დიყინჭორა-ღრინჭოლა/j’q’imi’ჭყიმი diq’inch’ora-ghrich’ola Anthriscus nemorosa (M. Bieb.) Spreng; k’ats’a-i კაწა-ი Campanula rapunculoides L. (its root is also edible), ts’iteli pkhali წითელი/jijilaq’a წითელი ჯიჯილაყა Amaranthus hybridus L., nadirmkhalai ნადირმხალაი Aruncus vulgaris Raf., saskhep’iai სასხეპიაი Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., ch’inch’ari ჭინჭარი Urtica dioica L., gholo ღოლო Rumex ssp., tatami თათამას Atriplex hortensis L.; Khevi people use as food the following plants: shalgi შალგი Brassica campestris L., khakhot’i ხახოტი Bunias orientalis L., mamula მამულა Artemisia vulgaris L., ts’its’mat’ura წიწმატურა Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik., khboshublai ხბოშუბლაი Galega orientalis Lam (Bakhtadze and Koghuashvili 2009; Kavtaradze 1985; Sujashvili and Pitskhelauri 2005). khat’ot’i ხახოტი Bunias orientalis L. is eaten raw in Khevi (Bakhtadze and Koghuashvili 2009; Kavtaradze 1985; Sujashvili and Pitskhelauri 2005). In Tusheti many herbaceous plants are used as food and are kept for winter, either dried or pickled, to make mixed mkhali and sauces and to accompany the main dishes, including kumeli ქუმელი q’va ყვა. It is used all-year round and is made of roasted keri ქერი (barley) grains. It can be made of ipkli იფქლი (Georgian endemic wheat), corn, svili სვილი (rye), kersvili ქერსვილი (mixture of barley and rye), and tsetsvi ცერცვი (faba bean, when mixed with corn: giera-i გიერა-ი Brassica campestris subsp. oleifera (DC.) Schübl. & Mart., gomat’i გომატი Bunias orientalis L., dutsi დუცი Angelica tatianae Bordz., kharnuq’a-i ხარნუყა-ი Lactuca serriola L., buera ბუერა Petasites ssp., shubq’a-i შუბყა-ი Heracleum asperum M. Bieb., khap’ara-i ხაპარა-ი Cichorium intybus L., mariamdzmara მარიამძმარა Ligusticum alatum (M. Bieb.) Spreng; ch’imi ჭიმი Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., diq’i დიყი Heracleum ssp., jortk’uda-i ჯორთკუდა-ი Artemisia vulgaris L., sagvidzla საღვიძლა Taraxacum officinale (L.) Weber ex F.H. Wigg., dzirkhvena ძირხვენა Arctium lappa L., ch’ivana ჭივანა Silene wallichiana Klotzsch, kvishamkhala ქვიშამხალა Silene

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laera (Stev.) Sims, khavrat’ai ხავრატაი Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik., jorik’udai ჯორიკუდაი Artemisia vulgaris L., and giera გიერა Sinapis arvensis L. (Makalatia 1933). There are several ways to season mkhali in Tusheti: (1) wellcleaned plants are placed in a pot and cooked without water. The cooked plants are placed on a sieve to cool and cut into pieces. After that the dish is seasoned with onions browned in clarified butter, eggs, and salt. (2) After cooking the plants in the same way, fresh cottage cheese and onions browned in clarified butter, eggs, and salt are added. (3) After boiling the mkhali is seasoned with vinegar, garlic, and salt. Normally, in Tusheti mkhali is not seasoned with walnuts and vinegar (Makalatia 1933). Chave ჩავე is made in Tusheti using saghvidzlia საღვიძლია or sajaraq’i საჯარაყი Taraxacum officinale (L.) Weber ex F.H. Wigg., gomat’i გომატი Bunias orientalis L., dutsi დუცი Angelica tatianae Bordz., kharnuq’a ხარნუყა Lactuca serriola L. (another name is mts’aria მწარია because it is bitter “mts’are” means “bitter” in Georgian), buera ბუერა Petasites ssp., p’it’na პიტნა Mentha ssp., gholo ღოლო Rumex ssp., sasuka სასუქა Seseli transcaucasicum Pimenov & Sdobnina, and vashlisula ვაშლისულა Primula woronowii Losinsk., boiled together, added with milk, sach’irai საჭარაი (sheep internal fat), and flour thinned with milk or water, as well as salt and garlic. In Svaneti khat’ot’i (ხატოტი Bunias orientalis L., Svan local name medgva მედგვა ( )) is eaten as peeled young shoots (Javakhishvili 1986). The flowers are eaten, and the young leaves are used for Chave and Phkhali. The stems are pickled (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses It is used for honey production (Sokolov 1985). The seeds are used to treat parasites in animals (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b).

References Bakhtadze D, Koghuashvili P. Nutrition culture of the Georgians. Tbilisi; 2009. (ბახტაძე დ, კოღუაშვილი პ. 2009. ქართველთა კვების კულტურა. თბილისი, in Georgian). Bobrov EG, Bush NA. Flora of the USSR, Volume 8: Capparidaceae, Cruceriferae and Resedaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1939 (English 1970). 524 pages, 34 b/w plates, 2 maps. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plant and fungal use in Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016b;86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517.

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Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – Ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Javakhishvili I. Materials for the history of household industry and handicraft, vol. V, part 2: 1986. Food and drinks. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1986. (ჯავახიშვილი, ი. მასალები შინა მრეწველობისა და ხელოსნობის ისტორიისათვის, ტ. V ნაწ. 2: საჭმელ in Georgian). Kavtaradze I. Mokhevian dialect of the Georgian language. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1985. (ქავთარაძე ი. 1985. ქართული ენის მოხევური დიალექტი. თბილისი: მეცნიერება in Georgian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makalatia S. Tusheti. Tbilisi: Sakhelgami; 1933. (მაკალათია ს. 1933. თუშეთი. ტფილისი: სახელგამი in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: Flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 2. Families Paeoniaceae – Thymelaeacea. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1985. 336 p. (in Russian) Sujashvili N, Pitskhelauri I. Dictionary of Mokhevian dialect. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 2005. (სუჯაშვილი ნ., ფიცხელაური ი. 2005. მოხევური ლექსიკონი. თბილისი).

Bunium persicum (Boiss.) B. Fedtsch. BRASSICACEAE Seyed Hamed Moazzami Farida, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Bunium persicum (Boiss.) B. Fedtsch.: Carum heterophyllum Regel & Schmalh., Carum persicum Boiss.; Elwendia persica (Boiss.) Pimenov & Kljuykov.

Local Names Russian: Буниум (Bunium) (Russian) (Grossheim 1952); Persian: Gharah zireh ‫ﻕﺭﻩ ﺯﯼﺭﻩ‬, (zireh ‫ﺯﯼﺭﻩ‬, zireh-e- Irani (Kermani)‫ )ﺯﯼﺭﻩ ﺍﯼﺭﺍﻥﯼ )ﮎﺭﻡﺍﻥﯼ‬, zireh-e kuhi ‫ﺯﯼﺭﻩ ﮎﻭﻩﯼ‬, zireh-e siyah ‫ﺯﯼﺭﻩ ﺱﯼﺍﻩ‬ S. H. Moazzami Farida Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Bu-Ali Sina University, Hamedan, Iran e-mail: [email protected] A. Ghorbani Department of Organismal Biology, Evolutionary Biology Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_30

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Botany and Ecology Perennial; pale green, entirely glabrous plant; tuber irregularly spherical; stem 40–60 cm high, furrowed, straight, corymbiformly branching from middle, branches declinate; radical leaves long-petioled, their blade broadly triangular, ternate, its segments long-petioled, the leaves spreading, bipinnatisect into oval pinnatipartite sections, with lanceolate ca. 2 mm long, cuneate, mucronate lobules; cauline leaves sessile on short sheaths, bipinnatisect into straight spreading filiform lobules to 20 mm long, the upper leaves reduced to few filiform lobules. Umbels to 15 cm across, of 15–20 rays usually all spreading; involucre absent or of 1–2 short, linear leaflets; umbellets 20–30-flowered; pedicels irregular, erect, filiform, remaining filiform in fruit; involucels of many (6–10) lanceolate, cuneate-acuminate, spreading leaflets; all flowers fertile; calyx edenticulate; petals equal, broadly oval, notched for half their length, with inward curved tip, 1 mm long; stylopodium flattened pulviniform; styles thin, curved outward, as long as stylopodium is wide; fruit linear, 4 mm long, much shorter than thin pedicels; ripe mericarps separating from each other and from carpophore, pentahedral, with prominent filiform ribs; resinous canals one between ribs; seeds slightly concave toward commissure. Flowering June–July. Gentle exposed mountain slopes, Middle Asia, Iran (Shishkin 1950, 1951).

Phytochemistry Essential oils (terpinen, karen, carin, cumin alcohol terpinole, otsimen, carvon, mentadien, myristicin, dillapiol, carvacrol, fellandrene), Petroselic acid (Sokolov 1988).

Local Medicinal Uses The root extract is used to make lozenges, for wound healing, and is hemostatic and diuretic (Sokolov 1988). The seeds of this species are used as carminative, appetizer, astringent, decongestant, diuretic, spasmolytic, and sedative (Amin 2005; Mahdavi Meimand and Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]

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Mirtajadini 2010; Amiri et al. 2012, 2014; Safa et al. 2012; Sharififar et al. 2014; Moein et al. 2015). Decoction and powder of seeds are used to treat earache in children and cough (Safa et al. 2012). They are used as stomach tonic and to improve digestion (Sharififar et al. 2010; Mehrabani et al. 2013; Khajoei Nasab and Khosravi 2014). Seeds help stop vomiting (Moein et al. 2015), as well as increase lactation in nursing mothers (Amiri et al. 2014). Raw seeds are used for disinfection (Moein et al. 2015).

Local Food Uses The roots are eaten raw (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1988). The seeds are used as flavoring and spice (Amin 2005; Mahdavi Meimand and Mirtajadini 2010; Amiri et al. 2012, 2014; Mozaffarian 2013).

References Amin G. The most common medicinal plants in Iran. Tehran: Medical Ethics and History of Medicine Research Center; 2005. Amiri MS, Jabbarzadeh P, Akhondi M. An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used by indigenous people in Zangelanlo district, Northeast Iran. J Med Plants Res. 2012;6(5):749–53. Amiri MS, Joharchi MR, TaghavizadehYazdi ME. Ethno-medicinal plants used to cure jaundice by traditional healers of Mashhad, Iran. Iran J Pharm Res. 2014;13(1):157. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Khajoei Nasab F, Khosravi AR. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of Sirjan in Kerman Province, Iran. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;154(1):190–7. Mahdavi Meimand Z, Mirtajadini M. Collection and identification of some plant species in Kerman province for the herbarium of medicinal plants Faculty of Pharmacy (stage 1). J Herb Drugs. 2010;2:1–24. Mehrabani M, Mahdavi Meimand Z, Mirtajadini M. Collection and identification of some wild plants of Baft (Kerman province) and their traditional uses. J Islam Iran Tradit Med. 2013;4(3):275–85. Moein M, Zarshenas MM, Khademian S, Razavi AD. Ethnopharmacological review of plants traditionally used in Darab (south of Iran). Trends Pharm Sci. 2015;1(1):39–43. Mozaffarian V. Identification of medicinal and aromatic plants of Iran. Tehran: Farhang Moaser; 2013. Safa O, Soltanipoor MA, Rastegar S, Kazemi M, Nourbakhsh Dehkordi K, Ghannadi A. An ethnobotanical survey on Hormozgan Province, Iran. Avicenna J Phytomed. 2012;3(1):64–81. Sharififar F, Kouhpaieh A, Mottaghi MM, Amir Khosravi A, Pourmohseni Nasab E. Ethnobotanic study of medicinal plants in Sirjan, Kerman province. J Herb Drugs. 2010;3:19–28. Sharififar F, Moharam Khani MR, Moattar F, Babakhanloo P, Khodami M. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of Joopar Mountains of Kerman Province, Iran. J Kerman Univ Med Sci. 2014;21(1):37–51. Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 16: Umbelliflorae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1950 (English 1973). 478 pages, 37 b/w plates, 2 maps. Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 17: Umbelliflorae (continued) Peucedaneae-Dauceae & Nyassaceae, Cornaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1951 (English 1974). 285 pages, 25 plates with b/w line drawings; 2 b/w fold-out maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, Volume 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1988. 357 p. (in Russian).

Calendula officinalis L. ASTERACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Local Names Georgian: გულყვითელა (gulq’vitela), ნარგიზელა (nargizela), კალენდულა (k’alendula); Russian: Ноготки (nogotki); Azeri: гюлюш бахар (gulyush bahar); Armenian: вахинак (wahinak) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991; Sokolov 1993).

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_31

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Botany and Ecology Annual. Plant 20–50(75) cm high; stem often branched from base, green, more or less floccose glandular. Basal leaves oblong-obovate, with remote teeth or entire, large, petiolate; cauline leaves oblong-lanceolate or oblong-obovate, sessile, more or less amplexicaul, indistinctly undulate and with small, occasional teeth. Capitula large (up to 4–5 cm in diameter); involucre in 1–2 whorls of oblong-lanceolate, acuminate, involucral bracts. Florets yellow or orange, sometimes dull, twice as long as involucre; ligules broad, up to 4.5 mm wide. All achenes curved, yellowish or brownish to gray, trimorphic: outer achenes semi-annular, large (up to 15 mm long), on outside usually with longitudinal rows of spines, with long, hollow, inwardly bent beak, seemingly truncate at apex; middle achenes carinate, smaller and broader (up to 10–12 mm long, 8–10 mm wide), with a longitudinal rib and spines on back (sometimes without), with wing-like involute lateral processes and a similar middle process; inner achenes grayish, small, annular, spinose, or tuberculate. Transients between these forms of achenes observed. Flowering June–September. It is cultivated everywhere as one of the most popular ornamental plants; sometimes it is found growing as a weed in gardens, kitchen gardens (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4). Fig. 1 Calendula officinalis (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Fig. 2 Calendula officinalis (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

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Fig. 3 Calendula officinalis (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Fig. 4 Calendula officinalis (Asteraceae), seeding, Batumi, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses Used as choloretic (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1993). The flower extract is used to cure wounds (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017, 2018).

Local Food Uses Used as food dye (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1993).

References Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2.

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Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – Plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Akaemia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, Volume 7. Family Asteraceae (Compositae). Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1993. 352 p. (in Russian).

Campanula biebersteiniana C.A. Mey. Campanula rapunculoides L. CAMPANULACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Campanula rapunculoides L.: Campanula cordifolia K. Koch; Campanula crenata Link; Campanula infundibuliformis Sims; Campanula linearifolia Willd. ex Roem. & Schult.; Campanula neglecta Besser; Campanula rapunculoides fo. cordifolia (K. Koch) Albov; Campanula rapunculoides subsp. cordifolia (K. Koch) Damboldt; Campanula rapunculoides var. cordata K. Koch; Campanula rapunculoides var. glabrata Trautv.; Campanula rapunculoides var. macrophylla A. DC.; Campanula rapunculoides var. trachelioides (M. Bieb.) A. DC.; Campanula rapunculus L.; R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_32

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Campanula rhomboidalis Gorter; Campanula rhomboidea Falk; Campanula rigida Gilib.; Campanula trachelioides M. Bieb.; Campanula ucranica Schult.; Cenekia rapunculoides (L.) Opiz; Drymocodon rapunculoides (L.) Fourr.

Local Names Campanula biebersteiniana: Georgian: ქარცხვი (kartskhvi) Campanula glomerata: Georgian: დილხამი (dilkhami); Russian: Колокольчиа (kolokoltsia); Azeri: джынгыро оту (dsheingeiro otu); Armenian: зангаа (sangaa) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991) Campanula lactiflora: Georgian: დონდოლა (dondola), კენკეშა (k’enk’esha); Svan: კიცძიშლ (kitsdzishl), (mak’udo, ქიც (kits); Khevsur: კენკეშა (k’enk’esha), მუყუდო (muq’udo); საფურცქვნელა (sapurtskvnela) Campanula latifolia: Georgian: ალოშა (alosha); დონდოლა (dondola); Russian: Колокольчиа (kolokoltsia); Azeri: джынгыро оту (dsheingeiro otu); Armenian: зангаа (sangaa) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991) Campanula rapunculoides: Georgian: მაჩიტა (machit’a); მიჩიგტარაი (michigt’arai); Khevsur: მაჩიკა (machika), ჩიტითავა (chit’itava)

Botany and Ecology Campanula biebersteiniana: Perennial; forming carpets, not densely cespitose; rhizome thick, brown, with few remnants of leaves at tip; stems 7–10 cm, slightly leafy, 1-flowered, erect or ascending, glabrous or sparingly pubescent; leaves of rosettes nearly spatulate, gradually tapering to petioles, with petioles 3–4(5) cm long, 0.5–0.7(1) cm wide, glabrous or subglabrous, entire, apex rounded, distinctly obtusely or acutely toothed; cauline leaves narrow, oblanceolate, or sub-linear, the uppermost sub-sessile. Calyx canescent at base with long soft tangled hairs; the teeth violet, linear-lanceolate, rather broad, long, obtuse, half the length of the corolla; appendages ovate, obtuse, lanate, reflexed, concealing tube; corolla dark blue, campanulate, 3–4 cm long, glabrous, divided for one-quarter into rounded abruptly acuminate lobes; flowers erect, until anthesis, drooping in fruit; receptacle glabrous; seeds elongate-ovoid, flattened, with slightly thickened margins, pale, dull. Flowering June–July. Caucasus, alpine meadows, on platforms of glacial cirques, very rarely in rocks (Shishkin and Boborov 1957) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6). Campanula rapunculoides: Biennial; root thick, often napiform, white, with milky juice; stems straight, simple, 70–100 cm, sometimes branching in upper part, longitudinally striate, glabrous or covered especially below with spreading white hairs; radical leaves obovate, obtuse or acuminate, attenuate into petioles, subentire, glabrous or sparingly pubescent; cauline leaves sessile, linear-lanceolate, entire, the uppermost reduced. Racemes in long spicate flowers, sometimes branching to form slightly paniculate inflorescence; flowers subsessile or on short thin erect pedicels; calyx obconical, glabrous, or bristly in strips, teeth straight, narrowly long-acuminate, sometimes setaceous, entire or slightly dentate, glabrous, shorter (sometimes by

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Fig. 1 Campanula sp. (Campanulaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Campanula latifolia (Campanulaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Campanula latifolia (Campanulaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

half) than corolla; corolla whitish-blue or nearly white, campanulate, glabrous, divided or less into ovate acute lobes; filaments dilated, pubescent; style hidden in corolla, pubescent for nearly entire length, with three stigmas; capsule erect, obconical, elongate, striated with prominent nerves, trilocular, opened by three terminal pores;

244 Fig. 4 Campanula sp. (Campanulaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Campanula sp. (Campanulaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 6 Campanula sp. (Campanulaceae), Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 7 Campanula rapunculoides. (Campanulaceae), Boveç, Slovenia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

seeds very small, flattened, ovate, shiny, with blackish groove. Flowering June–July. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, in forests, among shrubs, sometimes on river banks, rocks, up to the middle mountain belt (Shishkin 1957) (Figs. 7 and 8).

Phytochemistry Carbohydrates, alkaloids, flavonoids (kampferol, quercetine), vitamins (C), cyclotols, steroids (Sokolov 1991).

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Fig. 8 Campanula sp. (Campanulaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses In the Northern Caucasus, the root extract is used as analgesic and for wound treatment (Sokolov 1991).

Local Food Uses The young leaves of all species are boiled as herb pie in the Northern Caucasus. The roots are eaten as salad. The young stems and leaves are edible and tasty (Grossheim 1952). Kats’a კაწა Campanula rapunculoides L. is eaten raw in Khevi (Bakhtadze and Koghuashvili 2009; Kavtaradze 1985; Sujashvili and Pitskhelauri 2005). In Mtiuleti, raw eaten plants are vardutsa ვარდუცა, alkvasha ალქვაშა Campanula latifolia L., k’ank’esha კანკეშა Gadellia lactiflora (M. Bieb.) Schulkina, dutsi დუცი Agasyllis latifolia Boiss, mzhavana მჟავანა Rumex acetosa L., pkholis taxa ფხოლის თავა Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., diq’i დიყი Heracleum ssp., t’q’is niori ტყის ნიორი Galanthus ssp., ღოლო gholo Rumex ssp., maq’valdzirgha მაყვალღირძა Anthriscus sylvestris (L.) Hoffm., dzirkhvena ძირხვენა, machik’a მაჩიკას Campanula rapunculoides L., mits’is vashli მიწის ვაშლს Helianthus tuberosus L. (Makalatia 1930).

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In Pshavi young shoots of shurshena ამჟავებენ Campanula lactiflora M. Bieb. k’enk’esha კენკეშა are peeled and eaten (Maghalashvili 1970). In Pshavi plants used for mkhali (pkhali) are მხალეულად იყენებენ Amaranthus albus L., tetrmkhala თეთრმხალა Amaranthus retroflexus L., ts’itelmkhala წითელმხალა Amaranthus hybridus L., mek’endzela მეკენძელას Aruncus vulgaris Raf., khipkhlis q’iva ხიფხლის ყივა Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., shup’q’a შუპყა Heracleum asperum M. Bieb., k’enk’esha კენკეშას Campanula lactiflora M. Bieb., khipkhola ხიფხოლა (q’int’ora ყინტორა) Chaerophyllum aureum L. (Bodzashvili 1988; Maghalashvili 1970; Makalatia 1933; Javakhishvili 1986). In Tianeti District, the stems of (peeled) shup’q’a შუპყა Heracleum asperum M. Bieb, diq’i დიყი Heracleum ssp., lagi ლაგი Heracleum leskovii Grossh. and k’enk’esha კენკეშას Campanula lactiflora M. Bieb. are eaten raw. In Khevsureti the local population uses a variety of plants growing in wild for cooking mixed mkhali, e.g., dzirkhvena ძირხვენა Arctium lappa L.; k’enk’esha კენკეშა Campanula lactiflora M. Bieb. young, peeled shoots are used as food; tvitmavala თვითმავალა Amaranthus retroflexsus L. grows in vegetable gardens and ruderal places; the aboveground parts of the plant are harvested; boiled; mixed with clarified butter, onions, and herbs; and eaten; ckhenis sakhvremi ცხენის სახვრემი Sonchus ssp., mochik’ais t’ari მოჩიკაის ტარი Campanula rapunculoides L., mch’ivana მჭივანა Silene wallichiana Klotzsch. The young shoots of k’nk’esha კენკეშა Campanula lactiflora M. Bieb. and mochik’a მოჩიკა Campanula rapunculoides L. are edible until the plant flowers. Some people peel them while some eat them without peeling. Both taste sweet (Bakhtadze and Koghuashvili 2009; Chincharauli 2005). In Khevsureti, sometimes at wedding parties the guests were treated with ts’ertkhali წერთხალი Polygonum dshawachischwilii Kharkev and k’enk’esha კენკეშა Campanula lactiflora M. Bieb. dipped in the cream and vinegar (the stems of both plants are dipped and eaten together). The raw roots of Campanula rapunculoides L. are eaten in Tusheti (Makalatia 1933). The young shoots of giera გიერა Brassica campestris subsp. oleifera (DC.) Schübl. & Mart., mariamdzmara მარიამძმარა Ligusticum alatum (M. Bieb.) Spreng., shup’q’a შუპყა Heracleum asperum M. Bieb., diq’i დიყი Heracleum ssp., jortk’uda ჯორთკუდა Artemisia vulgaris L., kartskhvi ქარცხვს Campanula tridentata Schreb., and k’enk’esha კენკეშას Campanula lactiflora M. Bieb. are pickled in Tusheti. If the cattle eat shup’q’a შუპყას Heracleum asperum M. Bieb., it gives yellow clarified butter (Bochoridze 1993; Kurdghelaidze 1983; Maghalashvili 1970; Makalatia 1933; Oshoradze 1969). In Tusheti ch’imi ჭიმი Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., giera გიერა Brassica campestris subsp. oleifera (DC.) Schübl. & Mart., machigt’ara მაჩიგტარა Campanula rapunculoides L., khap’ara ხაპარა (ვარდკაჭაჭა) Cichorium intybus L., diq’i დიყი Heracleum ssp., shup’q’a შუპყა Heracleum asperum M. Bieb., ap’q’i აპყი Heracleum leskovii Grossh., dutsi დუცი Angelica tatianae Bordz, giera გიერა Sinapis arvensis L., jortk’uda ჯორთკუდა (wild estragon) Artemisia vulgaris L., mariamdzmara მარიამძმარა Ligusticum alatum (M. Bieb.) Spreng., and kharnuq’a

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ხარნუყა Lactuca serriola L. are eaten raw and also dipped in sour milk (Makalatia 1933; Oshoradze 1969). These herbaceous plants for dipping (sats’ebaci, sats’ebi “chatseba” means “dip” in Georgian) are harvested, and a bowl with curd “shegdebul ze” “შეგდებულ ზე” is filled; then leaves and young shoots from the mentioned herbaceous plants are plucked, dipped in the curd, and eaten (Baramidze 1987; Gvaramadze 1997; Kakhidze 1986; Kokhreidze 1947; Nizharadze 1971). In Kakheti shepherds eat the flowers of kartskhvi ქარცხვი Campanula biebersteiniana Roem. & Schult. raw. In Samegrelo ch’riant’eli ჭრიანტელი (Amaranthus spp.), babuats’vera ბაბუაწვერა (Taraxacum ssp.), jumena ჯუმენა Amaranthus hybridus L., natsarkatama ნაცარქათამა (Chenopodium spp.), ბალბა (Malva silvestris L.), ch’inch’ari ჭინჭარი (Urtica dioica L.), machit’a მაჩიტა (Campanula rapunculoides L.), ginishjonjgho გინიშჯღონჯღო Sonchus ssp., and mumlish k’vaji მუმლიშ კვაჯი Ficaria ssp., are often boiled together for Phkhali. Soft shoots of jumena ჯუმენა Amaranthus hybridus L., when cooled down after boiling, are pressed and seasoned with walnuts, garlic, pepper salt, and young t’q’emali or mats’oni (yoghurt) for taste (Javakhishvili 1986). Campanula biebersteiniana: Flowers and young leaves are eaten (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017a, b; Bussmann et al. 2016, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017). Campanula glomerata: Young leaves and shoots are eaten as Phkhali (herb pie) (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017a, b; Bussmann et al. 2016, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017). Campanula lactiflora: Young leaves and shoots are eaten as Phkhali (herb pie) and also pickled (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017a, b; Bussmann et al. 2016, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017). Campanula latifolia: Young leaves and shoots are eaten as Phkhali (herb pie) and Khachapuri (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017a, b; Bussmann et al. 2016, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017). Campanula rapunculoides: Young leaves, roots, and shoots are eaten as Phkhali (herb pie) (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017a, b; Bussmann et al. 2016, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Fodder for cattle. Planted as ornamental (Sokolov 1991).

References Bakhtadze D, Koghuashvili P. Nutrition culture of the Georgians. Tbilisi; 2009. (ბახტაძე დ., კოღუაშვილი პ. 2009. ქართველთა კვების კულტურა. თბილისი, in Georgian). Baramidze J. Adjarian dishes. Batumi: Sabchota Adjara; 1987. (ბარამიძე ჯ. 1987. აჭარული კერძები. ბათუმი: საბჭოთა აჭარა in Georgian).

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Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Campanula lactiflora M. Bieb. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Springer International Publishing; 2017a. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Aleksanyan A, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Malva neglecta Wallr.; Malva sylvestris L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Springer International Publishing; 2017b. Bochoridze G. Tusheti. Tbilisi; 1993. Boch’oridze G. Tusheti. Tbilisi; 1993. (ბოჭორიძე გ. 1993. თუშეთი. თბილისი in Georgian). Bodzashvili L. Pshavi and Pshavians. Tbilisi: Sabchota Sakartvelo; 1988. (ბოძაშვილი ლ. 1988. ფშავი და ფშაველები. თბილისი: გამომცემლობა საბჭოთა საქართველო in Georgian). Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ehnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plant and fungal use in Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2017;86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Chincharauli A. Dictionary of Khevsurian dialect. Tbilisi: Kartuli ena; 2005. (ჭინჭარაული ა. 2005. ხევსურული ლექსიკონი. თბილისი: ქართული ენა in Georgian). Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow; 1952. (in Russian). Gvaramadze K. Results of the study of the Guria region. Tbilisi; 1997. (გვარამაძე კ. 1997. გურია მხარის კვლევა-ძიების შედეგები. თბილისი in Georgian). Javakhishvili I. Materials for the history of household industry and handicraft, vol. V, part 2: Food and drinks. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1986. (ჯავახიშვილი, ი. 1986. მასალები შინამრეწველობისა და ხელოსნობის ისტორიისათვის, ტ. V ნაწ 2: საჭმელ in Georgian). Kakhidze N. The oldest and old historical sources of Adjara – ethnographic data. Essays on history of south-western Georgia, Adjara 1. Tbilisi; 1986. (კახიძე ნ. 2007 აჭარის უძველესი და ძველი ისტორიის წყაროები ეთნოგრაფიული მონაცემები. სამხრეთდასავლეთ საქართველოს ისტორიის ნარკვევები აჭარა 1. თბილისი in Georgian). Kavtaradze I. Mokhevian dialect of the Georgian language. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1985. (ქავთარაძე ი. 1985. ქართული ენის მოხევური დიალექტი. თბილისი: მეცნიერება in Georgian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Kokhreidze V. Wild food plants of Adjara (mkhaleuli). Batumi: Adjaris sakhelgami; 1947. (8 კოხრეიძე ვ. 1947. აჭარაში ველურად მოზარდი საკვები მცენარეები (მხალეული). ბათუმი: აჭარის სახელგამი in Georgian). Kurdghelaidze G. Tusheti – Household, nature, toponymy. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1983. (8კურდღელაიძე გ. 1983. თუშეთი მეურნეობა, ბუნება, ტოპონიმიკა თბილისი: მეცნიერება in Georgian). Maghalashvili T. Useful plants of Telavi district. Acad. S. Janashia State Museum of Georgia XXVI–XXVII. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1970. (8მაღალაშვილი თ. 1970. თელავის

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რაიონის სასარგებლო მცენარეები. აკად. ს. ჯანაშიას სახელობის საქართველოს სახელმწიფო მუზეუმის მოამბე. XXVI–XXVII – A. თბილისი: მეცნიერება in Georgian). Makalatia S. Mtiuleti. Tbilisi: Sakhelgami; 1930. (8მაკალათია ს . 1930. მთიულეთი. ტფილისი: სახელგამი in Georgian). Makalatia S. Tusheti. Tbilisi: Sakhelgami; 1933. (მაკალათია ს. 1933. თუშეთი. : ტფილისი: სახელგამი in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Nizharadze Sh. Adjarian dialect of the Georgian language. Batumi; 1971. (ნიჟარაძე შ. 1971. ქართული ენის აჭარული დიალექტი . ბათუმი in Georgian). Oshoradze V. Characteristics of wild mkhaleuli and greens of Tusheti and possibility of their cultivation. Candidate of Agricultural Sciences dissertation thesis. Tbilisi: 1969. (ოშორაძე ვ. 1969. თუშეთის ველურად მოზარდი მხალეულ-მწვანილეული მცენარეების დახასიათება და მათი კულტურაში დანერგვის შესაძლებლობა. სადისერტაციო ნაშრომი სოფლის. მეურნეობის მეცნ. კანდიდატის სამეცნიერო ხარისხის მოსაპოვებლად. თბილისი in Georgian). Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, Volume 24: Dipsacaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Campanulaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1957 (English 1972). 370 pages, 27 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant Resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Families Hippuridaceae-Lobeliaceae, vol. 6. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1991. 200 p. (in Russian) Sujashvili N, Pitskhelauri I. Dictionary of Mokhevian dialect. Tbilisi; 2005. (სუჯაშვილი ნ, ფიცხელაური ი. 2005. მოხევური ლექსიკონი. თბილისი).

Cannabis sativa L. CANNABACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Cannabis sativa L.: Cannabis chinense Delile; Cannabis indica Lam.; Cannabis sativa var. indica (Lam.) E. Small & Cronquist

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_33

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Fig. 1 Cannabis sativa (Cannabaceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Names Georgian: კანაფი (k’anapi); ქან (qan) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991; Fedorov 1984); English: Cannabis

Botany and Ecology Annual; stems 50–150 cm, covered with appressed hairs; leaves long petioled, with 3-5-7 elongated-lanceolate lobes, coarsely serrate; inflorescences in the axils of upper leaves, spreading, the staminate flowers in panicles, the pistillate in spikes; fruit a gray achene, not jointed at base, strongly adherent. Flowering June–July. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, along rivers, on steep cliffs, rocky slopes, near roads and settlements (Bobrov and Komarov 1936) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Phytochemistry Alkaloids (THC, cannabin, cannabinine), tannins, essential oils, vitamins (C), fatty acids (Fedorov 1984).

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Fig. 2 Cannabis sativa (Cannabaceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Cannabis sativa (Cannabaceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses The leaf extract is used for skin diseases and scabies. The flower infusion was traditionally used for toothache (Fedorov 1984). Cannabis is widely used medicinally, e.g., in the Himalayas of Pakistan for constipation and dysentery, as sedative,

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for snakebites, as intoxicant, to kill lice, as diuretic and purgative, and for asthma (Umair et al. 2019).

Local Food Uses The seeds are eaten in the Ural and Caucasus and are an ingredient for Svanetian salt (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, c, 2018; Fedorov 1984).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The stem fibers are traditionally used to make ropes and sacks, packing, strings, nets, canvas, and lacework. Poisonous to horses and pigs (Fedorov 1984). The fibers are used to make rope (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, c, 2018; Fedorov 1984).

References Bobrov EG, Komarov VL. Flora of the USSR. Volume 5: Dicotyledoneae, subclass I: archichlamydeae, order piperales-polygonales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1936 (English 1970). 593 pages, 49 b/w plates. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plant and fungal use in Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016c;86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Fedorov AA, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 1. Families Magnoliaceae– Limoniaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1984. 460 p. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N., Kharadze A., Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Umair M, Altaf M, Bussmann RW, Abbasi AM. Ethnomedicinal uses of the local flora in Chenab riverine area, Punjab province Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2019;15:7. https://doi.org/ 10.1186/s13002-019-0285-4.

Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik BRASSICACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Farzaneh Khajoei Nasab, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik: Bursa bursa-pastoris (L.) Britton; Bursa bursa-pastoris (L.) Shafer; Bursa djurdjurae Shull; Bursa fracticruris Borbás; Bursa grandiflora Kuntze; Bursa nana Borbás; Bursa occidentalis Shull; Bursa orientalis Shull; Bursa pastoris Weber ex F.H. Wigg.; Bursa penarthae Shull; Bursa rubella (Reut.) Decne; Bursa tuscaloosae Shell; Bursa viguieri Shull; Capsella agrestis Jord.; Capsella alpestris (E.B. Almq.) E.B. Almq.; Capsella apetala R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; mananakhuts@yahoo. com; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] F. Khajoei Nasab Department of Plant Sciences and Biotechnology, Faculty of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran e-mail: [email protected] A. Ghorbani Department of Organismal Biology, Evolutionary Biology Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_34

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Opitz; Capsella batavorum (E.B. Almq.) E.B. Almq.; Capsella bursa-pastoris subsp. bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik.; Capsella bursa-pastoris subsp. eu-bursa Briq.; Capsella bursa-pastoris subsp. occidentalis (Shull) Maire; Capsella bursa-pastoris var. integrifolia DC.; Capsella bursa-pastoris var. minuta Post; Capsella concava (E.A. Almq.) E.B. Almq.; Capsella heegeri Solms; Capsella Hyrcana Grossh.; Capsella lycia Stapf; Capsella mediterranea (E.B. Almq.) E.B. Almq.); Capsella patagonica (E.B. Almq.) E.B. Almq.; Capsella penarthae (Shull) Wilmott; Capsella polymorpha Cav.; Capsella ruderalis Jord.; Capsella stenocarpa Timb.-Lagr.; Capsella thomsonii Hook. f.; Capsella treviorum E.B. Almq.; Capsella turoniensis E.B. Almq.; Capsella viguieri Blaringhem; Crucifera capsella E.H.L. Krause; Iberis bursa-pastoris (L.) Willd.; Nasturtium bursa-pastoris Roth; Solmsiella heegeri (Solms) Borbás; Thlaspi bursa-pastoris L.

Local Names Georgian: წიწმატურა (ts’ts’mat’ura), ხავარტა (khavart’a), რეკებოს (rek’ebos), ხავარტა (khavart’a), ხარიკბილა (kharik’bila), ხარიკრიჭა (kharik’rich’a), ხარიკრიჭა (kharik’rich’a,), მარწყვაბალაკჰა (marts’q’vabalakha); ხარკბილა (kharik’bila), ხწ (khts’) (ossetian); Russian: Пacтушья cумкa oбыкнoвeннaя (Pastush’ya sumka obyknovennaya); Пастушьясумка (pastushjacumka); Azeri: гуш эппейи (gush eppeyi); (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991); Farsi: Chalchalak (‫ ;)ﭼﺎﻝ ﭼﺎﻟﮏ‬Kiseh keshish (‫;)ﮐﺸﯿﺶ ﮐﯿﺴﻪ‬ Looseroo, loosiroo (‫ ;)ﻟﻮﺳﺮﻭ‬English: Shepherd’s purse.

Botany and Ecology Annual, covered with simple and branching hairs mainly below; stems (5)2030 (60) cm tall, often solitary, rarely several, simple or branching; radical leaves petioled, rosetted, oblong-lanceolate, entire to pinnatipartite, with triangular or oblong-triangular, acute, forward directed lobes, cauline leaves few, sessile, oblong, lanceolate, the upper sublinear, sagittate at base. Raceme umbelliform at first, later elongating; pedicels 2–4 mm long (up to 2 cm in fruit); sepals oblong-ovate, 1–2.5 mmL long; petals ovate, white, 1.5–3.5 long, 1–1.3 mm broad; silicles (2.5) 5–8 mm long, 4–5(8) mm broad in upper part, obtriangular-cordate, slightly emarginate at apex, notch generally up to 1 mm in depth. Persistent portion of style N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]

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0.25 mm long, rarely longer; valves triangular-boat-shaped, thin-walled, slightly carinate; seeds oval, flattened, yellowish brown, 1–2.5 mm long, 0.5–0.75 mm broad. Flowering March–May, fruiting April–July. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, weed everywhere in villages, roadsides, fences, vegetable gardens, and fields (Bobrov and Bush 1939; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5). Fig. 1 Capsella bursapastoris (Brassicaceae) Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Capsella bursapastoris (Brassicaceae) Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 3 Capsella bursapastoris (Brassicaceae) Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Capsella bursapastoris (Brassicaceae) Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Vitamins (C, B2, K, carotene), carbohydrates (sucrose, sorbose, lactose, sorbitol, mannitol, adonite), organic acids (oxalic, tartaric, apple, pyruvic, sulphanil, protocatechic), stricides (a-sitosterol), saponins, alkaloids, nitrogen-containing

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Fig. 5 Capsella bursapastoris (Brassicaceae) Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

compounds (choline, acetylcholine, oxytocine), coumarins (coumarine, dicoumarol), tannins, flavonoids (glycosides of quercetine, luteoline, diosmethine, rutine, diosmine, rutinoside, lucolalactoside, lyutoline), fatty acids (Sokolov 1985).

Local Medicinal Uses Used as hemostatic (especially the root), and urinary diseases, as an astringent, diuretic, antiscorbutic, and with hematuria. In Middle Asia to treat uterine bleeding, bleeding ulcers and stomach cancer, uterine cancer and fibroids. The plant is also used as contraceptive (delays ovulation) and for dysentery and eye diseases and has antibacterial properties. In the Altai the plant is used for dysentery, gastritis, bleeding, tuberculosis, malaria, heart disease, liver problems, venereal diseases, vomiting, catarrhal diseases, and metabolic disorders and for the treatment of infected wounds. The extract lowers blood pressure strengthens the motility of the intestines and uterus and accelerates blood clotting (Sokolov 1985). The whole plant is used to stop bleeding and for irregular menstruation, urinary duct stones, gonorrhea, and hemorrhoid (Mozaffarian 2013). Decoction of aerial parts is used as carminative and for the improvement of stomachache (Mosaddegh et al. 2012), and as sedative (Sadeghi and Mahmood 2014), and as a poultice for bleeding, superficial inflammations, and wound healing (Safa et al. 2013) Leaves and shoots are used to treat digestive problems and are widely sold in markets for this purpose (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j; Bussmann et al. 2016, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017). In Pakistan the plant is used as astringent (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018).

Local Food Uses Capsella can be eaten as a salad and with mashed potatoes and for pickling. The young leaves are used throughout the Caucasus in soups, like sorrel or nettles. The seeds are rich in mustard oil and can partly replace mustard but have a somewhat bitter taste

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(Grossheim 1952). The aerial parts are used as fresh vegetable or cooked with rice (Mosaddegh et al. 2012). In Khevi many species are mixed together for pkhali: ghoris nats’q’la-i ღორის ნაწყლა-ი Sonchus ssp., mch’ivana-i მჭივანა-ი – Silene wallichiana Klotzsch; maq’randutsa-i მაყრანდუცა-ი Anthriscus sylvestris (L.) Hoffm. maq’rats’ela მაყრაწელა-ი; diq’inch’ora-ghrich’ola დიყინჭორა-ღრინჭოლა/j’q’imi’ჭყიმი Anthriscus nemorosa (M. Bieb.) Spreng; k’ats’a-i კაწა-ი Campanula rapunculoides L. (its root is also edible), ts’iteli pkhali წითელი/jijilaq’a წითელი ჯიჯილაყა Amaranthus hybridus L., nadirmkhalai ნადირმხალაი Aruncus vulgaris Raf., saskhep’iai სასხეპიაი Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., ch’inch’ari ჭინჭარი Urtica dioica L., gholo ღოლო Rumex ssp., tatami თათამას Atriplex hortensis L. Khevi people use as food the following plants: shalgi შალგი Brassica campestris L., khakhot’i ხახოტი Bunias orientalis L., mamula მამულა Artemisia vulgaris L., ts’its’mat’ura წიწმატურა Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik., khboshublai ხბოშუბლაი Galega orientalis Lam (Bakhtadze and Koghuashvili 2009; Kavtaradze 1985; Sujashvili and Pitskhelauri 2005). Young shoots and leaves of. Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medic. are eaten in Pshavi (Maghalashvili 1970). In Tusheti many herbaceous plants are used as food and are kept for winter, either dried or pickled, to make mixed mkhali and sauces and to accompany the main dishes, including kumeli ქუმელი q’va ყვა. It is used all-year round and is made of roasted keri ქერი (barley) grains. Can be made of ipkli იფქლი (Georgian endemic wheat), corn, svili სვილი (rye), kersvili ქერსვილი (mixture of barley and rye), and tsetsvi ცერცვი (faba bean, when mixed with corn: giera-i გიერა-ი Brassica campestris subsp. oleifera (DC.) Schübl. & Mart., gomat’i გომატი Bunias orientalis L., dutsi დუცი Angelica tatianae Bordz., kharnuq’a-i ხარნუყა-ი Lactuca serriola L., buera ბუერა Petasites ssp., shubq’a-i შუბყა-ი Heracleum asperum M. Bieb., khap’ara-i ხაპარა-ი Cichorium intybus L., mariamdzmara მარიამძმარა Ligusticum alatum (M. Bieb.) Spreng. ch’imi ჭიმი Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., diq’i დიყი Heracleum ssp., jortk’uda-i ჯორთკუდა-ი Artemisia vulgaris L., sagvidzla საღვიძლა Taraxacum officinale (L.) Weber ex F.H. Wigg., dzirkhvena ძირხვენა Arctium lappa L., ch’ivana ჭივანა Silene wallichiana Klotzsch, kvishamkhala ქვიშამხალა Silene laera (Stev.) Sims, khavrat’ai ხავრატაი Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik., and giera გიერა Sinapis arvensis L. (Makalatia 1933). There are several ways to season mkhali in Tusheti: (1) well-cleaned plants are placed in a pot and cooked without water. The cooked plants are placed on a sieve to cool and cut into pieces. After that the dish is seasoned with onions browned in clarified butter, eggs, and salt. (2) After cooking the plants in the same way, fresh cottage cheese, onions browned in clarified butter, eggs, and salt are added. (3) After boiling the mkhali is seasoned with vinegar, garlic, and salt. Normally, in Tusheti, mkhali is not seasoned with walnuts and vinegar (Makalatia 1933). Plants used as mkhali Kaheti: tatruli mkhali თათრული მხალი Amaranthus hybridus L., ts’ots’nara mkhali წოწნარა მხალს Amaranthus retroflexus L., khach’ich’ora ხაჭიჭორა Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik., vazisdzira ვაზიძირა

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Lapsana grandiflora M. Bieb., bolok’a ბოლოკა Rapistrum rugosum (L.) All., q’int’ora ყინტორა Chaerophyllum aureum L., natsarkatama ნაცარქათამა Chenopodium album L., shalgi შალგი (shelga შელგა) Brassica campestris L., sve სვე Humulus lupulus L., khboshubla ხბოშუბლა Galega orientalis Lam. ნორჩ, ch’inch’ari ჭინჭარი Urtica dioica L., ghoris kada ღორის ქადა Lactuca serriola L., Balba ბალბა Malva neglecta l., natsarkatama ნაცარქათამა or dzaghltzhola ძაღლთჟოლა Chenopodium foliosum, tatabo თათაბო Atriplex hortensis L., saghvidzla საღვიძლა or burbushela ბურბუშელა Taraxacum confusum Schischk., tskhenis tsertsvela ც ხენის ცერცველა Vicia narborensis, vazis dzira ვაზის ძირა Lapsana grandiflora M. Bieb., mravaldzarghva მრავალძარღვა Plantago major L., babuats’vera ბაბუაწვერა Taraxacum ssp., gareuli ts’its’mat’i გარეული წიწმატი Cardamine hirsuta L., ghinch’a-ghinch’a ღინჭა-ღინჭა Sonchus ssp. (Javakhishvili 1986; Menteshashvili 1943). In Kartli kalak’oda ქალაკოდა Arum orientale M. Bieb., shavmkhala შავმხალა Amaranthus retroflexus L., kharik’bila ხარიკბილა/khach’mach’ich’a ხაჭმაჭიჭა/ odelia-khali ოდელია-ხალი Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik., shalgi შალგი Brassica campestris L., ghrinch’ola ღრინჭოლა Anthriscus nemorosa (M. Bieb.) Spreng., kalak’oda ქალაკოდა Arum orientale M. Bieb., and ghoriskona-khali ღორისქონა-ხალი Sonchus ssp. are used for pkhali (Javakhishvili 1986). Plants mixed together for pkhali in Adjara include dvarula dvalura დვარულა დვალურა Polygonum carneum C. Koch, dondoli დონდოლი Gadellia lactiflora (M. Bieb.), ch’inch’ari ჭინჭარი Urtica dioica L., katamnatsara ქათამნაცარა Chenopodium album L., ch’ich’laq’a ჭიჭლაყა Amaranthus retroflexus L., perapera ფერაფერა Phytolacca americana L., k’uk’umzhava კუკუმჟავა, svint’ri სვინტრი Polygonatum ssp., ch’arbadelo ჭარბადელო Arctium lappa L.., and also young leaves of motsvi მოცვი Vaccinium ssp., venakhi ვენახი Vitis vinifera L., babuats’vera ბაბუასწვერა Taraxacum ssp., Kajiloja ქაჯილოჯა Daucus carota L., Ts’its’marit’a წიწმარიტა Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik., burt’q’ila ბურტყილა Lapsana. grandiflora M. Bieb.; the plants used by Adjara people as food are ajark’ela აჯარკელა Lathyrus roseus Steven, ajorik’a აჯორიკას Aruncus vulgaris Raf. (young leaves are pickled), bobots’vera ბობოწვერა Taraxacum ssp. (ground roasted dry roots used instead of cichorium), dilq’a დილყა Heracleum sp. (shoots are peeled and eaten), k’onst’ant’ila კონსტანტილა (white roots are edible), ozaghina ოზაღინა Chaerophyllum aureum L. (young leaves are pickled), ghima ღიმა Chaerophyllum bulbosum L. (mixed with leek or ajorik’a აჯორიკა Aruncus vulgaris Raf. and pickled), and dvalura დვალურა Polygonum carneum (Baramidze 1987; Gvaramadze 1997; Kakhidze 2007; Kokhreidze 1947; Nizharadze 1971). Wild pkhali plants can be cooked in various ways: they can be pickled, boiled, and seasoned with vinegar, walnuts, and various spice herbs (Kokhreidze 1947). The leaves, stems, and shoots are eaten in spring as pkhali (herb pie), often with a large number of other species (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j; Bussmann et al. 2016, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses In veterinary medicine the plant helps to treat diarrhea and internal bleeding. Serves as fodder for rabbits (Sokolov 1985).

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Capsicum annuum L. SOLANACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Capsicum annuum L.: Capsicum annuum var. conoide (Mill.) Irish; Capsicum annuum var. fasciculatum (Sturtev.) Irish; Capsicum annuum var. grossum (L.) Sendtn.; Capsicum baccatum L.; Capsicum conicum Lam.; Capsicum conoides Mill.; Capsicum curvipes Dunal.; Capsicum fasciculatum Sturtev.; Capsicum frutescens L.; Capsicum frutescens var. fasciculatum L.H. Bailey; Capsicum frutescens var. grossum L.H. Bailey; Capsicum frutescens var. longum

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_35

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L.H. Bailey; Capsicum grossum L.; Capsicum hispidum var. glabriusculum Dunal; Capsicum indicum var. aviculare Dierb.; Capsicum longum A. DC.; Capsicum petenense Standl.

Local Names Georgian, წიწაკა (ts’tsak’a), წიწაკა ბულგარული (tzitzaka bulgaruli), წიწაკა წითელი (tzitzaka tzitheli); Khevsur, მწარე წიწაკა (mts’are ts’its’ak’a), პიმპილი (p’imp’ili), ბულგარული წიწაკა (bulgaruli ts’its’ak’a), ტკბილი წიწაკა (t’k’bili ძაფანა ts’its’ak’a); Svan, (dzaphana); Russian, Перецстручковый (peretsctrytskoveiy) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991); English, Chilli pepper

Botany and Ecology Cultivated as annual. Stem 30–90(130) cm tall, erect or flexuous, glabrous or pubescent, cylindrical, at least in lower part, branched usually from very base, rarely simple, branches mostly 4-angled, glabrous, or pubescent. Leaves opposite or lower ones alternate, ovate to lanceolate, tapering above, with cuneate base, 2–13.5 cm long, dark green above, lighter underneath, glabrous or variously pubescent, denser underneath, especially along veins; petiole long, often equaling lamina, glabrous or diffusely pubescent. Flowers solitary, very rarely in pairs. Peduncle erect or somewhat drooping, thick or slender. Calyx campanulate to cyathiform with 5(7) mostly short teeth, surrounding fruit base or not. Corolla 5–11 mm long, white, dull white, or with violet spots, or violet, with 5(7) ovate, acuminate lobes. Anthers grayish violet. Fruit stalk erect or somewhat deflexed, thickened above. Fruit 5–12(15) cm long and up to 8 cm in diameter, extremely variable in size, shape, and color: globose, ovoid, cylindrical, conical, narrowly conical, trunk-shaped, green or yellow in unripe condition, mature fruit bright red, orange, yellow, yellowish brown, dark violet, or dark olive; the fruits of different varieties vary in taste from pungent hot to sweet, completely free of pungency. Seeds 2.5–5 mm long, light yellow, compressed, mostly reniform, finely reticulate with distinctly thickened rim around micropyle. Flowering from middle of June. Fruiting from second half of July–November. Widely cultivated (Shishkin and Boborov 1955; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8).

Phytochemistry Alkaloids (capsicine, solanine), organic acids (citric, palmitic), fatty acids, essential oils, vitamins (C, A) (Sokolov 1990).

Capsicum annuum L.

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Fig. 1 Capsicum annuum (Solanaceae), garden, Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Capsicum annuum (Solanaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses The fruits are used to treat colds and flu (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017, 2018).

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Fig. 3 Capsicum annuum (Solanaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Capsicum annuum (Solanaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Food Uses Pungent varieties of the pepper serve as a flavoring for various dishes and also as a spice in various preparations of salt pickling, marinades, and preserves, while the sweet varieties are used directly in food in the stuffed form and as a salad (Sokolov 1990).

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Fig. 5 Capsicum annuum (Solanaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 6 Capsicum annuum (Solanaceae), diversity of Capsicum, garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

The fruits are widely used as spice and also eaten raw and cooked. They are also an ingredient for Svanetian salt (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017, 2018; Figs. 9, 10, 11, and 12).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The fruit extract can be used as insecticide (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1990).

270 Fig. 7 Capsicum annuum (Solanaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 8 Capsicum annuum (Solanaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Capsicum annuum L. Fig. 9 Capsicum annuum (Solanaceae), market, Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 10 Capsicum annuum (Solanaceae), drying Capsicim, market, Telavi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 11 Capsicum annuum (Solanaceae), dried Capsicum, market in Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 12 Capsicum annuum (Solanaceae), Ajika (Capsicum spice preparation) market in Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

References Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plant and fungal use in Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2017;86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – Plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, Volume 22: Solanaceae and Scrophulariaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1955 (English 1993). 745 pages. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 5. Families of Caprifoliaceae – Plantaginaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1990. 328 p. (in Russian).

Cardamine hirsuta L. BRASSICACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Cardamine hirsuta L.: Cardamine hirsuta subsp. hirsuta L.; Cardamine hirsuta var. formosana Hayata; Cardamine hirsuta L. var. hirsuta; Cardamine multicaulis Hoppe ex Schur; Cardamine scutata var. formosana (Hayata) T.S. Liu & S.S. Ying; Cardamine umbrosa Abdrz. ex DC

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_36

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Local Names Georgian: ტყის წისმატი (t’q’is ts’its’mat’i) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991; Sokolov 1985).

Botany and Ecology Annual; stem glabrous, 10–20, rarely 30 cm high; leaves rosetted, lower cauline leaves pinnate with 1–3 pairs, sparsely pilose at apex and along margin, with a few long white cilia at base of petiole, leaflets of radical leaves petioled, suborbicularovate, the apical larger than the lateral, leaflets of upper leaves oblong-linear. Flowers minute, shorter than young siliques; sepals 1.5 mm long; petals white, narrowly obovate-cuneate, 2.5–3 mm long; stamens usually 4; pedicels and siliques ascending; siliques 17–25 mm long, 0.75 mm broad, tapering into an obtuse style 1.3–1.5 mm long. February–May. Ural, Caucasus in forests, thickets, and along streams up to the mid-mountain belt (Bobrov and Bush 1939) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4). Fig. 1 Cardamine pratensis (Brassicaceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Cardamine pratensis (Brassicaceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 3 Cardamine hirsuta (Brassicaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Cardamine hirsuta (Brassicaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Food Uses The leaves as salad, the seeds as mustard substitute. Plants used as mkhali Kaheti: tatruli mkhali თათრული მხალი Amaranthus hybridus L., ts’ots’nara mkhali წოწნარა მხალს Amaranthus retroflexus L., khach’ich’ora ხაჭიჭორა Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik., vazisdzira ვაზიძირა Lapsana grandiflora M. Bieb., bolok’a ბოლოკა Rapistrum rugosum (L.) All., q’int’ora ყინტორა Chaerophyllum

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aureum L., natsarkatama ნაცარქათამა Chenopodium album L., shalgi შალგი (shelga შელგა) Brassica campestris L., sve სვე Humulus lupulus L., khboshubla ხბოშუბლა Galega orientalis Lam. ნორჩ, ch’inch’ari ჭინჭარი Urtica dioica L., ghoris kada ღორის ქადა Lactuca serriola L., Balba ბალბა Malva neglecta l., natsarkatama ნაცარქათამა or dzaghltzhola ძაღლთჟოლა Chenopodium foliosum, tatabo თათაბო Atriplex hortensis L., saghvidzla საღვიძლა or burbushela ბურბუშელა Taraxacum confusum Schischk., tskhenis tsertsvela ც ხენის ცერცველა Vicia narborensis, vazis dzira ვაზის ძირა Lapsana grandiflora M. Bieb., mravaldzarghva მრავალძარღვა Plantago major L., babuats’vera ბაბუაწვერა Taraxacum ssp., gareuli ts’its’mat’i გარეული წიწმატი Cardamine hirsuta L., ghinch’a-ghinch’a ღინჭა-ღინჭა Sonchus ssp. (Javakhishvili 1986; Menteshashvili 1943). In Guria, wild plants used as food include dzigura ძიგურა (ek’ala ეკალა) Smilax excelsa L., chit’istava ჩიტისთავა Ornithogalum woronowii Krasch., moloka მოლოქა Malva sylvestris L., mt’redis ok’nat’ua მტრედის ოკნატუა Ficaria ssp., wild ts’its’mat’i წიწმატი Cardamine hirsuta L., dedlis kona დედლის ქონა Ranunculus chius DC., khokhbismk’erda ხოხბისმკერდა. To cook pkhali, people crush walnuts and mix it with vinegar (t’q’emali or pomegranate sauce), coriander, garlic, and salt mix and season the pkhali with it. jijilaq’a ჯიჯილაყა Amaranthus retroflexus L. If young, it must be seasoned with mk’ukhi მკუხი (juice from crushed green grapes added as seasoning), and if grapes are already mature, vinegar is used (Javakhishvili 1986). The leaves are used in phkhali (herb pie), often together with a large number of other species (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i; Bussmann et al. 2016, 2017; Bussmann 2017).

References Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Amaranthus retroflexus L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus: Springer International Publishing; 2017a. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Falcaria vulgaris Bernh. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus: Springer International Publishing; 2017b. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Lamium album L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus: Springer International Publishing; 2017c. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Aleksanyan A, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Malva neglecta Wallr.; Malva sylvestris L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus: Springer International Publishing; 2017d. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Polygonum alpinum All.; Polygonum aviculare L.; Polygonum carneum C. Koch; Polygonum hydropiper L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus: Springer International Publishing; 2017e.

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Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Portulaca oleracea L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus: Springer International Publishing; 2017f. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Rubia tinctorum L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus: Springer International Publishing; 2017g. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Stellaria media (L.) Vill. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus: Springer International Publishing; 2017h. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Urtica dioica L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus: Springer International Publishing; 2017i. Bobrov EG, Bush NA. Flora of the USSR. Volume 8. Capparidaceae, Cruciferae and Resedaceae; 1939 (English 1970). Leningrad: Akademia Nauk. 524 pp, 34 b/w plates, 2 maps. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus: Springer International Publishing; 2017, XXVII, 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12(43) https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plant and fungal use in Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2017;86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow; 1952. (in Russian). Javakhishvili I. Materials for the history of household industry and handicraft. Volume V. Part 2: food and drinks. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1986. (2: ჯავახიშვილი, ი .მასალები შინა მრეწველობისა და ხელოსნობის ისტორიისათვის, ტ.Vნაწ. საჭმელ in Georgian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Menteshashvili S. Dictionary of Kizikian dialect. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1943. მენთეშაშვილი ს. ქიზიყური ლექსიკონი -თბილისი: მეცნიერება.). Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: Flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 2. Families Paeoniaceae – Thymelaeaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1985, 336 p. (in Russian).

Centaurea behen L. ASTERACEAE Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Somayeh Esmaeili, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Centaurea behen L.: Centaurea alata Lam., Serratula behen (L.) Lam, Piptoceras behen (L.) Cass.

Local Names Russian, Bacилeкпpидaвлeнный (Vasilek pridavlennyy); Uzbek, Butakuz; Kyrgyz, Жaгaлaккёпбaшы (Zhagalak kyop bashy) (Sokolov 1993); Farsi, ‫ﮔﻞ ﮔﻨﺪﻡ ﻃﻼﯾﯽ‬ (Gol-e gandom talayi), ‫( ﺑﻬﻤﻦ ﺳﻔﯿﺪ‬Bahman sefid); English: White behen, White rhapontic, Iranian knapweed. A. Ghorbani Department of Organismal Biology, Evolutionary Biology Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] S. Esmaeili Traditional Medicine and Materia Medica Research Center, Faculty of Traditional Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_37

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Botany and Ecology Perennial. Plants to 1.5 m high, covered with very short, papilliform and spiniform hairs mixed with weakly floccose arachnoid-hairs, weakly scabrous; sometimes subglabrous. Stems upright, branched above middle, with numerous capitula usually at different height. Basal and lower cauline leaves very large, with quite long petioles, oblong, undivided or lyrate, with terminal lobe much larger than fewer lateral lobes, irregularly toothed; middle and upper cauline leaves smaller, entire or very weakly toothed, sessile, base of lamina decurrent on stem as broad wings; apical leaves not close to base of capitulum. Involucre 13–17 mm in diameter, 23–27 mm long; involucral bracts acute, lacking appendages. Florets yellow. Achenes about 5 mm long, with pappus 6–7 mm long. Flowering July to August. Caucasus, Middle Asia, on stony slopes, meadows, along roads, sometimes in fields, to the mid-mountain belt (Borisova 1963).

Phytochemistry Latex, alkaloids, flavonoids (scotellarin, scutellarine, apigenine, quercetine), phenolcarboxylic acids (coffee, chlorogenic), tannins, saponins. Rhaponticum carthamoides: phenylcarboxylic acids (p-hydroxybenzoic, protokatechovaya, vanillin, p-kumaric, coffee, ferulic, chlorogenic, neochlorogenic, isochlorogenic), flavonoids (quercetine, patuleine, kaempferol, gossipetine, isorhamnetine, quercetagetine, luteoline, apigenine), anthocyanins (cyanine, chrysanthemum), essential oils, organic acids (wine, lemon, oxalic, succinic, fumaric), steroids (sistosterin, stigmasterol, carthamen acetate, ecdysterone, integrosterone A, integrosteron, rapistosterone), vitamins (C, carotene) (Sokolov 1993).

Local Medicinal Uses The leaves are used in Iran and Turkmenistan as an astringent, and the root decoction for neural diseases (Sokolov 1993). Dried behen roots have long history of use in the Arabic, Persian, and Unani medicine (Mozaffarian 2013). In Iranian traditional Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]

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medicine, this medicinal root is used for jaundice as aphrodisiac and to cure male infertility (Zargari 1990; Soltani 2005). It is also used for liver problems. Its use is common for as general tonic, for heart problems, anti-urolithiasis, sedative, cardiotonic and antiflatulent (Soltani 2005; Amiri and Joharchi 2013).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The leaves yield yellow and orange dyes for wool and silk. All species are used as ornamentals (Sokolov 1993).

References Amiri MS, Joharchi MR. Ethnobotanical investigation of traditional medicinal plants commercialized in the markets of Mashhad, Iran. Avicenna J Phytomed. 2013;3:254–71. Borisova AG. Flora of the USSR, Volume 28: Compositae, Tribes Cynareae and Mustisieae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1963 (English 1998). 810 pages. Mozaffarian V. Identification of medicinal and aromatic plants of Iran. Tehran: Farhang Moaser; 2013. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 7. Family Asteraceae (Compositae). Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1993. 352 p. (in Russian). Soltani A. Encyclopedia of traditional medicine and medicinal plants, vol. 2. Tehran: Tehran University of Medical Sciences Press; 2005. Zargari A. Medicinal plants, vol. 2. Tehran: University of Tehran; 1990.

Chaerophyllum aureum L. Chaerophyllum bulbosum L. Chaerophyllum hirsutum L. APIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze Synonyms Chaerophyllum aureum L.: Chaerophyllum maculatum Willd. ex DC. Chaerophyllum bulbosum L.: Chaerophyllum caucasisum Schischk. Chaerophyllum hirsutum L.: Chaerophyllum cicutaria Vill.

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_38

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Local Names Chaerophyllum aureum: Georgian ყინტორა (q’int’ora), ძენწკლია (dzents’k’lia), ძენწკლია (dzents’k’li); Svan ყვასგსვან (qhvasg); Tush ჭიმი (ch’imi); Russian ხოზო (khozo), Бутень (buten); Armenian хми (chmi), шушинбанджар (shushinbandshar); Azeri джаджыг (dshadsheig) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991; Sokolov 1988). Chaerophyllum bulbosum: Georgian ღიმი (g’imi), ატოლი (at’oli); Tush ჭიმი (ch’imi); Armenian Бутень (buten) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991; Sokolov 1988). Chaerophyllum caucasicum: Georgian ღიმი (g’imi), ატოლი (at’oli); Tush ჭიმი (ch’imi); Armenian: Pampara, Shushan.

Botany and Ecology Chaerophyllum aureum: Perennial; root rather thick; stem solitary, erect, 50–150 cm high, branching, slightly furrowed, somewhat thickened below nodes, with stiff retrorse hairs below, spreading-hairy or glabrous above, often with violet spots; leaves triangular, more or less densely covered with semiappressed hairs, tripinnatisect, their blade 10–20 cm long and nearly as wide, the petioles as long as blades or longer, gradually broadening to narrow, oblong sheath; lower primary lobes on petioles, the upper sessile, lobes of the last order ovate or lanceolate, acuminate, with ciliate margin, proximally deeply and irregularly dentate or pinnatisect. Umbels of 10–20 glabrous irregular rays, 3.5–8 cm across, crowded in fruit; involucre obsolete; umbellets 6–10 mm across; leaflets of involucels 5–7, ovate or lanceolate, acuminate, long-ciliate, reflexed in fruit; petals white, 2–2.5 mm long, the marginal hardly elongate; fruit oblong-linear, 8–12 mm long, ca. 2 mm thick; short-conical; styles recurved, to twice as long as stylopodium. Flowering June–July, fruiting July–August. Ural, Caucasus, in coniferous and broad-leaved forests, beech, hornbeam-beech, ash-maple, oak and mixed forests, forest edges, in thickets, and tall-grass meadows (Shishkin 1950; Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4). Chaerophyllum bulbosum: Perennial; stem erect, 30–180 cm high, branching, hollow inside, ovoid or subglobular, with tuberiform thickening at base covered with long white retrorse bristles and bearing violet spots below, glabrous in upper part, often more or less inflated below nodes; leaves broadly triangular, the lower on long (10–20 cm) hairy petioles, tripinnate, with pinnatipartite terminal lobes; blades bright green, 15–30 cm long and nearly as wide, often covered below, mostly along nerves, with sparse long hairs; upper leaves subsessile, with long sheaths and narrow linear-oblong or linear leaflets, 2–10 mm long, 1–2 mm wide. Umbels 3–7 cm across, of 8–15(20) irregular glabrous rays; involucre 0; leaflets of involucels usually one-sided, of 3–5 acuminate, linear-lanceolate or lanceolate, irregular leaflets, the scarious margin glabrous or furnished with sparse bristles; petals white, glabrous, very

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Fig. 1 Chaerophyllum aureum (Apiaceae), Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

rarely hairy outside along midrib, rounded-obovate, two-lobed nearly up to middle, tapering abruptly at base, the peripheral petals not elongated; fruit linearoblong, 4–6 mm long, 1.5–2 mm wide, with broad, nearly flat stylopodium, the divergent styles usually recurved below, as long as stylopodium. Flowering June–July. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, in thickets, along the fringes of forests, in meadows. Chaerophyllum hirsutum: Biennial; root tuberiform, thickened, ovoid or broadly ovoid; stem solitary, branching from middle, densely covered in lower half with spreading and retrorse stiff white bristles, glabrous in upper part, 50–150 cm high; lower leaves early withering, triangularly and broadly ovate, their petioles abruptly broadening into an amplexicaul glabrous sheath with scarious margin, 7 s the length of the blades, these 15 cm long and nearly as wide, thrice pinnatisect; primary and secondary lobes on bristly-hairy petiolules, with bristles beneath along midrib, lobes of the last order sessile or on very short periolules, ovate, incised into obtuse oblongovate teeth; median cauline leaves sessile on broadened sheath, the upper with reduced sheaths, divided into linear lobes. Umbels 5–6 cm across, of 9–11 glabrous irregular rays; umbellets 1–1.5 cm across, with irregular pedicels; involucels of 3–5 ovate-lanceolate, acuminate leaflets with broadly scarious margins, sometimes purple, glabrous or with few cilia, becoming reflexed; calyx teeth inconspicuous; petals

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Fig. 2 Chaerophyllum aureum (Apiaceae), Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Chaerophyllum aureum (Apiaceae), pickled shoots, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

white, the peripheral elongated to 2 mm, broadly ovate, with rounded apex; fruit cylindrical, 4–5 mm long, 1–1.5 mm across; stylopodium short-conical; styles recurved below, slightly longer than stylopodium; ribs pale yellow-green; valleculae narrow, dark orange. Flowering May–June. Caucasus, stony and herbaceous slopes, gardens, 900–1600 m (Shishkin 1950).

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Fig. 4 Chaerophyllum aureum (Apiaceae), pickled shoots, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Vitamins, coumarins (umbelliferone), aliphatic hydrocarbons (tetracosane), lignans (chaerophylline, maculatin), flavonoids (rutine, quercetine, apigenin, diosmetin, apigenin, luteoline), vitamins (C), essential oils (ocimene, limonene, terpinene, p-cymene, pinene, terpinolene) (Sokolov 1988).

Local Medicinal Uses Chaerophyllum aureum: The root extract is used to remedy nervous system problems (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, c, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

Local Food Uses Chaerophyllum aureum: The leaves are boiled or fried and eaten in the Ural. In the Northern Caucasus, the young leaves are used as spice for soups and salads, and the stems are pickled. In the Caucasus the thick roots are eaten raw as salad as well as roasted or boiled like potato. Young stems are edible both raw and boiled like asparagus. Young leaves are used for soup (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1988). The buds and roots are eaten in Pkhali (herb pie); the stems can be pickled (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, c, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017). Chaerophyllum bulbosum: Young stems are edible both raw and boiled like asparagus. Young leaves are used for soup (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1988). In Khevi many species are mixed together for Pkhali: ghoris nats’q’la-i ღორის ნაწყლა'ი Sonchus ssp., mch’ivana-i მჭივანა'ი – Silene wallichiana Klotzsch, maq’randutsa-i მაყრანდუცა-ი Anthriscus sylvestris (L.) Hoffm. maq’rats’ela მაყრაწელა'ი, დიყინჭორა'ღრინჭოლა/j’q’imi’ჭყიმი diq’inch’ora-ghrich’ola Anthriscus nemorosa (M. Bieb.) Spreng, k’ats’a-i კაწა'ი Campanula rapunculoides

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L. (its root is also edible), ts’iteli pkhali წითელი/jijilaq’a წითელი ჯიჯილაყა Amaranthus hybridus L., nadirmkhalai ნადირმხალაი Aruncus vulgaris Raf., saskhep’iai სასხეპიაი Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., ch’inch’ari ჭინჭარი Urtica dioica L., gholo ღოლო Rumex ssp., and tatami თათამას Atriplex hortensis L. Khevi people use the following plants as food: shalgi შალგი Brassica campestris L., khakhot’i ხახოტი Bunias orientalis L., mamula მამულა Artemisia vulgaris L., ts’its’mat’ura წიწმატურა Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik., and khboshublai ხბოშუბლაი Galega orientalis Lam. (Bakhtadze and Koghuashvili 2009; Gvaramadze 1997; Kavataradze 1985; Sujashvili and Pitskhelauri 2005). sakhep’ia სახეპია Chaerophyllum bulbosum L. is eaten raw in Khevi (Bakhtadze and Koghuashvili 2009; Kavtaradze 1985; Sujashvili and Pitskhelauri 2005). In Khevi, pickles are made from local plants: saskhep’ia სასხეპია Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., diq’i დიყი Heracleum ssp., mdogi მდოგი Sinapis arvensis L. Shoots of saskhep’ia სასხეპია Chaerophyllum bulbosum L. are cut in thin pieces and salted in a jar or barrel, seasoned with pepper and caraway, and poured with a spring water. The shoots of დიყი Heracleum ssp. were repeeled, cut, and put in a jar layer by layer, salt placed between the layers, the upper layer was topped with mzhavela მჟაველა Rumex acetosa L. ფოთლებსand mk’vliavi მკვლიავი Carum carvi L., and finally water was added. Mdogi მდოგი Sinapis arvensis L. pickles do not last long. Ghandzili ღანძილი (Allium victorialis L.) and mdogi მდოგი are put in salted but not boiling water and seasoned with caraway (Bakhtadze and Koghuashvili 2009; Kavtaradze 1985; Sujashvili and Pitskhelauri 2005). In Khevi, pickles are made from local plants: saskhep’ia სასხეპია Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., diq’i დიყი Heracleum ssp., and mdogi მდოგი Sinapis arvensis L. Shoots of saskhep’ia სასხეპია Chaerophyllum bulbosum L. are cut in thin pieces and salted in a jar or barrel, seasoned with pepper and caraway, poured with a spring water. The shoots of დიყი Heracleum ssp. is peeled, cut, and put in a jar layer by layer, salt placed between the layers, the upper layer was topped with mzhavela მჟაველა Rumex acetosa L. ფოთლებს and mk’vliavi მკვლიავი Carum carvi L., and finally water was added. Mdogi მდოგი Sinapis arvensis L. pickles do not last long. Ghandzili ღანძილი (Allium victorialis L.) and mdogi მდოგი are put in salted but not boiling water and seasoned with caraway (Bakhtadze and Koghuashvili 2009; Kavtaradze 1985; Sujashvili and Pitskhelauri 2005). A slightly sweet cake can be prepared from boiled ფხოლი Chaerophyllum bulbosum L. and shamakrulai შამაკრულაისაგან (Latin name not determined) (Itonishvili 2015). In Mtiuleti, raw-eaten plants are vardutsa ვარდუცა, alkvasha ალქვაშა Campanula latifolia L., k’ank’esha კანკეშა Gadellia lactiflora (M.Bieb.) Schulkina, dutsi დუცი Agasyllis latifolia Boiss., mzhavana მჟავანა Rumex acetosa L., pkholis taxa ფხოლის თავა Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., diq’i დიყი Heracleum ssp., t’q’is niori ტყის ნიორი Galanthus ssp., ღოლო gholo Rumex ssp., maq’valdzirgha მაყვალღირძა Anthriscus sylvestris (L.) Hoffm., dzirkhvena ძირხვენა, machik’a მაჩიკას Campanula rapunculoides L., and mits’is vashli მიწის ვაშლს Helianthus tuberosus L. (Makalatia 1930). Pshavi people use a wide variety of wild plants mixed together as food: khipkhola ხიფხოლა Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., k’enk’esha კენკეშა Gadellia lactiflora

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(M. Bieb.) Schulkina. (slightly sweet), mzhavana მჟავანა Rumex acetosa L. (it is sour, Khevsurians like it more, Durians also eat it), dutsi დუცი Agasyllis latifolia Boiss. (shape like a gun barrel, broad-leaved, with bitter taste), and shup’q’a შუპყა Heracleum asperum M. Bieb. (resembles dutsi დუცი by structure, but taste is sweet). Most of these plants are only edible when young, because in mature state they turn bitter (Maghalashvili 1970; Tedoradze 1930). In Pshavi young shoots and roots of ch’ima ჭიმა Chaerophyllum caucasicum (Fisch. & Hoffm.) Schischk. are often pickled (Maghalashvili 1970). In Pshavi young peeled shoots and the young leaves of eshmach’ima ეშმაჭიმა Chaerophyllum aureum L. and ch’ima ჭიმა Chaerophyllum bulbosum L. are eaten (Maghalashvili 1970). In Pshavi plants used for mkhali (pkhali) are მხალეულად იყენებენ Amaranthus albus L., tetrmkhala თეთრმხალა Amaranthus retroflexus L., ts’itelmkhala წითელმხალა Amaranthus hybridus L., mek’endzela მეკენძელას Aruncus vulgaris Raf., khipkhlis q’iva ხიფხლის ყივა Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., shup’q’a შუპყა Heracleum asperum M.Bieb., k’enk’esha კენკეშას Campanula lactiflora M.Bieb., and khipkhola ხიფხოლა (q’int’ora ყინტორა) Chaerophyllum aureum L. (Bodzashvili 1988; Maghalashvili 1970; Makalatia 1933; Javakhishvili 1986). In Tianeti District ghjimi ღიმი Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., diq’i დიყი Heracleum ssp., khozo ხოზო Chaerophyllum aureum L., kalta-k’ovza ქალთა-კოვზა Arum orientale M. Bieb., and Arum albispathum Steven ex Ledeb. stems are pickled. In Khevsureti ch’ima ჭიმა refers to aboveground parts and khipkhola ხიფხოლა to the roots of Chaerophyllum bulbosum L. Both have sweet taste. Especially ch’imakhipkhola ჭიმა-ხიფხოლა are dipped into a cottage cheese thinned with ayran. Children used to eat khipkhola uprooted during plowing – they referred to this activity as “going to khiphkolaoba.” The stem is eaten mostly unpeeled, although some people peeled it. The most popular combination was ch’ima ჭიმა with ts’ertkhali called “ch’ima-ts’ertkhali.” Now in Roshka ch’ima does not grow. While digging, children used to say: “gamachint’i k’ints’olai (can be seen as thin), gamahq’evi k’olikhao (follow and becomes large) გამაჩინტი კინწოლაი ((წვრილი)), გამაჰყევი კოლიხაო ((დიდი))” (Tedoradze 1930). In Khevsureti shibu შიბუ Allium victorialis L., ts’ertkhala წერთხალა Polygonum dshawachischwilii Kharkev., and ch’ima ჭიმა-ის Chaerophyllum bulbosum L are softened with boiling water, put in a wooden barrel, and salted, and water is added for pickling (Javakhishvili 1986). In Tusheti many herbaceous plants are used as food and are kept for winter, either dried or pickled, to make mixed mkhali and sauces and to accompany the main dishes, including kumeli ქუმელი q’va ყვა. It is used year-round and is made of roasted keri ქერი (barley) grains. It can be made of ipkli იფქლი (Georgian endemic wheat), corn, svili სვილი (rye), kersvili ქერსვილი (mixture of barley and rye), and tsetsvi ცერცვი (faba bean, when mixed with corn: giera-i გიერა-ი Brassica campestris subsp. oleifera (DC.) Schübl. & Mart., gomat’i გომატი Bunias orientalis L., dutsi დუცი Angelica tatianae Bordz., kharnuq’a-i ხარნუყა-ი Lactuca serriola L., buera ბუერა Petasites ssp., shubq’a-i შუბყა-ი Heracleum asperum M. Bieb., khap’ara-i ხაპარა-ი Cichorium intybus L., mariamdzmara მარიამძმარა Ligusticum

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alatum (M. Bieb.) Spreng., ch’imi ჭიმი Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., diq’i დიყი Heracleum ssp., jortk’uda-i ჯორთკუდა-ი Artemisia vulgaris L., sagvidzla საღვიძლა Taraxacum officinale (L.) Weber ex F.H. Wigg., dzirkhvena ძირხვენა Arctium lappa L., ch’ivana ჭივანა Silene wallichiana Klotzsch, kvishamkhala ქვიშამხალა Silene laera (Stev.) Sims, khavrat’ai ხავრატაი Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik., jorik’udai ჯორიკუდაი Artemisia vulgaris L., and giera გიერა Sinapis arvensis L. (Makalatia 1933). There are several ways to season mkhali in Tusheti: (1) wellcleaned plants are placed in a pot and cooked without water. The cooked plants are placed on a sieve to cool down and cut into pieces. After that the dish is seasoned with onions browned in clarified butter, eggs, and salt. (2) After cooking the plants in the same way, fresh cottage cheese, onions browned in clarified butter, eggs, and salt are added. (3) After boiling the mkhali is seasoned with vinegar, garlic, and salt. Normally, in Tusheti mkhali is not seasoned with walnuts and vinegar (Makalatia 1933). Plants used as mkhali Kaheti: tatruli mkhali თათრული მხალი Amaranthus hybridus L., ts’ots’nara mkhali წოწნარა მხალს Amaranthus retroflexus L., khach’ich’ora ხაჭიჭორა Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik., vazisdzira ვაზიძირა Lapsana grandiflora M. Bieb., bolok’a ბოლოკა Rapistrum rugosum (L.) All., q’int’ora ყინტორა Chaerophyllum aureum L., natsarkatama ნაცარქათამა Chenopodium album L., shalgi შალგი (shelga შელგა) Brassica campestris L., sve სვე Humulus lupulus L., khboshubla ხბოშუბლა Galega orientalis Lam. ნორჩ, ch’inch’ari ჭინჭარი Urtica dioica L., ghoris kada ღორის ქადა Lactuca serriola L., Balba ბალბა Malva neglecta L., natsarkatama ნაცარქათამა or dzaghltzhola ძაღლთჟოლა Chenopodium foliosum, tatabo თათაბო Atriplex hortensis L., saghvidzla საღვიძლა or burbushela ბურბუშელა Taraxacum confusum Schischk., tskhenis tsertsvela ც ხენის ცერცველა- Vicia narborensis, vazis dzira ვაზის ძირა Lapsana grandiflora M. Bieb., mravaldzarghva მრავალძარღვა Plantago major L., babuats’vera ბაბუაწვერა Taraxacum ssp., gareuli ts’its’mat’i გარეული წიწმატი Cardamine hirsuta L., and ghinch’a-ghinch’a ღინჭა-ღინჭა Sonchus ssp. (Javakhishvili 1986; Menteshashvili 1943). Of ghima ღიმა and q’int’ora ყინტორა (Chaerophyllum aureum L.) mostly its aboveground parts were eaten in Kakheti (Maghalashvili 1970). In South Georgia, young stems of diq’a დიყა Heracleum ssp. and ghimi ღიმი Chaerophyllum bulbosum L. are pickled (Ivelasvili 1991). In Svaneti q’int’ora (ყინტორა Chaerophyllum aureum L., Svan name khargsli (ხარსგლი)) is consumed as peeled young shoots, which taste slightly sweetish, while its tubers (q’vasgis ყვასგის) can be eaten both raw and boiled (Javakhishvili 1986). In Adjara the young leaves of Ozaghina ოზაღინა Chaerophyllum aureum L. are pickled (Kokhreidze 1947). Plants mixed together for pkhali in Adjara include dvarula dvalura დვარულა დვალურა Polygonum carneum C. Koch, dondoli დონდოლი Gadellia lactiflora (M.Bieb.), ch’inch’ari ჭინჭარი Urtica dioica L., katamnatsara ქათამნაცარა Chenopodium album L., ch’ich’laq’a ჭიჭლაყა Amaranthus retroflexus L., perapera ფერაფერა Phytolacca americana L., k’uk’umzhava კუკუმჟავა, svint’ri სვინტრი Polygonatum ssp., ch’arbadelo ჭარბადელო Arctium lappa L., and also young

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leaves of motsvi მოცვი Vaccinium ssp., venakhi ვენახი Vitis vinifera L., babuats’vera ბაბუასწვერა Taraxacum ssp., Kajiloja ქაჯილოჯა Daucus carota L., Ts’its’marit’a წიწმარიტა Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik., and burt’q’ila ბურტყილა Lapsana grandiflora M. Bieb., and the plants used by Adjara people as food are ajark’ela აჯარკელა Lathyrus roseus Steven, ajorik’a აჯორიკას Aruncus vulgaris Raf. (young leaves are pickled), bobots’vera ბობოწვერა Taraxacum ssp. (ground roasted dry roots used instead of Cichorium), dilq’a დილყა Heracleum sp. (shoots are peeled and eaten), k’onst’ant’ila კონსტანტილა (white roots are edible), ozaghina ოზაღინა Chaerophyllum aureum L. (young leaves are pickled), ghima ღიმა Chaerophyllum bulbosum L. (mixed with leek or ajorik’a აჯორიკა Aruncus vulgaris Raf. and pickled), and dvalura დვალურა Polygonum carneum (Baramidze 1987; Kakhidze 2007; Kokhreidze 1947; Nizharadze 1971). Wild pkhali plants can be cooked in various ways: can be pickled, boiled, and seasoned with vinegar, walnuts, and various spice herbs (Kokhreidze 1947). Chaerophyllum bulbosum: The leaves, seeds, and roots are pickled (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, c, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017). Chaerophyllum caucasicum: The leaves are eaten in Khachapuri and Phkhali (herb pie) and can also be pickled together with the stems and roots (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, c, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

References Bakhtadze D, Koghuashvili P. Nutrition culture of the Georgians. Tbilisi: Georgian Academy of Sciences; 2009. (ბახტაძე დ., კოღუაშვილი პ. 2009. ქართველთა კვების კულტურა. თბილისი, in Georgian). Baramidze J. Adjarian dishes. Batumi: Sabchota Adjara 1987. (ბარამიძე ჯ. 1987. აჭარული კერძები. ბათუმი: საბჭოთა აჭარა in Georgian). Bodzashvili L. Pshavi and Pshavians. Tbilisi: Sabchota Sakartvelo; 1988. (ბოძაშვილი ლ. 1988. ფშავი და ფშაველები. თბილისი: გამომცემლობა საბჭოთა საქართველო in Georgian). Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. (978-3-319-49411-1). Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Arom Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plant and fungal use in Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016c;86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plant and fungal use in Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2017;86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517.

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Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – Plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Gvaramadze K. Results of the study of the Guria region. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1997. (გვარამაძე კ. 1997. (გურია მხარის კვლევა-ძიების შედეგები. თბილისი in Georgian). Itonishvili V. Mode of life of Khevians. Tbilisi; 2015. (მოხევეების ყოფა-ცხოვრება. თბილისი in Georgian). Ivelasvili T. Folk cuisine in South Georgia. Tbilisi: Sadara: Metsniereba; 1991. (იველაშვილი თ. 1991. ხალხური სამზარეულო სამხრეთ საქართველოში. თბილისი: სადარა in Georgian). Javakhishvili I. Materials for the history of household industry and handicraft, vol V, Part 2: food and drinks. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1986. (ჯავახიშვილი, ი. 1986. მასალები შინა მრეწველობისა და ხელოსნობის ისტორიისათვის, ტ. V ნაწ. 2: საჭმელ in Georgian). Kakhidze N. The oldest and old historical sources of Adjara – ethnographic data. Essays on history of south-western Georgia, Adjara 1. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 2007. (კახიძე ნ. 2007 აჭარის უძველესი და ძველი ისტორიის წყაროები ეთნოგრაფიული მონაცემები. სამხრეთ-დასავლეთ საქართველოს ისტორიის ნარკვევები აჭარა 1. თბილისი in Georgian). Kavtaradze I. Mokhevian dialect of the Georgian language. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1985. (ქავთარაძე ი. 1985. ქართული ენის მოხევური დიალექტი. თბილისი: მეცნიერება in Georgian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Kokhreidze V. Wild food plants of Adjara (mkhaleuli). Batumi: Adjaris sakhelgami; 1947. (8კოხრეიძე ვ. 1947. აჭარაში ველურად მოზარდი საკვები მცენარეები (მხალეული). ბათუმი: აჭარის სახელგამი in Georgian). Maghalashvili T. Useful plants of Telavi district. Acad. S. Janashia State Museum of Georgia XXVI–XXVII. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1970. (8 მაღალაშვილი თ. 1970. თელავის რაიონის სასარგებლო მცენარეები. აკად. ს. ჯანაშიას სახელობის საქართველოს სახელმწიფო მუზეუმის მოამბე XXVI–XXVII – A. თბილისი: მეცნიერება in Georgian). Makalatia S. Mtiuleti. Tbilisi: Sakhelgami; 1930. (8მაკალათია ს. 1930. მთიულეთი. ტფილისი: სახელგამი in Georgian). Makalatia S. Tusheti. Tbilisi: Sakhelgami; 1933. (მაკალათია ს. 1933. თუშეთი. ტფილისი: სახელგამი in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Menteshashvili S. Dictionary of Kizikian dialect. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1943. (მენთეშაშვილი ს. 1943. ქიზიყური ლექსიკონი -თბილისი: მეცნიერება). Nizharadze S. Adjarian dialect of the Georgian language. Batumi: Metsniereba; 1971. (ნიჟარაძე შ. 1971. ქართული ენის აჭარული დიალექტი. ბათუმი in Georgian). Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 16: Umbelliflorae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1950. (English 1973). 478 p, 37 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, Volume 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1988. 357 p. (in Russian). Sujashvili N, Pitskhelauri I. Dictionary of Mokhevian dialect. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 2005. (სუჯაშვილი ნ, ფიცხელაური ი. 2005. მოხევური ლექსიკონი. თბილისი). Tedoradze G. Five years in Pshav-Khevsureti. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1930. (თედორაძე გ. 1930. ხუთი წელი ფშავ-ხევსურეთში . ტფილისი in Georgian).

Cicer arietinum L. FABACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Cicer arietinum L.: Ononis crotalarioides Coss.; Ononis crotalarioides M.E. Jones

Local Names Georgian მუხუდო (mukhudo) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991; Sokolov 1987); English, chickpea R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_39

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Botany and Ecology Annual; short-glandular-hairy plant; stems erect, woody in lower part, branching in upper part, rarely from base, 12–80 cm high; leaves imparipinnate, 2.5–7 cm long, always with terminal leaflet; stipules large, ovate or semiovate, deeply incised, with few large teeth; leaflets 4–8-paired, elliptic, rarely obovate, entire at base, acutely serrate-dentate at apex, and sides, with short glandular hairs on both sides, (0.6) 1.0–1.5(1.8) cm long. Peduncles much shorter than leaves, thin, mucronate, one-flowered; calyx nearly regular, without gibbosity, 0.8–1 cm long, with linearlanceolate teeth, one and a half to two times as long as tube; corolla white, pink, or bluish violet, 1–2.2 cm long; standard rounded, obtuse at apex, glabrous or sparingly pubescent; wings ca. 0.9 cm long, the limb oblong-obovate; keel rostriform, ca. 0.8 cm long; pods (1.4) 2–3.5 cm long, 1–1.7 cm wide, glandular-hairy, oblong-oval, with short beak; seeds 0.5–1.4 cm long, 0.4–1 cm wide, black, green,

Fig. 1 Cicer arietinum (Fabaceae), market, Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua Zambrana)

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white, pink, orange, brown, grayish brown, rugose or smooth, with short curved beak. Flowering June–July, fruiting July–August. Widely cultivated (Komarov and Shishkin 1948). The chickpea has apparently been cultivated fora long time, as its name already appears in Sanskrit. In many countries it is still one of the most important field crops. It is especially widely spread in India, Spain, Morocco, Algeria, and Mexico (Komarov and Shishkin 1948; Fig. 1).

Local Food Uses The seeds are eaten raw, cooked and roasted, or in soups and purees, especially in mountain regions. In the Caucasus the plant has a very long use tradition (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017). They are also canned and ground into flour for baking and delicacies (Turkish delight) (Sokolov 1987).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The seeds are used as concentrated cattle feed. Not recommended as green fodder, as all parts of the plant secrete malic and oxalic acids (Sokolov 1987).

References Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1). Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus – Georgia. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017a. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian).

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Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian) Komarov VL, Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 13: Leguminosae: Oxytropis, Hedysarum. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1948. (English 1972). 455 p, 26 b/w plates, 2 maps. Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, Volume 3. Hydrangeaceae-Haloragaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1987. 326 p. (in Russian).

Cichorium intybus L. ASTERACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Cichorium byzantinum Clementi; Cichorium cicorea Dumort.; Cichorium glabratum C. Presl.; Cichorium glaucum Hoffmanns & Link; Cichorium intybus subsp. glabratum (C. Presl) Arcang.; Cichorium intybus subsp. glabratum (C. Presl) Wagenitz & Bedarff; Cichorium intybus var. eglandulosum Freyn & Sint.; Cichorium intybus var. glabratum (C. Presl) Gren. & Godr.; Cichorium perenne Stokes; Cichorium rigidum Salisb.; Cichorium sylvestre Garsault

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_40

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Local Names Georgian: ვარდკაჭაჭა (vardk’ach’ach’a); ხაპრაი (khap’arai), ტიტა (t’it’a); ულეწავა (ulets’ava); ულეწელა (ulets’ela); Svan: ვარდკაჭაჭა (vardkach’ach’a); Ossetian: ხათალდიდნყ (khataldidinq’); Farsi: Sechertghi (‫ ;)ﺱﭺﺭﺕﻕﯼ‬Kasni (‫)ﮎﺍﺱﻥﯼ‬, Kashni (‫ ;)ﮎﺍﺵﻥﯼ‬Armenian: Ճարճատկ սովորական (Tcharchatuk sovorakan); Azeri: Аdi каsnı; (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991; Sokolov 1993); English: chicory

Botany and Ecology Perennials. Plants 20–150 cm high, green or glaucous-green; stem erect, usually more or less branched, branches often strongly divergent and slightly thickened toward apex, more or less setose or with crisped hairs, often glabrous or almost so. Leaves dorsally setose or crisped hairy, ventrally more or less crisped hairy; basal leaves usually persisting during flowering, truncinately pinnatipartite to undivided, but more or less toothed, gradually narrowed into winged petiole; cauline leaves (except lowermost; these similar to basal leaves) relatively less numerous and highly reduced, lanceolate-ovate to lanceolate, amplexicaul, with roundish or sagittate, often more or less toothed auricles. Capitula usually numerous, solitary or a few grouped together, terminal on stem and branches, and also in axils of middle and upper cauline leaves. Involucre 17, 8–14 mm long; outer involucral bracts half to two-thirds as long as inner ones and usually more or less divergent, unequal in shape and length, relatively thin coriaceous in lower part, more or less ciliate along margin, more or less hairy on outer side, with simple or glandular hairs, often entirely glabrous; inner bracts usually more or less hairy or ciliate in upper part. Corolla 15–25 mm long, with varying shades of blue, sometimes whitish, rapidly discolored in water. Achenes 2–3 mm long, with 0.2–0.3-mm-long pappus. Flowering July to October. Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, in meadows, forest glades, grassy slopes, near roads, in the fields, near settlements, along stony and clay dry creek beds, up to 2000 m above sea level (Boborov and Tzvelev 1964; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).

Phytochemistry Carotenoids, coumarins (cichorian, esculetin, esculin, scopoletin, umbelliferone), fatty acids, latex, sesquiterpenoids (lactucin, lactucopicrin), triterpenoids (taraxasterol), carbohydrates (inulin, levulose, glucose, fructose, sucrose, intibin, levulin, fructosans, glucofructosans), organic acids, essential oils (benzothiazole, methanol, oleate, n-pentadecanoic, palmitic, oleic (0.9), linoleic acids), sesquiterpenoids (lactucin, lactucopicrin), alkaloids, vitamins (C, K, thiamine, riboflavin, nicotinic and

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Fig. 1 Cichorium endivia (Asteraceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

pantothenic acid), phenolcarboxylic acids (chlorogenic, nephrogenic, isochlorogenic), tannins, flavonoids (apigenin, luteolin, quercetin, hyperin), anthocyanins (cyanidin, delphinidin) (Sokolov 1993).

Local Medicinal Uses A leaf infusion is used in Middle Asia for the treatment of diseases of the gastrointestinal tract, as anti-inflammatory and astringent. The inflorescences are used to increase the appetite, improve digestion, and to treat inflammation of the stomach and diseases of the large and small intestines, gall bladder, kidneys, as well as kidney and gallstones. The inflorescences are also used to treat swellings related to heart conditions. The fresh leaf juice is used to improve digestion and stimulate appetite and for those with stomach ulcers, gastritis, liver cirrhosis, hepatitis, diseases of the spleen and kidneys, as diuretic, and anemia. Externally the leaf extract is applied as poultice for rheumatism and arthritis and used for those with wounds, ulcers, swellings, eczema, furunculosis, carbuncles, stomatitis, and conjunctivitis. In the Ural the decoction of the roots serves as emollient for angina and pneumonia and as

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Fig. 2 Cichorium endivia (Asteraceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

sedative for heart disease. The leaf ash is applied topically to eczema, chicken pox, and skin diseases, and the extract is used as shampoo to strengthen the hair and as remedy for sunburns. The stem extract is used to treat malaria (Sokolov 1993). The plant is considered as diuretic and sedative and is used for reducing fever. Decoction and demulcent of stem and root of chicory are used for dermal wounds, typhoid, cuttings, depurative, and herpes (Ghorbani 2005). Aerial parts including flowers are used as decoction, infusion, or distilled water to treat the epistaxis, hyperlipidemia, diabetes, eye problem, jaundice, stomach problem (Mosaddegh et al. 2012), liver disease, and sweating (Maleki and Akhani 2018). The roots contain vitamin B1 and leaves vitamin C. Roots contain inulin, which sometimes is used as sugar substitute (Grossheim 1952; Budantseva 1994–1996; Sokolov 1984–1993; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2007; Zolotnitskaya 1958–1965). The roots are used against kidney diseases. Ash used against leishmaniasis (Gammarman and Grom 1976; Grossheim 1952; Gubanov et al. 1976; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2014; Turova and Sapojnikova 1982; Zolotnitskaya 1958–1965). In the folk medicine of Armenia, a decoction or infusion of the roots improves the functioning of the gastrointestinal tract and is used for diabetes, jaundice, malaria, gallstones, hemorrhoids, and anemia. The alcoholic infusion or decoction of the

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Fig. 3 Cichorium intybus (Asteraceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

roots is used to treat wounds and tumors from the bites of poisonous snakes and scorpions. In addition, it is used for lumbar pain, gout, rheumatism, and skin diseases (Isotova et al. 2010; Gabrielyan 2001; Vardanyan 1979). The decoction and extract of the roots, stems, leaves, and seeds or the whole plant are used internally as antipyretic, for colling, adipose, and sudorific for malaria and colds and also to stimulate appetite and to improve digestion and for general weakness. A distillate called “kasni aragi” (obtained by steam distillation) sometimes mixed with the juice of watermelon is also used for malaria (Damirov et al. 1988; Grossheim 1942). The water decoction and infusion of root and dried flowers are ingested for diseases of the liver, like jaundice, and used as choleretic (Damirov et al. 1988). The infusion of flowers is used to reduce blood sugar and helps to treat kidney and spleen problems (Damirov et al. 1988; Mehtiyeva and Zeynalova 2013). In Nakhchivan and southern regions, “kasni aragi” is applied as anointment to sick joints, and the water infusion of the flowers and stem is taken internally to treat rheumatism and arthritis. The water decoction and infusion of aboveground parts and roots are used for gargling in order to cure inflammations of the gums. After bathing children, they are washed with a water decoction of the plant to strengthen the immune system and protect them from sunstroke (Damirov et al. 1988). A decoction of the leaves is given to women after birth (Grossheim 1942).

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Fig. 4 Cichorium intybus (Asteraceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Cichorium root is used as tea to treat diabetes, gallbladder and gastrointestinal ailments, and oral inflammation (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b; Bussmann 2017; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017).

Local Food Uses The roots are used as coffee surrogate and flavoring agent for sweets. In Tusheti many herbaceous plants are used as food and are kept for winter, either dried or pickled, to make mixed mkhali and sauces and to accompany the main dishes, including kumeli ქუმელი q’va ყვა. It is used year-round and is made of roasted keri ქერი (barley) grains. It can be made of ipkli იფქლი (Georgian endemic wheat), corn, svili სვილი (rye), kersvili ქერსვილი (mixture of barley and rye), and tsetsvi ცერცვი (faba bean, when mixed with corn: giera-i გიერა-ი Brassica campestris subsp. oleifera (DC.) Schübl. & Mart., gomat’i გომატი Bunias orientalis L., dutsi დუცი Angelica tatianae Bordz., kharnuq’a-i ხარნუყა-ი Lactuca serriola L., buera ბუერა Petasites ssp., shubq’a-i შუბყა-ი Heracleum asperum M. Bieb., khap’ara-i ხაპარა-ი Cichorium intybus L., mariamdzmara მარიამძმარა Ligusticum alatum (M. Bieb.) Spreng., ch’imi ჭიმი Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., diq’i დიყი Heracleum

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Fig. 5 Cichorium intybus (Asteraceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

ssp., jortk’uda-i ჯორთკუდა-ი Artemisia vulgaris L., sagvidzla საღვიძლა Taraxacum officinale (L.) Weber ex F.H. Wigg., dzirkhvena ძირხვენა Arctium lappa L., ch’ivana ჭივანა Silene wallichiana Klotzsch, kvishamkhala ქვიშამხალა Silene laera (Stev.) Sims, khavrat’ai ხავრატაი Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik., jorik’udai ჯორიკუდაი Artemisia vulgaris L., and giera გიერა Sinapis arvensis L. (Makalatia 1933). There are several ways to season mkhali in Tusheti: (1) well-cleaned plants are placed in a pot and cooked without water. The cooked plants are placed on a sieve to cool down and cut into pieces. After that the dish is seasoned with onions browned in clarified butter, eggs, and salt. (2) After cooking the plants in the same way, fresh cottage cheese, onions browned in clarified butter, eggs, and salt are added. (3) After boiling the mkhali is seasoned with vinegar, garlic, and salt. Normally, in Tusheti mkhali is not seasoned with walnuts and vinegar (Makalatia 1933). In Tusheti ch’imi ჭიმი Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., giera გიერა Brassica campestris subsp. oleifera (DC.) Schübl. & Mart., machigt’ara მაჩიგტარა Campanula rapunculoides L., khap’ara ხაპარა (ვარდკაჭაჭა) Cichorium intybus L., diq’i დიყი Heracleum ssp., shup’q’a შუპყა Heracleum asperum M. Bieb., ap’q’i აპყი Heracleum leskovii Grossh., dutsi დუცი Angelica tatianae Bordz, giera გიერა Sinapis arvensis L., jortk’uda ჯორთკუდა (wild estragon) Artemisia vulgaris L., mariamdzmara მარიამძმარა Ligusticum alatum (M. Bieb.) Spreng., and kharnuq’a ხარნუყა Lactuca serriola L. are eaten raw and also dipped in sour milk (Makalatia

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1933). These herbaceous plants for dipping (sats’ebaci, sats’ebi “chatseba” means “dip” in Georgian) are harvested, and a bowl with curd “shegdebul ze” შეგდებულ ზე is filled; then leaves and young shoots from the mentioned herbaceous plants are plucked, dipped in the curd, and eaten. In Samegrelo vardkach’ach’a ვარდკაჭკაჭა (Cichorium intybus L.) roots are used as tsik’ori ციკორი – a surrogate of coffee. In Imereti the following plants are mixed together for cooking “meadow pkhali” მინდვრის ფხალი: natsarkatama ნაცარათამა Chenopodium album (a lot), jijilaq’a ჯიჯილაყა Amaranthus retroflexus L. (a lot), ts’its’marit’a წიწმარიტა or kharik’bila ხარიკბილა Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik (a lot), andzla ანძლა Cirsium incanum (S.G. Gmel.) Fisch. (a lot), katmikona ქათმიქონა Valerianella locusta (L.) Laterr. (a lot), dedaput’k’ara დედაფუტკარა Lamium album L. (a few), msukana მსუქანა Portulaca oleracea L. (a lot, makes pkhali slimy), birk’abalakhi ბირკაბალახი Xanthium spinosum L. (a few, early spring), zhunzhruk’o ჟუნჟრუკო Stellaria media (L.) Vill., mat’it’ela მატიტელა Polygonum aviculare L. (moderately), ხვართქლა Convolvulus arvensis L. (moderately), k’obchkhila კობჩხილა, bat’ispekhebi ბატისფეხები Falcaria vulgaris Bernh. (a few), ჭინჭარი Urtica dioica L. (a lot), Ch’inch’ris deda ჭინჭრის დედა Lamium album (a few, adds bitterness), samq’ura სამყურა Trifolium ssp. (a few), ionja იონჯა Medicago ssp. (a few), tavshava თავშავა Origanum vulgare L. (a few), purtskhala ფურცხალა Sonchus ssp. (a few), young leaves of potato k’art’opili კარტოფილი (a few, slimy), Ia ია Viola ssp. (a few, makes slimy and dangerous if used a lot, can be in a way intoxicating), babuats’vera ბაბუაწვერა Taraxacum ssp. (a few, adds bitterness), leaves of endro ენდრო Rubia tinctorum L. (a few), msukana მსუქანა Portulaca oleracea L., khbosshubla ხბოშუბლა Galega orientalis Lam., ia ია Viola sp. dedabrik’onk’a დედაბრიკონკა Lamium purpureum L. (a few), vardk’ach’ach’i ვარდკაჭაჭი Cichorium intybus L. (a few, makes bitter), gholo ღოლო Rumex (a few, makes the dish brown), q’aq’acho ყაყაჩო Papaver ssp. (a few), mzhauna მჟაუნა Rumex acetosa L. (a few, makes sour), balba ბალბა Malva sylvestris L., Malva neglecta Wallr. (a lot, makes slimy), and ch’lak’vi ჭლაკვი (Allium fistulosum). The herbs are only gathered in early spring, during summer, and even in autumn, until tomatoes, eggplants, spinach, and cucumbers can be harvested. By this time, the ingredients of pkhali (mostly weeds) lose softness, tenderness, and taste; they become rough already producing seeds and probably for this reason are not collected by late autumn. In early spring they taste very differently than in summer. While making pkhali, some finely minced kitchen herbs are added after boiling the main herbs: a little dill (კამა), a little tseretso dill (ცერეცო), a little p’rasa პრასა, coriander, parsley, celery, green onions, estragon, and mint. All these herbs are mixed with finely crushed walnuts; the boiled pkhali will be minced, desirably on a wooden gobi (wide shallow bowl with a flat bottom), and seasoned with herbs and walnuts, added with salt and pepper by your taste (Javakhishvili 1986). In summer and winter, young leaves are used as salad. In late autumn the stems are stored in the cellar so that they produce leaves in winter that can be used as salad.

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The dried and crushed roots are often used as an additive to coffee (Grossheim 1952; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2007). In Talish young leaves are eaten raw and used as vegetables as well as for making salads. Fried roots are good replacement for coffee (Fedorov 1949; Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017). The leaves are used to make sats’ebai (a dish with vegetables dipped in sour milk) and Phkhali (herb pie) (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b; Bussmann 2017; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses It is used as nematocide in agriculture and fodder for cattle, to increase milk yield (Sokolov 1993). Wounds of domestic animals are dressed with crushed Cichorium stems mixed with oil (Grossheim 1942).

References Boborov EG, Tzvelev NN. Flora of the USSR, Volume 29: Compositae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1964 (English 2001). 832 pages, 34 plates. Budantseva AL, editor. Plant resources of Russia and neighboring countries, vol. 1–2. Moscow: Armenian Academy of Science; 1994–1996. (in Russian). Bussmann RW. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:5. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016c;86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):7–24. Damirov IA, Prilipko LI, Shukurov DZ, Kerimov YB. Medicinal plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Armenian Academy of Science; 1988. (in Russian).

