The Later Prehistory of Anatolia, Parts i and ii: The Late Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age 9781407391274, 9781407391281, 9780860543411, 9781407342993

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The Later Prehistory of Anatolia The Late Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age

Jak Yakar

Part i

BAR International Series 268(i)

1985

B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 0ES, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R Walker, M.A.

BAR S268 (I),1985 'The Later Prehistory of Anatolia' Part I

© Jak Yakar, 1985 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407391274 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407391281 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860543411 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407342993 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860543411

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

C ONTENTS P age

P REFACE

1

I NTRODUCTION

2

C HAPTER I :

P HYSICAL E NVIRONMENT

1 1

C HAPTER I I:

A NCIENT A NATOLIANS A ND T HEIR E THNIC A FFILIATIONS

2 3

S ETTLEMENT, A RCHITECTURE A ND P OPULATION D ENSITY

3 6

C HAPTER I II:

E arly B ronze A ge S ettlement T ypes

i n A natolia

S mall O pen V illages L arge V illages w ith o r w ithout D efensive W alls

4 0 4 0

3 .

T ightly N ucleated S ettlements a nd A gglutinated E nclosures

4 0

4 .

T owns w ith U rban P lanning

5 . T emporary S ettlements R egional A rchitecture 1 . 2 . 3 .

C entral A natolia W estern A natolia N orthern A natolia

4 . E astern A natolia 5 . S outheastern A natolia 6 . C ilicia P opulation D ensity I llustrations:

R EGIONAL C ULTURES: C HAPTER I V:

4 0

1 . 2 .

C HAPTERS

F igs:

4 7 4 8 5 0 5 0 5 1 5 5 5 7 5 9 6 0 6 0

I -V

I V-X

T URKISH T HRACE A ND T HE M ARNARA R EGION N atural E nvironment a nd S ettlement P attern T he S equence o f C ultural F rameworks C hronology

7 2 7 2 7 7 7 9

C ultural F rameworks/Ethno-Cultural T raits T he F ikirtepe C ulture

8 1 8 1

T he K aranovo V I C ulture i n t he E rgene R egion o f T hrace P ottery C ultures o f t he L ate F ourth a nd E arly T hird M illennium B C P ottery C ultures o f t he L ate T hird M illennium B C D iscussion A rchaeological S ources F ikirtepe P endik

8 2 8 3 8 4 8 5 8 6 8 6 8 7

D ikilitash

8 8

S itagroi K aranovo

8 8 8 9

E zero N otes

9 0 9 2

( i)

P age

C HAPTER V :

W ESTERN A NATOLIA I NCLUDING T HE A EGEAN S EABOARD N atural E nvironment a nd S ettlement p attern T he S equence o f C ultural F rameworks C hronology C ultural F rameworks/Ethno-Cultural T raits

9 4 9 4 1 06 1 11 1 20

P ottery G roups 1 . E arly H andmade D ark B urnished W ares 2 . H andmade B lack B urnished G roups o f L ate F ourth M illennium B C 3 .

H andmade D ark B urnished G roups o f

4 .

T hird M illennium B C W est A natolian W heelmade R ed S lipped

t he

1 22 1 22 1 23 1 23 1 24

E B I II W are D iscussion

1 25

A rchaeological S ources A . F ield S urveys B alikesir, A khisar a nd M anisa R egions T he E ski ehir R egion ( the w estern a reas)

1 37 1 37 1 37 1 37

B .

T he R egion S outh o f A fyon ( Karahisar) T he P isidian S urvey

1 38 1 38

E xplorations

1 38

i n t he T road

E xcavations

1 39

T roy ( Hisarlik) B esiktepe ( Yassitepe)

1 39 1 46

K umtepe

1 47

H anaytepe P rotesilaos P oliochni

1 48 1 48 1 49

T hermi B ozk8y ( H8yt 1cek)

1 51 1 52

H elvaci B ayrakli K lazomenai

1 52 1 52 1 53

( Limantepe)

A yio G ala E mporio

1 53 1 54

T igani ( Kastro)

1 55

H eralon V athy

1 56 1 57

l asos K arata -Semayt 1k K uruçay

1 57 1 57 1 59

A phrodisias B eycesultan K usura

1 61 1 61 1 64

Y ortan

1 64

B abakJy O vabayindir

1 66 1 67

D emircih yUk

1 67

B 8zh1yt 1k N otes I llustrations:

1 68 1 69 F igs:

V I-XI

P age

C HAPTER V I:

C ENTRAL A NATOLIA

1 70

N atural E nvironment a nd S ettlement P attern

1 70

T he S equence o f C ultural F rameworks C hronology

1 74 1 77

C ultural F rameworks/Ethno-Cultural T raits P roto-Urban P eriod E arly U rban P eriod

1 79 1 79 1 80

P eriod o f E merging D ynasties T he P ontic C ulture

1 84

D iscussion A rchaeological S ources

1 84 1 93

A . B .

S urveys E xcavations C entral P lateau ( South o f A nkara)

1 93 1 93 1 93

P olatli Y azirhdyt lk

1 93 1 94

A hiatlibel K arao lan K oqumbeli

1 94 1 95 1 95

K arayav an

1 96

C entral P lateau E tiyoku u

( North o f A nkara)

1 97 1 97

E ast-Central P lateau A li ar K 1ltepe A cemh8yt lk

1 98 1 98 1 98 1 99

H ash y1k N orth-Central P lateau

2 00 2 00

A 1acah8yUk H orortepe

2 00 2 01

K alinkaya E skiyapar

2 02 2 02

K u saray B o azk8y B t IyUk G Ullt icek

2 03 2 03 2 04

M a at H 8y0k

2 04

K ayapinar M altepe

2 05 2 06

I llustrations: C HAPTER V II:

1 83

F igs:

X II-XVI

S OUTHERN A NATOLIA

2 07

N atural E nvironment a nd S ettlement P attern

2 07

T he S equence o f C ultural F rameworks

2 11

C hronology C ultural F rameworks/Ethno-Cultural T raits

2 13 2 1 .6

P ottery G roups A . T he L ate C halcolithic W ares

2 18 2 18

1 . 2 .

M onochrome W are W hite P ainted W are

2 18 2 18

3 .

C ilician L ate C halcolithic P ainted W are

2 19

P age

B .

T he E arly B ronze A ge W ares

2 19

1 . 2 .

H andmade B urnished W ares H andmade P ainted W are

2 19 2 19

3 . 4 .

M etallic W are o f S cored W are

2 19 2 20

t he K onya P lain

5 .

W est A natolian/Cilician E B S lipped W are A rchaeological S ources

C HAPTER V III:

I II R ed

2 24

A .

F ield S urveys

2 24

B .

E xcavations C ilicia M ersin ( YUmUktepe) T arsus

2 26 2 26 2 26 2 26

K onya P lain C an H asan

2 27 2 28

K arahJyUk

2 28

N otes I llustrations:

2 29 F igs:

X VII-XVIII

N ORTHERN A NATOLIA

2 30

N atural E nvironment T he S equence o f C ultural F rameworks

2 30 2 35

C hronology C ultural F rameworks/Ethno-Cultural T raits

2 37 2 37

T he L ate C halcolithic C ulture o f

I kiztepe

T he E BA I -TI C ulture o f I kiztepe T he E BA I II C ulture o f N orthern A natolia D iscussion A rchaeological S ources A . B .

C HAPTER I X :

2 24

2 37 2 39 2 40 2 41 2 42

F ield S urveys E xcavations I kiztepe D emircih yl lk

2 42 2 42 2 42 2 44

D t lndartepe

2 44

T ekekJy K ayak

2 45 2 45

E ASTERN A NATOLIA N atural E nvironment a nd S ettlement P attern T he S equence o f

C ultural F rameworks

C hronology L ate C halcolithic C ultures T he E arly B ronze A ge D iscussion C ultural F rameworks/Ethno-Cultural T raits

2 47 2 47 2 56 2 59 2 59 2 61 2 66 2 67

L ate C halcolithic C ultures

2 67

T he E ast A natolian/Transcaucasian E arly B ronze A ge C ulture

2 73

D iscussion A rchaeological S ources A . B .

2 78 2 80

F ield S urveys E xcavations

2 80 2 88

( iv)

P age

T he K eban D am R eservoir A rea T epecik P ulur

2 90

K orucutepe N orsuntepe Tlintepe

2 91 2 93 2 94

H an I brahim S ah ( Eser ikent H 8yUk) D e irmentepe

2 95 2 95

T he M alatya R egion A rsiantepe G elinciktepe D e irmentepe

2 96 2 96 2 98 2 98

S emsiyetepe t mamogiu

2 99 2 99

P irot

3 00

K kerbaba T he V an R egion

3 00 3 00

T ilkitepe (amramalti) T he E rzurum R egion K araz

3 00 3 01 3 01

P ulur

3 02

G t lzelova N otes

3 02 3 03

I llustrations:

C HAPTER X :

2 88 2 89

F igs:

X IX-XXIII

S OUTHEASTERN A NATOLIA N atural E nvironment

3 05 3 05

T he S equence o f C ultural F rameworks

3 26

C hronology C ultural F ramevorks/Ethno-Cultural T raits T he L ate U baid C ulture

3 30 3 35 3 35

T he U ruk C ulture o f S outheastern A natolia

3 37

T he E arly B ronze A ge C ulture P ottery G roups

3 39 3 41

A .

P lain S imple W are

3 41

B . C .

R eserved S lip W are M ultiple-Brush P ainted W are

3 42 3 42

D . E .

R ed-Black B urnished W are B rittle O range W are

3 42 3 43

F .

S tone W are

3 44

G . H . I .

S imple W are C ombed W ash W are G rey S piral R ing B urnish W are

3 44 3 45 3 45

J .

E arly H abur W are

3 46

( Eggshell H abur W are)

K . H and B urnished C ooking P ot W are D iscussion A rchaeological S ources

( v)

3 46 3 46 3 54

P age A .

B .

F ield S urveys

3 54

T he E astern A manus S urvey G aziantep a nd i ts V icinity T he L ower E uphrates B asin

3 54 3 54 3 54

P rehistoric S urvey i n t he A ntitauruS R egion P rehistoric R esearch i n S outheastern A natolia

3 55 3 56

( Urfa-Diyarbakir S1irt) E xcavations T he Amanus R egion A muq M ounds T ell T abara E l A krad

3 57 3 57 3 57 3 58

T he G aziantep P rovince T u r nen H 8y t 1k G edikil ( Karah8yt ik)

3 59 3 59 3 60

C oba H 8y9k ( Sakçag8zt l) C archemish ( Kargami )

3 61 3 62

Z incirli T he U rfa P rovince H arran

3 64 3 64 3 64

L idar

3 65

K urban 1 8y { lk H assek H JyUk

3 66 3 67

S amsat G ritille

3 69 3 69

N otes

3 70

I llustrations:

C HAPTER X I:

F igs:

S UBSISTENCE E CONOMY, F arming

X XIV-XXVI

TRADE A ND I NDUSTRY

P astoralism a nd t he Q uestion o f N omadic T ribes E arly B ronze A ge A natolia I ndustrial A ctivity a nd T rade T extile I ndustries

4 04 4 07

4 10

S OCIAL O RGANIZATION

4 16

N otes

R ELIGION R eligious A rchitecture C ult S ymbols

a nd D eity I mages

N otes I llustrations:

3 77 3 79 3 83

P ottery W orkshops N otes

C HAPTER X III:

i n

3 80

M etal I ndustries

C HAPTER X II:

3 72 3 72

4 17 4 23 4 25 4 37

F igs:

X XVII-XXXI

B IBLIOGRAPHY

4 38

S ITE

4 65

I NDEX

P age MAP

I :

ANATOLIAN F OLDED Z ONES

M AP

I I:

P ALAEOVEGETATION M AP O F A NATOLIA C A. ( Chapter

MAP

( Chapter I )

1 2 5 000 B C

1 4

2 000 B C

1 6

I )

I II:

P ALAEOVEGETATION M AP O F A NATOLIA C A.

I V:

( Chapter I ) T URKISH T HRACE A ND T HE M ARMARA R EGION ( Chapter I V)

7 4

MAP V :

W ESTERN A NATOLIA A ND T HE E AST A EGEAN I SLANDS

9 7

MAP VA :

S OUTHWEST ANATOLIAN L ATE C HALCOLITHIC S ITES ( after L loyd a nd M ellaart 1 962:Map I V)

MAP

( For b ox s ee M aps VA-C)

MAP V B:

( Chapter V ) S ITES W ITH E B O F THE

I -II O CCUPATION

S ITES

I N T HE S OUTHERN P ART

9 9

1 00

W ESTERN P LATEAU ( after L loyd a nd M ellaart

1 962:Map V I) MAP V C:

( Chapter V )

( Chapter V )

W ITH E B I II O CCUPATION I N T HE S OUTHERN P ART

1 05

O F T HE W ESTERN P LATEAU ( after L loyd a nd M ellaart 1 962:Map V III)

( Chapter V )

MAP V I:

C ENTRAL A NATOLIA ( Chapter V I)

1 73

MAP V II:

S OUTHERN A NATOLIA ( Chapter V II)

2 09

M AP V III: MAP I X :

N ORTHERN A NATOLIA ( Chapter V III) E ASTERN A NATOLIA ( Chapter I X)

2 33 2 49

M AP

K EBAN R ESERVOIR A REA ( Chapter I X)

2 50

S OUTHEASTERN A NATOLIA ( Chapter X )

3 06

I XA :

M AP X : M AP X A:

T HE AMUQ P LAIN

MAP X B:

T HE

MAP

( Chapter X ) T HE A NTITAURUS

X C:

I SLAHIYE

( Chapter X )

3 08

P LAIN ( after U .B. R EGION

A lkim 1 969)

( after B rown 1 967)

3 11 3 15

( Chapter X ) MAP X D:

T HE

N ORTHERN G AZIANTEP

P ROVINCE

( Chapter X )

3 16

MAP X E:

( after A rchi 1 971) T HE S OUTHERN G AZIANTEP

P ROVINCE

( Chapter X )

3 17

( after A rchi

1 971)

MAP X F:

T HE E UPHRATES B ASIN ( Based o n

MAP X G:

( Chapter X ) T HE E UPHRATES

B ASIN S OUTH O F C ARCHEMISH

( after M oortgat MAP X H:

T HE

i zdo an 1 977:12-13)

1 959)

3 22

( Chapter X )

H ABUR B ASIN ( after M oortgat

( Chapter X )

3 19

1 959)

3 24

P REFACE

T his

w ork

a ims a t p roviding a c omprehensive p icture o f

l ife

i n

L ate C halcolithic a nd E arly B ronze A ge A natolia. T he s ettlement p attern o f s edentary a nd p astoral c ommunities, t heir s ocio-economic d evelopment a nd c ultural i nteraction i n t he f ourth a nd t hird m illennia B C a re i nvestigated o n a r egional b asis a nd i n r elation t o e nvironm ental f actors w hich m ust h ave d ictated t he t rends i n s ubsistence e conomy a nd h uman a ctivity. A n i nsight i nto t he n atural p revailing i n t he m ain g eographical r egions o f T urkey i n h istoric t imes i s p resented i n t erms o f g eomorphology,

e nvironment l ater p rel ate p ost -

g lacial c limate, l ate p rehistoric f lora a nd f auna, m ineral r esources, s ome o f w hich w ere e xploited b y e arly m etallurgists, a nd f inally, t he a nthropological s tructure a nd t he e thnic c omposition o f a ncient A natolians. B ut,

i n t he a bsence o f w ritten r ecords f rom t his p eriod,

t he p roposed r econstructions

r elating t o s ocial o rganization,

m ost o f r eligon,

h uman a ctivity a nd p opulation m ovements a re b ased o n t he i nterpretation o f t he r elevant a rchaeological d ata, a nd t herefore, a re l argely t entative. C hapters

d ealing

w ith

r egional c ultures a re

s upplemented

w ith

s ections d escribing t he r elevant a rchaeological s ources r eferred t o i n t his w ork. T hese a re c ompiled f rom r eports o f a rchaeological e xcavat ions a nd f ield s urveys c arried o ut i n T urkey s ince t he e arly t hirties. A

b rief

C hapter I .

o utline

o f

P roblems o f

t he p hysical e nvironment

i s

p resented

i n

t erminology a nd c hronology a re d iscussed i n t he

I ntroduction. S ocial

o rganization

a nd

r eligion i n

p reliterate

A natolia

a re

d ealt w ith i n s eparate c hapters. I llustrations,

m aps,

c harts a ccompanying c ertain d escriptions L ate C halcolithic a nd a nd t he g eographical w ould l ike t o s tress m aterial

a lready

r eports, d etails

a re o f

t he

n ot

r egional

s tratigraphies a nd

e xtensively i ntended

c ultural

p ublished

i n

p reliminary

t o p rovide a c omplete r ecord n or

f rameworks d iscussed

i n t he r elevant

F or s uch i nformation t he r eader i s a dvised t o r efer r eports a nd m onographs l isted i n A rchaeological S ources.

i ngs

c hronological

t he t ext a re t o a ssist t he r eader t o v isualize a nd a rguments r elating t o d ifferent a spects o f E arly B ronze A ge c ultures, c hronological s chemes d istribution o f c ultural f rameworks. T he a uthor h ere t hat t he i llustrations, w hich a re b ased o n

t o

e xcavation s pecific c hapters. e xcavation

T urkish w ords f requently u sed i n t he t ext a nd t heir E nglish m eana re g iven b elow; ç ay=stream ; d a =mountain; g 81=lake; h 8y1 1k=mound;

o va=plain;

n ehir=river;

t epe=hill.

1

I NTRODUCTION

R ecent a rchaeological e xcavations a nd r elated a ctivities

i n T urkey

a re p roviding a n u nprecedented w ealth o f i nformation a bout p atterns i n h uman o ccupation i n t he L ate C halcolithic a nd E arly B ronze A ge. A l arge n umber o f s ites a long t he E uphrates f rom E lazig t o C arhemish a re o ffering a d etailed p icture o f t he e xpansion o f t he M esopotamian c omm ercial e nterprise a cross t he A ntitaurus r ange i n t he L ate U ruk e ra. T he i mmediate e ffects o f t his c olonialism o n t he l ocal c ultures, i n o ther w ords, t he c entral A natolian o bserved

i nteraction o f S yro-Mesopotamian t raditions w ith a nd T ranscaucasian c ultural t raits, c an n ow b e

i n t he m aterial

S urveys p lateau a nd

c ulture o f e astern A natolia.

a nd e xcavations i n t he n orthern h alf o f t he c entral i n T urkish T hrace a re a lso s upplying m uch n eeded a rchaeo-

l ogical i nformation w hich c an n ow b e u sed t o r econstruct t he c ultural a nd e conomic p rotohistory o f w estern a nd c entral A natolia. I ssues r elating t o t he a malgamation o f e arly A natolian, s outheast E uropean a nd T ranscaucasian c ultures c an t hus b e s tudied i n a b etter p erspective. S ome q uestions c oncerning p opulation m ovements f rom e astern E urope a nd t he C aucasus t o A natolia, o r p opulation s hifts w ithin A natolia, m ay b e a nswered w ith a m easure o f c onfidence. U nfortunately, r egions s uch a s V an i n e astern A natolia, t he K onya p lain, C ilicia a nd e ven p arts o f w estern

A natolia a re s till i ncompletely k nown t o

a rchaeologists.

A s

f ar a s t he w estern r egions a re c oncerned, t his p icture c ould c hange s oon i f m ore s tratigraphic e xcavations a re c arried o ut i n a ddition t o t hose b eing c onducted a t B eri ktepe, K lazomenai and Kuru ça y. m eantime s ites s uch a s T roy, B eycesultan, K arata — S emayt ik, A li ar, A laca H 8yt lk, I kiztepe s hould b e p reliterate

K l lltepe, N orsuntepe, T epecik, c onsidered a s m ajor s ources o f

I n

t he

T arsus,

D emircih8y t lk a nd i nformation f or

A natolia.

T he i ncreasing w ealth o f f inds f rom e xcavations i s a lso p roviding a s urge o f i nterest , i n i nterdisciplinary r esearch i nvolving a nthropol ogy, e thnoarchaeology, e thnohistory, a ncient a rchitecture, a rchaeom etallurgy, g lyptic a rt a nd b ioarchaeology. H owever, n ot a ll q uestions o f h uman a ctivity a nd s ocial b ehaviour c an b e s atisfactorily a nswered w ithin t he c ontext o f a rchaeological a nd a nthropological d ata. F or i nstance, t he n ature o f t he r elationship b etween s ocial o rganization a nd

m aterial

c ulture

i s o pen t o w ide s peculation.

I t

i s

p ossible

t o

m aintain t hat a s ocial s tructure i s s ometimes r eflected i n c ertain c rafts a nd s kills m anifested i n a c ulture, b ut b eyond g iving e thnol ogical

p arallels

t iate h is

o ne. w ere l ife.

T he I t

t here i s l ittle

t he a rchaeologist c an d o t o

s ubstan-

p oint. q uestion o f r eligion i n p roto-historical t imes i s a c omplex i s a ssumed h ere t hat m ost o f t he e arly A natolian c ommunities

e ngaged T he

i n r eligious a nd p roblem

i s

t o

r itual a ctivities w hatever

i dentify t he n ature 2

a nd

t heir w ay

p lace

o f

o f

t hese

a ctivities b y r ecognizing t he m aterial e vidence l eft b ehind. B ut, w hen t his e vidence i s i dentified a s o f r eligious s ignificance , t rue

m eaning

c annot b e

f ully e xplained.

A wareness

o f

e ven i ts

e thnographic

m odels o f p rimitive r ituals a nd m anifestations o f r eligious b eliefs i n c ommunal c eremonies c ould b e o f s ome v alue i n t he e valuation o f c ult o bjects a nd s ymbols o f a ncient c ommunities i n A natolia. B ut i t s hould b e k ept i n m ind t hat v alues r egarding w hat i s s acred o r w hat i s s imply s ecular m ost p robably d iffered t o s ome e xtent f rom c ulture t o c ulture. T herefore, a c omparative a pproach r elying o n e thnoarchaeology c ould n ot b e u sed

i ndiscriminately.

C hapter X III,

i t

I f u sed s electively,

h owever,

c ould o ffer b roader p ossibilities o f

T erminology :

T he

t raditional

a s

p roposed

i n

i nterpretation.

t ripartite d ivision o f

t he

E arly

B ronze A ge d oes n ot r eally r eflect t he s ettlement p attern o r t he s ocioe conomic a nd c ultural d evelopment d uring t he f ourth a nd t hird m illennia B C. C opper w as s till t he m ain m etal u sed i n t he E B Ia nd I I p eriods i n m ost r egions o f A natolia. T in-bronze m etallurgy w as n ot w idespread i n t his p art o f t he A ncient N ear E ast b efore t he s econd h alf o f t he t hird m illennium B C. A s f or a rsenical c opper, a rtifacts m ade o f t his a lloy d uring t he t hird m illennium B C a re n ot a s a bundant a s t hose m ade o f u nalloyed c opper. I t i s s uggested h ere t hat t he d esignation o f E arly B ronze A ge

t o d efine

t he

l ate f ourth a nd

t he w hole

o f

t he t hird m illen-

n ium B C i n A natolia c ould b e m aintained t o a void u nnecessary c onfusion i n c hronological s chemes a nd r elated d iscussions. B ut ,in a ddition t o t his g eneral a nd r ather s chematic d esignation, i t i s n ecessary t o d evise a m ore d escriptive t erminology f or t he L ate C halcolithic a nd E arly B ronze A ge s equence o f A natolia.

t he

M ost L ate

a rchaeologists w ould a gree t hat t he a rbitrary l ine d ividing C halcolithic a nd E B I p eriods i n A natolia i s e stablished

a ccording s ometimes,

t o c hanges o bserved i n t he l ocal p ottery a ssemblages i n t he r egional a rchitecture. U sually l ittle e ffort i s

t o

p ossible

s tudy

c hanges

i n s ocio-economic o r

s ettlement

a nd, m ade

p atterns

w hich c ould i ndicate, r egardless o f c hronological f actors, t he e nd o f a l ate p rehistoric e ra a nd t he b eginning o f a n ew p reliterate p hase. T he L ate C halcolithic a nd t he E B I p eriods, l ong p eriod o f a bout t en t o t welve c enturies

t aken t ogether, c over a ( 4000/3800-2800 B C). A t

t he

o f

b eginning

o f

t his p eriod m ost

r egions

A natolia

w ere

b eing

s ettled b y g roups o f d ifferent a ncestry f rom t hat o f t he E arly C halc olithic A natolians. A pproximately a t t his t ime, d uring t he f irst h alf o f t he f ourth m illennium B C, p reviously u ninhabited r egions o f n orthern A natolia w ere b eing s ettled b y f arming c ommunities w hose o rigins c ould b e t raced t o s outheast E urope. E astern A natolia, o n t he o ther h and, w as p opulated b y s edentary a nd p astoralist g roups w ho w ere e xposed t o c ultural i nfluences e manating f rom T ranscaucasia, M esopotamia a nd S yria. I n f act, i mportant c ultural a nd s ocio-economic t ransformations s tarted t o t ake p lace i n s ettlements a long t he E uphrates a nd p ossibly t he T igris v alleys i n t he s econd h alf o f t he f ourth m illennium B C. T he e xpansion o f t he M esopotamian m erchant c olonies a cross t he i n t he L ate U ruk p eriod m ust h ave s tarted t he r ather s low u rbanization,

f irst

i n s outheastern A natolia a nd

A ntitaurus p rocess o f

l ater i n t he c entral

a nd w estern r egions. B ut, t he a ctual u rban d evelopment, i n t he s ense O f t own s ettlements w ith c entral a dministration, o rganized e conomy, p ublic b uildings a nd f ortifications d id n ot

t ake

p lace b efore t he E B I I

p eriod ( ca.2800-2400 B C). M ost o f t he L ate C halcolithic a nd E BA s ettlements i n A natolia a re v illages o f v arious s izes, s ometimes s urr ounded

b y

d efensive

w alls.

T he

3

i nhabitants

o f

t hese

p ermanent

s ettlements e ngaged p rincipally s istence r egional

i n f arming a nd s upplemented

t heir

s ub-

e conomy b y m eans w hich i ncluded h unting, f ishing a nd i ntert rade i n s urplus f ood a nd f inished p roducts o f t heir l ocal

i ndustries. I t hink i t i s a ppropriate t o d efine t his l ong p eriod a s " Proto-Urban". T he f ollowing p eriod ( EB I I) c ould b e d escribed a s " Early-Urban". B ut i t s hould b e s tressed t hat t he e mergence o f u rban s ettlements i n s ome r egions d id n ot b ring f undamental s ocial a nd c ult ural c hanges t o e very c orner o f A natolia. S mall f arming c ommunities l iving i n r ural s ettlements m ust h ave m aintained m ost o f t heir e thnoc ultural t raditions. E ventually, h owever, a n umber o f s mall a gricult ural s ettlements m ust h ave l ost s ome o f t heir e conomic i ndependence t o u rban c entres a s a r esult o f a g radual s hift t o t he p olitical c itys tates s ystem. T he n ext a nd f inal p eriod, t he E BA I II, d escribed a s o ne o f t he m ost e ventful p hases i n t he e arly p reliterate A natolia, i n

s hould h istory

A natolia. U rban a nd r ural s ettlements i n t he c entral p lateau, i n n orthern A natolia a nd

b e o f

w estern i n t he

e astern h ighlands s how s igns o f c onflagration. T hese d estructions w ere n o d oubt c aused b y u nrecorded e vents s uch a s r egional r ivalry b etween c ity-states,

i ntruding p astoralists,

i ncursions

b y f oreign a rmies

f rom

M esopotamia, i nvasions b y n omadic h ordes a nd n atural c atastrophies. O n t he b asis o f f ield s urveys a nd a f ew s tratigraphic e xcavations o f l imited s cope a lone o ne c annot e stablish a p attern o f d estructions w hich c ould b e a ttributed t o o ne p articular f actor d escribed a bove. I p refer t ies', p oints t aken

t o r efer t o t his p eriod a s P roto-Dynastic o r Emerging D ynasb ecause t he m onumental a rchitecture i n s ome o f t he m ajor s ites t o c entrally l ocated a dministrative c omplexes ( palaces) w hich , t ogether w ith t he s o-called 'Royal T ombs i n t he P ontus a nd

c entral A natolia,

m ay c onfirm t he e xistence o f

r uling a ristocracies

i n

A natolia. C hronology: T he q uestion o f E BA A natolian c hronology r emains a h ighly c ontroversial i ssue d espite a s ubstantial i ncrease i n t he a mount o f s tratified a rchaeological d ata b rought t o l ight f rom t he r escue e xcavations i n t he s outheast. T his i s m ainly d ue t o d ifferent a ttit udes b y s ome s cholars t owards t he c urrent d ating m ethods i n N ear E astern

a rchaeology.

R egions

e ast o f C ilicia,

w here l ocal

p ottery

c ultures c an b e d ated w ith s ome p recision b ecause o f t he s tratigraphica lly w ell-defined e xpansion o f N orth S yrian/Mesopotamian f rameworks d eep i nto t he h ighland z one, a re i mportant t o c hronological s chemes b ased o n h istorical s ynchronizations. B ut n ot e very r egional c ulture c an b e s atisfactorily d ated b y s uch c onventional m ethods. i s n ecessary t o r ely o n r adiocarbon c hronology a nd o ther d ating m ethods s uch a s o bsidian-hydration, t hermoluminescent a ge e stimation. H owever, a re n ot b eing

e ntirely r eliable.

F or i nstance,

S ometimes i t s cience-based

a rchaeomagnetic d ating a nd t hese s cientific m ethods

t he C -14 m ethod w hich i s n ow

e xtensively a pplied b y a rchaeologists i n A natolia,

s ome u nsolved

q uestions

r elating

t o

i ts p recision.

s till r aises

W e a re

f requently

c onfronted w ith d ates c onsidered v ery d eficient. T hese d eficiencies a re u sually a ttributd t o e nvironmental c auses, l aboratory p rocedures a nd

s tatistical

s ystems.

T he d ilemma f aced b y m ost a rchaeologists

c hoosing b etween c hronology b ased

r adiocarbon c hronology o r t he o n c ultural c orrelations i s a

l ogical

s hould

a pproach

b e

t o d evise a

i n

t raditional r elative d ifficult o ne. T he

c hronological

s cheme

w hich

c ombines a t ree-ring c alibrated C -14 s ystem w ith a t raditional f ramew ork b ased o n M esopotamian a nd E gyptian d ates. H owever, i t m ay b e n ecessary, s chemes

a s

u sed

f ar

a s

i ncluding C -14 d ates i n r elative

f or w estern A natolia,

4

C ilicia a nd c entral

c hronological A natolia,

t o

r evise

s ome o f

t he s tandard m ethods u sed i n t he e valuation

o f

r adio-

c arbon a ge d eterminations. F or i nstance, t he a ccuracy o f a f ew p rec alibrated r adiocarbon d ates o btained t hrough t he s tandard p rocess s hould I t i s

b e c ross-checked b y u sing a n u ltra-sensitive m ass-spectrometer. k nown t hat t his s ystem e liminates t he p roblem o f c osmic-ray

b ackground ( Pavlish a nd B anning 1 980:291). 1 I n t he s tandard t echnique C -14 b eta-ray e vents a re h ardly d istinguishable f rom c osmic-ray a nd o ther n atural r adioactivity e vents a nd t his b ackground i s b elieved t o c ontribute s ignificantly t o t he u ncertainty o f t he r esults. A nother c riterion t hat s hould b e i ntroduced i n t he c urrent p rocedure i nvolves t he t ree-ring t ime-scale. I n v iew o f d ifferent s cientific o pinions o n t he e fficiency o f h igh a ltitude b ristlecone p ine c alibration a nd i ts a pplicaton t o C -14 c hronology, i n p articular t hat o f A natolia, w e h ave l ittle c hoice b ut t o o pt f or c ross-laboratory c alibration. T he c ontent ion

b y

s ome

s cientists

t hat b ristlecone p ine

c alibration

c ould

b e

i nvalid b ecause o f i n s itu p roduction o f C -14 o r d iffusion o f t ree-sap a cross t ree-rings a nd o ther f actors s uch a s s unspot a ctivity c annot b e e ffectively c hallenged. I n o rder t o a void t his a nd o ther p ossible e rrors, l ow a ltitude w ood o f E uropean a nd A natolian o rigin s hould a lso b e u sed ( e.g. I kiztepe, M asat, K i 1ltepe) t o c ompile d ata f or a n i deal c alibration c urve. I n t he m eantime, i t i s p referable t o r ely o n c ross l aboratory c alibration a ffording t he u se o f m ore t han o ne c alibration c hart.

T hese

t ables

c ould b e

b ased o n t he D amon a nd M ASCA t ables.

( 1974:350-366),

e stimate o f

t he

w hich w ere u sed f or A rchaic E gypt,

s tatistical u ncertainty o f

T he D amon p rovide a n

t he c onversion n ecessary

f or

p recise a ge d eterminations. G raphs a nd c onversion t ables w hich a ttempt t o m odel s hort-term v ariations i n t he r adiocarbon t ime-scale a re f undam entally s amples,

a mbiguous f or d etermining p articularly i n p eriods o f

t ions

t he a tmosphere c hanged

o f

t he c orrected a ges t ime w hen r adiocarbon

r apidly.

e rror l isted i n D amon s t able i ncluded t erm f luctuations i n C -14 a mounts. I n

a r ecent s tudy b y R alph a .o

H owever,

t he e rrors

( 1982)

t he

d ue

a f urther

t o

o f s ingle c oncentras tatistical

t hese

s hort-

i mproved

c ali-

b ration i s p resented f or u se w ith c onventional r adiocarbon a ges

r anging

f rom 1 0 t o 7 240 B P, a nd t hus c overing a c alendric r ange o f 8 000 y ears f rom 6 050 B C t o A D 1 950. A lthough I d id n ot u se t he c alibration t able ( based o n t he c onsensus d ata o f t he w orkshop o n c alibrating t he r adioc arbon

t ime s cale)

i n R adiocarbon 2 4,2,1982:103-150 t o

r e-adjust

A natolian d ates i n t his b ook, I c ertainly a dvise A natolian s cholars m ake u se o f i t f or f uture C -14 a ge e stimates. D istinctive a .

A n i mproved s amples o f

b .

f eatures o f d ata s et

t his

t he t o

c alibration i nclude:

c onsisting o f

1 154 r adiocarbon m easurements o n

k nown a ge.

A n e xtended

r ange o ver w hich r adiocarbon a ges m ay b e c alibrated

a n

a dditional 5 30 y ears. c .

d .

S eparate

9 5%

c onfidence i ntervals

u ncertainties

( 20,

A n

o f

e stimate

d eterminations,

5 0,

1 00,

1 50,

f or s ix

2 00,

t he n on-Poission e rrors i ncluding

a n

b etween l aboratories.

5

d ifferent

r adiocarbon

3 00 y ears).

e stimate o f

r elated t he

t o

r adiocarbon

s ystematic

e rrors

T he " single"

n ew t able i s s uitable f or c alibration o f i ndividual r adiocarbon d ates. A s ingle r adiocarbon d ate i s d efined

o r a s

a ny r adiocarbon d ate t hat i s n ot a ssociated w ith a nother r adiocarbon d ate b y a t ight, i ndependently d etermined r elative c hronology. T he n ew t able a lso p rovides t he " user" w ith a r ealistic a ssessment o f t he p recision o f c alibrated d ates. A c onsideration o f m any f actors i s n ecessary i n t he e stimation o f t his p recision. T hese i nclude t he p recision w ith w hich t he s ample's a ctivity h as b een m easured i nvolving n ot j ust t he " counting" s tatistics q uoted b y t he m easurement l aborat ory, b ut a lso a n e stimate o f t he t rue r eproducibility o f t he m easurem ent, i .e., t he d egree t o w hich a p articular r esult c an b e r epeated b y t he s ame l aboratory o r a ny o ther l aboratory o n s ubsequent m easuremen ts. A nd f inally t here i s t he " shape" o f t he c alibration c urve i n t he r egion i n w hich i t

i s b eing e mployed

( ibid:104).

6

S o c i o E c o n m i c E v o l u t i o n T e c h n o l o g i c a l o r

7

-

— 4

-

H

L a t e C h a l c o l i t h i c

L a t e C h a l c o l i t h i c C u l t u r e

H

A

H

B

— 4

E a r l y B r o n z e A g e I

c a

A

C o p e r A g e C u l t u r e

I

C u l t u r e

E a r l y B r o n z e A g e

0

J — C l )

B

A

C

H

E a r l y B r o n z e A g e I

E a r l y B r o n z e A g e I I B

-I n d u s t r i a l ' E v o l u t i o n ' C u l t u r a l ' E v o l u t i o n M e s o p o t a m i a

* 3 )

‚ I

a )

0

-

0 -

D endrochrOf lolOgic C alibration T able

f or

( after D amon a .o. C 14 A GE

T 1/2=5730

C 14 A GE

T 1/2=5568

t he R adiocarbon A ge E stimates 1 974) A GE

S IGMA

( CALENDAR Y EARS)

( 250) Y EARS

B P

B C

B P

B C

B P

B C

3 613

1 663

3 510

1 560

3 909

1 959

1 30

3 638 3 663

1 688 1 713

3 535 3 559

1 585 1 609

3 941 3 972

1 991 2 022

1 30 1 30

3 688

1 738

3 583

1 633

4 004

2 054

1 30

3 713 3 738

1 763 1 788

3 607 3 632

1 657 1 682

4 036 4 068

2 086 2 118

1 30 1 30

3 763 3 788

1 813 1 838

3 656 3 680

1 706 1 730

4 100 4 132

2 150 2 182

1 30 1 30

3 813 3 838

1 863 1 888

3 705 3 729

1 755 1 779

4 163 4 195

2 213 2 245

1 30 9 4

3 863 3 888

1 913 1 938

3 753 3 777

1 803 1 827

4 227 4 259

2 277 2 309

9 4 9 4

3 913

1 963

3 802

1 852

4 290

2 340

9 4

3 938

1 988

3 826

1 876

4 322

2 372

9 4

3 963 3 988

2 013 2 038

3 850 3 875

1 900 1 925

4 354 4 385

2 404 2 435

9 4 9 4

4 013 4 038 4 063 4 088

2 063 2 088 2 113 2 138

3 899 3 923 3 948 3 972

1 949 1 973 1 998 2 022

4 417 4 448 4 480 4 511

2 467 2 498 2 530 2 561

9 4 9 4 9 4 9 4

4 113 4 138 4 163

2 163 2 188 2 238

3 996 4 020 4 045

2 046 2 070 2 095

4 543 4 574 4 605

2 593 2 624 2 655

1 02 1 02 1 02

4 185 4 213

2 238 2 263

4 069 4 093

2 119 2 143

4 636 4 668

2 686 2 718

1 02 1 02

4 238 4 263 4 288 4 313

2 288 2 313 2 338 2 363

4 118 4 142 4 166 4 190

2 168 2 192 2 216 2 240

4 699 4 730 4 761 4 792

2 749 2 780 2 811 2 842

1 02 1 02 1 02 1 02

4 338 4 363

2 388 2 413

4 215 4 239

2 265 2 289

4 823 4 853

2 873 2 903

1 02 17

4 388

2 438

4 263

2 323

4 884

2 934

1 17

4 413 4 438

2 463 2 488

4 288 4 312

2 336 2 362

4 915 4 945

2 965 2 995

17 1 17

4 463

2 513

4 336

2 386

4 976

3 026

1 17

4 488 4 518

2 538 2 563

4 361 4 385

2 411 2 435

5 006 5 036

3 056 3 086

17 17

4 538 4 563

2 588 2 613

4 409 4 433

2 459 2 483

5 067 5 097

3 117 3 147

17 1 17

4 588 4 613

2 638 2 663

4 458 4 482

2 508 2 532

5 127 5 157

3 177 3 207

1 17 9 2

4 638

2 688

4 506

2 556

5 187

3 237

9 2

4 663 4 688

2 713 2 738

4 531 4 555

2 581 2 605

5 216 5 246

3 266 3 296

9 2 9 2

4 713

2 763

4 579

2 629

5 276

3 326

9 2

4 738

2 788

4 603

2 653

5 305

3 355

9 2

4 763 4 788

2 813 2 838

4 628 4 652

2 678 2 702

5 335 5 364

3 385 3 414

9 2 9 2

4 813

2 863

4 676

2 726

5 393

3 443

9 2

8

C 14 A GE

T 1/2 5730

B P

B C

4 838 4 863 4 888 4 913 4 938

C 14 A GE

T 1/2=5568

A GE ( CALENDAR Y EARS)

S IGMA ( 250) Y EARS

B P

B C

B P

B C

2 888

4 701

2 751

5 422

3 472

9 2

2 913 2 938 2 963 2 988

4 725 4 749 4 773 4 798

2 775 2 799 2 823 2 848

5 451 5 480 5 509 5 538

3 501 3 530 3 559 3 588

9 0 9 0 9 0 9 0

4 963 4 988

3 013 3 038

4 822 4 846

2 872 2 896

5 566 5 595

3 616 3 645

9 0 9 0

5 013 5 038 5 063 5 088

3 063 3 088 3 113 3 138

4 871 4 895 4 919 4 944

2 921 2 945 2 969 2 994

5 623 5 652 5 680 5 708

3 673 3 702 3 730 3 758

9 0 9 0 9 0 9 0

5 113

3 163

4 968

3 018

5 736

3 786

1 06

5 138

3 188

4 992

3 042

5 764

3 814

1 06

5 165 5 188 5 213 5 238

3 213 3 236 3 263 3 288

5 016 5 041 5 056 5 089

3 066 3 091 3 115 3 139

5 791 5 819 5 847 5 874

3 841 3 869 3 897 3 924

1 06 1 06 1 06 1 06

5 263 5 288 5 313

3 313 3 338 3 363

5 114 5 138 5 162

3 164 3 188 3 212

5 901 5 929 5 956

3 951 3 979 4 006

1 06 1 06 1 06

5 338 5 363

3 388 3 413

5 186 5 211

3 236 2 161

5 983 6 010

4 033 4 060

1 06 1 27

5 388

3 438

5 235

3 285

6 036

4 086

1 27

5 413 5 438 5 463

3 463 3 488 3 513

5 259 5 284 5 308

3 309 3 334 3 358

6 063 6 089 6 116

4 113 4 139 4 166

1 27 1 27 1 27

5 488 5 513

3 538 3 563

5 332 5 356

3 382 3 406

6 142 6 168

4 192 4 218

1 27 1 27

5 538

3 588

5 381

3 431

6 195

4 245

1 27

5 563 5 588

3 613 3 638

5 405 5 429

3 455 3 479

6 221 6 247

4 271 4 297

1 27 1 27

9

N OTES 1 .

W hile

i t

i s

c lear

t hat A ccelerator M ass

S pectrometry

( AMS)

i s

p roving r ather e ffective w ith s mall s ample s ize a nd s peedy m easurem ents, t he q uestion o f a ccuracy i s s till n ot s atisfactorily s olved ( Gillespie, R ., a .o. 1 984:15-20). I t h as b een r ecently c laimed b y s ome s cientists t hat t he r eliability o f t he s ystem a t O xford h as b een a ble t o a pproach t hat o f a c onvential C -14 l aboratory o nly v ery r ecently ( Gillespie, R . a .o. 1 983:729-737). S ee a lso; G illespie, R . a nd G owlett, J . .A.J., 1 983:178-181; H edges, R .E.M., 1 981:3-18. A lthough t ial

t he d esign o f

s ystematic

e rrors,

t he A MS e liminates a n umber o f

i t c ould n ot n eutralize

o ther

p otenp ossible

s ources o f e rrors, s uch a s: a ) m achine b ackground; b ) c ontamina t ion d uring c hemical t reatment; c ) i sotopic f ractionation d iff erences b etween s tandard a nd u nknown ; d ) i on b eam d istribution d ifferences b etween s tandard a nd u nknown, c oupled w ith a d ifferent s patial

t ransmission f unction f or

t he d ifferent i sotopes

( Gilles-

p ie, R ., a .o. 1 984:16). I n a ddition t o t hese, r andom e rrors c ould a lso a rise f rom f luctuations i n t he c orrection o f a s ymetric e rror, d rifts o f

i n t he

t ransmission o f

t he s ystem a nd i nsufficient

s ampling

t he C -14 c ontent.

a ware

T hose w orking i n a rchaeological e xcavations s hould b e m ade t hat t he AMS m ethod d emands, n o l ess t han t he c onventional

r adiocarbon

d ating

s ystems,

c areful

s election a nd

p ackaging

o f

s amples a nd w ith p articular a ttention t o t he p ossible m obility o f t he s amples o f t he g round. T he d ating o f s melting s lag f ragments b y t his m ethod c ould p roduce i mportant c hronological r esults. T he e lement d ated i n t his c ase i s t he c harcoal a dded t o t he m etal-ore d uring t he s melting p rocess. A s i n c onventional m ethods, i n t he A MS m ethod t oo t he r eliability o f t he d ate c an b e a ssessed b y m easurement o f k nown-age m aterial a nd r epeated m easurements o f d ifferent r uns

s amples

f rom t he s ame o bject,

b ased o n d ifferent

s tandards.

1 0

u sing d ifferent a ccelerator

C HAPTER I :

P HYSICAL E NVIRONMENT

T he A natolian p eninsula o wes c omplex

s ystem

o f

g eological

i ts c haracteristic r elief

t o a r ather

f aults m ade u p o f u plifted

b locks

a nd

s unken b asins. Among t he u plifted b locks, t he P ontic a nd T aurus m ount ains f orm z ones i n w hich f olded r anges a re t he p redominant f eature. W ide a reas c overed w ith T ertiary l avas p lateaux a dd e ven m ore d iversity t o s tructural

u nits

Z one,

C entral M assif,

T he

P latform ( Dewdney T he a cross

N orthern

o f T urkey

i n t he e astern t he t opography.

a nd

c entral T he m ain

( Map I ) a re c omposed o f T he N orthern F olded T

S outhern F olded Z one a nd

T he

A rabian

1 971: 1 6-27). F olded Z one,

k nown a s

t he P ontic

R anges,

t he w hole o f n orthern A natolia a nd f or d istances

o f

e xtends 1 50-200km

i nland f rom t he B lack S ea ( Maps I a nd V III). I n t he w est, t he r uns f rom t he S ea o f M armara t o t he A egean a nd i t a lso i ncludes w hole o f T hrace. T he P ontic R anges r un i n a n e ast-west d irection.

z one t he T he

l ong a nd r ather n arrow m ountain c hains a re s eparated b y d eep a nd n arrow v alleys a nd b asins, s uch a s t he v alleys o f t he K elkit a nd c oruh r ivers. T hese l ong d epressions a re c onnected t o t he n orthern c oast b y g orges c utting a cross t he m ountain r anges i n t he l ower r eaches o f t he K izilirm ak, Y e ilirmak a nd ç oruh v alleys. H owever, f urther t o t he w est, a round t he c oasts o f M armara, i n n orthwest A natolia a nd T hrace, z one i s n ot a s m assive a nd h eights d o n ot g enerally e xceed 1 000m .

t his I n

f act, t he L ate T ertiary l owlands o f t he B alikesir a nd B ursa p rovinces, a nd t he E rgene b asin i n T hrace p artly c over t he N orthern F olded Z one. E ast

o f

t he

S akarya r iver

t he l and r ises a bruptly i n t he f orm

a

t he w ay

r iver. r anges.

t hree p arallel m ountain t he B aba d a lari o f t he

B etween R unning

Z onguldak p rovince

t hese t wo r ivers t here a re a long t he B lack S ea c oast, r ise

t o

1 500m a nd a re

j oined,

t o

o f

b road a nd h igh m ountain b arrier e xtending a ll

t he K izilirmak

b etween K astamonu a nd

S inop p rovinces, b y t he I sfendiyar m ountains w hich h ave a m aximum e levation o f 2 018m. T hese m ost n ortherly r anges a re s eparated b y t he u pland b asins o f t he F ilyos a nd G 8kirmak r ivers f rom t he B olu ( 1828m) a nd I lgaz m ountains ( 2588m). T o t he s outh o f t hese, b eyond t he G erede a nd D evrez b asins, a re s ituated t he K 8ro lu m ountains ( 2400m). I n t his s ector,

t he N orthern Z one

p rovince a nd a s

f orms a b ulge

f ar a s t he S alt L ake.

t o

t he s outh a cross

A s a r esult o f

t his

t he A nkara f ault,

t he

n orthern p art o f A nkara p rovince, b etween t he S akarya a nd K izilirmak r ivers, h as a r elief c omprising a n umber o f b roken r anges w ith a g eneral n orth-east t o s outh-west t rend s uch a s t he E lmadag r ange ( 1855m) a nd T he

t he A yas m ountains

a rea

( 1668m).

b etween t he K izilirmak a nd Y esilirmak r ivers

h as a

m ore

b roken r elief. H ere t hese t wo r ivers t ap t he d rainage o f a l arge p art o f t he N orthern F olded Z one a nd t he C entral M assif, f rom c ankiri p rov ince i n t he w est t o G { lmUshane i n t he e ast a nd s outhwards t o t he f oot o f t he T aurus m ountains. B eyond t he Y e ilirmak, r elief b ecomes w ell d efined

a ll

t he w ay t o

B atum .

T hroughout

1 1

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s ection,

a s ingle a nd

icin i t y

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a lmost u ninterrupted m ountain r ange r uns p arallel t o t he B lack S ea c oast a t a d istance o f s ome 5 0km i nland. T his r ange i s m ade u p f rom w est t o e ast b y C anik m ountains ( 2070m), G iresun m ountains ( 3200m), a nd R ize m ountains ( 3937m). T o t he s outh o f t his n atural b arrier, t he K elkit a nd ç oruh v alleys f orm a l ong a nd r ather n arrow p assage s tanding a t 1 000-1500m a bove s ea l evel. B etween t his c orridor a nd t he S ivasE rzincan-Erzurum p rovinces, w hich m ark t he s outhern l imit o f t his z one, i s a nother s eries o f e ast-west t rending r anges, n ot a s u nbroken a s t he c oastal r ange b ut c ontaining s ome m ajor r idges, o f w hich m ost c ons picious a re K 8sedagi ( 3100)

( 3577m),

K e �i q m ountains

a nd A llah t iekher m ountains

( 3537m),

c imen m ountains

( 3111m).

T aken a s a w hole, t he P ontic r anges f orm a m ajor o bstacle t o m ovements b etween t he B lack S ea c oast ( e.g. t he ç ar amba a nd B afra p lains) a nd t he i nterior. T his t opographical f actor s hould b e k ept i n m ind w hen s urveying t he d evelopment o f t he P ontic c ultures i n t he f ourth a nd t hird m illennia B C. M ovement a long t he c oast i s a lso d iffic ult

s ince m uch o f

a mba d eltas, T he

t he c oastal p lain,

w est o f

B afra a nd e ast o f

c ar-

i s v ery n arrow.

s econd

z one,

t he C entral M assif,

e xtends

f rom t he A egean c oast

s outh o f I zmir t o S ivas i n e astern T urkey. I t p asses s outh o f A nkara b etween t he S alt L ake a nd K onya b efore j oining t he N orthern F olded Z one n ear S ivas.

T hroughout

t he m assif

f old

s tructures a re v ery r are.

B ut

t he r elief, n onetheless, i s d iversified. T he a rea b etween t he A egean c oast a nd t he i nland l ine r unning f rom B ursa t o D enizli i s m arked w ith m ountain b locks a nd r ift v alleys. B etween t he M armara l owlands a nd t he l 3 akircay v alley t here i s a h igh v alley ( 1300m) f ormed b y y oung v olcanic a nd M esozoic a nd T ertiary r ocks. T he G ediz a nd B Uyt lk M enderes v alleys a re l ike w ide t roughs e xtending m ore a lluvial p lains a long t hese r ivers,

t han 1 50km i nland ( Map V ). s ome a s m uch a s 1 0 o r 1 2km

a re a mong t he f ew e xtensive l owlands i n A natolia. H ills, e ntirely o n m etamorphic m aterials s uch a s m ica-schists a nd r ise i n M enderes d a lari

m asses v alley ( 2160m)

d eveloped g neisses,

a bove t he m ain r iver v alleys, i ncluding t he K çt 1k w hich i s 7 5km l ong. T hese m asses i nclude t he B ozb etween t he G ediz a nd K i ! lf i ! lk M enderes v alleys, A ydin

D aglari ( 1732m) b etween t he K Uc1k M enderes a nd B t lyt lk M enderes, M ente e r anges ( 1792m) w hich c over t he a rea b etween t he B t lyUk a nd t he n orthern e dge o f t he S outhern F olded Z one a long t he

a nd t he M enderes l ine o f

M andalya b ay-Mu 1a-Denizli. T he v alleys i n t his a rea w ere i mportant p assages b etween t he A egean l ittoral a nd t he i nterior. E ast

o f

T he w ide,

t he B ursa-Denizli

l ine a s

f ar a s

t he

l ine

b etween

a lways

E ski e-

h ir a nd A fyon, t he a rea s hows a m ore c omplex s tructure. T he s urface l evel r ises e astward f rom 5 00 t o 1 000m , a nd m uch o f t his a rea i s c overed w ith r ather r ecent g eological d eposits. T he s ection o f t he C entral

M assif e xtending b etween t he E ski ehir-Afyon l ine

i n

t he

w est

a nd A nkara-Salt L ake-Ni de l ine i n t he e ast s hows f eatures w hich a re c haracteristic o f t he A natolian P lateau. I n t his a rea t he v ast e xpanses o f g ently s loping l and a re c overed w ith N eogene d eposits a nd s tand s ome 1 000m a bove s ea l evel. T hese f lat e xpanses a re d ivided b y l ow u pswellings i nto t hree m ain a reas, t he S akarya b asin i n t he w est, t he r iver

S alt i s

L ake

b asin a nd

b ounded o n

E mir ( 2241m) m ountains. H aymana a nd C ihanbeyli, O bruk

p lateau

t he K onya p lain.

t he n orth a nd

( 1200m)

s outh b y

T he

b asin o f

t he S undiken

t he

S akarya

( 1768m)

a nd

I ts e astern s ide i s f lanked b y t he p lateaux o f w hich a re 1 200-1400m h igh. T o t he e ast, t he s eparates

t he S alt L ake

f rom t he

K onya

p lain.

C -

1 4

T hese

t wo

b asins

a re d rained

i nternally a nd

i n P liocene

t imes

w ere

c overed b y e xtensive l akes. B eyond

t his

c entral A natolian h eartland,

r elief

a nd

s tructure

a gain b ecome v ery c omplex i n t he e astern p art o f t his z one n ear S ivas. T he K onya p lain i s c losed i n o n t he e ast b y a s eries o f u plands w hich h ave

a

g eneral n orth-south a lignment.

u plands

a re

d eveloped o n a s eries

o f

I n t he n orth a nd i ntrusive

m assifs,

c entre

t he

e .g.

t he

K ocahisar y aylasi, r ising a bruptly a bove t he S alt L ake p lains a long t he w ell-marked f ault-line s carp. F urther s outh, t he K onya p lain i s s urrounded b y a n e xtensive s pread o f r ecent v olcanics w hich c over t he N i'de, N ev ehir a nd K ayseri p rovinces. H ere a n umber o f v olcanic p eaks r ise a bove 3 000m . E rciyas ( 3916m), s outh o f K ayseri, a nd H asanda i ( 3258m) n orthwest o f N lgde a re a mong t he e xtinct T he e xtensive a rea o f c omparatively l ow r elief

v olcanos i n t his z one. i nside t he K izilirmak

b end s hows a g reat v ariety o f s tructures w hich i nclude i ntrusive m assifs, p lanated M esozoic a nd T ertiary f olds a nd e xtensive c overs o f N eogene

s ediments.

T he z one d escribed a bove i s n ot a s ingle, u niform b lock, b ut c onsists o f a s eries o f h igh-level p lains s eparated b y m ountain r anges o f v aried o rigin a nd r ock t ype. H owever, i f c ompared w ith t he m ountain z ones t o t he n orth, s outh a nd e ast, t he c entral z one i s m ore o f a n o pen c ountry w ith n o s erious n atural o bstacles r estricting p opulation m ovem ents

i n

a ntiquity.

I ts

d isadvantages

a re

c limatic a nd

n ot

t opo-

g raphic. T he S outhern F olded Z one i s a c ontinuous o ne s tretching f rom t he A egean t o t he G ulf o f I skenderun ( Map V II). A t I skenderun t his w ell d efined

z one c ontinues n orth-eastwards a nd

t hen t urns

e astwards

a round

t he n orthern s ide o f t he A rabian p latform . T his z one, k nown a s t he T aurus r ange, i s d ivided i nto t hree s ections. T he W estern T aurus e ncloses A ntalya, a

t he G ulf o f A ntalya a nd l ies m ainly i n t he p rovinces I sparta a nd B urdur. W est o f t he T ahtali a nd B ey m ountains

n umber o f e nclosed

b asins a t h eights

r eaching 1 000m a bove s ea

o f a re

l evel

a nd c losed i n o n t he w est b y t he E lmali m ountains. A s eries o f s imilar h igh r idges a nd e nclosed p lains c ontinues a s f ar a s a l ine e xtending f rom D enizli t o M u la a nd r epresents t he w estern e dge o f t he T aurus s ystem. T he W estern T aurus c onstitutes a s erious o bstacle t o m ovement b etween t he A egean a nd t he M editerranean l ittorals. I nland f rom A ntalya, n orth-south f old a xes m eet w ith r idges r unning f rom n orthwest t o s outheast i n t he L ake D istrict. I n t his r egion t here i s a c omplex r elief f olded

g enerated b y s unken b asins, f aulted m ountain b locks a nd r anges. T o t he n ortheast o f t hese s hort r anges i s a

f aulted

c orridor

c ontaining

t he B ey ehir a nd S u -' l a l akes

s hort d own-

w hich

a re

d rained b y t he ç ar amba r iver i nto t he K onya p lain. T he C entral T aurus s tarts a t t he G eyik m ountains a nd s tretches t o t he u pper r eaches o f t he S eyhan

r iver.

I n t he w estern p art

b asin o f t he G 8ksu, t he t errain i s n ot v ery h igh. E ast o f t he G oksu,

o f

t his

r ange,

c orresponding

t o

t he

b roken a nd t he m ountain p eaks a re h owever, t he r elief a gain b ecomes

w ell d efined w ith t he g reat P ermo-Carboniferous l imestone m assif o f t he B olkar m ountains ( 3585m) a nd t he C retaceous l imestones o f t he A lada lar ( 3726m). B etween t hese t wo i s t he f amous n arrow d efile c alled t he C ilician G ates, c ut 1 000m i nto t he s urface. I t p rovides a n i mportant r oute b etween t he c entral p lateau a nd t he M editerranean c oast. B etween A lanya a nd S ilifke P aleozoic m assifs r ise a bruptly f rom t he s ea a nd t he c oast

i s

l ined

w ith

c liffs.

B ut 1 5

f urther e ast a long t he c oast,

t he

1 6

G 8ksu

d elta

p lain

w idens

f orms a s mall b ut f ertile c onsiderably b y

l owland

j ust b efore

t he o ld d eltas o f

t he

c oastal

t he S eyhan a nd

C eyhan

r ivers. T he

E astern T aurus

r uns

i n a n a rc a round

t he n orthern s ide

o f

t he

A rabian p latform , a butting o nto t he N orthern F olded Z one w ithin 5 0km o f a n a xis t hrough E rzincan-Erzurum- K ars. T his r ange i s c omposed o f a ncient m assifs, f olded s edimentaries a nd r ecent v olcanic I n t his a rea t wo m ain m ountain s ystems m ay b e d iscerned.

e ffusions. T he m ore

n ortherly m ountain r ange r ises f rom t he S eyhan a nd C eyhan p lains. r uns n orthwards b etween t he u pper c ourses o f t hose t wo r ivers a nd

I t t hen

t urns e ast, c rossing t he F irat ( Euphrates) s outh o f E rzincan a nd e ventually e xtending t o t he n orth o f L ake V an. T he l ine i s c ontinued e ast o f i n t he

t he F irat b y t he v olcanic K arasu-Aras m ountains w hich c ulminate h ighest p eak o f

t he N ear E ast,

B t {yuk Ari D a i

( Ararat:4165m).

T he m ore s outherly r ange o f t he E astern T aurus r uns a long t he n orthern e dge o f t he A rabian p latform . T he A manus m ountains, s kirting t he e aste rn M editerranean c oast i n t he H atay p rovince, b elong t o t his s ystem. T he Amanus m ountains a re b ounded o n t he e ast b y a d own-faulted c orridor c ontaining t he A muq L ake, a n orthward e xtension o f t he L evant r ift v alley.

T his

r ange

c ontinues e ast a nd,

a fter p assing s outh o f

L ake

V an, i t s ystems

r eaches t he H akk ri p rovince. B etween t he t wo m ajor m ountain k nown a s t he a nti-Taurus a re h igh p lateaux a nd l esser m ountain

r anges. f ound i n

I n t his r ather b roken r egion t he o nly e nclosed t he p rovinces o f M alatya, E lazig ' a nd M u.

p lains

a re

F inally, t he l ast s tructural u nit, t he A rabian P latform , w ith i ts n orthern e dge r unning t hrough A ntakya-Adiyaman-Siirt, c ould b e d efined r ather c learly d ue t o i ts g entle r elief. T his r elief c onsists o f a s eries

o f

b road

p lateau

s urfaces

w hich

f alls

i n

a ltitude

a s

i t

a pproaches H arran a nd D iyarbakir a long t he S yrian b order. B road e xpans es o f N eogene d eposits a re e ncountered i n t he D iyarbakir a nd A diyaman b asins, b ut t here a re a lso e xtensive p ockets o f E ocene r ocks f orming a n u ndulated h ill c ountry r ising g radually n orth o f U rfa a nd M ardin ( Maps Ia nd X ). I n

t he

c ontext o f

p hysical

e nvironment

i t

s hould

b e

e mphasized

t hat a lluvial p lains a nd d eltaic f ills a long t he c oasts o f T urkey w ere f ormed i n t he l ast 7 000 y ears ( Erinc 1 978:99). T hey o we t heir p resent s hapes t o f luvial a nd m arine p rocesses w hich h ave t he p resent s ea-level w as r eached a round 5 000 B C. t he

p ost-Glacial

r ise o f

t he s e alevel h ad

r esulted

b een o perating s ince A ccording t o E rinc i n t he

f ormation o f

a w ide v ariety o f t ypes o f s ubmerged s horeline a ll a long t he c oasts o f T urkey, w ith b oth l arge a nd s mall g ulfs a nd e mbayments, a nd i n t he t ransformation o f f ormer s tream v alleys w ithin t he B osphorus a nd H ellespont i nto t he p resent g orges S ea ( 1978:99-100). T here

i s

n o d oubt

t he p ost-Glacial c hanges

i n

t he

p eriod,

t hat

l inking t he A egean w ith

t ectonic

f ields

h ave

p hysical

e nvironment

( ErinS

B lack

a lso b een a ctive

a nd e arth m ovements m ust h ave

a ctivity a lso p layed a n i mportant p art f eatures d uring t he P leistocene. M ost b y l ava

f orces

t he

1 978:106).

V olcanic

i n t he s haping o f g eographical r egions o f A natolia a re c overed

f ormed d uring t he v olcanic e ruptions

o f

t he

P leistocene

e ra. A lthough v olcanic a ctivity c ontinued i n t he p ost-Glacial a ge, i ntensity h ad c onsiderably d ecreased. V olcanic s tructures s uch p yroclastic

c ones,

m aars

a nd

l ava

1 7

i n

c aused i mportant

s treams

i ts a s

a re p articularly w idespread

a round

L ake V an,

i n s outheastern A natolia,

i n p arts o f

t he

c entral

p lateau a nd i n K ula i n w estern A natolia.

c ene

C hanges i n t he p hysical e nvironment o f A natolia d uring t he h ob h ave b een v ery v aried, a nd m ust h ave i nvolved c hanges i n t he

a tmospheric c irculation, i nland d rainage a nd v egetation. c omplete p icture o f c limatic c hanges i n p ost-Glacial

A lthough a A natolia i s

i mpossible t o o btain, p aleaogeographical e vidence, i ncluding p ollen d iagrams, c an p rovide u s w ith a g eneral i dea a bout c limate a nd v egetat ion c over i n p rehistoric p eriods. A ccording t o g eologists t he c omp lete d isappearance o f t he g radually r etreating P leistocene g laciers s hould b e p laced i n t he p ost-Glacial o ptimum ( 7000-5000 B P). T his p hase w as f ollowed b y a c ontinuous e xpansion o f t he r egenerated g laciers, m ost p robably i n a c older p eriod, a round 4 500-400 B P ( Erinc 1 978:90).

C limatic c hanges

d uring t he H olocene

r esulted

t he l ake l evels. l t i s a ssumed t hat t he i nhabitants A natolia w ere m ore a ffected b y c hanges i n l ake l evels

i n c hanges

i n

o f p rehistoric t han t he i mpact

t hat t he r etreating a nd o ccasionally r egenerating g laciers h ad o n t he n atural e nvironment. B ut, o ne s hould a lso t ake i nto c onsideration t hat t he

l ong s pells o f

c old w eather m ust h ave r esulted

i n i ncreased

h uman

i ntervention w ith t he v egetation c over. T he w idescale c hopping o f t rees f or f irewood c ould h ave, i n t he l ong r un, c aused s ome c hanges i n t he n atural e nvironment o f c ertain r egions ( compare M aps I I a nd I II). T he

c limate

i n

A natolia i s k nown t o

h ave

u ndergone

i mportant

v ariations i n t he c ourse o f t he l ast 9 000 y ears, f inally s ettling i n t he s emi-arid c onditions p revailing a t p resent. 2 S harp f luctuations o f c limate i n t he H olocene p eriod a re t hought t o h ave s eriously a ffected t he h ydrological b alance i n l andlock r egions a nd c on equently a bout c hanges i n t he d rainage s ystem o f t he p lateau. T his i s o bserved b y s tudying t he c hanges i n t he c hemical a nd b iological t ies o f s ome s oils ( e.g.

b rought m ainly p roper-

l akes ( e.g. S alt L ake) a nd b y t he e xpansion o f t he s aline K onya p lain) i n t he s outhern A natolian p lateau. I t i s

g enerally a ssumed t hat a t t he b eginning o f t he H olocene p eriod f orests c overed l arge a reas o f A natolia a nd t hat s teppes w ere r estricted t o m uch s maller z ones t han n ow ( Map I I). o ccupy l arge a reas o f c entral A natolia,

A t p resent s teppe g rasslands t he l owlands o f T hrace, m uch o f

s outheastern T urkey a nd a n umber o f v alleys a nd b asins among

t he

e ast-

e rn m ountain r anges ( Dewdney 1 971:52). F orest v egetation, o n t he o ther h and, i s f ound o n u plands a nd m ountains, a nd a lso a long t he c oasts o f t he A egean a nd t he M editerranean. S even m ain t ypes o f n atural v egetat ion 4 w ith r egional d iversities a re f ound i n T urkey ( Dewdney 1 971:525 5), 1 .

