Ethnobotany of the Andes [1st ed.] 9783030289324, 9783030289331

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Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions Series Editors: R. W. Bussmann · N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Rainer W. Bussmann  Editors

Ethnobotany of the Andes

Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions Series Editors Rainer W. Bussmann Department of Ethnobotany Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden Ilia State University Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge La Paz, Bolivia Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden Ilia State University Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia Universidad Mayor de San Andrés La Paz, Bolivia

Ethnobotanical research in recent years has increasingly shifted into applied aspects of the discipline, including climate change research, conservation, and sustainable development. It has by now widely been recognized that “traditional” knowledge is always in flux and adapting to a quickly changing environment. Trends of globalization, especially the globalization of plant markets, have greatly influenced how plant resources are managed nowadays. While ethnobotanical studies are now available from many regions of the world, no comprehensive encyclopedic series focusing on the worlds mountain regions is available in the market. Scholars in plant sciences worldwide will be interested in this website and its dynamic content. The field (and thus the market) of ethnobotany and ethnopharmacology has grown considerably in recent years. Student interest is on the rise, attendance at professional conferences has grown steadily, and the number of professionals calling themselves ethnobotanists has increased significantly (the various societies—Society for Economic Botany, International Society of Ethnopharmacology, Society of Ethnobiology, International Society for Ethnobiology, and many regional and national societies in the field currently have thousands of members). Growth has been most robust in BRIC countries. The objective of this new series on Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions is to take advantage of the increasing international interest and scholarship in the field of mountain research. We anticipate including the best and latest research on a full range of descriptive, methodological, theoretical, and applied research on the most important plants for each region. Each contribution will be scientifically rigorous and contribute to the overall field of study. More information about this series at: https://www.springer.com/series/15885

Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Rainer W. Bussmann Editors

Ethnobotany of the Andes With 1411 Figures

Editors Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden Ilia State University Tbilisi, Georgia

Rainer W. Bussmann Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden Ilia State University Tbilisi, Georgia

Saving Knowledge La Paz, Bolivia

Saving Knowledge La Paz, Bolivia

Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia Universidad Mayor de San Andrés La Paz, Bolivia

ISSN 2523-7489 ISSN 2523-7497 (electronic) ISBN 978-3-030-28932-4 ISBN 978-3-030-28933-1 (eBook) ISBN 978-3-030-28934-8 (print and electronic bundle) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1 © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG. The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Preface

The Andes are the most diverse ecosystems globally from a biological point of view. They extend from western Venezuela to northern Chile and Argentina and include large portions of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. It is estimated that around 25% of the world’s biological diversity is found in the Andean region. The countries that comprise this region are thus considered the most diverse and rich in animal and plant species in the world. The Andean ecosystems are home to an estimated 30,000 species of vascular plants, representing about 10% of the planet’s species and exceeding the diversity of any other ecoregion. The Andes also lead in unique, endemic plants worldwide. It is estimated that at least 50% (perhaps 60% or more) of the Andean flora are not found anywhere else in the world. This means that about 7% of the vascular plants on the planet are endemic to the Andes, representing only 0.8% of the land area of the plant. In addition to their biological diversity, the Andes have a very rich cultural diversity, with more than 40 indigenous groups living in the Andean highlands alone. These communities play a critical role in economic, political, and land-use activities, and the history of their settlements dates back much further, with the ecosystems of the Andes having sustained human settlements during at least the last 13,000–19,000 years. From approximately 500 BC, large human settlements emerged in the Andes and reached advanced forms of social and political organization (e.g., Chavín, Moche, Tiwanaku, Cañari, Muisca, and Inca). Over time all these societies collapsed or were incorporated into the most important civilization of the region, the ephemeral Empire of the Incas that emerged around 1400 AD. These cultures contributed to the domestication of numerous species, making this region one of the 12 largest centers of origin in the world of plants grown for food, medicine, and industry. The Andean flora has always been recognized for being immensely rich in useful plants. Evidence of this is found in the chronicles of the missionaries who accompanied the conquerors, where reference was made to the use that the indigenous population gave to the plants that grew in these territories. The number of publications that have documented the use of plants in this region includes numerous writings, reports, books, and scientific articles. While many of them are accessible online, most have not been made available to the general public due to the mostly unfounded fear of appropriation of this knowledge by outsiders and bioprospecting. Bioprospecting has been seen as an activity that goes against the v

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objectives of protecting biological and cultural diversity. The focus of this activity underlines the problem in relation to indigenous rights, cultural knowledge, and traditional resources, issues where intellectual property protection regulations have not yet been properly developed. However, although this concern is valid, it ignores the importance of publishing this information and its role in preventing this knowledge from being patented by putting it into the public domain. It is still unknown how large the proportion of useful plant species in the Andes is in relation to the total flora, and even less is known about all their respective uses and their use tradition. Currently the Andean area has a human population of more than 57 million inhabitants who depend heavily on the goods and services from the region's ecosystems. Better knowing and documenting them may be the most valuable tool to conserve them. Conservation must include the native flora found in inhabited rural areas. It must also seek to interact with communities to achieve the sustainable management of these resources and support their conservation, as well as ensure the transmission of ancestral knowledge to future generations. In Ethnobotany of the Andes we seek to address these issues and try to make information about the use of plants in the Andes available to the wider general public, as well as to scientists and conservationists. In this way we hope that future studies will take into account existing information and develop research to fill in the information gaps that still exist. This book should therefore be considered as the starting point of an effort committed to study the native flora of the Andes within a context that considers it as a natural resource of immense importance for the region.

Contents

Volume 1 Part I

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1

Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions: Andes – Bolivia, Chile, Peru . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Javier Echeverría

3

Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions – Andes – Colombia and Ecuador . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Carolina Romero, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann

83

Part II

Regions

Plant Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

105

Acaena magellanica (Lam.) Vahl ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann

107

Achillea millefolium L. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

111

Achyrocline alata (Kunth) DC. Achyrocline bogotensis (Kunth) DC. Achyrocline satureioides (Lam.) DC. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Acmella oppositifolia (Lam.) R.K. Jansen ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, Javier Echeverría, and Carolina Romero Adesmia atacamensis Phil. Adesmia erinacea Phil. Adesmia minor (Hook. & Arn.) Burkart var. caespitosa (Phil.) Ulibarri & Burkart Adesmia rahmeri Phil. Adesmia spinosissima Meyen Adesmia subterranea Clos FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann Adiantum concinnum Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd. Adiantum raddianum C. Presl. ADIANTACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

117 123

127

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Contents

Agave americana L. AGAVACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

141

Ageratum conyzioides L. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

147

Airampoa ayrampo (Azara) Doweld CACTACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann

153

Allionia incarnata L. NYCTAGINACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann

157

Allium cepa L. Allium fistulosum L. Allium ramosum L. Allium sativum L. AMARYLLIDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

159

Alnus acuminata Kunth BETULACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

171

Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f. ASPHODELACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

177

Aloysia deserticola (Phil.) Lu-Irving & O’Leary Aloysia triphylla Royle VERBENACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, Javier Echeverría, and Carolina Romero Alternanthera brasiliana (L.) Kuntze Alternanthera halimifolia (Lam.) Standl. ex Pittier Alternanthera porrigens (Jacq.) Kuntze Alternanthera villosa Kunth AMARANTHACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Amaranthus caudatus L. Amaranthus deflexus L. Amaranthus hybridus L. Amaranthus retroflexus L. Amaranthus spinosus L. AMARANTHACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, Javier Echeverría, and Carolina Romero Ambrosia arborescens Mill. Ambrosia artemisioides Meyen & Walp. ex Meyen Ambrosia cumanensis Kunth ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, Javier Echeverría, and Carolina Romero

183

191

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Anacardium occidentale L. ANACARDIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

219

Anethum graveolens L. APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

223

Anthemis arvensis L. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann

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Contents

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Apium graveolens L. APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

231

Argemone mexicana L. PAPAVERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

237

Argyrochosma nivea (Poir.) Windham PTERIDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Javier Echeverría

243

Artemisia absinthium L. Artemisia annua L. Artemisia copa Phil. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, Javier Echeverría, and Carolina Romero Astragalus arequipensis Vogel FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann Atriplex glaucescens Phil. Atriplex imbricata (Moq.) D. Dietr. var. imbricata Atriplex madariagae Phil. AMARANTHACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann Avena sativa L. POACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Azorella atacamensis G.M. Plunkett & A.N. Nicolas Azorella compacta Phil. APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann Baccharis alnifolia Meyen & Walp. Baccharis boliviensis (Wedd.) Cabrera Baccharis caespitosa (Ruiz & Pav.) Pers. Baccharis ciliata Gardner Baccharis indica L. Baccharis juncea (Cass.) Desf. Baccharis pentlandii DC. Baccharis salicifolia (Ruiz & Pav.) Pers. Baccharis santelicis Phil. Baccharis tola Phil. Baccharis vaccinioides Kunth ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, Javier Echeverría, and Carolina Romero

247

259

261 267

273

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Baccharis genistelloides (Lam.) Pers. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, Carolina Romero, and Javier Echeverría

291

Baccharis latifolia (Ruiz. & Pav.) Pers. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, Carolina Romero, and Javier Echeverría

297

Bactris gasipaes Kunth ARECACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

303

Bauhinia variegata L. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

321

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Contents

Bellardia trixago (L.) All. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann

325

Berberis rigidifolia Kunth ex DC. BERBERIDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

329

Bidens laevis (L.) Britton, Stern & Poggenb. Bidens pilosa L. Bidens pseudocosmos Sherff Bidens sp. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, Javier Echeverría, and Carolina Romero Bixa orellana L. BIXACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Bomarea angustifolia Benth. Bomarea dulcis (Hook.) Beauverd ALSTROEMERIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana and Rainer W. Bussmann

335

343

349

Borago officinalis L. BORAGINACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

355

Brassica oleracea L. BRASSICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

361

Brosimum rubescens Taub. MORACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

369

Browningia candelaris (Meyen) Britton & Rose CACTACEAE . . . . . . . . . . Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann

373

Brugmansia candida Pers. Brugmanisa sanguinea (Ruiz & Pav.) D. Don. SOLANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

375

Bryantiella glutinosa (Phil.) J.M. Porter POLEMONIACEEA . . . . . . . . . . . . Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann

383

Buddleja americana L. Buddleja coriacea J. Rémy SCROPHULARIACEAE . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana and Rainer W. Bussmann

385

Bursera graveolens (Kunth.) Triana & Planch. BURSERACEAE . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

391

Caesalpinia paipai Ruiz & Pav. Caesalpinia spinosa (Molina) Kuntze FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

397

Caiophora chuquitensis (Meyen) Urb. & Gilg Caiophora rosulata (Wedd.) Urb. & Gilg LOASACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann

403

Contents

Calceolaria bartsiifolia Wedd. Calceolaria buchtieniana Kraenzl. Calceolaria engleriana Kraenzl. Calceolaria inamoena Kraenzl. Calceolaria stellariifolia Phil. Calceolaria rugulosa Edwin CALCEOLARIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Javier Echeverría Calendula officinalis L. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

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409 417

Cantua buxifolia Juss. ex Lam. Cantua flexuosa (Ruiz & Pav.) Pers. Cantua quercifolia Juss. POLEMONIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana and Rainer W. Bussmann

421

Capparis crotonoides (Kunth) Iltis & Cornejo Capparis scabrida Kunth CAPPARACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana and Rainer W. Bussmann

429

Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik BRASSICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

435

Capsicum annuum L. SOLANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

443

Carica papaya L. Vasconcellea pubescens A. DC. CARICACEAE . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

453

Carpobrotus chilensis (Molina) N.E. Br. AIZOACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Javier Echeverría

463

Cassia occidentalis L. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

465

Cecropia andina Cuatrec. Cecropia mutisiana Mildbr. Cecropia peltata L. CECROPIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

471

Centaurium erythraea Rafn GENTIANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana and Rainer W. Bussmann

477

Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

481

Ceroxylon parvifrons (Engl). H. Wendl. Ceroxylon quindiuense (H. Karst). H. Wendl. Ceroxylon vogelianum (Engl). H. Wendl. ARECACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana and Rainer W. Bussmann Cestrum auriculatum L’Hér. Cestrum buxifolium Kunth Cestrum nocturnum L. Cestrum parqui L’Hér. Cestrum strigilatum Ruiz & Pav. Cestrum undulatum Ruiz & Pav. Cestrum sp. SOLANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

485

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Cetraria islandica (L.) Ach. PARMELIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

513

Chara sp. CHAROPHYCEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann

515

Cheilanthes myriophylla Desv. Cheilanthes pruinata Kaulf. PTERIDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann

517

Chenopodium album L. Chenopodium quinoa Willd. Chenopodium hircinum Schrad. Chenopodiastrum murale (L.) S. Fuentes, Uotila & Borsch AMARANTHACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, Javier Echeverría, and Carolina Romero

525

Chersodoma arequipensis (Cuatrec.) Cuatrec Chersodoma jodopappa (Sch. Bip.) Cabrera ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann

533

Chorizanthe commissuralis J. Remy POLYGONACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann Chuquiraga atacamensis Kuntze Chuquiraga jussieui J.F. Gmel. Chuquiraga spinosa Less. Chuquiraga weberbaueri Tovar ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, Javier Echeverría, and Carolina Romero

537

539

Cicer arietinum L. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

549

Cinchona officinalis L. Cinchona pubescens Vahl RUBIACEAE . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

553

Cistanthe amarantoides (Phil.) Carolin ex Hershkovitz Cistanthe celosioides (Phil.) Carolin ex Hershkovitz MONTIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann

559

Citrus aurantifolia Swingle Citrus maxima (L.) Osbeck Citrus medica L. Citrus reticulata Blanco RUTACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

565

Clusia lechleri Rusby Clusia minor L. Clusia pachamamae Zenteno Ruiz & A. Fuentes Clusia sp. CLUSIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana and Rainer W. Bussmann

577

Coffea arabica L. RUBIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

583

Contents

xiii

Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronquist Conyza deserticola Phil. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, Javier Echeverría, and Carolina Romero Cordia alliodora (Ruiz & Pav.) Oken Cordia lutea Lam. BORAGINACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Coriandrum sativum L. APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Corryocactus brevistylus (K. Schum. ex Vaupel) Britton & Rose CACTACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann

589

597 603

611

Cortaderia speciosa (Nees & Meyen) Stapf POACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann

615

Corynaea crassa Hook. f. BALANOPHORACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana and Rainer W. Bussmann

619

Crescentia cujete L. BIGNONIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

623

Croton draconoides Müll. Arg. Croton lechleri Müll. Arg. EUPHORBIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

631

Cryptantha hispida (Phil.) Reiche BORAGINACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann

639

..............

641

Cucumis sativus L. CUCURBITACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

645

Cucumis dipsaceus Ehrenb. ex Spach CUCURBITACEAE Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana and Rainer W. Bussmann

Cucurbita maxima Duchesne Cucurbita moschata Duchesne CUCURBITACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Cumulopuntia sphaerica (C.F. Först.) E.F. Anderson CACTACEAE . . . . . . Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann Cuphea carthagenensis (Jacq.) J.F. Macbr. Cuphea ciliata Ruiz & Pav. Cuphea racemosa (L. f.) Spreng. Cuphea strigulosa Kunth LYTHRACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana and Rainer W. Bussmann Cupressus lusitanica Mill. Cupressus sargentii Jeps. CUPRESSACEAE . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana and Rainer W. Bussmann

649 657

661 667

xiv

Contents

Cydonia oblonga Mill. ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

671

Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf POACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

675

Cynara cardunculus L. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

681

Daucus carota L. Daucus montanus Humb. & Bonpl. ex Spreng. APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

689

.............

697

Desmodium molliculum (Kunth) DC. Desmodium triflorum (L.) DC. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

699

Descurainia sophia (L.) Webb ex Prantl BRASSICACEAE Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana and Rainer W. Bussmann

Dianthus caryophyllus L. Dianthus plumarius L. CARYOPHYLLACEAE . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

707

.........

715

Dioscorea tambillensis R. Knuth Dioscorea trifida L. f. DIOSCOREACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

733

Diplostephium cinereum Cuatrec. Diplostephium gynoxyoides Cuatrec. Diplostephium sagasteguii Cuatrec. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann

741

Dictyocaryum lamarckianum (Mart.) H. Wendl. ARECACEAE Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana and Rainer W. Bussmann

Distichlis spicata (L.) Greene. POACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann

745

Dodonaea viscosa Jacq. SAPINDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

749

Drimys granadensis L. f. WINTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

755

Dunalia spinosa (Meyen) Dammer SOLANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann

759

Dysphania ambrosioides (L.) Mosyakin & Clemants AMARANTHACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

763

Contents

xv

Echinopsis pachanoi (Britton & Rose) Friedrich & G.D. Rowley CACTACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana and Rainer W. Bussmann Elatteria cardamomum (L.) Maton ZINGIBERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Ephedra americana Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd. Ephedra breana Phil. Ephedra multiflora Stapf Ephedra rupestris Benth. EPHEDRACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Javier Echeverría Equisetum bogotense Kunth Equisetum giganteum L. EQUISETACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

773 779

783

791

Eriobotrya japonica (Thunb.) Lindl. ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

801

.............

805

Errazurizia multifoliolata (Clos) I.M. Johnst. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann

809

Eryngium foetidum L. APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

811

Erythranthe glabrata (Kunth) G.L. Nesom PHRYMACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann

815

Erythrina fusca Lour. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

819

Erythroxylum coca Lam. ERYTHROXYLACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

823

Erodium cicutarium (L.) L’Hér. ex Aiton GERANIACEAE Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana and Rainer W. Bussmann

Eucalyptus citriodora Hook. Eucalyptus globulus Labill. MYRTACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Euphorbia klotzschii Oudejans EUPHORBIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann Fabiana bryoides Phil. Fabiana densa J. Remy Fabiana denudata Miers Fabiana ramulosa (Wedd.) Hunz. & Barboza Fabiana squamata Phil. SOLANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann Festuca chrysophylla Phil. POACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann

829 837

841 847

xvi

Contents

Ficus carica L. Ficus insipida Willd. MORACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

851

Flaveria bidentis (L.) Kuntze ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann

859

Foeniculum vulgare Mill. APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

863

Fragaria vesca L. ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

869

Galium hypocarpium (L.) Endl. ex Griseb. RUBIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann

875

Gentianella alborosea (Gilg.) Fabris ex J.S. Pringle Gentianella bicolor (Wedd.) Fabris ex J.S. Pringle Gentianella brunneotincta (Gilg) Pringle Gentianella crassicaulis J.S. Pringle Gentianella dianthoides (Kunth) Fabris ex J.S. Pringle Gentianella graminea (Kunth) Fabris Gentianella thyrsoidea (Hook.) Fabris GENTIANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana and Rainer W. Bussmann Geoffroea decorticans (Gillies ex Hook. & Arn.) Burkart FABACEAE . . . Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann Geranium ayavacense Willd. ex Kunth Geranium humbloldtii Willd. ex Spreng. Geranium sessiliflorum Cav. GERANIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana and Rainer W. Bussmann

879 893

897

Gilia laciniata Ruiz & Pav. POLEMONIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann

909

Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Kunth ex Walp. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

911

Glycine max (L.) Merr. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

915

Grindelia boliviana Rusby Grindelia tarapacana Phil. ASTERACEAE . . . . Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann

919

Guazuma ulmifolia Lam. MALVACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

921

Haageocereus fascicularis (Meyen) F. Ritter CACTACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann

925

Halerpestes cymbalaria (Pursh) Greene RANUNCULACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann

927

Haplopappus rigidus Phil. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann

929

Contents

xvii

Hedera helix L. ARALIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

933

Hesperomeles obtusifolia (Pers.) Lindl. CLETHRACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

937

Hoffmannseggia doellii Phil. ssp. doellii Hoffmannseggia eremophila (Phil.) Burkart ex Ulibarri FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann

941

Hordeum vulgare L. POACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

945

Hura crepitans L. EUPHORBIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

949

Hymenea courbaril L. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

953

Hypericum aciculare Kunth Hypericum laricifolium Juss. Hypericum thesiifolium Kunth HYPERICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana and Rainer W. Bussmann

957

Hypochaeris chondrilloides (A. Gray) Cabrera Hypochaeris taraxacoides (Walp.) Ball ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann

965

Hyptis capitata Jacq. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Carolina Romero

969

Ilex guayusa Loes. AQUIFOLIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

973

Volume 2 Inga edulis Mart. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

977

Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam. Ipomoea pauciflora M. Martens & Galeotti CONVOLVULACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

983

Iresine diffusa Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd. Iresine herbstii Hook AMARANTHACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

991

Jaborosa caulescens Gillies & Hook. SOLANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann

997

Jacaranda caucana Pittier BIGNONIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

999

xviii

Contents

Jarava leptostachya (Griseb.) F. Rojas POACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1005 Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann Jatropha curcas L. Jatropha gossypifolia L. Jatropha multifida L. EUPHORBIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1007 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Juglans boliviana (C. DC.) Dode Juglans neotropica Diels JUGLANDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1017 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Junellia digitata (Phil.) Moldenke var. digitata Junellia minima (Meyen) Moldenke Junellia seriphioides (Gillies & Hook. ex Hook.) Moldenke VERBENACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1025 Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.) Pers. CRASSULACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1029 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Krameria lappacea (Dombey) Burdet & B.B. Simpson KRAMERIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1033 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana and Rainer W. Bussmann Lachemilla pinnata (Ruiz & Pav.) Rothm. ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1039 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Lactuca sativa L. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1043 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Lampayo medicinalis F. Phil. VERBENACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1049 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana and Rainer W. Bussmann Lantana cujabensis Schauer VERBENACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1053 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Lathyrus odoratus L. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1057 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Lavandula angustifolia Mill. Lavandula latifolia Medik. LAMIACEAE Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana and Rainer W. Bussmann

. . . 1063

Lepechinia meyenii (Walp.) Epling. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana and Rainer W. Bussmann Lepidium bonariense L. Lepidium virginicum L. BRASSICACEAE Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana and Rainer W. Bussmann

. . . . . . . 1073

Ligaria cuneifolia (Ruiz & Pav.) Tiegh. LORANTHACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1079 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana and Rainer W. Bussmann Lilaeopsis macloviana (Gand.) A.W. Hill APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1081 Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann

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Lilium candidum L. LILIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1085 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Limosella australis R. Br. SCROPHULARIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1089 Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann Linum usitatissimum L. LINACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1091 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Lippia alba (Mill.) N.E. Br. ex Britton & P. Wilson VERBENACEAE . . . . . 1099 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Lobivia formosa (Pfeiff.) Dodds CACTACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1103 Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann Lophopappus tarapacanus (Phil.) Cabrera ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1107 Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann Loricaria ferruginea (Ruiz & Pav.) Wedd. Loricaria pauciflora Cuatrec. Loricaria thuyoidea (Lam.) Sch. Bip. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . 1109 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana and Rainer W. Bussmann Lupinus altimontanus C.P. Sm. Lupinus mutabilis Sweet FABACEAE . . . . 1117 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. Lycopersicon hirsutum Dunal Lycopersicon peruvianum (L.) Mill. SOLANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1125 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Maihueniopsis boliviana (Salm-Dyck) R. Kiesling ssp. ignescens (Vaupel) Faúndez & R. Kiesling Maihueniopsis camachoi (Espinosa) F. Ritter CACTACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1133 Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann Malva parviflora L. Malva sylvestris L. MALVACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1137 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Mangifera indica L. ANONACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1147 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Manihot esculenta Crantz EUPHORBIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1153 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Marrubium vulgare L. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1165 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Matricaria chamomilla L. Matricaria discoidea DC. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . 1169 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, Javier Echeverría, and Carolina Romero Mauria heterophylla Kunth ANACARDIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1179 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

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Maytenus krukovii A.C. Sm. Maytenus laevis Reissek EBENACEAE . . . . . 1185 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Medicago sativa L. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1191 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Melilotus albus Medik. Melilotus officinalis (L.) Lam. LAMIACEAE . . . . . 1197 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Melissa offcinalis L. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1203 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Menta x piperita L. Mentha spicata L. Mentha suaveolens Ehrh. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1209 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, Javier Echeverría, and Carolina Romero Micromeria gilliesii Benth LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1221 Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann Minthostachys mollis Grieseb. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1223 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Momordica charantia L. CUCURBITACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1231 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Morus alba L. MORACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1235 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana and Rainer W. Bussmann Moschopsis monocephala (Phil.) Reiche CALYCERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1241 Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann Muehlenbeckia volcanica (Benth.) Endl. POLYGONACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1245 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana and Rainer W. Bussmann Mutisia acuminata Ruiz & Pav. Mutisia hamata Reiche Mutisia lanigera Wedd. Mutisia orbygniana Wedd. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1251 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana and Rainer W. Bussmann Myrcianthes discolor (Kunth) McVaugh Myrcianthes fragrans (Kunth) McVaugh Myrcianthes hallii (O. Berg.) McVaugh MYRTACEAE . . . . . . . 1259 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana and Rainer W. Bussmann Myriophyllum aquaticum (Vell.) Verdc. HALORAGACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1263 Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann Myristica fragrans Houtt. MYRISTICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1267 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana and Rainer W. Bussmann Myrosmodes nervosa (Kraenzl.) Novoa, C. Vargas & Cisternas ORCHIDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1271 Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann

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Myroxylon balsamum (L.) Harms FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1275 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Nasturtium officinale W.T. Aiton BRASSICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1281 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Neuontobotrys tarapacanus (Phil.) Al-Shehbaz BRASSICACEAE . . . . . . . . 1287 Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann Neurolaena lobata (L.) Cass. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1289 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Niphidium crassifolium (L.) Lellinger Phlebodium decumanum (Willd.) J. Sm. POLYPODIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1293 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Nostoc sp. NOSTOCACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1299 Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann Nototriche clandestina (Phil.) A.W. Hill Nototriche estipulata A.W. Hill ex B.L. Burtt Nototriche parviflora A.W. Hill MALVACEAE . . . . . . . . 1301 Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann Ocimum basilicum L. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1305 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Ombrophytum subterraneum (Aspl.) B. Hansen BALANOPHORACEAE . . . . 1313 Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill. CACTACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1315 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Oreocereus leucotrichus (Phil.) Wagenkn. ex F. Ritter CACTACEAE . . . . . 1321 Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann Oriastrum revolutum (Phil.) A.M.R. Davies Oriastrum sphaeroidale Reiche CACTACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1325 Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann Origanum majorana L. Origanum vulgare L. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . 1329 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Oscillatoria tenuis C. Agardh ex Gomont OSCILLATORIACEAE . . . . . . . . . 1337 Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann Otholobium glandulosum (L.) J.W. Grimes Otholobium mexicanum (L.f.) J.W. Grimes Otholobium pubescens (Poir.) J.W. Grimes FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1339 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana and Rainer W. Bussmann Oxalis tuberosa Molina OXALIDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1345 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

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Oxychloe andina Phil. JUNCACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1353 Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann Papaver somniferum L. PAPAVERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1355 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Parastrephia lucida (Meyen) Cabrera Parastrephia quadrangularis (Meyen) Cabrera Parastrephia teretiuscula (Kuntze) Cabrera ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1359 Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann Paronychia microphylla Phil. CARYOPHYLLACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1365 Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann Passiflora caerulea L. Passiflora edulis L. Passiflora ligularis Juss. Passiflora mollissima (Kunth) L.H. Bailey Passiflora punctata L. Passiflora quadrangularis L. PASSIFLORACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1369 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Pelargonium odoratissimum (L.) L’Hér. Pelargonium roseum Willd. Pelargonium zonale (L.) L’Hér. GERANIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1385 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Peperomia alata Ruiz & Pav. Peperomia blanda (Jacq.) Kunth Peperomia fraseri C. DC. Peperomia galioides Kunth Peperomia hartwegiana Miq. Peperomia inaequalifolia Ruiz & Pav. Peperomia quadrifolia (L.) Kunth PIPERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1391 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Persea americana Mill. LAURACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1405 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Petiveria alliacea L. PETIVERIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1413 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Fuss APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1417 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Peumus boldus Molina MONIMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1425 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Phoradendron nervosum Oliv. SANTALACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1429 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana and Rainer W. Bussmann Phyllanthus niruri L. Phyllantus stipulatus (Raf.) G.L. Webster Phyllanthus urinaria L. PHYLLANTHACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1435 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Phytolacca bogotensis Kunth Phytolacca icosandra L. PHYTOLACCACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1443 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

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Pimpinella anisum L. APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1449 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Piper acutifolium Ruiz & Pav. Piper aduncum L. Piper aequale Vahl. PIPERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1455 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Pisum sativum L. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1465 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Pitraea cuneato-ovata (Cav.) Caro VERBENACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1469 Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann Plantago australis Lam. Plantago lanceolata L. Plantago linearis Kunth Plantago major L. Plantago rancaguae Steud. Plantago sericea Ruiz & Pav. PLANTAGINACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1471 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, Javier Echeverría, and Carolina Romero Plukenetia carolis-vegae Bussmann, Paniagua Zambrana & Téllez Plukenetia huayllabambana Bussmann, C. Téllez & A. Glenn Plukenetia volubilis L. EUPHORBIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1489 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana and Rainer W. Bussmann Polylepis pacensis M. Kessler & Schmidt-Leb. Polylepis racemosa Ruiz & Pav. Polylepis tomentella Wedd. ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1497 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Javier Echeverría Porophyllum ruderale (Jacq.) Cass. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1509 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Portulaca oleracea L. PORTULACACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1515 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Prosopis alba Griseb. Prosopis laevigata (Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.) M.C. Prosopis pallida (Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.) Kunth FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1521 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Javier Echeverría Psammisia spp. ERICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1527 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana and Rainer W. Bussmann Pseudognaphalium dysodes (Spreng.) S. E. Freire, Bayón & C. Monti Pseudognaphalium psilophyllum (Meyen & Walp.) Anderb. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1531 Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann Psidium guajava L. Psidium guineense Sw. MYRTACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1537 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

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Pycnophyllum bryoides (Phil.) Rohrb. Pycnophyllum macropetalum Mattf. CARYOPHYLLACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1543 Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann Pyrethrum parthenium (L.) Sm ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1549 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Raphanus sativus L. BRASSICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1553 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Reyesia juniperoides (Werderm.) D’Arcy SOLANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1561 Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann Rheum officinale Baill. Rheum palmatum L. POLYGONACEAE . . . . . . . . . 1563 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Ricinus communis L. EUPHORBIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1569 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Rosa centifolia L. Rosa odorata (Andrews) Sweet ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . 1577 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana and Rainer W. Bussmann Rubus robustus C. Presl ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1581 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Rumex acetosella L. Rumex crispus L. Rumex cuneifolius Campd. POLYGONACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1589 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Javier Echeverría Ruta chalepensis L. Ruta graveolens L. RUTACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1595 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Salix chilensis Molina SALICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1605 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Salvia ayavacensis Kunth Salvia cuspidata Ruiz & Pav. Salvia discolor Kunth Salvia hispanica L. Salvia macrophylla Benth. Salvia microphylla Kunth Salvia palifolia Kunth. Salvia rosmarinifolia G. Don. Salvia sagittata Ruiz & Pav. Salvia tubiflora Sm. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1611 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Salvia officinalis L. Salvia rosmarinus Scheid. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . 1621 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Sambucus canadensis L. Sambucus nigra L. ADOXACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . 1631 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Sanguisorba minor Scop. ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1641 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

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Satureja boliviana (Benth.) Briq. Satureja pulchella (HBK) Briquet. Satureja sericea (C. Presl. ex Benth.) Briq. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1647 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana and Rainer W. Bussmann Schinus areira L. Schinus molle L. ANACARDIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1653 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, Javier Echeverría, and Carolina Romero Schkuhria pinnata (Lam.) Kuntze ex Thell. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . 1661 Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann Scoparia dulcis L. PLANTAGINACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1665 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Senecio adenophyllus Meyen & Walp. Senecio atacamensis Phil. Senecio breviscapus DC. Senecio candollei Wedd. Senecio canescens (Bonpl.) Cuatrec Senecio chinogeton Wedd. Senecio ctenophyllus Phil. Senecio filaginoides DC. Senecio haenkeanus Cuatrec. Senecio nutans Sch. Bip. Senecio olivaceobracteatus Ricardi & Martic. Senecio pappii Ricardi & Martic. Senecio proteus J. Rémy var. proteus Senecio pseudotites Grieseb. Senecio puchii Phil. Senecio scorzonerifolius Meyen & Walp. Senecio smithioides Cabrera Senecio volckmannii Phil. Senecio xerophilus Phil. var. xerophilus Senecio zoellneri Martic. & Quezada ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1669 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, Javier Echeverría, and Carolina Romero Sida rhombifolia L. MALVACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1687 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Sigesbeckia orientalis L. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1693 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1697 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Smilax kunthii Killip & C.V. Morton Smilax medica Schltdl. & Cham. Smilax officinalis Kunth SMILACACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1703 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Solanum albidum Dunal Solanum americanum Mill. Solanum fragile Wedd. Solanum herba-bona Reiche Solanum mammosum L. Solanum marginatum L. f. Solanum nigrum L. Solanum nitidum Ruiz. & Pav. Solanum nudum Dunal SOLANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1709 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, Javier Echeverría, and Carolina Romero Solanum melongena L. Solanum tuberosum L. SOLANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . 1723 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

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Sonchus asper (L.) Hill Sonchus oleraceaus L. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . 1735 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Spartium junceum L. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1743 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Stachys pusilla (Wedd.) Briq. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1749 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana and Rainer W. Bussmann Stellaria chilensis Pedersen CARYOPHYLLACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1755 Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann Tagetes elliptica Sm. Tagetes erecta L. Tagetes filifolia Lag. Tagetes minuta L. Tagetes multiflora Kunth ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1759 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, Javier Echeverría, and Carolina Romero Tamarindus indica L. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1771 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Tarasa tarapacana (Phil.) Krapov. Tarasa tenella (Cav.) Krapov. MALVACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1775 Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann Taraxacum officinale F.H. Wigg ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1777 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Tessaria absinthioides (Hook. & Arn.) DC. Tessaria integrifolia Ruiz & Pav. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1785 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, Javier Echeverría, and Carolina Romero Thelypteris argentina (Hieron.) Abbiatti THELYPTERIDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . 1791 Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann Theobroma cacao L. MALVACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1795 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Thevetia peruviana (Pers.) K. Schum. APOCYNACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1801 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Thymus vulgaris L. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1807 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Tiquilia atacamensis (Phil.) A.T. Richardson Tiquilia dichotoma (Ruiz. & Pav.) Pers. Tiquilia paronychioides (Phil.) A.T. Richardson BORAGINACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1813 Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann Tribulus terrestris L. ZYGOPHYLLACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1821 Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann

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Trichocereus atacamensis (Phil.) Backeb. CACTACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1827 Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann Trichocline caulescens Phil. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1833 Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann Triticum aestivum L. POACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1839 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Trixis cacalioides (Kunth) D. Don ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1849 Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann Ullucus tuberosus Caldas BASELLACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1853 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana and Rainer W. Bussmann Uncaria guianensis (Aubl.) J.F. Gmel. Uncaria tomentosa (Willd.) DC. RUBIACEAE Mimosa acantholoba (Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.) Poir. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1857 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Urtica dioica L. Urtica echinata Benth. Urtica magellanica Juss. ex Poir. Urtica urens L. URTICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1865 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, Javier Echeverría, and Carolina Romero Valeriana convallarioides (Schmale) B.B. Larsen Valeriana decussata Ruiz & Pav. Valeriana microphylla Kunth Valeriana micropterina Wedd. Valeriana nivalis Wedd. Valeriana officinalis L. Valeriana pilosa Ruiz & Pav. Valeriana plantaginea Kunth Valeriana rigida Ruiz & Pav. Valeriana scandens L. Valeriana urbanii Phil. CAPRIFOLIACEAE . . . . . . . . 1875 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, Javier Echeverría, and Carolina Romero Verbena bonariensis L. Verbena litoralis Kunth Verbena officinalis L. VERBENACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1891 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, Javier Echeverría, and Carolina Romero Vicia faba L. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1899 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Viola odorata L. Viola tricolor L. VIOLACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1903 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Vitis vinifera L. VITACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1909 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

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Werneria aretioides Wedd. Werneria glaberrima Phil. Werneria heteroloba Wedd. Werneria nubigena Kunth Werneria pumila Kunth Werneria pygmaea Gillies ex Hook. & Arn. Xenophyllum ciliolatum (A. Gray) V.A. Funk Xenophyllum humile (Kunth) V.A. Funk Xenophyllum incisum (Phil.) V.A. Funk Xenophyllum poposum (Phil.) V.A. Funk Xenophyllum weddellii (Phil.) V.A. Funk ASTERACEAE . . . . . . 1923 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Javier Echeverría Xanthium spinosum L. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1933 Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann Xylopia peruviana R.E. Fr. ANNONACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1939 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Zea mays L. POACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1941 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Zingiber officinale Roscoe ZINGIBERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1953 Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

About the Editors

Dr. Paniagua-Zambrana was born in La Paz, Bolivia. She received her Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from the Autonomous University of Madrid, Spain, in 2016. Dr. Paniagua-Zambrana is one of the most published researchers in Bolivia, according to a regional report by Elsevier. Her research has resulted in over 60 per-reviewed papers, more than 100 book chapters, and 15 books. In addition, she works with undergraduate, master’s, and doctoral students around the globe who are interested in ethnobotanical studies, many of them young women scientists. She is a member of the Society for Economic Botany, where she currently serves on the council, the Latin American Association of Botany, the Latin American Group of Ethnobotany – Bolivia Chapter, the Bolivian Organization for Women in Science, and the Organization for Women in Science for the Developing World (OWSD). Dr. PaniaguaZambrana’s research focuses on documenting and protecting traditional knowledge of plant use by indigenous populations and local communities, especially in Bolivia, and taxonomically has mostly focused on native palms of the Andes and the Amazon. She works to provide local populations with tools that allow them to make decisions about the conservation of their natural resources and associated traditional knowledge, and has worked consistently to disseminate the results of her research among the local communities with whom she works. Her research has been incorporated into educational materials in local schools and has also served as important documentation protecting the traditional knowledge of local communities to elaborate strategies to conserve their natural resources.

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About the Editors

Dr. Bussmann earned his M.Sc. (Diploma) in Biology from Universität Tübingen, Germany, in 1993 and his doctorate from Universität Bayreuth, Germany, in 1994. He is an ethnobotanist and vegetation ecologist and currently Co-director of Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia; as well as Principal Scientist at the Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany, Ilia State University, both of which he co-founded. Before retiring from Missouri Botanical Garden, Dr. Bussmann was director of the William L. Brown Center at Missouri Botanical Garden, William L. Brown Curator of Economic Botany, and Senior Curator. Before accepting the directorship of WLBC, he held academic appointments as Research Fellow in Geography and the Environment at the University of Texas at Austin from 2006 to 2007, as Associate Professor of Botany and Scientific Director of Harold Lyon Arboretum at the University of Hawaii from 2003 to 2006, and as Assistant Professor at the University of Bayreuth from 1997 to 2003, following a postdoc at the same institution from 1994 to 1997. He holds affiliate faculty appointments at Washington University St. Louis, USA; University of Missouri St. Louis, USA; Florida Atlantic University Boca Raton, USA; Universidade Federal da Paraíba, Brazil; Universidád Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Perú; and at Ilia State University, Republic of Georgia, and serves as external thesis advisor at multiple other universities worldwide. His work focuses on ethnobotanical research, and the preservation of traditional knowledge, in Bolivia, Peru, Madagascar, the Caucasus, and the Himalayas. To date, Dr. Bussmann has authored over 270 peer-reviewed papers, over 750 book chapters, and authored or edited over 30 books. Dr. Bussmann is a past President of the Society for Economic Botany and has served as board/council member of the International Society for Ethnopharmacology, Society of Ethnobiology, Botanical Society of America, and International Society of Ethnobiology. See more of his work on his website (https://www. cejaandina.org/rainer-w-bussmann/) and download publications from ResearchGate (https://www.researchgate. net/profile/Rainer_Bussmann).

Contributors

Rainer W. Bussmann Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Javier Echeverría Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Chemistry and Biology, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, USACH, Santiago de Chile, Chile Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia Carolina Romero William L. Brown Center, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO, USA

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Part I Regions

Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions: Andes – Bolivia, Chile, Peru Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Javier Echeverría

Introduction Location The Andes mountain range occupies the western part of South America bordering its entire Pacific Ocean coast. It has a length of 8,500 km, making it the longest continental mountain range on Earth. From its north end, in western Venezuela, it crosses Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia; it serves as a natural border between Chile and Argentina and has its southern end in Tierra del Fuego. It has a variable width between 250 and 750 km. It occupies an approximate surface of 2,870,000 km2. Its average height is between 3,000 and 4,000 m above sea level and houses the highest volcanoes on the planet and its highest point is the

N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] J. Echeverría Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Chemistry and Biology, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, USACH, Santiago de Chile, Chile e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_2

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Aconcagua, whose 6,960 m make this mountain the highest on the planet outside of Asia. Because of its important volcanic activity, it is part of the Pacific Ring of Fire. In the central zone, the Andes widen, giving rise to the high plateaus of the high plateau and the puna, shared by Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, and Peru. From the central highlands to the north of Peru and in Ecuador, it becomes narrow again and in Colombia it is divided into three branches, one of which continues northwest entering Venezuela. From the high plateau to the south, the mountain range has a north-south general direction and an area where the highest mountains are. It was formed at the end of the Mesozoic era, at the end of the late Cretaceous, by the movement of the convergence of the Nazca plate under the South American plate. Subsequent seismic movements and volcanic activity have been more important in the relief configuration than external erosive agents. In the current morphology are high mountain ranges, along with extensive high plateaus and deep longitudinal valleys parallel to the great mountain ranges. Transversal valleys are scarce, except in the Argentine-Chilean Andes.

Geography and Geology The Central Andes develop between the Gulf of Guayaquil in Ecuador and the Gulf of Penas (46
300 S) in Chile. This area is bordered by the Nazca plate which is subdivided by the Nazca dorsal which is a volcanically inactive dorsal (seismic). In this area the Western Cordillera and the Eastern Cordillera border the plateaus of the Altiplano and Puna. It is the longest area and is usually subdivided into northern, central, and southern sectors. The central Andes include a Peruvian segment that extends from northwest to southeast called the Northern Central Andes, and the one part of the Andes of Chile and Argentina with north-south direction called the Central Andes of the South. The Central Andes extend from Peru to Tres Cruces, located on the border between Argentina and Chile, and do not have a single mountain pass below 4,000 m. The highest mountain of the northern section is Huascarán (6,757 m) and in the south Ojos del Salado (6,891 m). Towards the parallel 22
S appears the Puna de Atacama dominating the west of the volcanic zone. The climate is arid warm, and the predominant biome is desert. The Andean region of Bolivia and Northern Chile is characterized by the Eastern Andes Mountain Range (Cordillera Oriental) which almost bisects Bolivia from north to south, separating Amazon Basin to the East from the highlands (Altiplano) with Lake Titicaca in the West. Lake Titicaca, which Bolivia shares with Peru, is the highest navigable lake on Earth, forming the most outstanding feature of the Altiplano, at 3,811 m altitude, and a surface area of 9,064 km2. The lake is so big and deep that it moderates the climate for a considerable distance around it, making production possible – one reason for the early human occupation of the area. In western Bolivia and Northern Chile, the Cordillera Occidental is a chain of dormant volcanoes and volcanic vents emitting sulfurous gases. Bolivia’s highest peak, the snowcapped Nevado Sajama 6,542 m, is located here. The entire cordillera is of volcanic origin and an extension of the volcanic region found in southern Peru.

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Most of the northern part of this range has an elevation of about 4,000 m the southern part is lower. Rainfall, although scanty everywhere, is greater in the northern half, where the land is covered with scrub vegetation. The southern area receives almost no precipitation, and the landscape consists mostly of barren rocks. Rainfall in the Altiplano decreases toward the south, and the scrub vegetation grows sparse, eventually giving way to barren rocks and dry red clay. The land contains several salt flats, the dried remnants of ancient lakes. The largest of these is the Uyuni Saltpan, which covers over 9,000 km2. The much older Cordillera Oriental enters Bolivia on the north side of Lake Titicaca, extends southeastward to approximately 17 south latitude, then broadens and stretches south to the Argentine border. The northernmost part of the Cordillera Oriental, the Cordillera Real, is an impressive snow-capped series of granite mountains with peaks exceeding 6,000 m and partly large glaciation.

Climate An area so vast that it offers such marked differences in latitude, height, and appearance as the Andes mountain range is naturally subject to great climatic variations. Therefore, only the general aspects of the weather conditions can be mentioned, not forgetting that there are very complex microclimatological types. The most notable effect of the Andes is to create a vertical climate zone, particularly in terms of temperature. Four climatic zones are recognized in the Andes: The lower tropical zone reaches from the sea level to about 900 m, except, naturally, in the temperate South of the continent, where the hot climates do not occur. This area is tropical and humid, in which the average annual temperature is 23.88–28.33
C with little monthly variation. Mountains between 900 and 2,000 m form the temperate zone appears, subtropical zone, with average temperatures of 17.22–23.88
C. The cold zone stretches from 2,000 to about 3,000 m, where a temperate climate prevails and temperatures range between 10
C and 17.22
C. From 3,000 to 4,300 m, cold and deserts dominate, an area where the temperature varies greatly during the day and suffers violent winds. In the tropical areas of the Andes, the snow line occurs at an altitude between 4,600 and 4,900 m, and due to the increasing aridity rises towards the S to about 5,200 in the central west of Peru and up to 6,100 in the N of Chile. Further to the S the snow line descends until on the island of Tierra del Fuego, at the S end, it is around 750 m. Precipitation, depends on latitude, altitude, relief, and orientation, is subject to as many variations as temperature. The slopes of both sides of the Andes can receive copious rainfall, while the deep and sheltered Inner-Andean valleys often lack rain and are partly semi-desert.

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From the South of Ecuador to about 30
S latitude, the precipitation is lower, with the exception of the eastern slopes, and much of the mountain range is dry and even desert. This is due to the insufficient trade winds of the dominant SE to carry moisture beyond the eastern slopes. Between 30
and 40
latitude S, both flanks of the Andes are equally arid due to the dry air descending from these latitudes and the drying effect that the oceanic cold currents of these coasts exert on the winds that come from the sea. South of 40
S latitude, the Andes fall under the dominance of the Pacific winds carrying moisture, which spill abundant rainfall on the western slopes, but little in the eastern and scarce in western Argentina.

Plant Use in the Andes: The Example of Northern Peru The Central Andes represent one of the world’s biodiversity hotspots, carrying an extremely diverse flora, stretching from coastal dry forests (Fig. 1), to very wet cloud forests (Figs. 2 and 3), and the highest Andean peaks (Fig. 4). Access to the region is often still very difficult (Figs. 5 and 6). While very pristine in appearance, most of these ecosystems are, however, a postColumbian artifact, and previous to European conquest, most of the area was actually densely populated. Human burials are common, from the coast (Fig. 7), up to seemingly impenetrable forests (Fig. 8).

Fig. 1 Dry forest, Marañon Valley, Northern Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

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Fig. 2 Wet cloud forest, Uchumarca, Northern Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Fig. 3 Tree ferns (Cyathea sp.) in wet cloud forest, San Martín, Northern Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 4 Illampu massif, Cordillera Real, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Fig. 5 Mule path to Chilchos Valley, San Martín, Northern Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 6 Plant collecting expedition, Alto Huayalla, Northern Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 7 Human skull and jawbone from robbed Chimu burial (fourteenth century), Huanchaco, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

The Central Andes from Southern Ecuador to Northern Bolivia and Chile represent the “Health Hub” of South America, with roots going back to traditional practices Cupisnique culture (1000 BC). Nowadays, this ancient occupation is still being reflected by walls and terraces, easily visible in high altitude areas (Fig. 9) or hidden in dense forests (Fig. 10).

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Fig. 8 Laguna de los Condores, San Martin, Peru – burial site of the Chachapoya culture. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 9 Pre-Columbian terraces, Laguna Huayllabamba, Amazonas, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 10 Pre-Columbian Chachapoya-Inca settlement and terraces, Pampa Hermosa, San Martín, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana) Fig. 11 Totora fishing boats, Hunachaco, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Traditional practices can still be widely found, be it in the use of totora boats for fishing at the Peruvian coast (Fig. 11), or the continuous use of old agricultural terraces like in Colca canyon (Fig. 12) or Uchumarca, Northern Peru (Fig. 13). During almost two decades of research, semi-structured interviews with healers, collectors, and sellers of medicinal plants and bioassays to evaluate the effective and plant toxicity were carried out. Most (83%) of the 510 species used were native to Peru. 50% of the plants used in colonial times disappeared from the pharmacopoeia. Common and exotic plants were mostly used for common ailments, while plants

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Fig. 12 Continuously used terraces, Colca Canyon, Southern Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 13 Terraces landscape, Uchumarca, Northern Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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with magical purposes were only employed by specialist healers. About 974 preparations with up to 29 ingredients treated 164 conditions. Almost 65% of the medicinal plants were applied in mixtures. Antibacterial activity was confirmed in most plants used for infections. The aqueous extract 24% and 76% ethanolic extracts showed toxicity. Traditional preparation methods take this into account when choosing the appropriate solvent for the preparation of a remedy. The increasing demand did not increase the significant cultivation of medicinal plants. Most plants are wild collected, causing doubts about the sustainability of trade. Dedicated programs aim to establish in situ collections of important species, as well as to repatriate traditional knowledge in local language, under the guidelines of the Nagoya Protocol.

Traditional Medicine Traditional Medicine is used globally and has a rapidly growing economic importance. In developing countries, Traditional Medicine is often the only accessible and affordable treatment available. In Uganda, for instance, the ratio of traditional practitioners to the population is between 1:200 and 1:400, while the availability of Western doctors is typically 1:20,000 or less. Moreover, doctors are mostly located in cities and other urban areas and are therefore inaccessible to rural populations. In Africa, up to 80% of the population uses Traditional Medicine as the primary healthcare system. In Latin America, the WHO Regional Office for the Americas (AMRO/PAHO) reports that 71% of the population in Chile and 40% of the population in Colombia have used Traditional Medicine. In many Asian countries, Traditional Medicine is widely used, even though Western medicine is often readily available. In Japan, 60–70% of allopathic doctors prescribe traditional medicines for their patients. In China, Traditional Medicine accounts for about 40% of all healthcare and is used to treat roughly 200 million patients annually. The number of visits to providers of Complementary-Alternative Medicine (CAM) now exceeds by far the number of visits to all primary care physicians in the USA (WHO 1999a, b, 2002a, b, c). Complementary-Alternative Medicine is becoming more and more popular in many developed countries. Forty-eight percent of the population in Australia, 70% in Canada, 42% in the USA, 38% in Belgium, and 75% in France have used Complementary-Alternative Medicine at least once (WHO 1998; Fisher and Ward 1971; Health Canada 2001). A survey of 610 Swiss doctors showed that 46% had used some form of CAM, mainly homeopathy and acupuncture (Domenighetti et al. 2000). In the United Kingdom, almost 40% of all general allopathic practitioners offer some form of CAM referral or access (Zollmann et al. 2000). In the USA, a national survey reported the use of at least 1 of 16 alternative therapies increased from 34% in 1990 to 42% in 1997 (Eisenberg et al. 1998; UNCTD 2000). The expenses for the use of Traditional and Complementary-Alternative Medicine are exponentially growing in many parts of the world. In Malaysia, an estimated US$ 500 million is spent annually on Traditional Medicine, compared to about US$ 300 million on allopathic medicine. The 1997 out-of-pocket

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Complementary-Alternative Medicine expenditure was estimated at US$ 2,700 million in the USA. In Australia, Canada, and the United Kingdom, annual Complementary-Alternative Medicine expenditure is estimated at US$ 80 million, US$ 2,400 million, and US$ 2,300 million, respectively. The world market for herbal medicines based on traditional knowledge was estimated at US$ 60,000 million in the late 1990s (Brevoort 1998). A decade later it was around US$ 60 billion (Tilbert and Kaptchuk 2008) with estimates for 2015 at US$ 90 billion (GIA 2012). The sales of Herbs and herbal nutritional supplements in the USA increased 101% between May 1996 and May 1998. The most popular herbal products included Ginseng (Ginkgo biloba), Garlic (Allium sativum), Echinacea spp., and St. John’s Wort (Hypericum perforatum) (Brevoort 1998). Traditional and Complementary-Alternative Medicine are gaining more and more respect by national governments and health providers. Peru’s National Program in Complementary Medicine and the Pan American Health Organization recently compared Complementary Medicine to Allopathic Medicine in clinics and hospitals operating within the Peruvian Social Security System. A total of 339 patients – 170 being treated with Complementary-Alternative Medicine and 169 with allopathic medicine – were followed for one year. Treatments for osteoarthritis, back pain, neurosis, asthma, peptic acid disease, tension and migraine headache, and obesity were analyzed. The results, with 95% significance, showed that the cost of using Complementary-Alternative Medicine was less than the cost of Western therapy. In addition, for each of the criteria evaluated – clinical efficacy, user satisfaction, and future risk reduction – Complementary-Alternative Medicine’s efficacy was higher than that of conventional treatments, including fewer side effects, higher perception of efficacy by both the patients and the clinics, and a 53–63% higher cost efficiency of Complementary-Alternative Medicine over that of conventional treatments for the selected conditions (EsSalud 2000). According to WHO (2002a, b, c), the most important challenges for Traditional Medicine/Complementary-Alternative Medicine for the next years are: • Research into safe and effective Traditional Medicine and Complementary Alternative Medicine treatments for diseases that represent the greatest burden, particularly among poorer populations. • Recognition of the role of Traditional Medicine practitioners in providing healthcare in developing countries. • Optimized and upgraded skills of Traditional Medicine practitioners in developing countries. • Protection and preservation of the knowledge of Indigenous Traditional Medicine. • Sustainable cultivation of medicinal plants. • Reliable information for consumers on the proper use of Traditional Medicine and Complementary-Alternative Medicine therapies and products. Northern Peru represents the “health axis” of the old Central Andean cultural area stretching from Ecuador to Bolivia. The traditional use of medicinal plants in this

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region, which encompasses in particular the Departments of Piura, Lambayeque, La Libertad, Cajamarca, Amazonas, and San Martin possibly dates as far back as the first millennium B.C. (north coastal Cupisnique Culture) or at least to the Moche period (A.D. 100–800), with healing scenes and healers frequently depicted in ceramics. Precedents for this study have been established by early colonial period chroniclers (Monardes 1574; Acosta 1590; Cobo 1653, 1956; the plant collections (293 plants in crates 11 and 12 of 24) of Bishop Baltasar Jaime Martínez Compañón sent to the Palacio Real de Madrid along with cultural materials in 1789 under the title Trujillo del Peru´ in nine illustrated volumes (Martinez Compañon 1789; Schjellerup 2009; Sharon and Bussmann 2006); the travel journals of H. Ruiz from 1777 to 1788 (Ruiz 1777–1788); the work of Italian naturalist Antonio Raimondi (1857); ethnoarchaeological analysis of the psychedelic San Pedro cactus (Sharon 2000); curandera depictions in Moche ceramics (Glass-Coffin et al. 2004); and research on the medicinal plants of Southern Ecuador (Béjar et al. 1997, 2001; Bussmann 2006; Bussmann and Sharon 2007a, b).

Medicinal Plant Research and Traditional Medicine in Peru Containing 78 of the 107 eco-regions of the world, in 1993, it was estimated that Peru had 17,143 taxa of spermatophytes in 2,485 genera and 224 families (Brako and Zarucchi 1993). It is thought that only 60% of the Peruvian flora has been studied, with 1,400 species described as medicinal (Brack Egg 2004). The importance of biodiversity for the Peruvian economy is enormous since 25% of all exports are living species, the uses of which are essential to local populations in terms of firewood, meat, lumber, medicinal plants, and many other products. Of particular importance are vegetal species, with 5,000 plants applied in 49 different uses of. Of the 5,000 plants in use some 4,400 are native; only 600 are introduced. The majority of useful native species are not cultivated; only 222 can be considered to be domesticated or semi-domesticated (Brack Egg 1999). Transculturation is resulting in an enormous loss of traditional knowledge of great value to the science and technology of Peru. The flora of the country represents 10% of the world’s total, of which 30% is endemic. Peru is the fifth country in the world in number of plant species with known properties utilized by the population (4,400 species); it is the first in domesticated native species (Brack-Egg 1999). In all Peruvian ethnic groups, plant knowledge is invaluable because it reinforces national identity and values, which are being lost in the complementary processes of modernization and globalization. In the current situation, the emerging recognition and incipient application of these resources and associated knowledge emphatically underscores the critical need for ethnobotanical research. Over the last 20 years considerable progress has been made in the overall taxonomic treatment of the flora of Peru. However, while the Amazon rainforests have received a great deal of scientific attention, the mountain forests and remote highland areas are still relatively unexplored. Until the late 1990s little work had been done on vegetation structure, ecology, and ethnobotany in the mountain forests

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and coastal areas of the North. In spite of the fact that this region is the core of what Peruvian anthropologist Lupe Camino (1992/1999) calls the “health axis” of Central Andean ethnomedicine, little ethnobotanical and ethnomedical research has been published on the rich flora found here.

Issues in the Globalization of Traditional Medicine Moran, King, and Carlson (2001) trace the emergence of biodiversity prospecting. On 5 June 1992, in order to alleviate the loss of earth’s flora and fauna the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was inaugurated at the UN Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. CBD objectives are: (1) conservation of biodiversity, (2) sustainable use of components of biodiversity, and (3) equitable sharing of benefits derived from commercial use of genetic resources. For biodiversity-rich developing countries, the most critical element in the CBD is sovereignty over bioresources by nation states, since the treaty recognizes their right to regulate and charge outsiders for access to their biodiversity. The sovereignty component is meant to replace the “common heritage” paradigm, which provides unrestricted access to biological resources. Ideally this paradigm shift is supposed to balance the way in which all involved interest groups can gain from biodiversity use by recognizing the economic, sociocultural, and environmental values of bioresources and the cost of their preservation. In the time since the CBD was initiated, few of the 178 signatory nations have introduced legislation requiring benefit sharing for outside commercial access to their national bioresources, although some suggestions for implementation of the CBD have been brought forward (Iwu 1996; Buitron 1999). Despite the lukewarm response to the CBD by nation states, the global shift in awareness concerning tropical deforestation provided an opportunity for ethnobotanists to assert that everyone has an interest in preserving rainforests because they might contain compounds that could cure cancer, HIV-AIDS, and other diseases (Schultes and Raffauf 1990; Elisabetsky and Castilhos 1990; Cox and Balick 1994; Schultes 1994; Brown 2003). In addition, income derived from the marketing of traditional medicinal knowledge was seen as an instrument to alleviate poverty and to finance conservation efforts (Reid 1993; Mooney 1993; Baker et al. 1995). Within a few years, however, for its critics, ethnobotany – initially seen as instrument that could help to salvage declining traditional knowledge and biodiversity – had simply become an instrument of theft and “biopiracy.” In his book Who Owns Native Culture? anthropologist Michael Brown (2003) has a chapter entitled “The Ethnobotany Blues” which documents high-profile projects launched in Africa and Latin America in the early 1990s. They were organized under the US initiative known as the International Cooperative Biodiversity Groups (ICBG), administered by the Fogarty International Center for Advanced Study in Health Sciences, part of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), with additional funding from the National Science Foundation (NSF) and the US Agency for International Development (USAID). Projects involved partnerships between

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American and host-country scientists as well as major drug companies, including Monsanto, Bristol-Myers Squibb, and American Cynamid. Brown (2003) describes ICBG-Peru’s troubled relationship between the Aguaruna of the Peruvian Amazon and Washington University (St. Louis), criticizing “paternalistic interventions that leave native peoples on the margins of decision-making and profit-taking” (p. 114). In Mexico, he documents how ICBG-Maya was shut down by an indigenous healers’ organization and their activist allies on the grounds that it was an effort to steal native knowledge and resources. And he traces the failure of Shaman Pharmaceuticals, a California company which folded in 1999, in trying to adapt ethnobotanical bioprospecting to the “magic-bullet” paradigm of the pharmaceutical industry. In the late 1990s, anthropologist Cori Hayden (2003) conducted an ethnography of an ICBG bioprospecting agreement inaugurated in 1993 between the University of Arizona and its pharmaceutical partners (whose contribution was a discount on the use of their equipment!) and a team of plant researchers at Mexico’s National Autonomous University (UNAM) headed by ethnobotanist Robert Bye. Under the agreement, UNAM researchers sent extracts of Mexican medicinal plants to the USA in exchange for research funds and promises of a percentage of royalties 10–20 years in the future – should a drug result from the collaboration. The project was also designed to collect ethnobotanical knowledge and to direct some royalties back to source-communities. It concluded in 2003 when UNAM opted out of a second renewal. Hayden elucidates the complex issues that emerged during the project, in particular the paradoxical effects of NIH’s advocacy of benefit-sharing according to the neo-liberal paradigm of bioprospecting. For NIH, this meant that field researchers were supposed to sign contracts with each individual supplier of plants. Suppliers – and, by implication, their communities – were presumed to be “authors” and “stewards” of resources as well as future benefit-recipients. For UNAM ethnobotanists, drawing on a well-established research methodology, this meant collecting initial plant species from urban marketplaces and rural roadsides, a major disruption of a fundamental biopropecting assumption that plants and knowledge “come with” clearly identified local stewards, authors, and claimants. In stark contrast with the ICBG approach, there is the Mexican Institute for Social Security (IMSS) model put into practice at its Southern Center for Biomedical Research (CIBIS) in Cuernavaca and focused on the production of herbal medicines. On 20 February 1997, Hayden (2003) interviewed Miguel Antinori, a prominent CIBIS official who denigrated bioprospecting agreements for using Mexico’s chemists as “cheap labor” and for sending extracts abroad for “more sophisticated” work. Further, he added, “It’s hard to see an assertion of [Mexican] national identity in these contexts—up north, they just see Mexico as a source of raw material and certainly not as research partners or collaborators. Why don’t they locate more of the development part here? Because they don’t trust Mexican science.” Shaman Pharmaceuticals scientists Moran, King, and Carlson (2001) discuss the irony in the situations described above, indicating that the majority of the biotech industry is not involved in bioprospecting, since most companies favor the use of cheaper and faster synthetic technologies over the complex process involved in

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exploring for natural products. Nonetheless, biotechnology spawns ethical, social, and legal debates at the margins of pharmaceutical bioprospecting, including the collaboration between big business and big science, the ethics of genetic engineering, and the patentability of life forms as well as ideas about genetics and racism, culture, and ethnicity. However, it is significant to note that, since the inauguration of the CBD, no pharmaceutical bioprospecting product developed by using traditional knowledge has generated an economic profit. (But this does not mean that pharmaceutical companies do not try to impede or co-opt efforts to get natural plant products to market.) Also, only a small number of bioprospecting research expeditions begin by using ethnobotany as a discovery methodology, with the work soon evolving into economic botany as the laboratory focus shifts to the plant’s chemistry, biological activity, and pharmacology/toxicology. During drug discovery, active chemical components are isolated, often modified, and patented. Patented information then becomes a commodity in itself. Peruvian pharmaceutical researcher Angulo (2009) discusses new approaches to research on medicinal plants contrasting Western and Eastern methodologies. For example, whereas the West does not value popular wisdom and usage developed over centuries by local cultures, the East uses this knowledge as a paradigmatic base for its model of science. Whereas the West has exclusively followed the Cartesian model of scientific skepticism, Eastern pragmatism, building on tradition, has formalized usage and then applied the methods of modern science. Whereas the West has ignored traditional knowledge in designing artificial studies that isolate chemical components and evaluate their toxicity and bioactivity to later take finished products into clinical settings, the East has followed an inverse strategy, i.e., valuing traditional knowledge by applying original remedies and therapies in the medical clinic and then subjecting those that work to biochemical research and development. Whereas the West followed a basic research paradigm of random screening, component analysis, and synthesis, the East recognized the holistic action of herbal medicines in seeking ways to industrialize them. As a result of the foregoing factors, Western science has developed economic botany, which uses a methodology of chemical taxonomy based on the assumption that only by knowing the chemistry of plants can we discover their active principles and bioactivity. This has led to the current emphasis on synthetic chemistry for the development of modern medicines. Angulo (2009) points out that, by uncritically following the Western model for biochemical research promoted by large European and American pharmaceutical corporations, Peru has acquiesced to the notion that countries like Peru and Mexico lack the technical and economic resources necessary to compete with foreign consortiums. As a result, these countries, for the most part, have denigrated their own indigenous knowledge and neglected the development of viable national research programs in ethnobotany and ethnopharmacology. Joining Elisabetsky and Castilhos (1990), Angulo suggests that: Traditional medicine should be the basis for the development of drugs, given that it includes the knowledge of the therapeutic value of local flora. Thus, knowledge of the practices of Traditional Medicine plays a crucial role in the selection of species to subsequently be

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considered as potential sources of universally applicable drugs. Elizabetsky concludes that the interaction between anthropology and ethnopharmacology is the basis on which should be developed the holistic investigation of medicinal plants in particular and healthcare in general.

We would only add that applied research on natural plant remedies should also be on the national agendas of Peru and neighboring republics. By focusing on indigenous knowledge as it relates to the environment, the Convention on Biological Diversity managed to sidestep some of the more politically charged aspects of the intellectual property rights (IPR) issue. The greatest impact on concerns over indigenous and local-community rights can be traced to the mercurial rise of biotechnology on the international trade front and the 1995 version of the World Trade Organization (WTO) Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS). These two factors have created a large potential market for indigenous and local knowledge and resources, while at the same time raising concerns about the risk that these resources will be misappropriated. Thus, this knowledge is receiving increasing international attention in terms of its relationship to human rights as well as its relevance to modern science. The situation has created opposing pressures calling for the rights of local and indigenous peoples on the one hand and further exploitation of their knowledge on the other. Moran, King, and Carlson (2001) and Greaves (1995), indicate that the biggest problem with the orthodox intellectual property system is its focus on material aspects of knowledge at the expense of the cultural. They advocate recognition of alternative worldviews in the formulation of new indigenous knowledge rights that are localized, relevant, pertinent, and effective. In their article in Cultural Survival Quarterly, Bannister and Barrett (2001) contend that bioprospecting is a form of economic botany that can run contrary to the ethnobotanical objectives of protecting biological and cultural diversity. The economic focus of this activity highlights issues concerning indigenous rights, cultural knowledge, and traditional resources – areas in which current intellectual property protection regimes are inadequate and inappropriate. However, indigenous communities are increasingly forced to employ intellectual property rights to protect these resources. Protection issues ought to be addressed well before the point at which employing intellectual property mechanisms seems to be the only alternative. Significant control lies at the point of decision about publication and dissemination of knowledge to the wider community, which raises important questions about facilitating the appropriation of cultural knowledge. The authors advocate a more “precautionary” approach to ethnobotanical inquiry in assisting indigenous communities in protecting their cultural heritage and intellectual property rights. Probably the major concern in many traditional communities is that their spiritual legacies will be profaned by a secularized and consumer-driven outside world. Often, however, legitimate economic considerations also play a role in the defensive reactions of these societies to the well-intended but naïve desire of the academic world to place its findings in the public domain. Greaves (1995) and Bannister and Barrett (2001) have warned that the downside in this approach is that a “colonializing archive” can become easily “mined” for clues in the search for new

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drugs without the inconvenience of fieldwork or inclusion of source communities in the benefits derived from products resulting from research. However, although acknowledging genuine concerns about neocolonialism and biopiracy, we would submit that each situation has to be considered on its own merits, especially with regard to its specific cultural context. A first step in the evaluation process should involve the important distinction between “indigenous peoples” and “local communities” (Moran, King, and Carlson 2001). The latter for the most part are farmers who speak the national language, practice the majority religion, and identify with the nation-state, especially with regard to their socioeconomic aspirations, whereas the former tend to be tribal and/or ethnic minorities, who seek collective rights and self-determination for their biological and cultural resources. Although it is often the case that in both communities, traditional knowledge and resources are undocumented and in danger of disappearing, this danger tends to be more pressing in local communities as their members continue to adapt to privatization and globalization. In cases such as this, successful ethnobotanical intervention requires a methodology that combines “salvage ethnography” with “rapid assessment.” This is the methodology that we initially applied in Peru, motivated by our prior experience in Southern Ecuador where traditional knowledge of medicinal plants similar to those found in Northern Peru is diminishing at an alarming rate. However, with our database firmly established as a research vehicle, we can now turn our attention to facilitating proactive issues of education, conservation, and sustainable development of natural plant products. India provides a positive example of the proactive application of this approach. Taking advantage of the “novelty” criterion in international patent law, with regard to the documentation of Ayurvedic and other traditional medicine, millennial Sanskrit texts as well as modern publications are included in a traditional knowledge database, which is subsequently provided to patent agencies. The expectation is that, by placing the knowledge about long-term cultural precedents for traditional uses in the public domain, this research will prove that contemporary patent applications derived from local medicinal knowledge lack originality, i.e., that they are not “novel” enough to qualify as inventions warranting protection under international patent law and are thus not patentable. Fortunately, in 2002, with the support of the International Phyto-Genetic Resource Institute (Rome, Italy), Peru promulgated Law 27811 for the protection of the collective knowledge of indigenous peoples related to biological resources. Article 17 of the law establishes a National Public Register to include collective knowledge that is in the public domain. This register is administered by INDECOPI (National Institute of Competitive Defense and Intellectual Property), with the obligation to send the information recorded to principal patent offices around the world, a protective defense mechanism intended to prevent the granting of patents which do not meet the criteria of novelty and degree of inventiveness (Venero 2005; Ferro and Ruiz 2005a, b). As noted earlier, Peru has also activated the Peruvian National Commission Against Biopiracy. In the Congressional Forum of 2004 which led to the formation of the Commission, a number of important issues were addressed, including

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intellectual property, the high protein cereal Quinua and biopiracy, passage of the law for the protection of Peruvian biodiversity and the collective knowledge of indigenous peoples, and efforts to annul the US patent for the virility stimulant Maca as well as suggestions for combating biopiracy (Ferro et al. 2005a, b). Briefly noted was the issue of genetically modified foods, anticipated as a concern that was likely to emerge with approval of a free trade agreement. When the Commission was legally mandated, later in 2004, 19 plant claims were slated for review. By 2010, claims for 69 plants were being researched, 17 cases of biopiracy had been identified, and seven (from France, Japan, and South Korea) had been successfully blocked. One hopes that in all these deliberations the following remarks by forum panelist Jorge Agurto (1996) will be borne in mind: The problem underlying biopiracy is the open recognition of the rights of the indigenous peoples and communities. Many times they have been excluded and marginalized from the politics of Government. Even today we encounter members of Congress who are either unaware of the existence of indigenous peoples or who do not recognize their rights. It is impossible to speak of biopiracy if we do not defend the holders of many genetic resources, those who have achieved the domestication, knowledge, and technology to utilize biodiversity in a sustainable fashion. They are also the holders of the right to prior informed consent, a fundamental right to know the objectives of the exploration and exploitation of their resources and traditional knowledge and the consequences or potential benefits that can come with industrial, commercial or scientific uses.

Spanish anthropologist Luisa Abad (2003) concludes in her book Etnocida y resistencia en la Amazonia Peruana that foreign and domestic development policies contribute to the marginalization of indigenous peoples: Underdeveloped, developing, Third World, North-South. . ., perhaps the language has been changing in these times and the terminology has been adapting itself to partially new habits, but the unequal, hierarchical reality remains the same, given that those who exercise power continue to be the same. International assistance also keeps promoting unequal development between peoples.

Biodiversity Conservation and Traditional Medicine A policy report, Biodiversity, Traditional Knowledge and Community Health: Strengthening Linkages, published by the United Nations University, Institute of Advanced Studies in Yokohama, Japan, addresses many of the issues discussed above (Unnikrishnan et al. 2015). Building on the WHO Alma Ata Declaration of 1978 relating to Traditional Medicine and primary health care, the UN Convention on Biological Diversity of 1992, and the UN’s Middle Development Goals (MDGs) of 2011, this document shows that links between Traditional Medicine and biodiversity are strengthened by three processes: (1) a medical approach involving national efforts to integrate Traditional Medicine into institutional healthcare delivery which includes challenges related to safety, quality, efficacy, access, and

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regulation; (2) a market-oriented approach focused on drug development or tourism promotion focused on biomedical products and services as marketable commodities; and (3) a community-focused approach activated by civil society organizations focused on conservation implemented through a grassroots mobilization process involving health professionals, botanists, conservationists, and community activists. The community-based approach shows allegiance to the Alma Ata primary health care model. Examples include the barefoot doctors’ strategy in China and the social health activist programs in India. Given the centrality of biodiversity in human lives, there still is a need to develop sustainable strategies for health maintenance combined with conservation of biological resources and linked to local knowledge and practices. This is relevant even in developed countries where there is an increasing demand for alternative and complementary medicine.

Two Decades of Ethnobotanical Research in Southern Ecuador and Northern Peru Work up to 2012 – besides developing a database of 510 medicinal plants (Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, b, 2007a) and 974 remedies of mixtures (Bussmann et al. 2010a) – has demonstrated that herbal commerce in Peru is a major economic resource (Bussmann and Sharon 2007b), which, although used alongside modern pharmaceutical products, is showing signs of diminished popular knowledge of applications (Bussmann and Sharon 2007b; Bussmann et al. 2007a, b, 2009a). Laboratory research on most of the database has ranged from minimum inhibition concentrations (Bussmann et al. 2010b) to toxicity screening (Bussmann et al. 2011) as well as bioassays to determine antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2008a, b, 2009b, c) and phytochemical analysis (Bussmann et al. 2009c; Perez et al. 2012) with more focused analyses of herbal treatments for acne (Bussmann et al. 2008a) and malaria (Bussmann and Glenn 2010). Other studies have sought to identify Ulluchu, a ceremonial plant of the pre-Hispanic Moche culture (Bussmann and Sharon 2009a) as well as surveying colonial sources of medicinal plants in Northern Peru and Southern Ecuador (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b). An ethnography of peasant herbalists which documented aspects of the market supply chain showed that suppliers are not adequately remunerated and revealed threats posed by lack of conservation measures and overharvesting (Revene et al. 2008; Carrillo 2012) criticized the scientific reductionism of laboratory research in attempting to appropriately verify traditional remedies. Anthropological studies of traditional curanderos and their curing altars (mesas) include articles by Sharon et al. (2009), Sharon and Gálvez (2009), Sharon (2009), and Glass-Coffin et al. (2004). It is worth noting that, during the decade that we have been working in the field and the laboratory, there has been a sea change in attitudes and perceptions of Traditional Medicine. In Trujillo, Lima and Arequipa a pilot program prescribing medicinal plants, scientifically validated by WHO/PAHO, has been initiated by

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EsSalud’s National Program for Complementary Medicine, an initiative begun in 1999 with three centers which has grown to 26 to date (Fernández 2005). In Trujillo, the Missouri Botanical Garden’s Sacred Seeds program has started an herbal garden and educational outreach program at the site museum of the pre-Hispanic Chimú city of Chan Chan. In Huamachuco, a program of ethnobotany and conservation manifest in community gardens and seed banks of medicinal and food plants is slowly emerging through collaboration between three local peasant communities, the Beneficencia Publica and regional hospital, MBG’s Sacred Seeds program, MHIRT, and the Peace Corps. Future work will involve developing a supply chain between Huamachuco and CCM-Trujillo with scientific validation by MBG, UB (SUNY), the Biotransformation and Natural Products Laboratory at UNT, and the Interdisciplinary Research Group at UPAO as coordinated by MHIRT and MBG.

Plant Nomenclature in Northern Peru The naming of plant species follows three general patterns. Plant names already used by original indigenous populations are often maintained, although slightly modified. Plants similar to species already known, or with similar habitus, often receive the same name (transposition). In other cases, completely new names are created (neology) (Van den Eynden et al. 2004). The vernacular names of the plants used in Northern Peru reflect the historical development of plant use in the region. Introduced species (e.g., Apium graveolens – Apio, Foeniculum vulgare – Hinojo), native species similar to species found in Spain (e.g., Adiantum concinnum – Culantrillo, Matricaria frigidum – Manzanilla), as well as species growing mostly in the coastal regions of the area (e.g., Alternanthera porrigens – Sanguinaria) are often addressed with names derived from Spanish roots. Plants from the mountain forests and especially the Andean highlands or the Amazon are often known by their Quechua names (e.g., Pellaea ternifolia – Cuti Cuti, Amaranthus caudatus – Quihuicha, Banisteriopsis caapi – Ayahuasca), and a few plant names can be traced back to Mochica (the original indigenous language spoken at the coast of Northern Peru) roots (e.g., Nectandra spp. – Espingo) (Bussmann and Sharon 2009b). Van den Eynden et al. (2004) observed similar patterns in Southern Ecuador, although her study focused only on edible species. Nine hundred thirty-eight vernacular names were recorded for 510 plant species. About one third if all names represented Quechua names or had Mochica roots, while 66.5% of all names were of Spanish origin or at least had Spanish components. In comparison, 41% of the vernacular names of edible plants in Southern Ecuador were found to be of Spanish origin. More than half of the indigenous species carried only one vernacular name, with the remaining species carrying a variety of indigenous names, often derived from the same root. In comparison, almost 75% of the introductions were known by one name only. The slight differences in plant names indicate that the species have been used in the region for a long time and that their names reflect small variations in the local dialects.

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Fig. 14 Study area: Peruvian Departments of Amazonas, Piura, Lambayeque, La Libertad, Cajamarca, San Martin, and the Ecuadorian Province of Loja. Dry forest (above) and Cloudforest (below) indicating the striking moisture gradient

Two decades of Ethnobotany in Northern Peru and Southern Ecuador Since 1995 ethnobotanical data were collected in Northern Peru and Southern Ecuador (Fig. 14), from plant sellers while purchasing plant materials in local markets, by accompanying local healers (curanderos) to the markets when they purchased plants for curing sessions, and into the field when they were harvesting. In addition, plants were collected by the project members in the field, and – together with the material purchased in the markets – taken to the homes of curanderos to discuss the plants’ healing properties, applications, harvesting methodology, and origins. The project region represents a floristic hotspot in Peru, with striking gradients from coastal deserts and dry forests, to some of the wettest Paramos known, to the Amazon lowlands (Fig. 15). At the curanderos’ homes, the authors also observed the preparation of remedies and participated in healing rituals. Plant uses were discussed in detail with informants, after seeking prior informed consent from each respondent. Following a semi-structured interview technique, respondents were asked to provide detailed information about the vernacular plant name in Spanish or Quechua; plant properties (hot/cold); harvesting region; ailments for which a plant was used;

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Fig. 15 A 50 km transect in Southern Ecuador from dry forest (250 mm precipitation, left) to Podocarpus National Park Paramo (10,000 mm precipitation, middle) to Amazon lowlands (right)

best harvesting time and season; plant parts used as well as mode of preparation and application; and specific instructions for the preparation of remedies, including the addition of other plant species. Many of the species reported from northern Peru are widely known by curanderos and herb vendors as well as the general population of the region and are employed for a large number of medical conditions. One hundred fifty to two hundred plant species, including most of the introductions, are commonly sold in the local markets (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b). Rare indigenous species were either collected by the healers themselves or are ordered from special collectors or herb vendors. The same plants were frequently used by a variety of healers for the same purposes, with only slight variations in recipes. However, different healers might give preference to different species for the treatment of the same medical condition. All species found were well known to the healers and herb vendors involved in the study, even if they themselves did not use or sell the species in question. Many species were often easily recognized by their vernacular names by other members of the population. This indicates that these remedies have been in use for a long time by many people. The use of some species, most prominently San Pedro (Echinopsis pachanoi), Maichil (Thevetia peruviana) and Ishpingo (various species of Nectandra), can be traced back to the Moche culture (A.D. 100–800).

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Representations of these plants are frequently found on Moche ceramics, and the remains of some were found in a variety of burials of high-ranking individuals of the Moche elite, e.g., the tomb of the Lord of Sipán (Bussmann and Sharon 2009b).