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Fedorov AA. The herbs applied in traditional medicine of the Talysh. Baku: Publishing House of AS of USSR; 1949. (in Russian). Flora of Azerbaijan. Volumes I–VIII. Baku: AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1950–1961. (in Russian). Gabrielyan E. Herbal medicine national register. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Science; 2001. (in Armenian). Gammarman A, Grom I. Wild medicinal plants of the USSR. Moscow: Armenian Academy of Science; 1976. (in Russian). Ghorbani A. Studies on pharmaceutical ethnobotany in the region of Turkmen Sahra, north of Iran (Part 1): General results. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102:58–68. Grossheim AA. Medicinal plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Publishing house of Azerbaijani Branch of AS; 1942. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Gubanov I, Krilova I, Tikhonova V. Wild useful plants of the USSR. Moscow: Armenian Academy of Science; 1976. (in Russian). Isotova MA, Sarafakova NA, Mkscho BI, Ionova AA. Great encyclopedia of traditional medicine. Moscow: Armenian Academy of Science; 2010. (in Russian). Javakhishvili I. Materials for the history of household industry and handicraft, vol. V, part 2: Food and drinks. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1986. (ჯავახიშვილი, ი. 1986. მასალები შინა მრეწველობისა და ხელოსნობის ისტორიისათვის, ტ. V ნაწ. 2: საჭმელ in Georgian.) Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makalatia S. Tusheti. Tbilisi: Sakhelgami; 1933. (მაკალათია ს. 1933. თუშეთი. ტფილისი: სახელგამი in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Maleki T, Akhani H. Ethnobotanical and ethnomedicinal studies in Baluchi tribes: A case study in Mt. Taftan, southeastern Iran. J Ethnopharmacol. 2018;217:163–77. Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Alizade V, Aleksanyan A, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Cichorium intybus L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Mehtiyeva NP, Zeynalova SA. Medicinal and aromatic plants of Azerbaijan. Oxford: UNESCO; 2013. Mosaddegh M, Naghibi F, Moazzeni H, Pirani A, Esmaeili S. Ethnobotanical survey of herbal remedies traditionally used in Kohghiluyeh va Boyer Ahmad province of Iran. J Ethnopharmacol. 2012;141:80–95. Sokolov PD. Plant resources of the USSR, vol. 1–7. Leningrad: Armenian Academy of Science; 1984–1993. (in Russian). Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 7. Family Asteraceae (Compositae). Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1993. 352 p. (in Russian). Tsaturyan T, Gevorgyan M. Wild edible plants of Armenia. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Science; 2007. (in Armenian). Tsaturyan T, Gevorgyan M. Wild medicinal plants of Armenia. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Science; 2014. (in Armenian). Turova A, Sapojnikova E. Medicinal plants of the USSR and their use. Moscow: Armenian Academy of Science; 1982. (in Russian). Vardanyan S. Pharmacology in ancient Armenia. Hist Philol J. 1979;2:179–94. (in Armenian). Zolotnitskaya S. Medicinal resources of the flora of Armenia, vols. 1–2. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Science, 1958–1965. (in Russian).

Clinopodium vulgare L. LAMIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Clinopodium vulgare L.: Calamintha clinopodium Spenn.; Calamintha vulgaris Clairv.; Melissa clinopodium Benth.; Satureja clinopodium Caruel; Satureja vulgaris (L.) Fritsch

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_41

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Local Names Georgian: მოპიტნაო (mopit’nao) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991)

Botany and Ecology Pubescent perennial; stems 30–60 cm high, erect or ascending, usually simple; leaves ovate or oblong-ovate, remotely dentate or crenate-serrulate, mostly with sparse hairs above, with hairs on the veins beneath; uppermost leaves reflexed; flowers in numerous dense capitate distant verticillate; bracts and bracteoles linearsubulate, with stiff spreading hairs; calyx 8–10 mm long, slightly constricted at throat, without a ring of hairs; teeth subulate, two of them 3 mm long, the other three 1.5–2 mm long; corolla purple, one-and-a-half times as long as calyx, 12–15 mm long; style exerted; nutlets globose, 1 mm long and broad. Flowering June–September. Ural, Caucasus, coppices, woods, open forests (mostly deciduous) (Shishkin and Borisova 1954) (Figs. 1 and 2).

Fig. 1 Clinopodium grandiflorum (Lamiaceae) Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Clinopodium grandiflorum (Lamiaceae) Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses The leaves are used to treat hypertension (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

Local Food Uses Used as aromatic plant, tea substitute, and condiment (Sokolov 1991).

References Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus: Springer International Publishing; 2017, XXVII, 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia

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(Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aroma Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – Plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Shishkin BK, Borisova AG. Flora of the USSR. Volume 21. Labiatae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1954 (English 1976). 520 pages, 32 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: Flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 6. Families Hippuridaceae-Lobeliaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1991. 200 p. (in Russian).

Conium maculatum L. APIACEAE Seyed Hamed Moazzami Farida, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Conium maculatum L.: Cicuta major Lam.; Cicuta officinalis Crantz; Conium cicuta Neck.; Conium maculatum Pall.; Coriandrum cicuta Crantz; Coriandrum cicuta Roth; Coriandrum maculatum (L.) Roth; Selinum conium (Vest) E.H.L. Krause; Sium conium Vest

S. H. Moazzami Farida Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Bu-Ali Sina University, Hamedan, Iran e-mail: [email protected] A. Ghorbani Department of Organismal Biology, Evolutionary Biology Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_148

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Local Names Russian: Бoлигoлoвпятниcтый (Boligolov pyatnistyy); Uzbek: Sasik alaf; Kyrgyz: Убaлдыpкaн (Uu baldyrkan) (Sokolov 1988); Persian: Bikh-e shokaran (‫)ﺑﯿﺨﻪ ﺷﻮﮐﺮﺍﻥ‬, Shokaran (‫ ;)ﺷﻮﮐﺮﺍﻥ‬English: poison hemlock

Botany and Ecology Biennial-stem 60–180 cm high, branching, finely sulcate, like leaves glabrous, sometimes with glaucous bloom and reddish-brown spots in lower part; lower leaves petiolate, tripinnate, broadly triangular, 30–60 cm long, with primary, secondary, and tertiary lobes petiolate, only the lowermost sessile, the tertiary ones oblong-ovate, deeply pinnatisect into ovate-lanceolate, acuminate lobules, sometimes with short whitish tip; median and upper leaves smaller and not as compound, subsessile, with narrow sheath. Umbels numerous, forming corymbiform-paniculate inflorescence, of 12–20 rays, slightly scabrous inside; involucre of ovate-lanceolate, narrowmargined obscurely crenate reflexed leaflets; leaflets of involucels 3–7, second, connate at base, ovate-lanceolate, glabrous, with narrow scarious margin, shorter or slightly longer than rays; fruit subcylindrical or ovoid, 3–3.5 mm long; styles ca. 1 mm long, becoming curved, nearly twice as long as stylopodium. Flowering June–July. Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, as weed in pastures, forest fringes, wet meadows, flooded meadows, limestone slopes, in crops and fallow land, near dwellings, kitchen gardens, roadsides, hedges, dumps, walls of ravines, and railroad tracks (Shishkin 1950).

Phytochemistry Alkaloids (coniine, N-methylconium, conhydrine, methylpiperidine, congidrone, N-methylpseudoconhydrine), polyacetylene compounds (falkarinone), phenocarboxylic acids (coffee), essential oils, flavonoids (diosmin), coumarins, anthocyanins (3-xylosyl galactose cyanideine, feruloyl, flavonoids (hesperidin, diosmine, luteolin, quercetin), nitrogen-containing compounds (pipecolic acid), coumarins (bergapten, xanthate), anthocyanins, fatty acids (petroselin, petrozelidine, linoleic, palmitic, stearic) (Sokolov 1988).

Local Medicinal Uses In the Western Ural, the leaf extract is used as an analgesic, sedative, anti-asthmatic, anticancer; for stomach problems, dysmenorrhea, syphilis, and anticonvulsant and for epilepsy, pertussis, migraine headaches, cancer, and uterine fibroids (Sokolov 1988).

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This is a poisonous plant and is rarely used as medicine. The roots are used against skin allergies and for treatment of colic pains (Amiri and Joharchi 2013). The leaves and seeds are used as sedative, anti-spasm, respiratory and digestive system spasms, and against asthma (Mozaffarian 2013).

Local Food Uses In the Northern Caucasus, the young stems are pickled (Bussmann et al. 2016; Sokolov 1988).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Highly toxic (Sokolov 1988).

References Amiri MS, Joharchi MR. Ethnobotanical investigation of traditional medicinal plants commercialized in the markets of Mashhad. Iran Avicenna J Phytomed. 2013;3(3):254. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Mozaffarian V. Identification of medicinal and aromatic plants of Iran. Tehran: Farhang-e Moaser Publication; 2013. Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 16: Umbelliflorae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1950 (English 1973). 478 p, 37 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, (editor). Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, Volume 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1988. 357 p. (in Russian).

Cordia myxa L. BORAGINACEAE Seyed Hamed Moazzami Farida, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Synonyms Cordia myxa L.: Bourreria glabra G. Don, Cordia dichotoma G. Forst., Cordia ixiocarpa F. Muell., Cordia myxa var. ixiocarpa (F. Muell.) Domin, Cordia officinalis Lam., Cordia paniculata Roth, Cordia petta-pelioporet B. Heyne ex Roth, Cordia scabrifolia Benth. ex Griseb., Ehretia glabra Roth ex Roem. & Schult., Ehretia glabra Roth, Gerascanthus myxus (L.) Borhidi, Vitex gomphophylla Baker

S. H. Moazzami Farida Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Bu-Ali Sina University, Hamedan, Iran e-mail: [email protected] A. Ghorbani Department of Organismal Biology, Evolutionary Biology Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_42

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Local Names Farsi, ‫( ﺱﻩ ﭖﺱﺕﺍﻥ‬Seh pestan), ‫( ﺱﺭ ﭖﺱﺕﺍﻥ‬Sar pestan); English, Assyrian plum, sapistan and sebesten plum

Botany and Ecology Deciduous tree 3–5 m tall. The young shoots and branches with a rusty pubescence, glabrate at length. Leaves 6–12.5  43–8.2 cm, suborbicular, elliptic-ovate to oblong-ovate, three-nerved, acute or obtuse, subentire to sinuate-crenate or dentate, glabrous to dense tomentose on under surface, base cuneate to rounded. Petiole 2.5–43 cm long. Flowers not seen. Drupe 20 mm long, ovoid, apiculate, brownishyellow, base partly surrounded by the enlarged,  broadly cupular calyx. Flowering in March–April. Mostly in Pakistan, India, and Sri-Lanka.

Local Medicinal Uses The bark, leaves, and fruits have medicinal properties and are used variously as diuretic or demulcent and for stomachaches. The fruits are used as expectorant, laxative, diuretic, and astringent (Amiri et al. 2012; Dolatkhahi et al. 2012; Dolatkhahi and Nabipour 2013, 2014; Khodayari et al. 2014; Moein et al. 2015). The fruits and leaves of C. myxa are also used to heal pharyngitis, cold, cough, fever, and sore throat (Amiri et al. 2012; Dolatkhahi et al. 2012; Dolatkhahi and Nabipour 2013). Furthermore, the fresh fruits and leaves are used as a sedative for stomach problems (Dolatkhahi and Nabipour 2013). The fruit is applied for the treatment of wounds and is used for pain relief (Dolatkhahi and Nabipour 2013; Moein et al. 2015). The raw fruit is edible and is good for stomachache, constipation, and common cold (Dolatkhahi and Nabipour 2014).

Local Food Uses The fruit pulp is eaten. N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]

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References Amiri MS, Jabbarzadeh P, Akhondi M. An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used by indigenous people in Zangelanlo district, Northeast Iran. J Med Plants Res. 2012;6(5):749–53. Dolatkhahi M, Nabipour I. Systematically study of medicinal plants in Bushehr province, Southern Iran. J Herb Drugs. 2013;3(4):209–22. Dolatkhahi M, Nabipour I. Ethnobotany evaluation of medicinal plants in Catchment area of Northeastern Persian Gulf. J Med Plants. 2014;2(50):129–53. Dolatkhahi M, Ghorbani Nahouji M, Mehrafarin A, Amininejad G, Dolatkhahi A. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants from Kazerun: identification, distribution and traditional uses. J Med Plants. 2012;2(42):163–78. Khodayari H, Amani S, Amiri H. Ethnobotany of herb medicine in the North East of Khuzestan Province. Ecophytochem Med Plants. 2014;8(4):12–26. Moein M, Zarshenas MM, Khademian S, Razavi AD. Ethnopharmacological review of plants traditionally used in Darab (south of Iran). Trends Pharm Sci. 2015;1(1):39–43.

Coriandrum sativum L. APIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Seyed Hamed Moazzami Farida, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Coriandrum sativum L.: Bifora loureiroi Kostel., Coriandropsis syriaca H. Wolff, Coriandrum globosum Salisb., Coriandrum majus Gouan, Selinum coriandrum Krause, Sium coriaudrum Vest

Local Names Georgian: ქინძი (kindzi); Russian: Кинза (kinva) (Russian); Azeri: кишниш (kishnish); Armenian: хамем (chamem), киндз (kindz) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991); Persian: Gardilu ‫ﮒﺭﺩﯼﻝﻭ‬, geshnij ‫ﮒﺵﻥﯼﮊ‬, geshniz ‫ ;ﮒﺵﻥﯼﺯ‬English: coriander

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_43

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Botany and Ecology Annual; entire plant glabrous; root thin, fusiform; stem erect, 20–70 cm high, cylindrical, finely sulcate, branching above or from base; leaves pale green, the radical early withering, long-petioled, entire, incised-dentate or 3-lobed or 3-partite or pinnate, with rounded-cuneate, incised-dentate leaflets; lower cauline leaves bipinnate, with few ovate pinnatifid leaflets usually with cuneate base; median and upper cauline leaves sessile on sheaths with broadly scarious margin, bi- or tripinnatisect into linear or subfiliform, usually entire, acute lobes. Umbels longpedunculate, of 3–5 glabrous rays; involucre or of 1 leaflet; involucres secund, usually of 3 very narrow, filiform-subulate leaflets with tuft-like tip; calyx-teeth triangular-lanceolate or linear, irregular, 2 outer much longer than the 3 inner; petals white or reddish, the peripheral unpaired, petals 3–4 mm long, deeply 2-lobed, with oblong-obovate lobes, the 2 adjacent petals asymmetrical, obliquely obcordate, 2-lobed, the anterior lobe much larger than the posterior, 2 remaining petals small, symmetrical, obcordate; petals of remaining flowers faintly notched; fruit globose, 2–5 mm across, brown- or straw yellow; styles elongate, diverging at acute angle, 2–3 times as long as conical stylopodium, with slightly thickened tip. June–July. Ural, Caucasus. Cultivated, often as weed of gardens and crops, near dwellings and roadsides (Shishkin 1950) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7).

Phytochemistry Essential oils (camphene, myrcene, a-felandine, limonene, p-cymol, nonanal, linalool, geraniol, linalyl, geranyl, borneol, thymol, a-pinene, sabinen, pellandrene, y-terpinene, p-cymol, a-phellandrene, a-thujene, a-terpinene, terpinolene, cis-ocimene, trans-ocimene, a-terpineol, camphor, citronellol, nerol, decanal, coriandrinol, coriandrinone-diol), phthalides (neocyanidyl, ligustilide), vitamins (C), flavonoids (quercetin, isoquercitrin, rutin, kaempferol), carbohydrates (glucose, fructose, sucrose), steroids (y-sievesterol, sitosterol, stigmasterine), coumarins N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] S. H. Moazzami Farida Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Bu-Ali Sina University, Hamedan, Iran e-mail: [email protected] A. Ghorbani Department of Organismal Biology, Evolutionary Biology Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

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Fig. 1 Coriandrum sativum (Apiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

(belleferone, scopoletin), flavonoids (3-curonid, quercetin, isokvetsitrine, rutin), fatty acids (palmitic, oleic, petroseline, linoleic, lauric, myristic, stearic) (Sokolov 1988).

Local Medicinal Uses Coriander is used for diseases of the stomach and stomach colics, neurosis, antiinflammatory, hemostatic for nosebleeds, as anthelmintic and cystitis. Externally the extract is used to rinse inflamed eyes and for afts (Sokolov 1988). The seeds, leaves, and stems of this species help to heal diabetes and acne (Dolatkhahi and Nabipour 2013; Amiri et al. 2014) and to relieve dental pain, headache, and sore throat (Hooper et al. 1937; Ghorbani 2005). They are used as aphrodisiac, appetizer, carminative, stomach tonic, vermifuge, and diuretic (Dolatkhahi et al. 2012; Mardani Nejad and Vazirpour 2012; Amiri et al. 2014; Moein et al. 2015). Likewise, coriander seeds can increase lactation in nursing mothers (Mehrabani et al. 2013; Dolatkhahi and Nabipour 2014). In Iranian folk medicine, C. sativum is used against hyperlipidemia, gastritis, gastrointestinal infections, gout, and jaundice (Ghorbani 2005; Sharififar et al. 2010; Amiri et al. 2014; Tahvilian et al. 2014). The whole plant is used in Pakistan as remedy for hypertension (Sher et al. 2016; Malik et al. 2018).

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Fig. 2 Coriandrum sativum (Apiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Fig. 3 Coriandrum sativum (Apiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Local Food Uses The young stems, seeds, and leaves are used as spice in the Northern Caucasus Middle Asia, also for fish canning, meat, and as spice for beer. Coriander is a common spice to various dishes. The leaves are used raw as well as added to

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Fig. 4 Coriandrum sativum (Apiaceae), garden, Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Fig. 5 Coriandrum sativum (Apiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

soups, pickled cucumber, and cabbage, and also used as spice for vodka (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1988). The leaves of C. sativum are used as vegetable and seeds used as flavoring and spice (Hooper et al. 1937; Amin 2005; Amiri et al. 2012, 2014; Mehrabani et al. 2013).

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Fig. 6 Coriandrum sativum (Apiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Fig. 7 Coriandrum sativum (Apiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Fig. 8 Coriandrum sativum (Apiaceae), drying for winter, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

The leaves, seeds, and shoots are used for food. The leaves are often used as garnish, and the seeds are an ingredient of Svanetian salt (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017) (Figs. 8 and 9).

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Fig. 9 Coriandrum sativum (Apiaceae), dry seeds, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The extract is used as insecticide. Thought to be a good melliferous plant (Sokolov 1988).

References Amin G. The most common medicinal plants in Iran. Tehran: Medical Ethics and History of Medicine Research Center; 2005. Amiri MS, Jabbarzadeh P, Akhondi M. An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used by indigenous people in Zangelanlo district, Northeast Iran. J Med Plants Res. 2012;6(5):749–53. Amiri MS, Joharchi MR, Taghavizadeh Yazdi ME. Ethno-medicinal plants used to cure jaundice by traditional healers of Mashhad, Iran. Iran J Pharm Res. 2014;13(1):157. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus: Springer International Publishing; 2017, XXVII, 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plant and fungal use in Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016c;86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517.

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Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Dolatkhahi M, Nabipour I. Systematically study of medicinal plants in Bushehr province, Southern Iran. J Herb Drugs. 2013;3(4):209–22. Dolatkhahi M, Nabipour I. Ethnobotany evaluation of medicinal plants in Catchment area of Northeastern Persian Gulf. J Med Plants. 2014;2(50):129–53. Dolatkhahi M, Ghorbani Nahouji M, Mehrafarin A, Amininejad G, Dolatkhahi A. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants from Kazerun: identification, distribution and traditional uses. J Med Plants. 2012;2(42):163–78. Ghorbani A. Studies on pharmaceutical ethnobotany in the region of Turkmen Sahra, north of Iran: (part 1): general results. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102(1):58–68. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow; 1952. (in Russian). Hooper D, Field H, Dahlgren BE. Useful plants and drugs of Iran and Iraq. Chicago: Field Museum of Natural History; 1937. Ketskhoveli N., Kharadze A., Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols., Tbilisi, Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical Dictionary. Metsniereba: Tbilisi; 1991. (in Georgian). Malik K, Ahmad M, Bussmann RW, Ahmad M, Zafar M, Tariq A, Alqahtani A, Shahat A, Ullah R, Rashid N, Zafar M, Sultana S, Nasar Shah S. Ethnobotany of Hypertensive plants used in Northern areas of Pakistan. Front Pharmacol. 2018;9(789) https://doi.org/10.3389/ fphar.2018.00789. Mardani Nejad S, Vazirpour M. Ethnobotany of Medicinal plants by Mobarakeh people (Isfahan). J Herb Drugs. 2012;2:111–29. Mehrabani M, Mahdavi Meimand Z, Mirtajadini M. Collection and identification of some wild plants of Baft (Kerman province) and their traditional uses. J Islam Iran Tradit Med. 2013;4 (3):275–85. Moein M, Zarshenas MM, Khademian S, Razavi AD. Ethnopharmacological review of plants traditionally used in Darab (south of Iran). Trends Pharm Sci. 2015;1(1):39–43. Sharififar F, Kouhpaieh A, Mottaghi MM, Amir Khosravi A, Pourmohseni Nasab E. Ethnobotanic study of medicinal plants in Sirjan, Kerman province. J Herb Drugs. 2010;3:19–28. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among the Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni ethnic groups in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Shishkin BK.Flora of the USSR. Volume 16. Umbelliflorae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1950 (English 1973). 478 pp, 37 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1988. 357 p. (in Russian). Tahvilian R, Shahriari S, Faramarzi A, Komasi A. Ethno-pharmaceutical Formulations in Kurdish Ethno-medicine. Iran J Pharm Res. 2014;13(3):1029.

Cornus australis C.A. Mey. Cornus mas L. CORNACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Cornus mas L.: Cornus mascula L.; Cornus vernalis Salisb.; Cornus praecox Stokes; Cornus flava Steud.; Cornus nudiflora Dumort.; Eukrania mascula (L.) Merr.; Cornus erythrocarpa St.-Lag.; Macrocarpium mas (L.) Nakai

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; mananakhuts@yahoo. com; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_44

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Local Names Russian: Свидина (svidinja); Armenian: Հոն սովորական (Hon sovorakan); Azeri: Аdi zоğаl; Georgia: შინდი (shindi), შინდანწლა (shvindants’la); Megrelian: ბძგირი (bdzgiri); Chanetian: კიზილჯუღი (k’iziljughi); Svan: შვინდ (shvind); Ingiloian: შუნდ (shund) (Grossheim 1952; Makashvili 1991; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Sokolov 1988).

Botany and Ecology Shrub or small tree, 2–5(9) m high, trunk usually to 25 cm, rarely to 45 cm across, with very hard wood and gray splitting and peeling bark; young shoots green, with four hardly protruding longitudinal ribs, covered with short, appressed, bipartite hairs, later subglabrous, 1-year-old and older branches from yellowish gray to reddish brown; vegetative buds narrowly oblong, acuminate, slightly remote, reproductive buds, spherical, initiated in fall; leaves with 5–10 mm long, appressed hairy petioles, pale or glaucous green, paler beneath, with appressed, bipartite bristles on both sides and simple, curly, white hairs forming beards in axils of secondary nerves beneath, to 11 cm long, 5 cm wide, ovate or ovate elliptic (f. typica Sanadze) to lanceolate or narrowly elliptic (f. lanceolata Kirchn.), acute or long acuminate, rounded or cuneate at base, with 3–5(6) lateral nerves and network of small nerves very distinct on both sides. Flowers open before leaves; flower-bearing shoots 5–8 mm long; leaflets of involucels yellowish green, 5–10(12) mm long, 3–6 mm wide, canescent outside, covered with dense, appressed, bipartite hairs, margin white villous, tomentose, tip ovate, obtuse, or acute; flowers 15–25 per inflorescence, pedicels densely pubescent, 4–9 mm long; ovary obconical, densely appressed hairy, 0.75–1 mm long, calyx teeth triangular, as long as or slightly exceeding disk; petal lanceolate to triangular, acuminate, 2–2.5 mm long, 1.2 mm wide (in lower part), reflexed after flowering; stamens approximately half length of petals, anthers broadly ellipsoid, 0.6–0.8 mm long; disk slightly notched, flat; stigmas truncate; ripe fruit dark red, sometimes light red or pink, sweetish to sour, usually ellipsoid or cylindrical, 10–15 mm (f. microcarpa Sanadze) to 20–23–30 mm long (f. macrocarpa Dipp.) or broadening above, pyriform (f. pyriformis Sanadze), smooth or sometimes more or less faceted; stone ellipsoid or fusiform, nearly smooth. Flowering March–April, fruiting September. Ural, Caucasus, in the undergrowth of open forests, in bush thickets up to mid-mountain belt (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Shishkin 1951; Takhtadjan 1954–2009; Redlist Committee Azerbaijan 2013) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6).

Phytochemistry Organic acids (apple, wine, riloxal), tannins, iridoids (cornine, secogan), triterpenoids, phenolcarboxylic acids (galli, ellagic, coffee), flavonoids (rutin, quercetin, isoquercetin, kaempferol), proanthocyanidins (procyanidin), vitamins (C, carotene),

Cornus australis C.A. Mey. . . . Fig. 1 Cornus mas (Cornaceae). Guria, Georgia. (Photo: R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Cornus mas (Cornaceae). Guria, Georgia. (Photo: R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Cornus mas (Cornaceae). Guria, Georgia. (Photo: R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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330 Fig. 4 Cornus mas (Cornaceae). Guria, Georgia. (Photo: R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Cornus mas (Cornaceae). Guria, Georgia. (Photo: R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 6 Cornus mas (Cornaceae). Guria, Georgia. (Photo: R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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catechins, anthocyanins (delphinidin, cyanidin, peonidin, pelargonidin), catechins (epigallocatechin, epicatechin) (Sokolov 1988).

Local Medicinal Uses In the Ural, a broth with barley flour is applied as poultice to abscesses and boils. The extract is used for kidney and liver diseases, diabetes, and diarrhea. The juice can be used as eye drops. The fruits are used as antiscorbutic and for anemia, colds, rickets, measles, scarlet fever, fever, gastrointestinal illnesses, and topically headache (Sokolov 1988). Fruits are used for gastrointestinal diseases and contain vitamin C (Grossheim 1952; Budantseva 1994–1996; Sokolov 1984–1993; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2007; Zolotnitskaya 1958–1965). In folk medicine of Armenia, fruits and leaves are used for metabolic disorders and gout and skin diseases. It is also used as an antiinflammatory, reducing the temperature, and diuretic, choleretic, antiscorbutic, bactericidal, and binding agent. A broth made from roots and bark is used to treat rheumatism and malaria, as well as diabetes (Amirdovlat 1927; Isotova et al. 2010; Gabrielyan 2001; Zolotnitskaya 1958–1965). Fresh fruits, jam, and kissel (juice of fruits boiled with starch), as well as a water infusion of leaves, and crushed kernels fried in sunflower oil and mixed with honey, as well as kernels crushed to powder, and mixed with egg yolk are taken internally for diarrhea. Alcohol called “zogal aragi” is made of fruits and which is also used for intestinal disorders. Fruits and lavashana – fruit lather made from condensed juice, jam, and a water infusion of the leaves – as well as fruits with dried plums are widely applied to reduce blood sugar and treat diabetes (Damirov et al. 1988; Grossheim 1943). The juice from fresh fruits or an infusion prepared in cold water from dried fruits is taken internally for malaria and as refreshing and strengthening agent, as well as for colds (Grossheim 1942, 1943). Concentrated juice is used in food to improve digestion. Fruits as water decoction are used for general health. A plaster made from the water decoction of the bark with barley flour as thickening agent is applied to furuncles (Damirov et al. 1988; Mehdiyeva 2014). Fruit, leaves, bark, and roots have anti-inflammatory, diuretic, and analgesic properties (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a). The fruit is recommended to treat metabolic disturbances, anemia, and skin diseases. Bark and roots are used against malaria and as a tonic. Fresh leaf juice is used as eye drops (Kopaliani 2013). Shvindi is good for stomachache and diarrhea (Jikia 1991).

Local Food Uses The fruits are used for juices, extracts, syrups, drinks, jellies, jams, pie fillings, and acidic sauces like “torshu” and “lavash” and sometimes used as surrogate for coffee and tea.

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Fig. 7 Cornus mas (Cornaceae). Fruits for sale in local market. Telavi, Georgia. (Photo: R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

The fruits are used fresh or dried. Ripe fruits are used for jams and for beverages. Traditionally the local population prepares “lavash” – fruit lather from condensed juice with pulp, which is used as delicacy. From the leaves and dried fruits, people prepare teas (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1988; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2007). Fruits have a sweet-sour taste and pleasant flavor and are used in food raw. They are also suitable for making jam, drinks, wine, and alcohol and are used as well as seasoning in rub fruit juice from sour fruits (cherry plum, plum, etc.), lavashana (fruit lather), and akhta (dried fruit, made from de-pitted fruits, scalded with boiling water and then dried in the sun), which are used for cooking plov (a common dish in the east). In Azerbaijan, rice is boiled on a small fire until soft, in combination with other ingredients like meat, birds, fish, dried fruits, greens, and beans; different dishes from meat, birds, fish, and are also added to soup (Mehdiyeva 2014). Air-dried fruit flesh of shvindi is used to cook a special meal in winter in montane-alpine regions of East Georgia (Mtiuleti-Gudamakari, Tusheti); the dry fruit flesh is boiled and mixed with flour in water, and crushed garlic and salt are added (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a). In Tusheti, the fruits are used to cook a special meal in winter (Tsagareishvili 1999). In Kvemo Kartli, dry fruit is soaked in water and grated. After removing the piths, the mass is boiled. Flour is stirred in a small amount of water, stewed onion and walnut are mixed with the shvindi mass, and the mixture is boiled together. Then salt and garlic are added as needed. The fruits are used to make alcohol (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017a, b; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b, c, 2018; Bussmann 2017) (Fig. 7).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Used for tanning of leather and as red, yellow, olive, and greenish black dye for wool. The wood can be used for household utensils and carpentry. The species is often planted as ornamental. The thin trunks make excellent walking sticks and canes (Sokolov 1988).

Cornus australis C.A. Mey. . . .

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The thick beautiful wood is used for the manufacture of canes, buttons, and other small crafts. The bark and leaves yield yellow dye for fabrics and wool (Grossheim 1952). Beautiful during flowering and fruiting, used in parks and gardens. Bark, branches, and leaves are used for dyeing wool, silk, and cotton, as well as their products in yellow color. They are also used for tanning and dyeing of leather (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961). The wood is firm and heavy, well-polished, and suitable for turnery (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961). Drumsticks are made for “gosha nagara” (a small twin drum), also sticks for beating wool. Nectareous, producing nectar and pollen (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961). Shindi was used to make certain details of carts or plows. Shindi (as well as Pontian rhododendron, hawthorn, hornbeam, hazel (Pontian rhododendron was considered the best)) were used to make “igha,” a double-armed tool with the length of each arm reaching 1 m and the distance between arms about 40 cm, used to load and tie hay bundles on a cart (Gegeshidze 1956). In Kakheti, cornelian cherry as well as hazel wood was used to make bows (Bochoridze 1993). The bark is used as barrel cleaner, the branches serve as stirrers, and the wood is used to make walking and fighting sticks and tool handles (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017a, b; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b, c, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

References Amirdovlat A. Angitats anpet. Vienna; 1927. (in Armenian). Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Cornus mas L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus: Springer International Publishing; 2017a. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Aleksanyan A, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Mespilus germanica L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus: Springer International Publishing; 2017b. Bochoridze G. Tusheti. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1993. (in Georgian). Budantseva AL, editor. Plant resources of Russia and neighboring countries, vols 1–2. Moscow; 1994–1996. (in Russian). Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus: Springer International Publishing; 2017, XXVII, 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, Beer, Snuff, Medicine and loss of diversity – Ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5(5)

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Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2017a;86:3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017c;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Damirov IA, Prilipko LI, Shukurov DZ, Kerimov YB. Medicinal plants of Azerbaijan. Baku; 1988. (in Russian) Flora of Azerbaijan, vols I–VIII. Baku: AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1950–1961. (in Russian). Gabrielyan E. Herbal medicine national register. Yerevan; 2001. (in Armenian). Gegeshidze M. Georgian traditional transport – traditional land transport. Tbilisi: Publishing House of the Georgian Academy of Sciences; 1956. (in Georgian). Grossheim AA. Medicinal plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Publishing House of Azerbaijani Branch of AS; 1942. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Herbs of the Caucasus. Baku: Azerbaijani Branch of AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1943 . (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow; 1952. (in Russian). Isotova MA, Sarafakova NA, Mkscho BI, Ionova AA. Great encyclopedia of traditional medicine. Moscow; 2010. (in Russian). Jikia N. The use of wild plants and vegetables as traditional food in the Eastern Georgia’s mountains. Bulletin of the State Museum of Georgia, XLI-B, Tbilisi; 1991. (in Georgian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, vol. 16 vols. Metsniereba: Tbilisi; 1971. –2011. (in Georgian). Kopaliani L. Forest plants of Georgia (trees, shrubs, herbs): Publishing Center, Kutaisi; 2013. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Metsniereba: Tbilisi; 1991. (in Georgian). Mehdiyeva NP. About some plants of Azerbaijan flora, used in national medicine and cooking. Tradit Med. 2014;4(39):25–31. (in Russian). Redlist Committee Azerbaijan. Red book of the Republic of Azerbaijan/rare and endangered plant and mushroom species. 2nd ed. Baku: Aharg-Garb; 2013. (in Azeri). Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR. Volume 17. Umbelliflorae (continued) Peucedaneae-Dauceae & Nyassaceae, Cornaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1951 (English 1974). 285 pp, 25 plates with b/w line drawings; 2 b/w fold-out maps. Sokolov PD. Plant resources of the USSR, vols 1–7. Leningrad; 1984–1993. (in Russian). Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1988, 357 p. (in Russian). Takhtadjan AL. Flora of Armenia, vols. 1–11. Yerevan; 1954–2009. (in Russian). Tsagareishvili T. Ethnoecological culture of Forestry in Georgia. PhD Thesis. Tbilisi; 1999. (in Georgian). Tsaturyan T, Gevorgyan M. Wild edible plants of Armenia. Yerevan; 2007. (in Armenian). Zolotnitskaya S. Medicinal resources of the flora of Armenia, vols. 1–2. Yerevan; 1958–1965. (in Russian).

Coronilla varia L. FABACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Local Names Georgian, ყვავისფრჩხილა (q’vavisprchkhila); Russian, Вязельа (vjasela); Azeri, джы йонджа (džy jondža); Armenian, кар-арвуйт (kar-arbuit) (Armenian (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991).

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; mananakhuts@yahoo. com; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_45

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Botany and Ecology Perennial, stems numerous, hollow, angular, 30 cm–1 m high, prostrate, ascending, erect or clinging, more or less branching; stipules small, 3 mm long, lanceolatelinear or oblong, free, more or less rounded or sometimes acute above; leaves 2.5–13 (15) cm long, petioles 0.8–2 cm long (upper leaves sessile), leaflets 11–25, oval, oblong or oblong-linear, 0.7–2.5 cm long, 0.4–1.1 cm wide, obtuse, petioled. Racemes 12–20-flowered, umbelliform; peduncles 3–15 cm long, sometimes longer than leaves; pedicels shorter than (var. hirta (Bge.) Boiss.) or as long to twice as long as calyx; calyx campanulate, 2–2.5 mm long, 2 mm wide, nearly as long as petal claws, with acute triangular teeth; corolla pink, white or violet, five times as long as calyx; petals equal, limbs also equal, two and a half to three times as long as claws; limb of standard suborbicular, obtuse, sometimes dark-striate; limb of wing obovate; limb of keel ensiform, with narrow acute beak, dark purple or black; pods linear, 1.5 cm long, 0.2 cm wide, straight or arcuate, flattened-tetrahedral, attenuate into beak, jointed; seeds oblong-oval or cylindrical-reniform, 3 mm long, 1 mm wide, brown or grayish-brown, smooth, obtuse. Flowering May–August. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, on dry slopes, forest edges, wet meadows, among bushes, along river banks, ditches, sometimes as weed in crops (Komarov and Shishkin 1948) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Phytochemistry Carbohydrates (starch, glucose, galactose), nitrogen-containing compounds (nitropropionic acid, glucopyranose, tsibarian, carakine, corolline, coronine), vitamins (C), coumarins (umbelliferone, scopoletin, dafnoretine), tannins, flavonoids (astragalin, kaempferol, trifoline, riomorientine, saponarethine, isovitoxin), leukoanthocyanidins (leukodelphinidine, leucocyanidin), catechins (epigallocatechin, Fig. 1 Coronilla varia (Fabaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Coronilla varia L. Fig. 2 Coronilla varia (Fabaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Coronilla varia (Fabaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Coronilla varia (Fabaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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gallocatechin, essential oils, cardenolides, rircanoside, deslorucironoside), phenylcarboxylic acids (n-coumaric, o-coumaric, ferulic), anthocyanins (cyanidine, delphinidine) (Sokolov 1987).

Local Medicinal Uses Traditionally a leaf and root extract is used for tuberculosis, colica, fever, diathesis, diarrhea, dysentery, tumors, diuretic, and cardiotonic. The seeds are used in Azerbaijan as diuretic (Sokolov 1987).

Local Food Uses The leaves are used in small amounts as filling for Khachapuri and for Phkhali (herb pie) (Bussmann et al. 2016, 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses All parts of the plant are toxic, especially the seeds. The leaves contain coumarin and are considered poisonous at a young age (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1987).

References Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Komarov VL, Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR. Volume 13. Leguminosae: Oxytropis, Hedysarum. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1948 (English 1972). 455 pp, 26 b/w plates, 2 maps. Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 3. Hydrangeaceae-Haloragaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1987, 326 p. (in Russian).

Cucumis melo L. CUCURBITACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Cucumis melo L.: Bryonia callosa Rottler; Bryonia callosa Wall.; Cucumis acidus Jacq.; Cucumis agrestis Grebensc.; Cucumis agrestis subsp. figari (Pangalo) Greb.; Cucumis alba Nakai; Cucumis ambigua Fenzl ex Hook. f.; Cucumis arenarius Schumach. & Thonn.; Cucumis aromaticus Royle; Cucumis aspera Sol. ex G. Forst.; Cucumis bardana Fenzl ex Naudin; Cucumis bisexualis A.M. Lu & G.C. Wang; Cucumis bucharicus Hort. ex Steud.; Cucumis campechianus Kunth;

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_46

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Cucumis cantalou Hort. ex Steud.; Cucumis cantalupensis Haberle ex M. Roem.; Cucumis cantalupo (Ser.) Haberle ex Rchb.; Cucumis chate Hasselq.; Cucumis chinensis Pangalo; Cucumis chito Morren; Cucumis cicatrisatus Stocks; Cucumis cognatus Fenzl ex Hook. f.; Cucumis callosus Cogn.; Cucumis conomon Thunb.; Cucumis cubensis Schrad.; Cucumis deliciosus Salisb.; Cucumis dudaim L.; Cucumis erivanicus Hort. ex Steud.; Cucumis eumelo Pangalo; Cucumis eumelo subsp. adana Pangalo; Cucumis eumelo subsp. cassaba Pangalo; Cucumis eumelo subsp. chandaljac Pangalo; Cucumis eumelo subsp. zard Pangalo; Cucumis flexuosus L.; Cucumis jamaicensis Bertero ex Spreng.; Cucumis jucunda F. Muell.; Cucumis laevigatus Chiov.; Cucumis luzonicus Blanco; Cucumis maculatus Willd.; Cucumis maltensis Ser. ex Steud.; Cucumis melo subsp. agrestis (Naudin) Pangalo; Cucumis melo subsp. chate (Hasselq.) Hassib; Cucumis melo subsp. chinensis (Pangalo) Filov; Cucumis melo subsp. chinensis (Pangalo) Pangalo; Cucumis melo subsp. conomon (Thunb.) Greb.; Cucumis melo subsp. cultus (Kurz) Pangalo; Cucumis melo subsp. dudaim (L.) Greb.; Cucumis melo subsp. europaeus Filov; Cucumis melo subsp. flexuosus (L.) Filov; Cucumis melo subsp. flexuosus (L.) Greb.; Cucumis melo subsp. microcarpus (Alef.) Pangalo; Cucumis melo subsp. orientale Sagerst ex Filov; Cucumis melo subsp. pubescens (Willd.) Hassib; Cucumis melo subsp. rigidus (Pangalo) Filov; Cucumis melo subsp. spontaneum Filov; Cucumis melo subsp. vulgaris (H. Jacq.) Pangalo; Cucumis microcarpus (Alef.) Pangalo; Cucumis microsperma Nakai; Cucumis momordica Roxb.; Cucumis moschatus Gray; Cucumis odoratissimus Moench; Cucumis officinarum-melo Crantz; Cucumis pancheranus Naudin; Cucumis pedatifidus Schrad.; Cucumis persicus (Sageret) M. Roem.; Cucumis picrocarpus Muell.; Cucumis pictus Jacq.; Cucumis princeps Wender; Cucumis pubescens Willd.; Cucumis pyriformis Roxb. ex Wight & Arn.; Cucumis reflexus Zeih ex Seringe in de Candolle; Cucumis reginae Schrad.; Cucumis reticulatus Hort. ex Steud.; Cucumis saccharinus Hort. ex Steud.; Cucumis schraderianus M. Roem.; Cucumis serotinus Haberle ex Seiz.; Cucumis trigonus Roxb.; Cucumis turbinatus Roxb.; Cucumis umbillicatus Salisb.; Cucumis utilissimus Roxb.; Cucumis verrucosus Hort. ex Steud.; Cucumis villosus Voiss. ex Noë; Cucumis viridis Hort. ex Steud.; Melo x ambigua Pangalo; Melo adana Pangalo; Melo adzhur Pangalo; Melo agrestis (Naudin) Pangalo; Melo ameri Pangalo; Melo cantalupensis Pangalo; Melo cassaba Pangalo; Melo chandalak Pangalo; Melo chate Sageret; Melo chinensis Pangalo; Melo conomon Pangalo; Melo dudaim (L.) Sageret; Melo figari Pangalo; Melo flexuosus (L.) Pangalo; Melo flexuosus Sageret; Melo flexuosus Sageret ex M. Roem.; Cucumis microcarpus (Alef.) Pangalo; Melo monoclinus Pangalo; Melo orientalis (Kudr.) Nabiev; Melo persicus Sageret; Melo sativus Sageret; Melo vulgaris Moench ex Cogn.; Melo zard Pangalo Note: An exceeding large number of varieties, forms, and unranked taxa (>500) have been described for Cucumis melo. For this reason, we only quote synonyms to subspecies here. For other synonyms, see http://tropicos.org/Name/9200439?tab=synonyms.

Cucumis melo L.

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Local Names Georgian: ნესვი (nesvi) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al., 1971–2011; Makashvili, 1991); English: Melon

Botany and Ecology Annual; stems usually prostrate, covered with spreading hairs, cylindricalpentahedral or ribbed; leaves rounded-ovate or subreniform, entire, angular or more or less lobed, with rounded dentate lobes, cordate at base, stiff-haired, on rather long petioles. Flowers ca. 2–2.5 cm across, the staminate flowers often few in axil of leaves, the pistillate solitary, on short pedicels; corolla campanulate, the lobes obtuse; sepals subulate; ovary long-tomentose; fruit with typical “melon” odor very variable in form, size, taste, and color; seeds flat, yellowish, sessile on fibrous placentas. Flowering May–August, fruiting June–October. Widely cultivated. Melon probably originated in East Africa, where wild populations still occur, e.g., in Sudan, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Somalia, Uganda, and Tanzania. Possibly it also occurs wild in southern Africa, but the exact distribution of wild Cucumis melo is unclear because of the regular occurrence of plants escaped from cultivation. Melon was domesticated in the eastern Mediterranean region and West Asia at least 4000 years ago and subsequently spread into Asia. During the long period of cultivation, many types developed with many fruit shapes and with either sweet or non-sweet flesh. Important centers of genetic diversity of cultivated melon are developed in Iran, Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, China, and India. In Africa important variation occurs in Sudan and Egypt (Shishkin and Boborov 1957).

Local Medicinal Uses The seeds are used as purgative and to treat leucorrhea (Umair et al. 2019).

Local Food Uses Mature fruits of sweet melon cultivars are usually consumed fresh for the sweet and juicy pulp. The pulp is also mixed with water and sugar, or sometimes with milk, and served as a refreshing drink or made into ice cream. Immature fruits of non-sweet types, including snake melon, are used as a fresh, cooked, or pickled vegetable; they are also stuffed with meat, rice, and spices and fried in oil. The young leaves are occasionally consumed as a potherb and in soups (Grossheim 1952). The fruits are widely eaten (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017, 2018).

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses The leafy stems and also the fruit provide good forage for all livestock (Grossheim 1952).

References Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus: Springer International Publishing; 2017, XXVII, 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, Beer, Snuff, Medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plant and fungal use in Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016c;86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR. Volume 24. Dipsacaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Campanulaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1957 (English 1972). 370 pp, 27 b/w plates, 2 maps. Umair M, Altaf M, Bussmann RW, Abbasi AM. Ethnomedicinal uses of the local flora in Chenab riverine area, Punjab province Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2019;15:7. https://doi.org/ 10.1186/s13002-019-0285-4.

Cucumis sativus L. CUCURBITACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Cucumis sativus L.: Cucumis esculenta Salisb.; Cucumis hardwickii Royle; Cucumis muricatus Willd.; Cucumis rumphii Hassk.; Cucumis sativus fo. albus Hiroë; Cucumis sativus fo. albus Pangalo; Cucumis sativus fo. australis Kitam.; Cucumis sativus fo. Kitam.; Cucumis sativus fo. brunnescens Gabaev; Cucumis sativus fo. pallescens Gabaev.; Cucumis sativus fo. tuberculatus Hiroë; Cucumis sativus fo. typicus Gabaev; Cucumis sativus grex viridis (Ser.) Alef.; Cucumis sativus subsp. agrestis Gabaev; Cucumis sativus subsp. gracilior Gabaev; Cucumis R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_47

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sativus subsp. rigidus Gabaev; Cucumis sativus var. albus Ser.; Cucumis sativus var. anatolicus Gabaev; Cucumis sativus var. anglicus L.H. Bailey; Cucumis sativus var. arakis Forssk.; Cucumis sativus var. asiaticus Gabaev; Cucumis sativus var. battichdjebbal Forssk.; Cucumis sativus var. brullos Forssk.; Cucumis sativus var. chatte Forssk.; Cucumis sativus var. cilicicus Gabaev; Cucumis sativus var. curtus Alef.; Cucumis sativus var. donii Alef.; Cucumis sativus var. ennemis Forssk.; Cucumis sativus var. europaeus Gabaev; Cucumis sativus var. excellens Alef.; Cucumis sativus var. fakus Forssk.; Cucumis sativus var. falcatus Gabaev; Cucumis sativus var. fastigatus Ser.; Cucumis sativus var. flavus Ser.; Cucumis sativus var. flexuosus Alef.; Cucumis sativus var. gracilior Gabaev; Cucumis sativus var. grossularioides Tkachenko; Cucumis sativus var. hardwickii (Royle) Gabaev.; Cucumis sativus var. hollandicus Alef.; Cucumis sativus var. indo-europaeus Gabaev; Cucumis sativus var. irano-turanicus Gabaev; Cucumis sativus var. izmir Gabaev; Cucumis sativus var. longus Harz; Cucumis sativus var. opheocarpus Harz; Cucumis sativus var. orasiaticus Gabaev; Cucumis sativus var. pallidus Gabaev; Cucumis sativus var. praecox Alef.; Cucumis sativus var. rossicus Alef.; Cucumis sativus var. schemmam Forssk.; Cucumis sativus var. serotinus Alef.; Cucumis sativus var. setosus Alef.; Cucumis sativus var. sikkimensis Hook. f.; Cucumis sativus var. sikkimiae Harz; Cucumis sativus var. smilli Forssk.; Cucumis sativus var. squamosus Gabaev; Cucumis sativus var. destudaceus Gabaev; Cucumis sativus var. tuberculatus Gabaev; Cucumis sativus var. turcicus Alef; Cucumis sativus var. variegatus Ser.; Cucumis sativus var. viridis Ser.; Cucumis sativus var. vulgaris Alef; Cucumis sativus L. var. xishuangbannanensis Qi Chuzhang & Yuan Zhenzhen; Cucumis setosus Cogn.; Cucumis sphaerocarpus Gabaev; Cucumis vilmorinii Sprenger

Local Names Georgian, კიტრი (k’it’ri), პიკული კიტრი (p’il’uyli k’it’ri); Russian, Огурец (ogurets); Azeri, хияр (hijar); Armenian, варунк (varunk) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al., 1971–2011; Makashvili, 1991); English, cucumber

Botany and Ecology Annual; stems prostrate or climbing by simple tendrils, bristly haired, faceted, 0.5–4 m; leaves on thickened stiff-haired petioles, cordate-ovate, 3–5-lobed or pentagonal, lobes nearly equal, acute, crenate or dentate, bristly haired above and beneath, (8)12–18 (20) cm across; corolla vitelline yellow, 2.5–4 cm across, sometimes larger; staminate flowers with densely pubescent (villous) receptacle; sepals nearly as long as receptacle; corolla lobes oblong-lanceolate, acute; ovary often cylindrical or fusiform, 2 cm long when flower dehiscing, tuberculate, with black, white, or rufous prickles; fruit usually cylindrical or short cylindrical, sometimes angular or rounded, dark or yellow-green, smooth or tuberculate, sometimes with prickles, ripe fruit brown or cinnamon brown, with netted surface; seeds numerous, oblong, 8–14 mm long. Flowering and fruiting May–June. Widely cultivated (Shishkin and Boborov 1957) (Fig. 1).

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Fig. 1 Cucumis sativus (Cucurbitaceae), garden, Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo R: W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Cucumis sativus (Cucurbitaceae), pickled, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R: W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Food Uses Widely eaten (Grossheim 1952). Both flowers and fruits are eaten, the fruits often also pickled (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017) (Fig. 2).

References Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus: Springer International Publishing; 2017, XXVII, 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia

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(Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plant and fungal use in Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016c;86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR. Volume 24. Dipsacaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Campanulaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1957 (English 1972). 370 pp, 27 b/w plates, 2 maps.

Cucurbita pepo L. CUCURBITACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Cucurbita pepo L.: Cucurbita aurantia Willd.; Cucurbita courgero Ser.; Cucurbita elongata Bean ex Schrad.; Cucurbita esculenta Gray; Cucurbita melopepo L.; Cucurbita ovifera L.; Cucurbita pepo subsp. ovifera (L.) D.S. Decker; Cucurbita pepo var. condensa L.H. Bailey; Cucurbita pepo var. melopepo (L.) Alef.; Cucurbita pepo var. ovifera (L.) Alef.; Cucurbita pepo var. torticollis Alef.; Cucurbita subverrucosa Willd.; Cucurbita verrucosa L.

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; mananakhuts@yahoo. com; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_48

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Local Names Georgian: გოგრა (gogra) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991)

Botany and Ecology Annual; stems prostrate or climbing, 2–10 m, ribbed, stiff-haired, like leaves densely covered with stiff, somewhat spiny hairs, acutely scabrous to the touch; leaves fivelobed, erect, cordate, their lobes acute, more or less lobed, with rounded incisions between lobes. Pedicels abruptly pentahedral; staminate flowers in axillary fascicles with linear or subfiliform sepals; pistillate flowers solitary; corolla 7–10 cm across, with erect acuminate lobes, golden yellow or yellow-orange; fruit large, very variable in shape, size, color, and surface texture; flesh fibrous, the easily separating placentas bearing numerous yellowish-white, distinctly bordered seeds; fruiting pedicels abruptly faceted. Flowering June–July, fruiting September–November. Widely cultivated (Shishkin and Boborov 1957) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).

Local Food Uses Widely eaten, especially in soups or as cooked vegetable. Many different varieties are used in the Caucasus (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017) (Fig. 6).

Fig. 1 Cucurbita pepo (Cucurbitaceae), Bragança, Portugal. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Cucurbita pepo L. Fig. 2 Cucurbita pepo (Cucurbitaceae), Bragança, Portugal. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Cucurbita pepo (Cucurbitaceae), Bragança, Portugal. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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350 Fig. 4 Cucurbita pepo (Cucurbitaceae), Bragança, Portugal. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Cucurbita pepo (Cucurbitaceae), Guria, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 6 Cucurbita pepo (Cucurbitaceae), Tbilisi market, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

References Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus: Springer International Publishing; 2017, XXVII, 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR. Volume 24. Dipsacaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Campanulaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1957 (English 1972). 370 pp, 27 b/w plates, 2 maps.

Cydonia oblonga Mill. ROSACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Cydonia oblonga Mill.: Cydonia vulgaris Pers.; Pyrus cydonia L.

Local Names Georgian: კომში (k’omshi), ბია (bia), მახრჩობელა (mkhrchobela), ვაშლა (vashla); Udin: ფუშა (pusha); Azeri: Айва (Aĭva); Armenian: серкевилени (serkevilen) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991); English: quince R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_49

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Botany and Ecology Small tree or shrub 1.5–5 m high, with thin, scaling bark; shoots lanate-tomentose when young, later glabrous; leaves ovate or oval, less often orbicular, entire, acute or obtuse, mucronulate, rounded at base or slightly cordate, the young leaves arachnoid-tomentose, glabrous when fully developed, and dark green above, grayish tomentose below, to 10 (12) cm long, 7.5 cm broad; stipules glandular-dentate; flowers pale pink, to 5 mm in diameter, short-pediceled; pedicels, receptacle, and outside of sepals tomentose-pubescent; receptacle ovate; sepals oval, glandularserrate; stamens densely lanate at base and tightly constricted by projections of perigynous disk; fruits initially tomentose, glabrous at maturity, lemon-colored or dark yellow, sometimes reddening laterally, mostly somewhat ribbed, globose (f. maliformis Kirchn.) or pyriform (f. pyriformis Kirchn.), in wild quince 2.5–3.5 cm long and weighing up to 60–100 g; flesh with numerous grit cells, not very succulent, astringent, but very aromatic. Flowering May, fruiting September. Caucasus and Middle Asia, in forests, shrublands, along the shores of overgrown lakes, in the lower and mid-mountain belts. Widely cultivated (Yuzepchuk 1939).

Phytochemistry Aliphatic alcohols (roseozide), carbohydrates, triterpenoids (ursolic acid), resins, alkaloids, cyanogenated compounds (prunazine), vitamins (B1, C, K), phenylcarboxylic acids (isochlorogenic), catechins, tannins, fIavonoids (kaempferol, quercetin, rutin), anthocyanidines, fatty acids, essential oils (limonene, linalool, citral, terpineol) (Sokolov 1987) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Fig. 1 Cydonia oblonga (Rosaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Cydonia oblonga (Rosaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Cydonia oblonga (Rosaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses In the Caucasus a leaf infusion is used for gastric diseases. The flowers serve to treat malignant tumors. In Middle Asia a fruit tincture is used for its restorative function and for diseases of the heart, respiratory tract, and gastrointestinal tract, as well as tuberculosis and asthma. In Iran the flowers serve as a diuretic and antiulcer for diseases of the lungs and stomach. The seeds are used to treat eye diseases. In Middle Asia they serve for throat diseases and colic in children and in Iran to relieve coughs and dysentery. Quince seeds contain mucus and are used medicinally (Grossheim 1952, Sokolov 1987). The fruits and leaves are used to treat diabetes, to stop bleeding, and to increase hemoglobin. Especially the leaves are sold in medicinal plant markets (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017a, b, 2018).

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Local Food Uses The fruits are edible, boiled, and baked and used to make jam, compotes, and confectionery. The extract can be used for drinks (Grossheim 1952, Sokolov 1987). The flowers and fruits are eaten, the fruits especially as compote (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017a, 2018).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The wood is used in carpentry. (Sokolov 1987). The wood is used to make household utensils (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017a, 2018).

References Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 3. Hydrangeaceae-Haloragaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1987. 326 p. (in Russian) Yuzepchuk SV. Flora of the USSR. Volume 9. Rosales and Sarraceniales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1939 (English 1971). 425 pp, 30 plates with b/w line drawings, 2 b/w fold-out maps.

Danae racemosa (L.) Moench Ruscus hyrcanus Woron. Ruscus hypophyllum L. ASPARAGACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze Synonyms Danae racemosa (L.) Moench: Ruscus racemosus L. Ruscus hyrcanus Woron.: Ruscus aculeatus fo. verticillata Alexeenko in schedis.

Local Names Georgian: ძმერხლი (dzmerkhli); Russian: Иглица (igliza); Armenian: мкнапуш (mknapush) (Armenian); (Grossheim 1952); English: Poet’s laurel R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_120

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Botany and Ecology Danae racemosa: Perennial evergreen small shrub, 50–100 cm tall, with arching branches. Secondary branches broad, 1.5–2 cm wide, leaf-like. Flowers small, white, and in terminal inflorescences of eight to nine flowers. Flower stalks short, jointed. Berry large, red. In shaded oak woods of the Caucasus, up to 1100 m. Also occurs in Syria and northern Iran. An ornamental in Europe. Flowers from May to July, fruits in October. Danae racemosa grows in oak woods and is an unusual evergreen, long cultivated in Turkey and the rest of southern Europe, as well as in old gardens in the southeastern United States. Rare species, distributed in the regions of Western Greater Caucasus, and in lowlands and mountainous part of Lankaran. Grows from lowland to middle mountain zone in moist, shady forests, in damp rocks, in forest, on slopes of damp shady ravines. Flowering in May–July, fruiting in October (Bobrov and Bush 1939; Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961). Ruscus hyrcanus and R. hypophyllum: Perennial; subshrubs, 45–55 cm tall; stems erect, mostly simple; cladodes dense, very large, coriaceous, oblong to oblonglanceolate, 6–9 cm long, 2–4 cm broad, acuminate, narrowed toward base, the lower opposite, the upper alternate; flowers five or six, small, borne on the lower face of the cladode and subtended by a small lanceolate obtusish bracts; berries stipitate, red, 8–10 mm in diameter, two-seeded. Flowering April–May, fruiting July–September. Caucasus, shady woods, among shrubs in canyons, up to 1800 m (Bobrov and Bush 1939; Flora of Azerbaijan, 1950–1961; Redlist Committee Azerbaijan 2013; Sokolov 1988; Figs. 1 and 2)

Local Medicinal Uses Danae racemosa: In the Talish the leaves of Danae racemosa are used as laxative, and an infusion of the leaves is used against colds (Alalbarov 2008; Grossheim 1942, 1943). Applied as diuretic, as well as stimulator of menstrual cycle and birth (Alalbarov 2008). Fig. 1 Ruscus hyrcanus (Asparagaceae), National Botanical Garden Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Danae racemosa (L.) Moench. . .

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Fig. 2 Ruscus hyrcanus (Asparagaceae), National Botanical Garden Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Ruscus sp.: The leaves are used as laxative, and an infusion of the leaves is used against colds (Alalbarov 2008; Grossheim 1942, 1943). Applied as diuretic, as well as stimulator of menstrual cycle and birth (Alalbarov 2008).

Local Food Uses The fruits of Ruscus sp. are sometimes eaten (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b; Bussmann 2017; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017). The roasted seeds of R. hypophyllum and R. ponticus are used to make a coffee-like drink (Grossheim 1952).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses A dye solution is prepared from leaves of Ruscus sp. to obtain olive color. This solution is used for dyeing wool (Mehdiyeva et al. 2017; Qasimov 1980). Beautiful evergreen subshrub is used in gardens and parks, for curbs, and fences. Beads and other adornments are prepared from globose half-transparent seeds. Danae racemosa is used as ornamental in gardens and parks (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017). The leaves and shoots of all species can be used as fodder for cows (Bussmann et al. 2018).

References Alalbarov AU. One thousand and one secret of the East. Baku: Nurlan; 2008. (in Russian). Bobrov EG, Bush NA. Flora of the USSR, Volume 8: Capparidaceae, Cruceriferae and Resedaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1939 (English 1970). 524 pages, 34 b/w plates, 2 maps. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII. 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and

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loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:5. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016c;86(2):3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – Plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Flora of Azerbaijan. Volumes I–VIII. Baku: AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1950–1961. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Medicinal plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Publishing House of Azerbaijani Branch of AS; 1942. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Herbs of the Caucasus. Baku: Azerbaijani Branch of AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1943. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Mehdiyeva N, Alizade V, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Danae racemosa (L.) Moench; Ruscus hyrcanus Woron. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Qasimov MA. Dye plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Azerbaijan State Publishing House; 1980. (in Azeri). Redlist Committee Azerbaijan. Red book of the Republic of Azerbaijan/rare and endangered plant and mushroom species. 2nd ed. Baku: Aharg-Garb; 2013. (in Azeri). Sokolov PD, editor. Plant Resources of the USSR: Flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, Volume 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1988. 357 p. (in Russian).

Daphne caucasica Pall. Daphne glomerata Lam. Daphne mezereum L. Daphne pontica L. THYMELAEACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Daphne caucasica Pall.: Daphne caucasica var. cognata K. Koch; Daphne euphorbiides Puschk. ex Steud. Daphne glomerata Lam.: Daphne comosa Adams; Daphne glomerata var. nivalis K. Koch; Daphne glomerata var. pauciflora Meisn.; Daphne imerica K. Koch R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_50

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Daphne mezereum L.: Daphne  houtteana Lindl. & Paxton; Daphne albiflora Joh. Wolff; Mezereum officinarum C.A. Mey.; Thymelaea mezereum (L.) Scop.; Thymelaea praecox Gilib. Daphne pontica L.: Daphne pontica subsp. melanocarpa Woronow; Daphne pontica var. szovitsii K. Koch

Local Names Daphne caucasica: Georgian ზარავანდი (zaravandi); Khevsur ზარავანდი (majaghveri) Daphne glomerata: Georgian წიბა (ts’iba), წიბლა (ts’ibla); Khevsur მოგოცხარა (Magozhara) Daphne mezereum: Georgian მაჯაღვერი (majaghveri), წიბლა (ts’ibla), ჯანჯღამურა (janjghgamura); Khevsur მოგოცხარა (magozhara); Russian, Волчеягодник (voltsejagodnik); Azeri, джанавар гилеси (dshanavar gileci); Armenian, дапняк (dapnyak) (Grossheim 1952; Makashvili 1991). Daphne pontica: Khevsur ზარავანდი (Majaghveri)

Botany and Ecology Daphne caucasica: Shrub, to 2 m high, with slender branches and grayish-brown bark; young branches with dark purple bark, glabrous, pubescent at ends below inflorescence; leaves oblong-lanceolate or lanceolate, 2–7 cm long and 0.5–1.5 cm broad, tapering at base, obtusish or short-acuminate at apex, sessile, glabrous, at first puberulent at base on both sides, green above, glaucescent beneath; head 15–20flowered, at ends of branches; flowers salverform, white, fragrant; hypanthium silkypubescent; sepals broad-ovate, obtuse, half as long as tube; ovary with tuft of white hairs at apex; stigma subsessile; drupe black; kernel pyriform, with hard coat and broad hilum. Flowering May–June; fruiting July. Caucasus, in mountain Quercus, and Quercus-Carpinus forests, along the banks of rivers in the lower and middle forest belt (Shishkin 1949) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7). Daphne glomerata: Shrub, 50 cm high, with brownish-gray bark; stem sturdy, sparingly branched, bare, with traces of previous year’s leaves; leaves crowded at summit of stems, oblong, lanceolate or obovate, 1.5–3 cm long and 0.7–1.1 cm broad, obtuse at apex, cuneate at base, sessile, lustrous above, light green and quite glabrous beneath; flowers fragrant, in fascicles of 2–15 on a peduncle, or 1–3 (var. pauciflora Meisn.); pedicels to 15 mm long, crowded at summit of stem in axils of upper leaves, forming pseudoterminal head; bracts oblong or broad-obovate, scarious, caducous; hypanthium 15 mm long pink outside, white inside, glabrous or covered all over with short white hairs (var. puberula Sosn.) or parts of hypanthium unevenly pubescent; lobes lanceolate, half as long as hypanthium, acute, manynerved, reflexed at anthesis; stamens included; pistil 3 mm long; ovary glabrous; style not more than 0.25 mm long or none; stigma capitate; hypogynous scales with

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Fig. 1 Daphne caucasica (Thymelaeaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo: R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Daphne sp. (Thymelaeaceae), Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo: R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

low straight margin; drupe red. Flowering May–July; fruiting July–August. Caucasus, in the undergrowth of mountain forests, along stony slopes and river banks, in subalpine and alpine meadows, from the upper part of the mountain forest belt alpine areas (Shishkin 1949) (Figs. 8 and 9). Daphne mezereum: Shrub, sparingly branched, 0.5–1.5 m high, with yellowish-gray bark; branches glabrous, bare in lower part, with traces of previous year’s leaves, young branches appressed-puberulent; leaves alternate, crowded at ends of branches, 3–8 cm long, 1.5–2 cm broad, oblong-oblanceolate, obtuse, narrowed to a short

364 Fig. 3 Daphne sp. (Thymelaeaceae), Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo: R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Daphne albowiana (Thymelaeaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Daphne albowiana (Thymelaeaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Daphne caucasica Pall. Fig. 6 Daphne albowiana (Thymelaeaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 7 Daphne albowiana (Thymelaeaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 8 Daphne glomerata (Thymelaeaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 9 Daphne glomerata (Thymelaeaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

petiole, sparingly ciliate, green above, glaucescent beneath; flowers 3–5 in axils of leaves of previous year, pink (var. rubrum Ait.) or white (var. album Ait.), fragrant; perianth salverform, tube 6–8 mm long, appressed-hairy, lobes [sepals] broad, ovate, obtuse, two-thirds as long as tube; pistil one-third as long as tube; ovary glabrous; stigma capitate, subsessile; drupe ovaloid, bright red; kernel broadly ovaloid. Flowering March–June; fruiting June–August. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, in shady moist coniferous and deciduous forests, the valleys of rivers, clearcuts and burnt

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Fig. 10 Daphne mezereum (Thymelaeaceae), Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo: R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 11 Daphne mezereum (Thymelaeaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

areas, on the outcrops of limestone and gypsum from the lower-mountain forest belt to tall-altitude woodlands, in tall grass, post-forest meadows (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961; Shishkin 1949) (Figs. 10 and 11). Daphne pontica: Shrub, sparingly branched, erect, to 1 m high; bark reddish-brown, coated with a thin, almost transparent grayish pellicle; stems bare, with traces of leaves of previous year; leaves crowded at ends of branches, 3–8 cm long and

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1.5–3.3 mm broad, obovate-lanceolate, elliptical or oblong-elliptical, acute, narrowed at base, subsessile, glabrous; flowers axillary, on mostly two-flowered bractless peduncles 2–2.5 cm long; pedicels usually 6 mm long, drooping in fruit; flowers glabrous, yellowish-green; hypanthium 7–10 mm long and 1 mm broad; sepals narrow, lanceolate, acute, unequal, two slightly shorter than others, reflexed, about equaling tube; ovary glabrous; stigma capitate; style 0.25–0.5 mm long; hypogynous scales forming a ring 0.25 mm high; drupe ovaloid, glabrous, black; kernel pyriform. Flowering April–August. Caucasus, in mountain forests, along the fringes, in the lower and mid-mountain forest belts (Shishkin 1949).

Phytochemistry Coumarins (hydroxycoumarins, umbelliferone, daphnetin, dafetin, daphnine, mezereine), catechins, flavonoids, alkaloids (Sokolov 1985)

Local Medicinal Uses Daphne caucasica: The stems are chewed for toothache (Bussmann et al. 2018; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017). Daphne glomerata: A bark extract is used for rheumatism and gout (Sokolov 1985). The leaves are chewed for toothache (Bussmann et al. 2018; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017). Daphne mezereum: The leaves are used for treating jaundice and dysentery. A root extract is used as hypnotics and antiepileptic, as well as for malignant tumors. In Armenia Daphne is used to treat colitis and gastrointestinal diseases (Sokolov 1985). Fruits and leaves are used as antiseptic and fungicide in scab, fungus diseases, and for insect bite. An ointment is used externally in vitiligo and applied to ulcerous wound mixed with honey. The decoction of all plant parts is used in urethritis and as anthelmintic (Alekperov 1992). An infusion and decoction is also applied for toothache and hemorrhages (Alekperov 1992). The exudate of the bark, collected in early spring, is used as external sedative for neuralgic and rheumatic problems (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961). The leaves are chewed for toothache (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b, c). Daphne pontica: In Georgia (Abkhazia) an infusion of the leaves is used as emetic (Sokolov 1985). The leaves are used as purgative tea (Bussmann et al. 2018; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017). In the Himalayas Daphne bholua is used to treat fever and as anthelmintic (Kunwar et al. 2010). Daphne papyracea is used for wound treatment (Bhat et al. 2015; Sher et al. 2016), and Daphne mucronata serves to treat hair loss (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018).

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses The bark of all species can be used to weave small baskets and hats. All species are planted as ornamentals. All parts of all the species are poisonous and skin irritants. They are very good honey plants (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1985). Daphne caucasica: The extract is used against ectoparasites in veterinary medicine (Bussmann et al. 2018; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017). Daphne mezereum: Leaves and stems are boiled, and the concoction is applied against ectoparasites (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b, c). It is a beautiful shrub, mainly during flowering season (flowers have fragrant flavor). It can be used in parks and gardens (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961). A dye solution is prepared from the bark and fruits to obtain yellow and beige colors. The dye is used for dyeing wool yarn as well as products made of wool (Qasimov 1980). Small wickers are made from branches. It is a nectariferous plant (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961).

References Alekperov FU. Comparative analysis of medicinal plants of medieval (XIII–XVIII centuries) and modern Azerbaijan. Baku: Ornak; 1992. (in Russian). Bhat J, Malik ZA, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhatt AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172: 133–44. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus: Springer International Publishing; 2017, XXVII, 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:5. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2017a;86:3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017c;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33.

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Flora of Azerbaijan, vols I–VIII. Baku: AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1950–1961. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Bussmann RW. Traditional herbal medicine in Far-west Nepal: a pharmacological appraisal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:35. Makashvili A. Botanical Dictionary. Plant Names. 3rd ed. Tbilisi, Metsniereba; 1991. Mehdiyeva N, Alizade V, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Daphne mezereum L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Qasimov MA. Dye plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Azerbaijan State Publishing House; 1980. (in Azeri). Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among the Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni ethnic groups in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR. Volume 15. Malvales, Parietales, Myrtiflorae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1949 (English 1974). 565 pp, 33 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: Flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 2. Families Paeoniaceae – Thymelaeacea. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1985, 336 p. (in Russian). Ur-Rahman I, Afsal A, Iqbal Z, Ijas F, Ali N, Asif M, Alam J, Majid A, Bussmann RW. Traditional and ethnomedicinal dermatology practices in Pakistan. Clin Dermatol. 2018;36(3):310–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clindermatol.2018.03.018.

Daucus carota L. APIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Seyed Hamed Moazzami Farida, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Daucus carota L.: Carota sativa Rupr., Carota sylvestris (Mill.) Rupr., Caucalis carnosa Roth.; Caucalis carota (L.) Crantz; Caucalis daucus Crantz; Daucus alatus Poir., Daucus allionii Link, Daucus blanchei Reut., Daucus brevicaulis Raf., Daucus communis Rouy & E.G.Camus, Daucus dentatus Bertol., Daucus esculentus Salisb., Daucus exiguus Steud., Daucus glaber Opiz ex Čelak., Daucus heterophylus

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; mananakhuts@yahoo. com; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] S. H. Moazzami Farida Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Bu-Ali Sina University, Hamedan, Iran e-mail: [email protected] A. Ghorbani Department of Organismal Biology, Evolutionary Biology Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_51

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Raf., Daucus kotovii M.Hiroe, Daucus levis Raf., Daucus marcidus Timb.-Lagr., Daucus montanus Schmidt ex Nyman, Daucus neglectus Lowe, Daucus nudicaulis Raf., Daucus officinalis Gueldenst. ex Ledeb., Daucus scariosus Raf., Daucus sciadophylus Raf., Daucus strigosus Raf., Daucus sylvestris Mill., Daucus vulgaris Neck.

Local Names Daucus carota: Georgian ფერისცვალა (peristsvala), შუშანა (shushana), სიქილონჯა (sikilonja) Daucus carota L. ssp. sativus: Georgian სტაფილო (st’apilo); Russian, Морковь (morkov); Azeri, кёк (koek); Armenian, газар (gazar); st’apilo (Georgian) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991); Persian, Gezar ‫ﮒﺯﺍﺭ‬, havij ‫ ;ﻫﻮﯾﺞ‬English, wild carrot, carrot, Queen Anne’s lace

Botany and Ecology Biennial, rarely annual; root fusiform, commonly whitish; stem 25–100 cm high, furrowed, simple or branching above, like leaves scabrous-hairy (rarely subglabrous); leaves triangular, ovate, or oblong, 14–20 cm long, 4–6 cm wide, 2–4pinnate, lower with more or less long petioles, upper sessile on oblong sheath with white-scarious margin; lobules of last order ovate or oblong, obtuse, with short mucro, dentate or incised, margin slightly rolled downward, obtuse. Umbels 4–10 cm across, 50-rayed, rays scabrous-hairy, flowering umbels flat or convex, compact in fruit; involucre of many three-partite or pinnate leaflets with narrow scarious margins in lower part, nearly as long as umbels; umbellets 1–2 cm across, many-flowered, leaflets of involucre many, linear-subulate or oblong or narrowly ovate, inner entire, nearly wholly membranous, outer nearly wholly herbaceous, with narrow scarious margins, often three-partite or three-toothed, rarely pinnate, all with more or less ciliate margin; flowers in part bisexual, otherwise staminate (particularly in lateral umbellets); middle umbellet, in center of umbel is reduced to a dark red (often cleistogamous) flower; calyx-teeth small but visible, triangularovate; petals white or yellow (sulfur-yellow when dry), rarely pink or purple, obcordate, villous inside, smooth or with remote hairs outside, notched, with inward curved lobule; peripheral petals enlarged, to 2–3 mm long, 2-lobed to middle; fruit N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]

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Fig. 1 Daucus carota (Apiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

3–4 mm long, 1.5–2 mm wide. Flowering May–July. Ural, Caucasus, along roads, in orchards, gardens. Widely cultivated (Shishkin 1951) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Phytochemistry Essential oils (a-pinene, p-pinene, camphene, limonene, sabinene, a-flalandrene, fellandren, a-terpene, terpinene, p-cymene, daucene, ylangene, curcumen, caryophyllene, chymachalene, y-cadinene, bisabolene, bergamotene, carotol, isoelemycine, geraniol, geranilacetate, myrcene, limonene, camphene, geraniol, geranilacetate, citronellol, sabinene, thymol, nopinene, citral, alpha-tuyen, y-terpinene, terpinyl acetate, bornyl acetate, beta-carophyllene, p-fellandrene, bergamotene, azarone, selenine, acorenone, elemycine, a-gurjunen, ar-curcumen), polyacetylene compounds (falcarinol, falcarindiol, acetylfalcarindiol), phenols (myristicin), flavonoids (luteolin, apigenin, quercetin, kaempferol, astrograph, apigenin, cyanidin, 5-hydroxyflavone, zapotinine, luteoline, zapotinine, glucopyranoside, 7-rutinoside, diosmetine, quercetine, chrysin), anthocyanins, steroids (p-sitosterol), fatty acids (palmitic, petroseline, oleic, linoleic, pelargonic, caprylic, lauric, stearic) (Sokolov 1988).

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Fig. 2 Daucus carota (Apiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Daucus carota (Apiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses The leaf extract is used as a choleretic, laxative, diuretic, and anthelminthic (Sokolov 1988).

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Fig. 4 Daucus carota (Apiaceae), harvest in Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Daucus carota (Apiaceae), carrot diversity, garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Carrot is used as appetizer, laxative, diuretic, and stimulant (Hooper et al. 1937; Amin 2005; Sharififar et al. 2010; Amiri et al. 2014). As well, this species is used to improve eyesight, to stimulate menstruation (amenorrhea), and for anemia (Hooper et al. 1937; Sharififar et al. 2010).

376 Fig. 6 Daucus carota (Apiaceae), carrot seeds, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 7 Daucus carota (Apiaceae), harvested carrots, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 8 Daucus carota (Apiaceae), carrot salad, Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 9 Daucus carota (Apiaceae), purple carrots, close to wild variety, Istanbul, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Food Uses The roots are eaten. The seeds are put into vinegars, and seeds and leaves are used as spice used for various dishes (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Grossheim 1952, Sokolov 1988). This species is used as a vegetable (Amin 2005) (Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9).

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses The leaves are used to extract geraniol for perfumes (Sokolov 1988).

References Amin G. The most common medicinal plants in Iran. Tehran: Medical Ethics and History of Medicine Research Center; 2005. Amiri MS, Joharchi MR, Taghavizadeh Yazdi ME. Ethno-medicinal plants used to cure jaundice by traditional healers of Mashhad, Iran. Iran J Pharm Res. 2014;13(1):157. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus: Springer International Publishing; 2017, XXVII, 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plant and fungal use in Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016c;86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow; 1952. (in Russian). Hooper D, Field H, Dahlgren BE. Useful plants and drugs of Iran and Iraq. Chicago: Field Museum of Natural History; 1937. Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011 . (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Sharififar F, Kouhpaieh A, Mottaghi MM, Amir Khosravi A, Pourmohseni Nasab E. Ethnobotanic study of medicinal plants in Sirjan, Kerman province. J Herb Drugs. 2010;3:19–28. Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR. Volume 17. Umbelliflorae (continued) Peucedaneae-Dauceae & Nyassaceae, Cornaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1951 (English 1974). 285 pp, 25 plates with b/w line drawings; 2 b/w fold-out maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant Resources of the USSR: Flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1988, 357 p. (in Russian).

Descurainia sophia (L.) Webb ex Prantl BRASSICACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Farzaneh Khajoei Nasab, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Descurainia sophia (L.) Webb ex Prantl: Descurainia sophia var. brachycarpa O.E. Schulz; Descurainia sophia var. sophia (L.) Webb ex Prantl; Descurainia sophia (L.) Schur; Hesperis sophia (L.) Kuntze; Sisymbrium parviflorum Lam.; Sisymbrium persicum Spreng.; Sisymbrium sophia L.; Sisymbrium sophia var. brachycarpa Boiss.; Sisymbrium tripinnatum DC.; Sophia lobelii Rupr.; Sophia parviflora (Lam.) Standl.; Sophia sophia (L.) Britton

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_52

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Local Names Azeri: Гулявник, шюверен (guljabnik shjuberen) (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1985); Iran: Khakshir (‫ ;)ﺥﺍﮎﺵﯼﺭ‬English: flixweed, herb sophia, tansy mustard

Botany and Ecology Annual, canescent with short branched hairs, sometimes subglabrous (var. glabrata N. Busch); stem 15–80 cm high, erect, spreadingly branching; leaves 2- sometimes 3-pinnatipartite, with linear or oblong-linear acute lobules, (on solonetzic soils lobules thicker – var. salsuginea Schulz). Racemes many-flowered, in fruit 6–40 mm long; sepals spreading; petals pale yellow, oblong, ca. 2–2.5 mm long, equal to or shorter than sepals, or longer (var. dolichopetala Schulz) or sometimes completely absent (var. apetala (Noulet) Schulz); fruiting pedicels thin, 7–14 mm long; siliques 10–30 mm long, ca. 1 mm thick, 10–14 mm in var. brachycarpa Boiss., 3–4 cm in var. longisiliqua (Gruner) Schulz, slender, curved upward, tuberculate; seeds grayish-brownish, 1–1.25 mm long, 0.5–0.75 mm broad. Flowering May–August. In weedy and solonetzic places, near houses, roadsides, fields, meadows, and slopes. Ural, Caucasus, Siberia, Central Asia, from the foothills to the middle mountain belt (Bobrov and Bush 1939).

Phytochemistry Alcohols: (helioscopyol); steroids (osterin); alkaloids; vitamins (C, E); flavonoids (kaempferol, quercetin); cardenolides; mustard oils; (benzylisotiocinate, allylsulfonate, propenylisotatinate); thioglycosides: sinigrin (Sokolov 1985).

Local Medicinal Uses It is traditionally used as astringent, diuretic, irritant, antiemetic, and anti-hepatic, well as for tuberculosis. In Middle Asia it is especially applied for pain related to sore throat, as antipyretic, for measles and smallpox, and as hemostatic. The juice is applied to inflamed ulcers and infected wounds. In Middle Asia the plant serves to induce sweating during fever and malaria and against diarrhea (Sokolov 1985). F. Khajoei Nasab Department of Plant Sciences and Biotechnology, Faculty of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran e-mail: [email protected] A. Ghorbani Department of Organismal Biology, Evolutionary Biology Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

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An infusion and decoction of seeds are used against fever (Ghorbani 2005; Maleki and Akhani 2018), gasteralgia (Ghorbani 2005), measles, constipation, stomachache, and skin rash (Mosaddegh et al. 2012; Sadeghi et al. 2014; Maleki and Akhani 2018), diarrhea and abdominal pain, and sore throat (Khajoei Nasab and Khosravi 2014) and in the treatment of intestinal adhesion (Khajoei Nasab and Esmailpour 2018) and belly ache (Maleki and Akhani 2018). Medicinal preparations are syrup, infusion, orally, and decoction (Sokolov 1985).

Local Food Uses The seeds have a pungent flavor and are used instead of mustard in the Caucasus but do contain some toxic glycosides (Grossheim 1952). Seeds are used in cold syrup drinks in summer as refreshment (Sokolov 1985).

References Bobrov EG, Bush NA. Flora of the USSR. Volume 8: Capparidaceae, Cruceriferae and Resedaceae; Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1939. 524 pp, 34 b/w plates, 2 maps (English 1970). Ghorbani A. Studies on pharmaceutical ethnobotany in the region of Turkmen Sahra, north of Iran (part 1): general results. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102:58–68. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow; 1952. (in Russian). Khajoei Nasab F, Esmailpour M. Ethno-medicinal survey on weed plants in agro-ecosystems: a case study in Jahrom, Iran. Environ Dev Sustain. 2018. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-018-0128-9. Khajoei Nasab F, Khosravi AR. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of Sirjan in Kerman Province, Iran. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;154:190–7. Maleki T, Akhani H. 2018. Ethnobotanical and ethnomedicinal studies in Baluchi tribes: a case study in Mt. Taftan, southeastern Iran. J Ethnopharmacol. 2018;217:163–77. Mosaddegh M, Naghibi F, Moazzeni H, Pirani A, Esmaeili S. Ethnobotanical survey of herbal remedies traditionally used in Kohghiluyeh va Boyer Ahmad province of Iran. J Ethnopharmacol. 2012;141:80–95. Sadeghi Z, Kuhestani K, Abdollahi V, Mahmood A. Ethnopharmacological studies of indigenous medicinal plants of Saravan region, Baluchistan, Iran. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;153:111–118. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: Flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 2: Families Paeoniaceae – Thymelaeaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1985, 336 p. (in Russian).

Dorema ammoniacum D. Don APIACEAE Seyed Hamed Moazzami Farida, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Dorema ammoniacum D. Don: Diserneston gummiferum Jaub. & Spach, Diserneston hirsutum Lofius ex I.G.Borshch., Dorema gummiferum (Jaub. & Spach) K.M.Korol., Dorema hirsutum Lofius ex I.G.Borshch., Ferula ammonifera (D.Don) Oken

S. H. Moazzami Farida Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Bu-Ali Sina University, Hamedan, Iran e-mail: [email protected] A. Ghorbani Department of Organismal Biology, Evolutionary Biology Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; mananakhuts@yahoo. com; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_53

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Local Names Farsi: ‫( ﺁﺵ ﺗﺮﮎ‬ashtarak), ‫( ﮎﻧﺪﻝ‬kandal); ‫( ﮎﻣﺎ‬koma); ‫( ﺍﺷﻖ‬oshgh), ‫( ﺍﺷﺘﺮﮎ‬oshtorak), ‫ﻭﺣﺸﺎ‬ (vasha); Russian: Дорема (dorema) (Russian); Armenian: ошак (oshak) (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1988).

Botany and Ecology Plants 2–3 m tall, branched. Stem base 6–12 cm in diameter, woody. Radical leaves large, ternatisect; leaf segments large, oblong, obtuse; leaf base amplexicaul. Umbels simple on branches. Peduncles 1–2 cm long. Involucre of 5–8 small, linear bracts. Calyx teeth minute. Petals white. Fruit elliptic to oblong, 6–8 mm long, 4–5 mm broad, glabrous, dorsally compressed; dorsal and intermediate ridges distinct, thin; lateral ridges broad; furrows 1-vittate; commissure 4-vittate. Inner seed face plane. Known from Afghanistan, Iran, Balochistan, and Middle Asia (Shishkin 1951).

Local Medicinal Uses Roots of D. ammoniacum are used to heal acne, asthma, bronchitis, infection, and intestinal parasites (Rajaei and Mohamadi 2012; Hamedi et al. 2013; Amiri et al. 2014). The oleoresin gum from the plant known as gum ammoniacum is used to relieve bladder inflammation, colic pain, sciatic pain, cough, gastritis, and seizure (Amin 2005; Zarshenas et al. 2013). The gum has expectorant, laxative, and stimulant properties. In addition, ammoniacum is used to heal wounds and pustules and to stimulate menstruation (amenorrhea) (Mehrabani et al. 2013). Its gum and root can cause abortion (Hamedi et al. 2013).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Roots are a source of gum (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1988). Gum of ammoniacum is effective in healing infectious wounds and pustules in animals (Kouhpaieh et al. 2011). N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]

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References Amin G. The most common medicinal plants in Iran. Tehran: Medical ethics and history of medicine research center; 2005. Amiri MS, Joharchi MR, Taghavizadeh Yazdi ME. Ethno-medicinal plants used to cure jaundice by traditional healers of Mashhad Iran. Iran J Pharm Res. 2014;13(1):157. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Hamedi A, Zarshenas MM, Sohrabpour M, Zargaran A. Herbal medicinal oils in traditional Persian medicine. Pharm Biol. 2013;51(9):1208–18. Kouhpaieh A, Ghasemi Pirbalouti A, Yazdan Panah MM, Pourmohseni NAsab E, Delaram A. The study traditional ethnoveterinary of medicinal plants in Kerman province. J Herbal Drug. 2011;3:211–6. Mehrabani M, Mahdavi Meimand Z, Mirtajadini M. Collection and identification of some wild plants of Baft (Kerman province) and their traditional uses. J Islam Iran Traditional Med. 2013;4(3):275–85. Rajaei P, Mohamadi N. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of Hezar Mountain allocated in south east of Iran. Iran J Pharm Res. 2012;11(4):1153–67. Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 17: Umbelliflorae (continued) Peucedaneae-Dauceae & Nyassaceae, Cornaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1951 (English 1974). 285 p, 25 plates with b/w line drawings; 2 b/w fold-out maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Akademia Nauk: Leningrad; 1988, 357 p (in Russian). Zarshenas MM, Arabzadeh A, Tafti MA, Kordafshari G, Zargaran A, Mohagheghzadeh A. Application of herbal exudates in traditional Persian medicine. Galen Med J. 2013;1(2):78–83.

Echium amoenum Fisch. & C.A. Mey. Echium maculatum L. BORAGINACEAE Seyed Hamed Moazzami Farida, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze Synonyms Echium amoenum Fisch. & C.A. Mey.: Echium orientale C.A. Mey.; Echium rubrum Jacq.; Echium russicum J. F. Gmel.; Echium acutifolium Lehm.; Echium clavatum Willd. ex Lehm.; Echium linearifolium K. Koch

S. H. Moazzami Farida Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Bu-Ali Sina University, Hamedan, Iran e-mail: [email protected] A. Ghorbani Department of Organismal Biology, Evolutionary Biology Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_54

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Local Names Echium maculatum: Azerbaijan: Qırmızı göyək; Georgia: ძირწითელა (dzirtsitela), Meskhetian, Javakhetian: ავაავა (avajua) (Grossheim 1952; Makashvili 1991; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011); Farsi: ‫( ﮒﻝ ﮒﻭﺯﺍﻥ‬Gol gozan), ‫( ﮒﻝ ﮒﺍﻭ ﺯﺏﺍﻥ‬gol-e gav zabane), ‫( ﮒﺍﻭﺯﺏﺍﻥ‬gav zabane); English: bugloss

Botany and Ecology Echium amoenum: Perennials or biennials; root rather thick, dark, producing one or several stems; stems robust, thick, high, up to 50–80 cm, some stems lower (30 cm) but then often ascending at base and thinner, more or less densely and coarsely spreading-bristly, simple, or above, mainly in inflorescence, with few branches; radical leaves withering at flowering; cauline leaves 2–4 cm long, up to 8 cm in the very large individuals, oblong-lanceolate or broadly lanceolate, lower leaves tapering at base, median and upper leaves sessile, all acute, covered at both surfaces with very coarse spreading bristles borne on tubercles and with small bristles among them, if those many then leaves canescent. Scorpioid cymes short at first, 1–3, if branches present then inflorescence corymbiform, markedly elongating in fruit up to 20 cm and suberect; leaves underneath flowers lanceolate, sometimes distinctly cordate-broadening at base, few, acute; calyx 10 mm long in flower, very bristly, with narrow linear lobes elongating to 15 mm in fruit, base of calyx slightly hardening at this time; corolla bright violet, 3–4 cm long, broadly and obliquely campanulate, finely downy outside, with short, semi-orbicular lobes; posterior stamens completely included in corolla, the anterior lower almost exserted because of the low short lobes, filaments sparsely long-hairy; anthers ca. 1.5 mm long; style not exserted, widely 2-parted at apex; nutlets gray, ca. 4 mm high, almost straight, with very distinct lateral appendages, densely and sometimes nearly pectinately acute-tuberculate along back and sides. Flowering May–July. On mountain slopes, meadows, river gravels, roadsides, from the Caucasus to Iran (Yuzepchuk and Shishkin 1953; Sokolov 1990) (Figs. 1 and 2). Echium maculatum: Biennial. Stem usually single, erect, (20)30–60(80) cm high, robust, subangular, not very densely bristly hairy, glabrous underneath bristles. Leaves numerous, 4–6 cm long, ca. 0.5–1 cm wide, linear or lanceolate, greenish, apex acute, base gradually tapering, both surfaces bristly, the bristles borne on large tubercles. Inflorescence narrowly paniculate, often almost spicate, up to 20–30 cm long, dense rarely subcapitate; cymes 1–3 cm long, white bristly hairy; bracts N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]

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Fig. 1 Echium amoenum (Boraginaceae), Iran. (Photo Abdolbaset Ghorbani)

Fig. 2 Echium amoenum (Boraginaceae), Iran. (Photo Abdolbaset Ghorbani)

lanceolate-linear, inconspicuous, not exceeding the length of the flowers. Flowers with calyx sparsely white-bristly, ca. 7 mm long, lobes linear-acute; corolla 12–15 mm long, dark (wine) red, not strongly broadening at the top part near the lobes, twice as long as the calyx, lobes ovate-oblong, obtuse, ca. 1.5 mm long; staminal filaments markedly exserted; style markedly exserted. Nutlets black,

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Fig. 3 Echium vulgare (Boraginaceae), Racha, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

ca. 2 mm long, triangular-ovoid, gibbous, and slightly curved, surface finely tuberculate; scar depressed, faintly rimmed, flat inside rim, ventral keel partly downy. In steppes, herbaceous slopes, and shrubby formations in the steppe belt. Also in the middle and lower mountain belts up to the subalpine belt of Caucasus. General distribution in Central Europe, Balkan Peninsula, and Asia Minor. Flowers and fruits from May to July. Echium maculatum prefers steppes, dry slopes, and meadows. Areal covers all regions of Greater and Lesser Caucasus, Kura plain, Bozgir plateau, mountain part of Nakhchivan. Grows in the lower and middle mountain belts (to 2000 m). Found on grassy slopes, in forests, glades, on edges, in shrubs, rocks, and mountain meadows, steppe and herbaceous slopes, roadsides, sometime in croplands, up to subalpine zone. Distributed in Racha-Lechkhumi, Imereti, South Oseti, Kartli, Trialeti, Javakheti, Meskheti (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Yuzepchuk and Shishkin 1953) (Figs. 3 and 4).

Local Medicinal Uses Echium maculatum: In traditional medicine the plant is used to heal wounds and osteomyelitis. In the village of Ude (Javakheti), Cretan viper’s bugloss is used to heal hemorrhoids. According to Roloff (1887), the plant is used in traditional

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Fig. 4 Echium vulgare (Boraginaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

medicine for wound healing and as a remedy against snakebites, while the leaves were used in gynecology, especially after giving birth. In Guria, common children’s medication included Echium, ძირთეთრა dzirtetra (parsnip), Pastinaca sativa L.; ძირტკბილა dzirtkbila (liquorice), Glycyrrhiza glabra L.; ჭინჭარი ch’inch’ari (annual nettle), Urtica urens L.; and მრავალძარღვა mravaldzarghva (broadleaf plantain), Plantago major L., which were boiled together; then amber powder was added and given to the sick children (Bussmann et al. 2014; 2016a, b, c; 2017a, b). In Iranian traditional medicine, the infusion of flowers of this plant is used to heal fever, asthma, skin diseases, stomachache, cough, infection, sinusitis, kidney inflammation, urinary tract diseases, and impotence (Mikaili et al. 2011; Ahvazi et al. 2012; Mardani Nejad and Vazirpour 2012; Khodayari et al. 2014). Ahvazi et al. 2012 indicated that cough and cold were healed with a decoction of E. amoenum’s flowers. Additionally, the infusion and decoction of flowers are used for diseases of the stomach as a sedative (Ghorbani 2005; Sharififar et al. 2010; Alavi et al. 2011; Mirdeilami et al. 2011) and are applied to treat the sore throat and nervous system disorders (Mirdeilami et al. 2011). The leaves are used to heal burnings (Azizi and Keshavarzi 2015). The flowers are also used as cardiac and nervous tonic, laxative, diuretic, sedative, and expectorant (Miraldi et al. 2001, Ghorbani 2005, Alavi et al. 2011; Mirdeilami et al. 2011); Mardani Nejad and Vazirpour 2012, Nabati et al.

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2012, Amiri et al. 2014). An infusion of leaves has antiparasitic and antiinflammation potencies (Mikaili et al. 2011). It is a common herbal tea for common cold in Iran.

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Echium maculatum: A carmine red color is obtained from bark for dyeing wool (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017; Grossheim 1946). The root is used as face paint (Grossheim 1946).

References Ahvazi M, Akbarzadeh M, Khalighi-Sigaroodi F, Kohandel A. Introduce some of the medicinal plants species with the most traditional usage in East Mazandaran Region (Persian). J Med Plant. 2012;4(44):164–76. Alavi S, Rabiei E, Graghani HS, Milan GG. The traditional use of medicinal plants in northern Iran (case study: series 81 and 83 of Forestry plan of Forests, Ranges and Watershed General Department) (Persian). J Herbal Drugs. 2011;1(2):113–20. Amiri MS, Joharchi MR, TaghavizadehYazdi ME. Ethno-medicinal plants used to cure jaundice by traditional healers of Mashhad, Iran. Iran J Pharm Res. 2014;13(1):157. Azizi H, Keshavarzi M. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of Sardasht, Western Azerbaijan, Iran. J Herbal Drugs. 2015;6(2):113–9. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Echium maculatum L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the caucasus. Cham: Springer; 2017. Bussmann RW. editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer; 2017, XXVII, 746p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1). Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:1–18. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus, Acta Sociatatis Botanicae Poloniae; 2016c. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):7–24. Flora of Azerbaijan, vols. I–VIII. Baku: AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1950–1961. (in Russian).

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Ghorbani A. Studies on pharmaceutical ethnobotany in the region of Turkmen Sahra, north of Iran: (Part 1): general results. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102(1):58–68. Grossheim AA. Plant resources of the Caucasus. Baku; Publishing house of AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1946. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Khodayari H, Amani S, Amiri H. Ethnobotany of herb medicine in the North East of Khuzestan Province. J Ecophytochem Med Plants. 2014;8(4):12–26. Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi, Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Mardani Nejad S, Vazirpour M. Ethnobotany of medicinal plants by Mobarakeh people (Isfahan). J Herbal Drugs. 2012;2:111–29. Mikaili P, Shayegh J, Asghari MH, Sarahroodi S, Sharifi M. Currently used traditional phytomedicines with hot nature in Iran. Ann Biol Res. 2011;2(5):56–68. Miraldi E, Ferri S, Mostaghimi V. Botanical drugs and preparations in the traditional medicine of West Azerbaijan (Iran). J Ethnopharmacol. 2001;75(2):77–87. Mirdeilami SZ, Barani H, Mazandarani M, Heshmati GA. Ethnopharmacological survey of medicinal plants in Maraveh Tappe region, north of Iran. J Plant Physiol Iran. 2011;2(1):325–36. Nabati F, Mojab F, Habibi-Rezaei M, Bagherzadeh K, Amanlou M, Yousefi B. Large scale screening of commonly used Iranian traditional medicinal plants against urease activity. DARU. 2012;20(1):72. Roloff A. Wild plants of the Caucasus. Tiflise: Metsniereba; 1887. (in Russian). Sharififar F, Kouhpaieh A, Mottaghi MM, Amir Khosravi A, Pourmohseni Nasab E. Ethnobotanic study of medicinal plants in Sirjan, Kerman province. J Herbal Drugs. 2010;3:19–28. Sokolov PD. editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 5. Families of Caprifoliaceae – Plantaginaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1990, 328p (in Russian). Yuzepchuk SV, Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 19: Tubiflorae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1953 (English 1974). 563p, 40 b/w plates, 2 maps.

Equisetum arvense L. Equisetum telmateia Ehrh. EQUISETACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Equisetum arvense L.: Allostelites arvensis (L.) Börner; Equisetum arvense fo. arcticum (Rupr.) M. Broun; Equisetum arvense fo. boreale (Bong.) Klinge; Equisetum arvense fo. campestre (Schultz) Klinge; Equisetum arvense fo. ramulosum (Rupr.) Klinge ex Scoggan; Equisetum arvense subsp. boreale (Bong.) Á. Löve; Equisetum arvense subsp. ramulosum (Rupr.) W.F. Rapp.; Equisetum arvense var. arcticum Rupr.; Equisetum arvense var. boreale (Bong.) Rupr.; Equisetum arvense var. campestre (Schultz) Rupr.; Equisetum arvense var. ramulosum (Schulz) Rupr.; R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_55

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Equisetum boreale Bong.; Equisetum calderi B. Boivin; Equisetum campestre Schultz; Equisetum saxicola Suksd. Equisetum telmateia Ehrh.: Equisetum majus Garsault

Local Names Georgian: დათვის ფანჩარა (datvis panchara), შვიტა (shvit’a), დათვის ფანჩარი (datvis panchari), დათვიბალახა (datvibalakha), ვირიძუა (viridzua), ნაძვა ბალახი(nadzva balakhi); Russian: Хвощ (chvosh); Azeri: катыргуйругу (kateirgyirygy); Armenian: дзнадзет (dsnadset) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991).

Botany and Ecology Equisetum arvense: Perennials; rhizome deep-buried, blackish, with scattered blackish tubers; stems 10–50 cm long; spring-produced fruiting stems brownish, succulent, promptly wilting; summer-produced stems green, sterile or exceptionally fertile (var. campestre Milde), branched, in the tundra forms no main stem developing (var. arcticum Rupr.), the narrow center surrounded by several narrower cavities; branches in whorls all the way up the stem or rarely confined to the lower part (var. boreale Milde), mostly ascending, simple, without cavities; teeth of branch sheaths green, with long mostly spreading tips; cone blunt. Ural, Caucasus, Middle Asia, fields and fallows, sandy coasts, meadows. (Iljin 1934) (Figs. 1 and 2). Equisetum telmateia: Perennial; rhizome deep-buried; stems 15–100 cm long; spring-produced stems stout, unbranched, brownish, the approximate sheaths with 20–30 subulate teeth; summer-produced stems sterile, pale green, branched, the large centrum surrounded by narrow vallecular cavities; branches firm, ascending, simple; Fig. 1 Equisetum arvense (Equisetaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Equisetum arvense L. . . .

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Fig. 2 Equisetum arvense (Equisetaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Equisetum telmateia (Equisetaceae), Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

teeth of sheaths on fruiting stems 20–40, tightly appressed, with soft subcapillary tips; cone large, blunt. Beech and oak woods, forest margins, meadows, and banks of streams. In fertile forest soils large specimens are produced; in sandy and stony soils, the development is restricted to low undergrowth. Ural, Caucasus (Fig. 3).

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Local Medicinal Uses It is used as a diuretic (Grossheim 1952). The leaves and stems are used to remedy problems of the kidneys and urinary system and to treat wounds (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017, 2018). The species is also used for wound healing in Pakistan (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018).

Local Food Uses The rhizomes are rich in starch and are gathered in some places for food, while the stems are eaten for their sweetness. Young spore-bearing shoots are eaten raw and used in herb pies (Grossheim 1952).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses It is used as feed for horses. It yields a grayish-yellow dye for wool.

References Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aroma Plant. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Iljin MM. Flora of the USSR, Vol. 1: Archegoniatae and Embryophyta. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1934 (English 1968), 244 p, 14 b/w plates, 2 maps. Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Metsniereba: Tbilisi; 1991. (in Georgian). Ur-Rahman I, Afsal A, Iqbal Z, Ijas F, Ali N, Asif M, Alam J, Majid A, Bussmann RW. Traditional and ethnomedicinal dermatology practices in Pakistan. Clin Dermatol. 2018;36(3):310–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clindermatol.2018.03.018.

Eruca sativa Mill. BRASSICACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Eruca sativa Mill.: Brassica eruca L.; Eruca cappadocica Reut. ex Boiss.; Eruca eruca (L.) Asch. & Graebn.; Eruca vesicaria subsp. sativa (Mill.) Thell.; Eruca vesicaria var. sativa (Mill.) Thell

Local Names Georgian: რუკულა (ruk’ula); Azeri: Индау (ynday) (Grossheim 1952) R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_56

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Botany and Ecology Annual; stem erect, branching, up to 40 cm high; lower leaves lyrate pinnatisect, all leaves slightly fleshy, sparsely pilose, rarely glabrous, with a unique odor. Sepals 9–12 mm long; petals 15–22 mm long, obovate cuneate, whitish or sulfur-yellow, violet- or brown-veined, sometimes slightly emarginate; fruiting pedicels rather stout, almost appressed to stem; siliques ovate-oblong or oblong, compressed, not torulose, 2–3 cm long; valves firm, with prominent midrib; beak 5–10 mm long, ensiform, compressed; seeds biseriate, light brown, 1.5–3 mm long, 1–2.5 mm broad. Flowering April–May. All over Central and Eastern Ural, Caucasus, in forests, rocky places and as weed up to the middle of the mountain belt (Bobrov and Bush 1939) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Fig. 1 Eruca sativa (Brassicaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Eruca sativa (Brassicaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Phytochemistry Alkaloids, flavonoids (glycosides, kaempferol, quercetine, isorhamnetine), steroids (sitosterol, camposterine, cholesterol), fatty acids, mustard oil thyrolikosides (erucoerucine, isothiocyane) (Sokolov 1985).

Local Medicinal Uses It is used for the treatment of nasal polyps and tumors, as diuretic, in improving digestion, and as galactogogue. The juice is used to remove freckles and treat hematomas. In the Caucasus the plant is used as an antiscorbutic (Sokolov 1985). The plant has antibacterial properties (Malik et al. 2018).

Fig. 3 Eruca sativa (Brassicaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Local Food Uses Young leaves are used as salad and seasoning for soups and meat dishes, as well as mustard substitute. Cultivated (Bussmann et al. 2016, 2017; Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1985).

References Bobrov EG, Bush NA. Flora of the USSR, Volume 8: Capparidaceae, Cruciferae and Resedaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1939, (English 1970). 524p, 34 b/w plates, 2 maps. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Malik K, Ahmad M, Bussmann RW, Ahmad M, Zafar M, Tariq A, Alqahtani A, Shahat A, Ullah R, Rashid N, Zafar M, Sultana S, Nasar Shah S. Ethnobotanty of Hypertensive plants used in Northern areas of Pakistan. Front Pharmacol. 2018;9(789). https://doi.org/10.3389/ fphar.2018.00789. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 2. Families Paeoniaceae – Thymelaeacea. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1985, 336 p. (in Russian).

Erysimum cheiri (L.) Crantz BRASSICACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Erysimum cheiri (L.) Crantz: Cheiranthus cheiri L.; Cheiranthus helveticus Jacq.; Cheiranthus muralis Salisb.; Cheiri murale Samp.; Erysimum pseudocheiri Boiss.; Erysimum sessiliflorum R. Br.; Erysimum suffruticosum Spreng

Local Names Georgian: შაბუ (shabu) R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_57

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Botany and Ecology Annual; stem erect, usually branching, 30–120 cm high, sometimes 6–20 cm high (f. nanum B. Zing.), covered with appressed 2-partite (Malpighian) hairs; leaves oblong-lanceolate or lanceolate, in shady places occasionally to 2 cm broad (f. umbrosum Choroschk.), in brightly lighted places only up to 3 mm broad (f. angustifolium N. Busch), tapering at both ends, acute, entire or remotely dentate, sometimes sharply dentate (f. dentatum N. Busch), sparsely covered with appressed 3-partite hairs. Raceme simple or strongly ramose, dense (f. paniculatum N. Busch), or fruiting raceme very loose (f. laxum Bge.); pedicels 2–4 times as long as sepal; flowers small, sepals up to 3 mm long; petals bright yellow, up to 5 mm long, limb broadly obovate, claw narrow, as long as sepal; siliques 0.7–1–2.8-4 cm long, 1.5 mm broad (7–20 mm long in f. brachycarpum N. Busch, 22–40 mm long (in f. dolichocarpum N. Busch), covered with 3–4-partite hairs, ascending on subhorizontal pedicels; fruiting pedicels nearly half as long as siliques, 5–16 mm long; style 0.8–1 mm long; stigma emarginate; seeds brown, ca. 0.8–1.3 mm long, ca. 0.4–0.75 mm broad. Flowering May–October. Ural, dry meadows, riverside sands, bluffs, slopes, hills, ravines, forest margins, clearings, fields, near dwellings (Bobrov and Bush 1939).

Phytochemistry Coumarins, flavonoids (glycosides, kaempferol, quercetine, isorhamnetin), essential oils (rol, geraniol, linalool, indole, acetic, salicyl-anthranilic acid, methyl anthranilate), flavonoids (quercetine, isorhamnetin), steroids (isosterine, kamposterine, cholesterol), cardenolides (heyrotoxine, heyroside A, allyside, bipindogenin, alluside, glucobipindolulomethylozide, glucoerizimozide, periplogenine, strophanthidin, uzarigenine, erysimine, erizimozide, eryricordine, erychromide), and fatty acids (Sokolov 1985).

Local Medicinal Uses Decoctions were used for baths to reduce swellings of the uterus, joints, and tendons and for the preparation of softening ointments. Sometimes it is used as diuretic and cooked with butter for enemas, and its oil is used for rheumatic and arthritic arthralgia. In Mongolia, the decoction is used externally for purulent tumors (Sokolov 1985).

Local Food Uses The leaves are used for phkhali (herb pie) (Bussmann et al. 2016).

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses The plant yields an olive-green dye for fabrics. Sometimes it is planted as ornamental. It is poisonous for horses and cattle (Sokolov 1985).

References Bobrov EG, Bush NA. Flora of the USSR, Volume 8: Capparidaceae, Cruciferae and Resedaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1939 (English 1970), 524 p, 34 b/w plates, 2 maps. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: Flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 2. Families Paeoniaceae - Thymelaeacea. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1985, 336 p. (in Russian).

Fagopyrum tataricum (L.) Gaertn. POLYGONACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Fagopyrum tataricum (L.) Gaertn. Polygonum tataricum L.