( Maps l t-bEI): T he P ontic ( Coichian) f orest c over i s f ound i n t he n ortheast, a long t he c oastal s trip b etween O rdu a nd B atum. T his f orest t ype i s c haracteristic o f h igh a reas w ith a h eavy p recipitation, m ild w inters a nd h umid s ummers. t he

B lack

S ea

T his

f orest,

c oast t o h eights o f

w hich e xtends u pward

5 00-700m,

c ontains

v ariety o f s pecies s uch a s s weet c hestnut, h ornbeam , s pruce a nd a lder. O ther v egetation f ound i n t his a rea b rushwood. T he b ush r hododendron, l aurel,

a

f rom g reat

o riental i ncludes

c over c ontains e vergreen s pecies s uch a s m yrtle, h azel, w alnut, w ild v ines a nd o ther

c limbers.

1 8

2 .

H umid

d eciduous f orests c over a reas

f urther i nland o ver t he

w hole

l ength o f t he B lack S ea l ittoral f rom O rdu i n t he e ast t o S akarya i n t he w est a nd o n t he u plands o f n orthwest A natolia a nd T hrace. T he m ain s pecies i n t his t ype o f f orest a re o riental s pruce, b eech, h ornbeam, a lder, o ak, f ir a nd y ew, w ith o ak a nd s cots p ine o ccurr ing i n d rier a reas.

I n a ltitudes a bove

1 000m c oniferous s pecies,

m ainly f ir a nd s pruce, b ecome d ominant. T his v egetation c over g ives w ay t o a lpine g rassland i n h eights o f a round 2 000m . W est o f A lacam,

n ear

B afra,

t he f orest c over b ecomes

r ather m ore o pen

a nd

p atchy. W hile t here i s n o c hange i n t he v ariety o f t ree s pecies, t he u ndergrowth i s n ot a s r ich a s t hat f ound f urther e ast. I n t his r elatively d rier a rea t here i s a s harp c ontrast b etween t he d ense v egetation c over o f t he n orthern s lopes o f t he P ontus m ountains w hich a re w ell-watered a nd t he d rier s outhern s lopes, w here o ak t rees,

f ir

a nd j uniper a re

t he c haracteristic s pecies o f

t he o pen

f orests. 3 .

I n n orthwest, n orth-central a nd e astern A natolia d rier d eciduous a nd m ixed f orests f orm a b road b elt. I n t hese r egions c limatic a nd v egetation c onditions a re i ntermediate b etween t hose o f t he n orthern z ones a nd

f orest o n t he o ne h and,

o n t he o ther

s ummers a re

a nd t he s teppe a nd

( Dewdney 1 971:54).

r ather d ry.

W inters

A s a r esult o f

M editerranean

a re g enerally

c old

t he c limatic c onditions

p revailing f or m any c enturies, t he v egetation c over i s l ess r ich, m ore o pen a nd l ess c ontinuous t han t he h umid d eciduous z ones. T he m ain

s pecies a re o ak a nd

j uniper w ith a c onsiderable a dmixture

o f

p ine a nd f ir. T he t wo l atter s pecies b ecome m ore e vident w ith i ncreasing a ltitudes. I t s hould a lso b e p ointed o ut t hat w ithin t his z one a re s izeable a reas o f o pen g rassland t o s ustain p astoral e conomies. 4 .

T he M editerranean m ountain f orest i s e ncountered t hroughout t he c entral a nd w estern s ectors o f t he T aurus m ountains. I t i s c omp osed o f

s pecies l ike p ines,

f irs,

o ak,

c edar,

o riental

b eech,

j uniper a nd m aple. 5 .

M editerranean l owland v egetation i s f ound a long t he s outh c oast o f A natolia. T he c haracteristic v egetation i s o f t he m aquis t ype w hich i ncludes

m yrtle,

w ild o live,

l aurel,

c arob,

p ine a nd c ypress.

A r icher v ariety o f s hrub v egetation w ith p atches o f p ine a nd o ak f orests i s u sually f ound i n t he l owlands a long t he M armara a nd t he A egean l ittoral. I n t he p oorly d rained a lluvial p lains, o n t he o ther h and, t here a re s tretches o f m arsh v egetation. I n d rier a reas

s uch

a s o n

l imestone p latforms

t horny b rushwood

i s

r ather

w idespread. 6 .

A lpine a bove

v egetation t he

l imits o f

s ummer p astures 7 .

i s

r are a nd i s

t ree g rowth.

b y h erdsmen o f

f ound o nly o n

m ountain

r anges,

T his g rassland i s u sually u sed a s

s outhern a nd e astern A natolia.

S teppe v egetation i n A natolia o ccurs i n a reas o f t he c entral p lateau w hich r eceive l ess t han 4 00mm a nnual p recipitation. H owe ver,

t he

p recise

r elationship o f

s teppe v eg tation t o

p articular

c limatic f actors i s n ot a lways v ery c lear. F or i nstance, i n s outheastern A natolia a reas w hich r eceive 5 00mm o f r ain a nnually a re a lso c overed w ith s teppe v egetation. t o e xtremely h igh s ummer t emperatures.

1 9

B ut, t his i s m ainly d ue I t i s g enerally a ssumed

t hat i ntense c ultivation a nd o vergrazing m ust h ave c ontributed t o t he e xpansion o f s teppes i n A natolia a t t he e xpense o f t he s urr ounding d ry f orests. M uch o f t he y ear t he s teppelands i n t he A natolian p lateau h ave a n e xtremely b are a ppearance. G rasses a nd o ther h erbaceous s hrubs g row g ather f ast i n t he s pring w hich i s t he t ime o f t he m aximum r ainfall. B ut in the s ummer m onths, t he h igh t emperatures c ompletely d estroy t he s teppe v egetation. O nly i n a f ew

b etter-watered

r eg3 ,ons

t his v egetation

c over

i s

p reserved

d uring t he l ong s ummers. H owever, i t s hould b e s tressed h ere t hat t he s teppe g rassland s pecies a re f ound o nly o n u ntilled l and w hich i s u sed

f or g razing t he l ivestock.

F arming t han

9 000

b arley.

a nd

h usbandry h ave b een p ractised

y ears, T he

e specially

c learance

o f

i n a reas

i n A natolia

c overed w ith

f orests b y e arly

f armers,

w ild

f or

t he

a nd

c ontinual

a gricultural u se o f t he s oil a nd o vergrazing b rought a bout w hich o ver m any c enturies c hanged t he c omposition o f t he t herefore, t he a lteration o f T urkey. T he d estruction o f

mor e

w heat

c onditions s oli, a nd

t he n atural v egetation i n c ertain p arts o f t he p rotective v egetational c over r esulted

i n d egradation a nd o ften e rosion o f t he s oil, e specially i n r egions w here t he t op s oil w as a lready t hin ( such a s l imestone a reas). W ith p ermeable

l oose s andy s urfaces

t he d amage o f p ast a ctivities a re o ften

o f p ermanent n ature. G enerally s peaking t he v egetation c over d escribed h ere c hange a s f ar a s t he s pecies a re c oncerned s ince t he m iddle

d id n ot H olocene

p eriod. H owever, i n m ost g eographical r egions t he d istribution p attern o f v egetation c overs u nderwent s ome c hanges s ince t he N eolithic p eriod. T hese

t ransformations

d iagrams

c an

b est b e o bserved b y

f rom T urkey.

2 0

s tudying

t he

p ollen

N OTES 1 .

F or f urther i nformation c oncerning t he p hysical g eography o f T urkey s ee: T odd 1 980:9-29. T odd s f irst c hapter i s d evoted t o a l arge e xtent t o a c omprehensive g eographical o utline o f c entral A natolia. M uch d etailed i nformation o n t he s ubject o f g eography i s p resented i n t he f orm o f f ootnotes. I n p articular, f ootnote 1 c ontains a l ist o f i mportant p ublications d ealing w ith t he p hysical a nd c limatic a spects o f A natolian g eography.

2 .

T he c limate i n A natolia b ecame w armer i n t he p ost-Glacial p eriod. T he g reat l akes r eceded l eaving g reat e xpanses o f a lluvium c overed w ith r eeds a nd t hickets. T his t ype o f l and c ould h ave b een e asily c leared b y p rehistoric m en a nd t urned i nto f armland ( Brice 1 978:141-147). T he s ettlers o f t he N eolithic p eriod c hose l ocalit ies o f t his s ort o n t he c entral p lateau w here t hey c ould p ractice a s ubsistence e conomy o f f arming, s tock-breeding, f ishing a nd h unti ng

( e.g.

ç atal H 8yi lk ,

H acilar,

C an H asan).

A s i n p revious

i nter-

g laclals, f orests b ecame e xtensive i n t he H olocene p eriod. T he t imber b elt w idened b oth u pwards a nd d ownwards, a nd t he m ilder c onditions l ed t o t he e mergence o f s pecies s uch a s c edar, o ak, h azel, b eech a nd p lane ( Brice 1 978:144). I n t he n orthern p art o f t he A natolian p lateau t here i s n o p alynological e vidence p ointing t o a f luvial p hase i n t he e arly H olocene p eriod. I t h as b een s uggested t hat t he c ontinuing p hase o f d essication w hich s tarted i n t he p ost-Glacial p eriod m ay h ave r eached a c limax a bout 4 000 B C. T his w as c aused b y a tmospheric c irculations b ringing w inds i nto c entral Anatolia f rom n ortheast a nd s outhwest. T hese i n t urn a re b elieved t o h ave b een t he m ain r eason f or t he p rotracted a rid p hase o f 3 .

t he e arly H olocene

( Brice 1 978:145).

T he i nland l akes o f A natolia s tarted t o s hrink b efore 4 000 B P a nd b y 3 000 B P s ome o f t hem w ere r eplaced b y m ud f lats a nd s alt b asins. W ith t he d isappearance o f t hese b odies o f w ater, w hich m ust f ormerly h ave k ept t he l ocal h umidity h igh, t he p recipitation d ecreased a nd t he a ir b ecame m uch d rier, e specially o ver t he b asins i n t he c entral p lateau. T he t hickets o f t he a lluvial f lats g ave w ay

t o

t he n ow f amiliar d ry s teppe o r c amel-thorn s crub,

w hile t he

l evels a nd c omposition o f t he m ountain f orests a djusted t o c ondit ions o f d ry a ir, h igh s now-line a nd w armer w inters f or s uch a ltitudes ( Brice 1 978:145). 4 .

A s v an Z eist p ointed o ut, n ot

i n r egions w here p alaeobotanical d ata i s

a s c lear o r a bundant a s o ne w ould w ish,

t he p resent

t ion o f t he n atural v egetation t ypes c an b e v ery u seful s tructing v egetational p atterns o f t he p ast ( 1969:36). t his

r econstruction b ecomes e asier w hen d ealing w ith t he

d istribui n I n

r econf act

e nviron-

m ents o f t he f ourth, t hird o r s econd m illennia B C. I n t his s ense n atural v egetation m eans p lant c over w hich w ould h ave p robably s urvived w ithout a rtificial i nterference b y p rehistoric m en. T his b eing

t he c ase,

p alaeobotanists o ften d iffer i n t heir e stimation o f

t he d amage c aused t o t he o riginal p lant c over a s a c onsequence o f u nrelenting h uman a ctivity i n t he p ast. F urthermore, d ifferences o f o pinion a lso e xist r egarding t he p recise s pecies t ion c over o f t he p ast.

2 1

i n t he v egeta-

5 .

T he e xtent o f t he o riginal s teppe-forest v egetation i s r ather d ifficult t o e stablish ( van Z eist 1 969:38). S teppe a reas h ave b een u nder i ntensive c ultivation f or m any d ecades. O ne s hould t ake i nto a ccount t hat s teppes o ccur a t e levations r anging f rom 2 00m t o m ore t han 1 500m a bove s ea l evel. B ecause o f t his d istribution t emperat ure c onditions d iffer q uite c onsiderably, c reating s lightly v aryi ng c onditions f or d ifferent p lant s pecies t o s ustain t hemselves.

6 .

Among t he t rees a nd s hrubs w hich a re a t h ome i n t he s teppe

f orests

a re p istachio a nd a lmond ( van Z eist 1 969:38). A nother c haracterist ic p lant o f s ome N ear E astern s teppe c overs i s t he s agebrush ( Artemisia h erba-alba). 7 .

B elow

t he

1 00mm a nnual p ercipitation l evel s teppe v egetations

p oor i n s pecies.

T his p lant c over i s k nown t o u s i n d eserts.

2 2

a re

C HAPTER I I:

A NCIENT A NATOLIANS A ND T HEIR E THNIC A FFILIATIONS

T he a nthropological s tructure o f t he A natolian p opulation d uring p rehistoric a nd p rotohistoric t imes i s t entatively r econstructed l argely t hrough c ranial r emains f rom e xtramural c emeteries a nd i ntram ural b urials. R ecent e xcavations a t I kiztepe a nd t he r escue p roject a long ( i.e.

t he E uphrates b etween M alatya a nd U rfa i n s outheastern T urkey H assek H 8ylk, L idar) a re g radua.ly i ncreasing t he q uantity o f

a vailable h uman r emains w hich, f or s ome r egions, a re s till f ar b elow t he q uantitative a nd q ualitative l evels r equired f or a r eliable a nd c omprehensive s tudy o f p hysical a nthropology. T he h uman s keletal r emains f rom t he E BA c emeteries a t K aratap p rovide t he l argest s ingle s ource o f i nformation f or w estern A natolia. I n a ddition t o 5 40 s amples f rom K arata ( Angel 1 970:253-259), w hich p rovide I mportant i nformation o n t he h istory o f h ealth, l ongevity a nd p opulation c hanges d uring t he p roto-urban a nd e arly u rban p eriods i n A natolia, a f urther 1 53 s kelet ons c ome f rom a t otal o f 2 7 s ites ( except I kiztepe I ) w ith L ate C halcolithic a nd E arly B ronze A ge o ccupation (enylrek 1 957; C appieri 1 972).

T hese i nclude A hiatlibel,

D t lndartepe, O vabayindir,

A laca H 8ylk,

A lisar,

K aledoru u, T ekek8y, F ikirtepe, T roy, B abak8y, Y ortan, F ikirtepe, K usura,

B t {yUk G t lll ? lcek,

K umtepe, P olatli,

H anaytepe, K arah8yt ik

( Konya), T ilkitepe ( Van), Y azilikaya, Y tl i nUktepe ( Mersin), G 8zl i 1kule ( Tarsus), S eyh H 8yt Ik, T abara-al-Akrad, T ell-al-Judaidah a nd c atal l 8y t lk i n t he A muq p lain ( SenyHrek 1 957:95-96; 1 951:593-599; M ora 1 977). T he A natolia

m ajority o f

t he f ourth a nd t hird m illennia B C i nhabitants

w ere d olichocephals

o f

o f

m ainly t he E urafrican a nd m ore g racile

M editerranean t ypes. T he b rachycephals, a lthough p resent s ince t he N eolithic p eriod ( i.e. ç ata] . H HyHk-Konya) w ere r ather r are i n t he l ate f ourth a nd e arly t hird m illennium B C. T he E urafrican d olichocephals, w hose t raits i ncluded p rominent e yebrows, r eceding f orehead, l inear r ugged s kull f orms, w ide u pper f ace a nd s trong j aws, w ere a s o ld a s t he M editerranean d olichocephals, i f n ot s lightly o lder. H owever, t he M editerranean t ypes a re m ore w idespread t hroughout A natolia, a nd t he m ixture o f t hese t wo t ypes, w hich m ust h ave b egun d uring t he N eolithic p eriod, g racile

c ontinued t hroughout t he p rotohistoric a nd h istoric a ges. M editerranean c rania i s s maller t han t he E urafrican t ype

T he a nd

t he p inched-faces a re l ong a nd s lightly a ngular. I t i s w idely a ccepted t hat c ranial i ndex b y i tself i s h ardly s ufficient t o s eparate t he p eoples o f t he A ncient N ear E ast i nto p articular r aces o r e thnic g roups. B ut, w ithin t he s ame p rimary r ace i t m ay b e p ossible t o a chieve a n a rbitrary c lassification o f c rania b y m easuring t he c ranial i ndex: U ltradolichocephalic ( 8-64.9); H yperdolichocephalic ( 65-69.9); D olichocephalic 8 4.9); I t i s d uring

( 70-74.9);

M esocephallc

( 75-79.9);

B rachycephallc

H yperbrachycephalic ( 85 -89 .9 ) a nd U ltrabrachycephalic g enerally a ssumed t hat c limatic a nd o ther e nvironmental a nd a fter t he U pper P aleolithic p eriod,

t he m ixture o f

( 80 -

( 90-X).1 c hanges r acial

t ypes a nd v arious d iseases a ffecting t he e arly s edentary c ommunities g ave r ise t o a t l east 3 0 r egional s kull-forms i n E urope a nd t he A ncient

2 3

N ear E ast ( Angel 1 971a:35-36). Among t hese s kull-forms, w hich r ange f rom U ltradolichocephalic t o U ltrabrachycephalic c ategories, o nly n ine r egional 1 .

f orms a re k nown i n A natolia:

T he l ong-faced A tlanto-Mediterranean. T his B asic W hite t ype h as a h ausform o cciput, s trong a ngularity, a l ong l inear v ault f orm a nd r ugged m uscularity. T he f orehead i s r elatively w ide w ith a t hin M editerranean n ose,

2 .

T he

l ong j aws a nd l inear f ace.

l ong-faced E urafrican.

T his B asic W hite t ype i s

l ess

l inear

t han t he A tlanto-Mediterranean f orm. I t h as a p rominent o cciput, m edium a ngularity, r ugged m uscularity a nd a r elatively w ide f oreh ead. T he m outh i s n ot a s d eep a s t hat f ound i n t he A tlantoM editerranean f orm . 3 .

T he n ose i s

t hick a nd t he f ace i s s quare.

T he l ong-faced, g racile M editerranean. I t i s a C lassic M editerr anean t ype w ith p rojecting o cciput, s light a ngularity, s mall o void v ault f orm a nd p aedomorphic m uscularity. t he j aws s hallow a nd t he c hin p ointed.

T he f orehead i s T he p inched f ace

s teep, h as a

m edium t hin n ose. 4 .

T he l ong-faced, a ngular M editerranean. I ts t raits i nclude v ery p aedomorphic m uscularity, l inear v ault f orm a nd p rojecting h ayrick o cciput. t he

5 .

T he s teep f orehead a nd t he s lightly p rognathaus j aws a re

c haracteristic f eatures o f

t his f orm .

T he s quat-faced E astern A lpine. T his l ow-headed v ersion o f t he E uropean A lpine i s b est r epresented b y t he s econd m illennium B C H ittite s kulls o f A l 4ar H 8yUk. B ut, t his b rachycrane t ype i s a lso p resent i n A natolia a nd t he A egean s ince t he N eolithic p eriod. I t h as

a

b road,

f airly s hort a nd l ow v ault w ith

r elatively

n arrow

f orehead, s hort a nd b road f ace a nd s quare j owls. C heek-bones a re a ngled a nd p rognathism i s l acking. A ccording t o A ngel ( 1951:26) t his A lpine t ype r epresents a l ocal s urvival o f a m eso-bracycrane s train f rom M esolithic E urope a nd c ould h ave r eached A natolia, i n p articular

t he

T road,

f rom

t he

e astern D anubian

a rea

o f

t he

A lpines. 6 .

H igh-headed E astern A lpine. A s f ar a s o rigins a re c oncerned i t m ay b e a ssumed t hat t his t ype t oo i s a d escendant o f a m eso-brahcycrane s tock f rom M esolithic E urope. a nd o ften f lattened o cciput. n ose i s t hin a nd b eaky. h ead s teep a nd p inched.

7 .

T he t ilted j aws a re a ngular a nd

t he f ore-

T he I ranian-Mediterranean. I t i s a N ordic-Iranian t ype. T he s kull i s n ot a s r ugged a s t hose o f N ordic o r D anubian-Hallstatt f orms. M uscularity T he o cciput w ide.

T he

i s m edium a nd t he s kull-vault r ather h igh a nd l inear. i s d eep a nd p rominent a nd t he f orehead i s r elatively f ace

p rominent. 8 .

T he b oxlike h igh h ead h as a s hort T he f ace i s o f m edium h eight a nd t he

i s

r ectangular

a nd

t he

a ngular

c hin

r ather

T he n ose i s c oarse a nd h awkish i n a ppearance.

I ranian. I t h as a r ugged m uscularity a nd a v ery l inear v ault f orm. T he a ngularity o f t he s kull i s s light b ut t he o cciput i s v ery d eep a nd

m ore

f orehead

p rominent i s

t han

t he

I ranian-Mediterranean

w ide a nd t he f ace i s h igh w ith 2 4

f orm.

r ectangular

T he

o utline.

T he n ose i s h igh a nd v ery b eaky.

T he j aws a re t ilted a nd

t he c hin

d eep. 9 .

D inaric-Mediterranean.

T his

i s a m ore M editerranean v ersion o f

t he

D inaroid s kull w ith o nly s light m uscularity, h igh v ault f orm a nd s trong a ngularity. T he f orehead i s, a s i n a ll r egional f orms o f t his t ype, p inched a nd t he f ace l inear; j aws a re l ong a nd t he c hin t ilted w ith a t hin n ose. T his t ype i s a lso f ound i n L ower E gypt ( Angel 1 971a:37). B ut, t he p roto-Cilicians f ound a t T arsus ( Ehrich 1 940), c ould b e d escribed a s b eing m ore I ranian-Mediterranean E urafrican t han D inaric-Mediterranean. A lthough t he h uman r emains

f rom t he N eolithic

t own o f

C atal

a nd

H 8yUk

i n t he K onya p lain r evealed t he p resence o f b rachycephalic e lements i n t he e arliest s edentary p opulation, t he d olichocephals w ere t he d ominant g roup a mong a ncient A natolians. T hey r emained s o i n t he f ourth, t hird a nd s econd m illennia B C. I n t he L ate C halcolithic p eriod c lose t o 7 0% o f t he A natolians p ossessed d olichocranes, 2 0% m esocranes a nd t he r emaining

1 0% b rachycranes

( Senyt irek 1 951:958).

A ccording

t o

A ngel,

a lready b y t he t hird m illennium B C t he w est c oast o f A natolia w as p opulated b y r egional v ariations o f t he d olichocephals, m esocephals a nd b rachycephals s uch a s t he A tlanto-Mediterranean, t he l ong-faced a ngular M editerranean,

t he

t wo e astern A lpine f orms a nd t he I ranian t ype.

B oth

t he n orthwest a nd t he s outhwest o f A natolia s how m ore o r l ess s imilar c ategories o f h uman c rania. B ut i t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat i n t he s outhwest, t he K arata s keletons c ontain a dditional g roups s uch a s a n e astern A lpine f orm, k nown i n s outhern C yprus, a nd M editerranean D inaroid ( Angel 1 971a:102). I n t he A natolian p lateau t he p opulation e lements i ncluded t he l ong-faced, r ugged E urafricans, t he g racile M editerranean, t he h igh-headed e astern A lpine a nd t he I ranian-Mediterr anean. T he e astern A lpine i s b etter r epresented i n t he s econd h alf o f t he t hird p opulation

m illennium B C, a nd t heir i ncrease c ould b e a ttributed t o m ovements a ffecting a reas n ot o nly i n w estern o r c entral

A natolia, 1 971a:103).

u t

i n t he B alkans a nd e astern D anube a s w ell ( Angel I n A natolia, t he g radual i ncrease o f b rachycephals d uring

t he l ater p art o f t he t hird a nd e arly p art o f t he s econd m illennium h as b een i nterpreted b y m ost a nthropologists a s f urther e vidence

B C o f

I ndo-European i nvaders e xpanding t heir f oothold m ainly i n t he c entral P lateau ( Senyirek 1 951). H owever, t his v iew i s n ot s hared b y s ome p rominent p hysical a nthropologists. C appieri ( 1972), f or i nstance, s uggests t hat t here i s n o e vidence o f b rachycephalic p opulations i n p rehistoric t imes, a nd t herefore, h e r ejects t he t hesis t hat b rachycep hals

f ormed a p opulation o f

t heir o wn w ith t heir o wn c entres o f

d is-

t ribution. H e d oes n ot s ubscribe t o t he v iew t hat t hese g roups m igrated i n v arious d irections s ince t he N eolithic p eriod, n or d oes h e a gree t hat i t i s p ossible t o d ifferentiate t wo b rachycephalic r aces, n amely t he A lpine a nd t he A rmenoid ( 1972:5). A ccording t o h im, t he A lpine

a nd

t he A rmenoid r epresent m orphoarchitectural

d evelopment

o f

t he " brachycephalization p rocess", a nd t hey a re n ot " independent g enetic u nities" ( Cappieri 1 972:5). I gnoring t he a rchaeological e vidence m ovements

f rom p rehistoric A natolia w hich s trongly s uggests p opulation f rom t he e ast a nd s outheastern E urope i n t he f ifth, f ourth

a nd t hird m illennia B C, h e a rrives a t t he c onclusion t hat " there i s n o e lement p roving m igration o f p opulations f rom o ne r egion t o a nother i n t he m entioned p eriod" ( 1972:5). I n C appieri s o pinion " brachycephaliz ation c onsists i n a n e volutive c ontinual m ovement s ubsequent t o t he l ongheaded f orms o f t he P alaeolithic a nd N eolithic, a nd i t i s 2 5

e ssentially

t he

c onstant

f lexible

s ettlement o f

t he

v arious

c ranial

u nities t hrough t he a ggregate m orphoarchitectural f orces, w hich r espond t o t he a natomical a nd f unctional f actors i n r eciprocal a daptation a nd, a s s uch, i t r epresents a p hylogenetic e volution i ndependent r acial d ifference" ( 1972:5). B ut C appieri a dmits t hat h is

f rom a ny s o-called

" phenomenon o f b rachycephalization" d oes n ot a ppear i n e very r egion o f t he A ncient N ear E ast a t t he s ame c hronological l evel ( 1972:4). H owever, h e d oes n ot t hink t hat t he t erm H ittite o ught t o b e u sed t o d efine

a d istinctive e thno-genetic e ntity w ithin t he A natolian p opula-

t ion ( i.e. b rachycephalic I ndo-Europeans o f e astern A lpine s tock). A ccording t o h im t he p opulation o f p rehistoric A natolia w as p art o f t he A sian P roto-Mediterraneans w ho i nhabited l arge a reas e xtending f rom t he A tlantic i n t he w est t o I ndia i n t he e ast. d ifferentiates a n A natolian r egional t ype o f o bserving t he p henotypical s imilarity a nd a nthropometric

v alues

o f

h uman s keletons

B ut n evertheless, p roto-Mediterranean t he c oncentration

f rom

v arious

h e b y o f

s ettlements.

T his r egional t ype, i n C appieri s v iew, r eflects a h omogenous p opulat ion, w ith a l ow r ate o f e xpansion, l iving i n s izeable a gglomerations a s i ndependent a nd e ndogamous c ommunities ( 1972:3). I n t hese c omm unities i ndividuals s howed a r emarkable u nity a nd s imilarity o f s omatic a nd c ultural c haracteristics w hich C appieri i nterpreted, a mong o ther f actors, a s r esulting f rom t he i solation o f s ettlements, t he l ack o f i ntermixture o f e thnic g roups b ecause t here w as n o m igration o r i nvasion o f d ifferent g enotypes a nd " progressive b rachycephalization" ( 1972:4). A ccording t o t his t heory, w hich f rom t he a rchaeological p oint o f v iew i s c ertainly n ot v ery s ound, t he H ittites w ere A natolians, i n o ther w ords, t hey w ere n ot a nother g enotype i nvading A natolia

i n t he

l ate t hird o r e arly s econd m illennium B C.

T he l arge n umber o f s keletons f rom K aratas-Semay1k b rings t he t otal s amples o f a nalyzed h uman r emains i n A natolia t o o ver 7 00. I t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat t he s tature o f a ncient A natolians d ecreased s lightly a t t he e nd o f t he N eolithic p eriod. T he a verage s tature e stimate f emales H 8y t 1k

f or E arly B ronze A ge m ales i n A natolia i s 1 66.5cm a nd f or 1 54-155cm . C ompared t o t he e stimated h eights o f t he C atal

N eolithic

i nhabitants,

t here i s a 5 cm d ecrease

i n s tature

f or

m ales a nd a bout 1 cm d ecrease f or f emales i n t he t hird m illennium B C. T his c ould b e e xplained p artly b y c hanges i n t he d iet o f s edentary c ommunities B ronze A ge

a nd h ealth c onditions. T he L ate C halcolithic a nd E arly p opulations i n A natolia d id n ot e njoy a p articularly l ong

d uration o f l ife. T he a verage 1 f e xpectancy f or m ales w as 3 6 y ears a nd f or f emales a bout 2 9 y ears. A ge d istribution o f d eaths a mongst 1 53 s amples

f rom A natolia

( mainly f rom t he c entral p lateau)

c alculated

b y S enyUrek ( 1957) s uggests a h igh i nfant a nd c hild m ortality r ate ( 01 2 y ears) o f 4 1%. O f t he t otal s ample 2 4% i ndicate d eath b etween 1 3-20 y ears o f a ge, t he b ut

w hile

t he l argest p ercentage o f

s urvival

r ate w as

a mong

a ge g roup o f 2 1-40 ( 33%). C lose t o 2 0% l ived b eyojd t he a ge 4 0, o nly 6 -7% s eems t o h ave l ived l onger t han 6 0 y ears. I t i s l ikely

t hat n ewborn i nfant

s urvival r ate

i s n ot c orrectly r epresented b y h uman

r emains f rom c emeteries. E ven i f t hese w ere b uried a ccording t o c ust oms u sed f or o lder p eople, i nfant b ones d o n ot s urvive a s i ntact a s a dult s keletal r emains. I t h as b een s uggested t hat i n l ate P rehistoric t imes P lace

p eople u sually d isposed o f s tillborn a nd o lder b abies i n s ome o utside t he r egular c emeteries ( Angel 1 968:260). T he a verage

l ife e xpectancy f or f emales ( 29 y ears) s uggests t hat t heory, m ore t han 1 2 y ears o f c hildbearing p otential. t he

1 5-19 y ear o ld g roup s amples,

2 6

t he

t hey h ad, A t K arata ,

f emales o utnumber t he m ales

i n i n b y

n early f ive m arriage a nd

t o o ne ( Angel 1 968:260). T his c an o nly s uggest t hat c hildbearing a t a y oung a ge c aused a h igh p ercentage o f

d eaths a mong y oung g irls a nd t heir i nfants. T here i s n o d oubt t hat t his s ituation a t K arataq i s n ot u nique f or t his s ettlement o r s outhw estern A natolia, w ell. A ccording

b ut c ould r eflect t he d emography o f t o c alculations m ade w ith K arataq

o ther r egions a s s amples ( Angel .

1 970:256-258; 1 976), i t i s a ssumed h ere t hat A natolian w omen h ad a verage f our b irths e ach, t aking i nto a ccount t hat g irls t end t o d ie

i n i n

t he s econd d ecade. E ven i f m ore t han 5 0% o f t he i nfants a nd c hildren d ied, t he r emaining s urvivors w ould, t o a l arge e xtent, g row t o a dulth ood, t hus i n m ost s edentary c ommunities i ncrease o f t he p opulation. I t

i s g enerally a ccepted

t hat

i n A natolia e nsuring a s teady

t he l ongevity

r atio a mong s edentary

c ommunities i s c losely r elated t o e nvironmental f actors, n utrition a nd d iseases. C ertain c hronic d iseases c ould h ave a lso a ffected t he s tature a nd g eneral h ealth o f c ertain p opulation g roups l iving i n m arshy r egions. F or i nstance t he f alciparum m alaria w hich h ad t hrough t he e astern M editerranean i n t he M esolithic p eriod,

s pread b ecame

e ndemic

( Angel

a mong

s ome

o f

t he N eolithic c ommunities

i n

A natolia

1 971b:77-98). T his d isease c auses a t hickening o f t he d iploic m arrows pace o f t he s kull a nd o f o ther m arrow-spaces i n c hildren a nd i nfants, i ndicating a nemia w hich c an r esult f rom a bnormal h emoglobins w hich m ake r ed b lood c ells r esistant t o p lasmodium f alciparum. A nother f actor w hich c ould h ave c aused t his a nemia, p articularly a mong y oung c hildren, i s h ookworm i nfestation o r e ven t he d irect e ffects o f m alaria. B ut i n a reas w here m arshes w ere n ot p resent i n p rehistoric t imes ( i.e. K arata ) t he e ffects o f t his d isease w ere l ess f elt ( Angel 1 970:255). A part

f rom p orotic h yperostosis,

a ncient A natolians

o ther d iseases a ffecting t he h ealth o f

i nclude v ertebral c olumn upping a nd a rthritis.

A t

K arata , f or i nstance, t hese d iseases a re b elieved t o h ave a ffected 6 6% o f m en a nd 5 7% o f w omen ( Angel 1 970:255). H ypertrophic a rthritis i s c omparatively n ot v ery h igh ( 9% o f w omen a nd 6 % o f m en) a t K arata , a nd i t

i s

v iewed a s a r esponse

t o v iolent

s tress a t

j oints r esulting

f rom

h eavy w ork a nd t o a geing. B ut i t s hould b e emphasized t hat s ome o f t he p remature d eaths a mong a ncient A natolians, p articularly m ales, i n t he a ge g roups o f 2 0-39 a nd 4 0+ r esulted f rom i njuries s ustained i n a ccidents a nd w arfare. S kull v ault i njuries i nflicted w ith w eapons s uch a s a xe, s tick a nd c lub a ccount f or a h igh p ercentage o f f atal w ounds

s uffered

d eaths

i n h unting a ccidents

a ccount, t o o f f emales.

b y a dult

s ome e xtent,

m ales. f or

i s v ery l ikely t hat w arfare

a nd

i n t he f ourth a nd t hird m illennium B C

I t

m ay

t he s ex r atio w hich u sually w as

i n f avour

D ISCUSSION

b e

T he e thnic c omposition o f A natolians i n p re-Hittite t imes c annot r econstructed w ithout l iterary e vidence w hich s o f ar i s l acking.

T he e valuation o f s keletal r emains b y p hysical a nthropologists g ive u s s ome g eneral c lues b ut e ven t hat i s h ighly d ebatable.

c ould O ne

s chool o f t hought h as l ong m aintained t hat t he d olichocephals o f A natolia w ere m ainly o f M editerranean s tock a nd t he b rachycephals w ere A lpine ( senyL lrek 1 951). D uring t he l ate t hird m illennium B C, b ut p articularly i n t he H ittite p eriod, t he b rachycephalic g roups i ncreased r apidly.

W hile

i n t he l ate f ourth a nd e arly

2 7

t hird m illennium B C

t he

d ifferences

b etween

t he l ength,

b readth a nd c ranial

C halcolithic a nd E B I -II A natolian s kulls a re i ncrease i n t he p ercentage o f t he b rachycephals

i ndices

o f

t he

n ot s ignificant, t he i n t he f ollowing p eriod

( more t han 4 7% o f t he c rania i n c entral A natolia) h as b een v iewed a s a n i nvasion o f A natolia b y I ndo-Europeans o f A lpine s tock ( Krogman 1 937:216; S eny l lrek 1 951:604-608). § enyUrek d emonstrated t hat s kulls f rom H ittite s ites i n c entral A natolia d iffer f rom t he p eripheral A natolian g roup i n h aving s maller l ength, l arger b readth a nd a m uch h igher

c ranial

i ndex.

I n o ther w ords

t he c entral A natolian g roup

o f

s kulls h as a s maller p ercentage o f d olichocephals 6 a nd a h igher p ercenta ge o f b rachycephals t han t h e per i ph era l g roup. A nother s chool o f t hought,

t hat o f C appieri

( 1972),

r ejects

t he t hesis t hat

t he H ittites

( the I ndo-European m inority) w ere a n e xtraneous p opulation w ith i ts o wn p articular g enetic s train, a nd t herefore r ejects t he e quation o f b rachycrane w ith I ndo-European s kull f orm . T he f act r emains, h owever, t hat d uring t he s econd h alf o f t he t hird m illennium B C i n c ertain r egions o f t he N ear E ast s kulls t ended t o b e s maller i n s ize w ith a l inear n ose, h igh o rbits a nd m ore g racile M editerranean t ype m ouths. A ccording t o A ngel s ome o f t hese c hanges, s een i n t he A egean ( and w estern A natolia) i n p articular, a re p artly t he r esult o f i nternal e volutionary a nd n utritional c hanges ( 1971a :104). B ut i nitially t hese w ere m ost l ikely t riggered b y i ntermixing o f r egional g roups w ith t heir s lightly d ifferent g enetic s trains. F or i nstance, i f, a s s uggested b y G imbutas ( 1963), I ndo-European s peakers s tarted t heir m ovement w estw ards a t t he b eginning o f t he S ub-Boreal d ry s pell, t hen a ccording t o A ngel's e stimate t hey o ught t o b e c hiefly l inear N ordic-Iranian, w ith s ome U pper P alaeolithic d escendants o f E urafrican a nd A lpine v arieties ( 1971a:103).

I n

S outh R ussia,

i n t he C aucasus,

a nd i n t he

B alkans

t hese g roups, r epresented b y t heir p articular b urial m ounds ( Kurgan) a nd c orded-pottery, w ould b e i ncreasingly c hanged b y a ddition o f E uropean r aneans

A lpine, t o

t he r oute i nfluenced

M editerranean a nd

p roduce

t he

s hort-faced l inear N ordic-Mediter-

s o-called p roto-Indo-Europeans.

T hose

t aking

s outh o f t he C aspian, o n t he o ther h and, w ould h ave f irst b y I ranian-Mediterranean a nd t hen e astern A lpine

M editerranean a nd D inaroid

b een a nd

t hroughout A natolia i ncluding m ixed A lpine ( mesocrane) ( purse-skull) c ombinations. C ommenting o n t he K arata

L ycians o f m id-third m illennium B C, A ngel s tresses t he f act t hat t he s kulls h e s tudied s how d istinct I ranian t raits i n t heir p artly e astern A lpine a nd p artly M editerranean b lend ( 1971a :103; 1 968:262). A ccording t o h im , t hese E arly B ronze A ge I ranian t raits h ere a nd i n o ther r egions m ay b elong t o p opulation m ovements a s e arly a s t he N eolithic p eriod. A lthough t he p roto-Luvians o f t he c oastal r egion o f w estern A natolia a re b een

s till p hysically u ndefinable,

i n A ngel s o pinion t hey w ould

m ainly I ranian-eastern A lpine w ith s ome

M editerranean

h ave

i nfluence

( 1971a:104). A ccording t o h im, a n e ast-west m ovement ( of p roto-IndoE uropean e lements) i n A natolia c an b e f urther c orraborated b y t he a nthropological e vidence f rom P a nik 5 reni i n t he K eban. 7 R ecent l ogical

e xcavations

i nformation

i n A natolia a re p roviding m uch n eeded a rchaeo-

r elating t o i ssues o f

p opulation

m ovements

a nd

i nvasions b y p astoralist t ribes w hich p hysical a nthropology a lone c ann ot s atisfactorily a nswer. I t i s r ather c lear n ow t hat c hanges i n t he r egional c ultures d uring t he e arly f ourth m illennium B C a nd l ater, w ere d irectly o r i ndirectly r elated t o t he m ovements o f t he K urgan ' t ribes i n s outheastern E urope a nd i n T ranscaucasia. c ant

d evelopments

d isappearance

o f

i n

A natolian

c ultural

O ne o f h istory

t he m ost s ignifii s

t he E arly C halcolithic c ultures i n t he 2 8

t he

g radual

w estern

a nd

s outhern

A natolian

r egional

a rchitecture a nd p ottery m aking d uring t he

p lateaux a nd

t he a ppearance o f n ew

t raditions

f ourth

i n

m illennium

B C. T hese n ew t raditions, i ncluding a d eveloped m etallurgy, i ndicate b eyond a ny d oubt t hat 0 1d E uropean f armers f rom t he B alkans a nd e astern D anube w ere a mong t he n umerous o ther ' groups c rossing i nto A natolia. e lements,

I t t oo,

i s v ery l ikely t hat s ome o f c rossed i nto A natolia a t t his

t he p roto-Indo-European t ime e ither f rom t he e ast

o r w est. I n f act, t he L ate C halcolithic p ottery a ssemblage i n s outhern T hrace i ncludes a l arge n umber o f f orms k nown i n t he B alkans i n t he f ourth m illennium B C ( i izdo an 1 982a; 1 982b). T he e arliest f orms k nown t o u s i n t he T road ( i.e. H anaytepe, K umtepe B esiktepe)

s uggest t he

s urvival o f B alkan a nd o ther s outheast E uropean

t raditions i n t he l ocal p ottery r epertories. d emographic c hanges a nd p opulation s hifts, i t i s t he

p opulation

p ottery l a a nd

I n t he c ontext o f i mportant t o n ote t hat

d ensity i n T hrace i ncreased s ubstantially i n t he

l ate

f ourth p eriod n amely

a nd e arly t hird m illennium B C ( see C hapter I V). D uring t his t he d istinction b etween t he t wo c ultural p rovinces i n T hrace, t he E rgene v alley i n t he n orth, a nd t he c oastal r egion i n t he

s outh,

b ecomes

v ery m arked.

W hile s outhern T hrace c an b e v iewed a s a n

e xtension o f t he n orthwest A natolian c ultural p rovince, c ontinues t o r emain p art o f t he s outheast E uropean E B t he

a dvent

o f

s ettlements i n 1 982a). I n a i nhabited

t he w est A natolian E B

I II p eriod

a

n orthern T hrace h orizon. W ith

l arge

n umber

o f

s outhern T hrace s eem t o h ave b een a bandoned ( Ozdogan f ew v illages a nd s mall t owns w hich c ontinued t o b e

a n ew p ottery a ssemblage u nknown i n n orthwest A natolia

m ade

i ts a ppearance. T his i s a h andmade w are w hose d istinctive f eature i s a b and d ecoration i n r elief, d istantly r esembling c ord d ecoration. T his w are, u ntil T hrace 1 984).

i nterestingly t he I ron A ge.

e nough, r emained c haracteristic o f t his r egion F inally, t he b urial m ounds ( Kurgan) f ound i n

l ook v ery s imilar i n s hape t o t hose f ound i n B ulgaria ( Delev N ikolov T h d ating o f s ome o f t he B ulgarian h arrows f ound n ear

T arnava a nd K neza t o t he E BA ( 1976), s uggest t hat s ome o f t he b urial m ounds i n T urkish T hrace c ould a lso d ate f rom t he t hird m illennium B C. I n s umming u p t he a rchaeological e vidence f rom T hrace o ne c an t ively c onclude t hat: a .

T he

L ate

C halcolithic s ettlements

t enta-

i n T hrace a nd a t l east s ome

n orthwest A natolia w ere e stablished b y i mmigrating s outheast E uropean a ncestry. T he g eneral d irection o f

i n

f armers o f t he p opula-

t ion m ovement w as f rom n orth t o s outh. S ince t he E rgene r egion w as a lready d ensely i nhabited s ince t he L ate N eolithic t imes, t hese f arming

c ommunities

h ad t o m ove

s outhern T hrace a nd s lightly b .

f urther s outh a nd g et s ettled

T he f act t hat T roy I t ype p ottery i s v ery s carce i n t he E rgene v alley s ettlements c onfirms e arlier s uggestions t hat t he e xpansion o f s ettlements d uring t he E B Ia nd t he e arly p art o f E B I I w as A natolia t o s outhern T hrace a nd e astern A egean i slands.

C .

i n

l ater i n t he T road.

T he w est A natolian E B

[ II c ulture d id n ot

s pread

f rom

t o T hrace w hich b y

t his t ime h ad d eveloped i ts n on-Anatolian c ulture.8 T he p ossib ility t hat T hrace w as t aken o ver b y s emi-nomadic t ribes, i ncluding K urgan e lements, a s e arly B C c annot h e d ismissed.

t he s econd h alf o f

t he

t hird m illennium

I t s hould b e e mphasized t hat s o f ar t he e arliest s igns o f n omadic g roups e ntering A natolia i n t he l ate f ourth m illennium B C c ome f rom

2 9

e astern T urkey. p robably s erved

A t K orucutepe i n t he K eban t he p rehistoric m ound a s a b arrow f or n omadic c hieftains a t t he e nd o f t he

L ate C halcolithic p eriod

( van L oon 1 978:10,

6 1-63;

W inn 1 981).

D uring

t he t ime t hat t he C halcolithic m ound w as u sed a s a b urial p lace 3 200-3000), t his s ite w as a pparently n ot i nhabited. O ne o f t he m udbrick

t ombs h ad a w ooden r oof r ecalling t he r oofed h ouse-like

o f t he ' Kurgan c ulture. i n o ne o f t he t ombs i s

F urthermore, r eminiscent o f

c ulture o f n orthern I ran,

c .3000 B C.

( ca. t wo t ombs

t he g rey h andmade p ottery t he c eramics o f t he G rey A t T urengtepe

t his

f ound W are

c ulture

h a

l ong b een c onsidered t o b e I ndo-European ( or p roto-Indo-European). T he d ouble b urial i n o ne o f t he t ombs, a f emale b urial p laced n ext t o t he

r ichly a dorned m ale b urial,

s uttee

r ecalls

t he I ndo-European p ractice

o f

( Winn 1 981:114).

I n s outhwestern A natolia, K uruçay F i 8yt { l p rovides i mportant i nform ation a bout e vents w hich c ould b e r elated t o p opulation m ovements f rom t he n orth a s e arly a s t he l ate f ifth o r e arly f ourth m illennium B C ( Duru 1 983). I t i s c lear t hat t he E arly C halcolithic s ettlement o f t he H acilar I C ulture' w as d estroyed b y n ewcomers w ho i ntroduced a n ew c ulture w ith a rchitectural t raditions a nd p ottery a ssemblage p reviously u nknown i n A natolia. I n t his n ew c ulture, ' Late C halcolithic', m etall urgy i s q uite a dvanced a nd s eems t o h ave b een i ntroduced b y n ewcomers. I n

t his

c ontext

i t

i s

i mportant

c ultures

o f

t ions

f ar u nparalleled

s o

t o

i ndicate

t hat

t he

s outheast E urope h ad h ighly d eveloped m etal

L ater i n t he E B

C halcolithic r gical

t radi-

r egional c ultures i n n orthern

A nato-

' '

i n A natolia o r i n t he A egean.

I -II p eriods

lia a nd i n t he E ski ehir p lain s how c lear s igns o f h ybridization o f s outheast E uropean a nd A natolian t raditions i n a rchitecture, r eligious a rt a nd p ottery m aking. A t D emircih8yf lk i n t he E sk 4ehir p lain o r a t I kiztepe i n t he B afra p lain O ld E uropean t raits a re p articularly r ecogn izable i n s ome o f t he c lay f igurines r epresenting f emale f igures ( deities?)

( Yakar

1 981a).

T he w attle-and-daub a rchitecture o f

t he

E B

s ites i n t he P ontus a nd o ther r egions o f A natolia i s r eminiscent o f t he s outheast E uropean ( and e astern E uropean) b uilding t raditions ( Yakar a nd G arzon 1 976). W hile i t m ay b e a rgued t hat c limatic a nd m ental c onditions o ften d ictated t he t ype o f a rchitecture i n a nd e lsewhere,

o ne c annot d ismiss

t he p ossibility

t hat

t he

e nvironA natolia

r esemblance

b etween c ertain b uilding t raditions i s a n i ndication o f s imilar c omm unities w ith r elated s ocial, c ultural a nd e thnic b ackgrounds ( Warner 1 979). T own-planning c haracteristics w hich D anube

i n E BA A natolia ( i.e. D emircih8yt lk) a lso s hows c ould b e p artly t raced t o t he B alkans a nd t he

r egion.

T he p opulation m ovements w hich a ffected t he d emographic s tructures a nd c ultural d evelopment o f m any r egions i n t he c entral p lateau, n orthern a nd w estern A natola d id n ot h ave m uch i mpact o n t he f ourth m illennium s ettlements i n e astern A natolia. T his r egion w as e xposed t o h uman i nterferences i n t he f orm o f i nvasions a nd t ions

f rom T ranscaucasia,

e arliest, f erences, p eriod

w as

M esopotamia a nd n orthern S yria.

i n f act i mmigra-

Among

t he

a nd a rchaeologically r ecorded, ' non-Anatolian' h uman i ntert he a rrival o f M esopotamian c olonists i n t he p rotoliterate c a n i mportant

t urning p oint

i n t he c ultural

h istory o f

t he

E uphrates b asin s ettlements. H owever, w ith t he e xpansion o f t he T ranscaucasian c ultural z one i nto e astern A natolia a t t he e nd o f t he L ate C halcolithic p eriod a n ew e ra o f p opulation m ovements b egan, w ith p astorahists a nd f armers f rom t he e ast ( proto-Hurrians?) who l eft t heir 3 0

m aterial W hile

c ulture

t he

r emains,

r easons

e specially

i n t he

K eban-Malatya

r egion.''

f or t his e ra o f p opulation s hifts a re n ot

e ntirely

c lear, i t m ay h ave b een c aused b y m ovements o f p astoralists ( protoI ndo-Europeans?) ( Yakar 1 981a). A t N or untepe i n t he K eban, t he M esopotamian m erchant c olony s hared t he s ame f ate a s o ther s imilar c olonies' a long t he E uphrates w hich w ere a bandoned d uring t he p rotoliterate d p eriod ( i.e. M alatya ( Arsiantepe), H abuba K abira S ud, T ell K annas).

A ccording t o t he p ottery a ssemblage o f

t he E B

I ( a)

o ne

c an p ostulate t hat t he e arly t hird m illennium s ettlers w ere m ainly o f A natolian a nd S yrian s tock w ith s ome e lements o f T ranscaucasian f armers a nd p astoralists. T he p resence o f t he l atter i n t he K eban i s r eflected i n t he a rchitecture o f l evel X XIV a t N orsuntepe ( Hauptmann 1 982:22-23, f .n.

3 4).

S hortly

a fterwards,

d uring

t he f irst h alf o f

t he

t hird

m illennium B C, a n ew w ave o f i mmigrants f rom t he n ortheast a rrived. T hese s edentary g roups i ntroduced a n ew a rchitectural t radition o f w ooden m etal

h ouses

p reviously u nknown i n t he K eban,

i ndustry I n

t he

a nd a

m ore

d eveloped

w est

A natolian

( Hauptmann 1 982:28). s econd

h alf o f

t he t hird m illennium

B C

r egions u nderwent c ultural t ransformations, a nd c hanges t ook p lace i n t he s ettlement p attern i n t he s outhern A natolian p lateau. C hronol ogical e vidence s uggests t hat t hese c hanges s tarted t o t ake p lace f ollowing t he m ain ( and l ast?) K urgan i nvasion o f E urope ( Yakar 1 981a:104). S igns o f w idespread c onflagration i n e arly u rban a nd r ural s ettlements i n w estern A natolia, i n t he c entral A natolian p lateau, i ncluding t he P ontus r egion, a nd i n t he e astern h ighlands h ave b een r elated l ists

b y s ome t o t he d estructive p ath t aken b y I ndo-European p astorai nvading A natolia f rom s outheastern E urope ( Yakar 1 976).

A lthough o n t he s cope

b asis o f

f ield s urveys a nd a f ew e xcavations o f

l imited

a lone o ne c annot e stablish a p attern o f d estructions w hich c ould

b e a ttributed t o o ne p articular p eriod a nd f actor ( Yakar 1 981a:1041 08), i t i s p ossible t o a ssign s ome o f t he d estructions o bserved a t T roy hg a nd B eycesultan X III, o r a t s ettlements i n t he e astern A egean i slands, t o I ndo-European i nvaders. I t s eems t hat i n c ertain r egions p ermanent s ettlements w ere a bandoned d uring t he E B I II p eriod ( Mellaart 1 958; 1 963 a nd 1 969). B ut w hether p astoralism w as i ntroduced i n t he K onya p lain b y d isplaced s edentary g roups a nd i nvading n omadic t ribes i s a q uestion w hich a t p resent c annot b e a nswered w ith t he a rchaeological d ocumentation. R egarding t he d esertion o f

a vailable p ermanent

s ettlements i n p rehistoric A natolia, s ome a nthropologists t ry t o e xplain t his r ather f requently r ecurring p henomenon w ithin t he f ramew ork o f t heir o wn d iscipline. C appieri s v iew o n t he s ubject ( 1972:34 ) i s t hat A natolian s ettlements w ere m ainly p opulated b y s mall c omm unities w hich i n d emogenetics i s c alled " small p opulations". S uch m inimal p opulations w hich a re a lso f ound i n t he f ourth a nd t hird m ill ennia B C a re c onditioned t o a d emographic s tructure d efined b y i ts n umerical l imits. W hen t hese a re o verstepped, t he 'small p opulation , w hich i s i n f act a n o ff-shoot o f a n e ndogamous t ribe, h aving l ost i ts d emographic e quilibrium, b egins t o e nter i nto a n i nvolutive p rocess a nd g enerally d windles. I n C appieri s o pinion ( 1972:3) t his w as t he c ause f or t he a bandonment o f s ettlements i n A natolia, o r t he s udden ( usually t emporary) i nterruptions i n t heir o ccupation. I n h is v iew, i n m any s uch c ases, t he m ain c auses g enerally a nd t raditionally i ndicated b y a rchaeologists a nd h istorians, w hich i nclude i nvasions, m igrations, d estruction b y n atural d isasters o r a rmies, o ught t o b e e xcluded. I nstead, t he r eason s hould b e s ought i n d emographic i nvolutions d ue t o c onstant l ow b irthrate, h igh g eneric m ortality c oupled w ith h igh i nfant

3 1

m ortality,

v ery l ong i ntergenesial

i nterval,

a nd

t he f urther d ivision

o f t he c ommunity ( tribal s tructure) i nto e ndogamous c ircles ( 1972:4). A ll t hese f actors l ed t he r ate o f n atural i ncrease, a nd t herefore t he s ocio-economic d evelopment o f t he c ommunity, t o r emain v ery s mall. T his e xplanation, i n m y o pinion, c ould a pply t o t he f ate o f c ertain i solated s ettlements s uch a s K araz, G üzelova o r P ulur i n t he n ortheast, o r t o a f ew f arming s ettlements i n n orth-central A natolia ( i.e. B «y l lk G 1llt Icek, a ffected

Y azir H Jy t 1k); b ut t o s uggest t hat n o o ther c auses c ould h ave t he f ate o f p rehistoric s ettlements i n A natolia a nd t he h is-

t ory

h uman o ccupation i s

o f

t o d isregard t he r elevant

d ata w hich i s q uite a bundant a nd e xplicit

a rchaeological

( see a lso S chachermeyr

1 972).

F inally, t he i ntroduction o f n ew b urial c ustoms i n A natolia i n t he E B I II p eriod ( i.e. I kiztepe, A lacah8y1k, H orortepe, G edikli, A lacahan) a nd t he a ssemblage o f

t omb d eposits i n n orth-central A natolia,

l eave n o

d oubt t hat p opulation m ovements w hich s tarted i n t he C halcolithic p eriod, i f n ot b efore, m ust h ave c ontinued t hroughout t he E arly B ronze A ge

w ith v arying i ntensity

m aterial c ulture). O ne e specially t hose t aking m illennium B C, t hat I ndo-European s tock e stablishment

o f

( and i mpact o n t he l ocal g roups

a nd

c an p ostulate t hat i t w as t hese p lace i n t he s econd h alf o f

t heir

m ovements, t he t hird

r esulted i n t he a rrival o f l arge t ribal g roups o f t o A natolia a t l east a f ew c enturies b efore t he

t he H ittite k ingdom i n t he c entral p lateau.

I t

h as

b een s uggested t hat t he H ittite a ncestral h omeland b y t he s ea, a nd t he r ecollection o f t heir i mmigration f rom t he n orth, i s r eflected i n t he L egend o f Z alpa a nd i n t he r itual t ext C TH 4 14 ( Gurney 1 977:6-10). T he L egend o f Z alpa c ould r eflect a n u nrecorded h istorical e vent, i n o ther w ords, a n a ttempt a t e thno-political r eunification o f a ffiliated I ndoE uropean g roups d ispersed i n t he n orthern a nd c entral p arts o f A natolia ( Yakar I n

1 981a:108-109). s umming

u p

t his d iscussion o n a ncient A natolians

e thnic a ffiliations i t i s i mportant t o emphasize t he e stablished b y a rchaeological o bservations a nd d ata: 1 .

3 .

t heir p oints

T he L ate C halcolithic c ultures w hich d isplaced a nd/or s ucceeded t he e arlier c ultures i n w estern A natolia a nd i n t he c entral p lateau o riginated i n t he D anube,

2 .

a nd

f ollowing

t he B alkans a nd n orthern T hrace.

E lements o f t he E zero-Cernavoda-Cotofeni c omplexes t hat c aused t he d isintegration o f t he s outheast E uropean c ultural h orizon o f K aranovo T ripolye

V I, K odzadermen-Gumelnita, K rivodol-Saicuta, C ucuteni, a d V inca P locnik r eached p arts o f w estern, c entral a nd

n orthern i nvaders.

A natolia

T he

a s

a r esult o f p ressures e xerted

p opulation m ovements

i nfiltrations o f a reas

i nto A natolia w ere

s parsely s ettled a nd,

i n t he a t

f orm o f

t imes,

t ions b y l arge t ribes c ausing p ossible d estruction s ettlements. T hese m ovements a nd t heir n ature d ifficult

t o

i dentify o r d escribe w ithout h istorical

b y

m ass

K urgan

g radual i migra-

t o e xisting a re u sually r ecords,

b ut

t he i nterpretation o f t he a rchaeological e vidence s uggests t hat t hey w ere c ontinuous a nd, t herefore, t hey s hould n ot b e l imited t o o ne p articular p eriod o f h uman a ctivity ( e.g. E B I II).

3 2

4 .

T he

h ybrid

c haracter o f

t he l ocal a nd r egional

c ultures

o f

t he

f ourth a nd t hird m illennia B C s hould b e e xplained a s t he r esult o f a malgamation o f s outheast E uropean, T ranscaucasian a nd l ocal A natol ian

t raits w ith s ome

A gainst

i nfluence f rom n omadic c ultures a s w ell.

t his b ackground o f

c ultural d evelopment

i t i s

d ifficult

t o r efute t he v iew t hat t he E arly B ronze A ge A natolian c ivilization, w hich a ttained i ts m ost d eveloped p hase i n t he s econd h alf o f t he t hird m illennium s edentary g rounds.

B C,

o wed i ts

d istinctive c haracter

t o

t he

i nteraction

o f

a nd p astoralist g roups o f d ifferent e th r io-cultural b ackI n t his s etting t he p resence o f n ine t o t en d ifferent s kull -

f orms f ound i n t he p rehistoric c emeteries s upport t his v iew.

3 3

o f

A natolia

c ould

o nly

N OTES 1 .

A ccording t o e ny1rek s c alculations ( 1951: T ables 4 a nd 7 ), i n t he C halcolithic ( Late) p eriod b rachycephals i n A natolia r epres ented o nly 8 .33% o f

t he s ampled p opulation.

I n t he e arly p art o f

t he t hird m illennium B C t here i s a s tatistically s ignificant i nc rease i n t he n umber o f r oundheaded p eople a nd m esocranes c oupled w ith

a s ignificant d ecrease i n t he n umber o f

H yperdolichocephalic

a nd D olichocephalic s amples. 2 .

D inaric a nd D inaro-Mediterranean t ypes t ogether w ith M editerranean a nd p roto-Mediterranean s trains f ormed a c ompact 'racial' g roup i n B ulgaria, e specially i n t he n ortheastern r egions, i n t he f ifth a nd f ourth m ilennia B C. B ut, a s o bserved b y T odorova ( 1978:25), t he b asic r acial t ype a t t his t ime w as n ot f ree o f i nfiltrations f rom m ore d istant e thnocultural a reas w hich r esulted i n t he i ntroduction o f t he N ordic a nd o ther s trains i n B ulgaria. I n f act b oth a rchaeol ogical a nd a nthropological d ata i ndicate t hat t he N ordic t ype B ulgaria s tarted t o i ncrease a t t he e nd o f t he f ourth a nd

i n t he

b eginning o f t he t hird m illennium B C ( Todorova 1 978:Table 1 1), s uggesting t he i ntensification o f p opulation m ovements f rom n orth t o s outh. a s 3 .

T his m ovements c ould h ave e manated f rom r egions a s

f ar

s outhern U kraine o r f urther n orth i n t he D nieper-Donets a rea.

I n a ddition C opper A ge s tudied

a

( 1970).

E B

1 53 A natolian c rania o f I I p eriods a nalyzed b y

f urther

T ogether

c entral h undred G edikli

t o =

5 40 w ith

s amples

f rom t he

t he h uman r emains

L ate C halcolithic a nd e nyt 1rek ( 1957), A ngel c emeteries f rom E B

o f

I II

K aratas s ites

i n

a nd n orth-central A natolia t he t otal e xceeds t he 7 00 f igure. H undreds m ore s keletons f rom I kiztepe i n B afra, i n I slahiye o r f rom t he r escue e xcavations

i n t he E uphrates

( Hassek H 8y«k a nd L idar), o nce s tudied o r p ublished, w ill u ndoubt edly c ontribute i mmensely t o a b etter u nderstanding o f t he d istrib ution

o f

c ranial

t ypes a nd

t heir

c hronological

s uccession

i n

A natolia. 4 .

S ee T able 3 i n S enyUrek 1 957:109. H owever, a t K aratas t he a verage l ongevity o f a dults i s 3 3.8 f or m ales, w hich i s l ess t han t he a verage o nly

f or A natolia i n g eneral,

s lightly

h igher

a nd 2 9.8 f or

f emales,

t han t he a verage f or A natolia

w hich

( Angel

i s

1 970:

2 56). 5 .

A ccording m ales l ived t ically

t o § enyUrek ( Tables

1 a nd 2 i n 1 957:107-108),

a mong

t he

m ore t han 3 5% f all w ithin t he 4 1-60 y ears a ge g roup a nd 8 % t o b e o ver 6 0. B ut, f or f emales t he p icture c hanges d rasw ith o nly

1 6.6% f alling w ithin t he 4 1-60 y ears

a ge

g roup

a nd 4 .1% l iving b eyond t he a ge 6 0. A t K arata o n t he o ther h and, t he n umber o f a dults f alling w ithin t he a ge g roup o f 5 5-60 i s o nly o ne 6 .

( Angel

1 970:

T able 3 )

o r 0 .17% o f

t he t otal

s amples.

I n t he c entral A natolian g roup 4 2.84% o f t he m ales a nd 6 6.66% o f t he a vailable f emales o r 4 7.05% o f b oth s exes a re b rachycephalic. O n t he p hals f emales

o ther h and, a mong t he a re

i n t he p eripheral g roup t here a re n o b rachyce a vailable m ale s kulls, w hereas 4 0.00% o f t he

b rachycephalic

S enyt irek, t his c entage o f t he

(enyt 1rek

1 951:607).

A ccording

t o

c omparison f urther d emonstrates t hat a l arge p erH ittites, r epresented b y t he c entral A natolian

3 4

g roup,

w ere

b rachcephalic.

A s

f or

t he

c onspicious

d ifference

b etween t he s exes w ith r egard t o b rachycrane s kulls i n t he p erip heral g roup t he p ossible i nference w hich h as o ften b een m entioned i s t hat m ales f rom o utside t he H ittite h omeland i n c entral A natolia ( the n orthern p art o f t he H alys b end) m arried I ndo-European H ittite w omen (enyIrek 1 951:610). T his m ust n ot, h owever, b e t aken t o m ean o nly

t hat m en f rom p eripheral A natolia, i ncluding K t lltepe, m arried H ittite w omen a ccording t o e ny1rek, a s s ome m ust h ave a lso

m arried l ongheaded n ative A natolians a nd e ven l ongheaded A ssyrian w omen l iving i n t he A ssyrian m erchant c olonies i n t he c entral p lateau i n t he e arly s econd m illennium B C. 7 .

T he

s keleton o f

r egion

h as

p ossibly a w arrior f ound a t

b een d ated

t o

t his

t he E arly B ronze A ge

s ite

i n t he

( III?).

K eban

T he s trong

I ranian t raits o bserved i n t he s kull s upports f urther A ngel's h ypothesis t hat a n e ast-west m ovement i n t he E BA i nvolved t his a nd o ther p hysical t ypes, i ncluding t he e astern A lpine s train. 8 .

T his d oes n ot m ean t hat t rade c ontacts b etween t he T road a nd r egions i n t he B alkan a nd t he D anube c ame t o a n e nd i n t he s econd h alf o f t he t hird m illennium B C. O n t he c ontrary, p ottery f orms c haracteristic o f n orthwestern A natolia f ound i n s outheast E uropean s ettlements p rove t hat s uch c ontacts c ontinued a t l east v ia m arit ime r outes l inking t he w estern p orts i n t he B lack S ea t o t hose i n M armara a nd t he e astern A egean.

9 .

D eshayes g rey

W inn 1 974:132-134.

T he b urnished

p ottery o f n orthern I ran e volved g radually i nto

1 969:10-17.

S ee a lso:

t he w are w hich

i s t ypical o f n orthwest I ran i n t he s econd m illennium B C. b een a rgued t hat t his p ottery i s f ound i n a reas b elieved b een

i nhabited,

a ccording

t o A ssyrian s ources,

b y

t o

I ranians.

I t h as h ave I t

i s

t his e quation o f t he g rey w are p eople' w ith I ranians w hich l ends s upport t o t he i ndo - E uropeanization o f I ran d uring t he p eriod o f t he G rey W are c ulture. 1 0.