Medicinal Uses Five hundred ten plants with medicinal properties were registered in Northern Peru. The same species was often used for various medical conditions and applied in different ways for the same condition. For example, nervous disorders might be treated using different parts of a plant in different applications, e.g., topical (as a Poultice or Bath), oral (ingestion of plant extracts), and by supplying the patient with a seguro, a bottle filled with herbs and perfumes, which serves as a protective charm. Two thousand four hundred ninety-nine different uses were registered for the 510 species encountered. In the following, the total number of uses/applications and the number of species used are given, rather than only the number of plant species used to treat a condition, in order to emphasize the importance of the treatment of specific conditions. The highest number of species (207, 40.4%) is used for the treatment of “magical” ailments, with 682 (27.3%) of all conditions. Respiratory problems (95 species, 18.5%) were mentioned as 233 (9.3%) of all uses; 98 species (19.1%) are used to treat psychosomatic and nervous system problems, with 176 applications (7%). Kidney and Urinary tract disorders are treated with 85 species (16.6%), for 111 conditions (4.4%). Rheumatic and arthritic symptoms are mentioned in 103 uses (4.1%), with 45 species (8.8%) used for treatment. Infections of female organs are treated with 66 species (12.9%) and comprised 100 (4.4%) of all conditions. Treatments are most often performed in the homes of the individual healers, who normally have their mesas (healing altars) setup in their backyards (Fig. 16). Healers also treat patients at altars and consultation chambers (consultorios) in their homes,

Fig. 16 Contemporary healing altar (mesa) in Southern Ecuador

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Fig. 17 Contemporary healing altar (mesa) in Northern Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

at sacred sites in the countryside, or at sacred lagoons high in the mountains. Healing altars (mesas) bearing a large number of power objects are often employed (Fig. 17). A curing ceremony normally involves purification of the patient by orally spraying blessed and enchanted herbal extracts on the whole body to fend off evil spirits and by nasal ingestion of tobacco juice and perfumes. Plant supplies come mostly from the local markets (Fig. 18). Two hundred seventy-eight different medical conditions were recorded. Most plants were used for the treatment of multiple ailments. The large variety of conditions is grouped into 72 main categories.

Magical Uses Mental, neurological, and psychosomatic disorders are highly prevalent on a global scale. The burden of mental health problems has been seriously underestimated. Although neurological problems are only responsible for about 1% of global deaths, they contribute to over 11% of the global disease burden. It is estimated that this share will rise to 15% by 2020 (WHO 2009a, b). Western medicine often offers little help for patients afflicted by these disorders.

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Fig. 18 Plant preparations and raw plants for sale in Mercado Mayorista, Trujillo. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Healing altars (mesas) in Northern Peru often follow the old tradition by including a large variety of “power objects,” frequently with a “pagan” background. Objects such as seashells, pre-Columbian ceramics, staffs, stones, etc., are very common on Peruvian mesas and are blended with Christian symbols such as crosses and images of saints. Treatments are most often performed in the homes of the individual healers, who normally have their mesas set up in their backyards. Healers also treat patients at altars and consultation chambers (consultorios) in their homes, at sacred sites in the countryside, or at sacred lagoons high up in the mountains. A curing ceremony normally involves purification of the patient by orally spraying blessed and enchanted herbal extracts on the whole body to fend off evil spirits and by “Spiritual Flowerings” (ban˜ os de florecimiento). In most cases, the cleansing of the patients involves drinking boiled San Pedro juice and the nasal ingestion of tobacco juice and perfumes. Sometimes extracts of Jimson weed (Datura ferox), Brugmansia spp., and tobacco are also used to purify the patients. While the incantations used by healers during their curing sessions include Christian components (e.g., the invocation of Christ, the Virgin Mary, and any number of saints), references to Andean cosmology (e.g., to the apus or the spirits of the mountains) are

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very common. The use of guinea pigs as diagnostic instruments is standard in Northern Peru (Sharon 1978, 1980, 1994, 2000; Joralemon and Sharon 1993). Traditional Medicine is also gaining more attention by national governments and health providers. Peru’s National Program in Complementary Medicine and the Pan American Health Organization recently compared Complementary Medicine to allopathic medicine in clinics and hospitals operating within the Peruvian Social Security System (EsSalud 2000). Mal Aire (Bad Air), Mal Viento (Bad Wnd), Susto or Espanto (Fright), Mal Ojo (Evil Eye), and Dan˜ o or Brujería (Sorcery) are seen as very common illnesses in Andean society. Causes include sudden changes in body temperature (Mal Aire, Mal Viento), any kind of shock (Susto, Espanto), “humors,” or spells cast by other people (Mal Ojo), poisoned food, curses, etc. (Dan˜ o, Brujeria). Medical problems caused by outside influences were reported in a wide variety of studies (Girault 1987; Oblitas 1992). The Western concept of “psychosomatic disorders” comes closest to characterizing these illnesses. These illness categories are deeply rooted in Andean society, and Western medicine does not offer efficient alternatives to traditional treatment. This might explain why this category has still such outstanding importance. Treatment in many cases involved the participation of the patient in a cleansing ceremony or limpia. This could either be a relatively simple spraying with perfumes and holy water, or an all-night ceremony involving the healer’s curing altar (mesa). In the days after an all-night ceremony, patients are normally treated with a ban˜ o de florecimiento (flowering bath) in order to relieve them of any remaining adversary symptoms or spirits. In addition, patients frequently receive seguros (herbal amulets) for protection against further evil influences and for good luck. Seguros are flasks filled with powerful herbs, as well as perfumes, pictures of saints, and the hair and fingernails of the patient. The enormous number of plant species used for the treatment of psychosomatic disorders indicates that the curanderos of Northern Peru are valued specialists who are consulted mainly for these conditions. This is all the more interesting since Western medicine has still not found efficient treatments for psychosomatic disorders. The plant species used for “magical or ritual” disorders come mostly from the high Andes, especially from the vicinity of sacred lakes, since plants from those regions are regarded as especially powerful. This links the present-day curing practices directly to ancient Andean cosmology. The use of purgatives and laxatives to literally “expel” evil spirits is also very common. A total of 222 plant species belonging to 172 genera and 78 families were documented and identified as herbal remedies used to treat nervous system problems in Northern Peru. Most species used were Asteraceae (36 species, 16.21%), followed by Solanaceae (15 species, 6.76%) and Lamiaceae (14 species, 6.31%). The most important nervous system families are somewhat over-represented in comparison to the overall medicinal flora, while some other medicinally important families (e.g., Poaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Euphorbiaceae) are completely missing or underrepresented from the nervous disorder portfolio (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b).

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The majority of herbal preparations were prepared from the whole plant (31.56%), while the leaves (24.48%), stems (21.24%), and flowers (8.55%) were used less frequently. Whole plants and stems were more often used than characteristic for the overall medicinal preparations found in the region (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b). This indicates that the local healers count on a very well-developed knowledge about the properties of different plant parts. In over 60% of the cases, fresh plant material was used to prepare remedies, which differs slightly from the average herbal preparation mode in Northern Peru. Interestingly, only about 36% of the remedies were applied orally, while the majority was applied topically (46.65%), often as bath, and the remaining ones were used as spiritual safeguard (seguro). This is different from the regional average of application and underlines the importance of spiritually oriented treatments. Over 79% of all remedies were prepared as mixtures with multiple ingredients by boiling plant material either in water or in sugarcane spirit.

Respiratory System The WHO reports that respiratory illnesses are of high importance as a cause of death and morbidity at a global scale. WHO elaborated a Strategy for Prevention and Control of Chronic Respiratory Diseases (CRDs), (WHO 2002a, b, c), and respiratory problems are a major cause for infant deaths in Peru (Weil 1978). A total of 91 plant species belonging to 82 genera and 48 families were documented and identified as respiratory system herbal remedies in Northern Peru. Most species used were Asteraceae (15 species, 16.67%), followed by Lamiaceae and Fabaceae (8.89% and 5.56%). Most other families contributed only one species each to the pharmacopoeia. The most important families are clearly similarly well represented in comparison to the overall medicinal flora, although some other medicinally important families (e.g., Euphorbiaceae, Lycopodiaceae, Cucurbitaceae) are completely missing from the respiratory portfolio (Bussmann and Sharon 2006a). The majority of respiratory disorder herbal preparations were prepared from the leaves of plants (27.69%), while the whole plant (18.46%), flowers (13.85%), and stems (17.69%) were used less frequently. This indicates that the local healers count on a very well-developed knowledge about the properties of different plant parts. In almost 55% of the cases fresh plant material was used to prepare remedies, which differs little from the average herbal preparation mode in Northern Peru. About 86% of the remedies were applied orally, while the remaining ones were applied topically. Over half of all remedies were prepared as mixtures of multiple ingredients by boiling plant material either in water or in sugarcane spirit. Respiratory disorders are so common globally, and over-the counter remedies, both allopathic and complementary, so frequently sold, that much effort has been put into the verification of traditional remedies. Almost 50% of the plants found in the respiratory pharmacopoeia of Northern Peru, or their congeners have been studied for their medicinal properties. The original hypothesis that many species employed for respiratory illnesses would be nonnative, introduced to treat diseases that were originally also introduced by colonialists, did not hold however. Quite contrarily,

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many remedies for respiratory ailments are native to the study area. From this perspective, it is surprising to see how many species have actually been studied at least preliminarily.

Urinary System (Kidneys, Bladder) The recent WHO report on urinary tract infections (UTI) indicates that UTIs are one of the most common bacterial infections seen, in particular in children. It has been estimated that UTI are diagnosed in 1% of boys and 3–8% of girls. In the first year of life, UTI is more prevalent in boys with rates of 2.7% compared with 0.7% in girls. The reported rate of recurrent UTI is around 12–30% with risk greater in infants 1 μg/ml), 43 species median toxicity (LC50 250–499 μg/ml), and 23 species low toxicity (LC50 500–1,000 μg/ml). Over 24% of the aqueous extracts and 76% of the alcoholic extracts showed elevated toxicity levels to brine-shrimp. Traditional preparation methods are taking this into account – most remedies are prepared as simple water extracts, thus avoiding potential toxic effects. Excellent examples where the water extracts are nontoxic while the ethanolic extracts show high toxicity are Ocimum basilicum L., Salvia sp., or Laccopetalum giganteum (Wedd.) Ulbrich. In contrast, Cinchona officinalis L. ethanolic extracts were nontoxic and are traditionally used, while the highly toxic water extract has no traditional use. Species which showed higher levels of toxicity were Bejaria aestuans L., Erodium cicutarium (L.) L’Her., Brachyotum naudinii Triana, Miconia salicifolia (Bonp. ex Naud.) Naud., Cuscuta foetida Kunth, Caesalpinia spinosa (Molina) Kuntze, and Phyllactis rigida (Humb. and Bonpl.) Pers. Achillea millefolium L., Artemisia absinhitum L., and Eucalyptus globulus Labill all frequently used as medicinal teas also fall in this group, as do Lupinus mutabilis Sweet, and Ilicium verum Hook. f. Solanaceae (e.g., Nicotiana tabacum L. and Solanum americanum Mill.) proved highly toxic, while other species, known to be highly toxic when ingested (e.g., Datura sp. and Brugmansia spp.), did not show toxicity in Brine Shrimp. Multiple extracts from different collections of the same species showed in most cases very similar toxicity values. However, in some cases the toxicity of extracts from different collections of the same species varied from nontoxic to highly toxic. Examples for such variation in toxicity were found for Chersodoma deltoidea M.O. Dillon and Sagast., Satureja sericea (C. Presl. and Benth.) Briq., Eugenia obtusifolia Cambess., Epidendrum sp., Capparis crotonoides Kunth, Sambucus peruviana Kunth, and Malva sp. In case of these frequently used species, harvest time, collection locality, or use of specific plant parts might be important for a reduction of toxicity.

Markets and Sustainability The Pharmacopoeae of Southern Ecuador and Northern Peru: Colonial Regimes and Their Influence on Plant Use Local markets are an important source of medicinal plants in Bolivia, Colombia, and Peru, and detailed information on larger markets in the countries has become available over the last decades. However, little comparative research reports on the

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pharmacopoeia sold and the use-diversity between the markets of different countries. In our own studies, we encountered that both species composition and uses of species did show much larger differences across the evaluated countries than expected. Even in case of introduced species, we did hardly find any coincidence between the markets of the three countries. This might be explained by the great differences in the origin of populations, the floristic diversity, and the very distinct plant use knowledge and preferences of migrant populations in the respective cities that are transferred to the markets through customer demand. Our study clearly indicated that studies in single markets cannot give an in-depth overview on the plant supply across related regions. The differences in medicinal plant use between Southern Ecuador and Northern Peru are striking. Both regions share the same cultural background and have a very similar flora, with a comparable number of plant species that to a large extent overlap. Many plants mentioned in Martinez Compañon (1789) are still found in local markets today (Fig. 19). However, the medicinal flora of Southern Ecuador includes only 40% of the species used in Northern Peru. The differences in traditional medicinal use can be explained by comparing the development of the pharmacopoeia of both areas from the start of the colonial period until today. Colonial chroniclers often included detailed descriptions of useful plants in their reports. The most comprehensive early accounts of the economically interesting flora of Northern Peru and Southern Ecuador were provided by Monardes (1574), Acosta (1590), and Cobo (1653). Later treatments were included in Alcedo (1786–1789). Martínez

Fig. 19 Flor de San Juan from drawing in Martinez Compañon (1789) and recent market purchase. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Compañon, Archbishop of Trujillo, had a complete inventory of his dioceses prepared (1789). Finally, Ruiz and Pavón provided the first real botanical inventory of the region (1777–1788). The account of Martínez Compañon (1789) provides the best baseline for a comparison of the colonial and modern medicinal flora of the region. The work includes detailed paintings for every species, which allows a close comparison with the modern medicinal flora, indicating that the vernacular names of useful plants have not changed significantly since colonial times. It contains 526 useful plant species. A preliminary review of this work seems to indicate that the number of plants used has not changed significantly since the late 1700s, with over 500 plant species still found in modern Peruvian markets. A closer comparison shows, however, that only 41% of the species mentioned by Martinez Compañon (1789) are still sold nowadays in Peru. An additional 32% are still used in the Amazon basin, but do not reach the coastal markets anymore. Twenty-seven percent have completely disappeared from modern day use. This means that 58% of the species sold in Peruvian markets and 41% of the species used in Ecuador were added to the pharmacopoeia within the last 200 years (Fig. 20). A cluster analysis of the colonial and modern plant inventories showed a striking explanation for the use differences between Ecuador and Peru and helps to explain why the plant inventories changed so significantly in the eighteenth century: The Matrix correlation: r = 0.89658 (=normalized Mantel statistic Z)

1576

Correlation of modern and historic inventories

ACosta 1576

1580

Monardes 1580

1780

Alcedo 1780

2006A

Ecuador 2006

1653

Cobo 1653

1788

Ruiz & Pavon 1788

2006B

Peru 2007

2006, 2007

1789

Comp. 1789

050

058

077

085

093

Coefficent

Fig. 20 Differences in plant usage between Peru and Ecuador. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Comparison of species assemblies

Percentage of species found

60 58 50 40 30

41

41 32 27

20 10 0 MC shared MC Amazon with contemporary

MC discontinued

Peru new

Ecuador new

Fig. 21 Cladogram of linkage of historic sources and current pharmacopoeia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

current pharmacopoeia of useful flora in Ecuador was most similar to the early colonial flora mentioned in Monardes (1574), Acosta (1590), Cobo (1653, 1956), and Alcedo (1786–1789). This indicates that the Ecuadorian medicinal flora did not develop much between early and late colonial times. In contrast, the modern Peruvian healing flora was much more similar to later collections (Fig. 21). An explanation for this lies in the different treatment of traditional practices in Ecuador and Peru: In Ecuador, traditional medicinal practitioners were immediately persecuted once the colonial administration took hold, while the Peruvian administration was much more tolerant. This also reflects in the establishment of a National Institute for Traditional Medicine in Peru in the 1980s, while traditional medicine was illegal in Ecuador, until a constitutional change in 1998. This meant that Ecuadorian healers had no opportunity to experiment with new species to cure diseases introduced by Europeans, while Peruvian healers were able to explore the rich flora of the region in order to find new remedies. This experimentation also extended to “magical” disease concepts like Mal Aire, Mal Ojo, Susto, and Envidia that were introduced from Spain during the colonial regime. Peruvian healers developed a vast array of medicinals to treat these conditions, which to a large extent explains the shift in the medicinal flora between the late 1700s and modern times. Experimentation in Ecuador remained restricted to the treatment of common diseases, while spiritual treatments were outlawed until a constitutional revision in 1998 recognized the right of the population to use traditional medicinal practices (Fig. 22) (Bussmann and Sharon 2009b).

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Plant usage in Peru and Ecuador - Percentage 45 40

Peru Ecuador

Percent of species used

35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

r r s s s g er es ea tes ve de ue on lin on nc rrh erv be Fe ss isi ea cti lad Ca /N ni fv lh Dia llb Dia nfe o a o a c i i i t u l t l t a it n a -G uc ria tin /R al me om cte rod es al ce tin os Ba Int es rep an gic ch t h a y d n I n M Ps an /E en irth og -b n e i l c ma llu Fe Ha

od Fo

Fig. 22 Plant use differences in Ecuador and Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

The Case of Ulluchu Ulluchu is the common name assigned to a plant frequently depicted in the art of the Moche culture, which thrived on the north coast of Peru from A.D. 100 to 800. It is a grooved, comma-shaped fruit with an enlarged calyx found mainly in fine-line scenes painted on Moche ceramics (Fig. 23). The term first appeared without linguistic explanation in the work of pioneer Moche scholar Rafael Larco Hoyle (1938, 1939, Fig. 58; 1940, 98, Figs. 166 and 167). In his 1939 publication, he reported that the peoples of the sierras and the coastal region (Viru and Moche valleys) believed that the fruit had to be picked silently to prevent it from turning bitter. He wondered if the plant symbolized the silence and discretion of richly attired Moche messengers, some of whom wear belts adorned with Ulluchus. In his 1938 publication, he labeled a Moche fineline drawing of Ulluchu as Phaseolus sp. (a bean). Larco clearly recognized that Ulluchu had nothing whatsoever in common with “ulluco” (Ullucus tuberosus), and Andean tuber still widely cultivated and consumed in Peru nowadays.

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Fig. 23 Ulluchu in Archaeology. (a) Ulluchu fruit from cache at Sipán. (After photograph by Christopher B. Donnan). (b) Ulluchu fruit from Dos Cabezas burial. (After photograph from Donald McClelland). (c) Bone beads in form of Ulluchus from Huaca de la Luna. (After photograph of Donald McClelland). (d) Golden Ullucho bead. (After photograph by Donald McClelland). (e) Spondylus shell bead in form of Ulluchu. (After photograph by Donald McClelland). (f) Supernatural figure seated holding a gourd, possibly containing ground Ulluchu seeds. Ulluchus painted on headdress. (Private collection. After photograph by Christopher B. Donnan, from McClelland (2008)). (g) Anthropomorphized hawk runners. Ulluchu on belts, Ulluchu seeds floating above, runner carrying snuff tube. (The Art Institute of Chicago. After drawing by Donna McClelland (2008)). (h) Ulluchu harvest. Note tree with opposite leaves and extracted seeds on bottom right. (After McClelland (2008), Private collection)

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The symbolic importance of Ulluchu in Moche iconography was firmly established by Moche scholars Donnan and McClelland (McClelland 1977). Based upon a meticulous review of the UCLA Moche Archive, she showed that its distribution was nonrandom and that its varied usage displayed definite patterns with the greatest variability among background elements and the most frequent representation found on the belts of warriors and runners. She demonstrated that “the leaves of the Phaseolus do not resemble the ulluchu leaf depictions” (McClelland 1977, 43) Pepino (Solanum muricatum) and aji (Capsicum annum), which are clearly depicted in Moche art and do not resemble Ulluchu were also eliminated “since the ulluchi [sic] fruit is suspended from the plant by its smaller pointed end, whereas these two are suspended by the large end” (McClelland 1977, 437). She also indicated that the plant had not been botanically identified, pointing out that, if it turned out to be a mythical plant, no identification would be possible. A decade after McClelland’s seminal article, S. Henry Wassen (1987) of the Gothenburg Ethnographical Museum eliminated Persea americana Miller var. americana (a wild relative of avocado) as a candidate and concluded that Ulluchu was Carica candicans A. Gray (a species of wild papaya). He also co-authored an article describing the enzyme papain, which can be extracted from unripe papaya, for use as a blood anticoagulant (Hulten et al. 1987). In the latter article, the authors proposed that papain was used in the Moche sacrifice ceremony to prevent the coagulation of blood drawn from sacrificed warriors for later consumption by priests. In a paper presented at the Sibley Conference at the University of Texas at Austin, in November 2003, McClelland (2008), in addition to updating her 1977 paper in the light of a vastly expanded Moche Archive and archaeological discoveries of real Ulluchu, refuted the papaya hypothesis. She also discussed the presence in the art of yellow oleander seeds (Thevetia peruviana) as legging rattles as well as espingo seeds (Nectandra sp.) which (Wassen 1976) had earlier suggested might have been added to corn beer for medicinal and psychotropic purposes. McClelland concluded that the largest remaining challenge was an identification of Ulluchu.

Issues Surrounding the Name Ulluchu The name Ulluchu seems to have been coined by Larco (1939). According to his description, the name originated in the Virú River Valley and is supposedly of Mochica origin. However, there is no linguistic evidence that such a term indeed existed in the Mochica or Yunga language. The most comprehensive MochicaSpanish dictionary available, compiled from the writings of Moche scholar E. Brüning (2004), has no such term. In addition, the local population, as well as market vendors, plant collectors, and curanderos interviewed, had no knowledge of Ulluchu whatsoever, other than what they derived from Larco. Since this first publication the term has been copied by all subsequent authors (McClelland 1977; Wassen 1987), without any regard to its validity. It is unlikely that Brüning (2004)

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would have missed the name when doing his research early in the twentieth century, if it indeed was still being. Brüning lists quite a few Mochica plant names, some of which are still used for the same plants today, e.g., “faik” = Acacia macracantha ( faique, espino), from “fáçek, fáçke” = spine. The only language that has a somewhat similar word from which Ulluchu could be derived is Quechua: “uchu” translates to “chili, pepper,” while “ullu” translates as “penis.” The term “ullu uchu” is sometimes used as a name for Columellia ovata R. & P. (Columelliaceae), a small high-Andean plant, described as “a very thick tree; its wood is suitable for various purposes, and its leaves have febrifugal properties and are very bitter” (Ruiz 1777). However, this plant has no likeness whatsoever to the Moche Ulluchu. Thus, we must conclude that the term Ulluchu was most likely coined by Larco (1940, 98) based on a Quechua term for a species with somewhat similar fruits that has no relation to the species used by the Moche.

Botanical Identification: Why Is Ulluchu Not Carica candicans? Carica candicans is a wild relative of papaya (Carica papaya L.). Although the fruits are not marketed, they are occasionally consumed by the local population, and some market vendors and healers interviewed did know the plant under its vernacular name, “mito.” Larco (1939, 1940) never mentions the plant in relation to Ulluchu. Assuming that he indeed encountered a plant with that name, it cannot have been C. candicans, because this species would have been named “mito.” McClelland (2008) argues that Ulluchu “cannot be a papaya, which belongs to a group of plants called ‘cauliflory’ [i.e., stem flowery]. The flowers and fruit of a cauliflory grow on the trunk of the tree and not on the limbs. Ulluchus depicted in Moche art, however, hang from limbs. Papaya leaves do not resemble ulluchu leaves, which are triangular, ovoid, or boomerang shapes hanging from limbs. Each large palmate papaya leaf grows on a stem from the top of the tree.” However, further complicating this matter, it turns out that C. candicans happens to be one of the few papayas that are not cauliflorous, that have triangular leaves with entire margins, and the fruits do hang from branches. Thus, judging from the iconography alone, C. candicans actually could be Ulluchu. Based on recent archaeological evidence however (Fig. 24) (McClelland 2008; Alva and Donnan 1993; Alva 1994; Donnan and Castillo 1994), it has become clear that the actual fruits found in burials do not resemble C. candicans. In addition, the explanation that papain might have been extracted by the Moche from unripe papaya for use as a blood anticoagulant (Hultin et al. 1987), albeit reasonable, does not make much sense from a phytochemical perspective. Cultivated papaya (C. papaya) is often depicted in Moche pottery, and the species contains large amounts of papain. Why would the Moche have resorted to a rare wild species, when they could have used a cultivar with the same properties that grew on their very doorstep? Also, C. candicans fruits are often 10–15 cm. long, and while this would relate to the size of some of the Ulluchus in the iconography,

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Fig. 24 Front view of crushed Ulluchu. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

it is vastly larger than many of the fruits depicted and much larger than the fruits found in burials. Finally, the anatomy of C. candicans simply does not correlate with the fruits encountered in burials.

What Is Ulluchu, and What Was It Really Used For? Moche fine-line drawings of Ulluchu normally depict seed pods or seeds floating in the air in sacrificial scenes (McClelland 2008, Fig. 3.14), associated with runners and messengers (e.g., McClelland 2008, Fig. 3.1) or intoxicated priests (e.g., McClelland 2008, Fig. 3.6). The Ulluchu fruits vary greatly in size, ranging from about 1 to 15 cm. They are normally comma-shaped, often with an “exaggerated round calyx” with lines on the body of the fruit (e.g., McClelland 2008, Fig. 3.4). Some illustrations show Ulluchu harvested by monkeys, and in such cases the fruit is mostly shown growing along the axes of the plant’s leaves (e.g., McClelland 2008, Figs. 3.27 and 3.28). Starting from this basis in 2002, we built on the work of Donna McClelland and the archaeological excavations at Sipán in the Lambayeque Valley (McClelland 2008; Alva 1994; Alva and Donnan 1994) and at Dos Cabezas in the Jequetepeque Valley in the 1990s (McClelland 2008; Donnan and Castillo 1994). Botanically, all these depictions resemble capsules or drupe-like fruits. It became apparent that in a biodiversity hotspot like Peru, with a flora of more than 18.000 species, a large number of plant families have fruits that vaguely resemble Moche fineline drawings of Ulluchu, and many of these families contain more than one genus with similar fruits. Examples include: (Apocynaceae: Ambelania; Caricaceae: Carica; Celastraceae: Maytenus; Chrysobalanaceae: Chrysobalanus, Hirtella, Licania; Convolvulaceae: Dicranostyles; Fabaceae: Aldina, Alexa, Andira, Dipteryx, Dussia, Ormosia; Guttiferae: Tovomita; Hippocrateaceae: Cheiloclinum, Salacia; Icacinaceae: Calatola; Meliaceae: Guarea; Menispermaceae: Abuta, Curarea,

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Elephantomene, Telitoxicum; Myristicaceae: Virola; Olacaceae: Cathedra; Quiinaceae: Lacunaria; Sabiaceae: Meliosma; Sapindaceae: Cupania, Paullinia; and Sapotaceae: Pouteria. Some of these are still highly important in traditional societies. For example, Ambelania fruit is often consumed; Ormosia contains potent poisonous compounds, but is now mostly used in crafts; Curarea is one of the ingredients of “curare,” the famous Amazonian arrow poison; Virola species are still used as potent snuffs in the Amazon, and Paullinia is the source of “yopo,” an important stimulant. However, none of these carry the vernacular name Ulluchu. Fortunately, at this time the archaeological evidence provides good clues for identification. The Ulluchu fruits found in burials in the 1990s are clearly capsules or drupes, slightly comma-shaped, between 1.5 and 5 cm. long, and slightly grooved. They closely resemble bone, gold, and Spondylus beads found in situ in size, form, and texture. In the iconography, the fruits are often depicted as located on both sides of branches, e.g., on headdresses. It is important to note that this figure has widely extended nostrils, as is often seen in people inhaling hallucinogenic snuffs, and is holding a gourd and pestle. McClelland (2008, Fig. 3.18) interpreted this as lime gourd used for chewing coca. We suggest that this might also be a gourd used to grind the seeds of Ulluchu for inhalation. Further iconographic evidence supports this hypothesis. Runners and messengers associated with Ulluchu are often winged – they literally fly, i.e., the inhalation of Ulluchu gives them wings. The personages have Ulluchu on their belts, Ulluchu seeds floating above their heads, and they hold instruments that closely resemble a typical double snuff tube that would serve to inhale powdered hallucinogenic substances. Thus, it seems possible that one of the uses of Ulluchu may have been as a mind-altering snuff. Another reason for identifying the seeds in the iconography as hallucinogenic Ulluchus is underscored from Moche paintings, e.g., a famous Moche scene (McClelland 2008, Fig. 3.34) where monkeys are picking fruits from an Ulluchu tree. It is important to note that the tree depicted has opposite leaves and that seeds are extracted from the fruit, possibly for roasting in a typical oven on the bottom right. The roasted seeds could then be ground to powder and inhaled. The fruits themselves seem to be five-valved. The function of Ulluchu as a hallucinogen is reinforced by other imagery (e.g., McClelland 2008, Fig. 3.6), where personages surrounded by Ulluchu fruits lie on the ground in what clearly appears to be an intoxicated state. In addition, prisoners in sacrificial scenes (e.g., Hocquenghem 2008, Figs. 2.2, 2.3, 2.12, and 2.24), especially the well-known “lines of prisoners” at Huaca El Brujo and Huaca de la Luna, all show clearly visible erections (Fig. 25), which may be seen as another indication of the ingestion of some substance causing this effect. From this perspective Larco’s term Ulluchu (Larco 1940), if derived from Quechua “ullu-uchu” – “penis pepper,” would in fact make sense in describing the possible effects of the plant in question. Also, the association with sexual arousal is reinforced by mythical scenes where an Ulluchu tree grows out of the back of an erotic couple. In light of the above, Ulluchu is a tree with opposite leaves and fruits that are drupes between 1 and 15 cm. long possibly containing active ingredients that would elevate the blood pressure and cause erections and psycho-active substances. The only plant family from the list above having representatives that meet all these

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Fig. 25 Line of prisoners at Huaca El Brujo. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

criteria is Meliaceae, and the genus Guarea is the one that most closely fits the description. It includes mostly trees with pinnate leaves (which is unusual for Meliaceae) and fruits that are three to five valved capsules, with large, pseudo arillate seeds. The genus Guarea is found throughout Peru, but is mostly restricted to tropical lowland forests, with some species reaching could forest habitat. No species is found along the dry coast of Peru, which indicates that the material must have been widely traded in Moche times. A typical representative is Guarea grandifolia DC. (Fig. 26). The species has clearly pinnate leaves, and the fruits very clearly resemble the archaeological samples. In addition, Guarea contains a large number of species with varying fruit sizes (from 1 to 15 cm.), calyx swelling, and grooving on the body of the fruit (Fig. 27), which all correlates with the varied Ulluchu imagery in Moche fineline drawings. The seeds of Guarea species, with a distinct white navel, very much resemble the seeds depicted in Moche fineline paintings. Many species of Guarea are known by a wide variety of vernacular names, e.g., Guarea spec.: requia, kushímsakish; G. glabra: yecheñor, yechemor; G. grandifolia: bola requia; G. guidonia: atapio, latapi, latapi caspi, requia colorada, requia latapi, xoro; G. kunthiana: requia, paujil ruro; G. purusana: latapi, requia. The wood of many species is used as timber for construction. The wood, bark, and leaves contain compounds that act as abortive, emetic, purgative, and antiamoebiac agents, and the bark is often sold as Coccilliana in expectorant preparations (Kraemer 1915; Rätsch 1998). The fruits and seeds contain a variety of alkaloids that are very rarely used due to their high toxicity (Kraemer 1915). Some of the alkaloids found, e.g., rusbyine, have a structure and effects like emetine, an alkaloid found in Psychotria ipecacuanha (Brot.) Stokes, which has been widely used as an emetic and expectorant. Other species of Psychotria are well known as components in ayahuasca preparations due to their high content of N,N-DMT. In large dosages, ipecac preparations cause high blood pressure, arrhythmia, spasms, and extension of the blood vessels. While the existing literature on Guarea seed compounds is rather

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Fig. 26 Guarea grandifolia. (a) Mature branch, (b) flower, (c) mature fruit, (d) fruit cross section, (e) seeds, (f) branching pattern. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

fragmentary, it seems clear that a concentrated dosage of Ulluchu seeds, if ingested, would increase a prisoner’s heartbeat, elevate the blood pressure, and widen blood vessels thus causing erection. All of this would make it much easier to extract sacrificial blood. Also, when inhaled by priests, the active compounds could have a mind-altering effect, which would not necessarily lead to high levels of toxicity, and could induce very rapid, short-term hallucinations. We conclude that Ulluchu can be identified as a group of species of the genus Guarea (Meliaceae) based on morphological characteristics. In addition, the

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Fig. 27 Sustainable plant use – from plant documentation with local healers to production of correctly identified bulk herbal packages and teas for local markets. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

chemical composition of the plant’s compounds supports the theses that it was used in a sacrificial context to improve the extraction of blood from sacrificial victims. We also suggest that a ground preparation of Guarea seeds, when inhaled, may have been used as a hallucinogen. However, more detailed phytochemical research is needed to corroborate the latter hypothesis.

Changing Markets Exotics played an important role amongst all pants sold in Northern Peruvian markets. Fifty-nine species (15%) found in all markets were exotics. However, among the species most commonly encountered in the inventories, 40–50% were exotics. Matricaria recutita (chamomile) was found in the inventory of approximately 70% of vendors. The next most popular species sold in these markets included Equisetum giganteum, Phyllanthus urinaria, Phyllanthus stipulatus, Phyllanthus niruri (chanca piedra – stone breaker), Eucalyptus globulus (eucalyptus), Piper aduncum, Uncaria tomentosa (cat’s claw), Rosmarinus officinalis (rosemary), Peumus boldus, Bixa orellana (achiote), and Buddleja utilis. However, when taking sales volume into account, Croton lechleri (dragon’s blood), Uncaria tomentosa, and Eucalyptus globulus were clearly the most important species (Bussmann and Sharon 2009c).

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While it was very easy for all vendors to name their most important and frequently sold species, it proofed impossible to get detailed information about species that vendors observed as “rare” or “disappearing.” In most cases, vendors mentioned species as rare because they themselves did not sell them, in many cases these plants were very common outside the market (e.g., Plantago major or common plantain), or because demand was so low, that it would not have made sense to carry them in their inventories. Very small vendors had inventories that represented the most common medicinal plants available and excluded most species in the large “witchcraft” segment of the pharmacopoeia. On the other hand, well-established large stands specialized in supplies for healers (including “magical” plants). All four markets had inventories containing more than 50% of all inventoried plant species but lacked many of the “generalist” plants sold by other vendors. The portfolio of these stands focused almost entirely on “magical” species that are needed to cure illnesses like “susto” (fright), “mal aire” (evil wind), “dan˜ o” (damage), “envidia” (envy), and other “magical” or psychosomatic ailments. At the same time, all four vendors catered also to the esoteric tourism crowd that tends to frequent the large markets and carried a variety of plants that were not used by curanderos, but instead were sold to meet tourist demand.

A Look on Sustainability: How Much Plant and for Which Price? More than two thirds of all species sold in Northern Peruvian were claimed to originate from the highlands (sierra), above the timberline, which represents areas often heavily used for agriculture and livestock grazing. The overall value of medicinal plants in these markets reaches a staggering 1.2 million US$/year. This figure only represents the share of market vendors and does not include the amount local healers charge for their cure. Thus, medicinal plants contribute significantly to the local economy. Such an immense market raises questions of the sustainability of this trade, especially because the market analysis does not take into account any informal sales. Most striking was the fact that seven indigenous and three exotic species, i.e., 2.5% of all species traded, accounted for more than 40% of the total sales volume (with 30% and 12%, respectively). Moreover, 31 native species accounted for 50% of all sales, while only 16 introduced plants contributed to more than a quarter of all material sold. This means that little over 11% of all plants in the market accounted for about three fourths of all sales. About one third of this sales volume includes all exotic species traded. None of these are rare or endangered. However, the rising market demand might lead to increased production of these exotics, which in turn could have negative effects on the local flora (Bussmann and Sharon 2007b). A look at the indigenous species traded highlights important conservation threats. Croton lechleri (dragon’s blood) and Uncaria tomentosa (cat’s claw) are immensely popular at a local level and each contributes to about 7% to the overall market value. Both species are also widely traded internationally. The latex of Croton is harvested by cutting or debarking the whole tree. Uncaria is mostly traded as bark, and again the whole plant is normally debarked. Croton is a pioneer species, and apart from

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C. lechleri a few other species of the genus have found their way in the market. Sustainable production of this genus seems possible, but the process has to be closely monitored, and the current practice does not appear sustainable because most Croton is wild harvested. The cat’s claw trade is so immense, that in fact years ago collectors of this primary forest liana started complaining about a lack of resources (Cabieses Molina 2000) and during the years of this study other Uncaria species, or even Acacia species have appeared in the market as “cat’s claw” (own observation). As such, the Uncaria trade is clearly not sustainable. Some of the other “most important” species are either common weeds (e.g., Desmodium molliculum) or have large populations (e.g., Equisetum giganteum). However, a number of species are very vulnerable. Tillandsia cacticola grows in small areas of the coast as epiphyte (Downer 2006). Its habitat, coastal dry forest and shrub, is heavily impacted by urbanization and mechanized agriculture, the impact of the latter worsened by the current bio-fuel boom. Gentianella alborosea, G. bicolor, G. graminea, Geranium ayavacense, and Laccopetalum giganteum are all high-altitude species with very limited distribution. Their large-scale collection is clearly unsustainable, and in case of Laccopetalum collectors indicate that supply is harder and harder to find. The fate of a number of species with similar habitat requirements raises comparable concern. The only species under cultivation at this point are exotics and a few common indigenous species. When looking at the reasons why people chose medicinal plants or pharmaceuticals for greater consumption, it seemed as though the major reasons were fairly obvious. Many people preferred using plants more often because they are natural and safe. Pharmaceutical products have too many synthetic chemicals and foreign substances that can affect the body. Using plants that have been in use for centuries seems to be a safer and healthier alternative. Many people said that pharmaceuticals were used for particular illnesses, but often had side effects that result in negative impacts elsewhere in the body. Respondents agreed, however, that pharmaceuticals products were more effective than medicinal plants. Even though they still used plants, they would not completely depend on them, knowing that there a limit to their use. A lot of agreement was registered for use of doctor’s prescriptions. Many people have faith in their doctor, and if he recommends using a certain medicine, they will. This faith is based on the confidence people have in science and medicine with a great deal of research available, which has gained the public’s trust. Because of this, people feel safer relying on modern medicine. Along with the research, people know that medicine has noticeable effects that can be more easily obtained than those from plants. Plant remedies take longer and are more subtle in their effects. These are reasons why pharmaceuticals are used more often. Although the number was minimal, there were respondents who did say that they used the two kinds of medicine in the same amounts. What was interesting was that people said that they used both together. For example, often people said that they would drink a cup of herbal tea while taking pills. Although people felt that each type of medicine has a role, most agreed that pharmaceuticals provide the best route taken for fighting certain sicknesses.

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Traditional Medicine is experiencing increasing demand, especially from a Peruvian perspective, as indicated by the fact that the number of herb vendors, in particular in the markets of Trujillo, has increased in recent years. Also, a wide variety of medicinal plants from Northern Peru can be found in the global market. While this trend might help to maintain traditional practices and to give traditional knowledge the respect it deserves, it poses a serious threat, as signs of overharvesting of important species are becoming increasingly apparent. Today the most serious threat to this millennial tradition is the destruction of medicinal plant habitats. Urban sprawl and the sugar industry have already greatly altered the coastal plains around Trujillo and Chiclayo. Climatic change and deforestation are threatening the mountain forest systems that are the source of many medicinal species. Most importantly, the high Andean ecosystems and sacred lagoons where many medicinally active species are found are in danger of being destroyed by large-scale mining activities (Zamora Pérez 2007). In order to counteract such influences, close work with local healers, in order to document local knowledge, and use of the results to develop sustainably sourced, and scientifically identified plant material for local markets, is being developed and the knowledge also gets repatriated in bilingual form (Fig. 28). It is apparent that the respondents used medicinal herbs more often than pharmaceutical medicines, but only to a small degree. People generally assumed that plants

Fig. 28 Dissemination of traditional knowledge in bilingual books. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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are healthier and better to use because they are natural and are thought to not have any side-effects. It is difficult to determine if the knowledge of the use of medicinal plants is growing or decreasing, but the indications are that the last generation knows

Fig. 29 Medicinal plant presentation in Mercado Aviación Lima: (a) packaged ground plat material, (b) traditional presentation, (c–e) Geranium sessiliflorum, (d) unidentifiable Geranium fragment, (f) Cheilanthes bonariensis, (g) Argyrochosma nivea, (h) Gentianella thyrsoidea, (i) Gentianella nitida. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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more than the present. However, most of the present generation does teach their children about the use of medicinal plants. The present study also showed what medicinal plants the respondents used for which purposes. It would be interesting to evaluate the properties of the species used in bioassays. Similarly, the plant knowledge of patients at both facilities was largely identical, with an essentially overlapping selection of common, mostly introduced, species, and basically the same number of medicinal plants mentioned overall. This indicates that traditional medicinal knowledge is a major part of a people’s culture that is being maintained while patients are also embracing the benefits of western medicine. This attitude does however lead to profound challenges when it comes to the safety of the plants employed, in particular for applications that require long-term use. Bussmann et al. (2013) found that various species were often sold under the same common names. Some of the different fresh species were readily identifiable botanically, but neither the collectors nor the vendors do make a direct distinction between species (Fig. 29). However, often material was sold in finely powdered form, which makes the morphological identification of the species in the market impossible, and greatly increases the risk for the buyer. The best way to ensure correct identification would be DNA bar-coding. The necessary technical infrastructure is however not available locally. The use of DNA bar-coding as quality control tool to verify species composition of samples on a large scale would require to carefully sample every batch of plant material sold in the market. The volatility of the markets makes this is an impossible logistical task. Often the same or closely related species mentioned in literature sell under wide variety of common names. Worse, one species might be sold, e.g., as “Hercampuri” in one location or market stand, while selling under a different name at a neighboring stand. As expected, there is no consistency in the dosage of plants used, nor do vendors agree on possible side effects. Studies indicate that the plant use in Northern Peru, although footing on a millennial tradition, has changed considerably even during the last decades. Even in case of plant species used for very clearly circumscribed applications, patients run a considerable risk when purchasing their remedies in the local markets, and the possible side effects can be serious. Much more control, and a much more stringent identification of the material sold in public markets, and entering the global supply chain via Internet sales, would be needed.

The Nagoya Protocol and Repatriation of Traditional Knowledge The final implementation of the “Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization to the Convention on Biological Diversity” last month has brought a great boost for the rights of indigenous and local communities. The main objective of the protocol is “the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources, including by appropriate access to genetic resources and by appropriate transfer of relevant technologies,

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taking into account all rights over those resources and to technologies, and by appropriate funding, thereby contributing to the conservation of biological diversity and the sustainable use of its components,” including that “traditional knowledge associated with genetic resources that is held by indigenous and local communities is accessed with the prior and informed consent or approval and involvement of these indigenous and local communities, and that mutually agreed terms have been established.” This is naturally of great importance. The establishment of prior informed consent has, fortunately, been widely practiced already, although there are still projects that place only limited emphasis on permits and consent, because the process is often long and tedious. Under the Nagoya Protocol prior informed consent and providing benefits for knowledge holders is no longer only good ethics, it is also international law. It is to hope that all major granting agencies, whether private or governmental, will soon make proof of prior informed consent a requirement for funding. The concept that “benefits” might result from the documentation of traditional knowledge is somewhat new to many colleagues. In globalized science, where data is easily circulated, it is only just to make sure as much as possible that the knowledge our counterparts share with us is not simply appropriated by parties not involved in the original study, whether for scientific or commercial purposes. In practice, this means that the establishment of prior informed consent valid under the Nagoya Protocol needs to include an explicit statement along the lines that “any work conducted in a community is carried out under the Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization, and that the right to use and authorship of any traditional knowledge all informants is maintained, as well as that any use of the information obtained, other than for the scientific publication does require additional prior consent of the traditional owners, as well as a consensus on access to benefits resulting from subsequent use.” The Nagoya Protocol is to be applied with immediate effect and does not only cover future research, but any previous data gathered by our institution, unless a different agreement with the original owners exists. Benefit sharing in this context needs to also not only include the repatriation of the new data gathered, in a language and form accessible to the traditional owners, but also the translation and repatriation of the results of previous studies conducted in the same indigenous or local community, if not already done by the original researchers. In addition, informants, should they so desire, must be allowed full participation as authors in all publications of a study, rather than simply being mentioned as a sideline in the acknowledgments. Along these lines we have edited a series of books, authored by the members of local communities, that repatriate knowledge on plant use, in local language, and in an appropriate format, as requested by the communities, to the original knowledge holders. These are given to all participating community members, as well as local schools. The first reaction in most communities, when presented with the results of such a collaborative investigation, is astonishment that researchers actually came back and in fact brought some useful material in

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Fig. 30 Repatriation of knowledge – presentation of palm books to local communities. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

local language. This is normally followed by great satisfaction of the participants to be actual authors of the material (Fig. 30). All publications acknowledge the local communities, intellectual property under the Nagoya Protocol (Fig. 31), and the authorship of the local collaborators (Fig. 32). In the case of publications on palm use, we developed together with the communities easy to understand symbols for usage categories and plant parts used (Fig. 33). The books include graphic descriptions of plant parts (Fig. 34), with color examples for different growth-, leaf-, and fruit-forms (Figs. 35 and 36), followed by in depth description of the individual species (Fig. 37), and detailed, well-illustrated descriptions of usage (Fig. 38). In addition to these efforts, WLBC strives to translate previously published studies on traditional knowledge, to make them available in local knowledge, to the benefit of the communities that were involved in the original research. A good example is Bussmann and Paniagua Zambrana (2011). “La etnobotanica de los Chacobo: Traducción de “Boom, B. – The Ethnobotany of the Chacobo Indians, Beni, Bolivia”” (Fig. 39).

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Fig. 31 Book page: acknowledging local intellectual property and the Nagoya Protocol. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 32 Community authors. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 33 Symbols to explain plant uses and plant parts, developed with local communities. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 34 Palm profile – plant parts in local language. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Fig. 35 Examples for different palm leaf and growth forms. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 36 Examples for palm inflorescences and fruits. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 37 Illustrated plant description. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 38 Richly illustrated description of plant use, with local language terms in addition to Spanish. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 39 Repatriation of local knowledge in local language: translation of Boom “Ethnobotany of the Chacobo Indians”. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Need for a Global Program on Conservation of Useful Plants and Traditional Knowledge: A Call to Action There is also a great urgency to address the vital importance of traditional knowledge about plants, their utility, management, and conservation. This unique, often ancient, and detailed knowledge is typically held and maintained by local and indigenous communities (Barve et al. 2013). The development of a global program on the conservation of useful plants and associated knowledge is overdue, taking into account the need to: • Call on the international community and governments to recognize the importance of wild and cultivated plant diversity, as well as the associated knowledge of their usefulness as a vital present-day and future resource. This should be

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accomplished through the successful implementation of the GSPC objectives and targets by 2020. Highlight the need for a concerted international effort to compile a widely accessible global catalogue of useful plants of importance for humankind, while respecting intellectual property rights, local ownership of knowledge and appropriate benefit sharing. Assist local peoples in the preservation of their traditional knowledge in a culturally appropriate manner. Stress the need for cross cultural and multilevel partnerships in the effort to build on and share experiences on conservation of culturally significant plants, their sustainable use, and associated knowledge. Develop an international research platform to address gaps in scientific knowledge of useful plants. Facilitate capacity building and training opportunities in ethnobotany, particularly in countries and regions with significant gaps in such resources. Support and encourage biocultural knowledge transmission and custodianship. Develop the appropriate facilities, methodologies, and techniques to support culturally sensitive curation of biocultural collections (artifacts, herbarium vouchers, produces, living collections, etc.) and associated traditional knowledge. Elaborate and disseminate educational materials and resources in appropriate languages that support and promote the study and use of traditional knowledge and insure their inclusion in educational curricula. Develop a toolbox of methodologies, case studies, manuals, and good practices in order to support the conservation of useful plant and associated knowledge. Highlight the need for measurable indicators that monitor progress in the conservation of useful plants and associated knowledge. Follow the framework provided by the Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization (ABS) to the Convention on Biological Diversity and FAO’s International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, in order to manage and achieve ethical standards for access, fair and equitable benefit sharing, traditional resource and farmers’ rights, and the protection of intellectual property.

Conclusions Current research indicates that the composition of the local pharmacopoeia in Northern Peru and Southern Ecuador has changed since colonial times (Martinez Compañon 1789; Ruiz 1777–1788; Bussmann and Sharon 2009b). However, in Northern Peru, the overall number of medicinal plants employed seems to have remained at a comparable level, while plant use in Southern Ecuador has decreased. This indicates that the Northern Peruvian health tradition is still going strong and that the healers and public are constantly experimenting with new remedies. One example of this is the sudden appearance of Noni (Morinda

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citrifolia) fruits and products in large quantities in plant pharmacies and markets in the region since 2005. This plant was not available before but is heavily marketed worldwide. Peruvian sellers are clearly reacting to a global market trend and are trying to introduce this new species to their customers. This indicates that local herbalists and herb merchants are carefully watching international health trends to include promising species in their own repertoire. In Southern Ecuador, healers were not able to experiment with new remedies due to persecution and legal restrictions. As a result, the pharmacopoeia in this region remained on an early colonial level, with loss of significant knowledge. The use of hallucinogens, in particular the San Pedro cactus (Echinopsis pachanoi) is still a vital component of Andean healing practices and has been around for millennia. San Pedro can often be found in Cupisnique and Moche iconography. Five hundred years of suppression of traditional healing practices by Western medicine have not managed to destroy this tradition in Peru. The use of San Pedro, together with additives like Angel’s Trumpet (Brugmansia spp.), Jimsonweed (Datura ferox), and tobacco, is still a central part of curing ceremonies in Northern Peru. Healers are in fact experimenting with new hallucinogens, and some northern curanderos have started to include decoctions of Ayahuasca (Banisteriopsis caapi) in their rituals. Although not formally acknowledged, Southern Ecuador falls into the Northern Peruvian cultural area. It appears to represent a region where traditional plant knowledge, though important, has declined considerably. Southern Ecuadorian curanderos and parteras (midwives) having almost entirely abandoned indigenous rituals. In fact, San Pedro usage was not mentioned as a mind-altering plant by any healer or midwife interviewed and was not used in curing ceremonies. Centuries of prohibition have led to a pronounced abandonment of traditional knowledge. This is also reflected in the current study. Many plants used for “magical” purposes in Peru have disappeared from traditional use in Ecuador. The fear of prosecution is still very deeply rooted in the healer community, and most healers interviewed stated that they did not wish to be cited by name. Most healing altars or mesas in Southern Ecuador are almost entirely devoid of any “pagan” objects such as seashells, pre-Columbian ceramics, etc. Patients are cleansed, by spraying them with holy water and perfumes. In rare cases, tobacco juice and extracts of Jimson weed (Datura ferox) are used to purify the patients. Southern Ecuadorian mesas are also much less elaborate than the mesas of Peruvian curanderos. The incantations used by healers during their curing sessions center on Christian symbolism. References to Andean cosmology are almost entirely absent, and the use of guinea pigs as diagnostic instruments has all but disappeared from the tool kit of these healers. Interestingly, Peruvian curanderos have started to fill this spiritual void in Southern Ecuador. Healers from the Northern Peruvian mountains and coastal plains frequently cross over to Ecuador to offer their services to patients – including increasing numbers of foreigners with a “New Age” orientation – who are not satisfied with the more Westernized approach of Ecuadorian healers. These Peruvian colleagues have much more elaborate plant knowledge, and their mesas as well as their incantations follow a more traditional pattern.

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Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Naming a phantom – the quest to find the identity of Ulluchu, an unidentified ceremonial plant of the Moche culture in northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2009a;5:8. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Shadows of the colonial past-diverging plant use in northern Peru and southern Ecuador. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2009b;5:4. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. From collection to market and cure-traditional medicinal use in northern Peru. In: Albuquerque U, editor. Recent development and case studies in ethnobotany. Recife: NUPEA; 2009c. p. 184–207. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Lopez A. Blending traditional and Western medicine, medicinal plant use among patients at Clinic Anticona in El Porvenir, Peru. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2007a;5:185–99. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Vandebroek I, Jones AA, Revene Z. Health for sale, the medicinal plant markets in Trujillo and Chiclayo, northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007b;3:37. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Diaz D, Barocio Y. Peruvian plants canchalagua (Schkuhria pinnata (Lam.) Kuntze), hercampuri (Gentianella alborosea (Gilg.) Fabris), and corpus way (Gentianella bicolor (Wedd.) J. Pringle) prove to be effective in the treatment of acné. Arnaldoa. 2008a;15(1):149–52. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Perez F, Díaz D, Ford T, Rasheed T, Silva R. Antibacterial activity of northern-Peruvian medicinal plants – a low cost laboratory approach to assess biological activity. Arnaldoa. 2008b;15(1):127–48. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Meyer K, Townesmith A, Rothrock A, Sharon D, Castro M, Cardenas R, Regalado S, Toro R, Chait G, Malca G, Perez F. Antibacterial activity of medicinal plants of northern Peru-part II. Arnaldoa. 2009a;16(1):93–103. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A, Sharon D, Castro M, Cardenas R, Regalado S, Toro R, Chait G, Malca G, Perez F. Phyto-chemical analysis of Peruvian medicinal plants. Arnaldoa. 2009b;16(1):105–10. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Garcia M. From chamomile to aspirin? Medicinal plant use among clients at Laboratorios Beal in Trujillo, Peru. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009c;7:399–407. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Meyer K, Kuhlman A, Townesmith A. Herbal mixtures in traditional medicine in northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010a;6:10. Bussmann RW, Malca G, Glenn A, Sharon D, Chait G, Diaz D, Pourmand K, Jonat B, Somogny S, Guardado G, Aguirre C, Chan R, Meyer K, Kuhlman A, Townesmith A, Effio J, Frias F, Benito M. Minimum inhibitory concentrations of medicinal plants used in northern Peru as antibacterial remedies. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010b;132:101–8. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Sharon D, Chait G, Diaz D, Pourmand K, Jonat S, Somogy S, Guardado G, Aguirre C, Chan R, Meyer A, Townesmith A. Proving that traditional knowledge works, the antibacterial activity of northern Peruvian medicinal plants. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2010c;9:67–96. Bussmann RW, Malca G, Glenn A, Sharon D, Nilsen B, Parris B, Dubose D, Ruiz D, Saleda J, Martinez M, Carillo L, Kuhlman A, Townesmith A. Toxicity of medicinal plants used in traditional medicine in northern Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011;137:121–40. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana N, Rivas Chamorro M, Molina Moreira N, Cuadros Negri ML, Olivera J. Peril in the market – classification and dosage of species used as anti-diabetics in Lima, Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:37. Cabieses Molina F. La Uña de Gato u su entorno. De la Selva a la farmacia. Lima: Universidad de San Martin De Porres; 2000. Camino L. Cerros, plantas y lagunas ponderosas – la medicina al norte del Perú. Lima: Lluvia Editores; 1992/1999. Cano JH, Volpato G. Herbal mixtures in the traditional medicine of Eastern Cuba. J Ethnopharmacol. 2004;90:293–316. Carrillo L. Scientific validation? How bioprospecting laboratory practices contribute to the devaluation of traditional medicinal knowledge. Berkeley McNair Res J. 2012;19. Cobo B. Historia del Nuevo Mundo, 2 tomos. Sevilla: Compañía de Jesús; 1653. Cobo B. In: de Mateos F, editor. Historia del Nuevo Mundo. Madrid: Ediciones Atlas; 1956.

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Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions – Andes – Colombia and Ecuador Carolina Romero, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann

Location The Republic of Colombia is located in the northwest corner of South America, and it is the only South American country that has coasts in both the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans. Colombia is a unitary, constitutional republic comprising 32 departments with the capital in the city of Bogotá. The country lies between latitudes 12
N and 4
S, and longitudes 67
and 79
W. Colombia is among the world’s 17 megadiverse countries, and it is the most densely biodiverse country per square kilometer. Colombia’s territory encompasses Amazon rainforests, tropical grasslands, coastlines along both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, and a mountainous zone of Andean origin (IGAC 2011).

C. Romero William L. Brown Center, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO, USA e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_3

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Colombia has an approximate area of 2,129,748 km2 of which 1,141,748 km2 correspond to its continental and insular territories. The remaining 988,000 km2 correspond to its maritime extension. Colombia’s continental territory extends from 12
260 3000 N in Punta Gallinas (Department of La Guajira) to 4
120 3000 S at the mouth of the San Antonio creek in the Amazon River (City of Leticia, Department of Amazonas) and from 60
500 5400 E on the island of San José on the Negro River (Department of Guainia) to 79
020 3300 W on Cape Manglares at the mouth of the Mira River in the Pacific Ocean (Department of Nariño). About 87% of the continental territory of Colombia is located in the Northern Hemisphere as the equatorial line crosses the country just 4.3 km north of its southern border with Peru (Bernal 2016). Colombia also includes several insular territories. In the Caribbean Sea off the coast of Nicaragua is the archipelago of San Andrés and Providencia between 12
and 16
300 N and 78
and 82
W. Also in the Caribbean but closer to Colombia’s mainland are Fuerte Island, the archipelagos of San Bernardo and the Rosario Islands, Barú, and Tierrabomba. In the Pacific Ocean, the island territories include the Gorgona and Gorgonilla Islands at 2
580 N and the Malpelo Island located at 4
N. Colombia shares land borders with five countries: to the northwest with Panama, to the east with Venezuela and Brazil, and to the south with Ecuador and Peru. It also shares maritime limits with Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Jamaica, the Dominican Republic, Haiti, Venezuela, Panama, and Ecuador. About two-thirds of the Colombian mainland corresponds to lowlands and only one-third to mountainous areas mainly associated with the Andean mountains which cross the country from southwest to northeast (Espinal and Montenegro 1963). Ecuador has a total area of 283,561 km2, including the Galápagos Islands. Of this, 276,841 km2 is land and 6,720 km2 water. Ecuador lies between latitudes 2
N and 5
S, bounded on the west by the Pacific Ocean, and has 2,337 km of coastline. It has 2,010 km of land boundaries, with Colombia in the north 590 km border and Peru in the east and south 1,420 km border. It is the westernmost country that lies on the equator. The country has four main geographic regions: The coastal region consists of the provinces to the West of the Andean range, Esmeraldas, Guayas, Los Ríos, Manabí, El Oro, and Santa Elena. It is the country’s most fertile and productive land and is the seat of the large banana exportation plantations especially of companies like Dole and Chiquita. This region is also where most of Ecuador’s rice crop is grown. The coastal provinces have active fisheries. The highlands consist of the Andean and Interandean highland provinces, Azuay, Cañar, Carchi, Chimborazo, Imbabura, Loja, Pichincha, and Tungurahua. This land contains most of Ecuador’s volcanoes and all of its snow-capped peaks. Agriculture is focused on the traditional crops of potato, maize, and quinua. The Amazon consists of the provinces Morona Santiago, Napo, Orellana, Pastaza, Sucumbíos, and Zamora-Chinchipe. This region is primarily made up of the huge Amazon national parks and Amerindian untouchable zones, which are vast stretches of land set aside for the Amazon Amerindian tribes to continue living

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traditionally. It is also the area with the largest reserves of petroleum in Ecuador, and parts of the upper Amazon here have been extensively exploited by petroleum companies. The insular region is the region comprising the Galápagos Islands, some 1,000 km west of the mainland in the Pacific Ocean.

Climate The climate of Colombia is tropical and isothermal (that is without any real change of seasons) as a result of its geographical location near the Equator presenting variations depending on the altitude, temperature, humidity, winds, and rainfall (Pabón et al. 2001). The complex topography of Colombia with its large mountains, narrow valleys, and wide plains determines a climatic heterogeneity that is reflected in the extraordinary richness and variability of its vegetation cover characterized for having climates associated with tropical rainforests, savannas, steppes, deserts, and mountains. Each of the six natural regions in which Colombia is divided (i.e., the Caribbean, Pacific, Andean, Eastern Plains, Amazon, and insular regions) maintains an average temperature throughout the year presenting only slight variations determined by precipitation during rainy seasons caused by the Intertropical Convergence Zone. The climate of the tropical rainforest found in the Amazon region, the central Magdalena valley, and the northern Pacific coast is characterized by an annual rainfall of more than 2,500 mm and annual average temperatures above 23
C. Along the southern Pacific coast, on the Caribbean coast, and at some areas in the interior (the Quindío department and near the city of Villavicencio in the Meta department), there occurs a tropical monsoon climate marked by one or more dry months but still supporting rainforest vegetation (Espinal and Montenegro 1963; Pabón et al. 2001). The tropical savanna conditions with alternate wet and dry seasons mark the predominant climate of the Atlantic lowlands: the dry season occurs from November to April, and the wet season (broken by some dry periods) from May to October. This type of climate is also found in the Eastern Plains natural region and in part of the upper Magdalena valley. Such climatic conditions are characterized by an annual rainfall between 1,000 and 1,800 mm and annual average temperatures usually above 23
C. The dry season, accompanied by dust and wind, coincides with the true winter of the Northern Hemisphere (Espinal and Montenegro 1963; Pabón et al. 2001). A climate characterized by drier savanna conditions prevails on the Caribbean littoral from the Gulf of Morrosquillo (Departments of Córdoba and Sucre) to the La Guajira Peninsula (Department of La Guajira) in the northeast. The rains normally occur in two brief periods (in April and from October to November) but rarely exceed 760 mm annually and the average temperature is hot (more than 27
C). This type of climate also occurs in the rain shadows of the deep gorges of such rivers as the Cauca, Chicamocha, Patía, and Zulia as well as in parts of the upper Magdalena

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valley. The climate reaches near-desert conditions in the far northern department of La Guajira (Espinal and Montenegro 1963; Pabón et al. 2001). Due to Colombia’s geographical location, the temperature is directly related to the change in elevation and is characterized by its uniformity throughout the months of the year, with only some small oscillations. Average temperatures decrease uniformly about 0.6
C per 100 m of ascent. These fluctuations are wider in regions of higher altitudes where frosts are frequently present. In Colombia, the climate associated with mountainous regions is determined by elevation (the climate altitudinal zones) and popular terminology has recognized distinct climate altitudinal zones (pisos térmicos). Below 1,000 m in elevation is the “warm” (tierra caliente) altitudinal zone where temperatures are above 24
C (ca. 82.5% of Colombia’s total area lies in the warm altitudinal zone). The “temperate” climate altitudinal zone (tierra templada) located between 1,001 and 2,000 m is characterized for presenting an average temperature ranging between 17
C and 24
C. The “cold” climate zone (tierra fría) is present between 2,001 and 3,000 m with temperatures varying between 10–12
C and 17
C. Beyond the “cold” zone lies the “alpine” zone including few forested areas and the treeless grasslands of the páramos between 3,001 and 4,700 m with average temperatures below 10
C, fog, overcast skies, frequent winds, and light rain or drizzle. Above 4,000/4,700 m is the altitudinal zone of “permanent snow and ice caps” (tierra helada, nieves perpetuas) where temperatures are below freezing and the climate is glacial (Banco de la República 1992). The winds are another factor of great importance among those that influence the climate of Colombia. The Colombian territory is affected by the Northwest Trade Winds (Vientos Alisios del Noroeste) during the summer of the Southern Hemisphere and by the Southeast Trade Winds (Vientos Alisios del Sureste) during the summer of the Northern Hemisphere. There are also local wind circulations in several valleys and inter-Andean basins which explain the presence of certain dry enclaves (Espinal and Montenegro 1963). There is also great variety in the climate of Ecuador, largely determined by altitude. It is mild year-round in the mountain valleys, with a humid subtropical climate in coastal areas and rainforest in lowlands. The Pacific coastal area has a tropical climate with a severe rainy season. The climate in the Andean highlands is temperate and relatively dry, and the Amazon basin on the eastern side of the mountains shares the climate of other rainforest zones. The coastal lowlands in the western part of Ecuador are typically warm with temperatures in the region of 25
C. Coastal areas are affected by ocean currents and between January and April are hot and rainy.

Orography and Geology As in the rest of South America a combination of external and internal tectonic, volcanic, and glacial forces over the eons formed Colombia’s present-day geology. The continental territory of Colombia didn’t form following a single geological event but involved six giant blocks of diverse geological origin that came together at different times. Each of these geological blocks has a history of internal

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conformation that precedes its accretion to the main South American continent (Parra 2016). In general, the continental mass of Colombia is divided into three major regions determined by its relief: the coastal plains located to the north and west of the country, the center formed by the Andes Mountains and its foothills, and the east formed by plains and the Amazon jungle. The mountainous areas of Colombia occupy approximately 40% of its territory, and the upper zones are especially characterized by wet grasslands – Páramos (Fig. 1), with a species rich flora, of which the genus Espeletia (Figs. 2, 3, 4, and 5 are especially characteristic). The Colombian relief was configured during the Mesozoic era when the geological processes of folding and subduction led to the recession of oceanic waters allowing the emergence of the Western and Central mountain ranges. In the following era, the Cenozoic, the Eastern mountain range, and the other independent mountainous systems emerged (Bushnell and Hudson 2010). The mountainous system of Colombia is part of the Andes Mountain range which runs longitudinally to the Pacific coast of South America. The Andes enter the Colombian territory by the border with Ecuador forming the Knot of the Pastos (or massif of the Pastos), and then the mountainous mass separates towards the North to form the Central Mountain range (Cordillera Central) and the Western Mountain range (Cordillera Occidental) separated by the great valley of the river Cauca. The Central Mountain range later forms the Colombian Massif (Macizo Colombiano, south western departments of Cauca and Nariño), a mountainous labyrinth beyond

Fig. 1 Andean Páramos outside Bogotá, Colombia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

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Fig. 2 Andean Páramos outside Bogotá, Colombia, with Espeletia argentea. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Andean Páramos outside Bogotá, Espeletia argentea Colombia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 4 Espeletia argentea, Andean Páramos outside Bogotá, Colombia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Espeletia grandiflora, Andean Páramos outside Bogotá, Colombia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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which the Eastern Mountain range (Cordillera Oriental) emerges, and the great Magdalena River valley separates the Central and the Eastern mountain ranges. The highest peaks in the Western mountain range exceed 4,700 m, and in the Central and Eastern mountain ranges they can reach 5,000 m (Espinal and Montenegro 1963). East of the Andes Mountains lies a region of great topographic uniformity divided into two contrasting natural landscapes by a major vegetation boundary: the Eastern Plains or savannas of the Llanos (part of the Orinoco River basin) which form the largest savanna complex in tropical America, and (in the far south east) the jungle of the Amazon rainforest (Selva Amazónica). These two lowland areas comprise over half of Colombia’s territory. In the central part of this huge plain region, between the Guaviare and Caquetá rivers, the eroded rocks of the ancient Guiana Shield are exposed and produce a broken topography of low, isolated mountains, tablelands, and buttes with rapids in their rivers (Espinal and Montenegro 1963). The country’s two coastlines are characterized by different features: steep and articulated bays, inlets, capes, and promontories accentuate the shorelines of the Pacific coast towards the Panama border and also on the Caribbean coast where the sea beats against the base of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta Mountains. These features are interspersed with sandy beaches along with barrier islands and brackish lagoons. To the north extend the Caribbean coastal plains consisting of low-lying undulating plains of varying width, the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta Mountains (which include Colombia’s tallest peaks Pico Cristóbal Colón and Pico Simón Bolívar, both 5,775 m each), and the La Guajira Desert. The narrow and discontinuous Pacific coastal lowlands backed by the Serranía de Baudó Mountains are

Fig. 6 Northern Ecuadorian Andes. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 7 Espeletia pycnophylla, Páramo El Angel, Ecuador. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

covered in dense vegetation and are mostly swampy. The reed-filled marshes of the area are called ciénagas by the people of Colombia (Espinal and Montenegro 1963). The main rivers of Colombia are the Magdalena, Cauca, Guaviare, Atrato, Meta, Putumayo, and Caquetá. Colombia has four main drainage systems: the Pacific drain, the Caribbean drain, the Orinoco Basin, and the Amazon Basin. The peaks of the Ecuadorian Andes are very distinct, stretching from large plateaus and relatively low mountain ranges at the Colombian border (Fig. 6), with some of the most extensive Páramos like El Angel, covered in Espeletia pycnophylla (Fig. 7). The Central Ecuadorian Andes in contrast are characterized by volcanic peaks. Cotopaxi (5,987 m) the highest active volcano in the world (measured from the earth center, Fig. 8) has an almost perfect cone shape, as does Sangay (5,500 m), with frequent major volcanic events. With certain frequency, even Pichincha, located close to Ecuador’s capital Quito shows frequent activity (Fig. 9). Earthquakes are common throughout Ecuador as the land is being formed. The lahars around Cotopaxi look like frozen rivers. There are lava flows that flowed out of Antisana that blocked the rivers above Papallacta and caused a large lake to form. Volcanic layers laid down eons ago have been folded back on themselves exactly on the equator visible in cuttings on the road from Guallabamba to Tabacundo. The volcanic landscape has been modified by the action of glaciers. Forming the basins in the inter-Andean valley that are now separate provinces of modern Ecuador. A glacial moraine, where the continental divide crosses from one cordillera to the other, separates each province. The highest peaks are found in central and northern Ecuador, while towards the South the Andes recede in height

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Fig. 8 Cotopaxi volcano, Ecuador. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana) Fig. 9 Pichincha eruption 1998, Quito, Ecuador. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 10 Southern Ecuadorean Andes. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana) Fig. 11 Granitic outcrops, Lagunas Negras, Southern Ecuadorean Andes. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 12 Gold exploitation, Nambija, Southern Ecuador. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

towards the Huancabamba depression (Fig. 10), and shifting from volcanic, to metamorphic massifs, mostly comprised of sandstones and granite (Fig. 11), forming ecosystems particularly rich in unique (endemic) species, and comprising the most prolific gold explorations areas in Ecuador, unfortunately often with large environmental impact (Fig. 12). This, together with clearing of cloud-forest for agricultural activities, has led to a widely fragmented landscape (Fig. 13). The southern part of the Colombian-Ecuadorean Andes is characterized by some of the most species rich cloud-forests of the continent, especially in the vicinity of Podocarpus National Park (Fig. 14) (Bussmann 2001a, b, 2005; Lozano et al. 2007, 2009, 2010). The frequent landslides in the region are recognized as one of the main motors for this diversity (Fig. 15) (Lozano et al. 2006, 2008; Ohl and Bussmann 2004).

The Colombian Andes The Colombian Andean system belongs to the northern portion of the great Andes mountains which extends along the Pacific coast of South America. In Colombia, the Andes branch into three mountain ranges: the western mountain range (Cordillera Occidental), the central mountain range (Cordillera Central), and the eastern mountain range (Cordillera Oriental). These three mountain ranges with their interAndean valleys (Cauca River valley and Magdalena River valley) form the Andean

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Fig. 13 Fragmented landscape with cloud-forest remnants, Southern Eucador. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 14 Species rich cloud-forest with overgrown landslide scars, Podocarpus National Park, Southern Eucador. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 15 Natural landslides, Podocarpus National Park, Southern Eucador. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Region of Colombia. These mountain ranges originate in the Pastos Massif (Nudo de los Pastos) and in the Colombian Massif. The Colombian Massif is also known as the “fluvial star” of Colombia (Estrella Fluvial Colombiana) because it is there where many of the headwaters of the most important rivers of Colombia originate such as the Patía, Cauca, Magdalena, and Caquetá rivers (Lobo-Guerrero Uscátegui 1994). The nonvolcanic western mountain range (Cordillera Occidental) is the lowest of the three ranges of Colombia. It crosses the western zone of the country forming a barrier between the Cauca valley and the Pacific coast. It begins in the South of the country and dies in the department of Antioquia in the Paramillo knot (Nudo de Paramillo) where the western range forks into three distinct mountainous systems (serranías): those of Abibe, San Jerónimo, and Ayapel which gradually drop north into the Caribbean plains. Although it does not reach heights as great as the other two mountain ranges, it has high peaks such as the Azufral volcano (4,070 m), the Páramo de Frontino (with heights up to 3,950 m), the Farallones de Cali (about 4,050 m), Farallones de Citará (4,050 m), Cerro Paramillo (3,730 m), and the Cerro Tatamá (4,100 m) which is its highest elevation (Espinal and Montenegro 1963). The Cauca River valley separates the western mountain range from the massive central mountain range (Cordillera Central). This central range is the highest, shortest, and most volcanic of the Andean ranges of Colombia. It goes from south to north up to the southern end of the Caribbean plains occupying an intermediate

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position between the other two mountain ranges (western and eastern). In the department of Antioquia, it forms its last branches. This mountain range includes great elevations with several peaks perpetually covered with snow such as the volcanoes Nevado del Huila (5,364 m), Ruiz (5,321 m), Tolima (5,276 m), Santa Isabel (4,950 m), Quindío (4,760 m), Cerro Pan de Azúcar (4,670 m), Puracé (4,646 m), and El Cisne (4,636 m). In its northernmost extreme (in the department of Antioquia), the mountain range divides into two branches separated by the Aburrá valley: the eastern branch terminates in an isolated mountainous formation known as the San Lucas mountain range (Serranía de San Lucas). The fertile ash released from the eruptions of its numerous volcanoes gave origin to the high, cool plateaus of the Nariño department and the often steep northern slopes that support much of Colombia’s coffee region (Espinal and Montenegro 1963; Flórez 2003). After separating from the Cordillera Central, the valley of the Magdalena River (a major transportation artery) separates the central mountain range from the eastern mountain range (Cordillera Oriental). Along the way it expands to form the Cundinamarca-Boyacá high plateau, surrounding it with mountain ranges on both sides. Then, in the Knot of Santurbán (Nudo de Santurbán), the eastern range bifurcates into two mountainous systems. The one to the northeast enters Venezuela to form the Sierra de Mérida and the west branch continues in Colombia to form the mountainous systems of Los Motilones and the Perijá mountains (Serranía del Perijá) (a thin mountain range which descends northwards along the border with Venezuela and dies in the south of the La Guajira Peninsula the northernmost area of the Colombian mainland). The highest peaks in this mountain range are the Ritacuba Blanco in the Nevado del Cocuy (5,410 m), Páramo de Sumapaz (4,306 m), Páramo de San Turbán (4,290 m), Parque Nacional Natural Chingaza (4,100 m), Páramo de Pisba (3,906 m), and Páramo de Cruz Verde (3,500 m) (Espinal and Montenegro 1963; Flórez 2003). Besides the Andean mountains, the Colombian relief also includes some peripheral mountainous systems. The Serranía del Baudó runs along the northern portion of the Pacific coast. These mountains are linked to the Serranía del Darién mountainous system where it crosses the border with Panama. Towards the East, there is the system of Sierra de la Macarena which is one of the most important mountain ranges in Colombia for its unique fauna and flora. It is located very close to the Eastern Cordillera. There are also some hills located in the Amazon such as those of Araracuara and Chiribiquete. Most of these are formations belonging to the Guiana Shield (one of the oldest geological zones of America). In the Peninsula of La Guajira, there are some mountains such as Macuira, Jarara, and Cocinas. Towards the Caribbean Sea stands the isolated Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta Mountains which includes the “twin peaks” of Cristóbal Colón and Simón Bolívar (the highest mountains in the country at 5,775 m each). The Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta is also the highest coastal mountain system in the world since its summit is located only 42 km from the Caribbean Sea (Espinal and Montenegro 1963; Flórez 2003).

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Ethnobotanical Studies in Colombia and Ecuador During the time of the Spanish conquest, the first chroniclers and missionaries sent to catechize the conquered territories expressed in their writings a great number of their own personal observations as well as information given by the native American peoples about the diverse uses of the native plants. Examples of these early chroniclers who recorded in an incipient way the “ethnobotany” of indigenous America were: Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo Historia General y Natural de las Indias, 1526), Bernardo de Vargas Machuca (La Milicia Indígena y Descripción de las Indias, 1599), and the Jesuit priests Joseph Gumilla (El Orinoco Ilustrado y Defendido. Historia Natural, Civil y Geográfica de este Gran Río y de sus Caudalosas Vertientes, 1731) and Filippo Salvatore Gilii (Saggio di Storia Americana, o sia Storia Naturale, Civile, e Sacra De Regni, e delle Provincie Spagnuole di Terra-ferma nell’ America Meridionale, 1780). The true beginnings of the study of the applied botany in Colombia lie in the studies of José Celestino Mutis and his “Royal Botanical Expedition of the New Kingdom of Granada” which took place between 1760 and 1816 (Jara Afanador 1984). As a medical doctor, Mutis studied assiduously the healing qualities of plants and, as a vassal of the crown he tenaciously looked for export products that at the time were useful for the Spanish trade. In the studies of the Royal Expedition appeared the first serious criticisms about the pre-Columbian ethnobotany, and it was also the formative school of the first naturalists of the New Granada. Some of them would turn into heroes of the Independence of Colombia: Juan Eloy Valenzuela, Francisco Antonio Zea, Francisco José de Caldas, Jorge Tadeo Lozano, José Félix Restrepo, and José María Cabal. It is to the Royal Botanical Expedition that we owe the first studies about the cinnamon of páramo (“canela de páramo”: Drymis granatensis), the cinnamon of Andaquíes (“canela de Andaquíes”: Aniba canelilla), the tea of Bogotá (“té de Bogotá”: Symplocos theiformis), the “escobo” (Hypericum spp.), the “guaco” (Mikania glomerata), the “almendrón” (Caryocar amygdaliferum), the coffee (Coffea arabica), and a wide number of many other plants but mainly the “Quinas” (Cinchona spp.) of the New Kingdom including those growing in Ecuador (Mutis 1983, 2da. Ed.). Later throughout the nineteenth century, the “Ethnobotany” began to be practiced in Colombia with the studies of travelers who mainly reported on uses of plants by the indigenous communities of the Amazon (Pérez Arbeláez 1995). The first researchers who made ethnobotanical observations were the botanists Karl F.P. von Martius and Richard Spruce, and the anthropologist Theodor KochGrünberg. Their observations were focused in the northwest region of the Amazon. Karl von Martius (German, 1794–1868), who was in the Amazon in 1820, collected plants during 3 years in Brazil and then went to Colombia along the Caquetá River to reach Araracuara. His field notes were rich in ethnobotanical observations and other data on the indigenous groups he encountered along the way. Richard Spruce (English, 1817–1893) spent 15 years in South America where he collected a great variety of plants, mainly trees. Some of the plants studied by Spruce included the “cinchonas” (Cinchona spp.), source of the quina, and the rubber trees belonging to the genus Hevea spp. His field notes were also rich in ethnobotanical

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references, and among his most outstanding research is that related to “yagé” (Banisterosis caapi). On the other hand, the German anthropologist Theodor Koch-Grünberg (1872–1924) conducted his research in the northwest of the Colombian Amazon and the upper Orinoco. Koch-Grünberg lived with the indigenous inhabitants of the Upper Negro River between 1903 and 1905. In his publications he included several ethnobotanical references, collected botanical and geological specimens, and anthropological artifacts. He also took more than 1,000 photographs, made atmospheric and temperature records, and drew rivers unknown for the time. Koch-Grünberg’s writings presented strong criticisms about the situation of oppression and mistreatment towards the indigenous people as was the case of the communities that inhabited the present department of Vaupés (Schultes and Raffauf 1990). The cataloging and study of the useful plants of Colombia progressed sporadically from the Royal Expedition promoted by Mutis up to the foundation of the Colombian National Herbarium in Bogotá in 1936. In this period of time, several authors worked on describing the uses of the native plants of Colombia: Rafael Zerda Bayón, José Jerónimo Triana, Santiago Cortés, Wilson Popenoe, and the brothers Elías y Fabio Robledo Uribe in their thesis on the physical characteristics of Colombian woods (Pérez Arbeláez 1995). Throughout the twentieth century, general compendiums and catalogs on the Colombian medicinal plants and their uses were produced. Among these publications are the Plantas Útiles de Colombia (Useful Plants of Colombia) by Enrique Pérez Arbeláez (1995) and the Flora Medicinal de Colombia (Medicinal Flora of Colombia) by Hernando García Barriga (1974, 1975a, b) (both authors botanists), as well as the monumental work of Víctor Manuel Patiño (1963, 1964a, b, 1970, 1974), Plantas cultivadas y animales domésticos en la América Equinoccial (Cultivated plants and domestic animals of Equatorial America, 1967), which is an exhaustive compendium of the bibliographical references related to plants and their uses contained in historical documents and chroniclers’ accounts dating from the sixteenth century. With the works by Richard Evans Schultes (United States, 1915–2001) the study of Ethnobotany in Colombia and Ecuador begun to cement its current research directions (see Schultes and Hofmann 1982; Schultes et al. 1989; Schultes 1990). During the 12 years that he remained working in the northwest of the Colombian Amazon, Schultes collected about 30,000 botanical specimens of which ca. 300 represented new species to science (Davis 2004). In 1941, the National Research Council of Washington D.C. entrusted Schultes with a job to travel northwest of the Colombian Amazon with the aim to study the poisonous substances used by the indigenous groups in their arrows. From this moment, beginning with his first incursions into the mountainous areas and eastern foothills of southeastern Colombia in the territories of the Kamsá and Ingas indigenous groups, Schultes became interested in and documented the way in which the indigenous healers cultivated the plants they used in their own orchards. He was also interested in the particular uses given to medicinal and food plants (Davis 2004). As he developed his research, Schultes soon realized that it was impossible to know new plants or their properties without taking

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into account the traditional knowledge of the native peoples as well as their way of living in the forest. For him, the way the aborigines classified the plants and how they distinguished the different varieties of the same plant were very remarkable (Davis 2004). His approaches and methods of interdisciplinary research fusing botany and ethnography were pioneers in the field of Ethnobotany and even constitute today the very contemporary foundations of this discipline (Archila 2009). Following the research line drawn up by the studies of Schultes, several researchers contributed numerous studies in Colombian ethnobotany during the second half of the twentieth century. In 1959, the ethnobotanist Néstor Uscátegui (1959) published his work on the use and distribution of narcotic and stimulant plants used by different indigenous groups in Colombia. In 1953, Silvio Yepes published the work “Introduction to Colombian Ethnobotany” where he collected data obtained in the Sibundoy valley (Yepes Agredo 1953). In 1964, Irving Goldman published his ethnography of the Cubeo natives that includes numerous ethnobotanical references (Goldman 1979). Other works focused on the ethnography and ethnology of diverse regions of Colombia which also included ethnobotanical references are: those of Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff (1968, 1977, 1978), Martin Von Hildebrand (1983), Stephen Hugh-Jones (1988), and Elizabeth Reichel (1989). Additional important contributions come from the studies of Colombian and foreign botanists such as Enrique Acero (1982) and Timothy Plowman (1981), among others. During the 1980s of the twentieth century, the Corporación Araracuara sponsored ethnobotanical research in Caquetá and Amazonas. Among the works generated under this initiative are those of Enrique Acero (1982) and Constanza La Rotta (1983; Constanza La Rotta et al. 1988), among others. In the same decade, the work of Linda Glenboski (1983) on the ethnobotany of the Tikuna indigenous group was developed, and in the following decade (1990s), great ethnographies such as those by Maria Clara van der Hammen (1992) on the Yukuna as well as compilation works on Ethnobotany such as that of Mauricio Sánchez (1997) came to light. Some of these studies which have become useful tools for specialists are manuals for identifying plant parts and contain detailed information on their use and ecology (Herrera and Urrego 1996). More recently ethnobotanical research has been carried out in other indigenous populations of the Andean region (Sanabria Diago et al. 1996; Rodríguez-Echeverry 2010; Sanabria Diago and Argueta Villamar 2015), and with traditional rural groups (Toscano González 2006; Ariza Cortés et al. 2009; Cardona and Barrientos 2011; Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011; Galvis Rueda and Torres Torres 2017), as well as with rural populations recently settled in big urban centers (Giraldo Quintero et al. 2015). The emphasis of these studies has been focused on the use of medicinal, nutritional, and ceremonial plants. In Colombia in recent years, the Alexander von Humboldt Institute has been the governmental entity in charge of researching and developing policies related to biodiversity and as such has generated important informative documents about the uses of native medicinal plants in Colombia (Díaz 2003; Bernal et al. 2011). Currently research focused on Ethnobotany plays an important role in the conception of policies related to the sustainable use of natural resources, biodiversity,

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bio-discovery, and bio-trade. The current trend is for local communities to participate actively in decisions about biodiversity and its conservation through programs that make it possible to monitor them. On the other hand, it is expected that ethnobiological research will be directly and effectively reverted to local communities and that it will also be used to help produce appropriate and fair legislation dealing with the intellectual property and rights related to traditional and intangible knowledge of indigenous, local groups, and minorities (e.g., Bejár et al. 2001; Bussmann 2006; Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2014).