Local Names Georgian, წიწიბურა (ts’its’ibura); English, buckwheat R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_58

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Botany and Ecology Annual; stem 30–80 cm long, erect, branching, commonly green, glabrous, smooth; leaves sagittate-cordate, attenuate to a point, with acute basal lobes, 3–8 cm long and broad, light green, the lower long-petioled, the upper short-petioled, glabrous; inflorescence as in the preceding; smaller flowers; five-parted perianth, the greenish oblong-ovate obtuse segments 1.3–1.7 mm long and 0.5–1 mm broad; eight stamens, alternating with round glands; three styles, about half as long as the three-angled ovary; achene 3–4 times as long as perianth, blackish-brown, trigonous, the angles sharp in upper part, blunt wrinkled and apparently crenate below, the oblong-ovate faces narrowed upward, wrinkled and dull. Flowering in June–July, fruiting in August. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, in fields as a weed, along roads. Formerly planted (Bobrov and Komariv 1936) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Fig. 1 Fagopyrum tataricum (Polygonaceae), Svaneti, Georgia (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Fagopyrum tataricum (Polygonaceae), Svaneti, Georgia (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Phenolic carbohydrates: flavonoids, phenolcarbonic acids, cyanidin (Fedorov 1984).

Local Medicinal Uses A leaf paste of Fagopyrum dibotrys is used in the Himalayas as remedy for insect bites (Bhat et al. 2015).

Local Food Uses The seeds are used to make flour and for porridge (Bussmann et al. 2016; Fedorov 1984, Kunwar et al. 2012).

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Fig. 3 Fagopyrum tataricum (Polygonaceae), Svaneti, Georgia (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

References Bhat J, Malik ZA, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhatt AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44. Bobrov EG, Komarov VL. Flora of the USSR, Volume 5: Dicotyledoneae, Subclass I: Archichlamydeae, Order Piperales-Polygonales; Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1936 (English 1970), 593 p, 49 b/w plates. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Fedorov AA, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: Flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 1. Families Magnoliaceae - Limoniaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1984, 460 p. (in Russian). Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Sharma LN, Shrestha KP, Kominee H, Bussmann RW. Underutilized plant species in Far-West Nepal – a valuable resource being wasted. J Mt Sci. 2012;9:589–600.

Ferula assa-foetida L. APIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Seyed Hamed Moazzami Farida, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Ferula assa-foetida L.: Ferula foetida Regel; Ferula foetida St.-Lag.; Scorodosma foetidum Bunge

Local Names Farsi: Anghuzeh (‫) ﺁﻧﻘﻮﺯﻩ‬, Gand Koma (‫ ;) ﮒﻧﺪﮐﻤﺎ‬English: asafoetida R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] S. H. Moazzami Farida Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Bu-Ali Sina University, Hamedan, Iran e-mail: [email protected] A. Ghorbani Department of Organismal Biology, Evolutionary Biology Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_59

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Botany and Ecology Perennial; root inflated, ovoid, monocarpic plant; stem thick, about 1 m high, robust, branching in upper part to produce dense globular panicle; lower leaves alternate, upper disposed in few whorls; leaves soft, early withering, mostly glabrous above, more or less soft-haired beneath; radical leaves with short thick petioles; blade broad, ternately dissected, its lobes bipinnatisect into large oblong or oblong-lanceolate or lanceolate, 15 cm long, 5-cm-wide decurrent lobules, rounded at apex, entirely or deeply cut into few, often entire segments; cauline leaves much smaller, upper reduced to sheaths; sheaths oval, flat, chartaceous, covered with curly hairs outside. Umbels variable, terminal sessile or on reduced pedicels, of 25 rays, spherical, 15–20 cm wide, lateral on long pedicels in groups of 3–6; umbellets 15-flowered, dense, hairy, without involucre; calyx edentate; petals pale yellow, nearly cream, oval, flat, 3.5 mm long; stylopodium elongate; stigmas flattened-capitate; mericarps piano-compressed, with broad margin, pubescent, ellipsoid or globular-ovoid, emarginate, 16–22 mm long, 16–12 mm wide; ribs filiform, slightly protruding; canals very narrow, sometimes hardly distinguishable, numerous. Flowering. March–April, fruiting April–May. In Middle Asia, Iran, and Afghanistan. On loess and loess piedmont plains, sand, often in large groups (Shishkin 1951).

Phytochemistry Essential oils (butylpropyl disulfide, dimethyl trisulfide, 2-butylmethyl disulfide, 2-butylmethyl trisulfide, di-2-butyl disulfide, di-2-butyl trisulfide, di-2-butyl tetrasulfide); flavonoids (luteolin, 7-glucoside luteolin) (Sokolov 1988).

Local Medicinal Uses Ferula assa-foetida is already mentioned as medicinal plant in ancient Persian texts and has spread from Iran to many other countries. For medicinal purposes the stem is removed at the end of the vegetative period; when the leaves wither, the root is uncovered, and a thin slice is removed. The root then yields a milky juice which turns brown and hardens in air. This is gathered with a part of the root, and another layer is cut to obtain more milky juice. As a tincture it is used in the treatment of convulsions. In Central Asia the plant has long been used as antispasmodic, anticonvulsant, choleretic, and topical for dermatoses. The species is also used for N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]

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hysteria, hypochondria, bronchial asthma, pulmonary tuberculosis, diabetes, liver diseases, syphilis, and malignant lumps. F. assa-foetida’s oleo-gum-resins extracted from the cuttings of root stock are used in folk medicine to treat respiratory problems (such as asthma, cough, and bronchitis), hysteria, constipation, bad digestion, and intestinal worms (Mozaffarian 2013). In northeast of Iran, it is used to relieve colic pains and as an antiparasitic. Likewise, women use the gum of this species to stimulate menstrual flow when menstruation is absent (Amiri and Joharchi 2013). The aerial part of the plant is eaten raw or dried as diuretic, antispasmodic, and anthelminthic (Zargari 1990).

Local Food Uses The starch in the root is eaten as porridge after being soaked in water to remove its odor and unpleasant taste (Sokolov 1988).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The fruits yield much fat and protein and are fed to horses and sheep in winter (Sokolov 1988).

References Amiri MS, Joharchi MR. Ethnobotanical investigation of traditional medicinal plants commercialized in the markets of Mashhad, Iran. Avicenna J Phytomed. 2013;3(3):254. Mozaffarian V. Identification of medicinal and aromatic plants of Iran. Tehran: Farhang-e Moaser Publication; 2013. Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 17: Umbelliflorae (continued) Peucedaneae-Dauceae & Nyassaceae, Cornaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1951 (English 1974), 285 p, 25 plates with b/w line drawings; 2 b/w fold-out maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant Resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1988, 357 p. (in Russian) Zargari A. Medicinal plants. Tehran: Tehran University Press; 1990.

Ficus carica L. Moraceae Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Ficus carica L. Ficus kopetdagensis Pachom

Local Names Georgian, ლეღვი (leg’vi), ლეღვი (leghvi), ჩიტლეღვი (chit’leghvi), თეთრლეღვა (tetrleghva), შავლეღვა (shavleghva); Russian, Инжир (inshir); Azeri, енджир (endshir); Armenian, тзени (tseni) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991); English, Fig

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; mananakhuts@yahoo. com; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_60

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Botany and Ecology A shrub or tree 7–10 m tall, sparsely branched; bark light gray; branches upcurved, the young ones pubescent; leaves deciduous, rough above with stiff hairs; more or less pubescent beneath, large, borne at the ends of branches on petioles 2–5 cm long; leaf blade orbicular or broad-ovate, 8–15 cm long and 6–18 cm broad, with a cordate sinus at base, 3–5-lobed, sinuate, rarely undivided; inflorescences and the compound fruits axillary, solitary on short stalks, pyriform, 5–8 cm long, pale yellow to violetbrown; flowers borne inside the receptacle, the staminate with a 3–5-parted perianth and 3–5 stamens, the pistillate with a five-parted perianth and a one-seeded ovary; style lateral, with one or two stigmas; winter buds glabrous, the lateral globose or ovoid with numerous scales, the terminal oblong-ovoid and long-acuminate with one or two scales. Flowering April–May, fruiting June–November. Ural, Caucasus, Middle Asia, wild or naturalized on exposed stony slopes and among rocks, also on walls of old dilapidated buildings; growing wild in the undergrowth of broadleaved woods (Bobrov and Komarov 1936; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).

Local Medicinal Uses A decoction is used for colitis, malaria, bronchitis, and throat tumors and used as poultice for ulcers, pustules, and wounds. The latex is applied for tooth pain and for the removal of warts. Latex infusions are used to treat liver and spleen problems, Fig. 1 Ficus carica (Moraceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]

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Fig. 2 Ficus carica (Moraceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Ficus carica (Moraceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

stomach diseases, and kidney stones. The fruit has lenitive properties and is used as an infusion for gargling. Leaves are used against ringworm (Grossheim 1952; Fedorov 1984). The latex is used together with milk to treat skin problems (Sher et al. 2016).

Local Food Uses The fruits are eaten fresh and used to prepare jams and syrups and sweets and dried as surrogate for coffee and tea. The fruit is eaten both fresh and dried. In many parts of Transcaucasia, the fig is a favorite delicacy and is also made in a coffee-like beverage (Fedorov 1984). The fruits are widely used – they can be eaten raw and used to make marmalade and also to make alcohol. The leaves are also used, e.g., to make dolma (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017, 2018; Figs. 6 and 7).

418 Fig. 4 Ficus carica (Moraceae), garden, Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Ficus carica (Moraceae), natural habitat, Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Ficus carica L. Fig. 6 Ficus carica (Moraceae), market, Gori, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 7 Ficus carica (Moraceae), drying, Racha, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses The leaves are used to treat colds in cows (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017, 2018).

References Bobrov EG, Komarov VL. Flora of the USSR, Volume 5: Dicotyledoneae, Subclass I: Archichlamydeae, Order Piperales-Polygonales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1936 (English 1970). 593 p, 49 b/w plates. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plant. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – Plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Fedorov AA, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: Flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 1. Families Magnoliaceae – Limoniaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1984. 460 p (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among the Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni ethnic groups in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059.

Foeniculum vulgare Mill. APIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Seyed Hamed Moazzami Farida, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Foeniculum vulgare Mill.: Anethum dulce DC., Anethum foeniculum L., Anethum minus Gouan, Anethum panmori Roxb., Anethum pannorium Roxb. ex Fleming, Anethum rupestre Salisb., Foeniculum azoricum Mill., Foeniculum divaricatum Griseb., Foeniculum dulce Mill., Foeniculum foeniculum (L.) H. Karst.; Foeniculum giganteum Lojac., Foeniculum officinale All., Foeniculum panmorium (Roxb.) DC., Foeniculum piperitum C.Presl, Foeniculum rigidum Brot. ex Steud., Ligusticum

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] S. H. Moazzami Farida Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Bu-Ali Sina University, Hamedan, Iran e-mail: [email protected] A. Ghorbani Department of Organismal Biology, Evolutionary Biology Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_61

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foeniculum (L.) Roth, Ligusticum foeniculum (L.) Crantz, Meum foeniculum (L.) Spreng., Selinum foeniculum E.H.L.Krause, Seseli foeniculum Koso-Pol.

Local Names Georgian, დიდი კამა (didi k’ama), ოკრუპი (ok’rup’i), ცერეცო (tseretso); Russian, Фенхель (fenchel); Azeri, рязана (razyana); Armenian, хором-самит (choromsamit) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991); Persian, Badian ‫ﺑﺎﺩﯾﺎﻥ‬, badian-e sabz ‫ﺑﺎﺩﯾﺎﻥ ﺳﺒﺰ‬, badio ‫ﺑﺎﺩﯾﻮ‬, badioun ‫ﺑﺎﺩﯾﻮﻥ‬, raajuneh ‫ﺭﺍﺟﻮﻧﻪ‬, raz ‫ﺭﺍﺯ‬, razianeh ‫ﺭﺍﺯﯾﺎﻧﻪ‬, zaljooneh ‫ ;ﺯﺍﻟﺠﻮﻧﻪ‬English, anise, aniseed, aniseed weed, bitter fennel, common fennel, Florence fennel, Roman fennel, sweet anise, sweet fennel

Botany and Ecology Perennial or biennial; root fusiform, 1 cm thick, branching above, multicapital; stem erect, 90–200 cm high, cylindrical, finely ribbed, strongly branching; leaves ovatetriangular, 3–4-pinnatisect, lower leaves on petioles, the upper sessile on dilated sheath; lobules linear-filiform or linear-subulate, acuminate, slightly cartilaginous; sheaths of leaves 3–6 cm long, narrowly oblong, with scarious margins, slightly broadening toward hood-shaped apex. Umbels 3–15 cm across, of 3–20 (25) unequal glabrous rays; involucre and involucels absent; petals broadly ovate, yellow, ca. 1 mm long, nearly as wide; fruit ovoid-oblong, 5–10 mm long, 2–3 mm wide. Flowering July–August. Ural, Caucasus, Middle Asia, on stony slopes, screes, in cracks of rocks, along rivers. Widely cultivated (Shishkin 1950; Fig. 1).

Phytochemistry Organic acids (fumaric, glycolic, malic, tartaric, benzoic), essential oils (camphene, pinene, myrcene, falllandren, cis-ozymene, y-terpinene, p-cymol, terpinolene, myristicin, dillapiole, fenghon, estragol, cis-anethole, p-anisaldehyde, y-terpinene, fenghon, camphor), polyacetylene compounds, coumarins (bergapten), steroids (stigmasterol palmitate, stigmasterol), phenolcarbonic acids (coffee, ferulic, vanillinic, cinnamon, benzoic), flavonoids, anthocyanins (feruloyl, cyanidine), N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]

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Fig. 1 Foeniculum vulgare (Apiaceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

flavonoids (quercetine, isorhamnetin, isoquercetine, kaempferol, zoramnetine), triterpenoids (a-amirine), steroids (p-sitosterol, stigmasterol), phenols (Sokolov 1988).

Local Medicinal Uses The essential oils are used for intestinal problems; the leaf infusion is used as expectorant for bronchitis and treatment of skin diseases and mycoses (Sokolov 1988). In northeastern parts of Persian Gulf, the powder of seeds is taken for abdominal pain and bloating (Dolatkhahi and Nabipour 2014). It is a good remedy for joint pains and low back pain, and decoction of seeds is used to decrease back pain and menstrual pain (Sharififar et al. 2010; Dolatkhahi et al. 2012; Dolatkhahi and Nabipour 2014). In Iranian folk medicine, an infusion of leaves is used against colic pain and hemorrhoid (Mikaili et al. 2011), and infusion of roots is used to decrease dental pain and postdelivery pains (Hooper et al. 1937; Mikaili et al. 2011). Also, infusion of seeds and leaves helps to treat cough, as well as asthma, and it is used as a nervous tonic (Iran Manesh et al. 2010). Seeds are used for diarrhea, bronchitis, and gastric reflux (Mardani Nejad and Vazirpour 2012; Amiri et al. 2014). Fennel is used as appetizer, carminative, sedative, diuretic, and digestive (Ghorbani 2005; Dolatkhahi et al. 2012; Mehrabani et al. 2013; Amiri et al. 2014; Khajoei Nasab and Khosravi 2014). It is believed to be especially effective against gallstones and urinary tract stones (Mardani Nejad and Vazirpour 2012). It is used to cure gout and to relief kidney infections and parasitic infection (Mikaili et al. 2011; Mardani Nejad and Vazirpour 2012; Mosaddegh et al. 2012). An infusion of leaves and seeds is applied as tool for stimulating the menstruation and is used to increase lactation in nursing mothers (Iran Manesh et al. 2010; Mikaili et al. 2011, Amiri et al. 2014, Azizi and Keshavarzi 2015). The leaves and shoots are used as digestive (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017). The seeds are used to treat abdominal pain (Sher et al. 2016).

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Local Food Uses The young shoots are eaten raw and pickled in the Caucasus; the seeds are used as spice for cooking and sweets. Leaves and fruit have anise aroma and are used as spice. Pickled young sprouts are used for sauces; young sprouts boiled in beef broth give a spicy taste in dish (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1988). The bulbous base is eaten raw and cooked. The leaves and seeds are an ingredient in Svanetian salt and are used as spice. The stems are eaten raw (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Leaves and stems produce dark yellow color (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1988).

References Amiri MS, Joharchi MR, TaghavizadehYazdi ME. Ethno-medicinal plants used to cure jaundice by traditional healers of Mashhad, Iran. Iran J Pharm Res. 2014;13(1):157. Azizi H, Keshavarzi M. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of Sardasht, Western Azerbaijan, Iran. J Herbal Drugs. 2015;6(2):113–9. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer; 2017, XXVII, 746p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1). Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, Beer, Snuff, Medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plant. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Ind J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – Plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Ind J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Dolatkhahi M, Nabipour I. Ethnobotany evaluation of medicinal plants in Catchment area of Northeastern Persian Gulf. J Medl Plant. 2014;2(50):129–53. Dolatkhahi M, Ghorbani Nahouji M, Mehrafarin A, Amininejad G, Dolatkhahi A. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants from Kazerun: identification, distribution and traditional uses. J Med Plant. 2012;2(42):163–78. Ghorbani A. Studies on pharmaceutical ethnobotany in the region of Turkmen Sahra, north of Iran: (Part 1): general results. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102(1):58–68.

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Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Hooper D, Field H, Dahlgren BE. Useful plants and drugs of Iran and Iraq. Chicago: Field Museum of Natural History; 1937. Iran Manesh M, Najafi S, Yousefi M. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of Sistan region. J Herbal Drug. 2010;2:61–8. Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Khajoei Nasab F, Khosravi AR. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of Sirjan in Kerman Province, Iran. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;154(1):190–7. Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Metsniereba: Tbilisi; 1991. (in Georgian). Mardani Nejad S, Vazirpour M. Ethnobotany of Medicinal plants by Mobarakeh people (Isfahan). J Herbal Drug. 2012;2:111–29. Mehrabani M, Mahdavi Meimand Z, Mirtajadini M. Collection and identification of some wild plants of Baft (Kerman province) and their traditional uses. J Islam Iran Trad Med. 2013; 4(3):275–85. Mikaili P, Shayegh J, Asghari MH, Sarahroodi S, Sharifi M. Currently used traditional phytomedicines with hot nature in Iran. Ann Biol Res. 2011;2(5):56–68. Mosaddegh M, Naghibi F, Moazzeni H, Pirani A, Esmaeili S. Ethnobotanical survey of herbal remedies traditionally used in Kohghiluyeh va Boyer Ahmad province of Iran. J Ethnopharmacol. 2012;141(1):80–95. Sharififar F, Kouhpaieh A, Mottaghi MM, Amir Khosravi A, Pourmohseni Nasab E. Ethnobotanic study of medicinal plants in Sirjan, Kerman province. J Herbal Drug. 2010;3:19–28. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among the Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni ethnic groups in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 16: Umbelliflorae. Leningrad; Akademia Nauk; 1950 (English 1973), 478 p, 37 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant Resources of the USSR: Flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1988, 357p. (in Russian).

Fraxinus excelsior L. OLEACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Fraxinus excelsior L.: Fraxinus apetala Lam.

Local Names Georgian, იფანი (ipani), კოპიტი (k’op’it’i), Udin, ზიდ (zid); Ossetian, იფან (ipan); Svan, ლაჯრა (lajra), წითელა (tzithela); Russian, Ясень (jasen); Azeri, вэн (ven); Armenian, хацени (chazeni) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991).

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_62

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Botany and Ecology Tree, up to 30 m tall, the trunk up to 1 or rarely 2 m in diameter, the light gray bark with slender cracks; branchlets stout, the dark yellow bark verrucose-punctate; buds black, glabrous, rough; leaves imparipinnate, with 3–5 pairs of leaflets, the rachis dark red, paler toward the end; leaflets oblong-ovate, ovate-lanceolate, broadly lanceolate, or rarely lanceolate, 5–20 cm long, serrulate, long-mucronate, cuneate or rarely somewhat rounded at base, sessile or borne on very short petioles, not anastomosing, the primary veins covered with long straight whitish or rufescent hairs, the base of leaflet with a tuft or sometimes a complete ring of tangled tomentum; young leaflets thin, becoming coriaceous in age, green above, pale green to glaucescent beneath; flowers polygamous; stigma two-lobed; samara 28–35 mm long, up to 9 mm broad, narrowly obovate, truncate or round-tipped or slightly emarginate, the body half the total length. Flowering April; fruiting September. Ural, Caucasus, Middle Asia, in Quercus and broadleaves Picea forests, up to 2000 m (Shishkin and Boborov 1952; Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Phytochemistry Carbohydrates (mannitol, sorbitol, galactose, glucose, sucrose, raffin, mannitol, stachyose), syringoside, coumarins (fraxetine, fractine, esculin, cichorene, escuetine, fraxinol), flavonoids (quercetine, suberine, rhamnoglucoside, kaempferol, Fig. 1 Fraxinus excelsior (Oleaceae), Manglisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]

Fraxinus excelsior L. Fig. 2 Fraxinus excelsior (Oleaceae), Manglisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Fraxinus ornus (Oleaceae), Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Fig. 4 Fraxinus ornus (Oleaceae), Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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rhamnovoglucoside), organic acids, saponins, vitamins (C, B1, carotenoids), tannins (Sokolov 1988).

Local Medicinal Uses In the Ural and Northern Caucasus, the leaf decoction is used for wound healing, diarrhea, rheumatism, kidney disease, arthritis, and gout and used as diuretic and laxative. In Middle Asia it is used as an astringent (Sokolov 1988).

Local Food Uses The leaves are sometimes pickled (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Sokolov 1988).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Wood strong, elastic, heavy, flexible, easy to polish, for shipbuilding, construction, interior decoration, wagons, musical instruments, caskets, household utensils. Fodder for sheep, goats, cattle, horses, pigs (fruits). Planted as ornamental. Black and brown dyes can be obtained from the bark (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1988). The timber is used for construction, especially posts. The wood serves as fuel and is used to make utensils like sleds and tool handles (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

References Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer; 2017, XXVII, 746p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1). Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, PaniaguaZambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plant. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, PaniaguaZambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24.

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Bussmann RW, PaniaguaZambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, Volume 18: Metachlamydeae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1952. (English 1967). 600 p. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, Volume 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1988, 357p. (in Russian).

Galega orientalis Lam. FABACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Local Names Georgian: ხბოშუბლა (khboshubla); Russian: Козлятник (kozljatnik); Armenian: ишаркох (isharkoch) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991).

Botany and Ecology Perennial; stem 40–90 cm long, more or less bent at nodes, branched, glabrous or with scattered short appressed white hairs; stipules broadly 5–20 cm long; leaflets 5–10 pairs, oblongly linear-lanceolate, 1–4 cm long and 0.4–1.5 cm broad, mucro-

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_63

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Fig. 1 Galega officinalis (Fabaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

nate, the petiolules 0.5 mm long; racemes terminal, oblong, 8–27 cm long, densely many flowered, the long axillary peduncles exceeding leaves; pedicels the length of calyx; peduncles, bracts pedicels, and calyces very sparsely appressed-hairy; bracts narrowly linear, filiform, exceeding pedicel; calyx 4–5 mm long and 1.5 mm broad, the filiform teeth longer than the tube; corolla light bluish or almost white (var. persica (Pers.) Schmalh.); standard oblong-obovate, obtuse, ca. 1 cm long; wings ca. 1 cm long, with oblong auricles at base; keel obtuse, about equaling wings; pod stipitate, 2–4 cm long and 2.5–3 mm broad, glabrous, erect or horizontal (var. patula (Stev.) Schmalh.), septate between seeds; seeds reniform, 3 mm long and 1.5 mm broad, brownish, smooth, dull. Flowering June–August. Caucasus, on the fringes of forests, forest glades, in ravines, along banks of streams up to the timberline (Komarov and Shishkin 1945; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).

Phytochemistry Saponins, alkaloids (galegine, vasicinone, pheganine, pipecolic acid), triterpenoids, carbohydrates (sucrose, stachyose), flavonoids (kaempferol, pentahydroxyflavone, rutin), vitamins (C, carotene), phenolcarboxylic acids (coffee, p-coumaric, synapic, ferulic), steroids, fatty acids (palmitic, stearic, linoleic, linolenic), cyclitols (pinite) (Sokolov 1987).

N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]

Galega orientalis Lam. Fig. 2 Galega officinalis (Fabaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Galega officinalis (Fabaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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436 Fig. 4 Galega officinalis (Fabaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Galega officinalis (Fabaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Local Medicinal Uses The leaves are used as decoction with sugar or honey as diuretic, for sweating, ectogenous, anthelmintic in the Caucasus. A leaf decoction is used in the Caucasus as diuretic, hypoglycemic, with convulsions, rabies, skin diseases, for sweating. The alcohol extract improves heart function and has an antihypertensive effect and sometimes used to reduce blood sugar (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1987). The whole plant is collected and sold for pharmaceutical purposes (Bussmann et al. 2016, 2017, 2018).

Local Food Uses Young stems and leaves are cooked in salty water and eaten (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1987). In Khevi many species are mixed together for Pkhali: ghoris ღორის ნაწყლა-ი Sonchus ssp., მჭივანა-ი Silene wallichiana Klotzsch; მაყრანდუცა-ი მაყრაწელა-ი; Anthriscus sylvestris (L.) Hoffm. დიყინჭორა-ღრინჭოლა/ჭყიმი Anthriscus nemorosa (M. Bieb.) Spreng; კაწა-ი Campanula rapunculoides L. (its root is also edible), წითელი/წითელი ჯიჯილაყა Amaranthus hybridus L., nadirmkhalai ნადირმხალაი Aruncus vulgaris Raf., saskhep’iai სასხეპიაი Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., ch’inch’ari ჭინჭარი Urtica dioica L., gholo ღოლო Rumex ssp., and tatami თათამას Atriplex hortensis L. Khevi people use as food the following plants: shalgi შალგი Brassica campestris L., khakhot’i ხახოტი Bunias orientalis L., mamula მამულა Artemisia vulgaris L., ts’its’mat’ura წიწმატურა Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik., and khboshublai ხბოშუბლაი Galega orientalis Lam. (Bakhtadze and Koghuashvili 2009; Kavtaradze 1985; Sujashvili and Pitskhelauri 2005). Mkhlovani მხლოვანი herb pie was originally widely baked. This type of pie was prepared from a several pkhali plants cut in thin pieces: kvishamkhalai ქვიშამხალაი Silene lacera Sims., khboshublai ხბოშუბლაი Galega orientalis Lam. (there is another species of this genus in the list), tatamai თათამაი Atriplex hortensis L., mch’vanai მჭივანაი Silene wallichiana Klotzsch, ghoris nats’lavai ღორის ნაწლევი and Sonchus spp. (Bakhtadze and Koghuashvili 2009; Kavtaradze 1985; Sujashvili and Pitskhelauri 2005). Plants used as mkhali Kaheti: tatruli mkhali თათრული მხალი Amaranthus hybridus L., ts’ots’nara mkhali წოწნარა მხალს Amaranthus retroflexus L., khach’ich’ora ხაჭიჭორა Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik., vazisdzira ვაზიძირა Lapsana grandiflora M. Bieb., bolok’a ბოლოკა Rapistrum rugosum (L.) All., q’int’ora ყინტორა Chaerophyllum aureum L., natsarkatama ნაცარქათამა Chenopodium album L., shalgi შალგი (shelga შელგა) Brassica campestris L., sve სვე Humulus lupulus L., khboshubla ხბოშუბლა Galega orientalis Lam.ნორჩ, ch’inch’ari ჭინჭარი Urtica dioica L., ghoris kada ღორის ქადა Lactuca serriola L., Balba ბალბა Malva neglecta l., natsarkatama ნაცარქათამა or dzaghltzhola ძაღლთჟოლა Chenopodium foliosum, tatabo თათაბო Atriplex hortensis L., saghvidzla საღვიძლა or burbushela ბურბუშელა Taraxacum confusum Schischk.,

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tskhenis tsertsvela ც ხენის ცერცველა Vicia narbonensis, vazis dzira ვაზის ძირა Lapsana grandiflora M. Bieb., mravaldzarghva მრავალძარღვა Plantago major L., babuats’vera ბაბუაწვერა Taraxacum ssp., gareuli ts’its’mat’i გარეული წიწმატი Cardamine hirsuta L., and ghinch’a-ghinch’a ღინჭა-ღინჭა Sonchus ssp. (Javakhishvili 1986; Menteshashvili 1943). In Kartli young shoots of at’it’ela მატიტელა Polygonum ssp., q’aq’acho ყაყაჩო Papaver ssp., khbosshubla ხბოსშუბლა Galega orientalis Lam., and svia სვია Humulus lupulus L. are collected in spring, and young shoots are washed and fried with onions and seasoned with coriander, garlic, salt, and pepper (Javakhishvili 1986). Racha people used wild plants as food from ancient times and make herb pie of ts’iteli pkhali წითელი ფხალი Amaranthus hybridus L., jijilaq’a ჯიჯილაყა Amaranthus retroflexus L., khbosshubla ხბოსშუბლა Galega orientalis Lam., and burt’q’ila ბურტყილა Lapsana grandiflora M.Bieb. (Davituliani 2012; Gobejishvili 2017). In Imereti the following plants are mixed together for cooking “meadow pkhali” “მინდვრის ფხალი”: natsarkatama ნაცარათამა Chenopodium album (a lot), ჯიჯილაყა Amaranthus retroflexus L. (a lot), წიწმარიტა or kharik’bila ხარიკბილა Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik (a lot), andzla ანძლა Cirsium incanum (S.G. Gmel.) Fisch. (a lot), katmikona ქათმიქონა Valerianella locusta (L.) Laterr. (a lot), დედაფუტკარა Lamium album L. (a few), msukana მსუქანა Portulaca oleracea L. (a lot, makes pkhali slimy), ბირკაბალახი Xanthium spinosum L. (a few, early spring), zhunzhruk’o ჟუნჟრუკო Stellaria media (L.) Vill., mat’it’ela მატიტელა Polygonum aviculare L. (moderately), ხვართქლა Convolvulus arvensis L. (moderately), კობჩხილა, ბატისფეხები Falcaria vulgaris Bernh. (a few), ჭინჭარი Urtica dioica L. (a lot), ჭინჭრის დედა Lamium album (a few, adds bitterness), samq’ura სამყურა Trifolium ssp. (a few), ionja იონჯა Medicago ssp. (a few), tavshava თავშავა Origanum vulgare L. (a few), purtskhala ფურცხალა Sonchus ssp. (a few), young leaves of potato კარტოფილი (a few, slimy), ია Viola ssp. (a few, makes slimy and dangerous if used a lot, can be in a way intoxicating), babuats’vera ბაბუაწვერა Taraxacum ssp. (a few, adds bitterness), leaves of endro ენდრო Rubia tinctorum L. (a few), msukana მსუქანა Portulaca oleracea L., khbosshubla ხბოშუბლა Galega orientalis Lam., ia ია Viola sp. დედაბრიკონკა Lamium purpureum L. (a few), ვარდკაჭაჭი Cichorium intybus L. (a few, makes bitter), gholo ღოლო Rumex (a few, makes the dish brown), ყაყაჩო Papaver ssp. (a few), mzhauna მჟაუნა Rumex acetosa L. (a few, makes sour), balba ბალბა Malva sylvestris L., Malva neglecta Wallr. (a lot, makes slimy), and ch’lak’vi ჭლაკვი Allium fistulosum. The herbs are only gathered in early spring, during summer, and even autumn, until tomatoes, eggplants, spinach, and cucumbers can be harvested. By this time, the ingredients of pkhali (mostly weeds) loose softness, tenderness, and taste; they become rough already producing seeds and probably for this reason are not collected by late autumn. In early spring, they taste very differently than in summer. While

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making pkhali, some finely minced kitchen herbs are added after boiling the main herbs: a little dill (კამა), a little tseretso dill (ცერეცო), a little p’rasa პრასა, coriander, parsley, celery, green onions, estragon, and mint. All these herbs are mixed with finely crushed walnuts; the boiled pkhali will be minced, desirably on a wooden gobi (wide shallow bowl with a flat bottom), and seasoned with herbs and walnuts and add salt and pepper by your taste (Javakhishvili 1986). The stems are pickled as food (Bussmann et al. 2016, 2017, 2018).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Galega officinalis is toxic to sheep. Galega orientalis is used as fodder for all types of farm animals. Planted as ornamental (Sokolov 1987).

References Bakhtadze D, Koghuashvili P. Nutrition culture of the Georgians. Tbilisi; 2009. (ბახტაძე დ., კოღუაშვილი პ. 2009. ქართველთა კვების კულტურა. თბილისი, in Georgian). Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Davituliani M. My village Bareuli. Tbilisi; 2012. (დავითულიანი მ. 2012. ჩემი სოფელი ბარეული. თბილისი in Georgian). Gobejishvili V. Racha from my view. Tbilisi; 2017. (გობეჯიშვილი ვ. 2017. ჩემი თვალით დანახული რაჭა. თბილისი in Georgian). Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Javakhishvili I. Materials for the history of household industry and handicraft, vol. V, part 2: food and drinks. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1986. (ჯავახიშვილი, 1986. ი. მასალები შინა მრეწველობისა და ხელოსნობის ისტორიისათვის, ტ. V ნაწ. 2: საჭმელ in Georgian). Kavtaradze I. Mokhevian dialect of the Georgian language. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1985 (ქავთარაძე ი. 1985. ქართული ენის მოხევური დიალექტი. თბილისი: მეცნიერება in Georgian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian).

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Komarov VL, Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 11: Papilionatea, Ceasalpinoideae, Mimosoideae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1945 (English 1971), 327 pages, 25 b/w plates, 2 maps. Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Metsniereba: Tbilisi; 1991. (in Georgian). Menteshashvili S. Dictionary of Kizikian dialect. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1943 (მენთეშაშვილი ს. 1943. ქიზიყური ლექსიკონი -თბილისი: მეცნიერება.). Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 3. Hydrangeaceae-Haloragaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1987. 326p. (in Russian). Sujashvili N, Pitskhelauri I. Dictionary of Mokhevian dialect. Tbilisi; 2005 (სუჯაშვილი ნ., ფიცხელაური ი. 2005. მოხევური ლექსიკონი. თბილისი).

Gentiana cruciata L. Gentiana septemfida Pall. GENTIANACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Gentiana cruciata L.: Tretorhiza cruciata (L.) Opiz Gentiana septemfida Pall.: Gentiana fimbriiplica K. Koch

Local Names Gentiana cruciata: Georgian: ნაღველა (naghvela), ნაღველა ჯვრისებრი (naghvela jvrisebri), ჯვრისებრი ნაღველა (jvrisebri naghvela); Russian: Горечавка (goretsabka) (Russian); Azeri: хаджету (chadshety); Armenian: бог (bor) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991). Gentiana septemfida: Azerbaijan: Yеddidilim аcıçiçəк; Georgian: ნაღველა – naghvela; (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991). English: Gentian. R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_64

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Botany and Ecology Gentiana cruciata: Perennial, glabrous, pale green; rootstock stout; stems erect or slightly ascending, coarse, 2–3 mm in diameter, 20–50 (70) cm long, enveloped at base in fibrillose sheaths of old leaves; rosulate leaves 5–8, oboval lanceolate or subelliptic, narrowed toward base, 3–5-nerved, 3–8 cm long, 15–25 mm broad; cauline leaves numerous (up to 8–10 pairs), fairly close together, ovate-lanceolate, narrowed toward apex, subacute, 3-nerved, 4–8 cm long, 12–20 mm broad, scaberulous-margined, united in pairs into sheaths to 10–30 (45) mm long; flowers in clusters in the axils of upper leaves, forming 4–6 dense verticels; calyx thinly membranous, whitish, 6–8 mm long, a quarter to one-third the length of corolla, unsplit, the 4 triangular acute teeth 1–2 mm long or rarely longer; corolla 4-angled, blue, 20–35 mm long, 5–6 mm broad below the throat; corolla lobes oval triangular, acute or subacute, one sixth to a quarter the length of tube; plaits one third to half as long as the lobes, triangular, biparted at the top; ovary sessile; stamens distinct, with slender filaments; capsule oblong; seeds oblong-cylindric, ca. 1 mm long, brown, lustrous, finely oblongly reticulate. Flowering July–August. Ural, Caucasus, wood margins, glades, scrub, meadows, and dry grassy slopes, from the lowlands to the subalpine zone (Shishkin and Boborov 1952; Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4). Gentiana septemfida: Perennial, glabrous. Rootstock stout, with thick stringy roots. Stems numerous, 15–40 cm long, ascending, rarely suberect, covered below in brown scales, rather densely leafy. Leaves sessile, 2–5 cm long, (6) 8–15 (20) mm wide, sheathing, ovate, ovate-lanceolate or lanceolate, attenuate toward the apex but obtusely tipped, 5-nerved. Flowers crowded in compact many-flowered subcapitate terminal inflorescences, rarely solitary, or in twos or threes, enveloped in smaller uppermost leaves; calyx campanulate, (10) 18–19 (26) mm long, half the length of the corolla, calyx teeth as long as or somewhat shorter than tube, linear to linearlanceolate, apex acute, margin subtruncate and minutely scabrous; corolla tubularclavate, dark blue, (29)–40–(48) mm long, 15–(21) mm wide below the throat, corolla lobes ovate, obtusely acuminate, one-seventh the length of tube; plaits half as long as the lobes, laciniate-fringed; stamens with distinct anthers and flat dilated filaments; style short. Capsule oblong, ca. 23 mm long, narrowed at both ends, the stipe half as long as the capsule; seeds cylindric-fusiform, ca. 1.5 mm long, minutely alveolate, wingless. In wood margins, meadows, gravelly and stony slopes, from the upper part of the timber zone to the alpine zone. Found in Crimea, Caucasus (Ciscaucasia, West, East, and South Transcaucasia, Dagestan, rare in Talysh), the Balkan Peninsula and Asia Minor, Lesser Armenia and Kurdistan, and Iran. Gentiana septemfida requires a rich, moist soil and full sun. The species is distributed in all N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]

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Fig. 1 Gentiana cruciata (Gentianaceae). Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo: N. PaniaguaZambrana)

regions of the Greater Caucasus, Northern and Central Lesser Caucasus, and mountainous part of Nakhchivan. Grows in subalpine and alpine meadows and in forest glades of the upper mountain belt. Flowering in July–August, fruiting in September–October (Flora of Azerbaijan, 1950–1961) (Shishkin and Boborov 1952; Fig. 5).

Phytochemistry Alkaloids (gentsyflavine, rencianine, rentsyanadine, rentsiopuntine), iridoids (rentiopicrine), flavonoids (orientin, isovitexin), carbohydrates (fructose, glucose, sucrose, gentianopsis), vitamins (C) (Sokolov 1990).

Local Medicinal Uses Gentiana cruciata: The species is traditionally used for epigastric pains, rabies, and plague, as anti-febrile and anthelmintic, for wound-healing, rheumatoid arthritis, gout, and early chlorosis, and topically for purulent wounds. In the Middle Urals, the infusion is used for headache and as anthelmintic. In the Transcaucasus, the rood

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Fig. 2 Gentiana cruciata (Gentianaceae). Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo: N. PaniaguaZambrana)

Fig. 3 Gentiana cruciata (Gentianaceae). Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo: N. PaniaguaZambrana)

decoction is used for diseases of the stomach, malaria, hemorrhoids, and infertility and as hemostatic (Sokolov 1990). The leaves are used for liver, gallbladder, and stomach ailments (Bussmann et al. 2018). Gentiana septemfida: The roots are prepared as water extract, and the decoction is used to treat malaria and for stomach problems (Damirov et al. 1988). The leaves are

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Fig. 4 Gentiana cruciata (Gentianaceae). Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo: N. PaniaguaZambrana)

Fig. 5 Gentiana septemfida (Gentianaceae). Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo: N. PaniaguaZambrana)

prepared as tea and used as cholagogic, for stomach pain, and liver and gallbladder ailments (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b; Bussmann 2017).

Local Food Uses Gentiana cruciata: Used as bittering agent (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1990).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Gentiana septemfida: Can be used as ornamental in parks and gardens (Akhundov et al. 1989).

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References Akhundov QF, Mahammadli BR, Asadov KS. Useful wild-growing plants. Maarif: Baku; 1989. (in Azeri). Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Gentiana septemfida Pall. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:5. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016c;86(2):3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – Plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Damirov IA, Prilipko LI, Shukurov DZ, Kerimov YB. Medicinal plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Maarif; 1988. (in Russian). Flora of Azerbaijan. Volumes I–VIII. Baku: AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1950–1961. (in Russian) Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, Volume 18: Metachlamydeae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1952 (English 1967). 600 pages. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: Flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 5. Families of Caprifoliaceae – Plantaginaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1990. 328 p. (in Russian).

Glycyrrhiza glabra L. Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch. ex DC. FABACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Farzaneh Khajoei Nasab, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze Synonyms Glycyrrhiza glabra L.: Liquiritia officinarum Medik.; Glycyrrhiza glandulifera Waldst. & Kit.; Glycyrrhiza brachycarpa Boiss.; Glycyrrhiza violacea Boiss. & Noë; Glycyrrhiza pallida Boiss.; Glycyrrhiza alalensis X. Y. Li

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] F. K. Nasab Department of Plant Sciences and Biotechnology, Faculty of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran e-mail: [email protected] A. Ghorbani Department of Organismal Biology, Evolutionary Biology Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_65

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Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch. ex DC.: Glycyrrhiza asperrima var. desertorum Regel; Glycyrrhiza asperrima var. uralensis (Fisch. ex DC.) Regel; Glycyrrhiza glandulifera Ledeb.; Glycyrrhiza shiheziensis X.Y. Li

Local Names Armenian: (Matutak merk); Azeri: Tüкsüz biyаn; Georgian: (Dzirt’k’bila); Kiziquian: სატკბურა (sat’k’bura) (Makashvili 1991); Russian: Солодка (colodka) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991); Farsi: Buyan (‫ ;)ﺑﻮﯾﺎﻥ‬marah (‫ ;)ﻡﺭﺍﻩ‬Shirin Baeyan (‫ ;)ﺷﯿﺮﯾﻦ ﺑﯿﺎﻥ‬Risheh-e Mak (‫ ;)ﺭﯾﺸﻪ ﻣﺎﮎ‬Motki (‫ ;)ﻣﺘﮑﯽ‬Mahk (‫ ;)ﻣﺎﻫﮏ‬Mado (‫ ;)ﻣﺎﺩﻭ‬English: Liquorice.

Botany and Ecology Glycyrrhiza glabra: Perennial. Stems erect, robust, simple or branching, 50–80 (150) cm high, sparsely short-hairy and usually sparsely dotted with scattered glands or glandular prickles. Stipules lanceolate-subulate, small, deciduous at flowering. Petioles 1–3 mm long, short-pubescent and sparsely glandular. Leaves pinnate, ca. 5–20 cm long, with (2) 3–8 (9) pairs of leaflets; leaflets ca. 2–4 cm long, 1–2.5 cm wide, oblong-ovate, elliptic or lanceolate, more or less dotted with glands below, rarely dotted with glands above. Inflorescence a raceme rather loose, 5–8 (12) cm long; peduncles ca. 3–5 (7) cm long, short-pubescent and slightly glandular. Flowers 8–11 (12) mm long; calyx 5–6 (7) mm long, more or less short-pubescent and glandular, with narrowly lanceolate teeth as long as tube or slightly longer, two upper teeth nearly half as long as the others; corolla whitish-violet, wings and lower part of standard often whitish; limb of standard ovate or elliptic, apex acute, gradually tapering to a short claw. Pods oblong, straight or slightly curve, ca. 2–3 cm long, 4–6 mm wide, glabrous or more or less densely beset with glandular prickles, valves firm, indehiscent or dehiscing late after the stems have dried. In steppes, semideserts, desert oases. It extends in mountains up to 1800 m. Found in all regions of Caucasus, Central Europe, Mediterranean, Balkan Peninsula and Asia Minor, Lesser Armenia and Kurdistan, and Iran. Glycyrrhiza glabra grows best in well-drained soils in deep valleys with full sun, particularly in dry, open scrubland, damp ditches, or near streams and also often in soils with high nitrogen content. In Central Asia is a noxious weed in cotton and other cultivated plants (Komarov and Shishkin 1948). In wetlands, in humid meadows, on ruderal places, near water N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]

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streams and near drainage and irrigation channels, from lower to sub-alpine mountain belt, on the altitudes 700–2200 m. Flowers from May to July, fruits from June to August. In Armenia in Shirak, Aragats, Yerevan, Darelegis, Zangezur, Meghri floristic regions (Takhtadjan 1954–2009). The distribution area covers the regions of Guba in the Greater Caucasus, Samur-Devechi lowlands, Caspian seaside lowlands, Kur-Araz lowlands, Absheron, Gobustan, Kura plain, Alazan-Ayrichay valley, Central and Southern Lesser Caucasus, Nakhchivan plain, Lankaran Mugan, Lankaran lowlands. Grows in lowlands in semidesert and slopes of piedmont hill and low mountains. Found along riverbanks, irrigation channels, irrigated field, sands, grassy slopes. Forms brush wood and is found in groups (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961). Also along river valleys, irrigation channel banks, saline areas, croplands (as a weed), on lowlands and foothills (Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011). Glycyrrhiza uralensis: Perennial; stems erect, robust, simple or branching, 40–70(100) cm high, short-pubescent, dotted with small glands or glandular prickles; stipules lanceolate-subulate, small, deciduous at flowering; leaves 10–25 cm long, petioles short-pubescent and glandular; leaflets (3)4–8-paired, ovate or elliptic, 2–5(6) cm long, 1.5–3 cm wide, short pubescent beneath (sometimes also above) mainly along veins, more or less densely dotted with viscid glands, often shiny because of glandular excretions. Racemes dense, compact, 2–7 cm long. Peduncles 6 cm long, with axis of inflorescence covered with more or less short hairs and glands; flowers 14–23 mm long; calyx 8–14 mm long, slightly saccate at base, teeth as long as tube or slightly longer (two upper teeth half as cut as the others), more or less short-pubescent and glandular; corolla violet with white; limb of standard oblong-ovate, elliptic or oblong-elliptic, rounded or slightly, emarginate at apex, gradually tapering into short claw; pods linear-oblong, 2–4 cm long, 5–8 mm wide, falcately curved and transversely sinuate-torulose (from side of sutures), tightly crowded in compact heads, walls more or less pubescent, dotted with glands or beset with glandular prickles, sometimes only simple-hairy or only glandular or prickly. Flowering June–August. Meadows, riparian woodlands and solonetzic steppes. In Siberia, Middle Asia, and Mongolia (Komarov and Shishkin 1948).

Local Medicinal Uses The plants are used as laxative, emollient, and enveloping and contain vitamin C (Grossheim 1952; Budantseva 1994–1996; Sokolov 1984–1993, 1987; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2007; Zolotnitskaya 1958–1965). In medieval Armenian medicine, the juice from rhizomes was used to treat diseases of the nervous system, liver, kidneys, and bladder (Amirdovlat 1927; Harutyunyan 1990; Mardjanyan 2008; Nosal and Nosal 1991; Vardanyan 1979). In folk medicine of Armenia, it is used to treat angina, hypertension, gallstones, as well as food for diabetics (Isotova et al. 2010; Gabrielyan 2001; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2014). A decoction of the root is used for cough as enveloping and expectorant, as well as sudorific and laxative (Fedorov 1949; Grossheim 1946). Liquorice water is given to the sick in case of chest colics (Tsutsunava 1960). The roots of liquorice are used to heal cough

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(Mindadze 2013). It is used as an expectorant and diuretic remedy (Kuchukhidze and Jokhadze 2012). There were many plants used to heal the cough, yet the broth or tincture made of liquorice roots was considered the best. Both the fresh and dried plants used could be used (Mindadze and Chirgadze 2005). The broth is a real medicine against cough (Sujashvili and Pitskheliauri 2005). Against respiratory tract catarrh and to heal bronchial asthma, and as expectorant (Genebashvili 1992). The decoction and condensed syrup from roots is used for stomachache, gasteralgia, gastric ulcer, hemorrhoids, liver disorders, muscle spasm, joint pain, measles, duodenum ulcer, cold and bone fractures (Ghorbani 2005; Safa et al. 2013; Naghibi et al. 2014; Khajoei Nasab and Khosravi 2014). It is also used for stomach acidification, cough and sore throat, duodenal ulcer, muscular pains, nausea, diabetes, bruises of the body, hypertension, and hand and foot pains (Sadat-Hosseini et al. 2017; Khajoei Nasab and Esmailpour 2018; Maleki and Akhani 2018). In addition to roots, stems and leaves are also used. The roots are used to treat cough, and the roots are often sold in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2016, 2017; Bussmann 2017; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017). In Pakistan the roots are used for respiratory disorders (Sher et al. 2016).

Local Food Uses Liquorice is used for different beverages (Grossheim 1952; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2007). Powder from roots produces much and very stable foam and is used in the brewing industry and production of nonalcoholic soft drinks (Grossheim 1946; Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961). The species contains a lot of sugar (glucose, sucrose), and the saponin glycyrrhizin is five times sweeter than sugar. The root extract is used as syrup for confectionary (Grossheim 1952). The roots are used as food (Bussmann et al. 2016, 2017; Bussmann 2017; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Plants are used in traditional carpet weaving as source of yellow dye and for silk brown and green (Grossheim 1952). A dye solution is prepared from roots and rhizomes to obtain yellow, lemon-yellow, orange-yellow, orange, brown-yellow, gray-yellow, yellow-green, snuff, khaki, coffee, and other different colors and shades. The dye is used for dyeing wool, cotton, and silk yarn as well as its products (Qasimov 1980; Grossheim 1946). The stems are fibrous and yield up to 13% fiber which is used for the production of tow and rope of good durability. Coarse yarn can be produced for different items. At the end of summer when pastures in the lower mountain belt have no other fodder plants, cattle and buffalos eat Glycyrrhiza very well (Grossheim 1952). Fodder plant for cattle, in summer pastures and also in the composition of silage

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(winter livestock feed) (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961). The leaves serve to dye silk yellow, brown, and green (Grossheim 1952).

References Amirdovlat A. Angitats anpet. Vienna: University of Vienna; 1927. (in Armenian). Budantseva AL, editor. Plant resources of Russia and neighboring countries, vols. 1–2. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1994–1996. (in Russian). Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN e978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):25–34. Fedorov AA. The herbs applied in traditional medicine of the Talysh. Baku: Publishing House of AS of USSR; 1949. (in Russian). Flora of Azerbaijan. Volumes I–VIII. Baku: AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1950–1961. (in Russian). Gabrielyan E. Herbal medicine national register. Yerevan: Ministry of Health; 2001. (in Armenian). Genebashvili M. Medicinal forest plants of the Caucasus, recreational and sightseeing zones of Georgia. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1992. (in Georgian Grossheim 1946). Ghorbani A. Studies on pharmaceutical ethnobotany in the region of Turkmen Sahra, north of Iran (Part 1): general results. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102:58–68. Grossheim AA. Plant resources of the Caucasus. Baku: Publishing House of the Academy of Science of the Azerbaijani SSR; 1946. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Harutyunyan H. Medieval Armenian phytotherapy herbs. Yerevan: Armenian Acedemy of Sciences; 1990. (in Armenian). Isotova MA, Sarafakova NA, Mkscho BI, Ionova AA. Great encyclopedia of traditional medicine. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 2010. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Khajoei Nasab F, Esmailpour M. Ethno-medicinal survey on weed plants in agro-ecosystems: a case study in Jahrom, Iran. Environ Dev Sustain. 2018. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-018-0128-9. Khajoei Nasab F, Khosravi AR. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of Sirjan in Kerman Province, Iran. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;154:190–7. Komarov VL, Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 13: Leguminosae: Oxytropis, Hedysarum. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1948 (English 1972). 455 pages, 26 b/w plates, 2 maps. Kuchukhidze J, Jokhadze M. Botany (medicinal plants). Tbilisi: Ilia State University; 2012. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Maleki T, Akhani H. Ethnobotanical and ethnomedicinal studies in Baluchi tribes: a case study in Mt. Taftan, southeastern Iran. J Ethnopharmacol. 2018;217:163–77. Mardjanyan KS. Stepanos Shahrimanyan’s botany of flora of Armenia. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 2008. (in Russian). Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Alizade V, Aleksanyan A, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Glycyrrhiza

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glabra L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Mindadze N. Traditinal medicinal culture of Georgian people. Tbilisi: Ilia State University; 2013. (in Georgian). Mindadze N, Chirgadze N. Traditions of Georgian folk medicine, Kakheti. Tbilisi; 2005. (in Georgian). Naghibi F, Esmaeili S, Malekmohammadi M, Hassanpour A, Mosaddegh M. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used traditionally in two villages of Hamedan, Iran. Res J Pharmacogn. 2014;1:7–14. Nosal M, Nosal I. Medicinal plants and methods for their use by people. Leningrad: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1991. (in Russian). Qasimov MA. Dye plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Azerbaijan State Publishing House; 1980. (in Azeri). Sadat-Hosseini M, Farajpour M, Boroomand N, Solaimani-Sardou F. Ethnopharmacological studies of indigenous medicinal plants in the south of Kerman, Iran. J Ethnopharmacol. 2017;199:194–204. Safa O, Soltanipoor MA, Rastegar S, Kazemi M, Dehkordi KH, Ghannadi A. An ethnobotanical survey on hormozgan province, Iran. Avicenna J Phytomed. 2013;3:64–81. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among the Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni ethnic groups in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Sokolov PD. Plant resources of the USSR, vol. 1–7. Leningrad: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1984–1993. (in Russian). Sokolov PD, editor. Plant Resources of the USSR: Flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, Volume 3. Hydrangeaceae-Haloragaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1987. 326 p. (in Russian). Sujashvili N, Pitskheliauri I. Khevian dictionary. Tbilisi: Georgian Academy of Sciences; 2005. (in Georgian). Takhtadjan AL. Flora of Armenia, vols. 1–11. Yerevan: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1954–2009. (in Russian). Tsaturyan T, Gevorgyan M. Wild edible plants of Armenia. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 2007. (in Armenian). Tsaturyan T, Gevorgyan M. Wild medicinal plants of Armenia. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 2014. (in Armenian). Tsutsunava N. Medicinal plants of Georgia. Tbilisi: Sabchota Sakartvelo; 1960. (in Georgian). Vardanyan S. Pharmacology in ancient Armenia. Hist Philol J. 1979;2:179–94. (in Armenian). Zolotnitskaya S. Medicinal resources of the flora of Armenia, vols. 1–2. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 1958–1965. (in Russian).

Helianthus annuus L. Helianthus tuberosus L. ASTERACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Helianthus annuus L.: Helianthus annuus subsp. jaegeri (Heiser) Heiser; Helianthus annuus subsp. lenticularis (Douglas ex Lindl.) Cockerell; Helianthus annuus subsp. texanus Heiser; Helianthus annuus var. lenticularis (Douglas ex Lindl.) Steyerm.; Helianthus annuus var. macrocarpus (DC.) Cockerell; Helianthus aridus Rydb.; Helianthus jaegeri Heiser; Helianthus lenticularis Douglas ex Lindl.; Helianthus lindheimerianus Scheele; Helianthus macrocarpus DC.; Helianthus multiflorus L.; Helianthus ovatus Lehm. R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_67

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Helianthus tuberosus L.: Helianthus esculentus Warsz.; Helianthus tomentosus Michx.; Helianthus tuberosus var. subcanescens A. Gray.

Local Names Helianthus annuus: Georgian მზესუმზირა (mzesumzira) Helianthus tuberosus: Georgian მიწავაშლა (mits’avashla), ხმატურა (khmat’ura), მიწის ვაშლი (mits’is vashli), ხმატურა (khmat’ura); Russian, 3емлянаягруша (zemljanajagrusha); Azeri, топинамбуp (topinambur) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991).

Botany and Ecology Helianthus annuus: Annual. Stem usually simple, coarse, with loose white pith, scabrous, (20)50–250(300) cm (and more) high. Leaves cordate-ovate (upper ovate), alternate, large, subacute (to acute), finely serrate-toothed, with three longitudinal veins, setose on both sides. Capitula large (from 6–10 to 50 cm wide), nodding; involucral bracts imbricate, ovate, acute, green, hirsute; ligulate florets usually yellow, sometimes pale pinkish-yellow or reddish, sterile, numerous, oblong-oval to oblong, large (5–10 cm long); central florets tubular, bisexual, sometimes pistillate, brownish-yellow, or pale pinkish-yellow, sometimes reddish; receptacle almost flat or weakly convex. Achenes obovoid or cuneate, often laterally compressed, more or less ribbed and hairy, variously colored (white, gray, black, striped, etc.), at apex with one or two (sometimes more) bristles or scales, with woody pericarp. Flowering July–September. Widely cultivated (Shishkin 1959; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6). Helianthus tuberosus: Perennial. Stem erect, branched, 1–3(5) m high, hirsute, producing short, underground shoots (rhizomes) with sessile tubers. Lower leaves Fig. 1 Helianthus annuus (Asteraceae), garden, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Helianthus annuus L. . . . Fig. 2 Helianthus annuus (Asteraceae), variety in garden, Valley Mills, Texas, USA (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

Fig. 3 Helianthus annuus (Asteraceae), variety in garden, Valley Mills, Texas, USA (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

Fig. 4 Helianthus annuus (Asteraceae), variety in garden, Austin,Texas, USA (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

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Fig. 5 Helianthus annuus (Asteraceae), variety in garden, Austin,Texas, USA (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

Fig. 6 Helianthus annuus (Asteraceae), variety in garden, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

opposite, petiolate, cordate-ovate, coarsely serrate-toothed; upper leaves alternate, more elongated, oblong-ovate or lanceolate; all leaves hirsute on both sides with three longitudinal veins. Capitula relatively small, erect, 2–5 cm wide (rarely larger). Involucral bracts lanceolate, green, dorsally finely appressed-hairy and along margin

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hirsute; floral bracts oblong-spatulate, acute, hairy in upper part. Ligulate florets 12–15, golden yellow; disk (tubular) florets yellow. Achenes fine-cuneate, finely pilose, apically with one to four small, subulate scales. Flowering July–September. Cultivated for the tubers as a valuable food plant (Shishkin 1959).

Local Food Uses Helianthus annuus: The seeds are eaten raw and toasted (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Fig. 7). Helianthus tuberosus: The tubers are suitable for canning and eaten boiled. The leaves are eaten boiled and pickled (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Grossheim 1952). In Mtiuleti, raw eaten plants are vardutsa ვარდუცა, alkvasha ალქვაშა Campanula latifolia L., k’ank’esha კანკეშა Gadellia lactiflora (M. Bieb.) Schulkina, dutsi დუცი Agasyllis latifolia Boiss, mzhavana Fig. 7 Helianthus annuus (Asteraceae), seeds in Telavi market, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 8 Helianthus tuberosus (Asteraceae), roots ready to eat, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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მჟავანა Rumex acetosa L., pkholis taxa ფხოლის თავა Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., diq’i დიყი Heracleum ssp., t’q’is niori ტყის ნიორი Galanthus ssp., ღოლო gholo Rumex ssp., maq’valdzirgha მაყვალღირძა Anthriscus sylvestris (L.) Hoffm., dzirkhvena ძირხვენა, machik’a მაჩიკას Campanula rapunculoides L., mits’is vashli მიწის ვაშლს Helianthus tuberosus L. (Makalatia 1930; Fig. 8).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Helianthus tuberosus: The tubers are also used as high-quality fodder and the whole plant as silage material. It is a good honey plant (Grossheim 1952).

References Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makalatia S. Mtiuleti. Tbilisi: Sakhelgami; 1930. (8მაკალათია ს. 1930. მთიულეთი. ტფილისი: სახელგამი in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 25: Compositae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1959 (English 1990). 666 pages.

Helichrysum arenarium (L.) Moench Helichrysum rubicundum (K. Koch) Bornm. ASTERACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Helichrysum arenarium (L.) Moench: Gnaphalium arenarium L.; Gnaphalium aureum Gilib.; Gnaphalium elichrysum Pall.; Gnaphalium graveolens Henning; Stoechas citrina Gueldenst. Helichrysum rubicundum (K. Koch) Bornm: Antennaria rubicunda K. Koch; Helichrysum arenarium subsp. rubicundum P. H. Davis & Kupicha; Helichrysum undulatum isubsp. rubicundum Takht. R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_68

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Local Names Helichrysum arenarium: Georgian: ეგო (nego); Armenian: Antaran tsagik, ნეგი (Negi), антарам (antaram); Russian: Бессмертник (besmertik); гуручичек (gurutsitsek) (Azeri); hego (Georgian) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991). Helichrysum rubicundum: Armenia: Անթառամ կարմրավն (Antaram karmravun); Georgia: ნეგო (nego), უკვდავა (uk’vdava), უკვდავა (uk’vdava), ბებრიძონძა (bebridzondza) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991).

Botany and Ecology Helichrysum arenarium: Perennial. Root thick, to 10–12 mm woody, fibrous, deep, strongly branched in upper part, producing considerable number of short sterile and flowering stems, at base usually covered with remains of previous year’s leaves. Flowering stems erect, simple, (20)25–30(35) cm high, basally woody, below inflorescence densely gray tomentose, considerably sparsely arachnoid-lanate or flocculose to almost glabrous below and usually, as also cauline leaves, covered with glandular hairs. Leaves of sterile stems linearly spatulate with lamina narrowed into petiole; leaves of flowering stems usually shorter, linear or lanceolate-linear, acuminate, gradually reduced upward, more often pubescent along margin and midrib, in the remaining part glabrous and subglabrous. Capitula subspherical, broad cylindrical, or spherical obconical, usually 7 mm long and 6–9 mm wide, in groups of (5–7)10–25 (sometimes up to 70) in terminal corymb. Involucral bracts about 40–50, sulfur or lemon yellow, or yellowish green, sometimes milky white (var. lacteum Boiss.), rather lustrous, six- or seven-rowed, on the outside arachnoid; outermost bracts elliptical, few, roughly half as long as inner oblong-spatulate bracts. Florets in capitulum 20–30; pappus of 20–25 fine, yellowish, barbed hairs, roughly as long as corolla. Flowering June–August. Caucasus, dry rocky places of subalpine and alpine zones (Shishkin 1959). Helichrysum rubicundum: Perennial. Plant tomentose-lanate pubescent; root woody. Flowering stems few to many, erect or ascending, simple, (7)15–30 (60) cm high. Upper and middle leaves sessile, lanceolate-linear or linear; lower ones lanceolate or spatulately linear, petiolate; leaves of sterile stems oblongspatulate, gradually narrowed in petiole. Capitula in groups of (5)10–30 (up to 100) in compact or compound corymbs, (3)4–6(9) mm wide on peduncles of unequal length. Involucral bracts about 50, lax, in (3)4–6(7) rows, bright lemonyellow or even pinkish to orange; outer bracts obovate or elliptical, velutinous on the back. Florets (25)35–45(50), usually bisexual, sometimes peripheral florets pistillate, pappus of about 30 very fine, soft, barbed, yellowish or almost white hairs. In dry sandy as well as loamy-sandy and stony soils and chalks. Occurs in all regions of the Caucasus (Ciscaucasia, Dagestan), Scandinavia, Atlantic Europe, Balkans-Asia Minor, Mongolia, China. Helichrysum rubicundum also occurs in dunes, hills and

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slopes, pine woods, steppe meadows, and sometimes in semideserts. On stony slopes, in semideserts, steppes, meadow steppes, subalpine and alpine meadows, on screes, from lower to alpine mountain belt, on the altitudes from 500 to 3000. Flowers from May to August, fruits from June to October. In Armenia in all floristic regions (Shishkin 1959; Takhtadjan 1954–2009; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5). Fig. 1 Helichrysum rubicundum (Asteraceae). Racha, Georgia. (Photo: R. Bussmann)

Fig. 2 Helichrysum rubicundum (Asteraceae). Racha, Georgia. (Photo: R. Bussmann)

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Fig. 3 Helichrysum rubicundum (Asteraceae). Flowers for medicinal use. Tabatskhuri, Georgia. (Photo: N. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Helichrysum arenarium (Asteraceae). Flowers for sale, market Telavi, Georgia. (Photo: R.W. Bussmann & N. PaniaguaZambrana)

Phytochemistry Carbohydrates, organic acids (tartaric, oxalic), diterpenoids, latex, steroids (campesterine, sitosterol), coumarins (scopoletin, umbelliferone), flavonoids (naringenin, galangin, apigenin, luteolin, kaempferol, quercetin), flavonoids (apigenin, luteolin, kaempferol, naringenin, isosalipurposide), tannins, quinones (Sokolov 1993).

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Fig. 5 Helichrysum arenarium (Asteraceae). Flowers for sale, market Telavi, Georgia. (Photo: R.W. Bussmann & N. PaniaguaZambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses Helichrysum arenarium: The plant decoction is used to treat gastric problems, as a diuretic and laxative, for nephritis, cystitis, dyspepsia, vomiting, and colitis, and as anthelmintic. In the Northern Caucasus, it serves for atherosclerosis, hypertension, rheumatism, gout, arthritis, respiratory diseases, venereal diseases, bites of rabid dogs, sciatica, and externally for eczema and dermatoses. In Armenia, it is used as cholagogue. Plants have antibacterial properties (Gabrielyan 2001; Gammarman and Grom 1976; Grossheim 1952; Gubanov et al. 1976; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2014; Zolotnitskaya 1958–1965). In the folk medicine of Armenia, a decoction of the flowers is used as a choleretic and antispasmodic and helps to remove small stones from the gallbladder and bile ducts (Isotova et al. 2010; Gabrielyan 2001; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2014; Zolotnitskaya 1958–1965). In Georgia the leaves and sometimes flowers of Helichrysum are used as cholagogic, to treat liver and gallbladder ailments, general intestinal system problems, heartburn, and stomach pain (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c). It is used as choleretic and cholagogue, as well as anthelmintic (Grossheim 1952). Helichrysum rubicundum: It is used as cholagogue. Plants have antibacterial properties (Gabrielyan 2001; Gammarman and Grom 1976; Grossheim 1952; Gubanov et al. 1976; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2014; Zolotnitskaya 1958–1965). In the folk medicine of Armenia, a decoction of the flowers is used as a choleretic and antispasmodic and helps to remove small stones from the gallbladder and bile ducts (Isotova et al. 2010; Gabrielyan 2001; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2014; Zolotnitskaya 1958–1965). Leaves and sometimes flowers of Helichrysum are used as cholagogic, to treat liver and gallbladder ailments, general intestinal system problems, heartburn, and stomach pain (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c; Bussmann et al. 2017a, b). The flowers are used to remedy liver and gallbladder ailments. The leaves are used for heartburn and gastrointestinal problems and as tea (Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2017a, b; Fayvush et al. 2017).

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses Helichrysum arenarium: The plants yield a yellow dye for wool and silk. Planted as ornamental (Grossheim 1952).

References Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:5. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016c;86(2):3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):7–24. Fayvush G, Aleksanyan A, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Helichrysum rubicundum (K. Koch) Bornm. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Gabrielyan E. Herbal medicine national register. Yerevan: Ministry of Health; 2001. (in Armenian). Gammarman A, Grom I. Wild medicinal plants of the USSR. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1976. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Gubanov I, Krilova I, Tikhonova V. Wild useful plants of the USSR. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1976. (in Russian). Isotova MA, Sarafakova NA, Mkscho BI, Ionova AA. Great encyclopedia of traditional medicine. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 2010. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia. vols 16. Tbilisi: Metsniereba. 1971–2011 (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991 (in Georgian). Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 25: compositae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1959 (English 1990). 666 pages.

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Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 7. Family Asteraceae (Compositae). Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1993. 352 p. (in Russian). Takhtadjan AL. Flora of Armenia, vol. 1–11. Yerevan: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1954–2009. (in Russian). Tsaturyan T, Gevorgyan M. Wild medicinal plants of Armenia. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 2014. (in Armenian). Zolotnitskaya S. Medicinal resources of the flora of Armenia, vols. 1–2. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 1958–1965. (in Russian).

Heliotropium europaeum L. BORAGINACEAE Seyed Hamed Moazzami Farida, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Heliotropium europaeum L.: Heliotropium europaeum var. lasiocarpum (Fisch. & C.A. Mey.) Kazmi, Heliotropium stevenianum Andrz.; Heliotropium tenuiflorum Bunge

S. H. Moazzami Farida Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Bu-Ali Sina University, Hamedan, Iran e-mail: [email protected] A. Ghorbani Department of Organismal Biology, Evolutionary Biology Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_69

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Local Names Farsi ‫( ﺁﻓﺘﺎﺏ ﭘﺮﺳﺖ ﺍﺭﻭﭘﺎﯾﯽ‬Aftab parast-e europaei), ‫ﮐﻮﻟﻮﻫﻢ‬, (Kolohmu); English European heliotrope and European turn-sole

Botany and Ecology Perennial; stem 10–30 cm high, branching from base and hence plant often apparently multicaule, with ascending and semi-recumbent stems, which branch in turn; the hairs short, appressed, slightly grayish or gray; leaves rather large (smaller in some races), oblong, cuneate at base, long- petioled, usually yellowish-green, rarely dull grayish, rather delicate, often with xeromorphous anatomy, the thin nerves prominent below, nearly smooth above; blades 2–4 cm, obtuse or acute; petioles thin. Profusely branching stem bearing many scorpioid cymes, 1–4 at ends of branches, directly above leaves (without peduncle) or in axils of upper leaves, compact at first, soon elongating, becoming loose, thin (thinner and looser than in preceding and following species), leafless, to 10 cm long, nearly erect; calyx sessile, downy-villous, with linear lobes, about 1.5–2 mm long in flower, to 4 mm in fruit, stellately spreading after abscission of nutlets; corolla small, 2–3 mm long, white, the tube downy outside, glabrous inside, as long as or shorter than calyx, the limb 2–3 mm across, campanulate-calyciform, with oblong, obtuse lobes; nutlets ca. 2 mm high, ovoid, glabrous (very rarely downy), deeply pitted and acutely tuberculate; style very short, stigma conical-subulate, not more than 0.7–0.8 mm long; gynophore compressed-pectiniform. Flowering May–June. On stony slopes, sands, fallows, weedy places. Ural, Caucasus, Iran (Yuzepchuk and Shishkin 1953; Fig. 1).

Local Medicinal Uses In Iranian traditional medicine, H. europaeum is used as antipyretic, cholagogue, emmenagogue, cardiotonic, and anthelmintic, in the treatment of headache and gout, and in external uses for the healing of wounds and treatment of warts (Zargari 1990). In southern regions of Iran, particularly in Hormozgan province, it is recommended to treat gout, headache, and kidney stones (Zargari 1990; Safa et al. 2012). Infusion of leaves and flowers is used for removing kidney stones and intestinal parasites (Mozaffarian 2013). N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]

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Fig. 1 Heliotropium europaeum (Boraginaceae), Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

References Mozaffarian V. Identification of medicinal and aromatic plants of Iran. Tehran: Farhang Moaser; 2013. Safa O, Soltanipoor MA, Rastegar S, Kazemi M, Nourbakhsh Dehkordi K, Ghannadi A. An ethnobotanical survey on Hormozgan Province, Iran. Avicenna J Phytomed. 2012;3(1):64–81. Yuzepchuk SV, Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 19: Tubiflorae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1953 (English 1974). 563 pages, 40 b/w plates, 2 maps. Zargari A. Medicinal plants, vol. 2. Tehran: University of Tehran; 1990.

Helleborus caucasicus A. Braun RANUNCULACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Helleborus caucasicus A. Braun: Helleborus guttatus A. Braun & F.W.H. Sauer

Local Names Georgian: ხარისძირა (kharisdzira); Azeri ранне-весенние (ranne-vesenije) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991). R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; mananakhuts@yahoo. com; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_70

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Botany and Ecology Perennial; radical leaves 1 or 2, long-petioled, large, more or less coriaceous, pedately dissected into 5–11 lobes 8–15 cm long, lanceolate-elliptic or broadly elliptic, cuneate, margin biserrate; scapes of few bracts, their 1–3 flowers to 8 cm in diameter drooping at first; sepals spatulate, broad-ovate, slightly arcuately recurved at margin, pale greenish yellow brown; petal nectaries slightly compressed, yellow green, with inflexed margins; anthers elliptic, rounded at apex; follicles numerous, distinct at base, curved-ascending with straight style. Flowering December–March. Caucasus, Middle Asia, in broad-leafed and coniferous forests up to the middle mountain belt (Shishkin and Bobrov 1937; Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Phytochemistry Alkaloids, bufadienolides (helleborine), and steroids (Fedorov 1984). Fig. 1 Helleborus caucasicus (Ranunculaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Helleborus caucasicus (Ranunculaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Local Medicinal Uses An infusion is used for viral infections. The plant contains cardiac glycosides azlereleborin and helleborein (Grossheim 1952; Fedorov 1984).

Fig. 3 Helleborus caucasicus (Ranunculaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Helleborus caucasicus (Ranunculaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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The roots are used for the treatment of wounds (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, 2018). Helleborus powder is often sold as panacea in local markets with venders claiming that it is “Recognized as the most effective plant by international traditional medicine; cleans and renovates cells in the organism; is used to clean entire organism (from toxins, waist, radioactive elements, heavy metals); expels salts; reduces sugar content in blood; crushes stones; helps paralysis and joints pain; improves heart functions and circulation; cures bronchitis; gastritis, ulcer, polyps; ovary chronic inflammation; hemorrhoids, colitis; calms neural system and psychic disorders; enhances hair growth; stops bleeding from gum; brings metabolism in order; infallible medicine for losing weight,” although acknowledging that the plant is very toxic (Bussmann et al. 2017b).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Poisonous. Planted as ornamental (Fedorov 1984). The roots are used for the treatment of wounds in animals (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, 2018).

References Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plant and fungal use in Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016b;86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33.

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Fedorov AA, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: Flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 1. Families Magnoliaceae – Limoniaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1984. 460 p. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian) Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Shishkin BK, Bobrov EG. Flora of the USSR, Volume 7: Ranales to Rhoedales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1937 (English 1970). 615 pages.

Heracleum asperum M. B. Fl Heracleum leskovii A. Grossh Heracleum mantegazzianum Sommier & Levier Heracleum persicum Desf. ex Fisch Heracleum sibiricum L. Heracleum sosnowskyi Manden Heracleum sphondylium L. Heracleum wilhelmsii Fisch. & Ave-Lall APIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Seyed Hamed Moazzami Farida, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Heracleum asperum M. B. Fl.: Heracleum umbonatum Boiss.; Sphondylium asperum Hoffm.; Pastinaca mazurewskyi Kalen. Heracleum leskovii A. Grossh.: Heraclea strelkovii Groseh.; Heracleum pubescens var. wilhelmsii Alb.; Heracleum villosum auct., Heracleum wilhelmsii Fisch. & Ave-Lall. R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_71

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Heracleum mantegazzianum Sommier & Levier: Heracleum circassicum Mandenova, Heracleum grossheimii Mandenova, Heracleum giganteum Hornemann Heracleum persicum Desf. ex Fisch.: Heracleum glabrescens Boiss. & Hohen. Heracleum sibiricum L.: H. flavescens Bess., H. sphondylium L. subsp. sibiricum Simonk. Heracleum sphondylium L.: Heracleum alpinum L.

Local Names Georgia: Heracleum spp.: დიყი (diq’i), დილყა; Acharian: (dilq’a); Imeretian: დიყა (diq’a); Ingush: დიყვი (diq’vi); Kartlian: დიყინა (diq’ina), ხელახაში (khelakhashi); Ingiloian: დუყ (duq’); Megrelian: დიცე (ditse); Javakhetian: თელახარში (telakharshi); Acharian: თილახარჩილა (tilakharchila); Svan: ლახვაშ ჩიჩვლა (lakhvash chichvla), ჩიჩვლა (chichvla); Rachian: მდიყი (mdiq’i); Chanetian: მთუთი ბუღი (mtuti bughi); Megrelian: ფალახარჯი (palakharji), (Megrelian), ღოღე (ghoghe), ღოღელია (ghoghelia); Lechkhumian: ქოლგანა (kolgana), ჩინჩვლა (chinchvla); Gurian: ჩილახარჩილა (chilakharchila); English: Hogweed. Heracleum alpinum: Georgian: დიყი (diq’i) Heracleum asperum: შუპყა (shup’q’a). Heracleum leskovii: Georgian: თეთრი დიყი (tetri diq’i), შუპყაი (shupq’a); Tush: აპყი (ap’q’i); Khevsur: ლაგი (lagi); Pshavian: ლატი (lat’i) (Makashvili 1991); Russian: Борщевик (borshebnyk); Azeri: балдырган (baldeirgan); Armenian: коцук (kotsuk) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991 Heracleum mantegazzianum: Georgian: დიყი (diq’i); Svan: ჩიჩვა (chichva) Heracleum persicum: Persian: Kolek ‫ﮎﻝﮎ‬, koolak ‫ﮎﻭﻝﮎ‬, koolakpar ‫ﮐﻮﻟﮑﭙﺮ‬, golpar ‫ﮒﻟﭙﺮ‬, golspar ‫ ;ﮒﻟﺴﭙﺮ‬English: Persian hogweed Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] S. H. M. Farida Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Bu-Ali Sina University, Hamedan, Iran e-mail: [email protected] A. Ghorbani Department of Organismal Biology, Evolutionary Biology Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]

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Heracleum villosum: Georgian: თეთრი დიყი (tetri diq’i), ლაგი (lagi) Heracleum sosnowskyi: The leaves and seeds are widely used as food. The stems are pickled or used in sats’ebai and chave. Heracleum sosnowskyi: Georgian: დიყი (diq’i), ხევსურის დიყი (khevsuris diq’i), დიყინა (diq’ina); Svan: ჩიჩვა (chichva) Heracleum wilhelmsii: Georgian: დიყი (diq’i), დიყი (marts’q’vi)

Botany and Ecology Heracleum asperum: Perennial herb 1 1.5 m. tall. Stems with deep ridges, usually rough textured and hairy. Leaves 3-parted. Side parts ovate, with tooled margins, terminal part round, deeply lobed. Leaves with fine hair along major veins. Upper leaves sometimes reduced to only a leaf sheath at node. Flowers in umbels of many rays that are rough-textured and hairy. Umbels with linear-leaved whorls below. Flowers white, anthers olive colored, fruit 6–10 mm. long ovoid, textured and with a cone shaped tip and two persistent styles. Subalpine areas 1800–2500 m. Glades, meadows, and forest edges. Caucasus: Ciscaucasia, southern slopes of Main Range in Eastern Transcaucasia and Dagestan. An endemic. Tall herb communities, forest edges, forest clearings, subalpine meadows in upper montane and subalpine zones. Distributed in South Oseti, Mtiuleti, Tush-Pshav-Khevsureti, Kakheti (Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Shishkin 1951; Fig. 1). Heracleum leskovii: Perennial 40–70 cm. tall. Stems deeply ribbed and pubescent. Leaves simple and rough-textured above and softly hairy below. Lower leaves with long petioles, with broad lobes and irregular teeth along margins. Upper leaves with expanded sheath with teeth. Umbels many rayed, rough-textured, lanceolate leaves whorled below. Flowers white. Fruit ovoid, up to 10 mm. long, with thin, dry margins and prickly hairs. Rocky to pebbly areas, taluses. Caucasus, Ciscaucasia, Western and Eastern Transcaucasia especially in the Main Range. Endemic. Stony slopes, scree from middle montane to subalpine zone. Distributed in Apkhazeti, Svaneti, Samegrelo, Racha-Lechkhumi, South Oseti, Mtiuleti, Tush-PshavKhevsureti (Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Shishkin 1951; Figs. 2 and 3). Heracleum mantegazzianum: Biennial or perennial; plant 1–1.5 m high; stem deeply furrowed- ribbed, densely spreading-hairy; leaves pale green, glabrous above, paler with fine remote hairs beneath; lower leaves ternate, rarely pinnate compound, and then first pair of segments short-petioled, second sessile; lateral segments ovate, pinnatifid into lanceolate, strongly acuminate lobules, terminal segment subrounded, deeply pinnatifid, lobes ovate-oblong, deeply pinnatifid into lanceolate, strongly acuminate lobules; upper leaves on much expanded, finely pubescent sheath, ternate or simple, deeply pinnatisect. Umbels large, many-rayed, all rays covered with spreading, pedunculate-glandular and thin, simple hairs; leaflets of involucre and involucels linear-subulate, unequal; flowers white; ovary densely spreading-hairy; calyx-teeth distinct, triangular, green; peripheral petals much enlarged, deeply 2-lobed; anthers purple; fruit oblong-obovoid, 12–14 mm long, 5–6 mm wide, cuneately tapering to base, subglabrous or with very remote, thin, long hairs, sometimes with few prickly hairs at base and at upper margin of

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Fig. 1 Heracleum sp. (Apiaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y, Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Heracleum sp. (Apiaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y, Paniagua-Zambrana)

fruit; dorsal canals of mericarp 2/3, lateral and commissural short, sometimes 1/2 length of fruit; stylopodium narrowly conical, tuberculate-rugose; styles 3–4 times as long as stylopodium. Flowering July–August. Caucasus, upper forest belt, glades, forest edges and paths, in clearings, beech forests, up to the timberline, on subalpine tall grass meadows (Shishkin 1951; Figs. 4 and 5).

Heracleum asperum M. B. Fl . . . Fig. 3 Heracleum sp. (Apiaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y, Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Heracleum sp. (Apiaceae), seeds, Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y, Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Heracleum sp. (Apiaceae), seeds, Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y, Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Heracleum persicum: Herb, grows as a perennial herbaceous plant, reaches a height of 1.8–2.8 m. A single plant can have from one to five stems, are marked, hollow inside and 30–40 mm thick in the basal section. The stems have short and bristly hair. They are purple at the base, green above, usually with small purple spots. The leaves have a large pod of purple leaves, its stem has a length of 1–2.5 m. The leaf blade is pinnate, reaches 43–120 cm long and 34–80 cm wide, the length to width ratio is approximately 1.1–1.5. It is densely covered at the bottom with bristle bristles that protrude, the upper part is uncovered. The leaf is composed of two to four (rarely only one) leaflets, which are divided into two or four sections, whose border is cut out. Their ends are broadly pointed. The flowers are found together in a curved, convex, and double inflorescence, 10–15 inches high and 70–150 cm long. The umbel has 10–18 umbels, hairy, without glands, and covered with a whitish papilla document. Each umbel holds approximately 40 (maximum to 80) white flowers. As is typical of the genus, the petals of the marginal flowers are enlarged. Heracleum persicum, unlike other large species in the Pubescentia section, is a true perennial that can flower several times. The species is not easily distinguishable from other species of large bear claws of the section, with which it can form hybrids. A striking distinctive feature is the distinctive aniseed odor of the entire plant (Shishkin 1951). Heracleum sosnowskyi: Biennial or perennial; stem 1–1.5 m high, cylindrical, deeply furrowed, sparingly pubescent; radical and lower cauline leaves ternate, sometimes pinnate- compound, of two pairs of lateral segments, first short-petioled, second sessile; lateral segments broadly ovate or subrounded, oblique, rather shallowly, usually 3-, rarely 5-fid, into broadly ovate lobes, terminal segment rounded, more or less deeply trifid into broadly ovate, slightly 245 lobed-incised lobes; upper leaves reduced, with expanded sheath and usually with entire, trilobate blade; leaves glabrous above, with fine spreading hairs beneath. Umbels large, many-rayed, all rays finely scabrous-hairy, leaflets of involucre and involucels linear-subulate, with slightly expanded base; flowers white; ovary spreading-hairy; calyx-teeth distinct, triangular, green; peripheral petals enlarged; fruit obovoid, oblong or broadly ellipsoid, 10–12 mm long, 6–8 mm wide, with sparse long hairs on dorsal surface and few prickly hairs along margin and base; dorsal canals broad; stylopodium semispherical, tuberculate-rugose; styles 2–3 times as long as stylopodium. Flowering July–August. Caucasus, middle and upper forest belt, on glades, on beech, in PiceaBetula forests, and sometimes on meadows (Shishkin 1951). Heracleum sphondylium: Biennial or perennial; stem deeply furrowed, with more or less appressed hairs, sparse in lower part, denser in upper; leaves usually ternate, lateral segments on petiolules, more or less deeply lobed-incised, leaves sparsely covered with appressed, scarious hairs above, scabrous beneath, large-toothed margin bears fine spinose hairs, prominent nerves not densely covered with scarious hairs, otherwise glabrous; petioles with scarious hairs; upper leaves with obsolete blade on short petiole or sessile; sheath expanded; blade sometimes very deeply cut into strongly elongated lobes. Umbels many-rayed, rays of umbels and umbellets very unequal; flowers white or slightly reddish; peripheral petals enlarged, deeply 2-lobed to 2/3, lobes markedly divergent; anthers olive-colored; ovary with sparse short spreading hairs. Flowering July–September. Ural, Caucasus, meadows, forest

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edges, taluses in middle and upper mountain region, fringes of dense coniferous and broadleaf forests, glades (Shishkin 1951). Heracleum wilhelmsii: Perennial; plant 1–1.5(2) m high; stem deeply furrowed, ribbed, densely hairy; leaves glabrous above, densely and finely pubescent beneath; radical and lower cauline leaves ternate, rarely pinnate compound, of two pairs of lateral segments, first short-petioled, second sessile; segments ovate, oblique, pinnatifid into lanceolate, acuminate lobules, terminal segment subrounded, deeply pinnatifid into ovate-oblong, deeply pinnatifid lobes, with lanceolate, strongly acuminate lobules; upper leaves reduced, with strongly expanding sheath. Umbels large, to 40–50 cm across, many-rayed, all rays with fine scabrous pubescence, leaflets of involucre and involucels linear-subulate, unequal; flowers white; ovary densely hairy; calyx-teeth very distinct, triangular, green; peripheral petals much enlarged, 10–12 mm long, deeply 2-lobed; anthers dark purple; fruit obovoid, 10–13 mm long, 7–9 mm wide, with dense antrorse, curved, prickly, sometimes mixed with long scarious hairs, rarely prickly hairs confined to margin and base, dorsal surface with long, scarious, entangled hairs; dorsal canals 3/4 the length of fruit, stylopodium conical, tuberculate rugose; styles 2–3 times as long as stylopodium. Flowering July–August. Caucasus, on subalpine tall grass meadows, fields, on the fringes of Picea and Betula forests along the timberline, on subalpine meadows (Shishkin 1951; Fig. 6).

Fig. 6 Heracleum wilhelmsii (Apiaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y, Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Phytochemistry Heracleum mantegazzianum: Cyclitols (glucinol), terpenoids (camphene, caren, kupressen, borneol), phenolcarboxylic acids (ferulo), coumarins (angelicine, psoralen, pimpinelline, isopimpinellin, isobergapten, sphondine, phallopterin, umbelliferone, apterin, fromoksine, ostol, angelitsine, columbianetine, marmesine, bergapten, sphondine, xanthotoxine), anthocyanins, essential oils, flavonoids (quercetin, kaempferol, isorhamnetin) (Sokolov 1988). Heracleum sibiricum: Coumarins (umbelliferone, isobergene, pimpinelline, sphondine, isopimpinellin, berganten, izobergapinelline), vitamins (C) (Sokolov 1988). Heracleum sosnowskyi: Tannins, coumarins (phallopterin, bergapten, pimpinelline, isopimpinellin, xanthotoxine, umbelliferone, sphondine, angelicine, isoimperatorin, ostol, marezine, pangeline, apterin), essential oils (Sokolov 1988). Heracleum sphondylium/Heracleum wilhelmsii: Carbohydrates (umbelliferosis), essential oils (a-pinene, myrcene, ocimene, carveol, cineole, carvacrol), carbohydrates, coumarins (umbelliferone, scopoletin, sphondin, pimpinellin, haptens, xanthotoxine, isopimpinellin, isobaptene, phallopterin, uptoroselol, biacangelicine, phallopterin, sphondine, fallopterine, isobergene, biakagengilikol, angilitsine, scopoletin, herraclesol), steroids (sitosterol), flavonoids (quercetin, 3-rutinoside quercetin), fatty acids (palmitic, stearic, oleine, petroselinic, linoleic, linolenic) (Sokolov 1988).

Local Medicinal Uses Heracleum alpinum: The leaves, seeds, and stems are used to treat hemorrhoids (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2018; Bussmann 2017). Heracleum asperum: A decoction of roots was mentioned by a local healer in Svaneti as a remedy purifying the body and used to cure cancer (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b). Hieracium asperum roots are chewed for toothache. The roots are used to treat toothache (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2018; Bussmann 2017). Heracleum persicum: The seeds are used to relieve dyspepsia, flu, and hiccup (Ahvazi et al. 2012; Zolfeghari et al. 2012; Mozaffarian 2013; Amiri et al. 2014; Gholipour et al. 2014). It has appetizer, carminative, stomach tonic, vermifuge, and diuretic properties (Amin 2005; Mikaili et al. 2011; Zolfeghari et al. 2012; Amiri et al. 2014; Gholipour et al. 2014). Decoction and infusion of seeds and leaves are used as carminative and for treatment of gastritis in children (Ahvazi et al. 2012). In NW of Iran, the root of H. persicum is used for the treatment of skin diseases (Zolfeghari et al. 2012). It also used to ease digestion and as a mouthwash (Amin 2005; Mikaili et al. 2011; Zolfeghari et al. 2012). Heracleum sibiricum: In the Ural a decoction is used as antiseptic and antiinflammatory, for epilepsy, neurosis, dyspepsia, colitis, and respiratory problems and externally for skin diseases and toothache (Sokolov 1988).

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Heracleum sosnowskyi: In Georgian Ajara the root decoction is used for lung diseases. The leaves are used as poultice for wounds. In Georgia a decoction of roots was mentioned by a local healer in Svaneti as a remedy purifying the body and used to cure cancer (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b). Hieracium asperum roots are chewed for toothache (Sokolov 1988). The roots are used to treat cancer and tumors (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2018; Bussmann 2017). Heracleum sphondylium/Heracleum wilhelmsii: In the Ural used for epilepsy, bronchial hemorrhage, enteritis, dyspepsia, and dysentery and topically for the treatment of furuncles, dermatomycosis, and itchy dermatoses. In Georgia Hieracium wilhelmsii roots are used to treat stomach ailments (Sokolov 1988), Hieracium wilhelmsii roots are used to treat stomach ailments (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b). Heracleum wilhelmsii: The roots are used to treat stomach problems (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2018; Bussmann 2017). Heracleum sp.: The leaves are used to treat mastitis (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2018; Bussmann 2017). Heracleum lanatum: This is used as nerve tonic in the Himalayas (Singh et al. 2019), while Heracleum candicans: This is used as antifungal in Pakistan (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018) and for snake bites in India (Thakur et al. 2014).

Local Food Uses diq’i დიყი Heracleum ssp. are eaten raw in Khevi (Bakhtadze and Koghuashvili 2009; Kavtaradze 1985; Sujashvili and Pitskhelauri 2005). In Khevi, pickles are made from local plants: saskhep’ia სასხეპია Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., diq’i დიყი Heracleum ssp., mdogi მდოგი Sinapis arvensis L. Shoots of saskhep’ia სასხეპია Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., are cut in thin pieces and salted in a jar or barrel, seasoned with pepper and caraway, poured with a spring water. The shoots of დიყი Heracleum ssp. are peeled, cut, and put in a jar layer-by-layer, salt placed between the layers, the upper layer was topped with mzhavela მჟაველა Rumex acetosa L. ფოთლებს, mk’vliavi მკვლიავი Carum carvi L., and finally water was added. Mdogi მდოგი Sinapis arvensis L. pickles do not last long. Ghandzili ღანძილი (Allium victorialis L.) and mdogi მდოგი are put in salted but not boiling water and seasoned with caraway (Bakhtadze and Koghuashvili 2009; Kavtaradze 1985; Sujashvili and Pitskhelauri 2005). In Mtiuleti, raw eaten plants are vardutsa ვარდუცა, alkvasha ალქვაშა Campanula latifolia L., k’ank’esha კანკეშა Gadellia lactiflora (M. Bieb.) Schulkina, dutsi დუცი Agasyllis latifolia Boiss, mzhavana მჟავანა Rumex acetosa L., pkholis taxa ფხოლის თავა Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., diq’i დიყი Heracleum ssp., t’q’is niori ტყის ნიორი Galanthus ssp., ღოლო gholo Rumex ssp., maq’valdzirgha მაყვალღირძა Anthriscus sylvestris (L.) Hoffm., dzirkhvena ძირხვენა, machik’a მაჩიკას Campanula rapunculoides L., mits’is vashli მიწის ვაშლს Helianthus tuberosus L. (Makalatia 1930a, b).

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Pshavi people use a wide variety of wild plants mixed together as food: khipkhola ხიფხოლა Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., k’enk’esha კენკეშა Gadellia lactiflora (M. Bieb.) Schulkina. (slightly sweet), mzhavana მჟავანა Rumex acetosa L. (it is sour, Khevsurians like it more, Durians also eat it), dutsi დუცი Agasyllis latifolia Boiss (shape like a gun barrel broadleaved, with bitter taste), shup’q’a შუპყა Heracleum asperum M. Bieb. (resembles dutsi დუცი by structure, but taste is sweat). Most of these plants are only edible when young, because in mature state they turn bitter (Maghalashvili 1970; Tedoradze 1930). In Pshavi young peeled shoots of shup’q’a შუპყა Heracleum asperum M. Bieb., diq’i დიყი Heracleum sosnowskyi Manden., and lagi ლაგი Heracleum leskovii Grossh. are eaten with salt or a sauce (Maghalashvili 1970; Figs. 7, 8, 9 and 10). Heracleum asperum: The leaves are widely used as food. The stems are pickled or used in sats’ebai (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2018; Bussmann 2017). Heracleum leskovii: The stems are pickled (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2018; Bussmann 2017). Heracleum mantegazzianum: The young shoots are pickled (Sokolov 1988). The stems are pickled (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2018; Bussmann 2017).

Fig. 7 Heracleum sp. (Apiaceae), pickled stems, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y, Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 8 Heracleum sp. (Apiaceae), pickled stems, Javakheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y, Paniagua-Zambrana)

Heracleum persicum: The seeds of Heracleum are commonly used as spice and condiment in the Persian cuisine and also in the pickles (Mozaffarian 2013; Amiri et al. 2014). Heracleum sibiricum/sosnowskyi/sphondylium/wilhelmsii: The young stems and leaves are eaten, especially in cabbage soup, herb pies, and pickled. Especially in Georgia the species are widely used as food. Heracleum sp.: Khevi: Heracleum is eaten raw (Makalatia 1934). Mtiuleti-Gudamakari: Heracleum is eaten raw (Makalatia 1930a, b). Pshavi: Heracleum is pickled (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b), eaten fresh with stem (stem is peeled) (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b). Khevsureti: (1) Fresh young side (k’ap’i – sing., k’ap’ebi – pl.) of Heracleum are eaten before flowering. Heracleum is eaten with caution as it causes rash, so-called nadiq’ari, which transforms into itching pustules (Javakhishvili 1986); Heracleum is eaten raw (Bakhtadze and Koghuashvili 2009). Tusheti: Heracleum is eaten (Makalatia 1933a, b) and pickled (Javakhishvili 1986). Young shoots of the species of Heracleum were used as fresh food in spring in various alpine regions of West and East Georgia (Baliauri 1941; Bakhtadze and Koghuashvili 2009; Bodzashvili 1988; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b; Makalatia 1930a, b, 1933a, b, 1934, 1985; Javakhishvili 1986; Pruidze 1986).

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Fig. 9 Heracleum sp. (Apiaceae), pickled stems, Javakheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y, Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fresh shoots were also eaten with sour milk (as a meal called “sats’eba”) in summer (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b; Kurdghelaidze 1983). The plant was pickled as well (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b; Makalatia 1933a, b; Javakhishvili 1986). H. asperum: Pshavi: H. asperum stem is eaten: it is peeled and only inner tissues are eaten; it has slightly sweet taste; shup’q’a is not stored as it withers on the following day (Baliauri 1941); H. asperum is eaten raw (Makalatia 1985); the stem is peeled and eaten (Bodzashvili 1988). Khevsureti: Fresh young side shoots (k’ap’i – sing., k’ap’ebi – pl.) of H. asperum are collected, peeled, and eaten (Javakhishvili 1986). Tusheti: H. asperum was eaten with sour milk in summer (Kurdghelaidze 1983), and the stems are pickled (Makalatia 1933a, b); H. asperum is one of the herbs used for “sats’eba” (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b); H. leskovii: Racha: Young shoots were peeled and eaten (Pruidze 1986). Pshavi: H. leskovii is eaten fresh, with stem (peeled) (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b). Khevsureti: H. leskovii is eaten raw (Bakhtadze and Koghuashvili 2009). Hieracium asperum, H. leskovii, and H. wilhelmsii stems are pickled. Hieracium asperum leaves are used for sats’ebai (herbs dipped in sour milk). Young side shoots (k’ap’ebi კაპები) of shup’q’a შუპყა (Heracleum asperum M. Bieb.) are harvested, peeled, and eaten. In Tusheti many herbaceous plants are used as food and are kept for winter, either dried or pickled, to make mixed mkhali and sauces, and to accompany the main

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Fig. 10 Heracleum sp. (Apiaceae), pickled stems, Javakheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y, Paniagua-Zambrana)

dishes, including kumeli ქუმელი q’va ყვა. It is used all-year round, is made of roasted keri ქერი (barley) grains. Can be made of ipkli იფქლი (Georgian endemic wheat), corn, svili სვილი (rye), kersvili ქერსვილი (mixture of barley and rye), and tsetsvi ცერცვი (faba bean, when mixed with corn: giera-i გიერა-ი Brassica campestris subsp. oleifera (DC.) Schübl. & Mart., gomat’i გომატი Bunias orientalis L., dutsi დუცი Angelica tatianae Bordz., kharnuq’a-i ხარნუყა-ი Lactuca serriola L., buera ბუერა Petasites ssp., shubq’a-i შუბყა-ი Heracleum asperum M. Bieb., khap’ara-i ხაპარა-ი Cichorium intybus L., mariamdzmara მარიამძმარა Ligusticum alatum (M. Bieb.) Spreng. ch’imi ჭიმი Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., diq’i დიყი Heracleum ssp., jortk’uda-i ჯორთკუდა-ი Artemisia vulgaris L., sagvidzla საღვიძლა Taraxacum officinale (L.) Weber ex F.H. Wigg., dzirkhvena ძირხვენა Arctium lappa L., ch’ivana ჭივანა Silene wallichiana Klotzsch, kvishamkhala ქვიშამხალა Silene laera (Stev.) Sims, khavrat’ai ხავრატაი Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik., jorik’udai ჯორიკუდაი Artemisia vulgaris L., and giera გიერა Sinapis arvensis L. (Makalatia 1933a, b). Heracleum persicum: The seeds are used as a spice in Persian cuisine. The pods of very thin and small seeds are aromatic and slightly bitter. They are usually sold in the form of dust and are often mistakenly sold as “angelica seeds”. The powder is sprinkled on beans, lentils and other legumes, and potatoes. Golpar is also used in soups and stews. It is often used spread over pomegranate arils. Golpar is also mixed

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with vinegar in which the lettuce leaves are submerged before eating. Golpar can be used in small quantities (1 or 2 teaspoons per pound) when beans are cooked to reduce the effect of gas in the digestive tract associated with the consumption of beans. The petals are used in the mixture of spices recommended to flavor rice dishes, as well as chicken and beans. The tender leaves and stems of the leaves can also be pickled (known as golpar torshi). Pshavi people pickle mekendzala მეკენძალა Aruncus vulgaris Raf., ghimi ღიმი Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., etc. They are used as food shup’q’a შუპყა Heracleum asperum M. Bieb., ts’iteli jijilaq’a წითელი ჯიჯილაყა Amaranthus hybridus L., ghimi ღიმი Chaerophyllum bulbosum L. (Bakhtadze and Koghuashvili 2009). In Tianeti District: the stems of (peeled) shup’q’a შუპყა Heracleum asperum M. Bieb, diq’i დიყი Heracleum ssp., lagi ლაგი Heracleum leskovii Grossh., and k’enk’esha კენკეშას Campanula lactiflora M. Bieb. are eaten raw. In Khevsureti the young shoots of Diq’i დიყი Heracleum sosnowskyi I. Manden. and Shup’q’a შუპყა Heracleum asperum M. Bieb are eaten for their sweet taste. The shoots are called k’ap’ebi კაპები and harvested before flowering and peeled. diq’i დიყი is eaten with care because it can cause so called nadiq’ara — a skin rash which can develop large blisters (Bakhtadze and Koghuashvili 2009). In Tusheti many herbaceous plants are used as food and are kept for winter, either dried or pickled, to make mixed mkhali and sauces, and to accompany the main dishes, including kumeli ქუმელი q’va ყვა. It is used all-year round, is made of roasted keri ქერი (barley) grains. Can be made of ipkli იფქლი (Georgian endemic wheat), corn, svili სვილი (rye), kersvili ქერსვილი (mixture of barley and rye), and tsetsvi ცერცვი (faba bean, when mixed with corn: giera-i გიერა-ი Brassica campestris subsp. oleifera (DC.) Schübl. & Mart., gomat’i გომატი Bunias orientalis L., dutsi დუცი Angelica tatianae Bordz., kharnuq’a-i ხარნუყა-ი Lactuca serriola L., buera ბუერა Petasites ssp., shubq’a-i შუბყა-ი Heracleum asperum M. Bieb., khap’ara-i ხაპარა-ი Cichorium intybus L., mariamdzmara მარიამძმარა Ligusticum alatum (M. Bieb.) Spreng. ch’imi ჭიმი Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., diq’i დიყი Heracleum ssp., jortk’uda-i ჯორთკუდა-ი Artemisia vulgaris L., sagvidzla საღვიძლა Taraxacum officinale (L.) Weber ex F.H. Wigg., dzirkhvena ძირხვენა Arctium lappa L., ch’ivana ჭივანა Silene wallichiana Klotzsch, kvishamkhala ქვიშამხალა Silene laera (Stev.) Sims, khavrat’ai ხავრატაი Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik., and giera გიერა Sinapis arvensis L. (Makalatia 1933a, b). There are several ways to season mkhali in Tusheti: (1) well-cleaned plants are placed in a pot and cooked without water. The cooked plants are placed on a sieve to cool and are cut into pieces. After that the dish is seasoned with onions browned in clarified butter, eggs, and salt. (2) After cooking the plants in the same way, fresh cottage cheese, onions browned in clarified butter, eggs, and salt are added. (3) After boiling the mkhali is seasoned with vinegar, garlic, and salt. Normally, in Tusheti mkhali is not seasoned with walnuts and vinegar (Makalatia 1933a, b). The young shoots of giera გიერა Brassica campestris subsp. oleifera (DC.) Schübl. & Mart., mariamdzmara მარიამძმარა Ligusticum alatum (M. Bieb.) Spreng., shup’q’a შუპყა Heracleum asperum M. Bieb., diq’i დიყი Heracleum ssp., jortk’uda

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ჯორთკუდა Artemisia vulgaris L., and kartskhvi ქარცხვს Campanula tridentata Schreb., and k’enk’esha კენკეშას Campanula lactiflora M. Bieb. are pickled in Tusheti. If the cattle eat shup’q’a შუპყას Heracleum asperum M. Bieb. they give

yellow clarified butter (Bochoridze 1993; Kurdghelaidze 1983; Maghalashvili 1970; Makalatia 1933a, b; Oshoradze 1969). In Tusheti ch’imi ჭიმი Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., giera გიერა Brassica campestris subsp. oleifera (DC.) Schübl. & Mart., machigt’ara მაჩიგტარა Campanula rapunculoides L., khap’ara ხაპარა (ვარდკაჭაჭა) Cichorium intybus L., diq’i დიყი Heracleum ssp., shup’q’a შუპყა Heracleum asperum M. Bieb., ap’q’i აპყი Heracleum leskovii Grossh., dutsi დუცი Angelica tatianae Bordz, giera გიერა Sinapis arvensis L., jortk’uda ჯორთკუდა (wild estragon) Artemisia vulgaris L., mariamdzmara მარიამძმარა Ligusticum alatum (M.Bieb.) Spreng., and kharnuq’a ხარნუყა Lactuca serriola L. are eaten raw and also dipped in sour milk (Makalatia 1933a, b; Oshoradze 1969). These herbaceous plants for dipping (sats’ebaci, sats’ebi “chatseba” means “dip” in Georgian) are harvested, and a bowl with curd “shegdebul ze” „შეგდებულ ზე“ is filled; then leaves and young shoots from the mentioned herbaceous plants are plucked, dipped in the curd, and eaten. In Kartili young shoots of telkharshi თელხარში Heracleum leskovii Grossh., melidzvala მელიძვალა Serratula quinquefolia M. Bieb. ex Willd, and saptskvnela საფცქვნელა Artemisia vulgaris L. are peeled and eaten (Berozashvili et al. 1981). In South Georgia, young stems of diq’a დიყა Heracleum ssp. and ghimi ღიმი Chaerophyllum bulbosum L. are pickled (Ivelasvili 1991). In Racha Pruidze (1986) found that perople use the young shoots of diq’i დიყი Heracleum ssp., q’ardimela ყარდიმელა, gogsodimela გოგსოდიმელა (Petasites ssp.), which are peeled and eaten raw (Gvaramadze 1997; Baramidze 1987; Kakhidze 2007; Kokhreidze 1947; Nizharadze 1971). Heracleum villosum: The stems are pickled (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2018; Bussmann 2017). Heracleum sosnowskyi: The leaves and seeds are widely used as food. The stems are pickled or used in sats’ebai and chave (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2018; Bussmann 2017). Heracleum sp. The leaves are eaten in Pkhali (herb pie) and the stems are pickled (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2018; Bussmann 2017). Heracleum wilhelmsii: The stems are eaten pickled (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2018; Bussmann 2017). In other region species are eaten too, e.g., Heracleum lanatum in the Himalayas (Singh et al. 2019).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Heracleum mantegazzianum/sibiricum/sosnowskyi: As fodder for livestock when in silage. Used to dye wool and silk with aluminum (Grossheim 1952). Heracleum sphondylium/Heracleum wilhelmsii: As fodder for pigs and rabbits.

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All species contain phototoxic compounds (furanocoumarins) that can cause strong allergic reactions. Used to dye wool and silk with aluminum (Grossheim 1952). Heracleum sp. The leaves are used to treat mastitis in cows (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2018; Bussmann 2017).