T he

r epresentative

t ypes

o f m etal

t ools

o f

s outheast

E uropean

C halcolithic c ultures o riginated g enetically f rom c ontemporary b one a nd s tone t ools. T he i ntrinsic t ypes f or t he c hronological h orizon o f K aranovo V I, G umelnita, C ucuteni a nd T ripolye, w hich i s e arlier t han t he E B I c ultural h orizon i n A natolia, a re c omposed o f a wls, w edges, w edge-shaped a xes, a dzes, a xe-hammers a nd a xe-adzes. T he L ate C halcolithic a ssemblages o f m etal a rtifacts ( i.e. K urucay, B eycesultan) a re c ertainly n ot a s r ich a nd s ophisticated a s t heir c ontemporaries i n s outheastern E urope ( Yakar 1 984). T he l evel o f s ophistication l ithic p eriod

o f t he B alkan m etal i ndustries i n t he L ate C halcoh as b een f urther r evealed b y t he g old o bjects a nd

j ewellery d iscovered i n t he V arna c emetery o f ( Renfrew 1 979:378-381). 1.

F or a nd

a

d etailed d iscussion o f

t heir

t he

t he G umelnita

" proto-Hurrian" s peaking

p ossible r elation t o t he E arly B ronze A ge c ultures

C aucasus, A natolia a nd n orthern S yria s ee: 1 982:1076-1079 a nd K elly - B uccela j 1 978.

3 5

B arrelet

1 977;

p eriod

t ribes i n t he 1 l uot

C HAPTER I II:

I n t his

S ETTLEMENT,

A RCHITECTURE A ND P OPULATION D ENSITY

c hapter a n a ttempt i s m ade t o c lassify d ifferent

t ypes

o f

s ettlements i n p roto-urban ( Late C halcolithic-Early B ronze A ge I ) a nd e arly u rban A natolia, a nd e mphasize r egional c haracteristics i n d omest ic a rchitecture. A rchaeological

s urveys a nd e xcavations

i n v arious p arts o f A nato-

lia I n t he l ast f ew d ecades h ave e stablished t hat t here i s a d efinite i ncrease i n t he n umber o f p ermanent s ettlements f ollowing t he N eolithic p eriod. T his g radual g rowth i n s ettlement d ensity d uring t he s ixth, f ifth a nd f ourth m illennia B C l asted u ntil t he t hird q uarter o f t he t hird m illennium . D uring t he E B I II p eriod, w hich I p refer t o r efer t o a s t he p eriod o f e merging d ynasties I n A natolia, t here s eems t o b e a d ecrease i n t he d ensity o f s ettlements i n c entral, n orthern a nd e astern A natolia. I t i s w rong t o a ssume, h owever, t hat t his p henomenon m ust n ecessarily i ndicate a r egression i n t he p opulation g rowth. I n f act, t he e mergence o f l arge a nd w ell f ortified t owns i n m ost r egions o f A natolia s uggests t hat t he c hange i n t he s ettlement p attern m ust h ave b een p artly r elated m unal f rameworks.

t o s ocio-political r eorganization o f e xisting c omT his l ong a nd r ather e ventful p rocess e ventually

r esulted i n t he e mergence o f c ity-states i n s outheastern A natolia d uring t he E B I II p eriod.

c entral, A t t his

s outhern a nd t ime a n umber

o f s mall v illages a nd h amlets s cattered a long m ountain v alleys a nd e nclosed p lains w ere p artly r elocated n earer t o a dministrative c entres. T he

m ost d ominant

t ype o f

p ermanent s ettlement i n A natolia

s ince

N eolithic t imes w as t he f arming v illage. S ince s ettlement s ites a re o nly p artially e xcavated i t i s o ften d ifficult t o g uess t he a pproximate s ize o f t he h abitation a rea i n L ate C halcolithic a nd E BA v illages, w hich w ere n ot a lways e nclosed w ith a f ence o r f ortification w all. I t i s p ossible t o p osit t wo m ain t ypes o f v illages i n t he t hird a nd f ourth m illennia B C. T he f irst i s r epresented b y s mall a gglomerations i n a rid a reas m ents

w here w ater s ources a re r elatively m ore l imited. T hese s ettleu sually h ave c ompact f orms a nd a re o ften s ituated o n l ow e leva-

t ions n ear w ater s ources, i n c lusters o f f our, f ive a nd s ix. I t i s l ogical t o a ssume t hat I n a ddition t o e conomic o r e nvironmental f act ors, f amily a nd t ribal s tructures o f t he i nhabitants c ould h ave a lso i nfluenced t he f orm o f s uch c ompact s ettlements i n r ural a reas. I n t his

t ype

o f

s ettlement h ouse u nits w ere b uilt

b ack t o

b ack

o r

c on-

n ected w ith c ourtyard w alls. I t s hould b e s tressed h ere, h owever, t hat n ot o nly s mall c ompact m ounds o n n atural e levations o r o n h ill s lopes c ould

b e

i nterpreted a s s mall v illages

s ize, b ut s ome m ay w ell b elong

l ess t han o ne t o

t wo

a cres

i n

f lat s ettlements i n m ountain v alleys o r h igh p lateaux t o t his g roup. T he l atter n o d oubt i ncludes s easonal

s ettlements o r t emporary v illages b elonging t o f armers whose e nce d epended t o a l arge e xtent o n r earing l ivestock.

3 6

s ubsist-

T he

a bsence

o f s trong f ortification s ystems

i n t he

m ajority

o f

s uch v illages c ould i ndicate e ither a r ather h armonious r elationship b etween n eighbouring f arming c ommunities, o r a c ommon t ribal o r e thnic i dentity w hich c ould h ave e nforced c ertain c oexistence ( see a lso R ouse 1 972).

n orms

f or

a

p eaceful

H ouses i n m ost s mall a gglomerations w ere n ot a lways b uilt a ccordi ng t o p redetermined o rientations. T he a vailable s pace b etween h ouses o r e mpty p lots i mmediately o utside t he h abitation a rea w as m ost l ikely f reely u sed f or v arious a ctivities. I n s uch o pen s ettlements t here m ust h ave b een l ess c ommunal r estrictions i n t he a llocation o f t ional s pace f or n ew d wellings t o r eplace t he d ilapidated o nes c ould

n o

h ouse r ooms

w as m ade u p o f o ne o r t wo l arge r ooms. a nd t heir n umber i n e ach h ouse u nit

l onger b e

r epaired.

I n m udbrick a rchitecture

t he

a ddiw hich a verage

T he d imension o f t hese m ust h ave b een c losely

r elated t o t he s ize o f f amily a nd s pecialized a ctivity w ithin t he d welling. S ometimes a dditional r ooms ( annexes) w ere c onstructed t o s erve a s w orkshops a nd s torage f acilities. T he s ize a nd p lan o f h ouses i n o pen v illages w ere a lso d etermined b y t he t ype o f c onstruction m aterial e mployed. I n w estern A natolia a nd i n t he B lack S ea r egion, t he u se o f w attle-and-daub a rchitecture, s ometimes i n c ombination w ith p is , w hich h as i ts s tructural l imitations, r esulted I n t he emergence o f d ifferent t ypes o f v illages d efinitely m ore r elated t o s outheast E uropean a rchitecture t han t o c entral A natolian m udbrick a rchitecture. I n m udbrick a rchitecture i t i s e asier t o b uild h ouse u nits w ith a n i nternal

c ourtyard

a nd

a

s econd f loor

b uilt

o f

l ighter

m aterial

( timber). T he o pen s paces i n w alled v illages m ust h ave p osed a s erious p roblem o f a rchitectural n ature, p articularly w hen i t i nvolved t he a llocation o f h ouse p lots i n f ast g rowing c ommunities. T he c hoice m ust h ave b een e ither t he e xpansion o f v illages b eyond t he f ortification o r f ence

w alls,

o r

s treets a nd a lleys

t he t ransformation o f o pen s paces ( a f irst s tep

i nto w ell

t owards u rban p lanning).

p lanned

T he

l atter

c hoice w ould h ave l ed t he i nhabitants t o r ebuild t he d omestic d wellings a long s uch s treets, w hich m eant c onforming t o p redetermined h ouse f orms a nd n umber o f r ooms. C onsidering t hat c ommunal l ife i n m ilder c limates w as s pent o utside t he h ouses a nd p artly o n f lat r oof-tops, I t i s c ertainly e asy t o u nderstand w hy o pen s paces b etween h ouses c ontained l arge r ooms.

o vens a nd f ireplaces, i n a ddition t o t hose e xisting i n l iving S ince i n u nfortified s ettlements h ouses c ould h ave e xpanded b y

t he a ddition o f s ide r ooms a nd s torage s pace,

I t

i s

l ogical

t o s uggest

t hat m ost s tructures o f l ate f ourth a nd e arly t hird m illennium B C w ere s ingle s toreyed. I n m ost o pen v i ll ages a n a verage house u n it m easured c a.50m 2 . A ssuming t hat c ourtyards a nd o pen a reas w ithin t he v illage c ould h ave a ccounted f or a s m uch s pace p er e ach u nit, i t i s p ossible t o a ssume t hat a s mall t o m edium s ize v illage, r oughly o ne t o t wo a cres i n s ize, w ould h ave b een m ade u p o f b etween 3 0-40 h ouses. A n a verage o f f ive i nhabitants p er h ouse w ould s uggest t hat 3 0-40 h ouses c ould h ave a ccommodated a v illage p opulation o f c a.150-200 e stimates a re n ot b y a ny m eans p roven b y c oncrete s tatistics a nd, m ost h ere.

t herefore,

p ersons. T hese p alaeodemographIc

o ne s hould n ot e xclude t he p ossibility

v illages w ere p erhaps e ven s maller t han t he m odel I h ave

I n

t he d ispersed s ettlement p attern,

a reas w ith a bundant w ater s ources,

w hich

s mall h amlets

i s u sually

t hat

p roposed

f ound

i n

i n t he c lose p roximity

o f l arger v illages o r t own s ettlements m ust h ave b een a c ommon p henomen on, e specially i n t he E B I l/Ill p eriod. L ater, t hough, t hese h amlets

3 7

m ust t he

h ave b een i ncorporated b y a f ast e xpanding m ain d ispersed

s ettlement

p attern,

s ettlement

s ettlement.

u nits

w ere

I n

p robably

c omposed o f m embers o f a l arge f amily o r a s mall g roup o f r elated c lans. T hese u nits w ere s cattered a cross t he f ertile l andscape ( e.g. r iver v alleys) u sually w ithin s ight o f e ach o ther. I t s ettlement t hat p astoralists t oo w ould h ave f avoured h istoric

i n

i s t he t ype o f i n l ate p re-

t imes.

L arge v illages o ver t wo a cres i n s ize, A natolia s ince L ate C halcolithic t imes.

o r e ven l arger, I t s hould b e

a re k nown e mphasized

t hat t he f ourth m illennium B C i n m ost r egions o f A natolia w itnessed t he a rrival o f l arge g roups o f f armers a nd p astoralists f rom s outheast E urope.

D uring

t his p eriod l oose a gglomerations m ay h ave e xisted

i n

T hrace a nd p robably i n t he B lack S ea r egion. S uch s ettlements, w here a g ood d eal o f s pace e xisted b etween h ouse u nits, a re i n m any w ays c omp arable

w ith s cattered s ettlement

t ype.

T he o nly d ifference

t he t wo i s i n t he f ormer b eing m uch l arger a nd e xpanded. c ommon t ype o f v illage I n m ost r egions o f A natolia a t t his

b etween

T he m ost t ime i s t he

o ne c onfined w ithin a p erimeter w all. T he f requent e xplanation f or s uch w alls b eing d efensive c onsiderations, o ther p ractical r easons f or t heir e rection, p articularly w ith r egard t o f limsy w alls, c ould i nclude: f ences t o k eep l ivestock w ithin t he s ettlement c ompound a nd/or s imple e nclosure o f s pace d efining t he t erritorial i ntegrity o f t he v illage a gainst m ost f orms o f t respassing. T he e xpansion o f h ouse u nits

w ithin

t he

p erimeter

o r f ortification w all

m ust

h ave

p osed

s erious p roblems f or m embers o f t he v illage a nd t own c ommunities. C onsequently, i t i s p ossible t o p ostulate t hat c ertain n orms r egulating t he s ize a nd p lan o f i ndividual h ouse u nits m ust h ave b een e stablished a nd c omplied w ith i n p roto-urban A natolia. T he e mergence o f w ellp lanned s ettlements w ith h ouses a ligned a long n arrow a lleys, c ourtyards o r

e ven s treets c ould o nly

i ndicate c ompliance w ith c ertain p redefined

c oncepts i n a rchitectural p lanning ( e.g. K uruçay H 8y1gt). S ome a rchaeologists r efer t o l arge v illage s ettlements a s t owns. I t s hould b e p ointed o ut t hat i n m ost c ases i t i s r ather d ifficult t o d ifferent iate b etween t he t wo i n p roto-urban A natolia. B ut i n e astern a nd s outheastern A natolia, t he e mergence o f t own s ettlements a ccording t o M esopotamian m odels d uring t he L ate U ruk p eriod i s n ow w ell d ocumented I n t he l ower E uphrates b asin. I n t hese M esopotamian t rade p osts/ m ercantile t owns a rchitectural r emains r eflect t he e xistence o f p ublic b uildings. S ome o f t hese c ommunal s tructures h oused t he m erchants a nd c raftsmen o f t he c ommunities w ho w ere p robably r espons ible f or o rganizing t he c ommercial a nd I ndustrial a ctivity i n t heir t owns. L arge s tructures, u sually d efined a s I administrative b uildi ngs , m ay h ave a lso e xisted i n s ome o f t he c entral o r w est A natolian p roto-urban s ettlements. H owever, u ntil t hese a re d iscovered o ne c ould n ot d efine t he l arge v illage s ettlements a s t owns o r 'cities' s imply b ecause t hey a re a s l arge a s s ome o f t he E B I l/Ill t own s ettlements w ith l imited u rban p lanning. W hat i s l acking s o f ar a s r elevant e vidence i s n ot o nly u rban a rchitecture, b ut a lso o ther i ndications o f i nstitutionalized o r c entrally c ontrolled l abour d ivision, h uman a ctivity

a nd

A natolia

d o

s ocial

s tratification,

w hich i n

w estern

n ot s eem t o h ave e xisted b efore t he E B I I

a nd p eriod

c entral ( early

u rban). W hile d iscussing t he e arly u rban s ettlements a nd t he f eatures i n t heir a rchitecture t he f ollowing f acts s hould c onsidered:

3 8

r egional a lso b e

a .

T he

t emporary

s ettlements

b reak i n c ommercial a nd c ultural

c ontacts

b etween

i n e astern a nd s outheastern A natolia a nd m ajor c entres

i n M esopotamia d uring t he P rotoliterate d m ust h ave i nterrupted, o r a t l east d rastically s lowed, t he p rocess o f u rban d evelopment, n ot o nly i n a reas w hich d irectly b enefited f rom t he c ommercial a ctivity

o f

C ilicia a nd b .

L ate U ruk c olonies,

b ut a lso i n t he

Amanus

r egion,

t he S outhern p lateau.

I n t he w estern h alf o f t he A natolian p eninsula a n ew t ype o f f ortif ied s ettlements s tarted t o e merge a t t he o nset o f t he t hird m illennium B C ( e.g. T roy I , D emircih8yt fk). C onsidering t he r ather s mall s ize o f t hese s ettlements s urrounded w ith h eavy f ortification w alls, i t i s m ore a ppropriate t o r efer t o s ome o f t hem e ither a s " tightly n ucleated s ettlements" o r " fortresses". T here i s a p oss ibility t hat a n u m ber o f t hese " fortresses", s uch a s T roy I -II, A hlatlibel, K oçumbeli, K lazomenai, w ere t he s eats o f l ocal r ulers! d ynasties. T he q uestion i s, d id t he f ormidable w alls o f t hese f ortress s ettlements o r c itadels p rotect o nly t heir o ccupants, o r w ere t he w alls a lso d esigned t o p rotect t he c ommunities o f r ounding v illages a nd h amlets i n t imes o f e xternal d angers

s ur( e.g.

a ttacks f rom p irates a nd n omadic b ands)? I n

m y

o pinion,

t he e arly

t ypes o f

s uch

w alled

s ettlements

p robably e xisted n ot o nly i n A natolia ( e.g. H acilar I , M ersin X VI) b ut a lso i n t he B alkans ( e.g. P olyanitsa i n B ulgaria). A fter a ll, t hey w ere t he a nswer t o p articular d efense n eeds o f f ishing a nd f arming c ommunities e xposed

t o e xternal

t hreats o r a t w ar w ith e ach

o ther. E thnographers p oint o ut t hat l ocal t errain c ould s ometimes g ive r ise t o s imilar t ightknit s ettlements i n a reas i nhabited b y i sland o r c oastal c ommunities, w here t here i s l ittle l and s uitable f or h ousing, o r i n s ome h ighlands w here t he mor e l and i s u sed f or h ousing, t he l ess t here i s f or c ultivation ( Orne 1 981:113-114). T hese,

h owever,

c ould n ot h ave b een t he m ain c onsiderations

i n t he

b uilding o f " fortress" s ettlements i n t he w estern p art o f t he A natolian p eninsula. I n t his c ontext, i t i s i mportant t o s tress t he v iew a dvanced b y G imbutas ( 1973), t hat h ill-top f orts i n s outhe ast E urope a nd w estern A natolia w ere m ost l ikely e rected b y i nvading K urgan p astoralists. C .

T owns

b y s imple d efinition a re

i ndustrialized s ettlements

w ith

a

d ense d istribution o f h ousing a ccording t o a p redetermined p lan a nd c entrally l ocated p ublic b uildings. I n A natolia, e specially a mong t he f arming c ommunities o f t he c entral p lateau, t he c oncept o f u rban o rganization a s i t e xisted i n M esopotamia s ince P rotoliterate t imes

w as n ot a dopted,

p ossibly b ecause t he t ribal

o rganizations

w ere l ess r eceptive t o t he c oncept o f u rban l ife w hich r equired c ertain s ocial c hanges i n t he c ommunal s tructure. N evertheless, t he E B I I s ettlements s uch a s A lisar, T hermi o r T arsus i llustrate t he s mall t ransformation o f v illage c ommunities i nto s emi i ndustrialized a ll h ave

t owns.

A lthough

i n m ost E B I I A natolian t owns

n ot

t he e lements o f e arly u rban p lanning a re c learly r ecorded, w e e nough m odels t o s uggest t hat t own o rganization w as s ometimes

a dopted b y b asically f arming c ommunities w ith a n i nstitutionalized s ocial s tratification a nd, t herefore, h aving s ome s ort o f c entral a dministration.

3 9

d .

T owns w ith c lear u rban p lanning s tarted t o a ppear i n t he

E BIIB/Ill

p eriod i n r egions p articularly c lose t o n orth S yria/Mesopotamia. T he w alled s ettlements a t T arsus i n C ilicia, K urban H 8yl lk, L idar a nd G rittille i n t he U rfa p rovince, T epecik, K orucutepe a nd N or un t epe i n t he K eban r eservoir a rea, p rovide s ome o f t he b est e xamples o f t own a rchitecture w hich d eveloped f urther i n t he f inal q uarter o f

t he

t hird m illennium B C.

F urthermore,

t he i ncreasing

t rade

a ctivity b etween A natolia a nd r egions s outh o f t he e astern T aurus r ange, w hich m ay h ave d irectly i nvolved m erchants o perating f rom S yrian a nd M esopotamian c entres, c ould h ave a ccelerated t he d iffus ion

o f

c ertain

u rban

c oncepts

i n

t own

p lanning

t o

c entral

A natolia. T he p enetration o f t he u rban o rganization t o t he n orthern p arts o f A natolia w as v ery s low. H ere l ocal a nd r egional c oncepts i n s ettlement p lanning p reserved t he t raditional n orms w hich w ere m ore o r l ess m aintained t hroughout t he t hird m illennium B C. E ARLY B RONZE A GE 1 .

S ETTLEMENT T YPES

I N A NATOLIA ( Figures

I -V)

S mall o pen v illages. T hese a re m ainly f ound i n c entral, e astern a nd n orthern A natolia. A s m uch a s o ne i s a ble t o r econstruct f rom e xcavated r emains, s uch s ettlements c ould b e d efined a s s mall f armsteads a nd a gglomerations. o f

2 .

t he

T hey e xisted t hroughout t he f ourth a nd e arly p art

t hird m illennium B C.

L arge v illages w ith o r w ithout d efense w alls T he

l ayout

o f

s ettlements a nd t heir

( Fig.I,1). a rchitectural

f eatures

s uggest t he c ontinuation o f f ourth m illennium t raditions a t l east d uring t he e arly p art o f t he t hird m illennium B C. T he b est e xample f or t his c urrently

t ype o f v illage i s t he L ate C halcolithic s ettlement e xcavated a t K urucay. I n t he C halcolithic a nd E BA I

s ettlements h ouses w ith m udbrick, p is& o r w attle-and-daub w alls, w ere u sually c onstructed o n s tone f oundations. N evertheless, i t i s i nteresting t o n ote, f or i nstance, t hat w hile t he f ree-standing L ate C halcolithic K uruçay h ouses w ere b uilt o n s tone f oundations, t he

h ouses o f

t he L ate C halcolithic B eycesultan f urther n orth

d id

n ot r est o n s uch s olid f oundations. I n s uch v illages, f rees tanding h ouses w ere u sually p referred t o a gglutinated s tructures o f c losely k nitted s ettlements. C entral b uildings s uch a s c ommunal g ranary, t emple o r s torage f acilities m ay h ave e xisted i n s ome o f t hem ( e.g. K aratas M ound ? ). I t i s i mportant t o e mphasize t hat t he m ajority o f s ettlements i n l ate p rehistoric A natolia m ust h ave b een w alled v illages. 3 .

T ightly

N ucleated

S ettlements a nd A gglutinated

E nclosures

( Fig.

I ,3;II,3-5;III,1;V). T hese

a re

u sually

c ircular

c ompounds

m easuring

a nywhere

b etween 3 5 t o o ver 1 00 m etres i n d iameter. T hese c ompounds w ere e nclosed b y m assive c lay a nd r ubble f illed s tone w alls. O n t op o f t hese m udbrick w alls p rovided a dditional h eight a nd p rotection t o t he f ortification s ystem. A t D emircih8yt !k t he o riginal f ortificat ion w as c onstructed i n t he E B I p eriod b y b uilding p artially e mbanked

s tone w alls,

i n c onjunction w ith a n o bstacle

4 0

t o a pproach

b efore

i t.

T his

k ind

o f a s ystem,

w hich m ust

h ave

k ept

t he

p ossible a ttackers a t s ome d istance f rom t he w alls, c ould h ave s tood q uite h igh, p rotecting t he d efenders f rom t he a rrows o r s tone m issiles o f t he a ttackers. W hile t he h eight o f f ortification w alls a t

D emircih8yt lk i s

c alculated a s a t

l east s even met res,

t hose

o f

T roy I -II c ould h ave b een e ven h igher. S uch d efense s ystems o ften i ncorporated o ne o r m ore g ates, u sually w ith l ong p assageways. T hese e ntrances l ed u pwards i nto t he s ettlement c ase o f D emircih8yt lk a nd T roy t hey w ere p aved, f acilitate t ransport.

c ompounds. I n t he u nderstandably t o

a ll m ovement, a nd i n p articular t hat o f w heeled T heir c onstruction p lan p rovided n ot o nly a dditional

a ngle t o p rotect t he w eak s pots u sually f ound o n t he e xterior w alls o f s uch f ortresses, b ut a lso e ntrances c ould h ave b een b arred i n c ase o f e xtreme d anger w ith r elative e ase.

T he q uestion f requently

a sked b y a rchaeologists d ealing w ith a ncient a rchitecture i s w hy w ere s uch s mall s ettlements p rovided w ith s o m any e ntrances? B oth T roy

I

a nd

D emircih8yt 1k

E BI/Il

h ad,

a pparently,

f our

g ates

( Demircih8y { 1k 1 :189-194; M ellaart 1 959:133). T he o nly r easonable a nswer o ne c ould c ome u p w ith i s i n t actical m ilitary t erms; m ost o f

t hese

e ntrances w ere

l ikely u sed a s 'exits'

e nemy o utside t he f ortress. I n o ther w ords, f or a n a dditional a nd f requently r epeated

t o

o utflank

t he

t hey m ust h ave a llowed d efensive t actic o f

s urprise b y c ounter-attacking. T he f act t hat s uch s ettlements s urvived f or c enturies a nd m aintained t he s ame b asic a rchitectural l ayout c ould o nly s uggest t hat t hese t actics u sually w orked w ell. T he a nd

f ortification w all a t D emircih8yt Ik h ad s aw-tooth p rojections r ectangular b astions ( Fig.I,1). T he l ong w alls o f t he h ouses

w ere b onded i nto t hese p rojections. T hese m udbrick h ouses, f loor s pace o f c a.50 s quare m etres e ach, w ere n early c omprised

o f

t wo r ooms.

w ith a a lways

T hey w ere n ot f ree-standing a nd f ormed a

' ring a long t he i nner p erimeter o f t he w all. I n t his s ense, t he s ettlement o f T roy I (EB I I), w ith i ts f ree-standing h all-and-porch t ype h ouses, D emircih8y«k

i s d ifferent t han D emircih8yt !k. T he s tructures a t s uggest t hat i n t ightly n ucleated s ettlements s truc-

t ures u sually h ad o nly o ne s torey. L ivestock m ust h ave b een k ept i n a nnexes o utside t he f ortification s ystem ( e.g. D emircih8yt Ik). T he

s tructures

a t D emircih8yt lk w ere c overed b y f lat

r oofs

w hich

s loped d ownward t oward t he c entre o f t he c ircular c ompound. T he l ong w alls o f t he s omewhat t rapezoidal h ouses r un r adially t oward t he c entre o f t he r ound s ettlement. I n e very r oom a d omed o ven, a nd n ext t o i t a n a sh p it, w ere b uilt i n o ne o f t he c orners o pposite t he e ntrance, a nd o ccasionally a s mall r ound f ireplace, l ike t hose e xisting i n m egarons, w as a dded t o t he c entre o f t he r oom . U nfortunately m ost e xcavations t end t o r eveal v ery l ittle i n t erms o f i nterior a rchitecture o f h ouses; a nd w hen d ealing w ith t he r econstruction o f l iving s pace w ithin o ne o r t wo r oom h ouse u nits, w hether a t T roy, r ather d ifficult.

K arata o r e ven a t B eycesultan, t his t ask b ecomes I n s ome c ases e ven t he l imited s pace w ithin t he

w alls o f E B h ouses w ere f urther p artitioned b y l ightly c onstructed w alls, w hich n aturally r aises n umerous q uestions r egarding l iving a rrangements w ithin h ouses. E thnographic r ecords s uggest t hat p eople d o n ot a lways l ive i n a s imple f amily g roup, o r e ven i n s traightforward e xtended f amilies. T hose w ho o ppose t he u se o f e thnographic e xamples a s m odels t o a ssist u s u nderstand p ossible f amily s tructures i n t ribal o rganizations o r s maller s edentary c ommunities i n A natolia, t end t o f orget t hat v ery o ften, a nd u nconsciously,

t hey

t hink i n t erms o f

4 1

m odels

o f

m odern

s ocieties.

I n t he t raditional p atriarchal m odel m an a nd w ife ( or w ives) l ived w ith t he y oung c hildren i n 'one' h ouse, s haring t he l iving-space i n a m anner p robably s imilar t o

t hat o bserved i n c ertain e astern r ural

s ocieties ( e.g. w ife a nd c hildren s haring a l ess c entrally l ocated s pace t han t he o ne o ccupied b y t he m an, u sually a long o ne o f t he l ong w alls a rrangement,

o f i f

t he m ain r oom). I n m atriarchal s ocieties t he i t e xisted a t a ll, m ay h ave b een c onsiderably

d ifferent.

O ther

p ossible

l iving a rrangements

i nclude b achelors

( or w arriors ) h ouses, m en 's h ouses, s eparate h ouses f or a m an a nd f or h is w oman o r w ives a nd c hildren. T hese a re a mong t he c ons iderations o ne h as t o k eep i n m ind w hen t rying t o e stimate p opulation o f a s ettlement a ccording t o t he s ize a nd n umber o f d wellings.

t he t he

A t D emircihJyUk t he h ouses f lanking t he g ates a ppear t o

h ave s erved a s pecial f unction. A ccording t o t he e xcavators, t his i s m ost e vident f rom t he t wo h ouses e ast o f t he N orth G ate, b oth o f w hich w ere p rovided w ith s olid f oundations f rom t he e arliest p hases o nwards.

T he h ouse i mmediately b eside

r ooms,

t he

l argest

i ndeed

i ndicate

s ettlement, c ommunity, p rivileges.

t hroughout a ll

t he e xistence o f

t he g ate w as,

w ith i ts t hree

t he b uilding p hases.

T his c ould

s ocial s tratification w ithin

t he

w ith t he m ore p rominent m embers o f t he c lan o r i n p ositions o f a uthority , e njoying s pecial S ocial c lasses m ust h ave e xisted i n m ost A natolian

c ommunities,

w hether s edentary o r p astoral.

A t T roy

I t he l ayout

o f d omestic s tructures w ithin t he t hick f ortification w alls i s n ot e ntirely c lear, e specially i n r espect t o c entrally l ocated l arger b uildings.

A t

D emircih8yt 1k,

o n

t he o ther h and,

t here

w as

n o

c entral s tructure i nside t he r ing o f h ouses w hich w ere a rranged a s s tructural b locs o r r esidental b locks '. T he o pen c ourt a t t he c entre o f t his s ettlement c ontained s torage b ins a nd o ther d omestic f acilities o f l ighter c onstruction. I t i s o nly l ogical t hat s uch n ucleated s ettlements i n A natolia w ere mea nt t o a s w ell a s 'shield' t he c ommunal s torage b ins

t he r iches o f

t he i nhabitants,

t o a ssume s creen

i n o ther w ords,

w ealth m ade u p o f s urpluses i n f arm p roducts. w hich w ere a ligned w ith t he r espective h ouses

T he w ere

o riginally c onstructed a s c ircular p its. T his t ype o f s torage s pace i s w ell k nown a lso i n t he A egean w orld. L ater g ranaries a t D emircih8y ( lk w ere l aid o ut a s r ectangles a nd l ined w ith m udbrick ( Demircih8yt fk 1 :243). a pparently t o k eep s tructural o bstacles. r eservoir

a rea

t he

T hese w ere u sually s unk i nto t he g round, t he c entral 'court' r elatively c lear o f B oth h ere a nd a t P ulur i n t he K eban l arge

n umber o f

h earths

a nd

o vens

w ithin

a djacent d wellings h as b een i nterpreted a s e mphasizing t he " independence o f e ach r esidence" ( For D emircihJyt tk s ee:1983:243). T his m ay h ave b een t he c ase, b ut a gain t he p ossibility e xists t hat e ach ' residential b loc w as c omposed o f m ore t han t wo h ouses w hich b elonged

t o i ndividual f amilies w hose s tructure o r c omposition m ay

h ave b een d ifferent t han w hat o ne w ould e xpect. E thnographic m odels f rom d ifferent r egions c ould p rovide a rchaeologists a nd a nthropologists

w ith a m easure o f

i nsight i nto

t he p ossible

t ypes

o f s edentary g roups o f t he p ast a nd p articulars r elating t o t heir s ocial o rganization. T he D emircih yt 1k e xample s uggests a ccording t o t he e xcavators: ( a) t he e xistence o f a c ooperative e ffort i n t he c onstruction o f r owhouses a nd r enovation a ctivity; ( b) t hat c ons truction m aterial a nd l abour w ere a vailable f or a nyone w ho f or a ny r eason w hatsoever w as u nable t o c ontribute h is s hare t owards t he r enovation

o f h is b uilding;

( c)

a nd s olidarity.

4 2

t he e xistence o f c ommunal

w ealth

T he

a rchitectural

c ontinuity

a t D emircihJyt tk

i s

f ar

mor e

r emarkable t han a t T roy I , P ulur o r A hiatlibel. I n t he f ormer t he 1 6 u ninterrupted b uilding p hases c ould i ndeed s uggest a n e thnic a nd c ultural

c ontinuity

1 :243). p eriodic

H owever, t o p ropose t hat i n s uch c losed s ettlements, m aintenance o r r enovations w ere c onditions i mposed u pon

t he

c ommunity

o ver

f rom o utside

a t l east

1 6

g enerations

( Demircih8yl lk I ),

( Demircih8yt 1k

r equires

a dditional

e vidence i ncluding l ater h istorical p arallels f rom s econd o r f irst m illennium B C. I n t his c ontext t he f ollowing a ssumption b y K orfmann t hat " It h ardly s eems o f s imple f armers a lone a nd o f

c redible t hat a n i ndependent g roup t heir o wn a ccord p ersisted o ver s o

m any g enerations i n r etaining t he s trictly f ixed p lan o f t his s ettlement ( De i nircihJyHk) w ith t he c ooperative e fforts i t i nvolved, i ncluding t he e stablishment o f t he f ortifications a nd g ates" c ould n ot b e a ccepted w ithout r eservations. T he q uestion i s, s hould w e b ase

o ur r econstructions o n t hird m illennium s ocial s tructures

i n

M esopotamia, a nd p ropose, r egarding t he P orsuk v alley, t hat w ithin t he a rea m ust h ave e xisted t he s eat o f a l ocal r uler " who s et h igh v alue u pon t he f ortification o f D emircih8y { lk a nd o ther s ettlements" i n t his p art o f A natolia? ( Demircih8yt Ik I ). I n m y o pinion i t w ould b e w rong t o a ssume t hat a ll t he E arly B ronze A ge c ommunities l iving i n

s imilar s ettlements

i n A natolia h ad

t o o rganize t heir

a ctivity u nder a bsolute l eaders, c hiefs o r k ings. b een o ther s ystems o f o rganization a nd a uthority C hapter X III). w ere f avoured e xceeding a

l ife

a nd

T here m ust h ave a s w ell ( see:

I t i s w rong t o a ssume t hat c losely k nit s ettlements o nly b y s mall f arming o r f ishing c ommunities n ot

p opulation

d ensity o f

c a.300 i nhabitants.

A s f ar a s

e arly T roy i i s c oncerned, i n v iew o f v ery s canty r emains o f b uildi ngs w ithin t he c itadel c ompound, i t h as b een r ather d ifficult t o c ome

u p

w ith a c lear s tructural

r econstruction o f

t his

m aritime

t rade a nd a dministrative c entre. A lthough w e k now r elatively l ittle a bout t he e thnic b ackground o f t he o riginal s ettlers o f t his a nd

o ther f ortresses

d oubt o r

t hat

i n w estern A natolia,

t here i s n o

r eason

t hey w ere p robably r elated e ither t hrough K inship

t ribal s tructure w hich w ould a llow t hem t o m aintain a

c ommunal l ife i n s mall e nclosed s paces.

t o t ies

p eaceful

T he i nhabitants o f T roy

I

m ay h ave o riginally r elied o n a s ubsistence b ased o n f arming a nd f ishing. L ater, h owever, t hey s eem t o h ave d eveloped a n u rban e conomy b ased o n o rganized m aritime t rade i n f arm s urplus, f inished d urable g oods a nd m etal. T his t ype o f e conomy r equired a q uite s ophisticated o rganizat ional s ystem w ith s ome s ort o f c entral a uthority w hich o ne f ails t o s ee a t D emircihJy[ 1k o r P ulur. I n f act, w ithout i ts e conomic t radition o r a ccumulated w ealth c ontrolled b y i ts r ulers, w ould n ot h ave s urvived f or a s l ong a s i t d id, a nd w ould d isappeared A egean ( e.g.

T roy h ave

l ike m any o ther E BA I i t owns a nd f ortresses i n t he B e iktepe, K iazomenal). I t i s i mportant t o r e-empha-

s ize t he a rchitectural d evelopment o bserved i n t he T roy I -V s equence i n o rder t o b etter u nderstand t he t ransition f rom t ightly n ucleated

s ettlements

c omplex f ortified t owns t he E B I II p eriod. E arly T roy v ery r ooms

I :

o f

t he E BI-Il p eriod

t o

l arger

a nd

( with a m ore d eveloped u rban p lanning)

T he s ite s eems

m ore o f

t o h ave b een f ortified f rom t he

b eginning. W ithin t he f ortifications a g roup o f h ouses o r w ere b uilt w ith l ong w alls. A ccording t o M ellaart t hese

4 3

s tructures m ay h ave b een a c omplex o f h ouses o f t ype ( 1959:133). h ouses o n L esbos,

t he h ail a nd

p orch

T hey w ere p robably t he s ize o f t he T hermi 1 -11 i n o ther w ords u p t o 1 8 m etres l ong. I t i s

i mportant t o e mphasize t hat e xcept f or H ouses 1 02 a nd 1 03, d omestic d wellings a t e arly T roy I w ere n ot f ree-standing

m ost ( Fig.

1)2 ). M iddle

T roy

I :

T his

p hase

r epresents

t he

n ew

b uilding

a ctivity f ollowing t he d rastic d ecline i n t he e volution o f t he s ettlement t owards t he e nd o f e arly T roy I , i n w hich t he f ortificat ion w all f ell i nto t emporary d isuse. A n ew f ortification w all a nd a g ate f lanked w ith t owers w ere b uilt m ore t o t he s outh o f t he o lder f ortification l ine, t hus p roviding m ore s pace f or b uildings w ithin t he f ortress. M ellaart p oints o ut t hat a t P oliochni I II, w hich c orresponds t o t he E B I I ( Troy I d -f), a n ew f ortification e nclosed a n ew q uarter b eyond t he l ine o f t he o ld w all s uggests t hat d uring t he E B I I f ortified s ettlements

( II). T his i n e astern

A egean, a nd m aybe i n w estern A natolia t oo, a ttracted m ore p eople, t hus l eading t o t he e mergence o f l arger t owns a nd v illages. L ate t imes

T roy

( Mellaart

I :

T he f ortification w all w as

1 959:134-136).

T he

m odified

b uildings

s everal

o ccupying

t he

f ortress r emain l argely u nexcavated, e xcept f or a f ew r ooms w hich m ay h ave b een p art o f a g ranary b elonging t o t he l ast p hase o f T roy 1 (k). H ere i t s hould b e a dded, t hat t he l ast f ortress w as b urnt, w as

r ebuilt

o f

t he

o f

T roy

a s a lready i ndicated b y M ellaart, p robably b y e nemy a ction, b ut i t

s oon a fter b y t he s urviving i nhabitants.

T hat

i s

o ne

r easons w hy T roy ha r etained s o m any a rchitectural f eatures I .

T roy

ha:

T he n ew f ortification w all w as

l arger

t han i ts

p re-

d ecessor. w hich w as

I t h ad t wo l arge g ates i n t he s outhern p art o f t he w all f urther s trengthened w ith t hree t o f our b astions. T he

t wo

( FL a nd F N) w ere e ach p rovided w ith v ery l ong p rojecting

g ates

t owers. T his s hows t hat p ast e xperience p roved t o t he s ettlers t he v ulnerability o f t he o lder f ortification s ystem w hich h ad l ess p rojecting g ate t owers. I n b oth g ates t he d oors w ere p laced a t t he o uter e nd a nd t he p assage m ust h ave b een r oofed o ver, t hus p roviding

m ore

s pace o n t he r oof

f or d efence.

O ne o f

t he

i nteresting a rchitectural f eatures i n t his d efence s ystem w as c onstruction o f a n arrow p ostern u nderneath t he w estern t ower.

m ost t he A ll

t hese r enovations c an o nly i ndicate t hat t he i nhabitants o f t his f ortress w ere w ell v ersed i n m atters o f d efence a nd s urvival . W hat i s m ore i mportant, h owever, t o t he i ssue d iscussed i n t his c hapter i s t he t ype o f t he s ettlement i tself. A t T roy ha, t he f irst s igns o f a'royal r esidence h ave b een f ound i n t he e astern p art o f t he f ortress. H ere, o n a'platform' e nclosed b y a t hick r etaining w all, w ere f our m egarons f orming a l arge o r p art o f a l arge b uilding c omplex ( Mellaart 1 959:Fig.3). T he o pen s paces b etween t he f ortification w alls a nd t he r esidental a rea m ay n ot h ave b een a s l arge a s u sually d rawn o n t entative r econstructions, b ut s till t here i s n o i ndication o f a n e xtremely d ense h ousing s ituation a s o bserved a t D emircihJyt Ik. t hat o ne i s

T herefore,

t he a ssumption

d ealing a t T roy ha w ith a s pecial r esidence

b elonging

t o l ocal r uler(s?) m ay n ot b e e ntirely o ff t he t arget. I n f act, w hat m akes T roy s o p rominent i n t he e yes a nd m inds o f m ost a rchaeol ogists

i s

n ot

o nly

t he H omeric e pisode o f

4 4

l ater

t imes,

b ut

t he

s ort o f

r oyal s tyle

e arly T roy f ortunes o f t ural

r eflected i n t he r esidential b uildings,

s ince

I I. D espite a n oticeable t emporary d ecline i n t he t he f ortress a fter t he b urning o f T roy ha, a rchitec-

r emains

s till p oint

t o

t he e xistence o f a ' palace

c omplex'

d uring h lb. T roy W ith

l ic

t he

( Fig.II,3):

e xception

o f

I t c ertainly

i s

t he b est k nown

t he s outheast q uarter

t he

w hole

p hase. o f

t he

i nterior o f t he f ortress h as b een e xcavated ( Mellaart 1 959:1421 46). I n t his p hase a n ew e nceinte w as b uilt w hich a llowed f or a nother p ostern

e xpansion o f t he r esidential a rea. l ead i nto t he e nlarged f ortress.

e nceinte

w as n ot

r ecovered i t

i s n ot c lear

T wo m ain g ates a nd a S ince t he n orthern i f m ore g ates

d id

n ot

e xist t here. A n ew f eature o f t he g ates i s t hat t he g ate c hambers w ere r elocated w ithin t he l ine o f t he w all. A ccording t o M ellaart t he c onstruction o f t he n ew g ate ( FM) c ould s uggest t hat t he'Royal R esidence of I Ib.2 w as r eplaced b y a n ew o ne ( 1959:144). I t s eems t hat T roy h Ic d id n ot h ave a s ingle'Royal R esidence ' , c omposed o f t he G reat H all a nd t wo l ateral b uildings, a nd a c ourtyard a nd a p ropylon i n f ront, b ut t wo, o ne c entred r ound t he G reat H all I I A , t he o ther,

b uilt

s lightly e arlier r ound

t he G reat H all I I R .

u nits s eem t o h ave b een i ndependent o f e ach o ther a nd t here i s d oorway i n t he w all w hich d ivides t hem ( 1959:Fig.6). W hatever

B oth n o t he

f unctions o f a ll t hese b uildings w ere a t t hat t ime, t heir e xtremely r uinous s tate o f p reservation d efies a c lear i nterpretation. I t i s r easonable t o s uggest t hat t hey w ere n ot o ccupied b y c ommon i nhabit ants o f ' class o riented' p opulation i n t he T road. B ut t his d oes n ot m ean t hat t he o pen a rea s outh o f t he Royal R esidence could n ot h ave b een u sed a s a r efuge b y t he R oyal' s ubjects i n c ase o f e xternal t hreats t o t heir s ecurity. A s M ellaart a lready p ointed o ut,

i n

p eacetime

t hese s ubjects m ust h ave

l ived

i n t he

f ertile

p lains r ound T roy. I ndeed, t here i s n o e vidence w hich m ay i ndicate t he p resence o f a l ower t own a nywhere r ound t he f ortress o f T roy. T his s ituation b rings u s t o t he r ather u nique t hird m illennium s ettlement a t K arata -Semayt 1k. T he c entre o f t his l oose a gglomerat ion h ave T he

w as

d ominated b y a f ortified c ompound w hich

h oused t he c hietain s r elationship o f t his

o riginally

m ay

r esidence a nd/or t he c ommunal s helter. c ompound w ith t he g radually e xpanding

v illage i s n ot e ntirely c lear, b ut w hat i s c ertain i s a c ertain o verlapping i n t he o ccupation h istory o f t he t wo. T he f irst l evel o n t he K arata m ound, I ( Fig.II,1), w as o ccupied b y a r ectangular s tructure m easuring 1 0,75 x 7 ,20 m etres. T he 0 .80 m etre t hick m udbrick w alls o f t his s tructure r ested o n s tone f oundations. A c ourtyard

s urrounding t his

b uilding w as

d elimited b y a

b uttressed

m udbrick w all o val i n p lan. T his c ompound w as f urther s trengthened b y a dditional d efensive s ystems i ncluding a n e mbankment w hich w as c onstantly c onsolidated, p rotective e nclosures, r etaining w alls f or s uccessive

t erraces

a nd e ntrances p rotected b y

t owers.

W hat

i s

m ost a stonishing i n t he c ase o f K arata -Semayt !k i s t hat t his w hole s ystem w as a pparently m eant t o p rotect, a t l east i nitally, t he s mall c entral b uilding w hich i ncluded t he o val c ourt. T he m ain h ouse, a ccording t o M ellink, w as a r elatively t all b uilding o f t wo s tories, a nd t he o val c ourtyard a round i t w as a r oofed b uilding s tanding o fficial

t o

t he h eight o f a s ingle s torey. W as t his c omplex t he r esidence o f t he v illage o r t own's c hief ? I t c ould

h ave b een f or a t ime b ut t hen t he q uestion i s w hy w as t his c entral s tructure n ot r ebuilt a fter i ts d estruction a t t he e nd o f L evel I I? 4 5

I n L evels I II,

I Va-h,

a nd a fter a g ap,

i n L evel V t he f ortification

s ystem w as e xtended b y n ew w alls a nd t owers. B y t his t ime, t he r enewed s ystem w as a pparently n ot m eant t o p rotect a c entral s truct ure ( chieftain s r esidence), b ut p rovide s ome s ort o f d efense f or t he i nhabitants o f t he f ast g rowing o pen s ettlement I n c ase o f e xternal d anger. T he p ossibility t hat f rom L evel I II o n, o r e ven e arlier,

t he K arata

e xcluded.

' mound' h oused a r eligious c ompound c annot

b e

A lthough e very o pinion v oiced h ere i s n othing b ut s pecu-

l ation, i t I s l ogical t o a ssume t hat e ven i f t he o riginal c entral b uilding w as a s pecial r esidence, a nd n ot j ust a m assive c entral s tructure w here c ommon s tock o f s owing s eed a nd o ther s urplus g rain w as s tored b y t he c ommunity, o r a p lace w here r itual f easts t ook p lace, t he d efensive s ystem w as f or p rotection f rom o utside e nemies a nd n ot a gainst t he ' Subjects' o f t he h ypothetical l eader. A ccordi ng

t o

N aumann ( 1965:320)

r ather s imilar i n i ts

t he f ortified s tructure a t

l ayout

t o

t he

' royal f ortress'

K aratap

i s

o f A hiatlibel.

T his o bservation c annot b e r efuted e ntirely b ut I t i s n ecessary t o p oint o ut t hat a t A hiatlibel t he a gglutinated e nclosure i s n ot s urrounded b y a v illage o r ' lower t own' a nd s mall f inds f rom t his s ite

( including

d ifferent

t ype

A natolia.

t he i nventory o f m etal o f

a rtifacts),

p oint

s ocial o rganization e xisting i n t his

T he p lan o f

t his

s mall f ortress

i s o val,

t o

p art

a o f

m easuring 3 0 x

4 0 m etres. A t hick e xterior w all o f m udbrick o n s tone f oundations s urrounded a c omplex o f s mall r ooms a nd a r elatively s pacious c entral c ourt. T he t hickness o f t he p artition a nd m ain w alls o f t he r ather s mallish r ooms m ay s uggest t hat t he w hole s tructure o nce s tood t wo o r e ven t hree s tories h igh. I n v iew o f t his l ayout t here i s l ittle b asis t o a ssume t hat t he i nhabitants o f t his h ill f ort w ere s imple f armers. T he l ogical a ssumption w ould t herefore s uch s mall n ucleated s ettlements m ay h ave b elonged t o c hieftains w arrior'

t ribes

R eturning

( of

b e o f

I ndo-or p roto-Indo-European a ffiliation).

n ow t o T roy

I I,

i n t he l ast p hase o f

t his f ortress

t he r esidential a rea w ithin t he w alls e xpanded c onsiderably a nd w as g radually t ransformed f rom a ' Royal R esidence', which h ad a lready l ost s ome o f i ts g lamour d uring p hases d -f, t o a l argely r edesigned f ortified t own ( Mellaart 1 959:Fig.9-10). T he ' House o f t he C ity K ing', s till a l arge s tructure, w as n ot c entrally l ocated. T he l arge

m egaron ( I A)

a nd/or

t emple.

c ould h ave f unctioned n ow a s a n a ssembly

N umerous

c omplexes w ithin t he w alls,

h all

c omposed o f

m ulti-rooms s maller i n s ize t han t he l arger m egaron s tructures h lc-e, d efinitely p oint t o a d rastic c hange I n t he s tatus o f s ettlement, g eneral.

t he l eadership a nd, S ince

t herefore,

o f t he

s ocial o rganization i n

a ll t he c omplexes w ere p rovided w ith s tore

r ooms

p acked w ith l arge p ottery c ontainers, a nd f urthermore, e xcavations b y S chliemann, D 8rpfeld a nd l ater B legen u ncovered n umerous ' treasures' I n s ome o f t hese c omplexes a nd a djacent a reas, i t i s p ossible t o p osit t hat t he s ettlement w as i nhabited b y a n ' aristocracy' m ade u p o f a n e xtended ' royal f amily' w ith a l arger s hare a nd, T roy

o f

' royal w ealth' d erived

f rom c entralized

t rade,

i ndustry

p erhaps, r eligious e stablishment. T he I nsulae a nd s treets o f h lg r eflect t he s ort o f t own p lanning w hich a lready e xisted i n

i sland s ettlements s uch a s P oliochni V o n L emnos. T he w ealthy i nhabitants o f t his t own, p robably m erchant f amilies, l ived i n s pacious h ouses w hich w ere a rranged i n b locks o r i nsulae o n e ither s ide o f a m ain s treet, 2 00 m etres l ong ( Mellaart 1 959:154-155). T he m ain a rchitectural d evelopment i n t his p eriod i s t he g radual

4 6

d isappearance

o f

f ree-standing

h all-and-porch

t ype

h ouses.

I nstead t hese m egaron u nits b ecame t he c ore o f m ulti-room c omp lexes b oth a t T roy hg a nd P oliochni V . M ellaart h as o bserved t hat a t P oliochni o nly t he p oorest h ouses c onsisted o f a s ingle m egaron, u sed b y i tself, w hereas a t T roy hg t he c entre o f t he f ortress w as s till o ccupied b y t he G reat H all, e xample

o f

t his

p lan

w hich p rovides

( hut n ot u sed

a s

a

t he o nly s urviving

p rivate

r esidence).

A lready b y t he t ime o f T roy hg t here i s a d efinite c hange i n t he c oncept o f n ucleated s ettlements. F ortification w alls n ow b ecome a r eal 'obstacle' t o t he e xpansion a nd r e-orientation o f t owns. W hen T roy I II w as b uilt o n t he d ebris o f r ebuilt i mmediately.

t he s econd h alf o f T owns

w ith

U rban

T he f irst c entral

a nd

C ilicia,

t own w all

w as

n ot

t he t hird m illennium B C. P lanning.

t owns w ith e arly u rban s outheastern

T arsus

p lanning. e xcavated, I t

t he

P oliochni V i s a g ood e xample, i ndeed, o f u rban p lanning i n o f i ntense e conomic, a nd, t herefore, p opulation g rowth d uring

a reas

4 .

hg,

p rovides

c oncepts

e merged

A natolia d uring t he E B I I

i n C ilicia, p eriod.

c lear a rchitectural e vidence

f or

I n t own

I n c entral A natolia, A hi ar H 8ytk, a lthough o nly p artly r evealed t he r emains o f a n e xtended w alled s ettlement.

i s n ot c lear f rom t he e xtremely f ragmentary e vidence,

h owever,

i f h ouses w ere a ligned a long s treets a nd a lleys a ccording t o a p redetermined p lan. I n s outheastern Anatolia l arge m ounds w ith E B r emains L idar

s uch a s T ilmen,

G edikli,

C archemish,

w ere n o d oubt a mong t he i mportant

Z incirli,

S amsat

a nd

t owns w hich d eveloped f rom

p roto-urban a gglomerations. E xcavations i n t he l ower E uphrates b asin, ( e.g. L idar, H assek H 8yUk, K urban) a re p roviding i mportant a rchitectural e vidence w hich m ay c onfirm e ventually t hat t he r enewal o f u rban d evelopment

i n t his

r egion d id s tart b efore

t he E B

I I p eriod. I n w estern A natolia t he n ature o f e xcavations a t s ites s uch a s K usura, A phrodisias, A hlatli T epecik o r B eycesultan d o n ot a llow

a n o bjective e valuation o f

e ver, m ents

c onsidering t he e xistence o f c arefully p lanned t own s ettlei n e astern A egean i slands, a cross t he w est A natolian c oast

t he a rchitectural r emains.

H ow-

( e.g. T hermi, H eraion, P oliochni), o ne s hould n ot r ule o ut t he p ossibility t hat l arge w alled t owns o f E B I I d ate m ay h ave e xisted i n t he w estern p lateau a s w ell. I n t he E B I II p eriod e arly u rban s ettlements s eem t o h ave b een b etter p lanned. F ortified t owns w ith s mall s cale u rban a rchitect ure c ontinued p olitical p ower

t o e merge i n t raditional c entres o f l ocated i n d ensely p opulated a reas

e xcept i n t he B lack S ea r egion. t epe ( IX-VI) t own p lanning i s

e conomic a nd o f A natolia,

A t K %ltepe, B o azk8y a nd N or unc haracterized b y t he p resence o f

l arge m ulti-room c omplexes d escribed a s 'palace ', 'temple' o r 'p ublic h alls '. I n a ddition t o t hese a dministrative b uildings ( and n umerous s tore-rooms) o ften s eparated f rom h ouses w ere u sually b uilt a long a n etwork o f d ivide t he s ettlement i nto r esidential b locks,

r esidential a reas, s treets m eant t o ( Fig. 1 1,4; I V) 2 -

3 ). A t L idar f or i nstance, t he l arge E B I II s ettlement p rovides u s w ith s ome e vidence r egarding t he e xistence o f i ndustrial a reas, i n t his a rea.

c ase

t he

L ater

p otters i n

t he

q uarter, e arly

4 7

s eparated f rom t he m ain r esidential s econd

m illennium

B C,

t hese

s ame

s ettlements

r apidly d eveloped

e mphasized t hat

i nto l arge c ities.

B ut

i t m ust

b e

t he E B I II p eriod d id n ot o nly w itness a n a ccelera-

t ion i n t he d evelopment o f t own s ettlements b ut a lso t he e mergence o f c ity-states b ased i n c oncept o n S yrian/Mesopotamian m odels. 5 .

T emporary s ettlements P astoral G roups).

( Seasonal

a nd/or C amp S ites

I nhabited

b y

O ne o f t he p roblems i n i nterpreting t he n ature o f f lat s ettlem ents i n t he s mall p lateaux o f A natolia i s h ow t o d etermine w hether t hey w ere o ccupied a ll t he y ear r ound o r d uring c ertain p arts o f t he y ear. I f w e a ccept t he v iew t hat i n A natolia t oo t here w ere n omadic g roups l iving i n s easonal c amp s ites, t hen w e m ust a lso a ssume t hat s ome o f t he s mall o ne p eriod s ettlements i n t he n orthc entral a nd e astern h ighlands w ere s easonal v illages. t ion b etween s emi-permanent a nd p ermanent s ettlement

A ny d istinci s u sually a

m atter o f i nterpretation. T he d efinition o f t he f ormer d epends i f o ne r egards t he o ccupation o f a s ite f or a bout a g eneration o r l onger a s t oo s hort t o b e t ermed p ermanent . B ut i n t he c ase o f t emporary s ettlements o r c amp s ites, i t m ust b e m ade c lear t hat t his p attern c an a lso b e a ttributed t o f arming c ommunities p ractici ng s easonal f arming, l ike t he K urd a nd L ur i nhabitants o f n orthw estern L uristan. A ccording t o e thnological f ield r esearch o n s easonal d wellings o f f armers I n t he N ear E ast ( Edelberg 1 9661 967:373-401), t he K urdish a nd L ur g roups o f L uristan w ere f armers, g rowing c rops

i n a r iver v alley s urrounded b y m ountains a nd k eeping

a f ew h orses a nd d onkeys, c attle, s heep a nd g oats. S ome o f t heir f ields w ere i rrigated a nd y ielded t wo c rops a y ear; t hose t hat w ere n ot i rrigated y ielded o nly o ne c rop a nd w ere l eft f allow i n a lternate y ears. I n t he s ummer, t he f armers l ived i n t hree v illages s et a t a bout 5 km i ntervals a long t he r iver v alley. T wo o f t he v illages c onsisted o f s everal h amlets, a nd e ach h amlet w as f ormed b y a bout h alf-a-dozen h ouseholds, t hat m igrated a s a s ingle u nit w ith e ach s easonal m ove. T he s ummer v illages w ere o ccupied f or a bout f our m onths ( June-September), a nd t he h ouses w ere b uilt w ith r ush-mat w alls a nd f lat r oofs. O ctober w as s pent l iving i n t ents, i n g roups o f 5 -6 h ouseholds c orresponding t o t he s ummer h amlets. N ormally t he t ents w ere s et u p a t o ld-established c amps ites i n t he f oothills o f t he m ountains, w here a nimals c ould g raze a nd f odder b e c ollected f or t he w inter ( Orme 1 981:125-126). T he g reatest r ecorded d istance t o a n a utumn c amp w as j ust u nder 1 0km , a nd

t he

m ove w as a ccomplished I n l ess t han h alf a

d ay.

B ut

I t

s hould b e s tressed t hat t he d istance c overed m ust h ave b een d ictated b y e nvironmental c onditions s uitable f or s econdary s ettlem ents h ave

a nd

n ot m easured i n t erms

u ndertaken.

w alled h ouse,

I n w inter,

o f

d istances

t he c ommunity

e ach h ousehold m oved

g rouped I n h amlets u sually j ust a bove

i nto a

c ould s tone-

t he c ultivated

l and. P art o f t he h ouse w as r oofed w ith o ak p oles a nd b ranches a nd t hatched w ith s traw, b ut t he m ain l iving q uarters w ere u nder t he t ent c overing t hat w as s tretched a cross t he w alls. T he s tone h ouses

w ere o ccupied f rom N ovember t o M arch,

a fter y ear; t hough n o c ampsites.

a nd

r e-occupied y ear

t hey w ere t he m ost p ermanent s tructures o f t he r egion, m ore p ermanent a s s ites t han t he s ummer v illages o r I n s pring,

t he h ouseholds

t ook t heir

t ents

a gain f or a

c ouple o f m onths, e ither m oving w ith t heir a nimals i nto t he m ount ains o r s taying c lose t o c ultivated l and. T he f armers m igrations t ook

p lace w ithin t he a rea w here

4 8

t he c ontrast b etween r iver v alley

a nd

m ountains o ffered d ifferent e cological n iches

r esources

t o e xploit a s e ach s eason c ame r ound.

w ith

d ifferent

S imilar s ettlement

p atterns w hich t ake a dvantage o f s easonal v ariation i n r esource d istribution c an b e o bserved i n c ertain a reas o f C ilicia, e astern a nd s outheastern A natolia a s w ell. O ne l esson t o b e l earned f rom s tudying s uch t he t emporary

p atterns i s t he r ealization b y a rchaeologists t hat n ature o f s ettlement u sually e ncourages e qually

t emporary s tructures. c onditions k eep t he

A nd t he g enerally r estricted s ize o f i ndividual s ettlement

e nvironmental u nits r ather

s mall. B ut d espite e thnographic m odels a rchaeologists s till a re n ot e ntirely c ertain h ow t o d etermine w hether a s ettlement w as o ccupied p ermanently o r s easonally. A ccording t o B ökinyi ( 1972:121-127), z oological e vidence c ould h elp t o s ome e xtent i n d etermining

t he

n ature a nd d uration o f

p rehistoric

s ettlements.

T he p roblem c an b e a pproached f rom t wo d irections: f rom t he f ish a nd a vifauna o n t he o ne h and, a nd f rom t he m ammals, e specially t he d omesticated s pecies o n t he o ther. C oncerning t he f ish a nd a vif auna, t he s tarting p oint i s t he k nown s easonal m igration o f c ertain s pecies. A ccording t o t he p alaeontological d ata t hese m igrations h ave n ot c hanged i n p attern i n t he l ast 1 5,000 y ears. T his i s p articularly t rue o f b irds, w hose s easonal m igrations h ave b een e xhaustively s tudied f or a l ong t ime, a nd a re n ow w ell e stabl ished. I n m ost c ases, o rnithologists k now e xactly w here e ach o f t he m igrating s pecies s pends t he d ifferent s easons o f t he y ear. I n t his w ay, i f t heir r emains o ccur i n a s mall s ettlement s ite t hey c ould p rovide s ome e vidence f or t he o ccupation o f t he s ettlement i n a c ertain s eason. B ut a s m ost a rchaeologists a re a ware s uch b ird b ones s ites.

o r f ish b ones a re g enerally p oorly p reserved i n p rehistoric T he s ituation r egarding m ammals i s m uch b etter a ccording t o

B 8k8nyi, s ince t he b ones o f m ammals r epresent t he o verwhelming m ajority o f a nimal r emains o f s ettlements. C onclusions c an e asily b e d rawn f rom t he p resence o r a bsence o f c ertain a ge g roups a s t o t he o ccupation o f t he s ettlements i n t he v arious s easons o f t he y ear. W ild m ammals b ear t heir y oung i n a s trictly d etermined s eason o f t o

t he y ear,

s urvive

i n w hich t here i s

a nd m ature.

t he b est c hance f or t he y oung

T he y oung o f m odern i mproved

b reeds

o f

d omestic a nimals a re b orn a ll t he y ear r ound s ince t he c onditions n ecessary f or t heir b reeding a re s ecured b y m odern m ethods. T his i s n ot t he c ase w ith p rimitive d omestic a nimals w ho p roduce y oung o nly o nce a y ear j ust l ike w ild m ammals. K nowing t he p eriod o f p roducing y oung o n

t he

b asis o f

( B8k8nyi

1 972:123,

t he d entition,

T able 1 ),

a nd h aving d etermined,

t he s utures a nd t he e nds

o f

l ong

b ones, h ow o ld t he a nimal w as w hen i t w as k illed, o ne c an a lso d etermine ( within a t ime r ange o f o ne o r t wo m onths) t he s eason o f t he y ear w hen t he a nimal w as k illed. A nd t he f act t hat a nimals w ere

k illed o n t he s ite a t a c ertain p eriod i s g ood e vidence

t hat

t he s ettlement w as o ccupied i n t hat s eason. F or t his p urpose r emains o f s mall d omestic a nd w ild m ammals ( dog, p ig, s heep, g oat; w olf, r oe d eer a nd b ezoar g oat) a re a mong t he b est i ndicators. B ut e ven

B 8k8nyi

a dmits

t hat z oological d ata i s n ot n early e nough

t o

d etermine i f a t emporary s ettlement w as n ot o ccupied i n c ertain o ther s easons. I t w ould b e s imple t o s ay t hat t he a bsence o f b ones o f a c ertain a ge g roup p roves t hat m an d id n ot l ive o n t he s ite i n t he c orresponding s eason o f t he y ear. H owever, i f t he e xcavation o f a s ettlement y ields o nly a f ew b ones, t he e vidence c annot b e c onsidered t o b e a ll t hat c onclusive. I t i s t he b asis o f t he r elative f requencies o f 4 9

i mpossible, m erely o n t he a ge g roups, t o

d etermine w hether t he w hole p opulation l ived a ll

t he y ear

r ound o r n ot

i n a g iven

( B8k8nyi 1 972:124).

I ndeed,

s ettlement e ven i n c on-

t emporary f arming c ommunities p ractising t ranshumance ( In s outhe astern T urkey), o lder i nhabitants c ould s pend t he w hole y ear i n t he s ettlement, w hile t he y ounger a ge g roups m igrate w ith t he h erds i n s pecific s easons. Among

t he

t emporary

s ettlements e xcavated i n v arious

p arts

o f A natolia ( e.g. B t ly i ! lk G 11 U Icek, Y azir H 8yt lk, G elinciktepe, Y arikkaya?) s ome c ertainly b elong t o t he c ategory o f p ermanent s ettlements w hose i nhabitants w ere f orced t o a bandon t hem, a fter a f ew g enerations, d ue t o r easons s uch a s; s hifting a griculture, d eteriorating e cological c onditions,

h arassment b y o ther g roups a nd

s o o n. M ost h abitation s ites i n t he h ighlands a rchitectural r emains w hich s uggest a r elatively o ccupation. I n t his c ontext o ne s hould r emember l ong w inters m ay h ave f orced t he f armers t o m ove

h ave r ather s canty s hort o r t emporary t hat t he h arsh a nd s outh s easonally.

R EGIONAL A RCHITECTURE 1 .

C entral A natolia T he d omestic a rchitecture o f c entral A natolia i s b est k nown f rom A lisar l 8yt lk, K ültepe, M a at H 8yt f, A laca H 8yUk a nd C an H asan I . S ingle a nd t wo r oom h ouses o f e arlier p eriods ( Chalcolithic) g radually n umber o f

c hanged t o m ulti-room u nits w ith a c entral c ourt. T he r ooms i n e ach d welling d iffered a ccording t o t he n umber

o f i nhabitants, b ut r arely e xceeding 4 -5 r ooms i n t he d omestic h ouses o f t he E B p eriod. I n v illage s ettlements ( Alaca H JyUk o r M asat H 8yt 1k) e ach h ouse u nit w as s eparated f rom i ts n eighbours b y e xterior c ourts a s w ell. A s mall n umber o f s torage r ooms w ithin u nits s uggest t hat e ach f amily ( ?) k ept i ts o wn f ood a nd m aybe f ood s urplus i nside

i n t he h ouse. t he v illage,

a nnexed

t o

A s f or l ivestock, t hese m ust h ave b een k ept m ost l ikely i n l ighter c onstructions ( sheds)

t he m ain u nits.

e arliest e xcavated b uildings

S tone f oundations a re u nknown i n i n c entral A natolia.

I nstead,

t he

s everal

c ourses o f m udbrick s unk b elow t he f loor l evel w ere u sed a s f oundat ions ( Ali ar 0 , I a, C an H asan I lI). A s t he n eed f or m ore s ubs tantial f oundations a rose, e specially i n t he t hird m illennium B C, t he u se o f s tone i n t he c onstruction o f f oundations b ecame t he g eneral p ractice. t ures

o f

c omplex; a nd w ere

E B

I t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat

I lIll

p eriod t he

f oundation

i n c ertain s truc-

s ystems

w ere

q uite

t ree-trunks w ere p laced l ongitudially b eneath t he w alls f ixed i n p osition w ith s tones. I n t his s ystem t he

u ndressed s tone f oundation w alls m ust h ave b een r einforced

( e.g.

a t B eycesultan)

t imbers.