References Acero E. Propiedades, usos y nominación de especies vegetales de la Amazonia colombiana. Bogotá: Corporación Araracuara; 1982. 82 pp. Archila S. El legado de Richard Evans Schultes y la etnobotánica en Colombia. In: Wills M, Muñoz S, editors. La Amazonia perdida. El viaje fotográfico del legendario botánico Richard Evans Schultes. Catálogo impreso de la exposición temporal con el mismo nombre, 11 marzo-5 mayo de 2009. Bogotá: Biblioteca Luis Ángel Arango y Banco de la República; 2009. Ariza Cortés W, Huertas García C, Hernández Ortiz A, Geltvez Bernal J, González Rodríguez J, López Gutiérrez L. Caracterización y usos tradicionales de productos forestales no maderables (PFNM) en el corredor de conservación Guantiva – La Rusia – Iguaque. Rev Colomb For. 2009;13(1):117–40. Banco de la República. Departamento de Investigaciones Económicas. Colombia. Reseña de su estructura económica. Bogotá: Imprenta del Banco de la República; 1992. 91 pp. Bejár E, Bussmann RW, Roa C, Sharon D. Medicinal herbs of southern Ecuador – Hierbas Medicinales del Sur Ecuatoriano. San Diego: Latino Herbal Press; 2001. 340 p. Bernal R. Geografía de Colombia. 19–32 pp. In: Bernal R, Robbert Gradstein S, Celis M, editors. Catálogo de Plantas y Líquenes de Colombia. Volumen I. Bogotá: Universidad Nacional de Colombia (Sede Bogotá). Facultad de Ciencias. Instituto de Ciencias Naturales; 2016. 1498 pp. Bernal HY, García Martínez H, Quevedo Sánchez GF, editors. Pautas para el conocimiento, conservación y uso sostenible de las plantas medicinales nativas en Colombia. Estrategia Nacional para la Conservación de Plantas. Bogotá: Ministerio de Ambiente, Vivienda y Desarrollo Territorial. Instituto de Investigación de Recursos Biológicos Alexander von Humboldt; 2011. 232 pp. Bushnell D, Hudson RA. Geology. 70–71 pp. In: Hudson RA, editor. Colombia: a country study. Washington, DC: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress; 2010. 450 pp. Bussmann RW. Epiphyte diversity in a tropical Andean forest – Reserva Biológica San Francisco, Zamora-Chinchipe, Ecuador. Ecotropica. 2001a;7(1–2):43–60. Bussmann RW. The montane forests of Reserva Biológica San Francisco (Zamora-Chinchipe, Ecuador) – vegetation zonation and natural regeneration. Erde. 2001b;132:11–24. Bussmann RW. Bosques Andinos del Sur de Ecuador – Clasificación, Regeneración y uso. Andean forests of southern Ecuador, classification, regeneration and use. Rev Peru Biol. 2005;12 (2):203–16. Bussmann RW. Andean floristic diversity and its importance for cultural diversity – examples from northern Peru and southern Ecuador. La diversidad floristica andina y su importancia por la diversidad cultural – ejemplos del Norte de Peru y Sur de Ecuador. Lyonia. 2006;10(2):19–36. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in Loja province, southern Ecuador. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:44. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of longevity – the medicinal flora of Vilcabamba. Plantas de longevidad – La flora medicinal de Vilcabamba. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007. ISBN 978-09789962-2-2.

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Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Two decades of ethnobotanical research in southern Ecuador and northern Peru. Ethnobiol Conserv. 2014;3:3. https://doi.org/10.15451/ec2014-6-3.2-1-50. Cardona JO, Barrientos JC. Producción, uso y comercialización de especies aromáticas en la región de Sumapaz, Cundinamarca. Rev Colomb Cienc Hortíc. 2011;5(1):114–29. Davis W. The lost Amazon. The photographic journey of Richard Evans Schultes. San Francisco: Chronicle Books; 2004. 176 pp. Díaz JA, editor. Informe Técnico. Caracterización del mercado colombiano de plantas medicinales y aromáticas. Bogotá: Instituto de Investigación de Recursos Biológicos Alexander von Humboldt. Ministerio de Ambiente, Vivienda y Desarrollo Territorial; 2003. 111 pp. Espinal-T LS, Montenegro-M E. Formaciones vegetales de Colombia. Memoria explicativa sobre el mapa ecológico. Bogotá: República de Colombia. Departamento Agrológico. Instituto Geográfico “Agustín Codazzi”; 1963. 201 pp. Flórez A. Colombia: evolución de sus relieves y modelados. Bogotá: Universidad Nacional de Colombia; 2003. 240 pp. Fonnegra-Gómez R, Villa-Londoño J. Plantas medicinales usadas en algunas veredas de municipios del altiplano del oriente antioqueño, Colombia. Actual Biol. 2011;33(95):219–50. Galvis Rueda M, Torres Torres M. Etnobotánica y usos de las plantas de la comunidad rural de Sogamoso, Boyacá, Colombia. Rev Invest Agrar Ambient. 2017;8(2):187–206. García Barriga H. Flora Medicinal de Colombia. Botánica Médica. Tomo Primero. Bogotá: Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional; 1974. 561 pp. García Barriga H. Flora Medicinal de Colombia. Botánica Médica. Tomo Segundo. Bogotá: Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional; 1975a. 538 pp. García Barriga H. Flora Medicinal de Colombia. Botánica Médica. Tomo Tercero. Bogotá: Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional; 1975b. 497 pp. Giraldo Quintero SE, Bernal Lizarazú MC, Morales Robayo A, Pardo Lobo AZ, Gamba Molano L. Descripción del uso tradicional de plantas medicinales en mercados populares de Bogotá, D.C. NOVA. 2015;13(23):73–80. Glenboski L. The ethnobotany of the Tikuna Indians, Amazon, Colombia. Biblioteca José Jerónimo Triana No. 4. Bogotá: Universidad Nacional de Colombia; 1983. 92 pp. Goldman I. The Cubeo. Indians of the Northwest Amazon. 2nd ed. Chicago: University of Illinois Press; 1979. 315 pp. Herrera LF, Urrego LS. Pollen atlas of useful and cultivated plants in the Colombian Amazon region. Studies on the Colombian Amazon, XI. Bogotá: Tropenbos; 1996. 462 pp. Hugh-Jones S. The palm and the Pleiades. Initiation and cosmology in Northwestern Amazonia. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press; 1988. 356 pp. IGAC (Instituto Geográfico Agustín Codazzi). Geografía de Colombia. Bogotá: IGAC; 2011. 368 pp. Jara Afanador VE. La expedición botánica de Mutis y la cultura Hispánica. Bogotá: Editorial Kelly; 1984. 243 pp. La Rotta C. Observaciones etnobotánicas sobre algunas especies utilizadas por la comunidad indígena Andoque (Amazonas, Colombia). Bogotá: Corporación Araracuara; 1983. 117 pp. La Rotta C, Miraña P, Miraña M, Miraña B, Miraña M, Miraña N. Estudio etnobotánico sobre las especies utilizadas por la comunidad indígena Miraña (Amazonas, Colombia). Bogotá: Corporación Araracuara; 1988. 386 pp. Lobo-Guerrero Uscátegui A. La Infraestructura de Colombia. V Congreso Colombiano de Geotécnia-Geotécnia y Medio Ambiente. Memorias Vol. II. Junio 29-Julio 1 de 1994. Medellín: Sociedad Colombiana de Geotécnia; 1994. 1–17 p. Lozano P, Bussmann RW, Kueppers M. Landslides as ecosystem disturbance – their implications and importance in southern Ecuador. – Importancia e implicación de los derrumbos como perturbadores de ecosistemas al Sur de Ecuador. Lyonia. 2006;9(1):75–81. Lozano P, Bussmann RW, Kueppers M. Diversidad Florística del Bosque Montano y su Influencia en la Flora Pionera en Deslizamientos Naturales en el Occidente del Parque Nacional Podocarpus al Sur del Ecuador. Rev Cient UDO Agrícola. 2007;7(1):142–59.

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Lozano P, Bussmann RW, Kueppers M, Lozano D. Deslizamientos naturales y comunidades pionera de ecosistemas montanos al occidente del Parque Nacional Podocarpus (Ecuador). Caldasia. 2008;30(1):1–19. Lozano P, Bussmann RW, Cleef A. Phytogeography of the vascular páramo flora of Podocarpus National Park, south Ecuador. Arnaldoa. 2009;16(2):69–85. Lozano P, Kueppers M, Bussmann RW. Plant diversity of parámo and Andean Elfin forest in Podocarpus National Park Loja, Ecuador. Arnaldoa. 2010;17(2):193–202. Mutis JC. Diario de observaciones de José Celestino Mutis (1760–1790). 2 Volúmenes. 2a. Ed. Bogotá: Instituto Colombiano de Cultura Hispánica; 1983. Ohl C, Bussmann RW. Recolonisation of natural landslides in tropical mountain forests of southern Ecuador. Feddes Repert. 2004;115(3–4):248–64. Pabón JD, Zea J, León G, Hurtado G, González OC, Montealegre JE. La atmósfera, el tiempo y el clima. 34–91 p. In: Leyva P, editor. El Medio Ambiente en Colombia. Instituto de Hidrología, Meteorología y Estudios Ambientales (IDEAM). Ministerio del Medio Ambiente. Bogotá: República de Colombia; 2001. 543 pp. Parra-S LN. Breve historia geológica y paleobotánica de Colombia. 33–53 p. In: Bernal R, Robbert Gradstein S, Celis M, editors. Catálogo de Plantas y Líquenes de Colombia. Volumen I. Bogotá: Universidad Nacional de Colombia (Sede Bogotá). Facultad de Ciencias. Instituto de Ciencias Naturales; 2016. 1498 pp. Patiño VM. Plantas cultivadas y animales domésticos en América Equinoccial I: Frutales. Cali: Imprenta Departamental; 1963. 378 pp. Patiño VM. Plantas cultivadas y animales domésticos en América Equinoccial II: Plantas alimenticias. Cali: Imprenta Departamental; 1964a. 220 pp. Patiño VM. Plantas cultivadas y animales domésticos en América Equinoccial IV: Plantas introducidas. Cali: Imprenta Departamental; 1964b. 573 pp. Patiño VM. Plantas cultivadas y animales domésticos en América Equinoccial III: Fibras, Medicinas, Misceláneas. Cali: Imprenta Departamental; 1967. 131 pp. Patiño VM. Plantas cultivadas y animales domésticos en América Equinoccial V: Animales domésticos introducidos. Cali: Imprenta Departamental; 1970. 50 pp. Patiño VM. Plantas cultivadas y animales domésticos en América Equinoccial VI: (Suplemento a los Tomos III y IV). Plantas ornamentales. Cali: Imprenta Departamental; 1974. 79 pp. Pérez Arbeláez E. Plantas útiles de Colombia. 5a. Ed. Bogotá: Fondo FEN Colombia, DAMA, Jardín Botánico de Bogotá José Celestino Mutis; 1995. 831 pp. Plowman T. Amazonian coca. J Ethnopharmacol. 1981;3(2–3):195–225. Reichel E. La danta y el delfín: manejo ambiental e intercambio entre dueños de maloca y chamanes. El caso Yukunamatapí (Amazonas). Rev Colomb Antropol. 1989;1–2:68–133. Reichel-Dolmatoff G. Desana: simbolismo de los indios Tukano del Vaupés. Bogotá: Departamento de Antropología, Universidad de los Andes; 1968. 350 pp. Reichel-Dolmatoff G. Cosmología como análisis ecológico: una perspectiva desde la selva pluvial. 355–374 p. In: Reichel-Dolmatoff G, Dussán A, editors. Estudios Antropológicos. Biblioteca Básica Popular. Bogotá: Colcultura; 1977. 584 pp. Reichel-Dolmatoff G. Beyond the Milky Way. Hallucinatory imagery of the Tukano Indians. Los Angeles: Latin America Center Publications, UCLA-University of California; 1978. 159 pp. Rodríguez-Echeverry JJ. Uso y manejo tradicional de plantas medicinales y mágicas en el Valle de Sibundoy, Alto Putumayo, y su relación con procesos locales de construcción ambiental. Rev Acad Colomb Cienc. 2010;XXXIV(132):309–26. Sanabria Diago OL, Argueta Villamar A. Cosmovisiones y naturalezas en tres culturas indígenas de Colombia. Etnobiología. 2015;13(2):5–20. Sanabria Diago OL, Balcázar F, Bedoya M, Evangelista M, Martínez Parrales MA. Utilización del germoplasma de plantas comestibles entre los Paeces y los Nahuas. Rev Geogr Agrícola. 1996;22(13):73–93. Sánchez M. Catálogo preliminar comentado de la flora del Medio Caquetá. Bogotá: Tropenbos; 1997. 557 pp.

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Schultes RE. Etnobotánica de la Amazonia colombiana. 137–165 p. In: Schultes RE, Gentry A, Castaño Uribe C, Alberico M, editors. Selva Húmeda de Colombia. Bogotá: Banco de Occidente/Villegas Editores; 1990. 200 pp. Schultes RE, Hofmann A. Las plantas de los dioses. Orígenes del uso de los alucinógenos. México: Fondo de Cultura Económica; 1982. 208 pp. Schultes RE, Raffauf RF. The healing forest: medicinal and toxic plants of Northwest Amazonia. Portland: Dioscorides Press; 1990. 484 pp. Schultes RE, Grupo Etnobotánico Latinoamericano (GELA), Fundación Peruana para la Conservación de la Naturaleza. El folklore botánico y la conservación de los recursos naturales. Serie Documentos de Conservación No. 4. Lima: Fundación Peruana para la Conservación de la Naturaleza; 1989. 43 pp. Toscano González JY. Uso tradicional de plantas medicinales en la vereda San Isidro, municipio de San José de Pare-Boyacá: un estudio preliminar usando técnicas cuantitativas. Acta Biol Colomb. 2006;11(2):137–46. Uscátegui N. The present distribution of narcotics and stimulants amongst the Indian tribes of Colombia. Bot Mus Leafl Harv Univ. 1959;18:273–304. Van der Hammen MC. El manejo del mundo. Naturaleza y sociedad entre los Yukuna de la Amazonia colombiana. Bogotá: Tropenbos; 1992. 376 pp. Von Hildebrand M. Cosmovisión y el concepto de enfermedad entre los Ufaina. 48–63 p. In: Jimeno Santoyo M, Triana Antorveza A, editors. Medicina, Shamanismo y Botánica. Bogotá: Prescencia; 1983. 156 pp. Yepes Agredo S. Introducción a la Etnobotánica colombiana. Bogotá: Publicación Sociedad Colombiana de Etnología; 1953. 48 pp.

Part II Plant Profiles

Acaena magellanica (Lam.) Vahl ROSACEAE Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Acaena magellanica (Lam.) Vahl: Acaena acroglochin Bitter, Acaena adscendens (Lam.) Vahl ssp. georgiae-australis Bitter, Acaena adscendens (Lam.) Vahl var. macrochaeta, Acaena canescens Phil., Acaena glandulifera Bitter, Acaena glaucella Bitter, Acaena krausei Phil., Acaena laevigata Aiton, Acaena macropoda Bitter, Ancistrum magellanicum Lam., Acaena adscendens (Lam.) Vahl, Acaena acutifida Bitter, Acaena adscendens (Lam.) Vahl ssp. glabriscapa Bitter, Acaena affinis Hook. f., Acaena brachyglochin Bitter, Acaena colchaguensis Bitter, Acaena nudicaulis Albov, Acaena alboffii Macloskie, Acaena floribunda Bitter, Acaena magellanica (Lam.) Vahl var. pubescens, Acaena magellanica (Lam.) Vahl ssp. grandiscapa

J. Echeverría Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Chemistry and Biology, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, USACH, Santiago de Chile, Chile e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_5

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Bitter, Acaena magellanica (Lam.) Vahl ssp. laevigata (Aiton) Bitter, Acaena magellanica (Lam.) Vahl ssp. subtuspilosa Bitter, Acaena adscendens (Lam.) Vahl var. semperpilosa, Acaena adscendens (Lam.) Vahl var. utrinqueglabrescens, Acaena adscendens (Lam.) Vahl var. luxurians, Acaena macrostemon Hook. f. ssp. latisepala Bitter, Acaena tomentella Bitter, Acaena hirsuta Phil., Acaena chamaecaena Bitter, Acaena transitoria Bitter, Acaena sericascens Bitter, Acaena sericascens Bitter var. tenuibracteolata, Acaena subtusvillosula Bitter, Acaena compacta Hauman, Acaena oligomera Skottsb., Acaena oligodonta Bitter, Acaena cadilla Hook. f., Acaena closiana Gay, Acaena coxi Phil., Acaena petiolulata Phil., Acaena philippii Gand., Acaena macrostemon Hook. f., Acaena depauperata Bitter, Acaena exaltata Bitter, Acaena grandistipula Bitter, Acaena grossifolia Bitter, Acaena hirta Citerne, Acaena humilis Bitter, Acaena ischnostemom Bitter, Acaena krausei Phil. var. hirsuta, Acaena krausei Phil. var. massonandra, Acaena krausei Phil. var. meionandra, Acaena laevigata Aiton var. venulosa, Acaena longiaristata H. Ross, Acaena longistipula Bitter, Acaena macrophyes Bitter, Acaena macrostemon Hook. f. ssp. closiana (Gay) Bitter, Acaena macrostemon Hook. f. var. basipilosa, Acaena macrostemon Hook. f. ssp. longiaristata (H. Ross) Bitter, Acaena magellanica (Lam.) Vahl ssp. pygmaea Bitter, Acaena magellanica (Lam.) Vahl var. glabrescens, Acaena magellanica (Lam.) Vahl ssp. venulosa (Griseb.) Bitter, Acaena neglecta Bitter, Acaena obtusiloba Bitter, Acaena oligoglochin Bitter, Acaena plioglochin Bitter, Acaena rubescens Bitter, Acaena subflaccida Bitter, Acaena venulosa Griseb., Acaena longistigma Bitter, Acaena sericascens Bitter var. sexjuga

Local Names Chile: Amor seco, Cadilla, Cadillo, Trun, Sítor, Sítur

Botany and Ecology Plant up to 14 cm high, glabrous stem and short internodes Oblong contour leaves aligned linearly lanceolate, 2.2–12.5 cm long, with 5–10 pairs of obovate leaflets, base 6–33 mm long, margin pinnatipartid, 4–7 pairs of segments, glabrous to pubescent, with more abundant trichomes on the underside. Inflorescence capituliform, purple to yellow, up to 15 mm in diameter. Sepals 4–5, ovate-elliptic 0.8–2.6 mm long, pubescens, stigma obovoid to lanceloid, yellow to purple, 1.0–2.5 mm long. Cupela conical, tetragon, 4–6 mm long, with 4 apical spines, unequal up to 10 mm, with strong glochids, with soft, persistent, white hairs and achenes, 100–3500 m above sea level (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995; Peñaloza et al. 2013) (Figs. 1 and 2).

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Fig. 1 Acaena magellanica (Rosaceae), Socaire, Chile. (Photo Lucas Burchard Señoret)

Fig. 2 Acaena magellanica (Rosaceae), Socaire, Chile. (Photo Lucas Burchard Señoret)

Local Medicinal Uses The infusion of the plant is used against the conditions of the bladder and the decomposition of blood (Peñaloza et al. 2013; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003). Acaena argentea is used in Peru against varicose veins (Sánchez 2014).

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses Used as fodder (Peñaloza et al. 2013; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).

References Macbride JF, Weberbauer A. Flora of Peru. Chicago: Field Museum; 1936–1995. Peñaloza A, Pardo V, Marticorena A, Cavieres L, Frugone F. Flora y vegetación del parque nacional Llullaillaco, Región de Antofagasta, Chile: Peñazola-García. 2013. Rodriguez R, Marticorena C, Alarcón D, Baeza C, Cavieres L, Finot VL, Fuentes N, Kiessling A, Mihoc M, Pauchard A, Ruiz E, Sanchez P, Marticorena A. Catálogo de las plantas vasculares de Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430. Sánchez I. Plantas medicinales en los páramos de Cajamarca. In: Cuesta F, Sevink J, Llambí LD, De Bièvre B, Posner J, editors. Avances en investigación para la conservación de los páramos andinos. Lima: CONDESAN; 2014. Villagrán C, Castro V. Ciencia indígena de los Andes del norte de Chile. Santiago de Chile: Editorial Universitaria; 2003.

Achillea millefolium L. ASTERACEAE Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

Synonyms Achillea millefolium L.: Achillea alpicola (Rydb.) Rydb.; Achillea arenaria A. Heller; Achillea borealis subsp. arenicola (A. Heller) D.D. Keck; Achillea borealis subsp. californica (Pollard) D.D. Keck; Achillea californica Pollard; Achillea gigantea Pollard; Achillea lanulosa Nutt.; Achillea lanulosa subsp. alpicola (Rydb.) D.D. Keck; Achillea lanulosa var. alpicola Rydb.; Achillea laxiflora Pollard & Cockerell; Achillea megacephala Raup; Achillea millefolium subsp. borealis (Bong.) Breitung; Achillea millefolium subsp. occidentalis (DC.) Hyl.; Achillea millefolium var. alpicola (Rydb.) Garrett; Achillea millefolium var. arenicola (A. Heller) Nobs; Achillea millefolium var. asplenifolia (Vent.) Farw.; Achillea

N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] C. Romero William L. Brown Center, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO, USA e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_6

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millefolium var. borealis (Bong.) Farw.; Achillea millefolium var. californica (Pollard) Jeps.; Achillea millefolium var. gigantea (Pollard) Nobs; Achillea millefolium var. lanulosa (Nutt.) Piper; Achillea millefolium var. litoralis Ehrend. ex Nobs.; Achillea millefolium var. maritima Jeps.; Achillea millefolium var. megacephala B. Boivin; Achillea millefolium var. nigrescens E. Mey.; Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis DC.; Achillea millefolium var. pacifica (Rydb.) G.N. Jones; Achillea millefolium var. puberula (Rydb.) Nobs; Achillea nigrescens (E. Mey.) Rydb.; Achillea occidentalis (DC.) Raf. ex Rydb.; Achillea pecten-veneris Pollard; Achillea puberula Rydb.; Achillea rosea Desf.; Achillea subalpina Greene; Achillea sudetica Opitz; Chamaemelum millefoilum (L.) E.H.L. Krause

Local Names Colombia: Altamisa, Milenrama (Bussmann et al. 2018), Milefolio, Mil de rama, Yerba de carpintero, Flor de pluma, Colchón de pobre, Manzanilla de los montes, Milenrama, Yarrow, Altamisa; Ecuador, Peru: Milenrama, Chonchon (Spanish); English: Yarrow

Botany and Ecology Perennial. Rhizome slender, creeping, branched; whole plant more or less covered with fine white hairs; stems few or solitary, usually weakly pubescent (finely floccose), (5)20–60(120) cm high, erect or ascending from base, erect, less often flexuous, simple or branched above, cylindrical, finely sulcate, with short leafy branches in axils of upper and middle cauline leaves. Leaves lanceolate, oblonglanceolate, or almost linear, punctate-alveolate, twice or thrice pinnately cut, with numerous more or less remote segments (1.5–10 mm apart); lower cauline leaves and leaves of nonflowering branches 10–40 cm long, 0.8–5 cm wide, rachis 1–2 mm wide, leaves usually in upper part with solitary teeth between basal segments; lobes and teeth lanceolate, less often linear, 0.5–1.5 mm long, 0.3–0.4(0.5) mm wide, terminating in short cartilagenous cusp. Capitula in numerous, unequal, compound corymbs, 2–15 cm in diameter. Involucre oblong to almost ovoid, 3–4(6) mm long, (2)3–4(5) mm in diameter; involucral bracts green, carinate, with prominent midrib, membranous along margin, often brownish; bracts ovate to oblong-elliptical, membranous, floccose above, with scattered hairs on dorsal surface. Ligules of outer florets white, pink, or red. (1)2–4 mm long, 1.5–3.0(4.5) mm wide, more or less rotund, 2–3-toothed at apex, limb a half as long as involucre; tubular florets up to 20, glandular-hairy on outside. Flowering July–October. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, on dry forest edges, clearings, in open forests, on dry meadows, slopes, railroad embankments, along roads, on the outskirts of fields (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Achillea millefolium L. Fig. 1 Achillea millefolium (Asteraceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Achillea millefolium (Asteraceae), Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 3 Achillea millefolium (Asteraceae), Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses The species has decongestant, astringent, healing, diaphoretic, antipyretic, and antiinflammatory properties. The whole plant (including flowers) is prepared in infusion and is taken to promote menstruation, as a stimulant, and against hemorrhoids. It is also used to relieve the symptoms of indigestion, flatulence, and colitis (Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011; Fonnegra Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1975; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Colombia: The whole plant is used to treat acne, boils, bot fly infestations, bruises, gallbladder, gastritis, strengthens digestive system, healing wounds, hemorrhage, hemorrhoids, lack of appetite, menstrual colic, nosebleed, skin ulcers, sores, and as analgesic and tonic; the whole plant, leaves, and flowers are used to treat indigestion, inflammation, spasms, and as emmenagogue; leaves and flowers are used for blood cleansing. Ecuador: The infusion of flowers and roots is used to treat diarrhea and empacho (Kichwa de la Sierra-Cotopaxi) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: Fresh flowers and leaves are used to treat gastritis, diabetes, blood, and cholesterol. The plant is also widely used for psychosomatic and nervous system disorders, gastrointestinal problems, liver and gallbladder ailments, and spiritual cleansing, as well as inflammations, and shows antibacterial and antifungal properties. It is also used as remedy for diabetes and cancer (Bussmann et al. 2007, 2010, 2011a; Bussmann and Glenn 2010a, b, 2011a, b; Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2014, 2015a, b). The preparations exhibit low toxicity (Bussmann et al. 2011b). Species of Artemisia are also widely used in the Caucasus (Bussmann et al. 2016).

References Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Plants used for the treatment of gastro-intestinal ailments in northern Peruvian ethnomedicine. Arnaldoa. 2010a;17(2):255–70. Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Peruvian medicinal plants for the treatment of liver and gallbladder ailments. Arnaldoa. 2010b;17(2):243–54.

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Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Medicinal plants used in northern Peru for the treatment of bacterial and fungal infections and inflammation symptoms. J Med Plant Res. 2011a;5(8):1297–304. Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Traditional knowledge for modern ailments – plants used for the treatment of diabetes and cancer in northern Peru. J Med Plant Res. 2011b;5(31):6916–30. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing culture. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:47. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of the four winds – the magic and medicinal flora of Peru. Plantas de los cuatro vientos – La flora mágica y medicinal del Perú. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007. ISBN 978-0-9789962-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Two decades of ethnobotanical research in southern Ecuador and northern Peru. Ethnobiol Conserv. 2014;3:3. https://doi.org/10.15451/ec2014-6-3.2-1-50. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Medicinal plants of the Andes and the Amazon – the magic and medicinal flora of northern Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015a. ISBN 978-0-9960231-2-2. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plantas medicinales de los Andes y la Amazonía – La flora mágica y medicinal del Norte de Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015b. ISBN 978-09960231-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Vandebroek I, Jones A, Revene Z. Health for sale: the medicinal plant markets in Trujillo and Chiclayo, northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3:37. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Glenn A. Healing the body, healing the soul. Traditional remedies for “magical” ailments, nervous system and psychosomatic disorders in northern Peru. Afr J Pharm Pharmacol. 2010;4(9):580–629. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Sharon D, Chait G, Díaz D, Pourmand K, Jonat B, Somogy S, Guardado G, Aguirre C, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Antibacterial activity of northern Peruvian medicinal plants. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2011a;9:67–96. Bussmann RW, Malca G, Glenn A, Sharon D, Nilsen B, Parris B, Dubose D, Ruiz D, Saleda J, Martinez M, Carillo L, Walker K, Kuhlman A, Townesmith A. Toxicity of medicinal plants used in northern Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011b;137:121–40. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Romero C, Hart RE. Astonishing diversity – the medicinal plant markets of Bogotá, Colombia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14(1):43. https://doi.org/ 10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8. de la Torre L, Navarrete H, Muriel MP, Macía MJ, Balslev H, (eds) Enciclopedia de las Plantas Útiles del Ecuador. Quito/Aarhus: Herbario QCA de la Escuela de Ciencias Biológicas de la Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador/Herbario AAU del Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas de la Universidad de Aarhus; 2008. Fonnegra Gómez R, Alzate Guarín F, Orozco Castañeda C, Vásquez Londoño C, Suárez Quirós J, García López V, Roldán Palacio F, Correa Silva A, Vasco Correa C. Medicina Tradicional en los Corregimientos de Medellín. Historias de vidas y plantas. Medellín: Universidad de Antioquia – Alcaldía de Medellín; 2012. p. 305. Fonnegra-Gómez R, Villa-Londoño J. Plantas medicinales usadas en algunas veredas de municipios del altiplano del oriente antioqueño, Colombia. Actual Biol. 2011;33(95):219–50. García Barriga H. Flora Medicinal de Colombia. Botánica Médica. Tomo Tercero. Bogotá: Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional; 1975. 497 pp. Macbride JF, Weberbauer A. Flora of Peru. Chicago: Field Museum; 1936–1995. Ministerio de Protección Social. Vademécum Colombiano de Plantas Medicinales. Bogotá: Imprenta Nacional de Colombia; 2008. 311 pp. Pérez Arbeláez E. Plantas útiles de Colombia. 5a. Ed. Bogotá: Fondo FEN Colombia, DAMA, Jardín Botánico de Bogotá José Celestino Mutis; 1996. 831 pp.

Achyrocline alata (Kunth) DC. Achyrocline bogotensis (Kunth) DC. Achyrocline satureioides (Lam.) DC. ASTERACEAE Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

Synonyms Achyrocline alata (Kunth) DC.: Achyrocline argentea O. Hoffm.; Achyrocline flavescens Griseb.; Achyrocline madioides Meyen & Walp.; Achyrocline rufescens DC.; Gnaphalium alatum Kunth; Gnaphalium incanum Kunth; Gnaphalium pellitum Kunth; Gnaphalium rufescens Kunth Achyrocline bogotensis (Kunth) DC.: Gnaphalium bogotense Kunth Achyrocline satureioides (Lam.) DC.: Achyrocline candicans (Kunth) DC.; Achyrocline satureioides var. vargasiana (DC.) Baker; Achyrocline vargasiana DC.; Gnaphalium candicans Kunth; Gnaphalium satureioides Lam.; Gnaphalium satureioides var. candicans (Kunth) Kuntze

N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] C. Romero William L. Brown Center, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO, USA e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_7

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Local Names Achyrocline alata: Colombia: Huira-huira, Ishpingo amarillo, Vira-vira, Llatama blanca, Ishpingo, Cenizo, Suso Achyrocline satureioides: Colombia: Huira-Huira, Juan Blanco, Kea-Kea, Marcela, Marcela Hembra, Suso, Vira-Vira, Vira Vira Macho, Viravilona, Yerba de Chivo

Botany and Ecology Achyrocline alata: Perennial herbs up to 1.5 m tall; stems ascending to decumbent or scandent, glabrous to tomentose, alate. Leaves sessile; blade linear-lanceolate to oblanceolate, decurrent on stems, 2–12 cm long, 2–15 mm wide, trinerved from near the base, glabrous and glandular to densely tomentose beneath and arachnoid above, base attenuate, apex acute, the margins entire to crenulate. Capitules glomerulate, cymose-paniculate, dense or open. Capitula 3.0–5.5 mm high, ca. 1.5 mm wide, sessile; involucres cylindrical to narrowly campanulate, yellow to cream-white; outer phyllaries ovate to lanceolate, 2–3 mm long, 1–1.5 mm wide, apex acute, the inner phyllaries linear-spatulate, 4–5 mm long, 0.5–1.5 mm wide, apex acute to obtuse; pistillate florets 3–11(–23), the corollas 2.5–4.0 mm long; hermaphroditic florets 1–3(–6), the corollas 2.5–4.0 mm long. Achenes narrowly ellipsoid to ovoid, 0.5–0.7 mm long; pappus ca. 2.5 mm long (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995). Achyrocline alata has a wide distribution throughout the Andean Cordillera from Colombia to Argentina, Brazil, and Paraguay. It inhabits a variety of environments within its range, often in secondary vegetation or disturbed roadsides, 2400–4100 m above sea level (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1 and 2). Achyrocline bogotensis: Herbs, up to 1 m tall, erect, covered with woolly arachnoid tissue. Leaves linear, 5 cm long, uninerved, with acute apex, attenuated, decurrent, glabrescent abaxial surface, adaxial lanose surface. Branched-paniculate, agglomerate-fasciculate synflorescences. Involucre cylindrical. Hermaphroditic florets in number of two; female florets three. Achenes ellipsoid. At altitudes between 2800 and 3200 m (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995). Achyrocline satureioides: Perennial herbs to 2 m tall, suffruticose; stems muchbranched, ascending to decumbent, densely lanate. Leaves sessile; blade linear to linear-lanceolate, 4–10 cm long, 2–9 mm wide, apex acute. Capitules glomerate, cymose-paniculate, terminal and axillary. Capitula 4.5–5.5 mm high, 1.5 mm wide; involucres narrowly cylindrical; outer phyllaries narrowly ovate to lanceolate, 2.5–3.5 mm long, 1 mm wide, the inner phyllaries lanceolate to linear, 4–4.5 mm long, 0.5–1 mm wide; pistillate florets 4(–8), the corollas 3.2–3.6 mm long; hermaphroditic florets 1–2, the corollas 3.4–3.6 mm long. Achenes ovoid, 0.6–0.7 mm long; pappus ca. 4 mm long. Achyrocline satureioides is widely distributed throughout South America in sandy soils, usually at elevations below 2000 m (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).

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Fig. 1 Achyrocline alata (Asteraceae), Pusac, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Achyrocline alata (Asteraceae), Pusac, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses Achyrocline alata is used in Peru to treat arthritis (Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2011). The species is widely traded in markets (Bussmann et al. 2008a, 2016) and has been shown to have antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2008b, 2009, 2010a, b, 2011a), while showing low toxicity (Bussmann et al. 2011b). Achyrocline bogotensis: In Colombia, the decoction of leaves and stems is applied externally to treat skin diseases, mainly against pimples and pimples. The most common use is in the form of an infusion to treat inflammation of the prostate. The branches prepared in infusion are used in the treatment of renal pains and to relieve the inflammation of and to clean the urinary tract. The stems, leaves, and fresh or dried flowers prepared in decoction are used against chronic cough and as an expectorant in lung diseases (Díaz 2003; García Barriga 1975; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008).

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Achyrocline hallii is used in Ecuador to treat cough, epilepsy, heart problems, and nervous system disorders (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b). Achyrocline satureioides: In Colombia, the plant is used to remove pimples and is also used to treat various diseases of the skin and malignant tumors (cancer). The decoction of the whole plant is used for skin diseases (Fonnegra-Gómez and VillaLondoño 2011; Fonnegra Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1975; Martínez Correa and Montes Martínez 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses In Northern Peru, Achyrocline alata and other species are used for spiritual cleansing (limpia), especially to treat susto (Bussmann et al. 2010c, 2018; Bussmann and Sharon 2015a, b; Monigatti et al. 2013).

References Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Fighting pain. Traditional Peruvian remedies for the treatment of asthma, rheumatism, arthritis and sore bones. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2011;10(3):397–412. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in Loja province, southern Ecuador. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006a;2:44. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing culture. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006b;2:47. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of the four winds – the magic and medicinal flora of Peru. Plantas de los cuatro vientos – La flora mágica y medicinal del Perú. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007a. ISBN 978-0-9789962-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of longevity – the medicinal flora of Vilcabamba. Plantas de longevidad – La flora medicinal de Vilcabamba. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007b. ISBN 978-09789962-2-2. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Medicinal plants of the Andes and the Amazon – the magic and medicinal flora of northern Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015a. ISBN 978-0-9960231-2-2. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plantas medicinales de los Andes y la Amazonía – La flora mágica y medicinal del Norte de Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015b. ISBN 978-09960231-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Ly J. From garden to market? The cultivation of native and introduced medicinal plant species in Cajamarca, Peru and implications habitat conservation. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2008a;6:351–61. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Perez F, Díaz D, Ford T, Rasheed T, Silva R. Antibacterial activity of northern-Peruvian medicinal plants – a low cost laboratory approach to assess biological activity. Arnaldoa. 2008b;15(1):127–48. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Diaz D, Cardenas R, Chait G, Castro M, Regalado S, Del Toro-C R, Malca-G G, Perez-A F, Glenn A. Antibacterial activity of medicinal plant species in northern Peru. Arnaldoa. 2009;16(1):93–103. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Herbal mixtures in traditional medicine in northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010a;6:10. Bussmann RW, Malca G, Glenn A, Sharon D, Chait G, Díaz D, Pourmand K, Jonat B, Somogy S, Guardado G, Aguirre C, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A, Effio-Carbajal J, Frías-Fernandez F,

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Benito M. Minimum inhibitory concentration of medicinal plants used in northern Peru as antibacterial remedies. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010b;132:101–8. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Glenn A. Healing the body, healing the soul. Traditional remedies for “magical” ailments, nervous system and psychosomatic disorders in northern Peru. Afr J Pharm Pharmacol. 2010c;4(9):580–629. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Sharon D, Chait G, Díaz D, Pourmand K, Jonat B, Somogy S, Guardado G, Aguirre C, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Antibacterial activity of northern Peruvian medicinal plants. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2011a;9:67–96. Bussmann RW, Malca G, Glenn A, Sharon D, Nilsen B, Parris B, Dubose D, Ruiz D, Saleda J, Martinez M, Carillo L, Walker K, Kuhlman A, Townesmith A. Toxicity of medicinal plants used in northern Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011b;137:121–40. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Moya Huanca LA, Hart RE. Changing markets – medicinal plants in the markets of La Paz and El Alto, Bolivia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;193:76–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.07.074. Bussmann RW, Tellez C, Vega C, Monigatti M. Uso de plantas medicinales en los andes norte del Perú. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2018;15(3):1–110. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.15.3.001-110. Díaz JA, editor. Informe Técnico. Caracterización del mercado colombiano de plantas medicinales y aromáticas. Bogotá: Instituto de Investigación de Recursos Biológicos Alexander von Humboldt. Ministerio de Ambiente, Vivienda y Desarrollo Territorial; 2003. 111 pp. Fonnegra Gómez R, Alzate Guarín F, Orozco Castañeda C, Vásquez Londoño C, Suárez Quirós J, García López V, roldán Palacio F, Correa Silva A, Vasco Correa C. Medicina Tradicional en los Corregimientos de Medellín. Historias de vidas y plantas. Medellín: Universidad de Antioquia – Alcaldía de Medellín; 2012. 305 pp. Fonnegra-Gómez R, Villa-Londoño J. Plantas medicinales usadas en algunas veredas de municipios del altiplano del oriente antioqueño, Colombia. Actual Biol. 2011;33(95):219–50. García Barriga H. Flora Medicinal de Colombia. Botánica Médica. Tomo Tercero. Bogotá: Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional; 1975. 497 pp. Macbride JF, Weberbauer A. Flora of Peru. Chicago: Field Museum; 1936–1995. Martínez Correa CA, Montes Martínez PA. Determinación de la etnobotánica de las plantas medicinales comercializadas en las plazas de mercados de los municipios de Turbo, Apartadó, Carepa, Chigorodó y Mutatá, Antioquia, Colombia. Tesis de Grado, Universidad Nacional Abierta y a Distancia UNAD. Escuela de Ciencias Agrícolas, Pecuarias y del Medio Ambiente, Turbo. 2017. 136 pp. Ministerio de Protección Social. Vademécum Colombiano de Plantas Medicinales. Bogotá: Imprenta Nacional de Colombia; 2008. 311 pp. Monigatti M, Vega C, Tellez C, Bussmann RW. Uso de plantas medicinales en los andes norte del Perú. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2013. ISBN 978-0-9848415-8-5.

Acmella oppositifolia (Lam.) R.K. Jansen ASTERACEAE Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, Javier Echeverría, and Carolina Romero

Synonyms Acmella oppositifolia (Lam.) R.K. Jansen: Acmella mutisii Cass.; Acmella occidentalis Rich.; Anthemis occidentalis Willd.; Anthemis oppositifolia Lam.; Ceratocephalus americanus Kuntze; Spilanthes americana Hieron.; Spilanthes diffusa Poepp.; Spilanthes mutisii Kunth; Spilanthes oppositifolia (Lam.) D’Arcy

N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] J. Echeverría Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Chemistry and Biology, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, USACH, Santiago de Chile, Chile e-mail: [email protected] C. Romero William L. Brown Center, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO, USA e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_8

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Local Names Colombia: Chisacá, Yuyo quemado, Yuyo, Botón de oro, Quemadera, Botoncillo, Guaca, Guaquilla, Risacá, Yuyoquemao, Yuya; Ecuador: Botoncillo (Spanish), Sesa (unspecified language) (de la Torre et al. 2008)

Botany and Ecology Perennial herb, stoloniferous, glabrous to densely hairy, between 20 and 30(120) cm tall. Stem creeping or erect, rooting at the nodes. Petiole up to 4.5 cm long, winged, leaf blade ovate to linear-lanceolate or elliptical, 1–6 cm long, 0.7–2 cm wide, obtuse to acute or sometimes acuminate at the apex, cuneate to truncate at the base, entire margin to denticulate or irregularly serrated, ciliate, trinervate (with three veins) or triplinervate, membranous, glabrous or densely hairy on both sides. Flower heads solitary or grouped by few at the ends of the branches, peduncles up to 25 cm long, involucre cylindrical to subhemispheric, the bracts arranged in two series, ovate to lanceolate, 2.5–7 mm long, blunt to acuminate at the apex, ciliated, receptacle conical at maturity, until 10 mm long, paleae oblong, 2.5–4.5 mm long. Flowers ligulate usually 11, but varying from 5–19, tube 1–2 mm long, hairy, the ellipticoblong sheet, 2–4(–7) mm long, yellow-orange, glabrous; tubular flowers 70–300, 1.5–3 mm long, ligules up to 10 mm long, yellow-orange, glabrous, anthers about 1 mm long, dark brown to blackish. Achenae oblong, compressed, 1–2 mm long, black or blackish, callous margins and often ciliated, glabrous on the faces (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).

Local Medicinal Uses Colombia: The decoction of the plant is used in the treatment of liver and bile diseases, against canker sores and to reduce the concentration of sugar in the blood. Additionally, the decoction or infusion of the whole plant is usually taken to prevent goiter or coto and also as a purgative. Externally it is used in cases of cutaneous affections: the decoction of the plant is used to eliminate the dark spots of the skin of the face. Inflorescences and flowers are used for oral affections: they reduce toothache and cure canker sores or small mouth ulcers (Fonnegra-Gómez and VillaLondoño 2011; Fonnegra-Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1975; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Ecuador: Bathing with the infusion of the crushed leaves serves to treat chicken pox in children. The infusion of the crushed plant, mixed with “chuko” and plum, is used as a kidney freshener (ethnicity unspecified – Azuay). The plant, in infusion, is used for colds and pains (unspecified ethnic group – Cañar). The flowers are used to treat indeterminate conditions (Mestiza-Morona Santiago). The flowers, crushed together with “pichana,” are used to calm the toothache (Kichwa de la Sierra-Loja; Unspecified ethnic group – Carchi, Pichincha, Cañar). The leaves, flowers, and the stem cure infections in the

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mouth (unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha). It serves as medicine for scurvy (Kichwa de la Sierra-Loja). Treats indeterminate conditions (Kichwa de la Sierra-Cotopaxi; Shuar-Zamora Chinchipe) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: The plant is used to treat internal bleeding, renal bleeding, and colds with high mucus (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b, 2018a, b), as well as respiratory disorders (Bussmann and Glenn 2010), and is normally used in mixture with other herbs (Bussmann et al. 2010). Acmella calva has been introduced to the Himalayas and is being used in Nepal against snakebite (Kunwar et al. 2012, 2013, 2015).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Ecuador: Used as pig fodder (unspecified ethnicity – Azuay).

References Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Traditional Peruvian medicine for the treatment of respiratory disorders. Rev Peru Biol. 2010;17(2):331–46. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing culture. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:47. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of the four winds – the magic and medicinal flora of Peru. Plantas de los cuatro vientos – La flora mágica y medicinal del Perú. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007. ISBN 978-0-9789962-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Medicinal plants of the Andes and the Amazon – the magic and medicinal flora of northern Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015a. ISBN 978-0-9960231-2-2. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plantas medicinales de los Andes y la Amazonía – La flora mágica y medicinal del Norte de Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015b. ISBN 978-09960231-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Medicinal plants of the Andes and the Amazon – the magic and medicinal flora of Northern Peru. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2018a;15(2):1–295. https://doi.org/ 10.32859/era.15.1.001-293. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plantas medicinales de los Andes y la Amazonía – La flora mágica y medicinal del Norte de Peru. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2018b;15(1):1–293. https://doi.org/10.32859/ era.15.2.001-295. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Herbal mixtures in traditional medicine in northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:10. de la Torre L, Navarrete H, Muriel MP, Macía MJ, Balslev H, (eds) Enciclopedia de las Plantas Útiles del Ecuador. Quito/Aarhus: Herbario QCA de la Escuela de Ciencias Biológicas de la Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador/Herbario AAU del Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas de la Universidad de Aarhus; 2008. Fonnegra-Gómez R, Villa-Londoño J. Plantas medicinales usadas en algunas veredas de municipios del altiplano del oriente antioqueño, Colombia. Actual Biol. 2011;33(95):219–50. Fonnegra-Gómez R, Alzate Guarín F, Orozco Castañeda C, Vásquez Londoño C, Suárez Quirós J, García López V, Roldán Palacio F, Correa Silva A, Vasco Correa C. Medicina Tradicional en los Corregimientos de Medellín. Historias de vidas y plantas. Medellín: Universidad de Antioquia – Alcaldía de Medellín; 2012. 305 pp.

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García Barriga H. Flora Medicinal de Colombia. Botánica Médica. Tomo Tercero. Bogotá: Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional; 1975. 497 pp. Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Sharma LN, Shrestha KP, Kominee H, Bussmann RW. Underutilized plant species in far-west Nepal – a valuable resource being wasted. J Mt Sci. 2012;9:589–600. Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Acharya RP, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants, traditional medicine, markets and management in far-west Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:24. Kunwar RM, Acharya RP, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plant dynamics in indigenous medicines in farwest Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;163:210–9. Macbride JF, Weberbauer A. Flora of Peru. Chicago: Field Museum; 1936–1995. Ministerio de Protección Social. Vademécum Colombiano de Plantas Medicinales. Bogotá: Imprenta Nacional de Colombia; 2008. 311 pp. Pérez Arbeláez E. Plantas útiles de Colombia. 5a. Ed. Bogotá: Fondo FEN Colombia, DAMA, Jardín Botánico de Bogotá José Celestino Mutis; 1996. 831 pp.

Adesmia atacamensis Phil. Adesmia erinacea Phil. Adesmia minor (Hook. & Arn.) Burkart var. caespitosa (Phil.) Ulibarri & Burkart Adesmia rahmeri Phil. Adesmia spinosissima Meyen Adesmia subterranea Clos FABACEAE Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann Synonyms Adesmia atacamensis Phil.: Adesmia glandulosa Phil., Patagonium atacamense (Phil.) Kuntze, Patagonium glandulosum (Phil.) Kuntze Adesmia erinacea Phil.: Adesmia senticula Phil., Patagonium erinaceum (Phil.) Kuntze, Patagonium erinaceum (Phil.) Reiche, comb. superfl., Patagonium senticulum (Phil.) Reiche Adesmia minor (Hook. & Arn.) Burkart var. caespitosa (Phil.) Ulibarri & Burkart: Adesmia caespitosa Phil., Patagonium caespitosum (Phil.) Reiche Adesmia rahmeri Phil.: Patagonium rahmeri (Phil.) Reiche J. Echeverría Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Chemistry and Biology, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, USACH, Santiago de Chile, Chile e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_9

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Adesmia spinosissima Meyen: Adesmia rupicola Wedd., Patagonium alcicornutum Rusby, Patagonium spinosissimum (Meyen) Kuntze, Adesmia alcicornutum Rusby Adesmia subterranea Clos: Patagonium subterraneum (Clos) Kuntze

Local Names Adesmia atacamensis: Chile: Allaval, Jarilla, Pasto de huanaco, Iloka, Iloka macho, Ilúkar, Iluka, Iluka macho, Atalte, Tamor, Tamborcillo, T’amur, Tamur, Tamorcillo, Tamurquillo, Ediondilla, Ilink’illink’i Adesmia erinacea: Chile: Añawa blanca, Espina blanca, Añawa, Añawaya blanca, Añawiya del burro, Añawiya blanca, Espina de burro, Añawiya, Espina Adesmia minor: Chile: Cuerno de cabra, Añawa, Añawa blanca, Añawa negra, Varilla, Kallya Adesmia rahmeri: Chile: Lluka hembra, iIoka, Iloka hembra, Tamor, T’amur, Tamur, Tamorcillo, Tamurquillo Adesmia spinosissima: Chile: Añawa, Añawanegra, Añawa grande, Añawa verde, Añawacolorada, Añawa roja, Añawa de cordillera, Añawaya, Añawiya, Espina, Espina negra, Kaylla, Patakabalia colorado, Gallokishka Adesmia subterranea: Chile: Cuerno de cabra, Pampa añawaya, Qoña añawaya, Chukikaylla, Añawaya hembra, Añawaya macho

Botany and Ecology Adesmia atacamensis: Pseudo in hemispherical cushion, densely branched, and very compact. Resinous leaves in rosette with 1–5 greenish-yellow flowers, by rosette. Dry fruit that breaks in two at maturity (Peñaloza et al. 2013). Endemic to Chile, from 2000 to 4000 m above sea level (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4). Adesmia erinacea: Shrub 15–60 cm high, forming more or less loose hemispherical cushions, greenish-hairy young branches, chestnut-yellowish adults. Thorns abundant, intricate, greenish to whitish-chestnut when aging, with 3–6 bifurcations, predominantly long lateral axes, from which branches emerge. Leaves sericeoushairy; petiole-rachis 5–10 mm, villous to glabrescent, with 2–4 pairs of leaflets, obovate, conduplicate, seriaceous-villous to glabrescent, margin with glandular hairs, 5–6  1.5–3 mm; deltoid stipules, 2–3  1 mm. Yellow flowers, 7–10 mm, on the spines and in lateral brachiblats. Calyx tubular, villous-glandular, 4–5 mm, deltoid-acute lobes, 2–3  0.9–1 mm. Pubescent standards on the back, 10  6 mm; wings 9  1.5 mm; obtuse keel, 9  3 mm. Lomentum 3–5 articulated, chestnutbronze, 3.5–4.5 mm in diameter, hairy-glandular pericarp, with bristles. Seed chestnut-copper, lenticular, 1.5 mm in diameter, from 2500 to 4400 m above sea level. Adesmia minor: Woody cushion, dense, very low, contracted branches of brown bark, with very short ramifications, with sericeous pubescence, numerous but brief thorns, 1–2(–3) bifurcated, yellow or reddish. Leaves smaller than 1 cm, arranged in

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Fig. 1 Adesmia atacamensis (Fabaceae), Torocne, Chile. (Photo Lucas Burchard Señoret)

Fig. 2 Adesmia atacamensis (Fabaceae), Torocne, Chile. (Photo Lucas Burchard Señoret)

fascicles on sericeous-pubescent, pinnate, recurved brachyblasts; leaflets 2–4 pairs, oval, 1.5–4 mm long, dense, and stout pubescence; triangular stipules, sericeouspubescent, persistent. Flowers 1–3 per apex, subsessile, separated from the thorns, 7–8 mm, bell campanulate, greenish, pubescent, with five teeth, equal, orange corolla, with reddish streaks, erect banner, narrow wings and keel, obtuse. Feathery-setose. 3800–4400 m above sea level (Peñaloza et al. 2013). Adesmia rahmeri: Annual herbs (5–)10–30 cm tall. Divaricated, pubescent, and glutinous. Leaves mainly basal, 7–15 mm long; obovate leaflets, 1.5–3 mm long  0.5–1.5 mm lat., pubescent, glandular, dentate, conduplicate, gathered

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Fig. 3 Adesmia atacamensis (Fabaceae), Torocne, Chile. (Photo Lucas Burchard Señoret)

Fig. 4 Adesmia atacamensis (Fabaceae), Torocne, Chile. (Photo Lucas Burchard Señoret)

towards the apex of the rachis. Loose clusters, up to 10 cm long.; pedicels of 5–20 mm long, divergent; flowers of 8–10 mm long Lomento recta, 4–6 articulated, porjos cerdosos and pilosos. 2800–4400 m above sea level (Peñaloza et al. 2013). Adesmia spinosissima: Shrub 30–100 cm tall, in more or less lax cushions, branches grayish to chestnut-reddish, young parts pubescent or pubescent-glandular; with whitish or chestnut-yellowish thorns, with 2–4 branches in a fan or pseudopyramidal. Sericeous-whitish indument, more or less appressed hairs, sometimes

Adesmia atacamensis Phil. . . .

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Fig. 5 Adesmia spinosissima (Fabaceae), Caspana, Chile. (Photo Lucas Burchard Señoret)

with glandular hairs. Leaves with deltoid stipules, reddish, ciliated margin, 1–1.5 mm, petiole-rachis of 4–10(–12) mm, leaflets (3–)4–5(–6) pairs, ellipticalovate to orbicular, more or less conduplicate or extended, of 1.5–2  1 mm. Flowers of 6(–7) mm, usually in brachyblasts, rare on the spines, pedicels of 1–2(–3) mm. Calyx campanulate-tubular, 3–3.5 mm; deltoid lobes, subacute or acute, 1–1.5 (–2) mm. Pubescent banner on the back, usually reflected, broadly obovate, 6–7  5.5–6 mm; wings 6–7  1 mm, hairy; obtuse keel, 6  2 mm. Lomento (1–)2–3 articulated with chestnut-copper arthrodes, hairy pericarp, hairy bristles, 3–4  3 mm. Lenticular seed, chestnut, 2 mm in diameter. 2700–4300 m above sea level (Peñaloza et al. 2013) (Figs. 5 and 6). Adesmia subterranea: Flattened cushions, more or less hemispherical, dense, 1–3 cm high, 0.10–0.30 cm (–1) m diam.; single root, axonomorphic; generally simple thorns. Leaves of 3–13 mm long; obovate-lanceolate leaflets, 2.5–5.5 mm long  1 mm lat., conduplicate, subseríceos, somewhat setulosos. Flowers 8–10 mm long; pedicels of 1–2.8 mm long. 1200–4300 m above sea level (Peñaloza et al. 2013).

Local Medicinal Uses Adesmia atacamensis: The aerial parts are used as a remedy for ulcers and bone breaks. The infusion is used against cough (Philippi 1860; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003). Adesmia erinacea: The root is a remedy against cold and cough, and it is also used for bad blood, bladder, and urinary problems. Formerly, it was used as a remedy for Puna disease (Peñaloza et al. 2013; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003). Adesmia minor: The aerial parts are used for the treatment of urinary problems (Peñaloza et al. 2013; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003). Adesmia spinosissima: The infusion of the aerial parts is used for the treatment of colds and coughs. In addition, the infusion of the aerial parts mixed with rue

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Fig. 6 Adesmia spinosissima (Fabaceae), Caspana, Chile. (Photo Lucas Burchard Señoret)

(Ruta chalepensis var. chalepensis) is used for the treatment and healing of internal wounds (Peñaloza et al. 2013; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003). Adesmia subterranea: The infusion of the aerial parts is used to fight cough (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003; Ulibarri and Burkart 2000).

Local Food Uses Adesmia rahmeri: The root is edible and has a sweet flavor (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003; Ulibarri and Burkart 2000). Adesmia spinosissima: In times of great need, the flowers and sweet leaves are used as food (Peñaloza et al. 2013; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Adesmia atacamensis: Used as forage and firewood (Philippi 1860; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003). Adesmia erinacea: Used as forage and firewood (Peñaloza et al. 2013; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003). Adesmia minor: Used as forage and firewood (Peñaloza et al. 2013; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003). Adesmia miraflorenses: Used to treat witchcraft in Bolivia (Bussmann et al. 2016; Macía et al. 2005). Adesmia rahmeri: Used as forage and firewood (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003; Ulibarri and Burkart 2000). Adesmia spinosissima: Used as forage and firewood (Peñaloza et al. 2013; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003). Adesmia subterranea: Used as forage and firewood (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003; Ulibarri and Burkart 2000).

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References Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Moya Huanca LA, Hart RE. Changing markets – medicinal plants in the markets of La Paz and El Alto, Bolivia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;193:76–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.07.074. Macía MJ, García E, Vidaurre PJ. An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants comercialized in the markets of La Paz and El Alto, Bolivia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;97:337–50. Peñaloza A, Pardo V, Marticorena A, Cavieres L, Frugone F. Flora y vegetación del parque nacional Llullaillaco. Región de Antofagasta: Peñazola-García; 2013. Philippi RA. Florula Atacamensis seu enumeratio plantarum, quas in itinere per desertum Atacamense. Sumptibus E. Halle: Anton; 1860. Rodriguez R, Marticorena C, Alarcón D, Baeza C, Cavieres L, Finot VL, Fuentes N, Kiessling A, Mihoc M, Pauchard A, Ruiz E, Sanchez P, Marticorena A. Catálogo de las plantas vasculares de Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430. Ulibarri EA, Burkart A. Sinopsis de las especies de Adesmia (Leguminosae, Adesmieae) de la Argentina. Darwiniana. 2000;38(1–2):59–126. Villagrán C, Castro V. Ciencia indígena de los Andes del norte de Chile. Santiago de Chile: Editorial Universitaria; 2003.

Adiantum concinnum Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd. Adiantum raddianum C. Presl. ADIANTACEAE Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

Synonyms Adiantum concinnum Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.: Adiantum concinnum var. subvolubile Mett.; Adiantum lutescens Moug. ex Fée Adiantum raddianum C. Presl.: Adiantum amabile Liebm.; Adiantum amabile T. Moore; Adiantum boliviense Christ & Rosenst.; Adiantum colpodes T. Moore; Adiantum cuneatum G. Forst.; Adiantum cuneatum Langsd. & Fisch.; Adiantum decorum T. Moore; Adiantum decorum var. quadripinnatum Rosenst.; Adiantum mexicanum C. Presl; Adiantum moorei Baker; Adiantum remyanum Espinosa; Adiantum rubellum T. Moore

N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] C. Romero William L. Brown Center, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO, USA e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_10

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Fig. 1 Adiantum capillusveneris (Adiantaceae), Cajamarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Names Colombia: Cilantrillo, Culantrillo; Ecuador: Cucharillo; Peru: Culantrillo del pozo, Culantrillo; English: Venus hair fern

Botany and Ecology Adiantum concinnum/Adiantum raddianum: Perennials; rhizome creeping, clothed with narrow blackish scales; leaves broadly oblong, bi- or tripinnatifid, thin; stipes blackish-brown, thin, shining; ultimate segments borne on capillary stalks, cuneiform-ovate, asymmetric, entire on the sides, palmately dissected at apex; fertile lobes terminating in transverse linear-oblong sori; sterile lobes crenate or crenate-dentate. Rock fissures, near oozing water, near waterfalls, on the banks of mountain streams, in caves, spreading most readily over calcareous formations, often on tuffs (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).

Local Medicinal Uses Adiantum concinnum/Adiantum raddianum: Used in Colombia as baths to treat colds, cough, vomiting and stomach pain, gynecological problems (irregular menstruation), headaches, nausea, fever, nasal hemorrhage, diarrhea, and cancer, and is also used as female contraceptive. The decoction of fronds (leaves) is used to treat cough and is considered a good anti-spasmodic (García Barriga 1974; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Ecuador: The fresh plant is boiled with sugar and drunk to treat diabetes, to purify the blood, for menstrual regulation, and externally to treat hair loss (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, b, 2007a, 2015a, b).

Adiantum concinnum Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd. . . . Fig. 2 Adiantum henslovianum (Adiantaceae), Cajamarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Adiantum henslovianum (Adiantaceae), Cajamarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Adiantum raddianum (Adiantaceae), Cajamarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 5 Adiantum raddianum (Adiantaceae), Cajamarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Peru: Fresh or dried leaves and stems are used for blood purification, hair loss, and menstrual regulation (Bussmann and Sharon 2007a, b, 2014, 2015a, b, 2018a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010) and has shown antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2009a, b, 2011a). The species is very widely used (Bussmann et al. 2007a, 2009c), normally as mixture with other plants (Bussmann et al. 2010), and often sold in markets (Bussmann et al. 2007b) but not cultivated (Bussmann et al. 2008). The plant extracts have shown low toxicity (Bussmann et al. 2011b).

References Bejar E, Bussmann RW, Roa C, Sharon D. Medicinal herbs of southern Ecuador – Hierbas Medicinales del Sur Ecuatoriano. San Diego: Latino Herbal Press; 2002. 340 p. Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Medicinal plants used in northern Peru for reproductive problems and female health. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:30. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in Loja province, southern Ecuador. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006a;2:44. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing culture. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006b;2:47. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of longevity – the medicinal flora of Vilcabamba. Plantas de longevidad – La flora medicinal de Vilcabamba. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007a. ISBN 978-09789962-2-2.

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Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of the four winds – the magic and medicinal flora of Peru. Plantas de los cuatro vientos – La flora mágica y medicinal del Perú. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007b. ISBN 978-0-9789962-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Two decades of ethnobotanical research in southern Ecuador and northern Peru. Ethnobiol Conserv. 2014;3:3. https://doi.org/10.15451/ec2014-6-3.2-1-50. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Medicinal plants of the Andes and the Amazon – the magic and medicinal flora of northern Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015a. ISBN 978-0-9960231-2-2. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plantas medicinales de los Andes y la Amazonía – La flora mágica y medicinal del Norte de Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015b. ISBN 978-09960231-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Medicinal plants of the Andes and the Amazon – the magic and medicinal flora of northern Peru. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2018a;15(2):1–295. https://doi.org/ 10.32859/era.15.1.001-293. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plantas medicinales de los Andes y la Amazonía – La flora mágica y medicinal del Norte de Peru. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2018b;15(1):1–293. https://doi.org/10.32859/ era.15.2.001-295. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Lopez A. Blending traditional and Western medicine: medicinal plant use amongst patients at Clinica Anticona in El Porvenir, Peru. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2007a;5:185–99. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Vandebroek I, Jones A, Revene Z. Health for sale: the medicinal plant markets in Trujillo and Chiclayo, northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007b;3:37. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Ly J. From garden to market? The cultivation of native and introduced medicinal plant species in Cajamarca, Peru and implications habitat conservation. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2008;6:351–61. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Diaz D, Cardenas R, Chait G, Castro M, Regalado S, Del Toro-C. R, Malca-G. G, Perez-A. F, Glenn A. Antibacterial activity of medicinal plant species in northern Peru. Arnaldoa. 2009a;16(1):93–103. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Castro M, Cardenas R, Chait G, Regalado S, Del Toro-C. R, Malca-G. G, Perez-A. F, Glenn A. Phyto-chemical analysis of Peruvian medicinal plants. Arnaldoa. 2009b;16(1):105–10. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Garcia M. From chamomile to aspirin? Medicinal plant use among clients at Laboratorios Beal in Trujillo, Peru. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009c;7:399–407. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Herbal mixtures in traditional medicine in northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:10. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Sharon D, Chait G, Díaz D, Pourmand K, Jonat B, Somogy S, Guardado G, Aguirre C, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Antibacterial activity of northern Peruvian medicinal plants. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2011a;9:67–96. Bussmann RW, Malca G, Glenn A, Sharon D, Nilsen B, Parris B, Dubose D, Ruiz D, Saleda J, Martinez M, Carillo L, Walker K, Kuhlman A, Townesmith A. Toxicity of medicinal plants used in northern Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011b;137:121–40. García Barriga H. Flora Medicinal de Colombia. Botánica Médica. Tomo Primero. Bogotá: Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional; 1974. 561 pp. Macbride JF, Weberbauer A. Flora of Peru. Chicago: Field Museum; 1936–1995. Pérez Arbeláez E. Plantas útiles de Colombia. 5a. Ed. Bogotá: Fondo FEN Colombia, DAMA, Jardín Botánico de Bogotá José Celestino Mutis; 1996. 831 pp.

Agave americana L. AGAVACEAE Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

Synonyms Agave americana L.: Agave complicata Trel. ex Ochot.; Agave felina Trel.; Agave gracilispina Engelm. ex Trel.; Agave melliflua Trel.; Agave rasconensis Trel.; Agave subzonata Trel.; Agave zonata Trel. ex Bailey; Aloe americana (L.) Crantz

Local Names Colombia: Penca de Cabuya, Fique, Maguey, Cabuya, Penco, Chauar, Yana chauar, Cocuy, Henequen, Motua, Penca (Spanish); Ecuador: Cabuyo, Penca de caballo, Cabuya, Cabuya azul, Cabuya negra, Cabuyo negro, Cabuyo verde, Chahuar, Caguey, Penca, Penco, Penco negro, Sábila dulce (Spanish), Mishki, Pita, Tsawar mishki, Yana chawar, Yana tsawar (Kichwa); Chaguarquero (corruption of Kichwa); (de la Torre et al. 2008); English: Agave N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] C. Romero William L. Brown Center, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO, USA e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_11

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Fig. 1 Agave americana (Agavaceae), Pusac, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Botany and Ecology Perennial, rossetes1–2 m tall and 2–4 m across. Older individuals may sometimes develop a short woody stem at the base. Inflorescence 6–12 m tall. Leaves large, 1–2 m long and 15–25 cm wide, succulent, bluish-gray-greyish-green. The leaf margins coarsely serrate with prickly teeth up to 1 cm long and an acute apex. The massive flower clusters 1–8 m long, much-branched, with the branches being further divided towards their tips. Individual flowers erect, pedicels 2–4 cm long. Flowers 7–10.5 cm long, yellow or greenish-yellow. Fruit a large oblong capsule, 3.5–8 cm long, with a pointed tip and seeds 6–8 mm long, black (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Local Medicinal Uses In Colombia, decoction of the roots in water and with lemon juice is taken to treat syphilis, rheumatism, and to purify the blood. The leaves prepared in cooking in water are used to treat liver diseases. The leaves are also used as a diuretic and for those who suffer from hydrops or fluid retention, and they also purify the kidneys. The infusion of leaves is used in stomach diseases, chronic diarrhea, vomiting and indigestion, and also cleanses the intestines. This infusion with a little honey is used to treat the flu. The liquid squeezed out of the leaves is used to treat chronic conjunctivitis and mixed with olive oil or other vegetable oil has been used successfully to relieve rheumatic pain. It is also customary to wash the head with the juice or foam squeezed from the leaves to strengthen the hair, making it lustrous, abundant, and soft. The leaves, fruits, and flowers of the Agave, prepared in infusion, are used as depurative of the blood and in the flu and bronchitis, and to treat liver disorders; they are also used to remove skin blemishes. Nuts and powdered form are used to help expectoration in tuberculous patients (Arias Alzate 1962; García Barriga 1974; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Ecuador: Fresh leaves are used to treat depression (Béjar

Agave americana L. Fig. 2 Agave americana (Agavaceae), Pusac, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Agave americana (Agavaceae), Pusac, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 4 Agave americana (Agavaceae), Pusac, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007). The juice of the plant is called “mishki” and is used to treat kidney conditions (unspecified ethnicity – Loja). “Mishki” is effective in treating arthritis, rheumatism, flu, cough, stomach, and heart aches (Kichwa of the Sierra-Cotopaxi; Unspecified ethnicity – Cotopaxi). The stem is used to treat acute colds (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura). The membrane of the leaves is used to treat the headache (unspecified ethnic group – Bolívar). The root is used to treat syphilis (unspecified ethnicity – Azuay, Cañar). The sap is used to treat liver and lung conditions and bacterial infections at the intestinal level (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbaura, Chimborazo, Cañar). The sap, mixed with olive oil, and the infused leaves or plasters are used to treat rheumatism (Kichwa de la SierraImbabura, Chimborazo, Cañar). Plasters made with the leaves are applied to treat fractures. It is used as an antiseptic (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura, Chimborazo, Cañar). Cures arthritis and bronchitis (unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha). The infusion is purgative, laxative, and diuretic (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura, Chimborazo, Cañar; unspecified ethnic group – Bolívar); the root is used to purify the blood (unspecified ethnicity – Azuay, Cañar) (de la Torre et al. 2008).

Local Food Uses Ecuador: From the trunk of the leaves, when it is perforated, an exudation called pulque, “chawar mishki” or “cabuyo candy,” is obtained, which is a drink that is left to ferment (unspecified ethnic group – Azuay, Cañar). The flower is edible prepared as a pickle, with onion, lemon, and salt (unspecified ethnic group – Pichincha, Cotopaxi, Bolívar, Azuay, Cañar, Loja). The mature root and the stem are used to extract the “mishki” that is edible, cooked with wheat or prepared in intoxicating beverages (Kichwa de la Sierra-Cotopaxi, unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura, Pichincha, Cotopaxi, Bolívar, Loja). The leaves are used to ripen jora (local beer)

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and as a sweetener (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura, Chimborazo, Cañar; unspecified ethnic group – Costa and Sierra Region) (de la Torre et al. 2008).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Ecuador: Fresh leaves are used to curse someone and to defend against sorcerers during sessions (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007). The juice of the plant, called “mishki,” is used to fatten pigs (unspecified ethnic group – Cotopaxi, Loja). The leaves are used as animal fodder, especially for pigs (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura, Chimborazo, Cañar; unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura, Pichincha, Cotopaxi). Beekeeping: It has beekeeping use (unspecified ethnicity – Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The leaves and flowers are used as fuel (unspecified ethnic group – Cotopaxi) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The fibers are soaked in water and used as a disinfectant of the scalp and to counteract hair loss (Kichwa de la SierraImbabura, Chimborazo, Cañar). The floral scape is used to make pig pens and to make benches, stairs, soccer arches, street doors, poles, quagmires, and roofs (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura, Chimborazo, Cañar; unspecified ethnic group – Cotopaxi, Azuay, Cañar). Sometimes, the pencos are used to replace girdles on the roofs that merit repair and are used as shingles (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura, Chimborazo, Cañar; unspecified ethnic group – Azuay, Cañar). Ropes are made with the fibers of the leaves for different purposes (they replace the nails in the frame of the roofs of the houses); they are also used to make handicrafts or everyday items such as bags, sacks, rugs, hammocks, and hats (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura, Chimborazo, Cañar; Mestiza-Tungurahua; unspecified ethnic group – Others (Costa Region), Cotopaxi, Azuay, Cañar, Others (Andean Region)). The leaves served formerly as blackboards for children (unspecified ethnic group – Azuay, Cañar). The leaves are used to make laundry soap (helps to bleach stains) and hair shampoo (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura, Chimborazo, Cañar; unspecified ethnic group – Azuay, Cañar, Cotopaxi). The leaves have fibers that substitute thread, and this fiber is obtained when the terminal barb of the leaf is torn off, with the fibers adhering to the spike; in this way, thread and needle are obtained at the same time (unspecified ethnicity – Azuay, Cañar) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The leaves are used to treat “fright.” The leaf juice induces abortion (unspecified ethnicity – Cotopaxi). Toxic to vertebrates: The raw “mishki” is used as a poison for cows and pigs (unspecified ethnic group – Cotopaxi). The “mishki” is also used as a poison for flies (unspecified ethnic group – Cotopaxi) (de la Torre et al. 2008). This plant is part of live fences that mark boundaries between properties, separate grazing areas or specific crops (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura, Chimborazo, Cañar; unspecified ethnic group – Cotopaxi, Azuay, Cañar). It is used as fertilizer (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura, Chimborazo, Cañar) (de la Torre et al. 2008).

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References Arias Alzate E. Plantas Medicinales. Séptima Ed. Medellín: Editorial Bedout; 1962. 304 pp. Béjar E, Bussmann RW, Roa C, Sharon D. Medicinal herbs of southern Ecuador – Hierbas Medicinales del Sur Ecuatoriano. San Diego: Latino Herbal Press; 2002. 340 p. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in Loja province, southern Ecuador. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:44. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of longevity – the medicinal flora of Vilcabamba. Plantas de longevidad – La flora medicinal de Vilcabamba. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007. ISBN 978-09789962-2-2. de la Torre L, Navarrete H, Muriel M P, Macía MJ, Balslev H, editors. Enciclopedia de las Plantas Útiles del Ecuador. Quito/Aarhus: Herbario QCA de la Escuela de Ciencias Biológicas de la Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador/Herbario AAU del Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas de la Universidad de Aarhus; 2008. García Barriga H. Flora Medicinal de Colombia. Botánica Médica. Tomo Primero. Bogotá: Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional; 1974. 561 pp. Macbride JF, Weberbauer A. Flora of Peru. Chicago: Field Museum; 1936–1995. Pérez Arbeláez E. Plantas útiles de Colombia. 5a. Ed. Bogotá: Fondo FEN Colombia, DAMA, Jardín Botánico de Bogotá José Celestino Mutis; 1996. 831 pp.

Ageratum conyzioides L. ASTERACEAE Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

Synonyms Ageratum conyzioides L.: Ageratum album Willd. ex Steud.; Ageratum arsenei B.L. Rob.; Ageratum ciliare L.; Ageratum conyzioides var. inaequipaleaceum Hieron.; Ageratum cordifolium Poir.; Ageratum hirtum Lam.; Ageratum humile Salisb.; Ageratum latifolium Cav., Ageratum latifolium var. galapageium B.L. Rob.; Ageratum microcarpum (Benth.) Hemsl.; Ageratum pinetorum (L.O. Williams) R.M. King & H. Rob.; Ageratum suffruticosum Regel; Alomia microcarpa (Benth.) B.L. Rob.; Alomia pinetorum L.O. Williams; Carelia conyzioides (L.) Kuntze; Coelestina microcarpa Benth.; Eupatorium conyzioides (L.) E.H.L. Krause

N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] C. Romero William L. Brown Center, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO, USA e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_12

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Local Names Colombia: Marrubio blanco, Chiva, Marrubio, Marubio, Mastranto, Yerba de chino, Mentastro, Hierba de Santa Lucía, Retentina, Mariposa panka, Mariposa karacha (Spanish-Kichwa), Hoja de mariposa, Pedorrera, Pedorrera blanca, Rosa loca del cerro, Santa Lucía (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Ecuador: Pedromera blanca, Pedrorera blanca

Botany and Ecology Annual herb, 25–90 cm tall. Stem simple or branched, especially above, erect or above ground, reddish to green in color, with white or yellowish hairs, long, smooth and crisscrossed, and glandular hairs towards the apex; if the stem is decumbent, roots are produced in the lower nodes. Leaves opposite, the superiors sometimes alternate; petioles 0.6–3.5 mm long, densely white, hairy; ovate to triangular laminae, 2.4–8.6 cm long and 1.7–6.5 cm wide, rounded or acute apex, cordate to truncated base, margin crenate or slightly dentate, more or less ciliate, make dark green, with scattered or dense hairs on the veins, underside pale green, pinnate venation, densely hairy especially on veins almost glabrous. Inflorescence terminal, 5–15 heads arranged in compact or loose aggregates, corymbiform, on bracteate peduncles and with abundant hairs, sometimes glandular. Flowers in heads formed by around 75 small sessile flowers arranged on a conical receptacle; involucre formed by bracts arranged in two series, campanulate, narrowly lanceolate bracts, 4–5 mm long, the outer ones from 0.5 to 0.75 mm wide, green or brown, densely hairy almost glabrous, apex acuminate and glandular-ciliate, entire margin. Flowers all bisexual; tubular corolla 2.5–3.5 mm long, funnel-shaped, white tube that may or may not have glandular hairs, throat blue, lilac, lavender or rarely white, the five lobes erect or reclined in an open angle; alternate stamens with the lobes of the corolla, free filaments, anthers welded together forming a tube around the style; the inferior ovary, style protruding from the corolla, split in the upper portion in two branches Achenes 1.5–1.75 mm long, with five ribs, rough at the angles, black, oblong, membranous, dry and translucent, 2–3 mm long (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6).

