Cristologia e missione oggi. Atti del Congresso internazionale di missiologia (Roma, 17-20 ottobre 2000) 8840110496, 9788840110493

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CRISTOLOGIA E MISSIONE OGGI Documento acquistato da () il 2023/04/16.

Atti del Congresso Internazionale di Missiologia a cura di G. Colzani, P. Giglioni, S. Karotemprel

Pontificia Università Urbaniana International Association of Catholic Missiologist Roma 17-20 ottobre 2000

URBANIANA UNIVERSITY PRESS

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Con il contributo dell’ARCHIDIOCESI DI RAVENNA-CERVIA e del COMUNE DI RAVENNA.

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In memoriam: Mons. FRANCESCO INGOLI (Ravenna 1578 - Roma 1649)

© 2001 Urbaniana University Press via Urbano VIII, 16 - 00165 Roma tel. + 39 06 69889651 – 9688 fax + 39 06 69882182 e-mail: [email protected] www.urbaniana.press isbn 88-401-1049-6 (978-88-401-1049-3) prima edizione digitale 2021 isbn online 978-88-401-6050-4

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«Voi chi dite che io sia?». Matteo 16, 15

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SOMMARIO

Presentazione Ambrogio Spreafico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p.

11

Introduction: Christology and Mission Today Sebastian Karotemprel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . »

15

I RELAZIONI The Unicity and Universality of Jesus Christ Walter Kasper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . »

35

La prétention du christianisme à l’universel: Implications missiologiques Claude Geffré . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . »

47

Le inculturazioni della cristologia e la tradizione cristologica della Chiesa Marcello Bordoni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . »

67

Unicità del Cristo nel Nuovo Testamento Giancarlo Biguzzi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . »

83

«You are the Messiah» (Mt 16,16) Gerald H. Anderson. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . »

91

The Uniqueness of Jesus Christ in Indian Theological Reflection George Karakunnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . »

101

The Challenging Newness of Jesus Christ in the Context of Religious Pluralism Jacob Parappally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . »

117

Proclaiming Jesus’ Uniqueness in the Context of Cultural Nationalism in India Anto Karokaran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . »

127

For now we see in a mirror dimly. The emerging faces of Jesus Christ in Africa John S. Mbiti. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . »

143

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Sommario

Cristologie africane a partire dall’esperienza della riconciliazione Juvénal Ilunga Muya. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . »

165

La «Salvación en Jesucristo» en la reflexión teológica Latinoamericana Carlos Palacio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . »

195

La «Salvezza in Gesù Cristo» nella riflessione teologica latino americana: Il rapporto tra «salvezza cristiana» e «storia umana» Sinivaldo Tavares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . »

221

Respuesta a Carlos Palacio Luis G. Ramos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . »

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II COMUNICAZIONI Sharing of the Gospel of Christ. Moral Theological Reflection Soosai Arokiasamy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . »

239

«Who do you say that I am?» (Mt 16:15). Missionary and Missiological Response in the Context of Religions and Cultures Joseph Puthenpurakal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . »

248

Communicating the mystery of Christ in a Muslim Milieu Karel Steenbrink. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . »

254

«Who do you say that I am?». «The Christ of God»: The Lucan Response Read in Today’s Global Context Teresa Okure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . »

267

Portraying the face of the Nazarene in contemporary indonesia: literature as frontier-expanding mission John Mansford Prior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . »

280

Singolarità rivelativa di Gesù Cristo e pluralismo religioso. Per uno status quaestionis Carmelo Dotolo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . »

298

Difficultès de la profession de foi en la singularité du Christ en Afrique Occidentale Gaston Ogui Cossi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . »

321

Il motivo cristocentrico di «Ecclesia in America» nella riflessione teologica e pastorale in America latina. Invito a una teologia morale cristologicamente fondata Guido M. Miglietta. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . »

333

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Sommario

9

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III TAVOLA ROTONDA Introduzione alla Tavola Rotonda Gianni Colzani . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . »

341

Asian Christologies and their implications for Mission in Asia Sebastian Karotemprel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . »

345

La Christologie Africaine n’est-elle qu’une archeologie culturelle? Bénézet Bujo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . »

360

Gesù Cristo Salvatore: cristologia e sue implicanze missiologiche Romano Penna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . »

364

Inculturation: a question of Christology: John Gorski. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . »

373

Postfazione: Cristologie e missione. Un rapporto da approfondire Gianni Colzani . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . »

377

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AMBROGIO SPREAFICO*

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PRESENTAZIONE

Vorrei dare il benvenuto a questa assemblea con le stesse parole con cui Agostino, all’inizio del libro IX del suo De Trinitate, riassume lo spirito di ogni ricerca sul mistero di Dio. Scriveva il grande africano: «Pazienta tu che mi ascolti, chiunque tu sia, perché stiamo ancora cercando e nessuno ha il diritto di biasimare chi si dedica alla ricerca di tali cose». Per Agostino la ricerca è già una grandezza di fede; in forza del suo protendersi verso Dio, la tensione della ricerca dilata l’anima fino a renderla capace di accoglierne i doni di grazia. Per questo poteva iniziare il suo libro con questo invito: «È più sicuro il sentimento che ci spinge a cercare la verità di quello che ci fa presumere di conoscere ciò che non conosciamo. Entriamo dunque in questa ricerca con l’animo di chi è sul punto di concluderla e, allo stesso modo, tiriamo le nostre conclusioni con l’animo di chi sa che molto deve ancora cercare. Quando, infatti, uno pensa di aver concluso, allora è solo il momento di cominciare»1. La straordinaria attualità di queste parole dice bene lo spirito con cui l’Università Urbaniana accoglie questo Congresso internazionale: lo accoglie come un congresso di ricerca sulla teologia della missione. È un Congresso che prepariamo da due anni ed esso si colloca proprio a ridosso della dichiarazione Dominus Iesus, che offre il quadro di riferimento della nostra ricerca. Di quest’ultima, ognuno di noi conosce la fatica del rigore metodologico e la durezza del travaglio interiore che, spesso, investe il teologo. Abbiamo imparato a considerare questo impegno non solo un lavoro ma una vocazione che, attraverso una singolare forma di servizio alla verità, aiuta la Chiesa a rispondere al disegno di Dio ed a tenere conto dei nuovi problemi2; mi sia per questo lecito riconoscere in questo congresso un evento ecclesiale non irrilevante. Tale evento ha al centro della nostra riflessione il posto ed il valore della figura di Gesù nel dialogo inter-religioso e, più in genere, della teologia della missione; ha cioè al centro la piena, definitiva e reciproca coincidenza della rivelazione di Dio e della storia di Gesù, affermata da sempre dal magistero e riaffermata recentemente dalla Dichiarazione Dominus Iesus. Il carattere universale della rivelazione di Dio e quello particolare della storia di *

Rettore Magnifico della Pontificia Università Urbaniana.

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12

Ambrogio Spreafico

Gesù creano tuttavia uno spazio di tensione che genera una serie di interrogativi: può un avvenimento storico assumere i caratteri propri – universali ed escatologici – della Assolutezza divina? In altre parole, quale rapporto pone la fede tra il Verbo eterno e l’uomo Gesù? E, più ancora, la trascendenza di Dio non va purificata da ogni elemento mondano e storico come indegno di Dio? La singolarità di Gesù, Dio e uomo, non rappresenta la crisi di ogni autentico dialogo tra la fede cristiana e le altre religioni? Sono queste le domande che si riflettono oggi sulla figura di Gesù. Al rigore ed alla libertà delle nostre riflessioni è chiesto di considerare questo dato culturale non solo come uno spazio di crisi ma anche come una opportunità che permette di illuminare in modo nuovo l’intelligibilità di Gesù. Senza pretendere di anticipare le riflessioni di questi giorni, vorrei solo ricordare che la trascendenza cristiana, così diversa da quella greca e gnostica, è una espressione della personalità libera ed obbediente del Figlio; facendosi carne nella storia indica nella filialità il senso ultimo della storia umana e della stessa creazione. Il farsi carne di Gesù intreccia questa rivelazione della vita filiale con la storia del mondo e dell’umanità, la intreccia cioè con la creaturalità e la morte, con la libertà ed il male, con la religiosità e le sue forme, di modo che “nel mistero del Verbo incarnato trova vera luce il mistero dell’uomo”3. L’opera di Gesù è quindi rivolta verso tutta l’umanità ed è comprensiva di tutte le religioni. Chiarendo questa funzione mediatrice del Verbo incarnato, Ireneo dirà che essa agisce «salvaguardando l’invisibilità del Padre, affinché l’uomo non divenisse disprezzatore di Dio e avesse sempre un punto verso il quale progredire, ma nello stesso tempo mostrando Dio visibile agli uomini per mezzo delle molte economie, affinché l’uomo privo totalmente di Dio non cessasse di esistere»4. Vi è quindi una qualche relazione tra la figura, l’opera di Gesù e le altre religioni; sarà sempre Ireneo a ricondurre tutto questo ad una economia in cui «lo Spirito prepara in precedenza l’uomo per il Figlio di Dio, il Figlio lo conduce al Padre e il Padre gli dà l’incorruttibilità per la vita eterna»5. Abbiamo qui il nodo teoretico del nostro congresso: unicità e pluralità delle forme rivelative sono adeguatamente riportate al rispetto della singolarità di Cristo solo dalla teologia patristica della praeparatio evangelica o dalle cristologie inclusive? Quale spazio vi è, se vi è, per una cristologia relazionale? Da biblista quale sono, vorrei indicare un prezioso contributo nel dibattito sapienziale che mira ad accogliere l’apporto dell’ellenismo in un quadro di fede. Il Sal 147,5 riassumerà lo sforzo di saldare la fede storica di Israele con la coscienza religiosa del cosmo, affermando molto semplicemente che «la Sapienza non ha confini»6. Va detto che qui, come in altri episodi simili, non si tratta di compromesso ma di una riorganizzazione dell’universo spirituale della fede, una riorganizzazione che diventa la base di una diversa coerenza mentale, di una nuova coesione sociale e di una rinnovata coscienza civile. Riprendendo il tema della Sapienza creatrice, Ef 3,10 salderà «la multiforme Sapienza di Dio» con la grazia di «annunziare ai Gentili le

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Presentazione

13

imperscrutabili ricchezze di Cristo e di far risplendere agli occhi di tutti qual è l’adempimento del mistero nascosto da secoli nella mente di Dio», mentre Col 1,18-20 la ricomporrà con l’opera pasquale di riconciliazione di tutte le cose in Cristo. In questo modo, come insegnerà Eb 9,28, l’«una volta per tutte»7 del Signore Gesù è posto in relazione sia con la dinamica cosmica e storica della creazione sia con la volontà escatologica di quel Dio che opera per un mondo «senza alcuna relazione col peccato»8. Si può ritenere che la reale conoscenza che, già ora, abbiamo del Dio di Gesù diventerà pienamente luminosa solo con la fine del tempo. Tuttavia anche senza aver del tutto esplicitato il segreto della persona di Cristo, noi sappiamo quanto basta; sappiamo cioè che il senso ultimo della vita dell’uomo e del suo mondo passa attraverso la risposta – il meno imperfetta possibile – che daremo alla domanda di Gesù: e voi chi dite che io sia? In questi giorni indagheremo il mistero di questa risposta per cogliere di nuovo la sfida che si apre nel terzo millennio: come comunicare con audacia il Vangelo di Gesù Cristo in un mondo pluralista e globalizzato? Ma, prima di iniziare il nostro cammino, permettetemi di ringraziare tutti voi per la vostra presenza all’Università Urbaniana. Siete numerosi e venite da molti paesi rappresentando davvero le differenti culture del mondo. Questo mostra l’interesse suscitato dal Congresso. Saluto i Cardinali e i Vescovi, i rappresentanti del corpo diplomatico, i rettori e i professori degli Istituti Aggregati e Affiliati, a noi tanto cari. Un benvenuto agli illustri relatori, che ci guideranno nella ricerca di questi giorni. Saluto i membri dell’International Association of Catholic Missiologists, recentemente costituita proprio in questa Università, che hanno organizzato il congresso con l’Università, oltre ai docenti delle istituzioni accademiche romane. Ringrazio il comitato scientifico e la segreteria del congresso, in particolare il Prof. Paolo Giglioni per l’impegno profuso nella preparazione. Saluto tutti voi qui presenti, docenti e studenti, membri degli Istituti missionari. Una interessante mostra di antichi testi custoditi nella Biblioteca dell’Università accompagnerà i nostri lavori. Grazie a P. Marek Rostowski per averla ideata e preparata. Auguro perciò a tutti un proficuo lavoro.

Note 1 2

SANT’AGOSTINO, De Trinitate IX, 1, 1. S. CONGREGAZIONE PER LA DOTTRINA clesiale del teologo, (1990)1. 3 Gaudium et Spes 22. 4 IRENEO, Adversus Haereses IV, 20, 7. 5 Ivi, IV, 20, 5. 6 Sal 147,5. 7 Eb 9,26-28. 8 Ibidem.

DELLA

FEDE, Istruzione sulla vocazione ec-

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SEBASTIAN KAROTEMPREL*

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INTRODUCTION: CHRISTOLOGY AND MISSION TODAY

Some years back, Jean Guitton wrote a book in which he dealt with the theme of Jesus as the eternal dilemma1. The enigmatic figure of Jesus Christ defies all categorizations and classifications. His whole life, teachings, death-resurrection and continuation of his ministry by his disciples under the urge, guidance and power of the Holy Spirit are an enigma. The very inception of his life was an enigma to Joseph: Whose child is this? Those evangelists that pose the question answer it in unmistakeable terms: He is the son of Mary and Son of God. Others were sceptical: Is he not the son of the carpenter Joseph and Mary? Are not his brothers and sisters with us? Where does he get all his wisdom and power? Is he not out of his mind? Is he not an impostor? Is he not a troublemaker? Jesus himself poses the question to his disciples: What do people say I am?. Peter’s answer was clear and uncompromising: You are the Son of the living God, the Messiah and the Saviour of the world. The question Who Jesus is not an idle question? It is not merely a speculative question posed by a philosopher. One’s whole relationship to him and through him to God, to one’s own life and one’s mission in life are bound up with the answer. It will determine one’s understanding of other religions, the salvation of other believers and one’s relationship with them and with the world. The question is personal, communitarian and missionary in every sense of the word. For the last quarter of a century or so, the question about the person of Jesus is being asked in new religious and cultural contexts and in new historical situations. The question returns with ever-fresh novelty in its metaphysical, ecclesial and missionary dimensions. Christology and Christian Mission Today is an attempt to give an answer to this everrecurring question to us as Christian believers, to believers of other religions and to even non-believers. It brings together the papers presented at the recent International Missiological Congress on the theme, “Who do you say that I am?”. Missiological and Missionary Responses in the Context of Religions and Cultures, held at the Pontifical Urban University, Rome, from 17 to 20 October 2000.

*

Pontificia Università Urbaniana.

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Sebastian Karotemprel

The occasion of the Congress was twofold. First, the last twenty-five years have witnessed an intense debate on who Jesus Christ is and his relationship to Christian mission in the context of various cultures, religions and situations of injustice in the world. Hence it was thought useful to give a tentative answer to the question posed anew. Secondly, the year 2000 was the Great Jubilee Year of Redemption in Jesus Christ. The Jubilee marked the end of two millenniums of Christian mission during which Christian mission was inspired by variety of motivations, scope, methods and relationship with other religions and the world. During the last twenty centuries, while there was an essential continuity of mission in all its essential dimensions, there has been an evolution and growth in the understanding and praxis of mission and hence it has taken different shapes and historical forms during various times and among different peoples. The great Jubilee Year 2000 offered an appropriate occasion to reflect upon the central issue of Christologies and mission today. The scope of the Congress was limited to a theological evaluation of the emerging Christologies in the various continents and their implications for mission in the future. Even though there are no uniform Christologies in each continent, certain characteristics may be noticed that allow us to call them continental Christologies. They are contextualised Christologies. Their point of departure in Christological reflection is not only the traditional Christology, namely, of the Councils, Vatican II and the contemporary Magisterium of the Church but also the actual socio-cultural and especially the religious context of the continents concerned. THE GENERAL THEME OF THE CONGRESS The Congress was inaugurated by Cardinal Josef Tomko, the Grand Chancellor of the Pontifical Urban University and Prefect of the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples with a very thought provoking introductory paper on the centrality of Jesus Christ in proclamation and the importance of a Christology that is supportive of evangelization. The first three major papers presented at the Congress were intended to serve as a background towards a better understanding of the continental and regional Christologies. The keynote address of the Congress was presented by Bishop Walter Kasper (now Cardinal) on the uniqueness and universality of Jesus Christ. He sought to establish the broad theological basis for the doctrine of the uniqueness and universality of Jesus Christ within the larger framework of the Trinity and the work of creation and redemption. The uniqueness and universality of Jesus Christ must be placed and seen in the context of God’s creative and saving activity that extends to all peoples. This demands that we adopt a three-fold approach to other religions in presenting the uniqueness and universality of Jesus

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Introduction: Christology and Mission Today

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Christ. The first is a positive approach, via positiva, that affirms and accepts all that is good and true in religions. The second is via negativa or prophetica, namely, a critical and prophetical approach towards all that is contrary to the honour of God and the dignity of the human person. The third way may be called via eminentiae, the eminent way of the proclamation of Jesus Christ as an invitation to share in the saving riches of the Trinitarian God who invites all to share in his life revealed in Jesus Christ through the power of the Holy Spirit. Hence the doctrine of the uniqueness and universality of Jesus Christ in salvation should be an occasion of greater dialogue, humble service and enrichment and should not be an imperialistic scheme, a threat to other religions or a divisive factor in society. Prof. Claude Geffré of the Catholic Institute of Paris presented the second paper. He dealt with the theme The Christian Claim to Universality: Missiological Implications. In its missionary task, Geffré pointed out, there is an urgent need for serious efforts to inculturate the Christian message in local cultures. Secondly, in the face of the inhuman tendencies of economic and cultural globalization, Christian mission must seek to be a counterculture and a sign of hope for all. Presenting the third major paper, Prof. Marcello Bordoni of the Lateran University spoke of The Inculturations of Christology and the Christological Tradition of the Church. In his view, the history of the development of Christology in the Church and the reformulation of Christological dogmas can offer very useful guidelines for continental and regional Christologies of today. Professor G. Biguzzi of the Urban University, in his intervention, showed the tension that exists in the Bible between universality and uniqueness of salvation. Dr. Gerald Anderson, editor of the International Bulletin of Missionary Research, in his response to the major papers stressed the importance of the uniqueness and universality of salvation in Jesus Christ and the urgency of missionary formation for all clergy. CONTINENTAL/REGIONAL CHRISTOLOGIES Christological Trends in Africa African attempts at Christological reflection reveal an effort to present Jesus Christ in the context of the Sub-Saharan indigenous/tribal Traditional Religions and the African peoples’ belief in their ancestral lineage. Jesus Christ can best be presented as the Great Ancestor of the people of God. The concept of ancestor common to many ethnic groups in Africa becomes a new paradigm for Christological reflection. Such a Christology, it is believed by some, will make the figure of Jesus Christ more intelligible and attractive to African peoples2.

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Sebastian Karotemprel

Several images of Jesus Christ find corresponding images in African cultures and they are very appealing to people. Traditional Christology can also supplement images and concepts that are absent in some of the African cultures. Thus according to some African theologians the figure of Jesus Christ as the Victor over death and the powers of evil is very endearing: «In the traditional notions there is a great vacuum in respect of the future, and Jesus fills it by being understood first and foremost as victor over the powers which from time immemorial have dominated African life»3. The notion of Jesus Christ as the Great Chief is another example of inculturation of Christology in Africa. This title comes close to the traditional title of Kyrios, Lord, applied to Jesus Christ by the early Church. Even though the term chief has had ambiguous connotations, the prerogatives of the Bantu chief are seen to be fully realized in and by Jesus Christ4. Kabasélé gives several reasons why Jesus Christ is the Great Chief. Jesus challenged and conquered the powers of evil and the kingdom of Satan. Jesus is the Son and Emissary of the Great Chief, God the Father: «That Christ is the Son of God, the Bantus have learned through Christian revelation. But that God is the Chief of the universe, the ultimate recourse, they know by their ancestral faith»5. Jesus is the Chief because he is the great reconciling mediator who cements disunity among the people of a tribe. One of the most common and popular images of Jesus Christ in the African culture is Jesus the Great Ancestor. In the first place the image of ancestor is common to many African cultures. Several of connotations of ancestor fit well into the images of Jesus Christ. In the first place, everything has been created in and through Jesus Christ6. Jesus by his death and resurrection mediates divine life to his disciples. As ancestor, Jesus is the source of life for all and the obligatory route to the Supreme Being and the channel of life to all. The current of life flows from God through Jesus to all the members of the Church, the community of God. Jesus Christ is the ancestor of all because he is present to all the members of the Church. He is the first born of all the redeemed. Thus he is the “Eldest” in the family of God. Hence Jesus Christ is rightly considered as the Great Ancestor/Brother who unites all believers in the one Supreme God and in the one Family of God. He is the life-giving Ancestor and one who presides over the new tribe of God, the new extended tribal family. According to Cécé Kolié, the most important and significant title for Jesus Christ in Africa would be Jesus the Great Healer. There are two major reasons why this title is more appropriate than others in Africa. In the first place, healing was the central element in the ministry of Jesus7. Secondly, by his passion and death Jesus has healed the wounds of sin. In his suffering Jesus is present to all who suffer. By his resurrection, he has won for all the fullness of life. The concept of initiation is common to many cultures in Africa. In this context Jesus Christ may be called the Initiated and also the Great Master

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of Initiation. By his death and resurrection, Jesus’ own initiation was completed and he has won for all the grace of initiation vicariously: «Christ’s oblation, his total gift by the sacrifice of the cross, is the act of initiation for himself definitively, and it is valid with regard to all human beings. It is the visibly foundational act of the Redemption»8. All these above-mentioned images of Jesus Christ are familiar to most African people and they can serve to illustrate the figure of Jesus Christ. African Christologies based on such specifically African concepts may be called “Illustrative Christologies”. Such Christologies have the merit of being inculturated in African culture(s). They also serve a catechetical purpose since people can readily relate themselves to the images of Jesus Christ proposed by African Christologies. African critics of Ancestral Christology question the relevance of an Ancestral Christology theologically and socio-culturally. Theologically, can the paradigm or theological myth of the ancestor really serve to reveal the whole person of Jesus Christ? How do we exploit this concept to capture all the richness of Traditional Christology within the context of the theology of the Trinity? Socio-culturally, is this myth still valid today, and how long will it have relevance in Africa given the momentum of the process of modernization, urbanization and universalization of education? As a result, say the critics, the ancestor paradigm may be gradually abandoned by the emerging new African indigenous society. These are some of the questions, which need to be answered by African theologians. Perhaps the concept of proto-ancestor, as suggested by Professor Juvenal Ilunga, may be a more appropriate paradigm to interpret Jesus Christ, his salvific functions and his relationship to the Church and humanity than simply the traditional concepts of ancestor, healer, and chief in the African context. On the other hand, one cannot deny the usefulness, relevance of inculturating Christology in the cultures of Africa. There is an immense catechetical value in the whole attempt at presenting Jesus Christ in terms of African cultures. Christological Trends in Latin America Latin American Christological reflection must be situated in the context of the Christology that was brought by the Conquistadores and the missionaries who accompanied them9. There were two prominent images of Jesus Christ in the Spanish culture as a result of their historical experiences. One image was that of the suffering Christ because the Spanish people suffered under the Moorish invasions and occupations. The second image is that of the conquering Christ, the ruler of all. The Christ brought by the missionary and the explorer-conqueror was the “Spanish” Christ. In fact Columbus was surnamed “Christopher”, Christ-bearer. The Liberation Theology of Latin America and the figure of Jesus Christ as the Liberator

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were inspired by such missionaries as Bartolomé del Las Casas10 and St. Antonio de Mogrevejo who identified the sufferings of their people to those of Jesus Christ and the resurrection as a sign of hope and eventual victory of the poor. Today’s Christological reflection in Latin America is situated also in the context of five centuries of evangelization and the socio-economic situation of the people. Its point of departure in theological reflection is the social injustice endemic in many areas of Latin America and the structures of exploitation, which support such injustice. In this context, Jesus Christ serves as a powerful symbol, inspiration and force for liberation. The various shades of liberation theology of the past 30 years seek to exploit the concept of liberation as a new paradigm to understand and present Jesus Christ to the people of Latin America11. The Liberation Theology of Gustavo Gutiérrez, the father and founder of Liberating Theology in Latin America, may be called a prophetic theology12. The point of departure of Gutiérez’s theology and Christology is the Gospel of Jesus and the experience of those who are engaged in the struggle for liberation from the oppression, exploitation and injustice of the rich. The goal of his Christology is the creation of a new person, a new Church of the poor and a new society, a new creation13. This is the new Christological and ecclesiological point of departure in Gutiérrez’s Theology of Liberation. Two other representative proponents of Liberation Christology are Leonardo Boff14 and Jon Sobrino15. A moderate champion of Liberation Theology is Clodovis Boff16. The point of departure of all Liberation Theologies is the analysis of the situation of poverty, the structures of oppression, exploitation, the causes of injustice and the ways of liberation. According to Leonardo Boff, the five characteristics of the Latin American Christology are the following: the primacy of the anthropological element over the ecclesiastical; the primacy of the utopian element over the factual; the primacy of the critical element over the dogmatic; the primacy of the social element over the personal; and the primacy of orthopraxis over orthodoxy17. All Liberation theologies of Latin America adopt the hermeneutical cycle of analysis, reflection, and action. Thus orthodoxy is arrived at through orthopraxis18. This is true of Christologies too. Biblical Christologies reveal the plurality of Christologies that arose out of diverse socio-cultural situations of the Jewish and the Roman worlds. The Christological dogmas of the early Church were also meant to respond to the particular needs of the situation of the Roman Empire to have a common Christology for the empire19. Christology was and is always contextually conditioned. L. Boff and J. Sobrino claim that they are doing precisely that in the context of poverty, exploitation and injustice in presenting Jesus Christ of history and of faith as the liberator of Latin

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American peoples. For them, contextuality is not only a methodological premise, but it is inherent in the Christological process itself20. While liberation as a Christological paradigm is a useful one to present Jesus Christ to the peoples of Latin America, does the concept have enough breadth to include an integral view of liberation that upholds spiritual liberation to be the foundation of all true liberation? Or are the socioeconomic overtones all too pervasive and controlling? Does it tend to instrumentalize an essentially religious and salvific figure for a social or political agenda? These are some of the troubling questions presented by at least some Liberation Christologies21.

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Christological Trends in Europe and North America Europe and North America have undergone a radical religious demographic change in recent times and theologians are inclined to theologise within the context of religious pluralism. In North America and Europe, Christian theology tends towards greater pluralism in regard to salvation, and their mediation to individuals with some form of relationship with Jesus Christ or even independent of Jesus Christ. According to some, a pluralistic interpretation of Jesus Christ can help us accommodate the salvation of other believers within Christian theology22. Religious Pluralism in the West also tends to take for granted that all religions have their origin in some primal religious experience. Thus the myth of religious experience becomes the new paradigm for theology and especially for Christology. Within the context of religious experience, all religious experiences are thought to be of equal value, and hence the Christian experience of the Divine cannot claim uniqueness and universality of salvation in Jesus Christ for all peoples. In this sense, the truths of incarnation and divinity of Jesus Christ are only myths of religious experience. As norms of faith and salvation, they have only a subjective value, but not normative for other believers who may have other faith experiences. The Christian faith is, though valid for Christians, only a cultural variant of a particular religious experience23. Another trend of Christology in the western world is to consider all religions as interrelated. The Christian faith is based on historical revelation, circumscribed by time and geography. As a result many are not able to have access to it. Hence, some theologians argue, we must hold that all religions are ways of salvation. In the present economy of salvation, their argument goes, the various religions and the paths of salvation proposed by them are autonomous. However, they will all be united in the risen Christ in eschatological times24. Such a Christology would seem to its authors sufficient enough to safeguard the uniqueness of revelation and salvation in Jesus Christ. Here again important questions are left unanswered: Why

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should there be a metahistorical union of all salvation, of Christians and other believers, in the eschaton? What is the foundation of such recapitulation? Why should metahistorical religions be united with the historical revelation in Jesus Christ, if there is no ontological foundation for its realization? Another attempt in reinterpreting Jesus Christ to contemporary believers is to present him as the symbolon, symbol of God25. Hence it may be called Symbolic Christology. The point of departure of Symbolic Christology is the concept of the Logos or Wisdom of God. Jesus is the embodiment of God’s Wisdom or Logos: «Jesus embodied God’s Wisdom; Jesus was the Word of God symbolically because he embodied God’s Word to Israel and the Johannine community. These symbols have a perennial and classical character intratextually, that is, within the Christian community»26. The Logos or Word is the symbolic self-expression of the Father within the Godhead itself. Hence the Trinity itself is seen as a metaphor of how God is perceived, experienced and worshiped by the Christian community. It is Christology that gave rise to the doctrine of the Trinity, because God was experienced as Father, Son and Spirit in Jesus Christ: «As a doctrine it is itself a symbol that summarises Christian faith in a threefold confession of belief in God as creator, historical saviour, and the inner power of authentic human life that leads to final salvation»27. In a similar manner, Jesus himself becomes symbolic expression of God’s Word or Logos: «As the Logos or Word is the symbolic self-expression of the Father within the Godhead, so too the full human reality of Jesus is the selfexpression of the Logos or Word»28. As a symbol makes the symbolised reality present, so Jesus makes God as Logos present to the believers: «As the symbol makes present something other than itself, so Jesus makes present God as Logos, that is, the self-expression of the Father»29. Now, according to their view, the question who is Jesus of Nazareth? can be answered: Jesus is the concrete symbol of God. Jesus as the symbol of God is also the revealer of God. In this sense, an ontological interpretation of Jesus as divine by the traditional Christology is an unwarranted objectification of the divinity of Jesus. Such an objectification would reduce the meaning of God as Logos to something less than God. This objectification tends to reduce the meaning of God as Logos to something less than God. Second, the concrete symbol Jesus, who makes God’s presence actual in history, must be understood dialectically. This means allowing Jesus to remain a human person, a human being like all other human beings. It means at the same time allowing God as Logos to be present at work in Jesus in a way that makes God as Logos to be present to humanity. The “is” and “is not” involved in the dialectics of symbol thus explain incarnation in away that accounts for Christian worship of Jesus30. In classical Christology, the Logos or the Word, or the Son is embodied in the person of Jesus Christ. The human reality of Jesus is assumed, supported and sustained by the person, hypostasis, and the reality of the Logos. But

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according to Symbolic Christology, Jesus remains a human person, human being, and a merely historical figure. He is empowered by God as Logos: «Thus the human being Jesus is the symbol and expression of God as Logos present to him. The enhypostatic union is the union of no less than God as Word with the human person Jesus»31. Jesus Christ then would not destroy or deny other symbols of God’s love and salvation. The same saving truths about God are revealed in other symbols that have taken shape in other philosophical, religious and cultural areas and traditions. Symbolic Christology does not undermine the autonomy and legitimacy of other religious mediations of God and his salvation. The symbol of Logos implies God’s immanence and presence to all beings. The Christian can expect the same immanence and presence of God in other religious mediations and traditions: «In simple terms, the Christian expects that the one whom they know as God is also present to and at work in other religions. Other religions are judged valid in principle by Christians on the basis of their religious experience of God as Logos or God’s Word in Jesus»32. Symbolic Christology, no doubt, has several merits. It presents Jesus Christ in contemporary and intelligible language. It offers a broad basis for true mutual encounter and dialogue with other religions. But it raises a number of questions as well. It does not seem to capture the whole mystery of Jesus Christ as attested to by the New Testament, the Apostolic and the Conciliar Tradition of the Church. Given the Trinitarian revelation of God, how can Jesus Christ be reduced to a mere symbolon of God? True, Jesus Christ is the symbol of God’s love, compassion, forgiveness, liberation and power to liberate and save. But is Jesus Christ merely a symbol of God, even if a concrete symbol of God, or is he more than that? What is the Christian experience of him and who is he in Christian tradition? Where is the dividing line between Symbolic Christology and the Christology of Arianism33, Monarchianism34, Modalism35 or Sabellianism36? What is his significance for the salvation of all peoples of the world? Such questions remain unanswered by Symbolic Christology. Christological Trends in Asia The Christological problem is particularly felt in Asia, given the plurality and antiquity of their religions and cultures. Christology has a very special significance for Christian mission in Asia and it is the topic of widespread controversy. Christians in Asia are caught between the dilemma of professing the traditional faith in the unique saviour Jesus Christ and at the same time affirming the salvation of other believers in and through their ancient religious traditions. The problem is in a certain sense new, and the Church has no precedents to go by since it is for the first time in its history

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that the Church is meeting the great, ancient and living religions of the East37. Later encounters during the XIX and early XX centuries took place within the context of colonialism. In general the Asian theologians tend to assume that Greek philosophy, medieval speculative theology and western culture heavily influence the Christological developments of the West in general. Hence, they argue that the traditional Christology of the West is not suited to Christian mission in the East. The historical association of Christian mission with colonialism makes it suspect in the eyes of Asian peoples. They see uniqueness and universality of revelation and salvation in Jesus Christ as expressions of colonial arrogance. Western assumptions can only do harm to Christian mission, some argue. An admission of the salvific value of the various ancient religions would give an opportunity for Christian mission, but without the traditional arrogance. Consequently, for each believer one’s own way of salvation is unique and universal. But the individual must not make his religion the norm for salvation for other believers. He must not claim that his faith is the only saving faith. He must not reject other religions as salvifically powerless, or hold that their salvific value is derived from the unique mediation of Jesus Christ. Such as position would render any dialogue impossible, it is held by some. There are several Christologies proposed by Asian theologians in order to explain the salvation of other believers. Some Asian theologians propose a kind of Spirit soteriology. The line of argument is that the Spirit was at work in Asia, as everywhere else, leading believers of all religions to their ultimate salvation according to their religious traditions and spiritualities. The Spirit continues this salvific activity even after the coming of Jesus Christ since Jesus is not known to them or they are not able to accept the kind of Jesus Christ presented by a westernised Christian mission, dressed in western philosophies, and hence made unrecognisable to Asian peoples, and worse still, made suspect by colonialism. A Spirit soteriology would avoid the difficulties created by traditional, conciliar, dogmatic and speculative Christology of the West, which is so little suited and palatable to the eastern mind and heart. Another very original Christology is what may be called the Logos Christology38, which has taken two different directions. One version of the Logos Christology considers Jesus Christ as the unique and historical manifestation of the eternal Logos, which Christians call Christos, while others call the same mystery by other names.39. Its infinity of the Logos allows the possibility of infinite modes of self-manifestation and hence the possibility of the plurality of religions. The unity and infinity of the eternal Logos are then the foundation of all diversity, including religious diversity. The discovery and acceptance of the Logos, called Christos by Christians, is present in each religion and spirituality, and it constitutes the way of the salvation for each person40.

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Another version of the Logos Christology holds that the activity of the eternal Logos and the Logos incarnate in Jesus Christ should not be confused nor fully identified41. The saving activity of the Logos cannot be limited to, or by, its historical, personal, particular and geographical manifestation. Such a manifestation is circumscribed by time and geography and always translated into philosophical and cultural expressions and hence unavailable to people of other philosophies, religions and cultures. There is too much of a history within the historical manifestation to be recognisable as universal and unique. As Logos incarnate, Jesus Christ is the unique way to salvation for Christians. But the eternal Logos continues to save other believers through the instrumentality of their religions, moral codes and spiritualities. The infinite mystery of God is the starting point of another Christology in Asia and it may be called Mystery Christology. Jesus Christ is the unique and historical expression of the mystery of God. He has crossed the threshold of the mystery of God and has become part of that infinite mystery. Jesus Christ is fully possessed by the mystery of God and filled by it. Jesus Christ is the fully illumined one, a true bodhisattva, one illumined by the mystery of God. Hence he is also the revelation of the mystery of God who guides others to the threshold of the same mystery. Whoever enters into the mystery of God is transformed and liberated from all that is evil. At the threshold of the mystery of God all differences of concepts, categorizations, names, religions and their dogmatization cease. One is immersed into the eternal ocean of the Divine. All religions lead people to the mystery of the Divine, no matter how it may be conceived, conceptualised, dogmatised and worshiped on the way to the threshold of the mystery itself. Such a Mystery Christology would the ground for true dialogue between religions and the basis for the salvation of all42. As distinct from the Mystery Christology, some theologians propose a practical and programmatic Christology. Their Christology may be called Asian Liberation Christology. Asian Liberation Christology does not have a uniform Christological interpretation43. For some Jesus Christ would be the most perfect parable of God. He is the most perfect parable of God’s love, compassion and liberation. According to Aloysius Pieris, Jesus must be reinterpreted in the light of the profound religiosity of Asian peoples and their massive poverty. Poverty and religiosity becomes the new locus theologicus for a true Christology44. True Christology in Asia cannot be exclusive of other religions, their founders and their paths to salvation. Pieris writes mostly in the context of Buddhism. The paths of liberation-salvation offered by Jesus Christ and Guatama Buddha are not exclusivistic. There is a complementarily between the two paths. Buddhism stresses the enlightenment-gnosis aspect of liberation-salvation. Christianity accentuates the love-service/agape element. Liberative knowledge and redemptive love are both self-transcending, and

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transform human beings45. Both gnosis and agape are legitimate languages to express the reality of liberation-salvation. It is the same divine Spirit that speaks both languages. Each contains the other element that is not stressed. Hence they are not to be taken as mutually exclusive. The revelatory medium of salvation is the Word himself. The same Word that illumines every person coming into the world is also the one who illumines Gautama Buddha. Hence they may be considered complementary. The Christology proposed by Pieris would seem to accept the complementarity of salvific ways of Buddhism and Christianity.

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NEED FOR TRADITION AND CONTINUITY IN CHRISTOLOGY What has been said above about the various Christologies indicates the directions which Christology has taken in various continents. Obviously, they arise out their particular socio-cultural and religious contexts. It is in the light of these varied Christologies that the main theme of the International Missiological Congress “Who do you say that I am?”. Missiological and Missionary Responses in the Context of Religions and Cultures was suggested and approved. The various papers presented at the Congress spell out the main theme. The first six papers present the general biblical and theological foundations of Christology today. The other papers deal with the Christologies that are emerging in the various continents. The emerging Christologies are a sign that the local and regional Churches are active in theological reflection. They are searching for a more relevant Christology that would respond to their actual context. Every attempt at a more contextualised Christology is a welcome sign, necessary and even urgent in a religiously and culturally plural world. John Paul II calls upon theologians to examine afresh the question of the relationship between Jesus Christ and the world religions: «The issue of the encounter of Christianity with ancient local cultures and religions is a pressing one. This is a great challenge for evangelization, since religious systems such as Buddhism or Hinduism have a clearly soteriological character. There is also an urgent need […] to illustrate and explain, more fully the truth that Christ is the one Mediator between God and man and the sole Redeemer of the world, to be clearly distinguished from the founders of other great religions»46. Pope John Paul II has repeatedly called for “New Evangelization” as we enter the third millennium and the twenty-first century of evangelization47. New Evangelization should not be understood in its narrow sense, namely, reevangelization of the de-christianised areas of the western world, and other regions of the globe which are fast becoming secularised in matters of faith. Some Christians tend to seek spiritual refuge in such new faiths as those offered by the New Age movement and other similar syncretistic

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movements. Some are attracted to the real or pseudo-spiritualities of the East. In such a religious situation there is an urgent need to present Jesus Christ in a new way. Hence New Evangelization also means new formulations of the theology of Christian mission in the context of world religions and cultures, so that mission may be truly Christian and catholic, namely, for all peoples. New Evangelization requires first of all a new formulation of Christology, a new approach to other believers, new methods where dialogue is given a fundamental role, and new attention to human promotion as an essential dimension of evangelization48. Christian mission, on the one hand, can no longer be exclusivistic in its approach, as during the period of mission during the colonial period. It can no longer be too ecclesiocentric in its approach so as to deny or underestimate the presence of the Logos and the Spirit in the world continuing their mysterious work of bringing salvation to all believers. On the other hand, it cannot be reduced to the promotion of the values of the Kingdom of God, with little emphasis on the proclamation of Jesus Christ and the call to enter the community of the Church. Again, Christian mission cannot be presented as purely soteriocentric in a horizontal sense of the word, namely, human promotion, thereby reducing Christian mission to a secular project. Christologies from regional perspectives and Christology from the universal and traditional perspectives have their distinctive merits, but they all have some limitations as well. They should not be dismissed as purely speculative or as the result of the vagaries of theologians. All are grappling with the mystery of God, its revelation in Jesus Christ and the mystery of human salvation. On the one hand, a universal Church, a catholic faith community, must have common foundations of faith. But a universal or catholic community, precisely because it is called to be catholic, must also have local expressions, as demanded by the very nature of revelation in a particular culture. This is what John Paul II says: «In the Third Millennium, Christianity will have to respond ever more effectively to this need for inculturation. Christianity, while remaining completely true to itself with unswerving fidelity to the proclamation of the Gospel and the tradition of the Church, will also reflect the different faces of the cultures and peoples in which it is received and takes root»49. The International Missiological Congress offered an excellent platform to listen to one another. First, the listening was among the regional Christologies themselves and thus all could learn what is happening in each region in the area of Christology and mission. Secondly, continental Christologies found a hearing from the centre of unity in the Church and the traditional universal Christology. The development of Christian doctrine and the praxis of mission imply and demand mutual listening, understanding the compulsions of each Christology in diverse religious and cultural contexts, examining the undeclared premises of each Christology, perceiving the

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limitations, implications and consequences of each Christology for the universal Christian faith and mission and for a Christian theology of religions. Such has always been the process of the development of doctrine within the Catholic Church, as John Henry Newman remarked more than a century and a half ago in his book Development of Doctrine50. A theological mind meeting another theological mind is the arena of Christian theology. The encounter between various continental Christologies and the traditional Christology of the Magisterium of the Church must help the proponents of the same to appreciate the strengths and weaknesses of each Christology. It enables all to measure their Christologies against the biblical data of revelation, the permanent and enduring tradition of the Church, its Councils and its contemporary Magisterium. In the process it may become clear that the basis of some Christologies is too narrow to accommodate the essentials of our inalienable Christian faith, the utter newness of the revelation of God and salvation in Jesus Christ, and at the same time its continuity within the saving design of God for all peoples. We will perceive better the work of Jesus Christ and the work of the Holy Spirit for the salvation of all, the essential relationship of the mission of the Son and the Holy Spirit, and the need for tradition and continuity. The encounter between the various Christologies proposed by theologians and the Magisterium of the Church is useful and even necessary because, on the one hand, there is the need for safeguarding the essentials of the faith that come from revelation; they are not negotiable. On the other hand, there is urgent need for an inculturated Christology in the context of the world religions and cultures: «In the Third Millennium, Christianity will have to respond ever more effectively to this need for inculturation»51. The International Missiological Congress was a catholic forum for mutual theological dialogue within the Church, a mutual learning and teaching process, an opportunity for respectful encounter between the various Christologies springing from the context of world religions and cultures in various continents. The present book, Christology and Mission Today contains the papers presented at the Congress, as prepared by their authors, except for minor editorial corrections. It must be clearly stated that the theological opinions expressed by the authors are strictly their own and do not represent any official Christology of the Church. Nevertheless, it is hoped that they will contribute towards a better appreciation of the urgency of safeguarding the faith and at the same time of inculturating the faith in local cultures. This will indeed contribute to the ongoing mission of the Church in the world.

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Notes 1 J. GUITTON, Jesus The Etrenal Dilemma, Alba House, New York 1967; cf. also The Problem of Jesus. A Free-Thinker’s Diary, Kenedy and Sons, New York 1955. 2 For a very good summary of several inculturated Christologies, even though the translation is obscure in many places, see V. KUESTER, The Many Faces of Jesus Christ, Orbis, Maryknoll, N.Y. 2001; it is a translation of Die vielen Gesichter Jesu Christi: Christologie interkulturell, Neukirchner Verlag, Neukirchen-Vluyn 1999; B. BUJO, “Der Afrikanische Ahnenkult und die christliche Verkuendigung”, ZMR, 64(1980), pp. 293306; African Theology in Its Social Context, Maryknoll, N.Y. 1992; H. SAWYER, Creative Evangelesm. Towards a New Christian Encounter with Africa, London 1968; M. AMBA ODUYOYE, Hearing and Knowing. Theological Reflections on Christianity in Africa, Maryknoll, N.Y. 1986. 3 J. MBITI, “Afrikanische Beitraege zur Christologie”, in G.M. VICEDOM (ed.), Theologische Stimmen aus Asien, Africa und Lateinamerika, III, Munich 1968, p. 76, as quoted by V. KUESTER, p. 58. 4 Cf. F. KABASÉLÉ, “Christ as Chief”, in R. SCHREITER (ed.), Faces of Jesus Christ in Africa, London 1992. It was first published in J.N.K. MUGAMBI, L. MAGESA (eds.), Jesus in African Christianity. Experimentation and Diversity in African Christology, Nairobi 1989. 5 Ibidem, p. 108. 6 Cf. Ibidem, pp. 116-121. 7 C. KOLIÉ, “Jesus as Healer”, in R. SCHREITER (ed.), Faces of Jesus Christ in Africa, London 1992; Cf. A. SHORTER, Jesus and the Witchdoctor. An approach to Healing and Wholeness, Maryknoll, N.Y. 1985. 8 A.T. SANON, “Jesus master of Intiation”, in R. SCHREITER (ed.), Jesus and the Witchdoctor. An approach to Healing and Wholeness, Maryknoll, N.Y. 1985; cf. Das Evangelium Verwuerzeln. Glaubenserschliessung im Raum afrikansicher Stammesinitiationen, TDW 7, Freiburg (i. Br), 1985, p. 94. 9 Cf. V. KUESTER, The Many Faces of Jesus Christ, Orbis, Maryknoll, N.Y. 2001. It is a translation of Die vielen Gesichter Jesu Christi: Christologie interkulturell, Neukirchner Verlag, Neukirchen-Vluyn 1999; J.A. MACKAY, The Other Spanish Christ. A Study in the Spiritual History of Spain and South America, New York 1932; S. TRINIDAD, “Christologie-Conquista-Kolonisierung”, in G. COLLET (ed.), Der Christus der Armen. Das Christuszeugnis der Lateinamerikanischen Befreiungstheologen, Freiburg (i.Br.), 1988. 10 Cf. G. GUTIÉRREZ, Las Casas. In Search of the Poor Jesus Christ, Orbis, Maryknol, N.Y. 1993; Gott oder das Gold. Der Befreiende Weg des Bartolomé de Las Casas, Freiburg (i. Br), 1990. 11 Cf. G. GUTIÉRREZ, A Theology of Liberation, Orbis, Maryknoll, N.Y. 1973; A. MCGOVERN, Liberation Theology and its Critics, Orbis, Maryknoll, N.Y. 1989; A. HENNELLY, Liberation Theology: A Documentary History, Orbis, Maryknoll, N.Y. 1990. 12 Cf. V. KUESTER, The Many Faces of Jesus Christ, Orbis, Maryknoll, N.Y. 2001, p. 47; R. MCAFEE BROWN, Gustavo Gutiérrez. An Introduction to Liberation Theology, Orbis, Maryknoll, N.Y. 1990. 13 These themes are clearly present in the official documents of Episcopal Conference of the Latin America. Cf. L.M. COLONESE (ed.), The Church in the PresentDay Transformation of Latin America in the Light of the Council, 2 voll., Second General Conference of Latin American Bishops, Medellín, Colombia 1968, Washington DC 1969; J. EAGLESON, PH. SHARPER (eds.), Puebla and Beyond, Maryknoll, N.Y. 1979. 14 Cf. L. BOFF, Jesus Christ Liberator. A Critical Christology of Our Time, London, 1978; Church, Charism and Power, London-New York 1986. It is this book that brought L. Boff in sharp opposition to the official position of the Catholic Church.

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15 Cf. J. SOBRINO, Christology at the Crossroads, Maryknoll, N.Y. 1978. 16 C. BOFF, Theology and Praxis. Epistemological Foundations, Maryknoll, N.Y. 1987. 17 Cf. L. BOFF, Jesus Christ Liberator. A Critical Christology of Our Time, London

1978, pp. 43-47. 18 Cf. Ibidem, pp. 5, 39; J. SOBRINO, op. cit., pp. 12-14. 19 Cf. Ibidem, p. 182: J. SOBRINO, op. cit., p. 318. 20 Cf. Ibidem, p. 12; J. SOBRINO, op.cit., p. 341, 348; V. KUESTER, The Many Faces of Jesus Christ, Orbis, Maryknoll, N.Y. 2001, p. 51. 21 Cf. CONGREGATION FOR THE DOCTRINE OF FAITH, Nuntius Libertatis, Rome 1984. 22 J. HICK, The Myth of God Incarnate, SCM Press, London 1997. 23 Cf. J. HICK, P. KNITTER, The Myth of Christian Uniqueness: Towards a Pluralistic Theology of Religions, Orbis, Maryknoll, N.Y. 1987. 24 Cf. J. DUPUIS, Towards a Christian Theology of Religious Pluralism, Orbis, Maryknoll, N.Y. 1997. 25 Cf. R. HAIGHT, Jesus Symbol of God, Orbis, Maryknoll, N.Y. 1999. 26 Ibidem, p. 438. 27 Ibidem, p. 490. 28 Ibidem, p. 438. 29 Ibidem, p. 439. 30 Ibidem, p. 441. 31 Ibidem, p. 442. 32 Ibidem, p. 441. 33 According to Arius, Jesus Christ is the highest of creatures, adopted son of God, instrument of creation and redemption, but not equal to God. Cf. P.K. MEAGHER et al. (eds.), Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Religion, 3 voll., Corpus Publications, Washington DC 1979, p. 255. Cf. “Ariansim”, in New Catholic Encyclopedia, vol. 1, McGraw-Hill, New York 1967-97, pp. 791-794. 34 Monarchianism was a II-III century Christological heresy which held that God is a monarchia (Greek: one single origin, rule. In effect it denied the Christian Trinity. Cf. P.K. MEAGHER et al. (eds.), op. cit., p. 2410; Cf. “Monarchianism”, in New Catholic Encyclopedia, op. cit., pp. 1019-1020. 35 Modalism was a II-III century Christological heresy which held that there is only a verbal difference between the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, but there is no real distinction. The Christian Trinity only represents the three aspects of the one God. God in his eternity is one. In history he is considered as Creator, redeemer, and sanctifying Spirit. Cf. P.K. MEAGHER et al. (eds.), op. cit., p. 2398; cf. “Modalism”, in New Catholic Encyclopedia, op. cit., pp. 988-989. 36 Sabellianism is a sophisticated Modalism. God is a monad regarded as Father, Son and Spirit. Cf. P.K. MEAGHER et al. (eds.), op. cit., Corpus Publications, Washington 1979, p. 3121. Another extreme version of Modalism is Patripassianism, proposed by Praxeas in the Western Church which held that it is truly the Father who suffered in Jesus. Cf. ibidem, p. 2695. All these heretical Christologies were condemned and rejected by the Church in the councils of Nicea and Chalcedon; cf. J.N.D. KELLY, Early Christian Creeds, London, 1960; “Sabellianism”, in New Catholic Encyclopedia, op. cit., pp. 783: “Patripassianism”, in New Catholic Encyclopedia, op. cit., p. 1103. 37 It is true that since the time of St. Francis Xavier there have been some contacts between Christianity and Hinduism. Roberto de Nobili made a serious attempt to inculturate Christianity in Brahmanic Hinduism. Similar attempts were made in China, Japan, and Vietnam by Mateo Ricci, F. Verbiest, and Alessandro Rhodes in Buddhist and Confucian cultures. But they were short-lived. 38 Raimundo Panikkar himself calls it now Ecumenical Christology as mentioned below.

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39 Cf. R. Panikkar, The Unknown Christ of Hinduism, 1st ed., DLT, London 1964, pp. 22 ff.; and the revised and enlarged edition, The Unknown Christ of Hinduism: Towards an Ecumenical Christology, DLT, London 1981. Panikkar holds that the mystery of the Logos or the Christ is present in all religions. It is also present in Christianity insofar as it is a sociological phenomenon. The Christian’s task is to discover it for himself and discover it in the other. «The Christian attitude is not ultimately one of bringing Christ in, but of bringing him forth, of discovering Christ» (1981, p. 45). 40 Cf. R. PANIKKAR, The Unknown Christ of Hinduism, rev. ed., Orbis, Maryknoll, N.Y. 1981. 41 Cf. M. AMALADOSS, The Image of Jesus in The Church in Asia, in “Jeevadhara”, 30(2000), pp. 286-288; STATEMENT OF THE INDIAN THEOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION, The Significance of Jesus Christ in the Context of Religious Pluralism in India, Bangalore, Dharamaram 1988; and in “Word and Worship”, 31(1988), pp. 352-353. 42 Cf. B. GRIFFITHS, Return to the Centre, Harper Collins, New Delhi 1995; A New Vision of Reality, Harper Collins, New Delhi 1995; The New Creation in Christ, London 1992. 43 There are several representatives of Asian Liberation Theology such as Sebastian Kappen in India, Josè de Mesa and Lode Wostyn in the Philippines, Tissa Balasuriya and Aloysius Pieris in Sri Lanka. 44 Cf. A. PIERIS, An Asian Theology of Liberation, Maryknoll, N.Y. 1988, pp. 50 ff. 45 Cf. A. PIERIS, “The Buddha and the Christ: Mediators of Liberation”, in J. HICK, P. KNITTER (eds.), The Myth of Christian Uniqueness, Orbis, Maryknoll, N.Y., pp. 163 ff.; Love Meets Wisdom: A Christian Experience of Buddhism, Orbis, New York 1988, pp. 110ff. 46 JOHN PAUL II, Apostolic Letter Tertio Millennio Adveniente 38. 47 Cf. The most recent Apostolic Letter at the conclusion of the Great Jubilee Year 2000, Novo Millennio Ineunte says: «Over the years, I have often repeated the summons to the new evangelization. I do so again now, especially in order to insist that we must rekindle in ourselves the impetus of the beginnings and allow ourselves to be filled with the ardour of the apostolic preaching which followed the Pentecost» (n. 40). 48 JOHN PAUL II, Encyclical Letter Redemptoris Missio 58-59. 49 JOHN PAUL II, Apostolic Letter Novo Millennio Ineunte 40, at the Close of the Great Jubilee Year 2000. 50 J.H. NEWMAN, Essay on Development of Doctrine, first published in 1846, and revised and corrected by the author in 1878. 51 JOHN PAUL II, Apostolic Letter Novo Millennio Ineunte 40, at the Close of the Great Jubilee Year 2000.

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RELAZIONI

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WALTER KASPER*

THE UNICITY AND UNIVERSALITY OF JESUS CHRIST**

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1. THE COMPLEX SITUATION IN A WORLD THAT IS BECOMING ONE The current situation of the world is distinguished by two opposing characteristics. On the one hand we have the phenomenon of globalisation. The world has become like a “global village”. It is not only financial information and resources that circle the globe electronically a thousand times every single day, but through the modern mass media we can have access to information from all over the world. The modern means of transportation convey people and merchandise from one end of the planet to the other in just in a few hours. Unfortunately, this has not made the world any more peaceful. Globalisation creates new dependencies and injustices and establishes new forms of domination for the strong and the powerful. Therefore there are counter-movements to globalisation. Whenever people of different cultures move closer together, anxiety and problems increase and produce hatred and violence; therefore the particular interests of the various groups increase along with a rise in ethnic and cultural conflicts. Many voices predict a “clash of civilisations” (to use Huntington’s expression), and in fact, in many places across the world today, this is being expressed in bloodshed. We need only think of Northern Ireland, Rwanda, Sudan, Bosnia and Kosovo. In the so-called “developed” societies there is an increasing loss of common values and fundamental convictions. In our century in all areas of life and thought pluralism has undergone a downright astronomical increase. Ever greater differences between lifestyles and living conditions, between types of thought and systems of orientation, world-views and economic systems can be seen. Development often goes so far that the recognition of the inalienable universal human rights of the peoples and cultures is called into question; and this can happen not only in authoritarian countries like

*

Presidente del Pontificio Consiglio per la promozione dell’Unità dei Cristiani. ** The word unicity has been used to translate the German “Einzigkeit” rather than uniqueness to avoid any misunderstanding. Uniqueness has the connotation of having different characteristics than the others, while the Church’s teaching is that Jesus Christ is the “one and only” Messiah (translator’s note).

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China, but among western thinkers too to some extent. They sometimes describe any appeals to universal human rights as neo-colonial, Europeancentred thinking. This pluralism also has an effect on the personal identity of the individual. Most people live in several very different worlds. The world of family, job and leisure, the private and the public sector, the domestic economic, political and cultural sectors are often far removed from one another. Many a time it even results in a “patchwork identity” and a syncretism of elements of the most diverse religious and cultural traditions; no attempt is made at a cognitive clarification with the result that there is much overlapping and in the life of single person apples and oranges remain unprocessed next to one another. The attempt to find in this diversity, which can hardly be ignored, a unifying bond holding everything together seems to be increasingly hopeless. Post-modern philosophy has drawn some consequences from it. It has consciously dismissed the postulate of unity which previously marked all of western thought This results not only in the acceptance and tolerance of diversity, but also a “fundamental option” for pluralism. Thus post-modern thought has arrived at a new qualitative pluralism, according to which universal and absolute values and norms simply do not exist. Reason itself has become plural. Truth, humanitarianism and justice now exist only in the plural. Therefore there is no longer a universal and definitively valid religion. 2. RELIGIOUS PLURALISM AS A THEOLOGICAL CHALLENGE Although the world was already pluralistic, today we are discovering this pluralism anew; today we are more aware of it than ever and cannot help but wonder how we should act in regard to it. This is a situation that calls into question the very basis of Christianity and in which the churches have a new challenge. In the Second Vatican Council (1962-65) the Catholic Church defines herself precisely as a sign and instrument of unity and peace (LG 1 et al.). Therefore today’s world represents an immense challenge for her. From the very beginning the Church has proclaimed a twofold message. She emphatically supported – and continues to do so – the idea that every person, regardless of the colour of his skin and the ethnic or cultural group to which he or she belongs, is an image of God (Gen 1,27) and that every individual possesses an absolute, even unique value. The basic human rights are therefore universal and apply to every single individual. Since the Second Vatican Council, and especially during the present pontificate, the Catholic Church has been more than ever working for the universal respect of human rights. This universality applies first of all to the Church’s salvific mission. Jesus sent his apostles into the whole world, to all nations, to all human beings

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(Mt 28,19; Mk 16,15; Lk 24,27; Acts 1,8). The Church’s mission is therefore universal, and the Church is by her very nature missionary (AG 2). She is not tied to a given nation, nor to a given culture or language, or even to a given political or economic system. The Church is, in a manner of speaking, the world’s oldest “global player”. In the Second Vatican Council she describes herself as the universal sacrament of salvation and as a sign and instrument of unity (LG 1, 9, 48; GS 42, 45; AG 1, 5 et al.). She transcends all ethnic, national and cultural differences and wants to unite all peoples, tongues and cultures in praise of the one God. By saying that the one God is the Father of all people, a second element of the Church’s message is also raised. Alongside universality is the unity, indeed the unicity of the Church’s message. The Church proclaims the one and only God (Dt 6,4; Mk 12,29), who is the Father of all people, the good and the evil alike (Mt 5,45). She acknowledges her one Lord, Jesus Christ (1 Cor 8,6; Eph 4,5). In no other name is there salvation (Acts 4,12). He is the sole mediator between God and man (1 Tim 2,5). He is the one high priest who redeemed us once and for all (Heb 7,27). This message has been given us once for all time (Jud 3). Therefore there can be only the one true Church, which is the una sancta catholica et apostolica ecclesia, as we call it in the Creed. In the Catholic selfunderstanding she is united in the one common profession of faith in the Lord Jesus Christ, in the celebration of the same sacraments, especially of the Eucharist, the sacrament of unity, and in the one service of unity in the college of Bishops with and under the successor of Peter (LG 13). In view of this strong emphasis on the unity and unicity of Jesus Christ and his Church on the one hand and the pluralistic condition of the modern and post-modern world on the other hand, it is not surprising that a broad and bitter discussion on the very question of the unity and unicity of Jesus Christ would develop both inside the realm of theology and outside of it. Not only has cultural pluralism increased, but we are also much more conscious of religious diversity than we were in the past. Today more than in earlier times we know more about the many centuries and millennia before Jesus Christ came into the world, and we know how many millions of people – even today, two thousand years after the birth of Christ – still have not been grasped by the Christian message and live outside of Christianity. Shall they all be lost forever? How is this compatible with the justice and mercy of God and God’s desire that all people be saved? Knowledge of the diversity of religions is understandably nothing new. What is new, however, is the way that – because of globalisation – we are more conscious of this phenomenon and it has a new urgency. Religions too have drawn nearer to one another in the “global village” of the world. They are no longer separated from one another by national borders, nor do they live side by side in isolation. Many a time they live next to one another or

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mixed together in the same country. Almost all of us live side by side with followers of other religions, people whom we truly value as human beings. In our global situation tolerance, mutual acceptance and peace between religions is an important prerequisite for peace in the world and an essential contribution to peace among nations and to peace within nations.

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3. THE RELIGIOUS PLURALISM THESIS It is in this context that the newer religiously-pluralistic ideas of theology must be understood. I would like merely to mention a few names: Raimundo Pannikar, John Hick, Paul F. Knitter. The question as such is not new. We already find it during the period of the Enlightenment, a little in J. E. Lessing, and we meet it again in the liberal theologies, most of all in the work of E. Troeltsch, who acknowledges the immense value of Christianity, but not its absolute value. Rejecting the relativisation of the Enlightenment were first and foremost the representatives of German idealism, with Hegel in the lead. Since his day there has been, and still is, talk of Christianity’s claim to absoluteness. But today idealistic thinking is often accused of being responsible for the totalitarian ideologies of our century. Since the collapse of the totalitarian ideologies this thinking is often criticised as being “Euro-centric”, “imperialistic” and “totalitarian”; it is accused of not giving due consideration to the essential diversity of reality and cultures. Against this background the theory of religious plurality has developed, according to which there is not only a diversity of religions but also of revelations, which thus makes it possible to have a diversity of forms of salvific responses. As a consequence this theory requires the recognition of more than one mediator of salvation. It becomes aggravated in the discussion of the unicity of Jesus Christ, more precisely, therefore, in the question of whether Jesus Christ is the one and only and, at the same time, the universal mediator of salvation for every person. It is obvious that this question touches upon a central and fundamental point of the Christian faith. With this question the identity of Christianity and of the Church is at stake. Various theologians have chosen a new epistemology as a philosophical basis for the pluralistic theories and have fallen back on Kant’s theory of knowledge. According to Kant only the “phainomenon” of a thing is knowable, and not its “nooumenon”. This means that we recognise only what things are for us, and not what they are in truth and in themselves. Ultimately for post-modern philosophy, it is an aesthetical, not a philosophical, understanding of truth. Frequently one hears spoken of a “renewal of mythical thinking”. Thus we can only acknowledge what God means for us at a particular time. We cannot grasp the being of God per sé. Therefore it is impossible to

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analyse the many diverse images of God for their objective truth. If there can be no absolute in history – and if even more so there can be only ideas, concepts, images and ideals of the divine that can point us to the transcendent truth without this truth itself appearing – then it is clear that Christianity can make no claims of absoluteness. Accordingly Hick rejects the identification of God with a single historical figure, with Jesus of Nazareth, as a myth. Jesus Christ is relativised to a religious genius through whom people have become aware of their divine filiation. If the theory of religious pluralism thus first derives from the basic equality of importance of the various religions, it however does not follow that for proponents of the theory all religions are actually of equal value and all differences among them are insignificant. They are quite far removed from such a superficial relativism. It is also obvious that religions not only contain great and deep insights, but also destructive elements such as superstition and inhumane practices. For the proponent of the theory of religious pluralism the criterion for distinguishing and judging is not theoretical but ethical and practical. Authoritative for the “evaluation” of religions is their respective readiness to integrate people and the various areas of human life in a process that leads from self-centredness to reality-centredness. The advantage is held by that religion that corresponds more to human dignity and does more to promote that dignity. The question is admittedly whether this ethical and practical, ultimately humanistic criterion is sufficient from the philosophical and theological point of view. It is quite obvious that with this criterion one can claim that one religion has priority or advantage over another, but cannot claim however the unicity of a single one, or in concrete terms, of the Christian religion. According to these criteria Christianity can be held to be of great value, but not exclusive validity. Therefore there is a basic pluralism and a competition among religions. We can still more fundamentally argue and ask if there can be in general an ethical criterion that does not necessarily assume a theoretical criterion. Who can say what is truly human? In order to answer this question, every ethical and practical criterion assumes a theoretical judgement because the practical judgement will be different according to whichever concept of man it consciously or unconsciously assumes. Or, to express it in basic terms: the question about the objective truth of reality cannot be ignored. If the question of truth is no longer asked, we arrive at a purely esthetical understanding of the world in which one assesses things according to their subjective experiential meaning and by which a person eclectically decides in favour of what seems most likely to make him feel happy. Thus in the “market of possibilities” one can choose à la carte and simply allow the contradictions to stand. Thus belief in plurality and tolerance threatens to develop into indifference and lack of interest. Not without cause does post-

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modern thinking lead many of its advocates to nihilism. Friedrich Nietzsche proves to be their precursor and model.

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4. THE TEACHING OF THE SECOND VATICAN COUNCIL We must now consider the unsolved premises, the consequences and, not least of all, the contradictions with the central and fundamental statements of Sacred Scripture and tradition, concerning ourselves once again most of all with the theological tradition as it was formulated by the Second Vatican Council. Even before the newer theological concepts were developed, the Second Vatican Council addressed this problem on the basis of its own tradition. From that time onwards a number of Catholic theologians have attempted to offer solutions. In the Second Vatican Council the Catholic Church rejected the position she frequently held in the past, by which she judged non-Christian religions as heresy and superstition. In the Declaration on the Relation of the Church to non-Christian religions, Nostra Aetate, the Council clearly and plainly stated that the Church rejects nothing that is true and holy in these religions. She regards with sincere reverence those ways of conduct and of life, those precepts and teachings which, though differing in many aspects from the ones she holds and sets forth, nonetheless often reflect “a ray of that truth which enlightens all men” (NA 2). In the Decree on the Church’s Missionary Activity, Ad Gentes, the Council picked up on the teaching of many of the Fathers of the Church and spoke about truth and grace (AG 9) and the “seeds of the Word” (AG 11) which can be found among the pagans through a kind of hidden presence of God. The Council confirmed the theological teaching that God, who is the salvation of all human beings (1 Tim 2,4), shows the way to salvation to those who, through no fault of their own, do not know Jesus Christ but, moved by grace, try in their actions to do God’s will as they know it through the dictates of their conscience (LG 16; cf. GS 22). However, in the Declaration on Religious Liberty, Dignitatis humanae, the Council clearly and unambiguously taught that the “one true religion exists” in the Catholic, apostolic Church, but she also teaches that every person is duty-bound to follow the truth “according to his or her conscience”; because “truth can impose itself on the mind of man only in virtue of its own truth” (DH 1; cf. 3). Thus the Council dismisses any recourse to the older tradition of much of the earlier missionary activity; it rejects all forms of force or pressure to join the Christian faith or any other religion. By its very nature an act of faith is a free act (DH 10). With this declaration the Council recognised every person’s right not only to adhere inwardly and privately to his or her religion but also to profess it publicly. The Council’s starting point for this teaching is the New Testament,

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especially the reference from the Letter to the Colossians and the Prologue of John’s Gospel, whereby all things were created in, through and for Jesus Christ (Col 1,15-16). Everything came to be through the Word that became man in Jesus Christ, who is life and the light that enlightens every person (Jn 1,3-5,9). This New Testament teaching was continued by the Fathers of the Church. They said that in all truth in the non-Christian religions too there are fragments of the truth (logoi spermatikoi), that appeared in all its fullness in Jesus Christ once and for all time. The encyclical Redemptoris Missio “on the permanent validity of the Church’s missionary mandate” (1990) develops the Council’s teaching and develops another further point of view. The encyclical gives not only a christological argument, but also a pneumatological one. The Spirit of God is present and at work everywhere, limited by neither space nor time. He is active in the heart of every person who is ordered to what is true and good and who honestly seeks God. The Spirit gives light and strength to every person to respond to his or her highest calling and offers each person the possibility “of sharing in the Paschal Mystery in a manner known to God. […] The Spirit therefore is at the very source of man’s existential and religious questioning, a questioning which is occasioned not only by contingent situations but by the very structure of his being. The Spirit’s presence and activity affect not only the individuals but also society and history, peoples, cultures and religions” (n. 28). Whether or not it is possible in this context to speak of “anonymous Christians”, as Karl Rahner did, is another question, and one which I prefer not to get into here. In connection with our topic it is much more important that the Spirit of God can be at work outside the visible Church and that in diverse ways the Spirit does act in a hidden manner. With these positions the Council and the post-conciliar teaching laid the basis for dialogue and collaboration with followers of other religions. It specifically established and affirmed this dialogue. Popes Paul VI and John Paul II have accepted this invitation and since that time expressly fostered interreligious dialogue. Since the time of Paul VI’s curial reform it has its own dicastery in the Roman Curia, a Council for Interreligious Dialogue. Through its statements the Council rejected the old, exclusionary theory and practice, according to which since Jesus Christ is the one and only mediator of salvation, outside of acknowledging him, i.e. “outside the Church” there is no salvation: Extra ecclesiam nulla salus, as Bishop Cyprian of Carthage (†258) said in his famous axiom, although admittedly in the context of a dispute within the Church; through Fulgentius of Ruspe, disciple of Augustine (†532), it later entered in a fundamental way into the Church’s theological tradition, especially in the Fourth Lateran Council (DS 802). This axiom is often interpreted to mean that all those who do not know and acknowledge the Christian faith are forever lost. Today this thinking is hardly any more comprehensible to the majority of people; it

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seems impossible to reconcile it with the justice and mercy of God or with his desire for the salvation of all, and even with human solidarity. Even before the Council this exclusionary theology was replaced by an inclusive theory, but even more so since the Council within Catholic theology – although with some modification of details. It attempts to explain, on the basis of the teaching of Scripture and the Fathers of the Church, that in Jesus Christ salvation has come to all people in a universal way that includes everything that is true and good in the other religions. That means that salvation, which non-Christians can share in if they live according to their conscience, is not some other type of salvation outside of and without Jesus Christ but more of a salvation in and through Jesus Christ. This view has in the meantime become more or less the opinio communis of Catholic theology. 5. UNITY IN DIVERSITY – CHRISTOLOGICAL AND TRINITARIAN The more recent theories of course ask if this inclusive approach goes far enough. Is it fair to the diversity of the other religions? Or does it not rather dominate the other religions? Does it not make them – according to the Church’s own self-understanding – anonymous Christian religions? Does this approach also not represent a disguised imperialism? In order to answer these questions we must consider the question of the unity and unicity of Jesus Christ in the diversity of religions more closely from a trinitarian and christological confession. This will lead us to a kenotic analysis of the problem of unity and diversity. Let us begin by giving an account of the meaning of acknowledging the unity and unicity of God. This faith unites Judaism, Christianity and Islam and it distinguishes these three monotheistic religions from all other religions. In the Christian understanding it admittedly has a specific meaning. In Christian understanding this confession of faith in the one and only God is not to be understood in a simple, quantitative sense; it means not only that there “is” only one God and not two or three of them. For the Bible it is not such a quantitative expression but first and foremost a qualitative, existential statement. Belief in the one and only God is to be seen against the background of a demand for a radical and integrated decision to belong to God with all one’s heart, soul and understanding (Mk 12,30 and parallels). A person cannot serve two masters (Mt 6,24). God is such that he monopolises us completely and with all the aspects of our being, and totally fulfils us. Theological tradition picked up this thought and developed it speculatively. It has demonstrated that by his very nature God is a reality that embraces and surpasses everything. Therefore in accordance with his

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nature God can only be one. Whoever professes more than one God has not understood what the word “God” really says and means. The Church historian, Tertullian, expressed this thought in the saying: “If God is not one, he does not exist”. Acknowledging the one God includes the belief that the one God is everything and the all-embracing God of all human beings. While polytheism holds the plurality of realities, peoples and cultures as an absolute, belief in the one God is the sharpest possible contradiction to the fragmentisation of reality and the clearest possible affirmation of the unity of the world and of the human race. This belief in the one God says that all men and women are brothers and sisters because they belong to one family, headed by one Father in heaven. Thus the universal confession of the one God also affirms the irrevocable and inalienable value of the individual. The most profound reason that profession of faith in the one God does not prescind from diversity but rather includes it to a certain extent lies in the trinitarian confession of one God in three persons. It is the interpretation of the Biblical expression: “God is Love” (1 Jn 4, 8-16). It means that the one and only God is not a solitary God but from eternity is self-giving love in which the Father communicates with the Son and the Father and the Son with the Holy Spirit. Each of the three persons is fully God, totally eternal, and each gives the others room in which they can communicate themselves and renounce themselves. In this kenotic way God is unity in diversity. Since from all eternity God is the self-giving and self-actualising love between the Father, Son and Holy Spirit, he can totally communicate himself in Jesus Christ without diminishing or losing something of himself in the process. The divinity of Jesus Christ is seen in the fact that he renounces himself (Phil 2,6). The omnipotence of love must not be asserted, but it can give of itself and give itself away, and it is precisely in this selfgiving that it is itself. Such a renunciation is true and genuine only if the Godhead of the eternal Logos does not absorb his humanity but accepts it in its peculiarity and lets it be itself. Thus, according to the Church’s faith, in Jesus Christ divinity and humanity are distinct and undivided (DS 302). Jesus Christ is unity in diversity and diversity in unity. Thus it is part of the basic understanding of the Fathers of the Church, which found expression in the ancient tradition of the Church, that in Jesus Christ the one and only God communicated himself historically once but completely, conclusively and unreservedly. In him dwells the fullness of the divinity (Col 1,19; 2,9). Thus in the coming of Jesus Christ in history the fullness of time has arrived (Mk 1,15; Gal 4,4). This historical coming of the fullness of time is the fulfilment of the eternal mystery of God (Rom 16,25; Eph 1,9; Col 1,26). The conclusion can only be that if God communicated himself in the concrete person and history of Jesus Christ completely, conclusively and

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unreservedly, then Jesus Christ is the “id quo maius cogitari nequit”, and nothing greater can be thought of (Anselm of Canterbury); then he is also the “id quo Deus maius operari nequit” and God can do nothing greater than him. Thus because of the very nature of the Christ-event there can be no other religion or culture that surpasses or adds to the order of salvation in Christ. Everything in the other religions that involves what is true and good participates in what has appeared in its fullness in Jesus Christ. Therefore no person, and no dogma of the Church, can exhaust this mystery completely. According to the New Testament the Spirit of God has been promised us in order to lead us ever anew and ever more deeply into this mystery (Jn 16,13). The encounter with other religions can be a way to open up to us more deeply a given aspect of the one mystery of Christ. Therefore for us interreligious dialogue is not a one-way street; it is a true encounter that can be an enrichment for us Christians. In it we are not only the givers, but also the learners and the receivers because through it we are allowed to grasp the entire fullness of the mystery that has been given us in Jesus Christ in its length and breadth, height and depth (cf. Eph 3,18). Thus from both the trinitarian and christological perspectives we are given an understanding of unity and unicity, an understanding that is not totalitarian; on the contrary, it gives the other room and sets free. It indeed belongs to the essence of true love, which unites at the deepest level but does not cause the other to lose his own identity but leads him or her to his own fulfilment. These speculative considerations immediately become concrete and practical when we look at the life of Jesus. He is, as the Gospels show us, the man for others; he, the Lord, came not to lord it over others, but to serve and to offer his own life “for the many” (Mk 10,45). He, the one who renounces himself even to death, is exalted and made Lord of the Universe (Phil 2,6-11). Thus through Jesus Christ, self-consuming in self-giving service becomes a new universal imperative. Understood in this way the claim of the unity and unicity of the Christian order of salvation is no imperialistic thesis that dominates or oppresses other religions. Even less so is it the basis of nor does it foster an imperialistic understanding and an imperialistic practice of mission. It has nothing to do with a world order, although throughout history it has often been misunderstood and misused. If the thesis of the unity and unicity of the Christian order of salvation in its universal scope is understood in this way, then it asserts and defends with its universal and global claim the inalienable right of each and every freedom. It is precisely its concrete decisiveness (to use the expression of H. Schlier), that is in opposition to every form of syncretism and relativism, that is the foundation of its relations with other religions, relations that are not only tolerant and respectful but also dialogical and diaconial, far removed from every narrow-minded form of fundamentalism.

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This dialogical and diaconal relationship has three aspects: Christianity affirms, respects and defends everything in the other religions that is true, good, noble and holy (cf. Phil 4,8) (via positiva seu affirmativa); it prophetically criticises whatever they contain that is detrimental to the honour of God and human dignity, when the divine and human are so mixed together that neither God nor the human person is respected in their full dignity (via negativa seu critica et prophetica); finally, it wants to invite the other religions, in faith in Jesus Christ and through participation in his fullness to reach their own fullness and completion (via eminentiae). The missionary decree of the Second Vatican Council puts all three together when it says that everything that is good and true in the religions of mankind finds its measure in Jesus Christ and must be measured critically against him, purified by him and brought to fulfilment (AG 9). Everything has been created according to Jesus Christ (Col 1,16; cf. 1 Cor 8,6), and everything shall be brought together in him (Eph 1,10). This “everything” reaches far beyond the area of religion; it touches upon all of reality and places everything under the one measure, Jesus Christ, and his self-renouncing service “for the many”. Understood in this way the Christian faith, precisely in its claim of universality that so many people find objectionable is an appeal for and the basis of mutual tolerance and respect, of sharing and communication, of exchange and interchange, of understanding, reconciliation and peace. It points the way to him who is “the focal point of all the desires of history and civilisation, the centre of mankind, the joy of all hearts and the fulfilment of all aspirations” (GS 45) and who is “our peace” (Eph 2,14). Mission is at the service of this peace – peace with God and peace among nations.

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CLAUDE GEFFRÉ*

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LA PRÉTENTION DU CHRISTIANISME À L’UNIVERSEL: IMPLICATIONS MISSIOLOGIQUES

Dans le concert des religions du monde, le christianisme semble faire figure d’exception. Non seulement, comme toute religion, il prétend à une certaine universalité dans la mesure où il propose un message de salut qui s’adresse à tout être humain. Mais son message est nécessairement universel dans la mesure où il se réfère tout entier à la médiation historique de Jésus Christ qui coïncide avec l’irruption même de l’Absolu même qui est Dieu. Aucune autre religion n’a la prétention de se réclamer d’un fondateur qui n’est pas seulement un prophète, un envoyé de Dieu ou un médiateur mais le Fils même de Dieu. Si depuis les origines, l’Église vit avec la conscience d’une mission universelle à l’égard du monde entier, ce n’est pas seulement par obéissance à l’ordre de mission de Jésus: «Allez donc: de toutes les nations faits des disciples, les baptisant au nom du Père, du Fils et du Saint Esprit». C’est parce que elle ne peut pas faire autrement que d’annoncer qu’en Jésus de Nazareth, le Règne de Dieu est advenu pour tout être humain. Aucun chrétien ne peut contester la vocation universelle de l’Église. Mais nous savons mieux aujourd’hui que nous ne devons pas nous réclamer trop vite de l’universalité du salut en Jésus Christ pour justifier la prétention universaliste du christianisme comme religion historique. Une telle prétention n’est pas seulement un obstacle à un dialogue loyal sur un plan d’égalité avec les autres religions du monde. Elle contredit notre nouvelle expérience de la particularité chrétienne. A la fin du XIXè siècle, aux beaux temps du colonialisme, certains responsables d’Église croyaient sincèrement que le christianisme balayerait progressivement les autres religions. Or nous constatons que de grandes religions comme l’islam et les religions de l’Orient demeurent vivantes et même se renouvellent sans parler de leur séduction nouvelle auprès des populations du premier monde, Europe et Amérique du Nord. Un pluralisme religieux apparemment insurmontable constitue le principal défi pour l’Église au seuil du troisième millénaire. Et même si, grâce à un réseau de communication toujours plus performant, l’Évangile est porté à la connaissance de tout être humain, la mission de l’Église est loin de connaître un succès mondial. Comme le disait Jean Paul II dans l’encyclique Redemptoris Missio: «Au terme du deuxième millénaire, un regard *

Institut Catholique, Paris.

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d’ensemble sur l’humanité montre que la mission de l’Église en est encore à ses débuts». S’il est vrai que la mondialisation constitue une chance pour la mission de l’Église, il est incontestable aussi que les hommes de notre temps ont une conscience beaucoup plus vive de la relativité historique du christianisme alors qu’ils connaissent mieux les richesses des autres traditions religieuses1. Et il convient d’ajouter que cette conscience de la relativité historique du christianisme coïncide avec un recul de la civilisation occidentale dans le monde. Alors que durant des siècles la culture dominante du christianisme fut celle du monde gréco-romain, nous sommes aujourd’hui les témoins d’un nouvel âge de l’Église caractérisé par un polycentrisme culturel de plus en plus effectif 2. Jusqu’ici, je n’ai fait que restituer la nouvelle expérience historique de l’Église au début du XXIe siècle. Mais c’est pour des motifs proprement théologiques que la prétention à l’universel du christianisme fait l’objet d’un débat crucial. Comment comprendre cette universalité alors que depuis Vatican II l’Église porte un jugement positif sur les autres traditions religieuses et discerne en elles des semences de bonté, de vérité et même de sainteté? Le concile ne va pas jusqu’à désigner les religions non chrétiennes comme des “voies de salut”, mais il nous dit clairement que l’Église «regarde avec un respect sincère ces manières d’agir et de vivre, ces règles et ces doctrines qui, quoiqu’elles diffèrent en beaucoup de points de ce qu’elle-même tient et propose, cependant apportent un rayon de la vérité qui illumine tous les hommes» (NA 2). Dans les quelques réflexions qui suivent, il s’agira de prendre au sérieux la particularité historique du christianisme et donc sa relativité sans renoncer à sa vocation universelle, mondiale, catholique. Comme nous aurons l’occasion de le vérifier, la véritable universalité s’enracine toujours dans une particularité concrète. Ce qui est vrai dans l’ordre de la culture l’est aussi dans l’ordre du religieux. Nous commencerons par porter un regard rétrospectif sur les prétentions à l’universel de l’Église du passé. Nous pourrons ensuite à la lumière des plus récents développements de la Théologie des religions établir les discernements nécessaires entre l’universalité du Christ lui-même et l’universalité du christianisme comme religion mondiale. Il faudra alors réfléchir sur les formes et le style de la mission. La mission permanente de l’Église c’est d’annoncer que Dieu sauve tout homme en Jésus Christ. Mais cette vocation universelle s’accomplit selon des modalités nouvelles. L’Église doit continuer à annoncer Jésus Christ tout en témoignant de l’avènement du Règne de Dieu hors de ses frontières. LA PRÉTENTION CHRÉTIENNE À L’UNIVERSEL À L’ÉPREUVE DE L’HISTOIRE Il n’est pas question de survoler vingt siècles de christianisme pour dénoncer après bien d’autres les fausses prétentions à l’universel dont

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l’Église a pu se rendre coupable. Il s’agit d’essayer de comprendre comment, contrairement au message évangélique sous le signe de la gratuité du don de Dieu, le christianisme historique a pu véhiculer ce que l’on peut appeler une “idéologie unitaire”, c’est-à-dire la volonté d’imposer comme universelle la vérité absolue dont il est le témoin et de réaliser dès ici-bas l’unité du Règne de Dieu et de l’histoire profane3. Aujourd’hui même, on ne peut apprécier la portée de la mission universelle de l’Église qu’à la lumière d’une réflexion sur les rapports de l’Église et de l’histoire. Comment affirmer une efficacité du christianisme dans l’histoire ou encore une responsabilité de l’Église dans le monde et maintenir en même temps la gratuité du message chrétien? On ne peut réfléchir sur les rapports de l’Église et de l’histoire sans évoquer le messianisme chrétien qui n’a de sens que par rapport au messianisme paradoxal de Jésus qui est à la fois en continuité et en rupture avec le messianisme d’Israël4. Ce dernier désigne l’ensemble des croyances relatives à la venue d’un Messie envoyé par Dieu qui rétablira la justice, la paix et l’innocence première. Quoiqu’il en soit de l’attente eschatologique d’un Royaume de justice et de paix qui dépasse l’horizon de cette histoire, le messianisme juif est un messianisme royal et même nationaliste. Jésus va prendre ses distances par rapport à des attentes terrestres trop immédiates: la restauration du royaume d’Israël. Au lieu d’un messianisme politique, terrestre et nationaliste, il veut instaurer un messianisme spirituel, céleste et universel. Mais les choses ne sont pas si simples. Même si son Royaume n’est pas de ce monde, il veut anticiper le Règne de Dieu ici-bas grâce au témoignage rendu à l’Évangile. Comme pour souligner l’ambiguïté du messianisme qui se réclame de Jésus, on constate qu’au long de l’histoire de l’Église les figures historiques du messianisme chrétien ont été très diverses. Alors que le messianisme désigne une puissance qui travaille à la transformation du monde et de l’histoire, la tendance dominante du christianisme durant des siècles fut plutôt d’affirmer la doctrine du mépris du monde (contemptus mundi )5 et de conclure à la vanité d’une histoire vouée à la perdition. A la suite de certains historiens, on peut distinguer quatre figures historiques du rapport de l’Église à l’histoire: le millénarisme, la chrétienté, le dualisme et le messianisme6. Le millénarisme ou la croyance en un retour du Christ pour un règne de mille ans conjugue l’espérance messianique d’Israël avec une visée résolument universaliste7. En dépit de la naïveté de ses représentations, le millénarisme est réapparu plusieurs fois durant les trois premiers siècles de l’Église naissante. Il était l’expression de l’idéologie spontanément universaliste du groupe Église qui se réclamait de la royauté du Christ sur le monde. Il est plus important de s’arrêter sur deux tournants historiques importants du point de vue du rapport entre le messianisme de Jésus et l’histoire, à savoir ce qui commence avec la conversion de Constantin, c’est-

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à-dire l’idéal de la chrétienté et ce qui s’inaugure avec le concile de Vatican II qui aura lui-même deux issues assez différentes que l’on peut caractériser comme le dualisme et le messianisme.

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Le rêve de la chrétienté Au début du IVe siècle, la conversion de Constantin inaugure un nouveau destin historique du christianisme, ce que l’on a pu appeler le Césaro-papisme (un unique Dieu, un empereur, un empire qui coïncide avec les frontières de l’Église). Grâce à cet événement contingent de la conversion, l’Église a conscience de pouvoir réaliser le rêve du prophétisme biblique et du messianisme chrétien: établir le Règne de Dieu dans les chemins de l’histoire et réaliser l’unité du monde et de l’histoire sous la royauté du Christ ressuscité. Il y a donc une coïncidence providentielle entre le Règne de Dieu annoncé et le mouvement effectif de l’histoire. La prétention à l’universel du christianisme se vérifie et l’idéologie unitaire qui va hanter la mémoire de l’Église durant des siècles se met en place. L’empereur converti introduit la loi du Christ comme loi de la nouvelle société politique. Le christianisme est promu comme religion d’État et le pouvoir qui avait jusqu’ici persécuté les chrétiens se met au service de leurs idéaux. La raison politique se fait l’alliée de l’Évangile pour établir une société fraternelle qui soit comme l’anticipation de la Jérusalem future. L’Église comme société parfaite constitue le modèle auquel doit se référer toute société humaine et tous les aspects de la vie humaine sont subordonnés à une fin religieuse. C’est entre le XIe siècle et le XVe (de Grégoire VII aux papes d’Avignon) que la chrétienté occidentale atteint son apogée. Malgré les effets bénéfiques de la chrétienté dans le sens d’une humanisation de l’homme et d’une certaine fraternité, les résultats de la chrétienté demeurent très ambigus8. On aboutit à une confusion de la société civile et de la société religieuse qui ne respecte pas la libre autonomie de chacun dans le domaine religieux. Quand la politique des empereurs favorisait l’unité et l’expansion de l’Église, les évêques trouvaient tout naturel d’user du bras séculier contre les hérétiques et les schismatiques. Puisque la vérité absolue révélée en Jésus Christ est nécessaire au salut de tout homme, tous les moyens sont bons pour maintenir ces hommes dans la vérité ou les contraindre d’y adhérer. On voit ici poindre l’idéologie de la vérité obligatoire au détriment des droits de la conscience. Il convient d’ajouter que dans la perspective de la chrétienté, il y a une telle survalorisation du salut des âmes dans un salut au-delà de l’histoire que cette dernière n’est pas vraiment prise au sérieux dans son autonomie: elle est privée de toute capacité messianique. On aboutit à un messianisme spirituel qui s’accommode très bien de la violence de l’histoire. La doctrine dite du “mépris du monde” d’origine monastique l’emporte sur toute

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spiritualité adaptée à ce que peut être un état de vie dans le monde. Avec la Révolution française et l’abolition de l’Ancien Régime, il y eut une remise en cause radicale de l’idéal de la chrétienté. Mais en fait durant tout le XIXe siècle, on assiste à des mouvements de restauration qui continuent de trouver dans l’idéal de la chrétienté médiévale et son idéologie universaliste un point de référence obligée. Qu’il suffise d’évoquer les erreurs condamnées par le Syllabus de Pie IX en 1864. Les libertés modernes sont rejetées et l’idée d’une société laïque complètement indépendante de l’Église apparaît comme une trahison de la foi et une subversion de l’idéal d’une union de l’Église et du monde sous l’unique royauté du Christ.

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Le tournant de Vatican II Déjà dans les années 50, aux États-Unis et dans les démocraties occidentales, on décèle la recherche d’une nouvelle forme de présence de l’Église à la société qui remette en cause l’idéologie unitaire, en particulier l’idée même d’une société chrétienne comme forme nécessaire de la relation entre l’Église et l’histoire. Mais c’est Vatican II, surtout dans les deux grands textes de Lumen Gentium et de Gaudium et Spes et dans La Déclaration sur La liberté religieuse qui consacre la fin de la chrétienté et qui définit un nouveau rapport de l’Église avec l’histoire profane9. D’une part, l’Église n’est plus définie comme Societas perfecta mais comme un Peuple en marche vers le Royaume. On insiste moins sur la dimension juridique et sociétaire de l’Église que sur sa dimension sacramentaire et exodale. D’autre part, l’Église reconnaît l’autonomie de la société et l’indépendance du pouvoir politique par rapport au pouvoir religieux. On renonce à l’idéal d’une cité chrétienne et pour la première fois on accepte l’idée d’une société civile comme société laïque, démocratique et pluraliste. On renonce à l’idée même d’un statut privilégié accordé au catholicisme comme religion d’État. Société pluraliste dit nécessairement pluralité des opinions, des croyances et respect de la liberté de conscience et de la liberté religieuse. Vatican II inaugure ainsi un nouveau rapport entre le Christ toujours vivant et l’histoire. Alors que depuis Augustin, l’Église portait un jugement pessimiste sur l’histoire profane comme histoire de la perdition, on commence à reconnaître l’autonomie de l’histoire universelle dans sa différence avec l’histoire sainte. L’Église n’est pas l’unique productrice de sens dans l’ordre religieux, moral et culturel. L’histoire laissée à elle-même est porteuse de sens et elle pose des questions à l’Église. Dieu parle aux hommes non seulement par l’Écriture et par les grands textes de la tradition dogmatique, mais par les “signes des temps”. L’Eglise doit donc être dans une attitude d’écoute et de dialogue. «L’Église n’ignore pas tout ce qu’elle a

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reçu de l’histoire et de l’évolution du genre humain» (GS 26). La mission de l’Église est de témoigner de la Bonne Nouvelle et de la venue du Règne sans exercer un pouvoir direct sur les sociétés. Mais en fait, cette prise au sérieux de l’histoire dans son autonomie, c’est-à-dire une histoire qui a son sens en elle-même et qui dénonce l’idéologie universaliste de la chrétienté, va avoir à l’époque moderne deux issues très différentes que j’ai déjà désignées comme le dualisme et le messianisme. 1. Le dualisme. On se félicite avec une certaine complaisance de la distinction du temporel et du spirituel, du séculier et du spécifique religieux chrétien, de l’histoire profane et de l’histoire du salut, de l’Église et du monde. C’est le beau temps des théologies optimistes du travail et des réalités terrestres. C’est le succès aussi de ce qu’on a appelé la “théologie de la sécularisation”, c’est-à-dire d’une théologie qui non seulement accepte la sécularisation moderne comme un fait inéluctable mais qui en donne une justification à partir de la doctrine biblique de la création et d’une théologie de l’incarnation10. La sécularisation moderne ne serait que l’aboutissement du mouvement de désacralisation dont les prophètes d’Israël ont été les initiateurs contre toute forme de sacré et d’idolâtrie. Cette théologie qui est un héritage lointain de la doctrine protestante des deux Règnes risque d’aboutir à une privatisation du christianisme et à un hypertrophie de l’intériorité comme seul lieu d’avènement du Règne de Dieu. L’histoire concrète est abandonnée à elle-même et on se méfie de tout messianisme chrétien comme nouvelle version de l’idéologie universaliste du temps de la chrétienté. En fait, l’histoire a perdu son effectivité messianique et on peut se demander si à l’époque moderne, surtout en Europe, la sécularisation ne consacre pas l’échec historique du christianisme en tant que dynamisme effectif sur le cours de l’histoire. 2. Le messianisme. L’autre issue de Vatican II c’est le messianisme ou plutôt la redécouverte du messianisme. Il y a eu déjà tout au long de l’histoire des mouvements proprement messianiques, c’est-à-dire des courants spirituels qui croient à une transformation de l’histoire à partir de l’utopie chrétienne d’une fraternité universelle, comme certaines communautés monastiques, les frères du libre Esprit ou au XIIe siècle le mouvement inspiré par Joachim de Flore. Mais au XXe siècle, ce sont les théologies de la libération nées en Amérique latine et qui ont de plus en plus des versions parallèles en Afrique et en Asie qui ont contribué à une redécouverte de la dimension messianique du christianisme. Elles refusent le dualisme aussi bien dans sa version pessimiste, c’est-à-dire une condamnation du monde et une indifférence à l’histoire profane au nom d’une conception purement spiritualiste et eschatologique du salut, que dans sa version optimiste comme les théologies modernes de la

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sécularisation qui se réfugient dans une conception privée du christianisme. Sous prétexte que l’Église ne fait pas de politique, on insiste uniquement sur la conversion individuelle et on néglige la dimension sociale et politique de l’Évangile qui ne s’accommode pas de n’importe quelles structures injustes. En insistant sur la dimension messianique du christianisme, les théologiens de la libération prétendent prolonger la prédication des prophètes d’Israël qui affirmaient que l’oppression n’est pas une fatalité historique mais un produit de l’histoire. Le messianisme de Jésus est un messianisme paradoxal parce que s’il renonce aux visées nationalistes du messianisme d’Israël, il n’aboutit pas pour autant à un messianisme purement spirituel. La prédication de Jésus l’a conduit à la mort parce qu’il a été fidèle à l’image d’un Dieu libérateur qui déloge les puissants de leur trône et exalte les faibles. La libération historique des hommes est donc une partie intégrante du salut. Il faut chercher une articulation entre l’histoire et le Royaume mais en renonçant à la prétention d’une domination universelle de l’Église sur son environnement social et politique. Par le témoignage des chrétiens et de tous les hommes de bonne volonté, l’histoire concrète peut devenir une anticipation du Règne de Dieu qui vient. Ce détour par l’histoire n’était pas inutile pour dénoncer l’illusion d’une fausse universalité du christianisme qui est tout à la fois contraire à la pratique de Jésus qui se relativise par rapport au Royaume qu’il annonce et qui révèle un Dieu différent de l’idée commune de Dieu, celle qui peut servir de caution à une idéologie unitaire. Nous avons vu comment le rêve de la chrétienté quant à un contrôle autoritaire de toutes les sphères sociales, politiques et morales de la société s’est effondré à la fois sous le choc de la Réforme et de la division de l’Église et sous l’effet de l’émancipation politique et culturelle qui coïncide avec l’avènement de la raison moderne. Ce deuil d’une ambition universaliste ne doit pas conduire à la marginalisation de l’Église et à un renoncement à sa vocation missionnaire. Mais avant de voir comment ce nouveau destin du christianisme dans le monde nous invite à inventer un nouveau style de la présence de l’Église dans le monde, il nous faut encore réfléchir théologiquement à la particularité historique du christianisme dans son rapport au mystère du Christ. C’est toujours dans et à partir d’une particularité concrète que l’on peut vérifier la catholicité du christianisme comme religion mondiale11. UNIVERSALITÉ DU MYSTÈRE DU CHRIST ET PARTICULARITÉ CHRÉTIENNE L’Église catholique n’a pas attendu Vatican II pour dépasser une interprétation rigoureuse du fameux adage: «Hors de l’Église pas de salut»12. La plupart des théologiens ont donc rejeté un ecclésiocentrisme étroit pour adopter un inclusivisme christologique qui était déjà sous-jacent

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à plusieurs textes du concile au moins sous la forme de ce qu’on appelle la théologie de l’accomplissement13. Le Christ porte à leur accomplissement les valeurs positives dont les autres traditions religieuses peuvent déjà être porteuses. Mais pour faire droit aux exigences du pluralisme religieux et pour favoriser un dialogue sur un plan d’égalité entre le christianisme et les autres religions, on constate une tendance largement répandue à prendre ses distances à l’égard d’un christianocentrisme trop affirmé. Surtout en Asie, face aux difficultés de la mission et en fonction d’une meilleure connaissance de la richesse du patrimoine spirituel des grandes religions de l’Orient, certains théologiens sont tentés d’adopter une position dite pluraliste qui coïncide avec un théocentrisme radical selon lequel toutes les religions tournent autour de ce soleil qu’est la Réalité dernière de l’univers, qu’on la nomme Dieu ou non14. Il semble que le seul moyen de désabsolutiser le christianisme comme religion universelle de salut et de prendre au sérieux la portée salutaire des autres religions soit de remettre en question l’universalité du salut en Jésus Christ. Et puisque c’est en tant même que Verbe fait chair que Jésus est l’unique médiateur entre Dieu et les hommes, on interprétera le langage de l’incarnation comme un langage métaphorique pour désigner l’ouverture exceptionnelle de Jésus à Dieu. Sans aller jusque là, certains théologiens rappellent que Dieu seul sauve et que puisque Dieu travaille au salut de tous les hommes à travers d’autres médiations que le Christ, il faut renoncer à considérer le Christ comme la cause exclusive et constitutive du salut de tous les hommes15. On doit observer tout de suite qu’il est possible de maintenir avec toute la tradition l’universalité du salut en Jésus Christ et donc de professer un inclusivisme constitutif tout en défendant un pluralisme inclusif qui respecte ce que chaque tradition a de propre dans l’ordre du salut. Il ne faut donc pas confondre l’universalité du Christ et l’universalité du christianisme. Depuis le concile, la théologie est prête à reconnaître la portée salutaire des autres religions, mais pour autant que celles-ci ont un lien secret avec cette voie spéciale et unique qu’est la médiation du Christ. Je parlerai volontiers avec d’autres théologiens de médiations dérivées. L’enseignement de l’encyclique Redemptoris Missio est explicite à cet égard: «Le concours de médiations de type et d’ordre divers n’est pas exclu, mais celles-ci tirent leur sens et leur valeur uniquement de celle du Christ et ne peuvent être parallèles et complémentaires» (n. 5). Et comme je le montrerai plus loin, cette prétention chrétienne n’a rien d’insultant pour les autres traditions car elle respecte la part d’irréductible de chaque religion que nous ne sommes nullement contraints de considérer comme de l’implicite ou de l’anonyme chrétien. Finalement, ce n’est pas en édulcorant le scandale de l’incarnation et la portée centrale de l’événement Jésus Christ pour le salut de tout homme que nous favoriserons le dialogue interreligieux et que nous manifesterons

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le mieux le caractère non impérialiste de l’universalisme chrétien. Au moment même où nous confessons que Jésus Christ est l’unique source du salut, c’est le paradoxe même de l’incarnation, c’est-à-dire la manifestation de l’Absolu dans et par une particularité historique, qui nous invite à ne pas absolutiser le christianisme comme voie exclusive de salut. Nous sommes devenus très sensibles à la particularité historique du christianisme au sein des religions du monde alors que la prétention universaliste du christianisme n’est pas vérifiée historiquement. Mais il faut comprendre cette particularité dans la logique même du mystère de l’incarnation. Le christianisme est congénitalement une religion dialogale16. Ce n’est pas une question de tolérance à l’âge du dialogue interreligieux. C’est une question de nature. Je voudrais le manifester rapidement en référence au paradoxe de l’incarnation, au scandale de la croix et en renouvelant notre compréhension de l’accomplissement en Jésus Christ de toute l’histoire religieuse de l’humanité. Le paradoxe du Christ comme universel concret Pour écarter une fausse compréhension de l’universalisme chrétien, il faudrait déployer toutes les implications du mystère de Christ compris comme Universel concret pour reprendre la belle expression de Nicolas de Cuse. Depuis les temps apostoliques, nous confessons Jésus comme Christ, c’est-à-dire comme Messie Fils de Dieu. Mais nous maintenons la distance entre Jésus et son Père, c’est-à-dire nous prenons au sérieux la particularité historique de l’humanité de Jésus comme icône du Dieu invisible. Jésus est bien la figure absolue de l’amour de Dieu. Mais Dieu ne peut se manifester qu’en termes non divins, dans l’humanité concrète et contingente d’un homme particulier. Conformément à l’affirmation très forte de saint Paul, «En lui habite toute la plénitude de la divinité, corporellement» (Col 2,9), nous croyons que la plénitude de Dieu habite en Jésus. Mais cette identification de Dieu en Jésus nous renvoie à l’identification de Dieu en luimême qui demeure un mystère inaccessible. Selon notre manière imparfaite de connaître, l’humanité particulière de Jésus de Nazareth ne peut être la traduction adéquate des richesses contenues dans la plénitude du mystère de Dieu. Ou alors, Jésus ne serait déjà plus une icône mais une idole. En d’autres termes, en référence à la règle d’or de Chalcédoine, sans confusion ni séparation, nous ne pouvons pas confondre l’élément historique et contingent de Jésus et son élément christique et divin. Comme Ernst Troeltsch au siècle dernier, Paul Tillich a cherché à prendre ses distances à l’égard d’une conception absolutiste du christianisme de type hégélien. Mais il ne le fait pas au nom de l’histoire des religions, il le fait au nom même du paradoxe de la foi. Le paradoxe absolu consiste dans le “non” absolu et le “oui” absolu que Dieu prononce sur la

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même personne. Cela se vérifie dans le cas de la personne même du Christ et dans le cas du christianisme comme religion de la révélation parfaite et finale de Dieu. La personne de Jésus comme manifestation historique du Logos invisible et universel réalise l’identité entre l’absolument universel et l’absolument concret17. Le paradoxe consiste en ce que le Christ comme être pleinement historique est dans une union indéfectible avec Dieu alors que l’histoire est sous le signe de la chute et de la séparation avec Dieu. L’intérêt de la démarche de Tillich qui est indissociable de sa doctrine christologique sur Jésus comme New Being est de montrer que loin d’être contraire à sa portée universelle, c’est la particularité historique de l’événement Jésus de Nazareth qui en est la condition de possibilité. Non seulement le Christ donne son sens à l’histoire mais il la porte: il est au centre de l’histoire comme événement de salut universel. Cette loi du paradoxe absolu se vérifie aussi dans le christianisme comme religion de la révélation finale sur Dieu. Toute particularité historique dans sa prétention à l’inconditionnel est sous le jugement de cet inconditionnel qui est Dieu. Le paradoxe consiste à affirmer que puisque le christianisme prétend être la religion de la révélation parfaite sur Dieu, il exclut tout inconditionnalité de la part d’une voie de révélation particulière à commencer par la sienne propre. C’est justement parce que le christianisme revendique à juste titre d’être la religion de la révélation finale qu’aucun des christianismes historiques depuis vingt siècles ne peut prétendre définir l’essence du christianisme comme religion de la révélation dernière sur Dieu. Cette vision audacieuse nous aide à dépasser une prétention naïve du christianisme qui se réclamerait de l’absolu de Jésus Christ pour revendiquer le monopole de toute vérité religieuse sur le mystère de Dieu et la relation de l’homme à Dieu. On rejoint ainsi la vision traditionnelle des Pères de l’Église qui considéraient l’économie du Verbe incarné comme le sacrement d’une économie plus vaste, celle du Verbe éternel qui coïncide avec l’histoire religieuse de l’humanité. Un christianisme sous le signe de la kénose de Dieu Le paradoxe du Christ comme l’unité de l’absolument universel et de l’absolument concret ne prend sa signification ultime qu’à la lumière d’une théologie de la Croix18. Le Christ n’a pas gardé jalousement son égalité avec Dieu mais il s’est dépouillé en prenant la condition de serviteur et il s’est abaissé jusqu’à la mort sur une croix (Phil 2,6-8). La croix a une valeur symbolique universelle. Elle est le symbole d’une universalité toujours liée au sacrifice d’une particularité. Jésus meurt à sa particularité juive pour renaître par la résurrection en figure d’universalité concrète, en figure de Christ. Le Christ ressuscité libère la personne de Jésus de Nazareth d’un

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particularisme qui l’aurait fait la propriété d’un groupe particulier, la première communauté de ses disciples. Ce mystère de la kénose donne sa note distinctive au christianisme parmi les religions du monde et nous aide à exorciser tout venin d’absolutisme dans sa prétention légitime à l’universel. C’est le tombeau vide, l’absence du fondateur qui a permis l’avènement du corps de l’Église. De même qu’il n’y a pas d’expérience chrétienne sans conscience d’une Origine absente, il n’y a pas de pratique chrétienne sans conscience d’un manque qui est la condition d’un rapport à l’autre, à l’étranger, au différent19. Cette dialectique de la particularité et de son dépassement par l’ouverture à l’autre nous permet de repenser l’articulation entre le message chrétien et la pluralité des traditions religieuses et culturelles. A l’encontre de tout impérialisme dans l’ordre de la vérité et de l’expérience religieuse, il s’agirait pour chaque communauté chrétienne et pour le christianisme tout entier d’être le signe de ce qui lui manque. L’expérience chrétienne ne se substitue pas aux autres expériences humaines authentiques qu’elles soient religieuses ou non, mais elle leur confère un sens inédit. L’identité chrétienne coïncide avec l’expérience d’une Altérité, celle de Dieu et l’altérité de toute autre vérité ou pratique qui n’est pas déjà englobée dans le système chrétien. A la différence d’une identité qui est sous le signe d’une unité de perfection, l’identité chrétienne est de l’ordre du devenir, du consentement à l’autre et du service de celui qui devient mon prochain. La vérité elle-même peut devenir une idole hors de la charité, disait Pascal. La vérité dont témoigne le christianisme, loin d’être une vérité englobante et close sur elle-même, se définit en termes de relation et même de manque. On dira volontiers, dans l’horizon du dialogue interreligeux, qu’elle n’est ni exclusive, ni inclusive de toute autre vérité, mais qu’elle est relative au sens de relationnelle à tout autre semence de vérité d’ordre religieux ou culturel. Un accomplissement non totalitaire L’événement Jésus Christ coïncide avec la révélation définitive sur le mystère de Dieu et le christianisme comme religion de la révélation finale accomplit toutes les semences de vérité, de bonté et même de sainteté qui peuvent se trouver disséminées dans les religions du monde. Il s’agit là d’une vérité incontestable, mais à la lumière d’une réflexion encore tâtonnante sur les rapports d’Israël et de l’Église, il s’agirait de réinterpréter dans un sens non totalitaire la notion d’accomplissement. Depuis le concile de Vatican II, la plupart des théologiens sont prêts à reconnaître dans le judaïsme comme religion de l’élection un irréductible qui ne se laisse pas intégrer dans l’Église au plan de l’histoire qui continue. Même si on ne peut pas identifier purement et simplement le rapport entre les deux Testaments et le rapport entre le judaïsme et le christianisme, la

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manière dont le Nouveau Testament accomplit la Loi et les prophètes demeure très éclairante20. Cela n’a jamais voulu dire que le premier Testament serait dépourvu de sens en dehors de son achèvement. Le nouveau Testament ne remplace pas le premier au sens où il l’abolirait. Il faut plutôt comprendre la Nouveauté de l’Évangile comme une “rupture instauratrice” d’un sens inédit qui n’abolit pas la Loi et les prophètes. De même, l’Église accomplit les promesses de l’ancienne Alliance, mais elle ne se substitue à Israël et on doit éviter de parler de l’Église en termes de nouvel Israël. Le schisme originaire de l’Église naissante et d’Israël est donc l’indice d’un dialogue potentiel qui est inscrit dans l’acte de naissance du christianisme comme nouvelle religion. Il faut comprendre la particularité chrétienne comme une altérité qui n’abolit pas mais qui ouvre à un rapport avec l’autre en lui conférant sa légitimité. Même s’il s’agit d’une analogie encore lointaine, on semble autorisé à dire que le rapport de l’Église au judaïsme a une valeur de paradigme quant au rapport actuel du christianisme aux autres religions. De même que l’Église n’intègre pas et ne remplace pas Israël, de même elle n’intègre pas et ne remplace pas la part d’irréductible dans l’ordre religieux dont une autre tradition religieuse peut être porteuse. Nous avons coutume de dire que les religions non chrétiennes, en dépit de leurs limites, sont porteuses de valeurs implicitement chrétiennes qui trouvent dans le christianisme leur accomplissement parfait. Une telle dialectique de la “préparation” et de l’accomplissement ne respecte pas assez la part d’irréductible propre à chaque tradition religieuse celui-là même pouvant relever de l’action secrète de l’Esprit de Dieu qui souffle où il veut. Nous sommes donc invités à réinterpréter dans un sens non totalitaire la catégorie incontestable d’accomplissement et à montrer que toutes les semences de vérité, de bonté et de sainteté manifestées tout au long de l’histoire religieuse de l’humanité trouveront leur accomplissement dans la plénitude du mystère du Christ mais de telle sorte que leur altérité irréductible soit respectée. J’éviterai ainsi de parler de valeurs implicitement chrétiennes qui ne trouveraient leur explicitation parfaite que dans le christianisme. Je parlerai plus volontiers de valeurs christiques qui sans doute peuvent enrichir notre intelligence de la singularité chrétienne mais qui ne sont pas nécessairement intégrables au christianisme. Ce dernier ne peut avoir en effet l’ambition de totaliser toutes les vérités d’ordre religieux dont témoigne l’histoire religieuse de l’humanité. Et le voudrait-il, il risquerait de compromettre ce qui relève de son génie propre. Ainsi, alors que nous portons un jugement positif sur le pluralisme religieux, nous ne pouvons plus aussi facilement que dans le passé conclure à l’universalité du christianisme à partir de l’universalité de Jésus Christ. On doit prendre au sérieux la particularité et la contingence historiques du christianisme. Mais en même temps, on doit maintenir un certain universel

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de l’ordre de ce que j’appelle volontiers la christianité21 auquel tout homme et toute femme participent en vertu même du dessein créateur et sauveur de Dieu qui a voulu récapituler toutes choses en Jésus Christ. Pour reprendre les catégories usuelles, il est possible de concilier un christocentrisme constitutif et un pluralisme inclusif. C’est dire que l’on peut éviter de faire appel à un théocentrisme indéterminé tout en prenant ses distances à l’égard de ce que certains rejettent comme une forme de christianomonisme.

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LA MISSION UNIVERSELLE DE L’ÉGLISE DANS LE CONTEXTE DU DIALOGUE INTERRELIGIEUX L’Église doit être à l’écoute des “signes des temps”. Nous avons vu pourquoi l’Église avait dû renoncer au rêve de la chrétienté. En fait, elle peut exercer sa mission universelle sans prétendre instaurer une société politique qui soit une anticipation du Royaume. D’autre part, nous avons une conscience plus vive de la particularité historique du christianisme. L’Église n’a pas le monopole du salut advenu en Jésus Christ. En vertu même du dessein de Dieu et de l’universalité du mystère du Christ, le Règne de Dieu peut advenir à sa manière dans les autres traditions religieuses de l’humanité. Cela nous interroge nécessairement au seuil du troisième millénaire sur le sens et la nature de la mission. Sans pouvoir traiter comme il conviendrait cet immense sujet, je voudrais insister au moins sur trois points qui sont directement en lien avec la vocation universelle du christianisme. Je parlerai successivement de la distance entre l’Église et le Royaume, sur les rapports entre évangélisation et inculturation à la fin de l’eurocentrisme et sur la vocation mondiale du christianisme dans le contexte de la mondialisation. Église et Royaume J’ai cru pouvoir refuser d’absolutiser le christianisme dans la mesure même où il est la religion de la révélation dernière et parfaite de Dieu. L’inconditionnalité de Dieu met en question la prétention à l’universel de cette voie contingente qu’est le christianisme. Il faut en dire autant de l’Église dans son rapport au Royaume et dans la ligne de Vatican II développer la dimension sacramentaire de l’Église. Même si le concile ne parle pas explicitement de l’Église comme “sacrement du Royaume”, on peut légitimement utiliser ce vocabulaire dans la mesure où Lumen gentium affirme que l’Église est «en quelque sorte le sacrement, c’est-à-dire à la fois le signe et le moyen de l’union intime avec Dieu et de l’unité de tout le genre humain» (LG 1). Il est vrai que plusieurs textes du concile tendent encore

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à identifier – comme c’était généralement le cas avant le concile – l’Église et le Règne de Dieu déjà présent dans l’Église. Mais dans la perspective d’un jugement positif sur le dialogue interreligieux, on trouve dans l’encyclique de Jean Paul II, Redemptoris Missio, un texte important qui affirme nettement une distinction entre l’Église et le Règne de Dieu déjà présent dans l’histoire: «Il est donc vrai que la réalité commencée du Royaume peut se trouver également au-delà des limites de l’Église, dans l’humanité entière, dans la mesure où celle-ci vit “les valeurs évangéliques” et s’ouvre à l’action de l’Esprit qui souffle où il veut et comme il veut (cf. Jn 3,8); mais il faut ajouter aussitôt que cette dimension temporelle du Royaume est incomplète si elle ne s’articule pas avec le Règne du Christ présent dans l’Église et destiné à la plénitude eschatologique» (n. 20). On souligne ainsi un décentrement de l’Église par rapport à elle-même. L’Église est toute relative à l’Absolu du Royaume. Elle est non seulement le signe efficace du Royaume comme plénitude eschatologique mais aussi le signe du Royaume qui advient dans le coeur des hommes et des femmes qui vivent déjà des valeurs évangéliques, c’est-à-dire sans le savoir, de l’Esprit du Christ. Ces derniers, sans faire partie de l’Église, sont déjà membres du Royaume de Dieu22. Certes, la présence du Règne de Dieu dans l’Église demeure privilégiée puisque elle a reçu du Christ la plénitude des moyens du salut. C’est pourquoi il faut dire que ceux qui accèdent au salut et appartiennent déjà au Règne en dehors de l’Église sont cependant ordonnés à l’Église corps du Christ (cf. LG 16). Si on identifie purement et simplement l’Église et le Règne de Dieu présent dans l’histoire, alors la mission évangélisatrice de l’Église demeure centrée avant tout sur l’annonce aux “autres” de Jésus Christ comme Sauveur universel. Mais si on maintient la distance entre l’Église et le Royaume, alors il faut inclure dans la mission de l’Église le dialogue interreligieux et toutes les tâches qui sont au service de la libération intégrale de l’homme et de l’avènement de la justice et de la paix dans le monde. Le dialogue n’est pas seulement un préalable à la mission, il est déjà un dialogue de salut comme l’atteste le Document Dialogue et annonce23. L’autre doit être respecté comme quelqu’un qui peut-être a déjà répondu à l’appel de Dieu et appartient au Royaume de Dieu. Il s’agit du respect du même mystère de salut en Jésus Christ même si ce mystère l’atteint par des voies différentes. Tous ensemble sont appelés à construire le Règne de Dieu qui advient dans l’histoire. Contrairement aux conclusions hâtives de certains, la mission n’a rien perdu de son urgence même si la théologie postconciliaire ne met plus un lien étroit entre l’appartenance à l’Église et la grâce du salut en Jésus Christ. Lorsque la mission n’est pas polarisée sur la conversion de l’“autre” à tout prix comme si son salut dépendait exclusivement de son changement de religion, elle garde tout son sens comme manifestation de l’amour de Dieu, comme incarnation de l’Évangile dans le temps, comme témoignage rendu

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au Royaume de Dieu qui advient chaque fois que les valeurs évangéliques sont honorées. C’est le cas en particulier quand les agents de la mission se trouvent affrontés à une grande religion non chrétienne comme l’islam ou l’hindouisme. En fait, la présence silencieuse par la prière, la pratique des béatitudes, le dialogue sincère avec les membres de cette autre religion assurent la mission de l’Église comme sacrement du Royaume qui vient. La mission permanente de l’Église ce n’est pas l’extension quantitative des membres de l’Église comme si elle était au service d’elle-même. C’est bien plutôt, en dialogue avec tous les hommes de bonne volonté, de manifester et de promouvoir le Royaume de Dieu qui a commencé de s’inaugurer dès le premier instant de la création et qui continue d’advenir dans l’histoire bien au-delà des frontières de l’Église de la terre. Évangélisation et inculturation Le défi pour la mission de l’Église à l’aube du XXIe siècle, ce n’est pas seulement la permanence et la vitalité des grandes religions du monde, c’est aussi l’existence de grandes cultures comme la culture africaine, la culture asiatique, la culture amérindienne, qui sont encore trop étrangères à la culture dominante du christianisme depuis vingt siècles. L’Évangile a une vocation catholique, c’est-à-dire mondiale: il doit pouvoir devenir le bien de tout homme et de toute femme. Durant des siècles, le message chrétien a été pensé et reformulé sous le signe de la tension entre ces deux villes emblématiques que sont Jérusalem et Athènes. Mais de plus en plus, l’Église est invitée à prendre en compte un tertium quid, à savoir l’autre non occidental qui n’est ni juif, ni grec. De même que l’Évangile en vertu de sa vocation universelle a surmonté la dualité du juif et du grec, il doit dépasser la dualité de l’occidental et du non occidental. Jésus a fait tomber le mur entre Israël et les nations (Eph 2,14). Concrètement, cela veut dire qu’aujourd’hui il faut faire tomber le mur entre le gentil et le “barbare”. Depuis Vatican II, le passage de l’eurocentrisme au polycentrisme à l’intérieur de l’Église coïncide avec l’avènement de l’âge post-colonial et de la mondialisation. Ainsi, pour la première fois dans l’histoire du christianisme, l’inculturation au nom de l’universalité de l’Évangile pourrait ne pas coïncider avec l’emprise d’une culture dominante. J’ai cru pouvoir dire que Jésus est mort à sa particularité pour renaître en figure d’universalité concrète. Analogiquement, il est permis de penser que l’Église ne peut accomplir son universalité conformément au dynamisme de l’Esprit qu’en prenant une distance critique à l’égard des figures historiques privilégiées qu’elle a revêtues au cours des siècles. Mais il convient de dénoncer une certaine illusion. Contrairement au rêve des théologiens libéraux du XIXe siècle, il n’existe pas une essence chimiquement pure du christianisme. Dès les origines, il s’agit d’un christianisme inculturé, c’est-à-

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dire qui a pris le risque d’une incarnation dans les schèmes et les catégories de la pensée sémitique et de la culture grecque. La foi est transculturelle, mais elle n’existe pas en dehors d’un certain véhicule culturel. C’est pourquoi il est illusoire d’imaginer un christianisme qui cesserait d’être occidental pour devenir africain ou asiatique en fonction des grandes mutations de l’histoire, en particulier la fin de l’européocentrisme. Il faut plutôt favoriser une rencontre créatrice entre les ressources de l’Occident chrétien et les valeurs propres des cultures non occidentales qui sont ellesmêmes inséparables de grandes traditions religieuses24. En vertu du lien indissociable entre culture et religion, il est de plus en plus difficile d’envisager l’inculturation du message chrétien dans des civilisations autres que l’Occident sans évoquer la rencontre avec une grande tradition religieuse. C’est surtout vrai dans le Sud-est asiatique. La nouveauté de l’Évangile peut être en rupture avec les pesanteurs de l’homme pécheur et avec les éléments d’une tradition religieuse qui ne favorisent pas l’obéissance à Dieu. Mais comme nous l’avons vu, une tradition religieuse peut être aussi porteuse d’un irréductible dans l’ordre religieux qui ne sera pas nécessairement aboli mais métamorphosé par l’esprit du Christ. Il est donc très difficile d’établir une distinction tranchée entre des éléments culturels qui pourraient être gardés et des éléments religieux qu’il faudrait rejeter. Toute la question est de savoir si c’est l’Évangile lui-même qui est récusé ou le faux scandale d’un véhicule à la fois culturel et religieux complètement étranger aux hommes et aux femmes auxquels il est annoncé. Face au défi de cultures et de religions différentes, l’Église ne peut être fidèle à sa mission universelle qu’en opérant une conversion et un discernment entre les éléments fondamentaux du message chrétien et puis des éléments plus contingents qui relèvent de la culture à laquelle il s’est trouvé historiquement associé. Le fait que, durant vingt siècles, la figure privilégiée du christianisme ait été occidentale ne préjuge pas de l’avènement d’autres figures du christianisme au cours du troisième millénaire. L’universalité du christianisme dans le contexte de la mondialisation La mondialisation qui est indissociable de la révolution informatique représente une chance incontestable pour la diffusion de l’Évangile jusqu’aux extrémités de la terre. Mais dans la mesure où la mondialisation est sous le signe de loi du marché, elle engendre en fait une pauvreté croissante pour des millions et des millions d’êtres humains. Par ailleurs, le double écueil de la mondialisation c’est à la fois l’extension à l’échelle planétaire d’un modèle d’homme de plus en plus uniforme qui nivelle les ressources anthropologiques et religieuses des cultures locales et par réaction des crispations identitaires qui conduisent à des nationalismes exacerbés et des fanatismes religieux.

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L’Église n’a pas la prétention de proposer un modèle alternatif qui rende la terre plus habitable et la communauté humaine plus conviviale. Mais dans la mesure où elle témoigne de l’Évangile, elle peut exercer un rôle de contreculture à l’égard d’une certaine déshumanisation de l’homme et adresser un avertissement prophétique face aux injustices criantes d’une société qui est de plus en plus sous le signe de la seule loi du profit et sacrifie le social à l’économique. L’Église doit témoigner de la Bonne Nouvelle du salut en Jésus Christ comme libération du péché et de la mort éternelle. Elle témoigne donc d’une espérance au-delà des limites de cette histoire et fait la preuve que le christianisme ne s’épuise pas dans son utilité pour le monde. Mais en même temps, dans la fidélité au messianisme de Jésus, l’Église a une responsabilité historique quant à la figure de ce monde. Concrètement, cela veut dire que l’Église ne peut justifier sa prétention universaliste que si elle épouse les causes universelles de l’humanité contemporaine: le combat pour la justice, la défense et la promotion des droits de l’homme, la sauvegarde de la création, le respect de la vie, le souci prioritaire des plus défavorisés. Nous retrouvons ici la fameuse “option préférentielle pour les pauvres” qui est le plus sûr moyen d’écrire une histoire humaine qui travaille mystérieusement à l’avènement du Royaume de Dieu. L’Église n’est pas seulement le sacrement du Royaume à venir. Déjà icibas, comme on l’a dit plus haut, elle est «de l’unité de tout le genre humain» (LG 1). A l’heure de la mondialisation, le christianisme ne réalisera sa vocation mondiale que si l’Église peut servir de paradigme quant à l’unité de la famille humaine. Il s’agit en effet de favoriser l’émergence d’un type d’unité qui respecte les particularités légitimes d’ordre anthropologique et culturel. Toute culture particulière qui est au service de l’humain authentique a une portée universelle. C’est le seul moyen d’échapper au double danger, soit d’une globalisation de plus en plus univoque, soit d’un éclatement qui risque de conduire à la dispersion de Babel. L’Église de la Pentecôte qui raconte les mêmes merveilles de Dieu dans la diversité des cultures a la vocation redoutable d’être le modèle de cette humanité de demain.

Notes 1 J’ai déjà cherché à manifester la vocation mondiale de l’Évangile dans le nouveau contexte de la mondialisation et du dialogue des religions et des cultures dans mon étude Pour un christianisme mondial, in “Recherches de Sciences religieuses”, janviermars 1998, pp. 53-75. 2 J.B. METZ a souvent eu recours à cette expression de polycentrisme culturel pour désigner un nouvel âge de l’histoire de l’Église qui coïncide avec l’événement du concile de Vatican II: voir surtout Unité et pluralité. Problèmes et perspectives de l’inculturation, dans “Concilium”, 224(1989), pp. 87-96.