I n l arge

a t

i ntervals w ith t ransverse a nd v ertical

p alace o r t emple

c omplexes,

t he c eilings

o f

a s

c entral h alls

w ere s upported w ith t he h elp o f w ooden c olumns s panning t he l ength a nd w idth o f t he r oom ( e.g. K t lltepe). I n d ried

c entral A natolia h ouse w alls w ere u sually b uilt o f s unm udbricks r ectangular i n s hape. W hile m ost b ricks m ay h ave

b een s haped b y h and o thers w ere m oulded. T he w all f aces w ere c overed w ith m ud o r l ime p laster a nd w ere u sually w hite w ashed. M udbrick w alls o f l arger s tructures w ere o ften r einforced b y t he i ncorporation o f w ooden b eams a nd p osts w ithin t he b rickwork s tandi ng

o n s tone

f oundations.

S ometimes

5 0

r ows o f

r unner b eams

i nside

t he w alls w ere h eld i n p osition w ith c ross-ties. F lat e ither

r oofs o f

t imber c overed w ith p acked c lay w ere

o n s tout m udbrick w alls o f g round

f loors

s upported

o r o n t op o f

m ain

t imber u prights. I n s ame

t he c onstruction o f

f ortification w alls

( e.g.

t echniques b ut o n a m uch l arger s cale w ere u sed.

A l 4ar) I t i s

t he

i mpor-

t ant t o n ote t hat, a s i n m onumental b uilding w alls ( e.g. K t tltepe E B I II), c ity o r t own f ortifications a lso r ested o n l arge s tone f oundations b uilt w ithin r ather s hallow t renches. I n t he e arlier f ortifications L ater,

( late E BI-early

h owever,

I I) w alls w ere c a.1.50 m etres

t hick.

p arallel w alls e rected 4 -5 m etres a part w ere

f illed

w ith s tones a nd e arth t o m ake t he d efensive s ystem m ore s olid. S ince i n n one o f t he c ases t hese w alls w ere u nearthed i ntact, o ne c an o nly g uess a bout t heir p ossible h eights a nd u pper s tructures. R egarding t he l atter i t m ay b e r ather s afe t o a ssume t hat i n mos t f ortification s ystems t he l ower p arts w ere c onstructed o f s tone ( dry m asonry) a nd t he u pper w alls o f m udbrick. T he w hole m ay h ave b een c oated w ith a t hick l ayer o f p laster. L iterature: 2 .

N aumann 1 975;

A urenche 1 981;

s ystem

D ani man 1 972.

W estern A natolia T he m ain s ites e vidence i nclude T roy, B a basi,

T hermi,

c omprehensive

w hich p rovide t he b ulk o f a rchitectural D emircih8y«k, K aratas-Semayt lk , B eycesultan,

P oliochni,

s tudy

b y

O vabayindir,

W arner

o n

A phrodisias a nd K usura.

E B

a rchitecture

i n

A

w estern

A natolia ( 1979:133-147) i s a g ood b asis t o s tudy t he r egional d evelopment, s ince t he l ate f ourth m illennium B C. T he h ouses o f t he E arly B ronze A ge d iscovered i n w estern A natolia c ould b e d ivided i nto s everal m ajor t ypes, a mong w hich t he f ree-standing h ail a nd p orch

( megaron)

a nd a psidal h ouses

a re

p rominent.

O ther

h ouse

f orms i nclude t he c omplex m egaroid s tructure w hich u ses a p orch a nd a m ain r oom a rrangement a s a c entral u nit t o w hich r ooms w ere a dded o n o ne o r b oth s ides, a nd t he r ow h ouse g roup w hich i s m ade u p o f u nits p laced i n r ows ( row h ouses e .g. D emircih3yt 1k) w ith p arty -

w alls.

W arner

i s

r ight i n p ointing o ut

t hat

t he a ctual

f orm

o f

i ndividual r ow h ouse c an v ary g reatly, b ut i n m ost c ases t he l ayout p rovides f or a s hallow a nte-room , o r s ometimes a f ront p orch, a nd a l ong m ain r oom w hich

i s s ometimes s ubdivided.

I n t he f ree-standing

m egaron p lan, t wo l ong s tructural w alls d ivided w ith c ross w alls f orm a m ain r oom s eparated f rom a s mall r ear r oom a nd a p orch. I n w estern

A natolia

t he m egaron p lan i s

S ome o f t hese w ere ' temples' o r ' palaces' l ilA

s ettlement

b est k nown f rom

T roy

I -II.

e xtremely l arge, p robably ' royal h alls', ( e.g. T roy hA 2 9 x 1 0 m etres). T he E B I I-

a t K arata -SemayUk p roduced n umerous e xamples

o f

t he m egaron p lan u sed f or d omestic h ouses. T hese a re f ree-standing a nd v ary i n s ize f rom 6 .25-18.00 m etres i n l ength t o 3 .50-8.20 m etres i n w idth, 6 .00 m etres r ange p lan w as h earth.

a lthough m ost f all w ithin t he 7 .00-10.00 x 4 .00( Warner 1 979:137). T he m ain r oom i n t he meg aron

i n m ost c ases p rovided w ith a c entrally p laced c ircular I n c ertain c ases t he f ireplace, w hich w as b uilt o f c lay

a nd p aved w ith s mall m easured

f lat s tones

c a.1.00 m etres

L arger o nes,

h owever,

t o i ncrease t he r adiation o f h eat,

i n d iameter

( e.g.

H ouse

1 02 a t T roy

I a).

e xisted i n t he m onumental b uildings o f T roy

5 1

I I ( e.g.

c a.4.00 m etres

i n d iameter i n m egaron IA).

A t K arata ,

f or i nstance, m ost o f t he h earths w ithin t he h ouses a re s mall f or c ooking, w hich s uggests, a ccording t o W arner ( 1979:138), t hat m eals w ere c ooked a nd b aked e lsewhere. T he f ew a psidal b uildings d iscovered

i n

t his

r egion h ave

s o f ar i ndicated

t hat

t hese

a re

u sually f ound a t s ites w ith a l ater m egaron t radition ( Warner 1 979:138-139). I n s ome c ases t he a psidal r ear-end o f t he f rees tanding l ong h ouses m ay h ave b een s heds a nnexed t o t he m ain s truct ure.

T his

o lder

t ype o f

v illage

d wellings c ould b e c onsidered a s a s urvivor o f

a rchitecture

w here a c ertain a mount o f

s pace

w as

a llocated w ithin t he h ouse f or w orkshops a nd/or t o k eep t he l ives tock. A t T roy I a, t he f oundations o f t he a pse i n H ouse 1 03 a re s lightly

n arrower

K aratas,

i n t he e arliest o f

t here

t han

i s n o i ndication o f

t hose o f t he

t he r est o f

t he

b uilding.

t hree s uperimposed a psidal

A t

h ouses

a d oorway b etween t he m ain r oom a nd

t he

a psidal o ne. A

c loser

e xamination o f

t he b uilding t raditions

i n

w estern

A natolia c learly i ndicates t he e xistence o f a v ariety o f c onstruct ion t echniques f or p utting u p f oundations a nd e recting w alls. I n t he l arger m egara f oundations w ere b uilt o f t wo c arefully a ligned s tone f aces a nd a c entral p acking o f s maller s tones a nd r ubble. S uch f oundations c ould h ave b een q uite h igh, m ore t han 2 -3 c ourses, s ince S amos)

t heir w idth s ometimes r eached b etween 0 .60 m etres ( e.g. t o 1 .70 m etres ( Troy m egaron IA). I n e xceptional c ases,

w here t he f oundations w ere u p t o s ix c ourses i n h eight ( ca.1.30 m etres h igh), a s ingle-course s tone s ockle p laced a bove t he f oundat ions t ure.

( lying b elow t he f loor l evel) s upported a c omplex s uperstrucI n b uilding t he s uperstructure t he b uilders o ccasionally

i ntroduced a l evelling l ayer o f c lay m ortar o n t he u ppermost c ourse o f t he f oundation s ystem . T he s undried m udbricks o f t he u ppers tructure

w ere i n m ost c ases r einforced w ith a w ooden f ramework o f

h orizontal, T roy I I,

t ransverse a nd v ertical

t he h orizontal t imbers

I n b uilding I IA

a t

r un a long t he e xterior f aces o f

t imbers.

t he

w alls i n e very f ourth c ourse; t he f irst o nes w ere l aid d irectly o n t he s tone s ocle. I t s hould b e p ointed Out t hat t he u se o f s tone f oundations

i n

w estern

Anatolia a lthough k nown s ince

t he

C hal-

c olithic p eriod b ecame m ore w idespread i n t he E BA I /Il. B uilding r emains u nearthed a t D emircih8yUk s uggest t hat i n e arlier t imes d wellings w ere b uilt o f l ighter m aterials a nd, t heref ore, d id n ot a lways A t K arata -Semayt Ik,

r equire t he p reparation o f s olid f oundations. f or i nstance, o nly h ouses o f T roy I I p eriod

s eem t o h ave b een b uilt o f m udbricks o n d ouble o r

t riple-line s tone

f oundations. P ise c onstructions s et d irectly o n t he g round a re a lso k nown f rom K arata . H owever, t he p redominant b uilding m ethod u sed a t t his s ite w as n ot p isé c onstruction b ut w attle-and-daub t echnique, i n w hich a f ramework o f d ensely p laced s aplings w as c overed o n b oth s ides w ith c haff-tempered m ud ( Warner 1 979:139). A t K aratal t his t echnique i s s lightly d ifferent f rom t he o ne p ract ised i n t he B lack S ea r egion i n t hat, i n t he f ormer t he s aplings w ere n ot c ombined w ith m ats o r i nterwoven r eeds. I n m ost i nstances t he m ud f ormed a n i ntegral p art o f t he w all r ather t han j ust a p rotective c oating t o a s apling-and-reed f ramework, i n t he t rue w attle-and-daub.

5 2

a s

i s t he c ase

I a gree,

t herefore,

w ith W arner t hat t his

t echnique a t K arata

s hould b e c alled r einforced p is ( 1979:139). T here a re s everal v ariations o f t his b asic t echnique. I n t he s implest, t he w alling m aterial i s p acked a round a f ramework o f s mall s takes a nd o ccasional l arger s upport p osts s et u pright i n t he s oil t o c reate a r ather t hin w all b arely m easuring 0 .10 m etres i n w idth. T his t echnique

m ust h ave

b een u sed f or p artitioning t he i nterior o f

t he

h ouses. I n a nother t echnique, t he w ooden f ramework w as p laced i n a n arrow b edding t rench, c a.0.20 m etres w ide, a nd h eld i n p osition b y a p acking o f p ebbles, b edrock f lakes a nd s oil. M ost o f t he w attlea nd-daub h ouses a t K aratas h ave a s ingle c ourse o f s tone f oundat ions

w hich m ay b e o ne,

s maller

t wo o r

t hree s tones w ide.

s tones o ccasionally p laced o ver

A p acking

t he s hallow s tone

o f

f ounda-

t ions w as a pparently m eant t o h old t he w ooden f ramework. T he w alling m aterial p acked a round t he f ramework w ould h ave r ested o n t he l arger, o uter f oundation s tones, t hus p roviding a dditional p rotection t o t he b ase o f t he s tructure. C onsidering t hat m ost o f t he d ouble a nd t riple-line f oundations a t K arataq a veraged 0 .400 .50

m etres

i n w idth,

t he s uperstructure w ith a dditional

w alling

c ould n ot h ave b een m uch t hicker t han t he w idth o f t he s tone f oundations. I n s ingle-line f oundations r elatively l arge s tones w ere u sed l engthwise h olding

w hich m easure c a.0.35 x 0 .30 m etres. T hey w ere l aid w ith o ccasional s maller s tones p laced o n t he e xterior

t hem f irmly i n p osition.

w ere p laced n ot o nly o n t op o f s tances a lso i n f ront o f t hem. l ine

s tone f oundations,

P ost-holes a nd r ows o f

s aplings

t hese f oundations b ut i n s ome i nA ccording t o W arner s uch s ingle-

i n a ddition t o p roviding a b ase

f or

t he

s uperstructure, m ay h ave a lso p rovided a g uide l ine f or p lacement o f s aplings ( 1979:140). T he p roblem o f r econstructing t he t ype o f p ossible r oofs o f f ree-standing m egara a nd b uilding c omplexes i n w estern A natolia h as b een

t ackled

1 975:162;

i n

r ecent

y ears

S chirmer 1 971:27-34;

b y

s ome

a rchaeologists

W arner 1 979:141-143).

( Naumann

M ost a rchaeo-

l ogists p refer t o r econstruct t he r oofs o f t he T roy m egara w ith f lat r oofs a ccording t o d eep-rooted A natolian t raditions. H owever, t he p roblem w ith l ighter s tructures i s t hat s uch h eavy t imber a nd e arth r oofs w ould n ot h ave s tood o n p is6 o r w attle-and-daub w alls r esting o n w eak f oundations. W arner h as d emonstrated t hat t he r oofs a t K aratap w ere r elatively t hin, c onsisting o f a l ayer o f d ensely p acked r eeds o verlying a l ayer o f s mall s aplings o verlaid w ith c lay. T he t op o f t his r oofing m ust h ave b een c overed w ith a dditional l ayers o f c lay. O ccasional f ragments o f r oofing d o n ot a lways

r eveal m uch a bout

p ostulates a nd a nd

t hat a t K arata

t he a ctual s hape o f m egaron r oofs.

W arner

h ouse r oofs e xtended o ver b oth t he p orch

r ear a ntae t o p rovide a dditional w orking s pace i n t he m egara k eep r ain f rom d amaging t he m ud w alls. T he r ear r ooms w ould

a lso h ave b een c overed s ince t hey f unctioned a s i n s ome c ases, t hey m ay h ave b een r oofed 1 979:141).

H ouses f ormed b y g roups o f

s torage a reas, b ut s eparately ( Warner

r ooms a nd r ow h ouses

( e.g.

D emircih8yUk), h ad f lat a nd s lightly s loping r oofs. A s f or f rees tanding a nd a xially a ligned r ooms, g abled a nd e ven a h oop/barrel r oof i s c onsidered b y W arner. S he i s c ertainly c orrect i n a ssuming t hat t he t ype o f r oof u sed m ay h ave b een a f actor i n d etermining t he l ayout o f b uildings. W ith a f lat r oof a s tructure c an, t heory, e xpand i n a ny d irection, b ut b uildings w ith a g abled

i n o r

b arrel

o r

r oof

c an o nly b e e xpanded

5 3

i n l ength.

W ith

a

g abled

b arrel

r oof

t he r ooms

a nd p orch m ust r emain a xially

a ligned;

t hus,

t he p lan o f t he m egaron i tself m ay p rovide e vidence f or a g abled r oof ( 1979:141). B ut t he f act r emains t hat m ost ' hall-and-porch ' t ype l arge a nd m udbrick c onstructed m egara p rovide n o c lear e vidence

f or

t he e xistence o f

t he h oop/barrel

r oof

t ypes.

S uch

r oofs a re d ifficult t o v isualize i n m udbrick c onstruction b ecause t he b ent s aplings r equired f or h oop r oofs c ould n ot h ave b een a nchored t o t he t ops o f t he b rick w alls. S uch a r oof w ould h ave b een m ore f easible i n a w attle-and-daub s tructure w here t he r oof w as p robably f ormed b y t he s aplings a lready a nchored i n t he w alls. I n

d iscussing t he b uilding t raditions

i s p ossible

t o p oint o ut c lose s imilarities

i n w estern A natolia

i t

t o

o f

t he a rchitecture

s outheast E urope a nd G reece w here m egaroid p lans a nd a psidal h ouses e xisted l ong b efore t he E arly B ronze A ge. T his s imilarity b uilding t raditions a nd s ettlement l ayout c ould i ndeed r eflect e xistence o f

c ommunities w ith s imilar e thnic b ackgrounds,

a ffinities a nd s ocial o rganization i n S outheast E urope,

i n t he

c ultural T hrace a nd

A natolia. L iterature:

N aumann 1 975;

M ellaart

1 959;

H rouda

1 972 a nd W arner

1 979. 3 .

N orthern A natolia E xcavations a t I kiztepe i n t he S amsun p rovince p rovide i mportant i nformation a bout p rehistoric a rchitecture i n t he P ontus r egion. I n t he L ate C halcolithic a nd E arly B ronze A ge i nhabitants o f i kiztepe a nd o ther c ontemporary s ettlements i n B afra

p lain

s eem

t o h ave m ade e xtensive u se o f w ood a nd

t he t he

m ud

i n

b uilding t heir h ouses a nd g ranaries. S tructures b uilt o f w attlea nd-daub o ften b urned f orming a n a ccumulation c omposed l argely o f s uccessive

l ayers o f d ecomposed w all p laster,

a sh a nd c harred w ood.

W ood a nd p ise s tructures t oo, w hen b urned, o ften t urn i nto a p ile o f u nrecognizable r emains. A s a r esult, n o c lear-cut h ouse p lans o r w ails a re s o f ar f ound i n t he e xcavations a t I kiztepe. A ny r econstruction i s l argely b ased o n t he a lignment o f p ost-holes a nd f lat-stones u sed a s s upports r egional a rchitecture c ould a lso p opular ( Yakar

f or w ooden p osts. T he a ncient b e r econstructed w ith t he h elp o f

v illage a rchitecture s een t oday a long t he B lack S ea a nd G arzon 1 976).

f ree-standing.

c oast

M ost d omestic s tructures m ust h ave b een

T hese r ested m ainly o n v ertical w ooden p osts w hich

w ere p artly d riven i nto

t he e arth.

T he s pace b etween t hese n eatly

a lligned p osts w as s ometimes f illed w ith p is . L ong h orizontal b eams w ere t hen p laced o n t op o f t hese p osts i n o rder t o b uild t he s uperior p art o f t he w alls. T he d ebris f ound o ver t he f loors a nd t he s ections o btained i n t he t renches s uggest t hat t he c ommon m ethod o f w alling u tilized a c ombination o f d iagonal, v ertical a nd e ither

f illed

w ith

h orizontal

p is6 o r c overed w ith i nterlaced t wigs w hich w ere t hen

p lank o r s plit-plank f ramework w hich w as

d aubed

w ith

c haff-tempered m ud.

B oth f aces o f

t he w alls w ere

p lastered

w ith l ime o r m ud a nd w hitewashed. T he a lignment o f t he f oundation p osts s uggest t hat h ouses w ere m ainly r ectangular i n p lan a nd s ubdivided i nto a n umber o f q uarters b y p artition w alls. I t i s a lso p ossible t o i magine t hat t his t ype o f a rchitecture i mposed c ertain s tructural l imits o n b uilding a nnexes o n t he s ide o f t he d wellings, m ainly b ecause o f t he r estrictions o f t he g abled r oofs.

5 4

A s a lready i ndicated, n ot a ll t he E B h ouses w ere b uilt t he w ay. I n s ome c ases i rregularly s paced l arge u nhewn s tones

s ame w ere

u sed t o s upport t he s ubstructure o f t he w alls. H ouse f loors ( e.g. k itchen q uarters) w ere u sually p lastered a nd a s a r esult o f p eriodic p roviding

r eplastering a nd r enovations t hey w ere e levated, t hus s ome o f t he n ecessary i nsulation a gainst e xtremely h umid

s urroundings. B ut s leeping q uarters i nside t he h ouses m ust h ave b een p rovided w ith a dditional i nsulation, s uch a s w ooden p lanks o verlying p lastered f loors, a nd e ven l ayers o f k i11ms o ver t he w ood f loor. I f t he c ontemporary v illage a rchitecture i n t he B lack S ea r egion i s t aken a s a m odel, t hen i t i s p ossible t o a ssume t hat s ome h ouses o f t he f ourth, t hird a nd s econd m illennia B C t oo w ere t imber r ested

s tructures. T he f oundations o f t hese h ouses s eem t o h ave o n c orner s tones a nd p osts p artly d riven i nto t he g round.

I n s uch l iterally e levated h ouses, t he f loors w ere b uilt o f p lanks p roviding m uch b etter i nsulation a gainst h umidity. t ypes o f e nclosed h earths

s plit A ll

h abitations w ere h eated b y m eans o f f ire p laces p robably b y l ow p isg w alls. I n h ouses w ith p lastered f loor t he w ere c ircular i n s hape.

I t

i s a lso p ossible

t o p ostulate

t he e xistence o f p ortable h earths i n t he f orm o f l arge c lay o r p edestaled p ottery r eceptacles c ontaining a s low b urning s ubstance, s uch a s d ried c akes o f d ung, t o h eat t he r ooms w ith w ooden f loors. O therwise r ooms w ith w ooden f loors w ould h ave b een h eated w ith c lay i nsulated f ire p laces b uilt a gainst o ne o f t he w alls o f t he r oom a nd p rovided w ith a w ooden c himney. T he b uilt-in h ousehold f urniture i ncluded a t l east t wo t ypes o f o vens, p robably b uilt I n k itchen

q uarters

i n e nclosed c ourts a djacent t o

t he

h ouses.

T he

f irst t ype, c haracteristic o f t his r egion, I s a l ow o val-shaped p isé o ven w ith a v aulted o pening. T he s econd i s a r ectangular o ven w hose

f loor w as c ompletely p aved w ith s mall p ottery

s herds.

T his

t ype o f o ven t oo, w hich i s a lso k nown i n e astern A natolia i n t he E B p eriod, w as e ncircled b y a l ow e nclosure w all m ade o f p isé. D ifferent t ypes o f v illage h ouses a nd g ranaries b uilt a g eneration ( or m ore) a go i n t he p rovinces o f K astamonu, S amsun, O rsu a nd G iresun c ould h elp A natolian a rchaeologists e stablish c ertain f ixed p rinciples a nd c haracteristics r egarding t he b uilding m aterials i n l ine w ith s tructural u sefulness. T hese e thnographic m odels t hen c ould b e u sed a s g uidelines i n t he t entative r econstruction o f L ate C halcolithic a nd E arly B ronze A ge v illage h ouses a t I kiztepe a nd n eighbouring

s ites.

F oundation w ork u sing l ogs d riven t wo-thirds

i nto t he s oil, o r w ooden b eams s et o ver s tone s labs a s s kirting b oards, n ot o nly c arries t he w eight o f t he h ouse b ut p rovides a 3 04 0cm s pace b etween t he s oil a nd t he w ooden h ouse f loor ( living a nd s leeping q uarters). S tone s labs d irectly p iled a bove t he s oil o ften t ake t he p lace o f l ogs o r b eams t o s erve s imilar p urposes. F oundation w ork i s c ompleted b y f illing i n a ll t he s pace b etween t he v ertical s upports w ith p isé. I n t he k itchen q uarter o f t he h ouses t he e arth f loor i s e levated a nd p lastered b ringing i t, m ore o r l ess, O ver t he

t o t he l evel o f t he w ooden f loor o f t he l iving q uarters. f oundation w ork a h orizontal w ooden w all p late i s p laced

t o c arry t he w ooden f loor p lanks. T hese p lanks a re f irmly h eld i n p lace b y a n u pper w all p late w hich s upports t he w ooden w all f rame. I n o rder t o s trengthen t he f rame, h orizontal a nd v ertical b eams a re t ied

t o

t he

f rame.

T opping a ll v ertical s truts,

a h orizontal b eam

i s s et t o b ind t he w all s tructure a nd s upport t he g abled r oof. O penings i n t he w alls i ntended f or w indows a re b ound b y a dditional h orizontal b eams p laced a gainst t he v ertical o nes. T he b inding

5 5

s ystem

o bserved

i n t he p opular a rchitecture o f

p robably u sed b y p rehistoric b uilders a s w ell. f astened a nd t ied

t his T he

t ogether w ith n ails b ut i nterlocked a t t ogether. D ifferent s ystems a re u sed

r egion

w as

t imbers a re n ot

t he n otched e nds i n f illing t he

w ooden f ramework o f w alls: a .

A l ath p anel a t e ach s ide o f

t he v ertical

l umber p ieces

w hich

i s f illed w ith s traw t empered m ud. B oth t he i nside o utside p anels a re c oated w ith a l ayer o f p lastered l ime. b .

A d ouble p anel s ystem a t e ach s ide o f p ieces w hich f orm t he f ramework. B oards

a nd

t he v ertical w ooden a re b ound t ogether b y

m eans o f t enon a nd m ortise j oints. N o m etal b inding f ixtures w ere e ver u sed o n a ny o f t he o ld h ouses s till e xisting i n t his r egion. c .

F illing

c onstisting o f

i nterlaced t wigs w hich

i n t urn t ake

a

f inal c oating o f s traw t empered m ud. T he

f ireplaces

a re s upplied w ith c himneys b uilt o f w ood

a nd

p is . T he c himney u sually s tands a s a n i ndependent u nit t hrough t he h ouse f ramework. T he f ireplace i s r aised s lightly o ver t he f loor l evel a nd c onsists o f a h eavy l ayer o f p ressed m ud r esting o n a s olid b ed a nd c overed b y a h ollow s tructure g radually t apering a t t he t op r ainfall

t o f orm t he f inal c himney l ine o utside t he i n t he a rea o f t he B lack S ea h as m ade i t

p rovide r oofs w ith r ather s teeply s loping s ides.

r oof. H eavy n ecessary t o

H ence,

t he s pan

r oof a nd t he h ipped r oof a re t he m ost f requent t ypes f ound, w ith t he c orresponding s tructure b uilt o f a s imple w ood t russ f ramework w hich l ies d irectly o n t he o utside w alls o f t he h ouse, f orming i n t he s pan r oof t ype a r idge p arallel t o t he f ront. R oof t russes s upported b y a s ingle b eam, o r w ith t he h elp o f b oarding, c arry t he o utside c overing o f t he r oof o n w hich r eeds a nd/or w ooden t iles a re s et. O ccasionally, f lat s tones a re t hen p laced o ver a ll a s a n o verweight t o p revent s trong w inds d amaging t he r oof c over. T he l ight r oofing m aterial a nd s cattered f lat s tones a mong t he d ebris o f t he E B h ouses a t I kiztepe s uggest t hat t his t ype o f r oof w as k nown i n t his r egion a s e arly a s t he l ate f ourth m illennium B C. T he t opographical a nd e nvironmental c onditions i n t he B lack S ea r egion,

w hich

r egions

i n

p reserved

i ncludes

i t o ne o f

t he

f ourth,

t he m ain t ype o f

u sed b y p astoralists,

i s

t he

f ew

t raditions

w ere

t hird a nd s econd m illennia B C a re

c on-

a lmost u nchanged b y v illage

A s f ar a s c erned,

t he P ontic r ange, m ake

A natolia w here a ncient a rchitectural

s ettlement,

c ommunities.

e xcept

t he p ossible

t he m ixed f arming v illage.

c amp s ites

S ome o f

t hese

v illages m ay h ave b een q uite l arge a nd p ossibly f ortified, w hile o thers w ere s mall a nd o pen. I n t he s econd m illennium B C., H ittite t exts r eferring t o t he K a ka t ribes l iving m ainly i n t his r egion d escribe t heir s ettlements a s b eing f ortified. I n v iew o f c ont inuity

i n a rchitectural

t raditions o ne m ay p ostulate

c ertain s ettlements w ere f ortified i n t he E B p eriod, t ion w alls m ust h ave b een l argely b uilt o f w ood. L iterature:

Y akar a nd G arzon 1 976;

5 6

A lkim,

H .

1 983.

t hat e ven i f

t he f ortifica-

4 .

E astern A natolia I n

t his m ountainous r egion b uilding t raditions

a nd t hird a nother.

i n t he

f ourth

m illenia B C v ary f rom o ne g eographical p rovince t o I n t he E rzurum, K ars a nd A rdahan p rovinces, t he l ittle

a vailable e vidence f rom e xcavations a t K araz, P ulur, G t lzelova o r A zat H 8yt 1k ( and f ield s urveys) s uggest t hat m ost s ettlements w ere e xtended o pen v illages a nd s mall a gglomerations.

H ouses m ade u p o f

t wo o r m ore r ooms w ere b uilt o f m udbrick w alls r esting u pon s tone f oundations. I n t hat r espect, a nd a s f ar a s h ouse p lans a re c onc erned, t here a re a n umber o f c lose s imilarities b etween t he d omestic d wellings o f n orth-central Anatolia ( e.g. A lacah8yt Ik, ß t lyt tk G t lllt icek) a nd t he h ighlands o f e astern A natolia ( e.g. K araz, P ulur). I t i s n ot c lear i f v illages o f e astern A natolia w ere s urrounded t hese t rade)

b y f ortification w alls.

b e l ogical o f

B ut c onsidering t hat m ost

o f

s ettlements w ere l ocated a long t he t raditional i nvasion ( and r outes f rom t he n ortheast ( e.g. G eorgia a nd A rmenia) i t m ay t o a ssume

t hat f ortifications c ould h ave e xisted i n s ome

t hem . I n A ltinova ( the K eban D am R eservoir a rea),

a nd i n t he M alatya

p lain, a rchitectural r emains u nearthed i n L ate C halcolithic a nd E arly B ronze A ge s ites c learly s uggest t he e xistence o f d ifferent b uilding t raditions r eflected i n t he c onstruction m aterial a nd p lan o f d omestic d wellings a nd p ublic" b uildings. T he m ain s ettlements w hich p rovide s tratified e vidence t o e xamine t he d evelopment o f r egional

a rchitecture

K orucutepe,

P ulur

i n

( Sakyol),

t his

r egion

N or su ntepe,

a re

T epecik,

t he

T t llintepe,

A rsiantepe a nd D e irmen-

t epe. M esopotamian i nfluence i n t he r egional b uilding t radition i s p articularly e vident i n t he m ercantile t owns o f t he P rotoliterate p eriod i n A ltinova, M alatya a nd i n t he E uphrates b asin ( e.g. A rsiantepe, T epecik, N orsuntepe, H assek H 8yi lk). T he l arge b uildings w ith t ripartite d ivision r esemble i n m any w ays t he t raditional L ate U ruk s tructures u nearthed n ot o nly a t H assek H 8yt 1k b ut a lso i n n orth S yria a t H abuba K ahira S outh a nd T el K annas. S uch

m onumental

b uildings

w ere b uilt w ith t hick

m udbrick

w alls

s ometimes r esting o n s tone f oundations ( e.g. T epecik). C onsidering t he t hickness o f e xterior a nd p artition w alls i n c ertain s tructures ( e.g. A rsiantepe V IA) i t i s p ossible t o t entatively r econstruct t he l arge p ublic b uildings s uch a s t emples o r a dministrative c omplexes w ith a n a dditional f loor. T he e xposed p ortions o f B uildings I V a nd I II a t A rsiantepe s uggest t hat l ocal b uilders w ere r ather f amiliar w ith b oth d ecorative a nd f unctional c oncepts o f

S outh

M esopotamian

a rchitecture. C entrally l ocated l arge h alls a re s urrounded b y s maller r ectangular r ooms w hich a re f unctionally i nterrelated. L arge

r ooms

t heir w alls. c arved n iches

a re p rovided w ith c lay b enches a long o ne o r

o f U ruk p eriod a rchitecture i n e astern a nd s outheastern W alls a nd f loors a re u sually p lastered a nd w hitewashed. t hat t ered w all

m ore

o f

S lit w indows b etween r ooms, m udbrick b uttresses a nd i n t hick w alls a re a mong t he c haracteristic f eatures

i n c ertain c omplexes o f

A natolia. I t s eems

p articular i mportance t he w hite

p las-

w alls w ere d ecorated w ith c lay c ones ( e.g. H assek H 8yt 1k), p aintings a nd s eal i mpressions. L ocal a spects i n t his

r egional a rchitecture a re b etter o bserved i n d omestic b uildings. A t N orsuntepe, i n a ddition t o a m ultiroom s tructure u sed a s a l arge 1 5 7

i ndustrial c omplex, s ingle r oom r ectangular d wellings b uilt o f m udbrick w alls w ithout s tone f oundations a nd p rovided w ith a c entrally

l ocated

r ound

s pecialized w orkers I n

f ireplace

s uggest t he

e xistence

o f

a

q uarter.

t he E B I p eriod s ettlements w ere g enerally

s urrounded

b y

f ortification w alls b uilt p artly o f s tone a nd p artly o f m udbricks. T he r eason f or t his c ould w ell b e t hat n ew p opulation m ovements f rom T ranscaucasia p osed a s erious

t hreat

t o

t he e xistence o f

m ost

m ercantile a nd f arming s ettlements i n A lt i nova a nd i n t he E uphrates b asin. T here i s a c ertain d egree o f u niformity i n t he c onstruction o f d efinite t own a nd v illage w alls i n t his r egion. I n d omestic a rchitecture t he p ersistence o f i n t he v illage a rchitecture o f

l ocal L ate C halcolithic t raditions t he E B IIl p eriod i s m ost e vident.

A t K orucutepe t he E B h ouses h ad c eilings m ade w ith o ak b eams a nd r ushes; t he w alls w ere b uilt w ith a s pacious a rray o f c lay a nd m ud p laster. R ectangular c lay p latforms, c ircular a nd s unk f ireplaces a nd t he

h orseshoe-shaped h earths w ere a mong t he i mportant f eatures l iving q uarters. I n c ertain s ettlements t he b uilders h ad

o f t o

b uild m udbrick t erraces s upported b y s tone w alls i n o rder t o e xpand t he h abitation a rea. A t T epecik t he l evel s ections r esulting f rom t he c onstruction f or n ew b uildings.

o f

t hese t errace w alls w ere u sed a s f oundations A t N or untepe t he m udbrick a rchitecture o f t he

e arly E B I l evels w as r eplaced b y a n ew b uilding t radition w hich s eems t o h ave o riginated i n t he C aucasus ( Hauptmann 1 979:60). I n t his i ntruding t radition, w hich g radually s pread t o s ome o ther s ettlements i n t his r egion ( De irmentepe, H an I brahim S ah, A van), h ouses w ere b uilt o f w ood a nd p isê. T hese s ingle r oom r ectangular d wellings h ad s lightly r ounded c orners. T he w all s tructure c ons isted o f w ooden p osts d riven i nto t he s oil w ith 2 0-30cm s pace b etween t hem . T his s pace m ust h ave b een f illed a t t he l ower w all s ections w ith p lsê ad u pper s ections p robably w ith i nterwoven t wigs a nd p lastered o ver o n b oth s ides. e vidence m easured T he

T he e xcavations

p roduced

t hat t he i nterior w alls o f s uch h ouses, w hich i n a verage 4 x 6 m etres w ere c oated w ith p laster s ome 1 5cm t hick.

r ooms w ere p rovided w ith c lay b enches,

a nd a c ircular

f ireplace

p laced a gainst t he b ack w all ( Fig.XXII: 9 ). A t P ulur ( Sakyol) i n l evels c ontemporary w ith t his p hase o f N or untepe i n t he K eban, t he a rchitectural r emains s uggest t he e xistence o f a d ifferent b uilding t radition; m udbrick r ow h ouses b uilt n ext t o e ach

l ocal o ther

f ollowed t he c ircular l ayout o f t he f ortified v illage ( Fig.III,1). B oth t he c onstruction m aterial u sed, m udbricks a nd s tone f oundat ions, a nd t he e longated h ouses w ith p artition w alls, s uggest t hat a t l east i n t his s ettlement t he T ranscaucasian a nd C aucasian t radit ions d id n ot h ave m uch o f a n i mpact o n t he l ocal t radition. I n f act, t he p lan o f t his s ettlement c an b e b est c ompared w ith t he E B I -II n ucleated s ettlement o f D emircih8y t 1k i n w estern A natolia ( Fig.I,1). N orth S yrian a nd M esopotamian i nfluence o n t he b uilding t radition i n t his r egion b ecomes a pparent a gain i n t he s econd h alf o f t he t hird m illennium B C. T he w alls o f h ouses a re a gain b uilt o f l arge m udbricks a nd c overed w ith l ight c oloured p laster. T he t hickness o f w alls w hich s ometimes w ere b uilt i n t he f orm o f d ouble w alls a djacent t o e ach o ther, c ould s uggest t hat m ost l arge s tructures w ere t wo-storeyed. T he l arge c omplexes w ere a lways b uilt o n t erraces i n t he c entral p art o f t he t own s ettlements. A s f or h ouses, r egardless o f t heir s ize a nd n umber o f r ooms i n e ach u nit,

t hey

w ere

a lligned a long a n etwork o f

5 8

a lleys

a nd

s treets

c onnecting t he r esidential q uarters w ith t he a dministrative a nd r eligious c omplexes s ituated o n h igher g rounds ( e.g. N or untepe V III-VI; K orucutepe). T he c haracteristic a rchitectural f eatures o f t his p eriod i nclude h ouses c onsisting o f m ore t han 4 -5 r ooms, c entral r ooms w ith l arge f ireplaces o n r aised p latforms, l arge o vens, s torage r ooms c ontaining r ows o f s torage j ars p artly b uried i n t he 'p ublic'

p lastered f loor, b uildings. I t

l arge s hould

h alls a nd c ult r oom(s) w ithin b e e mphasized h ere t hat w hile

s outhern i nfluence i s m ore e vident i n s tructural c oncepts, g eneral p lan o f s ettlements c annot b e s aid t o r esemble c losely p lans o f m ajor c ities o f L iterature:

5 .

t he s outh.

H auptmann 1 979; 1 972;

t he t he

1 974;

A urenche

1 981;

N aumann 1 975;

E sin

P almieri 1 981.

S outheastern A natolia A reas w est o f t he E uphrates d eveloped a r egional e arly u rban a rchitecture v ery s imilar t o t hat k nown i n t he O rontes v alley a nd m iddle

E uphrates

v alley.

T here

i s l ittle

r eason t o

d oubt ,

f or

i nstance, t hat a s a t T ell M ardigh I IB, a t C archemish, T u r nen o r S amsat l arge u rban c entres m ay h ave e xisted u nder t he t hick r uins o f t he I ron A ge a nd s econd m illennium c ities. E xcavations i n t he Amuq, I slahiye a nd Z incirli p lains p roduced s ome e vidence o f s tone a nd m udbrick a rchitecture c ombined w ith w ood. b uilders d id n ot s uffer f rom a l ack o f a ny m aterial. t he

S tone a nd w ood w ere

Amanus

a nd A ntitaurus.

I n f act t he l ocal p articular b uilding

r eadily a vailable i n a reas A s

f or m udbrick,

t he l ong

c lose a nd

t o h ot

S yrian s ummers m ust h ave m ade i t p ossible f or t he l ocal i nhabitants a nd a rchitects t o p repare l arge q uantities o f t his t raditional b uilding m aterial a nd l et i t d ry i n t he o pen f ields. I t i s n o c oincidence t hat w ith s uch a bundant a nd v aried m aterial a t t heir d isposal, i ncluding t he r ather t all t rees f rom t he Amanus, t he r egional a rchitecture o f s outheastern A natolia i n t he f ourth a nd t hird m illennia B C h ad a m ore m onumental a nd s ophisticated c haracter t han s ome o f i ts c ontemporaries i n o ther p arts o f Anatolia. E xcavations i n t he U rfa p rovince, e ast o f t he E uphrates, c learly i ndicate t hat s mall t owns s tarted t o e merge i n t he P rotoliterate b -c p eriod. T hese L ate U ruk s ettlements s eem t o h ave b een p lanned a ccording t o M esopotamian m odels m iddle E uphrates v alley. B ut t he s tructures b y l ocals t echniques. a re

i n s outhern I raq a nd t hemselves w ere b uilt

a ccording t o t heir c ustomary c onstruction m aterial a nd T he d ry m asonry o f E B I II c hamber t ombs i n t his r egion

a mong t he

f ew s urviving

e xamples o f

s tone w all

a rchitecture

p robably v ery s imilar t o s tone s ubstructures u sed i n d omestic a rchitecture. I n t he E B p eriod m ost s ettlements w ere s urrounded b y r ather m assive f ortificaion w alls b uilt o f s tones a nd m udbricks. T hese w alls w ere g enerally b uilt o n e mbankments s upported b y a ddit ional w alls. L arge p ublic b uildings, s ometimes c onstructed o n e levated

t erraces,

s eem t o h ave b een c entrally l ocated

r egardless

o f t he s ize o f t he s ettlement. R oofs o f s ingle o r t wo-storeyed s tructures m ust h ave b een f lat, p roviding f or a dditional w orking a nd l iving s pace. T he o nly c hange i n t he r egional a rchitecture, w hich c ould b e s eems

t o h ave o ccurred

e xpansion p eriod.

i nterpreted a s

b eing

i ntroduced b y o utside e lements,

t o a l imited e xtent

i n t he Amuq d uring

o f T ranscaucasian/east A natolian f ramework i n t he E B A s

i n

e ast A natolian E B I a nd E B

5 9

I II

p eriod,

t he I I

d omestic

h ouses

i n t his r egion t oo w ere m ainly o ne o r t wo r oom u nits a ligned

a long a lleys a nd s treets. H owever, l arger h ouses m ust h ave e xisted i n m ajor t owns s uch a s L idar a nd S amsat i n t he U rfa-Adiyan iaf l p rovinces o r T ilmen a nd C archemish i n t he G aziantep p rovince. L iterature:

B raidwood 1 981b;

6 .

a nd

1 982;

B raidwood 1 960;

B ehm-Blancke

1 981a;

H auptmann 1 983.

C ilicia T he a rchitectural d evelopment i n t his r egion r eflects t he i mpact o f v arious c ultural i nfluences f rom t he n orthwest, s outhw est, n orth a nd e astern A natolia d uring t he f ourth a nd t hird m illennia B C. I n t he L ate C halcolithic a nd E B I p eriod ( protou rban) b uilding t raditions, a s f ar a s o ne i s a ble t o r econstruct f rom t he m eagre e vidence a vailable f rom M ersin a nd T arsus, d istantly r esemble

t hose o f

n orthern S yria.

T he w alled

t own o f

t he

E B I I p eriod a t T arsus, u nfortunately o nly p artly e xposed, i s c ons idered h ere a m odel f or u rban a rchitecture w hich m ust h ave e xisted i n t his r egion a nd i n a reas a cross t he A manus. o r c entral A natolia, t he b uilders u sed t he m aterials,

n amely,

s tone,

A s i n s outheastern l ocally a vailable

m udbrick a nd t imber.

T imber w as

a lso

u sed i n t he p reparation o f t hick s tone f oundations f or i n udbrick f ortification w alls. T hese w ere e mbedded h orizontally i nto l ayers o f s tone i n t he f oundation t renches. H ouse w alls w ere n ot t hick e nough t o c arry a s econd s torey b uilt o f m udbricks, h owever, o ne c annot r ule o ut t he p ossibility t hat t hese w ere b uilt o f l ighter m aterial a nd n ot a s h igh a s t he f irst f loors. H ouses c onsisted o f t wo o r m ore r ooms o f d ifferent s izes. T hey o pened t o a s treet o r a lley. T he s mall r ooms s eem t o h ave b een u sed a s w orkshops a nd s torage a reas. H ouses w ere p rovided w ith e laborate f ireplaces a nd o vens

( Diamant

a nd

R utter

1 969).

W ith

t he

a rrival

o f

w est

A natolian i mmigrants i n t he E B I II p eriod, t he s ettlement o f T arsus u nderwent a d rastic c hange. I nstead o f t he n eat u rban p lanning o f l ocal ( and/or n orth S yrian) c haracter, t he n ewcomers w ho i ntroduced a n ew b uilding t ype w hich r esembled t he m egaron p lan o f s outhw estern A natolia, c reated a n o vercrowded s ettlement w ith n o i mmediate

c oncern f or p reserving t he l ayout o f

t he r oad n etwork o r

f ortification s ystem, o r r ebuilding t hem. I t i s o bvious t hat t he n ew m egaroid p lans a t T arsus c onstitute c lear e vidence o f a p opulat ion

m ovement p robably

f rom w est-central Anatolia a nd

p enetrating

t he p lain o f C ilicia t hrough t he G 8ksu v alley. T he d istribution o f w estern p ottery f orms i n t he p lain o f I slahiye a nd t he m egaroid h ouse f orms a t T ell C huera m ay i ndicate t hat t he i mmigrant m ay h ave c rossed t he A manus. L iterature:

G oldman 1 956;

H rouda

1 970;

G arstang

1 953.

P OPULATION D ENSITY A ssuming

t hat n o g reat f unctional o r s tructural c hanges

t he v illage r egions o f p rehistoric d emographic,

a ffected

a rchitecture a nd t he b asic v illage o rganization i n A natolia ( except t he w estern p lateau) s ince t imes, a e conomic

g eographically

c ompilation o f e thnological d ata a nd s ocial m odels i n c ulturally,

i solated f arming a nd p astoral c ommunities

6 0

m ost l ater

r elating t o s ocially a nd c ould

a ssist

i n

a ssessing

t he

s ettlement

p attern a nd f actors

w hich

c ould

h ave

i nfluenced t he p opulation d ensity i n t he L ate C halcolithic a nd E arly B ronze A ge. H owever, a ny a ssessment o f c hanges i n t he l ife o f p reh istoric 1 .

c ommunities a nd t heir e conomies m ust a lso t ake i nto

P alaeoenvironmental f actors w hich c ould h ave

i nfluenced

m ent p attern d uring t he H olocene p eriod ( the c hoice o f u sually a p rehistoric m ound s ituated n ear a s pring). 2 .

A nthropological

( physical)

T he

f act

p opulated

t hat

t he s ettlel ocation

d ata r elating t o l ife e xpectancy

d ifferent a ge a nd s ex g roups i n s edentary a nd n omadic g roups i n t he p ast f ew g enerations. 3 .

a ccount:

p opulation m ovements a ffected

i f

a mong

p ossible

m ainly

t he

i s

s emi -

d ensely

r egions s uch a s r iver v alleys a nd f ertile p lains.

E astern A natolia i s c ertainly o ne o f t he r egions i n t he N ear E ast w here f ield a rchaeologists c an s tudy d ifferent d emographic a nd e conomic m odels

i n r emote v illages.

T he p lains,

f lat e xpanses a nd t he

r ugged

l and i n t he v icinity o f U rfa, A diyaman, E lazig, D iyarbakir, M ardir i a nd S iirt a re c haracterized b y c ompact r ather t han s cattered s ettlements. V illages, v illage n eighbourhoods a nd h amlets a ll c onform t o t his p attern.

A part

f rom e conomic a nd e nvironmental

f actors,

f amily

a nd

t ribal s ystems a nd t he n eed t o p reserve c ertain s ocial a nd c ultural n orms w ere t he m ain r easons f or m aintaining s uch s mall a nd c losed s ettlements. I n a rchitecture t his t ype o f s ettlement i s m anifested i n h ouse u nits b eing b uilt

t he

b ack t o b ack o r c onnected w ith c ourtyard w alls.

A rchaeologists d ealing w ith t he q uestion o f p opulation d ensity i n p ast l ike t o b ase t heir c alculations p artly o n t he n umber o f

b urials o r t ombs f ound i n e xtramural c emeteries b elonging t o p articular s ettlements. T he m ain p roblem, h owever, i s t o c alculate t he n umber o f i nhabitants i n s ettlements w ith n o c lear b urial g round. T his p oint c ould l ead o ne t o s tudy t he c ontemporary m odels w here c emeteries i n c ertain v illages i n t he e ast i s w ell

t he a bsence o f u nderstood a nd

a nthropologically d ocumented. T he d ead a re p referably b uried a t t heir a ncestral p lace o f o rigin e ven i f t his m eans t ransporting t he d eceased l ong d istances o f 2 0-30km o r e ven m ore. S ome v illages i n t he p rovinces o f M alatya a nd E lazig 'h ave a v ery i nteresting a nd r ather r ecent h istory o f o ccupation. A g ood n umber o f t hem w ere i nhabited b y f armers o f d ifferent e thnic o rigins s uch a s K urdish, A rmenian a nd S unii M uslim g roups. O ne s uch v illage w as M unzuro lu, n ow s ubmerged i n t he K eban r eservoir. A bout 9 0 y ears a go t his v illage i s s aid t o h ave b een r ebuilt b y i ts i nhabitants o nly a f ew h undred m etres a way f rom i ts o riginal l ocation. T he o riginal v illage w as a bandoned b ecause h ouses c ould n o l onger b e r epaired d ue t o t heir a dvanced s tate d ilapidation.

T he n ew s ettlement g rew s teadily n ot o nly a s a r esult

t he o f o f

t he n atural i ncrease o f i ts i nhabitants ( e.g. b irths) b ut a lso w ith t he a rrival o f n ewcomers w hich i ncluded i mmigrants f rom t he n ortheast a nd f rom b ut

t he B alkans. n ot

T he n ewcomers

l arge h ouses

t he v illage.

A s

f or

l ike

b uilt

s mall s ingle-room h ouse

t he o nes i nhabited b y

t he f ormer ( abandoned)

u nits

t he o lder f armers

v illage

s ite,

i t w as

o f n ot

o ccupied a gain. I n f act i t w as f urther d emolished w hen s ome o f t he r elatively w ell p reserved m udbrick w alls a nd s tone f oundations w ere d ismantled t o p rovide n ew b uilding m aterial. I n r etrospect, t he e xample o f M unzuro lu c an s erve t o r econstruct c ertain p ractices i n s edentary c ommunities o f t he d istant p ast. M udbrick c onstructions

6 1

u sually d o n ot l ast m ore t han t wo t o t hree g enerations, a nd r arely f our, a nd r equire r epairs o nce o r t wice a y ear a ccording t o t he h arshn ess o f w inters a nd o ccasional e arthquakes. T herefore, s ettlements c ould w ell h ave s hifted s ome d istance f rom t heir s ite a nd, i n s ome e xtreme c ases, b een a bandoned a ltogether.

n umerous o riginal I n t he

c ase o f s hifting s ettlements t he t otal a rea c overed b y h ouse r emains m ay g ive t he a rchaeologist t he i mpression, e specially i n t he c ase o f o pen s ettlements, t hat t he h abitation s ite m ust h ave b een a l arge o ne, W ith r egards t o s ettlements w hich s eem t o h ave b een a bandoned f or o ne r eason o r a nother, t he e thnological d ata c ompiled i n t he E lazi g p rovince d uring t he c reation o f t he K eban D am r eservoir c ould s erve a s a g ood b asis t o e valuate t he n ature o f l ow m ound f ormations o f l ate p rehistoric t imes. W hen v illages h ad t o b e a bandoned b ecause o f t he r ising h ouses.

w aters o f t he I n a ddition,

t imbers

a nd

r afters

r eservoir f amilies l iterally d oors a nd w indow f rames w ere

d ismantled d ismantled,

w ere a lso c arried a way t ogether

w ith

t heir r oof

h ousehold

f urniture. O nce t his w as d one l arge q uantities o f w ell-preserved s und ried m udbricks w ere t aken o ut o f w alls. M udbrick s tructures a bandoned t his w ay t urn i nto a h uge h eap o f m ud a fter a c ouple o f r ainy w inters, a nd i n s ome c ases, i n u ndulated t errain, d isappear a ltogether u nder t hick v egetation g rowth. T herefore, w hen c alculating t he p opulation d ensity o f l ate p rehistoric s ettlements i n A natolia, i t i s n ecessary t o t ake i nto c onsideration t hat l arge n umbers o f v illages a nd t owns w ere b eing a bandoned p ermanently a ll a long, s ometimes a fter b eing i nhabited o nly f or a s hort p eriod o f t ime. P ottery t ypology c annot a lways h elp u s i n a ssessing t he d uration o f p articular s ettlements. I n t he e ast, f or i nstance, t he d ark m onochrome T ranscaucasian t ype p ottery f ound o n t he s urface c riteria t o A lthough i t

o f m ost m ounds i s b y n o m eans a n d ate t he o ccupation p eriod o f a i s

p ossible

t o

a ccurate c hronological p articular s ettlement.

t ry a nd c alculate t he p opulation o f a w alled

s ettlement b y t he n umber o f h ouses a nd e stimating t he n umber o f p ersons p er h ouse, i t i s v ery d ifficult i ndeed t o w ork o ut t he p opulation e stimate o f a n e xtensive r egion a t a g iven t ime, u nless o f c ourse r elevant d ata f or s uch c alculations a re c onsidered a bsolutely r eliable. I n

a reas w hich w ere f ormer l ake b eds,

s wamps

( in t he M iddle H olocene)

a nd s ea/lake s hores h uman a ctivity m ust h ave b een a ffected b y e nvironm ental c onditions a nd t ectonic e vents. T he r elative s carcity o f a ncient s ettlements a long t he s hore o f L ake V an c ould a lso b e e xplained a s t he d irect c onsequence o f t he r ising l evel o f t his l ake ( which h ad n o s urface o utlet) a nd t he s ubsequent i nundation o f p rehistoric s ettlem ents a nd c ultivable p atches o f f arm l and a long i ts s hores. A lthough w e c an g uess d ensity, w e

t he r easons c ausing c hanges i n t he s ettlement p attern a nd a re s till a l ong w ay o ff e stimating w ith a ny c onvincing

a ccuracy t he p opulation d ensities o n a r egional b asis. t he a mount o f f ood w hich c ould h ave b een p roduced o n l and c ould b e s omehow e stimated a nd u sed a s a b asis

I t i s t rue t hat t he c ultivable

f or e stimating

t he

p opulation o f s mall r egions ( Hillman 1 973a-b). C onsidering t he s ize o f p rehistoric s ettlements i n A natolia a nd t heir d istribution p attern i n f ertile

p lains,

l ake s hores,

r iver v alleys

a nd c oastal

s trips,

i t i s

p ossible t o s uggest t hat a mong t he d ensely p opulated a reas o f l ate p rehistoric A natolia a re: t he p lains o f A muq, l slahiye, Z incirli, t he p rovince o f G aziantepe, t he E uphrates b asin, t he U pper E uphrates M urat v alleys, t he T igris v alley, t he H arran d istrict, C ilicia, K onya p lain, I f h 8y t lk

w e a s

a nd t he

t he B afra p lain a nd t he s outhwestern l ake d istrict. t ake

a n E arly B ronze A ge

a s tandard

s ettlement l ike P ulur o r

v illage w ith 2 5 h ouses,

6 2

D emirci-

a nd e stimate s ix t o e ight

s ouls p er h ousehold, o r 1 50-200 i nhabitants f or a v illage t his s ize, t hen w e m ust a lso c onsider t hat w ith d ry f arming a s t he m ain m ean o f s ubsistence e ach h ousehold w ould h ave n eeded f our t o s ix a cres c ultivable l and i n t he p roximity o f t he v illage. I n o ther w ords v illage

c onsisting o f 2 5 f amilies w ould h ave

c ontrolled m ore t han

o f a 1 00

a cres o f l and. T he r eason f or a ssigning s o m uch l and p er v illage c ould b e e xplained i n t erms o f p rimitive f arming n ecessitating a c ertain n umber o f f allow y ears ( two, t hree o r e ven m ore), a fter a y ear o r t wo o f

c ropping.

I t

i s l ogical

t o p ostulate t hat w hen p lots

f or

f arming

w ere e xpanded a t o ne e nd, a t t he o ther e nd t hey w ere a bandoned, a nd t he d istance e ach f amily h ad t o t ravel f rom t he v illage t o t he f ields i ncreased c onsiderably ( measured i n k m). A fter a c ertain t ime t he c hoice h ad t o b e m ade b etween i rrigated f arming o r c ontinuing w ith s hifting a griculture w hich m eant t he e ventual a bandonment o f t he p ermanent h abitation s ite. T his p roblem w as c ertainly n ot a s a cute i n t he r iver v alleys a s i t w as i n a reas w ith m ore l imited w ater s upplies a nd p oorer a nnual p recipitation. A s f or l arger s ettlements w ith c entrally o rganized l abour d ivision a nd t rade, a gricultural c ould h ave b een o btained f rom o ther s ettlements i n t he f orm o f g oods

o r e ven t axes

p roducts e xchange

i n r eturn f or l and c oncessions.

C onsidering e very a spect o f a rchaeological, a nthropological a nd e thnological e vidence r elevant t o t he p roblem o f p opulation d ensity, i t i s s till d ifficult t o c ome u p w ith a c onvincing p icture r egarding t he l ater p rehistory o f A natolia. T he p urpose o f t his s ection i s n ot t o d iscourage r ather t o s hould

f uture i nvestigations i nto t his i mportant w arn o f n umerous 'pitfalls' s urrounding i t.

a lso b e s tressed

t hat w hen d ealing w ith n umbers

e ach 'possible' h ouse u nit, i t f or g ranted u nderstand i t. h ouse

b ecause

s ubject, F inally, o f

b ut i t

r ooms w ithin

o r e ven i ndividual h uts o r h ouses,

w e t ake

t hat e ach u nit b elonged t o a f amily i n t he s ense w e B ut w hat i f e ach f amily g roup o wned m ore t han o ne e ach m ale m ay h ave h ad m ore t han o ne

w oman.

I n

s uch

c ases e ven t he m ost c onservative e stimates o f t he n umber o f i nhabitants p er h ouse, a nd t herefore p er v illage, w ould b e v ery m isleading. C alculating t he s ize o f a v illage s ettlement p opulation d ensity f rom t he s ize o f i ts c emetery,

i n i f

t erms o f e xposed

p letely, a ccuracy

c ould p roduce a r elatively a ccurate e stimate. d epends t o a l arge e xtent o n w hether t he d eath

v arious

a ge

m easurements.

g roups l t

c ould

b e

e stablished

c ould b e r oughly e stimated

t hrough

i ts c om-

B ut t his r ate a mong

a nthropological

t hat a s mall

s ettlement o f

a bout 2 50-300 i nhabitants, w ho h ad a d eath r ate s lightly l ower t han a b irth r ate ( ca.1% a nnual i ncrease), c ould h ave p roduced a c emetery o f m ore t han 5 00 b urials o ver a p eriod o f 2 0 g enerations C hapter X III).

6 3

o r

m ore

( see

F igure I :

F ourth a nd T hird M illennia S ettlement T ypes i n A natolia a nd t he A egean B asin

1 .

K urucay

L ate

C halcolithic

l evel 6 A.

T his

s ettlement

c ould

b e

c onsidered a c haracteristic v illage t ype o f t he p roto-urban p eriod i n t he w estern h interland. H ouses a re r ectangular, m easuring c a.6 x 9 m a nd u sually s ingle-roomed. S ome o f t he m udbrick w alls o n s tone f oundations a re p reserved t o a h eight o f 2 .5m .

r esting I n t he

c entre o f e ach h ouse t here i s a r ound h earth w ith a s creen o f m udbrick. T hese f ireplaces m ay h ave a lso s erved a s f ire-altars d uring c ertain r ituals. A n o ven o r s econd h earth m ay e xist i n a c orner o f

t he f ree-standing h ouses.

W ooden f rames o f

f ound i n t he t imber s uperstructure.

T he v illage w as

d oorways a re s urrounded b y

a p rotective w all w hich w as s trengthened a t p laces b y t he c onstruct ion o f a djacent r ooms. T his d efensive w all i n f act w as c reated b y c onnecting t he o uter w alls o f h ouses b uilt o n t he p erimeter o f t he v illage. 1 980; 2 .

F or a dditional s tructural d etails a nd p lans

T hermi I I ( EBila). t he

s ee:

D uru

1 983.

e arly

A lthough t he p eriod o f T hermi I I c orresponds

u rban o f c ental A natolia a nd

C ilicia,

t he

t o

s ettlement

i tself c ould h ardly b e d escribed a s a t own w ith c learly u rban f eatures. T here i s s till n o c lear t own p lanning a nd n ot a ll t he h ousing u nits a re b uilt a long n arrow a lleys o r s treets. S ome o f t he h ouses, h owever, a re t rue m egarons. T hese a re c loser i n p lan t o t hose k nown f rom E utresis t han t hey a re t o t hose o f T roy I o r e ven D emircih8yIk. 1 975; T reuil 1 983. 3 .

T roy t o

I ( early).

F or s tructural d etails s ee:

s mall c ommunities o r

F igure I I:

N aumann

T hese a re n ot

u rban p lanning b ut r ather n ucleated s ettlements

t ural d etails

1 936;

S imilar c itadels w ith s trong f ortifications s eem

h ave e xisted a t K lazomenai a nd B esiktepe.

w ith

L amb

t he r uling c lass o f t ribal g roups.

s ee T roy

t owns

i nhabited

b y

F or s truc-

I .

T hird M illennium S ettlement T ypes i n A natolia a nd

t he

A egean B asin 1 .

K arata T his o f

( the c entral f ortified c ompound-early

t he

l ater

c asemate w alls

M ellink ( 1974:352-354), a re

t hird m illennium B C).

c ompartmented d ouble e nclosure w all i s o ne o f

d etermined

b y

f ound

i n

t he c ontinuous,

t he s tructural

A natolia.

t he p rototypes A ccording

r ounded c ontours

m aterials.

S imilar

t o

a t K arata f ortified

c ompounds e nclosing l iving a nd s torage s paces ( tightly n ucleated v illage) c ould b e e xpected i n a reas w here t imber a nd w attle-and d aub c onstruction s urvived i nto t he B ronze A ge ( e.g. E urope-Mellink 1 974:353). a ffinities

M ellink o f

t his

h as

c orrectly

s ettlement

t o

p ointed

t he

o ut

t he

a gglutinative

g eneral e nclosures

r epresented i n L ate N eolithic D imini ( 1974:353,n.4). 2 .

P oliochni V ( EB I II). o n

L emnos

s howing

T his s ettlement o f

i s a g ood e xample o f

s ome

a s mall

e arly u rban f eatures.

B ernabo Brea 1 964;

S inos

1 971.

6 4

l ater t hird m illennium B C f ortified

m aritime

t own

F or s tructural d etails

s ee:

6 5

3 .

T roy

T Ic

( EBIlIa).

( ?).

a ristocracy 1 959; 4 .

A f ortified p alace c omplex h ousing a

F or s tructural d etails s ee:

T roy

I ;

f iling

M ellaart

N aumann 1 975.

H eraior i-Samos ( EBIII). L ong m egaroid h ouses w ithin a t hick f ortif ication w all. F or s tructural d etails s ee ( Chapter V : A rchaeol ogical S ources).

5 .

A hiatlibel ( EBII/lil). A r uling c lass i n t he c entral

h eavily f ortified s mall c itadel o f p lateau. A t K oçumbeli w e m ay h ave

a a

r ather s imilar s ettlement.

F igure Il l: 1 .

T hird M illennium S ettlement T ypes i n A natolia

P ulur-Keban. A s mall v illage o f E BI/Il p eriod. T he e nclosure w all s eems t o h ave b een f urther s trengthened b y t he a butting o uter w alls o f h ouses. T his v illage i n e astern A natolia h as a l ayout w hich i s v ery s imilar t o t he c losely n ucleated s ettlement f orm f ound i n . the w est

A natolian

d etails s ee: 2 .

N or untepe

h interland

K osay 1 968; E B TUB.

( e.g.

D emircih8yl lk).

F or

s tructural

1 969.

P art o f

t he p alace c omplex d ated

t o

c a-2200

B C. N o 9untepe V I h as a n umber o f a rchitectural f eatures w hich s uggest t hat t he p alace c omplex m ost l ikely h oused a l ocal d ynasty w hich m ay h ave r uled o ver t he e ntire K eban d istrict d uring t he P eriod o f E merging D ynasties. F or s tructural d etails s ee: H auptm ann 1 976. A n n umber o f s torage b uried

F igure I V:

1 .

T hird M illennium S ettlement T ypes i n A natolia a nd A egean B asin ( EB

i t).

t owns w as V ). T hermi

A c lassical m odel o f a m aritime

a lligned a long n arrow s treets.

v illage/town(?)

2 .

V

a ccording

n ecessary

L or

( EB[[[A).

3 .

s ettlement w ith

t o c oncepts u sually o bserved

t he

t he

S uch r e-planning

f uture g rowth o f

A f ortified m ercantile

e longated m egaroid h ouses f orming i nsulae t hose o bserved a t P oliochni V ( Fig.tl, 2 ). L amb

t he l arge j ars p artly

i n t he g round.

T hermi I V h ouses

i mportant f eature o f t his c omplex i s r ooms, e ach c ontaining l arge s torage

o f

t his

i n u rbanized

t he s ettlement

t own w ith

( Thermi

b locks

o f

d istantly 3 imilar S tructural d etails

t o i n

1 936.

N or untepe

E B[I[A.

m ulti-room

h ouses

A s mall s ection o f ( with

a n u rban

i nternal c ourtyard).

a pparently b uilt i n b locks s eparated b y s tructural d etails s ee: H auptmann 1 976.

6 6

s ettlement

w ith

b uildings

w ere

a lleys.

F or

T he

s treets a nd

6 7

t

6 8

3

F i q.

I V 6 9

F igure V : 1 .

D emircih8y t Ik

( EBII).

i t

i s

o ne o f

i n A natolia

t he c lassic

e xamples

o f

a

c losely k nit v illage s urrounded b y a f ortification s ystem.

I h ave

c lassified

G roup.

F or 2 .

T hird M illennium S ettlement T ypes

t his s ettlement w ithin t he N ucleated S ettlement

s tructural d etails

T roy o ne

s ee:

D emircih8y { 1k I .

1 1g. T he p lan s hows t he t ransformation o f t his c itadel f rom t hat h oused a l ocal d ynasty ( Troy l ic) t o o ne w hich h oused a

m ercantile

c ommunity

w ith

a p olitical s ystem

d ifferent t han t he p revious o ne. I ;

M ellaart

1 959.

7 0

p robably

F or s tructural d etails

s lightly s ee:

T roy

2

F ig.

V

7 1

C HAPTER I V:

T URKISH T HRACE A ND T HE M ARMARA R EGION

N ATURAL E NVIRONMENT A ND S ETTLEMENT P ATTERN T he

t opography

n orthern r elief.

o f

t his

r elatively

l ow

l ying

l and

a cross

t he

a nd s outhern s hores o f M armara d isplays a r ather g entle O nly a s mall p art o f t his r egion r ises m ore t han 1 500m a bove

s ea l evel, w hile l owlands a re v ery e xtensive. T urkish T hrace i s b ordered o n i ts w est s ide b y t he M eriç r iver w hich r ises i n B ulgaria a nd f inds i ts w ay t o t he s ea a fter c rossing a f lood p lain. T his p lain i s n ot w ell d rained a nd a s a r esult i t c ontains l arge p atches o f m arshes. e ast

T he E rgene

t o w est a cross

r iver w hich i s a t ributary o f

t he M eric

t he c entre o f T hrace a nd i ts e xtensive

r uns

b asin

f rom m akes

u p t he g reater p art o f t he a rable l and i n t his r egion. T he b road a nd t erraced l owland o f T hrace i s s eparated f rom t he S ea o f M armara b y t he l ow u pswelling o f t he T ekirda h ills a nd f rom t he B lack S ea I staranca m ountains. T he I staranca r anges e xtend e astwards o utskirts S akarya.

o f I n

b y t o

t he t he

I stanbul a nd c ontinue a cross t he B osphorus t o t he l ower t his r egion t he m ountains f orm a l ow d issected p lateau.