Local Medicinal Uses The plant is used for healing of wounds, as stimulant, favors the disappearance of lesions or inflammations, and is also used as antihemorrhagic. The decoction of the whole plant (except the roots) is used to treat fevers and flu; it is also used against dysentery and as a depurative of blood (Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011; García Barriga 1975; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Ecuador: The whole fresh plant is used to treat gastrointestinal problems. The decoction of the root and leaves, mixed with calaguala (Polypodiaceae), “chinchi manilla” (Hypericum sp.), and “celery”

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Fig. 1 Ageratum conyzioides (Asteraceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Ageratum conyzioides (Asteraceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

(Psoralea sp.), is drunk as a medicine for menstruation (Kichwa de la Sierra, ethnicity unspecified – Loja). The plant is taken with “little pichana” (Cuphea sp.), “Chincha manilla” (Hypericum sp.), Lime (Citrus sp.), Carob, and brandy to treat “cold inflammation” (abrupt cooling of the body). The root, in cooking, is used to treat nausea and stomach pain, along with “tunga tunga,” and relieves kidney conditions (Kichwa de la Sierra-Loja). The plant is diuretic (Unspecified ethnicity – Loja). The dried plant is pulverized to apply it in infections of the mouth (Kichwa of the East-Orellana). Flowers and leaves, in decoction, are used to treat the cold and

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Fig. 3 Ageratum conyzioides (Asteraceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Ageratum conyzioides (Asteraceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

reduce fever (unspecified ethnic group – Guayas, Los Ríos) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Ageratum conyzioides is also used for gastrointestinal problems, often together with Chamomile (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007). In Northern India, the whole plant, together with root of Thalictrum foliolosum, is made into paste and applied on sores, cuts, and various skin ailments (Kumar et al. 2011). In Nepal, the stem extract serves to stop bleeding (Kunwar et al. 2010), while the species is used in Madagascar to relieve stomach pain (Razafindraibe et al. 2013). In Indian Bengal, the species serves to treat anthelmintic for stone, antiseptic, boils, burns, cuts, diarrhea, head ache, leprosy, muscular pain, piles, prolapsed

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Fig. 5 Ageratum conyzioides (Asteraceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 6 Ageratum conyzioides (Asteraceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

anus, ringworm, scabies, skin diseases, snake bite, sores, body swelling, tumor, uterine disorder, and lice in hairs (Verma et al. 2007).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Ecuador: It is used as fodder for cattle (Etnia not specified-Imbabura) (de la Torre et al. 2008). It has beekeeping use (Unspecified ethnicity – Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008).

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References Béjar E, Bussmann RW, Roa C, Sharon D. Medicinal herbs of southern Ecuador – Hierbas Medicinales del Sur Ecuatoriano. San Diego: Latino Herbal Press; 2002. 340 p. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in Loja province, southern Ecuador. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:44. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of longevity – the medicinal flora of Vilcabamba. Plantas de longevidad – La flora medicinal de Vilcabamba. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007. ISBN 978-09789962-2-2. de la Torre L, Navarrete H, Muriel M P, Macía MJ, Balslev H, editors. Enciclopedia de las Plantas Útiles del Ecuador. Quito/Aarhus: Herbario QCA de la Escuela de Ciencias Biológicas de la Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador/Herbario AAU del Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas de la Universidad de Aarhus; 2008. Fonnegra-Gómez R, Villa-Londoño J. Plantas medicinales usadas en algunas veredas de municipios del altiplano del oriente antioqueño, Colombia. Actual Biol. 2011;33(95):219–50. García Barriga H. Flora Medicinal de Colombia. Botánica Médica. Tomo Tercero. Bogotá: Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional; 1975. 497 pp. Kumar M, Bussmann RW, Mukesh J, Kumar P. Ethnomedicinal uses of plants close to rural habitation in Garhwal Himalayan, India. J Med Plant Res. 2011;5(11):2252–60. Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Bussmann RW. Traditional herbal medicine in far-west Nepal: a pharmacological appraisal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:35. Macbride JF, Weberbauer A. Flora of Peru. Chicago: Field Museum; 1936–1995. Pérez Arbeláez E. Plantas útiles de Colombia. 5a. Ed. Bogotá: Fondo FEN Colombia, DAMA, Jardín Botánico de Bogotá José Celestino Mutis; 1996. 831 pp. Razafindraibe HM, Razafiarison ZL, Raharimalala F, Rakotoarivony F, Randrianarivony T, Rakotoarivelo N, Randrianasolo A, Kuhlman A, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants used by women from Agnalazaha littoral forest (southeastern Madagascar). J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:73. Verma A, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants in an urban environment: the medicinal flora of Banares Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3:35.

Airampoa ayrampo (Azara) Doweld CACTACEAE Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Airampoa ayrampo (Azara) Doweld: Tunilla soehrensii (Britton & Rose) D.R. Hunt & Iliff, Opuntia ianthinantha (F. Ritter) Iliff, Opuntia multiareolata Backeb., Opuntia obliqua Backeb., Opuntia tilcarensis Backeb. var. rubellispina, Opuntia cedegreniana Backeb., Platyopuntia ianthinantha F. Ritter, nom. illeg., Platyopuntia soehrensii (Britton & Rose) F. Ritter, comb. illeg., Opuntia soehrensii Britton & Rose, Cactus ayrampo Azara, Tunilla ianthinantha (F. Ritter) D.R. Hunt & Iliff

J. Echeverría Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Chemistry and Biology, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, USACH, Santiago de Chile, Chile e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_13

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Fig. 1 Airampoa airampo (Cactaceae), Arequipa, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagiua-Zambrana)

Local Names Chile: Ayrampo, Ayrampu, Piskayo ayrampo, Piskayo

Botany and Ecology Avery plastic species with multiple populations with different forms. It grows mainly as a low subshrub, cespitose, from 30 to 60 cm in diameter and about 10–20 cm in height, branched laterally. Stems oval to round, from 4 to 8 cm in length, flattened, narrow down, with well-defined tummies. Areoles with brown indumentum, old leaves yellow to brown, with 4–12 acicular straight spines, of variable length and color. Diurnal yellow flowers; outer tepals with reddish middle line; satiny, without smell; floral tube covered with narrow scales and areoles with glochids and/or thorns. Edible fruit from 1.5 to 2.5 cm long, purplish red, with little meat but sweet; opening on apex and side, with yellowish seeds. 2000–4000 m above sea level (Hoffmann and Walter 2004) (Fig. 1).

Local Medicinal Uses A wine with refreshing characteristics is made from the fruit and used to treat colds and fever. Its use is also reported for the treatment of eye diseases. The infusion of the fruit has vermifuge properties and is used to treat diseases of the kidneys and liver, as well as to combat heartburn and herpes (Hoffmann and Walter 2004; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).

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Local Food Uses The fruits are edible and sweet tasting and are used for ice creams and juice (Hoffmann and Walter 2004; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The fruits are used to dye fabrics of purple-garnet color and as a dye in pastry (Hoffmann and Walter 2004; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).

References Hoffmann A, Walter H. Cactáceas en la flora de Chile. Segunda Edición. Santiago: Fundación Claudio Gay; 2004. 307 pp. Rodriguez R, Marticorena C, Alarcón D, Baeza C, Cavieres L, Finot VL, Fuentes N, Kiessling A, Mihoc M, Pauchard A, Ruiz E, Sanchez P, Marticorena A. Catálogo de las plantas vasculares de Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430. Villagrán C, Castro V. Ciencia indígena de los Andes del norte de Chile. Santiago: Editorial Universitaria; 2003.

Allionia incarnata L. NYCTAGINACEAE Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Allionia incarnata L.: Allionia mendocina Phil., Allionia puberula Phil., Wedeliela incarnata (L.) Cockerell, Wedelia incarnata (L.) Kuntze, Allionia bandurriae Phil., Allionia jarae Phil.

Local Names Chile: Enredadera

J. Echeverría Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Chemistry and Biology, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, USACH, Santiago de Chile, Chile e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_14

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Fig. 1 Allionia incarnata (Nyctaginaceae), Atacama, Chile. (Photo Lucas Burchard Señoret)

Botany and Ecology This short-lived perennial has trailing, slender, glandular steams with forked branches. The opposite, unequal leaves are darker green on the upper surface and lighter below. The rose-colored, funnel-shaped, 1 cm long flowers are produced singly on 1–1.5 cm stalks, and each has three partly fused, hairy bracts beneath. The oblong, compressed fruit has lengthwise glands and incurved margins, and less than 1 cm long. Sea level to 3000 m (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Fig. 1).

Local Medicinal Uses The aerial parts are used to combat fever (MacKay 2013; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Used as fodder (MacKay 2013; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).

References Macbride JF, Weberbauer A. Flora of Peru. Chicago: Field Museum; 1936–1995. MacKay P. Mojave Desert wildflowers: a field guide to wildflowers, trees, and shrubs of the Mojave Desert, including the Mojave National Preserve, Death Valley National Park, and Joshua Tree National Park. Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield; 2013. Rodriguez R, Marticorena C, Alarcón D, Baeza C, Cavieres L, Finot VL, Fuentes N, Kiessling A, Mihoc M, Pauchard A, Ruiz E, Sanchez P, Marticorena A. Catálogo de las plantas vasculares de Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430. Villagrán C, Castro V. Ciencia indígena de los Andes del norte de Chile. Santiago: Editorial Universitaria; 2003.

Allium cepa L. Allium fistulosum L. Allium ramosum L. Allium sativum L. AMARYLLIDACEAE Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Synonyms Allium cepa L.: Allium angolense Baker; Allium aobanum Araki; Allium ascalonicum var. condensum Millán; Allium ascalonicum var. fertile Millán; Allium ascalonicum var. sterile Millán; Allium cepaeum St.-Lag.; Allium esculentum Salisb.; Allium napus Pall. ex Kunth; Allium pauciflorum Willd. ex Ledeb.; Allium salota Dostál; Ascalonicum sativum P. Renault; Cepa alba P. Renault; Cepa esculenta Gray; Cepa pallens P. Renault; Cepa rubra P. Renault; Kepa esculenta Raf.; Porrum cepa (L.) Rchb. Allium ramosum L.: Aglitheis tatarica (L. f.) Raf.; Allium beckerianum Regel; Allium diaphanum Janka; Allium lancipetalum Y.P. Hsu; Allium odorum L.; Allium potaninii Regel; Allium tataricum L. f.; Allium weichanicum Palib.; Allium umbellatum Haller f. ex Steud.; Moly odorum (L.) Moench

N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] C. Romero William L. Brown Center, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO, USA e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_15

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Allium sativum L.: Allium controversum Schrad. ex Willd.; Allium longicuspis Regel; Allium pekinense Prokhanov; Allium sativum fo. sagittatum Kazakova; Allium sativum fo. vulgare Kazakova; Allium scorodoprasum var. multibulbillosum Y.N. Lee; Porrum ophioscorodon (Link) Rchb.

Local Names Allium cepa: Bolivia: Ajo macho (Spanish), Aju hork’o (Aymara); Colombia: Cebolla cabezona, Cebolla de huevo; Ecuador: Cebolla blanca (Spanish); English: Onion Allium fistulosum: English: Welsh onion Allium sativum: Bolivia, Peru: Ajo (Spanish); Colombia: Ajo, Lay, Garlic, Ail, Ajo Criollo (Spanish); English: Garlic

Botany and Ecology Allium cepa: Biennial glabrous herb, usually grown as an annual from seed or bulbs, up to 100 cm tall; real stem very short, formed at the base of the plant in the form of a disk, with adventitious roots at base; bulbs formed by the thickening of leaf-bases a short distance above the true stem, solitary or in clusters, depressed globose to ovoid or oblate, up to 20 cm in diameter, variously colored. Leaves 3–8, distichously alternate, glaucous, with tubular sheath; blade D-shaped in cross section, hollow, up to 50 cm long, acute at apex. Inflorescence a spherical umbel up to 8 cm in diameter, on a long, erect, terete, hollow scape up to 100 cm long, usually inflated below the middle; umbel initially surrounded by a membranous spathe splitting into 2–4 papery bracts. Flowers bisexual, stellate; pedicel slender, up to 4 cm long; tepals six, in two whorls, free, ovate to oblong, 3–5 mm long, greenish white to purple; stamens six; ovary superior, three-celled, style shorter than stamens at anthesis, later elongating. Fruit a globular capsule 4–6 mm in diameter, splitting loculicidally, up to six-seeded. Seeds 6 mm  4 mm, black. Allium cepa probably originates from Central Asia where some of its relatives still grow in the wild. The closest among them are Allium vavilovii Popov & Vved. from southern Turkmenistan and northern Iran, and Allium asarense R.M. Fritsch & Matin from Iran (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Fig. 1). Allium fistulosum: Perennial glabrous herb, growing in tufts, usually grown as an annual or biennial plant, up to 50(–100) cm tall, with indistinct, ovoid to oblongoid bulb up to 10 cm long, lateral bulbs few to several or virtually absent; tunic white to pale reddish brown. Leaves 4–12, distichously alternate, glaucous, with tubular sheath; blade cylindrical, hollow, 10–50(–100) cm  0.5–2.5 cm, acute at apex. Inflorescence a spherical umbel 3–7 cm in diameter, on a long, erect, terete, hollow scape up to 50(–100) cm long and up to 2.5 cm in diameter; umbel composed either of flowers or of bulbils only; spathe one, hyaline, persistent, up to 1 cm long, splitting into (1–)2–3 parts. Flowers bisexual, narrowly campanulate to urceolate; pedicel slender, up to 3 cm long; tepals six, in two whorls, free, ovate-oblong to

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Fig. 1 Allium cepa (Amaryllidaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

oblong-lanceolate, 6–10 mm long, white with greenish midvein; stamens six, exceeding tepals, connate at base and adnate to tepals; ovary superior, three-celled, style slender, exceeding tepals. Fruit a globular capsule c. 5 mm in diameter, splitting loculicidally, few-seeded. Seeds 3–4 mm  2–2.5 mm, black. Allium fistulosum is only known in cultivation and probably originated in north-western China. It was probably derived from the wild Allium altaicum Pall., which occurs in Siberia and Mongolia (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 2, 3, 4, and 5). Allium sativum: Bulbous herb growing to about 60 cm tall. Bulb rounded, composed of up to 15 smaller cloves. Leaves 4–12, sword-shaped attached to an underground stem. Flowers borne in a dense, spherical cluster on a spike up to 25 cm long. The young flower head is enclosed in a long-beaked pair of enclosing bracts, which become papery and split to reveal the flowers. Individual flower stalks arise from a common point. Flowers greenish-white or pinkish about 3 mm long. Bulbils are often interspersed among the flowers. Garlic was domesticated long ago and is mentioned in ancient Egyptian, Greek, Indian, and Chinese writings. Garlic bulbs from about 1,500 BC were found in the tomb of Tutankhamen, and garlic is mentioned in the Bible and Qur’an. Garlic is believed to originate from Central Asia (Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, and western China) (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 6, 7, 8, and 9).

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Fig. 2 Allium fistulosum (Amaryllidaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Allium fistulosum (Amaryllidaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses Allium cepa: In popular Colombian medicine, it is considered as a great disinfectant, and in this way, it is used in the form of plasters on the affected part and in cases of bites and insect bites. The onion is also considered effective to reduce inflammation and disinfect the respiratory tract: it is used especially to treat hoarseness, sore throats, and inflammation of the nasal mucosa. Consuming it as juice or broth mixed

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Fig. 4 Allium fistulosum (Amaryllidaceae), drying, Pankisi gorge, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Allium fistulosum (Amaryllidaceae), Pankisi gorge, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

with a little sugar and drunk in glasses, combined with the application of plasters, is used successfully to treat inflammations, wounds, boils, abscesses, and fistulas (Díaz 2003; García Barriga 1974; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Bolivia: Fresh bulbs are used to treat high blood pressure, varicose veins, for blood cleansing, diabetes, rheumatism, asthma, and cough (Bussmann et al. 2016; Justo and Moraes 2015; Macía et al. 2005). Ecuador: Fresh bulbs are used to treat cough (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). In Peru, it is used for cough and bronchial problems (Monigatti et al. 2013). Allium odorum is used in Peru for bronchitis, asthma, and bruises (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b). Allium sativum: Commonly used in Colombia against intestinal worms, to reduce blood pressure, reduce blood sugar, as an antispasmodic, to lower levels of cholesterol in the blood, and for intestinal diseases. It is usually used raw, as a disinfectant and as a tonic for the pituitary gland; it is a plant that also relieves diabetes and rheumatism in general. Garlic is also used to regulate liver function, cure hemorrhoids, varicose veins, gastrointestinal infections, and dysentery (Díaz 2003; Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011; Fonnegra Gómez et al. 2012; García

164 Fig. 6 Allium sativum (Amaryllidaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 7 Allium sativum (Amaryllidaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 8 Allium schoenoprasum (Amaryllidaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 9 Allium schoenoprasum (Amaryllidaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Barriga 1974; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). The whole plant is used for witchcraft and good luck; fresh bulbs are used to treat arthritis, rheumatism, for blood cleansing, high blood pressure, diabetes, high cholesterol, hemorrhage, bronchitis, cough, gastritis, intestinal infections, liver problems, cancer and as analgesic, circulatory stimulant, tonic, and vermifuge (Bussmann et al. 2018). Bolivia: Fresh bulbs are use to treat high blood pressure,

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cough, tonsillitis, hemorrhage, and for cultural illnesses (e.g., that the kari kari (a spirit) stays away and to stay young) (Bussmann et al. 2016, 2018). Peru: Fresh bulbs are used to treat cough, bronchitis, and colds, and other respiratory disorders (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010, 2011; Monigatti et al. 2013). Its antibacterial activity has been confirmed (Bussmann et al. 2011) (Figs. 10 and 11).

Fig. 10 Allium sativum (Amaryllidaceae), harvesting, garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 11 Allium sativum (Amaryllidaceae), harvesting, garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Local Food Uses Allium cepa and A. sativum are used as a seasoning and as a food (Béjar et al. 2002; Díaz 2003; García Barriga 1974; Pérez Arbeláez 1996) (Figs. 12 and 13).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Allium odorum and Allium sativum are used in Peru for bad air/mal aire and to cleanse the house of spirits (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010b), always in mixture with other species (Bussmann et al. 2010a).

Fig. 12 Allium cepa (Amaryllidaceae), onion pie, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 13 Allium cepa (Amaryllidaceae), onion pie, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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References Béjar E, Bussmann RW, Roa C, Sharon D. Medicinal herbs of southern Ecuador – Hierbas Medicinales del Sur Ecuatoriano. San Diego: Latino Herbal Press; 2002. 340 p. Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Traditional Peruvian medicine for the treatment of respiratory disorders. Rev Peru Biol. 2010;17(2):331–46. Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Fighting pain. Traditional Peruvian remedies for the treatment of asthma, rheumatism, arthritis and sore bones. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2011;10(3):397–412. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in Loja province, southern Ecuador. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006a;2:44. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing culture. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006b;2:47. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of longevity – the medicinal flora of Vilcabamba. Plantas de longevidad – La flora medicinal de Vilcabamba. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007a. ISBN 978-09789962-2-2. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of the four winds – the magic and medicinal flora of Peru. Plantas de los cuatro vientos – La flora mágica y medicinal del Perú. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007b. ISBN 978-0-9789962-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Medicinal plants of the Andes and the Amazon – the magic and medicinal flora of northern Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015a. ISBN 978-0-9960231-2-2. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plantas medicinales de los Andes y la Amazonía – La flora mágica y medicinal del Norte de Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015b. ISBN 978-09960231-3-9. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Herbal mixtures in traditional medicine in northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010a;6:10. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Glenn A. Healing the body, healing the soul. Traditional remedies for “magical” ailments, nervous system and psychosomatic disorders in northern Peru. Afr J Pharm Pharmacol. 2010b;4(9):580–629. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Sharon D, Chait G, Díaz D, Pourmand K, Jonat B, Somogy S, Guardado G, Aguirre C, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Antibacterial activity of northern Peruvian medicinal plants. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2011;9:67–96. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Moya Huanca LA, Hart RE. Changing markets – medicinal plants in the markets of La Paz and El Alto, Bolivia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;193:76–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.07.074. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Romero C, Hart RE. No consensus in “traditional” medicine – medicinal plants and their uses in the markets of Bogotá (Colombia), La Paz/El Alto (Bolivia) and Trujillo/Chiclayo (Perú). Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(3):494–8. Díaz JA, editor. Informe Técnico. Caracterización del mercado colombiano de plantas medicinales y aromáticas. Bogotá: Instituto de Investigación de Recursos Biológicos Alexander von Humboldt. Ministerio de Ambiente, Vivienda y Desarrollo Territorial; 2003. 111 pp. Fonnegra Gómez R, Alzate Guarín F, Orozco Castañeda C, Vásquez Londoño C, Suárez Quirós J, García López V, Roldán Palacio F, Correa Silva A, Vasco Correa C. Medicina Tradicional en los Corregimientos de Medellín. Historias de vidas y plantas. Medellín: Universidad de Antioquia – Alcaldía de Medellín; 2012. 305 pp. Fonnegra-Gómez R, Villa-Londoño J. Plantas medicinales usadas en algunas veredas de municipios del altiplano del oriente antioqueño, Colombia. Actual Biol. 2011;33(95):219–50.

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García Barriga H. Flora Medicinal de Colombia. Botánica Médica. Tomo Primero. Bogotá: Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional; 1974. 561 pp. Justo Chipana M, Moraes RM. Plantas medicinales comercializadas por las chifleras de La Paz y ElAlto (Bolivia) – medicinal plants marketed by chifleras of La Paz and El Alto cities (Bolivia). Ecol Bolivia. 2015;50(2):66–90. Macbride JF, Weberbauer A. Flora of Peru. Chicago: Field Museum; 1936–1995. Macía MJ, García E, Vidaurre PJ. An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants commercialized in the markets of La Paz and El Alto, Bolivia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;97:337–50. Ministerio de Protección Social. Vademécum Colombiano de Plantas Medicinales. Bogotá: Imprenta Nacional de Colombia; 2008. 311 pp. Monigatti M, Bussmann RW, Weckerle CS. Medicinal plant use in two Andean communities located at different altitudes in the Bolivar Province, Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;145 (2):450–64. Pérez Arbeláez E. Plantas útiles de Colombia. 5a. Ed. Bogotá: Fondo FEN Colombia, DAMA, Jardín Botánico de Bogotá José Celestino Mutis; 1996. 831 pp.

Alnus acuminata Kunth BETULACEAE Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

Synonyms Alnus acuminata Kunth: Alnus acuminata var. ferruginea (Kunth) Regel; Alnus acuminata var. genuina Regel; Alnus acuminata var. mirbelii (Spach) Regel; Alnus acuminata var. spachii Regel; Alnus acutissima (H.J.P. Winkl.) Callier; Alnus arguta (Schltdl.) Spach; Alnus arguta var. punctata Regel; Alnus castaneifolia Mirb.; Alnus ferruginea Kunth; Alnus ferruginea var. aliso Griseb.; Alnus ferruginea var. aliso Lorentz & Hieron.; Alnus ferruginea var. obtusifolia Callier; Alnus jorullensis var. acuminata (Kunth) Kuntze; Alnus jorullensis var. castaneifolia (Mirb.) Regel; Alnus jorullensis var. ferruginea (Kunth) Kuntze; Alnus jorullensis var. mirbelii (Spach) H.J.P. Winkl.; Alnus jorullensis var. spachii Regel; Alnus lanceolata Phil.; Alnus lindenii Regel; Alnus mirbelii Spach; Alnus mirbelii var. acutissima (H.J.P. Winkl.) Callier; Alnus rufescens Liebm. ex Hemsl.; Alnus spachii (Regel) Callier; Betula arguta Schltdl.

N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] C. Romero William L. Brown Center, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO, USA e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_16

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Fig. 1 Alnus acuminata (Betulaceae), Olan, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Names Colombia: Aliso, Cerezo, Chaquiro, Lambrán; Bolivia: Lampara (Spanish), Lamrama (Aymara); Ecuador: Aliso (Spanish), Ranbrán, Ranrán (unspecified language) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Aliso blanco (Liso), Aliso colorado (Arrugado); English: Andean alder

Botany and Ecology Large tree, 10–20 m tall, leaves elliptic-oblong, 5–10 cm long and 2.5–5 cm wide, pale rusty-pubescent beneath (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Local Medicinal Uses Alder leaves ground and mixed with fat are used to heal wounds, and heated in vinegar they are applied to relieve inflammations. Applied on the wounds help to contain the hemorrhages. In infusion, they are taken against rheumatism and colds, while tender and hot leaves are used to relieve headaches by holding them on the forehead (Ospina Penagos et al. 2005; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Bolivia: Leaves are used to treat insolation and fever (Bussmann et al. 2016; Justo and Moraes 2015). Ecuador: With the heated leaves, plasters are prepared that are applied on pimples and furuncles and on the areas affected by rheumatism (Kichwa de la SierraCotopaxi, Chimborazo, Cañar, Loja). The inner bark, boiled in vinegar, is used against lice and to treat skin scales. The leaves, in infusion, are used to treat flu and throat ailments (Kichwa de la Sierra-Cotopaxi, Chimborazo, Cañar). The infusion of the cortex is astringent, so it is used as a hemostatic; it is also used to relieve throat ailments, like rinses or gargles (Kichwa de la Sierra-Cotopaxi, Chimborazo, Cañar;

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Fig. 2 Alnus acuminata (Betulaceae), Olan, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana) Fig. 3 Alnus acuminata (Betulaceae), Olan, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

unspecified ethnic group – Cotopaxi). The plant, in a drink, is taken to treat fever and chills (Kichwa de la Sierra-Loja; Mestiza-Pichincha). The leaves are applied as plaster to relieve knee and leg pain (Kichwa de la Sierra-Loja). The leaves are used to treat injuries, sprains, and headache (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura;

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Fig. 4 Alnus acuminata (Betulaceae), Olan, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura, Chimborazo). The leaves, heated with cocoa butter, are used to treat trauma and blows (unspecified ethnic group – Cotopaxi, Cañar, Napo) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The leaves are used to treat “fright” (unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: The fresh bark used to treat rashes, skin irritations, arthritic pain and to sealing wounds (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2007), for respiratory disorders (Bussmann and Glenn 2010), asthma (Bussmann and Glenn 2011), and has proven antibacterial activities (Bussmann et al. 2010, 2011a), and low toxicity (Bussmann et al. 2011b). The species is widely sold in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2016).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Ecuador: The trunk and thick branches are used to make coal (Kichwa de la SierraCotopaxi, Chimborazo, Cañar) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The wood is used in formwork and joinery, and is used to make crafts, musical instruments, saddles, spoons, pots, plows, yokes, rudders, and capes; It is also used in construction as poles, beams, scissors, and screeds for homes (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura, Cotopaxi, Chimborazo, Cañar; unspecified ethnic group – Pichincha, Cotopaxi, Chimborazo, Cañar, Azuay, Loja, Napo) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The plant is used in agroforestry systems. The leaves are used to prepare fertilizer (Kichwa de

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la Sierra-Cotopaxi, Chimborazo, Cañar). The root is a nitrogen fixative (unspecified ethnic group – Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008).

References Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Traditional Peruvian medicine for the treatment of respiratory disorders. Rev Peru Biol. 2010;17(2):331–46. Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Fighting pain. Traditional Peruvian remedies for the treatment of asthma, rheumatism, arthritis and sore bones. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2011;10(3):397–412. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing culture. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:47. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of the four winds – the magic and medicinal flora of Peru. Plantas de los cuatro vientos – La flora mágica y medicinal del Perú. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007. ISBN 978-0-9789962-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Medicinal plants of the Andes and the Amazon – the magic and medicinal flora of northern Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015a. ISBN 978-0-9960231-2-2. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plantas medicinales de los Andes y la Amazonía – La flora mágica y medicinal del Norte de Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015b. ISBN 978-09960231-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Vandebroek I, Jones A, Revene Z. Health for sale: the medicinal plant markets in Trujillo and Chiclayo, northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3:37. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Sharon D. Antibacterial activity of medicinal plants of northern Peru – can traditional applications provide leads for modern science? Indian J Tradit Med. 2010;9 (4):742–53. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Sharon D, Chait G, Díaz D, Pourmand K, Jonat B, Somogy S, Guardado G, Aguirre C, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Antibacterial activity of northern Peruvian medicinal plants. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2011a;9:67–96. Bussmann RW, Malca G, Glenn A, Sharon D, Nilsen B, Parris B, Dubose D, Ruiz D, Saleda J, Martinez M, Carillo L, Walker K, Kuhlman A, Townesmith A. Toxicity of medicinal plants used in northern Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011b;137:121–40. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Moya Huanca LA, Hart RE. Changing markets – medicinal plants in the markets of La Paz and El Alto, Bolivia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;193:76–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.07.074. de la Torre L, Navarrete H, Muriel M P, Macía MJ, Balslev H, editors. Enciclopedia de las Plantas Útiles del Ecuador. Quito/Aarhus: Herbario QCA de la Escuela de Ciencias Biológicas de la Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador/Herbario AAU del Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas de la Universidad de Aarhus; 2008. Justo Chipana M, Moraes RM. Plantas medicinales comercializadas por las chifleras de La Paz y El Alto (Bolivia) – medicinal plants marketed by chifleras of La Paz and El Alto cities (Bolivia). Ecología en Bolivia; 2015;50(2):66–90. Macbride JF, Weberbauer A. Flora of Peru. Chicago: Field Museum; 1936–1995. Ospina Penagos CM, Hernández Restrepo RJ, Gómez Delgado DE, Godoy Bautista JA, Aristizábal Valencia FA, Patiño Castaño JN, Medina Ortega JÁ. El Aliso o Cerezo. Guías silviculturales para el manejo de especies forestales con miras a la producción de madera en la zona andina colombiana. Serie Cartillas Divulgativas. Cenicafé. Federación Nacional de Cafeteros de Colombia, Corporación Autónoma Regional de Cundinamarca – Centro de Documentación Ambiental, Cundinamarca; 2005. 37 pp. Pérez Arbeláez E. Plantas útiles de Colombia. 5a. Ed. Bogotá: Fondo FEN Colombia, DAMA, Jardín Botánico de Bogotá José Celestino Mutis; 1996. 831 pp.

Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f. ASPHODELACEAE Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

Synonyms Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f.: Aloe barbadensis Mill.; Aloe barbadensis var. chinensis Haw.; Aloe chinensis (Haw.) Baker; Aloe elongata Murray; Aloe flava Pers.; Aloe indica Royle; Aloe lanzae Tod.; Aloe perfoliata var. barbadensis (Mill.) Aiton; Aloe perfoliata var. vera L.; Aloe vera var. chinensis (Haw.) A. Berger; Aloe vera var. littoralis J. Koenig ex Baker; Aloe vulgaris Lam.; Aloe rubescens DC.

N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] C. Romero William L. Brown Center, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO, USA e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_17

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Local Names Colombia: Acíbar, Alcíbar, Aloe, Aloes, Jugo de loe, Gomorresina aloe, Penca sábila, Rul pu, Sábila, Sawila, Tuna, Zábila, Zábila común; Ecuador: Sávila Penca; English: Aloe

Botany and Ecology Herbaceous, perennial plant, often forming large colonies, up to 1.5 m tall. Stem acaule or caulescent, leaves succulent, arranged in basal rosettes, linear-lanceolate to deltoid, up to 50 cm long, ascending or extended, apex long attenuated, fleshy, light green, usually glaucous, with almost flat upper face and convex the lower, margins with deltoid teeth 2–3 mm long, whitish, often with the reddish-brown upper end. Inflorescence racemous, on a simple or branched peduncle, glabrous, with ovate and scarious bracts at the base. Flowers, tubular, yellow, hanging, are articulated to pedicels 4–5 mm in length that sprout in the armpits of ovate-lanceolate bracts, 0.8–1 cm. Perianth segments six, almost equal, the three external ones more succulent, up to 3.2 cm long, joined to almost half of their length, with a sharp apex, threenerved; stamens six, with filaments 2.3–2.5 mm long, linear anthers, 3–4 mm long, attached to the filament on the back but near its base; ovary superior, sessile, threeangled (trine), with three locules and in each locule numerous ovules arranged in two series, thin style, short stigma. The fruit a coriaceous capsule, which opens by longitudinal lines towards the cavity of the locules; three-angled seeds flattened or more or less winged, black. Aloe vera is cultivated around the world. It has escaped from cultivation and become naturalized in the Mediterranean, north Africa, the Indian subcontinent, South America, and the Caribbean (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1 and 2).

Local Medicinal Uses The root is used in Colombia to relieve colic. Aloe leaves are frequently used for the treatment of hypertension, rheumatism, and ulcers; Externally they are used in the treatment of acne, dermatitis, skin irritations, and as healers; they have also been used as a purgative. The mucilage of the leaves applied as a poultice is useful to treat various types of inflammation. The infusion of the leaves is used in the treatment of liver diseases. The juice of the leaves is used in cases of constipation to promote defecation. With the leaves of the Agave, a syrup is prepared that is used to treat pneumonia. In addition, the leaves crushed and placed in the form of poultice are widely used in skin infections and leprosy. The crystals of the leaves macerated in cold water are used as anti-sudorific. Aloe is attributed insecticidal properties and consequently people in the field hang the bushes on the doorsteps (Bussmann et al. 2018a, b; Díaz 2003; FonnegraGómez and Villa-Londoño 2011; Fonnegra Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1974;

Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f. Fig. 1 Aloe vera (Asphodelaceae), Huanchaco, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Aloe vera (Asphodelaceae), Huanchaco, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 3 Aloe vera (Asphodelaceae), ready to use, Huanchaco, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Martínez Correa and Montes Martínez 2017; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). In Ecuador, the sap is used for liver problems and internal infections, kidney problems, and to lose weight (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). In Peru, fresh leaves are used against inflammations (external), vaginal inflammations, vaginal ulcers, vaginal cancer, to stimulate hair growth, for skin embellishment, cataracts, eyes, wounds, burns, for weight loss, gastritis, internal inflammation, diabetes, cough, bronchitis, kidneys, ulcers, cholesterol, cancer, asthma, and bile (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2015a, b; Monigatti et al. 2013), gynecological problems (Bussmann and Glenn 2010a, 2011), and general respiratory system disorders (Bussmann and Glenn 2010b), as well as diabetes (Bussmann et al. 2010). Similar uses have been observed in Bolivia (Bussmann et al. 2016). Aloe sap is often used in emolientes – beverages mostly taken for breakfast (Bussmann et al. 2015). It is a great example of syncretism in Peruvian “traditional” medicine (Bussmann et al. 2007a, b, 2008, 2009; Bussmann and Sharon 2007b). The plant shows low toxicity (Bussmann et al. 2011) (Fig. 3).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses In Ecuador, Aloe plants are often hung from the door to fend of evil spirits and to protect the house (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). In Peru, the species is used for good luck and happiness (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b; Bussmann et al. 2010).

References Béjar E, Bussmann RW, Roa C, Sharon D. Medicinal herbs of southern Ecuador – Hierbas Medicinales del Sur Ecuatoriano. San Diego: Latino Herbal Press; 2002. 340 p. Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Medicinal plants used in northern Peru for reproductive problems and female health. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010a;6:30.

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Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Traditional Peruvian medicine for the treatment of respiratory disorders. Rev Peru Biol. 2010b;17(2):331–46. Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Traditional knowledge for modern ailments – plants used for the treatment of diabetes and cancer in northern Peru. J Med Plant Res. 2011;5(31):6916–30. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in Loja province, southern Ecuador. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006a;2:44. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing culture. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006b;2:47. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of longevity – the medicinal flora of Vilcabamba. Plantas de longevidad – La flora medicinal de Vilcabamba. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007a. ISBN 978-09789962-2-2. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of the four winds – the magic and medicinal flora of Peru. Plantas de los cuatro vientos – La flora mágica y medicinal del Perú. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007b. ISBN 978-0-9789962-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Medicinal plants of the Andes and the Amazon – the magic and medicinal flora of northern Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015a. ISBN 978-0-9960231-2-2. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plantas medicinales de los Andes y la Amazonía – La flora mágica y medicinal del Norte de Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015b. ISBN 978-09960231-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Lopez A. Blending traditional and Western medicine: medicinal plant use amongst patients at Clinica Anticona in El Porvenir, Peru. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2007a;5:185–99. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Vandebroek I, Jones A, Revene Z. Health for sale: the medicinal plant markets in Trujillo and Chiclayo, northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007b;3:37. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Ly J. From garden to market? The cultivation of native and introduced medicinal plant species in Cajamarca, Peru and implications habitat conservation. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2008;6:351–61. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Garcia M. From chamomile to aspirin? Medicinal plant use among clients at Laboratorios Beal in Trujillo, Peru. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009;7:399–407. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Glenn A. Healing the body, healing the soul. Traditional remedies for “magical” ailments, nervous system and psychosomatic disorders in northern Peru. Afr J Pharm Pharmacol. 2010;4(9):580–629. Bussmann RW, Malca G, Glenn A, Sharon D, Nilsen B, Parris B, Dubose D, Ruiz D, Saleda J, Martinez M, Carillo L, Walker K, Kuhlman A, Townesmith A. Toxicity of medicinal plants used in northern Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011;137:121–40. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Castañeda Sifuentes RY, Prado Velazco YA, Mandujano J. Health in a pot – the ethnobotany of emolientes and emolienteros in Peru. Econ Bot. 2015;69:83–8. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Moya Huanca LA, Hart RE. Changing markets – medicinal plants in the markets of La Paz and El Alto, Bolivia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;193:76–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.07.074. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Romero C, Hart RE. No consensus in “traditional” medicine – medicinal plants and their uses in the markets of Bogotá (Colombia), La Paz/El Alto (Bolivia) and Trujillo/Chiclayo (Perú). Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018a;17(3):494–8. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Romero C, Hart RE. Astonishing diversity – the medicinal plant markets of Bogotá, Colombia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018b;14(1):43. https://doi.org/ 10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8. Díaz JA, editor. Informe Técnico. Caracterización del mercado colombiano de plantas medicinales y aromáticas. Bogotá: Instituto de Investigación de Recursos Biológicos Alexander von Humboldt. Ministerio de Ambiente, Vivienda y Desarrollo Territorial; 2003. 111 pp. Fonnegra Gómez R, Alzate Guarín F, Orozco Castañeda C, Vásquez Londoño C, Suárez Quirós J, García López V, Roldán Palacio F, Correa Silva A, Vasco Correa C. Medicina Tradicional en los Corregimientos de Medellín. Historias de vidas y plantas. Medellín: Universidad de Antioquia – Alcaldía de Medellín; 2012. 305 pp.

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Fonnegra-Gómez R, Villa-Londoño J. Plantas medicinales usadas en algunas veredas de municipios del altiplano del oriente antioqueño, Colombia. Actual Biol. 2011;33(95):219–50. García Barriga H. Flora Medicinal de Colombia. Botánica Médica. Tomo Primero. Bogotá: Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional; 1974. 561 pp. Macbride JF, Weberbauer A. Flora of Peru. Chicago: Field Museum; 1936–1995. Martínez Correa CA, Montes Martínez PA. Determinación de la etnobotánica de las plantas medicinales comercializadas en las plazas de mercados de los municipios de Turbo, Apartadó, Carepa, Chigorodó y Mutatá, Antioquia, Colombia. Tesis de Grado, Universidad Nacional Abierta y a Distancia UNAD. Escuela de Ciencias Agrícolas, Pecuarias y del Medio Ambiente, Turbo. 2017. 136 pp. Ministerio de Protección Social. Vademécum Colombiano de Plantas Medicinales. Bogotá: Imprenta Nacional de Colombia; 2008. 311 pp. Monigatti M, Bussmann RW, Weckerle CS. Medicinal plant use in two Andean communities located at different altitudes in the Bolivar Province, Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;145 (2):450–64. Pérez Arbeláez E. Plantas útiles de Colombia. 5a. Ed. Bogotá: Fondo FEN Colombia, DAMA, Jardín Botánico de Bogotá José Celestino Mutis; 1996. 831 pp.

Aloysia deserticola (Phil.) Lu-Irving & O’Leary Aloysia triphylla Royle VERBENACEAE Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, Javier Echeverría, and Carolina Romero

Synonyms Aloysia deserticola (Phil.) Lu-Irving & O’Leary: Acantholippia deserticola (Phil.) Moldenke, Acantholippia punensis Botta, nom. illeg., Lippia deserticola Phil., Lippia microphylla Phil., nom. illeg. Aloysia triphylla Royle: Aloysia citriodora Paláu; Aloysia sleumeri Moldenke; Aloysia triphylla (L’Hér.) Britton; Aloysia triphylla fo. serrulata Moldenke; Lippia citriodora Kunth; Verbena citrodora (Palau) Cav.; Zappania citrodora (Palau) Lam.

N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] J. Echeverría Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Chemistry and Biology, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, USACH, Santiago de Chile, Chile e-mail: [email protected] C. Romero William L. Brown Center, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO, USA e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_18

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Local Names Chile: Kore, Kori, Qore, Qori, Rikarika; Colombia: Cedrón, Cidrón, Saca ojo, Yerba luisa, Zorillo; Peru: Cedrón

Botany and Ecology Aloysia deserticola: Very aromatic, branching shrub, 0.4–1 m tall, with divaricated branches, spinescent, hispid, glabrescent. Leaves opposite, sessile, peltate, squamiform, rough, yellowish-green, about 1.5  1.5–2 mm, trilobate, sub-thromboidal. Clusters terminal, contracted, sessile, globose or cylindrical, 12–15 mm. Bracts obovate to ovate, smaller than the chalice. Calyx 3–4.5 mm, densely hispid at base, subequal, brief, conspicuous, triangular teeth. White corolla, 4–6 mm, obovate lobes. Compressed obovoid fruit. 2300–3500 m above sea level (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1 and 2). Aloysia triphylla: Shrubs 1–3 m tall, aromatic, stems glabrous at maturity, subpendulous. Leaves ternate, briefly petiolate, petioles 1–5 mm; blades elliptic, 2–8  1–2.5 cm, apex acute, base acute, margins entire or slightly serrate, blade adaxially scabrous, abaxially glabrate with subsessile glandular trichomes, midvein and pinnate venation conspicuous. Inflorescences terminal and axillary, lax, 1–5 cm,

Fig. 1 Aloysia deserticola (Verbenaceae), Caspana, Chile. (Photo Lucas Burchard Señoret)

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Fig. 2 Aloysia deserticola (Verbenaceae), Caspana, Chile. (Photo Lucas Burchard Señoret)

Fig. 3 Aloysia triphylla (Verbenaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

the terminal ones grouped as paniculiform inflorescences; flowers white, small; floral bracts reduced, ovate, 1–1.5 mm, scabrous. Flower with the calyx 2.5–3 mm, puberulous, with four brief teeth, unequal, triangular; corolla tube 5–6 mm, externally puberulous. Fruits 2  1 mm, glabrous or pubescent at apex (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 3, 4, and 5).

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Fig. 4 Aloysia triphylla (Verbenaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses Aloysia triphylla: Used in Colombia as infusion as digestive, antispasmodic, carminative, for heart palpitations, nausea, vomiting, dizziness, fainting, nervous system problems, as antidepressant, for headache, diuretic, antimalarial, expectorant, antibacterial, and analgesic. Some communities use the species to treat varicose veins, toothache, and hemorrhoids. In Andean culture, Aloysia is used to treat susto and similar conditions (Bussmann et al. 2018). The leaves prepared in infusion or decoction are used in traditional medicine to promote good digestion, as an invigorating, against intestinal gases, and for the treatment of indigestion, nausea, and vomiting. The infusion or decoction of the leaves is also used as an antispasmodic, tranquilizer, nervous calming, sedative, expectorant, and for stomach disorders (Díaz 2003; Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011; Fonnegra Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1975; Giraldo Quintero et al. 2015; Martínez Correa and Montes Martínez 2017; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). In Peru, the plant has been used to remedy depression, nervous system problems, insomnia, stomach aches, and sharp body pain (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b). The species has antibacterial properties (Bussmann et al. 2008a, 2011a), and no toxicity has been reported (Bussmann et al. 2011b). Mostly applied in mixture with other plants (Bussmann et al. 2010a). Very often sold in markets and

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Fig. 5 Aloysia triphylla (Verbenaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

also planted in gardens (Bussmann et al. 2007, 2008b, 2009). Sometimes Aloysia is part of healthy beverages (emolientes) often used for breakfast (Bussmann et al. 2015). In Bolivia, similar uses have been reported (Bussmann et al. 2016; Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2017; Paniagua-Zambrana and Bussmann 2018; Quiroga et al. 2012).

Local Food Uses Aloysia deserticola: Often used as tea in Chile (Peñaloza et al. 2013; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Aloysia deserticola: In Chile, it is planted as ornamental and sometimes used as insect repellent (Peñaloza et al. 2013; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003). Aloysia triphylla: In Peru, it is also used in spiritual healing for bad air/mal aire (Bussmann et al. 2010b).

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References Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing culture. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:47. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of the four winds – the magic and medicinal flora of Peru. Plantas de los cuatro vientos – La flora mágica y medicinal del Perú. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007. ISBN 978-0-9789962-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Medicinal plants of the Andes and the Amazon – the magic and medicinal flora of northern Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015a. ISBN 978-0-9960231-2-2. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plantas medicinales de los Andes y la Amazonía – La flora mágica y medicinal del Norte de Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015b. ISBN 978-09960231-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Vandebroek I, Jones A, Revene Z. Health for sale: the medicinal plant markets in Trujillo and Chiclayo, northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3:37. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Perez F, Díaz D, Ford T, Rasheed T, Silva R. Antibacterial activity of northern-Peruvian medicinal plants – a low cost laboratory approach to assess biological activity. Arnaldoa. 2008a;15(1):127–48. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Ly J. From garden to market? The cultivation of native and introduced medicinal plant species in Cajamarca, Peru and implications habitat conservation. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2008b;6:351–61. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Garcia M. From Chamomile to Aspirin? Medicinal plant use among clients at Laboratorios Beal in Trujillo, Peru. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009;7:399–407. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Herbal mixtures in traditional medicine in northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010a;6:10. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Glenn A. Healing the body, healing the soul. Traditional remedies for “magical” ailments, nervous system and psychosomatic disorders in northern Peru. Afr J Pharm Pharmacol. 2010b;4(9):580–629. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Sharon D, Chait G, Díaz D, Pourmand K, Jonat B, Somogy S, Guardado G, Aguirre C, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Antibacterial activity of northern Peruvian medicinal plants. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2011a;9:67–96. Bussmann RW, Malca G, Glenn A, Sharon D, Nilsen B, Parris B, Dubose D, Ruiz D, Saleda J, Martinez M, Carillo L, Walker K, Kuhlman A, Townesmith A. Toxicity of medicinal plants used in northern Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011b;137:121–40. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Castañeda Sifuentes RY, Prado Velazco YA, Mandujano J. Health in a pot – the ethnobotany of emolientes and emolienteros in Peru. Econ Bot. 2015;69:83–8. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Moya Huanca LA, Hart RE. Changing markets – medicinal plants in the markets of La Paz and El Alto, Bolivia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;193:76–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.07.074. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Romero C, Hart RE. Astonishing diversity – the medicinal plant markets of Bogotá, Colombia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14(1):43. https://doi.org/ 10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8. Díaz JA, editor. Informe Técnico. Caracterización del mercado colombiano de plantas medicinales y aromáticas. Bogotá: Instituto de Investigación de Recursos Biológicos Alexander von Humboldt. Ministerio de Ambiente, Vivienda y Desarrollo Territorial; 2003. 111 pp. Fonnegra Gómez R, Alzate Guarín F, Orozco Castañeda C, Vásquez Londoño C, Suárez Quirós J, García López V, Roldán Palacio F, Correa Silva A, Vasco Correa C. Medicina Tradicional en los Corregimientos de Medellín. Historias de vidas y plantas. Medellín: Universidad de Antioquia – Alcaldía de Medellín; 2012. 305 pp. Fonnegra-Gómez R, Villa-Londoño J. Plantas medicinales usadas en algunas veredas de municipios del altiplano del oriente antioqueño, Colombia. Actual Biol. 2011;33(95):219–50.

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García Barriga H. Flora Medicinal de Colombia. Botánica Médica. Tomo Segundo. Bogotá: Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional; 1975. 538 pp. Giraldo Quintero SE, Bernal Lizarazú MC, Morales Robayo A, Pardo Lobo AZ, Gamba Molano L. Descripción del uso tradicional de plantas medicinales en mercados populares de Bogotá, D.C. NOVA. 2015;13(23):73–80. Macbride JF, Weberbauer A. Flora of Peru. Chicago: Field Museum; 1936–1995. Martínez Correa CA, Montes Martínez PA. Determinación de la etnobotánica de las plantas medicinales comercializadas en las plazas de mercados de los municipios de Turbo, Apartadó, Carepa, Chigorodó y Mutatá, Antioquia, Colombia. Tesis de Grado, Universidad Nacional Abierta y a Distancia UNAD. Escuela de Ciencias Agrícolas, Pecuarias y del Medio Ambiente, Turbo. 2017. 136 pp. Ministerio de Protección Social. Vademécum Colombiano de Plantas Medicinales. Bogotá: Imprenta Nacional de Colombia; 2008. 311 pp. Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, Hart RE, Moya Huanca AL, Ortiz Soria G, Ortiz Vaca M, Ortiz Álvarez D, Soria Morán J, Soria Morán M, Chávez S, Chávez Moreno B, Chávez Moreno G, Roca O, Siripi E. Traditional knowledge hiding in plain sight – 21st century ethnobotany of the Chácobo in Beni, Bolivia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13:57. https://doi. org/10.1186/s13002-017-0179-2. Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. La Etnobotánica de los Chácobo en el Siglo XXI. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2018;16(2):1–149. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.16.2.001-149. Peñaloza A, Pardo V, Marticorena A, Cavieres L, Frugone F. Flora y vegetación del parque nacional Llullaillaco. Chile: Región de Antofagasta; 2013. Pérez Arbeláez E. Plantas útiles de Colombia. 5a. Ed. Bogotá: Fondo FEN Colombia, DAMA, Jardín Botánico de Bogotá José Celestino Mutis; 1996. 831 pp. Quiroga R, Meneses L, Bussmann RW. Medicinal ethnobotany in Huacareta (Chiquisaca, Bolivia). J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2012;8:29. Rodriguez R, Marticorena C, Alarcón D, Baeza C, Cavieres L, Finot VL, Fuentes N, Kiessling A, Mihoc M, Pauchard A, Ruiz E, Sanchez P, Marticorena A. Catálogo de las plantas vasculares de Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430. Villagrán C, Castro V. Ciencia indígena de los Andes del norte de Chile. Santiago de Chile: Editorial Universitaria; 2003.

Alternanthera brasiliana (L.) Kuntze Alternanthera halimifolia (Lam.) Standl. ex Pittier Alternanthera porrigens (Jacq.) Kuntze Alternanthera villosa Kunth AMARANTHACEAE Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero Synonyms Alternanthera brasiliana (L.) Kuntze: Achyranthes bettzickiana (Regel) Standl.; Achyranthes brasiliana (L.) Standl.; Achyranthes capituliflora Bertero; Achyranthes geniculata Pav. ex Moq.; Alternanthera bettzickiana (Regel) Standl.; Alternanthera brasiliana var. sericea Kuntze; Alternanthera dentata (Moench) Stuchlik ex R.E. Fr.; Alternanthera jacquinii (Schrad.) Alain; Alternanthera moquinii (Webb ex Moq.) Dusén; Alternanthera ramosissima (Mart.) Chodat; Alternanthera ramosissima var. missionum Pedersen; Alternanthera rampsissima var. reptans Pedersen; Gomphrena brasiliana L.; Gomphrena brasiliensis Jacq.; Gomphrena brasiliensis L.; Gomphrena dentata Moench; Mogiphanes ramosissima Mart.;

N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] C. Romero William L. Brown Center, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO, USA e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_19

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Mogiphanes straminea Mart.; Philoxerus brasiliana (L.) Sm.; Telanthera bettzickiana Regel; Telanthera brasiliana (L.) Moq.; Telanthera brasiliana var. villosa Moq.; Telanthera capituliflora (Bertero) Moq.; Telanthera dentata Moq.; Telanthera moquinii Webb ex Moq.; Telanthera ramosissima (Mart.) Moq. Alternanthera halimifolia (Lam.) Standl. ex Pittier: Achyranthes halimifolia Lam.; Achyranthes incana Moq.; Alternanthera asterotricha Uline; Alternanthera crucis Bold.; Alternanthera flavogrisea (Urb.) Urb.; Alternanthera ficoidea var. flavogrisea Fawc. & Rendle; Alternanthera ficoidea var. halimifolia Kuntze; Alternanthera flavogrisea (Urb.) Urb.; Alternanthera halimifolia subsp. macrophylla J.T. Howell; Alternanthera polygonoides var. elongata Kunth; Celosia peruviana Van Spand. ex Moquin; Illecebrum alsinaefolium Scop.; Illecebrum frutescens L’Hér.; Illecebrum limense Dumort.; Telanthera crucis Moq.; Telanthera densiflora Moq.; Telanthera flavogrisea Urb.; Telanthera frutescens Moq.; Telanthera frutescens var. acutifolia Moq.; Telanthera var. manillensis Moq.; Telanthera halimifolia (Lam.) Steward; Telanthera truxillensis (Kunth) Moq. Alternanthera porrigens (Jacq.) Kuntze: Achyranthes bangii (Rusby) Standl.; Achyranthes porrigens Jacq.; Achyranthes purpurea Pav. ex Moq.; Alternanthera gomphrenoides Kunth; Alternanthera juncifolia I.M. Johnst.; Alternanthera paniculata Kunth; Alternanthera sericea Kunth; Brandesia porrigens (Jacq.) Mart.; Celosia elongata Spreng.; Celosia peruviana Zucc.; Gomphrena sericea Spreng.; Illecebrum gomphrenoides Willd. ex Roem. & Schult.; Illecebrum sericeum Spreng.; Mogiphanes paniculata Rusby; Telanthera bangii Rusby; Telanthera gomphrenoides Moq.; Telanthera luzuloides Moq.; Telanthera porrigens (Jacq.) Moq.; Telanthera riveti Danguy & Chermezon Alternanthera villosa Kunth: Alternanthera tomentosa (Moq.) Schinz; Illecebrum villosum (Kunth) Willd.; Telanthera tomentosum Moq.; Telanthera villosa (Kunth) Moq.

Local Names Alternanthera brasiliana: Colombia: Escancé gigante, Iscancel chiquito; Peru: Hierba del Oso, Veronica (Hembra), Moradilla de Cerro Alternanthera halimifolia: Paja Morada, Colores, Lenguetilla, Sanguinario, Lengua de Pajaro, Sanguinaria, Moradia, Moradilla, Hierba Morada Alternanthera porrigens: Ecuador: Moradilla (Spanish); Peru: Sanguinaria, Moradilla, Lancetilla (Spanish) Alternanthera villosa: Peru: Hierba del oso

Botany and Ecology Alternanthera brasiliana: Plants usually large, 50–120 cm tall and much branched, herbaceous or suffrutescent, often scandent, the branches slender or stout, pilose with rather long and appressed or sometimes short and somewhat spreading hairs,

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often glabrate or almost glabrous from the first; leaves slender-petiolate, the blades oblong or lanceolate to ovate, 4–10 cm long or even larger, acute or acuminate, rounded to acute at the base, appressed-pilose or sericeous, often nearly glabrous; flower spikes globose or short-oblong, 1–2.5 cm long, 8–12 mm thick, stramineous or whitish; peduncles simple or trifid; bracts and bractlets half as long as the sepals or shorter, glabrous or nearly so, sometimes narrowly and obscurely cristate near the apex, the crest denticulate; sepals ovate-lanceolate or lance-oblong, 3–5 mm long, rigid, acute, short-pilose; staminodia longer than the filaments, ligulate, laciniate at the apex (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995). Alternanthera halimifolia: A much branched perennial, prostrate or procumbent, the stems stellate-puberulent and with spreading, hispidulous hairs, in age sometimes glabrate; leaves rather thin, short-petiolate, the blades oblong to oval or obovateoblong, 1.5–6 cm long or larger, rounded to acutish at the apex, when young densely stellate-pubescent and often pilose with spreading, hispidulous hairs, in age sometimes glabrate; heads chiefly axillary, whitish, sessile, globose, solitary, or glomerate; the flowers stramineous or whitish; bracts and bractlets half as long as the sepals, ovate, acuminate, mucronate, appressed-pilose, the tips not appressed; sepals 3–4 mm long, ovate-oblong, acute, 3–5-nerved, densely pubescent with short, hispidulous hairs; staminodia ligulate, longer than the filaments, ligulate at the apex (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Fig. 1 Alternanthera sp. (Amaranthaceae), Huanchaco, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

194 Fig. 2 Alternanthera mexicana (Amaranthaceae), Huanchaco, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Alternanthera mexicana (Amaranthaceae), Huanchaco, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Alternanthera paniculata (Amaranthaceae), Huanchaco, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 5 Alternanthera sp. (Amaranthaceae), Huanchaco, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Alternanthera porrigens: Plants suffrutescent, large, much branched, rather stout, erect or often scandent, the stems densely pilose with appressed, white hairs, rarely glabrate in age; leaves short-petiolate, the blades ovate to elliptic or lance-oblong, acute or acuminate, commonly densely appressed-pilose on both surfaces, more conspicuously so beneath; flower heads small, numerous, forming a large panicle, purple or pink, or rarely almost white, mostly sessile in clusters of three at the tips of the branches, sometimes solitary on long, axillary peduncles, the clusters not bracted; bracts half as long as the calyx, ovate, mucronate, usually pubescent over the whole surface; sepals densely pilose, or sometimes glabrate above, usually longpilose at the base, 2.5–3 mm long, lance-oblong, acute, single-nerved or obscurely three-nerved; staminodia equaling the filaments, laciniate at the apex (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995). Alternanthera villosa: Plants herbaceous or suffrutescent, more or less scandent, densely tawny-hirsute throughout with long, spreading hairs; leaves short petiolate, the blades ovate or broadly ovate, 2.5–6.5 cm long, short acuminate, rounded to acutish at the base; peduncles simple, terminal and axillary, elongate; heads globose, stramineous, 1.5 cm broad; bracts unequal, somewhat shorter than the sepals, more or less pilose, obscurely cristulate and dentate near the apex; sepals 6–7 mm long, attenuate to an acute apex, thinly pilose; staminodia ligulate, slightly longer than the filaments, laciniate at the apex (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 5, 6, and 7).

196 Fig. 6 Alternanthera sp. (Amaranthaceae), Huanchaco, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 7 Alternanthera sp. (Amaranthaceae), Huanchaco, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Local Medicinal Uses Alternanthera brasiliana: In Colombia, the cooked leaves are applied as a plaster to cure scabies and wounds. In traditional medicine, its use as a bactericide, antiinflammatory, and analgesic is very popular (Bernal et al. 2011). In Peru, whole plant, fresh or dried, is used to treat bronchitis, asthma, bruises, fractures, twisted bones, and bumps (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b). Alternanthera halimifolia: In Peru, the whole fresh plant is used to treat inflammations (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2008a). Alternanthera porrigens: Ecuador: The whole fresh plant is used to treat kidneys and lungs (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). Peru: The whole plant, fresh or dried, is used to treat blood circulation, warts, blood coldness, and allergies (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2008a; Monigatti et al. 2013a, b). The plants are used for nervous system disorders and respiratory problems (Bussmann et al. 2010a; Bussmann and Glenn 2010). They are also used for pain, arthritis (Bussmann and Glenn 2011a), fungal infections (Bussmann and Glenn 2011b), and have antibacterial properties (Bussmann et al. 2008a, b, 2009, 2010b, c, 2011a). All species are found in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007, 2008a; Revene et al. 2008) and are normally used in mixture with other plants (Bussmann et al. 2010d). No toxicity has been observed (Bussmann et al. 2011b).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Alternanthera villosa: Peru: Flowers, leaves, and stems, fresh or dried, are used to treat bad air/mal aire and for sorcery (protection from) (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b).

References Béjar E, Bussmann RW, Roa C, Sharon D. Medicinal herbs of southern Ecuador – Hierbas Medicinales del Sur Ecuatoriano. San Diego: Latino Herbal Press; 2002. 340 p. Bernal HY, García Martínez H, Quevedo Sánchez GF, editors. Pautas para el conocimiento, conservación y uso sostenible de las plantas medicinales nativas en Colombia. Estrategia Nacional para la Conservación de Plantas. Bogotá: Ministerio de Ambiente, Vivienda y Desarrollo Territorial. Instituto de Investigación de Recursos Biológicos Alexander von Humboldt; 2011. 232 pp. Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Traditional Peruvian medicine for the treatment of respiratory disorders. Rev Peruana Biol. 2010;17(2):331–46. Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Fighting pain. Traditional Peruvian remedies for the treatment of asthma, rheumatism, arthritis and sore bones. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2011a;10(3):397–412. Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Medicinal plants used in northern Peru for the treatment of bacterial and fungal infections and inflammation symptoms. J Med Plant Res. 2011b;5(8):1297–304. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in Loja province, southern Ecuador. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006a;2:44.

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Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing culture. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006b;2:47. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of longevity – the medicinal flora of Vilcabamba. Plantas de longevidad – La flora medicinal de Vilcabamba. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007a. ISBN 978-09789962-2-2. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of the four winds – the magic and medicinal flora of Peru. Plantas de los cuatro vientos – La flora mágica y medicinal del Perú. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007b. ISBN 978-0-9789962-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Medicinal plants of the Andes and the Amazon – the magic and medicinal flora of northern Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015a. ISBN 978-0-9960231-2-2. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plantas medicinales de los Andes y la Amazonía – La flora mágica y medicinal del Norte de Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015b. ISBN 978-09960231-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Vandebroek I, Jones A, Revene Z. Health for sale: the medicinal plant markets in Trujillo and Chiclayo, northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3:37. Bussmann RW, Barocio Y, Díaz P D, Sharon D. Peruvian Plants Canchalagua (Schkuhria pinnata (Lam.) Kuntze), Hercampuri (Gentianella alborosea (Gilg.) Fabris), and Corpus Way (Gentianella bicolor (Wedd.) J. Pringle) prove to be effective in the treatment of acne. Arnaldoa. 2008a;15(1):149–52. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Perez F, Díaz D, Ford T, Rasheed T, Silva R. Antibacterial activity of northern-Peruvian medicinal plants – a low cost laboratory approach to assess biological activity. Arnaldoa. 2008b;15(1):127–48. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Ly J. From garden to market? The cultivation of native and introduced medicinal plant species in Cajamarca, Peru and implications habitat conservation. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2008c;6:351–61. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Garcia M. From Chamomile to Aspirin? Medicinal plant use among clients at Laboratorios Beal in Trujillo, Peru. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009;7:399–407. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Glenn A. Healing the body, healing the soul. Traditional remedies for “magical” ailments, nervous system and psychosomatic disorders in northern Peru. Afr J Pharm Pharmacol. 2010a;4(9):580–629. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Sharon D. Antibacterial activity of medicinal plants of northern Peru – can traditional applications provide leads for modern science? Indian J Tradit Med. 2010b;9 (4):742–53. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Herbal mixtures in traditional medicine in northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010c;6:10. Bussmann RW, Malca G, Glenn A, Sharon D, Chait G, Díaz D, Pourmand K, Jonat B, Somogy S, Guardado G, Aguirre C, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A, Effio-Carbajal J, FríasFernandez F, Benito M. Minimum inhibitory concentration of medicinal plants used in northern Peru as antibacterial remedies. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010d;132:101–8. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Sharon D, Chait G, Díaz D, Pourmand K, Jonat B, Somogy S, Guardado G, Aguirre C, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Antibacterial activity of northern Peruvian medicinal plants. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2011a;9:67–96. Bussmann RW, Malca G, Glenn A, Sharon D, Nilsen B, Parris B, Dubose D, Ruiz D, Saleda J, Martinez M, Carillo L, Walker K, Kuhlman A, Townesmith A. Toxicity of medicinal plants used in northern Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011b;137:121–40. Macbride JF, Weberbauer A. Flora of Peru. Chicago: Field Museum; 1936–1995. Monigatti, et al. Medicinal plant use in two Andean communities located at different altitudes in the Bolivar Province Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013a;145(2):450–464. Monigatti M, Vega C, Tellez C, Bussmann RW. Uso de plantas medicinales en los andes norte del Perú. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2013b. ISBN 978-0-9848415-8-5. Revene Z, Bussmann RW, Sharon D. From Sierra to Coast: tracing the supply of medicinal plants in northern Peru – a plant collector’s tale. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2008;6:15–22.

Amaranthus caudatus L. Amaranthus deflexus L. Amaranthus hybridus L. Amaranthus retroflexus L. Amaranthus spinosus L. AMARANTHACEAE Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, Javier Echeverría, and Carolina Romero Synonyms Amaranthus caudatus L.: Amaranthus caudatus var. alopecurus Moq.; Amaranthus cruentus L.; Amaranthus edulis Speg.; Amaranthus hybridus var. paniculatus (L.) Uline & W.L. Bray; Amaranthus leucocarpus S. Watson; Amaranthus leucospermus S. Watson; Amaranthus mantegazzianus Pass.; Amaranthus sanguineus L. Amaranthus deflexus L.: Amarantellus argentinus Speg., Euxolus deflexus (L.) Raf.

N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] J. Echeverría Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Chemistry and Biology, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, USACH, Santiago de Chile, Chile e-mail: [email protected] C. Romero William L. Brown Center, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO, USA e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_20

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Amaranthus hybridus L.: Amaranthus chlorostachys var. hybridus S. Watson; Amaranthus chlorostachys Willd.; Amaranthus cruentus L.; Amaranthus hecticus Willd; Amaranthus hybridus var. chlorostachys Beck; Amaranthus hybridus var. quitensis (Kunth) Covas; Amaranthus hypochondriacus L.; Amaranthus laetus Willd.; Amaranthus paniculatus L.; Amaranthus quitensis Kunth; Amaranthus retroflexus subsp. quitensis (Kunth) Bolós & Vigo; Amaranthus retroflexus var. chlorostachys A. Gray; Amaranthus retroflexus var. hybridus A. Gray; Amaranthus strictus Willd.; Galliaria hybrida (L.) Nieuwl. Amaranthus retroflexus L.: Amaranthus retroflexus var. salicifolius I.M. Johnst.; Amaranthus tricolor L.; Galliaria retroflexa (L.) Nieuwl. Amaranthus spinosus L.: Amaranthus caracasanus Kunth; Amaranthus diacanthus Raf.; Amaranthus spinosus fo. inermis Lauterb. & K. Schum.; Amaranthus spinosus var. basiscissus Thell; Amaranthus spinosus var. circumscissus Thell.; Amaranthus spinosus var. indehiscens Thell.; Amaranthus spinosis var. purpurascens Moq.; Amaranthus spinosus var. pygmaeus Hassk.; Amaranthus spinosus var. rubicaulis Hassk.; Amaranthus spinosus var. viridicaulis Hassk.; Galliaria spinosa (L.) Nieuwl.

Local Names Amaranthus caudatus: Colombia: Chita, Ataco Morado, Coime, Kiwicha; Peru: Quihuicha, Kiwicha (Quechua) Amaranthus deflexus: Chile: Romaza, Yuyo arka (compañera), Arka. Amaranthus hybridus:Colombia: Chita Bledo, Felpa; Ecuador: Bledo (Spanish); Peru: Yuyo Amaranthus retroflexus: Ecuador: Bledo Serrano, Cancel Serrano Amaranthus spinosus: Colombia: Chita Bledo, Bledo Espinoso, Bledo Macho; English: Amaranth

Botany and Ecology Amaranthus caudatus: Annual herbs; stem fleshy, commonly reddish, 30–100 cm long, mostly puberulent, simple or slightly branched, sulcate; leaves long-petioled, rhombic-ovate or oval or broadly oblong-lanceolate, cuneate at base, acute; inflorescences spiciform; terminal spike very long, branched in lower part, pendulous; glomerules compact, rounded in outline, subglobose, in lower part of inflorescence distant, in upper part approximate; bracts apiculate, longer than perianth; tepals 5, ovate-lanceolate, shorter than the fruit; capsule broadly ellipsoid, circumscissile; seed 1 mm long, dark brown to black; stamens 5. Amaranthus caudatus is not known from the wild. It originated in the Andes, possibly as a hybrid between Amaranthus hybridus L. subsp. quitensis (Kunth) Costea & Carretero and the cultivated Amaranthus cruentus L. (originating from Central America). Amaranthus caudatus has long been grown as a food crop in the Andes, e.g., by the Incas, and the greatest

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genetic variation occurs in this area (Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Argentina). The earliest archaeological evidence of its cultivation dates from 2000-year-old tombs in north-western Argentina (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995). Amaranthus cruentus: Annual herb, erect or less commonly ascending, up to 2 m tall, often reddish tinted throughout; stems stout, branched, angular, glabrous or thinly to moderately furnished with multicellular hairs. Leaves arranged spirally, simple, without stipules, long-petiolate; lamina broadly lanceolate to rhombic-ovate, 2–18 cm  2–15 cm, attenuate or shortly cuneate at base, obtuse to subacute at apex, mucronate, entire, glabrous to sparsely pilose, pinnately veined. Inflorescence large and complex, consisting of numerous agglomerated cymes arranged in axillary and terminal racemes and spikes, the terminal one up to 45 cm long, usually with many lateral, perpendicular, thin branches; bracts 2–3 mm long, with a long awn. Flowers unisexual, subsessile, with 5 tepals 1–2 mm long; male flowers with 5 stamens 1 mm long; female flowers with superior, single-celled ovary crowned by 3 stigmas. Fruit an obovoid to rhombic capsule 2–2.5 mm long, circumscissile, almost smooth, with a short beak, single-seeded. Seed obovoid to ellipsoid, compressed, 1 mm long, whitish to yellowish or blackish. Seedling with epigeal germination; hypocotyl 10–12 mm long; cotyledons c. 1.5 cm long, fleshy, petiolate. As early as 6000 years ago, Amaranthus cruentus was domesticated as a pseudo-cereal (grain amaranth) in Central America from the weed Amaranthus hybridus L. (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995). Amaranthus deflexus: Annual or very rarely perennial herb, creeping. Stems very branched from the base, somewhat erect in flowering, from 15 to 40 cm high, with moniliform pluricellular hairs. Leaves alternate, ovate or rhombic-lanceolate, 20–80 mm long by 5–25 mm wide, with obtuse apex until slightly emarginated, with petiole 8–25 mm in length, frequently with a purple and white spots. Flowers in simple or branched terminal spikes and axillary glomeruli. Bracts shorter than tepals. Flowers with 2 linear tepals – lanceolate 2 mm in length, the male with two stamens, the female with oval ovary and 2–3 stigmas. Fruit utricle, taller than wide, pear-shaped,  3 mm long, with smooth pericarp. Black or brown seed, shiny, oval,  1.5 mm in length. From sea level up to 1000 m (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995). Amaranthus hybridus: Annual, mostly pale green, sometimes reddish-tinged, 20–80 cm high; stem erect, simple or branched, grayish by dense short hairs, slightly angled; leaves rather large, ovate-rhombic, obtuse or slightly notched at apex, smooth above, shortly hairy beneath, on the margin, and on the petiole, this as long as or somewhat longer than the blade; flowers in glomerules crowded in a green dense and very compact paniculate inflorescence, disposed mainly at the summit of the stem, branched in lower part, oblong-cylindric or ovoid-pyramidal; bracts lanceolate, slenderly long-pointed, nearly twice as long as the perianth; tepals 5, surpassing the fruit, in staminate flowers lanceolate, in pistillate oblong-linear, spatulately enlarged toward apex, obtuse or retuse, mucronulate, whitishmembranous, the slender pale gray midrib mostly failing to reach the apex; stamens 5; capsule single-seeded, circumscissile, shorter than perianth; seed 1 mm long, black or blackish-brown, very shining, sharp-margined. In kitchen gardens, fallow

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Fig. 1 Amaranthus hybridus (Amaranthaceae) in a garden in Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Amaranthus hybridus (Amaranthaceae) in a garden in Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

areas, along roads and rivers, often in settlements in irrigated fields, from the lowland to the mid-mountain belt, from sea level up to 2200 m (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6). Amaranthus retroflexus: Herb, 50–120 cm tall, flowers in glomerules crowded in a green dense and very compact paniculate inflorescence, disposed mainly at the tip of the stem, branched in lower part, oblong-cylindric or ovoid-pyramidal; bracts lanceolate, slenderly long-pointed, nearly twice as long as the perianth; tepals 5, surpassing the fruit, in staminate flowers lanceolate, in pistillate oblong-linear,

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Fig. 3 Amaranthus hybridus (Amaranthaceae) in a garden in Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Amaranthus hybridus (Amaranthaceae) in a garden in Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

spatulately enlarged toward apex, obtuse or retuse, mucronulate, whitishmembranous, the slender pale gray midrib mostly failing to reach the apex; stamens 5; capsule single-seeded, circumscissile, shorter than perianth; seed 1 mm long, black or blackish-brown, very shining, sharp-margined. Vegetable and ornamental gardens, weed-infested places, and field borders (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995). Amaranthus spinosus: Annual herb, erect or slightly decumbent, up to 1.5 m tall. Stem stout, sometimes reddish, usually branched, angular, glabrous or increasingly

204 Fig. 5 Amaranthus sp. (Amaranthaceae) in a garden in Kartli, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 6 Amaranthus hybridus var. paniculatus (Amaranthaceae) in a garden in Kakheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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furnished above (especially in the inflorescence) with short or longer, multicellular, flocculent hairs. Leaves glabrous, or thinly pilose on the lower surface of the primary venation, long-petiolate, petioles up to 9 cm long, sometimes longer than the lamina, lamina lanceolate-ovate to rhomboid-ovate, elliptic, lanceolate-oblong or lanceolate, 1.5–12  0.8–6 cm, subacute or more commonly blunt or retuse at the apex with a distinct, fine colorless mucro, cuneate or attenuate at the base; each leaf-axil bearing a pair of fine and slender to stout and compressed spines up to 2.5 cm long. Flowers green, in the lower parts of the plant in axillary clusters 6–15 mm diameter, towards the ends of the stem and branches the clusters leafless and approximated to form simple or the terminal at least, branched spikes up to 15 cm long and 1 cm wide. Lower flower clusters entirely female, as are the lower flowers of the spikes; upper flowers of spikes male, mostly for the apical 1/4–2/3 of each spike. Bracts and bracteoles deltoid-ovate, pale-membranous, with an erect, commonly reddish awn formed by the excurrent green midrib: bracteoles shorter than to a little exceeding the perianth, commonly smaller than the bracts. Perianth segments 5, those of the female flowers 1.5–2.5 mm long, narrowly oblong or spathulate-oblong, obtuse or acute, mucronulate, frequently with a greenish dorsal fin; those of the male flowers broadly lanceolate or lanceolate-oblong, acute or acuminate, only the midrib green. Stigmas (2)3, flexuose or reflexed, 1–1.5 mm long. Capsule ovoid-urceolate with a short, inflated beak below the style-base, 1.5 mm long, regularly or irregularly circumscissile or more rarely indehiscent, the lid rugulose below the beak. Seed 0.75–1 mm across, black, compressed, shining, very faintly reticulate. Amaranthus spinosus originates probably from lowland tropical South and Central America and was introduced into other warmer parts of the world from about 1700 AD onwards. At present, it occurs in all tropical and subtropical regions (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).

Local Medicinal Uses Amaranthus caudatus: Used in Colombia as astringent, diuretic, and vermifuge (Bernal et al. 2011; García Barriga 1974; Patiño 1964; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Peru: Seeds, dried, are used as nutrition supplement (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2015a, b). Amaranthus hybridus: Felpa has digestive and stimulant properties and for these purposes is used in Colombia in the treatment of stomach pains by means of an infusion and decoction of the leaves and stems) (Galvis Rueda and Torres Torres 2017; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Ecuador: The whole fresh plant is used to treat general pain and heat in the breast (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). Peru: Fresh leaves and stems are used to treat inflammations (general) (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b) and have antibacterial properties (Bussmann et al. 2009, 2010, 2011). Amaranthus spinosus: Ecuador: The whole fresh plant is used to treat flu, headache, and fever (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). Amaranthus retroflexus: Ecuador: The whole fresh plant is used to treat flu, headache, and fever (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a).

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Amaranthus spinosus: In Colombia, the decoction of the whole plant (except the roots) is used as a healing agent, anti-inflammatory and anti-hemorrhagic, and to relieve abdominal pain and cramping. The same decoction is also used as a disinfectant and to heal wounds or sores (García Barriga 1974; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Ecuador: The whole fresh plant is used to cook a soup (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). Amaranthus viridis is used as astringent and emollient in Pakistan (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018).

Local Food Uses Amaranthus deflexus: It is used in Chile as tea as substitute for yerba mate. Also consumed as pudding (Baldwin et al. 2012; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003). Amaranthus hybridus and other spices are widely used as food in Eurasia (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014; Bussmann 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Amaranthus deflexus: Used in Colombia as fodder (Baldwin et al. 2012; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).

References Baldwin BG, Goldman D, Keil DJ, Patterson R, Rosatti TJ, editors. The digital Jepson manual: vascular plants of California. Berkeley: University of California Press; 2012. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Amaranthus retroflexus L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Béjar E, Bussmann RW, Roa C, Sharon D. Medicinal Herbs of Southern Ecuador – Hierbas Medicinales del Sur Ecuatoriano. San Diego: Latino Herbal Press; 2002. 340 p. Bernal HY, García Martínez H, Quevedo Sánchez GF, editors. Pautas para el conocimiento, conservación y uso sostenible de las plantas medicinales nativas en Colombia. Estrategia Nacional para la Conservación de Plantas. Bogotá: Ministerio de Ambiente, Vivienda y Desarrollo Territorial. Instituto de Investigación de Recursos Biológicos Alexander von Humboldt; 2011. 232 pp. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in Loja province, southern Ecuador. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006a;2:44. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing culture. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006b;2:47.

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Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of longevity – the medicinal flora of Vilcabamba. Plantas de longevidad – La flora medicinal de Vilcabamba. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007a. ISBN 978-09789962-2-2. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of the four winds – the magic and medicinal flora of Peru. Plantas de los cuatro vientos – La flora mágica y medicinal del Perú. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007b. ISBN 978-0-9789962-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Medicinal plants of the Andes and the Amazon – the magic and medicinal flora of northern Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015a. ISBN 978-0-9960231-2-2. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plantas medicinales de los Andes y la Amazonía – La flora mágica y medicinal del Norte de Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015b. ISBN 978-09960231-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Diaz D, Cardenas R, Chait G, Castro M, Regalado S, Del Toro CR, Malca G G, Perez AF, Glenn A. Antibacterial activity of medicinal plant species in northern Peru. Arnaldoa. 2009;16(1):93–103. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Sharon D. Antibacterial activity of medicinal plants of northern Peru – can traditional applications provide leads for modern science? Indian J Tradit Med. 2010; 9(4):742–53. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Sharon D, Chait G, Díaz D, Pourmand K, Jonat B, Somogy S, Guardado G, Aguirre C, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Antibacterial activity of northern Peruvian medicinal plants. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2011;9:67–96. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Galvis Rueda M, Torres Torres M. Etnobotánica y usos de las plantas de la comunidad rural de Sogamoso, Boyacá, Colombia. Rev Invest Agraria Ambiental. 2017;8(2):187–206. García Barriga H. Flora Medicinal de Colombia. Botánica Médica. Tomo Primero. Bogotá: Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional; 1974. 561 pp. Macbride JF, Weberbauer A. Flora of Peru. Chicago: Field Museum; 1936–1995. Patiño VM. Plantas cultivadas y animales domésticos en América Equinoccial II: Plantas alimenticias. Cali: Imprenta Departamental; 1964. 220 pp. Pérez Arbeláez E. Plantas útiles de Colombia. 5a. Ed. Bogotá: Fondo FEN Colombia, DAMA, Jardín Botánico de Bogotá José Celestino Mutis; 1996. 831 pp. Rodriguez R, Marticorena C, Alarcón D, Baeza C, Cavieres L, Finot VL, Fuentes N, Kiessling A, Mihoc M, Pauchard A, Ruiz E, Sanchez P, Marticorena A. Catálogo de las plantas vasculares de Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430. Ur-Rahman I, Afsal A, Iqbal Z, Ijas F, Ali N, Asif M, Alam J, Majid A, Bussmann RW. Traditional and ethnomedicinal dermatology practices in Pakistan. Clin Dermatol. 2018;36(3):310–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clindermatol.2018.03.018. Villagrán C, Castro V. Ciencia indígena de los Andes del norte de Chile. Santiago de Chile: Editorial Universitaria; 2003.

Ambrosia arborescens Mill. Ambrosia artemisioides Meyen & Walp. ex Meyen Ambrosia cumanensis Kunth ASTERACEAE Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, Javier Echeverría, and Carolina Romero Synonyms Ambrosia arborescens Mill.: Ambrosia artemisioides Willd.; Ambrosia frutescens Lam.; Ambrosia fruticosa Medik.; Franseria artemisioides Willd.; Franseria conwayi Rusby; Gaertneria artemisioides (Willd.) Kuntze; Xanthium artemisioides (Willd.) Delpino; Xanthium fruticosum L. f. Ambrosia artemisioides Meyen & Walp. ex Meyen: Franseria fruticosa Phil., Franseria meyeniana Sch. Bip.

N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] J. Echeverría Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Chemistry and Biology, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, USACH, Santiago de Chile, Chile e-mail: [email protected] C. Romero William L. Brown Center, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO, USA e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_21

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Ambrosia cumanensis Kunth: Ambrosia artemisiifolia var. trinitensis Grieseb.; Ambrosia orobanchifera Meyen.; Ambrosia paniculata var. cumanensis (Kunth) O.E. Schulz; Artemisia panuculata var. peruviana (Willd.) O.E. Schulz; Ambrosia peruviana All.; Ambrosia pilostachya DC.