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3 Pour une première approche à la fois historique et théologique de la tentation absolutiste d’une certaine pratique ecclésiale, on peut se reporter au numéro spécial de “Concilium”, Vraie et fausse universalité du christianisme, 155(1980). 4 J’emprunte l’expression de messianisme paradoxal à CH. DUQUOC dans Messianisme de Jésus et discrétion de Dieu, Labor et Fides, Genève 1994. Pour une étude à la fois biblique et théologique de la notion de messianisme, on se reportera avec profit à son article Le Messianisme de Jésus, dans“Catholicisme”, (1980)9, col. 19-28, Paris. 5 Cf. M. DE CERTEAU, L. COGNET, J. DANIELOU, La notion de mépris du monde dans la tradition spirituelle occidentale, Éd. du Cerf, Paris 1965. 6 Je reprends ici les quatre figures historiques à partir desquelles Ch. Duquoc tente d’interpréter l’histoire des relations entre l’Église et le monde, cf. op. cit., p. 130. 7 Cf. J. LE GOFF, “Millénarisme”, dans Encyclopaedia Universalis, Paris 1968. 8 Au sujet des ambiguïtés de la Chrétienté, on aura tout intérêt à se reporter à la brève esquisse historique que retrace A. WEILER, La Chrétienté et les autres, dans “Concilium”, 220 (1988), pp. 129-140. 9 Sur la césure historique introduite par Vatican II, on lira avec profit la synthèse récente de CH. THEOBALD, “Le devenir de la théologie catholique depuis le concile Vatican II”, dans Histoire du christianisme, vol. 13, Crises et renouveau (de 1968 à nos jours), Desclée, Paris 2000, pp. 169-217. 10 Je me permets de renvoyer à mon article “Sécularisation”, dans le Dictionnaire de Spiritualité, t. 15, Beauchesne, Paris 1989. 11Je recommande volontiers l’essai original de G. RUGGIERI, “Pour une logique de la particularité chrétienne”, dans J. VERMEYLEN (dir.), Cultures et théologies en Europe, Éd. du Cerf, Paris 1995, pp. 77-108. 12 On trouvera une étude historique très complète de la portée de cet adage dans J. DUPUIS, Vers une théologie chrétienne du pluralisme religieux, ch. III., coll. Cogitatio Fidei, 200, Éd. du Cerf, Paris 1997. 13 Comme représentants de cette théologie avant et pendant le concile de Vatican II, on peut citer les grands noms d’Henri de Lubac, Yves Congar et Karl Rahner. 14 Pour une présentation et une évaluation critique des principaux théologiens asiatiques, on consultera utilement l’ouvrage de M. FÉDOU, Regards asiatiques sur le Christ, Desclée, Paris 1998. 15 C’est la position en particulier du théologien américain R. HAIGHT , Jesus Symbol of God, 1999 et du théologien indien, M. AMALADOSS, Jésus Christ, le seul Sauveur, et la mission, dans “Spiritus”, 159(2000). 16 J’avais déjà proposé cette expression dans mon étude en marge de l’oeuvre de M. de Certeau, “Le non lieu de la théologie chez Michel de Certeau”, dans Cl. GEFFRÉ (éd.), Michel de Certeau ou la différence chrétienne, Éd. du Cerf, Paris, coll. Cogitatio Fidei, 165(1991), pp. 159-180. 17 Cf. cette affirmation de P. TILLICH: «The Logos doctrine as the doctrine of the identity of the absolutely concrete with the absolutely universel is not one theological doctrine among others; it is the only possible foundation of a christian theology which claims to be the theology», Systematic Theology, vol. I, The University of Chicago Press, 1963, p. 17. J’ai essayé de manifester l’originalité et la portée de la christologie de Paul Tillich pour le dialogue interreligieux dans mon étude: Paul Tillich et l’avenir de l’oecuménisme interreligieux, dans “Rev. des Sciences phil. et théol.”, 77(1993), pp. 3-22. 18 Je suis revenu à nouveau sur cette dimension importante pour toute théologie des religions dans un article récent: Le pluralisme religieux et l’indifférentisme ou le vrai défi de la théologie chrétienne, dans “Revue théologique de Louvain”, 31(2000), pp. 3-32. 19 En introduisant ici la catégorie typiquement psychanalytique de manque, je m’inspire des travaux de M. DE CERTEAU: voir en particulier son article “La rupture instauratrice”, repris dans l’ouvrage La faiblese de croire, Le Seuil, Paris 1987, pp. 183226.

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20 J. MOINGT, “Une théologie de l’exil”, dans Michel de Certeau ou la différence chrétienne, cit., pp. 131-156. 21 J’ai tenté de m’expliquer sur ce que j’entends par christianité dans mon dernier livre Profession théologien. Entretiens avec Gw. Jarczyk. Quelle pensée chrétienne pour le XXIè siècle?, Albin Michel, Paris 1999. 22 Sur ce point, je renvoie volontiers à l’étude nuancée de J. DUPUIS, “L’Église, le Règne de Dieu et les autres”, dans J. DORÉ, Ch. THEOBALD (éd.), Penser la foi. Mélanges offerts à Joseph Moing, Éd. du Cerf, Paris 1993, pp. 327-349. 23 Cf. Cl. GEFFRÉ, La mission de l’Église comme dialogue de salut, dans “Lumière et Vie”, 205, pp. 33-46. 24 J’ai déjà eu l’occasion de m’exprimer plusieurs fois sur cette exigence de l’inculturation du christianisme dans le contexte actuel de l’Église. Voir en particulier: La rencontre du christianisme et des cultures, dans “Revue d’Éthique et de théologie morale”, Supplément, 192(mars 1995), pp. 69-91.

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MARCELLO BORDONI*

LE INCULTURAZIONI DELLA CRISTOLOGIA E LA TRADIZIONE CRISTOLOGICA DELLA CHIESA

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I. INTRODUZIONE Il profondo legame tra fede ed inculturazione oggi è sempre più insistentemente affermato, non solo a livello teologico e missionologico, ma anche magisteriale da parte della Chiesa cattolica. Basti ricordare, tra le tante affermazioni del magistero pontificio, alcune parole di Giovanni Paolo II che in sintonia con le dichiarazioni di Paolo VI, sul rapporto tra “Evangelo e cultura”, ha affermato con chiarezza: «Il messaggio evangelico non è puramente e semplicemente isolabile dalla cultura, […] nella quale esso si è da principio inserito (l’universo biblico, e più concretamente l’ambiente culturale in cui è vissuto Gesù di Nazaret), e neppure è isolabile […] dalle culture, in cui si è già espresso nel corso dei secoli; esso non sorge per generazione spontanea da alcun “humus” culturale; esso da sempre si trasmette mediante un dialogo apostolico, che è inevitabilmente inserito in un certo dialogo di culture» (Catechesi Tradendae 53). Queste dichiarazioni impongono, in partenza, alcune puntualizzazioni metodologiche che intendono tener conto anche della recente dichiarazione Dominus Jesus, circa l’unicità e l’universalità salvifica di Gesù Cristo e della Chiesa. a) Anzitutto si impone l’esigenza di evitare l’estrinsecismo tra la fede e la cultura, abbandonando l’idea che la fede cristiana possa essere pensata come esistente allo stato puro, disincarnata, alla ricerca, poi, di una sua inculturazione. Questo interdice di pensare che l’incarnazione del messaggio cristiano sia un percorso a senso unico: dalla fede alla cultura. Vangelo e cultura non vengono determinati, quindi, nella loro identità, indipendentemente da ogni loro rapporto. Tuttavia bisogna pure avere presente, a proposito del linguaggio cristiano, che esso è, originariamente, insieme, “vincolato alla cultura”, ma anche “metaculturale”: per cui se possiede tratti e caratteristiche linguistiche, culturali originarie, esso esprime anche in questo vincolo, valori “meta-culturali” per i quali le caratteristiche puramente culturali del tempo vengono trascese. b) Questa istanza “metaculturale” che caratterizza il rapporto tra l’annuncio cristiano e la fede in relazione alla cultura pone in evidenza, in veri*

Pontificia Università Lateranense.

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tà, un elemento antropologico, intrinseco già alla cultura stessa, per il quale si deve valutare la pluralità delle culture, come espressione della ricchezza dell’umano. A questa luce, si può affermare che l’esigenza della pluralità delle culture, nel suo evidenziare la pluriforme ricchezza “dell’umano”, non può costituire un motivo per affermare alcun relativismo culturale ed escludere a priori ogni “principio veritativo” che regola “l’umano come tale”, nella sua valenza “metaculturale”. L’uomo, infatti, non si esaurisce nella cultura (Veritatis Splendor 53): esso non è prigioniero di nessuna delle sue culture, ma in esse e per esse, egli deve affermare «la sua dignità personale nel vivere conformemente alla verità profonda del suo essere» (ibidem). Le culture, pertanto, «quando sono profondamente radicate nell’umano, portano in sé la testimonianza dell’apertura tipica dell’uomo all’universale e alla trascendenza» (Fides et Ratio 70). Pertanto, un “secondo principio” che deve regolare il rapporto tra “fede ed interculturazione” è quello che potremmo chiamare il principio dell’unità delle culture nella loro pluralità e differenza, contro il relativismo culturale. c) Se questo principio “metaculturale” fonda ogni giusta direzione in ogni incontro dialogico interculturale, esso lo è ancor più quando si tratta del messaggio cristiano e della sua accoglienza nella fede. L’evento cristologico costituisce, infatti, il principio di unità e di discernimento dell’umano nel contesto della pluralità delle culture. Già la CTI, nel suo intervento «sull’unità della fede ed il pluralismo teologico» (1972), sottolineava che “il mistero di Cristo” ci dà un centro unitario, e resta pur sempre un «mistero che ... pur essendo mistero di ricapitolazione e di riconciliazione universale (cf. Ef 2,11-22) sorpassa le possibilità di espressione di qualsiasi epoca della storia, sottraendosi con ciò stesso ad ogni sistematizzazione esaustiva (Ef 3,8-10)» (EV IV, nn. 1801-1815). Più apertamente la PCB nella sua dichiarazione sull’unità e diversità nella Chiesa (1988), per quanto riguarda il pluralismo culturale, nel quadro di una “prospettiva missionaria”, in stretto rapporto con l’evangelizzazione dei popoli, affermava che «gli eventi e le parole rivelati da Dio devono essere di volta in volta ripensati, riformulati e nuovamente vissuti all’interno di ogni cultura umana» (n. 9). II. ASPETTI

POSITIVI EMERGENTI NELL’INCULTURAZIONE DELLE CRISTOLOGIE

ODIERNE

a) L’inculturazione della fede e l’integrazione del senso antropologico nella sua contestualizzazione. Il compito odierno imprescindibile della fede e della missione cristiana che è andato sempre più sottolineando in modo “diretto” e “formale” l’inculturazione, ha rilevato pure l’importanza della “contestualizzazione”. Dopo aver superato, come già avvenuto nella Evangelii Nuntiandi, l’idea della missione di evangelizzazione secondo il modello del semplice “adattamento” (AG 22), in quello appunto dell’ “incultura-

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zione”, ci si rende conto sempre più che la «cultura, in senso puramente antropologico» rappresenta ancora una base troppo stretta per l’annuncio del Vangelo. La riflessione sviluppata nell’ambito delle cristologie inculturate ha posto l’accento sulla urgenza di ampliare l’idea di “inculturazione” nella “contestualizzazione”, con il riferimento “concreto” al “contesto storico” delle stesse culture, nelle quali si operano trasformazioni. Questo costituisce un arricchimento della concezione ermeneutica che rischia, altrimenti, di essere definita solo in una riflessione di tipo esistenziale sull’uomo, soggetto individuale della cultura. In questo rinnovamento occupa un posto sempre più centrale la “cristologia”. Il primo passo che si impone in ordine all’annuncio è quello di conoscere il contesto nel quale si muovono i referenti dell’annuncio. Se è vero, pertanto, che anche la cultura costituisce un contesto, oggi, quando si parla di contestualizzazione si intende qualcosa di più largo, che si designa con il termine di “contesto storico” (L. GALLO). b) Un altro aspetto importante sul quale si incontrano le prospettive delle immagini inculturate del Cristo nei diversi continenti è quello determinato da un’esigenza esperienziale e simbolica che si definisce nella sue forme diverse, culturalmente contestualizzate. Così, per esempio, avviene in Asia (S. KAROTEMPREL, Nuovi orientamenti di cristologia e missione cristiana in Asia, p. 166), ove nei nuovi orientamenti di cristologia e di missione cristiana, si evidenzia fortemente l’esigenza di estrarre dal ricco patrimonio della propria cultura profondamente religiosa, quegli elementi, compatibili con la fede cristiana, che determinano un importante arricchimento del pensiero cristiano (Fides et Ratio 72; KAROTEMPREL, cit.). La rivalutazione odierna del linguaggio simbolico ci porta oggi a scorgere in esso non solo uno strumento del mythos, ma anche un’imprescindibile comunicazione del Logos. Nelle varie forme di cristologie inculturate si nota l’importante valutazione del criterio dell’esperienza umana che fa leva anche sulle rappresentazioni simboliche. Così nelle varie forme di inculturazione cristologica in Asia, si determina una espressione “contestualizzata” rispetto a quelle, più riflessive e concettuali, proprie delle cristologie europee: «Lo scopo di tutti i tentativi di elaborazione cristologica in Asia non è tanto la chiarezza dottrinale e la perfetta ortodossia, sebbene queste siano essenziali, quanto l’aderenza della vita al modello supremo, cioè che i cristiani diventino conformi “all’immagine del Figlio suo” (Rm 8,29). E questo anche sul piano umano, degli atteggiamenti e comportamenti umani, perché tutto ciò che è umano è anche cristiano e tutto ciò che è cristiano (cioè conforme a Cristo) è anche umano». Questo corrisponde alla tendenza di dare rilievo all’esperienza della “via” (cristologia della Marga) percorsa da Gesù come “via percorsa da ogni uomo” per essere se stesso. Nella contestualizzazione dei paesi latinoamericani, invece, l’esigenza di un approccio esperienziale è sentito soprattutto attraverso quella forma di

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esperienza mistica, che non costituisce solo un richiamo puramente interiore al mistero ineffabile della trascendenza, ma rinvia a quella forma di incontro, pieno di intensità ed unità, con il Signore che viene vissuto, attraverso la mediazione dei poveri, attraverso, cioè, l’identificazione con Lui, «in una pratica ed una mistica di solidarietà con gli oppressi» (L. BOFF, La fe en la periferia del mundo. El caminar de la Iglesia con los oprimidos). Questa istanza è evidenziata, nella contestualizzazione latinoamericana, nell’immagine di “Gesù Povero”, che incarna la lotta per la liberazione dalla povertà, nell’opzione preferenziale per i poveri intesa con un accento di “parzialità”; essa vuol dire: «Gesù si situa nel mondo della povertà e dei poveri, difende la loro causa e fa proprio il loro destino. Gesù è un uomo autentico essendo povero; si fa uomo universale a partire da ciò che è piccolo» (J. SOBRINO, Jesús en America Latina). Questa istanza esperienziale chiama in causa una comprensione della fede, che tende a superare il predominio del linguaggio puramente fonetico e dà risalto al “linguaggio simbolico” che trova espressione, attraverso la testimonianza, nella liturgia, nella spiritualità, nell’arte sacra. Notevole, nella prospettiva africana, è lo sviluppo esperienziale di una “cristologia vitale”, “narrativa e celebrativa”, nella quale si fa forte l’istanza “soteriologico-cristologica” attraverso figure evocatrici nell’universo simbolico-culturale-religioso, con le immagini di “capo”, di “antenato”, di “guaritore”, di “maestro di iniziazione” (C. MBUKA, Piste per una cristologia africana. Cristologia vitale, narrativa, celebrativa). c) Principio cosmoteandrico o cosmoteantropico. Nell’ambito delle cristologie inculturate nei vari continenti si afferma, sempre più decisamente, la “contestualizzazione cosmica” della figura di Gesù Cristo, secondo il principio della “cosmoteantropia”. Per esso, «l’uomo africano, acquistando la propria identità, diventa cosciente del proprio ruolo e della propria responsabilità in relazione all’universo. In questo va cercata la dignità, e lo statuto della persona africana» (M. NKAFU NKEMNKIA, Il pensare africano come “vitalogia”). Tale sensibilità si trova espressa in figure simboliche come quella del Bomenon, simbolo universale di relazione di ogni uomo col suo Creatore. Qui il “mito” del Bomenon potrebbe aprire una prospettiva sulla comprensione di Gesù come “Mediatore Universale”. Bisogna però fare accuratamente una verifica sul significato del mythos oggi spesso usato per dare un’esegesi non coerente con la fede cristiana circa il “realismo” dell’evento dell’incarnazione del Verbo. Nella linea “simbolica” ricorrente in varie odierne inculturazioni cristologiche, la figura del Cristo tende ad esprimere il costituirsi in Lui di una solidarietà che lega l’uomo all’uomo e l’uomo al cosmo. Da parte della riflessione cristologica asiatica, questa luce “cosmoteandrica” viene sottolineata dalla prospettiva del Logos, del quale il “cosmo” è una manifestazione. In questa visione, «dovunque l’humanitas raggiunge un vertice, là abbiamo una più piena manifestazione del Logos. In Gesù di Nazaret l’humanitas ha rag-

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giunto la perfezione: quindi in Lui abbiamo la più perfetta manifestazione del Logos» (M. AMALADOSS, The Mystery of Christ and Other Religions. An Indian Perspective). Non bisogna però illudersi circa l’affermazione di una valenza unitaria ontologica, del Logos (a-sarkós) con il Logos (en-sarkós) da parte dell’autore citato. Se Gesù Cristo manifesta pienamente la realtà del Logos non ne è l’unica manifestazione. Il che ci fa comprendere i problemi che sorgono con la Verità cristiana della fede sull’identità di Gesù Cristo, posti in luce sia dalla Redemptoris Missio, sia dalla recente dichiarazione Dominus Jesus.

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III. ASPETTI PROBLEMATICI DELLE CRISTOLOGIE INCULTURATE a) Problemi epistemologici. Se interessanti sono i contributi posti in evidenza dalle varie inculturazioni della cristologia, nelle loro svariate contestualizzazioni, emergono pure non pochi aspetti problematici che li accompagnano. Un’osservazione generale, che emerge come un punto di vista predominante nei vari tentativi di riflessione delle varie inculturazioni delle cristologie contemporanee, è quella rappresentata dal criterio ermeneutico, criterio che in sé è tutt’altro che secondario. Nel modo, però, come esso viene applicato mi sembra che esso evada spesso la questione della “fondazione critica dell’epistemologia”, soprattutto per quanto riguarda l’istanza veritativa. La cultura, come afferma Shorter, «non dovrebbe essere invocata contro la realtà ultima. Al contrario, è la verità ultima che relativizza tutte le culture» (Toward a Theology of Inculturation). La mancata istanza veritativa determina una certa tendenza ad assolutizzare tutte le culture stesse, inseparabili dalle loro “religioni”, le quali assumono una loro singola assolutezza in quanto parte integrante di ogni cultura. Nella misura, però, in cui si identifica “religione e cultura”, allora la fede cristiana stessa perde la sua trascendenza, rispetto alla cultura in cui si è inizialmente incarnata, e l’evangelizzazione di Gesù Cristo diviene un’imposizione culturale. Per un discorso equilibrato si dovrebbe convenire che il “principio di verità” non dovrebbe essere regolato dal solo “modo culturale” di sentire, così come è stato osservato a proposito della “Dichiarazione dell’Associazione teologica indiana” sul “significato di Gesù Cristo nel contesto indiano” (1998). Questa sembra dare l’impressione che il significato fondamentale di Gesù Cristo sia determinato più dal contesto culturale e sociale delle genti alle quali esso viene annunciato, che non da un principio di “verità rivelata”. Di qui il grave problema: non dovrebbe il significato di Gesù Cristo essere determinato primariamente ed originariamente da “chi egli è” e solo derivatamente da coloro dai quali è ricevuto? Altrimenti si finisce per cadere in quella deriva ermeneutica per la quale la cristologia diviene una variabile dell’antropologia culturale con conseguente relativizzazione della Persona di Gesù Cristo, della sua mediazione salvifica, unica ed universale, e della

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stessa Chiesa, quale sacramento universale di salvezza, e della conseguente Missio ad Gentes. Ora, l’esigenza della reinterpretazione, messa in atto dalle cristologie inculturate in rapporto all’evangelizzazione, non deve essere compresa come una “reinvenzione” della figura di Gesù Cristo. In questo senso va il richiamo di Giovanni Paolo II nel suo indirizzo rivolto ad un gruppo di vescovi indiani quando raccomanda l’importanza del «carattere definitivo ed assoluto della rivelazione cristiana ed il valore permanente della cristologia del Nuovo Testamento, l’unità del mistero di Cristo, l’unicità e l’universalità della sua mediazione ed anche il ruolo salvifico della Chiesa quale sacramento e strumento di salvezza» (Address to India: Bishops at the meeting organized by the Congregation for the Doctrine of Faith, OR, 25 ottobre 1996, p. 3). Senza questi principi il relativismo cristologico e quello religioso divengono i “nuovi dogmi”: «Il Dialogo diviene l’essenza del nuovo credo relativistico che si oppone ad ogni conversione e missione» (J. RATZINGER, La Fede e la Teologia ai nostri giorni). In questo contesto ne deriva una relativizzazione di Gesù Cristo, il quale perde la sua “singolarità” nel senso di “unicità” ed acquisisce solo una “particolarità di ordine puramente umano-storico”: in questa ipotesi la singolarità dell’evento cristologico viene ridotta ad un “mito religioso” per il quale «Gesù Cristo sarebbe una delle manifestazioni o espressioni del Brahman e la religione cristiana una forma subordinata dell’Induismo» (J. CHETTIMATTAM, The Challenges of Evangelization in India at the Threshold of the Third Millenium). b) Altro aspetto problematico è quello determinato dal “primato assegnato alla prassi”, come “ruolo egemonico”, il quale esprime, in forma generale, il primato del sentire sulla riflessione razionale, il primato dell’ortoprassi su quello dell’ortodossia, dell’amore sulla fede, dei poveri sul sistema, compresa l’opzione per i poveri. Preso in questo senso, piuttosto radicale, il primato della prassi rischia di distorcere l’importanza del “luogo teologico”, nel quale si realizza il più profondo rapporto tra “prassi ed ortodossia”, rapporto che va definito anzitutto nel contesto della Tradizione vivente della Chiesa, nella comunione con la quale il linguaggio stesso inculturato della fede e gli enunciati dottrinali prendono il loro “pieno” e “vero” significato e quindi la loro “rettitudine nella verità” (M. BORDONI, La teologia sistematica tra ortodossia ed ortoprassi). L’importanza che oggi si dà, sul piano della prassi, all’inculturazione della fede cristologica, porta spesso a relativizzare non solo la cultura nella quale la fede si incarna, ma la sostanza stessa della fede cristiana, nel suo processo di incarnazione, determinando pure la relativizzazione del valore e del contenuto intramontabile e permanente, universale, della fede stessa. L’ idea di una verità universale, permanente, viene compresa spesso come una “forma puramente astratta ed ideologica”. In forza del “primato della prassi” non si attribuisce alcun valore ad affermazioni dottrinali generali, valevoli per tutti gli uomini. E così non viene ammessa “nessuna formulazione-

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espressione archetipica perennemente normativa” della fede, neppure quella scritturistica, tanto meno quella dogmatica. Non esistono, perciò, in questa prospettiva, inculturazioni privilegiate che possano considerarsi come una “codificazione insuperabile e normativa per la fede di tutti i tempi”, di una esperienza originaria, ma esisterebbe solo un’esperienza variabile, che nella sua prassi continuamente si “trasforma e reinventa” nelle sue progressive incarnazioni inculturate. c) Va inoltre considerato, in molte espressioni inculturate della cristologia, il problema determinato dal primato dell’esperienza sulle formulazioni dottrinali, che porta di frequente, quando non si rispetta il principio del primato della Verità rivelata, (dal quale tutte le culture ed universi religiosi dovrebbero essere guidati), ad operare delle pericolose dissociazioni, tra l’espressione del “principio dottrinale-veritativo” di una fede religiosa e la sua “esperienza originaria”, la quale trova negli “enunciati dottrinali” quelle sue codificazioni, senza le quali il criterio dell’esperienza stessa appare fortemente fluttuante e soggetto alle espressioni puramente soggettivistiche sia del singolo credente che di una comunità credente. Questa esigenza si è andata affermando sempre più apertamente già nell’era apostolica, quando si andava imponendo sempre più l’importanza imprescindibile della “sana dottrina” (Tt 1,13), come norma di riferimento alla vera esperienza della fede originaria. Ora, per quanto riguarda il “principio di verità” della esperienza di fede cristiana nella sua imprescindibile esigenza di inculturazione, va notato che certamente «si deve distinguere il contenuto sempre valido dei dogmi dalla forma nella quale esso viene espresso. Il mistero di Cristo trascende le possibilità di espressione di ogni epoca storica e sfugge, quindi, a qualsiasi sistematizzazione esclusiva (Ef 3,8-10)»; (CTI, L’interpretazione dei dogmi, EV, XI, n. 2794), ma non si devono neppure separare nettamente “contenuto e forma di espressione”: «Il sistema simbolico del linguaggio non è solo un rivestimento esterno, ma in qualche modo l’incarnazione di una verità». Ora, la professione della fede, incarnata in un linguaggio, costituisce un’autorevole «espressione reale-simbolica del contenuto della fede, contiene e rende presente ciò che essa indica. Perciò le sue immagini ed i suoi concetti non sono intercambiabili a piacimento» (CTI, ivi, n. 2795). A questo punto, è importante rilevare un pregiudizio oggi frequente, quando si pensa ed afferma che la dottrina della Chiesa, nelle sue affermazioni dogmatiche, che portano i segni innegabili della storicità e delle sue inculturazioni, non sia altro che l’espressione, puramente inculturata, di un nucleo di verità originario, che sarebbe solo modulato secondo le epoche storiche, giungendo così alla “relativizzazione delle espressioni dogmatiche” ed alla perdita della loro “normatività perenne”. Ora, nell’imprescindibile impegno ermeneutico per discernere, nella variabile espressione, il valore permanente del messaggio, bisogna avere presenti alcune considerazioni. La prima è quella che il linguaggio della Tradizione Scritturistica, Dogmatica, Liturgica della Chiesa non è una semplice inculturazione variabile di

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una pura esperienza, nel senso che essa assume in maniera acritica dalla cultura, nella quale si esprime, una “concettualizzazione già data”: essa, piuttosto, sottopone «concetti già esistenti, per lo più desunti dal linguaggio colto dell’ambiente, ad un processo di purificazione e di trasformazione o di rielaborazione. Così ha creato il linguaggio adatto al proprio messaggio» (CTI, ivi, n. 2796; il corsivo è mio). Si può dire, pertanto, che «la Chiesa si è creata il proprio linguaggio, con il quale ha dato espressione a realtà che non erano state conosciute e percepite prima, ma che appartengono ora, proprio mediante tale espressione linguistica, alla paradosis della Chiesa ed attraverso questa all’eredità storica dell’umanità» (CTI, ivi, n. 2797). Su questa base si può dire che il linguaggio dogmatico della Chiesa non è una semplice “traduzione” in culture diverse, in tempi, luoghi diversi, della conoscenza di un «sempre identico nucleo di verità appartenenti al senso religioso dell’umanità»: esso non è riducibile ad una sola esperienza di fede che si riveste di volta in volta di nuove espressione culturali della fede: ma è un linguaggio incarnato in modo inscindibile ad un linguaggio ereditato dall’evento originario cristologico, e trasmesso nella paradosis apostolica della Scrittura, approfondito poi dalla “Tradizione dogmatica postbiblica della Chiesa”. Esso trascende le sole categorie di una cultura, per questo «la verità rivelata rimane sempre la medesima, “non solo nella sostanza, ma altresì negli enunciati fondamentali”» (CTI, ivi, n. 2798). Una seconda considerazione riguarda il valore “progressivo” della comprensione di fede della Chiesa che, nelle varie situazioni storiche, avanza, nel tempo, ed attraverso la via stessa delle culture, le provocazioni delle stesse eresie, verso la “Verità tutta intera”, condotta, però dallo Spirito Santo, Spirito di Verità, (Gv 16,13) verso una sempre maggiore comprensione del mistero inesauribile della Verità cristologica. Le verità espresse nel linguaggio proprio della Chiesa non sono riducibili ed identificabili, come tali, ad una singola cultura, anche se la “contestualizzazione” dei Concili e dei documenti magisteriali non possono, da essa, essere astratti. Per quanto la Chiesa, nel suo cammino verso la Verità, si sia servita di un sistema simbolico preesistente e la cultura abbia costituito quel luogo umano, nel quale, attraverso le dovute trasformazioni, si sia reso più comprensibile il mistero cristiano, le formulazioni dogmatiche delle esperienze di fede non sono un fatto puramente culturale, e la Chiesa, anche nella loro forma, deve mantenere la loro stabilità. Questo appare tanto più importante in considerazione di quello che sopra dicevo, e cioè che c’è un principio interiore ermeneutico che regola questo linguaggio e che è costituito dallo Spirito Illuminatore, che opera la costante “anamnesi” della Verità cristologica (Gv 14,26), come Maestro interiore (Gv 14,26) e come guida infallibile verso la pienezza della Verità (Gv 16,13). Certamente, però, questo atto autentico di interpretazione si compie non come un’economia quasi a se stante, ma luogo di lettura e di comprensione della fede ecclesiale vissuta nel culto, nella prassi della vita cristiana e nell’interpretazione autoritativa del Magistero della Chiesa. La Dominus Je-

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sus, nel suo affermare l’importanza del ruolo dello Spirito, rifiuta l’idea di una “economia dello Spirito Santo” con un carattere più universale ed autonomo rispetto a quella del Verbo Incarnato, Crocifisso e Risorto (n. 12). IV. L’

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INCULTURAZIONE DELLE CRISTOLOGIE ALLA LUCE DELLA TRADIZIONE CRISTOLOGICA DELLA CHIESA

Di fronte alle urgenze imprescindibili della inculturazione della cristologia in funzione dell’annuncio missionario della Chiesa, si delinea una “sfida” particolarmente rilevante per la fede cristiana, agli inizi del terzo millennio, dovuta ai lati problematici che questo processo di inculturazione comporta in relazione alla “Tradizione cristologica della Chiesa”. E questa sfida riguarda l’esigenza proprio di salvaguardare l’autenticità del processo stesso di inculturazione della fede cristiana, in modo tale da evitare ogni sua riduzione di carattere puramente antropologico culturale, e d’altro canto di dare tutto il suo rilievo al mistero della incarnazione, perché la fede stessa sia profondamente umanizzata ed annunciata all’uomo in tutte le manifestazioni della sua inesauribile ricchezza umana. a) Esigenze di chiarificazione. Credo che per iniziare questa ultima parte del discorso si imponga una chiarificazione sul concetto di “Tradizione cristologica della Chiesa”. Non si deve ignorare che il punto di partenza di tale Tradizione è indissolubilmente congiunto all’Evento originario cristologico. È questo stesso Evento che costituisce, in sé, la Fonte, il luogo di pienezza della “Rivelazione divina”: la fede esige, dice la dichiarazione Dominus Jesus, «che si professi che il Verbo fatto carne, in tutto il suo mistero, che va dall’incarnazione alla glorificazione, è la fonte, partecipata, ma reale, e il compimento di ogni rivelazione salvifica di Dio all’umanità» (DV 4; DJ 6). Esso, però, quale primo fondamento, non va neppure disgiunto dalla sua recezione, originaria, nell’esperienza storica e di fede dei testimoni prescelti. Questo vuol dire evitare ogni riduzione della Tradizione sia ad una pura oggettivazione considerata come a sé stante, sia ad una sola questione di “esperienza interpretante”, “creatrice e soggettiva”, di un determinato gruppo religioso, sia ad una sola questione di “formule dogmatiche”, soggette ad una continua esigenza di traduzione in nuove espressioni linguistiche-culturali. Si deve piuttosto considerare che “la Fonte” originaria della Rivelazione cristiana è anzitutto l’Evento cristologico, realizzato in “fatti e parole” (gestis verbisque, DV 2), in quanto, però, esso trova il suo rispecchiamento e la sua originaria testimonianza nella esperienza dei «testimoni prescelti da Cristo a fondamento della fede della comunità apostolica». Ne deriva che la Tradizione della Chiesa è prima di tutto “testimonianza di un Evento”, al cui centro sta la “Persona” di Cristo, negli avvenimenti della sua esistenza terrena, nei suoi insegnamenti, nei momenti fondamentali nei quali si compendia il tutto della Divina Rivelazione, come l’Evento pasquale, la

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sua Parusia. La Tradizione della Chiesa è la “via autentica di trasmissione” dell’Evento originario della rivelazione in tutti i suoi aspetti ora rilevati. Questi sono i “poli essenziali” dell’evento cristologico di Rivelazione con i quali la “Tradizione della Chiesa” ci pone in contatto o che ci trasmette, attraverso molteplici vie che sono quella “egemonica” del Testo biblico, quella della celebrazione-prassi del culto e della diakonia della carità della Chiesa, nella quale il testo stesso viene interpretato, dell’insegnamento-annuncio orale e scritto del Magistero ordinario e straordinario, delle “formulazioni dogmatiche”, nelle quali si conserva e solidifica la “Verità” dell’“esperienza originaria apostolica”, quale fedele ed insuperabile rispecchiamento della Verità dell’evento originario. La Tradizione della Chiesa non parte, quindi, da una formula, né da una comprensione astratta di principi universali, né da una esperienza creatrice di una comunità iniziale, che si esprime in una perenne variabilità di linguaggi inculturati, ma da un Evento Personale, fonte della Verità storicamente rivelata, raggiunto attraverso l’esperienza (storica) dei “primi testimoni”. b) Principi fondamentali regolatori per ogni incontro tra la Sapienza evangelica e le sue incarnazioni culturali. Vorrei, allora, enucleare, schematizzando, il rapporto tra la “Tradizione cristologica della Chiesa” e le “inculturazioni della cristologia”, sulla base del rapporto dialettico tra “vangelo e cultura” intorno ad una serie di principi fondamentali cristologico-trinitari che si possono così riassumere (M. DHAVAMONY, Christian Theology of Inculturation, E.P.U.G., Roma 1997). Il principio di trascendenza è il principio che dà rilievo alla dimensione verticale del cristianesimo come “Rivelazione Divina”, Parola detta da Dio all’uomo e quindi incarnata in una particolare cultura, ma anche come “Parola trascendente ed universale”, che non può essere racchiusa totalmente nelle strettorie di una sola “semantica culturale umana”. Per questo, tutte le esperienze religiose si esprimono, oltre che in parole, in un universo simbolico, di carattere “numinoso”, “metempirico”, per il quale gli oggetti dell’esperienza comune possono divenire “ierofanie”, manifestazioni del sacro. Ogni atto religioso è dotato di un significato simbolico, perché fa riferimento alla realtà di un mondo trascendente, imponderabile. Per questo è sommamente importante, nella valutazione del linguaggio originario (inculturato) della fede, dare rilievo non solo ai concetti, ma anche alle narrazioni ed ai simboli congiunti intimamente all’atto rivelativo di Dio (analogia fidei). A questo aspetto fa riscontro pure quel pluralismo culturale che è un importante correttivo al pericolo di un uniculturalismo troppo restrittivo per la ricchezza stessa dell’umano. Ora, se l’uomo non è prigioniero della cultura, tanto meno lo è il mistero di Cristo nella sua infinita ed inesauribile ricchezza. Il principio di incarnazione: esso costituisce un principio “singolare” di “identità cristiana”. Per esso si afferma il grande paradosso per il quale il

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“mistero assoluto divino” si rivela in una particolarità storica: senza assolutizzare questa particolarità storica come tale, costituendola come “via mediatrice esclusiva” di salvezza, il rivelarsi di Dio comporta il “farsi Parola per l’uomo” e “nell’uomo”, senza perdere la sua “trascendenza” e la sua forza di novità, di universalità, e di singolarità. Così, non siamo di fronte ad un solo “linguaggio culturale espressivo”, derivante dalle sole “capacità semantiche” dell’uomo, dal rivelare quel “mistero” divino che si sottomette totalmente all’esperienza religiosa, originaria dell’uomo. Nell’evento dell’incarnazione non viene privilegiata nessuna cultura: non siamo, in esso, di fronte ad una “particolarizzazione” della Parola di Dio, rivelata, che possa in qualche modo “relativizzare” la concretezza particolare di quanto è accaduto nel “divenire carne della Parola eterna” (Gv 1,14). In forza dell’incarnazione ci sono certamente aspetti “particolari” e “relativi” di incarnazione del cristianesimo in forme molteplici di culture che poi hanno denunciato la loro parabola discendente di invecchiamento e superamento, ma l’incarnazione, come “evento fondamentale della fede cristiana”, non è identificabile, come tale, in nessuna delle sue “particolari incarnazioni storiche”, che per natura sono contingenti e soggette ad un inevitabile invecchiamento e superamento. Le culture umane, quale luogo ineludibile di espressione del parlare di Dio, che in esse si particolarizza, e paradossalmente si relativizza, devono pertanto aprirsi al mistero di questa Parola trascendente di Dio che è Gesù Cristo, il suo Verbo eterno fatto carne. In esso, non si afferma, anzitutto, quella forma metaforica di un linguaggio umano che esprime un’apertura eccezionale di un uomo a Dio (Gesù Cristo), ma si esprime anzitutto l’apertura di Dio verso l’uomo che inaugura una nuova via di comunicazione con l’umanità. In Gesù di Nazaret, anche se nella particolarità di un linguaggio appartenente ad una particolare cultura del suo tempo, è anzitutto Dio che parla “personalmente” all’uomo in forma umana. Di qui l’esigenza di aprirsi ed integrarsi con la forza semantica e creatrice suscitata nell’uomo dall’esperienza di Dio rivelata in Gesù Cristo e trasmessa dalla tradizione della Chiesa. Per questo ritengo inaccettabili le posizioni che sostengono sia un “carattere metaforico” e “mitico” dell’idea di incarnazione, sia l’esigenza di rinunziare a considerare Cristo come causa inclusiva e costitutiva della salvezza universale. Solo così possono svilupparsi “cristologie inculturate” nelle quali si realizza una profonda integrazione tra l’“esperienza religiosa umana” e “l’esperienza cristiana di Dio che ha la sua radice nel Dio stesso fatto uomo”. Esse possono divenire strumento, ausilio, di notevole efficacia per una comunicazione, nelle profondità dell’uomo, della Divina Parola. La trascendenza di questa Divina Parola non esclude una profonda continuità con l’esperienza umana culturale religiosa. La legge dell’incarnazione trova la sua espressione nella “Tradizione dogmatica calcedonese” che rotea intorno a due asserti fondamentali che ri-

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prendono le affermazioni simboliche di Nicea-Costantinopoli I. Il primo è quello del realismo dell’ingresso dell’Assoluto divino nella storia per cui viene affermata l’identità dell’Unico identico Figlio di Dio, Logos, preesistente presso il Padre, operante nella creazione ed incarnato per opera dello Spirito Santo da Maria Vergine. È così che la «pienezza della gloria risplende nel Verbo divenuto carne» (Gv 1,14), inabitante nell’umanità. Questo punto è affermato coerentemente con la Tradizione cristologica della Chiesa nella recente dichiarazione Dominus Jesus (DJ 10) nella quale si respinge qualunque separazione o divisione tra il Verbo e Gesù Cristo («Gesù è il Verbo Incarnato, persona una e indivisibile...»), come pure qualunque separazione-divisione tra «l’azione salvifica del Logos come tale e quella del Verbo fatto carne. Con l’incarnazione, tutte le azioni salvifiche del Verbo di Dio si fanno sempre in unità con la natura umana che egli ha assunto per la salvezza di tutti gli uomini. L’unico soggetto che opera nelle due nature, umana e divina, è l’unica persona del Verbo» (S. LEONE MAGNO, Tomus ad Flavianum, D. 294; DJ 10). Il secondo asserto è quello che riguarda il realismo e l’integralità della duplice solidarietà umana e divina, attraverso l’affermazione della distinzione non confusione tra divino ed umano. Questo principio riguarda la verità della particolarizzazione nell’umanizzazione storica del Verbo eterno in un determinato contesto, in una determinata cultura: è il principio che fa dell’incarnazione una kénosis, una discesa nell’abisso umano. È il principio che affonda le radici nell’alterità eterna del Figlio, nel suo distinguersi personalmente dal Padre e che sul piano storico dell’incarnazione è vissuto, nella libertà divina, come umiliazione, nascondimento, lontananza, culminante nella croce. Questo principio calcedonese della “differenza nella distinzione, senza confusione”, chiamato “regola d’oro” di Calcedonia non può essere diviso dal primo principio dell’unità. Sarebbe in contrasto con le affermazioni dogmatiche di Calcedonia, parlare di una “particolarizzazione” dell’Incarnato, nella kenosis, per sostenere una certa incompletezza della sua rivelazione di Dio, fondata sul fatto che l’umano, come tale, è incapace di esprimere la totalità del divino, per cui la “rivelazione cristologica” in realtà nasconderebbe più di quanto manifesti. L’affermazione reduplicativa “in quanto uomo” non può essere assunta (pur nella distinzione) “separatamente” dalla realtà del divino. C’è un principio di unità che l’impedisce ed è quello dell’Unica Persona del Verbo divino, nella quale il divino e l’umano sono inseparabilmente uniti. È proprio questo principio di unità che costituisce la “singolarità” di Gesù Cristo, da non confondere con la sola particolarità. L’incarnazione del Verbo determina quella “singolarità” della particolare vera umanità di Gesù Cristo, per la quale Egli non è un semplice individuo umano “rivelatore” della Parola di Dio, ma è la “rivelazione stessa”, “totale e definitiva di Dio”. «Pertanto, le parole, le opere e l’intero evento storico di Gesù, pur essendo limitati in quanto realtà umane, tuttavia, han-

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no come soggetto la Persona divina del Verbo incarnato, “vero Dio e vero uomo”, e perciò portano in sé la definitività e la completezza della rivelazione delle vie salvifiche di Dio, anche se la profondità del mistero divino in se stesso rimane trascendente e inesauribile. La verità su Dio non viene abolita o ridotta perché è detta in linguaggio umano. Essa, invece, resta unica, piena e completa perché chi parla e agisce è il Figlio di Dio incarnato» (DJ 6). Un terzo principio essenziale per il rapporto delle esigenze di inculturazione con la Tradizione cristologica della Chiesa è il principio pasquale, per il quale l’inculturazione, espressione della legge della stessa incarnazione, passa attraverso la croce e la resurrezione. Questo principio garantisce il processo di evangelizzazione delle culture che comporta sempre una “assunzione”, attraverso una purificazione, un’elevazione e una trasfigurazione. In questo processo redentivo si deve operare uno scambio vitale (admirabile commercium) per il quale da un lato il Verbo, luce vera che rischiara ogni uomo (Gv 1,9) tende a liberare le culture dal particolarismo che le chiude in loro stesse come universi del tutto relativi rispetto alle altre, le conduce ad aprirsi verso il transculturale o metaculturale, per una maggiore comprensione ed unità tra i popoli: «Così, coloro che erano lontani, dice l’Apostolo (Ef 2,13-14) divengono “vicini” grazie alla novità operata dal mistero pasquale» (Fides et Ratio 70). La culture, quando sono profondamente radicate nell’umano, portano in sé la testimonianza dell’apertura, tipica dell’uomo, all’universale, alla trascendenza (ibidem). Questa apertura viene promossa ed adempiuta nell’evangelizzazione delle culture, nello stesso tempo in cui esse si lasciano illuminare dalla Verità cristologica che risplende dalla croce e dalla potenza dello Spirito di Amore, principio di glorificazione. E però, in questo scambio vitale, la stessa fede cristiana si arricchisce di una più ampia e molteplice esperienza di umanità, dal momento che le culture «presentano […] approcci diversi alla verità, che si rivelano di indubbia utilità per l’uomo, a cui prospettano valori capaci di rendere sempre più umana la sua esistenza (GS 53-59)» (FR 70). Nell’animazione e conversione delle culture l’evento cristologico consente di riportare alla luce quei valori originari di umanità che le «tradizioni antiche portano con sé anche se in maniera implicita, ma non è meno reale il riferimento al manifestarsi di Dio nella natura, come appare nei testi sapienziali e dell’insegnamento di Paolo» (ibidem). Così, nell’evento pasquale, il Verbo Incarnato porta alla luce ed al compimento l’opera del Verbo Creatore. Ma direi ancora che, nell’evento pasquale, nell’incontro con la cultura, avviene una “purificazione della stessa fede cristiana”, che diviene più capace di distinguere, nei suoi linguaggi ed espressioni, inculturate, ciò che è propriamente rivelato (permanente, universal, ed assoluto) da ciò che è più relativo, contingente, provvisorio. Così “la fede cristologica” si libera dai rischi, sempre in agguato, degli integralismi che tendono ad identificare pericolosamente ciò che è mutevole con ciò che è permanente. È così che, at-

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traverso il suo cammino nei secoli, la Chiesa, sotto le provocazioni e le sfide provenienti da ambienti culturali diversi, da altre prospettive religiose, non escluse le stesse eresie cristologiche, è stata guidata dallo Spirito verso una più precisa comprensione del mistero trascendente dell’Evento originario. Il principio pneumatologico pentecostale che si può definire con le parole del compianto Y. Congar: «Lo Spirito Santo è dato in una pluralità di persone. La sua missione a Pentecoste è contrassegnata dal fatto che ogni popolo comprende il Vangelo nella propria lingua. Egli distribuisce alla persone una diversità di doni. Alle Chiese pure. La Chiesa non ha la pienezza della sua cattolicità se non riconoscendo ed assumendo tutti questi doni» (Y. CONGAR, Christianisme comme foi et comme culture). È a questa luce che si può meglio illustrare il principio precedentemente menzionato dell’interscambio o dell’interculturazione, che non va applicato alla pari. Bisogna, infatti, ricordare quanto ho già affermato: il messaggio cristiano nella sua espressione nel contesto di una “particolare cultura” ha creato, per così dire, un proprio linguaggio che esprime la “singolarità” della fede nella sua particolarizzazione. È vero, perciò, che «la missione non è più semplicemente un portare la luce nelle tenebre e la salvezza nella perdizione. Essa riveste l’aspetto di uno scambio di partecipazione e di dialogo. I non cristiani non sono solo oggetto del nostro zelo, ma anche soggetti attivi, nei quali si trovano già scintille di verità e di grazia» (M. DHAVAMONY, Spirito Santo e inculturazione). Ma è pur vero che questo processo di “maturazione e crescita” non avviene senza le dovute purificazioni. Una fede cristiana inculturata darà il suo apporto all’evangelizzazione nelle altre culture, non in forza dei principi della cultura della comunità evangelizzante, quanto proprio per la testimonianza del travaglio, della sua crocifissione e innovazione operata in lei dalla fede stessa. In questo sforzo di purificazione e di comparazione, di comunicazione tra culture diverse che esprimono con accenti diversi la stessa fede, è in opera particolarmente l’azione dello Spirito, quale agente primario di inculturazione. Come, infatti, lo Spirito Santo è l’agente dell’incarnazione e colui che ha consacrato la missione profetica di predicazione di Gesù Cristo, Colui che ne ha ispirato l’obbedienza nella croce (Ebr 9,14), è lui che conduce la Chiesa, suo Corpo, nel suo perpetuare l’incarnazione redentrice nel mondo, operando nel rendere il vangelo incarnato nelle culture. E questo molto più espressamente e personalmente si può affermare dello Spirito rispetto alla sua opera creatrice: nell’inculturazione lo Spirito Santo è principio di incontro, di comunicazione tra la Verità del vangelo di Gesù Cristo e la comprensione dell’umanità. Lo Spirito Santo costituisce, infatti, la fonte di ogni comunicazione nel rapporto tra la “verità cristologica” ed ogni essere umano inculturato. Per questa sua azione, lo Spirito Santo, afferma John Taylor, può essere pensato come «il luogo di ogni incontro» tra Cristo e gli uomini: «Io penso allo Spirito Santo come all’energia primordiale della stessa comunione, nel

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cui ambito tutte le singole esistenze possono essere rese presenti e personali le une alle altre […] Lo Spirito Santo è la invisibile terza parte in causa, che sta tra me e l’altro, rendendoci reciprocamente consapevoli. Soprattutto e innanzi tutto, egli apre i miei occhi a Cristo. Ma egli apre i miei occhi anche al fratello in Cristo o al mio prossimo, a ciò di cui ha bisogno, agli aspetti orridi e a quelli affascinanti del mondo, che commuovono egualmente il cuore» (J.V. TAYLOR, The Go Between God: The Holy Spirit and the Christian Mission). Questo principio porta a compimento quanto nell’evento pasquale si è realizzato in Gesù Cristo. Se, infatti, nella storia del Gesù terreno, l’universalità dell’evento si è già compiuta in forza della sua singolarità, ma nel modo della particolarità, in relazione ad una “particolare” situazione linguistico-culturale, con tutte le differenze che tale incarnazione comporta, nella condizione del Cristo Risorto presente nella storia, la singolarità-particolarità si manifesta nel modo della sua universalità per la potenza dello Spirito operante in relazione alla storia dell’Incarnato. Il principio escatologico-parusiaco. Non si può ignorare la portata escatologica della Tradizione della Chiesa, come Traditio vivens, che esprime la coscienza della Chiesa in cammino nella storia tra profezia e istituzioni, tra parresia e prudenze umane, in un continuo sforzo di fedeltà e rinnovamento. Lo scambio vitale tra culture e Tradizione della Chiesa si compie, come ho già detto, attraverso un reciproco dialogo vitale: da un lato, sotto l’azione dello Spirito la coscienza di fede tende sempre più verso la «Verità tutta intera» (Gv 16,13) superando i limiti della recettibilità della verità stessa, ma dall’altro è proprio attraverso lo stimolo derivante dalla comprensione umana che si opera un sempre maggiore adeguamento della coscienza di fede, nelle sue molteplici espressioni, alla Verità inesauribile, che già oggi ci illumina e ci possiede nel suo donarsi nell’evento storico dell’incarnazione pasquale, ma che, insieme, ci precede e ci spinge attraverso l’azione dello Spirito di Verità, nell’incarnazione nel linguaggio di tutti i popoli e culture, verso la conoscenza in «pienezza/interezza della Verità stessa cristologica». Nel momento presente di questo cammino, la «verità rivelata storicamente in Gesù Cristo» non è un semplice «momento passeggero», una “tappa” del cammino dell’umanità verso la Verità, che potremmo ingenuamente gettare dietro le nostre spalle per arrivare alla purezza del divino inesauribile. Gesù Cristo non è solo una “via” verso la Verità, ma quella Via che è la «Verità stessa» (Gv 14,6). Tale cammino, però, ci avverte che la «vera ortodossia» e «conformità con la Verità cristologica» non si identifica un “fissismo” e “letteralismo”, ma implica un costante dinamismo che comporta il vero principio della Communio Veritatis di una Chiesa cristiana che, nel tempo, intesse il “dialogo di salvezza” ed il compito di illuminazione attraverso l’imprescindibile missione di annuncio di «Cristo Verità e speranza del mondo».

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GIANCARLO BIGUZZI*

UNICITÀ DEL CRISTO NEL NUOVO TESTAMENTO

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L’affermazione dell’unicità di Gesù è assolutamente centrale nel credo neotestamentario e può essere illustrata (1) nel suo emergere al momento del trapasso dal giudaismo al movimento cristiano, (2) elencando le più importanti affermazioni neotestamentarie al riguardo e, infine, (3) chiedendosi quali spazi il NT lasci alle altre religioni. 1. UNICITÀ DEL CRISTO NEL TRAPASSO DAL GIUDAISMO AL MOVIMENTO CRISTIANO Il NT illustra quasi ad ogni sua pagina il rapporto dialettico del cristianesimo con il giudaismo da cui proviene. Quel confronto, che ha un valore paradigmatico per il confronto dello stesso cristianesimo con le altre religioni, si risolve sempre nell’affermazione dell’unicità del Cristo. Confronto tra Torah e persona di Gesù. Il giudaismo era incentrato sulla Torah come canone critico di tutto, anche dei Profeti e dei Sapienti. Ma Gesù osa giudicare e modificare la Torah1, e subordina e finalizza a sé tutti gli scritti sacri del giudaismo2. Dalla Torah il centro di tutto passa alla persona di Gesù. Confronto tra elezione d’Israele e il Cristo come Signore “di tutti”. Portando alle estreme conseguenze il monoteismo giudaico, il movimento cristiano afferma che Dio, essendo Dio di tutti3, non fa differenze di persone o di popoli4, vuole la salvezza di tutti gli uomini, e di fatto giustifica e salva anche i pagani5. Poiché giustifica e salva nel Cristo, l’universalità e unicità di Dio sono trasferite alla cristologia: di fatto Gesù è definito come kuvrio" pavntwn, cioè kuvrio" universale, e non solo dei circoncisi6. La geografia soteriologica. È così che, mentre la geografia soteriologica dell’AT è fondamentalmente centripeta7, quella del NT è centrifuga e universale: l’Evangelo di Gesù è destinato a tutto il mondo, a tutte le genti, e a tutte le creature8, tanto è vero che il libro degli Atti potrebbe essere intitolato “Da Gerusalemme alle estremità della terra” e nei programmi apostolici di Paolo c’è la Spagna, l’estremo confine occidentale del mondo di allora9.

*

Pontificia Università Urbaniana.

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2. IN QUALI TERMINI IL NUOVO TESTAMENTO AFFERMA L’UNICITÀ DI GESÙ Le affermazioni neotestamentarie circa l’unicità di Gesù si possono raggruppare secondo le fasi della sua vicenda: preesistenza, esistenza storica, vicenda pasquale, escatologia. L’unicità di Gesù nella preesistenza. Il NT afferma la preesistenza di Gesù, la sua natura e gloria divina prima che il mondo fosse10, afferma che egli è il Lógos ipostatico e non una semplice personificazione come quella antico-testamentaria della Sapienza11: a lui, non solo come Lógos, è attribuita tra l’altro la prerogativa di “creatore”12. L’unicità di Gesù nell’esistenza storica. Egli è unico nel suo rapporto con l’economia salvifica antico-testamentaria: il NT afferma che profeti, giusti e re d’Israele hanno desiderato vedere il suo giorno13. Egli infatti è più di Abramo e di Giacobbe, più del tempio, più dei profeti e dei re14, lui che compie le Scritture e le profezie, lui che è più grande del sabato e della legge15. È unico nella sua parola e nei suoi poteri: egli rivela ciò che ha veduto e udito nel seno del Padre, e la sua parola è intramontabile più che cielo e terra16; egli poi rivendica per esempio il potere di perdonare i peccati, potere che è solo di Dio17. È unico nella sua opera, lui che ha edificato l’ekklesia sulla quale non prevarranno le porte degli Inferi, lui che ha inaugurato un regno, presente ed escatologico, che è lo stesso regno di Dio a cui Dio predestina tutti gli uomini, dell’oriente e dell’occidente18. È unico nel suo rapporto con Dio, lui che con Dio, essendo suo Figlio, intrattiene il rapporto confidenziale del figlioletto con il suo abba19. L’unicità di Gesù nella pasqua di redenzione e nell’esistenza gloriosa. È unico poi soprattutto nella sua morte e resurrezione: il NT afferma che la morte di Gesù è «per i molti», anzi «per tutti», per procurare una «redenzione eterna»20; e afferma che egli poi è risorto dai morti, vincendo la morte, ultimo nemico21; e che è entrato nei cieli e si è assiso quale kuvrio" universale alla destra del Padre, da dove ha effuso lo Spirito Santo di Dio22. L’unicità di lui come salvatore e come mediatore è affermata in termini espliciti ed inequivocabili: «In nessun altro c’è salvezza: non vi è infatti altro nome dato agli uomini sotto il cielo nel quale sia stabilito che possiamo essere salvati» (At 4,12), «Uno solo è il mediatore fra Dio e gli uomini, l’uomo Cristo Gesù» (1 Tm 2,5). I frutti della sua redenzione si estendono a tutto: al singolo, al mondo dei popoli, al cosmo. (I) Per il singolo la pasqua del Cristo porta al perdono dei peccati, alla purificazione della coscienza, alla creazione in lui dell’uomo nuovo23. (II) Al di là del singolo, la redenzione porta alla riconciliazione dei due popoli in cui era divisa l’umanità, «giudei e greci»24; porta al superamento delle differenziazioni non solo religiose25 ed etniche26, ma anche sociologiche27 e sessuali28, e porta poi all’unità di tutti gli uomini nella Chiesa, corpo del Cristo29. (III) Per gli scritti del NT la pasqua del Cristo dà vi-

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ta all’unità non soltanto degli uomini, siano essi giudei o greci, barbari o sciti…, ma di tutto: «delle cose che sono sulla terra e di quelle che sono nel cielo», così che in lui Dio realizza la riconciliazione30 e ricapitolazione universale31. L’unicità di Gesù nell’escatologia. Ciò che viene operato dal Cristo nel singolo, tra i popoli, e nel cosmo, infine, è la realtà ultima. Con la sua pasqua il Cristo determina la svolta delle epoche e dei mondi: prima di lui c’era il vecchio mondo o il mondo penultimo, e con lui comincia il mondo ultimo. Anzi, il mondo ultimo è lui stesso, perché è «in Cristo» che si è «nuova creatura» (2 Cor 5,17), lui che ha detto: «Quando sarò innalzato da terra, attirerò tutti a me» (Gv 12,32), lui del quale Col 3,11 afferma «Il Cristo è tutto ed è in tutti (ta; pavnta kai; ejn pa'sin oJ Cristo"v )» e al quale l’epistolario paolino riconosce un primato e una regalità sull’intero cosmo, dei quali il meno che si possa dire è che sono sorprendenti e sconcertanti32. Tra l’altro è significativo il fatto che il NT non impieghi mai i termini eschaton o eschata, al neutro, a proposito del mondo ultimo o delle realtà ultime, e che invece tre volte nell’Ap il Cristo sia chiamato eschatos, al maschile; anzi, è chiamato «prw~to" kai; e[scato"»33. E sono la sua unicità protologica e la sua unicità escatologica che, più d’ogni altra unicità, sembrano non lasciare spazio ad altri salvatori e ad altre economie salvifiche. 3. QUALI SPAZI IL NUOVO TESTAMENTO LASCIA ALLE ALTRE RELIGIONI Nonostante la massiccia e onnipresente affermazione dell’unicità del Cristo, nel NT si possono raccogliere alcune affermazioni che sembrano possibiliste nei confronti dei non-discepoli e delle altre religioni34. L’esorcista non-discepolo. L’episodio del non-discepolo che fa esorcismi nel nome di Gesù ci è giunto in due versioni: una più cristologica, quella di Mc 9,38-41 che è incentrata sul «nos/hJmei'"» di Gesù e dei discepoli, e l’altra più ecclesiologica, quella di Lc 9,49-50, che è incentrata sul «vos/uJmei'"» dei discepoli. In Mc 9 l’esorcista non-discepolo35 è approvato perché l’invocazione salvifica del nome di Gesù36 e il non essere contro Gesù e i suoi discepoli37 gli sono sufficienti per essere a loro favore38. In Lc 9 Gesù approva l’esorcista che non ha rapporti con «la Chiesa» perché se non è contro la Chiesa39, è a favore di essa40. In altre parole, sembra che Luca escluda l’ecclesiocentrismo (da parte di chi non è nella Chiesa è legittimo l’uso del nome di Gesù per combattere il male del mondo), e Marco sembra escludere parzialmente anche il cristocentrismo (è legittimo l’uso del nome di Gesù da parte di chi non lo segue). Il valore salvifico riconosciuto alla legge del Sinai e a quella del cuore. A colui che interroga Gesù su come possa ereditare la vita eterna41, Gesù in-

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dica l’osservanza dei comandamenti, citando espressamente quinto, sesto, settimo, ottavo, e quarto comandamento42. È ben vero che, secondo la finale della piccola vicenda evangelica, al giovane manca la sequela di Gesù e che, per non averla saputa abbracciare, egli se ne andrà via triste43, di una tristezza non psicologica ma soteriologica: tuttavia, nella prima parte del dialogo l’osservanza della legge mosaica sembra in qualche misura essere sufficiente ad ereditare la vita eterna. Sulla stessa linea, in Rm 2,12-29 Paolo afferma che i non-giudei sono legge a sé stessi quando, pur non conoscendo la legge, fanno ciò che è in essa (vv. 14-16), e possono essere circoncisi nel cuore, pur avendo il prepuzio (vv. 25-29). Questi testi sembrano non-cristocentrici in quanto, dal punto di vista soteriologico, la legge mosaica e la circumcisio cordis del non-giudeo vi appaiono in qualche misura autosufficienti, e il Cristo in qualche misura non necessario. Nelle religioni il giusto riconoscimento del Creatore. In Rm 1,18 ss. Paolo dichiara inescusabili coloro che «hanno venerato e adorato la creatura al posto del Creatore», poiché dalle creature potevano e dovevano risalire al Creatore perché, a partire dalle creature, è possibile la contemplazione e la comprensione di perfezioni divine di per sé invisibili, come la sua eterna potenza e divinità (v. 20). Nel discorso di Paolo a Listra di At 14,15-17 viene poi precisato quali in concreto possano essere le opere di Dio che rivelano le sue invisibili perfezioni, là dove è detto che Dio ha lasciato prova di sé (ouJk ajmavrturon) nel ciclo delle stagioni e delle piogge, e nei frutti con cui l’uomo quotidianamente si sostenta (v. 17a). Secondo Rm 1 e secondo il libro degli Atti, dunque, non solo è possibile ma doveroso per le religioni pervenire, anche senza il Cristo, alla giusta adorazione del Creatore. CONCLUSIONI 1. Le linee di fondo lungo le quali il movimento cristiano si propone come superamento del particolarismo giudaico, o quantomeno del suo centripetismo, sono la fede in Dio come Dio della creazione più che dell’elezione, e la persona di Gesù con tutta la sua unicità e centralità. 2. Nella convinzione del NT l’assolutezza e l’unicità di Gesù non conoscono limiti né di spazio, né di tempo o di eternità, perché la sua opera non solo oltrepassa a ritroso i confini di questa creazione, ma dà inizio a quella nuova ed escatologica, e ad essa è interamente finalizzata. L’eccedenza di significato attribuita dal NT alla persona di Gesù è tale che sembra travolgere anche i limiti assunti dal Cristo nella kénosis dell’incarnazione e quelli della sua particolarità storica. 3. Gli ambiti nei quali il NT colloca le possibilità e i doveri delle religioni sono l’appello etico che risuona nelle coscienze, e la lettura del cosmo co-

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me opera di Dio in vista dell’adorazione e glorificazione del Creatore. Questa condiscendenza di Dio per ogni ricerca religiosa non cristocentrica è in qualche modo commentata per noi dalla parabola degli operai dove quelli della prima ora si sentono dolcemente rimproverare dal padrone della vigna con le parole: «Sei tu invidioso per il fatto che io sono buono?» (Mt 20,15).

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Note 1 Certi precetti della Torah sono una concessione alla durezza di cuore / sklerokardia (Mt 19,8 par.) per cui Gesù li abroga, mentre altri li interiorizzano e li radicalizzano: cf. le antitesi di Mt 5,21-46: «Vi fu detto, […] ma io vi dico». 2 Secondo Lc 24,27.44, la Legge, i Profeti e i Salmi parlano di Gesù. 3 «Forse Dio è Dio soltanto dei giudei? Non lo è forse anche dei pagani? Certo!, anche dei pagani!» (Rm 3,29). Dio, poi, è padre di tutti secondo Ef 2,6, salvatore di tutti secondo 1 Tm 3,10, giudice di tutti secondo Ebr 12,23. 4 «[…] presso Dio non c’è parzialità» (Rm 2,11), «[…] per tutti quelli che credono. E non c’è distinzione» (3,22), «Non c’è distinzione tra giudeo e greco» (10,12), «Dio non fa preferenza di persone, ma chi lo teme e pratica la giustizia, a qualunque popolo appartenga, è a lui accetto» (At 10,34-35), «C’è un solo Signore nel cielo e non v’è preferenza di persone presso di lui» (Ef 6,9), «[…] non v’è parzialità per nessuno» (Col 3,25). 5 «Non c’è che un solo Dio il quale giustificherà per la fede i circoncisi e, per mezzo della fede, anche i non circoncisi» (Rm 3,30); «Dio, nostro salvatore, […] vuole che tutti gli uomini siano salvi e arrivino alla conoscenza della verità» (1 Tm 2,4). 6 «Gesù Cristo […] è il Signore di tutti» (At 10,36), «[Gesù] è il Signore di tutti» (Rm 10,12). 7 «Venite, saliamo al monte del Signore…» (Is 2,2-5 e Mi 4,1-4), «[…] li [gli stranieri] condurrò sul mio monte santo, […] i loro olocausti e i loro sacrifici saliranno graditi sul mio altare» (Is 56,3-7), «Le tue porte saranno sempre aperte, […] per lasciar introdurre le ricchezze dei popoli. […] La gloria del Libano verrà a te…» (Is 60,11-14), «Popoli e abitanti di numerose città si diranno l’un l’altro: «Su, andiamo a supplicare il Signore…», «Ci vado anch’io…» (Zc 8,20-23, cf. anche 14,16-19), «Verranno i grandi dall’Egitto, l’Etiopia tenderà le mani a Dio» (Sal 67-68,32). Cf. tuttavia Am 9,7 e Is 19,16-25. Sull’universalismo e/o «proselitismo» giudaico cf. R. MARTIN-ACHARD, Israël et les nations. La perspective missionnaire de l’AT, Neuchâtel 1959; N. FÜGLISTER, “Strutture dell’ecclesiologia veterotestamentaria”, in Mysterium Salutis, VII, Brescia 1972, pp. 84-89; S. MCKNIGHT, A Light Among the Gentiles: Jewish Missionary Activity in the Second Temple Period, Minneapolis, MN 1991; J. MURPHY-O’CONNOR, A FirstCentury Jewish Mission to Gentiles?, in “Pacifica”, (1992)5, pp. 32-42; E. WILL, C. ORRIEUX, Prosèlytisme Juif? Histoire d’une erreur, Paris 1992. 8 Cf. «[…] eij" o”lon to;n kovsmon» (Mc 14,9 par.); «[…] maqhteuvsate pavnta ta; e[qnh» (Mt 28,19); «[…] pavsh/ th/' ktivsei» (Mc 16,15). 9 Cf. At 1,8, e i 106 etno-toponimi di At, elencati in G. BIGUZZI, “Il Nuovo Testamento, le culture e le religioni”, in Euntes Docete, 51(1998)35, nota 80. Per i progetti di Paolo circa la Spagna di cui parla Rm 15,24-28, cf. J. KNOX, Romans 15,14-33 and Paul’s Conception of His Apostolic Mission, in “Journal of Biblical Literature”, (1964)83, pp. 1-11; e R. BAUCKHAM, What if Paul had Travelled East rather than West, in “Biblical Interpretation”, (2000)8, pp. 171-184. Cf. infine Giustino martire che, già a metà del secondo secolo, può parlare di un cristianesimo universalmente diffuso: «Non vi è asso-

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lutamente razza umana, né barbara né greca né di qualsivoglia altra denominazione, neppure di quelli che vivono sui carri o dei cosiddetti “senza casa” o degli allevatori di bestiame che vivono sotto le tende, in cui non si elevino al Padre e creatore dell’universo preghiere e azioni eucaristiche nel nome di Gesù crocifisso» (Dialogo 117,5). 10 «In principio era il Lógos, […] e il Lógos era Dio» (Gv 1,1); «[…] la gloria che avevo presso di te prima che il mondo fosse» (Gv 17,5); «Egli che era di natura divina, annientò sé stesso…» (Fil 2,6); «Questo Figlio che è irradiazione della sua gloria e impronta della sua sostanza…» (Ebr 1,3). 11 Per il Lógos ipostatico cf. Gv 1,1-18; 1 Gv 1,1-3; Ap 19,13; e cf. invece Sap 6,1221; 8,1-21; Sir 24,1-27; Prov 8,1-36; 9,1-6. Per la personificazione della Sapienza cf. M. GILBERT, Sapienza, in P. ROSSANO et al., a cura di, NDTB, Milano 1988, pp. 1437-1440; ID., “Sagesse, I: Ancien Testament”, in Dictionnaire de Spiritualité, XIV, Paris 1990, pp. 78-80, e la relativa bibliografia. Per l’ipostatizzazione della Parola (Memrâ da ’mr, “dire”) nel giudaismo palestinese, cf. J. STARKY, La Parole divine à l’époque néotestamentaire, in “DBSuppl.”, V, Paris 1957, pp. 466-467. 12 «Tutto fu fatto per mezzo di lui…» (Gv 1,3), «[…] in virtù di lui esistono tutte le cose» (1 Cor 8,6), «[…] per mezzo di lui sono state create tutte le cose, quelle nei cieli e quelle sulla terra, quelle visibili e quelle invisibili…» (Col 1,16-17). Cf. poi Mt 28,20: «Mi è stato dato ogni potere in cielo e in terra». 13 Hanno desiderato vedere il giorno del Cristo i profeti e i giusti secondo Mt 13,17, i profeti e i re secondo Lc 10,24, e Abramo secondo Gv 8,56. 14 Gesù è più grande di Abramo (Gv 8,53.56.58), di Giacobbe (Gv 4,12-14), di Mosè (Ebr 3,3-6), del tempio (Mt 12,6), del profeta Giona (Mt 12,41), del re Salomone (Mt 12,42). 15 Gesù è più grande del sabato (Mc 2,27), della legge (cf. le già citate antitesi di Mt 5,21-46). 16 «Dio nessuno mai lo ha visto […] il Figlio unigenito che è nel seno del Padre, lui lo ha rivelato» (Gv 1,18); «Io dico quello che ho visto presso il Padre» (Gv 8,38); «Il cielo e la terra passeranno, ma le mie parole non passeranno» (Mt 24,35 par.). 17 Mc 2,1-12 par. 18 Per l’ekklesia cf. Mt 16,16-18; per il regno cf. ad esempio Mt 12,28; Lc 22,28-30; 1 Cor 15,24, e Mt 8,11 («[…] verranno dall’oriente e dall’occidente») . 19 Mc 14,36; cf. J. JEREMIAS, Abba, Brescia 1968 (Göttingen 1966), 7-70; e COMMISSIONE TEOLOGICA INTERNAZIONALE, La coscienza che Gesù aveva di sé stesso e della sua missione, 1.2, Roma 1986. 20 «[…] per i molti» (Mc 10,45; 14,24 par.), «[…] per tutti» (2 Cor 5,14-15; 1 Tm 2,6); «[…] una redenzione eterna» (Ebr 9,12). 21 1 Cor 15,25-26. L’affermazione è inaudita in qualsiasi altra antropologia. 22 «[…] nei cieli» (Ebr 9,24), «[…] ha effuso lo Spirito» (At 2,33). 23 Cf. neo;" a[nqrwpo" (Col 3,10), e kaino" a[nrqrwpo" (Ef 2,15). 24 «[…] lui che ha fatto dei due una sola cosa (e”n, neutro)» (Ef 2,14). 25 «[…] non c’è più circoncisione o prepuzio» (Col 3,11). 26 «[…] non c’è più giudeo né greco» (Gal 3,28; Col 3,11; cf. 1 Cor 12,13); «[…] non c’è più barbaro o scita» (Col 3,11). 27 «[…] non c’è più schiavo né libero» (Gal 3,28; Col 3,11; 1 Cor 12,13). 28 «[…] non c’è più uomo o donna» (Gal 3,28). 29 «[…] quanti siete stati battezzati in Cristo, […] tutti voi siete uno (ei\", maschile) in Cristo Gesù» (Gal 3,26-28). 30 «Piacque a Dio […] per mezzo di lui riconciliare a sé tutte le cose, […] le cose che stanno sulla terra e quelle nei cieli» (Col 1,20). 31 «[…] ricapitolare in Cristo tutte le cose, quelle del cielo come quelle della terra» (Ef 1,10). Secondo l’interpretazione dei padri e di molti moderni, l’ajnakefalaivwsi” nel Cristo non restaura il mondo dalla decadenza del peccato, ma era voluta ab aeterno da

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Dio in ordine alla compiutezza stessa della creazione. Cf. DUFORT, La récapitulation paulinienne dans l’exégèse des Pères, in “Sciences Ecclésiastiques”, (1960)12, pp. 21-38; A. ORBE, Omnia in semetipsum recapitulans, in “Compostellanum”, (1994, sic per 1995) 39, pp. 7-24. 32 «E quando tutto gli sarà sottomesso…» (1 Cor 15,28); «[…] il disegno di ricapitolare in Cristo tutte le cose, quelle del cielo come quelle della terra» (Ef 1,9-10); «[…] il primato su tutte le cose» (Col 1,18), «Avendogli assoggettato ogni cosa, [Dio] nulla ha lasciato che non gli fosse sottomesso» (Ebr 2,8). Nel suo bollettino bibliografico, H. Riedlinger parla di «regalità cosmica di Cristo» e premette alla sua rassegna tutta una serie di interrogativi, tra i quali alcuni recitano: «In che modo l’evento di Cristo può mai trascendere il nostro mondo umano e concernere il cosmo intero? In che modo l’uomo Gesù Cristo, pur essendo una sola cosa con Dio e lo stesso Verbo eterno, può, in quanto uomo, significare qualcosa nell’universo ed occuparvi addirittura una posizione sovrana? Perché ed in che modo infatti un uomo, la cui storia si è svolta completamente nell’ambito del nostro minuscolo pianeta, deve ottenere il dominio sull’universo?». Tutto questo dà un’idea delle inaudite e assolutamente inedite affermazioni del NT sull’unicità del Cristo, capo cosmico. Cf. H. RIEDLINGER, in “Concilium”, (1966)2, pp. 125149 (citazioni alle pp. 125 e 126). Cf. poi R. PENNA, La proiezione dell’esperienza comunitaria sul piano storico (Ef 2,11-22) e cosmico (Ef 1,20-23), in “Rivista Biblica”, (1978)26, pp. 163-186, e M.J. NICOLAS, Le Christ et le cosmos. Incidence de la cosmologie moderne sur la théologie, Paris 1993. 33 Cf. J. DANIELOU, “Christologie et eschatologie”, in A. GRILLMEIER, H. BACHT (a cura di) Das Konzil von Chalkedon. Geschichte und Gegenwart, III, Chalkedon heute, Würzburg 1954, p. 275, che scrive: «L’étude de l’eschatologie nous a conduit à la christologie. Nous avons constaté d’abord que l’e[scaton n’était pas seulement un pevra", une simple fin chronologique, mais vraiment un tevlo", un but, qui était l’accomplissement d’un développement. Et il nous est apparu enfin que le terme de ce développement n’était pas un événement, mais une personne. Ainsi avons-nous passé de l’e[scaton à l’e[scato"». 34 Per una trattazione più ampia cf. G. BIGUZZI, “Il Nuovo Testamento, le culture e le religioni”, pp. 8-18. 35 «[…] oujk hjkolouvqei hJmi'n [i discepoli e Gesù]». Il v. 39 fa addirittura l’ipotesi, anche se escludendola, che quel discepolo possa parlare contro Gesù «… kakologh'saiv me‰» (v. 38b). 36 «[…] uno che scacciava i demoni nel tuo nome» (v. 38a). 37 «[…] adversus nos/kaq’hJmw'n», con l’inclusione di Gesù. 38 «[…] pro nobis/uJpe;r hJmw'n», con l’inclusione di Gesù. 39 «[…] adversus vos/kaq’uJmw'n». 40 «[…] pro vobis/uJpe;r uJmw'n». 41 Nell’AT.Lxx l’espressione «zwh; aijwvnio"» ricorre soltanto in DnTh 12,2, e 4 Mc 15,3 (cf. anche 2 Mc 7,35), ed è invece tipica del NT che con essa esprime la salvezza totale e definitiva dell’uomo. 42 In Mt 19,19 è aggiunto il comando dell’amore del prossimo. 43 Cf. i termini stugnavsa" (Mc 10,22), lupouvmeno" (Mt 19,22; Mc 10,22), perivlupo" (Lc 18,23).

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GERALD H. ANDERSON*

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«YOU ARE THE MESSIAH» (Mt 16,16)

I begin with a warm word of greeting and gratitude for the opportunity as an American evangelical missiologist to be included in this important missiological congress. I welcome the formation of the International Association of Catholic Missiologists as a sign of new vitality for the advancement of scholarship in mission studies among Catholic scholars. In the words of St. Paul when he wrote to the Christians in Rome, it is my prayer «that we may be mutually encouraged by each other’s faith, both yours and mine» (Rom 1,12). I The question posed by Jesus in Mt 16,15, «Who do you say I am?», is the essential question of the Church and its mission. Peter’s confession, «You are the Messiah, the Son of the Living God» (Mt 16,16; also Mk 8,29), is the essential answer. Jesus affirms Peter’s answer, and indicates that this is more than just Peter’s personal opinion; it has been revealed to Peter by God the Father, and with this confession Peter becomes the «rock» on which Jesus will build his Church (Mt 16,17-19). This confession is essential for the Church; the recognition that Jesus is the Messiah is the heart of the Church’s message and mission. Peter’s confession, says Joseph E. Monti, is the single, normative, foundational confession of faith that «grounds all Christological reflections in their attempt to give some coherent and cognitive theological content – some sensible explanation – to and for this faith experience»1. Here we have the seeds of a Christocentric ecclesiology. Other opinions («some say […] and others say» Mt 16,14) were not acceptable to Jesus, because they pointed to alternative figures in answer to his question, «Who do people say that the Son of Man is?». Peter’s confession was clear and unambiguous, «You are the Messiah»; and it was without qualification: Jesus was not the Messiah only for one tribe or tongue or time2. Jesus «ordered the disciples not to tell anyone that he was the Messiah» (Mt 16,20), but that was temporary. The scope of Jesus’ mission * Minister of The United Methodist Church. Editor of International Bulletin of Missionary Research, New Haven, U.S.A.

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strategy was progressive (Acts 1,8); first to his disciples; then to the house of Israel (Mt 10,6; 15,24; cf. Acts 11,19); and, after the resurrection, to all the nations (Mt 28,16-20; Acts 1,8)3. As the Catholic bishops of the United States said in their pastoral statement on world mission, «Jesus was a missionary»4. He instructed his disciples, «As the Father has sent me, so I send you» (Jn 20,21; cf. Jn 17,18). Jesus is unique, ultimate, and universal5.

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II The text and theme of this Congress for the Christian mission is very timely and relevant as the Church today faces serious obstacles and challenges, both external and internal. These include persecution, secularism, resurgent world religions, communism, totalitarian regimes, post-modern scepticism, and «religious indifference» as mentioned in Tertio Millennio Adveniente (TMA 36). These external factors and forces, however, are not the greatest threat to the Church in mission. The Church has dealt with these in the past and has prevailed. It will continue to overcome them, although in some situations it will be at great human cost of struggle, suffering and sacrifice, even martyrdom. The most serious threat to the Church’s mission today comes not from outside the Church, but from inside the Church itself. Once again Jesus poses the question, «Who do you say I am?», and today many opinions and options other than Peter’s confession are heard in the Church. They can only be described as deviations from the revelation of God the Father to Peter, a revelation which was affirmed by Jesus and is part of the Church’s Magisterium. After all, «Jesus Christ is the same yesterday and today and forever» (Heb 13,8). In Redemptoris Missio (RM) Pope John Paul II pointed to this problem when he spoke of «widespread indifferentism […] based on incorrect theological perspectives […] characterised by a religious relativism which leads to the belief that “one religion is as good as another”» (RM 36). This is a theological virus which is very widespread; it infects all of our churches, and in this sense it is an ecumenical virus that has reached global epidemic proportions. Strong medicine and strategic steps are needed to deal with the problem. III I want to address briefly three aspects of «The Christian Claim to Universality and its Missiological Implications», and I will conclude with two strategic steps and signs of hope. First, the New Testament is clear that Jesus is Lord of all and for everyone. There are no exceptions or exemptions to the universal Lordship

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of Jesus Christ. Either everyone needs the Gospel, or no one needs it. This begins, as noted above, with the Jews, and then expands to include everyone. This is summarized most clearly in the Great Commission of the risen Christ, which is generally considered to be the premier text for the world mission of the Church. According to Karl Barth, «The Great Commission is truly the most genuine utterance of the risen Jesus». It is the great turning point in history, Barth said, when the temporary restriction of going only to the house of Israel (Mt 10,5) is lifted after the resurrection, and the apostles are sent to make disciples of all nations6. In the words of Prof. Geffré, «The Risen Christ frees the person of Jesus of Nazareth from a particularism which made him the property of a particular group, the first community of his disciples». However, the expansion of mission to include «all nations» (Mt 28,19) in no way cancels the original mission to the Jews. «You are the Messiah» is still where mission begins – «to the Jew first» (Rom 1,16; cf. Rom 2,9-10). Unfortunately, there has been a trend since the 1950s among some Roman Catholic and Protestant theologians to suggest that the Jewish people do not need to acknowledge Jesus as the Messiah. In this view the Jewish people have their own covenant with God through Abraham which renders faith in Jesus as the Messiah unnecessary. Some Christian theologians have even suggested that Jesus was not the Messiah, or was a failed Messiah7. Apparently, in this view, Jesus was confused and Peter’s confession was a mistake. Nowhere in the New Testament or in official statements of the Roman Catholic Church or of the World Council of Churches have I found any exemption of the Jews, or anyone else, from the universal claims of the Gospel. To the contrary, Jesus sends his disciples – then and now – to all nations and peoples, to proclaim the Gospel, to make disciples, to baptize them, and teach them all that he commanded. Obviously, this must be done with sensitivity, respect, humility and repentence for sins of omission and commission. This is the position, as I understand it, that has been affirmed consistently by the Roman Catholic Church under the pontificate of John Paul II. Redemptoris Missio states that «for all people – Jews and Gentiles alike – salvation can only come from Jesus Christ» (RM 5), «the universality of this salvation in Christ is asserted throughout the New Testament» (RM 5), and «the Church calls all people to this conversion» (RM 46). This is reaffirmed in the apostolic exhortation Ecclesia in Asia and in the declaration Dominus Iesus from the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith. The main point here is that the relation of the Gospel to the Jewish people is foundational for a theology of religions. If mission to the Jews is denied, then denial of mission to people of other faiths easily follows. Christian theologians who say that the Jewish people do not need the Gospel are also likely to deny that people of other faiths need the Gospel, and we end up with a rampant, radical relativism and rejection of the Christian mission to

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all people of other faiths. For while the relation of the Church to the Jewish people is distinctive, it is not totally different or separate from the relation of the Church to people of other faiths. A theology of religions begins with the relation of the Church and the Jewish people. The suggestion from Professor Geffré, however, that «the relation of the Church to Judaism has the value of a paradigm for the relation of Christianity to other religions» poses a theological leap that is intriguing but problematic. Is there biblical support for placing other religions, and presumably other covenants, side by side with Israel in our understanding of salvation history8? In John’s Gospel we are told, «Salvation comes from the Jews» (4,22). Commenting on this formula, Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger says «This heritage remains abidingly vital and contemporary in the sense that there is no access to Jesus, and thereby there can be no entrance of the nations into the people of God without the acceptance in faith of the revelation of God, who speaks in the sacred Scripture which Christians term the Old Testament»9. IV Even for those who affirm with Peter, «You are the Messiah», there are difficulties today in describing and defining the relation between God’s redemptive activity in Jesus Christ and people of other faiths, and those faiths themselves. Indeed, this has become one of the most difficult, divisive, and controversial areas of missiological discussion. On the one hand, we want to be faithful to the witness of Holy Scripture and the authoritative teaching of the Church, and – at the same time – we want to be sensitive to the context of religious pluralism and to those with whom we seek to witness in dialogue and proclamation. In Scripture and in the history of Christian doctrine there are two major streams or traditions regarding the relationship of God’s redemptive activity in Jesus Christ and God’s activity among people of other faiths10. One tradition, while recognizing the uniqueness and universality of Jesus Christ, emphasizes the continuity of God’s revealing and redeeming activity in Christ with God’s activity among all people everywhere. It views Christian faith as the climax of a divine revelation that began long before human history and has been available to everyone. Jesus Christ in this view is crucial, normative, and definitive, but not exclusive. What is true of Jesus Christ in a focal way is pervasively true of the whole cosmos. He is the key or clue to the rest of God’s working. But the Word of God is not limited to and did not end with the revelation in the historic person of Jesus, yet it is also not apart from Christ in the Spirit. There is much biblical and patristic testimony in support of this tradition. John’s Gospel affirms that the same light which was in Jesus enlightenens

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everyone (Jn 1,1-9). Paul said that a thousand years before the birth of Jesus, «Christ» was with the Israelites in their wanderings in Sinai (1 Cor 10,4). And Acts 14,17 assures us that God «has not left himself without witness» among all nations, even those who had no knowledge of the biblical revelation. In this view, the logos spermatikos is active everywhere, sowing seeds of truth, and thus preparing the way for the Gospel. The other tradition emphasizes a radical discontinuity between the realm of Christian revelation, which is unique, and the whole range of nonChristian religious experience. In this view, the non-Christian religions are the various efforts of human beings to apprehend their existence, whereas Christianity is the result of the self-disclosure of God in Jesus Christ. God has spoken to humanity only in the person of Jesus Christ, and «there is salvation in no one else» (Acts 4,12). This tradition – which is the narrow, exclusivist tradition – is equally, if not more strongly, represented in Scripture and the history of Christian doctrine. These two streams of teaching and tradition are hard to reconcile, and seem almost contradictory. Yet both are part of the Christian tradition. Both are found in Scripture and patristic teaching. Both are represented in the history of Christian missions. Both must be maintained in a balanced tension. This is hard to do when those from one tradition offer continuity with doubtful uniqueness, and those from the other side urge uniqueness without continuity. Needed in our theological understanding about mission and religious pluralism is uniqueness with continuity11. In Redemptoris Missio, John Paul II spoke about the truth of these two elements in tension when he affirmed «the real possibility of salvation in Christ for all mankind» (RM 9) and explained that for individual nonChristians «salvation in Christ is accessible by virtue of a grace which […] enlightens them in a way which is accommodated to their spiritual and material situation» (RM 9, 10). How does this happen? The Second Vatican Council said this salvific grace comes to individual non-Christians from God «in ways known to himself» (AG 7). There is a passage in Redemptor Hominis, John Paul II’s first encyclical, that is important for this discussion. The pope says, «The human person – every person without exception – has been redeemed by Christ; because Christ is in a way united to the human person – every person without exception – even if the individual may not realize this fact» (RH 14). May I ask: If everyone without any exception whatever is already redeemed by Christ and united with Christ, even when they are unaware of it, why is there any urgency or need at all for persons of other faiths to hear the Gospel, to proclaim their faith in Jesus Christ, to be baptized into membership in the visible church and to partake of the sacraments? If I could ask Cardinal Ratzinger just one question, it would be this: «Your Eminence, why did you never mention Redemptor Hominis, with this important statement from the Holy Father, in Dominus Iesus?».

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To his credit, Cardinal Ratzinger does say in Dominus Iesus, «Theologians are seeking to understand this question more fully. Their work is to be encouraged, since it is certainly useful for understanding better God’s salvific plan and the ways in which it is accomplished» (DJ 21).

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V Today there is an effort on the part of some missiologists to propose a new paradigm for mission that would replace evangelization with reconciliation and healing as the goal of mission. I will illustrate this effort with the proposal from a well-known Protestant missiologist, S. Wesley Ariarajah from Sri Lanka, who is now a professor at Drew University in the United States12. Ariarajah proposes that Christian mission should be seen as a common cooperative enterprise with people of other faiths for reconciliation and healing, rather than to seek for the conversion of people to faith in Jesus Christ. Non-Christians, in his view, do not need faith in Jesus Christ, because God is already with them and using them in much the same way that God is present among Christians. With a convoluted argument about the declining status of the churches in Europe being preferable to the growing churches in Africa, Latin America, Asia and Oceania, he makes a curious identification of «evangelization» with the cause of Mammon. Finally, he urges that in mission we should give up «doctrinaire Christology», including «the claim to uniqueness», because it is irrelevant. This should be replaced, he says, with an emphasis on «an authentic spiritual life that is centered in God». Dr. Ariarajah claims to have shaped his new pluralist paradigm for mission as a result of dialogue with Hindus and Buddhists, and clearly there is nothing here that a Hindu or Buddhist would disagree with. It is also likely that if the early missionaries to Sri Lanka had his theological views, Dr. Ariarajah would not be a Christian today. It is not clear if this would matter to him. There appears to be an underlying assumption that the various religious traditions are equally valid in the divine plan of salvation. I must confess that I find Dr. Ariarajah’s relativism no less doctrinaire than the Christology to which he objects. According to his dogma of relativism, everything is relative except relativism. And his caricatures of traditional missionary thinking are no less objectionable: conversion, he says, «has come to mean […] an activity aimed at dragging persons from one community to another», and the traditional goal of mission, he alleges, «is to make everyone accept Jesus Christ», which implies coercion. I cannot find statements from any reputable missiologist in the last fifty years that would match these characterizations. Such radical theological relativism and derision regarding the Christian mission illustrate the threat to mission from inside the Church.

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Carl E. Braaten reminds us that anytime there is discussion about the salvific contribution of other religions, it is important to ask «if it is the same salvation that God has promised the world by raising Jesus from the dead. The resurrection gospel is the criterion of the meaning of salvation in the New Testament sense»13. While reconciliation and healing are certainly part of the Christian message and mission, they cannot take the place of evangelization in a paradigm for mission. As Pope John Paul II stated in Redemptoris Missio, «Proclamation is the permanent priority of mission», and «the proclamation of the word of God has Christian conversion as its aim» (RM 44, 46). Christianity’s claim to universality is based on the universality of Jesus Christ which the Church proclaims, starting with the confession, «You are the Messiah». VI Earlier I suggested that strategic steps are needed to meet the internal challenge to mission if the Church is to be effective in presenting the uniqueness and universality of Jesus Christ. In closing let me mention two strategic steps for the advancement of missiology. I believe I am correct that only one of the diocesan-sponsored Catholic theologates in the United States today has a professor or anyone else who regularly offers courses in missiology to those who are preparing for the priesthood, but no such course is required for graduation and ordination. I am told that a similar situation prevails in other countries. How can those who are going to be pastors of congregations communicate a vision and understanding of world mission, with commitment and passion, if they do not have it themselves? And where will they get it if they do not get it as part of their theological education? Is it possible that the absence of missiology in the curriculum of many diocesan theologates may contribute to the imbalance in mission theology and the decline in missionary vocations, despite the specific call in Redemptoris Missio (83) for missiology to be included in the teaching of seminaries and houses of formation? There is a rich, unequivocal understanding of mission at the heart of the Church in the Magisterium of the last half-century, from the Dogmatic Constitution on the Church, Lumen Gentium, and the Decree on Missionary Activity, Ad Gentes, of the Second Vatican Council, to Pope Paul VI’s apostolic exhortation on evangelization, Evangelii Nuntiandi, to Pope John Paul II’s encyclical Redemptoris Missio and his apostolic exhortation Ecclesia in Asia – always with priority given to proclamation and evangelization. Therefore it is difficult for this Protestant ransomed sinner to understand why only one diocesean seminary in the United States would feel it is necessary to include the subject of missiology in the

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curriculum. For a seminary faculty to say that this is included in ecclesiology or historical or biblical studies, is inadequate, even dubious. As Stephen Neill once observed, «If everything is mission, then nothing is mission», and similarly, «If everyone is responsible for mission, then no one is responsible». In 1986 the Catholic Bishops of the United States, in their pastoral statement on world mission «To the Ends of the Earth», said, «Theological studies should include a strong missionary emphasis, so necessary for the formation of future priests and leaders»14. In Redemptoris Missio, John Paul II said, «Theological training cannot and should not ignore the Church’s universal mission, ecumenism, the study of the great religions and missiology. I recommend that such studies be undertaken especially in seminaries and in houses of formation for men and women religious, ensuring that some priests or other students specialize in the different fields of missiology» (RM 83; cf. 79). But nothing changed; it made little difference. A few years ago I asked a Catholic archbishop in the United States why his archdiocesan seminary offered no course in missiology. This was obviously a painful topic for him since his personal commmitment to world mission was well known and he held a prominent position in a pontifical mission organization. He said to me, «You have to understand that I have very little influence with the seminary faculty and I have to be careful not to interfere with the curriculum». At that moment my Protestant preconception about the power of Catholic bishops was shattered. There are some hopeful signs, however. In an eloquent address to this Association here in February 1999, Francis Cardinal George, O.M.I., spoke about «The Promotion of Missiological Studies in Seminaries», in which he identified missiology as being «at the center of theological exploration of some of the most critical theological questions facing us today»15. He urged that «the study of mission is intended for all seminarians, diocesan and religious alike», and he expressed the hope that in «the new millennium, missiology should be taken up with new vigor and sense of purpose»16. In particular, he noted the need for some scholars with advanced studies in missiology «who are trained fundamental and dogmatic theologians, who can bring the mission focus to bear on the articulation of the issues in fundamental and dogmatic theology»17. This is an extremely important strategic step for the mission of the Church and needs to be addressed by all those with responsibility for theological education and ministerial formation. Another sign of hope, encouraged by the vision of Redemptoris Missio (RM 43, 58, 71, 73, 79, 83, 86), is the growing role and important contribution of Catholic women, both lay and religious, in missiology, who seek to advance the claim to universality of Jesus Christ for human salvation. Catholic women have served as presidents and as executive committee members of both the American Society of Missiology and the International Association for Mission Studies, and have given major leadership in the

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United States Catholic Mission Association. Women have much to contribute to missiology, and the Catholic Church is fortunate to have so many capable women missiologists, particularly at a time when there is such a great need. It is strategically important to utilize this rich resource of dedicated servants of Christ for the cause of missiology. So there are good reasons to hope that the Church will be ready to reap the harvest with «the dawning of a new missionary age» in the Third Millennium which the Holy Father has envisioned as a time when «God is preparing a great springtime for Christianity» (RM 92, 86). The Church will again respond to Jesus’ question, «Who do you say I am?», with Peter’s answer, «You are the Messiah».

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Notes 1 2

J.E. MONTI, Who Do You Say That I Am?, Paulist Press, New York 1984, p. 11. Cf. Jesus’ acknowledgment that he was the Messiah in Mk 14,62 and Jn 4,26. This was the understanding of the disciples and others. Andrew told his brother, Simon Peter, «We have found the Messiah» (Jn 1,41); Peter, in his pioneering sermon in Jerusalem to «Fellow Jews», said, «Men of Israel, listen to me: […] Let all Israel accept as certain that God has made this Jesus, whom you crucified, both Lord and Messiah» (Acts 2,36); Paul, speaking in the Jewish synagogue in Thessalonica on the sabbath, said: «This Jesus, whom I am proclaiming to you, is the Messiah» (Acts 17,3-4). The author of John’s Gospel says he is writing «so that you may come to believe that Jesus is the Messiah, the Son of God, and that through believing you may have life in his name» (Jn 20,31). Andrew told his brother, Simon Peter, «We have found the Messiah» and «he brought Simon to Jesus» (Acts 1,41-42). In Acts 8,5 it is reported that «Philip went down to the city of Samaria and proclaimed the Messiah to them». For discussion and literature on «Jesus as Messiah», see W.D. DAVIES, D.C. ALLISON, “Excursus XII”, in A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Gospel According to Saint Matthew, The International Critical Commentary, 2, T&T Clark, Edinburg 1991, pp. 594-601. 3 T.W. MANSON says: «The limitations imposed [by Jesus] were imposed on the apostles alone, and were not meant to apply for all time […] the matter is one of priorities: the first, but not the only, task of the Messiah is concerned with Israel». Only to the House of Israel? Jesus and the Non-Jews, Athlone Press, London 1955, pp. 3-4; reprinted Fortress Press, Philadelphia 1964. 4 CATHOLIC BISHOPS OF THE UNITED STATES, “To the Ends of the Earth”, A Pastoral Statement on World Mission, U.S. Catholic Conference, Washington, D.C, 1986, p. 1. 5 Cf. Redemptoris Missio 6, 13; Ecclesia in Asia (1999) 14. See also INTERNATIONAL THEOLOGICAL COMMISSION, Christianity and the World Religions, Libreria Editrice Vaticana, Vatican City 1997. 6. K. BARTH, An Exegetical Study of Matthew 28,16-20, The Theology of the Christian Mission, ed. G.H. ANDERSON, McGraw-Hill, New York 1960, p. 67. 7 See, for instance, A.R. BROCKWAY, Learning Christology Through Dialogue with Jews, in “Journal of Ecumenical Studies”, 25(Summer 1988)3, p. 351. 8 This position was advocated by CHOAN-SENG SONG, From Israel to Asia: A Theological Leap, Mission Trends No. 3: Third World Theologies, ed. G.H. ANDERSON, T.F. STRANSKY, C.S.P., Paulist Press, New York 1976, pp. 211-222. 9 Reconciling Gospel and Torah: The Catechism, in “Origins”, February 24, 1994, p. 624.

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10 I have written on this subject many times, most recently in Theology of Religions: The Epitome of Mission Theology, Mission in Bold Humility: David Bosch’s Work Considered, ed. W. SAAYMAN, K. KRITZINGER, Orbis Books, Maryknoll, N.Y. 1996; Christian Mission in Our Pluralistic World, Practicing Truth: Confident Witness in Our Pluralistic World, ed. D.W. SHENK, L. STUTZMAN, Herald Press, Scottdale 1999. Some of what I have said elsewhere is included here. 11 This formulation was first suggested by E. DAVISON SOPER, The Philosophy of the Christian World Mission, Abingdon-Cokesbury Press, Nashville 1943, pp. 225-227. 12 S.W. ARIARAJAH, Christian Mission: The End or a New Beginning?; my comments are based on the full text of his address given in October 1998 to a meeting of the United Methodist General Board of Global Ministries. An abbreviated and sanitized version, with his most egregious statements deleted, was published in “New World Outlook”, May-June (1999), pp. 10-14. 13 Who Do We Say That He Is? On the Uniqueness and Universality of Jesus Christ, in “Occasional Bulletin of Missionary Research”, 4(January 1980)4, p. 6. 14 To the Ends of the Earth, p. 70. 15 FRANCIS CARDINAL GEORGE, O.M.I., The Promotion of Missiological Studies in Seminaries, in “Mission Studies”, XVI-2(1999)32, pp. 20-21. 16 Ibidem, pp. 22, 25. 17 Ibidem, p. 24. In 2000, the Mission Committee of the Conference of Major Superiors of Men’s Institutes in the United States offered to provide one-day workshops, weekend workshops, and a basic course in mission theology for use in seminary formation, «given that electives in missiology are seldom chosen by seminarians for the priesthood because it is not now required by the Program of Priestly Formation and is seldom a perceived need [emphasis in the original] by students or deans», Some Proposals for One-Day Workshops, Weekend Workshops, and a Basic Course in Mission Theology for Use in Seminary Formation, Conference of Major Superiors of Men, Silver Springs, MD, 2000, p. 2.

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ASIA G EORGE K ARAKUNNEL *

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THE UNIQUENESS OF JESUS CHRIST IN INDIAN THEOLOGICAL REFLECTION

The uniqueness of Jesus Christ has received wide attention in recent years. This is attested by the number of articles and books related to this theme in Christology appearing in the press. «The large number of books and articles published during 1980s and 1990s on Christology indicates its importance in shaping theology of religions. This is rightly so because Jesus Christ is the substance of the Christian faith, and the credibility of the Christian claim in a religiously plural world depends very much on the way the uniqueness of Christ is articulated, not just for Christians, but also for neighbours of other faiths in the global community»1. In a paper, that tries to present the uniqueness of Jesus Christ in Indian theological reflection, it should be pointed out at the outset, that there is no single, uniform theological position regarding this theme in India. Indian Christology contains diverse orientations and emphases. Moreover Christological reflection especially with reference to the issue of uniqueness is part of the ongoing theological discussion and in that way it has an unfinished character. The present paper remains mainly within the scope of Catholic theology. But in interpreting and evaluating the question of uniqueness, some references are also made to non-Catholic authors and their works. Since the focus is on theological reflection in India, non-Indian authors and their ideas are brought in, only in so far as they are related to the theological context of India. 1. UNIQUENESS: THE TERM AND ITS MEANING The word “unique” can be used in two different meanings: “one only to the exclusion of others” or “the only one of its kind”2. It is in the first sense that we use the term in our theological discussion. In the second sense every individual person or theory is unique and there would be no problem for accepting such a view of uniqueness. Moreover, uniqueness is not actually an “ad intra” issue for Christians within their own community. But it is an “ad extra” issue, i.e. in relation to other religions. Here again, the issue of *

St. Joseph’s Pontifical Seminary, Mangalapuzha, Alwaye, India.

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uniqueness becomes crucial only when the other religions are recognized as “salvific” in some way. It is this recognition that raises certain basic questions: Are all equals? Does any one stand out among the mutually competing religions as candidates? How can one express oneself to others and reveal one’s identity? Though these questions appear to be phenomenological, in reality they can only be theological, i.e. they are for those who confess faith in Jesus Christ3. Therefore the question of uniqueness should be seen and studied in relation to the articulation of one’s faith-experience. But this takes place within a wider context in which every believing community lives and functions. That means the context of one’s country and culture becomes decisive in interpreting and formulating faith-experience. 2. THE INDIAN CONTEXT The Indian context of theological reflection is, on the one hand, the living experience of pluralism of religions, and on the other hand the encounter with socio-economic realities of the people. These two factors have shaped the theological reflection in India in recent times. The first factor has implications for a contextualised interpretation of the uniqueness of Jesus Christ and the second factor has implications for a contextualised soterio-centric presentation of Jesus Christ which goes beyond a theoretical discussion on uniqueness. India is one of the regions of the world where we find a great diversity of religions which are very alive and active. The population of India has just crossed one billion in the year 2000. According to census, 82.4% of the Indian people are Hindus, 11.7% are Muslims, 2.3% are Christians, 2% are Sikhs, 0.8% Buddhists, 0.4% are Jains and 0.4% form others who may not belong to any of those religions mentioned4. In the multi-religious context of India, several questions emerge: What are religions? Are they salvific? If salvation is experienced in these religions which are beyond the confines of the Church, what is its source and medium? These questions are real and important for the Christian theologian in India. But the answers to them are not easy. Indian theologians are hard pressed to clarify these questions and develop a theology of religions. The uniqueness of Jesus Christ is encountered in the attempt to develop a theology of religions. The second factor that is a compelling force in shaping theological reflection in India is the socio-economic realities that characterize the people. India, along with other countries of South Asia, forms that part of the globe where largest percentage of the poor live. This is in clear contrast to all the scientific and technological progress making its way into the country. Financial borrowing and consequent debt feature the country’s economic situation. Following the directives of the World Bank,

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International Monetary Fund and World Trade Organization, India is forced to adjust its national policies to suit the Global Market Economy resulting in the widening of the gap between “the haves” and “the havenots”. After over half a century of independence, India still has about 40% of its population below or just on the poverty line. The majority of the “Dalits”5 and “Tribals” who form 22% of the population belongs to this category. The basic needs of food, shelter and clothing are still far from realization. Though there are regions which attained 100% literacy there are those which have large numbers of illiterate population. The plight of women and children are far from the ideal. There is a small section of the population, about 15%, which consists of successful business people, large farmers, company owners or government officers who can have all luxuries of life. Despite the unhappy existence characterizing the society, the hopes and aspirations for a better tomorrow are alive. The various movements and protests which are part of the socio-political life of the nation are signs of the rising claim for legitimate rights and freedom. Theological concerns emerge from the context in which the Christian community is situated. The Indian context in which Christological reflection takes place is not just the India of the past, but also India characterized by presentday realities. The Vedas, Upanishads and the religious attitudes shaped by them have certainly a role. But the signs of the times active in the Indian society today have a determining role in the theological orientations. The following concerns emerge from the Indian context of Christological discussion. 1) Present an image of Jesus that is not a threat to the religions in India. In other words this would mean to develop “an inclusive and relational Christology”. 2) Present an image of Jesus with the soteriological content of kenotic love and service. 3) Present Jesus as the defender of the human person and the liberator of the oppressed. 4) Present Jesus who is at work through his Spirit in the whole creation. These concerns have exercised a decisive influence in shaping the Christological reflection in India. 3. DIFFERENT MODELS To spell out the different approaches to the Christological question of uniqueness, it is necessary to look at the differences in theological outlook which can be brought under four models. Each of them has a particular line of approach and outlook. Ecclesiocentrism, Christocentrism, Theocentrism,

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Soteriocentrism. It would be difficult to contain all of Indian theology under these titles. But this would be helpful to see the meaning of the Christian affirmation of the uniqueness of Christ in various Indian theological approaches.

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Ecclesiocentrism In the history of theology we find that affirmation of the uniqueness of Christ has led to the affirmation of the uniqueness of the Church. The uniqueness of the Church was, for many people, the way to affirming the uniqueness of Christ. The statement that “there is no salvation outside the Church” is the logical conclusion of a Christology that sees salvation as only possible in Christ. The Church here is the only authorized means, the universal sacrament of salvation instituted by Christ. The consequence is an ecclesiocentrism affirming a very rigid position which stated that “no one remaining outside the Catholic Church, not only pagans, but also Jews, heretics or schismatics can be partakers of eternal life”6. The ecclesiocentrism claiming “uniqueness” was transcended broadening the outlook on salvation. In 1949 it was stated in a letter of the Holy Office, that to gain eternal salvation, it is not always required that “a person be incorporated in reality (reapse) as a member of the Church, but it is required that he belong to it at least in desire and longing (in voto et desiderio)”7. It was further explained that this desire and longing need not be explicit but implicit and should be informed by supernatural faith and love”8. This position in no way accords any salvific value to non-Christian religions as such while it strongly affirms the uniqueness of Jesus Christ. But this does not say that non-Christians are not saved. Only a very rigid approach of an earlier ecclesiocentrism rejected the salvation of those outside the Church. For theologians who think in terms of ecclesiocentrism, accepting Jesus Christ meant “a radical repentance and conversion from all pre-Christian religious experience”9. Where this does not happen as in the case of non-Christians in general the possibility of communion with God is not denied, because God works in the lives of all human beings. But it does not mean that salvation is through their religion10. Hardly any theologian today takes an ecclesiocentric approach. Christocentrism This approach underlines the centrality of Jesus Christ in God’s offer of salvation to humankind. While recognizing the positive contribution which religions make, it lays emphasis on the unique mediatorship of Jesus Christ. In Jesus Christ God has spoken in a final and definitive way11. But the

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religions of the world are not rendered superfluous by Christ. They are ways of salvation in relation to Christ. But the way of Jesus Christ has special significance for them. One way of expressing Christocentrism, while recognizing the positive contribution religions are making, is by showing faith in Jesus Christ in its open, cosmic dimensions. Trying to combine two basic doctrinal elements, namely the universal salvific will of God and the necessary mediation of Jesus Christ, Jacques Dupuis has presented Jesus Christ as the “fullness of revelation”12. Jesus Christ is the realization of the plan of God for the salvation of the world. The mystery of God’s saving plan is operative in all religions. But they may not name it as the mystery of God’s plan to save humanity through Christ. Christ is the primordial sacrament that is unique and necessary. According to this view there can be no opposition between Christocentrism and theocentrism. Christocentric view of salvation is presented by Michael Amaladoss who sees Jesus as “the Symbol”13. God wants to unify everything which he realizes through various symbolic mediations. Not only Church, all religions and even secular movements are at the service of God’s plan of unification14. They are all symbolic mediations. Among them the Church has special significance. This plan, called “the mystery of Christ” (Eph 1,9), includes all manifestations of God in history. The manifestations of God, in whatever religion they appear, are related to each other because they all form one saving plan of God. The centre of theology of Bede Griffiths is Christ considered as the cosmic person. God reveals himself through cosmic revelation and through historical revelation15. Jesus Christ is unique because he is historical incarnation of the Word of God. Abhishiktananda considers Jesus Christ as “the awakened one”. Following the lead of Indian philosophy of Advaita, the discovery of non-duality and communion is seen as the liberation of every human person. Jesus is one who has attained it in the most perfect way. In him the fullness of divinity is bodily present. All human beings are affected by Jesus’ awakening. He can lead every one to the Father16. Theocentrism The basic question asked by theologians in the context of religious pluralism is this: How could one remain loyal to one’s own faith and at the same time be open to another? According to theologians who have a theocentric vision, the only way is to go beyond historical Jesus17. Raymond Panikkar’s theology shows this approach. He recognizes the cosmotheandric principle operative in different religions of the world. Jesus is one of the names of the cosmotheandric principle. Jesus is the Christ. But Christ is not Jesus only. There are different dimensions and expressions of

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Christ which are unknown to Christians and are made manifest through other names. Panikkar uses metaphors related to geographical space. The peak of the mountain is the result of the slopes, leading to the peak. The paths that reach the summit are all inseparable from the summit. There is a sense in which the goal cannot be identified with any of the ways or means to the goal. To recognize Christ is to attain the mystery of God. But, as Panikkar points out, in another sense, the mystery cannot be totally identified with Christ18. He says: «Christ is but one aspect of the Mystery as a whole, even though he is the Way when we are on that way. Only when we are walking on, i.e. when there are mere lines on a map are there many paths. For the actual way-farer there is only one way, if it gives access to the summit»19. Pauline and Johannine Logos Christology is followed by Panikkar to affirm that Jesus is not the revealed name but the revealer of the Supername20. In this way Jesus is the most powerful symbol that can reveal the mystery of God and mediate salvation. He is not one among the many. But he is not merely limited to the world of Christian experience. Every genuine religious experience has got Christ in it. Panikkar does stress the identity and uniqueness of Christ. For him Jesus is not one among the many avataras21. Soteriocentricism The interpretation of Jesus in the socio-economic context of India has led many Indian theologians to a soteriocentric approach. Though politically free, India is in no way a liberated nation. The dehumanizing and the oppressive systems that existed in the past still haunt the society. The theology of Sebastian Kappen can be taken as representing the main line of a soteriocentric approach22. For the Indian masses that suffer due to various forms of oppression, Jesus means freedom. The imagery that helps this theological elaboration is Jesus, the Prophet. A prophet invites the people to respond to the challenge of the future. Jesus stands as one who is unique in the long line of prophets, Hosea, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Amos, and others23. «More than any other prophet and in a unique manner he was taken hold of by the horizon of mankind’s hope for the fullness of freedom and love»24. This was the meaning of his proclamation of the reign of God. In his word and deed the reign of God became a reality. This makes him different from all others. The kingdom of God is a gift and a task at the same time. It is God’s self-giving embodied in things, events, persons and experiences. But the reality of the kingdom invites all to take up a challenge to work with God who is working in history, giving the earth a new face. Freedom is interpreted by Kappen as «not only freedom from “but also freedom for creativity, community and love”»25.

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Jesus manifests in himself the authentic humanity and in that way he also reveals the Divine. «Jesus is […] a unique, intense, hitherto unparalleled manifestation of the Transcendent as immanent in the flow of history, a sure way and guide to humanity’s ultimate future»26. What makes us recognize Jesus as unique is that in Jesus we encounter the Divine in a way different from all types of encounters of the Divine in history, having the assurance of humanity’s ultimate future. This way of expressing the person and identity of Jesus is not drawn from dogmatic sources. The historical Jesus and the encounter with him become the basis of a Christology that presents Jesus as the way to a unique revelation of the meaning of life and its fulfilment27. In soteriocentric Christologies, the uniqueness of Jesus takes on a practical dimension and a new meaning. In common with all liberation Christologies here orthopraxis becomes the decisive element. Theologians in the west have recognized the need to advocate a “Christology from below”28. But the reason for that, in the Soteriocentric approaches of Indian and Asian theologians is not merely to discover the humanity of Jesus as the revelation of the Divine, but also to make it the supreme exemplar of social commitment and liberation of the masses which certainly is not envisaged as a mere this-worldly affair, but as something that transcends the experience of the “here” and “now”. 4. THEOLOGY: A CONTINUING TASK IN THE CHURCH God’s revelation which is the salvific message is a gift that is “given” and at the same time “received”. The “given aspect” of revelation is the depositum fidei, the inherited faith. The Church, living in time and space, is engaged in a continuous process of receiving faith which involves contextualization. Theology has the task of interpreting and articulating faith in each new situation encountered by the Church. The Encyclical Letter Fides et Ratio says: «In preaching the Gospel Christianity first encountered Greek philosophy; but this does not mean at all that other approaches are precluded. […] My thought, turns immediately to the lands of the East, so rich in religious and philosophical traditions of great antiquity. Among these lands, India has a special place. […] In India particularly, it is the duty of Christians now to draw from this rich heritage the elements compatible with their faith, in order to enrich Christian thought»29. The Encyclical Letter is mentioning a process that was already at work in the Church in India, especially since the second half of the last century. Vatican II’s openness to religions of the world and sensitivity to the signs of the times instilled in the Church a new enthusiasm which has brought about new theological perspectives. Much creative thinking has been inspired by the documents, Gaudium et Spes, Nostra Aetate and Dignitatis Humanae. Theological attention in India has focussed

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on the challenges generated by multi-religiosity and multi-culturalism together with massive and dehumanizing poverty as present day realities. The attempts to develop an inclusive Christocentrism, an all-embracing theocentrism and a praxis-oriented soteriocentrism can be seen as different responses resulting from the encounter with the Indian context. It should be pointed out as noted in the beginning of this paper that that there is no single “uniform” theological reflection in India. The diverse emphases and orientations have been classified under different heads not because they are “schools” of theology but because they are helpful to understand theological reflection especially in relation to the uniqueness of Jesus Christ. Theological developments are also not to be understood as equally affecting all the sections of the Church at the same time. Even an ecclesio-centrism will be present in some sections of the Church. In the popular piety and devotions an old mind-set unaffected by any new theological thinking could be detected. But at the same time, justice, equality, dignity and such concerns have become important in the overall life of the Church. Rather than concepts and doctrines, life-issues have become dominant for theologizing in India. Tribal Theology and Dalit Theology are examples of this. Taking pluralism seriously theologians are trying to articulate Christian faith. But they still have not arrived at a language and grammar to express what Christian faith is in a dialogical context. The problematic involved in the concept of “uniqueness” is not one of theoretical acceptance but one of practical viability and benefit. Since the question of “uniqueness” arises from the “proclamation of Jesus Christ”30, the question should be discussed from an evangelical and missionary perspective. 5. PROCLAMATION AND UNIQUENESS The post-synodal document Ecclesia in Asia takes clear note of the problem of uniqueness in proclamation. «Yet even during the consultations before the Synod many Asian Bishops referred to difficulties in proclaiming Jesus as the only Saviour. During the Assembly, the situation was described in this way: “Some of the followers of the great religions of Asia have no problem in accepting Jesus as a manifestation of the Divine or the Absolute, or as an enlightened one. But it is difficult for them to see Him as the only manifestation of the Divine”. In fact, the effort to share the gift of faith in Jesus as the only Saviour is fraught with philosophical cultural and theological difficulties, especially in the light of the beliefs of Asia’s great religions, deeply intertwined with cultural values and specific world views»31. The document’s perception of the “difficulties” involved in proclaiming a unique Saviour is correct. More than just presenting mere philosophical, cultural and theological problems, this has developed into a matter of bitter

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controversy leading to the growth of fundamentalism that has become a threat to the lives of Christian in India. In this context, it is a practical missiological question to ask: Does speaking about uniqueness help to prove the truth we want to establish? Indian theologians and also others who have reflected on the problem in the context of India say that the language of uniqueness is bound to be misunderstood, because it appears to be exclusive, negative and intolerant. The words used to proclaim Christ should not alienate people but attract them to Christ. In other words, the Christian message has to be expressed in terms and expressions other than those that sound like exclusive claims. Many of the Indian theologians to whom reference has been made already are looking for a language that will help to express the Christian message. The main difficulty, that lies in the language of uniqueness, is that it speaks by way of “differentiation and opposition”, rather than by way of “identity” (in terms of what is common rather than what separates). The language of uniqueness arises from the experience of faith. Statements in the Scripture are examples of this (Acts 4,12; Mt 28,19). Is it possible for theology to use a language other than the confessional language? The Statement of National Consultation on Mission says: «Further the respect due to others has a bearing on the use of the language of proclamation and theology. Language reveals and creates attitudes. Confessional language is necessarily influenced by past tradition and inheritance. However, we should ascertain that our expressions do not offend the self-understanding and self-respect of others. This calls for a revision of the language and manner in which we confess and proclaim Jesus Christ. Apart from ensuring theological clarity, we must also be sensitive to the self-perception of the people of other faiths»32. The Church certainly cannot abandon the foundational experience of Jesus Christ, the Word Incarnate, the Son of God who came to the World for the salvation of all. The Church by its vocation feels duty bound to proclaim Jesus Christ as the Saviour. But at the same time, the Church that lives in a pluralistic world cannot disregard the Spirit of God working in all human persons, in all cultures and religions. The Church in India, having a direct experience of other religions is challenged to give an account of their faith without belittling other faiths and without claiming superiority. The exclusive statements in the Scripture can be reinterpreted in the context of the totality of Jesus teaching and practice. They can be also balanced by “inclusive statements” which are also in the New Testament (Mt 5,13-14; Jn 13,4; Lk 10,37; Mt 25,40)33. The non-Christian reception of uniqueness was always negative. Mahatma Gandhi says: «It was impossible for me to believe that I could go to heaven or attain salvation only by becoming a Christian. […] My difficulties lay deeper. It was more than I could believe that Jesus was the only incarnate son of God, and that only he who believed in him would have

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everlasting life»34. One recent reaction to the Christian claim says: «Christians hold that there is salvation only through Christ. And they are busy trying to convert the whole world to Christianity. Christianity and Islam being equally aggressive in the matter of proselytisation, each finds the other’s land forbidden ground for it. Both find India a fertile field for their activities. God is neither Hindu nor Christian nor Muslim. He is the God of all. […] To consider that one’s own God alone is true is as good or as bad, as to say one’s own mother alone is the true mother and all others are step-mothers or mothers-in-law. To make God the monopoly of one persuasion is blasphemy»35. It is not only this repulsiveness that is created by the Christian claim of uniqueness. Claims similar to that of the Christians are made by non-Christians. The opposite of uniqueness is very often brought about in a theory of the equality of all religions. 6. DIALOGUE AND UNIQUENESS Dialogue has become an essential part of our witnessing to faith in Christ in the pluralistic context of India. Can a Christian make profession of faith in Christ as the only Saviour of the world in inter-religious dialogue? Certainly, the Christian partner in dialogue can profess his/her faith in Jesus Christ as the only redeemer of the world. But when others also make similar uniqueness claims, dialogue becomes a problem. The only way out is to resist the temptation to make an “aggressive assertion of uniqueness”. When the impression of imposing one’s faith over other faiths is created dialogue comes to an end36. In dialogue Christians have encountered lack of interest and closed attitude in their non-Christian counter-parts. There is a frustrating experience with dialogue, as Bede Griffiths points out: «In all my experience in India in twenty-five years, I have hardly ever found an educated Hindu who is really open to dialogue, who really wanted to understand Christian faith as something other»37. The reason for this, according to Griffiths, is that they feel «they have the absolute and final truth»38. This experience with Hindus has made Indian Christian theologians rethink their doctrinal formulations and especially the relevance of presenting the uniqueness theory. Hindus have seen an offensive claim of superiority in Christians’ affirmation of uniqueness. Missionary activity is also seen by them as means of establishing this superiority. After the publication of the Ecclesia in Asia, commenting on the Pope’s hope of «a great harvest of faith»39, a leading Hindu wrote: «If we implement the belief of the great religious leader, the Pope John Paul II, for the next millenium we will divide the world and will invite conflict. The views of Pope to convert the world only to Christianity is contrary to the concept of Universal Brotherhood. It is contrary to the “Freedom of Conscience»40.

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It becomes clear that the language of uniqueness does not help real dialogue to take place. If the language of uniqueness is kept within one’s own faith, the difficulty could be avoided. Once the term “uniqueness” is brought into inter-religious context, it projects the idea of “superiority” of Christianity and the “lower status” of the other religions. Can we see the inter-religious relationship in terms of “mutual enrichment”? And can we concede uniqueness in a qualitative sense to all religions? Dominic Veliath says: «Each religion has a co-efficient of uniqueness – a statement which can be made from within faith in their religion»41. According to the same author, this is an all-inclusive approach which need not mean the equality of religions. «It involves the existential acceptance of the other as other without being able to understand or coopt him»42. The Indian tradition has a rich concept which is expressed in Sanskrit as “Sarvadharmasamabhavana”. This is not a theory of equality of religions. Nor it means mere “tolerance”. For want of an exact equivalent term we can translate it as “tolerance”. But it is not the same. We can only try to explain the concept and not easily define it. Felix Wilfred expresses the content of sarvadharmasamabhavana thus: «It is the result of one’s own experience of the inexhaustible ultimate mystery through which he or she is able to understand a similar experience of the other and respect it. From the experience of ultimacy and universality within the realm of one’s religious faith, what results is not the affirmation of its uniqueness over against others; What results is rather the capacity to understand the faith of the other in its ultimacy and universality. And that marks the true greatness of one’s faith and its spirit of universality»43. 7. UNIQUE SAVIOUR OR UNIQUE WITNESS? There have been a growing realization in India that uniqueness of Christ should be expressed not in abstract terms but in authentic life of those who are committed to Christ44. Walter Kasper stated in the Indian Theological Conference held at Nagpur: «The truth is never merely a question of orthodoxy, but just as much a question of orthopraxy, of actualizing, of existence, of attitude and of the practice of truth. The claim of Christianity to bring all men the absolute truth of salvation must therefore embody itself in vicarious service for others... Concretely, only where the absolute claim of Christian belief expresses itself in the kenosis of vicarious service will it be worthy of being believed»45. In the context of India, theologians ask the question: Is uniqueness the urgent issue?46. The arguments and disputes about uniqueness are of no avail47. The very language of uniqueness appears contextually superfluous. «Indian experience and interpretation of Jesus», says Felix Wilfred, «do not seem to require the language of uniqueness»48. What is important is discipleship that takes seriously the way of Jesus which is one of solidarity

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with the poor and the suffering. Stanley Samartha says: «The Christian commitment is not to the notion of uniqueness but to Jesus Christ and through him to God»49. This means that the Indian religious approach is inclined not to a conceptual understanding of God, but rather to an experiential understanding of God which is certainly open to interpretation. «Speaking from an Indian perspective, finally, we need to reflect on the language of uniqueness which is looked at as intimately related to the question of mission, its foundation and motivation. It is being voiced today that greater attention is paid to the practice of inculturation, dialogue, liberation, etc., and that one has neglected the proclamation of Jesus, his person, his unique revelation and mediation. But the point to note is that seen from the Indian perspective, all these (inculturation, dialogue, liberation etc.) constitute […] the means. It is by practising these that one comes to the recognition of the mystery of the person of Jesus and makes him known»50. Indian theologians, in general, have a feeling that the term “uniqueness” is not helpful to convey the message it wants to convey, because it easily betrays apologetic as well as superiority pretensions51. The reaction of Hindus to the Christian claim of uniqueness has made the theologians go to the message rather than to stick to the term. «Christianity», says a Hindu critique, «has yet to prove that it has something better to offer»52. This challenge is to offer living proof that comes from actions not words. The document Ecclesia in Asia tries to incorporate this idea when it speaks of «Christian life as Proclamation»53. A unique Saviour can be manifested only by a unique witness embodied in action. In India uniqueness must become symbolized in the commitment to the liberation of the impoverished and the down-trodden. For this, the prophetic image of Jesus the suffering servant is perhaps the most suited. Christ, presented as the way to the fulfilment of integral liberation, thus becomes one of the emphases of a contextual Christology in India. This contextual Christology, first of all, should be for the praxis within the Christian community. Only a community that is integrally liberated can attract others to the same liberation. A methodology of praxis-oriented Christology should be applied to the Church. The liberative praxis, in the context, as the case of “uniqueness” is not something to be preached to outsiders, but something to be lived by those in the Church. 8. LESSON FROM A LIVED EXPERIENCE Christianity in India carries two millenia of history. Is there any lesson that can be learned from its long period of existence in a multi-religious context? Although the early history and theology of the Church can be reconstructed only by scanty historical data, the available sources show

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clearly that the first Christian Community in India had an indigenous and contextualized way of life. Traditions, customs and manners in clothing, food-habits and social relations of Christians were the same as those of nonChristians54. Their inculturated form of existence was something that was the result of a spontaneous response to the socio-cultural environment. Living along with Hindu neighbours, Christians understood their faith in Jesus Christ in its distinctiveness from that of other people. For them faith in Jesus Christ was understood as the way to salvation. Their ecclesiological perception was enshrined in the word marga (way, path). Christians were considered the followers of the way of Jesus Christ. The understanding of Christian faith as the marga of Christ contained an acceptable theology of religions also to Hindus. The theology and worldvision of Christians got slowly and systematically transformed, the climax of which can be seen in the Synod of Diamper in 1599. In the Decree of the Synod of Diamper, we read: «Each one can be saved in his own law, all laws are right: This is fully erroneous and a most shameful heresy: There is no law in which we may be saved except the law of Christ our Saviour. […] [the foot note adds]. This is a perverse dogma of politicians and those tolerant. […] Consequently being indifferent they wander very far away from truth»55. The Decree reflects the misunderstanding of the Portuguese missionaries regarding theology of religions which was one built into practical life, creating communal harmony and spirit of tolerance. The missionaries had the ecclesial outlook that came from a rigid interpretation of the principle: «Extra ecclesiam nulla salus». The Church historian A.M. Mundadan commenting on the Decree of the Synod of Diamper says: «The Synod is right in attributing the “error” to the contacts St.Thomas’ Christians maintained with “pagans”. […] But the Indian Christians had been already living for centuries in a positive encounter with the high caste Hindus and had developed a theological vision of the Hindu religion – a vision more positive and liberal. Today in the light of modern theological approaches to world religions one must admit that the vision of the Indian Christians was a more enlightened one than that of their European contemporaries. Their theological vision was broader and more liberal. But their position was not that radical and extreme as expressed by the “synodal” decree»56. In the particular context of India today where inter-religious harmony is being increasingly replaced by hatred and rivalry “the liberal but orthodox approach to religions” found in the history could be adopted to generate good-will and promote harmony among religions. Confessional language and doctrinal formulation of one’s religion could be reserved for the selfunderstanding of one’s own religion and need not be projected to those who do not belong to it. Love and respect for the other faith demand that one does not make one’s faith the norm for evaluating another’s faith. A statement about one’s faith should not hurt the faith of another. When asked how she assessed other religions, Mother Teresa said in words, simple

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but rich in theological content: «I love all religions, but I am in love with my own»57. Love all religions, but live in love with one’s own religion giving to it a witness that would reveal its unique character. This seems to be the challenge before Christians in India.

Notes

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1

S.J. SAMARTHA, Between Two Cultures, ATC, Bangalore 1997, p. 145. The number of publications that have been come out in recent years are innumerable. The following list of articles and books is not exhaustive: E. TROELTSCH, The Absoluteness of Christianity and the History of Religions, John Knox Press, Richmond 1971; D.G. DAWE, J.B. CARNESS (eds.), Christian Faith in a Religiously Plural World, Orbis Books, New York 1978; G.H. ANDERSON, TH.F. STRANSKY (eds.), Christ’s Lordship and Religious Pluralism, Orbis Books, New York 1981; P.F. KNITTER, No other name? A Critical Survey of Christian Attitudes toward the World Religions, Orbis Books, New York 1985; J. HICK, God Has Many Names, The Macmillan Press Ltd., London 1980; J. HICK, P.F. KNITTER (eds.), The Myth of Christian Uniqueness: Toward a Pluralistic Theology of Religions, Orbis Books, New York 1987; G. D’COSTA (ed.), Christian Uniqueness Reconsidered: The Myth of Pluralist Theology of Religions, Orbis Books, New York 1990; S.J. SAMARTHA, One Christ-Many Religions: Toward a Revised Christology, Orbis Books, New York 1991; J. DUPUIS, Jesus Christ at the Encounter of Religions, Orbis Books, New York 1991; ID., Toward a Christian Theology of Religious Pluralism, Orbis Books, New York 1998; G. MORAN, Uniqueness or Paradox in Jewish and Christian Traditions, Orbis Books, New York 1992; E.D’LIMA, M. GONSALES (eds.), What Does Jesus Christ Mean? The Meaningfulness of Jesus Christ amidst Religious Pluralism in India, Indian Theological Association, Bangalore 1999. 2 M. AMALADOSS, “Is Christ the unique Saviour? A Clarification of the Question”, in E. D’LIMA, M. GONSALVES (eds.), op. cit., p. 6. 3 J. DUPUIS, op. cit., p. 191. 4 CENSUS OF INDIA 1991, Manorama Year Book 2000, p. 518. 5 The term “Dalit” refers to the weak, the powerless, the oppressed. Historically the roots of the term go back even to the pre-Biblical Hebrew and pre-classical Sanskrit. Its ancient form is found in the East-Semetic group of languages, collectively known as Akkadian. In Akkadian the root is “dalulu” (to be weak) and in Sanskrit it is “dal” (to crack, to crush). Cf. J. MASSEY, The Role of the Churches in the whole Dalit Issue, in “Religion and Society”, XL(March 1994)1, pp. 45f. 6 J. NEUNER, J. DUPUIS (eds.), Christian Faith, p. 810. 7 Ibidem, p. 855. 8 Ibidem, pp. 885, 857. 9 L. NEWBIGIN, The Finality of Christ, SCM Press, London 1969, p. 57. 10 ID., The Gospel in a Pluralist Society, SPCK, London 1989, p. 183. 11 M. AMALADOSS, Is Christ the Unique Saviour? A Clarification of the Question, op. cit., p. 11. 12 J. DUPUIS, Jesus Christ at the Encounter of World Religions, op. cit. 13 M. AMALADOSS, Making all Things New: Mission in Dialogue, Gujarat Sahitya Prakash 1990, pp. 211ff. 14 ID., Faith, Culture, Interreligious Dialogue, Ideas for Action Series, Indian Social Institute, New Delhi 1985. 15 B. GRIFFITHS, The Cosmic Revelation: The Hindu Way to God, pp. 27-46.