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Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Gholipour A, Ghorbani Nahouji M, Rasouli N, Habib M. Ethnobotanic study of medicinal plants in Zaramroud-e Neka (Mazandaran province). J Med Plants. 2014;4(52):101–21. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Gvaramadze K. Results of the study of the Guria region. Tbilisi; 1997. (გვარამაძე კ. 1997. (გურია მხარის კვლევა-ძიების შედეგები. თბილისი in Georgian.). Ivelasvili T. Folk cuisine in South Georgia. Tbilisi: Sadara; 1991. (იველაშვილი თ. 1991. ხალხური სამზარეულო სამხრეთ საქართველოში. თბილისი: სადარა in Georgian.). Javakhishvili I. Materials for history of household and crafts, vol. 5: food and drinks. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1986. (in Georgian). Kakhidze N. The oldest and old historical sources of Adjara – ethnographic data. Essays on history of south-western Georgia, Adjara 1. Tbilisi; 2007. (კახიძე ნ. 2007 აჭარის უძველესი და ძველი ისტორიის წყაროები ეთნოგრაფიული მონაცემები. სამხრეთ-დასავლეთ საქართველოს ისტორიის ნარკვევები აჭარა 1. თბილისი in Georgian.). Kavtaradze I. Mokhevian dialect of the Georgian language. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1985. (ქავთარაძე ი. 1985. ქართული ენის მოხევური დიალექტი. თბილისი: მეცნიერება in Georgian.). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Kokhreidze V. Wild food plants of Adjara (mkhaleuli). Batumi: Adjaris Sakhelgami; 1947. (8კოხრეიძე ვ. 1947. აჭარაში ველურად მოზარდი საკვები მცენარეები (მხალეული). ბათუმი: აჭარის სახელგამი in Georgian.). Kurdghelaidze G. Tusheti – household, nature, toponymy. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1983. (8კურდღელაიძე გ. 1983. თუშეთი მეურნეობა, ბუნება, ტოპონიმიკა. თბილისი: მეცნიერება in Georgian.). Maghalashvili T. Useful plants of Telavi district. Acad. S. Janashia State Museum of Georgia XXVI–XXVII. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1970. (8 მაღალაშვილი თ. 1970. თელავის რაიონის სასარგებლო მცენარეები. აკად. ს. ჯანაშიას სახელობის საქართველოს სახელმწიფო მუზეუმის მოამბე XXVI-XXVII – A. თბილისი: მეცნიერება in Georgian.). Makalatia S. Mtiuleti. Tbilisi: Sakhelgami; 1930a. (8მაკალათია ს. 1930. მთიულეთი. ტფილისი: სახელგამი in Georgian.). Makalatia S. Mtiuleti. Tbilisi: Sakhelgami; 1930b. (in Georgian). Makalatia S. Tusheti. Tbilisi: Sakhelgami; 1933a. (მაკალათია ს. 1933. თუშეთი. ტფილისი: სახელგამი in Georgian.). Makalatia S. Tusheti. Tbilisi: Georgian Academy of Sciences; 1933b. (in Georgian). Makalatia S. Khevi. Tbilisi: Georgian Academy of Sciences; 1934. (in Georgian). Makalatia S. Pshavi. Tbilisi: Georgian Academy of Sciences; 1985. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Mikaili P, Shayegh J, Asghari MH, Sarahroodi S, Sharifi M. Currently used traditional phytomedicines with hot nature in Iran. Ann Biol Res. 2011;2(5):56–68. Mozaffarian V. Identification of medicinal and aromatic plants of Iran. Tehran: Farhang Moaser; 2013. Nizharadze SH. Adjarian dialect of the Georgian language. Batumi; 1971. (ნიჟარაძე შ. 1971. ქართული ენის აჭარული დიალექტი. ბათუმი in Georgian.). Oshoradze V. Characteristics of wild mkhaleuli and greens of Tusheti and possibility of their cultivation. Candidate of Agricultural Sciences dissertation thesis. Tbilisi; 1969. (ოშორაძე ვ.

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1969. (თუშეთის ველურად მოზარდი მხალეულ-მწვანილეული მცენარეების დახასიათება და მათი კულტურაში დანერგვის შესაძლებლობა. სადისერტაციო ნაშრომი სოფლის მეურნეობის მეცნ. კანდიდატის სამეცნიერო ხარისხის მოსაპოვებლად. თბილისი in Georgian.). Pruidze L. Racha in the view of an ethnographer. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1986. (ფრუიძე ლ. 1986. რაჭა ეთნოგრაფის თვალით. თბილისი: მეცნიერება in Georgian.). Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 17: Umbelliflorae (continued) Peucedaneae-Dauceae & Nyassaceae, Cornaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1951 (English 1974). 285 pages, 25 plates with b/w line drawings; 2 b/w fold-out maps. Singh S, Bhat JA, Malik ZA, Youssouf M, Bussmann RW, Kunwar RM. Sacred groves in Western Himalaya, India: community-managed nature refuges for conservation of biodiversity and culture. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18(15) https://doi.org/10.17348/era.18.15.1-21. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1988, 357 p. (in Russian). Sujashvili N, Pitskhelauri I. Dictionary of Mokhevian dialect. Tbilisi; 2005. (სუჯაშვილი ნ., ფიცხელაური ი. 2005. მოხევური ლექსიკონი. თბილისი). Tedoradze G. Five years in Pshav-Khevsureti. Tbilisi; 1930. (თედორაძე გ. 1930. ხუთი წელი ფშავ-ხევსურეთში. ტფილისი in Georgian.). Thakur KS, Kumar M, Bawa R, Bussmann RW. Ethnobotanical study of herbaceous flora along an altitudinal gradient in Bharmour Forest Division, District Chamba of Himachal Pradesh, India. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2014; https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/946870. Ur-Rahman I, Afsal A, Iqbal Z, Ijas F, Ali N, Asif M, Alam J, Majid A, Bussmann RW. Traditional and ethnomedicinal dermatology practices in Pakistan. Clin Dermatol. 2018;36(3):310–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clindermatol.2018.03.018. Zolfeghari E, Adeli I, Mozafarian V, Babaiy S, Habibi Bibalan G. Identification of Arasbaran medicinal plants and ethnobotanical study of rural people knowledge (Case Study: Arasbaran forest, Mardanaghom watershed). Iran J Med Aromat Plan Theory. 2012;28(3):534–50.

Hordeum brevisubulatum subsp. violaceum (Boiss. & Hohen.) Tzvelev Hordeum vulgare L. POACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze Synonyms Hordeum brevisubulatum subsp. violaceum (Boiss. & Hohen.) Tzvelev: Critesion violaceum (Boiss. & Hohen.) Á. Löve; Hordeum violaceum Boiss. & Hohen. Hordeum vulgare L.: Frumentum sativum E.H.L. Krause; Hordeum agriocrithon A.E. Åberg; Hordeum bifarium Roth; Hordeum coeleste (L.) P. Beauv.; Hordeum deficiens Steud. ex A. Braun; Hordeum distichon L.; Hordeum distichon subsp. zeocrithon (L.) Celak.; Hordeum distichum L.; Hordeum gymnodisticum Duthie; Hordeum hexastichon L.; Hordeum himalayense Schult.; Hordeum leptostachts R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_72

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Griff.; Hordeum macrolepis A. Braun; Hordeum nigrum Willd.; Hordeum polystichon Haller f.; Hordeum polystichon var. vulgare (L.) Döll; Hordeum revelatum (Körn.) A. Schulz; Hordeum sativum Jess.; Hordeum sativum Pers.; Hordeum sativum var. vulgare (L.) Richt.; Hordeum spontaneum K. Koch.; Hordeum tetrastichum Stokes; Hordeum vulgare fo. hexastichum (L.) Hiroe; Hordeum vulgare subsp. agriocrithon (A.E. Åberg) Á. Löve; Hordeum vulgare subsp. deficiens (Steud. ex A. Braun) Á. Löve; Hordeum vulgare subsp. distichum (L.) Thell.; Hordeum vulgare subsp. hexastichon (L.) Celak.; Hordeum vulgare subsp. spontaneum (K. Koch) Asch. & Graebn.; Hordeum zeocriton L.

Local Names Hordeum violaceum: Georgian ქერი (keri) Hordeum vulgare: Georgian მუხუდო (mukhudo), ორრიგა ქერი (orriga keri); Svan ჭმინ (tchmin); Russian Ячмень (jatsmen), Azeri арпа (arpa); Armenian гори (gori) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991); English barley Hordeum vulgare ssp. vulgare var. coeleste: Georgian ქერშველი (Kershveli)

Botany and Ecology Hordeum violaceum: Perennial. Culms glabrous, 30–75 cm tall; leaves green, flat, 25–0.5 cm broad, very scabrous, sometimes hairy on the upper surface relatively thin. Spikes 4–8.5 (10) cm long, 0.4–0.6 cm broad, blackish purple more rarely with a fainter purple tinge, rachis scabrous on the angles very brittle in upper part and slightly so near the base; lateral spikelets with reduced glumes setaceous, very scabrous, 0.5–0.9 (1) cm long, slightly exceeding the floret; lemma of the central, fertile spikelet lanceolate, quite glabrous, 0.5–0.7 cm long, tapering into awn 1–3 (rarely 5) mm long. Flowering July. Caucasus, mountain steppes, originally cultivated (Rozhevits et al. 1934). Hordeum vulgare: Annual. Culms 50–85 cm tall, erect, smooth; sheaths shorter than the internodes, glabrous; leaves flat, to 1–1.2 cm broad, scabrous on both sides, auricles at the base of the blade falcate, clasping the culm. Spikes linear, to 12 cm long (excluding awns), 0.7–0.8 cm broad, light green, rachis firm, hairy on the angles; spikelets arranged in 30 s, in two opposite rows; all three spikelets on each joint of the rachis being fertile, each of the spikelets developing a grain; lateral spikelets subsessile. Spikes broader, to 1.5 cm, with a firm rachis, short-pubescent on the angles; glumes linear-lanceolate at the base, short-pubescent, tapering into a slender, scabrous awn; lemmas of lateral spikelets long-awned, the awns flat, very scabrous on the margin, 8–12 cm long, somewhat shorter than the awn of the central floret. Flowering June. Originally very widely cultivated (Rozhevits et al. 1934; Fig. 1).

Hordeum brevisubulatum subsp. violaceum (Boiss. & Hohen.) Tzvelev

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Fig. 1 Hordeum vulgare (Poaceae), Ethiopia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses Hordeum violaceum: The leaves are used in Georgia for the treatment of cancer (Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b, c, 2018).

Local Food Uses Hordeum vulgare: The seeds are used for bread and porridge, to make beer and to distill alcohol (Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b, c, 2018). In particular the production of beer for ceremonial functions has thousands of years of tradition in the region, especially the mountainous parts (Bussmann et al. 2017a, b).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Planted as winter crop and fodder. Hordeum violaceum as hay plant (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1994).

References Bussmann RW. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia

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(Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus – the region. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017a. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus – Georgia. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017b. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017c;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – Plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Rozhevits RYu, Shishkin BK, Komarov VL. Flora of the USSR, Volume 2: Glumiflorae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1934 (English 1973), 622 p, 50 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of Russia and adjacent states: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 8. Families Butomaceae – Typhaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1994, 271 p. (in Russian).

Humulus lupulus L. CANNABACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Local Names Georgian: სვია (svia), სვე (marts’q’vi), სვე (sve); Russian: Хмель (chmel); Azeri: мая сармашыгы (maja sarmaşygy); Armenian: гайлук (gailyk) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991); English: hops

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_73

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Botany and Ecology Perennial; rootstock long creeping; stems climbing, angled, rough-hairy; leaves entire or 3–5-lobed, deeply cordate, acuminate, coarsely serrate, with large lanceolate approximate stipules; perianth of pistillate flowers one-sidedly enlarging and becoming scaly, winglike, obtuse, investing the achene at base, covered with small glands and diffusely puberulous outside. Flowering June–July. Ural, Caucasus, along rivers, in ravines, in damp broad-leaved forests, hedges (Bobrov and Komarov 1936; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).

Phytochemistry Essential oils (dipentene, caryophyllene, geranol, borneol, limonene, tsuneol, gumulen, humulenone, humyladenonene, humulol, orumuladiol), flavonoids (astragalin, rutin, quercetine), carbohydrates, vitamins (В 1, В2, С, carotene), phenylkarbonic acids, leucoantho-cyanidines, anthocyanins, organic acids (valerian) (Fedorov 1984). Fig. 1 Humulus lupulus (Cannabaceae), Kakheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Humulus lupulus (Cannabaceae), Kakheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Humulus lupulus L. Fig. 3 Humulus lupulus (Cannabaceae), Kakheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Humulus lupulus (Cannabaceae), Kakheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Humulus lupulus (Cannabaceae), Kakheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Local Medicinal Uses The roots are used as abortive. The flowers are used as sedative (Fedorov 1984). The female flowers, leaves, and shoots are used as sedative and calmative. The flowers are employed to treat prostate problems (Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016, 2017, 2018).

Local Food Uses The flowers are widely used as flavoring agent for beer. Young shoots are consumed raw before leafing as a salad or boiled as asparagus, sometimes walnut sauce, and also eaten in soup. In Mingrelia they eat in the form of a mushy soup (ravens) (Fedorov 1984; Grossheim 1952). Plants used as mkhali Kaheti: tatruli mkhali თათრული მხალი Amaranthus hybridus L., ts’ots’nara mkhali წოწნარა მხალს Amaranthus retroflexus L., khach’ich’ora ხაჭიჭორა Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik., vazisdzira ვაზიძირა Lapsana grandiflora M. Bieb., bolok’a ბოლოკა Rapistrum rugosum (L.) All., q’int’ora ყინტორა Chaerophyllum aureum L., natsarkatama ნაცარქათამა Chenopodium album L., shalgi შალგი (shelga შელგა) Brassica campestris L., sve სვე Humulus lupulus L., khboshubla ხბოშუბლა Galega orientalis Lam. ნორჩ, ch’inch’ari ჭინჭარი Urtica dioica L., ghoris kada ღორის ქადა Lactuca serriola L., Balba ბალბა Malva neglecta l., natsarkatama ნაცარქათამა or dzaghltzhola ძაღლთჟოლა Chenopodium foliosum, tatabo თათაბო Atriplex hortensis L., saghvidzla საღვიძლა or burbushela ბურბუშელა Taraxacum confusum Schischk., tskhenis tsertsvela ც ხენის ცერცველა– Vicia narborensis, vazis dzira ვაზის ძირა Lapsana grandiflora M. Bieb., mravaldzarghva მრავალძარღვა Plantago major L., babuats’vera ბაბუაწვერა Taraxacum ssp., gareuli ts’its’mat’i გარეული წიწმატი Cardamine hirsuta L., ghinch’a-ghinch’a ღინჭა-ღინჭა Sonchus ssp. (Javakhishvili 1986; Menteshashvili 1943). In Kartili young shoots of at’it’ela მატიტელა Polygonum ssp., q’aq’acho ყაყაჩო Papaver ssp., khbosshubla ხბოსშუბლა Galega orientalis Lam.,and svia სვია Humulus lupulus L. are collected in spring, young shoots are washed and fried with onions, seasoned with coriander, garlic, salt, and pepper (Javakhishvili 1986). In Racha tiorshi თიორში, dilkhami დილხამი Arctium lappa L., mek’endzala მეკენძალა Aruncus vulgaris Raf., kalak’oda ქალაკოდა Arum orientale M. Bieb. and Humulus lupulus L. and many others were kept for winter woven in double braids and hung from a pillar to pillar, long as the song sung by women during the kalak’oda ქალაკოდა (Arum orientale collection party) (Pruidze 1986). Other pkhali plants in Guria are jijilaq’a ჯიჯილაყა Amaranthus retroflexus L., svint’ri სვინტრი Polygonatum ssp., ch’q’ana ჭყანა Anthriscus cerefolium (L.) Hoffm., ch’andua ჭანდუა, ch’inch’ari ჭინჭარი Urtica dioica L., molokai მოლოქაი Malva sylvestris L., umbalo უმბალო Mentha pulegium L., dedlikonai დედლიქონაი Ranunculus chius DC., pshalai ფშალაი Humulus lupulus L., ek’ala ეკალა Smilax excelsa L., katanatsarai ქათანაცარაი Chenopodium album L., khvartklai ხვართქლაი

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Convolvulus arvensis, katmikonai ქათმიქონაი Valerianella locusta (L.) Laterr., danduri დანდური Portulaca oleracea L., dzrokhis-ena ძროხის-ენა Phyllitis scolopendrium (L.) Newman, k’at’a კატა, k’at’abarda კატაბარდას Clematis orientalis L., C. vitalba L., sukana სუქანა, tz’q’lis niakhura წყლის ნიახურა Ranunculus repens L., dedliskona დედლისქონა Ranunculus chius DC., ok’nat’ua ოკნატუა Ficaria ssp., tavshava თავშავა Origanum vulgare, asistava ასისთავა Genista ssp., ch’q’ima-mkhali ჭყიმა-მხალი Anthriscus nemorosa (M. Bieb.) Spreng., chit’is tava ჩიტის თავა Ornithogalum woronowii Krasch., jijilaq’a ჯიჯილაყა Amaranthus retroflexus L., ch’inch’ari ჭინჭარი Urtica dioica L., danduri დანდური Portulaca oleracea L., ek’ala ეკალა Smilax excelsa L., jokhia ჯოხია Matteuccia struthiopteris (L.) Tod. Sometimes all these were mixed to cook pkhali; but only young shoots and leaves can be used. They are washed, boiled and minced, seasoned with vinegar, salt, and pepper at your taste. Crushed walnuts or hazelnuts are added. The female flowers are used to bitter beer. The leaves and shoots are used in pkhali, often together with Amaranthus sp. (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016, 2017, 2018).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The fibers are used for ropes. Planted as ornamental. Fodder for cattle (Fedorov 1984; Grossheim 1952).

References Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Amaranthus retroflexus L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Bobrov EG, Komarov VL. Flora of the USSR, Volume 5: Dicotyledoneae, Subclass I: Archichlamydeae, Order Piperales-Polygonales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1936 (English 1970). 593 pages, 49 b/w plates. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Springer International Publishing: Cham; 2017, XXVII, 746 p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1). Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24.

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Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Fedorov AA, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 1. Families Magnoliaceae – Limoniaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1984, 460 p. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Javakhishvili I. Materials for the history of household industry and handicraft, vol. V, part 2: food and drinks. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1986. (ჯავახიშვილი, ი. 1986. მასალები შინა მრეწველობისა და ხელოსნობის ისტორიისათვის, ტ. V ნაწ. 2: საჭმელ in Georgian.) Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Menteshashvili S. Dictionary of Kizikian dialect. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1943. (მენთეშაშვილი ს. 1943. ქიზიყური ლექსიკონი -თბილისი: მეცნიერება.) Pruidze L. Racha in the view of an ethnographer. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1986. (ფრუიძე ლ. 1986. რაჭა ეთნოგრაფის თვალით. თბილისი: მეცნიერება in Georgian.)

Hyoscyamus niger L. SOLANACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Hyoscyamus niger L.: Hyoscyamus agrestis Kit. ex Schult.; Hyoscyamus bohemicus F.W. Schmidt; Hyoscyamus niger var. annuus Sims; Hyoscyamus niger var. chinensis Makino

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_74

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Local Names Georgian: ლენცოფა (lentsopa), საპინა (sap’ina); Russian: Белена (belena); Azeri: бат бат (bat bat); Armenian: бангуцахик (bangtsachyk) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991); English: Henbane

Botany and Ecology Biennial. Winter plant covered with soft, viscid, patent bloom; fetid. Root vertical up to 2–3 cm thick, branched, soft, sometimes almost spongy, rugose, with thickened collar. Stem 20–115 cm tall, 1.5(2) cm thick at base, green, simple only in weak stunted plants, but usually branched. Leaves soft, nonglossy, dark green above, grayish underneath, lighter, densely hairy along veins and margin; basal leaves (rosette) long petiolate, oblong-ovate or elliptical, sinuate-pinnatifid; cauline sessile, semi-amplexicaul, oblonglanceolate, sinuate-lobed or deeply incised, with triangular or triangular-lanceolate, acuminate or acute, generally 4–5, lobes or teeth. Flowers sessile crowded at end of stem and branches in leafy helicoid cymes, elongated after flowering; floral leaves sessile, oblong, or narrowly lanceolate, with a few teeth or entire. Flowering calyx herbaceous, 10–22 mm long, tubular below, broadened and campanulate above middle, with broad triangular sharp teeth; fruiting calyx accrescent, 21–32 mm long, hardening, urceolate, broadening and densely patently pilose in lower part, with constriction above middle and rather widespread, short, aristate sharp teeth, (1/6)1/5–1/4(2/7) as long as tube. Corolla 2–4.5 cm long, infundibuliform, dull yellowish or rarely whitish, with purple reticulate veins, throat and upper part of tube purple-violet, lobes obtuse, somewhat unequal. Stamens unequal, two shorter, three longer, slightly exceeding throat; filaments inserted in middle of tube, pilose in lower part: ovary glabrous; style pilose in lower part. Capsule broad at base, closely enclosed within calyx, latter twice as long. Seeds numerous (up to 500) brownish gray, finely pitted. Flowering May–August, fruiting June–August. Ural, Caucasus, ruderal, on vacant lots, garbage places, near settlements, along roads, in kitchen gardens and as weed on arable land (Shishkin and Boborov 1955; Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4). Fig. 1 Hyoscyamus niger (Solanaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Hyoscyamus niger (Solanaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Hyoscyamus niger (Solanaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Flavonoids (spiroside, quercitrin, hyperoside, rutin), fatty acids (linoleic, palmitic, stearic, myristic, oleic, phospholipids), alkaloids (rioscyamine, rioscine, apogiascine, riospine, skimianine, scopolamine, apoatropine, alpha-belladononoine, tropine), cyclitols (ficin), steroids (Sokolov 1990).

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Fig. 4 Hyoscyamus niger (Solanaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses Hyoscyamus extract is used to treat anthrax, erysipelas, inflammations, and diphtheria and as a sedative, anticonvulsant, and analgesic for Parkinson disease, neuralgia, convulsions, headaches, bronchial asthma, pneumonia, and spasms of the bladder. Especially in the Mongolian Altai, the plant is used for tumors of the cervix, rectum, and urethra; for cutaneous and venereal diseases, scabies, eczema, dermatomycosis, and syphilis, as anthelmintic and as a sedative; and for gout, furunculosis, respiratory infections, and pleurisy. The plant is also used as analgesic and treatment for tumors and earaches, and the seeds are burnt for toothaches and convulsions. As poultice the leaves are used for abscesses. The leaves are used as painkiller and sedative and remedy for asthma, hepatic stones, and rheumatism (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1990). The leaves are locally used as antifungal. The seeds are used to treat toothache (Bussmann et al. 2016, 2017, 2018). In the Himalayas decoctions of the fruits are used to treat epilepsy and headache, and the leaves, boiled with leaves of Plantago ovata, are used to treat backache and lumbago (Sher et al. 2016).

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses It is used as insecticide (decoction, powder) to kill aphids, moths, and spider mites and is highly toxic (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1990). Hyoscyamus is a very old ceremonial plant (Bussmann 2016), and the leaves are still locally used as hallucinogenic (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016, 2017, 2018).

References Bussmann RW. Magic plants. In: Albuquerque U, Alves R, editors. Introduction to Ethnobiology. Heidelberg: Springer; 2016. p. 163–9. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among the Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni ethnic groups in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, Volume 22: Solanaceae and Scrophulariaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1955. (English 1993). 745 p. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: Flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 5. Families of Caprifoliaceae – Plantaginaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1990, 328 p. (in Russian).

Hypericum perforatum L. HYPERICACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Hypericum nachitschevianicum Grossh.; Hypericum perforatum var. confertiflorum Debeaux; Hypericum perforatum var. microphyllum H. Lév.

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; mananakhuts@yahoo. com; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_75

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Local Names Georgian: კრაზანა (k’razana); Russian: 3веробой (sveroboi); Azeri: бой чичаи (boi tsitsai); Armenian: аревкурик (arevkuryk) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991); Farsi: Chay-oti (‫)ﭺﺍﯼ ﺍﻭﺕﯼ‬, Alaf-e chay (‫)ﻉﻝﻑ ﭺﺍﯼ‬, Hufarighoon (‫ ;)ﻩﻭﻑﺍﺭﯼﻕﻭﻥ‬English: St. Johnswort

Botany and Ecology Perennial, glabrous throughout, green or sometimes glaucescent (var. songaricum (Rchb.) G. Woron.); stem erect, 2-edged, branched at top, 30–100 cm long; leaves oval or elliptic or oblong-ovate or oblong, 0.7–3 cm long, 0.3–1.5 cm broad, or broadly elliptic (var. songaricum (Rchb.) G. Woron.), subcordate, or rather narrow, oblong-linear or oblong (var. veronense (Schrank) Beck, and var. collinum G. Woron.), subobtuse, flat or more or less revolute-margined, furnished with numerous pellucid and few black glandular dots; flowers numerous, forming a broadly paniculate, almost corymbose inflorescence 7–11 cm long and 5–11 cm broad; bracts lanceolate, 0.5 cm long, acute; calyx deeply parted, 5 mm long, about 2–3 times shorter than corolla; sepals lanceolate or narrowly lanceolate (var. vulgare (Schimp. et Spann.) Neilr.), or linear, or linear-lanceolate (var. veronense (Schrank) Beck, and var. collinum G. Woron.), 4(5) mm long, 1 mm broad, as long as ovary (var. veronense (Schrank) Beck.) or longer (var. collinum G. Woron.), acute or acuminate, sparingly furnished with black glandular mostly oval dots, margin smooth or sparsely toothed; petals oblong to oblong-elliptic, inequilateral, 1.2–1.5 cm long, 0.5–0.6 cm broad, with numerous black glandular dots and lines on margin in upper part, surface with numerous yellow glandular dots, thin lines and stripes, or without black dots (var. vulgare (Schimp. et Spann.) Neilr.); stamens numerous, in three bundles; ovary ovoid, 3–5 mm long; styles 3, distinct, twice as long as ovary; capsule oblong-ovoid, 6 mm long, 5 mm broad, or small, 3–4 mm long and 3 mm broad, broad-ovoid or rounded-ovoid (var. collinum G. Woron.), brown, with yellow glandular longitudinal streaks and lines; seed 1 mm long, cylindric, brown, minutely pitted longitudinally. May–August. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia. Found in forests and bushland; on meadows, stony slopes, and subalpine lawns; in mountain forests and steppes; on the outskirts of fields; and among crops (Shishkin 1949; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6).

Phytochemistry Mannitol 1.1–2%, essential oils (a-pinene, myrcene, cineole, capric aldehyde), saponins, alkaloids, vitamins (C, carotene), phenols (pyrogallol, floroglucin), phenylcarboxylic acids, tannins, flavonoids (quercetin, rutin, hyperin, isoquercitrin, rutoside, arabinoside, avicularyine), anthocyanins, anthraquinones (hypericin, prothegipericine, pseudo-adipergicine, coumarins (Sokolov 1985).

Hypericum perforatum L. Fig. 1 Hypericum perforatum (Hypericaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Hypericum perforatum (Hypericaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Hypericum perforatum (Hypericaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 4 Hypericum androsaemum (Hypericaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Hypericum androsaemum (Hypericaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses Hypericum perforatum is part of the pharmacopoeia of Russia, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Romania, Poland, France, and Germany. The plant us used as stimulant, as a diuretic, for heart and tissue regeneration, for wound healing and as rheostatic, as well as for the treatment of neurasthenia and neuralgia and gynecological diseases. Moreover, other traditional uses are for the treatment of stomach ulcers, increased acidity, gout, sciatica, rheumatism, hemorrhoids, nocturnal enuresis in children, and

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Fig. 6 Hypericum androsaemum (Hypericaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

diarrhea. In Central Asia the decoction is especially used as an astringent, antiinflammatory, antiseptic, tonic, and hemostatic agent and for the treatment of kidney diseases, heart diseases, diarrhea, and hemoptysis. In the Ural the plant is used to treat cancer of the liver, stomach, and ovaries, and goiter, while in the Northern Caucasus, Hypericum juice serves to treat bronchial asthma, colds, stomach ulcers, and duodenal ulcers. In Karachaevo-Circassia, Hypericum serves to treat hypertonia and prophylaxis of scurvy. In Uzbekistan the ash of the whole plants is used as ointment for skin diseases. The seeds have a strong laxative effect. The leaves and flowers are used to produce creams to make the skin soft (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1990). Infusion of flowers and leaves is used as antidepressant, diuretic, pain killer, wound healing, sedative, and relaxant (Amin 2005; Ghorbani 2005). In Pshavi chais q’vavili, ჩაის ყვავილი Hypericum sp. flowers are boiled and drunk as tea (Maghalashvili 1970). The leaves are used to treat nervous system problems and as sedative. The leaves and shoots act as anti-inflammatory and to treat diarrhea, gum inflammations, hemorrhoids, and liver problems (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a; 2018). The species is often sold as medicine in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2017b).

Local Food Uses The flowers serve as tea surrogate (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a; 2018; Sokolov 1990).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses In veterinary medicine Hypericum is employed as an anthelmintic. The flowers can be used to dye wool in silk in golden, yellow, and green tones. The whole plant is toxic for sheep and can be lethal, causing hypertrophic liver cirrhosis and nephritis. Photosensitization has been observed in white sheep (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1990).

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References Amin G. The most common traditional medicinal plants of Iran. Tehran: Tehran University of Medical Sciences Publication; 2005. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Ghorbani A. Studies on pharmaceutical ethnobotany in the region of Turkmen Sahra, north of Iran (Part 1): general results. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102:58–68. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Maghalashvili T. 1970. Useful plants of Telavi district. Acad. S. Janashia State Museum of Georgia XXVI–XXVII. Tbilisi: Metsniereba. (8 მაღალაშვილი თ. 1970. თელავის რაიონის სასარგებლო მცენარეები. აკად. ს. ჯანაშიას სახელობის საქართველოს სახელმწიფო მუზეუმის მოამბე XXVI–XXVII – A. თბილისი: მეცნიერება in Georgian.) Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 15: Malvales, Parietales, Myrtiflorae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1949 (English 1974). 565 p, 33 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 2. Families Paeoniaceae – Thymelaeacea. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1985, 336 p. (in Russian). Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: Flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 5. Families of Caprifoliaceae – Plantaginaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1990, 328 p. (in Russian).

Isatis tinctoria L. BRASSICACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Isatis tinctoria L.: Isatis bannatica Link; Isatis campestris Stev. ex DC.; Isatis canescens DC.; Isatis ciesielskii Zapal.; Isatis indigotica Fortune; Isatis japonica Miq.; Isatis kamienskii Zapal.; Isatis macrocarpa B. Fedetsch. ex Nikitina; Isatis maeotica DC.; Isatis maritima Rupr.; Isatis oblongata DC.; Isatis oblongata var. yezoensis Y.L. Chang; Isatis praecox Kit. ex. Tratt.; Isatis reticulata C.A. Mey.; Isatis sibirica Trautv.; Isatis taurica M. Bieb.; Isatis tinctoria subsp. campestris (Stev. ex DC.) Lulcz.; Isatis tinctoria subsp. canescens Malag.; Isatis tinctoria R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_76

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subsp. koelzii Jafri; Isatis tinctoria subsp. praecox (Kit. ex Tratt.) Domin & Podp.; Isatis tinctoria L. subsp. tinctoria; Isatis tinctoria var. indigotica (Fortune) T.Y. Cheo & K.C. Kuan; Isatis tinctoria var. praecox (Kit. ex. Tratt.) W.D.J. Koch; Isatis tinctoria var. vulgaris W.D.J. Koch; Isatis tinctoria var. yezoensis (Ohwi) Ohwi; Isatis transsilvanica Simonk.; Isatis villarsii Gaudin; Isatis yetzoensis Ohwi

Local Names Georgian საღებავი მათრახა (saghebavi matrakha); Russian Вайдакрасильная (Vaydakrasil’naya); Armenian лрджун (irdjun) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991).

Botany and Ecology Biennial; stem 70–80 cm high; radical leaves subacute, oblong-lanceolate, pilose, entire or eroded, middle and upper leaves linear, acute, narrowly sagittate. Inflorescence loose, paniculate; petals 3–4.5 mm long, yellow; silicles glabrous, 3–4 times Fig. 1 Isatis tinctoria (Brassicaceae), Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Isatis tinctoria (Brassicaceae), Kazbegi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y Paniagua-Zambrana)

as long as broad, 13–16 mm long, 3–4 mm broad, oblong-linear, cuneate at base, obtuse or emarginate, cell thin, obscurely ribbed. Flowering May–June. Originally common in Ural, Caucasus, and Central Middle Asia. Especially in oak forests, on steppes, and on dry hills and limestone slopes, along the shores of rivers and lakes, and on the sandy soils and abandoned agricultural land (Bobrov and Bush 1939; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).

Phytochemistry Thioglycosides (sinigrine), saponins, vitamins (C, B2, carotene), indigoids (indigotine), flavonoids (isoscoparine), fatty acids (Sokolov 1985).

Local Medicinal Uses In traditional medicine, used as a syrup for measles. A leaf decoction is used to treat wounds, furuncles, tumors, and dermatomycosis, internally for spleen problems, and as emetic and laxative. In large quantities toxic, causing renal colics (Sokolov 1985).

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Fig. 3 Isatis tinctoria (Brassicaceae), Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y Paniagua-Zambrana)

In Pakistan the leaves of Isatis stocksii are eaten by pregnant women to ease pain in childbirth (Sher et al. 2016).

Local Food Uses Oil from the seeds is close to linseed and can be used as food (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1985).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses In the Eastern Caucasus, used for dyeing the eyebrows. The leaves yield blue and green colors (indigo) that can be used as dyes for wool, cloth, and silk. Suitable as fodder for cattle and sheep (Bussmann et al. 2016; Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1985; Fig. 6).

Isatis tinctoria L. Fig. 4 Isatis tinctoria (Brassicaceae), Kazbegi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Isatis tinctoria (Brassicaceae), Kazbegi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 6 Isatis tinctoria (Brassicaceae), dyed wool, Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y Paniagua-Zambrana)

References Bobrov EG, Bush NA. Flora of the USSR, Volume 8: Capparidaceae, Cruciferae and Resedaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1939 (English 1970). 524 pages, 34 b/w plates, 2 maps. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Academia Kauk; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among the Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni ethnic groups in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 2. Families Paeoniaceae – Thymelaeacea. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1985, 336 p. (in Russian).

Juniperus communis L. Juniperus depressa Raf. Juniperus hemisphaerica J. Presl & C. Presl Juniperus oblonga M. Bieb. Juniperus sabina L. CUPRESSACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze Synonyms Juniperus hemisphaerica J. Presl & C. Presl: Juniperus communis var. hemisphaerica (J. Presl & C. Presl) Parl.; Juniperus drobovii Sumnev. Juniperus oblonga M. Bieb.: Juniperus communis var. oblonga (Gaudin) Loudon Juniperus sabina L.: Sabina officinalis Garcke R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_77

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Local Names Juniperus sp. Georgian: ღვია (ghvia); Ingiloan: არჩან (archan); Acharian: ოდაღაჯი (odaghaji) (Acharian); Kartlian: ტუია (t’uia); Kiziquinian: ღვიო (ghvio); Svanetian: ჭყერი (ch’q’eri), ჭყერუ (ch’q’eru), წყერო (tzqhero) (Makashvili 1991); English: juniper. Juniperus depressa Georgian: ღვია (ghvia), ღრუკაკალი (ghruk’ak’ali) Juniperus hemisphaerica: Svan: წყერო (tzqhero) Juniperus oblonga: Azeri: Можжевельник (moshshelnik), ардыж (ardeish); Armenian: гихи (gichi); Georgian: ღვია (ghvia); Svan: წყერო (tzqhero) (Grossheim 1952); Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991). Juniperus sabina: Azeri: Каzак аrdıcı; Georgian: ღვია (Ghvia); Tush: (T’sveda), (Ts’q’veda); Svan: ჭყერო (Tchqhero) (Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991); English: juniper.

Botany and Ecology Juniperus communis: Trailing shrubs, diocecious. Branches partly decumbent, partly ascending. Leaves strongly odoriferous; acicular leaves lance-linear, spinypointed; imbricated leaves lustrous, rhombic to rhombic-lanceolate, apex acute to obtuse, with a keel and an oval gland on the back. Inflorescence composed of ovaloid aments, with round scales, pale yellow. Fruits solitary, profuse, small, 6–8 mm long, 5–6 mm wide, rounded-ovate, brownish, pruinose, with 4–6 scales; seeds mostly 2, though occasionally 1, 3, 4, or 6, ovoid, prominently keeled below. Growing on wind-blown sand, chalk, rocks, exposed southern slopes and stony slopes of hills and low mountains, more often in steppe than in the forest belt. Found in the Caucasus and Central Asia, South and Central Europe, and North Mongolia. Both species are native to the mountains of central and southern Europe and western and central Asia, from Spain to eastern Siberia, typically growing at altitudes of 1000–3300 m. All parts of the plant are poisonous due to several toxic compounds including ethereal oils. Found in montane to subalpine coniferous forests of Larix, Picea, and Pinus, gradually replacing these where under human-imposed grazing regimes; also invading into alpine meadows when old grazing patterns are changed, e.g., intensified. This species is most abundant on sunny, dry slopes in mountains with a mesic climate like the Alps; its drought tolerance accounts for its wider distribution in Asia into the Artemisia steppe and desert zones. It is often found on limestone substrates but occurs on granitic rock as well, especially on drier slopes. Distributed in the regions of Guba and Eastern Greater Caucasus and mountainous part of Nakhchivan. Grows in upper mountain, subalpine and alpine belts. Found on stony slopes, landslides and among shrubs (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961; Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4). Juniperus depressa: A prostrate shrub with decumbent rooting branches; bark dark gray; branchlets yellowish-red; leaves straight, short, linear-subulate, 8–10 mm long and 1.5 mm broad, pruinose above, keeled beneath, the keel decurrent onto the bark

Juniperus communis L. . . . Fig. 1 Juniperus communis (Cupressaceae), Omalo, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Juniperus communis (Cupressaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Juniperus communis (Cupressaceae), Omalo, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 4 Juniperus communis (Cupressaceae), Verwall, Austria. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

of the branch and forming there an inflated pyriform resiniferous gland; male cones shorter than leaves; fruit black, pruinose, subsessile, shorter than leaves; seeds 2 or 3, trigonous, light brown, wrinkled. Sometimes forming extensive thickets; growing in the zone of alpine meadows and pastures. Ural, Caucasus, ubiquitous between 2000 and 2800 m (Iljin 1934). Juniperus hemisphaerica: Tree, with an erect stem to 12 m tall, though mostly no more than 1–3 m, with grayish-brown scaly bark; branches erect to spreading, thus shape of the crown very variable; leaves linear, 4–16 or rarely to 20 mm long, longpointed, shallowly channeled above, with a broad white median band, obtusely keeled beneath; fruits solitary, 7–9 mm in diameter, very abundant, round, one-fourth to one-third as long as the leaves, bluish-black; seeds 3, rarely 1 or 2, oblong-trigonous, brownish, ripening in the second year. Monoecious or mostly dioecious; fruits setting by the end of summer; male specimens have a narrower and more pointed head. Ural, Caucasus, pine woods, moorland, calcareous river banks; more rarely mossy bogs, among undergrowth of deciduous and mixed woods, dry hills, and dry mountain slopes (Iljin 1934). Juniperus oblonga: A rather low tree, with dark gray bark; leaves in 3's, all acicular, hard, 16–20 mm long, 3-angled, glaucescent above, with a prominent midrib at base, keeled beneath right up to the apex, the keel occupying one-fourth the entire breadth; fruit globose with inconspicuous scale tip at the top (var. globosa Medw.) or else

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Fig. 5 Juniperus oxycedrus (Cupressaceae), Kakheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 6 Juniperus oxycedrus (Cupressaceae), Omalo, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

ovoid or ellipsoid (especially when unripe) with scales prominently tipped (var. ovata Medw.), all black, slightly pruinose; seeds 1–3, mostly 3, oval-oblong, obtusely 3-angled, brownish. Throughout the Caucasus, from the foothills to the upper timberline, in soils of all kinds, not avoiding even dry stony places (Iljin 1934; Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10).

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Fig. 7 Juniperus sabina (Cupressaceae), Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 8 Juniperus sp. (Cupressaceae), Ala Dagh, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses In Georgia decoctions of needles and fruits of Juniperus sp. were widely used in folk medicine to treat diseases of the genitourinary apparatus as anti-inflammatory and diuretic remedy (Burduli 2010; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b; Kopaliani 2013). It was considered effective for urinary retention (Burduli 2010).

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Fig. 9 Juniperus sp. (Cupressaceae), Ala Dagh, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 10 Juniperus sp. (Cupressaceae), Ala Dagh, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Decoction was also used to treat rheumatism and skin diseases incl. dermatitis (Kopaliani 2013). One of the sources (Tsutsunava 1960) indicates use of juniper “water” as a painkiller for various pains; however, the plant part used is not specified. Fruit oil use is also mentioned (Eliava 1920) but with no details. Fruit and oil made from fruits are used in folk medicine (Eliava 1920). Its “water” (presumably, infusion or possibly decoction, but unclear of which plant part – KB) was used as

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a painkiller for various pains (Tsutsunava 1960). Decoction of needles and fruit was used to treat urinary retention (Burduli 2010). Decoctions are widely used in folk medicine to treat chronic inflammation of kidneys and urinary bladder as well as rheumatism and skin diseases including dermatitis (Kopaliani 2013). Svaneti: (1) Used to treat diseases of the genitourinary tract using the following recipe: 6 l of water is poured onto 0.5 kg of the mass (the respondent showed collected shoot endings with needles and fruit) and boiled to the half of the volume, cooled, drained through cloth and stored in a cool place (best refrigerator); taken warmed 3–4 glasses per day before meals (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b). (2) Diuretic (1 glass), also given to cattle (2 L) (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b). important for dressings in the treatment of wounds (Grossheim 1952). Juniperus depressa: The fruits are used as medicine (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2017c, 2018; Bussmann 2017). Juniperus hemisphaerica: The branches are used for blood cleansing, kidney problems, and the urinary system in general (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2017c, 2018; Bussmann 2017). Juniperus oblonga: The branches are used for blood cleansing, kidney problems, and the urinary system in general (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2017c, 2018; Bussmann 2017). Juniperus sabina: is used for diseases of the skin. A powder from the leaves is used externally for the treatment of purulent ulcers. Fresh crushed leaves are pulverized and applied with sweet butter on scabies and for the elimination of warts (Alakbarli 2006). A water infusion is used against worm in small doses (Alakbarli 2006). The fruits are used as diuretic and to treat prostate problems, urinary problems, and toothache. The leaves are used to treat skin problems. The roots are employed for blood cleansing, as detoxicant, are used to treat gallbladder ailments and urinary system problems (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2017c, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

Local Food Uses Juniperus depressa: The leaves and young shoots can be used as food (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2017c, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses In Georgia a decoction of species of Juniperus is used as diuretic for cattle, as well as to treat skin affections and skin parasites (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b). A dye solution is prepared from needle-free young shoots and immature fruits to obtain olive color. The dye is used for dyeing wool and silk in yellow and gray shades (Qasimov 1980).

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The oily extract is suitable. Juniperus depressa: The stems are used for smoking ham (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2017c, 2018; Bussmann 2017). Juniperus oblonga: The stems are used as firewood (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2017c, 2018; Bussmann 2017). Juniperus sabina is used for dyeing: A dye solution is prepared from needless young shoots and immature fruits to obtain olive color. The dye is used for dyeing wool and silk in yellow and gray shades (Qasimov 1980). Use for scented soaps (Grossheim 1952). The leaves serve as diuretic and are used to treat dermatological problems in veterinary medicine (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2017c, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

References Alakbarli FU. Medical manuscripts of Azerbaijan. Baku: Heydar Aliyev Foundation; 2006. (in Azeri). Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Juniperus communis L.; Juniperus sabina L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Burduli M. Traditional Georgian folk medicine. Akhaltsikhe: Metsniereba; 2010. (in Georgian). Bussmann RW. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017, XXVII, 746p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1). Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:5. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016c;86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus – the region. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017c.

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Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Eliava S. Short notes about the wild medicinal and otherwise useful plants of our country. Tbilisi: Publisher of City Union; 1920. (in Georgian). Flora of Azerbaijan, vol I–VIII. Baku: AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1950–1961. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Iljin MM. Flora of the USSR, Volume 1: Archegoniatae and Embryophyta. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1934 (English 1968). 244 p, 14 b/w plates, 2 maps. Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Kopaliani L. Forest plants of Georgia (trees, shrubs, herbs). Kutaisi: Publishing Center; 2013. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Qasimov MA. Dye plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Azerbaijan State Publishing House; 1980. (in Azeri). Tsutsunava N. Medicinal plants of Georgia. Tbilisi: Sabchota Sakartvelo; 1960. (in Georgian).

Lactuca sativa L. Lactuca serriola L. ASTERACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Lactuca sativa L.: Lactuca scariola var. sativa (L.) Morris Lactuca serriola L.: Lactuca altaica Fisch. & C.A. Mey.; Lactuca scariola L.; Lactuca virosa L.

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_78

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Local Names Lactuca sativa: Georgian: მწვანე სალათა (mtsvane salata), სალათა (salata), სალათის ფოთოლი (salatis potoli) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991); English: lettuce Lactuca serriola: Georgian: ვაზისძირა (vazisdzira); Russian: Молокан (molokan) (Russian); Azeri: сюддиен (sjuddiei) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991).

Botany and Ecology Lactuca sativa: Annual or biennial. Stem 30–70(100) cm high, smooth, more or less sulcate. Leaves gradually strongly reducing upward, almost horizontal, lower leaves large, rotund-obovate or elliptical, narrowed into broad petiole, sometimes flexuous and often spinose-toothed; middle cauline leaves sessile, with deeply cordate base; upper cauline leaves variable, often orbicular-reniform, with auriculate or sagittateamplexicaul base; leaves on peduncles very small, almost scaly, densely pubescent. Capitula in corymbose-paniculate inflorescence, more or less cylindrical, (6)10–13 (15) mm long, with 15 florets. Involucral bracts not curved on fruiting, three- or fourrowed outer bracts ovate-lanceolate, inner oblong-linear, subobtuse, with narrow light-colored border. Corolla yellow. Achenes narrow or oblong-obovoid, about 4 mm long and 0.8–1 mm wide, gray or (less often) dark brown or brownish, flattened, not always strictly symmetrical, with large number of longitudinal ribs on each side, usually with erect hairs in upper part (under a lens!), rest smooth, apically attenuate into filiform, whitish or light brown beak, almost as long as achene and terminating in broad disk bearing pappus; pappus hairs numerous, thin, white, soft, slightly barbed, almost as long as achene. Flowering (May) July–August. Widely, cultivated in kitchen gardens as a vegetable for salads; sometimes found in the wild. The origin of Lactuca sativa is unknown. The species has been considered by many authors as a cultivated variety of Lactuca serriola (Boborov and Tzvelev 1964). Lactuca serriola: Annual or biennial. Stem (30)60–125 cm high, more or less sulcate, whitish or yellowish (sometimes weakly reddish-violet at base), smooth or with sparse stiff spinules below, branched in upper half. Leaves glaucous, pinnatifid, often with two retrorse lobes, sessile, amplexicaul, with sagittate base, usually with yellowish stiff spinules along midrib beneath, spinulose-toothed, vertical in clear weather at sunny places; uppermost cauline leaves usually lanceolate, undivided; sometimes all leaves more or less undivided, densely spinulose-toothed. Capitula cylindrical or oblong, 10–13 mm long with fruits, with 15–25 florets, on peduncles in paniculate, often pyramidal inflorescence; peduncles usually longer than capitula, usually with one or two very small scaly leaves, often tomentose or papulose on outer surface, sometimes indistinctly transitional to involucral bracts. Involucral bracts deflexed on maturation of achenes, three- or four-rowed, arachnoid-lanate or

Lactuca sativa L. . . .

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Fig. 1 Lactuca sativa (Asteraceae), garden, Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

papulose on outer surface, usually with one to several violet spots or slightly violet, subobtuse, and sometimes with apical tuft of transparent hairs; outer bracts ovate or triangular; inner ones linear- or oblong-lanceolate, with membranous, slightly sinuate border. Corolla yellow (turning blue on drying). Achenes 3–3.5 mm long and up to 1 mm wide, gray, brownish, or olive-colored, narrowly obovoid or oblongellipsoid, flattened, with (five) seven to nine prominent longitudinal ribs on each side, along them with rather long, erect, light-colored hairs, mostly in upper part, and indistinct transversely sinuate stripes of fine hairs in between them; achene apices attenuate into about 0.5 mm long, thin collar, converging in filiform whitish beak slightly or one and one-half (two) times as long as achene, terminating in flatconical, reddish-brown disk bearing pappus of very thin, white, soft, slightly barbed, about 6 mm-long hairs. Flowering June–September. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, weedy places, near dwellings and roadsides, in crops and old fields, orchards, kitchen gardens and vineyards, on irrigated lands and near irrigation channels as well as in gorges, ravines, and valleys in mountains and foothills near streams (Boborov and Tzvelev 1964; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).

Phytochemistry Sesquiterpenoids (Sokolov 1993).

(lactucine,

yakvineline,

lactukopicrine,

deoxyylactoucine)

Local Medicinal Uses Used to treat stomach problems and as galactogogue. Externally as antiinflammatory (Sokolov 1993).

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Fig. 2 Lactuca sativa (Asteraceae), garden, Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Food Uses The young shoots of Lactuca serriola are eaten in the Northern Caucasus as salad. The seed oil is also eaten. Regular salad is widely eaten (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1993). In Tusheti many herbaceous plants are used as food and are kept for winter, either dried or pickled, to make mixed mkhali and sauces, and to accompany the main dishes, including kumeli ქუმელი q’va ყვა. It is used all-year round and is made of roasted keri ქერი (barley) grains. Can be made of ipkli იფქლი (Georgian endemic wheat), corn, svili სვილი (rye), kersvili ქერსვილი (mixture of barley and rye) and tsetsvi ცერცვი (faba bean, when mixed with corn: giera-i გიერა-ი Brassica campestris subsp. oleifera (DC.) Schübl. & Mart., gomat’i გომატი Bunias orientalis L., dutsi დუცი Angelica tatianae Bordz., kharnuq’a-i ხარნუყა-ი Lactuca serriola L., buera ბუერა Petasites ssp., shubq’a-i შუბყა-ი Heracleum asperum M. Bieb., khap’ara-i ხაპარა-ი Cichorium intybus L., mariamdzmara მარიამძმარა Ligusticum alatum (M. Bieb.) Spreng., ch’imi ჭიმი Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., diq’i დიყი Heracleum ssp., jortk’uda-i ჯორთკუდა-ი Artemisia vulgaris L., sagvidzla საღვიძლა Taraxacum officinale (L.) Weber ex F.H. Wigg., dzirkhvena ძირხვენა Arctium lappa

Lactuca sativa L. . . .

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Fig. 3 Lactuca sativa (Asteraceae), garden, Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Lactuca sativa (Asteraceae), garden, Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

L., ch’ivana ჭივანა Silene wallichiana Klotzsch, kvishamkhala ქვიშამხალა Silene laera (Stev.) Sims, khavrat’ai ხავრატაი Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik., jorik’udai ჯორიკუდაი Artemisia vulgaris L., and giera გიერა Sinapis arvensis L. (Makalatia 1933). There are several ways to season mkhali in Tusheti: (1) wellcleaned plants are placed in a pot and cooked without water. The cooked plants are

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Fig. 5 Lactuca sativa (Asteraceae), garden, Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

placed on a sieve to cool and cut into pieces. After that the dish is seasoned with onions browned in clarified butter, eggs, and salt. (2) After cooking the plants in the same way, fresh cottage cheese, onions browned in clarified butter, eggs and salt are added. (3) After boiling the mkhali is seasoned with vinegar, garlic, and salt. Normally, in Tusheti mkhali is not seasoned with walnuts and vinegar (Makalatia 1933). Chave ჩავე is made in Tusheti using saghvidzlia საღვიძლია or sajaraq’i საჯარაყი Taraxacum officinale (L.) Weber ex F.H. Wigg., gomat’i გომატი Bunias orientalis L., dutsi დუცი Angelica tatianae Bordz., kharnuq’a ხარნუყა Lactuca serriola L. (another name is mts’aria მწარია because it is bitter “mts’are” means “bitter” in Georgian), and buera ბუერა Petasites ssp., p’it’na პიტნა Mentha ssp., gholo ღოლო Rumex ssp., sasuka სასუქა Seseli transcaucasicum Pimenov & Sdobnina, vashlisula ვაშლისულა Primula woronowii Losinsk., boiled together, with added milk, sach’irai საჭარაი (sheep internal fat), and flour thinned with milk or water, as well as salt and garlic. In Tusheti ch’imi ჭიმი Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., giera გიერა Brassica campestris subsp. oleifera (DC.) Schübl. & Mart., machigt’ara მაჩიგტარა Campanula rapunculoides L., khap’ara ხაპარა (ვარდკაჭაჭა) Cichorium intybus L., diq’i დიყი Heracleum ssp., shup’q’a შუპყა Heracleum asperum M. Bieb., ap’q’i აპყი Heracleum leskovii Grossh., dutsi დუცი Angelica tatianae Bordz, giera გიერა Sinapis arvensis L., jortk’uda ჯორთკუდა (wild estragon) Artemisia vulgaris L., mariamdzmara მარიამძმარა Ligusticum alatum (M. Bieb.) Spreng., and kharnuq’a ხარნუყა Lactuca serriola L. are eaten raw and also dipped in sour milk (Makalatia 1933). These herbaceous plants for dipping (sats’ebaci, sats’ebi “chatseba” means “dip” in Georgian) are harvested and a bowl with curd “shegdebul ze” „ შეგდებულ ზე” is filled; then leaves and young shoots from the mentioned herbaceous plants are plucked, dipped in the curd and eaten. Plants used as mkhali Kaheti: tatruli mkhali თათრული მხალი Amaranthus hybridus L., ts’ots’nara mkhali წოწნარა მხალს Amaranthus retroflexus L., khach’ich’ora ხაჭიჭორა Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik., vazisdzira ვაზიძირა Lapsana grandiflora M. Bieb., bolok’a ბოლოკა Rapistrum rugosum (L.) All.,

Lactuca sativa L. . . .

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q’int’ora ყინტორა Chaerophyllum aureum L., natsarkatama ნაცარქათამა Chenopodium album L., shalgi შალგი (shelga შელგა) Brassica campestris L., sve სვე Humulus lupulus L., khboshubla ხბოშუბლა Galega orientalis Lam. ნორჩ, ch’inch’ari ჭინჭარი Urtica dioica L., ghoris kada ღორის ქადა Lactuca serriola L., Balba ბალბა Malva neglecta l., natsarkatama ნაცარქათამა or dzaghltzhola ძაღლთჟოლა Chenopodium foliosum, tatabo თათაბო Atriplex hortensis L., saghvidzla საღვიძლა or burbushela ბურბუშელა Taraxacum confusum Schischk., tskhenis tsertsvela ც ხენის ცერცველა- Vicia narborensis, vazis dzira ვაზის ძირა Lapsana grandiflora M. Bieb., mravaldzarghva მრავალძარღვა Plantago major L., babuats’vera ბაბუაწვერა Taraxacum ssp., gareuli ts’its’mat’i გარეული წიწმატი Cardamine hirsuta L., ghinch’a-ghinch’a ღინჭა-ღინჭა Sonchus ssp. (Javakhishvili 1986; Menteshashvili 1943). Lactuca sativa: Widely used a vegetable (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Young shoots serve as fodder for all types of livestock (Sokolov 1993).

References Boborov EG, Tzvelev NN. Flora of the USSR, Volume 29: Compositae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1964 (English 2001). 832 p, 34 plates. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017, XXVII 746p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1). Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016a;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016b;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian).

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Javakhishvili I. Materials for the history of household industry and handicraft, vol. V, part 2: Food and drinks. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1986. (ჯავახიშვილი, ი. 1986. მასალები შინა მრეწველობისა და ხელოსნობის ისტორიისათვის, ტ. V ნაწ. 2: საჭმელ in Georgian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makalatia S. Tusheti. Tbilisi: Sakhelgami; 1933. (მაკალათია ს. 1933. თუშეთი. ტფილისი: სახელგამი in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Menteshashvili S. Dictionary of Kizikian dialect. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1943. (მენთეშაშვილი ს. 1943. ქიზიყური ლექსიკონი -თბილისი: მეცნიერება). Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 7. Family Asteraceae (Compositae). Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1993, 352 p. (in Russian).

Lapsana communis L. Lapsana grandiflora M. Bieb. ASTERACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Local Names Lapsana communis: Georgian, ვაზისძირა (Vazisdzira); Russian, Бородавник (borodavnyk); Azeri, зикил ату (zikil atu); Armenian, хубук (chubuk) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991). Lapsana grandiflora: Georgian, მწარე ხარნუყა (mts’are kharnuq’a)

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_79

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Botany and Ecology Lapsana communis: Annual. Stem erect, divaricately branched, less often simple, with (mostly in lower part) spreading, somewhat stiff hairs, usually more or less mixed with glandular hairs, to densely glandular pubescent (f. glandulosa Freyn), sometimes subglabrous, 20–100 cm high. Leaves thin, unevenly crenate- or sinuatetoothed, on both surfaces or only beneath and along margin scattered hairy; lower leaves petiolate, 3–10 cm long and 1.5–6.0 cm wide, lyrate pinnatisect, with large ovate, terminal lobes and one or two pairs of small, ovate or lanceolate, lateral lobes; upper leaves sessile, oblong-lanceolate or ovate-rhombic, smaller. Capitula numerous, in paniculate inflorescence, small; involucre about 2–4 mm wide, 5–7 mm long; involucral bracts usually smooth, less often more or less hairy; outer bracts small, inconspicuous, scarious, inner ones five to seven times as long as outer, linearlanceolate, on outer side with thickened ribs, often darkish at apex. Corolla pale yellow, one and one-half times as long as involucre. Achenes linear-cuneate, slightly curved and lustrous, ribbed, gradually narrowed toward base, glabrous, 3.5–4 mm long. Flowering June–July. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, on forest fringes, in open forests, in clearings, in shrublands, in fields, in vegetable gardens, in orchards, as weed, in the lower and middle mountain belt (Boborov and Tzvelev 1964; Fig. 1). Lapsana grandiflora: Perennial. Stem 20–75(100) cm high, simple or branched, only at apex usually with short, simple or simple and glandular hairs; simple hairs often predominating in lower part of the stem, glandular ones in the upper part; Fig. 1 Lapsana communis (Asteraceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Lapsana communis L.

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Fig. 2 Lapsana grandiflora (Asteraceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

sometimes stem subglabrous. Lower leaves lyrate pinnatisect, with small, lanceolate or ovate, lateral segments and terminal larger, ovate or oblong-ovate, sometimes triangular-hastate lobe, long-petiolate; in upper part of the stem leaves elongate, lanceolate to linear-lanceolate and rhombic-lanceolate, sessile; all leaves except uppermost, more or less sinuate or crenate-toothed, fine-hairy or subglabrous. Inflorescence corymbose-paniculate or corymbose; outer involucral bracts small, broadly ovate; inner much larger, linear-lanceolate, 8–10 mm long, usually with simple or fine glandular hairs, at least along midrib, sometimes glabrous, dark (blackish-green). Corolla bright yellow, two to two and one-half times as long as involucre; capitula large, on long peduncles with glandular hairs or only sparsely hairy (to glabrous). Achenes linear-cuneate, light reddish-brown, about 3.5–4.5 mm long. Flowering June–September. Caucasus, forest glades and edges in upper forest zone and subalpine meadows, from (1500) 1800 to 2500 (2650) m (Boborov and Tzvelev 1964; Fig. 2).

Phytochemistry Latex, phenolic compounds, aliphatic hydrocarbons, fatty acids, phenylcarboxylic acids (chlorogenic), flavonoids (luteolin), vitamins (C, carotene) (Sokolov 1993).

Local Medicinal Uses A leaf infusion is used as purgative, for wound healing, as poultice to treat tumors, and to heal nipple cracks in nursing mothers (Sokolov 1993).

Local Food Uses The young leaves are eaten as salad and herb pies (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1993).

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Plants used as mkhali Kaheti: tatruli mkhali თათრული მხალი Amaranthus hybridus L., ts’ots’nara mkhali წოწნარა მხალს Amaranthus retroflexus L., khach’ich’ora ხაჭიჭორა Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik., vazisdzira ვაზიძირა Lapsana grandiflora M. Bieb., bolok’a ბოლოკა Rapistrum rugosum (L.) All., q’int’ora ყინტორა Chaerophyllum aureum L., natsarkatama ნაცარქათამა Chenopodium album L., shalgi შალგი (shelga შელგა) Brassica campestris L., sve სვე Humulus lupulus L., khboshubla ხბოშუბლა Galega orientalis Lam.ნორჩ, ch’inch’ari ჭინჭარი Urtica dioica L., ghoris kada ღორის ქადა Lactuca serriola L., Balba ბალბა Malva neglecta L., natsarkatama ნაცარქათამა or dzaghltzhola ძაღლთჟოლა Chenopodium foliosum, tatabo თათაბო Atriplex hortensis L., saghvidzla საღვიძლა or burbushela ბურბუშელა Taraxacum confusum Schischk., tskhenis tsertsvela ც ხენის ცერცველა Vicia narborensis, vazis dzira ვაზის ძირა Lapsana grandiflora M. Bieb., mravaldzarghva მრავალძარღვა Plantago major L., babuats’vera ბაბუაწვერა Taraxacum ssp., gareuli ts’its’mat’i გარეული წიწმატი Cardamine hirsuta L., ghinch’a-ghinch’a ღინჭა-ღინჭა Sonchus ssp. (Javakhishvili 1986; Menteshashvili 1943). Racha people used wild plants as food from ancient times and make herb pie of ts’iteli pkhali წითელი ფხალი Amaranthus hybridus L., jijilaq’a ჯიჯილაყა Amaranthus retroflexus L., khbosshubla ხბოსშუბლა Galega orientalis Lam., burt’q’ila ბურტყილა Lapsana grandiflora M.Bieb. (Davituliani 2012; Gobejishvili 2017). Lapsana communis: The leaves are used for soups, salads, and Pkhali (herb pie) (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016, 2017). Lapsana grandiflora: The leaves are used for soups, salads, and Pkhali (herb pie) (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016, 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses In veterinary medicine the crushed leaves are applied to cracked udders and for mastitis in cows (Sokolov 1993).

References Boborov EG, Tzvelev NN. Flora of the USSR, Volume 29: Compositae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1964 (English 2001). 832 p, 34 plates. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2.

Lapsana communis L.

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Leonurus quinquelobatus Gilib. LAMIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Leonurus quinquelobatus Gilib.: Leonurus villosus Desf. ex D’Urv.

Local Names Leonurus cardiaca: Georgian შავბალახა (shavbalakha) R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; mananakhuts@yahoo. com; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_80

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Leonurus quinquelobatus var. caucasicus: Georgian: შავბალახა (shavbalakha); Russian: Пустырник (pucteirik); Armenian: арюцаги (arjutsagi) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991).

Botany and Ecology Perennial, grayish with long spreading soft hairs; rhizome woody; stems 50–200 cm long, erect, branching, reddish, covered all over with long spreading hairs, sharpribbed; leaves bright green above, pale beneath, covered on both sides with scattered fine appressed hairs, patent-haired beneath on the prominent veins; cauline leaves on petiole 2–7(12) cm long, rounded in outline, cordate or truncate at base, dissected to two-thirds into five oblong-cuneate unevenly large-toothed segments; leaves in inflorescence on petiole 1.5–2 cm long, oblong-rhomboid, cuneate at base, two-parted or two-toothed; inflorescence long, with distant whorls; bracts subulate, patent haired; calyx 8 mm long, the teeth subulate, triangular at base, 2.5–3 mm long, the two lower ones spreading; corolla pink or pinkish-violet, 12 mm long, the upper lip white-haired outside; nutlets 2.5–3 mm long. Flowering June–July. Ural, Caucasus, weedy places near dwellings, in groups (Yuzepchuk and Shishkin 1954; Figs. 1 and 2). Fig. 1 Leonurus quinquelobatus (Lamiaceae), Kvemo Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Leonurus quinquelobatus (Lamiaceae), Kvemo Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses The leaves and shoots of Leonurus are used to treat heart problems and epilepsy (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2018) and are sold in local medicinal plant markets (Bussmann et al. 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses It is a very good honey plant (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1991).

References Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia

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(Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, Volume 6. Families Hippuridaceae-Lobeliaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1991. 200 p. (in Russian). Yuzepchuk SV, Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 20: Labiatae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1954 (English 1976). 389 pages, 28 b/w plates, 2 maps.

Lepidium sativum L. BRASSICACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Lepidium sativum L.: Cardamon sativum (L.) Fourr.; Crucifera nasturtium E.H.L. Krause; Lepia sativa (L.) Desv.; Lepidium hortense Forssk.; Lepidium sativum subsp. sativum Thell.; Lepidium sativum subsp. spinescens Thell.; Lepidium sativum var. crispum DC.; Lepidium sativum var. spinescens Jafri; Lepidium sativum var. typicum Thell.; Lepidium spinescens DC.; Nasturtium crispum Medik.; Nasturtium sativum (L.) Moench; Nasturtium spinescens Kuntze; Thlaspi sativum (L.) Crantz; Thlaspidium sativum (L.) Spach R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_81

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Local Names Georgian: წიწმატი (ts’its’mat’i); Russian: Кресссалат (kressalat); Azeri: везери (vezeri); (Grossheim 1952).

Botany and Ecology Annual, usually glabrous; stem solitary, erect, paniculate, with erect branches; radical leaves irregularly pinnate or bipinnatisect or lobate, rarely only dentate, obovate; upper leaves linear, entire, acute. Flowering racemes strongly elongated, loose, axis usually completely glabrous; pedicels cylindrical, glabrous, one-half to one-third as long as silicle; petals white or pinkish, 3 mm long; silicles orbicularovate, emarginate, winged from the middle or from the lower third up to the apex, 5–6 mm long, ca. 4 mm broad, style nearly as long as notch; seeds ovate, only slightly flattened, nearly smooth, not marginate, dark rufous. Flowering April–May. In cultivated areas, field borders, wild or cultivated (Bobrov and Bush 1939). The exact origin of Lepidium sativum is unknown but is thought to be in Ethiopia and neighboring countries or in Western Asia. Domestication presumably took place in Western Asia. Cultivation was already known from antiquity in Greece and Italy, Fig. 1 Lepidium sativum (Brassicaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y.PaniaguaZambrana)

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Fig. 2 Lepidium sativum (Brassicaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y.PaniaguaZambrana)

possibly also in Egypt. At present it is cultivated all over the world, including most African countries, mostly on a small scale as a garden crop. It can also be found in the wild as an escape from cultivation, but it is not known whether it occurs anywhere truly wild (Bobrov and Bush 1939; Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Phytochemistry Vitamins (C, E, carotene), flavonoids (kaempferol, quercetine), mustard oil, isothiocyanates (benzylglucosinolate, 2-phenylethylglucosinolate), carbohydrates (xyloabraine, L-arabinose, xylose, D-galactose, L-rhamnose, D-galacturonic acid, 4-Omethyl D-gluconic acid), triterpenoids (cucurbitacins), steroids (a-sitosterol, campesterol, methylene cholesterol, cholesterol, stigmasterol), fatty acids (Sokolov 1985).

Local Medicinal Uses The extract is used to treat asthma, coughing with phlegm, hemorrhoidal hemorrhage, tumors of the uterus, nasal polyps and other neoplasms, warts, furuncles, dermatomycosis, wounds, ulcers, sciatica, and dysmenorrhea. The seeds were

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Fig. 3 Lepidium sativum (Brassicaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y.PaniaguaZambrana)

originally used as an abortive and galactogogue; used to treat impotence, malaria, and syphilis; and used as a diuretic. A paste of the seeds with water is applied to chapped lips and also used against sunburn and other skin problems of humans and animals. The paste is also taken internally with honey to treat amoebic dysentery and given to animals with stomach problems. The seeds are chewed to treat sore throat, cough, asthma, and headache and in large quantities to induce abortion. They are also applied externally as an insect repellent. The mucus of germinating seeds allays the irritation of the intestines in dysentery and diarrhea, and germinating seeds are used for constipation (Sokolov 1985).

Local Food Uses Lepidium can be eaten as salad and spicy seasoning, and the seed oil can be used as seasoning for salads (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1985). In Pshavi young shoots of shurshena შურშენა, Lepidium campestre (L.) R.Br., are peeled and eaten (Maghalashvili 1970). The leaves are also eaten (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

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Fig. 4 Lepidium sativum (Brassicaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y.PaniaguaZambrana)

Local Handicraft and Other Uses It can be used as fodder for all types of farm animals and yields honey. Traditionally, the seed oil is used as fuel and for soap making (Grossheim 1952).

References Bobrov EG, Bush NA. Flora of the USSR, Volume 8: Capparidaceae, Cruceriferae and Resedaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1939 (English 1970). 524 pages, 34 b/w plates, 2 maps. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017, XXVII, 746p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1). Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266.

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Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Maghalashvili T. Useful plants of Telavi district. Acad. S. Janashia State Museum of Georgia XXVI–XXVII. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1970. (8 მაღალაშვილი თ. 1970. თელავის რაიონის სასარგებლო მცენარეები. აკად. ს. ჯანაშიას სახელობის საქართველოს სახელმწიფო მუზეუმის მოამბე XXVI-XXVII – A. თბილისი, მეცნიერება in Georgian.). Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 2. Families Paeoniaceae – Thymelaeacea. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1985. 336 p. (in Russian).

Levisticum officinale W.D.J. Koch APIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Levisticum officinale W.D.J. Koch: Hipposelinum levisticum (L.) Britton & Rose; Ligusticum levisticum L.; Selinum levisticum (L.) E.H.L. Krause

Local Names Georgian, ცისკარა (tsisk’ara); Russian, Любисток (ljubustok) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991). R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; mananakhuts@yahoo. com; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_82

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Botany and Ecology Perennial; rhizome thick, brownish; stem 1–2 m high, its base covered with many squamiform remnants of leaves, erect, hollow, glabrous, furrowed, branching above; leaves dark green, shiny, paler beneath, broadly triangular, 2–3-pinnatisect, lower large (70  65 cm), long-petioled; cauline leaves smaller, less strongly dissected, their petioles shorter, uppermost leaves sessile on dilated sheaths, biternate- or ternate-partite, sometimes entire; lobes of last order large, 10–11 cm long, 6–7 cm wide, obovate, entire, cuneate at base, toward apex largely incised-dentate, teeth terminating in cartilaginous denticles, upper leaves nearly entire, with smooth margins. Umbels ca. 12 cm across, of 12–20 rays, scabrous above, slightly broadening toward apex, leaves of involucre and involucels numerous, recurved, lanceolate, with white-membranous finely ciliate margins, often also scabrous above; leaflets of involucels slightly connate; calyx-teeth inconspicuous; petals whitishyellowish, inconspicuous, ca. 1 mm long and as wide, elliptic, very short clawed, slightly notched with inward curved tip; stylopodium at flowering low conical, yellowish, with very short styles; fruit ellipsoid, dorsally compressed, 5–7 mm long, 3–4 mm wide, often incised at base, when ripe yellowish-brown, smooth, the three dorsal ribs approximate, narrowly triangular in cross section, with nearly winglike extensions, half width of thickened marginal ribs; styles 1.5–2 mm long in fruit, reflexed, slightly capitate; carpophore 2-cleft to base; albumen flat or obliquely notched. Flowering August. Grown in gardens and kitchen gardens, sometimes escaped (Shishkin 1951; Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Local Food Uses It is grown in vegetable gardens, especially in the North Caucasus; rarely found wild (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1988). The dry root is used as a spice for various dishes; fresh roots are used to make candy (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1988). The leaves are used as spice (Bussmann et al. 2016). Fig. 1 Levisticum officinale (Apiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

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Fig. 2 Levisticum officinale (Apiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Fig. 3 Levisticum officinale (Apiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

References Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0110-2.

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Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 17: Umbelliflorae (continued) Peucedaneae-Dauceae & Nyassaceae, Cornaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1951 (English 1974). 285 pages, 25 plates with b/w line drawings; 2 b/w fold-out maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1988, 357 p. (in Russian).

Ligusticum alatum Spreng. APIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Local Names Georgian: მარიამა (mariamdzmara) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991).

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_83

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Botany and Ecology Perennial; rhizome ascending, 2–2.5 cm thick, covered above with remnants of leaves; stem glabrous, 50–150 cm high, simple or branching above, especially in upper part with narrow membranous wings along ribs; leaves glabrous, triangular or broadly ovate, 40 cm long, 30 cm wide, many times ternate-pinnate-partite, their long petioles dilated to sheaths; lobes of the last order oblong, acute, pinnatifid, with oblong pinnatifid segments. Umbels 8–20 cm across, of many (30–40) slightly unequal, slightly scabrous rays; involucre of 5–13 unequal narrowly linear leaflets up to /3 the length of the umbel rays; umbellets of 30–40 unequal rays; involucels of 6–15 linear leaflets nearly as long as umbellet rays; petals pink at first, turning white, more or less deeply notched, 2 mm long; fruit ovoid, 3–5 mm long, glabrous, with five prominent narrow wings; stylopodium conical; styles reflexed, slightly longer than stylopodium. Flowering July–August. Ural, on alpine and subalpine meadows, forest fringes, in thickets up to 2000 m (Shishkin 1950).

Phytochemistry Phthalides, flavonoids (quercetin, luteoline), essential oils (Sokolov 1988).

Local Medicinal Uses In the Ural the leaf decoction is used for colics of the liver and kidney, urinary infections, acute respiratory disease, wounds, and intoxications (Sokolov 1988).

Local Food Uses The dry leaves are used as substitute for tea (Sokolov 1988). In Tusheti, many herbaceous plants are used as food and are kept for winter, either dried or pickled, to make mixed mkhali and sauces and to accompany the main dishes, including kumeli ქუმელი q’va ყვა. Kumeli is used all year and is made of roasted keri ქერი (barley) grains. It can be made of ipkli იფქლი (Georgian endemic wheat), corn, svili სვილი (rye), kersvili ქერსვილი (mixture of barley and rye), and tsetsvi ცერცვი (faba bean), when mixed with corn: giera-i გიერა-ი Brassica campestris subsp. oleifera (DC.) Schübl. & Mart., gomat’i გომატი Bunias orientalis L., dutsi დუცი Angelica tatianae Bordz., kharnuq’a-i ხარნუყა-ი Lactuca serriola L., buera ბუერა Petasites ssp., shubq’a-i შუბყა-ი Heracleum asperum M. Bieb., khap’ara-i ხაპარა-ი Cichorium intybus L., mariamdzmara მარიამძმარა Ligusticum alatum (M. Bieb.) Spreng., ch’imi ჭიმი Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., diq’i დიყი Heracleum ssp., jortk’uda-i ჯორთკუდა-ი Artemisia vulgaris L., sagvidzla საღვიძლა Taraxacum officinale (L.) Weber ex F.H. Wigg., dzirkhvena ძირხვენა Arctium lappa L., ch’ivana ჭივანა Silene wallichiana Klotzsch, kvishamkhala ქვიშამხალა Silene

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laera (Stev.) Sims, khavrat’ai ხავრატაი Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik., jorik’udai ჯორიკუდაი Artemisia vulgaris L., and giera გიერა Sinapis arvensis L. (Makalatia 1933). There are several ways to season mkhali in Tusheti: (1) wellcleaned plants are placed in a pot and cooked without water. The cooked plants are placed on a sieve to cool and cut into pieces. After that the dish is seasoned with onions browned in clarified butter, eggs, and salt. (2) After cooking the plants in the same way, fresh cottage cheese, onions browned in clarified butter, eggs, and salt are added. (3) After boiling the mkhali is seasoned with vinegar, garlic, and salt. Normally, in Tusheti, mkhali is not seasoned with walnuts and vinegar (Makalatia 1933). In Tusheti, ch’imi ჭიმი Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., giera გიერა Brassica campestris subsp. oleifera (DC.) Schübl. & Mart., machigt’ara მაჩიგტარა Campanula rapunculoides L., khap’ara ხაპარა (ვარდკაჭაჭა) Cichorium intybus L., diq’i დიყი Heracleum ssp., shup’q’a შუპყა Heracleum asperum M. Bieb., ap’q’i აპყი Heracleum leskovii Grossh., dutsi დუცი Angelica tatianae Bordz., giera გიერა Sinapis arvensis L., jortk’uda ჯორთკუდა (wild estragon) Artemisia vulgaris L., mariamdzmara მარიამძმარა Ligusticum alatum (M. Bieb.) Spreng., and kharnuq’a ხარნუყა Lactuca serriola L. are eaten raw and also dipped in sour milk (Makalatia 1933). These herbaceous plants are used for dipping (sats’ebaci, sats’ebi “chatseba” means “dip” in Georgian) are harvested, and a bowl with curd “shegdebul ze” შეგდებულ ზე is filled; then leaves and young shoots from the mentioned herbaceous plants are plucked, dipped in the curd, and eaten. The leaves are used for sats’ebai (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b).

References Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makalatia S. Tusheti. Tbilisi: Sakhelgami; 1933. (მაკალათია ს. 1933. თუშეთი. ტფილისი: სახელგამი in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 16: Umbelliflorae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1950 (English 1973). 478 pages, 37 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1988, 357 p. (in Russian).

Linum usitatissimum L. LINACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Linum usitatissimum L.: Linum angustifolium Huds.; Linum humile Mill.

Local Names Georgian, სელი (seli); ქუმელი (kumeli); Khevsur, სელის ქუმელი (selis qumeli); Russian, Лен (len); Azeri, кэтэн (keten) (Grossheim 1952); English, flax R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_84

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Botany and Ecology Annual; main (tap) root rather short, whitish, with a few larger rudimentary branchings but with several thin rootlets; stems 1 (3), usually high, 60–120 (150) cm, upright and erect, cylindrical, thin, often simple, branching only in upper part (in inflorescence), pale green, with faint waxy bloom; anatomically characterized by strongly developed bast fibers or, more precisely, bundles disposed at the periphery of the central cylinder, separated from each other by layers of parenchyme and composed of so-called hard bast, the whole layer easily detached from the wood (bast fibers are formed by the pericycle and not by the cambium the activity of which is here suppressed); leaves numerous, relatively not dense, spirally disposed, 2–3 cm long, 3–4 mm wide, linear or linear-lanceolate, the largest lanceolate, acute, tapering at base, sessile, slightly glaucescent with rather weakly developed waxy bloom, smooth, three-nerved at margin. Inflorescence loose, sometimes passing into a cyme, with lanceolate bracts; flowers comparatively few, usually medium-sized or rather small, 1.5–2.4 cm in diameter, on peduncles longer than calyx, jointed then thickened at apex; sepals 5–6 mm long, herbaceous, persistent in fruit, ovate or ovate-lanceolate to oblong-ovate, the inner wider, acute or short acuminate at apex, acutely keeled, 2–5-nerved usually three-nerved; with margins white-scarious, scabrous toward apex, finely ciliate; petals 12–15 mm long, cuneately obovate, somewhat rounded tapering at apex or obtuse, entirely or slightly crenate, smooth or somewhat wrinkled, sky blue or blue with darker nerves, rarely white, pink or reddish-violet, tapering to white claw yellow at base, falling soon; stamens with linear dark blue filaments, white in upper part, staminal tube short, annular; anthers oblong, usually blue, rarely yellow or orange; staminodes triangular, sometimes inconspicuous; ovary ovoid, green; style with cuneate-linear stigmas, dark blue to violet; capsules 6–8 mm long, 5.7–6.8 mm in diameter, flattenedglobose or globose-ovoid, yellowish, usually without anthocyanin, slightly colored

Fig. 1 Linum usitatissimum (Linaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Linum usitatissimum (Linaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Linum usitatissimum (Linaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

only before ripening, not splitting; false septa glabrous or rarely ciliate; seeds commonly ten, sometimes less, 3.3–5 mm long, ovoid or oblong-elliptic, much flattened, slightly unequal-sided, rounded at base, acute at apex, pale brown to

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Fig. 4 Linum usitatissimum (Linaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Linum usitatissimum (Linaceae), harvest, garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

dark brown, rarely greenish-yellow, quite smooth, shiny. Flowering June–July; fields as a spring plant, sometimes mixed among other crops, rubbish dumps, roadsides, near dwelling places as an accidentally escaped plant (Shishkin and Boborov 1949; Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

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Fig. 6 Linum usitatissimum (Linaceae), harvest, garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses Flaxseed oil is used in medicine (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1988). Flaxseed oil with Alcea is used to treat furuncles and traumatic injuries (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017).

Local Food Uses Originally widely cultivated for its oil (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1988). The seed oil and seeds are eaten (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016, 2017a, b, 2018; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017; Figs. 5, 6, 7, and 8).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The stems yield versatile fibers (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1988). The stems are used to produce fibers (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016, 2017a, b, 2018; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017; Fig. 9).

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Fig. 7 Linum usitatissimum (Linaceae), harvest, garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 8 Linum usitatissimum (Linaceae), harvest, garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 9 Linum usitatissimum (Linaceae), pressed seed cake as animal food, market Telavi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

References Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017, XXVII, 746p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1). Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus – Georgia. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017a. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus – the region. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017b. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – Plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian) Mehdiyeva N, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Alcea hyrcana (Grossh.) Grossh.; Alcea lenkoranica Iljin; Alcea rugosa Alef.; Alcea tabrisiana (Boiss.et Buhse) Iljin. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, Volume 14: Geraniales, Sapindales, Rhamnales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1949 (English 1974). 616 pages, 39 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1988, 357 p. (in Russian).

Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. SOLANACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.: Scubulon humboldtii (Willd.) Raf.; Solanum esculentum Dunal; Solanum humboldtii Will.

Local Names Georgian: პამიდორი (p’amidori); Russian: Томат (tomat) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991); English: tomato R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_85

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Botany and Ecology Lycopersicum esculentum: Stem erect at first, later decumbent. Leaves ovate or lanceolate, usually over 20 cm in length, interruptedly pinnatisect, usually with alternating large and small segments with dense bluish gray pubescence underneath, without false stipules. Large segments (5)7(9), stalked, ovate or lanceolate, entire, lobed, or pinnatipartite, with sessile or stalked glandules; small segments sessile or stalked, elliptical 51 or lanceolate, entire, sometimes absent. Inflorescence shorter than leaves, 3–20-flowered. Calyx 5–8(10)-partite, with acute subulate lobes, enlarging 2–3 times in fruits. Corolla lemon yellow, up to 2.5 cm across, 5–8(10)-partite; corolla lobes recurved, sparsely pubescent on outside along midvein. Stamens 5–8(10); anther tube irregular, splitting into groups of 2–3 stamens during flowering. Style very slightly exserted. Young fruit densely velutinous and glandular, subglabrous and glossy when mature. Uniformly sericeous, light brown in color. Widely cultivated in tropical and temperate zones; easily naturalized (Shishkin and Boborov 1955). The original wild form of Lycopersicum esculentum is its small-fruited subspecies galeni – the cherry tomato. In Europe, cultivated tomatoes became common in the sixteenth century in the southern part under the name “Peruvian apple” especially in Spain and Italy, where it soon became popular. In the northern European countries, however, tomatoes were received unfavorably and were for a long time grown only as ornamental plant (Shishkin and Boborov 1955; Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Local Food Uses It is a common and favorite vegetable in the Ural and throughout the Caucasus (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1990). The leaves and flowers are sometimes eaten in phkhali (herb pie). The fruits are eaten fresh, cooked, and, when Fig. 1 Lycopersicum esculentum (Solanaceae), Huanchaco, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Lycopersicum esculentum (Solanaceae), Huanchaco, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Lycopersicum esculentum (Solanaceae), Huanchaco, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

green, pickled. The stems are sometimes pickled (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8).

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Fig. 4 Lycopersicum esculentum (Solanaceae), harvest, garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Lycopersicum esculentum (Solanaceae), harvest, garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 6 Lycopersicum esculentum (Solanaceae), market, Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana) Fig. 7 Lycopersicum esculentum (Solanaceae), tomato salad, Kakheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 8 Lycopersicum esculentum (Solanaceae), pickled green tomatoes, Pankisi Gorge, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

References Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Chenopodium album L., Chenopodium foliosum L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017, XXVII, 746p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1). Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian).

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Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, Volume 22: Solanaceae and Scrophulariaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1955 (English 1993). 745 pages. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 5. Families of Caprifoliaceae – Plantaginaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1990, 328 p. (in Russian).

Malus orientalis Uglitzk. Malus pumila Mill. ROSACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Malus orientalis Uglitzk.: Malus montana Uglitzk.; Malus orientalis subsp. montana (Uglitzk.) Likhonos Malus pumila Mill.: Malus communis Poir.; Malus dasyphylla Borkh.; Malus dasyphylla var. domestica Koidz.; Malus domestica Borkh.; Malus domestica subsp. pumila (Mill.) Likhonos ex Likhonos; Malus niedzwetzkyana Dieck ex Koehne; Malus pumila var. domestica (Borkh.) C.K. Schneid.; Malus sylvestris subsp. mitis Mansf.; Pyrus malus L.; Pyrus malus var. pumila Elwes R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_86

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Local Names Malus orientalis: Georgian: მაჟალო (mazhalo), პანტავაშლი (p’ant’a-vashli); Russian: Яблоня (jablani); Azeri: алма-агаджы (alma-agadshei); Armenian: хидзорени (chidzoreni) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991). Malus pumila: Georgian: ვაშლი (vashli), მთვარეშული (mtvareshuli); Svan: ვისგვ (viskv) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al., 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991).

Botany and Ecology Malus orientalis: Medium- sized or more or less tall tree, to 10–15 m tall; branches usually unarmed; young shoots dark brown, somewhat tomentose, when adult dark gray with sparse lenticels; leaves 3–8 cm long, 1.5–3.5 cm broad, of variable shape, ovate-lanceolate, oblong, short-elliptic, or suborbicular, usually cuneately tapering at base, obtuse, less often acuminate with inconspicuous or rather short mucro, entire at base, otherwise serrate dentate, less often crenate-serrate, usually with very large acute or subobtuse teeth in upper part, thickish; young leaves scattered hairy above, densely white tomentose below, the adult hairy above only along the veins, otherwise quite glabrous, with strongly impressed lateral veins, rather densely, sometimes rather sparsely grayish tomentose below, usually very prominently veined; petioles 0.5–3 cm long, as long as the blade, thickish or rather slender, more or less tomentose; flowers four to six per umbel, ca. 4 cm in diameter, with densely tomentose villous pedicels 8–12 mm long; hypanthium obconical, very densely tomentose; sepals rather short, narrowly triangular, acute, spreading, densely tomentose outside, subglabrous or slightly tomentose inside; petals obovate, narrowing to a conspicuous claw; styles about as long as stamens, tomentose at base, otherwise glabrous; stigmas clavate, narrow; fruits globose, 2–3 cm in diameter, with short, densely tomentose pedicels 1–2.5 cm long. Flowering April–May. Caucasus, Middle Asia in broad-leaved, mixed forests, along fringes, banks of rivers, in the mountains up to 2000 m (Yuzepchuk 1939). Malus pumila/Malus sieversii: Small or often rather large trees with spreading crown, divaricate branches, and robust annotinous shoots; leaves mostly large, of variable shape, mostly ovate with rounded base, crenate-serrate, with persistent pubescence on both sides (much less strong above), short-petioled; flowers large, white or pink, usually darker on the outside, with rather short or short white tomentose pedicels; hypanthium and calyx densely tomentose; fruits usually large, more than 3 cm in diameter, short-stalked. Flowering April–May, Middle Asia, in broad-leaved and coniferous forests, in floodplain forests, in the mountains up to 3000 m. Widely cultivated (Yuzepchuk 1939; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8).

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Fig. 1 Malus pumila (Rosaceae), garden, Manglisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Malus pumila (Rosaceae), garden, Manglisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Phytochemistry Dihydrochalcones (floridzine, phloretin), carbohydrates (sucrose, pectin), organic acids, vitamins (C, carotene), phenol carboxylic acids (chlorogenic), catechins (epicatechin, catechin), flavonoids (hyperin, quercetin, isoquercitrin, rutin, naringenin), anthocyanins (cyanidin), leukoanthocyanidins (Sokolov 1987).

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Fig. 3 Malus pumila (Rosaceae), garden, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Malus pumila (Rosaceae), garden, Manglisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses Malus orientalis: The sour fruits are used to strengthen digestion and for the treatment of chronic diarrhea and acute enteritis (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1987). In the Caucasus apples are often used as panacea (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

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Fig. 5 Malus pumila (Rosaceae), garden, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Fig. 6 Malus pumila (Rosaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Local Food Uses Malus orientalis: Used in food and raw but more often for baking and for making alcohol, kvass, for lemonades and soft drinks, and for cider making, as well as for making vinegar. The leaves are a surrogate for tea (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1987).

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Fig. 7 Malus pumila (Rosaceae), garden, Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R. W: Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 8 Malus pumila (Rosaceae), garden, Kvemo Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

The fruits are eaten, used to produce alcohol and Svanetian vinegar and are an ingredient for Svanetian salt (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017). Malus pumila: Widely eaten as fruit (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1987).

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Fig. 9 Malus pumila (Rosaceae), market, Lagodekhi, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 10 Malus pumila (Rosaceae), market, Lagodekhi, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Some interesting varieties (Grossheim 1952): “Abilauri” with tender flesh, but little juicy, very productive, “kitra” with oblong fruits “tursauli” ripening late, very sweet “dzudzvashla” used to make cider “Lagodekhi” very sweet and fragrant “djirgadzhi” sweet and sour (Sokolov 1987). The fruits are widely eaten (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Figs. 9, 10, and 11).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Malus orientalis: The bark yields source of yellow, green, brown, and black dyes for wool. The wood is used for ornamental works in carpentry, turning and carving. Fruits and leaves eaten by pigs and wildlife (Sokolov 1987). The wood is used to make snowshoes (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

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Fig. 11 Malus pumila (Rosaceae), market, Lagodekhi, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

References Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017, XXVII, 746p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1). Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus – the region. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017b. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – Plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian).

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Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 3. Hydrangeaceae-Haloragaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1987, 326 p. (in Russian). Yuzepchuk SV. Flora of the USSR, Volume 9: Rosales and Sarraceniales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1939 (English 1971). 425 pages, 30 plates with b/w line drawings, 2 b/w fold-out maps.

Matricaria chamomilla L. ASTERACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Matricaria chamomilla L.: Chamaemelum chamomilla (L.) E.H.L. Krause; Chamomilla chamomilla (L.) Rydb.; Chamomilla courrantiana (DC.) K. Koch; Chamomilla recutita (L.) Rauschert; Chamomilla vulgaris Gray; Chrysanthemum chamomilla (L.) Bernh.; Chrysanthemum suaveolens (L.) Cav.; Matricaria chamomilla fo. courrantiana (DC.) Fiori; Matricaria chamomilla fo. kochiana

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_87

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(Sch. Bip.) Fiori; Matricaria chamomilla var. coronata Boiss.; Matricaria chamomilla var. recutita (L.) Fiori; Matricaria coronata (Boiss.) J. Gray ex W.D.J. Koch; Matricaria courrantiana DC.; Matricaria kochiana Sch. Bip.; Matricaria recutita L.; Matricaria recutita var. coronata (Boiss.) Fertig; Matricaria recutita var. kochiana (Sch. Bip.) Greuter; Matricaria suaveolens L.

Local Names Georgian, გვირილა (gvirila); Russian, Ромашкааптечная (Romashkaaptetsnaja); Azeri, чобая ястыгы (tsobaja jacteigei); Armenian, ерицук (erizyk) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991); English, Chamomile

Botany and Ecology Annual herb. Whole plant glabrous, stem 10–30 cm; high, branched from base or mainly sulcate in inflorescence, leafy up to top. Leaves oblong, 15(20–30)60 mm long, 5(10–15)18 mm wide, pinnatisect or twice pinnately cut into narrow-linear lobes with short cusp, sessile, slightly broadened at base. Inflorescence corymbose; capitula on rather long peduncles, 1.2(3.0–5.0) 6.5 cm long, heterogamous. Receptacle oblong-conical, fistular. Involucral bracts usually one, seriate, green, obtuse, whitish membranous along margin, lacking teeth. Ligules of ligulate florets recurved, white; disk florets yellow, with five-toothed long tube. Achenes very small, 0.8–1.0 mm long, 0.25 mm wide, concave, laterally compressed, obliquely truncate at apex, smooth, with three thin, white, similar ribs, extending ventrally, dorsally smooth, brown; pappus absent, less often as scarcely visible toothed corona. Flowering May–September. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia (Tien Shan), on disturbed soil, along roadsides and railways, saline meadows, steppe areas, in gardens, kitchen gardens, and as weed in crops (Shishkin and Boborov 1961; Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Phytochemistry Carbohydrates (D-galacturonic and pectinic acids, D-galactose, D-glucose, L-rhamnose, L-arabinose, D-xylose), essential oils (bisabolol, a-bisabolol, a-bisabolene, bisabolol oxide, farnesene, azulene, farnesolid, prohamazulene, cadinene, guaiazulene, sparthulenol, trans-pinocarveol, pinocarvone, pinene, caren, a-kubeben, a-murolen, kalamen, hamaviolin, xantoxyline), nitrogen-containing compounds (choline), phenylcarboxylic acids (p-coumaric, hydroxybenzoic, vanillin, lilac, coffee, ferulic, coumaric, chlorogenic), tannins, coumarins (umbelliferone, herniarin), flavonoids (apigenin, luteoline, gossissetin, polycladine, patuletin,

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Fig. 1 Matricaria chamomilla (Asteraceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Matricaria chamomilla (Asteraceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

yaceidin, chrysoplenol D, eupatholityhin, spinacetin, axillarin, eupalinin, chrysosplenetin, chrysoeriol, isorhamnetin, cosmosine, quercetine, patulintrin, rutin, apigenin, quercimeritrin, apion, hyperoside, patulintrin, isorhamnetin, chrysoeriol, kaempferol, patulein), heterocyclic oxygen-containing compounds

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Fig. 3 Matricaria chamomilla (Asteraceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

(matricarin), fatty acids (palmitic, palmitoleic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, linolenic, caproic, enanthic, caprylic, myristic, pentadecanoic, methylheptadecanoic, nonadecanoic), coumarins (umbelliferone, herniarin), cyclitols (phytin) (Sokolov 1993).

Local Medicinal Uses Chamomile is widely included in official herbal pharmacopoeia. The leaf decoction is used to treat stomach spasms, respiratory infections, female diseases, postpartum problems, gastric colics, and neuroses and is used as poultice for eye diseases. In the Altai chamomile baths are used to treat osteomyelitis. In Middle Asia the roots are used as choleretic, expectorant, and with flatulence. The flowers are used as infusion as antispasmodic, antiseptic, and astringent, for diarrhea, gastritis, stomach ulcers, duodenal ulcers, vaginitis, and to treat fissures of the nipples in nursing mothers. In the oral cavity infusions are used for periodontal disease, gingivitis, and periodontitis. Used as diaphoretic, anticonvulsant, and anti-inflammatory (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1993). The flowers are used for intestinal inflammations, and the whole plant is used for cough, as diuretic, and for gastrointestinal ailments, stomachache, and wounds (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, 2018) and often is sold in markets (2017b).

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Local Food Uses The plant extract is used to flavor alcoholic beverages. The plant is often used as tea (Sokolov 1993). The leaves are used for chave and tea (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, 2018).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses In veterinary medicine, infusions are used as remedy for intoxication, helminthiases, convulsions in horses, paralysis in sheep, and jaundice in cattle. Powdered plant is applied against scabies and ectoparasites of birds. The plant yields yellow dyes for wool and silk. Fodder for livestock, especially horses (Sokolov 1993).

References Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ehnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, Volume 26: Compositae Giseke (altern. Asteraceae Dumort). Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1961 (English 1995). 1072 pages. Sokolov PD (ed.) Plant Resources of the USSR: Flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Family Asteraceae (Compositae). Akademia Nauk, Leningrad;1993. 352 p. (in Russian).

Melandrium divaricatum Fenzl CARYOPHYLLACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Melandrium divaricatum Fenzl Melandrium balansae Boiss.; Melandrium boissieri Schischk.; Silene alba subsp. divaricata (Rchb.) Walters

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_88

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Local Names Georgian, ვირთბატრა (virtbat’ra), სასტვენა (tsik’niq’ura), სასტვენა (sastvena); Khevsur, ბალანსა (balansa); (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991).

Botany and Ecology Biennial; stems 50–90 cm long, arising laterally from the basal rosette, puberulent as are the leaves; leaves obovate or oblong, 4–7 cm long and 1.5–3 cm broad, acute, the basal tapering to fairly long petiole, the cauline sessile; flowers solitary, the plants dioecious; inflorescence at first rather compact, finally more loose; pedicels commonly as long as calyx, elongating in fruit; calyx glandular-viscid and covered with simple hairs, 12–20 mm long, in staminate flowers tubular campanulate, in pistillate flowers ovoid; fruiting calyx not inflated, tightly enclosing the capsule; capsule ovoid, with ten erect teeth. Flowering June–July. Ural, Caucasus, Central Asia, between shrubs, in fields, along roads (Komarov and Shishkin 1936; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).

Phytochemistry Alkaloids, triterpene saponins, vitamins (C) (Fedorov 1984).

Local Food Uses The young leaves are cooked as herb pie (Fedorov 1984). The leaves and sometimes young stems are used for Phkhali (herb pie) (Bussmann et al. 2016). Fig. 1 Melandrium divaricatum (Caryophyllaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua_Zambrana)

Melandrium divaricatum Fenzl Fig. 2 Melandrium divaricatum (Caryophyllaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua_Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Melandrium divaricatum (Caryophyllaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua_Zambrana)

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The stems can be used as whistles (Bussmann et al. 2016).

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Fig. 4 Melandrium balansae (Caryophyllaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua_Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Melandrium balansae (Caryophyllaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua_Zambrana)

References Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia

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(Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Fedorov AA, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 1. Families Magnoliaceae – Limoniaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1984, 460 p. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Komarov VL, Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR. Volume 6. Centrospermae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1936 (English 1970). 731 p. 55 b/w plates, 2 maps. Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian).

Melilotus albus Medik. Melilotus officinalis (L.) Lam. LAMIACEAE Farzaneh Khajoei Nasab, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Melilotus albus Medik.: Melilotus albus Desr.; Melilotus leucanthus Koch ex DC. Melilotus officinalis (L.) Lam.: Brachylobus officinalis (L.) Dulac.; Medicago officinalis (L.) E.H.L. Krause; Melilotus arenarius Grecescu; Melilotus arvensis Wallr.; Melilotus graveolens Bunge.; Melilotus melilotus-officinalis Asch. & Graebn.; F. K. Nasab Department of Plant Sciences and Biotechnology, Faculty of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran e-mail: [email protected] A. Ghorbani Department of Organismal Biology, Evolutionary Biology Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_90

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Melilotus neglectus Ten.; Melilotus officinalis fo. suaveolens (Ledeb.) H. Ohashi & Tateishi; Melilotus pallidus Besser ex Ser.; Melilotus suaveolens Ledeb.; Sertula officinalis (L.) Kuntze; Trifolium melilotus-officinalis L.; Trifolium officinale L.

Local Names Melilotus albus: Russian, ДонниК (donnak) (Russian); Azeri, хэшенбул (cheshenbul); Armenian, ишарвуйт (isharbyt) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991) Melilotus officinalis: Russian, Дoнниклeкapcтвeнн ый (Donnik lekarstvennyy); Uzbek, Kashkar beda; Kyrgyz, Дapыкaшкa бeдe (Dary kashka bede) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991); Farsi, ‫( ﺍﮎﻝﯼﻝ ﺍﻝﻡﻝﮎ‬Akliel Al-molk);‫( ﯼﻭﻥﺝﻩ ﺯﺭﺩ‬Yondje zard); English, yellow sweetclover

Botany and Ecology Melilotus albus: Biennial, rarely annual; stems erect, 0.5–1.5 m long, sometimes slightly reddish in lower part, short-hairy above; stipules subulate, entire, very rarely the lower dentate; obtuse, dentate nearly from base, with 8–12 dentations on each margin, sparingly short-hairy beneath, the lower obovate-rhombic or cuneate, the upper oblong-lanceolate; raceme loose, 4–6 cm long, greatly elongating in fruit; flowers white, 4–7 mm long, on pedicel 1–1.5 mm long; calyx 2 mm long, the lanceolate acuminate teeth half as long as tube; standard slightly longer than wings, these as long as tube; standard slightly longer than wings, these as long as keel; ovary sessile, lanceolate, 3- or 4-ovuled; style one and a half times as long as ovary; pod turning dark, 3–3.5 mm long, 2–2.5 mm broad, and ca.2 mm thick, somewhat blunted at the top, more or less distinctly reticulate-rugose by rather few slender veins; seeds 1 or 2, rarely 3, yellow, smooth, or minutely tuberculate. Flowering June–September. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, on river floodplains, coastal sands, moist meadows, fallow lands, especially clayey and solonetz soils, sometimes as weed (Komarov and Shishkin 1945). Melilotus officinalis: Biennial; stems erect, 0.5–1 m long, sometimes longer, hairy in upper part; stipules lanceolate, acuminate, entire, the lowermost sometimes with

N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]

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Fig. 1 Melilotus officinalis (Fabaceae), Guria, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

1 or 2 dentations; leaflets of lower leaves obovate to orbicular, obtuse, the upper lanceolate, unequally dentate, with 10–13 teeth on each margin, puberulent beneath; raceme 4–10 cm long, 30–70 flowered; pedicels to 1.5 mm long; flowers yellow, nodding, 5–7 mm long; calyx ca.2 mm long, the triangular-lanceolate teeth halflength of calyx, the keel somewhat shorter; ovary lanceolate, glabrous; distinctly stipitate, commonly 6- (rarely 4- or 8-)-ovuled; style slightly curved, about one and a half times as long as ovary; pod 3–4 mm long, 2 mm wide, and ca. 1.5 mm thick, ovaloid, obtuse at the top, with persistent style, short stipitate, grayish, glabrous, transversely wrinkled; seed 1 (rarely 2), greenish yellow. Flowering May–June, fruiting June–July. Ural, Caucasus, Middle Asia, Altai meadows, sometimes on solonetzic soils, cultivated fields, fallows, roadsides (Komarov and Shishkin 1945; Figs. 1 and 2).

Phytochemistry Phenolic carboxylic acids (melilot, coumaric, o-kumaric), coumarins (dicumarol, melilotin, melilotic acid, melilotocide), pterocarpans (medikarpine), flavonoids, vitamins (C, E, carotene), fatty acids, alkaloids (Sokolov 1987).

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Fig. 2 Melilotus officinalis (Fabaceae), Guria, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses Traditionally the leaves are used to treat fever and colds, as diuretic, and externally for wound healing. The roots serve to treat thrombosis (Sokolov 1987). Melilotus officinalis: The decoction of aerial parts of this plant was used as remedy for inflammation, hypercholia, hypoglycemia, and hypotension (Naghibi et al. 2014). Decoction and juice of aerial parts and leafs are used for hypoglycemia, hypotension, coagulation, wound, and hypertonia (Mosaddegh et al. 2016).

Local Food Uses The green plant material is used for flavoring beer and snuff. The leaf extract can be used for bitter vodka (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1987).

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses The stems yield coarse fibers suitable for making ropes and sacks. A water extract of the plant serves as insecticide and rodicide. The flowers yield good honey. The plant is used as fodder for all species of farm animals and poultry. The oil obtained from the leaves contains coumarin and is used for flavoring tobacco. The species are planted as feed crop (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1987).

References Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Komarov VL, Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 11: Papilionacea, Caesalpinioideae, Mimosoideae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1945 (English 1971). 327 pages, 25 b/w plates, 2 maps. Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Mosaddegh M, Esmaeili S, Hassanpour A, Malekmohammadi M, Naghibi F. Ethnobotanical study in the highland of Alvand and Tuyserkan, Iran. Res J Pharmacogn. 2016;3:7–17. Naghibi F, Esmaeili S, Malekmohammadi M, Hassanpour A, Mosaddegh M. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used traditionally in two villages of Hamedan, Iran. Res J Pharmacogn. 2014;1:7–14. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 3. Hydrangeaceae-Haloragaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1987, 326 p. (in Russian).

Melissa officinalis L. LAMIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Melissa officinalis L.: Melissa bicornis Klokov

Local Names Georgian, ბარამბო (barambo), კამპლაბალახი (k’amp’labalakhi), კამპლის ბალახი (k’amp’lis balakhi) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991); English, Lemon balm R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_89

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Botany and Ecology Perennial, 30–125 cm high, with soft short hairs all over; stems erect, branched, quadrangular; leaves petiolate, ovate, to 6 cm long, 3 cm broad, the upper cuneate, the lower cordate at base, crenate-toothed, subglabrous, sometimes with glandular hairs or punctate glands beneath; verticillate 3–5–10-flowered, distant, in the axils of upper leaves; bracts elliptical or oblong, petiolate, not exceeding the flowers; calyx campanulate, hairy, the upper lip broad, flat, subemarginate, with three short acuminate teeth, the two lower teeth triangular-lanceolate; fruiting calyx fiveangled; corolla whitish or pinkish, 13–15 mm long, one and a half times to twice as long as calyx, glabrate; upper lip almost flat; stamens four, the lower longer, curved and connivent under the upper lip; nutlets ovoid, strongly narrowed toward base, brownish, smooth, 1.5–2 mm long. Flowering June–September. Ural, Caucasus, Middle Asia, forest fringes, in wet shady ravines, near settlements, as weed, up to the middle mountain belt (Shishkin and Borisova 1954; Figs. 1 and 2).

Fig. 1 Melissa officinalis (Lamiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Melissa officinalis (Lamiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Essential oils (geranial, citronellal, caryophyllene, limonene, linalool, linaloolene, rosene, isogeranial, pulegol, isopulegol, methyl salicylate, safranal, terpineol, lavandulyl valerate, farnesene, linalyl acetate, fellandrene), vitamins (C, B1, B2, carotene), phenylcarboxylic acids (rosemary, coffee, chlorogenic, protocatechol, ferulic), flavonoids (luteoline, ramranazine), coumarins, triterpenoids (ursolic acid), fatty acids (palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, linolenic) (Sokolov 1991).

Local Medicinal Uses Widely used in Eurasia and included in official pharmacopoeia. In Middle Asia used as leaf decoction for neuralgia, heart failure, bronchitis, digestive disorders, diarrhea, hemostasis, tracheobronchitis, otitis, arthritis, pharyngitis, migraines, insomnia, gynecological diseases, gout, dizziness, and anemia, as sedative, and as galactogogue. As bath and compresses for rheumatism, bruises, burns, furunculosis, and oral rinse for paradontosis (Sokolov 1991).

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The leaves and shoots are used to make a calming tea for nervous problems (Bussmann et al. 2016, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

Local Food Uses The leaves are used to flavor beverages. Sometimes used as a spicy seasoning for food, in pepper vodka and absinthe, in Benedictine and Chartreuse liquors (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1991).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The essential oils are used for perfumes. It is an excellent honey plant (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1991).

References Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017, XXVII, 746p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1). Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Shishkin BK, Borisova AG. Flora of the USSR, Volume 21: Labiatae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1954 (English 1976). 520 pages, 32 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 6. Families Hippuridaceae-Lobeliaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1991, 200 p. (in Russian).

Morus alba L. MORACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Morus alba L.: Morus alba var. tatarica (L.) Ser.; Morus atropurpurea Roxb.; Morus australis Poir.; Morus indica L.; Morus intermedia Perr.; Morus multicaulis Perr.; Morus tatarica L.

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_91

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Local Names Georgian: თუთა (tuta); ბჟოლა (bzhola); ბჟოლი (bzholi); Russian: Мяталимонная (mjatalimonnaja); Azeri: бадрендж (badrendsh); Armenian: патриндж (patrindsh) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991); English: white mulberry

Botany and Ecology Tree, 15–20 m tall; branches, grayish-brown; leaves ovate, truncate, or rounded or subcordate at base, acute at apex, on young shoots mostly undivided, on fruiting and annotinous branches lobed or sinuate, crenate-dentate with rounded teeth, thin, soft, mostly glabrous; fruiting perianth light colored, glabrous outside; stigma papillose, not villous; fruit white (var. vulgaris Bureau) or purple-black (var. tatarica Seringe = Morus tatarica Pall.). Flowering April–June. Ural, Caucasus, often cultivated, along rivers and lakes, forests, up to 1500 m (Bobrov and Komarov 1936; Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4). Fig. 1 Morus alba (Moraceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Morus alba (Moraceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 3 Morus alba (Moraceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Morus alba (Moraceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Triterpenoids (betulic acid), steroids (sitosterol), vitamins (B1, B2, C, E), flavonoids (malberrine, cyclomalberrine), phenols (resorcine), tannins, flavonoids (kaempferol, quercetin, rutin), steroids (sitosterol), organic acids (oxalic, tartaric, lemon, amber, apple), fatty acids (enanthic, myristic, palmitosine, stearic, oleic, linoleic, linolenic) (Fedorov 1984).