Local Names Ambrosia arborescens: Bolivia: Altamisa, Marco (Spanish), Markju (Aymara); Ecuador: Marku, Marku yura (Kichwa), Alltamira, Altamisa, Altomiso, Artemisia, mano de marco, Marco (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Ambrosia (Spanish). Ambrosia artemisioides: Chile: Tikara, Tikara Macho, Pikara, Cadillo, Chaspaksa, Mulumulu, Monte verde, Montenegro, Tola negra, Pegapega, Lipelipe, Chilisaya, Misiko. Ambrosia peruviana: Colombia: Altamisa/Artemisa (Spanish) (Bussmann et al. 2018); Ecuador: Altamis, Marco (Spanish), Huaotu pitzanga (unspecified language) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Altamisa, Marco, Artamisa, Manzanilla del muerto, Marcos, Alta misa, Ajenjo, Altamis, Llatama negra malera, Llatama roja malera

Botany and Ecology Ambrosia arborescens: Annual. Stem 20–200 cm high, paniculately branched above, angular, weakly or quite strongly appressed-setose. Upper leaves alternate, sessile, pinnately divided; lower ones opposite, short-petiolate, bipinnately divided, dark green and more or less glabrous beneath, grayish-green above due to dense short bristles. Staminate capitula hemispherical or ovoid, 4–5 mm wide, on 2–3 mm long peduncles, glabrous, drooping. Involucre of entirely connate bracts, somewhat toothed, with occasional small bristles. Receptacle bristly scaly. Florets obconical, 10–15, glabrous, light yellow, 2 mm long; corolla tube 1 mm wide; anthers ovoid, 1 mm long, filiform; involucre enclosing achene, 4–5 mm long and 2–2.5 mm wide, obovoid or ovoid-oblong, on surface sharply and coarsely reticulate, black or brown, with short conical cusp, and 4–6 short, sharp, spine-like appendages, glabrous or with occasional bristles in lower part. Weed in crops, roadsides, irrigation channels, and weedy places (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995). Ambrosia artemisioides: Low perennial shrub 0.4–1.4 m tall, very resinous, aromatic, multibranched with numerous stems. Leaves, pectinate-pinnatifid from 1 to 5 cm long, resinous, alternate or opposite. Terminal and lateral inflorescences, spike type, between 6 and 8.6 cm long. Dicline flowers; male on the top of the spike, numerous, pedunculated with welded bracts; female chapters in the lower part of the spike and between the armpits of the leaves, less numerous, with bracts with numerous spines. Fruit a capsule formed by the bracts, which contains the achenes inside. 1700–4600 m above sea level (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1 and 2).

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Fig. 1 Ambrosia artemisioides (Asteraceae), Ayquina, Chile. (Photo Lucas Burchard Señoret)

Fig. 2 Ambrosia artemisioides (Asteraceae), Ayquina, Chile. (Photo Lucas Burchard Señoret)

Ambrosia cumanensis: Erect or rarely decumbent herb, often reclined on the ground, perennial, monoecious, up to 1 m tall. Stem simple or branched, with white hairs mostly long, scattered. Leaves opposite at the base and alternate on the upper parts, petioles long or short, the outline of the triangular-ovate-egg-shaped sheets, mostly 3–10 cm long, deeply pinnatifid, the segments long and rounded, obtuse to acute at the apex, variously lobed to dentate, but not divided up to the central nerve, with short and dense hairs, pale on the underside, with longer hairs on the veins. Male heads arranged in large and dense spiky clusters; female heads in the axils of the upper leaves. Involucrum of the female flowers in the shape of a plate of 3–4 mm wide, two series of bracts, the outer ones free, the interiors fused to the ovaries, superficially crenate lobate, with few hairs, commonly from 15 to 30 individual flowers, styles bifid. Numerous male flowers, sessile or pedicelled 2 mm long, inverted cup-shaped, fused bracts. Corollas greenish-yellow, with very short simple hairs. Fruits obovoid, angulated, with small hairs, glandular, short beak 0.5 mm long, with 4–7 short, black, and conical spines, the individual achenes 3–4 mm long. Strongly aromatic when squeezed (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 3, 4, and 5).

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Fig. 3 Ambrosia peruviana (Asteraceae), Pusac, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Ambrosia peruviana (Asteraceae), Pusac, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses Ambrosia arborescens: The whole plant is used in Colombia against cough, as antidiarrheal and antiflatulent, and to cure bronchitis and asthma. In addition, insecticides, fumigations, and incense are prepared with it. The juice extracted from the branches is used in the treatment of hemorrhoids, for stomach aches, to reduce inflammation of the feet, and also used as an antiseptic. The leaves of the

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Fig. 5 Ambrosia peruviana (Asteraceae), Pusac, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Altamisa cooked in water or fat ointment are used as anti-inflammatory and antirheumatic and for the treatment of cramps; dried and ground are allowed to macerate in water to use as an insecticide. The leaves are also used in infusions, plasters, and baths, to increase menstrual flow and to treat skin rashes, rashes, liver pain, hemorrhoids, arthritis, rheumatism, caries and colic, to treat bumps and rubs, and to treat the cold legs and body. Ground leaves are used to treat wounds, ulcerative sores, and warts and prepared in juice to treat diabetes (Bussmann et al. 2018; Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011; García Barriga 1975; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Bolivia: Fresh stems and leaves are used to treat varicose veins, stomach ache, bone pain, muscular pain, rheumatism, effects of old air, kidney infection, menstrual regulation (abortive), and prolapse of uterus (Bussmann et al. 2016). Ecuador: It contains essential oils of hypotensive properties. The plant, in infusion, is used to stimulate menstrual flow (unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha). The juice of the tender leaves, mixed with drops of lemon, expels the intestinal worms. The leaves are used to promote labor and relieve pain in childbirth and postpartum. The leaves are used in infusions, plasters, and baths, to increase menstrual flow and to treat grains, rashes, liver pain, hemorrhoids or piles, rheumatism, cavities, and cramps. The seeds are used to treat liver and bile conditions. The juice of the fresh leaves prevents the formation of internal injuries caused by blows. Used to treat pimples on the skin and to remove the cold (Mestiza-Pichincha). The juice is used to heal the split nipples of nursing mothers. Ground leaves are used to treat wounds, ulcerative sores, and warts (mitzas). Treat hemorrhoids, delays in menstruation, rheumatism, dysentery, muscle

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aches, and bloody colds (unspecified ethnicity – Carchi). Infusion or leaf juice is used to treat scabies (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura; Mestiza-Pichincha; unspecified ethnicity – Azuay). It is used to stimulate menstrual flow and to treat hemorrhoids and ulcerative sores (unspecified ethnicity – Imbabura). Infusion in bathrooms, serves to treat bumps and bruises. The plant is used to remove the cold from the body. The flowers relieve hemorrhoids and pains. The leaves treat ulcers and sores; macerated and mixed with water, they are used to treat toothache; he ties them on his forehead to relieve the headache; in infusion, they are used to wash and treat the grains, and roasted on charcoal, relieve rheumatism. Fights the formation of abscesses (unspecified ethnic group – Chimborazo). The boiled plant is used to regulate high blood pressure (Kichwa de la Sierra-Loja). The macerated plant is used as an antifungal (unspecified ethnicity – Tungurahua). Fresh leaves are used to treat hemorrhoids and pains (Mestiza, unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha). The leaves serve as anesthetics. Branches and leaves, in infusion, are used to treat cold, especially in children (unspecified ethnicity – Cotopaxi). The leaves are used to relieve colic; roasted or cooked, they are used to cure rheumatism; in juice, they are used to treat diabetes (unspecified ethnic group – Cañar). The leaves are used to treat bumps and, in rubs, to treat cold legs and body (Kichwa de la Sierra, unspecified ethnic group – Tungurahua). The leaves are used to treat hemorrhoids or piles, and the juice of the leaves, which is very bitter, is used to prevent abscesses (interior apostemes) and treat falls, bumps, etc. (unspecified ethnicity – Azuay, Cañar). The leaves, infused or ground, are used to regulate blood pressure and treat menstrual cramps, measles, wounds, colds, and cramps (Kichwa de la Sierra, unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura). The leaves, in infusion, are used to treat rheumatism, menstrual cramps, and pimples (unspecified ethnicity – Azuay). Environmental: The plant is used, in agroforestry systems, such as live fence (Kichwa de la Sierra-Cotopaxi, Tungurahua, Chimborazo, Cañar) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The entire plant, planted near the house, prevents witchcraft. Branches are used to attract good luck (unspecified ethnicity – Imbabura). The leaves and branches are used to cleanse, and as baths to treat “bad air,” “bad wind,” and “fright,” as well as to counteract witchcraft and curses and protect from evil spirits (Kichwa of the Sierra-Imbabura, Cotopaxi, Tungurahua, Chimborazo, Cañar; Mestiza-Pichincha; unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura, Pichincha, Cotopaxi, Tungurahua, Chimborazo, Bolívar, Cañar, Others (Ecuador)). It serves as abortive (unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha). It is used, together with female nettle, Santa Maria, eucalyptus, and alder, to cure “bad air” (Kichwa de la Sierra-Tungurahua) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The leaves and branches are used as insecticide, mainly to eliminate fleas, lice, flies, and bed bugs (Kichwa de la SierraCotopaxi, Tungurahua, Chimborazo, Cañar; Mestiza-Pichincha; unspecified ethnic group – Manabí, Carchi, Imbabura, Pichincha, Tungurahua, Chimborazo, Cañar, Azuay) (Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a; de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: The whole fresh plant is used for spiritual flowering. Ambrosia artemisioides: The plant is used against stomach pain, ulcers, and colds in Colombia (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).

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Ambrosia peruviana: It is commonly used in Colombia to normalize menstruation and to relieve menstrual pain. It is also used as a disinfectant, anti-inflammatory, and to promote menstruation (Bussmann et al. 2018; Fonnegra Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1975; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). The whole plant is used as analgesic, emmenagogue, as tonic, and to treat menstrual colic, udder inflammation, and witchcraft; the leaves used to treat hemorrhage, rheumatism, spasms, and as vermifuge; stems and leaves are used to treat gallbladder, liver problems, and tumors (Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador: The whole fresh plant is used to treat headache. The plant is used to treat undetermined conditions (unspecified ethnicity – Loja). Used to treat snake bites (Tsa’chi-Pichincha) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: Fresh leaves and stems are used to treat heart, nerves, epilepsy, liver, bronchitis, colds, bad air/mal aire, and burns, and the plant has antibacterial activity (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2007, 2008, 2009a, b, 2010a, b, c, 2011a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2011).

Local Food Uses Ambrosia arborescens: Ecuador: Used to ripen fruits (unspecified ethnicity – Tungurahua) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Ambrosia artemisioides: The root is edible (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Ambrosia arborescens: Ecuador: The leaves are used as fodder for donkeys (Kichwa de la Sierra-Cotopaxi, Tungurahua, Chimborazo, Cañar; unspecified ethnic group – Chimborazo) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The flower is a source of pollen for bees (unspecified ethnicity – Azuay, Cañar) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Wood is a raw material for the production of stakes, brooms, and handicrafts. The leaves are used to make handicrafts (Kichwa de la Sierra-Cotopaxi, Tungurahua, Chimborazo, Cañar). With the infused leaves, feet and armpits are washed to combat the bad smell (unspecified ethnic group – Chimborazo, Cañar). The branches serve as a broom, especially preferred for sweeping bread ovens (Kichwa de la Sierra-Cotopaxi; unspecified ethnic group – Pichincha, Cañar, Azuay). It is used for hot baths (unspecified ethnic group – Chimborazo) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The leaves and fruits are used as medicine for animals (Kichwa de la Sierra-Cotopaxi, Tungurahua, Chimborazo, Cañar). Ambrosia artemisioides: In Colombia, the plant is used as occasional forage for animals but very bitter. It serves to dye yellow and light green colors. It also serves as firewood (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).

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Ambrosia peruviana: Ecuador: It is used as a broom (unspecified ethnicity – Loja). It serves as an insect repellent (unspecified ethnic group – Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008).

References Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Mending the heart. Plants used in Peruvian ethnomedicine for heart disease, blood pressure irregularities and cholesterol control. Arnaldoa. 2011;18(2):167–78. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in Loja province, southern Ecuador. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006a;2:44. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing culture. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006b;2:47. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of longevity – the medicinal flora of Vilcabamba. Plantas de longevidad – La flora medicinal de Vilcabamba. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007a. ISBN 978-09789962-2-2. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of the four winds – the magic and medicinal flora of Peru. Plantas de los cuatro vientos – La flora mágica y medicinal del Perú. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007b. ISBN 978-0-9789962-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Medicinal plants of the Andes and the Amazon – the magic and medicinal flora of northern Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015a. ISBN 978-0-9960231-2-2. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plantas medicinales de los Andes y la Amazonía – La flora mágica y medicinal del Norte de Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015b. ISBN 978-09960231-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Vandebroek I, Jones A, Revene Z. Health for sale: the medicinal plant markets in Trujillo and Chiclayo, northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3:37. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Perez F, Díaz D, Ford T, Rasheed T, Silva R. Antibacterial activity of northern-Peruvian medicinal plants – a low cost laboratory approach to assess biological activity. Arnaldoa. 2008;15(1):127–48. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Diaz D, Cardenas R, Chait G, Castro M, Regalado S, Del Toro CR, Malca G G, Perez A F, Glenn A. Antibacterial activity of medicinal plant species in northern Peru. Arnaldoa. 2009a;16(1):93–103. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Garcia M. From Chamomile to Aspirin? Medicinal plant use among clients at Laboratorios Beal in Trujillo, Peru. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009b;7:399–407. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Sharon D. Antibacterial activity of medicinal plants of northern Peru – can traditional applications provide leads for modern science? Indian J Tradit Med. 2010a; 9(4):742–53. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Glenn A. Healing the body, healing the soul. Traditional remedies for “magical” ailments, nervous system and psychosomatic disorders in northern Peru. Afr J Pharm Pharmacol. 2010b;4(9):580–629. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Herbal mixtures in traditional medicine in northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010c;6:10. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Sharon D, Chait G, Díaz D, Pourmand K, Jonat B, Somogy S, Guardado G, Aguirre C, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Antibacterial activity of northern Peruvian medicinal plants. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2011a;9:67–96. Bussmann RW, Malca G, Glenn A, Sharon D, Nilsen B, Parris B, Dubose D, Ruiz D, Saleda J, Martinez M, Carillo L, Walker K, Kuhlman A, Townesmith A. Toxicity of medicinal plants used in northern Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011b;137:121–40. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Moya Huanca LA, Hart RE. Changing markets – medicinal plants in the markets of La Paz and El Alto, Bolivia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;193:76–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.07.074.

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Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Romero C, Hart RE. Astonishing diversity – the medicinal plant markets of Bogotá, Colombia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14(1):43. https://doi.org/ 10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8. de la Torre L, Navarrete H, Muriel M P, Macía MJ, Balslev H, editors. Enciclopedia de las Plantas Útiles del Ecuador. Quito/Aarhus: Herbario QCA de la Escuela de Ciencias Biológicas de la Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador/Herbario AAU del Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas de la Universidad de Aarhus; 2008. Fonnegra Gómez R, Alzate Guarín F, Orozco Castañeda C, Vásquez Londoño C, Suárez Quirós J, García López V, Roldán Palacio F, Correa Silva A, Vasco Correa C. Medicina Tradicional en los Corregimientos de Medellín. Historias de vidas y plantas. Medellín: Universidad de Antioquia – Alcaldía de Medellín; 2012. 305 pp. Fonnegra-Gómez R, Villa-Londoño J. Plantas medicinales usadas en algunas veredas de municipios del altiplano del oriente antioqueño, Colombia. Actual Biol. 2011;33(95):219–50. García Barriga H. Flora Medicinal de Colombia. Botánica Médica. Tomo Tercero. Bogotá: Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional; 1975. 497 pp. González JS, Molina JJ. Flora nativa de la región de Arica y Parinacota. Arica: Ediciones Universidad de Tarapacá; 2017. 233 pp. Macbride JF, Weberbauer A. Flora of Peru. Chicago: Field Museum; 1936–1995. Pérez Arbeláez E. Plantas útiles de Colombia. 5a. Ed. Bogotá: Fondo FEN Colombia, DAMA, Jardín Botánico de Bogotá José Celestino Mutis; 1996. 831 pp. Rodriguez R, Marticorena C, Alarcón D, Baeza C, Cavieres L, Finot VL, Fuentes N, Kiessling A, Mihoc M, Pauchard A, Ruiz E, Sanchez P, Marticorena A. Catálogo de las plantas vasculares de Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430. Villagrán C, Castro V. Ciencia indígena de los Andes del norte de Chile. Santiago de Chile: Editorial Universitaria; 2003.

Anacardium occidentale L. ANACARDIACEAE Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

Synonyms Anacardium occidentale L.: Acajuba occidentale (L.) Gaertn.; Anacardium amilcarianum E. Machado; Anacardium curatellaefolium A. St. Hil.; Anacardium kuhlmannianum E. Machado; Anacardium mediterraneum Vell.; Anacardium microcarpum Ducke; Anacardium occidentale var. americanum DC.; Anacardium occidentale var. gardneri Engl. Anacardium occidentale var. indicum DC.; Anacardium occidentale var. longifolium Presl.; Anacardium othonianum Rizzini; Anacardium rondonianum E. Machado; Anacardium subcordatum Presl.; Cassuvium pomiferum Lam; Cassuvium reniforme Blanco.

N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] C. Romero William L. Brown Center, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO, USA e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_22

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Local Names Colombia: Caujil, Churá, Marañón, Merey; Peru: Marañón (Spanish); English: Cashew

Botany and Ecology Evergreen tree that can go from small to medium, from 1.5 to 10 m (up to 15 m) in height, in its natural habitat and between 12 and 20 m in commercial plantations, with a diameter at breast height of up to 40 cm. Leaves broad, dense, irregularly shaped or globose, extended foliage, more than 10 m in diameter in trees old. Leaves simple and alternate, obovate or elliptical; blade 7–20 cm long by 4–12 cm wide, color matte blue green. Trunk thick, contorted trunk may be relatively straight where there are no winds. It usually branches almost from the base. Very twisted and abundant branches. Outer bark soft, brown or gray with scattered lenticels and rough longitudinal cracks (cracked). Internal bark whitish to brown, thick, bitter, and astringent and contains a milky sap. Flowers small, aromatic greenish or gray flowers with a little pink to reddish tint. The flowers form tops, which together form terminal panicles 11–29 cm long by 4.5–24.5 cm wide. Fruit a drupe 2–4 cm long by 1–2.5 cm wide, gray or brown, suspended at the end of a pedicel elongated and fleshy pear-shaped. Dicotyledonous and reniform seeds; the cotyledons are white and contain a small embryo, surrounded by a hard pericarp. There is a single seed that usually reaches a third of the weight of the fruit. Thick central root and somewhat superficial secondary roots. The species is native to the tropical zone of Brazil. The genus has a primary center of diversity in the Amazon and one secondary school in Plan Alto, Brazil. It extends through all the tropics of the New and the Old World. From the south of Mexico to Peru and Brazil, from Cuba to Trinidad. It is grown in India and Malaysia (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1 and 2).

Fig. 1 Anacardium occidentale (Anacardiaceae) fruits, Beni, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Anacardium occidentale (Anacardiaceae) fruits, Beni, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses The seeds are used in Bolivia to treat toothache, and the leaves and bark are used for diarrhea and stomachache. The bark is also applied for diabetes and kidney infections, and the leaves to remedy liver pain and for skin infections. (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2017). In Colombia, the bark of the cashew tree is used against diabetes, usually in infusion. This preparation is also used externally in skin diseases, inflammations, thrush, and throat infections. The leaves in decoction, in very minimal doses, are effective in the treatment of scurvy, aphthae, and oral ulcerations. In infusion, the flowers are used as healing, anti-inflammatory and anti-hemorrhagic, as a tonic and revitalizing general, and also as exciting and aphrodisiac. The “fruits” (which are edible) are used as laxatives, expectorants, and anti-flu. The tincture prepared with the cashew nut is used against sexual impotence and against weakness in general, and it has also been used with good results in the treatment of the flu (García Barriga 1975; Patiño 1963; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). The bark is used to treat anemia, calluses, diabetes, and for wound healing; bark and sap are used to treat warts; leaves serve to treat mouth infections, prostate, and scurvy; flowers are used to increase sexual potency, as stimulant and tonic; fruits and seeds are used to enhance memory; fruits serve to treat constipation, flu, and as expectorant; the sap is used to treat acne and skin diseases; seeds are used for general malaise, infertility, and to strengthen the body (Bussmann et al. 2018). Peru: Fresh seeds are used for scars, moles, cysts (ingrowing), and skin stains (Bussmann and Sharon 2007, 2015a, b, 2018a, b). In Madagascar, the leaves are used to treat diabetes, hemorrhoids, stomach ulcers, allergies, hepatitis, wounds, incontinence, and anorexia (Randriamiharisoa et al. 2015).

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Local Food Uses The seeds are widely eaten.

References Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of the four winds – the magic and medicinal flora of Peru. Plantas de los cuatro vientos – La flora mágica y medicinal del Perú. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007. ISBN 978-0-9789962-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Medicinal plants of the Andes and the Amazon – the magic and medicinal flora of northern Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015a. ISBN 978-0-9960231-2-2. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plantas medicinales de los Andes y la Amazonía – La flora mágica y medicinal del Norte de Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015b. ISBN 978-09960231-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Medicinal plants of the Andes and the Amazon – the magic and medicinal flora of northern Peru. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2018a;15(2):1–295. https://doi.org/ 10.32859/era.15.1.001-293. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plantas medicinales de los Andes y la Amazonía – La flora mágica y medicinal del Norte de Peru. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2018b;15(1):1–293. https://doi.org/10.32859/ era.15.2.001-295. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Romero C, Hart RE. Astonishing diversity – the medicinal plant markets of Bogotá, Colombia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14(1):43. https://doi.org/ 10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8. García Barriga H. Flora Medicinal de Colombia. Botánica Médica. Tomo Segundo. Bogotá: Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional; 1975. 538 pp. Macbride JF, Weberbauer A. Flora of Peru. Chicago: Field Museum; 1936–1995. Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, Hart RE, Moya Huanca AL, Ortiz Soria G, Ortiz Vaca M, Ortiz Álvarez D, Soria Morán J, Soria Morán M, Chávez S, Chávez Moreno B, Chávez Moreno G, Roca O, Siripi E. Traditional knowledge hiding in plain sight – 21st century ethnobotany of the Chácobo in Beni, Bolivia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13:57. https://doi. org/10.1186/s13002-017-0179-2. Patiño VM. Plantas cultivadas y animales domésticos en América Equinoccial I: Frutales. Cali: Imprenta Departamental; 1963. 378 pp. Pérez Arbeláez E. Plantas útiles de Colombia. 5a. Ed. Bogotá: Fondo FEN Colombia, DAMA, Jardín Botánico de Bogotá José Celestino Mutis; 1996. 831 pp. Randriamiharisoa MN, Kuhlman A, Jeannoda V, Rabarison H, Rakotoarivelo N, Randrianarivony T, Raktoarivony F, Randrianasolo A, Bussmann RW. Economic importance of medicinal plants sold in the markets of Antananarivo, Madagascar. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2015;11:60.

Anethum graveolens L. APIACEAE Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

Synonyms Anethum graveolens L.: Anethum graveolens subsp. sowa (Roxb. ex Fleming) N.F. Koren; Anethum sowa Roxb. ex Fleming; Ferula marathrophylla Walp.; Peucedanum anethum Baill.; Peucedanum graveolens (L.) Hiern.; Peucedanum sowa (Roxb. ex Fleming) Kurz

Local Names Spanish: Eneldo; English: Dill

N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] C. Romero William L. Brown Center, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO, USA e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_23

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Botany and Ecology Annual; entire plant glabrous, dark green, with distally indistinct blue striae with pungent spicy odor; root thin, fusiform; stem 40–12 cm high, single, erect, branching or nearly simple, thinly furrowed, with alternate narrow whitish and green striae, branching above, curved between branches; leaves tri- or quadripinnate, ovate, lobules of last order linear-filiform or nearly setaceous; lower leaves with petioles expanding to oblong, 1.5–2 cm long sheath with broad scarious margin; upper leaves with smaller and less dissected blade, sessile on sheath. Umbels to 15 cm across, of 30–50 smooth, nearly equal rays; involucre and involucels lacking; calyx-teeth very short; petals yellow, tapering to flat, hardly notched involute lobule; stylopodium pale yellow, pulviniform; styles very short, nearly erect at flowering, becoming recurved in fruit, stigma claviform-capitate; fruit ovoid or broadly ellipsoid, dorsally compressed, 3–5 mm long, 1.5–3.5 mm wide; mericarps with 3 prominent, carinate, dorsal ribs, lateral ribs extended into thin, straw-colored margin; canals solitary in valleculae, 2 toward commissure; albumen semi-elliptic in cross section, nearly flat toward commissure. Cultivated and escaped near dwellings, kitchen gardens, fields, and roads (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Fig. 1 Anethum graveolens (Apiaceae) in garden in Ajara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Anethum graveolens L. Fig. 2 Anethum graveolens (Apiaceae) in garden in Ajara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Anethum graveolens (Apiaceae) in garden in Ajara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 4 Anethum graveolens (Apiaceae) in garden in Ajara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Essential oils (Carvone).

Local Medicinal Uses Colombia: Stems and leaves are used to treat flatulence, indigestion, and used as stimulant (Bussmann et al. 2018). In India, dill is used to control blood pressure (Raj et al. 2018).

Local Food Uses The leaves are used as spice. Colombia: The fruits are used as condiment (Bussmann et al. 2018) (Figs. 5 and 6).

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Fig. 5 Anethum graveolens (Apiaceae) in market in Telavi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 6 Anethum graveolens (Apiaceae) leaves ready to eat, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Handicraft and Other Uses In Colombia, the plant is traditionally prepared in infusion to stimulate the production of breast milk and as a stimulant. It is also used as an antiflatulent, against excessive sweating, as a soothing, antiseptic, and as a stimulant of liver function. Its use includes the treatment of gastrointestinal spasms and skin ulcers. The decoction

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or infusion of stems and leaves are used as digestives and to reduce intestinal gas and colic (Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011; García Barriga 1975; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Dill is widely used as spice, especially in the Caucasus and wider Eurasia (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016).

References Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, Beer, Snuff, Medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, SamtskheJavakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ehnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Romero C, Hart RE. Astonishing diversity – the medicinal plant markets of Bogotá, Colombia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14(1):43. https://doi.org/ 10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8. Fonnegra-Gómez R, Villa-Londoño J. Plantas medicinales usadas en algunas veredas de municipios del altiplano del oriente antioqueño, Colombia. Actual Biol. 2011;33(95):219–50. García Barriga H. Flora Medicinal de Colombia. Botánica Médica. Tomo Segundo. Bogotá: Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional; 1975. 538 pp. Ministerio de Protección Social. Vademécum Colombiano de Plantas Medicinales. Bogotá: Imprenta Nacional de Colombia; 2008. 311 pp. Pérez Arbeláez E. Plantas útiles de Colombia. 5a. Ed. Bogotá: Fondo FEN Colombia, DAMA, Jardín Botánico de Bogotá José Celestino Mutis; 1996. 831 pp. Raj AJ, Biswakarma B, Pala NA, Shukla G, Vineeta V, Kumar M, Chakravarty S, Bussmann RW. Indigenous uses of ethnomedicinal plants among forest-dependent communities of northern Bengal, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14(1):8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-0180208-9.

Anthemis arvensis L. ASTERACEAE Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Anthemis arvensis L.: Anthemis arvensis var. agrestis (Wallr.) DC; Chamaemelum arvense (L.) Hoffm. & Link.

Local Names Chile: Manzanilla

J. Echeverría Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Chemistry and Biology, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, USACH, Santiago de Chile, Chile e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_24

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Fig. 1 Anthemis sp. (Asteraceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. paniagua-Zambrana)

Botany and Ecology Stems 1–5+, decumbent to erect, branched. Leaves most cauline, alternate, petiolated or sessile, +/ obovate to spoon-shaped, 1–3-pinnately divide. Inflorescence heads radiate discoid, 1 or in rounded to flat-topped clusters; involucre oblong to hemispheric or wider, phyllaries persistent, 21–35 or more, +/ graduated in 3–5 series, free, gen lanceolate, oblong, or elliptic, margin and tip scarious, receptacle hemispheric to narrowly conic, paleate throughout or distally; palaeae awl-shaped or elliptic to obovate. Ray flowers (0)5–20+, pistillate or sterile (style present); corolla white, yellow, or pink. Disk flowers 100–300+; corolla yellow, tube funnel-shaped throat, swollen, lobes +/ triangular; anther tip +/ ovate; style tips truncate. Fruitsobovoid to obconic or top-shaped, round or 4-angled, gen 10-ribbed, smooth or tuberculed, glabrous; pappus 0 or crown-like. Sea level to 500 m (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Fig. 1).

Local Medicinal Uses The infusion of the aerial parts is used for the treatment of stomach pain due to its soothing properties (Baldwin et al. 2012; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).

References Baldwin BG, Goldman D, Keil DJ, Patterson R, Rosatti TJ, editors. The digital Jepson manual: vascular plants of California. Berkeley: University of California Press; 2012. Macbride JF, Weberbauer A. Flora of Peru. Chicago: Field Museum; 1936–1995. Rodriguez R, Marticorena C, Alarcón D, Baeza C, Cavieres L, Finot VL, Fuentes N, Kiessling A, Mihoc M, Pauchard A, Ruiz E, Sanchez P, Marticorena A. Catálogo de las plantas vasculares de Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430. Villagrán C, Castro V. Ciencia indígena de los Andes del norte de Chile. Santiago: Editorial Universitaria; 2003.

Apium graveolens L. APIACEAE Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

Synonyms Apium graveolens L.: Apium integrilobum Hayata; Apium vulgare Bubani; Carum graveolens Koso-Pol.; Celeri graveolens (L.) Britton; Selinum graveolens Krause; Seseli graveolens Ledeb.; Seseli graveolens Scop.; Sium apium Roth.; Sium graveolens Vest

Local Names Bolivia: Apio (Spanish); Colombia: Apio, Apio de bebida (Spanish); Ecuador: Apio negro (Spanish); Peru: Apio Cimarron, Apio (Spanish); English: Celery

N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] C. Romero William L. Brown Center, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO, USA e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_25

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Botany and Ecology Annual or biennial; root fusiform, branching, lignifying in second year, cultivated forms with fleshy, cylindrical-turnip-shaped root; stem erect, 30–100 cm high, furrowed, often hollow, strongly branching, with spreading branches; leaves longpetioled (petioles sometimes fleshy), the lowermost leaves trifid, becoming pinnate, resembling cauline leaves; upper cauline leaves sometimes opposite, subsessile, on short sheaths with white-scarious margins; in lower leaves first-order lobes rounded, obtuse at base, 3-lobate or tripartite, incised-dentate with acute teeth, these of cauline leaves cuneate at base, with acute whitish-cartilaginous teeth. Umbels numerous, small, on short peduncles or subsessile, of 6–12 glabrous rays; involucre and involucels none; petals white, ca. 0.5 mm long; fruit 1.5–2 mm long, nearly as wide. Flowering July–September. Ural, Caucasus, along creeks, often as a weed in wet places, widely cultivated. Apium is originally endemic to the Mediterranean region and was already cultivated in ancient times. In Europe, it was known in the Middle Ages, but its widespread cultivation began only in the eighteenth century. Celery occurs wild in Europe, the Mediterranean region, and in Asia west of the Himalayas. The ancient Greeks and Egyptians already cultivated celery. It was probably first grown as a medicinal plant, later for the leaves as flavoring. Celery has a long history in China, dating back to at least the sixth century AD. In Central Europe, cultivated celery was recorded in 1623 in France (Figs. 1 and 2).

Local Medicinal Uses The fresh or dry plant is commonly used as an appetite promoter, as a digestive, against intestinal gas and colic, and as a relaxant in cases of insomnia. Its use is also recommended as an anti-inflammatory. In popular medicine, the leaves, stems, and roots are used to promote good digestion and as a stimulant. The decoction of the root is used to treat colic and against intestinal gas, and it is also used as a diuretic and stimulant. The extract and tincture of celery are used as antiscorbutic, antiflatulent, exciting, fever reducing, and diuretic, and are also advised in cases of fluid retention, weakness, and yellowing of the skin (jaundice). The fruits, both dry and mature, are used as a nervous sedative (Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011; Fonnegra Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1975; Giraldo Quintero et al. 2015; Martínez Correa and Montes Martínez 2017; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Bolivia: The whole fresh plant used to treat anemia and liver problems, for digestion, to lose weight, and as a relaxant (Bussmann et al. 2016; Justo and Moraes 2015). Colombia: Stems and leaves are used to treat aphonia, for blood cleansing, colic, diarrhea, fever, flatulence, gallbladder, indigestion, menstrual colics, stomachache, and as stimulant; stems, leaves, and seeds are used as diuretic, for wound healing, inflammation, liver problems, nerves, rheumatism, and sunstroke (Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador: The whole fresh plant is used to reduce swellings (Béjar et al.

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Fig. 1 Apium graveolens (Apiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Apium graveolens (Apiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). Peru: The whole fresh plant is used to treat bronchitis, heart problems, nerves, insomnia, anxiety, gases, gastritis, and colic of the stomach (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2007a, b, 2009, 2010a, b, 2011a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010a, b; Monigatti et al. 2013; Revene et al. 2008). It is very frequently sold in local markets, and an excellent example for syncretism in medicinal plant use in Latin America.

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Local Food Uses The stems and bulbs are often eaten, especially in Eurasia (Bussmann et al. 2014; Bussmann 2017).

References Béjar E, Bussmann RW, Roa C, Sharon D. Medicinal Herbs of Southern Ecuador – Hierbas Medicinales del Sur Ecuatoriano. San Diego: Latino Herbal Press; 2002. 340 p. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Traditional Peruvian medicine for the treatment of respiratory disorders. Rev Peruana Biol. 2010a;17(2):331–46. Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Plants used for the treatment of gastro-intestinal ailments in Northern Peruvian ethnomedicine. Arnaldoa. 2010b;17(2):255–70. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in Loja province, southern Ecuador. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006a;2:44. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing culture. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006b;2:47. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of longevity – the medicinal flora of Vilcabamba. Plantas de longevidad – La flora medicinal de Vilcabamba. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007a. ISBN 978-09789962-2-2. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of the four winds – the magic and medicinal flora of Peru. Plantas de los cuatro vientos – La flora mágica y medicinal del Perú. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007b. ISBN 978-0-9789962-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Medicinal plants of the Andes and the Amazon – the magic and medicinal flora of northern Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015a. ISBN 978-0-9960231-2-2. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plantas medicinales de los Andes y la Amazonía – La flora mágica y medicinal del Norte de Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015b. ISBN 978-09960231-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Lopez A. Blending Traditional and Western Medicine: medicinal plant use amongst patients at Clinica Anticona in El Porvenir, Peru. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2007a;5:185–99. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Vandebroek I, Jones A, Revene Z. Health for sale: the medicinal plant markets in Trujillo and Chiclayo, northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007b;3:37. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Garcia M. From Chamomile to Aspirin? Medicinal plant use among clients at Laboratorios Beal in Trujillo, Peru. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009;7:399–407. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Glenn A. Healing the body, healing the soul. Traditional remedies for “magical” ailments, nervous system and psychosomatic disorders in northern Peru. Afr J Pharm Pharmacol. 2010a;4(9):580–629. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Herbal mixtures in traditional medicine in northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010b;6:10. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Sharon D, Chait G, Díaz D, Pourmand K, Jonat B, Somogy S, Guardado G, Aguirre C, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Antibacterial activity of Northern Peruvian medicinal plants. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2011a;9:67–96. Bussmann RW, Malca G, Glenn A, Sharon D, Nilsen B, Parris B, Dubose D, Ruiz D, Saleda J, Martinez M, Carillo L, Walker K, Kuhlman A, Townesmith A. Toxicity of medicinal plants used in northern Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011b;137:121–40. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, Beer, Snuff, medicine and

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loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Moya Huanca LA, Hart RE. Changing markets – medicinal plants in the markets of La Paz and El Alto, Bolivia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;193:76–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.07.074. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Romero C, Hart RE. Astonishing diversity - the medicinal plant markets of Bogotá, Colombia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14(1):43. https://doi.org/ 10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8. Fonnegra Gómez R, Alzate Guarín F, Orozco Castañeda C, Vásquez Londoño C, Suárez Quirós J, García López V, Roldán Palacio F, Correa Silva A, Vasco Correa C. Medicina Tradicional en los Corregimientos de Medellín. Historias de vidas y plantas. Medellín: Universidad de Antioquia – Alcaldía de Medellín; 2012. 305 pp. Fonnegra-Gómez R, Villa-Londoño J. Plantas medicinales usadas en algunas veredas de municipios del altiplano del oriente antioqueño, Colombia. Actual Biol. 2011;33(95):219–50. García Barriga H. Flora Medicinal de Colombia. Botánica Médica. Tomo Segundo. Bogotá: Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional; 1975. 538 pp. Giraldo Quintero SE, Bernal Lizarazú MC, Morales Robayo A, Pardo Lobo AZ, Gamba Molano L. Descripción del uso tradicional de plantas medicinales en mercados populares de Bogotá, D.C. NOVA. 2015;13(23):73–80. Justo Chipana M, Moraes RM. Plantas medicinales comercializadas por las chifleras de La Paz y El Alto (Bolivia) – medicinal plants marketed by chifleras of La Paz and El Alto cities (Bolivia). Ecología en Bolivia 2015;50(2):66–90. Martínez Correa CA, Montes Martínez PA. Determinación de la etnobotánica de las plantas medicinales comercializadas en las plazas de mercados de los municipios de Turbo, Apartadó, Carepa, Chigorodó y Mutatá, Antioquia, Colombia. Tesis de Grado, Universidad Nacional Abierta y a Distancia UNAD. Escuela de Ciencias Agrícolas, Pecuarias y del Medio Ambiente, Turbo. 2017. 136 pp. Ministerio de Protección Social. Vademécum Colombiano de Plantas Medicinales. Imprenta Nacional de Colombia. Colombia: Bogotá; 2008. 311 pp. Monigatti M, Bussmann RW, Weckerle CS. Medicinal plant use in two Andean communities located at different altitudes in the Bolivar Province, Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;145 (2):450–64. Pérez Arbeláez E. Plantas útiles de Colombia. 5a. Ed. Bogotá: Fondo FEN Colombia, DAMA, Jardín Botánico de Bogotá José Celestino Mutis; 1996. 831 pp. Revene Z, Bussmann RW, Sharon D. From Sierra to Coast: tracing the supply of medicinal plants in northern Peru – a plant collector’s tale. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2008;6:15–22.

Argemone mexicana L. PAPAVERACEAE Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

Synonyms Argemone mexicana L.: Argemone leiocarpa Greene; Argemone mexicana fo. leiocarpa (Greene) G.B. Ownbey; Argemone mexicana var. lutea Krause; Argemone mexicana var. ochroleuca (Sweet) Lindl.; Argemone mexicana var. parviflora Kuntze; Argemone mexicana var. typica Prain; Argemone mucronata Dum. Cours. ex Steud.; Argemone ochroleuca Sweet; Argemone sexvalis Stokes; Argemone spinosa Moench; Argemone subfusiformis G.B. Owenby; Argemone versicolor Salisb.; Argemone vulgaris Spach.; Echtrus mexicanus (L.) Nieuwl.; Echtrus mexicanus Nieuwl.; Echtrus trivialis Lour.

N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] C. Romero William L. Brown Center, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO, USA e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_26

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Local Names Ecuador: Cardo santo, Anís, Huevo de perro (Spanish) (de La Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Cardo santo (Spanish); English: Mexican poppy, Prickly poppy

Botany and Ecology Erect, branched, annual herb up to 50(–100) cm tall, glabrous, containing yellow latex; taproot firm; stem with scattered prickles. Lower leaves in a rosette and with short petiole, stem leaves alternate, sessile, auricled, obovate in outline, 5–22 cm  3–7 cm, margin wavy to more or less deeply lobed, sharply toothed, lobes curled upwards, white variegated along the main veins, bluish green elsewhere, prickles scattered along the margin and on the veins below. Flowers solitary, regular, trimerous; bracts 3, leafy; sepals vaulted, terete, with few prickles, horn just below apex, caducous; petals 6, obovate, 1.5–3 cm long, pale to bright yellow; stamens many, 7–12 mm long, free; ovary superior, ovoid, 8–10 mm long, with long soft bristles, style very short, stigma 3–6-lobed, dark red. Fruit an ellipsoid, 3–6lobed capsule 2.5–4 cm long, valves 3–6, dehiscing from the apex to about 1/3, covered with sharp prickles, many-seeded. Seeds globular, 1.5–2 mm in diameter, finely net-veined, black-brown, hilum prominent, pale. Seedling with epigeal germination; cotyledons linear, up to 2 cm long. Argemone mexicana is native to Mexico and the West Indies but has become pantropical after introduction as an ornamental (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Local Medicinal Uses Bolivia: The plant is used for skin diseases and respiratory problems (Quiroga et al. 2012). Colombia. The milky-yellowish exudate of the stems has calming, sedative, and hypnotic properties similar to those of opium. The poultices made with this plant are applied to skin ulcers and syphilitic ulcers to dissolve and relieve them. The extract of the plant is used to treat melancholy and hypochondria. The leaves have soothing and desinflamatory effects in small doses and in high doses, they are narcotic. The dried leaves smoked as it is made with tobacco are used to treat asthma. The tisanes made with flowers are used for discomfort of the chest, as a promoter of sweating, and as painkillers. The green fruits are used in diseases of the nervous system, cough, and to calm the night pains suffered by patients with syphilis. Roasted and pulverized seeds in small quantities are considered a good purgative. In general, the cardosanto is calming of the bronchial inflammations, and therefore, it is advised for the treatment of the cough, the convulsions, and the spasmodic affections (García Barriga 1974; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Ecuador: The whole fresh plant is used to treat sore eyes, lungs, fright/susto, stomach pain, and stomach inflammation (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a).

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Fig. 1 Argemone mexicana (Papaveraceae), Cusco, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.U. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Argemone mexicana (Papaveraceae), Cusco, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.U. Paniagua-Zambrana)

The fruit, in decoction, is used to treat conditions of the nerves (MestizoPichincha). The infusion of the flower and fruit is drunk to treat the flu and cough (Mestizo-Pichincha; unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura, Chimborazo). The infusion of the plant is used to treat liver, kidney, and prostate problems (MestizoPichincha; unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura, Chimborazo, Loja). The plant treats postpartum conditions (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura). The sap is effective in

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Fig. 3 Argemone mexicana (Papaveraceae), Cusco, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.U. Paniagua-Zambrana)

removing warts, skin blemishes, and heated it is applied to treat acne (Kichwa de la Sierra-Tungurahua; Mestizo-Pichincha) (de La Torre et al. 2008). Peru: Fresh flowers, leaves, and stems are used to treat stomachache and inflammation (general) (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b). It shows antibacterial activity and low toxicity (Bussmann et al. 2011a, b). The plant can be found in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007) and mostly used in mixture with other species (Bussmann et al. 2010). The species has been introduced widely, and in India, the plant has a large number of medicinal uses, e.g., to treat boils, ulcers, arthritis, asthma, caries, cough, dog bite, dropsy, eye complaints, gum trouble, headache, indigestion, inflammation, jaundice, leprosy, as mouthwash, piles, ringworm, scabies, skin diseases, syphilis, toothache, and whooping cough (Verma et al. 2007).

Local Food Uses Ecuador: The infusion of the entire plant is taken as fresh water (unspecified ethnic group – Chimborazo) (de la Torre et al. 2008). In Peru, the plant is used spiritually for “seguro de casa,” “seguro de chacra,” and for protecting the house.

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Ecuador: The seeds are bird food (unspecified ethnic group – Chimborazo) (from La Torre et al. 2008). The leaves and flowers are used to prevent hair from being bracketed (unspecified ethnicity – Azuay) (de La Torre et al. 2008). The plant is sown as live fence in crops. It is used as fertilizer for the land (unspecified ethnic group – Chimborazo) (de La Torre et al. 2008).

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References Béjar E, Bussmann RW, Roa C, Sharon D. Medicinal Herbs of Southern Ecuador – Hierbas Medicinales del Sur Ecuatoriano. San Diego: Latino Herbal Press; 2002. 340 p. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in Loja province, Southern Ecuador. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006a;2:44. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in Northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing culture. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006b;2:47. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of longevity – the medicinal flora of Vilcabamba. Plantas de longevidad – La flora medicinal de Vilcabamba. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007a. ISBN 978-09789962-2-2. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of the four winds – the magic and medicinal flora of Peru. Plantas de los cuatro vientos – La flora mágica y medicinal del Perú. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007b. ISBN 978-0-9789962-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Medicinal plants of the Andes and the Amazon – the magic and medicinal flora of Northern Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015a. ISBN 978-0-9960231-2-2. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plantas medicinales de los Andes y la Amazonía – La flora mágica y medicinal del Norte de Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015b. ISBN 978-09960231-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Vandebroek I, Jones A, Revene Z. Health for sale: the medicinal plant markets in Trujillo and Chiclayo, Northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3:37. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Herbal mixtures in traditional medicine in Northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:10. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Sharon D, Chait G, Díaz D, Pourmand K, Jonat B, Somogy S, Guardado G, Aguirre C, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Antibacterial activity of Northern Peruvian medicinal plants. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2011a;9:67–96. Bussmann RW, Malca G, Glenn A, Sharon D, Nilsen B, Parris B, Dubose D, Ruiz D, Saleda J, Martinez M, Carillo L, Walker K, Kuhlman A, Townesmith A. Toxicity of medicinal plants used in Northern Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011b;137:121–40. de la Torre L, Navarrete H, Muriel M P, Macía MJ, Balslev H, editors. Enciclopedia de las Plantas Útiles del Ecuador. Quito/Aarhus: Herbario QCA de la Escuela de Ciencias Biológicas de la Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador/Herbario AAU del Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas de la Universidad de Aarhus; 2008. García Barriga H. Flora Medicinal de Colombia. Botánica Médica. Tomo Primero. Bogotá: Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional; 1974. 561 pp. Macbride JF, Weberbauer A. Flora of Peru. Chicago: Field Museum; 1936–1995. Pérez Arbeláez E. Plantas útiles de Colombia. 5a. Ed. Bogotá: Fondo FEN Colombia, DAMA, Jardín Botánico de Bogotá José Celestino Mutis; 1996. 831 pp. Quiroga R, Meneses L, Bussmann RW. Medicinal ethnobotany in Huacareta (Chiquisaca, Bolivia). J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2012;8:29. Verma A, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants in an urban environment: the medicinal flora of Banares Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3:35.

Argyrochosma nivea (Poir.) Windham PTERIDACEAE Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Javier Echeverría

Synonyms Argyrochosma nivea (Poir.) Windham.: Notholaena nivea (Poir.) Desv., Pellaea nivea (Poir.) Prantl, Pteris nivea Poir., Acrostichum albidulum Sw., Cincinalis nivea (Poir.) Desv., Gymnogramma nivea (Poir.) Mett., Cincinalis tarapacana Phil., Notholaena nivea (Poir.) Desv. var. oblongata.

Local Names Chile: Qusupi, Qusupe blanco, Chujchu hembra, Chujchu blanco, Chujllo hembra, Doradilla, Rodadilla, Culantrillo; Peru: Doradilla.

N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] J. Echeverría Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Chemistry and Biology, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, USACH, Santiago de Chile, Chile e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_27

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Fig. 1 Argyrochosma nivea (Pteridaceae), mercado Aviacion, Lima, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Botany and Ecology Evergreen shrub. Rhizome short, thick, erect or sometimes oblique, covered with linear-subulate scales, often coiled, with margins more or less complete. Agglomerated leaves, 10–30 cm long; petiole equal or shorter than the lamina, delicate, dark brown, cylindrical, glabrous; bi- or tripinnate, lanceolate or deltoid-lanceolate or ovate lamina, coriaceous, with up to 12 pairs of sub-posited pinnae, petiole-shaped, ovate to lanceolate. The last segments are suborbicular to broadly oblong, integer or lobed, with the upper surface glabrous and the lower surface densely covered with a white substance. Sporangia protected by the flat or reflex margin, not modified, 200–4000 m above sea level (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Fig. 1).

Local Medicinal Uses In Chile, the aerial parts are used as an abortive, emetic, and menstruation remedy. The infusion relieves cough and stomach pains. The infusion of the parts areas mixed with vulture meat (Coragyps atratus) is used to relieve stomach stitches. Inhaled milled powder from the aerial parts causes sneezing that relieves the headache (Rodríguez 1995; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003). In Peru, the species is used to

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treat diabetes and shows limited antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2011a, b, 2013; Bussmann and Sharon 2014). The plant is often interchangeably sold as “Cuti cuti” originally referring to Cheilanthes spp. (Bussmann et al. 2013).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses In Peru, the plant is used for spiritual flowering (Bussmann and Sharon 2018a, b).

References Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Two decades of ethnobotanical research in Southern Ecuador and Northern Peru. Ethnobiol Conserv. 2014;3:3. https://doi.org/10.1545/ec2014-6-3.2-1-50. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Medicinal plants of the Andes and the Amazon – the magic and medicinal flora of Northern Peru. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2018a;15(2):1–295. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.15.1. 001-293. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plantas medicinales de los Andes y la Amazonía – La flora mágica y medicinal del Norte de Peru. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2018b;15(1):1–293. https://doi.org/10.32859/ era.15.2.001-295. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Sharon D, Chait G, Díaz D, Pourmand K, Jonat B, Somogy S, Guardado G, Aguirre C, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Antibacterial activity of Northern Peruvian medicinal plants. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2011a;9:67–96. Bussmann RW, Malca G, Glenn A, Sharon D, Nilsen B, Parris B, Dubose D, Ruiz D, Saleda J, Martinez M, Carillo L, Walker K, Kuhlman A, Townesmith A. Toxicity of medicinal plants used in Northern Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011b;137:121–40. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Chamorro M, Molina Moreira N, Cuadros Negri ML, Olivera J. Peril in the market – classification and dosage of species used as anti-diabetics in Lima, Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:37. Macbride JF, Weberbauer A. Flora of Peru. Chicago: Field Museum; 1936–1995. Rodríguez R. Pteridophyta. In: Marticorena C, Rodríguez R, editors. Flora de Chile, vol. 1. Concepción: Ediciones Universidad de Concepción; 1995. p. 119–309. Rodriguez R, Marticorena C, Alarcón D, Baeza C, Cavieres L, Finot VL, Fuentes N, Kiessling A, Mihoc M, Pauchard A, Ruiz E, Sanchez P, Marticorena A. Catálogo de las plantas vasculares de Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430. Villagrán C, Castro V. Ciencia indígena de los Andes del norte de Chile. Santiago de Chile: Editorial Universitaria; 2003.

Artemisia absinthium L. Artemisia annua L. Artemisia copa Phil. ASTERACEAE Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, Javier Echeverría, and Carolina Romero

Synonyms Artemisia annua L.: Artemisia annua fo. macrocephala Pamp.; Artemisia chamomilla C. Winkl.; Artemisia stewartii C.B. Clarke; Artemisia wadei Edgew.

N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] J. Echeverría Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Chemistry and Biology, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, USACH, Santiago de Chile, Chile e-mail: [email protected] C. Romero William L. Brown Center, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO, USA e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_28

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Local Names Artemisia absinthium: Bolivia: Ajenjo, Ajenko, Ajinjo, Castillo ruda (Spanish), Ajinju (Aymara); Colombia: Ajenjo (Bussmann et al. 2018); Ecuador: Ajenjo, Ajenco, Polén (Spanish); Peru: Ajenco (Spanish); English: Wormwood Artemisia abrotanum: Chile: Éter Artemisia annua: Chile: Éter Artemisia copa: Chile: Kopa, Kopakopa, Kopatola, Qopaqopa, Qopa

Botany and Ecology Artemisia absinthium: Perennial. Whole plant grayish from short approximate hairs, sericeous-tomentose. Root vertical, thick, perennial. Stem 60–100 cm high, herbaceous, erect, with short branches, leafy, sometimes basally with short nonflowering branches bearing long-petiolate leaves. Leaves with 6–9 cm long and 3–7 cm wide lamina broadly ovate, almost thrice pinnately dissected, terminal lobe lanceolate, short-acuminate; middle cauline leaves short petiolate, lacking lobes at base of petiole, twice pinnately dissected; upper leaves subsessile, simple pinnate or twice ternate; bracteal leaves ternate or simple, undivided, narrowly lanceolate; lobes of all leaves linear-oblong, scarcely acuminate, undivided or with few teeth, usually 3–20 mm long and 1–4 mm wide. Capitula globose, 2.5–3.5 mm in diameter, drooping or spreading into narrowly paniculate inflorescence. Involucral bracts oblong-ovate, outer almost as long as inner bracts, hairy on spine, with wide scarious margin. Receptacle convex, hairy. Peripheral florets pistillate, usually 25, their corollas filiform-tubular; stigma lobes exserted from tube, linear, arcuate; disk florets numerous (usually 60), their corollas conical, glabrous, sometimes weakly hairy; anthers linear, apical appendages of anthers obtusely angular, with round apex, basal appendages short, obtuse; stigma lobes broadly linear, after flowering somewhat curved. Achenes about 1 mm long, oblong-cuneate, rather flat, finely sulcate, with a round, slightly convex at apex. In meadows, steppes, on river banks, forest margins, fields, rocky areas, in crops and fields, in gardens, along irrigation ditches, around settlements as weed, on recent fallow lands, near roads, dwellings, in kitchen gardens and gardens, less often in crop fields, meadows, pastures and forest edge; in forest, forest-steppe and steppe zones, as well as in mountains (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3). Artemisia abrotanum: Perennials or subshrubs, 50–130(–170) cm (not cespitose), aromatic (roots thick, woody). Stems relatively numerous, erect, brown, branched, (woody, brittle), glabrous or sparsely hairy. Leaves cauline, dark green; blades broadly ovate, (2–)3–6  0.02–0.15 cm, 2–3-pinnatifid (lobes linear or filiform), faces sparsely hairy (abaxial) or glabrous (adaxial). Heads (nodding at maturity) in open, widely branched arrays 10–30  2–10 cm. Involucres ovoid, (1–)2–3.5  (1–) 2–2.5 mm. Phyllaries oblong-elliptic, sparsely hairy. Florets: pistillate 4–8(–15); bisexual 14–16(–20); corollas yellow, 0.5–1 mm, glandular. Cypselae (light brown)

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Fig. 1 Artemisia absinthium (Asteraceae), Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Artemisia absinthium (Asteraceae), Kartli, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

ellipsoid (2–5-angled, flattened, furrowed), 0.5–1 mm, glabrous, 2500–1000 m above sea level (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995). Artemisia annua: Annual weed reaching about 2 m in height with alternate branches. Leaves are deeply dissected, with an aromatic odor, 2.5–5 cm in length, 1–3 cm in width. Flowers are tiny and yellow, in lose panicles with capitula 2–3 mm across. There are central and marginal florets. The seed vessels consist of one

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Fig. 3 Artemisia absinthium (Asteraceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Artemisia dracunculus (Asteraceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

achene, faintly nerved and 1 mm long. Naturally the plant is pollinated by insects and by the wind. Sea level to 1000 m (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995). Artemisia copa: Perennial, aromatic plant, woody at the base, somewhat tortuous, ramosa, almost glabrous, up to 50 cm high. Leaves linear, mostly 6–13  1–2.5 mm,

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Fig. 5 Artemisia dracunculus (Asteraceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 6 Artemisia dracunculus (Asteraceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

apex obtuse, crass, glabrous, arranged in groups somewhat spaced along the stems. Solitary, pedunculated, pendulous, disposed towards the ends of the twigs, 6–7 mm in diameter and 5–5.5 high. Hexpherical involvement of 2  7 mm; with about 14 involucre bracts, lanceolate, 3–4.5 mm, wide membranous margin, transparent, eroso. Tapered receptacle, with linear palea. White marginal flowers, yellow discs. Achenes obovoid, tuberculated, devoid of pappus, 3000–4700 m above sea level (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 4, 5, 6, and 7).

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Fig. 7 Artemisia dracunculus (Asteraceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses Artemisia absinthium: This plant is used as a promoter of digestion, antispasmodic, antacid, against intestinal worms, against fever, as an appetite stimulant, and also in the treatment of gallbladder affections and intestinal obstructions. Externally it is used as an antiseptic, for the treatment of blows and insect bites, and for ulcers or skin sores. In popular medicine, it is used as a general tonic and particularly to treat liver diseases and bilious states (Díaz 2003; Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011; García Barriga 1975; Giraldo Quintero et al. 2015; Martínez Correa and Montes Martínez 2017; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Bolivia: Fresh stems and leaves are used to treat diarrhea, gallbladder, stomachache, gastritis/ulcers, diabetes, thrush, cold, air (cultural illnesses), and as anthelmintic (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b; Justo and Moraes 2015; Macía et al. 2005). Colombia: The whole plant used to treat gallbladder, liver problems, and as vermifuge and tonic; stems, leaves, and flowers are used as analgesic, diuretic, and to treat lack of appetite; leaves are used to treat fright/susto, blood cleansing, for breast care, cough, deafness, diarrhea, flatulence, gallstones, halitosis, headache, indigestion, lung diseases, otitis, insect stings, stomach ache, stomach problems, sunstroke, throat inflammation, toothache, and as tranquilizer and vomitive (Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador: The fresh leaves are used to treat body pain,

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stomach pain, and also for critical illnesses (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). The infusion of the plant is used to treat liver and kidney problems (stones), indigestion, and stomach pain (excess cause dizziness) (unspecified ethnicity – Imbabura). The infusion of the plant is used to treat bile and nerve problems (unspecified ethnic group – Chimborazo). It is used to treat liver conditions, inflammation of the kidneys, diabetes, and to level cholesterol. It is used as an antiparasitic (Mestiza-Pichincha) (de la Torre et al. 2008). (In Peru, the introduced Artemisia is used to treat menstrual colic and is used to regulate the menstrual cycle and for nervous system issues (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010a; Bussmann and Glenn 2010; Monigatti et al. 2013). It is a good example of syncretic medicinal plant uses in the Americas (Bussmann and Sharon 2007b; Bussmann et al. 2007, 2008, 2009). Normally Artemisia species are used in mixtures with other plants, because they show clear toxicity (Bussmann et al. 2010b, 2011a). Some antibacterial activity has been reported (Bussmann et al. 2011b). In the Caucasus, Artemisia absinthium is used to treat bedwetting in children, colds, flu, and sore throat (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016b). Artemisia annua: The infusion is used as relaxant (Ferreira et al. 1996; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003). Artemisia copa: The infusion is used for pain, for gall bladder problems, as digestive, often combined with sodium bicarbonate. The infusion mixed with milk is used for stomach pain, cold, and colic. In the form of baths or incense, it serves to combat “mal de aire” and toothache. As a bath, it serves for bone pain. People attribute to the species the ability to cause vivid dreams (Peñaloza et al. 2013; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).

Local Food Uses Artemisia absinthium: Ecuador: The plant is used to prepare wormwood liquor (unspecified ethnicity-Azuay, Cañar) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Artemisia cola: The leaves of the plant are used as tea, and it produces edible roots (Peñaloza et al. 2013; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003) (Figs. 8, 9, and 10).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses In Bolivia and Peru, it is also used to treat freight/susto in children and fend off sorcery (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010a, 2016a). Similar uses have been reported from Ethiopia, where the species is used to fend off evil from cattle (Bussmann et al. 2011c) and against evil eye (Luizza et al. 2013). In the Caucasus, Artemisia absinthium is used to treat wounds in animals (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016b).

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Fig. 8 Artemisia absinthium (Asteraceae), drying for winter, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 9 Artemisia dracunculus (Asteraceae), leaves ready to eat, Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Artemisia copa: People attribute to the species the ability to cause vivid dreams. The plant is also used as dye for green to yellow and as forage (Peñaloza et al. 2013; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).

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Fig. 10 Artemisia dracunculus (Asteraceae), leaves ready to eat, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

References Béjar E, Bussmann RW, Roa C, Sharon D. Medicinal herbs of Southern Ecuador – Hierbas Medicinales del Sur Ecuatoriano. San Diego: Latino Herbal Press; 2002. 340 p. Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Medicinal plants used in Northern Peru for reproductive problems and female health. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:30. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in Loja province, Southern Ecuador. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006a;2:44. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in Northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing culture. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006b;2:47. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of longevity – The medicinal flora of Vilcabamba. Plantas de longevidad – La flora medicinal de Vilcabamba. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007a. ISBN 978-09789962-2-2. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of the four winds – the magic and medicinal flora of Peru. Plantas de los cuatro vientos – La flora mágica y medicinal del Perú. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007b. ISBN 978-0-9789962-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Medicinal plants of the Andes and the Amazon – the magic and medicinal flora of Northern Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015a. ISBN 978-0-9960231-2-2. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plantas medicinales de los Andes y la Amazonía – La flora mágica y medicinal del Norte de Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015b. ISBN 978-09960231-3-9.

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Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Lopez A. Blending traditional and western medicine: medicinal plant use amongst patients at Clinica Anticona in El Porvenir, Peru. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2007;5:185–99. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Ly J. From garden to market? The cultivation of native and introduced medicinal plant species in Cajamarca, Peru and implications habitat conservation. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2008;6:351–61. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Garcia M. From Chamomile to Aspirin? Medicinal plant use among clients at Laboratorios Beal in Trujillo, Peru. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009;7:399–407. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Glenn A. Healing the body, healing the soul. Traditional remedies for “magical” ailments, nervous system and psychosomatic disorders in Northern Peru. Afr J Pharm Pharmacol. 2010a;4(9):580–629. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Herbal mixtures in traditional medicine in Northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010b;6:10. Bussmann RW, Malca G, Glenn A, Sharon D, Nilsen B, Parris B, Dubose D, Ruiz D, Saleda J, Martinez M, Carillo L, Walker K, Kuhlman A, Townesmith A. Toxicity of medicinal plants used in Northern Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011a;137:121–40. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Sharon D, Chait G, Díaz D, Pourmand K, Jonat B, Somogy S, Guardado G, Aguirre C, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Antibacterial activity of Northern Peruvian medicinal plants. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2011b;9:67–96. Bussmann RW, Swartzinsky P, Worede A, Evangelista P. Plant use in Odo-Bulu and Demaro, Bale region, Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2011c;7:28. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Moya Huanca LA, Hart RE. Changing markets – medicinal plants in the markets of La Paz and El Alto, Bolivia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016a;193:76–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.07.074. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016b;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Romero C, Hart RE. No consensus in “traditional” medicine – medicinal plants and their uses in the markets of Bogotá (Colombia), La Paz/El Alto (Bolivia) and Trujillo/Chiclayo (Perú). Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(3):494–8. de la Torre L, Navarrete H, Muriel M P, Macía MJ, Balslev H, editors. Enciclopedia de las Plantas Útiles del Ecuador. Quito/Aarhus: Herbario QCA de la Escuela de Ciencias Biológicas de la Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador/Herbario AAU del Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas de la Universidad de Aarhus; 2008. Díaz JA, editor. Informe Técnico. Caracterización del mercado colombiano de plantas medicinales y aromáticas. Bogotá: Instituto de Investigación de Recursos Biológicos Alexander von Humboldt. Ministerio de Ambiente, Vivienda y Desarrollo Territorial; 2003. 111 pp. Ferreira JFS, Jannick J in Jannik J editors. Progress in new crops ASHS Press Arlington 579-8. (1996). Fonnegra-Gómez R, Villa-Londoño J. Plantas medicinales usadas en algunas veredas de municipios del altiplano del oriente antioqueño, Colombia. Actual Biol. 2011;33(95):219–50. García Barriga H. Flora Medicinal de Colombia. Botánica Médica. Tomo Tercero. Bogotá: Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional; 1975. 497 pp. Giraldo Quintero SE, Bernal Lizarazú MC, Morales Robayo A, Pardo Lobo AZ, Gamba Molano L. Descripción del uso tradicional de plantas medicinales en mercados populares de Bogotá, D.C. NOVA. 2015;13(23):73–80.

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Justo Chipana M, Moraes RM. Plantas medicinales comercializadas por las chifleras de La Paz y El Alto (Bolivia) – medicinal plants marketed by chifleras of La Paz and El Alto cities (Bolivia). Ecol Bolivia 2015;50(2):66–90. Luizza MW, Young H, Kuroiwa C, Evangelista P, Worede A, Bussmann RW, Weimer A. Local knowledge of plants and their uses among women in the Bale Mountains, Ethiopia. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2013;11:315–39. Macbride JF, Weberbauer A. Flora of Peru. Chicago: Field Museum; 1936–1995. Macía MJ, García E, Vidaurre PJ. An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants commercialized in the markets of La Paz and El Alto, Bolivia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;97:337–350. Martínez Correa CA, Montes Martínez PA. Determinación de la etnobotánica de las plantas medicinales comercializadas en las plazas de mercados de los municipios de Turbo, Apartadó, Carepa, Chigorodó y Mutatá, Antioquia, Colombia. Tesis de Grado, Universidad Nacional Abierta y a Distancia UNAD. Escuela de Ciencias Agrícolas, Pecuarias y del Medio Ambiente, Turbo. 2017. 136 pp. Ministerio de Protección Social. Vademécum Colombiano de Plantas Medicinales. Bogotá: Imprenta Nacional de Colombia; 2008. 311 pp. Monigatti M, Bussmann RW, Weckerle CS. Medicinal plant use in two Andean communities located at different altitudes in the Bolivar Province, Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;145(2):450–64. Peñaloza A, Pardo V, Marticorena A, Cavieres L, Frugone F. Flora y vegetación del parque nacional Llullaillaco. Santiago: Región de Antofagasta; 2013. Pérez Arbeláez E. Plantas útiles de Colombia. 5a. Ed. Bogotá: Fondo FEN Colombia, DAMA, Jardín Botánico de Bogotá José Celestino Mutis; 1996. 831 pp. Rodriguez R, Marticorena C, Alarcón D, Baeza C, Cavieres L, Finot VL, Fuentes N, Kiessling A, Mihoc M, Pauchard A, Ruiz E, Sanchez P, Marticorena A. Catálogo de las plantas vasculares de Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430. Villagrán C, Castro V. Ciencia indígena de los Andes del norte de Chile. Santiago de Chile: Editorial Universitaria; 2003.

Astragalus arequipensis Vogel FABACEAE Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Astragalus arequipensis Vogel: Astragalus orbignyanus Wedd., Astragalus drepanophrorus Griseb., Astragalus bolivianus Phil., Astragalus sinocarpus Rusby.

Local Names Spanish: Chile: Garbanzo, garbanzaillo, kontekonte, algarrobillo.

Botany and Ecology Perennial herb, no more than 10 cm in diameter, low, at ground level; creeping stems, with short, pubescent internodes. Greenish-gray leaves, large and thick between 5 and 12 cm long, odd-pinnate; leaflets between 8.5 and 12 mm long, flat, elliptical J. Echeverría Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Chemistry and Biology, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, USACH, Santiago de Chile, Chile e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_29

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Fig. 1 Astragalus pusillus (Fabaceae), Caspana, Chile. (Photo: Lucas Burchard Señoret)

cuneate, apex obtuse to truncated retuse, villous-pubescent, usually only on the abaxial surface. Inflorescences shortly pedunculated. Flowers between 7.5 and 10 mm long; blue-violaceous corolla 6–9 mm long, exceptionally white. Fruit: legume, glabrous approximately 1.5 cm long with approximately 9 seeds, 3000–4500 m above sea level (González and Molina 2017) (Fig. 1).

Local Medicinal Uses The aerial parts mixed with urine, guano of waycho (Agriornis sp.), and lizard meat are elaborated a patch for the treatment of bone breaks (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The plant is used as forage when still green it is toxic. The children use the pods to print marks on the ground in the form of flame footsteps (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).

References González JS, Molina JJ. Flora nativa de la región de Arica y Parinacota. Arica: Ediciones Universidad de Tarapacá; 2017. 233 pp. Rodriguez R, Marticorena C, Alarcón D, Baeza C, Cavieres L, Finot VL, Fuentes N, Kiessling A, Mihoc M, Pauchard A, Ruiz E, Sanchez P, Marticorena A. Catálogo de las plantas vasculares de Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430. Villagrán C, Castro V. Ciencia indígena de los Andes del norte de Chile. Santiago: Editorial Universitaria; 2003.

Atriplex glaucescens Phil. Atriplex imbricata (Moq.) D. Dietr. var. imbricata Atriplex madariagae Phil. AMARANTHACEAE Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann Synonyms Atriplex glaucescens Phil.: Atriblex imbricata (Moq.) D. Dietr.; Atriplex polyphylla Phil. Atriplex imbricata (Moq.) D. Dietr. var. imbricata: Atriplex axillaris Phil., Atriplex microphylla Phil., Obione imbricata Moq., Atriplex salaris Phil., Obione axillaris (Phil.) Ulbr.

J. Echeverría Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Chemistry and Biology, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, USACH, Santiago de Chile, Chile e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_30

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Local Names Atriplex glaucescens: Chile: Juirajuira Atriplex imbricata: Chile: Cachiyuyo, Chókel, Chókil, Kachiyuyo, Kopakopa macho, Ojalar, Ojala, Ojalata, Pilaya, Piyaya, Piyawa Atriplex madariagae: Chile: Chókel, Chókil, Cachial, Kachiyuyo, Kacheyuyo, Kachuyo, Kachuyo macho, Kórial, Chókel, Juirajuira, Ojala, Piyaya, Piyaya macho, Yuyo

Botany and Ecology Atriplex glaucescens: Perennial shrub, between 30 and 110 cm tall, erect or sometimes decumbent; cylindrical branches between 10 and 50 cm long, covered with vesicular hairs. Alternate leaves; the basal ones between 6 and 26 mm long and between 5 and 14 mm wide, oval-triangular, coriaceous or papyraceous, whole or sometimes with a pair of basal lobes, acute apex, base from slightly attenuated to truncate, petioles between 1 and 5 mm long or sometimes sessile; upper leaves sessile, narrow, triangular-oval, sharp apex, rounded base. Male inflorescence spiciform, formed by continuous or interrupted glomeruli, axillary or terminal. Female axillary flowers, in pauciform glomeruli, in the basal wall of the branches. Lenticular seeds, brown, 1300–3700 m above sea level (González and Molina 2017) (Fig. 1). Atriplex imbricata: Monoecious shrub, erect, sometimes somewhat prostrate, towards the thick and woody base, 30–50 cm. Cylindrical branches, 10–40 cm, with vesicular hairs, and the longitudinally split bark. Leaves imbricated at least in apices, sessile and subamplexicaul, cordiform, 2–5  2–6 mm, thick, coriaceous, grayish-yellowish or sometimes glaucous green, with vesicular hairs; sharp apex, cordate base. Axillary or terminal male inflorescences, spiciform, of dense or interrupted glomeruli. Female flowers axillary, solitary or in glomeruli, pauciflorous in the basal part of the branches, rhombic, 1–2 mm. Bractéolas fruitful of 2–6  2–6 mm, sessile, welded in the basal third, rhombic-orbicular to ovatetransverse, coriaceous, yellowish grays, entire upper edge, rounded or sometimes subtrepid, with the middle tooth wider; truncated base, smooth or tubercular back. Lenticular seed, brown, 1.5 mm in diameter, super radicle, 3500–3800 m above sea level (González and Molina 2017) (Fig. 2). Atriplex madariagae: Shrub, erect, up to 3 m high, with cylindrical branches, wicker; internodes 15–35 mm long. Alternate leaves; from 15 to 30 ( 36) mm long and 8–15 mm wide; ovate or angulated ovate; leathery; generally light green and glossy, or yellowish gray; whole or irregularly eroded teeth; obtuse apex; base obtuse, abruptly contracted until attenuated in the petiole that varies between 2 and 5 mm in length. Numerous male inflorescences, specific, in interrupted multiflorous giomerérulos. Terminal female inflorescences, in multiflorous glomeruli that cover the twigs. Bracts 4–6 mm long and 4–7 mm wide; broadly suborbicular to transverse ovate; fused at the base; thin, almost lustrous and crustose; yellowish to yellowish

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Fig. 1 Atriplex atacamensis (Amaranthaceae), Chiu, Chile. (Photo Lucas Burchard Señoret)

Fig. 2 Atriplex sp. (Amaranthaceae), Huanchaco, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

gray; whole or with 2 superior or lateral angles; obtuse apex, sometimes with a denticle of variable size; truncated base, sometimes with a thin pedicel, usually recurved basal edges; back smooth or with two basal crests, evident rib. Lenticular seed, 2 mm in diameter, dark brown. Spheroidal pollen, from 23 to 25 microns in diameter, polyporate, with 16–32 pores. Individuals mostly unisexual, 200–2700 m above sea level (González and Molina 2017) (Figs. 3, 4, and 5).

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Fig. 3 Atriplex hortensis (Amaranthaceae), Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Atriplex hortensis (Amaranthaceae), Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo J R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses Atriplex glaucescens: The aerial parts are used to treat blood diseases (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003). Atriplex imbricata: The aerial parts mixed with other plants not described are used for the treatment of diabetes (Peñaloza et al. 2013; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).

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Fig. 5 Atriplex hortensis (Amaranthaceae), Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Atriplex madariagae: The juice of the leaves is fresh and relieves fever (Rosas 1989; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).

Local Food Uses Atriplex imbricata: The aerial parts have nutritional properties due to their salty taste and are consumed in salads and as a stew (Peñaloza et al. 2013; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003). Atriplex madariagae: The tender leaves are consumed with lemon, as a salad, and they are also prepared in stews like the charkikan (Rosas 1989; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Atriplex glaucescens: The plant is used as fodder (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003). Atriplex imbricata: The plant is used as forage and firewood. The root is used for peeling grains of wheat and maize (Peñaloza et al. 2013; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003). Atriplex madariagae: The plant is used as forage and firewood. The root is used for peeling grains of wheat and maize and pataska (Rosas 1989; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).

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References González JS, Molina JJ. Flora nativa de la región de Arica y Parinacota. Arica: Ediciones Universidad de Tarapacá; 2017. 233 pp. Peñaloza A, Pardo V, Marticorena A, Cavieres L, Frugone F. Flora y vegetación del parque nacional Llullaillaco. Región de Antofagasta: Peñazola-García; 2013. Rodriguez R, Marticorena C, Alarcón D, Baeza C, Cavieres L, Finot VL, Fuentes N, Kiessling A, Mihoc M, Pauchard A, Ruiz E, Sanchez P, Marticorena A. Catálogo de las plantas vasculares de Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430. Rosas MR. El genero Atriplex (Chenopodiaceae) en Chile. Gayana Bot. 1989;46(1–2):3–81. Villagrán C, Castro V. Ciencia indígena de los Andes del norte de Chile. Santiago: Editorial Universitaria; 2003.

Avena sativa L. POACEAE Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

Synonyms Avena sativa L.: Avena algeriensis Trab.; Avena anglica hort. ex Roem. & Schult.; Avena byzantina K. Koch.; Avena byzantina var. thellungiana (Malzev) E. Morren; Avena chinensis Fisch. ex Roem. & Schult.; Avena chinensis Link; Avena cinerea hort. ex Roem. & Schult.; Avena distans Schur; Avena fatua fo. glaberrima Thell.; Avena fatua subsp. cultiformis Malzev; Avena fatua subsp. macrantha (Hack.) Malzev; Avena fatua subsp. praegravis (Krause) Maltzev; Avena fatua subsp. sativa (L.) Thell.; Avena fatua subvar. contracta (Neilr.) Maltzev; Avena fatua var. glaberrima (Thell.) Maltzev; Avena fatua var. sativa (L.) Kausskn.; Avena flava hort. ex Roem. & Schult.; Avena fusca Schur; Avena fusciflora Schur; Avena georgiana Roem. ex Schult.; Avena georgica Zuccagni; Avena grandis Nevski;

N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] C. Romero William L. Brown Center, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO, USA e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_31

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Avena heteromalla Haller; Avena hungarica Lucé; Avena macrantha (Hack.) Malzev; Avena macrantha (Hack.) Nevski; Avena nigra Wallr.; Avena nodipilosa (Malzev) Malzev; Avena orientalis Gilib.; Avena persarum Nevski; Avena podolica Bocki; Avena podolica Pascal. ex Zuccagni; Avena ponderosa L. ex B.D. Jacks.; Avena pseudosativa (Tell.) Herter; Avena pseudosativa Thell. ex Malzev; Avena racemosa Thuill.; Avena rubra Zuccnagi; Avena sativa convar. nodipilosa (Maltzev) Tzvelev; Avena sativa fo. contracta Neilr.; Avena sativa subsp. contracta (Neilr.) Celak.; Avena sativa subsp. macrantha (Hack.) Rocha Alfonso; Avena sativa subsp. nodipilosa (Malzev) Vasc.; Avena sativa var. chinensis Döll; Avena sativa var. chinensis Vilm.; Avena sativa var. contracta Neilr.; Avena sativa var. glaberrima (Thell.) Maire & Weiller; Avena sativa var. nigra Prov.; Avena sativa var. orientalis (Schreb.) Alef.; Avena sativa var. secunda Alph. Wood; Avena shatilowiana Litv.; Avena sterilis fo. pseudosativa Thell.; Avena sterilis var. thellungiana Malzev; Avena tartarica Ard.; Avena thellungii Nevski; Avena triseta Thunb.; Avena unilateralis Brouss. ex Roem & Schult.; Avena verna Heuze; Avena volgensis (Vavilov) Nevski

Local Names Spanish: Colombia: Avena (Spanish); Ecuador: Avena, Avena forrajera, Avena silvestre (Spanish), Oat (English) (de la Torre et al. 2008); English: Oats

Botany and Ecology Annual. Culms 60–100 cm tall, always with glabrous nodes; leaves and sheaths glabrous. Panicle open, rarely 1-sided (var. contracta Neilr.), to 25 cm long; spikelets of medium size, 2–3-flowered, only the lower floret awned, more rarely all florets awnless; glumes to 25 mm long, slightly longer than the floret; all florets of the spikelet without joints; rachilla glabrous; lemma lanceolate, ca. 20 mm long, 2-toothed at the tip, glabrescent, with few hairs at base, or entirely glabrous; rachilla slightly bent, or straight, or wanting. Flowering June–August. Widely cultivated and fairly often escaped (Bussmann et al. 2014). Avena sativa is only known in cultivation and its exact origin is unclear. Oat was not cultivated as early as wheat and barley and probably it persisted as a weed in fields of these cereals for centuries before it was taken into cultivation. Oat seeds have been found in 4000-year-old remains in Egypt, but these were probably from weeds and not from cultivated oat. The oldest known cultivated oat remains were found in caves in Switzerland that date back to around 1000 BC. Avena sativa probably evolved in central or northern Europe from wild Avena sterilis L. (Bussmann et al. 2014) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

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Fig. 1 Avena sativa (Poaceae), Maras, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Avena sativa (Poaceae), Akhaltsikhe, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

270 Fig. 3 Avena sativa (Poaceae), Akhaltsikhe, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Avena fatua (Poaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Local Medicinal Uses Colombia: Oatmeal is considered as a food rich in bran and fiber, whose consumption reduces cholesterol levels. For external use, it is used in the treatment of minor skin irritations such as psoriasis, burns, and eczema (Ministerio de Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996).

Local Food Uses Ecuador: The seed is an edible cereal. It is an important crop in the world (unspecified ethnic group – Chimborazo, Azuay, Cañar) (de la Torre et al. 2008).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The crop is widely eaten and used as fodder for livestock, and also widely grown, more so in the old world, especially in the Caucasus (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016). Ecuador: The leaves are used as fodder for cattle and other quadrupeds (Kichwa de la Sierra-Cotopaxi, Others (Central Interandina Region); Mestiza-Others (Central Interandina Region); unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha, Bolívar) (from de la Torre et al. 2008). In Peru, oats are used as stomach protective in purgative mixtures and are used to treat spiritual illnesses and alcoholism (Bussmann and Sharon 2006; Bussmann and Sharon 2007, 2015a, b).

References Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in Northern Peru: Tracking two thousand years of healing culture. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:47. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of the four winds – the magic and medicinal flora of Peru. Plantas de los cuatro vientos – La flora mágica y medicinal del Perú. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007. ISBN 978-0-9789962-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Medicinal plants of the Andes and the Amazon – the magic and medicinal flora of northern Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015a. ISBN 978-0-9960231-2-2. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plantas medicinales de los Andes y la Amazonía – La flora mágica y medicinal del Norte de Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015b. ISBN 978-09960231-3-9. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2.