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16 ABHISHIKTANANDA, SACCIDANDA, A Christian Approach to Advaitic Experience, rev. ed., ISPCK, Delhi 1984, p. 91. 17 R. PANIKKAR, The Unknown Christ of Hinduism: Towards an Ecumenical Christophany, London 1981; ID., Salvation in Christ: Concreteness and Universality, the Supername, Santa Barbara 1972, pp. 71ff. 18 R. PANIKKAR, The Unknown Christ of Hinduism, pp. 24-25. 19 R. PANIKKAR, Christ’s Name in the Economy of Salvation, p. 212. 20 R. PANIKKAR, Salvation in Christ: Concreteness and Universality, the Supername, pp. 71ff. 21 R. PANIKKAR, “The Invisible Harmony: A Universal Theory of Religion or a cosmic Confidence in Reality?”, in Swindler (ed.), Toward Universal Theology of Religion, Orbis Books, New York 1987, p. 66. 22 S. KAPPEN published his principal work, Jesus and Freedom, in 1977, Orbis Books, New York. 23 Ibidem, p. 53. 24 Ibidem. 25 Ibidem, p. 57. 26 S. KAPPEN, Liberation Theology and Marxism, op. cit., p. 46. 27 S. KAPPEN, Jesus and Freedom, op. cit., pp. 137-138. 28 W. PANNENBERG has said: «A Christology from above presupposes the divinity of Jesus. The more important task of Christology is, however, precisely to present reasons for the confession of Jesus’ divinity. Instead of presupposing it we must first inquire about how Jesus’ appearance in history led to the recognition of his divinity». W. PANNENBERG, Jesus-God and Man, Philadelphia 1977, p. 34. 29 Fides et Ratio 72. 30 See Ecclesia in Asia 19-23. 31 Ecclesia in Asia 20. 32 Paths of Mission, in “India Today”, Statement of the National Consultation on Mission, 4-9 January 1994, “Ishvani Kendra”, Pune 1994, 54. 33 J. PATHRAPANKAL, Text and Context in Biblical Interpretation, Dharmaram Publications, Bangalore 1993, pp. 57ff. 34 M.K. GANDHI, An Autobiography or Story of My Experiments with Truth, Navajivan Publishing House, Ahamedabad 1969, p. 101. 35 S. SIDDHINATHANANDA, Christ-Ascent of the Human and Descent of the Divine, in “Jeevadhara”, XXIV(May 1999)171, p. 198. 36 A. ALANGARAM S.J., Christ of the Asian Peoples, Asian Trading Corporation, Bangalore 1999, p. 122. 37 B. GRIFFITHS, The Cosmic Revelation, op. cit., p. 113. 38 Ibidem. 39 Ecclesia in Asia 1. 40 N. MOHAN, Religious Harmony in the Third Millenium, Paper presented at the World Conference for Religious Freedom, New Delhi, November 16-18, 1999, quoted in J. KAVUNKAL, Church and Mission in Asia in the light of “Ecclesia in Asia”: A Critical Study, in “Jeevadhara”, XXX(May 2000)177, p. 292. 41 D. VELIATH, Christ and Religious Pluralism, in “Jeevadhara”, XXVIII(May 1998)165, p. 217. 42 Ibidem. 43 F. WILFRED, From the Dusty Soil: Contextual Reinterpretation of Christianity, Madras University, Department of Christian Studies 1995, p. 192. 44 J. PARAPILLY, Emerging Trends in Indian Christology, IIS Publications, Bangalore 1995, p. 250. 45 W. KASPER, “Are Non-Christian Religions salvific?”, in J. PATHRAPANKAL (ed.), Service and Salvation: Nagpur Theological Conference on Evangeiization, Theological

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Publications in India, Bangalore 1973, p. 204. 46 M. AMALADOSS, Is Christ the Unique Saviour? A Clarification of the Question, op. cit., p. 17. 47 A. ALANGARAM, Christ of the Asian Peoples, op. cit., p. 123. 48 F. WILFRED, From the Dusty Soil, op. cit., p. 193. 49 S. SAMARTHA, Between Two Cultures, op. cit., p. 156. 50 F. WILFRED, From the Dusty Soil, op. cit., p. 198. 51 J.A.G. GERWIN VAN LEEUWEN, Fully Indian Authentically Christian, NBCLC, Bangalore 1990, p. 320. 52 SITA RAM GOEL, Catholic Ashrams: Adopting and Adapting Hindu Dharma, Voice of India, New Delhi 1988, p. X (preface). 53 Ecclesia in Asia 23. 54 TH. PALLIPURATHKUNNEL, The Life and Ministry of the Indian Church before the Synod of Diamper, “Christian Orient”, XVI (December 1993)4, pp. 177-179. 55 Acts of the Synod of Diamper, III, 4. 56 A.M. MUNDADAN, Paths of Indian Theology, Dharmaram Publications, Bangalore 1998, pp. 39-40. 57 Mother Teresa, quoted by E. D’LIMA, in an unpublished paper Theologizing in the Context of Religious Pluralism, presented to the Colloquium of Bishops and Theologians on December 10, 1997.

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JACOB PARAPPALLY*

THE CHALLENGING NEWNESS OF JESUS CHRIST IN THE CONTEXT OF RELIGIOUS PLURALISM

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INTRODUCTION The word of God is not bound (2 Tim 2,9). This truth is confirmed by infinite ways in which God’s Word finds expression in the world. Above all, it is true in Jesus Christ, the mystery of God’s Word revealed in history. He transcended everything that bound him, even death. The early theologians of the Church interpreted Jesus Christ as the Messiah of Jewish expectations as well as the fulfilment of the hope cherished by the Gentiles of all times. Ignatius of Antioch (d.A.D.110), for example, proclaimed Jesus Christ as the «ground for hoping that [all of humanity] may be converted and win their way to God». Further, he affirmed that Jesus was «our common name and common hope»1. The followers of Jesus Christ believe that he is indeed the common name and common hope meant for the whole of humanity. They encounter him as the Way, the Truth and the Life. They experience him as the beginning and the end of their lives, and therefore, the ultimate meaning of their lives. They confess him as the Lord of history and the universe who lived and died at a particular time in history and yet is alive after his death, leading all to the fullness of life. But something bound up with this transforming experience of Jesus Christ is that it must be shared or proclaimed in a meaningful way so that the same Jesus Christ can be encountered by the people of all cultures and languages. It is absolutely imperative for the Church which “lives, moves and has its being” in Jesus Christ to proclaim Him in a way that other people can really “hear” the word of proclamation. In the multi-religious society of the Roman Empire, the early Church found creative ways to theologise and proclaim the universal significance of Jesus Christ. When the Roman Empire accepted Jesus Christ as its Lord and Saviour, Christianity became a mono-religious culture without any challenge to its claims about Jesus Christ from outside. It had to face only the internal challenges with regard to the wrong interpretations of the person of Christ which were countered by the early councils, especially the council of Chalcedon. The Church articulated “who Jesus Christ is” in dialogue with *

Dean of the Faculty of Theology, Jnana-Deepa Vidyapeeth, Pune, India.

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Judaism and the Greco-Roman world. Such a finished Christology with its ready-made Christ image did not make much impact on the peoples of Asia for the last twenty centuries because Asian people have different cultures and world-views which cannot understand the “language” of Christian proclamation. Moreover, the religions of Asia claim to have their own mediators, saviours who seemed to have shown them the ways of salvation. They might find “Christ an exotic figure more or less appealing, or a suspicious construct associated with the conquering and invading foreigners”2, a threat to their traditional religions and cultures. The latter understanding of Christ and Christianity as a threat is growing stronger in India and elsewhere in Asia. This is clearly seen in the anti-Christian propaganda of the Hindu fundamentalists in India which led to the martyrdom of some missionaries in recent months. In this context, what are the ways to proclaim Jesus Christ in a language meaningful and challenging to the people of other religions so that they may encounter him as the “fullness of life” and not as a threat to their authentic cultures and traditions? In his paper, “The Uniqueness of Jesus Christ in Indian Theological Reflection”, George Karakunnel has clearly shown that in the Indian context of religious pluralism and poverty of the masses there is a need to present an image of Jesus Christ that is inclusive and relational, prophetic and liberative, pneumatic and cosmic, finding expression in kenotic love and service. In this paper I would like to underline the above concerns and show why such an approach to Christology is imperative in the Indian context if we take the “mission command” (Mt 28, 18-20) of Jesus Christ seriously. Further, in the context of religious pluralism in India I would suggest an approach to proclaiming Jesus Christ that is challenging and not threatening, respectful and not aggressive, relational and not relative. TOWARDS A MEANINGFUL INDIAN CHRISTOLOGY: PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS Proclaim Jesus Christ, we must. Invite people to experience his lifegiving presence in and through His Spirit in the Church, we must. But should we go on repeating certain Christological affirmations articulated in a language which is not only not meaningful to our listeners but also have such a negative impact on them that they reject our message? Should we use exclusive and absolutist expressions to proclaim the centrality of Jesus Christ in the universal salvific plan of God (1 Tim 2,4-5) that hinder the people of other religions from hearing the Good News of salvation? Should we make absolute statements about other religions and their founders and their religious experiences, even sometimes denigrating them as if we know all about the mysterious ways of God who «shows no partiality» and to whom «in every nation any one who fears him and does what is right is

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acceptable» (Acts 10,34-35)? The history of Christian proclamation in the colonial era had been, to a great extent, aggressive, exclusive and triumphalistic, contradicting even Apostle Peter’s exhortation: «always be prepared to make a defence to anyone who calls you to account for the hope that is in you, yet do it with gentleness and reverence» (1 Pet 3,15). The colonizers could not discover Christ’s presence through His Spirit in the positive values of the religious traditions of their colonial subjects as it would have probably hampered their claim to superiority, not only in military might but also in religion and culture. In the colonial and postcolonial era in Asia and particularly in India, the Christian claims of being the only true religion possessing the absolute truth, the uniqueness of Jesus Christ and His Church for salvation etc. were not only not understood by the followers of other religions, but also conveyed to them the opposite of what was intended by such claims. For people who hold an inclusive and relational world-view any absolute and exclusive claims about Jesus Christ and His Church would reduce Jesus Christ to a tribal God and the Church to a religious sect. Jesus Christ, thus, becomes one among the founders of religions or one of the incarnations or a great Guru or a prophet or one who reached the fullness of self-realization. They would consider him as one among many historical manifestations of the Absolute. How does it happen? Is not our proclamation clear and unambiguous? Indeed it is! But it is meaningful only to those who share the Judeo-Christian world-view. For those whose world-view operates on the epistemological principle of identity rather than on the principle of contradiction and for whom transhistorical truths are more real than historical facts, liberation from ignorance is more important than liberation from sin, symbolic religious expressions are more evocative and experiential than creeds or dogmatic formulations, any exclusive statements about religious truths fail to fit into the scheme of things. So the struggle of any Indian Christian theologian is to translate the Church’s faith-affirmation about the person and mission of Jesus Christ into a language meaningful to the people so that they can respond to him with their whole heart and mind. To present a meaningful Christology in the Indian context is not easy. In fact, the plurality and complexity of the situation demands a plurality of Christologies in dialogue with the “great traditions” and the “little traditions”3 which have their own world-views as well as both liberative and oppressive elements. The Christian experience of Jesus Christ as the fullness of life can challenge the dehumanizing elements of these cultures and religions. Openness to the positive elements of the other religious traditions can enrich the Christian understanding of the mystery of Jesus Christ. But the prospect of enriching our present understanding of the mystery of Christ is possible only if we give up the claim of having exhausted all the possibilities of understanding the mystery of Jesus Christ. It also means that we have to give up the presumption that our so called universally valid, a-

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temporal, a priori articulations about Jesus Christ are intelligible for the people of all cultures and world-views. It is clear to those who encounter Jesus Christ in the living tradition of the Church and understand the challenges of their inherited Indian worldview that their faith-affirmations are not intelligible to their listeners. Therefore, Indian theologians are convinced of the need to present the truths of Christian revelation in various ways meaningful in the Indian context. Their attempts may be construed as relativising the fundamental truths of Christian revelation. Sometimes they are even accused of not affirming the uniqueness of Christ as the only saviour. It is understandable that some may make such accusations if the pedagogical methods employed by the Indian theologians are not properly understood by those who do not have the lived experience of the context of Indian theological reflection. The proclamation of Jesus Christ in dialogue with the Indian context of religious pluralism and the dehumanizing socio- cultural and economic situation convince the proclaimers of the Gospel that: 1) Jesus Christ’s cosmic and trans-historical presence as well as his presence through his Spirit in all that is good and beautiful and perfect must be the point of departure and his historical presence must be the point of arrival in the proclamation of the Gospel. This is imperative as an overemphasis on the historicity of Jesus at the beginning of the proclamation reduces him to one among the historical founders of religion. 2) Jesus Christ cannot be meaningfully proclaimed in the Indian context in isolation or separated from the «many and varied ways God has spoken to our fathers» (Heb 1,1f). Other founders of religions and other ways of salvation need not be understood as parallel or complementary to God’s revelation through Jesus Christ which is “once and for all”. There is no need even to consider them as participating in the mediation of Jesus Christ. According to the Scripture they can be considered as ways of God’s dealing with humanity in particular cultures and nations in the past (Heb 1,1f) and it is reasonable to conclude that the old economy of God continues to those people who have not yet encountered Jesus Christ. Such an understanding does not reduce the missionary zeal for proclaiming the Good News, as feared by some, but enhances it by a deeper reverence to the mystery of God’s will and respect for human persons, cultures and authentic religious traditions. 3) The revelation in Jesus Christ is new, calling for free response and total commitment. God wills to save all humans through him (1 Tim 2,4-5). This, I believe, is the sufficient and compelling reason for the Church’s mission. So there is no need to categorize other religious mediations and mediators as deficient ways to salvation in order to show the centrality of Jesus Christ in the economy of salvation. Such an approach would create only insurmountable difficulties in the proclamation of the Gospel. The

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newness of God’s revelation in Jesus Christ is powerful enough to challenge and transform persons and societies. 4) God’s Spirit present in the authentic values of other religions and cultures cannot be separated from Jesus Christ. Following the spirit of the Vat II, especially of Gaudium et Spes, Pope John Paul II, in his encyclical letter Redemptoris Missio, acknowledges the Church’s recognition of the presence and action of the Spirit beyond the boundaries of the Church. He says that «the Spirit’s presence and activity affect not only individuals but also society and history, peoples, cultures, and religions»4. The Indian and Asian attempts to recognize the “hidden presence” of Christ through his Spirit in the authentic religious and cultural traditions, in no way, separates Jesus Christ from his Spirit but promotes the tremendous possibilities of proclaiming the centrality of Jesus Christ . Discovering the Spirit’s presence and action in the complex realities of India/Asia leads to the encounter with Jesus Christ whose Spirit he is. In his Apostolic exhortation, Ecclesia in Asia Pope John Paul II underlined the inseparability of the action of the Holy Spirit and the universal salvation in Christ and the Church’s commitment to follow the promptings to fulfill her mission5. 5) The proclamation of God’s kingdom through dialogue with all those who are committed to create a just society in no way dilutes the commitment to Christ and the emergence of the Church but facilitates them. In the self-emptying commitment of Christians for the transformation of their unjust societies and in their courage to stand up for the values of the kingdom as well as in their readiness to suffer the consequences, people of other religious traditions discover the liberating and kenotic image of Christ. The quest for an image or images of Jesus Christ that takes into account the above concerns without jettisoning any of the fundamental affirmations of Christian faith impels the Indian theologians to discover creative ways to communicate God’s revelation in Jesus Christ. CHALLENGING NEWNESS OF JESUS CHRIST In the 19th century some Hindus and the Hindu converts to Christianity made attempts to present Jesus Christ in a language meaningful to Hindus. They discovered the challenging newness of God’s revelation in Jesus Christ to bring about the integral liberation of humans. While a Hindu reformer like Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1833) presented Jesus as the Supreme Guide to Happiness, Keshub Chunder Sen (1838-1884), remaining on the border of Hinduism and Christianity, saw Jesus as the fulfillment of Hinduism, the apex of organic evolution, Cit (Consciousnes) of the Trinitarian God (Sat-CitAtianda = Being-Consciousness-Bliss). For Brahmabandhav Upadhyaya

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(1861-1907), a Brahmin convert to Christianity and the so called father of Indian Christian Theology, Jesus Christ was the Transcendent Image of the Supreme Brahman and Nara-Hari (God-Man). Following this line of interpreting Jesus Christ from the Indian cultural and religious tradition some have attempted to present Jesus as the unique Avatara (Incarnation), Isvara (Personal aspect of the supra-personal Absolute), Adi Purusha (The Primordial Person), Prajapati (the Lord of the creatures), Vimochakan (the liberator), Satyagrahi, Yogi etc. Surprisingly, these attempts at interpreting Christ in the Indian context had no serious influence on the Christian proclamation and praxis as the Church viewed these attempts with suspicion. In the Eighties, the Third World theologians evaluated the various Christological models of the Asian context and found them inadequate in responding to the plurality of religions and the pervading poverty of Asia6. The “fulfillment theology” of the 1930’s with its recognition of the Christof-the-religions, was an initiative to counteract the “civilization theology” of the Western missionaries and colonizers. But it failed to recognize the Christ-of- the-poor. The ashramic Christ of the late 60s was a protest against the “development theology” of neo-colonialists. The ashramic movement, recognizing greed as the enemy within, embraced voluntary poverty and simplicity but failed to see the structural greed of systems and structures and to participate actively in the struggles of the poor for liberation. Thus the inculturation Christology of the late 70s, developed in opposition to “liberation Christology”, failed to see the link between religion and liberation. In India/Asia there are many cultures and classes in one religion and many religions in one culture. There are both liberative and oppressive elements in religions as well as in cultures. The awareness of such a complex situation was the compelling force that motivated the Indian/Asian theologians to make attempts to present an image of Jesus Christ who is the Christ-of-the-religions-and-the-poor. In the context of many religions that claim to be ways of liberation from the misery of human existence and the presence of millions of poor who look for socio-economic and political liberation what is new about the person and message of Jesus Christ? This newness must be communicated through meaningful words, actions and life-style rather than repeating terms which are unintelligible, exclusive and offensive to the people of other religions. The whole of apostolic witness and praxis was about the newness of God’s action in history in the person of Jesus Christ that became the New Testament. The covenantal relationship God established through him was interpreted and proclaimed as the New Covenant. Till the establishment of the new heaven and new earth this new message has to be proclaimed. Unlike the exclusive and univocal terms that we prefer to use to explain who Jesus Christ is, the challenging newness of Jesus Christ, if properly communicated, can bring many to encounter him. This, I believe, is the task of theology in the Indian/Asian context.

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Can we identify some of the elements that can communicate the newness of God’s revelation in Jesus Christ that can adequately respond to the soteriological concerns of the people of other religions, their quest for integral liberation and their longing for harmony among humans, God and cosmos? I believe that it is possible and necessary in order to enter into a meaningful dialogue with the people of other religions and to invite them to experience Jesus Christ. Some of the elements of this newness of Christic revelation can be outlined as follows: 1) In Jesus Christ one can encounter a self-emptying God, hitherto unknown in the history of revelation. In him the Absolute became relative, Infinite became finite, God became human, Word became flesh (Jn 1,14). In him God came to serve and not to be served (Mk 10,45). Thus the selfemptying figure of Christ (Phil 2,7) can be encountered as the servant of everything perfect, good, true, beautiful and authentically liberative in all religious traditions whether Great or Little, Meta-cosmic or cosmic, unitive or messianic. He is not only not against the liberative potential of Asian religious traditions but has the power to actualize it in reality. 2) If Jesus Christ is truly God and truly human as the Council of Chalcedon confesses and proclaims, he cannot but be what he revealed himself to be in history, the servant of God, humanity and the cosmos. In him is the self-disclosure of God that God is not only the Lord but also the servant of all and everything. This is the radical kénosis, the paradox of Christic revelation, a stumbling block to the Jews and folly to the Gentiles, but, indeed, the power and wisdom of God (1 Cor 1,25). Self-emptying is the essence of the Trinitarian Oneness. “There is no other name” (Acts 4,12) that reveals this mystery of the God as a self-emptying God who becomes the servant of his own creation. The newness, decisiveness, normativeness and the universal validity of Jesus Christ consist in his servanthood of everything authentically human, be it culture, religion, systems or structures. This self-emptying servanthood is expressed in the footwashing of the disciples at the Last Supper (Jn 13,3-15). This revelation subverts all human categories of discrimination: superiority and inferiority, higher class and lower class, high caste, low caste and untouchable, patriarchalism and matriarchalism, male and female, Christian and Pagan, believers and non-believers, civilized and uncivilized etc. It challenges the religious and secular structures that perpetuate the systems of discrimination and dehumanization and energizes the forces of liberation whether religious or secular. 3) The self-emptying image of Jesus Christ can reveal the power of the powerless, can identity with them and energize them to struggle for a fuller human life and at the same time liberate them from the forces of alienation within themselves as well as within the structures and the systems which enslave them. Jesus Christ reveals a suffering God who

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suffers when humans suffer as he is love itself. This new revelation in Jesus Christ has tremendous influence on the people who suffer from oppressive images of God. 4) The kenotic Christ can fulfil the longing of the Asian people for liberation from greed, acquisitiveness, egoism and the fragmentation of reality. He can reveal the necessity of an ethical religiosity for integral liberation over the cultic and Gnostic religiosity. Jesus of Nazareth revealed a God who is anthropocentric and cosmocentric (Jn 3,16)and not self-centred because he was by nature a self- emptying God. A kenotic Christ can perform his prophetic function in the Asian context by challenging all the religious traditions including Christianity to be authentically anthropocentric and care for the whole creation. He reveals the interrelationship of God, humans and the world. 5) The kenotic Christ can energize all those who encounter him to promote everything authentically human and liberative in the various religious traditions, cultures, and socio- political and economic systems with respect, love and a self-emptying attitude. Such an encounter with the kenotic Christ would also empower them to identify themselves with those who are committed to fight against the forces of unfreedom and build God’s own Kingdom where the self-emptying of God is the source and model for communion and communities of justice, love, compassion, fellowship, peace, reconciliation and, indeed, wholeness. CONCLUSION The Christian proclamation of the uniqueness of Jesus Christ is misunderstood and is rejected by people of other religions. They seem to consider such claims as emanating from the Christian sense of superiority, arrogance and a colonial mentality. It is in the interest of Church’s vocation and commitment to her mission that she speaks a language that promotes an effective communication of her message about Jesus Christ. This means that the Church should consistently hold a positive attitude to other religious traditions which are to be served by the revelation in Jesus Christ. Other religious traditions have a right to hear the message of the Gospel and therefore the Church has a duty to proclaim it in a language intelligible to them. The Scripture reveals to us a self-emptying God who came to serve. This is the newness of God’s revelation in Jesus Christ. This new revelation in history of that which transcends history does not destroy all that is true and beautiful in other religious traditions and cultures. This truth can be credibly communicated only by those who encounter Jesus Christ’s hidden presence in them through his Spirit. His hidden presence and action can also be recognized in those who are committed to all authentic values of the

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Kingdom. However, an exclusive tribal Christology hinders dialogue with the members of other religions and prevent their encounter with Jesus Christ. Jesus’ mission was to proclaim and establish right relationships within and among the humans themselves and with God and the cosmos. Jesus proclamation of “the Kingdom of God” or “the Kingdom of Heaven” stressed the vertical and horizontal relationship of the Human for the establishment of a new society. Following the kenotic Christ the disciples are given the grace and obligation to “gather up the fragments left over, that nothing may be lost” (Jn 6,12) from the Indian/Asian religious traditions and people’s movements for the building up of a new society. The significance of Jesus Christ for India/Asia for its integral liberation will be recognized when the people of other religions and the oppressed and marginalized are able to see Jesus Christ’s self-emptying face in his Church’s servanthood struggling with and for others to build a new society where a harmony based on the recognition of God’s sovereignty, justice, equality and “co-insistence” of religions and cultures prevail. The newness of God’s revelation in Jesus Christ becomes visible and challenging and effective when the disciples commit themselves to this unique service to humanity and the world.

Notes 1 IGNATIUS OF ANTIOCH, Ephesians 10,1; 1,2. 2 R. PANIKKAR, A Christophany for our Times:

The Thirty-fifth Annual Robert Cardinal Bellarmine Lecture, in “Theology Digest”, XXXIX(1992)1, p. 4. 3 Anthropologists like M.N. Srinivas use the terms “Great” and “Little Tradition” to show the distinction between classical Hindu tradition and the popular religiosity of the sub-altern people. See M.N. SRINIVAS, Religion and Society among the Coorgs in South India, London 1952. 4 JOHN PAUL II, Redemptoris Missio 28. 5 JOHN PAUL II, Ecclesia in Asia 17-18. 6 The Irruption of the Third World: Challenge to Theology, Fifth Conference of the Ecumenical Association of Third World Theologians (New Delhi, August 17-29, 1981), Document, in “Vidyajyoti”, 46(1982), p. 92. See also, A. PIERIS, Non-Christian Religions and Cultures in Third World Theology, in “Vidyajyoti”, 46 (1982), pp. 166-170.

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ANTO KAROKARAN*

PROCLAIMING JESUS’ UNIQUENESS IN THE CONTEXT OF CULTURAL NATIONALISM IN INDIA

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INTRODUCTION Jesus put the question to the disciples: «Who do you say I am?». Indeed it was a puzzling question to them owing to the various prevailing perceptions about him among the people and also among themselves. But Peter came up with an answer hundred percent accurate: «You are the Christ, the Son of Living God». It was short and crisp. But he said it all as far as the uniqueness of Jesus was concerned: first, he is the Anointed One, the one come to save humanity; second, he is the Son of the living God and as such is the unique saviour. No doubt, it was empowered by the divine grace that Peter could properly answer the question. Nonetheless, his confession, equivalent to the acceptance and affirmation of the saviourhood of Jesus and his uniqueness was a personal act made amidst a confusing scenario. Peter, therefore, deserves to be commended for it. Will there be such an unconditional and joyous acceptance of the unique saviourhood of Jesus in India in the manner of Peter if proclaimed by the evangelising Christian community in fidelity to the great commission of the Master? Most probably, no. History testifies to this in most instances over the last four centuries; its chances today are much less except in certain small pockets. This is so because of a new ideology called Hinduvta projected under the guise of Nationalism. My intervention is mainly concerned about this phenomenon. How do we present the Saviourhood and uniqueness of Jesus Christ in this difficult context of an all-pervasive Hindutva ideology today? It cuts across all political parties and intellectual groups in India. My colleague from India, Dr. George Karakunnel has given you a cross section of the Indian Theology which tries to grapple with the question of the unique saviourhood of Jesus and its proclamation in our country. Certain elements in the response of the Indian masses to the proclamation puzzle us endlessly. For example, while, on the one hand, the Person and message of Jesus hold out an irresistible attraction to the Indian masses over the centuries, they are, in general, reluctant to become members of the Church, on the other. *

Founder Editor, Third Millennium, Indian Journal of Evangelisation, Bhopal, India.

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The reluctance of masses seems to boil down to this: while Jesus and His gospel to an astonishing degree are acceptable to them, membership in the church seems to them to take away all that they cherished through millennia: their saviours, Ista devatas, religions, spiritual sadhanas, meaning systems, cultural values and orientation to life, in short, all those factors which gave them personal identity and an assured place under the sun. This is a scenario in proclamation particular to the Asian countries especially India. How does one understand and respond to it? This is a formidable challenge before the theology in India in the mission of proclaiming Jesus. The challenge has been immeasurably accentuated since the last two decades by Hindutva, the new form of nationalism which has started gripping all, even the daily labour classes. In this context Indian theology seems to be attempting to take a fresh look at the uniqueness of the saviourhood of Jesus Christ as it has been traditionally proclaimed in India. UNIQUENESS

OF JESUS, NOT A LEGAL RIGHT TO NEGATE BUT A MISSIONARY EMPOWERMENT TO RELATE

Our talk of uniqueness can degenerate into a futile exercise if its focus is not squarely and solely kept on its missionary content and orientation. Was this truth of Jesus’ uniqueness revealed to Peter just to be his private capital for a proud display before others or was it to be used as a power to capture leadership and dominate others? Not at all. As is clear from the text, Peter did not fully grasp the missionary content and orientation of the uniqueness of Jesus when he stated: «You are Christ, the Son of the Living God». Otherwise he would not have vigorously objected to Jesus when he related to and explained the content and orientation of that truth in terms of his suffering and death in order to rise and become the saviour of the world. Before I deal with the theme of my intervention, that is proclaiming the uniqueness of Jesus in the context of Cultural nationalism, I want to dwell at some length on the missionary content and orientation of the uniqueness of Jesus. It was not used by Jesus as a legal property to impose his lordship over the three worlds. So too, it cannot be used by the evangelizing Christian community as a legal justification to subjugate, relativise or edge out other religions. Uniqueness becomes exactly the Kerygma, the Good News to be proclaimed, precisely because in it the true content of divinity, its redeeming power, was revealed in terms of an unconditional self-gift, forgiveness, servanthood, acceptance of the other as partner and friend etc. Jesus is relevant to us and is the saviour of the world, not simply because of his identity and glory as the Only begotten Son of God and his equality with him. It is more so because of the theological fact that he converted it into a missionary vocation and empowerment. It meant in concrete terms to become the servant of all, empowering us to become God’s children. Jesus

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is our Lord and Master, not simply because of his equality with God, but because he washed our feet. In all these, humans experienced God, not as a threatening power that has to be rebelled against, but as a loving Father who accepts us in our personal identity with all its concrete uniqueness which in ultimate analysis is God’s own gift and doing. I want to say that the uniqueness of Jesus Christ and His universal saviourhood have to be understood and proclaimed from this missionary perspective and orientation. Such alone should be the right basis and true validity of mission in proclaiming the uniqueness of Jesus, the Saviour in the context of diverse religions, cultures and struggles of people in Asia. But this has not always been in the praxis of mission and proclamation, especially in the colonial phase in the modern history. The uniqueness of Jesus has been wrongly interpreted so as to give legitimacy for the colonization of the evangelised both in a political and religious sense. In the past and present mission praxis, uniqueness of Jesus and its proclamation have assumed a concrete meaning which is tainted. Every word assumes a concrete meaning content in the consciousness of people in a particular context. Over the past centuries, missionary proclamation of Jesus’ uniqueness leading to conversion and membership in the Church has received a meaning content which can be equated with the dominance of the missionary, an ethnocentric expansion of the Church, systematic eradication of the autonomy of peoples and all the characteristics of the national/born identity of the evangelized. When the Church in India proclaims the uniqueness of Jesus Christ and insists against the Hindu nationalists that conversion is not simply a religious but a fundamental right of every citizen, and when this is opposed tooth and nail by the other, both the parties are engaged in totally different discourses. My intervention will have two parts: 1) What is the challenge posed by cultural nationalism in its variant of Hinduvta before the proclamation of Jesus, the unique saviour? 2) What are the new theological perspectives that can effectively help present Jesus vis-à-vis the challenge? PART I NATIONALISM, HINDUTVA AND IDENTITY OF THE PEOPLE The Concise Oxford Dictionary describes nation as «a Community of people of mainly common descent, history, language etc. forming a state or inhabiting a territory». Nationalism in this sense signifies the identity of a people, that is their self-understanding based on common factors and attainment of a fuller meaning of life, and a common search in the particular context of their life and history. Nations and nationalism are in early history

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not necessarily connected with exclusive territory or political independence. For example, in history we can see many nations/peoples with distinct identities forming part of the same empire or country. But as history progresses, the different peoples or nations with their distinct identities become independent nation states breaking off the shackles of empires which subjugated them. This happened in Europe mostly during the middle ages. This happened also in other continents in certain periods of history. The driving force of the new nation states was nationalism in its historical form as explained above. In some nation states, nationalism becomes almost like a cult. It means, persons living in them who do not originally belong to the common blood, territory, religion, culture etc. are considered aliens, second-rate citizens and not equals, leading to their oppression. But after nation states grew into democracies overthrowing monarchies and dictatorships, the core of nationalism was redefined as citizens’ dedication to common good (SCHNEIDER, p. 35). The European nations in which territory, race, language etc. are in these days emphasized less and less and economics and multinationals have an increasing say, are now in this phase of nationalism. But this new emphasis of nationalism does not altogether mean that its former historical character is lost. It is still a very active factor. The new emphasis of nationalism is more a First World phenomenon than a Third World one. This is because the peoples of Third World countries are now vigorously engaged in the pursuit of reaffirming the historical and national identities badly mutilated during the colonial period. To regain their lost historical identity and self-respect is a great passion and pre-occupation with the Asian, African, South American nations today. Hindutva forces in India are exploiting this passion of the people to the hilt in order to gain political power for the high castes and re-establish through it their former dominance over the lower castes. Nationalism from a Cultural Perspective An understanding of nationalism from a cultural perspective can give us the most vital key to grasp the reason why nationalism becomes the overriding passion of peoples replacing even God and religion. Cultural and Historical Identity as the Deepest Human Identity Humans and animals share in the same material nature. But there is a vital difference between the two from the viewpoint of culture: whereas animals are perfectly satisfied with themselves and the givenness of nature and, therefore, never bother to improve either themselves or nature, humans are always gripped by a sense of dissatisfaction or incompletion

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with themselves and the givenness of nature. This leads to an irrepressible urge in them to grow and go beyond themselves by entering into a relationship, dialogue with the other, that is, the rest of being: nature, neighbour and God. This orientation of human life we call culture. Culture comes from the word “cultivation”. Culture takes shape at different levels: nature, neighbour and God. – Culture at the Level of Nature: Humans cultivate nature and turn it into culture, e.g. agriculture, horticulture, fish culture. Science and technology are part of this all–embracing cultivating tendency. Through culture nature is hominised, becomes his home, extended self. By culture, humans are not to destroy or manipulate or exploit it. It is a partnership, dialogical relationship with the other for mutual growth. In this process, humans refine themselves, grow into a fuller form of life, become more like God. By culture, nature enters into human existence and contributes towards his self-understanding, self-respect and self-affirmation. – Culture at the Level of Neighbour: Culture enters into another level when humans, instead of exterminating each other, enter into a dialogical relationship with one another, cultivate friendship and communion for mutual growth. Culture at this level takes the form of society, language, art, symbols, rules and regulations, styles of self-government etc. – Culture at the Level of the Divine: Beyond nature and neighbour, humans come to acknowledge a power as their origin and end. They enter into a relationship and communion with him for their growth and fulfilment. The cultivation of this relationship is called religion, divine cult, prayer, Puja etc. If you understand culture in this deep existential sense, it will simply be a truism to say that to be human is to be cultural (BOFF, pp. 4-5). Human existence is different from that of animals insofar as it is cultural. Human is human only to the extent it is cultural. Cultural is not what humans have among many other things, but what they are, their inner personality. Cultural identity thus is the deepest human identity in concrete and existential term. – Nationalism and Culture: the in-depth understanding of culture we have arrived at will help us gain a necessary insight into how cultural nationalism like Hindutva can wield such a powerful influence on common masses in the current phase of nationalism in India, the thrust is on the self-affirmation or national identity. Our analysis of culture shows that human identity is nothing but cultural identity evolved through millennia. We have to note down at least three most crucial factors regarding this human/cultural identity: 1) It is a comprehensive one where nature, neighbour and God enter and shape it. They enter it not as watertight compartments, that is they become defining meanings and creative forces of human/cultural

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identity in mutuality and not in separation. Nature cannot be a defining factor and creative force without God penetrating it. Similarly, God becomes experiential and meaningful only in and through nature and other humans. 2) Human identity is a concrete identity and not an abstract one. Human/Cultural identity cannot be understood in abstraction but in the concreteness of the forms of cultivation, that is in a concrete ongoing relationship with nature, like agriculture, horticulture etc.; in a concrete relationship with neighbour like language, art, symbols, value systems, self-government of people; in a concrete relationship with God like cult, rituals, religious practices, pujas, spiritual sadhanas etc. Human/cultural identity can never be expressed and lived in abstractions. 3) Diversity is the necessary ingredient of cultural identity. If human/cultural identity cannot exist apart from concreteness, then it also spells and creates its diversity as a necessary consequence. Nature is astonishingly, creatively different from place to place; history is never repeated but is ever new from time to time. God or ultimate meaning is available to humanity and defines its cultural identity only along the channel of the diversity of nature and history. Hence diversity is the necessary result of a culture-bound human existence and identity. For example, Yahweh is not merely a universal God or God in general for Israelites, but their personal, national God who met them in their particular history, entered into a partnership with them and shaped their destiny. His divinity became intelligible, experiential and creatively present to them only in their particular ecological, geographical, social and historical needs and contexts. Hence Yahweh became part of their cultural as well as national identity. Similarly, Ram and Krishna have also become part and parcel of the national identity of Hindus. Both Yahweh and Ram mean God for the respective people. But their meaning and experiential contents are different and have been formed through millennia of their nature-andhistory-bound existence. In the cultural/national identity of people, thus, God, religion, laws of self-government will all receive particularity and diversity just like language, aesthestics and eating preferences. If the current phase of nationalism in India stresses the re-affirmation of the self-identity of people, it will naturally take the form of cultural nationalism. India, like other Third World countries, has gained political independence; it has become a nation state. The point of departure of its nationalism today is no more gaining independence or dedication to the common good, but affirmation of its identity as people different from others. India wants to regain its self-respect by re-establishing its historical identity. This in effect is its human/cultural identity with a characteristic distinctiveness. Nationalism as an ideology for re-affirming the identity of people has as its main agenda today the re-affirmation of the cultural identity.

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Proclaiming Jesus’ Uniqueness in the Context of Cultural Nationalism in India 133

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Hindutva version of Nationalism Hindutva is professedly cultural nationalism. It wants to build up India and make it a strong nation on the basis of the cultural self-identity of its own people. In this respect, it is similar to the cultural nationalism as advocated by Nazis. In fact, Hindutva votaries have heavily borrowed from Nazism. While, like Nazism, Hindutva has a hidden political agenda, it has several differences. First, its hidden political agenda is the concern of mostly the high castes, especially Brahmins, who numerically constitute only three per cent. But in its nationalist cultural agenda, it has a much larger following and has won the sympathy and appreciation of large sections of intellectuals and common people. Second, and this is more important, Hindutva as cultural nationalism is built upon the religious symbols, religious sentiments and gods of ancient Hinduism. Religious symbols, religious ethos, Gods like Ram and Krishna are presented as national heroes. Since India has a very ancient civilisation, this identification fires the imagination of all people. This was also the case during the independence movement in India for political freedom. In the ancient perspective, «religions are co-extensive with a tribe or nation» (MUCK, p. 43). Through such an identification of symbols, gods and religious ethos of Hinduism with nationalism, Hindutva has gained wide acceptance as nationalist ideology cutting across castes, races, tribes, political parties, intelligentia, religious affiliations etc. If one agrees with the depth-analysis of cultural identity we made earlier, one can now fully appreciate the wide acceptability of Hindutva cultural nationalism. Because, human identity, in effective terms as cultural identity, necessarily contains religion as its strongest component. This is specially true in the case of the peoples of the Third World who are now passionately engaged in the efforts for the re-affirmation of their historical identity after colonial period. This is even more so with the people in India known for their religious pursuit as the most pronounced of all pursuits in life. Mission in the Context of an All-pervading and Virulent Hindutva Hindutva forces are organised thoroughly and effectively everywhere in India including the remotest corners. They have millions and millions of committed cadres allover. Even Nazis pale into insignificance in comparisons with their dedication to the cause of Hindutva. – Mission Becomes an Anti-national Activity: The Hindutva cadres have so thoroughly brainwashed the thinking of people in such a way that a missionary who proclaims a religion other than Indian becomes immediately suspect in the eyes of the common people. Proclaiming Jesus especially in terms of the old missionary premise and methodology will be considered a serious anti-national activity, since it seems to

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displace and denounce Ram, Krishna and other Hindu religious heroes and symbols in the current phase of commonly accepted cultural nationalism. Apropos of their new definition, Hinduism simply embraces all those values and systems that originated within India. Christianity and Islam are necessarily foreign, because they originated outside India. Christians and Muslims, however, can become true Indians if they realize that they were originally Hindus and return to Hinduism (META, p. 12). According to this identification of Hinduism with nationalism, Christians who have accepted faith that originated outside India are made out to be citizens substantially lacking in true nationalism.

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The Church should Learn to Appreciate the Defining Elements of the Present Phase of Nationalism in India Christianity in India contributes much more than its numerical strength to national reconstruction, especially in the field of educational, social and medical service. Her services are directed towards the uplift of the marginalized. The other communities recognize it with great admiration. The church in India points out that her service to the poor and contribution to the national reconstruction are the real proofs of her commitment to and love of the nation. However, this aspect of nationalism which is appreciated very much elsewhere is still to catch the imagination of the most powerful groups of people in India. Their attention in today’s post-colonial period is drawn to the re-establishment of the historical national identity, as pointed out earlier. Apparently, the common masses too are taken up with this version of nationalism. In the post-colonial situation, this has a compelling relevance and legitimacy. Hindutva forces have succeeded in drafting themselves into defenders of people and their national interest in this respect. They have through this channel positioned themselves within a striking distance of Christian mission in every nook and corner of India.Penetration of this Hindutva version of nationalism with great legitimacy and wide acceptance among masses even of rural areas is an altogether new situation facing mission in India. Here, opposition comes not just from the state as during the Roman persecutions in the beginning of Christianity nor from the majority religion as in Muslim countries, but from the vast common masses. This is a tremendous difference making proclamation utterly difficult. Again opposition comes, not in the name of religion, but in the name of patriotism/nationalism. Mission and proclamation of Jesus become deeply suspect from this angle. Conversion to Christianity and membership in the church are considered de facto antinational acts. Here people in India look at Christian proclamation, conversion, baptism from their present nationalist perspective. During the colonial phase of history, mission and conversion destroyed or erased from the Indian converts and the Christian

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communities formed out of them, large chunks of the most characteristic elements of India’s national/cultural identity. So too, they were substituted by foreign elements in a totalising way. In the light of our analysis of Hindutva nationalism, the church should make a critical evaluation of her theology and method of mission during the colonial phase in history and try to recast it in a way that will adequately meet with the demands of the new context. Vat. II, the recent popes, Pope Paul VI and John Paul II, as well as FABC have given us clear and powerful guidelines regarding how to go about this task. According to them, cultural identity of people should be brought into the focus of the evangelizing mission of the church (CROLLIUS, pp. 43, 47-48) together with the religions and struggles of the people.

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PART II TOWARDS A THEOLOGY OF PROCLAMATION OF THE UNIVERSAL SAVIOURHOOD OF JESUS CHRIST BASED ON INTERRELATEDNESS AND MUTUALITY AND NOT ON NEGATION AND ALIENATION The Age-old Indian Ethos of Sharing and Complementing There is an increasing urge and thrust in the Indian Christian theology of religions as well as in the mission of sharing and proclaiming Jesus, the saviour. And it comes from the soul of our ancient land, India. It is to share and proclaim Jesus in a context of interrelatedness/mutuality and solidarity of all peoples, races, cultures and religions and not in mutual opposition, negation and alienating actions. This trend is discernible even from the ancient history of St.Thomas Christians in India. But as a theology of religions and missionary proclamation, its clear cut expressions came into vogue since the last 125 years or so with the entry into the church of such famous converts like Brahmabandhav Upadhyaya (1861-1907). This urge oozes from the ethos of the land. India is a very ancient civilization where numerous races came from outside and settled down; several of the world religions, cultures, social stems and different languages were born and grew up, in this land. They grew up not in isolation and opposition, but in mutual sharing and complementing. This is an important factor to be borne in mind. This mixing of peoples, races, cultures, religions and languages happened, not exclusively and mainly on economic plane, but due to frequent pilgrimages, religious fairs, “darshan” of gurus, ashrams etc. People of different religions, cultures, social systems, races met, jostled with each other, chatted with each other and stayed together. This experience did not erase their identities. Through millennia, the different races, religions, cultures and social systems in India have kept up their characteristics. But through exposure and exchange, they have enriched each other.

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Fluency in one language other than one’s own mother tongue is not uncommon in India. Likewise, knowledge, appreciation and borrowing from the other religions, cultures and social systems happen in India on a natural note right from the childhood and village level. Hence ecumenism and dialogue are part and parcel of the Indian ethos; it is, so to say, in the Indian blood. I do not claim that there were never any religious persecutions and mutual intolerance in our history. They have happened, but not on such a massive scale and frequency as in many other countries. From the final phase of the colonial era this has increased due to the politicisation of religion and caste. But even today, mutual appreciation, borrowing and co-operation on the plane of religion, culture and social life remain undiminished in India, especially in the villages where the bulk of the Indian masses live. This cannot be dumped as a rootless and shallow syncretism. It will be quite unfair and irresponsible to make such a judgement. Many outsiders and superficial observers have done it and still do it. I have briefly explained above the ethos that has a creative influence producing the differing approach and point of departure of the Indian Christian theology of religions and proclamation. It cannot be locked up any more by a theology and method of mission and proclamation circumscribed by negating and alienating parameters. Bold attempts are there in the Indian theological circles to break open the lockup and give shape to a genuine “ecumenical ecumenism” through a missiology and practice of proclamation which is rooted in the interrelatedness and mutuality of all cultures, religions and systems. Is it possible to do so outside the traditional framework without watering down the uniqueness of God’s revelation in Jesus Christ and his universal saviourhood? The answer very much depends upon how you look at the uniqueness. Many of the Indian theologians are no more ready to buy up everything in the theological market under the label of uniqueness. A hermeneutics of suspicion will help one identify a lot of extraneous elements under this label which have nothing to do with Jesus’ uniqueness and the postulated foundations of mission. These elements are too well-known to need enumeration here. All what I want to say at this point is that uniqueness and universal saviourhood of Jesus Christ should not be equated with a particular version and interpretation of the same. I am aware, it is not easy for theologians in India to come out of the traditional mould of mission unquestionably accepted over the last four centuries. A Brief Critique of the Traditional Theology of Religions and Missionary Proclamation of Jesus, the Saviour Mission has, broadly speaking, three stages: proclamation, conversion and baptism/membership in the church. Jesus Christ is offered to the world through these stages. But at what cost and in what manner is the offer of Jesus Christ to be taken? According to the mission as practised during the

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Proclaiming Jesus’ Uniqueness in the Context of Cultural Nationalism in India 137

colonial phase, Jesus has to be accepted in total negation of one’s own religion, culture and society and, consequently, at the cost of one’s concrete identity in a total sense. But if we go by the mission praxis as given in the Acts, we do not see that the acceptance of Jesus Christ was at the negation and opposition to the religious, cultural and social identity of the evangelized. This was not only in the case of the Jewish people but also in the matter of gentiles (Acts 15). In his proclamation at Areopagus, Paul did not export Jesus to the Athenians from Judaism, that is, he did not proclaim Jesus through the vehicle of Jewish identity, but was ready to place him in direct relationship with their cultural and religious identity. He also appreciated the genuineness of their God-experience (CONZEMIUS, p. 15). But in the mission praxis from the sixteenth century onwards, Jesus has been offered in negation and opposition. In all the three stages of mission we can see this characteristic note running through. First Stage: Proclamation of Jesus Christ and negation of other religions. Missionary’s theological premise is that there is no salvation, grace, truth and God’s presence in the other religions. Therefore no question of appreciation, dialogue and interrelatedness can ever arise in the missionary proclamation. One has to share Jesus Christ and proclaim him on the graveyard of others’ religion and spiritual heritage. Second Stage: Conversion and the Destruction of Cultural Identity. Jesus is presented to the individual’s conscience. The message of Jesus is not worked through the collective consciousness or cultural identity of a people to the individual (KAROKARAN, pp. 153-154). The spiritual sadhanas, rituals, religious symbols, art, value systems, perceptions of truth through which an individual gets his identity from the group are never evangelized, that is they are totally negated. A missionary who has identified his faith with his own culture imposes his own identity or his parent culture on the converts by passing on the Christian faith. Converts cannot, therefore, enter the church with their cultural group identity and develop it to its fullness in Christ in the Church. Third Stage: Baptism and Membership and Separation from the Parent Society. In the most authentic Christian theology of mission, conversion is the entry of the person into the newness of life in Jesus Christ (2 Cor 5,17). Baptism is a participation in the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ to walk in the newness of life in him (Rom 6,4). It does not necessarily mean transfer of the convert from one group to another. But in the Indian context, people at large feel, this is exactly what happens in proclamation, conversion and the culmination of mission in baptism and membership. In the first two stages, essential elements of the national/cultural identity of the people are lost in large measure. In the final one, converts seems to enter a new nation. This is because Church is behaving as a totally independent society (GREINACHER, pp. 6-8). It has geo-political proportions (GRUNDER, pp. 18-21). It seems to be

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functioning as a society of which several of the vital and administrative decisions come from outside the nation within which it exists. It is identified with the European culture. Because of these factors, Christianity is considered almost a quasi nation not compatible with the national identity of the Indian people. Baptism and membership in the Church seem, therefore, to transfer a Christian convert from one nation to another.

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Theological Perspectives Undergirding a Proclamation Based on Interrelatedness and Mutuality In the context of cultural nationalism and a genuine appreciation of the diversity and autonomy of cultures and the realization of the positive values in other religions and God’s saving presence among all peoples, theologians in our age and time have a sacred duty to develop a theology of mission and proclamation whose hallmarks will be relatedness, reciprocity, identification and solidarity. Uniqueness and universality of Jesus formerly implemented through an agenda of negation and separation have to be now perceived as a missionary mandate and empowerment for relatedness from within and identification with all peoples in their specificities in order to lead them all to God’s fullness. Jesus had a uniqueness in his solitary splendour in heaven and in his equality with the Father. He lost nothing of his divinity and equality when he emptied himself and became slave through incarnation, attaining the maximum degree of relatedness, solidarity and identification with us. Without this passage, paschal mystery, his uniqueness could not have any redeeming significance, orientation and power. A theology of proclamation in Asia today has therefore to convert uniqueness and universality of Jesus into the same missionary agenda. In this connection, a theology of mission has to move beyond the separatist tendencies in traditional theology between creation and redemption, nature and grace, sacred and secular. The traditional theology of proclamation, while rightly emphasising the extraordinary deeds of God in history, culpably underplays God’s deeds in creation and his caring presence among all peoples and his gifts and graces to all of them in adequate measure (Amos 9,7). The emphasis on the one has led to the deemphasis and even destruction of the other. A theology of proclamation today has both to win back from the original sources of revelation the authentic perspectives for its task and also to base itself on the guidelines of Vat. II, Pope John Paul II and Pope Paul VI. Here I will briefly deal with three such factors: 1) Implications of the divine incarnation for proclamation. 2) Integration of Word-in-creation and Word-in-history in proclamation. 3) Insights from “Ecclesia in Asia” for the new approach.

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1) Implications of Incarnation for Proclaiming Jesus’ Uniqueness in Interrelatedness The traditional theology of incarnation has been practically reduced to one of atonement of human sins by God. He needed a body in this connection, to suffer, shed blood and thus atone for sins. The merits of his atonement and his redeeming grace in history are now made available to humanity everywhere and at all times through sacraments. While this is a valid theology, the other vital implications of a God in history as a-Godwith-us in all our struggles here and now and his identification with us in all our historical and cultural specificity are utterly lost sight of. A theology of incarnation has to work out the uniqueness and universality of Jesus in terms of God’s identification with all peoples in their historical/cultural identity. Our in-depth analysis of culture has shown that humans can progress towards God’s plenitude only in cultural categories. Only through an identification with the specific historical and cultural identity of each people, can God break open the stranglehold of sin/self-centredness and save/liberate them. This is the necessary implication of a culture-bound human existence. Proclamation, faith-communication and sharing of the Good News cannot bypass or ignore this inner limitation/asset of a cultural/historical human identity. Uniqueness of Jesus has to be honed on the specificity of the historical/cultural identity of the evangelized which alone can make Jesus the Universal Saviour. 2) Mutuality of Word-in-creation and Word-in-history Proclamation of uniqueness in Asia is therefore to be practised in mutuality and not in negation. It has a concrete model in Christ, the Wordin-creation and Christ, the-Word-in-history. Word-in-creation exists in the religions, cultures and social genius of people and in their cultural and national identity. «Everything was created in and through him» (Jn 1,1-3). It is the same Word-in-creation that has come into history (Jn 1,14). Word-increation and Word-in-history are not parallels, but complementary, mutually related and fulfilling part of the same plan. The coming of the Word into history does not jettison the Word-in-creation as used up and bypassed. The identities of the people as authored by the Word-in-creation will continue to remain with the Word-in-history in the pilgrimage of diverse peoples towards God’s plenitude. Hence proclamation, conversion and community building should be done in reciprocation, mutuality and interrelatedness with the religions, cultures and the autonomy of the people. 3) Perspectives from “Ecclesia in Asia” for the New Approach The new insights and perspectives on other religions, cultures and struggles of people that have been gained from Vat. II have peaked in the letter of Pope John Paul II, Ecclesia in Asia. While the Pope rightly

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emphasises the uniqueness and universality of Jesus the Saviour for all the peoples of the earth (EA 14), he definitely gives a green signal for a departure from the old theology of mission and proclamation based on negation and alienation. With Pope Paul VI (EN 20 e 53) and Vat. II (NA 2; AG 22), he stands for a proclamation in dialogue, relatedness and solidarity (EA 21, 31, 6). «The desire for dialogue, however, is not simply a strategy for peaceful coexistence among peoples; it is an essential part of the Church’s mission because it has its origin in the Father’s loving dialogue of salvation with humanity through the Son in the power of the Holy Spirit. The Church can accomplish her mission only in a way that corresponds to the way in which God acted in Jesus Christ: he became man, shared our human life and spoke in a human language to communicate his saving message. The dialogue which the Church proposes is grounded in the logic of the Incarnation. Therefore, nothing but fervent and unselfish solidarity prompts the Church’s dialogue with the men and women of Asia who seek the truth in love» (EA 29). CONCLUSION Nationalism is the focus of the people today in the once colonized countries of Asia, especially India. It is a phase of reaffirming the people’s identity going to their roots which include religion. Compared to the other strands of identity, religion is the strongest in India. This is why the atheistic Marxism failed to appeal to the Indian masses in spite of grim poverty. The focus and emphasis on a particular value comes from the historical context of people, their needs and aspirations. This does not mean the other values are neglected or rejected. But in every particular context, there is a take-off point, there is an ignition key, there is a need that fires the imagination of a people dictating their choice in life for the present. To it, all the others will be lined up. To it, the entire gamut of life and values is oriented. Hindutva capitalizes on this need of the hour. Mission, as part of the incarnational approach of God, has to be based today on this people’s need of a self-affirming nationalism. People in India will certainly accept Jesus Christ. Politicisation of the masses through equating Hindutva with nationalism, a ploy of the high castes to re-establish their hegemony over the majority, will come to nought sooner than later. But proclaiming Jesus and his uniqueness and building up a Christian community on negation of the identity of Indian people will not be countenanced even by the poorest man, even after Hindutva disappears. People of Asia have always yearned for the fullness and have sought God, not in abstractions but from within their concrete identity. Their particular religions, cultures and styles of self-government are concrete expressions of their search of the fullness and a-God-with-them in their struggles. The particularity of God as given in the particularity of Jesus of

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Nazareth means exactly that God has concretely proven his ability to be identified with the specific identity of each and every people in their concrete life. Our Christian faith should urge us to proclaim this God in history, his death and resurrection, the paschal mystery as that God who can fill up their yearnings and who can be with them in their quest for fullness, liberation. But we will be utterly unfaithful to the uniqueness of this God in Jesus if we want to make him universal by negating the particularity of a people necessarily bound-up with their historical, national and cultural identity. Jesus’ uniqueness/particularity is exactly his ability to identify with the specificity of all peoples in the only way a God in Jesus Christ alone can do. Christianity has the inner strength to be like its founder, to establish her universality precisely in the particularity of the people. By doing so she can make Jesus and His Gospel insiders of the Indian Identity and thus meet the challenge of Hindutva effecteively and successfully in her mission of proclamation.

References L. BOFF, Good News to the Poor, Burns and Oates, Great Britain 1992. V. CONZEMIUS, Universal Christian Faith and Nationalism, in “Concilium”, (1995) 6. A. CROLLIUS, What is So New about Inculturation, Pontificia Università Gregoriana, Roma 1984. N. GREINACHER, Catholic Identity in the Third Epoch of Church’s History, in “Concilum”, (1994) 5. H. GRUNDER, Christian Mission and Colonial Expansion, in “Mission Studies”, XII (1995) 23. A. KAROKARAN, Cultural Alienation of Converts and Radical Inculturation of Faith, Mission and Conversion: A Reappraisal, in J. MATTAM, S. KIM (eds.), St. Pauls, Bombay 1996. P.B. META, Hollow Hinduism, the VHP’s Self-Defeating Vision, in “Times of India”, Bombay, 18 February 1999. T. MUCK, Missiological Issues in Encounter with Emerging Buddhism, in “Missiology”, (2000) 1. H. SCHNEIDER, Patriotism and Nationalism, in “Concilium”, (1995) 6.

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AFRICA

JOHN S. MBITI*

FOR NOW WE SEE IN A MIRROR DIMLY THE EMERGING FACES OF JESUS CHRIST IN AFRICA

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1. INTRODUCTION Christianity has become one of the native religions of Africa. Even if it did not originate there, its presence has deep historical roots stretching back to apostolic times. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries it established itself anew and spread out geographically, in an explosive manner. Viewed statistically, the southern two thirds of the continent (with Madagascar) have become predominantly Christian. In contrast, the northern one third has remained Muslim. However, in matters of culture and worldview, African Religion remains dominant and constitutes both the background and the context in which Christian presence is seen and integrated. Contemporary Christology is in the process of emerging out of this fresh presence of Christianity, which was largely sparked off by the modern missionary movement from Europe and America with subsequent help and participation of local Christians. Missionaries from overseas did not introduce or bring God to Africa: to the contrary, it was God who brought them there. In African Religion, which is strongly monotheistic, the belief in God is very central. From generations passed, the people have known, named and called upon God. The new and unique element of the missionary message was the naming of Jesus Christ, Who and what He is. Many Christians have suffered and died for the sake of Jesus Christ, not for the sake of God as such. Through their witness and that of countless millions who did not necessarily suffer, the Gospel of Jesus Christ has won the heart of Africa. It is the same God, in Whom adherents of African Religion believe, that we find in the Bible, the Creator of all things, and the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ. The translation of the Bible (in full or in part) had been achieved into some 650 languages by the end of 2000. These translations use vocabulary from African Religion, and introduce new concepts like Gospel, Church, Angels, Hell, Satan, etc. that did not exist in African Religion. By and large, the Gospel has said “yes” to African Religion, and African Religion has said “yes” to the Gospel. For that reason, millions of people turn to and confess Faith in Jesus Christ. *

University of Bern.

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African Religion has, in effect, pointed the way to Him, without naming Him as He is named in the New Testament. Was that a Missiological preparation without missionaries? Both the Bible in local languages and the rich religious heritage strongly impact upon the Christianity that is taking shape today. In the same way, the emerging Christology bears the marks of both the local background and the insights that Christians derive from reading the Bible in their own languages. In that light they also review Christological concepts that have come down through the history of Theology, and search for or articulate concepts that relate to their cultural and religious context. We want to look at some of the emerging themes.

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2. JESUS CHRIST IN (AND) AFRICAN RELIGION In passing we hinted at the question of whether African Religion served Missiological purposes prior to the coming of foreign missionaries. There is a very close geographical correlation between the rapid expansion of Christianity and the age-old African Religion. It is precisely in the area where African peoples have held to their monotheistic traditional religion, that Christianity has literally exploded within a relatively short period. This can be illustrated with some statistical examples (below). Adherence to African Religion and Christianity, estimated for the years 1900 and 2000 in percentage to the total population (with Islam generally accounting for most or all of the rest): Region / Country West Africa: Ghana Nigeria Sierra Leone Central Africa: Angola Cameroon Central Afr. Rep. Congo Brazzaville Dem. Rep. Congo Zambia Southern Africa: Lesotho Madagascar Namibia South Africa

African 1900

Religion 2000

Christianity 1900

% Population 2000

90.3% 73.0% 85.4%

5,6% 3.0% 46.4%

4.7% 1.1% 4.6%

75.0% 51.2% 10.5%

99.4% 94.6% 99.6% 97.5% 98.1% 99.7%

2.0% 10.6% 5.0% 2.8% 0.7% 15.2%

0.6% 0.4% 0.0% 2.5% 1.4% 0.3%

97.0% 63.4% 91.0% 93.5% 97.0% 83.7%

88.9% 60.3% 91.3% 57.0%

3.0% 42.7% 2.0% 13.1%

11.1% 39.2% 8.7% 40.7%

95.8% 55.0% 97.7% 81.5%

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Eastern Africa: Ethiopia Kenya Rwanda Uganda

37.1% 95.9% 99.8% 91.2%

7.6% 10.5% 5.8% 5.0%

36.8% 0.2% 0.0% 6.8%

60.0% 73.0% 85.0% 84.5%

This is a statistical explosion that has never occurred on the same scale within such a short time in the history of the Church. Two thirds Africa are now statistically Christian1. People do not flock into the Church (Christianity) because of God as such, since they know God in African Religion. They do so because of Jesus Christ. I have known some of the first Christians that accompanied pioneer missionaries to other parts of Africa. And not only did they accompany “foreign” missionaries, but the local Churches have been sending out evangelists, catechists, and pioneer preachers to proclaim the Good News of Jesus Christ for the first time, to thousands of families and communities. This has been happening not only during the first generation of believers in Jesus Christ, but even more so today. They did not go out to tell others about God as the “Good News” (as if the listeners did not know God before), but to tell about Jesus Christ. We can ask, among other questions: Why do so many people convert to Jesus Christ? This seems to happen smoothly without major difficulties for people who, otherwise, are traditionally very religious. Since followers of African Religion acknowledge the same God Who is described in the Bible, do we also find Jesus Christ, the Son of God, in African Religion? What, who and where was Jesus Christ, the Second Person of the Trinity, within that knowledge of God in Africa? A parallel question would be: What, who and where was Jesus Christ, the Son of God in the Jewish (Old) Testament, before He became the human Jesus of Nazareth? A sociologist at the University of Nairobi, Kenya, Judith Mbula Bahemuka argues2 that «revelation is [...] a process which began at the time of our ancestors, achieved its fullness with the apostolic times, extends to all history and will never cease». Bahemuka reflects further to say that while «Jesus Christ, the man from Nazareth [...] lived and died [...] the “hidden” Christ, Jesus of faith, is alive. [...] He is the subject of revelation». Alluding briefly to the story of the two followers of Jesus whom He accompanied on their way from Jerusalem to Emmaus in Luk 24, she recalls that He was at first hidden from them. Jesus Christ can remain hidden. On the basis of Christ being one with the Father, Bahemuka maintains that «if the Father (Yahweh) revealed Himself to Africans, and they responded in faith, why could the same Africans not discover Christ in their “Acts of Faith”?». She finds the presence of Christ in African Religion through some items of religious practice, one of which is in communion with God through prayer. Another is through the role of the “ancestors”, about which she maintains that «Christ becomes our brother because the

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African is a child of God». A third area of His presence is in symbols water, fire and saliva, in which «one can discover the presence of Christ». In an essay addressing the same issue, I examine Biblical references, for the possibility that Jesus Christ is present in African Religion3. These are texts in which Jesus talked about Himself or others about Him. a) Jesus saw Himself as being older than Abraham (Jn 8) in terms of existence. «Truly, truly, I say to you, before Abraham was, I am» (8,58). Jesus predates human ancestry. This is in keeping with the Logos Christology, according to which the Word (Logos) was in the beginning with God, and was God. He was in the beginning with God (Jn 1,1ff.). b) Often Jesus used the image of the light, with Himself as the Light of the World (Mt 4,16; Luk 2,32; Jn 1,5; 3,19-21; 8,12 etc.). This is a universal symbol. As the light of the world, Jesus would shine in all areas of the world. He would shine in the Bible and outside the Bible. He shone not only in the world of the Jewish Testament, but also in other regions, illuminating the way to God including the way in African Religion. c) Jesus likened Himself to and saw Himself as the Good Shepherd (Jn 10). This is a very powerful image, used of God in the Jewish Testament, e.g. the beloved Psal 23. Some of the African traditional names of God speak of Him as the Shepherd, the Keeper and Protector4. We ask: did the Good Shepherd take care of only the Biblical flock? Did God protect only the children of Israel? Is Jesus Christ not at work among the flocks of African Religion as well? d) Jesus specifically refers to His having “other sheep”, in John 10:16. Who are these other sheep and where are they scattered? Are some of them adherents of African Religion, who followed Him without knowing His Name? African Religion has paved the way for people to follow God as their Shepherd, and they continue to follow Jesus Christ the same way when they get to know His name. e) Jesus being One with the Father (Jn 10,38; 14,8-11) would mean, among other things, that knowing God is tantamount to knowing the Logos, even before the Logos becomes incarnate as Jesus. Is knowledge of God in African Religion pointing to the (hidden) presence of Jesus Christ? Cf. Luk 24,13-35, Jn 20,11-17, in which people encounter or refer to Him after His resurrection as Stranger, Visitor, Gardener, the unnamed Person. Could that not also be the case in which He (unnamed) accompanied people in their spiritual journey in African Religion? f) In Mt 8,10 f. and Luk 13,22-30, Jesus speaks about the eschatological meal in the Kingdom of God, at which there will be guests coming from every part of the world. Who are these guests and what qualifies them to participate at this festival meal of the Kingdom of God? Among them are persons from the First Testament, who did not name Jesus Christ, but had faith in God. If followers of African Religion have faith in the same God,

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will they be excluded because they did not name Jesus Christ? It is significant that Jesus brings in this item of His teaching in connection with the healing of the Roman centurion’s servant, at which He compliments the centurion on his strong faith. Similarly, Cornelius, another Roman believer in God is portrayed in exemplary terms in Acts 10. «Cornelius […] your prayers and your alms have ascended as a memorial before God». Peter goes on to name Jesus Christ for him. Many faithful believers in God in African Religion say also their prayers, which ascend to God. There are other relevant Biblical witnesses to Jesus in a cosmic or universal way. For example in Jn 1,1-5,14 as the Logos Jesus is identified with God in the creative activities and in His eternal existence. In Jn 4,42 He is named Saviour of the world. In African Religion, people commonly acknowledge the saving activities of God. Is that not ultimately the saving work of Jesus Christ, before giving Him that name? Paul calls Him the Supernatural Rock (1 Cor 10,1-4) that followed the liberated children of Israel when they left Egypt, and sustained them with spiritual food and drink. They were not aware of Christ’s presence; nevertheless, He accompanied them without their recognising Him as such. Many life situations and experiences in African Religion parallel those of these tribal peoples of the Bible. Did or does Christ also accompany the peoples of Africa, provide for them, and give them spiritual drink and food? As the Creator of all things, He cannot make Himself absolutely absent from people that He has created. We have not established that Jesus Christ is in African Religion. Nor have we established that He is not. Insofar as God is present in African Religion, we may venture to say that Jesus Christ is also present in and through God. But He is not named. His name is missing in all the richness of African Religion. But the name is also missing in all the religious richness of the Jewish Testament, even if the latter holds promises about Him. Many names, attributes and concepts of God in African Religion can also be applied to Jesus Christ5. Some missionaries are taking a considerable number of names of God out of traditional religion and applying them straight away to Jesus Christ6. Such a step is marvellous, but it may be premature and over-enthusiastic. Nevertheless, it raises the question of the role of Jesus Christ in Biblical and extra-Biblical revelation. In fostering values of personal and societal life, such as peace, justice, joy, harmony, love and the fight against evil; in celebrating fellowship and life over death; in cultivating spiritual activities like prayer, sacrifice, thanksgiving, praise, hope and trust; in practising kindness, helpfulness, justice, friendliness, healing and consolation – the people are walking the way of the Lord, the way of Salvation. Indeed, also in the sufferings, in the yearnings, in the struggles for survival, people lead the life that Jesus shared and gave Himself to save and change it.

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Nevertheless, in all this, African Religion did not name Jesus Christ. It did not, and could not produce Jesus Christ. It did not look forward to the Messiah, to the coming day of the Lord, to the end time associated with a promised Prince of Peace, the way we find such longing in the Jewish Bible. In a sense, Jesus is the incarnation of God’s promise and this promise seems to be a peculiarly Biblical feature. Nevertheless, while Jesus fits into the Biblical promise, so that we Christians see Him as the fulfilment of that promise, He also fits smoothly into the situation of African Religion as a highly welcome figure despite the fact that it did not promise or hope for such a figure. People do not find Him too strange to integrate Him into their religiosity and to find meaning in Him. The hitherto unseen and unnamed companion of their spiritual pilgrimage now reveals His Name. And African Religion has not found it difficult to accommodate that name and person of Jesus Christ. Indeed, His Name has become the powerful point around which the Church in Africa grows and grows. The Name of Jesus Christ has a promising Mission there. 3. JESUS CHRIST, MASTER OF INITIATION Jesus as Master of Initiation is a Christological concept put forward originally by two theologians. The first was Engelbert Mveng S.J., from Cameroon, who published his views in 19737. He was priest-theologian and artist, and taught at a theological seminary in Yaounde at the time of his murder (†1995). Mveng attests that, at the point of encounter with Jesus Christ, Africans look and hope for the fulfilment of their religious experience. Since life for them is a religious experience, they must (expect to) meet Jesus Christ at that level. He speaks with them a religious language, so that they can understand Him. Initiation rites unravel life and death, and equip the person for the struggle between the two. In the encounter with Jesus Christ, people consider Him as Master over life and death. In His life, teaching, miracles, passion, death and resurrection, they regard Him as the highest Master of Initiation. He is the One who knows the ultimate truth about the meaning of life and death, and the One who brings about the final victory of life over death. At the same time, Mveng emphasises that Jesus Christ is also the Son of man (generic use), who became one of us in every respect. He showed His victory over death already in concrete situations, in which He healed the sick, fed the poor, raised the dead, forgave sinners and finally, through His resurrection, conquered death. All this means that Jesus knows the whole way of life from birth to death and beyond, to the resurrection. He is qualified and entitled to take charge over life, as Master of initiation, so that He can lead us through initiation to

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mature life. The master of initiation, both woman and man, is a good and honest person, who knows as much about life as possible. Other people entrust their children to him/her, and he/she prepares the young people to enter life. He/she accompanies them in joy and sorrow, up to death if need be. The main initiation takes place in the time between childhood and adulthood. Young people are guided (initiated) into the mysteries and secrets of life; blood is used to seal the initiation. As Master of Initiation Jesus guides human life, since He has experienced what concerns persons. He directs us into the fullness of life, through the struggle between life and death. At the same time, He is our brother and accompanies us in order to heal our sickness, to feed the hungry, to raise the dead, and to forgive sins. We receive and welcome Him, with the riches of our culture, our art, our music, our dances, and the adornment from the wisdom of the ages. Anselme Titianma Sanon was born in Burkina Faso in 1937, where he is now bishop. As a youth he underwent the tribal initiation of the Bobo, his people. At the age of twelve he was baptised in the Roman Catholic Church. Out of his experience and later research he wrote a book relating African initiation to the Christian faith8. It is in this work where he elaborates his reflections on Jesus as the Master of Initiation. Sanon explains that to call Jesus Christ a Master of Initiation would mean two important designations. (a) That He is the oldest person who leads to the goal of life those other persons who are initiated and have reached ripeness of adulthood. (b) One cannot become Master of Initiation without oneself having been initiated. Jesus was initiated and He definitely has the experience of what initiation means. Sanon shows how different stages in the life of Jesus can be interpreted as initiation experiences. For example, His birth, circumcision, the presentation in the Temple, His baptism, Temptation, Death, Burial and Resurrection. Sanon takes Heb 10 as the kernel of his explanation, especially verse 14: «For by a single offering he has perfected for all time those who are sanctified». The sacrifice of Jesus on the Cross is the act of initiation for those who receive the fruits of salvation. In Heb 12,2 Jesus is rightly called the Pioneer and Perfector of our faith. Sanon singles out five sayings about Jesus that are relevant. (1) Jesus is the Son in the house of His father (Luk 2,49; Jn 8,35). (2) Jesus chose the initiation trial, obeying the Father and remaining in solidarity with persons. Therefore, He can sanctify and qualify them (Heb 2,10-11). (3) He is the elder brother, the first big brother of persons (Heb 2,9-18). (4) He underwent the testing in solidarity with His brothers and sisters; in order to make them genuine sons and daughters in the house of the Father, in the family fellowship. Jesus, the initiated one, is Master of Initiation who leads foreigners (strangers) and slaves home, and makes them brothers and sisters, cf. Mt 23,8-10. (5) This community formed around the crucifixion and resurrection, is and remains on the way of Initiation, the way of life.

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Sanon sees initiation realities in the secret (mystery) of the death, burial and resurrection of Jesus. These are three well-known phases in each initiation undertaking. He also considers the Kingdom of God to be an initiation mystery, that is revealed to the babies (Jn 13,7; Mt 11,2-27). As Master of initiation, Jesus gives us initiation symbols and values. These include love to God and neighbour, Prayer and Intercession, Mercy and Forgiveness, Obedience to God, the spirit of service and sharing, dedication of life for others even up to death. Jesus shows us the way, which He himself went. To be initiated means to enter the initiation of Jesus Christ and take part in His trials, testing and victorious life. There is no shortage of tests and hardships on this way. The Church is an initiation fellowship built around the Master of Initiation and finds life in Him. 4. JESU CHRIST AS “ANCESTOR” According to African Religion, death does not end a person’s existence. Life persists beyond death, and (within living memory) the departed continue to be regarded as members of the surviving family (community). There is a living relationship between the parties in both worlds. Furthermore, the departed acquire an additional status. They are often referred to as “ancestors”, though this is an inadequate term. Charles Nyamiti (Tanzania) highlights five characteristics about them: «Natural blood (or non-blood) relationship; supernatural status; mediation; exemplarity and title to regular sacred communication with the living relatives»9. Keeping this framework in mind, Nyamiti takes up the analogy of ancestorship and applies it to Jesus Christ in his book, Christ as our ancestor (1984), observing that «very few African writers have dealt with the subject on the Ancestorship of Christ». Being a speaker at this Missiological Congress, Nyamiti has opportunity to say more about his use of this title. In his book Nyamiti dwells at some length on the place, role and significance of the “ancestors” in traditional African life. He compares and contrasts “African Brother-Ancestorship” with “Christ’s relationship to us”, pointing out similarities and differences. He asserts that «Jesus became our Ancestor through the Incarnation at the moment of His conception in the womb of the Blessed Virgin. But like His Incarnation, His Ancestorship gradually grew and reached full maturity through His death and exaltation». Nyamiti points out that «Christ’s ancestral activity is mediative. [...] His mediation is far more profound and even totally different in some aspects from that of the African ancestors». His ancestorship «comprises His divine Sonship, humanity, redemptive activity, and our participation in the divine nature» (pp. 32f.). As Ancestor Jesus Christ fulfils a number of significant offices, including Redeeming, prophetic, pastoral, priestly and healing functions, as well as those of the Holy Spirit.

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Linking this form of Christ’s ancestorship to “traditional Christology”, Nyamiti says that he takes «the Trinity, Incarnation and the Chalcedonian formula [...] as points of departure». He defends his approach as (not replacing but) leading «to accentuation of Christological themes different from those stressed in traditional Christology», mentioning a long list of them. These include: «The relevance of the paschal mystery for the maturity of the being and activity of His Ancestorship. The ancestral and Trinitarian significance of the cross and resurrection of Christ. [...] His healing function as an office of his Ancestorship... The soteriological character of the Incarnation in the light of Christ’s Ancestorship. [...] His ancestral presence in the tabernacle»10. For Nyamiti «there is no doubt that the Brother-Ancestorship of Jesus Christ is a deep mystery that can be known to us through supernatural revelation alone. Of course, it is thanks to the African understanding of brother-ancestor that we have been enabled to discover it in the sources of revelation. But in spite of the African cultural elements used to expound and even formulate it, this mystery remains eminently Christian» (p. 85). In applying this approach to Christian life, Nyamiti sees a challenge posed by such a Christology. It «requires a Christian life that is primarily religious and secondarily secular. [...] Not any type of religiosity but that of Christ Himself, the divine Descendant of the Father and Brother-Ancestor of mankind: a religiosity of sonship [and daughtership] and friendship with God – one which is profoundly pneumatic, Christological and ecclesial» (p. 92). Nyamiti applies the notion of ancestorship also to those whom he calls «the heavenly saints who are without the natural (consanguineous or nonconsanguineous) relationship to the earthly citizens». He calls them also «our ancestors», but «analogically». There is «a supernatural brotherhood in Christ», they «enjoy a supernatural status or excellence that identifies them mystically with Christ, and is the basis of their quality as mediators between God and the living on earth, and of their title to sacred communication with the latter through the cult of dulia. Moreover, in virtue of their holiness the saints are exemplars or models of Christian perfection for the living»11. Nyamiti elaborates on the justification for «ancestral cult of dulia» which has to be «Christocentric, pneumatic and Trinity-centred» (p. 108). He asserts that «these considerations are apt to arouse more confidence, respect and love towards our heavenly relatives and are naturally conducive to a more frequent, more authentic and effective cult of dulia» (p. 120). It would seem for Charles Nyamiti, that the title of Jesus Christ as “our Ancestor” has wide ramifications. It is an active status, which extends to cover both traditional saints of the Church and African departed (ancestors) whose status and function do not contradict Christian practice. These theological expositions touch on the theme of the “communion of saints” which, in the African setting, takes on a living urgency.

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Another theologian, François Kabasélé (Democratic Republic of Congo) takes up the title “Ancestor” and adds other dimensions to the discussion. Starting with a cosmological assumption, Kabasélé places «the Ancestors» next to God «in the chain of beings». He applies the notion to Jesus Christ, with specific characteristics. «Christ came to give “life”» (Jn 17,2), in the way that the “ancestors” have given us life. Like with the departed, who continue to be with their living relatives, so Jesus Christ has promised to remain with us forever (Mt 28,20b). In parallel with kinship relationships, «Christ is the Ancestor in the sense of Elder Brother». He sets Himself up as our life’s example (Jn 13,15) and takes responsibility for our wrongs by «performing expiation for us» (Is 53,4-5; Heb 8-10). «Christ fits the category of Ancestor because, finally, he is the synthesis of all mediations (Heb 8)». Relating African “ancestors” to Christ, Kabasélé holds that while they «have no need to be painted over as “saints” to deserve our veneration. [...] The message of Christ has shown us that they, too, are in via, on the way of fulfilment. [...] Thus, we have proposed to retain the offering of libations to the Ancestors. Instead of simply replacing them with the Mass, we have decided to integrate them into the Eucharistic celebration, so that they may express that Jesus Christ is the fullness of being [...] and thereby proclaim that Jesus Christ is Lord, to the Glory of God the Father»12. 5. JESUS CHRIST AS HEALER One of the strongest attributes of God according to African Religion, is that God is the ultimate Healer of the sick, the Rescuer (Saviour) of those in danger, the Comforter of the downcast, the Conqueror of death, the Strength of the weak and the Dispenser of justice. There are attributive names of God pointing to these concepts. It is not difficult, therefore, for Christians to see Jesus Christ as Healer. This comes partly from the Gospels which often depict Jesus in His work of healing the sick, casting out unwanted spirits and even raising the dead. The wellbeing of African life is defined at times more by sickness than by good health, and this condition resembles very much that of the people among whom Jesus lived and worked. Furthermore, being one with God, Jesus shares the work of God in creating, upholding (sustaining), healing, and keeping persons alive. For these reasons, it is inevitable that the image of Jesus Christ as Healer would strike a prominent chord in Christian circles. The loudest message of the missionaries has been and continues to be that of presenting Jesus Christ as Saviour. This teaching that local Churches faithfully continue to spread, largely (and sometimes exclusively) confines the notion of Saviourhood to the spiritual and ethical levels, putting great emphasis on salvation from sin (and “eternal damnation”). However, while preaching Jesus Christ as Saviour, the African Independent Churches also

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portray Jesus as Healer. Their motto is said to be: «We are, because we heal!». They practise healing through prayer, laying on hands, dancing, anointing, bathing, in some cases a limited use of medicaments, and the casting out of unwanted spirits. All this they do in the Name of Jesus Christ, the divine Healer. Even in mission churches, Jesus Christ is regarded as Healer, and people often call upon Him in times of sickness or accident. For many, this is Christology in practice. “Sickness” in the African situation includes physical illnesses and diseases, spirit possession, childlessness, misfortunes, the effects of formal curses, failure in undertakings, unproductive animals and fields, family and work problems, “sin and guilt”, and so on. It has social, religious, physical and mystical dimensions, all of which have to be “healed”, to be “cleansed”. This means that, Jesus must have greater power to be able to heal and save from these conditions. He is seen and experienced as Healer of all kinds of sickness and health problems, not only in this life but also in the next after death. This concept of Jesus Christ as Healer is prominently projected onto the centre of worship in the Independent Churches’ movement. An abstract form of Christology seems to have little or no place in the Independent Churches. Their founders, as well as many of their members, are people who in most cases have experienced healing, or overcoming problems of their well being. This happens in and through the Name of Jesus Christ. They have encountered the power of the living Lord, through healing, exorcism, protection against sorcery and witchcraft, enabling the barren women to bear children, and giving peace and joy in life to the troubled hearts. Therefore, it is a foreign language to them when one talks about Jesus Christ as «light of light, very God of very God, being of one substance with the Father». What claim can individuals make upon such a philosophically and theologically “polished” Figure? Jesus Christ is Healer number one. It is at the sighing-and-healing level where the people encounter Him most intimately and personalise their relationship with Him. For many, it is in healing that He speaks their language, in the depths of their life. Therefore, the healing ministry of Jesus in the Gospels is very prominent in their Christology. For example, Jesus is introduced to the public at the beginning of Mark’s Gospel, in terms of His healing and dealing with troublesome spirits (Mk 1,21-35). «With authority he commands even the unclean spirits, and they obey Him». And at once His fame spread everywhere throughout all the surrounding region of Galilee. He commands the spirits to keep quiet and make their exit. He goes to Peter’s home and finds his mother-in-law sick with fever, lying down. He lifts her up by the hand, heals her, and transforms her into a ministering person who showers hospitality to the crowd that soon gathers in her house. Jesus’ fame spreads like lightning: Fame about healing and cleansing unclean spirits. Jesus is Healer – that is the word that goes round, that is the word that brings crowds to Him in the first case. That is the concrete

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work that directly helps and saves the majority of His followers, in addition to His teaching and proclamation. We only need to transfer this description about Jesus, from Galilee to an African village and it fits smoothly, beautifully. Jesus fits perfectly where there are hundreds who are sick and ailing in bed, people that are troubled by unclean spirits and witchcraft and sorcery, people that are lepers, cripples and AIDS patients, people that know famine, hunger and thirst. And here, the visit of Jesus changes lives as it did in Capernaum and Galilee at large. He heals, He drives out what troubles them, He comforts, He raises the dead, and He eats with them. He prays for them, with them and they pray to Him. He brings healing as the epitome of salvation, healing individuals and healing the community, giving life in this and the next world. This is the tangible Jesus, the Healer, Comforter, Exorcist, Companion of the sick and the troubled, and Giver of peace for the dying. It is also Jesus at prayer, performing spiritual exercises. This is Jesus in the Galilean context. This Christology suits African villages and homesteads. It is a Christology of the people in the family, in the fields, in their occupations and (for some) the struggle for survival. It is a Christology that is open to their cries and tears, to their joys and jubilation, to their fears and their hopes. It touches their bodies, their spirits and their social relations. It heals, its assures, it protects, it gives them life, and saves them in the broadest sense of the word. Since the Gospel scenes have close parallels to village scenes in Africa, the image of Jesus as Healer and Exorcist rings a very loud bell in rural life and translates readily in that situation. This Christology is easily and readily accessible: to the sick, to the needy, to the young, to women, to friends, to parents, to those who need Him. They can sing and dance it; they can pray it, they can relate to it in a personal way, because He works upon them for their wellbeing. They can identify personally with it. This healing Christology comes out in many of the hymns of the Independent Churches, in the sermons of their founders and leaders, as well as in personal testimonies of members. The hymns are created spontaneously, out of the depth of the heart and body. The Christians sing them everywhere, in private and in public especially at worship services. Many learn them by heart, since a large number is not able to read and write. The hymns, songs, sermons and testimonies depict different aspects of Jesus. He is mighty and powerful. He not only heals and exorcises, but He gives people hope and power to overcome the forces of evil, including witchcraft and Satan (the devil). Jesus Christ is holy and clean, therefore He cleanses (body and spirit), which means that He restores people to good health in the broad sense. Even when death strikes, people still look upon Jesus Christ as Healer: «He accompanies the dying, takes them to heaven [His home] and gives them peace and eternal life that is free from suffering, sickness and death. He heals even death».

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This Christology emphasises the paradoxical being of Jesus Christ as both divine and human. Indeed, this Christology tends to interchange God and Jesus Christ. He both heals (treats) people and cures them. On the human side He comes into the middle of their lives and becomes truly “one with us”. He knows our joys and sorrows, and speaks our human language. At the same time, He has divine power and people turn to Him for help, the way they turn(ed) to God in their traditional religion. The Holy Spirit works in and through Him to bring about the help that they seek. And there are countless reports of successful healings, exorcisms, and other forms of healing and restoration of wellbeing. If no healings would occur, the concerned Independent Churches would simply cease to be13. Most of them exist on the basis of conducting successful healings and exorcisms, and for that reason their membership continues to expand. Healing is to be understood in the wider context, to include pastoral care and accompanying of the concerned persons and families. The healing process may take weeks or months to come to the conclusion. In some cases, the Churches build and provide living quarters for the patients (and their relatives), where the Churches accompany the needy in the process of healing. They carry this out in the Name of God, following the example of Jesus Christ and in the power of the Holy Spirit. The healing work of Jesus may be concentrated upon but not confined to direct human condition. It has wider ramifications for the whole creation. Human life is interdependent with Nature itself. Wholeness cannot be achieved apart from the wholeness of Nature. African Religion was (is) conscious of Nature, and some of its practices have contributed to a mystical treatment of the environment with, for example, sacred groves, sacred spots on rivers, lakes and forests (shrubs) being set apart. Such places were (and some still are) safeguarded and protected from human exploitation. Some rituals are (were) performed to express this mystical attitude towards Nature, such as planting and harvesting rituals, fishing rituals, hunting rituals, and others in connection with extraction of traditional medicine, clearing of ground to make new fields or to build new homes, etc. With the coming of Western and secularised attitudes towards Nature, this traditional regard for sacred places, animals, birds, trees, grounds, etc. is getting lost and Nature is suffering many injuries. There is, nevertheless, at least one place where attempts are being made to heal some of the wounds inflicted upon Nature. This is in Zimbabwe where mainly Independent Churches and followers of African Religion are reforesting areas that had been made barren. In the late 1980s they formed the “African Earthkeeping Movement” which, reportedly, is making great success in healing the wounded earth. This has been described as «an extraordinary story of African initiative in mission [...] Working in ecumenical partnership with indigenous Christians [...] the Traditionalist tree planters, led by chiefs and spirit mediums, have revitalised ancestral rites to protect the natural world»14.

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A new dimension of Mission is called for, namely Mission to the earth itself. So far Mission has been directed towards persons and society. But persons do not exist in emptiness. Persons spring from the earth and their bodies return to the earth. Persons depend on the earth for existence. As the Logos of God, Jesus appeared in flesh in the context of the earth. Many of His parables and teachings drew lessons from the earth. The eschatological goal of His mission is the realisation of “a new heaven and new earth”. This was the vision that some of the Prophets saw, and the Book of Revelation reiterates it (cf. 21-22). It is in the new earth where the Kingdom of God, of which Jesus spoke so often, will be manifested in its full glory. The prayer that He taught us pleads for God’s will to be done on earth, as it is in heaven. What is the Christology of such Mission? How do we restructure our thinking and practice, so that the notion of God’s Mission includes Mission to our earth? For two thousand years we have done Mission to people. This is a very exclusive Theology of Mission, caring almost exclusively for “individuals” (only human souls). In the new Millennium let us endeavour to actualise God’s Mission to the whole earth with its multitudes of life, its waters and weather, its minerals, its mysteries, its beauty, its forces of Nature, its place in the Milky Galaxy and beyond. A big challenge is before us: namely to develop an appropriate Christology of the Earth, of the Universe. 6. JESUS CHRIST IN FEMINIST CHRISTOLOGY Up to now there has been no systematic articulation of Christology by African female theologians, though they show a lot of interest in Jesus Christ. Some have contributed reflections, which we take up. Yvette Aklé from Togo starts by pointing out that the woman is mother of Jesus Christ the Saviour, and that it is a woman who first preaches the Gospel (Jn 4,29). According to her Mina tradition in Togo, Jesus is not “a man”, because a man is an isolated person, cut off from the community. To speak of a man is to lower the meaning of that concept. In her context there is not “any or a man”, because everyone is related to someone else. When a person is coming to make a visit, you see behind him or her, the relationships that link you together as grandparents, grand children, older brothers, and sisters. The person greets you according to the appropriate relationship: e.g. as older father (ataga) or younger father (atavi). For that child, there is not “any or a man”. Jesus lived so closely to the people as one with them, to the point of being almost unknown to the public. When the soldiers went to arrest Him in the Garden of Gethsemane, Judas had to kiss Him in order for them to identify Him. Aklé sees Jesus as Brother, Father, Ancestor. As Brother He fulfils the role of priest, shepherd, prophet, and healer. She can say that Jesus is her brother, her older brother and she is His younger sister. She goes to His school; she

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obeys Him and places herself under Him. The notion of brother puts the two on the same level, without destroying the hierarchical relationship between younger and older brothers or sisters. In African society, it is often the case that people regard one another as belonging together, as brothers and sisters. Similarly, she considers Jesus as brother on the level of the community that He has gathered together. It is He who makes this brotherliness and sisterliness possible. The relation of brotherhood and fatherhood to Jesus is foremost. Aklé expounds on the notion of Jesus as Father in the sense of His being the original founder of the community. He is the Founding Ancestor as she calls Him15. Bibiana Tshibola, a Roman Catholic nun from the Democratic Republic of Congo, sees Jesus as incorporating all races and taking on the character of all. He is Master to whom she turns in all matters. She goes to His school, He teaches her constantly, and frees her from the concerns of what she should do and say. She knows that He is there at the right time, and she listens to Him in need. Her relationship to Jesus Christ is like that to her own mother. When she was young, her mother removed all hindrances out of the way and she did not need to worry. In the same way, Jesus removes hindrances and difficulties out of the way. She leaves everything to Him. Tshibola emphasises unity with Jesus. «It is His message», she says, «which makes Him one of us. He has stopped to be a Stranger. [...] He is for my community and me, one of ours, and we know that He happily wants to remain with us. When a stranger comes to our home village, he or she is received and welcomed; but it is the stranger who decides to remain or not. What concerns us is that we have received and welcomed Jesus; and we know that He is at home with us and will remain with us»16. Teresa M. Hinga in Kenya looks at Jesus Christ in terms of oppression and liberation, especially as these concern women in Africa. She highlights the colonial period in which «the prevailing image of Christ was that of Christ the conqueror. Jesus was the warrior King, in whose name and banner (the cross) new territories, both physical and spiritual, would be fought for, annexed and subjugated». She holds that in the name of such “a conquering Christ”, the missionaries attempted to erase the identity of the people. She calls this «the cultural and spiritual imperialism of the missionary endeavour (which) had some dire consequences». They thought «that they would be implementing the Gospel of Christ the liberator». Hinga puts these two missionary images of Christ together – the Conqueror and the Liberator – and concludes that: «The Christ of the missionary enterprise was, therefore, an ambivalent one. His encounter with Africans, including women, had ambiguous results». She goes on to consider three alternative Christological images. One is «the very popular conception of Jesus Christ as the personal saviour and personal friend of those who believe in Him». Under this image,

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people do not experience Jesus as One Who demands subjugation. Instead, He accepts them as they are. Consequently, «they have come to accept Jesus as the Friend of the lonely and healer of those who are sick, whether spiritually or physically». Hinga points out that some critics speak of a «privatisation of the person of Jesus to fit a highly subjective context». Others see this as a form of gross pretentiousness. Nevertheless, she says that «the image of Jesus as a personal friend has been one of the most popular among women, precisely because they need such a personal friend most». A second and «popular image of Christ is that which blends Christology with Pneumatology. Jesus is seen as the embodiment of the Spirit, the power of God, and the dispenser of the same to those who follow Him». It is especially in the Independent Churches where this image is particularly widespread. She says that: «The patrons of these movements are women, among other marginalized peoples». The power of the Spirit (of Christ) «is accentuated, women are peculiarly articulate and much less inhibited and muted than in established churches. In this “pneumatic Christology”, then, Christ becomes the voice of the voiceless, the power of the powerless». The «third face of Christ [...] is the conception of Christ as an iconoclastic prophet. Jesus stands out in Scripture as a critic of the status quo, particularly when it engenders social injustices and marginalization of some in society». Christ is «the champion of the cause of the voiceless, and the vindicator of the marginalized in society». Hinga advocates these three images of the Christ who is involved in the context of women’s search for emancipation. This results in «a figure who engenders hope in the oppressed by taking their [women’s] side, to give them confidence and courage to persevere. [...] Christ would also need to be on the side of the powerless, by giving them power and a voice to speak for themselves. [...] The Christ [...] who is actively concerned with the lot of victims of social injustice and the dismantling of unjust social structures. Christ would, therefore, be expected to be on the side of women as they fight for the dismantling of sexism in society»17. We can expect to hear more from women, about Jesus Christ as their liberator from a variety of oppressive structures and practices, in traditional African life, in the Church itself and in modern life18. This should apply not only in Africa but everywhere. The world needs an image of Jesus Christ as the women see and experience Him. For two thousand years we have had Christologies produced and expounded by male Christians. This image of Jesus is heavily coloured by males. We cannot deny that biologically Jesus was male and not female. But, like other human persons, there are female elements in Him, which have been neglected in the exclusively male Christologies. Jesus was more than just the physical appearance. He became human (both male and female) in order to relate to our humanness (maleness and femaleness).

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Traditional Christologies portray Him as though He were human minus femaleness. This will not do. It is a distortion. As long as this image does not incorporate the female elements of Jesus, it is incomplete and distorted. Women have equal rights to tell who Jesus is for them. After all, it is women (and not men!) who bore Jesus in their womb for nine months, before He was born. It is the women who nourished Him with milk from their breasts. It is the women who cuddled Him as a baby, close to their own bodies. It is women, who first saw Him after the resurrection, the firstborn from the dead. As such it is the women, who are much closer to Jesus physically, emotionally and spiritually, than are the male Christians. You women, our mothers and grandmothers, our sisters, wives and daughters, please tell us: «Who do you say, that Jesus is?». 7. JESUS CHRIST AS LIBERATOR In the early nineteen seventies, the title and notion of Jesus Christ as Liberator evolved rapidly, especially in southern Africa. The political, social and economic situation, under the umbrella of apartheid, called for such a figure in theological circles. This arose under the auspices of the liberation theology, which had come to southern Africa via North America, having been etched out in Latin America. It was seen as «a theology of the oppressed, by the oppressed, for the liberation of the oppressed»19. Jesus was seen as having been oppressed by the powers of His time, and therefore knowing the situation of the oppressed people in southern Africa. At the same time, He was the liberator of the oppressed. One theologian describes Jesus Christ «as a fighting God, not a passive God who allows a lie to rest unchallenged»20. Liberation would mean being set free from inner chains that have imprisoned the selves of the oppressed people, and outward enslavement in all areas of life brought about by the apartheid system. Seen against this background of apartheid, «the radically new factor is Jesus Christ who is the ethos of the new community». This generates the Christian ethic, which is «essentially an ethic of hope»21. Takatso Mofokeng says that the footprints of Jesus Christ could be seen in African struggle for liberation: He suffers with the oppressed – in their prison cells, in their dark torture chambers with blood spots on the walls, in unjust judgement passed upon them, and in their refugee camps. Africans are (were) driven to the Cross of Jesus and to God who hears the cry of the oppressed and is not God of the oppressor. Mofokeng sees Jesus as the Liberator continuing the Mission of God that started with the Exodus event. God comes down in Jesus to set free the oppressed, as He did at the time of the Exodus: «I have seen the affliction of my people who are in Egypt, and have heard their cry because of their taskmasters; I know their sufferings, and I have come down to deliver them” (Exodus 3,7,8). In the same way, Jesus engaged Himself in

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setting free the hungry, the poor, the blind, the sick, the lame and the dead. He continues this liberating work, and through Him, God enables the people to become active subjects of their own history – to see again, to hear again, to walk again, to have life in fullness. Just as God has raised Jesus through the resurrection, He will also raise the Church of Jesus Christ and grant it His Kingdom of justice, freedom and peace22. The ongoing Mission of Jesus Christ is one of liberating all peoples, both the oppressor and the oppressed, for the Kingdom of God, not only during the apartheid period, but ever more in the ongoing life of peoples and nations. Zephaniah Kameeta from Namibia sees the liberating face of Jesus within the historical setting of His life, and transports it to the (then) situation in southern Africa. Jesus Christ the liberator cannot be “the white Christ” who is born in government houses and would perpetuate the violent domination of the colonial settlers. Through His birth in the manger, Jesus proclaimed solidarity with the oppressed, because «there was no place for them in the inn» (Luk 2,7). That is (was) the daily experience of many Africans, being born under similar conditions. Through His Baptism, Jesus showed further solidarity with the “sinners” – the excluded, segregated, marginalized people. The temptation was an attempt to detract Jesus from this solidarity, but He did not yield. Jesus will set free both the oppressor and the oppressed. The death and resurrection broke up the chains of enslavement and brought freedom. Thereby God opened His glory and effected the salvation of the oppressed. Jesus Christ is the only hope, because He was oppressed and thrown out, in order to liberate the oppressed and the excluded. «He is the greatest revolutionary, that the world has ever known». Kameeta takes this Christological position further in a parody of Psal 133. He writes: «Behold, how fine and lovely it is, to be healed from the destructive sickness of racism and segregation, and as God’s people to live together in harmony. The Spirit of God will fill the hearts and thoughts of all persons. Nobody will be judged any more according to his or her race and skin colour. But all will be ruled in justice and righteousness. The war will be finished, and the whole people together will build the country again. Nobody will speak again about skin colour, because all will be God’s children, whom He has made in His image. And that will be the beginning of what the Lord has promised: namely, Life without end»23. That is a beautiful vision according to which Jesus Christ as Liberator brings all persons to life’s fullness. 8. CONCLUDING REMARKS There can be no final conclusion to Christology, as the Evangelist John came to perceive at the end of his Gospel account. He wrote: «But there are also many other things which Jesus did; were every one of them to be

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written, I suppose that the world itself could not contain the books that would be written» (21,25). We can only scratch the surface of what we, individually and collectively, think or say Jesus Christ is. He wears many faces – hidden in African religiosity, standing in the shadow as the ancestral figure of our origin and destiny, moving in our midst as the divine healer of our physical and spiritual infirmities, as the friend of the marginalised, as the liberator of the oppressed, as the exemplary of human life, as the one Who ultimately brings about a new earth and new heavens. We only catch glimpses of Jesus Christ, glimpses filtered through broken mirrors. These glimpses put many believers in touch with part but not the totality of Jesus Christ. Our mission presents Him only in part. African Christology is partial Christology, with many parts to it and other parts missing. It is in an open field with many possibilities to search for both traditional and new answers to the question of Jesus: «Who do you say, that I am?» 24. This question has occupied the attention of the Church for two thousand years, and it will no doubt continue to challenge the world for many more years to come. Jesus Christ is God’s enigma to the world, and cannot be erased from it, even with the best answers to His challenging question.

Select bibliography Y. AKLÉ, F. KABASÉLÉ, et al., Der Schwarze Christus, Basel and Freiburg 1986 / Chemins de la christologie africaine, Paris 1986. K. BEDIAKO, Jesus in African Culture, Accra (Ghana) 1992. Bibliography on: Christology in Africa, Asia-Pacific and Latin America, Aachen (Germany) 1990. TH.G. CHRISTENSEN, An African Tree of Life, Maryknoll, New York 1990. K.A. DICKSON, Theology in Africa, London 1984. J.D.K. EKEM, Priesthood in Context: A Study of Akan Traditional Priesthood in Dialogical Relation to the Priest-Christology of the Epistle to the Hebrews, Hamburg 1994. U.Ch. MANUS, Christ, the African King: New Testament Christology, Bern, Frankfurt, New York 1993. H. MBACHU, Cana and Calvary Revisited in the Fourth Gospel, Nairobi 1996. J.S. MBITI (ed.), Confessing Christ in Different Cultures, Geneva 1977. T.A. MOFOKENG, The Crucified among the Crossbearers, Kampen 1983. J.N.K. MUGAMBI, L. MAGESA (eds.), Jesus in African Christianity, Nairobi 1989. Ch. NYAMITI, Christ as our Ancestor, Gweru (Zimbabwe) 1984. M.A. ODUYOYE, Hearing and Knowing, Maryknoll, New York 1986. M.A. ODUYOYE, M.R.A. KANYORO (eds.), The Will To Arise, Maryknoll, New York 1992. J.S. POBEE (ed.), Exploring Afro-Christology, Bern, New York et al. 1992. P.A. POPE-LEVISON, J.R. LEVISON, Jesus in Global Contexts, Louisville KY, U.S.A. 1992. K.R. Ross, Here comes your King! Christ, Church and Nation in Malawi, Blantyre (Malawi) 1998. R.J. SCHREITER (ed.), Faces of Jesus in Africa, Maryknoll, New York 1991. Th. SUNDERMEIER (ed.), Christus, der Schwarze Befreier, Erlangen (Germany) 1973.

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E.B. UDOH, Guest Christology: an Interpretive View of the Christological Problem in Africa, Bern and New York 1988. G.F. VICEDOM (ed.), Christ and the Younger Churches, London 1972. P.N. WACHEGE, Jesus Christ our Muthamaki (Ideal Elder), Nairobi (Kenya) 1992. A. WESSELS, Images of Jesus, Grand Rapids, Michigan 1990. W.T. WIRSIY, VON, The Influence of African Traditional Religion on Biblical Christology, Ann Arbor, Michigan U.M.I., U.S.A. 1996.

Notes

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1

Cf. the story of my father Samuel Mutuvi Ngaangi, 1899-1993. In the same year that he was born, German missionaries of the Leipziger Mission established a mission station at Mulango, our home area, some 160 km (100 miles) east of what later became Nairobi, Kenya. The first baptisms took place in 1903, with four (?) candidates. My father was one of the earliest children to be schooled by the missionaries. By the time he died in 1993, the whole area (like much of Africa) had become predominantly Christian. What a tremendous change within his lifetime! 2 J.M. BAHEMUKA, “The Hidden Christ in African Traditional Religion”, in J.N.K. MUGAMBI, L. MAGESA (eds.), Jesus in African Christianity, Nairobi 1989, pp. 1-16. 3 J.S. MBITI, “Is Jesus Christ in African Religion?”, in J.S. POBEE (ed.), Exploring Afro-Christology, Bern-New York 1992, pp. 21-29. 4 For example, the Baganda call Him Ddunda = Shepherd, Pastor; the Tumbuka of Malawi call Him Cilera-balanda = Keeper or Guardian of Orphans; the Bemba of Zambia call Him Nafukatila = She who is as kind as the hen to her chicks, Protector; the Barundi call Him Rutunga = Protector; Rutungaboro = Protector of the poor; and the Ijaw of Nigeria call God Egbesu = Supreme Protector. 5 For example, among the: Akan (Ghana) Abommubuwafre = Consoler or Comforter who gives salvation), cf. Is 40,1; Mt 5,4; Jn 14,14-26; Ankore (Uganda): Mukameiguru = He who rules or reigns in the sky, cf. Numbers 24,19, Jer 30,21; Bamum (Cameroon): Njinyi or Nui = He who is everywhere, He who sees and hears everything, cf. Mt 28,20; Barundi (Burundi): Haragakiza and Harerimana = Saviour, Rutangaboro = Protector of the poor, Nyeninganyi = Powerful, Owner of all powers, cf. Mt 1, 21; 28,18; Lk 2,11; 3,6; Is 40,3-5; Bemba: Kashawaliko = He who was there before any other thing came into being or was born; Nafukatila = He who is ‘as kind as the Hen to her chicks’, Protector, cf. Jn 1,1 f., Mt 23,37; Chewa (Malawi): Mlezi and Wolera = Caretaker of Children, Mark 10:14; Ganda (Uganda): Mukama = Master, Ddunda = Pastor, Shepherd, Ssewaunaku = He who has pity on the poor and the suffering, cf. Jn 10:1-30, Mk 8,1-9, 10,46-52; Luo (Kenya): Hono = Worker of miracles, cf. Jn 2,1-11; Ruodh Ruodhi = King of kings, Nyakolaga = unlimited Power, Ngombe (Congo): Ebangala = the Beginner, Elimalima = the One who fills everything, cf. Jn 1,1-4,16, Eph 1,23; Ovimbundu (Angola): Usovoli = Beginner of all created things, cf. Jn 1,1-4; Shona (Zimbabwe): Mutangakugara = the One who existed in the beginning; Muwanikwa = the One who was just found to exist, the Eternal, cf. Jn 1,1-4; Is 41,4; Revelation 1,17;2,8;22,13; Tonga (Malawi, Zambia): Mtaski = Saviour, cf. Lk 2,11, Jn 4,42; Tumbuka (Malawi): Cilera-balanda = the Upkeeper or Guardian of Orphans, cf. Jn 14,18; Zulu (S. Africa) uSomoganiso = the Greatest of friends, cf. Jn 11,11; 15,13; Umvelinqangi = the One who created everything, cf. Jn 1,1-4. The sun is commonly used as a symbol of God, for example among the: Ankore (Uganda) Kazooba; Birifor (Ghana) We; Chagga (Tanzania) Ruwa; Chawi (Nigeria) Bawai (mba = father; wai = sun); Kipsigis (Kenya) Asis, Chebango; Konso (Ethiopia) Adota, and many others. Cf.

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For now we see in a mirror dimly. The emerging faces of Jesus Christ in Africa 163 Mal 3,20; Mt 17,2; Revelation 1,16; 21,23,24. For other names of God, see J.S. MBITI, Concepts of God In Africa, London 1978, pp. 325-336. 6 J. HEALEY, D. SYBERTZ, Towards an African narrative Theology, Nairobi 1996, pp. 80-92. The two American missionaries gathered 631 African names of God in 102 languages and 30 countries. They claim that 161 names «refer to God our Father […] 24 refer to God our Mother […] 219 refer to God the Son (Jesus Christ) […] 17 refer to God the Holy Spirit. […] Some names refer to more than one person». This raises questions like: How do we determine which names refer to which person of the Trinity? How can we speak in Trinitarian terms, when the concept is absent in African Religion? Further, some of the names on this list are merely Africanised from Christian teaching, e.g. “Risen Brother”, “One who intercedes for us” and “Great Healer of Eternal Life”. In this case, such names do not qualify as genuinely deriving from African Religion. Enthusiasm aside there is need for academic precaution. 7 “Study Encounter”, IX(1973)3, Geneva, pp. 3-5, later reproduced in T. SUNDERMEIER, (ed.), Zwischen Kultur und Politik, Hamburg 1978, pp. 78-81. 8 A.T. SANON, Entracine l’Évangile. initiations africaines et pédagogie de la foi, Paris 1982; ID., “Jesus, Master of Initiation”, in R.J. SCHREITER (ed.), Faces of Jesus in Africa, Maryknoll, New York 1991, pp. 85-102. 9 C. NYAMITI, Christ as our Ancestor, Gweru, Zimbabwe 1984, p. 103. Before that, he published two articles respectively in 1981 and 1982 in a local journal, “Service”, 5(1981) and 4-6(1982), Tabora, Tanzania. Nevertheless, he points out that there are other theologians who had or have used the same title. These include B. BUJO, Pour une éthique africanochristocentrique, in “Bulletin de Théologie africaine”, Kinshasa, 3(January-June 1981)5, pp. 41-52; and J. POBEE, Toward an African Theology, Nashville, USA., pp. 94, 98. Without elaborating, Pobee says only: «Our approach would be to look on Jesus as the Great and Greatest Ancestor – in Akan language Nana». See also F. KABASÉLÉ, “Christ as Ancestor and Elder Brother”, in R.J. SCHREITER, op. cit., pp. 116-127, whom we consider briefly below. 10 C. NYAMITI, op. cit., pp. 74 ff. 11 Ibidem, pp. 103 f. 12 F. KABASÉLÉ, op. cit., pp. 116-127. 13 See studies such as: K. APPIAH-KUBI, Man cures, God heals, New York 1981; H.J. BECKEN, Theologie der Heilung, das Heilen in den Afrikanischen Unabhängigen Kirchen in Südafrika, Hermannsburg, Germany 1972; M.L. DANEEL, Zionism and Faithhealing in Rhodesia, Leiden 1970; C. KOLIÉ, “Jesus as Healer?”, in R.J. SCHREITER, (ed.), op. cit., pp. 128 ff.; C.U. MANUS, et al. (eds.), Healing and exorcism: the nigerian exerience, Enugu, Nigeria 1992; M.-L. MARTIN, Kimbangu – An African Prophet and his Church, Oxford 1975; V.A. NWOSU (ed.), Prayer houses and Faith healing, Onitsha, Nigeria 1971; M. WEST, Bishops and Prophets in a black city, Cape Town 1975. 14 This remarkable movement is described in a fascinating way, by the man who was initially responsible for starting and directing it, M.L. DANEEL, African Earthkeepers, I: Interfaith Mission in Earth-care, Pretoria 1998. Quotation from the Preface by L.R. DANA, op. cit., p. xx. 15 Y. AKLÉ, et al., Chemin de la Christologie africaine, Paris 1986. Cited out of the German edition, Schwarze Christus, DER , Basel, Freiburg 1989, pp. 198 ff. 16 Ibidem. 17 T.M. HINGA, “Jesus Christ and the Liberation of Women in Africa”, in M.A. ODUYOYE, M.R.A. KANYORO, (eds.), The will to arise, Maryknoll, New York 1992, pp. 183-194. 18 See, for example: M. KANYORO, N. NJOROGE (eds.), Groaning in Faith: African women in the household of God, Nairobi 1996; M.A. ODUYOYE, M.R.A. KANYORO (eds.), op. cit. 19 B. MOORE (ed.), Black Theology, the South african voice, London 1973, p. ix.

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20 S. BIKO, S., in B. MOORE, op. cit., p. 43. 21 M. BUTHELEZI, in B. MOORE, op. cit., pp.

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147 ff., writing on Theological Grounds for an Ethic of Hope. 22 T.A. MOFOKENG, The Crucified among the crossbearers, Kampen, Holland 1983. 23 Z. KAMEETA, Gott in Schwarzen Gettos, Erlangen, Germany, 1983. Direct quotations are my own translation from the German into English, and they may not match word for word the original text of the author, which was not available to me at the time. 24 See the long list and short discussion of Christological paradigms in African Christianity, by J.N.K. MUGAMBI in J.N.K. MUGAMBI, L. MAGESA, op. cit., pp. 136-161. He names them as: Occupational, Cultural, Family, Genealogical, Theocentric, Cosmocentric, Eschatological, Biocentric, Ideological, Liturgical, Ritualistic, Ontological, Charismatic, Mystical, Aristocratic, Anthropocentric, Juridical, Homiletic, Therapeutic, Counselling, Normative, Ecclesiological, Pneumatological, Dialectical, Festive and Historic paradigms. Mugambi cautions that some are more appropriate or less relevant than others are.

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JUVÉNAL ILUNGA MUYA*

CRISTOLOGIE AFRICANE A PARTIRE DALL’ESPERIENZA DELLA RICONCILIAZIONE

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TERMINI DELLA PROBLEMATICA Dopo gli anni di discussione sulla possibilità di una teologia africana, negli ultimi decenni si è iniziato a riflettere su questioni concrete del cristianesimo in una prospettiva di inculturazione. Una di queste domande tocca proprio il centro del cristianesimo stesso, cioè la persona di Gesù e la sua comprensione nel contesto africano. Non si può dubitare dell’importanza di tale approccio. Si tratta di prendere sul serio l’esperienza religiosa africana come “luogo teologico” a partire dal quale il Cristo può essere incontrato e riconosciuto dagli africani. Mi sembra che il problema fondamentale sia quello del linguaggio: qual è il linguaggio adatto per dire l’esperienza di Dio dataci in Gesù in modo tale che l’africano si senta coinvolto da essa fin nelle profondità della sua anima e che Cristo diventi il criterio fondamentale del suo orientamento nell’esistenza. Si tratta quindi di interrogarsi sulla possibilità di evangelizzare in profondità le realtà africane e di comprendere il Vangelo a partire da esse. Un tale approccio presuppone che il carattere universale concreto dell’evento Gesù Cristo implichi che Egli si sia manifestato sotto altre figure, in altri luoghi e tempi. Certamente non intendiamo qui affermare che tutte le religioni sono l’espressione di un unico Logos. Ma è proprio dell’universale essere particolare1. L’universale concreto Gesù Cristo non potrebbe incarnarsi in altre singolarità religiose se non nella misura in cui queste portano già in sé la capacità di accoglierlo; cioè esse portano in sé qualcosa dell’evento Gesù Cristo e che le interpella dal di dentro. Rivelandosi come il Verbo che sta al Principio, al Centro e al Termine di tutto il creato, Gesù di Nazaret libera la sua persona da ogni particolarismo etnico. Quindi non è più proprietà privata di nessun gruppo o partito religioso, di nessuna cultura che può credersi capace di esprimerlo meglio degli altri, ma egli diventa il Principio universale che raduna e unisce tutti (LG 13; GS 10,1), mantenendo la diversità e la singolarità di ogni suo membro, anzi ridando a ciascuno la propria dignità e la vera identità. Questo richiede di pensare l’atto creativo di Dio come primo momento della volontà salvifica universale di Dio e quindi prima istanza rivelativa di Dio. Per cui è *

Pontificia Università Urbaniana.

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pensabile incontrare la sua rivelazione già all’interno delle religioni tradizionali africane. La cristologia va pensata in questa relazione tra rivelazione, creazione e salvezza. Posta tale premessa, diventa possibile leggere nell’incarnazione, morte e risurrezione di Cristo la sua solidarietà con tutto il creato. In lui avviene la ricapitolazione e il compimento della prima creazione-rivelazione. Egli è solidale con la condizione, con il destino degli uomini e dell’universo, condividendone le gioie e le sofferenze, dando la speranza di avere la vita in pienezza (GS 38,1; 22,2; 45,2; AA 8). Nella sua esperienza si rivela la profondità di Dio come amore che è pienezza di vita, dono gratuito e radicale. Perciò la questione cristologica si gioca ora intorno alla domanda di sapere come in Cristo viene offerta all’Africa la pienezza di vita. Quali orizzonti di vita apre l’incontro di vita con Gesù in un’Africa dove il male sembra esprimersi in tutta la sua radicalità? La risposta a tale domanda richiede di prendere sul serio il fatto che la situazione contemporanea dell’Africa è segnata dalla tensione tra tradizione e modernità, dalla conflittualità. E quindi la necessità di collocarsi nel solco delle tradizioni religiose africane per illuminare l’oggi. E senza dubbio una cristologia che scaturisce da un dialogo con le tradizioni religiose africane può avere un impatto missiologico e socio-politico di grande portata e ampiezza sul continente africano. Basti pensare alla ricezione del concetto di famiglia per la comprensione della Chiesa che è di non poca importanza dal punto di vista della missione2. Mi sembra che sia necessario che la riflessione ecclesiologica in corso vada fondata cristologicamente tenendo conto del fatto che l’Africa subsahariana contemporanea vive sotto il segno del conflitto a livello ecclesiale, sociale, politico e culturale. Questo esige una rilettura della cristologia partendo dalla soteriologia e più specificatamente dall’esperienza della riconciliazione offertaci da Dio in Cristo. L’annuncio di questo messaggio in Africa non può non considerare i riti religiosi africani tradizionali di riconciliazione come “luogo teologico”. Questo richiede un grande lavoro da parte di tutta la Chiesa in Africa e che tutta la catechesi sia orientata verso le realtà africane che hanno spesso la loro radice profonda nelle varie tradizioni religiose africane. Prima di tracciare alcune piste di sviluppo di una tale visione cristologica vogliamo innanzitutto precisare la prospettiva nella quale si colloca il nostro discorso, cioè Gesù il Cristo contemplato come “Proto-antenato”. Solo dopo potremo abbozzare qualche linea di questa cristologia che fa dell’esperienza di riconciliazione il suo fondamento. I. L’ORIZZONTE DEL PROTO-ANTENATO

NOSTRO APPROCCIO:

GESÙ

IL

CRISTO

QUALE NOSTRO

La domanda di Gesù: «La gente chi dice che sia il Figlio dell’uomo? […] Voi chi dite che io sia?» (Mt 16,13 e 15) non è rimasta senza risposta nel

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continente africano. È una domanda che tocca il cuore della nostra fede e nessuno non può non rispondervi. Ora ogni risposta è sempre contestualizzata, collocata nell’orizzonte culturale se essa è veramente risposta che emerge da una esperienza profonda di incontro. Così molti teologi africani si sono sentiti interpellati a trattare la questione cristologica dalle varie esperienze religiose tradizionali, specificamente dalla centralità della relazione con gli antenati. Presentarli tutti andrebbe aldilà dei limiti di questa relazione3. Mi limiterò qui solo a delineare la prospettiva dalla quale si possono capire i modelli cristologici sviluppati nel contesto africano, indicando alcuni limiti di essi e il tentativo di superarli nella cristologia del Proto-antenato. Tra questi modelli riterranno particolarmente la nostra attenzione i seguenti: Gesù come Capo, Maestro di iniziazione e Salvatore. La nostra prospettiva presuppone che tutti questi titoli si possano in qualche modo meglio capire partendo dalla centralità del concetto dell’antenato nell’esperienza religiosa africana. Infatti niente accade nella vita dell’africano senza che ci sia il riferimento all’esperienza degli antenati e degli anziani. Che si tratti della nascita, dell’iniziazione, dell’intronizzazione del Re e del giudizio sul suo modo di governare, dei riti di riconciliazione, della guarigione, del matrimonio o della sepoltura, niente avviene senza l’invocazione degli antenati. Però tale categoria va meglio precisata e va messa in evidenza la sua attualità fin d’ora nell’Africa contemporanea. I.1. La centralità della relazione con l’antenato nell’esperienza religiosa africana Il concetto di antenato come viene impiegato qui è da considerare come categoria teologica che rimanda alla centralità dell’esperienza degli antenati per il pensiero e l’agire dell’africano, che egli ne sia conscio o no. Non c’è dubbio che, al di là della mondializzazione e dell’omogeneizzazione degli universi culturali che essa porta con sé, i costumi e le credenze africani continuano a vivere nel sottofondo del sentire, pensare e agire dell’africano. La vita dell’africano si orienta in modo esplicito ed implicito a partire dai gesti, parole e riti ricevuti dagli antenati, cioè dalla attualizzazione della loro memoria. È solo in questa riattualizzazione della loro memoria che la vita diventa possibile e vivibile. Ma chi è l’antenato? Per una migliore comprensione di questa categoria è utile una breve presentazione della visione africana del mondo. Per l’africano, non esiste un mondo sacro da una parte e un mondo profano dall’altra. L’universo intero è il luogo dell’irruzione dell’Aldilà o del Divino. Si tratta di una visione unitaria dell’universo. Alla base di essa sta la credenza nell’interazione, intercompenetrazione tra mondo visibile ed invisibile. È la relazione che esiste tra questi due universi che spiega e fonda l’esistenza. La vita è il Sacro per eccellenza. Essa viene concepita come relazione, comunione con i viventi,

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coloro che non vivono più su questa terra (ma vi sono misticamente presenti) e i nascituri4. Perciò, nella sua vita così pure nella sua morte, l’uomo viene visto sempre come un nesso di relazione. Nella visione africana, l’uomo muore sempre all’interno della comunità e coloro che continuano a vivere sulla terra vivono in unione con i loro morti. Così la morte non è mai la fine di tutto. Essa è solo un passaggio da questo mondo all’altro mondo invisibile. I morti non sono quindi morti, ma continuano a vivere in un altro modo in relazione con il nostro mondo. Questo è un dato fondamentale della Weltanschauung africana. In questa visione, i defunti che si sono distinti durante la loro vita terrestre tramite le loro virtù, opere di bene ed opere eroiche, occupano un posto speciale. Essi sono gli antenati5. Siccome durante la loro vita terrena si sono sforzati, tramite le loro virtù e le loro opere di benevolenza, di rinforzare e fare crescere la vita all’interno della comunità, del clan, così continuano ad influenzare ora dall’aldilà la vita e il destino di coloro che vivono sulla terra. La loro posizione dopo la morte gli permette di giocare un ruolo tutto particolare nella vita della comunità tutt’intera. Tramite la sua morte, si suppone che l’antenato passi nel mondo dell’aldilà e di conseguenza goda di uno stato soprannaturale che gli consente effettivamente di poter intercedere ed intervenire negli avvenimenti della vita terrestre. Egli è in uno stato di maggiore vicinanza con l’Essere supremo. Tale stato soprannaturale gli concede il diritto di ricevere le preghiere ed i riti da parte dei suoi discendenti. Tra questi antenati occupa un posto particolare l’antenato fondatore, originario. Egli si interessa particolarmente dei discendenti e viene invocato in tutte le situazioni della vita. Egli è il protettore e mediatore della vita. Concretamente egli viene visto sempre in dipendenza da Dio che è il vero e sommo datore di vita. Solo in Dio si fonda l’essere antenato. Vista la distanza che esiste tra Dio e l’uomo, l’africano rimane molto discreto nel suo discorso su Dio. Egli è il totalmente Altro. Da qui la necessità della mediazione degli antenati, questi mediatori che ci hanno conosciuto e continuano a combattere al nostro fianco per il trionfo della vita. Come tale, l’antenato è la fonte ed il tesoro della tradizione e compie la funzione di mediatore fra Dio e gli uomini. Riferirsi agli antenati, avere degli antenati, permette all’uomo di inserirsi in un nesso di relazione che ha un passato, una memoria, una storia6 e diventare così capace di futuro. Riattualizzando le parole, i gesti e i riti degli antenati in modo anamnestico, i discendenti raccontano la biografia dei loro avi scrivendo così a loro volta la loro biografia personale. Certamente in una teologia che prende sul serio l’esperienza degli antenati diventa più comprensibile per l’africano l’esperienza di incontro con Gesù come fonte della vita intesa come comunione, ma l’applicazione di tale concetto a Cristo richiede alcune precisazioni.