B eyond t he l ower S akarya r iver, h owever, t his t rend-line c ontinues e ast u ntil i t nets t he w estern m ost P ontic r anges. S ince

n o i ndependent p alynological s tudy o f

t he v egetational

a nd

c limatic h istory i n T hrace i s p resently a vailable, t he u ppermost s ect ion o f t he p ollen d iagram o f t he T enaghi P hilippon m arshes i n n orthe astern G reece c ould g ive u s s ome i dea o f t he n atural e nvironment i n l ate

p rehistoric

t imes.

A ccording t o

t his d iagram

( van

Z eist

a nd

B ottema 1 982: F ig.14.7, p .284), w hich r epresents t he c onditions i n t he p lain o f D rama ( 40m a bove s ea-level) a nd i ts s urroundings, s hrub v egetation c overed t he c ountryside u p t o e levations o f 3 00m a bove s ea l evel.

A bove

6 00m ,

i n

a ddition

t o

d eciduous

o ak

a nd

C arpinus

O rientalis, P inus n igra i s a lso f ound ( van Z eist a nd B ottema 1 982:284). I t s eems t hat a round 4 500 B C t he C arpinus O rientalis s pecie s tarted t o e xpand i n n ortheastern G reece s uggesting a g radual i ncrease i n p recipit ation.

I t

i s

n ot c lear,

h owever,

w hat e xactly c aused

t his

h umid

c ondition w hich m ust h ave c ertainly p revailed a lso i n T hrace. I t c ould b e t hat t he i ncreased p recipitation w as r elated s omehow t o a s ubstantial d ecrease i n t emperature a t t his t ime. B ut, i t s hould b e p ointed

o ut

2 000 B C, G reece,

a nd c hanges a nd p ossibly

t hat

a t

t he p resent

l evel o f

h umidity w as n ot

r eached

b efore

i n t he c omposition o f t he f orests i n n ortheastern i n T hrace T h v egetation c over a fter 1 500 B C, m ust

h ave

b een d ue,

l east

t o

s ome e xtent,

t o h uman a ctivity.'

e ast

I n t he M armara r egion t he l owlands a round t he l akes i n t he s outhc orner o f t he S ea o f M armara h ave a n e nvironment v ery d ifferent

f rom t hat k nown i n t he w estern p lateau o r w estern B lack S ea c oast. A long t he s outhern l ittoral t here i s a n a lmost c ontinuous l ine o f h ills, s ome o f c uts a cross t his

t hem c .500m h igh. N orth o f B alikesir t he S imav r iver l ine o f h ills, p roviding a n i mportant p assage b etween

7 2

M AP

I V:

T URKISH T HRACE A ND T HE M ARMARA R EGION

( The d istribution o f c opper,

l ead a nd s ilver d eposits

a nd m ines a fter M TA 1 972).

1 . 2 . 3 . 4 .

T optepe S elimpa a G ladina A acli

2 0.

D emirtas

5 . 6 . 7 .

G ! 1mUsdere G 8kst I F ikirtepe

2 1. 2 2. 2 3.

M armaracik K arasil I I K arasil I

8 . 9 . 1 0.

M entese M armaracik P endik

2 4.

S 8ylemi§ H 8yt 1k

2 5. 2 6.

Y eni ehir I I K inik

1. 1 2.

S elimpasa K e an

1 3. 1 4.

K araa actepe E skiba lik

2 7. 2 8. 2 9. 3 0.

I licapinar Y enik8y-orhangazi ç akirca Y Ut 1cek

1 5. 1 6.

T ilkiburnu I kilik M evkii

3 1. 3 2.

U yt icek K aradin

1 7. 1 8. 1 9.

7 3

S aihane C eylan M evkii ç ayirk8y

74

t he l owlands a nd

t he n orthwestern c oast.

I n f act,

t he r outes l eading

f rom I zmir a nd t he G ulf o f E dremit f orm a j unction w ith t he S imav v alley n ear B alikesir. S outh o f t he h illy a rea a long t he s hore o f M armara t he l owlands a re w ell w atered b ut, a s M anyas a nd U lubat i ndicate, n ot w ell d rained.

t he p resence o f L akes T he b road v alley o f

S akarya p rovides a n atural l androute b etween B ilecik a nd I zmit. E ast o f s 8t 1t t his v alley g radually b ecomes n arrow a s i t a pproaches t he c entral p lateau.

A s

h as a p hysical ( French 1 967:50).

f or

t he a rea o f P azaryeri,

a spect w hich i s c loser t o

t hat

t he h illy c ountryside o f

s outhern

B alkans

T he r egion a round t he S ea o f M armara l ies o utside t he c limatol ogical a nd e nvironmental z one o f t he A egean l ittoral a s w ell. I n o ther w ords t his r egion, p articularly t he a rea a round I znik, Y enisehir a nd I negJl i n s outheastern M armara, l ies m ore o r l ess o n t he p eriphery o f t he f our m ain g eographical r egions; t he P ontic, C entral p lateau, s outhern B alkans a nd t he A egean. I t s eems t hat t he a bsence o f a ridity p roblems

m ust

A natolia s ince I n w atered

h ave m ade t he

i t o ne o f

t he d ensely

p opulated

r egions

o f

f ourth m illennium B C.

T hrace p rehistoric s ettlements a re u sually f ound i n l owlands. A ccording t o f ield s urveys m ost s ettlement

w ell s ites

s how s igns o f h uman o ccupation s ince t he C halcolithic p eriod. B ut, i t s hould b e p ointed o ut t hat h igh m ounds i n t he i nterior o f T hrace a re s carce, w hich c ould b e t aken t o a ctivity i n m ost s ettlements.

i ndicate l ong i nterruptions i n h uman B uilding m aterials u sed i n e astern

T hrace, m ainly w ood a nd m ud, c ould a lso a ccount f or t he a bsence o f N ear E astern t ype m ounds i n t his r egion. T he m ajority o f h 8yt lks w ith C halcolithic a nd E arly B ronze A ge o ccupation i n e astern T hrace, e xcept f or a f ew m ounds a long t he n orthern M armara l ittoral, a re c .lm h igh ( 0zdo an 1 982a:40). I t s hould b e e mphasized t hat s ince m ost o f t hese p rehistoric s ettlements w ere s ituated o n r iver b asins, t ions

b y o verflowing r ivers

m ust h ave

s ummits o f a l arge n umber o f m ounds c ombined w ith t he e ffects o f e rosion, t ion o f m ounds

c overed

f requent

t he s lopes

a nd

i nunda-

e ven

w ith a lluvium d eposits. c ould e xplain t he s ize a nd

t he

T his, f orma-

i n e astern T hrace.

T he m aterial c ulture o f h abitation s ites s ituated b etween t he E rgene a nd I staranca r ange, p articularly t he S ñ 'lo lu-KirklareliP inarhisar-Babaeski r egions, p oints t o a n o ccupational h istory s ince t he s ixth m illennium B C. T ilkiburnu a nd o ther m ounds s uch a s K anligeçit, K oyunbaba, H elvaci S aban n ear K irklareli h ave p ottery a ssemblages w hich a re c losely c omparable w ith t hose k nown t o u s f rom s ome e xcavated L ate N eolithic, C halcolithic a nd E arly B ronze A ge s ites i n B ulgaria, R omania a nd M acedonia ( özdogan 1 982a:46). I n t he l ight o f t his, i t i s p ossible t o p ostulate t hat t he i nhabitants o f t he E rgene b asin i n T hrace w ere, f or t he m ost p art, o f s outheast E uropean o rigin. A lthough m ost m ounds a re l ow, t his d oes n ot m ean t hat s ettlements w ere v ery s mall. I n f act t he m ounds o f S aihane a nd T ilkiburnu i ndicate t hat s ome

o f

a reas

l arger

h owever, M armara S llJkll ( atagi,

t he L ate C halcolithic a nd E B t han 2 0 a cres

I h abitations

( t 5zdo an 1 982a:40;

m ust

1 982b).

h ave

c overed

F urther s outh,

t he s ettlement p attern i s r ather d ifferent a long t he n orthern l ittoral. S urvey m aterial f rom Y arimburgaz, K analli K 8prt i, M evkii, T optepe, S erefli ç iftlik, S elimpa a H 8y t 1k, M enekse G ladina M evkii,

K araevliatli a nd A ltilik M evkii g ive n o

i ndica-

t ion t hat s outhern T hrace w as i nhabited b y f arming c ommunities i n p ermanent s ettlements b efore t he L ate C halcolithic p eriod ( 0zdo an

7 5

1 982a:44-45; F rench 1 966). T his s ituation c ould o nly s uggest e cological c onditions a long t he c oast o f M armara w ere n ot s uited

t hat f or

s ubsistence e conomies b ased o n f arming a nd s tock b reeding i n t he s ixth a nd f ifth m illennia B C. A s imilar s ituation i s k nown t o u s a long t he s outhern M armara l ittoral. T he p rehistoric s ettlements i nvestigated i n Y alova, i n P endik, T uzia, E renk8y a nd F ikirtepe p oint t o a b rief s ettlement p eriod i n t he f ifth m illennium B C. F or r easons w hich w ere p robably r elated t o c hanges i n e nvironmental c onditions t he v illages o f t he F ikirtepe c ulture w ere a bandoned a c entury o r t wo a fter t hey w ere e stablished. T he s ettlers m oved f urther i nland t o t he Y eni ehir a nd E ski ehir p lains. T his n ew d istribution o f s ettlements o f t he F ikirt epe c ulture a way f rom t he s hores o f M armara c ould l end s ome s upport t o a t heory a dvanced b y s ome g eologists. A ccording t o t his t heory, l ate s alinization o f M armara i n t he f ifth m illennium B C h appened d enly d ue i ng o f e vent

t o

t he r ising l evel o f

t he M editerranean o r t he s udden

t he s eafloor b etween M armara a nd t he A egean ( Erinc c ould h ave a ffected t he e cology a long t he c oasts

M illions

o f r otting f ish,

t he s uds ink-

1 978). T his o f M armara.

s eaweed a nd o ther f orms o f m arine

l ife

m ay

h ave c aused a t errible s tench w hich w as i mpossible t o l ive w ith ( bzdo an 1 983:411). C onsidering t hat t he i nhabitants o f t he F ikirtepe c ulture w ere n ot f armers b y t radition a nd t hat t heir s ubsistence w as m ainly b ased o n f ishing, c ollecting m oluscs a nd, p robably, g rowing v egetables, t he t heory o f 'ecological f actor a ffecting t he c oastal r egions o f n orth rn a nd s outhern M armara f or a t l east 1 00 c enturies m ay m ake s ome s ense. T he p ottery a ssemblage o f L ate C halcolithic s ites i n s outhern T hrace r ecall t o s ome e xtent t he e arliest p ottery f orms f rom t he T road ( i.e. H anay T epe, B e iktepe). O therwise, m ost f ourth m illennium f orms h ave c lose p arallels i n t he c ontemporary B alkan p ottery. T he E BA

p opulation

I -II.

A t

t his

d ensity i n T hrace i ncreased s ubstantially i n t ime

t he d istinction b etween

t he

t wo

t he

c ultural

p rovinces, n amely t he E rgene b asin i n t he n orth a nd t he c oastal p lain i n t he s outh, b ecomes e ven m ore m arked. W hile t he l atter c ould b e c onsidered n ow a s a n e xtension o f t he n orthwest A natolian c ultural p rovince, n orthern T urkish T hrace r emains p art o f t he s outheast E uropean E BA h orizon. W ith t he a dvent o f t he w est A natolian E B I II p eriod ( a t ime o f e merging d ynasties), a l arge n umber o f s ettlements i n s outhern T hrace s eem t o h ave b een a bandoned, a ccording t o f ield s urveys. I n t he w hich c ontinued t o b e i nhabited, a n ew p ottery r epertoire, s o u nknown

i n t he T road,

m ade

i ts a ppearance ( 0zdo an 1 982a).

f ew f ar

T his n ew

E BA w are i s h andmade a nd i ts d istinctive f eature i s a b and d ecoration i n r elief w hich, d istantly, r ecall t he c ord d ecoration k nown i n a reas f urther n orth. o f

t his

I nterestingly e nough,

r egion u ntil

t he I ron A ge

t his w are

r emained c haracteristic

( bzdogan 1 982a:45).

I t

i s

e qually

i mportant p roduced

t o p oint o ut t hat n one o f t he s ettlements i n T urkish T hrace s o f ar p ottery f orms k nown i n t he E BA I II c ulture i n w estern

A natolia. p eninsula

T his ( i.e.

d istribution o f p ottery d oes n ot a pply t he s o-called T umulus o f P rotesilas).

t o

C elibolu

• T he f ield s urvey c arried o ut b y F rench ( 1967) i n t he s outheast t he s outhern M armara l ittoral, i n a n a rea b etween B ursa, I neg8l I znik, h uman

o f a nd

i s a n i mportant s ource o f i nformation r egarding t he h istory o f a ctivity i n t his p art o f A natolia. T he l owlands a nd t he l ake -

7 6

s hores w ere t he m ain a reas i nhabited i n t he f ourth a nd t hird m illennia B C. I f t he d ating o f t he F ikirtepe c ulture t o t he s ixth o r f ifth m illennium B C i s

c orrect,

t hen o ne m ay s ay t hat

t he s outheastern

o rner

o f t he M armara r egion w as i nhabited s ince L ate N eolithic t imes. A t s ome s tage o f h uman o ccupation s ettlements s eem t o h ave s pread t o h illy a reas o f B ilecik a nd P azaryeri. N one o f t he 2 6 m ounds r ecorded i n t his s urvey b y F rench h ave b een e xcavated. O nly C uma T epe i n I neg8l, w hich w as

f irst

c ultural

e xamined b y B ittel

( 1942:160)

g ives

s ome i ndication o f

t he

s equence d uring t he t hird m illennium B C.

T HE S EQUENCE O F C ULTURAL F RAMEWORKS A lthough

t he P rovinces o f C anakkale a nd B alikesir

g eographically

a re a n i ntegral p art o f t he M armara r egion, i n t his w ork I p refer t o s tudy t he a rchaeology o f t he T road a nd B alikesir w ithin t he f ramework o f t he A egean l ittoral a nd t he w est A natolian h interland r espectively. A lso, t he c ultural s equence i n e astern T hrace i s p resented i n t he l igh t : o f s tratified e xcavations c arried o ut b eyond T urkey - s p olitical b ordei w ith G reece a nd B ulgaria. T hrace: T he s urvey m aterial f rom s ome o f t he e arly s ettlements i n E rgene b asin c an b e c learly c orrelated w ith t he p ottery a ssemblages

L i te

o f

D ikili T ash, S itagroi, Amphipolis, P aradimi i n e astern M acedonia a nd w estern T hrace, a nd w ith K aranovo, E zero a nd A zmak i n n ortheastern T hrace. T he c ultural s equence o f K aranovo III -VI I, w hich r epresents t he L ate N eolithic, L ate C halcolithic a nd, a t l east, t he e arly p art o f t he E arly B ronze A ge i n s outhern B ulgaria a nd n ortheastern G reece ( mainl and),

c ould

a lso a pply t o T urkish T hrace.

p eriod T urkish T hrace

I n t he L ate C halcolithic

( or e astern T hrace) w as p art o f

a c ultural

h ori-

z on w hich T odorova r efers t o a s " the e thno-cult ral a rea o f t he K odja d ermen-Gumelnita-Karanovo V I" c omplex ( 1978:17). T his c ulture i s w eil r epresented a t T ilkiburnu ( Uzdo an 1 982b). I ts c haracteristic w are, t he g raphite p ainted p ottery, h owever, h as n ot b een e ncountered a long t he n orthern a nd s outhern l ittoral o f M armara. I n t he n orthern l ittoral, t he e arliest p ermanent s ettlements s eem t o h ave b een e stabl ished i n t he L ate C halcolithic p eriod. T he p ottery a ssemblage r eflects c ertain c haracteristics k nown i n t he c ontemporary B alkan t ures. B ut, i n v iew o f t he a bsence o f g raphite p ainted s herds f rom t he c

T umulus

o f P rotesilas,

a nd

S ilivri ( S{ llt lklt l M evkii), o f a s lightly l ater d ate,

t he m ounds o f Y arimburgaz,

K analli K 8prt

-

a nd

t he L ate C halcolithic c ulture h ere c ould b e a nd i n p art c ontemporary w ith t he i ntrusive

T hracian-Balkan E BIa h orizon w hich f ollows t he K aranovo V I-Gumelnita c omplex a nd w ith t he p re-Troy I s equence i n t he T road ( Yakar:1979). T he S outheastern M armara B asin: I n t ure

t he M armara r egion,

w hich

g raphy,

i s

t here

o ne o f

t he

r ecorded i n

t he

t he F ikirtepe c ulr egional

i s a t emporary h iatus i n h uman o ccupation.

F rench ( 1967), among t he I znik, Y enisehir v eyed), t he e arliest p eriod. T his b lack w ith

f ollowing t he p hase o f

t he e arliest

p re-Troy

s trati-

A ccording

t o

t he p ost-Fikirtepe m aterial c ollected b y h im i n a nd I neg8l r egion ( 26 h abitation s ites w ere s urs herds c ould b e d ated t o t he L ate C halcolithic b urnished w are i s c onsidered t o b e c ontemporary

Ib lack b urnished p ottery

7 7

( cultures)

i n

w estern

C -.

H H 0

I

I I

I

i

I C . u

H

E l 0

U ) H

L

r i .

0 O a ) H

-

0

C .

a )

i

0

1 H

-

E H

a )

I

0

0

J

.'-

H

W

O

H

0

0 0

)

O !

I I

I I

N

I

I

I

W C 4 0

0 3

H

—I

0 0

Q ) a )

C l )

a ) 0 0

0 .

H




O

H

H

Z

O )

H

H H

0

0

C h a l c o l i t h i c

N e o l i t h i c

C . -. H

0 0

P r o d u c t i o n

( D

L . C h a l c o l i t h i c

H

H

0

O

I

I

E a r l y U r b a n

0 0

—

E

I

F I K R T E P C U L T U R E

R e g i o n a l V a r i a n t o f t h e

w e s t A n a t o l i a n s o c a l e d

H

A natolia a nd

i n t he T road

( Huot

1 982:27).

I n o ther w ords

t hey

r epre-

s ent a p eriod o f h uman s ettlement i n t he M armara r egion w hich l asted f rom t he L ate C halcolithic t o t he l ater p art o f t he E B I p eriod. T owards t he e nd o f t he E B I , t he s ettlements i n s outheastern M armara m ay

h ave

d eveloped a r egional

v ariant o f T roadic

c ulture w hich

i s

s o

f ar r ecognized b y i ts d istinctive " Iznik t ype" p ottery. T his p ottery i s o f T roy I d ate ( French 1 967:Fig.5), a nd w as g radually r eplaced b y t he

" Yeni ehir w are" i n t he E B l Ila p eriod.

w are" f ound g raphy, t he

F inally,

i mportant t o e mphasize t hat t he n orthern l ittoral r eflects a r ather s imilar s equential d evelopment, F ikirtepe s pread

t he

" Inegol g rey

i n t he l owlands c ould r epresent, i n t he r egional f inal s tage o f t he E B I II c ultural d evelopment.

c ulture

a nd

t he E B

s tratiI t i s

o f M armara e xcept t t hat

a lso t he

I II c ulture o f w estern A natolia d id

n ot

t o t his p art o f T urkish T hrace.

T he

f ollowing

s tratigraphic

t able c an s ummarize t he c ultural s equence i n t he T urkish T hrace a nd M armara r egion. ( The p rovinces o f ç anakkale a nd B alikesir h ave b een e xcluded).

C HRONOLOGY D ating

t he

F ikirtepe C ulture:

F ikirtepe,

t he

t ype-site

o f

( 1960) t o t he p re-Troy I p eriod. f act t hat t he h andmade w ares o f

t his c ulture,

w as d ated b y

B ittel

T his d ating w as m ainly b ased o n t he F ikirtepe a re t ypologically d ifferent

f rom t he e arliest T roy I w ares. H owever, a d istant r esemblance t o s ome o f t he s hapes o f e arly T roadic s equence c ould p lace t he F ikirtepe m aterial w ithin t he f ourth m illennium B C. M etal o bjects w ere n ot e ncountered i n t he s ettlement, w hereas a t T roy I t hey a ppeared I n m oderate q uantities. B oth M ellaart a nd F rench, a lthough a dmitting t hat t here a re n o s atisfactory a nd c onclusive l inks b etween t he m aterial o f F ikirtepe a nd t hat o f H acilar V I, h ave l ong c oncluded t hat i t s hould b e d ated t o t he L ate N eolithic/Early C halcolithic p eriod i n A natolia. v iew o f s imilarities b etween t he I kiztepe E BA I p ottery a ssemblage t hat

o f

F ikirtepe

1 ,

Io nce f avoured B ittel T h d ating t o

I n a nd

t hat p roposed

b y M ellaart a nd F rench ( Yakar 1 975:133-134). H owever, t he a rgument b y ö zdogan t hat t he s ubsistence o f t he c ommunities o f t he F ikirtepe t radit ion w as s imilar t o m any o f t he n eolithic c ommunities i n e astern E urope, a nd t he f act t hat t he c hipped s tone i ndustries o f b oth F ikirt epe

a nd

P endik a re t he d irect d escendants

i ndustries d ating o f

o f

t he

E pi-Palaeolithic

i n t he r egion ( Özdo an 1 983:409-410), c ould j ustify h is t he F ikirtepe c ulture t o t he L ate N eolithic P eriod.

U nfortunately, t he f act t hat s ites o f t he F ikirtepe c ulture h ave a s ingle c ultural l ayer i s a m ajor d rawback i n a chieving a m ore c oncrete c hronological a ssessment o f t his c ultural f ramework. I t i s h oped t hat t he P endik e xcavations w ill p rovide a dditional i ncluding a ppropriate s amples f or c arbon 1 4 d ating.

c hronological

d ata

D ating t he K aranovo V I C ulture: T here i s n o i ndependent a ge e stimate f or t his l ate C halcolithic c ultural h orizon i n T urkish T hrace. B ut s ince r adiocarbon d ates a re a vailable f rom s tratified s ites i n t he A egean T hrace a nd n orthern T hrace, t hey c ould b e t emporarily u sed h ere. H owever, b efore 'transp lanting' t he c alljbrated C -14 d ates o f M acedonian a nd B ulgarian L ate C halcolithic

p eriod t o s ites w ith s imilar c ultures

7 9

i n

T urkish

T hrace

T h e E r g e n e R e g i o n

T U R K I S H T H R A C E

0 0 0

C . J

S e m i N o m a d i c

I n t r u s i v e

T h e C o a s t

4 -

H

H

H

•

42

F 0

H H

n z

x 1

H

1

B l a c k B u r n i s h e d W a r e

I Z N I K

a ) Y E N I S E H I R W A R E + R E D B U R N I S H E D W .

C . .

H

0 0 0 0 Z

U )

v o

H

0

p

•

r

.11

0 0 0 0 I

I C .

0

0

H

H H

0

C o

•

0 0 0

L I

Z

0

a )

W A R E ( T r o y I )

o ne s hould b e m ade a ware,

a s a lready s tated b y T odorova

( 1978:16),

t hat

e ven a fter c alibration t hese d ates a re v ery t entative. C alibration o f r adiocarbon d ates w hich c an p ush b ack p rehistoric a ge e stimations b y h undreds o f y ears d oes n ot e liminate t he g eophysical a nomalies a nd o ther d iscrepancies o f t he C -14 m ethod. F or s ome r eason, p robably r elated a tmospheric f luctuations o f C14 i sotopes, e specially p ronouncgd i n t he C halcolithic p eriod o f

t he a nomalies w ere s outheastern E urope

( Todorova 1 978:16). A ccording t o d ates o btained a t D ikili T ash, A zmak,

K aranovo,

G oijamo D eloevo a nd C ascioarele

K apitan

D imitrijevo,

( Todorova 1 978:

T able

2 ; T reuil 1 983:129-132) i t i s p ossible t o p lace t he b eginning o f t he K aranovo V I c ulture i n t he e arly f ifth m illennium a nd i ts d isappearance a t t he e nd o f t he f ifth o r v ery e arly f ourth m illennium B C. D ating

t he B lack B urnished W are c ulture o f

t he L ate C halcolithic E B

H orizon: T here

a re

n o i ndependent m eans

t o d ate e ither

o f

t he

r egional

v ariants, n amely t he s urvey m aterial f rom M armara a nd t hat f rom T hrace. C orrelations w ith s tratified f orms f rom P oliochni i n L emnos, K umtepe I a-b a nd H anay T epe i n t he T road a nd D emircih8yUk i n t he E ski ehir p lain c ould p rovide a l oose c hronological f ramework. T his c ould b e s upplemented w ith r adiocarbon d ates f rom p ost-Karanovo V I l evels ( trans itional

a nd E B

I )

a t S itagroi a nd E zero

( Treuil

1 983:121_122).6

T here

i s o ne m ajor p roblem r egarding t he u se o f r adiocarbon d ates f or d ating t he s urvey m aterial f rom s outhern M armara a nd T urkish T hrace; t he s teppe i nvasion w hich t ook p lace a t t he e nd o f t he G umelnita/Karanovo V I c ultural h orizon i n n ortheastern T hrace m ay h ave a ffected t he s ettlement p attern i n a reas f urther s outh t oo, t herefore c ausing u ncertainty w hether t he l ocal L ate C halcolithic c ultures f ollowed i mmediately a fter t he d estruction o f D ating

t he E arly B ronze A ge

A lthough n ot

p ose

s equence

a nd

I I a nd I II c ultures o f M armara:

t he d ating o f

g reat

t he K aranovo V I c omplex i n T hrace.

s urvey m aterials f rom T urkish T hrace

d ifficulties b ecause o f

M acedonia,

t he

s trong l inks w ith

M armara r egion a nd

t he

t he

d ating

d oes B alkan

o f

i ts

p ottery 'cultures' i s a nother m atter. O ne s till h as t o r ely o n t he c hronology o f T roy I -V w hich c ould n ow b e s upplemented w ith r adiocarbon d ates f rom D emircih8yt 1k. T he f ollowing t able c ould s erve a s a t entat ive c hronological g uide.

C ULTURAL

F RAMEWORKS A ND E THNO/CULTURAL T RAITS

O ne o f

t he d ifficulties

i n a ssociating

t he F ikirtepe c ulture

t he w estern o r c entral A natolian p rehistoric c ultures d erives, f rom t ype

w ith

n ot o nly

t he l ocal c haracter o f t he p ottery a ssemblage, b ut a lso f rom t he o f a rchitecture w hich i s r ather m ore c haracteristic o f s outheast

E uropean

v illage

s ettlements

E arly C halcolithic A natolia. u sing v ertical w ooden p osts a s

t han t hose k nown i n

L ate

N eolothic

o r

H ouses o f F ikirtepe w ere b uilt o f w ood, f oundations ( Yakar 1 975:133-134). B ut

w attle-and-daub c onstructions w ith r oughly c ircular o r o val p lans a nd s lightly d epressed f loors h ave a lso b een s uggested ( Ozdo an 1 983:405; B ittel

1 969:1-19).

T he v illages a long t he s outhern s hore o f

c overed a reas b etween f our t o e leven a cres

8 1

( i.e.

M a mara

P endik c a.45.000m

) .

T he p ottery i s h andmade, g rey t o b rown a nd r ed m onochrome p lain o r w ith i ncised d ecoration. C ommon s hapes a re b owls a nd j ars w ith s imple c onvex s ides o r w ith a s light S c urve. H olemouth j ars a nd r ectangul ar b owls w ith o r w ithout a s ide-handle a re a lso a mong t he c haracterist ic f orms. c losed o r

I ncised d ecoration i ncludes g eometric a nd l inear d esigns i n c ontinuous p atterns. T he m ost c haracteristic m otifs a re

p arallel

l ines,

s imple b ands,

r adiating l ines,

t riangles,

s quares,

m eander

d esign,

p ointillé a nd i mpressed d ecoration.

T he c hipped-stone, b one a nd h orn i ndustries o f r eflect c ertain a spects o f t he e conomy a nd s ubsistence.

t his c ulture A v ery l arge

p roportion o f t he s tone a rtifacts a re o f f lint w ith a bout 5 % o f o bsidian. T he p resence o f b lade c ores a mong t he o bsidian f inds i s t aken a s a n i ndication t hat t ools w ere p roduced l ocally ( 0zdo an 1 983:409). P olished-stone i mplements a nd c lay o bjects a re r ather s carce i n t he F ikirtepe c ulture. ö zdogan h as p ointed o ut t hat s econdary e vidence o f a gricultural a ctivity i s l imited t o a f ew s ickle b lades w ith r are e xamples o f g rinding s tone a nd m ortar, w hich i ndicates t hat g rowing c rops w as n ot o f p rimary i mportance f or t he s ubsistence o f t he s ettlers. F ishing a nd c ollecting m olluscs m ust h ave c onsistituted a n i mportant d aily a ctivity a mong t he p opulation o f t he c oastal v illages. B ut f urther i nland, i n t he p lains o f Y en 4ehir a nd E sk 4ehir,

f arming m ust h ave b een t he b asis o f v illage e conomies.

T he o rigins o f c lear. A mbarli

t his c ulture,

a s a lready s tated,

i s n ot

e ntirely

S ome p re-pottery s ites s uch a s Aa çli, G t Im t I dere, a nd K efken i n t he e astern M armara r egion d isplay a

D olmali, c hipped -

s tone t radition d istantly s imilar t o F ikirtepe a nd P endik. A s p ointed o ut b y o zdogan ( 1983:411), u ntil n ow i t h as n ot b een p ossible t o f ind f orms o f t he F ikirtepe c ulture i n T urkish T hrace. A lthough t his p ottery a ssemblage h as b een s potted i n E ski ehir ( DemircihJy t 1k), t here i s n o r eason t o a ssume t hat t his c ulture s pread f rom e ast t o w est, e specially

c onsidering

c aused a m ore e asterly T he

t hat

t he s alinization o f

r elocation o f

K aranovo V I c ulture

n ized f rom s urvey m aterial.

M armara

m ust

h ave

t he s ettlements.

i n t he E rgene R egion o f T ilkiburnu i s o ne o f

T hrace i s

r ecog-

t he i mportant s ettle-

m ents i n t his r egion w hich p rovides s ome o f t he m ost p ottery t ypes o f t he K aranovo V I-Gumelnita-Kodjadermen

c haracteristic e thno-cultural

h orizon. T his p ottery a ssemblage a t T ilkiburnu a nd o ther s ettlements i n e astern T hrace i s v ery s imilar t o t he m aterial f rom D ikilitash i n e astern M acedonia. t o

w hat e xtent

H owever,

t he

o n ly

f uture e xcavations w ould t ell i f a nd

t hree m ajor p hases o f

t his c ulture a re

r epresented

i n t he E rgene r egion. P hase

I

o f

a lso a t E zero,

t he K aranovo V I-Gumelniça-Kodjadermen

h as a p ottery

r epertoire w hich i ncludes

b iconical f orms. S ome o f t hese b owls a nd j ars o f g raphite o rnaments ( Todorova 1 978:35).

c ulture,

s een

c ylindrical a nd

a re d ecorated w ith b ands O ther f orms i n t his

a ssemblage a re d ishes w ith c ylindrical r ims a nd s torage j ars w ith b ig d ome-shaped l ids. T hese j ars a re s ometimes d ecorated w ith g raphite b ands e nclosing s wastika-like o rnaments. T he m otifs u sed i n g raphite p ainted l ozenges,

d ecoration i nclude b ands o f z igzags, d iagonally-running c ompositions

o ther p atterns. I n t his m ethod, l ayer o f

n egative

t riangles

a nd

c onnecting s emicircles a nd

A nother f orm o f d ecoration i s b ands a pplied i n r elief. t he b ackground o f t he v essels w as f illed w ith a t hin

w hite s ubstance o r r ed o chre.

8 2

I n

P hase

I I o f

t his c ulture b iconical

f orms

i n

p ottery

g reatly

o utnumber e arlier c ylindrical s hapes w hich w ere r ather p opular i n t he e arly s ubphase o f P hase I . B iconical v essels a re a lmost e xclusively d ecorated

w ith n egative g raphite o rnaments.

S ome o f

t he

o pen f orms,

s uch a s d ishes, h ave g raphite c ompositions p ainted o n t heir i nteriors. I n t his p hase s mall b owls w ere m ass p roduced ( Todorova 1 978:36). A n i mportant s tresses

o bservation r egarding t he s ize o f s torage j ars b y T odorova t he g rowth o f c ommunal w ealth i n t he f orm o f s urplus f ood-

s tuff d uring t his p hase. S torage j ars o f P hase I I h ave a c apacity o f f ive t imes o r m ore g reater t han t hose o f t he p revious p hase. S ome o f t hese a re d ecorated w ith r oughly a pplied b arbotine o r g raphite. A n ew t ype o f l id i s f ound a longside t he o ld d ome-shaped l ids o f P hase I . T his o ne i s s maller,

s lightly c onvex a nd w ith a b ow-shaped h andle.

I t

w as a pparently u sed t o c over p ots. N egative g raphite o rnament a rranged i n a s ingle b and i s u sually f ound o n t he u pper p art o f t he v essels. I n a ddition t o n ew f orms a nd m otifs t he l ack o f i ncised p atterns o n t he m outh o f t he v essels, a s harp d ecrease i n b lack-white-red c olour s chemes v essels

a nd t he a bsence o f a r ed b and o n t he i nside o f t he m outh o f a mong t he d ecorated p ottery c ould a lso h elp i dentify t he

p resence o f P hase g reat

t his p hase i n u nexcavated s ettlements. I II

o f

t his c ultural c omplex c oincides w ith

t echnological a chievements

i n t he m etallurgy o f

a

p eriod

o f

s outheast E urope.

S ettlements a nd b urial s ites o f t his f inal p hase p roduced a r ich v ariety o f m etal a rtifacts. A s f ar a s t he p ottery a ssemblage i s c oncerned v ase-shaped v essels w ith a n eck o f v aried l ength b ecame t he h allmark o f d ecorated b arhotine.

t his p hase T odorova 1 978:37).

T he n eck o f

t hese v essels

i s

w ith g raphite o rnaments, w hile t he b ody i s c overed w ith D ishes w ith i nverted r im a re d ecorated w ith a c ombination

o f g raphite o rnaments, r ibs a nd f lutting. Z oomorphic a nd e specially a nthropomorphic v essels a nd l ids a ppear m ore f requently t han t hey d id i n P hase I I. A t t he e nd o f P hase I II r hytons a nd t wo-handled s tarted t o a ppear i n a l arge n umber o f s ites. A t t he s ame t ime, q uality

o f

g raphite o rnamentation s tarted

t o d eteriorate a nd

c ups t he

g radually

d isappear. T hese d ecorations w ere b eing r eplaced a t t his t ime c orded o rnaments a nd s hell-impressed d ecorations ( Todorova 1 978:37. D uring v arious

P hase

k inds

-

I II g old w as u sed f or

l oops f or e arrings a nd

a nthropomorphic p endants, m ade o f g old ( i.e. V arna). F inally,

i t

i s

a ppliqu s,

i mportant

c ultural h orizon i n B ulgaria,

t he

f irst

n ecklaces,

t ime.

b y

J ewels

b racelets,

o

b eads,

a s w ell a s f igurines w ere b eing

t o e mphasize

t hat

t he s ettlements o f

t his

e astern M acedonia a nd w estern T hrace s how

c lear s igns o f c onflagration, e specially d uring P hase I II. T odorova s uggests t hat n ot a ll s ettlements i n B ulgaria s urvived t ill t he e nd o f t his p hase.

S ome o f

t he m iddle o f

t his p hase

t hem m ust h ave

w hich u shered

t he E BA s ettled

( 1978:38).

p erished

i n e arly I II,

A ccording t o h er,

i n s ome o f

a nd s ome

i n

t he p opulation

t he a bandoned s ites a t a l ater

d ate. P ottery C ultures o f

t he L ate F ourth a nd E arly T hird M illennium B C

T he i dentification o f s urface m aterial c ollected b y b een

c arried

c onsidered

t o

o ut

t he r egional p ottery g roups i s b ased o n F rench ( 1967). S ince n o e xcavations h ave

i n s outheastern M armara,

t hese

g roups

w hich

r epresent t he L ate C halcolithic a nd E arly B ronze

8 3

A ge

a re I

c ultures s equences

h ave a nd

b een s tudied i n t he l ight o f T roadic a nd t heir p ottery a ssemblages. A ccording

B eycesultan t o F rench's

c lassification, t he p ottery t ypes o f t his r egion c ould b e c orrelated w ith t ypes f rom B eycesultan X L-XX. K umtepe, E sk 4ehir p lain ( i.e. D emircih8yt Ik)

a nd T roy

I .

A lso,

a ffinities w ith t he B alkan p ottery

( of

p ost-Karanovo V I p eriod) c ould o nly i ndicate t hat t he l ate C halcolithic a nd E arly B ronze A ge I c ultures o f t he I znik-Yenisehir-Ineg i l r egion d eveloped

u nder t he i nfluence o f n eighbouring c ultures

i n

t he

n orth,

e ast, w est a nd s outh. I n t he e arly t hird m illennium B C a T roy I t ype p ottery a ssemblage w as b eing p roduced i n t he I znik a rea. T his t znik w are ( French 1 967:58) i s h andmade w ith a s urface c olour v arying f rom g rey, g rey-brown, a nd b lack. T he b urnish,

n o

v essels. f ired. w hich

a dditional

T he

i s

c lay u sed

( Balikesir,

P ottery C ultures o f A lthough i t p articular

t o

t he e xterior

i n t his t ype o f w are

i s

f ine a nd

o f

i t w as

t he h ard

M anisa a nd A khisar) a s w ell.

t he L ate T hird M illennium B C

i s v ery d ifficult p hases o f

Y enishehir w are, t he i ncluding t he I negil r egional c ultures o f m illennium B C. T he ( French

t reatment w as a pplied

T his p ottery g roup i s a r egional v ariety o f a p ottery c ulture w idespread n ot o nly i n t he T road b ut i n t he r est o f t he

n orthwest

t o

o live-grey, p ale b rown, r ed-brown, r ed, g rey-black s urface f inish s uggests t hat i n a ddition t o a h igh

t o a ssign t he v arious p ottery g roups

t he E BA w ithout s tratified

e xcavations,

t he

r ed b urnished a nd r ed w ash p ottery g roups, g rey w are, c ould b e t aken t o r epresent t he t he M armara a rea i n t he s econd h alf o f

b lack b urnished a nd b lack-topped Y eni ehir w are 1 967:59). C ores o f t he s herds c ollected i n t he

t he

t hird

i s h andmade s urvey a re

b lack o r g rey i n c olour. M ica i s u sually p resent i n t he f abric. b ody o f t he v essels w are i s e ntirely b lack o r b lack o n t he u pper a nd r ed, p ale b rown o r b uff o n t he l ower b ody. T he s urface i s

T he b ody w ell

b urnished. P lastic d ecoration s uch a s c rescents w ere s ometimes a pplied o n t he b ody. G rooving o n t he i nterior o f o pen b owls i s a r ather c ommon d ecorative v essels.

u rban

t echnique.

H owever,

p aint

w as n ot u sed t o d ecorate

T he Y eni ehir w are m ay h ave b een p roduced a s e arly a s p eriod, b ut i t c ontinued t o b e m anufactured i n t he

t he

t he e arly f ollowing

p eriod t ogether w ith w heelmade w ares o f r ed w ash g roup. D emircih8y«k i t i s f ound t ogether w ith r ed s lipped b urnished w are i llustrating, a ccording t o F rench ( 1967:60), c ontacts b etween t he

A t t hus l ow-

l ands o f M armara a nd t he w estern p lateau. I t h as a lso b een s uggested t hat t he i ntroduction o f w heelmade r ed w ashed p ottery i n s outheastern M armara w as n ot p receded b y a t emporary a bandonment o f s ettlements ( French 1 967:60-61), o r s igns o f d estruction w hich c ould b e i nterpreted a s t he a rrival o f n ew a nd d estructive e lements f rom t he w est o r s outh. A s

f or

t he

r ed b urnished w are g roup,

i t h as b een c lassified b y F rench

a s a " variant o r r ather a c ollateral f orm o f Y eni ehir w are" ( 1967:61). T hese g roups w ere g radually s uperseded b y a r ed w ashed w heelmade g roup. I n s outheastern M armara t his w are h as a s urface c olour v arying f rom d ark r ed, r ed, o range-brown, b rown a nd p ale-brown. S ome f orms m ay h ave b een h andmade. T he c olour o f t he s urface i s d ue i n m ost c ases t o t he a pplication o f a t hin c olourwash ( French 1 967:61). T he s urface i s w ell b urnished b ut r arely d ecorated o therwise. s uggest t hat i ncision a nd g rooving w as

8 4

S ome o f t he o nly

t he d ecorated p ieces t echniques u sed t o

d ecorate f orms B ut

t his

t his

c ertain v essels.

o f

T his p ottery a ssemblage

r ed w ashed w are f ound a t T roy

i ncludes

i s n ot s urprising s ince s urveys a nd e xcavations

w are

i s

a ll

I ll-V a nd B eycesultan

f ound a ll o ver w estern A natolia a nd

t he

X II-VI.

r evealed

C ilicia.

t hat

I n

f act

i nventories o f t his r ed w ashed w are f ound i n d ifferent p arts o f w estern A natolia, t he G 8ksU v alley a nd C ilicia d o n ot s uggest g reat r egional v ariations o f f orms a nd s urface t reatment. A mong a ll t he p ottery g roups, d iscussed s o f ar, t he m ost i nteresting a nd c ontroversial i s t he I negdl g rey w are. T his w heelmade a nd r ather f ine w are h as a s urface c olour w hich i s a p ale-grey. T he s urface i s

f inely b urnished a nd t he i nterior o f

b owls w ere d ecorated b y

p attern b urnishing d one r adially a nd v ertically ( French 1 967:62). F requently, w hen t he b urnish m arks a re g rouped t ogether t he e ffect i s a " multiple-cross" o n t he i nside o f t he b owls. B ut F rench h as p ointed o ut t hat n either t he t echnique o f t he c ross n or t he s hapes o f t he b owls b ear m uch r esemblance t o t he " red-cross b owls" f rom T roy o r B eycesultan. 8 I t r egion

i s a ssumed t hat b oth

t o

t he

t his p ottery s pread o utwards

w est

a nd

e ast

( French

f rom t he

1 967:62).

M armara

I t

h as

a

d istribution s imilar t o t hat o f Y eni ehir w are. I f t his d istribution i s a n i ndication a bout t he s ources o f t hese t wo p ottery g roups ( cultures), t hen o ne m ay a ssume t hat t hey a re o f w estern a nd n ot c entral A natolian o rigin. E ast o f E skisehir t his I neg8l t ype g rey w are i s r eported t o b e r ather r are, w hereas a t T roy i t i s c onsidered t o b e t he f orerunner o f t he T roy V I g rey w are.

D ISCUSSION I n t he a bsence o f a rchaeological e xcavation i n T urkish T hrace a nd i n t he I znik, 1 neg81 a nd Y eni ehir d istricts, i t i s i mpossible t o i nfer f rom s urvey m aterial a bout o ther a spects o f h uman a ctivity, p attern a nd e thno-cultural a ffiliations o f p opulation i nhabited t hese r egions s ince e arly p rehistoric t imes.

s ettlement g roups w ho

T he a rchitecture o f c ontemporary v illages a nd t owns i n n eighbouri ng r egions s uch a s t he T road o r E skisehir p lain i n A natolia o r e astern M acedonia/western T hrace i n G reece a nd i n t he B alkans i n B ulgaria c ould p rovide u s w ith s ome t entative m odels o f r egional t raditions i n s ettlem ent

p lanning a nd a rchitecture.

B urial h abits w hich i s a nother f orm o f

m anifestation o f r eligious b eliefs i n b oth s edentary a nd c ommunities a re a lso d ifficult t o r econstruct. C ommunities

p astoral o f t he

F ikirtepe c ulture p racticed i ntramural b urial w ith s imple g raves u sually d ug u nder t he h ouse f loor. B ut w hether t his c ustom c ontinued i n t he p roto-urban a nd e arly u rban p eriods o r w as r eplaced b y e xtram ural b urial c ustom a s i n w estern A natolia i s n ot c lear. W hat i s r elatively c ertain h owever, i s t hat t he M armara r egion u nderwent a c ultural

d evelopment

w estern A natolia.

A t

v ery s imilar t o t he s ame

t ime

t hat o bserved i n o ther t he M armara r egion,

p arts

o f

e specially

i ts

s outheastern p art, p robably h ad t he p otential, b ecause o f i ts n atural r esources a nd a n i ncreasing p opulation d ensity, t o t ransform i nto a r egional

p ower

( with p olitical b orders)

m illennium B C. t reasure a nd t he d iscovered

t he

t hird

U nfortunately t he c ontroversy s urrounding t he c ist t ombs i n w hich i t i s a lleged t o h ave b een

D orak f irst

i s s till v ery

t owards

f ar f rom b eing s olved

8 5

t he e nd o f

t o

t he s atisfaction

o f

a ll.

T herefore,

I h ave

r efrained f rom u sing t he

D orak

e vidence

i n

t he d iscussion r elated t o p rehistoric m etallurgy i n t he M armara r egion o r T hrace. T his d oes n ot m ean t hat m etal w orkshops d id n ot e xist i n t hese r egions o r t hey c ould n ot d evelop a s ophisticated m etal i ndustry i n t he E arly B ronze A ge. I n f act s ome o f t he c opper, s ilver a nd t in d eposits i n t he M armara e xploitation i n a ntiquity. " signs

r egion a nd e astern T hrace s how s igns o f G ranting t he f act t hat e xpressions s uch a s

o f m ining i n a ntiquity" w hen u sed b y g eologists

c ould a lso

m ean

a ctivity i n t he m ines d uring a nd b efore B yzantine t imes; o ne c annot a lways b e c ertain h ow e arly a re t he e arliest m ining o perations i n t hese r egions. B ut s ince t he r egional c ultures s how s igns o f i nteraction b etween t he B alkan c ultures w ith a dvanced m etalworking t raditions a nd A natolian e lements, i t i s i nconceivable t hat t he M armara r egion w ould h ave l agged f ar b ehind i n d eveloping i ts m etal I n

K ele -So ukpinar

i n t he p rovince o f

i ndustries. B ursa t in

d eposits

h ave

b een d iscovered i n 1 980 ( Cagatay, A ltun a nd A rman 1 980; K aptan 1 983). T hese d eposits i n M adenbelenitepe s how s igns o f o ld w orkings w hich a re d ifficult t o d ate w ith a ny p recision. B ut t he m ere f act t hat t in o re e xists i n t his p art o f T urkey i s e xtremely s ignificant a nd w ould p rovide

t he m uch s ought h ard e vidence b y t hose w ho p ostulated t hat

m etallurgical c entres i n n orthwest A natolia h ad s ources o f t his m etal ( Yakar 1 976; 1 984). I n

B eykoz-Istanbul a c opper d eposit

t heir

o wn

i s s ituated a bout 1 km

t he

l imited

s outh-

e ast o f t he v illage o f E senceli. I n a ddition t o a zurite a nd m alachite a nalyses i ndicate t he p resence o f s ilver i n t he r ation o f 5 0-70 g r. p er t on. A nother d eposit i n B altaci ç iftli i-Istanbul h as a y ield o f 1 .34% c opper ( Chalcopyrites a nd m alachite) a nd a lmost 5 0 g r. o f s ilver p er t on.

I n e astern T hrace,

i n t he v icinity o f S ariyer-Istanbul t here

I s

a n i mportant d eposit o f c opper w ith s ome v eins y ielding a smuch a s 1 4% o f t his m etal a nd 1 63 g r. o f g old p er t on. B ut a ccording t o g eologists t his m ine w as e xploited f irst b y t he B yzantines ( MTA 1 972:18-19). I n S ile-Istanbul

t here

a re

a n umber o f

i mportant

d eposits

o f

c opper,

s ilver a nd l ead s ome o f w hich c ould h ave b een k nown t o p rehistoric p rospectors. I n K asba i s ome 1 2km s outh o f v ile, a nalyses o f c opper r ich v eins y ielded u p t o 3 .55% c opper a nd 1 10-186 g r. o f s ilver p er t on. A v ery r ich s ample w hich y ielded 6 0% c opper a nd 8 38 g r. o f s ilver p er

t on s uggest t hat

s ome d eposits,

a lthough n ot a s l arge a s t hose i n

t he P ontus, h ad a h igh y ield, e nough t o m eet l ocal d emands i n a ntiquity. I t i s s ignificant t hat t he K a ba i m ine i n § ile t ogether w ith a nother c opper d eposit f urther t o t he w est p roduced n umerous i ndications

o f

o ld m ining a ctivity ( MTA 1 972:19-20).

A RCHAEOLOGICAL S OURCES T he F ikirtepe C ulture F IKIRTEPE L ocation:

T he

s ite

i s

l ocated o n a n atural h ill o verlooking t he s outh-

e astern s hores o f M armara

n ear K adik8y-Istanbul.

E xcavations: B ittel a nd T urkish H istorical S ociety.

C ambel b etween 1 952-1954 o n b ehalf

8 6

o f

t he

S tratigraphy: v illage. F inds:

A s ingle c ultural

l ayer.

T hese i nclude a rchitectural

P resumably o f

a L ate N eolithic

r emains s uggesting w attle-and-daub

c onstructions. I ntramural b urials. A r ich p ottery a ssemblage. C hipped s tone a nd b one a rtifacts. V ery f ew s tone i mplements s uch a s m ortars

o r g rinding s tones.

L iterature: z do an 1 983;

P alaeozoological r emains.

B ittel 1 960; 1 969; Y akar 1 975:133-134.

F rench 1 967:56-57;

M ellaart

1 967;

P ENDIK L ocation: o f

O n t he e ast c oast o f

t he S ea o f M armara a nd s ome

t he d istrict c entre o f P endik-Istanbul.

I t

i s

1 ,5km e ast

a bout 5 0m a way

f rom

t he p resent c oast l ine, a t a p oint w here t here i s a s mall b ut w ell p rotected n atural h arbour. T here a re t wo f resh w ater s prings i n t he v icinity

o f

t he

s ite a nd a n i ntermittent s tream t o

n arrow s trip o f a lluvial c oastal p lain, i s s heltered f rom t he n ortherly w inds

t he

e ast.

T he

o n w hich t he s ite i s s ituated, b y t he r ise o f C ozdagi. T he

m ound, m easuring 2 80 x 1 70m , i s r oughly o val a n a rea o f s ome 4 5,000 s quare met res.

i n s hape a nd e xtends

o ver

E xcavations: P rior t o r ecent e xcavations b y t he P rehistory D epartment o f I stanbul U niversity t his s ite h ad b een r epeatedly v isited s ince t he f irst q uarter o f t he c entury ( Ozdogan 1 983:401, n .1). H owever, t he f irst c omprehensive o f t his d ecade.

s urvey w as c arried

Out

b y d zdo an a t

t he b eginning

S tratigraphy: T he t hickness o f t he m ound w as e stimated t o b e a bout 2 m. B ut r ecent e xcavations w ill b e p roviding a m ore a ccurate m easurement. L ike

t he

t ypesite o f

F ikirtepe

F inds: S urface m aterial a rtifacts. L iterature:

Ö zdo an 1 983;

i ncluding p ottery

F iratli

T he K aranovo I ll-V U S equence S ince

i t h ad p robably o ne c ultural

1 953;

( sherds),

l ayer.

b one a nd

l ithic

1 958.

i n E astern T hrace.

n o s tratified e xcavations h ave

s o

f ar b een c arried

o ut

i n

T urkish T hrace t he a rchaeological s ources u sed i n t he p resentation o f v arious c ultures, a nd i n p articular t he K aranovo V I/Gumelnita C ulture, a re l ocated i n G reece a nd B ulgaria. B ut a s f ar a s s urveys a re c erned e astern T hrace h as b een t horoughly i nvestigated. S urveys: D 8nmez 1 981b; 1 983. 9

1 968;

F iratl .i

1 958;

E xcavations

8 7

1 976;

F rench 1 966;

i zdo an 9

c on-

1 981a;

D IKILITASH L ocation :

T he

mou nd i s s ituated a t

t he e dge o f

t he P hilipe p lain

i n

e astern M acedonia/western T hrace. E xcavations:

G reek e xcavations

F rench e xcavations b y D eshayes S tratigraphy: T he

f irst

c ulture

l imited

i n s cope b y T heocharis i n 1 961.

i n 1 967.

L evels 2 -13 r epresent t he E B I I o ccupation a t

p hase o f

f ound

t he E B I I c ulture

i n l evels

7 -13.

i s

r epresented b y

T his p hase c orresponds

t he s ite.

t he t o

m aterial t he

e arly

p hase o f T roy I i n t he T road a nd t o t he 'classical' p hase o f t he B adenP ecél c ulture i n s outheastern E urope. T he f ollowing p hase a t t his s ite, l evels 7 -5, s eems t o b e r oughly c ontemporary w ith t he m iddle p hase o f T roy I . T he l ast p hase, l evels 5 -2, h as a p ottery a ssemblage w hich

i ndicates

i ts

I nterestingly e nough,

c ontemporanity w ith t he l ate p hase

o f

T roy

I .

T roy I I ( EB I II) m aterial h as n ot b een f ound

a t

D ikilitash. T his s ituation i s s omehow r eminiscent o f t he o ne e xisting i n t he s ettlements a long t he c oastal r egion o f e astern T hrace. T he

E B

I c ulture a t D ikilitash i s

r epresented i n

l evels

1 4-16.

T he p ottery i n g eneral s till r eflects e arlier t raditions, s urviving f rom t he R ecent N eolithic ( Anatolian L ate C halcolithic) p eriod. B ut t he m ajority o f p ottery f orms r eflect t he i ntroduction o f n ew t raditions b y p opulation g roups p robably b elonging t o t he E zeroC ernavoda-Cotofeni c omplexes t hat c aused t he d isintegration o f t he G umelnita-Karanovo V I-Kodjadermen T hrace a nd M acedonia. I n f act D ikilitash c ould b e a ttributed T he e arliest a rchitectural s o-called

t o

c ultural h orizon i n t he d estruction o f

t he B alkans, l evel 1 6 a t

t hem.

l evel a t t his s ite,

1 7,

r epresents

L ate N eolithic p eriod w ith a m aterial c ulture

t he

c haracterized

b y g raphite p ainted p ottery o f K aranovo V I a ssemblage. F inds: B alkans

M ainly p ottery s howing a ffinities w ith s outheast a nd t he T road ( pre-Troy a nd T roy I ) m aterial.

L iterature:

D eshayes

1 972;

T reuil

E uropean,

1 983.

S ITAGROI L ocation:

I t

E xcavations:

i s s ituated a s hort d istance t o I n 1 968 a nd

S tratigraphy: f irst, T he

s econd l inks.

B urnt H ouse

a ssemblage

t wo s ubdivisions.

i s p artly c ontemporary w ith T roy

t his p hase c ould b e

i n t he T road,

p ottery

c ulture

o f

D ikiltash.

1 969.

l atest c ultural p hase V h as

w ith i ts

b eginnings

s equence t he

V a,

T he

t he w est o f

a ligned

a nd i n e astern T hrace. o f V a r eflects s ome

w ith t he

p re-Troy

T he I . I

B ut g enerally s peaking, t ies

w ith

t he

V ucedol

i n Y ugoslavia a nd B aden-Pec l c omplex o f c entral E urope.

T he

p hase, V b, p roduced a m aterial c ulture w ith s tronger A egean T he p ottery r epertoire i ncludes m any f orms w hich c an b e c om-

p ared w ith T roy I a nd e arly

I I t ypes.

8 8

P hase

I V i s

i n e ffect a p ost-Gumelnita/Karanovo V I o ccupation a nd

t herefore c onsidered t o r epresent t he E B I s ettlement. T he p ottery o f t his p hase s hows a lmost n o r esemblance t o e arlier f orms n or c ould t hey b e c onsidered P hase c ultures.

t he p rototypes o f

t he E B I I s hapes.

I II i s c ontemporary w ith t he K aranovo V a nd K aranovo I n a ddition t o t he g raphite p ainted p ottery o f K aranovo

V I V I

c ulture, a l ocally d eveloped b lack-on -red w are i s f ound i n t his p hase. S trangely e nough t his w are i s n ot f ound n orth o f t he R hodope m ountains. I t h as a lready b een p ointed o ut t hat t he s tratigraphic s equence o f S itagroi i s n ot f ull-proof ( Renfrew 1 971:275; T reuil 1 983:96). I n f act t he i s

s tratigraphic e vidence p ublished s o a ccompanied b y

f ar i s n ot

l argely

t entative.

F inds:

I n a ddition t o n umerous s mall f inds

a rtifacts,

t he

v ery i mpressive a nd

f irmly h eld c onclusions w hich s hould b e

B urnt H ouse

t reated

a s

i ncluding p ottery a nd met al

o f V a p rovides

s ome m uch n eeded i nforma-

t ion r egarding r egional a rchitecture i n t he E arly B ronze A ge. L iterature:

R enfrew 1 969;

1 970;

1 971;

1 973;

T reuil

1 983:94-96.

K ARANOVO L ocation:

T his

i s o ne o f

B ulgarian T hrace. E xcavations: e xcavations t inued m ound s

t he l argest m ounds

i nvestigated s o

l t m easures 2 50 x 1 50m a nd h as a h eight o f

f ar

i n

1 2.40m.

F ollowing M ikov T h t rial d ig i n 1 936, t he f irst s ystematic w ere c arried o ut i n 1 947 b y M ikov a nd G eorgiev, a nd c on-

f or t en y ears. r emains h ave

D uring t his t ime m ore t han f our a cres o f t he b een e xposed p roviding a s tratified c ultural

s equence w hich i s o ften r eferred t o a s a r eliable m odel

f or o ther s ites

i n M acedonia a nd e astern T hrace. I n 1 957 a n a dditional t rench w as c arefully e xcavated t o o btain a b etter a nd m ore r eliable s tratigraphic s equence. S tratigraphy: o f t wo m ain t wo c ultural e arly V II i s s hapes t hat a nd T hermi. t his p hase

T he

l ast l evel V II i s o nly 2 .61m t hick a nd i s c omposed

a rchitectural l ayers. I t s eems t hat t hese c orrespond t o p hases ( Treuil 1 983:106). T he p ottery a ssemblage f rom t he s imilar t o t hat f ound i n M ihalic a nd h as a l arge n umber o f h ave c lose p arallels i n t he p ottery r epertories o f T roy I I n a ddition t o t hese, e xamples o f c orded w are f ound i n c ould b e r elated t o a n ew g roup o f p eople w ho s lowly b ut

g radually i nvaded n ortheastern a nd e astern T hrace i n t he s econd h alf o f t he t hird m illennium B C. A s f or t he l ater p hase o f V II, i ts p ottery a ssemblage s hows l ocal c haracteristics k nown a lso f rom o ther m ajor B ulgarian s ites s uch a s K irilmetodijevo I I a nd E zero B 2, b ut t hese n ew f eatures a re u nknown i n n orthwest A natolian E B I II p ottery r epertoire. K aranovo V II ( a) i s u sually e quated w ith t he E B I I p eriod i n M acedonia a nd w estern Anatolia. B ut u nlike i n e astern M acedonian o r o ther n orthe ast T hracian s ites w here t he E B I i s m ore o r l ess w ell r epresented, a t K aranovo t he E B I i s r epresented b y a s terile l evel b etween l evels V I a nd V II. I t c ould i ndicate t hat a fter t he d estruction o f t he C halcolithic s ettlement ( level V I) t he s ite w as n ot i nhabited f or t ime. B ut t his p attern, a s i ndicated b y t he s tratigraphy o f n ot w idespread i n n ortheastern T hrace.

8 9

E zero,

L ate s ome w as

K aranovo V I r epresents t he G umelnita c ulture.

T his

l evel i s 3 ,60m

t hick a nd t ogether w ith K aranovo V ( the r egional M aritsa c ulture), w hich i s 2 m t hick, c onsists o f 1 6 a rchitectural p hases. T here i s n o c lear s ign o f b reak b etween K aranovo V I a nd t he e arlier V . T his c ould i ndicate t hat w hen t he b earers o f t he G umelnita c ulture i n m oved f urther t o t he s outh, t o n orthern, e astern a nd w estern t hey d id c ulture.

R omania T hrace,

n ot c ause a s udden a nd v iolent i nterruption o f t he M aritsa T he e arlier l evels, K aranovo 1 -1V, r epresent t he e arly f ood p eriod w hich s tarted i n t he l ate s eventh m illennium B C

a nd

w hich i n t he s ixth m illennium i ncluded i mportant r egional c ultures a s V esselinovo ( Karanovo I II) a nd K aloyanovets ( Karanovo I V).

p roduction

s uch

F inds: t ic o f

I n a ddition t o a n e xtensive r epertoire o f p ottery c haracterist he v arious c ultural p eriods s ince e arly N eolithic t imes,

e xcavations p roduced o ther r emains o f m aterial c ulture s uch a s d omestic a rchitecture ( best e xamples i n I II), p ottery w orkshop i n V I, d eity r epresentations

( anthropomorphic v essels o f

t he G umelnita p eriod)

a nd

m etal o bjects ( including c rucibles a nd s mall c opper i ngots i n V I). E xtramural b urials o f t he L ate N eolithic p eriod a nd r ich p alaeob otanical

r emains

a re

a mong

t he

s ignificant

f inds

d iscovered

a t

K aranovo. L iterature:

G aul

T odorova 1 978;

1 948;

T reuil

G eorgiev 1 961;

1 983:105-106;

3 61,

1 967;

1 970;

3 78-380,

M ikov

1 959 ;

4 02.

E ZERO ( DiPS Z) L ocation:

I t

i s

s ituated a s hort d istance f rom K aranovo

a bout

3 km

s outheast o f N ova Z agora i n n ortheastern T hrace. E xcavations: b etween 1 952

T he f irst s oundings w ere c arried o ut b y M ikov a nd K ojcev a nd 1 958. L ater, G eorgiev a nd M erpert u ndertook

s ystematic e xcavations b etween 1 961 a nd 1 971. S tratigraphy: T wo o f t he t hree l arge a reas e xcavated r evealed a c 1e r c ultural s equence. O f t hese t wo a reas, t he s outhwestern o ne ( 120m ) w as e xcavated t o a d epth o f 9 ,60m . H ere t he L ate C halcolithic p eriod ( termed F inal N eolithic) i s r epresented i n l evel I I w hich i s c lose t o 3 m t hick a nd i s c omposed o f e ight a rchitectural p hases o f t he M aiitsa a nd G umelnita c ultures. I t s eems t hat t he l ast s ettlement o f t he G umelnita c ulture w as a bandoned, a lthough t here a re n o v isible s igns o f d estruction s uggesting f orceful e viction. T he r eoccupied a fter a s hort t ime l apse b y t he b earers o f t ion. a nd

T he h as

s equence c entral w estern

l atter p eriod i s

n ine p hases o f o f

a rea. s ector

r epresenting X I U-IX m aterial

t he

r epresented b y l evel

h uman o ccupation.

E arly B ronze A ge a t

I w hich

i s 3 ,80m t hick

t he b est

s tratigraphic

t his s ite w as

o btained

i n

t he

H ere t he e xcavations c leared m ore t han 2 700m o f t he o f t he m ound w hich r evealed 1 3 p hases o f o ccupation

t hree m ain p hases o f

r epresent c ulture

B ut

s ettlement w as t he E BA c iviliza-

t he

f irst

i s o f p re-Troy

c ultural d evelopment.

c ultural p hase

t he

l evels T he

I t ype a nd i s c losely c orrelated

w ith

A s a lready

o f

H ere E BA.

t he E B Ia t S itagroi a nd D ikilitash.

( A)

i ndicated a bove,

t his

P articular p hase w as n ot o bserved i n t he s tratigraphy a t K aranovo. L evels V III-VII r epresent a t ransitional p hase m arked b y t he a ppearance o f n ew p ottery f orms c haracteristic o f t he n ext p hase B a nd t he c ont inuation o f

p hase A t ype o f w ares.

90

F inally,

l evels V I-II ( phase

B )

r evealed

a

m aterial c ulture w ith t wo d evelopmental

f irst w hich i s c ontemporary w ith K aranovo e arly V II,

s tages.

I n

t he

c ultural a nalogies

c ould b e e xtended s outh t o t he T road ( early a nd m iddle T roy I ). s econd c ultural s tage w hich I s p artly c ontemporary w ith T roy

I n t he l ate I

p eriod, n ew p ottery f orms ( either l ocally d eveloped o r i ntroduced b y n ewcomers f rom t he n orth) s imilar t o t hose f ound a t K aranovo l ate V II o r K irilmetodijevo I I a re f ound

i n a bundance.

F inds:

r adiocarbon d ates

A n I mportant s eries o f

f rom t he

t ransitional

a nd p hase B ( Quitta-Kohl 1 969; E aston 1 976). A n i mportant i nventory o f E BA p ottery w ith m any f orms k nown f rom t he T roy I r epertoire. M etal a rtifacts o f E B I I d ate ( Treuil 1 983:147-149) a nd s mall f inds m ade o f c lay, b one a nd s tone. I mportant r emains o f r egional w attle-and-daub a rchitecture

o f

t he E arly B ronze A ge,

i ncluding

t own

p lanning

f ortification i n p rehistoric T hrace. P alaeobotanical z oological d ata r eflecting a spects o f s ubsistence e conomy. L iterature: G eorgiev a nd M erpert 1 979; 1 974; T reuil 1 983:106-109, 2 04-206, 3 66,

G eorgiev 3 69, 3 79,

a nd

a nd

p alaeo-

1 970; K atinchgrov 3 80, 3 80-390, 4 41,

4 43 a nd 4 48. T he

L ate

C halcolithic

a nd E arly B ronze A ge C ultures

I n

S outh-

e astern M armara. T he

e xistence o f v arious r egional c ultures

t hroughout

t he f ourth

a nd t hird m illennia B C a re b ased o n p ottery s amples c ollected a rchaeological f ield s urveys o f l imited t ime a nd g eographical F uture e xcavations c ould c hange s ome o f p resented i n t he d iscussion. L iterature:

F rench 1 961;

1 967;

t he

M ellaart 1 955.