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de la Torre L, Navarrete H, Muriel M P, Macía MJ, Balslev H, editors. Enciclopedia de las Plantas Útiles del Ecuador. Quito/Aarhus: Herbario QCA de la Escuela de Ciencias Biológicas de la Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador/Herbario AAU del Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas de la Universidad de Aarhus; 2008. Pérez Arbeláez E. Plantas útiles de Colombia. 5a. Ed. Bogotá: Fondo FEN Colombia, DAMA, Jardín Botánico de Bogotá José Celestino Mutis; 1996. 831 pp. Ministerio de Protección Social. Vademécum Colombiano de Plantas Medicinales. Bogotá: Imprenta Nacional de Colombia; 2008. 311 pp.

Azorella atacamensis G.M. Plunkett & A.N. Nicolas Azorella compacta Phil. APIACEAE Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Azorella atacamensis G.M. Plunkett & A.N. Nicolas: Mulinum crassifolium Phil. non Azorella Pers. Azorella compacta Phil.: Azorella columnaris H. Wolff, Azorella prismatoclada Domin, Azorella yareta Hauman, Laretia compacta (Phil.) Reiche.

J. Echeverría Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Chemistry and Biology, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, USACH, Santiago de Chile, Chile e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_32

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Local Names Azorella atacamensis: Chile: Chukikandia, Chuchikan, Chukikan, Chukikandia, Chukikaña, Chukikandi, Chukukaylla, Chuchikaylla, Chukikaylla, Sulútur Azorella compacta: Chile: Llareta, Yareta

Botany and Ecology Azorella atacamensis: Caespitose shrub, 5–10 cm high, 8–30 cm in diameter, resinous. Stems dense to scattered, covered with traces of dried leaves. Thick, fleshy, sessile leaves, 5–15  1–5 mm, rhombic, glabrous, 4  2–5 mm, 3-ribbed, obtuse, lobes 3, incurvous, 0.5–4  1–2.5 mm, the longest central, mucronate apex, petiole 1–4  1.2–1.8 mm; open, membranous sheath, 4–5  3–6 mm, entire margin or serrated. Umbel of 2–5 mm in diameter, with 2–11 flowers, sessile, not exceeding the leaves. Bracts involucres 2–5, linear-lanceolate, 2–3  0.5–1 mm, glabrous, membranous, acute apex, base forming a cylinder, entire margin. Flowers 2–3 mm in diameter. Fig. 1 Azorella atacamensis (Apiaceae), Paso de Jama, Chile. (Photo Lucas Burchard Señoret)

Fig. 2 Azorella atacamensis (Apiaceae), Paso de Jama, Chile. (Photo Lucas Burchard Señoret)

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Sepals green, acute apex, forming a stellate disk, of 0.5–0.6  0.5–1 mm. Petals yellow, 1–2  1 mm, elliptical to obovate, apex round to acute. Fruit yellow, elliptical, with 4 wings, crushed, 3–4  3–4 mm, wings moon, 4  1 mm, lateral wings longer and wider than the body of the fruit. Mericarps lunate in cross section, concave abaxial face, with 5 ribs, 3700–4500 m above sea level (González and Molina 2017) (Figs. 1 and 2). Azorella compacta: Caespitose herb, perennial, cushions up to 1,15 m tall and up to 4 m wide, very compact, with a woody root, sometimes with roots in the periphery of the cushion; woody branches, the lowest and peripheral largest. Leaves between 2 and 6 mm long, basal, sessile, glabrous and rosette. Umbels cut shortly stalked or sessile with between 1 and 5 flowers. Flowers with 1–5 bracts, yellow petals, ovate 1 mm long. Fruit: slightly violet oblique, between 4 and 5 mm long, consisting of two merfoli, slightly dorsal, compressed and facially joined, ribs with whole teeth, persistent calyx, 3500–5200 m above sea level (González and Molina 2017) (Figs. 3 and 4).

Fig. 3 Azorella compacta (Apiaceae), Quebrada Chita, Chile. (Photo Lucas Burchard Señoret)

Fig. 4 Azorella compacta (Apiaceae), Arequipa, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

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Local Medicinal Uses Azorella atacamensis: This species is considered a powerful medicine. The white interior of the peeled root, roasted and put in water and is taken as an infusion or as relaxing tea by adding lemon, milk, a few drops of wine, an aspirin, and toasted sugar or honey, as it is a bitter plant. It is used for the treatment of cold, cough, lung diseases, and headache. For pulmonary diseases, the infusion is left over night and is drunk the next day. Combined with marazel (Perezia atacamensis or P. purpurata), it is used for lung diseases. For cough, it is mixed with baylahuen (Haplopappus rigidus) and consumed. It is also used for Puna disease and stomach diseases. It is also used to calm the nerves and to treat diabetes (Peñaloza et al. 2013; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003). Azorella compacta: The root, flower, seed, and resin have medicinal properties for the treatment of kidneys, gallbladder, cough, diabetes, cholesterol, pain in general (molars), and to purify the blood. The root is used to treat menstrual disorders and mixed with chukikan (A. atacamensis) and chachakoma (S. nutans), is used to relieve cough, and also serves to treat lung diseases and diabetes. The infusion of the root is used for the treatment of asthma. The resin combined with orqokipa (Fabiana squamata) or with honey and mixed with copal is used as a patch for the treatment of bone pain, wounds, inflammations or back pain, lower cholesterol levels, treatment of ulcers, diabetes, rheumatism, and internal diseases. The infusion of the flower, the resin, and the whole plant is used for the treatment of diabetes, to dissolve kidney stones, to lower cholesterol, and for rheumatism. The root is used to treat ovarian pain, improve bad breath, and gastrointestinal diseases (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Azorella compacta: The resin is used as incense in ceremonial or ritual contexts. It also has an ethnoveterinary use for the treatment of fractures of animal bones. It is an excellent fuel. The ashes are used to peel the quinoa grains. The plant is also used as forage (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).

References González JS, Molina JJ. Flora nativa de la región de Arica y Parinacota. Arica: Ediciones Universidad de Tarapacá; 2017. 233 pp. Peñaloza A, Pardo V, Marticorena A, Cavieres L, Frugone F. Flora y vegetación del parque nacional Llullaillaco. Región de Antofagasta: Peñazola-García; 2013. Rodriguez R, Marticorena C, Alarcón D, Baeza C, Cavieres L, Finot VL, Fuentes N, Kiessling A, Mihoc M, Pauchard A, Ruiz E, Sanchez P, Marticorena A. Catálogo de las plantas vasculares de Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430. Villagrán C, Castro V. Ciencia indígena de los Andes del norte de Chile. Santiago: Editorial Universitaria; 2003.

Baccharis alnifolia Meyen & Walp. Baccharis boliviensis (Wedd.) Cabrera Baccharis caespitosa (Ruiz & Pav.) Pers. Baccharis ciliata Gardner Baccharis indica L. Baccharis juncea (Cass.) Desf. Baccharis pentlandii DC. Baccharis salicifolia (Ruiz & Pav.) Pers. Baccharis santelicis Phil. Baccharis tola Phil. Baccharis vaccinioides Kunth ASTERACEAE Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, Javier Echeverría, and Carolina Romero

N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] J. Echeverría Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Chemistry and Biology, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, USACH, Santiago de Chile, Chile e-mail: [email protected] C. Romero William L. Brown Center, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO, USA e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_33

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Synonyms Baccharis boliviensis (Wedd.) Cabrera: Baccharis boliviensis (Wedd.) Cuatrec., comb. superfl., Baccharis boliviensis (Wedd.) Cabrera var. latifolia, Baccharis boliviensis (Wedd.) Cabrera var. latifolia, Heterothalamus boliviensis Wedd., Heterothalamus boliviensis Wedd. var. latifolius, Pseudobaccharis boliviensis (Wedd.) Cabrera, Pseudobaccharis boliviensis (Wedd.) Cabrera var. latifolia, Psila boliviensis (Wedd.) Cabrera, Psila boliviensis (Wedd.) Cabrera var. atifolia, Baccharis boliviensis (Wedd.) Malag. Baccharis caespitosa (Ruiz & Pav.) Pers.: Baccharis alpina Cerv.; Baccharis alpina fo. microcephala Hieron.; Baccharis alpina Kunth; Baccharis caespitosa var. alpicola Cuatrec. ex Luteyn; Baccharis caespitosa var. alpina (Kunth) Cuatrec.; Baccharis caespitosa (Ruiz & Pav.) Pers. var. caespitosa; Baccharis humifusa Kunth; Baccharis incarum fo. prostrata Cuatrec.; Baccharis microphylla subvar. prostrata Wedd.; Baccharis odorata f. spathulata Wedd.; Baccharis procumbens Hieron.; Baccharis tricuneata var. minifolia Cuatrec.; Molina caespitosa Ruiz & Pav. Baccharis indica L.: Pluchea indica (L.) Less. Baccharis juncea (Cass.) Desf.: Arrhenachne juncea Cass., Baccharis juncea ssp. clavata Joch. Müll., Baccharis subulata D. Don ex Hook. & Arn., Stephananthus junceus Lehm. Baccharis pentlandii DC.: Baccharis fallax Kuntze; Baccharis rubricaulis Rusby; Baccharis sculpta Grieseb.; Baccharis vernicoso-splendida Herzog Baccharis salicifolia (Ruiz & Pav.) Pers.: Baccharis alamanii DC.; Baccharis buddlejoides Kunth; Baccharis calliprinos Grieseb.; Baccharis chiquilla DC.; Baccharis coerulescens DC.; Baccharis farinosa Spreng.; Baccharis fevillei DC.; Baccharis glutinosa Pers.; Baccharis huydobriana J. Rémy; Baccharis iresinoides Kunth; Baccharis kraussei Heering ex Reiche; Baccharis lanceolata Kunth; Baccharis linifolia DC.; Baccharis linifolia Meyen; Baccharis longifolia DC.; Baccharis longipes Kunze ex. DC.; Baccharis marginalis DC.; Baccharis marginalis var. coerulescens (DC.) Heering; Baccharis marginalis var. longipes (Kunze ex DC.) Heering; Baccharis marginalis var. viminea (DC.) Heering ex Reiche; Baccharis mirabilis Heering; Baccharis mocoafluminis Cuatrec.; Baccharis monoica G.L. Nesom; Baccharis pallida Heering ex Reiche; Baccharis parviflora (Ruiz & Pav.) Pers.; Baccharis parviflora Less.; Baccharis pingraea var. longipes (Kunth ex DC.) Heering; Baccharis purpurascens Heering; Baccharis salicifolia var. longifolia (DC.) Cuatrec.; Baccharis salicifolia var. mocoafluminis (Cuatrec.) Cuatrec.; Baccharis viminea DC.; Baccharis viminea var. atwoodii S.L. Welsh; Baccharis viscosa/Ruiz & Pav.) Kuntze; Baccharis viscosa var. nigricans Kuntze; Molina glutinosa Pers.; Molina parviflora Ruiz. & Pav.; Molina salicifolia Ruiz. & Pav.; Molina striata Ruiz & Pav.; Molina viscosa Ruiz & Pav.; Pingraea marginalis (DC.) F.H. Hellw.; Pingraea salicifolia (Rioz & Pav.) F.H. Hellw.; Pingraea viscosa (Ruiz & Pav.) F.H. Hellw. Baccharis santelicis Phil.: Baccharis magellanica (Lam.) Pers. var. subviscosa, Baccharis microphylla Kunth var. incarum, Baccharis incarum (Wedd.) Cuatrec., comb. superfl., Baccharis incarum (Wedd.) Heering, comb. superfl., Baccharis incarum (Wedd.) Perkins

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Baccharis tola Phil.: Baccharis incarum (Wedd.) Cuatrec.; Baccharis incarum (Wedd.) Perkins; Baccharis Wedd.; Baccharis magellanica var. subviscosa Kuntze; Baccharis var. viscosissima Kuntze; Baccharis microphylla var. incarum Wedd.; Baccharis santelicis Phil.; Baccharis santelicis subsp. chrysophylla F.H. Hellw.; Baccharis santelicis Phil. subsp. santelicis; Baccharis tafiensis Haering; Baccharis tola subsp. altiplanicola F.H. Hellw. Baccharis vaccinioides Kunth: Baccharis lancifolia Less.

Local Names Baccharis alnifolia: Chile: Chilka blanca, Pichana, Monte, Monte rio, Chilka, Chirka, Sajasa Baccharis boliviensis: Chile: Tolilla, Tolita, Tolita del campo, Tola chica, Tola, Tola amarilla, Tola de salud, Tola hembra, Tola limón, Chakatola, Tola tara, Qhorat’ola, Peskotola, Tola del pájaro, Monte de paloma, Chijlla, Chíjua, Chíjuachíjua, Anqo pajariñi, Kulkuma, Kulkut’ula, Monte, Manzanilla. Baccharis caespitosa: Peru: Paja qmargoza (Spanish) Baccharis indica: Peru: Pata de gallina (Spanish) Baccharis juncea: Chile: Suncho, Pasto loco, Totora, Chukchuka, Chuschuka, Chuchuka, Chutchuka, Mutumutu, Motomoto, Unquillo. Baccharis odorata: Ecuador: Pentse (Kichwa) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Pasto miel (Spanish) Baccharis pentlandii: Bolivia: Chillca, Chillca hembra (Spanish), Chilk’a k’achu (Aymara) Baccharis salicifolia: Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador: Chilca, Chilco;, Hierba de la plata, Chilco hembra (Spanish); Chile: Chillka, Chilka, Chilka negra, Suncho, Pichana, Monte, Monte de río, Sangayo, Hoja koka, Qevalla, Qavalla. Baccharis santelicis: Chile: Ñaka, Ñakat’ula, Ñakat’ola, Suput’ula, Yaivilja, Lejía, Léjia, Tola lejía, Léjia hembra, Tola chijua. Baccharis tola: Bolivia: Thula (Aymara) (Bussmann et al. 2016) Baccharis vaccinioides: Peru: Sigueme sigueme (Spanish)

Botany and Ecology Baccharis alnifolia: Perennial shrub, between 1 and 1.5 m tall, very branched. Resinous leaves between 2.5 and 5 cm long, alternate, petiolate, elliptical, to medium elliptic, very rarely oval; upper edge serrated in 3/4 parts of the blade; cuneate base, inflorescences composed, bunches, arranged in corymbiform tops. Male flowers between 1 and 3 mm long; female flowers between 2 and 4 mm long. Fruit: achene about 1 mm long, oblong, villous with numerous fine hairs white to slightly yellowish, 3000–3800 m above sea level (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Fig. 1). Baccharis boliviensis: Perennial shrub, between 0.1 and 1 m high; branches usually end in inflorescences. Resinous leaves between 0.5 and 4 cm long, sessile, linear to

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narrowly elliptical, very rarely broadly elliptical, apex generally sharp and entire margin. Inflorescences in pedunculated chapters arranged in corymbiform clusters or panicles; male chapters between 3 and 5.5 mm long; female chapters between 3.5 and 6 mm long. Between 30 and 43 flowers per male chapter and between 30 and 60 flowers per female chapter. Fruit: achene between 1.3 and 2 mm long, between light to dark brown; villous with numerous whitish hairs, 1500–4700 m above sea level (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Fig. 2). Baccharis caespitosa: Prostrate shrub with spreading crown to 1 m in diameter but only a few cm high with many rooting branches that are resinous. The larger leaves are 2  0.7 mm, spatula shaped, and rough-textured with one midrib. The flower heads are borne from the stem tips or leaf bases 2 cm. The male flower heads are up to 10 mm long with 23–65 florets. Each floret has a whorl of bracts up to 9 mm high and bell-shaped. The bracts are arranged in 5–7 series and light yellowish brown or light green. The petals of the male flower form a tube with coiled lobes, long anthers, and an exposed style with a cap on top surrounded by a series of bristles. The female

Fig. 1 Baccharis sp. (Asteraceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana) Fig. 2 Baccharis boliviensis (Asteraceae), Ayquina, Chile. (Photo Lucas Burchard Señoret)

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flower head is up to 18 mm long, similar in size and shape with a series of 6–8 bracts forming the whorl. The petals form a tube with a toothed tip and a branched style. The achene is small with straw or brown-colored bristles in several series that elongate when mature. Occurs in the Andes of Central Peru and south into southern Bolivia, widespread in low grasslands and humid regions between elevations 3700–5200 m (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995). Baccharis ciliata: A decumbent shrub, young stem devoid hairs, leaves sessile, leathery, slightly glutinous, full margin or 1–10 teeth, tomentose-ciliated; 3 ribs, panicles, corymbiform, terminal and/or pseudoaxillary, missing double capitules, female flowers with apex of the 5-layered corolla and 5–6 ribs. Baccharis indica: Erect, much-branched shrub growing 1–2 m in height. Branches shortly hairy when young, later glabrous. Leaves bright pale green, papery and almost glabrous, obovate, up to 8 cm long, 2–4 cm wide, the margins toothed, and the leaves aromatic when crushed. The base is cuneate and almost sessile. The inflorescence comprises an almost corymbose, compact cluster of heads, each having many ray florets, only a few disc florets, subtended by an involucre of 3–7 series of deltoid bracts. Each head about 6–7 mm long, 5 mm broad on a peduncle 0–10 mm long. Individual ray florets with corolla 3–5 mm long; disc florets, 2–7, have a 5-lobed purple corolla. In fruit the reddish-brown achene, 1 mm long, 0.3 mm wide, has 5–7 ribs, and a white pappus of up to 20 bristles, about 5 mm long. Baccharis juncea: Perennial herbs, rhizomatous, with erect stems, glabrous or puberulous, laxly leafy, 0.2–1.5 m tall. Leaves sessile, linear, 1–6 cm  1–2.5 mm, acute at the apex, whole or serrated at the margin, apparently single-ribbed. Solitary chapters at the end of the branches or grouped in a short number forming a corymbiform synflorescence. Pistillated chapters with hemispherical involvement of 6–7  (8–)10–15 mm; filarios in 6–7 series, the elliptical and obtuse exteriors, the intermediate ovate and acute, the linear and acute interiors. Flowers around 500; corollas 3.5–4.7 mm long, denticulate at the apex. Akenia 1.5–2 mm long, 5–10side, glabrous. Pappus 2-or pluriseriate, very accented. Chapters stamped with hemispherical involvement, 5–6  (6–)8–10 mm; filarios in 4–5 series, the elliptical and obtuse exteriors, the intermediate ovate and acute or subacute, the interiors narrowly ovate and acute. Flowers 48–98; corollas 4–5 mm long; style with long and separate branches. Pappus with bristles with rounded or sharp apex and flattened. Sea level to 3500 m (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 3 and 4). Baccharis odorata: Low or prostrate, glabrous small shrublet with sticky fragrant foliage. Leaves 4–15 by 4–10 mm, obovate-oblong to rhomboid-elliptic and spathulate tapering to a petiole of l–3 mm. Male flower heads in terminal false spikes or solitary from leaf axils. Female heads 4–6 mm across, in lax racemes (rarely solitary) in the axils near the branch tips. Colombia to Bolivia in humid moorland pasture at the limit of woody vegetation at 2700–4000 m above sea level. Baccharis salicifolia: Erect shrub, sometimes prostrate, forming dense bushes, 0.8–2 m tall, sometimes taller. Stem cylindrical, woody, glabrous to glandulargrainy. Leaves sometimes accumulated in the axils of leaves, forming fascicles; similar to those of the willow, petioles 1–8 mm long; linear-lanceolate, oblong or narrowly elliptical blades, 5.5–12 cm long by 0.1–1.5 cm wide; apex acuminate,

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Fig. 3 Baccharis juncea (Asteraceae), Chiu Chiu, Chile. (Photo Lucas Burchard Señoret)

Fig. 4 Baccharis juncea (Asteraceae), Chiu Chiu, Chile. (Photo Lucas Burchard Señoret)

margin slightly dentate-sawed, with no more than 5 teeth per centimeter or sometimes whole, narrowly cuneate to attenuated base and sometimes slightly asymmetrical, trinervate, without hairs. Inflorescence with pedunculated heads, arranged in terminal panicles dense to lax, almost globular or even wider than tall. Flowers: male heads with semi-cannon involvement, 5–7 mm long by 3.5–6 mm wide, bracts arranged in 3 series, oblong-lanceolate, sometimes narrowly lanceolate to oblanceolate, acute or acuminate, with just one nerve, slightly ciliated and purple, with 24–41 whitish flowers, rarely with 1–6 female marginal flowers, corollas 4.5–7 mm long, with little visible venation, bristles 20–33, 4–5 mm long; female heads with flared or almost cylindrical involucre, 5.5–7 mm long and 6 mm wide, bracts arranged in 4 series, lanceolate to oblanceolate, acute to acuminate, slightly uninerved, ciliated, green-purple, flowers 124–210, corollas 2.5–3.5 mm long, whitish, without visible nervation, with very short simple hairs, bristles 20–38, 3–5 mm long. Achaenae 1.5–5 mm long, olive brown, with 5–10 ribs, inconspicuous to conspicuous, semimature (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 5, 6, and 7). Baccharis santelicis: Shrub, between 0.2 and 1( 2) m tall, erect branches or curves of green to reddish color. Large leaves between 6 and 19 mm long, sessile, oblong,

Baccharis alnifolia Meyen & Walp. . . . Fig. 5 Baccharis scandens (Asteraceae), Calama, Chile. (Photo Lucas Burchard Señoret)

Fig. 6 Baccharis sp. (Asteraceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 7 Baccharis sp. (Asteraceae), Rio Grande, Chile. (Photo Lucas Burchard Señoret)

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linear or ovate, usually have a smooth border with 1–2 teeth on each side of the apex. Terminal inflorescences, solitary or sometimes grouped chapters; male, 6–7 mm long; female, between 6.5 and 9 mm long; both similar, with flared involvement. Flowers between 8 and 19 per male chapter and between 18 and 25 per female chapter. Achenes between 2.0 and 2.7 mm long, with vilano between 6 and 7 mm long, 1900–4800 m above sea level (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995). Baccharis tola: Perennial shrub up to 50 cm tall, semispherical, ramose, and with rigid, resinous, sticky leaves, tridentate at the apex. White flowers arranged in capitules, which grow grouped at the ends of the branches. Fruit is very small achene. Flowers in January–February and fruits in March. On stony soils and hillsides with strong sun exposure, in high mountain Puna shrub (above 4000 m) (Figs. 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12).

Fig. 8 Baccharis tola (Asteraceae), Quebrada Chita, Chile. (Photo Lucas Burchard Señoret)

Fig. 9 Baccharis sp. (Asteraceae), La Paz, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Baccharis alnifolia Meyen & Walp. . . . Fig. 10 Baccharis sp. (Asteraceae), La Paz, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 11 Baccharis sp. (Asteraceae), La Paz, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 12 Baccharis latifolia (Asteraceae), La Paz, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses Baccharis alnifolia: In Chile, the plant is used to make poultices against blows and bruises. An extract is used against tonsillitis (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003). Baccharis articulata is used in Bolivia for stomach, gallbladder, and liver problems, and has bitter taste in the mouth (Quiroga et al. 2012). Baccharis boliviensis: In Chile, the plant is used as a remedy for stomach problems (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003). Baccharis caespitosa is used in Peru to reduce swellings (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b). Baccharis ciliata: The species shows antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2008, 2010a, b, 2011a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2011a, b). Baccharis dracunculifolia is used in Bolivia as a remedy for bone pain (Quiroga et al. 2012). Baccharis glutinosa is used in Peru for diabetes (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b). Baccharis indica is used in Peru to reduce bone pain, rheumatism, and arthritis (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b). Baccharis juncea is used in Chile as a remedy for stomach problems (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003). Baccharis obtusifolia is used in Ecuador to remedy vomiting, stomach pain, and bone pain (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). Baccharis odorata: Ecuador: The leaves are used in Ecuador to treat blows (Kichwa de la Sierra-Cotopaxi) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: The plant is used to treat cysts, wounds, and abscesses (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b). Baccharis salicifolia is used in Peru to reduce allergies and treat rashes and pimples (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b). It is also used for fractures, bone pain, and sprains (Busmann and Glenn 2011a, b; Monigatti et al. 2013).

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Baccharis pentlandii: Bolivia: Fresh stems and leaves are used to treat arthritis, blows, bone pain, fractures, sprains, strong blows, fever, acne, wound healing, wound swelling (Bussmann et al. 2016; Justo and Moraes 2015). Baccharis salicifolia: In traditional medicine in Colombia, the plant is used mainly against infections and stomach pain, the latter is treated by scrubbing the plant on the belly or taking the decoction on an empty stomach. Its use is also recommended in bilious attacks and in headaches. For the treatment of blows or falls, the leaves macerated in alcohol are applied to the affected part. Applying it in baths prepared with the cooking of the stem and flowers is recommended in the treatment of rash and chicken pox (Bernal et al. 2011). In Chile, it is used for bone pain, bumps, cramps, vomiting, headache, rheumatism, stomach, and indigestion. In water, it is used to wash the body. Mate is antiinflammatory. Used also for bone fractures (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003). Baccharis santelicis: In Chile, the plant is used to “take out the cold,” for empacho, against rheumatism, and to draw out kidney stones. The infusion of leaves is used for colds, coughs, and stomachaches (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003). Generally, Baccharis species are used in herbal mixtures (Bussmann et al. 2010c) to reduce their toxicity (Bussmann et al. 2011b).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses All species are used as firewood. Baccharis alnifolia: In Chile, the plant is used as occasional forage when animals are very hungry. It also serves to build roofs (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003). Baccharis boliviensis: In Chile, the plant is used as occasional forage. It is also used as splint for animals with broken bones and to treat blindness in sheep (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003). Baccharis ciliaris is used in Peru in spiritual healing to protect one’s job and the house, and for general protection (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010d). Baccharis indica: Peru: The whole plant, fresh or dried, is used for protection of job and house and protection (general) (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010d). Baccharis obtusifolia is used in Ecuador against bad air/mal aire (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). Baccharis pentlandii: Bolivia: used to treart Bad air and lightning stroke (cultural illnesses) (Bussmann et al. 2016; Justo and Moraes 2015). Baccharis salicifolia: In Chile, the plant is used as a broom and to heat the oven, and also used for loom instruments, to make incense, and, when dry, used as firewood. The leaves are used as dye. It is used to make charcoal and also serves as forage, as hedge, and shade shrub (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018;

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Villagrán and Castro 2003). Peru: The whole fresh plant is used to promote good business, for protection, good fortune and good health, and to remedy bad air (mail aire) (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010d; Monigatti et al. 2013). Baccharis santelicis: The ash is used in Chile to peel quinoa and maize. It is also used as occasional forage (but hard and bitter) (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003). Baccharis tola: Bolivia: Stems and leaves are used to treat molar pain and blemishes (Bussmann et al. 2016). Baccharis vaccinioides is used in Peru for good luck and spiritual flowering (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010d). It is often sold in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007).

References Béjar E, Bussmann RW, Roa C, Sharon D. Medicinal Herbs of Southern Ecuador – Hierbas Medicinales del Sur Ecuatoriano. San Diego: Latino Herbal Press; 2002. 340 p. Bernal HY, García Martínez H, Quevedo Sánchez GF, editors. Pautas para el conocimiento, conservación y uso sostenible de las plantas medicinales nativas en Colombia. Estrategia Nacional para la Conservación de Plantas. Bogotá: Ministerio de Ambiente, Vivienda y Desarrollo Territorial. Instituto de Investigación de Recursos Biológicos Alexander von Humboldt; 2011. 232 pp. Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Fighting pain. Traditional Peruvian remedies for the treatment of asthma, rheumatism, arthritis and sore bones. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2011a;10(3):397–412. Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Traditional knowledge for modern ailments – plants used for the treatment of diabetes and cancer in northern Peru. J Med Plant Res. 2011b;5(31):6916–30. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in Loja province, southern Ecuador. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006a;2:44. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing culture. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006b;2:47. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of longevity – the medicinal flora of Vilcabamba. Arogya: Plantas de longevidad – La flora medicinal de Vilcabamba; 2007a. ISBN 978-0-9789962-2-2. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of the four winds – the magic and medicinal flora of Peru. Arogya: Plantas de los cuatro vientos – La flora mágica y medicinal del Perú; 2007b. ISBN 978-09789962-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Medicinal plants of the Andes and the Amazon – the magic and medicinal flora of northern Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015a. ISBN 978-0-9960231-2-2. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plantas medicinales de los Andes y la Amazonía – La flora mágica y medicinal del Norte de Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015b. ISBN 978-09960231-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Vandebroek I, Jones A, Revene Z. Health for sale: the medicinal plant markets in Trujillo and Chiclayo, northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3:37. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Perez F, Díaz D, Ford T, Rasheed T, Silva R. Antibacterial activity of northern-Peruvian medicinal plants – a low cost laboratory approach to assess biological activity. Arnaldoa. 2008;15(1):127–48. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Sharon D. Antibacterial activity of medicinal plants of northern Peru – can traditional applications provide leads for modern science? Indian J Tradit Med. 2010a;9 (4):742–53.

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Bussmann RW, Malca G, Glenn A, Sharon D, Chait G, Díaz D, Pourmand K, Jonat B, Somogy S, Guardado G, Aguirre C, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A, Effio-Carbajal J, FríasFernandez F, Benito M. Minimum inhibitory concentration of medicinal plants used in northern Peru as antibacterial remedies. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010b;132:101–8. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Herbal mixtures in traditional medicine in northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010c;6:10. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Glenn A. Healing the body, healing the soul. Traditional remedies for “magical” ailments, nervous system and psychosomatic disorders in northern Peru. Afr J Pharm Pharmacol. 2010d;4(9):580–629. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Sharon D, Chait G, Díaz D, Pourmand K, Jonat B, Somogy S, Guardado G, Aguirre C, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Antibacterial activity of northern Peruvian medicinal plants. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2011a;9:67–96. Bussmann RW, Malca G, Glenn A, Sharon D, Nilsen B, Parris B, Dubose D, Ruiz D, Saleda J, Martinez M, Carillo L, Walker K, Kuhlman A, Townesmith A. Toxicity of medicinal plants used in northern Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011b;137:121–40. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Moya Huanca LA, Hart RE. Changing markets – medicinal plants in the markets of La Paz and El Alto, Bolivia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;193:76–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.07.074. de la Torre L, Navarrete H, Muriel M P, Macía MJ, Balslev H, editors. Enciclopedia de las Plantas Útiles del Ecuador. Quito/Aarhus: Herbario QCA de la Escuela de Ciencias Biológicas de la Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador/Herbario AAU del Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas de la Universidad de Aarhus; 2008. González JS, Molina JJ. Flora nativa de la región de Arica y Parinacota. Arica: Ediciones Universidad de Tarapacá; 2017. 233 pp. Macbride JF, Weberbauer A. Flora of Peru. Chicago: Field Museum; 1936–1995. Monigatti M, Bussmann RW, Weckerle CS. Medicinal plant use in two Andean communities located at different altitudes in the Bolivar Province, Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;145 (2):450–64. Quiroga R, Meneses L, Bussmann RW. Medicinal ethnobotany in Huacareta (Chiquisaca, Bolivia). J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2012;8:29. Rodriguez R, Marticorena C, Alarcón D, Baeza C, Cavieres L, Finot VL, Fuentes N, Kiessling A, Mihoc M, Pauchard A, Ruiz E, Sanchez P, Marticorena A. Catálogo de las plantas vasculares de Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430. Villagrán C, Castro V. Ciencia indígena de los Andes del norte de Chile. Santiago de Chile: Editorial Universitaria; 2003.

Baccharis genistelloides (Lam.) Pers. ASTERACEAE Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, Carolina Romero, and Javier Echeverría

Synonyms Baccharis genistelloides (Lam.) Pers.: Baccharis crispa Spreng.; Baccharis cylindrica (Less.) DC.; Baccharis genistelloides var. crispa (Spreng.) Baker; Baccharis genistelloides var. trimera (Less.) Baker; Baccharis myriocephala DC.; Baccharis trimera (Less.) DC.; Baccharis venosa (Ruiz. & Pav.) Pers.; Conyza genistelloides Lam.; Molina crispa (Spreng.) Less.; Molina cylindrica Less.; Molina trimera Less.; Molina venosa Ruiz- & Pav.; Pingraeca crispa (Spreng.) F.H. Hellw.

N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] C. Romero William L. Brown Center, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO, USA e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] J. Echeverría Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Chemistry and Biology, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, USACH, Santiago de Chile, Chile e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_304

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Local Names Bolivia: Carkeja, Charara (Spanish); Kimsa k’uchu (Aymara), Charara (Quechua) (Bussmann et al. 2016); Ecuador: Tikna (Kichwa), Maywa hembra (SpanishKichwa), Mano de dios (Spanish), Cuchunllulli (unspecified language) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Simba simba, Carceja, Karqueja, Cadillo (Spanish).

Botany and Ecology Perennial herb with a woody base, up to 1.5 m tall. Stem 3-winged, green, very resinous. The leaves reduced to triangular scales 0.5 cm long with having tufts of hairs. The flower heads without stalks and borne from the stem in dense spikes up to 13 cm long. Male flower heads up to 10 mm long with 15–55 florets surrounded by a whorl of bracts that is cup-shaped with 3–9 series of bracts. The inner bracts elliptic to linear and 2–7 times longer than the egg-shaped outer bracts, straw-colored and often purple tinged at the tips. Petals form a tube 6 mm long with coiled lobes. Anthers long, the style branched and exposed, the sterile ovary may or may not be surrounded by bristles. The female flower head is 16 mm long with 17–200 florets surrounded by a whorl of cylindrical bracts up to 12 mm long. Bracts arranged in 5–11 series. The petals form a tube up to 6.8 mm long with a toothed tip. Style is up to 9.5 mm long and branched. Achenes small, dark brown and ribbed with a series of bristles. Andean Cordillera from Colombia south into northern Chile and Argentina and east into Brazil. Found in rocky, open, scrub forests, and grasslands at elevations between 2000 and 4200 m (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995). Baccharis genistelloides is an excellent example for the fact that even important and widely used medicinal plant species are hardly studied phytochemically, and new compounds are constantly described (Hennig et al. 2010). Even the taxonomy of this species is rather unclear, and much of what is mentioned in ethnobotanical literature as Baccharis genistelloides might in fact belong to a variety of species (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).

Local Medicinal Uses Bolivia: The whole fresh plant is used to treat high blood pressure, stomachache, kidney infection, diabetes, and sprains of bones (Bussmann et al. 2016; Justo and Moraes 2015; Macía et al. 2005; Quiroga et al. 2012). Colombia: This plant is used as an astringent and to soothe chest pains (García Barriga 1975). Ecuador: The infusion of the stem and leaves is used to treat biliary conditions (unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura). The infusion of the stem and leaves, mixed with brandy, is used as a vermifuge (unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura). It is used as an anesthetic (unspecified ethnicity – Tungurahua) and also treats undetermined conditions (Kichwa de la Sierra-Cotopaxi). It is used, in cooking, to treat rheumatism in the elderly (Kichwa de la Sierra, unspecified ethnicity – Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008).

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Fig. 1 Baccharis genistelloides (Asteraceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Baccharis genistelloides (Asteraceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

The plant, in cooking, is used for scared children (Kichwa de la Sierra-Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: The whole fresh plant is used to treat diabetes, blood, burn fat, cholesterol, kidneys, internal inflammation, liver, gallbladder, bad blood, and baldness (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2011a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010d; Monigatti et al. 2013). The species shows low antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2008, 2010a, b, 2011a, b). It is often sold in local

294 Fig. 3 Baccharis genistelloides (Asteraceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Baccharis genistelloides (Asteraceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 5 Baccharis genistelloides (Asteraceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

markets (Bussmann et al. 2007). Generally, Baccharis species are used internally only in herbal mixtures (Bussmann et al. 2010c) to reduce their toxicity (Bussmann et al. 2011b).

Local Food Uses Ecuador: The plant is used to prepare cheese. Together with the cow’s third stomach, salt, and lime, it makes the milk more acidic (Kichwa de la Sierra-Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008). It serves as fodder for cattle and other quadrupeds (unspecified ethnic group – Carchi) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Bees visit the flowers of this species (unspecified ethnicity – Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008).

References Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Fighting pain. Traditional Peruvian remedies for the treatment of asthma, rheumatism, arthritis and sore bones. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2011a;10(3):397–412. Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Traditional knowledge for modern ailments – plants used for the treatment of diabetes and cancer in northern Peru. J Med Plant Res. 2011b;5(31):6916–30. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing culture. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:47.

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Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of the four winds – the magic and medicinal flora of Peru. Plantas de los cuatro vientos – La flora mágica y medicinal del Perú. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007. ISBN 978-0-9789962-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Medicinal plants of the Andes and the Amazon – the magic and medicinal flora of northern Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015a. ISBN 978-0-9960231-2-2. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plantas medicinales de los Andes y la Amazonía – La flora mágica y medicinal del Norte de Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015b. ISBN 978-09960231-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Vandebroek I, Jones A, Revene Z. Health for sale: the medicinal plant markets in Trujillo and Chiclayo, northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3:37. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Perez F, Díaz D, Ford T, Rasheed T, Silva R. Antibacterial activity of northern-Peruvian medicinal plants – a low cost laboratory approach to assess biological activity. Arnaldoa. 2008;15(1):127–48. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Sharon D. Antibacterial activity of medicinal plants of northern Peru – can traditional applications provide leads for modern science? Indian J Tradit Med. 2010a;9 (4):742–53. Bussmann RW, Malca G, Glenn A, Sharon D, Chait G, Díaz D, Pourmand K, Jonat B, Somogy S, Guardado G, Aguirre C, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A, Effio-Carbajal J, FríasFernandez F, Benito M. Minimum inhibitory concentration of medicinal plants used in northern Peru as antibacterial remedies. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010b;132:101–8. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Herbal mixtures in traditional medicine in northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010c;6:10. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Glenn A. Healing the body, healing the soul. Traditional remedies for “magical” ailments, nervous system and psychosomatic disorders in northern Peru. Afr J Pharm Pharmacol. 2010d;4(9):580–629. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Sharon D, Chait G, Díaz D, Pourmand K, Jonat B, Somogy S, Guardado G, Aguirre C, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Antibacterial activity of northern Peruvian medicinal plants. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2011a;9:67–96. Bussmann RW, Malca G, Glenn A, Sharon D, Nilsen B, Parris B, Dubose D, Ruiz D, Saleda J, Martinez M, Carillo L, Walker K, Kuhlman A, Townesmith A. Toxicity of medicinal plants used in northern Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011b;137:121–40. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Moya Huanca LA, Hart RE. Changing markets – medicinal plants in the markets of La Paz and El Alto, Bolivia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;193:76–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.07.074. de la Torre L, Navarrete H, Muriel M P, Macía MJ, Balslev H, editors. Enciclopedia de las Plantas Útiles del Ecuador. Quito/Aarhus: Herbario QCA de la Escuela de Ciencias Biológicas de la Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador/Herbario AAU del Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas de la Universidad de Aarhus; 2008. García Barriga H. Flora Medicinal de Colombia. Botánica Médica. Tomo Tercero. Bogotá: Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional; 1975. 497 pp. Hennig L, Malca-García G, Giannis A, Bussmann RW. New constituents of Baccharis genistelliodes (Lam.) Pers. Arch Org Chem. 2010;vi:74–82. Justo Chipana M, Moraes RM. Plantas medicinales comercializadas por las chifleras de La Paz y El Alto (Bolivia) – medicinal plants marketed by chifleras of La Paz and El Alto cities (Bolivia). Ecol Bolivia. 2015;50(2):66–90. Macbride JF, Weberbauer A. Flora of Peru. Chicago: Field Museum; 1936–1995. Macía MJ, García E, Vidaurre PJ. An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants commercialized in the markets of La Paz and El Alto, Bolivia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;97:337–350. Monigatti M, Bussmann RW, Weckerle CS. Medicinal plant use in two Andean communities located at different altitudes in the Bolivar Province, Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;145 (2):450–64. Quiroga R, Meneses L, Bussmann RW. Medicinal ethnobotany in Huacareta (Chiquisaca, Bolivia). J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2012;8:29.

Baccharis latifolia (Ruiz. & Pav.) Pers. ASTERACEAE Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, Carolina Romero, and Javier Echeverría

Synonyms Baccharis latifolia (Ruiz. & Pav.) Pers.: Baccharis floribunda Kunth; Baccharis polyantha fo. genuina Hieron.; Baccharis polyantha Kunth.; Baccharis polyantha var. macrophylla Hieron.; Baccharis riparia Kunth; Molina latifolia Ruiz. & Pav.; Pingraea latifolia (Ruiz. & Pav.) F.H. Hellw.; Pluchea glabra Griseb.; Vernonia otavalensis Gilli

N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] C. Romero William L. Brown Center, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO, USA e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] J. Echeverría Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Chemistry and Biology, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, USACH, Santiago de Chile, Chile e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_305

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Local Names Chile: Chilca; Bolivia: Chillca, Chillca macho (Spanish), Chilk’a ork’o (Aymara); Colombia: Chilco, Barsalito, Chilquita, Lengua de gato, Chilca, Algodoncillo, Buéntsamo, Chilca blanca, Chilca rucia, Chilco blanco, Chilco negro, Chirca, Chirco, Gurrubo; Ecuador: Azul chilca, Chilca, Chilca azul, Chilca blanca, Chilca larga, Chilca negra, Chilco, Trementina (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Chilca chica, Chilca grande (Spanish)

Botany and Ecology Shrub up to 4 m tall. Many of the stems strongly resinous, greenish or reddish with mature stems turning brown, the bark being deeply furrowed. Leaves 5–20 cm long, elliptic or lance-shaped with a triangular tip and narrow or rounded base, and with 3 major veins. The surface of leaf with small tufts of hairs. The cream flower heads borne from a branched inflorescence at the tips of branches. All whorls yellowish green-light brown. Male flower heads are up to 7.5 mm long, with 15–45 florets surrounded by a whorl of bracts up to 6 mm long, cup-shaped, with bracts arranged in 3–4 series. The inner bracts linear and up to 3.5 times longer than the egg-shaped outer bracts. The petal tube short, cup-shaped with coiled petals. The female flower head with 100–280 florets, surrounded by a whorl of bracts up to 7 mm long arranged in 3–6 series. Petals form a tube 2.8 mm long surrounded by a branched style. Achenes very small, straw-colored and attached to a series of bristles. Andean Cordillera from Colombia south into Argentina, in disturbed sites, both dry valleys and humid regions of the eastern slopes at elevations between 1200 and 3300 m (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Local Medicinal Uses Colombia: The decoction of the plant is used against rheumatism, liver disorders, cough, bronchitis, ulcers, and intestinal parasites. In the form of poultice, it is used externally to treat dislocations, wounds, rheumatic pains, and bruises. This plant is also used to treat bronchial and pulmonary conditions. The leaves prepared in infusion are used against diarrhea, to treat sores or wounds, against inflammation, intestinal gas, against diabetes, liver diseases, stomach pain, and insomnia. The infusion or decoction of the leaves, stems, and inflorescences is suggested as a good tonic to treat diabetes and as a digestive aid (Anton et al. 2012; García Barriga 1975; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003). Bolivia: Stems and leaves are used to treat bruises, muscle pain, sprains, fractures, bone sprains, kidney infection, fever, high blood pressure, prostate, and sajra (curse) (Bussmann et al. 2016; Justo and Moraes 2015; Macía et al. 2005; Quiroga et al. 2012). The phytoremedy “Chilkaflam,” sold in many pharmacies in Bolivie, is based on an extract of Baccharis latifolia. Ecuador: The plant

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Fig. 1 Baccharis latifolia (Asteraceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Baccharis latifolia (Asteraceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

bath, together with “elderberry” (Cestrum megalophyllum), is used in convalescent patients. Roasted leaves are applied to relieve toothache and headache; in infusion, they are used to treat diarrhea in children and hemorrhoids. The leaves are used to treat sprains or dislocations of the bones and blows, and relieves inflammations (Mestiza-Pichincha). The plant extract is used to treat inflamed wounds. The buds are boiled, along with onion, Chinese root (Zingiber sp.), urine and soap, for colic and inflammation of the internal female sexual organs (Kichwa de la Sierra-Loja). The bark is used to deflate swelling. The leaves heal wounds and skin infections. The leaves, with menthol, tallow or cocoa butter, are used to treat the crippled, to loosen the bone when it is already hard and to take out the cold when the heel bone is diverted in children (sic) (ethnicity not specified – Imbabura). The cooked leaves serve as a disinfectant (unspecified ethnic group – Napo). The leaves are applied, smeared with mentholated ointment and beef tallow, to treat the cripples (Mestizo, unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha). The leaves are used to treat indeterminate

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Fig. 3 Baccharis latifolia (Asteraceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

conditions (Mestiza-Morona Santiago). With the leaves, the toothache, sprains, bumps, or cripples are treated (Kichwa de la Sierra-Cotopaxi, Tungurahua, Chimborazo; unspecified ethnic group – Chimborazo). The leaves are used, with sheep and chicken fat, to treat spina bifida “sucks tulu or rabadilla.” The leaves, in infusion, relieve stomach pain in animals (unspecified ethnic group – Cañar). The buds, previously heated, are applied to the affected part in order to treat rheumatism and to remove the cold from the body (unspecified ethnic group – Chimborazo) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The herb is used by sorcerers in cleansing rituals (unspecified ethnic group – Others (Ecuador)). The decoction of the yolks, mixed with “paico bug,” is used as a medicine to treat “colic air” (Kichwa de la Sierra-Loja). The leaves are applied in children so that they do not urinate (unspecified ethnicity – Azuay). The leaves and branches are used to treat “bad air,” “bad wind,” and “fright,” and to ward off evil spirits (Kichwa from the Sierra-Pichincha, Tungurahua, Cotopaxi; Mestiza Pichincha; unspecified ethnicity – Imbabura, Pichincha, Chimborazo) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: Leaves and stems, fresh or dried, are used to treat hot bones, bone pain, rheumatism, asthma, and arthritis (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010d; Monigatti et al. 2013; Bussmann and Glenn 2011a, b). The species shows antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2008, 2010a, b, 2011a, b). The plant is often sold in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007). Generally, Baccharis species are used internally only in herbal mixtures (Bussmann et al. 2010c) to reduce their toxicity (Bussmann et al. 2011b).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Ecuador: The leaves are used as fodder for cows, horses, donkeys, guinea pigs, and rabbits; it is said to be better than alfalfa (Mestiza-Manabí; unspecified ethnic group – Chimborazo, Cañar, Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008). It has beekeeping use (unspecified ethnic group – Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008). It serves as fuel

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(unspecified ethnicity – Azuay) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The stem is timber and is used as a kitchen utensil (Mestiza-Pichincha; unspecified ethnicity – Azuay). The leaves are used to wash the pork guts and eliminate their bitter taste (Kichwa de la Sierra, unspecified ethnic group – Pichincha). The leaves and bark contain a resin acid of repulsive properties, which is a great emulsifier of rubber (unspecified ethnic group – Pichincha) (de la Torre et al. 2008).

References Anton AMR, Zuloaga FO, Al-Shehbaz IA, Barboza GE, Belgrano MJ, Freire SE, . . ., Múlgura ME. Flora Argentina: flora vascular de la República Argentina. Instituto de Botánica Darwinion:. Volume: 7/2 Dicotyledoneae: Asteraceae II: Cichorieae, Helenieae a Mutisieae. Buenos Aires: Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Vegetal (CONICET-UNC); 2012 Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Fighting pain. Traditional Peruvian remedies for the treatment of asthma, rheumatism, arthritis and sore bones. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2011a;10(3):397–412. Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Traditional knowledge for modern ailments – plants used for the treatment of diabetes and cancer in northern Peru. J Med Plant Res. 2011b;5(31):6916–30. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing culture. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:47. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of the four winds – the magic and medicinal flora of Peru. Plantas de los cuatro vientos – La flora mágica y medicinal del Perú. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007. ISBN 978-0-9789962-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Medicinal plants of the Andes and the Amazon – the magic and medicinal flora of northern Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015a. ISBN 978-0-9960231-2-2. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plantas medicinales de los Andes y la Amazonía – La flora mágica y medicinal del Norte de Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015b. ISBN 978-09960231-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Vandebroek I, Jones A, Revene Z. Health for sale: the medicinal plant markets in Trujillo and Chiclayo, northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3:37. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Perez F, Díaz D, Ford T, Rasheed T, Silva R. Antibacterial activity of northern-Peruvian medicinal plants – a low cost laboratory approach to assess biological activity. Arnaldoa. 2008;15(1):127–48. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Sharon D. Antibacterial activity of medicinal plants of northern Peru – can traditional applications provide leads for modern science? Indian J Tradit Med. 2010a;9(4):742–53. Bussmann RW, Malca G, Glenn A, Sharon D, Chait G, Díaz D, Pourmand K, Jonat B, Somogy S, Guardado G, Aguirre C, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A, Effio-Carbajal J, FríasFernandez F, Benito M. Minimum inhibitory concentration of medicinal plants used in northern Peru as antibacterial remedies. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010b;132:101–8. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Herbal mixtures in traditional medicine in northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010c;6:10. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Glenn A. Healing the body, healing the soul. Traditional remedies for “magical” ailments, nervous system and psychosomatic disorders in northern Peru. Afr J Pharm Pharmacol. 2010d;4(9):580–629. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Sharon D, Chait G, Díaz D, Pourmand K, Jonat B, Somogy S, Guardado G, Aguirre C, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Antibacterial activity of northern Peruvian medicinal plants. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2011a;9:67–96. Bussmann RW, Malca G, Glenn A, Sharon D, Nilsen B, Parris B, Dubose D, Ruiz D, Saleda J, Martinez M, Carillo L, Walker K, Kuhlman A, Townesmith A. Toxicity of medicinal plants used in northern Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011b;137:121–40.

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Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Moya Huanca LA, Hart RE. Changing markets – medicinal plants in the markets of La Paz and El Alto, Bolivia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;193:76–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.07.074. de la Torre L, Navarrete H, Muriel M P, Macía MJ, Balslev H, editors. Enciclopedia de las Plantas Útiles del Ecuador. Quito/Aarhus: Herbario QCA de la Escuela de Ciencias Biológicas de la Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador/Herbario AAU del Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas de la Universidad de Aarhus; 2008. García Barriga H. Flora Medicinal de Colombia. Botánica Médica. Tomo Tercero. Bogotá: Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional; 1975. 497 pp. Justo Chipana M, Moraes RM. Plantas medicinales comercializadas por las chifleras de La Paz y El Alto (Bolivia) – medicinal plants marketed by chifleras of La Paz and El Alto cities (Bolivia). Ecol Bolivia; 2015;50(2):66–90. Macbride JF, Weberbauer A. Flora of Peru. Chicago: Field Museum; 1936–1995. Macía MJ, García E, Vidaurre PJ. An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants commercialized in the markets of La Paz and El Alto, Bolivia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;97:337–350. Ministerio de Protección Social. Vademécum Colombiano de Plantas Medicinales. Bogotá: Imprenta Nacional de Colombia; 2008. 311 pp. Monigatti M, Bussmann RW, Weckerle CS. Medicinal plant use in two Andean communities located at different altitudes in the Bolivar Province, Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;145(2): 450–64. Quiroga R, Meneses L, Bussmann RW. Medicinal ethnobotany in Huacareta (Chiquisaca, Bolivia). J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2012;8:29. Rodriguez R, Marticorena C, Alarcón D, Baeza C, Cavieres L, Finot VL, Fuentes N, Kiessling A, Mihoc M, Pauchard A, Ruiz E, Sanchez P, Marticorena A. Catálogo de las plantas vasculares de Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430. Villagrán C, Castro V. Ciencia indígena de los Andes del norte de Chile. Santiago: Editorial Universitaria; 2003.

Bactris gasipaes Kunth ARECACEAE Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

Synonyms Bactris gasipaes Kunth: Bactris caribaea H. Karst.; Bactris ciliata (Ruiz & Pav.) Mart.; Bactris coccinea Barb. Rodr.; Bactris dahlgreniana Glassman; Bactris insignis (Mart.) Baill.; Bactris insignis Drude; Bactris macana (Mart.) Pittier; Bactris speciosa (Mart.) H. Karst.; Bactris speciosa var. chichagui H. Karst.; Bactris utilis (Oerst.) Benth. & Hook. f. ex Hemsl.; Guilelma caribaea (H. Karst.) H. Wendlk.; Guilelma chontaduro H. Karst. & Triana; Guilelma ciliata (Ruiz & Pav.) H. Wendl. ex Kerch.; Guilelma gasipaes (Kunth) L.H. Bailey; Guilelma gasipaes var. chichagui (H. Karst) Dahlgren; Guilelma gasipaes var. chontaduro (H. Karst. & Triana) Dugand; Guilelma gasipaes var. coccinea (Barb. Rodr.) L.H. Bailey; Guilelma gasipaes var. flava (Barb. Rodr.) L.H. Bailey; Guilelma gasipaes var. ochracea (Barb. Rodr.) LK.H. Bailey; Guilelma insignis Mart.;

N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] C. Romero William L. Brown Center, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO, USA e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_34

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Guilelma macana Mart.; Guilelma mattogrossensis Barb. Rodr.; Guilelma microcarpa Huber; Guilelma speciosa Mart.; Guilelma speciosa var. coccinea Barb. Rodr.; Guilelma speciosa var. flava Barb. Rodr.; Guilelma speciosa var. mitis Drude; Guilelma speciosa var. ochracea Barb. Rodr.; Guilelma utilis Oerst.; Martinezia ciliata Ruiz & Pav.

Local Names Bolivia: Chima, tembé, pupuña (Spanish) Huanima (Chácobo), Anua (Quechua), Tëmbi (Yuracare), Mue (Tacana) (Cárdenas 1989; Moraes 2014; Moraes et al. 2014; Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2015; Macía et al. 2014; Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2011, 2012a, b, c, d, e, f, 2014). Colombia: Cachipay (Boyacá y Cundinamarca), Chontaduro (en todo el país), pejibá (Costa del Pacífico Norte), pijiguao (Guainía), pipire (Llanos Orientales, Vaupés), pupuña (Amazonia) (Galeano and Bernal 2010; Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2015; Macía et al. 2014; Moraes et al. 2014). Ecuador: Kanu chi (chafi’ki), tsa awe (tsafi’ki), chunta, chunta ruru, chunta yura, killu chunta, pawa chunta, pifayu, puka chunta, shalin chunta, uchu manka (kichwa), o’ma (a’ingae), ëne, huiyape ëne, ma’ëne, ma’ñoco ëne, miu’ëne (pai coca), dagenka, dagenkawe, tewe, tewenka (wao tededo), amarija (zápara), mayá uwí, uwí (shuar chicham), uwí (achuar chicham), chonta, chonta dura, chontaduro, palma chonta, palmito (Spanish), peach palm (English), zhoras (unspecified language) (de la Torre et al. 2008; Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2015; Macía et al. 2014; Moraes et al. 2014). Peru: Chonta, Chontaduro, Pijuayo (Spanish), Joó (Arazaeri), Uyai (Awajún), Mee (Ese Eja) (Bussmann and Sharon 2015a, b; Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2015; Macía et al. 2014; Moraes 2014; Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2012a, b, c, d, e)

Botany and Ecology Frequently with several trunks coming out of the same point (with up to 15 spiny stems), less frequent with a single trunk, 4–15 m high, 8–25 cm in diameter, smooth logs, with obvious internodes and with black spines that give the whole trunk a spiny appearance (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7). Leaves 7–20 arched, 50–100 cm long, with 90–140 pinnae per side, irregularly arranged in several planes giving it a feathery appearance to the leaves; spine and sheath covered with small white or brown spines. Flowers with both male and female flowers on the same stem (monoecious); both types of flowers in clusters that leave between the leaves (interfoliars), with the peduncle and the floral bract rarely covered with white or brown spines. Fruits variable in shape and size, from ovoid or ovoid to almost spherical, 1.2 (var. chichagui)–10 cm (var. gasipaes) long and 1– 6 cm in diameter, orange-yellow-red, with the thin shell and the thick, mealy and oily pulp (mesocarp); very variable endocarp, spherical to ellipsoid, acute at the base. Seeds one per fruit, similar to an almond (Figs. 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, and 13).

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Fig. 1 Bactris gasipaes var. gasipaes (Arecaceae), mature plant Rio Tahuayo, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

The variety chichagui is regarded as the wild form of the species. Generally, the specimens are smaller, and in particular the fruits are much smaller (Figs. 14, 15, 16, 17, and 18).

Local Medicinal Uses Bolivia: The fruit is used to treat body pain, cough, colds, fever, gallbladder disease, headache, psoriasis, swellings, and tuberculosis and as a galactagogue; the palm heart is used to treat anemia and stomach pain and as a galactagogue; the root is used to treat colds, stomach pain, postpartum depression, urinary problems, inguinal hernia, and uterus infections and as a galactagogue; seeds are used to treat stomach pain; spines are used to treat freight; larvae that develop on the trunk are used to treat pneumonia and cough (Cárdenas 1989; Moraes 2014; Moraes et al. 2014; PaniaguaZambrana et al. 2015; Macía et al. 2014; Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2011, 2012, 2012f, 2014). Colombia: The fruit is used to treat infertility; leaves are used in bath rituals that avoid getting born; the palm heart is used to treat stomach pain and chickenpox; the root is used to treat stomach pain, muscular pain, menstrual problems, yellow fever, malaria, hepatitis, childbirth problems, infertility, earache, and eye inflammation and

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Fig. 2 Bactris gasipaes var. gasipaes (Arecaceae), mature plants in plantation, Rio Tahuayo, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

to prevent hair loss and as an abortive; the seed is used to treat stomach pain and cancer; spines are used for extraction of spines and used by jaibaná to rub the body during healing ceremonies (Galeano and Bernal 2010; Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2015; Macía et al. 2014; Moraes et al. 2014). Ecuador: The juice from young palms is used to treat inflammations; young leaves are used for energy cleaning; the fruit is used to treat body pain, earache, eye inflammation, and muscular pain and as a galactagogue; the leaf entirely is used to treat earache and epilepsy; the palm heart is used to treat stomach pain and earache and as a galactagogue and sedative; the hot palm heart is used to rub the children and cure them of “fright”; the root is used to treat epilepsy, stomach pain, body pain, muscular pain, fertility, earache, eye inflammation, and diarrhea, to prevent baldness, and as a galactagogue, contraceptive, and vitamin; the seed is used to treat stomach pain; spines are used to treat epilepsy; for witchcraft, with other ingredients in spiritual drink; and for extraction of spines; larvae growing on the trunk are used to treat asthma, hemorrhoids, tuberculosis, and heart problems (Bussmann and Sharon 2015a, b, Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2015; Macía et al. 2014; Moraes 2014; Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2012a, b, c, d, e). Peru: The palm heart is used as an anti-ophidicum; the root is used to treat hepatitis, hernia, malaria, mastitis, pneumonia, colds, cold of the tubes, and kidney infection,

Bactris gasipaes Kunth Fig. 3 Bactris gasipaes var. gasipaes (Arecaceae), spiny stem, Rio Tahuayo, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Bactris gasipaes var. gasipaes (Arecaceae), clonal stems, Rio Tahuayo, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 5 Bactris gasipaes var. gasipaes (Arecaceae), clonal stems, Rio Tahuayo, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

to prevent abortion, to prevent childbirth hemorrhages, and as an aphrodisiac and a galactagogue; thorns are used in the bathroom to cure sorcery; larvae that grow on the trunk are used to treat pneumonia/bronchitis and cough (Bussmann and Sharon 2015a, b; Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2015; Macía et al. 2014; Moraes 2014).

Local Food Uses Bolivia: The palm heart is consumed raw or cooked, and it is marketed in brine both nationally and for export; the mature fruit is consumed cooked, used to make soft drinks or chicha (alcoholic beverage), and used to extract oil used for cooking; dried seeds are ground and roasted to prepare a coffee-like drink; larvae that develop on the trunk are edible (Cárdenas 1989; Moraes 2014; Moraes et al. 2014; PaniaguaZambrana et al. 2015; Macía et al. 2014; Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2011, 2012, 2012f, 2014). Even the fruits of var. chichagui can be eaten cooked. However, the red fruits contain oxalate crystals that lead to sore throat, and thus only the yellow fruits are normally eaten (Fig. 19). Colombia: The fruits are edible cooked and also prepared in many different ways, from flour to juices, and sweets. The juice or “guarapo” made with the fruit is used in

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Fig. 6 Bactris gasipaes var. gasipaes (Arecaceae), clones in plantation, Rio Tahuayo, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

ceremonial dances. The palm is edible and the palm is grown in commercial plantations for extraction. Larvae growing on the trunk are edible cooked (Galeano and Bernal 2010, Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2015; Macía et al. 2014; Moraes et al. 2014). Ecuador: The fruit mixed with cooked banana is used to make a refreshing drink called chucula. The fruit’s mesocarp is edible, and it is consumed roasted, roasted, or cooked with salt, cheese, and meat. In addition, it is used to prepare chicha (alcoholic beverage), juices, and canned milk and to extract used oil in the kitchen. Raw and cooked palm heart is edible. The seeds are used to extract edible oil. The larvae that develop on the trunk are cooked edibles (de la Torre et al. 2008; Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2015; Macía et al. 2014; Moraes et al. 2014). Peru: Raw and cooked palm is edible. The fruit’s mesocarp is edible, consumed cooked, and used to prepare chicha (alcoholic beverage), juices, and canned milk and to extract oil used in cooking. Roasted seeds are edible. The larvae that develop on the trunk are cooked edibles (Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2015; Macía et al. 2014; Moraes 2014; Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2012a, b, c, d, e).

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Fig. 7 Bactris gasipaes var. gasipaes (Arecaceae), clone in homestead, Apolo, pueblo Lecos, Bolivia. (Photo N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Bolivia: The fruit mesocarp used to obtain hair care oil and used as fodder for cattle (Cárdenas 1989; Moraes 2014; Moraes et al. 2014; Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2015; Macía et al. 2014; Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2011, 2012, 2012f, 2014). The trunk is used to make the “maceta” (maso) used to wash clothes and handle food; is also used to make bows and arrowheads, ax handles, and hand spinning wheels; and is also used to make rafts/canoes, canoeras, animal pen walls, house walls, house/ranch/ kitchen poles, housing gutters, and window frames (Cárdenas 1989; Moraes 2014; Moraes et al. 2014; Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2015; Macía et al. 2014; PaniaguaZambrana et al. 2011, 2012, 2012f, 2014) (Figs. 20 and 21). Colombia: The bract is used as a toy by children; the thorn is used for personal adornment; the fruit is used to obtain oil used for hair and skin care; new leaves are used for making dyes and dance costumes. Fruits are used as a fertilizer and used as a bait in hunting and fishing traps and as fodder; the stem is used to make fences. The

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Fig. 8 Bactris gasipaes var. gasipaes (Arecaceae), juvenile infructescence, Apolo, pueblo Lecos, Bolivia. (Photo N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Fig. 9 Bactris gasipaes var. gasipaes (Arecaceae), mature fruits, Villa Santiago, Rio Tahuayo, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

palm heart is used as bait for fishing and seed used as bait for fishing. The fruit is used to obtain oil that is in the light lamps; dry leaves are used as firewood (Galeano and Bernal 2010; Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2015; Macía et al. 2014; Moraes et al. 2014). Leaves are used as wrapping; young leaves are used to obtain fibers and make ropes and to dye the tissues green; the larvae that develop on the trunk are used as bait for fishing; the log wood is used to make bows, arrows, and spears for hunting and fishing, and among the Emberás is used to carve the cane of the “jaibanás,”

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Fig. 10 Bactris gasipaes var. gasipaes (Arecaceae), mature fruits, Villa Santiago, Rio Tahuayo, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 11 Bactris gasipaes var. gasipaes (Arecaceae), mature fruits, Villa Santiago, Rio Tahuayo, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

macanas, pylons, poles for pressing powder from the shotgun, looms, and fishing traps; the mesocarp of the fruit is used to extract used oil for shotguns. Leaves are used in roof construction; the log wood is used to make canoeras, animal pens, walls,

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Fig. 12 Bactris gasipaes var. gasipaes (Arecaceae), mature fruits, Villa Santiago, Rio Tahuayo, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 13 Bactris gasipaes var. gasipaes (Arecaceae), fruits for sale, Villa Santiago, Rio Tahuayo, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

floors, house/ranch/kitchen poles, and “ripas” (thin beams) where the leaves are woven (Galeano and Bernal 2010; Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2015; Macía et al. 2014; Moraes et al. 2014). Ecuador: The fruit is used as fodder for pigs and as fishing bait. The crushed fruit is mixed with the crushed leaves of Clibadium surinamense as fish venom. The endocarp and spine are used to make personal ornaments; the fruit is used to obtain oil used for hair care; the stem is used to make marimbas (musical instrument); with

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Fig. 14 Bactris gasipaes var. chichagui (Arecaceae), mature trees, Motacuzal, Beni, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 15 Bactris gasipaes var. chichagui (Arecaceae), young infructescence, Motacuzal, Beni, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

the stem war spears are made that are used in traditional celebrations of the new year Wao “dagenca tede” that is marked by the end of the fruiting of this palm. The fruiting season of this palm is the reason for an important party among the Shuar. The stem is used as a good energy amulet during rituals, for firewood (de la Torre et al. 2008; Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2015; Macía et al. 2014; Moraes et al. 2014), to trap fish, and to make spears, knives, blowguns, arrows, and marimbas keys. The leaves

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Fig. 16 Bactris gasipaes var. chichagui (Arecaceae), ripe infructescence, Motacuzal, Beni, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 17 Bactris gasipaes var. chichagui (Arecaceae), ripe infructescence, Motacuzal, Beni, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

serve as body ornament. The spines are used to remove other spines. The fruit serves as an ornament. Larvae that develop inside the logs are used as fishing bait. The stem is useful in the construction of houses; in walls, planks, roof supports, and floor platforms; and as pillars; the wood is used to make parquet; the leaves are used in the construction of roofs of houses (de la Torre et al. 2008; Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2015; Macía et al. 2014; Moraes et al. 2014). Peru: The endocarp is used to make personal ornaments and used by children to play (wave, marbles); the fruit is used to obtain oil used for hair care and to remove facial blemishes; new sheets are used to dye fibers; the log wood is used in ceremonial tables (“despachos”) and used as fodder and as a fishing railing;

316 Fig. 18 Bactris gasipaes var. chichagui (Arecaceae), ripe infructescence, Motacuzal, Beni, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 19 Bactris gasipaes var. chichagui (Arecaceae), ripe fruits, Motacuzal, Beni, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 20 Bactris gasipaes var. gasipaes (Arecaceae), needle made from trunk, Alto Ivon, pueblo Chácobo, Beni, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 21 Bactris gasipaes var. gasipaes (Arecaceae), arrowheads made from trunk, Alto Ivon, pueblo Chácobo. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 22 Bactris gasipaes var. gasipaes (Arecaceae), part of loom made from trunk, Rio Tahuayo, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

new leaves are used to burn the pig and peel it; the log is used for firewood (Bussmann and Sharon 2015a, b; Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2015; Macía et al. 2014; Moraes 2014; Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2012a, b, c, d, e). In Northern Peruvian shamanism, this species is used to carve many of the staffs used on

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healing altars (Bussmann and Sharon 2015a, b). Fruits are used to extract oil for tools; new sheets are used to weave fans and mats; the trunk is used to make bows, blowguns, hunting and fishing spears, arrowheads, hand spinning wheels, and beds and to build tumbadillos (second-level floors); the log wood is used to make the “punch” used to sow and to make ax handles. Leaves are used to build the ridge and roofs and the trunks used in the frames of the houses; to build canoeras, animal pens, walls, floors, and house/ranch/kitchen poles; and to obtain wood and make the ripas where the roof sheets are woven (Bussmann and Sharon 2015a, b; Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2015; Macía et al. 2014; Moraes 2014; PaniaguaZambrana et al. 2012a, b, c, d, e) (Figs. 22, 23, and 24).

Fig. 23 Bactris gasipaes var. gasipaes (Arecaceae), beater made from trunk, Lamas Waycu, pueblo Lamas, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 24 Bactris gasipaes var. gasipaes (Arecaceae), blowgun made from trunk, Lamas Waycu, pueblo Lamas, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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References Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Medicinal plants of the Andes and the Amazon – the magic and medicinal flora of Northern Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015a. ISBN 978-0-9960231-2-2. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plantas medicinales de los Andes y la Amazonía – La flora mágica y medicinal del Norte de Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015b. ISBN 978-09960231-3-9. Cárdenas M. Manual de plantas económicas de Bolivia. La Paz: Edit. Los Amigos del Libro; 1989. de la Torre L, Navarrete H, Muriel-M P, Macía MJ, Balslev H, editors. Enciclopedia de las Plantas Útiles del Ecuador. Quito/Aarhus: Herbario QCA de la Escuela de Ciencias Biológicas de la Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador/Herbario AAU del Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas de la Universidad de Aarhus; 2008. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12229-015-9155-5. Galeano G, Bernal R. Palmas de Colombia. Guía de Campo. Bogotá: Editorial Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Instituto de Ciencias Naturales-Universidad Nacional de Colombia; 2010. 688 pp. Macía MJ, Cámara Leret R, Paniagua-Zambrana N. Uso de palmas por poblaciones locales. In: Balslev H, Macía MJ, Navarrete H, editors. Cosecha de palmas en el noroeste de Sudamérica – las bases científicas para su manejo y conservación. Quito: Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador; 2014. Moraes RM, editor. Palmeras Útiles de Bolivia – Las Especies Mayormente Aprovechadas Para Diferentes Fines y Aplicaciones. La Paz: Herbario Nacional de Bolivia – Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, Plural Editores; 2014. Moraes M, Paniagua-Zambrana N, Cámara Leret R, Balslev H, Macía MJ. Palmas útiles de Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador y Perú. In: Balslev H, Macía MJ, Navarrete H, editors. Cosecha de palmas en el noroeste de Sudamérica – las bases científicas para su manejo y conservación. Quito: Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador; 2014. Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, Blacutt E, Macia MJ, editors. Los Chacobo y las Palmeras. Trujillo: Graficart; 2011. Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, Vega C, Téllez C, Macía MJ. Nuestro conocimiento y uso de las palmeras – una herencia para nuestros hijos. Comunidades Llaquash, San Martín, Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2012a. ISBN-13: 978-9848415-3-0. Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, Vega C, Téllez C, Macía MJ. Nuestro conocimiento y uso de las palmeras – una herencia para nuestros hijos. Comunidades Llaquash, San Martín, Peru. Trujillo: Graficart; 2012b. Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, Macía MJ. El bosque SI tiene valor – el uso de palmeras en las comunidades campesinas e indígenas de la región de Inambari, Madre de Dios, Perú. Trujillo: Graficart; 2012c. Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, Vega C, Téllez C, Macía MJ. Kampanak se usa para el techo pero ya no hay – Uso y conservación de palmeras entre los Awajun, Amazonas, Peru. Trujillo: Graficart; 2012d. Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, Macía MJ. El conocimiento de nuestros ancestros - los Ese Eja y su uso de palmeras, Madre de Dios, Peru. Trujillo: Graficart; 2012e. Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, Blacutt E, Macía MJ. Conservando nuestros bosques: conocimiento y uso de las palmeras en las comunidades campesinas del norte de Bolivia. La Paz: Plural Editores; 2012f. Paniagua-Zambrana N, Bussmann RW, Vega C, Tellez C. Los Chacobo y su historia en el siglo XX. Trujillo: Herbario Nacional de Bolivia/William L. Brown Center/Missouri Botanical Garden/Graficart; 2014. Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Cámara-Leret R, Macía MJ. Patterns of medicinal use of palms across northwestern South America. Bot Rev. 2015;81(4):317–415.

Bauhinia variegata L. FABACEAE Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

Synonyms Bauhinia variegata L.: Bauhinia candida Aiton; Bauhinia chinensis Vogel; Bauhinia cucullata Desv.; Bauhinia decora L. Uribe; Bauhinia variegata var. candida Buch.-Ham.; Bauhinia variegata var. chinensis DC.; Phanera variegata (L.) Benth

Local Names Colombia: Casco de vaca, Pata de buey, Patebuey, Patevaca, Pata de vaca; English: Butterfly tree, Geranium tree, Orchid tree

N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] C. Romero William L. Brown Center, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO, USA e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_35

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Fig. 1 Bauhinia variegata (Fabaceae), Nairobi, Kenya. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Botany and Ecology A medium-sized tree with dark brown nearly smooth bark; young shoots pubescent. Leaves petiolate, petiole 2–3.8 cm long, lamina 4.5–15 cm long, as broad as or rather broader than the length, with a medium cleft reaching from 1/4 to 1/3 the way down, lobes obtuse, the base is deeply heart shaped, 9–15 nerved, pubescent beneath when young. Inflorescence few flowered pubescent raceme. Pedicel short or absent, bracteole minute, hypanthium slender, 1.2–2.5 cm long. Calyx 2.0–2.7 cm long, tomentose, five toothed at the apex. Petals 5–6.3 cm long, obovate, with long rather broad claw, all white or four petals pale purple, and fifth petal darker with purple veins. Stamens five, fertile, no staminodes. Ovary hairy, stipe 10–17 mm long; style long; stigma capitate. Pods 15–30 cm long, c. 1–2.5 cm broad, hard, flat, dehiscent 10–15 seeded; stipe glabrous (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Fig. 1).

Local Medicinal Uses The leaves and stem-bark are used in Colombia for the treatment of diabetes, kidney problems, obesity, diarrhea, and as poultice for skin problems. The plant (particularly the leaves) is used to lower cholesterol, against intestinal worms, in the treatment of stomach pains, as a diuretic, as a reducer of blood pressure, and to lower the levels of lipids in the blood. The bark is used as a healing, antiinflammatory and antihemorrhagic, and also as a general tonic and in the treatment of skin diseases, relief of ulcers, diarrhea, and to treat dysentery. Infusion of the leaves of different species of Bauhinia is traditionally used in the treatment of diabetes and hypertension and as a diuretic and anthelmintic agent (Bernal et al. 2011; Martínez Correa and Montes Martínez 2017; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996).

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In Northern India, the species is used to treat diarrhea, dysentery, indigestion, laxative, leprosy, malaria, piles (bleeding), skin diseases, snake bite, syphilis, tumors, ulcers, and worms (Verma et al. 2007), as astringent, and for skin problems (Joshi et al. 2010). In Nepal, the flower juice is taken for dysentery and diarrhea, while dried flowers are given for diarrhea, dysentery, and piles, and fresh flowers are used as laxative (Kunwar et al. 2010).

References Bernal HY, García Martínez H, Quevedo Sánchez GF, editors. Pautas para el conocimiento, conservación y uso sostenible de las plantas medicinales nativas en Colombia. Estrategia Nacional para la Conservación de Plantas. Bogotá: Ministerio de Ambiente, Vivienda y Desarrollo Territorial. Instituto de Investigación de Recursos Biológicos Alexander von Humboldt; 2011. 232 pp. Joshi M, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal uses of plant resources of the Haigad watershed in Kumaun Himalaya. Med Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010;4(Special issue 1):43–6. Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Bussmann RW. Traditional herbal medicine in far-west Nepal: a pharmacological appraisal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:35. Macbride JF, Weberbauer A. Flora of Peru. Chicago: Field Museum; 1936–1995. Martínez Correa CA, Montes Martínez PA. Determinación de la etnobotánica de las plantas medicinales comercializadas en las plazas de mercados de los municipios de Turbo, Apartadó, Carepa, Chigorodó y Mutatá, Antioquia, Colombia. Tesis de Grado, Universidad Nacional Abierta y a Distancia UNAD. Escuela de Ciencias Agrícolas, Pecuarias y del Medio Ambiente, Turbo. 2017. 136 pp. Ministerio de Protección Social. Vademécum Colombiano de Plantas Medicinales. Bogotá: Imprenta Nacional de Colombia; 2008. 311 pp. Pérez Arbeláez E. Plantas útiles de Colombia. 5a. Ed. Bogotá: Fondo FEN Colombia, DAMA, Jardín Botánico de Bogotá José Celestino Mutis; 1996. 831 pp. Verma A, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants in an urban environment: the medicinal flora of Banares Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3:35.

Bellardia trixago (L.) All. ASTERACEAE Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Bellardia trixago (L.) All.: Bartsia trixago L., Euphrasia trixago (L.) Vis., Rhinanthus trixago L., Trixago apula Steven

Local Names Chile: Toronjil de la pena, Toronjil dulce, Cedrón

J. Echeverría Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Chemistry and Biology, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, USACH, Santiago de Chile, Chile e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_36

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Botany and Ecology Erect viscid herb 10–70 cm high, simple or with a few ascending branches arising from the middle nodes, densely covered by soft glandular and often stiff nonglandular hairs. Leaves narrow-lanceolate to linear, 1.5–9 cm long, 1–15 mm wide, margins coarsely toothed, and upper leaves with 4–6 pairs of teeth. Racemes dense, with many subsessile flowers, bracts becoming shorter, and  entire towards apex. Calyx 8–10 mm long. Corolla 17–20 mm long, purple to pink with a spreading whitish or yellowish lower lip, rarely entirely white. Capsule broad-ovoid to globose, 10–12 mm long, densely nonglandular-strigose. Sea level to 500 m (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1 and 2).

Local Medicinal Uses The aerial parts are used in Chile for the treatment of heart disease, tranquilizer, and for different ailments (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).

Fig. 1 Bellardia sp. (Orobanchaceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Bellardia sp. (Orobanchaceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

References Macbride JF, Weberbauer A. Flora of Peru. Chicago: Field Museum; 1936–1995. Rodriguez R, Marticorena C, Alarcón D, Baeza C, Cavieres L, Finot VL, Fuentes N, Kiessling A, Mihoc M, Pauchard A, Ruiz E, Sanchez P, Marticorena A. Catálogo de las plantas vasculares de Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430. Villagrán C, Castro V. Ciencia indígena de los Andes del norte de Chile. Santiago de Chile: Editorial Universitaria; 2003.

Berberis rigidifolia Kunth ex DC. BERBERIDACEAE Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

Local Names Colombia: Espino, Espino de oro, Espuelo, Quilache, Tachuelo, Uña de gato, Arrasquillo, Chinia, Espuela, Casha; Ecuador: Espuelas kasha (Spanish-Kichwa) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Palo amarillo; English: Barberry

Botany and Ecology A spiny shrub with flexuous, terete, glabrous branchlets and 2–3-fid spines. These are 1.5 mm thick at the base, 7 mm long, strongly curved; petioles slender, 1–2.5 cm long, minutely puberulent, about five fasciculate; leaves subrotund, usually deeply cordate at the base, 3–4 cm long and broad, chartaceous, slightly lustrous above but scarcely veiny, dull, papillose, prominently reticulate-veined beneath, and undulate-spinuloseN. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] C. Romero William L. Brown Center, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO, USA e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_37

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dentate; flowers in peduncled corymbs or subpaniculate, granular-pulverulent, 5 mm long; pedicels 10 mm long; stamens 3.5 mm long; connective obtuse; stigma capitate (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7).

Local Medicinal Uses The roots are used in Colombia to treat fevers, as a purgative, as a tonic, against excessive sweating, and especially the root is used to stop bleeding (García Barriga 1974; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Other species like Berberis glauca and Berberis goudotii are used for constipation, fevers, hemorrhages, as sudorific, to treat malaria, and as skin tonic (Bussmann et al. 2018); Ecuador: The fruit is used in refrigerating syrups (unspecified ethnic group-Azuay, Cañar) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Berberis buceronis is used in Peru for liver problems and hepatitis (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2015a, b; Monigatti et al. 2013), respiratory and nervous system disorders, and gynecological problems (Bussmann and Glenn 2010a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010a, 2011a). The plants show antibacterial properties (Bussmann et al. 2010b), and Fig. 1 Berberis barbeyana (Berberidaceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Berberis barbeyana (Berberidaceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Berberis rigidifolia Kunth ex DC. Fig. 3 Berberis beauverdiana (Berberidaceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Berberis jelskiana (Berberidaceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Berberis jelskiana (Berberidaceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 6 Berberis sp. (Berberidaceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 7 Berberis rigidifolia (Berberidaceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

essentially no toxicity (Bussmann et al. 2011b). Most material is used in mixtures with other species (Bussmann et al. 2010c). Packages labeled as “Berberis vulgaris” are distributed to patients in the Peruvian social security health system, and Berberis species are widely sold in markets (Bussmann et al. 2007a, b, 2008, 2009). Berberis species are used as medicinal plants worldwide, e.g., in India and Pakistan, where Berberis asiatica fruits are used as mild laxative for children, the roots and bark as astringent, stomatic, diaphoretic, and to remedy piles (Bhat et al. 2015; Joshi et al. 2010), with similar uses reported by Singh et al. (2017); and Berberis lyceum for eye problems and piles (Joshi et al. 2010); in Nepal, B. asiatica is used for eye problems (Kunwar et al. 2013, 2015).

Local Food Uses Ecuador: The tender fruit is used in pickles (unspecified ethnic group-Azuay, Cañar) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Berberis fruits are widely used in the Caucasus especially for sauces (Bussmann et al. 2016a).

Berberis rigidifolia Kunth ex DC.