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I.2. Dall’antenato al Proto-antenato Di fronte ai malintesi che ha suscitato il concetto di antenato, credo che un suo impiego teologico richieda una migliore precisazione in modo tale che salvaguardi sia la trascendenza che l’immanenza, ovvero la divinità e l’umanità di Gesù. Anche se la teologia occidentale non ha avuto paura di osare di applicare a Cristo titoli come “Orfeo”7 o ancora “Pantocrator”, comunque la teologia africana deve procedere molto attentamente e accuratamente per non ripetere errori del passato. Chi opera con la categoria “antenato” corre il rischio di cadere nel sospetto di mettere sullo stesso piano Gesù con i suoi antenati. Inoltre si sa che gli antenati diventano tali tramite le preghiere e i sacrifici dei loro discendenti. Lo si può dire di Gesù? Come egli potrebbe allora essere inserito in questo processo? Presso alcune tribù diventa antenato solo chi è stato sposato, ha avuto figli ed è morto vecchio e non di morte violenta8. Gesù però non era stato sposato, non aveva avuto figli, era morto giovane e di morte violenta. Tutto questo può rendere difficile l’uso di “antenato” come titolo cristologico. Quindi la necessità di chiarire la prospettiva di una felice ripresa teologica di questa categoria. Innanzitutto alcune annotazioni sui vari modi in cui tale categoria è stato impiegata fino adesso in cristologia. – In riguardo a Gesù Cristo come Capo Come abbiamo già sottolineato, nell’antropologia africana l’uomo non si può definire solo come un essere mondano o solo come un essere religioso. Egli è caratterizzato dalla sua mondanità e religiosità. Perciò non si può parlare di autonomia e teonomia nel senso occidentale. Questo vale pure per quanto riguarda la gestione della vita ordinaria. L’orizzonte nella quale essa viene vissuta è determinato esplicitamente o implicitamente dal riferimento all’esperienza degli antenati, dalla comunione tra i viventi, coloro che vivono nell’aldilà e i nascituri. Perciò il re o il capo della comunità può esercitare bene la sua funzione solo nella misura in cui sia in buone relazioni con gli antenati e il suo potere serva a rinforzare la comunione vitale. Egli deve fare da ponte tra la comunità degli antenati e i viventi sulla terra. La sua funzione non è solo mondana, ma anche religiosa. Quello che legittima il suo potere non è solo il consenso del popolo, ma soprattutto la continuità con la tradizione e il sostegno degli antenati. Nell’Africa subsahariana la religiosità è un elemento costitutivo dell’uomo ed ogni evento significativo della vita ha sempre un significato religioso che gli dà profondità. Certamente il ruolo del capo è di una importanza vitale all’interno delle comunità africane. Il capo non esercita soltanto una funzione politica, ma ha anche una autorità religiosa. Egli è incluso nella gerarchia della forza vitale che viene da Dio tramite gli antenati e che deve cercare con ogni mezzo di

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trasmettere e di proteggere. Questo vuole dire che la funzione del capo è quella di vegliare sulla vita della comunità, di fare del tutto affinché alla comunità sia assicurata la vita in abbondanza. Egli ha autorità e può richiamarsi all’autorità di Dio e degli antenati solo nella misura in cui garantisce la vita e la protegge. La forza del popolo viene simbolizzata dalla forza del capo solo nella misura in cui costui trasmette davvero la vita e la garantisce per tutti. Se egli non è capace di adempiere a questa funzione o si comporta in modo egoistico, viene visto come un traditore e perde ogni autorità sul popolo e deve essere dimesso. I suoi comandi non possono esser più considerati come ordini provenienti dagli antenati. Applicando questa categoria a Gesù9, è importante non perdere di vista l’orizzonte cristiano di comprensione dell’autorità. Gesù può esser chiamato Capo poiché egli è un capo che non si tira indietro di fronte alle difficoltà che attraversa il suo popolo, non lo può mai abbandonare; anzi in mezzo alle difficoltà egli si dimostra come il vero capo in quanto vero eroe che sta in prima fila e guida il suo popolo verso pascoli verdeggianti. Questo concetto intende quindi mettere in evidenza l’autodonazione di Gesù e servire da modello ad ogni comprensione di autorità. Al centro sta qui il dono di sé nel servizio attraverso tutta la vita di Gesù e che trova il suo punto culmine nella Croce da dove parte di nuovo la vita nella risurrezione. Così è chiaro il modo in cui Gesù è Capo in quanto buon pastore, nel quale è incarnata la forza vitale che viene dal Padre e alla quale tutti possono prendere parte e avere la vita in abbondanza. Però se il titolo di capo deve esser applicato a Cristo non occorre pure sottovalutare i pericoli che esso comporta. Innanzitutto, quando si pensa che molti capi africani vedono più il prestigio e l’autoritarismo come nota caratteristica del loro ufficio, una cristologia che partisse da Cristo come Capo potrebbe condurre ad una ecclesiologia trionfalistica nella quale viene dato poco spazio ai poveri di Yahvè, agli emarginati. Il compito di una cristologia di Cristo Capo è di rimandare alla kénosis e all’autorità come Diakonia10. Gesù diventa capo innanzitutto tramite la sua vita di solidarietà con i sofferenti, con gli emarginati e i poveri, vita che trova la sua espressione massima nella sua sofferenza e morte in Croce. La Croce come totale svuotamento, annientamento di se stesso è una radicale critica ad ogni abuso di potere da parte di ogni tipo di capo africano come per altro nel mondo intero. Gesù come Capo è simbolo di un richiamo forte al servizio e alla rinuncia ad ogni autoritarismo: il primo deve essere lo schiavo di tutti (Mc 10,42-44; Mt 20,25-27; Lc 22,25-26). Al titolo di Capo è connesso quello di Maestro di iniziazione. – Riguardo a Gesù Maestro di iniziazione Si tratta qui di partire nell’elaborazione cristologica dall’esperienza di attualizzazione del processo di iniziazione alla vita di adulti che si verifica

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presso varie culture africane. Il vantaggio del rito di iniziazione è che esso mette bene in evidenza la dialettica vita-morte-vita e quindi offre al cristianesimo la possibilità di una rilettura teologica in una prospettiva africana del rapporto del cristiano a Gesù morto e risorto. Infatti i riti di iniziazione simboleggiano la morte e la risurrezione, e servono a separare i giovani dall’infanzia e a farli entrare nella comunità degli adulti11. L’iniziazione introduce il giovane nella vita degli adulti. Durante il tempo di iniziazione i giovani sono sottoposti a varie dure prove che li fanno passare da un tipo di morte simbolico ad una vita nuova. Tutto questo avviene sotto la guida di un Maestro, il quale è lui stesso passato tramite la dura esperienza dell’iniziazione. Egli non è solo un Maestro, ma un fratello maggiore che mostra la strada verso la vita ai fratelli minori. Egli lo può fare solo nella misura in cui conserva gelosamente e fedelmente il tesoro delle tradizioni ricevute dagli anziani ed antenati. Qui troviamo un punto di aggancio per la cristologia, come dice la lettera agli Ebrei: «Era giusto che colui, per il quale e dal quale sono tutte le cose, volendo portare molti figli alla gloria, rendesse perfetto mediante la sofferenza il capo che guida alla salvezza» (Ebr 2,10). Gesù ha attraversato l’esperienza – eccetto nel peccato – del suo contesto e della sua società. Innanzitutto l’esperienza della nascita, della sofferenza e della morte. Ma in tutto si mostra solidale con l’umanità. L’incarnazione viene messa sotto prova nella sofferenza e conduce attraverso la morte ad una nuova vita. Questo significa che Gesù, attraverso la sua morte sulla croce e la sua risurrezione, trascende infinitamente i maestri tradizionali dell’iniziazione. Egli non è solo un Maestro o un Fratello, ma si identifica con le nostre esperienze quotidiane di iniziazione e attualizza la sua sofferenza e la sua morte sulla via verso la risurrezione. Questo segna la differenza con i maestri tradizionali i quali mostrano la via verso la maturità umana, però non camminano con gli iniziati sulla via della sofferenza e della morte. Nell’iniziazione Gesù si mostra come Signore e Servitore, il quale non permette che nessuno dei suoi fratelli e sorelle si perda. Egli solo può, sulla base della sua unità con il Padre, essere chiamato Maestro di iniziazione e nello stesso tempo Servitore. Quanto egli ci trasmette è la pienezza di vita che egli ha sperimentato nel Padre: «Come infatti il Padre ha la vita in se stesso, così ha concesso al Figlio di avere la vita in se stesso». Il Figlio, che riceve la vita dal Padre, ha la forza di attraversare la passione e la morte, rendendo la vita ai suoi. Tutto questo significa che in fondo il modello di Cristo Maestro di iniziazione rimane una pura gesuologia anche rimandando alla vita intradivina. Il Maestro tradizionale di iniziazione e fratello maggiore non è effettivamente in condizione di dare ai candidati all’iniziazione quello verso cui egli intende portare. Solo Gesù, innalzato nella gloria del suo Padre, può dare la pienezza di vita verso la quale tendono e aspirano tutte le generazioni di africani che si sottopongono al rito di iniziazione; da qui la necessità di pen-

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sare insieme la gesuologia e la cristologia. Perciò mi sembra che sia utile la categoria di “Proto-antenato” come viene formulata da Bénézet Bujo.

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I.3. Gesù il Cristo, nostro Proto-antenato La categoria di “Proto-antenato” vuole evitare le ambivalenze (ambiguità) che contengono le espressioni “antenato” e “antenato fondatore”. In riferimento alla teologia paolina del secondo Adamo (1 Cor 15,45s; Rm 5,12), l’espressione “Proto-antenato” rende chiaro il fatto che Gesù il Cristo non solo realizza in modo perfetto il vero ideale di vita degli antenati timorati di Dio, ma che egli trascende infinitamente nello stesso tempo questo ideale e lo porta a compimento12. Questo significa che nessun antenato può esser messo sullo stesso piano con Gesù Cristo. Egli è unico, egli sta all’inizio di ogni unione vitale e forza vitale13 in modo tale che solo in lui, il “Proto-antenato”, ci viene rivelato il senso vero dell’antenato e il vero modo di esser antenato. In Lui è tutta la pienezza, per lui Dio ha riconciliato tutto (Col 1,19-20). Egli è il capo non del corpo (Col 1,18; Ef 1,23), ma di tutta la creazione (Col 1,18). I nostri antenati sono quindi soltanto figure, riflessi, immagini del Proto-antenato. Ecco perché l’essere “antenato” di Gesù il Cristo va ben al di là di una fondazione puramente biologica nell’uomo Adamo. Da una prospettiva pasquale come delineata in San Paolo e Giovanni, Egli è Proto-antenato soprattutto perché Egli è per eccellenza il datore della vita (Gv 11,25-26; 6,3258; 10,10; 4,10; 14,6; 1 Gv 1,1-2) della quale gli antenati erano solo mediatori ed in più egli fa esplodere tutte le barriere economiche, razziali, tribali ed etniche (Col 3,11; Gal 3,28-29: con il rimando ad Abramo come antenato nostro nella fede) nelle quali il legame del sangue che ci lega all’antenato tende a rinchiuderci. Ora credendo in Lui abbiamo “la vita nel suo Nome” (Gv 20,31). Tutti coloro che credono in lui e fanno la volontà di suo Padre sono nati non dal sangue, né dalla volontà della carne o dalla volontà umana, ma da Dio. Cristo è quindi l’antenato al più alto livello. Il termine Proto aiuta quindi a caratterizzare questa continuità nella discontinuità tra Cristo e i nostri antenati. Infatti, Proto è da intendersi non solo nel senso di modello, di archetipo, ma pure di «Primizia di coloro che risuscitano dai morti» (1 Cor 15,20,23). Interpretato in questi termini, mi sembra che il concetto di Proto-antenato si collochi bene nella tradizione della Chiesa. Basti pensare a quanto dice l’antica “Omelia sul Sabato Santo” riportata nell’ufficio delle letture del Sabato Santo nella Liturgia delle Ore14 e a tutti i commenti dei Padri sulla discesa di Gesù negli Inferi. Gesù viene collocato, nell’omelia, nella linea degli antenati e la sua salvezza si estende fino ad essi. Ecco perché egli scese negli Inferi per liberarli dalla prigione della morte: «Dio è morto nella carne ed è sceso a scuotere

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il regno degli inferi. Certo egli va a cercare il primo padre […] Dio e il Figlio suo vanno a liberare dalle sofferenze Adamo ed Eva che si trovano in prigione […] Appena Adamo, il progenitore, lo vide […] [Cristo] lo scosse, dicendo: “Svegliati, tu che dormi, e risorgi dai morti, e Cristo ti illuminerà. Io sono il tuo Dio, che per te sono diventato tuo figlio”». Esiste una relazione di continuità-discontinuità sul modello di antenato tra Gesù il Cristo ed Adamo. Se Adamo è il suo antenato secondo la carne, Egli lo è eccellentemente per Adamo nel dono della vita ad Adamo. Risorgendo diventa primizia di tutti coloro che dormivano e perciò il modello per capire la primogenitura di Adamo. L’uomo non viene più capito da Adamo, ma da Cristo. Dalla fine, dal compimento, si capisce ora meglio l’inizio. Perciò solo quando gli antenati vengono contemplati nella luce di Cristo allora si può decidere quali siano veramente le qualità richieste per essere davvero antenato. Il “Proto-antenato” diventa così il “criterium absolutum” dell’essere antenato. Se Gesù in quanto “Proto-antenato” è la fonte di quella forza vitale che dinamizza gli antenati, allora i criteri negro-africani come quello dell’essere sposato, avere figli, esser anziano, morire di una buona morte, non sono più decisivi per esser antenato. Ciò può fondarsi pure sul fatto che Gesù ha comunque in modo decisivo aperto gli occhi ai ciechi, ha fatto camminare i paralitici, ha ridato la salute ai malati, ha dato ai suoi discepoli una grande forza vitale tramite la sua morte violenta, e tutto questo malgrado il fatto che egli sia stato senza figli, non sposato, giovane e morto tragicamente. Proprio ciò mostra che Gesù corregge anche la tradizione e diventa speranza per tutti gli emarginati dalla tradizione tribale negro-africana. Egli manifesta cosa significa la vita in abbondanza. Quanto egli realizza non è stato mai realizzato da nessuno antenato. Quindi solo lui è davvero il Proto-antenato. In lui l’ideale di antenato viene portato alla sua pienezza e alla sua compiutezza15. Chiamare Gesù il Proto-antenato significa aprire le nostre tradizioni africane all’Universale, poiché se in esse ci sono delle virtù, occorre pure riconoscere che vi sono delle strutture di peccato. Non si tratta di ricadere nei peccati dei nostri Padri, ma di cogliere la profondità della rivelazione di Dio nella nostra storia. Infatti, ciò che è decisivo è che «dopo avere parlato in vari modi ai nostri antenati, in questi giorni, Dio ci parla per mezzo del Figlio suo che Egli ha costituito come nostro Proto-antenato». Non si tratta di una semplice teoria, ma di un’esperienza capace di rivoluzionare il modo di pensare e di agire dell’africano. Infatti, nel contesto di una cristologia che pone al suo centro l’esperienza del Proto-antenato si apre pure una prospettiva soteriologica capace di illuminare la situazione dell’Africa subsahariana contemporanea. Una tale soteriologia prende sul serio la funzione sanatrice e mediatrice del Proto-antenato nelle situazioni di conflitto. In lui Dio ha riconciliato il mondo con se stesso. Egli è la nostra riconciliazione.

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II. LA RICONCILIAZIONE NOSTRA MEDIANTE IL SUO SANGUE

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Vista la situazione conflittuale in cui si trova l’Africa contemporanea, mi sembra che sia di un’importanza capitale riscoprire il senso della salvezza offertaci in Gesù Cristo, il Proto-antenato, come riconciliazione, relazione giusta con l’alterità. Abbiamo già accenato alla visione africana dell’uomo determinata dalla categoria di relazione. Questa è capita in un senso tridimensionale come relazione ai viventi sulla natura, a coloro che vivono nell’aldilà e ai nascituri. La vita stessa, che è il bene per eccellenza, veniva concepita come comunione o meglio come relazione. È quindi nell’ambito della relazione che va collocata la soteriologia cristiana nel contesto africano. Cercheremo di esplicitarlo spiegando in un primo momento la visione africana del male ed in un secondo momento coglieremo alcune coordinate per pensare in un tale contesto la salvezza come riconciliazione. II.1. Annotazioni sul concetto africano di male16 Riguardo alla visione africana del male, potremo dire in sintesi che per il muntu il male viene dalla cattiva volontà dell’uomo. L’uomo è l’unico responsabile del male di cui soffre l’umanità. Per i bantu, il male, siano le malattie, le calamità, la morte e ogni altro tipo, ha la sua origine nell’uomo17. L’uomo ne è la causa: quando egli abusa delle proprie forze o sfrutta le forze della natura a svantaggio dei propri interessi e di quelli della comunità (l’egoismo dell’uomo); quando egli attira su di sé o sui suoi simili la collera dei defunti, principalmente degli antenati, trascurando gli obblighi e i doveri sacri nei loro confronti; tramite la stregoneria; tramite una condotta sregolata che provoca la collera del Maestro della vita, il quale punisce mandando il fulmine, il diluvio, la fame, le epidemie, o ancora la siccità. Il male viene quindi visto in una prospettiva fondamentalemente antropobiologica. Tra il male fisico e il male morale viene stabilita una relazione di causa ed effetto18. Per spiegarsi il male fisico, l’africano tende sempre ad andare al di là delle cause fisiche o fisiologiche per trovare una spiegazione morale. Le conseguenze del male morale spiegano pure la presenza del male nel cosmo e nella società in base al legame che esiste tra gli elementi del cosmo e la responsabilità collettiva. L’uomo può salvarsi dal male mediante una condotta irreprensibile, adempiendo i suoi obblighi, neutralizzando così le forze cattive, gelose e vendicative19. Il cammino per uscire dalla catena del male parte dalla volontà dell’uomo che deve compiere alcuni riti per riconciliarsi con l’altro, che può essere l’altro uomo, la società, la natura, gli antenati o l’Altro in assoluto cioè l’Essere supremo. Perciò se il male, per i bantu, è quello che distrugge la vita e l’uomo ne è responsabile, esso è male non perché offende Dio, ma perché distrugge la vita comunitaria e individuale e solo per via in-

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diretta tocca Dio. Non esiste in questo contesto la categoria del “coram Deo”, del dinnanzi a Dio, come viene sviluppata nella teologia giudeo-cristiana e nella filosofia come quella di Paul Ricoeur20. Una tale categoria si capisce bene nel contesto di alleanza, dove il male commesso dall’uomo viene sperimentato come infedeltà all’Alleanza e quindi come offesa a Dio. Per i bantu, Dio è talmente lontano che l’uomo non lo può offendere21. Infatti, nel suo linguaggio, il muntu non dice di aver offeso Dio o di esser stato infedele all’alleanza, ma il male viene concepito come qualcosa che reca danno innanzitutto alla società e quindi all’individuo in quanto distrugge la vita22. Si capisce che in un tale contesto sarà difficile parlare di salvezza in termini di “satisfactio vicaria” all’anselmiana. All’origine del male sta l’uomo in quanto capace di distruggere la comunione con gli antenati, con i suoi simili, con gli spiriti e con la natura. Se Dio è toccato è solo per via indiretta in quanto Creatore dell’uomo e di tutto il cosmo. Commettendo il male, per i bantu, non è che l’uomo offende Dio, ma distrugge la società e la natura e deve riconciliarsi con esse. Non si tratta tanto di idolatria e neppure di mancanza di sottomissione a Dio, ma esclusivamente di crimine contro il prossimo, contro la sua vita, i suoi beni, o contro la società e la natura. Se Dio punisce i malfattori, non è perché è offeso, ma lo fa in quanto giudice e arbitro supremo: un giudice non è in quanto tale offeso da colui che egli giudica. Dio interviene nella vita solo per punire e correggere, fare ritornare gli uomini sulla retta via, egli non è mai all’origine del male. L’uomo è responsabile del male. Va però notato che questo non significa che l’uomo è visto come un essere fondamentalemente cattivo come lo si poteva dedurre da un certo “complesso di colpevolezza” che scaturisce da una certa interpretazione del peccato originale23. Eccetto il caso dell’uomo nato stregone, in genere l’uomo africano non ha la coscienza di esser nato nel peccato (Salm 51,7), ma soltanto di “potere essere con il male”. Il male viene visto come una “esteriorità”24. Trattandosi del male commesso si incontrerà spesso l’espressione “ha ceduto al suo cuore”, “il cuore lo ha ingannato”. Il cuore viene concepito come una potenza superiore all’Io anche se è dentro dell’Io. Non si tratta in nessun modo di cancellare la responsabilità dell’individuo, ma di un modo di esprimere l’idea secondo la quale il male invade l’uomo come proveniendo dall’esterno. L’uomo che cede al suo cuore è sempre nello stesso tempo colpevole e innocente. Egli non è mai l’unico responsabile del suo male, vi concorrono l’inospitalità del cosmo, la malizia di altri uomini e il proprio cuore. È un modo di esprimere la problematica della complessità della libertà umana25. Il cuore sta ad indicare il modello speculativo che ricapitola tutta questa esteriorità complice e che fa che per i bantu il male viene giudicato dai suoi effetti negativi nella società e sugli altri uomini, cioè nella sua oggettività. In questa prospettiva si capisce che il male per eccellenza sia la stregoneria26. In senso stretto, la stregoneria può definirsi come una magia male-

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fica per nuocere gli altri. In senso largo, ogni crimine viene collocato nell’ambito della stregoneria: omicidio, furto, adulterio, ecc. Nella vita quotidiana, le sofferenze degli uomini e delle donne vengono attribuite agli stregoni che sono considerati come i nemici della vita e della prosperità degli altri27. Si potrebbe dire che la categoria dello stregone è un modello speculativo per spiegare l’“assurdità” della morte e della presenza del male nel mondo. La morte, la sofferenza, il male, non provengono da Dio, quindi vengono da alcuni essere umani particolarmente cattivi, gli stregoni. Sono uomini o donne che non sanno controllare la loro gelosia, avidità, cupidigia, invidia e odio nei confronti degli altri. Lo stregone è colui che non è contento che pure gli altri possano esser felici e tramite una concorrenza sleale, una gelosia micidiale, bugie e manipolazioni di ogni tipo cerca di distruggere le energie vitali degli altri. È in questo senso che si sentirà spesso dire nell’Africa subsahariana: «Questo uomo o questa donna ha mangiato mio figlio o mia figlia»28. Questo significa che la vita si regge sulla qualità delle nostre relazioni. La nostra salute ne dipende fondamentalmente. Se la qualità delle nostre relazioni è determinante per la salute, occorre dire che la relazione non si limita solo al livello terreno, ma va oltre. La malattia può avere pure una sua causa nel non avere preso ben cura dei nostri parenti o famigliari defunti, nell’avere trascurato la loro memoria, l’obbligo della memoria. Se quindi il male è tutto quello che distrugge la vita e se la vita è fondamentalmente comunione, occorre dire che la salvezza si colloca a livello della qualità delle nostre relazioni. La relazione diventa perciò una categoria cristologico-soteriologica fondante. La si può esplicitare tramite l’esperienza della malattia e della guarigione. II. 2. L’esperienza della malattia e della guarigione riferita a Gesù come Salvatore La guarigione è una dimensione fondamentale della religione tradizionale. Qui viene di nuovo accentuata l’importanza della relazione o meglio della comunità. La comunità include tanto quella visibile quanto quella invisibile. Riferito alla guarigione, questo significa che una malattia non concerne soltanto un individuo in quanto individuo; essa non deve neppure essere considerata soltanto nella sua dimensione psicosomatica, ma essa include molto di più: la dimensione socio-comunitaria e religiosa dell’uomo. Con l’aspetto socio-comunitario non si vuole solo rimandare a questo mondo nostro terreno, ma pure all’aldilà. Con una parola si può dire che, nella visione africana, la malattia e la guarigione sono in fondo considerate nella dimensione socio-teo-psicosomatica. Una malattia è spesso un invito ad esaminare le nostre relazioni con gli altri e con Dio: una malatia può essere un rimando al fatto che le nostre relazioni con altri e con Dio sono state perturbate. Perciò la guarigione deve prendere questo elemento seriamente in considerazione. Non c’è buona salute senza buone relazioni. È questa via

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che infatti seguono i guaritori tradizionali. Nell’Africa contemporanea, le Chiese indipendenti sfruttano molto questo processo di guarigione29. Qui tutto avviene nel Nome di Gesù. Vista la funzione centrale del guaritore in Africa, alcuni teologi si sono chiesti se non si trova qui un punto di aggancio per una cristologia. Così sarebbe legittimo e possibile dare a Cristo pure il titolo di guaritore. È cosa risaputa che le guarigioni giocano un ruolo importante e centrale nell’annuncio di Gesù. Anche lui ha considerato l’uomo nella sua dimensione psicosomatica e teo-somatica. La guarigione sta in relazione con la fede (cf. per esempio Mc 5,21-34), e qualche volta vengono prima rimessi i peccati e poi segue la guarigione (cf. Lc 5,26). Questo vuole dire che la guarigione deve avere una dimensione olistica e mira innanzitutto al ristabilimento di una relazione giusta con Dio, l’altro uomo, la comunità e il cosmo intero. Infatti, è una costante nelle guarigioni operate da Gesù che Egli rimandi alla dimensione invisibile e riabiliti, reinserisca l’ammalato nella società, cioè ridia dignità alle persone emarginate e che soffrono della discriminazione30. Il suo agire mira a ristabilire relazioni giuste e sane. In questo processo va notato come, in modo molto più profondo di quello dei guaritori tradizionali, Gesù si identifica con le persone ammalate che si affidano a lui. Tramite la sua incarnazione, egli ha preso su di sé la nostra fragilità, debolezza. Egli si è svuotato, annientato per darci la salute totale e la gloria, per divinizzarci, per porci in relazione di comunione intima con Dio. Così visto, il negro-africano non ha difficoltà a cogliere l’interpellazione di Paolo: «Lasciatevi riconciliare con Dio. Colui che non aveva conosciuto peccato, Dio lo trattò da peccato in nostro favore, perché noi potessimo diventare per mezzo di lui giustizia di Dio» (2 Cor 5, 20-21). Gesù è il primo iniziato, il quale ha attraversato la sofferenza e la morte e quindi ha fatto sulla propria pelle l’esperienza della nostra fragilità e così è stato fatto dal Padre il Guaritore delle nostre infermità, il Riconciliatore per eccellenza in quanto l’unico che ci abilita a porre un nuovo inizio nel dono o nell’accoglienza del dono del perdono. Nell’odierna situazione dell’Africa, il senso profondo del Cristianesimo sarà di un’importanza capitale nella misura in cui aiuterà gli africani a confrontarsi con il mistero della morte e della sofferenza. Che Gesù Cristo sia Salvatore e Guaritore, Messia e Riconciliatore, non deve essere interpretato solo a livello spirituale, ma il Negro-africano lo vuole sperimentare in modo olistico, cioè l’opera salvifica di Gesù deve permettere all’uomo africano di riconquistare la sua dignità nel contesto sociale e fare emergere una nuova società. Gesù verrà così sperimentato come Salvatore che libera da ogni male, quando la Chiesa non si accontenterà di fare solo la pastorale della confessione – che è pure importante – e della preghiera carismatica, ma si impegnerà con determinazione nella lotta contro le malattie tropicali e altri tipi di malattie, quando essa saprà scendere nelle carceri per accompagnare ed educare quelli che hanno perso la libertà e la dignità umana. Detto bre-

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vemente, quando saprà impegnarsi contro l’ingiustizia e ogni forma di sfruttamento e alienamento dell’uomo. Solo così, essa saprà presentare Cristo crocifisso come il Medico che ci guarisce da tutte le nostre ferite. Tocchiamo qui la prospettiva di fondo che orienta questa riflessione: Gesù Cristo il Proto-antenato quale nostro Salvatore, cioè colui che ridà dignità all’uomo africano, ricreando nuove relazioni e aprendo nuovi orizzonti di vita. Egli è la nostra riconciliazione. Infatti, «piacque a Dio […] per mezzo di Lui riconciliare a sé tutte le cose» (Col 1,20)31. Una rilettura africana della soteriologia a partire dalla funzione riconciliatrice di Gesù il Cristo, Proto-antenato, richiede una presa in considerazione della problematica dei riti africani di riconciliazione per l’importanza che hanno nei processi di guarigione.

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II.3. La mediazione dei riti di riconciliazione L’arte del medico consiste innanzitutto nell’individuare nel contesto delle relazioni tutto quello che potrebbe avere contribuito a diminuire le forze vitali e tramite riti di riconciliazione riportare pace e serenità nei cuori, prima condizione di ogni guarigione. Uno dei componenti importanti di questo processo di guarigione è la “palabre” (“colloquio”, conversazione), cioè il colloquio che si cerca di stabilire tra i vari membri della comunità visibile e invisibile. La parola nel contesto della palabre e dei riti di riconciliazione manifesta la sua forza sanatrice. Se il male consiste in tutto quello che distrugge la vita e la vita è essenzialmente relazione, la parola è il luogo dove si dà la vita o la morte. Gestire la parola diventa fondamentale per la vita. È questa esperienza che è in gioco nell’esperienza della “palabre”. Il termine “palabre” viene dallo spagnolo e vuole dire “parola”, usato in francese rimanda ad un’esperienza africana, cioè al modo in cui la parola entra nel processo di significazione della storia di un soggetto o di un gruppo sociale: come intendere la parola come una realtà che contiene più che delle parole? Come evitare di lasciarsi prendere dal gioco di parole e come cogliere la vera realtà che è contenuta nella parola? Nell’Africa nera, la palabre ha essenzialmente a che fare con la funzione della parola nella sua dimensione comunitaria ed esistono vari tipi di palabre32: al livello della famiglia, del clan o del villaggio; ma tutti questi contesti rimandano al contesto della famiglia e il modo di procedere è sempre lo stesso. Qui il nostro interesse va innanzitutto verso quel tipo di palabre che si potrebbe definire come «la riduzione di un conflitto tramite il linguaggio, un cancellare umanamente la violenza per mezzo della discussione»33. Nella palabre è infatti tutta la società stessa che si mette in cammino, interroga le proprie referenze (punti di riferimento), prende distanza e tenta di entrare in un dialogo ininterrotto con se stesso e con l’Altro da sé34. Essa lo può fare solo perché la palabre articola la parola come una parola “data ad un altro”, “indirizzata a”. Questa donazione esige dal donatore una messa in forma che è anche un’articolazione del senso.

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La palabre mette in gioco una dimensione fondamentale della parola: la sua creatività. La parola è capace di produrre la salvezza o di distruggere, può edificare la comunione o distruggerla. Essa è qualcosa di efficace e di dinamico35. La funzione della palabre consiste infatti nel vigilare affinché una parola detta nella comunità sia produttrice di vita e non di morte. Nella logica della palabre tutti hanno diritto alla parola. In questo senso la palabre garantisce l’uguaglianza e l’accesso di tutti alla parola in vista dell’edificazione della comunità. La decisione finale alla quale si giunge al termine di un processo di palabre è frutto non di un compromesso o di una votazione secondo il principio della maggioranza, ma di un solido consenso tra tutti i membri e che permette di intravedere la via da percorrere insieme. L’esperienza fondamentale che sta alla radice della palabre è quella di comunione. La comunione esige un prendere in considerazione tutti i membri della comunità in quanto soggetti parlanti. La comunione è vera solo quando la comunità promuove e garantisce la libertà di ciascuno dei suoi membri e quando ogni membro è conscio di essere libero solo nella relazione con la comunità. Il riferimento alla comunità è fondante per la libertà stessa dell’individuo. La palabre è quindi un processo dinamico la cui dinamicità è fondata sulla capacità dei singoli di portare avanti nuove esperienze che arricchiscono la comunità36. L’esperienza personale contiene sempre una dimensione comunitaria. Ogni esperienza è in relazione con la parola, ma è sempre all’interno della comunità che la parola manifesta la sua trasparenza e capacità creatrice di vita. Ecco perché il luogo della parola e di verifica di ogni esperienza è la comunità, cioè il contesto della relazione con l’alterità37. In questa prospettiva, l’individuo non è il criterio ultimo di riferimento, ma egli sta nella relazione con la comunità. È questa relazione che fonda l’individuo come soggetto. La salvezza non è mai un fatto privato. Essa ci coinvolge sempre all’interno della comunità e mira al ristabilimento di una comunione più profonda. I riti di riconciliazione hanno proprio come scopo quello di mettere in evidenza questa dimensione comunitaria della salvezza e di ristabilire relazioni giuste e salutari per tutti. Se il male consiste nella distruzione della vita, occorre dire che in Africa la questione della salvezza si gioca in tutto quello che può contribuire a restaurare la vita, a ridare a chi è stato ferito nei suoi diritti, la sua dignità38. Tale restaurazione passa attraverso i riti di riconciliazione, che nella maggiore parte dei casi includono confessioni delle proprie colpe (accompagnate da gesti di pentimenti: bagnarsi, lavarsi, sputare, vomitare: gesti che identificano la colpa con la sporcizia). È nel contesto della parola che avviene il male, la salvezza pure si colloca nel contesto della parola. La confessione delle proprie colpe viene concepita come un distaccarsi dalla propria colpa ed un impegnarsi nella parola a fare avvenire atti che edificano la vita. Perciò ad uno che confessa la propria colpa deve essere

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concesso, secondo la concezione africana, il perdono. Il concetto di base è che non c’è colpa che non sia perdonabile. Il perdono delle colpe commesse contro la società si ottiene tramite la confessione pubblica della propria colpevolezza e l’adempimento delle pratiche di risarcimento prescritte dagli antenati o dagli anziani (una multa, un sacrificio, la restituzione dei beni rubati…). Dopo che il rito di riconciliazione è adempiuto e l’uomo ha riparato al male commesso, il perdono è totale e la vita riparte di nuovo39. Avviene un nuovo inizio. Il concetto kikongo di “manianga” che esprime l’idea di riconciliazione rimanda al fatto che tramite la riconciliazione avviene una ricomposizione, un raddrizzamento dell’amore, della comunione e una reintegrazione totale senza nessun risentimento verso il colpevole da parte della comunità. Nella maggioranza dei casi, le formule di riconciliazione insistono sulla generosità del perdono e il suo carattere irrevocabile40. Il fatto che il colpevole si presenti in umiltà di fronte alla parte offesa è un segno di pentimento. Dal momento in cui il colpevole confessa la propria colpa e mostra la sua disponibilità a riparare i danni recati alla parte offesa, il conflitto viene completamente risolto e restaurata la pace. Le formule e i riti tendono ad annientare i germi di morte nel colpevole e porre in lui i germi di vita e di benedizione. In altre parole dal momento in cui avviene la riconciliazione cambia la situazione del penitente, che ora si trova rinnovata, normalizzata, migliorata. Non si tratta di una purificazione magica, ma di una relazione personale, di un sollievo, di un acquietamento, di una riconciliazione non solo tra le due persone in causa, ma tra il colpevole e Dio, gli antenati e tutti i membri del clan. La riconciliazione intesa come pacificazione rimanda qui innanzitutto ad una armonia vitale esistenziale nel senso di una dolcezza dello stato interiore ed esteriore nel quale ora ci si trova41. È la mancanza di durezza, una bontà benefacente e attiva che cura e veglia il benessere dell’altro. Questa pace non solo è assenza di conflitti, ma essa è creatrice di gioia, perché fondata sulla trasparenza, la verità ritrovata nella relazione. È pace di vera comunione degli uni con gli altri. Ecco perché la discussione “palabrica” che regola i conflitti, facendo giustizia, riconcilia le parti antagoniste, cercando di fare venire alla luce la verità senza umiliare nessuno. Una tale pace, comunione o benevolenza è vicina alla nozione di bene. In questo processo di riconciliazione può essere utile la mediazione di un’altra persona (in kikongo: nganga, guaritore, mistagogo) che può essere: il capo del clan o del lignaggio, l’amico intimo della persona offesa, ecc. Questa mediazione si esprime sotto forma di intercessione. Nel caso in cui la persona offesa è già morta, il mediatore può concedere il perdono per sostituzione nel nome e al posto della persona offesa. Non potendo il defunto più parlare, l’amico gli presta la voce perché egli dia inizio ad una nuova vita. Una modalità di esercizio del perdono che certamente solleva la questione della possibilità di perdonare al posto degli altri per ridare un nuovo ini-

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zio alla vita. A tale proposito, sembra necessario distinguere tra perdono e processo di riconciliazione42, di ricomposizione della società. Va pure notato qui il carattere comunitario dei riti di riconciliazione43. Visto che si è convinti che il male commesso mette in pericolo non solo la persona che lo ha commesso, ma tutta la comunità della quale egli è membro, tutto il processo di riconciliazione coinvolge tutta la comunità. Essa sostiene, assiste e accompagna il penitente, mostrando tramite la sua presenza attiva che essa si sente ugualmente interessata, coinvolta. Pure la riparazione del male commesso viene fatta non solo dall’individuo, ma da tutta la comunità. È tutto questo che ci porta a pensare la salvezza in termini di riconciliazione44 e comunione, cioè di relazione. Ora occorre chiedersi: cosa diventano nella ricapitolazione operata da Cristo il Proto-antenato le grandi linee della visione che il muntu ha del male e della salvezza? Quale è il loro significato in Cristo? III. PER UNA RILETTURA TEOLOGICA Partendo dalla visione paolina della salvezza può sembrare a prima vista difficile conciliare la prospettiva africana con quella cristiana. Infatti per Paolo, la causa della morte è d’ordine antropoteologica: essa è causata dalla caduta dell’uomo “coram Deo”, dinnanzi a Dio, e questa caduta sembra esser all’origine di tutti i mali presenti nella storia (cf. 1 Cor 15,21; Rm 5,1221). Paolo riporta così il problema del male ad un problema del rapporto dell’uomo con Dio; un rapporto ormai di non conformità e di disobbedienza al Creatore (cf. 1 Cor 11,34; Rm 7,8-11; Col 2,13; Ef 2,5), disobbedienza che pone l’uomo e tutto il suo universo sociocosmico (cf. Rm 5,12) in uno stato di perdizione (Rm 8,18). L’intento di Paolo, collocando la morte a livello della relazione di alleanza, è quello di sottolineare che solo Dio può tirare l’uomo fuori dallo stato in cui si è precipitato. Paolo sviluppa in questa prospettiva la sua cristologia soteriologica: Gesù è morto per i nostri peccati, per liberarci dal male (cf. Ga 1, 14). La sua morte sulla croce lotta contro ogni peccato mortale, costituisce in se stessa l’evento di salvezza. La morte di Gesù viene così interpretata da Paolo nella prospettiva della salvezza realizzata da Gesù. Tale salvezza è legata non alla morte in se stessa, ma all’esperienza di Dio manifestata nella storia di Gesù il Cristo. È tutta questa esperienza che trova il suo culmine nella morte in croce che ha una pertinenza particolare per il muntu. È Dio stesso che interviene nella storia per sradicare tutto quello che vi è di male. La questione fondamentale è cosa diventa in questo evento della vita- morte-risurrezione di Gesù la nozione muntu della comunione partecipativa con gli antenati. È comunque interessante e molto importante teologicamente che, parlando della risurrezione di Gesù, san Paolo usi la terminologia «primizia di coloro che sono morti» (1 Co 15,20), termine tecnico che rimanda al primo di una serie, di un insieme rappresentato da questo primo che tira con sé tutto il re-

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sto. Questo legame tra Cristo e i morti viene poi rinforzato da espressioni come “dai morti” (1 Cor 15,13-20) che indica che Cristo è risorto dai morti per i morti, affinché abbiano la vita in abbondanza, perché Egli non si salva da solo ma sempre con i suoi antenati e tutta la sua progenie. Non è più possibile concepire Gesù il Proto-antenato staccato dalla sua ascendenza e discendenza, cioè dal suo corpo mistico. Questi termini mettono quindi in evidenza la comunione che Cristo stabilisce con i morti, i viventi, i nascituri e tutto il cosmo. Nella sua risurrezione dai morti è tutto l’universo e tutta la storia che vengono ricapitolati, posti dinnanzi a Dio. In quanto tale, Cristo il Proto-antenato appare come fonte di una pienezza di vita capace di reintegrare ogni mortale nella vita senza fine, di concedere la comunione vitale. Egli è al di là degli antenati in quanto non è solo mediatore della vita, è lui stesso pienezza della vita. Nella sua morte, egli muore alla sua particolarità storica per risorgere nella sua universalità nel dono dello Spirito che crea la comunione che abbraccia tutti gli uomini e tutto l’universo operando la loro riconciliazione con Dio. Così l’Ad gentes può definire l’opera redentrice di Cristo come un essere venuto nella storia per «stabilire la pace o la comunione con sé e […] realizzare tra gli uomini […] un’unione fraterna […] per sottrarre […] gli uomini al potere delle tenebre e di satana e […] riconciliare a sé il mondo» (AG 3). Mi sembra che sia importante oggi cogliere il senso di queste affermazioni fondamentali della nostra fede per l’evangelizzazione contemporanea dell’Africa. Di fronte a tante divisioni etniche, genocidi, di fronte al rifiuto e alla negazione di comporre insieme all’altro, al diverso, nuovi Stati, nuove nazioni capaci di generare un futuro umanamente degno per tutti, va probabilmente ribadito il senso della nostra salvezza in Gesù il Proto-antenato come riconciliazione e comunione. III. 1. Gesù il Proto-antenato, nostra riconciliazione e comunione Forse dovremo riscoprire oggi la centralità della categoria di riconciliazione per la comprensione della soteriologia cristiana. Questa categoria potrebbe essere arricchente per una prospettiva africana sulla soteriologia. Il suo vantaggio è di iscrivere l’evento Cristo nella totalità della storia della salvezza. Essa presuppone innanzitutto la volontà di Dio di fare alleanza con noi. Essa ci permette così di pensare la specificità religiosa del giudeo-cristianesimo in termini di alleanza e quindi di relazione. Inoltre la ricchezza di questa categoria esperienziale ci permette di tematizzare dal punto di vista cristologico-soteriologico i problemi dell’Africa contemporanea. Per capire la mediazione riconciliatrice di Cristo il Proto-antenato mi sembra che occorre collocarsi nel contesto dell’Alleanza, cioè percepire il problema della salvezza nel contesto antropoteologico della relazione fra Dio e l’uomo, come iniziativa di Dio nel suo desiderio di aver nell’uomo un vis-à-vis e un interlocutore. L’alleanza coinvolge non solo tutta l’umanità, ma

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tutto il creato e trova nel Proto-antenato la sua massima espressione. Se è tutta l’umanità che è coinvolta nel processo di alleanza, non si potrebbe sottovalutare il valore teologico dell’alleanza con Noè45. Una tale alleanza suggerisce la possibilità della rivelazione di Dio fuori della prospettiva giudeocristiana. Dire questo non è negare la pienezza della rivelazione in Cristo46 quale Proto-antenato. Proprio questa pienezza suppone la possibilità di altre rivelazioni inadempiute e quindi che gli antenati africani abbiano avuto una vera e propria rivelazione. Quanto hanno percepito del mistero della riconciliazione, dell’essere come relazione, è già in qualche modo rivelazione di questa pienezza di Cristo. Proprio perché tocca l’universo intero nel suo mistero più profondo47, si può dire che l’incarnazione di Cristo che culmina nell’evento della Croce è il luogo della riconciliazione in quanto essa è lo strumento capace di fare reggere l’universo nell’unità e nella pace e creare un mondo nuovo, riconciliato e mantenuto nel Suo Spirito, un mondo nel quale nessuna differenza viene annientata ma portata alla pienezza che è relazione, comunione di vita. In questa prospettiva la salvezza intesa come riconciliazione suppone da una parte la volontà di Dio di stabilire con l’uomo una relazione salvifica e d’altra la realtà del male come rottura, come distruzione di questa relazione, distruzione che si esprime concretamente nella distruzione dell’altro uomo e della natura. È qui che l’evento della croce rivela tutta la sua profondità. È nella sua passione che Gesù si rivela come sacramento di salvezza. È nel segno costituito dal suo stile di vita, dal suo modo di morire e risuscitare che Gesù adempie effettivamente la nostra salvezza e riconcilia così Dio con l’umanità, col mondo intero, creando la comunione ed in quanto tale si lascia percepire come il Proto-antenato fonte di ogni comunione vitale. Essendo nell’ordine dell’alleanza, questa riconciliazione avviene nell’ambito relazionale e interpersonale, cioè come ristabilimento dello scambio amoroso tra Dio e l’uomo per mezzo del Proto-antenato, scambio che significa liberazione da ogni forma del male e divinizzazione. Per mezzo della sua croce, Cristo ha vinto ogni forma di inimicizia (Ef 2,16; Col 1,20) concedendo gratuitamente il perdono di Dio. Il volto di Dio che ci presenta la Bibbia è quello di pura gratuità, il quale al posto di rendere il male per male, preferisce di vincere il male con il bene, poiché il suo amore ha un solo scopo: sconfigere il male e la morte tramite un eccesso (eccedenza) di amore. È quanto testimoniano già alcuni profeti ma soprattutto la morte e risurrezione di Gesù48 il Proto-antenato. Se la riconciliazione offre la possibilità di restaurare la relazione con Dio, essa deve instaurare una relazione con gli uomini ed implica una trasformazione delle realtà sociali. In Cristo, Dio ci offre la possibilità di uscire dallo spiraglio della violenza, dai meccanismi che generano odio. Sulla Croce, Cristo rifiuta infatti di entrare nella logica della violenza, accetta di non avere niente da difendere o da rivendicare, si espone affinché i fratelli nemici non finiscano per distruggersi. Ora il loro furore, la loro rabbia converge

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verso un altro, un punto comune. La Croce diventa così punto di riconciliazione. Il cerchio della violenza viene rotto, perché uno ha rifiutato di dare la replica e offre incondizionatamente il suo perdono49. È dunque tramite l’eccesso del suo amore che Cristo riconcilia l’umanità, il mondo intero con Dio e apre per ogni uomo la via verso la vera pace, che è unità con se stesso e con tutto il creato. Probabilmente è qui che si gioca la missione della Chiesa nel mondo contemporaneo e particolarmente in Africa. Come l’evento della Croce di Cristo può raggiungere e trasformare la storia collettiva delle società africane e dell’umanità? C’è da chiedersi se basta la conversione delle libertà individuali affinché la salvezza raggiunga le strutture sociali, politiche ed economiche oppure occorre andare oltre dal momento che sappiamo che ci sono delle strutture di peccato e che la salvezza ha sempre già una dimensione comunitaria. Vanno pure ben pensate le categorie filosofiche di comunicazione e di relazione nel senso di una riconciliazione di tutto l’universo in Cristo in modo da includervi pure la riconciliazione con tutto il creato, e quindi problemi dell’ecologia, soprattutto nel contesto africano dove la relazione con la natura è costituente dell’autocomprensione di sé. La salvezza intesa come riconciliazione invita pure a pensare il legame che esiste tra il perdono, la memoria (nel suo doppio senso di ricordo – mneme – e commemorazione – anamnesis), l’oblio, la colpevolezza, l’essere come comunione e la violenza storica50. Dal punto di vista della memoria, occorre chiedersi: come concedere il perdono senza vanificare il ricordo dell’evento passato che esige giustizia? Come la commemorazione dell’evento non deve fare ostacolo all’emergenza di nuovi spazi di convivenza pacifica ? In qualche modo, il perdono che ricrea la vita esige un certo oblio, non come un cancellare le tracce (come avviene per il caso di amnesia nel cervello o di perdita di ogni traccia in un archivio, nei documenti e nei monumenti) dell’evento passato, ma un mettere in serbatoio, non tanto come arte sottile per bloccare ogni ritorno dei ricordi insopportabili, come indifferenza assoluta nei confronti del passato ma come un oblio positivo che non intende più ad ogni costo fare pesare sul colpevole il peso del suo peccato. Questo non significa un negare la sua colpevolezza, ma cercare di separare la colpa e il colpevole. Nello stesso tempo come ridare dignità all’altro che è stato umiliato nella stima di se stesso? La giustizia può infatti sembrare vietare il perdono. È proprio in questo contesto che il perdono si presenta come gratuità, una gratuità che apre nuovi spazi di vita. III.2. La Chiesa e la riconciliazione Come famiglia di Dio, la Chiesa è legata all’esperienza di Dio comunicatale dal Proto-antenato suo fondatore in quanto Egli è colui che tiene uniti insieme i viventi, quelli che vivono nell’aldilà e i nascituri. Così come Israe-

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le è diventato Popolo di Dio tramite l’alleanza che Dio concluse con Abramo51, l’antenato dei credenti, così anche la Chiesa è Popolo di Dio tramite la nuova alleanza in Gesù Cristo. Come nell’antica alleanza l’unità delle dodici tribù (Gn 49,1-28; Dt 33) rimanda ad un unico antenato fondatore, il Padre Abramo, così pure l’unità del nuovo Popolo (per il parallelismo con l’antico Popolo: cf. il rimando al numero 12 di coloro che sono chiamati a condividere più da vicino con lui la vita e che saranno le colonne della Chiesa: Mc 3,14; Lc 6,12s) è fondata in Gesù il Cristo quale antenato escatologico che viene a ricapitolare tutta la storia e la mantiene in vita nel suo Spirito. Il nuovo Popolo da lui fondato è perciò chiamato ad esser nella storia il modello reale della famiglia di Dio con gli uomini. Ora la famiglia è il luogo per eccellenza della “palabre”, cioè dove si verifica la forza sanatrice della parola che guarisce e riconcilia, ma questa parola non è sua, essa la riceve come dono e deve vivere nella coscienza di questa gratuità che la sostiene e la guida nel suo cammino storico. In quanto tale, la Chiesa, famiglia di Dio, si colloca all’incrocio della strada di Dio verso l’umanità e quella dell’umanità verso Dio. Mentre il Cristo comunica la riconciliazione, la Chiesa la riceve innanzitutto come un dono gratuito che la trasforma e in seguito come una missione. In altre parole, la comunità di Cristo diventa riconciliatrice nella misura in cui essa stessa si lascia convertire da questa grazia ricevuta. Questo richiede un vivere nella “palabre”, nell’ascolto vicendevole, un concepire l’essere come relazione. I sacramenti tramite i quali essa trasmette la vita divina sono pure essi stessi che la costituiscono come popolo salvato. In una ecclesiologia di questo tipo è fuori dubbio che l’eucaristia del Proto-antenato diventa la prima pietra nella costruzione di una chiesa genuinamente cristiana e africana. Essa è il luogo della comunione, del dono della vita ed in quanto tale deve anticipare il Regno di Dio. La ragione di essere della Chiesa è quindi di stare a servizio della comunicazione del dono di Dio e dell’evento del suo Regno nel mondo. Essa realizza la sua missione vivendo la propria conversione, suscitando quella degli altri tramite la testimonianza e la predicazione e mettendo i sacramenti della comunicazione di Dio a disposizione di tutti. È in questo senso che essa è segno e strumento (LG 1; RM). Nella sua incarnazione, morte e risurrezione, Gesù il Cristo apre nella sua persona il cammino della riconciliazione. La Chiesa, come famiglia nella quale si prolunga la sua azione salvifica, è lo spazio mistico e storico della realizzazione della riconciliazione. In quanto tale, potremo dire che tutto il ministero della Chiesa si concentra nella riconciliazione. La riconciliazione esprime l’azione salvifica nella sua globalità. Ed in quanto tale, essa è affidata ad ogni battezzato, ad ogni credente (2 Cor 5,17-20). È qui che sorge la domanda di sapere come la Chiesa, ed ogni credente, può essere segno non solo visibile ma pure leggibile e strumento efficace della salvezza nel cuore delle realtà sociali52. In conclusione, cerchiamo ora di delineare alcuni luoghi di credibilità della Chiesa come segno e strumento della riconciliazione.

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IV. A MO’ DI CONCLUSIONE: PROCLAMARE LA FORZA STORICA DEL PERDONO La promessa incondizionata del perdono di Dio deve cambiare il corso della storia. L’annuncio del perdono costituisce la missione fondamentale della Chiesa. Se il dono della riconciliazione fonda la Chiesa e se la promessa della riconciliazione in Cristo è il motore della sua storia ed è costitutiva del suo avvenire, allora la Chiesa ha una missione specifica ed indipendente all’interno della storia dell’umanità. Essa è chiamata a dare concretezza al perdono nella vita dei singoli e dei popoli. Le circostanze attuali delle società africane la spingono a mettere al centro della predicazione della Chiesa e del suo agire l’offerta del perdono da parte di Dio. Essa deve trovare modi per spiegare e giustificare l’assoluta necessità del perdono come forza per rilanciare la storia dell’umanità. Il perdono non è negazione di ogni differenza, non è debolezza, sconfitta, ma una gratuità che in situazioni di conflitti permette alla società di rinascere, di ripartire da capo, poiché la vita è fondamentalmente dono e nasce solo in contesto di dono. Una cristologia che parte dal perdono e che prende sul serio l’esperienza del Proto-antenato porrà quindi al centro della sua meditazione la dimensione kenotica di Cristo e di conseguenza al centro della sua attenzione e sollecitudine sarà il povero, il debole perché è in lui che sta la forza, il dinamismo della storia in quanto può ancora sognare un mondo diverso. Il cammino della riconciliazione e della pace passa tramite la giustizia e l’impegno per rendere all’uomo la sua dignità di essere creato ad immagine di Dio. Come dice bene la Evangelii Nuntiandi al numero 31, la missione evangelizzatrice della Chiesa non può esser separata dall’impegno per lo sviluppo, per un mondo più giusto. Di fronte all’emarginalizzazione sempre più crescente dell’Africa in seguito alla mondializzazione, c’è da chiedersi se non è necessaria una nuova impostazione di tutta la teologia e della pastorale in modo che l’emarginato diventi la categoria chiave. Altrimenti, l’Africa rischia pure di essere teologicamente marginalizzata. L’opzione per i poveri, concetto ormai assunto pure nei documenti del Magistero ufficiale della Chiesa, significa impegnarsi presso tutte quelle strutture internazionali che diventano sempre più raffinate nei loro metodi di oppressione e di creazione di conflitti a scapito dei poveri che si ritrovano ogni giorno sempre più vittime di quegli stessi che pretendono di salvarli. Questo richiede un pensare di nuovo la solidarietà tra le Chiese ricche del Nord e le Chiese povere del Sud per trovare nuove vie per lottare insieme contro i meccanismi che suscitano guerre sfigurando così il volto di Dio che dovrebbe risplendere su ogni persona. Forse la singolarità del mistero dell’incarnazione sta proprio nel fatto che, con essa, il Divino non è più indifferente all’umano; è nell’umano che si manifesta ora lo splendore della sua Gloria. L’umano è diventato la via verso Dio. La Chiesa potrà essere credibile solo ponendo gesti forti che manifestino la sua povertà come solidarietà forte con gli emarginati della storia. Que-

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sto richiede da essa una continua conversione che la presenti come un “mondo riconciliato”53, che le permetta, annunciando la riconciliazione in Cristo, di proporre una visione dell’umanità dove nessuno viene escluso. In una tale prospettiva rimane ancora possibile il dialogo con persone che vengono da altri mondi culturali e religiosi. Il dialogo è non solo una possibilità, ma un’esigenza del nostro essere poiché non solo l’essere, ma la verità stessa è nella relazione. Già nel 1997, il cardinale Joseph Ratzinger scriveva: «Ciò che bisogna esigere è il rispetto della fede dell’altro e della disponibilità a ricercare, negli elementi diversi che incontro, una verità che mi concerne e che può correggermi, e condurmi più lontano. Ciò che bisogna esigere è di essere pronti a ricercare nelle manifestazioni forse sconcertanti la realtà più profonda che si nasconde dietro di esse. Ciò che bisogna esigere è, inoltre, di essere pronti a superare le angustie della mia comprensione della verità, a pormi meglio in ascolto di quello che è il mio bene, cercando di comprendere l’altro e lasciandomi mettere sulla via del Dio più grande nella certezza che io non possiedo mai totalmente la verità su Dio e che, di fronte ad essa, sono sempre un apprendista e, camminando verso di essa, sono sempre un pellegrino il cui cammino non avrà mai fine»54. Di fronte all’esplosione della violenza, si può pensare che la Chiesa deve oggi privilegiare l’annuncio della riconciliazione, cioè pensare l’essere e la verità come relazione. Pensata come famiglia a partire dalle categorie di “palabre”, di pluralità e di relazione, di giustizia e perdono, la Chiesa può aiutare ad annunciare Gesù il Cristo e la pienezza della vita nel Suo Nome (Gv 20,31) in un linguaggio umano e teologicamente attualizzato, contestualizzato55. La riconciliazione sarebbe un linguaggio per pensare e vivere la “différence”, per pensare ed impegnarsi per un ordine internazionale più giusto, più umano.

Cristologie africane: bibliografia B. BUJO, La théologie africaine, quelle direction et quelle méthode?, in “Select”, (1984)17, pp. 135-139. H. NGUYEZI YA KUIZA, Jésus Christ peut – il être africain? La longue marche des chrétiens et théologiens africains dans leur rencontre avec Jésus Christ, Editions Jules Hovine, Marquain (Belgique) 1993. A. VANHOYE, Salut universel par le Christ et validité de l’ancienne Alliance, in “NRT”, (1994)116, pp. 815-835. S.B. BEVANS, Models of Contextual Theology, Orbis Books, Maryknoll, NY 1992. J. DORÉ (éd.), Chemins de la christologie africaine, Desclée, Paris 1986. E. SCHILLEBEECKX, Die Auferstehung Jesu als Grund der Erlösung. Zwischenbericht über die Prolegomena zu einer Christologie, QD 78, Freiburg 1979. J. HEALEY, D. SYBERTZ, Towards an African Narrative Theology, Orbis Books, Maryknoll, NY 1996. TH. SUNDERMEIER, Christus, der schwarze Befreier, Erlangen 1973. TH. SUNDERMEIER, Nur gemeinsam können wir leben. Das Menschenbild schwarzafrikanischer Religionen, Gütersloher Verlagshaus-Gerd Mohn, Güterloh 1988.

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J. KENYATA, Facing Mount Kenya: The Tribal Life of the Gikuya, Vintage Books, NY 1962. U. KABUNGA, in “Revue Africaine de Théologie”. K. LUNDSTRÖM, Some recent Christological approaches of African Theologians on the ancestor motif, in “Svensk Missionstidskrift”, LXXXIV(1994)3, pp. 66-80. J.S. MBITI, Bibel und Theologie im afrikanischen Christentum, Vandehoeck e Ruprecht, Göttingen 1987. J.S. MBITI, “Afrikanische Beiträge zur Christologie”, in P. BEZERHAUS, H.W. GENSICHEN, G. ROSENKRANZ, G. VICEDOM (hsg.), Theologische Stimmen aus Asien, Afrika und Lateinamerika, III, München 1968, p. 75 s. J.S. MBITI, “Ho soter Hemon as an African Experience”, in B. LINDARS, S.S. SMALLEY (eds.), Christ and Spirit in the New Testament: Studies in Honor of C. F. D. Moule, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1973, pp. 397-414. J.S. MBITI, “Some African Concept of Christology”, in G.F. VICEDOM (ed.), Christ and the Younger Churches, SPCK, London 1972, pp. 51-62. J.S. MBITI, New Restatement: Eschatology in an African Background, London 1971. J.N.K. MUGAMBI, L. MAGESA (eds.), Jesus in African Christianity: Experimentation and Diversity in African Christology, Initiatives Publishers, Nairobi 1989. A. NASIMUYU-WASIKE, “Christology and an African Woman’s Experience”, in R.J. SCHREITER, ed., Faces of Jesus in Africa, Orbis Books, Maryknoll, NY 1991, pp. 7081. A. NOLAN, Jesus Before Christianity, Orbis Books, Maryknoll, NY 1976. A. NOLAN, Option for the Poor in South Africa, in “Sedos Bulletin”, 3(1987), pp. 91 s. CH. NYAMITI, My Approach to African Theology, in “African Christian Studies”, 7(1991), pp. 35-53. CH. NYAMITI, The Trinity: An African Ancestral Perspective, in “Theology Digest”, VL(1998), pp. 21-26. CH. NYAMITI, Christ as our Ancestor: Christology from an African Perspective, Gweru 1984. CH. NYAMITI, Christ’s Resurrection in the light of African Tribal Initiation Ritual, in “RAT”, 3(1979), pp. 171-184. CH. NYAMITI, African Theology. Its Nature, Problems and Methods, Kampala 1971. CH. NYAMITI, The Scope of African Theology, Kampala 1973. CH. NYAMITI, African Tradition and the Christian God, in “Spearhead”, 49 (Eldoret, Kenya 1977). E. MVENG, Christus der Initiationsmeister, in TH. SUNDERMEIER (hsg.), Zwischen Kultur und Politik. Texte zur afrikanischen und schwarzen Theologie, Hamburg 1978, pp. 78-82. J.H. OLSEN, Contextualised Christology in Tropical Africa?, in “Svensk Missionstidskrift”, 85(1997), Uppsala , pp. 247-368. A.M. ODUYOYE, Wir selber haben ihn gehört. Theologische Reflexionen zum Christentum in Afrika, Ed. Exodus, Fribourg 1988. C.M. PAUW, Traditional African economies in conflict with western capitalism, in “Mission Studies”, 14(1997), pp. 204-222. E.J. PENOUKOU, “Christology in the Village”, in R.J. SCHREITER (ed.), Faces of Jesus in Africa, Orbis Books, Maryknoll, NY 1991, pp. 24-51. E.J. PENOUKOU, Réalité africaine et salut en Jésus Christ, in “ Spiritus ”, 89(1982), pp. 374-392. J.S. POBEE, West Africa. Christ would be an African too. Gospel and Cultures pamphlet, WCC Publications, 1996. J.S. POBEE, Grundlinien einer afrikanischen Theologie, Göttingen 1981, pp. 78-96 ove definisce Cristo come Nana. Nel linguaggio akan ciò significa predecessori o antenati celebri. Secondo Pobee Gesù è l’antenato più grande e di massima dignità: cf.

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BUJO: p. 128, nota 25. A. SHORTER, Folk Christianity and Functional Christology, in “African Ecclesial Review”, 24(1982), pp. 133-137. A. SHORTER, Jesus and the Witchdoctor: An Approach to the Healing and Wholeness, Orbis Books, Maryknoll, NY 1985. P. STADLER, Approches Christologiques en Afrique, in “Bulletin de Théologie Africaine”, 9, 1983. K.J. TOSSU, “Jesus Christus, der Ahn. Sinn und Bedeutung eines Hoheitstitels aus der Perspektive Afrikanischer Theologie”, in ThG, 77, pp. 236-249. VOLKER KÜSTER, Die vielen Gesichte Jesu Christi. Christologie interkulturell, tesi dott. Difesa a Heidelberg 1997, 1999. “Mission de l’Église”, 120(juillet 1998): Christologies africaines.

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Sull’insufficienza dell’inculturazione B. BUJO, Welche Theologie braucht Afrika? Mit Inkulturation allein ist es nicht getan?, in “Herder Korrespondenz”, 37(1983)75. Sul giudizio negativo di Hegel sui neri: «In Africa non c’è affatto qualcosa che meriti di essere definito “umano”»: G.W.F. HEGEL, Vorlesungen über die Philosophie der Geschichte (Werke in zwanzig Bände), Bd. 12, Frankfurt a.M. 1970, pp. 120-129; tr. it. Lezioni sulla filosofia della storia, I, La Nuova Italia 1973, pp. 239 ss., p. 244. Sui pregiudizi dei colonizzatori nei confronti dei neri e la strumentalizzazione di questi come oggetto di lavoro G. BALANDIER, Sociologie actuelle de l’Afrique noire. Dynamique sociale en Afrique centrale, Paris 1971, pp. 1-20. Sulla cristologia in genere H. VERWEYEN, Christologische Brennpunkte, Essen 19852. L. SCHEFFCZYK, ed., Grundfragen, QD, tr. it. Problemi fondamentali della cristologia oggi, Morcelliana 1983. Sulla croce come luogo di conciliazione J. THOMAS, Il a tué la haine. Éphésiens 2, 14-18, in “Christus”, 31(1984), p. 93.

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Note 1 Cf. C. GEFFRÉ, “La singularité du christianisme à l’âge du pluralisme religieux”, in J. DORÉ, C. THEOBALD (éds.), Penser la foi. Recherches en théologie aujourd’hui. Mélanges offerts à Joseph Moingt, Cerf, Paris 1993, pp. 351-369. 2 cf. J. ILUNGA MUYA, Chiesa-famiglia. Parola chiave per l’inculturazione del Vangelo in Africa, in “Ad Gentes”, IV(2000)1, pp. 39-62. 3 Cf. B. BUJO, “Auf der Suche nach einer afrikanischen Christologie”, in H. DEMBOWSKI, W. GREIVE (hsg.), Der andere Christus. Christologie in Zeugnissen aus aller Welt, Erlangen 1991, pp. 87-99. 4 Cf. B. BUJO, Wider den Universalanspruch westlicher Moral. Grundlagen afrikanischer Ethik, in “Quaestiones Disputatae”, 182, Herder, Freiburg i. Br. 2000, pp. 17s; 121-127s. 5 Sul concetto di antenato e le diverse categorie di antenato: cf. V. MULAGO, La religion traditionnelle des Bantu et leur vision du monde, FTC, Kinshasa 1973, pp. 34, 4172; vedere pure C. NYAMITI, Christ as our Ancestor. Christology from an African Perspective, Gweru/Zimbabwe 1984; ID., African Tradition and the Christian God, Eldoret/Kenya 1977; cf. B. BUJO, Der afrikanische Ahnenkult und die christliche Verkündigung, in “Zeitschrift für Missionswissenschaft und Religionswissenschaft”, 64(1980), pp. 293-306; cf. A.T. SANON, R. LUNEAU, Enraciner l’évangile. Initiations africaines et pédagogie de la foi, Paris 1982; J.S. POBEE, Grundlinien einer afrikanischen Theologie, Göttingen 1981, pp. 78-96; J.S. POBEE, Exploring Afro-Christology, Frankfurt a.M. 1992; E.E. UZUKWU, Le salut chrétien du point de vue congolais, in “Spiritus”, 89(1982), pp. 247-267; J.E. PENOUKOU, Réalité africaine et salut en Jésus Christ, in “Spiritus”, 89(1982), pp. 374-392; ID., “Christologie au village”, in F. KABASÉLÉ, J. DORÉ, R. LUNEAU, (éds.), Chemins de la christologie africaine, Paris 1986, pp. 69-106; F. KABASÉLÉLUMBALA, Alliances avec le Christ en Afrique, Paris 1994; ID., “Le Christ comme Ancêtre et Aîné”, in F. KABASÉLÉ, J. DORÉ, R. LUNEAU (éds.), Chemins de la christologie africaine, Paris 1986, pp. 126-141; ID., “Christ as Ancestor and Elder Brother”, in R.E. SCHREITER (eds.), Faces of Jesus in Africa, New York 1991, pp. 116-127; ID., “Le Christ comme Chef”, in F. KABASÉLÉ, J. DORÉ, R. LUNEAU (éds.), Chemins de la christologie africaine, Paris 1986, pp. 109-125; A.O. NKWOKA, Jesus as Eldest Brother (Okpara), in “Asia Journal of Theology”, V(1991)1, pp. 87-103; G. MUZOREWA, Christ as Our Ancestor: Christology from an African Perspective, in “Africa Theological Journal”, XVII(1988)2, pp. 255-264. Sugli antenati vedere pure J.M. ELA, Les ancêtres et la foi chrétienne. Une question africaine, in “Concilium”, 122(1977), pp. 47-64; ID., “L’Église, le monde noir et le concile”, in Personalité africaine et catholicisme, 1963, pp. 59-81; G. GUARIGLIA, “L’être suprême, le culte des ancêtres et le sacrifice expiatoire chez les Igbos du Sud-Est, Nigeria”, in C.R.A., IV(1970)8, pp. 229-250. 6 Mi sembra significativo che la proposizione 36 sugli antenati abbia avuto 167 placet, 45 non placet e 11 astensioni: cf. SYNODUS EPISCOPORUM, COETUS SPECIALIS PRO AFRICA, Relatio circa labores peractos in coetu speciali pro Africa Synodi Episcoporum, Libreria Ed. Vaticana, Vaticano 1994, p. 69; cf. pure il n. 24 del messaggio finale. 7 Cf. B. BUJO, Teologia africana nel suo contesto sociale, Brescia 1988, p. 127 n. 21; cf. M. GUZZI, Perché Orfeo? Rimbaud, Rilke, Campana: discesa agli inferi e rinascita dell’Io, in “Vita monastica”, 201(1995), pp. 51-80. 8 F. KABASÉLÉ-LUMBALA, “L’au-delà des modèles”, in F. KABASÉLÉ, J. DORÉ, R. LUNEAU (éds.), Chemins de la christologie africaine, Paris 1986, pp. 212-220. 9 Cf. F. KABASÉLÉ, “Le Christ comme Chef”, in F. KABASÉLÉ, J. DORÉ, R. LUNEAU, Chemins de la christologie africaine, Paris 1986. 10 Cf. le pertinenti annotazioni di B. BUJO, “Auf der Suche nach einer afrikanischen Christologie”, in H. DEMBOWSKI, W. GREIVE (hsg.), Der andere Christus. Christologie in Zeugnissen aus aller Welt, Erlangen 1991, pp. 87-99.

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11 Cf. A.T. SANON, Enraciner l’évangile. Initiations africaines et pédagogie de la foi, con un’introduzione di R. LUNEAU, Paris 1982; ID., “Jésus, Maitre d’initiation”, in F. KABASÉLÉ, J. DORÉ, R. LUNEAU, Chemins de la christologie africaine, Paris 1986, pp. 143166. Su questa prospettiva cf. E. MVENG, “Christus der Initiationsmeister”, in T. SUNDERMEIER (hsg.), Zwischen Kultur und Politik. Texte zur afrikanischen und schwarzen Theologie, Hamburg 1978, pp. 77-82; cf. M. NTETEM, Die negro-afrikanische Stammesinitiation. Religionsgeschichtliche Darstellung, theologische Wertung, Möglichkei der Christianisierung, Münsterschwarzach 1983, pp. 272-284; cf. B. BUJO, Afrikanische Theologie in ihrem gesellschaftlichen Kontext, Düsseldorf 1986, pp. 91-93; ID., Der afrikanische Ahnenkult und die christliche Verkündigung, in “Zeitschrift für Missionswissenschaft und Religionswissenschaft”, 66(1980), pp. 293-306. Sui riti in genere cf. A. VAN GENNEP, Les rites de passages, Paris 1909; tr. it. I riti di passaggio, Bollati-Boringhieri, Torino 1985. I riti di passaggio sono atti rituali che vengono celebrati dopo la nascita, al raggiungimento della maturità sessuale, in occasione del matrimonio, della morte e della sepoltura. I riti che accompagnano la nascita sono collegati all’imposizione del nome del bambino, a volte alla circoncisione oppure al battesimo. Alla madre vengono prescritte purificazioni. Ai riti di passaggio si accompagnano quasi sempre difficili prove psichiche e fisiche degli iniziandi (separazione dalla comunità, permanenza in luoghi selvaggi inquietanti, digiuno, astensioni dal sonno e prove di coraggio). La conclusione di questi riti viene spesso celebrata con una festa. I riti di passaggio in senso stretto sono i riti di iniziazione. Pure il matrimonio è un rito di passaggio. Esso ha sempre un carattere cultuale. Anche la morte richiede riti di passaggio. I riti funebri sono a carattere religioso. Sono indirizzati con pietà al benessere dello scomparso, e sono motivati dalla paura che questo ritorni come uno spettro e un’ombra. In questo contesto va pure sottolineata l’importanza delle feste e dei giorni festivi nei quali si celebra cultuamente un avvenimento naturale o un evento della storia della salvezza: cf. R. WILL, Le culte, 3 voll., Paris 1925-1935; A. KIRCHGÄSSNER, Die mächtigen Zeichen. Ursprünge, Formen und Gesetze des Kultes, Freiburg 1959. 12 Il modello cristologico del Proto-antenato è stato coniato da Bénézet Bujo e rimane decisivo per la sua impostazione teologica: cf. B. BUJO, “Auf der Suche nach einer afrikanischen Christologie”, in H. DEMBOWSKI, W. GREIVE (hsg.), Der andere Christus. Christologie in Zeugnissen aus aller Welt, Erlangen 1991, pp. 98s; ID., Afrikanische Theologie in ihrem gesellschaftlichen Kontext, Düsseldorf 1986; tr. it. Teologia africana nel suo contesto sociale, Brescia 1988, pp. 116-140; ID., Die christologischen Grundlagen einer afrikanischen Ethik, in “Freiburger Zeitschrift für Philosophie und Theologie”, 29(1982), pp. 223-238. 13 Cf. ID., Afrikanische Theologie in ihrem gesellschaftlichen Kontext, pp. 86-87; tr. it. Teologia africana nel suo contesto sociale, pp. 125 s., 141s. 14 “Omelia sul Sabato Santo”, in PG 43,439,451,462-463, in Liturgia delle Ore secondo il rito romano, II, CEI, Roma 1975, p. 447. Sulla discesa agli Inferi si veda: S. CHIALÀ, Discese agli inferi, ed. Qiqajon, Magnano 2000. 15 cf. ID., Nos ancêtres, ces saints inconus, in “Bulletin de Théologie Africaine”, 1(1979), pp. 165-178, pp. 173 s.; questo articolo è ripreso e rielaborato in tedesco: cf. ID., Der afrikanische Ahnenkult und die christliche Verkündigung, in ZMR, 64(1980), pp. 293-306; F. KOLLBRUNNER, Auf dem Weg zu einer christlichen Ahnenverehrung?, in NZM, 31(1975), pp. 19-29, 110- 123. 16 Mi limiterò qui all’ambito culturale bantu. 17 Per i bantu – troviamo paralleli e similitudini in altri universi culturali africani – Dio sta al di là del Bene e del Male. Se la vita viene da lui, egli non può però essere coinvolto nelle vicende di questo mondo. Sull’origine del male e del bene presso i bantu: cf. A. KAGAME, La place de Dieu et l’homme dans la religion des Bantu, in “Cahiers des Religions Africaines”, II(1968)4, pp. 213-222; III(1969)5, pp. 5-11; ID., Le fondement ultime de la morale bantu, in “Au coeur de l’Afrique”, 5(1969), pp. 231-236; J.S. MBITI,

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African Religions and Philosophy, Heineman Educational Books, London et al. 1983, pp. 204-215; P. TEMPELS, La philosophie bantoue. Présence Africaine, Paris 1949, pp. 7791. Anche se occorre riconoscere che alcune tribù come i kuyu, i chaga e i nyamwezi credono che Dio in alcune circostanze può punire individui o collettività intere mandando delle calamità. Infatti presso i kikuyu del Kenya ad esempio l’uomo colpito dal fumine è punito da Ngai: Dio. Quindi la necessità di invocare gli antenati a partecipare alle preghiere e ai sacrifici offerti a Ngai per calmare la sua collera. Però anche in questi casi Dio viene visto sempre dalla parte del bene. Egli non agisce mai per cattiveria, ma sempre per il bene. Quando punisce gli errori, lo fa a favore dell’uomo che altrimenti andrebbe in rovina tramite la distruzione dell’ordine stabilito: Cf. J. KENYATTA, Au pied du Mont Kenya; tr. fr., F. MASPÉRO, Paris, 1960, p. 97; pure J. Mbiti sottolinea che alcune tribù ntu tra le quali i thonga dell’Africa del Sud, i chaga, i soga, i kuyu, i luo del Kenya, i nyamwezi, i darasa, i lese, gli zulu, ecc., considerano Dio come autore di alcuni infortuni che colpiscono gli uomini: cf. J. MBITI, African Religions and Philosophy, Heineman Educational Books, London et al. 1983, pp. 43, 45 s. 18 Cf. S. MBONYINKEBE, “Faute, Péché, Pénitence et Réconciliation dans les Traditions de quelques sociétés d’Afrique centrale”, in K.J. RIVINIUS (hsg.), Schuld, Sühne und Erlösung in Zentralafrika (Zaire) und in der christlichen Theologie Europas, Stezler Verlag, Sankt Augustin 1983, pp. 147-164, p. 157. 19 Cf. J.S. MBITI, African Religions and Philosophy, op. cit., pp. 156 s. 20 Cf. P. RICOEUR, Philosophie de la volonté. Finitude et culpabilité, II: La symbolique du mal, Aubier, Paris 1960, pp. 61ss. Un caso interessante è quello dei nuer nel Sudan dove sono peccaminose solo le azioni che provocano la collera di Dio e implicano ipso facto l’indignazione degli uomini: cf. E.E. EVANS-PRITCHARD, Nuer Religion, Oxford 1956 (cf. capitolo sul peccato). 21 Cf. M. TSHIAMALENGA NTUMBA, La philosophie de la faute dans la tradition luba, in “Cahiers des Religions Africaines”, VIII,(1974)16, pp. 167-186, 177, 180 s., 185; E. MUJYNYA, Le mal et le fondement dernier de la morale chez les bantu interlacustres, in “Cahiers des Religions Africaines”, 3(1969), pp. 55-78, pp. 68, 77. Cf. S. MBONYINKEBE, “Faute, Péché, Pénitence et Réconciliation dans les Traditions de quelques sociétés d’Afrique centrale”, in K.J. RIVINIUS (hsg.), Schuld, Sühne und Erlösung in Zentralafrika (Zaire) und in der christlichen Theologie Europas, Stezler Verlag, Sankt Augustin 1983, pp. 147-164, pp. 150s; B. BUJO, African Christian Morality at the Age of Inculturation, Nairobi 1998, pp. 77s. 22 Cf. S. MBONYINKEBE, “Faute, Péché, Pénitence et Réconciliation dans les Traditions de quelques sociétés d’Afrique centrale”, op. cit., 147-164, pp. 157-158. 23 Cf. Sal 51,7; Prov 20,9; Gn 8,21; Gv 9,34; Rm 5,12. Sull’ottimismo della visione antropologica africana: cf. M. TSHIAMALENGA NTUMBA, La vision ntu de l’homme. Essai de philosophie linguistique et anthropologique, in “Cahiers des Religions Africaines”, VIII(1974)16. 24 Cf. M. TSHIAMALENGA NTUMBA, “La philosophie de la faute dans la tradition luba ”, op. cit., VII(1973)14, pp. 175-197, 176; P. TEMPELS, La philosophie bantou, op. cit., pp. 111-112. 25 Sul tema del cuore: cf. ivi, p. 182; D. NOTHOMB, Un humanisme africain. Valeurs et pierres d’attente, Bruxelles 1965; A. NYEME TESE, Munga-Ethique en un milieu africain. Gentilisme et christianisme, Ingenbohl 1975, pp. 52-53. 26 La proposizione 37 del Sinodo per l’Africa mette bene in evidenza l’importanza e l’attualità di questa problematica per l’Africa. 27 Non si parla tanto del diavolo come nella tradizione giudeo-cristiana, dove il diavolo è il simbolo della bramosia, avidità: P. RICOEUR, La symbolique du mal, pp. 240-242. Sulla categoria dello stregone: cf. J. RUYTINX, La morale bantoue et le problème de l’éducation morale au Congo, Editions de l’Institut de Sociologie, Bruxelles 1969, p. 37: «Le sorcier véhicule le mal; les accusations que l’on porte contre lui concrétisent les nor-

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mes du Bien et du mal, mais il est aussi le lieu où se cristallisent les angoisses des hommes»; MASAMBA MA MPOLO, Le problème de la sorcellerie (point de vue d’un chrétien), in “Cahiers des Religions Africaines”, VII(1973)14, pp. 247-260; BUAKASA TULU KIA MPASU, L’impensé du discours. “Kindoki” et “Nkisi” en pays Kongo du Zaire, Kinshasa 1980; MWENE BATENDE, La sorcellerie comme pratique sociale des Kumu et l’opposition du Kitawala, in “Social Compass”, XXVI(1979)4, pp. 508 s.; R. BUREAU, Sorcellerie et prophétisme en Afrique Noire, in “Études”, (1967)4, pp. 467-481. cf. M.G. MARWICK, Witchcraft and Sorcery, Harmondworth 1970, 1982. 28 B. BUJO, “Das gemeinschaftsgebundene Ich in der Moral. Das Individuum als Teil des Ganzen”, in R. LIGGENSTORFER, B. MUTH-OELSCHNER, Anleitung und Rezepte für eine Kirche der Hoffnung. FS zum 50. Geburtstag von Bischof Dr. Kurt Koch, Kanisius, Freiburg (Svizzera) 2000, pp. 286-301, p. 290. 29 Cf. B. KIPANZA TUMWARA, “Le ministère de guérison en Afrique. Chance et défi pour l’Eglise”, in NRTh, t. 122, (2000)3, pp. 416-431. 30 Cf. C. KOLIE, “Jésus guérisseur?”, in F. KABASÉLÉ, J. DORÉ, R. LUNEAU, Chemins de la christologie africaine, Paris 1986, p. 171. 31 Si potrebbe pure approfondire la riflessione cercando di scavare a fondo il legame che esiste tra riconciliazione e ricapitolazione di tutte le cose in Cristo (Ef 1, 10): cf. DUFORT, La récapitulation paulinienne dans l’exégèse des Pères, in “Sciences Ecclésiastiques”, 12(1960), pp. 21-38; cf. “Concilium”, 2(1966), pp. 125-149; cf. J. DANIELOU, “Christologie et eschatologie”, in A. GRILLMEIER, H. BACHT (hsg.), Das Konzil von Chalkedon. Geschichte und Gegenwart, III: Chalkedon heute, Würzburg 1954, p. 275 s.; M.J. NICOLAS, Le Christ et le cosmos. Incidence de la cosmologie moderne sur la théologie, Paris 1993; R. PENNA, La proiezione dell’esperienza comunitaria sul piano storico (Ef 2,1122) e cosmico (Ef 1,20-23), in RivBibl, 26(1978), pp. 163-186. 32 Cf. E. MVENG IN MVENG, B.L. LIPAWING, Théologie, libération et cultures africaines, Yaoundé-Paris 1996, pp. 221-222. Cf. J.-G. BIDIMA, La palabre. Une juridiction de la parole, Michalon, Paris 1997. 33 Cf. B. ATANGA, Actualité de la Palabre?, in “Études”, (1966)324, p. 461. 34 Cf. J.-G. BIDIMA, La palabre. Une juridiction de la parole, op. cit., p. 10. 35 Cf. B. BUJO, Dieu devient homme en Afrique noire, Paulines, Kinshasa 1996, p. 25. 36 Cf. B. BUJO, Die ethische Dimension der Gemeinschaft. Das afrikanische Modell im Nord-Süd Dialog, Freiburg i. Ü./ Freiburg i. Br. 1993, pp. 63-73. 37 Cf. O. BIMWENYI KWESHI, Discours théologique negro-africain. Problème des fondements, Paris 1981, pp. 479-483. 38 Cf. P. TEMPELS, La philosophie bantu, op. cit., p. 117. Da notare che esistono comunque differenze nelle procedure tra società fortemente centralizzate che possedevano quindi dei tribunali (come presso i nyoro nell’Uganda) e società non centralizzate: cf. J. BEATTIE, Introduction à l’anthropologie sociale, Paris 1972, p. 202. 39 «Une fois réparation faite, l’affaire est finie. Dire d’un homme qui a volé et réparé le mal causé, qu’il est un voleur, constitue une faute punissable»: J. RUYTINX, La morale bantoue et le problème de l’éducation morale au Congo, Editions de l’Institut de Sociologie, Bruxelles 1969, p. 42. Questa concezione africana del perdono potrebbe aiutare a pensare a fondo la questione del rapporto tra riconciliazione e perdono nel dibattito contemporaneo. Mi limito qui soltanto ad indicare la problematica che va ulterioremente approfondita: J. DERRIDA, Le siècle et le pardon. Entretien, in “Le Monde des Débats”, (1999)9, décembre, pp. 10-17 et E. MORIN, Pardonner, c’est résister à la cruauté du monde, in “Le Monde des Débats”, (février 2000)11, pp. 24-26. 40 Cf. NTEDIKA KONDE, Rites Yombe de Pardon et réconciliation, in K.J. RIVINIUS (hsg.), “Schuld, Sühne und Erlösung in Zentralafrika (Zaire)”, op. cit., pp. 172-193, p. 190; cf. Péché, pénitence et réconciliation. Tradition chrétienne et culture africaine, actes de la IXè Semaine Théologique de Kinshasa (22-27 Juillet 1974), FTCK, Kinshasa 1980.

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41 Cf. O. NDJIMBI-TSHIENDE, Réciprocité-Coopération et le Système Palabrique Africain. Tradition et herméneutique dans les théories du Développement de la conscience morale chez Piaget, Kohlberg et Habermas, EOS Verlag, St Ottilien 1992, p. 261. 42 Cf. J. DERRIDA, op. cit., pp. 16 ss. 43 Come dice bene Mulago: «Le Muntu est un homme qui n’existe qu’en communauté et pour la communauté». V. MULAGO, Un visage africain du christianisme, op. cit., p. 113; cf. L.V. THOMAS, Le socialisme et l’Afrique, 2 voll., Paris 1966, soprattutto il vol. I, cap. III: Socialisme, Afrique traditionnelle, Afrique moderne, pp. 115 s. 44 Karl Barth rimane per una tale impostazione un esempio eloquente: cf. particolarmente: K. BARTH, Dogmatique, vol. IV, t. 2; cf. B. SESBOÜE, Jésus-Christ l’unique médiateur. Essai sur la rédemption et le salut, t. 1: Problématique et relecture doctrinale, coll. Jesus et Jésus-Christ, 33, Desclée, Paris 1988, p. 110. 45 Mi sembra che l’intuizione di Schlette potrebbe essere approfondita in una prospettiva teologico-fondamentale: cf. H.R. SCHLETTE, Die Religionen als Thema der Theologie. Überlegungen zu einer “Theologie der Religionen”, QD 22, Herder, Freiburg 1963, pp. 84-87; tr. it. Le religioni come tema della teologia, Morcelliana, Brescia 1968. Si trovano delle indicazioni per ricerche ulteriori nella terza edizione attualizzata di H. WALDENFELS, Kontextuelle Fundamentaltheologie, Schöningh, Paderborn et al. 20003. 46 L’espressione “in Cristo” va presa qui in tutta la sua profondità teologica presso Paolo, il quale la usa come «indicativo specifico della comunione con Dio instaurata nella Morte-Risurrezione salvifica del Signore Gesù Cristo»: J.M.R. TILLARD, Chair de l’Église, chair du Christ. Aux sources de l’ecclésiologie de communion, CF 168, Cerf, Paris 1992, p. 15. Sull’attualità della problematica della riconciliazione si veda pure: M.P. PRÉAT, Actualité d’une théologie de la réconciliation, in “Nouvelle Revue Théologique”, CXXII(2000)2, pp. 238-259. 47 Cf. E. JÜNGEL, Dieu mystère du monde. Fondement de la théologie du Crucifié dans le débat entre théisme et athéisme, 2 voll., Cerf, Paris 19972. 48 Cf. G. BARBAGLIO, Dieu est-il violent? Une lecture des Écritures juives et chrétiennes, coll. Parole de Dieu, Seuil, Paris 1994: cf. la recensione in “Revue Théologique de Louvain”, XXVII(1996)3, pp. 353-357. 49 È proprio in questo che consiste il vero senso del perdono: il perdono è qualcosa di «exceptionnel et extraordinaire, à l’épreuve de l’impossible: comme s’il interrompait le cours ordinaire de la temporalité historique […] il faut, me semble-t-il, partir du fait que […] il y a de l’impardonnable. N’est-ce pas en vérité la seule chose à pardonner?»: J. DERRIDA, op. cit., p. 11. 50 Cf. P. RICOEUR, Les difficultés du Pardon, in BLE, CL, (2000), pp. 194-214. 51 Cf. B. BUJO, Die Familie als Leitbild der Kirche. Der Beitrag der afrikanischen Ekklesiologie, in “Stimmen der Zeit”, (2000)11, pp. 761-772, p. 764. 52 V. DE COUESNONGLE, L’Église, sacrement de réconciliation par la promotion de la justice et de la paix entre les peuples, in “Freiburger Zeitschrift für Philosophie und Theologie”, (1979)26, pp. 11-113. 53 SANT’AGOSTINO, Sermo 96,7. 54 J. RATZINGER, Le dialogue interreligieux et le dialogue judéo-chrétien, in “Revue des Sciences morales et politiques”, (1997)1, p. 139. 55 Cf. J. ILUNGA MUYA, L’expérience de la pluralité. Un lieu théologique, Borengässer, Bonn 2000.

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AMERICA LATINA CARLOS PALACIO*

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LA «SALVACIÓN EN JESUCRISTO» EN LA REFLEXIÓN TEOLÓGICA LATINOAMERICANA

La teología contemporánea de la salvación oscila entre los desequilibrios heredados de una tradición unilateral1 y los interrogantes inéditos que le vienen de un mundo – cultural y religiosamente – plural. El tema de este Congreso – la interrogación sobre Jesucristo y las respuestas culturales y religiosas en perspectiva de la misión – es un ejemplo elocuente de la nueva situación de la soteriología. Al relacionar la dimensión teológico-cristológica de la salvación (Jesucristo como salvador), la dimensión antropológicocultural (en qué consiste y cómo repercute el anuncio de la salvación en cada contexto) y la dimensión religiosa (la función de la Iglesia con relación a la salvación, en el contexto del diálogo entre las religiones), el Congreso no sólo ensancha el horizonte de la salvación sino que plantea el problema en otras bases que permiten ir más allá de las dificultades en las que se había atollado la soteriología tradicional. Estas mismas coordenadas serán utilizadas para delimitar nuestra reflexión sobre la “salvación en Jesucristo”. No porque haya sido ese el marco teórico utilizado por la teología latinoamericana para pensar la salvación, sino porque ofrece una clave hermenéutica válida para comprender su evolución y los presupuestos (no siempre explícitos) que la sostenían. De esa forma será posible situar la reflexión teológica latinoamericana en el conjunto de la soteriología contemporánea y destacar lo que pueda tener de original su contribución. I. EL MÉTODO ESCOGIDO Y SUS PRESUPUESTOS 1. El “camino” Es conveniente empezar justificando el camino escogido. No sería difícil hacer una reflexión sobre la soteriología implícita en las cristologías latinoamericanas2. No parece, sin embargo, que sea ese el camino más apropiado. En primer lugar porque todas ellas siguen, como era natural, el itinerario de la cristología moderna. Son, en cierto sentido, cristologías narrativas que vuelven a lo que es central en el evangelio: la vida, muerte y *

Faculdade de Teologia do Centro de Estudos Superiores, Belo Horizonte, Brazil.

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resurrección de Jesús, con toda su densidad histórica. Precisamente por eso, su objetivo directo no era la soteriología. Pero, al entrar en el movimiento del evangelio3, las cristologías modernas recuperan la totalidad de sentido de esa historia y su unidad originaria: la “obra” de Jesús (lo que “hace por nosotros”, su significación) es inseparable de lo que él “es” (su “persona”, su “ser” último)4. Y, en ese sentido, se puede decir que hay una soteriología implícita en las cristologías latinoamericanas. Pero existe otro motivo para no seguir ese camino. A pesar del innegable avance que supone la cristología contemporánea con relación al modelo clásico de la cristología hay que reconocer que la violencia infligida a la fe por una separación que duró siglos dejó marcas indelebles en la conciencia cristiana y hará falta bastante tiempo aún para que esas marcas sean reabsorbidas. Una de ellas es la espontánea asociación entre salvación, muerte y cruz. No sólo en el imaginario de los cristianos sino en la misma teología5. Lo que inevitablemente desequilibra la manera de entender la salvación. Y la tercera razón es que la vida precede a la teología. Como no se cansó de repetir la teología de la liberación desde el comienzo, la “teología” – y en este caso la “soteriología” – es siempre un “acto segundo”6. Su función es iluminar la vida y la praxis de la comunidad de fe. Y esa iluminación puede significar a veces una función crítica de la fe vivida (in actu exercito) y practicada. Por eso, para conocer lo que pueda haber de original en la reflexión latinoamericana sobre la salvación, es conveniente preguntarse primero por la soteriología implícita en la vida y en la praxis de las comunidades eclesiales. De hecho, para la teología de la liberación7, preguntarse por la salvación no era una cuestión teórica. Ni tampoco recibió un tratamiento sistemático en el ámbito académico. La pregunta nacía de la vida y tuvo que ser pensada al ritmo de los desafíos que la crueldad de lo real planteaba a la fe practicada de las comunidades eclesiales. Lo que desencadenó la reflexión no fue la insatisfacción teórica – la insuficiencia o la crítica de los límites de la soteriología tradicional – sino la necesidad imperiosa de convertir el anuncio del evangelio en una “buena noticia” para la realidad de América Latina. Antes de ser un “problema teológico” la salvación era una urgencia de la vida: ¿qué significa ser salvados y de qué nos salva Jesucristo cuando se vive en un contexto de opresión y de muerte? 2. Los presupuestos Ese punto de partida suponía no sólo una concepción de la teología y de su función en la Iglesia sino también un modo de ser Iglesia, una manera de comprender la identidad y la misión de la Iglesia en el mundo. De hecho, la teología de la liberación nació como la exigencia de pensar teológicamente

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una experiencia eclesial particular: la de la Iglesia en América Latina después del Concilio Vaticano II. Sin el giro eclesial que supuso la segunda asamblea general del episcopado latinoamericano en Medellín no habría teología de la liberación. Pero, al mismo tiempo, Medellín fue precedido y, en cierto sentido, preparado por una sensibilidad teológica y pastoral que era perceptible ya al comienzo de los años 60. El encuentro de teología pastoral, realizado en Santiago de Chile en julio de 1966, es un ejemplo revelador de lo que se estaba gestando en aquellos años entre los teólogos8. La preocupación de estos teólogos era eminentemente pastoral. No en el sentido que tiene habitualmente esta palabra sino como prolongación de lo que fue la intención más profunda de Juan XXIII al convocar el Concilio: que el anuncio de la fe llegase a ser una “buena noticia” para los hombres a los que se dirigía. Pastoral, pues, para aquellos teólogos era pensar los verdaderos problemas de la Iglesia, reflexionar sobre los desafíos reales de la evangelización. Por eso, el lugar de la reflexión no podía ser el despacho de los teólogos de profesión sino la vida concreta de la Iglesia en el Continente9. En un artículo titulado significativamente “Una Iglesia sin teología”, J.L. Segundo expuso de manera incisiva una hipótesis que tenía mucho de manifiesto: «La creatividad de la Iglesia latinoamericana exige la desaparición, momentánea o definitiva, de la distinción entre teólogos (encarnados en la realidad) y pastores (que piensen esa misma realidad)»10. Suprimir esa frontera no era ignorar la diferencia de funciones sino postular otro modo de hacer teología. La vida exigía reflexión (pastores que piensen la realidad) y por eso la teología debía reflejar – por haber reflexionado sobre ella – la vida (teólogos encarnados en la realidad). Se estaba gestando así una de las características más originales de la teología de la liberación: la inseparable unidad entre “vida” y “reflexión”11. Y, por lo tanto, su congénita función eclesial. Pensar desde la vida y desde la praxis pastoral era restituir a la pastoral su libertad de abordar los verdaderos problemas, devolver a la teología su capacidad de pensar de manera creadora y original, y proporcionar a la Iglesia un pensamiento propio. O sea un instrumento indispensable para superar su condición de “iglesia-reflejo” (reflejo de otros tiempos, de otros problemas, de otras maneras de ser Iglesia) y llegar a ser “iglesia-fuente”, verdadera Iglesia particular como deseaba el Vaticano II12. Pensar críticamente el peculiar contexto de la Iglesia latinoamericana significaba poder cuestionar la manera tradicional de evangelizar y levantar la sospecha del posible uso ideológico de la fe y de la teología. La inhumana situación de miseria desmentía el carácter “cristiano” del continente y desenmascaraba el papel de la Iglesia en la sociedad. ¿Cómo no sospechar que la fe se había pervertido, convirtiéndose en elemento cultural de la situación de injusticia? La práctica de los cristianos negaba la fe profesada. Evangelizar dentro de esa realidad requería una conversión. La comunidad

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eclesial necesitaba otras bases teológicas para justificar una nueva manera de ser y de situarse en la sociedad. Tarea ingente y arriesgada. Porque en el fondo era una búsqueda honesta y radicalmente evangélica de entender y vivir la experiencia cristiana, personal y eclesial, de otra forma. No de inventar “otro cristianismo” – lo que sería una ruptura inaceptable de la tradición – sino de un “cristianismo otro”, es decir de una nueva conciencia eclesial de la fe. Lo que no podía dejar de levantar sospechas en unos y suscitar mecanismos de defensa en otros13. Con ese planteamiento era posible entrever qué significaría repensar la salvación a medida que la experiencia cristiana se fuese encarnando en el contexto social y político de América Latina. J.L. Segundo lo resumía en pocos tópicos: «Que el acento en la salvación individual y extraterrena constituye una deformación del mensaje de Jesús, interesado en una liberación integral del hombre, liberación que actúa ya en el proceso histórico y con medios históricos; que la Iglesia no posee una eficacia mágica para la salvación, sino elementos liberadores en fe y liturgia, y que su triunfo no ha de ser considerado numérico o cuantitativo, sino funcional, en la medida en que esos elementos propios influyan poderosamente en la historia humana; que no existe un orden sobrenatural ahistórico y otro natural e histórico, sino que una misma gracia alza a un nivel sobrenatural a todo ser humano y le da los medios necesarios para cumplir, en el amor, ese destino en la única historia...»14. Pero antes de ser elaborada sistemáticamente por los teólogos era necesario que la experiencia de salvación fuese “practicada”, verificada – hecha verdad – en la vida de la comunidad eclesial. Desentrañar la génesis de esa “soteriología implícita” es el objetivo de estas reflexiones. Destacaremos tres aspectos que no deben ser considerados como etapas cronológicas: la transposición de la salvación en categorías de liberación; la salvación en la historia y su relación con la trascendencia; y la experiencia de lo escondido como otra forma evangélica de transformar y de estar presentes en la historia. Cuestiones vitales que se presentaban a la conciencia eclesial como “centros estratégicos” desde los cuales se fue reconstituyendo una manera nueva de ser Iglesia. Esta soteriología “vivida” no posee la misma lógica ni tiene por qué responder a los mismos problemas de una “soteriologia sistemática”. II. LA SALVACIÓN COMO LIBERACIÓN 1. El problema No se trataba sólo de una cuestión de lenguaje. Lo que estaba en juego era el modo de entender la salvación. Y de encarnarla. ¿Cómo transponer la experiencia para otro universo de significación? Porque el lenguaje no es

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inocente. “Salvarse”, “salva tu alma”, “salvación eterna”, etc. son expresiones que por sí mismas dejan transparentar una manera de entender la salvación como una aventura individual que se desentiende de la historia para concentrarse en Dios y en una búsqueda de felicidad extramundana. Esa salvación había perdido, por un lado, su condición concreta, encarnada, histórica (sólo interesaba la “otra vida”) y, por otro, renunciaba a la vocación del hombre de ser responsable de la historia y, en concreto, de la suerte de su hermano (Gn 4,9; Mt 25,31-46). Pero ¿era posible utilizar un concepto socio-político como “liberación” – profano a primera vista – para expresar algo tan fundamental como la salvación cristiana? El miedo de los “reduccionismos” hacía sospechosa esta palabra para la fe. Pero nadie se preguntaba el por qué de una salvación tan desencarnada. Los avatares del tiempo habían borrado de la memoria cristiana la palabra “liberación”. Y, sin embargo, su presencia en la Escritura es incontestable. Y con significaciones muy concretas. Lo que no se aplica sólo al Antiguo Testamento. Es también una palabra central en el Nuevo Testamento y en la proclamación que hace Jesús del Reino de Dios (Lc 4,18-19)15. Lo vieron en seguida los Obispos latinoamericanos en Medellín16. El contexto de opresión y dependencia del Continente era suficiente para explicar que la praxis cristiana haya echado mano con tanta naturalidad del término “liberación”17. La Congregación para la Doctrina de la Fe lo tuvo que reconocer más tarde – en su polémica con la teología de la liberación – al afirmar que «la poderosa y casi irresistible aspiración de los pueblos a la liberación constituye uno de los principales signos de los tiempos que la Iglesia tiene que escrutar e interpretar a la luz del evangelio»18. Transponer el concepto de “salvación” en un lenguaje de “liberación” era lícito y además necesario. Pero no se trataba en primer lugar de una operación especulativa sino de discernir una experiencia. ¿Era capaz la praxis eclesial de liberación de traducir fielmente lo que significaba el anuncio cristiano de la salvación? Someterla al criterio del evangelio era el camino para verificar la consistencia de tal experiencia. El encuentro con la vida de Jesús como salvación en actos fue la referencia para esa “soteriología vivida”. 2. Jesús y su misión La lectura asidua del evangelio como Palabra de Dios se tornó parte integrante de la vida de las comunidades19. Ése fue el camino de un “encuentro” con la persona de Jesús que, poco a poco, fue adquiriendo los rasgos concretos que posee en los evangelios. En él descubrió la comunidad eclesial en qué consiste una existencia “salvada”, una vida humana rescatada y qué es concretamente “salvación en actos”.

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En Jesús la salvación se convertía en “buena noticia”, tomaba cuerpo en la historia y se hacía visible en cosas tan “materiales” como recuperar la vista, saciar el hambre o volver a andar; en cosas tan humanas como compartir la vida y la mesa con los que eran mal vistos por la sociedad, liberar al hombre de los “malos espíritus” que lo dilaceran y lo dividen por dentro (diábolos) o sencillamente en el gesto de acoger, perdonar y devolver a una persona la esperanza de llegar a ser ella misma. La imagen del “Reino de Dios” traducía para Jesús lo que era el sueño de Dios para el pueblo de Israel, lo que podría suceder si Israel dejase a Dios ser su rey, el único “señor” soberano de su historia. En Jesús – “en hechos y palabras”: gestos, actitudes, conflicto con las autoridades, crítica del poder o de las instituciones, etc. – hacía irrupción una alternativa real de vivir y organizar la sociedad. “Reino de Dios” era una manera de entender la vida en todas sus dimensiones (Reino, como realidad histórica). Y aquello en lo que descansa la vida, el sentido último y personal de la realidad (Reino de Dios como Padre). Fuera de este horizonte sería imposible comprender la vida y la misión de Jesús20. Con la categoría “Reino de Dios” Jesús expresaba, sin poder separarlas, la comprensión que tenía de sí mismo, de la vida y de Dios. La razón profunda de su entrega incondicional a los otros, su capacidad de desvivirse por los demás y por el Reino era mucho más que altruismo. Era un modo de ser hombre: ser él mismo teniendo su centro “fuera de sí”. La experiencia de Dios como “Abba” era el suelo, el fundamento, la tierra natal del hombre Jesús. Jesús era así porque así era Dios para los hombres. La praxis de la Iglesia latinoamericana – y concretamente lo que vendría a significar su “opción por los pobres” – encontró su justificación y fundamento en ese “estilo” de Jesús y en la experiencia que lo funda. Los pobres eran los primeros destinatarios del Reino. Y entre ellos se situó Jesús. Hecho fundamental que significó para la Iglesia latinoamericana aprender a situarse y a tomar partido dentro de una sociedad dividida. Estar entre los pobres fue una opción, una manera consciente de ser Iglesia. Y, al mismo tiempo, una perspectiva, el horizonte hermenéutico para leer de otro modo la palabra de Dios y encontrar en ella nuevos sentidos. Es el círculo hermenéutico entre vida y fe, entre vida y teología21. En Jesús fue descubriendo la comunidad eclesial que el Reino de Dios toma cuerpo en una historia que no es neutra. No sólo por no haber sido tocada aún por el anuncio del Reino sino porque se opone a él positivamente, resiste y se organiza en la forma de antirreino. Por eso el Reino tiene un carácter agónico y libertador. Agónico porque se dirige a libertades, encuentra resistencias, enfrenta oposiciones, se expone a peligros. Y libertador, porque tiene que abrirse camino en medio de todo tipo de obstáculos. Por eso es siempre liberación de alguien (personas concretas) y de algo (situaciones que oprimen, condiciones que no dejan vivir).

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La seriedad de ese carácter agónico del Reino de Dios en Jesús enseñó también a la comunidad eclesial que servir al Reino podía costar la vida. La militancia y el compromiso no son el único modo de servir al Reino. El martirio podía ser el último y supremo servicio a la vida. Llegó un momento en el que Jesús, que se desvivía por el Reino, ya no podía o no tenía más que hacer por el Reino. Entonces dio su vida. En esa aparente “impotencia” del darse es donde mejor se manifiesta que la vida es un don. Jesús la da porque le ha sido dada para entregarla. Prueba suprema de amor (Jn 15,13). De un amor más fuerte que la muerte. Este aspecto es muy claro en la misión de Jesús. Su vida fue un compromiso por la vida. El “anuncio” del Reino se hacía real en sus “gestos poderosos” que eran “signos” del Reino: apuntaban hacia él y lo anticipaban. Curar, expulsar demonios, devolver la vida, etc. era luchar contra todo lo que oprime, hace sufrir y amenaza o disminuye la vida. Por eso el punto de partida de esa “lucha” de Jesús eran siempre aquellos cuya vida estaba amenazada de alguna manera, los “pequeños”, los que se quedan “afuera”. Y ese era el sentido de las curaciones: devolver la vida e introducir en una vida – física y social – plena22. Porque la vida aspira siempre a un “más”. Y en ese “exceso”, en ese trascenderse de la vida se insinúa la otra “trascendencia”. Hacia ella apunta el gesto – tan sorprendente como poderoso – de Jesús al unir “curaciones” y “perdón de los pecados” (Mc 2, 5). Hay que “curar” la vida en la raíz, libertarla no sólo de “los males” que la amenazan sino de “el Maligno”23. Por eso, el Reino proclamado por Jesús “en hechos y palabras” no deja de ser de Dios por ser del hombre y para el hombre. Y así se revela la “trascendencia” del Dios de Jesús: como vida que hace vivir abriendo la historia por dentro al “más” que la constituye, como realidad de la que no podemos disponer, presencia sorprendente y desconcertante, Dios “siempre mayor” cuanto más se entierra y se identifica con lo “menor”. La “salvación” que es Jesús se va haciendo histórica sin que por eso tenga que cerrarse en sí misma o negar su sentido “mayor”. 3. Las cristologías Haber aprendido al lado de Jesús qué es el Reino de Dios y qué hay que hacer por él fue decisivo para transponer la experiencia de “salvación” en lenguaje de “liberación”. Antes incluso de haber oído hablar de cristologías “desde América Latina”. Pero es innegable que la investigación cristológica estableció fundamentos – exegéticos y teológicos – para hacer una relectura contextualizada de la persona de Jesús y ayudó a purificar así la imagen de Jesús que la cristología tradicional había depositado en el imaginario de las comunidades24. Como toda cristología moderna, también la cristología latinoamericana hizo su lectura histórico-teológica de la vida de Jesús, situándola dentro del

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contexto religioso, social y político de Palestina en aquella época y rescatando toda su densidad concreta. Pero no se trataba de un falso retorno al “Jesús histórico” sino de devolver a la fe en Jesucristo toda su significación histórica. Por detrás de esa aparente convergencia de intereses se ocultaban perspectivas muy diferentes. Para la cristología latinoamericana la recuperación de la historia de Jesús no tenía un objetivo teórico sino eminentemente práctico: elaborar una cristología que fuese históricamente significativa. La figura de Jesús tenía que iluminar las situaciones en las que había que vivir la fe e inspirar la praxis concreta de los cristianos. La historia de Jesús era importante sobre todo como criterio de seguimiento. Así se explican ciertas opciones de la cristología latinoamericana. Insistir en la centralidad del “Reino de Dios”, privilegiar la “praxis” de Jesús o descubrir las causas históricas – políticas y religiosas – de su muerte no era ningún acto arbitrario o reductor, ni se podía equiparar a las llamadas lecturas “políticas” o “materialistas” del evangelio. Era una opción consciente, justificada por el contexto en que se hacía la lectura. Era sencillamente privilegiar esos rasgos – que nadie podría borrar del evangelio – como puerta de acceso a la totalidad de la persona de Jesús. No era necesario abandonar la fe para que el evangelio volviese a hablar de manera encarnada. Era suficiente leerlo como lo que era de hecho: una palabra histórica de Dios sobre la vida de los hombres. Palabra hecha carne. Y, por eso mismo, sentido para la historia humana. Pero lo que había de salvación en esa palabra aparece en la totalidad de la vida, muerte y resurrección de Jesús. El “salva” una historia humana por dentro llevándola a la plenitud. Por eso, hablando con rigor, se puede afirmar que, desde la perspectiva de la cristología clásica y de la teología de la encarnación, que no tienen historia, es imposible una soteriología adecuada. Habría que preguntarse si la cristología latinoamericana valorizó suficientemente esta nueva perspectiva distanciándose claramente de lo que podían ser en ella reflejos de una tradición unilateral25. 4. Resultados A la luz de la vida y de la misión de Jesús la Iglesia latinoamericana comprendió de otra manera el contenido y las características de la “salvación”. El Reino de Dios tal como lo proclamaba y lo ponía en práctica Jesús desautorizaba las falsas oposiciones en las que se había refugiado la concepción tradicional de la “salvación”. Porque el “Reino de Dios” era una realidad totalizante que abarcaba todas las dimensiones de la persona: lo material no se oponía a lo espiritual, lo personal no excluía lo social, ni lo histórico negaba lo trascendente. Nada ni nadie podía quedar fuera de lo que significa el designio de Dios para los hombres. Y, al mismo tiempo, era

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una realidad dialéctica: es trascendente sin abandonar la historia, es de todos privilegiando a los pobres, es social siendo personal, es don de Dios sin dejar de ser responsabilidad del hombre, germina misteriosamente en la historia pero apunta hacia una plenitud que la supera. La “salvación” es el don que Dios hace de sí mismo al hombre; “salvación”, por lo tanto, es comunión de vida. Y esa vida – que es comunión con Dios – es única y sólo puede ser eterna. Desde ahí se podía comprender la “salvación” como “liberación”, y transponer la categoría “Reino de Dios” en categorías antropológicas. El designio de Dios para el hombre – su “gloria” como decía S. Ireneo – es que la vida humana termine en Dios. Si Jesús vino para que todos tengan vida en plenitud (Jn 10,10), la humanización pertenece por dentro, intrínsecamente, a la “salvación”; “libertar” a los hombres de todo lo que los des- humaniza es una tarea salvífica. La transposición antropológica del Reino de Dios exigía una experiencia espiritual consecuente. Traducir las categorías y las estructuras de la “vida espiritual” de un universo religioso para un universo socio-político significaba devolver su densidad histórica a los conceptos más fundamentales de la fe, empezando por el concepto mismo de Dios y pasando por toda la antropología cristiana (conceptos tradicionales como gracia, pecado, religioso, espiritual, divino, oración, contemplación etc.). III. SALVACIÓN DE LA HISTORIA Y TRASCENDENCIA EN LA HISTORIA 1. El desafío El problema del lenguaje era sólo la punta de un “iceberg”. Lo que preocupaba en la Iglesia de América Latina – y, como consecuencia, en la teología de la liberación – era su “manera de ser Iglesia”. Porque llevar a serio su “particularidad” como Iglesia era introducir la vida misma en la definición de su identidad teológica. La referencia a la situación en la tenía que vivir la fe – el contexto cultural y socio-político – se convertía en parte integrante de su autocomprensión, de la conciencia que tenía de sí misma y de su misión. La Iglesia en América Latina optó decididamente por definirse como Iglesia siguiendo el camino que va de lo histórico a lo teológico. O en términos más conocidos, de lo “profano” a lo “sagrado”. Camino inverso al conocido y practicado por la “Iglesia universal”. Polémico, por lo mismo, y difícil de ser asimilado. En el panorama del cristianismo contemporáneo la Iglesia de América Latina representaba el intento de transponer la totalidad de la experiencia cristiana en el lenguaje de la “razón secular”, concretamente socio-política, y de vivirla dentro de una sociedad de clases y desde un lugar social (la opción por los pobres) atravesado por todos los conflictos ideológicos

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inherentes a la razón socio-política. Esa era su “novedad”. Y la razón del miedo que suscitaba. Porque esa “transposición socio-política” de la experiencia cristiana chocaba con la “transposición religiosa” a la que nos había acostumbrado la historia del cristianismo. No se trata de discutir aquí la posibilidad teórica de ese intento. Lo que interesa es saber si, entrando por ese camino, la Iglesia latinoamericana se mantuvo fiel al evangelio y a la tradición. La respuesta no es evidente a priori. En las décadas de 70 y 80 la Iglesia de América Latina causó no poca aprensión en ciertos ámbitos de la Iglesia universal. La Congregación para la Doctrina de la Fe, por ejemplo, llegó a afirmar sin rodeos que la interpretación de la fe y de la existencia cristiana propuesta – según el documento – por la teología de la liberación se alejaba de tal manera de la fe tradicional que configuraba una verdadera ruptura con la tradición26. Una afirmación tan contundente sólo se justifica por miedo de que la experiencia cristiana sucumba a la lógica inherente a la “racionalidad política”, expresión, en este caso, de la “razón secular”. Secular porque reduce el horizonte de sentido del ser humano a la inmanencia del mundo y de la historia, hija como es de la ciencia moderna, por un lado, y de una filosofía que constituyó al “sujeto” pensante en punto de referencia único de la inteligibilidad de lo real y de la instauración de sentido. En la moderna “razón secular” no hay espacio para la trascendencia. Los rasgos de la moderna “razón secular” representan una ruptura evidente con la tradición cristiana. De hecho, al pasar del judaísmo al helenismo, el cristianismo se sirvió de una razón – la razón griega – que era fundamentalmente metafísica y se movía dentro de una visión religiosa del universo. Dos características que permiten comprender por qué el cristianismo se sintió tan a gusto con la “razón antigua” y se siente tan molesto con la “razón moderna”. Porque la razón griega respondía a su exigencia de “logos”, de inteligibilidad (por ser metafísica) y a su visión teocéntrica de la historia (por ser religiosa). Así se explica que a lo largo de la historia hayan prevalecido en la manera de expresar la experiencia de fe el talante racional y la preferencia por categorías religiosas. Por eso causaba temor la experiencia de la Iglesia latinoamericana. ¿Al transponer la experiencia cristiana en el universo da la racionalidad social y política la fe no acabaría siendo víctima de los presupuestos de la “razón secular”, es decir, la exclusión de cualquier referencia a un Dios trascendente y la inmanencia total del sentido en la historia? En el fondo, es lo que el citado documento achaca a la teología de la liberación: su intento de traducir la fe en el lenguaje de la razón político-social confundía, por un lado, Reino de Dios y liberación humana y, por otro, identificaba a Dios con la historia27. El primado de la praxis, la politización radical de la existencia cristiana, la substitución de la mística por la acción y la inversión de los símbolos cristianos en clave de compromiso social serían algunas de las consecuencias de esa interpretación reductora de la fe.

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No es éste el momento de discutir si esa lectura hace justicia a la experiencia de la Iglesia en América Latina. Lo que sí cabe preguntarse es si la “lógica interna” de la “razón moderna” es tan implacable. Y además si la fe cristiana no posee en sí misma elementos que le permitan situarse en el terreno de la “razón moderna” y de vivir en un mundo secular sin sucumbir a sus presupuestos. Porque la “razón moderna” además de una lógica interna tiene también causas históricas que explican su evolución y permitirían otra interpretación de su “ateísmo” y de su cerrazón a la trascendencia. Y el cristianismo, por su parte, tiene en su evento más original y específico – el acontecimiento Jesús de Nazaret – una inmanencia en la historia que no excluye la trascendencia pero hace posible el diálogo con el mundo secular. Pero ¿en qué consiste la originalidad cristiana de la historia? ¿Y cómo entender su trascendencia? Para la identidad y misión de la Iglesia latinoamericana era vital repensar esos conceptos tan centrales. 2. Dos conceptos fundamentales La teología cristiana es, por esencia, una teología de la historia. Confesar a Jesús de Nazaret como Cristo es reconocer que su vida es palabra humana de Dios. “Creer” en él es afirmar de manera absoluta este hombre – su vida e historia – en nombre de Dios. Y, por lo tanto, reconocer que en esa historia hay algo de último y definitivo. Jesucristo es la palabra indivisible sobre el hombre, la historia y Dios. El “sentido” se encuentra en la historia y en ella nos alcanza, pero trascendiéndola. Trascendencia de origen y de destino. El mundo, el hombre y la historia nacen del gesto gratuito de Dios que se entrega en amor. Y hacia él se dirigen. La visión unitaria de la historia es una de esas convicciones que se fue imponiendo poco a poco a la conciencia cristiana. Recogida por el Concilio, esa perspectiva se convirtió en uno de los presupuestos de la teología de la liberación28. De hecho, histórica, concreta y existencialmente, sólo existe el hombre llamado a la comunión con Dios. Este es el único proyecto de Dios y la única vocación del hombre29. La única y misma historia es historia del hombre con Dios y de Dios con el hombre. Relación que está suspendida de la libertad humana. Porque ése es el riesgo de Dios. Pero, aun con ese riesgo, la vocación a una vida plena será siempre el horizonte definitivo de la historia humana30. La historia humana – profana en cierto sentido – sin perder su consistencia (o lo que hoy llamamos autonomía) es lugar de revelación y de salvación o perdición. No se trata de negar las diferencias entre humano y divino, por ejemplo, ni de suprimir la diversidad de planos. Lo que está en juego es la unidad de la experiencia. Y, sobre todo, la originalidad cristiana de la historia. Y, desde ahí, la posibilidad de vivir en un mundo secular sin sucumbir a sus presupuestos31.

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Toda y cualquier ulterior distinción de planos tiene que arrancar y volver a esta primera y fundamental unidad. Las distinciones son necesarias. Pero distinguir – como muy pronto nos enseñó la gramática calcedonense – no significa separar. Y mucho menos oponer. Sin que eso nos condene a los reduccionismos de guardia que pretenden conseguir la unidad suprimiendo uno de los términos de la tensión. La “diferencia” cristiana no consiste en contraponer (o humano o divino), ni siquiera en yuxtaponer (humano y divino), sino en afirmar la unidad manteniendo y respetando la diversidad (lo humano en lo divino; lo divino en la humano). Sin una teología consecuente de la encarnación la fe cristiana pierde su “diferencia” y estará amenazada siempre de introducir en la existencia cristiana separaciones que son pre-cristianas. El lugar de la existencia cristiana es el “mundo”. Y su materia concreta la realidad humana. La “diferencia” cristiana consiste en configurar esa realidad de otra forma, según la norma que es Jesucristo. No es necesario huir del mundo para “salvarse”, ni hace falta abandonarlo para encontrar a Dios. Durante mucho tiempo, sin embargo, el mensaje cristiano de la salvación se había expresado en categorías religiosas de “salvación extramundana”. ¿Era posible traducirlo en categorías históricas sin “mundanizarlo”? ¿Transponer la salvación en la inmanencia de la historia significaba renunciar a lo que tiene de absoluto y definitivo? ¿O hay algo específico y totalmente original en la trascendencia cristiana? Recuperar la “diferencia” cristiana de la trascendencia significaba, en primer lugar, “cristianizarla”, o sea confrontarla con Jesucristo. Lo que suponía admitir que el concepto de trascendencia usado por la teología podía estar contaminado con ideas y perspectivas pre-cristianas. Y, por lo tanto, que se podría haber introducido en la manera tradicional de pensar la trascendencia algo que impide recoger la novedad cristiana32. Para elaborar de modo consecuente un concepto cristiano de trascendencia era necesario volver a la paradoja de la encarnación, esa difícil armonía existencial de contrarios o, en términos lógicos, esa afirmación simultánea de dos realidades que lógicamente se excluyen (para-doxa en el sentido etimológico de la palabra). En régimen cristiano, lo “Absoluto” y lo “trascendente” nos alcanza en el evento que es Jesús de Nazaret. Atravesando sus gestos y palabras, en sus opciones, en su manera de humanizar lo des-humanizado. En su apuesta por el sentido, en el amor urgido por las necesidades de los otros, en la vida dada para que haya vida más justa: ahí es donde se deja ver para el cristiano “el Absoluto”. La trascendencia del Dios y Padre de Jesucristo, por haberse identificado con la historia humana de Jesús, se manifiesta en su entrega al hombre en la historia. Por eso Jesús salva la historia desde dentro y por dentro; la salva de sí misma abriéndola al “más” de Dios que es imprevisible y que no se deja manipular. En Jesucristo la trascendencia se da en la inmanencia, es una trascendencia histórica y personal. No es la

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trascendencia separada del que está “fuera” o “mas allá”, sino la presencia amorosa de quien empuja la historia hacia un “más” sin alejarse de ella33. El sentido verdadero de la salvación cristiana no es el “espiritual” sino la búsqueda de una plenitud que pasa por la historia transformándola por dentro. Y obligándola de esa forma a trascenderse. Hay, por lo tanto, una salvación histórica que no se opone a lo que se entiende por “salvación absoluta”. Trabajar por un mundo más justo y más humano es reproducir históricamente el amor compasivo de Dios que se inclina sobre el mundo para libertarlo, es hacer operativo el modo de ser de Dios, es imprimir en el mundo un “espíritu” nuevo que es el sello de Dios. En eso consiste la “diferencia” cristiana con relación a otras experiencias de salvación: en haber introducido lo “absoluto” de la salvación en lo contingente de la historia humana sin reducirlo a la inmanencia. Para el cristiano, por lo tanto, no debería ser imposible vivir en un mundo secular sin sucumbir a sus presupuestos. Sin embargo, para soportar ese peso la existencia cristiana tiene que ser traducida en otras categorías. 3. La “condición cristiana” en el mundo La expresión puede parecer redundante. ¿Dónde se podría vivir la experiencia sino en el mundo? Y, sin embargo, esta expresión puede sonar extraña a muchos oídos que están acostumbrados a identificar lo cristiano con lo religioso o con lo espiritual. Es decir con algo “no mundano”. Las consecuencias funestas de esa dicotomía se hacen sentir hasta hoy en una espiritualidad desencarnada, en lo que el Vaticano II denunció como divorcio entre fe y vida34, y en el modo de entender la misión del cristiano y de la Iglesia “en el mundo”. Para salir de ese círculo, en apariencia vicioso, es necesario, por un lado, que la teología critique y desenmascare lo que hay de menos cristiano en ciertas “espiritualidades” y, por otro, que se articule coherentemente lo que ya existe de nuevo en ciertas experiencias eclesiales. Sólo cuando una manera nueva de entender y vivir la existencia cristiana sea la matriz conceptual de un nuevo lenguaje podrá surgir una “espiritualidad consecuente”. Eso exigiría, en primer lugar, una nueva teología del mundo y de la creación. La praxis de liberación obligó a la Iglesia latinoamericana a situarse en pleno “mundo”. En realidad, la Iglesia siempre estuvo situada en el mundo. Porque hace parte de él, aun sin “ser del mundo”. ¿Dónde podría encarnarse si no la experiencia cristiana? ¿Y cuál podría ser su contenido sino la materia de la realidad humana – personal y social – vivida “según el Espíritu” y transfigurada por el espíritu de las bienaventuranzas35? El “mundo”, además de ser el único “lugar” donde puede vivir la Iglesia, es el destinatario de su misión.