Local Medicinal Uses In Middle Asia a decoction of the bark is used to treat hypertension, urinary diseases, angina, dysentery, and anemia, as diuretic, as hemostatic for uterine bleeding, and as expectorant. The latex is used for wound healing, laxative, and anthelmintic. In Azerbaijan mulberry is used to treat diabetes. In the Ural the species is used to

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remedy vomiting, pulmonary diseases, and fever (Fedorov 1984). The roots are used to treat sore throat, cough, constipation, and snakebites, and as brain and heart stimulant in India (Raj et al. 2018), and to treat hyperglycemia, ulcers, and tonsillitis in Pakistan (Umair et al. 2019).

Local Food Uses The fruits are eaten fresh and dried for use in sauces, sweets, and the production of alcohol (Grossheim 1952; Fedorov 1984). The fruits are also used for jams (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017a, 2018).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The wood is used for the construction of ships, tool handles, furniture, and musical instruments (panduri), as well as for the production of paper. The leaves are the main forage of silkworms. The bark yields a yellow, yellowish red, and greenish dye for wool and silk (Grossheim 1952; Fedorov 1984; Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017a, 2018). Mulberry leaves are sold in medicinal plant markets (Bussmann et al. 2017b).

References Bobrov EG, Komarov VL. Flora of the USSR, Volume 5: Dicotyledoneae, Subclass I: Archichlamydeae, Order Piperales-Polygonales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1936 (English 1970). 593 pages, 49 b/w plates. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Fedorov AA, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 1. Families Magnoliaceae – Limoniaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1984, 460 p. (in Russian).

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Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Raj AJ, Biswakarma B, Pala NA, Shukla G, Vineeta V, Kumar M, Chakravarty S, Bussmann RW. Indigenous uses of ethno-medicinal plants among forest dependent communities of Northern Bengal, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14(1):8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-018-0208-9. Umair M, Altaf M, Bussmann RW, Abbasi AM. Ethnomedicinal uses of the local flora in Chenab riverine area, Punjab province Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2019;15:7. https://doi.org/ 10.1186/s13002-019-0285-4.

Nepeta mussinii Spreng. ex Henckel LAMIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Local Names Georgian: ქატაპიტნა (oatapit’na); Russian: Мятакошачья (mjatakoshatsja); Azeri: пишик нанеси (mishik naneci); Armenian: вайри захц (bayri sachuz) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991)

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; mananakhuts@yahoo. com; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_92

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Botany and Ecology Perennial; root woody, slender, more or less knotty, coarsely fibrous, passing into woody short rhizome, sometimes branching; stems many, 13–40 cm long, slender, 0.7–1.5 mm across, ascending, with woody sometimes perennial bases, with 12–16 internodes (including inflorescence), at first unbranched or with few short mostly sterile axillary branches, later often developing rather numerous branches, densely grayish-hairy, the hairs very short, fine, crisp, appressed (sometimes longer and spreading in lower part of stem); leaves thin, the upper side with network of nerves and thus often rugose, green or grayish green, densely covered with very short appressed hairs, the lower side with some prominent veins, usually grayish tomentose-velutinous or velutinous all over with very fine short implexed hairs and with numerous punctate yellow glands; cauline leaves (7) 10–24 mm long, (6) 7–10 mm wide, oblong-ovate, rarely ovate, obtuse, more or less deeply cordate, crenate or dentate-crenate from base (with 11–17 teeth on each margin); lower petioles ca. 2/3 as long as blade, the upper 1/4–1/2 as long; leaves of axillary branches narrower, usually lanceolate, often acute; lower floral leaves resembling the cauline but subsessile or sessile, the upper bracteiform; inflorescence of 4–8 (10) verticillate forming a more or less one-sided raceme (2) 3–10 (14) cm long; upper semiverticillate subsessile, crowded at summit, often confluent, the lower on peduncles 0.5–2 cm long, in remote pairs; bracts narrowly lanceolate, usually conduplicate, 1.5–2.5 mm long; leaves subtending semiverticillate slightly longer; calyx (5) 6–7.5 mm long, usually bluish, softly tomentose arachnoid with implexed long patent jointed blue and white hairs; teeth triangular to lanceolate (1/3), 1/4–2/7 as long as tube, the two lower slightly narrower and often slightly shorter than the upper; corolla (9) 10–13 mm long, densely short-hairy outside, lilac-blue, with darker violet-blue spots at throat; tube exserted to 1–1.5 mm, abruptly expanding into the neck, ca. 3 mm long; upper lip cleft to middle into obtuse lobes; middle lobe of lower lip 3–4 mm long, 4.5–6 mm wide, strongly concave, coarsely crenate, the lateral lobes obliquely semi orbicular-triangular, 2–2.5 mm wide, 1–1.5 mm long; style and upper stamens as long as upper lip of corolla; nutlets blackish-brown, broadly ellipsoid, 1.75–2 mm long, ca. 1 mm wide, densely covered with small obtuse tubercles. Flowering first half of April–July, fruiting second half of June–September. Caucasus, on dry, gravelly, stony slopes, up to the upper mountain belt (Yuzepchuk and Shishkin 1954; Fig. 1).

Phytochemistry Essential oils (citralal, caryophyllene), iridoids (epinephrine petalactone), flavonoids, essential oils, steroids, tannins (Sokolov 1991)

Nepeta mussinii Spreng. ex Henckel

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Fig. 1 Nepeta sp. (Lamiaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Food Uses The leaves are used as spice for salads (Sokolov 1991). The leaves are also used as tea (Bussmann et al. 2016, 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The leaves yield greenish and greenish-yellow dyes for wool and silk. The flowers yield good honey. It is planted as ornamental and used to flavor liquor and cognacs (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1991).

References Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia

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(Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 6. Families Hippuridaceae-Lobeliaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1991, 200 p. (in Russian). Yuzepchuk SV, Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 20: Labiatae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1954 (English 1976). 389 pages, 28 b/w plates, 2 maps.

Nicotiana rustica L. Nicotiana tabacum L. SOLANACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Nicotiana rustica L.: Nicotiana pavonii Dunal Nicotiana tabacum L.: Nicotiana chinensis Fisch. ex Lehm.; Nicotiana mexicana Schltdl.; Nicotiana mexicana var. rubriflora Dunal; Nicotiana pilosa Dunal

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_93

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Local Names Nicotiana rustica: Georgian: ბურნუთი (burnuti), თამბაქო (tambako), წეკო (ts’ek’o); Svan: თუთინ (thuthin); Khevsur: წეკვა (tsekva); Russian: Махорка (machorka); Armenian: хасарак тутун (chacarak tutun) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991) Nicotiana tabacum: Georgian: თამბაქო (tambako), წეკო (ts’ek’o), ბურნუთი (Burnuti), ჯოკარი (jokari); Svan: თუთინ (thuthin); Khevsur, წეკვა (tsekva); Russian: Табак (tabak); Azeri: тютюн (tjutjun); Armenian: цхахот (tschachot) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991)

Botany and Ecology Nicotiana rustica: Annual. Stem over 1 m tall, herbaceous, glandular pilose branching almost from the base. Leaves all petiolate, soft, slightly fleshy, ovate, usually obtuse, rarely acute, with cordate base. Flowers in racemose panicle on short Fig. 1 Nicotiana tabacum (Solanaceae), garden, Chilchos, Peru. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

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Fig. 2 Nicotiana tabacum (Solanaceae), garden, Chilchos, Peru. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

pedicels. Calyx broadly campanulate, 6–10 mm long, with broad triangular lobes. Corolla 1.5–2 cm long, with broad whitish tube and greenish yellow, flat, narrow limb with broad, ovate-triangular obtuse lobes. Capsule subglobose, with numerous extremely small, brown, ovoid seeds. Flowering from July to September. Cultivated in fields and kitchen gardens. South America (native in Peru); cultivated in all countries with tropical and subtropical climate and the more southern regions of the temperate zone (Shishkin and Boborov 1955). Nicotiana tabacum: Annual. Stem 0.75–1.5 m tall, herbaceous, simple, or with few branches, with glandular pubescence. Leaves alternate, entire; basal leaves narrowly elliptical, decurrent along stem; upper leaves narrowly lanceolate, long-acuminate, sessile, or short petiolate. Flowers in cymose panicles on short pedicels. Calyx 1–2 cm long, campanulate, with acute narrowly triangular teeth. Corolla 5–6 cm long, red or pink, rarely white, infundibuliform, with long and broad spreading limb, lobes broadly triangular, with sharply pointed tip. Capsule ellipsoidal-ovoid, apiculate. Seeds ovoid-reniform, very small. Flowering July–September, fruiting from September. Cultivated in fields and kitchen gardens (Shishkin and Boborov 1955; Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

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Fig. 3 Nicotiana tabacum (Solanaceae), garden, Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Phytochemistry Alkaloids (nicotine, nicotelline, nicotinin, betanin, i-amygdalin, pyrrolidine, nmethyl pyrrolidine), fatty acids (palmitic, butyric, and linoleic acids, stearic) (Sokolov 1990).

Local Medicinal Uses Nicotiana rustica: The leaves are used for arthritis, bronchitis, sore throat, tonsillitis, and wounds. Nicotiana tabacum: The leaves are used to treat arthritis, bronchitis, digestive system problems, sinusitis, and skin problems.

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The leaves and stems are used for smoking and snuff; they are used in the manufacture of shredded tobacco, cigarettes, and also chewing tobacco and snuff, for obtaining nicotine and manufacturing insecticides. Nicotiana rustica is used on a

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Fig. 4 Nicotiana tabacum (Solanaceae), drying for use, Osh, Kyrgyzstan. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Nicotiana tabacum (Solanaceae), dried smoking tobacco, Pshavi, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

larger scale than N. tabacum. The extract can also be used as insecticide (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1990). Nicotiana rustica: The leaves are used for protection, smoking, and snuff. The stems are also used as masticant. Nicotiana tabacum: The leaves are used for protection, smoking, and snuff. The whole plant is used as natural pesticide (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Figs. 4, 5, 6, and 7).

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Fig. 6 Nicotiana tabacum (Solanaceae), dried smoking tobacco, Pshavi, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 7 Nicotiana tabacum (Solanaceae) dried smoking tobacco, market, Dinsho, Ethiopia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

References Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017, XXVII, 746p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1). Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo

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(Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plant and fungal use in Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016c;86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus – Georgia. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, Volume 22: Solanaceae and Scrophulariaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1955 (English 1993). 745 pages. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: Flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 5. Families of Caprifoliaceae – Plantaginaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1990, 328 p. (in Russian).

Oberna lacera (Steven) Ikonn. Oberna wallichiana (Klotzsch) Ikonn. CARYOPHYLLACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Oberna lacera (Steven) Ikonn.: Cucubalus lacerus Steven; Silene lacera (Steven) Sims; Behenantha lacera (Steven) Ikonn. Oberna wallichiana (Klotzsch) Ikonn.: Behen vulgaris Moench; Silene wallichiana Klotzsch; Silene vulgaris (Moench) Garcke; Behenantha wallichiana (Klotzsch) Ikonn.

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_94

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Local Names Oberna lacera: Georgia: ქვიშამხალი (kvishamkhali); Russian: Смолевка (smolevska); Armenian: тзьтзвук (tz’tzvuk); (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991) Oberna wallichiana: მზივანა (mch’ivana), ჭრიჭინა (ch’ritchina), ჭყიპანტა (ch’q’ip’ant’a); Tush: ქვიშამხალი (kvisha pkhali) Russian: Смолевка (smolevska); Armenian: тзьтзвук (tstsvyk) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991); English: catchfly

Botany and Ecology Oberna lacera: Perennial; stem branched from base; branches ascending, 15–30 cm long, sparsely hairy; lower leaves twice to four times length of blade, this ovate, 2 cm long and 7 mm broad, abruptly contracted or subcordate at base, subacute to obtuse, sparsely hairy-like stem; pedicels shorter to longer than calyx, erect or spreading, often nodding; bracts narrowly lanceolate, herbaceous; calyx broadly campanulate, reticulately nerved, pubescent, with triangular teeth, 16 mm long and 9 mm broad, inflated in fruit; petals slightly longer than calyx, white, more rarely purple, fringedmultifid; coronal scales linear-lanceolate, acute, 3 mm long; claw auriculate at summit, glabrous; capsule sessile, 10 mm long and 7 mm broad; seeds black, flattened, convex on the back, to 2.5 mm long. Flowering June–August. Caucasus, Middle Asia, on rocky slopes of mountains, in the shade of feces and trees, sometimes on subalpine meadows (Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Komarov and Shishkin 1936; Figs. 1 and 2). Oberna wallichiana: Perennial, glabrous herb. Stem erect. Leaves ellipticlanceolate, apex acuto or acuminate. Inflorescence a terminal panicle, dichotomously branched, bracteate. Flowers with inflated calyx, vesicular, with a multistriated surface and venulose, lobes triangular and acute; petals bipartite with a tuberculate base. Fruit dry, splitting open when ripe. Europe, Northwestern Africa, Asia. Oberna wallichiana is typical of dry meadows, banks, wasteland, and lawns. It protects itself from drying out with a bluish green covering of wax, and its roots reach down deep into the ground. The layer of air inside the calyx insulates the flower’s more delicate inner parts from heat. The flower’s petals can lose their water content during the day and wilt, but in the evening, they return to normal and start to secrete a pleasant, clove-like fragrance. It is visited by night butterflies, but its nectar also attracts small beetles, flower flies, and bees (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961; Komarov and Shishkin 1936; Figs. 3 and 4).

Phytochemistry Triterpene saponins, flavonoids, alkaloids (Fedorov 1984)

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Fig. 1 Oberna lacera (Caryophyllaceae). Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo: R. Bussmsnn)

Fig. 2 Oberna lacera (Caryophyllaceae). Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo: N. PaniaguaZambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses Oberna wallichiana is used for wound healing: the juice of the plant is used externally in the treatment of different wounds and sores (Alekperov 1992).

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Fig. 3 Oberna wallichiana (Caryophyllaceae). Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo: N. PaniaguaZambrana)

Local Food Uses Young shoots of Oberna wallichiana have the taste of asparagus and are used in food raw and marinated; boiled leaves are used like spinach (Fedorov 1984; Grossheim 1952). Oberna lacera: Young shoots are eaten. Tusheti: Boiled for mkhali (herb spread), mixed with salted and melted butter and eaten. Well-cleaned plants are put into a pot and heated without water. Then the herb mass is cooled on a colander and chopped and mixed with onion stewed in melted butter, egg, and salt. Sometimes curd is also added. In winter the herb is used to prepare a juicy meal called “chave” (herbs cooked with coarse flour). Oberna lacera is used alone to make mkhali in Tusheti, either with onion stewed in melted butter, also mixed with egg and sometimes curds (Makalatia 1933; Oshoradze 1969), or with walnut and vinegar (Oshoradze 1969). O. lacera is also a component of a winter meal called chave, made by boiling a number of dried herbs including course flour stirred in water (Oshoradze 1969). The species is also used for chachapuri (herb pie), khinkali (herb- and meat-filled dumplings), and pkhali (vegetable and walnut spread). Oberna wallichiana leaves are used for pkhali, khachapuri, khinkali, and chave (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017;

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Fig. 4 Oberna wallichiana (Caryophyllaceae). Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo: N. PaniaguaZambrana)

Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b). In Khevi many species are mixed together for pkhali: ghoris nats’q’la-i ღორის ნაწყლა-ი Sonchus ssp., mch’ivana-i მჭივანა-ი – Oberna wallichiana Klotzsch; maq’randutsa-i მაყრანდუცა-ი Anthriscus sylvestris (L.) Hoffm. maq’rats’ela მაყრაწელა-ი; diq’inch’ora-ghrich’ola დიყინჭორა-ღრინჭოლა/ j’q’imi’ჭყიმი Anthriscus nemorosa (M. Bieb.) Spreng; k’ats’a-i კაწა-ი Campanula rapunculoides L. (its root is also edible), ts’iteli pkhali წითელი/jijilaq’a წითელი ჯიჯილაყა Amaranthus hybridus L., nadirmkhalai ნადირმხალაი Aruncus vulgaris Raf., saskhep’iai სასხეპიაი Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., ch’inch’ari ჭინჭარი Urtica dioica L., gholo ღოლო Rumex ssp., tatami თათამას Atriplex hortensis L.; Khevi people use as food the following plants: shalgi შალგი Brassica campestris L., khakhot’i ხახოტი Bunias orientalis L., mamula მამულა Artemisia vulgaris L., ts’its’mat’ura წიწმატურა Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik., khboshublai ხბოშუბლაი Galega orientalis Lam. (Bakhtadze and Koghuashvili 2009; Kavtaradze 1985; Sujashvili and Pitskhelauri 2005). Treated and washed young leaves of მჭივანა Silene wallichiana Klotzsch are boiled; onions are fried in a clarified butter; sometimes instead of butter ground, cheese is added; everything is mixed and seasoned with garlic, pepper, and salt to taste (Bakhtadze and Koghuashvili 2009, Kavtaradze 1985, Sujashvili and Pitskhelauri 2005).

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Mkhlovani მხლოვანი herb pie was originally widely baked. This type of pie was prepared from several pkhali plants cut in thin pieces: kvishamkhalai ქვიშამხალაი Silene lacera Sims., khboshublai ხბოშუბლაი Galega orientalis Lam. (there is another species of this genus in the list), tatamai თათამაი Atriplex hortensis L., mch’vanai მჭივანაი Silene wallichiana Klotzsch, ghoris nats’lavai ღორის ნაწლევი Sonchus spp. (Bakhtadze and Koghuashvili 2009, Kavtaradze 1985, Sujashvili and Pitskhelauri 2005). In Khevsureti the local population uses a variety of plants growing in wild for cooking mixed mkhali, e.g., dzirkhvena ძირხვენა Arctium lappa L.; k’enk’esha კენკეშა Campanula lactiflora M. Bieb. – young, peeled shoots are used as food; tvitmavala თვითმავალა Amaranthus retroflexsus L. grows in vegetable gardens and ruderal places, and the aboveground parts of the plant are harvested; boiled; mixed with clarified butter, onions, and herbs; and eaten; ckhenis sakhvremi ცხენის სახვრემი Sonchus ssp., mochik’ais t’ari მოჩიკაის ტარი Campanula rapunculoides L., mch’ivana მჭივანა Silene wallichiana Klotzsch (Bakhtadze and Koghuashvili 2009; Chincharauli 2005). In Tusheti many herbaceous plants are used as food and are kept for winter, either dried or pickled, to make mixed mkhali and sauces and to accompany the main dishes, including kumeli ქუმელი q’va ყვა. It is used all-year round and is made of roasted keri ქერი (barley) grains. It also can be made of ipkli იფქლი (Georgian endemic wheat), corn, svili სვილი (rye), kersvili ქერსვილი (mixture of barley and rye), and tsetsvi ცერცვი (faba bean, when mixed with corn); giera-i გიერა-ი Brassica campestris subsp. oleifera (DC.) Schübl. & Mart., gomat’i გომატი Bunias orientalis L., dutsi დუცი Angelica tatianae Bordz., kharnuq’a-i ხარნუყა-ი Lactuca serriola L., buera ბუერა Petasites ssp., shubq’a-i შუბყა-ი Heracleum asperum M. Bieb., khap’ara-i ხაპარა-ი Cichorium intybus L., mariamdzmara მარიამძმარა Ligusticum alatum (M. Bieb.) Spreng. ch’imi ჭიმი Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., diq’i დიყი Heracleum ssp., jortk’uda-i ჯორთკუდა-ი Artemisia vulgaris L., sagvidzla საღვიძლა Taraxacum officinale (L.) Weber ex F.H. Wigg., dzirkhvena ძირხვენა Arctium lappa L., ch’ivana ჭივანა Silene wallichiana Klotzsch, kvishamkhala ქვიშამხალა Silene laera (Stev.) Sims, khavrat’ai ხავრატაი Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik., jorik’udai ჯორიკუდაი Artemisia vulgaris L., and giera გიერა Sinapis arvensis L. (Makalatia 1933). There are several ways to season mkhali in Tusheti: (1) well-cleaned plants are placed in a pot and cooked without water. The cooked plants are placed on a sieve to cool and cut into pieces. After that the dish is seasoned with onions browned in clarified butter, eggs, and salt. (2) After cooking the plants in the same way, fresh cottage cheese, onions browned in clarified butter, eggs, and salt are added. (3) After boiling the mkhali is seasoned with vinegar, garlic, and salt. Normally, in Tusheti mkhali is not seasoned with walnuts and vinegar (Makalatia 1933).

References Alekperov FU. Comparative analysis of medicinal plants of medieval (XIII–XVIII centuries) and modern Azerbaijan. Ornak: Baku; 1992. (in Russian).

Oberna lacera (Steven) Ikonn. . . .

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Bakhtadze D, Koghuashvili P. Nutrition culture of the Georgians. Tbilisi: Georgian Academy of Sciences; 2009. (ბახტაძე დ., კოღუაშვილი პ. 2009. ქართველთა კვების კულტურა. თბილისი, in Georgian.). Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Oberna lacera (Steven) Ikonn.; Oberna wallichiana (Klotzsch) Ikonn. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K. Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:5. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016c;86(2):3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):7–24. Chincharauli A. Dictionary of Khevsurian dialect. Tbilisi: Kartuli ena; 2005. (ჭინჭარაული ა. 2005. ხევსურული ლექსიკონი. თბილისი: ქართული ენა in Georgian.). Fedorov AA, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 1. Families Magnoliaceae – Limoniaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1984, 460 p. (in Russian). Flora of Azerbaijan. Volumes I–VIII. Baku: AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1950–1961. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Kavtaradze I. Mokhevian dialect of the Georgian language. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1985. (ქავთარაძე ი. 1985. ქართული ენის მოხევური დიალექტი. თბილისი: მეცნიერება in Georgian.). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Komarov VL, Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 6: Centrospermae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1936 (English 1970). 731 pages, 55 b/w plates, 2 maps. Makalatia S. Tusheti. Tbilisi: Sakhelgami; 1933. (მაკალათია ს. 1933. თუშეთი. ტფილისი: სახელგამი in Georgian.). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Oshoradze V. Characteristic of mkali and other wild food plants and possibility of their introduction in agriculture. Candidate of Agrarian Sciences Dissertation, Tbilisi; 1969. (in Georgian). Sujashvili N, Pitskhelauri I. Dictionary of Mokhevian dialect. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 2005. (სუჯაშვილი ნ., ფიცხელაური ი. 2005. მოხევური ლექსიკონი. თბილისი).

Ocimum basilicum L. LAMIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Ocimum basilicum L.: Ocimum basilicum var. thyrsifolium (L.) Benth.; Ocimum thyrsifolium L.

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; mananakhuts@yahoo. com; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_95

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Local Names Georgian, რეჰანი (rehani), შაშკულავი (shashk’ulavi), საშტრამი (sasht’rami) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991); English, basil

Botany and Ecology Annual herb; stem 20–60 cm long, four-angled, glabrous at base, somewhat pubescent above, green, reddish-tinged; leaves petiolate, ovate or oblong, cuneate at base, slightly dentate, sparsely pubescent, often glabrous; calyx persistent, short-haired outside, 5 mm long, 7 mm broad, in fruit 12 mm broad, five-toothed, inflated campanulate, the uppermost tooth larger than others, rounded, concave, minutely point-tipped, the others (especially the lower two) with a longer point, all often ciliate, with longer setiform hairs inside – at base; corolla deciduous, whitish-pink, 6–8 mm long, greatly exceeding the calyx, the lower lip declined, entire, almost flat, the upper lip with four fimbriate lobes; stamens four, one pair exserted and declined; Fig. 1 Ocimum basilicum (Lamiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Ocimum basilicum (Lamiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

anthers ovoid-reniform, with coalescent locules; nutlets dark brown, punctate, 2 mm long. Flowering July–August. Widely cultivated (Shishkin and Borisova 1954; Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Local Medicinal Uses Species of the genus are widely used as medicine. The leaves of Ocimum sanctum are used for eye infections (Reang et al. 2016), cough, and cold (Raj et al. 2018); the leaves are also used for bronchitis, as expectorant, diaphoretic, liver problems and gastric disorders in children, and the root for malaria (Joshi et al. 2010). Ocimum obovatum serves as antihypertensive in Ethiopia (Luizza et al. 2013). The leaves of Ocimum gratissimum are used as tea to treat asthma and rheumatism and as diuretic in Nepal (Kunwar et al. 2012, 2015). Interestingly, no such uses are observed in the region.

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Fig. 3 Ocimum basilicum (Lamiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Ocimum basilicum (Lamiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Local Food Uses Used as condiment (Grossheim 1952). The leaves are used as condiment and as ingredient in Svanetian salt (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

References Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017, XXVII, 746p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1). Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Joshi M, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal uses of plant resources of the Haigad watershed in Kumaun Himalaya. Med Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010;4(special issue 1):43–6. Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Sharma LN, Shrestha KP, Kominee H, Bussmann RW. Underutilized plant species in Far-West Nepal – a valuable resource being wasted. J Mt Sci. 2012;9:589–600. Kunwar RM, Acharya RP, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plant dynamics in indigenous medicines in Farwest Nepal. J Ethnopharnacol. 2015;163:210–9. Luizza MW, Young H, Kuroiwa C, Evangelista P, Worede A, Bussmann RW, Weimer A. Local knowledge of plants and their uses among women in the Bale Mountains, Ethiopia. Ethnobotany Research and Application. 2013;11:315–339 Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Raj AJ, Biswakarma B, Pala NA, Shukla G, Vineeta V, Kumar M, Chakravarty S, Bussmann RW. Indigenous uses of ethno-medicinal plants among forest dependent communities of Northern Bengal, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14(1):8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002018-0208-9.

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Reang I, Goswami S, Pala NA, Kumar K, Bussmann RW. Ethnoveterinary applications of medicinal plants by traditional herbal healers in Reang tribe of South district Tripura, India. Med Aromat Plants. 2016;5:2. Shishkin BK, Borisova AG. Flora of the USSR, Volume 21: Labiatae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1954 (English 1976). 520 pages, 32 b/w plates, 2 maps.

Onobrychis viciifolia Scop. FABACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Onobrychis viciifolia Scop.: Hedysarum onobrychis L.; Hedysarum onobrychis Lam.; Onobrychis sativa Lam.

Local Names Georgian: ესპარცეტი (esp’artseti); Russian: Эспарцет (esparcet); Armenian: корнган (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991) R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_96

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Botany and Ecology Perennial; stems 15(40–30) cm high, numerous, erect or ascending, usually branching above, sparsely hairy; stipules connate, ovate, attenuate, acuminate; lower leaves long-petioled, with 6–14 pairs of ovate-oblong to elliptic, obtuse, or acute leaflets 15–20(35) mm long and 5–6(7) mm wide, upper leaves short-petioled, with oblong-lanceolate or lanceolate, rarely linear leaflets. Peduncles two to three times as long as leaves; racemes tuft-like subanthesis, 4–9 cm long, at anthesis, elongating postanthesis; bracts 3.5–4 mm long; pedicels ca. 1 mm long; calyx 5–6.5 mm long, teeth lanceolate-subulate, two to three times as long as tube, covered with long hairs; corolla 10–13 mm long, bright pink-purple with darker bands; standard elliptic, emarginate, as long as or longer than keel; pods 6–8 mm long, ovate-semiglobular, short-hairy, crest with 1 mm long teeth. Flowering May–July. Ural, Altai, on dry meadows, open rocky slopes, in open forests, along roads, sometimes as weed. Widely cultivated (Komarov and Shishkin 1948; Figs. 1 and 2).

Phytochemistry Flavonoids (rutine, glycosides of quercetin, kaempferol, myricetine, apigenin, luteolin, 7,2-dihydroxy-4-methoxyisoflavone, 7-hydroxy-6,4-dimethoxy-isoflavone, formononetine, isoliquiritigenin, liquiritigenin, and garbanzol), vitamins (C, carotene), tannins, carbohydrates (xylan, polysaccharides, glucose, galactose, arabinose, mannose, uric acids), proanthocyanidins, pterocarpans (medycarpine) (Sokolov 1987).

Fig. 1 Onobrychis viciifolia (Fabaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Onobrychis viciifolia Scop.

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Fig. 2 Onobrychis viciifolia (Fabaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Handicraft and Other Uses As fodder for farm animals and birds. Honey plant (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1987). Widely used as fodder (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016, 2017a, b; Bussmann 2017).

References Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017, XXVII, 746p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1). Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2.

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Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge. (2017a);16(1):7–24 Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus – Georgia. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017b. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Komarov VL, Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 13: Leguminosae: Oxytropis, Hedysarum. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1948 (English 1972). 455 pages, 26 b/w plates, 2 maps. Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 3. Hydrangeaceae-Haloragaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1987, 326 p. (in Russian).

Origanum vulgare L. LAMIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Micromeria formosana C. Marquand; Origanum creticum Lour.; Origanum dilatatum Klokov; Origanum glaucum Rech. f. & Edelb.; Origanum gracile C. Koch.; Origanum kopetdaghense Boris.; Origanum normale D. Don.; Origanum puberulum Klokov; Origanum tyttanthum Gontsch.; Origanum vulgare subsp. gracile (C. Koch) Letsw.; Origanum vulgare subsp. viride (Boiss.) Hayek; Origanum vulgare L. subsp. vulgare; Origanum vulgare var. formosanum Hayata; Origanum vulgare var. glaucum (Rech. f. & Edelb.) Hedge & Lamond; Origanum vulgare var. R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_97

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puberulum Beck; Origanum vulgare var. viride Boiss.; Origanum watsonii Schlagint. in T.A. Schmidt

Local Names Georgian: თავშავა (tavshava); Russian: Душица (dushiza); Azeri: гараот (garaot); Armenian, звирак (zvirak) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991); English: oregano, wild marjoram, Greek oregano

Botany and Ecology Perennial, scabrous, or subglabrous; rhizome oblique; stems 30–60(90) cm high, erect, often branching at base, sometimes purple-tinged and pubescent; leaves petiolate, oblong or oblong-ovate, acute, 2–4 cm long, remotely small-toothed, light green beneath, sparsely glandular mostly beneath, almost euglandular above; inflorescences corymbose-paniculate, spreading, many-flowered, up to 15 cm long and 10 cm broad, composed of cylindrical-oblong or oblong-lanceolate spicules, these elongating in fruit; bracts longer than calyx, ovate-elliptical or oblong, acute, usually dark purple (like calyx and many upper leaves), more rarely green; calyx ca. 3 mm long, glabrous or with sparse hairs, the teeth triangular-lanceolate, two-fifths to one-half the length of the tube, the ring of hairs in throat nearly equaling the teeth; corolla 5–10 mm long, light purple or lilac-rose, sometimes white, the tube exserted; two stamens exserted, the other two shorter; style exserted; nutlets orbicular, brown in maturity, naked, ca. 0.5 mm long, obtusely three angled. Flowering June–September. Ural, Caucasus Alta, Middle Asia, in meadows, rocky areas, sunny grass-covered slopes, glades, and steppe meadows (Shishkin and Borisova 1954; Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4). Fig. 1 Origanum vulgare (Lamiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia (R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Origanum vulgare (Lamiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia (R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Origanum vulgare (Lamiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia (R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Essential oils (pinen, seinine, tuyen, sabinen, chimen, cyanoneol, cumene), triterpenoids (ursolic acid), alkaloids, vitamins (C, B1, B2), phenyl carboxylic acids (rosmarinic), flavonoids (luteolin), steroids (Sokolov 1991).

Local Medicinal Uses It is widely used as washing for dermatoses, furuncles, arthritis, and rheumatism and to treat hepatitis, diarrhea, dyspepsia bronchial asthma, respiratory diseases, stomach ailments, colds, and gynecological problems. Moreover, it is also used externally as poultice and in bathes for skin diseases such as eczema, and to wash wounds. The leaves and shoots are used as medicinal tea to treat lung and kidney problems (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, 2018; Bussmann 2017). In the Himalayas

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Fig. 4 Origanum vulgare (Lamiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia (R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

oregano leaves are used to treat colds, cough, bronchitis, swellings, and toothache (Bhat et al. 2015), as well as diarrhea (Kumar et al. 2011).

Local Food Uses The leaves are used as spice and tea surrogate. Used as spice, including for kvass (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1991). In Imereti the following plants are mixed together for cooking “meadow pkhali” “მინდვრის ფხალი”: natsarkatama ნაცარათამა Chenopodium album (a lot), jijilaq’a ჯიჯილაყა Amaranthus retroflexus L. (a lot), ts’its’marit’a წიწმარიტა or kharik’bila ხარიკბილა Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik (a lot), andzla ანძლა Cirsium incanum (S.G. Gmel.) Fisch. (a lot), katmikona ქათმიქონა Valerianella locusta (L.) Laterr. (a lot), dedaput’k’ara დედაფუტკარა Lamium album L. (a few), msukana მსუქანა Portulaca oleracea L. (a lot, makes pkhali slimy), birk’abalakhi ბირკაბალახი Xanthium spinosum L. (a few, early spring), zhunzhruk’o ჟუნჟრუკო Stellaria media (L.) Vill., mat’it’ela მატიტელა Polygonum aviculare L. (moderately), ხვართქლა Convolvulus arvensis L. (moderately), k’obchkhila კობჩხილა, bat’ispekhebi ბატისფეხები Falcaria vulgaris Bernh. (a few), ჭინჭარი Urtica dioica L. (a lot), Ch’inch’ris deda ჭინჭრის დედა Lamium album (a few, adds bitterness), samq’ura სამყურა Trifolium ssp. (a few), ionja იონჯა Medicago ssp. (a few), tavshava თავშავა Origanum vulgare L. (a few), purtskhala ფურცხალა

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Sonchus ssp. (a few), young leaves of potato k’art’opili კარტოფილი (a few, slimy), ia ია Viola ssp. (a few, makes slimy and dangerous if used a lot, can be in a way intoxicating), babuats’vera ბაბუაწვერა Taraxacum ssp. (a few, adds bitterness), leaves of endro ენდრო Rubia tinctorum L. (a few), msukana მსუქანა Portulaca oleracea L., khbosshubla ხბოშუბლა Galega orientalis Lam., ia ია Viola sp. dedabrik’onk’a დედაბრიკონკა Lamium purpureum L. (a few), vardk’ach’ach’i ვარდკაჭაჭი Cichorium intybus L. (a few, makes bitter), gholo ღოლო Rumex (a few, makes the dish brown), q’aq’acho ყაყაჩო Papaver ssp. (a few), mzhauna მჟაუნა Rumex acetosa L. (a few, makes sour), balba ბალბა Malva sylvestris L., Malva neglecta Wallr. (a lot, makes slimy), ch’lak’vi ჭლაკვი (Allium fistulosum). The herbs are only gathered in early spring, during summer, and even during autumn, until tomatoes, eggplants, spinach, and cucumbers can be harvested. By this time, the ingredients of pkhali (mostly weeds) loose softness, tenderness, and taste; they become rough and are already producing seeds and, probably for this reason, are not collected by late autumn. They taste very differently in early spring than in summer. While making pkhali, some finely minced kitchen herbs are added after boiling the main herbs: a little dill (კამა), a little tseretso dill (ცერეცო), and a little p’rasa პრასა, coriander, parsley, celery, green onions, estragon, and mint. All these herbs are mixed with finely crushed walnuts; the boiled pkhali will be minced, desirably on a wooden gobi (wide shallow bowl with a flat bottom) and seasoned with herbs, walnuts, salt, and pepper according to your taste (Javakhishvili 1986). Other pkhali plants in Guria are jijilaq’a ჯიჯილაყა Amaranthus retroflexus L., svint’ri სვინტრი Polygonatum ssp., ch’q’ana ჭყანა Anthriscus cerefolium (L.) Hoffm., ch’andua ჭანდუა, ch’inch’ari ჭინჭარი Urtica dioica L., molokai მოლოქაი Malva sylvestris L., umbalo უმბალო Mentha pulegium L., dedlikonai დედლიქონაი Ranunculus chius DC., pshalai ფშალაი Humulus lupulus L., ek’ala ეკალა Smilax excelsa L., katanatsarai ქათანაცარაი Chenopodium album L., khvartklai ხვართქლაი Convolvulus arvensis, katmikonai ქათმიქონაი Valerianella locusta (L.) Laterr., danduri დანდური Portulaca oleracea L., dzrokhis-ena ძროხის-ენა Phyllitis scolopendrium (L.) Newman, k’at’a კატა, k’at’abarda კატაბარდას Clematis orientalis L., C. vitalba L., sukana სუქანა, tz’q’lis niakhura წყლის ნიახურა Ranunculus repens L., dedliskona დედლისქონა Ranunculus chius DC., ok’nat’ua ოკნატუა Ficaria ssp., tavshava თავშავა Origanum vulgare, asistava ასისთავა Genista ssp., ch’q’ima-mkhali ჭყიმა-მხალი Anthriscus nemorosa (M.Bieb.) Spreng., chit’is tava ჩიტის თავა Ornithogalum woronowii Krasch., jijilaq’a ჯიჯილაყა Amaranthus retroflexus L., ch’inch’ari ჭინჭარი Urtica dioica L., danduri დანდური Portulaca oleracea L., ek’ala ეკალა Smilax excelsa L., jokhia ჯოხია Matteuccia struthiopteris (L.) Tod. Sometimes all these were mixed to cook pkhali; but only young shoots and leaves can be used. They are washed, boiled, and minced and seasoned with vinegar, salt, and pepper according to your taste. Crushed walnuts or hazelnuts are also added. The leaves are used as condiment and spice and as tea and also to clarify beer. Leaves and shoots serve for pkhali (herb pie), together with a large number of other species (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses It yields yellowish-green dyes for wool and silk and is utilized as fodder for goats and sheep. The oil is valuable for the paint industry. It is also a good honey plant (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1991). The leaves and stems yield a brown dye (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, 2018; Bussmann 2017). Oregano is widely sold in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2017b). In the Himalaya utensils are washed in Origanum water to clean them and give them a nice odor (Thakur et al. 2014).

References Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Agasyllis latifolia (M. Bieb.) Boiss. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017a. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Amaranthus retroflexus L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017b. Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Chenopodium album L., Chenopodium foliosum L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017c. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Falcaria vulgaris Bernh. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017d. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Lamium album L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017e. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Aleksanyan A, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Malva neglecta Wallr.; Malva sylvestris L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017f. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Matteuccia struthiopteris (L.) Todd. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017g. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Polygonum alpinum All.; Polygonum aviculare L.; Polygonum carneum C. Koch; Polygonum hydropiper L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017h. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Portulaca oleracea L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017i.

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Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Rubia tinctorum L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017j. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Stellaria media (L.) Vill. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017k. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Tilia begoniifolia Steven. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017l. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Urtica dioica L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017m. Bhat J, Malik ZA, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhatt AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Javakhishvili I. Materials for the history of household industry and handicraft, vol. V, part 2: Food and drinks. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1986. (ჯავახიშვილი, ი. 1986. მასალები შინა მრეწველობისა და ხელოსნობის ისტორიისათვის, ტ. V ნაწ. 2: საჭმელ in Georgian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971– 2011. (in Georgian). Kumar M, Bussmann RW, Mukesh J, Kumar P. Ethnomedicinal uses of plants close to rural habitation in Garhwal Himalayan, India. J Med Plant Res. 2011;5(11):2252–60. Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian).

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Shishkin BK, Borisova AG. Flora of the USSR, Volume 21: Labiatae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1954 (English 1976). 520 p, 32 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, Volume 6. Families Hippuridaceae-Lobeliaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1991, 200 p. (in Russian). Thakur KS, Kumar M, Bawa R, Bussmann RW. Ethnobotanical study of herbaceous flora along an altitudinal gradient in Bharmour Forest Division, District Chamba of Himachal Pradesh, India. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2014;2014:946870. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/ 946870.

Panicum milanjanum Rendle POACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Panicum milanjanum Rendle: Digitaria milanjana (Rendle) Stapf

Local Names Georgian: ფეტვი (phatvi); Svan: წვინი (tsvini); Russian: Просо (proso); Azeri: дары (darei); Armenian: корек (korek) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991). R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_98

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Botany and Ecology Annual. Culm 20–100 cm tall, simple or branching from the root, hairy or glabrous in the upper part; leaves broadly linear and, like the sheaths, more or less hairy; ligule ciliate. Panicle up to 20 cm long, spreading (var. effusum Alef.) or compressed, drooping, in the upper part denser than in the lower part (var. contractum Alef.), or terminally compressed, erect, equally dense throughout (var. compactum Koern.); spikelets ovate-pointed, 3.5–4 mm long; first glume 1/3–1/2 times the length of the spikelet; fertile lemma shorter than glumes, cartilaginous, ovate, glabrous, lustrous, according to variety, whitish, orange-colored, or blackish. Flowering June–August. In cultivation or as adventive weed in waste places (Rozhevits et al. 1934; Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Fig. 1 Panicum milanjanum (Poaceae), germplasm collection, National Botanical Garden, Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Panicum milanjanum (Poaceae), germplasm collection, National Botanical Garden, Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Food Uses Panicum milanjanum is grown mainly in the North Caucasus and its flour is used in making porridge (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1994). Before, the species was widely grown in mountain regions, but now, it is only found in very few areas (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2018; Fig. 4).

660 Fig. 3 Panicum milanjanum (Poaceae), germplasm collection, National Botanical Garden, Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Panicum milanjanum (Poaceae), porridge, Ethnographic Museum Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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References Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Rozhevits RYu, Shishkin BK, Komarov VL. Flora of the USSR, Volume 2: Glumiflorae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1934 (English 1973), 622 p, 50 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of Russia and adjacent states: Flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, Volume 8. Families Butomaceae – Typhaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1994. 271 p. (in Russian).

Peganum harmala L. NITRARIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Farzaneh Khajoei Nasab, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Peganum harmala L.: Harmala multifida All.; Harmala peganum Crantz; Harmala syriaca Bubani; Peganon harmalum (L.) St.-Lag.; Peganum dauricum L.

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] A. Ghorbani Department of Organismal Biology, Evolutionary Biology Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] F. Khajoei Nasab Department of Plant Sciences and Biotechnology, Faculty of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_99

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Local Names Georgian, მარიამსაკმელა (mariamsak’mela); Armenian, Սպանդ սովորական (Spand sovorakan); Azeri, Üzərriк; Russian, Гapмaлa oбыкнoвeннaя (Garmala obyknovennaya), Могильник (mogalnik) (Russian); Uzbek, Isiriq; Kyrgyz, Aдыpшaмaн (Adyrshaman); (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991); Farsi, ‫( ﺍﺱﻑﻥﺩ‬Esfand), ‫( ﺍﺱﭖﻥﺕﺍﻥ‬Espantan), ‫ﺍﻭﺯﺍﺭﻝﯼﮎ‬ (Uzarlek), ‫( ﺩﯼﻥﺵﺕ‬Dinesht), ‫( ﺍﺱﭖﻥﺕﺍﻥ‬Espantan), ‫( ﺩﺵﺕﯼ‬Dashti), ‫ﺩﻭﺩﻥﯼ‬ (Doudny); English, Syrian rue.

Phytochemistry Alkaloids (harmine, harmaline, harmalol, peganine, vasicinone, deoxypeganine, pegamine, peganidine, peganol, dipegene) (Sokolov 1988).

Botany and Ecology Perennial. The radix is up to 2 mm long, producing few stems. The stems are 20–50 cm high, straight or flexuose, spreading, strongly branching, glabrous, smooth, slightly sulcate. The stipules of lower leaves are more distinct, small, lanceolate, sometimes incised. The leaves are ovate, 3–6 cm long, dissected into 3–5 lanceolate-linear acuminate lobes 1–3.5 cm long, 1.5- to 3-mm-wide lobes slightly incised. Flowers 1–3 apical at many branches, on 1- to 2-cm-long pedicels thickened at the apex. The calyx deeply 5-sect, lobes linear, 1.5–2 cm long sometimes slightly incised or nearly ternate. The corolla pale yellow. The petals are elliptic, obtuse, 1.5–2 cm long, 6–9 mm wide. The capsules are globose, slightly flattened above, distinctly 3-valved, 0.6–1 cm in diameter. The seeds are numerous and dark brown. The plant can be found in the southern steppe zone, in semideserts and deserts, and in farming areas near huts or pastureland and oases. In the mountain ranges and reaching the submontane belt. Caucasus, Middle Asia, Ural, Altai. On dry slopes, ruderal habitats, and sandy banks of rivers and lakes and very often on overgrazed pastures. In lower and middle mountain belts, on an elevation 400–1800 m. Flowers from May to June and fruits from July to August (Shishkin and Boborov 1949; Figs. 1 and 2). N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]

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Local Medicinal Uses Syrian rue has anti-inflammatory, analgesic, stimulant, diuretic, diaphoretic, insecticidal, anthelmintic, and abortive properties and stimulates the central nervous system. Its stem, seeds, and roots are all used medicinally. Usually the plant serves to treat epilepsy and Parkinson’s disease, colds, malaria, fever, syphilis, rheumatism, Fig. 1 Peganum harmala (Nitrariaceae), Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo: R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Peganum harmala (Nitrariaceae), flower, Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo: R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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scabies and skin diseases, as well cataracts. From seeds and aboveground parts of Syrian rue, one can extract harmine, which is used as remedy for the treatment of several nervous system disorders and epilepsy. Mixed with wine and other herbs, the seeds are used to relieve unpleasant cardiac sensations (Amirdovlat 1927; Isotova et al. 2010; Gabrielyan 2001; Gammarman and Grom 1976; Grossheim 1952; Gubanov et al. 1976; Harutyunyan 1990; Mardjanyan 2008; Nosal and Nosal 1991; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2014; Turova and Sapojnikova 1982; Vardanyan 1979; Zolotnitskaya 1958–1965). Seeds contain harmaline, flowers, and stems – peganine (Gammarman and Grom 1976; Grossheim 1952; Gubanov et al. 1976; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2014; Turova and Sapojnikova 1982; Zolotnitskaya 1958–1965). M. Heraci (Harutyunyan, 1990) indicated the use of the seeds to lower high temperature, and Amasiaci (Amirdovlat 1927) mentioned that the seeds were mixed with wine and used for epilepsy and rheumatism. He mentioned that this plant is intoxicant. Mixed with honey and applied externally, it strengthens the eyesight; internally it is used as expectorant and diuretic, for cough, throat diseases, and “fears.” The plant is considered a contraceptive, abortive, and menstruating remedy. It helps to relieve congestion, ulcer pain, bone pain, pus blisters, and mange (Isotova et al. 2010; Gabrielyan 2001). The infusion of Peganum is used as diuretic and sudorific. The smoke of burnt dried Peganum is inhaled to treat headache (Fedorov 1949). The seeds are used to treat cardiac pains, muscle spasm, food poisoning, and rabies and as snake repellent in Turkmen Sahra region. They are administered in the form of smoke and demulcent or taken orally like pills (Ghorbani 2005). Powder and decoction of seeds are used to cure toothache, gynecological infections, and menstruation disorders (Mosaddegh et al. 2012). The local people of Saravan (SW Iran) use macerated leaves or seed powder for healing effects on diabetes, and it has antiseptic and wound-healing properties (Sadeghi et al. 2014). The raw fruit capsules are used for the treatment of malaria and the smoke of capsules and seeds as an antiseptic and air freshener (Khajoei Nasab and Khosravi 2014). In Taftan area (SW Iran), the aerial parts, flowers, leaves, and roots are used to treat stomachache, toothache, hypertension, rheumatism, kidney stone, bladder stone, bee stings, scorpion stings, and hand and foot pains (Maleki and Akhani 2018).

Local Food Uses The seeds are used as a spice (Grossheim 1952; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2007).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The smoke is used to protect against the evil eye. The seeds contain fatty oils suitable for lighting and paint preparation. An extract of the seeds sometimes is used as source of bright red and yellow dye for coloring wool, silk, and cotton. The oils of

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seeds are used in the production of soaps and varnishes. As a powerful insecticide, the plant extract is widely used in agriculture (Grossheim 1952). A dye solution is prepared from the seeds to obtain orange, orange-yellow, brown-orange, orangecoffee, orange-red, pinkish, gray-orange, and other different colors and shades. The solution is used for dyeing wool, cotton, and silk yarn as well as its products (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961; Grossheim 1946; Quasimov 1980; Takhtadjan 1954–2009). Dried Peganum leaves and fruits are smoked and hung in visible places as protection from the evil eye (Bussmann 2017). The whole plant yields a yellowish brown and pinkish dye. In Middle Asia it is used for coloring skullcaps (Grossheim 1952). The seed capsules of harmel are threaded and made into decorations that are hang on the walls to protect against the evil eye. The seeds and capsules are burned, and the smoke is used to repel the evil eye and bad spirits (Ghorbani 2005; Maleki and Akhani 2018). Peganum is a well-known ritual plant (Bussmann 2016) and is widely used to repel the evil eye, e.g., by hanging it on doors or burning it as incense (Bussmann 2017; Fayvush et al. 2017). This practice is also common in the wider region, e.g., Pakistan (Sher et al. 2016; Figs. 3 and 4).

Fig. 3 Peganum harmala (Nitrariaceae), protection against evil eye. Turkey. (Photo: R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 4 Peganum harmala (Nitrariaceae), protection against evil eye. Turkey. (Photo: R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

References Amirdovlat A. Angitats anpet. Vienna: Armenian Academy of Science; 1927. (in Armenian). Bussmann RW. Magic plants. In: Albuquerque U, Alves R, editors. Introduction to ethnobiology. Heidelberg: Springer; 2016. p. 163–9. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Fayvush G, Aleksanyan A, Mehdiyeva N, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Peganum harmala L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Fedorov AA. The herbs applied in traditional medicine of the Talysh. Baku: Publishing House of AS of USSR; 1949. (in Russian). Flora of Azerbaijan, volumes I–VIII. Baku: AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1950–1961. (in Russian). Gabrielyan E. Herbal medicine national register. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Science; 2001. (in Armenian). Gammarman A, Grom I. Wild medicinal plants of the USSR. Moscow: Armenian Academy of Science; 1976. (in Russian). Ghorbani A. Studies on pharmaceutical ethnobotany in the region of Turkmen Sahra, north of Iran (Part 1): general results. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102:58–68. Grossheim AA. Plant resources of the Caucasus. Baku: Publishing House of AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1946. (in Russian).

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Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Gubanov I, Krilova I, Tikhonova V. Wild useful plants of the USSR. Moscow: Armenian Academy of Science; 1976. (in Russian). Harutyunyan H. Medieval Armenian phytotherapy herbs. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Science; 1990. (in Armenian). Isotova MA, Sarafakova NA, Mkscho BI, Ionova AA. Great encyclopedia of traditional medicine. Moscow: Armenian Academy of Science; 2010. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Khajoei Nasab F, Khosravi AR. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of Sirjan in Kerman Province, Iran. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;154:190–7. Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Maleki T, Akhani H. Ethnobotanical and ethnomedicinal studies in Baluchi tribes: a case study in Mt. Taftan, southeastern Iran. J Ethnopharmacol. 2018;217:163–77. Mardjanyan KS. Stepanos Shahrimanyan’s botany of flora of Armenia. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Science; 2008. (in Russian). Mosaddegh M, Naghibi F, Moazzeni H, Pirani A, Esmaeili S. Ethnobotanical survey of herbal remedies traditionally used in Kohghiluyeh va Boyer Ahmad province of Iran. J Ethnopharmacol. 2012;141:80–95. Nosal M, Nosal I. Medicinal plants and methods for their use by people. Leningrad: Armenian Academy of Science; 1991. (in Russian). Qasimov MA. Dye plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Azerbaijan State Publishing House; 1980. (in Azeri). Sadeghi Z, Kuhestani K, Abdollahi V, Mahmood A. Ethnopharmacological studies of indigenous medicinal plants of Saravan region, Baluchistan, Iran. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;153:111–8. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among the Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni ethnic groups in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, Volume 14: Geraniales, Sapindales, Rhamnales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1949 (English 1974). 616 p, 39 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1988, 357 p. (in Russian). Takhtadjan AL. Flora of Armenia, vols. 1–11. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Science; 1954–2009. (in Russian). Tsaturyan T, Gevorgyan M. Wild edible plants of Armenia. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Science; 2007. (in Armenian). Tsaturyan T, Gevorgyan M. Wild medicinal plants of Armenia. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Science; 2014. (in Armenian) Turova A, Sapojnikova E. Medicinal plants of the USSR and their use. Moscow: Armenian Academy of Science; 1982. (in Russian). Vardanyan S. Pharmacology in ancient Armenia. Hist Philol J. 1979;2:179–94. (in Armenian). Zolotnitskaya S. Medicinal resources of the flora of Armenia, vol. 1–2. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Science; 1958–1965. (in Russian).

Persicaria maculosa Gray POLYGONACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Persicaria maculosa Gray: Persicaria fusiformis (Greene) Greene; Persicaria vulgaris Webb & Moq.; Polygonum fusiforme Greene; Polygonum persicaria L.; Polygonum persicaria var. ruderale (Salisb.) Meisn.; Polygonum puritanorum Fernald

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_100

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Local Names Georgian: მატიკელა (matikela) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991).

Botany and Ecology Annual; stem ascending in lower part and erect above, or erect from base, simple or branched, 20–80 cm long; leaves lanceolate to linear lanceolate, long acuminate, subsessile, cuneate at base, the lower ones with a more developed petiole, smooth or sparsely hairy, with a brown blotch above (Persicaria maculosa S. F. Gray) or without a blotch (P. persicaria var. immaculatum Peterm.), 3–10 cm long, 0.5–2 cm broad; ocreae tightly clasping the stem, appressed hairy, the upper margin long ciliate; racemes terminal, compact and relatively stout, 5–8 mm across, 2–3 cm long; perianth roseate or white, like the pedicel glandular, 2.5–3.5 mm long; stamens six; pistil with two or more rarely three styles; achene broadly ovate, flat on both sides, rarely trigonous, black, lustrous. Flowering June–October. Ural, Caucasus, banks of rivers and canals, wet fields, gardens (Boborov and Komarov 1936; Fig. 1).

Local Medicinal Uses In rare cases the leaves are employed as medicine (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b).

Fig. 1 Persicaria maculosa (Polygonaceae), Imereti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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References Boborov EG, Komarov VL. Flora of the USSR, Volume 5: Dicotyledoneae, Subclass I: Archichlamydeae, Order Piperales-Polygonales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1936 (English 1970). 593 pages, 49 b/w plates. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016a;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016b;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian).

Petasites albus (L.) Gaertn Petasites fominii Bordz Petasites hybridus (L.) G. Gaertn., B. Mey. & Scherb. Petasites vulgaris Desf. ASTERACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze Synonyms Petasites hybridus (L.) G. Gaertn., B. Mey. & Scherb.: Tussilago hybrida L.; Petasites vulgaris Desf.

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_101

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Local Names Petasites sp.: Georgian: ბუერა (buera); Acharian: ბარამბო (barambo), ბულღო (bulgho); Svan: ბირღვ (birghv), ბუურღუ (buurghu), (მუკურთხი) (mukurtkhi), ბურღვილ (burghvil); Kartlian: ბორხვენა (borkhvena); Khevsur: ბუარა (buara); Pshavian: ბუერას დედა (bueras deda); Rachian: ბულღავა (bulghava), დილმა (dilma), დიმელა (dimela), ყარდიმელა (q’ardimela); Gurian: ბუღლავაი (bulghavai), ბულღვა (bulghva), ბურღავაი (burghavai); Imeretian: ბურღველა (burghvela), ლეშხი (leshkhi), ფურღველა (purghvela); Megrelian: ბურღი (burghi), ბუღი (bughi) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991); English: butterbur.

Botany and Ecology Perennials. Rhizome long, thick, in upper part nodulose, tuberculate, up to 3–5 cm. Basal leaves long-petiolate, larger, up to 60 cm and more wide, roundish-deltoid, cordate, with 2–3 lobes on each side, with irregular, small, deltoid teeth, subglabrous, scabrous from small spiny hairs, grayish-white, tomentose beneath. Stems up to 60 cm high, 10–20 mm thick, white-tomentose. Cauline leaves (leafy petioles) sometimes with considerable lamina, basally violet, white-tomentose in upper part, lower leaves broadly ovate, 5–10 cm long and 1.5–2.0 cm wide, upper lanceolate. Inflorescence dense, spicate, with many florets, 6–10 cm long, up to 20 cm at fruiting; capitula 5–8 mm long, about 6–8 mm in dia. Florets dirty purple, with violet tinge, aromatic, style lobes in bisexual florets short and obtuse. Flowering April–May. Ural, Caucasus, in wet forest glades, banks of rivers, streams, up to the middle mountain belt. Petasites albus, moist riversides, ravines, tall herb communities, from coastline to subalpine zone; P. fominii, gravely places, moist rock cracks, along mountain waterfalls, alpine zone; Petasites hybridus prefers moist environments such as riverbanks, marshes, and ditches. Its short spikes of flowers are produced just before the leaves in late winter (Shishkin and Boborov 1961; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8). Fig. 1 Petasites albus (Asteraceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Petasites albus (L.) Gaertn . . . Fig. 2 Petasites albus (Asteraceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Petasites albus (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Petasites albus (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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678 Fig. 5 Petasites albus (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 6 Petasites vulgaris (Asteraceae), Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 7 Petasites vulgaris (Asteraceae), Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 8 Petasites vulgaris (Asteraceae), Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Sesquiterpenoids (bachenolide A), latex, alkaloids (senesionine, integerrine, senkirkine, eremophyllenactam), essential oils, sesquiterpenoids (bachenolide A, santalene, a-gumulene, bisabolene, petasitene, eremophiline, furanoeremophilane, furanoeremophilon, furanopetazine, eremophilenolide, petasitolide A, petasitolide B, s-petasitolide A, S-petasitolide B, isopetazane, isopetazine, seneciolispetazol, methacryloylisopetazole, petazine, enetylpetazole, methacrylopetazole, neopetazan, angelioneopetazole, senecioneopetazole), triterpenoids (bauerenol), steroids (sitosterol, campesterol, stigmasterine), saponins, tannins, flavonoids (quercetin, astragaline, isoquercitrin), fatty acids (palmitic, palmitoleinic, oleic, linoleic, linolenic), carbohydrates (inulin) (Sokolov 1993).

Local Medicinal Uses Petasites leaves are used in the Ural and Caucasus as diaphoretic, diuretic, antispastic, anthelmintic, for respiratory infections, and cystiti. The root extract is used to treat furuncles and wounds (Sokolov 1993). The leaves can be used for stomachache and applied to wounds (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2018; Bussmann 2017).

Local Food Uses The young leaves and petioles are cooked and eaten as herb pie. Svaneti: young peeled leaf petioles are edible. Racha: Young shoots were peeled and eaten. Tusheti: Petasites is boiled to make mkhali (herb spread); the herb is mixed with salted melted butter and eaten. Petasites is also boiled it in water, coarse flour (sapaneli) is

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added, and eaten; this meal is called “chave” (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b). Young shoots (Makashvili 1991) or only leaf petioles of Petasites species are eaten raw in Svaneti. The plant was used in Tusheti to make Petasites mkhali with salted melted butter (Zurebiani 1978). Leaves and stems are also pickled (Zurebiani 1978). In Tusheti many herbaceous plants are used as food and are kept for winter, either dried or pickled, to make mixed mkhali and sauces and to accompany the main dishes, including kumeli ქუმელი q’va ყვა. It is used all-year round and is made of roasted keri ქერი (barley) grains. Can be made of ipkli იფქლი (Georgian endemic wheat), corn, svili სვილი (rye), kersvili ქერსვილი (mixture of barley and rye) and tsetsvi ცერცვი (faba bean, when mixed with corn: giera-i გიერა-ი Brassica campestris subsp. oleifera (DC.) Schübl. & Mart., gomat’i გომატი Bunias orientalis L., dutsi დუცი Angelica tatianae Bordz., kharnuq’a-i ხარნუყა-ი Lactuca serriola L., buera ბუერა Petasites ssp., shubq’a-i შუბყა-ი Heracleum asperum M. Bieb., khap’ara-i ხაპარა-ი Cichorium intybus L., mariamdzmara მარიამძმარა Ligusticum alatum (M. Bieb.) Spreng. ch’imi ჭიმი Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., diq’i დიყი Heracleum ssp., jortk’uda-i ჯორთკუდა-ი Artemisia vulgaris L., sagvidzla საღვიძლა Taraxacum officinale (L.) Weber ex F.H. Wigg., dzirkhvena ძირხვენა Arctium lappa L., ch’ivana ჭივანა Silene wallichiana Klotzsch, kvishamkhala ქვიშამხალა Silene laera (Stev.) Sims, khavrat’ai ხავრატაი Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik., jorik’udai ჯორიკუდაი Artemisia vulgaris L., and giera გიერა Sinapis arvensis L. (Makalatia 1933). There are several ways to season mkhali in Tusheti: (1) wellcleaned plants are placed in a pot and cooked without water. The cooked plants are placed on a sieve to cool and cut into pieces. After that the dish is seasoned with onions browned in clarified butter, eggs and salt. (2) After cooking the plants in the same way, fresh cottage cheese, onions browned in clarified butter, eggs and salt are added. (3) After boiling the mkhali is seasoned with vinegar, garlic and salt. Normally, in Tusheti mkhali is not seasoned with walnuts and vinegar (Makalatia 1933). Chave ჩავე is made in Tusheti using saghvidzlia საღვიძლია or sajaraq’i საჯარაყი Taraxacum officinale (L.) Weber ex F.H. Wigg., gomat’i გომატი Bunias orientalis L., dutsi დუცი Angelica tatianae Bordz., kharnuq’a ხარნუყა Lactuca serriola L. (another name is mts’aria მწარია because it is bitter “mts’are” means “bitter” in Georgian), and buera ბუერა Petasites ssp., p’it’na პიტნა Mentha ssp., gholo ღოლო Rumex ssp., sasuka სასუქა Seseli transcaucasicum Pimenov & Sdobnina, vashlisula ვაშლისულა Primula woronowii Losinsk., boiled together, with added milk, sach’irai საჭარაი (sheep internal fat), and flour thinned with milk or water, as well as salt and garlic. In Svaneti buera (ბუერა Petasites ssp., Svan name burghvi (ბურღვი)): peeled young leaf stalks are edible (Zurebiani 1978). A dish called is made in Lower Svaneti with (Aruncus vulgaris Raf. mech’ekhi naq’un -მეჭეხი ნაყუნ). Leaves are taken away, and the shoot “k’elar” (კელარ) alone is boiled for half an hour and is seasoned only with walnuts and salt (Javakhishvili 1986). In Svaneti burghu (ბურღუ Petasites ssp.) is used to preserve cheese and gives a nice flavor (Javakhishvili 1986).

Petasites albus (L.) Gaertn . . .

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In Racha Pruidze (1986) found that people use the young shoots of diq’i დიყი Heracleum ssp., q’ardimela ყარდიმელა, gogsodimela გოგსოდიმელა (Petasites ssp.), which are peeled and eaten raw. The young leaves and stems are used for chave and phkhali (herb pie) and also pickled (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2018; Bussmann 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Fodder for cattle, sheep, and pigs (Sokolov 1993). The leaves and shoots of all species serve as fodder for cows (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2018; Bussmann 2017).

References Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Petasites albus (L.) Gaertn; Petasites. fominii Bordz; Petasites hybridus (L.) G. Gaertn., B. Mey. & Scherb. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016c;86(2):3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian).

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Javakhishvili I. Materials for the history of household industry and handicraft, vol V, Part 2: food and drinks. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1986. (ჯავახიშვილი, ი. 1986. მასალები შინა მრეწველობისა და ხელოსნობის ისტორიისათვის, ტ. V ნაწ. 2: საჭმელ in Georgian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makalatia S. Tusheti. Tbilisi: Sakhelgami; 1933. (მაკალათია ს. 1933. თუშეთი. ტფილისი: სახელგამი in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian) Pruidze L. Racha in the view of an ethnographer. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1986. (ფრუიძე ლ. 1986. რაჭა ეთნოგრაფის თვალით. თბილისი: მეცნიერება in Georgian). Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, Volume 26: Compositae Giseke (altern. Asteraceae Dumort). Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1961(English 1995). 1072 pages. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 7. Family Asteraceae (Compositae). Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1993. 352 p. (in Russian). Zurebiani, B. Food plants of Svaneti. Sakartvelos soplis meurneoba, Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 9. 1978. (in Georgian).

Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Fuss APIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Fuss: Apium crispum Mill.; Apium petroselinum L.; Carum petroselinum (L.) Benth. & Hook. f.; Petroselinum hortense Hoffm.; Petroselinum petroselinum (L.) H. Karst.; Petroselinum sativum Hoffm.; Petroselinum vulgare Lag.; Wydleria portoricensis DC.

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_102

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Local Names Georgian, მაკიდო (mak’ido), ოხრახუში (okhrakhushi), მაღდანოზი (mag’danozi); Russian, Петрушка (petrushka); Azeri, джефери (dshferi); Armenian, махаданх (mashadanch) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991).

Botany and Ecology Biennial; entire plant glabrous; root fusiform, sometimes much thickened; stem 30–100 cm high, branching from middle, branches opposite or whorled, usually exceeding central umbel; leaves dark green, shiny above; radical and lower cauline leaves long-petioled, 2–3-pinnate, with obovate trifid or cuneate deeply dentate lobes, the teeth obtuse, with small whitish mucronate; upper leaves ternate, with lanceolate-linear, entire or trifid lobes. Umbels of 10–20 nearly equal glabrous rays; involucre 1–2-leaved, involucels of 6–8 linear or linear-subulate leaflets subtending the rays for half their length; petals ca. 0.75 mm long; fruit grayish-brown, broadly ovoid, 2.5–3 mm long, 2 mm wide. Flowering June–July. Widely cultivated in gardens and locally escaped (Komarov and Shishkin 1948; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6).

Fig. 1 Petroselinum crispum (Apiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Petroselinum crispum (Apiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Petroselinum crispum (Apiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 4 Petroselinum crispum (Apiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Petroselinum crispum (Apiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 6 Petroselinum crispum (Apiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Food Uses Grown in vegetable gardens throughout the Caucasus. Sometimes run wild in ruderal places (Grossheim 1952). Parsley leaves are widely used as condiments, either fresh or during cooking, and sometimes also as tea. The seeds are used as spice (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017) and often sold in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2017c).

References Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):7–24.

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Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus – Georgia. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017b. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017c;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Komarov VL, Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 13: Leguminosae: Oxytropis, Hedysarum. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1948 (English 1972). 455 pages, 26 b/w plates, 2 maps. Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian).

Phaseolus vulgaris L. Phaseolus sativus Royle FABACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Phaseolus vulgaris L.: Phaseolus aborigineus Burkart; Phaseolus aborigineus var. hondurensis urkart; Phaseolus communis Prinz; Phaseolus esculentus Salisb.; Phaseolus vulgaris subsp. aborigineus (Burkart) Burkart & H. Bruecher; Phaseolus vulgaris var. aborigineus (Burkart) Baudet

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_103

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Local Names Georgian: ლობიო (lobio); Russian: Фасольобы (Fasoloby); Azeri: кновенная (knovennaja), маш (mash); Armenian: лоби (lobi) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991). Phaseolus sativus L./Fabaceae/use: food – fruit (human food); seed (human food)/ Georgian Name: გრძელი ლობიო (grdzeli lobio); ლობიო (lobio)/other name: (saris lobio) Phaseolus vulgaris L./Fabaceae/use: food – Fruit (human food); seed (human food)/ Georgian Name: ლობიო (lobio)

Botany and Ecology Annual; stems climbing, 1–3 m high (var. communis Asch.) or strongly branching and not climbing, 0.5–1 m high (var. nanus Asch.); stems and petioles more or less covered with spreading hairs; stipules small, ovate; leaflets ovate, rounded at base, acuminate at apex, 8–15 cm long, short-hairy. Peduncles erect, shorter than petioles, with 2–6 pairs of flowers in axils of ovate-lanceolate bracts; pedicels long; flowers 1–1.5 cm long, with 2 bracteoles beneath calyx; calyx campanulate, lower teeth longer than the upper but shorter than tube; corolla yellowish white to violet; standard broadly elliptic, short-clawed, strongly recurved, hardly longer than keel and wings; style hirsute at upper part; pods pendent, 5–20 cm long, 1–2.5 cm wide, straight or slightly curved, at first short -hairy, later glabrous, pale yellow or green to dark violet; seeds 2–8, varying in color, ellipsoid, 5–15 mm long. Flowering July–August, fruiting August–September. Widely cultivated. The common bean originated in Central and South America. Small-seeded and climbing ecotypes are found in the wild in northern Argentina and Central America. Common bean was independently domesticated in both Central America (Mexico and Guatemala) and in the South American Andes (mainly Peru). The resulting gene pools are distinct. Archaeological evidence indicates that common bean was a domesticated crop already in 6000 and 5000 BC in Peru and Mexico, respectively. Introduced to other parts of the world since the sixteenth century (Komarov and Shishkin 1948; Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Local Food Uses Beans are widely cultivated in the North Caucasus, especially, in the steppe and foothills (Grossheim 1952). Beans are the most widely grown vegetable in the region. Both the seeds and whole fruits are widely cooked and eaten in salads and stews (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b, c, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8).

Phaseolus vulgaris L. Fig. 1 Phaseolus vulgaris (Fabaceae), garden, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Phaseolus vulgaris (Fabaceae), garden, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 3 Phaseolus vulgaris (Fabaceae), market, Telavi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Phaseolus vulgaris (Fabaceae), market, Lagodekhi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 5 Phaseolus vulgaris (Fabaceae), bean stew, Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 6 Phaseolus vulgaris (Fabaceae), market, Batumi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana) Fig. 7 Phaseolus vulgaris (Fabaceae), market, Batumi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 8 Phaseolus vulgaris (Fabaceae), market, Batumi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

References Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus – Georgia. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017c. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Komarov VL, Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 13: Leguminosae: Oxytropis, Hedysarum. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1948 (English 1972). 455 pages, 26 b/w plates, 2 maps. Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian).

Pimpinella anisum L. Apiaceae Seyed Hamed Moazzami Farida, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Pimpinella anisum L.: Anisum odoratum Raf., Anisum officinale DC., Anisum officinarum Moench, Anisum vulgare Gaertn., Apium anisum (L.) Crantz, Carum anisum (L.) Baill., Ptychotis vargasiana DC., Selinum anisum (L.) E.H.L. Krause, Seseli gilliesii Hook. & Arn., Sison anisum (L.) Spreng., Tragium anisum (L.) Link

S. H. Moazzami Farida Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Bu-Ali Sina University, Hamedan, Iran e-mail: [email protected] A. Ghorbani Department of Organismal Biology, Evolutionary Biology Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_105

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Local Names Georgian ანისული (anisuli); Russian Бедренец (bedrenez); Azeri джире (dshire); Armenian анисон (anison) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991); Persian ‫( ﺍﻥﯼﺱﻭﻥ‬Anison), ‫( ﺏﺍﺩﯼﺍﻥ ﺭﻭﻡﯼ‬badian roomi), ‫ﺍﻥﯼﺱﻭﻥ‬ (anisun), ‫( ﺭﺍﺯ‬raz), ‫( ﻭﺍﻭﻩ ﺵﯼﻥﮒ‬vaveh shing); English Anise

Botany and Ecology Annual herb, usually entire plant covered with thin short spreading hairs; root thin, fusiform; stem 20–50 cm high, straight, cylindrical, furrowed, branching above; lower cauline leaves petioled, rounded-reniform, entire, incised-dentate or lobed, of three rounded-cordate leaflets, the lateral on short, the terminal on longer petiolules; subsequent leaves with obcuneate, often 2-lobed lateral and 3-lobed terminal leaflets; upper leaves sessile on narrow sheath, bi- or tripinnate, with linear-lanceolate lobules; uppermost leaves 3-partite or entire. Umbels 2.5–6 cm across, of 7–15 rays with short spreading hairs; involucre absent or 1-leaved; leaflets of involucels filiform, 1 to few; petals white, ca. 1.5 mm long, with ciliate margin, dorsally with short-bristly hairs, with inward curved tip; fruit broadly cordate-ovoid or ovoid or obpyriform, 3–5 mm long, slightly compressed laterally, with faintly protruding dorsal ribs; canals 4–8 under valleculae, forming a nearly continuous ring, 2–4 canals toward commissure; stylopodium conical, styles recurved, half as long as fruit. Known only in cultivation, locally escaped in moderately warm regions of the globe (Shishkin 1950).

Phytochemistry Coumarins; essential oils (Sokolov 1988).

Local Medicinal Uses Anise is often used as a cardiac tonic to activate circulation and facilitate breathing. Anise oil has antiseptic properties and is used as an insect repellent. The leaves are used to relieve cough and headache and in the treatment of intestinal disorders, flatulence, and dyspepsia. The fruits in infusion are used as antiflatulent, against colic and to calm stomach discomfort; preparations in decoction are used as diuretics and to encourage the production of breast milk (Sokolov 1988). N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]

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The infusion of seeds is used as carminative and diuretic and to treat headache (migraine) (Amin 2005; Sadeghi et al. 2014). In the SE of Iran (Saravan, Sistan, and Balochistan), a decoction of seeds is used to relieve menstrual pain and to increase lactation in nursing mothers (Sadeghi et al. 2014). An infusion of leaves helps in case of nausea and bloating (Mikaili et al. 2011). The seeds are recommended for gastrointestinal disorders, such as gastritis and gastric reflex (Amiri et al. 2014). Anise is also applied for cough and common cold (Hooper et al. 1937; Amiri et al. 2014). Kurd Tribes in Dehloran and Abadan, Ilam use the seeds as a carminative (Ghasemi Pirbalouti et al. 2013). Anise leaves and shoots are used as anti-inflammatory and for digestive disorders (Bussmann et al. 2018; Bussmann 2017; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017). The genus has a wide range of medicinal species. Pimpinella acuminata is used in the Himalayas for diarrhea (Bhat et al. 2013), while Pimpinella diversifolia serves to treat colds, cough and digestive problems (Bhat et al. 2013; Kumar et al. 2011).

Fig. 1 Pimpinella sp. (Apiaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Local Food Uses The seeds are used as spice (Sokolov 1988). In Azerbaijan rice is boiled on a small fire until soft, in combination with other ingredients like meat, birds, fish, dried fruits, greens, beans, or without additional ingredients to make dolma (small portions of minced meat filled and rice with various spices, wrapped in leaves (mostly grape) (Fedorov 1949; Flora of Azerbaijan 1950; Grossheim 1943). Cooked with a small amount of water, is often eaten with yoghurt, and other national dishes (Grossheim 1946). The seeds are used as flavoring agent (Hooper et al. 1937; Figs. 1 and 2).

Fig. 2 Pimpinella sp. (Apiaceae), leaves. Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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References Amin G. The most common medicinal plants in Iran. Tehran: Medical Ethics and History of Medicine Research Center; 2005. Amiri MS, Joharchi MR, Taghavizadeh Yazdi ME. Ethno-medicinal plants used to cure jaundice by traditional healers of Mashhad, Iran. Iran J Pharm Res. 2014;13(1):157. Bhat JA, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:1. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Fedorov AA. The herbs applied in traditional medicine of the Talysh. Baku: Publishing House of AS of USSR; 1949. (in Russian). Flora of Azerbaijan. Volumes I–VIII. Baku: AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1950–1961. (in Russian). Ghasemi Pirbalouti A, Momeni M, Bahmani M. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by Kurd tribe in Dehloran and Abdanan districts, Ilam province, Iran. Afr J Tradit Complement Altern Med. 2013;10(2):368–85. Grossheim AA. Herbs of the Caucasus. Baku: Azerbaijani Branch of AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1943. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant resources of the Caucasus. Baku: Publishing House of AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1946. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian) Hooper D, Field H, Dahlgren BE. Useful plants and drugs of Iran and Iraq. Chicago: Field Museum of Natural History; 1937. Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Kumar M, Bussmann RW, Mukesh J, Kumar P. Ethnomedicinal uses of plants close to rural habitation in Garhwal Himalayan, India. J Med Plant Res. 2011;5(11):2252–60. Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Mehdiyeva N, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Pimpinella aromatica M. Bieb.; Pimpinella peregrina L.; Pimpinella saxifraga L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Mikaili P, Shayegh J, Asghari MH, Sarahroodi S, Sharifi M. Currently used traditional phytomedicines with hot nature in Iran. Ann Biol Res Ann. Biol Res. 2011;2(5):56–68. Sadeghi Z, Kuhestani K, Abdollahi V, Mahmood A. Ethnopharmacological studies of indigenous medicinal plants of Saravan region, Baluchistan, Iran. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;153(1):111–8. Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 16: Umbelliflorae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1950 (English 1973). 478 pages, 37 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1988. 357 p. (in Russian).

Pisum sativum L. FABACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Pisum sativum L.: Pisum vulgare Judz.

Local Names Georgian ბარდა (barda), მუხუდო (marts’q’vi), მუხუდო (mukhudo); Svan ისაბ (isab), ღედაარ (ghedaar); Russian Горох (goroch); Azeri нохуд (nochud); Armenian волор (volor) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991). R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_106

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Botany and Ecology Annual; plant glabrous, yellowish green or glaucous; stems simple or branching only at base, prostrate or climbing; stipules subcordate, 4–6(10) cm long, 2–3 cm wide, sometimes dentate at base; leaves with 2–3 pairs of leaflets, ending in tendrils; leaflets thin, ovate, usually entire, 2–5 cm long; calyx slightly gibbous, teeth lanceolate, long than tube; corolla usually white or pink, with darker purple wings; pods 5–7(10) cm long, 2 cm wide, smooth or inconspicuously netted-veined, indehiscent; seeds globose, 4–8 mm wide, greenish yellow, reddish or brown, hilum elliptic, ca. 2 mm long. Flowering June–July. Widely cultivated. The origin and progenitors of Pisum sativum are not well-known. The Mediterranean region, western and central Asia, and Ethiopia have been indicated as centers of origin. Recently FAO designated Ethiopia and western Asia as centers of diversity, with secondary centers in southern Asia and the Mediterranean region. Archaeological evidence of the use of pea dating from 8000 BC has been found in the Fertile Crescent. The first cultivation of pea appears to have been in western Asia, from where it spread to Europe, China, and India. In classical times Greek and Roman authors mentioned its cultivation as a pulse and fodder crop. Pea was already wellknown in the mountain regions of Central and East Africa before the arrival of the Europeans and was a well-established and important food crop in Rwanda and southwestern Uganda by 1860. The use of the edible pods was first described in the Netherlands and France during the sixteenth century, whereas the use of immature seeds as a vegetable began in Europe a century later. At present, Pisum sativum is found in all temperate countries and in most tropical highlands. Field pea is extensively grown in the highlands of eastern Central Africa and East Africa (notably Ethiopia) and in southern Africa. In parts of Rwanda and Uganda, it is the main pulse crop. Field pea is hardly grown in West Africa. In Africa garden pea and sugar pea are mostly considered exotic products. They are regionally of some importance, sugar pea more in Francophone countries, and garden pea more in Anglophone countries. Imported canned garden pea seeds are available everywhere in food shops (Komarov and Shishkin 1948).

Local Food Uses Eaten raw and also canned (Grossheim 1952). Peas have their origin in the Caucasus and are still often grown as food (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b, c, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Fig. 1).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Seeds serve also as feed for livestock (Grossheim 1952).

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Fig. 1 Pisum sativum (Fabaceae), cleaning peas, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

References Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – Ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):7–24.

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Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus – Georgia. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017b. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus – the region. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017c. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Science; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Komarov VL, Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 13: Leguminosae: Oxytropis, Hedysarum. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1948 (English 1972). 455 pages, 26 b/w plates, 2 maps. Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian).

Plantago lanceolata L. Plantago major L. PLANTAGINACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Farzaneh Khajoei Nasab, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze Synonyms Plantago lanceolata L.: Plantago lanceolata fo. eriophora (Hoffmanns & Link) Beck; Plantago lanceolata var. sphaerostachya Mert. & W.D.J. Koch; Plantago sinuata Lam. Plantago major L.: Plantago borysthenica Wissjul.; Plantago dregeana Decne; Plantago gigas H. Lév.; Plantago intermedia Gilib.; Plantago jehohlensis Koidz.; Plantago latifolia Salisb.; Plantago macronipponica Yamam.; Plantago major fo. R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] A. Ghorbani Department of Organismal Biology, Evolutionary Biology Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] F. Khajoei Nasab Department of Plant Sciences and Biotechnology, Faculty of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_107

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scopulorum (Fr. & Broberg) Pilg.; Plantago major subsp. pleiosperma Pilg.; Plantago major var. borysthenica Rogow; Plantago major var. gigas (H. Lév.) H. Lév.; Plantago major var. jehohlensis (Koids.) S.H. Li; Plantago major var. kimurae Yaman.; Plantago major var. paludosa Bég.; Plantago major var. pauciflora (Gilib.) Bég.; Plantago major var. sawadai Yamam.; Plantago major var. sinuata (Lam.) Decne.; Plantago officinarum Crantz; Plantago pauciflora Gilib.; Plantago sawadai (Yamam.) Yamam.; Plantago sinuata Lam.; Plantago villifera Kitag.

Local Names Plantago lanceolata: Georgian: მრავალძარღვა (mravaldzarghva); Russian: Подорожник (podoroshnik); Azeri: бага ярпагы (baga jarpagei); Armenian: езанлезу (ezanlezy) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991); Farsi: ‫( ﺑﺎﻟﻘﺎﺷﺎ‬Balghasha), ‫( ﮐﻮﻭﭼﮏ‬Kouchak), ‫( ﺑﺎﺭﻫﻦﮒ‬Barhang); English: Ribwort Plantain Plantago major: Georgian: მრავალძარღვა (mravaldzarg’va); Khevsur: ცხრაძარღვა (tskhradzargva); Svan: კუთკვახ (kuthkvakh), ჯოოდიბალე (jo’odibale); Russian: Подорожник (podoroshnik) (Grossheim 1952); Iran: ‫( ﺑﺎﻟﻘﺎﺷﺎ‬Balghasha); ba:rhæn; ‫( ﺗﻦﮒﺑﺎﺭ‬Tang-e bar); English: broadleaf plantain

Botany and Ecology Plantago lanceolata: Perennial. Plant 8–70 cm tall, with well-developed tap root and with several or numerous (25–30) erect or ascending leaves, elliptic-lanceolate, lanceolate or linear-lanceolate, 3–5(7)-veined, gradually narrowed toward base and apex, acute, with short or fairly long petioles; entire, rarely sparsely dentate, glabrous or densely hairy or lanate. Scapes distinctly longitudinally sulcate, usually pubescent, upward appressed hairy. Spikes dense, compact, capitate or cylindrical, 0.5–7 cm long. Bracts ovate or elliptic, membranous, with distinct herbaceous keel not reaching the tip of bracts, short or long acuminate, equaling or exceeding calyx, glabrous or sparsely hairy. Calyx lobes 2.5–3.5 mm long, membranous, all with distinct herbaceous keel, glabrous, rarely more or less hairy along back, 2 anterior calyx lobes connate, forming a broad, shortly bilobed scale with 2 keels. Corolla lobes ovate or oblong-ovate, acuminate, about 1.2 mm long. Capsule elliptic, about 3 mm long, 2-seeded. Seeds oblong or oblong-elliptic, with one side convex, the N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]

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other sulcate. Flowering April–September (October). Caucasus, Ural, dry meadows, wastelands, roadsides, banks of river and irrigation ditches, fallow land, open dry slopes, etc., usually on plains as well as in mountains, reaching to high mountain zones (Shishkin 1953; Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Fig. 1 Plantago lanceolata (Plantaginaceae), Iran. (Photo Farzaneh Khajoei Nasab)

Fig. 2 Plantago lanceolata (Plantaginaceae), Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 3 Plantago lanceolata (Plantaginaceae), Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Plantago major: Perennial. Plant 8–30 cm tall, with well-developed tap root and with several erect or prostrate leaves, elliptic, 3–5(7)-veined, with short petioles; entire, rarely sparsely dentate, glabrous or densely hairy or lanate. Scapes distinctly longitudinally sulcate, usually pubescent, upward appressed hairy. Spikes dense, compact, capitate or cylindrical, 2–7 cm long. Bracts ovate or elliptic, membranous, with distinct herbaceous keel not reaching the tip of bracts, short or long acuminate, equaling or exceeding calyx, glabrous, or sparsely hairy. Calyx lobes 2.5–3.5 mm long, membranous, all with distinct herbaceous keel, glabrous, rarely more or less hairy along back, 2 anterior calyx lobes connate, forming a broad, shortly bilobed scale with 2 keels. Corolla lobes ovate or oblong-ovate, acuminate, about 1.5 mm long. Capsule elliptic, about 3 mm long, 2-seeded. Seeds oblong or oblong-elliptic, with one side convex, the other sulcate. Flowering April–September (October). Caucasus, Ural, on vacant lots, garbage places, near settlements, on forest meadows, glades, banks of reservoirs, along roads (Shishkin 1953; Figs. 4, 5 and 6).

Phytochemistry Iridoids (aucubine, aububoside, melittoside, catalepol), alkaloids, flavonoids (apyrenine, luteoline, scutellarine, baikaleine, baikalin, apienylene, rispiduline, romotratinine, nepitrin, ramnopyranoside, methoxyflavone), steroids (sitosterol, stimasterine, cholesterol, campesterine), fatty acids (linoleic), carbohydrates (pectic acid, mannitol, sorbitol), phenols (tyrosol), phenolcarboxylic acids (lilac, vanillic, hydroxbenzoic, ferulic, p-coumaric, rentisine, salicylic, benzoine, cinnamic, chloroenic), steroids (sitosterol, stigmasterol, cholesterol, campesterol), nitrogencontaining compounds (allantoine) (Sokolov 1990).

Plantago lanceolata L. . . .

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Fig. 4 Plantago major (Plantaginaceae), Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses Plantago lanceolata: The leaf extract is used as contraceptive and for gonorrhea. The roots are used to treat cystitis, gastric problems, tuberculosis, headache, and snakebites. In the Northern Caucasus the leaf decoction serves to treat tuberculosis, pleurisy, wounds, as spasmolytic, expectorant, for enteritis, enterocolitis, gastric ulcers, liver disease, malaria, bronchitis, whooping cough, bronchial asthma, acute respiratory diseases, anemia, hemorrhoids, and scrofulosis. Topically, as cataplasm the leaves are used for furuncles, ulcers, infected wounds, and edema. Plantago has a weak expectorant effect (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1990). The leaves are used to treat digestive problems, wounds, gastritis, and stomach ailments and are used as anti-inflammatory (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2018; Bussmann 2017). The plant is used as emollient in Pakistan (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018), as well as against diarrhea (Sher et al. 2016). The leaves are used as a demulcent to treat dermal wounds, cutting, dermal inflammation, and wart (Ghorbani 2005). Powdered seeds are used for coughs and powdered leaves are used for hemorrhages, infections, wounds, and pains (Naghibi

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Fig. 5 Plantago major (Plantaginaceae), Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

et al. 2014). Decoction, infusion, and raw form of leaves and seeds are used to strengthen the body and treat the enuresis in children, constipation, common cold, and anemia (Khajoei Nasab and Esmailpour 2018). Poultice made from leaves are used for headaches and seeds boiled in water for common cold (Khajoei Nasab and Khosravi 2014). Soaked leaves and seeds in water are used for scabies, sore throat, wounds, hemorrhage, and infection (Mosaddegh et al. 2016). Plantago major leaves are used for gonorrhea, and the roots for fever of snakebites. In the Altai the leaf extract is mixed with milk for kidney and respiratory infections and tuberculosis, enuresis, diarrhea, anthrax, and lung cancer and used as powder for wound healing. In the Caucasus the leaves and roots are employed for gastritis, colitis, enterocolitis, tuberculosis, and pleurisy and used as an expectorant for bronchitis, bronchial asthma, and pertussis, as well as for epilepsy in children. Plantago has a weak expectorant effect (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1990). The leaves are used to treat wounds, as hemostatic, for cough, digestive disorders, gastritis, and as anti-inflammatory. The roots are used to treat stomach ailments (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2018; Bussmann 2017). In the Himalayas the leaves and seeds are used for diarrhea and indigestion (Kunwar et al. 2010). The infusion of leaves and seed is used as demulcent of cuttings and wart and orally for cough and as expectorant for respiratory system problems (Ghorbani 2005;

Plantago lanceolata L. . . .

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Fig. 6 Plantago major (Plantaginaceae), Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 7 Plantago lanceolata (Plantaginaceae), fresh harvested, Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Mosaddegh et al. 2016). Decoction of seeds are used to treat constipation, common cold, and cough and for strengthening babies (Khajoei Nasab and Khosravi 2014). Decoction or infusion of seeds is used to strengthen the body, treat enuresis in children, common colds, anemia, lumbago, and leg pain (Khajoei Nasab and Esmailpour 2018; Figs. 7 and 8).

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Fig. 8 Plantago lanceolata (Plantaginaceae), drying for winter, Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Food Uses Dried and ground Plantago major is used for cooking sauces, as seasoning for soup, in meat and fish dishes, and sugared with milk (Sokolov 1990). In Samtskhe-Javakheti natsarkatama ნაცარქათამა Chenopodium album L., ia-ia ია-ია Viola ssp., balba ბალბა Malva sylvestris L., Malva neglecta Wallr., ghvalo ღვალო Rumex ssp., dnaduri დანდური Portulaca oleracea L., pochkhila ფოჩხილა, marvaldzarghva მარვალძარღვა Plantago major L. and ch’inch’ari ჭინჭარი Urtica dioica L. are used for pkhali (Ivelasvili 1991). Plantago major: The leaves and shoots are used in phkhali (herb pie), normally with other species (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017a, b, c; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses Fodder for cattle, sheep, and camels. The whole plant is rich in tannins and is often used for tanning (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1990).

References Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Chenopodium album L., Chenopodium foliosum L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017a. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Echium maculatum L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017b. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Aleksanyan A, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Malva neglecta Wallr.; Malva sylvestris L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017c. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Ghorbani A. Studies on pharmaceutical ethnobotany in the region of Turkmen Sahra, north of Iran (Part 1): general results. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102:58–68. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Ivelasvili T. Folk cuisine in South Georgia. Tbilisi: Sadara; 1991. (იველაშვილი თ. 1991. ხალხური სამზარეულო სამხრეთ საქართველოში. თბილისი: სადარა in Georgian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Khajoei Nasab F, Esmailpour M. Ethno-medicinal survey on weed plants in agro-ecosystems: a case study in Jahrom, Iran. Environ Dev Sustain. 2018;21(5):2145–64. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10668-018-0128-9. Khajoei Nasab F, Khosravi AR. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of Sirjan in Kerman Province, Iran. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;154:190–7. Kunwar RM, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants in Farwest Nepal: their indigenous uses and pharmacological validity. Med Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010;4 (Special Issue 1):28–42. Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian)

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Mosaddegh M, Esmaeili S, Hassanpour A, Malekmohammadi M, Naghibi F. Ethnobotanical study in the highland of Alvand and Tuyserkan. Iran Res J Pharmacogn. 2016;3:7–17. Naghibi F, Esmaeili S, Malekmohammadi M, Hassanpour A, Mosaddegh M. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used traditionally in two villages of Hamedan. Iran Res J Pharmacogn. 2014;1:7–14. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among the Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni ethnic groups in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 23: Bignoniaceae – Valerianaceae; 1953 (English 2000). Leningrad: Akademia Nauk. 891 pages, 39 b/w plates. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 5. Families of Caprifoliaceae – Plantaginaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1990. 328 p. (in Russian) Ur-Rahman I, Afsal A, Iqbal Z, Ijas F, Ali N, Asif M, Alam J, Majid A, Bussmann RW. Traditional and ethnomedicinal dermatology practices in Pakistan. Clin Dermatol. 2018;36(3):310–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clindermatol.2018.03.018.

Polygonum aviculare L. POLYGONACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Farzaneh Khajoei Nasab, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Polygonum aviculare L.: Polygonum aequale Lindm.; Polygonum agreste Sumner; Polygonum aphyllum Krock; Polygonum araraticum Kom.; Polygonum arenastrum Boreau; Polygonum aviculare subsp. aequale (Lindm.) Asch. & Graebn.; Polygonum berteroi Phil.; Polygonum heterophyllum Lindm.; Polygonum retinerve Vorosch.; Polygonum striatum K. Koch; Polygonum uruguense H. Gross.

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] A. Ghorbani Department of Organismal Biology, Evolutionary Biology Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] F. Khajoei Nasab Department of Plant Sciences and Biotechnology, Faculty of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_108

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Local Names Georgian: მატიტელა (matitela); Tush: ჭიმჭიკი (ch’imch’ik’I), ჩვეულებრივი მატიტელა (chveulebrivi mat’it’ela), ჭიმჭიკი (ch’imch’ik’i); Svan: ადმეკ (admek’); Megrelian: გვერიში ლაკრტი (gverishi lak’art’i), კამპეტი (k’amp’et’i); Rachian: თიათერია (tiaeria); Gurian: კერდა (k’erda), მატანტალაი (mat’ant’ala); Kartlian: მამალი მატიტელა (mamali mat’it’ela), ჩიტიპურა (chit’ip’ura); Ingloian: მატატელა (mat’at’ela); Mokhevian: ნაყრაი (naq’rai), ღორის ნაყრაი (ghoris naq’rai); Russian: Гopeцптичий (Gorets ptichiy); Uzbek: Kiziltasma; Kyrgyz: Toшoлгoнкымыздык (Tosholgon kymyzdyk) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991); Farsi: ‫( ﻩﻑﺕ ﺏﻥﺩ‬Haftband); English: knotweed

Botany and Ecology Annual; stem erect, ascending, or decumbent; branches mostly long, suberect, divergent, those on decumbent stems appressed to the ground; the whole plant 10–40 cm high, the lowest internodes 1 cm long; leaves variable in size but alike in shape, broadly spatulate or broadly elliptic to oboval-oblong or liguliform, rarely narrow-oblong or sublinear, obtuse to subacute, grayish-green or glaucescent; flowers 1–5, all distinctly axillary, not approximate near the ends of branches; perianth divided to the middle, obconical (turbinate) in lower part, the pale green segments narrowly white- or roseate-margined; achene often surpassing the perianth, trigonous, mostly 2 or rarely to 3 mm long, ovaloid at base, the straight angles forming a pyramid or an acute tip, mostly black or occasionally castaneous, the faces rather obscurely striate or punctate, slightly lustrous. Flowering May–October. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, in pastures and disturbed areas (Boborov and Komarov 1936; Fedorov 1949; Flora of Azerbaijan 1950; Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Phytochemistry Catechins, flavonoids (kaempferol, quercetin), carbohydrates, anthocyanins (delphinidine, emoine), steroids, catechins, saponins, alkaloids, organic acids (oleic, oxalic, malic, citane, lemon), vitamins (C, carotene), phenolic compounds, tannins, phenolcarbonic acids, coumarins (Fedorov 1984).

N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]

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Fig. 1 Polygonum aviculare (Polygonaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana) Fig. 2 Polygonum aviculare (Polygonaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 3 Polygonum aviculare (Polygonaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses In the Altai the plants are used to treat arthritis, cough, liver and urinary diseases, and tuberculosis. In Middle Asia the infusion is used to treat stomach spasms, intestinal infections, diarrhea, as tonic, hemostatic, and diuretic. The plant is used in a bath to treat bacterial and fungal skin diseases and rashes. The fresh herb is put on tumors, wounds, and skin ulcers (Fedorov 1984). A decoction of dry Polygonum is used in intestinal disorders, together with Anthemis candidissima, to heal hemorrhoidal bleedings and bloody diarrhea (Grossheim 1942). Polygonum aviculare is applied as hot pack poultice externally to injuries and tumors (Damirov et al. 1988). Pulverized green parts of the plant and mixed with egg white is applied to furuncles, cuts, hard healing wound, and ulcers. The whole plant is used as medicine. Originally it was first crushed with a stone, and then crushed alum was added, mixed together and applied to the skin to treat sores. The plant was also used to treat liver disorders: the whole plant was boiled in water, and the resulting decoction was given sweetened to patients (Melikishvili 1976). A P. aviculare decoction was thought to be the best remedy to cure gastrointestinal diseases (Mindadze and Chirgadze 2005). The whole plant was used to prepare a treatment for sores; crushed herb was mixed with crashed alum and applied to the affected area of the skin (Melikishvili 1976). A decoction of roots and leaves was taken internally to treat disorders of the liver, including cirrhosis, and diarrhea, and the leaves were used to treat urinary problems and served as diuretic (Melikishvili 1976), gastrointestinal tract (Mindadze and Chirgadze 2005). An infusion and powder of leaves and stem is used as laxative and treatment of skin abscesses (Khajoei Nasab and Esmailpour 2018) and the aerial parts are used to treat diabetes, colic, and diarrhea (Amiri and Joharchi 2013).

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Local Food Uses The young shoots are boiled like spinach. In Pshavi ts’ertkhala წერთხალა Polygonum alpinum All. and lakhtara ლახტარა Rumex scutatus L. are dipped in salty ayran (do დო), cream or soup (kharsho ხარშო) and eaten (Ochiauri 1980). The aboveground parts until flowering are used boiled. The plant can also be used dried form for cooking dovga (is a soup cooked from curdled milk (yogurt), various greens, a small amount of rice and egg. In some regions of the country also a small amount of peas is added. It is considered good for digestion and for intestinal cramps. Leaves of the plant are used as one of the ingredients added to plov (a common dish in the east). In Azerbaijan rice is boiled on a small fire until soft, in combination with other ingredients like meat, birds, fish, dried fruits, greens, and beans. Such dish possesses constipating properties and is often cooked with the purpose to treat intestinal disorders (Damirov et al. 1988; Kuchukhidze and Jokhadze 2012; Lapachi 1999). Polygonum aviculare is widely used as food. Imereti: jijilaka (Amaranthus retroflexus), natsarkatama (Chenopodium album), ch’inch’ari (Urtica dioica L.), ts’its’marita (Cardamine hirsuta L.), kharik’bila (Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik.), andzla (Cirsium incanum Fisch.), katmikona (Ranunculus chius D.C.), msukana (Portulaca oleracea L.), and balba (Malva sp.) – both make the mass smoother; other herbs used in small amounts are dedaput’k’ara (Stachys sp.), birk’abalakhi (presumably, Arctium lappa L.) – collected only in early spring, zhunzhruk’o (Stellaria media (L.) Cirillo), mat’it’ela (Polygonum aviculare L.) and khvartkla (Convolvulus arvensis L.) – in larger amounts that other accessory herbs, kobrchkhila (Falcaria vulgaris Bernh.), batispekhebi (Erodium cicutarium (L.) L’Her.), ch’inch’ris-deda (Lamium album L.) – gives slightly bitter taste, samq’ura (Trifolium sp.), ionja (Medicago sp.), tavshava (Origanum vulgare L.), purtskhala (not identified), young potato leaves (makes the mass smoother), ia (Viola sp.) – large amount must not be used as the plant is somewhat intoxicant, babuats’vera (Taraxacum F. H. Wigg.) – gives slightly bitter taste, endro (Rubia tinctorium L.) leaves, natsarkatama with fleshy leaves (Chenopodium sp.), dedabrik’onk’a (Lamium purpureum L.), vardk’ach’ach’a (Cichorium intybus L.) – gives bitter taste, gholo (Rumex spp. of R. crispus L. group) – gives brown color, q’aq’acho (Papaver sp.), mzhauna (Rumex acetosa L.) – gives sour taste. Together with a number of other field herbs, its young shoots are collected in early spring as well as summer and autumn but after first harvest of tomato, egg-plant, spinach, and cucumber. In early spring their taste is very different from that in summer. When preparing “pkhali” from all these field weeds, the following greens are added as seasoning and not boiled with the rest of the mixture: dill, fennel, leek, coriander, parsley, celery, green onion shoots, silky wormwood, mint, and garlic are also added. All these components of “pkhali” dressing are mixed with ground walnut, then the boiled herb mass is chopped and is dressed with the mixture of greens, walnut, and garlic, as well as some pepper. Tusheti: Children eat raw ch’imch’iki (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b). Shoots of Polygonum aviculare were used to make mkhali in combination with major components of the meal such as jijilaq’a

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(Amaranthus retroflexus L.), natsarkatama (Chenopodium album L.), ch’inch’ari (Urtica dioica L.), etc. in Imereti (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b). The herb was sometimes eaten raw in Tusheti, e.g., one of the respondents remembered that children formerly collected and ate its shoots (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b). The leaves are sometimes eaten in phkhali, always with a large number of other species (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h; Bussmann et al. 2018; Bussmann 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The leaves yield green, blue, and yellow dyes for wool and silk. Used as fodder (Fedorov 1984). Polygonum aviculare is used in poultry farming. The seeds are good feed for poultry, mainly for geese (Akhundov et al. 1989). A dark blue color is obtained from the root for dyeing wool. Good nectariferous plant, producing much nectar (Akhundov et al. 1989). The leaves are used as diuretic, for kidney and urinary system problems (Bussmann et al. 2018; Bussmann 2017).

References Akhundov QF, Mahammadli BR, Asadov KS. Useful wild-growing plants. Baku: Maarif; 1989. (in Azeri). Amiri MS, Joharchi MR. Ethnobotanical investigation of traditional medicinal plants commercialized in the markets of Mashhad, Iran. Avicenna J Phytomed. 2013;3:254–71. Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Chenopodium album L., Chenopodium foliosum L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017a. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Falcaria vulgaris Bernh. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017b. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Lamium album L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017c. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Polygonum alpinum All.; Polygonum aviculare L.; Polygonum carneum C. Koch; Polygonum hydropiper L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017d. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Rubia tinctorium L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017e. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Stellaria media

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(L.) Vill. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017f. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Urtica dioica L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017g. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Aleksanyan A, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Malva neglecta Wallr.; Malva sylvestris L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017h. Boborov EG, Komarov VL. Flora of the USSR, Volume 5: Dicotyledoneae, Subclass I: Archichlamydeae, Order Piperales-Polygonales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1936 (English 1970). 593 pages, 49 b/w plates. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:5. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016c; 86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Damirov IA, Prilipko LI, Shukurov DZ, Kerimov YB. Medicinal plants of Azerbaijan. Metsniereba, Baku; 1988. (in Russian). Fedorov AA. The herbs applied in traditional medicine of the Talysh. Baku: Publishing House of AS of USSR; 1949. (in Russian). Fedorov AA, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 1. Families Magnoliaceae – Limoniaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1984. 460 p. (in Russian). Flora of Azerbaijan. Volumes I–VIII. Baku: AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1950–1961. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Medicinal plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Publishing House of Azerbaijani Branch of AS; 1942. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian).

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Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Khajoei Nasab F, Esmailpour M. Ethno-medicinal survey on weed plants in agro-ecosystems: a case study in Jahrom, Iran. Environ Dev Sustain. 2018;21(5):2145–64. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10668-018-0128-9. Kuchukhidze J, Jokhadze M. Botany (medicinal plants). Tbilisi: Ilia State University; 2012. (in Georgian). Lapachi TS. Healing with plants in Baraleti, Samtskhe (historical collection), vol. III. Tbilisi: Tbilisi State University; 1999. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Melikishvili M. Dye, medicinal and food plants Sagarejo District. Bulletin of the State Useum of Georgia XXIX-A. Tbilisi: Georgian Academy of Sciences; 1976. (in Georgian). Mindadze N, Chirgadze N. Traditions of Georgian folk medicine, Kakheti. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 2005. (in Georgian). Ochiauri D. Materials for understanding of some botanical terms mentioned in books on economic history of Georgia. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1980. (ოჩიაური დ. 1980. მასალები საქართველოს ეკონომიური ისტორიის წიგნებში აღნიშნული ზოგიერთი ბოტანიკური ცნების გაგებისათვის. თბილისი: მეცნიერება. in Georgian).

Polypodium vulgare L. POLYPODIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Polypodium vulgare L.: Polypodium vulgare subsp. issaevii Askerov & A.E. Bobrov

Local Names Georgian: კილამურა (k’ilamura), ძირტკბილა (dzirt’k’bila); Azeri смядкий корень (smyadkiy koren’) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991). R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_109

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Botany and Ecology Perennial; rhizome sweet-tasting, creeping, often underground, densely clothed with brown scales; leaves in two ranks, oblong-lanceolate or narrower (var. angustum Haussm.), subcoriaceous, pinnatipartite; segments gradually diminishing in size from base to apex, linear lanceolate, sometimes round-tipped (var. rotundatum Milde), commonly acute, entire, or obscurely serrate, confluent toward base, the lowest pair sometimes auriculate at base (var. auritum Willd.); sori round, borne halfway between the margin and midrib; spores yellowish, covered with large and small tubercles. Caucasus, rocks and boulders, shaded stony slopes, rarely in soil in woods (Iljin 1934; Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Phytochemistry The rhizome contains tannic and malic acids, saponin, and glycyrrhizin. Fig. 1 Polypodium vulgare (Polypodiacae), Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Polypodium vulgare (Polypodiacae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 3 Polypodium vulgare (Polypodiacae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses Occasionally used in medicine against bronchitis and cough and for wound care (Bussmann et al. 2016, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

Local Food Uses Used as sugar replacement for its sweet taste. The sweet root is eaten. (Bussmann et al. 2016, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Grossheim 1952).

References Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII. 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Iljin MM. Flora of the USSR, Volume 1: Archegoniatae and Embryophyta. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1934 (English 1968). 244 pages, 14 b/w plates, 2 maps. Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian).

Prunus armeniaca L. ROSACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Prunus armeniaca L.: Armeniaca vulgaris Lam.