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses Ecuador: The root is used as a dye because it contains yellow berberine (unspecified ethnicity – Azuay, Cañar) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The plant is used as a living fence (Mestiza-Tungurahua) (de la Torre et al. 2008).

References Bhat J, Malik ZA, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhatt AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44. Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Traditional Peruvian medicine for the treatment of respiratory disorders. Rev Peru Biol. 2010a;17(2):331–46. Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Medicinal plants used in northern Peru for reproductive problems and female health. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010b;6:30. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing culture. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:47. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Medicinal plants of the Andes and the Amazon – the magic and medicinal flora of northern Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015a. ISBN 978-0-9960231-2-2. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plantas medicinales de los Andes y la Amazonía – La flora mágica y medicinal del Norte de Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015b. ISBN 978-09960231-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Vandebroek I, Jones A, Revene Z. Health for sale: the medicinal plant markets in Trujillo and Chiclayo, northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007a;3:37. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Lopez A. Blending traditional and Western Medicine: medicinal plant use amongst patients at Clinica Anticona in El Porvenir, Peru. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2007b;5:185–99. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Ly J. From garden to market? The cultivation of native and introduced medicinal plant species in Cajamarca, Peru and implications habitat conservation. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2008;6:351–61. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Garcia M. From chamomile to aspirin? Medicinal plant use among clients at Laboratorios Beal in Trujillo, Peru. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009;7:399–407. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Glenn A. Healing the body, healing the soul. Traditional remedies for “magical” ailments, nervous system and psychosomatic disorders in northern Peru. Afr J Pharm Pharmacol. 2010a;4(9):580–629. Bussmann RW, Malca G, Glenn A, Sharon D, Chait G, Díaz D, Pourmand K, Jonat B, Somogy S, Guardado G, Aguirre C, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A, Effio-Carbajal J, FríasFernandez F, Benito M. Minimum inhibitory concentration of medicinal plants used in northern Peru as antibacterial remedies. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010b;132:101–8. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Herbal mixtures in traditional medicine in northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010c;6:10. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Sharon D, Chait G, Díaz D, Pourmand K, Jonat B, Somogy S, Guardado G, Aguirre C, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Antibacterial activity of northern Peruvian medicinal plants. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2011a;9:67–96. Bussmann RW, Malca G, Glenn A, Sharon D, Nilsen B, Parris B, Dubose D, Ruiz D, Saleda J, Martinez M, Carillo L, Walker K, Kuhlman A, Townesmith A. Toxicity of medicinal plants used in northern Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011b;137:121–40. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia

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(Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Moya Huanca LA, Hart RE. Changing markets – medicinal plants in the markets of La Paz and El Alto, Bolivia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016b;193:76–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.07.074. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Romero C, Hart RE. Astonishing diversity – the medicinal plant markets of Bogotá, Colombia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14(1):43. https://doi.org/ 10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8. de la Torre L, Navarrete H, Muriel M P, Macía MJ, Balslev H, editors. Enciclopedia de las Plantas Útiles del Ecuador. Quito/Aarhus: Herbario QCA de la Escuela de Ciencias Biológicas de la Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador/Herbario AAU del Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas de la Universidad de Aarhus; 2008. García Barriga H. Flora Medicinal de Colombia. Botánica Médica. Tomo Primero. Bogotá: Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional; 1974. 561 pp. Joshi M, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal uses of plant resources of the Haigad watershed in Kumaun Himalaya. Med Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010;4(Special issue 1):43–6. Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Acharya RP, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants, traditional medicine, markets and management in far-west Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:24. Kunwar RM, Acharya RP, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plant dynamics in indigenous medicines in farwest Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;163:210–9. Macbride JF, Weberbauer A. Flora of Peru. Chicago: Field Museum; 1936–1995. Monigatti M, Bussmann RW, Weckerle CS. Medicinal plant use in two Andean communities located at different altitudes in the Bolivar Province, Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;145 (2):450–64. Pérez Arbeláez E. Plantas útiles de Colombia. 5a. Ed. Bogotá: Fondo FEN Colombia, DAMA, Jardín Botánico de Bogotá José Celestino Mutis; 1996. 831 pp. Singh A, Nautiyal MC, Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal plants used by local inhabitants of Jakholi block, Rudraprayag district, western Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13:49. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0178-3.

Bidens laevis (L.) Britton, Stern & Poggenb. Bidens pilosa L. Bidens pseudocosmos Sherff Bidens sp. ASTERACEAE Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, Javier Echeverría, and Carolina Romero Synonyms Bidens laevis (L.) Britton, Stern & Poggenb.: Bidens chrysanthemoides Michx., Bidens elegans Greene, Bidens expansa Greene, Bidens formosa Greene, Bidens helianthoides Kunth, Bidens lugens Greene, Bidens nashii Small, Bidens parryi Greene, Bidens persicifolia Greene, Bidens quadriaristata DC., Bidens speciosa Parish, Coreopsis perfoliata Walter, Coreopsis radiata Mill., Helianthus laevis L., Heliopsis laevis (L.) Pers., Kerneria helianthoides (Kunth) Cass. Bidens pilosa L.: Bidens alausensis Kunth; Bidens alba (L.) DC.; Bidens alba var. radiata (Sch. Bip.) R.E. Ballard ex Melchert; Bidens chilensis DC.; Bidens hirsuta Nutt.; Bidens hispida Kunth; Bidens leucantha (L.) Willd. ex Walp.; Bidens N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] J. Echeverría Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Chemistry and Biology, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, USACH, Santiago de Chile, Chile e-mail: [email protected] C. Romero William L. Brown Center, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO, USA e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_38

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leucantha fo. discoidea Sch. Bip.; Bidens leucantha var. pilosa (L.) Grieseb.; Bidens leucanthema (L.) Willd.; Bidens leucanthema fo. discoidea Sch. Bip.; Bidens leucanthema var. pilosa (L.) Grieseb; Bidens montaubani Phil.; Bidens odorata Cav.; Bidens pilosa fo. discoides Sch. Bip.; Bidens pilosa fo. indivisa Sherf.; Bidens pilosa fo. radiata Sch. Bip.; Bidens pilosa fo. rubiflora S.S. Ying; Bidens pilosa var. alausesis (Kunth) Sherf; Bidens pilosa var. discoidea (Sch. Bip.) J.A. Schmidt; Bidens pilosa var. minor (Blume) Sherf; Bidens pilosa L. var. pilosa; Bidens pilosa var. radiata (Sch. Bip.) Schmidt; Bidens pilosa var. radiata Sch. Bip.; Bidens pilosa var. subinternata Kuntze; Bidens reflexa Link; Bidens scandicina Kunth; Bidens sundaica var. minor Blume; Centipeda minuta (G. Forst.) Benth. ex C.B. Clarke; Centipeda orbicularis Lour.; Coreopsis leucantha L.; Coreopsis leucanthema L.; Cotula minuta G. Forst.; Kerneria pilosa (L.) Lowe; Kerneria pilosa var. discoides (Sch. Bip.) Lowe; Kerneria tertagona Moench; Myriogyne minuta (G. Forst.) Less.

Local Names Bidens laevis: Chile: Té de burro, Té, Té silvestre, Té verde, Hoja de te, Chilile, Chirichiri, Payko Bidens pilosa: Colombia: Amor seco/Chipaca/Masiquia (Bussmann et al. 2018), Chipaca, Masequia, Cadillo de huerta, Papunga, Pacunga, Mandigüiche, Amargón, Corro, Tabera, Amapola Silvestre, Cadillo, Cadillo de perro, Masiquia, Taimquala, Mazequía; Ecuador: Huichinge; Pakunka, Putsu, Shiñan, Shiñan yana (Kichwa), Shiñan blanco (Spanish-Kichwa), Amor seco, Crespa morada, Morisco (Spanish), Moriseco (Corrupted spanish), Guichingue (unspecified language) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Amor seco, Cadillo, Morseco, Tres esquinas, Karqueja; English: Black jack Bidens pseudocosmos: Chile: Amor Seco

Botany and Ecology Bidens laevis: Evergreen herb, 0–700. Leaves entire, elliptic, sessile ranging 5–10 cm long and 1.5–2 cm wide. Flower heads average 2–5 cm wide, with yellow ray and disk flowers (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995). Bidens pilosa: Annual, erect herb up to 100 cm tall, with slender, stiff, and fourangled stems and spreading branches. Leaves decussately opposite, pinnately 3–5foliolate, up to 15(–20) cm long, sometimes lower leaves simple, without stipules; leaflets with short petiolules, blade ovate to ovate-lanceolate, margins usually serrate or crenate-serrate, terminal leaflet larger than lateral leaflets. Inflorescence an axillary or terminal head 6–12 mm in diameter, solitary, or arranged in lax cymes; outer involucral bracts 7–10, spatulate, 3–4 mm long, reflexed at anthesis, inner ones ovate-lanceolate. Ray flowers absent or 4–8, ligulate, sterile, corolla 7–15 mm long, white to yellow or pinkish; disk flowers tubular, bisexual, with 3.5–5 mm long, yellow corolla; stamens with fused anthers; ovary inferior, one-celled, style bifid.

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Fruit a linear achene 4–13 mm long, 4–6-ribbed, with 2–3(–5) retrorsely barbed bristles of 2–4 mm long. Seedling with epigeal germination; hypocotyl elongated; cotyledons strap-shaped to spatulate (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4). Bidens pseudocosmos: Graceful, annual herb, with basally simple stems, superiorly branched, up to 40 cm alt. leaves with dense pubescence, hirsute, flattened petiole; deep bipinnatisect blade with oval outline with linear segments of acute apex, 20–80 mm long.  20–35 mm lat. Terminal and solitary capitules in each branch, long pedunculated. Involucre flared, hirsute-pubescent, 7 mm long and lat., uneven filaries, the external ones somewhat narrower than the internal ones, all 6–7 mm long. Marginal flowers up to 10, yellow corolla with tubular proximal half and ligulate distal, five-nerved, with 2–3-lobed apex, ligule up to 5 mm long. Tubular central flowers, yellow, numerous, with ovary of 4 mm long, and 5 mm corolla. Aquileia longitudinally striated, black, narrowly turbinated, and up to 10 mm long. Pappus short, divergent, sagittate edges, up to 1 mm long, 2900–3400 m above sea level (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).

Local Medicinal Uses Bidens laevis: The infusion is used for lung, gallbladder, and bladder diseases (Hammer 2016; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003). Fig. 1 Bidens pilosa (Asteraceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Bidens pilosa (Asteraceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Bidens pilosa (Asteraceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Bidens pilosa: The main medicinal use of this plant is to reduce blood sugar levels, that is, to cure diabetes. The decoction of the whole plant is used to treat diseases of the liver, rebound of bile, indigestion, and diarrhea. The leaves prepared in infusion are used for the treatment of dysentery, diarrhea, flu, stomach pain, canker sores, angina pectoris, cough, fevers, diabetes, edema, hepatitis, hypertension, and gastroduodenal ulcers. It has also been used against inflammation and as a diuretic. Externally, the infusion of the leaves is used against fungi of the skin, to heal wounds and sores, as an antiseptic, and to relieve pain in the bones and joints (Fonnegra-Gómez

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Fig. 4 Bidens pilosa (Asteraceae), fruits, Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

and Villa-Londoño 2011; Fonnegra Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1975; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Colombia: The whole plant used to treat diarrhea, indigestion, urinary infection, as diuretic, and to remedy witchcraft; whole plant, stems, leaves, and flowers are used to treat diabetes, gallbladder, and liver problems; stems, leaves, and flowers are used as emenagogue (Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador: The whole fresh plant is used to treat liver, infections, and diarrhea. The bath with the infusion of the flowers is used to treat skin allergies (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). The leaves, in infusion, are used to heal wounds (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura). The juice of the flower is used to treat nerve conditions. The flower, macerated with escancel (Amaranthaceae), geranium (Geranium sp.), “Cana yuyu” (Sonchus sp.), and “sacha gola” (Rumex sp.) is used to treat gangrene. Root and buds are used to treat “cold inflammation” (sudden cooling of the body). It serves as a medicine to treat “heat inflammation” (Kichwa de la Sierra-Loja). The root is taken in an infusion to calm vaginal bleeding (Mestiza-Pichincha). The flowers, in infusion, are used to treat postpartum conditions and for those affected by the bladder (unspecified ethnicity – Loja). The leaves are used to treat angina (unspecified ethnic group –Esmeraldas, Guayas). The infusion of the petals is drunk to treat liver and heart conditions (Unspecified ethnicity – Imbabura). It serves as a diuretic, to treat rheumatism, osteoarticular and back pain, throat conditions, and canker sores (unspecified ethnic group-Chimborazo) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: The whole plant, fresh or dried, is used to treat gallbladder, kidney inflammation, inflammation (general), kidneys, prostate, hair loss, diabetes, liver, blood, and heart (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Monigatti et al. 2013). The plants are often found in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007, 2008). Also more recently used to treat diabetes and cancer (Bussmann and Glenn 2011a), and bacterial and fungal infections (Bussmann and Glenn 2011b) due to its antibacterial properties (Bussmann et al. 2011a) and low toxicity (Bussmann et al. 2011b). The species is normally used in mixtures (Bussmann et al. 2010). In India, Bidens pilosa is used for cough and bronchitis, while Bidens bipinnata and Bidens biternata are used to treat leprosy and cuts (Bhat et al. 2013). In Kenya,

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the B. pilosa is used for respiratory disorders (Njoroge et al. 2004) and to improve fertility (Njoroge and Bussmann 2009). Bidens pseudocosmos: The seeds are used as remedy for fever (Novara and Freire 2011; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).

Local Food Uses Bidens laevis: Used as infusion/tea mixed with cinnamon (Hammer 2016; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Bidens laevis: Used for forage (Hammer 2016; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003). Bidens pilosa: Ecuador: The chopped plant is food of chicken and turkeys. It is used as animal fodder (Unspecified ethnicity – Loja). It has beekeeping use (unspecified ethnicity – Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008).

References Béjar E, Bussmann RW, Roa C, Sharon D. Medicinal herbs of southern Ecuador – Hierbas Medicinales del Sur Ecuatoriano. San Diego: Latino Herbal Press; 2002. 340 p. Bhat JA, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:1. Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Medicinal plants used in northern Peru for the treatment of bacterial and fungal infections and inflammation symptoms. J Med Plant Res. 2011a;5(8):1297–304. Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Traditional knowledge for modern ailments – plants used for the treatment of diabetes and cancer in northern Peru. J Med Plant Res. 2011b;5(31):6916–30. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in Loja province, southern Ecuador. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006a;2:44. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing culture. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006b;2:47. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of longevity – the medicinal flora of Vilcabamba. Plantas de longevidad – La flora medicinal de Vilcabamba. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007a. ISBN 978-09789962-2-2. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of the four winds – the magic and medicinal flora of Peru. Plantas de los cuatro vientos – La flora mágica y medicinal del Perú. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007b. ISBN 978-0-9789962-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Medicinal plants of the Andes and the Amazon – the magic and medicinal flora of northern Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015a. ISBN 978-0-9960231-2-2. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plantas medicinales de los Andes y la Amazonía – La flora mágica y medicinal del Norte de Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015b. ISBN 978-09960231-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Vandebroek I, Jones A, Revene Z. Health for sale: the medicinal plant markets in Trujillo and Chiclayo, northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3:37.

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Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Ly J. From garden to market? The cultivation of native and introduced medicinal plant species in Cajamarca, Peru and implications habitat conservation. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2008;6:351–61. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Herbal mixtures in traditional medicine in northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:10. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Sharon D, Chait G, Díaz D, Pourmand K, Jonat B, Somogy S, Guardado G, Aguirre C, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Antibacterial activity of northern Peruvian medicinal plants. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2011a;9:67–96. Bussmann RW, Malca G, Glenn A, Sharon D, Nilsen B, Parris B, Dubose D, Ruiz D, Saleda J, Martinez M, Carillo L, Walker K, Kuhlman A, Townesmith A. Toxicity of medicinal plants used in northern Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011b;137:121–40. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Romero C, Hart RE. Astonishing diversity - the medicinal plant markets of Bogotá, Colombia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14(1):43. https://doi.org/ 10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8 de la Torre L, Navarrete H, Muriel M P, Macía MJ, Balslev H, editors. Enciclopedia de las Plantas Útiles del Ecuador. Quito/Aarhus: Herbario QCA de la Escuela de Ciencias Biológicas de la Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador/Herbario AAU del Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas de la Universidad de Aarhus; 2008. Fonnegra Gómez R, Alzate Guarín F, Orozco Castañeda C, Vásquez Londoño C, Suárez Quirós J, García López V, roldán Palacio F, Correa Silva A, Vasco Correa C. Medicina Tradicional en los Corregimientos de Medellín. Historias de vidas y plantas. Medellín: Universidad de Antioquia – Alcaldía de Medellín; 2012. 305 pp. Fonnegra-Gómez R, Villa-Londoño J. Plantas medicinales usadas en algunas veredas de municipios del altiplano del oriente antioqueño, Colombia. Actual Biol. 2011;33(95):219–50. García Barriga H. Flora Medicinal de Colombia. Botánica Médica. Tomo Tercero. Bogotá: Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional; 1975. 497 pp. Hammer RL. Central Florida wildflowers: a field guide to wildflowers of the Lake Wales Ridge, Ocala National Forest, Disney Wilderness Preserve, and more than 60 state parks and preserves. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield; 2016. Macbride JF, Weberbauer A. Flora of Peru. Chicago: Field Museum; 1936–1995. Ministerio de Protección Social. Vademécum Colombiano de Plantas Medicinales. Bogotá: Imprenta Nacional de Colombia; 2008. 311 pp. Monigatti M, Bussmann RW, Weckerle CS. Medicinal plant use in two Andean communities located at different altitudes in the Bolivar Province, Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;145 (2):450–64. Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Ethnotherapeutic management of Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) and reproductive health conditions in Central Province, Kenya. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2009;8(2):262–9. Njoroge GN, Barbara G, Bussmann RW, Newton LE, Ngumi VW. Utilization of weed species as source of traditional medicines in central Kenya: optimizing resource efficiency (R.U.E.) in agro-ecosystems. Lyonia. 2004;7(2):71–87. Novara LJ, Freire SE. Flora del Valle de Lerma: Asteraceae Bercht & J. Presl. Tr. IV. Inuleae Cass, Universidad Nacional de Salta, Salta. 2011. Pérez Arbeláez E. Plantas útiles de Colombia. 5a. Ed. Bogotá: Fondo FEN Colombia, DAMA, Jardín Botánico de Bogotá José Celestino Mutis; 1996. 831 pp. Rodriguez R, Marticorena C, Alarcón D, Baeza C, Cavieres L, Finot VL, Fuentes N, Kiessling A, Mihoc M, Pauchard A, Ruiz E, Sanchez P, Marticorena A. Catálogo de las plantas vasculares de Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430. Villagrán C, Castro V. Ciencia indígena de los Andes del norte de Chile. Santiago de Chile: Editorial Universitaria; 2003.

Bixa orellana L. BIXACEAE Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

Synonyms Bixa orellana L.: Bixa acuminata Bojer; Bixa americana Poir.; Bixa odorata Ruiz & Pav. ex. G. Don.; Bixa orellana fo. leiocarpa (Kuntze) J.F. Macbr.; Bixa orellana var. leiocarpa (Kuntze) Standl. & L.O. Williams; Bixa platycarpa Ruiz & Pav. ex. G. Don.; Bixa tinctoria Salisb.; Bixa upatensis Ram. Goyena; Bixa urucurana Willd.; Orellana americana Kuntze; Orellana americana var. leiocarpa Kuntze; Orellana orellana (L.) Kuntze

Local Names Colombia: Bija, Achiote, Onoto, Urucú, Eroyá, Uñañé, Achote de monte, Achote, Bija, Unucú, Azafrán de la tierra, Achoote, Woukou, Achote, Bija Anatto, Anatta, Achiote de cholo; Ecuador: Bandenu tape, Duchichiimu puka, Kutu chuinu puka, N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] C. Romero William L. Brown Center, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO, USA e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_39

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Lala’ fintsumu mu (Chafi’ki), Mu, Muja (Tsafi’ki), Achiwiti, Aya manturu, Manturu, Puka manturu (Kichwa), Cu’a cuña, Inszia cuña, Tsanda cuña (A’ingae), Huihue posa, Muju posa, Payo posa, Posa, Sëño posa (Pai coca), Kaka, Kakamo, Kakawe (Wao tededo), Ipiák (Shuar chicham), Ipiak (Achuar chicham), Achiote, Achiote colorado, Achiote de monte, Achiote de racimo, Color, Mora (Spanish), Annatto (English), Pulumoco (Lengua no especificada) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Achote, Hoja de Achote; English: Annatto, Lipstick tree

Botany and Ecology Shrub-like or low-spreading tree with broadly ovate, acuminate leaves truncate or more or less cordate at base, usually somewhat pitted beneath; inflorescence scurfy pubescent; pods characteristically ovoid-pointed, longer than broad, densely long-echinate; seeds red (yellow), papillose, the endocarp detaching, 200–2200 m above sea level. Bixa orellana is native to tropical America, where since antiquity, the red dye is extracted from its seeds. Due to its solubility in lipids, it is widely used in the food industry for giving red to orange-yellow colors for cheese, butter, oils, margarine, ice-cream, candy, bakery products, and rice (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Fig. 1).

Local Medicinal Uses Colombia: Annatto is used as an aphrodisiac and as a digestive (particularly seeds). In decoction, leaves are used to treat gonorrhea, throat conditions, nausea and vomiting, and liver diseases. The decoction in milk of the inner part of the fruit (pulp, seeds) is used in gargles to reduce inflammation and tonsils. The seeds are used as a gastrointestinal tonic, to relieve diarrhea, as a purgative, to promote digestion, against cutaneous itching, against inflammation, to treat diabetes, against fevers, in oral tumors, and to relieve the flu. The seeds are also used to paint the eczemas of the skin with them and thus relieve them. The dough prepared with the Fig. 1 Bixa orellana (Bixaceae), Palma Real, Madre de Dios, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrama)

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seeds is used externally to relieve burns and other skin conditions, particularly to prevent the formation of blisters (Fonnegra Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1975; Martínez Correa and Montes Martínez 2017; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008; Patiño 1964; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Leaves used to treat liver problems; leaves and seeds used to treat diarrhea and wound healing; seeds used to treat eczema, mosquito bites, skin diseases, burns, tonsillitis, bronchitis, indigestion, sexual potency, cancer, and as expectorant (Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador: From the leaves and tender flowers a liquid is extracted for the treatment of cataracts. The leaves are used to treat kidney and bladder pain and the bath with decoction of the leaves is applied to relieve rheumatism. The fruit treats indeterminate conditions (Kichwa of the EastNapo). The fruit is used to treat epilepsy (unspecified ethnic group-Azuay, Cañar). The fruit and leaves are used as an ointment to treat rheumatism. The flower is used to treat heart problems. The seeds serve to relieve the headache (Shuar-Orellana). The stem, macerated in water or the stem sap, is used to treat conjunctivitis (evil eye) (East Kichwa-Orellana, Other (Amazon)). The dye that is extracted from the seeds (aryl) is used to remove pimples, spots, and cure skin infections (bad skin) (ShuarNapo, Morona Santiago, Others (Amazon)). The infusion of the root is given to pregnant women for 2–3 months to drink to get rid of the cold. The leaves are used to treat cold and cough, bone pain, and rheumatism (Tsa’chi-Pichincha). The root is used to aid in digestion. The seeds are expectorant (unspecified ethnicity – no locality). The root is used to treat indeterminate conditions (Shuar-Napo). The hot leaves are applied to treat wounds and as an ointment to relieve rheumatism (Mestiza-Pichincha; unspecified ethnic group-Bolívar). The leaves are used to relieve muscle pain and skin inflammation (Shuar-Napo, Orellana, Morona Santiago). The leaves, in infusion and together with Heliocarpus americanus, are used to accelerate labor; In addition, the decoction is used by Kichwa women, in drinks and for baths, to regain their strength after childbirth and to cleanse the organs (Kichwa of the East-Sucumbíos, Napo, Orellana, Others (Amazon)). The seeds serve to eliminate fungi from the skin (Shuar-Morona Santiago). It is used to treat conditions of the prostate (Mestiza-Pichincha). Used to treat indeterminate conditions (Wao-Pastaza) (de la Torre et al. 2008). With the leaves they bathe and rub the mothers after childbirth, because they give strength and purify. The seeds were used to paint the cassava stakes (Manihot esculenta), because it was believed that in this way, the root would grow more (Kichwa of the East-Napo). The seed pigment is used to make symbols on the leaves that are used to treat “chutún” (Awa-Carchi). The leaves and seeds are used to treat “bad wind” or “bad air” (Kichwa of the EastOrellana). The leaves, in infusion, and the seeds are used only by shamans as part of an act of exorcism, when the patient is possessed by a bad spirit. The seeds are mixed with water in the mouth and then this mixture is blown on the patient (ChachiEsmeraldas). With the seeds, the face and body are painted for festivals or important ceremonies such as the yaje (hallucinogenic drink prepared based on Banisteriopsis caapi) (Redwood, Cofan-Succumbios; Kichwa of the East, Wao-Napo). The seeds are used by the Tsa’chi to color the hair and parts of the skin, with the belief that they will not be recognized by evil spirits (Tsa’chi-Pichincha). Shamans use it to paint their faces, as a mask that protects them from other spirits or as an aid in hunting

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(Kichwa del Oriente-Otros (Ecuador)) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: Seeds and leaves, fresh or dried, are used to treat inflammation of the kidneys, prostate, bronchitis, hemorrhages, pulmonary systems, and urinary infections (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Monigatti et al. 2013). The species is widely used and sold in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007a, b, 2009a, 2010a). Some antibacterial properties have been observed (Bussmann et al. 2009b, c, 2011a, b). Like many other species, Bixa is generally used in herbal mixtures (Bussmann et al. 2010b).

Local Food Uses Colombia: Seeds used as Condiment (Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador: The red pigment extracted from the perisperm is an excellent stomach appetizer (Unspecified ethnicity – no locality). The leaves, fruit, and seeds are edible (Mestiza-Loja; Unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha, Loja; Kichwa del Oriente- Napo, Orellana) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The aryl of the seeds is used as a condiment and to color foods, for it is dried and fried in oil (Chachi-Esmeraldas; Awa-Carchi, Esmeraldas; Tsa’chi-Pichincha; Cofán, Secoya, Siona-Sucumbíos, Others (Amazonia); Kichwa of the East-Sucumbíos, Napo, Orellana, Pastaza, Others (Amazonia); Wao-Napo, Others (Amazonia); Shuar-Sucumbíos, Napo, Orellana, Pastaza, Others (Amazonia); Mestiza-Manabi, Guayas, El Oro, Pichincha, Sucumbíos; Unspecified ethnic group – Esmeraldas, El Oro, Pichincha, Bolívar, Cañar, Azuay, Loja, Napo, Others (Costa Region, Andean Region)). The leaves are used as a condiment (Kichwa del OrienteOrellana) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: Seeds used as food coloring.

Local Handicraft and Other Uses In Colombia the indigenous people of Putumayo and Caquetá use achiote to paint their legs, arms, or face, not only as a body ornament but because it protects them against insect bites (Fonnegra Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1975; Martínez Correa and Montes Martínez 2017; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008; Patiño 1964; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). The fruit is bird food (Wao-Orellana) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The stem is used to make torches (Wao-Orellana) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The aryl of the seed is used by certain indigenous groups as a varnish for the body (unspecified ethnic group-Azuay, Cañar). The aryl of the seed is used as a dye to paint or dye fibers, clothing, blowguns, spears, arrows, and ceramics (Cofán, Secoya-Sucumbíos; Kichwa of the Oriente-Napo; Wao-Napo, Orellana, Pastaza; Shuar-Sucumbíos, Orellana, Pastaza). The pigment of the seeds is used to paint on wood (Awa-Carchi). The red pigment extracted from the perisperm is used in the staining of objects and of the body (Mestiza-Sucumbíos; Unspecified ethnic group – Esmeraldas, Pichincha, Napo). The stem serves as a coloring dye (Wao-Orellana). The decoction of the leaves is used in hot baths. With the seeds a paste is prepared to dye hair (Tsa’chi-Pichincha, Others (Ecuador)). The leaves, fruit, and roots are used

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as personal adornment (Shuar-Napo). The seeds (aryl) are used to paint the body, mainly the face (Mestiza-El Oro; Cofán, Secoya, Siona-Sucumbíos; Kichwa del Oriente-Napo, Orellana, Pastaza; Wao-Napo, Orellana; Shuar-Sucumbíos, Napo, Pastaza). Boiled seeds, along with other plants, are used to extract a yellow dye to paint the head (Siona-Sucumbíos) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The plant is used to shade crops (Mestiza-Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008).

References Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing culture. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:47. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of the four winds – the magic and medicinal flora of Peru. Plantas de los cuatro vientos – La flora mágica y medicinal del Perú. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007. ISBN 978-0-9789962-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Medicinal plants of the Andes and the Amazon – the magic and medicinal flora of northern Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015a. ISBN 978-0-9960231-2-2. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plantas medicinales de los Andes y la Amazonía – La flora mágica y medicinal del Norte de Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015b. ISBN 978-09960231-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Lopez A. Blending traditional and Western medicine: medicinal plant use amongst patients at Clinica Anticona in El Porvenir, Peru. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2007a;5:185–99. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Vandebroek I, Jones A, Revene Z. Health for sale: the medicinal plant markets in Trujillo and Chiclayo, northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007b;3:37. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Garcia M. From chamomile to aspirin? Medicinal plant use among clients at Laboratorios Beal in Trujillo, Peru. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009a;7:399–407. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Diaz D, Cardenas R, Chait G, Castro M, Regalado S, Del Toro-C. R, Malca-G. G, Perez-A. F, Glenn A. Antibacterial activity of medicinal plant species in northern Peru. Arnaldoa. 2009b;16(1):93–103. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Castro M, Cardenas R, Chait G, Regalado S, Del Toro-C. R, Malca-G. G, Perez-A. F, Glenn A. Phyto-chemical analysis of Peruvian medicinal plants. Arnaldoa. 2009c;16 (1):105–10. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Sharon D. Antibacterial activity of medicinal plants of northern Peru – can traditional applications provide leads for modern science? Indian J Tradit Med. 2010a;9 (4):742–53. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Herbal mixtures in traditional medicine in northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010b;6:10. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Sharon D, Chait G, Díaz D, Pourmand K, Jonat B, Somogy S, Guardado G, Aguirre C, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Antibacterial activity of northern Peruvian medicinal plants. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2011a;9:67–96. Bussmann RW, Malca G, Glenn A, Sharon D, Nilsen B, Parris B, Dubose D, Ruiz D, Saleda J, Martinez M, Carillo L, Walker K, Kuhlman A, Townesmith A. Toxicity of medicinal plants used in northern Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011b;137:121–40. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Romero C, Hart RE. Astonishing diversity - the medicinal plant markets of Bogotá, Colombia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14(1):43. https:// doi.org/10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8 de la Torre L, Navarrete H, Muriel M P, Macía MJ, Balslev H, editors. Enciclopedia de las Plantas Útiles del Ecuador. Quito/Aarhus: Herbario QCA de la Escuela de Ciencias Biológicas de la Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador/Herbario AAU del Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas de la Universidad de Aarhus; 2008.

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Fonnegra Gómez R, Alzate Guarín F, Orozco Castañeda C, Vásquez Londoño C, Suárez Quirós J, García López V, roldán Palacio F, Correa Silva A, Vasco Correa C. Medicina Tradicional en los Corregimientos de Medellín. Historias de vidas y plantas. Medellín: Universidad de Antioquia – Alcaldía de Medellín; 2012. 305 pp. García Barriga H. Flora Medicinal de Colombia. Botánica Médica. Tomo Segundo. Bogotá: Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional; 1975. 538 pp. Macbride JF, Weberbauer A. Flora of Peru. Chicago: Field Museum; 1936–1995. Martínez Correa CA, Montes Martínez PA. Determinación de la etnobotánica de las plantas medicinales comercializadas en las plazas de mercados de los municipios de Turbo, Apartadó, Carepa, Chigorodó y Mutatá, Antioquia, Colombia. Tesis de Grado, Universidad Nacional Abierta y a Distancia UNAD. Escuela de Ciencias Agrícolas, Pecuarias y del Medio Ambiente, Turbo. 2017. 136 pp. Ministerio de Protección Social. Vademécum Colombiano de Plantas Medicinales. Bogotá: Imprenta Nacional de Colombia; 2008. 311 pp. Monigatti M, Bussmann RW, Weckerle CS. Medicinal plant use in two Andean communities located at different altitudes in the Bolivar Province, Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;145 (2):450–64. Patiño VM. Plantas cultivadas y animales domésticos en América Equinoccial II: Plantas alimenticias. Cali: Imprenta Departamental; 1964. 220 pp. Pérez Arbeláez E. Plantas útiles de Colombia. 5a. Ed. Bogotá: Fondo FEN Colombia, DAMA, Jardín Botánico de Bogotá José Celestino Mutis; 1996. 831 pp.

Bomarea angustifolia Benth. Bomarea dulcis (Hook.) Beauverd ALSTROEMERIACEAE Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Bomarea angustifolia Benth.: Bomarea angulata Benth.; Bomarea multiflora (L.f.) Mirb.; Bomarea torta (Kunth) Herb. Bomarea dulcis (Hook.) Beauverd: Alstroemeria dulcis Hook; Alstroemeria uniflora Mathews ex Herb.; Bomarea biflora Vargas; Bomarea calcensis Vargas; Bomarea campanuliflora Killip; Bomarea cuzcoensis Vargas; Bomarea engleriana Kraenzl.; Bomarea glaucescens var. dulcis (Hook.) Baker; Bomarea petraea Kraenzl.; Bomarea puberula (Herb.) Kraenzl.; Bomarea puberula var. acicularis (Herb.) Beauverd; Bomarea tacnaense Vargas; Bomarea uniflora (M. Roem.) Killip; Bomarea uniflora (Mathews ex Herb.) Killip; Bomarea zosterifolia Killip; Collania dulcis (Hook.) Herb.; Collania dulcis var. parviflora Herb.; Collania guadelupensis Kraenzl.; Collania herzogiana Kraenzl.; Collania petraea Kraenzl.; Collania puberula var. acicularis Kraenzl.; Wichuraea acicularis M. Roem.; Wichuraea dulcis M. Roem.; Wichuraea dulcis var. cruikshanksii M. Roem.; Wichuraea sulcis var. uniflora M. Roem.; Wichuraea parviflora M. Roem.

N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_306

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Local Name Bomarea angustifolia: Peru: Cachuljillo (Spanish) Bomarea dulcis: Peru: Espuela de Gallo (Spanish)

Botany and Ecology Bomarea angustifolia: A vine, glabrous throughout; leaves linear-lanceolate, up to 4 cm long and 5 mm wide, acuminate, revolute, rigid, crowded toward the end of the stem; bracts numerous, similar to the leaves; umbel about 6-rayed, the rays about 1 cm long, 1-flowered; sepals narrowly oblong-lanceolate, as long as the sepals, very slightly broader at the apex than the sepals, green, black-spotted, yellowish toward the base. Bomarea dulcis: An erect, rigid herb 10–30 cm high, the stem glabrous or short tomentose, strongly recurved at the tip; leaves narrowly linear, up to 6 cm long but usually much shorter, strongly revolute, appearing acicular, finely cano-puberulent beneath; primary rays 1–4, usually forked near the base, bearing at the fork a conspicuous, lanceolate bractlet; flowers 2–2.5 cm long, the segments subequal, the sepals oblong, about 5 mm wide, subacute, red, the petals spatulate, yellow, green-tipped or sometimes purple at the tip.

Local Medicinal Use Bomarea angustifolia: Peru: The dry whole plant is used to treat infertility in women (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Bomarea dulcis: Peru: The whole plant is used fresh for protection, success, and advising (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6).

Bomarea angustifolia Benth. . . . Fig. 1 Bomarea cornuta (Alstroemeriaceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Bomarea crassifolia (Alstroemeriaceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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352 Fig. 3 Bomarea dissitifolia (Alstroemeriaceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Bomarea dulcis (Alstroemeriaceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Bomarea angustifolia Benth. . . .

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Fig. 5 Bomarea dulcis (Alstroemeriaceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 6 Bomarea goniocaulon (Alstroemeriaceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

References Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing culture. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:47. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of the four winds – the magic and medicinal flora of Peru. Plantas de los cuatro vientos – La flora mágica y medicinal del Perú. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007. ISBN 978-0-9789962-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Medicinal plants of the Andes and the Amazon – the magic and medicinal flora of northern Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015a. ISBN 978-0-9960231-2-2. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plantas medicinales de los Andes y la Amazonía – La flora mágica y medicinal del Norte de Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015b. ISBN 978-09960231-3-9.

Borago officinalis L. BORAGINACEAE Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

Local Names Bolivia: Morraja (Spanish); Colombia: Borraja (Spanish); Ecuador: Borraja de Jardín (Spanish); Borrago, Borraja azul, Borraja blanca, Borraja morada (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Borraja (Spanish); English: Borage

Botany and Ecology Biennial herb; stem erect or ascending, thick, robust, long-hairy, and spreading bristly, usually branching above; leaves finely undulant, dentate at margin, lower leaves with petioles and oval blades, bristly-hairy, 3–7 cm long, 2–5 cm wide, obtuse, upper leaves sessile, oblong. Inflorescence usually corymbiform-paniculate, with few lanceolate, small leaves at base; scorpioid cymes leafless, short, loose, with N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] C. Romero William L. Brown Center, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO, USA e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_40

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flowers drooping on long, spreading, bristly pedicels; calyx long white bristly at margins of lobes, 1–12 mm long, up to 15 mm in fruit, lobes lanceolate, obtuse; corolla pale blue, 15–20 mm across, lobes of limb oblong-lanceolate, acute, stellately spreading, incisions between them extending nearly to stamens; anthers dark violet, 5–6 mm long, filaments much dilated at base and much shorter than anthers, with appendages ca. 2.5 mm long; nutlets 5 mm long, erect, oblong, ventrally keeled, dorsally very unequal-sided, with vertical, raised lines of small tubercles along the inflated sides, the apex short, obtuse, compressed; attachmentring dark, thickened, transversely ribbed; caruncle very large, protruding. Weedy places near residential areas or kitchen gardens (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Local Medicinal Uses Bolivia: Whole fresh plant used to treat cough (Bussmann et al. 2016; Macía et al. 2005). Colombia: The decoction of the leaves is used mainly to help in the perspiration and to facilitate the perspiration, and especially to relieve the cough and like expectorant. The poultices made with the leaves are used to relieve and reduce inflammation of the blows or contusions. The leaves in decoction are also used in bronchitis, cough, and affections caused by flu and colds. Infused flowers are used to promote sweating (Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011; Fonnegra Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1975; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Stems, leaves, and flowers used to treat “fríos encajados,” blood cleansing, cough, expectorant, inflammation, to promote sweating, and as tranquilizer; leaves and flowers used to treat bronchitis, fever, and bruises; flowers used to treat dysmenorrhea, flu, measles, and as emenagogue (Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador: Whole fresh plant used to treat asthma, cough, and bronchitis (Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). The flower, infused, is drunk to treat pertussis (unspecified ethnic group Cañar). The infusion of the inflorescence together with royal sage, rue de flor, chamomile, and sugar is taken against the pasmo. It is used to treat nerve conditions (unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha). The Fig. 1 Borago officinalis (Boraginaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann and N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Borago officinalis L. Fig. 2 Borago officinalis (Boraginaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann and N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Fig. 3 Borago officinalis (Boraginaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann and N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

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infusion of the plant is drunk to treat “relapses” of childbirth, blood disorders, measles, and body aches (unspecified ethnicity-Chimborazo). Infusion in water or milk of the plant, in particular, of the flower and leaves, is used to recover vitality and treat fever, colds, flu, cough, and bronchitis (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura, Tungurahua, Chimborazo, Loja; Shuar-Napo; Mestiza-Pichincha; unspecified ethnic group-Imbabura, Pichincha, Cotopaxi, Tungurahua, Chimborazo, Cañar, Azuay, Loja). The flowers are used to treat “heat inflammation” (Kichwa de la SierraLoja). The leaves are used as emenagogue, diuretics, sweat, and refreshing (Kichwa de la Sierra-Chimborazo; unspecified ethnic group – Azuay, Cañar). The leaves are used to treat skin irritations. The leaves and seeds stimulate the secretion of milk in women who breastfeed (unspecified ethnic group – Cotopaxi). The leaves, in infusion, are used to relieve menstrual problems (Kichwa de la Sierra-Chimborazo). It is stimulant of skin functions and is useful for treating menstrual disorders, lung conditions, measles, nephritis, abscesses, swelling, and diarrhea (Mestiza-Pichincha; unspecified ethnicity – Tungurahua). It is used to treat throat conditions. The infusion regulates menstruation (unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: The whole plant, fresh or dried, is used to treat bronchitis, cough, cold, lungs, blood problems, burn fat, lose weight, anxiety, depression, heart and nerve problems, insomnia, and bruises (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2009; Revene et al. 2008) and shows antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2010, 2011). Borage is often used in mixture with other herbs (Bussmann et al. 2010).

Local Food Uses Ecuador: It is used in food because it has vitamins (Kichwa de la Sierra-Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Ecuador: The flower is very pleasing to bees (unspecified ethnic group-Azuay, Cañar) (de la Torre et al. 2008).

References Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in Loja province, southern Ecuador. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006a;2:44. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing culture. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006b;2:47. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of longevity – the medicinal flora of Vilcabamba. Plantas de longevidad – La flora medicinal de Vilcabamba. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007a. ISBN 978-09789962-2-2.

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Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of the four winds – the magic and medicinal flora of Peru. Plantas de los cuatro vientos – La flora mágica y medicinal del Perú. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007b. ISBN 978-0-9789962-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Medicinal plants of the Andes and the Amazon – the magic and medicinal flora of northern Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015a. ISBN 978-0-9960231-2-2. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plantas medicinales de los Andes y la Amazonía – La flora mágica y medicinal del Norte de Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015b. ISBN 978-09960231-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Garcia M. From chamomile to aspirin? Medicinal plant use among clients at Laboratorios Beal in Trujillo, Peru. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009;7:399–407. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Herbal mixtures in traditional medicine in northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:10. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Sharon D, Chait G, Díaz D, Pourmand K, Jonat B, Somogy S, Guardado G, Aguirre C, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Antibacterial activity of northern Peruvian medicinal plants. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2011;9:67–96. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. Journal of Ehnobiol and Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/ 10.1186/s13002-016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Romero C, Hart RE. No consensus in “traditional” medicine – medicinal plants and their uses in the markets of Bogotá (Colombia), La Paz/El Alto (Bolivia) and Trujillo/Chiclayo (Perú). Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(3):494–8. de la Torre L, Navarrete H, Muriel M P, Macía MJ, Balslev H, editors. Enciclopedia de las Plantas Útiles del Ecuador. Quito/Aarhus: Herbario QCA de la Escuela de Ciencias Biológicas de la Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador/Herbario AAU del Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas de la Universidad de Aarhus; 2008. Fonnegra Gómez R, Alzate Guarín F, Orozco Castañeda C, Vásquez Londoño C, Suárez Quirós J, García López V, Roldán Palacio F, Correa Silva A, Vasco Correa C. Medicina Tradicional en los Corregimientos de Medellín. Historias de vidas y plantas. Medellín: Universidad de Antioquia – Alcaldía de Medellín; 2012. 305 pp. Fonnegra-Gómez R, Villa-Londoño J. Plantas medicinales usadas en algunas veredas de municipios del altiplano del oriente antioqueño, Colombia. Actual Biol. 2011;33(95):219–50. García Barriga H. Flora Medicinal de Colombia. Botánica Médica. Tomo Segundo. Bogotá: Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional; 1975. 538 pp. Macía MJ, García E, Vidaurre PJ. An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants commercialized in the markets of La Paz and El Alto, Bolivia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;97:337–350. Pérez Arbeláez E. Plantas útiles de Colombia. 5a. Ed. Bogotá: Fondo FEN Colombia, DAMA, Jardín Botánico de Bogotá José Celestino Mutis; 1996. 831 pp. Revene Z, Bussmann RW, Sharon D. From Sierra to Coast: tracing the supply of medicinal plants in northern Peru – a plant collector’s tale. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2008;6:15–22.

Brassica oleracea L. BRASSICACEAE Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

Synonyms Brassica oleracea L.: Brassica alboglabra L.H. Bailey; Brassica maritima Tardent; Crucifera brassica E.H.L. Krause; Napus oleracea (L.) K.F. Schimp. & Spenn.

Local Names Spanish: Col, Coliflor, Repollo; English: Cabbage

N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] C. Romero William L. Brown Center, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO, USA e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_41

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Botany and Ecology Biennial; stem tall, leafy; lower leaves very large, fleshy, lyrate, pinnatisect, adjacent, short-petioled, with prominent nerves; middle cauline leaves more or less amplexicaul; whole plant grayish green, glabrous. Raceme with many large flowers; petals yellow; siliques very large, up to 10 cm long, reclinate; beak stout, subobtuse, short, 4–6 mm long, rarely 15 mm; seeds large, dark brown, ca. 2 mm long, spherical, slightly alveolate. Grown widely in vegetable gardens. Cultivation is possible in the subtropics, during the cold season or in the mountains. Its origin and distribution as a wild plant is the Mediterranean area along the coasts. Brassica oleracea was domesticated about 5000 years ago and is now cultivated throughout the world, although in the tropics it is mostly restricted to higher elevations. Leaf cabbage comprises diverse cultigens developed from wild Brassica oleracea, which has a northern Mediterranean and western European origin. It is probably the first cabbage crop cultivated (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8).

Local Medicinal Uses Cabbage is used in Colombia internally as a diuretic, antidiarrheal, and in the treatment of gastric or duodenal ulcers, hyperthyroidism, scurvy, and diseases of the small intestine. Externally, it is used as a healing, antiulcer, to soothe skin irritations, and to treat rheumatic pain, bruises, and wounds. Cabbage, also used

Fig. 1 Brassica oleracea (Brassicaceae), garden, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Brassica oleracea (Brassicaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Brassica oleracea (Brassicaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

against intoxication, in the treatment of duodenal ulcers and to prevent “coto o bocio” (Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011; Fonnegra Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1974; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). In Peru cabbage is used to relieve gallbladder problems and gallstones. Brassica rapa (radish) is used to remedy throat infections, kidney, and ovary inflammations (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010). B. oleracea has shown mild antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2009a, b, 2011). Cabbage is often mixed with other species (Bussmann et al. 2010).

364 Fig. 4 Brassica oleracea (Brassicaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Brassica oleracea (Brassicaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Brassica oleracea L. Fig. 6 Brassica oleracea var. sabellica (Brassicaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 7 Brassica oleracea (Brassicaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 8 Brassica oleracea (Brassicaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 9 Brassica oleracea (Brassicaceae), cabbage leaves filled with meat, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 10 Brassica oleracea (Brassicaceae), cabbage salad, Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Food Uses Widely used as food (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016) (Figs. 9 and 10).

References Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Medicinal plants used in northern Peru for reproductive problems and female health. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:30. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing culture. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:47. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of the four winds – the magic and medicinal flora of Peru. Plantas de los cuatro vientos – La flora mágica y medicinal del Perú. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007. ISBN 978-0-9789962-3-9.

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Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Medicinal plants of the Andes and the Amazon – the magic and medicinal flora of northern Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015a. ISBN 978-0-9960231-2-2. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plantas medicinales de los Andes y la Amazonía – La flora mágica y medicinal del Norte de Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015b. ISBN 978-09960231-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Diaz D, Cardenas R, Chait G, Castro M, Regalado S, Del Toro-C. R, Malca-G. G, Perez-A. F, Glenn A. Antibacterial activity of medicinal plant species in northern Peru. Arnaldoa. 2009a;16(1):93–103. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Castro M, Cardenas R, Chait G, Regalado S, Del Toro-C. R, Malca-G. G, Perez-A. F, Glenn A. Phyto-chemical analysis of Peruvian medicinal plants. Arnaldoa. 2009b;16(1):105–10. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Herbal mixtures in traditional medicine in northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:10. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Sharon D, Chait G, Díaz D, Pourmand K, Jonat B, Somogy S, Guardado G, Aguirre C, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Antibacterial activity of northern Peruvian medicinal plants. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2011;9:67–96. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Fonnegra Gómez R, Alzate Guarín F, Orozco Castañeda C, Vásquez Londoño C, Suárez Quirós J, García López V, Roldán Palacio F, Correa Silva A, Vasco Correa C. Medicina Tradicional en los Corregimientos de Medellín. Historias de vidas y plantas. Medellín: Universidad de Antioquia – Alcaldía de Medellín; 2012. 305 pp. Fonnegra-Gómez R, Villa-Londoño J. Plantas medicinales usadas en algunas veredas de municipios del altiplano del oriente antioqueño, Colombia. Actual Biol. 2011;33(95):219–50. García Barriga H. Flora Medicinal de Colombia. Botánica Médica. Tomo Primero. Bogotá: Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional; 1974. 561 pp. Ministerio de Protección Social. Vademécum Colombiano de Plantas Medicinales. Bogotá: Imprenta Nacional de Colombia; 2008. 311 pp. Pérez Arbeláez E. Plantas útiles de Colombia. 5a. Ed. Bogotá: Fondo FEN Colombia, DAMA, Jardín Botánico de Bogotá José Celestino Mutis; 1996. 831 pp.

Brosimum rubescens Taub. MORACEAE Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

Synonyms Brosimum rubescens Taub.: Alicastrum rubescens (Taub.) Taub.; Brosimum angustifolium Ducke; Brosimum brevipedunculatum Ducke; Brosimum caloxylon Standl.; Brosimum lanciferum Ducke; Brosimum longistipulatum Ducke; Brosimum paraense Huber; Brosimum playneurum Ducke; Ferolia guianensis Aubl.; Parinari guyanensis Fritsch; Piratinera lancifera (Ducke) Benoist; Piratinera paraensis (Huber) Benoist; Piratinera rubescens (Taub.) Pittier

Local Names Colombia: Granadillo, Palo sangre; Ecuador: Angoe (Wao tededo) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Palo Sangre, Palo de la Sangre, Ablita (Spanish) N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] C. Romero William L. Brown Center, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO, USA e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_42

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Botany and Ecology A large tree, glabrous throughout; stipules very narrow, elongate, as much as 1.5 cm long, brown; petioles short, the blades mostly oblong-elliptic and 4.5–10 cm long, coriaceous, usually lustrous, the numerous lateral nerves diverging at a wide angle; fruiting heads about 12 mm in diameter, short-stalked (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).

Local Medicinal Uses The alcoholic extract of the wood, bark, and leaves of Palo Sangre are used in Colombia as contraceptives, antihemorrhages, tonics, and to treat fevers caused by malaria. The indigenous Tikuna of the Amazon take the decoction of the scrape of the bark to relieve both menstrual pain and postpartum pain (Acero 2000). Peru: Wood and Bark, fresh or dried, are used to treat fertility and sexual potency, blood irrigation, blood coagulation, hemorrhages (prevention and healing), diabetes, arthritis, bronchitis, and muscle pain (Bussmann et al. 2007, 2008, 2010; Bussmann and Glenn 2010a, b, 2011; Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2015a, b).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Ecuador: The fruit is food for animals, particularly birds (Wao-Orellana; unspecified ethnic group – Napo) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The stem is timber; it is used as a stringer (Wao-Orellana) (de la Torre et al. 2008).

References Acero LE. Árboles, gentes y costumbres. Bogotá: Universidad Distrital Francisco José de Caldas, Plaza & Janés Editores; 2000. 387 pp. Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Medicinal plants used in northern Peru for reproductive problems and female health. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010a;6:30. Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Traditional Peruvian medicine for the treatment of respiratory disorders. Rev Peru Biol. 2010b;17(2):331–46. Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Fighting pain. Traditional Peruvian remedies for the treatment of asthma, rheumatism, arthritis and sore bones. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2011;10(3):397–412. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing culture. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:47. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Medicinal plants of the Andes and the Amazon – the magic and medicinal flora of northern Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015a. ISBN 978-0-9960231-2-2. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plantas medicinales de los Andes y la Amazonía – La flora mágica y medicinal del Norte de Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015b. ISBN 978-09960231-3-9.

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Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Vandebroek I, Jones A, Revene Z. Health for sale: the medicinal plant markets in Trujillo and Chiclayo, northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3:37. Bussmann RW, Barocio Y, Díaz PD, Sharon D. Peruvian plants canchalagua (Schkuhria pinnata (Lam.) Kuntze), hercampuri (Gentianella alborosea (Gilg.) Fabris), and corpus way (Gentianella bicolor (Wedd.) J. Pringle) prove to be effective in the treatment of acne. Arnaldoa. 2008;15(1):149–52. Bussmann RW, Malca G, Glenn A, Sharon D, Chait G, Díaz D, Pourmand K, Jonat B, Somogy S, Guardado G, Aguirre C, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A, Effio-Carbajal J, FríasFernandez F, Benito M. Minimum inhibitory concentration of medicinal plants used in northern Peru as antibacterial remedies. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010;132:101–8. de la Torre L, Navarrete H, Muriel M P, Macía MJ, Balslev H, editors. Enciclopedia de las Plantas Útiles del Ecuador. Quito/Aarhus: Herbario QCA de la Escuela de Ciencias Biológicas de la Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador/Herbario AAU del Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas de la Universidad de Aarhus; 2008. Macbride JF, Weberbauer A. Flora of Peru. Chicago: Field Museum; 1936–1995.

Browningia candelaris (Meyen) Britton & Rose CACTACEAE Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Browningia candelaris (Meyen) Britton & Rose: Browningia icaensis F. Ritter, Cereus candelaris Meyen, Cactus candelaris (Meyen) Meyen

Local Names Chile: Candelabro, Cardón, Chastudo, Sabaya, Maksa, Tunilla

J. Echeverría Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Chemistry and Biology, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, USACH, Santiago de Chile, Chile e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_43

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Botany and Ecology Succulent cactus, arborescent, between 3 and 5 m high; trunk very spiny, erect, which branches to a certain height, with up to 50 branches that grow in all directions. Ribs, about 30, narrow and flattened; Oval and large areolas. Thorns of the main stem up to 15 cm long, brown new and gray or black after. Large flowers, between 8 and 12 cm long; ovary and floral tube covered with broad and fleshy scales; narrow, external petals of pink coffee color, white or slightly pink internal. Fruit: fleshy, yellowish berry, approximately 7 cm in diameter, slightly ovate with dark scales, with a whitish pulp with numerous black seeds, 2000–3000 m above sea level (González and Molina 2017).

Local Medicinal Uses The fruit is used to treat gallbladder disease (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).

Local Food Uses The fresh fruit is eaten with sugar (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Provides wood for the construction of houses (roof beams) and for handicrafts (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).

References González JS, Molina JJ. Flora nativa de la región de Arica y Parinacota. Arica: Ediciones Universidad de Tarapacá; 2017. 233 pp. Rodriguez R, Marticorena C, Alarcón D, Baeza C, Cavieres L, Finot VL, Fuentes N, Kiessling A, Mihoc M, Pauchard A, Ruiz E, Sanchez P, Marticorena A. Catálogo de las plantas vasculares de Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430. Villagrán C, Castro V. Ciencia indígena de los Andes del norte de Chile. Santiago: Editorial Universitaria; 2003.

Brugmansia candida Pers. Brugmanisa sanguinea (Ruiz & Pav.) D. Don. SOLANACEAE Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

Synonyms Brugmansia candida Pers.: Brugmansia arborea (L.) Lagerh.; Brugmanisa aurea Lagerh.; Datura affinis Saff.; Datura arborea L.; Datura arborea Ruiz & Pav.; Datura candida (Pers.) Pasq.; Datura candida (Pers.) Saff.; Datura candida (Pers.) Voigt.; Datura pittieri Saff. Brugmanisa sanguinea (Ruiz & Pav.) D. Don.: Brugmanisa bicolor Pers.; Datura rosei Saff.; Datura rubella Saff.; Datura sanguinea Ruiz & Pav.; Datura sanguinea var. flava Dunal

N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] C. Romero William L. Brown Center, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO, USA e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_44

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Fig. 1 Brugmansia candida (Solanaceae), Hunachaco, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Names Brugmansia candida: Colombia: Amarón borrachero, Biangan borrachero, Borrachero, Borrachero blanco, Buiesh-borrachero, Cacao sabanero, Culebra borrachera, Floripondio, Gumsian borrachero, Kinde borrachero, Munchira, Muscay borrachero, Muscuai borrachera, Ngntian-borrachero, Quinde borrachera, Salamán borrachero, Salvaje borrachera Brugmansia sanguinea: Colombia: Borrachero colorado, Campanilla encarnada, Floripondio, Floripondio encarnado, Guamuca, Huamuca, Tonga

Botany and Ecology Brugmansia candida: A shrub or small tree; leaves softly pubescent; calyx spathelike, deciduous in fruit; corolla white, 15–18 cm long, with distinct sinuses or notches between the lobes; peduncle velvety-pubescent; calyx caducous, often 6–25 cm long; fruit ovoid. Often cultivated (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Fig. 1). Brugmansia sanguinea: The only known species with dark red flowers shading into a yellow tube; leaves entire or repand, puberulent; peduncle slender; calyx about half the length of the corolla or less, with two (later more) acuminate teeth; corolla 2 dm. long, lightly pubescent, the limb about 7 cm wide; filaments pubescent below; anthers 1.5 cm long; fruit often in persisting calyx, smooth, seeds verruculose. A small tree growing at 3000–4000 m above sea level (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6).

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Fig. 2 Brugmansia sanguinea (Solanaceae), ceremonial planting around large Podocarpus tree and altar, Cajas, Ecuador. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Brugmansia sanguinea (Solanaceae), Cajas, Ecuador. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

378 Fig. 4 Brugmansia sanguinea (Solanaceae), Cajas, Ecuador. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Brugmansia sanguinea (Solanaceae), Cajas, Ecuador. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Brugmansia candida Pers. . . .

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Fig. 6 Brugmansia sanguinea (Solanaceae), Cajas, Ecuador. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses Brugmansia candida: It is a plant with toxic and hallucinogenic properties. The juice is a strong hallucinogen, and is highly toxic. In poultices they are used to relieve rheumatic pain. To relieve fatigue and as a stimulant, in Colombia the leaves are used in decoction. Externally, it is used in the treatment of rheumatism and in arthritic conditions (García Barriga 1975; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). In Madagascar, the species is used to treat epilepsy and paraplegia (Randriamiharisoa et al. 2015). Brugmansia sanguinea: The whole plant, but especially the fruits, are very poisonous and narcotic and have hallucinogenic and narcotic properties. In Colombia a decoction of the leaves is used in the form of baths to relieve the inflammations produced by the retention of liquids in the body (García Barriga 1975; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Some antibacterial properties have been reported (Bussmann et al. 2011a), but the high toxicity of the species (Bussmann et al. 2011b) prevents application for medicinal use.

Local Handicraft and Other Uses All species of the genus are widely used for ceremonial purposes (Bussmann 2016).

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In Ecuador both species are used in curing ceremonies for enhancing visions and topically to treat wounds and cysts caused by sorcery (Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). In Peru, it is used to treat bad air (mal aire), as protection from sorcery, to remedy nervous system tensions, fright caused by spirits (susto por espiritos), and as hallucinogen (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Monigatti et al. 2013). The plants are sold in markets (Bussmann et al. 2007, 2010; Bussmann and Sharon 2010), although they have mostly disappeared in Bolivia (Bussmann et al. 2016). Brugmansia candida: Colombia: The Indians of Sibundoy in the Putumayo use it as hallucinogen and consume it by mixing it with brandy (García Barriga 1975; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Brugmansia sanguinea: Colombia: The indigenous Sionas and the Inganos consume a drink made with the juice of the leaves or seeds in order to establish communication with the spirits of ancestors and in traditional spiritual and magical rituals (Bussmann et al. 2018; García Barriga 1975; Pérez Arbeláez 1996).

References Bussmann RW. Magic plants. In: Albuquerque U, Alves R, editors. Introduction to ethnobiology. Heidelberg: Springer; 2016. p. 163–9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in Loja province, southern Ecuador. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006a;2:44. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing culture. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006b;2:47. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of longevity – the medicinal flora of Vilcabamba. Plantas de longevidad – La flora medicinal de Vilcabamba. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007a. ISBN 978-09789962-2-2. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of the four winds – the magic and medicinal flora of Peru. Plantas de los cuatro vientos – La flora mágica y medicinal del Perú. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007b. ISBN 978-0-9789962-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. From collection to market and cure – an interdisciplinary study of traditional plant use in northern Peru. In: Albuquerque UP, Hanazaki N, editors. Recent developments and case studies in ethnobotany. Recife: Brazilian Society of Ethnobiology and Ethnoecology (SBEE)/Publication Group of Ecology and Applied Ethnobotany (NUPEEA); 2010. p. 184–207. 288 p. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Medicinal plants of the Andes and the Amazon – the magic and medicinal flora of northern Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015a. ISBN 978-0-9960231-2-2. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plantas medicinales de los Andes y la Amazonía – La flora mágica y medicinal del Norte de Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015b. ISBN 978-09960231-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Vandebroek I, Jones A, Revene Z. Health for sale: the medicinal plant markets in Trujillo and Chiclayo, northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3:37. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Glenn A. Healing the body, healing the soul. Traditional remedies for “magical” ailments, nervous system and psychosomatic disorders in northern Peru. Afr J Pharm Pharmacol. 2010;4(9):580–629. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Sharon D, Chait G, Díaz D, Pourmand K, Jonat B, Somogy S, Guardado G, Aguirre C, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Antibacterial activity of northern Peruvian medicinal plants. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2011a;9:67–96.

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Bussmann RW, Malca G, Glenn A, Sharon D, Nilsen B, Parris B, Dubose D, Ruiz D, Saleda J, Martinez M, Carillo L, Walker K, Kuhlman A, Townesmith A. Toxicity of medicinal plants used in northern Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011b;137:121–40. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Moya Huanca LA, Hart RE. Changing markets – medicinal plants in the markets of La Paz and El Alto, Bolivia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;193:76–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.07.074. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Romero C, Hart RE. Astonishing diversity – the medicinal plant markets of Bogotá, Colombia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14(1):43. https://doi.org/ 10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8. García Barriga H. Flora Medicinal de Colombia. Botánica Médica. Tomo Tercero. Bogotá: Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional; 1975. 497 pp. Macbride JF, Weberbauer A. Flora of Peru. Chicago: Field Museum; 1936–1995. Monigatti M, Bussmann RW, Weckerle CS. Medicinal plant use in two Andean communities located at different altitudes in the Bolivar Province, Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;145 (2):450–64. Pérez Arbeláez E. Plantas útiles de Colombia. 5a. Ed. Bogotá: Fondo FEN Colombia, DAMA, Jardín Botánico de Bogotá José Celestino Mutis; 1996. 831 pp. Randriamiharisoa MN, Kuhlman A, Jeannoda V, Rabarison H, Rakotoarivelo N, Randrianarivony T, Raktoarivony F, Randrianasolo A, Bussmann RW. Economic importance of medicinal plants sold in the markets of Antananarivo, Madagascar. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2015;11:60.

Bryantiella glutinosa (Phil.) J.M. Porter POLEMONIACEEA Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Bryantiella glutinosa (Phil.) J.M. Porter: Gilia glutinosa Phil.

Local Names Chile: Lipelipe, Pachareke, Alhucema del campo, Pasto de lluvia, Pasto del campo

Botany and Ecology Perennial plants, small, 5–60 cm high, glabrescent, glandular, pubescent, or viscous throughout. Leaves narrowly linear, whole or pinnatifid, the lobes narrowly linear, axils sometimes with white hairs; small leaves cauline, sometimes only bracts. J. Echeverría Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Chemistry and Biology, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, USACH, Santiago de Chile, Chile e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_45

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Cymose flowers; pedicels between 0.5 and 3 cm long; campanulate calyx, 3–5 lobed or 3–5 slit; white, blue, or violet corolla; tube shorter than the chalice. Fruit: ovate capsule; brown seeds, becoming mucilaginous when wet. Sea level to 3700 m (González and Molina 2017).

Local Medicinal Uses The aerial parts are used for the treatment of stomach ache and colic (Aldunate et al. 1983; González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Used as forage (Aldunate et al. 1983; González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).

References Aldunate C, Villagrán C, Armesto JJ, Castro V. Ethnobotany of pre-altiplanic community in the Andes of northern Chile. Econ Bot. 1983;37(1):120–35. González JS, Molina JJ. Flora nativa de la región de Arica y Parinacota. Arica: Ediciones Universidad de Tarapacá; 2017. 233 pp. Rodriguez R, Marticorena C, Alarcón D, Baeza C, Cavieres L, Finot VL, Fuentes N, Kiessling A, Mihoc M, Pauchard A, Ruiz E, Sanchez P, Marticorena A. Catálogo de las plantas vasculares de Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430. Villagrán C, Castro V. Ciencia indígena de los Andes del norte de Chile. Santiago: Editorial Universitaria; 2003.

Buddleja americana L. Buddleja coriacea J. Rémy SCROPHULARIACEAE Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Buddleja americana L.: Buddleja americana var. albiflora M. Gómez; Buddleja americana var. rothschuhii Loes.; Buddleja callicarpoides Kunth; Buddleja cana Willd. ex Roem. & Schult.; Buddleja dentata Kunth; Buddleja floribunda Kunth; Buddleja occidentalis Kunth; Buddleja occidentails L.; Buddleja rufescens Willd. ex Roem. & Schult.; Buddleja spicata Ruiz & Pav.; Buddleja verbascifolia Kunth Buddleja coriacea J. Rémy: Buddleja buxifolia Kraenzl.; Buddleja oblongifolia Rusby; Buddleja rhododendroides Kraenzl.; Buddleja ususch Kraenzl.; Buddleja utilis Kraenzl.

Local Names Buddleja americana: Ecuador: Salvia (Spanish); Kishwar (Kichwa), Salvia real (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008) Buddleja coriacea: Bolivia: Kiswara (Aymara) (Bussmann et al. 2016) N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_46

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Botany and Ecology Buddleja americana: Tomentose-lanuginose shrub, except for the veiny leaves, these glabrous above, revolute, broadly ovate-lanceolate, the stipules subreniform, interfoliate; racemes in terminal panicles composed of many very short spikes, bracts linear, the verticillate sessile flowers with two subulate bractlets beneath each tomentose calyx and corolla. Fragrant flowers cream-colored (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995). Buddleja coriacea: Trunk sometimes several dm. across, often irregular, crown dense, the branches terete or early subtetragonous; petioles 3–5 mm long; leaves about oblong or sublanceolate, often 3–6–10 cm long, about 6–14 mm wide, entire, coriaceous, glabrous above, canescent beneath with a dense velvety tomentum; glomerules 1–1.5 cm. wide, compact, shortly peduncled in an oblong-pyramidal inflorescence 5–8 or 15–20 cm long, corymbose in fruit; bracts linear, exceeding short pedicels; calyx angled, 4–5-denticulate; corolla golden-orange, fragrant; capsules tomentose, exserted. Flowers orange-yellow changing to orange-red, planted near fields (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6).

Local Medicinal Uses Buddleja americana: Ecuador: The fresh leaves are used to treat headache and eye sight (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). The infusion of the leaves is used as a diuretic and to treat swellings due to falls etc. (unspecified ethnic group – Guayas, Manabi). Treats undetermined conditions (unspecified ethnicity – Loja). Relieves rheumatic diseases (unspecified ethnic group – Azuay, Cañar). It is used to treat colds (unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura) (de la Torre et al. 2008). It is used to make tobacco (unspecified ethnic group-Imbabura) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Buddleja coriacea: Bolivia: Stems and leaves are used to treat rheumatism, childbed infections, uterine cysts, kidney infection, and prostate (Bussmann et al. 2016). Buddleja utilis: Peru: Used for menstruation problems, inflammation of womb and ovaries, ovarian cysts, and uterus inflammation (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010; Monigatti et al. 2013). The species is often used as part of herbal mixtures (Bussmann et al. 2010a), and shows mild antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2009, 2010b, 2011a, b) and can be found in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007a, b, 2008; Bussman and Sharon 2010). Buddleja asiatica is used as abortificant in India (Bhat et al. 2015).

Buddleja americana L. . . . Fig. 1 Buddleja coriacea (Scrophulariaceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Buddleja coriacea (Scrophulariaceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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388 Fig. 3 Buddleja coriacea (Scrophulariaceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Buddleja incana (Scrophulariaceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 5 Buddleja incana (Scrophulariaceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 6 Buddleja incana (Scrophulariaceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Buddleja americana: Ecuador: It has unspecified fuel use (unspecified ethnicity – Azuay) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Bees visit the flowers of this species (unspecified ethnicity – Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The species is used to treat mal aire/bad air (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a).

References Béjar E, Bussmann RW, Roa C, Sharon D. Medicinal herbs of southern Ecuador – Hierbas Medicinales del Sur Ecuatoriano. San Diego: Latino Herbal Press; 2002. 340 p. Bhat J, Malik ZA, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhatt AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44. Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Medicinal plants used in northern Peru for reproductive problems and female health. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:30.

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Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in Loja province, southern Ecuador. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006a;2:44. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing culture. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006b;2:47. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of longevity – the medicinal flora of Vilcabamba. Plantas de longevidad – La flora medicinal de Vilcabamba. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007a. ISBN 978-09789962-2-2. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of the four winds – the magic and medicinal flora of Peru. Plantas de los cuatro vientos – La flora mágica y medicinal del Perú. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007b. ISBN 978-0-9789962-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. From collection to market and cure – an interdisciplinary study of traditional plant use in northern Peru. In: Albuquerque UP, Hanazaki N, editors. Recent developments and case studies in ethnobotany. Recife: Brazilian Society of Ethnobiology and Ethnoecology (SBEE)/Publication Group of Ecology and Applied Ethnobotany (NUPEEA); 2010. p. 184–207. 288 p. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Medicinal plants of the Andes and the Amazon – the magic and medicinal flora of northern Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015a. ISBN 978-0-9960231-2-2. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plantas medicinales de los Andes y la Amazonía – La flora mágica y medicinal del Norte de Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015b. ISBN 978-09960231-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Lopez A. Blending traditional and Western medicine: medicinal plant use amongst patients at Clinica Anticona in El Porvenir, Peru. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2007a;5:185–99. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Vandebroek I, Jones A, Revene Z. Health for sale: the medicinal plant markets in Trujillo and Chiclayo, northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007b;3:37. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Perez F, Díaz D, Ford T, Rasheed T, Silva R. Antibacterial activity of northern-Peruvian medicinal plants – a low cost laboratory approach to assess biological activity. Arnaldoa. 2008;15(1):127–48. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Garcia M. From chamomile to aspirin? Medicinal plant use among clients at Laboratorios Beal in Trujillo, Peru. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009;7:399–407. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Herbal mixtures in traditional medicine in northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010a;6:10. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Sharon D. Antibacterial activity of medicinal plants of northern Peru – can traditional applications provide leads for modern science? Indian J Tradit Med. 2010b;9 (4):742–53. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Sharon D, Chait G, Díaz D, Pourmand K, Jonat B, Somogy S, Guardado G, Aguirre C, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Antibacterial activity of northern Peruvian medicinal plants. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2011a;9:67–96. Bussmann RW, Malca G, Glenn A, Sharon D, Nilsen B, Parris B, Dubose D, Ruiz D, Saleda J, Martinez M, Carillo L, Walker K, Kuhlman A, Townesmith A. Toxicity of medicinal plants used in northern Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011b;137:121–40. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Moya Huanca LA, Hart RE. Changing markets – medicinal plants in the markets of La Paz and El Alto, Bolivia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;193:76–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.07.074. de la Torre L, Navarrete H, Muriel M P, Macía MJ, Balslev H, editors. Enciclopedia de las Plantas Útiles del Ecuador. Quito/Aarhus: Herbario QCA de la Escuela de Ciencias Biológicas de la Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador/Herbario AAU del Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas de la Universidad de Aarhus; 2008. Macbride JF, Weberbauer A. Flora of Peru. Chicago: Field Museum; 1936–1995. Monigatti M, Bussmann RW, Weckerle CS. Medicinal plant use in two Andean communities located at different altitudes in the Bolivar Province, Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;145 (2):450–64.

Bursera graveolens (Kunth.) Triana & Planch. BURSERACEAE Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

Synonyms Bursera graveolens (Kunth.) Triana & Planch.: Amyris caranifera Willd. ex Engl.; Bursera graveolens fo. malacophylla (B.L. Rob.) J.F. Macbr.; Bursera malacophylla B.L. Rob.; Bursera penicellata (DC.) Engl.; Bursera tacamaco Triana & Planch.; Elaphrium graveolens Kunth; Elaphrium pubescens Schltdl.; Elaphrium tatamaco Tul.; Spondias edmonstonei Hook. f.; Terebinthus graveolens (Kunth) Rose

Local Names Colombia: Bijá, Caraño, Tamagaco, Tatamaco, Palo santo, Sasafrás, Tatamaco (Bussmann et al. 2018); Ecuador: Incienso, Palo santo (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Palo santo, Palo de santo (Spanish)

N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] C. Romero William L. Brown Center, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO, USA e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_47

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Botany and Ecology Tree or sometimes shrub, up to 12(15) m tall, usually very resinous and aromatic when squeezed in almost all its parts, with persistent odor for many months in the specimens of herbarium; trunk up to 40 cm diameter, its gray bark, smooth, not exfoliating, reddish, glabrous or almost glabrous branches; fasciculate leaves on the ends of short twigs, or, scattered on tender vigorous twigs, preceded in their appearance by a rosette of cataphylls oblong to ovate, 4–8(12) mm long, acute or obtuse at the apex, densely puberulous on both faces, precociously deciduous, imparipinnate leaves or partially bipinnate, oblong to obovate in general outline, up to 30 cm long and 18 cm wide, petiole up to 9 cm long, rachis narrowly winged, except for the proximal internode that usually lacks wings, folioles commonly 7–9 (11), although in the first leaves can be only 3 or 5 and in some cases the proximal leaflets are replaced by trifoliolate pinnae, sessile or almost sessile, lanceolate to ovate, varying to elliptical, oblong, or rhomboids, 3–7(9) cm long, 1–2.5(4) cm wide, acuminate to long acuminate at the apex, cuneate to obtuse and often unequal at the base, margin coarsely and sometimes doubly crenate-serrated, ribs usually conspicuous in mature leaves, secondary ones the common 8–12 pairs, of membranous texture, initially puberulous, glabrescent with age; inflorescence in the form of a lame panicle, usually pilose, sometimes also with tiny glandular hairs, other times almost fully glabrous, often as long as the leaves, filiform pedicelles, up to 5 mm (20 mm in fruit) long; male tetramer flowers, chalice turbinado, its triangular lobes, tiny, less than 0.5 mm long, petals whitish, yellowish, or greenish, oblong to elliptical, 3–4 mm long, bent at the apex, pilose or glabrous on the outside, stamens eight, filaments 1–1.5 mm long, oblong anthers, ca. 0.8 mm long, vestigial gynoecium usually present; feminine flowers similar to the masculine ones, estaminodes with anthers less than 0.6 mm long, ovarian bilocular, very short style, stigmas two; bivalved fruit, subspherical to obovoid, 6–10 mm long, conspicuously apiculate, glabrous, reddish in maturity, longitudinally striated dry, sublenticular bone, 4–6 mm long and wide, covered in its 2/3 lower by an orange or reddish pseudoarilum (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1 and 2).

Local Medicinal Uses Colombia: The resin exuded from the plant is used from this species. This resin is used in the preparation of plasters to treat hernias and the crushing of the feet. It is also used to extract foreign bodies from the skin: for this purpose, the hot resin is placed on the affected area and after 2 days, it is removed together with the foreign body (García Barriga 1975). Trunk and fruits used to treat arthritis, asthma, flu, cough, dizziness, headache, muscular pain, skin allergies, stress, as circulatory stimulant, and for good luck; bark used for blood cleansing, as diuretic, to promote sweating; resin used to treat hernia, sprains, and to remove thorns (Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador: Dried bark used to treat anemia and as fragrance (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). The scraped stem is used to calm stomach

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Fig. 1 Bursera graveolens (Burseraceae), Pusac, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Bursera graveolens (Burseraceae), Pusac, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

aches (Unspecified ethnicity-Imbabura). The resin is applied to the navel of newborns so that it falls easily (unspecified ethnic group – Guayas, Manabi). It is used to treat acne or pimples, rheumatism, styes, swelling, bone pain, cough, and ringworm (unspecified ethnicity – Guayas) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: The species is sometimes used for respiratory problems (Bussmann and Glenn 2010). Some antibacterial activity of the species has been observed (Bussmann et al. 2009a, b, 2010a, b, 2011a, b).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Ecuador: The plant is used as a living fence (Mestiza-Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The burned stem is used as a space deodorizer, as incense (Mestiza-Manabí; Unspecified ethnic group-Imbabura). The stem is used to make poles and statues of saints (unspecified ethnic group – Guayas; Mestiza-Loja). The stem and branches are burnt and the smoke produced is used as an insect repellent (mosquitoes and flies) (Unspecified ethnicity – Loja). It serves as a bat repellent (unspecified ethnic

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group – Guayas) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Burning the wood refreshes the environment and drives away evil spirits (unspecified ethnicity – Manabi) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: Dried bark and wood are used for daño, fright/susto, and sorcery (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010c; Monigatti et al. 2013). Widely sold in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007, 2016).

References Béjar E, Bussmann RW, Roa C, Sharon D. Medicinal herbs of southern Ecuador – Hierbas Medicinales del Sur Ecuatoriano. San Diego: Latino Herbal Press; 2002. 340 p. Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Traditional Peruvian medicine for the treatment of respiratory disorders. Rev Peru Biol. 2010;17(2):331–46. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in Loja province, southern Ecuador. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006a;2:44. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing culture. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006b;2:47. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of longevity – the medicinal flora of Vilcabamba. Plantas de longevidad – La flora medicinal de Vilcabamba. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007a. ISBN 978-09789962-2-2. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of the four winds – the magic and medicinal flora of Peru. Plantas de los cuatro vientos – La flora mágica y medicinal del Perú. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007b. ISBN 978-0-9789962-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Medicinal plants of the Andes and the Amazon – the magic and medicinal flora of northern Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015a. ISBN 978-0-9960231-2-2. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plantas medicinales de los Andes y la Amazonía – La flora mágica y medicinal del Norte de Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015b. ISBN 978-09960231-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Vandebroek I, Jones A. Health for sale: the medicinal plant markets in Trujillo and Chiclayo, northern Peru. Society for Economic Botany, Durham, June 1–5, 2008. 2007. p. 26–7. Duke University. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Diaz D, Cardenas R, Chait G, Castro M, Regalado S, Del Toro-C. R, Malca-G. G, Perez-A. F, Glenn A. Antibacterial activity of medicinal plant species in northern Peru. Arnaldoa. 2009a;16(1):93–103. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Castro M, Cardenas R, Chait G, Regalado S, Del Toro-C. R, Malca-G. G, Perez-A. F, Glenn A. Phyto-chemical analysis of Peruvian medicinal plants. Arnaldoa. 2009b;16(1):105–10. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Herbal mixtures in traditional medicine in northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010a;6:10. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Sharon D. Antibacterial activity of medicinal plants of northern Peru – can traditional applications provide leads for modern science? Indian J Tradit Med. 2010b;9 (4):742–53. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Glenn A. Healing the body, healing the soul. Traditional remedies for “magical” ailments, nervous system and psychosomatic disorders in northern Peru. Afr J Pharm Pharmacol. 2010c;4(9):580–629. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Sharon D, Chait G, Díaz D, Pourmand K, Jonat B, Somogy S, Guardado G, Aguirre C, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Antibacterial activity of northern Peruvian medicinal plants. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2011a;9:67–96. Bussmann RW, Malca G, Glenn A, Sharon D, Nilsen B, Parris B, Dubose D, Ruiz D, Saleda J, Martinez M, Carillo L, Walker K, Kuhlman A, Townesmith A. Toxicity of medicinal plants used in northern Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011b;137:121–40.

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Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Moya Huanca LA, Hart RE. Changing markets – medicinal plants in the markets of La Paz and El Alto, Bolivia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;193:76–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.07.074. García Barriga H. Flora Medicinal de Colombia. Botánica Médica. Tomo Segundo. Bogotá: Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional; 1975. 538 pp. Macbride JF, Weberbauer A. Flora of Peru. Chicago: Field Museum; 1936–1995. Monigatti M, Bussmann RW, Weckerle CS. Medicinal plant use in two Andean communities located at different altitudes in the Bolivar Province, Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;145 (2):450–64.