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¿Qué había de nuevo entonces en esa actitud? La conciencia de que la relación con el mundo no era algo exterior a la Iglesia, un apéndice añadido después, sino una relación constitutiva de su mismo ser, de su “misterio”, para hablar como la Lumen Gentium. Lo que llevaba consigo enfrentarse con problemas y realidades “profanos”, ajenos a primera vista al que sería el terreno natural y propio de su misión: el ámbito de lo “espiritual”. Y eso no podía dejar de afectar la manera de entender la misión de la Iglesia y la condición del cristiano en el mundo. Pero era necesaria una nueva teología de la creación para poder aceptar que la relación con el mundo sea constitutiva del ser y de la misión de la Iglesia. Una visión pesimista del mundo – más pagana que cristiana – había marcado profundamente una tradición espiritual. El mundo no es únicamente el lugar del anti-Reino o de las fuerzas organizadas del mal, ni puede ser reducido a mera realidad instrumental, un “medio” utilizado para alcanzar la salvación “extramundana”. Si la Iglesia puede ser designada con propiedad como “sacramentum mundi” es porque, para la fe, el mundo tiene consistencia teológica en sí mismo, antes de la llegada de la Iglesia o del anuncio cristiano. La densidad teológica de la creación es, para el cristiano, la consecuencia lógica de una “cristología consecuente”. Es lo que hace el Nuevo Testamento al releer el relato del Génesis en clave de “creación en Cristo” (Ef 1,3-14; Col 1,12-20). La encarnación no es un accidente en el curso de la historia, provocado por la emergencia fatal del pecado, sino la suprema expresión de lo que fue siempre el “sueño de Dios”. Dios creó al hombre pensando en Jesucristo. El Hombre – verdadero, nuevo y definitivo – es Jesús resucitado. Pero lo que se revela en el caso único e irrepetible que es Jesucristo sólo es posible (y comprensible) si la creación en sí misma ya es el acto de Dios dándose y no un mero presupuesto extrínseco para que Dios pueda darse. El acto de crear ya es gracia, vida de Dios transbordando hacia afuera. Y, por eso mismo, relación personal. Esa comunión es el sentido inscrito en lo más profundo de la realidad creada. La salvación no viene “después” ni se añade “desde afuera” al mundo. Como realidad creada para “ser más”, el mundo es el lugar de la revelación y de la salvación36. Esta relación constitutiva configura por dentro al mundo como mundo humano y alcanza en Jesucristo el grado más alto de personalización. En Jesús de Nazaret, Dios entra en la historia humana y abre en ella, desde dentro, la posibilidad infinita de ser más que humana: historia de Dios. Habría que ser más osados en términos cristianos. Si el mundo “habla de Dios” no es sólo por los dones que Dios depositó en él. El mundo es teologal por dentro, porque está constituido en esa relación criatural. El optimismo cristiano no es ingenuo porque brota de la experiencia del amor mayor que nos precede y de la esperanza que deja en la historia la plenitud alcanzada por el Resucitado. Por eso, la actitud cristiana ante el mundo no

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puede ser el abandono ni la fuga. La responsabilidad por la historia es el otro lado del optimismo cristiano. Sin estos presupuestos – implícitos o explícitos – sería imposible entender la praxis de liberación de la Iglesia latinoamericana y su opción por los pobres como expresión concreta de su misión y servicio al mundo. De esa forma tan encarnada la relación con el mundo se convertía en algo constitutivo de su identidad y de su misión. La originalidad de la reflexión latinoamericana no estaba tanto en el tratamiento teórico del problema cuanto en su postulado práctico: la convicción de que la fidelidad al Espíritu que la conducía por ese camino tenía que tener consistencia teológica. Una nueva “condición cristiana” en el mundo tendrá que sacar las consecuencias que tiene para la experiencia espiritual y para la misión de la Iglesia pensarse desde la unidad de la historia y desde una teología más positiva del mundo. ¿Cómo ocultar la desintegración del lenguaje tradicional de la espiritualidad? Sin embargo, convive hasta hoy con prácticas nuevas y con teologías diferentes. Situación anómala y a largo plazo insostenible que sólo puede alimentar la esquizofrenia espiritual. ¿Qué significa, por ejemplo, dentro de una teología de la unidad de la historia o de la vocación única del hombre, el divorcio entre fe y vida cotidiana que el Concilio denunció con vehemencia? ¿Por qué los cristianos están ausentes de lo “temporal” y no se interesan en transformar con su presencia actuante estas realidades? ¿Qué unidad puede tener la experiencia cristiana – personal y eclesial – cuando se sigue afirmando que la misión de la Iglesia es de naturaleza religiosa37? Lo mínimo que se puede decir es que la expresión es ambigua porque alimenta otra vez las dicotomías entre temporal y espiritual, profano y sagrado, etc. Para el cristiano, sin embargo, lo temporal puede ser eterno, lo espiritual puede consistir en dar de comer al que tiene hambre, lo verdaderamente sagrado es el hombre y no hay nada pro-fano a no ser lo que el hombre profana, apartándolo de su dignidad última, separando lo humano de Dios. Lo mismo habría que decir de la experiencia de la salvación. Viejas expresiones, profundamente arraigadas en el imaginario cristiano, como “salvarse”, “salvar su alma”, “salvación eterna”, etc. son todo un resumen de una salvación vista como aventura individual, como busca de una felicidad “extramundana”, al margen de la historia. La salvación cristiana es totalizante e indivisible: material y espiritual, individual y social, humana y divina. Todo está con-vocado a entrar en la plenitud de vida de Dios. Las categorías en las que se expresó tradicionalmente la mal llamada “espiritualidad cristiana” se hacen añicos cuando se trata de realizar la unidad entre experiencia de Dios, responsabilidad por la historia y salvación eterna. Porque las categorías tradicionales estaban construidas sobre dicotomías que aparentemente protegían la experiencia espiritual de

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“mundanizarse” pero, en la práctica, acababan ocultando lo que hay de más original en la experiencia cristiana: la unión de contrarios. La salvación es salvación de la historia y en la historia, aunque no se agote en ella. La vida “eterna” no es la “otra vida” sino esta misma vida llevada hasta el límite de sus posibilidades38. Y el Dios cristiano siempre será el Dios de esta relación con el hombre. En el “tiempo” es donde se conjugan la acción de Dios y la del hombre, lo absoluto y lo relativo de la salvación, la inmanencia y la trascendencia. Nada menos cristiano que abandonar la historia a su propio desespero. Lo que sucede no sólo cuando el cristiano cae en la tentación del “inmanentismo” sino también cuando huye de la historia39. Pero todo esto exigiría una teología cristiana del “tiempo” en la historia. Ni forma vacía, ni eterno retorno de lo mismo, ni pura monotonía de un desarrollo linear (kronos). Para el cristiano el “tiempo” es lo que ad-viene (lo que se gesta, lo que va madurando) entre la creación (primer acto de la entrega que Dios hace de sí) y la escatología (la realización plena). Por eso, a los ojos de la fe, el tiempo está habitado, la historia está preñada de sentido (kairós) y tiende – está tensa, distendida – hacia un “télos”. La historia sólo puede descansar yendo hasta el fin. En eso consiste la responsabilidad cristiana: en hacerla ir hasta el fin. Pero la historia tiene muchos ardides que nos desconciertan. Esa es la experiencia de la Iglesia latinoamericana en los últimos años. IV. LAS LECCIONES DEL «EXILIO» 1. ¿Compás de espera? Al mirar retrospectivamente los últimos 10 ó 15 años no sería difícil reconocer en ellos el comienzo de una nueva etapa. La Iglesia latinoamericana está siendo obligada a definir otra vez su “modo de ser Iglesia” en un contexto social, cultural y religioso diferente. Los contornos de esta etapa no son todavía muy claros. Por eso es un momento delicado que va siendo configurado por medio de opciones no siempre discernidas con lucidez. La historia no caminó como habían imaginado tantos hombres y mujeres dedicados generosamente a la causa de la justicia. El sueño de una sociedad más justa parece cada vez más irreal. Una serie de factores contribuyeron para deshacer ese sueño: el agotamiento de los movimientos sociales y políticos, el fracaso del socialismo real, el desencanto con las grandes utopías, etc. La globalización de la economía impuso, de manera cruel y sin piedad, las nuevas reglas del juego social. Aumentaron las desigualdades y la pobreza. A su vez, la modernidad arrastró los valores tradicionales y configuró con sus rasgos típicos un nuevo tejido social. Los efectos de la

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mentalidad moderna no hacen acepción de personas. En sus redes caen lo mismo ricos que pobres, individuos que grupos. Por otro lado, la desconcertante evolución de la Iglesia post-conciliar hacía sentir sus efectos también en la Iglesia de América Latina. Un cambio de rumbo se presentía en la metamórfosis del Episcopado40 y en las nuevas sensibilidades pastorales41. Así se explica la crisis existencial que se apoderó de muchos cristianos que habían gastado sus vidas por los pobres, luchando por una sociedad más justa. Ni la Iglesia ni la teología podían cerrar los ojos ante esa nueva situación. No es necesario ser muy perspicaz para darse cuenta que tal situación modifica en profundidad la cuestión de la “salvación como liberación”. La tarea ingente de “salvar” esa historia había entrado en un callejón sin salida. El lenguaje del militantismo no encuentra eco en las personas porque ya no corresponde a su experiencia. El paradigma del “éxodo”, que había alimentado la etapa de la liberación, se convírtió sin esperarlo en una experiencia de “exilio”. La Iglesia se siente como desterrada, “fuera de lugar”, reducida a la impotencia y al silencio. 2. Perplejidad eclesial Dos tentaciones acosan a la Iglesia en este momento. La primera dar por encerrada la etapa de su compromiso con los pobres, con todo lo que representaron esos 30 años. La tentación no es imaginaria. Y muchos encontrarán razones para justificarla. Pero sería una infidelidad a lo que el Espíritu vino diciendo a la Iglesia en esos años. Además de ser una deshonestidad con la realidad. La exclusión social crece de modo clamoroso. La opción por los pobres es una opción evangélica a la que no se puede renunciar. Que haya que encontrar otra manera de vivirla no quiere decir que la Iglesia pueda dar marcha atrás. La segunda tentación es la de sucumbir al espejismo de lo religioso y del número. Dos aspectos que están relacionados. El pluralismo religioso amenaza la soberanía absoluta del catolicismo. La fuga de muchos fieles hacia otros grupos religiosos se lee en algunos medios eclesiales en clave cuantitativa: disminución numérica y pérdida de la hegemonía del catolicismo. La reacción no consigue superar el síndrome de lo mensurable. Por eso la respuesta no va más allá de la afirmación de la visibilidad. Lo que importa es movilizar multitudes explotando por todos los medios la ambigüedad de lo “religioso” y de lo “sagrado”. A la crisis existencial que se apoderó hace años del militantismo cristiano hace eco la perplejidad actual del Episcopado que no posee una palabra clara, ni para la compleja realidad social, ni para la confusa situación eclesial. ¿Cómo anunciar la salvación en una sociedad tan diferente de la de los años 60? No han desaparecido las causas que impulsaron la Iglesia a luchar por

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una sociedad más justa. Pero el clima social es diferente. Demandas contradictorias atraviesan un tejido social en el que rasgos de la cultura moderna se cruzan con expectativas de nuevos sujetos sociales y de minorías étnico-culturales, dentro de un panorama religioso muy heterogéneo. Es difícil, en este contexto, definir la “particularidad” de la Iglesia latinoamericana. La opción por los pobres y la lucha por la justicia, que hicieron posible su manera peculiar de ser y le dieron un rostro definido, son insuficientes hoy para establecer su identidad. La pobreza dejó de ser un asunto exclusivo del tercer mundo para trasformarse en un problema de todas las naciones. Por otro lado, surgieron problemas nuevos que se imponen de manera imperiosa a la conciencia de la Iglesia en América Latina. El impacto de la modernidad, la diversidad cultural, el pluralismo religioso son realidades con las que tiene que contar un anuncio responsable de la salvación. Es posible que la Iglesia latinoamericana sólo vuelva a recuperar su rostro propio, la “particularidad” que la caracterizó, cuando sea capaz de integrar en su misión estos nuevos desafíos. Integrarlos significa que esos aspectos no pueden ser considerados aisladamente, como alternativas posibles para la misión, sino que deben ser articulados en una unidad que traduzca lo específico de esta Iglesia “particular”. Entonces habrá encontrado de otra forma lo que hizo posible su manera peculiar de ser y la necesidad de pensar teológicamente esa diferencia. Y será capaz de responder de manera original a la nueva misión. 3. «Salvación» como «construcción de sentido» La alternativa a la “salvación como liberación” no puede ser la fuga de la historia. Ni replegarse en el mundo interior de lo “religioso” Es la ambigüedad de las dos tentaciones antes mencionadas. Devolver a la salvación su carácter concreto e histórico fue la lección aprendida con paciencia a lo largo de estos casi 40 años. Pero ¿qué significa esa concreción histórica hoy? El agravamiento de la exclusión social es un hecho innegable. Ignorarlo sería un acto irresponsable. Pero es evidente que por sí sólo ese aspecto no recoge los anhelos de salvación que hay en la sociedad. Para ser fiel a su misión la Iglesia latinoamericana tendrá que articular en una síntesis nueva el grito de los excluidos, la crisis de sentido que deriva del impacto de la modernidad y el desafío que plantea la búsqueda de lo “religioso”. Y en América Latina – aunque humanamente pueda parecer una causa sin futuro – el acento continuará recayendo en los pobres. No sólo por ser una exigencia evangélica sino porque en ella se puede decidir el futuro de la sociedad como un todo. En una sociedad que posee los medios necesarios para erradicar la pobreza, la presencia masiva de los pobres desnuda la insensibilidad de la sociedad moderna ante el sufrimiento del otro y es

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expresión del carácter des-humano de la sociedad actual. Continuar denunciando esa situación, no permitir que las conciencias se emboten ante ese dolor es tal vez el mayor servicio que la Iglesia puede prestar a la sociedad actual. El sentido de la vida exige una “refundación de lo humano” en bases que no sean los meros intereses económicos. Emerge así la cuestión del sentido que atormenta a la sociedad contemporánea. Un sentido que no se puede privatizar, reduciéndolo a su dimensión individual, a la búsqueda egoísta de felicidad. El sentido sólo puede existir como sentido para todos. La universalidad del sentido, por lo tanto, sólo es posible cuando integra en ella a los que “no cuentan”, a los que son el “deshecho” de una economía de consumo. Por eso es inevitable preguntarse si la cuestión del sentido – o la falta de sentido que domina en la sociedad moderna – no estaría relacionada con el hecho inadmisible de que dos terceras partes de la humanidad estén excluidas de una vida humana digna42. Aquí encontraría también su lugar la incontestable sed de trascendencia que se hace visible en el intrigante caleidoscopio post-moderno de lo religioso, presente también, con características propias, en la sociedad latinoamericana. Más allá de lo que pueda significar el horizonte de la trascendencia en la búsqueda de cada individuo se plantea la cuestión del papel que tiene la dimensión religiosa en la construcción de la sociedad. La evolución de la sociedad moderna y la crisis post-moderna podrían ser la prueba de que no es tan fácil para una sociedad constituirse al margen de toda y cualquier referencia a la trascendencia. Y de cuán difícil resulta la elaboración del sentido cuando la vida humana – personal y social – se “funda” únicamente desde lo humano, como pretendió la cultura occidental moderna. El llamado “retorno de lo religioso”, por más ambiguo que sea, podría ser la señal de que el problema no está resuelto. Por lo que se refiere a la salvación no sería inexacto afirmar que lo que está en evidencia es sobre todo su dimensión eclesial. En este momento el modo de anunciar la fe es tan importante como lo que se anuncia. O, con otras palabras, la primera y fundamental forma de anuncio es la vida. El anuncio de la salvación será significativo y digno de fe cuando la Iglesia – personas, estructuras, instituciones, estilo de vida – viva de manera “salvada”, cuando su vida dé testimonio de que la realidad humana puede ser configurada de otra forma. Pero eso equivale a desabsolutizar una cierta manera de entender la función mediadora de la Iglesia con relación a la salvación. Afirmar el primado de la vida en la mediación de la salvación significa, en primer lugar, aceptar que la Iglesia no es la fuente ni el origen de la salvación. Y, por lo tanto, que la salvación es una realidad mayor que la desborda por todas las partes. Por eso, cualquier intento de ponerle condiciones o de circunscribirla dentro de sus fronteras sería una forma de dominarla. El papel de la Iglesia es ponerse a su servicio. O, para utilizar una expresión a la que recurre con gusto el Vaticano II, ser “signo” e

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instrumento de salvación43. El signo es relativo y pone en relación: expresa, traduce, encarna lo que significa y apunta hacia su fuente y raíz: Jesucristo. Esta es una de las características de la situación de “exilio” en la que se encuentra la Iglesia latinoamericana. Desplazada del lugar social que había ocupado hasta ahora ella se siente en tierra extraña: sin palabra apropiada, sin proyectos claros, perpleja delante de una sociedad – cultural y religiosamente – plural; tiene que anunciar la salvación en medio de otros grupos que buscan y al lado de otras confesiones y grupos religiosos que “venden” sus propuestas. Todo contribuye para relativizar sus atribuciones con relación a la salvación. Al ser despojada socialmente de sus antiguos privilegios la Iglesia vive una verdadera kénosis histórica que la reduce a lo esencial. Reconocer y asumir ese despojo es condición de una “nueva evangelización” y de una manera nueva de hacerse servidora de la salvación. La experiencia de “exilio”, en segundo lugar, es el momento en que la Iglesia puede llegar a descubrir que la lucha por la transformación de la historia no es la única manera de servir a la salvación. No se trata de hacer de necesidad virtud. Es el otro lado de la mística, no la de la militancia sino la del servicio. Las parábolas del Reino lo expresan en la imagen de la semilla enterrada. En contraposición a la fascinación de las grandes causas se trata de descubrir el valor de lo escondido, de lo que no hace alarde, de lo pequeño. Y experimentar que la vida en apariencia “perdida” y el servicio oculto pueden ser dimensiones de salvación tan importantes y decisivas como la del compromiso. Porque la salvación de la historia pasa por la renovación de las raíces. Sólo se humaniza siendo humanos; sólo se liberta siendo libres; sólo se salva viviendo como “salvados”. La salvación – como la construcción de un mundo con sentido – pasa por el riesgo de la libertad44. Y por la paciencia de aceptar que la historia madure lentamente. Reducida a ser un grupo o una comunidad de sentido entre los diferentes grupos que componen la sociedad, la Iglesia tendrá que acostumbrarse a aceptar que la “buena noticia” que ella proclama sea una propuesta al lado de otras. Y que siendo una y particular no deje de ser para todos. Pero lo será únicamente si lo que la comunidad cristiana propone y lo que pone en práctica, es decir, lo que vive con los otros les puede aparecer como algo “sensato”, como algo en lo que también ellos se pueden reconocer. Y este sería el tercer aspecto, el último rasgo de esa nueva manera de entender el servicio de la Iglesia a la salvación: entrar con todos en esa búsqueda de sentido y colaborar desde su experiencia específica en la “construcción humana del sentido”, en la edificación de un mundo sensato. Este papel puede parecer demasiado “profano” y poco “espiritual”. Pero no hay cómo negar que la Iglesia estaría prolongando así lo que fue la función humanizadora de la vida y de la misión de Jesús. Y actualizando de manera adecuada lo que significó en las décadas pasadas su dedicación a la liberación como servicio a la historia. ¿No podría ser ése el nombre de la “salvación” en un mundo que busca desesperadamente un sentido para

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vivir? Animar, inspirar, dar sentido, transmitiendo el sentido encontrado en Jesucristo. ¿No es lo que quería decir el A Diogneto al atribuir a los cristianos de los primeros siglos del cristianismo el papel de “alma del mundo”?

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¿CONCLUSIÓN U OBERTURA? La reelaboración del mensaje de la salvación desde las exigencias y desafíos de una Iglesia particular – la de América Latina – es una muestra concreta de lo que está llamada a ser hoy la misión evangelizadora. Para devolver al anuncio de la salvación su capacidad de ser “buena noticia” para hombres y mujeres de una cultura y de una sociedad determinada, era necesario no contentarse con repetir lo ya conocido ni dar por supuesto que se sabe de antemano qué es creer en Jesucristo o qué salvación nos trae su evangelio. La Iglesia de América Latina tuvo que someter a crítica la evangelización tradicional, aceptar que la fe podía estar contaminada por ideologías a las que daba un soporte, y enfrentar el anuncio como verdadera “misión”. No a los “paganos” sino a “cristianos” cuya vida – personal y social – negaba lo que proclamaba su fe. La “misión” tenía que extenderse también a las llamadas sociedades cristianas y a la cultura occidental en la que el cristianismo se había encarnado históricamente. El reconocimiento de otras Iglesias particulares o de otras teologías – las de Asia o Africa por ejemplo – se impone cada vez más a la conciencia de la Iglesia como algo necesario y, en cierto sentido, pacífico. Para la Iglesia de América Latina, sin embargo, supuso una conquista dolorosa. Porque ella fue la primera que abrió una brecha para hacer posible dentro de la Iglesia una manera diferente de ser y de pensar la identidad cristiana y eclesial desde su “particularidad”. Tal experiencia tuvo un valor profético para la Iglesia universal. Primero porque puso en evidencia que la Iglesia sólo puede ser de hecho universal cuando se encarna en lo particular. La universalidad no es abstracta. La fe tiene que ser anunciada y vivida en contextos concretos. Y, en segundo lugar, porque mostró lo que podía ser traducir la fe en otras categorías. Dentro del mismo universo cultural. Porque la teología de la liberación se movía dentro de la moderna racionalidad occidental. Pero al transponer el lenguaje religioso en categorías históricas obligó a toda la Iglesia a tomar conciencia de que la opción por los pobres, la lucha por la justicia y la humanización de la vida en sociedad son parte integrante del anuncio del evangelio. El Reino de Dios no puede ser “espiritualizado”, aunque ninguna mediación político-social sea capaz de traducirlo; la salvación pasa por la historia aunque no se agote en ella. La experiencia de la Iglesia latinoamericana, sin haberlo imaginado, estaría mucho más próxima de lo que se podría pensar del horizonte en el que este Congreso planteó la cuestión de “la salvación en Jesucristo”. Al recuperar la concreción histórica de la salvación la Iglesia de América Latina

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respondía a la pregunta cristológica (¿quién decís que soy yo?) en un lenguaje social y político. La evolución posterior la obligaría a confrontarse con los problemas culturales de la modernidad y con un pluralismo religioso de hecho. Y esta es tal vez la gran lección aprendida: lo social, lo cultural y lo religioso son dimensiones inseparables de la traducción de la fe en cualquier universo cultural. Y en ese sentido puede resultar paradigmática la experiencia de la Iglesia de América Latina. No como “modelo” que se pueda exportar sino como “espejo” en el que se pueden contemplar otras Iglesias particulares. En su momento de “exilio” la Iglesia latinoamericana tomó conciencia que para continuar anunciando a Jesucristo de manera significativa no se podía “especializar” en lo social como si lo cultural y lo religioso no hiciesen parte de la pregunta cristológica. Y tuvo que aprender a integrarlos en su vida y en su reflexión sin perder lo que la había definido desde el principio: la opción por los pobres. En un momento en el que la fe cristológica tiene que ser traducida en otras culturas y entrar en diálogo con otras religiones podría ser tentador pensar esa ingente tarea dividiéndose las responsabilidades. Como si cada Iglesia particular y cada teología pudiese “especializarse” en un aspecto. El que ciertos problemas se planteen con más intensidad y urgencia en determinados contextos (la modernidad en el primer mundo, el diálogo con las culturas y con las religiones en Asia, lo socio-comunitario en Africa y lo social en América Latina) no quiere decir que la respuesta cristológica pueda prescindir de ninguno de ellos. ¿No habría que pensar responsablemente ese trabajo común como un diálogo plural de perspectivas que se completan y se enriquecen? Esa podría haber sido una de las contribuciones más ricas de la experiencia eclesial latinoamericana y de su particular reflexión teológica.

Notas 1 Basta recordar, a título de ejemplo, algunos de los muchos problemas que esperan todavía una respuesta satisfactoria: a) las deletéreas consecuencias de la ruptura entre cristología y soteriología, con la consiguiente polarización de la soteriología alrededor de la muerte de Jesús, b) la preeminencia otorgada a lo que podríamos llamar el aspecto “negativo” de la salvación como redención del pecado y, c) la perversión del lenguaje utilizado – en muchos sentidos pre-cristiano – fruto de la preponderancia de los esquemas jurídicos y del olvido del carácter simbólico del lenguaje sobre la salvación en el Nuevo Testamento. 2 He aquí, respetando la cronología de su publicación, las más conocidas: L. BOFF, Jesus Cristo libertador. Ensaio de cristologia crítica para o nosso tempo, Vozes, Petrópolis 1972; J. SOBRINO, Cristología desde América Latina. Esbozo a partir del seguimiento del Jesús histórico, CRT, Mexico 1976; L. BOFF, Paixão de Cristo, paixão do mundo. Os fatos, as interpretações e o significado ontem e hoje, Vozes, Petrópolis 1977; J.L. SEGUNDO, El hombre de hoy ante Jesús de Nazaret, 3 vol., Cristiandad, Madrid 1982; y la condensación de esos 3 volúmenes (que, en realidad, equivale a una nueva cristología ) hecha por el autor para la edición francesa: J.L. SEGUNDO, Jésus devant la conscience

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moderne. L´histoire perdue y Le christianisme de Paul. L´histoire retrouvée, Cerf, Paris 1988 (el texto en español salió posteriormente en la Editorial Sal Terrae); J. SOBRINO, Jesucristo liberador. Lectura histórico-teológica de Jesús de Nazaret, Trotta, Madrid 1991 y La fe en Jesucristo. Ensayo desde las víctimas, Trotta, Madrid 1999. 3 Sin entrar en discusiones sobre la utilidad y la posible ambigüedad de expresiones como “cristología deductiva” (“von oben”) o inductiva” (“von unten”) etc., es evidente que los evangelios presentan la fe en Jesucristo por medio de la historia de Jesús (ése es el sentido de la narración evangélica). Y, en ese sentido, su movimiento es innegablemente “inductivo”. Esta constatación es importante para explicar por qué la cristología contemporánea no tiene su punto de partida en la categoría de la encarnación. En rigor habría que decir que desde la perspectiva de la teología clásica de la encarnación es imposible una soteriología adecuada. 4 Por detrás de esta distinción está la progresiva separación entre cristología y soteriología que, a partir de la Edad Media, acabaría en ruptura. Las consecuecias fueron nefastas para ambas. La teología clásica – que no la más tradicional en el verdadero sentido – se acostumbró a esta “división”: por un lado el tratado “de Verbo incarnato” se ocupaba del problema teórico y especulativo de la unión entre Dios y el hombre (o, en términos más abastractos aún, de las “dos naturalezas”, humana y divina) en la persona del Verbo; por otro lado, en el “De Redemptione” se explicaba el valor redentor de la muerte de Cristo. Las consecuencias fueron nefastas para ambos tratados. Y de eso sufre hasta hoy no sólo la teología sino la existencia cristiana, personal y eclesial. 5 De algún modo, las cristologías modernas, a pesar de ser conscientes de que “lo salvífico” está en la totalidad de la vida, muerte y resurrección de Jesús, acaban tratando de la “salvación” a propósito de la muerte de Jesús. Lo que podría ser todavía un resquicio de la antigua ruptura. Bastaría hojear los índices de las obras indicadas en la nota 2 para constatar que, con matices diferentes en cada autor, la observación sigue siendo válida. En ese sentido es revelador el título del libro de L. BOFF, Paixão de Cristo, paixão do mundo. Habría que preguntarse el por qué de esa concentración en la pasión y muerte. 6 Fue G. GUTIÉRREZ sobre todo el que subrayó este aspecto: «La teología es reflexión, actitud crítica. Lo primero es el compromiso de caridad, de servicio. La teología viene después, es acto segundo», en Teología de la liberación. Perspectivas, Sígueme, Salamanca 1972, pp. 26-41 y passim (aquí p. 35). 7 Es evidente que la teología de la liberación no fue la única forma de reflexión teológica durante los últimos 30 años en América Latina, pero constituye, sin duda alguna, su hecho mayor. Por eso será considerada aquí como sinónimo de “reflexión teológica latinoamericana”. 8 Los trabajos de ese encuentro se publicaron con el significativo título de Salvación y construcción del mundo, Santiago, Dilapsa-Nova terra, Barcelona 1968, en la colección Andina, serie Pastoral, bajo la responsabilidad del Instituto Pastoral latinoamericano. 9 G. Gutiérrez lo formularía poco después de manera contundente: «La acción pastoral de la Iglesia no se deduce como una conclusión de premisas teológicas”, en Teología de la liberación, p. 35. Así se explica la composición heterogénea – poco ortodoxa, sin duda, para el gusto de la “teología científica” – de los que participaron en el Congreso de Santiago de Chile al que me referí en la nota anterior: no sólo teólogos “profesionales” sino “pastoralistas”, es decir, personas que tenían necesidad de reflexionar teológicamente sobre la acción pastoral concreta. 10 J.L. SEGUNDO, De la sociedad a la teología, Ed. Carlos Lohlé, Buenos Aires 1970, p. 27, nota 7. 11 Característica recogida en el título de un libro en colaboración que comparaba el modo de teologizar en Europa y en América Latina: Vida y reflexión. Aportes de la teología de la liberación al pensamiento teológico actual, Ed. CEP, Lima 1983.

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12 La expresión es de unas breves pero pertinentes reflexiones de H.C. DE LIMA VAZ, “Igreja-reflexo” x “Igreja-fonte”, en “Cadernos Brasileiros”, Rio de Janeiro, 46(1968), pp. 17-22. 13 El que trabajó más explícitamente para des-ideologizar la fe y la teología fue, sin duda, J.L. Segundo. Ver su libro ya citado De la sociedad a la teología y sobre todo Liberación de la teología, Ed. Carlos Lohlé, Buenos Aires 1975. 14 J. L. SEGUNDO, Liberación de la teología, pp. 7-8. 15 Es sospechosa, por eso, la tendencia a considerar la relación entre el Antiguo y el Nuevo Testamento como el paso de una concepción más concreta y encarnada a una concepción más “espiritual”. En la nueva existencia en Cristo se trata de vivir de otra forma, es decir “según el Espíritu”. Pero lo que se vive (el contenido, la materia de la “vida espiritual”) es la realidad humana. Que la Iglesia, nuevo pueblo de Dios, no se identifique con una nación particular (como era el caso de la Alianza con Israel) no quiere decir que el pueblo de Dios sea puramente “espiritual”. La Iglesia es universal desde sus encarnaciones particulares. 16 Es significativo que, hablando del papel transformador de la educación en el Continente, los Obispos hayan utilizado la expresión “educación liberadora”. La razón, según ellos, es que: “toda liberación es ya una anticipación de la plena redención de Cristo” (documento sobre Educação, en SEDOC, 1968, col. 689. 17 Independientemente de la explicación que se la pueda dar, la situación de “dependencia” de América Latina es un hecho que el actual fenómeno de la globalización no hace más que acentuar. Una de las hipótesis utilizadas por los teólogos de la liberación para interpretar tal hecho fue la “teoría de la dependencia”, que explicaba la situación de subdesarrollo y de injusticia estructural de los países del tercer mundo como el efecto “necesario”, la otra cara, perversa, del desarrollo y de la sumisión al centro de poder que representaba el primer mundo. 18 Instrução sobre alguns aspectos da “Teologia da libertação”, I(1984)1, Cidade do Vaticano. Y dos años después, en el segundo documento, Instrução sobre a liberdade cristã e a libertação, la misma Congregación reconocía que «la búsqueda de libertad y la aspiración a la liberación, que son uno de los principales signos de los tiempos del mundo contemparáneo, tienen su primera raíz en la herencia del cristianismo» (I,5). 19 Es obligado hacer mención aquí de la persona y de la obra de Carlos Mesters. No hace falta entrar en mayores detalles para reconocer la importancia que tuvieron los llamados “círculos bíblicos” (lectura sapiencial y orante que aproximaba el “libro de la Biblia” y “el libro de la vida”) en el acceso del pueblo al evangelio. A su vez, la multiplicación de “cursos bíblicos” de cuño más popular contribuyó mucho también para un conocimiento cada vez mayor de la Escritura. 20 En la cristología latinoamericana J. Sobrino es el que más ha resaltado la centralidad que tenía el Reino para Jesús y, por eso, la que debe tener en la cristología. Ver todo el Capítulo 4 de Jesucristo liberador y el excurso sobre “El Reino de Dios en las cristologías actuales”. Del mismo: La centralidad del “Reino de Dios” en la teología de la liberación, en “RLT”, 9(1986), pp. 247-281 21 «Es esta libertad comprometida la que opta por los pobres, no tanto como resultado de la lectura de esa palabra, sino como la apuesta hermenéutica desde donde pensamos poder leerla comprendiendo su espíritu», J.L. SEGUNDO, “Libertad y liberación”, en Mysterium liberationis, vol. I, p. 391. También del mismo autor: “La opción por los pobres como clave hermenéutica para entender el evangelio”, en Sal Terrae, 1986, pp. 473-482. Sobre el lugar eclesial y social de la cristología ver J. SOBRINO, Jesucristo liberador, pp. 41-57.22 En su respuesta a los discípulos de Juan Bautista, Jesús enumera una serie de situaciones humanas (ciegos, cojos, leprosos, sordos) y, de manera inesperada, añade: los “muertos” y los “pobres”. Dos maneras radicales de estar excluídos de la vida.

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23 Es lo que significa la lucha de Jesús contra los “demonios”, contra todos los “espíritus” que atenazan y dividen al hombre. Cuando ese “hombre fuerte” es desbancado por otro “más fuerte” es que el “dedo de Dios” está ahí, es que el Reino de Dios ya tocó esa realidad (Lc 11,20-22). Las “curaciones” de Jesús son los “despojos” que ha arrancado al Maligno, al antirreino. 24 La relación entre pastoral – en el sentido antes explicitado – y cristología atrajo muy temprano la atención de los teólogos latinoamericanos, aunque las primeras cristologías propiamente dichas apareciesen sólo en la década de 70. “Cristología y pastoral en América Latina” fue ya en 1965 el tema del segundo encuentro de teólogos latinoamericanos. Sería iluminador estudiar la función de los “agentes de pastoral” y de las publicaciones de carácter más popular como “puente” o mediación, entre el indispensable rigor técnico de la cristología y su diseminación en las comunidades. 25 Concretamente se trataría de situar de manera más clara la “muerte de Jesús” dentro de la totalidad de su vida, de la cual hace parte la resurrección, explicitando más que es la totalidad de esa “historia” lo que nos salva. 26 La expresión exacta del texto es, si cabe, todavía más dura: «constituye una negación práctica de la fe»: Instrução sobre alguns aspectos da teologia da libertaçaõ, VI, 9. El juicio es tan radical que habría que preguntarse dónde fue detectado ese proceso degenerativo. La explicación podría estar en la reconstrucción que hace el documento de lo que es para él la teología de la liberación. Para ese asunto me permito remitir a mi artículo: A Igreja da América Latina, a teologia da libertação e a Instrução do Vaticano: um discernimento, en “Perspectiva teológica”, 1985, pp. 293-323. 27 Instrução sobre alguns aspectos da teologia da libertação, IX, 3 e 4. 28 G. Gutiérrez fue probablemente el primero que sistematizó y dió cuerpo al trabajo de reflexión que se venía haciendo ya desde la década anterior en América Latina. Cfr. op. cit., pp. 199-226. 29 “La vocación suprema del hombre en realidad es una sola, es decir, divina”, GS 22. O en la bella formulación de G. Gutiérrez: «La historia de la salvación es la entraña misma de la historia humana», Teología de la liberación, p. 199. 30 «El devenir histórico de la humanidad debe ser definitivamente situado en el horizonte salvífico. Sólo así se dibujará su verdadero perfil y surgirá su más hondo sentido», ibidem, p. 200. 31 Desde esa unidad de la historia se entienden los temas que va desarrollando G. Gutiérrez al tratar el tema de “liberación y salvación”: el progreso temporal y crecimiento del Reino, el horizonte de la liberación política, el encuentro con Dios en la historia y, por lo tanto, lo humano – la conversión al prójimo, la lucha por la justicia – como sacramento o “templo” de Dios. Y, por eso, la comunidad cristiana en la sociedad como “sacramento de la historia”. Cfr. Teología de la liberación, pp. 226 ss. 32 Es suficiente pensar que desde la “trascendencia metafísica” (nivel del “ser” absoluto, separado) es difícil si no imposible comprender lo que se podría denominar “trascendencia personal” (nivel del amor libre y gratuito) que es trascendencia de relación y en la relación de Dios con el hombre. 33 Como filósofo y buen conocedor de la teología I. Ellacuría fue, sin duda, el que más contribuyó para elaborar especulativamente este problema dándole un nuevo estatuto teórico. Ver, sobre todo, su artículo Historicidad de la salvación cristiana, en RLT, I(1984)5-45, o en Mysterium Liberationis. Conceptos fundamentales de la teología de la liberación, vol. I, Trotta, Madrid 1990, pp. 323-372. 34 La constitución Gaudium et Spes 43 considera ese “divorcio” como uno de los más graves errores de nuestra época. 35 «Los cristianos […] convénzanse de que pueden contribuir mucho al bienestar de la humanidad y a la paz del mundo. Individual y colectivamente den ejemplo en este campo, […] a fin de que toda su vida, así la individual como la social, quede impregnada con el espíritu de las bienaventuranzas, y particularmente con el espíritu de la pobreza» (GS 72).

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36 Es lo que desarrolla con profundidad E. SCHILLLEBEECKX en su libro Los hombres relato de Dios, Sígueme, Salamanca 1994. 37 La afirmación es de la constitución Gaudium et Spes 42. Nadie pondrá en duda la importancia de este documento para la elaboración de una nueva postura de la Iglesia con relación al mundo. Por eso, esa expresión es un ejemplo revelador de la dificultad de cambiar de mentalidad, de sacar las consecuencias implícitas en el cambio de paradigma teológico. A no ser que se entienda “religiosa” no como sinónimo de “espiritual” sino como lo que “re-liga” constitutivamente la realidad con Dios. 38 La Gaudium et Spes supo formular de manera muy feliz la mutua e intrínseca relación entre liberación y salvación o esa ordenación de esta vida a la “eterna”: «La espera de una tierra nueva no debe amortiguar, sino más bien avivar, la preoupación de perfeccionar esta tierra, donde crece el cuerpo de la nueva familia humana, el cual puede de alguna manera anticipar un vislumbre del siglo nuevo. […] Todos los frutos excelentes de la naturaleza y de nuestro esfuerzo, después de haberlos propagado por la tierra en el Espíritu del Señor y de acuerdo con su mandato, volveremos a encontrarlos limpios de toda mancha, iluminados y transfigurados, cuando Cristo entregue al Padre el reino eterno y universal. […] El reino está ya misteriosamente presente en nuestra tierra; cuando venga el Señor, se consumará su perfección» (GS 39). 39 El desencanto moderno con el mundo viene, en parte, de haber perdido el horizonte de la trascendencia. Y puede tentar al cristiano a contentarse con los pequeños sentidos, los pequeños proyectos, las pequeñas trascendencias. Pero el otro peligro es la “fuga mundi” que fue una de las formas tradicionales de la espiritualidad cristiana. Y se manifestó no sólo en los más diversos tipos de “espiritualismo” sino también en la falta de operatividad de la escatología tradicional que, desconectada de la historia se volvió in-significante en si misma. 40 La política de nombramientos de Obispos iría modificando, lenta pero tenazmente, el perfil y la mentalidad de las Conferencias Episcopales. 41 La ascensión de los “movimientos” en la Iglesia, la simpatía creciente hacia el pentecostalismo cristiano y la preocupación con la fuga de mucha gente sencilla para otras denominaciones religiosas fueron dando poco a poco otro rostro a la Iglesia. 42 El Reino de Dios proclamado por Jesús era universal porque se dirigía realmente a todos, sin excluir ningún grupo de personas (pecadores, prostitutas, pobres, etc.). Por eso la existencia de Jesús fue pobre y confundida con la de los marginados. A. Torres Queiruga lo formula con precisión: «[La de Jesús es] la única universalidad posible dentro de la historia: la del sufrimiento, la de no tener nada, la de darlo absolutamente todo. […] Y por eso pudo identificarse con todos los hombres y salvarnos a todos», en Recuperar la salvación, Sal Terrae, Santander 1995, pp. 188-194 (aquí p. 90 s.). Hay aquí una clara alusión a lo que fue la intuición de Marx al atribuir al proletariado una función universal. De hecho, como lo prueba la imagen de la “pirámide social”, entre universalidad y riqueza, hay una relación inversamente proporcional (la “universalidad” disminuye a medida que se sube en la escala social) y directamente proporcional entre universalidad y pobreza (la “universalidad” aumenta a medida que se baja en la escala social). 43 Entre las muchas referencias que se podría hacer a los textos del Concilio, se pueden ver: Lumen Gentium 1; 9; 48; 59 y también Gaudium et Spes 12; 45 y passim. 44 Esta me parece ser la intuición de J.L. Segundo al querer rescatar dentro de la teología de la liberación el sentido paulino de la libertad. Se trata de dos realidades convegentes y complementarias: «Si “liberación” y sus derivados son usados por los evangelios y por Jesús mismo para apuntar a lo que el reino de Dios quiere realizar en la historia, “libertad” y sus términos afines son usados por Pablo para mostrar con qué actitudes antropológicas puede el hombre comprometerse eficazmente en esa misma construcción de la historia», J.L. SEGUNDO, “Libertad y liberación”, en Mysterium liberationis, I, pp. 373-391 (aquí p. 388).

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SINIVALDO TAVARES*

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LA «SALVEZZA IN GESÙ CRISTO» NELLA RIFLESSIONE TEOLOGICA LATINO-AMERICANA: IL RAPPORTO TRA «SALVEZZA CRISTIANA» E «STORIA UMANA»

È nostra intenzione affrontare l’argomento della “Salvezza in Gesù Cristo” nella riflessione teologica latino-americana, privilegiando la questione fondamentale del rapporto intercorrente tra “salvezza cristiana” e “storia umana”. Prenderemo, dunque, in considerazione, anzitutto, la cosiddetta “soteriologia storica” per il fatto di ritenerla elemento caratterizzante della concezione di salvezza maturatasi in seno alla TdL latino-americana, e analizzeremo, di seguito, quel complesso fenomeno noto come “ritorno del sacro” che, nelle ultime due decadi, viene caratterizzando l’esperienza religiosa del continente latino-americano, in una nuova configurazione religiosa fondamentalmente composta, a nostro parere, di due versanti: il processo denominato di “privatizzazione del religioso” o di “soggettivizzazione della fede”, e l’espansione vertiginosa del “fenomeno pentecostale”. 1. LA “SOTERIOLOGIA STORICA”: PECULIARITÀ DELLA TDL LATINO-AMERICANA La peculiare concezione della salvezza cristiana che caratterizza la TdL latino-americana sarebbe frutto, a nostro avviso, di una vera e propria “ricezione creativa” di quelle intuizioni teologiche che, dopo un lungo processo di maturazione, sono confluite nella teologia conciliare1. Con l’espressione “ricezione creativa” si esprime la concezione della relazione tra TdL latino-americana e Vaticano II in termini di un fecondo incontro tra gli stimoli provenienti dal clima e dalla teologia conciliari e le sfide originate dalla partecipazione effettiva dei cristiani nel processo di liberazione dei poveri del continente latino-americano. Siamo, però, convinti che la specifica concezione di salvezza che si è andata man mano consolidando nell’ambito della TdL latino-americana sia soprattutto espressione di quella che, fin dagli inizi, fu ritenuta la sua esperienza fondante. L’irruzione del povero quale soggetto storico e la progressiva coscienza della reale situazione di quest’ultimo da parte delle comunità ecclesiali hanno fatto sì che la TdL rivolgesse l’attenzione alla crudele realtà della grande maggioranza della popolazione del continente latino-americano. Questa speciale sensibilità verso il povero era già, ad ogni modo, ri*

Franciscan Theological Institute of Petropolis, Brazil.

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flesso di una esperienza spirituale anteriore e, quindi, più profonda: l’incontro con il Dio di Gesù Cristo nel volto sfigurato del povero. La contemplazione del Dio di Gesù Cristo nel volto del povero e la conseguente accoglienza dei suoi appelli si può ritenere che costituisca, a tutti gli effetti, la radice più profonda di questa peculiare concezione di salvezza elaborata nell’orizzonte della riflessione teologica latino-americana. Nella qualità di esperienza fondante della TdL, l’incontro con il Dio di Gesù Cristo nella mediazione concreta del povero rivela, in modo paradigmatico, tanto il carattere intrinsecamente storico della salvezza cristiana, quanto la dimensione intrinsecamente salvifica della storia umana. Espressione privilegiata di questa esperienza primordiale è l’importanza che, fin dagli inizi, la TdL ha accordato alla realizzazione di un duplice compito: il riscatto della storicità della salvezza biblica e lo svisceramento della dimensione intrinsecamente salvifica degli avvenimenti della storia attuale2. Questa è, in ultima istanza, la ragione per la quale la TdL latino-americana è divenuta man mano più attenta alle mediazioni storiche della presenza interpellante del Dio di Gesù Cristo. Si è cercato, così, di valutare le mediazioni storiche e sociali nel loro carattere di anticipazione e, quindi, di criterio di veridicità e di credibilità della salvezza cristiana e, in tal contesto, si è stabilito il primato di urgenza, ma non certo di importanza, della liberazione storica sulla salvezza escatologica. Presupposta la gravità della situazione socio-politica e economica del continente latino-americano, si è avvertita la necessità di riscattare il significato perenne della salvezza accordataci da Gesù Cristo mediante gesti concreti di solidarietà verso i poveri e gli ultimi della società. Ciò che stava in gioco erano la rilevanza e la credibilità stessa della salvezza cristiana. In nessun momento si è voluto sostituire la salvezza escatologica e definitiva con la liberazione storica degli oppressi3. In questo senso, la TdL si faceva portavoce di una preoccupazione eminentemente evangelica: testimoniare la credibilità di quella “fede che opera per mezzo della carità” (Gal 5,6). E la maniera concreta che molti cristiani e cristiane hanno incontrato per corrispondere alla presenza interpellante del Dio di Gesù Cristo nel volto sfigurato del povero è stata quella dell’impegno effettivo nella trasformazione delle relazioni umane e sociali mediante l’esperienza della solidarietà verso gli ultimi e emarginati. La preoccupazione per il recupero della storicità della salvezza cristiana, da una parte, e per l’approfondimento della dimensione intrinsecamente salvifica degli avvenimenti della vita e della storia, dall’altra, ha comportato conseguenze non indifferenti per lo stesso processo di elaborazione della TdL latino-americana. Ciò che dagli inizi viene caratterizzando la TdL latino-americana nella sua identità più profonda è, infatti, propriamente lo sforzo, continuo, di fondarsi direttamente sulla concreta realtà storica concepita come luogo privilegiato della presenza interpellante del Dio di Gesù Cristo. In altri termini, la TdL ha la pretesa di fondarsi sulla stessa realtà dei poveri che, accolta quale autentico “segno dei tempi” – più specificamente

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nel suo significato “storico-teologale”, per distinguerlo dall’altro, e più noto, senso “storico-pastorale”4 – è ritenuta principio ermeneutico di comprensione non solo della realtà in quanto tale, ma anche degli stessi testi della Scrittura e dei dati tramandati mediante la tradizione ecclesiale. Ciò che, a nostro avviso, rappresenta l’originalità della specifica concezione della salvezza cristiana nella TdL latino-americana consiste propriamente nel riscatto della dimensione sacramentale della rivelazione biblica e, di conseguenza, nella rivalutazione della storia quale luogo e momento della relazione tra il Dio di Gesù Cristo e l’essere umano. Le Scritture sacre testimoniano che, fedele ai disegni della propria volontà, Dio si dirige all’essere umano nella storia e lo invita a corrispondere ai suoi richiami mediante atteggiamenti e impegni storici. Il mistero dell’Incarnazione del Figlio Unigenito di Dio sigilla, a tutti gli effetti, il carattere intrinsecamente storico di quel rapporto salvifico che da sempre Dio stabilisce con l’essere umano. Per tale ragione, la TdL latino-americana ha accordato un ruolo di singolare importanza alla mediazione storica, in quanto essa esercita un ruolo imprescindibile nell’accoglienza del disegno salvifico del Dio biblico mediante l’esperienza umana della fede. Così focalizzata nella sua prospettiva sacramentale, la storia presente, presupposta la propria intrinseca valenza teologale, rivela una singolare pregnanza quale luogo e momento privilegiato della rivelazione gratuita di Dio e della risposta generosa ai suoi appelli. Questo è il significato profondo e ultimo di ciò che si vuole esprimere con il termine “soteriologia storica”. L’immediato effetto di tale concezione soteriologica della storia sarebbe la “deprivatizzazione” della concezione della salvezza come condizione per l’elaborazione di una comprensione più integrale della stessa, in linea con la felice formulazione del documento di Medellín, che recita: “salvare l’essere umano intero e tutti gli esseri umani”. L’esplicitazione della “soteriologia storica” ha reso, peraltro, possibile il superamento di quella strutturale dicotomia che per secoli ha profondamente segnato la teologia e la pietà cristiane con una separazione tra trascendente e immanente, sacro e profano, soprannaturale e naturale, corpo e anima, spirito e materia. 2. LA SFIDA RAPPRESENTATA DAL FENOMENO DEL “RITORNO DEL SACRO” La sfida forse maggiore, e anche la più complessa, tra quelle poste attualmente alla TdL latino-americana è quella di stabilire un autentico dialogo soprattutto con le nuove espressioni culturali e religiose emergenti in America Latina, senza, ovviamente, pretendere o presupporre che la TdL rinunci alla propria identità, essendo proprio a partire dalla propria specificità che essa potrà offrire il meglio di sé a questo “dialogo al plurale”. In una situazione epocale caratterizzata da un ritmo pendolare tra ciò che si è definito “eclissi” e “epifania” del divino, assistiamo sorpresi all’al-

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ternanza di fenomeni che esprimono ora una sfrenata perdita di senso ora un vero e proprio eccesso di religiosità. La natura stessa di tale alternanza induce a credere che, al di là della loro apparente opposizione, questi fenomeni costituiscano come due facce della stessa moneta. Nel continente latino-americano, tuttavia, constatiamo una visibile egemonia di fenomeni del secondo genere, senza con ciò volere implicare che le questioni legate alla perdita e alla ricerca del senso non attingerebbero, di fatto, le popolazioni del nostro continente. Constatiamo inermi il progressivo processo di globalizzazione dell’economia e della cultura con le sue crudeli e inevitabili ripercussioni sui nostri popoli5. È, però, nostra convinzione che altrove debbano individuarsi le sfide che con maggiore urgenza richiamano l’attenzione in merito alla comprensione della salvezza cristiana e dell’esperienza di fede che le funge da sostrato, ed esattamente, da un lato, nel processo descritto quale “privatizzazione del religioso” e, dall’altro, nell’espansione vertiginosa del “fenomeno pentecostale”. 2.1. La “privatizzazione del religioso” Il processo noto come “privatizzazione del religioso” si contraddistingue fondamentalmente per il suo carattere di religiosità diffusa e priva di una vera esigenza di conversione6. Questo è il presupposto che soggiace a note espressioni, quali, ad esempio, “religieux flottant”, “bricolage”, “religion à la carte”, “cocktail”, “self-service”, “sincretismo in movimento”. Il risultato più significativo di questo nuovo atteggiamento religioso è forse il processo di strumentalizzazione della religione a beneficio di interessi e necessità individuali. In questo senso, il pubblicizzato fenomeno del “ritorno del sacro” si presenta, in realtà, come ritorno di una specifica forma del sacro. Questa nuova forma si caratterizzerebbe soprattutto per un radicale cambiamento sia della funzione sociale del sacro sia della comprensione del trascendente come tale. Di fatto, nelle società tradizionali o pre-secolarizzate la religione esercitava una funzione normativa e, nella maggior parte dei casi, svolgeva la funzione costitutiva dei rapporti sociali elementari. Nelle società odierne, al contrario, si assiste a un vero e proprio processo di “strumentalizzazione del sacro”, all’interno del quale la religione viene ridotta a questione esclusivamente legata a interessi e necessità del singolo individuo. Emerge, così, una religiosità priva di qualsiasi esigenza di conversione, priva della coscienza dell’importanza di un processo di adesione incondizionata a Dio, espresso attraverso una ricerca sincera di una sempre maggiore conformità alla sua volontà. Si è perduto in sostanza quel senso vero di fede quale attitudine di radicale e generosa obbedienza a Dio, cosicché questa specifica esperienza del sacro tocca piuttosto la superficialità dei sentimenti e delle emozioni, lasciando, per contro, intatte quelle strutture esi-

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stenziali più intime dell’essere umano. Si tratta, del resto, di una religiosità senza alcuna oggettività: considerati i precetti oggettivi delle religioni tradizionali eccessivamente duri, si passa a propugnare ora, in questo nuovo quadro referenziale, una religiosità di carattere piuttosto attenuato, dove le necessità e le carenze individuali occupano un posto di rilievo e una funzione di importanza primaria rispetto ad altre dimensioni. Può qui, in fin dei conti, individuarsi la ragione principale dell’uso sempre più frequente di espressioni, quali “costruzione del proprio menu religioso”, “cocktail religioso plurale” o ancora “self-service della fede”; né sembra, a dire il vero, esagerato affermare che, nell’ambito di questa nuova configurazione religiosa, incominciano a prendere corpo numerose e differenti forme di religiosità, rispondenti alle necessità individuali di ciascun singolo essere umano. La situazione appare ancora più grave, se considerata nel suo stretto rapporto con il consumismo. La “privatizzazione della fede” si presta, infatti, particolarmente agli interessi economici della società dei consumi, dando luogo a una vera e propria sorta di “strumentalizzazione consumistica del sacro”, testimoniata peraltro da alcune iniziative proposte con una certa frequenza in tali ambienti: il “mercato spirituale”, lo “shopping-center della fede” organizzato in una autentica rete di magazzini e negozi, il “kit spirituale” contenente merci spirituali di ogni sorta7. Sulla base di questi presupposti, e nonostante l’ottimismo apparente dal punto di vista religioso, il fenomeno del “ritorno del sacro” nasconde, tuttavia, in sé una nuova e sconcertante sfida rappresentata dall’ “eccesso di religiosità”: più che la “perdita di senso”, è forse l’“eccesso di religiosità” a riproporre con incisività la questione del vero Dio contro eventuali manipolazioni del religioso in funzione di interessi individuali e egoistici. 2.2. L’espansione del “fenomeno pentecostale” L’altra grande sfida emergente sullo scenario del continente latino-americano è la crescita straordinaria di ciò che si è definito “fenomeno pentecostale”8. La preoccupazione propriamente emersa al cospetto di tali movimenti pentecostali risiede soprattutto nel fatto che fenomeni di questo genere e di tali proporzioni non avvengono gratuitamente, ma attecchiscono in realtà in un terreno particolarmente propizio alla loro veloce diffusione, in una tacita complicità nella quale si associano, in maniera inconscia, insoddisfatte aspettative e magiche promesse di felicità9. C’è chi interpreta l’esistenza di tali fenomeni come una sorta di protesta ovvero quale espressione di un autentico processo di resistenza ai valori e ai progetti egemonici della modernità che caratterizzano ancora in larga scala lo stile di vita e la mentalità delle nostre società contemporanee10. Il pentecostalismo sarebbe, pertanto, anzitutto espressione di una protesta contro la

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condizione di esclusione, in cui sono relegati quasi 2/3 dell’intera popolazione del pianeta. Questo fenomeno, che si configura come una sorta di “ribellione” nei confronti dei principi della Modernità – e anche della postModernità – sarebbe caratterizzato soprattutto dalla non-accettazione della razionalità strumentale, dal fondamentalismo eccessivo applicato alla lettura della Bibbia, dalla affermazione della sottomissione degli esseri umani alle forze demoniache e dalla pratica dell’esorcismo quale soluzione a tale dipendenza, dal fanatismo e dall’intolleranza religiosa e, infine, dalla professione di un escatologismo apocalittico11. Tali movimenti, inoltre, si costituirebbero quale “processo di resistenza”, le cui caratteristiche principali vanno individuate, da un lato, nella forte identità religiosa e, dall’altro, nella totale autonomia nei riguardi dei centri di potere e di decisione della società e delle Chiese. I membri di tali movimenti trarrebbero da questa esperienza religiosa pentecostale la forza necessaria alla propria stessa sopravvivenza dinanzi alla durezza degli avversi e ostili tempi odierni, per porsi in termini di una sorta di resistenza alternativa, a giudicare soprattutto dalla loro autonomia nella scelta e nell’esercizio delle pratiche religiose e nell’utilizzazione dei propri strumenti. Altri preferiscono invece interpretare il “fenomeno pentecostale” come una ribellione apparente contro i principi e i valori delle nostre società odierne. C’è chi sottolinea, ad esempio, che il rifiuto di alcuni dei principi e costumi egemonici nella società attuale, così diffuso tra i pentecostali, nasconda paradossalmente proprio una più profonda affinità con i valori fondanti di questa stessa società, come l’individualismo, lo spontaneismo, l’autonomia, la mancanza di interesse per ogni impegno sociale e politico; ricorrono, inoltre, indiscriminatamente agli strumenti tecnologici più sofisticati della società di consumo, sfruttando al massimo il marketing12. Ma ciò posto, diviene inevitabile esplicitare la concezione di salvezza che emerge in seno all’esperienza religiosa pentecostale. Balza, anzitutto, agli occhi la totale mancanza di interesse per il tempo presente e i suoi inerenti processi storici. Ai membri di tali movimenti, il tempo presente si rivela, infatti, ostile e perverso. Di qui, l’enfasi posta da loro sul futuro, concepito tuttavia come fine dei tempi e quale realizzazione piena delle promesse di Dio. Questa visibile assenza di interesse per il tempo presente rivela, in ultima istanza, una concezione manichea della storia e della vita in genere: i pentecostali professano l’esistenza di due mondi distinti e inconciliabili tra sé, il mondo storico e umano e il mondo di Dio. Il mondo presente è sotto il dominio di Satana, caratterizzato quale impero del male, della sofferenza, dell’angoscia; in una parola, si presenta come il mondo della perdizione13. Il mondo di Dio si caratterizza, invece, come totale antitesi al mondo umano e storico: tra i due i mondi manca, pertanto, qualsiasi tipo di relazione e la stessa straordinaria forza liberatrice dello Spirito di Dio contro il potere di Satana si manifesta esclusivamente in un intervento esterno; l’essere uma-

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no non appare che come semplice spettatore di queste lotte tra Dio e Satana, il che finisce col denunciare una concezione, a tutti gli effetti, mitica e magica della realtà. In tal contesto, il credente sperimenta un vero dilemma strutturale: come essere beneficiario dei vantaggi del mondo di Dio, conoscendosi al tempo stesso immerso nel regno di Satana? La ragione di fondo dell’esperienza religiosa pentecostale risiede propriamente nel tentativo di superamento di questo problema. Lo scopo primario delle preghiere e delle celebrazioni pentecostali sarebbe, quindi, di creare un’atmosfera mistica propizia all’intervento esterno di Dio, la cui irruzione si dà mediante la manifestazione del suo potere contro le forze di Satana. Attraverso il fenomeno descritto come “esplosione della lode di Dio”, la comunità pentecostale configura se stessa nella forma di una sorta di isola ovvero di “zona di liberazione” e, pertanto, libera dalla strette di Satana e delle forze ostili di questo mondo. Il clima di forte ed eccessiva emozione che caratterizza il culto e le preghiere pentecostali dà ai loro membri la certezza di essersi creati degli spazi “fuori del mondo”, come in una dimensione in cui tutto risulta trasfigurato dal cosiddetto “splendore della divinità”, diretto risultato della manifestazione straordinaria del potere di Dio. Tali esperienze sono riservate unicamente a coloro che – secondo la loro formulazione – “hanno accettato Gesù” e sono solitamente descritte come “guarigione e liberazione nello Spirito”, “glossolalia o fenomeno delle lingue”, “profezia nello Spirito”, “preghiera nello Spirito”, “Battesimo nello Spirito”14. In tal modo, mediante la “lode esaltata” e, più specificamente ancora, attraverso queste varie “esperienze nello Spirito” sopra descritte, il credente si sente “fuori dal mondo” e, pertanto, esorcizzato da tutte le necessità e i problemi che lo affliggono nella vita quotidiana: fame, malattia, disoccupazione, tristezze, vizi, angoscia. CONCLUSIONE Sulla base di quanto detto, è innegabile la coesistenza nella realtà ecclesiale latino-americana di due concezioni opposte del rapporto tra salvezza cristiana e storia umana. Se, da un lato, la TdL sottolinea l’imprescindibilità della mediazione storica rispetto all’esperienza della salvezza cristiana, dall’altro, i nuovi fenomeni religiosi ripropongono la fuga dal mondo quale elemento distintivo di questa stessa esperienza. Mentre la TdL insiste sull’importanza di un impegno effettivo per la trasformazione delle relazioni umane e sociali quale forma privilegiata dell’esperienza della salvezza, i movimenti pentecostali si fanno, al contrario, portavoce del disincanto per il mondo presente e difendono, di conseguenza, la dipendenza totale dalle forze soprannaturali come unica possibile via di salvezza. Nella misura in cui, tuttavia, ripropongono con incisività una concezio-

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ne di salvezza strettamente legata alle necessità e al benessere individuali, queste forme emergenti di religiosità sembrano riscattare, in merito al modo di presentare la dottrina della salvezza, una dimensione rimasta sommersa, se non del tutto ignorata, lungo i cinque secoli di presenza cristiana nel continente latino-americano. Ci si chiede, anzi, se non sia forse proprio questa una delle cause principali dell’espansione vertiginosa di tali movimenti in America Latina. È pur vero che la TdL ha prestato un’attenzione particolare alle concrete necessità di vita della maggior parte della popolazione del continente latino-americano. Nello specifico caso dell’esperienza e della concezione della salvezza, essa ha cercato di riscattare il valore di questa stessa realtà come eventuale mediazione della presenza interpellante del Dio di Gesù Cristo. Tuttavia, soprattutto attraverso le esigenze di una “coscienza critica”, la TdL ha finito col privilegiare nel processo di conoscenza della realtà sociale e della vita concreta delle persone la mediazione razionale e analitica, valorizzando indubbiamente meno altre dimensioni, sebbene del pari importanti, quali, ad esempio, la questione del senso o della soggettività nelle sue relazioni con il sentimento e le emozioni in genere. Questa lacuna non spiegherebbe forse il clima di forte sentimentalismo e di eccessiva emozione che viene caratterizzando i movimenti pentecostali? Fenomeni come questi e altri ancora tipici della religiosità pentecostale non sarebbero anche espressione di una reazione pendolare a una teologia e a una pratica pastorale marcatamente analitiche e razionali? Queste non sono che alcune delle tante sfide che si presentano all’ordine del giorno nel contesto di quel dialogo tra ambedue le parti. Siamo convinti, del resto, che il futuro del cristianesimo in America Latina dipenderà, in gran parte, dalla nostra capacità di desumere, in una prospettiva di fecondità foriera di significativi ed efficaci sviluppi, le varie e migliori lezioni di questo “dialogo al plurale”. Il dialogo, comunque, sta appena iniziando e, a quanto pare, si presenta altamente promettente.

Note 1 Fra queste intuizioni, due in particolare meritano un posto di rilievo: l’affermazione del carattere intrisecamente storico della rivelazione biblica e la conseguente rivalutazione di tutto ciò che è umano e storico quale mediazione della stessa rivelazione, intuizioni teologiche sviluppate e proposte specialmente in due tra i documenti più importanti del Concilio Vaticano II: Gaudium et Spes e Dei Verbum. 2 Cf. IG. ELLACURÍA, “Historicidad de la salvación cristiana”, in IG. ELLACURÍA, J. SOBRINO (a cura di), Mysterium Liberationis. Conceptos fundamentales de la Teología de la Liberación, I, Madrid 1992, pp. 323-372. 3 Gli equivoci sorti particolarmente riguardo al modo specifico con cui la TdL tratta le relazioni intercorrenti tra liberazione storica e salvezza cristiana provengono, nella maggior parte dei casi, da una certa confusione tra primato di importanza o di valore e primato di urgenza storica. In questo senso, la liberazione alla quale la TdL ha sempre

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fatto riferimento designa, in primo luogo, la liberazione economica, politica, sociale e culturale. Ciò non significa, tuttavia, che la TdL consideri la liberazione dalla miseria più importante della liberazione dal peccato e dalla morte. La salvezza escatologica e definitiva occupa, indubbiamente, un rango di preminenza nella gerarchia dei valori cristiani. A questo riguardo, nel suo programmatico Teología de la Liberación. Perspectivas, G. Gutiérrez parlava già di un “processo di liberazione”, al cui interno il termine “liberazione” assumeva un triplice livello di significato, ognuno corrispondente a tre ambiti diversi, anche se reciprocamente compenetrati: il livello socio-politico, il livello antropologico e il livello propriamente teologico. Compito primario della TdL sarebbe, quindi, quello di percorrere e articolare, tramite un discorso differenziato e, al contempo, unitario, questi tre livelli nella forma della liberazione sociale, della liberazione umana e della liberazione dal peccato, radice di ogni oppressione storica e di ogni alienazione umana. 4 La TdL ha approfondito in modo singolare la cosiddetta teologia dei “segni dei tempi”. Fu, soprattutto, J. Sobrino ad insistere sul duplice significato, “storico-pastorale” e “storico-teologale”, di questa espressione. Nel primo caso, “segno dei tempi” si riferirebbe agli avvenimenti della storia, con particolare richiamo alle attese, alle aspirazioni spesso drammatiche (GS 4) e aventi, quindi, valenza fortemente pastorale, nella misura in cui costituirebbero un complesso di sfide alla missione della Chiesa. Nel suo significato “storico-teologale”, invece, l’espressione “segno dei tempi” farebbe riferimento ai segni della presenza interpellante del Dio di Gesù Cristo (GS 11). Per questo motivo, la storia non dovrebbe essere interpretata soltanto dal punto di vista pastorale, ma soprattutto nella sua valenza sacramentale, vale a dire per quanto essa sarebbe capace di rivelare Dio rendendolo visibile attraverso una presenza davvero interpellante. A tal proposito, cf. J. SOBRINO, “Los ‘signos de los tiempos’ en la teología de la liberación”, in AA.VV., Fides quae per caritatem operatur, Bilbao 1989, pp. 249-269. 5 È altissimo, infatti, il prezzo che il fenomeno della globalizzazione fa pagare in termini di esclusione sociale e di conseguente aggravamento dell’ingiustizia e della miseria dei popoli latino-americani. A tal proposito, cf. G. GUTIÉRREZ, “Una Teología de la Liberación en el contexto del Tercer Milenio”, in CELAM (ed.), El futuro de la reflexión teológica en América Latina, Colección Documentos Celam n. 141, Bogotá 1996, pp. 97165: G. GUTIÉRREZ, Situación y tareas de la teología de la liberación, in “Páginas 25”, (2000)1, pp. 6-22; G. GUTIÉRREZ, Desafíos de la posmodernidad, in “Páginas 25”, (2000)4, pp. 36-47. 6 Riguardo a tale questione, ci permettiamo di rinviare qui a quanto da noi recentemente scritto in Como falar de Deus, hoje?, in “Revista de CulturaVozes”, 94(2000)4, pp. 115-131, soprattutto, le pp. 128-130. 7 È soprattutto il fenomeno noto come New Age a dare adito a queste forme di privatizzazione e di consumizzazione del religioso. Su questo movimento e sulla complessa problematica ad esso inerente, cf. L. AMARAL, Carnaval da Alma: comunidade, essência e sincretismo na Nova Era, Vozes, Petrópolis 2000. 8 Nel 1996, calcoli sommari registravano che circa 15 milioni di brasiliani – equivalente al 10% dell’intera popolazione – professavano di essere cristiani pentecostali. In tutto il mondo, essi raggiungevano in quello stesso anno un totale oscillante tra i 400 e i 600 milioni di persone (J. MOLTMANN, K.J. KUSCHEL, nell’editoriale della rivista “Concilium”, 32(1996)3, p. 5, parlano di 400 milioni, mentre G. CASALE nella “Presentazione” di M. INTROVIGNE (a cura di), La sfida pentecostale, Elle di Ci, Torino 1996, p. 7, parla di 600 milioni). Indipendentemente dall’esattezza delle cifre, ciò che in tali dati desta maggiore impressione è la rapidità dell’espansione di questo fenomeno religioso. Si calcola, di fatto, che circa 1/4 dei miliardi di cristiani esistenti in tutto il mondo sia costituito dai membri di questi movimenti pentecostali, inclusi naturalmente i carismatici cattolici; cf. in merito C. CALIMAN, O desafio pentecostal: aproximação teológica, in “Perspectiva Teológica”, 28(1996), p. 297.

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9 Non è questa la sede per considerare i riflessi politico-ideologici del fenomeno pentecostale. Si rinvia, a questo riguardo, tra gli altri, agli studi di H. ASMANN, A Igreja eletrônica e seu impacto na América Latina, Vozes, Petrópolis 1986; D.M. DE LIMA, Os demônios descem do Norte, Francisco Alves, Rio de Janeiro 1987; C. ALVAREZ (ed.), Pentecostalismo y Liberación. Una experiencia latinoamericana, Editorial DEI, San José 1992; AA.VV., Nem Anjos nem demônios. Interpretaçóes sociológicas do Pentecostalismo, Vozes, Petrópolis 1994; A. CORTEN, Le pentecôtisme au Brésil. Émotion du pauvre et romantisme théologique, Karthala, Paris 1995; F.C. ROLIM, Pentecostalismo. Brasil e América Latina, Vozes, Petrópolis 1995; R. CIPRIANI, P. ELETTA, A. NESTI (eds.), Identidade e mudança na religiosidade latino-americana, Vozes, Petrópolis 2000. 10 Cf. C. CALIMAN, O desafio pentecostal: aproximação teológoca, in “Perspectiva Teológica”, 28(1996), p. 297. 11 Cf. C. PALACIO, O ressurgir pentecostal: um desafio para a pastoral e a teologia, in “Perspectiva Teológica”, 28(1996), p. 287. 12 A quanto asserisce Cl.O. Ribeiro, il pentecostalismo sarebbe, in fin dei conti, una nuova variazione del compromesso tra cristianesismo e mondo moderno, perfettamente assimilabile da quest’ultimo; cf. Cl.O. RIBEIRO, Movimentos Pentecostais, Carismáticos e Mística Cristã: Desafios Teológicos e Pastorais, in “Perspectiva Teológica”, 28(1996), p. 352 . 13 Sull’eccessiva importanza assunta dal demonio all’interno dell’immaginario religioso di tali movimenti, cf. W. GOMES, “Nem anjos. Nem demônios”, in AA.VV., Nem Anjos. Nem demônios. Interpretaçóes sociológicas e sociológicas do Pentecostalismo, Vozes, Petrópolis 1994, pp. 225-270; C.L. MARIZ, “O demônio e os pentecostais no Brasil”, in R. CIPRIANI, P. ELETTA, A. NESTI (eds.), Identidade e mudança na religiosidade latino-americana, Vozes, Petrópolis 2000, pp. 251-264. 14 Cf. “Concilium”, 32(1996)3, fascicolo interamente imperniato sul tema “Movimenti pentecostali: una sfida ecumenica”.

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LUIS G. RAMOS*

RESPUESTA A CARLOS PALACIO

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Después de escuchar la interesante contribución del reconocido cristólogo Carlos Palacio de la Compañía de Jesús, me es muy grato añadir unas cuantas palabras en puntos en que quizás hallamos explicaciones diferentes, básicamente por experiencias distintas y referencias teóricas diversas, pero no necesariamente contrapuestas. Me ha parecido bien dividir mi breve respuesta en los siguientes puntos: 1. La salvación como liberación. 2. La opción por el pobre. 3. Bajo el examen de la crítica. 4. Con luz verde y en camino. 1. LA SALVACIÓN COMO LIBERACIÓN La Teología de la Liberación, tuvo su origen más profundo en la fiel obediencia a los dictámenes del Concilio Vaticano II, y como consecuencia a los documentos del magisterio del Papa Juan Pablo II y de los obispos latinoamericanos1. Esta teología hizo nuevos planteamientos cristológicos, que no son ajenos a la controversia cristológica que emergió en aquella discusión sobre la unión de las naturalezas en Cristo que habría de elicitar la Declaración de Calcedonia (451). Es la discusión sobre la significación de la encarnación del Verbo y sobre el papel del proprium de la naturaleza humana en la obra de la salvación. El planteamiento de la salvación como liberación se sitúa en la discusión sobre la dimensión de la humanidad, es decir de lo humano, en la salvación de Jesucristo. Por decirlo de otra manera, es la cuestión del papel de la humanidad de Cristo en la pasión, muerte y resurrección de Cristo, en el acontecimiento pascual. Se pregunta la Teología de la Liberación, si la salvación de la persona incluye la parte material del compuesto esencial del alma-cuerpo de la antropología cristiana. Y si esto tiene repercusión en el proceso de salvación que recorre la conversión a Dios. La pregunta es sobre el papel salvífico que juega la existencia histórica como regreso (redditus) al Padre. *

Domenican School of Theology, Mexico.

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La preocupación de la Teología de la Liberación es sobre la posibilidad de descubrir las condiciones requeridas para reconocer y asumir la salvación de Dios en la historia. ¿Es al menos posible circunscribir aquellas condiciones históricas en las que la presencia de la salvación es ocultada, velada y escondida? En este campo la Teología de la Liberación tiene todavía mucho qué decir no sólo en el contexto latinoamericano, sino también en el contexto africano y asiático donde se concentran la mayoría de los católicos al inicio el siglo XXI. La Teología de la Liberación descubrió, analizó y esclareció primero por la experiencia directa de la pobreza y luego en un análisis minucioso que, en las condiciones de pobreza involuntaria, de miseria, de explotación y de represión de la libertad el destino de la salvación en Jesucristo no era reconocible sino por el contrario desfigurado y postergado. Por contraste, los teólogos de la liberación señalaron algunas de las condiciones en las que la salvación podía ser mejor reconocida, adoptada y recibida. La Evangelización, su posibilidad y su viabilidad, están contenidas en esta cuestión planteada por la Teología de la Liberación, ¿hasta qué punto es requerida una preparación evangélica en la praxis para la evangelización? La Teología de la Liberación plantea la cuestión teológica de la preparación evangélica teórica en la teología india, por ejemplo y la preparación evangélica práctica en el cambio de estructuras económicas y políticas injustas como posibilidad de la evangelización. La salvación como liberación no es otra cosa sino la acentuación de la integralidad de la salvación en Jesucristo, Verdadero Dios y Verdadero hombre para todos los seres humanos y para todo el ser humano, en su aspecto individual y social, en su aspecto teórico y en su aspecto práctico. Frente a una cristología dualista y filognóstica, o una concepción individualista de la salvación, y en contraste con la visión ahistórica de la presencia del Espíritu Santo en la Iglesia, se erigió un pensamiento a la vez original y tradicional para señalar sin ambages el papel de la acción histórica del creyente en la salvación traída por Jesucristo. La Teología de la Liberación puso de nuevo en la conciencia de la Iglesia la dimensión histórica, presente, actual, de la acción humana en el proceso de conversión que lleva a la salvación de Jesucristo:en otras palabras recobró el papel fundamental de la ortopráxis2 eje de la salvación que, además de ser un don es una tarea. En concreto la práctica de la justicia, de la libertad y de la verdad como anuncio proléptico de la Evangelización, como condición concreta, histórica de la Misión. El análisis social con el que minuciosamente se examinó la situación en el pasado bipolar (capitalismocomunismo) puede sin duda ser mejorado en el presente pluricéntrico de la era de la globalización. Sin duda alguna fue la Teología de la Liberación la que enfrentó la conducta general de los cristianos y su mensaje de Buena Nueva, a las

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condiciones de miseria a la que reduce la maldad humana, el pecado social, a la inmensa mayoría de hombres, mujeres y niños. Fue esta teología la que regresó a las fuentes de la fe, en particular, la que puso la Biblia en manos del pueblo, a fin de que, leyéndola en Iglesia, el propio pueblo pudiera tener criterios para juzgar sobre la realización del plan de Dios en su vida individual y social. Estos criterios eran la referencia a las prioridades y las opciones del Jesús del Evangelio. El acierto principal de la Teología de la Liberación fue el haber iniciado el desarrollo de una explicación de la forma cómo la salvación adquirida por Jesucristo en el acontecimiento pascual existe de manera histórica en la vida concreta de la Iglesia. Hizo varias precisiones tanto a nivel de la parte espiritual como de las condiciones corporales-materiales de la salvación, y esto tanto en el individuo como en la comunidad de los salvados. Como es fácil colegir, refiere inmediatamente al problema de la existencia analógica del universal en lo particular; la salvación adquirida por Jesucristo en el acontecimiento pascual, “una vez para siempre”, se realiza históricamente a la manera del recipiente, es decir en lo que cabe, y además de manera analógica, vale decir, simplemente diversa y de alguna forma igual. Históricamente esto habla de una universalidad acotada, concretada, inculturada; incompatible con una uniformización unívoca. La Teología de la Liberación abre enormes horizontes en este sentido, especialmente en referencia a la misión en el contexto de la globalización, pues mientras ésta invoca el arrasamiento de las culturas, la misión las promueve, las potencia y desarrolla pues su universalidad se extiende en la concreción de la peculiaridades particulares. En este sentido misión y globalización son movimientos asintóticos de la sociedad actual. 2. LA OPCIÓN POR EL POBRE3 La opción por el pobre en el sentido de gracia de Dios necesaria de para recibir la salvación, es la lógica de la elección. En efecto, cada elección divina, tanto en el Antiguo como en el Nuevo Testamento va acompañada de una exigencia de vaciamiento, que es a la vez una gracia y una tarea, de tal manera que la elección recae infaliblemente en quien carece de méritos para recibirla, según aquello de que «los últimos serán los primeros y los primeros últimos». Es decir: En toda la revelación se presenta constantemente esta opción; basten aquí unos ejemplos sobresalientes: Abraham tiene que abandonar su tierra y su riqueza para emprender el camino a la Tierra Prometida; Isaac es reducido a la condición de animal de matanza; Jacob está por debajo de Esaú en sus derechos; David es el más pequeño y no participa de las tomas de decisión. La constante no se rompe sino que se radicaliza en el NT: Jesús es el primus analogatus de esta constante de elección del pobre, del marginado, del rechazado. Pero así acaece en cada página del Evangelio y las cartas apostólicas pasando por el

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centurión, los samaritanos hasta las prostitutas y los pecadores que «nos precederán en el Reino de los Cielos». Los elegidos de Jesús son pescadores, publicanos y aún zelotas. Jesús anda en compañía de pecadores. La persona que él elige como portavoz de sus enviados titubea en su marcha sobre el mar y niega tres veces a Jesús en la hora decisiva. En toda la revelación de la Nueva Alianza queda evidente que Dios da la gracia a quien la necesita; la necesidad del indigente es el título que parece atraer la gracia divina. Ciertamente la opción por el pobre es una dimensión estructural de la caridad evangélica, pero desde el punto de vista soteriológico constituye el sujeto – y el espacio – de la revelación del poder (exousía) de Dios. La pobreza del desposeído ha sido privilegiada para la manifestación del poder salvador del Padre de Jesucristo. Sin duda la teología de América Latina ha privilegiado un tema central en la salvación que viene de Jesucristo, y la Opción por el pobre se ha de considerar como una de las mayores gracias que Dios ha concedido a su Iglesia en estos últimos tiempos, como gustaba decir monseñor Moacyr Grecchi4. La opción por el pobre en el sentido de vaciamiento requerido para recibir la gracia de Dios es una clave hermenéutica de la teología bíblica y de toda la teología cristiana. A partir de ella se percibe más profundamente el alcance de los textos bíblicos que se refieren a la salvación y a la redención, y se penetran con mayor agudeza los misterios de la revelación de Dios y de la encarnación de la Palabra, pues es la visión divina. A través de la perspectiva de la Opción por el pobre se recupera el sentido más arquetípicamente cristiano de la resurreción de Jesucristo y de la resurrección de la carne. Desde la Opción por el pobre en efecto, se esclarece por un lado la distancia infinita entre el don y la dimensión del mérito pero también, por otro lado, la importancia dada a la pequeñez y la atención concedida por la providencia divina a la condición frágil de la materia, de la carne y del ser humano todo. Se convierte en paradigma teológico del rescate del pecador y de la atención del débil, como explicación de un mundo desigual y del trato preferencial a lo débil de este mundo. La opción por los pobres,como dice el P. Carlos Palacio, es un aspecto inicial de lo que significó la historicidad de la salvación. 3. BAJO EL EXAMEN DE LA CRÍTICA Efectivamente ninguna teología recibió durante el siglo XX una atención tan pormenorizada como la Teología de la Liberación5. Dos declaraciones oficiales apuntaron a sus límites pero también a sus aciertos como lo hizo el Papa Juan Pablo II en el año 1986 en carta al episcopado Brasileño. La Teología de la Liberación,constituye sin duda una novedad en la Iglesia, pero no una moda. Se trata de una nueva perspectiva sobre la encarnación del Verbo y sobre la participación de la naturaleza humana en la liberación que se efectuó en el Acontecimiento Pascual, descubrimiento hecho bajo la

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óptica de la Opción por el pobre. De esta propuesta de la teología sistemática, la teología moral deduce los imperativos éticos de atención al pobre y desheredado, porque la conciencia teológica sacudida por el empañamiento de la salvación de Jesucristo en la situación de miseria de la mayoría de los seres humanos, busca y rebusca la clave de interpretación que le dé la luz que ilumina la inteligencia de la fe. Esta la encuentra en la Opción por el pobre, la cual le revela la dimensión de la ación humana en el proceso de conversión que lleva a la recepción de la salvación. Este principio no varía, si se desbarata el Muro de Berlín, o si se le da un pretendido rostro humano a la globalización; se trata de un planteamiento teológico sistemático sobre el estatuto soteriológico de la acción humana por la liberación del débil y marginado. En el fondo lo que se persigue es esclarecer en qué sentido la tarea de la salvación se inserta en el don de la salud en Jesucristo. No pocos creyeron que la Teología de la Liberación se reducía a opiniones éticas sobre algún sistema económico, o alguna formación política; otros atribuyeron los orígenes de la Teología de la Liberación a una información incompleta sobre plantemientos igualitaristas. Para sorpresa general, su permanencia y su profundización consecuente la hacen ya una parte importante de la teología católica pues sus argumentos se basan en la kénosis del Hijo de Dios hecho carne. De esta propuesta de teología sistemática se deducen los imperativos éticos de atención al pobre y desheredado que antes, o de forma concomitante, fueron inducidos por la conciencia teológica desde la percepción de la miseria como una negación de la evidencia testimonial de la salvación de Jesucristo. Así la práctica pastoral ilumina a la teología y la teología evidenicia la dirección de la praxis. De la realidad a la teoría y vice-versa. 4. CON LUZ VERDE Y EN CAMINO La Teología de la Liberación abrió también nuevos campos ecuménicos en la praxis liberadora de la reivindicación de los derechos de los pobres. No pocas comunidades de evangélicos (algunos pentecostales y reformados latinoamericanos, así como evangélicos caribeños e hispanics) buscaron adecuar su celebración cultual y su predicación a las prioridades y opciones del Jesús de los Evangelios, a la manera de la Teología de la Liberación, con la intención de ir más allá de ritos autocomplacientes que podrían derivar en prácticas religiosas enajenantes. La Teología de la liberación decubre la religiosidad popular en el trabajo misionero, pero también le inyecta contenido teológico. Esta dimensión de la Teología de la Liberación despunta apenas y sin duda tiene enormes posibilidades. La tecnología de la información (information technology) y la economía que deriva de ella supera en poder económico y administrativo a los Estados de la mayor parte de las naciones en desarrollo y es capaz de generar, por su

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control de los medios de comunicación, el consenso que puede legitimar cualquier decisión sobre los marginados del progreso tecnológico, hasta determinar cuántos de ellos deben desaparecer del mapa económico de los países llamados “viables”. Es aquí donde la Teología de la Liberación y la Opción por el pobre, en el sentido aludido, deben cumplir su cometido profético de denuncia de la injusticia y anuncio del Reino de Dios. La teología de la Liberación toma en serio la fragilidad de la historia, por eso puede asumir también los plantemientos de un pensamiento débil y relativista desde la perspectiva de la salvación integral ofrecida por Jesucristo como liberación del pecado en su aspecto histórico de pecado social. La Teología de la Liberación, es una teología oportuna y necesaria, como la llamó S.S. Juan Pablo II, y obtiene un papel importante como clave hermenéutica del mundo actual y como referencia a criterios cristianos de juicio a partir de los postulados de la revelación divina. En este sentido se puede decir que la Teología de la Liberación tiene virtualidades que la hacen insustituible en la teología de la misión.

Notas 1 Fue la recomendación del Concilio Vaticano II de “escrutar los signos de los tiempos”, en particular la Constitución Pastoral Gaudium et Spes 4; la II (1968) y III (1979) reuniones de la Conferencia del Episcopado Latinoamericano (CELAM), el Sínodo de los Obispos de 1971, la encíclica Evangelii Nuntiandi de Pablo VI (1975), por mencionar sólo algunos documentos del magisterio. 2 F. PASTOR, Ortopraxis y ortodoxia. El debate teológico sobre la Iglesia y Liberación en la perspectiva del Magisterio, en “Gregorianum”, 70(1989)4, pp. 689-739. 3 Es una expresión del magisterio del Episcopado Latinoamericano: III Conferencia del Episcopado Latinoamericano, La evangelización en el presente y el futuro de América Latina, Puebla, México 1979. Para el capítulo “Opción por el pobre” especialmente números 27, 1140, 1145, 1147, etc.; ver también: J. COSTADOAT CARRASCO, El Dios de la Vida. El discurso sobre Dios en América Latina. Investigación sobre algunas obras principales de Gustavo Gutiérrez, Ronaldo Muñoz, Jon Sobrino, Juan Luis Segundo, tesis inédita, Roma 1993; en las obras de estos teólogos la opción es preferencial y no exclusiva: G. GUTIÉRREZ, “La opción preferencial por los pobres”, en E. MENÉNDEZ UREÑA, J. GÓMEZ CAFFARENA, J. TERMES et alii, La religión en los albores del siglo XXI, Bilbao 1994, pp. 107-121. Más recientemente: J.M. LIBANIO, M. BREMMER, A.D. CARRERO Renovar la opción por el pobre, CLAR, Bogotá 1999. 4 El Cardenal Aloisio Lorscheider narra cómo el Cardenal Sebastiano Baggio quería omitir en el Celam III (Puebla, México, 27 de Enero-13 de Febrero de 1979) el capítulo que se refería a la opción evangélica, preferencial y solidaria por los pobres, al fin decidieron integrarlo pues «tuvimos también en cuenta que el tema en cuestión casi se había convertido en la nota característica de la Iglesia en América Latina»; reportaje sobre Mons. O.A. ROMERO, Dejaba a la gracia del Señor el trabajo en los corazones, en “30 giorni” (“Treinta Días”), XVIII(2000)4, p. 33 5 La Comisión Teológica Internacional en su sesión anual del 4-9 de octubre de 1976 se había ocupado de la cuestión de las diversas teologías de la liberación. Los pronunciamientos más importantes vienen de la CONGREGACIÓN PARA LA DOCTRINA DE LA FE, Instrucción sobre algunos aspectos de la “Teología de la Liberación”, 1984; Instrucción sobre Libertad Cristiana y Liberación, 1986.

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II

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COMUNICAZIONI

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SOOSAI AROKIASAMY*

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SHARING OF THE GOSPEL OF CHRIST MORAL THEOLOGICAL REFLECTION

The Good News of salvation of Christ is offer of life in fullness which includes human wholeness. The Word of God and the faith tradition of the Church give us adequate explanation on the offer of the fullness of life. Sharing of faith with fellow believers and people of other faiths means that we give not only explanation of the fullness of life but also first and foremost we bear witness to the gift. The most important way and form of sharing of faith is witness. This form of sharing of faith is fitting, meaningful and necessary in Asia, a continent of many living religious traditions. Since faith is an experience of the gift of life divine, it can be shared in authenticity first in witness of life, then in other ways. Witness to the gift of fullness of life necessarily includes the wholeness of life. Wholeness of life is wholeness of humanity or human wholeness. There is no fullness of life without wholeness of life or human wholeness. I would like to reflect on the moral theological dimensions of wholeness of life or human wholeness in relation to sharing of the Gospel as the Good News of the fullness of life. Wholeness of life or human wholeness is an essential and inseparable dimension of the gift of fullness of life. In other words, human wholeness is embodied in the incarnate revelation and offer of the fullness of life and becomes its authentication. We need to integrate moral theological dimensions of human wholeness into our theology of evangelization and missiology. We need to affirm that moral demands of human wholeness are demands of the Good News of life in fullness. While speaking to Christian missionaries Gandhi strongly objected to the conversion of poor and ignorant harijans (now called dalits). In his view it would be immoral (M.K. GANDHI, Christian Missions, Ahmedabad 1941, pp. 98-101). I make this objection of Gandhi as a point of departure for my reflection. In responding to the objection, I reflect on the ethical demands of human wholeness on the level of interhuman dialogue and on the level of faith which includes interreligious relations. In this context, I would like to reflect on these two levels of dialogue in the history of missions in an illustrative way. Such reflection is relevant the contemporary Vatican II and post Vatican situation with special reference to Asia and India. In a theology

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of evangelization morality is not an after – thought but it is inseparable constituent of evangelization (cf. SYNOD OF BISHOPS, Justice in the World, 1971, 6). I have described my reflection as moral theological because the ethical demands of human wholeness belong to the wholeness and integrity of the Gospel. In this paper, moreover, moral theological dimension is inseparable from a spirituality of mission which I touch upon in the course of this paper. In the present context of rising fundamentalism in many countries of Asia, defensive reactions to protect one’s religious identity becomes strong, aggressive and sometimes even violent. In India in the present situation of the aggressive spread of Hindutva ideology that holds that to be Indian is to be Hindu, the objection of Gandhi mentioned above becomes easy grist to the mill of their fundamentalist ideology which is anti-Christian and antMuslim. But we recognise that the objection of Gandhi expresses a legitimate concern of his. Gandhi was a lover of Christ and his message. Here I want to show that the legitimate concern of Gandhi is our concern too. No one worthy of the Gospel of Jesus can exploit the ignorance and powerlessness of dalits and the poor in the work of sharing of our faith in Christ. However, the objection of Gandhi against conversion of harijans in the sense above though valid, is one-sided. It has ignored fundamental dimensions of our being human. Gandhi seems to have denied the subjectivity and the humanity of the poor. If he accuses the missionaries of exploiting the vulnerability and powerlessness of the poor for conversion and of treating them as objects of their missionary work, I find that Gandhi in his approach to harijans commits the same fault of treating harijans as objects because he has ignored their humanity, that is, their subjectivity. The great sin for missionaries and Gandhi,and for that matter, for any one is to ignore the humanity of the poor, their freedom, their dignity, their voice however limited In their situation of powerlessness and vulnerability, their hopes and aspirations for dignity, freedom and well-being worthy of human beings are the signs of their unquenchable humanity and subjectivity. Did Gandhi listen to this voice and reckon with this humanity of theirs? While Gandhi found fault with missionaries for converting poor and ignorant harijans, he did not challenge them to empower them through education and development which would make them free and stand on their own feet and would give them a voice worthy of their human dignity. His accuzation was more of a reaction than one of response built on the humanity of harijans however wounded. That Gandhi ignored the humanity of the poor in his objection to their conversion makes the first and basic dialogue the evangelizer should enter into with people, especially the poor with whom he or she wants to share the Gospel clear and irreplaceable. It is dialogue on the level of their humanity manifested in their struggles for fuller life, their pains joys, hopes and aspirations, their culture, value and meaning systems, etc.

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It may not be easy for a missionary to enter into a dialogue of interhuman relationship with the poor, ignorant and socially and culturally powerless persons and people. A missionary in general is more educated, knowledgeable about things. He has access to material means even if he is not personally rich. Before the powerless poor, he is at a higher level of human influence. Objectively speaking, the relationship between the missionary and the poor is a fragile relationship of dominance- dependence or mildly put, it is one of condescension, pity and kindness which may hide a benevolent paternalism. Formally speaking, in such a structure of dominant-dependent relationship, the evangelizer will appear superior to the one to whom he wants to “proclaim” the Gospel. It could subtly mean that one evangelised becomes more an object of evangelization than a subject who listens to and receives the Gospel in freedom. If this is the situation, then the objection of Gandhi sticks. If we say that the one to whom we proclaim the Gospel is not an object of our evangelization, but a subject, then we must test if the quality of our relationship to the persons or people to whom we proclaim the Gospel bears this out. If it is still entrapped in a relationship of dominance-dependence, we cannot share our faith with others in a truly evangelical sense in which freedom of the evangelizer and freedom and dignity of those who hear the Gospel are truly and effectively present. If the objection of Gandhi implies that the poor and the ignorant cannot hear and receive the Gospel, it would mean that only the educated and the materially well-off can receive the Gospel. It will gainsay that the Gospel is preached to the poor (Lk 4,16-21; cf. also Matthean and Lucan Beatitudes). It also reminds the evangelizer that the Gospel is preached, not in the socioeconomic power of the preacher, but in paupertate. Indirectly the objection of Gandhi points to the imperative of preaching the Gospel in paupertate. It means that the evangelizer dies to his/her trust in the power of intellectual attainments or knowledge of things and in his/her access to abundant material means. We do not deny the legitimate role of the latter in our zervice of people. That the missionary enters into interhuman relationships with the poor and the powerless on the level of humanity is an exercise of faith. This self-emptying after pattern of Christ (Phil 2,6-7) liberates the missionaries from the manifold temptations coming from worldly power and mammon and makes the missionary spiritually eligible for the work of the Gospel. The missionary enters into relationship with the poor and the so-called powerless as human persons with their own intrinsic dignity and inalienable rights. The missionary recognises the personhood and subjectivity of persons and peoples. It will be the foundation on which the missionary builds his/her relationships with the poor and the powerless. Christian faith proclaims the protogospel of the sacred worth and dignity of every human person created in the image and likeness of God and redeemed in His Son Jesus.

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The first dialogue of interhuman relationship worthy of us both as human persons and Christians and its humanising authenticity will first be attested by the poor themselves. The poor relate themselves to the missionary as equals, as brothers and sisters in spontaneity and in confident trust. They will vouch for such a quality of relationships worthy of both the missionary and the poor. The missionary enters into the inner circle of the family of the poor who welcome him or her as their own. Here we recognise a shift from dominance-dependence relationship to one of equality, dignity, freedom and love and solidarity. Such a shift is conversion to the humanity of the poor who have God as their Father. The humanity and freedom of the poor and dignity of the poor meet the humanity, freedom and dignity of the missionary. Therefore sharing of the Gospel with the poor by the missionary takes place in the humanised situation of the former. We can say that the poor listen to the Gospel in freedom and dignity. The missionary also shares the Gospel in freedom and dignity. The zeal of the missionary does not and should not compromise with this demand which is at once ethical and evangelical. In a milieu of freedom and dignity, the missionary free from all sorts of compulsions and ambiguous motives, will be able to discover the humanity of the poor, their wisdom and goodness and will be thus rightly disposed to discern the fruits of the Spirit in them. Here I would like to add one more critical comment on the objection of Gandhi on the likely exploitation of the powerlessness of the poor and ignorant harijans by the missionaries. While Gandhi condemns the nefarious and anti-human practice of untouchability, he miserably fails to appreciate adequately their humanity and their subjectivity manifested in their deep, often unexpressed longing for freedom and dignity, above all their political struggle for freedom and dignity, a dimension Dr B.R. Ambedkar considered essential for the liberation of dalits. Gandhi’s approach being paternalistically benevolent, he missed the opportunity for the political and cultural liberation of dalits. In his paternalism, he was inclined to believe that he knew what was best for dalits. In his approach of liberation of dalits, the latter are still objects rather than subjects of their liberation. If one accepts the humanity and the dignity of human subjectivity of dalits or the poor, one would also realise that this needs to be awakened if it is to be true and living subjectivity of people, not a dead humanity. One would think that Gandhi was not sensitive to this dimension. Hence in his scheme of things, that dalits in their awakened subjectivity raising their voice to have a voice of their own regarding their life and destiny was inconceivable. Hence his struggle to liberate dalits was stymied in the process. A missionary can also fall into this trap. That is why it is important both ethically and evangelically that we enter first into dialogue with the poor on the level of fellow humanity and build interhuman relationship in mutual solidarity. In this context, we need to understand interhuman relationships

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and solidarity from their point of view. Only in such a humanised situation our sharing of the Gospel with them will be perceived as invitation to them in freedom and dignity. This is the way the poor receive the protogospel that affirms the sacred worth of the human person, dignity and freedom. The Spirit that works in every human person does not bypass this protogospel. The Spirit attracts human persons in their dignity and freedom to the fullness of life. It means that dalits and the poor regain their dignity and freedom as human persons and as people. They relate themselves to the missionary as equals and as brothers and sisters. They are subjects of their own decisions, their life, history and destiny, not objects of manipulation by others and of proselytism. They can hear the Gospel in freedom and dignity and can freely choose a faith that affirms their dignity and freedom, a faith that preaches, practices, witnesses to this freedom and dignity and protects and promotes them. These reflections on the first dialogue on the level of humanity which embodies the protogospel of the sacred dignity of human person and humanity are meant to clarify that ethical demands of human wholeness essentially belong to the Gospel message of Salvation. Moreover, this first level of dialogue is not merely a strategy or a tactic or a means of evangelization. If it were so, respect for human person and human dignity would be instrumentalist for evangelization. As we pointed out above, human persons would become objects of evangelization. The first dialogue on the level of interhuman relations and humanity of people and the poor, is itself a form and a level of evangelization (cf. Evangelii Nuntiandi 17-20), though not the only and complete evangelization. This dialogue is the first and fundamental practice of love of neighbour, the supreme precept of Christian life. The missionary in his/her work of sharing of the Gospel can never reduce the first dialogue which expresses love of neighbor to a means to the end of evangelization. If it happens, it would be betrayal of the Gospel which contains the Good News of human dignity. We know that authentic love of neighbor can never be instrumentalist. Furthermore, living the first level of dialogue is a spirituality of selfemptying in which one follows the way of Christ. One does not put one’s basic trust in the power of knowledge in the worldly sense nor in the power of material means or wealth (cf. Mt 6,24). They lead to compulsions and manipulations, veritable temptations of mammon, the enemy of God and Christ. Only in the spirit of poverty and radical detachment, will we be able to embody and share the Gospel message of salvation in its integrity and wholeness. FIRST DIALOGUE IN MISSION HISTORY In the history of the missions, the practice of first level of dialogue was not always understood in its right meaning and value in relation the Gospel,

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If it was practiced, we may ask if it was practiced in a non-instrumentalist way. We know from the general history of missions that the missionaries claimed freedom to preach the Gospel. Wherever they went, they sought this freedom and a placet from chiefs of tribes or rulers. In their missio ad gentes, it was one of their main concerns. Once they obtained the freedom, they were zealous in the spreading of the Gospel. In many countries Christianity took root because of their ceaseless labor and commitment. We praise the Lord for the gift of faith to many peoples through their work. However we may ask if the missionaries who sought freedom to proclaim the Gospel were equally concerned with the freedom of the people to hear and receive the Gospel. One gets the impression that this concern was weak among the missionaries. A sign of this was their general negative attitude towards people’s legitimate customs, social mores and cultures. There could have been the first dialogue with the humanity of people’s cultures. But there have been examples of the first dialogue, though far between. In India, Robert de Nobili (1605-1656) known for his pioneering approach of Madurai mission, noticed that his predecessors in the mission in their zeal to make converts, ignored the legitimate customs, social mores and culture of the people. In India there is a complication in this area because of the discriminatory system of caste hierarchy. Though de Nobili himself was aware of the problem, he thought that this would gradually weaken and disappear. Apart from this, de Nobili had accepted a value principle that that people have a right to keep their own legitimate customs, and cultures if they do not contradict true religion and morality. De Nobili allowed his Christian converts to keep all their legitimate customs and cultures, recognised the humanity of their customs and cultures. Unlike his predecessors, de Nobili did not so much seek royal placet or permission from tribal chiefs and leaders as he cared for the people to hear and receive the Gospel in freedom and dignity (cf. S. AROKIASAMY, Dharma, Hindu and Christian According to Roberto de Nobili, Editrice Gregoriana, Roma 1986). In a situation, where the missionary approach was negative towards people’s cultures even to the extent of imposing one’s own culture on the converts which was humiliating for them besides causing alienation from their own value heritage, de Nobili’s approach was a breakthrough though it provoked negative reactions and misunderstanding among his confreres. De Nobili could not think of his Indian converts embracing the Gospel emptied and deprived of their humanness and culture. In my view, de Nobili’s approach was a dialogue on the level of culture. It exemplifies though in a limited way the first dialogue on the level of humanity. We know that de Nobili’s understanding of Hindu culture was limited, specially with regard to his understanding of castes. But his acceptance of Hindu culture could not be understood as a mere strategy. It was de Nobili’s humanism enabled him to appreciate the genuine value of another culture. This also made it possible for him to shed airs of superiority of his culture. All this

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meant that he loved the people and their cultural humanum in his work of sharing the Good News of Christ. We have another illustration of the first dialogue at the level of humanity in the history of missions in South America. The missionaries who went to this part of the world during Spanish and Portuguese colonization failed in the first dialogue with the cultural humanum of the Amerindians. The socalled Christian colonizers robbed the indigenous people of their land and property, despoiled of their cultural wealth and reduced them to slavery, Missionaries in general preached the Gospel to people without adverting this great injustice. Bartolome de las Casas, a missionary first became part of the colonial system. After his conversion he began to protest against the colonial agenda which corrupted the very work of evangelization. The contradiction in the situation was this: On the one hand the colonizers wanted the indigenous peoples to become Christians and receive baptism. On the other, they despoiled them of their land and possessions and made them slave workers in their plantations. It would mean that they preferred dead Indians (robbed and reduced to slavery) but who were Christians to live Indians free and dignified even though not Christians (cf. G. GUTIÉRREZ, R. SCHAULL, Liberation and Change, Atlanta 1977, pp. 60-69). Awakened to this blatant contradiction of the Gospel, Bartolome de las Casas fought against the oppressive colonial agenda. In his approach, he would first make sure that the Amerindians are respected in their humanity and rights to be a people and to their culture. What was happening was destruction of a people in their humanity, a sin against God and people. In such a situation his option would be «Better a live Indian even though not a Christian than a dead Indian even though a Christian». Bartolome declared that the salvation of the colonizers was in jeopardy because they looted the land and property of the indigenous people and made them slave workers in their plantations, a great sin against God and the Gospel. He knew that a Christianity that emptied people of their humanity embodied in their culture and value heritage could not communicate the Gospel of salvation. Today some do raise a question on the term “Christian”. It can hide a multitude of our false deeds and distorted understanding of faith. Hence it is vitally important that we put some ethical content into the term “Christian”. This does not mean we reduce faith to morality. But Christian faith is the gift of abundant life which inseparably and essentially includes wholeness of human life and humanity. One could multiply examples which illustrate either the presence of the first dialogue on the level of humanity or its absence or failure. In India, the approach of Constantine Lievens to the tribals of Chotanagpur was one that responded to the human needs of the deprived and exploited tribals. His fight for their land rights, a work of human development and liberation was also a work of evangelization, a path of mission. Only in relationship of equality and solidarity with the poor, will we discover them in their dignity and freedom in which they will encounter the Gospel.

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DIALOGUE ON THE LEVEL OF FAITH I would like to reflect now on a second dialogue at the level of faith of the people whom we encounter in the work of evangelization. The second dialogue is inseparably linked to the first dialogue though it focuses on the dimensions of faith and theology. The missionary in his/her work of evangelization encounters persons and people who are already followers of other religions. He realises that they are believers in their own right according to their religious traditions. Believers of other religions enjoy a dignity and freedom to live their faith which merge with their dignity as human beings. Our respect for them and their dignity as religious believers is not only an ethical demand but also a demand of the Gospel. We know that they are already under the power of grace of God who wills the salvation of all humankind. We need to listen to their faith experience and discern the work of the Spirit in them. We are called to respect the fruits of the Spirit produced in them. We can express the respect we owe to them and to God and the Sprit at work in them even before we approach them in another way: we take off our shoes when we approach other religions and the faith of their followers because God is at work in them before we approach them. We know that all authentic faith comes from God who is the source of all good gifts. The seeds of the Word sown in them by the Spirit germinate, grow and bear fruits in commitment of love, service and deep devotion to God and love of neighbor though their symbols of faith are different from those of Christian faith. It is with these believers we share what we hold as most precious, namely our faith and the Good News of Salvation in Christ Jesus. Sharing of our faith with other believers in interreligious dialogue is a path of mission of the Church. Because of this religious situation of other believers, our failure of respect and reverence would mean that we approach them as objects of our mission, not as believer-subjects. Without respect for them as believer-subjects, morally and religiously wholesome relationship will not be possible. At the same time, in this path of mission, we do not ignore limitations and presence of sin among Christians and other believers. Every authentic faith declares the need for repentance, reconciliation, healing and forgiveness. CONCLUSION The two dialogues at the level of humanity and at the level of faith are inherent in our work of sharing of the Gospel with people of other religions. They are paths of mission (cf. Redemptoris Missio 41-60; Dialogue and Proclamation, 70d,e,f.) without which the mission of proclamation or what I call here sharing of the Gospel of Christ cannot take place in way that is

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morally impeccable and evangelically authentic. For the integrity of sharing of the Gospel, the two dialogues are essential. There is no sharing of the Gospel in the manner of subject-to-object relationship on the part of the missionary and no hearing and receiving of the Gospel on the part of those who belong to other religious traditions in such a relationship. In both dialogues, people are not objects of human liberation and of Gospel sharing. It is clear that at both levels of dialogue, the relationship between the missionary and the people is one of person-toperson, subject-to-subject and believer-to-believer. The two dialogues are not principles of managerial efficiency and utilitarian strategies of public relations adopted for the goal of evangelization. From the above reflections, it is clear that the different paths of mission are not means to one another but specific though not exhaustive, embodiments of the form and content of the Gospel and of humanity created and redeemed by God in Christ. They also concretise love commandment which sums up Christian life in the work of Gospel sharing. Let us remember that if we do not love people practice justice (1 Jn. 4,8; Jer 22,16) which include super-eminently our respect for their personhood, dignity and freedom, we do not know God and Christ (Mt 25,45).

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JOSEPH PUTHENPURAKAL

«WHO DO YOU SAY THAT I AM?» (Mt 16:15) MISSIONARY AND MISSIOLOGICAL RESPONSE IN THE CONTEXT OF RELIGIONS AND CULTURES

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1. THE GREATEST QUESTION AND THE MOST PERSONAL ANSWER Down the centuries millions have faced Jesus’ question to his Apostles, “Who do you say that I am?” Many have sacrificed their lives to defend the answer they gave to it. And as long as the world lasts, millions and millions more will answer it, and live by the answer they give to it. The greatest of all questions: «Who do you say that I am?» calls for the most personal answer. At a time : when the world is passing through unheard of changes in all walks of life; when the speed of history seems to be reaching its breakneck velocity; when it has become well-neigh impossible to predict what science and discoveries have in store for mankind; when one does not really know what tomorrow is going to be…; a personal answer to who Jesus is does matter a lot, because he offers the ultimate answer to our ultimate questions in life. As you see, I have already started with a bias! And the bias is that Jesus Christ is normative for me. Hence, the challenge that I face is not so much to prove “whether” or “why” Jesus is my Saviour, but to remain faithful to him as I seek to understand the faith of others. This has become all the more urgent, because religious or cultural plurality is a fact today. Everywhere in the world people come across differing cultures and religions previously separated from each other, but now living in close proximity. As a result, no other issue presents more challenges than the issue of Christian Faith vis-avis other Faiths. The question, «Who do you say that I am?», therefore, brings up a host of issues of Faith and Witness in today’s world. Christian “Mission is an issue of faith” (RM 11) in Jesus Christ as the unique and universal Saviour of mankind. Therefore, Jesus’ question and the answer Peter gives have several missionary and missiological implications1. 2. FOCUSING ON TODAY’S WORLD The world2 too needs ultimate answers for its ultimate questions. Here, the question is not so much why or whether it needs them. But, how to make

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the world aware of the questions and their answers! At present man is too much distracted with looking at his own discoveries. He has no time to look at God’s creation. He is so busy that he cann’t even to look into himself. Hence, the challenge facing Christian mission today is to devise ways and means to «make a deep impression» (Mk 1,22) on modern man. Modern man must, somehow, get the feeling that the Good News is something really “new” (Mk 1,27). To this end, more “gracious words” (Lk 4,22), perhaps, have to come from the lips of Christian communities and Christians as individuals. The world must feel once more that «nobody has spoken like Him» (Jn 7,46). Then there will be a chance to see “the whole world” «running after Him» (Jn 12,19). From the rocking boat of this world with all its “tempestuous” problems there should arise the perennial question, «Whatever kind of man is this? Even the winds and the sea obey him!» (Mt 8,23-27). This question from the part of the world is an echo of the real question (the primary question) which Jesus asks his Apostles, «Who do you say that I am?». The answer the Apostles and all those in leadership in the Church give, shall help the rest of us to answer the first question (the preparatory question) «Who do people say the Son of Man is?» (Mt 16,13. See also Mk 8,27; Lk 9,18). To ensure the quality of the answer to the primary question, and to lead the Church and society as close as possible to the answer the Apostles gave, is the task of Christian Mission3. We know that the Gospels have only one purpose, namely, to present the identity of Jesus. And Peter’s answer in Mathew (which sums up a climactic moment towards the end of Jesus’ Galilean ministry) puts clearly before the world the true identity of Jesus Christ4. 3. THE CONTENTS OF THE ANSWER The three answers recorded by the three evangelists complement one another. First, «You are the Christ» in Mark (Mk 8,29) represents all those who see Jesus as the “anointed” one of God. Second, «You are the Christ of God» (Lk 9,20) or someone in the tradition of the great prophets (John the Baptist / Elijah / Jeremiah or one of the prophets, in Mt / Mk / Lk) stands for the answer of the gentiles (all non-Christian religions and their cultures) would give. Indeed, they have no problem in considering Jesus as one of their deities or prophets. For them Jesus, the prophet, is a fearless and dynamic spokesperson of God. The third and final answer from Peter on behalf of the other Apostles, «You are the Christ, the Son of the living God»5 is the echo of the answer all the believers in Jesus Christ would give. Peter’s answer is total, complete and unconditional, though some time later he would falter and would find it hard to accept that Jesus should suffer and die (Mt 16,22)6. As we know, Peter’s words as recorded in Mathew, represent a later and a more mature understanding of the nature of the

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person of Jesus in the early Church. It teaches us that Faith is not something static or stagnant, a gift received once-and-for-all. Instead, it grows and develops. It is strengthened in the process of living it and sharing it. Faith is strengthened when it is given to others (RM 2). The words of Jesus, «Blessed are you, Simon Bar-Jona…» (Mt 16,17-19) could be paraphrased as, «Your answer, Simon, is indispensable for my mission. On it depends everything else. If what you say is fine, I’m fine! Others may have a lot of other answers, but what you have said just now is crucial for me and for my mission here on earth. On your answer would depend the way others after you would answer the same question across the centuries and in the remotest corners of the world» (see Mt 16,13-20; Mk 8,27-30; Lk 9,18-20. See also Jn 21,15-19). Peter’s answer is «The parrhesia of faith […] matched by the boldness of reason», as we read in Pope John Paul II’s Fides et Ratio (FR 48). (The whole discourse on Reason and Faith, as given in the Encyclical, and the “missionary” and “missiological” link between the two can be developed here)7. Man’s «passion for ultimate truth» (FR 56) as well as his search for meaning too find an echo in the faith confessed by Peter. His is a faith «which stirs reason to move beyond all isolation, and willingly to run risks so that it may attain whatever is beautiful, good and true» (FR 56). It is also an invitation to modern man – thanks to a felicitous expression in Fides et Ratio – «to move from phenomenon to foundation» (FR 83). Jesus’ words to Peter also remind us that the various answers (partially true) given by people received no commendation from Jesus. Jesus is infinitely more than a prophet or a holy person. Human categories, however sublime they may be, are inadequate to describe Jesus. He is the Son of the Living God. «This is my beloved Son, with whom I am well pleased» (Mt 3,17). Misrepresenting Christ in different degrees is a constant danger even in our own days8. Neither a purely sociological, nor cultural nor political answer regarding Jesus Christ can offer a satisfactory identity of Jesus Christ, for he and the Father are one (see Jn 10,30). To go further into the contents of the Faith expressed by Peter would throw light on the emptiness of certain currents of thought prevalent today (see FR 86-90). It would also mean helping to “mediate” the same to the many cultures and religions of our day and to evolve a new methodology for today’s mission, so that «the Truth which is the living God, and his plan for salvation revealed in Jesus Christ» (FR 92) serve the cause of «evangelization more effectively» (FR 92, 99)9. 4. THE CONTEXT OF THE ANSWER The place of Jesus’ question and Peter’s answer is significant – Caesarea Philippi. Caesarea Philippi stands for what we would today understand by

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the “ad gentes” context. It was a centre for ancient Syrian Baal worship. The Greek god Pan, god of nature, was also worshiped there. It was «as though Jesus deliberately set himself against the background of the world’s religions in all their history and splendour»10. Today with three fourths of humanity still to receive the first proclamation of the Good News, when mission «is still only beginning» (RM 1), when the «number of those who do not know Christ and do not belong to the Church is constantly on the increase» (RM 3), we may say that a new “Caesarea Philippi” with fresh challenges is emerging all over the globe. The whole of Asia, for example, is home to 60% of the world population, and to 85% of all the non-Christians of the world. China and India constitute half the population of the world. This modern “Caesarea Philippi” offer new opportunities for Gospel proclamation. Moreover, the ad gentes situation is growing daily in the socalled ancient Christian countries. Add to it, the rise of fundamentalist groups of every hue and colour, and the growth of a culture that is far from being Christian. The incident of Caesarea Philippi takes on fresh meaning for Mission in today’s world. And the answer Peter gives today in the person of John Paul II and his brother Bishops is the echo of «You are the Christ, the Son of the Living God». Fresh challenges call for new applications of Peter’s Confession to today’s Caesarea Philippi spread all over the globe. 5. THANKS TO THE SECOND VATICAN COUNCIL One of the greatest contributions of the Second Vatican Council to Christian life in our time is the rediscovery of Biblical Faith. The apologetic approach to Faith that was prevalent before the Council was more propositional, intellectual and worried about its purity. It had become closed in upon itself for the sake of defending itself from the attacks of its enemies. The biblical understanding of faith, instead, is that through which a person entrusts himself/herself to God, a faith that is rooted in and related to history. A Faith that helps the Church to open herself to others, to the realities of history and to her mission in the world. It is a Faith that is not afraid of meeting and welcoming such realities as cultures, dialogue and inculturation. In it there is no place for a dualistic approach to reality. The dichotomy between natural and supernatural, between this world and the world to come disappears in it. It does not bypass this world, its history and all that constitutes history. It is a Faith that challenges the believer to discover God’s presence in the manifold vicissitudes of this world. In other words, the Council’s rediscovery of Biblical Faith gives us the key to openness to, and dialogue with, the cultures, religions, peoples (especially the poor and the marginalized) and the whole of God’s creation (the ecological aspect). It transforms the New Israel, the Church, to meet the challenges of today so as to enter the Third Millennium better prepared.

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CONCLUSION Our convictions regarding the identity of Jesus is crucial for Christian Mission. Commitment to Mission and love for the person of Jesus go together. The more we are in love with him, the clearer shall we see him in others and in their religious traditions and cultures. The strength to see him in all peoples and their cultures is the strength of the “katholika”. It makes the Good News feel at home among all peoples as well as make the various peoples and their cultures feel at home in the Good News. The sine qua non for it is a faith like that of Peter which finds expression in his answer, «You are the Christ, the Son of the Living God!».

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Notes 1 By the adjective “missionary”, we mean the concrete day to day life of a Christian in which he/she witnesses to Christ and his Good News – in the family, in work places and in society – overcoming the difficulties which he/she comes across daily in the work of bearing witness to one’s faith in Christ and in sharing it with others. The difficulties may come from multiplicity of languages in a given area, illiteracy and poverty of the people, lack of personnel and means, persecution and so on. They care concrete and down to earth difficulties. In stead, by the adjective “missiological “ we understand problems which arise from theological reflection when the evangelizing mission of the Church is confronted with a given context. For example, how to understand the centrality of Jesus Christ in a context of religious pluralism; or the role of the Church vis-à-vis other religions, or the why of the urgency of proclamation, if non-Christians too may be saved in their religious traditions. In the actual life of a missionary both “missionary” and “missiological” problems are found. 2 “World” here is understood as “society” in general. 3 Here the words of John Paul II in Fides et Ratio are in order: «The need for a foundation for personal and communal life becomes all the more pressing at a time when we are faced with the patent inadequacy of perspectives in which the ephemeral is affirmed as a value and the possibility of discovering the real meaning of life is cast into doubt. This is why many people stumble through life to the very edge of the abyss without knowing where they are going» (FR 6). 4 There are different ways of making this identity known: at Baptism, at the Transfiguration, at the Crucifixion, through the Scriptures, through John the Baptist and finally, the Words and Deeds of Jesus himself. The Gospel of Mathew is all about the Words (teachings) and deeds (miracles and performances) of Jesus. 5 These words of Peter highlight the centrality of Jesus Christ as the unique and only God. This is especially so when we see how Mathew develops his portrait of Jesus against a background of indifference and hostility. Here one is reminded of the hostility against the Church in India and other places in the world. 6 In the history of the Church we see that, like Peter, the Church too at times preferred to proclaim a non-suffering, triumphalistic Christ. The Constantinian Christ, the Crusading Christ, the Colonial Christ are some of the examples. “We betray Jesus”, we read in C.E. SHENK, Who Do You Say That I Am?, Herald Press, Scottdale, Pennsylvania 1997 (C.E. SHENK, Henceforth 1997): «When we equate his kingship with ruling ideologies, elitist power structures, wonder workers, or when we make him a

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guarantor of success. But it is equally wrong to emphasize his suffering character without his kingship», p. 158. The identity of Jesus comes to us best from the New Testament and from the early testimonies of the Church. 7 This would mean a reading of Fides et Ratio from missionary and missiological angles. See, S. KAROTEMPREL, Fides et Ratio and Christian Mission, in “Mission Today” (formerly, “Indian Missiological Review”), I(Jan.-Sep. 1999)1,2,3, pp. 183-195. There exists a harmony between Faith and Reason. Both the light of Faith and the light of Reason come from God. Each without the other is impoverished and enfeebled. In an honest and sincere searcher of God, Reason will take him / her to the field of Faith. God in Jesus Christ shares man’s search for God and finally will reveal himself to man. See, the Emmaus incident (Lk 24,13-49). 8 See C.E. SHENK, op. cit., pp. 158-160. 9 The theme “Messiah”, the anointed one in whom the Jewish expectations were fulfilled, can be developed further at this point. As the Messiah, Jesus is also the fulfilment of all other peoples and their cultures. The theme of “Messiah” is linked with the theme of “suffering” for the sake of service, service to the point of self-empting in order to offer salvation to the weak and the oppressed. 10 Caesarea (named after the emperor Tiberius) Philippi (named after Philip, the third son of Herod) was a pagan city in a largely pagan region. In Mathew, Jesus «came to the region of Caesarea Philippi»; in Mark, he «went to the villages around Caesarea Philippi». Luke does not mention the city.

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KAREL STEENBRINK*

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COMMUNICATING THE MYSTERY OF CHRIST IN A MUSLIM MILIEU

During the last four decades the Roman Catholic Church has taken quite drastic and revolutionary steps for the improvement of inter-religious contacts and relations. This has started with the Declaration Nostra Aetate by the II Vatican Council in 1965, followed by the institution of the Secretariat (later Pontifical Council) for Non-Christians (later: for Inter-religious Dialogue). This secretariat issued in 1969 Guidelines for a Dialogue between Muslims and Christians. A new step was taken in 1986 with the invitation of Pope John Paul II to several prominent religious leaders to join the “World Day of Prayers for Peace” in Assisi. This initiative was elaborated in a thematic way by the Pontifical Council for Inter-religious Dialogue and the Office on Inter-Religious Relations of the World Council of Churches, who issued the result of their joint study in 1998 under the title of Inter-religious Prayer1. On a more abstract and theoretical level, the International Theological Commission, constituted by the Vatican, issued a document Christianity and the Religions, with the approval of Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger, dated 30 September 19962. This document strongly rejects exclusivism and the restrictive claim of Catholics or Christians to salvation and truth. On the other side the commission also disavows an unlimited pluralism. The right middle way between the two extremes should be found in an Christocentric inclusivism, properly understood. This is a broad and open belief in salvation and revelation through Christ, not automatically restricted to institutions as church and Christian communities. These four key documents steer and illustrate a new understanding of other religions, which still has to grow and find its concrete ways in encounters, devotional practices and theological reflections. The most common starting points here are the sharing of the common need for salvation, reconciliation and guidance, in a quest for a merciful and illuminating God. This contribution wants to stimulate the more specific reflection on the mystery of Christ in a Muslim milieu on the basis of my personal experience as a lecturer at the State Academy of Islamic Studies in Jakarta and Yogyakarta, where I taught between 1981-1988. As part of a long-term contract of co-operation between Leiden University in the Senior lecturer at the Interuniversity Institute for Missiological and Ecumenical Research of Utrech University.

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Netherlands and the two Islamic Academies (totalling some 11,000 students of Islamic theology and law, from undergraduate until the doctoral level), supported by the Dutch Ministry of Development Co-operation and the Indonesian Ministry of Religion, I was invited to teach orientalism and Christian theology. The subject matter “orientalism” was meant as the intellectual tradition of religious studies in the Western academic world, including comparative religion and concentrating on Islamic Studies in the orientalist tradition. This was not always an easy job. How to teach the quite critical Qur’an commentaries from Theodor Nöldeke until John Wansbrough with their strong emphasis on the Qur’an as a work conceived by Muhammad in different periods and elaborated in a quite sophisticated way3? Several times I told quite bluntly to my students that I did not receive a good salary to tell them things they could also hear from their own professors, and stressed that at the request of their superiors, I had to tell them about the developments in Western countries, that have set also the standards for academic research in other fields like economic, psychological, technical and medical sciences in their country. On the other hand I did not wish to enter into personal conflicts, see my work permit and visa withdrawn and sent back to my native country. Without making compromises, the subject matter of orientalism had to be communicated in a careful way by presenting the easy topics before the more difficult ones and through emphasis on the conjectural character of many results. Besides teaching orientalism I also gave courses in “Christianity”. The rector of the Jakarta State Institute of Islamic Studies during the 1980’s, Prof. Dr. Harun Nasution, had pursued a Master’s and a Doctoral Degree in Montreal at McGill University. He had debated with fellow students about the theories of secularisation and even a “theology of the death of God” following the thinking of Nietzsche and Bonhoeffer. He wanted to prepare his Muslim students also for a confrontation with modern philosophical and theological thinking in the West. INTRODUCING A LIVING AND PLURAL CHRISTIAN UNDERSTANDING OF JESUS In the course of Christianity, I started with the emphasis on the living tradition rather than summarizing the doctrines of a timeless institution. Although both Christianity and Islam accept the revelation of a sacred scripture, there is a nowadays great difference in the concept of revelation. In order to accommodate to a Muslim public and to start with a clear point, it made sense, to declare from the beginning that the Christians are proud and happy with their four different gospels, stressing so many aspects of the mystery of Christ. Even when modern exegesis does not see in all statements of the gospel a direct recording of Jesus and recognises ipsissima verba Jesu besides later interpretation and contextualization of the Christian

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congregation in the text of the gospels, this does not mean that all “additions” should be seen as mere corruption. To give on example: In the parable of the Lost Son (Lk 15,11-32) the episode of the older son, complaining that he always remained with his father and never received even a young goat to celebrate a party with his friends, can be seen as an application of the original story in terms of later Jewish-Christian relations. It shows the need for re-interpretation of the message of Jesus. Also in a more direct elaboration of developments in Christology it made much sense to start from this dynamic and changing tradition, rather than confronting a petrified and homogeneous Christianity with a similar caricature of Islam. Following the Christological design of Oscar Cullmann4 and the Islamic schedule of 99 beautiful names for God, we studied the many titles given by the New Testament to Jesus. From titles as Prophet, Suffering Servant and High Priest until Lord, Saviour and Son of God: to be interpreted in the concrete Jewish context of Jesus and his environment. It proved to be a strange thing, that the title of Rabbi, one of the few original Aramaic words for Jesus, still in use in the Greek text and in most translations, has disappeared from the Arab translation of the New Testament. In the most common Arab translation we do not find the word Rabbi of Mt 23,8 and Jn 1,38, but mu’allim, the modern Arabic word for secular teacher. The translation could have used faqih, murshid or ‘alim, all Arab words for religious scholars, but these were probably not fit, because of their Islamic connotations. The use of the original word Rabbi evidently became impossible, because of the common use of the Arab word Rabbi for “Lord” in numerous places in the Qur’an starting with Sura 1,1 «Praise be to God (Allah), the Lord (Rabbi) of the entire universe». With regard to the title of Prophet for Jesus, Cullmann remarks: «The only Christological system which was built entirely upon the foundation of faith in the Prophet is the Jewish Christian one which we have found in the pseudo-Clementine Preaching of Peter – that is a heretical branch of early Christianity. But although the future did not belong to this part of Christianity, its Christology had a real historical role to play again at a later time – not in Christianity, but in Islam. Specialists in the study of this religion now acknowledge that it was founded under the influence of Jewish Christianity»5. The mystery of Christ cannot be explored through simple formulas. Besides the common word for prophet or nabi, the Qur’an has several high names, only used for this Jesus as messenger of God, like kalima of Word of God, ruh, God’s Spirit and masih, commonly understood as Messiah, although the interpretation may differ. In the history of the quest for an appropriate Christology, the Christian churches have sought a right middle way between a simple identification of Jesus with a common human being on the one hand and an exclusive profession of his divine essence on the other. In fact we can see both tendencies in the Qur’an as well. But the

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emphasis on the human nature of Jesus in later Islam has more or less overwhelmed all good starting points for a “higher Christology”. A text like Qur’an 9,30-31 has dominated the scene: «9:30. The Jews say: Ezra is God’s son and the Christians say: The messiah is the son of God. These are mere verbal assertions in imitation of the sayings of those unbelievers who preceded them. May God ruin them. How do they turn away from the truth? (31) They take their rabbis and monks for the Lord beside God, and also the Messiah, son of Mary, whereas they were commanded to worship none but the One God. There is no god be He. Exalted be He above those whom they associate with Him in his divinity». The opportunities for a more developed doctrine about Christ in Islam as indicated above were not developed. Jesus as ruh was in most cases downgraded by a simple identification of the Spirit (ruh see the Hebrew ruah) with the angel Gabriel. The combination of Jesus and “Spirit”, or Gabriel in fact means only that Jesus received a true revelation from God, in the same style and sense as was given to the other prophets. In the same mood the title of kalima, or God’s Word for Jesus, usually only is given a minimalist interpretation of Jesus being given a true revelation from God. As such this title is then placed at the same level as the qualification for Abraham as friend (khalil) of God. The title of Messiah (masih) remains the vaguest and most uncertain for Muslims. It can be a wise and clever strategy to start with the opinions of your counterparts. I therefore started the elaboration on Christ in modern theology after reading in class all sixteen chapters of the gospel of Marc with a selection from the writing of Adolf von Harnack’s Das Wesen des Christentums (The Essence of Christianity). Von Harnack does not consider Jesus himself as the Redeemer and Saviour, but as the preacher and proclamator of the spiritual liberty of mankind. Such developments within Christianity are not accepted by all Christians, but they are well-known by Muslims and better should be recognised than just denied, both in Christian and in Muslim milieu6. Only after the confrontation with the more or less “Muslim” counterpart “within Christianity”, I gave a further elaboration through a modern exegetical method like Joachim Jeremias in his studies on the Parables of the Kingdom7. It was a surprising and even joyful experience for Muslim students to see, that Christians have a less literal interpretation of revelation for their own scripture, and do not consider all words of Jesus in the gospel as direct quotations, herewith somehow accepting the doctrine of change and even corruption (tahrif) of their scripture. But it was as surprising for them, to see, what conclusions also could be taken from a sound and healthy development in belief. The biblical theology of Oscar Cullmann, as also indicated above, was then the transition to the final and concluding transformation of the perception of Jesus in Christianity: through the image of Jesus in the theology of Gutiérrez, and in modern African Christianity an even more varied image could be given.

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What was the result of these deliberations and dialogues in the classroom? They were of course held in the asymmetrical relation between a lecturer and his students. The students showed a keen interest in these new, sometimes amazing perspectives. They had quite great difficulties in meeting the requirements for their examinations in this field and the difference between bad and good results was much more than in the average course given at the theological institute. Notwithstanding the great interest for these perspectives with a great number of students, many of them could not yet do much with these new perspectives in the field of speculative or systematic theology or ‘ilmul kalam. In the practical aspects of Islam, covered by the shari‘a and the general moral teachings, Jesus does not have a major role. In spirituality, one yearly festival is devoted to Abraham and his willingness to sacrifice his beloved son. Another holiday is the celebration of the encouragement given to Muhammad during his nightly voyage to Jerusalem and his ascension to heaven. But there is no clear religious and spiritual Islamic practice related to Jesus. Therefore, anti-Christian polemics only function within the context of the animosity between social groups, or even as part of an anti-Western discourse. Also the academic criticism of this discourse had not much practical consequences for my students. Although we could meet at the intellectual level, this certainly was not enough. While writing papers on Christianity most students opted for concrete historical and organisational aspects of recent history (parishes, division of churches, relations between the faithful and their ministers). They liked the Catholic places of pilgrimage, because this could be compared with similar Muslim places and the various attitudes (from rejection to acknowledgement of great popularity) among the Muslim intellectuals. The single student who wrote a Master’s-Thesis on Rudolph Bultmann’s critique of myth (Entmythologisierung), had great problems in understanding the existential need for the debate on myth, because living in a culture where miracles are still easily accepted these were not common questions. As we will se below, not the well-informed debate on the historical problems of philosophical-theological nature, but rather the ready-to-use Christology of liberation theology attracted most attention, besides mythical experience. THE ONE GOD EMANATIONS

AND

SPECULATIONS

ABOUT

ETERNAL MISSIONS

AND

In the discussion about orientalism much attention has to be given to hidden agendas. The modern Arabs consider orientalism as an academic branch of Imperialism and Zionism8. But also in the more speculative section of Islamic studies such hidden agendas can be found. The Jesuit Prof. Dr. J.J.A.M. Houben, a professor of Islamic studies at the Catholic University of Nijmegen, held the dream that Christianity and Islam could meet in the

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common heritage of philosophers like Averroes (Arab: Ibn Rushd) or Avicenna (Arab: Ibn Sina) and the theological school of the Mu’tazila. Both were the monotheistic interpreters of the Greek philosophy of Aristotle, Plato and neo-Platonism. When the Christians would return to the sound theology of Thomas Aquinas and the Muslims to the elaborate philosophical theology of the Mu’tazila, a proper meeting point could be reached and mutual understanding would be possible. When I entered the Muslim College, Pondok Modern Darussalam of Gontor, Indonesia, as a Ph.D. student, I was surprised to see that one of the favourite scholars, Averroes, was not famous for his philosophical meditations, but for his book on comparative Islamic ethics and jurisprudence, Bidayatul Mujtahid. This book (litt. the Beginning of Sound and Independent Thinking) provided a comparison of all major Islamic schools of law, in their many details of consensus and disagreement. As usual in the Western and Christian world, my Catholic University did not pay much attention to the specialities of Islamic law in the general or even the graduate courses. We studied Islam as if it was very similar to Christianity: history, philosophy, systematic theology, and mysticism were the main subjects and law was considered as more or less irrelevant. In my courses on Orientalism at the Islamic institutes, the Western studies of Mu’tazila has to be taken into account, especially the interpretation of the debate on the question whether the Qur’an is created or uncreated. The Mu’tazila, putting as their major point, that God is One, Unique and without any equal, could not accept, that something uncreated could exist besides God, because it would mean, that the Eternal is not one, but divided. Therefore they considered the Qur’an as created. Their opponents considered this a heresy, because it would classify the revelation of the Qur’an as a common creature, speech and writing. In order to guarantee the special position of God’s revelation in the Qur’an they claimed an uncreated Qur’an “besides” an eternal and unique divinity, while at the same time acknowledging that man cannot know in more detail how this is possible. Since the beginning of modern Islamic studies in the West, this debate has been considered as an important but also unequal religious debate. Ignaz Goldziher (1850-1921) has already stressed that there is a boundary between religious experience and reasoning, the latter never able to fully express the former. In the case of the creation or uncreatedness of the Qur’an two different convictions had to be harmonised, which could not really be accepted the one besides the other. The Mu’tazila gave preferences to God’s unity, accepting the “lower position” of the Qur’an. The high status of the Qur’an was the main issue for their opponents, who later formulated the doctrine of an uncreated Qur’an as part of the Ash’arite school, the major school of theology in Sunni Islam. It was therefore not one single debate, but a complicated quest to find balanced opinions on conflicting views, which resulted in different opinions9.