9 1

t entative

d uring r ange.

c onclusions

N OTES

1 .

F or a c omprehensive s tudy o f s ee D 8nmez

2 .

T his

c ould

t he v egetation c over i n e astern T hrace

1 968. e xplain w hy

t he c oastal r egions o f

M armara

w ere

n ot

d ensely p opulated b efore t he f ourth m illennium B C. 3 .

T he e xcavations o f P endik w ill s oon b e p roviding r adiocarbon d ates, t hus l imiting t he s cope o f c hronological s peculation c oncerning t he d ate a nd d uration o f t he F ikirtepe c ulture. A t F ikirtepe i tself, t he f act t hat i t i s a s ingle p eriod s ite m ade c hronological o bserv ations i n r elation t o s tratified s ites ( i.e. D emircihiyUk) v ery d ifficult. O nly t he t ypological c onsiderations r egarding t he c hipped

s tone

i ndustry

o f

F ikirtepe h as b een u sed a s

a

c hrono-

l ogical b asis b y 5 zdo an. A ccording t o h im t his i ndustry a ppears t o b e a d irect o ffspring o f t he E pi-Palaeolithic i ndustries i n t he M armara r egion 4 .

( 1983:409).

I n t he a bsence o f e xcavations i n e astern T hrace i t i s d ifficult t o e stablish i f t he t hree m ain p hases o f t he G umelnita c ulture a re f ully r epresented h ere. D umitrescu m aintained t hat t he f inal p hase o f t his c ulture i s m issing i n e astern M acedonia/western T hrace ( 1970:9-10). T his v iew, a lthough s hared b y M akkay ( 1976:208), h as b een q uestioned b y T reuil

5 .

( 1983:100).

I t i s i nteresting t o o bserve t hat t he K aranovo V p hase ( Maritsa c ulture) a t S itagroi i s d ated b y C -14 m ethod t o t he m id-sixth m illennium B P, a nd t he l ater K aranovo V I p hase ( Gumelnita c ulture) i s d ated a t D ikilitash, u sing t he s ame m ethods, t o t he e arly-sixth m illennium B P. a t

6 .

T o a dd t o

t ransitional

f rom 4 075

r ain s amples w hich a re u nrealistically l ow ; 1 00 B P ( Treuil 1 983:119).

T he

-

p hase p roduced

( Moguila B anjata)

V /VI

p ost-Gumelnita

p hase

t wo

r adiocarbon

a t S itagroi ( IV)

t hat

t he

K aranovo

d ates

o btained

4 242

p roduced

i1 00

B P a nd

r adiocarbon

d ates r anging f rom 3 380 1 00 B C t o 2 990 t5 6 B C. A n a verage d ate o f 3 300/3200 B C f or t he b eginning o f t his p hase c ould b e c onsidered a s afe e stimate.

7 .

t his c onfusion o ne s hould p oint o ut

t he s ite o f K apitan D imitrijevo

T he s ome

r eference t o d epressed e xplanation.

a rchitecture o f f ollowing w ay: w as

S ee a lso H uot

I t

h as

1 982:996.

f loors

i n

t he F ikirtepe

b een s uggested

t hat i n

c ulture t he

n eeds

r egional

n orthern T hrace h ouse f loors w ere b uilt i n t he A s hallow p it s ome 2 0-30cm d eep w as d ug a nd t hen

c overed b y l arge b eams w hich w ere p laced l ongitudinally a t

a n

i nterval o f 6 0 t o 8 0cm. H alved h oles w ere c ompactly a rranged o ver t he b eams t o f orm a s olid w ooden p latform a bove t he p it ( Todorova 1 978:51). S uch r aised h ouse f loors i nsulation a gainst h umidity e manating i n l owlands w ith p oor d rainage. T he m ay s uggest t hat s uch a c onstruction

w ould h ave p rovided a n i deal f rom d amp s oils u sually f ound d epressed f loors a t F ikirtepe t echnique w as a lso p racticed

i n s outheastern M armara i n t he L ate N eolithic p eriod.

9 2

8 .

F or

a

d etailed

t hrough t he 9 .

f ifth,

s tudy o f

r ed-cross b owls

a nd

t heir

d evelopment

f ourth a nd t hird m illennia B C s ee K orfmann 1 983.

F or a dditional l iterature s ee:

9 3

K ansu 1 963;

1 971;

T asliko 1u 1 971.

C HAPTER V :

W ESTERN A NATOLIA I NCLUDING T HE A EGEAN S EABOARD

N ATURAL E NVIRONMENT A ND S ETTLEMENT P ATTERN ( MAPS:V-VA-C) T his r egion c omprises,

i n a ddition t o

t he w estern

s eaboard,

t he

s ix p rovinces o f K Utahya, U ak, D enizli, A fyon, I sparta a nd B urdur. T he a rea w ithin t hese s ix p rovinces f orms a c ompact b lock o f t erritory s ome 5 9,000km 2 . I t i s b ounded o n o ne s ide b y t he A egean r egion a nd o n t he o ther b y c ental A natolia, a nd i s, i n m any a spects o f i ts g eography, a z one o f t ransition b etween t he t wo ( Dewdney 1 971). I t f orms a g enerally h igh s tanding a rea w hich r ises w ell a bove t he l evel o f t he c entral A natolian p lains a nd, w hen v iewed f rom t he w est, i s a m ount ainous b arrier t hrough w hich r outes f rom t he c oast t o t he i nterior m ust c limb. T he d rainage s ystem o f t he r egion i s c entrifugal. T he w estern h alf d rains t owards t he A egean v ia t he B { lyt lk M enderes a nd G ediz r ivers a nd t ongues o f l and l ess t han 5 00m a bove s ea l evel p rotrude i nto t he

r egion

a long

t hose v alleys.

I n t he s outh b eyond

B ozda ,

S 81 1t

D a lari a nd o ther s outhwest t o n ortheast t rending r idges, d rainage i s t o t he M editerranean v ia t he D alman a nd A ksu s ystems. T he s outheastern p art

o f w estern A natolia i s c haracterized b y t he p resence o f a

n umber

o f r elatively l arge l akes. T he s maller o nes, l ike A cigHi a nd B urdur h ave a l arge c oncentration o f s alt i n t heir w ater a nd f orm

L ake p art

o f t he i nternal d rainage s ystem, b ut t he m uch l arger L ake E gridir i s a f reshwater l ake a nd d rains s outh b y u nderground s eepage t hrough l imes tone

r ocks.

I n

t he n orth o f w estern A natolia,

t he r ivers

f lowing

t hrough T aysanli a nd K t ltahya a re t ributaries o f t he S imav a nd S akarya r espectively, a nd t hey d rain t o t he S ea o f M armara a nd t he B lack S ea. T he n umerous v alleys o f w estern A natolia f orm e xtensive a reas o f l evel o r g ently s loping l and a t h eights b elow 1 000m ( above s ea l evel). A bove t hese v alleys o ne f inds a m ass o f h ighly d issected u pland w ith a g eneral s ummit l evel o f 1 000-1500m c ulminating i n n umerous n ountain f ormations w hich i n m any p laces r ise a bove t he 2 000m l evel. D ewdney r ightly p oints o ut t hat t he a bsence o f a ny c learly m arked t opographic g rain

i n w estern A natolia a s a w hole d istinguishes

r egion,

w ith

i ts

A natolia w ith n atural r outes

i ts a lteration o f m ountain m asses l ink t his r egion t o t he A egean a nd

T he n ortherly r oute w hich p asses B alikesir,

i t f rom t he

c lear-cut e ast-west t rend l ines,

t hrough K t ltahya,

f rom t he

a nd

f rom

A egean c entral

a nd p lain. T hree t he c entral p lateau.

s outhern s hore o f M armara

r eaching E skisehir.

T he s econd, w hich

v ia i s

t he c entral r oute, c onnects t he p rovince o f I zmir w ith U ak a nd A fyon. T his r oute c limbs t he G ediz v alley a nd a fter A fyon i t r eaches t he K onya p lain.

T he

t hird r oute i s a long t he B i ! lyt lk M enderes v alley a nd

n ear D enizli a nd a nd I sparta.

t erminates

T he A egean r egion,

i n Eridir,

p asses

w hile i ts b ranches r each B urdur

o n t he o ther h and,

c omprises t he s eaboard f rom

t he p lain o f T road i n t he n orthwest t o t he K oca v alley w est o f F inike i n t he s outh. I t m ust b e p ointed o ut t hat f rom t he g eographical p oint o f v iew a lone, t he A egean r egion i s u sually c onsidered b y g eographers

9 4

t o

e xtend

b etween

t he B akir v alley w est o f

S oma i n t he n orth

t o

K oca

v alley i n t he s outh ( Dewdney 1 971:162-167). B ut s ince w e a re d ealing w ith g eography i n aw ider c ontext o f r egional c ultures, c ertain a reas i n n orthwest A natolia w hich g eographically b elong t o t he M armara r egion a re d iscussed h ere w ithin t he f ramework o f w estern A natolia A egean s eaboard.

a nd

t he

T he s ame m ay b e s aid f or t he w estern E ski ehir p rovince o r t he E lmali p lain i n L ycia; b oth o f t hese a reas a re o utside t he g eographical b orders o f w estern A natolia, b ut t he r espective p rehistoric s ites s uch a s D emlrcih8yUk o r K arata -Semay i ! 1k a re u sually c onsidered a s a mong t he r epresentative s ettlements o f t he w est A natolian E BA c ulture. T he A egean z one e xtends i nland f or a d istance v arying b etween 5 0 t o 2 00km. T here a re s ignificant d ifferences b etween a l arger n orthern s ection m ade u p o f

t he p rovinces o f s outhwestern ç anakkale,

B alikesir,

M anisa,

A ydin a nd I zmir, a nd t he s outhernmost p rovince o f M u la. T he f ormer a rea i s d ominated b y a s trongly m arked e ast-west s tructural a nd t opog raphic M armara

g rain. a nd t he

t ributaries o f

I n t he n orth t he h ill c ountry w hich s eparates t he A egean r egions i s d rained b y t he K um a nd S elendi

t he G ediz

r iver a nd b y

t he s maller B akir C ay.

T he G ediz

v alley, b ounded o n e ither s ide b y m ajor f aults, i s m arkedly a ssymetrical. O n i ts n orthern s ide s lopes a re r elatively g entle a nd t here

h as

b een m uch d issection b y t ributaries,

b ut o n t he

s outh

t here

i s a v ery a brupt r ise i n t he a rea o f B ozda lar, w hich i n p laces e xceeds 2 000m . T his m assif i n t urn s lopes s teeply d own t he s maller K Hk M enderes v alley, w hich i s s eparated b y t he n arrow r idge o f D a lari f rom a m ajor t rough, o ccupied b y t he B i ! lyt lk M enderes M u la p rovince, m ountains

o n t he o ther h and,

p redominate

a nd

a mong

r elief

t he A ydin r iver. I n

i s l ess o rderly.

t hem t here

a re

H ills

n umerous

a nd

e nclosed

b asins. L owlands, h owever, a re l imited i n e xtent, o ccurring m ainly a long t he c oast a nd s tretching o nly a f ew k ilometres i nland. T his i s i n m arked c ontrast t o t he m ore n ortherly p art o f t he r egion, w here b road a nd f lat-floored v alleys p enetrate t he e astern g eographical b oundary o f t he w estern h interland. A s f or t he e astern A egean c oastl ine l t h as a r ather i rregular s hape d ue t o a c ombination o f e ast-west t rend-lines w ith a m ore l ocalized n orth-south f aulting.

A s

a r esult

i t

c onsists o f a s eries o f r ocky, c liff-lined p romontories a nd p eninsulas, s eparated b y d eep b ays a nd g ulfs. T he l atter r eceive t he m ajor r ivers f rom t he i nterior a nd

t hese h ave w ell-developed d eltas,

p articularly a t

t he m ouths o f G ediz a nd B uyuk M enderes. T he f our m ajor r ivers w estern Anatolia t hat r un w estwards t owards t he A egean, n amely B üyt lk M enderes M enderes

( Meander o r M aindros),

t he G ediz

( Kaystros) a nd B akir g ay ( Kaikos),

( Hermos),

h ave

t he

t heir s ources

i n t he

K tkIk i n

t he

w est A natolian m ountains a nd i n t he u plands t hat s eparate t he c entral A natolian p lateau f rom t he c oast. A ll f our r ivers f ollow t he s outhw est-northeast f aulting n ear t he c oast a nd e ach e nds i n a b road d eltaic c oastal p lain. T he c oastal p lains o f t he K uçük M enderes, t he G ediz a nd B akirçay a re c onnected w ith t he m ain v alleys b y a n arrow p assage. B ut t he f rom

b road

v alley o f

t he

B t iyt lk M enderes e xtends

t he A egean c oast t o m ore

s ea-level

( or t he s inking o f

w ithout

t han 1 50km i nland. t he s hores b ecause o f

i nterruption

D uring t he

t he r ise

i n

s tretching

o f

t he c oastal l and) t hat b egan c a.12000 B C, t he s ea p enetrated t he v alleys t o a p oint f ar d eeper i nland t han t he p resent c oastline ( Brice 1 978:67-81). L ater, h owever, s tarting w ith t he M iddle H olocene, t he c oastline s tarted t o m ove w estward d ue t o s tream d eposition ( of a lluvium). w ith

m ostly

A t

t he s ame t ime, f ine-grained

t he v alleys

f urther i nland w ere

r iver a lluvium a nd w ith

9 5

c oarser

f illed u p s ands

a nd

H AP V :

W ESTERN A NATOLIA A ND T HE E AST A EGEAN ( For b ox s ee M aps V A-c)

K ennaz I

U çpinar

3 1.

2 . 3 .

K 8seler 0 vak8y I II

4 . 5 . 6 .

0 vak8y I I P amukçu B abak8y

azk8y 3 2. S ahmiye I I 3 3. R edeller 3 4. B alitpa a I 3 5. H H a litpa a I I 3 6.

7 . 8 .

P a ak8y U cektepe

3 7. 3 8.

A hbeyli H 8y * ! lk N ur l ye H 8yt lk

9 . 1 0.

O vabayindir S indirgi

3 9. 4 0.

T ekeliler Erik8y

1 1. 1 2.

Y ortan S oma

4 1. 4 2.

ç erkes t evkif l ye U lucak

1 3. 1 4. 1 5.

K umtepe B esiktepe T roy ( Hisarilk)

1 6. 1 7.

H anaytepe K aymaktepe

eziro lu 4 3. V yio G ala 4 4. A 4 5. H e rai on ayrakli 4 6. B üyt icek 4 7. H

1 .

E ski B alikhane

4 8. 4 9.

K iliktepe

5 0. 5 1.

l asos B eycesul t an

5 2. 5 3. 5 4.

P ekmez S eyret K arat a§

K ayi lar S t lleymanli A khisar H t lyt lk

5 5. 5 6.

K urucay H 8yt lk B ort lyt lk

5 7.

2 8. 2 9.

K ennez I I R ahmiye I

A hark8y D emi r clhtyt 1k

3 0.

M orali

5 8. 5 9. 6 0.

1 8.

c andarli

1 9. 2 0. 2 1.

U yt icek Y eni Y elde irmeni E mporio

2 2. 2 3. 2 4.

T hermi P oliochni M ecidiye

2 5. 2 6. 2 7.

( Lemnos)

I

9 6

c ukurhisar S 8t 1tBnU

I SLANDS

A, 1 1 . ) V

0

9 7

2 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

g ravels

f rom s urrounding h ills,

w ere f ormed i n t he

a nd a s a r esult

l ower v alleys:

a lluvial f ans

t he f ollowing

f eatures

s preading o ut f rom t he

h illsides, f lat a lluvial p lains, r arely f looded t hese a re f ound 5 -10m a bove t he p resent r iver b eds, a nd a b road f lat p lain n ear t he m outh o f t hese m ajor r ivers, w hich w as o nly f looded d uring t he w inter. I f w e c onsider

t hat

t he

m oved w estward a t

f lood p lain o f

t he K Uç t fk

M enderes,

f or

i nstance,

l east 1 0km b etween 7 50 B C-700 A D ( ca.7m a y ear),

t hen

o ne c an u nderstand c ertain r egional p atterns o f s ettlement a nd t heir d ensity i n w estern A natolia a nd t he e astern A egean. T his f actor c ould e xplain,

i ndeed,

t he

r eason

w hy

N eolithic a nd

E arly

C halcolithic

s ettlements a re r ather a bsent i n t his p art o f A natolia. A s f or t he B lyt lk M enderes, G ediz a nd B akir C ay d eltas, t hey t oo a re k nown t o h ave s hared s imilar h istories o f e xpansion, p articularly d uring t he H ellenistic, R oman a nd B yzantine t imes ( Eisma 1 978; E rinp 1 978:68-69; S chede 1 964). A ccording t o g eological i nvestigations, i n t he S camander v alley t oo t he s ituation w as n o d ifferent f rom t hat w hich e xisted i n t he m ajor r iver v alleys ( Rapp a nd G ifford 1 982:6-7). T he s edimentary e nvironments i dentified b y a n umber o f b oreholes i n t he l ower K ara M enderes v alley s uggest t hat i n c a.8800 B C a m arine e mbayment f loored b y c lay-silt s ediment h ad o ccupied t he S camander v alley. T his p ortion o f t he s equence i s o verlain b y s andy s ediments c ontaining a m arine m olluscan f auna, r adiocarbon d ated t o c a.6500-5600 B C. O verlying t hese s ediments a re c lay-silt m arine e mbayment s ediments, w hich i n t urn a re o verlain

b y

m ore

s andy m arine

e mbayment

s ediment

( 1982:25).

T he

s equence i s c apped b y L ate H olocene p rogradational a lluvial s ands a nd s ilts o f t he S camander R iver. I nvestigations c learly i ndicate t hat c a.5000-4000 B C a m ajor m id-Holocene t ransgression o ccurred i n t he S camander

v alley w hich r esulted i n t he e xpansion o f m arine

r e-entrance

u p t o 1 6km s outh o f t he D ardanelles, a nd p ossibly t o t he v icinity o f P inarba i. F rom c a.4000 B C t o p resent, t he c ontinuing f luctuations o f t he s ea

l evel c aused a m ajor m arine r egression ( 1982:27).

t ion o f

t he f luvial s ediment

T he d eposi-

h ighly c hanges

i rregular a s c ontinuing s light s ea l evel f luctuations i nduced i n r iver g rade. I n o ther w ords, a d rop i n s ea l evel m ay h ave

i n t he S camander e mbayment w ould h ave b een

r esulted i n i ncreased e rosion a nd t ransportation o f s ediment i n t he u pper r eaches o f r iver d rainage b asins w hile s imultaneously p roducing d eposition a ssociated

i n f lood p lains. S uch s ea l evel m inima m ight h ave b een w ith c older a nd d rier c limate a nd w ith a ccelerated e rosion

d uring w inter r ainstorms. T herefore, i t s hould n ot b e s urprising t o f ind t hat T roy i n t he B ronze A ge w as s urrounded b y s ea o n t hree s ides, o r t hat t he e arliest s ettlements i n t he T road d ate f rom t he m illennium B C. T hese w ere p referably e stablished o n g rounds t han t ions

t he v alley o f a t K umtepe,

f ourth h igher

t he l ower S camander. I n h is r eport o n t he E xcavaS perling n oted t he p ossibility t hat t he s ite w as

p icked f or s ettlement i n p art b ecause " the a lluvial s oil o f t he a djac ent p art o f t he ( Scamander) p lain i s e asily c ultivable" ( 1976:355). I t

i s

i mportant

t o n ote,

i n v iew o f

f aunal d eposits w hich

I nclude

l arge

q uantities o f f ish b ones a nd s hellfish r emains, t hat t he s ettlers o f t he w estern c oast o f A natolia h ad a m ixed s ubsistence e conomy w hich d epended

t o

a n

e mbayments.'

i mportant e xtent o n s eafood r esources

T hese

s ettlements

i n t he e ast A egean

i n

t he

i slands

m arine a nd

t he

c oastal s trip w ere r ather s mall v illages i n t he f ourth a nd e arly t hird m illennium B C. L ater, h owever, a c hange i n t he s ettlement p attern i s r eflected

i n

t he e mergence o f w ell f ortified

s ettlements o f s ettlements i n

t he

t he E B I lIll p eriod.

c itadels

o r

d uring T roy I p eriod i s a ccompanied b y a g radual

w ealth o f

c ertain o rganized a gglomerations.

9 8

n ucleated

A n i ncrease i n t he d ensity o f T his

t he

i ncrease p opulation

c _ )

_

'-

-

c a

C

U ) 3

U ) . 3

H

4 _ i

• 4 o U L

0 3

•i

E

3 0 t s e

u J

M t I A p

y " o p/1 , 1 ,

z �U—

u i 1 2

,

-

„

I

2 +

"

i r i

J,_ -

-

x O.

I 00

M AP V B:

S ITES W ITH E B IIl O CCUPATION I N T HE S OUTHERN P ART O F T HE

W ESTERN P LATEAU ( After L loyd a nd M ellaart

1 . 2 .

B eycesultan

5 1 . Karacal

1 01 . Ortaca

Y akacik

5 2. Yarik8y

1 02.Aslanapa 1 03.Haydarlar

3 . Y assi H ? iylk I 4 . Y amanlar 5 . 6 . 7 . 8 .

1 962:Map V I)

S aribeyli S t lrmeli K araca ç ivril

9 . S 8kmen 1 0. Iikli 1 . Emircik 1 2. Kesilmi 1 3.Sundurlu 1 4.Bekirli I 1 5.Bekirli

I I

5 3.Hacilar I I 5 4. Okyözü 5 5. Pinarba i 5 6. Adatepe 5 7. Ka ilcik 5 8. q amur 5 9.Ferezli 6 0.Tefenni H 8y«k 6 1.Hasan P a a I 6 2.Hasan P asa I I 6 3.Yarimtepe 6 4.Seyitler 6 5. B eyk8prt f

1 04 . G8kçeler 1 05 . ich yUk 1 06 . Yalnizsaray 1 07.Gecek 1 08 . Ak ak8y 1 09 . Abya 1 10 . Alibey 11 1 . Karaa aS 1 12.Yapilcan 1 13.Tatar inuhat 1 14 . Be kari 1 15.Osmank6y

6 6. çavdir 6 7. Burdur 6 8. Cine 6 9. Kuzk8y 7 0.Karaali C iftli'i

1 16.Karaca A hmet

7 6.çaykenari I 7 7.çaykenari I I 7 8. Carktn

1 26.Sadikbey 1 27.çakir N orth 1 28.çakir E ast 1 29 . çapak

3 0. S arayk8y

7 9.Bayat 8 0. H8yükk8y

3 1 . Hamidiye 3 2.Kavakli K ahve

8 1 . Akkilise 8 2.Kevkler

1 30.Mani 1 31 . K t 1ç{k 1 32. S incank8y

3 3. Aydin 3 4. Heraion-Samos

8 3.Belem 8 4. Yelten

1 33.Cenkqi 1 34.Kinnik M ezar

3 5. çukurk8y

8 5.Fugla

1 35.Salar

3 6. Medet

8 6. Garipce 8 7 .eref 8 8.Karabayir Y ayla 8 9.Gilevgi 9 0. S ermah yUk 9 1 . Karata -Elmali 9 2.S8g1e

1 36.çobanlar(Kadiyeri) 1 37 . çobanlar 1 38.Feleli M alyeri

9 3. Eimali West 9 4.Beyler 9 5.Akçay

1 43.Uy nik

4 4. GHney 4 5. Mar icarli 4 6. Geberen

9 6. Yavur

1 46.Devederesi

4 7. Derek8y 4 8. Yazir

9 7. Kapaklar 9 8.Isiklar

1 47 . Bulanik 1 48 . Geyzen

4 9. Gencali 5 0.Yarisli

9 9. Hacibekir 1 00 . Akpinar

1 49.Geneli 1 50 . Aydo mus

1 6. AkkUpri 1 7.Pinar H 8yt lk 1 8.Irgili 1 9 . Sütlaç 2 0. B Uyükpinar-Burgaz 2 1 . Sivasli 2 2. l iqkoyu 2 3. Evciler 2 4. Akarca 2 5. B ozan 2 6. Karah8y t 1k 2 7 . Basmakçi 2 8. Kolossai 2 9. Karakurt

3 7.Solmaz 3 8. Kizilhisar 3 9.Yassi H 8yt Ik 4 0. Karah8ytk 4 1 . Monasti -r 4 2. çorum 4 3.Seller

1 17 . Yenice 1 18.Maltepe 1 19 . E ret 1 20.Beyk8y 1 21 . Ablak 7 1.Ürgütlü 22.Yukari D andiri 7 2. Kizilkaya-Badema ac1 1 1 23.BJzh8y I Jk 7 3. D3semealti 1 24.Gazlig8l 7 4.Ka a I n C ave 1 2 5. I smailk8y 7 5. Leylekk8y

1 01

1 39 . Hamidiye 1 40 . Kumralli 1 41.Boldavin 1 42.Disli 1 44 . Karaca8ren 1 45 . Akharim

1 51 . KepeliyUrt 1 52. ! J zunpinar 1 53.Ic1k11 1 54 . Anayurt 1 55 . Mahmutk8Y

2 08.Ulag i T epe 2 09 . Garipqe ' I

2 12.Ya ci1ar 2 13 . H8yUk U 1

1 58.Agizkara I I 1 59.Tatarll 1 60 . Alpaslan 1 61 . Yazilikaya ( Midas

2 14 . Akcasar 2 15 . Tokmacik 2 16.Uren

1 63. S aribayir

2 17 . Gelendost 2 18.çatal 2 19.Agap 2 20. ç avundur

1 64.Uriyan 1 65 . Ba 1ica 1 66 . Manahoz 1 67 . Tez 1 68.Salihler

2 21 . t Drdekçi 2 22. S alur 2 23.Armutlu W est 2 24 . Yenik8y 2 25.Sf lrt ftme ç ift1i i

1 69 . Bademli 1 70.Piribeyli 1 71 . Samatdere

2 26 . Karacayir 2 27. T oprakyol

1 72 . Nuhk8y-Karata

2 29 . Tolca 2 30 . Kireli 2 31.Eflatun P inar 2 32.Bey ehir H 8yt 1k

C ity)

1 73. N uhk8y-Akplf lar 1 74.Hocalar 1 75 . Kozluca 1 76.Sorkun 1 77 . Emirhisar 1 78.Mirtaz 1 79.Huzai H ammam 1 80.Sandikli 1 81 . Mingile 1 82 . Macil 1 83 . Kusura

2 28 . Kayikdere

2 33.Bey ehir H 3yUk 2 34. I sak8y 2 35.Burun l i 8yt lk

2 41.Evre i I I

1 87 . Dombay

2 44 . Akçalar

1 88 . Akgt {n 1 89 . Dinar

2 45 . Seydi ehir 2 46 . Karabulak

1 92.Tugayli I I

2 47.Kisecik 2 48 . Ta agil 2 49.G l ikçe l 8yt lk

1 93.H8yUk 1 94. B ozhJyt 1k 1 95.Pinarba i G 81t I

C A '

2 36.Liz H 8yUk 2 37 . Ka ak1i 2 38 . Monastir 2 39. B egtemur 2 40 . Karahisar

1 84 . Mente 1 85 . Ekinova 1 86.Af ar

1 90. ç a k 1Cl 1 91.Tugayli I

H 8y { Ik

2 10 . Hayranovasl 2 11.De irmen H yl lk

1 56. S uhut 1 57.A 1zkara I

1 62.Akin

2 64.Ak ehir 2 65.Elmali H isar 2 66.lshakli I stasyon

2 07 . Gencali.

2 42.Homa 2 43.Kavakli

2 50 . Bagra 2 51.Koca H 8yl lk

1 96. I ncetepe

2 52.ortakaraviran I 2 53.0rtakaraviran I I

1 97 . Tulutepe 1 98.Keçiborlu

2 54 . Yalih8yt lk 2 55 . Kayacik

1 99 . Kl1ic

2 56 . Kizilviran

2 00 . Baladiz

2 57 . Sizma 5 8. Ertugrul

2 01 . Akh8yt 1k 2 03 . Atabey

2 59. B ozh t iyt lk-I1g1n 2 60.çatal H 8yUk-I1gif l

2 04 . Conor 2 05 . Göndt lrler

2 61.Yukari 9 i i1 2 62.KuruqaY H 8y { lk

2 06.Findos

2 63 . TepekJy

2 02 . Senirce

1 02

d ensity,

s trangely e nough w as n ot m anifested i n t he e mergence o f

l arge

u rban s ettlements l ike t hose w hich m ay h ave e xisted i n c entral o r s outh e astern A natolia a nd C ilicia. T he a rchaeologists w ho a re s urveying t he e astern A egean c oast

f or

p rehistoric s ettlements a re w ell a ware t hat t he c hances o f l ocating t hem i n o r n ear t he m ajor r iver d eltas a re n il. O n t he o ther h and, c lassical c ities a nd A natolia, a nd l ocations

t owns d otting t he w estern c oastal s trip o f f urther i nland ( e.g. A phrodisias, M iletus), a re

k nown t o h ave b uried n umerous L ate C halcolithic-EB s ettlements, t owns a nd v illages, d eep u nder t heir m onumental p ublic a nd r eligious e difices. A s t he s urveys o f M ellaart, F rench a nd o ther s cholars i n w estern A natolia h ave d emonstrated, p rehistoric s ettlements a re u sually l ocated i n a reas a djacent t o r iver v alleys o r n ear p erennial s prings a nd l akes. I n a reas o f t he w estern h interland, o n t he o ther h and, s uch s ettlements c ould b e l ocated i n t he p roximity o f u pper r iver v alleys, w here s ilting w as n ot a s s erious a s i n t he l ower r iver v alleys. I n t he r egions

o f

B urdur,

I sparta,

A fyon,

U sak,

D enizli a nd K t ltahya,

p rehistoric s ettlements a re s ituated i n s mall e nclosed p lains,

m ost

m ountain

v alleys a nd u pland p lateaux, a nd a long t raditional t rade r outes l inking w estern a nd c entral A natolia t hrough t he r iver v alleys. T he q uestion a s

t o

why m ost p rehistoric m ounds

i n t he h interland a re

a lso

s mall,

c a.5 i n h eight a nd c a.lOOm i n d iameter, c an n ow b e a nswered r ather s atisfactorily, e specially i n v iew o f t he K arata a nd D emircih8y 1 Jk e vidence. E nvironmental f actors s uch a s e xcessive d eforestation i n h ills a nd m ountains s urrounding p lains a nd v alleys o ver m illennia h ave c aused m uch s oil e rosion, w ith t he r esult C halcolithic a nd w ith v ery t hick D emircih8yt lk b etween c a.5 o f

t he p ast f ew t hat m ost L ate

E arly B ronze A ge m ound f ormations h ave b een c overed d eposits o f 'sterile' s oil. I n t he c ase o f

f or i nstance

t he f ull h eight o f

t he E B h abitation

l evels

t he s ummit o f t he m ound a nd t he v irgin s oil i s 1 3.50m b ut o nly t he a ccumulated o ccupation d eposit i s a ctually a bove t he

p resent l evel o f t he E ski se hir p lain. I n t he c ase o f K arata -Semayt !k, t he s mall m ound w hich w as v isible a bove t he p lain o f E lmali c onsisted o f a c entral b uilding a nd l ittle m ore. H owever, w hen e xcavated, t his s ite r evealed a f lat h abitation a rea a nd c emeteries i n t he v icinity o f t he m ound s uggesting t hat s imilar f arming s ettlements ( flat s ettlem ents) m ay w ell e xist i n w estern A natolia. I n m y v iew, w estern A natolia a nd t he A egean c oast w as m ore d ensely s ettled t han t he v arious a rchaeological s urvey m aps

i ndicate

( Map V ).

A nd i t i s w rong t o a ssume

t hat e ach s eemingly s mall m ound r epresents o nly a s mall v illage. T he e xcavations a t K uruçay h ave d emonstrated t hat

f arming l arger

s ettlements e xisted i n w estern A natolia w ell b efore t he E B p eriod. T he E BA l evels a t B eycesultan, T roy, K usura, P oliochni a nd H eraion l eave n o d oubt t hat d istrict c entres w ith m ore s ophisticated t own o rganizations, a nd p robably e conomic a nd p olitical b asis, e merged a lready i n t he e astern A egean m illennium B C. f ortresses

a nd

a nd w estern A natolia i n t he s econd h alf o f t he t hird I n c ertain a reas ( e.g. t he T road) t he e mergence o f t owns w ith s ocio - p olitical/economic p ower b ases a ffected

t he d istribution p attern o f t hem. I t i s l ished o n G ifford i ndicate t he

a rea

s ettlements;

v illages w ere c lustered a round

t hought t hat t he p resent d ay v egetation z ones b ecame e stabt he w estern c oast o f A natolia c a.5000 y ears a go ( Gennett a nd

i n R app a nd G ifford 1 982:116). T he p ollen f rom T roy s trata t hat t here h ad b een l ittle c hange i n t he f loral c omposition o f ( Troad).

R emnants o f

t he o riginal p ine,

1 03

o ak

a nd

j uniper

M AP V C:

S ITES W ITH E B I II O CCUPATION I N T HE S OUTHERN P ART O F T HE W ESTERN P LATEAU ( After L loyd a nd M ellaart 1 962:

M ap V III)

1 .

B eycesultan

1 22.

Y ukari D andiri

3 . 5 . 7 . 8 .

Y assi H yt Ik I S aribeyli K araca ç lvril

1 25. 1 26. 1 27.

I smailk8y S adikbey ç akir N orth

1 28.

C akir E ast

1 1.

E mircik

1 29.

ç apak

1 3. 2 3.

S undurlu E vciler

1 30. 1 32.

M ani S incank8y

2 8.

C olossal

1 33.

C enkçl

3 1. 3 4. 3 6.

H amidlye H eralon 1 1-Samos M edet

1 35.

S alar

1 40. 1 48.

K umraill G eyzen

3 7.

S olmaz

1 49.

G eneli

3 9. 4 3.

Y assi H iyUk S eller

1 50. 1 51.

A ydo mus K epeliyurt

4 5.

M ancarli

1 54.

A nayurt

4 6. 4 9.

G eberen G encall

1 57. 1 64.

A zikara I Y azilikaya ( Midas C ity)

5 2. 5 5. 8 3.

Y ari P inarba i Y elten

1 65. 1 75.

B a" glica K ozluca

1 79.

H uzai H ammam

8 5.

F ugla

1 80.

S andikli

9 3. 9 7.

E lmali W est K apakiar

1 83. 1 85.

K usura E kinova

9 9. H acibeklr 1 01. O rtaca 1 03. H aydarlar

1 86. 2 08. 2 09.

A f ar U la i T epe G aripçe

1 06.

Y alnizsaray

2 13.

H 8ylklt l

1 07. G ecek 1 08. A kçak8y 1 09. A bya

2 20. 2 21. 2 22.

C avundur Ö rdekci S alur

1 13. T atarmuhat 1 16. K araca A hmet

2 23. 2 25. 2 26. 2 29. 2 30.

A rmutlu W est S t lrt {tme C lft1i i K aracayir T olca K ireli

2 53. 2 56.

O rtakaraviran K izilviran

2 57.

S izma

1 17. Y enice 1 18. M altepe 1 19. E gret 1 20.

B eyk8y

1 21.

A kviran

1 04

a ) J

U ) a )

-

a )

O O IÖO U )

' -4

U )

0

a )

1 4

r i

E

0

0

U )

0

o 1 4 H

1 4 J

a ) U ) -

U )

r i

0

-

_ j

U

a ) U 0

0 a )

a )

C U

4 i

a ) )

U ) )

-

.

c

l

0 . 1

I ; 4 I 1 1 H 1 l l i j j j

4

r

a ) -

4 J

-

a ) a ) 0

a )

I

-

1 4

Q -

-

a )

0

r i

0

r I

-

i . -

1 1 1 1 I

m 4' J

I

-

ok •o p-

4

kI

z

-

‚4-

-

> a

0

0

SL

5 1

• b i i I i J I I I I I i S

-

.

J

114

I i i l I I I I I I I I I

0

i lU l lh l l u l II

1 10 5

U

f orests a re o nly f ound i n t he m ore r emote m ountain a reas, a nd e ven t here o nly i n s mall l ocations w hich a re d ifficult o f a ccess. T he f ormer w oodlands h ave i n l arge p art b een r eplaced b y m aquis, e vergreen b ush w ith h ard a nd l eathery l eaves, a nd l oose g roups o f t rees ( Brice 1 978:77). A ccording t o r eports o n v egetation a round T roy i n t he n inet eenth

c entury

( Rapp a nd G ifford

1 982:106-107),

i t

i s

p ossible

t o

s uggest t hat i n t he t hird m illennium B C t oo t he T road a nd a reas f urther s outh a long t he A egean c oast w ere a bound w ith t rees s uch a s t he V alonia o ak, M acedonian o ak, n ettle-trees, A leppo o ak, K ermes o ak. T his l ast s pecie w as f ound o n l ow a nd b arren h ills. T o t he e ast a nd s outheast T roy, f or i nstance, a h igher f orested z one i ncluded s pecies s uch

o f a s

p ine a nd a lmond. H erbs i n t he a rea i ncluded L otus, A pium, r eeds, g alingale a nd g iant r eed ( Arunda d onax). A s f or p lants c ultivated i n t his

r egion t hey i ncluded,

i n a ddition t o w heat

( Triticum d urum) w hich

m ust h ave b een c ultivated h ere s ince T roy I p eriod, i f n ot b efore, s esame, g rape ( Vitis) a nd v arious l eguminous p lants s uch a s c hick p eas a nd l entils

( Rapp a nd G ifford 1 982:106-107).

T HE S EQUENCE O F C ULTURAL F RAMEWORKS R esults

o f e xcavations a nd f ield s urveys

t he e astern A egean t he

A egean

i slands

b asin a nd

i n w estern A natolia

s uggest b eyond a ny d oubt

a nd

t hat m ost a reas

t he w estern h interland w ere s ettled s ince

o f

e arly

p rehistoric t imes. I nvestigations a long t he c oastal s trip, i ncluding t he T road, m ay g ive t he i mpression t hat t he e arliest s ettlements i n t his p art o f w estern Anatolia w ere n ot e stablised b efore t he m id-fourth m illennium B C. H owever, i n v iew o f r ecently p ublished g eological s tudies, o ne s hould t ake i nto c onsideration t he p ossibility t hat s ome o f t he l ate f ifth a nd e arly f ourth m illennium s ettlements m ay h ave j ust d isappeared u nder t he a lluvium d eposited b y t he m ajor ( and e ven m inor) r iver s ystems. T he p ottery c ollected i n t he c aves o f t he e astern A egean i slands e arly

( Ayio G ala's

p ainted

a nd

l ower c ave,

t he c aves o n K alymnos)

m onochrome w ares w hich a re t hought

t o

i ncludes

h ave

b een

m anufactured a s e arly a s t he f ifth m illennium B C. T he e xcavations i n E mporio o n C hios d emonstrate c learly t hat e ven t he i slands o ff t he w est c oast o f w estern a nd s outhwestern A natolia w ere p opulated b y s edentary g roups w ho o rganized t hemselves i n s mall v illages. I f i slands l ike C hios, S amos o r K alymnos w ere p opulated a s e arly a s t he E arly/Middle C halcolithic p eriod o f A natolia, t hen t here i s l ittle r eason t o d oubt t hat t he w estern c oast o f A natolia t oo m ust h ave b een s ettled b y e arly f arming/fishing

c ommunities a s e arly a s

t he f ifth m illennium B C.

T he

s ituation c oncerning t he h interland i s c learer. A t D emircih8yt 1k w est o f E ski ehir, f or i nstance, t he p is& d ebris o f E B h ouses ( chunks o f m udbricks/pisé) c ontained s herds o f H acilar I , F ikirtepe a nd s outheast E uropean

N eolithic

d emonstrate

t he

( e.g.

K aranovo

t han t he E B I -II v illage e xcavated T he B alikesir, d uced e arly

f ourth m illennia t o

B C.

t ypes,

t he l ate s ixth,

c ollected f rom a t otal o f ( e.g.

a nd

s ettlements o r h uman a ctivity o r H acilar V -I.

1 06

e ight s ites

H acilar I X-VI).

i n f act o ne s herd f rom M orali

( lower c ave)

1 969) p rof ifth

t he e arly p ottery p ublished b y F rench,

( sherds)

i ndicative o f

p eriod o f A yia G ala

O f

w hich e arlier

r ecently.

t he L ate N eolithic p eriod

t he e arly p ainted w are, w ell b e

D ude ti)

A khisar/Manisa s urvey o f F rench ( 1965;

t he p lain b urnished w are

c ould

a nd

e arly p ottery w hich c ould b e d ated t o

a re p artly d ated f or

I

p resence o f a s ettlement o r s ettlements m uch

A s

I i n A khisar, d uring

t he

T HE

B E M

EAST A EGEAN

T he T road Lemnos

L esbos

C OAST A ND C hins

I SLANDS

S amos Kalymos

T UE W EST A NATOLLAN M u 1a

P orsuk

B alikesir

A khlsar/Manlsar

H INTERLAND A fyon D enizli C

V

R

O ?

I II

W heelmade

I V Y N

S lipped

R ed

W are

I

K

y c

u

e

r

S

s

a

u

u

t

r

1 t

a p

a

V

l tg

A S T

B

K

I V

N

IB

E l isali

e

C I

B urdur

V I

E

a

H egara

a

Lu

C e a

n

C

t

l ic

C

I

r

K S

e

I N

A

I

0

a

e

1

p

r

D

Y

D ark

1

0

a

e

o

n ished

e

o

r

I

a

r

Wares

r

c

1

0

1

t

B lack,

a

I V

a

B

0

a

r

a

G rey

y

I II

T

T B

B

I c

U N B

B

I

0 ?

B A

u

c

I

I

n

r

B ur—

c

( Red, a nd

B rown)

I

'

X IX 1 d

1 1

P

I

B

a

O

B

T O

e

K

a

s

U

y

j

m

t

k

t

e

R

t e

e p

p e

/

B A N

p e

U

I L

1

C

1

0

r

Kumtepe

p p e V II

1

a

y

a

l b

g a

S

i

V

0

k

e

B eyce—

B

r

a

s

s ultan

A

I

XL—XXX

IL

?

S D

a

I

I

I

t ype

t ypes. I I

I

0

Ii

I

XX

T

I

7

A

C VI

&

e l a

E .Chal

I

?V

I II

I n

U

/

Mound

I I

N

A

a V

K

K

V

Y

B

X V

P

I la

R L

1

P

1 1

I V

K

w VI1I e

A .Cala

7 M

?

B A

X L

I I

H a

E arly P ainted

W ares

1 07

7

a

A nother v illages t he

r egion

s ince

s outhwest.

t han

t he

w here

f arming

c ommunities

u ail

M iddle C halcolithic

H ere

t he p resence o f a p ottery g roup d efinitely e arlier

L ate C halcolithic

p eriod i s

e stablished

t he

t he E lmali p lain i n

w are o f B eycesultan a nd l ater

t han

t he

r ed-on-white/cream p ainted w are o f H acilar I ( Early C halcolithic c ulture) h as b een r ecorded a t a n umber o f s ites s uch a s K izilbel a nd B4ba i ( lower t renches). A ccording t o E slick ( 1980:5-14) w ho t horoughly

s tudied

t he p ottery,

t his p ossibly e arly

f ourth m illennium

w are ( or l ate f ifth m illennium B C) i s h andmade a nd r ather c oarse. L arge a mount o f g rits a re v isible i n t he c lay a nd t he p ots w ere p oorly f ired. T he s urface c olour v aries f rom r ed t o b lack w ith l ocal v ariat ions o f r ed, o range a nd b rown. T he r ange o f s hapes i s l imited t o h olemouth p ots a nd b owls w ith f lat r ims a nd c urved s ides. H andles a re u sually o f t he s trap v ariety, p laced e ither o n t he r im o f b owls, o r o n t he b ody o f c losed v essels. T he s urface o f t he w are w as s moothed t o g ive a c ompact f inish. T he p ots a re n ot d ecorated e xcept f or s ingle k nobs p laced o n t he s trap h andles. T he m ain i ndicator o f t he d ate o f t his p ottery g roup i s t he s tratigraphic p osition o f t he L ower B a ba i p ottery a pparently p redating t he L ate C halcolithic/EB I o ccupation ( Eslick 1 980: F igs.2-6). A lthough p ottery o f e xactly t he s ame t ypes a s t hose f rom K izilbel a nd L ower B a basi h as n ot y et b een f ound o utside t he E lmali p lain, c lose p arallels f or m any o f t he f eatures c an b e f ound i n

t he

i slands o f

t he e astern A egean.

F or

i nstance,

t he

e arliest

l evels a t Emporio o n C hios ( X-IX) h ave p arallels f or t he K izilbel h olemouth a nd i ncurved s hapes, i ncluding o ther f orms ( See H ood 1 981:240-241). A t E mporio m any o f t hese f orms h ave a l ong r ange o f c ontinuity e xtending t o

l evels V U-Vt ( Eslick 1 980:10).

S imilar

s hapes

a re a lso f ound a t T igani o n S amos, K alymnos , and i n t he d eposits o f h uman o ccupation i n t he c ave o f A spripetra o n K os. T he i dentification o f

n ew

d ark

b urnished

h andmade

w are

i nventories

o f

p ost-Early

C halcolithic p eriod i n A natolia, r equires a r eview o f t erminology ( for t he c lassification o f p ottery g roups o f f ifth a nd f ourth m illennia B C). T o u se t he t erm M iddle C halcolithic a s s uggested b y E slick ( 1980), c ould b e r ather c onfusing, e specially i n v iew o f t he f act t hat t he K urucay L ate C halcolithic p ottery i nventory i s p artly c ontemporary w ith

t he E arly B agbasi a ssemblage

t herefore,

t o

( Middle C halcolithic).

t erm t he r ed-on -white p ottery c ultures

I

s uggest,

i n t his r egion a s

E arly C halcolithic, a nd r egard t he s ucceeding e arly d ark b urnished w are g roups, w hich h ave a n e xtremely l ong l ife ( early f ifth? t o l ate f ourth m illennium B C),

a s

t ypical o f

t he s o-called L ate C halcolithic c ulture.

T he d ark b urnished ( mainly g rey f abrics) h andmade w are f rom K urucay 6 t o 4 h as a n i nventory w hich i ncludes m ugs, c ups a nd j ugs. T heir r ather a rchaic f orms s uggest t he e xistence o f a L ate C halcolithic c ulture i n t he o f

B urdur r egion w hich i s e arlier t han t he L ate C halcolithic c ulture B eycesultan X L-XX. T he l atter h as a r ather w ide d istribution i n

w estern A natolia, 2 3). I n f act,

e xtending t o a reas b eyond D enizli ( Fig.Vl:12, 1 3, 1 6p ottery s imilar i n f orm a nd f abric h as b een r eported

f rom T igani o n S amos,

K ayi lar i n A khisar,

P a ak8y i n B alikesir.

T his

c ulture p artly o verlaps w ith t he p re-Troy I T roadic s equence, i ncluding K umtepe l b c ulture, w hich I c onsider t o b e c ontemporary w ith t he e arly p art o f p eriod.

t he M acedonian, B ulgarian a nd A natolian ( e.g. C ilician) E B I T he K umtepe l b c ulture, r epresented b y a h andmade w are w hich

i s s lightly l ittle s traw, b asin

c oarse, g ritty a nd m icaceous, b ut w ith h as a d istribution p attern w hich e xtends

i n t he w est

1 961:102; s ometimes

t o a reas

i n B alikesir,

A khisar a nd

o ccasionally a f rom t he A egean M anisa

( French

1 969:59; S perling 1 976). T he w are w hich i s s mooth b urnished, v ertically, i s u sually b lack w ith s hades o f d ark r ed, d ark

1 08

b rown

a nd

d ark g rey.

P ainted e xamples a re

n ot

i n

m ajority.

T he

c haracteristic s hape o f t he K umtepe l b a ssemblage i s a b owl w ith a r olled r im, w ith o r w ithout h orizontal l ug, w hich m ay o r m ay n ot b e p erforated

( French 1 961:102).

T his w are

r epresents a n e ra o f

i ntensive

s ettlement a ctivity n ot o nly i n n orthwest A natolia, b ut a lso i n M acedonia, i n t he i slands o f L emnos, L esbos, C hios, Amorgos, N axos a nd P aros a s w ell ( See F rench 1 961, M ap.2; 1 969:59). T he B eycesultan L ate C halcolithic a nd t he K umtepe I a-b c omplexes w ere s ucceeded, i n t he r egional s tratigraphy o f w estern A natolia, b y t he d ark b urnished h andm ade p ottery g roups s uch a s T roy I t ype w ares, r ed b urnished, b urnished, b lack b urnished w are g roups o f A khisar/Manisa, b urnished ( or Y ortan) p ottery o f B alikesir. T he s equence o f

g rey b lack t hese

r egional

T roy,

g roups,

a ccording

t o s tratified s ettlements s uch

a s

B eycesultan, K usura, A phrodisias a nd K arata , i ndicate t hat t hey a re a ll m ore o r l ess c ontemporary, p erhaps w ith t he T roy I t ype w ares h aving a n e arlier s tart i n c ertain r egions ( e.g. T hrace?). A ll t hese g roups p art o f

o f w ares r emained t he E B I II p eriod.

r ather p opular d uring t he E B E I a nd T he i ntroduction o f w heelmade r ed

e arlier s lipped

a nd r ed w ashed w ares, g enerally d ated t o t he E B I II p eriod, d id n ot p revent t he r egional p ottery s hops f rom c ontinuing t o m anufacture t he t raditional d ark b urnished h andmade g roups d uring t he t hird q uarter o f t he t hird m illennium B C. T his p ottery e xtends o ver t he w hole o f w est A natolia, e xcept p arts o f t he c oastal z one s outh o f t he T road. S ome s cholars p oint o ut t hat t he e arliest e xamples o f t his w are a re f ound a t T roy l Ib. F rench o nce s uggested t hat t he a ppearance o f r ed s lipped w heelmade w are i s s ynchroneous i n n orthwest A natolia ( except t he T road w here h e t hought i t a ppeared e arlier) a nd t he p lateau o f w est A natolia ( French 1 969:55, 6 6). t hat t he i nnovation i nvasion o f p eople m ent o f f rom t he

L ater, h owever, h e c hanged h is v iew a nd p roposed o f t his w are d id n ot n ecessarily r epresent a n

( e.g.

I ndo-European t ribes),

a nd

t hat

t he d evelop-

t his p ottery g roup a t T roy I I d id n ot t ake p lace i n r est o f w estern A natolia ( 1977). T he q uestion s till

i solation r emains a

c ontroversial i ssue. A s f ar a s t he r egional s tratigraphy a nd c hronology a re c oncerned, o pinions d iffer w hether t he r ed s lipped w heelmade w are r epresents a n e ra o f s ettlement a ctivity w ithin t he E B l Ib-EB I II p eriod, o r s hould w e i nterpret i ts a ppearance a s m arking t he b eginning o f t he E B I II p eriod i n w estern A natolia, C ilicia a nd I slahiye?

M ellaart c orrectly o bserves

t hat

" anyone f amiliar w ith

t he

( pottery) m aterial ( of T roy) w ill n ote t he d ifficulty i n d istinguishing T roy I f rom T roy I I 1 -5 ( a-d) m aterial i f w heelmade w ares a re a bsent" ( 1977). A nd b urnished) w ares

s ince t he h andmade d ark b urnished ( including o f T roy I I a re r ather s imilar t o t hose k nown f rom

r ed t he

E B I I l evels a t B eycesultan ( XVI-XIII) T roy I I w ith a ll i ts s ubphases i s c onsidered b y M ellaart a nd E aston a s r epresenting t he l ater p hases o f t he E B I I p eriod ( Mellaart 1 977; E aston 1 976). I f t his w as i ndeed t he c ase, t hen o e h as t o a dmit t hat T roy I I w as o ne o f t he f ew ( or t he o nly) u ntil

c entres o f e arly p roduction o f t he w heelmade r ed s lipped w are s ome c enturies l ater t his n ew f ashion g ained a f oothold i n t he

r est o f w estern A natolia, i ncluding t he h interland, a nd C ilicia. A ccording t o M ellaart, B eycesultan i s a g ood c ase i n o rder t o u nders tand

t his

p rocess o f d iffusion o f

t he r ed s lipped w heelmade w are f rom

t he n orthwest. I t d id n ot p enetrate B eycesultan u ntil L evel X IIIA, w hich i s c ontemporary w ith T roy I I e -g, a nd e ven t hen i t d id n ot s upplant t he h andmade w ares, u ntil L evel X II ( EB I II) w hich i s c ont emporary w ith T roy I II. A ccording t o t his a ssessment, t he a bsence o f t his w are f rom t he l ocal r epertoires o f c ertain i sland o r c oastal s ettlements

m ay

n ot

b e

a s

s ignificant

1 09

b oth

s tratigraphically

o r

c hronologically, m ents o f

s ince i t s hould n ot n ecessarily i ndicate

s uch a s T hermi,

P oliochni o r E mporio,

t hat s ettle-

w ere a bandoned a t

t he e nd

t he T roy I o r d uring T roy I I p eriod. I

t hink t his q uestion i s a c omplex o ne t o

s imple a nswer.

t ry t o a nswer w ith

o ne

T he a ssessment p resented b y M ellaart h as a g ood n umber

o f s upporters ( e.g. K mil 1 982, E aston 1 976), a nd i t c annot b e d ismissed e ntirely w ithout s trong c ounter a rguments b ased o n r elevant s tratigraphical e vidence. N evertheless, Iw ould l ike a nother a nd e qually h ypothetical a ssessment b ased o n

t o p oint o ut t he f ollowing

o bservations: B eycesultan p ottery a ssemblage f rom t he E B I I l evels X VI-XIII c ould b e a lso c orrelated w ith t he T roy I ( middle a nd l ate) m aterial a nd n ot o nly w ith t hat o f T roy I I. S ince t here c an b e n o o bjections t o t hese r ather o bvious c orrelations, t hen i t c ould b e m aintained t hat t his t radition o f h andmade d ark b urnished w ares p ersisted i n n orthwest A natolia l onger ( in t he E B I II p eriod) t han i t d id i n t he s outhwest. T roy I Ib-c w as o ne o f

T his v iew d oes n ot r eject t he p ossibility t hat t he f ew e arly p roduction c entres o f t his w are i n

t he n orthern h alf o f w estern A natolia a t t he e nd o f v ery b eginning o f t he E B I II p eriod. I n v iew o f

t he E B I I i ntensive

o r t he t rading

a ctivity i n t he A egean b asin, i n w hich T roy I I m ust h ave p layed a n i mportant p art, I d o n ot r eally s ee h ow c an o ne e xplain t he e xtremely s low d iffusion o f t he r ed s lipped w heelmade p ottery t o a reas a nd s ettlements w ith w hich t he T roadic c entres m aintained c lose c ommercial c ontacts, u nless o f c ourse s ome o f t hese v illages a nd t owns w ere a bandoned a t t he e nd o f S tratigraphical

t he E B I I p eriod.

e vidence f rom w estern A natolia s uggests

t hat

t be

f inal c enturies o f t he t hird m illennium B C w ere q uite e ventful. H owe ver, i t i s n ot a lways p ossible t o e stablish t he f actors w hich c aused t he a bandonment o f c ertain c oastal a nd i sland s ettlements d uring t he E B I II, a nd t he r ebuilding o f o thers ( after b eing d estroyed i n o ne f orm o r a nother) w ere

i n t he h interland.

s ystematic

a nd

W e d o n ot e ven k now i f

t hese d estructions

a ttributable t o a l arge g roup o f

i nvaders

f rom

s outheastern E urope, o r w ere c aused b y o ther u nrelated e vents. I n a ny c ase, a t t he p resent s tate o f o ur k nowledge, w hich i s s olely b ased o n t he i nterpretation o f a rchaeological a nd p alaeoenvironmental d ata f rom e xcavations, d estruction

i t i s p erhaps m ore l ogical n ot t o 'limit'

t he e lements o f

t o o ne p articular e thnic g roup o r n atural d isaster

( Yakar

1 981a). R egional w arfare, i ncursions b y n omadic o r s emi-nomadic g roups, p iracy i n t he A egean b asin, d estructive e arthquakes, f requent a nd n umerous o ther r easons u nknown t o u s m ay h ave a ffected t he s ettlem ent p attern a nd h uman a ctivity i n w estern A natolia d uring t he E B p eriod. T he f inal p hases o f E B I II s ettlements a re c haracterized r egional p ottery h andmade w ares o f

I II b y

g roups w hich h ave a m ore u niform a ppearance. T he t he E BII-IlIA d isappear a nd t he r ed s lipped w heelmade

w ares,

s ometimes

t ies. p arts

I n c ertain p arts o f w estern A natolia, e specially i n t he n orthern o f w estern A natolia, t here i s a w heelmade g rey f abric ( e.g.

I negil

g rey w are) w hich i s a lso f ound i n t he c oastal r egion ( e.g.

V ). V I,

c ruder

t han t he E B l ilA w ares,

a ppear i n l arge q uanti-

T roy

I n v iew o f t he c ontinuity i n s hape a nd t echnique f rom T roy V i nto i t i s p ossible t o c all t his g rey f abric o f E B I lIB w estern A natolia

p roto-Minyan w are.

1 10

C HRONOLOGY T here a re t hree p ossible w ays o f e stablishing a c hronological f ramework f or t he L ate C halcolithic a nd E BA s equence o f w estern A natolia. T he f irst a pproach, d eveloped b y E aston ( 1976), d oes n ot d epend o n t he r elative d ating o f t he T rojan s equence i n c orrelation t o t he T arsus E BA s equence, o r, i n o ther w ords, s ynchronizations w ith E gyptian a nd M esopotamian I nstead,

i t d oes n ot r ely o n h istorical c ontexts.

t he c hronological f ramework i s b ased o n a s eries o f

c alibrated

r adiocarbon d ates d erived m ainly f rom E B s ites i n t he B alkans, A egean a nd s outhwest A natolia, a nd a pplied t o a r eassessed s equence f or T roy, w hich i s t reated a s a c entral s ite f or a n i ndependent c hronology f or w estern A natolia. A ccording t o E aston t he d ate o f T roy I c ould b e e stablished i f r elevant a rchaeological e vidence f rom B ulgaria, t he A egean a nd A natolia i s i ncorporated i n t he p roposed c hronological s cheme.

H e

s outhern m aterial,

B ulgaria, w hich h as i mportant s imilarities t o t he T roy I -II a lso h as a l ong s eries o f C -14 d ates ( 1976:149). I n v iew o f

s ynchronisms

p oints o ut w ith j ustification t hat t he m ound o f E zero

b etween

E zero a nd T roy ( Merpert a nd

G eorgiev

i n

1 973:255-

2 57), E aston s upports t he u se o f r adiocarbon s eries f rom E zero s s trata ( numbering t hirteen o r f ourteen o ccupation l evels) t o f ix d ate

o f T roy I a nd

t he b eginning o f I I.

E B t he

B ut t he p roblem w ith t his,

I h ave a lready p ointed o ut e arlier ( Yakar 1 979), r eliability o f s outheast E uropean C -14 e stimates,

a s

i s t he q uestion o f p articularly w hen

a pplying t hem t o s tratified c ontexts i n t he A egean a nd t he N ear E ast. I n E urope, w here t here i s n o a lternative t o u sing r adiocarbon d ates, t he

r elationship b etween a reas d ated s olely b y C -14 s eries a re

r arely

c hanged. H owever, t he p roblem a rises w hen a reas t hat h ave c alibrated C -14 d ates a re c ompared w ith a reas t hat c ould a lso b e d ated b y h istorical m eans.

A ccording t o R enfrew t here i s a

c hronological f ault

l ine d ividing s outhern E urope f rom e astern M editerranean, i ncluding t he A egean, w hich c reates a s ituation w here t here i s a g reat g ap b etween t he -a bsolute c hronology i n c alendar y ears f rom E urope a nd h istorical d ates f rom t he e astern M editerranean ( 1971:69-76). i ng t o E zero, t he e arliest l evels ( 14-8) a re e quated w ith

R eturnP oliochni

B lue ( h a-b) w hich i n t he r egional s tratigraphy i s c ontemporary K umtepe I b, E zero l evels 7 -5 w ith T roy I , a nd 4 -1 w ith T roy I I.

w ith H ow-

e ver, s ome o f t he e arlier l evels f rom E zero ( 10-8) a re u nreliable, b ecoming m ore r ecent a s t hey d erive f rom d eeper d eposits. D espite t his f act, w hich r aises s ome d oubts r egarding t he r eliability o f t he r emaini ng d ates f rom E zero 7 -4, E aston h as c onfidence i n t he l atter C -14 s eries

d erived f rom s eed a nd c harcoal s amples

( 1976:150).

A ccording t o

t his s cheme, t he b eginning o f T roy I , w hich I c onsider t o r epresent t he l atest p hase o f E B I o r t he v ery b eginning o f E B I I i n w estern A natolia, i s d ated t o c a.3400 B C, a nd T roy I I, w hich i n m y p roposed r egional s tratigraphy r epresents E aston b efore 2 950 B C ( 1976:152). a ccepted a s f or w estern

t he E B L ILA p eriod, i s s tarted T hese d ates a re v ery h igh a nd

b y i f

a b asis t o e stablish a n a bsolute c hronological f ramework A natolia, t hen t his a rea w ill s uffer a c hronological

r upture f rom t he r est o f A natolia. I n f act, e ven t he A egean r adioc arbon d ates f rom E utresis E H Ic a.3200 B C ( Easton 1 976:152, n ote 4 0) o r

E l I I I d ate o f

t o

E B I a nd E B

c a.2950 B C f rom t he s ame s ite,

I I ( Troy

I )

i n A natolia,

r oughly c orresponding

d o n ot s eem t o

s upport

s uch

h igh c hronological b eginnings f or t he f irst a nd s econd p hases o f t he E B p eriod i n w estern A natolia. A t B e ik-Sivritepe ( see: M ellink 1 984:446) t he h abitation l ayers o f p re-Troy I d ate b uried u nder t he H ellenistic t umulus p roduced p attern-burnished w ares i n s tratified

1 11

s ettlement c ontext. T his w are i s a ccompanied h ere w ith c eramic t ypes w hich a re a lso k nown i n G reece a nd B ulgaria. T he f irst C -14 r eading h ere f or a n e arly T roy I s ample i s 4 260 B P p utting t he b eginning o f t he E B I I ( or t he e nd o f t he E B I ) i n t he T road t o c a.2900 B C. F urtherm ore,

a ccording

t o

e stimates f rom s econd v olume, A natolia.

I n

K orfmann,

t he n ew a nd n umerous

r adiocarbon

D emircih8y 1 1k E B 1 -11 s trata, t o a ppear s oon d o n ot s upport a h igh c hronological s cheme f act,

P rofessor K orfmann a dvised m e n ot

t o

a ge

i n t he f or E B

q uote

t he

e arlier D en iircih8y t 1k d ates p ublished i n A S ( 1977:37-38 a nd 1 978:1921 94) w hich h e c onsiders n ot t o b e e ntirely c orrect o r r eliable. I n s umming u p, I c an o nly s uggest t hat c hronological s chemes f or A natolia s hould n ot b e e ntirely b ased, s ources d ispute. T he

o utside

s econd

o f

A natolia

y et,

o n C -14 e stimates w hich d erive f rom

a nd/or w hose a ccuracy

a re

n ot

a pproach i n d ating t he l ate p rehistoric

w estern

A natolia f avoured b y s ome A egean a rchaeologists,

r elative

c hronology o f

b eyond

s equence d erives

t he T roadic s equence w ithin t he A egean

o f t he

c ontext.

H owever, e ven i n t his a pproach, w hich t o a l arge e xtent d epends o n c orrelations b etween t he T rojan m aterial a nd t hat f rom C rete, t he C yclades, t he G reek m ainland a nd t he B alkans, t here i s n o a greement e ither o n a r elative o r a bsolute c hronological t able w hich c ould b e a ccepted a s r eliable f or t he A egean b asin a nd w estern Anatolia. s chool o f t hought a rgues f or a d ate c a.3000 B C o r e arlier f or b eginning o f T roy

I ,

w hich f or s ome o f

t hem r epresents

O ne t he

t he b eginning o f

E H 1 /EBI. T his s chool'represented b y W arren, R enfrew a nd o thers, p lace t he e nd o f T roy V a t c a.2000 B C. T he s econd s chool, w hich i ncludes s cholars s uch a s H ood, M axwell-Hyslop a nd H owell, b eginning o f T roy I n o e arlier t han c a.2500 B C a nd

p refers t o d ate t he t he e nd o f T roy V t o

c a.1700 B C. T hese t wo d ifferent c hronologies a re s o w ide a part t hat a ny a ttempt t o c ipse t he g ap b etween t hem o n t ypological g rounds s o f ar h as p roved f utile. F or i nstance, M axwell H yslop, w ho o pts f or l ower d ates, p oints o ut t hat t he T rojan t reasures m ust l atest o bjects w hich c an b e i dentified. T hese a re

b e d ated b y t he t he g ranulated

e arrings o f w ell k nown p arallels d atable t o t he L arsa p eriod. I n h er e stimate, i f t he t reasures a re d ated b efore 2 200 B C, t hen t he e xamples o f t his t ype o f j ewellery i n A ssyria, B abylonia a nd E lam w ould h ave t o b e r egarded a s i mports f rom t he T road t o M esopotamia d uring t he t he G uti i nvasions i n M esopotamia a nd b efore t he e mergence o f I II d ynasty

c a.2100 B C.