Caesalpinia paipai Ruiz & Pav. Caesalpinia spinosa (Molina) Kuntze FABACEAE Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

Synonyms Caesalpinia paipai Ruiz & Pav.: Caesalpinia corymbosa Benth.; Caesalpinia glabrata Kunth.; Libidibia corymbosa (Benth.) Britton & Killip Caesalpinia spinosa (Molina) Kuntze: Caesalpinia pectinata Cav.; Caesalpinia tara Ruiz & Pav.; Caesalpinia tinctoria (Kunth) Benth. ex Reiche; Caesalpinia tinctoria Dombey ex DC.; Coulteria tinctoria Kunth; Poinciana spinosa Molina; Tara spinosa (Molina) Britton & Rose

Local Names Caesalpinia paipai: Ecuador: Cascol (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Pay pay (Spanish)

N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] C. Romero William L. Brown Center, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO, USA e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_48

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Caesalpinia spinosa: Colombia: Dividivi, Dividivi de tierra fría; Ecuador: Waranku (Kichwa), Algarrobo, Arrayán, Campeche, Espino, Guaranga, Guarango, Tallo, Vainilla, Vainillo (Spanish), Compeche, Lompeche, Tailin (unspecified language) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Tara, Talla, Chanchalagua

Botany and Ecology Caesalpinia paipai: Shrubs or trees, 3–10 m tall, unarmed, leaves imparipinnatebipinnate; leaflets 4–7 pairs, oval, some oblong-rounded short petioles, entire, slightly emarginate, a small amount, for the most part linear. Petioles slightly channeled, reddish. Flowers subcorymbose, small. Petals oblong-rounded yellow; seeds oval, chestnut color (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995). Caesalpinia spinosa: Spiny shrub or tree 4–15 m with gray bark. Leaves with 2–3 pairs of pinnae and each pinna with 5–8 leaflets. Leaflets are elliptic and hairless, up to 4 cm long, dark green and shiny above, the bottom paler. Inflorescence a spike disposed at the top of the branch with many flowers. Each flower is 1.5 cm long, the lower sepal yellowgreen, enlarged, and fringed. Petals are nearly twice as long, yellow, upper with internal red stripes at anthesis, all becoming salmon-red with age. The stamens all are of similar length. The legumes are crowded on the inflorescence, up to 10 cm long, flattened. When mature café and pink tinged, wavy or curled with 5–6 egg-shaped, shiny brown seeds. Occurs in disturbed or secondary Andean dry forest and scrub on rocky slopes from Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia at elevations up to 2000 m (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Local Medicinal Uses Caesalpinia paipai: Ecuador: With the bark, vaporizations are performed to treat the inflammation of the gum vessels (Mestiza-Manabí) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: Fruits, fresh or dried, are used for killing lice and healing wounds (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b). Fig. 1 Caesalpinia spinosa (Fabaceae), Cajamarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Caesalpinia spinosa (Fabaceae), Cajamarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Caesalpinia spinosa (Fabaceae), Cajamarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Caesalpinia spinosa: Colombia: The fruit of the Dividivi prepared in infusion or in decoction is used in gargles to cure chronic tonsillitis, as a disinfectant, and to reduce inflamed tonsils. This same preparation absorbed by the nose is used successfully to treat sinusitis (García Barriga 1974; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Ecuador: The fruit, in poultice or drinks, is used to treat rashes and wounds as a healing (Kichwa de la Sierra-Chimborazo; unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura, Pichincha). With the infusion or the juice of the leaves, boiled and crushed, and the

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Fig. 4 Caesalpinia spinosa (Fabaceae), Cajamarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

seeds are made mouthwashes to relieve the toothache (Kichwa de la Sierra, unspecified ethnic group – Chimborazo). Flowers are used to treat nervous conditions. It is used to wash the body of women after giving birth (Kichwa de la Sierra-Loja). Chewed leaves are used to fortify and prevent tooth decay (unspecified ethnic groupChimborazo). The leaves, in infusion, are used to soothe stomach and chest pains (unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura). It is used to treat undetermined conditions (unspecified ethnic group – Carchi) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: Seed pods, fresh or dried, are used to treat pharyngitis, throat and skin infection (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Monigatti et al. 2013), inflammation of uterus and vagina, and fungal infections of the ovaries (Bussmann and Glenn 2010). Calceolaria species are often mentioned as important medicine by both patients at allopathic and herbal clinics (Bussmann et al. 2007a), and common in medicinal plant markets (Bussmann et al. 2007b, 2009). Both species show antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2008, 2010a, b, 2011a). Uses in mixture with other species are common (Bussmann 2010b). Both species show toxicity, less so C. spinosa, explaining why it is used internally, versus the topical applications of C. paipai (Bussmann et al. 2011b).

Local Food Uses Caesalpinia spinosa: Ecuador: The aryl and the seed testa are edible (unspecified ethnicity – Loja). Food additive: It is used as a condiment for meals (unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura) (de la Torre et al. 2008).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Caesalpinia paipai: Ecuador: The leaves and branches are used as animal fodder, such as goats, deer, and cattle (Mestiza-Manabí; Unspecified ethnic group – Guayas) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The stem is timber, is used in cabinetmaking, to make tools,

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drawers, and to build boats, canoes, rafts, and houses (Mestizo-Manabí, Guayas; unspecified ethnic group – Guayas, Manabí, El Oro). The bark is used in tannery (Mestizo, unspecified Ethnicity – Manabi) (de La Torre et al. 2008). Wood is used to make coal (unspecified ethnic group – Guayas, Manabí, El Oro) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Caesalpinia spinosa: Ecuador: The stem is used as fuel (unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura, Pichincha, Tungurahua). Materials: The cooked fruit is used to waterproof clay pots (unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura). The fruit, cooked and mixed with iron sulfate, serves as a writing ink (unspecified ethnic group – Azuay, Cañar). The stem is timber, serves as a pole and to make spoons and furniture (Kichwa de la Sierra-Tungurahua, Chimborazo; Mestiza-Loja). The leaves, fruit, and seeds are used to obtain dyes, used by tanners and dyers (Kichwa de la Sierra-Chimborazo, Loja; unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura, Pichincha, Azuay, Cañar). The ground seeds serve to harden the gums (unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura). Seeds, fruit, pods, and bark are used in tanneries (Kichwa de la Sierra-Chimborazo; MestizaTungurahua; Unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura, Pichincha, Tungurahua, Chimborazo) (de La Torre et al. 2008). The plant is used to shade livestock (Mestiza-Loja) (de La Torre et al. 2008).

References Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Medicinal plants used in northern Peru for reproductive problems and female health. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:30. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing culture. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:47. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of the four winds – the magic and medicinal flora of Peru. Plantas de los cuatro vientos – La flora mágica y medicinal del Perú. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007. ISBN 978-0-9789962-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Medicinal plants of the Andes and the Amazon – the magic and medicinal flora of northern Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015a. ISBN 978-0-9960231-2-2. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plantas medicinales de los Andes y la Amazonía – La flora mágica y medicinal del Norte de Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015b. ISBN 978-09960231-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Lopez A. Blending traditional and western medicine: medicinal plant use amongst patients at Clinica Anticona in El Porvenir, Peru. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2007a;5:185–99. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Vandebroek I, Jones A, Revene Z. Health for sale: the medicinal plant markets in Trujillo and Chiclayo, northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007b;3:37. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Perez F, Díaz D, Ford T, Rasheed T, Silva R. Antibacterial activity of northern-Peruvian medicinal plants – a low cost laboratory approach to assess biological activity. Arnaldoa. 2008;15(1):127–48. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Garcia M. From Chamomile to Aspirin? Medicinal plant use among clients at Laboratorios Beal in Trujillo, Peru. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009;7:399–407. Bussmann RW, Malca G, Glenn A, Sharon D, Chait G, Díaz D, Pourmand K, Jonat B, Somogy S, Guardado G, Aguirre C, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A, Effio-Carbajal J, FríasFernandez F, Benito M. Minimum inhibitory concentration of medicinal plants used in northern Peru as antibacterial remedies. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010a;132:101–8.

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Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Herbal mixtures in traditional medicine in northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010b;6:10. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Sharon D. Antibacterial activity of medicinal plants of northern Peru – can traditional applications provide leads for modern science? Indian J Tradit Med. 2010c;9(4):742–53. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Sharon D, Chait G, Díaz D, Pourmand K, Jonat B, Somogy S, Guardado G, Aguirre C, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Antibacterial activity of northern Peruvian medicinal plants. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2011a;9:67–96. Bussmann RW, Malca G, Glenn A, Sharon D, Nilsen B, Parris B, Dubose D, Ruiz D, Saleda J, Martinez M, Carillo L, Walker K, Kuhlman A, Townesmith A. Toxicity of medicinal plants used in northern Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011b;137:121–40. de la Torre L, Navarrete H, Muriel M P, MacÍa MJ, Balslev H, editors. Enciclopedia de las Plantas Útiles del Ecuador. Quito/Aarhus: Herbario QCA de la Escuela de Ciencias Biológicas de la Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador/Herbario AAU del Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas de la Universidad de Aarhus; 2008. García Barriga H. Flora Medicinal de Colombia. Botánica Médica. Tomo Primero. Bogotá: Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional; 1974. 561 pp. Macbride JF, Weberbauer A. Flora of Peru. Chicago: Field Museum; 1936–1995. Monigatti M, Bussmann RW, Weckerle CS. Medicinal plant use in two Andean communities located at different altitudes in the Bolivar Province, Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;145(2):450–64. Pérez Arbeláez E. Plantas útiles de Colombia. 5a. Ed. Bogotá: Fondo FEN Colombia, DAMA, Jardín Botánico de Bogotá José Celestino Mutis; 1996. 831 pp.

Caiophora chuquitensis (Meyen) Urb. & Gilg Caiophora rosulata (Wedd.) Urb. & Gilg LOASACEAE Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Caiophora chuquitensis (Meyen) Urb. & Gilg: Loasa chuquitensis Meyen, Caiophora heptamera (Wedd.) Urb. & Gilg, Caiophora angustisecta Urb. & Gilg, Caiophora albiflora (Griseb.) Urb. & Gilg, Caiophora heptamera (Wedd.) Urb. & Gilg var. albiflora, Caiophora macrocarpa Urb. & Gilg, Loasa chuquitensis Griseb., hom. illeg., Caiophora lorentziana Urb. & Gilg, Caiophora fiebrigii Urb. & Gilg, Blumenbachia chuquitensis (Meyen) Hook. f., Loasa heptamera Wedd., Caiophora superba Phil., Caiophora horrida Urb. & Gilg, Caiophora orbignyana Urb. & Gilg, Caiophora sphaerocarpa Urb. & Gilg, Loasa heptamera Wedd. var. albiflora Caiophora rosulata (Wedd.) Urb. & Gilg: Caiophora acanthoides Urb. & Gilg., Caiophora anemonoides Urb. & Gilg, Caiophora rahmeri Phil., Loasa rosulata Wedd.

J. Echeverría Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Chemistry and Biology, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, USACH, Santiago de Chile, Chile e-mail: [email protected] N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_49

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Local Names Caiophora chuquitensis: Chile: Itapalla, Itapilla, Atapilla, Irqoatapilla, Irtiga macho, Ortiga, Ortega Caiophora rosulata: Chile: Ortega, Ortega blanca, Ortiga hembra, Ortiga macho, Ojman, Osman, Iapilla, Atapilla, Orqotapilla

Botany and Ecology Caiophora chuquitensis: Perennial herb, up to 1 m tall; stems covered with urticate hairs. Basal leaves 10–15 cm long, narrowly ovate blades, pinnatisect with free lobes, closely ovate, with rudely serrated margins to pinnatifid; distal lobes recurved. Terminal inflorescences, leafy, mono or asymmetrical dichasium, with 3–7 flowers. Chalice with extended lobes, ovate-oblong to ovate-triangular; corolla with erect petals, cymbiform, bright orange, red, pinkish, rarely yellow or white. Fruit an ovoidal capsule. 3000–4600 m above sea level (González and Molina 2017) (Figs. 1 and 2). Caiophora rosulata: Small plant, perennial, without stems, leaves in basal rosette. Leaves petiolated with ovate sheets, pinnate to pinnatifid. Erect flowers to pendulums. Petals five, inflated, salmon or yellow. White nectariferous scales with three filiform, white dorsal filaments. 3500–4300 m above sea level (González and Molina 2017) (Figs. 3, 4, and 5).

Local Medicinal Uses Caiophora chuquitensis: The aerial parts are used for the treatment of allergies, cold, diseases of the bladder, and to eliminate stomach worms. Women use it to “cleanse the body” after childbirth. The infusion is used as a contraceptive and to prevent hair loss (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003). Caiophora rosulata: This plant has multiple medicinal uses. The infusion of the flower is used for the treatment of fever, against excessive sleep, and for varicose veins. Women use it during menstruation because of its cleansing effect, and it is also used as a contraceptive. It also serves to cleanse the blood and for the treatment of cancer (inner bruises and tumors). The infusion of the aerial parts is given to children for cough and fever ratification; it also alleviates bronchitis, diarrhea, convulsive cough, colic, and pulmonary diseases and is used as a tranquilizer. It is also used as a purgative (Philippi 1891; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003). Very rarely, Caiophora species are sold in Bolivian markets (Bussmann et al. 2016).

Caiophora chuquitensis (Meyen) Urb. & Gilg. . . Fig. 1 Cajophora chuquitensis (Loasaceae), Quebrada Chita, Chile. (Photo Lucas Burchard Señoret)

Fig. 2 Cajophora coronata (Loasaceae), Caspana, Chile. (Photo Lucas Burchard Señoret)

Fig. 3 Huidobria fruticosa (Loasaceae), Chuquicamata, Chile. (Photo Lucas Burchard Señoret)

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Fig. 4 Cajophora sp. (Loasaceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Nasa sp. (Loasaceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Caiophora chuquitensis: The “bandereras” use the branches to whip the legs of the participants, so that they keep the rhythm of the raids and the bale during the ceremony of the carnival that takes place in the yard of the church. Used as forage (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003). Caiophora rosulata: Used as forage (Philippi 1891; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).

References Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Moya Huanca LA, Hart RE. Changing markets – medicinal plants in the markets of La Paz and El Alto, Bolivia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;193:76–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.07.074. González JS, Molina JJ. Flora nativa de la región de Arica y Parinacota. Arica: Ediciones Universidad de Tarapacá; 2017. 233 pp.

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Philippi RA. Catalogus praevius plantarum in itinere ad Tarapaca a Friderico Philippi lectarum. Anales, Museo Nacional de Chile, Seco N 2 (Bot.). 1891. Rodriguez R, Marticorena C, Alarcón D, Baeza C, Cavieres L, Finot VL, Fuentes N, Kiessling A, Mihoc M, Pauchard A, Ruiz E, Sanchez P, Marticorena A. Catálogo de las plantas vasculares de Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430. Villagrán C, Castro V. Ciencia indígena de los Andes del norte de Chile. Santiago de Chile: Editorial Universitaria; 2003.

Calceolaria bartsiifolia Wedd. Calceolaria buchtieniana Kraenzl. Calceolaria engleriana Kraenzl. Calceolaria inamoena Kraenzl. Calceolaria stellariifolia Phil. Calceolaria rugulosa Edwin CALCEOLARIACEAE Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Javier Echeverría Synonyms Calceolaria bartsiifolia Wedd.: Calceolaria pflanzii Perkins; Fegelia bangii Rusby; Fagelia bartsiifolia (Wedd.) Rusby; Fagelia scabra var. bartsiifolia (Wedd.) Kuntze Calceolaria buchtieniana Kraenzl.: Calceolaria gossypiana subsp. jaroslaviana Lópex Guillén; Calceolaria poikilantha Kraenzl.; Calceolaria tenuifolia Pennell Calceolaria engleriana Kraenzl.: Calceolaria endotrachys Kraenzl.; Calceolaria engleriana subsp. acuminata Pennell; Calceolaria epilobioides Kraenzl.; Calceolaria incachacensis Lraenzl.; Calceolaria urubambae Kraenzl.; Calceolaria viminalis Kraenzl. N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] J. Echeverría Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Chemistry and Biology, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, USACH, Santiago de Chile, Chile e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_50

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Calceolaria inamoena Kraenzl.: Calceolaria aberrans Kraenzl., Calceolaria pulchella Phil. Calceolaria stellariifolia Phil.: Calceolaria rupicola F. Meigen Calceolaria rugulosa Edwin: Calceolaria corymbosa var. perennis Edwin

Local Names Calceolaria bartsiifolia: Bolivia: Termentina (Spanish) Calceolaria buchtieniana: Bolivia: Zapato zapato (Spanish); Sapat sapatu, Amay sapato (Aymara) Calceolaria engleriana: Bolivia: Zapato zapato (Spanish) Calceolaria inamoena: Chile: Zapatilla, Zapatito, Kukumelo Calceolaria rugulosa: Peru: Potito (Spanish) Calceolaria stellariifolia: Chile: Zapatilla, Sapatillat’ula, Sapatilla café, Zapatito, Willjaya

Botany and Ecology Calceolaria is a very interesting genus that was recently shifted from Scrophulariaceae to its own family, Calceolariaceae, and lots of news species have been described only recently (Romero et al. 2017). Calceolaria bartsiifolia: Herb, differing from C. aurea Pennell in having densely tomentose stems with the vesture black, cinereous near the apex; leaf blade margins grossly and sharply few-dentate, the teeth lightly recurved, glabrous above, canescent-pilose beneath, ovate and oblong, 5–10 mm long and 3–4 mm wide; flowers in few-flowered corymbs (usually three-flowered); pedicels glandularpilose; calyx segments ovate, acute, 4 mm long, basally 3 mm wide (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Fig. 1). Calceolaria buchtieniana: Erect shrub, 0.6–2 m tall; inflorescence and distal parts of stems minutely glandular-puberulous and strongly glutinous. Leaves with blades linear Fig. 1 Calceolaria sp. (Calceolariaceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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to narrowly elliptic, 2.5–6.4  0.3–0.8 cm, acute or subacute, attenuate at base; upper surface deep bright green, glandular or glandular-puberulous, the midrib sunken, otherwise smooth; lower surface pale green, subglabrous or shortly glandularpuberulous, hyphodromous; petioles 1–4 mm, glandular. Inflorescence composed of 2–4 pairs of 1- or 2-flowered cymes, the peduncles 1–2.3 cm, the pedicels 0.7–1.8 ( 2.3) cm; cyme bracts present. Sepals light yellow–green, ovate, deflexed, 4.5–7.4  4.5–5.8 mm, acute or subacute, externally glandular-puberulous and strongly glutinous, internally glandular-puberulous to almost glabrous. Corolla bright yellow with crossbands of red spots in sides of throat and on lower side of lower lip; upper lip 2–4  3–6 mm, subglobose; lower lip 12–21  7–13 mm, saccate in 40–50% of length, the sac projecting; elaiophore present, green. Stamens type 11; anthers buff or light brown, 3.0–3.9 mm, the thecae slightly ascending; filaments 0.6–1.1 mm. Style 1.7–2.3 mm, somewhat decurved at apex. Capsule ovoid, 4–6 mm long, brown or purplish-brown, glandular-puberulous. Calceolaria buchtieniana ranges in the eastern Andes from SE Peru (Cuzco) to central Bolivia (Santa Cruz) but appears abundantly only in the north Bolivian puna vegetation. It occurs in moist puna between 2500 and 4200 m (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995). Calceolaria engleriana: Erect branched shrub, wood usually tomentulose above becoming glabrous below. Leaves short-petiolate or the upper blades sessile, narrowly ovate-lanceolate to lanceolate, occasionally ovate, up to about 6 cm long and 2.6 cm wide, usually narrower, infrequently 5–9 mm wide, entire to serrulate, apex usually acute, less often short-acuminate, variously pubescent to occasionally glabrous; petioles thickened and laterally connate, sometimes woody; inflorescences few-flowered corymbs; flower-stalks puberulent; calyx lobes green to yellow-green, ovate or narrowly ovate, acute, 5–7( 8) mm long, externally sparsely puberulent and often red-glanddotted, sometimes reflexed at anthesis, internally more densely hairy, some of the hairs arranged in a row along the margins; corolla yellow, upper lip ca. 4–6 mm long, shorter, or occasionally little longer, than the calyx lobes, lower lip 18–28 mm long, saccate more than half its length, distally upturned; anther cells more than twice as long as wide, filaments shorter than the 2 mm long, apically curved style; ovary glandular; capsule a little shorter to equaling the calyx, ovate, gradually narrowed to apex but lacking an abruptly constricted neck, densely glandular (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995). Calceolaria inamoena: Small subshrub 0.1–1 m high, very ramoso and covered of hair; reddish brown branches with leaves distributed regularly. Leaves sessile, ovate, small, 3–15 mm long, with the edge bent downwards and deeply serrated, sharp apex, rounded base. Cymose inflorescence with between 4–8 flowers. Hermaphrodite flowers, medium, segments of ovate calyx, glandular hair, peduncles between 0.5–2.6 mm long; yellow-gold corolla with very small upper lip 2–3 mm long and the lower one 50–70% of its length, very inflated and bent upwards, forming a kind of capsule; stamens with yellow or pale anthers; style 1.4–2.2 mm long. Fruit: ovoid capsule 4–8 mm long, which opens at maturity and contains multiple seeds. 3500–3800 m above sea level (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995). Calceolaria stellariifolia: Perennial herb, low, with short branches, slightly hairy. Leaves in rosette at the base, lanceolate, with entire margin. Inflorescence with few yellow flowers, hermaphrodite. Dry fruit that opens at maturity. This species is endemic to Chile. 2700–4300 m above sea level (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Fig. 2).

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Fig. 2 Calceolaria stellariifolia (Calceolariaceae), Machuca, Chile. (Photo Lucas Burchard Señoret)

Calceolaria rugulosa: Erect, branched, pilose-tomentose shrub, stems appressedpilose below, tomentose above, and with the leaves drying light brown, the leaves also sometimes drying brown-green, tomentum densest on young growth. Leaves opposite or ternate, ovate or elliptic-ovate, occasionally elliptical (1.5–)3–5 cm. long and (1)2–3.5 cm wide, margins plane, serrate to doubly serrate, sometimes grossly so, narrowed to an acute apex, obtuse to broadly obtuse at base, rugose or rugulose, pilose above, tomentose beneath, sometimes, especially when young, the vesture obscuring the leaf tissue, often with golden-yellow glands intermixed beneath; petioles 1–4( 6) mm long, thickened, woody, densely tomentose, usually narrowly connate; inflorescences in upper leaf-axils and also terminal, many-flowered, compound dichasia or corymbose; flower stalks densely long-soft-pubescent; bracts merely reduced leaves; calyx tube and lobes densely pilose externally, glabrous internally, lobes ovate or broadly ovate, acute, 6–8 mm long; corolla yellow, up to 1 cm long, externally very short-puberulent, internally glabrous; upper lip 1–2 mm long; lower lip ca. 6–8 mm long, saccate only 1–2 mm; anther cells equal, each pair ca. 2.0–2.2 mm long, almost twice as long as wide; style thin, glabrous, 1.0–1.5 mm long, ovary glandular; capsule ovoid-conic, a little shorter and loosely invested by the calyx, apically long-acute, sparsely golden glandular (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9).

Local Medicinal Uses Calceolaria bartsiifolia: Bolivia: Fresh leaves are used to treat fractures and strong blows (Bussmann et al. 2016). Calceolaria buchtieniana: Bolivia: Fresh stems, leaves, and flowers are used to treat heartache, kidney infection, cystitis, prostate, muscle pain, blows, postpartum pain, liver, gallbladder, and “larpha” (cultural illness) (Bussmann et al. 2016; Justo Chipana and Moraes 2015; Macía et al. 2005).

Calceolaria bartsiifolia Wedd. . . .

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Fig. 3 Calceolaria gossypina (Calceolariaceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Calceolaria gossypina (Calceolariaceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Calceolaria engleriana: Bolivia: Fresh stems, leaves, and flowers are used to treat liver problems, cystitis, and kidney infection (Bussmann et al. 2016). Calceolaria inamoena: Taken as tea, a remedy when babies wet the bed (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003). Calceolaria rugulosa: Peru: The whole fresh plant used for inflammations (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b). Zapatillos are always used in mixtures (Bussmann et al. 2010). Limited antibacterial activity has been confirmed (Bussmann et al. 2011a), and the species can be regarded as not toxic (Bussmann et al. 2011b). Calceolaria stellariifolia: The infusion of flowers or leaves is used for diseases of the kidneys, bladder, for the uterus, for childbirth, cold and cough, and also as abortive. The hot infusion is taken when children wet the bed. It is also used to fight muscle aches and pains (e.g., waist). (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).

414 Fig. 5 Calceolaria rhododendroides (Calceolariaceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 6 Calceolaria rhododendroides (Calceolariaceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Calceolaria bartsiifolia Wedd. . . . Fig. 7 Calceolaria rhododendroides. (Calceolariaceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 8 Calceolaria virgata (Calceolariaceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 9 Calceolaria virgata (Calceolariaceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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References Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing culture. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:47. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of the four winds – The magic and medicinal flora of Peru. Plantas de los cuatro vientos – La flora mágica y medicinal del Perú. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007. ISBN 978-0-9789962-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Medicinal plants of the Andes and the Amazon – the magic and medicinal flora of northern Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015a. ISBN 978-0-9960231-2-2. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plantas medicinales de los Andes y la Amazonía – La flora mágica y medicinal del Norte de Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015b. ISBN 978-09960231-3-9. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Herbal mixtures in traditional medicine in northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:10. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Sharon D, Chait G, Díaz D, Pourmand K, Jonat B, Somogy S, Guardado G, Aguirre C, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Antibacterial activity of northern Peruvian medicinal plants. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2011a;9:67–96. Bussmann RW, Malca G, Glenn A, Sharon D, Nilsen B, Parris B, Dubose D, Ruiz D, Saleda J, Martinez M, Carillo L, Walker K, Kuhlman A, Townesmith A. Toxicity of medicinal plants used in northern Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011b;137:121–40. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Moya Huanca LA, Hart RE. Changing markets – medicinal plants in the markets of La Paz and El Alto, Bolivia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;193:76–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.07.074. González JS, Molina JJ. Flora nativa de la región de Arica y Parinacota. Arica: Ediciones Universidad de Tarapacá; 2017. 233 pp. Justo Chipana M, Moraes R M. Plantas medicinales comercializadas por las chifleras de La Paz y ElAlto (Bolivia) – medicinal plants marketed by chifleras of La Paz and El Alto cities (Bolivia). Ecol Bolivia. 2015;50(2):66–90. Macbride JF, Weberbauer A. Flora of Peru. Chicago: Field Museum; 1936–1995. Macía MJ, García E, Vidaurre PJ. An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants commercialized in the markets of La Paz and El Alto, Bolivia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;97:337–50. Rodriguez R, Marticorena C, Alarcón D, Baeza C, Cavieres L, Finot VL, Fuentes N, Kiessling A, Mihoc M, Pauchard A, Ruiz E, Sanchez P, Marticorena A. Catálogo de las plantas vasculares de Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430. Romero C, Bussmann RW, Puppo P. New species of Calceolaria (Calceolariaceae) from northern Peru. Novon. 2017;25(3):316–21. https://doi.org/10.3417/D-16-00013. Villagrán C, Castro V. Ciencia indígena de los Andes del norte de Chile. Santiago de Chile: Editorial Universitaria; 2003.

Calendula officinalis L. ASTERACEAE Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

Local Names Colombia: Caléndula, Canéndula

Botany and Ecology Annual. Plant 20–50(75) cm high; stem often branched from base, green, more or less floccose-glandular. Basal leaves oblong-obovate, with remote teeth or entire, large, petiolate; cauline leaves oblong-lanceolate or oblong-obovate, sessile, more or less amplexicaul, indistinctly undulate and with small, occasional teeth. Capitula large (up to 4–5 cm in diameter); involucre in 1–2 whorls of oblong-lanceolate, acuminate, involucral bracts. Florets yellow or orange, sometimes dull, twice as long as involucre; ligules broad, up to 4.5 mm wide. All achenes curved, yellowish or brownish to gray, trimorphic: outer achenes semiannular, large (up to 15 mm long), N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] C. Romero William L. Brown Center, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO, USA e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_51

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Fig. 1 Calendula officinalis (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann and N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

on outside usually with longitudinal rows of spines, with long, hollow, inwardly bent beak, seemingly truncate at apex; middle achenes carinate, smaller and broader (up to 10–12 mm long, 8–10 mm wide), with a longitudinal rib and spines on back (sometimes without), with wing-like involute lateral processes and a similar middle process; inner achenes grayish, small, annular, spinose, or tuberculate. Transients between these forms of achenes observed. Flowering June–September. It is cultivated everywhere as one of the most popular ornamental plants; sometimes, it is found growing as a weed in gardens, kitchen gardens (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Local Medicinal Uses In Colombia, Calendula is used to treat acne, bruises, bumps, sprains, eczema, burns, insect bites, skin irritations, amenorrhea, menstrual cramps, and for inflammation of the female reproductive system. The decoction of the whole fresh plant is used as an anti-inflammatory, disinfectant, healing, for the treatment of pustules and in general for skin conditions. The leaves are used in the form of poultices, and the juice extracted from them acts as a good antihemorrhagic and disinfectant; this same juice taken on an empty stomach heals the duodenal ulcer. The flowers are used for their antiinflammatory, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antihemorrhagic, and antibacterial effect. They are used also for healing, against excessive sweating, to promote menstruation, and for good health of the immune system. Flowers are also used in diseases of the chest and their decoction is used for cleansing of the blood (Bussmann et al. 2018; Díaz 2003; Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011; Fonnegra Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1975; Giraldo Quintero et al. 2015; Martínez Correa and Montes Martínez 2017; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996).

Local Food Uses Used as food dye, especially in Eurasia (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016)

Calendula officinalis L. Fig. 2 Calendula officinalis (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann and N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Fig. 3 Calendula officinalis (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann and N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Fig. 4 Calendula officinalis (Asteraceae), seeding, Batumi, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann and N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses Used especially in the poultry industry as food additive to make eggs more yellow.

References Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, Beer, Snuff, Medicine and loss of diversity – Ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobotany Research and Application. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Romero C, Hart RE. Astonishing diversity - the medicinal plant markets of Bogotá, Colombia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14(1):43. https://doi.org/ 10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8 Correa CA, Montes Martínez PA. Determinación de la etnobotánica de las plantas medicinales comercializadas en las plazas de mercados de los municipios de Turbo, Apartadó, Carepa, Chigorodó y Mutatá, Antioquia, Colombia. Tesis de Grado, Universidad Nacional Abierta y a Distancia UNAD. Escuela de Ciencias Agrícolas, Pecuarias y del Medio Ambiente, Turbo. 2017. 136 pp. Díaz JA, editor. Informe Técnico. Caracterización del mercado colombiano de plantas medicinales y aromáticas. Bogotá: Instituto de Investigación de Recursos Biológicos Alexander von Humboldt. Ministerio de Ambiente, Vivienda y Desarrollo Territorial; 2003. 111 pp. Fonnegra Gómez R, Alzate Guarín F, Orozco Castañeda C, Vásquez Londoño C, Suárez Quirós J, García López V, Roldán Palacio F, Correa Silva A, Vasco Correa C. Medicina Tradicional en los Corregimientos de Medellín. Historias de vidas y plantas. Medellín: Universidad de Antioquia – Alcaldía de Medellín; 2012. 305 pp. Fonnegra-Gómez R, Villa-Londoño J. Plantas medicinales usadas en algunas veredas de municipios del altiplano del oriente antioqueño, Colombia. Actual Biol. 2011;33(95):219–50. García Barriga H. Flora Medicinal de Colombia. Botánica Médica. Tomo Tercero. Bogotá: Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional; 1975. 497 pp. Giraldo Quintero SE, Bernal Lizarazú MC, Morales Robayo A, Pardo Lobo AZ, Gamba Molano L. Descripción del uso tradicional de plantas medicinales en mercados populares de Bogotá, D.C. NOVA. 2015;13(23):73–80. Ministerio de Protección Social. Vademécum Colombiano de Plantas Medicinales. Bogotá: Imprenta Nacional de Colombia; 2008. 311 pp. Pérez Arbeláez E. Plantas útiles de Colombia. 5a. Ed. Bogotá: Fondo FEN Colombia, DAMA, Jardín Botánico de Bogotá José Celestino Mutis; 1996. 831 pp.

Cantua buxifolia Juss. ex Lam. Cantua flexuosa (Ruiz & Pav.) Pers. Cantua quercifolia Juss. POLEMONIACEAE Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Cantua buxifolia Juss. ex Lam.: Cantua alutacea Infantes; Cantua buxifolia var. lanceolata Brand; Cantua buxifolia var. ovata Brand; Cantua dependens Pers.; Cantua lanceolata Peter in Engler & Prantl.; Cantua ovata Cav.; Cantua theifolia D. Don.; Cantua tomentosa Cav.; Cantua unif lora Pers.; Periphragmos dependens Ruiz & Pav.; Periphragmos unif lorus Ruiz & Pav. Cantua f lexuosa (Ruiz & Pav.) Pers.: Periphragmos f lexuosus Ruiz & Pav.; Tunaria albida Kuntze

Local Names Cantua buxifolia: Bolivia: Cantuta (Spanish), Kantuta, Rosar k’antuta (Aymara) (Macía et al. 2005; Justo Chipana and Moraes 2015); Peru: Candu (Spanish). Cantua flexuosa: Bolivia: Cantuta amarilla (Spanish), Qu’ellu k’antuta (Aymara) (Macía et al. 2005; Justo Chipana and Moraes 2015; Bussmann et al. 2016). N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_52

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Cantua quercifolia: Ecuador: Pepiso (Spanish), Cholala (Kichwa), Pepiso (Spanish) (de La Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Dormidera, Hierba adormecedora, Tutapure Morado (Chico) (Spanish).

Botany and Ecology Cantua buxifolia: An erect, woody shrub between 2 and 6 m tall. The leaves are alternate and between 0.5 and 4 cm long, each borne on very short stalks. Each leaf is elliptic to egg-shaped with a narrow in base and rarely having teeth at the tip. The flowers tend to be crowded at the top of the stem. Each flower is up to 8 cm long, tubular with flaring petals. The sepals are tubular, up to 3 cm long and green. The petals are unequal, triangular and ca. 1.5 cm long each, yellow, pink or red and often have wavy margins. The stamens are exposed or not. The style is up to 9 cm long and borne from a pear-shaped ovary. The fruit is 2.5 cm long and contains many winged seeds ca. 1 cm long. Occurs on dry scrub forests or in paramos and along roads or forest margins of Peru and northern Bolivia at elevations up to 3600 m (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1 and 2). Cantua flexuosa: Erect, branching shrub or small tree, 2–5 m tall, variably hairy. Leaves alternate and occasionally appearing fascicled on short axillary shoots prior to elongation, stiff and sub-coriaceous to pliable and herbaceous, variable in size, 2–7(–9) cm long, 1–3.6(–4) cm broad, elliptic, oblong or lanceolate, tapering to the base, cuneate, short petioled to sessile, the petiole (0–)2–20 mm long, usually entire, occasionally dentate toward the acute to obtuse apex, generally pubescent at least along the mid-vein and in particular on the abaxial surface. Inf lorescences composed a many f lowered, dense, cymose, corymb, mostly terminating lateral shoots. Peduncles variable in length, 5–25 mm long, erect, often hairy. Calyx herbaceous or thick and coriaceous, tubular-campanulate, 0.8–1.5 cm long, somewhat bilaterally symmetric, tube 5–11 mm long, 4–5 mm in diameter, lobes 5, triangular-acute to acuminate, 1–5 mm long, 2–4 mm broad at base of lobe, internal lobe apex with a tuft of lanate hairs, external calyx glabrous or hairy with eglandular trichomes. Fig. 1 Cantua buxifolia (Polemoniaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Cantua buxifolia (Polemoniaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Corolla funnelform, 1.5–2.3 cm long, the tube 1.1–1.8 cm long, 4–6 mm in diameter, cream to white, glabrous externally, slightly incurved, corolla lobes irregularly retuse to deeply cleft, 4–5 mm long and 6–11 mm wide, cream white, margin ciliate hairy; more or less radially symmetrical. Stamens exserted, adnate to both the corolla tube and the base of the glandular region of the ovary, at the insertion of the corolla, filaments 2.5–4.3 cm long, glabrous, white to cream in color, subequal to unequal in length; anthers inverted, versatile, cordate to sagittate, 2–4.5 mm long, yellow, pollen pantoporate, reticulate exine, with insulae (verrucae). Nectary fused to the proximal region of the ovary and receptacle, lacking a disk-like morphology, giving the ovary a pyriform shape, slightly 5-lobed at the base, due to fusion of the filaments. Ovary glabrous, pyriform, 4–8 mm long, 2–5 mm wide at base, with about 10–12 ovules per locule; style simple, exserted, stigma lobes 0.5–2 mm long. Fruit an oblong, loculicidally dehiscing capsule, 1.5–2.5 cm long, with three valves. Seeds small, flattened, oblong to ovate, 7–9 mm long and 2–4 mm wide, with a more or less broad wing on one end (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995). Cantua quercifolia: Erect, branching shrub or small tree, 1.4–4 m tall, glandular villous throughout. Leaves alternate, the axillary shoots appearing fascicled prior to elongation, blades sub-coriaceous to soft and herbaceous, variable in size, 3–9.2 cm long, 1–4 cm broad, elliptic, lanceolate obovate, sinuate crenate, with an acute apex, cuneate at base, sessile (rarely clasping) to short petioled, the petiole 2–10 mm long, glandular villous. Inf lorescences composed of few- to many-flowered, erect, cymose, corymbs, terminating lateral shoots. Peduncles variable in length,

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1–8 mm long, erect, villous glandular. Calyx hyaline and herbaceous only along primary vasculature, tubular-campanulate, 1.8–2.6 cm long, more or less radially symmetric, tube 10–16 mm long, 4–8 mm in diameter, lobes 5, triangular-acute to attenuate, 8–12 mm long, 2–3 mm broad at base of lobe, external calyx glandular villous. Corolla salverform, 3.2–4.2 cm long, the tube 2.3–3.0 cm long, 4–8 mm in diameter, white, cream or yellow, glabrous, corolla lobes suborbicular to ovate, 10–11 mm long and 7.5–8.5 mm wide, white, margin not ciliate hairy; more or less radially symmetrical. Stamens exserted, adnate to and inserted well below the mid-tube, filaments 2.5–4.8 cm long, glabrous, white to cream in color, subequal in length; anthers versatile, cordate to sagittate, 3.5–7 mm long, yellow, pollen pantoporate, reticulate exine, with insulae (verrucae). Nectary disc cup-shaped, surrounding the lower ovary but free from it, 5-f luted, the basal region smooth, the upper region rough. Ovary glabrous, oblong to pyriform, 5–9 mm long, 1–4 mm wide at base, with about 10–12 ovules per locule; style simple, exserted, stigma lobes 1–5 mm long. Fruit an oblong, loculicidally dehiscing capsule, 1–2 cm long, with three valves. Seeds small, flattened, orbicular to ovate, 3–5 mm long and 2–4 mm wide, with a more or less broad, encircling wing (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9).

Fig. 3 Cantua quercifolia (Polemoniaceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 4 Cantua quercifolia (Polemoniaceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Cantua quercifolia (Polemoniaceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses Cantua buxifolia: Bolivia: The f lowers are used to treat nerves, cough, for good luck, j’aira mile, and offerings (mesa) (Macía et al. 2005; Justo Chipana and Moraes 2015); Peru: The whole plant, fresh or dried, is used to treat fright (susto) and speech impediment.

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Fig. 6 Cantua quercifolia (Polemoniaceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 7 Cantua pyrifolia (Polemoniaceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Cantua flexuosa: Bolivia: The flowers are used to treat arthritis, epilepsy, j’aira milla, and for lightning strikes (Bussmann et al. 2016). Cantua quercifolia: Ecuador: Fresh leaves are used to treat rheumatism (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a, b). The decoction of flowers is used to treat the flu (Kichwa de la Sierra-Loja). The hot leaves, tied to the affected parts, relieve knee pain (Kichwa de la Sierra, unspecified Ethnicity-Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008). It is used in baths to heat the body (Kichwa de la Sierra-Loja) (de la Torre et al.

Cantua buxifolia Juss. ex Lam. . . .

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Fig. 8 Cantua pyrifolia (Polemoniaceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 9 Cantua pyrifolia (Polemoniaceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

2008). Peru: Fresh leaves and stems are used to treat insomnia, as sedative, and for nerves (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007a, 2015a, b). The plants are sometimes found in markets (Bussmann et al. 2007). The species has antibacterial properties (Bussmann et al. 2009) and mild toxicity (Bussmann et al. 2011a, b), which is why it is mostly used in mixture with other plants (Bussmann et al. 2010a).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Cantua buxifolia: Peru: The whole plant, fresh or dried, is used to treat fright (susto) and speech impediment (Bussmann et al. 2010b; Bussmann and Sharon 2015a, b). Cantua quercifolia: In Peru, the plant is used for good luck (Bussmann et al. 2010b; Bussmann and Sharon 2015a, b).

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References Béjar E, Bussmann RW, Roa C, Sharon D. Medicinal herbs of southern Ecuador – Hierbas Medicinales del Sur Ecuatoriano. San Diego: Latino Herbal Press; 2002. 340 p. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in Loja province, southern Ecuador. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006a;2:44. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing culture. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006b;2:47. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of longevity – the medicinal f lora of Vilcabamba. Plantas de longevidad – La f lora medicinal de Vilcabamba. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007a. ISBN 978-09789962-2-2. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of the four winds – the magic and medicinal f lora of Peru. Plantas de los cuatro vientos – La f lora mágica y medicinal del Perú. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007b. ISBN 978-0-9789962-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Medicinal plants of the Andes and the Amazon – the magic and medicinal f lora of northern Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015a. ISBN 978-0-9960231-2-2. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plantas medicinales de los Andes y la Amazonía – La f lora mágica y medicinal del Norte de Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015b. ISBN 978-09960231-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Vandebroek I, Jones A, Revene Z. Health for sale: the medicinal plant markets in Trujillo and Chiclayo, northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3:37. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Diaz D, Cardenas R, Chait G, Castro M, Regalado S, Del Toro CR, Malca GG, Perez AF, Glenn A. Antibacterial activity of medicinal plant species in northern Peru. Arnaldoa. 2009;16(1):93–103. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Herbal mixtures in traditional medicine in northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010a;6:10. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Glenn A. Healing the body, healing the soul. Traditional remedies for “magical” ailments, nervous system and psychosomatic disorders in northern Peru. Afr J Pharm Pharmacol. 2010b;4(9):580–629. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Sharon D, Chait G, Díaz D, Pourmand K, Jonat B, Somogy S, Guardado G, Aguirre C, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Antibacterial activity of northern Peruvian medicinal plants. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2011a;9:67–96. Bussmann RW, Malca G, Glenn A, Sharon D, Nilsen B, Parris B, Dubose D, Ruiz D, Saleda J, Martinez M, Carillo L, Walker K, Kuhlman A, Townesmith A. Toxicity of medicinal plants used in northern Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011b;137:121–40. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Moya Huanca LA, Hart RE. Changing markets – medicinal plants in the markets of La Paz and El Alto, Bolivia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;193:76–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.07.074. de la Torre L, Navarrete H, Muriel M P, Macía MJ, Balslev H, editors. Enciclopedia de las Plantas Útiles del Ecuador. Quito/Aarhus: Herbario QCA de la Escuela de Ciencias Biológicas de la Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador/Herbario AAU del Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas de la Universidad de Aarhus; 2008. Justo Chipana M, Moraes R M. Plantas medicinales comercializadas por las chif leras de La Paz y ElAlto (Bolivia) – Medicinal plants marketed by chif leras of La Paz and El Alto cities (Bolivia). Ecol Bolivia. 2015;50(2):66–90. Macbride JF, Weberbauer A. Flora of Peru. Chicago: Field Museum; 1936–1995. Macía MJ, García E, Vidaurre PJ. An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants commercialized in the markets of La Paz and El Alto, Bolivia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;97:337–50.

Capparis crotonoides (Kunth) Iltis & Cornejo Capparis scabrida Kunth CAPPARACEAE Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Capparis crotonoides (Kunth) Iltis & Cornejo: Capparis crotonoides Kunth; Capparis cordata Ruiz & Pav. ex DC.; Capparis cordata Ruiz & Pav. ex E.A. López; Capparis sidaefolia Ruiz & Pav. ex DC.; Colicodendron crotonoides (Kunth) Hutch.; Quadrella crotonoides (Kunth) J. Presl.; Quadrella sidaefolia (Ruiz & Pav. ex DC.) Presl Capparis scabrida Kunth: Capparis angulata Ruiz & Pav. ex DC.; Capparis angulata Ruiz & Pav. ex E.A. López; Capparis gaudichauiana Eichler

Local Names Ecuador: Zapote, Zapote de campo, Zapote de perro (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Zapote (Spanish)

N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_53

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Botany and Ecology Capparis crotonoides: Leaves ovate to suborbicular-cordate, 3–4(–6) cm long, nearly as wide, net-veined and densely stellate-pubescent, especially beneath; flowers few, the densely stellate-pubescent sepals 5–6 mm long, the sparsely stellate-pubescent petals twice as long; fruit globose, stellate-pubescent, 7 mm thick. Flowers cream-colored, the sepals in one series, valvate (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995). Capparis scabrida: Branchlets, leaves beneath, sepals, and petals ashy-stellatetomentose; blades lustrous and somewhat rough above, coriaceous, subellipticoblong, obtuse at both ends, cuspidate, often 11 cm long, 4–5 cm wide; petioles to 15 mm long; pedicels 2.5–5 cm long; stipe 7 cm long or longer; petals twice as long as the deeply lobed calyx, this nearly 1 cm long; stamens elongate; fruit ovoidoblong (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7). Fig. 1 Capparis scabrida (Capparaceae), Huanchaco, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Capparis scabrida (Capparaceae), Huanchaco, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Capparis crotonoides (Kunth) Iltis & Cornejo. . .

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Fig. 3 Capparis scabrida (Capparaceae), Huanchaco, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Capparis scabrida (Capparaceae), Huanchaco, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses Peru: Fruits used fresh for inflammation (general), heart palpitation, refresh the liver, reduce anxiety, and also good to increase milk production in cows (Bussmann et al. 2010a; Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn

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Fig. 5 Capparis scabrida (Capparaceae), Huanchaco, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 6 Capparis scabrida (Capparaceae), Huanchaco, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

2011; Rodríguez Rodríguez et al. 2007). The species is also used for respiratory disorders (Bussmann and Glenn 2010). Capparis has slight antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2008, 2009, 2010b, 2011a). Medicinally the species is mostly used in mixture with other plants (Bussmann et al. 2010c). Both species show toxicity (Bussmann et al. 2011b).

Capparis crotonoides (Kunth) Iltis & Cornejo. . .

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Fig. 7 Capparis scabrida (Capparaceae), Huanchaco, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Food Uses Ecuador: The fruit is edible (Mestiza-Manabí; unspecified ethnicity – Loja). Vertebrate food: The fruit is food for pigs and goats (Mestizo, unspecified ethnic group – Manabi). It is used as fodder for cattle and as food for birds and dogs (unspecified ethnic group – Guayas; Mestizo-Manabí) (de la Torre et al. 2008).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Ecuador: The plant is used to make charcoal (unspecified ethnic group – Guayas) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The stem is useful in housing construction and for developing tools (unspecified ethnic group – Guayas). The gum that emanates the trunk, mixed with lime, is used to paint houses (unspecified ethnic group – Guayas). The resin of the bark serves as a gum (Mestizo, unspecified ethnicity – Manabi). It is used to obtain glue or gum sapote (Kichwa de la Sierra, unspecified ethnic group – Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: The species is widely used to make utensils (Rodríguez Rodríguez et al. 2007), sold in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007).

References Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Traditional Peruvian medicine for the treatment of respiratory disorders. Rev Peru Biol. 2010;17(2):331–46. Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Fighting pain. Traditional Peruvian remedies for the treatment of asthma, rheumatism, arthritis and sore bones. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2011;10(3):397–412. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing culture. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:47. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of the four winds – the magic and medicinal flora of Peru. Plantas de los cuatro vientos – La flora mágica y medicinal del Perú. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007. ISBN 978-0-9789962-3-9.

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Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Medicinal plants of the Andes and the Amazon – the magic and medicinal flora of northern Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015a. ISBN 978-0-9960231-2-2. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plantas medicinales de los Andes y la Amazonía – La flora mágica y medicinal del Norte de Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015b. ISBN 978-09960231-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Vandebroek I, Jones A, Revene Z. Health for sale: the medicinal plant markets in Trujillo and Chiclayo, northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3:37. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Perez F, Díaz D, Ford T, Rasheed T, Silva R. Antibacterial activity of northern-Peruvian medicinal plants – a low cost laboratory approach to assess biological activity. Arnaldoa. 2008;15(1):127–48. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Diaz D, Cardenas R, Chait G, Castro M, Regalado S, Del Toro CR, Malca GG, Perez AF, Glenn A. Antibacterial activity of medicinal plant species in northern Peru. Arnaldoa. 2009;16(1):93–103. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Glenn A. Healing the body, healing the soul. Traditional remedies for “magical” ailments, nervous system and psychosomatic disorders in northern Peru. Afr J Pharm Pharmacol. 2010a;4(9):580–629. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Sharon D. Antibacterial activity of medicinal plants of northern Peru – can traditional applications provide leads for modern science? Indian J Tradit Med. 2010b;9 (4):742–53. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Herbal mixtures in traditional medicine in northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010c;6:10. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Sharon D, Chait G, Díaz D, Pourmand K, Jonat B, Somogy S, Guardado G, Aguirre C, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Antibacterial activity of northern Peruvian medicinal plants. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2011a;9:67–96. Bussmann RW, Malca G, Glenn A, Sharon D, Nilsen B, Parris B, Dubose D, Ruiz D, Saleda J, Martinez M, Carillo L, Walker K, Kuhlman A, Townesmith A. Toxicity of medicinal plants used in northern Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011b;137:121–40. de la Torre L, Navarrete H, Muriel P, Macía MJ, Balslev H, editors. Enciclopedia de las Plantas Útiles del Ecuador. Quito/Aarhus: Herbario QCA de la Escuela de Ciencias Biológicas de la Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador/Herbario AAU del Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas de la Universidad de Aarhus; 2008. Macbride JF, Weberbauer A. Flora of Peru. Chicago: Field Museum; 1936–1995. Rodríguez Rodríguez EF, Bussmann RW, Arroyo Alfaro SJ, López Medina SE, Briceño Rosario J. Capparis scabrida (Capparaceae) una especie del Norte del Perú y Sur del Ecuador que necesita conservación urgente. Arnaldoa. 2007;14(2):269–82.

Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik BRASSICACEAE Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

Synonyms Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik: Bursa bursa-pastoris (L.) Britton; Bursa bursa-pastoris (L.) Shafer; Bursa djurdjurae Shull; Bursa fracticruris Borbás; Birsa grandiflora Kuntze; Bursa nana Borbás; Bursa occidentalis Shull; Bursa orientalis Shull; Bursa pastoris Weber ex F.H. Wigg.; Bursa penarthae Shull; Bursa rubella (Reut.) Decne; Bursa tuscaloosae Shell; Bursa viguieri Shull; Capsella agrestis Jord.; Capsella apetala Opitz; Capsella batavorum (E.B. Almq.) E.B. Almq.; Capsella bursa-pastoris subsp. bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik.; Capsella bursa-pastoris subsp. eu-bursa Briq.; Capsella bursa-pastoris subsp. occidentalis (Shull) Maire; Capsella bursa-pastoris var. integrifolia DC.; Capsella bursapastoris var. minuta Post; Capsella campestris (E.B. Almq.) E.B. Almq.; Capsella concava (E.A. Almq.) E.B. Almq.; Capsella heegeri Solms; Capsella hyrcana

N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] C. Romero William L. Brown Center, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO, USA e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_54

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Grossh.; Capsella lycia Stapf; Capsella mediterranea (E.B. Almq.) E.B. Almq.); Capsella patagonica (E.B. Almq.) E.B. Almq.; Capsella penarthae (Shull) Wilmott; Capsella polymorpha Cav.; Capsella rideralis Jord.; Capsella stanocarpa Timb.Lagr.; Capsella thomsonii Hook. f.; Capsella treviorum E.B. Almq.; Capsella turoniensis E.B. Almq.; Capsella viguieri Blaringhem; Crucifera capsella E.H.L. Krause; Iberis bursa-pastoris (L.) Willd.; Nasturtium bursa-pastoris Roth; Solmsiella heegeri (Solms) Borbás; Thlaspi bursa-pastoris L.

Local Names Colombia: Calzoncitos; Bolivia: Bolsa bolsa, Bolsa de pastor (Spanish); Ecuador: Chichira, Yurak sisa (Kichwa), Bolsa kiwa, Bolsa yuyu, Chakra berro (SpanishKichwa), Bolsa del pastor, Bolsetilla, Bolsilla, Forastero, Hierba del elefante, Pan y queso, Puro (Spanish), Paniquesillo (corrupted Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Bolsita del pastor, Hierba del pastor, Bolsa de Pastor (Spanish); English: Shepherd’s purse.

Botany and Ecology Annual, covered with simple and branching hairs mainly below; stems (5)2030 (60) cm tall, often solitary, rarely several, simple or branching; radical leaves petioled, rosetted, oblong-lanceolate, entire to pinnatipartite, with triangular or oblong-triangular, acute, forward-directed lobes, cauline leaves few, sessile, oblong, lanceolate, the upper sublinear, sagittate at base. Raceme umbelliform at first, later elongating; pedicels 2–4 mm long (up to 2 cm in fruit); sepals oblong-ovate, 1–2.5 mmL long; petals ovate, white, 1.5–3.5 long, 1–1.3 mm broad; silicles (2.5) 5–8 mm long, 4–5(8) mm broad in upper part, obtriangular-cordate, slightly emarginate at apex, notch generally up to 1 mm in depth. Persistent portion of style 0.25 mm long, rarely longer; valves triangular-boat-shaped, thin-walled, slightly carinate; seeds oval, flattened, yellowish brown, 1–2.5 mm long, 0.5–0.75 mm broad. Weed everywhere in villages, roadsides, fences, vegetable gardens, and fields.

Local Medicinal Uses This species is very appreciated to stop hemorrhages. The whole plant is used to treat gonorrhea, to promote menstruation, for healing, and as anti-inflammatory (García Barriga 1974; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Bolivia: The plant is used for weight loss and to treat liver, kidney infection, prostate, prolapse of uterus, cysts in the uterus, lung pain, and varicose veins

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(Bussmann et al. 2016; Justo Chipana and Moraes 2015; Macía et al. 2005). Ecuador: The infusion of the plant is used as an antidote, to regulate excessive menstruation, and to treat wounds, headache, urinary tract conditions, colds, and prostate diseases (unspecified ethnic group – Carchi, Tungurahua, Chimborazo, Bolívar, Cañar, Azuay, Loja). Machacas leaves, together with those of potato lioness, are applied as a poultice, to treat headache (Kichwa de la Sierra-Tungurahua). It is macerated together with “chichira” and the body is massaged to avoid “relapses” (Kichwa de la Sierra-Cañar, Loja). It is used to treat bleeding and to regulate the action of the heart (unspecified ethnicity – Manabi) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: The whole plant, fresh or dried, is used to treat kidneys, prostate, inflammation, inflammation (internal), liver, gallbladder, and stomach infection (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010a), and also for bladder inflammation, urinary detention, menstrual cramps, and ovary inflammation (Monigatti et al. 2013). This introduced species is often sold in herb markets (Bussmann et al. 2007, 2008b; Revene et al. 2008). It has proven antibacterial properties (Bussmann et al. 2008a, 2010b, 2011a; Bussmann and Glenn 2010b), underlining its use for bacterial infections (Bussmann and Glenn 2011). Capsella is often used mixed with other herbs (Bussmann et al. 2010a). The species is slightly toxic (Bussmann et al. 2011b). The species is used in many regions, e.g., in Pakistan, Capsella is used as astringent (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Ecuador: It is used as cattle fodder (Kichwa de la Sierra-Cotopaxi) (de la Torre et al. 2008) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).

Fig. 1 Capsella bursapastoris (Brassicaceae) Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

438 Fig. 2 Capsella bursapastoris (Brassicaceae) Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Capsella bursapastoris (Brassicaceae) Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 4 Capsella bursapastoris (Brassicaceae) Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Capsella bursapastoris (Brassicaceae) Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

References Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Medicinal plants used in Northern Peru for reproductive problems and female health. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010a;6:30. Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Plants used for the treatment of gastro-intestinal ailments in northern Peruvian ethnomedicine. Arnaldoa. 2010b;17(2):255–70.

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Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Medicinal plants used in Northern Peru for the treatment of bacterial and fungal infections and inflammation symptoms. J Med Plant Res. 2011;5(8):1297–304. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing culture. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:47. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of the four winds – the magic and medicinal flora of Peru. Plantas de los cuatro vientos – La flora mágica y medicinal del Perú. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007. ISBN 978-0-9789962-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Medicinal plants of the Andes and the Amazon – the magic and medicinal flora of northern Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015a. ISBN 978-0-9960231-2-2. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plantas medicinales de los Andes y la Amazonía – La flora mágica y medicinal del Norte de Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015b. ISBN 978-09960231-3-9. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Vandebroek I, Jones A, Revene Z. Health for sale: the medicinal plant markets in Trujillo and Chiclayo, northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3:37. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Perez F, Díaz D, Ford T, Rasheed T, Silva R. Antibacterial activity of northern-Peruvian Medicinal Plants – a low cost laboratory approach to assess biological activity. Arnaldoa. 2008a;15(1):127–48. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Ly J. From garden to market? The cultivation of native and introduced medicinal plant species in Cajamarca, Peru and implications habitat conservation. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2008b;6:351–61. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Herbal mixtures in traditional medicine in northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010a;6:10. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Sharon D. Antibacterial activity of medicinal plants of northern Peru – can traditional applications provide leads for modern science? Indian J Tradit Med. 2010b; 9(4):742–53. Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Sharon D, Chait G, Díaz D, Pourmand K, Jonat B, Somogy S, Guardado G, Aguirre C, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Antibacterial activity of northern Peruvian medicinal plants. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2011a;9:67–96. Bussmann RW, Malca G, Glenn A, Sharon D, Nilsen B, Parris B, Dubose D, Ruiz D, Saleda J, Martinez M, Carillo L, Walker K, Kuhlman A, Townesmith A. Toxicity of medicinal plants used in northern Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011b;137:121–40. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Moya Huanca LA, Hart RE. Changing markets – medicinal plants in the markets of La Paz and El Alto, Bolivia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;193:76–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.07.074. de la Torre L, Navarrete H, Muriel M P, Macía MJ, Balslev H, editors. Enciclopedia de las Plantas Útiles del Ecuador. Quito/Aarhus: Herbario QCA de la Escuela de Ciencias Biológicas de la Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador/Herbario AAU del Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas de la Universidad de Aarhus; 2008. García Barriga H. Flora Medicinal de Colombia. Botánica Médica. Tomo Primero. Bogotá: Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional; 1974. 561 pp. Justo Chipana M, Moraes R M. Plantas medicinales comercializadas por las chifleras de La Paz y ElAlto (Bolivia) – medicinal plants marketed by chifleras of La Paz and El Alto cities (Bolivia). Ecol Bolivia. 2015;50(2):66–90. Macía MJ, García E, Vidaurre PJ. An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants commercialized in the markets of La Paz and El Alto, Bolivia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;97:337–50. Monigatti M, Bussmann RW, Weckerle CS. Medicinal plant use in two Andean communities located at different altitudes in the Bolivar Province, Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;145(2): 450–64.

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Pérez Arbeláez E. Plantas útiles de Colombia. 5a. Ed. Bogotá: Fondo FEN Colombia, DAMA, Jardín Botánico de Bogotá José Celestino Mutis; 1996. 831 pp. Revene Z, Bussmann RW, Sharon D. From Sierra to Coast: tracing the supply of medicinal plants in northern Peru – a plant collector’s tale. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2008;6:15–22. Ur-Rahman I, Afsal A, Iqbal Z, Ijas F, Ali N, Asif M, Alam J, Majid A, Bussmann RW. Traditional and ethnomedicinal dermatology practices in Pakistan. Clin Dermatol. 2018;36(3):310–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clindermatol.2018.03.018.

Capsicum annuum L. SOLANACEAE Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

Synonyms Capsicum annuum L.: Capsicum annuum var. conoide (Mill.) Irish; Capsicum annuum var. fsciculatum (Sturtev.) Irish; Capsicum annuum var. grossum (L.) Sendtn.; Capsicum baccatum L.; Capsicum conicum Lam.; Capsicum conoide Mill.; Capsicum curvipes Dunal.; Capsicum fasciculatum Sturtev.; Capsicum frutescens L.; Capsicum frutescens var. fasciculatum L.H. Bailey; Capsicum frutescens var. grossum L.H. Bailey; Capsicum frutescens var. longum L.H. Bailey; Capsicum grossum L.; Capsicum hispidum var. glabriusculum Dunal; Capsicum indicum var. aviculare Dierb.; Capsicum longum A. DC.; Capsicum petenense Standl.

N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] C. Romero William L. Brown Center, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO, USA e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_56

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Local Names Spanish: Ají, Ají pimienta, Ají-pique, Chiplín, Kutupí, Pimentón, Pimiento; Ají caribe, Ají huevo de araguana, Ají pique, Piman; English: Chilli pepper.

Botany and Ecology Cultivated as annual plant. Stem 30–90(130) cm tall, erect or flexuous, glabrous or pubescent, cylindrical, at least in lower part, branched usually from very base, rarely simple, branches mostly 4-angled, glabrous, or pubescent. Leaves opposite or lower ones alternate, ovate to lanceolate, tapering above, with cuneate base, 2–13.5 cm long, dark green above, lighter underneath, glabrous or variously pubescent, denser underneath, especially along veins; petiole long, often equaling lamina, glabrous or diffusely pubescent. Flowers solitary, very rarely in pairs. Peduncle erect or somewhat drooping, thick or slender. Calyx campanulate to cyathiform with 5(7) mostly short teeth, surrounding fruit base or not. Corolla 5–11 mm long, white, dull white, or with violet spots, or violet, with 5(7) ovate, acuminate lobes. Anthers grayish violet. Fruit stalk erect or somewhat deflexed, thickened above. Fruit 5–12(15) cm long and up to 8 cm in diameter, extremely variable in size, shape, and color: globose, ovoid, cylindrical, conical, narrowly conical, trunk-shaped, green or yellow in unripe condition, mature fruit bright red, orange, yellow, yellowish brown, dark violet, or dark olive; the fruits of different varieties vary in taste from pungent hot to sweet, completely free of pungency. Seeds 2.5–5 mm long, light yellow, compressed, mostly reniform, finely reticulate with distinctly thickened rim around micropyle. Widely cultivated. The genus Capsicum originated in Central and South America. Approximately 25 wild species occur in this area. The cultivated forms were domesticated in prehistoric times; the main difference with the wild types is that the fruits are not easily dehiscent and hence less damaged by birds. Mexico was probably the center of origin of the chilli and sweet pepper (Capsicum annuum in the narrow sense), while aromatic hot pepper (Capsicum chinense) originates in the Amazonian region and bird pepper (Capsicum frutescens) in the coastal regions of the southern part of tropical South America. In cultivation, the 3 species have been crossed intensively and many intermediate forms occur. They are therefore treated here as one broad group of cultivars, although characteristic examples of the 3 original species can still be recognized. Shortly after Columbus’ discovery of America, the Spanish and Portuguese brought capsicum pepper (hot and sweet) to Europe, from where especially the hot pepper was widely dispersed to all tropical and subtropical areas of the world. By the end of the seventeenth century, it was grown as a popular vegetable and spice everywhere in the tropics and many very distinct types and landraces had been developed (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8).

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Fig. 1 Capsicum annuum (Solanaceae), garden, Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Capsicum annuum (Solanaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses Chili preparations are often used in Colombia to relieve pain in osteomuscular conditions. The fruits are used externally in the form of ointment or plaster for the treatment of lumbago and neuralgia and osteomuscular pains. The poultices made with the fruit and placed on the neck for a short time avoid brain congestion. Aji

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Fig. 3 Capsicum annuum (Solanaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Capsicum annuum (Solanaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

tincture is used in small doses to promote appetite and as a facilitator of digestion. Aji preparations are used to cure deep inflammations, as well as for the treatment of lumbago and neuralgia. For these purposes, the fruits are used, as well as they are exciting and calm the pains of teeth. The fresh fruticose and taken as if they were pills, are used in diseases of the liver. The juice of the fruit is consumed against hemorrhoids. Applying the fruit externally is good treatment for gout, joint rheumatism, and bronchitis. The consumption of Aji fruits stimulates salivation and gastric juices, also activates the peristaltic movements of the intestines and combats

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Fig. 5 Capsicum annuum (Solanaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 6 Capsicum annuum (Solanaceae), diversity of Capsicum, garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

stomach upset. The fruits are also used to treat pneumonia and to promote appetite and sleep (Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011; García Barriga 1975; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). In Peru, the antibacterial properties of various species have been documented (Bussmann et al. 2009, 2011; Bussmann and Sharon 2014). Originally falsely believed to be the “Ulluchu” plant used in Moche culture (Bussmann and Sharon 2009). The use of Chillies against

448 Fig. 7 Capsicum annuum (Solanaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 8 Capsicum annuum (Solanaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 9 Capsicum annuum (Solanaceae), market, Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 10 Capsicum annuum (Solanaceae), drying Capsicum, market, Telavi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

rheumatism is common worldwide, e.g., in Madagascar, where C. annum is also used to relieve stomachache (Razafindraibe et al. 2013; Rakotoarivelo et al. 2015).

Local Food Uses Widely used as spice (Bussman et al. 2014, 2016) (Figs. 9, 10, 11, and 12).

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Fig. 11 Capsicum annuum (Solanaceae), dried Capsicum, market in Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 12 Capsicum annuum (Solanaceae), Ajika (Capisicum spice preparation) market in Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Handicraft and Other Uses In Peru, various Capsicum species are used against bad air/mal aire and sorcery (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007; Bussmann et al. 2010, 2015a, b). The species have also erroneously been linked to ritual sacrifice (Bussmann et al. 2009).

References Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in Northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing culture. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:47. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of the four winds – the magic and medicinal flora of Peru. Plantas de los cuatro vientos – La flora mágica y medicinal del Perú. Arogya, Honolulu. 2007. (ISBN 978–0–9789962-3-9). Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Naming a phantom – the quest to find the identity of Ulluchu, an unidentified ceremonial plant of the Moche culture in Northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2009;5:8.

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Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Sharon D, Chait G, Díaz D, Pourmand K, Jonat B, Somogy S, Guardado G, Aguirre C, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Antibacterial activity of Northern Peruvian medicinal plants. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2011;9:67–96. Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Two decades of ethnobotanical research in Southern Ecuador and Northern Peru. Ethnobiol Conserv. 2014;3:3, https://doi.org/10.1545/ec2014-6-3.2-1-50 Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Medicinal plants of the Andes and the Amazon – the magic and medicinal flora of Northern Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015a. (ISBN 978-0-9960231-2-2) Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plantas medicinales de los Andes y la Amazonía – La flora mágica y medicinal del Norte de Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015b. (ISBN 978-09960231-3-9) Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Diaz D, Cardenas R, Chait G, Castro M, Regalado S, Del Toro CR, Malca GG, Perez AF, Glenn A. Antibacterial activity of medicinal plant species in Northern Peru. Arnaldoa. 2009;16(1):93–103. Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Glenn A. Healing the body, healing the soul. Traditional remedies for “magical” ailments, nervous system and psychosomatic disorders in Northern Peru. Afr J Pharm Pharmacol. 2010;4(9):580–629. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, Beer, Snuff, Medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ehnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Fonnegra-Gómez R, Villa-Londoño J. Plantas medicinales usadas en algunas veredas de municipios del altiplano del oriente antioqueño, Colombia. Actual Biol. 2011;33(95):219–50. García Barriga H. Flora Medicinal de Colombia. Botánica Médica. Tomo Tercero. Bogotá: Instituto de Ciencias Naturales/Universidad Nacional; 1975. 497 pp Ministerio de Protección Social. Vademécum Colombiano de Plantas Medicinales. Bogotá: Imprenta Nacional de Colombia; 2008. 311 pp Pérez Arbeláez E. Plantas útiles de Colombia. 5a. Ed. Fondo FEN Colombia, DAMA, Jardín Botánico de Bogotá José Celestino Mutis. Bogotá. Jardin Botanico. 1996. 831 pp. Rakotoarivelo NH, Kuhlman A, Rakotoarivony F, Ramarosandratana AV, Jeannoda V, Randrianasolo A, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants used to treat the most frequent diseases in the Ambalabe rural commune. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2015;11:68. Razafindraibe HM, Razafiarison ZL, Raharimalala F, Rakotoarivony F, Randrianarivony T, Rakotoarivelo N, Randrianasolo A, Kuhlman A, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants used by women from Agnalazaha littoral forest (Southeastern Madagascar). J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:73.

Carica papaya L. Vasconcellea pubescens A. DC. CARICACEAE Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero

Synonyms Carica papaya L.: Carica bourgeaei Solms; Carica citriformis Jacq.; Carica cubensis Solms; Carica hermaphrodita Blanco; Carica jamaicensis Urb.; Carica jimenezii (Bertoni) Bertoni; Carica mamaya Vell.; Carica papaya fo. mamaya Stellfeld; Carica papaya fo. portoricensis Solms; Carica papaya var. bady Aké Assi; Carica papaya var. jumenezii Bertoni; Carica peltata Hook & Arn.; Carica pinnatifida Heilborn; Carica portoricensis (Solms) Urb.; Carica posoposa L.; Carica rochefortii Solms; Carica sativa Tussac; Papaya bourgeaei (Solms) Kuntze; Papaya carica Gaertn.; Papaya cimmarrona Sint. ex Kuntze; Papaya citriformis (Jacq.) A. DC.; Papaya communis Noronha; Papaya cubensis (Solms) Kunzte; Papaya cucumerina Noronha; Papaya edulis Bojer; Papaya edulis var. macrocarpa Bojer; Papaya edulis var. pyriformis Bojer; Papaya hermaphrodita Blanco; Papaya papaya (L.) H. Karst; Papaya peltata (Hook. & Arn.) Kuntze; Papaya rochefortii

N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] C. Romero William L. Brown Center, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO, USA e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_57

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(Solms) Kuntze; Papaya sativa Tuss.; Papaya vulgaris DC.; Vasconcellea peltata (Hook. & Arn.) A. DC. Vasconcellea pubescens A. DC.: Carica candamarcensis Hook. f.; Carica cestrifolia (A. DC.) Solms; Carica chiriquensis Woodson; Carica pubescens (A. DC.) Solms; Carica pubescens Lenné & K. Koch.; Papaya candamarcensis (Hook. f.) Kuntze; Vasconcellea cestrifolia A. DC.; Vasconcellea cundinamarcensis V.M. Badillo

Local Names Carica papaya: Colombia: Papayo, Lechosa, Papaya, Chamburo, Fruta bomba, Mamona, Melón, Papaya Calentana, Zapote; Ecuador: Papaya fintsumi puka (Chafi’ki), Pa’payo (Tsafi’ki), Kari papaya (Spanish-Kichwa), Huati jico, Nea huati jico, Po huati jico, Tsoa huati jico (Pai coca), Awaka (Wao tededo), Wapaí (Shuar chicham), Papaya, Papaya blanca, Papaya de mico, Papaya de monte, Papayo (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Papaya (Spanish); English: Papaya Vasconcellea pubescens: Colombia: Papayo, Papayuela, Papayuela Maligna, Tapaculo, Chilacuán, Chilhuacán, Cammon, Papayuelo, Tapaya de altura, Chilicuan, Papaya de tierra fría, Papaya silvestre, Papayote, Titi-ish, Papayito de los andes, Higuillo (Spanish); Ecuador: Chanpuru (Kichwa), Chamburo (Spanish), Toronche redondo (Spanish-unspecified language), Chiblacán, Chihualcán, Jigacho, Rolo jimba, Siglalón, Sigloalón, Siglolón, Toronche (unspecified language) (de la Torre et al. 2008).

Botany and Ecology Carica papaya: Erect, fast-growing, usually unbranched tree or shrub, 7–8 m tall, with copious latex, trunk about 20 cm in diameter, soft, leaves clustered near top of plant, alternate, long-petiolate, blade suborbicular, to 80 cm long, palmately 7–11lobed; lobes glabrous, toothed, flat; plants dioecious in nature, some monoectous cultivars; flowers aromatic, male in drooping axillary panicles to 80 cm long, with a 5-toothed green calyx and 5-toothed cream to yellow corolla; stamens 10; female flowers solitary or cymose in axils or below leaves, with 5 yellow nearly free petals to 5 cm long; ovary with 5 stigmas; fruit a large yellow to greenish-orange berry, oblong to nearly globose or pyriform, about 7.5 cm long and bitter in wild types, up to 45 cm long, with flesh 2.5–5 cm thick, sweet, juicy and of orange color in cultivars; seeds numerous in central cavity, rounded, blackish, about 0.6 cm in diameter, each enclosed in a gelatinous membrane (aril) (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1 and 2). Vasconcellea pubescens: Small tree, up to 4 m, branches, petioles, leaves beneath and inflorescences lightly pubescent, the pubescence persisting, especially on the leaf nerves beneath; petioles greatly elongate, the large leaves broadly cordate, deeply 5–7-parted, the middle lobe 3–5-lobed, the oblong lower and lateral lobes oblong, mostly 1-lobed; the lobes not rarely have 1 or 2 broad teeth and the middle lobe usually 3-lobed with elongate pointed lobules, the lateral lobes descending and

Carica papaya L. . . . Fig. 1 Carica papaya (Caricaceae), Pusac, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Carica papaya (Caricaceae), Pusac, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 3 Vasconcellea weberbaueri (Caricaceae), Pusac, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

mostly with a lobule on the outer lower side; male peduncles 2.5–6 cm. long; calyx deeply 5-parted, the lobes less than 2 mm. long; corolla glabrous within, the tube about 8 mm. long, the linear-lanceolate lobes as long; connective of all anthers shortly produced, the filaments of the upper glabrous; female inflorescence very short, few-flowered, the corolla segments 2.5 to nearly 3 cm long, the young fruit with five 2-branched styles. Flowers greenish, mostly among the leaves but also below on the old wood; sometimes only male sometimes only female on the same shrub (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8).

Local Medicinal Uses Carica papaya: Bolivia: The plant is used as antiparasitic, for stomach inflammation, as purgative, and for gallbladder ailments (Quiroga et al. 2012). Papaya is used in Colombia for the treatment of intestinal constipation, poor digestion, inflammation of the small intestine, dysentery, psoriasis, and warts. Anthelmintic activity against intestinal worms has been reported from this plant. The latex exuded from the plant is used for the treatment of skin conditions by brushing the affected part with latex; these conditions include: psoriasis, ringworm, eczema, freckles, skin spots, and warts. The latex of the fruit and the stem of the papaya is milky in appearance and is often used by farmers at the Colombian Atlantic Coast, to treat calluses and corns by brushing the affected part several times with the latex. The root

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Fig. 4 Vasconcellea weberbaueri (Caricaceae), Pusac, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Vasconcellea sp. (Caricaceae), Pusac, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

ground to paste is frequently used to eliminate varicose veins and warts by applying it on the affected area. The leaves in infusion are used in the treatment of diseases associated with the gastrointestinal tract, against intestinal parasites, and as diuretics. The fruits are considered as facilitators of digestion, diuretics, and laxatives. The papaya is very effective to help in the digestion of food in people with stomach or intestinal diseases (García Barriga 1975; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008; Patiño 1963, 1964; Pérez Arbeláez 1996.)

458 Fig. 6 Vasconcellea sp. (Caricaceae), Pusac, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 7 Vasconcellea sp. (Caricaceae), Pusac, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 8 Vasconcellea sp. (Caricaceae), Pusac, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Ecuador: The immature fruit is applied on the skin to remove skin spots and warts (Mestiza-Pichincha). The fruit is used to treat indeterminate conditions (Kichwa of the East-Napo). The fruit is used to treat pneumonia (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura). Root juice, mixed with other medicines, is used to treat diarrhea (Shuar-Napo, Pastaza). The fruit with the seeds is eaten while fasting for its digestive properties (Mestiza-Pichincha). The heated leaves are placed on blows or external inflammations to soothe the pain (unspecified ethnic group – Azuay, Cañar). The leaves are used for wound healing. The infusion is drunk as a tonic for the heart (unspecified ethnicity – Other (Coast Region)). The seeds are used to relieve stomachache (Kichwa of the East-Orellana, Pastaza). Seeds and latex are used as a vermifuge to eliminate intestinal parasites (ascaris and pinworms) (Mestiza-Pichincha; unspecified ethnic group – Guayas, Others (Costa Region), Azuay, Cañar; SionaSucumbíos; Shuar-Orellana). The seeds, mixed with seeds of 6–7 fruits of different trees and ground with water, are used as anthelmintic (Kichwa of the East-Napo). It is used to treat dyspepsia, gastroenteritis, warts, and stomach ulcers (unspecified ethnicity – Others (Costa Region)) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The leaves with lemon are used to purify the blood (Mestiza-Pichincha) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: Fresh seeds and fruit peels are used to treat parasites of the stomach, as laxative, and as antivenom to revert poison effect (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2014, 2015a, b). It is also used as anthelmintic and for menstrual cramps (Monigatti et al. 2013). Vasconcellea pubescens: Colombia: The latex that Papaya exudes is used, in contact with the skin, to remove warts and petty. It is also applied in brush strokes on the throat to treat angina and tonsillitis. The fruit is used to calm the cough (Fonnegra Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1975; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Latex is used to treat acne, warts, and tonsillitis; fruits are used to treat cough (Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador: Latex is used, in combination with other herbs, for the treatment of some type of cancer (Mestiza-Manabí) (de la Torre et al. 2008).

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Local Food Uses Carica papaya: The fruits are widely eaten. Ecuador: The fruit is edible, and it serves to prepare juices, chicha, preserves, and sweets (Chachi-Esmeraldas; MestizaGuayas, Pichincha, Others (Ecuador); Tsa’chi-Pichincha; Cofán, Siona-Sucumbíos; Secoya-Sucumbíos; Kichwa del Oriente -Sucumbíos, Napo, Orellana, Pastaza; Wao-Napo; Shuar-Napo, Pastaza, Morona Santiago; unspecified ethnic group – Guayas, El Oro, Others (Costa Region), Carchi, Bolívar, Azuay, Cañar, Others (Andean Region), Zamora Chinchipe, Others (tropical and subtropical region of Ecuador)) (de la Torre et al. 2008). In Peru, papaya is used medicinally to treat stomach parasites, as laxative, and as antivenom to reverse effects of poison (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2014, 2015a, b). In India, papaya is used for abortion, for heart palpitations, bone fractures, constipation, cooling, digestive, gastric, ringworm, skin diseases, tooth and gum ache, and urinary system and bladder complaints (Verma et al. 2007). In Madagascar, the species serves to treat bilharzia, gonorrhea, stomach pain, dental problems, breast tumors, urine retention (Rabearivony et al. 2015), to improve breastfeeding, headaches, wounds, menstrual pain, ulcers, constipation, indigestion, boils, cysticercosis, toxoplasmosis, cough, and yellow fever (Razafindraibe et al. 2013). In Kenya, the species is used to treat sexually transmitted diseases (Njoroge and Bussmann 2009). Vasconcellea pubescens: Ecuador: The fruit is edible, and it is used to prepare sweets (Kichwa de la Sierra-Pichincha; Mestiza-Imbabura, Tungurahua, Azuay, Loja; unspecified ethnic group – Pichincha, Loja, Others (Costa and Sierra Region); Mestiza- Morona Santiago) (de la Torre et al. 2008).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Carica papaya: Ecuador: The plant has beekeeping use (unspecified ethnic group – Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The leaves are used to wrap meat for a few days. It is known for its bactericidal power (unspecified ethnicity – other (Coast Region)). It is used to separate silver from photographic films and to remove silk and wool (unspecified ethnicity – Other (Coast Region)). It serves, in cosmetology, to remove spots and freckles (ethnic group – Other (Costa Region)). Food additive: the fruit is used as a meat tenderizer (unspecified ethnicity – Other (Coast Region)); the latex is used as a meat tenderizer (unspecified ethnicity – Azuay, Cañar) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Species of papaya, especially Carica candicans, have been erroneously suggested as part of Moche sacrifices in Peru (Bussmann and Sharon 2009, 2014). In Africa, papaya is used as anthelmintic for cattle (Njoroge and Bussmann 2006).

References Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing culture. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:47.

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Carpobrotus chilensis (Molina) N.E. Br. AIZOACEAE Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Javier Echeverría

Synonyms Carpobrotus chilensis (Molina) N.E. Br.: Mesembryanthemum chilense Molina, Carpobrotus aequilaterus auct. non (Haw.) N.E. Br.

Local Names Chile: Doca, Dedos de ángel

N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] J. Echeverría Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Chemistry and Biology, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, USACH, Santiago de Chile, Chile e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_55

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Botany and Ecology Succulent, evergreen, perennial plant with prostrate stem,