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The Muslim debate on the (un)created character of the Qur’an of course gave opportunity to compare it with the developments in the early history of Christianity, which lead to the doctrine of Chalcedony (451), defining the Mystery of Christ as the unity within one person of the two natures, divine and human. A superficial comparison would accept the Ash’ari answer in favour of the uncreated Qur’an as a one-sided solution, where a “human character” of the Qur’an had lost in favour of the eternal and uncreated character. This would be too simple: while the eternal meaning was stated to be uncreated, other aspects were defined as temporary and created, like the pen, the paper, but according to many interpretations also the Arab wording. In this debate, however, for modern faithfull only the concrete character of the Qur’an and not the metaphysical relation with the realm of the divinity are at stake. Although some orientalists prefer the comparison between an uncreated Qur’an and Jesus as Son of God as the proper revelation of God to humankind in Islam and Christianity, in fact this medieval debate is not at the heart of modern Islamic theology and therefore does not function for a revaluation of a possible Islamic Christology. Another possibility for the start of a “Trinitarian” and Christological debate within the context of an Islamic discourse, is the doctrine of emanation. Muslim mysticism since Ibn Arabi (1165-1240) has developed a doctrine of internal and external divine missions. The absolute One, «a hidden treasure which wanted to become known», first experienced «internal mission»: the divine become knowing, known and knowledge. Only “after” the internal diversification of knowing (agens), known (object of knowing) and the existence of knowledge (actio) the external emanations started with concepts, ideas and material realisations. Especially the first three, the internal missions within the undivided divinity, are compared with the Christian doctrine of the Trinity, by Saint Augustine also formulated in his wording of the effigies Trinitatis10. This set of ideas has become the starting point of some interesting debates on comparison between Christian and Muslim trinitarianism. There were, however, two basic problems, which prevented a greater and decisive role for this set of ideas. First, the emanation doctrine of Ibn Arabi never has become generally accepted in the Muslim world. It has everywhere met with great resistance. There are even modern Muslims, who reproach to orientalist scholars in general and more specifically to Christian students of Islam, that they overstate the importance of this doctrine of emanation and bring heterodox doctrines to the attention of their Muslim counterparts, only to cause trouble of divisiveness and even doubt11. Besides, even amongst contemporary mystics, there is little interest and sympathy for this kind of metaphysical and mystical speculation. For my students this whole exercise resulted in some interesting debates about interpretation of history, but certainly not in real approaches on the topic of the Mystery of Christ. Themes from the Muslim past cannot simply be used as elements for a contemporary dialogue.

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THE LIBERATIONIST PERSPECTIVE: MUSLIM ACTIVISM QUEST FOR COMMUNICATION WITH JESUS12

AND THE

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In 1983, Dawam Rahardjo, a Muslim economist and activist, organised a meeting in Jakarta to propagate the beginning of a Muslim theology of liberation. He invited two Christians: the philosopher Dr. Kees Bertens MSC and this author. The most prominent Muslim theologian at the meeting was Prof. Dr. Harun Nasution, who studied in Egypt and at McGill, Montreal, where he obtained his MA and PhD. Dawam explained, that there is applied sociology: a style of sociology, which looks at direct applications of sociological theories. He supposed, that theology of liberation, which he knew from Christian writers out of Latin America, could be labelled as applied theology. Prof. Harun Nasution, a specialist in Islamic philosophy, known as one of the leaders of modern and liberal Muslim thinking in Indonesia, had a rather disappointing answer. He declared that kalam, dogmatical or philosophical theology, only deals with concepts and attitudes and that fiqh-reasoning, the study of Islamic law or shari‘a was the proper discipline for the design of a theology of liberation. Because he was not a specialist in the field, he could not contribute to the proposed development of this theology. Although this formal theology of development was not conceived, activities in this direction continued. Dawam himself was for a long period the director of an Indonesian Non-Governmental Organisation, which tried to combine Islam with socio-economic development, LP3ES13. This organisation was active in villages, but also initiated a development ideology, where not only religion was an important factor in development, but where also inter-religious aspects were involved. To give just one quotation from the debates among a similar group, the Nahdlatul Ulama, one of the largest Muslim organisations of Indonesia, related to its general chairperson, Abdurrahman Wahid: «When we hear the word “theology of development”, we immediately will associate it with the theology of liberation of Gustavo Guttiérrez, who from the beginning wanted to identify his theology as theology of development. After he realised that this was to tame for the repressive conditions of Latin America, he used the word theology of liberation, a terminology which is more outspoken as a movement against repression. […] But for countries in Asia and Africa it is much better to use the vocabulary of theology of development. This word not only displays an atmosphere of peace, but it is also in harmony with the national efforts for development. In fact, we are not obliged to employ this word, because not every religion has a message of liberation and transformation for its believers»14. This quotation refers to an aspect of theology of Islam, where less emphasis is given to conversion and redemption, radical change, the process from original sin through liberation until the eschaton. Besides, it is also very

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clear, that a number of modern and revolutionary Muslims feel at home with some of the terminology and strategies of (Christian) theology of liberation15. One of my students at the Islamic Institute of Yogyakarta in the 1980’s was Syafa’atun Almirzanah, born 1963 in Lamongan, East Java. She wrote a BA-paper on theology of liberation in Latin America and Asia and became fascinated by the Jesuit priest Aloysius Pieris. His combination of personal spirituality and social criticism had a strong appeal on this Muslim student. Pieris’ theology of liberation is less coloured by a leftist Marxist ideology as was sometimes the case with Latin Americans. The Indonesians had their own history of a communist threat during 1960-1966 and had the Vietnamese experience clear in their minds. Pieris’ spirituality is coloured by elements of Buddhism, not in its solitary and individualistic style, but through a spirituality of solidarity in favour of the poor. Syafa’atun saw parallels with a Muslim doctrine of zakat, where gifts for the poor are liberating and purifying. Zakat means literally purification, but is also used for the “tax for the poor”. In 1996 Syafa’atun started her Ph.D. research with a project on the study of Christian mysticism, understood in the style of the research by Pieris. She wanted to have a “Muslim experience of Christian Mysticism”, like Pieris performed a “Christian experience of Buddhist Spirituality”. As the focus of her study she took the mysticism of Meister Eckhart (1260-1327), a Dominican friar, who worked in Strasbourg, Paris and Cologne as a professor and preacher. In order to be accepted as a graduate student in the Islamic institute she formulated a comparison between Eckhart and Ibn Arabi: more or less contemporary mystics, who were both under the influence of neo-Platonic mystical doctrines. Besides her Muslim professor, she chose the Indonesian Jesuit, Dr. J.B. Banawiratma as her tutor. Because of the lack of specialists in the field of Eckhart-mysticism in Indonesia, Syafa’atun came for a few months to the Netherlands in 1997. She had hoped to find stronger arguments for her comparison of Eckhart and Ibn Arabi, but her Dutch tutors urged her to do close readings of the texts and the contexts of Eckhart and Ibn Arabi and it proved, that Muslim Spain around 1200 was quite different from Western Europe around 1300. Eckhart’s sermons in close reading do not support a speculative mysticism, but instead often blame mystical speculations and a flight from this world into metaphysical abstractions. During her first visit outside her country of birth, Indonesia, Western countries like the Netherlands proved to have a quite cool and precise, impersonal academic atmosphere. The strict separation between detached and patient academic observation of practices and analysis of texts, as different from religious activities was quite difficult for her. But there were also moments of more intense spiritual experience. One of these was a visit to a church in Cologne, originating from the time of Eckhart and still served by Dominican friars. We visited the church on a

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Sunday morning and attended Mass, imagining, that also Meister Eckhart had been preaching from that very pulpit. A few second before communion, she asked me whether she would be allowed to receive communion. I suggested that she should not go. After the Mass she asked the Dominican priest, who had said Mass, whether she would be allowed to receive communion. He replied that in the Catholic Church baptism is the first sacrament of initiation and only after baptism the holy communion can be given to converts. One week later we went together to a Dutch monastry of the Dominican order. She attended again Mass in an environment, which reminded her of the times of Eckhart, with a number of Dominican friars, wearing the same robes in black and white as already was common during the medieval period. Again she asked me, whether she would be allowed to receive communion. I consented and she received the bread. After service she asked one of the friars, a specialist in medieval mysticism with whom we had spoken already before, whether she could receive communion. The friar answered: «Who am I to repudiate someone from communion, who wants to get in contact with Jesus?». She was very happy with the answer and later told me, that she felt, that only through this communion and contact with Jesus, she had not only come closer to the world of Meister Eckhart but also to living Christians now. How must we interpret this longing for communion in a Catholic church? Should it be denied? Strict rules for the Catholic liturgy indeed would not have made it possible. What then were the strong reasons, urging a dispensation? This woman is very active in groups of religious encounter, which try to soothe the great social conflicts in her country, where these religious conflicts also involve political and social unrest. She does not want to restrict her inter-religious activism to these non-religious issues, but wants to involve spirituality as well. Therefore she wants to make a deeper study of the thinking of a prominent mystic, Meister Eckhart. In this same mood she also wanted to have personal experiences of meetings with Christians, but also with Christ in a more direct way16. CONCLUSION Are we now already too far away from the four documents, quoted in the opening section of this contribution? Are transgressing fixed boundaries in the last case mentioned? Did we make a too easy and quick transition from a legitimate and necessary internal pluralism within the Catholic and Christian community to an inter-religious pluralism? First of all it has to be taken in mind that all documents in this matter stress the fact, that new developments in this field have to be taken serious, although with a prudent and cautious mind. Christians and Muslims in

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Indonesia who protest against the increase of inter-religious tensions, unrest, killings and destruction of mosques and churches, not only use social and political means. They have also started series of common prayers, doa bersama, as demonstrations of harmony and reconciliation. The Guidelines for a Dialogue between Muslims and Christians of 1969 state in their last paragraphs: «There is a great danger that the Muslim-Christian dialogue may desert the spiritual level for the temporal one.. one will never really get to know any Muslim, whoever he may be, until one has discovered in him the religious values for which he lives» (161-162). There must be a sound and realistic mixture of conservatism and insistence on the limits of our own community, together with a daring openness towards other, inviting them for the real Christian experience, in order to come to a real dialogue on the Mystery of Christ. There will be for some time no final conclusion to the communications between Christians and Muslims. It may be expected, that the more fruitful theme is not the Mystery of Christ but the values and characteristics of the Kingdom of God, announced by Jesus. God’s sovereignty and grace, human solidarity, confidence and humility are without doubt more appropriate themes to share with contemporary Muslims. In the selection of the right issues, we should act like the «owner of a house who brings out of his storeroom new treasures as well as old» (Mt 13,52). This is not mere strategy, only as a starter in order to come later with the more difficult issues. The richness of facets and features in the religions of Christianity and Islam makes it possible to choose key concepts which open the best windows to the ultimate reality behinds them. The Mystery of Christ is not the first theme to be developed in this process, but some aspects of it can be touched upon, perhaps easier in a mystical and experiential than in an intellectual way.

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Notes

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1

See the special issue of “Pro Dialogo”, 98(1998)2, pp. 149-265; also as an issue of “Current Dialogue”. 2 English translation in “Origins”, vol. 27, no 10, pp. 149-166. 3 TH. NÖLDEKE, Geschichte des Qorans, 1st ed., Göttingen 1860; J. WANSBROUGH, Quranic Studies, Oxford University Press, 1977. 4 O. CULLMANN, Die Christologie des Neuen Testaments, Tübingen 1957; english edition as The Christology of the New Testament, SCM Press, London 1959. 5 O. CULLMANN, op. cit., pp. 49-50. 6 See also the commentary on Qur’an 5,77 by SAYYID ABUL A’LA MAWDUDI, Towards Understanding the Qur’an, II, The Islamic Foundation, Leicester, pp. 181-185 where we find extensive quotations from the articles on “Jesus Christ” and “Church History” in the Encyclopaedia Brittanica, depicting the growth of Christian dogma. In the 15th edition Charles Anderson Scott used phrases like: «There is nothing in these three Gospels to suggest that their writers thought of Jesus as other than human». Such phrases were eagerly quoted by the Muslim author! 7 J. JEREMIAS, Die Gleichnisse Jesu, Munich 1965; english translation as Rediscovering the Parables, SCM Press, London 1966. 8 See E. SAID, Orientalism, Vintage Books, New York 1979; ID., Covering Islam. How the Media and the Experts Determine how we see the Rest of the World, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London 1981. Although published by a Palestinian of Christian descent and confession, who worked as a professor of English Literature in the United States, these books were widely read by Muslims all over the world. 9 I. GOLDZIHER, Vorlesungen über den Islam, Carl Winter, Heidelberg 1925 (1st ed. 1910), esp. the chapter on “Dogmatic Developments”, pp. 71-132. 10 W.C. CHITTICK, The Five Divine Presences: from al-Qunawi to al-Qaysari, “The Muslim World”, 72(1982), pp. 107-124. 11 K. A. STEENBRINK, “Opposition to Islamic Mysticism in Nineteenth Century Indonesia”, in F. DE JONG, B. RADTKE (eds.), Islamic Mysticism Contested. Thirteen Centuries of Controversies and Polemics, Brill, Leiden 1999, pp. 687-704. 12 This section is partly a reiteration and summary, partly an extension of my contribution “Seven Indonesian Perspectives on Theology of Liberation”, in G. DE SCHRIJVER (ed.), Liberation Theologies on Shifting Grounds. A Clash of Socio-Economic and Cultural Paradigms, Peeters, Leuven 1998. 13 Lembaga Penelitian, Pendidikan dan Penerangan Ekonomi dan Sosial, Foundation for the research, training and information about socio-economic development. LP3ES received financial and moral support from several organizations in Germany and The Netherlands. It was not an exclusively Muslim organization, although the larger part of activists were Muslim. There were several prominent Catholic theologians and social scientists in its circle. 14 ABDUL MUN’IM DZ, “Teologi Pembangunan sebagai alternatif” [“Theology of Development as an Alternative”], in M. MASYHUR AMIN (ed.), Theologi Pembangunan. Paradigma Baru Pemikiran Islam, NU, Yogyakarta 1989, pp. 229-233. 15 For this topic also K. STEENBRINK, Towards a Pancasila Society: the Indonesian Debate on Secularization, Liberation and Development, in “Exchange”, 54(1989), pp. 128. To mention only a few publications by Indonesian muslims in favour of a partial partnership with theology of liberation: M. DAWAM RAHARDJO, Perspektif Deklarasi Mekka. Menuju Ekonomi Islam, Bandung: Mizan 1987 (referring to the “Declaration of Mecca” in January 1981, where a number of Muslim economists designed a socioeconomic strategy along Islamic lines); ALFIAN et al. (eds.), Kemiskinan Struktural (On structural poverty), Yayasan Ilmu-ilmu Sosial, Jakarta 1980 (although the majority of the contributors were muslim, there were also some christian authors); MUSA ASY’ARIE

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(ed.), Islam, Kebebesan dan perubahan social (Islam, freedom and social change), Sinar Harapan, Jakarta (the conference was organized by an islamic university, the book published by a Protestant publisher; the authors were equally divided amongst Protestants, Catholics and Muslims); M. DAWAM RAHARDJO (ed.), Sepercik pemikiran tentang Ekonomi Islam (Some thoughts about an Islamic economy), Ananda, Yogyakarta 1985 ; A. RIFA’I HASSAN et al. (eds.), Perspektif Islam dalam Pembangunan Bangsa (An Islamic perspective on the development of our people), PLP2M, Yogyakarta . 16 This case has been elaborated in more detail in a Dutch article: K.A. STEENBRINK, Ruimte aan tafel ook voor moslims? Ontmoetingen met Syafa`atun Almirzanah, Begrip, moslims-Christenen, Jubileumnummer, Januari 2000, pp. 38-43. See also the strong contribution by TH. SUNDERMEIER, “Dürfen Nichtchristen zum Abendmahl zugelassen werden?”, in ID., Konvivenz und Differenz. Studien zu einer verstehenden Missionswissenschaft, Ev.+Luth. Mission, Erlangen 1995, pp. 102-112, esp. 103: «The Eucharist, the Lord’s Table, has indeed been degraded to a sacrament for the inner circle of the Church. Its original extension and openness is hampered. The gift for “the life of the world” (Jn 6,51) has turned into a gift for the church». There were a number of quite serious incidents of conflicts caused by non-Catholics of Indonesia who wanted to receive communion in the early 1990’s. Mr. Sudjangi, the official in charge of the office for interreloigious harmony within the Department of Religion of Indonesia has documented 32 cases alone for Southeast Indonesia in the period 1990-1995; see SUDJANGI, Profil Kerukunan Hidup Umat Beragama, Seri 2, Departemen Agama, Jakarta 1996, esp. pp. 129-160.

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TERESA OKURE

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«WHO DO YOU SAY THAT I AM?» «THE CHRIST OF GOD»: THE LUCAN RESPONSE READ IN TODAY’S GLOBAL CONTEXT

In any human relationship, a fuller knowledge of a person requires and depends on the person’s willingness to reveal the secrets of his/her life to the other. At times this intimate knowledge may be that which the person’s mother alone possesses and which dates back to the person’s infancy or may even predate birth, when the person had as yet no knowledge of who she/he was. True knowledge of a person in turn determines the nature and quality of the relationship built on it. The same applies in the knowledge of who Jesus is today as in the first century and throughout the ages. This International Missiological Congress celebrates in thanksgiving 2000 years of God’s gift of Jesus to humanity (Jn 3,16). Jesus’ questions to the disciples in the synoptic gospels, «Who do people say that I am?» and «Who do you say that I am?» serve as key for our current celebration of 2000 years of God’s gift of Jesus to humanity. The thesis of this short submission is that ultimately the only fully true and fully correct answer to Jesus’ question is the one revealed to Peter by Jesus’ «Father in heaven». Secondly, the submission notes that the Lucan version of this answer has a special relevance for today in our ever increasing and legitimate attempts to evolve local christologies in today’s multicultural global context. Jesus asks us today, as he did his first disciples, who the people say he is and who we (theologians, missiologists, close disciples, Church) say he is. The plurality of cultures, contexts and religions, the increasing recognition of the basic equality of all cultures and persons and the acceptance of the right to freedom of worship make Christ’s question even more challenging today than in the first century. Over the past 2000 years different generations have given different answers to Jesus’ question. New christologies have emerged in our times based on our plurality of cultures, contexts and religions. Women’s christologies bring to it a distinctively new dimension that poses a serious challenge to traditional christologies. The contemporary debate on the relationship of Christ to the great prophets of other religions (Mohammed, Buddha, Confucius, the founders of the New Age religions and the ancestors of the so-called indigenous or traditional religions) accentuates the question. So, too, does the church’s belief that the human person in his/her concrete social location is the route which the church must

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travel in carrying out Christ’s mission1. These multicultural and church situations make the plurality of answers to Jesus’ question not only inevitable (justified by the plurality of our socio-cultural contexts, traditions, persons and gender) but desirable. Yet that is not the whole story.

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CONTEXTUAL RESPONSES TO JESUS’ QUESTION Jesus’ question has two components: the “you” addressed, and the “I” who asks it. Contextual christologies tend to focus on the “you” addressed. They grow from the reality and concerns of the person answering the question. The African male theologian, seeking to evolve an inculturated christology, may see Jesus primarily as an ancestor, proto ancestor and medicine man. Women across the globe perceive Jesus comprehensively as lover and liberator. Pentecostal and Spirit-centered churches celebrate Jesus as a personal saviour, one with power to save and redeem permanently from poverty, demon possession and other dehumanizing forces. There are faces of Christ in Africa, Asia and Latin America as well as in Europe and America. Yet a careful attention to the total context in which the question is asked and the answers given by Matthew/Mark on the one hand, and Luke on the other, confront one, with perhaps an uncomfortable reality, namely, that ultimately the correct answer to Jesus’ question is not a human construct based on human cultures, contexts, reasoning, personal preferences and ancestral religions. The search for Jesus’ identity invites, even constrains us, to listen attentively to God’s own revelation of him given to Peter, and accept it as also applicable for us. 1. The Matthean/Marcan Response: “The Christ, the Son of the Living God” Jesus first asked his question in a predominantly Jewish context. Matthew’s and Mark’s response are believed to be rooted in that context. His disciples reported on the views of the people based on their religious traditions and messianic (or christological) hopes and expectations: “John the Baptist, Elijah, Jeremiah or one of the prophets.” Taken at its face value, the people’s perception was not wrong in itself. Jesus personally aligned himself with the prophets on a number of occasions2. He was persecuted and rejected, especially by his own leaders even unto death as were Jeremiah and the prophets. The people’s culture-based prophetic christology, therefore, embodied an important element of truth about his identity and mission, but it was inadequate. Jesus next question, Peter’s response and Jesus’ interpretation of that response reveal the inadequacy of the people’s views: «But you, who do you say that I am?». «You are the Christ, the Son of the living God». «Blessed are you, Simon son of Jonah! For flesh and

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blood has not revealed this to you, but my Father in heaven» (Mt 16,16-17). On this divine revelation, Jesus builds his ekklesia, the gathering together of God’s scattered children. This gathering is the essence of his mission (Jn 11,52; 12,32). God’s revelation is also a beatitude, a grace to Peter. It had implications not only for Jesus («You are the Christ, the son of the living God»), but also for Peter: «You are Peter [rock] and on this rock I will build my church». This ekklesia built on Peter will prevail till the end of time against all destructive forces (Mt 28,20), until God completes the divine project of reconciling all things in heaven and earth to the divine self in and through Christ (cf. Col 1,20). Matthew and Mark record Peter’s confession as «the Christ, the Son of the Living God». Scholars see the two gospels, rooted in a Jewish matrix, as perhaps addressing primarily the needs of a Christian Jewish audience. Whether Peter understood “the Son of the living God” as a synonym for “the Christ” of Jewish messianic expectation, or as the ontological Son of God in Johannine terms, is debatable. Yet even in this Matthean/Marcan Jewish context, Jesus’ interpretation of Peter’s answer and his consequent designation of him as the rock on which he will build his ekklesia already move Peter’s confession from its Jewish moorings toward a universal recognition of Jesus’ messiahship. The answer comes from God who owns the whole earth. The ekklesia embraces disciples from all nations as the fruit of Jesus’ completed mission and the conferment of all authority (enabling power that nothing can obstruct) on him (Mt 20,28). Thus, even in its primary Jewish context, the full answer about Jesus’ identity lay beyond the people’s perception; it came as a revelation of God who engendered Jesus, and had a universal scope. The Lucan response (9,18-20) makes this more evident. 2. The Lucan Response: “The Christ of God” Differently from Matthew and Mark, Luke simply records Peter’s answer as «the Christ of God» (Lk 9,20). This Lucan formulation gives an arguably universal significance to Peter’s confession of Jesus’ messiahship. It moves this confession (deliberately) from its Jewish moorings to the universal plane. Luke is the only known Gentile among the evangelists, if not among the NT and biblical authors generally. All ancient witnesses, except the Western Text, agree on his formulation. For him, Jesus is not only the Jewish Messiah, but God’s Messiah or saviour for all humanity. This transformation of a local christology into a universal one is in keeping with what I regard as Luke’s consistent hermeneutic of selfinclusion: his reinterpretation of the Jesus traditions to include himself and his gentile friends while not excluding the Jews. Luke’s infancy narrative, for instance, presents Jesus both as «a light of revelation to the Gentiles» and

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«the glory of Israel» (Lk 2,32). This inclusion of the Gentiles is the primary reason for his undertaking to write an orderly account of the «events which happened among us» so that the Gentile, Theophilus may understand accurately and participate in these events as an insider (Acts 2,5-13). As scholars have long noted, Luke’s genealogy of Jesus goes backwards beyond the Matthean «son of Abraham» to «son of Adam, Son of God» (Lk 3,38). For Luke, the significance of Jesus’ messiahship necessarily transcends the cultural and national boundaries of Judaism. In Luke’s confession, Jesus is God’s universal Messiah for all peoples of all times. Luke’s Petrine kerygma at Pentecost and elsewhere in the Acts of the Apostles underlines in various ways the universal significance of Jesus as “the Christ of God”: «There is no other name under heaven by which we may be saved» (Acts 4,12). The name “name under heaven” may be taken in conjunction with Luke’s description of Pentecost as drawing together people «from every nation under heaven» (Acts 2,5). Peter interprets the event as the fulfilment of God’s promise to pour out the divine Spirit on humanity (“all flesh”), regardless of race, age, sex and class (sons/daughters, young men/old men, God’s menservants and maidservants, Acts 2,17-19). The post-Easter missionary mandate: «You shall be my witnesses till the end [eschaton] of the earth» (Acts 1,8) reinforces this universal scope of Pentecost. Luke’s Pauline kerygma in Acts 17,22-31 equally proclaims that God who is already present in people’s philosophical and theological beliefs with their corresponding liturgical practices has appointed Jesus as the Messiah of humanity, one by whom he will judge the entire inhabitants of the earth. These and similar passages remind us that it is not for us, at the dawn of the twenty-first century, the gateway of the third millennium of Christianity, to invent a fundamentally new answer to Jesus’ question, “Who do you say that I am?”. Now as in the first century, Jesus remains by God’s own choice and revelation “the Messiah of God”. At Caesarea Philippi, he interpreted Peter’s confession in relation to his life’s mission, the building of his ekklesia. His passion, death and resurrection definitively constituted him as God’s Messiah, «When I am lifted up, I will draw all peoples to myself» (Jn 12,32). On completing his earthly messianic work, Jesus legitimately claimed that God had entrusted all authority (exousia, enabling power that cannot be obstructed) in heaven and on earth to him. Based on this conferment of all authority, he commissioned the disciples to go out and evangelize or «make disciples of all nations» (Mt 28,20). If we lose sight of this biblical historical fact, our contemporary christologies, though having important elements of truth in them, will remain as incomplete as were those of the people in Jesus’ own time. The awareness invites us instead to receive and celebrate Jesus as God’s revealed Messiah and to explore its significance both for our contextual christologies and an ecclesial, universal christology. It also calls for a radical review of how we understand mission, especially in relationship to peoples of other faiths.

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3. “The Christ of God” and the Jewish Christian Response Each culture and religion has its own prophets and Messiah. So did the early Jewish and Gentile Christians. In the NT, the recognition of Jesus as the universal Messiah (in Samaritan terms, “the saviour of the world”, Jn 4,42), comes surprisingly more from the Gentiles (the outsiders) than from the Jewish disciples. The Jewish disciples experienced great difficulty in proclaiming Jesus as God’s universal Messiah. It did not come naturally to them to do so, even after the resurrection, «Lord will you at this time restore the kingdom to Israel?» (Acts 1,6). The struggle over the inclusion of the Gentiles that accompanied their execution of Jesus’ missionary mandate (Acts 8,1) is evidence of the dichotomy that existed between their proclamation of Jesus as God’s universal Messiah (Acts 4,12) and their living by the demands of that proclamation in their attitude to the Gentiles. Peter to whom God’s revelation was directly given staged a full resistence when God invited him to move out of his nationalistic conception of the mission to embrace the Gentiles and celebrate the sanctity of God’s entire creation (Acts 10). Three times he resisted God’s invitation, as three times he had denied knowledge of Jesus when he himself was on trial for his discipleship (Jn 19,19-27). Eventually he learned the truth that «God shows no partiality» (Acts 10,34-35). The Jewish brethren in Jerusalem at first equally took great exception to Peter’s visiting and eating with the Gentiles (Acts 11,2-3). They too had to learn and proclaim in spite of themselves the universality Jesus’ messiahship: that God can give the Holy Spirit, the fruit of this messiahship, «even to the Gentiles», without discrimination based on race, sex or class (Acts 11,18). No less hard was the lesson that Jesus’ messiahship did not mean restoring the kingdom to Israel and getting rid of their enemies as they had hoped. Instead Jesus made those very enemies his brothers and sisters and invited them to embrace these traditional and religious enemies as their own brothers and sisters in him. As they grew in their knowledge of the truth about Jesus as God’s Messiah, they were constrained to drop their notion of Jesus as a national Messiah, and celebrate him as God’s agent for reconciling/gathering humanity to the divine self (cf. 2 Cor 5,19). Unlike Peter and the Jerusalem brethren, Paul fought the very proclamation of Jesus as Jewish Messiah. Being a man of action, he did not stop at words. With untiring zeal he sought to wipe out the Jewish Christians who in his view vitiated his ancestral religion and its constitutions. Yet this same Paul who “persecuted the ekklesia of God”, received God’s mercy. He came to see that he too like all peoples was called to be part of that ekklesia, God’s gathering in Jesus. Then he was not ashamed to proclaim Jesus as “God’s Gospel”, God’s Good News for humanity, both Jews and Gentiles (Rom 1,1-6). The proclamation of Jesus as God’s Messiah goes hand in hand with the recognition that the entire earth and all the world’s peoples belong to God

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(Ps 24,1) who sustains it in being through the Spirit (Wis 11,24-12,1). Protology and soteriology go together as inseparable aspects of biblical faith about creation and redemption. As God’s Word was God’s agent of creation, so Jesus, this same Word Incarnate, naturally becomes God’s unique agent and instrument of its salvation and restoration. As God’s creation was vitiated by the sin of humanity as a whole and the work of the devil3, so God’s redemption of this creation through Christ also embraces the whole humanity. The NT proclamation thus rightly underlines Christ’s universal significance for human and cosmic salvation4. This brief reflection makes us aware that the proclamation of Jesus as God’s universal Messiah was not a construct of the early Jewish Christians. It was a fact that dawned gradually on them. They learned to accept it on the evidence of God’s actual work among the Gentiles, convinced that it was good for them to align themselves with the action of the Holy Spirit (Acts 15,28). The reflection also reveals that it is not within human competence or power to veto God’s plan of salvation for humanity in Christ, no matter how many arguments may be adduced to the contrary. We who profess faith in him as God’s unique agent of salvation/liberation of humanity desist from endless debates about his universality, as if it depended on human beings to determine that. Rather, like the early Christians, we concentrate our energies on discovering what this confession requires concretely of us today in our concrete multicultural and pluralistic contexts, cultures and world religions. Like the early Christians we listen actively to what the Spirit is doing in our world today and pray for the grace to meet the challenges of our confession of Christ as God’s Messiah for the world. CHALLENGES OF THE LUCAN CHRISTOLOGY FOR TODAY To believe that Jesus is «the Christ of God, is to believe that he is the one who saves, liberates, sets free and declares God’s year of favour, or general amnesty to the entire creation. God anointed [christened] Jesus to bring the good news to the poor, set free captives, give sight to the blind and declare God’s jubilee year» (Lk 4,18-19), not to a privileged few but to all peoples. Upon the completion of his mission by his passion death, resurrection and ascension (what Luke calls his exodos; Lk 9,31), Jesus poured out the Holy Spirit, the fruit of that mission, as tongues of fire on all humanity. The first work of the Spirit was to liberate human tongues from their cultural conditioning, and their lives from their national or segregational ghettos and propel them together in one place, both the insiders (those in the Upper Room) and the outsiders (those dwelling in Jerusalem from every nation under heaven, or in God’s oikonomos). Both witnessed “together” (Acts 2,6) and celebrated “the mighty works of God,” though some mocked (2,11). As noted elsewhere5, fire consumes all in its path; it is all embracing and

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nondiscriminating. Pentecost marks the birth of the church as mission and empowers it for mission (Acts 8,7-8). The outpouring of the Spirit “on all flesh” makes all peoples members of God’s council and family; it invites all to participate in spreading the fire that Jesus came to cast with eager longing upon the earth, till the entire earth is consumed (Lk 12,49). In developing our local christologies care needs to be taken that we do not become locked and impoverished by them, instead of being rooted in “the Christ of God”. We allow our cultural, personal, gender-based christologies themselves to grow and develop as did Jesus’ Jewish disciples. A christology based on the acceptance of Jesus as God’s Christ invites us to be humble about our own christologies. We need to allow these christologies to be rooted in and enriched by the total Christ of the gospels. Often one runs into what I may call “christologies without Christ,” that is, christologies that are so distanced from the Christ of the gospels, that they can hardly be recognized as referring to him. This may be the influence of Bultman’s distinction between “Jesus of Nazareth” and “the Christ of faith”. But the Christ of faith is the historical person who lived, died and rose from the dead according to the Scriptures. The early Christian creed handed down to and transmitted by Paul makes this plain: «I received as of first importance what I also handed down to you, Christ died for our sins in accordance with the scriptures» (1 Cor 15,3-7). Along with christologies rooted in the gospels or in Jesus of history, we need to allow our contextual christologies to be enriched even challenged by the christologies of other contexts, cultures and genders and to claim these other christologies as our own, because Christ claims them for himself. This will prevent us from “dividing up Christ” (cf. 1 Cor 1,13ss.), or proclaiming sectarian, divisive and even exclusive christologies. It calls for collaborative rather than competitive christologies. Men need to collaborate with women, blacks with whites, the north with the south, the east with the west. This is crucial and essential for the much desired ecumenical approach to mission in the third millennium. It is opposed to the sectarian (denominational) approach that dominated the missionary undertaking in the second millennium, especially in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, being the fruit of the big division within Christianity. New wine new skins. As Luke did in his time, we study ways of proclaiming Jesus as the Christ of God for all peoples of our time. By so doing so we demonstrate in our times, too, that God has no favorites, and that anybody of any race who is open to his grace is pleasing to him and that God’s salvation in Christ is for the entire creation. Like the Jewish disciples, we allow our national, cultural, personal and gender bound christologies themselves to develop and become inclusive. This entails studying ways of proclaiming Christ in all contexts, not only in our local contexts and interests. Care needs to be taken that we do not allow the accidents of history, the all male and all white christology of the past, for

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instance, to keep us in bondage by preventing us from giving our new christologies their universal scope. The church is universal because Christ whose body the church is, is the Christ of God, the cosmic Christ. Paul’s apostolic principle applies here. Like him we study to become all things to all peoples, not so that they or we may remain in their/our tribal ghettos, but in the hope of winning them to Christ (1 Cor 9,22-23). This does not mean subjecting the Christ of God to the limitations of human cultures. Rather, it calls for using people’s real contexts and concerns as the starting point of evangelization. It applies in the evangelization of individuals in their concrete life situations and in that of cultures and nations. The ultimate purpose of the contextual approach is to enable peoples to come to know the Christ of God and in turn proclaim him as one whose fulness outstrips all tribal, national and gender boundaries. Thus Evangelii nuntiandi, rightly declares that the evangelization process is incomplete if the evangelized do not become evangelizers themselves. Christian maturity and solidity in faith entail such participation. The proclamation of Jesus as “the Christ of God” necessarily leads one to go out of one’s country and nation to be bonded with people of other nations and cultures, even as Christ came from God to become bonded eternally with us (Jn 1,14; 16,28). The need to go beyond national, cultural and even personal boundaries is not accidental to the proclamation but of its very essence. It is required by the very nature of Christ and his mission: to gather into a unity in himself all God’s scattered children (Jn 11,52; 12,32). The Christ-of-God approach to mission requires that we revise our entire conception of the mission. Traditionally we speak of “the mission of the church”, with, at times, its rather restricting, if not erroneous and misleading consequences (e.g., extra ekklesia, nulla salus). The revision would emphasize mission as the mission of Jesus which the church, his body, is privileged to serve. The Johannine conception of mission underlines this in the images of the one flock and one shepherd, the vine and the branches, and the unbroken net full of fish dragged to the shore where Jesus stands and directs the catch6. This gospel-based approach would help to change the attitude which often speaks and acts as if the hierarchical church owned the mission and could share it with whomever it wills. It would move us to follow Christ wherever he goes and watch him doing God’s work (ergon, Jn 4,34; 17,4) in all kinds of human contexts. Then instead of drawing people to the church or to our constitutions and institutions, even our pet theories, we will draw people to Christ in the rich diversity of his manifestations. The celebration of Jesus as the Christ of God invites us to return to the original conception of mission embodied in his mandate to the apostles, to «make disciples all nations» (Mt 28,20). Making disciples of all nations entails evangelizing them in situ. This proposal is backed by the vision of Vatican Council II which sees the church’s mission, in gospel terms as that of being salt to the earth, called

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to evangelize the world where God places it, instead of seeking to coopt it into itself, Peter’s bark. We re-envision the church as a privileged body, called and sent to serve Christ’s mission in the world. A number of postconciliar documents and institutions (e.g., the Pontifical Council for Dialogue with People’s of Other Faiths, what the WCC calls “Living Faiths”) underscore the need for such an approach. The re-envisioning of mission as the mission of Christ is also the work of the Holy Spirit7. It forms part of the church’s belief that Christ’s mission will continue unhindered in the world, despite human weakness and loss of faith among Christians, till God’s plans and purposes are fulfilled. Jesus is God’s sole and primary agent in mission; he continues to work in the world through his Spirit in different ways, without being limited to or confined by the mission of the church, whether this be understood as the Roman Catholic Church or as Christians in their diverse denominations. The ways of God are many and God knows how to lead by different ways to one and the same end. Recognition of Jesus as the Christ of God urges us to review our entire concept of and relation to the world as does Ad gentes. More than ever before, we search and study ways to serve as Jesus’ instruments for the evangelization of the world. This entails a deliberate policy of identifying how the Spirit is already bearing witness to Christ in the world among Christians and among peoples of other faiths and cultures. One such approach is the development of inter-scriptural reading which is already bearing fruit8. Another is dialogue with people of other faiths along the lines indicated by the former Secretariat for Non-Christians, now the Pontifical Council for Inter-Religious Dialogue9. GOD’S SPIRT FILLS THE ENTIRE EARTH Today there is a growing emphasis on the Spirit as the one who unites all peoples and religions. This is good, but it cannot be done at the expense of Christ. In the NT evidence, the Spirit is given differently, in manner and nature, at Pentecost than at creation. At creation human beings received God’s breath (pneuma, ruach) and became living souls; plants and other living things received the same spirit (Wis 12,1). At Pentecost, the Spirit poured on humanity is the fruit of God’s acceptance of Jesus as God’s Messiah for all peoples. This post Easter outpouring of the Spirit makes human beings God’s children (Jn 1,12-13), people admitted to God’s council, hence people who can speak for and about God as Peter explains in his inaugural kerygma (Acts 2,16-21). By this outpouring, all humanity, not just a few privileged people, even among the chosen people, are to receive the gift of prophecy, the gift to be God’s representative in the world. That gift is inseparable from Jesus, God’s Messiah (Acts 2,22-36). As God’s Messiah, Jesus unites people of every language tribe and nation. He unites but does not divide or destroy. Each group of people

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needs to hear the gospel in their native language (Acts 2,8). Affirmation of Jesus as the Christ of God does not mean denying what is good in people’s traditional religious beliefs but using them as God-given basis for enabling them to come to the full knowledge of God revealed in and by Christ. But we do not stop there or use the native language as an excuse for shutting ourselves up in ghettos of racism, sexism, classism, ethnicity, tribalism, economic and regional blocks, or gender biases, thereby excluding others. Rather this awareness gives us renewed energy to celebrate God’s work in Christ of reconciling the world to the divine self, and to take seriously our missionary mandate and responsibility to proclaim this good news today to the end of the earth. Like the first disciples we muster the courage and zeal to cross barriers and boundaries in proclaiming the gospel in spite of ourselves and at great cost to ourselves. As the mission spread through them, it gave warmth to those it reached. The barriers crossed were both attitudinal (Jew-Gentile, male-female, rich-poor) and geographical (from Jerusalem… to the end of the earth). Their going out or reaching out to others was so complete that in the end they had no extant record of their proclamation in their own language, namely, Hebrew or Aramaic, but only in the universal language of their time, the Koine Greek. We need to understand the message in our own native languages, cultures, perhaps religions as a starting point. But having understood, we learn to speak in other languages so that others may also understand in their own native language and so be moved in turn to continue the proclamation to the end and ends of the earth. Our inculturated and contextualized christologies do not stop with us or imprison us in our cultures; they make the celebration of our cultures and traditional religious values the human basis for appreciating, celebrating and embracing other cultures and religions with their gospel values. They move us to cross barriers and welcome others into communion, even physically going to them and eating with them. Jesus’ life and mission as God’s Messiah were not just a praeparatio evangelica for his Messiahship, as if he was waiting till after the resurrection to become God’s Messiah while his life on earth made no real contribution to this. Rather his entire life on earth was the Good News, both in form and content. Participation in Christ’s mission at the dawn of the third millennium, invites us to study and discover in the scriptures what God had revealed about Jesus as his Good news, his Messiah. Jesus himself spells out the essential aspects of this Good news in Lk 4,18-19 and Jn 10,10. We identify concretely the poor to whom we are to proclaim the good news today – where they are and why they are they. We take seriously Jesus’ other mission mandate to cure the sick and raise the dead10, even as we heed the church’s declaration that action on behalf of social justice is a constitutive part of proclaiming the gospel11, to which must be added the commitment to liberty and human rights, and the reform of unjust social and political systems.

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If Jesus is God’s Christ/Messiah, then we learn from him where to locate the missionary enterprise – namely in peoples of the world. We do not locate mission in our institutions, churches, dogmas. Peter was mandated primarily to feed the sheep and lambs, not to teach and castigate them. From the example of the pericope of Jesus’ feeding of the disciples themselves, the feeding of the lambs and sheep is to be understood not just spiritually, abstractly but concretely, physically. Jesus gave Peter the charge after he had personally physically fed him and the other six disciples, having first enabled them to catch the fish (for without him they could do nothing). Jesus’ fascination and preoccupation with food and feeding was an integral part of his mission to give life in all its fulness. Life needs food and feeding. The ultimate food is his body and blood in the Eucharist given in the form of the basic staple food of his people: bread and wine12. If we bypass the need for physical food to concentrate only on spiritual feeding, in terms of teaching, instructing and guiding, the poor may not be physically alive to hear us and may leave Jesus’ sheepfold in search of pastures where the proclamation also promises physical food. Here they may be, often are, exploited by selfish and self-seeking shepherds, in the name of God and of the Christian religion. When the sheep are well fed, they will graze well and attend to what the shepherd may be saying to them and readily follow where he may be leading them, knowing it is for their own good. In this search to locate mission in the life of real peoples as the route which they church must travel in carrying out Christ’s mission, we avoid two extremes: one is that makes economic prosperity proclaimed through the Internet, the answer to all human needs and hungers. The other is that which prays unceasingly but lacks a concrete program of social action, waiting for God to provide the miracle that is sure to be on the way13. Both approaches dehumanise. Jesus was concerned in his proclamation of the good news and in his being the good news with the all round good of his audience. The good news was experienced physically by those to whom it was preached. For the rich it meant sharing with the poor the riches of this world which is not theirs to begin with (Dives and Lazarus or the foolishly rich economist). For the poor it meant his liberating them from all oppressive forces, especially those that are perpetrated in the name of religion. What do people of our times need to be liberated from? Finally, belief in Christ as God’s Messiah leads us to stand by or live the consequences of our confession. Peter’s confession was the foundational faith on which Jesus builds his church, his gathering together of God’s scattered children. It came as a divine revelation and carried with it the imperative that the human being (Son of Man) must suffer many things and so enter into his glory. Yet Peter did not want to accept Christ’s death that ushered in his universal Messiahship. It was not just Christ’s death that Peter feared, but his own death too, as Christ’s follower. Peter recoiled from going this way with Christ. For us the rejection might take other forms. It

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might be the temptation to relativize in subtle ways the universal significance of Christ’s messiahship for fear of appearing to be out of date, given the growing recognition of the right to freedom of worship. Or it might be the temptation to destroy Jesus’ ekklesia by proclaiming our nationalistic or denominational messiahs at the expense of Christ. What do we need to die to in order to enter with Christ into the glory that means life for others? Unless we are prepared personally and communally to pay the price for our proclamation of Jesus as God’s Messiah, the Son of the living God, our proclamation will lack the transformative power of God’s gospel in and for the third millennium. Yet is comforting to remember that in the last analysis Christ’s work of gathering will prevail because he has programmatically completed this mission with a prayer for its permanent success (Jn 17). The gates of hell cannot again engulf God’s work perfected by him, the new Adam, as it did with the first Adam. «I am with you always till the end of the age». QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION 1) What obstacles do we carry in ourselves, as individuals and church communities, that make our practices of mission a living contradiction of our belief in Christ as God’ Messiah and impede that Christian unity for which Christ prayed? This question invites us to focus on mission ad intra. 2) How do we treat those (past and present) who reject Christ? (The sons of Zebedee wanted to call down fire upon such people in the spirit of the inquisition. Jesus rebuked them for their ignorance of his spirit of mission which they were called to share; Lk 9,51-56). We earnestly ask Jesus to give us a share in his spirit of mission. 3) How do we today undertake to write/read an orderly account of God’s Gospel among us so that the different segments of our global society (the north and the south; the east and the west; the rich and the poor; men and women; the youth/children and the aged; the free born and the caste; Christians and people of other faiths; Catholics and Protestants; the established churches and the emerging churches; African Instituted and Pentecostal churches; the new age religions; and the indigenous religions), “may know the truth” that Jesus is God’s Messiah for them? (Luke undertook to write such an orderly account for his gentile audience, cf. Lk 1,1-4).

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Notes

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1 Redemptor Hominis 12. 2 Cf. Mt 23,29-39; Lk 4,24; Jn 4,44. 3 Cf. Gen 3; Wis 1,12-14, 23-24. 4 Cf. Rom 8,18-23; Col 1,15-20; Eph 1,9-10. 5 T. OKURE, “Enkindling Fire in the Mission: Spirit and Scope of the BISAM Project”,

in T. OKURE (ed.), To Cast Fire Upon the Earth: Bible and Mission Collaborating in Today’s Multicultural Global Context, Cluster Publications, Pietermaritzburg 2000, esp., pp. 5-12. 6 See further, T. OKURE, The Johannine Approach to Mission: A Contextual Study of John 4,1-42, WUNT 2/31, JCB Mohr-Paul Siebeck, Tübingen 1988, pp. 211-213, 219226; eadem “John”, in W.R. FARMER (ed.), International Bible Commentary: A Catholic and Ecumenical Commentary for the Twenty-First Century, The Liturgical Press, Collegeville 1998, pp. 1438-1505, esp. pp. 1500-1501. 7 Cf. Redemptoris Missio 24-25. 8 See, for instance, K. STEENBRINK, “The Queen of Sheba in Jewish, Christian and Muslim Traditions The Good News in Inter-Cultural Readings”, in T. OKURE (ed.), To Cast Fire upon the Earth,” pp. 148-161 9 See in particular, “The Church and Other Religions: Reflections and Orientations on Dialogue and Mission by the Secretariat for Non-Christians (June 10, 1984)”, in The Pope Speaks, 1984, pp. 253-264. 10 On this mandate see S.C. BATE, “Matthew 10: A Mission Mandate for the Global Context”, in T. OKURE (ed.), To Cast Fire Upon the Earth, pp. 42-56. 11 SYNOD OF BISHOPS OF 1971, Justice in the World. 12 See further, J. KODELL, The Eucharist in the New Testament, Zacchaeus Studies: New Testament, Michael Glazier, Wilmington 1988. 13 T. OKURE, Word of God – Source of Life: An African Perspective, in “Verbum SVD”, 38(1997)3, 243-265.

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JOHN MANSFORD PRIOR

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PORTRAYING THE FACE OF THE NAZARENE IN CONTEMPORARY INDONESIA: LITERATURE AS FRONTIER-EXPANDING MISSION

The challenge in Indonesia christians live as small, vibrant, minority communities within a complex of Islamic, Hindu-Dharma and indigenous cultures1. Since May 1998 Indonesia has been undergoing a great upheaval as the nation is trying to stumble from a brutal military regime (1966-1998) and move towards a more civil and cultured society2. The outcome of this messy and dangerous transition to some form of democracy is uncertain. Complicating matters, this transition is being attempted at a time when Indonesia is being buffeted by globalized trade and communications, with all the myriad social, cultural and ethical consequences that a globalized society entails. In this transitory and volatile situation, it has become crucial for Christians to seek out the authentic face and figure of Jesus the Nazarene, God’s Word-made-flesh, the One to whom we witness in the values we live, the words we utter, the rites we celebrate and the Ecclesial body which proclaims our faith identity. John Paul II wrote in Ecclesia in Asia: «Speaking the truth in love (Eph 4;15), the Church proclaims the Good News with loving respect and esteem for her listeners […] the effort to share the gift of faith in Jesus as the only Saviour is fraught with philosophical, cultural and theological difficulties, especially in light of the beliefs of Asia’s great religions, deeply intertwined with cultural values and specific world views. […] It is paradoxical that most Asians tend to regard Jesus – born on Asian soil – as a Western rather than an Asian figure... the Synod Fathers were well aware of the pressing need of the local Churches in Asia to present the mystery of Christ to their peoples according to their cultural patterns and ways of thinking […] such an inculturation of the faith on their continent involves rediscovering the Asian countenance of Jesus and identifying ways in which the cultures of Asia can grasp the universal saving significance of the mystery of Jesus and his Church» (EA 20 passim). «The people of Asia who, as Asians, wish to make the Christian faith their own, can rest assured that their hopes, expectations, anxieties and sufferings are not only embraced by Jesus, but become the very point at which the gift of faith and the power of the Spirit enter the innermost core of their lives» (EA 21).

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The Indonesian Churches, both Catholic and Protestant, are being challenged to re-incarnate themselves as authentic communities of faith that reveal the truth of the person and message of Jesus Christ from within a complex inter-religious and inter-cultural context. It is no longer viable for Christians to maintain their self-identity as transplanted cultural ghettos. There is little future for small Christian enclaves that simply repeat traditional formulas and assertions learnt from the incoming missioners; that road leads to internal intransigence and to marginalisation from the majority community. The Churches need to uncover vibrant Indonesian forms to belief and give birth to a living Indonesian identity that can transmit the Easter faith to the next generation, the Paschal hope for personal and cultural transformation. The cultural meaning-system that makes sense of life is Indonesian; what we treasure, our self-identity, is Christian. Prerequisites for creating a new Indonesian Christian culture are twofold. The Churches need to heal historical memories in the spirit of the Jubilee3 and only then go on to seek out and encounter the Nazarene amidst the inter-ethnic and inter-religious strife triggered by the political elite4. HEALING HISTORICAL MEMORIES Past colonial history and present-day globalization are not gentle to the image of Christians in Indonesia or Asia generally. The majority Muslim community associates the Churches with the political colonialism and economic imperialism of Catholic Portugal and the Protestant Netherlands. Today we are associated with the amoral commercialism of neo-liberal globalization (of the “Protestant” USA and “Catholic” EU) which is destroying the religious values and humanist roots of Asian cultures. Christians are perceived as a vanguard for a capitalist globalization that is expelling God from public life. In Indonesia, and more generally in Asia, minority Western Churches – often oases of wealth within deserts of poverty – are seen as the harbingers of the very capitalistic culture that has been censured in Roman social teaching since Leo XIII. For the Muslim majority this image of the Church delineates the face of Jesus. Throughout the first fifty years of Independence, Christians, both Catholic and Protestant, created a space for themselves as valued colleagues in academic circles. Christian presence in the media was never narrowly “churchy”; it has been a voice for openness and tolerance, for listening to and understanding the other. Christians, including Catholics, played a positive role during the struggle for Independence and in the first years of the Republic. However, collaboration with the Soeharto regime (1966-1998) has largely marginalised Christian political influence in today’s turbulent transition to greater democracy. The Church’s de facto co-option by

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Soeharto has endangered the institutional Church’s very existence as the destruction of hundreds of churches and the displacement of over 70% of Christians in the Moluccas shows. On the other hand, it is also true that grassroots movements for human rights and dignity and brave groups of idealistic university students, supported by many lay, religious and clergy, are painfully redeeming the sins of the Catholic political elite. Thus in Indonesia, as in much of Asia, the Christian community needs to read mission history anew from ecumenical and inter-faith perspectives in order to embark upon a viable future. Rediscovering the Nazarene – born on Asian soil – necessitates de-coupling our historical memory from colonial piracy. Witnessing to the Asian Christ also presupposes releasing our contemporary identity, both social and Ecclesial – from any likeness to “the predatory outsider”. The great strength of Catholic Christian identity derives from its sacramentality, the peculiarly Catholic way of experiencing the world, a “sacramental transparency”. The ideal is to express a Christian humanism in natural symbols and social struggle. This has, to some extent, been taking place in Indonesia, both in a growing literature and in the ongoing struggle for human rights and dignity at the side of the downtrodden. While much has rightly been written on the involvement of the Indonesian Catholic Church in social questions, the long drawn out birth of a Christian aesthetic culture that can bear the Easter tradition has, as yet, received scant attention. It is with one aspect of this thriving Christian culture that I am concerned, namely contemporary literature5. FINDING A FAITH-INSPIRING LANGUAGE A well-educated intelligentsia – in universities and in both the print and visual media – has been active in developing a faith-centred humanist culture. Contemporary journalism and literature – principally poetry, essays, short stories and novels – are the primary media for disseminating this faithinspired humanist culture. This corpus is growing out of the very best in Indonesian culture. Catholic authors imbue these Indonesian narratives with the personal and societal values of Christian Social Teaching. Thoroughly Christian in content, its language is openly ecumenical and splendidly inter-faith. Perhaps a more appropriate term would be “faithcentred humanism” rather than simply “Christian humanism”. It is genuinely Christian while articulating the best of the values, attitudes and aspirations of Muslim and indigenous religious cultures6. In the words of Ecclesia in Asia, «The people of Asia can rest assured that their hopes, expectations, anxieties and sufferings are not only embraced by Jesus, but become the very point at which the gift of faith and the power of the Spirit enter the innermost core of their lives» (EA 21).

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Christian language is not understood by, and is anyway not acceptable to, the Muslim majority. That is why key values in the life and witness of Jesus the Nazarene such as sacrificial love, living for others, God’s predilection for the oppressed, men and women as images of a God of compassion, are being voiced in a language culled from Indonesian life and culture. I should emphasise that this “faith-centred humanism” or “inter-faith humanism” is not a lowest common denominator – a bland, inoffensive compromise. The converse is true. Indonesian faith-centred humanism as articulated by Catholic and Protestant authors gives expression to the transcendent depths at the heart of human culture. Human development is not build upon the principle of the survival of the fittest, but upon the compassionate witness of vulnerable faith communities. Literature – essays, short stories and novels – is proving to be a seed-bed (seminary) for the birthing of an Indonesian Christian cultural identity, one that embodies our belief and ethical tradition in local cultural forms. A fascinating cultural synthesis is in the making. Christian literature is mainstream; together with the larger Muslim contribution it is at the heart of contemporary, creative cultural manifestations. By studying, absorbing and thoroughly enjoying the works of socially involved Christian literati Indonesian Christians can rightly claim their Christian heritage within a new cultural identity. Experience shows that when the Jesus of the Gospels and the very best of our Christian tradition is expressed in the language of Indonesian literature and of contemporary life, it is openly welcomed. Christians are being challenged to generate such a faith-centred and life-enhancing humanism, and so play a part as a dynamic minority in both literature and in grassroots struggle, while openly acknowledging to ourselves and to others, the source of our humanism in the life and witness of the Nazarene. By leaving aside explicit Christian language we are not compromising our faith in Jesus the Christ, we are simply avoiding unnecessary intercommunal strife at a time of great national uncertainty and increasing confusion. At the same time we are patiently building up understanding and awareness, firmly rooted in the heart of the Christian message, namely the sacrificial love and Easter peace of the Compassionate Word of God. JESUS: DEFENCELESS GOD AMIDST A CRASS INHUMANITY Contemporary Christian and Muslim literature places fragile characters at the centre of the human narrative: marginalised women, the poor, the exploited, the unknown. There are no great, heroic figures. The Indonesian State, desensitised by over 30 years of military dictatorship and draconian censorship, has driven novelists to their common past. Unable to write freely on the contemporary situation before 1998, they have steadily unearthed humanist values from the recesses of Indonesian history.

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Pramoedya and Mangunwijaya have written epochal narratives about two key turning-points in Indonesian history when one set of societal values gave way to another. The first is the peaceful arrival of Islamic traders in the 13th century leading to the violent advent of Catholic colonisers in the 16th century followed closely by the Protestant Dutch who ruled pockets of the archipelago for over 300 years7. The second turning-point is the struggle for independence which sprang from the humanist movement at the end of the nineteenth century; the humanist ideals of the founding generation of 19088 which were later betrayed by the political-military clique that took over power in 19669. Thus the terror, rapaciousness and vulgarity of the Soeharto regime are held up to judgement. This re-reading of Indonesian history in the light of its fragile victims and defenceless humanity, is the raw material of the best of contemporary Indonesian literature. It challenges the reader to ask by what values they are living and for which values they are prepared to suffer and die. Lived values announce to others who Jesus is for the Christian community. The contrast here is between a fragile yet persistent faith-centred humanism arising from both the writings of intellectuals and the struggle at the grassroots, and the crass power-centred culture of the avaricious military and political elite. Neo-liberal global capitalism has been creating a restlessrootless culture which is socially-uncaring, deaf to conscience and increasingly secularist though cloaked in the language of religious devotion. In this situation, an acquiescent Church is no authentic witness to the Jesus of the Gospels, to proclaiming truth in love (cf. Eph 4,15). INCARNATE IN WORD AND LIFE In my reading of the situation, the decisive move to incarnate the Wordmade-flesh as authentically Indonesian is taking place in counter-cultural literature (poetry, essays, short stories, and novels) and in grass-roots movements for democracy and networks for human rights. A truly incarnational Indonesian Christology arises when reflective writing from the best of Indonesia’s literati imbues the grass-roots struggle for human dignity – and the struggle of the discarded is woven into the warp and woof of humanist writing. Only then will the majority community know who Jesus is for us. Two Catholic writers and one Protestant are outstanding in this regard. 1. Yusuf Bilyarta Mangunwijaya The brilliant intellectual was born on 6th May 1929. The eldest child in a family of 12 children, he joined a student brigade during the revolution (1945-48) becoming an army section commander. Witnessing the suffering

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of the villagers during the war for independence, he decided to spend the remainder of his life «repaying my debt to the people». Mangun – as he is popularly known – was ordained a Catholic priest in 1959. By the mid-1970s he was an architect of international standing, a newspaper columnist, essayist, novelist, human rights campaigner, mystic and ascetic. Acknowledged companion of the marginalised, Mangunwijaya was a questioner guiding the ongoing search for a truly human society. Seated in his self-designed wooden shack and equipped with gifted pen, Mangunwijaya stood out as a national figure, accepted by Muslim and Christian alike as a conscience of the nation. The “renaissance” figure of Mangunwijaya is a once-in-a-century phenomenon. This paper is confined to his novels and short stories10. From 1968 Romo Mangun began writing an occasional column in the largest circulation daily, “Kompas” and afterwards in many newspapers and journals, secular, Muslim and Christian, in both popular tabloids and “serious” broadsheets. In 1981 he published Burung-burung Manyar (The Weaver Birds), the first of eleven novels, soon recognised as a contemporary classic. Most of his novels are historical, where he re-reads Indonesian history from the perspective of the poor and the outsider. His protagonists are often rural women. For Mangun the unacknowledged yet strongest members of society hand down deepest human values. In his novels and newspaper articles, in his essays, buildings and TV videos, Mangunwijaya is perhaps the most creative theological thinker to have emerged from the Indonesian Catholic Church during the past hundred and fifty years. He died on the shoulder of a soul-friend, the Muslim intellectual Mohamad Sobary during an inter-faith seminar in Jakarta, on 10th February 1999. Thousands of mourners from pedicab cyclists, squatters and street children (many of whom he knew personally) to the Muslim Sultan of Yogyakarta himself, attended Mangunwijaya’s funeral. Within a hundred days of his death Kanisius published five volumes of previously unpublished work and another five volumes of appreciations, Erlangga University another two collections and “Kompas” a further volume. A final posthumous novel was published in December 1999 and a collection of short stories in mid 200011. Unfortunately, the voluminous writings of this renaissance figure are extremely difficult to translate. Living an utterly simple life in his wooden hut, Mangun wrote in an oftentimes dense and complex style, moving on many levels simultaneously, replete with allusions to Javanese myth and contemporary Indonesian politics. Thoroughly immersed in Javanese culture he attacked its feudal-patriarchal values from within. Whatever his topic – Church, society, technology, culture – his perspective was singular: that of the marginalised and discarded. In his theology Romo Mangun avoided Christian language choosing both contemporary and Islamic terms. Mangunwijaya has published 28 books of non-fiction as well as eleven

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novels one of which is also in English (1981-91). Of his countless articles just one is in English also (1993).

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2. Henriette Marianne Katoppo (1943- ). The theology of Henriette Marianne Katoppo, recorded in her newspaper articles, five novels and single theological work (1979), finds its most apt embodiment in her own life struggle. She is the youngest of ten siblings, a member of a prominent Dutch-speaking Protestant family and has been an energetic participant in international ecumenical networks. Marianne Katoppo was born in Tomohon, Sulawesi, on 9th June 1943 but brought up in Jakarta. She obtained her BA from Graduate School of Theology, Jakarta (1963) and then studied in Japan 1964-65. From 1966-69 worked with the British and Foreign Bible Society in London, UK and from 1970-74 worked in Sweden. She then undertook post-graduate studies at her alma mater in Jakarta (MA 1976) followed by a post-graduate year at the Ecumenical Institute at Bossey, Switzerland writing Compassionate and Free (1979). Continuing her peripatetic lifestyle she was appointed visiting lecturer at Selly Oak Colleges, Birmingham, UK (1985-86). Since 1983 she has lived as a free-lance theologian, novelist, journalist and translator. Marianne Katoppo is a founder member of, and was the first Indonesian coordinator for, the Ecumenical Association of Third World Theologians (EATWOT). She is a founding-member of the journal “In God’s Image” and from 1983-97 a contributing editor to the same; she has also been a contributing editor to “Mission Studies”. From 1984-89 she was a member of the Executive Committee of the Communion of Churches in Indonesia (PGI) seeing to woman’s concerns. Marianne is no longer affiliated to any organisation. Intelligent, independent, forthright, conversant in a dozen Asian and European languages, Marianne Katoppo embodies the ambiguities and brokenness of those who do not fit into any single category – socially, culturally, religiously. Her most successful and most explicitly Christian novel is Raumanen (1977) where a love affair across ethnic lines tragically ends with the suicide of the protagonist. However, her other female protagonists are not defeated, as, for instance, in Terbangnya Punai (A Pigeon’s Flight, 1978) and in Rumah di atas Jembatan (House on the Bridge, 1981). Also, Dunia Tak Bermusim (World without Seasons, 1974), the most clearly “autobiographical” novel, is an opened-ended story. Her theological articles and WCC book spring partly from personal experience (disappointment even bitterness) and partly from social critique taking up themes of justice (option for the poor and gender). Living with her two dozen cats, she most admires Prapanca who has become the canine subject of a short story on the difficulty of finding a place to breathe in contemporary

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Indonesia. By mid-2000 she had authored five novels, a few short stories, one theological work and over 20 articles of which 10 are in English.

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3. Gabriel Possenti Sindhunata From a younger generation we find Gabriel Possenti Sindhunata. Jesuit, journalist, and editor who pens columns and short stories in both the secular and religious press. Sindhu writes from the popular, religious culture of Java, a voice for the victims of society, an ongoing expression of the value of faith, often enough explicitly Christian, in the language of subaltern tradition. Born 12th May 1952 in Batu, East Java, before joining the Jesuits Gabriel Possenti Sindhunata was a journalist with the largest circulation national daily “Kompas” for which paper he still writes a column on world soccer fixtures. Ordained in 1983, Sindhu spent his first two years as a pastor at Pakem to the north of Yogyakarta, the location of much of his later narrative writing. From 1986-92 he researched his PhD at the Jesuit Philosophical Institute in Munich taking up the theme of Javanese peasant messianic movements from 1850 to 1940. Since then stationed in Yogyakarta, he is full-time writer of columns, articles (2000), short stories (1996) and novels in both Indonesian and Javanese. He also edits the cultural and religious monthly “Basis” founded by Dick Hartoko. Sindhu comes from, and is actively developing, the Javanese syncretistic tradition at its prophetic best. With scarcely a footnote, devoid of any explicit reference to Christian or Muslim sources, Sindhu gives voice to the victims of oppressive politics and rapacious economic development. His is a universal humanism, open to the Spirit, in the language of Javanese popular culture. He interweaves powerful and popular images from the culture of the oppressed with sharp humour accompanied by a devastating critique of the formal culture of the governing élite. In the tradition of the traditional and prophetic puppet plays of the villagers, Sindhu is blithely unconcerned whether his sources are Muslim, Christian or Javanese as long as they give voice to and strengthen the cultural renewal needed to empower the marginalised of Java. His writings articulate the practical, everyday wisdom through which the poor refuse to be defeated and by which they survive, and on occasion, thrive. As such Sindhu writes in the tradition of Mangunwijaya. However, unlike Mangun, Sindhu makes little reference to the official church and writes a considerable amount in Javanese as well as in Indonesian. The prophetic syncretism of Sindhunata is an interesting phenomenon at the turn of the century when the politicisation of religion is drawing ever-sharper demarcations between religious institutions. Thus, he is truly counter-cultural. Sindhu is yet another example of Indonesian theologizing by someone who is not a professional theologian. Like other creative theological

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thinkers, he has sided with the victims of society while writing in the language of popular culture. Growing from a lively, oral tradition Sindhu’s popular writings (as with those of Mangunwijaya) would need a host of explanatory footnotes to make them accessible in English translation. By early 2000 Sindhunata had published 11 books two of which are in Javanese and one in German, and had edited a further 10 volumes and written over 30 articles.

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KEY VALUES Given a colonial past and contemporary neo-colonial globalization, the emphasis in Indonesia is upon deepening religiosity rather than strengthening religious institutions. Obviously, there is no Christian religiosity without a Church community to embody, sustain and hand it on. However, in Indonesia the political elite is increasingly misusing institutional religion and threatened religious identities. When Muslims and Christians face each other as competing dogmatic systems that buttress economic group interests and political power, then inevitably they clash, as in Ambon and the Moluccas. However, when they work together as religiously-inspired fellow citizens struggling for greater fairness in society and a modicum of democracy, then they live and labour in accord. This is clear in various fact-finding and human rights committees. This is a matter of emphasis, a question of approach and above all the witness of a transparently authentic life-style. In this context, the need is for an ecclesial leadership by persons of culture rather than by religious functionaries or church bureaucrats. Turning to the human values found in the work Mangunwijaya, Katoppo and Sindhunata it would be helpful to bring the most outstanding contemporary Indonesian author into the discussion, namely the Muslim Pramoedya Ananta Toer12. By doing so, I hope to show that Christian Indonesian literature is very much part of the best of contemporary Indonesian writing. In their lives of solidarity with the poor and in their marvellous historical epics, both ex-political prisoner Pramoedya and Mangunwijaya have been sketching out an all-inclusive, faith-inspiring, humanist culture. They write of the defenceless yet persistent flowering of conscience surviving amidst the arid desert of totalitarianism. Their stories wrestle with the freedom needed to grow continually and discover oneself in the framework of one’s family and society. Themes highlight the hope and struggle for a more egalitarian society where each one accepts the worth and dignity of the other and relates as brother and sister; of openness and transparency, responsibility and initiative. Protagonists have the right to hesitate and question, to take risks and make mistakes, of readiness to fail and yet not loose face. The Muslim Pramoedya concludes his four-volume

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historical novel – composed while a political prisoner on Buru Island in the 1960s and 1970s – with the words of Mary’s Magnificat: «Deposuit Potentes de Sede et Exaltavit Humiles»13. The Catholic Mangunwijaya died in the arms of the Muslim intellectual Mohamad Sobary14. The Jesuit Sindhunata takes up the language of popular Javanese culture intertwined with both popular Islam and popular Catholicism15. Both Muslim and Christian intellectuals are convinced that only a personal faith vibrating from the heart of both self and culture can inspire and sustain a truly humanist society16. These are the values at the heart of the best of contemporary Indonesian literature. For Christians, the root inspiration is the redeeming “failure” of Jesus of Nazareth – a scandal to the coarse values of worldly success and crude accumulation. Jesus – the passion and compassion of God. Jesus – silently dignified before the violent threats of Pilate. Jesus – acknowledging His identity only after being identified as a criminal by the powers-that-be. In line with these Gospel motifs key figures in the novels of Mangunwijaya are invariably marginal characters. Change comes from the defenceless edge, from the cracks that break open to reveal the violent, consumerist cultures for what they are. This is also the case with the Muslim Pramoedya, where a female prostitute is the “hero” of a novel on the Indonesian revolution, a marginal woman who struggles with the values of self-worth and national affirmation, and who mirrors a humanism that transcends narrow nationalism. All this contrasts with the selfishness, violence and, often enough betrayal, of the socalled revolutionary army17. WHOM DO YOU SAY I AM? 1. Christ of the Cross, Christ of the Cosmos At life-crises, people invariably return to the deep springs of the religiosity of their local religious culture. Often this is explicitly linked to the Christian Scriptures, but not necessarily so. Thus, the Church has a firm base in popular Indonesian culture. The Church is solidly rooted in indigenous, minority Chinese and majority Muslim cultures. This is what I term “spontaneous inculturation”. This is not an imported base; it is the popular religious culture of the people themselves. It is Christian because it is the primary source for meaning at the most important points in life for a baptised and openly Christian people. In theological terms, these Indonesian well springs of meaning are both incarnational-creational and redemptive-paschal. The presence of ancestors, the living-dead, the harmony sought with nature and fellow humans, the restitution of right relationships of rough equality, the primacy of happiness through relationships, all these elements both root societal

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values in the earth (incarnational) and call for regular cleansing-renewal (redemptive). Perhaps “creation-filled, redemption-centred” would be a fairly accurate description. Southeast Asian cultures, including the Indonesian, are absorbent. Thus, the emerging new Christian humanist culture is the result of a creative symbiosis. Unlike countries that seem to need to reject a colonial past in order to appropriate an individual identity, Indonesia does not tend to reject but rather absorb. Perhaps this is unsettling to a rational Westerner who is used to an either-or logic rather than the both-and, sensitively inviting, evocative and ever-inclusive logic of Southeast Asia. However, this is the genius of Indonesian culture: each generation re-invents its identity through an ongoing symbiosis, absorbing whatever it finds helpful from whichever source. It is the conviction of this author that this syncretistic approach is a viable vehicle for manifesting the face of the Nazarene. 2. Diaspora Churches: Ecumenically-open Networks The Indonesian Churches are at a crossroads. We are now undergoing a turbulent transition from a military dictatorship that co-opted Christians into its scheme of things, to a more democratic society where each of the myriad elements of this heterogeneous archipelago is seeking out an appropriate space. The choice facing minority Christian Churches is to retreat into a ghetto or become a dynamic, prophetic diaspora, joining hands with the Muslim majority in re-building a culture of faith in a compassionate God who respects the dignity of all. The post-Conciliar Church in Indonesia is already producing its artistic and literary classics. Socially committed Christian writers and artists are creating a framework that expresses our communal and shared belief and ethics in a language both carved in beauty and sensitive to the majority community. Beauty resonances with truth, the truth of society’s victims that open the community to the face of the vulnerable God whose weakness is strength and whose failure exploded into resurrection. Beauty opens the heart; hope opens up a future. While the worshipping community is in danger of becoming “ghettoised”, busy “massaging itself” on Sundays (religion as entertainment), it is the artists, composers, singers, dancers and writers who are preventing the encapsulation of the Christian tradition into minority Church enclaves. Catholic worship should never feel at ease and comfortable with an alien identity. Without the beauty of the artist and writer, the Latin Rite liturgy will have lost its evangelizing power18. That is why literature is at the creative cutting edge of cross-cultural mission. Unfortunately, the worshipping community and the artistic community rarely encounter each other, let alone experience “an encounter-in-dialogue” (John Paul II). An evangelical

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“critical mass” will occur only when the worshipping community makes its own the creative language and cultural symbols of its artists and writers. It is not a question of bringing “eccentric” (far from the centre) artists into the liturgical community so much as sending the liturgical community out to the frontier to imbibe the inspiring images of our most elegant artists and writers. It is here rather than anywhere else that the over-wordy and culturally impoverished western-inspired liturgy since the Council will rebirth itself as authentically sacramental, aesthetically beautiful, as truth uttered in the heart and expressed as the vibrant human space within a brutalising culture. Thus, we celebrate what is explicitly Christian in our families, our neighbourhood communities, and our Parish gatherings. From our ecclesial commitments we draw from the source, the Word of Life. From Scripture and Liturgy we obtain the strength, the courage and the encouragement to work as leaven and light in ecumenical and inter-faith environments. We neither hide nor hold back our Christian identity and Biblical faith. It is precisely the mission to witness to the truth that empowers us. Truth frees and unites persons and communities; truth redeems and reconciles societies and cultures. To this truth we witness as nodes within inter-faith webs of concern. It is a challenge already taken up by the Catholic intelligentsia and also by grassroots movements in Indonesia over the past 50 years. It is the thinkers and the socially concerned who are showing a way out of the European planted Churches with their Western Jesus and narrowly parochial and exclusively Catholic ecclesial structures which threaten to return us to foreign, cultural ghettos. The best of Christian literature by socially engaged activists and politically aware mystics is creating a new language in which to re-picture the Jesus of the Gospels as living, as whole, as authentically Asian, as the heart-beat of popular culture as it struggles for space to breathe, for dignity, for a meaning and purpose that overcomes death. A SELECTION OF WRITINGS BY Y.B. MANGUNJIWAYA (1929-1999) 1. Novels Six of Mangunwijaya’s eleven novels are referred to in the text: 1981. The Weaver Birds, The Lontar Foundation, Jakarta 1991. Indonesian original, Burung-burung Manyar: Sebuah Roman (The Weaver Birds: A Novel), 1st ed., Pustaka Kuntara, Jakarta 1981; 2nd ed. Djambatan 1993, vi-262 pp. In 1983 won the Southeast Asia Write Award in 1983. The only novel to date to be translated into English; also Japanese, Dutch and German editions.

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1983. Ikan-ikan Hiu, Ido, Homa (Sharks and Small Fry). Novel set in Maluku in 17th century. 1983-86. Roro Mendut, Genduk Duku and Lusi Lindri. Series of three novels set in 17th Century central Java. 1985. Balada Becak (The Ballad of a Pedicab Cyclist), translated into Dutch. 2. Non-Fiction

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Of Mangunwijaya’s 26 non-fiction books – none of which has yet been translated into any European language – the following should be mentioned: 1975. Ragawidya. Religiositas Hal-hal Sehari-hari (Ragawidya. An Everyday Religiosity). 1982. Sastra dan Religiositas (Literature and Religiosity), Sinar Harapan, Jakarta; 2nd printing, Kanisius, Yogyakarta 1988, 155 pp. Won first prize of the Arts Council of Jakarta in the essay category in 1982. 1982. Panca Pramana: Praksis Penggembalaan Jemaat (Five Ways: A Praxis of Shepherding a Congregation). 1986. Menumbuhkan Sikap Religius Anak-anak (Nurturing a Religious Attitude in Children). 1987. Story Telling as Good News, in “East Asian Pastoral Review”, 30, pp. 311-316. 1999. Gereja Diaspora (A Diaspora Church), Kanisius, Yogyakarta, 230 pp. 1999. Memuliakan Allah, Mengangkat Manusia (Glorify God, Raise up Humanity), Kanisius, Yogyakarta, 221 pp. 1999. Manusia Pascamodern, Semesta, dan Tuhan. Renungan Filsafat Hidup Manusia Modern (Post-Modern Humanity, the Universe and God. A Reflection on the Living Philosophy of Humanity). 3. Writings on the Publications of Mangunwijaya 1996. M. BODDEN, Woman as Nation in Mangunwijaya’s Durga Umayi, “Indonesia”, 62, pp. 53-82; Indonesian translation in SINDHUNATA (ed.), Menjadi Generasi Pasca-Indonesia (On Becoming the Post-Indonesian Generation), Kanisius, Yogyakarta 1999, pp. 205-265. 1997. K. STEENBRINK, Mangunwijaya als romanschrijver van de koloniale tijd, “Wereld en Zending”, 26, pp. 44-50. 1998. K. STEENBRINK, Y.B. Mangunwijaya’s Blueprint for a Diaspora Church in Indonesia, “Exchange”, 27/1, pp. 17-36; Indonesian translation in SUDIARJA (ed.), Tinjauan Kritis atas Gereja Diaspora Romo Mangunwijaya, Yogyakarta 1999, pp. 33-67.

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A SELECTION OF THE WRITINGS OF MARIANNE KATOPPO 1977. Raumanen, Gaya Favorit Press, Jakarta, 95 pp.; Won the Arts Council Award (Jakarta 1975) and the Southeast Asian Write Award of 1982. 1979. Compassionate and Free: An Asian Woman’s Theology, World Council of Churches, Geneva, vi-93 pp; republished by Orbis, New York 1980 & 1981. Also available in Dutch, German and Swedish editions, but no Indonesian translation. 1979a. Asian Theology: An Asian Woman’s Perspective, “WCC Exchange”, 3, pp. 5-34; republished in V. FABELLA (ed.), Asia’s Struggle for Full Humanity, Orbis, New York 1980, pp. 140-151, and “Logos”, 20/1/1981, pp. 49-60. 1994. “The Concept of God and the Spirit from the Feminist Perspective”, in U. KING (ed.), Feminist theology from the Third World, SPCK, London, pp. 244-250. 1995. K. STEENBRINK, “Ecumenical Adventures of Marianne Katoppo”, in L. LAGERWERF, K. STEENBRINK, F. VERSTRAELEN (eds.), Changing Partnership of Missionary and Ecumenical Movements, Inter-university Institute for Missiological and Ecumenical Research, Leiden-Utrecht, pp. 212-225. 2000. “Marianne Katoppo” (interview with commentary), in, F.M. Parera (ed.), Pribadi-pribadi Pemuka Cakrawala: Tokoh Seni dan Profesional (Individuals who Opened Horizons: Artists and Professionals), “Kompas”, Jakarta, xvi-241, pp. 107-118. A SELECTION OF THE WRITINGS OF GABRIEL POSSENTI SINDHUNATA (1952-) 1983. Anak Bajang Mengiring Angin (An Evil Spirit Arouses the Wind), Gramedia, Jakarta, viii-363 pp. 1986. Mengapa Aku Mencintaimu, Oh Maria (Why I love you, Oh Mary), Gereja Katulik Maria Assumpta, Pakem, x-193 pp. 1988. Air Penghidupan: Peziarahan mencari diri (Water of Life: Journey to Find Oneself), Kanisius, Yogyakarta, 162 pp. 1995a. Aburing Kupu-kupu Kuning (Yellow Butterflies), Kanisius, Yogyakarta, 229 pp. 1995b. Ndherek Sang Dewi ing ereng-erenging redi Merapi (Following the Goddess on the Slopes of Mount Merapi), Kanisius, Yogyarkata, 252 pp. (in Javanese); Indonesian version published under the title Mata Air Bulan (Tears of the Moon), Kanisius, Yogyakarta 1998, 216 pp. 1996c. Semar Mencari Raga (Semar Seeks a Body), Kanisius & Basis, Yogyakarta, viii-60 pp. 2000a. Sakitnya Melahirkan Demokrasi (The Pain of giving birth to Democracy), Kanisius, Yogyakarta, 406 pp.

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2000b. Tak enteni keplokmu: Tanpa Bunga dan Telegram Duka (Without Flowers or Telegrams), Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta, 175 pp. A SELECTION OF WRITINGS BY PRAMOEDYA ANANTA TOER (1925-)

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English translations of Pramoedya’s earlier works are in process of publication by Equinox. Contact [email protected] 1942. Kemudian Runtuhlah Madjapahit (Afterwards the Kingdom of Madjapahit Fell), a book for children. 1950. Perburuan (Hunting). Received best book of the year award from Balai Pustaka, republished in 1994, 145 pp. 1950. Keluarga Gerilya, (Guerrilla Family), republished in 1994, viii-300 pp.; also published in Russian (1980), Japanese (1983), Korean (1986) and Dutch (1990). 1950. Subuh, collection of short stories, republished in Malaysia in 1994, 70 pp. 1950. Percikan Revolusi (Fragments from the Revolution), collection of short stories. 1951. Bukan Pasar Malam (Not a Night Market), republished in 1999, vi-100 pp.; also published in French. 1951. Di Tepi Kali Bekasi (On the Banks of Bakasi River), republished in 1995, vi-216 pp.; also published in Chechoslovakian (1962) and Russian (1962); not complete for remainder of the manuscript confiscated by the Dutch marines in 1947. 1952. Cerita dari Blora (Tales from Blora), short stories; republished in 1995, i-x-322-xi-xiii pp.; also published in Russian (1957), German (1966), English (under the title A Heap of Ashes, 1975), Dutch (1979); received first prize from the National Cultural Body. 1953. Gulat di Djakarta (Wrestling in Jakarta). 1953. Kapal Gersang (A Dried-out Boat) and Tentang Emansipasi Buaya (On the Emancipation of Crocodiles), two collections of short stories from “Zenith” journal. 1954. Korupsi, (Corruption). 1954. Kalil, Siopas Kantor (Kalil), collection of short stories from “Kisah” journal. 1954. Cerita Calon Arang (The Story of Calon Arang); republished in 2000. 1954. Midah si Manis Bergigi Emas (Midah, the Sweet One with Gold Teeth). 1956. Sunyisenyap di Siang Hidup (Deafening Silence at the Daytime of Life), collection of short stories from “Indonesia” journal. 1957. Cerita dari Jakarta; collection of short stories from 1948-56; English translation published by Equinox in 2000 as Tales from Jakarta: Caricatures of Circumstances and their Human Beings.

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1958. Sekali Peristiwa di Banten Selatan (Another Episode from South Banten). 1958. Yang Pesta dan Yang Tewas (Those who Feast and Those who Die), collection of short stories from “Zaman Baru” journal. 1960. Hoakiau di Indonesia (The Chinese Community in Indonesia), republished in 1998, xi-293 pp. 1960. Larasati (My Name is Larasati), republished in 2000, viii-176 pp. 1962-65. Gadis Pantai (Maid from the Seashore), 3 small volumes; republished as one volume in 1987 and again in 2000, vii-190 pp. The second and third books in this set of three were destroyed by the army in 1965. 1965. Panggil Aku Kartini Saja (Call me simply Kartini), vols. I & II republished as a singel volume in 2000. 1965-1979. Pramoedya Ananta Toer is a political prisoner of Soeharto. Salemba Prison 1965-69 and Buru Island 1969-79. 1980. Bumi Manusia (This World of Humankind), 1st of four- volume fictionalized history of Indonesia at the turn of the 19th & 20th centuries and the humanist awakening which inspired the later independence movement. Originally conceived and narrated on Buru Island. 1980. Anak Semua Bangsa (Child of Every Nation), 2nd of the four-volume fictionalized history. 1985. Jejak Langkah (Footsteps), 3rd of the four-volume fictionalized history. 1985. Sang Pemula (The First). 1988. Rumah Kaca (House of Glass), 4th and last of the four-volume fictionalized history. 1995. Nyanyian Sunyi Seorang Bisu (A Mute’s Silent Song); 1st volume on Pramoedya’s incarceration on Buru Island as a political prisoner from 1969 to 1979, i-ix-319-x-xv pp. 1995. Arus Balik (Opposing Current), the 3rd volume of a four-volume fictionalized history of the 16th century when Indonesia turned from being an outward looking maritime archipelago and became an inward looking feudal state ripe for European colonisers, 751 pp. 1997. Nyanyian Sunyi Seorang Bisu (A Mute’s Silent Song), 2nd volume on Pramoedya’s incarceration on Buru Island as a political prisoner from 1969 to 1979, i-x-301-xviii pp. 2000. Arok dan Dedes (Arok and Dedes), 1st volume of the four-volume fictionalized history of the 16th century, originally conceived and narrated on Buru Island. 2000. Mata Pusaran (Whirlpool), 2nd volume of the four-volume fictionalized history of the 16th century. 2000. Mangir (A Drama about Mangir), 4th volume of the four-volume fictionalized history of the 16th century.

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Notes

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1

In a nation of 203 million, 88% are Muslim, almost 6% are Protestant and Pentecostal Christians while over 3% are Catholics. 2 As in all transitions, a democratic future is by no means assured. The army has reconsolidated and Soeharto’s clan is active in money politics. While the President and Vice-President have been changed, there has yet to be any fundamental changes in the systemically corrupt justice department where power and money rule rather than law. Restructuring the banks and the stock market has been delayed because transparency and honesty go against the business interests of both army generals and the Soeharto clan. 3 See Tertio Millennio Adveniente 34-36. 4 At a time when Christians are facing increasing suspicion, not a single social apostolate of the Churches should be exclusively Christian. Each and every Christian, whether intellectual, journalist, human rights advocate or defender of discarded humanity needs to participate in inter-faith networks and organisations. Working with Muslims is the one way of reducing suspicion, and the best way to build up a culture of life and peace and justice and equity. 5 Literature seems to have been quietly sidelined in official Church documents in their understandable rush to come to terms with the “New Areopagus” of high-tech and cyber information. See for instance, PONTIFICAL COUNCIL FOR CULTURE, Towards a Pastoral Approach to Culture, Vatican, 1999. 6 For a prize-winning essay on religiosity in contemporary Indonesian literature see MANGUNWIJYA, Sastra dan Religiositas, 1982. 7 See the mammoth, epochal four-volume fictionalized history of the 16th century by PRAMOEDYA ANANTA TOER, Arus Balik (1995), Arok dan Dedes (1999) and Mangir (2000). The fourth volume Mata Pusaran is due in late 2000. See also Mangunwijaya’s 17th century novel Ikan-ikan Hiu, Ido, Homa (1983) and his 17th century trilogy Roro Mendut, Genduk Duka and Lusi Lindri (1983-86). 8 See PRAMOEDYA ANANTA TOER’s four-volume late 19th and early 20th Century fictionalised history Bumi Manusia (1981), Anak Segala Bangsa (1981), Jejek Langkah (1985), Rumah Kaca (1988). Also, the Mangunwijaya classic, Burung-burung Manyar (1981). All these books have been published in English, Japanese, German and Dutch editions. The “1908 Generation” refers to that group of nationalist intellectuals who sought to found the 20th century nationalist movement on humanist values. They are political and nationalist activists similar to R. Tagore in Bengal. 9 See PRAMOEDYA ANANTA TOER, Nyanyian Sunyi Seorang Bisu, I(1995), II(1996). 10 Mangunwijaya’s architectural designs combined traditional Javanese feeling with contemporary technical skills. One of his more distinguished architectural creations is the Pilgrimage centre at Sendangsono that focused upon popular religiosity and the natural beauty of the surroundings rather than upon formal liturgy or large-scale buildings. He often used discarded material. In the mid-1980s Mangun “retired” from grand designs and turned to “peoples’ architecture”. His re-design of the squatters camp on the banks of the Code River in central Yogyakarta (1980-86) won the Aga Khan Award for Architecture in 1992 and the Ruth and Ralph Erskine Fellowship Award, Stockholm, Sweden in 1995. 11 To commemorate the 100th day of Mangunwijaya’s sudden death, no fewer than five large collections of articles, critiques and appreciations were published. See Tinjauan Kritis atas Gereja diaspora Romo Mangun; Pergulatan Intelektual dalam Era Kegelisahan; Romo Mangun di Mata para Sahabat; Menjadi Generasi Pasca-Indonesia. Sastra Y.B. Mangunwijaya; Y.B. Mangunwijaya Pejuang Kemanusiaan. All published by Kanisius, Yogyakarta in May 1999. 12 For a sketch of Pramoedya’s life see CHEE SOON JUAN, To Be Free: Stories from Asia’s Struggle against Oppression, “Indonesia”, Monash Asia Institute, Melbourne

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1999, (viii-374 pp.), pp. 101-153. For a study of the humanism of Pram see A. TEEVW, Citra Manusia Indonesia dalam Karya Sastra Pramoedya Ananta Toer, Dunia Pustaka Jaya, Jakarta 1997. Hong Liu traces the widening and deepening of Pramodya’s horizon in Pramodeya Ananta Toer and China: The Transformation of a Cultural Intellectual, “Indonesia”, 61(1996), Cornell Southeast Asia, Ithaca. 13 PRAMOEDYA ANANTA TOER, Rumah Kaca, Hasta Mitra, Jakarta 1988, p. 359. 14 Y.B. Mangunwijaya died in Jakarta during a seminar on the role of books in forming a New Indonesia. Thousands showed their respect from the nation’s President in Jakarta to homeless scavengers in Yogyakarta. Everyone commented on the appropriateness of his dying on the shoulder of Sobary. See I. KLEDEN, “In Memoriam Y.B. Mangunwijaya. Pelajaran dari Sebuah Kematian” (“Learning from a Way of Dying”), in SINDHUNATA (ed.), Pergulatan Intelektual dalam Era Kegelisahan, Kanisus, Yogyakarta 1999, pp. 393-400. Ignas Kleden was a lay observer during the 1998 Episcopal Synod for Asia. 15 Sindhunata has published his own version of the puppet hero Semar in his short story Semar Mencari Raga (Semar seeks a body, 1996), but also Mengapa Aku Mencintaimu, Oh Maria (Why I love you, Oh Mary, 1986). 16 Of note is the republication of all the works of Kahlil Gibran in Indonesian that have been on the best seller’s list from mid-1999 until the time of writing (mid-2000). 17 See Larasati (I am Larasati), originally published in 1960, republished in 2000. 18 See Ecclesia in Asia 22.

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SINGOLARITÀ RIVELATIVA DI GESÙ CRISTO E PLURALISMO RELIGIOSO PER UNO STATUS QUAESTIONIS

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1. IL DIALOGO NELL’ORIZZONTE DELLA RIVELAZIONE Alcuni anni or sono, H.R. Schlette esprimeva l’urgenza del confronto tra cristianesimo e religioni non cristiane scrivendo1: «L’interesse per le grandi religioni non cristiane è divenuto più forte nei tempi più recenti. Si conosce sempre più la complessa struttura e la trascendenza dei problemi, e, se le apparenze non ingannano, se ne prenderà maggiore coscienza in futuro. Prima della seconda guerra mondiale, le religioni erano appena oggetto di investigazione da parte di alcuni ierologi, etnologi e missionologi. Se oggi le religioni non cristiane attirano l’attenzione di diverse discipline scientifiche e della stessa opinione pubblica, ne segue, per quel che riguarda il nostro argomento, che anche la teologia e la fede sono obbligate a prendere posizione di fronte alle religioni». Il conflitto interpretativo che l’incontro tra cristianesimo e le altre religioni ha delineato, rappresenta una questione aperta che inerisce non solo a livello di riflessione epistemologica, ma anche nella auto-comprensione del cristianesimo in ordine alla sua capacità e dimensione di universalizzabilità2. Emerge, infatti, l’evidente difficoltà di perimetrare i contorni del problema relazionale, la cui intenzionalità dialogica sembra essere, per il momento, l’unico orizzonte di riferimento possibile sia a livello teoretico sia a livello metodologico, in quanto appella alla possibilità di una comprensione tra le differenti tradizioni religiose in vista di una intelligenza della verità dell’esperienza religiosa nella sua apertura universale. Si tratta, perlomeno, della indicazione di un terminus a quo minimo3, indicativo dell’attuale situazione socio-culturale che chiama il cristianesimo ad una differente autocoscienza della sua particolarità storica. Eppure, la convergenza sulla necessità del dialogo è motivata diversamente e tematizzata con accezioni che lasciano trasparire una molteplicità di posizioni a riguardo. Certo, è condivisibile il fatto che non è più sufficiente una teologia per il dialogo, ma una teologia che del dialogo sappia farne una istanza epistemologica imprescindibile, per giungere, come osserva D. Tracy, ad una teologia in dialogo4, consapevole che «ogni dialogo si istituisce nell’asimmetria, è stabilito, cioè dalla differenza tra i partecipanti»5. E in *

Pontificia Università Urbaniana.

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tale attenzione, una corretta criteriologia dialogica deve basarsi sul rispetto dell’alterità dell’interlocutore nella sua identità, che è sempre identità culturale e religiosa, e su una deontologia della uguaglianza tra i dialoganti. Il rischio, però, laddove non si tenga presente l’improponibilità di un’«unione istituzionale delle religioni»6, è di un appiattimento delle posizioni e di una contaminazione cognitiva, perché chiama in causa presupposti teoretici in ordine alla visione del proprium della religione e ai differenti registri epistemologici. In altre parole, se il dialogo apre alla condivisione di una ricerca e di una reciprocità nell’imparare, nondimeno esso non può essere interpretato senza la convinzione di una identità7, la cui unicità nella comune ricerca della verità e dell’alterità consente un porsi all’interno del dialogo nell’ottica di un’apertura che non può svanire nel sincretismo delle posizioni o nella neutralità super partes delle precomprensioni8. Pertanto, è metodologicamente corretto affermare che «se la verità non è già all’inizio, come fonte e origine di ogni esperienza religiosa, non si può sperare di scoprirla mediante il dialogo o il confronto con gli altri»9. Ora, è proprio l’appello all’autorità originaria e originante della verità che esige una corretta interpretazione della realtà del dialogo che sia in grado di oltrepassare una rigida codificazione del suo statuto, esplorandone i plessi di significato in una adeguata coniugazione tra processo ermeneutico e dimensione ontologico-metafisica10. In tale prospettiva, la possibilità del dialogo non solo tematizza il concetto di verità proprio di ogni religione11 nel loro modo di leggere il reale e di rispondere al problema umano del Senso, ma assume come prospettiva previa la pretesa non contestabile di unicità e assolutezza di ogni religione. Il che potrebbe paradossalmente deporre a sfavore del dialogo, oppure aprirlo alla sua intenzionalità che è quello sia della dinamica di riconoscimento-corresponsabilità nella ricerca della pre-comprensione del senso religioso della vita da cui provengono le differenti religioni, sia della logica teologica propria al servizio di una correlazione critica. Va anche detto, altresì, che proprio l’orizzonte religioso della verità esige una puntualizzazione di quanto caratterizza la religione, e che non è del tutto ovvio che «il vero criterio di un ecumenismo interreligioso deve essere trovato a partire da ciò che definisce l’essenza stessa dell’homo religiosus nel senso di Mircéa Eliade»12. Sostenere, ad esempio, che la contemporanea rivalutazione delle religioni sia direttamente proporzionale alla ridefinizione della categoria rivelazione come prospettiva teo-logica più ampia rispetto al cristianesimo, può risultare vero, anche se appare ancora una quaestio disputata13, anche in rapporto alle religioni orientali che non sono “overtly revelational”14. Non si tratta, evidentemente, di una constatazione che intende negare statuto rivelativo alle altre religioni, né di una ipotesi legata all’idea di una eventuale complementarietà delle dinamiche relative, quanto piuttosto sottolineare che proprio la categoria di rivelazione intenziona la questione della verità di quella singolarità cristologica che modula diversamente l’offerta veritativa del cristianesimo. Scrive B. Forte: «Perciò il cri-

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stianesimo è, resta e resterà, nel suo annuncio puro, pietra d’inciampo, e la sua verità non cesserà di essere veritas indaganda, pane sempre nutriente per la ricerca del pensiero»15. In altri termini, nell’unicità relativa del cristianesimo vi è una inedita coniugazione di particolarità e universalità16, capace di intuire e dare voce al nesso tra il cristianesimo che è «religione “relativamente” assoluta» mentre le altre «sono religioni “assolutamente” relative»17.

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2. TEOLOGIA DELLE RELIGIONI E/O TEOLOGIA DEL PLURALISMO RELIGIOSO? L’indicazione proveniente dall’esigenza del dialogo quale direttrice dell’incontro tra cristianesimo a altre religioni, mostra come gli orizzonti interpretativi con cui esso è pensato, soggiacciono a pre-comprensioni che, sebbene considerate inizialmente adeguate alla ricerca e al confronto, alla fine si sono rivelate tutt’altro che ovvie e condivise. Può essere sufficiente un richiamo essenziale alla vicenda teoretica delle due prospettive che hanno scandito il percorso: la teologia (cristiana) delle religioni18 e la teologia del pluralismo religioso19. Innanzitutto, il richiamo alla necessità e alla non sufficienza di una teologia delle religioni. Le implicazioni che essa esprime non risultano immediatamente condivise, e non tanto per la diversità dei presupposti che governano la teologia protestante e cattolica delle religioni20, quanto, piuttosto, per lo sfondo delle questioni che entrano in gioco nel momento in cui si tenta di precisarne lo statuto epistemologico. Affermare una certa priorità del cristianesimo rispetto alle altre religioni da non leggersi, però, nella linea della sua assolutezza21; sostenere che la legittimità della ricerca religiosa di Dio sia insufficiente, perché compiuta dalla rivelazione cristologica22; concentrare la possibilità del vissuto religioso nella logica dell’esistenziale soprannaturale che rinvia ontologicamente al Cristo23; evidenziare che la religione cristiana sia anticipazione paradigmatica dell’intenzionalità propria di ogni religione, la cui legittimità è ascrivibile alla loro dimensione propedeutica e di abbozzo24; enucleare un percorso metodologico in cui l’ermeneutica teologica «non parte dal presupposto che il cristianesimo è l’unica “vera” religione, e non intende dimostrare la “verità oggettiva” della religione cristiana […] ma interpreta le religioni alla luce degli avvenimenti salvifici realizzati da Dio nella vita di Cristo»25, sono solo alcune ipotesi che hanno espresso il problema fondamentale della teologia delle religioni non cristiane: «quello della pluralità di fatto delle religioni (in rapporto alla pretesa di assolutezza, di insuperabilità e di universalità del cristianesimo; e più radicalmente in rapporto all’esigenza di unità e unicità della Verità e della Parola di Dio)»26. Ma, a ben guardare nell’attuale dibattito, è proprio la sporgenza qualitativa ed escatologica del cristianesimo a creare quelle difficoltà interpretative che si profilano nel passaggio dal genitivo oggettivo a quello soggettivo27, in

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cui le religioni sono soggetto stesso della ricerca, difficilmente comprensibili da una prospettiva teologica che sia capace di assumere il ruolo di metateologia della religiosità umana, come evidenzia W. Cantell Smith28. In altre parole, se le religioni hanno una consistenza propria, la teologia delle religioni è destinata ad un’alternativa teoretica: da un lato, rapportarsi alle religioni non cristiane partendo dalla propria autoconsapevolezza, cosciente, però, della difficoltà di un’analisi delle altre religioni a partire da se stessa; dall’altro, assumere il proprio punto di vista come piattaforma di una «theology “for” religion»29, nell’attenzione ad evitare facili sinossi ermeneutiche e nella problematicità di una decisione sulla minore o maggiore normatività delle religioni30, le quali si presentano come vie di salvezza. Tale impasse sembra essere alla base di uno slittamento teoretico verso una teologia che rifletta sul pluralismo religioso in quanto valore importante e decisivo, non più considerato come evenienza storico-culturale, ma quale conditio sine qua non di un principio che non può non interessare lo stile dell’argomentazione teologica e un modo inedito di essere cristiani nell’era della globalizzazione che dichiara il pluralismo costituzionale delle religioni. Ciò porta J. B. Metz a chiedersi31: «Ma esiste nella molteplicità, riconosciuta irrevocabile, delle religioni e culture un criterio di comprensione che vincoli tutti e, in questo senso, veritiero? Oppure tutto rimane soltanto affidato all’arbitrio del mercato postmoderno? La globalizzazione nel campo delle religioni e delle culture, alla fin fine, conduce forse a una relativizzazione di ogni pretesa di validità, a un molteplice gioco linguistico degli elementi religioso-culturali che, in definitiva, stanno uno di fronte all’altro senza relazione?». Non è senza ragione che all’interno della riflessione del pluralismo religioso i paradigmi interpretativi32 si siano modulati con differenti opzioni, allo scopo di una ottimizzazione delle risorse contenutistiche presenti nella rispettive tradizioni religiose, cercando di dare voce ad un metodo di approccio ellittico sul modello del documento conciliare Gaudium et Spes 4 che parla di ermeneutica della situazione epocale alla luce del Vangelo. Anche se lo slittamento verso l’accentuazione di un pluralismo di principio non sembra sempre rendere ragione della continuità-discontinuità della pluralità delle religioni nella reciprocità relazionale in ordine alla verità dell’uomo e di Dio. Un dato, comunque, è certo: non è facile districarsi nelle ragnatele teoretiche che il pluralismo, quale fenomeno particolarmente ambivalente, disegna sia nei presupposti di riferimento sia negli esiti orientativi che, incidendo nel quotidiano, destrutturano i sistemi di riferimento della nostra tradizione. Le ipotesi, a riguardo, mostrano una certa riluttanza ad una riduzione interpretativa, anche se sembrano trovare nella Stimmung post-moderna del pluralismo33 un punto di incontro, seppure, a nostro avviso, secondo la logica tipica della pars destruens. La motivazione può essere trovata nella estrema fluidità del concetto, oltreché nella instabilità di punti di riferimento che il prefisso post intende segnalare. Senza entrare nel merito

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della questione, si può condividere quanto scrive A. Molinaro34: «Tale differenza compare nel “post” che accompagna la parola “moderno”: il “post” è la differenza rispetto al moderno. Non ha molta importanza se con quel “post” si intenda un “super” – “anti”-moderno. Decisivo è il fatto che, sottolineando la differenza, il postmoderno mira a dichiarare – e a sostenere – che anche il moderno è una figura, dunque una condizione, e che il passaggio dal moderno al postmoderno è il passaggio da una condizione a un’altra condizione. Con questa dichiarazione il postmoderno compie due operazioni: esibisce la sua interpretazione del moderno e, insieme, misura la propria distanza ad esso o, come piace dire, si congeda da esso». In altre parole, la post-modernità diviene espressione di una metamorfosi e di un messianismo che annuncia la buona notizia della trasformazione del reale attraverso il pluralismo e la molteplicità. È proprio il principio della molteplicità ad affermare che l’esistenza non possiede più un centro unitario, né punti di riferimento costanti. Si è, cioè, nei territori del politeismo, in cui coesistono una pluralità di immagini del mondo, di informazioni, di opinioni, di forme di vita che non accettano riduzionismi in nome di qualche principio o valore assoluto. In tale situazione, il teorema dell’individualismo è il sintomo del prospettivismo interpretativo che percepisce qualsiasi verità come espressione del monoteismo della ragione, teso a ingabbiare la vita nella pretesa conoscitiva dell’adaequatio. Sintomatico è quanto scrive D. Miller35: «Abbiamo patito la morte di Dio. Ma, passate le prime ombre della disperazione, scopriamo una nuova opportunità proveniente dalla perdita di un centro singolo che teneva insieme il tutto. La morte di Dio è stata in effetti il decesso di un modo monoteistico di pensare e parlare di Dio e, in genere, di un modo monoteistico di pensare e parlare del significato e dell’essere umano in genere… Una volta liberato dal tirannico imperialismo del monoteismo a causa della morte di Dio, l’essere umano ha la possibilità di riscoprire nuove dimensioni nascoste nella profondità della Storia». Di fronte alla polivalenza della realtà in cui convivono un pluralità di principi tra loro irriducibili, emerge la riabilitazione del sacro, spesso anonimo, vissuto come metafora di una liberazione esistenziale, in cui la seduzione neo-pagana sembra confondere i livelli dell’esperienza religiosa e favorire il sincretismo delle stesse tradizioni religiose. Certo, è innegabile il fatto che il pluralismo appartenga alla humana conditio e ne detti le condizioni del suo esercizio, soprattutto in ordine ad una costante rivisitazione della propria identità. La coscienza che la cultura moderna e occidentale si sia costruita, prevalentemente, sui paradigmi di una identità chiusa e sulle peregrinazioni dell’Io, nel riferimento al modello antropologico dell’Ulisse omerico, è una indicazione condivisa, soprattutto laddove è stato completamente dimenticato l’altro polo dell’eredità occidentale, individuabile nella figura di Abramo. Ciò ha condotto ad una privatizzazione della esperienza religiosa e a una sua scarsa incidenza nella determinazione culturale dell’esistenza, pur non concludendo ad una diluizione dei significati operanti al-

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l’interno delle tradizioni religiose. Ma la seduzione pericolosa del pluralismo espressione della metamorfosi della post-modernità è quella di una enfasi totalizzante della cultura quale criterio ultimo di discernimento, nel quale l’individuo si trova a sovradeterminare se stesso, con l’esito di una «coesistenza di differenti campi di credenze e visioni del mondo nello stesso individuo»36. È difficile, paradossalmente, sostenere l’idea di una unicità e identità, da non intendersi nella logica della intolleranza o della esclusività rigida. Ne è indizio interessante da interpretare, il modello dell’epistemologia olistica che sembra tradurre in chiave occidentale il pensiero orientale, in particolare secondo la logica buddista della relatività di ogni dato fenomenico e del mondo quale spazio per una coniugazione sempre nuova della trascendenza37. Il passo ad una configurazione del pluralismo religioso come meta-ideologia non è una mera possibilità, con la conseguenza che, mentre si afferma la importanza del dialogo, di fatto lo si svilisce nella pretesa di rimozione delle rispettive identità, criticando come anacronistica la pretesa di dialogo secondo canoni occidentali di pensiero. «Il dibattito – scrive F. Wilfred – che gira attorno alla questione è principalmente un dibattito di fazioni occidentali. Tale linguaggio […] ha i suoi presupposti e il suo retroterra epistemologico, e non è detto che possa essere portato ad altre aree culturali. […] A partire dalla prospettiva, dalla tradizione e dal quadro di riferimento indiani, non emerge l’esigenza di adoperare il linguaggio dell’unicità»38. Pur riconoscendo la legittimità di alcune osservazioni, non è del tutto vero che il linguaggio dell’unicità tradisce un approccio teoretico unilaterale e che, comunque, non sia in grado di sostenere il dialogo. È questa la tesi, infatti, che sostengono coloro per i quali il pluralismo sembra attenuare il senso delle differenze religiose39, nel momento in cui non vengono messi a tema i presupposti della possibilità di una autentica relazione tra le religioni e della comprensione della verità dell’esperienza religiosa nella sua dimensione universale. Essa potrebbe portare ad una strategica neutralità argomentativa, in cui la conversazione assume lo stile dell’intercambiabilità di tutti i valori e la differenza delle religioni deve adeguarsi al paradigma del pluralismo, secondo «l’ethos della panfilia»40. L’oscillare tra un patteggiamento conoscitivo e una «contaminazione cognitiva»41 sembrerebbe sancire gli esiti relativistici del pluralismo religioso, inconsapevole assertore di uno scetticismo linguistico che affonda le sue radici nella sostanziale non oggettivabilità della trascendenza42. 3. IL CRISTIANESIMO TRA LE RELIGIONI, OVVERO IL PARADOSSO DEL CRISTIANESIMO IN QUANTO RELIGIONE La questione se il cristianesimo sia una religione43 può apparire retorica o, comunque, condannata all’aporia argomentativa, soprattutto se ci si ferma ad una interpretazione riduttiva della teologia dialettica che ha messo in

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gioco la necessità di una più adeguata comprensione del fenomeno religioso nella sua globalità44. Non è così, però, se la medesima questione intende segnalare l’esigenza teologica di una lettura più attenta a quanto caratterizza il dato religioso45, lettura che non presuma un automatismo nell’attribuire al cristianesimo l’accezione di religione secondo uno schema di genere e di specie. Perché è necessaria una concezione teologica della religione, e non si possa ritenere sufficiente una sua delineazione fenomenologica? È indifferente all’analisi del problema il fatto che l’aggettivo teologico aggiunga alla dimensione sostantiva della religione il verso cui essa si indirizza? In altre parole, il concetto teologico di religione quale destinazione-relazione salvifica a Dio esprime qualcosa di più rispetto alla convinzione che la religione è dimensione strutturale dell’uomo, perché riformula il vissuto religioso secondo la forma cristologica. Tale preoccupazione teoretica e metodologica è riemersa nella reinassance del problema dell’essenza del cristianesimo46, nella quale si intuisce l’attrito nei confronti di una definizione di religione che sia o sbilanciata teocentricamente (assumendo questo termine secondo un’accezione generica che l’epistemologia del pluralismo religioso predilige, anche se ciò favorisce una sorta di agnosticismo trascendentale47 o di apofatismo metodologico48), o ripiegata soltanto in una intenzionalità antropologica. Si chiede P. Hünermann: «Che cosa ha in comune l’essenza del cristianesimo con quella delle religioni? L’essenza del cristianesimo non è qualcosa di incomprensibile, del tutto specifico?»49. La questione, allora, non è tanto distinguere tra religione e fede, ambiti questi che sono strettamente connessi al referente antropologico, la cui esperienza religiosa costituisce una base determinante per la stessa fenomenologia ermeneutica della religione che considera l’orizzonte e la grammatica antropologica necessaria per definire la religione quale configurazione simbolica rinviante ad un’Alterità non disponibile all’uomo. L’elemento discriminante sta, eventualmente, nel verificare se la tesi della precedenza implicita della esperienza religiosa tout court rispetto alla fede cristologica sia praticabile fino in fondo, o se invece sia più produttiva l’ipotesi che la fede cristiana rappresenti una modulazione differente della stessa esperienza religiosa e della conseguente autocomprensione della religione, non più intesa nella logica della esplicitazione o della continuità. La configurazione cristologica della religione conduce, allora, alla necessità di ridire la stessa esperienza religiosa, poiché la risemantizza collocandola in una intenzionalità50 inedita rispetto alla concezione di Dio e dell’uomo. Il profilo di tale ipotesi è osservabile anche se confrontata con l’impresa ermeneutica di delineare il quid della esperienza religiosa contrassegnata da una certa ambiguità51. Non è senza ragione il fatto che alcuni studiosi preferiscano l’uso di categorie, quali Trascendenza, Ulteriorità, Mistero, riposta al Senso, ritenute più pertinenti ad esprimere l’azione della Realtà Ultima52 che irrompe nella vita, chiamando la preteoreticità del vissuto a modulare diversamente quella modalità globale di interpretare e vivere la vita che la feno-

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menologia classica individuava nella ricchezza ontologica del Sacro. Ciò non toglie, però, il fatto che simili categorie urtano con la difficoltà di delineare un orizzonte comune o un ‘minimo comune denominatore’ capace di rendere ragione del proprium della religione, che risulta messo in questione proprio nella tematizzazione delle differenze che scaturiscono dalla storia, dal contesto e dall’interpretazione culturale53, a meno che non si preferisca, come fa R. Panikkar54, usare la nozione di omeomorfismo che reputa problematico il confronto se non a livello di semplici correlazioni: «Bisogna parimenti precisare che un omeomorfismo non è identico a una analogia, benché siano legati l’uno all’altra. L’omeomorfismo non significa che le due nozioni sono analoghe, cioè in parte simili e in parte differenti, perché questo implicherebbe che ambedue partecipano a un tertium quid che serve di base all’analogia. L’omeomorfismo significa piuttosto che le nozioni giocano ruoli equivalenti, che assolvono equivalenti funzioni all’interno dei loro rispettivi sistemi. L’omeomorfismo è probabilmente una sorta di analogia funzionale-esistenziale». Pertanto, a fronte della complessità della categoria religione, l’opzione di intenderla nella sua dimensione analogica ha il vantaggio di indicare un’apertura, una “rottura di livello”55 che si presenta davvero come ganz anderes rispetto ai registri ermeneutici con cui si codifica il vissuto; un totalmente altro, però, che non è affatto omologabile ma si esplicita nelle differenze di senso, che, sebbene dicano che la religione sia un invariabile umano, al tempo stesso richiamano l’esigenza e il beneficio di una comparazione più attenta56. In tale prospettiva, non è segno di una assolutezza sprezzante affermare che la connotazione cristologica della religione operi un reale déplacement rispetto all’universo religioso e alla sua struttura simbolica, pur conservandone alcuni caratteri di fondo. E in particolare, il cristianesimo si caratterizza per essere una religione dell’alterità e della interruzione, in quanto annuncia la differenza ontologica di Dio come il problema della salvezza per ogni uomo, domanda in grado di spiazzare qualsiasi tentativo di racchiudere Dio e l’uomo entro schemi precostituiti. La fede è, allora, un’alterità che urta la spontaneità religiosa dell’uomo perché lo chiama a divenire soggetto libero davanti a Dio e alle molteplici condizioni storiche nelle quali vive. In tal modo, sottopone la stessa esperienza religiosa ad una conversione radicale in grado di essere memoria critica contro l’amnesia culturale nei riguardi dell’amore, della solidarietà con le storie della sofferenza e della responsabilità. Da questa prospettiva, è possibile individuare nel cristianesimo una diversità di significato nella figura d’uomo che prospetta, in relazione alla figura, come scrive S. Dianich57, «dell’uomo delle grandi tradizioni culturali e religiose dell’Asia, il quale cerca la sua liberazione non tanto nella valorizzazione di sé come di un soggetto libero e padrone di sé di fronte a Dio e dentro la storia degli uomini, quanto piuttosto attraverso la sua immersione nella totalità del cosmo, la compassione del dolore di ogni creatura, la accettazione della propria sorte come strumento di purificazione da peccati commessi in altre plaghe e in altre vite».

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Sulla base di tali indicazioni, ciò che lascia perplessi è proprio la rinuncia alla singolarità cristologica in un pluralismo unitivo58 che preferisce oscillare tra il Deus revelatus e il Deus absconditus senza esporsi alla paradossalità della incarnazione quale luogo di una dialettica inedita e particolare tra il revelatus e l’absconditus. Indicativo quanto scrive P. Knitter: «Mentre infatti si riconosce che il Deus sempre major non può essere mai contenuto in una forma finita e particolare, si riconosce anche che il Dio universale non può essere incontrato veramente se non in una forma particolare»59. Che ne è dello scandalo dell’incarnazione? In che modo l’incontro può risultare tale se è la particolarità il punto di attrito per il riconoscimento di Dio? Sembra, che agisca, in obliquo, una sorta di petitio principii secondo la quale il modus revelandi di Dio è possibile per principio per ogni religione, ma di fatto non lo è, se non a certe condizioni, nella singolarità storica dell’evento cristologico, nel momento in cui lo si differenzia dalla azione del Logos a motivo della sua realtà storica. Tant’è vero che la singolarità cristologica è affermata nella storicità della vicenda di Gesù, ma diluita nella dimensione meta-storica e culturale attraverso il ricorso alla sua funzione simbolica, come annota E. Schillebeeckx60: «Per questo diventa allora chiaro che (sulla base delle parabole e della prassi del regno di Dio) il Dio di Gesù è un simbolo dell’apertura, non della chiusura. Con ciò è data una relazione positiva del cristianesimo con le altre religioni, insieme però ad una salvaguardia della singolarità del cristianesimo, e infine ciò corrisponde anche ad un leale e cristiano consenso alla positività delle altre religioni mondiali». In altre parole, mentre si afferma la particolarità di Gesù, al tempo stesso si delineano ermeneutiche inclini a de-centrarne e de-assolutizzarne61 l’unicità, attraverso la distinzione tra l’unicità-in-sé e la singolarità-per-me62, proprio in relazione allo specifico della sua mediazione: particolarizzare l’universale per rioffrirlo nella singolarità rivelativa63. Gesù Cristo rivela Dio proprio perché assume la storia percorrendo lui stesso la strada che separa l’uomo da Dio, in una concretezza che scandalizza, perché Gesù è l’evento unico e l’assoluto dell’evento che ha operato una svolta irreversibile nella storia umana. L’uomo nel porsi in ascolto e visione di «un Dio che non è “teocentrico” neppure con il pretesto della salvezza dell’uomo, e un uomo che non è “antropocentrico” neppure con il pretesto della rappresentanza assoluta di Dio»64 non ha altra possibilità che di affidarsi al movimento della rivelazione cristologica che, nella inoltrepassabilità escatologica della sua realtà65, segna lo scarto qualitativo tra la proposta di Dio e la risposta dell’uomo 4. LA PROVOCAZIONE A PENSARE DELLA SINGOLARITÀ DI GESÙ Una delle attenzioni più rilevanti nel panorama attuale degli studi cristologici è la riscoperta della centralità paradossale della kénosis, in particolare nella profondità della riflessione paolina di Fil 2,6-1166, non solo in relazio-

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ne al riferimento pneumatologico e trinitario67, ma anche quale espressione di una fenomenologia teologica68 configurantesi nella singolarità unica di Gesù Cristo. Tale riscoperta si lega alla ritematizzazione della questione relativa all’identità di Gesù, a partire da una ricomprensione della dimensione prepasquale rispetto al momento pasquale considerato tappa di maturazione della riflessione cristologica. Al di là degli esiti della Third Quest sulla storicità dei vangeli69, il cui merito è stato quello di sottolineare la necessaria contestualizzazione storica dell’origine e sviluppo della cristologia neotestamentaria oltre alla affermazione che «poiché il discorso sulla persona e l’opera di Gesù Cristo non possono essere separati da Gesù di Nazaret, le concezioni teologiche devono trovare corrispondenza nel Gesù storico»70, si pone la questione se il principio strutturante l’unità del Nuovo Testamento non vada rintracciato nell’equilibrio dell’appoccio gesuologico con quello cristologico71, in cui la memoria Jesu costituisce l’orizzonte eccedente l’esperienza delle prime comunità cristiane, un di più rispetto ad una semplice funzione regolativa e indicativa. È vero: il rinvio alla storia di Gesù non autorizza ad una distanza dal kerygma condensato nelle confessioni di fede; ma è altrettanto vero che l’accento sul momento prepasquale della vicenda di Gesù chiama in causa l’intenzionalità sottesa all’esperienza dei discepoli e al loro itinerarium mentis quale configurazione anticipata di una identità72 che solo nella Pasqua trova la sua collocazione definitiva. Nella prospettiva di questo recupero, la questione della fede di Gesù73 acquista valore significativo per la comprensione della sua singolarità, perché rinvia alla particolare lettura che Gesù stesso inaugura della sua persona. Certo, ad un livello di riflessione teologica l’affermazione della fede di Gesù esige una revisione di alcuni presupposti epistemologici, soprattutto quelli legati ad una riflessione sulla fede misurata da un’«antropologia delle facoltà (intelligenza e volontà), tipica della scolastica e da una epistemologia propria della visione moderna di un sapere della fede come un saper oscuro che sta oltre le possibilità della ragione, concepita come autoevidenza certa»74. Nondimeno, però, essa rimanda ad una ermeneutica più ampia da rintracciarsi nella sequela dei discepoli75 che, pur nella provvisorietà e progressività, esprime la novità non autofondata della fede, ma costruita durante la relazione storica con la singolarità della persona di Gesù che favorisce il riconoscimento del Risorto. È proprio la qualità rivelativa della prassi e della predicazione profetica76 di Gesù, condensata nel legame tra annuncio del Regno ed esperienza dell’Abbà, a sorprendere, inaugurando un ontologia inedita del credere, la convenzionale credibilità religiosa del suo tempo e la stessa pensabilità teo-logica. L’istanza, allora, della ripresa della fenomenologia teologica della storia di Gesù, o, se si vuole, della sua singolarità, sta nella rimodulazione della verità storica e ontologica dell’evento cristologico dell’incarnazione che esprime l’identità di Dio nella realtà del Figlio, così come mostra l’identità dell’uomo nella concretezza della persona di Gesù.

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In tale contesto, si comprende perché è la rivelazione cristologica a sorprendere l’uomo nei suoi tentativi di autocomprensione e autolegittimazione, dispiegando una «dismisura di verità salvifica e di salvezza veritativa»77. Lo straordinario della verità di Gesù Cristo per l’uomo sta proprio nella trascrizione storica del Noi trinitario di Dio (cf. Gv 10,30; 17,21-22), di quell’Unità in sé che è reciprocità dello stare-di-fronte e ontologia della relazione. La divinità e l’umanità di Gesù Cristo che va compresa a partire dalla relazione al Padre, principio personale dell’Alterità78, e con lo Spirito, epifania dell’apertura e dell’estasi79, indica nell’evento pasquale il modello di un’antropologia la cui unicità sta nel principio della kénosis quale dono totale di sé. Nella forma storica della sua pro-esistenza80 emerge, allora, il modello di una esistenza filiale in cui l’autocomprensione di sé da parte di Gesù, si inscrive nell’essere dono del Padre e risposta donante, in una gratuità oltrepassante lo stesso paradigma della reciprocità. «Per questo, la relazione di reciprocità della persona filiale di Gesù non si chiude nella circolarità di una risposta puramente simmetrica di amore al Padre, ma si apre ulteriormente nello Pneuma al dono di sé all’altro (pro-esistenza) in quanto diverso da sé (uomo-mondo)»81. È nell’evento cristologico che si fa strada la verità dell’ontologia della carità quale condizione per il dis-velamento della centralità dell’uomo come persona, in cui la relazione non è fragile e aporetica tensione dell’io, ma riconoscimento del proprio essere nella riconduzione-donazione fatta ad/da altri, come mostra il paradigma del farsi prossimo secondo la parabola del buon samaritano (cf. Lc 10,25-37). In ciò, Gesù Cristo è l’uomo perfetto nella sua esemplarità, una perfezione che si coglie nell’esistere-per-gli-altri e nell’amore come logica ultima e definitiva della vita. Per questo «chiunque segue Cristo, l’uomo perfetto, si fa pure più uomo» (GS 41)82, uomo contrassegnato dall’amore trinitario. Ciò, allora, indica la paradossalità dell’incarnazione come luogo per pensare l’unicità di Gesù Cristo, la cui storicità investe la stessa realtà di Dio e non autorizza ad attenuare lo scandalo della Parola fatta carne. Annota K. J. Kuschel83: «Ne consegue per l’oggi che nessuna affermazione sulla “preesistenza” di Cristo può trascurare la figura del Gesù storico. […] Non esiste alcuna frattura tra la figura del “Figlio eterno” e quella del Nazareno storico, pena una mitologizzazione. La professione di fede nel “Figlio eterno” non deve riguardare nessun altro che Gesù di Nazaret, crocifisso e risorto. Per l’intero Nuovo Testamento vale, di conseguenza, il discorso che non sono gli enunciati sulla preesistenza a interpretare, in primo luogo, il Gesù storico concreto, ma viceversa». 5. TRA VANGELO E CULTURA: UNA CONCLUSIONE APERTA Nella questione del rapporto tra singolarità rivelativa e pluralismo religioso è emerso come presupposto irrinunciabile l’acquisizione teologica della singolarità di Gesù Cristo che semantizza in modo inedito la dimensione

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particolare del cristianesimo e la sua pertinenza ad ogni cultura e religione, nella prospettiva di una universabilità della verità rivelata. È evidente che il cristianesimo è chiamato a prendere sul serio la portata salvifica delle altre religioni, senza rimettere in questione l’universalità e la unicità della salvezza in Gesù Cristo, ma nell’approfondimento del paradosso del cristianesimo come universale concreto nel segno della kénosis, nella quale la singolarità di Gesù Cristo diventa apertura trinitaria di Dio nella storia oltre i moduli di un teocentrismo indeterminato. In tal senso, la singolarità dell’avvenimento cristologico esibisce la sua verità universale perché dischiude all’uomo il mistero del Padre e il mistero della sua esistenza. Gesù Cristo è la forma storica della rivelazione, mediazione immediata che non elimina il Mistero, ma lo rende evidente per l’esistenza dell’uomo, perché l’evento Gesù viene accolto «come l’apparizione di una profondità divina che sorpassa ogni natura mondana»84. Ne consegue che il dialogo interreligioso e la missione evangelizzatrice della Chiesa esercitano una tensione creativa che scaturisce dall’esigenza di riproporre l’interrogativo che Gesù pose ai suoi discepoli: «Chi dite che io sia?» (Mt 16,15), per scoprire nella forma dell’agape come dono totale, uno stile di un’inculturazione della fede85 che pone in correlazione, talora critica, la realtà del messaggio cristiano e le realtà delle tradizioni religiose. L’evento Gesù Cristo trascende dialogicamente la pluralità degli universi religiosi, indirizzandoli ad una trasfigurazione delle proprie ricchezze spirituali ed etiche. Entro l’orizzonte di una cristologia relazionale, manifestata pienamente e definitivamente nel mysterium paschale, il criterio per verificare la dicibilità e la pertinenza del mistero di Cristo alle culture stesse86, è l’excessus di pretesa avanzata da Gesù Cristo che si è autopresentato come la stessa verità (cf. Gv 14,6). «La Verità, che è Cristo, – scrive la dichiarazione Dominus Jesus – s’impone come autorità universale. Il mistero cristiano, infatti, supera ogni barriera di tempo e di spazio e realizza l’unità della famiglia umana» (n. 23). Al tempo stesso, però, affermare l’alterità e la trans-culturalità del Vangelo87 significa delineare un processo di inculturazione della fede nella accoglienza di modelli e paradigmi delle culture entro cui si inserisce, anche se nella prospettiva di aprire domande e di mettere in moto un processo di salvezza già in atto, nell’attenzione alla humana conditio, con le sue aspirazioni, attese, sofferenze. Nel messaggio evangelico c’è un potenziale unico di umanizzazione che dona alla Chiesa la pretesa di proporre un modello alternativo che rende la terra più abitabile e la comunità umana più conviviale. Nella testimonianza del Vangelo, la comunità cristiana può esercitare un ruolo di contro-cultura, di riserva escatologica nei riguardi di una palese disumanizzazione dell’uomo e indirizzare un avvertimento profetico dinanzi agli squilibri della ingiustizia del mercato globale. Ciò è possibile, però, solo nella confessione narrante dell’esperienza storica di Gesù che, nella prassi e nella predicazione, ha mostrato un’eccedenza di senso rispetto ad altri

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progetti: un’eccedenza esclusiva, perché non è omologabile ad altre figure di salvezza; inclusiva, in quanto si pone come centro e pienezza di quei cammini di verità che parlano della dignità dell’uomo. L’evento dell’incarnazione, in definitiva, apre il dialogo alla necessità di cogliere i segni dello Spirito presenti nelle differenti tradizione religiose entro l’orizzonte trinitario in cui riluce la singolarità/universalità di Gesù Cristo. Scrive G. Greshake88: «Il dialogo autentico appartiene sostanzialmente alla posizione dell’inclusivismo. Si tratta di imparare dalle altre religioni, con il fine che la verità che il cristianesimo sostiene, la verità in persona, Gesù Cristo, diventi ciò che già è ovvero il “capo” dell’intera creazione, dal quale tutto il resto viene riassunto e tenuto insieme. Viceversa, le religioni, che da parte di Dio sono e devono essere vie verso l’unità, vanno condotte fuori dal loro particolarismo, verso un’unità complessiva, che tutto integra».