H owever,

M axwell-Hyslop p refers

t ime o f t he U r

t o d ate

t he

T reasures o f T roy I I t o a p eriod a fter c a.2200 B C, a rguing ( 1971) t hat t he c ontents o f A shur t omb 2 0 ( see a lso C almeyer 1 977:87) w hich i nclude p ottery, s eals a nd j ewellery o f t he O ld A ssyrian p eriod ( Karum K anish I llb a t K ültepe) c ontain q uadruple s piral g old b eads a nd g old e arrings w hich a re c omparable w ith j ewellery i n T reasure A a t T roy ( Fig.xI, 3 1). A lso, t he l ead f igurine f rom S chliemann T h T roy I I w hich c ould b e d ated t o K arum I V p eriod s eems

t o h ave f urther c onvinced M axwell-Hyslop

t he d ate o f T roy I I c ould n ot b e a s h igh a s s ome o f b een s uggesting f or y ears ( Fig.XI, 2 7). l ow d ates p roposed b y M axwell-Hyslop,

t hat

h er c olleagues h ave

H ood, w ho a lso a grees w ith t he r efers t o e vidence w hich c ould

c orroborate f urther a r elatively l ate d ate o r t he b eginning o f T roy I I. T his i s t he s eal i mpression o n t he n eck o f a n i mported c lay j ar f rom T roy t lb ( Troy I : F ig.208:37.1134). T he s ame d esign i s f ound n ot o nly a t K arah8yt lk M BA l evels, b ut a lso i n t he g reat d eposit f rom t he E arly P alace a t P haistos i n C rete. T his d eposit w as a ssigned b y D . L evi

t o

s econd

t he M .M.IB/IIA A

i n o ther w ords d uring t he f irst

m illennium B C.L

T he s ame d esigns o f

1 12

q uar

ter

l inked s pirals a lso

of

t he

o ccur

o n

t he

c ircular f ace o f

a s tamp s eal f ound

i n E gypt a nd

c onveniently

d ated f rom a n i nscription o n i ts b ack t o t he r eign o f S enus ret I II w ho l ived i n t he f irst h alf o f t he n ineteenth c entury B C. A ll t he p arallels f or t he d esign o n t he s eal i mpression f rom T roy l lb a re t herefore a ssignable, s econd m illennium B C.

a ccording t o H ood, t o T his e vidence s uggests,

t he e arly p art o f t he i n h is v iew, t hat e ven

t he b eginning o f T roy I I c annot b e p ushed b ack t oo f ar b efore 2 ,000 B C. O ther E M

I .

s cholars a rgue

t hat T roy I s hows m any c eramic p arallels w ith

T he m ost d istinctive o f

t hese a re

b arrel-vessels,

t he

p yxis

c overs, a nd t he o ne-handled p lain-washed c up, r im p rojections a nd p articularly t he a nthropomorphic o nes o f T rapeza w are i n C rete. T hey s hould i ndicate, a ccording t o W arren a nd B ranigan, t hat t he C retan F inal o r S ub-Neolithic m ay h ave o verlapped w ith T roy I ( Branigan 1 977). F inds

o f K eros-Syros a nd E H I I s herds

i n l ater

l evels o f T roy I r eveal

t hat t he s econd p hases o f t he E arly C ycladic a nd H elladic b egan b efore t he e nd o f T roy I . A s f or t he d ate o f T roy I I, B ranigan e mphasizes t he d istinctive p arallels i n m etalwork b etween T roy I I a ssemblage c ertain t ypes i n t he E arly M inoan I I r epertoire ( e.g. t weezers o f l ila a nd b angles o f t ype m etalworking t echniqes, a ppear

i n

T roy

I I

a nd t ype

I V). B ranigan f urther s tresses t he f act t hat i ncluding r epousse a nd l ost w ax/lead c asting,

a nd i n E M I I a t M ochios

a nd

V asiliki

i n

C rete

r espectively. S imilar s ynchronisms b ased o n m etalwork h ave a lso b een e stablished w ith t he C yclades, w here r epoussé d ecoration a ppears i n t he K eros-Syros

c ulture,

a long w ith t weezers o f

I V a nd h a, a nd p ins o f t ypes V I-XI. P oliochni G reen/Red ( 11-1v) c ould

t ype l ila,

b angles

o f

S auceboats f ound i n T roy a lso b e o f K eros-Syros

t ypes I I a nd r ange

( Branigan 1 977). H owever, m ainland f inds o f m etalwork s upporting a b road e quation o f E H I l/Ill a nd T roy I I s hould n ot b e d isregarded s ince t hese, a s a lready p ointed Out b y B ranigan, i nclude a f ew f orms k nown n ot o nly f rom M anika a nd Z ygouries, b ut a lso f rom c ontemporary s ites i n t he e astern A egean b asin. A s f or T roy I II-V, A egean s cholars s ee n o f irm c onnections w ith E M C rete. C ycladic c onnections o n t he o ther h and a re b est r epresented n ot i n m eta l , f inds b ut i n c eramic f orms. P hylakopi I t ype d uck v ases f or i nstance a re k nown i n t he T roy I V-V p ottery a ssemblage. I n a ddition t o t hese o bservations, t he E H I II s herds f ound a t T roy I V, a nd T roy I V w are f ound i n E H I II L erna a re a lso c onsidered s ignificant d ata t o e stablish a r elative c hronology w hich w eakens m any o f t he a rguments b rought a gainst b oth t he h igh ( long) a nd l ow ( short) c hronologies. e stablish a n a cceptable c hronology f or t ries

t o

' strengthen' t he

B ranigan, i n h is a ttempt t o t he A egean a nd T roadic s equence,

t ypological l inks b etween T roy a nd C rete w ith

h istorical s ynchronisms. A lthough h e a dmits t hat t here a re n o g ood h istorical s ynchronisms f or T roy I , h e a grees t hat i t c ould b e c hronol ogically l inked t o C ilician E B I I p eriod ( e.g. T arsus) w hich i s p artly c ontemporary w ith t he p eriod o f t he f ourth d ynasty i n E gypt ( 1977). T roy I I o n t he o ther h and p rovides a n umber o f s ynchronisms n ot o nly w ith C ilican E B I II a ssemblage, M esopotamian ( ED I II U r I II) -

r ed-cross

b ut a lso w ith t he c entral A natolian a nd c ontexts. F inally h e p oints o ut t hat

b owls o f T roy l ate I V a nd V a ppear i n t he f inal p hases o f

E B

I II ( B) T arsus ( ca.2200-2100). A part f rom s ynchronisms e stablished t hrough T roy i tself, t he E arly M inoan p eriod h as n o r eliable h istorical s ynchronisms s tone

v ase

u ntil t ypes

t he e nd o f

E M I I

( Branigan 1 977).

i mitating E gyptian o riginals

o f

F irst I ntermediate p eriod a ppear i n C rete. T his t ype o f t hat E M I I p eriod c annot h ave e nded u ntil a fter 2 170 B C, f or a s hort

t ime-lag

( for

t heir a rrival

1 13

i n C rete),

A t

t his

t ime

t he V lth D ynasty

a nd

f ind s uggests a nd a llowing

p robably n ot

b efore

2 150 B C. ( EB I II w ith

A ccording t o B ranigan, w ho c orrelates E M I I w ith T roy I l/Ill i n A natolia), t he h istorical s ynchronisms m atch r ather w ell

t he e nd o f T roy I II p laced c a.2200 a nd t hat o f E M I I

a t

c a.2150

B C. P roblems w hich

s tart t o a rise,

p lace,

f or i nstance,

h owever,

w hen t he h istorical

s ynchronisms

t he b eginning o f T roy I I c a.260012500 B C,

a re c ompared w ith c alibrated r adiocarbon d ates. T he l atter, w hen c orrected a ccording t o t he c alibration c urve o f S uess o r M cKerrel, d o n ot f it i nto t he ' conventional c hronological b rackets b ased o n h istorical d ates. T he r adiocarbon d ates w hich b est a gree w ith t he r elative d ates p roposed b y B ranigan a re t hose c alculated a ccording t o 5 730 h alf-life a nd i n t heir p re-calibrated v alue ( 1977). T he q uestion o f C -14 c hronology i n A egean a rchaeology c ontinues t o w orry a n umber o f s cholars, p articularly t hose s upporting a s hort c hronology. H ood p oints o ut t hat a s tudy o f r adiocarbon d ates a vailable f rom t he A egean a nd E gypt ( e.g. M iddle a nd N ew K ingdoms) s uggests t hat t he A egean d ates m ay a gree b est w ith h istorical o nes w hen u ncalibrated ( 5730 h alf-life), w hile E gyptian o nes t end t o b e c loser t o h istorical d ates p articularly w hen c alibrated ( 1978:197). H e f urther d raws o ur a ttention t o t he f act t hat

t here

s eries H ood's

m ay b e i mportant d iscrepancies b etween t he N eolithic

C -14

f rom d ifferent p arts o f t he A egean . I c ertainly a gree w ith r eservations r egarding t he u se o f c alibration c harts b ased o n

t ree-ring s eries o btained f rom r egions o utside t he N ear E ast. t he p ossibility t hat d ates f rom d ifferent g eographical r egions a s ignificant d egree c annot b e e ntirely e xcluded

( Hood

I ndeed, v ary t o

1 978:197;

Y akar

1 979:51-53). H owever, d espite t hese r eservations, t here s eems t o b e a c onsensus a mong mos t A natolian a nd A egean a rchaeologists t hat c orrected r adiocarbon

d ates

s hould c ontinue t o b e

e valuated

a gainst

r elative

d ates b ased o n h istorical s ynchronisms. I n v iew o f t he p resent l imitat ions i n s cientific a ge e stimations, i t i s p referable t o t ake f or e xperimental p urposes a t l east, o nly t he a verage f igure o f c alibrated A natolian s eries d eriving f rom l oci i n t he s ame c ultural c ontext. F urthermore, Ia gree w ith t hose w ho m aintain t hat t he T roadic s equence c ould o r s hould b e d ated w ithin t he c hronological f ramework o f A natolian c ultural d evelopment. T he t hird a pproach t owards e stablishi ng t he c hronology o f w est A natolian L ate C halcolithic a nd E arly B ronze A ge s equence, e stablish t he

w hich I p roposed s ome t ime a go ( Yakar 1 979), t ries i nternal c hronology o f w estern A natolia o nly a fter

s equence i n t he T road i s s ynchronized w ith t hat o f a nd n ot w ith t he A egean o r B alkan c ultures. T he s idered

e arlier

H anaytepe a nd B esiktepe

c entral

t o t he

A natolia,

p ottery a ssemblage

i n m y r egional s tratigraphy r oughly c ontemporary w ith

i s

c on-

E mporio

X -VIII a nd K umtepe I a. S perling s uggested t hat s ome o f t he B esiktepe s herds m ay a ntedate K umtepe I a ( Sperling 1 976:356) b ut I d oubt i f t hey a re e arlier t han E mporio X c ultural h orizon. T he K umtepe l b p ottery, w hich h as a w ide d istribution i n t he n orthwest, i s a ncestor t o t he T roy I c ulture. S perling s uggested t hat t he b eginning o f K umtepe I c m ay b e s lightly e arlier t han t he b eginning o f T roy I . T his i s h inted b y h im b ecause o f t he r elative i nfrequency o f i ncised d ecoration o n p ottery, t he r arity o f t erracota w horls a nd t he o ccurrence o f a p re-Troy I s hape i n s emi-coarse s moothed w are i n t he i nitial p hase o f K umtepe I c ( Sperli ng 1 976:256-257). T he q uestion i s h ow t o c alculate i n c alendar y ears t he d uration o f t he p re-Troy I s equence i n t he T road? H ood, t he t wo m ost c haracteristic b owl/jar s hapes o f h orizon

a t

E mporio

r esemble

t hose o f

1 14

t he L ate

A ccording t o t he e arliest

N eolithic

l evels

o f

H acilar

( 1982:716).

T he p oint I w ould l ike

t o m ake h ere i s t hat w hile

t his r esemblance c annot b e d enied, i t m ay n ot b e s ufficient t o E mporio X , o r f or t hat m atter t he e arliest o ccupation i n T road

d ate ( e.g.

B e iktepe) t o t he s ixth m illennium B C. A rchaic p ottery f orms a re k nown t o h ave s urvived i n v arious c ultural c ontexts ( e.g. K aranovo I -V i n B ulgaria o r T roy I -II) f or c enturies, i f n ot w ell o ver a m illennia. f ar t he T roadic s tratigraphy ( pre-Troy I ) d oes n ot i ndicate e xtremely d eposits

l ong

o ccupation

( of

o ver 2 000

y ears)

o bserved a t t he m ounds o f H anaytepe,

a ccording

B e iktepe

S o a n

t o

t he

a nd K umtepe

I a.

F uture d iscoveries a t B e iktepe w ill n o d oubt c larify t his p oint. I n t he m eantime, h owever, t he r adiocarbon a ge e stimates f rom K urucay H 8ylk i n s outhwestern A natolia m ay h elp u s e stablish a t entative d ate f or b eginning o f t he K umtepe I a p eriod o r e arly B esiktepe i n t he T road. i s

i mportant

t o

r emark h ere

t hat

t he I t

t he p ottery a ssemblage o f K uru ay

i ncludes n umerous f orms, h andles a nd d ecorative p atterns r ather s imilar t o s ome o f t hose k nown f rom E mporio X -IX

6

w hich a re ( see D uru

1 983). A ccording t o c alibrated C -14 e stimates ( Duru 1 983:47) t he b eginning o f t he L ate C halcolithic c ulture a t K uru ay c ould b e d ated t o c a.4200 B C o r e ven l ater ( level 6 b p roduced a c alibrated d ate o f 3 600 8 2 B C). A s f or t he r elative d ate o f t he T roy I p eriod i n w estern -

A natolia,

t his c an b e d etermined

i ndirectly b y e stablishing

t he c hrono-

l ogical p osition o f t he K umtepe I b, a nd m ore i mportant t he s equence o f T roy 1 1-1V. T he n orth A natolian c ultural s equence, f or o ne t hing, c an h elp u s d emonstrate t hat t he e arly p hase o f t he E B p eriod i n t he P ontus i s r oughly c ontemporary w ith t he K umtepe I b -a c ulture i n t he T road ( Yakar 1 979:54-55). I n b roader t erms o ne c an p lace t he p re-Troy I s equence i n t he T road a nd e lsewhere i n t he A egean b asin a s c overing a t ime r ange o f c a.4000-3000 B C. H ere a f ew a vailable C -14 c ould a ssist u s i n c rosschecking t he r elative c hronology. a ll, d ate

e stimates F irst o f

t he r ecent e xcavations a t B e iktepe p roduced a c alibrated C -14 w hich p uts t he b eginnings o f T roy I c a.2900 B C. A s f or t he s ix

K aratas-Semayt Lk d ates

( Mellink 1 965:125;

T reuil

1 983:122) o btained

f rom

a b urned h ouse w hich h as a rchaeological c orrelations w ith t he a dvanced s tages o f E BII a t T roy, t hey p rovide a t ime s pan w hich s tretches b etween 2 600 1 02 2 800 1 17 ( according t o t he D amon t ables). O n t he o ther h and t he t wo B eycesultan C -14 e stimates ( Mellink 1 965:125) o ne f rom L ate C halcolithic L evel X XXVI, a nd t he o ther f rom XXVIII ( Late -

C halcolithic 3 ), w hen c alibrated a ccording t o t wo a bsolute d ates: 3 786 1 06 B C a nd 3 300

t he D amon t ables p roduce 9 2 B C. T he f irst d ate

f rom B eycesultan L ate C halcolithic 1 s uggests t hat o ur t he l ate f ifth o r e arly f ourth m illennium b eginnings a ctivity

i n t he

B esiktepe). r egard t o b e I ).

I n

c oastal

z one m ay n ot b e e ntirely w rong

-

2 030:4860

( e.g.

H anaytepe!

A s f or t he s econd d ate, i t d erives f rom a s trata w hich I r oughly c ontemporary w ith t he b eginnings o f K umtepe l b ( EB

f act

t wo o f

t he

t hree C -14 d ates

C halco4ithic s ounding a t P ekmez) 3 650 w estern

e stimates f or o f s ettlement

f rom A phrodisias

p rovide a n e stimate o f

( the

c a.4130

L ate 1 27

-

9 0 B C f or t he e arly s tages o f t he L ate C halcolithic p eriod i n A natolia ( Pekmez-2031:5280 7 0 B P 5 568 h alf-life; P ekmez-

-

8 0 B P 5 568 h alf-life

( in R adiocarbon 1 7,

1 975:205).

T he e valuation o f t he T roy I I c hronology i n a ccordance w ith t he c hronological s ystems o f M esopotamia a nd i ts a lignment w ith k ey A natol ian s ites h as b een t he s ubject o f n umerous s tudies. M ellink s e quat ion o f T roy I I w ith T arsus E B l IlA, Amuq I a nd A kkadian D ynasty ( 1965:116) h as b een a ccepted b y a n umber o f s cholars. S panos, i n d efending t his s ynchronism o f T roy I I = A kkadian D ynasty, p oints Out t he

i ntroduction o f w heelmade

p ottery a t T roy 1 15

l lb,

a t echnique

w hich

c ould

o nly

r egion 1 977b).

h ave

b een a cquired

f rom C ilica i n t he E B

I II,

t he

o nly

i n A natolia w here i t w as u sed s ince t he E B I I p eriod ( 1977a; F urthermore, h e d raws o ur a ttention t o t he f act t hat t he d epas

c ups f rom K Ultepe l evel 1 2 p rovide t he s ynchronism T roy I I ( c-g) c entral A natolian E B I lib-Akkadian D ynasty. T he p receding l evel 1 3 a t K iltepe h as a n umber o f c ircular t ombs w hose c ontents i nclude g old -

j ewellery w hich c an b e c orrelated w ith t he E D I II g rave U r c emetery. T he o f n orth S yrian

g oods

f rom

t he

s ucceeding l evel 1 1, o n t he o ther h and, h as a n umber i mported w are o f p ost-Akkadian/Ur I II d ate ( Spanos

1 977b: 9 4-95). A l ocally p roduced p ost-Akkadian " Syrian b ottle" f ound a t T roy I II ( Mellink 1 965:116, S panos 1 977b:97) i s c onsidered a s f urther o ut

e vidence f or

t he p roposed s ynchronism .

t hat t he v essels d epicted

I t s hould b e

i n t he A kkadian r eliefs o f

p ointed

E nheduanna a nd

M ani tu u a re w ell k nown f orms i n t he s econd s ettlement o f T roy. F urthermore, t he d epas w ith a b ase a nd r ed-cross b owls f rom T roy I V-V c an a lso b e c ompared t o s imilar f orms a t T arsus E B I lib a nd Amuq J ( =Ur I II

( Yakar

1 979:55-56)).

T hese s ynchronisms, h owever, c ould b e a djusted f urther b y d emons trating t hat p art o f T roy I I c ould b e p laced w ithin t he s econd h alf o f t he E D I II i n M esopotamia. C anby r eaches t his c onclusion i n v iew o f s imilarities b etween j ewellery m oulds f rom T roy hg, A laca H 8yUk t ombs a nd

E D

[ II U r

( 1965).

B ass a rrives a t

t he s ame

c onclusion

o n

t he

s trength o f s imilarities b etween p ieces o f aT rojan h oard ( h g i n d ate) a nd s ome j ewellery f rom t he E D I II t ombs a t U r ( 1970). O hne h as a lso s ome

r eservations

r egarding

t he

s ynchronism

T roy

I I=Akkad-Amuq

I

( 1976:113-115), o n t he g rounds t hat: ( a) T he E D I II p hase a t T ell C huera h as m etallic w are " bottles", " smeared w ash" w are a nd s imple w are t hat

a re

f ound a t T arsus

( EB

l ila).

A lso,

T arsus E B

I I

i s

p artly

r elated i n t ime w ith A muq I t hrough w heelmade c orrugated c ups a nd b rittle o range w are. T herefore, i t i s s afe t o a ssume t hat t he c hanges f rom

T arsus

E B I I t o E B I II t ook p lace d uring t he E D I II a nd

A muq

I

( 1976:114). ( b) T wo v essels f rom T roy I I h ave t heir e xact c ounterpart i n t he m etallic w are j ar f rom T ell C huera E D I II ( 1976:49-50, P 1.40:1; Y akar 1 979:56-57). I f t he b eginning o f T roy I I i s p laced i n t he s econd h alf o f t he E D I II, t hen T roy I w ould c over a p eriod w hich i n M esopo t amian c hronology c oincides w ith p art o f E D I , E D I I a nd t he f irst h alf o f E D I II, i n o ther w ords c a.2800-2500 B C. I t i s i mportant t o s tress h ere t hat s ome o f t he A natolian C -14 d ates e arlier b eginning f or T roy I ( ca.2900 B C).

( calibrated)

T o a chieve a n o verall c hronological o rder f or

s uggest a n e ven

f w estern t he w hole o d ivergence s tratified

A natolia i s s till a p roblem d ue t o t he f act t hat t here i s a o f v iews r egarding t he p osition o f T roy I I v is-a-vis o ther E B s ettlements i n A natolia ( e.g. T arsus, B eycesultan).

M ellaart,

t he E aston a nd s ome o ther a rchaeologists p lace T roy I I w ithin p art o f t he A natolian E B I I. M ellink, T reuil a nd t his a uthor,

l ater a mong

o thers, s uspect t hat T roy I I c -V s hould b e a ligned w ith t he E B I II h orizon o f c entral A natolia a nd C ilicia ( Yakar 1 979). I n o ther w ords, i n

t he e valuation o f

a ssertion s ide t he

l ocal s tratigraphies

Ia m n ot

i nfluenced

t hat T roy I I m aterial c ulture ( characteristics) T road a t a l ater d ate t han T roy I I c -g p eriod.

a lready m entioned, o ne o f t he s tratigraphy o f w estern A natolia i s

b y

t he

a ppears o ut A s I h ave

m ain p roblems i n t he r egional t he a llignment o f B eycesultan X IX-

X III t o t he s equence i n t he T road. M ellaart s r evised c hronology ( 1971) c orrelates K umtepe l b = B eycesultan X IX-XVII; T roy IXVI-XV; T roy I Ia-d=XIV-XIlIb; T roy I le-g=XIhIa. F rench, w ho a ccepted

1 16

M ellaart T h g rounds o f

o riginal

e quation

" probability",

o n

t he

n evertheless p ointed o ut t hat t here w as

T roy I

" no

s ound s tratigraphic e vidence" G enerally s peaking t he p roblem s tratigraphy r egion

i s

w here

r elated s ome

=

B eycesultan

f or t his ( French 1 968:146-147). o r t he l ack o f a n a greed r egional

t o

t he n ature o f

l ocal

p otters w ere

t he e vidence: s o

a ttached

r egional p ottery f orms a nd d ecorative t echniques, t he e xact 'life-span' o f c ertain p ottery g roups. f eatures

s hared b y s ub-regional p ottery g roups

i ng) w ere r ather s hort l ived, p articular p eriod. K umtepe p ottery

X IX-XVII

p ottery. t o

I n a

t raditional

o ne c an h ardly a ssess N evertheless, c ertain

( e.g.

p attern

b urnish-

m aking i t p ossible t o r elate t hem t o o ne l a a nd B eycesultan L ate C halcolithic 2

a ssemblages s hare a n umber o f r ather s imilar d ecorative

t ech-

n iques a nd f orms s uggesting t hat t hese t wo c ultures h ave t o b e c ons idered r oughly c ontemporary. A lso a d istant r esemblance e xists b etween t he p ottery g roups o f K umtepe l b a nd t hat o f B eycesultan L ate C halcolithic 3 ( Sperling 1 976:358). A n a nalogy t o t he v ertically p laced h andles o f B eycesultan L ate C halcolithic 4 , w hich a re o ften a ssociated w ith c arinated b owls, m ay b e s een i n a b owl f ragment f rom t he e nd o f e arly T roy I . T his s ynchronization o f t he p re-Troy s equence w ith B eycesultan L ate C halcolithic c ulture h as r ecently b een c riticized b y K âmil ( 1982:61). H e s upports M ellaart s r evised s ynchronization w hich e quates B eycesultan L evel X IX-XVII w ith K umtepe l b a nd B eycesultan L evel X VII-XV w ith T roy I . D espite t he v arious r eservat ions K mil o utlined i n h is w ork ( 1982:61-63), i t i s s till p ossible t o m aintain t hat t he l ater l evels o f B eycesultan L ate C halcolithic s ettlem ent

f all w ithin

t he E B I a p eriod i n A natolia

( e.g.

K umtepe l b i n

t he

T road). E valuating t he c hronology o f E mporio V II-VI, H ood p oints o ut t hat c ertain b owl t ypes l ink t his h orizon a t E mporio w ith K umtepe l b i n t he T road ( 1982:720-721). M ore i mportant, h owever, h e e mphasizes t hat t he w hite-painted d ecoration o n t he " Fine B lack B urnished W are" c onn ects t his s ame E mporio V II-VI h orizon w ith t he L ate C halcolithic o f B eycesultan. T he i mplication, t herefore, i s t hat K umtepe l b r oughly c orresponds

i n t ime t o

t he L ate C halcolithic o f

B eycesultan.

A ccording

t o H ood, t here a re o ther g rounds t oo, f or c orrelating t he L ate C halcol ithic o f B eycesultan, o r t he e arlier p hases o f i t, w ith K umtepe I b, f or

i nstance

a f ew r ims a kin t o E mporio t ype

l evels o f B eycesultan L ate E mporio V II-VI c omes a lso ( 1982:721). S amos s eems

1 0 w ere

r ecovered

f rom

C halcolithic 1 a nd 3 ; t ype 1 1 r im f rom f rom B eycesultan L ate C halcolithic 1

F urthermore, t he l atest p hase o f o ccupation a t T igani o n t o h ave a n umber o f c haracteristics w hich l ink i t n ot o nly

w ith E mporio V II-VI, b ut a lso w ith t he B lack p eriod a t P oliochni, a nd w ith B eycesultan L ate C halcolithic ( Hood 1 982:721; T olle Kastenbein 1 974:133). D espite t he d iverging v iews o n t he 'correct' c orrelations o f r egional p ottery g roups, m ost a rchaeologists i n f act a gree t hat, i n v iew o f t he l ongevity o f c ertain f orms a nd f abrics i n t he l ocal a ssemblages ( dark b urnished h andmade w ares), t he q uestion o f r elative c hronology i s n ot l ikely t o b e s olved s oon t o t he s atisfaction o f e veryone.

I t

i s a w ell k nown f act,

B eycesultan L ate C halcolithic

( 4)

L evels X IX-XVlII a nd e ven l ater s ame w ere,

m ay b e s aid w ith s ome

e arly

T roy

E mporio

I .

V II-VI,

f or i nstance,

f orms c ontinued

( see:

t hat a n umber

t o b e m anufactured

A rchaeological

S ources).

o f i n T he

f or t he K umtepe l b p ottery f orms ( e.g. b owls) w hich m inor a lterations, a lso p roduced b y t he p otters o f H ood r emarks, w hich

f or i nstance,

t hat T ype

a re a lso f ound i n t he h orizon o f

1 0

b owls

K umtepe

o f I b,

T hermi I a nd P oliochni B lack ( I), a re s till a ttested a t E mporio i n l evels o f P eriods V -IV ( Hood 1 982:721). T herefore, i t i s n ot s urprisi ng

t o

f ind a mong s ome

s cholars

t hose w ho e quate B eycesultan 1 17

X IX-XVII

w ith

K umtepe

I b,

o r

o thers w ho p refer t o s ynchronize

T roy

I

w ith

B eycesultan X IX-XVII ( Yakar 1 979). T he e quation o f

T roy

I ie-g

=B eycesultan

X IIIa,

w hich

i s b ased o n

c he a ssertion t hat t he w heelmade w are d id n ot b ecome p opular a t B eycesultan u ntil L evel X lIIa o r e ven u ntil X II ( = T roy I II) i s a ccepted h ere. A n umber o f s ites i n t he A khisar/Manisa a nd B alikesir r egions a dopted

a lso s uggest t hat l ocal p otters m ay h ave n ot i mmediately t he u se o f w heel a nd t he n ew w heelmade f orms a lthough t hey

c ould h ave b een a ware o f t heir e xistence i n t he T road ( e.g. T roy l ib o nwards), E lmali ( Karata E B l ila) o r i n t he m iddle M enderes v alley ( e.g.

A phrodisias). A t A phrodisias,

c haracteristics

s uch

i n t he l evels

b elow C omplex V III ( IX-XI),

a s b lack b urnished i nverted

b owl

p ottery

r ims,

h ollow

p edestal b ases, w hite-painted o r i ncised w hite-filled l inear d esigns c an b e c ompared w ith s imilar f eatures a t B eycesultan X VII-XIV a nd L ate T roy I , T roy I I ( Kadish 1 969:65; Y akar 1 979:59). T he g radual t ransit ion f rom t he h andmade p ottery t radition t o t he w heelmade o ne i n C omplexes V III-VI, i s r eminiscent o f t he p ottery d evelopments o bserved a t T roy I I. T he w heelmade a nd r ed s lipped p lates, m ark o f t he E B I II c ulture, w ere f ound i n l arge

w hich a re t he h allq uantities i n t he

C omplexes V I-IV ( Kadish 1 971:137). C omplexes V III-I a t h ave a n umber o f i mportant a nalogies w ith T roy I lV a nd

A phrodisias B eycesultan

X III-VI ( Kadish 1 969; 1 971). T he f ace j ar o f C omplex I II c an b e c orrelated w ith t hose f ound a t T roy I Ig-III ( Fig.XI) a nd t he o ne a t K arata . T he t ankards, d epata, b asket-handled t ea-pots a nd d ippers o f C omplex

I I

c an

b e

c orrelated w ith

t hose

f rom

T roy

I I

( Fig.XI).

H owever, s ince t he s ame c omplex h as o bjects c omparable w ith a rtifacts o f T roy 1 11-1V ( e.g. h igh-handled c ups, s mall d epata, u pturned v ertically p ierced p ointed h andles), i t c ould b e a ssumed t hat t he b eginning o f C omplex V III i s c ontemporary w ith T roy ha-b. A n umber o f r adiocarbon e stimates f rom C omplexes I V a nd I I a t A phrodisias s uggest t hat

t he E B

I II c ulture c ould b e d ated

t o

m illennium B C ( see a lso E aston 1 976:169; K arata -Semay 1 1k,

o ne o f

t he p roblems

r elating

w ith t he s tratigraphical p osition o f o ther h abitation a reas a nd c emeteries. o btained b y M ellink i n t rench 3 7

t he s econd h alf H uot

o f

t he

t hird

1 982:1058-1059).

A s

t o c hronology h as

t o

t he s mall m ound v is- -vis T he b est s tratification

( 1968:249-258).

f or d o t he w as

T he p ottery f ound i n

t he m egara s tratification c an b e c orrelated w ith t he m aterial o f T roy I I ( b-g) p eriod i n t he n orthwest, s outhwest a nd C ilicia. T he s toreroom o f m egaron 3 h as p roduced l arge p latter f ragments ( type A l o f t he T roy p ublication) a ssociated w ith t he l ug-handled s patula-impressed p ithos. T hese l arge p lates a re c haracteristic o f T roy I I, T arsus E B l ila a nd A phrodisias C omplex V I. T hey o ccur a t K aratas i n c lear a ssociation w ith t he u pper l evel a nd n ot i n t he e arlier h ouses o f T rench 3 7 ( Mellink 1 968:252).

B ehind t he s toreroom o f m egaron 3 ,

i nside a s tone -

l ined p it ( belonging t o a l ater l evel?) w as f ound a f ace j ar w hich h as b een d ated b y M ellink a s " a l ittle e arlier t han T roy hg". A nother f ind o f

c hronological

s ignificance i s

f rom t he s ame t rench. l evel hg a t T roy. u nderlying f ound

i n

t he t his

l id w ith a l oop-handle

T his ( Troy D 6) s hape d oes n ot o ccur M ellink, d escribing t he c ontents o f

m egara i n T rench 3 7, t rench

t he s imple

c omments

c an b e a ssociated

w ith

t hat n one o f t he

T roy

l ater t he

t han t ombs

t he

t ombs

I I

p eriod

( 1968:254). l t i s t herefore s uggested t hat t he u nderlying h ouse p lans o f l evels 3 A-C i n t his t rench w ould b e p re-Troy I I i n d ate. T he s ynchronism p roposed b y M ellink, w hich e quates t he l evels I -V o f t he

1 18

o o

0 C 14

0 i f 0

0

P O

H H

H H

c l i

0 0 C r 1 C ' . J

o

0

0

0

0

0 0 0 0

0 0 C 14

0 0 m c q

0 0 m ç

H H

H H

p q w

1 19

H

H 0 C ) H c o

0

U c o

a )

L a t e C h a l c o l i t h i c

E m p o r i o X V I I

T i g a n i K u r c a y 4 2 0 3 6 0 B C

B e i k t e p e B e y c e s u l t a n X X V I 3 7 0 / 3 8 0 B C

L A T E U B A I D

P R O T L I T E R A T E

P e k m e z ( A p h r o d i s a s ) 4 1 5 0 3 6 5 0 B C

E D I

E D I l B

A K A D I A N

P O S T A K A D

U R I

P R O T L I T E R A T E T a r s u

E B I

T a r s u

E B I

T a r s u

H H H

K u m t e p l b B e y c e s u l t a n X V I I 3 0 B C

E u t r e s i s E H I 3 0 2 9 0 B C

2 3 5 0 2 0 5 0 B C

l i p

E a r l y T r o y I B e s i k t e p c a . 2 9 0 B C

L e r n a l a t e E H I 2 4 5 0 B C

I l

H 0

M i d l e T r o y I E u t r e s i s E H I 2 8 5 0 B C

E m p o r i o ( d e s t r u c t i o n o f T r o y I l e v l ) 2 5 0 B C K a r a t a S e m a y ü k 2 9 0 / 2 8 0 2 6 0 B C

L a t e T r o y 1 / T r o y h a

G e d i k l i ( T r o y I / I I t y p e d e p a t a

A p h r o d i s i a s I V H H H

T r o y I b g c o n t e x t ) 2 3 0 B C

I V -

H 0 H

T r o y I I

T r o y

C a l i b r a t e d

z H

H H

( )

U

0

0 0 0

-

0 0

-

c .

D Y N .

s mall

mou nd w ith T roy I ,

a nd

t he m egara,

t he c istern a nd

t ombs i n t he m ain c emetery w ith T roy I I ( 1968:259; r efuted b y s ome a rchaeologists. E aston o bjects t o

s ome o f

t he

1 973:296), h as b een t his s ynchronization

o n t he g rounds t hat C -14 d ates f rom l evel I I p ut t he b eginning o f T roy I I l ater t han 2 950 B C ( Easton 1 976:152) w hich I s i n c ontradiction t o t he B ulgarian C -14 e vidence. O n t he o ther h and, F rench r emarked t hat s herds K arata h is

a nd p ottery t ypes w hich h ave b een f ound i n E B a re s imilar t o t hose i n B eycesultan x vI-XIII a nd

v iew,

I t

I I l evels t herefore,

i s mor e a ppropriate t o s ynchronize t he s mall

m ound

a t i n a t

K aratay w ith T roy I I ( 1968:33). I t I s r ather s ignificant, h owever, t hat w est A natolian 1 - a nd 2 -handled c ups d o n ot s eem t o o ccur I n T roy I ,

B eycesultan X IX-XIV o r K aratas I -V

( French 1 972:

n otes

o n F ig.18).

I n m y o pinion t his n egative e vidence c an o nly c orroborate M elllnk T h a ssessment o f t he K arata s equence a nd c hronology. T he r ecent p ublicat ion o f t he Y ortan C emetery b y K âmll ( 1982) l eaves n o d oubt t hat t he b ulk

o f

t he Y ortan ( or

t he B alikesir d ark b urnished h andmade

p ottery)

s hould b e d ated t o t he E B I I p eriod. S ome o f t he e arlier f orms h ave b een p roduced a s e arly a s t he E B I p eriod ( K mil 1 982:67).

in

T he s equence o f t he s lab-sided c ist g raves ( rectangular a nd p lan) h as n ot b een d efinitely e stablished ( Fig.VI-VII). T he

a nd m arble

v essels

c orrelated 1 974:342).

f rom t hese

t ombs

a nd

t he

t ombs

r egional s tratigraphy,

t o

r ound c lay

t hemselves a re p artly

w ith t hose f ound i n t he C yclades ( Pelos p hase) T he l atest p ottery f rom I asos c ould b e a ssigned,

o f Anatolian

m ay

t he E B I I p eriod

( e.g.

( Coleman i n t erms l ate T roy

1 / e arly T roy I I), o r i n C ycladic t erms t o t he S yros p hase. M arble b eakers f ound I n t he t ombs c an h ardly b e u sed f or s ynchronization s ince t hey m ay h ave

b een h eirlooms,

o r u sed

i n t he S yros

p hase

I n t he i sland.

F inally, i t s hould b e p ointed Out t hat s ome c alibrated C -14 a ge e stimates f rom A natolia a nd t he A egean, w hich a re n ot e ntirely i n a greement w ith r elative d ates d erived f rom h istorical s ynchronizations, s uggest t hat s ome o f t he t raditional c hronological f rameworks n eed t o b e s lightly r eadjusted.

C ULTURAL F RAMEWORKS A ND E THNO-CULTURAL T RAITS O ne c ultural

o f

t he

h istory

m ost i s

s ignificant

( Figs.VI-XI)

d evelopments

t he g radual d isappearance o f

i n

w est

r ed-on-white

A natolian p ainted

E arly C halcolithic p ottery c ultures a nd t he s ubsequent i ntroduction, d uring t he l ate f ifth o r e arly f ourth m illennium B C, o f n ew d ark b urnished w are c ultures w ith o bvious ' northern a ffinities . T he d efinition o f t hese n orthern c haracteristics, h owever, i n t erms p recise g eo-cultural z ones i n s outheastern E urope a nd/or T hrace r ather i mpossible a t

t his s tage.

N evertheless,

o f I s

i t s hould b e s tressed

h ere t hat t he i mported D ude ti a nd K aranovo I I t ype w ares d iscovered a t D emIrcih8yUk i n t he E skisehir p lain, c ould s uggest t hat s ome o f t he e arly p opulation m ovements l ower D anube a nd t he B alkans 1 981a:96). f rom a reas

o riginated f rom t he g eneral a rea o f t he a s e arly a s t he f ifth m illennium B C ( Yakar

I n m y o pinion m igrations f rom s outheastern E urope a nd e ven f urther n orth i nto t he A egean b asin a nd A natolia s hould b e

c onceived a s a s low a nd c ontinuous p rocess, f rom t ime t o t ime c hanging i n i ntensity d ue t o s udden p opulation p ressures. B ut i n e valuating t he i mpact o f t hese m ovements o f r ather d ifferent e thno-cultural g roups i n t he L ate C halcolithic a nd E arly B ronze A ge c ivilizations o f w estern A natolia, i t i s i mportant t o r emember t hat Anatolian p otters o f t he

1 20

E arly C halcolithic p eriod w ere f ar m ore s killed ( and p ossessed a rtistic t alents n ot o bserved i n t he f ourth m illennium B C) t han t heir c ounterp arts w ho r eplaced t he t raditional r ed-on-white b urnished w ares o f r ather p oor q uality a nd t aste. h ypothetical m ovements b y O ld E uropean F armers p astoralists t hat

f rom t he n orth,

s maller

w estwards

o ne s hould n ot d ismiss

g roups o f e arly w est A natolian f armers

w ares w ith d ark A lso, d iscussing a nd s emi-nomadic t he

p ossibility

w ere

p roceeding

o r een n orthwards i nto T hrace a nd M acedonia s ince

t he

f ourth

m illennium B C. S ince w e a ssume t hat t he p opulation m ovements f rom t he n orth ( via T hrace) w ere c ontinuous, s tarting p robably i n t he l ate f ifth m illennium a nd c ontinuing t hroughout t he f ourth, t hird a nd e ven t he e arly p art o f t he s econd m illennia B C, i t i s r ather d ifficult t o p inp oint w ith p recision t he n on-Anatolian e lements i n t he m aterial c ulture o f L ate C halcolithic a nd E arly B ronze A ge w est A natolian c ivilization. I n a rchitecture o ne c an a dmittedly p oint o ut t hat t he s olid m udbrick a rchitecture o f N eolithic a nd E arly C halcolithic p eriods ( e.g. c atal I l 8yt lk,

H acilar,

w attle-and-daub

C an H asan) o r

c ould n ot h ave 'inspired'

p isé a rchitecture o bserved i n t he

t he r ather f limsy f ourth o r

e arly

t hird m illennium B C ( e.g. B a ba i, e arlier h ouses o f D emircih8ylk, K arat 9). B ut t his o bservation c ould n ot b e i nterpreted a s a g eneral r egression i n t he r egional c ultures d ue t o t he m assive i nflux o f s outhe ast E uropen f armers. C ertain e vents a nd o utside f actors w hich d irectly o r i ndirectly s haped t he c ultural h istory o f w estern A natolia o ver m any c enturies c annot a lways b e u nderstood e nough t o b e e xplained i n s imple t erms o f m aterial c ulture c hange. F or i nstance a t K urucay i n s outhwestern Anatolia, t he L ate C halcolithic c ulture h as o n t he o ne h and a p ottery r epertoire a nd m etallurgical

t radition w hich c learly d id

n ot d evelop f rom t he e arlier H acilar I t ype c ulture, b ut o n t he o ther i t h as a v illage a rchitecture w hich i s f ar m ore d eveloped i n p lan a nd c onstruction t echnique t han a nything k nown i n s outheastern E urope. f act, u nlike t he d ark b urnished w ares o f t he f ourth m illennium w hich, d espite c ertain l ocal v ariations i n f orm a nd f abric, h ave

I n B C a

r ather h omogenous c haracter, i n v illage a rchitecture e nvironmental f actors a nd t raditions r esulted i n t he e mergence o f d ifferent c onstruct ion t echniques, h ouse f orms a nd s ettlement t ypes w ithin w estern A natolia. A s f ar a s t he f ourth m illennium B C i s c oncerned ( e.g. p rotou rban) i t i s d ifficult t o d escribe t he v illages a s b eing a lways s mall o r a s c omposed o f s ingle r oom h ouse u nits. I t s eems t hat a long t he A egean

c oast a nd i n t he i slands

s tone a nd c rude

b rick a rchitecture w as

m ore p opular t han w ood o r w attle-and-daub s tructures f ound i n a reas f urther i nland. I n t he h interland, o n t he o ther h and, h ouses w ere n ot a lways

b uilt o f m udbrick w alls o n s tone f oundations

( e.g.

K urucay)

b ut

s ometimes t hey w ere c onstructed c ompletely o f m udbricks ( e.g. B eycesultan L ate C halcolithic). A gain t he L ate C halcolithic s ettlement a t

K urucay

A natolia

s uggests

t hat s ome,

i f n ot

m ost,

v illages

i n

w estern

w ere s urrounded b y d efensive f ences o r f ortification w alls

s ome s ort. L ater, i n t he E B I I a nd I II p eriods, t his r ather s ystem o f f ortifications w as r eplaced b y t hick t own a nd c itadel

o f

l oose w alls

b uilt o f s tone a nd p artly o f m udbrick ( e.g. T roy I -II, P oliochni, T hermi, E mporio, K aratas a nd D emircih$yt Ik). I n a ddition t o m ainly d ark b urnished h andmade p ottery g roups, c ertain a rchitectural f eatures s uch a s r n egaroid h ouse p lans, a psidal h ouses a nd a f ew e xamples o f h erringb one-like w all c onstruction a nd a r elatively a dvanced m etallurgy ( see C hapter

X I),

a nd E arly e xtramural t ations

w hich c haracterize

t he w est A natolian L ate

C halcolithic

B ronze A ge I -II c ultures, j ar a nd p ithos b urials c emeteries a nd r ather s chematized h uman a nd d eity

i n c lay a nd

s tone a re c onsidered 1 21

i n l arge r epresen-

t o b e t he h allmarks o f

t he

E B

I l-lIlA p eriod

( Figs.VI-X).

I n t he s econd h alf o f

t he

t hird m illennium

B C, a f ew c hanges i n t echnologies ( e.g. a lloying t echniques i n m etallurgy, t he u se o f w heel i n p ottery m anufacture a nd d eveloped b uilding t echniques u sing l arge q uantities o f w ood i ncorporated w ithin s tone

a nd

m udbrick w alls)

c ated m aterial c ulture

r esulted

i n a m ore d eveloped a nd

c haracterized b y

t rue

m egarons,

s ophisti-

l arger h ouses

a nd m onumental b uilding c omplexes, s tronger f ortifications, b etter t own p lanning, s pecialized m etal i ndustries ( e.g. j ewellery, b ronze w eapons) a nd r ed s lipped w heelmade w ares. D uring t he E B I II p eriod, a dditional i ntrusions o f f armers a nd p astoralists i nto n orthwestern A natolia m ay h ave c aused s ome c hanges i n t he e thno-cultural s tructure o f s edentary c ommunities. S ome a rchaeologists h ave e ven s uggested t hat a c ertain d ecline o bserved i n t he m aterial c ulture o f n orthwestern A natolia ( e.g. T roy 1 11-1V) c ould b e r elated t o n ew i mmigrations f rom s outhwestern E urope

o f

w estern

I ndo-European a ffiliated g roups.

A natolia i s b etter d ocumented,

t hat t he h interland

t he

p rehistory t o

a nd i ntrusive

s eem

t o

h ave

f rameworks.

d eveloped

A s f or

f rom

t he

t he E B

h ybrid

I lIll L ate

o f

h ypothesize

f ourth m illennium B C c ultures o f t he A egean b asin a nd e merged a s a c onsequence o f t he g radual amalgamation

i ndigenous t hese

U ntil

i t i s p ossible

t he o f

c ultures,

C halcolithic

t raditions. H owever, t he c hanging s ocio-economic c onditions, i ntensification o f m aritime a nd o verland t rade a nd t he emergence o f s mall p olitical e ntities, a nd o ther u nrecorded e vents m ay h ave a ffected t he p ace a nd

c haracter o f c ultural d evelopment i n c ertain a reas.

P ottery G roups T he g roups d iscussed h ere b riefly a re p resented a ccording t o c hronological o rder a nd n ot a lways a ccording t o s ub-regional t raditions o r d ivisions.

T he e arliest g roup o f

h andmade

d ark b urnished w ares d oes

n ot

i nclude p lain b urnished w ares o f N eolithic A natolia.

1 .

E arly

H andmade T hese

D ark

a ppeared

B urnished W ares: i n w estern A natolia a nd

t he

e astern

A egean

i slands p robably a s e arly a s t he f ifth m illennium B C a nd c ontinued t o b e p roduced i n t he e arly f ourth m illennium a s w ell. L ocal v ariations a re k nown t o u s a s E mporio X -VIII P ottery, K uruçay L ate C halcolithic

g rey

b urnished w are,

T igani d ark

b urnished,

E arly

B a ba i P ottery, K izilbel M iddle C halcolithic, B e iktepe, a nd K umtepe I a. G enerally s peaking t he f abric o f t hese w ares I nclude o rganic i nclusions i n a ddition t o s ome m ineral t empering m aterial. S urface c olours, o f t he f iring

w hich t o a l arge e xtent r esulted f rom t he q uality a nd t ype o f i nclusions, v aried f rom g rey t o

b lack/brown. I n s ome a reas, h owever, g rey b urnished f abric w as f ar m ore p opular t han b lack o r b rown f abrics. I n a ddition t o r ather s imilar b owl a nd j ar f orms, w hich u nite m ost o f t he l ocal a ssemblages h andles, p atterns,

i nto o ne l arge h omogenous u nit,

a mong t he c haracteristic f eatures o f p ointed

h andle

f orms

( horn-

l ugs) a nd d ecorative t echniques ( e.g. w hite p ainted r elief d ecoration a nd l ater, p attern b urnishing) a re o ut

t hat

d ecorative

t his g roup.

p atterns

a chieved

B ut i t s hould b e b y

t echniques

d escribed a bove a re n ot v ery c ommon d uring t he e arly s tages o f p ottery

g roup.

p otters,

t his

n ot t he

A nd

t hen,

w hen

i t s tarted t o a ppeal

t o

t his l ocal

e nthusiasm f or d ecorating d ark b urnished w ares

a s i ntense i n t he h interland a s i slands.

1 22

i t w as

i n t he c oastal z one

w as o r

2 .

H andmade B lack B urnished G roups o f L ate F ourth M illennium B C: T he f irst l b

t ype,

a nd

r egional s ubgroup i s u sually r eferred t he s econd a s B eycesultan t ype

t o a s

( French

K umtepe

1 961:101-102;

1 969:59). T he a nd m icaceous,

f abric o f t he f irst g roup i s s lightly c oarse, g ritty b ut w ith o ccasionally a l ittle s traw. T he v essels

a re

a nd s mooth b urnished.

h andmade

P ainted

( white)

d ecoration

o ccurs b ut i s n ot v ery p opular, a t l east i n t he T road. I n a ddition t o b lack s urfaces l ighter s hades s uch a s r ed, b rown o r e ven g rey w ere p roduced b y t he l ocal p otters. T his w are g roup, a lthough n amed K umtepe I b,

d id n ot n ecessarily o riginate i n t he T road.

h as a v ery w ide d istribution i n t he e astern w estern c oast o f A natolia, i n t he B alikesir,

I t

I slands, a long t he A khisar a nd M anisa

r egions. I t h as b een r eported f rom M acedonia i n t he n orth a nd N axos a nd P aros i n t he s outhwest ( French 1 969:59). T he s econd s ubr egional s lightly s traw.

g roup, t he B eycesultan L ate C halcolithic t ype, h as a c oarse f abric w ith a f air a mount o f g rit a nd m ica b ut n o T he

s urface i s g enerally b lack,

s ometimes n ettled w ith g rey

o r o live s hades. V ertical b urnishing, w hich i s n ot v ery c ommon i n t he K umtepe l b g roup, i s r ather c haracteristic o f t he B eycesultan G roup ( for m ore d etails s ee A rchaeological S ources). T he d istribut ion p attern o f o f o f 3 .

t he l atter s uggests

t hat a lthough i t

r eached

p arts

A khisar a nd B alikesir, i t w as m ainly p roduced b y l ocal p otters t he s outhwest, i ncluding t he i slands o f C hios a nd S amos.

H andmade

T roy

D ark B urnished G roups o f

t he T hird M illennium B C:

T hese a re k nown a s b lack b urnished Y ortan ( Balikesir) g roup, I g roup, r ed b urnished A khisar/Manisa g roup, E ski ehir d ark

b urnished g roup, g rey/black b urnished A khisar/Manisa g roup, b rown b urnished B alikesir g roup, e ast A egean ( e.g. T hermi, E mporio, P oliochni) t ypes, D enizli ( e.g. B eycesultan) g roup, E lmali g roup; i n f act, d espite t hese a nd s ome o ther l ocal v ariations s uch a s t he A fyon, K Utahya, B urdur o r A cipayam s ub-regional g roups, t his d ark b urnished w are t radition i s i n m any w ays q uite h omogenous i n c haracter a nd t here i s n o d oubt t hat i t l argely d eveloped f rom t he e arlier b lack b urnished g roups o f w estern a natolia. T his t radition r emained B alikesit p ottery.

i n v ogue u ntil t he e nd o f E B l IlA ( Troy l Ig). p rovince t his g roup i s s ometimes r eferred t o a s H owever,

K âmil

r ecently

p ointed

o ut

t hat

I n t he Y ortan

Y ortan

n either t he c entre n or t he m ost o utstanding p art o f t his p rovince. I n f act, t here i s r eason t o b elieve t hat t he f rom t he B alikesir,

e xtramural c emeteries a nd s ettlement m ounds A khisar a nd M anisa a reas r epresents o ne l arge

i s

p ottery p ottery i n t he r egional

a ssemblage n amed a fter o ne o f t he k ey s ites, Y ortan. T he e xact g eographical d istribution o f t his p ottery a ssemblage ( pottery c ult ure) i s n ot f ully k nown, b ut i t m ust h ave i ncluded a reas i n t he v alley o f B akircay ( Kaikos) a ll t he w ay t o B ergama i n t he w est, G ediz v alley a nd L esbos ( Thermi) o ff t he A egean c oast. T he G ediz v alley

d efines

t he

s outhern e xpansion

o f

t he

Y ortan

s tyle .

F urther s outh t he Y ortan e lements m ay s till b e f ound, a s a lready s tressed b y K âmil ( 1982:73), b ut t hey a re i ntermingled w ith t he B eycesultan ( Denizli) c lass w ares w are s ee: A rchaeological S ources

( for a f uller d escription o f t his Y ortan). T he e xtensive d istri-

-

b ution o f t his w are i n t he w est a nd n orthwestern r egions s uggests t hat t he s o-called T roy I c oastal c ulture i n t he A egean b asin, i ncluding

t he

T road

a nd

T hrace, 1 23

s hould n ot b e

r egarded

a s

a

s eparate c ultural f ramework, b ut a s a n e xtension o f t his B alikesir, M anisa a nd A khisar p ottery p rovince ( K mil 1 982:74-75). A s f ar a s t he d istribution o f t his p ottery c ulture t o o ther a reas a long t he c oast i s c oncerned, K âmil i s c onvinced t hat t he b eginning o f t his d iffusion f rom t he i nland s ites t owards t he c oast a nd b eyond s tarted d uring t he K umtepe l b p hase, o r t he e arliest p eriod o f t he Y ortan

c ulture

r epresented

p ottery ( Kâmil 1 982:75). t hat t he e xpansion o f r eaching a reas 1 1;

l b t ypes

i n T hrace a nd e ven t he B alkans

K aranovo V II; G enerally

w estern

b y t he K umtepe

i n

C lass

A

D uring t he T roy I ( EB I I) p eriod i t s eems t his p ottery t radition w as c ompleted, ( e.g.

D ikili T ash 2 -

E zero B ( Horizon V III-II).

s peaking,

A natolia

t he

h andmade d ark

b urnished

a re c haracterized b y a n umber o f

w ares

r ather

o f

c ommon

f eatures o bserved i n a lmost e very l ocal p ottery r epertoire. L ocal v ariations h ave m ore t o d o w ith c ertain p references f or o ne p art icular s hape o r d ecorative t echnique. T he c haracteristic f eatures w hich

d efine

t his l arge g roup w ith a n

e xtremely

l ong

l ife-span

c ould b e g rouped u nder t he f ollowing h eadings: F abrics: o f m ineral d ominant) t ones).

R elatively

f ine c lays w ith f airly

l arge q uantities

i nclusions i ncluding m ica a nd q uartzite. B lack , ( prer ed, b rown a nd g rey s urfaces ( sometimes o live-green

S hapes:

B owls;

s mall

j ars w ith t all n eck a nd

p edestal;

l arger

j ars w ith t all n eck a nd f lat b ases; s mall j ars w ith s hort n eck o r h olemouth; j uglets; j ugs w ith o bliquely c ut s pouts; l ids; j ugs w ith f langed r im a nd s ide s pout; b ird-shaped v essels ( askos); j ars s tanding o n t hree-feet a nd d iscovered i n c emeteries

t riple v essels. I t s eems t hat v essels g enerally b elong t o t he c losed s hapes

( e.g. j ars a nd j ugs) r ather t han o pen s hapes l ike b owls w hich a re b etter k nown i n s ettlements ( e.g. T roy I -II, T hermi, B eycesultan). D ecoration: s moothed

T he

s urface

i s

o rnamentation o n t he b urnished o r s ometimes e ither w hite-filled i ncision

o f

l inear

o r

g eometrical p atterns, o r m att w hite p ainting. I n t he h interland, r ibbed d ecoration, v ertical, h orizontal f luting ( e.g. B eycesultan) o r p lastic a nd i mpressed d ecoration ( e.g. m edallion d ecoration o n s ome K arata f orms). I t s eems t hat w hite d ecorated p ottery g radually o f I II. 4 .

l ost

i ts a ttraction t o

t he E B I I p eriod. B ut

I t

i s n o

a t Y ortan i t m ay h ave

t he l ocal p otters l onger e vident a t

t owards

t he e nd

B eycesultan

E B

s urvived l onger t han e lsewhere.

W est A natolian W heelmade R ed S lipped E B I II W ares: T his w are i s s ometimes h andmade. I t e xtends o ver t he w hole o f w estern A natolia, s ome o f t he e astern A egean i slands, t he K onya p lain, C ilica, t he I slahiye p lain, a nd c ertain a reas i n c entral A natolia. I t i s b est k nown f rom T roy I Ib-V a nd B eycesultan X II-VI ( red w ashed w are). A ccording t o F rench ( 1967; b etween r egions p robably e xist b ut c ertain

1 969:66) d ifferences b owl p rofiles a re

g eneral

A natolia.

a nd

f ound

i n a ll r egions o f w estern

T he

r ed

s lipped w are w as u sually m ade o f h ard a nd f ine c lay w hich i ncluded s mall m ineral p articles. T he s urface c olour i s r ed, d ark r ed, b rown, o range-brown o r p ale b rown. T he c olour o f t he s urface i s d ue,

i n m ost

c ases,

t o

t he a pplication o f 1 24

a t hin l ayer o f s lip o r

w ash.

T he

s urface

i s u sually w ell b urnished,

" bone-burnished".

t he i nside o r o utside o f b owls t he b urnishing s trokes a re v ertical a nd r adial. T he e xpansion o f t his w are g roup t o a nd b eyond i s u sually e xplained i n t erms o f f rom w estern A natolia d uring c a.2400 B C. F or a d etailed a nalysis o f P odzuwelt 1 979.

1 982;

p opulation

t his a nd o ther g roups

O n

u sually C ilicia m ovements

s ee:

H uot

D ISCUSSION Q uestions r elating t o t he n ature, i ntensity p opulation m ovements f rom t he O ld E uropean c entres o f t he

a nd i dentity o f c ivilization i nto

A egean b asin a nd w estern A natolia c an o nly b e a nswered

b y

r ather

h ypothetical r econstructions o f m ostly u nrecorded e vents. T he p ace o f c ultural d evelopment i n w estern A natolia w as v ery s low a nd w hat o ne c an m ake o ut o f t he m aterial c ulture s uggests t hat t he s edentary c omm unities w ere q uite c onservative o n m atters o f a rchitecture, a rt, a nd r eligion. C lear c ut c hanges i n s ocial s tructure, s ettlement t ypes a nd p atterns, n ew e conomies, i dentifiable i n e very d uration o f o f

t hese

n ew s tyles i n a rt a nd r eligion a re n ot r eadily p rehistoric s ettlement, o r d uring t he w hole

t he L ate C halcolithic a nd E arly B ronze A ge.

c hanges a re o bserved i n c ertain s ettlements

i t

A nd w hen s ome i s n ot

a lways

s o s imple t o j udge i f t hey s hould b e a ttributed t o m igrations o r o ther 'i nternal' f actors w hich w e a re n ot a ware o f. M uch h as b een w ritten o n t his o f

s ubject t he

y ears

e vidence m eantime, t heories

o f m igrations, t o c ome,

a nd n o d oubt

e specially w hen

m uch m ore w ill i n t he m ore

r elevant

c ourse

a rcheological

f rom A natolia w ill b e m ade a vailable t o s cholars. I n t he h owever, i t i s u seful t o r efer t o s ome o f t he i mportant a dvanced b y p rominent s cholars. A ccording t o G imbutas, f or

i nstance,

p ressures e xerted b y

t he s econd l arge K urgan w ave,

c a.3400-

3 200 B C, d efinitely s haped e thnic c onfigurations o f E urope ( 1977:292). T he s o-called C ernavoda I g roups w ere p ushed t o t he w est a nd s outh. A s a r esult o f t his d islocation o f t he C ernavoda I p eople a nd t heir a dvance t o t he n orth o f t he A egean ( e.g. M acedonia), e ast B alkans ( Bulgaria) p opulated

a nd w estern A natolia, t hese t hree r egions w hich w ere a lready b y O ld E uropean f armers s tarted t o d evelop a nd s hare a c ul-

t ural e ntity,

B alkano-Danubian i n c haracter,

c haracteristics.

G imbutas

c haracter a nd t hinks O ld E uropean g roups

d escribes

w hich i ncluded s ome K urgan

t his n ew c ulture a s

h ybrid

i n

t hat i t w as b ased o n t he s ubjugation o f r emaining a nd t heir r apid a ssimilation i nto t he K urgan

p astoral e conomy a nd a gnatically-linked, s tratified s ocieties ( 1977:292). A s f or t he c ultural u niformity o ver § o v ast a r egion i t c ould b e a ttributed, a ccording t o h er, t o t he h igh s patial m obility o f h erding u nits w hich w ere p robably u nited b y a c ommon l anguage. A bout t his

t ime a c hain o f h ill-top f ortifications

( or h ill-forts)

a ppeared

o n t he D anubian a nd M arica p lains ( Thrace), a nd i n t he n orth o f t he A egean a nd i n w estern A natolia ( Troy I ). G imbutas c ompares t hese s mall s ettlements

t o h ill-forts n orth o f

t he B lack S ea,

s uch a s M lkhajlovka

a nd S kela i n t he l ower D nieper r egion ( 1973:188). T hese f orts, w ere b uilt e ither o n h ill-tops o r m ounds, m ust h ave s erved a s c entres.

M etal

a ccording i ncluding

t o G imbutas, i ndicate t hat t he h ighly s killed c raftsmen, t hose o f t he s ubjugated p opulation, w ere a mong t hose h oused

w ithin

t he

S itagroi,

f inds a nd f ine p ottery f ound

c itadels. V ucedol

I n a ddition t o T roy a nd

S arvas

( the 1 25

I ,

l ast

i n t hese

f orts

w hich t ribal

M ikhalic,

E zero,

t wo

i n

a re

s hould,

K aranovo,

n orthwestern

Y ugoslavia) a re a mong t he k nown h ill-forts e stablished a fter t he K urgan 2 i nvasion o f E urope. G imbutas b elieves t hat m any s outheast E uropean, A egean a nd w est A natolian s ettlements, s uch a s P oliochni a nd T hermi, w ere c onverted i nto c itadels b y t he m id t hird m illennium B C ( 1973:189). T heir c entral a reas w ere o ccupied b y t he r uling c lass, a nd t he t owns w ere s urrounded b y h eavy f ortifications. S he t hinks i t q uite r emarka ble t hat a lmost e very f ortified t own a nd h ill-fort i n w estern A natolia a nd o ther a reas a ffected d irectly o r i ndirectly b y t he K urgan 2 i nvas ion p roduced b ronze d aggers, h alberd b lades, f lat s harp a xes, s hafth ole a xes, a wls ( quadrangular i n c ross-section w ith a b ulge i n t he m iddle),

c hisels,

b attle-axes a nd i n aceheads o f

s emi-precious s tone a nd

f lint a rrowheads. L ocal p roduction i s e videnced b y c lay m olds, s ome o f t hem b ivalved, w hich h ave b een f ound i n T hermi, T roy, P oliochni, E zero a nd S arvas. A lready i n t he m iddle t hird m illennium B C h oards o f w eapons a nd t ools e merge i n t he A egean a rea a nd c entral E urope. D agger a xes o f s everal k inds a nd c hisels w ere k ept i n s tore a nd s ome o f t he i tems m ay h ave b een u sed a s s urplus f or t rade o r e xchange. M ost s ignificant h owever, i n a ddition t o t he w idespread u se o f t in b ronzes, w eapons a nd t ools t hat a ppear i n t he h oards o f T roy I I, P oliochni, A lacah8yt lk, H orortepe, I kiztepe, M aikop, T sarkaja, K ostromskaja ( the l ast t hree s ites a re l ocated i n n orthwestern C aucasus) a re c learly o f K urgan c haracter w hich i s r ecognizable, c ontinuous t radition o f C aucasian m etal G imbutas

a ccording t o G imbutas, f orms ( 1973:191-193).

i n t he

a ssertion t hat K urgan c ultural c ontact w ith t he

A egean

b asin a nd n orthwest A natolia h ad t aken p lace c a.3200/3000 B C i s g enerally a ccepted a s a g uideline b y m ost s cholars. A ccording t o W inn ( 1974:136-137), i n t he e vent t hat K urgans i nfiltrated A natolia a s e arly a s t hat s uggested b y G imbutas, t hen i solated I ndo-European l anguages i n A natolia w ould p robably h ave u ndergone l anguage d ifferentiation w ithout a dditional i nfluences f rom o ther K urgan g roups o r p articipating i n I ndo-European l inguistic i nnovations. R egarding t he q uestion o f p rotoI ndo-European l anguages i n A natolia a nd t heir p ossible s ubsequent t o t he K urgan i nvasions i n p re-Hittite t imes, r emarks

t hat o f

t he L ate l anguage, ( 1972).

t he

t wo

t heories w hich a re w idely a ccepted a t p resent,

N eolithic s outheast E uropean o rigins f or a n a rea w hich w as a djacent t o A natolia, M ost

s cholars

e mergence C rossland

a gree

t hat

t he I ndo-European s eems m ore l ikely

t he d ifferentiation i nto

t he

I ndo-

E uropean d ialects o f H ittite A natolia t ook p lace i n i solation. T he c ultural b urial p ithoi) T hrace, o ther

q uestion a nd

i s,

i f

t he K urgan i nvasions

s ocial f abric i n a reas d escribed

c hanged a bove,

t he

w hy

p ractice i n w estern A natolia ( with t he d ead p laced n ot h ave a w ider d istribution p attern a nd i s n ot M acedonia o r e ven R omania. h and,

a

t he

i n l arge k nown i n

I n t he C ernavoda c ulture,

t he d ead w ere s prinkled w ith r ed o chre,

e thno-

d oes

c ustom

o n t he w hich

c ould b e r elated t o t heir p astoral m ode o f l ife. T hese b urials a re i n m any w ays r eminiscent o f t he N orth P ontic o chre g rave c ulture. M ellaart p oints o ut t hat t he b aked c lay a nthropomorphic c lay f igurines f rom

C ernavoda i n R omania,

b oth m ale a nd f emale

( representations

o f

d eities?), s how a s triking r esemblance t o f igurines f rom t he Y ortan c emetery o f B abak8y ( 1971:133). I n f act t he c lay s tatuettes f rom D emircih8y t 1k

a nd

o ther p arts o f

t he w estern h interland

( e.g.

s uggest t hat i n f igurative a rt s outheast E uropean s tyles i nfluenced t he T hew g eneration A natolian a rtists ( Fig.IX).