Local Names Georgian, გარგარი (gargari); Russian, (Kuraga) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991) R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_149

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Botany and Ecology Tree, (3)5–8(17) m high, with spherical-flat or slightly elongate, spreading crown; trunk 20–30 cm, in some cases to 60 cm in diameter, with branches at 0.5–2 m, trunk of older trees dark, grayish brown, transversely lenticels; annual shoots shiny, reddish brown, grayish olive, beneath with numerous small pale lenticels in lower part; all branches glabrous; winter buds globose-conical, sessile in groups; bud scales glabrous, brown, concealing the pedicels and the base of the calyx tube, usually deciduous at flowering; calyx tube cylindrical, thinly pubescent proximally, greenish dark red, with dark red, oval teeth recurved at flowering until adhering to tube; leaves large (4.5)6–9(12) cm long, (3–5)5–8(11) cm wide, glabrous or with beards at angles of veins beneath, rarely very slightly pubescent (more so when young), cordate, orbicular or ovate, with more or less short, rarely rather long, distinct apical tooth, base orbicular or short, prolonged; margin finely, obtusely and irregularly serrate to nearly crenate; petioles canaliculate, more or less pendant, thin, dark red, (18)25–30(55) mm long, with (1)2–3(6) glands at base of lamina. Flowers white or pinkish, rarely pink, large, (18)25–30(40) mm in diameter, sessile or on very short thinly pubescent pedicels, opening before leaves; petals orbicular, oval or obovate, white or pink, with pink veins, more or less cochleariform-convex, with more or less abruptly prolonged short claw and rounded apex; stamens (25) 27–32(45), filaments white; anthers yellow, splitting transversely; fruit globose, ovoid, rarely obovoid, amygdaloid, and flat-globose, often asymmetrical, more or less compressed laterally, from nearly white to reddish orange, often of different shades of yellow or orange, with or without bloom, pubescent, rarely glabrous; pericarp juicy, in wild forms often coarsely fibrose, with distinct bitter taste, with free or clinging stone; fruit (2)2.5–4(5.5) cm long, (1.5)2–3.5(5) cm wide, the weight of fruit of wild-growing forms varying from 3 to 18 g, of cultivated forms 5.5–80 g; stones globose to ovoid, obovoid, often asymmetrical, rather more straight at dorsal and more rounded at ventral suture, the more or less prominent median rib of the ventral suture keel-like, with a pair of distinct lateral ribs, sometimes more or less smooth and even passing over to weak furrows. Flowering March/April–May, fruiting July. Middle Asia, cultivated in the Caucasus, mostly on southern, wellilluminated mountain, slopes with light, well drained, usually gravelly soil, often along edges of stony taluses and slopes of rocky gorges, solitary or in groups, rarely forming sparse groves, 500–1200 m (Shishkin et al. 1941; Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Phytochemistry Armeniaca vulgaris: Tannins, flavonoids (taxifoline, quercetine, cyroquercetine), carbohydrates saccharose, glucose, fructose, maltose, dextrin, (sorbitol, sucrose, dextrine, starch, pectine, protopectin, galactose, arabinose), vitamins (C, carotene,

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Fig. 1 Prunus armeniaca (Rosaceae), garden, Kakheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Prunus armeniaca (Rosaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

folic acid), phenolcarbonic acids (coffee, p-coumaric), flavonoids (quercetine, kaempferol, cyanidine), steroids (cholesterol, estrone, estradiol), nitrogencontaining compounds (amygdaline, hydrocyanic acid), fatty acids (myristic acid, palmitic, stearic, linolenic) (Sokolov 1987).

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Local Medicinal Uses The leaf decoction is used for constipation and gastrointestinal lesions. The seed oil is used as solvent for some medicines (Sokolov 1987).

Fig. 3 Prunus armeniaca (Rosaceae), garden, Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Prunus armeniaca (Rosaceae), garden, Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Local Food Uses The fruits are eaten, used as fruit lather, and for jams. In Dagestan the seeds are used as almond replacement after careful processing to remove the toxic cyanogenic glycosides (Sokolov 1987). The fruits are widely eaten fresh (Bussmann et al. 2016, 2017, 2018; Figs. 5, 6, 7, and 8).

Fig. 5 Prunus armeniaca (Rosaceae), market, Osh, Kyrgyzstan. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 6 Prunus armeniaca (Rosaceae), drying in garden, Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 7 Prunus armeniaca (Rosaceae), market, Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 8 Prunus armeniaca (Rosaceae), drying fruit lather, garden, Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The seeds can be used as livestock feed. The root bark can be used as apricot colored dye for wool and silk. The carbonized kernels yield the base for black paint. The dense wood is suitable for turning (Sokolov 1987).

References Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2.

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Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Shishkin BK, Yuzepchuk SV, Fedorov AA. Flora of the USSR, Volume 10: Rosaceae-Rosoideae, Prunoideae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1941 (English 1971). 512 pages, 38 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, Volume 3. Hydrangeaceae-Haloragaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1987. 326 p. (in Russian).

Prunus avium (L.) L. Prunus cerasus L. Prunus divaricata Ledeb. Prunus domestica L. Prunus insititia L. Prunus laurocerasus L. Prunus padus L. Prunus vachuschtii Bregadze ROSACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze Synonyms Prunus avium (L.) L.: Cerasus avium (L.) Moench; Prunus cerasus var. avium L. Prunus cerasus L.: Cerasus vulgaris Mill.; Prunus vulgaris (Mill.) Schur. Prunus divaricata Ledeb.: Prunus cerasifera Ehrh. Prunus domestica L.: Prunus communis Huds.; Prunus domestica subsp. oeconomica (Borkh.) C.K. Schneid.; Prunus domestica var. damascena L.; Prunus

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_110

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domestica var. damascena Ser.; Prunus oeconomica Borkh.; Prunus sativa subsp. domestica (L.) Rouy & E.G. Camus Prunus insititia L.: Prunus domestica subsp. insititia (L.) C.K. Schneid.; Prunus domestica var. insititia (L.) Fiori & Paol. Prunus padus L.: Padus avium Mill.; Padus avium Mill. var. avium; Padus racemosa (Lam.) Gilib.

Local Names Prunus avium: Georgian: ბალამწარა (balamts’ara), ბალი (bali), კახამბალი (k’akhambali); Svan: ცხეკიშ (tskhekish), ჰებრა (hebra) Prunus avium var. sylvestris: Georgian: ბალამწარა (balamtsara), მწარე ბალი (mts’are bali), შამბალა (shambala), მწარე ბალი (mts’are bali), ჟიშხა (zhishkha) Prunus cerasus: Georgian: ალუბალი (alubali), ვიშნაბალი (vishnabali) Prunus divaricata: Russian: Алыча (aleitsa); Azeri: алча (altsha); Armenian алуча (alutsha), շլոր (shlor); Georgian: ტყემალი (t’q’emali); Svan: ბარყენ დ (barq’end), ბარყვენ (barq’ven); Megrelian: ომური (omuri); Ingiloian and Kizigian: ტყიმალ (t’q’imal); Chanetian: ცომური (tsomuri) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991); English: cherry plum Prunus x domestica: Georgian: ქლიავი (kilavi); ჭანჭური (ch’anch’uri) Prunus insititia: Georgian: ღოღნაშო (ghoghnasho), მურაკი (murak’i), ღოღნაშო (ghoghnasho) Prunus laurocerasus: Georgian: წყავი (tz’qh’avi), ლეშკრი (leshk’ri), ლეშქი (leshki) Prunus padus: Svan: მჯნელა (mjnela) Prunus persica (L.) Batsch: Georgian: Batsch/Georgian: ატამი (at’ami) Prunus spinosa: Georgian: კვინჩხაი (kvinchkhai), ტყის მურაკი (t’q’is murak’i) Prunus vachuschtii: Georgian: ალუჩა (alucha)

Botany and Ecology Prunus avium: Tree, to 23(35) m high, producing no root suckers, with glabrous shoots and strict branches forming an ovoid crown; bark blackish, splitting transversely; leaves elongate-ovate or elliptic, with cuneate or orbicular base, abruptly tapering to a mucronate, 16 cm long, 8 cm wide, at first usually densely hairy beneath, when adult glabrous above, over entire surface or only slightly pubescent N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]

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along veins, to completely glabrous beneath, rarely glabrous even when young; teeth biserrate, terminate mucronate; petioles 2–5 cm long, generally 2.5 cm, with two glands in upper part; stipules linearly glandular-dentate. Flowers in few-flowered umbels of leafless buds, inner scales of the latter recurved at flowering; pedicels glabrous, (2)2.5–6 cm; hypanthia cyathiform; sepals obtuse, recurved, usually entire, often carmine red like scales of flower buds; corolla 2.5–3 mm in diameter, white; fruit globose, in wild cherry ca. 1 cm long, dark red to nearly black, generally bitter (var. amara D. Sosn.) with soft juicy pulp; stone globose or ovoid, smooth. Flowering April–May, fruiting June. Caucasus, in broad-leaved forests and along their edges, in mountain forests of the lower and middle zones in the Caucasus. Prunus cerasus: Small tree, sometimes producing root suckers; crown broad, subglobular, branches rather short, rigid, strict, short shoots crowded at ends of numerous long terminal shoots, the latter glabrous, at first pale green, later red-brown; leaves broadly elliptic, rarely elongate-elliptic, acuminate or tapering to a short mucronate, base cuneate, dark or bright green above, shiny, lighter beneath, glabrous from the very beginning or sparingly pubescent when young, to 7(12) cm long, 4–5.5 cm wide, crenate-dentate; teeth with very short cartilaginous cusp, with 2–4 glands near base of lamina; petioles 1–2(3) cm, usually euglandulose, rarely with 1 or 2 glands; stipules linear, with sparse glandular marginal teeth, deciduous. Flowers in few, usually 2–4 -flowered umbelliform inflorescences subtended by several small green leaves, bud scales erect at flowering; pedicels two to three times as long as campanulate hypanthium; sepals slightly shorter than hypanthium, obtuse or acute, usually with glandular marginal teeth, curved upward; petals 10–13 mm long, white; fruit globose or flattened above, pale red with yellowish pulp and colorless juice, sour; stone not separating from pulp, globose, smooth. Flowering April–May, fruiting June–July. Widely cultivated (Figs. 1, 2, and 3). Prunus divaricata: Tree (often many stemmed) or shrub (1.5) 4–10 (15) m high, with more or less spiny, broadly flexuous, thin, erect, or drooping branches. The young shoots are reddish, brown, perennial branches dark gray. The winter buds are glabrous, rarely slightly pubescent, oblong-ovoid, small. The leaves of annual shoots are alternate, on spurs, approximate, in subsessile fascicles. The petioles (0.5) 1–1.5 Fig. 1 Prunus cerasus (Rosaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Prunus cerasus (Rosaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Prunus cerasus (Rosaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

(2.3) cm long, glabrous, rarely sparingly pubescent, eglandulose. The lamina oval or oval-ovate to oval-lanceolate (1) 4.5–6 (10) cm long, (0.5) 2–4 (6) cm wide, gradually acuminate, narrowly or broadly cunneate at base, with finely, obtusely, rarely acutely, sometimes doubly serrate-dentate, eciliate margin, glabrous above, densely, rarely slightly tomentose or pubescent along veins beneath. The flowers open somewhat before the leaves, sessile on spurs or annual shoots of preceding year, on rather long (0.4) 1–1.6 (2.2) cm, usually glabrous, rarely sparsely haired pedicels. The calyx tube is glabrous, rarely barely pubescent, short-cylindrical or cylindrical-campanulate, 1.5–3 mm long, with recurved ovate teeth. The petals are white, very rarely pinkish, ovate, or oval-ovate, sometimes spatulate, obtuse or acute, sometimes notched at apex, 5–15 mm long, 3–10 mm broad. The ovary and style are glabrous, very rarely inconspicuously pubescent in lower part. The fruit is globose, ovoid, oblong-ovoid, obovoid, (0.8) 1.8–2.8 (3.5) cm in diameter, yellow, pale, red or rose to dark wine red, with the exception of hybrid forms, always glabrous, with faint lateral furrow. The stones are not free, ovoid, or ovate-ovoid,

Prunus avium (L.) L. . .

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Fig. 4 Prunus divaricata (Rosaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

acuminate, sometimes truncate at base, light brown, whitish smooth or scarious surface. The plant can be found along the mountain slopes in woody or shrubby forest thickets, stony slopes and bottoms of ravines, near water, and mountain river valleys. In Central Asia usually in undergrowth of walnut (Juglans fallax Dode) forest. In the Caucasus sometimes forming massive thickets. In the Caucasus, 300 m (littoral)-2000 m, in Central Asia 800–2000 m. Flowers from April to June, fruits from July to September. Caucasus, Balkans, Southwest and Middle Asia, Iran (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Takhtadjan 1954–2009; Fig. 4). Prunus x domestica: Tree, 6–12 m high, unarmed or with slightly spiny branches; young shoots glabrous or densely hairy or tomentose-pubescent; leaves elliptic or obovate, 4–10 cm long, 2,5–6 cm wide, obtuse or acutely crenate, delicately hairy beneath. Flowers white or with greenish tinge, 15–25 mm in diameter; sepals pubescent inside; pedicels glabrous or sparsely hairy; fruit unusually heterogeneous in shape (from elongate, oval, ovoid to flattened-globose, usually with conspicuous lateral furrow) as well as in color (from pale green to green, yellow, red, violet with glaucous bloom; stone free or not, ovoid, rather broad, slightly pitted, always glabrous. Flowering April–May, fruiting July–September. Widely cultivated (Figs. 5 and 6). Prunus insititia: With smaller, sour fruits, as well as pubescent shoots and spiny branches. Prunus laurocerasus: Tree or shrub, 1–3, rarely to 6 m tall, often strongly branching, branches glabrous; leaves shiny above, paler beneath, dull, glabrous or glabrescent, oblong-elliptic, acuminate, short-petiolate, shiny, coriaceous, with 2–4 glands at base of midrib beneath. Flowering racemes shorter than leaves, dense, rarely more than 10 cm long, considerably shorter in upper mountain zone (var. brachystachys Medw.); flowers small, white; petals ca. 3 mm long, obovate; stamens ca. 20; style not divided, with capitate stigma; drupes black, globose -ovoid; stone smooth, ovoid, with lateral keel. Flowering April–May, fruiting August. Caucasus, extensive thickets in forests of to 2400 m, partly as sometimes impenetrable undergrowth (Figs. 7, 8, and 9).

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Fig. 5 Prunus x domestica (Rosaceae), garden, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 6 Prunus x domestica (Rosaceae), garden, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Prunus avium: Tannins, carbohydrates (raffinose, galactose, fructose, glucose, sucrose, pectin), nitrogen-containing compounds (amygdaline, hydrocyanic acid), essential oils, vitamins (C, E, carotene), phenylcarboxylic acids (coffee, synaptic,

Prunus avium (L.) L. . . Fig. 7 Prunus laurocerasus (Rosaceae), garden, Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 8 Prunus laurocerasus (Rosaceae), garden, Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 9 Prunus laurocerasus (Rosaceae), garden, Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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ferulic, p-coumaric), flavonoids (quercetin, kaempferol, cyanodine), triterpenoids (lupeol, steroids/sitosterol), flavonoids (hyperoside, astragalin, quercetin), Prunus divaricata: Vitamins (C), flavonoids (quercetin, kaempferol, rutine, avicularin), anthocyanins (peotidine, rutinoside, pelargonidin, cyanidin), carbohydrates (sucrose, pectin), fatty acids. Prunus laurocerasus: Nitrogen-containing compounds (prussic acid, hydrocyanic acid, cyanic acid, prunazine, amygdaline, prulaurazine), tannins, gum, carbohydrates (galactose, arabinose, xylose, rhamnose), essential oils (benzaldehyde, benzene alcohol), triterpenoids (ursolic acid), vitamins (C), steroids (sitosterol, stigmasterol, cholesterol), phenolcarboxylic acids (coffee, coumaric), catechins (catechine, epicatechine), flavonoids (galactopyranosyl, glucofuranoside, kapperol, xylofuranoside, kaempferol, quercetin, cyanidin), proanthocyanide (leucocyanidine), carbohydrates (mannitol, sorbitol), anthocyanins (cyanidin, peonidine).

Local Medicinal Uses Prunus avium: A bark decoction is used as a tonic and sedative, for headaches, heart diseases, and gastrointestinal problems and for the treatment of sexually transmitted diseases, malaria, respiratory infections, and spasms of the stomach. The leaf decoction serves for dysentery. A tincture can be used to treat rheumatism. Prunus divaricata: A fruit extract of this plant is used internally, and also as soaking therapy, to relieve cough and angina. In the Talish resin extracted from the stems is used for the same purpose (Grossheim 1942; Fedorov 1949). The plant extract is used internally as tonic and antiscorbutic agent and as bath to treat wounds. It is used widely against blastema (Grossheim 1943). Fruit juice is mixed with Potentilla reptans leaf extract to remedy bee stings (Mehdiyeva et al. 2017). The leaves are used in acute respiratory diseases. The fruits are used in Iran as a laxative, and the fruit extract is used for wound healing (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Batsatsashvili et al. 2017e; Bussmann 2017). Prunus laurocerasus: The leaf decoction is used as analgesic, for epilepsy, pertussis, and tuberculosis. The fruit tincture has medicinal use (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Batsatsashvili et al. 2017e; Bussmann 2017). The powdered seeds of Prunus persica are used for dermatological problems on India (Singh et al. 2019), and a bark extract of Prunus cerasoides is used for swellings (Kumar et al. 2011; Figs. 10, 11, and 12).

Local Food Uses Prunus avium: The fruits are eaten and used to produce alcohol (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Batsatsashvili et al. 2017e; Bussmann 2017). Prunus avium var. sylvestris: The fruits are eaten raw (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Batsatsashvili et al. 2017e; Bussmann 2017).

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Fig. 10 Prunus persica (Rosaceae), garden, Austin, Texas. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

Fig. 11 Prunus persica (Rosaceae), garden, Austin, Texas. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

Prunus cerasus: The fruits are eaten and used for alcohol production (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Batsatsashvili et al. 2017e; Bussmann 2017). Prunus divaricata: One of the most important wild fruit trees of the Caucasus. Widely distributed in the forests of the whole Caucasus (Grossheim 1952). The fruits are eaten raw. Unripe fruits are widely consumed throughout the Caucasus, as a favorite seasoning for soups. The fruits are also dried and used as jam and candy and for jellies, pie fillings, and sweets (Grossheim 1952). The fruits are eaten raw and

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Fig. 12 Prunus persica (Rosaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

used for sauces (Tkhemali) and jams, compotes, and marinades. Ripe and unripe fruits are used as spice for soups, for thin sheets of sour plum puree, sauces, compotes, jam, juices, and oils (Grossheim 1952; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2007). The fruits contain pectins, carotene, sugars, vitamin C, citric acid, and malic acid (Grossheim 1952; Budantseva 1994–1996; Sokolov 1984–1993; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2007; Zolotnitskaya 1958–1965). Fruits are used both in fresh and dried form in cooking different national dishes. They are especially added to kofta (meatballs), arishta (noodles), and fish dishes. Jam, compote, and jelly are made of the fruits, which are also marinated. This makes good seasoning for dishes and contributes to increase the appetite and fast digestion. T’q’emali is widely used to make sour sauce also called “t’q’emali” which is used for meat, pastry, fish, etc. Fruits (not very ripe) are collected, boiled in water, smashed, rubbed on a sieve to remove peel and stones, and then boiled again to make thick semiliquid; coriander, summer savory, basil, and parsley are finely chopped and poured into the pot with t’q’emali. The mass is salted, cooled, poured into glass bottles, and stored. T’q’emali is also used to make “t’q’lap’i”, flat pieces of dry fruit lather. Ripe fruits are put into a pot and crushed by hand and then put into an oven. Once boiled the pot is taken out of the oven, and the mass is rubbed on a sieve to remove peel and stones and then boiled again to make a thick mass. The mass is then poured onto a wooden board and dried under the sun; when one side is dry, the mass is turned over to dry the other side. A meal called “ch’riant’eli” is also made of t’q’emali: Unripe fruits (1–2 bowls) with already solid stones are collected, boiled in a pot, cooled, smashed by hands, and rubbed on a sieve to remove peel and stones. The mass is seasoned in the following way: ts’iteli mkhali (also called ch’riant’lis mkhali, beet leaves) or titmavala mkhali (Amaranthus retroflexus shoots) are boiled, drained, finely chopped, put one handful into boiled mass and steered; two chopped onion bulbs and greens: coriander, summer savory, dill, basil, balsam herb. The fruits are also used to make alcohol (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017a, b, c, d; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Batsatsashvili et al. 2017e; Bussmann 2017; Figs. 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, and 19).

Prunus avium (L.) L. . . Fig. 13 Prunus divaricata (Rosaceae), market, Telavi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 14 Prunus divaricata (Rosaceae), ready to eat, Telavi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 15 Prunus divaricata (Rosaceae), production of tkemali sauce, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 16 Prunus divaricata (Rosaceae), production of tkemali sauce, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 17 Prunus divaricata (Rosaceae), production of tkemali sauce, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Prunus x domestica: The fruits are used for alcohol, eaten raw, and made into preserves (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Batsatsashvili et al. 2017e; Bussmann 2017; Figs. 20, 21, and 22). Prunus insititia: The fruits are eaten and used for alcohol production (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Batsatsashvili et al. 2017e; Bussmann 2017).

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Fig. 18 Prunus divaricata (Rosaceae), production of tkemali sauce, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 19 Prunus divaricata (Rosaceae), production of tkemali sauce, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Prunus laurocerasus: The fruits are eaten, made into jam, and used for alcohol production and soft drinks (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Batsatsashvili et al. 2017e; Bussmann 2017). Prunus padus: The fruits are eaten, made into jam, and used for alcohol production (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Batsatsashvili et al. 2017e; Bussmann 2017).

748 Fig. 20 Prunus x domestica (Rosaceae), market, Telavi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 21 Traditional pot still for alcohol production, Pshavi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 22 Prunus persica (Rosaceae), market, Alma Ata, Kazakhstan. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Prunus spinosa: The fruits are used for alcohol production. Leaves and shoots can be used for chave (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Batsatsashvili et al. 2017e; Bussmann 2017; Figs. 23 and 24). Prunus vachuschtii: The fruits are eaten (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Batsatsashvili et al. 2017e; Bussmann 2017).

Fig. 23 Prunus spinosa (Rosaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 24 Prunus spinosa (Rosaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses Prunus avium: The wood is used for turning and furniture. The leaf powder is used in veterinary medicine for the treatment of slow healing wounds, as well as insecticide. The leaves can be used as fodder for reindeer, sheep, and goats. The wood is used for musical instruments (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Batsatsashvili et al. 2017e; Bussmann 2017). Prunus avium var. sylvestris: The stems are used in rituals for protection (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Batsatsashvili et al. 2017e; Bussmann 2017). Prunus divaricata: The seed oil can be used to extract essential oils for perfumes and soap. The wood is suitable for carpentry. Planted as ornamental. The wood is very heavy, persistent, and hard. Suitable for solid carpentry (Grossheim 1952). The tree has a heavy and hard wood, which is used for preparing small utensils. Cherry plum is a good honey and decorative plant and also used for afforestation and landscaping (Grossheim 1952). This is a hardy fruit species that makes a good stock for grafting plum, apricot, peach, and other fruits (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961). Considered to be good nectareous plant, producing much nectar (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961). A dye solution is prepared from the bark and leaves to obtain yellow and beige colors and used for dyeing wool yarn as well as products made of wool (Qasimov 1980). Prunus laurocerasus: The wood is used for turning and carpentry; the bark can be used for tanning. The seed extract serves as acaricide and insecticide. Planted as ornamental. The flowers yield nectar, but the honey is poisonous. The leaves and shoots can be used as fodder for pigs. Used as firewood, for turning, and for tool handles (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Batsatsashvili et al. 2017e; Bussmann 2017). Prunus padus: Used as firewood, for turning, and for tool handles (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Batsatsashvili et al. 2017e; Bussmann 2017).

References Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Urtica dioica L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017a. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Aleksanyan A, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Mentha aquatica L.; Mentha longifolia L.; Mentha pulegium L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017b. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Prunus divaricata Ledeb. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017c.

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Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Smilax excelsa L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017d. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Stellaria media (L.) Vill. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017e. Budantseva AL, editor. Plant resources of Russia and neighboring countries, vols. 1–2. Moscow: Akademia Nauk; 1994–1996. (in Russian). Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:5. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016c; 86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Fedorov AA. The herbs applied in traditional medicine of the Talysh. Baku: Publishing house of AS of USSR; 1949. (in Russian). Flora of Azerbaijan. Volumes I–VIII. Baku: AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1950–1961. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Medicinal plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Publishing house of Azerbaijani Branch of AS; 1942. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Herbs of the Caucasus. Baku: Azerbaijani Branch of AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1943. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Kumar M, Bussmann RW, Mukesh J, Kumar P. Ethnomedicinal uses of plants close to rural habitation in Garhwal Himalayan, India. J Med Plant Res. 2011;5(11):2252–60. Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Potentilla erecta (L.) Raeusch; Potentilla reptans L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017.

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Qasimov MA. Dye plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Azerbaijan State Publishing House; 1980. (in Azeri). Singh S, Bhat JA, Malik ZA, Youssouf M, Bussmann RW, Kunwar RM. Sacred groves in Western Himalaya, India: community-managed nature refuges for conservation of biodiversity and culture. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18(15). https://doi.org/10.17348/era.18.15.1-21. Sokolov PD. Plant resources of the USSR, vols. 1–7. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1984–1993. (in Russian). Takhtadjan AL. Flora of Armenia, vols. 1–11. Yerevan: Akademia Nauk; 1954–2009. (in Russian). Tsaturyan T, Gevorgyan M. Wild edible plants of Armenia. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 2007. (in Armenian). Zolotnitskaya S. Medicinal resources of the flora of Armenia, vols. 1–2. Yerevan: Akademia Nauk, 1958–1965. (in Russian).

Pterocarya pterocarpa (Michx.) Kunth ex Iljins. JUGLANDACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Pterocarya pterocarpa (Michx.) Kunth ex Iljins.: Juglans fraxinifolia Lam; Juglans pterocarpa Michx.; Pterocarya fraxinifolia (Lam.) Spach

Local Names Russian: Лапина (lapina), Azeri: Qаnаdmеyvə yаlаnqоzı; Georgian: ლაფანი (lapani); English: wingnut (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991). R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_111

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Botany and Ecology A tree to 25–30 m high, 1–1.5 m in diameter, with whitish non-fissured bark; leaves pinnate; leaflets 8–12 pairs, sessile or short-petiolate, oblong or elongate-ovate, serrate-margined, acuminate, glabrous and lustrous above, paler beneath with hairs at the axils of veins; staminate aments 5–7 cm long, solitary at the ends of branchlets; flowers borne on very short pedicels; pistillate aments terminal, with numerous sessile flowers; fruit irregularly turbinate, the wings broader than the body. Flowering April–May, fruiting September–October. Caucasus, on the banks of rivers from lowlands to mid-mountain belt. Widely planted. Rare species. Distributed in the regions of Guba and Western Greater Caucasus, the mountainous part of Lankaran, Lankaran lowlands, and the Alazan-Ayrichay valley. Grows from lowland to lower, rarely to middle mountain belts. Forms damp monotypic forests or is mix with Alnus barbata, Acer velutinum, and Parrotia persica and also as part of riverside forests. Reproduced with seeds and root shoots. Mature trees grow well in half shade. Pterocarya is a hydrophilic and fast-growing species. Root shoots start forming from 2 years to old age. Mature trees fruit annually and in large quantities. Flowering in April–May, fruiting in September–October (Bobrov and Komarov 1936; Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961; Redlist Committee Azerbaijan 2013; Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Phytochemistry Tannins, phenylcarboxylic acids (p-coumaric, coffee, ellagic), quinones (juglon), vitamins (C) (Fedorov 1984).

Fig. 1 Pterocarya pterocarpa (Juglandaceae), Kakheti, Georgia. (Photo R. W: Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Pterocarya pterocarpa (Juglandaceae), Kakheti, Georgia. (Photo R. W: Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses In the Northern Caucasus, an extract is used for stomach problems and diarrhea, as well as anthelmintic. Externally the extract is applied for skin problems. The leaves, fruits, and bark have sudorific properties (Fedorov 1984). The fruits contain large amounts of vitamin C (Grossheim 1942). In the Talish the infusion, extract, and decoction of leaves and bark are used internally to treat gastric diseases and diarrhea (Grossheim 1942). An infusion and decoction of leaves and bark is used in skin diseases as soaking therapy (Fedorov 1949).

Local Food Uses The seeds are eaten raw, and the leaves are used as vitamin C source (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Fedorov 1984; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017).

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Fig. 3 Pterocarya pterocarpa (Juglandaceae), Kakheti, Georgia. (Photo R. W: Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Pterocarya pterocarpa (Juglandaceae), Kakheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses The wood is white with a reddish shade, light and soft, and is used for household utensils, and the blast fibers can be turned into simple ropes. The leaves and fruits yield a gray dye for wool and silk (Fedorov 1984). Often planted as ornamental (Grossheim 1952). Leaves and bark are used for dyeing silk in gray color (Fedorov 1949). A tree with high decorative qualities can be used in parks and gardens (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961). The wood is soft, light, loose, elastic, white with red shades and serves for flooring, parquet, window frames and doors, and other joinery. Fish can be stupefied by using a powder derived from the leaves (Grossheim 1942). The leaves are used as dye (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017).

References Bobrov EG, Komarov VL. Flora of the USSR, Volume 5: Dicotyledoneae, Subclass I: Archichlamydeae, Order Piperales-Polygonales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1936 (English 1970). 593 pages, 49 b/w plates. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:5. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016c;86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Fedorov AA. The herbs applied in traditional medicine of the Talysh. Baku: Publishing House of AS of USSR; 1949. (in Russian).

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Fedorov AA, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 1. Families Magnoliaceae – Limoniaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1984. 460 p. (in Russian). Flora of Azerbaijan. Volumes I–VIII. Baku: AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1950–1961. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Medicinal plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Publishing House of Azerbaijani Branch of AS; 1942. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Mehdiyeva N, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Pterocarya pterocarpa (Michx.) Kunth ex Iljins. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Redlist Committee Azerbaijan. Red book of the Republic of Azerbaijan/Rare and endangered plant and mushroom species. 2nd ed. Baku: Aharg-Garb; 2013. (in Azeri).

Punica granatum L. LYTHRACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Punica granatum L.: Punica florida Salisb.; Punica grandiflora hort. ex Steud.; Punica nana L.; Punica spinosa Lam.

Local Names Georgian: ბროწეული (brots’euli); Russian: Гранат (granat); Azeri: нар (nar); Armenian: нрнени (nrneni) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991). R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_112

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Botany and Ecology A tree or shrub, 1.5–5 m tall, glabrous, with opposite branches and spinescent branchlets; leaves opposite or alternate-fascicled, oblong, oblong-lanceolate or lanceolate, 2–8 cm long, subobtuse, sometimes cuspidate, coriaceous, entire, lustrous, deciduous; flowers profuse, 2–4.5 cm in diameter; calyx reddish, coriaceous, 1–2 cm long, thickish, broadly triangular lobes 5–7 mm long; petals obovate, bright red, 3.5–5 cm long; fruit large, spherical, to 10 cm in diameter, bright red, less often greenish or white; ripe fruit sometimes persistent on branches, splitting and exposing succulent seeds through longitudinal fissures; seeds numerous, angular, 8–14 mm long, 5–8 mm broad. Flowering May–August; fruiting end of September. Middle Asia, on dry, gravelly, stony slopes in the foothills, sometimes on screes, coastal pebble, sandy soils, in mountain forests below 800 m. Widely cultivated (Shishkin 1949; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).

Phytochemistry Carbohydrates (starch, mannitol, sorbitol), triterpenoids (ursolic, betulinic acid, friedelin), steroids (sitosterol), alkaloids (isopelesterin, methylisopelterine, pseudopelletierine), phenylcarboxylic acids (gallic, ellic), tannins, triterpenic acids (ursolic, Fig. 1 Punica granatum (Lythraceae); garden, Sighnaghi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Punica granatum (Lythraceae); Mtskheta cathedral, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Punica granatum (Lythraceae); garden, Sighnaghi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

betulinic), phenolcarbonic acids (ellagic), anthocyanins (argonidine), vitamins (C) (Sokolov 1987).

Local Medicinal Uses In the Caucasus used for diseases of the gastrointestinal tract, diseases of the liver, kidneys, oral cavity, arthralgia, for fractures, and skin diseases. A bark extract is used as hemostatic, for gingival hemorrhage, as astringent for diarrhea, with colitis, for

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Fig. 4 Punica granatum (Lythraceae); garden, Sighnaghi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Punica granatum (Lythraceae); garden, Sighnaghi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

gargling in case of angina. The pericarp extract is used to treat malaria. In Middle Asia a leaf and bark extract is used to treat diarrhea, dysentery, respiratory infections, and hemoptysis and as externally ointment (with honey) for paronychia, malignant ulcers, diseases of ear and nose, and toothache. The fruit peel serves as anthelminthic (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1987).

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Fig. 6 Punica granatum (Lythraceae); market, Telavi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

The dried fruit shell is used in milk or water for body pain in Pakistan (Sher et al. 2016) and chewed to relieve cough (Joshi et al. 2010). Ground-up leaves are used in India to stop nosebleeds (Raj et al. 2018). In Nepal the plant is used in chest pain, sore throat, and bronchitis. It is stomachic, astringent, anthelmintic, antidiarrheal, diuretic, expectorant, hemostatic, and aphrodisiac (Kunwar et al. 2009).

Local Food Uses The fruits are eaten raw and used for sauces and confectionary. The leaves can be used as surrogate for tea (Sokolov 1987). Apkhazeti cuisine widely uses pomegranate. They make spicy, hot sauce – amatsmish sizbal (ამაცმიშ სიზბალი). Ajik’a is added to pomegranate juice and is consumed with meat. The leaves and shoots are sometimes eaten in phkhali (herb pie). The fruits are eaten raw, as juice and in sauces (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Fig. 6).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The wood can be used for small utensils. The fruits yield a dense red dye for wool and silk; bark and leaves yield black dye. Planted as ornamental (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1987).

References Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti,

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Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Joshi M, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal uses of plant resources of the Haigad watershed in Kumaun Himalaya. Med Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010;4(Special Issue 1):43–6. Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Kunwar RM, Upreti Y, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Indigenous use and ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in Far-west Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009;7:5–28. Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Raj AJ, Biswakarma B, Pala NA, Shukla G, Vineeta V, Kumar M, Chakravarty S, Bussmann RW. Indigenous uses of ethno-medicinal plants among forest dependent communities of Northern Bengal, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14(1):8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002018-0208-9. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among the Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni ethnic groups in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 15: Malvales, Parietales, Myrtiflorae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1949 (English 1974). 565 pages, 33 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, Volume 3. Hydrangeaceae-Haloragaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1987. 326 p. (in Russian).

Pyrus caucasica Fed. Pyrus communis L. ROSACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Pyrus caucasica Fed.: Pyrus communis L.

Local Names Pyrus caucasica: Armenian: Տանձենի կովկասյան (Tandzeni kovkasyan); Azeri: qаz аrmudu; Georgia: პანტა (p’ant’a); Svan: გოწო ვიცხ (gots’o vitskh); Megrelian: კვეტელე სხული (k’vet’ele skhuli), პანტე სხული (p’ant’e skhuli), ტყარი სხული R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_113

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(t’k’ari skhuli) (Megrelian), ჭიკუ სხული (ch’ik’u skhuli); Gurian: კვიჭიჭი (k’vich’ich’), კვიჭიჭი-მსხალი (k’vich’ich’I-mskhali); Chanetian: მტკუი მცხული (mt’k’ui mtskhuli); Rachian: პატნამსხალი (p’ant’a-mskhali); Ingiloan: ჭირჭმა (ch’irch’ma); Lechkhumian, ჭკუტა (ch’k’ut’a); Imeretian: ჭკუტამსხალი (ch’k’ut’a-mskhali), ჯარჯი (jarji) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991); English: Caucasian pear. Pyrus communis: Georgian: მსხალი (mskhali), გულაბი (gulabi zamtris); Svan: იცხი (itskhi); Russian: Груша (grusha); Azeri: армыд (armeid); Armenian: тандзени (tandseni) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991).

Botany and Ecology Pyrus caucasica: Tree, 20 m tall, with spines, especially when young. The twigs are smooth or slightly hairy when young. The leaves are ovate-elliptic to ovateorbicular, 3–5(7)  1.5–4 cm, two times as long as wide, entire or crenate-serrulate, sparsely pubescent when young, becoming smooth, green, shiny above, drying blackish, base rounded or subcordate. Petioles up to 5 cm, usually as long as or longer than the blade. The inflorescence 5–9 flowered. The flowers are more or less white, 2–3 cm in diameter. The pedicels 1.5–3 cm. Fruit is pear-formed to somewhat globe-like, 2–4 cm long, yellowish green. The sepals are persistent. Pedicels are as long as the fruit. The leaves are entire, wooly-ciliate. The plant can be found in forests and scrubs, from sea level to 2200 m. Mostly in deciduous forests (oak, oak-hornbeam, hornbeam-beech, beech-hornbeam, oriental hornbeam, etc.), in lower and middle montane zones, sometimes higher. Lowers from April to May, fruits from August to September. Endemic of the Caucasus (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Takhtadjan 1954–2009; Yuzepchuk 1939; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7). Pyrus communis: Tree, 20–30 m high, sometimes a shrub; branches with or without spines; buds and shoots glabrous, less often pubescent; petioles about as long as the leaf blade, 2–5-7 cm long, initially more or less pubescent, later glabrous; leaves 2–5-7 cm long, 1.5–2.5 cm broad, suborbicular or oval, rounded or obscurely cuneate at base, short-tapering, acuminate apex, entire or serrulate or crenate on whole or part of margin, initially white arachnoid pubescent, especially below, later quite glabrous or subglabrous, with a stronger pubescence, masking the teeth only along the veins and the leaf margin, lustrous green, lighter below, drying black; pedicels 3.5 cm long, pubescent or glabrous; flowers 2.5–3 cm in diameter; sepals triangular-lanceolate, densely pubescent like the ovary, erect; petals short-clawed, ca. 1.5 cm long, 1 cm broad; fruits pyriform or subglobose, very variable in size and shape, to 3–4 cm long, 1.5–2 cm broad, green, sometimes reddening, less often yellow. Flowering April–May. Ural, Caucasus, in forests, mostly on clearings. Widely cultivated (Yuzepchuk 1939; Figs. 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12).

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Fig. 1 Pyrus caucasica (Rosaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Fig. 2 Pyrus caucasica (Rosaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

768 Fig. 3 Pyrus caucasica (Rosaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Pyrus caucasica (Rosaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Pyrus caucasica Fed. . . . Fig. 5 Pyrus caucasica (Rosaceae), Samtskhe, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 6 Pyrus caucasica (Rosaceae), Pshavi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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770 Fig. 7 Pyrus caucasica (Rosaceae), Pshavi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 8 Pyrus communis (Rosaceae), Pshavi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 9 Pyrus communis (Rosaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Pyrus caucasica Fed. . . . Fig. 10 Pyrus communis (Rosaceae), in espalier, Leutkirch, Germany. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 11 Pyrus communis (Rosaceae), in espalier, Leutkirch, Germany. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 12 Pyrus communis (Rosaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Triterpenoids (friedelin, epifridinal), steroids (sitosterol), carbohydrates (sorbitol, sucrose, glucose, fructose, pectin), vitamins (C, carotene), phenols (hydroquinone, arbutin, acetylarbutin, pyroside, isopyroside), phenylcarboxylic acids (chlorine, isochlorogenic, neochlorenovic, p-coumaroline, ridrolizate), catechins (catechin, epicatechin), flavonoids (quercetin, isoquercetrin, astrarealine, riperine), tannins (Sokolov 1987).

Local Medicinal Uses Pyrus caucasica: The fruits have astringent and fixative properties (Alalbarov 2008). A decoction of fruits is applied externally on wounds (Alalbarov 2008). A fruit decoction was used to treat diarrhea in children, inflammatory disorders of the gastrointestinal tract (Kopaliani 2013; Burduli 2010), and tuberculosis (Kopaliani 2013). Juice and infusion were thought to be efficient remedies for urinary stones (Kopaliani 2013). P’ant’a leaves with radish root, white alum, and complete basil plant were crushed and mixed, and the mixture is used to treat sores (Melikishvili 1976). P’ant’a was used to treat diarrhea in children (Jikia 1991). The fruit decoction was also used to treat gastrointestinal inflammation and tuberculosis; juice and infusion were thought to be efficient remedies for urinary stones (Kopaliani 2013), and the plant was used to treat stomachache in West Georgia (Burduli 2010). P’ant’a leaves with radish root, white alum, and complete basil plant were crushed and mixed, and the mixture is used to treat sores (Melikishvili 1976). The fruits are used for diabetes and to treat urinary problems. (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, c, 2018; Bussmann 2017). Pyrus communis: The leaves are used for their antibacterial and antifungal properties, and as contraceptive, for malignant tumors, diarrhea, dysentery, nephritis, cystitis, and wound healing. The fruits have astringent and fixative properties

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(Alalbarov 2008). A decoction of fruits is applied externally on wounds (Alalbarov 2008). A fruit decoction was used to treat diarrhea in children, inflammatory disorders of the gastrointestinal tract (Kopaliani 2013; Burduli 2010), and tuberculosis (Kopaliani 2013). Juice and infusion were thought to be efficient remedies for urinary stones (Kopaliani 2013). P’ant’a leaves with radish root, white alum, and complete basil plant were crushed and mixed, and the mixture is used to treat sores (Melikishvili 1976). P’ant’a was used to treat diarrhea in children (Jikia 1991). The fruit decoction was also used to treat gastrointestinal inflammation and tuberculosis; juice and infusion were thought to be efficient remedies for urinary stones (Kopaliani 2013), and the plant was used to treat stomachache in West Georgia (Burduli 2010). P’ant’a leaves with radish root, white alum, and complete basil plant were crushed and mixed, and the mixture is used to treat sores (Melikishvili 1976). The fruits are used for diabetes and to treat urinary problems (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, c, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

Local Food Uses Pyrus caucasica: The fruits are used fresh and processed (as sauces, jam, pastes, juices), dried, and also to produce fruit wine and vodka. Crushed fruits are added to flour for bread (Grossheim 1952; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2007). The fruits contain sugars, citric acid, malic acid, carotene, vitamin C, pectins, and tannins (Grossheim 1952; Budantseva 1994–1996; Sokolov 1984–1993; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2007; Zolotnitskaya 1958–1965). Fruits are used raw and boiled and for bakery. Jam and wine is made of fruits (Grossheim 1946). The fruit was used to make winter preserves (Bidzinashvili 2013). The fruits are also used to make alcohol and syrup and can be included in phkhali (a vegetable spread with walnuts) (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, c, 2018; Bussmann 2017). Pyrus communis: The leaves are used as tea and coffee replacement. The fruits are eaten and used for alcohol production. The fruits are used fresh and processed (as sauces, jam, pastes, juices), dried, and also to produce fruit wine and vodka. Crushed fruits are added to flour for bread (Grossheim 1952; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2007). The fruits contain sugars, citric acid, malic acid, carotene, vitamin C, pectins, and tannins (Grossheim 1952; Budantseva, 1994–1996; Sokolov, 1984–1993; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2007; Zolotnitskaya, 1958–1965). Fruits are used raw and boiled and for bakery. Jam and wine is made of fruits (Grossheim 1946). The fruit was used to make winter preserves (Bidzinashvili 2013). The fruits are also used to make alcohol and syrup and can be included in phkhali (a vegetable spread with walnuts) (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, c, 2018; Bussmann 2017). The fruits are eaten and are a base for kvass and soft drinks. The dried seeds are sometimes used to make a coffee substitute (Grossheim 1952). In Adjara the fruits of P’ant’a პანტა Pyrus caucasica were roasted in the furnace and were preserved for the winter. Then they were boiled into a syrup, called khosao ხოსაო.

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses Pyrus caucasica: Pear has flexible and lustrous wood that is usually used for preparing precious goods (Grossheim 1952). Musical instruments are made of this wood, which includes zurna (band), kamancha, and saz (bow and strings). Wooden spoons, tubs, and other household objects are made from pear. Considered to be moderate nectariferous plant, producing much nectar (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961). A dye solution is prepared from bark and leaves to obtain yellow and beige colors. The solution is used for dyeing wool yarn as well as products made of wool (Qasimov 1980). The wood serves for construction and to make tough household utensils, e.g., mortars, and sometimes used as firewood (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, c, 2018; Bussmann 2017). Pyrus communis: The wood is used for carpentry. The bark yields brownish dyes for wool and silk. Fodder (shoots, leaves, fruits) for cattle and pigs. Pear has flexible and lustrous wood that is usually used for preparing precious goods (Grossheim 1952). Musical instruments are made of this wood, which includes zurna (band), kamancha, and saz (bow and strings). Wooden spoons, tubs, and other household objects are made from pear. Considered to be moderate nectariferous plant, producing much Fig. 13 Pyrus communis (Rosaceae), mortar made from pear wood, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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nectar (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961). A dye solution is prepared from bark and leaves to obtain yellow and beige colors. The solution is used for dyeing wool yarn as well as products made of wool (Qasimov 1980). The wood serves for construction, and to make tough household utensils, e.g., mortars and sometimes used as firewood (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, c, 2018; Bussmann 2017). The wood is heavy and burns well, and its charcoal keeps the heat for a long time. Pear wood is used for joinery and turning work (Grossheim 1952; Fig. 13).

References Alalbarov AU. One thousand and one secret of the East. Nurlan: Baku; 2008. (in Russian). Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Pyrus caucasica Fed. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Bidzinashvili R. Medicinal uses of food and fruit-berry crops. Tbilisi: Publishing House of the Georgian Academy of Sciences; 2013. (in Georgian). Budantseva AL, editor. Plant resources of Russia and neighboring countries, vols. 1–2. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1994–1996. (in Russian). Burduli M. Traditional Georgian folk medicine. Akhaltsikhe: Akhaltsikhe University; 2010. (in Georgian). Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:5. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016c;86(2):3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus – the region. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017c.

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Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Flora of Azerbaijan. Volumes I–VIII. Baku: AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1950–1961. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant resources of the Caucasus. Baku: Publishing House of AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1946. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Jikia N. The use of wild plants and vegetables as traditional food in the Eastern Georgia’s mountains. Bulletin of the State Museum of Georgia, XLI-B. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Kopaliani L. Forest plants of Georgia (trees, shrubs, herbs). Kutaisi: Publishing Center; 2013. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Melikishvili M. Dye, medicinal and food plants Sagarejo District. Bulletin of the State Museum of Georgia XXIX-A. Tbilisi: Georgian Academy of Sciences; 1976. (in Georgian). Qasimov MA. Dye plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Azerbaijan State Publishing House; 1980. (in Azeri). Sokolov PD. Plant resources of the USSR, vols. 1–7. Leningrad: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1984–1993. (in Russian) Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, Volume 3. Hydrangeaceae-Haloragaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1987. 326 p. (in Russian). Takhtadjan AL. Flora of Armenia, vols. 1–11. Yerevan: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1954–2009. (in Russian). Tsaturyan T, Gevorgyan M. Wild edible plants of Armenia. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 2007. (in Armenian). Yuzepchuk SV. Flora of the USSR, Volume 9: Rosales and Sarraceniales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1939 (English 1971). 425 pages, 30 plates with b/w line drawings, 2 b/w fold-out maps. Zolotnitskaya S. Medicinal resources of the flora of Armenia, vols. 1–2. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 1958–1965. (in Russian).

Raphanus sativus L. BRASSICACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Raphanus sativus L.: Raphanistrum gayanum Fisch. & C.A. Mey.; Raphanus acanthiformis J.M. Morel ex Sasaki; Raphanus acanthiformis var. raphanistroides (Makino) Hara; Raphanus candidus Vorosch.; Raphanus chinensis Mill.; Raphanus gayanus (Fisch. & C.A. Mey.) G. Don. ex Sweet; Raphanus macropodus H. Lév.; Raphanus niger Mill.; Raphanus raphanistroides (Makino) Nakai; Raphanus raphanistrum subsp. sativus (L.) Beck; Raphanus raphanistrum var. sativus (L.) Domin; Raphanus sativus var. longipinnatus L.H. Bailey; Raphanus sativus var. R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_114

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macropodus (H. Lév.) Makino; Raphanus sativus var. radicula Pers.; Raphanus sativus var. raphanistroides (Makino) Makino; Raphanus taquetii H. Lév.

Local Names Raphanus sativus: Georgian: ბოლოკი (bolok’i), თალგამი (talgami), თეთრი ბოლოკი (tetri Boloki), მთის ბოლოკი (mthis boloki); Russian: Редька (redjka); Azeri: турпджа (turpdsha); Armenian: бохк (bochk) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991). Raphanus sativus var. niger: Georgian: შავი ბოლოკი (shavi bolok’i)

Botany and Ecology Annual or biennial; root thickened, edible, annual (red radish) or biennial (white radish), rarely thin (Chinese radish), red, white, violet, pink, black; lower leaves lyrate-pinnatifid, with large terminal lobe, lateral lobes 2–6-paired, rarely leaves subentire. Petals white, pink, or violet; siliques broad, slightly inflated, glabrous or hirsute, soft at base, spongy inside, obscurely concave above but not jointed, breaking in irregular portions, mostly longitudinally; beak generally stout, usually half as long as silique. Grown everywhere where kitchen gardens are cultivated. The thin rooted form (Chinese radish) is very rare in Western Europe. Unknown in its wild state. Ural, Caucasus, and Central Middle Asia, as weed in crops, on fallow land, near settlements. Cultivated in all parts of Europe, in the temperate zones of Asia and North America and Australia. Originated on the shores of the Mediterranean. Raphanus raphanistrum is the most likely ancestor of polymorphic Raphanus sativus. The area of maximum diversity of radish lies between the eastern Mediterranean and the Caspian Sea, which is probably the original gene center for this species. Radish was cultivated already in ancient times in the Mediterranean, from where it spread to China in about 500 BC and to Japan in about 700 AD. The variability diminishes gradually from the Caspian Sea to China and even more toward Japan. It is also a crop that has been cultivated since ancient times in the oases of the Sahara and in Mali. Radish can now be found as a cultigen throughout the world in many different forms, from small leafy annuals to biennials with large fleshy roots. The cultivars with relatively small roots (small radish) are most important in temperate climates of the world and only of limited importance in Africa, mostly in francophone countries among people originating from Europe. Radish is grown mainly for its thickened fleshy root. Small radishes are

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Fig. 1 Raphanus sativus (Brassicaceae), garden, Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

pungent and used as appetizer when eaten fresh and for adding color to dishes. Oriental radish (to which Chinese radish, Japanese radish, and mooli belong) is crisp with a mild flavor (Bobrov and Bush 1939; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9).

Phytochemistry Flavonoids (mono-glycosides, biocides, kaempferol, quercetine), fatty acids (Sokolov 1985).

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Fig. 2 Raphanus sativus (Brassicaceae), garden, Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses The extract is used for the treatment of skin lesions and disorders of the stomach. The oil is used for rheumatism and sciatica and to treat hepatic disorders, bronchitis, and coughs (Sokolov 1985). Raphanus sativus var. niger: The roots are only used medicinally, to treat kidney problems, coughs, and colds (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

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Fig. 3 Raphanus sativus var. caudatus (Brassicaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Food Uses Raphanus sativus: The leaves are used for phkhali (herb pie); the roots are eaten as salad (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017). The roots are thinly peeled, sliced, or diced and put into soups and sauces or cooked with meat. They can be preserved in salt. Oriental radish can also be eaten fresh, mixed with other vegetables such as tomato. Also the leaves are eaten as salad or spinach. Seedlings known as radish sprouts are used as greens for appetizers in the same way as

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Fig. 4 Raphanus raphanistrum (Brassicaceae), garden, Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

cress (Lepidium sativum L.) or cooked as spinach. Rat-tailed radish is grown for the immature crisp, fleshy fruits, consumed raw, cooked, or pickled, but the roots are not edible. It is used as vegetable and oil plant (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1985).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The green plant material serves as fodder before it flowers. Once the species flowers and fruits, it is toxic to livestock (Sokolov 1985).

Raphanus sativus L. Fig. 5 Raphanus sativus var. sativus (Brassicaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 6 Raphanus sativus var. sativus (black variety, above) and Raphanus sativus var. longipinnatus (below) (Brassicaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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784 Fig. 7 Raphanus sativus (Brassicaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 8 Raphanus sativus var. sativus (Brassicaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 9 Raphanus sativus var. sativus (Brassicaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

References Bobrov EG, Bush NA. Flora of the USSR, Volume 8: Capparidaceae, Cruciferae and Resedaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1939 (English 1970). 524 pages, 34 b/w plates, 2 maps. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plant and fungal use in Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016c;86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus – Georgia. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian).

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Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Metsniereba: Tbilisi; 1991. (in Georgian). Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, Volume 2. Families Paeoniaceae – Thymelaeacea. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1985. 336 p. (in Russian).

Rhododendron caucasicum Pall. Rhododendron luteum Sweet Rhododendron ponticum L. ERICACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze Synonyms Rhododendron caucasicum Pall.: Azalea caucasica (Pall.) Kuntze Rhododendron luteum Sweet: Azalea pontica L., Rhododendron flavum G. Don.

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_115

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Local Names Rhododendron caucasicum: Azeri: Qаfqаz хаmməli; Georgian: დეკა (dek’a); Svan: ზიშაორა (zishaora), შქერი (shgver), წითელი (ts’iteli); Imeretian and Gurian: შკერი (shk’eri), წითელა (ts’itela); Megrelian: ხვამცა (khvamtsa), ხვანცა (khvantsa) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991); English: Yellow azalea. Rhododendron luteum: Georgian: იელი (ieli); Russian: Рододендрон (rododendron); Armenian: (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991). Rhododendron ponticum: I Georgian: დეკა (dek’a); Svan: შქერი (shgver); Russian: Рододендрон (rhododendron) (Russian); Armenian: мртавард (mrtavard) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991).

Botany and Ecology Rhododendron caucasicum: An evergreen shrub, 1–1.5 m tall, decumbent, with dark-brown bark. Petioles 0.5–1.7 cm long. Leaves oblong-oval, 4.5–12 cm long, 1.8–4 cm wide, apex rounded or subacute, base narrow, margins slightly revolute, wintering, coriaceous, glabrous and reticulate above, very finely ferruginoustomentose below. Inflorescence a corymb; pedicels 2–4 cm long, elongating in fruit to 3–4.2 cm, the subtending bracts oblong, tomentose, with ciliate margins, 1.5–2.5 cm long, 0.9–1.3 cm wide. Flowers with calyx minute, 0.5–1 mm long, 1.5–2 mm wide, tomentose, discoid, the triangular teeth tomentose; corolla white, faintly creamy or cream-colored, spotted green within, sometimes fading into rose, the spots in the throat turning red, 2.5–3 cm long in diameter, broadly short-campanulate, glandular within at the base and up to 1/3; filaments curved, hairy at base, the anthers 1–1.5 mm long; ovary tomentose. Capsule ferruginoustomentose, oblong, 1.5 cm long. Forming thickets in the high-mountain area and underbrush in subalpine birch and beech woods, and sometimes in the higher parts of beech forests. Ranging from 1600 to 3000 m. Found in the Caucasus (West and East Transcaucasia, reaching eastward to North Armenia Balkan Peninsula and Asia Minor, Lesser Armenia, and Kurdistan. Rhododendron caucasicum is endemic of the Caucasus, especially in the Greater Caucasus and the Lesser Caucasus, and down to Turkey from the north, notably toward the chain of Lazistan. It is a subalpine plant growing between 1600 and 3000 m of altitude. It does not flower in the high-alpine zone at altitudes of ca. 2900 m. Distributed in the regions of the Western Greater Caucasus in subalpine and alpine belts up to 2800 m above sea level. Forms broad thickets and is also found in small groups or alone. Dominating component of the Caucasian Rhododendron belt in the highlands, the species represents a relict of the tertiary mesophilic flora. Subalpine forest (birch, beech) where it forms a dense thicket; in alpine zone thickets occur on north-facing slopes; in subalpine and alpine zones between 1600 and 3000 m, Rhododendron maturates on characteristic almost in black peat-like soils. Flowering June–July; fruiting August–September (Flora of

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Fig. 1 Rhododendron caucasicum (Rhododendraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Azerbaijan 1950–1961; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Shishkin and Boborov 1952; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5). Rhododendron luteum: A shrub up to 2 m tall; leaves oblong-obovate to oblongelliptic, thin, ciliate, pubescent or glabrous on both sides, 5.5–12 cm long, 2–3.8 cm broad, deciduous, the petiole 5–7 mm long; flowers in umbellate corymbs; pedicels 1–1.5 cm long in flower, elongating in fruit to 1.5–2 cm, glandular; bracts oblong, lanate, very viscid, promptly caducous, 1–1.5 cm long, 0.5–0.7 cm broad; calyx minute, dissected down to base into linear lanceolate, obtuse, glandular-ciliate lobes 2.5–5 cm long; corolla orange or yellow, glandular outside, 3–4.5 cm long, corolla tube narrowly cylindric, enlarged at the top, the lobes oblong, about one-third as long again as the tube; stamens 5, the filaments curved, hairy from base up to the middle; capsule oblong, 1.5–2.2 cm long. Flowering May–June. Southern Ural, Caucasus, in the forest undergrowth up to 2000 m (Shishkin and Boborov 1952; Figs. 6, 7, 8, and 9). Rhododendron ponticum: An evergreen shrub or tree, 1–6 (8) m tall, with brown or cerise-brown bark; leaves oblong-lanceolate, acute, narrowed toward base, entire, 35 slightly revolute at the margin, 9–27.5 cm long, 2–9 cm broad, evergreen, coriaceous, dark bluish-green above, pale beneath, the petioles 1.3–3 cm long; flowers in corymbose umbels with a short rachis; pedicles 2–4.5 cm long in flower, 4–5 cm in fruit, glabrous or slightly glandular, the subtending scales ciliatemargined, 2 cm long, 1–1.2 cm broad; calyx minute, discoid, glabrous or slightly glandular, with triangular or very slightly rounded teeth, 0.5 m long, 1.5–2 mm

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Fig. 2 Rhododendron caucasicum (Rhododendraceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Rhododendron caucasicum (Rhododendraceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

broad; corolla violet-rose, rarely whitish-rose, 3.8–5 cm long, 4.5–6 cm in diameter, campanulate funnelform, somewhat fleecy inside at the base, the oblong lobes spreading; filaments of stamens slightly curved, rather sparsely hairy on the lower one third; anthers 2.5–3 mm long; ovary finely glandular; capsule cylindric, glabrous, 1.5–1.8 cm long. Flowering June–July. Caucasus in woodlands, on glades, and along forest fringes, in the mountains up to 2000 m (Shishkin and Boborov 1952; Figs. 10, 11, 12, 13, and 14).

Rhododendron caucasicum Pall. . . . Fig. 4 Rhododendron caucasicum (Rhododendraceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Rhododendron caucasicum (Rhododendraceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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792 Fig. 6 Rhododendron luteum (Rhododendraceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 7 Rhododendron luteum (Rhododendraceae), Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Rhododendron caucasicum Pall. . . . Fig. 8 Rhododendron luteum (Rhododendraceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 9 Rhododendron ponticum (Rhododendraceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 10 Rhododendron ponticum (Rhododendraceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Rhododendron luteum: Phenols, benzoic acid, diterpenoids (andromedotoxin), triterpenoids (friedelin, taraxerol, ursolic and oleanolic acids), essential oils, steroids (sitosterol), vitamins (K), coumarins, tannins, flavonoids (kaempferol, quercetin, riperine, myricetin, azaleatin, fenicularin, isoquercitrin) (Sokolov 1985). Rhododendron ponticum: Diterpenoids (andromedotoxin), phenols (campanulin, friedelin, taraxerol, uboyol, ursolic and oleanolic acids), steroids (sitosterol), phenolcarbon acids, catechins (gallocatechin, epigallocatechin, epocatechin), flavonoids (quercetin, quercitrin), essential oils (citronellol, geraniol, nerol, a-terpineol, linalool, farnesol), anthocyanins (Sokolov 1985).

Rhododendron caucasicum Pall. . . . Fig. 11 Rhododendron smirnowii (Rhododendraceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 12 Rhododendron smirnowii (Rhododendraceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 13 Rhododendron ungernii (Rhododendraceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 14 Rhododendron ungernii (Rhododendraceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses Rhododendron caucasicum: The leaves possess diaphoretic and diuretic properties. The plant is applied against rheumatism, podagra, and fever (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961). In traditional medicine a tincture made from the leaves of Rhododendron is used to heal rheumatism and heart and vascular disorders (Kopaliani 2013). A tea made from its flowers and leaves is used as anti-inflammatory to treat digestive system problems, while the leaves are used to remedy colds, gallstones, and intestinal pain and act as diuretic. The leaf tea is also used to expel and lower the potential risk for gallstones and is applied to the scalp against hair loss. The seeds are used to treat hangover (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017). Rhododendron luteum: The leaves are used as baths for scabies both in humans and animals in the Ural, and infusions are used for rheumatism (Sokolov 1985). Rhododendron ponticum: The leaves are used as antidote for mercury poisoning and also for diseases of the mucous membranes, headaches, and pains. The leaves

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possess diaphoretic and diuretic properties. The plant is applied against rheumatism, podagra and fever (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961). In traditional medicine Rhododendron used as a tincture made from the leaves that is used to heal rheumatism, heart and vascular disorders (Kopaliani 2013). A tea made from the flowers and leaves is used as anti-inflammatory, and to help digestive system problems. The leaves only are used to remedy colds, gallstones, act as diuretic, and help intestinal pain. The leaf tea is also used to lower the potency and expel gallstones and is applied to the scalp against hair loss (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017). Rhododendron species are also widely used in the Himalayan region, e.g., Rhododendron arboreum, in Pakistan to soften the skin (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018) and treat diarrhea and digestive problems (Bhat et al. 2013; Joshi et al. 2010; Kumar et al. 2010), as well as respiratory disorders (Kumar et al. 2011). The leaves of Rhododendron campanulatum are used in Nepal against syphilis and rheumatism (Kunwar et al. 2010).

Local Food Uses Rhododendron caucasicum: Leaves, fruits, and flowers are used for making tea (Pers. comm Tengiz Tsindeliani, village of Tita, Mestia District, Svaneti, 2015), and fruits are edible raw (Makalatia 1934) (Khevi). The flowers of snow rose are edible raw, and the flowering season lasts from mid-May to mid-June. We used to eat it raw when we were children as we go up in the mountains to drive the oxen back to the village, just beating the flowers over our palms to see whether there were no caterpillars (Pers. comm. Jurkha Tsiklauri, the village of Roshka, Dusheti District, 2014) (Khevsureti). Snow rose flowers can be pickled too. Some made it just from flowers, some added young shoots (below the flowers where the bark is sticky). Only brine was used; some people rinsed the flowers in hot water before putting them in the brine, but some just put them after rinsing. A jam also can be made from snow rose flowers (Pers. comm. Jurkha Tsiklauri, the village of Roshka, Dusheti District, 2014) (Khevsureti). Snow rose leaves were used to prepare infusions (Makalatia 1933) (Tusheti) and can be pickled (Makalatia 1933) (Tusheti). The branches and leaves are used to clarify beer. The flowers are used to make sats’ebai (a dish of herbs dipped in sour milk), and the leaves can be used in phkhali (a spread made from mashed vegetables and walnuts) (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017). Rhododendron ponticum: The leaves serve as substitute for tea and to darken beer. Leaves, fruits, and flowers are used for making tea (Personal communication Tengiz Tsindeliani, village of Tita, Mestia District, Svaneti, 2015), and fruits are edible raw (Makalatia 1934) (Khevi). The flowers of the snow rose are edible raw, the flowering season lasts from mid-May to mid-June; when we children went up in the mountains to drove the oxen back to the village, we ate it. Just beat the flowers over the palms to see whether there were no caterpillars and ate them raw (Pers. comm. Jurkha Tsiklauri, the village of Roshka, Dusheti District, 2014) (Khevsureti). Snow rose

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flowers can be pickled too. Some made it just from flowers, some added young shoots (below the flowers where the bark is sticky). Only brine was used, some people rinsed the flowers in hot water before putting in the brine, but some just put them after rinsing. A jam also can be made of the snow rose flowers (Pers. comm. Jurkha Tsiklauri, the village of Roshka, Dusheti District, 2014). (Khevsureti). Snow rose leaves were used to prepare infusions (Makalatia 1933) (Tusheti), and can be pickled (Makalatia 1933) (Tusheti). The branches and leaves are used to clarify beer. The flowers are used to make sats’ebai (a dish of herbs dipped in sour milk), and the leaves can be used in phkhali (a spread made from mashed vegetables and walnuts) (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017). In Svaneti infusions are made from dek’a დეკა locally shgeri შგერი Rhododendron caucasicum Pall (Javakhishvili 1986).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Rhododendron caucasicum: A dye solution is prepared from leaves and young branches to obtain olive, gray, and green colors and is used for dyeing wool (Qasimov 1980). Decorative: Highly decorative shrubs, mainly in the period of flowering. Considered to be a good nectarous plant, producing much nectar. Toxins contained in the nectar are destroyed by the heat during boiling so the honey becomes non-hazardous (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961). The plant contains andromedotoxin, and cattle should not be allowed to graze in pastures where Rhododendron grows (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961). The leaves are used to produce dye, while the stems are used as roof support (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017). Rhododendron luteum: Leaves are used for tanning. The essential oils of the flowers can be extracted for perfumes. Toxic to livestock. Sometimes used as ornamental. An important honey plant (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1985). The flower extract is used to repel ticks in livestock (Bussmann et al. 2018). Rhododendron ponticum: Wood used for small household artifacts and branches for thatching. A leaf extract can be used for tanning leather. Poisonous to livestock. Sometimes planted as ornamental. The honey is toxic. A dye solution is prepared from leaves and young branches to obtain olive, grey, and green colors and is used for dyeing wool (Qasimov 1980). Decorative: Highly decorative shrubs, mainly in the period of flowering). Considered to be a good nectarous plant, producing much nectar. Toxins contained in the nectar are destroyed by the heat during boiling so the honey becomes non-hazardous (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961). The plant contains andromedotoxin and cattle should not be allowed to graze in pastures where Rhododendron grows (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961). The stems are used as roof support (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017). An important honey plant (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1985; Figs. 15 and 16).

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Fig. 15 Rhododendron ponticum (Rhododendraceae), roof beams, Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 16 Rhododendron ponticum (Rhododendraceae), roof beams, Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

References Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Rhododendron caucasicum Pall. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Bhat JA, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:1. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia

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(Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:5. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016c;86(2):3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – Plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Flora of Azerbaijan. Volumes I–VIII. Baku: AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1950–1961. (in Russian) Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Javakhishvili I. Materials for the history of household industry and handicraft, vol. V, Part 2: food and drinks. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1986. (ჯავახიშვილი, ი. 1986. მასალები შინა მრეწველობისა და ხელოსნობის ისტორიისათვის, ტ. V ნაწ. 2: საჭმელ in Georgian). Joshi M, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal uses of plant resources of the Haigad watershed in Kumaun Himalaya. Med Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010;4(special issue 1):43–6. Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Kopaliani L. Forest plants of Georgia (trees, shrubs, herbs). Kutaisi: Publishing Center; 2013. (in Georgian). Kumar M, Bussmann RW, Mukesh J, Kumar P. Ethnomedicinal uses of plants close to rural habitation in Garhwal Himalayan, India. J Med Plant Res. 2011;5(11):2252–60. Kunwar RM, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants in Farwest Nepal: their indigenous uses and pharmacological validity. Med Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010;4 (special issue 1):28–42. Makalatia S. Tusheti. Tpilisi: Publishing House of the Georgian Academy of Sciences; 1933. (in Georgian). Makalatia S. Khevi. Tpilisi: Publishing House of the Georgian Academy of Sciences; 1934. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Qasimov MA. Dye plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Azerbaijan State Publishing House; 1980. (in Azeri). Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, Volume 18: Metachlamydeae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1952 (English 1967). 600 pages. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, Volume 2. Families Paeoniaceae – Thymelaeacea. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1985. 336 p. (in Russian). Ur-Rahman I, Afsal A, Iqbal Z, Ijas F, Ali N, Asif M, Alam J, Majid A, Bussmann RW. Traditional and ethnomedicinal dermatology practices in Pakistan. Clin Dermatol. 2018;36(3):310–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clindermatol.2018.03.018.

Ribes biebersteinii Berland. ex DC. Ribes nigrum L. Ribes odoratum H.L. Wendl. Ribes orientalis Desf. Ribes rubrum L. Ribes uva-crispa L. GROSSULARIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze Synonyms Ribes nigrum L.: Botrycarpum nigrum (L.) A. Rich.; Grossularia nigra (L.) Rupr.; Ribes cyathiforme Pojark.; Ribes nigrum var. europaeum Jancz.; Ribes nigrum var. pauciflorum (Turcz. ex Ledeb.) Jancz.; Ribes olidum Moench; Ribes pauciflorum Turcz. ex Ledeb. R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_116

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Ribes odoratum H.L. Wendl.: Chrysobotrya odorata (H.L. Wendl.) Rydb.; Chrysobotrya revoluta Spach; Coreosma longifolia Lunell; Coreosma odorata (H.L. Wendl.) Nieuwl.; Ribes aureum Pursh; Ribes emodense Rehder; Ribes fragrans Lodd.; Ribes fragrans Pall.; Ribes palmatum Deshmukh; Ribes rubrum L. Ribes orientalis Desf.: Ribes leptostachyum Decne.; Ribes orientale var. genuinum Jancz.; Ribes orientale var. resinosum hort. ex Jancz.; Ribes punctatum Lindl. Ribes rubrum L.: Ribes rubrum var. sativum Rchb.; Ribes rubrum var. scandicum Jancz.; Ribes rubrum var. sylvestre DC. ex Barland.; Ribes sativum (Rchb.) Syme; Ribes scandicum Hedl.; Ribes spicatum E. Robson; Ribes sylvestre (Lam.) Mert. & Koch; Ribes sylvestre Syme; Ribes vulgare Lam.; Ribes vulgare var. sylvestre Lam. Ribes uva-crispa L.: Ribes grossularia L.

Local Names Ribes spp. Armenian: հաղարջենի (hagharjeni); Georgian: Ribes spp.: მოცხარი (motskhari), სმაროდინა (smarodina); Tush, Pshavian, Khevsur: ალუდა (aluda), ხუნწი (khunts’i); Mthiuletian: მაცხარი (matskhari); Mokhevian, ხუნწაი (khunts’ai), ხუნწი (khunts’i) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991). Ribes alpinum: Georgian: მთის მოცხარი (mtis motskhari); Tush and Khevsur: ლაბა (laba), ალუდა (aluda); Rachian, Lechkhumian: დათვიმოცხარი (datvimotskhari); Tush: კლდისდუხი (k’ldis-dukhi); Mthiuletian: მაცხარი (matskhari); Acharian: მერცხალი (metskhali); Mokhevian: ხუნწაი (khunts’ai), ხუნწი (khunts’i); Svan: მენცხვარი (mantskhald) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991). Russian: Смородина (smorodina); Azeri: гара-гат (gara-gat); Armenian: ахорч/ (achorts); Georgian: მოცხარი (motschari) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991). Ribes nigrum: Georgian: მოცხარი (motskhari); Russian: Смородиначерная (cmorodinarnaja); Azeri: гарагат (garagat); Armenian: гахарч (gacharts); (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991); English: Currant Ribes orientalis: Azeri: Şərq qаrаqаtı Ribes rubrum: Georgian: მოცხარი (Marts’q’vi), მოცხარი (Motskhari); English: Currant Ribes uva-crispa: Georgian: ხურტკმელი (khurt’k’meli); Meskhetian, Javakhetian: გორგოშა (gorgosha), ღორღოშინა (ghorghoshin), ღორღოშო (ghorghosho); Chanetian: ეკალხუნწა (ek’alkhunts’a), კვრიხი (k’vrikhi); Mokhevian: ეკალხუნწაი (ek’alkhunts’ai); Tianetian: თეთრეკალა (tetrek’ala), კუნკრუხელა (k’unk’rukhela), კინკრიჟა (k’ink’rizha); Kartlian, კრიკინა (k’rik’ina); Pshavian, Khevsur: ორყუნწა (orq’unts’a); Rachian: რუსული მოცხარი (rusuli motskhari); Ingiloian: ურუსი ყურზენ (urusi q’urzen); Svan: ოფლანდ (ophleend), ხურტკმელა (khurt’k’mela) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991).

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Botany and Ecology Ribes biebersteinii: Shrub 2 m high with light, glabrous shoots; leaves thin, deeply cordate, large (13 cm broad and 10 cm long), usually five-lobed, either glabrous on both sides (f. glabrum Grossh.) or densely hairy below (f. hirtum Grossh.), rarely with scattered glandular bristles above and with hairs along the veins below and on the petioles; racemes 4–12 cm long, horizontal, nodding in fruit, loose, 15–50flowered; pedicels 2–3 mm long; flowers 5–6 mm long, dark purple; sepals recurved; hypanthium with conspicuous excrescences below petals; styles broadly conical; berry small, 6–7 (8) mm in diameter dark red (mature) or black purple. Flowering June, fruiting from end of August. Caucasus. In forest undergrowth (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950; Takhtadjan 1954; Yuzepchuk 1939). Ribes nigrum: Shrub 1–1.25 m high; shoots pubescent, initially pale, becoming light brownish toward end of summer; leaves dull, glabrous above, pubescent along the veins below, 10 (12) cm broad, three-lobed, less often five-lobed, the lobes usually broadly triangular, the middle lobe often elongated; racemes 3–5 (8) cm long, 5–10flowered; pedicels glabrous or pubescent, 3–8 mm long; bracts 1–2 (3) mm long, varying from oval to linear-lanceolate; flowers 7–9 mm long, lilac or pinkish gray, mostly densely pubescent outside; hypanthium hemispherical-campanulate, as broad or 1.5 times as broad as high; sepals recurved, subacute, rather broad 2–2.25 times longer than broad); style usually entire; berry ca. 10 mm in diameter, sometimes brown or greenish. Flowering May–June, fruiting July. Caucasus, on rocks, in valleys. Ribes nigrum is the ancestor of nearly all varieties of cultivated black currants. Ural, Middle Asia in wet forests, along river banks, on wet meadows, up to 2000 m above sea level (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950; Takhtadjan 1954; Yuzepchuk 1939). Ribes odoratum: Shrub ca. 2 m high, with red young shoots; leaves 5 cm long, 6 cm broad, glabrous, rounded-reniform or obovate in outline, cuneate, rounded, or slightly cuneate at base, trilobate, the lobes subobtuse with few teeth on the margin; racemes erect, 3–7 cm long, 5–15-flowered, with large bracts exceeding pedicels; flowers yellow, aromatic; hypanthium tubular, slender, 5–9 mm long, ca. 1.5 mm in diameter; sepals spreading at anthesis, 5–8 mm long, erect in fruit; petals half as long as sepals, orange red. Fruits globose, brown-red or black, sometimes yellow (var. chrysococcum Rydb.). Native to the mountains of western North America (Yuzepchuk 1939). Ribes orientalis: Shrub 1 m high; leaves 1.5–4.5 cm broad, usually broad, with truncate base, dark green, lustrous, three- or five-lobed, partly coarsely doubledentate, hairy on both sides but more densely so below, with additional two types of glands: sessile and viscous, scattered on both sides of leaves and communicating a resinous odor to the leaves, and stalked crystalline glands, usually densely covering, in the form of bristles, the upper surface of the leaves and the veins on the underside, and in the form of glandular hairs covering the petioles, inflorescence axis, and pedicels, which, in addition, are rather densely pubescent with simple spreading hairs. Flowers white (flower buds sometimes brownish-reddish); berries red,

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Fig. 1 Ribes nigrum (Grossulariaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

glabrous or covered with sparse glands. Flowering May, fruiting July. Caucasus, rocky sites on mountain slopes in the 1200–2000 m belt (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950; Takhtadjan 1954; Yuzepchuk 1939; Fig. 1). Ribes rubrum: Shrub 1 m high; shoots glabrous or more or less beset with glandular hairs, covered with smooth pale yellow bark; leaves usually deeply cordate, three- or five-lobed, with acute, coarsely dentate lobes, mostly glabrous on both sides, lustrous, less often pubescent below or glandular-hispid along the veins; petioles glabrous or glandular-hispid, often reddish; racemes erect, 2–5 cm long, loose, 3–8 (10)-flowered, nodding in fruit; axis and long (512 mm) pedicels glabrous or glandular; flowers rather large, greenish, often with purple petals and macular sepals; berry 8–11 mm in diameter, sometimes oblong. Flowering May–June, fruiting July–August. Ural, Altai, in forests, on the fringes, slopes, and in river valleys (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950; Takhtadjan 1954; Yuzepchuk 1939; Fig. 2). Ribes uva-crispa: Shrub ca. 1 m tall; spines at the nodes to 1–1.4 cm long, those on the internodes short, mostly rather sparse, sometimes absent: leaves 1–3 to > 6 cm broad, three- or five-lobed, dull, puberulent on both sides, obtusely dentate: flowers solitary or in pairs, pubescent. Greenish, sometimes reddish; ovary more or less glandular-hispid (var. glanduloso-setosa W.Koeh), producing glandular-hispid or nearly smooth or else smooth berries (var. glabra Y.V. Koeh); berry globose or broadly ellipsoid, greenish or yellowish, usually more or less reddish to dark red. Flowering May–June. Fruiting July. Ural, Caucasus, on slopes up to the alpine zone. Economic importance. This is the ancestor of most cultivated varieties of currants (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950; Takhtadjan 1954; Yuzepchuk 1939).

Phytochemistry Ribes orientalis/Ribes ovatum/Ribes rubrum: Phenolcarboxylic acids, carbohydrates (sedoheptulose, fructose, sucrose, pectins), vitamins (C), cyanogenic compounds, catechins (catechin, gallocatechin, epicatechin), flavonoids (astaraline,

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Fig. 2 Ribes rubrum (Grossulariaceae), Svaneti, Georgia (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

isoquercitrin, kaempferol, quercetin, myricetin), leucoanthocyanidins (leucodelphinidine, leucocyanidin) (Sokolov 1987). Ribes nigrum: Flavonoids (kaempferol, quercetin, myricetin), essential oils (sabinene, phenol, naphthol, carene, caryophyllene, cymene, linalool, geraniol, limonene, pellandrene, methyl salicylate, benzaldehyde, methyl ethyl benzoate), iridoids (asperuline), cyanogenic compounds, catechins (catechin, gallocatechin), carbohydrates (glucose, fructose, sucrose, pentosans), vitamins (C), phenolcarbon and other carboxylic acids (caffeic, chlorogenic, neochlorenovene, n-kumaric, o-kumaric, protocatechin, quinine), leucoanthocyanidins (leucodelphinidine, leucocyanidin), anthocyanins (cyanidin, delphinidin, rutinoside, pelargodine) (Sokolov 1987).

Local Medicinal Uses Ribes orientalis/Ribes ovatum/Ribes rubrum: In the Ural a leaf decoction is used against rheumatism and as antiscorbutic. Species from this genus have a large use in scientific and traditional medicine. For medicinal use leaves, berries, and sprouts are preferred. Berries act as antiscorbutic and have diuretic and sudorific effects. Fresh berries are used for syrup to change the taste of medicines. The berries are also used for the treatment of stomach and duodenal ulcers, inflammatory diseases of the

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urinary tract, and cardiac rhythm disorders. They are used for avitaminosis, anemia, nerve irritation, inflammation or stones of the kidneys and bladder, eczema, and other skin diseases, as well as for strengthening the blood vessels, blood pressure regulation, atherosclerosis, spastic colitis, and intestinal inflammation. The berries have analgesic, diuretic, gall-controlling, cholesterol-lowering, and anti-cancer properties. The leaf extract is used for rheumatism, gout, tuberculosis of lymph nodes, and constipation in children (Amirdovlat 1927; Isotova et al. 2010; Gabrielyan 2001; Gammarman and Grom 1976; Grossheim 1952; Gubanov et al. 1976; Harutyunyan 1990; Mardjanyan 2008; Nosal and Nosal 1991; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2014; Turova and Sapojnikova 1982; Vardanyan 1979; Zolotnitskaya 1958–1965). Leaves and berries contain vitamins A, B1, C, and P, organic acids, sugars, pectin, and essential oils (Grossheim 1952; Budantseva 1994–1996; Sokolov 1984–1993; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2007; Zolotnitskaya 1958–1965). Fresh juice of currant mixed with honey in small quantities is used as an anti-inflammatory remedy, especially for throat inflammations. For acute inflammation of the skin (rashes, burns caused by poisonous plants), fresh juice of ripe berries is applied to the damaged skin, which immediately brings relief (Amirdovlat 1927; Harutyunyan 1990; Mardjanyan 2008; Nosal and Nosal 1991; Vardanyan 1979). Ribes orientale: is used for intestinal diseases: An infusion of the root is used for diarrhea and also as an anastaltic and general tonic (Alalbarov 2008). Ribes nigrum: In the Ural a leaf decoction is used as astringent, as diuretic for kidney and urinary tract problems, as diaphoretic, and as anti-inflammatory. It is also used for scrofula and dermatitis, gout, respiratory infections, bronchitis, and pertussis, as well as venereal diseases. The fresh juice serves as antiscorbutic. Black currant berries are one of the rich sources of vitamin C and are widely used both fresh and in the form of various products: juices, syrups, jams, and blackcurrant liqueur (Grossheim 1952).

Local Food Uses Ribes sp. khunts’iხუნწი fruits of all species are eaten in Khevi (Makalatia 1934; Figs. 3 and 4). Ribes biebersteinii: The fruits are tasteless and small, but edible, and used to prepare a refreshing drink. The leaves are used as tea (Grossheim 1952). The fruits are made into jams (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017). Ribes orientalis/Ribes ovatum/Ribes rubrum: The fruits are eaten and prepared as compote, juice, and jam. The leaves are used as spice when pickling vegetables. Berries can be used fresh and processed as syrup, juices, jam, and comfitures; for preparing liquors, lemonade, and tea; and as spice. The leaves are used in pickling because they help to keep vegetables solid. Using currant in food helps to remove diathesis salts and toxins from the body (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Grossheim 1952; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2007).

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Fig. 3 Ribes rubrum (Grossulariaceae), ready to eat, Khevsureti, Georgia (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Ribes biebersteinii (Grossulariaceae), jam, Khevsureti, Georgia (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

In Tusheti the fruits of aludauri ალუდაური Ribes orientale Desf. are eaten (Khubutia 1969). Ribes nigrum: It is very valuable for the abundant vitamin C in its berries. The berries are eaten raw and are used for making jam, syrup, jelly, canned food, candy, marinades, refreshing drinks, fruit wine, infusions, and liqueur. The leaves are used for vegetable preservation and sometimes as a tea substitute. The leaves can be used for flavoring kvass (Sokolov 1987). Often eaten as a local wild fruit (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Makalatia 1934). The leaves are used as tea (Sokolov 1987). In Tusheti the fruits of khut’k’bila ხურტკბილა Grossularia reclinata (L.) Mill. are eaten (Khubutia 1969).

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses In veterinary medicine Ribes sp. serve as diaphoretic, diuretic, and antirheumatic (Sokolov 1987). A dye solution is prepared from leaves and fruits of Ribes orientale to obtain red and yellow colors. Solution is used for dyeing wool yarn as well as products made of wool (Qasimov 1980). Ribes nigrum: can be browsed by cattle. The fruits can be used to dye wool red (Sokolov 1987).

References Alalbarov AU. One thousand and one secret of the East. Baku: Nurlan; 2008. (in Russian). Amirdovlat A. Angitats anpet. Vienna: University of Vienna; 1927. (in Armenian). Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Ribes alpinum L.; Ribes orientale Desf.; Ribes petraeum Wulfen; Ribes uva-crispa L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Budantseva AL, editor. Plant resources of Russia and neighboring countries, vols. 1–2. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1994–1996. (in Russian). Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:5. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016c;86(2):3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Flora of Azerbaijan. Volumes I–VIII. Baku: AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1950–1961. (in Russian). Gabrielyan E. Herbal medicine national register. Yerevan: Ministry of Health; 2001. (in Armenian). Gammarman A, Grom I. Wild medicinal plants of the USSR. Moscow: Russian Academy of Science; 1976. (in Russian).

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Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Science; 1952. (in Russian). Gubanov I, Krilova I, Tikhonova V. Wild useful plants of the USSR. Moscow: Russian Academy of Science; 1976. (in Russian). Harutyunyan H. Medieval Armenian phytotherapy herbs. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 1990. (in Armenian). Isotova MA, Sarafakova NA, Mkscho BI, Ionova AA. Great encyclopedia of traditional medicine. Moscow: Russian Academy of Science; 2010. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Khubutia P. Tushetian dialect. Tbilisi: Tbilisi State University Publishing House; 1969. (ხუბუტია პ. 1969. თუშური კილო. თბილისი: თბილისის სახელმწიფო უნივესიტეტის გამომცემლობა in Georgian.). Makalatia S. Khevi. Tbilisi: Sakhelgami; 1934. (8მაკალათია ს. 1934. ხევი. ტფილისი: სახელგამი in Georgian.). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Mardjanyan KS. Stepanos Shahrimanyan’s “Botany of Flora of Armenia”. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 2008. (in Russian). Nosal M, Nosal I. Medicinal plants and methods for their use by people. Leningrad: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1991. (in Russian). Qasimov MA. Dye plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Azerbaijan State Publishing House; 1980. (in Azeri). Sokolov PD. Plant resources of the USSR, vols. 1–7. Leningrad: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1984–1993. (in Russian). Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 3. Hydrangeaceae-Haloragaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1987. 326 p. (in Russian). Takhtadjan AL. Flora of Armenia, vol. 1–11. Yerevan: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1954–2009. (in Russian). Tsaturyan T, Gevorgyan M. Wild edible plants of Armenia. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 2007. (in Armenian). Tsaturyan T, Gevorgyan M. Wild medicinal plants of Armenia. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 2014. (in Armenian). Turova A, Sapojnikova E. Medicinal plants of the USSR and their use. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1982. (in Russian). Vardanyan S. Pharmacology in ancient Armenia. Hist Philol J. 1979;2:179–94. (in Armenian). Yuzepchuk SV. Flora of the USSR, Volume 9: Rosales and Sarraceniales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1939 (English 1971). 425 pages, 30 plates with b/w line drawings, 2 b/w fold-out maps. Zolotnitskaya S. Medicinal resources of the flora of Armenia, vols. 1–2. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 1958–1965. (in Russian).

Robinia pseudoacacia L. FABACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Robinia pseudoacacia L.: Robinia pringlei Rose; Robinia pseudoacacia fo. oswaldiae Oswald; Robinia pseudoacacia var. inermis DC.; Robinia pseudoacacia var. pyramidalis (Pépin) C.K. Schneid.; Robinia pseudoacacia var. rectissima Raber; Robinia pseudoacacia var. umbraculifera DC.; Robinia pyramidalis Pépin

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_117

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Local Names Georgian: აკაცია (ak’atsia), ცრუაკაცია (tsruak’atsia), ლობიოს ხე (lobios khe) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991)

Botany and Ecology Tree, 30–35 m high, with brown bark; stipular spines stout, 1.5 cm long; leaves imparipinnate, 11–24 cm long; leaflets 9–21, oblong-oval, 1.5–4.5 cm long and 7–20 mm broad, obtuse, mucronulate, the petiolules 1–2 mm long; flowers numerous, large, fragrant, on rather long pubescent pedicels; racemes rather loose, drooping, 17 cm long, shorter than leaves; corolla white or pinkish; calyx 7 mm long and 5 mm broad, densely covered with short rufescent hairs; standard 1.5–1.8 cm long and 1.3–1.5 cm broad, about equaling wings and keel; wings oblong, with small obtuse auricles; obtuse; style filiform, hairy at summit; pod stipitate, 4–12 cm long and 1–1.4 cm broad, oblong-linear, flat, with a curved beak; seeds oblong-ovaloid, 5 mm long and 3 mm broad, brown with black spots, smooth, dull. Flowering May–June (Komarov and Shishkin 1945; Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Fig. 1 Robinia pseudoacacia (Fabaceae), National Botanical Garden Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Robinia pseudoacacia (Fabaceae), National Botanical Garden Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Robinia pseudoacacia (Fabaceae), National Botanical Garden Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Local Food Uses The flowers can be eaten. The young shoots are pickled (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2018).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The flowers yield honey of superior quality. The wood is excellent for carpentry and turnery and also as posts and as an outstanding fuel. The flowers yield a yellow dye (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2018; Grossheim 1952).

References Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/21670412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Komarov VL, Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 11: Papilionatea, Ceasalpinoideae, Mimosoideae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1945 (English 1971). 327 pages, 25 b/w plates, 2 maps. Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian).

Rosa canina L. Rosa pimpinellifolia Boiss. ROSACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Farzaneh Khajoei Nasab, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze Synonyms Rosa canina L.: Rosa ciliatosepala Blocki; Rosa corymbifera Borkh.; Rosa dumetorum Thuill.; Rosa montezumae Humb. & Bonpl. ex Thory

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] A. Ghorbani Department of Organismal Biology, Evolutionary Biology Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] F. Khajoei Nasab Department of Plant Sciences and Biotechnology, Faculty of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_118

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Local Names Farsi: ‫( ﺍﯾﺖ ﺑﻮﺭﻧﯽ‬Eit-butni), ‫( ﻟﯿﻠﯽ ﺳﻮﺭﻭ‬Lili soru), ‫( ﻧﺴﺘﺮﻥ ﻭﺣﺸﯽ‬Nastaran vahshi); Russian: Шипoвник coбaчий, Poзa coбaчья (Shipovnik sobachiy, Roza sobach’ya); Azeri: Itburnu; Georgia: ასკილი (ask’ili); Pshavian, Khevsurian, Mokhevian, Tush: ესკალაი (esk’alai); Megrelian: ეშმაკიშივარდი (eshmak’ishi vardi), ეშმაკიშიმართახი (eshmak’ishi martakhi); Ingiloian: თეთრვარდ (tetr vard), ქაქია (kakia), ტყივარდ (t’k’ivard); Kartlian: მინდვრისვარდი (mindvris vardi); Chanetian: მტკუიგული (mt’k’ui guli); Lechkhumian: ტყისვარდი (t’k’is vardi); Imeretian: ქორნიკარტა (kornik’art’a); Svan: ხვარ (khvar) (Grossheim 1952; Makashvili 1991); English: Dog rose.

Botany and Ecology High, sparse, branching shrub with arcuate branches; bark green or red brown, usually without glaucous bloom prickles often sparse or remote, on main shoots, in pairs or whorled, with very broad base, compressed, falcately curved (very rarely suberect), smaller on fertile shoots and usually rather abundant; leaves glabrous or with few hairs on rachis above, green or glaucescent; stipules narrow, only in terminal leaves slightly broadened, with distally divergent auricles, glandular-ciliate; leaflets of different shapes, often elliptic, 1.5–6 cm long, acuminate, acutely serrate, with thin-acuminate teeth curving upward, simple or with 1–2 secondary teeth terminating in a gland, smooth or at times sparsely glandular along veins beneath. Flowers solitary, 3, 4, or 5 (20) in corymbiform inflorescence, on more or less long, glabrous, or sparingly pubescent pedicels, twice as long as hypanthium, often as long as fruit, 0.5–2.5 cm long, smooth (rarely with sparse stalked glands); sepals medium-sized, with lateral pinnules and terminal appendage, recurved after flowering and usually caducous long before ripening of fruit, well separated from disk; corolla 2–8 cm in diameter; petals usually pale pink or white, sometimes rather bright pink; disk flat or concave, sometimes distinctly conical; hypanthium mouth not exceeding one-fourth the diameter of the disk; style long, sparsely hairy, or glabrous, folded in a raceme; style heads often conical; fruit globose or elongate-ovoid, smooth, bright or pale red. Flowering May–July. Ural, Caucasus, Middle Asia, in open forests, along the fringes, on steppe slopes, in shrubland, in the valleys, along rivers and streams, on clearcuts, pastures, wastelands, along roads, in the lower- and mid-mountain belts (Flora of Azerbaijan, 1950–1961; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5) N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]

Rosa canina L. . . . Fig. 1 Rosa canina (Rosaceae), Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Rosa canina (Rosaceae), Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Rosa sp. (Rosaceae), Bhutan. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 4 Rosa pimpinellifolia (Rosaceae), Ushguli, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Rosa pimpinellifolia (Rosaceae), Ushguli, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Tannins, vitamins (C, E, carotene, lycopene, violaxanthin, antheraxanthin, zeaxanthin, rubixanthin), fatty acids (linoleic, linolenic, oleic, palmitic), triterpenoids (eglantoside), phenolcarbonic acids (gallic, gentisinic, caffeic, p-hydroxybenzoic, p-coumaric, lilac, vanilla, ferulic, salicylic, ellagic), essential oils, flavonoids (hyperoside, astragalin, kaempferol, tylirizide, coumarol), fatty acids (lauric, myristic, palmitic, stearic, oleic, arachiodonic, behenic, lignoceric, cerotinic), steroids (sitosterol, stigmasterol, campesterol, cholesterol, sitosterol oleate) carbohydrates (glucose, fructose, xylose, arabinose), anthocyanins, leucoanthocyanidins.

Local Medicinal Uses Ripe hips of Rosa canina are used orally for anemia, constipation, and liver and digestive problems (Ghorbani 2005). Decoction of hips is used as stomach tonic or anti-parasitic and for hypertension (Mosaddegh et al. 2012). Flowers and leaves are used for urinary duct stones, wounds, and burns (Mozaffarian 2013).

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A root decoction is used to treat gallbladder problems, urolithiasis, malaria, liver disease, spleen problems, hypertension, cystitis, intermittent fever, and heart disease and can be used on infected wounds. In Middle Asia the root bark extract is used to treat bites of rabid dogs. A leaf decoction is used for diarrhea, dyspepsia, rheumatism, enteritis, and colitis and as analgesic for gastralgia, scarlet fever, typhoid, diarrhea, nephritis, pulmonary tuberculosis, and colics and during childbirth. Fruit decoctions help to alleviate diarrhea, stomach cramps, gastritis, cystitis, nephritis, urine and cholelithiasis, anemia, respiratory infections, pneumonia, ulcers, and diabetes and are used as antipyretic, astringent, hemostatic, and anthelmintic, as well as for wounds and burns. Also acts as a diuretic. A water infusion of fruits is used in cold as sudorific. The water infusion of petals and buds is used as antipyretic and sudorific. In the Talish a decoction of petals is applied to treat cough and bronchitis and serves as antipyretic (Fedorov 1949). Tea is made from immature fruits and is drunk against cough (Damirov et al. 1988). Dried leaves, petals, and buds in the form of a water infusion or decoction are used as antibechic. “Gulgand” (flower sugar) is made from the petals and added to tea as antibechic and sudorific. It is also used to treat tuberculosis. The petals that are dried and crushed to powder and strewn on pieces of pear to be eaten against fever are used to improve digestion, diarrhea, and obstipation. It is also used as astringent, as well as anastaltic, for internal hemorrhages (Damirov et al. 1988). Pancakes and sweets are made from the fruits together with buckthorn bark and taken internally as light laxative. Fruits galls are used to treat diarrhea (Grossheim 1942). Crushed fruits are mixed with aluminum sulfate and used externally to treat wounds. A decoction of fruits is applied as dressing to wounds and burns. The branches are burnt to yield a resinous substance used for psoriasis (Damirov et al. 1988). The water infusion of fruits is used as antidiabetic mixed with honey and also remedies anemia and diseases of the liver and gallbladder. Gulgend (flower sugar) is also used for rheumatism. “Gul sherbet” (flower sherbet) is used for diseases of the heart. Dried sugared petals are used for tea and help relieve fatigue and improve appetite (Damirov et al. 1988). In Georgia Rosa canina flowers, leaves, and seeds were used to produce oil, sharbat, and pills. The rose boiled in honey was called გვილანგუბინი (gvilangubini) or გულასალი (gulasali). Gvilangubini was given to treat any sickness; the seeds were used to heal eye hemorrhage and were used to produce a complex ointment to be applied to a swollen palate. Another ointment based on rose oil was used to heal burns; the seeds were used to stop gum bleeding. Also, dog rose helps and enhances gull secretion; it is used to prepare the drug Cholosas (Tsutsunava 1960). Dog rose fruits contain sugars, pectins, organic acids, essential fatty acids, tannins, and vitamin C. The locals collect the fruits in October and November. The collected fruits are cleaned, dried, and kept. It is documented that broths made from dog rose fruits and leaves are used in Georgia from time immemorial to heal cough and stomach colics and generally to refresh the body (Lapachi 1999). Dog rose was also used to heal cough (Mindadze 2013). People used young dog rose shoots as a narcotic (painkiller) especially in the case of bladder stones, against thyroid problems, and to help people bitten by dogs with rabies (Roloff 1887). A dog rose infusion improves kidney conditions and stomachache; the tincture was used in ancient times to heal snake bites (Roloff 1887). In Kakheti dog rose broth or tincture is used for cough.

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Fig. 6 Rosa canina (Rosaceae), fruits, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

The plants are used both dried and fresh (Mindadze and Chirgadze 2005). Dog rose root broth or tincture is given to those with urine retention (Mindadze and Chirgadze 2005) and used to heal liver diseases (Burduli 2010). Dog rose flowers boiled with sugar are used as panacea, especially to help against heart problems. The plant is also used as mouthwash and diuretic (Melikishvili 1976). Fruits of all species are used to produce tea to cure kidney and gallbladder problems, colds, and cough, as well as to supplement vitamins (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, c, Bussmann 2017; Fig. 6).

Local Food Uses Jam, compote, gulsuyu (flower water), gul sherbet (flower sherbet), and gulab (infusion of rose petals in water, slowly cooked, and the liquid evaporated. Used for aromatization of drinks, sweets, jams. Must be stored in densely closed glassware) are made of petals and juice from fresh fruits rich in vitamin C. All of these are used with the purpose to treat and serve as flavorings or aromatic additions in making different dishes, juice, and confectionery. Fruits are often eaten (Makalatia 1934) (Khevi). Fruits and flowers are also used to produce alcohol, are added to flavor beer, and are consumed as tea. Jams are also produced from fruits (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, c, Bussmann 2017; Figs. 7 and 8).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The fruits and bark are used for tanning leather, and the seed oil can be used for paints. The oils from the petals are used in cosmetics and soaps. Grown as ornamental. A dye solution is prepared from fruits turned into gall to obtain brown, gray, coffee, black, gray-coffee, snuff, brown-orange, and other different colors and shades. This solution is used for dyeing wool, cotton, and silk yarn as well as its products (Qasimov 1980; Grossheim 1942). Beautiful shrubs are used for parks and

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Fig. 7 Rosa canina (Rosaceae), fruits, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 8 Rosa pimpinellifolia (Rosaceae), fruits, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

gardens. Aromatic cushions can be made from petals. Roses are used for ceremonial purposes as fragrance (Grossheim 1942).

References Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Rosa canina L.; Rosa iberica Stev.; Rosa villosa L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Burduli M. Traditional Georgian folk medicine. Akhaltsikhe: Akhaltsikhe University; 2010. (in Georgian). Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Wine BN. Beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313.

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Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:5. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016c;86(2):3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus – Georgia. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017c. Damirov IA, Prilipko LI, Shukurov DZ, Kerimov YB. Medicinal plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Maaraif; 1988. (in Russian). Fedorov AA. The herbs applied in traditional medicine of the Talysh. Baku: Publishing House of AS of USSR; 1949. (in Russian). Flora of Azerbaijan. Volumes I–VIII. Baku: AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1950–1961. (in Russian). Ghorbani A. Studies on pharmaceutical ethnobotany in the region of Turkmen Sahra, North of Iran (Part 1): general results. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102:58–68. Grossheim AA. Medicinal plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Publishing House of Azerbaijani Branch of AS; 1942. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow, Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Lapachi TS. Healing with plants in Baraleti, Samtskhe (Historical Collection), vol. III. Tbilisi: Tbilisi State University; 1999. (in Georgian). Makalatia S. Khevi. Tpilisi: Publishing House of the Georgian Academy of Sciences; 1934. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Melikishvili M. Dye, medicinal and food plants Sagarejo District. Bulletin of the State Useum of Georgia XXIX – A. Tbilisi: Georgian Academy of Sciences; 1976. (in Georgian). Mindadze N. Traditinal medicinal culture of Georgian people. Tbilisi: Ilia State University; 2013. (in Georgian). Mindadze N, Chirgadze N. Traditions of Georgian folk medicine, Kakheti. Tbilisi: Saari; 2005. (in Georgian). Mosaddegh M, Naghibi F, Moazzeni H, Pirani A, Esmaeili S. Ethnobotanical survey of herbal remedies traditionally used in Kohghiluyeh va Boyer Ahmad province of Iran. J Ethnopharmacol. 2012;141:80–95. Mozaffarian V. Identification of medicinal and aromatic plants of Iran. Tehran: Farhang Moaser; 2013. Qasimov MA. Dye plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Azerbaijan State Publishing House; 1980. (in Azeri). Roloff A. Wild plants of the Caucasus. Tiflis: Typography Kozlovskaya; 1887. (in Russian). Tsutsunava N. Medicinal plants of Georgia. Tbilisi: Sabchota Sakartvelo; 1960. (in Georgian).

Rubus fruticosus L. Rubus idaeus L. Rubus saxatilis L. ROSACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze Synonyms Rubus fruticosus L.: Rubus bergii Eckl. & Zeyh.; Rubus fruticosus Eckl. & Zeyh.; Rubus myrianthus Baker Rubus saxatilis L.: Cylactis saxatilis (L.) Á. Löve

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_119

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Local Names Rubus fruticosus: Georgian: name, მაყვალი (ma’qvali), რუსული მაყვალი (rusuli maq’vali), ბარდი (bardi), უეკლო მაყვალი (uek’lo maq’vali); Svan: ვიღვი (vighv), უღვ (ughv); Russian: Малина (Malina) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991) Rubus idaeus: Georgian: ჟოლო (zholo), ჟოლი (zholi); Svan: ინღა (ingha); Tush: ხვაფა (khvapa); Ossetian: მალინა (malina); Russian: Малина (Malina); (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991); English: red raspberry Rubus saxatilis: Georgian: ჟოლის-დედა (zholis-deda), ხახამა (khakhama); Khevsur: მწყერთიფქლა (mts’q’ertipkla), წერტიფხლა (t’sert’ipkhla) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991)

Botany and Ecology Rubus fruticosus: Shrub, 50–150 cm high; annotinous shoots arcuately spreading, branching, and rooting in the fall at summit, cylindrical, with glaucous bloom, usually glabrous; prickles numerous, unequal in size and shape, small, straight or curved, partly setiform, often with stalked glands; leaves ternate; stipules broadly lanceolate; petioles pubescent, aculeate, indistinctly canaliculate above; leaflets pale green, with coarse, irregular, and often incised teeth, remotely pilose at both sides; terminal leaflet nearly two times longer than its petiole, ovate-rhombic, acute, sometimes three-lobed, lateral leaflets very short-petioled, often two-lobed. Flower-bearing branches rather long, spreading, with rather numerous prickles and glands; inflorescence branches often long and slender; flowers rather large; sepals green, pilose, often glandular, appressed to fruit; petals broadly elliptic, white; stamens nearly as long as style; ovaries glabrous; fruit often abortive, large, black, covered with a glaucous dull bloom; drupelets few, large, flattened, with uncinately curved. Flowering June–July, fruiting August. Caucasus, forests, ravines, among shrubs, clearings, banks of rivers and streams, forest and inundated meadows, gardens, orchards, roadsides, hedges (Shishkin et al. 1941; Figs. 1, 2, and 3). Rubus idaeus: Shrub, 50–120 cm high; shoots erect, drooping at apex, cylindrical, glaucescent, short-hairy; prickles sparse or usually dense, conical at base, reddish brown; leaflets three to five, rarely seven; stipules filiform; petioles canaliculate; leaflets glabrescent above or sparsely simple- or stellate-hairy, white-tomentose beneath, rather finely and irregularly serrate; terminal leaflet oblong-ovate, rounded or cordate at base, acuminate, long-petioluled, lateral leaflets subsessile. Flowerbearing branches short, with leaves ternate; flowers in few-flowered axillary racemes and in a terminal corymbiform-paniculate inflorescence; sepals greenish-grayish, recurved in fruit; petals oblong or spatulate, whitish, erect; stamens hardly as long as style; ovaries tomentose-pilose; fruit globose, red, often yellow; drupelets pilose; stones short, rounded. Flowering June–July. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia (Tien Shan), in woods, on the fringes of forests, clearings, on the banks of rivers,

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Fig. 1 Rubus fruticosus agg. (Rosaceae), Bragança, Portugal. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Rubus fruticosus agg. (Rosaceae), Bragança, Portugal. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

forest meadows, ravines, among bushes, on mountain slopes, up to the timberline. Widely cultivated (Shishkin et al. 1941; Figs. 4, 5, and 6). Rubus saxatilis: Small shrub, 10–25 cm tall, Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia (Tien Shan), in forests, among shrubs, along the banks of rivers and streams, bogs, stony slopes, up to the timberline (Shishkin et al. 1941).

Phytochemistry Rubus fruticosus: Organic acids (lemon, isolemic, oxalic, apple), vitamins (C, E, carotene), carbohydrates (glucose, fructose, mannose, xylose, sucrose), phenylcarboxylic acids (chlorogenic acid), tannins, catechins (epicatechin), flavonoids, leukoanthocyanidins, anthocyanins (pelargonidin, cyanidin, rutinoside), fatty acids (palmitic, linoleic, oleic, pentadecyl, linolenic acids). Rubus idaeus: Coumarins (ellagic acid), phenolcarbonic acids (gallic), catechins (catechin, epicatechin), vitamins (C, E, carotene), phenylcarboxylic acids (coumaric,

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Fig. 3 Rubus fruticosus agg. (Rosaceae), Guria, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Rubus idaeus (Rosaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

vanillin, caffeic, gallic, gentisinic), catechins (catechin, epicatechin), flavonoids (quercetin, kaempferol, hyperoside, isoquercitrin, apseline, astragalin, rhamnoside), leukoanthocyanidins, fatty acids (palmitic, palmitoleic, stearic, linoleic, linolenic, arachidonic, eicosanoic, behenic), carbohydrates (xylitol, glucose, fructose, sucrose), steroids (phytosterol), essential oils (a-pinene, a-flalandrene, limonene, a-terpinolene, sabinene, transcaryophyllene, gumulene), tannins (gallotannin, ellatanine), anthocyanins (cyanidin) (Sokolov 1987).

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Fig. 5 Rubus idaeus (Rosaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 6 Rubus idaeus (Rosaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses Rubus fruticosus: Used as antipyretic and hemostatic. The root decoction is used as diuretic, anti-inflammatory, and hemorrhoidal and is used for liver diseases, hemorrhages, colitis, diarrhea, and dysentery. The leaves are used as remedy to gastritis, diarrhea, anemia, and skin problems like eczema, chronic ulcers, and purulent wounds; as anthelmintic, to enhance intestinal motility; and as gargle for angina, pharyngitis, and ulcerative stomatitis. Fresh leaves are applied as poultice for the treatment of wounds and dermatoses and trophic ulcers. The immature fruits are astringent and mildly laxative. They are used for diarrhea and dysentery in children, gastritis, acute respiratory diseases, and hemoptysis and have soothing and restorative properties especially useful during menopause (Sokolov 1987). The fruits and leaves are used to treat wounds, anemia, colds, and inflammations (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

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Rubus idaeus: The root extract is used for fevers and respiratory infections. Raspberry leaf tea with immature fruits and flowers is used for respiratory diseases. Fresh leaves are applied as poultice to fresh wounds. Leaf infusion is also used for diarrhea, gastritis, enteritis, hemorrhages, menorrhagia, pneumonia, in cases of dermatitis, and for oral infections. The flower decoction serves as treatment for gastralgia and respiratory infections and topically for acne, eye diseases, and erysipelas. In Middle Asia the flower tincture was traditionally used as an antidote for snakebites and scorpion stings (Sokolov 1987). The fruits and leaves are used to treat wounds, anemia, colds, and inflammations (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017). Rubus saxatilis: The leaves are used for angina, headache, pain, gynecological problems, hemorrhoids, epididymitis, metabolic disorders, nephrolithiasis, acute respiratory diseases, gout, gastrointestinal diseases, and hernia. A flower infusion and a tincture are used for scurvy, hemorrhoids, and eye diseases (Sokolov 1987). Rubus is a widely used medicinal plant genus. In the Himalayas a root paste of Rubus nepalensis is used to treat burns and scads, while the fruits of Rubus niveus are used to treat dysmenorrhea and snakebites (Bhat et al. 2013, 2015). Rubus ellipticus leaves are used to treat fevers and diarrhea (Kunwar et al. 2010). Young shoots are chewed for the treatment of throat infections, a paste of root and leaves is applied for the treatment of skin diseases and boils, and the stem is used as toothbrush (Singh et al. 2019).