Note 1

H.R. SCHLETTE, Il confronto con le religioni, Brescia 1966, p. 51. Cf. anche J. RAT“Der Christlische Glaube und die Weltreligionen”, in H. VORGRIMLER (hsg.), Gott in Welt. Festgabe für Karl Rahner, II, Freiburg-Basel-Wien 1964, pp. 287-305. Per quanto concerne l’incidenza della questione nella riflessione teologico-magisteriale e missiologica cf. F. ARINZE, Le religioni nel mondo. Una sfida alla teologia, in “Rassegna di Teologia”, 38(1997), pp. 725-734; M.L. FITZGERALD, Dialogo interreligioso: una riflessione teologica, in “Ho theológos”, 16(1998), pp. 3-19; J. TOMKO, La missione verso il Terzo Millennio attualità, fondamenti, prospettive, Città del Vaticano 1998; S. KAROTEMPREL, “Chiesa e missione oggi”, in COMITATO CENTRALE DEL GRANDE GIUBILEO DELL’ANNO 2000, Il Concilio Vaticano II. Recezione e attualità alla luce del Giubileo, a cura di R. Fisichella, Cinisello Balsamo 2000, pp. 294-317. 2 Sulla problematica dell’universalità le posizioni si differenziano: cf. A. GANOCZY, Pretesa di assolutezza: fondamento oppure ostacolo per l’evangelizzazione?, in “Concilium”, 14(1978), pp. 44-56; A. PIERIS, Universality of Christianity, in “Vidyajyoti”, 57(1993), pp. 591-595 e le annotazioni di A. FABRIS, “La categoria di religione in un contesto pluralistico”, in G. LORIZIO (a cura di), Religione e Religioni. Metodologia e prospettive ermeneutiche, Padova 1998, pp. 123-136. 3 Circa l’importanza del dialogo come orizzonte determinante si veda: SEGRETARIATO PER I NON CRISTIANI, Guida al dialogo con le religioni, Brescia 1968; M. ZAGO, Il dialogo inter-religioso a 20 anni dal Concilio, Casale Monferrato 1986; R.B. SHEARD, Interreligiosus Dialogue in the Catholic Church since Vatican II: An Historical and Theological Study, New York, 1987; F. GIOIA (a cura di), Il dialogo interreligioso nel magistero pontificio, (Documenti 1963-1993), Città del Vaticano 1994; M. DHAVAMONY, The Christian Theology of intrreligious dialogue, in “Studia Missionalia”, 43(1994), pp. 61-93; J.C. BASSET, Le dialogue interreligieux. Histoire et avenir, Paris 1996; J. DUPUIS, Verso una teologia cristiana del pluralismo religioso, Brescia 19982, pp. 481-516; A. CAMPS, Interreligious Dialogue: A Task with many challenger, in “Studies in Interreligious Dialogue”, 10(2000), pp. 166-174. 4 D. TRACY, Dialogue with the Other. The Interreligious Dialogue, Louvain 1990. 5 M. BARNES, Theology of Religions in a Post-Modern World, in “The Month”, 28(1994), p. 273. 6 W. PANNENBERG, Le religioni nella prospettiva della teologia cristiana e l’autocomprensione del cristianesimo nel suo rapporto con le religioni esterne alla chiesa, in “FiloZINGER,

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sofia e Teologia”, 6(1992), p. 26. Nel suo articolo (pp. 25-37), l’Autore pone tre interrogativi decisivi per lo sviluppo della questione: se la fede cristiana ha a che fare con la stessa realtà divina cui fanno riferimento le altre religioni; se la teologia cristiana può riconoscere nelle altre religioni una proposta di salvezza simile a quella del cristianesimo; se i cristiani possono trarre insegnamenti per la loro conoscenza della realtà di Dio nell’incontro con le altre tradizioni religiose. La risposta è nella posizione unica dell’evento cristologico. 7 Si veda quanto afferma C. GEFFRÉ, La singolarità del cristianesimo nell’età del pluralismo religioso, in “Filosofia e Teologia”, 6(1992), p. 43: «Il compito difficile e inedito di una ermeneutica del dialogo interreligioso è dunque di cercare di pensare la pluralità insuperabile delle vie verso Dio senza svendere la singolarità cristiana». 8 Sembra essere quest’ultima la posizione di R. PANIKKAR, Il dialogo intrareligioso, Assisi 1988, p. 58; pp. 130-133. 9 A. RUSSO, “Religione e fede. La fondazione veritativa secondo il modello ermeneutico, in risposta a Mario Antonelli”, in ASSOCIAZIONE TEOLOGICA ITALIANA, Cristianesimo, religione, religioni. Unità e pluralismo dell’esperienza di Dio alle soglie del terzo millennio, a cura di M. ALIOTTA, Cinisello Balsamo 1999, p. 136. 10 È quanto sottolinea M. BORDONI, Verità e dialogo interreligioso, in COMITATO CENTRALE DEL GRANDE GIUBILEO DELL’ANNO 2000, Il Concilio Vaticano II, pp. 683-689. 11 Può essere utile, in sede di analisi, quanto scrive H. KÜNG, Per una teologia ecumenica delle religioni. Tesi di chiarimento, in “Concilium” 22 (1986) pp. 156-165 e in modo più esteso in “Esiste l’unica religione vera? Saggio di criteriologia ecumenica”, in ID., Teologia in cammino. Un’autobiografia spirituale, Milano 1987, pp. 255-286. Circa la questione della verità delle religioni, evidenzia quattro impostazioni insufficienti (pp. 156-157; pp. 258-266): la posizione ateistica, per cui nessuno religione è vera o tutte le religioni sono false; la posizione assolutista, che sostiene la verità di una sola religione; la posizione relativistica, per la quale ogni religione è vera e tutte le religioni sono ugualmente vere; la posizione inclusivistica, secondo cui una sola religione è vera e le altre partecipano della verità dell’unica religione. È evidente la delicatezza della questione di un criterio della verità, che non può fermarsi a posizioni di indifferentismo, relativismo e sincretismo. Pur nella convinzione che l’unica vera religione è quella cristiana (Esiste l’unica religione vera?, pp. 284-286), la quale «non esclude affatto la verità delle altre religioni, ma la valorizza positivamente» (p. 285), l’Autore propone come criterio etico universale l’umano e come criterio religioso universale l’origine o il canonico di ogni religione. Importanti interrogativi in H. WALDENFELS, “Il cristianesimo nella disputa delle religioni intorno alla verità”, in W. KERN, H.J. POTTMEYER, M. SECKLER (a cura di), Corso di Teologia Fondamentale, II: Trattato sulla Rivelazione, Brescia 1990, pp. 284-313. 12 C. GEFFRÉ, La singolarità del cristianesimo, cit., p. 46. 13 È opportuno segnalare come la rilevanza analogica del concetto di rivelazione secondo un’analisi fenomenologica (COMMISSIONE TEOLOGICA INTERNAZIONALE, Il cristianesimo e le religioni, Città del Vaticano 1997, n. 88) rinvia alla necessità di una ermeneutica più avvertita della categoria di rivelazione, come evidenzia l’Editoriale, “Si può parlare di “rivelazione” nelle religioni non cristiane?”, in Il dialogo tra le religioni. Gli editoriali della Civiltà Cattolica, Torino-Roma 1996, pp. 81-94. Risulta, infatti, una molteplicità e diversità di livelli contenutistici tali da non autorizzare una semplicistica comparazione, che renderebbe così esteso il concetto da ridurlo ad un orizzonte vuoto. Si vedano indicativamente: M. HEINRICHS, Théologie catholique et pensée asiatique, Tornai 1965, pp. 69-110; P. ROSSANO, Fede e rivelazione nei non cristiani, in “Studi francescani”, 68(1971), pp. 337-350, ora riprodotto in ID., Dialogo e annuncio cristiano. L’incontro con le grandi religioni, Cinisello Balsamo 1993, pp. 165-176 (per una lettura del ruolo e della riflessione di P. Rossano cfr. P. SELVADAGI, “Il problema teologico delle religioni in Pietro Rossano”, in ID., Cristianesimo e religioni. Saggi teologici, Roma 1998, pp. 117-169); A. DULLES, Models of revelation, New York 1982, pp. 174-192; A. RUSSO, Ri-

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velazione e rivelazioni nel contesto delle religioni mondiali, in “Asprenas”, 39(1992) pp. 5-34; C. SKALICKY, “La rivelazione nelle religioni non cristiane: un saggio di fenomenologia della rivelazione”, in R. PENNA (a cura di), Vangelo Religioni Cultura. Miscellanea di studi in memoria di mons. Pietro Rossano, Cinisello Balsamo 1993, pp. 150-188; G. D’COSTA, Revelation and Revelations. Discerning God in Other Religions. Beyond a Static Valuation, in “Modern Theology”, 10(1994), pp. 165-183; K. WARD, Religion and Revelation, Oxford 1994, pp. 50-282; J. PARRATT, Reinventing Christianity. African Theology Today, Grand Rapids-Cambridge 1995, pp. 64-76; L. BACCARI, La rivelazione nelle religioni, Roma 1996; C. GRECO, Rivelazione, Chiesa e Religioni, in Universalità del Cristianesimo. In dialogo con Jacques Dupuis, a cura di M. FARRUGIA, Cinisello Balsamo 1996, pp. 149-165; A.N. TERRIN, “La sapienza nell’induismo e nel buddismo”, in M. MILANI (a cura di), La via “sapienziale” e il dialogo interreligioso. Rischio e tensioni tra la singolarità della Rivelazione e la sua universalizzazione, Bologna 1997, pp. 105-120; H. WALDENFELS, “La Rivelazione cristiana e le altre religioni”, in R. FISICHELLA (a cura di), La Teologia Fondamentale. Convergenze per il terzo millennio, Casale Monferrato 1997, pp. 225-242; F. CONESA, “La relación entre la revelación cristiana y las religiones”, in C. IZQUIERDO (a cura di), Teología Fundamental. Temas y propuestas para el nuevo milenio, Bilbao 1999, pp. 181-245; J. MORALES, Revelación y Religiones, in “Scripta Theologica”, 33(2000), pp. 57-74. 14 R.E. WHITSON, The Coming Convergence of World Religions, New York 1971, p. 145. 15 B. FORTE, “Verità-Rivelazione-Pluralismo: religioni in dialogo”, in G. LORIZIO (a cura di), Religione e Religioni, p. 204. 16 Cf. D. TRACY, Rivelazione ed esperienza: particolarità e universalità della rivelazione cristiana, in “Concilium”, 14(1978), pp. 157-171; G. COLZANI, Gesù Cristo salvatore di tutti. Punti fermi. Problemi aperti, in E. COMBI (a cura di), Salvezza universale e salvezza in Cristo, Cinisello Balsamo 1994, pp. 128-158; C. GRECO, “Particolarità e universalità della rivelazione cristiana”, in ASSOCIAZIONE TEOLOGICA ITALIANA, La teologia della rivelazione, a cura di D. VALENTINI, Padova 1996, pp. 107-155. Si tenga presente che è questa, in prima istanza, la tensione insita nella pluralità delle religioni, come annota M. PAGANO, Filosofia e teologia di fronte alla sfida del pluralismo, in “Filosofia e Teologia”, 6(1992), pp. 3-12. 17 A. TORRES QUEIRUGA, La rivelazione di Dio nella realizzazione dell’uomo, Roma 1991, p. 394. 18 La bibliografia in proposito è piuttosto ampia. Diamo, pertanto, alcune indicazioni utili per ulteriori approfondimenti: L. ARTIGAS, “Teologia della religione”, in C. CANTONE (a cura di), Le scienze della religione oggi, Roma 1978, pp. 225-296; P. ROSSANO, “Teologia e religioni: un problema contemporaneo”, in R. LATOURELLE, G. COLLINS (a cura di), Problemi e prospettive di Teologia Fondamentale, Brescia 19822, pp. 359-377; F. WHALING, Christian Theology and Word Religions. A Global Approach, London 1986; G. RICHARD, Toward a Theology of Religions, London 1989; C. PORRO, Teologia delle religioni non cristiane, in “Rassegna di Teologia”, 33(1992), pp. 539-564; F. ALTEMEYER, Théologies des religions non-chrétiennes, in “La foi et le Temps”, 24(1994), pp. 517-531; A. BARBAN, “La teologia cristiana delle religioni e la questione del religioso”, in M. LÖHRER, E. SALMANN (hsg.), Mysterium Christi. Symbolgegenwart und Theologische Bedeutung. Feistschrift für Basil Studer, Roma 1995, pp. 349-376; M. FEDOU, Les religions selon la foi chrétienne, Paris 1996; J. MORALES, La teología de las religiones, in “Scripta Theologica”, 30(1998), pp. 753-777; G. ODASSO, Bibbia e Religioni. Prospettive bibliche per la teologia delle religioni, Roma 1998. 19 Anche in questo caso solo alcune indicazioni: H. COWARD, Pluralism: Challenge to World Religions, New York 1983; J. HICK, P. KNITTER, (eds.), The Myth of Cristian Uniqueness. Toward a Pluralistic Theology of Religions, New York 1987; G. D’COSTA (a cura di), La teologia pluralista delle religioni: un mito? L’unicità cristiana riesaminata, As-

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sisi 1990; P. SCHMIDT-LEUKEL, Das pluralistiche Modell in der Theologie der Religionen. Ein Literaturbericht, in “Theologische Revue”, 89(1993) pp. 353-370; R. BERNHARDT, Aufbruch zu einer pluralistiche Teologie der Religionen, in “Zeitschrift für Theologie und Kirche”, 91(1994), pp. 230-249; A. FABRIS, M. GRONCHI (a cura di), Il pluralismo religioso. Una prospettiva interdisciplinare, Cinisello Balsamo 1998; S. KAROTEMPREL, Theological Debate on Religious Pluralism, in “Mission Today”, 1(1999), pp. 49-60. 20 Possono essere utili come sfondo delle problematiche connesse: F. NIETLISPACH, “Le religioni non cristiane nella riflessione del Vaticano II e della nuova teologia”, in P. ROSSANO, Il problema teologico delle religioni, Catania 1975, pp. 95-117; P. KNITTER, “La teologia protestante tedesca sulle religioni non cristiane”, in P. ROSSANO, Il problema teologico, cit. pp. 49-94; L. ROUNER, La teologia delle religioni nella riflessione protestante contemporanea, in “Concilium”, 22(1986) pp. 145-155. 21 Cf. E. BENZ, Ideen zu einer theologischen Sicht der Religionswissenschaft, in “Zeitschrift für Religions - und Geistesgeschichte”, 8(1956), pp. 389-407. 22 È la nota posizione di J. DANIELOU, Le problème théologique des religions non chrétiennes, in “Archivio di Filosofia”, 28(1956) pp. 209-233; “Christianisme et religions non chrétiennes”, in ID., Théologie aujourdui et demain, Paris 1967, pp. 65-80 e di H. DE LUBAC del quale segnaliamo, Catholicisme. Les aspects sociaux du dogme, Paris 19474; La rencontre du Bouddisme et l’Occident, Paris 1952; “Le fondement théologique des missions”, in ID., Théologie dans l’Histoire, II, Paris 1990, pp. 159-219. Su ciò si veda I. MORALI, La salvezza dei non cristiani. L’influsso di Henri de Lubac sulla dottrina del Vaticano II, Bologna 1999. 23 È la posizione di K. RAHNER, “Cristianesimo e religioni non cristiane”, in ID., Saggi di antropologia soprannaturale, Roma 1965, pp. 533-571; I cristiani anonimi, in ID., Nuovi Saggi I, Roma 1968, pp. 759-772; Sul significato salvifico delle religioni non cristiane, in ID., Dio e rivelazione. Nuovi Saggi, VII, Roma 1981, pp. 423-434. 24 Cf. le indicazioni di H.R. SCHLETTE, Le religioni come tema della teologia, Brescia 1968 e analogamente G. THILS, Propos et problèmes de la théologie des religions non chrétiennes, Tornai 1966 25 V. BOUBLIK, Teologia delle religioni, Roma 1973, p. 42. Lo stesso afferma: «Il cristianesimo è atteso da tutte le religioni, è anche il superamento di ogni religione. Perciò s’incarna in ogni religione e realizza l’esodo da tutte le religioni» (p. 298). 26 L. SARTORI, “Teologia delle religioni non cristiane”, in Dizionario Teologico Interdisciplinare, III, Torino 1977, p. 401. 27 La delicata riflessione sul proprium della teologia delle religioni in rapporto alle altre scienze trova un sintomatico punto nevralgico negli Atti del Convegno (Trento 2021 maggio 1981) a cura di L. SARTORI, Le scienze della religione oggi, Bologna 1983, e in particolare in una scheda dal titolo Teologia delle religioni facente parte di un nutrito studio di A.N. TERRIN, Per uno statuto epistemologico delle scienze della religione. Approfondimento cristico in ordine soprattutto alla “storia delle religioni” e alla “fenomenologia della religione”, pp. 11-135. Il dibattito si è emblematicamente concentrato sulla scheda, a segnalare la delicatezza del problema. 28 W. CANTELL SMITH, Towards a World Theology: Faith and Comparative History of Religion, Philadelphia 1981, p. 124. Si veda anche quanto scrive in Theology and the World’s Religions History, in Toward a Universal Theology of Religion, a cura di L. SWIDLER, New York 1987, pp. 51-72; p. 70: «That theology ideally is the truth about God. Throughout I have spoken of “theology”, never of “Christian theology”. Indeed, the phrase “Christian theology”, once ome stop to reflect about it, is a contradiction in terms». 29 S.S. HARAKAS, Orthodox Christianity and Theologizing, in Toward a Universal Theology, a cura di L. SWIDLER, p. 75. Si veda anche H. BÜRKLE L’uomo alla ricerca di Dio. La domanda delle religioni, Milano 2000, pp. 187-219. 30 Tale lettura è segnalata dallo stesso A.N. TERRIN, “Scienza delle religioni e teologia. Per uno studio integrale delle religioni”, in AA.VV., Introduzione allo studio della re-

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ligione, Torino 1992, pp. 213-251. Di diverso tenore è la posizione, ad esempio di M. DHAVAMONY, “Teologia delle religioni”, in Dizionario di Teologia Fondamentale, a cura di R. LATOURELLE, R. FISICHELLA, Assisi 1990, pp. 981-994, il quale sostiene che «la teologia, in quanto scienza normativa, giudica della validità delle rivendicazioni religiose di altre religioni alla luce della fede cristiana» (p. 982). Per una riflessione critica sulla questione si veda R. FISICHELLA, “La teologia dinanzi alle religioni”, in ID., Quando la fede pensa, Casale Monferrato 1997, pp. 49-62. 31 J.B. METZ, Memoria passionis nel pluralismo delle religioni e delle culture, in “Il Regno”, 22(2000), p. 770. Si veda l’analisi di L.R. KURTZ, Le religioni nell’era della globalizzazione, Bologna 2000. 32 Tra le diverse letture cf. J. DUPUIS, Il cristianesimo e le religioni nella teologia cattolica degli anni recenti, Religione e Religioni. A partire dai “Discorsi” di Schleiermacher, a cura di S. SORRENTINO, Assisi 2000, pp. 298-309, che sintetizza così i paradigmi classici: «L’esclusivismo, ossia l’ecclesiocentrismo, ritiene che la salvezza umana c’è solo in Gesù Cristo e per raggiungerla è necessaria la fede esplicita in lui professata nella comunità ecclesiale. L’inclusivismo, o cristocentrismo, afferma che la salvezza umana esiste soltanto in Gesù Cristo, ma per raggiungerla basta la fede implicita e la coscienza retta […] il pluralismo o teocentrismo ritiene che tutte le tradizioni religiose, incluso il cristianesimo, hanno il medesimo significato e valore salvifico rispetto ai loro seguaci». E osserva: “È pressoché scontato che la terza posizione menzionata è difficilmente compatibile con la fede cristiana, di cui il fondamento più sicuro e l’affermazione più centrale è l’universalità della salvezza in Gesù Cristo per l’intera umanità» (p. 299). L’Autore propone una «cristologia trinitaria quale chiave ermeneutica del pluralismo religioso» (pp. 309-324), come emerge anche nel suo La teologia del pluralismo religioso rivisitata, in “Rassegna di Teologia”, 40(1999), pp. 667-793. Dal canto suo, P. KNITTER, La teologia cattolica delle religioni a un crocevia, in “Concilium”, 22(1986) pp. 133-143, suggerisce una diversa suddivisione: Cristo contro le religioni; Cristo dentro le religioni; Cristo al di sopra delle religioni; Cristo insieme alle religioni. 33 Si vedano, ad esempio, l’analisi di J.M. MARDONES, Postmodernidad y cristianismo. El desafío del fragmento, Santader 1988, pp. 121-132; F. WILFRED, “The Postmodern with Teeth: Opportunity for a Creative Western Theology”, in Inkulturation und Kontextualität. Theologien in Weltveiten Austausch. Festagabe für Ludwig Bertsch, a cura di M. PANKOKE, SCHENCK, G. EVERS, Frankfurt a.M. 1994, pp. 321-332; P. GISEL, La postmodernité: mise en place et enjeux. Overture, in La théologie en postmodernité, a cura di ID., P. EVRARD, Genève 1996, pp. 11-23; P. LAKELAND, Postmodernity. Cristian Identità in a Fragmented Age, Minneapolis 1997, pp. 1-38; Z. BAUMAN, “Postmodern religion?”, in Religion, Modernity and Postmedernity, a cura di P. HEELAS, Oxford-Malden 1998, pp. 55-78. Infine J. ILUNGA MUYA, L’expérience de la pluralité. Un lieu théologique, Bonn 2000, pp. 36-66. 34 A. MOLINARO, Filosofare-secolarizzare. Modernità e postmodernità, in “Filosofia e Teologia”, 9(1995) p. 502. Si consenta il rinvio a C. DOTOLO, La teologia fondamentale davanti alle sfide del “pensiero debole” di G. Vattimo, Roma 1999, pp. 159-198. 35 D. MILLER, in. HILLMAN, Il nuovo politeismo. La rinascita degli Dei e delle Dee, Milano 1983, p. 33. 36 G. FILORAMO, Religioni e mutamento contemporaneo, in “Humanitas”, 53(1998), pp. 452-453. 37 Si vedano le riflessioni di A.N. TERRIN, L’Oriente come l’altra anima dell’Occidente, in “Hermeneutica”, 1999, pp. 303-344. 38 F. WILFRED, Some Tentative Reflections on the Language of Christian Uniqueness: An Indian Perspective, in “Bulletin”, Pontificium Consilium pro dialogo inter religiones, 85-86(1994), p. 57. 39 Rinviamo alle annotazioni di J. MOLTMANN, “La ‘teologia pluralista” è utile per il dialogo fra le religioni?”, in G. D’COSTA (a cura di), La teologia pluralista, pp. 274-284.

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40 È quanto evidenzia H.J. VERWEYEN, “Punti cruciali della teologia contemporanea per una mediazione filosofica dell’unicità salvifica di Gesù Cristo”, in K.H. MENKE, A. STAGLIANÒ (a cura di), Credere pensando. Domande della teologia contemporanea nell’orizzonte del pensiero di Antonio Rosmini, Brescia 1997, p. 30; cfr. anche quanto scritto in “Pluralismus als Fundamentalismusverstärker”, in R. SCHWAGER (a cura di), Christus allein? Der Streit um die pluralistische Religionstheologie, Freiburg-Basel-Wien 1996, pp. 134-137. 41 Si esprime così P.L. BERGER, Una gloria remota. Avere fede nell’epoca del pluralismo, Bologna 1994, p. 43. 42 Cf. P. SEQUERI, “Assolutezza e relatività del cristianesimo: universalità della fede che salva e particolarità storica della testimonianza”, in AA.VV., Cristianesimo e Religione, Milano 1992, pp. 151-152. 43 L’interrogativo è riproposto in M. ELIADE, D. TRACY, Editoriale, in “Concilium”, 16(1980) pp. 13-18; J. COBB, Il cristianesimo è una religione?, ivi, pp. 21-27; Cristianesimo e religione. Il cristianesimo è una “religione”?, in “La Civiltà Cattolica”, III(1995), pp. 351-363. Si veda la rassegna bibliografica di J.J. ALEMANY, Cristianismo y religiones: bibliografía reciente, in “Miscelánea Comillas”, 57(1999), pp. 275-305. 44 Può sembrare pretestuosa oggi l’ottica argomentativa della teologia dialettica, soprattutto se riferita al primo Barth. La questione esigerebbe una ermeneutica più attenta dell’intenzionalità della distinzione tra religione-fede, come mostra anche la fine analisi di R. GUARDINI, Fede-Religione-Esperienza. Saggi teologici, Brescia 1995, pp. 53-96; cf. R. MARLÉ, “Religion et foi”, in Dictionnaire de Spiritualité, XIII, Paris 1988, pp. 321355; A. BERTULETTI, “Fede e Religione: la singolarità cristiana e l’esperienza religiosa universale”, in AA.VV., Cristianesimo e Religione, pp. 201-233; M. ANTONELLI, “L’autocoscienza del cristianesimo tra fede e religione”, in ASSOCIAZIONE TEOLOGICA ITALIANA, Cristianesimo, religione, religioni, pp. 93-124, soprattutto nella lettura che alcuni teologi della secolarizzazione offrono, come ad esempio D. Bonhoeffer. In tal senso si vedano le riflessioni di J. ROLLET, “Religion et foi. L’actualité d’une difference”, in J. DORÉ, C. TEOBALD (a cura di), Penser la foi. Recherche en théologie aujourd’hui, Paris 1993, pp. 301-313; B. CASPER, “La fenomenologia ermeneutica della religione e il problema della molteplicità delle religioni”, in R. PANATTONI (a cura di), Dietrich Bonhoeffer e la comunità del cuore, Padova 1999, pp. 203-221; H. FISCHER, “La rottura epistemologica nella teologia evangelica del Novecento”, in S. SORRENTINO (a cura di), Religione e Religioni, pp. 325-344. 45 È la pertinente segnalazione di M. Seckler che osserva l’inadeguatezza di un concetto fenomenologico di religione che non può assoggettarsi aprioristicamente al principio delimitativo dell’ambito culturale religioso: cf. “Il concetto teologico di religione”, in W. KERN, H.J. POTTMEYER, M. SECKLER (a cura di), Corso di Teologia Fondamentale, I: Trattato sulla Religione, Brescia 1990, pp. 203-228. 46 Al di là della sua provenienza dall’incontro-scontro tra cristianesimo e modernità, la riflessione teologica si sta nuovamente interrogando sull’essenza del cristianesimo in un mondo pluralistico e policentrico: cf. S. DIANICH, La questione dell’essenza del cristianesimo e le prospettive odierne della teologia, in “Filosofia e Teologia”, 5(1991), pp. 12-22; F.X. D’SA, Dio, l’Uno e Trino e l’Uno-Tutto. Introduzione all’incontro tra Cristianesimo e Induismo, Brescia 1996, pp. 139-146; H. KÜNG Cristianesimo. Essenza e storia, Milano 1997, pp. 21; 782-785; 902-903; E. BISER, Introduzione al Cristianesimo, Roma 2000, pp. 24-82; M. DELGADO (hsg.), Das Christentum det Theologen in 20. Jahrhundert. Vom “Wesen des Christentums” zu den “Kurzformeln des Glaubens”, Stuttgart-BerlinKöln 2000. 47 Cf. G. D’COSTA, Taking Other Religious Seriously: Ironies in the Current Dibatte on a Christian Theology of Religion, in “The Thomist”, 54(1990), p. 526; J. MORALES, “El teocentrismo, opcion metodologica insufficiente en teología de las religiones”, in AA.VV., El Dios y padre de nuestro Señor JesuCristo, Pamplona 2000, pp. 207-220.

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48 Si veda T. MERRIGAN, “Pour nous et pour nostre salute”: l’action de Dieu dans l’histoire au regard de la théologie des religions, in “Revue Lumen Vitae”, 53(1998), pp. 415-425; Y. LABBÉ, “La théologie négative dans la théologie des religions”, in ID., La Foi et la Raion. Sur le christianisme, les religions et la mystique, Paris 2000, pp. 201227 49 P. HÜNERMANN, La verità del cristianesimo di fronte alla verità delle altre religioni, in “Studia Patavina”, 46(1999), p. 548. 50 Afferma A. RIZZI, Il Sacro e il Senso. Lineamenti di filosofia della religione, Leumann, Torino 1995, p. 184: «che il cristianesimo possa cioè, comprendendo se stesso, offrire anche un incremento di interpretazione del fatto religioso». E aggiunge: «perciò affermare l’evento Gesù Cristo è portare al linguaggio questa condizione, è offrire alle religioni un supplemento di coscienza del loro essere e della loro finalità» (p. 199). Analogamente A. BERTULETTI, Fede e Religione, pp. 222-224; P. CODA, Per un’ermeneutica cristologico-trinitaria delle religioni, in M. CROCIATA (a cura di), Gesù Cristo e l’unicità della mediazione, Milano 2000, pp. 45-69. 51 Utili indicazioni in F. KAPLON, L’ambiguïté de l’expérience religieuse, in ID., J.L. VIEILLARD-BARON (a cura di), Introduction à la philosophie de la religion, Paris 1989, pp. 19-35; S. SORRENTINO, Per una tematizzazione dell’esperienza religiosa, in “Filosofia e Teologia”, 8(1994), pp. 21-35; A.G. GARGANI, “L’esperienza religiosa come evento e interpretazione”, in J. DERRIDA, G. VATTIMO (a cura di), La Religione, Roma-Bari 1995, pp. 129-133; M. MIDALI, R. TONELLI (a cura di), L’esperienza religiosa dei giovani, I: L’ipotesi, Leumann, Torino 1995; F. CRESPI, L’esperienza religiosa nell’era post-moderna, Roma 1997. 52 Sembra espressivo della sua opzione quanto scrive J. HICK, Il Cristianesimo tra le religioni del mondo, in “Filosofia e Teologia”, 6(1992), p. 21: «Postuleremo, dunque, un Reale ultimo, la cui natura trascende la rete dei concetti umani: personale/impersonale, unità/molteplicità, sostanza/processo, intenzionale/non intenzionale, buono/cattivo, ma è pensato ed esperito umanamente mediante il concetto di una divinità personale o di un assoluto impersonale, è in ogni caso reso concreto nelle forme particolari di Jahveh, Santa Trinità, Vishnù, ecc., o di Brahman, Dharmakaya, Tao, ecc.». Cf. W.L. ROWE, Religious Pluralism, in “Religiious Studies”, 35(1999), pp.139-150: J. ILUNGA MUYA, La théologie des religiones. Un État des lieux, in “Euntes Docete”, 52(1999), pp. 279-302; 283-296; C. MOREDOD, La relation entre les religions selon John Hick, in “Nova et Vetera”, 75(2000), pp. 35-62. Tale opzione si riflette sulla riduzione della portata dell’incarnazione: cf. G. O’COLLINS, The Incarnation under fire, in “Gregorianum”, 76(1995), pp. 263-280; 273278; C. GILLIS, “Radical christologies? An analysis of the christologies of John Hick and Paul Knitter”, in T. MERRIGAN, J. HAERS (a cura di), The Myriad Christ. Plurality and the quest for unity in contemporary christology, Leuven 2000, pp. 521-534. 53 Si vedano le osservazioni di Y. LAMBERT, La “Tour de Babel” des définition de la religion, in “Social Compass”, 38(1991), pp. 73-85; B.A. HOLDGREGE, “Comparative religion with a difference”, in U. BIANCHI (a cura di), The notion of “religion” in comparative reserch. Selected Proceedings of XVI Congress of the International Association for the History of Religions, Roma 1994, pp. 803-812. H.-M. HAUSSING, Some observation on the idea “religion” in various “religions”, ivi, p. 802: «What I want to prove here is that the various religious traditions have a different comprehension of themselves as well as in comparison to other “religious” traditions». La difficoltà interpretativa è presente nella stessa autocomprensione delle religioni: cfr. M. ZAGO, “L’equivalente di ‘Dio’ nel buddismo, in AA.VV., La ricerca di Dio nelle religioni. Dialogo interreligioso sul tema teologico del “Quaerere Deum”, Bologna 1980, pp. 117-192; 169-186; T. FITZGERALD, Hinduism and the ‘World Religion’ Fallacy, in “Religion”, 20(1990), pp. 101-118; C. YOUNG, “World Religion? A Category in the Making”, in M. DESPLAND, G. VALLÉE (a cura di), Religion in History, The World, The Idea, The Reality, Waterloo 1992, pp. 111-130. 54 R. PANIKKAR, Il dialogo intrareligioso, op. cit., p. 106.

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55 U. BIANCHI, Problemi di storia delle religioni, Roma 1986, p. 122. Cf. ID., Tra mondo e salvezza. Problemi del cristianesimo di oggi, Milano 1979, pp. 13-26 56 In tal senso, emblematico il tentativo di qualche anno fa di F. HEILER, “The History of religions as a Preparation for the Co-operation of Religions”, in M. ELIADE, J.M. KITAGARWA (eds.), The History of Religions. Essays in Methodology, Chicago 1962, pp. 132-160; 142-152 che individuava almeno sette aree di unità delle grandi religioni, seppure con l’uso di una terminologia oscillante e non pacificamente assimillabile: 1) realtà della trascendenza, del holy, del divino, dell’Altro; 2) nesso tra trascendenza-immanenza nell’ human hearts; 3) è una realtà antropologicamente buona, vera; 4) la realtà divina è l’amore ultimo con quale si rivela; 5) la via dell’uomo a Dio è universalmente la via del sacrificio; 6) tutte le religioni correlano la relazione con Dio e con gli uomini; 7) l’amore è la via migliore a Dio. Più avvertita è la proposta di M. FUSS, “Unità e pluralismo delle forme dell’esperienza di Dio. Nella prospettiva della fenomenologia delle religioni”, in ASSOCIAZIONE TEOLOGICA ITALIANA, Cristianesimo, religione, religioni, op. cit., pp. 61-83. Sulla questione del pluralismo religioso all’interno delle scienze della religione cfr. G. FILORAMO, La scienza della religione e il problema del pluralismo, in “Filosofia e Teologia”, 6(1992), pp. 106-118. 57 S. DIANICH, La questione dell’essenza del cristianesimo, p. 18. Analoghe indicazioni, soprattutto nel confronto tra mistica occidentale e mistica buddista dell’Estremo Oriente, in J.B. METZ, Memoria passionis nel pluralismo, p. 773. Lo stesso H. KÜNG, Esiste l’unica religione vera?, pp. 284-286 sembra orientarsi su tale scia. 58 Cf. le annotazioni critiche di G. F. FINNEGAN, “Jesus as saviour of the World”, in P. KNITTER (ed.), Pluralism and oppression. Theology in World perspective, New York 1988, pp. 139-150 e per certi versi anche M. AMALADDOS, “The pluralism of Religions and the Significance of Christ”, in R.J. SUGIRTHARAJAH (ed.), Asien Faces of Jesus, London 1993, pp. 85-103. 59 P. KNITTER, Cristianesimo come religione: vera e assoluta? Un punto di vista cattolico, in “Concilium”, 16(1980), p. 54. 60 E. SCHILLEBEECKX, Umanità. La storia di Dio, Brescia 1992, pp. 220-221. Sulla posizione sintomatica del teologo olandese si veda F.G. BRAMBILLA, Nuovi impulsi per il manuale di cristologia, in “Teologia”, 23(1998), pp. 271-277. Sulla valenza simbolica di Gesù Cristo, nome cristiano del Mistero, si è espresso nella seconda edizione del volume R. PANIKKAR, The Unknown Christ of Induism: Towards an Ecumenical Christophany, New York 1981, pp. 20-27. 61 È quanto segnala P. LAKELAND, Postmodernity, op. cit., pp. 76-84. Si vedano, ad esempio, R. BERNHARDT, “Deabsolutierung der Cristologie”, in M. von BRÜCK, J. WERBICK (hsg.), Der einzige Weg zum Heil? Die Herausforderung des christlichen Absolutheitsanspruchs durch pluralistische Religionstheologien, Freiburg-Basel-Wien 1993, pp. 184-193; A. PIERIS, C’è un posto in Asia per Cristo? Uno sguardo panoramico, in “Concilium”, 29(1993), pp. 54-73; M. AMALADOSS, “Jesus Christ in the Midst of Religions. An Indian Perspective”, in T. MERRIGAN, J. HAERS (eds.),The Myriad Christ, pp. 219233. Più decisiva sembra essere per la teologia africana la riflessione sulla centralità cristologica: cf. A. NGINDU MUSHETE, La figura di Gesù nella teologia africana, in “Concilium”, 24(1988), pp. 104-113; D. STINTON, “Jesus of Africa: Voices of Contemporary african christology”, in T. MERRIGAN, J. HAERS (eds.), The Myriad Christ, pp. 287-313. 62 Cf. le annotazioni critiche di K.-H. MENKE, L’unicità di Gesù Cristo nell’orizzonte della domanda sul senso, Cinisello Balsamo 1999, pp. 58-85. 63 In questo quadro vanno lette le differenti critiche al pluralismo religioso. Segnaliamo: A. AMATO, Cristologia e religioni non cristiane. Problematica e attualità: considerazioni introduttive, in “Ricerche Teologiche”, 1(1990), pp. 143-168; ID., “L’unicità della mediazione salvifica di Cristo: il dibattito contemporaneo”, in M. CROCIATA (a cura di), Gesù Cristo, pp. 13-44; M. BORDONI, “Singolarità ed universalità di Gesù Cristo nel-

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la riflessione cristologica contemporanea”, in P. CODA (a cura di), L’Unico e i Molti. La salvezza in Gesù Cristo e la sfida del pluralismo, Roma 1997, pp. 67-108; G. CANOBBIO, Gesù Cristo nella recente teologia delle religioni, in “Quaderni Teologici del Seminario di Brescia”, 1994, pp. 79-110; R. CANTALAMESSA, La fede in Gesù Cristo unico salvatore, nel contesto del dialogo interreligioso odierno, in “Rassegna di Teologia”, 35(1994), pp. 259-282; M. GRONCHI, “Il pluralismo e la teologia”, in A. FABRIS, M. GRONCHI (a cura di), Il pluralismo religioso, pp. 160-202; G. IAMMARONE, “La dottrina del primato assoluto e della signoria universale di Gesù Cristo nel dibattito attuale sul valore salvifico delle religioni”, in I. SANNA (a cura di), Gesù Cristo Speranza Del Mondo. Miscellanea in onore di Marcello Bordoni, Roma 2000, pp. 339-408; N. MADONIA, Unicità e singolarità di Gesù Cristo. Alcune chiavi di lettura, in “Rassegna di Teologia”, 39(1998), pp. 207238; A. STAGLIANÓ, “L’impegno teologico per la ‘singolarità’ di Gesù Cristo nel contesto del pluralismo religioso”, in G. COFFELE (a cura di), Dilexit Ecclesiam. Studi in onore del prof. Donato Valentini, Roma 1999, pp. 319-349. 64 P. SEQUERI, “La storia di Gesù”, in G. COLOMBO (a cura di), L’evidenza e la fede, Milano 1988, p. 263. Cfr. anche A. DARTIGUES, La Rivelazione dal senso alla salvezza, Brescia 1988, pp. 202-212. 65 Così scrive J.S. O’LEARY, La vérité chrétienne à l’âge du pluralisme religieux, Paris 1994, p. 51: «Dans le cas du christianisme, la prétension de témoigner de l’absolu prend une forme eschatologique: l’indepassabilité du Christ comme accomplissement des promesses de Dieu. Mais cet accomplissement reste ancore proleptique». 66 Su ciò si veda la panoramica fatta da C. BASEVI, Estudio literario y teológico del himno cristológico de la Épistula a los Filipenses (Phil 2,6-11), in “Scripta Theologica”, 30(1998), pp. 438-472. Inoltre J. HERIBAN, Retto phronéin e kénosis. Studio esegetico su Fil 2,1-5; 6-11, Roma 1983; N. CAPIZZI, Fil 2,6-11: una sintesi della cristologia?, in “Rassegna di Teologia”, 40(1999), pp. 353-368. Va detto che l’interesse alla kénosis come luogo teoretico costituisce un punto di confronto interessante con il pensiero filosoficoreligioso: cf. X. TILLIETTE, Il Cristo della filosofia. Prolegomeni a una cristologia filosofica, Brescia 1997, pp. 187-219; H. VERWEYEN, Gibt es einen philosophisch stringenten Begriff von Inkarnation?, in “Archivio di Filosofia”, 67(1999), pp. 481-489; W. PANNENBERG, Das christlische Inkarnationsdogma als Thema der Philosophie, ivi, pp. 503-508; M. RUGGENINI, Un Dio uomo?, in “Filosofia e Teologia”, 13(1999), pp. 7-20; S. NATOLI, Verbum-caro. Per un’ermeneutica dell’incarnazione, ivi, pp. 43-56. 67 Rimandiamo all’intuizione tematizzata da Y. CONGAR, Pour une cristologie pneumatologique, in “Revue des Sciences Philosophique et Théologiques”, 63(1979), pp. 435-442. Cf. inoltre R. HAIGHT, The case for Spirit Christology, in “Theological Studies”, 53(1992), pp. 257-287; M. BORDONI, La cristologia nell’orizzonte dello Spirito, Brescia 1995; ID., La cristologia nell’orizzonte dello Spirito, in “Rassegna di Teologia”, 37(1996), pp. 5-27; G. COLZANI, “Verso un cristocentrsimo trinitario. Il valore ‘teologale’ della riscoperta della Pneumatologia”, in G. COFFELE (a cura di), Dilexit Ecclesiam, pp. 181198; G. GRESHAKE, Il Dio Unitrino. Teologia trinitaria, Brescia 2000, pp. 581-599. 68 Si veda la radicale e salutare provocazione di M. HENRY, L’Incarnation dans une phénoménologie radicale, in “Archivio di Filosofia”, 67(1999), pp. 19-26 e la relativa analisi di R. KÜHN, Phänomenologische Ur-Christologie und Inkarnatorische Bezeugung. Ergebnisse und Konsequenzen einer Radikalphänomenologischen Lektüre, ivi, pp. 27-41. Indicativo è il commento finale di J.S. O’LEARY, Demystifying the Incarnation, ivi, p. 431: «Slowly, the actual phenomenological and interpretative structure of how faith encounters the living God in and across the human Jesus is coming into sharper focus. Wu begin to see that the historical, Jewish, fleshly existence of Jesus is the locus of his unique revelatory and salvific status, and that it is a bridge rather than an obstacle as our tradition opens our to other major loci of divine disclosure, especially the Jewish and Buddhist traditions». Per una lettura teologica più articolata si veda: P. SEQUERI, L’inte-

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resse teologico di una fenomenologia di Gesù: giustificazione e prospettive, in “Teologia”, 23(1998), pp. 289-329; P. CODA, Fenomenologia e ontologia dell’evento Cristo, in “Lateranum”, 65(1999), pp. 463-480. 69 Si veda S. PIÉ-NINOT, Tratado de Teología Fundamental, Salamanca 19963, pp. 198-250; 292-306; B. SESBOÜE, “La question de Jésus historique au regard de la foi”, in D. MARGUERAT, E. NORELL, J.M. POFFET (éds.), Jésus de Nazareth, nouvelles approches d’une énigme, Genève 1998, pp. 503-515; V. FUSCO, “La ricerca del Gesù storico. Bilancio e prospettive”, in R. FABRIS (a cura di), La Parola di Dio cresceva (At 12,24). Scritti in onore di Carlo Maria Martini nel suo 70° compleanno, Bologna 1998, pp. 487-519; P. GAMBERINI, Gesù – Persona dello Spirito. Un dialogo tra acune posizioni recenti della “Terza ricerca storica su Gesù” e una Cristologia in prospettiva ebraico-cristiana, in “Rassegna di Teologia”, 40(1999), pp. 201-228; D. MARGUERAT, La “troisième quête” du Jésus de l’histoire, in “Recherches de Science Religieuse”, 87(1999), pp. 397-421; C. DUQUOC, L’intérête théologique de la quête du Jésus historique, in “Recherches de Science Religieuse”, 88(2000), pp. 491-511; A PUIG, I TARRECH, La recerche du Jésus historique, in “Biblica”, 81(2000), pp. 179-201. Si può leggere la tesi storico-ermeneutica conclusiva di G. SEGALLA, La verità storica dei vangeli e la “terza ricerca” su Gesù, in “Lateranum”, 61(1995), p. 234: “Il valore storico dei vangeli include la loro valenza di fede; anche questa è storica, è la reazione dei primi discepoli testimoni e dei primi cristiani a Gesù di Nazaret. Il valore storico globale dei vangeli e del Gesù ivi narrato ed annunciato ingloba sia la vicenda storica, ipoteticamente ricostruita, sia il suo influsso storico sulla percezione e la vita delle persone, che l’hanno incontrato ed hanno creduto in lui, ed hanno dato origine ad una comunità “a lui così fedele da cambiare il corso della storia”». 70 R. HAIGHT, The Impact of Jesus Research on Christology, in “Louvain Studies”, 21(1996), p. 224. Riflessioni analoghe in A. VERGOTE, Ambiguïtés anthropologiques et théologiques du concept chrétien “Incarnation”, in “Archivio di Filosofia”, 67(1999), pp. 469-480. 71 Cf. le riflessioni introduttive di J.-N. ALETTI, Gesù Cristo: Unità del Nuovo Testamento, Roma 1995, pp. 13-19. 72 Cf. H. HÄRING, La storia di Gesù, fondamento e origine di identità religiosa, in “Concilium”, 36(2000), pp. 137-154. 73 La questione relativa alla correttezza del sintagma è oggetto di discussione. Si vedano, a mo’ di esempio, I.G. WALLIS, The Faith of Jesus Christ in Early Christian Tradituions, Cambridge 1995, pp. 65-144; A. VANHOYE, pistiı Cristou: fede in Cristo o affidabilità di Cristo?, in “Biblica”, 80(1999), pp. 1-21; R. VIGNOLO, “La fede portata da Cristo. PISTIS CRISTOS in Paolo”, in G. CANOBBIO (a cura di), La fede di Gesù, Bologna 2000, pp. 43-67. 74 F.G. BRAMBILLA, Gesù autore e perfezionatore della fede, ivi, pp. 122-123. 75 Cf. A. TONIOLO, Dalla fede di Gesù alla fede dei discepoli, ivi, pp. 125-143. 76 Si veda E. JÜNGEL, “La rilevanza dogmatica del problema del Gesù storico”, in G. PIROLA, F. COPPELLOTTI (a cura di), Il “Gesù storico”. Problema della modernità, Casale Monferrato 1988, pp. 161-185; R. PENNA, I ritratti originali di Gesù il Cristo. Inizi e sviluppi della cristologia neotestamentaria. I: Gli inizi, Cinisello Balsamo 1996, pp. 119-122; R. FISICHELLA, Gesù di Nazaret profezia del Padre, Milano 2000; R. VIGNOLO, “Amen, Io vi dico!” Una formula originale del “profeta” Gesù, in “Parola Spirito e Vita”, 41(2000), pp. 121-134. 77 A. MILANO, Teologia, verità, metodo, in “Filosofia e Teologia”, 7(1993), p. 45. 78 Si vedano anche le acute riflessioni di E. JÜNGEL, Dio, mistero del mondo. Per una fondazione della teologia del Crocifisso nella disputa fra teismo e ateismo, Brescia 1982, pp. 410-430. 79 Sulla centralità del ruolo dello Spirito e della particolarità epistemologica che pone alla riflessione teologica e antropologica scrive C. DUQUOC, Un Dio diverso. Saggio

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sulla simbolica trinitaria, Brescia 1978, p. 107: «In sintesi, egli spezza la logica inerente all’immagine duale Padre-Figlio. [...] La figura trinitaria di Dio, in quanto regola della nostra relazione a Lui, significa in definitiva che nessuno guadagna la propria vita e riconosce Dio, se prima non accetta di perderla». E aggiunge: «Egli è l’apertura della comunione divina a ciò che non è divino. È l’abitazione di Dio là ove Dio è, in un certo senso, “fuori di se stesso”. Per questo fu chiamato “amore”. È l’“estasi” di Dio verso il suo “altro”: la creatura» (117). In tal senso, è significativo il ruolo di critica da parte dello Spirito alle false autosicurezze dell’uomo, come evidenzia M. WELKER, Lo Spirito Santo forza della vittoria sulla nostra paura e sulla nostra falsa autosicurezza, in “Filosofia e Teologia”, 12(1998), p. 495-509. Si vedano le riflessioni di B. CASTILLA Y CORTÁZAR, El nombre propio del Espíritu Santo, in “Estudios Trinitarios”, 32(1998), pp. 115-166; N. CIOLA (a cura di), “La Kénosis dello Spirito e l’onnipotenza ‘debole’ di Dio Padre”, in ID., Servire Ecclesiae. Miscellanea in onore di Mons. Pino Scabini, Bologna 1998, pp. 241260. 80 Cf. M. DENEKEN, Pour une christologie de la pro-existence, in “Revue des Sciences Religieuses”, 62(1988), pp. 265-290. Scrive W. KASPER, “Cristologia e antropologia”, in ID., Teologia e Chiesa, Brescia 1989, p. 224: «Il significato antropologico della cristologia, cioè l’essere per gli altri di Gesù Cristo, è fondato sul suo “essere in sé”. La proesistenza di Gesù presuppone la preesistenza, e viceversa». A riguardo così scrive alla conclusione della sua ricerca K.-J. KUSCHEL, Generato prima di tutti i secoli?. La controversia sull’origine di Cristo, Brescia 1996, p. 689: «Quando nel Nuovo Testamento si risale alle affermazioni sulla preesistenza, lo si fa sempre nell’intento di ancorare in Dio la liberazione degli uomini avvenuta in Cristo». 81 M. BORDONI, “Cristologia e antropologia”, in C. GRECO (a cura di), Cristologia e antropologia, Roma 1994, pp. 56-57. Si veda anche P. GAMBERINI, Ontologia di relazione e cristologia, ivi, pp. 196-225. 82 Cf. L.F. LADARIA, “L’uomo alla luce di Cristo nel Vaticano II”, in R. LATOURELLE (a cura di), Vaticano II: Bilancio e Prospettiva venticinque anni dopo (1962-1987), Assisi 1987, pp. 939-951; P. CODA, L’uomo nel mistero di Cristo e della Trinità. L’antropologia della Gaudium et Spes, in “Lateranum”, 54(1988), pp. 164-194; W. KASPER, L’antropologie théologique de Gaudium et spes, “Laïcs aujourd’hui. Revue”, 39(1996), pp. 44-55. 83 K.-J. KUSCHEL, Generato prima di tutti i secoli?, pp. 675. 84 H.U. VON BALTHASAR, Gloria. Una estetica teologica, I: La percezione della forma, Milano 1985, p. 139. 85 Rinviamo agli studi di F.-V. ANTHONY, Ecclesial praxis of Inculturation. Toward an Empirical-theological Theory of Inculturizing Praxis, Roma 1997, pp. 57-83; P.M. GALLAGHER, Fede e Cultura: un rapporto cruciale e conflittuale, Cinisello Balsamo 1999; P. GIGLIONI, Inculturazione: teoria e prassi, Città del Vaticano 1999. 86 Si veda G. BIGUZZI, Il Nuovo Testamento, le culture e le religioni, in “Euntes Docete”, 51(1998), pp. 7-46; 41-42. 87 È quanto sostiene P. ROSSANO, Vangelo e cultura. Note per un incontro tra il Vangelo e la cultura contemporanea, Roma 1985, pp. 27-36. 88 G. GRESHAKE, Il Dio Unitrino, p. 598. Similmente R. HAIGHT, Jesus Symbol of God, New York 1999, pp. 421-423; A. MILANO Quale verità. Per una critica della ragione teologica, Bologna 1999, pp. 377-389.

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GASTON OGUI COSSI

DIFFICULTÈS DE LA PROFESSION DE FOI EN LA SINGULARITÉ DU CHRIST EN AFRIQUE OCCIDENTALE

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INTRODUCTION L’insertion de l’Evénement Jésus Christ dans la culture et surtout dans les coeurs des Africains ne s’est pas faite sans une violence certaine. Cette violence, bien que douloureusement ressentie par beaucoup, est pourtant le cachet spécifique confirmant la vérité du kérygme autant que celle de son accueil. La significative et étonnante expansion de la confession que Christ est Seul Sauveur ne saurait aucunement voiler les vraies difficultés inhérentes à une telle profession. Ces difficultés s’observent aussi bien dans le vécu quotidien que dans l’expression de la foi. Cette communication vise davantage l’expression de la foi que le vécu quotidien. Dans la mesure où la diaconie du théologien, loin de fournir des solutions-recettes aux interrogations de la foi, se préoccupe essentiellement d’éveiller les consciences aux appels de l’Esprit, notre propos s’efforcera très simplement d’indexer quelques lieux critiques de ces difficultés pour une meilleure approche de solution. Il s’agira donc, non pas d’une étude exhaustive, mais foncièrement d’interpellation pour un meilleur accueil de la Singularité du Christ en Afrique aujourd’hui et demain. Notre itinéraire réflexif suivra trois axes principaux: rappel critique de diverses approches christologiques africaines1, l’éternelle problématique du visage de Dieu en Afrique et enfin quelques pistes pour une christologie ouverte et dynamique. RAPPEL CRITIQUE DE DIVERSES APPROCHES CHRISTOLOGIQUES AFRICAINES La foi de l’Eglise définie au Concile de Chalcédoine (451) sur le Verbe incarné n’autorise pas seulement des commentaires, aussi pertinents soient-ils, mais elle est source de jaillissement de nouvelles saisies de ce mystère exagérément étonnant. C’est conscients de cette vérité que bien de théologiens africains se sont évertués à rendre cette foi crédible aux leurs par des formules et concepts qui signifient quelque chose dans leurs cultures. Dans l’impossibilité de scruter la pensée christologique de tous ces théologiens, nous nous contenterons de déceler la manifestation de ces difficultés chez un petit

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nombre d’entre eux afin de préciser la lumière et l’ombre que celles-ci ont pu apporter à la conscience croyante du peuple chrétien.

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La singularité du Christ dans les christologies africaines Le nombre insignifiant de christologies africaines est significatif certes de la jeunesse de l’Eglise en Afrique mais aussi de la complexité de ce traité en langages africains. Il n’est donc pas surprenant que le status quaestionis de toute vraie investigation christologique dans cette aire culturelle s’effectue dans un cercle trop restreint et quasiment fermé2. La quintessence de la cogitation sur la Personne du Christ nous est surtout fournie par l’ouvrage collectif intitulé: Chemins de la christologie africaine3. Sur le thème, le cas du Bénin est encore plus déplorable4. La restitution de la pensée de certains théologiens sur ce thème nous permettra de situer, à un niveau purement réflexif, les points d’achoppement de la confession de l’absolue singularité du Christ. Le malaise de ces théologiens est déjà très remarquable au niveau des noms attribués à Jésus de Nazareth dans leurs milieux culturels. On se souvient de l’euphorie suscitée dans les coeurs par la découverte des concepts de chefferie et d’ancestralité (Kabasélé) ou de sommité en initiation (Sanon). Qui pouvait, en effet, contester encore aujourd’hui la volonté d’un peuple à partir de son humus vital pour exprimer l’inexprimable? Si le message du Christ concerne toute l’histoire des hommes et toutes les interrogations humaines, n’est-ce pas parce que Jésus Christ a choisi de s’incarner radicalement dans toute culture, constituant ainsi l’élément incontournable qui sauve tout homme dans sa culture? Pensant déceler dans ces expériences de réels efforts d’intelligence inculturelle du Mystère Christ; ces concepts furent salués avec joie et enthousiasme. Malheureusement, cette euphorie a tôt fait de céder le pas à la déception. Il est rapidement devenu évident, sinon pour tous, du moins pour la majorité, que ces concepts expriment moins le mystère du Christ dans sa vérité ontologique qu’ils ne jettent de trouble dans les consciences, déjà peu claires. Conséquence logique de cette observation, les manipulateurs de ces concepts se sont très vite essoufflés et leurs intuitions sont demeurées sans lendemain. F. Kabasélé a certainement soupçonné le malaise dès la genèse des intuitions lui qui a su confesser, à juste titre, que Jésus Christ est l’“au-delà des modèles”. En effet, pris comme symboles, ces concepts dévoilent des aspects du mystère du Christ mais moins qu’ils ne le voilent. Tout en reconnaissant donc, à sa juste valeur, l’intention qui a motivé cette approche et l’effort louable qui la sous-tend, il importe de dénoncer ses limites regrettables. La première est le risque réducteur de l’Evénement Christ en une catégorie purement sociale. A cette limite s’ajoute l’absence quasi totale du caractère préexistentiel du Christ dans cette approche purement nominale. Si, à ce niveau, la consubstantialité du Christ avec les hommes ne souffre

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d’aucune restriction, celle avec le Père semble être reléguée dans l’ombre. Enfin de compte, loin de constituer un chemin pour une christologie africaine, cette approche ne frise-t-elle pas une impasse autant pour la réflexion que pour l’expérience existentielle? Cette déficience conceptuelle et existentielle est, en dernier ressort, redevable de la préoccupation, souvent ressentie, de répondre, au plus pressé, à certaines urgences d’ordre pastoral. Sans discréditer cette préoccupation, en soi légitime, un meilleur positionnement face aux questions pastorales pourrait plus amplement féconder l’ensemble de la pratique chrétienne. Autrement, le recours à l’immédiat pourrait entraver la juste appréhension de la réalité et faire perdre de vue le grand service que la conceptualisation est en droit de rendre à l’action. Car, plus la théologie sera essentielle et scientifique, plus elle sera existentielle et pastorale. Christian Duquoc semble l’avoir bien compris lorsqu’il écrivait: «Un essai dogmatique christologique ne poursuit pas un but immédiatement pratique, mais par ce renoncement à l’immédiat il sert la pastorale, plus que ne le ferait une déduction hâtive d’orientation pratique à partir de principes christologiques non critiqués. La dogmatique, en ce sens, opère une purification: elle désamorce la force passionnelle des slogans, elle facilite le passage de la passion à l’action»5. Cette vérité est bien perçue par un grand nombre de théologiens africains qui, prenant une juste distance face à l’immédiat, se sont lancés sur les chemins de la conceptualisation critique et rigoureuse. Feront-ils saisir, avec plus de bonheur et de facilité, le mystère du Verbe incarné? Cela reste à vérifier! La foi de deux théologiens béninois en l’absolue singularité du Christ Pour cette vérification nous nous contenterons de deux théologiens qui ont des approches très significatives en ce domaine: les pères J.E. Pénoukou et J.M. Agossou, tous d’eux originaires du Bénin, en Afrique occidentale. Croire fermement et trouver des mots justes pour partager sa foi avec les leurs, tel a toujours été la préoccupation première de ces deux chercheurs. Comme tout bon chercheur, ils ont expérimenté des difficultés semblables à celle que synthétisait ainsi, dans sa thèse de doctorat en théologie, le père E. Sambou d’origine sénégalaise: «Le Christ, estime-t-il, ne “passe” pas dans cet univers religieux traditionnel car il n’a pas de place dans ce monde religieusement bien organisé et fort hiérarchisé où l’on est Dieu ou homme, bakiin ou ancêtre mais jamais, étrangement, Homme-Dieu à la fois […] Jésus-Christ demeure un personnage étrange, incompréhensible, gênant et sans place. Un personnage marginalisé. Voilà le fond du problème»6. Certes, nos deux théologiens ne signeraient pas volontiers cette affirmation du théologien sénégalais. Et pourtant, ils sont conscients eux

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aussi que proclamer l’absolue singularité du Christ n’est aucunement une mission aisée. La conscience de la difficulté, loin de paralyser ces chercheurs a été, par contre, pour l’un et pour l’autre, le point de départ d’une conceptualisation rigoureuse et pertinente. La conviction du père Pénoukou est qu’un dire Dieu peut bien s’ouvrir à l’universel en dépit du risque réel de réduction clanique inhérent à une telle démarche. L’essentiel est de trouver une réalité qui transcende sa contextualité et qui soit capable d’accéder à l’universel. Cette réalité, il la trouve dans le mythe de “Bomèno”, ou de la “circularité de la vie”, figure spirituelle qui aurait été très associée à l’oeuvre de la création par le Créateur. En ce sens, ce mythe relate, en substance, le processus originaire d’accomplissement de l’“être-là-avec” évoquant ainsi la figure du Christ en qui se constitue la solidarité anthropologique, à savoir, celle qui lie l’homme à l’homme, et l’homme au cosmos7. Cette approche a le mérite de proposer une intelligence de l’Evénement Jésus Christ transcendant le cadre restreint des noms et de la nomination. Elle a également, en sa faveur, le fait d’avoir uni la singularité à l’universalité dans une christologie où la dimension descendante du mystère n’est aucunement occultée au profit de l’ascendante. Elle comporte toutefois un risque, celui de voir en Jésus Christ un simple intermédiaire entre Dieu et les hommes (néo-arianisme?). Il faudrait aussi préciser que la maturité de la foi aussi bien que l’effort de son intelligibilité ne réside pas exclusivement dans la dextérité à manipuler les mythes, fussent-ils fondateurs, mais surtout à déceler dans le vécu quotidien le visage du Nazaréen. D’où la nécessité d’autres horizons plus ouverts et plus crédibles. Le père J.M. Agossou nous en propose un centré sur la dialectique de la participation vitale. C’est précisément l’Incarnation du Verbe de Dieu qui est, avant tout, perçue comme le modèle de cette dialectique. Toutefois, comme modèle, l’Incarnation ne doit pas s’appréhender simplement comme une étape passagère dans l’Evénement Jésus Christ. Elle englobe le cours vital de son existence et de l’homme placé sous son signe8. A ce prix, l’Incarnation met en jeu le rapport dialectique entre la Vie divine et la vie humaine s’actualisant concrètement dans le mystère de Jésus de Nazareth en qui le divin et l’humain sont unis sans distorsion. La vie qui est ici évoquée n’est donc pas un simple attribut de Jésus mais spécialement son mystère fondamental tel qu’il se reçoit du Père pour se communiquer aux hommes ses frères. Reçue donc de Dieu par le Christ, la vie apparaît dans la pensée du théologien béninois comme l’expression la plus condensée de l’unité ontique du genre humain avec Christ. Ce concept vie a besoin, pour qu’il soit christologiquement opérant, d’une purification sémantique de grande envergure. Car la Vie qu’est le Christ et qu’il nous donne n’est pas à mesurer à l’aune du désir de ce peuple préoccupé, avant tout, par une jouissance certaine (cf. l’expression fon “Du gbè” qui signifie littéralement “manger la vie”). La vie qui sourd du Christ

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s’acquiert au prix de violence dramatique prolongeant la passion et la mort de Jésus pour parvenir avec lui à la résurrection merveilleuse. C’est dire donc que le concept de vie, aussi scripturaire soit-il, a besoin lui aussi, d’autres approches pour exprimer, de manière plus ou moins satisfaisante, l’Evénement Jésus Christ. Sans doute, faudrait-il élargir la problématique au niveau de la Déité absolue afin qu’apparaisse dans sa vérité le visage du Christ tel qu’il est confessé hier et aujourd’hui chez ces peuples africains. Cette ouverture nous permettra de saisir les difficultés de la confession de la singularité du Christ dans le grand champ de l’éternelle problématique du visage de Dieu en Afrique.

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ETERNELLE PROBLÉMATIQUE DU VISAGE DE DIEU EN AFRIQUE Pour que la singularité du monogène du Père soit confessée en esprit et vérité chez le peuple africain, il importe que soit définie avec netteté et précision l’identité de ces êtres qui structurent les religions traditionnelles. En effet, il est un fait indéniable que: «Dans toutes les cultures historiques connues, la religion est un élément essentiel de la culture, elle en est même l’âme. C’est la religion qui détermine la structure des valeurs et donc leur logique interne. […] Si vous retirez d’une culture cette religion qui l’engendre, alors vous lui volez son coeur. Si vous lui implanter un nouveau, le coeur chrétien, il semble inévitable que l’organisme qui n’est pas ordonné à cela rejette le corps étranger»9. Préciser ici l’identité de ces entités c’est aussi les saisir non seulement par rapport à l’Etre absolu mais aussi par rapport à l’Evénement Jésus Christ. On a souvent défendu en Afrique la thèse d’un monothéisme congénital. Notre propos ne vise aucunement à remettre en cause cette thèse devenue désormais classique dans la conceptualisation du mystère de la Déité en instance africaine. Mais c’est encore l’identité des entités ci-dessus mentionnées qui permettra de vérifier la valeur de cette thèse faute de quoi elle pourrait friser du sophisme. Pour le faire, nous nous appuierons sur deux vocables qui servent à désigner ces entités spécialement au Bénin et dans certains pays limitrophes: “orisha” et “vodun”. Identité des “orisha” et leurs liens avec “Olodumare” (Déité absolue) Partons ici des intuitions du professeur B. Idowu, originaire du Nigeria (pays voisin du Bénin) telles qu’elles apparaissent dans son ouvrage intitulé: “Olodumare”, God in yoruba belief. Comme on peut déjà l’observer dans le titre de l’ouvrage, la problématique du professeur B. Idowu n’est pas exclusivement christologique mais plus amplement théologique. Elle vise à appréhender le mystère de la Déité telle qu’elle se conçoit chez le peuple yoruba. Sensible à la richesse sémantique des vocables en cette aire culturelle

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dominée par l’oralité, il scrute tous les concepts liés à “Olodumare’ ou Déité absolue. C’est à cet effet qu’il passa en revue toutes les approches possibles du vocable “orisha” qui est le nom générique de ce qu’on nomme, en ce milieu, divinité. D’après ses analyses, “orisha” serait une émanation de la Déité ellemême. En effet, l’analyse du vocable orisha permet de mettre en exergue un substantif (ori: tête) et un verbe (shè: découler de). Il admet alors un Ori originant qu’il nomme “Tête-Source” (Head-Source) d’où découleraient les “ori secondaires” ou “orisha”10. Il en conclut un monothéisme yoruba qui sera aussi partagé par certains de ses collègues théologiens de la corne de l’Afrique11. Les “orisha” seraient donc des entités spirituelles comparables à la catégorie angélique dans la révélation chrétienne. Sans partager cet émanantisme du théologien protestant, force nous est d’admettre que les “orisha” proviennent de la Déité absolue, certes, non en tant qu’émanation mais en tant que créatures. Il est à peine besoin de relever, par ailleurs, l’ambiguïté semée dans les coeurs des fidèles du Christ suite à ces théories. Un tel enseignement ne saurait qu’encourager la schizophrénie qui est déjà le lot commun de bon nombre de chrétiens tiraillés entre les religions traditionnelle et chrétienne. On pourra affirmer par la suite que le Christ est l’“Orisha” des “orisha” ou “Vodun” des “vodun”, cela ne fera qu’agrandir le fossé entre une foi authentiquement chrétienne et des fantaisies réflexives. Soutenir de pareilles thèses n’est-ce pas minimiser la complexité de ce monde rigoureusement fermé qu’est celui des “orisha”. C’est aussi opter délibérément de passer sous silence la dimension purement magique des “orisha” qui est la dimension la plus généralisée aujourd’hui. Le cardinal Josef Ratzinger a vu juste lorsqu’il écrivait: «On constate à présent que ce qui est bon et tourné vers l’avenir, je dirais la dimension de “l’avent” des anciennes religions, s’effondre parce que cela semble incompatible avec la nouvelle compréhension du monde et de l’homme, alors que la magie, au sens le plus large du terme, tout ce qui promet du pouvoir sur le monde, reste intacte et devient pour la première fois déterminant pour la vie. Les religions perdent leur dignité parce que le meilleur en elles est éliminé et seul reste le dangereux»12. Le théologien béninois, B. Adoukonou, averti de la structure interne des vodun – nom générique des “orisha” dans l’aire culturelle “fon” – sera plus réservé quant à leur identité et à leur mystère. L’ÊTRE ET LE MYSTÈRE (TRANSCENDANT)

DES

“VODUN”

ET LEUR RÉFÉRENCE À

MAWU

La passion du père B. Adoukonou pour les recherches sur le vodun s’est déjà exprimée par de nombreuses publications13 sur le thème. Sa conviction de base est qu’une théologie de réappropriation chrétienne du vodun est possible. Mais il précise immédiatement qu’une telle théologie devra être

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une théologie qui place le vodun dans la nécessité de se prononcer sur la rencontre du Même et de l’Autre et sur l’“avenir de la rencontre” (Sidibé)14. L’altérité préconisée par ce théologien est à la fois horizontale et verticale. B. Adoukonou admet la genèse anthropologique des vodun qui, selon lui, accèdent au rang de divinités par un processus d’ancestralité. Leur référence au Transcendant est également ici reconnu. En effet, audessus des vodun apparaît Mawu, Etre mystérieux et transcendant, qui n’est objet d’aucun culte public. Il est évoqué et au besoin invoqué mais sans qu’il ait un impact direct sur le cours normal de l’existence humaine. Le père B. Adoukonou sait, par ailleurs, que le pouvoir des adeptes de ces entités leur vient essentiellement de la vertu des plantes. Lui-même reconnaît que ces «phytothérapeutes ont développé […] une double dimension de leur savoir acquis: la dimension magique de bienfaisance ou de nuisance […] et la dimension d’institutionnalisation du culte en hommage à l’être mystérieux qui fait signe sur le corps du monde et avec lequel le magico-thérapeute vodun a noué alliance»15. C’est ce qu’il appelle la dimension magico-sorcière du vodun qu’il dissocie avec netteté du vodun lui-même. La distinction entre les diverses manifestations des “phytothérapeutes” est indubitablement valable aussi pour les vodun. Il est certain, du moins pour ceux qui en savent quelque chose, que les vodun peuvent se ranger sous deux catégories: les mauvais et les bons. Le théologien béninois ne semble pas prendre en compte cette distinction. Il admet plutôt que le vodun est ontologiquement bon; le mauvais en lui y est introduit par le magico-sorcier. Cette conviction est certainement exacte au niveau notionnel. Par contre, la réalité est là que le vodun constitue un système clos dans lequel la partie représente le tout. Mieux, sa qualification ontologique lui vient de sa source ontologique qui peut être l’intention, la pensée, la philosophie ou l’idéologie humaines qui la sous-tend, d’une part, puis l’usage humain que l’homme en fait, d’autre part. En effet, le vodun est non seulement sorti ses mains, mais il est aussi à son pouvoir, même s’il semble le dépasser dans l’échelle culturelle des êtres. Par ailleurs, chercher à extraire du bon dans ce système n’est déjà pas facile. Y déceler exclusivement des figures du bien est encore plus difficile. D’où le désarroi de certains chrétiens face à l’intérêt porté au vodun. Cette attitude leur apparaît comme un retour déguisé à une pratique dans laquelle certains chercheurs16 ont de la peine à percevoir un quelconque bien. La vérité est que le drame semé dans certains esprits par ces phénomènes ne saurait tolérer nos pieuses élucubrations. Il faudra aussi ajouter que le lien entre le cultuel et le culturel, d’une part, puis l’imbrication de la magie à la religion d’autre part, sont si prononcés que la chance d’un quelconque succès en ce domaine est très réduite. Le plus redoutable est que certains magico-sorciers poussent l’audace jusqu’à l’effronterie en implantant la croix du Christ au milieu des symboles de leurs divinités faisant ainsi du Monogène du Père un élément du

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panthéon de leur royaume. Comment parvenir alors à annoncer Jésus Christ dans sa vérité à partir d’une “appropriation chrétienne du vodun”? En tout cas, la tâche semble ardue autant pour le catéchiste que pour le théologien. La mission dans nos pays africains n’aura quelque chance de réussir qu’en inventant de nouvelles pistes pour une christologie ouverte et dynamique.

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PISTES D’UNE CHRISTOLOGIE OUVERTE ET DYNAMIQUE Ce titre, aussi audacieux qu’il puisse paraître, n’a aucune prétention de dirimer les difficultés inhérentes à la confession de la singularité du Christ dans l’univers africain. Il a, encore moins, l’ambition d’absolutiser une quelconque piste de christologie en instance africaine. Une telle entreprise est logiquement impossible tant il est vrai que toute remise en cause d’un système de pensée comporte en elle-même les germes de sa propre remise en cause. Mieux, le mystère du Christ transcende toute conceptualisation aussi pertinente soit-elle. C’est pourquoi, en Afrique comme ailleurs, il convient de prendre très au sérieux la belle intuition de F. Kabasélé, à savoir: le Christ est l’“au-delà des modèles”. Nos suggestions de pistes pour l’intelligibilité de l’Evénement Jésus Christ visent à satisfaire à une problématique christologique d’interculturalité dans laquelle l’ouverture et la “dynamicité” des concepts transcendent leur culturalité. Trois points sont ici à prendre en considération: rejet d’une complaisance anthropologicothéologique; appropriation chrétienne du fait religieux dans l’homme africain; mise en place d’un langage christologique ouvert et dynamique. Rejet d’une complaisance anthropologico-théologique L’honnêteté intellectuelle et surtout théologique nous oblige à lire les diverses sacralisations de la nature chez les Africains comme de véritables déviations du fait religieux inscrit en tout être raisonnable. En effet, pas plus que les Grecs et les Romains, les Africains ne sauront accueillir le monothéisme judéo-chrétien qu’en se débarrassant des multiples visages du divin dans leurs cultures. La critique paulinienne de la déviation religieuse chez les Romains ne saurait comporter aucune restriction par rapport aux diverses manifestations idolâtriques en Afrique (cf. Rm 1,23-25). La confession de la singularité du Christ en instance africaine suppose que soit dénoncée dans cet univers culturel cette propension humaine à créer un dieu à notre mesure et à lui vouer un culte au détriment du Dieu unique et véritable. Sans doute, en fabricant le veau d’or, le peuple d’Israël ne pensait pas prendre congé de Yahvé; c’est la transcendance de Dieu par rapport à la créature qui est toujours utilisée comme le prétexte à l’idolâtrie. Celle-ci provient précisément de la volonté de l’homme de briser la distance entre le

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Transcendant et l’immanent. Il importe donc d’éviter, à tout prix, tout concordisme conformiste visant à voir dans le Christ un “Super Vodun” présidant aux autres vodun de quelque manière que ce soit. Jésus Christ ne sera perçu dans sa vérité ontologique qu’une fois soustrait, de façon adulte et courageuse, de ses formes de médiation avec lesquelles on a souvent tendance à le confondre. Sans toutefois prôner une christologie de tabula rasa, il nous semble impérieux de purifier les consciences de toutes conceptions susceptibles de créer ou de maintenir en eux une confusion qui fragiliserait l’expression de la vraie foi en Jésus Christ. Pour le faire, il importe de corriger même chez des théologiens certaines expressions ou formules ambiguës. Ainsi, par exemple, à l’expression “appropriation chrétienne du vodun”, on pourrait substituer “appropriation chrétienne du fait religieux dans l’homme africain”. Appropriation chrétienne du fait religieux dans l’homme africain Notre propos, répétons-le, n’est aucunement de décourager les investigations dans le monde vodun ou orisha. Le souhait qui est ici formulé est d’éviter, autant que faire se peut, des ambiguïtés dans le langage surtout théologique. Une appropriation chrétienne du vodun nous semble personnellement une entreprise impossible. Le vodun est un système trop structuré pour qu’il soit possible d’en envisager une appropriation chrétienne. Si l’on admet que le vodun est un système religieux, il faudrait immédiatement reconnaître que son âme est tout sauf le Christ. Pour qu’il soit accueilli par le Christ, il ne suffira point d’ôter son âme pour lui en donner une autre, la chrétienne. Cela, dit le cardinal Ratzinger, ne tiendra point. Ce qu’il importe de découvrir c’est ce-dont-le-Christ-estl’âme dans ces cultures. A notre sens, il est essentiellement l’âme du fait religieux, entendez, cette inclination naturelle à se tourner vers le transcendant et qui est commun à tous les êtres raisonnables. Dans cette orientation, la mission du théologien ne se limiterait plus à séparer le vodun du magico-sorcier (tâche d’ailleurs impossible à réaliser) mais plutôt à accéder à cette source commune à laquelle les adeptes des vodun et des orisha ont puisé avant l’avènement de l’Evénement Jésus Christ en Afrique. Cette source commune est précisément le patrimoine commun à tous les hommes placés dans un même univers culturel. C’est justement de cette source commune que le Christ est l’âme en Afrique comme en Asie, en Amérique comme en Europe et en Océanie. La pluralité théologique est possible et même nécessaire précisément à cause de la diversité de ce patrimoine dans chaque peuple. C’est un fait, par ailleurs, que les plus fidèles gestionnaires de ce patrimoine commun restent, tout au moins chez nous, les adeptes des vodun et des orisha. Pour accéder à ce patrimoine il est quasiment impossible de

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passer outre ces gestionnaires. Le risque d’accueillir l’héritage commun avec les vodun ou les orisha qui les véhiculent aujourd’hui est très grand. La qualité de nos investigations dépendra de la dextérité à sauver l’enfant sans s’encombrer de l’eau du bain. En effet, c’est seulement en allant au-delà des vodun et des orisha que nous pouvons rencontrer Jésus Christ par qui tout a été fait et grâce à qui tout se maintient dans l’existence. Une telle tâche exige de nous de mettre en place un langage christologique ouvert et dynamique.

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Mise en place d’un langage christologique ouvert et dynamique Pour que la singularité du Christ soit confessée en Afrique en esprit et vérité, il serait souhaitable d’emprunter trois pistes que synthétisent trois couples conceptuels: kénose-exaltation, altérité-interculturalité et singularité-universalité. Kénose-exaltation. En proposant la piste de l’exaltation, nous entendons mettre un terme à une théologie de lamentations. C’est un truisme, en effet, d’affirmer que la théologie en instance africaine a beaucoup évolué en termes de plaintes. Il est vrai que, du point de vue matériel tout au moins, les Africains ne sont pas les plus nantis aujourd’hui au niveau mondial. Cependant, il semble possible de lire autrement cette situation que sous forme de plaintes. Le point culminant de la révélation chrétienne, nous le savons tous, c’est le mystère de la passion mort et résurrection de Jésus de Nazareth. Dans sa situation actuelle, l’Afrique peut tirer un bel enseignement de ce mystère: celui de se convaincre qu’il n’y a pas de kenose sans exaltation. Le Dieu des chrétiens est foncièrement celui qui prend plaisir à déployer sa puissance en faveur du faible et de l’opprimé. S’il est donc vrai que les peuples africains vivent aujourd’hui dans une situation kénotique, il est du rôle du théologien de leur annoncer un Christ, jamais annihilé par l’abaissement ou la mort, mais glorifié à cause précisément de son abaissement. Une telle profession de foi suppose que l’on continue de croire que la vie que nous communique le Christ glorifié et exalté est une vie où s’exprime l’identité de tous ses disciples dans une différence qui devient richesse. Pour que cette profession ne soit donc pas un pur piétisme qui paralyserait l’action, elle devra être accompagnée de la dynamique de l’altérité. Altérité-interculturalité. Le Christ, en raison de son incarnation rédemptrice et de son rang au sein de la Trinité, est désormais pour nous le modèle parfait de l’unité dans la différence. Le drame actuel de la plupart des pays africains est l’oubli ou la négation de l’autre. Confesser le Christ comme modèle parfait d’altérité c’est revenir à l’essentiel du christianisme pour nos peuples. Accueillir le Christ, ce sera d’abord l’identifier à tout homme puis le recevoir comme le vrai garant de l’unité dans la différence. Une christologie de l’altérité serait en ce sens plus dynamique et même dynamisant qu’une christologie privilégiant excessivement certaines catégories trop sociales et partant trop restrictives. Le Christ que nous

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proclamons c’est celui qui fait de l’homme une bénédiction pour l’homme. Lui-même a été bénédiction du ciel pour notre terre et l’accueillir réellement c’est devenir bénédiction du ciel non seulement pour sa famille, son ethnie ou son clan mais pour les membres de la grande famille de Dieu qu’est l’Eglise voire l’humanité. Tout discours sur le Christ en instance africaine s’inscrivant sur la piste de l’identité et de la différence jouira incontestablement d’une pertinence à cause de son ouverture virtuelle et même effective sur l’universel. Singularité-universalité. C’est un fait que la singularité du Christ - qui va de pair avec son universalité – passe difficilement dans certaines cultures et chez un bon nombre de théologiens. La crédibilité de la christologie en instance africaine ne résidera aucunement dans un quelconque compromis avec ces systèmes de pensées mais plutôt dans sa capacité à exprimer en concepts et en faits le mystère exagérément étonnant que Dieu nous a communiqué en son Fils dans sa pureté originelle. Affirmer que le Christ est l’au-delà des modèles, c’est beaucoup, mais encore faut-il insister qu’il est l’auteur de tous les modèles lui par qui tout a été fait. Il importe donc que le discours christologique soit assez performant pour exprimer aux peuples concernés que le Christ est cet Etre singulier et universel capable d’atteindre chacun dans sa culture qu’il porte à l’universel et même à l’éternité. L’accueil généreux de la singularité du Christ et de son universalité ne constitue aucunement une dérogation aux valeurs constitutives de notre patrimoine culturel. Mieux le Christ sera connu et adoré dans son mystère insondable, mieux nos cultures auront la chance de résister au danger d’autarcie et de disparition. Par sa singularité, le Christ reconnaît le caractère spécifique de nos cultures tout en les interpellant dans ce qu’elles ont de négatif, dans un échange de valeurs où sa singularité devient normative; par son universalité, il les ouvre à l’universel et les fait rencontrer les autres cultures du monde dans un dialogue respectueux et constructif, pour déceler et offrir ce qu’elles ont de meilleur. La confession du Christ comme l’Universel Concret confirme enfin nos cultures et nos peuples dans leur identité singulière comme unité et communion. CONCLUSION Essentiellement communes à tous les peuples et cultures du monde, les difficultés inhérentes à la profession de foi en la singularité du Christ ont leur spécificité en Afrique. Le risque est toujours grand de chercher à esquiver ces difficultés par une certaine condescendance par rapports aux diverses entités ou figures du divin dans cette aire culturelle. La génération précédente de théologiens africains n’a pas toujours su éviter ces risques. Dans ces cas, le désarroi semé inconsciemment dans les coeurs des chrétiens est au-delà du bien qu’on croyait leur offrir.

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Gaston Ogui Cossi

La jeune génération de théologiens africains a, en ce domaine, un grand défi à relever. Le relativisme qui a marqué la fin du 20è siècle dans presque tous les domaines du savoir ne manquera certainement pas d’exercer, au 21è siècle, son influence sur elle. La survie de la foi en Afrique, comme celle de la culture aussi d’ailleurs, dépendra de la fidélité de ces théologiens à l’Esprit qui crée toute chose nouvelle tout en préservant de l’erreur. Aurions-nous le courage de renoncer à tout conformisme pour nous élancer sur les pistes de conceptualisations audacieuses prenant en compte la quintessence du patrimoine africaine sans rien sacrifier de l’essentiel du mystère de l’Homme Dieu? Cela est à souhaiter!

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Notes 1

Le lieu principal de nos investigations est le Bénin, petit pays de l’Afrique occidentale. Elles s’étendront toutefois à d’autres pays de la corne de l’Afrique et même de l’Afrique centrale. 2 Nous nous inspirons dans ce paragraphe de notre récente thèse de doctorat: Le Christ comme l’“ Universel concret”, PUG, Rome 1999, pp. 67-81. 3 Cf. F. KABASÉLÉ, J. DORÉ, R. LUNEAU (éd.), Chemins de la christologie africaine, coll. “Jésus et Jésus-Christ”, 25, Paris, 1986. 4 Hormis quelques thèses récentes de doctorat sur la question, il n’y a vraiment pas, à notre connaissance, d’études monographiques sur le mystère du Christ parmi nos grands théologiens béninois. 5 C. DUQUOC, Christologie. Essai dogmatique, I: L’homme Jésus, coll. “Cogitatio Fidei”, 29, Paris 1968, p. 12. 6 E. SAMBOU, Rencontre et altérité. Thèse de doctorat, Toulouse 1983, XII. 7 Cf. J.E. PENOUKOU, “Christologie au village”, in F. KABASÉLÉ, J. DORÉ, R. LUNEAU (éd.), Chemins de la christologie africaine, op. cit., pp. 96-101. 8 Cf. J.M. AGOSSOU, “Gbèto et Gbèdoto”. L’homme et le Dieu créateur selon les suddahoméens. De la dialectique de la participation vitale à une théologie anthropocentrique, coll. “Christianisme et Culture”, 2, Paris 1971, p. 226. 9 J. RATZINGER, Le Christ, la foi et le défi des cultures, in “La documentation catholique”, 2120 (1995), p. 699. 10 Cf. B. IDOWU, “Olodumare”, God in yoruba belief, London 1977, p. 60. 11 Nous ne voulons pour preuve que l’affirmation du père J.E. Pènoukou selon laquelle Dieu ou, s’il l’on préfère, la Déité absolue serait “l’ultime destinataire des offrandes et des sacrifices” offerts aux “divinités africaines”; cf. J.E. PENOUKOU, Religions africaines et foi chrétienne comme source de relations interpersonnelles, d’intégration et de transformation, in “Savane et Forêt”, numéro spécial, 1er trim. 1982, p. 467. 12 J. RATZINGER, Le Christ, la foi et le défi des cultures, in “La documentation catholique”, 2120(1995), p. 704. 13 Voir, entre autres, ses deux tomes de Jalons pour une théologie africaine sous-titrés Essai d’une herméneutique chrétienne du vodun dahoméen, Paris, 1980 puis sa thèse de doctorat d’état intitulé : Vodun, sacré ou violence. Le Sillon noir (Mewihwêndo) et la question éthique au coeur du Sacré Vodun, 2 tomes, Sorbonne, Paris 1989. 14 B. ADOUKONOU, Jalons pour une théologie africaine, op. cit., II, p. 231. 15 Publication du Sillon Noir: no 08-92 Le Vodun en débat. Proposition pour un dialogue, Cotonou, Octobre 1982, 12.15. 16 Cf. R. GBEGNONVI, Le vodun disqualifié, in “Le Citoyen”, 45(19 août 1996) 6-7.9.

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GUIDO M. MIGLIETTA*

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IL MOTIVO CRISTOCENTRICO DI «ECCLESIA IN AMERICA» COME RISULTATO DELLA RIFLESSIONE TEOLOGICA E PASTORALE IN AMERICA LATINA. Invito a una teologia morale cristologicamente fondata

Alla domanda del convegno «Voi chi dite chi Io sia?» la riflessione spirituale sulla fede che proviene dal “Nuovo Continente”, dalle manifestazioni della pietà popolare alle costruzioni teologiche, risponderebbe: «Tu eres el Señor de las almas» – il Signore delle anime, secondo l’antica devozione andina di Colombia, Ecuador e Perù, “El Cristo de la Concordia” in Bolivia, “Il Liberatore” nell’opera di L. Boff, “Gesù Cristo dei poveri” nell’opera di G. Gutierrez che interpreta l’eredità di Bartolomé de Las Casas come ponte teologico tra il vecchio ed il nuovo continente e radice delle istanze di coerenza evangelica cristologicamente fondata; il Cristo della “Nueva Creación” in Guatemala. L’esigenza cristologia escatologica è riconosciuta con ammirazione e si riflette come contributo spirituale e di pensiero diffuso nella Chiesa universale. All’assemblea del sinodo speciale dei vescovi per l’America, svoltasi in Vaticano dal 16 novembre all’11 dicembre 1997, dei 215 interventi dei sinodali, una quarantina riguardano il tema dell’“Incontro con Gesù Cristo vivo cammino di conversione, di comunione e di solidarietà in America”1, alcuni sviluppandolo direttamente2, oppure articolandolo in relazione con l’evangelizzazione3, la mobilità umana4, l’annuncio ai giovani e la pastorale giovanile5, l’ecumenismo e il dialogo interreligioso6, la liturgia7, la “Missio ad gentes”8, la pastorale sociale rispettivamente sui temi della cultura della pace9 e della dottrina sociale della Chiesa10 e della solidarietà11, la vita consacrata12, le vocazioni e i ministeri13. Lo sviluppo e la costruzione dei temi sopraelencati, a partire dall’“Incontro con Gesù Cristo vivo”, in quanto contenuto ed esperienza, sono operati in profondità, tanto da offrire alla teologia un ventaglio di prospettive, essenziali e utili sia come testimonianza dell’epoca attuale sia per i contenuti arricchenti. Ci si può chiedere se un momento pastorale come un sinodo possa essere occasione di stimolo per la teologia stessa. La risposta è positiva in quanto è prezioso momento della prassi vitale della Chiesa, ineludibile per qualsiasi riflessione sulla fede. Un compito della teologia è di apprezzare in termini più generali quanto è elaborato nella concretezza dell’azione. I termini prima esposti, riguardanti la fondazione cristologico-esistenziale – l’incontro *

Pontificia Università Urbaniana.

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– dei tanti aspetti della vita della Chiesa su cui il sinodo ritorna, non sarebbe significativo cederli come lo sviluppo di una visione tradizionale della fede cristiana in seguito ad un adattamento superficiale. Sono invece il frutto di un cammino teologico e di una riflessione magisteriale al riguardo verso un più marcato cristocentrismo, che si offre come modello, capace di interpretare le esigenze di una prassi di conversione, comunione e solidarietà che da quel cammino e da quella riflessione scaturiscono. Il modello merita di essere studiato come stimolo ed elaborazione esemplare per la teologia. In termini teologici, se prendiamo la riflessione della teologia degli anni Settanta sviluppata in America Latina, che va sotto il nome generale di teologia della liberazione, con varie prospettive e tendenze, che omettiamo qui di esaminare14, troviamo come elemento comune il concetto di “prassi” e la categoria della “prospettiva del povero”. Questa riflessione ha anche un centro, una radice “cristologica”, capace di favorire un’evoluzione in senso teologico a due concetti – prassi e prospettiva del povero – che, come è stato detto, sono insufficienti a mediare la rivelazione di Dio ma, se investiti dalla rivelazione stessa di Cristo e dalla partecipazione in Cristo, aprono nuove prospettive alla teologia stessa15. Vogliamo tenerne conto per le esigenze ed i risvolti che sarebbero propri della costruzione di una teologia morale fondamentale. Mirando alle premesse, in ordine storico ma anche in ordine sistematico, rispetto al punto di arrivo, che è la condizione attuale, prendendo come riferimento il risultato di Ecclesia in America, le premesse da noi identificate sono: a) l’approfondimento cristocentrico della riflessione sulla liberazione; b) l’elaborazione di un concetto di prassi illuminato dalla Rivelazione quindi teologicamente fondato; c) l’esigenza di sviluppare una lettura teologica dell’essere della povertà, del negativo, illuminata dalla Rivelazione16. Sono questi tre temi fondamentali per la teologia. L’EVOLUZIONE IN SENSO CRISTOLOGICO DELLA RIFLESSIONE SULLA LIBERAZIONE Per seguire la riflessione corale della Chiesa latinoamericana, lasciando lo spazio di approfondimento alla ricerca sul pensiero dei teologi del nuovo continente, attraverso i documenti del magistero si riconosce nel testo di Puebla. La Evangelización en el presente y en el futuro de America Latina, della III Conferenza generale dell’Episcopato latinoamericano, 1979, il momento in cui la categoria “liberazione” assume un carattere pienamente cristologico17, intesa come salvezza integrale della realtà umana che ha il suo inizio nella croce di Cristo, e si estende a tutti gli aspetti dell’esistenza umana18. Ha quindi valenza teologica19. Liberazione ha un significato concreto e immediato nelle coordinate temporali dell’esistenza umana, ma è per la liberazione trascendente ottenuta da Cristo sulla croce, che ogni altra liberazione riceve autenticità e la verità di se stessa. Alla domanda se le liberazioni nell’ordine dell’esistenza umana sono frutto della liberazione di Cristo,

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occorre dare una risposta che nasce dal contenuto dell’etica della sequela, da “osserva i comandamenti” a “seguimi” (Mt 19,16-22) quindi il suo contenuto è frutto della liberazione di Cristo; essa è ecclesiale e non semplicemente individuale, pertanto si manifesta nell’ordine dell’esistenza umana facendo risuonare l’annuncio evangelico. Il liberare umano non è segno lontano ma significa l’inizio della Salvezza entrata nella condizione umana, raggiunta con la fede e annunciata con la testimonianza. Le tante azioni delle Chiese locali che si uniscono con i loro differenti organismi a difesa e sostegno dei beni umani fondamentali – vita, salute, dignità umana, educazione, famiglia, lavoro, pace, diritti religiosi – in contesto di evangelizzazione, ben articolate nel documento di Santo Domingo del IV Congresso generale dell’Episcopato latinoamericano e nell’esortazione apostolica Ecclesia in America, fanno parte del cammino di conversione, comunione e solidarietà che nasce dall’incontro con Cristo, fanno quindi parte della sequela salvezza di Cristo. La struttura di mediazione della realtà umana nella condizione presente tra Dio e il creato entra nella salvezza, i cristiani hanno così il coraggio di progettare e applicare un’economia nuova, una convivenza nuova, di rovesciare la globalizzazione in solidarietà, riformulare il diritto, l’ecologia, etc. È l’aspetto dinamico presente in Ecclesia in America. LA PRASSI Chi ha elaborato l’affermazione del primato della prassi sulla teoria come metodo teologico è G. Gutiérrez. La prassi è “atto primo” mentre la teoria, inclusa la teoria teologica, è “atto secondo”20. Il riferimento di G. Gutiérrez è da una parte alla filosofia di Maurice Blondel che attribuisce il primato dell’azione rispetto al pensiero, e dall’altra alla filosofia marxista della prassi, che intende per prassi l’attività produttrice e trasformatrice del mondo, facendo attenzione specialmente alle dimensioni sociali e politiche della stessa. Il concetto di “prassi” preso dal linguaggio marxista è segno e fattore della confusione del tentativo di portare nel campo della comunità credente metodi di analisi e trasformazione sociale mutuati dal marxismo-leninismo. In realtà la prassi ha una trascendentalità prima in filosofia: è l’ambito ineludibile a partire dal quale, solamente, si può scoprire qualsiasi altra verità21. Sempre se si intende per prassi non la contrapposizione tra atti produttivi e teorici, tra atti contemplativi e trasformatori, tra atti morali e atti di devozione, tra atti socio-politici e atti estetici, ma si intende l’insieme degli atti umani – percettivi, intellettivi, emotivi, significativi, volitivi – nella loro diversa struttura. Attraverso la riflessione sulla prassi nella teologia morale si apre una possibile definizione di “campo” – la prassi – entro cui svolgere le considerazioni pertinenti alla disciplina: dall’atto umano, il capitolo con cui si apriva classicamente il trattato di teologia morale, alla prassi22.

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La prassi credente è una prassi investita dalla Lex nova, definita dalla teologia delle Summae, in particolare di san Tommaso, come la grazia dello Spirito Santo che opera nel discepolo per la fede in Cristo: è l’essenziale del Nuovo Testamento, lo specifico, il significato del Nuovo Testamento, il “cuore nuovo” dei profeti, il centro dell’agire nuovo. La riflessione sulla prassi nella comunità credente, e il ricordo della riflessione sulla prassi nei credenti in azione, costituiscono una vera traditio ecclesiale – perché emerge nelle concrete esperienze la grazia – di testimonianza, martirio. La prassi assume qualità cristologiche ecclesiologiche da esaminare ulteriormente.

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L’essere della povertà e del negativo nucleo dinamico della fede-prassi Una teologia sostenuta da una metafisica dell’essere inteso come positivo, è stato detto, non può aiutare a leggere il negativo, l’insufficienza, la lontananza23. Perciò la kénosis cristologica rimane così misteriosa e muto resta l’intelletto della teologia. La prassi dei credenti interpella però la teologia riguardo al tema cristologico-antropologico della prassi dell’uomo-Dio innalzato che soffre e attrae a sé. La domanda si volge ai teologi: «Voi chi dite chi Io sia?». Al centro della riflessione che emerge dall’America c’è questa esigenza sollevata dalla prassi credente, che si volge al Cristo della passione e croce così essenziale in America Latina, ineludibile per qualsiasi teologia fondamentale, e nucleo dinamico per una teologia morale fondamentale che, oggi, sappia impostare la prassi credente a partire dall’essere della povertà, del negativo, dell’insufficienza, della non centralità dalla “prospettiva del povero”24. L’orazione conclusiva in Ecclesia in America rivolta a Gesù Cristo, ne focalizza l’offerta della vita – l’amore all’estremo. CONCLUSIONE Lo sviluppo cristocentrico della riflessione sulla liberazione da un lato, la possibilità di elaborare un concetto di prassi come categoria teologica e di verificare le elaborazioni già effettuate dall’altro, insieme con l’esigenza di sviluppare una lettura teologica dell’essere della povertà, del negativo, sono le sfide alla teologia attuale provenienti dall’area esaminata. I concetti di liberazione da un lato e di possibilità estrema della libertà dall’altro, sono ricondotti ad una centralità cristologica e pratica nella teologia esaminata. Il riferimento antropologico di entrambe suscita un vero interesse per una teologia morale cristocentrica.

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Note

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1

Cf. GIOVANNI PAOLO II, esortazione apostolica postsinodale Ecclesia in America, 22 gennaio 1999, al n. 3: «En coherencia con la idea inicial, y oídas las sugerencias del Consejo presinodal, viva expresión del sentir de muchos Pastores del pueblo de Dios en el Continente americano, enuncié el tema de la Asamblea Especial del Sínodo para América en los siguientes términos: Encuentro con Jesucristo vivo, camino para la conversión, la comunión y la solidaridad en América. El tema así formulado expresa claramente la centralidad de la persona de Jesucristo resucitado, presente en la vida de la Iglesia, que invita a la conversión, a la comunión y a la solidaridad. El punto de partida de este programa evangelizador es ciertamente el encuentro con el Señor», in Acta Apostolicae Sedis, 91(1999), p. 739. 2 Cf. gli interventi, in ordine di successione, di: C. CALDERON POLO, J.L. UROSA, P. INFANTE ALFONSO, A.A. BRAZZINI-DÍAZ UFANO, C. GIAQUINTA, J. RATZINGER, L. LEÓN ALVARADO, W. WAKEFIELD BAUM, F.J. ERRÁZURIZ OSSA, A. MORENO CASAMITJAN, O.M. BROWN. La fonte documentale diretta, alla data della presente relazione, è costituita dai comunicati stampa dei discorsi dei Padri sinodali, rilasciati dalla Sala Stampa del Vaticano nel periodo 16 novembre-12 dicembre 1997. Un testo sintetico è: CELAM-SEGRETARIADO GENERAL (a cura di), Exhortación Apostólica “Ecclesia in America”. Texto y Contexto, Colección Documentos Celam, Santafé de Bogotá 1999; cf. soprattutto pp. 307333, 366-368. 3 C. CALDERON POLO, F.A. FIGUEREDO, A. LORSCHEIDER, J. G. MARTÍN RÁBAGO, A.A. BRAZZINI-DÍAZ UFANO, N. RIVERA CARRERA, J.M. BERGOGLIO, R.J. LAHEY, in CELAM-SEGRETARIADO GENERAL (a cura di), Exhortación Apostólica, ivi, pp. 196-194, 357-360. 4 R. DE LA ROSA Y CARPIO, T.E. MACARRICK, G. CHELI, ivi, pp. 205-210, 373-374. 5 F.A. FIGUEREIDO, J.M. AVILA DEL AQUILA, R. EZZATI ANDRELLO, P. LAGHI, R. DE GONZÁLEZ, I. DANELON: ivi, pp. 179-184, 229-232, 368. 6 J.G. MÁRTIN RÁBAGO, ed ancora: J.L. UROSA, J.M. BERGOGLIO, A. MORENO CASAMITJANA, ivi, pp. 167-178; 351, 354. 7 G. LYRIO ROCHA, ivi, pp. 195-199; 370-371. 8 L. MENDES DE ALMEIDA, ivi, pp. 201-203; 372. 9 I. DUARTE CANCINO, A. SODANO, ivi, pp. 233-242; 381. 10 E.C. BERLIÉ BELAUNZARÁN, ivi, pp. 256-263; 352. 11 D.R. PADRÓN SÁNCHEZ, P.E. ARNS, R. RUBIANO SÁENZ, J. M. ARANCÉDO, J.E. JIMÉNEZ CARVAJAL, G. BREÑA LÓPEZ, ivi, pp. 264-285; 390. 12 E. MARTINEZ SÓMALO, ivi, pp. 287-293; 393. 13 F. ARIZMENDI ESQUIVEL, A. SUÁREZ INDA, D. CASTRILLÓN HOYOS, W. M. ELLIS, ivi, pp. 295-305; 380. 14 Cf. RAMOS REGIDOR, Jesús y el despertar de los oprimidos, “Verdad e imagen”, 85, Salamanca 1984, pp. 58-60. L’Autore distingue, nel periodo successivo alla II Conferenza generale dell’Episcopato latinoamericano (Medellín 1969), la nascita, rispettivamente, di: a) una teologia della liberazione; b) una versione spiritualizzata della medesima; c) una teologia nel contesto dei regimi di “Sicurezza nazionale”; d) una teologia populista o teologia della pastorale. 15 Cf. A. GONZÁLEZ, Teología de la praxis evangélica. Ensayo de una teología fundamental, Sal térrae, Santander 1999, p. 14. L. G. Ramos, nel suo intervento al Congresso missiologico internazionale il 19 ottobre 2000, ha ricordato che ciò avviene non secondo un motivo sociologico ma teologico «Jesús es el primus analogatus de esta constante de elección del pobre, del marginado, del rechazado. Pero así acaece en cada página del Evangelio y las cartas apostólicas…». 16 Sono «le tenebre più splendenti del sole, in cui sono eretti i templi di Dio» di CIPRIANO, Lettera 6,1 in CSEL 3, 481. Occorre domandare alla “fides quaerens intellectum” la ragione di possibilità e di coerenza rispetto a una tale indagine.

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17 18 19

Al n. 450 del documento citato. Cf. i nn. 483-485. J. DE DIOS OLIVERA DELGADILLO, Metodología cristológica y reflexión pastoral en América Latina, ed. Celam, Santafé de Bogotá 1993, p. 222: «Liberación es una palabra que primero tenía un significado primordialmente socio-político-económico, y sólo algunas veces, por analogía, tenía una acepción teológica. En el documento de Puebla estamos en el otro extremo del proceso; el término “liberación”, sin dejar de tener una incidencia en las dimensiones temporales del hombre, tiene ahora un significado principalmente teológico, en torno al cual giran sus demás significados analógicos». 20 Cf. G. GUTIÉRRÉZ, La fuerza historica de los pobres, Ed. Sígueme, Salamanca 1982, pp. 257-258. 21 E. HUSSERL, La crisi delle scienze europee e la fenomenologia trascendentale, EST, Milano 1997, pp. 170-172: «Il mondo della vita […] è sempre il terreno di qualsiasi prassi, sia teoretica che extra-teoretica. […] Il mondo è il campo universale verso cui sono orientati tutti i nostri atti: gli atti della nostra esperienza, della nostra conoscenza, della nostra attività”; cf. A. GONZÁLEZ, Estructuras de la praxis, Ensayo de una filosofia primera, Fundación Xavier Zubiri, Madrid 1997, pp. 65-73. 22 Mutuata da X. ZUBIRI, Inteligencia sentiente, Alianza Editorial, Madrid 1980, come in A. GONZÁLEZ, Teología de la praxis, cit., p. 81, o come nei teologi della prassi che necessitano precisazioni. Nel sistema aristotelico la prassi comprende la teoria del fine umano come forma sua suprema nella frónhsiı e raggiunge il fine contemplato suo proprio nell’operazione di se medesima; mentre è esclusa dalla prassi l’attività produttiva: cf. Etica nicomachea VI, 4, 1140a; VI, 5, 1140b. 23 Cf. A. GONZÁLEZ, Teologia de la praxis, op. cit., pp. 58-60; E. JÜNGEL, Gott als Geheimnis der Welt. Zur Begründung der Theologie der Gekreuzigten im Streit zwischen Theismus und Atheismus, Mohr, Tübingen 1986, p. 249. 24 Cf. J. YOUNG LEE, Marginalità, The Key to Multicultural Theology, Fortress Press, Minneapolis 1995.

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III

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TAVOLA ROTONDA

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GIANNI COLZANI*

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INTRODUZIONE ALLA TAVOLA ROTONDA

Con questa tavola rotonda, il Congresso è giunto al suo ultimo atto. Logica vorrebbe che si provasse a tentarne un primo bilancio. Va detto subito che, mai come in questo caso, il Congresso rimane aperto. Ugualmente può essere di qualche interesse richiamarne gli spunti fondamentali. Il Congresso era stato pensato come una ripresa ed un approfondimento del dibattito cristologico sorto nell’ambito della evangelizzazione in forza della prassi di liberazione, del ruolo dell’inculturazione e del dialogo interreligioso. Questi fattori convergevano nel fare della domanda di Mt 16,15 la domanda missionaria fondamentale; lo sforzo che mira a dare a Gesù il suo giusto nome appartiene alla missione. La missione, che è la prassi della Chiesa nel mondo, si propone così come la modalità originale con cui la comunità credente dà forma alla confessione cristologica. Non solo la missione non assume più una cristologia elaborata a priori, nelle aule universitarie, ma si propone – essa stessa – come l’ambito in cui la fede prende coscienza delle sue possibilità. Il carattere teologico della missione non comporta solo una teologia della missione ma una missione in grado di elaborare teologia. OLTRE UNA CRISTOLOGIA SOLO CALCEDONESE In effetti l’insufficienza della cristologia calcedonese, avviata nei dibattiti seguenti la meditata celebrazione dei suoi mille e cinquecento anni (4511951), ha trovato nella missione il terreno principale su cui svilupparsi. Nozioni basilari, come quelle di natura e di persona, sono lontane dall’essere universalizzabili e appropriabili ad ogni cultura. Proprio questo, però, ha rappresentato la possibilità di fare di una difficoltà un’opportunità per un nuovo approfondimento. Stimolata dalla missione, la cristologia ha assunto volti nuovi. Non senza problemi. Va comunque riconosciuta la fecondità di una simile prospettiva: prima che una difficoltà, essa indica la singolare vitalità e la grande ricchezza che la missione rappresenta per la Chiesa. In queste giornate, molti come Kasper e Geffré, hanno ricondotto questa singolare apertura della figura di Gesù alla kénosis, intesa come conte*

Pontificia Università Urbaniana.

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nuto e come criterio di ogni affermazione di fede. Con una affermazione felice un vescovo di questa Chiesa di Roma, Gregorio Magno, ricordava che «la sua [di Gesù] nascita non avviene nella casa dei suoi genitori ma in cammino. Egli intendeva mostrare che, assumendo la natura umana, nasceva – per così dire – in luogo straniero» (Omelie sugli Evangeli, 8). Esaltando l’estraneità di Gesù al mondo umano, Gregorio intendeva richiamare la grandezza della sua divinità; tuttavia la sua affermazione può avere anche altri significati: Gesù nasce in cammino perché, partecipe della vita di tutta l’umanità, non appartiene a nessun popolo ed a nessuna cultura in modo esclusivo. Non per questo la sua carne ed il suo sangue di israelita sono privi di valori; egli incarna e attese regali della casa di Davide, le speranze di libertà dei profeti, le riflessioni dei saggi; come ha ricordato Bordoni, non vi è modo di incontrarlo se non nella sua singolarità storica. Insieme alla tradizione giudaica, il Gesù in cui crediamo porta con sé anche la tradizione della Chiesa; ogni epoca, infatti, ha contribuito a conferirgli la sua identità personale e apostolica. Così Gesù è stato pensato in chiave personale o cosmica, amartiocentrica o mistica, trascendentale o teodrammatica. Anche qui non senza problemi. Perché pensare che il cammino di quello straniero, che, secondo Lc 24,18-27, spiegava le scritture ai discepoli di Emmaus e li introduceva così nel mistero della sua persona ed, in un certo senso, anche loro missione, sia oggi finito? Riconoscendogli la sua vera identità, la Chiesa riscopre l’essenza della sua fede mentre riprende le fila della sua missione. Il Congresso ha indicato nel pluralismo e nel dialogo interreligioso il punto di partenza di questa nuova problematica; si tratta, del resto, di un punto su cui tutti convergono. Quello che vorrei ricordare è che il pluralismo appartiene da sempre alla cristologia. Gesù, infatti, era vissuto in un ambiente pluralista; oltre all’influenza ellenistica, molte correnti agitavano allora la società palestinese. Con il movimento battista Gesù pratica il battesimo (Gv 3,22) ma lo lega alla conversione del cuore, lo lega cioè al discernimento penitenziale della vita ed alla testimonianza che i figli devono offrire alla tenerezza misericordiosa del Padre; con il movimento dei farisei riconosce l’ideale della santità ed il valore del cammino nelle vie del Signore (Sal 25,4; 145,17) ma, discutendo le tradizioni umane e proponendo l’imitazione del Dio misericordioso, parla di una legge che vuole essere un giogo dolce e leggero; con gli zeloti condivide la certezza che solo JHWH è re di Israele e signore del mondo ma a loro richiama la pazienza storica di quel Dio che lascia crescere insieme, fino alla mietitura, buon grano e zizzania (Mt 13,30). In altre parole Gesù non si sottrae alle ricerche umane ma, anzi, si colloca al loro interno ed in sintonia con i problemi del suo tempo. Non vi è motivo di pensare che questa partecipazione alle ricerche umane sia oggi finita; Gesù è unico e singolare proprio perché è partecipe della vita e dei problemi di tutti. Da qui l’interesse del Congresso per le ricerche oggi in atto circa Gesù. Chi dite che io sia?

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Introduzione alla Tavola Rotonda

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INDICAZIONI PROVVISORIE AL TERMINE DEL CONGRESSO Quello che ha visto la convergenza di tutti i relatori e gli intervenuti è la convinzione che la manifestazione di Dio e l’offerta della salvezza ci sono state date nell’uomo Gesù. Inteso nella sua singolarità, l’uomo Gesù non è la cifra di un qualche ideale umano ma è quel Nazareno che visse in Palestina duemila anni fa. Abbandonando Nazaret, Gesù non prese la strada del rabbinato, la strada dell’esperto della Torah – come sarebbe stato più logico – ma risuscitò la figura dei profeti: prima come profeta di penitenza venuto dal deserto e poi come profeta del regno all’opera nelle città della Galilea. Come profeta del regno, Gesù si impegna a discernere la storia ed, in particolare, a modificare la vita delle persone e le loro relazioni: a partire dal rapporto con l’Abbá, tutta la vita risulta modificata. La sua stessa morte e risurrezione entra in questa dinamica. Leggendo cristologicamente e trinitariamente questa vita umana, questa kénosis, il Congresso ne ha ricavato la convinzione che essa è fondamentalmente amore e che questo amore svela il volto di Dio come Colui che fa spazio all’altro-da-sé, che va verso l’altroda-sé. Geffré ha sintetizzato tutto questo nei termini di una cristologia inclusiva e relazionale al tempo stesso; Bordoni ha insistito soprattutto sulla singolarità di Gesù presentandolo come l’istanza di verità e di verifica di ogni altra esperienza umana e di ogni altra cultura. La cristologia diventa così il fondamento dell’identità della fede e della sua comunicazione: da una parte la missione si fonda sull’identità di Cristo e dall’altra abbandona, proprio per questa sua radice, ogni arroganza per farsi dialogo e servizio. Un altro tema su cui il Congresso ha insistito con forza è quello che la risposta di fede delle comunità cristiane non può essere elaborata in astratto ma deve essere formulata nel contesto della storia di concrete comunità; in questa condivisione storica, l’elaborazione della fede incontra il grido che sale dall’oppressione e dalla miseria così come da un benessere povero di fiducia nella vita, incontra la ricerca di identità di popoli frastornati dalle trasformazioni, incontra lo sforzo di recupero delle proprie radici culturali. La domanda su Cristo ha, in questo modo, una precisa ricaduta ecclesiologica ed antropologica: sia in quanto domanda sia, e ancora di più, come risposta. Quale Chiesa, quale persona vive l’annuncio? E a quale Chiesa, a quale persona dà vita l’annuncio? Da qui la conclusione che la missione può arrivare all’altro solo investendo l’equilibrio di fede delle Chiese, specie di quelle di antica data, solo verificando la qualità evangelica e testimoniale del loro annuncio. Questa attenzione alla storia si è poi tradotta in una molteplicità di analisi e di concetti. Sarà compito di questa tavola rotonda discernerli o ribadirli con uno sguardo sui diversi continenti. Qui vorrei solo ricordare alcuni punti di convergenza, che mi sembra si siano verificati nel dibattito. Il primo è la presa di distanza delle teologie non-europee dalla metafisica occidentale. Segnata da una centralità metodologica e contenutistica del Lógos,

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ha riproposto un’ideologia dell’Uno dimentica della molteplicità, fino a configurarsi come fagocitazione del valore della diversità; è inoltre all’origine di una scissione dell’umano tra ragione e sentimenti, anima e corpo, materiale e spirituale, storia e trascendenza, individuo e comunità che non solo non rappresentano il patrimonio di alte culture ma che, di per sé, appellano ad un’integrità della persona. Queste ragioni, unitamente ad altre, hanno portato a rivendicare il valore delle tradizioni di ogni popolo. L’affermazione che, ormai, un’unica cultura universale – matematica e tecnologica – sta investendo l’intero mondo umano è emersa soprattutto nei gruppi di studio ma non ha trovato un soddisfacente punto di incontro con il bisogno di riscoprire le proprie radici. Un secondo aspetto su cui si è delineata una convergenza riguarda l’esigenza d’una valorizzazione dell’unità della persona in tutti i suoi aspetti: è tutta la persona che è chiamata ad incontrare il vangelo. In verità l’analisi di questo approccio globale ha rivelato, alla prova dei fatti, accenti diversi: chi è partito dalla decisività dell’atto religioso, chi dalla tradizione culturale dei diversi popoli, chi dalla situazione di povertà e di miseria di interi continenti. Ne sono venuti accenti diversi, non necessariamente contraddittori, che hanno illustrato percorsi con particolare attenzione all’aspetto religioso o a quello culturale o a quello economico. A me sembra di dover riconoscere l’animo decisamente evangelico di ogni scelta. Infine credo che, nei nostri dibattiti, siano emerse modalità diverse di intendere la storia. Vi sono alcuni che la leggono profeticamente come un processo continuo nel quale incarnare la memoria dell’alleanza con il Signore e vi sono altri che la leggono apocalitticamente e, rimarcandone l’interruzione più che la continuità, richiamano l’urgenza di una scelta. Mi è sembrato questo il caso di Palacio, là dove al regno opponeva l’anti-regno. Il punto decisivo non è qui la legittimità o meno di questi schemi ma il diverso modo che ne viene di leggere l’inculturazione. Una lettura apocalittica della storia, uno scontro tra il regno e l’anti-regno, non lascia spazio per l’inculturazione ma solo per un fermo decidersi per Dio e per il vangelo. Questi punti, appena accennati, non hanno avuto tra noi sufficiente dibattito. Introducendo la discussione, vorrei comunque richiamare la nitida coscienza che il Signore, vivente nello Spirito, guida la sua Chiesa e che la comunione tra noi di cui la libertà e la franchezza del dialogo è segno, dà a questa tavola rotonda il valore impegnativo di formulare una risposta all’interrogativo cristologico del Congresso che sia in grado di interpretare le aspirazioni di tanti credenti e degli uomini tutti e di formulare un autentico cammino di fede per le nostre Chiese.

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SEBASTIAN KAROTEMPREL*

ASIAN CHRISTOLOGIES AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS FOR MISSION IN ASIA

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1. INTRODUCTION There is no doubt that the theological debate during these last 25 years has shifted from ecclesiology and mission to Christology and its impact upon ecclesiology, Christian mission, and the Christian theology of religions. It is particularly a burning issue in the Asian context where theologians are attempting to re-interpret Jesus Christ or present-day contexts, at times going beyond the foundations settled by the Ecumenical Councils, the Tradition and the present Magisterium of the Church. A re-interpretation of Jesus Christ and his salvific role has been rendered urgent by the teachings of Vatican II on the possibility of the salvation of other believers, the work of the Holy Spirit outside the confines of the visible Church, the re-discovered emphasis on the “Reign” of God, and the renaissance of ancient religions. The re-interpretation has taken different shapes and nuances, from traditional to radical1. It is in the context of the current theological debate that we need to situate the traditional Christology of the Church. They must also be seen in the context of the Synod for Asia, Apostolic Exhortation Ecclesia in Asia and Declaration of CDF Dominus Jesus. 2. CHRISTOLOGY OF THE PRESYNODAL PREPARATORY DOCUMENTS a. The Lineamenta The Lineamenta is the first document of the Synod for Asia, explaining the main theme and the questions which were to be discussed in preparing the Instrumentum Laboris, namely, the document that was discussed in the Synod. The Lineamenta situated creation and redemption within the context of the Holy Trinity2. All creative and redemptive activity springs, according to Christian faith, from God the Father, the Son and the Spirit. The Son or the Logos and the Spirit are active in the world from its beginning, leading all things and peoples to their final goal of communion with God3. *

Pontificia Università Urbaniana.

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The mission of the Logos and the Spirit in history is part of the universal salvific design of God. The new mission is to restore and recreate all things in the image of the Son, the Logos of the Father, by the power of the Spirit, in a visible, authoritative and credible manner4. The Lineamenta still held the fulfilment theory of religions5 even though many Asian theologians have abandoned it. According to the Lineamenta, the Trinitarian framework of creation, salvation and eschatological “glory” lead to the conclusion that Jesus Christ is unique Saviour unavoidable6.

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b. The Instrumentum Laboris Instrumentum Laboris in many ways repeats the same Christology of the Lineamenta. The only significant departure is in the order of chapters. Whereas in the Lineamenta the activity of the Spirit in the world was put first as the background for the mission of the Son, the chapter on the Spirit’s presence and operation in the world was placed after the chapter on Jesus Christ. The chapter on Jesus Christ began with Jesus as man, contrary to the tendency among some Christians to reduce Jesus Christ to his divine nature without sufficient appreciation of the fact that he is equally human. Hence the human dimension of Jesus Christ needs to be emphasised in Asia7. Secondly, the uniqueness and universality of Jesus Christ need to be better situated in the context of the general history of salvation. The real missionary problem in Asia is how to present Jesus Christ as the unique and only Saviour of all. In the philosophical and cultural context of Asia, it is almost impossible to make such Christological perceptions intelligible to Asian peoples. We can present Jesus Christ as the ultimate meeting point between Atman and Paramatman, the infinite and the finite, the human and the divine, immanence and transcendence, the temporal and the eternal, the historical and the cosmic8. But the claim that he is the one in whom all this happens is not easily intelligible or acceptable to Asian peoples. c. Relatio ante Disceptationem In the Relatio ante Disceptationem, curiously enough the order of Spirit and Jesus Christ was reverted to that of the Lineamenta. The Relatio ante Disceptationem, while moving along the same lines as the Lineamenta and the Instrumentum Laboris, made it clear that the doctrinal formulations of the traditional Christology have their origin not exclusively in alien philosophies but in the experience of the disciples. The Christian experience of Jesus Christ was both as man and God, thus permitting future doctrinal formulations about who Jesus Christ is and the value of his saving death and resurrection9.

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Besides, in the Asian context, where religious experience is given primacy over religious doctrine, the Church’s task is primarily to deepen its experience of God in Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit and present Jesus Christ as the focal point of the Christian God-experience10. It is this context, that the Church needs to place new emphasis on the experiential aspect of Christianity rather than on doctrinal aspects.

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3. THE CHRISTOLOGY OF ECCLESIA IN ASIA The Christology of Ecclesia in Asia, though it follows the traditional Christology of the Church, has several nuances of concept, language and approach. In general, while confessing the Church’s faith in Jesus Christ as the only Saviour11, the proclamation of Jesus Christ to Asia is considered an act of service to people of Asia12. The missionary proclamation of Jesus Christ could begin with Indian concepts and categories that are applicable to Jesus Christ and gradually introduce those who are inclined to follow him to the deeper truths about Jesus Christ. a. Jesus as the Source of Life Jesus Christ is the source of life and liberation, for which Asian people are longing: «The Church wants to offer the new life she has found in Jesus Christ to all the peoples of Asia as they search for the fullness of life, so that they can have the same fellowship with the Father and his Son Jesus Christ in the power of the Spirit»13. Again, Jesus Christ is presented as the highest gift that Christians and the Church as a whole can offer to the people of Asia. In this sense, mission is a privilege and duty of the Church. Here one notices that the Christology implicit in chapter II of Ecclesia in Asia in a far cry from the triumphalistic Christology of the colonial period in Asia. But this does not mean that the content of the faith contained in the traditional Christology is watered down in anyway. Jesus Christ is truly human and shared in all existential problems and condition of human existence14. The same Jesus Christ who is fully human is at the same time the Son of God, the pre-existent Logos. Jesus Christ is intelligible only within the context of the Triune God revealed by his life, words, passion, death, resurrection and the sending of the Holy Spirit15. b. Jesus as the Revelation of the Meaning of Human Existence In Jesus Christ, not only God as triune is revealed, but also the ultimate meaning and destiny of human beings are revealed and realised. Hence

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Jesus Christ has a universal salvific significance. This is the essence of Christian faith and the content of the traditional Christology of the Church as Ecclesia in Asia says: «The faith we have received declares that Jesus Christ revealed and accomplished the Father’s plan of saving the world and the whole of humanity because of “who he is” and “what he does because of who he is”. “Who he is” and “what he does” acquire their full meaning only when set within the mystery of the Triune God»16. Hence Jesus Christ is human being’s “Way, Truth and Life” of liberation from sin and all its consequences and the fullness of life. This is what salvation means and this is summed in the Paschal Mystery of Jesus Christ17. In the Paschal Mystery of Jesus Christ, the ultimate meaning of human beings and their liberation from sin are revealed and achieved. Jesus Christ is not only God’s Word but also God’s word about human beings and their salvation that has become incarnate, personalised, made visible and credible: «The Incarnate Son of God not only revealed completely the Father and his plan of salvation; he also “fully reveals man to himself”. […] At that moment, Jesus became once and for all both the revelation and the accomplishment of a humanity re-created and renewed according to the plan of God. In Jesus then, we discover the greatness and dignity of each person in the heart of God who created man in his own image (cf. Gen 1,2), and we find the origin of the new creation which we have become through his grace»18. c. Jesus Christ as the Definitive Word of God and about Human Beings Jesus Christ is the definitive “Word” about God and about human beings in the religious history of humankind. This is the basis of the uniqueness of his person as the Son of God and the Son of Man who alone can reveal the Triune God to us. This is also the basis of the universality of his salvific message and “grace” for all peoples: «Through the Word, present to the cosmos even before the Incarnation, the world came to be (cf. Jn 1,1-4, 10; Col 1,15-20). But as the incarnate Word who lived, died and rose from the dead, Jesus Christ is now proclaimed as the fulfilment of all creation, of all history, and of all human yearning for fullness of life»19. The basis of the revelatory uniqueness of Jesus Christ and salvific and mediational universality does not come from any human factors, merit or claim, culture or philosophy. It wholly depends on what has been accomplished in him: «As the definitive manifestation of the mystery of the Father’s love for all, Jesus is indeed unique, and ‘it is precisely this uniqueness of Christ which gives him an absolute and universal significance, whereby, while belonging to history, he remains history’s centre and goal»20.

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d. Universality of the Salvific Meaning of Jesus Christ The person and message of Jesus Christ has a universal application also to people of Asia with their millennial religions, deep religiosity and spiritualities. No people, no culture, no religion is impervious to the person and message of Jesus Christ: «No individual, no nation, no culture is impervious to the appeal of Jesus who speaks from the very heart of the human condition. “It is his life that speaks, his humanity, his fidelity to the truth, his all-embracing love. Furthermore, his death on the Cross speaks – that is to say – the inscrutable depth of his suffering and abandonment”. Contemplating Jesus in his human nature, the peoples of Asia find their deepest questions answered, their hopes fulfilled, their dignity uplifted and their despair conquered»21. In fact, it is good to remember that Jesus Christ did not found a new religion in the purely sociological sense of the word. He lived and taught others a new way of being human, of relating oneself to God and one’s neighbour, and thus created a new future for humankind. For this he called together a community of disciples and entrusted them with his saving message, the power of the Holy Spirit and the Eucharist, the sacramental and operative symbol of his Paschal Mystery. 4. PROBLEMS OF TRADITIONAL CHRISTOLOGY IN ASIA a. Philosophical and Historical Difficulties Today the acceptance of the person and message of Jesus Christ is made difficult to people of Asia also because of the historical shape they have taken in various cultures, their philosophical formulations and their historical associations. This fact puts a heavy burden on the Local Churches in Asia to reveal ever more convincingly the true Jesus Christ and a Christology that corresponds to the reality of Jesus Christ, if he and his message are to be accepted. What is required in Asia is not only more Christologies, even Asian Christologies or other local Christologies, but Christologies that are capable of revealing in a convincing manner the true features of Jesus Christ in the countenance of the Local Churches of Asia. b. Local Christologies There is today a search for Local Christologies by the Local Churches of Asia. This is, no doubt, an urgent need. But the need cannot be reduced to verbal and conceptual Christologies to replace the western Christology that has prevailed in Asia until now. The people of Asia must be able to see and

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contemplate the true salvific meaning of Jesus Christ on the countenance of the Local Churches. A mere transition from a westernised Christology to Asianised Christologies will not have much impact upon the Local Churches of Asia, on their mission ad gentes or on the peoples of Asia. They must reveal the Jesus of the Gospels, Jesus Christ of the New Testament and the post-apostolic Church.

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c. Christology and Mission There is a tendency to think that the problems of mission ad gentes in Asia arose because missionaries did not have Asian Christologies. If only they had preached an Asian Jesus Christ, it is assumed, everything would have turned out successful. While there is no denying the importance of an inculturated Christology, we should not forget that what impresses the nonChristian is not a doctrinal Christology itself but the Christology that is lived by the Christian. In fact, Ecclesia in Asia seems to stress this aspect of a lived Christology when it says: «But the process must involve the entire people of God, since the life of the Church as a whole must show forth the faith which is being proclaimed and appropriated»22. A third point to keep in mind is that the inculturated Christologies of Asia must be in accord with the apostolic experience of Jesus Christ as witnessed by the New Testament and taught by the Tradition and the Magisterium of the Church. Ecclesia in Asia speaks of two requirements in the search for a truly inculturated Christology: «The Synod expressed encouragement to theologians in their delicate work of developing an inculturated theology, especially in the area of Christology. They noted that this theologising is to be carried out with courage, in faithfulness to the Scriptures and the Church’s Tradition, in sincere adherence to the Magisterium and an awareness of pastoral realities»23. 5. SOME SPECIFIC CHRISTOLOGIES We must admit that there are several truly courageous attempts at radical interpretations of Jesus Christ in Asia. The chapter on Jesus Christ in Ecclesia in Asia must be read in the context of some of the Asian Christologies. It is not possible to mention all of them here. Among the most significant Asian Christologies we may mention the following: Logos Christology, Contemplative Christology, and Relational Christology. There is no doubt that they reveal immense theological erudition, originality of thought and a genuine “missionary spirit” to make Jesus Christ intelligible and acceptable to the people of Asia. Hence they need to be taken seriously. They emphasize some important aspects of Christology that have been

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neglected in the past or have not received sufficient attention by Christians. They also emphasise the mystery dimension of God, and of human salvation which cannot be adequately expressed with human concepts and language which are inadequate to encapsulate them.