Local Food Uses Fruits of kubi ქუბი Rubus idaeus L. and khakhamai ხახამაი Rubus saxatilis L. are eaten in Khevi (Makalatia 1934). Rubus fruticosus/Rubus idaeus: The leaves serve as tea alternative, while the fruits are eaten fresh and cooked for jams and syrup and distilled for alcohol (Sokolov 1987) (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017). In Pshavi the leaves and shoots of zholi ჟოლი Rubus idaeus L. are used as tea and infusion (Maghalashvili 1970; Ochiauri 1980). The fruits of zholi ჟოლი Rubus idaeus L. are eaten in Khevsureti. In Tusheti the fruits of khvapai ხვაფაი Rubus idaeus L. are eaten (Khubutia 1969). In Svaneti motsvi (მოცვი) locally tsinq’a ცინყა (Vaccinium myrtillus L.), maq’vali მაყვალი locally vighv ვიღვ (Rubus ssp.), zholo ჟოლო locally ingha ინღა (Rubus idaeus L.) fruits are used to make compotes and marmalades, while their leaves are used in infusions (Javakhishvili 1986). Fruits of maq’vali მაყვალი Rubus ssp. are used in Adjara to make compote, jam, and even wine. Fruits of malina მალინა Rubus idaeus L. are also used for compote, jam, and marmalade (Figs. 7, 8, and 9). Rubus saxatilis: The flowers and flower buds are used as alternative for hops. The fruits are eaten raw and cooked as compotes, syrups, seasonings, and jelly and for

Rubus fruticosus L. . . . Fig. 7 Rubus fruticosus agg. (Rosaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 8 Rubus idaeus and Rubus fruticosus agg. (Rosaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 9 Rubus idaeus (Rosaceae), market, Telavi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 10 Rubus saxatilis (Rosaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

kvass. The ground seeds serve as seasoning for food (Sokolov 1987). The fruits are eaten raw and used in Chave (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Fig. 10).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Rubus fruticosus: The fruit extract is used as violet and red-violet, blue, purple, brownish-violet, and dark pink color dye for wool. The leaves yield a brown dye, the flowers a yellow dye. Fodder for cattle and chicken. Planted as ornamental (Sokolov 1987). The leaves are used in baking to cover the base of the stove (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017). Rubus idaeus: The leaves are used in baking to cover the base of the stove (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

References Bhat JA, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:1. Bhat J, Malik ZA, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhatt AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017, XXVII, 746 p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1). Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia

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(Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plant and fungal use in Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016c;86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Javakhishvili I. Materials for the history of household industry and handicraft, vol. V, part 2: food and drinks. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1986. (ჯავახიშვილი, ი. 1986. მასალები შინა მრეწველობისა და ხელოსნობის ისტორიისათვის, ტ. V ნაწ. 2: საჭმელ in Georgian.) Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Khubutia P. Tushetian dialect. Tbilisi: Tbilisi State University Publishing House; 1969. (ხუბუტია პ. 1969. თუშური კილო. თბილისი: თბილისის სახელმწიფო უნივესიტეტის გამომცემლობა in Georgian). Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Bussmann RW. Traditional herbal medicine in Far-west Nepal: a pharmacological appraisal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:35. Maghalashvili T. Useful plants of Telavi district. Acad. S. Janashia State Museum of Georgia XXVI–XXVII. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1970. (8 მაღალაშვილი თ. 1970. თელავის რაიონის სასარგებლო მცენარეები. აკად. ს. ჯანაშიას სახელობის საქართველოს სახელმწიფო მუზეუმის მოამბე XXVI–XXVII – A. თბილისი: მეცნიერება in Georgian). Makalatia S. Khevi. Tbilisi: Sakhelgami; 1934. 8მაკალათია ს. 1934. ხევი. ტფილისი: სახელგამი in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Ochiauri D. Materials for understanding of some botanical terms mentioned in books on economic history of Georgia. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1980. (ოჩიაური დ. 1980. მასალები საქართველოს ეკონომიური ისტორიის წიგნებში აღნიშნული ზოგიერთი ბოტანიკური ცნების გაგებისათვის. თბილისი: მეცნიერება in Georgian). Shishkin BK, Yuzepchuk SV, Fedorov AA. Flora of the USSR, volume 10: Rosaceae-Rosoideae, Prunoideae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1941 (English 1971). 512 p, 38 b/w plates, 2 maps. Singh S, Bhat JA, Malik ZA, Youssouf M, Bussmann RW, Kunwar RM. Sacred groves in Western Himalaya, India: community-managed nature refuges for conservation of biodiversity and culture. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18(15) https://doi.org/10.17348/era.18.15.1-21. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 3. Hydrangeaceae-Haloragaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1987, 326 p. (in Russian).

Salix alba L. Salix caprea L. SALICACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Salix alba L.: Salix alba var. caerulea (Sm.) Sm.; Salix alba var. calva G. Mey.; Salix alba var. vitellina (L.) Stokes Salix caprea L.: Salix bakko Kimura; Salix coaetanea Flod.; Salix hultenii Flod.

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_121

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Local Names Salix alba: Georgian: ტირიფი (t’iripi); წნორი (ts’nori), ძეწნა (dzets’na); Svan: ვაჰლანდ (vahland); Russian: Ива (iva); Azeri: сёюд (soejud); Armenian, урени (ureni) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991). Salix caprea: Georgian: მდგნალი (mdgnali), წნორი (ts’nori), პოლპალა (p’olp’ala), ტირიფი (t’iripi), ფართოფოთლიანი ტირიფი (partopotliani t’iripi); Svan: ბაგუნდი (bagund), ძეწნა (dzets’na); Tush: ჭიჭუნი (chitchuni), ფოხვი (pokhvi) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991).

Botany and Ecology Salix alba: A tree reaching great size, 25–30 m high and to 3 m in trunk diameter, up to 100 years of age, but usually dying earlier due to core rot; bark dark gray, deeply splitting; young branches silvery pubescent at the ends, the old glabrous, upright, flexible, brown, in winter reddish, in spring greenish; buds appressed, elongated, acute, closed, ca. 6 mm long and 1.5 mm broad, reddish-yellow, silky; stipules small, narrowly lanceolate, glandular, soon caducous, silvery pubescent; petioles of larger leaves with glands at the top, 0.2–1 cm long; leaf blades 5–12 (15) cm long and 1–3 cm broad (3–7), typically lanceolate, linear-lanceolate (f. angustifolia Laksch.), acuminate, sometimes prolonged into a long point (v. acuminata Rgl.), closely serrulate, on both sides silvery sericeous (v. sericea Gaud. = v. argentea Wimm. = v. splendens (Bray) Anderss.) or glabrous above, puberulous beneath, glaucescent (f. coerulea Koch) or on both sides greenish (f. concolor Rgl.), initially mostly covered with longitudinal silvery hairs; lateral veins 12–15 pairs, at an angle of 30–40 (60) ; catkins coetaneous, 3–5 cm long, rather loose, stalked, with entire oblong-obovate obtusish bracts, the staminate lemon yellow; rachis densely pubescent; scales yellowish or greenish, ciliolate on the margin, crisp-hairy on the back below, in pistillate flowers soon caducous; stamens 2, distinct, hairy at base, twice as long as the scale; anthers bright yellow, turning reddish; glands 2, anterior and posterior, sometimes 2-parted; ovary ovoid-conical, obtuse, glabrous, subsessile or short-stipitate, the stipe as long as or shorter than the posterior gland with oblong lobes; capsule to 5 mm long. Flowers April–May, fruiting May–June. Ural, Caucasus, Middle Asia (Caspian Sea), on the banks and valleys of rivers on sandy and silty soils (Boborov and Komarov 1936; Figs. 1, 2, and 3). Salix caprea: A fast-growing tree of medium size, 6–10 m high and to 0.75 m in diameter, or a fairly low arboraceous shrub; bark smooth, greenish-gray, often splitting near the base of the trunk; exposed wood smooth, without striations, reddening; branches stout, spreading, gray-pubescent when young, at length dark, brown, or gray, knotty, brittle; buds very large (especially the flower buds), glabrous, brown, ca. 5 mm long and 3 mm broad; stipules reniform, 4–7 mm long, serrate, and lobed, soon caducous; petioles to 2 cm long, sturdy, dilated toward base; leaves varying in size and shape: ovate, suborbicular (f. rotundata Anderss.), subcordate (f. subcordata Anderss.), elliptic (f. elliptica Kern.), oblong lanceolate, obovate -oblong

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Fig. 1 Salix alba (Salicaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

(f. obovato-oblonga Anderss.), or rarely lanceolate (f. lanceolata Anderss.), to 11–18 cm long and 5–8 cm broad, the margin hairy, irregularly dentate, the upper surface glabrous, rugose, dark green, the lower gray-tomentose, rarely diffusely puberulent or glabrate, with a lurid network of veins (f. atomochlena Nasar.); lateral veins 6–9, forming wide round loops at the margin; network of veins prominent, with large alveolus; midrib and lateral veins mostly densely hairy; expanding leaves flat; hairs on the lower surface recurved; young leaves silky pubescent; catkins precocious, dense, large, the staminate sessile, subtended by few small bracts, 5–6 cm long and 1.6–2 cm broad; pistillate short-stalked, numerous, littering the soil when shedding, in fruit to 10 cm long, the rachis pubescent; scales lanceolate, blackish or dark brown at apex, covered with long white hairs; stamens 2, glabrous (in f. borealis Enand. hairy), 2–3 times as long as the scale; anthers yellow; ovary ovoid-conical, villous-tomentose, the stipe one-half to two-thirds the length of ovary; style short or very short, yellow as the stigma lobes; gland 1, posterior, one-third as long as the stipe. Flowering April, fruiting May. Ural, Altai, and the Caucasus, along rivers and lakes, and in wetlands (Boborov and Komarov 1936; Figs. 4, 5, 6, and 7).

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Fig. 2 Salix alba (Salicaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Carotenoids, tannins, phenollucosides (triandrine, salicin, fraugiline, salicortin, grandidentatine, vimaline, salidroside, tremuloidine), catechins, anthocyanins (purpurinidine, cyanidin, delphinidine), leucoanthocyanins, vitamins (C, carotene), phenolcarboxylic acids (rentisinic, ferulic, chlorogenic, isochlorogenic), catechins (catechine, epicatechine, gallocatechine), flavonoids (coumaroylglucoside, apigenine, rutin, monoglucoside, rhamnetine, isoramnetine, iso-aminine-3-O-glucoside, narcissine, quercimeritrin, quercetine), proanthocyanidins (Sokolov 1985).

Local Medicinal Uses Extracts of Salix were originally widely used in the whole region as antipyretic and diuretic. Infusions serve in traditional medicine for the treatment of dysentery, gastritis, colitis, internal bleeding, female diseases, fevers, neuroses, tuberculosis, typhoid fever, and rheumatism. Used externally the extracts are employed for mouth and throat rinses and bleeding wounds. In traditional medicine, especially in the

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Fig. 3 Salix alba (Salicaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Salix caprea (Salicaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Caucasus and Azerbaijan Salix caprea serves as a substitute for quinin against malaria and fevers. Infusions are used against cough, headache, fever rheumatism, gout, bleeding, fatigue, and intestinal diseases. The decoctions are antipyretic, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, rheostatic and calming, and sometimes

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Fig. 5 Salix caprea (Salicaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Fig. 6 Salix caprea (Salicaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

used as anthelmintic. Externally crushed plant material is applied to furuncles and ulcers (Sokolov 1985). Salix alba: The bark is used as analgesic (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, c, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

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Fig. 7 Salix caprea (Salicaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Salix caprea: The bark and leaves are used to treat arthritis, the leaves also for gallstones and kidney problems. The bark is used as analgesic (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, c, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

Local Food Uses Salix caprea: The bark is used to clarify beer (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, c, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The root bark is used in the Caucasus for tanning fishing tackle. The wood serves for manufacturing of household goods, sometimes as a building material and fuel. The branches are mostly used for weaving, baskets, and fences. Preparations from the bark cause in animals a decrease in diuresis and an increase in blood. The infusion and decoction are used as antipyretic and hemostatic. Shoots (young) and leaves are browsed by sheep, goats, and deer. The root bark is used in the Caucasus for tanning. The wood serves for manufacturing of household goods, sometimes as a building material and fuel. The branches are mostly used for weaving, baskets and fences. Also used for tanning leather and as dye to color wool, silk, and leather in red-brown and yellow colors. The bast fibers can be turned into ropes. Also used for reforestation on wet sites, and to secure embankments, sometimes ornamental. The wood is sometimes in the Caucasus used as water-resistant construction material for underground structures, for manufacturing bent utensils (hoops, arcs) and small household artifacts. It is also used as fuel and can be turned into charcoal. Salix yields a black dye for wool and can be used to tan leather. The branches are used for weaving baskets and fences. Young branches and leaves can be browsed by sheep and goats (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1985).

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Salix alba: Used for construction, especially fences, and to weave baskets and to make tool handles (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, c, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017). Salix caprea: Used for construction, the branches especially for fences and walls and to weave baskets and to make tool handles, bows, household utensils, snow shovels, and flutes (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, c, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

References Boborov EG, Komarov VL. Flora of the USSR, volume 5: Dicotyledoneae, subclass I: Archichlamydeae, order Piperales-Polygonales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1936 (English 1970). 593 pages, 49 b/w plates. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plant and fungal use in Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016c;86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus – Georgia. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 2. Families Paeoniaceae – Thymelaeaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1985. 336 p. (in Russian).

Salvia nemorosa L. Salvia verticillata L. LAMIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Local Names Salvia nemorosa: Georgian: დაჯირა (dajira) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991) Salvia verticillata: Georgian: დაჯირა (dajira), ყვანჩალა (q’vanchala) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991)

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_122

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Botany and Ecology Salvia nemorosa: Perennial, 30–60 cm high; stem solitary simple, erect, several times as long as inflorescence, rather densely leafy, villous from base, rarely with some longer hairs, the indument denser on inflorescence; lower cauline leaves oblong to subovate, (3.5) 5–6 (10) cm long, (1.5) 2–2.5 (3) cm broad, acute, subcordate or almost rounded at base, smooth or slightly rugose only at margin, crenate, glabrous above, villous on the veins beneath, the petiole about as long as or shorter than blade, villous, channeled, ciliate at margins of channel, dilated at base; cauline leaves, progressively longer toward summit, short-petioled, the upper sessile, ovate to lanceolate, more or less acuminate; floral leaves large, equaling or exceeding the calyx, imbricated in bud, reflexed in fruit, violet, suborbicular, short-pointed, sessile, clasping, glabrous above, with short appressed hairs beneath, white-ciliate at margin; inflorescences simple or with 1–2 pairs of long slender branches reaching the summit or nearly so; verticillate 14–30, approximate (to 0.5 cm apart), the lower 1–1.5 cm apart, 4–6flowered; pedicels white-pubescent, 345 half the length of calyx; calyx 5–6 mm long, bilabiate nearly halfway to base, villous only on the nerves; upper lip of calyx rounded, with 3 approximate teeth, the middle tooth shorter; lower lip longer than the upper, the teeth abruptly acuminate, upright; corolla 8–10 mm long, bluishviolet, with a pronounced band of squamiform hairs in the tube; upper lip slightly falcate, with short white hairs on the back and at apex and with large sessile glands; middle lobe of lower lip transversely elliptical, deeply concave, often appressed to calyx; lateral lobes short, obtuse, oblong, strict; sterile anther-locules with a rather deep notch below the middle; style slightly exserted; lobes of stigma subequal; nutlets obtusely trigonous-globose, 1.5 mm long, dark brown, ventrally and dorsally dark-striate. Flowering May–July. Ural, steppes, sandy slopes, dry meadows, fringes, banks of rivers (Shishkin and Borisova 1954; Figs. 1, 2, and 3). Salvia verticillata: Perennial; rhizome 5–10 mm thick, brown, subhorizontal or ascending; stems several, simple, rarely branched, erect, 30–80 cm long, rather densely covered with taeniate hairs, these shorter in inflorescence; leaves cordateovate, (4) 9 (13) cm long, (3) 5 (10) cm broad, acute, with 1 or 2 pairs of small opposite decurrent segments, rarely without such segments, coarsely crenate, prominently veined beneath, with strict taeniate hairs, these scattered all over the surface, more numerous beneath or copious on both sides; lower leaves with petiole as long as or longer than blade, the upper short-petioled or sessile; inflorescences simple or more often with 1–2 pairs of long branches not reaching the summit of inflorescence; verticillate 20–40-flowered, approximate at ends of branches, the lower distant; pedicels as long as or shorter than flower, densely covered with short strict antrorse hairs; calyx tubular, covered on the ribs with strict white hairs, often lilac; upper calyx-Hp with acute teeth 0.5–1 mm long (the middle tooth sometimes shorter than lateral teeth) spreading and concave in fruit; lower up to 2 oblong acuminate teeth 1.5–2 mm long; corolla violet, twice as long as calyx, covered outside with short thick papilliform hairs; upper lip emarginate, arched; middle lobe of lower lip deeply cut into 2 square lobules, the lateral lobes half the length of the middle lobe; style exserted; lobes of stigma subequal; nutlets rounded-ellipsoid, light brown, smooth,

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Fig. 1 Salvia nemorosa (Lamiaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

1.5–2 mm long. Flowering May–September. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, in Pinus forests, on stony, clayey slopes, as weed, up to the middle mountain belt (Shishkin and Borisova 1954; Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8).

Phytochemistry Tannins, anthocyanins, quinones (ureleanone, horminone, nemorone, royleanone, deacetylnemorone), essential oils (tuyen, pinene, myrcene, terpinene, cymol, limonene, ocimene, terpinolen, borneol, camphene, caryophyllene), steroids (campesterin, stigmasterol, sitosterol), fatty acids (myristic, palmitic, palmitoleic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, linolenic) (Sokolov 1991).

Local Medicinal Uses A leaf infusion is used in the Ural for diarrhea in children, and as wash for wound healing and furuncles, and also furuncles, also as hemostatic (Sokolov 1991).

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Fig. 2 Salvia nemorosa (Lamiaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Salvia nemorosa: The leaves are used for enuresis (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016, 2018; Bussmann 2017). Salvia verticillata: The leaves are used as anti-inflammatory, for enuresis and wound treatments (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

Local Food Uses The leaves are used as spice (Sokolov 1991).

Salvia nemorosa L. . . .

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Fig. 3 Salvia nemorosa (Lamiaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Salvia verticillata: The leaves and shoots are eaten as phkhali (herb pie) (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The essential oils are used for perfumes. Fodder for rabbits and young cattle (Sokolov 1991). Salvia verticillata: The leaves and shoots serve as fodder and can be used as filter (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

846 Fig. 4 Salvia verticillata (Lamiaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Salvia nemorosa L. . . . Fig. 5 Salvia verticillata (Lamiaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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848 Fig. 6 Salvia verticillata (Lamiaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Salvia nemorosa L. . . . Fig. 7 Salvia sclarea (Lamiaceae), Akhaltsikhe, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 8 Salvia sclarea (Lamiaceae), Akhaltsikhe, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

References Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – Plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Shishkin BK, Borisova AG. Flora of the USSR, Volume 21: Labiatae. Leningrad; Akademia Nauk; 1954 (English 1976). 520 p, 32 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, Volume 6. Families Hippuridaceae-Lobeliaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1991, 200 p. (in Russian).

Satureja hortensis L. Satureja laxiflora C. Koch Satureja spicigera (C. Koch.) Boiss. LAMIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze Synonyms Satureja hortensis L.: Satureja laxiflora (Hayata) Matsum. & Kudô; Satureja montana subsp. taurica P.W. Ball; Satureja pachyphylla C. Koch

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_123

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Local Names Satureja hortensis: Georgian: ქონდარი (kondari), ქონდარი (marts’q’vi) (Grossheim 1952, Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991). Satureja laxiflora: Georgia: ტყის ქონდარი (tq’is kondari), ქონდარი (kondari), ქონდარი (marts’q’vi); Meskhetian: მინდვრის ქონდარი (mindvris kondari) ((Grossheim 1952, Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991); English: savory. Satureja spicigera: Georgian: ტყის ქონდარი (t’q’is kondari), ქონდარი (Kondari); Svan: ჭვინ (tchvin), მექონდროოლ – mekondrool; Acharian: ონჭო (onch’o), ენჭო (ench’o); Imeretian: ტყის ქონდარი (tq’is kondari); Rachian: ქონდარა (kondara) (Grossheim 1952, Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991).

Botany and Ecology Satureja hortensis: Annual; root slender, straight, subcylindrical, 10–15 cm long; stems 15–30 (45) cm long, covered with short recurved appressed hairs, branched from base, the branches spaced out; leaves linear to linear-lanceolate, 1.5–2.5 cm long, acute, sparsely glandular; flowers in 3–5-flowered axillary verticillate, the upper sessile, the lower short-pediceled, forming a rather loose elongate inflorescence; peduncles 0.3–0.6 mm long; calyx ca. 4 mm long, almost regular, hairy, the tube straight and regular, the linear teeth as long as or slightly shorter than the tube; corolla ca. 6 mm long, short-haired outside, pale lilac or pinkish, purple-spotted in throat; stamens usually shorter than the upper lip; anthers lilac; stamens sometimes abortive, with shorter filaments and whitish barren anthers; nutlets ovoid-trigonous, nearly smooth. Flowering July–October. Ural, Caucasus, Middle Asia, on dry gravelly and stony slopes, rocks, in gardens as weed, up to 1500 m (Shishkin and Borisova 1954). Satureja laxiflora: A slender, sparingly and loosely branched annual, 10–15 (20) cm high. Stems branched with very short retrorse white hairs. Leaves spread over stem, narrow, linear to linear-lanceolate, or sublinear to suboblong, 10–20  1–3 mm, tapering into an inconspicuous petiole, gland-dotted, with few simple hairs. Inflorescence in verticillasters located at the leaf axils, 1–2 (3)-flowered, on slender peduncles 5–15 mm long, more often 0.5–0.8 cm; upper flowers subsessile, the lower ones on pedicels ca. 0.5 cm long; calyx infundibular at first, becoming campanulate, 3 mm long, covered with short stiff hairs, the lance-subulate ciliate teeth as long as or longer than the tube; corolla 8–10 mm long, pubescent, the tube exserted, the lower lip 3-lobed, the upper shorter lip 2-lobed; two stamens as long as the lower lip, two shorter. Nutlets rounded-ovoid, 1 mm long, 0.5 mm wide, fuscous, with four black divergent nerves. On stony slopes, shale taluses or limestone, at altitudes from 150 to 1700 m. Occurs in Caucasus (Ciscaucasia, West, East and South Transcaucasia, Dagestan, Talysh), Lesser Armenia and Kurdistan, Balkan

Satureja hortensis L. . . .

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Fig. 1 Satureja hortensis (Lamiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Peninsula and Asia Minor, and Iran. Satureja laxiflora is a food plant for the larva of some Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths). Open rocky areas in lower and middle mountain zone (Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Shishkin and Borisova 1954; Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4). Satureja spicigera: Perennial, with erect, virgate stems, branched from base; branches divaricate, slender, densely leafy, sparsely pubescent on two sides; leaves bright green, narrow, oblanceolate-linear or linear to subulate, somewhat curved, the upper approximate, the terminal equaling the flowers, punctate-glandular; inflorescences at ends of branches, rather dense, one-sided, cylindrical, spike-like; verticillate axillary, 3–4-flowered, sessile; peduncles 2–5 mm long; bracts small; calyx campanulate, bilabiate, subglabrous, with few long hairs in throat, the teeth lanceolate, subobtuse, glabrous, ciliate, two teeth nearly as long as the tube, the other three one-quarter length of tube; corolla white or pink, with a broad unequally 3-lobed limb, slightly exceeding the calyx, 8–10 mm long; stamens and style exserted; nutlets subglobose, flattened, grayish black, with colored areola. July–September. Caucasus, in forests, among shrubs, on stony, gravelly slopes, rocks, to the middle mountain belt (Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Shishkin and Borisova 1954).

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Fig. 2 Satureja hortensis (Lamiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Essential oils (carvacrol, thymol, cymene, pinene, sabinene, camphene, myrcene, cineol, limonene, terpinene, terpene, terpinolol, terpineol, myrteol, damascene, eugenol, caryophyllene, humulene, aromadendrene, caren, fellandren, terpinolene, mentene, piperitone, borneol, carvone, curcumen, geranyl acetate, cadinene, thymohinone, geraniol, citronellol), saponins, vitamins (C, E), flavonoids, triterpenoids (ursolic acid), phenolcarboxylic acids (chlorogenic, rosemary, ferulic, coffee, coumaric, synapic, gentian, salicylic, vanilline, lilac), fatty acids (palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, linolenic) (Sokolov 1991).

Local Medicinal Uses In the Ural the leaves of Satureja hortensis are used for diaphoretic, anthelmintic, and gastric problems. In Middle Asia Satureja is used as expectorant, diaphoretic, and anthelmintic, as well as for the treatment of tachycardia, headache, gastrointestinal problems, and acute respiratory infections (Sokolov 1991).

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Fig. 3 Satureja hortensis (Lamiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Savory is used in Kakheti as a remedy to heal cough. A broth or tincture is considered the best medicine. Both fresh and dried plants are used. Wild savory Satureja laxiflora is used to heal stomachache in Western Georgia. Both fresh and dried plants are used, and a powder is made of the latter, and tinctures and broth are produced of this powder. Leaves and shoots are used to treat diabetes and infertility (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017). Satureja spicigera contains essential oils, tannins, resins, and salts. A savory broth is used to heal hypertension and cough. The broth is used to heal inflamed gum, eyes, and kidneys as well as stomachache. To treat hemorrhoids, the sick were advised to sit in a vapor bath of savory broth. Savory regulates digestion and metabolisms and acts as an antiflatulent. Savory leaves and stems are used to spice dietetic food and as a mouthwash. The leaves are taken as tea to relieve the symptoms of diabetes (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b) problems and as bath for rheumatism. Leaves and shoots are used to treat diabetes (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

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Fig. 4 Satureja hortensis (Lamiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Food Uses The leaves are generally used as spice, especially for sauces and sausages, and marinades particularly for cucumbers and tomatoes (Sokolov 1991). ქონდარი Kondari (savory) is used as a spice in Tusheti (Makalatia 1933). The leaves are also used for tea, and in Svaneti they are often crushed with other spices and mixed with salt, to produce a spice mixture famous all over Georgia (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b). Satureja hortensis: The leaves are used as condiment and tea and as ingredient of Svanetian salt (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017). Minders kondari, მინდვრის ქონდარი Satureja laxiflora C. Koch, is used as tea and often as a spice in any dish prepared without milk (Bakhtadze and Koghuashvili 2009; Kavtaradze 1985; Sujashvili and Pitskhelauri 2005). Kondari ქონდარი Satureja laxiflora C. Koch is used as cooking spice in Tusheti. The fruits are collected, dried, ground, and kept for winter (Makalatia 1933).

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The young shoots of giera გიერა Brassica campestris subsp. oleifera (DC.) Schübl. & Mart., mariamdzmara მარიამძმარა Ligusticum alatum (M. Bieb.) Spreng., shup’q’a შუპყა Heracleum asperum M. Bieb., diq’i დიყი Heracleum ssp., jortk’uda ჯორთკუდა Artemisia vulgaris L., kartskhvi ქარცხვს Campanula tridentata Schreb., and k’enk’esha კენკეშას Campanula lactiflora M. Bieb. are pickled in Tusheti. If the cattle eat shup’q’a შუპყას Heracleum asperum M. Bieb., it gives yellow clarified butter (Bochoridze 1993; Kurdghelaidze 1983; Maghalashvili 1970; Makalatia 1933; Oshoradze 1969). Onch’o ონჭო Satureja spicigera (K. Koch) Boiss. is a wild spice (Javakhishvili 1986). Satureja hortensis: The leaves are used as condiment and tea and as ingredient of Svanetian salt (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017). Satureja spicigera: The leaves are used as condiment and tea and as ingredient of Svanetian salt and also used in phkhali (herb pie) (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

References Bakhtadze D, Koghuashvili P. Nutrition culture of the Georgians. Tbilisi; 2009. (ბახტაძე დ., კოღუაშვილი პ. 2009. ქართველთა კვების კულტურა. თბილისი, in Georgian). Bochoridze G. Tusheti. Tbilisi; 1993. Boch’oridze G. Tusheti. Tbilisi; 1993. (ბოჭორიძე გ. 1993. თუშეთი. თბილისი in Georgian). Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus – Georgia. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017b. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian).

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Javakhishvili I. Materials for the history of household industry and handicraft, vol. V, part 2: food and drinks. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1986. (ჯავახიშვილი, ი. 1986. მასალები შინა მრეწველობისა და ხელოსნობის ისტორიისათვის, ტ. V ნაწ. 2: საჭმელ in Georgian). Kavtaradze I. Mokhevian dialect of the Georgian language. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1985. (ქავთარაძე ი. 1985. ქართული ენის მოხევური დიალექტი. თბილისი: მეცნიერება in Georgian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Kurdghelaidze G. Tusheti – household, nature, toponymy. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1983. 8კურდღელაიძე გ. 1983. თუშეთი მეურნეობა, ბუნება, ტოპონიმიკა. თბილისი: მეცნიერება in Georgian). Maghalashvili T. Useful plants of Telavi district. Acad. S. Janashia State Museum of Georgia XXVI–XXVII. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1970. (8 მაღალაშვილი თ. 1970. თელავის რაიონის სასარგებლო მცენარეები. აკად. ს. ჯანაშიას სახელობის საქართველოს სახელმწიფო მუზეუმის მოამბე XXVI–XXVII – A. თბილისი: მეცნიერება in Georgian). Makalatia S. Tusheti. Tbilisi: Sakhelgami; 1933. (მაკალათია ს. 1933. თუშეთი. ტფილისი: სახელგამი in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Oshoradze V. Characteristics of wild mkhaleuli and greens of Tusheti and possibility of their cultivation. Candidate of Agricultural Sciences dissertation thesis. Tbilisi; 1969. ოშორაძე ვ. 1969. (თუშეთის ველურად მოზარდი მხალეულ-მწვანილეული მცენარეების დახასიათება და მათი კულტურაში დანერგვის შესაძლებლობა. სადისერტაციო ნაშრომი სოფლის მეურნეობის მეცნ. კანდიდატის სამეცნიერო ხარისხის მოსაპოვებლად. თბილისი in Georgian). Shishkin BK, Borisova AG. Flora of the USSR, volume 21: Labiatae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1954 (English 1976). 520 pages, 32 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 6. Families Hippuridaceae-Lobeliaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1991, 200 p. (in Russian). Sujashvili N, Pitskhelauri I. Dictionary of Mokhevian dialect. Tbilisi; 2005. (სუჯაშვილი ნ., ფიცხელაური ი. 2005. მოხევური ლექსიკონი. თბილისი).

Secale cereale L. POACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Secale cereale L.: Secale turkestanicum Bensin; Triticum cereale (L.) Salisb.; Triticum secale Link.

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_124

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Local Names Georgian name: მუხუდო (mukhudo), ჭვავი (ch’vavi); Svan: მანააშ (maanash); Russian: Рожь (rosh); Azeri: чавдар (tsavdar); Armenian: тарекан (tarekan) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991).

Botany and Ecology Annual or biennial. Culms glabrous, or pubescent below the spike, 60–200 cm tall; leaves broadly linear, flat, scabrous, and glabrous on the upper surface. Spikes not brittle, with a firm, continuous rachis, dense, 2-rowed, 5–15 cm long, 0.7–1.2 cm broad; spikelets 2-flowered, with a rudiment of third floret; glumes linear-subulate, gradually acuminate, scabrous on the keel, awnless or bearing an awn 2–3 mm long; lemmas ca. 1.5 cm long, long-awned, 5-nerved, slightly longer than the glumes, with fairly thick, subfalcate bristles on the keel; awns scabrous, straight, 2–5 cm long; caryopsis deeply furrowed. Flowering in June. The center of origin of rye is not known exactly, but its current center of diversity is in the mountainous areas of Afghanistan, Iran, and the Middle East. Probably from there, rye was spread to the surrounding areas in Asia and northern Africa and later, just like wheat, to Russia, central, and Western Europe, where it is cultivated under temperate climatic conditions. Rye is a typical “secondary crop”; it was primarily a weed in wheat and barley fields, later adopted as a crop. It may have been domesticated before 3000–4000 BC. Rye grains dating back to 6000 BC have been found in Turkey, but it is not known if these were from crop plants or from weeds. Rye has been spread to all continents, especially to areas with temperate-growing conditions. Occasionally it is cultivated at high elevations in the tropics and subtropics (Rozhevits et al. 1934; Fig. 1).

Fig. 1 Secale cereale (Poaceae), fields, Ethiopia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Local Medicinal Uses In Europe and India, rye is sometimes grown as a host plant for ergot (Claviceps purpurea), which is used medicinally, e.g., against migraine (Sokolov 1994). The grains are used to treat colds and flu (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b; Bussmann 2017.

Local Food Uses Rye grain is used as a food for humans, but on a worldwide scale, it is more important as animal feed. The grain is processed into bread, cakes, crackers, etc. For making bread, whole or broken grain can be used; for making cake, the grain needs to be milled. Rye flour is often mixed with wheat flour. In Africa rye flour is considered to make good porridge with an equal amount of maize flour; if used alone, it is considered too sweet. Rye grain can be sprouted to make malt for beer; several alcoholic beverages are prepared by distilling malted rye grains, e.g., rye whiskey in North America and vodka in Poland and Russia. Rye flour is used as filler for thickening soups and sauces. Cereal species of minor importance occupying small areas mostly higher in the mountains where suitable varieties of wheat. More significant crops of rye – in mountainous Armenia, in the Diabar Basin (Zuvanda), and others (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1994). The grains are used to make bread, to make beer, and to distill alcohol (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b; Bussmann 2017.

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Starch from the grain is industrially used in the production of glue, matches, gum for sizing paper, and plastics. Rye straw is harvested for feed (cattle), litter (in livestock sheds), thatching, mulching material, industrial use (paper/cardboard), packing material (nursery plants, cheese), and fuel. Immature rye is harvested as a whole crop forage, and it is grown as a green manure or cover crop. Rye grain is used as a fodder, especially in pig husbandry (Sokolov 1994).

References Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313.

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Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus – Georgia. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017b. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Rozhevits RYu, Shishkin BK, Komarov VL. Flora of the USSR, volume 2: Glumiflorae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1934 (English 1973). 622 p, 50 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of Russia and adjacent states: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 8. Families Butomaceae – Typhaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1994, 271 p. (in Russian).

Serratula quinquefolia Bieb. ex Willd. ASTERACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Local Names Georgian: საღვერავი (saghveravi), ირმისმხალა (irmismkhala), ნადირისფხალი (nadiris pkhali), საფურცქვნელა (sapurtskvnela) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991)

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_125

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Botany and Ecology Perennial. Plant branched, 50–120 cm, sometimes up to 2 m high, subglabrous or weakly pubescent. Leaves compound, unpaired-pinnate, 1–2 paired, with 3–5 lobes often simple in upper part; leaf lobes ovate-oblong or oblong-lanceolate; lower leaves petiolate, with ovate or oblong, serrate, acuminate, broad lobes, narrowed toward base; lateral lobes often decurrent, terminal lobe larger; leaves on branches reduced, fewer, petiolate, elliptical to oblong-lanceolate. Capitula on more or less leafy peduncles, numerous, medium-sized, 1.0–1.5 cm in diameter, ovate. Involucral bracts numerous, firmly imbricate, membranous, cuspidate, pubescent, and finely ciliate on margin, with dark stripes on the outside; outer bracts ovate, middle ones lanceolate, inner ones linear, pubescent at tip, scarious, elongated, almost toothed. Corolla pink, about 17 mm long; corolla tube narrow, 9 mm long; limb campanulate. 8–10 mm long, with linear lobes 5 mm long. Anther tube almost as long as corolla; filaments papillose. Basal appendage of anthers less than 1 mm long, anthers free at tips. Style longer than corolla, bilobed, with short lobes. Achenes oblong, about 5 mm long, compressed, slightly narrowed toward base, slightly constricted at apex, sulcate; 296 pappus reddish, deciduous, slightly longer than achenes, about 8 mm long, shorter than corolla tube, with somewhat scabrous hairs. Flowering June–October. Caucasus, mountain forests edges, scrubs, 300–1000 m to mid-montane zone (Borisova 1963; Sokolov 1993).

Local Food Uses In Kartili young shoots of telkharshi თელხარში Heracleum leskovii Grossh., melidzvala მელიძვალა Serratula quinquefolia M. Bieb. ex Willd, and saptskvnela საფცქვნელა Artemisia vulgaris L. are peeled and eaten (Berozashvili et al. 1981). The leaves are used as phkhali (herb pie), and both leaves and shoots are pickled (Bussmann et al. 2016, 2018).

References Berozashvili T, Meskhishvili M, Nozadze L. Dictionary of Kartlian dialect. Tbilisi; 1981. (ბეროზაშვილი თ., მესხიშვილი მ., ნოზაძე ლ. 1981. ქართლური დიალექტის ლექსიკონი. თბილისი in Georgian.) Borisova AG. Flora of the USSR, volume 28: Compositae, Tribes Cynareae and Mustisieae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1963 (English 1998). 810 p. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2.

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Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 7. Family Asteraceae (Compositae). Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1993. 352 p. (in Russian).

Seseli transcaucasicum Pimenov & Sdobnina APIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Manana Khutsishvili, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Seseli transcaucasicum Pimenov & Sdobnina: Libanotis transcaucasica Schischk.

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; Rainer. [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_126

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Local Names Azeri: Zаqаfqаziyа кəsiкоtu; Georgian: სასუქა (sasuka); Svan: აპურსი (ap’ursi); კაკბის-მკერდა ყარანდუცა Khevsur: (k’ak’bis-mk’erda); Mokhevian: (q’arandutsa); Kartlian: ძაბრა (dzabra) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991); English: seseli.

Botany and Ecology Perennial; root 0.7–2 cm thick, vertical or ascending, its neck covered with brown fibrous leaf remnants; stem single, 50–120 cm high, erect, branching above or nearly from base with obliquely antrorse branches, short-haired in lower half (rarely subglabrous), with spreading sparse hairs under inflorescence; radical leaves numerous, oblong or lanceolate, with long petioles, together with petioles 12–30 cm long, 2.5–5 cm wide, blade bipinnatisect, primary lobes sessile, the secondary lanceolate, acute, entire or with few teeth, petioles, margin of leaves and lower side of nerves short scabrous-hairy, lower cauline leaves similar to the radical, the upper smaller, sessile on expanded sheath. Umbels 9 cm across, of 25–40 wholly pubescent rays; involucre of 11–13 lanceolate-linear thin and long acuminate, short-haired, usually recurved leaflets with scarious margin; umbellets 1–1.5 cm across, with hairy rays; involucels of 9–11 leaflets similar to those of involucre; calyx teeth triangular-lanceolate; petals dark or light lilac when young, dorsally stiff-haired, becoming white and subglabrous; fruit densely covered with stiff hairs; stylopodium short conical; styles recurved or divergent, longer than stylopodium. July–August. Caucasus, glades in mountain forests, southern slopes, subalpine meadows. This species is distributed in all regions of Greater Caucasus, Northern and Central Lesser Caucasus, the mountainous part of Nakhchivan, and the mountainous part of Lankaran. Grows in the middle and upper mountain belts on edges of forests, in glades, between rocks and subalpine meadows. Flowering in July, fruiting in August–September (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Shishkin 1950; Oshoradze 1969; Figs. 1 and 2).

Phytochemistry Essential oils (geraniol, phellandrene, azurine, libanotene) (Sokolov 1988).

Local Medicinal Uses Used as a diuretic and in meteorism (Grossheim 1943). Also a calmative for wounds, menstrual regulation, and toothache (Grossheim 1943).

Seseli transcaucasicum Pimenov & Sdobina Fig. 1 Seseli transcaucasicum (Apiaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Seseli transcaucasicum (Apiaceae), flowers. Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Local Food Uses Sprouts of Seseli transcaucasicum are eaten raw (G. Khvedaguridze & V. Otiuridze, vill. Bochorna, Akhmeta, 2014, personal communication), used to cook mkhali (vegetable spread) prepared by mixing a boiled and chopped herb mass with salted melted butter, “chave” made of dried herbs by boiling them, adding flour, fat (with or without meat) and salt (Makalatia 1933), and “sats’eba,” fresh herbs dipped into sour milk (Makalatia 1933). Peeled stems of the herb are also pickled (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b; Bussmann 2017).

References Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Seseli transcaucasicum Pimenov & Sdobnina. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:5. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016c; 86(2), 3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):7–24. Flora of Azerbaijan. Volumes I–VIII. Baku: AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1950–1961. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Herbs of the Caucasus. Baku: Azerbaijani Branch of AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1943. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Akademia Nauk, Moscow; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makalatia S. Tusheti. Tbilisi: Sakhelgami; 1933. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Oshoradze V. Characteristic of mkali and other wild food plants and possibility of their introduction in agriculture. Candidate of Agrarian Sciences Dissertation, Tbilisi; 1969. (in Georgian). Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 16: Umbelliflorae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1950 (English 1973). 478 pages, 37 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, Volume 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Akademia Nauk, Bochoridze G. Tusheti. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1993; 1988. (in Georgian).

Sinapis arvensis L. BRASSICACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Sinapis arvensis L.: Brassica arvensis (L.) Rabenh.; Brassica arvensis L.; Brassica kaber (DC.) L.C. Wheeler; Brassica kaber var. pinnatifida (Stokes) L.C. Wheeler; Brassica sinapis Vis.; Brassica sinapistrum Boiss.; Brassica xinjiangensis Y.Z. Lan & T.Y. Cheo; Eruca arvensis (L.) Noulet; Moricandia arvensis (L.) DC.; Raphanus arvensis (L.) Crantz; Rhamphospermum arvense (L.) Andrz. ex Besser; Sinapis arvensis var. nilotica O.E. Schulz; Sinapis arvensis var. pinnatifida Stokes; Sinapis arvensis var. schkuhriana (Rchb.) Hagenb.; Sinapis kaber DC.; Sisymbrium murale L. R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_127

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Local Names Georgian: გიერა (giera), მდოგვი (mdogvi), მინდვრის მდოგვი (mindvris mdogvi); Russian: Горчицаполевая (gortsizapolebaja); Azeri: чёл хардалы (tsoel chardalei) (Azeri); Armenian: мананех (mananech) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991).

Botany and Ecology Annual; stem 10–100 cm high, branching, usually covered with spreading simple hairs; reddish violet spots often in axils of branches; lower leaves lyrate-pinnatifid, all leaves hairy, rarely glabrescent, upper leaves sessile, oblong-ovate, acuminate at apex. Sepals 4–7 mm long; petals 9–11 mm long, claw narrow, somewhat shorter than limb; siliques 18-33 mm long (excluding beak), cylindrical or tetragonous; pedicels short and rather stout, 3–7 mm long, 1–2 mm thick, directed at an acute angle from axis, sometimes subappressed to stem; valves 3-nerved, firm, torulose, prolonged into a tetragonous beak, 1–2 cm long, often 1-seeded; seeds dark brown or nearly black. May–June. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, and Central Middle Asia, excluding the Pamirs, as weed in crops, near roads, also grown in kitchen gardens (Boborov and Bush 1939; Figs. 1, 2, and 3). Fig. 1 Sinapis arvensis (Brassicaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Sinapis arvensis L. Fig. 2 Sinapis arvensis (Brassicaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Sinapis arvensis (Brassicaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Phytochemistry Flavonoids (monoglycosides, biosides, diglycosides, isoramnetin, kaempferol, quercetin, astragalin, brassidine), steroids (terine, campesterol, 24-methylene cholesterol, brassicasterol, cholesterol), fatty acids (Sokolov 1985).

Local Medicinal Uses The seeds are used as diuretic and for scurvy (Sokolov 1985).

Local Food Uses Its young leaves are eaten as a salad or like spinach. Source of mustard. The oil extracted from the seeds is edible (Grossheim 1952). Mdogvi მდოგვი Sinapis arvensis L. is eaten raw in Khevi (Bakhtadze and Koghuashvili 2009; Kavtaradze 1985; Sujashvili and Pitskhelauri 2005). In Khevi, pickles are made from local plants: saskhep’ia სასხეპია Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., diq’i დიყი Heracleum ssp., and mdogvi მდოგი Sinapis arvensis L. Shoots of saskhep’ia სასხეპია Chaerophyllum bulbosum L. are cut in thin pieces and salted in a jar or barrel, seasoned with pepper and caraway, poured with a spring water. The shoots of დიყი Heracleum ssp. are peeled, cut, and put in a jar layer by layer, salt placed between the layers, the upper layer was topped with mzhavela მჟაველა Rumex acetosa L. ფოთლებს, mk’vliavi მკვლიავი Carum carvi L., and finally water was added. Mdogvi მდოგი Sinapis arvensis L. pickles do not last long. Ghandzili ღანძილი (Allium victorialis L.) and mdogvi მდოგი are put in salted but not boiling water and seasoned with caraway (Bakhtadze and Koghuashvili 2009; Kavtaradze 1985; Sujashvili and Pitskhelauri 2005). In Tusheti many herbaceous plants are used as food and are kept for winter, either dried or pickled, to make mixed mkhali and sauces, and to accompany the main dishes, including kumeli ქუმელი q’va ყვა. It is used all year-round and is made of roasted keri ქერი (barley) grains. Can be made of ipkli იფქლი (Georgian endemic wheat), corn, svili სვილი (rye), kersvili ქერსვილი (mixture of barley and rye), and tsetsvi ცერცვი (faba bean), when mixed with corn: giera-i გიერა-ი Brassica campestris subsp. oleifera (DC.) Schübl. & Mart., gomat’i გომატი Bunias orientalis L., dutsi დუცი Angelica tatianae Bordz., kharnuq’a-i ხარნუყა-ი Lactuca serriola L., buera ბუერა Petasites ssp., shubq’a-i შუბყა-ი Heracleum asperum M. Bieb., khap’ara-i ხაპარა-ი Cichorium intybus L., mariamdzmara მარიამძმარა Ligusticum alatum (M. Bieb.) Spreng., ch’imi ჭიმი Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., diq’i დიყი Heracleum ssp., jortk’uda-i ჯორთკუდა-ი Artemisia vulgaris L., sagvidzla საღვიძლა Taraxacum officinale (L.) Weber ex F.H. Wigg., dzirkhvena ძირხვენა Arctium lappa L., ch’ivana ჭივანა Silene wallichiana Klotzsch, kvishamkhala ქვიშამხალა Silene laera (Stev.) Sims, khavrat’ai ხავრატაი Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik., and giera გიერა Sinapis arvensis L. (Makalatia 1933).

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There are several ways to season mkhali in Tusheti: (1) well-cleaned plants are placed in a pot and cooked without water. The cooked plants are placed on a sieve to cool and cut into pieces. After that the dish is seasoned with onions browned in clarified butter, eggs, and salt. (2) After cooking the plants in the same way, fresh cottage cheese, onions browned in clarified butter, eggs, and salt are added. (3) After boiling the mkhali is seasoned with vinegar, garlic, and salt. Normally, in Tusheti mkhali is not seasoned with walnuts and vinegar (Makalatia 1933). Some plants are used to make khinkali in Tusheti. For example, giera გიერა Sinapis arvensis L. is cut, mixed with cottage cheese, put in the dough, and boiled. Before eating, khinkali is bitten to open slightly and put a butter on it, or butter is placed on the top (Oshoridze 1969). In Tusheti ch’imi ჭიმი Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., giera-i გიერა Brassica campestris subsp. oleifera (DC.) Schübl. & Mart., machigt’ara მაჩიგტარა Campanula rapunculoides L., khap’ara ხაპარა (ვარდკაჭაჭა) Cichorium intybus L., diq’i დიყი Heracleum ssp., shup’q’a შუპყა Heracleum asperum M. Bieb., ap’q’i აპყი Heracleum leskovii Grossh., dutsi დუცი Angelica tatianae Bordz, giera გიერა Sinapis arvensis L., jortk’uda ჯორთკუდა (wild estragon) Artemisia vulgaris L., mariamdzmara მარიამძმარა Ligusticum alatum (M.Bieb.) Spreng., and kharnuq’a ხარნუყა Lactuca serriola L. are eaten raw and also dipped in sour milk (Makalatia 1933; Oshoridze 1969). These herbaceous plants for dipping (sats’ebaci, sats’ebi, “chatseba” means “dip” in Georgian) are harvested, and a bowl with curd “shegdebul ze” შეგდებულ ზე is filled; then leaves and young shoots from the mentioned herbaceous plants are plucked, dipped in the curd, and eaten. Now relatively rarely grown. The leaves are used for pkhali (herb pie) and are also pickled. The seeds serve as spice (Bussmann et al. 2016, 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The plant is poisonous to livestock when fruiting. Excellent honey and pollen plant. Seed oil can be used for lighting (Grossheim 1952).

References Bakhtadze D, Koghuashvili P. Nutrition culture of the Georgians. Tbilisi: Georgian Academy of Sciences; 2009. (ბახტაძე დ, კოღუაშვილი პ. 2009. ქართველთა კვების კულტურა. თბილისი, in Georgian). Boborov EG, Bush NA. Flora of the USSR, Volume 8: Capparidaceae, Cruciferae and Resedaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1939 (English 1970). 524 pages, 34 b/w plates, 2 maps. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0110-2.

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Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Kavtaradze I. Mokhevian dialect of ethe Georgian language. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1985. (ქავთარაძე ი. 1985. ქართული ენის მოხევური დიალექტი. თბილისი: მეცნიერება in Georgian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makalatia S. Tusheti. Tbilisi: Sakhelgami; 1933. (მაკალათია ს. 1933. თუშეთი. ტფილისი: სახელგამი in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Oshoridze V. Characteristics of wild mkhaleuli and greens of Tusheti and possibility of their cultivation. Candidate of Agricultural Sciences dissertation thesis. Tbilisi; 1969. ოშორაძე ვ 1969. (თუშეთის ველურად მოზარდი მხალეულ-მწვანილეული მცენარეების დახასიათება და მათი კულტურაში დანერგვის შესაძლებლობა. სადისერტაციო ნაშრომი სოფლის მეურნეობის მეცნ. კანდიდატის სამეცნიერო ხარისხის მოსაპოვებლად. თბილისი in Georgian). Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: Flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 2. Families Paeoniaceae - Thymelaeaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1985. 336 p. (in Russian). Sujashvili N, Pitskhelauri I. Dictionary of Mokhevian dialect. Tbilisi; 2005. (სუჯაშვილი ნ., ფიცხელაური ი. 2005. მოხევური ლექსიკონი. თბილისი).

Smilax excelsa L. SMILACACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Smilax excelsa L.: Smilax laevis Gueldenst. ex Ledeb.; Smilax panduriformis Aliev

Local Names Georgia: ეკალღიჭი (ek’alghich’i); Rachian, lchkhumian, Imeretian: ეკალა (ek’ala), ბურწუმელა (burts’umela), კურწუმელა (k’urts’umela); Chanetian: დაძი (dadzi), პურწუმოლი (p’urts’umoli); Megrelian: კალია (k’alia), ძვგირი (dzvgiri), R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_150

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კალიე (k’alie), კალიეში ძვგირი (k’alieshi dzvgiri), (კორჩხელი (k’orchkheli); Kakhetian: ღიჭი (ghich’I), კანკრა (k’ank’ra); Kartlian: პრუწუნა (p’ruts’una); Pshavian: ღიჭა (ghich’a); Gurian: ძიგურა (dzigura); Russian: авой (pavoii);

Armenian: гехц (gechz) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991); English: zarzaparrilla.

Botany and Ecology Tall evergreen (to deciduous in colder areas) climber up to 15–20 m high. Leaves, entire, tough, ovate, 4–11 cm long, 3–10 cm wide, shining green. Lamina wavy, base heart-shaped to truncate, apex pointed. Flowers greenish yellow, in axillary umbels. Conspicuous globose red berries, about 1 cm across. Caucasus, in damp forests, on forest edges, along valleys of rivers (Komarov 1935; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6).

Phytochemistry Steroids (diosgenin) (Sokolov 1994).

Local Medicinal Uses In the Caucasus the plant is used for rheumatism and venereal diseases, as antiinflammatory, and for skin diseases (Sokolov 1994). Leaves are used as poultice on festering wounds, against inflammation (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Kopaliani 2013). Leaves of ek’alghich’i are used as a remedy for pus excretion in Adjara. Roots are used against venereal diseases. In Kiziki healers use the plant to make “gartsmula,” a remedy against bone destruction (osteoporosis) (Shengelia 1983). Fig. 1 Smilax excelsa (Smilacaceae), Guria, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Smilax excelsa (Smilacaceae), Guria, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Smilax excelsa (Smilacaceae), Racha, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Food Uses The young leaves and shoots are eaten as salad, boiled for herb pie, and pickled. The leaves with vinegar and oil are used as a salad. In Western Georgia (Grossheim 1952), the tops of the young shoots, called “Ekala,” are boiled in water and seasoned with crushed walnut sauce with vinegar and pepper (Grossheim 1952). Racha-Lechkhumi: Ek’ala, mech’ekhi (Aruncus vulgaris), and tsitsabarda (Clematis vitalba) are used for mkhali, a spread of mushed vegetables and walnut. Fine shoots of

880 Fig. 4 Smilax excelsa (Smilacaceae), Racha, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Smilax excelsa (Smilacaceae), Racha, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 6 Smilax excelsa (Smilacaceae), Racha, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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ek’ala are washed, poured into boiling water, and boiled. The water is drained; cold water is added and kept for 15–20 min; then the herbs are taken out, drained, and chopped into pieces of desired size; and crushed walnut, garlic, pepper, onion, coriander, pennyroyal, vinegar, and salt are added, and the mass stirred. Ek’ala can be prepared without walnut, with “t’k’emali” (Prunus divaricata). Boiled shoots of ek’ala are mixed with green t’k’emali sauce (sauce is made with crushed coriander seeds (green seeds are desired), dill, pennyroyal, garlic, fennel, pepper, and salt) (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017). Often many other species are used together with Smilax to make pkhali (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017a, b, c, 2017d). Guria: Dzigura (ek’ala) is mixed with crushed walnut, vinegar (t’k’emali or pomegranate), dill, garlic, and salt (Javakhishvili 1986). Adjara: Ek’ala is sorted out, washed, and drained after boiling. Walnut, garlic, dill, pepper, salt, “q’orao” (“k’vats’arakhi”) (ripe t’k’emali juice thickened by boiling and eaten separately or used in cooking (Metreveli 2011) or vinegar. In Samegrelo many plants can be eaten raw or as pkhali (mkhali). The most important one is ghich’i ღიჭი (Smilax excelsa L.), whose young shoots are used for pickling or cooking pkhali. In Guria, wild plants used as food together include dzigura ძიგურა (ek’alaეკალა) Smilax excelsa L., chit’istava ჩიტისთავა Ornithogalum woronowii Krasch., moloka მოლოქა Malva sylvestris L., mt’redis ok’nat’ua მტრედის ოკნატუა Ficaria ssp., wild ts’its’mat’i წიწმატი Cardamine hirsuta L., dedlis kona დედლის ქონა Ranunculus chius DC., khokhbismk’erda ხოხბისმკერდა. To cook pkhali people crush walnuts and mix it with vinegar (t’q’emali or pomegranate sauce), coriander, garlic, and salt mix and season the pkhali with it. jijilaq’a ჯიჯილაყა Amaranthus retroflexus L., if young, must be seasoned with mk’ukhi მკუხი (juice from crushed green grapes added as seasoning), if grapes are already mature, vinegar is used (Javakhishvili 1986). Other pkhali plants in Guria are jijilaq’a ჯიჯილაყა Amaranthus retroflexus L., svint’ri სვინტრი Polygonatum ssp., ch’q’ana ჭყანა Anthriscus cerefolium (L.) Hoffm., ch’andua ჭანდუა, ch’inch’ari ჭინჭარი Urtica dioica L., molokai მოლოქაი Malva sylvestris L., umbalo უმბალო Mentha pulegium L., dedlikonai დედლიქონაი Ranunculus chius DC., pshalai ფშალაი Humulus lupulus L., ek’ala ეკალა Smilax excelsa L., katanatsarai ქათანაცარაი Chenopodium album L., khvartklai ხვართქლაი Convolvulus arvensis, katmikonai ქათმიქონაი Valerianella locusta (L.) Laterr., danduri დანდური Portulaca oleracea L., dzrokhis-ena ძროხის-ენა Phyllitis scolopendrium (L.) Newman, k’at’a კატა, k’at’abarda კატაბარდას Clematis orientalis L., C. vitalba L., sukana სუქანა, tz’q’lis niakhura წყლის ნიახურა Ranunculus repens L., dedliskona დედლისქონა Ranunculus chius DC., ok’nat’ua ოკნატუა Ficaria ssp., tavshava თავშავა Origanum vulgare, asistava ასისთავა Genista ssp., ch’q’ima-mkhali ჭყიმა-მხალი Anthriscus nemorosa (M. Bieb.) Spreng., chit’is tava ჩიტის თავა Ornithogalum woronowii Krasch., jijilaq’a ჯიჯილაყა Amaranthus retroflexus L., ch’inch’ari ჭინჭარი Urtica dioica L., danduri დანდური Portulaca oleracea L., ek’ala ეკალა Smilax excelsa L., jokhia ჯოხია Matteuccia struthiopteris (L.) Tod. (Gvaramadze 1997). Sometimes all these were mixed to cook pkhali; but only young shoots and leaves can be used. They are washed, boiled and minced, and seasoned with vinegar, salt, and pepper at your taste. Crushed walnuts or hazelnuts are added (Figs. 7 and 8).

882 Fig. 7 Smilax excelsa (Smilacaceae), market, Telavi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 8 Smilax excelsa (Smilacaceae), market, Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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References Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Amaranthus retroflexus L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017a. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Matteuccia struthiopteris (L.) Todd. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017b. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Portulaca oleracea L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017c. Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Smilax excelsa L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017d. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, Beer, Snuff, Medicine and loss of diversity – Ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:5. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016c;86(2):3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Gvaramadze K. Results of the study of the Guria region. Tbilisi; 1997. (გვარამაძეკ. 1997. (გურია მხარის კვლევა-ძიების შედეგები თბილისი in Georgian). Javakhishvili I. Materials for the history of household industry and handicraft, vol. V, Part 2: food and drinks. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1986. (ჯავახიშვილი ი. 1986. მასალები შინა მრეწველობისა და ხელოსნობის ისტორიისათვის, ტ. V ნაწ. 2: საჭმელ in Georgian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian).

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Komarov VL. Flora of the USSR, Volume 4: Liliiflorae, Microspermae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1935 (English 1968). 586 pages, 44 b/w plates, 2 maps. Kopaliani L. Forest plants of Georgia (trees, shrubs, herbs). Kutaisi: Publishing Center; 2013. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Metreveli R, editor. Ethnoraphic dictionary of the Georgian material culture. Tbilisi: Meridiani; 2011. (in Georgian). Shengelia Z. The culture of medicinal plants in Georgia. Tbilisi: Sabchota Sakartvelo; 1983. (in Georgian). Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of Russia and adjacent states: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 8. Families Butomaceae – Typhaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1994. 271 p. (in Russian).

Solanum melongena L. Solanum nigrum L. Solanum tuberosum L. SOLANACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze Synonyms Solanum melongena L.: Solanum esculentum Dunal; Solanum insanum L.; Solanum melongena var. depressum L.; Solanum melongena var. esculentum (Dunal) Nees; Solanum melongena var. serpentinum L. Solanum tuberosum L.: Solanum andigenum Juz. & Bukasov; Solanum andigenum subsp. aya-papa Bukasov & Lechn.; Solanum andigenum subsp. bolivianum Lechn.; Solanum andigenum subsp. ecuatorianum Lechn.; Solanum andigenum var. stenophyllum Bukasov; Solanum kesselbrenneri Juz. & Bukasov; Solanum R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_128

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subandigena Hawkes; Solanum tuberosum subsp. andigena (Juz. & Bukasov) Hawkes; Solanum tuberosum L. subsp. tuberosum.

Local Names Solanum melongena Georgian: ბადრიჯანი (badrijani), პატრიჯანი (pat’rijani) Solanum nigrum: Russian: Пасленчерный (paslentserneii); Azeri: гуш юзуму (gush jusumi); Armenian: сев морм (ser morm), Qаrаgilə, quş-üzümi; Georgia: ძაღლყურძენა (dzaghlq’urdzena); English: black nightshade (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991). Solanum tuberosum: Georgian: კარტოფილი (k’art’opili); Russian: Карtофель (kartofeli); Azeri: картоф (kartof); Armenian: картофил (Kartofili) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991).

Botany and Ecology Solanum melongena: Perennial, cultivated as annual. Stem 30–70 cm tall, fleshy, green, or slightly violet to dark mauve, rather densely stellate-pubescent, branched. Lower leaves 7–15 cm long, 3–10 cm broad, alternate; upper leaves smaller, often opposite, ovate, with truncate or cuneate extremely oblique base, from slightly angular or sinuate to shallowly incised or almost lobed, with a few broad, usually obtuse lobes, upper surface green, sparsely stellate-pubescent, grayish pubescent to tomentose underneath with three pairs of prominent veins, usually colored with anthocyanin; petioles almost equaling lamina in lower leaves, 1/4–1/3 as long as lamina in upper leaves. Flowers often solitary but sometimes in 2–3( 5)-flowered racemose cymes with pedicel of lower bisexual flower mostly appearing deflexed 40 independently from stem (due to accretion of lower part of peduncle with stem) in direct proximity of peduncle bearing 2–3 sterile staminate flowers at apex; peduncle, pedicels, and calyx grayish due to stellate pubescence; in bisexual flowers pedicel becoming woody, drooping after flowering. Calyx prickly outside, cleft into 5–8( 9) unequal, narrow, acuminate lobes. Corolla light to dark violet, with yellow stellately arranged stripes inside, plicate, with very short tube and broad limb 3–4 cm across cleft into 5–8( 9) broad, triangular lobes, covered with short, soft indumentum. Stamens alternating with corolla lobes, half as long as corolla. Style tomentose near base, in bisexual flower longer than stamens, bent; in staminate flowers shorter than stamens, erect; stigma 4–5-lobed. Berry large, 5–20 cm and more in length, 5–10 cm in diameter, ovoidoblong to narrowly cylindrical, obtuse, indented at base, mostly purple when mature for harvesting (at complete seed-maturity stage becoming lighter, even yellowish), rarely red or whitish, with thick whitish pulp. Seeds 2–4 mm long, yellowish white, flat. Flowering June–July, fruiting from July (Shishkin and Boborov 1955). Solanum nigrum: Annual. Stems 15–70 cm high that are erect-tall, branching, usually lacking hairs on the stem and smooth. The leaves are 11–13 cm long and 6–8.5 cm wide and mostly oval- or egg-shaped. The leaves have a sharp-tipped shape. The leaf margins are wavy to coarsely toothed or shallowly few lobbed. The

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inflorescences have three to eight flowers, usually extra-axillary; very rarely some are opposite to the leaves, umbrella-shaped. The flower stalk is slightly hairy, but when the fruit ripens, it is usually smooth. The flowers are white, 6–7 mm long (about 2–3 times longer than the calyx). The calyx is smooth, occasionally has hair, with obovate, obtuse, or subacute teeth. The fruit is a berry, which is smooth, 8–10 mm in diameter, and usually black, sometimes green. In gardens, near dwellings, near roads, rubbish heaps, and sometimes in shrubby thickets along river valleys. In all Caucasus region. Distributed from lowland to middle mountain zone throughout. Found in weedy areas, gardens, cotton and tea plantations, in crops, and along riverbanks. Flowering in May–November, fruiting from latter half of June (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961; Shishkin and Boborov 1955). Solanum tuberosum: Cultivated annually. Plants with fibrous roots and trailing shoots, forming tubers. Stem 0.5–1 m tall, branched, cylindrical below, upper part along with branches slightly angular, shortly appressed hairy, green or generally colored with anthocyanin. Leaves interruptedly pinnatisect, with 7–11 large lobes, alternating with small ones; lobes mostly ovate, acuminate, with oblique, usually cordate base tapering into petiole, upper surface subglabrous, lower pubescent. Flowers in terminal inflorescence. Pedicels articulate near middle. Calyx with five lanceolate-acuminate lobes. Corolla white, reddish, violet, or bluish with short tube and broad, plicate, five-angular or shallowly five-lobed limb, 2–3(4) cm in diameter. Anthers yellow. Style curved at base, with capitate stigma. Berry globose, green, 1.5–2 cm in diameter. Flowering June–July (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961; Shishkin and Boborov 1955; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11).

Fig. 1 Solanum tuberosum (Solanaceae), alpine fields, Samtskhe, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

888 Fig. 2 Solanum tuberosum (Solanaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Solanum tuberosum (Solanaceae), garden, Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 4 Solanum tuberosum (Solanaceae), fields, Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Solanum tuberosum (Solanaceae), potato varieties, garden, Chicani, Bolivia, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 6 Solanum tuberosum (Solanaceae), potato varieties, garden, Chicani, Bolivia, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 7 Solanum tuberosum (Solanaceae), potato varieties, garden, Chicani, Bolivia, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses Solanum nigrum: The juice of fresh plants and fruits together with sour milk is used for healing sordid wound and abscess (Damirov et al. 1988). Leaves, stems, and fruits are prepared as infusion and decoction and used in diseases of respiratory

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Fig. 8 Solanum tuberosum (Solanaceae), potato varieties, garden, Chicani, Bolivia, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 9 Solanum tuberosum (Solanaceae), potato varieties, garden, Chicani, Bolivia, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

organs and as sedative and expectorant. Intestinal diseases: The infusion and decoction of leaves, stems, and fruits are used as laxative. An infusion of fruits is used as diuretic in dropsy or edemas and as antipyretic in malaria. The fruits serve as vitamin supplement in scurvy (Grossheim 1943; Fedorov 1949). The stems and roots are chewed to relieve toothache and inflammations of the gums. The fruits and roots are used for rheumatism and wounds (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, d, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

Local Food Uses Solanum melongena: In Caucasus and Middle Asia, eggplants are one of the main vegetable crops. Immature fruits are used in processed form as food. Fresh fruits are used in various preparations and sauces or stuffed, stewed, roasted. They are also preserved in dried and pickled form (Sokolov 1990). Solanum nigrum: Ripe fruits are edible with sweetish, somewhat sugary taste. Used in limited quantities, raw, and in the form of filling for pies. The young leaves can be

892 Fig. 10 Solanum tuberosum (Solanaceae), potato planting, garden, Chicani, Bolivia, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 11 Solanum tuberosum (Solanaceae), potato planting, garden, Chicani, Bolivia, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 12 Solanum melongena (Solanaceae), pickled, market, Telavi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 13 Solanum melongena (Solanaceae), young plants, Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

used like spinach (Grossheim 1952). Both fruits and leaves are eaten (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, d, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Figs. 12, 13, 14, and 15). Solanum nigrum: Mature fruits with sweetish taste are used as food raw (limited) and to make jam. Young leaves are used as spinach (Grossheim 1946; Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961). Solanum tuberosum: Potatoes are very widely eaten. Young leaves are sometimes consumed in khachapuri and phkhali, but only after careful preparation, (Bussmann et al. 2016d, 2017), and only mixed with lots of other plants. Also used to produce alcohol and are sometimes pickled (Grossheim 1943, 1946; Fedorov 1949; Qasimov 1980; Damirov et al. 1988; Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, d, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Solanum nigrum: A dye solution is prepared from flowers, leaves, and fruits to obtain yellow and orange colors and is used for dyeing wool yarn as well as products made of wool (Qasimov 1980).

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Fig. 14 Solanum melongena (Solanaceae), market, Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 15 Solanum melongena (Solanaceae), filled eggplants, Chicani, Bolivia, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

References Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Chenopodium album L., Chenopodium foliosum L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1.

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Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plant and fungal use in Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016c;86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE, Pieroni A. Your poison in my pie – the use of Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) leaves in Sakartvelo, Georgia (Caucasus) and Gollobordo, Eastern Albania. Econ Bot. 2016d;70(4):431–7. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Damirov IA, Prilipko LI. Shukurov DZ, Kerimov YB. Medicinal plants of Azerbaijan. Baku; 1988. (in Russian). Fedorov AA. The herbs applied in traditional medicine of the Talysh. Baku, Publishing house of AS of USSR; 1949. (in Russian). Flora of Azerbaijan, volumes. I–VIII. Baku, AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1950–1961. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Herbs of the Caucasus. Baku, Azerbaijani Branch of AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1943. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant resources of the Caucasus. Baku, Publishing house of AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1946. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Qasimov MA. Dye plants of Azerbaijan. Baku, Azerbaijan State Publishing House; 1980. (in Azeri). Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, Volume 22: Solanaceae and Scrophulariaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1955 (English 1993). 745 pages. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: Flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 5. Families of Caprifoliaceae – Plantaginaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1990. 328 p. (in Russian).

Sonchus asper (L.) Hill Solanum oleraceus L. ASTERACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Sonchus asper (L.) Hill: Picrosia australis Decne. Picrosia longifolia D. Don.; Sonchus asper (L.) Vill.; Sonchus carolinianus Walter; Sonchus gigas subsp. medius Boulos; Sonchus oleraceus var. asper L.; Sonchus spinosus Lam.; Tragopogon fritillarioides Less. Solanum oleraceus L.: Sonchus ciliatus Lam.; Sonchus gracilis Phil.; Sonchus mairei H. Lév.; Sonchus maritimus Sessé & Moc.; Sonchus plumieri Sessé & Mac.; Sonchus rivularis Phil. R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_129

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Local Names Georgian: ღიჭა (ghich’a), ღენჭო (ghench’o); Russian: Осот (osot); Armenian: ишомарон (ishomaron) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991).

Botany and Ecology Sonchus asper: Annual. Root slender, narrowly conical or fusiform, usually branched. Stem (10 )30–75( 100) cm high, finely sulcate, fistular, simple or branched, glabrous or covered with dark, stalked, glandular hairs above. Leaves somewhat stiff or almost coriaceous, less often thin and soft, dark green or sometimes light bluish, oblong or obovate, 6–15 cm long and 1.5–8 cm wide, undivided, sinuate-pinnatifid, or, less often, pinnatisect, with unevenly spinescent teeth; lower leaves on winged petiole, middle and upper leaves sessile, with roundish auricles appressed to stem. Capitula less numerous (usually 5–10), in corymbose or umbellate-corymbose inflorescence; peduncles glabrous or glandular hairy, often much longer than usually undeveloped capitula; fully developed capitula with 100–150 florets. Involucre campanulate or bowl-shaped, 10–12( 15) mm long, (6 )10–15( 25) mm wide, bracts dark green, narrowly ovate, lanceolate or oblong, usually three-rowed. Corolla yellow. Achenes oblong-obovoid, flat, light or dark brown, 2.5–3(3.5) mm long and 0.75–1 mm wide, not rugose transversely (or weakly rugose), usually winged, weakly toothed (under high magnification!) along margin, mostly with three prominent longitudinal ribs on each side; pappus of numerous thin and soft, white, almost smooth, weakly toothed (under high magnification), fragile hairs, two times or slightly more as long as achenes. Flowering June–September. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, as weed in gardens, vineyards, along roads, in thickets of steppes, river valleys, up to the middle mountain belt (Boborov and Tzvelev 1964; Figs. 1 and 2). Sonchus oleraceus: Annual (sometimes biennial). Root narrowly conical or fusiform. Stem 30–100 cm high, finely sulcate, fistular, simple or branched, glabrous or glandular-hairy above. Leaves not stiff, dull, 10–18( 22) cm long and 5–7 ( 12) cm wide, pinnatipartite or lyrate with large terminal, triangular lobe, finely sinuate-toothed, with somewhat spinescent teeth; lower leaves on winged petiole with wide amplexicaul base; upper leaves sessile, with sagittate auricles at base. Capitula mostly few (usually 5–15), in corymbose or umbellate-corymbose inflorescence; peduncles and bases of capitula arachnoid- or flocculose-lanate when young, sometimes glandular hairy; some capitula often undeveloped, normally with 100–125(150) florets. Involucre campanulate or bowl-shaped, 10–12 mm long and (6 )10–15(25) mm wide; bracts dark green, usually three-rowed, sometimes dorsally with few glandular hairs. Corolla yellow, less often whitish. Achenes oblong-obovoid, somewhat narrowed toward base, more or less strongly compressed, light brown, brown, or dark brown, 2.5–3, mm long, 1 mm wide, weakly toothed along margin (under high magnification!), with three or less often

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Fig. 1 Sonchus asper (Asteraceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Sonchus asper (Asteraceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

more prominent longitudinal ribs on each side, finely rugose transversely; pappus of numerous thin, soft, white, almost smooth bristles (slightly barbed under high magnification), two times as long as achene. Flowering June–October. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, as weed in field, kitchen gardens, irrigated areas, along roads, along river banks, to the middle mountain belt (Boborov and Tzvelev 1964; Figs. 3, 4, and 5).

900 Fig. 3 Sonchus oleraceus (Asteraceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Sonchus oleraceus (Asteraceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 5 Sonchus oleraceus (Asteraceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Latex, aliphatic alcohols (taraxasterol, lupeol, n-nonocyanate, n-hentriacontane, n-tritriacontane), triterpenoids (taraxasterol), steroids (sitosterol, stigmasterol, campesterol), sequiterpenoids (uzanin C, macrocliniside A, crepidiazide A, picriside B, picriside C), flavonoids (apigenin, luteolin, quercetin, quercimeritrin, cynaroside, isocinaroside luteolin), vitamins (C), coumarins (scopoletin, cichorianine), fatty acids (Sokolov 1993).

Local Medicinal Uses In the region the plants are widely used for wound healing and as diuretic (Sokolov 1993).

Local Food Uses In the Caucasus the young leaves are used as a salad (Sokolov 1993). In Khevi many species are mixed together for pkhali: ghoris nats’q’la-i ღორის ნაწყლა-ი Sonchus ssp., mch’ivana-i მჭივანა-ი – Silene wallichiana Klotzsch; maq’randutsa-i მაყრანდუცა-ი Anthriscus sylvestris (L.) Hoffm. maq’rats’ela მაყრაწელა-ი; diq’inch’ora-ghrich’ola დიყინჭორა-ღრინჭოლა/j’q’imi’ჭყიმი Anthriscus nemorosa (M. Bieb.) Spreng; k’ats’a-i კაწა-ი Campanula rapunculoides L. (its root is also edible), ts’iteli pkhali წითელი/jijilaq’a წითელი ჯიჯილაყა Amaranthus hybridus L., nadirmkhalai ნადირმხალაი Aruncus vulgaris Raf., saskhep’iai სასხეპიაი Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., ch’inch’ari ჭინჭარი Urtica dioica L., gholo ღოლო

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Rumex ssp., tatami თათამას Atriplex hortensis L., Khevi. People use the following plants as food: shalgi შალგი Brassica campestris L., khakhot’i ხახოტი Bunias orientalis L., mamula მამულა Artemisia vulgaris L., ts’its’mat’ura წიწმატურა Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik., khboshublai ხბოშუბლაი Galega orientalis Lam (Bakhtadze and Koghuashvili 2009; Kavtaradze 1985; Sujashvili and Pitskhelauri 2005). რძეონა Sonchus spp. are eaten raw in Khevi (Bakhtadze and Koghuashvili 2009; Kavtaradze 1985; Sujashvili and Pitskhelauri 2005). Mkhlovani მხლოვანი herb pie was originally widely baked. This type of pie was prepared from several pkhali plants cut in thin pieces: kvishamkhalai ქვიშამხალაი Silene lacera Sims., khboshublai ხბოშუბლაი Galega orientalis Lam., tatamai თათამაი Atriplex hortensis L., mch’vanai მჭივანაი Silene wallichiana Klotzsch, ghoris nats’lavai ღორის ნაწლევი Sonchus spp. (Bakhtadze and Koghuashvili 2009; Kavtaradze 1985; Sujashvili and Pitskhelauri 2005). In Mtiuleti-Gudamakari boiled mkhali is mixed with clarified butter, or sometimes boiled, then wrapped in a dough and baked in a furnace or on ketsi კეცი (a clay plate-shaped pan for baking). Mkhali plants are ch’inch’ari ჭინჭარი Urtica dioica L., natsarkatama ნაცარქათამა Chenopodium album L., tik’niq’ura თიკნიყურა Myosotis sparsiflora J.C. Mikan ex Pohl, bolok’ai ბოლოკაი (reddish without bulbs) Rapistrum rugosum (L.) All., tskhenis sakhvremela ცხენის სახვრემელა Sonchus ssp., gholo ღოლოს Rumex ssp., gvirila გვირილა Pyrethrum ssp. (the “ramashka” “რამაშკა” flowers are discarded); tetra mkhalai თეთრაი მხალაის Amaranthus retroflexus L., ts’itelai mkhalai წითელაი მხალაი Amaranthus hybridus L. (Javakhishvili 1986). In Khevsureti the local population uses a variety of plants growing in wild for cooking mixed mkhali, e.g., dzirkhvena ძირხვენა Arctium lappa L.; k’enk’esha კენკეშა Campanula lactiflora M. Bieb. young, peeled shoots are used as food; tvitmavala თვითმავალა Amaranthus retroflexsus L. grows in vegetable gardens and ruderal places. The aboveground parts of the plant are harvested; boiled; mixed with clarified butter, onions, and herbs; and eaten; ckhenis sakhvremi ცხენის სახვრემი Sonchus ssp., mochik’ais t’ari მოჩიკაის ტარი Campanula rapunculoides L., mch’ivana მჭივანა Silene wallichiana Klotzsch (Bakhtadze and Koghuashvili 2009; Chincharauli 2005). In Kartli kalak’oda ქალაკოდა Arum orientale M. Bieb., shavmkhala შავმხალა Amaranthus retroflexus L., kharik’bila ხარიკბილა/khach’mach’ich’a ხაჭმაჭიჭა/ odelia-khali ოდელია-ხალი Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik., shalgi შალგი Brassica campestris L., ghrinch’ola ღრინჭოლა Anthriscus nemorosa (M. Bieb.) Spreng., ghoriskona-khali ღორისქონა-ხალი Sonchus ssp. are used for pkhali (Javakhishvili 1986). The leaves and shoots are used for phkhali (herb pie) (Bussmann et al. 2016, 2018).

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses Fodder for livestock. They are also good honey plants (Bussmann et al. 2016, 2018; Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1993).

References Bakhtadze D, Koghuashvili P. Nutrition culture of the Georgians. Tbilisi: Georgian Academy of Sciences; 2009. (ბახტაძე დ., კოღუაშვილი პ. 2009. ქართველთა კვების კულტურა. თბილისი, in Georgian). Boborov EG, Tzvelev NN. Flora of the USSR, Volume 29: Compositae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1964 (English 2001). 832 pages, 34 plates. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Chincharauli A. Dictionary of Khevsurian dialect. Tbilisi: Kartuli Ena; 2005. (ჭინჭარაული ა. 2005. ხევსურული ლექსიკონი. თბილისი: ქართული ენა in Georgian.) Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Javakhishvili I. Materials for the history of household industry and handicraft, vol. V, Part 2: food and drinks. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1986. (ჯავახიშვილი, ი. 1986. მასალები შინა მრეწველობისა და ხელოსნობის ისტორიისათვის, ტ. V ნაწ. 2: საჭმელ in Georgian). Kavtaradze I. Mokhevian dialect of the Georgian language. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1985. (ქავთარაძე ი. 1985. ქართული ენის მოხევური დიალექტი. თბილისი: მეცნიერება in Georgian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Sokolov PD, editor. Plant Resources of the USSR: Flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 7. Family Asteraceae (Compositae). Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1993. 352 p. (in Russian). Sujashvili N, Pitskhelauri I. Dictionary of Mokhevian dialect. Tbilisi; 2005. (სუჯაშვილი ნ., ფიცხელაური ი. 2005. მოხევური ლექსიკონი. თბილისი), Metsniereba.

Sorbus aucuparia L. ROSACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Sorbus aucuparia L.: Aucuparia sylvestris Medik.; Mespilus aucuparia (L.) Scop.; Pyrenia aucuparia (L.) Clairv.; Pyrus aucuparia (L.) Gaertn.; Pyrus rossica A. D. Danilov; Sorbus altaica Koehne; Sorbus amurensis Koehne; Sorbus anadyrensis Kom.; Sorbus boissieri C. K. Schneid.; Sorbus camschatcensis Kom.; Sorbus glabrata (Wimm. & Grab.) Hedl.; Sorbus pohuashanensis (Hance) Hedl.; Sorbus polaris Koehne

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_130

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Local Names Sorbus aucuparia: Russian: Рябина (rjabina) (Russian); Azeri, гуш армуду (gush armudu); Armenian: цтихндзор (ztichidsor); Georgian: Sorbus aucuparia (S. caucasigena, S. boissieri): ცირცელი (tsirtseli), ჭკნავი (ch’k’navi), ჭნავი (ch’navi); Megrelian: ამჩვაშა (amchvasha), ჩვახა (ch’vakha); Svan: გოგლანდ (gogland), გოგლანდი (goglandi); Mokhevian: მწორო – mts’oro; Acharian: მჭკნავი (mch’k’navi); Rachian: მჭნავი (mch’navi); Mthiuletian: წორო (ts’oro) Meskhetian, Rachian, Lechkhumian, Imeretian, Gurian: ჭნავი (ch’navi) Sorbus torminalis: Georgian: თამელი (tameli); Imeretian: ბალღოჯი (balghoji); Gurian and Acharian: დათვამსხალა (datvamskhala); Rachian and Imeretian: დათვიმსხალა (datvimskhala), დათვიხალა (datvikhala); Svan: დაშდვმურგვი (dashdv murgvi), მუურგუ (muurgu), მურგვი (murgvi); Megrelian: თუნთიში სხული (tuntishi skhuli), შხერაჯი (shkheraji) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991); English: mountain ash.

Botany and Ecology Tree, 4–20 m tall, with ovate crown, more or less ascending branches, grayish, smooth bark, and pubescent juvenile twigs. Buds 9–18 mm, ovoid-conical, tomentose. The leaves 9–30  4–18 cm, pinnate. The leaflets 4–9 paired, 1.2–9  0.6–2.7 cm in shape, serration. The inflorescence is 8–17 cm in diameter, dense, many-flowered, and wooly pubescent at first. The flowers 8–15 mm in diameter. The fruit is subglobose, scarlet or yellow orange, with a few inconspicuous lenticels. The seeds are lanceolate. The seeds are slightly curved, 2–4 mm. The plant can be found in the woods, pine forests, rocky igneous slopes, usually from 1500 to 2500 m Ural, Caucasus, on forest fringes, glades, river banks, less often in meadows, on rocky places and cliffs, up to the timberline. Widely planted (Yuzepchuk 1939; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6).

Phytochemistry Triterpenoids (lupeol, betulin, 2,3-hydroxibetuline, ursolic acid, a-amirine), cyanogenic compounds, phenylcarboxylic acids (chlorogenic, isochlororene, coffee, p-kumaric), flavonoids (rutine, astraaline, kaempferol, isocitritrine, quercithine, isoquercetin, meratine, hyperoside), anthocyanins, carbohydrates (glucose, fructose, sucrose, L-sorbose, sorbitol, mannitol), organic acids (apple, lemon, wine, sorbic, ursolic, oleanolic), vitamins (C, B2, E, carotene), catechins (epicatechin gallate, epigallocatechine, epirallocatechallate), phenolcarbonic acids (coffee, chlorogenic, pseudochlorogenic, neochlorogenic, isochlorogenic, ferulic, oumaric), tannins, leucocyanidins, fatty acids (Sokolov 1987).

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Fig. 1 Sorbus aucuparia (Rosaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Sorbus aucuparia (Rosaceae), Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 3 Sorbus aucuparia (Rosaceae), Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Sorbus aucuparia (Rosaceae), Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses A decoction of the flowers is used to remedy liver disease, kidney and urinary tract infections, and problems of the gastrointestinal tract and for metabolic disorders, hemorrhoids, colds, and coughs. The fruits serve as diuretic, laxative, hemostatic, and contraceptive and for malignant tumors. Especially in the Western Ural, fruit

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Fig. 5 Sorbus aucuparia (Rosaceae), Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana) Fig. 6 Sorbus aucuparia (Rosaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

extracts are used to treat diseases of the liver and kidneys, ascites, diarrhea, rheumatism, metabolic disorders, hypovitaminosis, whooping cough, throat disease, and glaucoma and are applied externally for wound-healing. In the wider region, Sorbus aucuparia is used for complex therapies in thyrotoxicosis, diabetes, hypertension and atherosclerosis, decreased immunity, gastritis with low acidity, hypertension, and anemia. The fruit juice contributes to strengthening the walls of blood vessels but significantly increases blood clotting (Sokolov 1987). The plant has antitumor, antisclerotic, anti-inflammatory, hypotensive, pressure-regulating properties, regulates digestion, promotes the removal of heavy metals and radioactive materials from the body, and affects the body’s hematopoietic activity (Amirdovlat 1927; Isotova et al. 2010; Gabrielyan 2001; Gammarman and Grom 1976; Grossheim 1952; Gubanov et al. 1976; Harutyunyan 1990; Mardjanyan 2008; Nosal and Nosal

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1991; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2014; Turova and Sapojnikova 1982; Vardanyan 1979; Zolotnitskaya 1958–1965). The leaves contain bitter that contributes to formation and removal of bile (Grossheim 1952; Budantseva 1994–1996; Sokolov 1984–1993; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2007; Zolotnitskaya 1958–1965). Sorbus aucuparia is used for colds. A water infusion of fruits is used as sudorific and antipyretic. The juice of fresh fruits or a water infusion of dried fruits is applied in gastroenteric diseases, especially in dysentery and as laxative. The juice of fresh fruits, or a water infusion and decoction of dried fruits, is also used as diuretic, for the treatment of diabetes, and against hemorrhoids. A water extract has anastaltic properties. Fruits, both dried and fresh, are used as vitamin supplement (Damirov et al. 1988). Sorbus sp. fruits, flowers, and leaves are in use as antidiarrheal, antiinflammatory, and a remedy for abdominal distention; the flowers are used to heal urolithiasis, while ripe fruits can help atherosclerosis (Kopaliani 2013). A leaf decoction is used to relieve cramps, and the fruit tincture is applied to relieve heart problems and hypertension and applied to disinfect wounds and for digestive disorders. Sometimes they can be found in local markets (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

Local Food Uses Fruits are edible fresh forming only after the first frost. The fruits are eaten fresh and used to make sweets. In the Caucasus the fruits are used to make alcohol and as replacement for tea and coffee. Sorbus aucuparia fruits are used usually after the first frost or dried (Sokolov 1987). From fresh fruits jam, marmalade, kvass, wine, and vinegar are prepared, and the fruits are used for some cakes, brandy and liquor, as well as tea (Grossheim 1952; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2007). Fruits contain sugars, organic acids, carotene, vitamins C and P, tannins, essential oils, etc. The seeds contain glycosides and amygdalin (Grossheim 1952; Budantseva 1994–1996; Sokolov 1984–1993; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2007; Zolotnitskaya 1958–1965). In Tusheti rowan ცირცელი tsitrseli fruits become sweet in late autumn and are used to prepare jams and juice after the first frost (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017). Sorbus fruits are fermented to make alcohol, added to beer, and eaten fresh (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017). ts’oro წორო Sorbus caucasigena Kom. fruits are eaten in Khevi (Makalatia 1934; Figs. 7 and 8).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses In veterinary medicine the fruits are used in the Ural to treat diarrhea in calves. The wood is used in carpentry, for furniture, and for musical instruments. The bark is used to dye wool and silk in red-brown and black tones. Sorbus aucuparia has reddish wood that is hard and flexible and is used for furniture and musical

Sorbus aucuparia L. Fig. 7 Sorbus aucuparia (Rosaceae), drying for winter, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 8 Sorbus aucuparia (Rosaceae), jam, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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instruments. Honey and decorative plant, useful species for reforestation and landscaping. Sorbus aucuparia is also used for dyeing. Black color is obtained from young branches. This is a beautiful tree, mainly in the period of flowering and fruiting, as well as in autumn with bright coloration of the leaves (Sokolov 1987). Good nectariferous plant produces much nectar and pollen (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961). All parts of plant and especially the bark contain tannins and are used to cure leather (Grossheim 1946; Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961). The fine-grained wood is firm, solid, and used in turnery. Different national musical instruments are made of it. The wood is used to manufacture furniture and tool handles and for household utensils and also in construction, especially for fences (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017). The wood of the mountain ash is quite heavy, resistant, firm, dense, elastic, caustic, thin layer, and reddish in colors that are well polished. Burns bright, but strongly smokes; good quality charcoal. Used in the manufacture of rollers, blocks, cylinders, machine teeth, and small carpentry. Often used for making musical instruments and furniture (Grossheim 1952).

References Amirdovlat A. Angitats anpet. Vienna: University of Vienna; 1927. (in Armenian). Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Sorbus aucuparia L.; Sorbus torminalis (L.) Crantz. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Budantseva AL, editor. Plant resources of Russia and neighboring countries, vol. 1–2. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1994–1996. (in Russian). Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:5. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol; 2016c;86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):25–34.

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Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Damirov IA, Prilipko LI, Shukurov DZ, Kerimov YB. Medicinal plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Maaraif; 1988. (in Russian). Flora of Azerbaijan. Volumes I–VIII. Baku: AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1950–1961. (in Russian). Gabrielyan E. Herbal medicine national register. Yerevan: Ministry of Health; 2001. (in Armenian). Gammarman A, Grom I. Wild medicinal plants of the USSR. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1976. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant resources of the Caucasus. Baku: Publishing House of AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1946. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Gubanov I, Krilova I, Tikhonova V. Wild useful plants of the USSR. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1976. (in Russian). Harutyunyan H. Medieval Armenian phytotherapy herbs. Yerevan: Luys; 1990. (in Armenian). Isotova MA, Sarafakova NA, Mkscho BI, Ionova AA. Great encyclopedia of traditional medicine. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 2010. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Kopaliani L. Forest plants of Georgia (trees, shrubs, herbs). Kutaisi: Publishing Center; 2013. (in Georgian). Makalatia S. Khevi. Tbilisi: Sakhelgami; 1934. (მაკალათია ს. 1934. ხევი. ტფილისი: სახელგამი in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Mardjanyan KS. Stepanos Shahrimanyan’s “Botany of flora of Armenia”. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 2008. (in Russian) Nosal M, Nosal I. Medicinal plants and methods for their use by people. Leningrad: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1991. (in Russian). Sokolov PD. Plant resources of the USSR, vol. 1–7. Leningrad: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1984–1993. (in Russian). Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 3. Hydrangeaceae-Haloragaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1987. 326 p. (in Russian). Tsaturyan T, Gevorgyan M. Wild edible plants of Armenia. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 2007. (in Armenian). Tsaturyan T, Gevorgyan M. Wild medicinal plants of Armenia. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 2014. (in Armenian). Turova A, Sapojnikova E. Medicinal plants of the USSR and their use. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1982. (in Russian). Vardanyan S. Pharmacology in ancient Armenia. Hist Philol J. 1979;2:179–94. (in Armenian). Yuzepchuk SV. Flora of the USSR, Volume 9: Rosales and Sarraceniales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1939 (English 1971). 425 pages, 30 plates with b/w line drawings, 2 b/w fold-out maps. Zolotnitskaya S. Medicinal resources of the flora of Armenia, vol. 1–2. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 1958–1965. (in Russian).

Swertia iberica Fisch. & C. A. Mey. GENTIANACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Local Names Georgian: გაბლუარაი (gabluarai) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991)

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_131

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Botany and Ecology Perennial; rootstock ascending, fairly stout, densely covered with fibrous roots; stem erect, simple or rarely slightly branched in upper part 20–40 (60) cm long; leaves alternate, except the sometimes opposite uppermost leaves; basal and lower leaves flat, the very broad petiole shorter than to as long as the blade; leaf blade 5-nerved, ovate to ovate oblong, 7–10 (14) cm long, (3) 4–8 mm broad, obtuse, sometimes mucronate; cauline leaves 3–4 (5), alternate, gradually diminishing in size, oblongovate to lanceolate, short-petioled or sessile, acute, the uppermost 2–4 cm long; inflorescence 10–30 cm long, loosely long paniculate; lower pedicels long, the others about as long as the flowers; flowers 5-merous; calyx 5–7 mm long; calyx segments narrowly linear subulate, about half the length of corolla; corolla 11–13 mm long; corolla lobes oblong- lanceolate, acute, whitish yellow, commonly dark blue dotted (var. albida) or rarely dingy blue (var. coerulea); nectariferous pits in pairs at lobe base, round, long fringed; capsule oblong ovoid, ca. 10 mm long; seeds flat, brown, ovaloid, annular-winged. Flowering July–September. Caucasus, wet meadows and banks in the high mountain zone (Shishkin and Boborov 1952; Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Fig. 1 Swertia iberica (Gentianaceae), Svaneti, Ushguli, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Swertia iberica (Gentianaceae), Svaneti, Ushguli, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Swertia iberica (Gentianaceae), Svaneti, Ushguli, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Alkaloids, xanthones (sveriacerperin, dekussatine, renthiacoquihidine, norvercyanine, isocyanothiocyanine, overcoaiberine, xanthones, manniferine), flavonoids (Sokolov 1990)

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Local Medicinal Uses Swertia is a large genus, and many species have medicinal value. Swertia chirayita is used in the Himalayas for malaria and as blood purifier (Bhat et al. 2013), as well as anthelminthic, stomatic, laxative, for jaundice and skin ailments, and as hypoglycemic (Kunwar et al. 2009), while Swertia ciliata serves to lower fever (Bhat et al. 2013). Swertia angustifolia serves to treat blood diseases and fever (Kumar et al. 2011), as well as asthma (Kunwar and Bussmann 2009; Kunwar et al. 2012, 2013, 2015, 2016).

Local Food Uses The leaves are sometimes used in Chave (Bussmann et al. 2016).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses In the Northern Caucasus (Ossetia), the root extract is used as anthelminthic and for wound infections by fly larvae in cattle. Very bitter, used in liquors (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1990).

References Bhat JA, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1):1–18. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Medicinal, aromatic and dye plants of Baitadi and Darchula Districts, Nepal Himalaya: status, uses and management. In: Hartmann M, Weipert J, editors. Biodiversität, Naturausstattung im Himalaya, vol. III. Naturkundemuseum Erfurt; 2009. p. 475–89. Kumar M, Bussmann RW, Mukesh J, Kumar P. Ethnomedicinal uses of plants close to rural habitation in Garhwal Himalayan, India. J Med Plant Res. 2011;5(11):2252–60. Kunwar RM, Upreti Y, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Indigenous use and ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in Far-west Nepal. Ethnobotany Res Appl. 2009;7:5–28. Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Sharma LN, Shrestha KP, Kominee H, Bussmann RW. Underutilized plant species in Far-West Nepal – a valuable resource being wasted. J Mt Sci. 2012;9:589–600.

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Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Acharya RP, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants, traditional medicine, markets and management in far-west Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:24. Kunwar RM, et al. Medicinal plant dynamics in indigenous medicines in Farwest Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;163:210–219. Kunwar RM, Uprety S, Evans A, Ansari AS, Ram A, Mainal J, Rimal B, Bussmann RW. Dynamics of indigenous medicinal plants and medicines in Farwestern Nepal. I. International Conference on Research for Sustainable Development in Mountain Regions, Bragança, Portugal, October 5–7; 2016. Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, Volume 18: Metachlamydeae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1952 (English 1967). 600 pages. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 5. Families of Caprifoliaceae – Plantaginaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1990. 328 p. (in Russian).

Tagetes erecta L. ASTERACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Tagetes erecta L.: Tagetes elongata Willd.; Tagetes ernstii H. Rob. & Nicolson; Tagetes excelsa Soule; Tagetes heterocarpha Rydb.; Tagetes major Gaertn.; Tagetes patula L.; Tagetes remotifolia Kunze; Tagetes tenuifolia Cav.

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_132

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Local Names Georgian: ზაფრანა (zaprana), ზაფრანე (zaprane), იმერული (imeruli zaphrana), ხავერდა (khaverda); Svan: გულყვითელა (gulqhvithela) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991)

Botany and Ecology Annual. Plant 50–150 cm high, strongly aromatic, glabrous. Stem erect, longitudinally finely ribbed, with upright branches. Leaves pinnately divided, 5–10 cm long, 4–8 cm wide, with lanceolate lobes, 0.8–3.0 cm long, 1.5–4.0 mm wide, sharply serrate, with 3 mm long awns (in upper leaves). Capitula solitary, cup-shaped; involucre 1.8–2.0 cm long, 1 cm wide, smooth, of five connate bracts, apices of bracts 2–3 mm long, 2 mm wide, acute. Ligulate florets 2.9 cm long, with yellow- or dark-orange corollas 2 cm long, tube 5 mm long, ligules obovate, 1.4 cm long, 1.2 cm wide, tapered to base, emarginate, smooth; tubular florets with yellow, smooth corollas, 9 mm long with five, 1.5- to 2.0-mm-long teeth. Achenes linear, tapered at base, 8–1 1 mm long, 1 mm wide, black or brown, covered with short, chestnut-colored, upward-appressed hairs; pappus of short (0.6 cm long) and long (1 cm long) scales. Flowering July–August (Shishkin 1959). Tagetes erecta is indigenous to Mexico and Guatemala and most probably naturalized in the rest of Central America and the Western Andes of South America (Shishkin 1959; Figs. 1 and 2).

Fig. 1 Tagetes erecta (Asteraceae), garden, Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Tagetes erecta (Asteraceae), garden, Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Organic acids (fumaric acid), essential oils (ocimenone, aromadendrene, ocimene, tagetone, dihydrotagetone, isobutyl-3-methyl-2-furancarbaldehyde, limonene, linalool, evedemol), phenylcarboxylic acids (lilac), flavonoids (quercetrahydrine, patulintrine), sulfur-containing compounds (Sokolov 1993).

Local Medicinal Uses The whole herb is considered medicinal with anthelmintic, aromatic, digestive, diuretic, sedative, and stomachic properties. It is used internally to treat indigestion, colic, severe constipation, dysentery, cough, and fever and externally to treat sores, ulcers, eczema, sore eyes, and rheumatism. In the Northern Caucasus used as a diuretic (Sokolov 1993).

Local Food Uses The flowers are used as spice and to color food (Sokolov 1993). Introduced species. The flowers and leaves are used as food and spice, as replacement for saffron, and are an ingredient for Svanetian salt. The roots are also eaten (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017) and are often mixed with Carum sp. (Mehdiyeva et al. 2017; Fig. 3).

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Fig. 3 Tagetes erecta (Asteraceae), drying for winter, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Fresh and dry flowers can be used to dye wool, silk, and cellulose fibers into shades of golden yellow to orange and olive green to bronze, depending on the mordanting substances used. Tagetes erecta is popular worldwide as an ornamental, in Central America particularly in cemeteries. In Honduras, a water extract of the plants was formerly used to wash corpses because of the strong fragrance of the essential oil. Sometimes Tagetes erecta is planted in crop fields as an insect repellent because of its sharp peculiar smell, although the plant itself is susceptible to insect pests. In India it is grown for its essential oil from which an “attar” is produced. The extract is used in perfumes (Sokolov 1993). In Eastern Africa Tagetes minuta is used against ectoparasites (Njoroge and Bussmann 2006).

References Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti,

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Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus – Georgia. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017a. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian) Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Metsniereba: Tbilisi; 1991. (in Georgian). Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Carum carvi L.; Carum caucasicum Boiss. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Herbal usage and informant consensus in ethnoveterinary management of cattle diseases among the Kikuyus (Central Kenya). J Ethnopharmacol. 2006;108:332–9. Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 25: Compositae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1959 (English 1990). 666 pages. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant Resources of the USSR: Flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, Volume 7. Family Asteraceae (Compositae). Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1993. 352 p. (in Russian).

Taraxacum confusum Schischk. Taraxacum officinale F.H. Wigg ASTERACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Taraxacum officinale F.H. Wigg: Leontodon taraxacum L.; Leontodon vulgare Lam.; Taraxacum dens-leonis Desf.; Taraxacum mexicanum DC.; Taraxacum officinale var. palustre Blytt; Taraxacum retroflexum H. Lindb.; Taraxacum subspathulatum A.J. Richards; Taraxacum sylvaticum R. Doll.; Taraxacum taraxacum (L.) H. Karst.; Taraxacum tenejapense A.J. Richards; Taraxacum vulgare Schrank.

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_133

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Local Names Taraxacum confusum: Georgian, საღვიძლა (saghvidzla); Tush: ბურბუშელა (burbushela Tush.) Taraxacum officinale: Georgian, ბაბუაწვერა (babuats’vera), საღვიძლა (saghvidzla); Svan, ბურბუშელა (burbushela), ნაგურელა (nagurela); Tush, ფანდურპაპაი (pandurpapai); Russian, Oдувaнчиклeкapcтвeнный (Oduvanchik lekarstvennyy), Одуванчик (odvantshik); Azeri, аджыговух (adsheigovuk); Armenian, хатутик (chatutik) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991); English, Dandelion

Botany and Ecology Taraxacum confusum: Perennial. Plants with rather thick, often many-headed root; root collar covered with numerous, somewhat lustrous, dark brown remnants of dead leaves, glabrous. Leaves green, glabrous or subglabrous, 4–14 cm long and 5–30 mm wide, usually truncinately pinnatipartite or pinnatilobate, with wide or narrow deltoid, often more or less deflexed lateral segments and lobes; terminal lobe always larger. Scapes erect or ascending, slightly longer than leaves or almost as long, more or less covered with lax arachnoid-hairy tomentum below capitula, usually subglabrous in the remaining part. Involucres 10–15 mm long, green; outer involucral bracts lanceolate-ovate to lanceolate, not closely appressed to inner bracts or more or less deflected from them, somewhat wider than them, with very narrow scarious border, often more or less pinkish, with rather large but obtuse subterminal cornicle; inner bracts oblong-linear, usually two times as long as longest outer bracts; with well-developed subobtuse, subterminal cornicles. Florets light yellow, peripheral florets with wide dark stripe on the outer side; corolla glabrous or subglabrous. Achenes light brown; body 3–4 mm long, with rather numerous, acute, tubercles in the upper third; cone 0.4–0.6 mm long; well separated from beak, beak 6–9 mm long; pappus 6–7 mm long, white. Flowering July–August. Caucasus, meadows, stony slopes in alpine zone of mountains (Boborov and Tzvelev 1964; Figs. 1, 2, and 3). Taraxacum officinale: Perennial. Plants. 5–50 cm high, with more or less thick, usually vertical root; root collar more or less woolly, less often glabrous. Leaves 10–25 cm long and 1.5–5.0 cm wide, pinnatipartite or pinnatilobate, with more or less deflexed, often toothed, lateral lobes and larger terminal lobes, less often undivided, sinuate-toothed, scatteredly hairy to entirely glabrous. Scapes with more or less profuse arachnoid hairy tomentum. Involucre 13–20 mm long, green, outer involucral bracts broadly lanceolate to lanceolate-linear, more or less recurved, almost as wide as inner or wider, without scarious border or with very narrow membranous border, without cornicle; inner involucral bracts oblonglinear, one and one-half times or less as long as longest outer bracts without cornicle, less often with indistinct cornicle. Florets yellow with profuse long hairs in middle part of corolla; peripheral florets usually with dark stripes on lower side of ligules. Achenes

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Fig. 1 Taraxacum confusum (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

light brown or brownish, body of achenes 3–4 mm long, covered with acute tubercles in upper half; cone 0.4–0.6 mm long, beak 7–12 ram long; pappus 6–8 mm long, white. Flowering April to June. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, meadows, gardens and parks, near roads, weed (Boborov and Tzvelev 1964; Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8).

Phytochemistry Carbohydrates (sucrose, raffinose, fructose, inuline, arabinose, xylose), vitamins (B1, B2, C, carotene), phenolcarboxylic acids (coffee, pyocumite, ferulic, vanillic), coumarins (coumarine, scopoletin, esculetine), flavonoids (gentsiobiozide, quercetin, nonine, cosmosine, luteoline), steroids (stigmasterol, sitosterol, campesterol, cycloartanol, androsterine, homoandrosterine, homotaracsasterine, kuyanol, taraxasterine), lactones (taraxacoside), fatty acids (linolenic, melissa, palmitic, oleic, linoleic, caprylic, lauric, myristic, palmitic, stearic, oleic, cerotinic), quinones (Sokolov 1993).

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Fig. 2 Taraxacum confusum (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses Taraxacum officinale: Part of many official herbal pharmacopoeia in wider Europe. In the whole region used as bitters, for diseases of the hepatobiliary system and organs of the gastrointestinal tract, for diabetes, atherosclerosis, anemia, rheumatism, arthritis, as expectorant, anti-inflammatory, as a sedative, laxative, anthelmintic, for tuberculosis, bronchitis, bronchial asthma, kidney and bladder diseases. Topically for varicose veins, skin diseases, acne, eczema, warts, and insect bites. In the Altai the leaves are used in infusion to treat diarrhea, anorexia, liver disease, and stomach colics (Sokolov 1993). The flowers are used as remedy for colds, the leaves for gallstones, as laxative and diuretic, and for oral inflammations and toothache. The roots are used for liver problems, and the whole plant serves as medicinal tea (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, c, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017). In India the root extract is used for migraine and headaches and as blood purifier and for hepatitis (Bhat et al. 2013).

Taraxacum confusum Schischk. Fig. 3 Taraxacum confusum (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Taraxacum officinale (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 5 Taraxacum officinale (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 6 Taraxacum officinale (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Food Uses Taraxacum confusum: The leaves used as ingredient for chave and phkhali (herb pie) (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, c, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

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Fig. 7 Taraxacum officinale (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 8 Taraxacum officinale (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Taraxacum officinale: The roasted roots are used as coffee surrogate and included in sweets and as flavoring agents. The young leaves are eaten as salad (Sokolov 1993). In Tusheti many herbaceous plants are used as food and are kept for winter, either dried or pickled, to make mixed mkhali and sauces and to accompany the main dishes, including kumeli ქუმელი q’va ყვა. It is used all year round, is made of roasted keri ქერი (barley) grains. Can be made of ipkli იფქლი (Georgian endemic

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wheat), corn, svili სვილი (rye), kersvili ქერსვილი (mixture of barley and rye), and tsetsvi ცერცვი (faba bean, when mixed with corn: giera-i გიერა-ი Brassica campestris subsp. oleifera (DC.) Schübl. & Mart., gomat’i გომატი Bunias orientalis L., dutsi დუცი Angelica tatianae Bordz., kharnuq’a-i ხარნუყა-ი Lactuca serriola L., buera ბუერა Petasites ssp., shubq’a-i შუბყა-ი Heracleum asperum M. Bieb., khap’ara-i ხაპარა-ი Cichorium intybus L., mariamdzmara მარიამძმარა Ligusticum alatum (M. Bieb.) Spreng. ch’imi ჭიმი Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., diq’i დიყი Heracleum ssp., jortk’uda-i ჯორთკუდა-ი Artemisia vulgaris L., sagvidzla საღვიძლა Taraxacum officinale (L.) Weber ex F.H. Wigg., dzirkhvena ძირხვენა Arctium lappa L., ch’ivana ჭივანა Silene wallichiana Klotzsch, kvishamkhala ქვიშამხალა Silene laera (Stev.) Sims, khavrat’ai ხავრატაი Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik., jorik’udai ჯორიკუდაი Artemisia vulgaris L., and giera გიერა Sinapis arvensis L. (Makalatia 1933). There are several ways to season mkhali in Tusheti: (1) well-cleaned plants are placed in a pot and cooked without water. The cooked plants are placed on a sieve to cool and cut into pieces. After that the dish is seasoned with onions browned in clarified butter, eggs, and salt. (2) After cooking the plants in the same way, fresh cottage cheese, onions browned in clarified butter, eggs, and salt are added. (3) After boiling the mkhali is seasoned with vinegar, garlic, and salt. Normally, in Tusheti mkhali is not seasoned with walnuts and vinegar (Makalatia 1933). Chave ჩავე is made in Tusheti using saghvidzlia საღვიძლია or sajaraq’i საჯარაყი Taraxacum officinale (L.) Weber ex F.H. Wigg., gomat’i გომატი Bunias orientalis L., dutsi დუცი Angelica tatianae Bordz., kharnuq’a ხარნუყა Lactuca serriola L. (another name is mts’aria მწარია because it is bitter “mts’are” means “bitter” in Georgian), and buera ბუერა Petasites ssp., p’it’na პიტნა Mentha ssp., gholo ღოლო Rumex ssp., sasuka სასუქა Seseli transcaucasicum Pimenov & Sdobnina, vashlisula ვაშლისულა Primula woronowii Losinsk., boiled together, with added milk, sach’irai საჭარაი (sheep internal fat), and flour thinned with milk or water, as well as salt and garlic. Plants used as mkhali Kaheti: tatruli mkhali თათრული მხალი Amaranthus hybridus L., ts’ots’nara mkhali წოწნარა მხალს Amaranthus retroflexus L., khach’ich’ora ხაჭიჭორა Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik., vazisdzira ვაზიძირა Lapsana grandiflora M. Bieb., bolok’a ბოლოკა Rapistrum rugosum (L.) All., q’int’ora ყინტორა Chaerophyllum aureum L., natsarkatama ნაცარქათამა Chenopodium album L., shalgi შალგი (shelga შელგა) Brassica campestris L., sve სვე Humulus lupulus L., khboshubla ხბოშუბლა Galega orientalis Lam. ნორჩ, ch’inch’ari ჭინჭარი Urtica dioica L., ghoris kada ღორის ქადა Lactuca serriola L., Balba ბალბა Malva neglecta l., natsarkatama ნაცარქათამა or dzaghltzhola ძაღლთჟოლა Chenopodium foliosum, tatabo თათაბო Atriplex hortensis L., saghvidzla საღვიძლა or burbushela ბურბუშელა Taraxacum confusum Schischk., tskhenis tsertsvela ც ხენის ცერცველა- Vicia narborensis, vazis dzira ვაზის ძირა Lapsana grandiflora M. Bieb., mravaldzarghva მრავალძარღვა Plantago major L., babuats’vera ბაბუაწვერა Taraxacum ssp., gareuli ts’its’mat’i გარეული წიწმატი Cardamine hirsuta L., ghinch’a-ghinch’a ღინჭა-ღინჭა Sonchus ssp. (Javakhishvili 1986; Menteshashvili 1943). In Samegrelo ch’riant’eli ჭრიანტელი (Amaranthus spp.), babuats’vera ბაბუაწვერა (Taraxacum ssp.), jumena ჯუმენა Amaranthus hybridus L.,

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natsarkatama ნაცარქათამა (Chenopodium spp.), ბალბა (Malva silvestris L.), ch’inch’ari ჭინჭარი (Urtica dioica L.), machit’a მაჩიტა (Campanula rapunculoides L.), ginishjonjgho გინიშჯღონჯღო Sonchus ssp., mumlish k’vaji მუმლიშ კვაჯი Ficaria ssp., are often boiled together for phkhali. Soft shoots of jumena ჯუმენა Amaranthus hybridus L., when cooled down after boiling, are pressed and seasoned with walnuts, garlic, pepper salt, and young t’q’emali or mats’oni (uoghurt) for taste (Javakhishvili 1986). In Imereti the following plants are mixed together for cooking “meadow pkhali” “მინდვრის ფხალი”: natsarkatama ნაცარათამა Chenopodium album (a lot), jijilaq’a ჯიჯილაყა Amaranthus retroflexus L. (a lot), ts’its’marit’a წიწმარიტა or kharik’bila ხარიკბილა Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik (a lot), andzla ანძლა Cirsium incanum (S.G. Gmel.) Fisch. (a lot), katmikona ქათმიქონა Valerianella locusta (L.) Laterr. (a lot), dedaput’k’ara დედაფუტკარა Lamium album L. (a few), msukana მსუქანა Portulaca oleracea L. (a lot, makes pkhali slimy), birk’abalakhi ბირკაბალახი Xanthium spinosum L. (a few, early spring), zhunzhruk’o ჟუნჟრუკო Stellaria media (L.) Vill., mat’it’ela მატიტელა Polygonum aviculare L. (moderately), ხვართქლა Convolvulus arvensis L. (moderately), k’obchkhila კობჩხილა, bat’ispekhebi ბატისფეხები Falcaria vulgaris Bernh. (a few), ჭინჭარი Urtica dioica L. (a lot), Ch’inch’ris deda ჭინჭრის დედა Lamium album (a few, adds bitterness), samq’ura სამყურა Trifolium ssp. (a few), ionja იონჯა Medicago ssp. (a few), tavshava თავშავა Origanum vulgare L. (a few), purtskhala ფურცხალა Sonchus ssp. (a few), young leaves of potato k’art’opili კარტოფილი (a few, slimy), Ia ია Viola ssp. (a few, makes slimy and dangerous if used a lot, can be in a way intoxicating), babuats’vera ბაბუაწვერა Taraxacum ssp. (a few, adds bitterness), leaves of endro ენდრო Rubia tinctorum L. (a few), msukana მსუქანა Portulaca oleracea L., khbosshubla ხბოშუბლა Galega orientalis Lam., ia ია Viola sp. dedabrik’onk’a დედაბრიკონკა Lamium purpureum L. (a few), vardk’ach’ach’i ვარდკაჭაჭი Cichorium intybus L. (a few, makes bitter), gholo ღოლო Rumex (a few, makes the dish brown), q’aq’acho ყაყაჩო Papaver ssp. (a few), mzhauna მჟაუნა Rumex acetosa L. (a few, makes sour), balba ბალბა Malva sylvestris L., Malva neglecta Wallr. (a lot, makes slimy), ch’lak’vi ჭლაკვი (Allium fistulosum). The herbs are only gathered in early spring, during summer and even autumn, until tomatoes, eggplants, spinach, and cucumbers can be harvested. By this time, the ingredients of pkhali (mostly weeds) loose softness, tenderness, and taste; they become rough already producing seeds and probably for this reason are not collected by late autumn. Early spring they taste very differently than in summer. While making pkhali, some finely minced kitchen herbs are added after boiling the main herbs: a little dill (კამა), a little tseretso dill (ცერეცო), a little p’rasa პრასა, coriander, parsley, celery, green onions, estragon, mint. All these herbs are mixed with finely crushed walnuts; the boiled pkhali will be minced, desirably on a wooden gobi (wide shallow bowl with a flat bottom) and seasoned with herbs and walnuts; add salt and pepper by your taste (Javakhishvili 1986). The flowers are boiled with sugar as substitute for honey. The leaves and shoots are eaten as salad and, in chave and phkhali (herb pie), cooked with eggs and yoghurt as soup and as tea (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, c, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses Taraxacum officinale: Fodder for livestock (Sokolov 1993). The stems are used by children to make whistles (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, c, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

References Bhat JA, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:1. Boborov EG, Tzvelev NN. Flora of the USSR, Volume 29: Compositae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1964 (English 2001). 832 pages, 34 plates. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus, Heidelberg: Springer International Publishing; 2017. 746 p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1) Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016a;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plant and fungal use in Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016b;86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ehnobiol Ethnomed. 2016c;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – Plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian) Javakhishvili I. Materials for the history of household industry and handicraft, vol. V, Part 2: food and drinks. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1986. (ჯავახიშვილი, ი. 1986. მასალები შინა მრეწველობისა და ხელოსნობის ისტორიისათვის, ტ. V ნაწ. 2: საჭმელ in Georgian.) Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian) Makalatia S. Tusheti. Tbilisi: Sakhelgami; 1933. (მაკალათია ს 1933. თუშეთი. ტფილისი: სახელგამი in Georgian.) Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian) Menteshashvili S. Dictionary of Kizikian dialect. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1943. (მენთეშაშვილი ს. 1943. ქიზიყური ლექსიკონი -თბილისი: მეცნიერება.) Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 7. Family Asteraceae (Compositae). Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1993. 352 p. (in Russian)

Tilia begoniifolia Steven Tilia caucasica Rupr. Tilia cordata Mill. MALVACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze Synonyms Tilia begoniifolia Steven: Tilia prilipkoana Grossh. & J. Wagner

Local Names Tilia begoniifolia: Azerbaijan: Bеqоniyаyаrpаq çöкə, Qаfqаz çöкəsi; Georgia: ცაცხვი (tsatskhvi), ცაცხვი (phacha); Chanetian: დუცხუ (dutskhu), კავაღი (k’avaghi); Svan: ზესხრა (zeskhra), ფაცა (patsa), ცაცხვ (tsatskhv); Mokhevian: R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_134

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მაჭი (mach’i); Ingiloian: ცაცხ (tsatskh); Megrelian: ცაცხუ (tsatskhu), ცხაცხვი (tskhatskhvi), ცხაცხუ (tskhatskhu) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al.

1971–2011; Makashvili 1991). Tilia caucasica: Georgian: ცაცხვი (phacha), ცაცხვი (tsatskhvi); Svan: ფაცაირიმა (phatsaraima), ჰადას (hadas) Tilia sp.: Georgian: ცაცხვი (phacha); Russian: Липа (lipa); Azeri: джёке (dshoeke); Armenian: лорени (loreni) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991); English: Linden.

Botany and Ecology Tilia begoniifolia: A tree. The shoots and buds reddish-brown, glabrous, or sometimes (mainly on lower sobole shoots) with transient pubescence. The petioles 3–6 cm long. The leaves ovate or broad-elliptic, especially those on the upper flowering shoots longer than broad (8–12 cm by 6–9 cm), usually strongly oblique, slightly cordate or more often rather broadly rounded and without a sinus at base, singly or double serrate with aristate teeth. Long-acuminate, with prominent veins of the third order, with axillary tufts, smooth elsewhere or especially on sobole leaves, pubescent on the veins beneath and on the petiole with scattered stellate hairs. The inflorescence 3–6 flowered. The bract borne on a stalk 1.5–3 cm long, broadly ligulate, to 15 cm long and 3 cm broad, shining. The flowers ca. 1.5 cm in diameter. The style is smooth. The fruit is elongate-ovaloid, 10–12 mm long, and 3.5–7 mm in diameter, with 4–5 very prominent ribs with a persistent style. The plant can be found in woodlands. Caucasus: Dagestan, Southern Transcaucasia (Upland Karabakh), Talysh. The species is distributed in all regions of the Greater Caucasus, Northern, and Central Lesser Caucasus. Grows in mix-leaved forests in shady mountain gorges and slopes from lower to upper mountain belt. Shade-bearing and frost-resistant trees. Linden trees absorb lime and improve the soil. Reproduced with seeds, runners, root spears. Grows well in rich and sufficiently wet soils. Flowering in June–July, fruiting in August–September (Flora of Azerbaijan, 1950–1961; Ketskhoveli et al., 1971–2011; Shishkin 1949; Figs. 1, 2, and 3). Tilia caucasica: Tree to 30–35 m tall; shoots and buds reddish-brown or sometimes yellowish, glabrous; buds to 10 mm long; petioles glabrous, ca. 5 cm long; leaves glabrous, suborbicular to broad-ovate, 4–8 cm long and 5–8 cm broad (larger on sterile shoots), rather abruptly acuminate, slightly cordate to rounded at base, more or less oblique to equilateral, quite glabrous on both sides; only expanding leaves, especially on sterile shoots, puberulent mainly along veins beneath; always with axillary tufts beneath, light green shining above, glaucescent beneath, serrate with mucronate teeth; inflorescence 3–8(1 0)-flowered; floral bract stalked or sessile, to 8–12 cm long; flowers 8–15 mm in diameter; sepals glabrous on the outside, 5–6 mm long; petals 6–7 mm long; style glabrous; fruit subglobose or elongated, up to 10–12 mm long and 5–8 mm in diameter, rather prominently nerved, densely tomentose. Flowering end of June–July, fruiting August–September. Caucasus, in Fagus, Carpinus, and mixed broad-leaved forests (Shishkin 1949).

Tilia begoniifolia Steven. . . Fig. 1 Tilia begoniifolia (Malvaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Tilia begoniifolia (Malvaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 3 Tilia begoniifolia (Malvaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Tilia cordata: Tree to 25 m tall, or taller; bark of young trees smooth, of old trees furrowed; sometimes fairly high spreading shrub in northern regions; buds ovaloid, obtuse, ca. 6 mm long and 4 mm broad, red or yellowish brown, with two minute scales, one reaching middle of bud; shoots at first thinly pubescent, becoming glabrate, or glabrous to begin with, red or olivaceous; petioles 2.5–4.5 cm long; leaves oblique or almost equilateral, cordate at base, long-acuminate, singly or doubly serrate with obtuse antrorse teeth, dark green glabrous except for scattered hairs on veins above. 21 rather intensely glaucescent and with axillary tufts of rufous hairs beneath, 2–8 cm long and about as broad; leaves on lower shaded shoots to 10–12 cm long and broad, more glaucous beneath and with less pronounced brown tufts; inflorescence 3–15-flowered; bract stalked, 3–7 cm long and 1–1.5 cm broad; flowers 0.8–1 cm in diameter; sepals ovate, pointed, 3–5 mm long, woolly pubescent especially on margin and at apex; petals 4–6 mm long; style glabrous; fruit subglobose, 4–8 mm in diameter, obscurely ribbed, rather densely tomentose. Flowering end of June–beginning of August; fruiting August–September. Ural, Caucasus in deciduous and coniferous forests (Shishkin 1949).

Phytochemistry Triterpenoids (taraxerol), coumarins (fractine, esculin, ellagic acid), tannins (gallic and protocatechuic acid, gallotannin), vitamins (C, carotene), flavonoids (tylirizide, quercitrin, isokvetsitrine, kaempferol, acacetine, afzelin, kempferiltrine), essential oils (farnesol), fatty acids (Sokolov 1985).

Tilia begoniifolia Steven. . .

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Local Medicinal Uses Tilia flowers are commonly included in official pharmacopoeia. The plant is used to treat tuberculosis, belching and flatulence, diarrhea, and dysentery and for oral hygiene. Tar from the trunks and branches is used for its antibacterial properties, especially to treat pyoderma, carbuncles, boils and skin ulcers, otitis, gunshot wounds, abscesses, and osteomyelitis. Bark decoctions are used for burns, hemorrhoids, and gout. The bas is used as poultice for burns. Fresh crushed leaves serve for burns, mastitis, and furuncles. The infusion of leaves and flowers has a calming effect, much like the roots of Valeriana, and is often used for catarrhal diseases, cough, headache, rheumatism, pneumonia, measles, angina, post-partum bleeding, infertility, neuroses, urolithiasis, urethritis, fainting, convulsions, and epilepsy, as well as nephritis and bronchial asthma. In the region the plant is used to treat colds. A tea from dried flowers is taken internally as sudorific (Mehtiyeva and Zeynalova 2013). The fruit is used to treat thrombosis (Kopaliani 2013). Cough is healed with tinctures or broths made of a combination of liquorice roots, persimmon, origanum, rose hips, marshmallow, agasyllis, raspberries, quince fruit hearts and leaves, blueberries, viburnum, kilamuna კილამუნა roots, and linden flowers (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, c; Grossheim 1952; Kopaliani 2013). A tea from dried flowers is taken internally as sudorific (Mehtiyeva and Zeynalova 2013). The fruit is used to treat thrombosis (Kopaliani 2013). Cough is healed with tinctures or broths made of a combination of liquorice roots, persimmon, origanum, rose hips, marshmallow, agasyllis, raspberries, quince fruit hearts and leaves, blueberries, viburnum, kilamuna კილამუნა roots, and linden flowers (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, c, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Kopaliani 2013; Figs. 4 and 5).

Local Food Uses The leaves and flowers are used as substitute for tea. The seed oils can be used in cooking. The seeds are edible and have a pleasant taste. They contain much oil and are very nutritious. Young leaves are used for making salad. Leaves and flowers are eaten as pkhkali (vegetable spread) (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Gasitashvili 1962; Grossheim 1952). The seeds are edible and have a pleasant taste. They contain much oil and are very nutritious. Young leaves are used for making salad. Leaves and flowers are eaten as pkhkali (vegetable spread), together with other species, especially Malva sp. (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Gasitashvili 1962).

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Fig. 4 Tilia begoniifolia (Malvaceae), dry fruits on sale for medicinal use, Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Tilia begoniifolia (Malvaceae), dry fruits on sale for medicinal use, Batumi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The essential oils can be distilled to elaborate perfumes. The wood is widely used for soft household utensils, beehives, furniture, and carvings and can also be turned into charcoal. The bark can be woven into mats, sponges, bags, ropes, and harnesses. The wood contains a tall amount of starch and can be ground and fed to cattle. Planted as ornamental. The flowers yield large amounts of honey. A dye solution is prepared from leaves and flowers to obtain yellow, orange, greenish, green-yellow, brown, gray, snuff, olive, and other different colors and shades. The dye is used for dyeing wool, cotton, and silk yarn as well as its products (Qasimov 1980). Beautiful tree, used for parks and gardens. Good nectariferous plant. Produces honey of high quality. The wood is soft, soft, easy to process, and suitable for different joinery and turning products and carving. Ropes, mats, bath puff, and so on are made from linden best. Oil obtained from the seed is suitable as fuel agent for lighting. Linden wood is used for winemaking vessels such as “sats’nekheli,” where grapes are pressed, “ghari,” a trough connecting “sats’nekheli” with “kvevri,” a bid clay vessel

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in the ground of “marani,” a winemaking chamber. Linden wood along with some other species (elm, alder, white willow) is used to make such household utensils as “gobi,” a whole-wood or compound wooden vessel mostly used to knead dough, store food products, “geja,” a wooden vessel in some regions used for beekeeping, milking barrels “k’asri,” as stable material that does not crack and does not have juice (Gasitashvili 1962). Linden wood is used to make traditional cart harnesses (Davitadze 1983), cart wheels called “gogora,” which were also made of beech or oak wood (Gegeshidze 1956). Tilia is often used for household utensils and furniture. The bark can be used to fabricate ropes and can also be smoked. The wood is used in construction (Grossheim 1952). A dye solution is prepared from leaves and flowers to obtain yellow, orange, greenish, green-yellow, brown, grey, olive, and other different colors and shades. The dye is used for dyeing wool, cotton, and silk yarn as well as its products (Qasimov 1980). Beautiful tree, used for parks and gardens. Good nectariferous plant. Produces honey of high quality. The wood is soft, well processing, and suitable for different joinery and turning products and carving. Ropes, mats, bath puff, and so on are made from linden best. Oil obtained from the seed is suitable as fuel agent for lighting. Linden wood is used for winemaking vessels such as “sats’nekheli,” where grapes are pressed, “ghari,” a trough connecting “sats’nekheli” with “kvevri,” a bid clay vessel in the ground of “marani,” a vinemaking chamber. Linden wood along with some other species (elm, alder, white willow) is used to make such household utensils as “gobi,” a whole-wood or compound wooden vessel mostly used to knead dough, store food products, “geja,” a wooden vessel in some regions used for beekeeping, milking barrels “k’asri,” as stable material that does not crack and does not have juice (Gasitashvili 1962). Linden wood is used to make traditional cart harnesses (Davitadze 1983), cart wheels called “gogora,” which were also made of beech or oak wood (Gegeshidze 1956). Tilia is often used for household utensils and furniture, tool handles, vessels for pickling, and wine presses. The bark can be used to fabricate ropes and can also be smoked. The wood is used in construction (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, c, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

References Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Aleksanyan A, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Malva neglecta Wallr.; Malva sylvestris L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia

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(Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:5. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016c;86(2):3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus – the region. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017c. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Davitadze A. From history of Georgian traditional transport: traditions of timber processing in Adjara. Sabchota Adjara: Batumi; 1983. (in Georgian). Flora of Azerbaijan. Volumes I–VIII. Baku: AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1950–1961. (in Russian). Gasitashvili G. Folk techniques of wood processing. Tbilisi: Publishing House of the Georgian Academy of Sciences; 1962. (in Georgian). Gegeshidze M. Georgian traditional transport – traditional land transport. Tbilisi: Publishing House of the Georgian Academy of Sciences; 1956. (in Georgian). Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Kopaliani L. Forest plants of Georgia (trees, shrubs, herbs). Kutaisi: Publishing Center; 2013. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Mehtiyeva NP, Zeynalova SA. Medicinal and aromatic plants of Azerbaijan. Oxford: UNESCO; 2013. Qasimov MA. Dye plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Azerbaijan State Publishing House; 1980. (in Azeri). Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 15: Malvales, Parietales, Myrtiflorae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1949 (English 1974). 565 pages, 33 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: Flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, Volume 2. Families Paeoniaceae – Thymelaeaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1985. 336 p. (in Russian).

Tribulus terrestris L. ZYGOPHYLLACEAE Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Farzaneh Khajoei Nasab, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Tribulus terrestris L.: Tribulus bimucronatus Viv.; Tribulus lanuginosus L.; Tribulus saharae A. Chev.; Tribulus terrestris var. sericeus Andersson ex Svenson

A. Ghorbani Department of Organismal Biology, Evolutionary Biology Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] F. Khajoei Nasab Department of Plant Sciences and Biotechnology, Faculty of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; mananakhuts@yahoo. com; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_135

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Local Names Farsi ‫( ﭼﻮﭘﺎﻥ ﭼﻮﮐﺮﮎ‬Chopan-chokorek), ‫( ﺧﺎﺭﺧﺎﺳﮏ‬Kharkhasak), ‫( ﻧﺎﻟﻮﮎ‬naalook), ‫ﮒﻝ‬ ‫( ﺯﺭﺩﻩ‬golezarde), ‫( ﺧﺎﺭ ﺧﺮﺳﮏ‬Khar-Khasak); English bindii

Botany and Ecology Annual; root thin, annual, straight; stems 10–60 cm long, branching, spreading, covered like petioles and pedicels with hairs of two kinds: long-spreading and shortappressed, the whole plant appearing glaucescent; leaves paripinnate, opposite, 3–5 cm long, 1.5–2 cm wide, with small acute stipules; leaflets 6–8 pairs, oblong, 4–10 mm long, glabrous above, with long white appressed hairs beneath. Flowers axillary, solitary, small, few along stem, on 4–10 mm long pedicels; sepals ovatelanceolate, acuminate, about 4 mm long, 1.5 mm wide; corolla yellowish; petals obovate, somewhat truncate, 5–7 mm long, ca. 3 mm wide; style short; fruit composed of 5 stellately disposed angular fruitlets, beset outside with large and acute 2 or 4 prickles, as well as tubercles and bristles. Flowering April–May, fruiting June–July. Under favorable conditions flowering throughout the summer. Weedy and waste places, among crops, pebbly deposits and sands in river valleys. Ural, Caucasus, Siberia, Middle Asia, widespread in Africa, America, and in the tropical countries as an introduced weed. On clay-silty, solonchak, sandy soils, wet meadows, sierozems, pebbles, in river valleys, along dry beds, scree, weed in crops, near roads, from the plains to the middle mountain belt (Shishkin and Boborov 1949; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).

Phytochemistry Saponins, (protodioscin, protogracillin, terrestroside); steroids, (diosgenin, gitogenin, yamogenin campesterol, r-sitosterol, stigmasterol, rusogenogen, chlorogenin, neotigogenin, tribulozin, protodioscin); alkaloids, (harmol, harman); flavonoids, (astragalin, 3-genciobioside, 3-rutinoside, 3-p-coumaroyl glucoside and 3-gentiobiozido-7-glucoside kaempferol, 3-glucoside, 3-gentiobioside, 3-rutinoside quercetin, 3-genocyotrioside, 3-rhamnosylgensiobioside, 3-genocyobiozido-7-glucoside quercetin, 3-gentiobiozide, 3-rutinozide, 3-n-cumarol glucoside, 3-genocyotrioside, 3,7-diglucoside, 3-genziobioside-7-glucoside, and 3-genocyotrioside-7-glucoside isorhamnetin (Sokolov 1988). N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]

Tribulus terrestris L. Fig. 1 Tribulus terrestris (Zygophyllaceae), Huanchaco, Cerro Campana, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Tribulus terrestris (Zygophyllaceae), Huanchaco, Cerro Campana, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 3 Tribulus terrestris (Zygophyllaceae), Huanchaco, Cerro Campana, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Tribulus terrestris (Zygophyllaceae), Huanchaco, Cerro Campana, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses A milk decoction is used in Central Asia as fortifying agent in cases of malaria and as tea substitute. In the Caucasus the decoction of the leaves serves as diuretic and for treating diarrhea, dysentery, gonorrhea, and eye diseases (Sokolov 1988). Concentrated decoction of the aerial parts is used for treating hemorrhoids, kidney stones, and constipation (Ghorbani 2005). Decoction of leaves is used for kidney pain (Safa et al. 2013). Decoction of whole plant is used for reducing fever, appetizing, urinary duct inflammation treatment of whooping cough, gonorrhea in men, kidney and bladder stones, bladder infection, inflammation of the prostate, male sexual stimulant, and increasing sperm volume (Sadeghi et al. 2014; Khajoei Nasab and Esmailpour 2018). Use of decoction of seeds for kidney stones and urinary duct complains and as diuretic is very common in traditional medicine of Iran (Mozaffarian 2013; Khajoei Nasab and Khosravi 2014).

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Fig. 5 Tribulus terrestris (Zygophyllaceae), Huanchaco, Cerro Campana, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. paniagua-Zambrana)

Used for diarrhea, irregular menstruation, wounds, and dyspepsia in Pakistan (Umair et al. 2019).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses There have been cases of poisoning with death in sheep, pigs, horses, and cattle (Sokolov 1988).

References Ghorbani A. Studies on pharmaceutical ethnobotany in the region of Turkmen Sahra, north of Iran (Part 1): general results. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102:58–68. Khajoei Nasab F, Esmailpour M. Ethno-medicinal survey on weed plants in agro-ecosystems: a case study in Jahrom, Iran. Environ Dev Sustain. 2018. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-018-0128-9. Khajoei Nasab F, Khosravi AR. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of Sirjan in Kerman Province, Iran. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;154:190–7. Mozaffarian V. Identification of medicinal and aromatic plants of Iran. Tehran: Farhang Moaser; 2013. Sadeghi Z, Kuhestani K, Abdollahi V, Mahmood A. Ethnopharmacological studies of indigenous medicinal plants of Saravan region, Baluchistan, Iran. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;153:111–8. Safa O, Soltanipoor MA, Rastegar S, Kazemi M, Kh D, Ghannadi A. An ethnobotanical survey on hormozgan province, Iran. Avicenna J Phytomed. 2013;3:64–81. Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, Volume 14: Geraniales, Sapindales, Rhamnales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1949 (English 1974). 616 p, 39 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1988. 357 p. (in Russian). Umair M, Altaf M, Bussmann RW, Abbasi AM. Ethnomedicinal uses of the local flora in Chenab riverine area, Punjab province Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2019;15:7. https://doi.org/ 10.1186/s13002-019-0285-4.

Triticum aestivum L. Triticum carthlicum Nevski POACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Triticum aestivum L.: Triticum aestivum subsp. vulgare (Vill.) Thell; Triticum aestivum var. hybernum (L.) Farw.; Triticum aestivum var. hybernum (L.) Fiori; Triticum album Gaertn. ex Steud.; Triticum amylosum Flaksb.; Triticum antiquorum (Heer) Udachin; Triticum arundinaceum Schur; Triticum asiaticum Kudr.; Triticum bucharicum Flaksb.; Triticum caeruleum Ard. ex Bayle-Bar.; Triticum cereale Schrank; Triticum clavatum Seidl ex Opiz; Triticum compositum L.; Triticum dicoccon var. timopheevii Zhuk.; Triticum duriusculum Flaksb.; Triticum erinaceum Hornem.; Triticum aestivum Raf.; Triticum hieminflatum Flaksb.; Triticum R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_136

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horstianum Clemente; Triticum hybernum L.; Triticum imberbe Desv.; Triticum inflatum Kudr.; Triticum koehleri Clemente; Triticum linnaeanum Lag.; Triticum orientale Percival; Triticum persicum Vavilov ex Zhukov; Triticum pulverulentum Hornem.; Triticum pyramidale Percival; Triticum quadratum Mill.; Triticum sativum Lam.; Triticum sativum var. aestivum (L.) Alph. Wood; Triticum sativum var. compositum (L.) Alph. Wood; Triticum sativum var. vulgare (Vill.) Wilm.; Triticum sativum var. vulgare Desv.; Triticum sativum var. vulgare Hick.; Triticum sibiricum Flaksb.; Triticum timopheevii (Zhuk.) Zhuk.; Triticum vavilovii (Tumanian) Jakubz.; Triticum velutinum Schübl.; Triticum vulgare (L.) Salisb.; Triticum vulgare var. aestivum (L.) Spenn.; Triticum vulgare Vill.; Zeia vulgaris var. aestiva (L.) Lunell. Triticum carthlicum Nevski: Gigachilon polonicum subsp. carthlicum (Nevski) Á. Löve; Triticum dicoccon var. persicum Percival; Triticum ibericum Menabe; Triticum paradoxum Parodi; Triticum persicum Vavilov ex Zhukov; Triticum turgidum subsp. carthlicum (Nevski) Á. Löve & D. Löve; Triticum turgidum var. carthlicum (Nevski) Yan ex P.C. Kuo

Local Names Triticum aestivum: Georgian: ხორბალი (khorbali); Russian: Пшеница (psheniza); Azeri: бугда (bugda); Armenian: цорен (zoren) (Armenian), Chorbali (Georgian) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991). Triticum carthlicum: Georgian: დიკა (dika) Triticum dicoccum: Georgian: ასლი (asli)

Botany and Ecology Triticum aestivum: Annual. Culms hollow, with glabrous nodes; leaves flat, usually glabrous nodes; leaves flat, usually glabrous. Spikes linear, long, loose or dense, square or nearly so in cross section, usually narrowed upward, not brittle; spikelets 4–5-flowered (upper florets neuter), awnless or awned; glumes ovate, keel not prominent in upper part, indistinct and almost disappearing in lower part, prolonged at the tip into a tooth, this rather short, subobtuse, pointed, or tapering into a short, aristate point; lemmas awnless or long-awned, awns usually divergent; caryopsis obscurely or slightly compressed, farinaceous, or vitreous. Caucasus, Ural, Middle Asia (Rozhevits et al. 1934). Bread wheat arose in the corridor extending from Armenia in Transcaucasia to the southwest coastal areas of the Caspian Sea in Iran. Hybridization of a wild Aegilops species (Aegilops tauschii Coss.) with emmer, an old type of cultivated wheat belonging to Triticum turgidum L., gave rise to the hexaploid wheats, but it is unknown whether bread wheat or spelt wheat (Triticum spelta L.) appeared first. The earliest archaeological finds of spelt wheat are from the southern Caspian area and are dated at around 5000 BC. Finds of bread wheat are difficult to distinguish from durum wheat (Triticum turgidum), but one thinks that those found in the Caucasus, on the Anatolian plateau (Turkey), in Central Europe, and in Central

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Fig. 1 Triticum aestivum (Poaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Triticum aestivum (Poaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 3 Triticum aestivum (Poaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Triticum aestivum (Poaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Asia from the fifth millennium onward belong to bread wheat. The D-genome in fact conferred to bread wheat and spelt wheat the adaptation to cold winters and humid summers, allowing them to conquer temperate Eurasia, whereas the Mediterranean remained the area of emmer and durum wheat. By the third millennium BC, bread

Triticum aestivum L. . . .

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Fig. 5 Triticum durum (Poaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 6 Triticum durum and Triticum carthlicum (Poaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

wheat had reached China. In 1529, the Spanish took it to the New World. Bread wheat was introduced into tropical Africa by Arab traders, missionaries, and colonial settlers. It is not known exactly when it reached Ethiopia. It was brought from Northern Africa to West Africa, where it was already known around 1000 AD. In the early twentieth century, it was introduced into Kenya and Eastern DR Congo. Bread wheat today is grown in almost all parts of the world. In tropical Africa, it is mainly produced in Nigeria, Sudan, Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe (Rozhevits et al. 1934; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7). Triticum carthlicum: Annual. Culms 80–120 cm tall, rather stout, very hard, almost entirely filled with pith or possessing a lumen; leaves broadly linear, hairy, or glabrous. Spikes plump, usually square in cross section, very dense, pubescent, or glabrous; rachis internodes hairy on the angles and below the spikelets; rachis not brittle; glumes broadly ovate, inflated, 9–10 mm long (length slightly exceeding the

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Fig. 7 Triticum aestivum (Poaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana) Fig. 8 Triticum aestivum (Poaceae), harvest, garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Triticum aestivum L. . . .

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Fig. 9 Triticum aestivum (Poaceae), harvest, garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

width) considerably shorter by ca. 1/3 of its length than the lemmas, with a very prominent, crested keel, excurrent in a triangular, acute tooth; keel very rough owing to prickles, these small in upper part and resembling cilia in lower part; lemmas usually ventricose 685 and awned; awns ca. 12 cm long, parallel; caryopsis mostly short and plump. Caucasus, Middle Asia. Cultivation of this wheat is widespread in southern Europe (Rozhevits et al. 1934).

Local Medicinal Uses The leaf extract is drunk to prevent hair loss (Raj et al. 2018).

Local Food Uses Bread wheat flour is made into numerous products including bread (leavened or flat; baked, steamed, or deep fried), pastries, crackers, biscuits, pretzels, noodles, farina, breakfast foods, baby foods, and food thickeners. It is also used as a brewing ingredient in certain beverages (white beer). Leavened breads are the most popular use of wheat in almost all parts of the world. Increased bread consumption is often

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Fig. 10 Triticum aestivum (Poaceae), harvest, before winnowing, garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

linked to increasing urbanization and higher per capita income. Bread wheat utilization has also been adapted to local cuisine. In Ethiopia, for instance, the flour is used to prepare “injera” (pancake-like unleavened bread), porridge, and soup. The grain is eaten as a snack and during social gatherings as “nifro” (boiled whole grain often mixed with pulses), “kollo” (roasted grain), and “dabo-kollo” (ground and seasoned dough, shaped, and deep fried). Industrial uses of wheat products center on the production of glues, alcohol, oil, and gluten (Sokolov 1994; Figs. 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, and 25).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses By-products of flour milling, particularly the bran, are used almost entirely to feed livestock, poultry, or prawns. Wheat germ (from wheat embryos) is sold as a human food supplement. Straw is fed to ruminants or used for bedding material, thatching, wickerwork, newsprint, cardboard, packing material, and fuel and as substrate for

Triticum aestivum L. . . .

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Fig. 11 Triticum aestivum (Poaceae), harvest, before winnowing, garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

mushroom production. In many dry parts of the world, it is chopped and mixed with clay to produce building material (Sokolov 1994). All species are used to produce flour, beer, and distill alcohol. Nowadays Triticum aestivum has almost entirely replaced the local species. The process of genetic erosion of ancient crop varieties was originally of little concern for the mountain areas of Georgia, which until the 1990s acted as a depository of ancient crops. Nowadays the main reason for genetic erosion of ancient crop varieties is the demographic decline in mountain regions due to harsh economic conditions and lack of modern infrastructure. The shift from ancient cultivars to modern highyielding crops such as maize and potato, which took place in the lowland areas much earlier, began in mountain villages after the end of Soviet occupation, when local inhabitants who had been forced to the lowlands, returned to their original villages. However, many villages in high altitude Georgia were abandoned under pressure during Soviet occupation, and while some families have returned at least for the summer, many villages were completely abandoned in the 1980s and remain in ruins. In occupied villages old household utensils like butter barrels are often to be found in storage, but not used anymore. Many abandoned terraces indicate where

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Fig. 12 Triticum durum and Triticum aestivum (Poaceae), harvest, garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 13 Triticum aestivum (Poaceae), market, Telavi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Triticum aestivum L. . . . Fig. 14 Triticum carthlicum (Poaceae) abandoned seeds, Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 15 Triticum sp. (Poaceae) old wheat storage container, Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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962 Fig. 16 Triticum sp. (Poaceae), threshing sled with flintstones, Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Triticum aestivum L. . . . Fig. 17 Triticum sp. (Poaceae), threshing sled with flintstones, Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Triticum aestivum L. . . . Fig. 19 Triticum sp. (Poaceae), threshing sled with volcanic pumice, Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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966 Fig. 20 Triticum sp. (Poaceae), finger protectors for wheat harvest, Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 21 Triticum sp. (Poaceae), grain mill, Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Triticum aestivum L. . . . Fig. 22 Triticum sp. (Poaceae), making manti (local pasta), Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 23 Triticum sp. (Poaceae), bulgur, Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 24 Triticum sp. (Poaceae), grain sieve, Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 25 Triticum sp. (Poaceae), traditional bread, Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

grain was formerly grown, but no grain has been grown in the region for decades (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b; Bussmann 2017, 2018).

References Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW. Indigenous uses of ethno-medicinal plants among forest dependent communities of Northern Bengal, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14(1):8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002018-0208-9. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus – Georgia. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017b. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian).

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Raj AJ, Biswakarma B, Pala NA, Shukla G, Vineeta V, Kumar M, Chakravarty S, Bussmann RW. Indigenous uses of ethno-medicinal plants among forest dependent communities of Northern Bengal, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14(1):8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-018-0208-9. Rozhevits RYu, Shishkin BK, Komarov VL. Flora of the USSR, Volume 2: Glumiflorae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1934 (English 1973), 622 p, 50 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of Russia and adjacent states: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 8. Families Butomaceae – Typhaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1994. 271 p. (in Russian)

Ulmus glabra Huds. ULMACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Ulmus glabra Huds.: Ulmus elliptica C. Koch; Ulmus podolica Klokov; Ulmus scabra Mill.; Ulmus sukaczevii Andrews

Local Names Georgian: თელა (tela); Azeri: Ильм (Ilm), гара агач (gara arats); Armenian: техн (techi) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991). R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_137

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Botany and Ecology Big trees; young branchlets grayish-brown or reddish-brown, glabrous or pubescent; leaf buds acute, clothed with rusty-brown hairs; leaves large, elliptic, unequal at base, acuminate at apex, doubly dentate with curved teeth, scabrous above, softhairy beneath, up to 15 cm long and 5–6 cm broad; samara obovate, 3 cm long and 1.5–1.8 cm broad, the central nutlet separated from, the apical notch by a suture 5–8 mm long, the cell silky pubescent. Ural, Caucasus, well-aerated carbonate soils along streams, along river terraces; in Quercus forests, up to 2000–2200 m (Boborov and Komarov 1936; Figs. 1 and 2).

Phytochemistry Carbohydrates (rhamnose, galactose), catechins, tannins, leucoanthocyanidines, triterpenoids, steroids (sitosterol), vitamins (E, carotene), phenol carboxylic acid, flavonoids, fatty acids (Fedorov 1984).

Local Medicinal Uses The inner bark is applied as poultice for skin rashes and scrofulosis and as infusion used as anticoagulant and astringent (Fedorov 1984).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The wood is used in carpentry and for utensils. The bast can be used for ropes. Plants as ornamental. The seed oil is used to make soaps. Good honey plants. The bark is excellent for tanning and gives skins a yellow color (Grossheim 1952; Fedorov 1984). Fig. 1 Ulmus glabra (Ulmaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Ulmus glabra Huds.

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Fig. 2 Ulmus glabra (Ulmaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

The timber is used for construction, especially rot-resistant posts, as firewood, and for tools, tool handles, furniture, and carts (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

References Boborov EG, Komarov VL. Flora of the USSR, Volume 5: Dicotyledoneae, Subclass I: Archichlamydeae, Order Piperales-Polygonales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1936 (English 1970). 593 p, 49 b/w plates. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24.

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Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Fedorov AA, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 1. Families Magnoliaceae – Limoniaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1984. 460 p. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian).

Vaccinium arctostaphylos Vaccinium myrtillus L. Vaccinium oxycoccus L. Vaccinium vitis-idaea L. ERICACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze Synonyms Vaccinium myrtillus L.: Vaccinium myrtillus subsp. oreophilum (Rydb.) Á. Löve, D. Löve & B.M. Kapoor; Vaccinium myrtillus var. oreophilum (Rydb.) Dorn; Vaccinium oreophilum Rydb. Vaccinium oxycoccos L.: Oxycoccus palustris Pers.; Oxycoccus quadripetalus Gilib.; Oxycoccus vulgaris Hill Vaccinium vitis-idaea L.: Rhodococcum vitis-idaea Avrorin; Vaccinium jesoense Miq. R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_138

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Local Names Vaccinium arctostaphylos: Azeri: Черника кавказская (tsernika kabkasskaja), гара шаrгалы (gara sharralei); Armenian: арчвохкузак (artsochkyzak); Georgian: მაღალი მოცვი (maghali motsvi), კავკასიური მოცვი (k’avk’asiuri motsvi); Chanetian: ანცერა (antsera), ცანაკო (tsanak’o); Mthiuletian: მაცილა (matsila); Megrelian: ბაჭა (bach’a), მაყურზენე (maq’urzene), მელიშიაში ჯა (melishiashi ja), ჯაშმელიშია (jashmelishia); Lechkhumian: მომცვი (momtsvi); Kartlian: მოცხარი (motskhari); Okribian: ტყის-ჩაი (t’q’is-chai); Svan: ცინყა (tsinq’a) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991); English: bearberry. Vaccinium myrtillus: Georgian: მთის მოცვი (mtis motsvi), მოცვი (motsvi), მოდგინარი (modginari); Svan: იღვი (ighvi), მეგმულდ (megmuld); Tush: ჟოლი (zholi); Khevsur: შალშავი (shalshavi), შელშავი (shelshavi); Azeri: Черника (tsernika), гара гиле (gara gile); Armenian: мртенакан гапаласин (mrtenakan gapalacin) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991). Vaccinium uliginosum: Russian: Голубика (golubika); Armenian: гайгани капуйт гапаласин (gaigani kapuyit gapalacin) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991). Vaccinium vitis-idaea: Georgian: წითელი (ts’iteli), წითელი მოცვი (ts’iteli motsvi); Svan: ვიღვი (vighv), მაიოლ (maiol), მაია (maia); Tush: სტომი (stomi); Khevsur: წითელმოჩა (tsitelimocha); Russian: Брусника (brusnika); Azeri: гапаласенин (gapalacenin) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991).

Botany and Ecology Vaccinium arctostaphylos: A tall shrub or a small tree, up to 2–3 m tall, with terete branches. Leaves alternate, large, 6–8 cm long, oblong to elongate-oblong, narrowed at base and apex, sometimes strongly tapering toward the apex, margins serrulate, paler below. Flowers in a loose few-flowered raceme, long-pediceled, in the axils of small ovate leafy bracts; calyx with broad rounded teeth; corolla large, 6 mm long, reddish-white, campanulate-cylindric, with five short broadly triangular lobes; stamens with hairy filaments; the anthers unappendaged; style sometimes slightly exerted. Berry large, globose, black. A montane species grows in Caucasus (Ciscaucasia, West and South Transcaucasia, Talysh), Balkan Peninsula, and Asia Minor. Vaccinium arctostaphylos occurs in mountain slopes, fir-and-spruce and fir-andbeech woods, rhododendron thickets, and occasionally oak forests, near the timberline in stands of birch and occasionally of pine, sometimes forming extensive thickets. Deciduous and dark conifer forests (beech, spruce-fir, beech-fir), oak forest edges, Rhododendron ponticum shrublands; grows in a form of thickets (Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4). Vaccinium myrtillus: Shrub with sharply angled glabrous branchlets, 15–40 cm tall; leaves deciduous, light green, turning red in fall, thin, ovate or elliptic, obtuse or acute with a soft mucro, rounded or slightly cordate at base, 10–28 mm long,

Vaccinium arctostaphylos. . . Fig. 1 Vaccinium arctostaphylos (Ericaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Vaccinium arctostaphylos (Ericaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Vaccinium arctostaphylos (Ericaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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978 Fig. 4 Vaccinium arctostaphylos (Ericaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Vaccinium myrtillus (Ericaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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6–18 mm broad, finely serrate-dentate, covered on both sides with scattered hairs, the petiole 1–1.5 mm long; flowers solitary at the base of young branchlets, nodding, the pedicels 2.5–3.5 mm long; calyx with an almost entire limb; corolla greenishpink, urceolate-globose, 3–4.5 mm long, four- or five-lobed; stamens 8–10, the glabrous filaments dilated at base; anthers with two long appendages; berry globose, black, with a blue bloom, 6–8 mm in diameter, with reddish pulp, juice with dyestuff properties. Flowering May–June, fruiting July–September. Ural, Caucasus, and Altai, in coniferous forests up to 2000 m (Shishkin and Boborov 1952; Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9). Vaccinium oxycoccus: An evergreen creeping subshrub, the slender shoots up to 75 cm long; leaves coriaceous, on short petiole to 1 mm long, ovate to oblong-ovate, 8–16 mm long and 3–6 mm broad, revolute, acute, dark green and lustrous above, glaucescent with a waxy bloom; flowers two to four rarely six in a terminal umbellate inflorescence on the preceding year’s branches; pedicels in the axils of scale like bracts, 15–45 mm long, one-flowered, drooping, puberulent, with two minute linear bracts about the middle; calyx with four rounded sepals 0.5–0.7 mm long and 0.7–1 mm broad, ciliate-margined; corolla very deeply four-parted, with upturned pinkish-red petals, 4–7 mm long; stamens eight, densely framed by hairs, the anthers minutely warted; style slightly exceeding the stamens, both style and stamens exerted; berry dark red, juicy, globose, oblong-ovoid, or occasionally Fig. 6 Vaccinium myrtillus (Ericaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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pyriform. Flowering May–July, fruiting August–September. Ural, Altai, and Caucasus, in Sphagnum bogs (Shishkin and Boborov 1952). Vaccinium vitis-idaea: A subshrub, from 2.5 to 25 cm tall; branchlets terete, whitehairy; leaves coriaceous, wintering, elliptic or obovate, obtuse or emarginate, slightly denticulate or entire, revolute, 5–27 mm long, 3–12 mm broad, borne on pubescent peduncles 0.5–3 mm long, dark green above, pale and dotted with dark brown glands beneath, flowers on short pubescent reddish pedicels in a terminal Fig. 7 Vaccinium myrtillus (Ericaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 8 Vaccinium myrtillus (Ericaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 9 Vaccinium myrtillus (Ericaceae) fruits, Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 10 Vaccinium arctostaphylos (Ericaceae) dry leaves sold as tea, Batumi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

short but dense two- to eight-flowered clusters on the preceding year’s branchlets, with a faint but pleasant scent; calyx four-toothed, with short rounded reddish teeth, 0.75–1.25 mm long and 0.75–1 mm broad; corolla campanulate, pale pink, 4–6.5 mm long, four-lobed; stamens eight with hairy filaments; anthers unappendaged; style exerted; ovary four-locular; berry subglobose, ripening dark red, edible. Flowering May–June; fruiting August–September. Ural, Caucasus, and Altai. In mostly coniferous mountain forests, in thickets, and in bogs. In the Caucasus up to 3300 m (Shishkin and Boborov 1952).

Phytochemistry Vaccinium myrtillus: Organic acids (citric acid), essential oils, triterpenoids (amyrin, oleanolic, and ursolic acids), alkaloids (murtine), vitamins (C, B), phenols (hydroquinone, arbutin, methylarbutin, asperuloside, monotropeozide), phenol carboxylic acids, tannins, catechins (epicatechin, gallocatechin, epigallocatechin),

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tannins, flavonoids (kaempferol, rutin, astragalin, hyperin, quercitrin, isokvetsitrine, aviculine, meratin), anthocyanins (cyanidin, delphinidin, petunidin), triterpenoids (ursolic acid), phenylcarboxylic acids (Sokolov 1985). Vaccinium oxycoccos: Saponins, tannins, phenols and their derivatives (arbutin), triterpenoids (ursolic and oleanolic acids), flavonoids (quercetin, myricetin, hyperin, rutin, hesperidin), organic acids (citric, benzoic), essential oils (linalool, n-propanol, isobutanol, n-butanol, isoamyl acetate, isoamyl, n-amylol, ethylpropane, hexyl acetate, hexanol, ethyl lactam, ethylene antanol, heptanol, ethyl caprylate, furfural, octanol, ethyl caprylate, decanol, phenyl acetate, phenylethanol), carotene, phenyl carboxylic acids (gallocatechin, catechin, epigallocatechin, enylallocatechinallate), tannins, and anthocyanins. Phenols (arbutin, methylarbutin, hydroquinone, pyrozide, caffeylarbutin), aldehydes, triterpenoids (ursolic acid), vitamins (C), phenol carboxylic acids (lorogenic, coffee, isochlorogenic, neochlorogenic, ferulic, o-pyrocatechol), catechins (catechin, epicatechin, gallocatechin), tannins, flavonoids (kaempferol, quercetin, rhamnoside, isokvetsitrine, rutin, kaempferol, avicularin, hyperin, glucopyranoside, luteolin), essential oils, terpenoids (myrcene, limonene, b-terpene, a-pinene, carene, camphene, verbenol, mentene, camphor, linalool, terpinene, terpineol, borneol, cineole, longifolene, a-murolen, c-cadinene, batherine, isopimaradiene, pimaradiene), anthocyanins, and proanthocyanidins (Sokolov 1985).

Local Medicinal Uses Vaccinium arctostaphylos: Leaf tea is used medicinally as astringent (Grossheim 1952). In Western Georgia, fresh and dry Vaccinium is used as remedy to heal stomachaches (Burduli 2002). An alcohol-based blueberry tincture, as well as a blueberry broth, is considered an anti-diarrhea remedy. Dry fruits of blueberry, especially in a tincture, are recommended against diarrhea and gastrointestinal inflammations (Burduli 2002). Fruits and leaf infusions are used to treat anemia, colds, and inflammations. The fruit tincture serves to cure stomachache, and a leaf infusion is used to remedy diabetes, anemia, cold, inflammation, and stomach ailments (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017). Vaccinium myrtillus: In Karachay-Cherkessia it is used as tincture for colds and as infusion for diarrhea, gastralgia, diabetes, menorrhagia, leukemia, typhoid, and scrofulosis and to treat fungal infections. The leaves as infusion are especially used to treat diabetes, diseases of the gastrointestinal tract, pyelitis, cystitis, urethritis, diseases of the liver and pancreas, peritonitis, and hemorrhoidal hemorrhage (as enemas). External applications include the treatment of purulent wounds, ulcers, and eczema (Sokolov 1985). The fruits are used for colds and dry throat and as medicinal tea. The leaves help to decrease blood sugar and help to remedy kidney stones. It is also used as tea (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

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Vaccinium vitis-idaea: A leaf decoction is used as diuretic and treatment for hypertension, cough, pulmonary tuberculosis, diarrhea, uterine bleeding, gout, nephrolithiasis, and rheumatism. In Karachay-Cherkessia, the leaf extract is used for catarrhal diseases and as tincture for wound care. In Altai, the tincture is used for colds and upper respiratory tract infections; infusion of branches and leaves is used for headache and rheumatism, and it also serves as an astringent and hemostatic (Sokolov 1985). The branches are used to treat liver ailments and to prevent bedwetting in children (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Gvaramadze 1997).

Local Food Uses The leaves of all species are used as tea substitute in the Caucasus; the fruits are eaten and used as jam and juice and to produce alcohol (Grossheim 1952). In Adjara, the leaves of motsvi მოცვი Vaccinium sp. were used to cook a kind of dish called motsvizhveripkhala მოცვიჟვერიფხალა (Shalikava 2009). Vaccinium arctostaphylos: The fruits are used to prepare compotes and jams and, together with the leaves, are used for tea (Burduli 2002; (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017). The fruits are also used to prepare blueberry wine and alcohol (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Fig. 10). Vaccinium myrtillus: Fruits are eaten raw and used to color vodka red. The dried and roasted fruits serve as coffee substitute (Grossheim 1952). The berries of shavshavi შავშავი Vaccinium myrtillus L. are edible when ripe in Pshavi. The roots are used for infusions. The harvested berries can be kept up to 1 week (Baliauri 1941). In Khevsureti and in Tusheti, motsvi მოცვი Vaccinium myrtillus L. leaves are used as tea (Makalatia 1933). In Svaneti motsvi მოცვი (locally tsinq’a) ცინყა (Vaccinium myrtillus L.), maq’vali მაყვალი (locally vighv) ვიღვ (Rubus ssp.), and zholo ჟოლო (locally ingha) ინღა (Rubus idaeus L.) fruits are used to make compotes and marmalades, while their leaves are used in infusions (Javakhishvili 1986). Plants mixed together for pkhali in Adjara include dvarula dvalura დვარულა დვალურა Polygonum carneum C. Koch, dondoli დონდოლი Gadelha lactiflora (M. Bieb.), ch’inch’ari ჭინჭარი Urtica dioica L., katamnatsara ქათამნაცარა Chenopodium album L., ch’ich’laq’a ჭიჭლაყა Amaranthus retroflexus L., perapera ფერაფერა Phytolacca americana L., k’uk’umzhava კუკუმჟავაand svint’ri სვინტრი Polygonatum ssp., ch’arbadelo ჭარბადელო Arctium lappa L., and also young leaves of motsvi მოცვი Vaccinium ssp., venakhi ვენახი Vitis vinifera L., babuats’vera ბაბუასწვერა Taraxacum ssp., Kajiloja ქაჯილოჯა Daucus carota L., Ts’its’marit’a წიწმარიტა Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik., and burt’q’ila ბურტყილა Lapsana grandiflora M. Bieb. The plants used by Adjara people as food are ajark’ela აჯარკელა Lathyrus roseus Steven, ajorik’a აჯორიკას Aruncus vulgaris Raf. (young leaves are pickled), bobots’vera ბობოწვერა Taraxacum ssp. (ground roasted

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dry roots used instead of Cichorium), dilq’a დილყა Heracleum sp. (shoots are peeled and eaten), k’onst’ant’ila კონსტანტილა (white roots are edible), ozaghina ოზაღინა Chaerophyllum aureum L. (young leaves are pickled), ghima ღიმა Chaerophyllum bulbosum L. (mixed with leek or ajorik’a აჯორიკა Aruncus vulgaris Raf. and pickled), and dvalura დვალურა Polygonum carneum (Baramidze 1987; Kakhidze 2007; Kokhreidze 1947; Nizharadze 1971). Wild pkhali plants can be cooked in various ways: can be pickled, boiled, and seasoned with vinegar, walnuts, and various spice herbs (Kokhreidze 1947). Vaccinium myrtillus leaves are used for tea. The fruits are eaten raw and used for marmalade and also to make berry wine (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017). Vaccinium vitis-idaea: The branches are used for tea; the fruits are eaten raw (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The leaves of all species can be used for tanning leather. Leaf extract can be used as fungicide against Fusarium. The fruits are used to yield a brown, red, and violet dye for cotton, wool, and silk (Sokolov 1985). The branches of Vaccinium myrtillus and fruits of Vaccinium vitis-idaea are used as dye (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

References Baliauri M. Food medicine in Pshavi (in Ukana Pshavi commune, Shuapkho), manuscript. M.-b.-b; 1941. 11/13–14/17. (ბალიაური მ. 1941. ხალხური მედიცინა ფშავში (უკანა ფშავის თემში, შუაფხოში) ხელნაწერი, მ.-ბ.-ბ. 11/13–14/17 in Georgian). Baramidze J. Adjarian dishes. Batumi: Sabchota Adjara; 1987. (ბარამიძე ჯ. 1987. აჭარული კერძები. ბათუმი: საბჭოთა აჭარა in Georgian). Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Vaccinium arctostaphylos L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Burduli M. Traditions of folk therapy in the Western Georgia. Tbilisi: Annals; 2002. (in Georgian). Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, Beer, Snuff, Medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia

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(Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:5. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016c;86(2):3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Akdemia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Gvaramadze K. Results of the study of the Guria region. Tbilisi; 1997. (გვარამაძე კ. 1997. (გურია მხარის კვლევა-ძიების შედეგები. თბილისი in Georgian). Javakhishvili I. Materials for the history of household industry and handicraft, vol. V, part 2: Food and drinks. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1986. (ჯავახიშვილი, ი. 1986. მასალები შინა მრეწველობისა და ხელოსნობის ისტორიისათვის, ტ. V ნაწ. 2: საჭმელ in Georgian). Kakhidze N. The oldest and old historical sources of Adjara – ethnographic data. Essays on history of south-western Georgia, Adjara 1. Tbilisi; 2007. (კახიძე ნ. 2007 აჭარის უძველესი და ძველი ისტორიის წყაროები ეთნოგრაფიული მონაცემები. სამხრეთ-დასავლეთ საქართველოს ისტორიის ნარკვევები აჭარა 1. თბილისი in Georgian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Kokhreidze V. Wild food plants of Adjara (mkhaleuli). Batumi: Adjaris sakhelgami; 1947. 8კოხრეიძე ვ. 1947. აჭარაში ველურად მოზარდი საკვები მცენარეები (მხალეული). ბათუმი: აჭარის სახელგამი in Georgian). Makalatia S. Tusheti. Tbilisi: Sakhelgami; 1933. (მაკალათია ს. 1933. თუშეთი. ტფილისი: სახელგამი in Georgian.) Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Nizharadze Sh. Adjarian dialect of the Georgian language. Batumi; 1971. (ნიჟარაძე შ. 1971. ქართული ენის აჭარული დიალექტი. ბათუმი in Georgian). Shalikava M. Chvani gorge (historical-ethnographic study). Batumi: Shota Rustaveli State University of Batumi Publishing House; 2009. შალიკავა მ. 2009. (ჭვანის ხეობა (ისტორიულ ეთნოლოგიური გამოკვლევა). ბათუმი: შოთა რუსთაველის სახ. უნივერსიტეტი გამ-ბა in Georgian). Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, Volume 18: Metachlamydeae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1952 (English 1967). 600 p. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: Flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 2. Families Paeoniaceae – Thymelaeaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1985. 336 p. (in Russian).

Valeriana officinalis L. CAPRIFOLIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Valeriana officinalis L.: Valeriana alternifolia Bunge; Valeriana alternifolia fo. angustifolia (Kom.) Kitag.; Valeriana alternifolia fo. verticillata (Kom.) S.X. Li; Valeriana alternifolia var. angustifolia (Kom.) S.H. Li; Valeriana baltica Pleijel; Valeriana chinensis Kreyer ex Kom.; Valeriana coreana Briq.; Valeriana coreana subsp. leiocarpa (Kitag.) Vorosch.; Valeriana dubia Bunge; Valeriana exaltata J.C. Mikan; Valeriana fauriei Briq.; Valeriana fauriei var. leiocarpa (Kitag.); Valeriana leiocarpa Kitag.; Valeriana nipponica Nakai ex Kitag.; R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_139

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Valeriana officinalis subsp. baltica Á. Löve & D. Löve; Valeriana officinalis subsp. exaltata Soó; Valeriana officinalis var. latifolia Briq.; Valeriana palustris Kreyer; Valeriana pseudofficinalis C.Y. Cheng & H.B. Chen; Valeriana stubendorfii fo. angustifolia Kom.; Valeriana stubendorfii fo. verticillata Kom.; Valeriana stubendorfii Kreyer ex Kom.; Valeriana subbipinnatifolia A.I. Baranov; Valeriana tianschanica Kreyer ex Hand.-Mazz.

Local Names Georgian კატაბალახა (k’at’abalakha); Tush გულბანდი (gulbandi); Russian, Baлepиaнa лeкapcтвeннaя (Valeriana lekarstvennaya), Валериана илимаун (Valeriana ilimayi); Azeri, пишик оту (pishik oty); Armenian, катвахот (katvachot) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991); English, Valerian.

Botany and Ecology Perennial. Rhizome very short, indistinct, rarely up to 1–1.5 cm long, with numerous funiform fibrous roots and, often, depending on soil conditions with more or less prominent underground or, less frequently, on-surface stolons (f. stolonifera), from 0.5 to 20 cm long, forming daughter plants at apex. Stems solitary or several; straight and stout; cylindrical; hollow; simple; branched only in inflorescence; greatly varied in size; from 10–200 cm to usually 40–100 cm high and up to 2 cm in diameter near base; sulcate; pubescent mainly in lower part and along nodes with short, coarse hairs; or completely glabrous, green or violet red in lower third, with 4–7 (up to 14) leaf nodes. Leaves usually opposite but occasionally alternate (fo. alternifolia) and sometimes in whorls of 3–4 (fo. verticillata) even on the same plant, lower leaves petiolate, upper sessile, odd pinnate, with 1–13 but usually with 3–9 pairs of lobes (segments), terminal lobe especially in lower cauline leaves, often larger and broader than lateral lobes, and on longer petioles, in which case leaf lyrate-pinnate, first leaves of sprouts and shoots rosette, whereas occasionally lower cauline leaves undivided, sometimes all leaves completely undivided or only with isolated, short, asymmetric lobes (var. integrifolia Ldb.); lobes (segments) on short petioles, sessile or decurrent along rachis of leaf (especially upper segments), from broadly ovate (and often nonequilateral) to narrowly linear (F. angustifolia), obtuse or acute completely entire or dentate, teeth minute and isolated or coarse and remote, on both sides or only on one (often lower) margin; moreover, on the same plant, shape of segments varies greatly in leaves from base to apex; in basal leaves segments are always broader and have more prominent dentate than upper leaves, and in upper cauline leaves, segments are narrow, linear or lanceolate, sessile, and mostly entire; leaves glabrous or pubescent in varying degrees with very short, less noticeable, or long, setaceous, appressed, or upright hairs, predominantly along veins and beneath, but always more or less ciliate or setoseciliate along margin of segments; veins thin and less noticeable beneath at places (in shady plants) or coarse, sharply projecting

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Fig. 1 Valeriana tiliifolia (Plantaginaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

in form of ribs; size of leaves varying to the same extent as the size of entire plant; lower basal leaves attain half the height of plant, segments of leaves in largest specimens 10 cm long and 6–7 cm wide. Inflorescence mostly large, corymbose, with one terminal or often with additional 2–3 pairs of axillary, trichotomous lateral cymes, lax and broad, flat or compact and spherical, at nodes setosely pubescent, somewhat expanded at fruiting. Bracteoles linear-lanceolate, lanceolate or ovatelanceolate, herbaceous, always more or less coarsely ciliate along scarious margin. Corolla usually 4–5 mm long, infundibuliform, from purely white to dark pink and smoky violet. Fruits oblong or oblong-ovate, 2.5–4.5 mm long and 1–1.8 mm wide, completely glabrous or strongly or weakly pubescent on both sides or only one side, with 10–12-rayed pappus, almost one and a half times as long as achene. Flowering from first half of May to August. Fruiting from July to September. Ural, Caucasus, and Altai, on meadows, along the banks of rivers and marshes, in forests, on forest edges, glades, among shrubs, in ravines, sometimes on rocks and in tall grass, Juniperus shrub, and as weed in gardens and widely cultivated (Shishkin 1953; Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Phytochemistry Essential oils (valeranone, valen, mehrtenol, malaliol, myrhenyl isovalerate, valenol, camphene, a-pinene, b-pinene, limonene, p-cymene, kessane), phenylcarboxylic acids (coffee, chlorogenic, isochlorogenic), diosmetin, flavonoids (luteolin,

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Fig. 2 Valeriana tiliifolia (Plantaginaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Valeriana tiliifolia (Plantaginaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

apyrenine, quercetin, diosmethine), fatty acids (caproic, capric, caprylic, lauric, myristic, palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, linolenic, erucic, behenic, docosadienoic, palmitoleic), carbohydrates (glucose, sucrose, valeroside A), organic acids (isovaleric, valerian), iridoids (valtrate, acevaltrate, isovaleryloxyhydroxy-dicadridate) (Sokolov 1990).

Local Medicinal Uses Valerian is commonly included in official herbal pharmacopoeia. Traditionally in the region the plant is used to treat and prevent chronic functional disorders of the central nervous system, hysteria, epilepsy, seizures, acute excitations, migraine, neuralgia, neurodermatitis, chronic coronary problems, early stages of angina pectoris, hypertensive disease, heart disease, diseases of the liver and bile ducts, dysentery and typhoid/paratyphoid fever, endocrine gland disorders, and toothache; it can also be used as an antiseptic and to remove freckles. In Middle Asia root infusions are used to treat asthenia, sciatica, dizziness, fainting, tetanus, paralysis, spasmophilia, scarlet fever, weakness of vision, rheumatism, and gastric colic in children; it is also used

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for the improvement of appetite and treatment of diarrhea, dysentery, hemorrhoids, hiccups, tuberculosis, and bites of rabid animals and can serve as eyewash (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1990). About 20 species of the genus Valeriana grow in Caucasus and Ural regions, but most of them lack the active ingredients of Valeriana officinalis (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1990). The roots are used as anti-inflammatory and for the treatment of cough, colds, heart and nervous system problems, pleuritis, pneumonia, and skin problems (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017a, 2018; Bussmann 2017). The roots are widely collected and sold (Bussmann et al. 2017b).

Local Food Uses The leaves are often used as tea, especially in Tusheti (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017a, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Makalatia 1933).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses In veterinary medicine, Valeriana is used as infusion as sedative (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017a, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

References Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian).

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Makalatia S. Tusheti. Tbilisi: Sakhelgami; 1933. (მაკალათია ს. 1933. თუშეთი. ტფილისი: სახელგამი in Georgian.) Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 23. Bignoniaceae – Valerianaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1953 (English 2000). 891 p, 39 b/w plates. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 5. Families of Caprifoliaceae – Plantaginaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1990. 328 p. (in Russian).

Veratrum album L. Veratrum lobelianum Bernh. LILIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Veratrum lobelianum Bernh.: Veratrum album subsp. virescens Gaudin; Veratrum album var. lobelianum Koch

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_140

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Local Names Georgian: შხამა (shkhama), ხაპუტრაკა (khap’ut’rak’a); Russian: Чeмepицa Лoбeля (Chemeritsa Lobelya); Uzbek: Maralkulok; Kyrgyz: Лoбeлмapaлкулaгы (Lobel maral kulagy); Azeri: гундуш (gundush); Armenian: чкитам (tskitam) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991)

Botany and Ecology Perennial; rhizome short, stout, with numerous stringy roots; stem erect, stout, terete, 70–170 cm long, 2–3 cm thick, clothed at base in disintegrated leaf sheaths, often fibrillose, the upper part of stem and inflorescence pubescent; leaves numerous, plaited, covered beneath with short hairs, the lower broadly elliptic, short-acuminate, 15–25 cm long, 10–15 cm broad, gradually diminishing in size acropetally, the uppermost lanceolate; inflorescence paniculate, 20–60 cm long; pedicels several times shorter than perianth segments, 2–3 mm long, pubescent; bracts roundedovate to rarely ovate, short-acuminate, several times the length of pedicel, 3–5 mm long; bracts whitish or yellowish-green, ca. 2.5 cm in diameter, open; leaves elliptic, narrowed at both ends, round-tipped, serrulate, slightly pubescent outside, 8–13 mm long, 4–6 mm broad; inner segments narrower and longer than the outer; stamens shorter than perianth segments; capsule ovoid, ca. 2.5 cm long, and 1 cm broad. Flowering June–August. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, and Middle Asia, in forests, meadows, and bushland (Komarov 1935; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8).

Phytochemistry Alkaloids (zorubiervine, isorubiervosine, veratroilzigadenine, veraline), carbohydrates (glucose, fructose, rhamnose, galactose, mannose) (Sokolov 1994)

Local Medicinal Uses In the Altai and Middle Asia the species is used for the treatment of scabies, rheumatism, hemorrhoids, jaundice, arthritis, gout, and sciatica (Sokolov 1994). Leaves and stems are sometimes used to treat digestive system problems (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016, 2017, 2018).

Local Food Uses Despite the toxicity of the plant, young leaves are sometimes eaten as pkhali after careful preparation (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016, 2017, 2018).

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Fig. 1 Veratrum lobelianum (Liliaceae) young shoots in spring, Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Veratrum lobelianum (Liliaceae) young shoots in spring, Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Handicraft and Other Uses In veterinary medicine, it is used as insecticide against parasites (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1994). Leaves and shoots are used to treat dermic parasite infestation in livestock, especially ticks (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016, 2017, 2018).

996 Fig. 3 Veratrum lobelianum (Liliaceae) young shoots in spring, Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Veratrum lobelianum (Liliaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Veratrum lobelianum (Liliaceae) dense stands on alpine pastures, Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Veratrum album L. . . . Fig. 6 Veratrum lobelianum (Liliaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 7 Veratrum lobelianum (Liliaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 8 Veratrum lobelianum (Liliaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

References Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Komarov VL. Flora of the USSR, Volume 4: Liliiflorae, Microspermae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1935 (English 1968). 586 p, 44 b/w plates, 2 maps. Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of Russia and adjacent states: Flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 8. Families Butomaceae – Typhaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1994, 271 p. (in Russian).

Verbascum densiflorum Bertol. Verbascum songaricum Schrenk ex Fisch. & C.A. Mey. Verbascum thapsus L. Verbascum sp. SCROPHULARIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze Synonyms Verbasdcum densiflorum Bertol: V. thapsiforme Schrad

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_141

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Local Names Verbascum songaricum: Russian: Кopoвякджунгapcкий (Korovyak dzhungarskiy); English, Songaric mullein (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991). Verbascum thapsus: Georgian: ქერიფქლა (keripkla); Russian: Кopoвяк oбыкнoвeнный (Korovyak obyknovennyy); English: common mullein (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991). Verbascum sp.: Georgian: ქერიფქლა (keripkla); Azeri: Коровяк (korovjak), кечи гулагы (ketsi gylagei); Armenian: хрндат (chradat) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991).

Botany and Ecology Verbascum songaricum: Biennial. Plant densely white-tomentose throughout, pubescent shedding later in flakes. Stem 60–120 cm tall, erect, simple, leafy; leaves tomentose, also glandular-hairy above; radical leaves long-petiolate, lamina 8–16 cm long, ovate or ovate-oblong, short-acuminate, with somewhat decurrent, broadly cuneate auricles at the base; upper leaves decurrent or with cordate base, amplexicaul. Inflorescence long cylindrical spicate raceme; flowers few in each cluster. Bracts of middle flowers scarcely exceeding flowers, bracts of lateral flowers shorter; all bracts tomentose, with very minute glands. Pedicel of middle flower 2–4 mm long in early flowering, with two bracteoles. Calyx 5–8 mm long, divided into linear lobes almost to base. Corolla yellow, about 15 mm across, tomentose outside; inner side of upper corolla lobes slightly villous at base. Two anterior stamens longer with upper half of filaments white-tomentose; anthers all similar, reniform. Style thickened above. Capsule broadly ellipsoid or obovoid, obtuse, densely stellate-pubescent. Flowering from June to July. Endemic in Middle Asia, on stony mountain slopes (Shishkin and Boborov 1955; Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4). Verbascum thapsus: Biennial. Plant densely covered with persistent, ash-white, rarely light yellowish, tomentum. Stems erect, leafy, more or less winged. Radical leaves with 3–6-cm-long petioles; lamina oblong, 15–30 cm long, 5–10 cm broad, obtuse or short-mucronate, crenate or subentire; cauline leaves with shorter petioles or sessile, decurrent; upper leaves sessile, short, acuminate. Inflorescence dense, terminal spicate raceme, subcylindrical, unbranched; flowers in clusters of four to seven in lower part of raceme and one to four in the upper part. Bracts rounded at base, lanceolate, acuminate, shorter than floral cluster in fruit. Pedicels thick, short, almost adnate to inflorescence axis. Calyx divided almost to base, with lanceolate lobes. Corolla yellow, 12–20 mm across, with very distinct pellucid glands. Stamens 5, all fertile; filaments of two anterior stamens at early flowering stage suberect, slightly longer and thicker than filaments of other stamens, glabrous or white-villous; anthers of two anterior stamens shortly decurrent. Style filiform. Capsule ellipsoid or obovoid, slightly longer than calyx. Flowering from June to July. Ural, Caucasus,

Verbascum densiflorum Bertol. . . .

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Fig. 1 Verbascum sp. (Scrophulariaceae), Ushguli, Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua Zambrana)

and Altai, in meadows, forest openings, mainly on sandy soils, as weed on waste land, and on riverbanks (Shishkin and Boborov 1955; Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10).

Phytochemistry Verbascum densiflorum: Carbohydrates (galactose, rhamnose, glucose, arabinose, xylose, ribose, stachyose, verbascose, augose, sucrose penta-lactoside, sucrose, hexagalactoside, pectin), iridoids (aukubosid, catalpol, lateriosid, isocatalpol, methyl catalpol), saponins, alkaloids, coumarins, tannins, flavonoids (apigenin, luteolin, quercetin, diosmin, rutinoside, tamarixetin), vitamins (C), phenol carboxylic acids (dihydroxycinnamic, ferulic, p-coumaric, protocatechoid, p-hydroxybenzoic, vanillic), fatty acids (myristic, palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, arachine, linncerol, tapsinic) (Sokolov 1990).

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Fig. 2 Verbascum sp. (Scrophulariaceae) Ushguli, Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua Zambrana)

Verbascum thapsus: Iridoids (aukubine), carbohydrates (glucose galactose, sucrose, pectin, biose, raffinose, mannotriose, verbascose), saponins, alkaloids, steroids (verbasterin, socatalpol, catalpol), flavonoids, tannins, steroids (a-phytosterol, sitosterol, ergostane), vitamins (C), triterpenoids, phenolcarboxylic acids (veratric), fatty acids (palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, linolenic, arachidonic, behenic) (Sokolov 1990).

Local Medicinal Uses Verbascum densiflorum: The leaf decoction is used as a sedative, anti-inflammatory, spasmolytic, analgesic, expectorant, and emollient. It is also used for the treatment of hypertension, acute respiratory infections, whooping cough, bronchopneumonia,

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Fig. 3 Verbascum sp. (Scrophulariaceae), Ushguli, Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua Zambrana)

gastritis, colitis, enteritis, liver and spleen diseases, and diabetes and serves topically as analgesic for furunculosis, burns, hemorrhoids, eczema, and itching dermatoses (Sokolov 1990). Verbascum thapsus: The leaf decoction is used as light sedative and for bathing, for washing of hemorrhoids, and for scrofulosis, rachitis, wound healing, and eye diseases. In Armenia, the leaf extract is mixed with milk to treat tuberculosis. The roots are used as antipyretic and diuretic and for kidney stones, gout, and kidney edema. In Altai, the roots and leaves are used for dysentery and chronic cystitis and with honey for respiratory infections. Poultices are applied to wounds (Sokolov 1990). Ground seeds are used in Pakistan for wound healing and against lumbago (Sher et al. 2016). The flowers are used for skin problems, and the leaves are used to treat gallbladder and kidney ailments as well as hemorrhoids (Bussmann et al. 2016, 2017).

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Fig. 4 Verbascum sp. (Scrophulariaceae), Ushguli, Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua Zambrana)

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Verbascum densiflorum: In veterinary medicine, the leaves are used as diuretic, as galactagogue, and externally as antiseptic and for wound healing (Sokolov 1990). Verbascum thapsus: Yields yellow and red dyes for wool and silk. Used as insecticide in the Ural. Toxic to livestock, especially when seeding, but can be used boiled as cattle feed to increase the fat content in milk. Sometimes planted as ornamental (Sokolov 1990).

Fig. 5 Verbascum sp. (Scrophulariaceae), Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua Zambrana)

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Fig. 6 Verbascum sp. (Scrophulariaceae), Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua Zambrana)

Fig. 7 Verbascum sp. (Scrophulariaceae), Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua Zambrana)

Verbascum densiflorum Bertol. . . . Fig. 8 Verbascum sp. (Scrophulariaceae), Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua Zambrana)

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1008 Fig. 9 Verbascum (sp. Scrophulariaceae), Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua Zambrana)

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Fig. 10 Verbascum sp. (Scrophulariaceae), Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo R.W: Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua Zambrana)

References Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among the Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni ethnic groups in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059.

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Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, Volume 22: Solanaceae and Scrophulariaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1955 (English 1993). 745 p. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 5. Families of Caprifoliaceae – Plantaginaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1990. 328 p. (in Russian).

Viburnum lantana L. Viburnum opulus L. ADOXACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Viburnum lantana L.: Viburnum tomentosum Lam.

Local Names Viburnum lantana: Azeri: Аdigərməşоv; Georgian: უზანი (uzani), Tushetian თურსა (ursa), Acharian მერცხალა (mertskhala), Kartlian, Kakhetian, Acharian უზნი (uzni), Kartlian, Mthiuletian, Khevsuretian, Pshavian ურძანი (urdzani), R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_142

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ურძნი (urdzni); Megrelian ღუზანი (ghuzani), Khevsuretian ცლიხვა (tslikhva), Svanetian წონწოფ (tzontzoph); fruit names: Kakhetian სამწიფელა (samts’ipela), Khevsuretian ცლიფა (tslipa) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011;

Makashvili 1991). English: Gordovin guelder-rose Viburnum opulus: Azeri Калина (Kalina), башын агаджы (başın agadjı); Armenian геримастин (gerimactin); Georgian ძახველი (dzakhveli) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991).

Botany and Ecology Viburnum lantana: Woody shrub to 1–3 m tall and sometimes a tree to 5 m tall. Gray bark furrowed. Leaves simple, pubescent, with calloused teeth along margins. Terminal inflorescence pubescent and usually with two pairs of leaves below. Flowers cup-shaped and yellow-white. Fruits turn green to bright red and shiny black below their tip. In rocky habitats in sunny areas of wooded thickets, especially in upper forested mountain slopes. In the Caucasus (Ciscaucasia, Dagestan, western Transcaucasia, eastern and southern Transcaucasia), Central Europe, Atlantic Europe Mediterranean, Balkans-Asia Minor, and Armenia-Kurdistan. A plant common along waysides. Viburnum lantana is commonly grown as an ornamental plant for its flowers and berries, growing best on alkaline soils. The fruit is mildly toxic and may cause vomiting or diarrhea if consumed in large quantities. Woody shrub to 1–3 m tall and sometimes a tree to 5 m tall. Gray bark is furrowed. Leaves simple, pubescent, with calloused teeth along margin. Terminal inflorescence is pubescent and usually with two pairs of leaves below. Flowers cup-shaped and yellow-white. Fruits turn green to bright red and shiny black below tip. The species is distributed in all regions of the Greater and Lesser Caucasus. Grows from lower to subalpine belt. Found alone as separate bushes and in groups in forest and rarely in unforested regions, on edges, among shrubs, rocks. Drought-resistant shrub. Grows well in open sunny places. Soil demanding but also grows in weak greatly skeletal mountain soils. Reproduced with seeds and root spears. Flowering in May–June, fruiting in August–September (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Shishkin 1953; Figs. 1 and 2). Viburnum opulus: Woody. Shrub 1.5–4 m tall or small tree with gray brown, fissured bark, and glabrous young shoots. Leaves from broadly ovate to orbicular, 5–10 cm long and broad on flowering shoots, with orbicular truncate or cuneate, rarely shallow cordate base, palmately 3-, rarely 5-lobed; upper leaves on flowering branches sometimes undivided or with very weakly developed mostly elliptic lateral lobes; middle lobe mostly quadrangular with parallel margins or somewhat tapered toward base, rarely ovate, lateral lobes ovate, upper part of middle lobe and primarily outer side of lateral lobes with large, unequal, subacute, rarely acuminate teeth, rarely all or only lateral lobes entire, tips of lobes acute; upper surface of leaves dark green, glabrous, beneath gray green, sometimes mostly densely (f. genuinum Lindem. = f. pubescens Gatsch. in Vestn.) soft velutinous or from the beginning subglabrous or glabrous, with exception of tuft of hairs in angles of main veins; basal veins 3, lateral veins with 6–8 outer branches which, like secondary veins, emerge

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Fig. 1 Viburnum lantana (Adoxaceae). Flowers. Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Viburnum lantana (Adoxaceae). Fruits. Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

from middle veins, ending in teeth, and, in the absence of latter, are directed along margin. Petioles 4–5 times as short as lamina, at base with 2 filiform stipules, rarely adnate with petiole, toward top with 2(4) discoid, sessile glands. Inflorescence, terminal on young branches, bearing two pairs of leaves, forming lax umbelliform panicles 5–10 cm broad, with 2.5–5-cm-long peduncle from which emerge 6–8 main rays, branched in the upper part. Bracts narrow, glabrous, caducous at anthesis, all parts of inflorescence glabrous or covered with scattered, very tiny glands. Marginal fruitless flowers on 1–2-cm-long pedicels, white, spreading (1)1.3–2.5 cm across, with 5 unequal, obovate lobes. Bisexual flowers sessile or on extremely short, up to 2-mm-long pedicels, white or pink-white, short campanulate, about 5 mm across, with broad, obtuse lobes, about 1.5 times as long as tube. Stamens about 1.5 times as long as corolla, with yellow anthers. Ovary cylindrical. Fruit globose or broadly ellipsoid, 8–10(12) mm long, bright red; stones broadly cordate to almost orbicular, 7–9 mm long, short acuminate at tip, with somewhat uneven surface. Flowering May–July, fruiting August–September. Caucasus, undergrowth and along edges of fairly wet deciduous and mixed forests and in tree-shrub thickets, especially along

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Fig. 3 Viburnum opulus (Adoxaceae) Racha, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Viburnum opulus (Adoxaceae) Racha, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

banks of rivers, lakes, marshes, ravines, and gorges; mountains in lower and middle mountain belts (Shishkin 1953; Figs. 3 and 4).

Local Medicinal Uses Viburnum lantana: The plant is toxic. A decoction of leaves is used as astringent as well as to treat septic wounds, diarrhea, and angina (Damirov et al. 1988). The plant is spasmolytic, sedative, and antihemorrhagic (Tsutsunava 1960). An alcoholic tincture is prepared from fruits and leaves and used to treat blood pressure problems (hypertension) and colds. The same tincture is used externally to treat inflammations. In the Caucasus, the leaves and fruits of both species are used for treating colds, cough, hypertension, inflammations, and lung and heart ailments (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

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Local Food Uses Viburnum lantana: The fruit is edible but not frequently eaten (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017). The stem is sometimes pickled. Viburnum opulus: The fruit becomes edible after first frost; taste is bittersweet. Rarely used raw, more frequently as pie filling. After 55 min boiling, the bitter taste disappears. One-half of viburnum and one-half of the apple give marmalade; adding 35% viburnum to apples gives excellent paste. In general, population rarely uses viburnum fruit. Fruits of V. lantana and V. orientale are of lower edibility. Fruit can be used to make vinegar with specific smell. Seeds can be used as coffee surrogate (Grossheim 1952). The fruits are eaten, used for jams, and for the production of alcohol (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Viburnum lantana and Viburnum opulus: A dye solution is prepared from leaves to obtain a straw color, and the solution is used for dyeing wool yarn as well as products made of wool (Qasimov 1980). A beautiful shrub especially during fruiting that can be used in park and gardens as well as for hedges. Suitable also for erosion protection in steep slopes (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961. The young branches are useful for coarse plaiting. Sticks and other household items are made of wood. Nectariferous plant produces nectar and pollen (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961). Birch and tursa (Viburnum lantana) are used for walking sticks in Tusheti (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017). Tursa is warmer and thus is better for walking sticks than birch; but birch is harder (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b). The tree is thought to be sacred. People went to collect its timber without speaking early in the morning of vernal equinox (25 March), when the first furrow was plowed, made beads of the timber, and tied them to their children to turn away the evil eye (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b). Tursa is a saving plant that drives away the evil eye. Beads made from Viburnum are strung an read thread and tied to a child’s hand, to a churn, or to a cow tail. Chkhuti (churn) still has it (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017). During Spring equinox (10 or 19 April), Tushetians had a celebration, where early in the morning people go to the forest to take tursa and hung it on a red thread, and they later tie it to doors, cow tail, children’s beds, and then to children’s wrist to ward off the evil eye. Now the tradition of tying tursa beads to a child’s wrist or waist still lives on. Crosses are always made of tursa, e.g., crosses for Alaverdi cathedral (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Fig. 5).

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Fig. 5 Viburnum lantana (Adoxaceae). Walking stick. Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Viburnum opulus: Planted as ornamental. Good melliferous plant producing abundant nectar and pollen (Grossheim 1952). Necklaces are made from the stems and branches for protection (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017)

References Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Viburnum lantana L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2.

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Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:5. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol; 2016c;86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517 Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Damirov IA, Prilipko LI, Shukurov DZ, Kerimov YB. Medicinal plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Metsniereba; 1988. (in Russian). Flora of Azerbaijan, vol I–VIII. Baku: AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1950–1961. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Akademia Nauk, Moscow; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Qasimov MA. Dye plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Azerbaijan State Publishing House; 1980. (in Azeri). Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 23. Bignoniaceae – Valerianaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1953 (English 2000). 891 p, 39 b/w plates. Tsutsunava N. Medicinal plants of Georgia. Tbilisi: Sabchota Sakartvelo; 1960. (in Georgian).

Vicia faba L. Vicia sativa L. FABACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Vicia faba L.: Faba bona Medik.; Faba faba (L.) House; Faba major Desf.; Faba minor Roxb.; Faba sativa Bernh.; Faba vulgaris Moench; Orobus faba Brot.; Vicia equina Steud.; Vicia esculenta Salisb.; Vicia vulgaris Gray Vicia sativa L.: Vicia alba Moench; Vicia bacla Moench; Vicia bobartii E. Forster; Vicia canadensis Zuccagni; Vicia communis Rouy; Vicia cordata Wulfen ex Hoppe; Vicia costenini Guss; Vicia cuneata Gren. & Godr.; Vicia erythrosperma Rchb.; Vicia glabra Schleich.; Vicia globosa Retz.; Vicia incisa M. Bieb.; Vicia intermedia Viv.; R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_143

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Vicia leucosperma Moench; Vicia macrocarpa (Moris) Bertol.; Vicia maculata C. Presl.; Vicia maculata Rouy; Vicia melanosperma Rchb.; Vicia morisiana Jord. ex Boreau; Vicia nemoralis Boreau; Vicia nemoralis Ten.; Vicia notota Gilib.; Vicia pallida Jacquem. ex Baker; Vicia pimpinelloides Mauri; Vicia sativa var. nigra L.; Vicia subterranea Gerard ex Dorthes; Vicia vulgaris Uspensky

Local Names Vicia faba: Georgian: ცერცვი (tsertsvi); Svan: როგი (rogv) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991). Vicia sativa: Georgian: ჭეკუნტელაი (ch’ek’unt’elai); Armenian: Вика (vika), вик (vik) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991).

Botany and Ecology Vicia faba: Annual; plant 10–100 cm high (sometimes taller); stems erect, few branched, tetrahedral, thick, glabrous; rachis ending in an awn; stipules large, up to 20 mm long, ovate-triangular, more or less dentate, often with brown spot; leaflets of lower leaves 1-paired, of others 2–3-paired, elliptic or oblong, 4–8 cm long, 2–4 cm wide, slightly fleshy, obtuse, mucronate. Flowers 2–4(6), in axillary short racemes, subsessile, 2–3.5 mm long, with faint pleasant aroma; calyx tubular, teeth lanceolate, long-acuminate, the upper shorter, attached; petals white; standard with violet stripes; wings with black spot; pods at first ascending, later spreading, oblongcylindrical, 5–10(20) cm long, 1.5–4 cm wide, short-pubescent, glabrous at sutures, brown when ripe, valves of ripe pods coriaceous; seeds 4–8, large, 1.2–2 cm in diameter, usually flattened, oval, yellow or dark brown, sometimes of another color, hilum elliptic, very short. Flowering June–July. Cultivated in gardens or in fields (in the south), sometimes escaped (Komarov and Shishkin 1948; Fig. 1). Fig. 1 Vicia faba (Fabaceae), garden, Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R:W. Bussmann & N.Y. paniagua-Zambrana)

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Vicia sativa: Simple or branching, angular, glabrous, or more or less pubescent; rachis ending in a branched tendril, sparingly appressed-hairy; stipules 5–7 mm long, semisagittate, sometimes few-toothed, usually with small nectaries beneath; leaflets 3–8-paired, oblong, broadly elliptic or oblong-obovate, 1–25 mm long, 5–8 mm wide, truncate or slightly emarginate at apex, rarely lanceolate (var. linearis Lange), 15–20 mm long, 2.3–3.5 mm wide. Flowers axillary, solitary or in pairs, subsessile, 20–26 mm long; calyx tubular, 13–15 mm long, teeth lanceolate -subulate, usually almost as long as tube; corolla pink-lilac; limb of standard orbicularovate, paler than wings and keel and abruptly tapering to wide claw; pods ascending or spreading, slightly flattened or subcylindrical, up to 6 cm long, sparingly hairy or glabrous, light brown, 4–10-seeded; seeds usually globose, 3–5 mm in diameter, rarely flattened (var. platysperma Barab.), variable in color, velutinous-matte, hilum narrow, one-sixth to one-fifth the circumference of seed. Flowering May–July. Caucasus, field edges, waste places, crops, as a weed among oats, barley, rye, and sometimes lentils (Komarov and Shishkin 1948).

Phytochemistry Nitrogen-containing compounds (vicyanine, hydrocyanic acid), vitamins (C, carotene), flavonoids (kaempferol), and anthocyanins (delphinidin, petunidin, malvidin) (Sokolov 1987).

Local Medicinal Uses Vicia faba seeds are used to treat heartburn (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

Local Food Uses In Pshavi leaves and fruits of ach’k’ana, აჭკანა Vicia sp. are used as food (Maghalashvili 1970). Now only sporadically grown in the region. The seeds are eaten (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017). The leaves of Vicia sativa are used in sats’ebai (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Figs. 2 and 3).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Used as animal feed, especially in the Northern Caucasus (Grossheim 1952).

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Fig. 2 Vicia faba (Fabaceae), harvest, garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R:W. Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Fig. 3 Vicia faba (Fabaceae), harvest, garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R:W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

References Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1.

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Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus – Georgia. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017a. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Komarov VL, Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 13: Leguminosae: Oxytropis, Hedysarum. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1948 (English 1972). 455 p, 26 b/w plates, 2 maps. Maghalashvili T. Useful plants of Telavi district. Acad. S. Janashia State Museum of Georgia XXVI–XXVII. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1970. (8 მაღალაშვილი თ. 1970. თელავის რაიონის სასარგებლო მცენარეები. აკად. ს. ჯანაშიას სახელობის საქართველოს სახელმწიფო მუზეუმის მოამბე XXVI–XXVII – A. თბილისი: მეცნიერება in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, Volume 3. Hydrangeaceae-Haloragaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1987. 326 p. (in Russian).

Viscum album L. SANTALACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Viscum album L.: Viscum polycoccon Houtt.

Local Names Georgian: ფითრი (pitri); Armenian, Омела (omela), мгамурч (mgamurts) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991) R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_144

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Botany and Ecology Perennial, spherically branched, 20–120 cm in diameter, with lignified branches; leaves thick, commonly indistinctly nerved, oblong-oval to oblong, obtuse; flowers in 5s or 6s, yellowish green; fruit globular, to 9–10 mm in diameter, white; seeds flatangled (var. platyspermum Keller) or convex-angled (var. austriacum Beck. = V. austriacum Wiesb.). Flowering March–April. Caucasus, parasitizing on broadleaved trees (poplar, maple, birch, lime, elm, pear, apple, oak), rarely on conifers (pine), sometimes causing considerable damage, especially to fruit trees (Boborov and Komarov 1936; Fig. 1).

Local Medicinal Uses Preparations from the leaves produce dilation of blood vessels and help lowering blood pressure (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1988). Mistletoe fruits are used to treat asthma, often together with hazelnuts (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017a; Bussmann et al. 2016, 2017; Bussmann 2017), and cardiac problems, in combination with Crataegus (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017b, Bussmann et al. 2016, 2017; Bussmann 2017). In the Himalayas, the leaves are used to treat fractures and sprains (Kunwar et al. 2010). Fig. 1 Viscum album (Santalaceae), Sierra de Grazalema, Spain. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses The fruits are used for bird glue (Sokolov 1988).

References Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Betula pubescens var. litwinowii (Doluch.) Ashburner & Mc. All. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017a. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Crataegus curvisepala Lindm.; Crataegus pentagyna Waldst. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017b. Boborov EG, Komarov VL. Flora of the USSR, Volume 5: Dicotyledoneae, subclass I: Archichlamydeae, order Piperales-Polygonales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1936 (English 1970). 593 p, 49 b/w plates. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plant and fungal use in Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2017;86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus _ Combined Chapters_web. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Bussmann RW. Traditional herbal medicine in far-west Nepal: a pharmacological appraisal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:35. Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, Volume 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1988. 357 p. (in Russian).

Vitis labrusca L. Vitis vinifera L. VITACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Local Names Georgian: ყურძენი (q’urdzeni); Russian: Виноград (vinograd); Azeri: узюм (uzjum); Armenian: хахохени (chachocheni) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991).

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_145

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Botany and Ecology Vitis labrusca: Climbing shrubs, vine half-robust, with stem 20–25 cm in diameter; root thick, fleshy; annotinous shoots dark chocolate in color, cylindrical, densely hairy; tendrils continuously arranged, shortly 2–3 partite; buds large, conical, sparsely covered with rusty hairs; stipules long, cordate; 679 leaves large, broadly ovate or orbicular, 24–25 cm long, 15–17 cm wide, entirely to obscurely 3-lobed, often notched with orbicular incisions, petiolar incision varying in depth and width, V-shaped, margin dentate with shallow mucronate incised teeth, surface more or less rugose, dark green, hairy when young, later glabrous; lower face densely pubescent, more or less medium sized, usually compound, racemes usually winged, dense, on thick short to medium-long peduncle; berry medium-sized, black, pink, rarely white, with thick epidermis and distinct bloom, with typical musky or “foxy” odor, 2–4seeded; seeds with short beak, chalaza obscure, forming an oval concavecanaliculated suture. Flowering May–June, fruiting September. Caucasus, cultivated and frequently locally escaped in forests. Introduced from North America into Europe at the beginning of the nineteenth century. Introduced into W. Georgia during the 1950s and now cultivated in Abkhazia, Megrelia, and Guria under the name “Odessa” for light wines. It is noted for its high cold resistance (it withstands temperatures down to 30  C) and heat resistance (withstands up to 40 ) but cannot tolerate more than 10% lime in soil (Shishkin and Boborov 1949). Vitis vinifera: Climbers up to 30(43) m tall, with stem up to 1.5 m in circumference; bark usually peeling in strips, branches brown-red to brown-yellow, glabrous or simple-hairy or flocculose, thinly furrowed, nodes usually with septum; leaves orbicular, pentagonal or reniform, entire, 3–5-lobed or dissected, sometimes nearly pinnatisect (var. laciniosa (L.) Asch.), 5–20 cm in diameter, usually with narrow acutely angular, sometimes closed petiolar incision, cordate at base, irregularly and usually obtusely dentate at margin, glabrous or short-hirsute or long cobwebby, sometimes pubescence mixed on individual plants, usually more hairy beneath, sparsely weak-hairy to tomentose. Flowers bisexual or functionally pistillate then with short recurved sterile stamens (purely staminate flowers rare, with stelliformspreading corolla), arranged in compound loose or more or less dense panicles, sometimes with tendrils, racemes varying in shape, from cylindrical to cylindricalconical, often winged; fruit much variable, 6–22 mm long, globose, flattened, oval, elliptic, oblong, ovoid to obovoid or irregularly shaped, very variable in color: blackviolet, purple, dark red, pink, yellowish, green or greenish, with thick or mucilaginous juicy pulp, usually sweet or sourish; seeds 3–4, averagely 2(6–7) mm long, pyriform or ovoid, beaked, chalaza appearing at about upper third of seed, rarely seeds absent. Flowering May–June, fruiting August–September. Among the older cultivated plants of Eurasia, the cultivation of grapes dates at least 8000 years back in the Caucasus, and almost 600 varieties of grapes are still being grown in the Caucasus. Popular commercial varieties are especially rkatsiteli, mtsvane and saperavi in Kakheti in Eastern Georgia and tsitska, krakhuna, tsolikouri, and aleksandrouli in Western Georgia (Shishkin and Boborov 1949; Shishkin and Bobirov 1949; Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961; Gvaramadze 1997; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, and 18).

Vitis labrusca L. . . . Fig. 1 Vitis vinifera (Vitaceae), Mtskheta, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Vitis vinifera (Vitaceae), Mtskheta, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 3 Vitis vinifera (Vitaceae), Mtskheta, Georgia (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Vitamins (B1, C), anthocyanins (peonidin, malvidin, petunidin), tannins, fatty acids (linoleic, oleic, palmitic, stearic) (Sokolov 1988).

Local Medicinal Uses The root bark is used in the Ural to treat carbuncles and abscess and as infusion for diarrhea and vomiting. The fruit juice is used topically to treat skin cancer and internally for anemia, rickets, gastrointestinal cancer, tuberculosis, chronic bronchitis, nerve diseases, hemorrhoids, kidney and liver disease, and gout (Sokolov 1988). Grape seeds contain mucilaginous compounds that are used as water decoction as

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Fig. 4 Vitis vinifera (Vitaceae), Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

antitussive and expectorant (Damirov et al. 1988). The fruits and fresh juice are used in general weakness and anemia and for improving of appetite (Alalbarov 2008). For gum diseases, it is recommended to chew fresh grape leaves and gargle a water infusion of leaves to treat the mouth cavity. The natural juice from immature grapes (abgora) is ingested to reduce blood sugar (Damirov et al. 1988). Fresh leaves steamed in water are used for night baths in rheumatism as analgesic (Damirov et al. 1988). The juice of the green berries is used in the treatment of malaria, and fruits and fresh juice are applied in podagra and liver diseases. Fresh leaves are put in cold water and taken internally to enhance eyesight (Fedorov 1949). Bekmez (doshab, irchal) is made from fruits of different sorts and is widely applied as strengthening means in anemia, diseases of the liver, severe blood loss, and shock (Damirov et al. 1988).

Local Food Uses The fruits are eaten fresh and as raisins, jams, marmalades, and compotes. The leaves are used as seasoning for food, especially soups. The seeds are used as coffee surrogate. In the Caucasus, the young vine is used for the making “dolma” (stuffed vine leaves). They are eaten salted in the winter. The seedless grapes are dried and

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Fig. 5 Vitis vinifera (Vitaceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

used in jams, juice, concentrated juices, marinades, and rolled in dough (tklapi). The juice is used in the making of marmalade and churchkhela. The roasted seeds are sometimes used as a substitute for coffee. Many national dishes are dressed with abgora (a thoroughly boiled and then salted juice of unripe grapes) (Sokolov 1988). Plants mixed together for pkhali in Adjara include dvarula dvalura დვარულა დვალურა Polygonum carneum C. Koch, dondoli დონდოლი Gadellia lactiflora (M.Bieb.), ch’inch’ari ჭინჭარი Urtica dioica L., katamnatsara ქათამნაცარა Chenopodium album L., ch’ich’laq’a ჭიჭლაყა Amaranthus retroflexus L., perapera ფერაფერა Phytolacca americana L., k’uk’umzhava კუკუმჟავა, svint’ri სვინტრი Polygonatum ssp., ch’arbadelo ჭარბადელო Arctium lappa L., and also young leaves of motsvi მოცვი Vaccinium ssp., venakhi ვენახი Vitis vinifera L., babuats’vera ბაბუასწვერა Taraxacum ssp., Kajiloja ქაჯილოჯა Daucus carota L., Ts’its’marit’a წიწმარიტა Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik., burt’q’ila ბურტყილა Lapsana.

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Fig. 6 Vitis vinifera (Vitaceae), traditional Kvevri (wine amphorae), Ethnographic Museum Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

grandiflora M. Bieb.; the plants used by Adjara people as food are ajark’ela აჯარკელა Lathyrus roseus Steven, ajorik’a აჯორიკას Aruncus vulgaris Raf. (young leaves are pickled), bobots’vera ბობოწვერა Taraxacum ssp. (ground roasted dry roots used instead of cichorium), dilq’a დილყა Heracleum sp. (shoots are peeled and eaten), k’onst’ant’ila კონსტანტილა (white roots are edible), ozaghina ოზაღინა Chaerophyllum aureum L. (young leaves are pickled), ghima ღიმა Chaerophyllum bulbosum L. (mixed with leek or ajorik’a აჯორიკა Aruncus vulgaris Raf. and pickled), and dvalura დვალურა Polygonum carneum (Baramidze 1987; Kakhidze 2007; Kokhreidze 1947; Nizharadze 1971). Wild pkhali plants can be cooked in various ways, pickled, boiled, and seasoned with vinegar, walnuts, and various spice herbs (Kokhreidze 1947). Grapes are one of the most traditional and old cultivated plants in the Caucasus, with cultivation and wine making reaching back over 8000 years (Bussmann et al. 2014). Many churches and other buildings are decorated with grape ornaments. In Georgia alone, there are still almost 600 grape varieties, although about 40% of the original varieties got lost under Soviet occupation. Grapes are grown all over the region and either eaten raw, as raisins, or turned into wine. The leaves are used to make dolma (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, 2016b, 2017a, b, c, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Figs. 19, 20, 21, 22, and 23).

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Fig. 7 Vitis vinifera (Vitaceae), grape relief on cathedral, Mtskheta, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Handicraft and Other Uses A dye solution is made of seed and leaves to obtain gray and beige colors. Solution is used for dyeing wool yarn as well as products made of wool (Qasimov 1980). The wood can be used for utensils or sometimes planted as ornamental. The leaves can be used as silage as fodder for livestock. Finally, grape vines are ornamental in gardens as trellises, latticework, arbors, etc. (Sokolov 1988). Vitis labrusca is sometimes grown as an ornamental.

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Fig. 8 Vitis vinifera (Vitaceae), Pinot grapes, Duisi, Pankisi gorge, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

1038 Fig. 9 Vitis vinifera (Vitaceae), Adessa grapes, Imereti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 10 Vitis vinifera (Vitaceae), Adessa grapes, Imereti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 11 Vitis vinifera (Vitaceae), Adessa grapes, Imereti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

1040 Fig. 12 Vitis vinifera (Vitaceae), Adessa grapes, Imereti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 13 Vitis vinifera (Vitaceae), Samtskhe, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

1042 Fig. 14 Vitis vinifera (Vitaceae), homemade wine, Imereti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 15 Vitis vinifera (Vitaceae), homemade wine, Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Vitis labrusca L. . . . Fig. 16 Vitis vinifera (Vitaceae), homemade wine, Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 17 Vitis vinifera (Vitaceae), Samtskhe, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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1044 Fig. 18 Vitis vinifera (Vitaceae), Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Vitis labrusca L. . . . Fig. 19 Vitis vinifera (Vitaceae), grape leaves for sale, Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 20 Vitis vinifera (Vitaceae), grape leaves used for traditional dolma, Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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1046 Fig. 21 Vitis vinifera (Vitaceae), grape leaves used for traditional dolma, Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 22 Vitis vinifera (Vitaceae), grape leaves used for traditional dolma, Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Vitis labrusca L. . . .

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Fig. 23 Vitis vinifera (Vitaceae), Churchkhela (nuts in dried grape juice), Mtskheta, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

References Alalbarov AU. One thousand and one secret of the East. Baku: Nurlan; 2008. (in Russian). Baramidze J. Adjarian dishes. Batumi: Sabchota Adjara; 1987. (ბარამიძე ჯ. 1987. აჭარული კერძები. ბათუმი: საბჭოთა აჭარა in Georgian). Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):7–24.

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Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus – Georgia. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017b. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus – the region. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017c. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Damirov IA, Prilipko LI, Shukurov DZ, Kerimov YB. Medicinal plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Metsniereba; 1988. (in Russian). Fedorov AA. The herbs applied in traditional medicine of the Talysh. Baku: Publishing House of AS of USSR; 1949. (in Russian). Flora of Azerbaijan. Volumes I–VIII. Baku: AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1950–1961. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Gvaramadze K. Results of the study of the Guria region. Tbilisi; 1997. (გვარამაძე კ. 1997. (გურია მხარის კვლევა-ძიების შედეგები. თბილისი in Georgian). Kakhidze N. The oldest and old historical sources of Adjara – ethnographic data. Essays on history of south-western Georgia, Adjara 1. Tbilisi; 2007. (კახიძე ნ. 2007 აჭარის უძველესი და ძველი ისტორიის წყაროები ეთნოგრაფიული მონაცემები. სამხრეთ-დასავლეთ საქართველოს ისტორიის ნარკვევები აჭარა 1. თბილისი in Georgian.) Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Kokhreidze V. Wild food plants of Adjara (mkhaleuli). Batumi: Adjaris sakhelgami; 1947. 8კოხრეიძე ვ. 1947. აჭარაში ველურად მოზარდი საკვები მცენარეები (მხალეული). ბათუმი: აჭარის სახელგამი in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Nizharadze Sh. Adjarian dialect of the Georgian language. Batumi; 1971. (ნიჟარაძე შ. 1971. ქართული ენის აჭარული დიალექტი. ბათუმი in Georgian). Qasimov MA. Dye plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Azerbaijan State Publishing House; 1980. (in Azeri). Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, Volume 14: Geraniales, Sapindales, Rhamnales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1949 (English 1974). 616 pages, 39 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, Volume 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1988. 357 p. (in Russian).

Zea mays L. POACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

Synonyms Zea mays L.: Mays americana Baumg.; Mays zea Gaertn.; Mayzea cerealis Raf.; Mayzea cerealis var. gigantea Raf.; Zea altissima C.C. Gmel. ex Steud.; Zea americana Mill.; Zea canina S. Watson; Zea erythrolepis Bonaf.; Zea hirta Bonaf.; Zea mays var. hirta (Bonaf.) Alef.; Zea mays Vell.; Zea mays fo. variegata (G. Nicholson) Beetle; Zea mays var. pennsylvanica Bonaf.; Zea mays var. praecox Torr.; Zea mays var. saccharata (Sturtev.) L.H. Bailey; Zea mays var. variegata G. Nichelson; Zea mays var. virginica Bonaf.; Zea saccharata Sturtev.; Zea segetalis Salisb.; Zea vulgaris Mill. R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili · M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_146

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Local Names Georgian: ბამბუკი (bat’ibut’i), სიმინდი (simindi), ტკუჩა სიმინდი (t’k’ucha simindi); Russian: Кукуруза (kukuruza); Azeri: гаргы далы (gargy daly); Armenian: египтацорен (egiptazoren) (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991).

Botany and Ecology Annual. Culm 100–300