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a. “Logos” Christology of Panikkar The starting point of Logos Christology, as proposed by Raimundo Panikkar, is the concept of Logos. “Logos” is the eternal “Reason” or the Rational Principle of the world, that corresponds to “Ishvara” in Hinduism. Logos is then identified with “Christ”. In this sense “Christ” is present in all things. Everything is a manifestation of the “Logos”; everything is a Christophany or Logophany: «Everything is a Christophany, as I have been sustaining for now for half a century. It is not a question of ‘converting’ all the world to Christianity, but of recognising that the nature itself of reality shows a non dualistic polarity between the transcendent and the immanent in all its manifestations»24. Everything is the manifestation of Brahman who is Isvara in relation to the universe. According to Panikkar, Logos Christology gives the broadest base for understanding Jesus Christ and for dialogue among religions. Traditional Christology is a Christian reflection on Jesus Christ meant for Christians and ignores dialogue with other religions25. Christophany redeems Christ from the limitations of time and space, and particularisations of dogmas: «Christophany, though it is a concrete form to express the universal, redeems the figure of Christ from particularistic function. It also disentangles Christ from religious, political and philosophical monotheism as well as anarchic polytheism»26. Whether Logos Christology does justice to the fact of the incarnation of the Logos and the consequent identity of the two is another matter. b. “Contemplative” Christology of Bede Griffiths The “Contemplative Christology” proposed by Griffiths holds that only when one enters into the contemplation of and communion with the Ultimate Reality, which is differently labelled in various religions, can one understand who “Christ” is. The Ultimate Reality is called Brahman in Hinduism27. Brahman is at the same time sat, cit and ananda, namely, reality, pure consciousness and bliss. Christ is the Logos, the Cit, the Pure Consciousness of Brahman. Griffiths holds that Jesus knew himself in the eternal Ground of Being28. He knew himself as the eternal manifestation of the Father, as communicating eternally in the bliss of the Spirit: «His was an experience of personal relationship. The abyss of Being, the divine

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Darkness, the One beyond being, revealed itself to him as the Father, and the bliss of the Supreme, the Divine ananada, revealed itself to him as the Spirit of love, eternally welling up from the depths of the Godhead and eternally returning to its source. Reality itself is this eternal procession of self-manifestation, self-knowledge, and this eternal over flow of bliss, this eternal-self-giving in love». The Divine Saccidananda, the Holy Trinity, lies at the heart of every being. The same Ultimate Reality, according to Griffiths, may be known as Buddha. As Buddha, it has a threefold existence and function. In Buddhism it is called Trikaya. The ultimate reality or Buddha is a Trikaya: the eternal Buddha (Dharmakaya) who is beyond all concepts and categories, the glorified Buddha (Sambogakaya) who has passed from the state illumination to that of nirvana, and the terrestrial Buddha (Nirmanakaya) who is the illumined one who remains on earth in order to show all peoples the way of liberation29. Beyond words, concepts and symbols lies the Reality. At that level all conceptual differences disappear. Jesus like Buddha, Zoroaster, La Tze and the Prophets, is one who has awakened to the mystery that lies hidden in all beings. For Griffiths the only difference is that Jesus Christ is a historical manifestation of the Ultimate Reality while others are not. At the level of contemplation Christ is known as the pure consciousness of the Ultimate Reality or as Buddha. who cannot be known through concepts and names. c. “Relational” Christology of Dupuis Relational Christology proposed by Jacques Dupuis is concerned with the problem of salvation. It is partially critical of both Logos Christology and Contemplative Christology and maintains that Jesus Christ is the ultimate historical manifestation of God and of salvation30. As such, Jesus Christ is constitutive of all salvation. Hence all salvation is related to him essentially and historically. But in the present “economy” of salvation, saving grace and truth are operative in the religions of the world which are not available in the Christian tradition: «More divine truth and grace are found operative in the entire history of God’s dealings with humankind than are available in the Christian tradition»31. The saving truth and grace in other religious traditions will be recapitulated in Jesus Christ in the eschatological times: «An eschatological “re-heading” (anakephalaiosis Eph 1,10) in Christ of the religious traditions of the world will take place at the eschaton, and it will respect and preserve the irreducible character which God’s selfmanifestation through his Word and his Spirit has impressed upon each tradition. This eschatological re-heading will coincide with the last “perfection” (teleiosis) of the Son God, as “source of eternal salvation” (Heb 5,9) whose influence remains, until this final achievement, subject to

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an “eschatological remainder”»32. Because of the constitutive relationship of all saving grace and truth with the historical Jesus Christ, the Christology proposed by Dupuis may be called Relational Christology.

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6. RELATIVISTIC TENDENCIES All these Christologies are courageous attempts at Inculturation of “Jesus Christ” in the Asian Hindu and Buddhist cultures. They are sincere and laudable attempts at recalling all, especially Christians, to the essential and ultimate significance of Jesus Christ for salvation. They also point to the deepest human intuitions of humanity on the horizon of the ultimate mystery of God, the universe, man and his ultimate liberation from sin and evil in all its varied forms, the ultimate silencing of all passions and illusions from which the latter spring and the final goal of freedom from the tyranny of impermanence and transience. When we compare the these new Christologies in Asia with the Christian faith in Jesus Christ as the Son God and Son of Man, we realise that they are not fully in agreement with the traditional Christology of the Church. There is some kind of tendency to relativisaion of the Christian faith. There seems to be some discrepancy between them and the Christian Faith, though the extent of discrepancy is not the same in each case. Christian Faith is the result of a historical experience of God as Father, Son, and the Spirit through a historical revelation. It has its origin in the experience of Jesus Christ as divine and human. In the light of experiential faith, and the doctrinal formulation arising out of it in Christian Tradition it is difficult to go back to the reduction of the historically manifested realities of God and human salvation to vague concepts and categories. Vatican II took a positive approach towards religions and the possibility of salvation of non-Christian believers33. At the same time the Council reaffirmed that all salvation is in Jesus Christ through the work of the Holy Spirit who gives to all the possibility of participation in the Paschal Mystery of Jesus Christ. In effect it was affirming that there is no salvation outside of Jesus Christ and the Paschal Mystery: «By this revelation then, the deepest truth about the God and the salvation of man shines forth in Christ, who is at the same time the mediator and the fullness of all revelation»34. Post-conciliar period has witnessed, in some cases at least, a theological revolution towards a relativistic attitude to religions and the matter of salvation. Theology of Religious Pluralism both in the West and in Asia has tended towards Radical Religious Pluralism as a matter of doctrine. Consequently, some feel that Christian mission has been given a new interpretation and the proclamation of Jesus Christ as Saviour is relegated to the periphery of the Church’s activities. This seems to be fear expressed by Dominus Jesus: «The Church’s missionary proclamation is endangered

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today by relativistic theories which seek to justify religious pluralism, not only de facto but also de jure (or in principle). As a consequence, it is held that certain truths have been superseded; for example, the definitive and complete character of revelation of Jesus Christ, the nature of Christian faith as compared with that of belief in other religions, the inspired nature of the books of the Sacred Scripture, the personal unity between the Eternal Word and Jesus of Nazareth, the unity of the economy of the Incarnate Word and the Holy Spirit, the unity and salvific universality of the mystery of Jesus Christ, the universal salvific mediation of the Church, the inseparability – while recognising the distinction – of the Kingdom of God, the Kingdom of Christ, and the Church, and the subsistence of the one Church in the Catholic Church»35. Dominus Jesus thus sums up all the various propositions of the new theology of Radical Religious Pluralism and shows that its foundations are week. The new theology of Radical Religious Pluralism is based upon philosophical and theological pre-suppositions36 that are uncritically assumed to be true but not demonstrated. It assumes that religious truth is not attainable; the human intellect is not capable of certitude in religious matters; the infinite truth of God cannot not be revealed in finite and particular historical events and persons such as that of the incarnation, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ; all religious truths are of equal value; the infinite God cannot reveal himself, infallibly and with certitude, to man. Some of these problems have been dealt with in Fides et Ratio by John Paul II37. Dominus Jesus spells out the main philosophical and theological presuppositions of the relativistic mentality in contemporary theology: – – – – – – – – –

The conviction of the elusiveness and inexpressibility of divine truth; Relativistic attitude to truth itself; What is true for some would not be true for others; Radical opposition posited between the logical mentality of the West and the symbolic mentality of the East; Subjectivism that regards human reason as the only source of religious knowledge; Difficulty in understanding and accepting definitive eschatological events in history; Metaphysical emptying of the historical incarnation of the Eternal Logos; Eclecticism of uncritically accepting ideas from a variety of philosophies; Tendency to interpret Scripture outside the Tradition and Magisterium of the Church38.

Some Asian Christologies seem to take for granted one or another of the above philosophical and theological pre-suppositions. The intention may be to make the Christian message more palatable to the Asian people. But it is doubtful if the way to do so is to empty the Christian faith in the mystery of

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Jesus Christ as the fullness of revelation and salvation. The confession of Jesus Christ implies the revelation of the Trinitarian God, the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit. It implies also that salvation for the Christian believer is finally participation in the life of the Holy Trinity. This is gift given to us in Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit by the Father. Yet my confession must made in the context of other religions, other faiths, other faith-experiences, other faith-conclusions, faith-convictions. My answer to the question: Who do you say that I am? must be encased in this twofold context of my faith and the lived context of religions and cultures. The witness of the entire New Testament, the preaching of the Apostles, the first Christian disciples, the early post-Apostolic Church, the Patristic Church and the constant Tradition of the Church are based on the conviction that Jesus Christ is the definitive revelation of God and salvation for all, Jews and Gentiles alike. Hence the Asian Local Churches need to repeat the confession of Peter today in a new situation with all its concomitant problems. 7. IMPLICATIONS OF CHRISTOLOGICAL CONFESSION FOR CHRISTIAN MISSION ASIA

IN

While speaking of the cultural and religious context of Asia and in particular of India, we must keep in mind that the context is not uniform or homogenous. In India alone there are about a hundred million people of tribal/indigenous origin who belong to what is called Traditional Religion, distinct from Hinduism and other religions of India. They are about 10% of the total population of India. There are millions more in all other countries of Asia. They all look to the Church as an liberating agent. Similarly, there are about 200 million Dalits in India who belong to the lowest rungs of society culturally and economically who tend towards the Church for its liberation but are discriminated against if they become Christians. It is in the economic, cultural and political dominance of the majority Hindu community that they do not become Christians so that their political, cultural and economic hegemony is not challenged. It is in their vested interests that they continue to be servants of the dominant classes who view Christianity as a threat to their dominance. The future of Christian mission in Asia must be anchored on two realities: the reality of Christian confession of Jesus Christ and what that confession implies, namely, the confession of a Trinitarian God, the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit and human salvation. Peter’s confession is not merely a confession of Jesus Christ as the Son of God, but a confession of the Father and the Spirit. This confession is the gift of the Spirit. Secondly, salvation for the Christian believer is concretely, a participation in the life the Trinitarian God, which is for him the fullness of life. Thirdly, conversion is not only a human activity, but also a gift of God. Fourth, evangelization is

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sharing one’s faith-experience, Trinitarian God-experience in Jesus Christ through active witness in word and deed. On the other hand, Christian mission of the future must keep a constant eye on the context, not merely the text, or the given in revelation. I must express my faith in Jesus Christ in love, service and respect for the other. Our future missionary confession must be positive and not negative, condemnatory, or disparaging in language or with an attitude of superiority. I must be aware of the implications of what I proclaim and share, and what I do not say. In the Asian context, I need to explain what I mean by my God-experience, faith-experience, conversion, and evangelization as sharing my God-experience in Jesus Christ of the Trinitarian God. I must make clear what I mean by salvation as participation in the life of God which is also my self-realization for which all human beings long. Christian proclamation is not a proclamation of abstract dogmas that have been formulated in alien cultures and philosophies, and in totally other historical and political contexts than those of Asian peoples. It is not a proclamation of dogmas, but the person of Jesus Christ. God sent his only Son into the world not to proclaim dogmas, though dogmas have their own value and role at a given time, but to be the truth, the way and the life in human flesh, that all may have life, and have it abundantly. Jesus accomplished his mission through his paschal mystery of his death and resurrection. In the paschal mystery of Jesus Christ, we have the revelation of the Triune God and man, and the fullness of salvation. It is the unique expression of his supreme obedience to God as Father and his self-giving to his neighbour. The paschal mystery is the beginning of all true Christology and the end of all mission. All Christians are called to live this mystery, share it with others in word, deed and sacrament whenever and wherever possible. There is an urgent need to proclaim and share it with others. The paschal mystery redeems all cultures and religions in so far as there is sinfulness in them. Hence Christian mission is absolutely urgent and no culture, no people, no religion is outside the ultimate meaning of the paschal mystery of Jesus Christ. Conversion is God’s gift to Peter. Even today, it is God’s gift to whoever would be “Peter” in Asia. Jesus did not condemn those who had other opinions than Peter’s about himself. But he declared the blessedness of Peter for being willing to receive this gift from the Father. Conversion is brought about not by the missionary, but by the Father of Jesus Christ through the working of the Holy Spirit and it remains a mystery. Proclamation of abstract truths without reference to the context can do only more harm than good to the very cause of mission that we want to promote. Hence the local churches must develop a new language of faith, not a new content of faith, a new language of mission, a new language of other religions, a new language of salvation, a new language conversion, etc. The tone and language of what I say are equally important to mission. Thus,

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if I say: «Christian religion is the only true religion in the context of people with three millenniums of religiosity», the implication is that other religions are false. Secondly, I must be clear about what the word religion means to different cultures and believers: Is it my relationship with God? Is it my God-experience? Is it an assemblage of creed, cult, law? Is it a way of the spirit? Is it as social phenomenon? Though not intended, it can be an insult to people who have been deeply religious for four millenniums. Thus the Asian bishops in the first meeting in Taipei in 1974 said: «In this dialogue we accept them [religions] as significant and positive elements in the economy of God’s salvation. In them we recognise and respect profound spiritual and ethical meanings and values. Over many centuries they have been the treasury of the religious experience of our ancestors, from which our contemporaries do not cease to draw light and strength. They have been (and continue to be) the authentic expression of the noblest longings of their hearts, and the home of contemplation and prayer. They have helped to give shape to the histories and cultures of our nations»39. The same sentiments are echoed in Evangelii Nuntiandi by Pope Paul VI: «The Church respects and esteems these non-Christian religions because they are the living expression of the soul of vast groups of people. They carry within them the echo of thousands of years of searching for God, a quest which is incomplete but often made with great sincerity and righteousness of heart. They possess an impressive patrimony of deeply religious texts. They have taught generations of people how to pray»40. Hence the tone and the language of declarations of abstract truths are important both at the individual level and the ecclesial level. At the ecclesial level, the local churches must be taken into confidence to test the sensibilities of the context in which we want to promote mission. Otherwise we will be setting fire to the context and expect others to put out the fires of controversy and fundamentalism. This is also required by the fact the Church is a communion in both ways, namely, the local churches are in communion with the centre of unity in the Church, and the centre is in communion with the local churches. Both are called to communion. Communion is expressed in the exercise of collegiality. Otherwise even the flickering hope of evangelization in Asia will be extinguished because of negative reactions. In the religious and cultural context of Asia what I say about my faith in Jesus Christ and what I do not say is important. While I hold with absolute obedience of faith that Jesus is the Son of God, the revelation of the Triune God, and the fullness of human salvation for all peoples, I will respect those who have other opinions about Jesus and about human salvation. I will also acknowledge that other believers have other faiths and other faithexperiences, faith convictions, and faith-formulations. They deserve my tolerance and respect, while not compromising my faith nor the need and obligation to share my faith with others.

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A new language of faith, mission, conversion and evangelization also implies a new Christology that takes into account also the context. The new Christology cannot be one that denies the ecclesial past and its valid Tradition, but it must put its emphasis on the mission and its success in Asia. The validity of hypostatic Christology remains, but it need not be given an over-emphasis. Perhaps for Asia today, a kenotic Christology is more suited to doing mission. Kenotic Christology has a missionary impact. Precious as the confession of Peter is, there are also examples of a kenotic Christology and kenotic confession in the New Testament. The centurion’s confession when he saw Jesus dying on the cross is an example. Spontaneously he confessed that Jesus is the Son of God. Thus Mark says: «And when the centurion, who stood there in front of Jesus, heard his cry and saw how he died, he said, “This is indeed the Son of God”»41. The centurion who was a Gentile, represents the entire Asian world to be evangelised. If the people of Asia can see in the local churches of Asia that they reveal the kenotic Jesus and that they “die” in service, love and reconciliation, some centurions in Asia will certainly say: «This Jesus preached by Christians is indeed the Son of God. We want to be his disciples and have the fullness of life in him».

Notes 1 Cf. R. PANIKKAR, The Unknown Christ of Hinduism, Darton, Longman & Todd, London 1964; rev. ed., 1981; B. GRIFFITHS, Christ in India, Charles Scribners, New York 1966; J. HICK, P. KNITTER, The Myth of Christian Uniqueness, Orbis, New York 1985; S.J. SAMARTHA, One Christ, Many Religions, Orbis Books, New York 1991; P. KNITTER, Jesus and Other Names, Orbis, New York 1996; J. PARAPPALLY, One Christ, Many Christologies, in “Vidyajyoti Journal of Theological Reflection”, 61(1997), pp. 708-718; J. DUPUIS, Towards a Christian Theology of Religious Pluralism, Orbis Books, New York 1997. 2 Cf. Special Assembly for Asia of the Synod of Bishops, Lineamenta, 16, 19. 3 Cf. ibidem, 20. 4 Cf. Lineamenta, 20, 21. 5 Cf. ibidem, 22. 6 Cf. ibidem, 23. 7 Cf. Special Assembly for Asia of the Synod of Bishops Instrumentum Laboris, 24, 25, 29. 8 Cf. Instrumentum Laboris, 30. 9 Cf. Special Assembly for Asia of the Synod of Bishops Relatio Ante Disceptationem, pp.15-16. 10 Cf. Relatio Ante Disceptationem, pp.17-18. 11 Cf. JOHN PAUL II, Post-Synodal Apostolic Exhortation, Ecclesia in Asia 10. 12 Cf. ibidem. 13 Ibidem. 14 Cf. ibidem, 11. 15 Cf. ibidem. 16 Ibidem, 12.

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17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Cf. ibidem. Ibidem, 13. Ibidem, 14. Ibidem. Ibidem. Ibidem, 21. Ibidem, 22. R. PANIKKAR, Christology and Christophany, in “Third Millennium”, XI(1999)4, p. 20; cf. The Hidden Christ of Hinduism, Bangalore 1981. 25 Cf. R. PANIKKAR, Christology and Christophany, op. cit., p. 18. 26 Ibidem, p. 20. 27 B. GRIFFITHS, Return to the Centre, Harper Collins India, New Delhi 1995, pp. 58-59. 28 Cf. B. GRIFFITHS, A New Vision of Reality, Harper Collins India, New Delhi 1995, pp. 113-120; pp. 57 ss. 29 B. GRIFFITHS, Return to the Centre, op. cit., p. 89. 30 J. DUPUIS, Towards a Christian Theology of Religious Pluralism, New York, Orbis, 1997, pp. 385-390. 31 Ibidem, p. 388. 32 Ibidem, p. 389. 33 Cf. Lumen Gentium 16; Nostra Aetate 1,2; Gaudium et Spes 22; PONTIFICAL COUNCIL FOR INTER-RELIGIOUS DIALOGUE AND THE CONGREGATION FOR THE EVANGELIZATION OF PEOPLES, Instruction Dialogue and Proclamation, 29. 34 Dei Verbum 2. 35 CONGREGATION FOR THE DOCTRINE OF THE FAITH, Declaration Dominus Jesus on the Unicity and the Salvific Universality of Jesus Christ and the Church, 4. 36 Ibidem. 37 JOHN PAUL II, Encyclical Letter Fides et Ratio 5. 38 CONGREGATION FOR THE DOCTRINE OF THE FAITH, op. cit., 4. 39 Statement of the First Plenary Assembly of he FABC, Taipei 1974, in R. ROSALES, C. AREVALO (eds.), For All Peoples of Asia, 14, Orbis, New York 1992. 40 PAUL VI, Evangelii Nuntiandi 53. 41 Mk 15,39.

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BÉNÉZET BUJO*

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LA CHRISTOLOGIE AFRICAINE N’EST-ELLE QU’UNE ARCHEOLOGIE CULTURELLE?

Quand on parle de la christologie à partir des éléments traditionnels, il n’est pas toujours clair et certain que ce langage concerne l’Afrique d’aujourd’hui avec ses problèmes de la faim, des maladies, des guerres même génocidaires etc. C’est aussi dans ce sens qu’on peut se poser la question de savoir dans quelle mesure les modèles christologiques qui nous ont été présentés par les africains à ce congrès sont d’actualité pour nous. Dans ce qui suit je ne reprendrai que quelques-unes des idées qui nous ont été livrées hier matin à ce propos. 1. LES DIFFÉRENTS TITRES DONNÉS AU CHRIST Au cours des exposés entendus on nous a proposé différents titres pouvant s’appliquer à Jésus Christ dans le contexte africain. Concrètement il a été question du Christ comme chef, comme Maître d’initiation, comme Guérisseur, comme Ancêtre et Proto-Ancêtre. En tout cela il a semblé que c’est finalement le terme ancêtre qui a attiré la plus grande attention. Cela se comprend quand on sait que toute la vie d’un Africain traditionnel est déterminée avant tout par l’idée d’ancêtre, qu’il le sache ou non. En effet, on ne peut être chef que si on est en communion avec les ancêtres pour être médiateur entre ceux-ci et les vivants de la terre. De même un vrai Maître d’initiation est celui qui conserve fidèlement et jalousement le dépôt reçu des anciens et des ancêtres. Le guérisseur lui aussi n’est authentiquement guérisseur que s’il se réfère aux ancêtres et s’engage à encourager la vie au lieu de la détruire et de devenir un sorcier. Si alors l’ancêtre est si important, comment le concevoir pour un projet christologique authentiquement africain qui puisse rendre justice à la fois à la tradition et à la modernité. 2. LE CONCEPT D’ANCÊTRE ET LE CHRIST COMME PROTO-ANCÊTRE Qu’il soit dit de prime abord que quand on parle des ancêtres dans l’Afrique d’aujourd’hui, il ne s’agit pas simplement d’aller vérifier s’il y a *

Vicerettore all’Università di Friburgo.

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encore des huttes des ancêtres, ou si les libations pour les morts sont encore en vogue, ou si les jeunes d’aujourd’hui s’y réfèrent explicitement. Il faut se rappeler aussi que beaucoup de coutumes et croyances africaines vivent dans les maquis. Dans tous les cas quand on se réfère aux ancêtres, il faut savoir que le langage, les expressions, les gestes et les rites qui ont leur origine dans les ancêtres possèdent une haute signification pour les vivants de cette terre et influencent d’une manière notoire la vie de ceux-ci. Ces paroles, et expressions, ces gestes et rites qui sont répétés par les vivants ont un caractère anamnétique et voudraient relier le passé au présent afin de re dynamiser l’avenir. Bien plus, par ces paroles, gestes, rites, les ancêtres ont écrit leur autobiographie, car en eux et pat eux ils rendent transparentes leurs expériences, leurs heures de malheurs, des souffrances, mais aussi de bonheur et de joie. En reprenant les mêmes paroles, gestes et rites d’une manière anamnétique, les descendants racontent la biographie de leur aïeux, de manière à écrire, à leur tour, leur propre autobiographie. Si telle sont les considérations concernant les ancêtres africains, il serait possible d’appliquer le titre d’ancêtre à Jésus Christ, dont nous faisons constamment la mémoire pour avoir la vie et la vie en abondance (Jn 10,10). 2.1. Jésus le Proto-Ancêtre En appliquant le titre ancêtre à Jésus, on doit bien préciser qu’il n’est pas un ancêtre parmi les autres ancêtres, mais qu’il les transcende tous. Pour bien démarquer cela, il est nécessaire d’essayer de choisir un terme, qui puisse limiter les ambiguïtés. C’est en ce sens que le terme “Proto-Ancêtre” a été choisi. Jésus Christ est prémices de ceux qui se sont endormis. Jésus Christ est le dernier Adam qui, à l’opposé du premier Adam, n’apporte que la vie et la vie en abondance (1 Cor 15,45; Rm 5,12-20). (Le professeur Biguzzi avait parlé de l’unicité protologique du Christ). Mais tout cela a-t-il une actualité pour une Afrique morte, divisée, bafouée, méprisée? quelles conséquences concrètes peuvent-elles découler d’une christologie Proto-ancestrale? Le fait d’appeler Jésus Proto-Ancêtre ne peut pas nous limiter à nos traditions africaines dans lesquelles il y a des vertus, bien sûr, mais aussi des structures du péché. Ce qui vaut aujourd’hui, c’est “qu’après nous avoir parlé par nos ancêtres, en ces jours qui sont les derniers, Dieu nous parle par son Fils qu’il a établi Proto-Ancêtre, le second Adam qui donne la vie en abondance – mais alors, cela doit nous interpeller dans l’Afrique d’aujourd’hui. Beaucoup d’hommes politiques par exemple, en Afrique, en appellent à leur autorité de chef du clan, mais sans assumer la responsabilité et les vertus prescrites par la tradition. Ils versent facilement dans les structures du péché de la tradition. C’est ici que Jésus, le Proto-Ancêtre doit

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devenir décisif pour l’Afrique chrétienne. Si les chefs coutumiers et les ancêtres pouvaient parfois instituer des choses qui manifestement blessent la dignité de l’homme, désormais le Christ vient abolir cela, car c’est à partir de Lui qu’on sait ce qu’est un vrai ancêtre. Il ne s’agit pas d’une simple théorie. Un théologien liturgiste africain me racontai, il y a peu de temps que dans son pays il y avait un chef d’Etat qui se donnait la titre de “léopard” et s’en servait pour sa dictature. Les chrétiens ont introduit le même titre dans leur célébration liturgique pour désigner Jésus, comme le vrai léopard, qui s’oppose au “léopard” dictateur. Du coup les chants et les danses qu’on faisait pour le dictateur se relativisèrent et mirent ce dernier en question. Une deuxième application: La conception de la personne. En philosophie occidentale on nous a appris que la personne se définit comme suit: «persona est naturae rationalis individua substantia » (Boèce!): c’est une substance individuelle de la nature rationnelle. Même si la philosophie moderne occidentale ne se tient pas forcément à cette définition, le point de départ reste tout de même “l’individu” et la “raison”. En Afrique, on l’a souligné, il y a trois dimensions: les vivants de cette terre, les morts (les ancêtres) et les non-encore-nés. Il y a interaction entre ces trois communautés. On n’est pas personne par le fameux “Je pense donc je suis”, mais plutôt par le fait que “j’ai des parents, des amis, des connaissances” et c’est pour cela que nous existons. Cela a des conséquences par exemple au plan éthique, notamment quand il s’agit de définir le statut d’un enfant encore dans le sein de sa mère: souvent, dans la société moderne on discute de savoir quand on peut parler de personne, jusqu’à quel moment faut-il permettre l’avortement. Dans la conception africaine l’enfant baigne dans un faisceau des relations tridimensionnelles: il est en relation avec les ancêtres qui le connaissent et l’envoient, il est déjà aussi en relation avec toute la communauté terrestre qui attend sa venue. On pourrait faire des remarques semblables pour la question d’homosexualité. 2. 2. Jésus Christ, le protoancetre et l’arbre de vie Chez certains groupes ethniques de la religion des grands lacs, on attache aujourd’hui encore l’importance à l’arbre des ancêtres. Je ne citerai que le cas des Bahema de la République Démocratique du Congo. Ce peuple continue encore à planter le ficus sur le tombe des pères de famille. Cet arbre est plein de symboles. D’abord, il est toujours vert, symbole de la vie qui ne meurt pas; ensuite, il a beaucoup de feuilles et des branches, symbole de la multitude des descendants. Finalement il a un latex blanc, semblable au lait dont se nourrissent les Bahema. Dire que le Christ crucifié et res-

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suscité est cet arbre sous lequel tous les événement importants, surtout les rites de réconciliation se déroulent est d’une importance on ne peut plus éminente pour ce peuple, et cela même aujourd’hui. Là où cette tradition existe, il devient impérieux de rappeler cela dans une Afrique où les génocides, les guerres tribales font rage. Jésus Christ le ficus qui tend les bras sur la croix tend ses bras comme des branches qui donnent l’ombre vivante. C’est dans cet ombre qu’il attire tous et réconcilie tous: Il fait la réconciliation par le sens de sa croix. Grâce au rite de réconciliation au nom des ancêtres, l’Afrique traditionnelle savait faire une réconciliation durable, pourquoi ne le ferait elle plus sous l’arbre du Protoancêtre le Christ? On peut donc conclure que dans cette christologie ancestrale, il n’y a pas qu’archéologie, mais des potentialités inouies pour redynamiser et corriger l’Afrique d’aujourd’hui. Même si les Africains commençaient à les oublier, il est impérieux et il est du devoir non seulement de la théologie, mais de l’Evangile de le rappeler aux consciences africaines.

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ROMANO PENNA*

GESÙ CRISTO SALVATORE: CRISTOLOGIA E SUE IMPLICANZE MISSIOLOGICHE

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Un approccio biblico-neotestamentario al tema della missione, se non vuole essere di tipo biblicistico, tale cioè da appiattirsi sul testo senza tenere nel debito conto la dimensione storica che gli sta alle spalle, deve valutare almeno la distinzione tra gesuologia e cristologia. È su questa base che propongo le riflessioni seguenti.

1. IL GESÙ TERRENO NON FU UN MISSIONARIO Sul piano gesuologico, cioè limitatamente al comportamento storico del Gesù terreno, che pur costituisce il fondamento dell’intera fede cristiana, dobbiamo constatare con sorpresa che il maestro o profeta di Nazaret, per dirla chiaramente, non fu un missionario. Stando alle fonti di cui disponiamo, non si possono certo definire missionari né la veloce puntata nel territorio pagano della Fenicia nei pressi delle città di Tiro e Sidone appartenenti alla provincia romana di Siria (cf. Mc 8,24-30; Mt 15,21-28), né alcune incursioni nel distretto pure pagano della Decapoli a est-sud-est del lago di Tiberiade, territorio libero a partire da Pompeo (cf. Mc 5,1.20; 7,31), né il breve giro compiuto nella tetrarchia autonoma di Filippo a nord-est del lago di Tiberiade (cf. Mc 8,27; Mt 16,13), che peraltro sono tutti fatti omessi sia dal vangelo di Luca sia da quello di Giovanni. Un po’ più sulla nostra linea è una visita compiuta nel territorio separato della Samaria, che però, oltre a trovarsi narrata soltanto da Giovanni e quindi non suffragata dal criterio storiografico della molteplice attestazione, sembra solo una sosta durante un suo passaggio attraverso la regione (cf. Gv 4,1-42; l’episodio di Lc 9,51-55 riguarda i soli discepoli). In più, Matteo ci riporta un suo detto che sembra addirittura anti-missionario: «Non andate fra i pagani e non entrate nelle città dei Samaritani; rivolgetevi piuttosto alle pecore perdute della casa d’Israele» (11,5-6). D’altronde, non è pertinente definire missionario il suo ministero all’interno dello stesso Israele, anche se il Quarto vangelo parla più volte di Gesù come di un inviato di Dio1 e la Lettera agli Ebrei lo definisce addirittura apóstolos (Ebr 3,1). La categoria di missionario a suo riguardo

*

Pontificia Università Lateranense.

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sarebbe possibile solo a costo di sottolineare talmente la dimensione divina di Gesù al punto da vedere in lui un non-giudeo che opera in una terra e in una cultura a lui estranee; ma ciò cozzerebbe irrimediabilmente contro i dati storici, per non dire dei fecondi apporti provenienti dall’impostazione metodologica della cosiddetta “terza ricerca” sul Gesù terreno, che riporta in piena luce la sua giudaicità. In effetti, non bisogna confondere sul piano sociologico la sua missionarietà con la sua itineranza: predicatore itinerante Gesù lo è stato a livello di fenomenologia sociale, mentre missionario semmai lo è stato a livello teologico, ma secondo una categoria che, nei casi citati tanto di Gv quanto di Ebr, è di pretta origine postpasquale. E se nei vangeli sinottici leggiamo di una doppia missione da lui voluta, prima dei Dodici (cf. Mt 10) e poi dei Settantadue (cf. Lc 10,1-12), essa in quanto tale, per il fatto che non ha un orizzonte universalistico ma è limitata al solo Israele, risulta atipica e sui generis, priva di prosecuzioni successive (se non forse nel solo giudeocristianesimo: cf. Gal 2,9). L’attività di Gesù e dei suoi primi discepoli, in sostanza, rimase limitata alla terra d’Israele e si svolse tutta al suo interno, tanto che non ci risulta che egli si sia mai recato neanche sulla costa del Mare Mediterraneo a sognare le future conquiste del vangelo oltre il suo orizzonte. In pratica egli si mosse prevalentemente nella Galilea, che amministrativamente parlando non aveva sbocchi sul mare, ma evitò comunque di recarsi persino nelle sue città notoriamente ellenizzanti e pagane di Sefforis e di Tiberiade. In più operò in Giudea, anche se nelle sole città di Gerico e soprattutto di Gerusalemme. Il raggio d’azione del suo ministero, dunque, a livello geografico fu molto ristretto. Tuttavia, dobbiamo constatare che le sue azioni e le sue parole comportarono una carica esplosiva tale da rompere gli angusti confini d’Israele e proiettarsi su orizzonti letteralmente sconfinati. Lo si vede già in un detto attribuito allo stesso Gesù dalla fonte Q: «Verranno dall’oriente e dall’occidente e siederanno a mensa con Abramo, Isacco e Giacobbe, mentre i figli del regno saranno cacciati fuori nelle tenebre» (Mt 8,11-12; Lc 13,28-29). Questo loghion, che propriamente non parla di missio ad gentes ma di convocatio gentium ad Israel, fa vedere bene, se non altro, che nel processo di questo trapasso Israele non è affatto una realtà secondaria, ma assolve ancora una volta a una funzione cruciale, non tanto di trampolino di lancio quanto soprattutto di mediatore di una salvezza che, secondo il profeta Isaia, deve partire da esso ed estendersi «fino ai confini della terra» (Is 49,6) e che realizza l’antica promessa fatta ad Abramo: «In te si diranno benedette tutte le famiglie della terra» (Gen 12,3)2. Il nesso di Israele con Gesù e con il cristianesimo è talmente stretto da porre il problema se il popolo eletto debba essere o non essere destinatario dell’annuncio evangelico da parte della Chiesa, visto che qualcuno lo nega. Lascio però da parte la questione, che mi accontento di accennare solo per sottolineare il ruolo incomparabile spettante a Israele all’interno di una riflessione missiologica. Certo è che

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il numero dei 144.000 segnati secondo il libro dell’Apocalisse riconosce al popolo delle 12 tribù uno statuto molto particolare, prima di allargare il campo visuale e parlare di «una moltitudine immensa, che nessuno poteva calcolare» (Apoc 7,4-9).

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2. L’ORIGINE PASQUALE DELLA MISSIONE L’impegno missionario a raggio universale diventa piuttosto una categoria propria della Chiesa post-pasquale, per quanto sia storicamente discusso se la prima comunità giudeo-cristiana di Gerusalemme (Pietro compreso) abbia esercitato una missione vera e propria, dove la questione è speculare a un’altra, se cioè Israele stesso abbia praticato al tempo delle origini cristiane una sua autonoma propaganda missionaria tra i Gentili. Ma, al di là della sua pratica, una vera teorizzazione della missione sembra sia stata cosa propria del paolinismo o comunque di quelle comunità che, caratterizzate in un primo tempo da cristiani di provenienza giudeo-ellenistica come la Chiesa di Antiochia di Siria, si trovarono maggiormente a contatto con la controparte pagana e meglio predisposte a un confronto con essa. L’abbozzo storiografico di Luca negli Atti non sarà che una interpretazione e insieme la documentazione descrittiva di una prospettiva del genere. Le parole stesse del Risorto agli apostoli, che leggiamo nella finale di Matteo: «Andate e rendete discepole tutte le genti» (28,19), non per nulla appartenenti a uno scritto evangelico situabile nell’area siro-antiochena, proprio perché non si trovano sulla bocca del Terreno (che, anzi, secondo lo stesso evangelista si era espresso in ben altri termini, come abbiamo visto), sono tipiche della fede pasquale e ci conducono inequivocabilmente ad un ambiente ecclesiale. Lo stesso si dica delle parole parallele che sempre il Risorto rivolge ai medesimi apostoli secondo Luca all’inizio degli Atti: «Sarete miei testimoni a Gerusalemme, in tutta la Giudea e la Samaria e fino all’estremità della terra» (At 1,8; cf. 13,47), e secondo Giovanni: «Come il Padre ha mandato me, anch’io mando voi» (Gv 20,21; cf. 17,18). Questa constatazione, se non altro, significa che la Chiesa si sentì in dovere, non solo di raccogliere le parole del Gesù terreno e di rapportarle ai propri Sitze im Leben e quindi di trasmetterle ad uso interno, ma anche di proclamare, ben al di là delle sue parole, la straordinarietà del personaggio stesso e del suo destino. E mi riferisco non tanto alla formulazione del puro kerygma cristologico, quale si trova per esempio in 1 Cor 15,3-5 o in Rom 1,3b-4a, dove si annunciano soltanto gli eventi oggettivi della morte e della risurrezione, tutt’al più col dire che egli «morì per i nostri peccati». Alludo piuttosto alla specifica formulazione soteriologica del kerygma stesso, quando essa esplicita anche l’impatto antropologico degli eventi pasquali, cioè si afferma la necessità di riferirsi a lui e alla sua statura misterica per ottenere la salvezza escatologica. Questo tipo di proclamazione connota anzitutto il linguaggio

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paolino (cf. Rom 10,9: «Se confesserai con la tua bocca che Gesù è il Signore, […] sarai salvo»), ma poi anche quello di Luca (cf. At 4,12: «In nessun altro c’è salvezza, né è stato dato un altrro nome sotto il cielo nel quale noi dobbiamo essere salvati») e infine quello giovanneo (cf. Gv 4,42: «Questi è veramente il salvatore del mondo»). Se ne deduce che all’origine della missione cristiana sta inconfondibilmente la fede pasquale, cioè l’esperienza del Risorto. Detto in breve: all’inizio della missione non c’è tanto la gesuologia quanto appunto la cristologia. Non che la seconda possa sussistere senza la prima, ma essa rappresenta per parte sua un ulteriore, vero inizio. Ciò vuol dire che fu (e quindi resta!) determinante un diuturno e approfondito lavorìo di riflessione sull’identità personale e funzionale di Gesù. È stata proprio la percezione di questa identità a stimolare e a suscitare un giudizio e una presa di posizione nei suoi confronti, tali da vedere coinvolta in lui l’umanità intera. Ed è come dire che si comprese chiaramente che Gesù non era venuto solo per le pecore perdute della casa d’Israele (come si legge in Mt 10,5; 15,24), ma in lui si era semplicemente manifestata la philanthro¯pía di Dio, cioè il suo amore per l’uomo, per tutti gli uomini (come si legge in Tit 3,4). Come spiegare diversamente la dedizione missionaria di un giudeo come san Paolo? E che cosa sta a monte di essa, se non la persuasione che in Cristo «non c’è più giudeo né greco» (Gal 3,28) e che a entrambe le culture, quindi a tutti gli uomini, è destinato il medesimo evangelo della salvezza (Rom 1,16)? Proprio questa persuasione, di chiaro stampo cristologico, lo porta a «farsi tutto a tutti» (1 Cor 9,22), secondo un comportamento che non toglie nulla a nessuno, poiché egli si fa debitore della Legge con chi è sotto la Legge e si fa senza Legge con chi non ha Legge, con lo scopo minimale di «salvare ad ogni costo qualcuno» (ibidem). L’opera di Cristo, dunque anche la fede in lui, non è riservata soltanto alle pecore perdute della casa d’Israele, ma reca nella sua intenzionalità profonda l’apertura su di un orizzonte sconfinato. L’evangelo, cioè, è destinato e può coesistere con ogni cultura, pur sapendo che fede e cultura non si identificano. La ragione di tutto ciò è che Paolo sa di essere «spinto dall’agàpe di Cristo» (2 Cor 5,14: he¯ aga´pe¯ touˆ Christouˆ synéchei he¯mas), poiché «in Cristo è stato Dio stesso a riconciliare a sé il mondo intero» (ivi, 5,19). La missione, dunque, comincia quando la fede si pone a una certa distanza critica dal Gesù terreno e, saldandolo con il Risorto, scopre in lui una dimensione e una statura talmente eccedenti rispetto a ogni altro personaggio storico, da tradursi nel bisogno di annunciarlo a raggio universale e quindi nella necessità della evangelizzazione. Questa poi si realizza tenendo conto di due poli ugualmente importanti e integrantisi a vicenda: da una parte, la fedeltà a Cristo e al suo vangelo, e, dall’altra, il suo inserimento nell’ambito del ricettore umano, che non è affatto un puro contenitore inerte ma è un destinatario storico vivo.

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3. MISSIONE E INCULTURAZIONE La missione allora, sulla scorta del concetto teologico di incarnazione assunto come paradigma della prassi evangelizzatrice, non può non mettersi in atto se non come inculturazione del vangelo. In questo caso, la cristologia non giustifica soltanto la spinta iniziale alla missione, ma diventa addirittura norma di comportamento missionario. Ciò che valse per il Figlio di Dio umanizzatosi in Gesù di Nazaret deve valere anche per l’annuncio evangelico della Chiesa in rapporto ai popoli e quindi alle culture con le quali esso entra in contatto. In effetti, l’inculturazione del vangelo non è che il risvolto dell’incarnazione del Logos divino su di un piano pluralistico e anzi universale. Ciò che leggiamo in Gv 1,14, secondo cui «il Logos si fece carne», può ben essere ritradotto e attualizzato col dire che «l’evangelo si fece (e si fa) cultura». In effetti, i primi scritti cristiani, che la Chiesa poi considerò canonici, ci offrono lo spunto per una riflessione in materia, che, per quanto generale, non sta tanto a livello speculativo quanto piuttosto in rapporto all’esperienza concreta dell’inculturazione da essi attestata. Ed è come dire che la storia vissuta, che sta alle loro spalle e di cui essi sono testimoni, ha sempre ancora qualcosa da proporre alle generazioni successive compresa la nostra. Il dato fondamentale su cui riflettere è quella dimensione del vangelo che chiamerei “escatologica”. Voglio dire con ciò che il contenuto del vangelo non è riducibile storicisticamente a meri schemi culturali del momento: nel senso che esso è, sì, condizionato dalla storia, ma non si riduce ad essa né nella propria origine né nella propria formulazione sia concettuale sia linguistica. La dimostrazione di ciò consiste nel fatto che, come si vede fin dalle origini, esso non solo può coesistere con culture diverse l’una dall’altra ma addirittura trae da esse il proprio alimento vitale. In effetti, l’evangelo fin dai suoi inizi non è mai caduto in una terra di nessuno. Anzi, la sua stessa formulazione originaria è fondamentalmente debitrice tanto alla cultura giudaica, all’interno della quale è nato, quanto a quella ellenistica, con cui venne presto in contatto. Si pensi a due esempi complementari, concernenti la fede nella risurrezione e nella divinità di Cristo. L’annuncio della risurrezione di Gesù è stato reso possibile non solo dall’esperienza di un evento del tutto inedito, ma anche da una precomprensione dottrinale allo stesso tempo antropologica e teologica, che sarebbe stata inconcepibile in campo ellenistico, dove essa veniva esclusa, ma che invece Israele provvidenzialmente fornì ai primi cristiani. D’altra parte, l’affermazione di una uguaglianza di natura tra Gesù di Nazaret e il Dio unico del credo israelitico non sarebbe stata possibile con le sole concezioni messianiche e teologiche giudaiche, che anzi la negavano, mentre invece la fede cristiana in materia, certo basata sulle parole e le azioni storiche di Gesù, trovò nell’ellenismo dei prodromi che favorirono la sua concettualizzazione. Qualcuno potrebbe etichettare negativamente questo stato di cose come sincretismo. Lo fece per esempio all’inizio del ’900 Adolf von Harnack par-

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lando di ellenizzazione del cristianesimo3. Il punto debole di un tale tipo di giudizio sta semplicemente nel fatto che in questo modo non si fa altro che capovolgere il punto di osservazione del fenomeno dell’inculturazione: invece di porsi dal punto di vista dell’evangelo e della sua alterità rispetto alle culture, le quali possono anche moltiplicarsi a dismisura poiché non riusciranno comunque a intaccare la sua originalità ma semmai ne aiuterebbero l’espressione, si adottano invece come angolo visuale le molteplici religioni o culture stesse con le quali esso entra in contatto, giungendo a sostenerne la reciproca incompatibilità. Si finirà così per chiedersi polemicamente con Tertulliano che cosa ci sia in comune tra Atene e Gerusalemme4, per concludere che ognuno dei due versanti deve restare non solo distinto ma separato perché inconciliabile con l’altro. Tra i due atteggiamenti contrapposti dell’apertura e della chiusura c’è un comune denominatore, che è l’idea buona dell’alterità dell’evangelo. È pur vero, infatti, che il Nuovo Testamento parla del Vangelo specificando che esso è “di Dio” o “di Cristo”, accostando a volte indifferentemente i due genitivi l’uno all’altro (cf. Mc 1,1.14; 2 Cor 10,14; 11,7) e magari sottolineando il fatto che esso «non è secondo l’uomo né viene dall’uomo» (Gal 1,11-12). Ma questa idea, a seconda delle ermeneutiche, può essere percepita in termini divergenti e condurre a risultati opposti, così che con la paura del sincretismo si giunge a negare anche l’inculturazione. Il sincretismo consiste certamente in un livellamento dell’evangelo tanto da annegarlo in un melting pot in cui le varie componenti perdono la loro fisionomia specifica a favore di una nuova identità di tipo globale che non corrisponde più a nessuno dei singoli elementi originari. Il complesso fenomeno gnostico dei primi secoli sembra proprio porsi in questa prospettiva. Ma l’inculturazione, pur partendo dall’idea dell’alterità dell’evangelo, vede proprio in essa la possibilità di coniugarsi con tutte le forme di diversità, perché ritiene l’evangelo sufficientemente forte per abbracciare espressioni culturali diverse senza soffocare nell’abbraccio. Del resto, bisogna avere ben presente che, almeno alle origini, l’abbraccio avveniva su di una iniziativa che partiva dall’evangelo stesso, non viceversa, come invece tenta di fare semmai una certa cultura laica di oggi! Proprio questo, dunque, fece il cristianesimo delle origini così come lo vediamo documentato negli scritti canonici. Esso si lanciò alla conquista del mondo partendo da una idea forte di Gesù Cristo. E più l’idea era forte tanto più diventava possibile accogliere e integrare elementi culturali diversi o, al contrario, farne la critica. Lo si vede per esempio nel confronto tra il giudeo-cristianesimo e il paolinismo. Mentre l’uno si tiene abbarbicato alla matrice giudaica, giungendo a ritenere che la fede in Cristo non basta alla salvezza se non è accompagnata dall’osservanza della Legge, richiudendosi così a riccio, l’altro invece afferma la necessità e insieme la sufficienza di Cristo e della fede in lui, giungendo così a integrare apporti provenienti dalla filosofia ellenistica del momento pur senza rinunciare agli agganci giudaici

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di origine. Solo Paolo, nonostante tutta la sua polemica sulla Legge, può poi dimostrare magnanima indifferenza, per chi è in Cristo, sulla questione se mantenere il prepuzio o farsi circoncidere (cf. Gal 5,6); e solo lui può qualificare come superflue tutte le pratiche religiose tanto giudaiche quanto pagane consistenti in osservanze di tempi sacri e di prescrizioni ascetiche (cf. Rom 14,17; Gal 2,11-15; 4,9-11; Col 2,20-23). La fede in Cristo diventa cioè un filtro che, da una parte, induce a decantare tutto ciò che incontra, e, dall’altra, permette una libertà di movimento tale da potersi fare tutto a tutti (1 Cor 9,22). È qui che si constata ulteriormente la dimensione escatologica dell’evangelo. Intendo la categoria dell’“escatologico” non in opposizione a quella di cultura, come se si potesse parlare di cultura cristiana solo come conseguenza del declino di una originaria sensibilità escatologica. In questa prospettiva polemica, escatologia significherebbe soltanto proiezione dell’uomo verso il futuro e cultura al contrario vorrebbe dire totale annidamento dell’evangelo nel presente della storia e quindi sua mondanizzazione. È certamente noto il motto di Loisy, secondo cui «si era annunciato il Regno di Dio e [invece] venne la Chiesa», come a esprimere una amara delusione. In realtà, la tesi di uno slittamento di prospettiva dell’annuncio evangelico, e cioè di una sua sempre più acuta ellenizzazione, si scontra con la testimonianza opposta di molti testi letterari. Infatti, si può constatare che l’interesse per l’escatologia futuristica e persino per il linguaggio apocalittico, certamente presente nelle lettere paoline, almeno in alcuni settori della Chiesa è ancor più alto dopo Paolo. Lo provano con sufficiente chiarezza l’Apocalisse di Giovanni, le lettere di Pietro e di Giuda, e le successive apocalissi cristiane (quelle apocrife di Paolo e di Pietro, per non dire del Pastore di Erma); persino la post-paolina Lettera di Giacomo sa che «la parusìa del Signore è ormai vicina» (Gc 5,8). Il fenomeno del resto è parallelo alla ripresa dell’apocalittica in campo giudaico a cavallo tra I e II secolo (come testimoniano gli apocrifi giudaici 4 Esd, 2 Bar, Ap. Abr)5. Quindi il giudizio su di un cambiamento d’interesse dovrebbe essere comunque molto più circospetto di quanto spesso avviene. Ma ciascuno di questi scritti, in cui pure l’escatologia futuristica occupa un posto di tutto rilievo, rivela anche forti tratti di inculturazione del messaggio, come si può constatare sia dove emergono evidenti elementi di provenienza apocalittica (cf. il bestiario dell’Apocalisse giovannea) sia dove risuonano concetti di derivazione sapienziale ed ellenistica (cf. la parenesi di Giacomo). Ebbene, al contrario dell’escatologia giudaica, che era ed è esclusivamente orientata verso il futuro, quella cristiana sostiene sorprendentemente il paradosso che l’éschaton è già cominciato nella storia6. Non che questa nuova coscienza sia stata iniziata da Paolo. Essa doveva essere chiara già in Gesù di Nazaret (cf. Mc 1,15: «Il tempo è compiuto») e con ogni probabilità apparteneva pure ai capisaldi della fede della Chiesa post-pasquale (cf. At 2,17: «E avverrà che negli ultimi giorni, dice il Signore, verserò il mio

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Spirito su ogni carne»)7. Ma, anche se non è lecito dubitare che i testi riferentisi a questi due momenti storici pre-paolini ci riportino la sostanza delle cose, essi tuttavia sono di redazione tardiva, certamente già caricati di una fede cristiana massicciamente espressa in un periodo successivo. Nelle lettere paoline invece abbiamo la possibilità di cogliere questa fede nei termini più antichi e autentici, quasi “in statu nascendi”, come si può vedere in un paio di passi epistolari diversi (cf. Gal 4,4: «È giunta la pienezza del tempo»; 1 Cor 10,11: «Per noi è arrivata la fine dei secoli»). Dunque, se il concetto di escatologia ci rimanda alla metastoria anche nelle sue prolessi storiche già passate, allora pure il vangelo sempre in atto appartiene a una dimensione del genere. Cioè: come nella presenza storica di Gesù e quindi nella sua vita terrena si anticipava almeno parzialmente l’Éschaton, così nell’annuncio e nella condivisione dell’Evangelo si partecipa alla dimensione del Definitivo. Lo si desume facilmente da ciò che scrive Paolo a proposito della rivelazione della “giustizia di Dio” intesa come sua misericordia: al momento della sua prima e fondamentale manifestazione che è l’effusione del sangue di Cristo (cf. Rom 3,21-26; con il verbo al perfetto pephanérotai), con cui insieme alla risurrezione si dà l’avvio ai tempi ultimi, corrisponde in termini esattamente uguali il momento della sua sempre attuale proclamazione nell’annuncio evangelico (cf. Rom 1,17; con il verbo al presente apokalyptetai). Proprio qui scopriamo la base dell’impeto missionario della Chiesa. La giustizia di Dio, che sta al centro dell’evangelo di Gesù Cristo, proprio perché ha la sua scaturigine non nella storia ma in Colui che abita una luce inaccessibile (cf. 1 Tim 6,16), si dimostra coniugabile con la storia dell’uomo, e quindi con i suoi tempi, i suoi schemi, le sue culture. Quello che Paolo chiama «il glorioso evangelo di Cristo» (2 Cor 4,4) si incontra e si inserisce in questo nostro mondo per illuminare, secondo l’espressione lucana, «quelli che stanno nelle tenebre» (Lc 1,79). In questa combinazione di gloria e di kénosi sta tutta la grandezza dell’impresa evangelica. Sembra retorica, e invece non è altro che la prosecuzione, magari sofferta, tanto nei contenuti quanto nei metodi, di ciò che al seguito di Gesù intraprese la Chiesa delle origini e che nell’impegno missionario delle generazioni successive si rimette continuamente in gioco.

Note 1 Per esprimere questa idea si impiegano due verbi: apostéllein (17 volte, contro le 6 volte nei Sinottici) e pémpein (23 volte contro nessuna nei Sinottici). 2 Si deve notare che in questo passo il testo ebraico per dire “terra” non impiega il consueto termine a¯rets, “suolo”, e anche “territorio d’Israele”, ma il termine molto più generale di Adama¯h (da cui il nome di Adamo), che vuol dire propriamente “humus, dimora dei viventi”. 3 Cf. A. VON HNARNACK, Missione e propagazione del cristianesimo nei primi tre secoli, Giordano, Cosenza 1986. Di contro, vedi M. SIMONETTI, Cristianesimo antico e cul-

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tura greca, Borla, Roma 1983, p. 8: «Ritengo che sia più nel giusto chi vede nell’ellenizzazione del messaggio cristiano non la sua deformazione dovuta all’influsso della cultura greca, bensì il risultato di un processo di adattamento, processo inevitabile e naturale, ancorché molto laborioso e sofferto». 4 Cf. TERTULLIANO, De praescriptione haereticorum 7,9-11. 5 Il fatto è affermato energicamente da J.-B. MATAND BULEMBAT, Noyau et enjeux de l’eschatologie paulinienne: De l’apocalyptique juive et de l’eschatologie hellénistique dans quelques argumentations de l’apôtre Paul, BZNW 84, Berlin-New York 1997, pp. 280282. 6 Sull’insieme, cf. R. PENNA, Aspetti originali dell’escatologia paolina, “Annali di storia dell’esegesi”, 16(1999)1, pp. 77-103. 7 Ricordiamo che il complemento di tempo en taîs eschátais hemérais non appartiene alla citazione del testo di Gv 3,1 qui riportato, ma è aggiunto dalla redazione lucana del discorso di Pietro a Pentecoste.

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JOHN GORSKI*

INCULTURATION: A QUESTION OF CHRISTOLOGY

INTRODUCTION

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The major missiological concerns in Latin America: inculturation and mission ad gentes. 1. The challenge of missionary situations in Latin America Amerindian peoples (12,5%); Afro-American populations (over 20%); Mestizos; New cultures. The fundamental challenge is that of a specific, inculturated evangelization for mission ad intra and ad extra. 2. Inculturation is a specifically missiological concept The term “inculturation” is widely used (1977 Synod, John Paul II, missionaries, missiologists, others). The popularity of the term is evident, but its theological meaning is not always clear due to a faulty Christological focus. My hypothesis: inculturation is not just a question of ecclesiology but radically of Christology. The term “inculturation” is recent, with roots in the missionary activity of the Church in the past half-century. The first recorded use of the term seems to have been in 1959, but its precise meaning was not yet very clear. Missionaries were seeking a new term to speak of the relation between the Christian faith and culture. Up to Vatican Council II the terms “missionary adaptation” or “accommodation” were in general use. Adaptation was a step in the right direction but it still had its limitations. Thus an entirely new term was coined to express what this relation of Gospel and culture should be. The parentage of the neologism “inculturation” was not anthropological but missiological, theological. What does it mean? The classical definitions of Arrupe and Arij Roest Crollius clarified the concept. Inculturation goes beyond mere external adap-

*

Universidad Católica Boliviana, Cochabamba, Bolivia.

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tations that may result in new expressions of the faith. It is a “new creation”, a new life-giving encounter between the faith and the deeper levels of culture. Inculturation is specifically distinct from “missionary adaptation”: in its subject, its objective, its methodology, the depth of the culture reached by the Gospel, and the paschal Christology which it supposes.

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3. Inculturation as dialogue between the Christian faith and cultures The missiological term inculturation is definitely a Christian and Christological concept. The definition I use to introduce the concept is that of Aylward Shorter: «The ongoing dialogue between the Christian faith and cultures”». It implies not simply any kind of relation between the Gospel and cultures but a specifically dialogical relationship. This supposes the theological conviction formulated in Gaudium et Spes (22), which affirms that God, by the action of the Holy Spirit, offers all the possibility of participating in the paschal mystery of Christ. 4. Inculturation as the “re-reading” of a culture in the light of Christ In Luke 24, it is the risen Christ who teaches his disciples to reread “the Law, the Prophets and the Psalms” – their religious and cultural history – in the light of his death and resurrection. Thus it is the community of the disciples of Jesus who are the subjects of inculturation: they know both their culture and also the mystery of God revealed in Christ. Without both of these elements, inculturation is impossible. 5. The theological objective of inculturation: the fuller participation of peoples in the paschal mystery The Spirit active in cultures is none other than the Spirit of the risen Christ. The dynamic of the Holy Spirit is to draw people to God in Christ and transform them into his likeness. The gift of the Spirit is there. What is lacking is a human participation that is conscious, intelligent, free, responsible, joyful and devout, in history and culture. The task of the missionary Church: adding to this dynamic of the Spirit a historically necessary “humanization”. RECAPITULATION Without faith in Christ there is no inculturation. Only disciples of Jesus can be subjects of inculturation; without a Christian ecclesial community

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inserted in its own culture there is no inculturation. If a community does not know and love Christ, there is no inculturation. If this ecclesial community does not know and love its own culture, there is no inculturation. Only inculturation realized by local churches can transform the universal Church, making her effectively more and more catholic. The fruit of inculturation is the birth and growth of Christian ecclesial communities among the diverse peoples of the world. These local Churches are born to be missionary. But if a local Church community has not yet experienced how the Christian faith transforms the depths of its own culture, how can it be a missionary beyond its own frontiers?

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GIANNI COLZANI* POSTFAZIONE

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CRISTOLOGIE E MISSIONE UN RAPPORTO DA APPROFONDIRE Il Congresso Internazionale Missiologico1 ha concentrato la sua attenzione sul significato della persona di Gesù per la missione. Questa scelta, oltre ad un ovvio motivo di convenienza legato al giubileo della incarnazione, si collegava ai dibattiti che, in questi ultimi decenni, hanno investito l’opera salvifica di Cristo e, soprattutto, la sua unicità. Ponendola al centro dei lavori, il Comitato preparatorio collocava il Congresso nel mezzo di un acceso dibattito; è facile immaginare che una simile scelta chiedesse al Congresso non solo una messa a punto dei problemi ma anche una loro chiarificazione. Per altro, la sede del Congresso ed il suo impianto ideale non lasciavano dubbi sull’ipotesi che lo reggeva: la fede in Gesù di Nazaret, uomo e Dio, capace di assumere l’universale bisogno di salvezza e di fondare l’universale orizzonte della missione. L’interrogativo di Mt 16,15 – «Voi chi dite che io sia?» – se mai, dava a queste prospettive un’incisività ed un’urgenza emotiva atta a coinvolgere a fondo i partecipanti. Riprendere a distanza di qualche mese quel dibattito significa riprendere in modo meditato, alla luce delle relazioni e dei dibattiti congressuali, l’inclusione di cristologia e missione che reggeva l’impostazione del Congresso. La cristologia, più che l’ecclesiologia, è ormai la questione missionaria fondamentale; in Cristo si decide il senso, l’orizzonte e le modalità della missione. Così intesa, la missione diventa l’ambito originale nel quale la comunità credente dà a Gesù il suo giusto nome. Non è sembrato corrispondere né alla realtà della vita delle Chiese né alla coscienza che la teologia ha oggi del formarsi della fede in Cristo2 ritenere che, comunicando la fede, la comunità credente debba impegnarsi a mantenere il linguaggio e le strutture di pensiero in cui il vangelo di Gesù viene inizialmente presentato; ogni comunità, intesa come comunità raccolta attorno all’esperienza di Gesù vivente3, trova il suo vero volto proprio in uno sforzo di vita e di pensiero che la raccorda tanto a Gesù, suo maestro e Signore, quanto alla cultura ed ai fratelli in mezzo ai quali vive. In questo senso la missione è sempre più l’immagine complessiva della Chiesa sulla base del suo evento fondante: «Evangelizzare, infatti, è la grazia e la vocazione propria della Chiesa, la sua identità più profonda»4. Solo in questo gesto apostolico la Chiesa trova la sua forma. *

Pontificia Università Urbaniana.

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Questa inclusione di cristologia e missione era già in atto all’inizio della vita della Chiesa: con le formule della fede pasquale, la comunità dei discepoli interpretava Gesù tanto sotto il profilo della verità – Gesù è Cristo e Signore5 – quanto sotto quello del suo compito: Gesù è il Kyrios che, elevato da terra, attirerà tutti a sé6. Ancora oggi, la fede pasquale non comprende Gesù alla luce di una più generale ontologia della dedizione e della solidarietà (Gesù uomo per gli altri) ma, al contrario, legge la dedizione e la solidarietà alla luce della persona di Gesù fino a vederle come il prolungamento dell’amore trinitario: «Dio ha tanto amato il mondo da dare il suo Figlio Unigenito, perché chiunque crede in lui non muoia ma abbia la vita eterna»7. La verità della persona di Gesù custodisce quindi la verità della sua missione: è impossibile pretendere di separare la “causa di Gesù” dalla comprensione del suo mistero. In termini teologici questo comporta il pensare la cristologia alla luce della soteriologia: la persona di Gesù si comprende solo alla luce del suo impegno salvifico, cioè alla luce della sua Pasqua. Di conseguenza la sua morte non è il gesto di un fanatico ma l’obbediente realizzazione di un disegno divino: nella dedizione del Padre a Gesù e di Gesù al Padre, la storia umana si apre alla comunione con Dio ed alla novità sorprendente del suo amore. In questo senso, per Gesù e per coloro che credono in lui, la missione non è più un settore della vita cristiana ma è l’orizzonte salvifico di cui essa vive; con Gesù, infatti, è posto in atto un evento salvifico che trascende la storia nello stesso tempo in cui la compie. Questi temi hanno rappresentato il filo ideale del Congresso che, su questo sfondo, ha illuminato e approfondito le diverse concezioni che le Chiese, in questi ultimi decenni, hanno maturato circa Gesù e la sua missione. 1. A MONTE DEI PROBLEMI: UN NUOVO PUNTO DI PARTENZA L’insegnamento conciliare sulle Chiese particolari ha generato una loro impegnativa ricerca di identità: ne scaturirà una diversa comprensione del mondo culturale e religioso di cui sono parte ed a cui devono portare il vangelo. Per la prima volta nascerà una cristologia contestuale, una cristologia latino-americana, africana, indiana… diversa da quella occidentale. Il fatto, in sé palese, non è sempre stato colto nel suo significato; per lo più, la teologia occidentale si è limitata a recepirlo, qualificandolo come un ulteriore capitolo del suo discorso su Cristo. In realtà è molto di più. L’originalità di questi percorsi sta nella loro epistemologia. Chiese, che sono spesso minoranze nel loro ambito culturale, hanno dato vita ad una teologia che, per essere contestuale, ha dovuto appoggiarsi a schemi di pensiero e categorie concettuali sorte al di fuori del mondo teologico e dei suoi abituali contesti. Lo stesso interesse per Gesù, diffuso anche al di fuori del mondo cristiano, ha trovato radici consistenti in università e colleges dove lavorano ricercatori indipendenti da ragioni confessionali; ne è venuto un singolare approccio alla questione di Gesù che ha conosciuto una sua non

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piccola diffusione. Si possono caratterizzare questi lavori come Third Quest sul Gesù storico8, diversa sia dalla Leben-Jesu Forschung sia dal dibattito aperto dalla Formgeschichte o più semplicemente, con J.H. Charlesworth, Jesus Research9. A caratterizzare questa ricerca è una metodologia che, lontana dagli schemi dogmatici, si affida agli abituali strumenti della ricerca storica; servendosi dei codici di Nag Hammadi, degli scavi del Mar Morto, della letteratura rabbinica e targumica, delle ricerche epigrafiche e della letteratura apocrifa, questi ricercatori hanno scandagliato l’organizzazione sociale e politica del tempo di Gesù10: ne è venuto un Gesù compreso non a partire dai testi evangelici ma sulla base delle circostanze economiche, sociali e culturali del tempo. Mentre la letteratura kerygmatica contrapponeva Gesù al giudaismo e lo vedeva impegnato nel suo superamento, questi autori si impegnano a collocare Gesù nel suo ambiente, l’ambiente giudaico. Alla luce di una migliore conoscenza di quella società e delle sue dinamiche, l’azione e l’insegnamento di Gesù risultano segnati da un forte coinvolgimento nel suo mondo11; la stessa comprensione della sua persona ha messo in luce una linea di comportamento attenta a determinarsi in ragione del suo tempo, sia di fronte a strutture oppressive sia di fronte a risposte violente o ad inaccettabili connivenze12. L’ambientazione giudaica, non l’originalità del kerygma, è lo strumento nuovo che serve a questi autori per dare un volto a Gesù. In questa ricerca, la figura di Gesù ha inevitabilmente assunto i tratti di un leader regionale e, per di più, di una regione marginale come la Galilea di allora; la sua presentazione come maestro o come profeta, come saggio sovversivo o come millenarista dichiarato, apriva immediatamente la strada ad un confronto con altre personalità del suo tempo o del nostro13. Da qui al confronto con altri fondatori di religione o con situazioni simili a quelle della Palestina di allora il passo era breve; del resto l’analogia tra l’epoca di Gesù e la situazione economica e sociale di tanta parte dell’umanità attuale conferiva all’insegnamento di Cristo una sorprendente attualità: il regno presente tra emarginati ed oppressi si svelava motivo di vita e di speranza anche per l’uomo d’oggi. Da qui l’attenzione che molte teologie hanno riservato a questa impostazione. Va detto subito che l’attenzione dei teologi cattolici non guardava a queste nuove conoscenze in alternativa alle fonti evangeliche ma, piuttosto, in integrazione con loro; ciò che amplia la conoscenza dell’ambiente di Gesù, almeno indirettamente, amplia la nostra conoscenza dello stesso Gesù. L’importanza di queste ricerche non può sfuggire. Se Gesù è ormai la questione missiologica fondamentale, il Gesù storico è il cuore della cristologia: «Col problema del Gesù storico è in gioco tutta la cristologia. Il confronto critico è, in fondo, la forma moderna dell’antica controversia cristologica»14. In questo senso la saldatura tra Jesus Research e nuove cristologie ha un grande rilievo missiologico: chiarisce la direzione su cui Gesù ha impegnato la sua esistenza e su cui i credenti debbono impegnare la loro. D’al-

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tra parte questa saldatura non è senza problemi, almeno nella misura in cui trascinava con sé, come criterio ultimo di valutazione, un modello di vita ed un’organizzazione dei rapporti sociali pensati sulla base dei costumi occidentali. In altre parole la valutazione del modello di vita suggerito da Gesù ha dovuto fare i conti sia con la cultura occidentale sia con quelle dei popoli emergenti e con le loro religioni. La nuova maniera di guardare a Gesù e di farlo proprio porta con sé, in ultima analisi, anche un confronto tra la civiltà occidentale e le grandi civiltà del Sud del mondo. Condurre questo confronto sulla figura di Gesù significa da una parte riconoscere la singolare attitudine di questo personaggio a far emergere la ricchezza di vita delle diverse tradizioni ma, dall’altra, può portare ed ha portato a classificare il cristianesimo come una concezione culturale estranea alla tradizione di molti popoli ed aggressiva verso la loro cultura. Si intuisce così la sfida che incontrano le giovani Chiese: la responsabilità di evangelizzare il loro mondo esige da loro una rinnovata presentazione della persona di Gesù e del suo vangelo, una presentazione che deve essere in sintonia con il loro mondo per non essere automaticamente respinta. Va onestamente riconosciuto che l’abituale cristologia impostasi in Occidente, per le categorie di cui si serve e per la struttura concettuale a cui rimanda, non appare gran che adatta ad esprimere una volontà di dialogo. Da qui il bisogno di un nuovo stile di riflessione teologica: «Il compito difficile e inedito di un’ermeneutica del dialogo interreligioso è dunque di cercare di pensare la pluralità insuperabile delle vie verso Dio senza svendere la singolarità cristiana»15. Questo atteggiamento di fondo è importante e va ribadito: ha le sue radici nella vita della Chiesa e mira, attraverso una cristologia inculturata e dialogica, a dare forma storica all’impegno dell’evangelizzazione. Un simile intento separa profondamente il cammino delle Chiese e dei teologi che ne animano il cammino da quanto perseguono pensatori che ne prescindono totalmente. È il caso di J. Hick16 che offre una visione ideologica del pluralismo religioso; staccandosi da quanto ritiene pretesa di un «monopolio cristiano di verità e vita salvifica»17, mette sotto accusa sia un esclusivismo intollerante che un inclusivismo benevolo: entrambi sono a suo modo di vedere incapaci di un reale dialogo e di una sincera accoglienza delle altre religioni. Da qui la sua decisa affermazione del pluralismo; «Abbandonare questa rivendicazione di una definitiva superiorità religiosa è quindi come attraversare un punto critico entrando in un territorio nuovo dal quale l’intero terreno della verità cristiana è destinato a prendere un’immagine diversa»18. Passare questo punto critico, questo Rubicone teologico, equivale a separare la cristologia da ogni aspetto missionario ed a riconoscere il debito della fede nel Verbo fatto carne verso epoche segnate da credenze mitiche che occorre oggi riformulare radicalmente. Del pari queste nuove cristologie non hanno nulla in comune con il pensiero di H. Küng19 che, pure, vorrebbe riconoscere il carattere salvifico del-

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le altre religioni senza abbandonare la verità e l’identità cristiana. A questo scopo il teologo svizzero, mentre riconosce il valore positivo e salvifico delle altre religioni, sostiene che è in Gesù Cristo che Dio manifesta più chiaramente il suo progetto salvifico. Da qui il suo invito a rispettare il valore di ogni religione e ad aprire un dialogo con loro. Attenendosi al Nuovo Testamento ma distaccandosi da tutta la Tradizione, Küng indica i due criteri – uno etico ed uno religioso – che dovrebbero orientare e guidare questo dialogo: il criterio etico è la scelta e la promozione di ciò che è autenticamente umano, quello religioso è invece determinato da ciò che appartiene alla “origine” o al “canone” di ogni gruppo. La sua esecuzione di un simile progetto conclude, però, ad una teologia simile a quella del “protestantesimo liberale”: a partire dai vangeli, Küng ripensa l’incarnazione e riduce Gesù Cristo ad un ruolo esemplare e pedagogico20. Queste scarne indicazioni bastano a ribadire l’originalità della nuova problematica ed a riconoscerne il carattere ecclesiale. Occorre però vederne la concreta esecuzione. 2. IL COMPLESSO CAMMINO VERSO UNA CRISTOLOGIA CONTESTUALE E DIALOGICA

Precisando «le tendenze di fondo della cristologia contemporanea»21, W. Kasper le indicava nel superamento della cristologia calcedonese e nell’accoglienza di una cristologia storica, aperta alla fede pasquale. A queste indicazioni formulate alcuni decenni fa, va oggi aggiunta l’indispensabile apertura della cristologia al dialogo interreligioso. Il superamento della cristologia calcedonese ha la sua origine negli studi dovuti alla commemorazione dei 1.500 anni di quel concilio (451-1951); tra essi spicca la celebre lezione di Rahner sulla formula di Calcedonia, termine o inizio del cammino della fede in Cristo22. Chiarendo come ogni formula dogmatica sia inizio e non termine, mezzo e non fine, Rahner afferma che anche Calcedonia «è una verità che ci dà via libera alla verità, che è sempre più grande. Questa autotrascendenza di ogni formula non è dovuta alla sua falsità ma proprio alla sua verità. […]. Non significa affatto che la prima formula debba essere abbandonata e sostituita dall’altra, quasi la dovesse dichiarare superata o sostituibile. Al contrario: essa conserva il suo significato e la sua vitalità proprio per mezzo della spiegazione che se ne dà»23. Da qui lo sforzo di ripensare la fede espressa a Calcedonia. Frutto di un incontro tra la fede cristiana e la cultura greca, quella teologia aveva ereditato dal superamento della gnósis la convinzione che la salvezza non viene dall’uomo e dalla sua conoscenza ma da Dio. Pensare questa salvezza in termini cristologici esige il riconoscimento sia della trascendenza di Dio sia della sua capacità di intervenire nel mondo e di partecipare alla sua storia; da qui il ricorso alle due nature e l’affermazione della loro unità personale. Nella na-

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tura umana ipostatizzata di Gesù è l’intero mondo dell’uomo ad essere posto in rapporto con Dio come fine e senso ultimo di ogni realtà. Le critiche a Calcedonia24 risuoneranno ampiamente negli anni ’50 e ’60 e, portando ad una ripresa di questa verità su basi diverse, produrranno una serie di tentativi teologici25. Non dovrebbe stupire più di tanto che anche le giovani teologie dell’Asia e dell’Africa prendano atto di queste critiche e, dandole per pacifiche, si spingano verso prospettive nuove. L’accoglienza di una cristologia storica è il risultato di un cammino teologico che ha integrato l’intera vicenda storica di Gesù nella rivelazione divina e, per questa via, ne ha riconosciuto la singolarità. Uomo come tutti, Gesù ha un significato unico nella storia umana: «Quel che Dio intende dire all’uomo attraverso Cristo non può ricevere sistemazione né nel mondo nel suo insieme né nell’uomo in particolare: esso è assolutamente teologico, anzi, meglio ancora, teo-pragmatico: atto di Dio nei confronti dell’uomo, atto che si spiega dinanzi all’uomo e per lui»26. Con il termine “cristologia storica” si tratta di rendere ragione del fatto che proprio questo individuo storico e concreto – Gesù di Nazaret – è la definitiva rivelazione di Dio e, perciò, mantiene una relazione insuperabile con il significato definitivo della storia umana. Questa conclusione teologica appartiene alla fede tradizionale che, da sempre, confessa che Cristo verrà e riconosce in lui il giudice di ogni persona e di ogni vicenda. A queste indicazioni bisogna aggiungerne una terza: il deciso orientamento della cristologia verso una prospettiva contestuale e dialogica. In una certa misura, si tratta di uno sviluppo della tesi della singolarità di Cristo: l’aperto riconoscimento del significato universale di un evento storico particolare, Gesù di Nazaret, obbliga a mostrare la relazione di questo evento con ogni cultura; da qui il sorgere di cristologie inculturate la cui legittimità è fuori discussione. È quanto il Congresso ha offerto. Nelle sue sessioni centrali ha offerto una sorta di bilancio della cristologia dell’America Latina, dell’Africa e dell’India. Nella introduzione a questo volume S. Karotemprel ha già presentato il quadro sintetico di questi apporti; io vorrei solo ripercorrerne la logica che regge il cammino. Il punto di partenza sta nell’impegno pastorale di chiese chiamate ad avvicinare fede e vita. Alla luce della storicità della rivelazione cristiana è giocoforza prendere atto della sproporzione tra la verità salvifica della redenzione e gli schemi teologici27 in cui questa verità era calata; da qui, al seguito di quanto già ricordato, l’impegno per valorizzare l’intera vita di Gesù e riportare il vangelo del regno al centro dell’intera opera redentiva. Ne verrà una valorizzazione del carattere liberante della cristologia che da una parte coglie la liberazione storica come anticipazione di una salvezza ventura, totale e definitiva, e dall’altra recupera una base teologica per valutare la storia alla luce dei segni dei tempi. Il fatto che questo orientamento si ritrovi in America Latina28 così come in Africa29 ed in India30 dice che si tratta di un aspetto decisivo della nuova cristologia.

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Questo impegno di contestualizzazione della cristologia non può saltare una attenzione alle culture in cui le Chiese sono inserite; per essere significativa, la cristologia vi si deve incarnare. È quanto esigono nuovi soggetti pastorali ormai al centro della attenzione delle Chiese, dalle donne agli indios agli afroamericani. Sarà però soprattutto l’Africa ad impegnarsi per una cristologia inculturata. Più che il suo sviluppo attorno alle nozioni di antenato, maestro di iniziazione, guaritore, esorcista o liberatore, mi sembra importante evidenziarne l’impostazione. Lungi dall’appiattire la cristologia su una categoria culturale rilevante per il mondo africano o per larga parte di esso31, questi teologi hanno cura di mettere a fuoco il ruolo che il suo contenuto riveste nelle scritture e nella tradizione. Ne viene l’importanza che queste categorie mantengono anche nelle mutate condizioni sociali di oggi; più ancora, ne viene la possibilità di dialogare, in modo originale e secondo un proprio punto di vista, con l’intera comunità credente. In questo impegno di contestualizzazione non può mancare l’attenzione alle religioni non-cristiane. Come ricorda Pieris, «l’irruzione del Terzo Mondo (con le sue domande di liberazione) è anche un’irruzione di un mondo noncristiano»32; non raggiungere questa realtà è condannarsi all’insignificanza. Da qui l’impegno per una cristologia relazionale e per una soteriologia kenotica di amore e di servizio, attenta allo Spirito all’opera in tutta la creazione. Da qui anche l’impegno per un linguaggio non confessionale, dato che quello dell’unicità salvifica di Cristo è facilmente sentito come esclusivo, aggressivo ed intollerante. Da qui due indicazioni. La prima riguarda la sottolineatura della vita: il cristiano è colui che segue la via (marga) di Cristo. Seguire la via di Gesù equivale a vederlo, più che come l’unico Salvatore, come l’autentico Testimone divino alla cui scuola ci si pone. La seconda riprende la tesi dell’unicità salvifica di Gesù alla luce di un atteggiamento tradizionale della cultura indiana, espresso con il termine sanscrito di Sarvadharmasamabhavana, un atteggiamento che è ben di più della tolleranza. F. Wilfred lo presenta così: «It is the result of one’s own experience of the inexhaustible ultimate mystery through wich he or she is able to understand a similar experience of the other and respect it»33. Questa prospettiva vuol tenere insieme testimonianza e rispetto, presentazione della propria fede e accoglienza di quella altrui; in questo senso pensa ad una armonia o Samanvaya inter-religiosa: è l’armonia di chi coglie la presenza di Dio nelle altre religioni ma vive nell’amore della propria e lascia a questo amore testimoniante il compito di presentarla a chiunque la voglia e la sappia vedere. 3. OLTRE IL CONGRESSO: VALUTAZIONI E ORIENTAMENTI L’inclusione di cristologia e missione, che ha dominato il Congresso, ha indicato nella cristologia la questione missionaria per eccellenza; si tratta di mostrare come la persona di Gesù, con il vangelo del regno, offra il senso

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ultimo della vita di tutte le persone e di tutta la storia. In effetti l’implicazione tra Gesù e il mistero del regno34 «coinvolge la sua persona in modo tale da implicare sostanzialmente quello che in seguito venne reso esplicito dal linguaggio dell’incarnazione e da titoli quali “Figlio di Dio”»35. In altre parole la coincidenza di Gesù con il senso definitivo della vita lo pone al centro della storia di un’umanità protesa verso questa meta. In Gesù ci è data la manifestazione di Dio e ci è offerta la nostra salvezza; nella sua concreta individualità l’umanità incontra quella salvezza che è per tutti e quella divinità mai confondibile con il mondo finito. Bisogna rimanere fermamente ancorati alla dimensione storica di Gesù e rifiutare ogni lettura della sua universalità in termini trascendentali, alla maniera di Rahner. Per questi l’universalità di Gesù è comprensibile in quanto espressione eccelsa dell’umanità che, di conseguenza, va compresa alla luce della sempre possibile autocomunicazione di Dio. Contro simili visioni, bisogna mantenere ferma la cristologia storica: è l’uomo Gesù colui nel quale Dio si rivela e non c’è altra universalità se non quella che coincide con lui. L’evento cristologico non è riducibile all’autotrascendenza umana. Da qui l’impegno per una corretta elaborazione dell’antropologia. Richiamando Calcedonia ed il suo inconfuse36, Rahner mette in guardia da modi semplicistici di declinare l’indivise e ricorda che «Gesù, nella e secondo la sua umanità che noi vediamo quando diciamo Gesù, non “è” Dio, e Dio nella e secondo la sua divinità non “è” uomo nel senso di una identificazione reale»37. Qual è allora il senso dell’uomo Gesù? La tradizione ne ha elaborato una comprensione trinitaria: Gesù è uno con la persona del Verbo ed entra così in comunione con il Padre. Questa prospettiva ha portato a affermare tanto l’assolutezza quanto la relazionalità di questo evento: assoluto perché espressione del Dio trascendente e relazionale perché il Dio di Gesù si apre, in lui, all’intera umanità. Questa apertura dell’evento-Gesù alla umanità ha trovato forma, nel secolo scorso, con la tesi dell’assolutezza del cristianesimo38; si tratta di una tesi che «proviene dalla filosofia dell’idealismo tedesco e non dalla teologia stessa»39 e che, per questo, non corrisponde automaticamente alla problematica teologica. Pensando questa tesi attorno al concetto di “religione assoluta”40, Hegel rinunciava al carattere storico del cristianesimo; fallimentare risultava anche il tentativo di Troeltsch41, perseguito nel quadro di storia delle religioni. Il significato di questa tesi starebbe comunque nell’insuperabilità della figura di Gesù quale autorivelazione definitiva di Dio. Nel nostro mondo, una simile affermazione è sentita come «intolleranza, rottura della comunicazione e origine di fanatismo. Sembra anche contraddire alla figura storica del cristianesimo che è oscurata dal peccato”42. L’impegno per delinearne il vero senso teologico, ricondotto al sì di Dio all’uomo più che alla risposta dell’uomo a Dio43, ha comunque riaperto il dibattito sulla universalità e sulla definitività del cristianesimo. L’interrogativo sull’unità e sull’universalità di Gesù è tornato ad essere cruciale, specie sotto la spinta

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di una globalizzazione e di un pluralismo che, sotto il profilo religioso, rischiano di condurre «a una relativizzazione di ogni pretesa di validità, a un molteplice gioco linguistico degli elementi religioso-culturali che, in definitiva, stanno uno di fronte all’altro senza relazione»44.

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Verità e unicità di Gesù Nell’affrontare questi temi, la cristologia conosce oggi un serrato dibattito sul suo modello epistemologico, sul suo concetto di verità45. Ad aprire il dibattito sarà P. Knitter46. Discutendo una concezione occidentale, che riconduce al principio di non-contraddizione, Knitter sostiene che il vecchio modello occidentale ha pensato la verità «mediante l’esclusione» e che «tale definizione per via di esclusione conferisce alla verità una qualità assoluta»47. Questo procedere per giudizi definitivi, assoluti ed alternativi dimentica i limiti e la relatività dell’attuale conoscere anche scientifico e nega il carattere progressivo e pluralistico della verità. Per il nostro autore la verità è relazionale: «La verità è definita non dall’esclusione ma mediante la relazione. […] La verità ha bisogno, per sua stessa natura, di altra verità. Se non è in grado di porsi in relazione, è il caso di porre in discussione la sua qualità di verità»48. Da qui la sua lettura positiva del pluralismo religioso: ogni religione “ha bisogno” delle altre per procedere insieme verso un’esperienza ed una comprensione più globale. Ciò di cui una religione ha bisogno non è tanto una verità unica e definitiva ma, piuttosto, una reale esperienza del divino a partire dalla quale camminare con le altre religioni. Le conseguenze missionarie sono facilmente intuibili: «Il fine centrale della missione è realizzato nella misura in cui, attraverso la mutua testimonianza, tutti sono convertiti a una conoscenza e a una sequela più profonda della verità di Dio. Questo assicura la crescita del regno»49. Una simile concezione, oltre a discutere l’aspetto metafisico della verità, non coglie il carattere personale della verità biblica: legata a Gesù50, la verità è indissociabile da lui e lega insieme definitività e storicità, universalità e particolarità, necessità e libertà. È ciò su cui prova a riflettere, recentemente, anche M. Henry51. Espressione della fedeltà di Dio nello spazio umano, Gesù offre la verità mostrandola e costituendola: con lui l’«in-sé» di Dio si attua come un «per-noi» e come un «in-mezzo-a-noi». La sua umana trasparenza all’amore divino è tale che Gesù impersona la verità, esiste come verità52; «con Gesù la verità divina è insieme posta e accolta: posta nel vangelo del regno proclamato dall’autorità messianica del Figlio e accolta nella fede e nella dedizione assoluta che l’uomo Gesù riserva a tutto ciò che è dal Padre. La verità divina è una cosa sola con lui»53. Con Gesù-verità l’amore fedele e potente di Dio è posto all’interno della storia come libertà imprevedibile che rivela e comunica il senso ultimo di ogni cosa. Questa prospettiva non è appiattibile sulla metafisica occidentale; infatti, mentre i greci fondano l’unità e la stabilità della verità sul principio on-

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tologico, gli ebrei non ricorrono ad una necessità logica ma ad un’esperienza storica, la cui certezza futura è anticipata dalla fiducia del credere. Per le scritture la verità supera la dimensione atemporale del mondo greco ed integra in se stessa l’intera dinamica della storia. In questo senso l’unità della verità non rimanda al principio di non-contraddizione ma al fatto che Dio abbraccia ogni cosa determinandone il senso. Più ancora, questa concezione biblica pensa la verità come profondamente dialogica: rimanda, infatti, all’esperienza del vivere sia pure letta dal punto di vista della presenza di Dio. Questo permette alla concezione cristiana della verità una singolare ampiezza, una singolare solidarietà: la verità cristologica è solidale anche con ciò che è senza Dio54. In Cristo è salvaguardato lo spazio di un dialogo e di un servizio con chiunque voglia davvero capire la globalità delle cose e della vita umana. In questo senso si è mosso il Congresso. Kasper ha insistito sulla’ unicità di Dio, risolvendola cristologicamente in un mistero di amore e di servizio; Geffré ha richiamato la nozione di “Universale Concreto”55 ed ha parlato di Gesù Cristo in termini di “inclusivismo costitutivo” e di “pluralismo inclusivo”; Bordoni ha riaffermato la singolarità di Cristo e lo ha sintetizzato in termini volti a giustificare una “unicità relazionale”56. Le stesse sessioni continentali hanno offerto un ampio quadro degli sforzi per presentare Cristo in modo significativo per le diverse aree geografiche. Non rendono questa profondità della figura di Gesù le nozioni di mito e di simbolo, oggi spesso utilizzate; quella di “mito” è utilizzata, in particolare, da J. Hick57 e da P. Knitter58 mentre quella di simbolo trova il suo corifeo in R. Haight59. Parlando dell’unicità di Cristo, Knitter la qualifica come un mito e la descrive nel senso che «questo linguaggio, come tutti i linguaggi mitici, deve essere capito correttamente; deve infatti essere interpretato. La sua “verità” non sta nel suo significato letterale ma in quello storico e personale sempre in processo di mutamento»60. Questa prospettiva considera il mito come una forma di rappresentazione della realtà, come una sintesi di dato e di significato che si è prodotta con la storia e che con la storia va reinterpretata. Legata all’incarnazione di un Dio, la fede in Gesù unico Salvatore è lentamente passata dalla sua originaria struttura poetica e metaforica a quella ontologica della fede calcedonese; la narrazione ed il suo significato si sono così irrigiditi nella pretesa ecclesiale e teologica di stabilire un livello di verità privo di alternative e presentati come gli unici possibili. In questo senso l’Incarnazione di Gesù, la sua divinità e la sua unicità sono un mito: lo sono perché rappresentano non un dato ma lo sforzo per precisare l’importanza che i credenti annettono a questo Gesù. Le formule di fede, insomma, non mirano «ad asserire un fatto metafisico ma ad esprimere una valutazione e ad evocare un atteggiamento»61. Separando il contenuto oggettivo dell’evento Gesù dal suo significato colto nella fede, queste teorie non si nutrono della singolare ricchezza della sua storia ma riconducono l’unicità di Gesù ad un valore aggiunto. In pratica non si riesce ad accettare

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che la concreta umanità di Gesù possa essere, senza cessare di essere umanità, «la forma finita di Dio»62. Separato dalla storia, questo mito non corrisponde alla fede in Gesù63. Osservazioni simili si devono ripetere per le tesi di Haight su Gesù, simbolo di Dio. Lo sfondo è qui un rapporto tra significato e significante tale da rendere quest’ultimo come il dato che incarna ed offre il significato; in questo senso la persona di Gesù è l’espressione simbolica del Logos e della Sapienza divina. Tuttavia la tensione dialettica tra significante e significato non permette un’oggettivazione ontologica di Gesù, come è avvenuto nella teologia tradizionale, ma solo una sua ermeneutica, cioè un’interpretazione della figura di Gesù in dialogo con le formulazioni della fede della comunità. Per questa via, una cristologia animata dallo Spirito sembra più facilmente riconducibile ad un’esperienza religiosa universale64. Se poi si parla di ontologia simbolica65 ed, al suo seguito, di cristologia simbolica, bisognerà mantenere Gesù come una persona storica ed umana nella quale però il Logos è presente ed è all’opera. Per Haight questa simbolicità di Gesù non annulla altre forme simboliche, presenti in contesti culturali diversi: ne vengono diverse vie salvifiche ugualmente valide sulla base della propria particolare esperienza del divino. È facile notare come questa visione sorpassa il Gesù storico e non ne tiene gran conto: il simbolo è sviluppato su presupposti largamente indipendenti da Gesù. Basterà dire che da una parte Gesù non limita lo Spirito ma lo anticipa compiutamente, di modo che il simbolo dovrebbe ripresentare in modo perennemente fecondo la verità di Gesù e, dall’altra, che anche l’appello all’escatologia risulta qui impraticabile: non si vede, infatti, quale unità religiosa possa avere proclamato l’eschaton se non è quella anticipata nella economia salvifica. Verità e universalità di Gesù L’universalità di cui parliamo è l’universalità di Gesù in quanto persona concreta. È pacifico che, in quanto persona concreta, Gesù sia contraddistinto da evidenti limiti; ugualmente mantiene un ruolo universale. «Cristo non è né un individuo tra gli altri, perché è il Dio senza eguali in persona, né è la norma come universale, poiché è questo singolo. Essendo Dio un universale concretum, è un concretum universale»66. Per la fede cristiana, questa elevazione di un uomo al ruolo proprio del Verbo eterno non può essere altro che un abbassamento, una kénosis di Dio. Questo evento storico che l’uomo incontra nella sua ricerca di salvezza non deriva dalle sue possibilità ma gli si presenta come un fatto preciso. Riflettendo su di esso, Rahner osserva che l’incarnazione non è bene intesa «qualora si comprenda l’incarnazione solo come “assunzione” d’una realtà che non ha alcun rapporto intrinseco con colui che l’assume e che potrebbe altrettanto bene esser sostituita con qualcosa di diverso. Che cosa sia l’incarnazione è inteso retta-

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mente solo se l’umanità di Cristo non è puramente lo strumento, in fin dei conti esterno, con cui si manifesta un Dio che rimane invisibile, bensì ciò che Dio stesso (pur rimanendo Dio) diventa, quando egli aliena se stesso nella dimensione dell’altro da se stesso, del non-divino»67. A partire da questa homoousía hemín68, l’uomo appare come il possibile interlocutore dell’autocomunicazione di Dio, il possibile fratello di Gesù. Senza identificare unione ipostatica e grazia e senza seguire gli sviluppi trascendentali del pensiero di Rahner, si può affermare che l’uomo, nel suo più profondo mistero, è l’altro-da-Dio a cui Dio si comunica. La sua diversità di natura rimane all’interno di quella storia cristiana che vedrà la sovranità di Gesù su ogni cosa e, alla fine, conoscerà la presenza di Dio «tutto in tutti»69. Il significato universale che Gesù riveste nella libera autocomunicazione di Dio a tutti esige che si approfondisca “questo” Gesù per capirne l’universalità. Per farlo la tradizione lo collega al Logos eterno, la cui missione storica sarebbe espressione dell’eterna generazione filiale: in quanto Figlio, la personalità del Logos si rivela perenne recezione dell’amore del Padre e perenne risposta, perenne dialogo in cui il Figlio si apre al Padre per realizzarne pienamente la volontà. La missione storica di Gesù si comprende sullo sfondo di questo eterno scambio d’amore: es-ponendosi in Gesù, il Verbo eterno fonda il tempo umano e gli conferisce il suo senso e la sua misura. Per questo l’universalità salvifica appartiene all’uomo Gesù: non va cercata al di là o al di fuori di lui70. Non mi pare giustificato risolvere l’universalità di Gesù in termini non pienamente rispettosi del fatto che proprio Gesù, proprio questo uomo particolare, è voluto da Dio con un ruolo universale. Non va in questa linea la cristologia di Rahner71 che, partendo dall’unità di trascendentalità e storicità dell’esistenza umana, postulerà la figura del Salvatore assoluto: là dove l’apertura dell’uomo a Dio osa sperare non solo che Dio sorregga l’esistenza umana ma, addirittura, che doni se stesso quale compimento per l’esistere umano, là appare questo Salvatore assoluto, libera forma di impegno di Dio per l’umanità. In questo possibile autocomunicarsi di Dio nella storia, il finito e creaturale diventano lo spazio legittimo del «venire dell’infinito, dell’assoluto e del definitivo e [del] suscitare in assoluto la speranza in essi»72; appartiene tuttavia alla fede l’identificazione con Gesù di questa speranza radicale in Dio come futuro della storia umana. Queste osservazioni, apprezzabili per indicare Dio come il fondamento ed il compimento della nostra esistenza, non rispettano fino in fondo l’universalità del Gesù storico: ad avere un ruolo universale è, qui, non tanto Gesù quanto quella realtà cristologica in cui la trascendentalità umana riconosce la presenza delle sue aspirazioni. È quanto Boff afferma quando sostiene che esiste «dentro la realtà umana una struttura cristica, che si manifestò in forma assoluta e definitiva nella vita, nella morte e nella resurrezione di Gesù di Nazaret»73. Qui, ad essere veramente universale è questa “struttura cristica”, cioè «ciò che Gesù visse come totale apertura all’altro e al grande Altro: amore indiscriminato, fe-

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deltà incrollabile alla voce della coscienza e superamento di ciò che lega l’uomo al proprio egoismo»74. Questo non basta. In questa direzione, sviluppando il senso dell’evento pasquale con il quale il Gesù storico è assunto nella gloria divina, Dupuis concluderà: «Non si deve permettere che l’universalità di Gesù-il-Cristo metta in ombra la particolarità di Gesù di Nazaret»75. Nemmeno Dupuis, a mio parere, riesce a svolgere del tutto questa attenzione a Gesù che, pure, è nel suo programma. All’interno dell’unità dell’evento cristologico, fermamente riaffermata, Dupuis distingue – cosa ben diversa dal separare – tra il Lógos ásarkos e il Verbo fatto carne; risalente in una certa misura a Calcedonia, questa distinzione è spiegata da Dupuis in termini di azione salvifica. Pur qualificando Gesù come sacramento universale di salvezza, Dupuis affermerà che la potenza salvifica di Dio non è legata unicamente al segno universale che egli ha progettato per la sua azione salvifica. Ciò significa, nei termini di una cristologia trinitaria, che l’azione salvifica di Dio per mezzo del Lógos non incarnato (Lógos ásarkos), di cui il Prologo secondo Giovanni dichiara che «era la luce vera, quella che illumina ogni uomo» venendo nel mondo (Gv 1,9), persiste anche dopo l’incarnazione del Lógos (Gv 1,14), così come esiste pure l’azione salvifica di Dio mediante l’azione universale dello Spirito, sia prima che dopo l’evento storico di Gesù Cristo»76. Il punto nodale è questa distinzione di azione salvifica tra il Lógos ásarkos e Gesù. Diversamente da autori che motivano questa distinzione impoverendo il Gesù storico77, Dupuis la fonda economicamente sulla kénosis: richiamando un testo dell’Associazione Teologica Indiana, vede la kénosis come un non rimanere attaccato al suo “status” divino78, aprendo così la strada al suo operare come servo e lievito in ogni vicenda umana. Non si può che condividere il far risalire il nostro problema ad una questione di cristologia trinitaria; tuttavia lascia perplessi la conclusione che «per quanto inseparabili, il Verbo divino e l’esistenza umana di Gesù rimangono tuttavia distinti. Se, dunque, l’azione umana del Lógos énsarkos è il sacramento universale dell’azione salvifica di Dio, essa non esaurisce l’azione del Lógos. Continua ad esservi un’azione distinta del Lógos ásarkos; non – s’intende – alla maniera di un’economia di salvezza distinta, parallela a quella realizzata nella carne di Cristo, ma in quanto espressione della graziosità sovrabbondante e della libertà assoluta di Dio»79. Questa prospettiva non mi sembra del tutto in sintonia con il Grundaxiom trinitario di Rahner: «La Trinità “economica” è la Trinità “immanente” e viceversa»80. I dibattiti a cui quel testo ha dato origine sono noti81; qui vorrei però solo dire che il suo centro indiscusso rimane la profonda relazione che Rahner stabilisce tra missione e processione trinitaria, cosa che non mi pare di ritrovare fino in fondo in Dupuis. Solo attenendoci all’economia salvifica possiamo cogliere il modo di essere di Dio; ora: ci si attiene fino in fondo all’economia salvifica quando si sostiene che il Verbo, in quanto tale, è veramente presente nell’economia sal-

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vifica cristiana e che però, al tempo stesso, la sorpassa e la trascende? In che modo questo non origina una economia distinta? Per questo ritengo che l’universalizzazione della kénosis crocifissa di Cristo passi più correttamente attraverso la resurrezione, attraverso cioè il dono dello Spirito, cosa per altro che lo stesso Dupuis concede. Ad affermarlo sono molti teologi. «L’unità tra particolare e universale nella cristologia, in special modo, non si può rendere evidente semplicemente nella sfera della seconda Persona divina, per quanto vi si sforzino gli apologeti, ma solo nell’ambito della terza»82. L’autocomunicazione del Padre nel Figlio kenotico non è cancellata dalla sua glorificazione nella potenza dello Spirito; in realtà ciò che l’eschaton mostrerà in pienezza – il Cristo primogenito tra molti fratelli – è ciò che l’azione dello Spirito va anticipando. Andrà comunque sempre ricordato che lo Spirito non rivela se stesso ma l’infinito amore del Padre e del Figlio e lo imprime nella storia. Questo amore eterno, questo “tra” personale che esprime e sigilla l’unità del Padre e del Figlio è definitivamente uno con il crocifisso/risorto proprio per ciò che la Pasqua è: Dio nel suo uscire da sé per la salvezza dell’umanità. Senza entrare qui nella teologia delle religioni non-cristiane, si deve riconoscere che «la presenza e l’assistenza dello Spirito eterno e infinito e santo nell’intimo dello spirito temporale e finito e alieno dalla santità è così inconcepibile, che ci rende definitivamente ignoto lo Spirito divino appunto nel momento in cui Egli entra nel contatto e nella fusione più stretta con noi: fino all’indistinguibilità»83. Forse, a questo proposito, occorrerà ripartire dall’analisi della kénosis del Verbo, dalla sua rinuncia alla forma Dei, alla gloria ed al potere divino; in quanto momento centrale dell’incarnazione, anche questa kénosis cade sotto l’azione dello Spirito; non si potrebbe ritenere che continui in quella dello Spirito? Certamente la kénosis è uno svuotamento, un non rimanere attaccato allo “status” divino, ma è tutt’altro che debolezza. «L’“ultimo posto”, che Egli ha occupato, rinvia alla libertà e all’onnipotenza perfette di Colui che l’ha prescelto»84. In altre parole la kénosis è l’onnipotenza divina in forma storica e terrena; è il dono dello Spirito ad esprimere l’onnipotenza del Risorto dentro gesti umani di libertà e di scelte che rimarranno sempre fragili e non normative. Dio non può operare nel mondo che a patto di autolimitarsi; le missioni del Figlio e dello Spirito sono, perciò, necessariamente contrassegnate dalla kénosis perché il mondo non può accettare l’ingresso della divinità nella sua potenza e nella sua gloria senza, per così dire, dissolversi. Ora, se sappiamo cogliere l’azione kenotica dello Spirito là dove trasforma il caos primitivo in una creazione gradita a Dio85, dei semplici uomini in profeti86, Maria nella madre del Messia87 e Gesù nel Cristo nel quale il Padre si compiace88, dove e come lo dovremo cogliere oggi? Un’analisi completa e approfondita di questa azione dello Spirito nella storia darebbe un volto completo alla cristologia che stiamo lentamente costruendo. Su questo sfondo si deve porre la Chiesa e la sua missione. Animata dal-

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lo Spirito, essa è chiamata a proclamare ed a vivere quell’archetipo trinitario che si esprime nel dono di sé; non vi è spazio per l’arroganza ma solo per il servizio umile dell’amore di fronte alla forza apparente del potere. Solo così rimane la Chiesa di Cristo e dello Spirito.

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CONCLUSIONE La risposta alla domanda iniziale del Congresso: «Voi chi dite che io sia?” è andata come complicandosi progressivamente. Già al tempo di Gesù, la rivendicazione della sua divinità sembrava un’insopportabile forma di hybris: era pazzia per il suo clan familiare89 e possessione demoniaca per gli scribi90. In effetti rivendicare un ruolo divino era una pretesa insopportabile in una teocrazia: «Chi pretendi di essere?»91. Sacerdoti e politici tengono consiglio per eliminarlo92 e decidono di metterlo a morte «perché si è fatto Figlio di Dio»93. La sua morte e la sua resurrezione, in un quadro apocalittico segnato dalla resurrezione universale, fa di Gesù colui che l’eschaton; l’intero mondo è già avvolto da quella vita divina che ha la sua forma. Questi temi sono anche i nostri. Centro della nostra fede, la cristologia indica al tempo stesso il senso ed il compito della presenza cristiana nella storia, il senso ed il compito della missione. Matteo presentava questo singolare intreccio trasponendo una categoria cristologica così da parlare apostolicamente dei cristiani come «luce del mondo»94. Riprendendo questi temi, all’inizio del secolo appena trascorso, M. Kähler rilevava la centralità della missione nell’esperienza cristiana e si spingeva fino a parlare della missione come «la madre della teologia»95. Intesa alla luce di questo stretto legame con Cristo, nella missione non vi è arroganza né vi operano le pretese di una «Chiesa dominatrice del mondo»96: in quanto viva testimonianza di fede, si incontra con questo mondo e con i suoi problemi, in dialogo con i quali è chiamata non solo a dirsi ma anche a ripensarsi profondamente. Se, come scrive Redemptoris Missio 1, «la missione di Cristo redentore, affidata alla Chiesa, è ancora ben lontana dal suo compimento, […] è ancora agli inizi”, allora possiamo e dobbiamo operare perché si avveri anche l’augurio di Redemptoris Missio 2, cioè che questa stagione diventi «una nuova primavera del cristianesimo». Le nuove cristologie ne sono un primo annuncio.

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Note

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Il Congresso Internazionale Missiologico “Who do you say I am? (Mt 16,15). Missiological and Missionary Responses in the context of Religions and Cultures”, organizzato dalla Pontifical Urbaniana University e dalla International Association of Catholic Missiologists, si è svolto a Roma dal 17 al 20 ottobre 2000 presso la stessa Università Urbaniana. 2 Mi limito a segnalare una concisa affermazione di Léon Dufour quando, tratteggiando il passaggio dalla tradizione apostolica ai vangeli, indica nell’ambiente missionario il crogiolo in cui prende forma lo stesso kerygma: le kerygme est une expression de ce milieu [missionnaire]: X.L. DUFOUR, Les évangiles et l’histoire de Jésus, Seuil, Paris 1963, p. 275. 3 At 1,3. 4 Evangelii Nuntiandi 14. 5 At 2,36. 6 Gv 12,32. 7 Gv 3,16. 8 Ad utilizzare questa terminologia è M. BORG, Portraits of Jesus in Contemporary North American Scholarship, in “The Harvard Theological Review”, 84(1991), pp. 1-22. L’affermazione sulla Third Quest è a p. 1. A diffondere questa terminologia in Italia sarà G. SEGALLA, La “Terza” Ricerca del Gesù storico: il Rabbi ebreo di Nazaret e il Messia crocifisso, in “Studia Patavina”, 40(1993), pp. 463-515; ID., La verità storica dei vangeli e la “terza ricerca” su Gesù, in “Lateranum”, 61(1995), pp. 195-234. 9 J. H. CHARLESWORTH, Jesus Research. A Paradigm Shift from New Testament Scholars, in “Australian Biblical Review”, 38(1990), pp. 18-32. 10 Si veda, ad esempio, M. SHAILER, Jesus on Social Institutions, Fortress Press, Philadelphia 1971; B. Scott, Jesus, symbol-maker for the Kingdom, Fortress Press, Philadelphia 1981; V.K. ROBBINS, Jesus the Teacher. A socio-rethorical Interpretation of Mark, Fortress Press, Philadephia 1984; M. J. BORG, Conflict, Holiness & Politics in the Teaching of Jesus, E. Mellen Press, New York 1984; H. FALK, Jesus the Pharisee. A New Look at the Jewishness of Jesus, Paulist Press, New York-Mahwah 1985; D.E. OAKMAN, Jesus and the Economic Questions of His Day, E. Mellen Press, New York 1986; J. KINGSBURY, Conflict in Mark: Jesus, authorities, disciples, Fortress Press, Minneapolis 1989; J. ROUSSEAU, Jesus and his World. An archaelogical cultural Dictonary, Fortress Press, Minneapolis 1995; K.C. HANSON, Palestine in the Time of Jesus: Social structures and social conflicts, Fortress Press, Minneapolis 1998; C.D. ALLISON, Jesus of Nazareth: Millenarian Prophet, Fortress Press, Minneapolis 1998; R.H. HORSLEY, Jesus and the Spiral of Violence. Popular Jewish Resistence in Roman Palestine, Harper & Row, San Francisco 1987; R.H. HORSLEY, J.S. Hanson, Bandits, Prophets and Messiahs: Popular Movements in the Time of Jesus, Trinity Press International, Harrisburg 1999. 11 J.H. CHARLESWORTH, Gesù nel giudaismo del suo tempo alla luce delle più recenti scoperte, [1991], Claudiana, Torino 1994. 12 Le sintesi principali sono quelle di E.P. SANDERS, Gesù e il giudaismo, [1985], Marietti, Genova 1992; J.P. MEIER, A Marginal Jew. Rethinking the Historical Jesus, I, Doubleday, New York-London 1991; A.R. ECKART, Reclaiming the Jesus of History. Christology Today, Fortress Press, Minneapolis 1992; J.D. CROSSAN, The Historical Jesus. The Life of a Mediterraenan Jewish Peasant, T&T. Clark, Edimburgh 1991. 13 J.H. CHARLESWORTH, Hillel and Jesus. Comparative Studies of two major religious leaders, Fortress Press, Minneapolis 1997. 14 E. KÄSEMANN, “Il problema del Gesù storico”, [1953], in ID., Saggi esegetici, Marietti, Casale Monferrato 1985, p. 52. 15 C. GEFFRÉ, La singolarità del cristianesimo nell’età del pluralismo religioso, in “Filosofia e Teologia”, 6(1992), p. 43.

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16 J. HICK, The Mith of God incarnate, Westminster Press, Philadelphia 1977; ID., God has many names, Westminster Press, Philadelphia 1982; ID., An Interpretation of Religion: Human Responses to the Trascendent, Yale University Press, New Haven 1989; ID., The Metaphor of God Incarnate: Christology in a Pluralistic Age, Westminster PressJ. Knox Press, Louisville 1993. 17 J. HICK, “La non assolutezza del cristianesimo”, in J. HICK, P.F. KNITTER (a cura di), L’unicità cristiana: un mito? Per una teologia pluralista delle religioni, [1987], Cittadella, Assisi 1994, p. 81. 18 Ivi, p. 90. 19 Penso alla sua concezione così come è espressa in H. KÜNG, “La sfida delle religioni universali”, in ID., Essere cristiani, Mondadori, Milano 1976, pp. 87-119; ID., Cristianesimo e religioni universali, Mondadori, Milano 1986; ID., Per una teologia ecumenica delle religioni. Tesi di chiarimento, in “Concilium”, 22(1986), pp. 156-165; ID., Esiste l’unica religione vera? Saggio di criteriologia ecumenica, in ID., Teologia in cammino. Un’autobiografia spirituale, Mondadori, Milano 1987, pp. 225-286. Sul suo pensiero si veda C. CHAMPAGNE, “Salut, religions mondiales et mission de l’Église selon Hans Küng”, in AA.VV., La salvezza oggi. Atti del V Congresso internazionale di missiologia, Urbaniana University Press, Roma 1989, pp. 309-318. 20 Interpreta così la categoria di “Figlio di Dio”: «Nella sua qualità di elevato definitivamente alla destra di Dio, Gesù è ora di fronte agli uomini, in senso pieno e definitivo, (una volta per tutte) il rappresentante di Dio. Titoli come “Incaricato”, “Delegato”, “Avvocato”, “Portavoce”, “Procuratore”, e ancora “Inviato”, “Fiduciario”, “Confidente”, “Amico”, “Sostituto”, “Rappresentante” di Dio esprimono oggi, per alcuni con chiarezza forse maggiore, ciò che tentavano di dire gli antichi epiteti di “Re”, “Pastore”, “Salvatore”, “Figlio di Dio” o anche la dottrina tradizionale dei tre “carismi” di Gesù Cristo (profetico, regale, sacerdotale)», H. KÜNG, Essere cristiani, op. cit., p. 440. 21 W. KASPER, “Le tendenze di fondo della cristologia contemporanea”, in ID., Gesù il Cristo, Queriniana, Brescia 1974, pp. 12-17. 22 K. RAHNER, “Chalkedon: Ende oder Anfang?”, in A. GRILLMEIER, H. BACHT (vsg.), Das Konzil von Chalkedon. Geschichte und Gegenwart, III, Echter, Würzburg 1951, pp. 3-49. Lo studio, ripubblicato negli Schriften, I, pp. 169-222, è tradotto in italiano in K. RAHNER, “Problemi della cristologia d’oggi”, in ID., Saggi di cristologia e di mariologia, Paoline, Roma 1965, pp. 3-91. 23 K. RAHNER, “Problemi della cristologia d’oggi”, op. cit., pp. 4-5. 24 Le critiche a Calcedonia sono più d’una. Da una parte ci si stacca da un concetto statico ed ontologico di natura, intesa come entità chiusa e circoscritta dalla somma delle sue proprietà, per legarla più intimamente alla persona ed alla sua libera automanifestazione; dall’altra la diversità qualitativa della natura divina e della natura umana, presentate come tra loro inconfuse e immutabili, indivise e inseparabili, non pare far gran conto dell’unità cristologica; infine la soluzione offerta per la persona di Gesù non offre indicazioni sul rapporto tra questa persona e la storia del mondo. 25 Nel suo lavoro già ricordato – W. KASPER, “Le tendenze di fondo”, op. cit., pp. 14-15 – Kasper richiama tre tentativi di chiarimento del dogma calcedonese. Il primo lo indica nella dottrina del Lógos spermatikós dei padri apologisti e nel pensiero di Teilhard: verterebbe sulla presenza dinamica del Lógos nel mondo fino a vederlo come il compimento di ogni evoluzione; il secondo lo vede all’opera nella concezione trascendentale del Salvatore assoluto di K. Rahner che porta a pienezza il bisogno storico di salvezza; il terzo lo coglie nel pensiero di W. Pannenberg che vede in Gesù la prolessi del senso ultimo della storia. 26 H.U. VON BALTHASAR, Solo l’amore è credibile, Borla, Roma 1982, p. 12. Nello stesso senso H.U. VON BALTHASAR, Teologia della storia, Morcelliana, Brescia 1964. 27 La soteriologia classica faceva perno, come è noto, sui concetti di sacrificio, redenzione, espiazione, soddisfazione e merito.

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28 L. BOFF, Gesù Cristo liberatore, Cittadella, Assisi 1973; J. SOBRINO, Gesù in America Latina: suo significato per la fede e la cristologia, Borla, Roma 1986; I. ELLACURIA, Conversione della Chiesa al regno di Dio: per annunciarlo e realizzarlo nella storia, Queriniana, Brescia 1992. 29 J.M. ELA, Fede e liberazione in Africa: riflessioni e sfide all’Occidente da parte di un teologo africano, Cittadella, Assisi 1986. 30 A. PIERIS, Parlare del Figlio di Dio in culture non-cristiane, in “Concilium”, 18(1982), pp. 429-448; ID., Theology of Liberation in Asian Churches?, in “Vidyajyoti”, 50(1986), pp. 330-351; ID., “Il Budda e il Cristo: mediatori di liberazione”, in J. HICK, P.F. KNITTER (a cura di), L’unicità cristiana, cit., pp. 291-312; ID., Una teologia asiatica di liberazione, Cittadella, Assisi 1990. 31 Questo rimanda, in qualche modo, ad un “comune pensiero africano” o ad una “filosofia africana”; la chiarezza con cui questi autori rivendicano una propria piattaforma culturale, a suo modo capace di metafisica, non è sempre pari alla capacità di una sua precisa ed organica elaborazione. 32 A. PIERIS, “The Place of Non-Christian Religions and Cultures in the Evolution of Third World Theology”, in V. FABELLA, S. TORRES (eds.), Irruption of the Third World: Challenge to Theology, Orbis Books, Maryknoll-New York 1983, p. 113. 33 Richiamato al Congresso da G. Karakunnel, il testo è una citazione di F. WILFRED, From the Dusty Soil: Contextual Reinterpretation of Christianity, Department of Christian Studies, University of Madras, Madras 1995, p. 192. Lo stesso autore continua poi così: «From the experience of ultimacy and universality within the realm of one’s religious faith, what results is not the affirmation of its uniqueness over against others; What results is rather the capacity to understand the faith of the other in its ultimacy and universality. And that marks the true greatness of one’s faith and its spirit of universality». 34 Gesù e il regno sono proclamati dalle stesse parole e garantiti dagli stessi miracoli: seguire Gesù è entrare nel regno, accogliere il regno è diventare discepolo di Gesù. Si veda anche Redemptoris Missio 16. 35 W. PANNENBERG, “Pluralismo religioso e rivendicazioni di verità in conflitto tra loro. Il problema di una teologia delle religioni mondiali”, in G. D’COSTA (a cura di), La teologia pluralista delle religioni: un mito?L’unicità cristiana riesaminata, Cittadella, Assisi 1994, p. 207. L’autore continua: «Poiché, attraverso lui [Gesù], l’imminente futuro di Dio era diventato presente, non v’è spazio per altri approcci alla salvezza oltre a lui. Coloro che relegano la pretesa di unicità alla “deificazione” di Gesù nella successiva interpretazione cristiana non prendono sul serio la finalità/definitività escatologica rivendicata dallo stesso Gesù» (ibidem). 36 DS 302. 37 K. RAHNER, Corso fondamentale sulla fede. Introduzione al concetto di cristianesimo, Paoline, Alba 1977, p. 374. 38 W. KASPER (hsg.), Absolutheit des des Christentums, Herder, Freiburg 1977; H. FRIES, “Absolutheitsnspruch des Christentum”, in Lexikon für Theologie und Kirche, I, Herder, Freiburg 1957, coll. 71-74; W. KASPER, Cristianesimo, carattere assoluto del, in Sacramentum Mundi, II, Morcelliana, Brescia 1974, coll. 734-740. In una linea del tutto critica, si veda invece J. HICK, “La non assolutezza del cristianesimo”, in J. HICK, P.F. KNITTER (a cura di.), L’unicità cristiana, op. cit., pp. 80-111. 39 W. KASPER, Cristianesimo, op. cit., p. 734. Lo stesso giudizio è in H. WALDENFELDS, Teologia fondamentale nel contesto del mondo contemporaneo, Paoline, Cinisello Balsamo 1988, p. 242. 40 G.W.F. HEGEL, Fenomenologia dello Spirito, Rusconi, Milano 1995, pp. 989-1001. 41 E. TROELTSCH, L’assolutezza del cristianesimo e la storia delle religioni, [1902], Morano, Napoli 1968.

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W. KASPER, Cristianesimo, op. cit., p. 735. «Poiché Dio ha assunto in Cristo in maniera assoluta e definitiva una concreta natura umana, pur lasciandola pura e immutata nella sua peculiarità naturale, il carattere assoluto del cristianesimo significa l’assolutezza dell’accettazione e dell’assenso dato all’uomo e al mondo. Il carattere assoluto va perciò annunciato non tanto come rivendicazione ma come lieta novella, la quale dice che Dio ama e ha accettato il mondo in maniera divino-assoluta e che il mondo, pertanto, non può essere in ultima analisi vuoto e nullo, assurdo e schizofrenico», W. KASPEr, Cristianesimo, op. cit., p. 736). 44 J.B. METZ, Memoria passionis nel pluralismo delle culture e delle religioni, in “Il Regno. Documenti”, 22(2000), p. 770. 45 Il dibattito sulla verità non è nuovo ma, quasi sempre, era dominato dalla rivendicazione di una originale concezione biblica della verità e dal confronto con la cultura occidentale. Si veda al riguardo I. DE LA POTTERIE, La verité dans Saint Jean, Biblical Institute Pres, Rome 1977; W. PANNENBERG, “Che cos’è la verità?”, in ID., Questioni fondamentali di teologia sistematica, Queriniana, Brescia 1975, pp. 228-250; J.P. RESWEBER, “Déplacements récents de la problématique de la verité et leurs incidences en théologie”, in AA.VV., La Théologie à l’épreuve de la vérité. Travaux du C.E.R.I.T. dirigés par M. Michel, Cerf, Paris 1984, pp. 121-141; C. GEFFRÉ, “Postface. La question de la vérité dans la théologie contemporaine”, in AA.VV., La Théologie, op. cit., pp. 281-291; A. MILANO, Alétheia. La “concentrazione cristologica” della verità, in “Filosofia e Teologia”, 4(1990), pp. 13-45; V. BORTOLIN (a cura di), Simposio: Verità e fede, in “Studia Patavina”, 41(1994), pp. 3-61. 46 P. KNITTER, “Dialogo basato su un nuovo modello di verità”, in ID., Nessun altro nome? Un esame critico degli atteggiamenti cristiani verso le religioni mondiali, Queriniana, Brescia 1991, pp. 222-236. 47 Ivi, p. 223. 48 Ivi, pp. 226-227. A p. 227 prosegue poi: «In termini più personali, io stabilisco la mia identità e la mia unicità non mostrando come sono diverso da te ma come sono parte di te. Senza di te non posso essere unico. Senza “altra” verità, la verità non può essere unica, non può esistere. La verità, perciò, “prova se stessa” non trionfando su tutta l’altra verità, ma verificando la sua capacità di interagire con altre verità, cioè di insegnare loro e di apprendere da esse, di includerle e di essere da esse inclusa». 49 Ivi, p. 233. Il testo continua: «Possiamo perciò dire che il fine dell’attività missionaria è stato raggiunto, quando l’annuncio del vangelo a tutti i popoli rende i cristiani migliori e i buddisti migliori» (ivi, pp. 233-234). 50 Gv 14,6. 51 M. HENRY, C’est moi la verité. Pour une philosophie du christianisme, Seuil, Paris 1996. 52 Gesù impersona quindi la verità tanto in senso soggettivo quanto in senso oggettivo: in senso soggettivo perché è l’amore fedele e vivificante del Padre che si rivolge all’umanità ed in senso oggettivo perché, sempre con Gesù, la verità divina è obiettivamente proclamata davanti ad un mondo non ancora credente. 53 G. COLZANI, “Il carattere personale della verità: verità, libertà e salvezza”, in AA.Vv., Educazione e verità. XXXVI Convegno di Scholé, La Scuola, Brescia 1998, p. 13. 54 H. VOGEL, Wann ist ein theologischer Satz wahr?, in “Kerygma und Dogma”, 8(1958), p. 176 55 L’affermazione è la sostanza del De docta ignorantia, l. III cc. 2-4 del Cusano: N. CUSANO, La dotta ignoranza, Città Nuova, Roma 1991, pp. 163-171. Ripresa da Balthasar, avrà una discreta diffusione nella teologia contemporanea. 56 Il riferimento, per questa terminologia, è a M. BORDONI, “Singolarità e Universalità di Gesù Cristo nella riflessione teologica contemporanea”, in P. CODA (a cura di), L’Unico e i molti. La salvezza in Gesù Cristo e la sfida del pluralismo, Mursia, Pontificia

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Università Lateranense, Roma 1997, n. 95, p. 93 (si veda tutto l’articolo: pp. 67-108). 57 J. HICK, The Mith of God Incarnate, op. cit. Hick si serve pure della nozione di metafora: The Metaphor of God Incarnate, op. cit. 58 J. HICK, P.F. KNITTER (eds.), The Mith of Christian Uniqueness. Toward a Pluralistic Theology of Religion, Orbis Books, Maryknoll, New York 1987. Non si vede per quale ragione la traduzione italiana abbia messo un punto interrogativo nel titolo: J. HICK, P.F. KNITTER, L’unicità cristiana: un mito?, op. cit. 59 R. HAIGHT, Jesus, symbol of God, Orbis Books, Maryknoll, New York 1999. 60 P.F. KNITTER, “Prefazione”, in J. HICK, P.F. KNITTER (a cura di.), L’unicità cristiana, op. cit., p. 49. 61 J. HICK, The Mith of God Incarnate, op. cit., p. 178. 62 M. GOULDER (ed.), Incarnation and Mith. The Debate continued, Grand Rapids, Eerdmans 1979, p. 63. 63 Si veda il legame che, nel suo tentativo di teologia narrativa, Jüngel mantiene tra metafora e incarnazione: E. JÜNGEL, “Verità metaforica. Riflessioni sulla rilevanza teologica della metafora come contributo all’ermeneutica di una teologia narrativa”, in P. RICOEUR, E. JÜNGEL, Dire Dio. Per un’ermeneutica del linguaggio religioso, Queriniana, Brescia 1978, pp. 109-180. 64 R. HAIGHT, The Case for Spirit Christology, in “Theological Studies”, 53(1992), pp. 257-287. Nello stesso senso va anche Panikkar: “Lo Spirito di Dio che i cristiani considerano come lo Spirito Santo, lo Spirito del Cristo, e che gli indù interpreteranno come una di quelle manifestazioni divine per mezzo delle quali Dio nella sua immanenza si scopre o riveste se stesso, questo Spirito di Dio offre il terreno reale per un’autentica comunicazione religiosa e un dialogo a livello profondo», R. PANIKKAR, Il Cristo sconosciuto dell’induismo, Vita e Pensiero, Milano 1976, pp. 63-64. 65 Più che ad altri teorici, il riferimento mi sembra a G. DURAND, L’Imagination symbolique, Presses Universitaires de France, Paris 1968; ID., Le strutture antropologiche dell’immaginario, [1969], Dedalo, Bari 1972. 66 H.U. VON BALTHASAR, “Contrassegni del cristianesimo”, in ID., Saggi Teologici, I: Verbum Caro, Morcelliana, Brescia 1968, p. 188. 67 K. RAHNER, “Considerazioni fondamentali per l’antropologia e la protologia nell’ambito della teologia”, in Mysterium salutis, IV: La storia della salvezza prima di Cristo, Queriniana, Brescia 1970, p. 25. 68 B. WELTE, “Homoousios hemin”, in A. GRILLMEIER, H. BACHT (vsg.), Das Konzil von Chalkedon. Geschichte und Gegenwart, III, Echter, Würzburg 1954, pp. 51-80. 69 1 Cor 15,28. 70 E. SCHILLEBEECKX, Universalité unique d’une figure religeuse historique nommée Jésus de Nazareth, in “Laval théologique et philosophique”, 50(1994), pp. 265-281. 71 Oltre a molti articoli sul tema, Rahner ha esplicitamente riassunto le sue posizioni al riguardo in K. RAHNER, “Linee fondamentali di una cristologia sistematica”, in K. RAHNER, W. THÜSING, Cristologia: Prospettiva sistematica ed esegetica. Basi operative per un corso di studio interdisciplinare, Morcelliana, Brescia 1974, pp. 15-93. 72 Ivi, p. 24. 73 L. BOFF, Gesù Cristo liberatore, op. cit., p. 242. 74 Ivi, p. 243. 75 J. DUPUIS, Verso una teologia del pluralismo religioso, Queriniana, Brescia 1997, p. 402. 76 Ivi, p. 403. 77 Penso soprattutto a R. Panikkar che, descrivendo la sua concezione cosmoteandrica di Cristo, così la descrive: «Il mistero che c’è all’inizio e sarà alla fine, l’alfa e l’omega tramite e attraverso le quali tutto è venuto all’esistenza, la luce che illumina ogni creatura, la parola che è dentro ogni parola autentica, la realtà che è totalmente materiale, completamente umana e semplicemente divina, che è all’opera ovunque ed esclu-

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sivamente presente ovunque vi sia realtà, […] quel simbolo di tutta la realtà non soltanto come era, o come è, ma anche come liberamente sarà, anche tramite la nostra sinergia, è ciò che credo sia il Cristo», R. PANIKKAR, “Il Giordano, il Tevere e il Gange”, in J. HICK, P.F. KNITTER, a cura di, L’unicità cristiana, cit., pp. 225-226. In una simile linea vanno anche i lavori precedenti: R. PANIKKAR, The Unknown Christ of Hindouism. Towards an ecumenical christophany, Orbis Books, Maryknoll, New York 1981; ID., The cosmotheandric experience. Emerging religious consciousness, Orbis Books, Maryknoll , New York 1993; ID., Cristofania, Dehoniane, Bologna 1994. 78 J. DUPUIS, Verso una teologia, op. cit., p. 402. 79 Ivi, p. 404. 80 K. RAHNER, “Il Dio trino come fondamento originario e trascendente della storia della salvezza”, in Mysterium salutis, III: La storia della salvezza prima di Cristo, Queriniana, Brescia 1969, p. 414. 81 Su questa formula e sui problemi che ha suscitato si veda Y. CONGAR, “Trinità ‘economica’ e Trinità ‘immanente’”, in ID., Credo nello Spirito Santo, III: Teologia dello Spirito Santo, Queriniana, Brescia 1983, pp. 23-31; E. JÜNGEL, The Relationship between Economic and Immanent Trinity, in “Theology Digest”, 24(1978), pp. 179-184; W. SIMONIS, Über das “Werden” Gottes. Gedanken zum Begriff der ökonomischen Trinität, in “Münchener Theologische Zeitschrift”, 33(1982), pp. 133-139; C. MOWRI LACUGNA, Dio per noi. La Trinità e la vita cristiana, Queriniana, Brescia 1997, pp. 211-241 82 H.U. VON BALTHASAR, “Lo sconosciuto al di là del Verbo”, in Saggi teologici, III: Spiritus Creator, Morcelliana, Brescia 1972, p. 98. 83 Ivi, p. 99. 84 H.U. VON BALTHASAR, “Onnipotenza di Dio”, in Saggi teologici, V: Homo creatus est, Morcelliana, Brescia 1991, p. 219. 85 Gen 1,2.31. 86 Is 42,1; 61,1. 87 Lc 1,35. 88 Mc 1,10-11. 89 Mc 3,21. 90 Mc 3,22. 91 Gv 8,53. 92 Mc 3,6. 93 Gv 19,7. 94 Mt 5,14. 95 M. KÄHLER, Schriften zur Christologie und Mission, [1908], Ch. Kaiser, München 1971, p. 190. 96 Ivi, p. 189.

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Finito di stampare nel mese di Novembre 2001 dalla Tipografia Città Nuova della P.A.M.O.M. via San Romano in Garfagnana, 23 - 00148 Roma

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