1 26

m ay

A fyon) have

R egarding

t he

d estruction

o f

c ertain

a bandonment d uring t he Anatolian E B I II p eriod

s ettlements ( or a t

I l/Troy ha) t his c ould b e e xplained i n a n umber o f w ays, r ather s peculative ( Yakar 1 976; 1 981a). W hat i s b etter h owever,

a re

t he

T hermi, Emporio, p eriod ( end o f E B s ome

c ontinued

c hanges w hich o ccurred K aratas-Semay t lk

l IlA). t o

S ome o f

i n

t he

a nd

t heir

t he e nd o f

t he E B

a ll o f t hem u nderstood,

T road,

P oliochni,

a nd B eycesultan d uring t he E B t hese s ettlements w ere a bandoned

b e o ccupied w ith f undamental

s ettlement l ayout a nd a rchitecture. F urthermore, m aterial c ulture o f T roy I II t o t hat o f T roy I I,

a lterations

i n

I II a nd t he

i f w e c ompare i t I s p ossible

t he t o

o bserve t he s low t ransformation o f t he l ocal p ottery a ssemblage f rom r efined f orms o f t he T roy I I e ra t o t he l esser q uality w ares o f t he T roy I II p hase. B ut d espite t hese c hanges t here i s v ery l ittle t o s uggest what r eally h appened I n t he n orthwest a nd t o w hat e xtent t he e vents t here a ffected a reas i n t he w estern h interland. S o f ar, i n t he r egional p ottery a ssemblage t he o nly n ew f eature w hich c ould i ndicate t he a rrival o f n ew i mmigrants f rom c entral o r s outheast E urope a re t he f ace

j ars

f ound

a t T roy s ince hg

( if n ot

e arlier).

T hese

v essels,

w hich c ontinued t o b e m anufactured u ntil T roy V , h ave a w ide d istribut ion i n w estern A natolia, i n t he A egean, a nd e ven i n t he s outhern p lateau

( Yakar

1 976:154,

n .9).

I n m y o pinion,

i t

i s

l ogical

t o

a ssume

t hat d evelopments w hich c aused t he w est Anatolian E B I II c ulture t o e xpand a lready i n i ts e arly p hases e astward t o C ilicia a nd I slahiye m ust h ave b een d ifferent t o s ome e xtent f rom e vents w hich i nitiated t he m ovement o f a p opulation g roup w hich p roduced t hese a nthropomorphic v essels o f c ultic s ignificance ( Fig.XI). S uch j ars w ere a lso p roduced i n t he B aden c ultural h orizon o f e ast-central E urope a nd w ere o ccasiona lly u sed, a s i n P ecel c ulture, a s c remation u rns ( Yakar 1 976:156). I n f act t he i mpact o f t he f inal K urgan i nvasion ( 3) c ould h ave c aused c ertain g roups i n c entral E urope t o m ove s outh ( e.g. n orthern A egean) a nd c ross p lain.

t he D ardanelles

t o p arts o f w estern A natolia a nd

1 27

t he

K onya

F IGURE

V I:

M aterial

C ulture

o f

P roto-Urban

P eriod

f rom

W estern

A natolia C haracteristic

w are g roup i s r epresented b y e xamples o f

h andmade

d ark b urnished p ottery. D ecoration i n t he L ate C halcolithic p ottery g roup ( which i s p artly d ated t o t he E B I ) i s r elatively r are :12, 1 3, 1 6, 1 7, 1 9-22 ( Beycesultan X L-XX). L ocal E B I p ottery i nventories f rom K usura ( A)

a nd B eycesultan ( XIX):1-11,

t he b est e xamples

o f d ecorated w are.

1 4-15,

2 3,

2 5 p rovide

s ome o f

W hite p ainted l inear d esigns

o f

K usura a re a lso f ound a t o ther c ontemporary s ettlements i n t he w est. A s f or o ther f orms o f d ecoration s uch a s h orizontal f luting o r c orrugat ion,at B eycesultan X IX-XVI w e f ind s ome o f t he b est e xamples o f t hese t echniques. A rchitectural

r emains o f

t his p eriod c ome m ainly

f rom s ites

s uch

a s B eycesultan:18 ( XX-XL) a nd E lmali r egion:24 ( see B a ba i a nd K arat 9). I n t he r egional a rchitecture o f t his l ong p eriod i t i s p oss ible

t o

n otice l ocal v ariations

i n t he b uilding m aterial

a nd

t heir

s tructural c ombinations. M etal

o bjects m ade o f

s ettlement. a xes,

p ins,

T hese a re

e xcavated

s uch a s f alt

n eedles a nd a wls.

B urial c emeteries

c opper a re f ound i n a lmost e very

r ather f ew a nd i nclude s imple f orms

t raditions o utside

s tudied a t K usura A

s uggest

t hat

t he s ettlement c ompounds c onsisted o f

e xtramural j ar

b urials

p laced m ore o r l ess i n a n o rderly f ashion:29. T owards t he e nd o f t his p eriod i t i s p ossible t o o bserve t he i ntroduction o f c ist g raves b uilt o f s tone s labs. I asos i s o ne o f t he s ettlements w hich p roduced t ombs, p robably u nder t he i nfluence o f t he C ycladic c ulture:30-31.

F IGURE

V II:

M aterial

C ulture

o f E arly U rban

P eriod

f rom

s uch

W estern

A natolia I n

a rchitecture

s tructures:3

( Troy

P ottery i n

a psidal

h ouses

u sually

p recede

m egaroid

I ).

i s s till h andmade.

l ocal i nventories.

t he h interland:12, c learer p reference

D ark b urnished w ares a re p redominant

G enerally s peaking t he r egional r epertoire

o f

1 6, 1 9, 2 0, 2 2 ( Beycesultan X V-XIII) r eflects a f or d ecorated p ottery ( e.g. w hite-painted l inear

p atterns a nd g rooved m otifs) p ottery o f t he l ittoral: 2 ,

c ompared t o t he s impler d ark b urnished 4 -11 ( Troy I ). T he K aratas E B c emetery

( 18, 2 3) a nd t hose o f Y ortan, B abak8y ( 25) i n t he B alikesir p rovince p rovide i mportant e vidence t o s tudy n ot o nly t he h uman r emains, b ut a lso t he b urial p ractices o f e arly A natolians, t heir r eligious b eliefs ( 15),

t heir m etal

F IGURE

V III:

i ndustry ( 13,

M aterial

1 7) a nd e ven t heir s ocial o rganization.

C ulture

o f E arly U rban P eriod

f rom

W estern

A natol ia A rchitectural d ata t o p eriod:1 m ainly

s tudy ( XVI). o f

r emains

f rom B eycesultan X VI-XIV p rovide

i mportant

t he b uilding t radition a nd s tructural d etails o f t his T he p ottery i nventory o f B eycesultan X VI-XIV c onsists

v essels d iscovered i n t he t win s hrines o f

1 28

E BA

I I.

T hese

} 'l f l.

V I

1 29

i "u i.

v rr

1 30

2

/ 7 9

4

1 3 1

1 0

i nclude

pttery

u sually

f ound

w ith

v iolin-shaped s tone, ( Beycesultan) C ist

w hite p ainted

i n m etal v essels. m arble a nd c lay

a nd w ith j ar b urials

t ombs

o r

f luted

p atterns

I n f igurative a rt

a nd r ibbed

h ighly

a bstract

i dols

( e.g.

( 3,

2 7)

K aratas,

a re f ound i n s hrines Y ortan).

c onstructed w ith s tone s labs a re r elatively r are i n t he

e xtramural c emeteries o f t his o r t he f ollowing p eriod. T here i s p ossibility t hat t hey w ere c onstructed f or c ertain i nhabitants A egean a ffiliation:30 I n

m etallurgy

f actured

b y

l ocal

a o f

( Babakiy). n ew

f orms o f w eapons a nd

a nd

r egional

s chools

t ools w ere

o f

b eing

m anu-

m etalwork:7-11 «

1 6-18

( Beycesultan x VIII-X). B utton

o r

s ettlements 2 1.

o f

p endant

s eals w ith l inear d esigns a re

t his p eriod:13-14

S haft-hole

a xe.

I t

a lso

f ound

i n

( Kusura B ).

i s a f orm w hich i s u sually

f ound i n E B

I II

c ontexts. 2 2.

T his c eremonial v essel i n t he s hape o f aw oman c arrying a p itcher o n h er s houlder w as f ound i n t he v icinity o f A fyon. S ince i t i s n ot a n e xcavation f ind i t i s d ifficult t ic g rounds ( see K orfmann 1 979:187).

F IGURE

I n b owls

I X :

M aterial A natolia

C ulture

o f E arly

t o d ate i t o nly o n s tylis-

U rban

P eriod

f rom

W estern

a ddition t o b eak-spouted a nd c ut-away n eck p itchers ( 1, 8 -9) o n p edestal b ases w ith a h andle ( decorated l ike a b asket h andle)

( 7) a re A natolia

a mong t he p opular f orms o f ( Beycesultan X VI).

T he

h ouse

t he E B I I

r epertoire

f orm f rom D emircih yt 1k ( 5) p rovide

i n

s ome

w estern

i dea

a bout

l iving a rrangements w ithin u nits m esuring c a . 50 x nL . F or s tructural d etails s ee: D emircih8yl lk I , a nd A rchaeological S ources. T he e xcavat ions

a t

D emircih8yt lk

g reatly i ncreased t he i nventory

m orphic c lay f igurines f rom E ski ehir, A fyon a nd I sparta 4 , 1 1-16. F or d etails s ee: K orfmann 1 979.

F IGURE X :

M aterial C ulture o f E B

L ocal w heel:2, 3 , f orms f rom

p ottery

i nventories

o f

a nthropo-

p rovinces:3,

I II P eriod f rom w estern A natolia i nclude

v essels

m ade

o n

p otter s

5 , 6 , 7 , 1 3-16, 1 8-20 ( Beycesultan I X-VI). S ome o f t he B eycesultan a re l ocal v ariants o f t ankards a nd d epas c ups

k nown f rom T roy 1 1-1V ( e.g. 1 3, 1 9-2 0). I n a rchitecture t he m egaron p lan h as s pread a lmost t o e very c orner o f w estern A natolia. N everthel ess,

s tructural d etails

a nd b uilding m aterial

s till r etain v ariations

a ttributed t o l ocal t raditions. F or i nstance, a t K arata§ m egaron h ouses a re f reestanding a nd h ave r ather f limsy s tone f oundations w hich s uggest t hat t he w alls w ere p robably b uilt o f r ather l ight m aterial ( 9, 1 2). A t B eycesultan, o n t he o ther h and, t he t rue m egaron s tructures o f E B

I II s trata

( 11) w ere b uilt n ext

t o e ach o ther,

t hat w hich e xisted b efore w ith m egaroid h ouses

1 32

( 1).

i n a w ay s imilar

t o

1 3 3

8 OO

•

I 672

: 1

9

F iq.

X

1 34

1 35

F IGURE X I:

M aterial C ulture o f E B I II P eriod f rom t he A egean B asin

W heelmade o f

s ites

i n

r ed s lipped p ottery o f T roy I I d ate i s w estern

A natolia a nd

c haracteristic f orms a re t he d epas b eak-spouted p itchers l ig-IV d ate ( 18, 1 9, A natolia ( e.g. p roduced a dvances t ory

( 6, 2 0,

a cross

( 1-2),

t he

f ound a t a n umber

A egean.

t he t ankard

( 3),

Among

t he

p latters a nd

9 , 1 0). A s f or a nthropomorphic j ars o f T roy 2 8), e xcept f or a f ew e xamples i n w estern

A phrodisias,

K aratas),

n one o f

t he c ontemporary s ites

a s l arge a r epertoire a s t he o ne k nown f rom T roy. G reat i n m etal t echnology a nd p roducts c an b e o bserved i n t he i nven-

o f m etal a rtifacts

f rom T roy

( 13-15,

3 1,

3 2),

w hich

i ncludes

v essels m ade o f b ronze a nd p recious m etals s uch a s s ilver ( 21-24, 3 0). G old j ewellery f rom T roy i ncludes b eads m ade i n t he f orm o f d ouble s pirals r emains

( 31), a m otif k nown q uite w ell i n t he N ear E ast. A rchitectural f rom T roy a nd P ollochni g ive u s a g ood i dea a bout t he p lan o f

p ublic b uildings p eriod

( 35,

3 6)

a nd m ulti-room r esidential

( 33-39).

1 36

b uildings o f

t his

A RCHAEOLOGICAL S OURCES F IELD S URVEYS B ALIKESIR, T his

A KHISAR A ND M ANISA R EGIONS s ection o f n orthwest A natolia,

i ncluding t he a rea o f

I znik i n

t he M armara r egion, w as i nvestigated b y D . F rench w ho p ublished t he r esults o f h is w ork i n a n umber o f d etailed r eports: 1 961; 1 967 a nd 1 969. S ee a lso: M ellaart 1 955a. T he c oast f rom E dremit t o I zmir w as n ot i nvestigated b y F rench f or a n umber o f r easons, i ncluding t he f act t hat i t h ad b een p artially s urveyed b y a mong o thers, D riehaus ( 1957). O f t he 4 4 s ites d iscovered b y F rench, n one, e xcept f or O vabayindir e xcavated p reviously b y A kurgal,

p roduced a ny s tratigraphic r eference.

I t i s i mportant t o s tress t hat t he k ey s tratified s ettlements o f t he f ourth a nd t hird m illennia B C l ie o n t he p eriphery o f t hese r egions. F rench r eported t hat t he s ites a re, w ithout e xception, m ounds s ituated n ear o r j ust o n t he e dge o f f lat p lains. F resh w ater f rom s prings, s treams a nd p erennial r ivers w as a vailable t o t he s ettlers o f L ate C halcolithic a nd E B v illages a nd t owns. A lthough t his l arge r egion w as d ensely p opulated i n l ater p rehistoric t imes, s trangely e nough t he f ormation o f s ettlements i s r ather s mall. M ounds, a t l east t heir e xposed s ummits, a re l ow, c a.5m i n h eight, f erence o f l OOm ( in d iameter). T he r egions

s herds

c ollected

f rom t he

r arely e xceeding a c ircum-

B alikesir,

M anisa

w ere g rouped b y F rench b ased o n t he T roadic

a nd

p ottery

A khisar s equence

( 1969). A ccording t o t his c lassification, t he e arliest g roups a re r epresented b y " plain b urnished" a nd " early p ainted" w ares, d ated t entatively t o t he s ixth m illennium B C. T hese w ares a re f ollowed b y t wo

m ajor

g roups

o f

" black b urnished" w ares:

t he

B eycesultan

L ate

C halcolithic t ype, f ollowed b y t he K umtepe l b r ange. T he T roy I w are g roup, a ccording t o F rench, h ad t o b e d ivided i nto t wo s ubgroups: t he A khisar/Manisa a nd B alikesir v ariant w ith i ts p lain, g rooved, i ncised a nd

w hite

p ainted p ottery a ssemblage,

A nother g roup, A khisar/Manisa

a nd

t he

T roadic

c ontemporary w ith T roy I s equence, w are. A v ariant o f t his g roup

r epertoire.

i s t he r ed b urnished i s t he g rey/black

b urnished Akhisar/Manisa w ale. C ontemporary w ith t hese l ast t wo groups i n B alikesir a re t he b lack b urnished a nd b rown b urnished w are g roups ( e.g. Y ortan a ssemblage). F inally, g roup o f t his l arge r egion r epresents, s tages o f t he E arly B ronze A ge c ulture L iterature: s ee:

S pier

F rench 1 961;

1 967;

t he w heelmade r ed s lipped a ccording t o F rench, t he i n w estern A natolia.

1 968;

1 969.

w are l ater

F or p rehistoric S ardis

1 983.

T HE E SKISEHIR R EGION ( the w estern a reas) T his

a rea

w as

b riefly i nvestigated b y B urney

e xtensive s urvey o f n orthern A natolia

( Burney

d uring

1 956).

h is

m ore

F ortunately,

i n

t his a rea o f t he m iddle P orsuk v alley, t he s urvey m aterial c an n ow b e c orrelated t o D emircihiy 1 1k s s tratified p ottery s equence. A n atural r oad l inks

t his

r egion,

w hich i s

i n f act a b uffer z one

a nd c entral A natolia, w ith t he T road v ia B ursa. t his r egion w ith t he ç ivril v alley v ia K t ltahya. c onnection w ith t he c entral A natolian r egions

1 37

b etween w estern

A nother T o t he

r oad l inks e ast, t he

i s b y a n etwork o f

r oads

p assing

f rom

a nd n ear P olatli.

T he s urvey r eport s uggests

t hat

P orsuk v alley w as d ensely p opulated i n t he L ate C halcolithic a nd

t he E arly

B ronze A ge.

T HE R EGION S OUTH O F A FYON ( KARAHISAR) T his

r egion w as f irst i nvestigated b y B ittel

t his r egion, M editerranean

( 1942:176).

i ncluding t he a rea s outh o f K onya a nd c oast, w as s urveyed b y M ellaart i n

L ater

n orth o f 1 951 a nd

t he 1 954

( Mellaart 1 954; 1 955). T he a rea b etween K usura a nd I sparta w as i n p articular t horoughly s urveyed. T his a rea w as a p assageway b etween t he A egean w orld a nd t he e astern M editerranean. F rom C ilicia t he r outes w est a re e ither v ia v alley ( Calycadnos) v alley ( Meander). a re r elatively w ell

C ilician g ates t o t he s outhern p lateau o r t he G 8ksu t o D inar a nd A fyon a nd t hence t o t he B t lyt lk M enderes I n t his a rea, i n a ddition t o K usura t wo o ther s ites k nown : S enirce H 8y t 1k w hich i s s ituated 1 5km n orth-

w est o f I sparta, a nd P inarba i G 81 ( Ormerod 1 911, 1 913). H owever, m aterial f rom t hese t wo m ounds, s tored i n t he , A fyon M useum , i s

t he n ot

s tratified. T herefore, t he r e-classification o f t he s urvey m aterial c ould b e b est a ccomplished i n r eference t o K arata , B eycesultan a nd K arah8yt 1k.

T HE P ISIDIAN S URVEY T his

a rea s outhwest o f

6 zsait. E arly

T he

t he B urdur L ake i s b eing i nvestigated b y M .

E arly a nd L ate C halcolithic p eriods

B ronze

A ge)

k nown

f rom

H acilar,

( and p hases

B a ba i

a nd

o f

t he

K uruçay

a re

r epresented a t a n umber o f m ounds a nd f lat s ettlements i n t he a rea. Ö zsait h as b een i nvestigating t he p rehistoric s ettlements i n t wo m ajor s ectors o f P inarba i, 4 0km

t his r egion s outh o f B urdur: a nd t he P lain o f K aramanli.

s outh o f

B urdur.

H ere

t he P lain o f ç allica ( Egnes) T he c allica p lain i s s ituated -

t he i mportant m ounds w ith

E B

o ccupation

i nclude P inarba i H yt 1k. O n t he o ther h and, E gnes H Byt lk s eems t o h ave b een a f lat s ettlement s ituated s ome 2 50m n orthwest o f P inarbasi m ound. T he t he

s herds c ollected i n t his p lain p oint t o s ettlement a ctivity s ince L ate C halcolithic p eriod. A s f or t he p lain o f K aramanli, i t i s

s ituated

6 1km s outhwest o f

B urdur.

H ere t he m ost s ignificant

mou nds

a re t hose o f K agilcik, F erizli a nd C amur. ç amur H 8y t lk, w hich w as p reviously s tudied b y M ellaart, p roduced E arly C halcolithic p ottery o f H acilar I c ulture. A n a dditional m ound r ecently d iscovered b y ' ö zsait i s K rkuyu,

5 00m s outheast o f K aramanli.

h ave b een s ettled s ince L iterature:

d zsait

T his p lain,

t he s ixth m illennium B C,

1 979;

1 982;

1 983;

t oo,

s eems

t o

i f n ot e arlier.

M ellink 1 983:429-430.

E XPLORATIONS I N T HE T ROAD I n

t he

e arly

s eventies

t he m iddle a nd

l ower

S camander v alley ( Kara M enderes) w ere r evisited b y A .

s ections

o f

A karca w ho

t he p ub-

l ished t he r esults o f h er i nvestigations i n 1 978. S he, i n f act , w as n ot a ware o f t he w ork a lready c arried o ut b y C ook ( 1973a). A karca i nvest igated a n umber o f s ettlement s ites a nd m onuments, i ncluding t umuli. A mong

t he

w ork a re

s ettlement s ites w ith p rehistoric r emains m entioned i n

t hree s ites s outh o f

t he D ardanelles.

1 38

h er

T hese a re T ektop b urnu,

s ituated n ot f ar f rom t he d elta o f t he S camander, Iildak t epe e ast o f T ektop, a nd H arapkale ( Akarca 1 978:14-16). O f t he f irst t wo s ettlem ents s ituated o n s mall p eninsulas, t he l atter s ite w as a lso v isited b y C ook ( 1973b). p roduced T roy

I t i s r eferred t o a s q oban T epe. A ll t hese s ettlements I t ype p ottery. A ccording t o t he l ist o f p rehistoric

s ettlements a nd t heir d escriptions p ublished b y C ook ( 1973b) i t i s p ossible t o o bserve t hat m ost p rehistoric s ettlements w ere e stablished a long t he A egean c oast t owards t he e nd o f t he E B I p eriod. T hese s ettlements a re i n a ddition t o T roy, K umtepe, B e iktepe a nd H anaytepe, B e ika B urnu ( promontory w est o f B esiktepe), B alli D a, H an T epe, A lexandria T roas, ç iftlik T epe, t kizce, C olonae ( Besik T epe a t A kta ovasi: T roy I -II m aterial), K Umbet K ocabahçe, L iman T epe ( Troy I ll-V m aterial), G t llpinar, A ssos ( Troy I -II), A ltinoluk a nd T hebe ( Mandira

T epe).

F or

w ork

b eing c arried o ut b y K orfmann

S ivritepe s p re-Troy I l evels

a t

B e ik-

s ee a lso M ellink 1 984:446.

E XCAVATIONS A .

T he

c oastal

r egion a nd

t he e astern A egean i slands

T ROY ( HISARLIK) L ocation: T his s ite, w hich i n H ellenistic t imes w as k nown a s t he C ity o f I lion, l ies i n t he n orthwest c orner o f t he l ow t ertiary p lateau s outh o f t he D Umrek S u. T he c ity o f I lion, w hich w as q uite e xtensive, i ncluded

t he p rehistoric m ound o f H isarlik.

T his m ound m easures c a.200

x 1 50m a nd s tands s ome 8 m h igher t han t he s urrounding p lateau ( or 3 0m a bove t he s urface o f t he p lain). T his s mall m ound, w hich i n H ellenistic t imes b ecame t he a cropolis o f t he C ity o f I lion, r eceived l ittle n otice f rom e arly e xplorers. w as K auffer i n 1 793 ( Cook 1 973a:93). E xcavations: f our

t raveller

t o n otice

I n 1 865 F rank C alvert b egan t o e xcavate H isarlik.

t renches

a nd

r ecognized

L ysimachian w all. p rehistoric r emains, 1 868

T he f irst

S chliemann

H e c ut

t he T emple o f A thena a nd

t he

H e d id n ot p enetrate d eep e nough t o e xpose w hich l ay s everal m etres u nder t he s urface.

t he I n

c ame t o

r emains o f

i t

t he T road a nd b egan e xcavating o n

B alli

D ag

w hich w as L echevalier T h s ite. H e w as n ot h appy w ith t he r esults o f h is e xcavations; C alvert s d iscoveries a t H isarlik a nd h is a rguments t hat T roy

w as

a t H isarlik c onvinced h im t o s tart e xcavations

t here a s

s oon

a s p ossible. H e c arried o ut a p reliminary s eason i n 1 870 w hich w as f ollowed b y t hree m ajor c ampaigns i n 1 871-1873. I n t he c ourse o f h is w ork S chliemann s ucceeded i n i dentifying f our s uccessive C ities b elow t he H ellenic I lion, a nd h e c laimed t hat t he H omeric c ity w as t he b urnt c itadel h e f ound i n t he s econd s tratum f rom t he b ottom ( Cook 1 973a:97). I t w as, i n f act, a fter h e d iscovered t he g reat t reasure a t t he e nd o f h is

f inal

s eason i n 1 873

t he f amous t wo m ore V irchow d ecided T roy; o ne

t hat T roy I I m ust

i nvestigated t he p lain o f T roy i n 1 879. B y t his t ime t o m ake c ertain n ew p roposals r egarding t he s tratigraphy h e n ow r ecognized

t hird

s ettlement) w rote

t hat h e s eemed c onvinced

h is

b e

c ity m entioned b y H omer. H owever, i n 1 878-1879 h e c onducted m ajor c ampaigns a t t his s ite a nd t ogether w ith B urnouf a nd

t wo

f rom t he b ottom , b ringing f amous

b ook :

t he

f urther c ities

( the H omeric c ity b eing t he

a nd a L ydian c ity w hich p receded t otal

I lios,

t o s ix.

A fter

t he

1 879

t he C ity a nd C ountry o f

1 39

h e o f

t he C reek

c ampaign t he

h e

T rojans,

w hich w as p ublished i n 1 880. B ut s till u ncertain a bout s tratigraphy a nd a bsolute i dentification o f t he m ound b ecause o f r emarkably

s mall

s ize

( the f ortifications o f T roy V I w ere n ot

t he i ts

e xposed

y et), h e d ecided t o r esume t he e xcavations w ith W . l Y Orpfeld a nd J . H ofier a s h is a rchitects i n 1 882. I n 1 887 a nd l ater 1 889 h e c arried o ut t wo f urther m ajor c ampaigns. B y t hat t ime t he n umber o f s uccessive c ities w ere r aised t o n ine. T his w as d one b y s howing t hat t he r emains o f h is S eventh C ity c onsisted i n f act o f t hree a rchitectural s trata. A fter S chliemann s d eath D 8rpfe1d u ncovered t he g reat c itadel o f T roy V I i n 1 893 a nd 1 894. T he d efinitive p ublication o f t hese t wo c ampaigns, w hich r ecognized t he S eventh C ity a s h aving t wo s trata : V II 1a nd V II 2 , t he E ighth C ity a s t he H ellenic I lion a nd t he N inth a s t he R oman c ity, w as p ublished i n 1 902 ( W. D 8rpfeld, T roja a nd I lion). I t w as n ot u ntil 1 932 t hat a rchaeological e xcavations a t T roy w ere r esumed, t his t ime b y t he A rchaeological E xpedition o f t he U niversity o f C incinnati, u nder t he g eneral d irection o f W .T. S emple. T he e xcavat ions c ontinued f or s even s easons u ntil 1 938. T he s cholars w ho a ctively p articipated i n t hese c ampaigns i nclude C .W. B legen, C .G. B oulter, C .G. C askey, J .L. R awson a nd J . S perling. S tratigraphy: T he e xcavations c onducted b y t he U niversity o f C incinnati i n t he u ndisturbed a reas o f t he m ound r evealed a t otal o f 4 6 s trata b elonging t o t he n ine m ajor l ayers o r C ities . A lready b y t he t ime o f t he p ublication o f t he T roy v olumes i n t he f ifties, i t w as c lear t hat T roy I t o T roy V b elong t o t he E arly B ronze A ge. t o B iegen's t erminology T roy I , w ith i ts t en s ub-phases, d ated

t o

t he f irst h alf o f

t he

t hird m illennium B C.

s ub-phases: b y

D Jrpfeld.

a -g,

i n f act

F inally,

f our

I ;

d -g

m iddle T roy I a nd s ub-phases h -j b elong t o t he l atest p hase T roy I I, w hich w as d ated b y B iegen t o c a.2500-2200 B C, w as s even

T roy

t his

r epresent o f T roy I .

p roposed

e arly

s ub-phases

s ub-phases

f irst

r epresent

A ccording t o

d ivision,

a ssigned

a -c

A ccording s hould b e

s ub-phases m ore

u nlike

t han

S chliemann T h

a nd

D 8rpfeld 's s tratigraphical d ivision, w hich d id n ot a ssign a ny d ivision f or T roy I II, I V a nd V , B iegen i dentified f our, f ive a nd c onsecutive s ub-phases f or 1 963; E aston 1 976:148).

t he f inal

s ubf our

t hree ' Cities' i n q uestion

( Biegen

C ommenting o n t he r eliability o f t he T rojan E B s equence r emarks t hat i t i s c onfused a nd r ather c omplex ( 1976:146-149).

E aston H e i s

c orrect i n s tressing t he f act t hat s ome o f t he c onfusion i s p artly d ue t o t he i nadequacies o f t he e arly e xcavations b y S chliemann, a nd p artly t o t he d ifficulties i nvolved i n t rying t o i ntegrate S chliemann T h f indi ngs w ith t hose o f D 8rpfeld a nd B iegen. E aston, who n ot l ong a go p ointed o ut s ome o f t he w eaknesses i n B iegen's o verall s tratigraphy, p ublished a r evised s tratigraphy ( 1976). H is p roposal i s b ased o n t he o riginal a nd s pecific s tratigraphic a nd a rchitectural e vidence o n w hich S chliemann T h, 1 976:148; H uot

D 8rpfeld s 1 982:24).

a nd B iegen's c onclusions w ere b ased ( Easton I n E aston T h s tratigraphic c hart, w hich u ses a

n ew n umbering s ystem f or t he b uilding p hases and a r eassessment o f t he s equence o f a rtifacts, T roy I -V i s d ivided i nto a t otal o f t hirty-six b uilding p hases S cholars

i nstead o f a re

s till

t he

t hirty-one p roposed b y B iegen.

d ivided a s

t o w hether t he

T roy

I

s equence

r epresents t he E B I p eriod i n w estern A natolia a nd i n e astern A egean, o r t he E B I I p eriod. M ellaart, i n h is c hronological a ssessment o f T roy I ( 1971), p laced o nly p art o f e arly T roy I w ithin t he l ater p art o f t he E B Ip eriod, w hile t he r emaining p art o f e arly T roy I t ogether w ith t he

1 40

E aston

B iegen

d T ROY

T ROY

T ROY

d

C

1

c

b a

a

e

e

d

d

I v

I v

d

d

C

C

b

1 11

a ( treasures

1 1.6.

i ii i i i

a g f e

L ate

I I d

i i 5 .

? )

1

C

b

T ROY I I . 3 .

i i i

M iddle a

i i i

1 .3.

J

i

I i

L ate

F inal i h

i ii 1 .2.

i i

L ate

I

I T ROY v ii I .'. v i

M iddle

f M iddle

V

e i v I .l.iii i i I

1 41

d E arly

c b a

E arly

m iddle,

a nd

l ate p hases a nd

t he w hole o f T roy I I h as b een t aken b y h im

t o r epresent d ivision o f

t he E B I I p eriod o f A natolia. M ellaart s s tratigraphical T roy T h I -V s equence h as b een a ccepted b y s ome s cholars

( e.g.

1 982:67).

K mil

E aston,

o n t he o ther h and,

p roposes

t o d efine

T roy I , w ith a ll i ts b uilding p hases, a s a s ettlement c ontemporary w ith T arsus E B I , a nd T roy I I a nd e arly I II a s c ontemporary w ith t he E B I I s ettlement a t T arsus ( 1976:165). A ccording t o t his a ssessment t he E B I II p eriod i n t he n orthwest i s r epresented b y l ater T roy I II, I V a nd e arly T roy V . I p ersonally t end t o a gree w ith M ellink T h s equence f or p rehistoric T roy ( 1965). A lthough I c orrelate T roy I w ith t he E B I I p eriod s ettlements i n A natolia a nd e astern A egean ( Yakar 1 979), I d o s uspect t o s ome e xtent t hat t he I nitial b uilding p hases o f T roy I m ay b elong

t o

t he

c hronological T roy

I I

l ater p art o f

t he E B I p eriod ( Yakar

s cheme I e mphasize t hat

( except

1 981b).

t here I s e very r eason

m aybe ha a nd b ) w ithin t he E B

I II

I n t o

s egment

m y

p lace o f

t he

A natolian c ultural t ime-scale. F inds:

T roy

I :

T he

a rchitectural r emains

f orm a m assive

l ayer

o f

4 .50m i n t hickness. E ven i f t he t en b uilding p hases a re n ot r ecognized i n e very a rea o f t he mou nd, t he t hree m ain b uilding p hases ( early, m iddle a nd l ate a ccording t o B legen s s tratigraphy) a re e asier t o r ecognize. I n t he e arly p hase t he s ettlement w as a lready s urrounded b y a f ortification w all. L arge a nd f ree-standing r ectangular h ouses b uilt -

o f m udbricks, a nd w ith s tones i mbedded I n a c layey mor tar, a nd r esting o n q uarried s tone f oundations, w ere f ound w ithin t he c itadel c ompound. H ouse 1 03 i s t he o nly e xample w ith a n a psidal w all a t o ne e nd. H ouse 1 02 i s t he e arliest m egaron a t T roy l b. T hese i ndependent h ouses c ontinued

t o b e b uilt

d uring m iddle T roy

I ( d-f).

I n t his

p hase

t he

h abitation a rea w as s urrounded b y a n e nlarged f ortification w all w hich w as p rovided w ith a n umber o f g ates f lanked b y t owers ( Fig.I, 3 ). T he l ast p hase k i s a d estruction l evel w ith s igns o f

f ire.

T he a rchitect-

u ral r emains o f t his l ast l evel w ere a pparently l evelled r ebuilding a ctivities d uring T roy ha. T hroughout i ts

p rior t o t he o ccupational

h istory

c ulture

T roy

I s hows

a c ontinuity o f

c ulture.

M aterial

d oes

n ot r eveal d rastic c hanges f rom o ne b uilding s ub-phase t o a nother. H owever, w hen t he r emains o f e arly T roy I a re c ompared w ith t hose f rom l ate ( or E aston T h f inal) T roy I , i t b ecomes r ather c lear t hat t he l ocal c ulture d id n ot s tand s till t hroughout f our c enturies o r mor e, b ut d eveloped g radually. A s B iegen ( 1963) r emarked a lready, t he c onstruct ion o f a f ortification w all i n t he v ery f irst p hase o f o ccupation s et i ts s tamp o n t he s ettlement a nd m arks I t o ut f rom m ost o ther c ont emporary

s ites

i n t he r egion i ncluding t he e astern

A egean.

B y

t he

m iddle T roy I p hase t he e nclosure w all w as c onsiderably e nlarged. T his w all w as e xposed a long t he s outhern a nd e astern s ides o f t he c itadel t hrough a n e xtent o f c a.115m , a nd h as b een f ound a t m ost p laces s till s tanding t o a h eight o f 3 .50m. I n t he m iddle o f t he s outhern s ide i s a n i mposing g ateway f lanked b y m assive p rojecting a ngular t owers. B oth t he w all a nd

t he t owers w ere s olidly b uilt o f

r ubble,

w ith m any

l arge

s tones u sed i n t he l ower c ourses a nd s maller o nes i n t he u pper. f ortification w all s eems t o h ave b een t hicker t han 3m n ear t he

T he t op.

T he o uter f ace h as a s trong b atter v arying f rom 0 .30 t o 0 .40m. E vidence s uggests t hat t his s loping w all w as c rowned b y a v ertical p arapet m ade o f c rude b rick w hich m ust h ave b een r easonably h igh t o p revent I n c itadel,

t he e asy

c limbing o f

t he f ortification s ystem b y

t he e nemy.

t he l ate p hase o f T roy I t here w as a f urther e xpansion o f t he a nd a n ew f ortification w all w as e rected s ome 2 .50 t o 5 .00m

1 42

o utside i n t he

t he o ne i t r eplaced.

A ccording t o B legen i t e xhibits a c hange

t echnique o f c onstruction :

a h uge e mbankment o f e arth a nd c lay

w as h eaped u p n early 4 m h igh. T he o uter f ace o f t he f ortification w all h as a b atter w ith a s lope o f a bout 4 5 d egrees. I t i s a ssumed t hat t his h uge e mbankment c ontained o riginally a s uperimposed v ertical w all b uilt o f m udbricks. F inds

f rom T roy I i nclude l arge q uantities o f p ottery,

a rtifacts,

m ainly

c opper,

s tone

a nd f lint

t ools a nd

P ottery r epertoire i ncludes f abrics a nd f orms w hich a re n ot o nly o f T roy I b ut a lso o f t he T road a nd o f m ost

s ome m etal

w eapons.

T he

c haracteristic o ther w estern

r egions o f A natolia a s w ell. P ots a re h andmade. T he c olour o f t he f abrics r anges f rom j et b lack t o g rey a nd o live g reen w ith a f ew e xamples o ccurring i n b rown, t an o r r ed. O live g reen e xamples o ccur m ore f requently i n e arly T roy I w hile d arker c olours a re m ore c ommon i n m iddle T roy I , w ith j et b lack a ppearing i n l arger n umber i n t he l ate p hase. M ore t han s ixty t ypes o f v essel f orms m ake u p t he T roy I r epertoire. I n t he e arly p hase s hallow b owls d ifferentiated b y a t hickening o f t he i nside o f t he r im a re f airly c ommon, a long w ith s hallow,

s harply a ngular b owls,

s imilar v essels

s upported o n a

h igh,

s preading h ollow f oot, j ugs w ith s lanting b eaks o r w ith h igh s pouts a nd w ith t he b ack o f t he n eck c ut a way t oward t he h andle. I n t he m iddle p hase

o f T roy

I ,

b owls w ith t hickened r im g ive w ay

t o a m odified f orm

w ith l ess p ronounced t hickening o f t he r im. I n l ate T roy I , p edestalb owls d isappear, a nd b owls w ith c urving s ides b ecome p redominant. G enerally s peaking t he p ottery o f T roy I i s a d ark a nd u ndecorated w are. S ome p otters w ith

o f t he d ecorated w are s uggest t he t echniques s uch a s r ibbing, f luting,

f amiliarity o f t he g rooving, i ncision

a nd p lastic. P atterns i nclude r ectilinear, c urvilinear d esigns w hich s ometimes r esemble f eatures o f h uman f aces ( Blegen 1 963:Fig.14). T roy

I I

a -g:

T roy I I a r epresents

t he

r econstruction

o f

t he

d estroyed T roy I c itadel n ow h aving a l arger f ortification w all. T his m assive w all, w hich h ad t wo g ates i n i ts s outhern s ector, e nclosed a r oughly c ircular a rea c a.11üm i n d iameter. A s o-called R oyal R esidence w ith a m egaron p lan d ominated t he n ew c itadel , w hich w as a lso d estroyed b y f ire. f ortification w all. w ere a nd

b uilt t hree

S ubsequently T roy l ib w as b uilt w ith a r einforced T his t ime t he l arge b uildings w ithin t he c itadel

o n a d ifferent o rientation. T he g ates o f ha w ere b locked n ew g ates w ere b uilt. D uring t his r enewal o peration t he

s outhern f lank o f t he w all w as s hifted o utwards s ome 6 o r 7 m, t hereby i ncreasing t o s ome e xtent t he a rea e nclosed. H owever, t he m assive w all i tself, i n i ts s tone s ubstructure a nd c rude b rick s uperstructure, w as s imilar t o i ts p recursor. D uring T roy l lc f ortifications w ere r ebuilt a nd t he c hanges i ncluded a mong o ther f eatures, o ne o f t he m ajor g ates n ow h aving a p aved r amp f or w heeled t ransport ( Fig.hh:3). I nside t he c itadel

t wo g reat

m egara d ominate t he h abitation a rea.

O f

t hese,

hA

m easures 3 7x14m ;and w as s urrounded b y t wo s maller m egara ( hIB a nd h IE). I n f ront o f t his b uilding c omplex a c ollonade c ourt w as b uilt ( Mellaart 1 959:142-145). T he l ater p hases o f t he c itadel a re n ot m arked b y e xceptional

a rchitectural a ctivity.

H owever,

i n hg t here i s a

b uilding w hich S chliemann c alled t he " Royal H ouse". i mmediate v icinity o f t his b uilding t hat S chliemann

I t w as i n d iscovered

n ew t he t he

f amous P riam T reasure B y n ow t he c entre o f t he c itadel d ominated b y s maller h ouses. T he f unction o f t hese n ew h ouses i s d ifficult t o i nterpret;

i f

a

i n t he p olitical

c hange

t hey w ere p rivate

r esidences

t hen t hey c ertainly p oint

s ystem o r s ocial

1 43

s tratification a t T roy

t o a t

t his t ime. B uilding h A m ay h ave r etained i ts f unctional c haracter a s a p ublic b uilding. I t m ay h ave b een a t emple b ut n one o f t he f inds p ertaining t o t his s tructure c ould b e i nterpreted a s c ult o bjects. T he w ide

r ange

o f

s mall f inds

f rom T roy I I c learly i ndicate t he

m aterial

p rosperity o f t he i nhabitants o f t his c itadel. O bjects m ade o f a nd s ilver w ere d iscovered i n a lmost e very a rchitectural p hase o f I I.

T he g reater p art o f

g old T roy

t hese o bjects o f p recious m etals w as f ound b y

S chliemann i n m ore t han 1 6 g roups o f t reasures , m ost o f t hem a scribed t o P hase 1 1g. B ut t he r eader i s w arned h ere t o d ifferentiate b etween t he f ind s pots i n hg a nd t he p eriod i n w hich t hese p recious o bjects w ere a ccumulated ( Troy I I a -g). N umerous a nd v aried o bjects w ere c ontained i n t hese c aches. T en o f t he d eposits w ere l argely m ade u p o f j ewellery a nd o rnaments o bviously w orn b y w omen; t hree c onsisted m ainly o f m en 's w eapons a nd g ear; a nd t hree y ielded a m ixture o f w eapons, j ewellery, a nd h ousehold u tensils. S chiiemann s G reat T reasure , w hich i n r ecent y ear b ecame t he s ubject o f r enewed s crutiny a nd q uest ions b y s cholars o f A egean a nd A natolian a rchaeology ( Traill 1 983; E aston 1 981; 1 982), w as o f t his m ixed k ind. l t i ncluded t hree v essels, o ne o f b and,

t hem a s ilver d ouble s auceboat, t wo d iadems, f our b asket-shaped e ar-ornaments, n umerous

b racelets

a nd

t housands o f

o ne n arrow h ead h air f asteners,

b eads o f v arious s hapes a nd s izes,

a g oblet

m ade o f e lectrum , f our t ankards, t wo s aucers, a s hallow b owl, a g oblet, t wo b ottle-shaped v essels a nd a s mall l id, a ll o f t hem m ade o f s ilver. I n a ddition t o t hese, n umerous d agger b lades, s pearheads a nd f lat c elts m ade o f b ronze w ere d iscovered d uring t he e arly e xcavations. A nother c ache, T reasure D , f ound i n a b roken p ot, c omprised, a mong o ther t hings, l arge s pacer b eads i n t he f orm o f q uadruple s pirals. T hese s pirals r esemble i n f orm t he l arge q uadruple s pirals o f a rsenical c opper d iscovered r ecently a t I kiztepe ( in t he E B I II g raves) a nd A rslantepe ( dated b y P almieri t o t he E B I p eriod) ( Fig.XI:31). B iegen w as c orrect i n a ssuming t hat t he a mount o f l uxury g oods s uggest t hat t he w omen o f T roy, a t l east s ome o f t hose l iving i n t he c itadel, e njoyed p robably a s tatus o f h igh s tanding a nd a uthority w ithin t he

c ommunity.

T reasure L . d iscovered n ear t he c entre o f t he c itadel i n 1 890, t ained o bjects c hiefly f or m en. T hey i nclude f our b attle-axes, o f

t hem

o f

n ephrite a nd o ne o f b luish s tone r esembling

l apis

c ont hree l azuli

( Fig.XI:17), s ix h emispherical p ommels o f r ock c rystal a nd n umerous p ieces o f p artly w orked r ock c rystal. S ince t he s tone o f t he a xes i s n ot n ative i n t he T road, b een i mported f rom a broad

t he m aterial o r t he a xes t hemselves m ust h ave ( Biegen 1 963:77). T he c losest p arallels a re

k nown t o e xist a cross t he D ardanelles i n B essarabia. T he r ock c rystal p ommels p robably s erved a s h eads f or s cepters, o r s words, o r d aggers, i f

t hey w ere

w eapons a re

n ot

a ttached

t o

t he l ong a nd t hin

t he h andles o f f lat c elts

t he h ammer-axes.

A mong

o f b ronze o r c opper,

o f w hich w ere f ound b y S chliemann. W ith a l ong h andle a ttached t heir m iddle t hey w ould s erve a s b attle-axes o r h atchets. U nfortunately

t he g reater p art o f

S chliemann T h c eramic

t he

s ome 3 0 a bout

f inds

f rom

T roy, a nd p articularly f rom t he S econd C ity, c ould n ot b e a rranged i n i ts o riginal s tratigraphic o rder. P ottery t ypology a nd c orrelations w ith o ther s ites a re u sually m ade o n t he b asis o f t he p ottery s equence p rovided b y t he C incinnati f inds a nd p ublications. A round 6 5 d ifferent s hapes h ave b een r ecognized i n t he m aterial f rom T roy I I. T he g rey a nd b lack p olished a nd c oarse p olished w ares o f T roy I I a -b w ere s till p roduced a ccording t o t he t raditions o f t he e arlier p otters. T he m ajority w heel

w as

o f

v essels w ere h andmade.

i ntroduced w hich,

i n t urn,

1 44

H owever,

d uring l ib t he p otter s

h ad a c ertain i nfluence o n

t he

i ntroduction

o f

n ew f orms,

p articularly p opular i n t he r epertoire

T roy l ic. T he n ew t echnique a nd p ottery f orms p revail a nd d isplace t he o ld s hapes. I n f act,

d id t he

n ot o ld

o f

i nstantly t radition

s urvived t hrough n umerous b uilding p hases o f T roy I I a longside t he n ew t echnique. A mong t he c haracteristic f orms o f t he r epertoire a re t he p lain f laring b owls w hich e xhibit c lear m arks o f r otation, s hallow d ishes o r p lates c oated w ith t hick r ed o r r eddish w ash a nd b urnished t o a h igh p olish. O ther c haracteristic s hapes i nclude t he d epas, t woh andled t ankards, l arge o void j ugs, l arge g lobular j ars w ith h igh c ollar n eck. S ome o f t hese, m ainly f rom hg, b ear a c onventionalized r epresentation o f h uman f eatures e yes, n ose, e ars i n r elief a nd -

o ccasionally a lso

t he m outh

( Fig.XI:18-20).

S ometimes

t his d ecoration

w as n ot p laced o n t he n eck o f t he j ars b ut o n a l id f itted c losely o ver t he n eck o f t he j ar. A s a lready p ointed o ut b y B iegen, t he o bjects r ecovered f rom t he d ebris o f T roy I I s hed v ery l ittle l ight o n t he r eligious

l ife

o f

t he c ommunity.

B oth S chliemann s e xcavations

a nd

t hose o f t he C incinnati E xpedition p roduced c lose t o 5 00 i dols m ade o f m arble, b one, t erracota a nd s tone. T he o nly t hing t hey i ndicate i s a c ontinuity o f c ulture a nd a c ertain c ult o r c ults t hroughout t he E arly B ronze A ge. S ome s cholars v iew t hese s chematised f igurines a s c harms t hat m ay h ave b een c arried f or l uck o r p rotection a gainst e vil ( eye?) b y l ocal i nhabitants. T roy c hange

I II,

n ot

w hich c onsists o f

o nly

c haracter o f

i n

f our a rchitectural p hases,

t he o rientation o f b uildings

t he s ettlement.

b ut

D 8rpfeld h ad d escribed

i ndicates a

a lso

i n

t he

t his c itadel a s a

p oor v illage . I t i s n ot c lear i f t he s ettlement w as s urrounded b y a f ortification w all. H owever, h ouses w ith n ew o rientations w ere s eparated b y n ew s treets. S ome o f t he h ouses w ere b uilt c ompletely o f s tone. w as

I n

o ther w ords

i nstead o f

t he h ouse w alls

c ustomary i n t he e arlier a rchitectural p eriods,

b eing b uilt, i n t wo

a s

p arts:

i t a

l ow w all o f s tone ( 0.30-0.60m h igh) w hich s upported a s uperstructure o f b ricks, t hey w ere b uilt o f s tones t aken f rom t he d emolished b uildings o f T roy hg, u p t o a h eight o f 2 m. I n t he l ater p hases o f T roy I II w alls w ere o ccasionally m ade o f a lternating h orizontal b ands o f s tone a nd b rickwork, a s ystem t hat h ad a lready b een u sed i n s ome T roy I I ( Mellaart 1 959). S mall f inds, i ncluding c eramics, I II n umber i n t he h undreds. i ts h ead f ormed o f w ire

p hases o f f rom T roy

S ome o f t he m etal f orms ( e.g. a p in w ith l oops) a nd o bsidian f ragments s uggest

c ommercial l inks w ith t he C ycladic s ettlements a s f ar a s M elos. G enerally s peaking t he p ottery o f T roy I II i s a lmost i ndistinguishable f rom

t hat

h andmade

o f T roy p ottery

c ompletely. A nd T roy hg c ontinues

I I.

H owever,

e xamples

o f

i t s hould b e p ointed o ut

t he

e arlier

p eriods

n ow

t hat

t he

d isappear

t he w heelmade p ottery w hich b ecomes r ather c ruder i n t hroughout t he s uccessive s ettlements o f I V a nd V .

T he r emains o f T roy I II w ere c overed b y t he c onstruction o f T roy I V w hich h as f ive a rchitectural l evels. T he n ew c itadel s urrounded b y a s tone f ortification w all o ccupied a n a rea o ver 4 ,5 a cres. I nside t he w all,

h ouses w ere g rouped i n b locks.

T he f oundations o f

t hese h ouses

s eem t o h ave b een l aid o ut w ithout r eference t o t he u nderlying w alls T roy I II, w hich w ere c overed b y d ebris a nd t herefore n ot v isible.

o f

i s

o f

t he

i mportant c itadel

t o s tress

t hat

t he m asons w ho w orked o n t he r ebuilding

e mployed c onstruction t echniques s imilar t o

t hose

i t

k nown

d uring T roy I I, A n ew h ouse p lan c ontaining a t l east f our s eparate d welling u nits s ide b y s ide, d ivided b y p arty w alls, a nd e ach c onsisti ng o f o ne o r m ore r ooms o pening t o

1 45

t he s ame s treet,

c ould s uggest t hat

t he t hat

p opulation o f

t he t own h ad i ncreased,

t he i nhabitants o f

b ut

t here i s n o

i ndication

t his c itadel o r t own w ere a s w ealthy a s

t hose

o f T roy I I o r I II. T roy

V i s

i n f act a n a dvanced p hase i n t he h istory o f E B

o ccupa-

t ion a t t his s ite. T he e arly a nd m iddle p hases c ould b e i nterpreted a s a c ontinuation o f T roy I V c ulture. B ut a fter s ome t ime h ouses s eem t o h ave

b een

a bandoned

a nd

o ccupied a c entury o r L iterature: G eneral: S chmidt

O nly a s elected l ist

B legen 1 902;

1 963;

A rchitecture:

M ellaart 1 959; 1 979;

d e

M ellink 1 956;

B ranigan 1 974;

N atural G ifford

J esus

r e-

1 977a;

S chliemann

1 880;

T roy 1 -1V.

N aumann 1 975;

1 980;

B ass

T reuil 1 983.

H uot

1 966;

1 982.

1 970;

R enfrew 1 967;

Y akar

M axwell-Hyslop 1 984;

1 971;

1 985.

A ngel 1 951.

E nvironment 1 982.

B ESIKTEPE

S panos

K orfmann 1 981;

M etallurgy:

H uman r emains:

w as

1 977.

D 8rpfe1d 1 902;

P odzuweit

i t

i s p rovided h ere.

C ook 1 973a;

T ransactions

E xcavation R eports:

P ottery:

t he s ettlement d eserted u ntil

t wo l ater i n t he T roy V I p eriod.

( Palaeoenvironment a nd A rchaeogeology):

R app a nd

( Yassitepe)

L ocation: T he m ound i s s ituated 7 km s outhwest o f T roy o n t he c oast, n orth o f t he B e ika h ay.

A egean

E xcavations: S chliemann i n 1 885. E xcavation w as l imited t o a s mall t rench m easuring 2 m2 a nd w as c onducted t o a d epth o f 1 3.20m . I n 1 981 t he a rea w as s urveyed b y K orfmann w ho i n 1 982 s tarted t o e xcavate t his s ettlement o n b ehalf o f S tratigraphy:

t he G erman I nstitute o f A rchaeology.

S chliemann T h e xcavations

r evealed n o m ore t han a s ingle

p eriod o f h uman o ccupation a t t he s ite. T he f irst s ubstantial l ayers o f d eposits f rom t he s ummit o f t he m ound t o a d epth o f 8 .50m w ere c onsidered a t t he t ime t o b e 'yellow s terile c lay' w hich w as p receded b y 4 .70 m etres

t hick o f a lternating l ayers o f d ark a nd l ight e arth w ith

p ottery

i n t he l atter l ayer.

s urface

o f

t he m ound.

B edrock a ppeared s ome

H owever,

1 3.50m b elow

t he r enewed e xcavations

b y

t he

K orfmann

s uggest t hat t he s ite m ay h ave b een i nhabited n ot o nly d uring t he T roy I p eriod, b ut d uring t he T roy I a nd V I p eriods a s w ell.

p reF ive

s eparate b uilding p hases a re a ttributed t o t he e arly T roy I s ettlement. T he s ettlement w as

f ortified.

I t h ad a l arge c entral b uilding.

F inds: D ue t o t he s mall s ize o f t he t rench, S chliemann c ould n ot u ncover a rchitectural r emains b elonging t o p rehistoric p eriods. K orfm ann T h e xcavations h ave f inally d emonstrated t hat o ther s ettlements s imilar t o t hat o f T roy I m ay h ave e xisted i n t he T road. I n f act, o ne m ay l earn m ore a bout E B I I p eriod r egional d omestic a rchitecture f rom

1 46

t he e xcavated r emains a t B e iktepe t han t he m uch p ublicized h ouses o f T roy I . H erringbone m asonry a lso k nown f rom T roy I a I s w ell r epresented a t t his s ettlement. A t oppled m udbrlck w all a t B esiktepe E B I I l evel h ad 1 3 c ourses p reserved w ith l ight m ortar. T he u se o f m ortar a t B e iktepe i s r eminiscent o f K umtepe l B b uilding t echnique ( See K umtepe). L amb, w ho c lassified t he p rehistoric s herds c ollected b y S chliemann a nd s tored i n B erlin ( Museum f t lr V or-und F r1hgeschichte), i dentified d ecorated;

s ix m ain g roups: i ncised d ecorated;

w ares w ith p attern b urnishing ; r elief h orn h andles; w ing h andles t ypical o f

T roy 1 1-1V a nd p ots w hose b ases p reserve m at i mpressions. T his m aterial s uggests t hat, i f e xcavated p roperly, t he s ite c ould i ndeed y ield m aterial c ulture o f t he l ate f ourth a nd t hird m illennium B C. L amb's s tudy l eaves n o d oubt t hat t emporary w ith K umtepe I a, i f n ot a ppreciable

a mount

o f

t he e arliest s ettlement i s c one arlier. B esiktepe y ielded a n

p attern b urnished w are w hose s hapes

a re

v ery

s imilar t o t hose f ound a t T igani i n S amos, w hich i s c ontemporary w ith t he U pper C ave a t A io G ala. A n i mportant f ind i s a c opper p in w ith a h ead i n t he s hape o f a b ird ( Mellink 1 984:111.2); p arallels i n t he e astern M editerranean. L iterature:

S chliemann

1 880:665-669;

F rench 1 961; H uot 1 982:20; Y akar 1 975; K orfmann 1 983; 1 984; M elllnk 1 984:446.

s uch p ins h ave

L amb

1 932;

F urness

A karca 1 978:13-14;

g ood

1 956;

C ook 1 973a-b;

K UMTEPE L ocation:

T his

s mall

m ound

i s

s ituated n ear t he m outh o f

t he

K t lçük

M enderes ç ayi ( the S camander), 5 km n orthwest o f H isarlik a nd a pproxi mately 2 km i nland f rom t he A egean c oast. T he m ound m easures 1 00 x 8 0m a nd 7 -8m h igh. E xcavations:

T he

m ound

e xcavating a t T roy t renches i n 1 934. p ottery l ocated, t ions,

w as

n oticed b y

t he

C incinnati

a nd t he c eramic m aterial w as f irst l ost, i t w as d iscovered t hat i t w as a ll m ixed. w hich

E xpedition

a nd w as b riefly e xplored i n a s eries o f s mall U nfortunately, d uring t he S econd W orld W ar t he

l asted n o m ore

t han t en d ays,

w ere o pened i n t he n orthern s ector o f t he n orthwestern s ector o f t he m ound.

t hen, a fter i t w as D uring t he e xcava-

a t otal o f

t he m ound,

f our

t renches

a nd a f ifth t rench i n

S tratigraphy: F our c ultural p eriods h ave b een o bserved i n a t otal o f 8 a rchitectural l evels: I A1; I A2; I Bi; I B2; I B3; I B4; I CI; I C2 a nd I I. F inds: s oil.

I A i s W ith i ts

t ectural

t he e arliest s ettlement, w hich w as f ounded o n v irgin t wo s ubphases i t h as a t hickness o f 1 .10m. N o a rchi-

r emains o f

I n a ddition t o

s ubstance w ere e ncountered d uring t he

t wo f emale b urials,

b y s ome 6 00 p ottery s herds.

t he m aterial c ulture

T hese a re,

e xcavations. i s

g enerally s peaking,

a nd b lack b urnished s herds o f L ate C halcolithic c haracter. i nclude w hich

r epresented g rey,

f lat-bottomed s traight-sided b owls w ith p lain t hin r im, w ere p attern b urnished.

b rown

T he s hapes s ome o f

T he e arlier s trata y ielded s herds w ith

l ighter c olours a nd t he l ater ( IA2) d arker p ottery. a ssemblage, w hich I ncludes b owls s et o n l ow p edestals,

T his p ottery a nd s ometimes

d ecorated w ith w hite l inear p atterns, r eflects a c ustom a ffiliated t o s ome e xtent w ith t he p ottery t raditions o f s outheastern E urope. K umtepe l B i s r epresented b y o ccupational d ebris c omposed o f w all

1 47

s ections

a nd f loors.

T hese r emains

s uggest t hat h ouses w ere b uilt o f

s tones a nd m udbricks. T he p ottery a ssemblage c ollected i n t he f our a rchitectural s ubphases i nclude d ark b urnished b owls w ith i ncurved r im w ith a t hick o ff-set r oll o n t he i nside. T hese b owls s ometimes o ccur w ith a lso

a h orizontal l ug w hich i s o ccasionally p erforated. K umtepe p roduced v ery l ittle a rchitectural r emains; a s mall n umber

s tone

f oundations w hich r evealed

I C o f

t he u se o f a c layey m ortar a s b inding

m aterial i n t he c onstruction o f h ouse w alls. K umtepe I C c orresponds t o t he p eriod o f T roy I , a t l east p artially. A fter t his s ettlement w as a bandoned, p robably a s a r esult o f e vents w hich a ffected T roy I i tself, t he

s ite w as

r e-occupied

( Kumtepe

I I)

d uring t he E B I lIB p eriod

( Troy

1 11-1v). L iterature: 1 961;

S perling 1 976;

A karca 1 978:12-13;

K o ay-Sperling 1 936;

H uot

1 982;

K ansu 1 937;

F rench

T reuil 1 983:22-25.

H ANAYT E PE L ocation:

T he mou nd i s s ituated s outheast o f T roy.

E xcavations: o f

I t w as

f irst e xcavated b y F .

S chliemann i n 1 857.

C alvert u nder

t he d irection

L ater t he e xcavations w ere r esumed

i n

1 878-

1 879. S tratigraphy: O f

t hese,

F inds:

T hree p eriods h ave b een i dentified a t

L evel B w hich h as L evel B ,

t wo p hases

w ith I ts s ubphases

r epresents ( Iil),

t his s mall m ound.

t he E B p eriod.

r evealed

f oundations

o f

h ouses a nd b othroi v ery s imilar t o t hose d iscovered a t T hermi I lIll. Among t he a rchitectural f inds o f i mportance I t i s n ecessary t o s tress t he r emains o f a n i mpressive f ortification w all a ttributed t o B I I. T he h andmade p ottery o f g reyish b lack, y ellowish b rown a nd r eddish b rown c olours, w hich i ncludes b owls w ith i ncurved r ims, o ne t ripod-vase a n d p lastic d ecorated j ars, s uggests t hat t he s ettlement b elongs t o t he l ater

p art

o f

t he

f ourth a nd e arly t hird m illennium

B C.

Among

t he

s herds, t he m ost d istinctive a nd d atable f orms a re b owls w ith h orns haped t ubular l ugs o r p lain l ugs. I n a ddition t o p ottery t he s ettlem ent p roduced a n umber o f h uman s keletons. L iterature:

S chilemanr i 1 880:706-719;

L amb 1 932:111-132;

H uot 1 982:20.

P ROTESILAOS L ocation:

T his m ound , w hich w as o riginally t hought t o b e t he T umulus o f

P rotesilaos, i s s ituated t he c oastline. E xcavations:

I t w as

i n t he G elibolu P eninsula,

f irst e xcavated b y

L evel

1

1 km i nland

f rom

t he F rench E xpeditionary C orpse

i n 1 921. T hen i n 1 923 R . D emangel c ontinued p rehistoric s ite o verlooking t he D ardanelles. S tratigraphy:

c a.

t he e xcavations a t

i s m ade u p o f f our m etres o f

d ebris

t his

( 11.30-

7 .30m) a nd r epresents t he e arliest o ccupation a t t his s ite. T he f oll owing l evel 2 h as t wo a rchitectural p hases, 2 A a nd 2 B r espectively. 2 A,

a ccording

t o

t he r ecords,

i s p artly r epresented b y

1 48

r emains

f ound

b etween 7 .30 a nd 7 .10m ; w hereas 2 B w as f ound b etween 6 .65-6.30m.

T hese

t wo l evels w ere d estroyed b y f ire. F inally, t he t hird a nd o ccupational p eriods, P rotesilaos 3 a nd 4 , a re r epresented b y f ound b etween 6 a nd F inds:

1 .5m.

T his s ite p roduced n umerous s herds.

t he E B IIl p eriods. t he p ottery o f T roy L iterature:

f ourth d ebris

T hose f rom P .1-2 b elong

t o

T he m aterial f rom P .3-4 c ould b e c orrelated w ith I I.

D emangel

1 926;

L amb

1 932;

T reuil

1 983:20-22.

P OLIOCHNI L ocation: T he s ite i s s ituated o n t he e astern s hore o f t he n orthe astern A egean i sland o f L emnos. T he s ettlement f aces T roy a nd o ther T roadic s ettlements a cross t he A egean. E xcavations: B y f inally i n 1 960. S tratigraphy:

I talians b etween 1 931-1936,

t hen i n 1 951,

1 956

a nd

W hile t he e xcavations w ere i n p rogress t he o ccupational

p eriods w ere a ssigned c olours s tarting w ith B lack, i ndicating e arliest v illage, a nd f ollowed b y a rchaic B lue, m ature B lue, G reen,

t he R ed

a nd Y ellow, e ach i ndicating a s uccessive t own o f t he E B p eriod. L ater, h owever, t hese c olours w ere s ubstituted w ith n umbers f rom I t o V , w ith I I h aving F inds:

t wo a rchitectural P oliochni

I

s ubphases.

( Black)

i s k nown t o u s f rom

e xtremely

l imited

e xcavations c arried o ut u nder M egaron 6 05 a nd L ocus 1 06 i n L evel V a nd M egaron 8 32 i n L evel I V. T hese t renches r evealed t he t races o f a s mall,

p robably u nfortified,

o n t he r ock s urface. s mall e xposure u nder e xistence

o f

7

v illage w ith s mall o val h abitations

b uilt

B ut i t i s i mportant t o s tress t hat e ven i n M egaron 8 32 t he 2 m t hick d ebris r evealed

s ubphases

( architectural)

o f

t his

p eriod.

t he t he T he

a rchitectural r emains c onsists o f r ather f limsy h uts. T he p ottery f inds o f t his p eriod a re v ery s imilar t o t hat k nown f rom t he L ate C halcolithic

a nd E B Is ettlements

i n w estern A natolia.

P oliochni l ib

( archaic B lue) r epresents a h abitation a rea w hich i s s urrounded b y e mbankment a nd a r etaining w all. I t s eems t hat t his w all, w hich w as l east 3 .5m h igh, w as b uilt w ithout s tone f oundations. t his f ortification w as s ubsequently r eplaced b y a

a n a t

A g ate t hrough p ropyleon. T he

h ouses w ithin t he e nclosure w all a re o f m egaron p lan ( Fig.XI:37). T he p ottery r epertoire h as a n umber o f f orms w hich c ould b e c orrelated w ith t ypes

b est k nown f rom B eycesultan X IX-XVII.

p art o f

I n o ther w ords,

t he e arly

t his s ettlement c ould b e c onsidered c ontemporary w ith t he e arly

p hase o f T roy I . B ut i t i s i mportant t o s tress t hat p ottery a nalogies a re n ot o nly w ith A natolia b ut w ith e ast-central G reece a nd s outheast E urope

a s w ell.

I n P oliochni l ib

( mature B lue)

p eriod a n ew a nd mor e

m assive t own w all m arks a n ew p hase i n t he t own's a rchitectural d evelopment. T he n ew t own w all i s n ot o nly l arger b ut, u nlike i ts p redecessor, i s f ree s tanding. H ere a l arge r ectangular s tone b uilding m easuring

1 9.50x7m ( and p reserved

t o a h eight o f

5 .40m)

i s

s urrounded

b y s maller h ouses. S uch a b uilding, w hich s trangely e nough w as n ot a m egaron, c ould h ave b een e ither a c ommunal o r p ublic b uilding, o r i t m ay

h ave

b een t he

t he e xpansion o f

t owns

g ranary.

t he t own a nd

P oliochni I II

( Green)

i s m arked

b y

t he e rection o f a n ew f ortification b uilt

1 49

o f

f lat

r ectangular s tones a nd p rovided a t l east w ith o ne r ounded

f or e xtra p rotection. r elated o utside

t o t he f act t he P hase

g rowth a t t his t o

t he

T he

t his f ortification,

t ower

i t s eems,

w as

t hat t he s ettlement s b uilding a ctivity h ad s pread l ib f ortification w all a s a r esult o f p opulation

t ime.

T he n ew f ortification s ystem w as b uilt

c onstruction

r etaining w all a t

r eason f or

t echniques k nown i n

t he e dge o f

t he t own,

P oliochni

w ith t he w all

h a;

a ccording a

i tself

t errace s tanding

m uch h igher t han t he t errace s urface. T he h ouses w ithin t he w all a re n ot t rue m egarons, t he l atter d o n ot a ppear b efore P oliochni I V ( Red). P oliochni I V w as d efinitely o f l onger d uration t han i ts p redecessors. I t h as b etween f our t o e ight a rchitectural s ubphases. T he b eginning o f t his p hase c ould b e c ontemporary w ith l ater T roy o f

i ts

f inal

p eriod.

I n o ther w ords,

t o u s f rom B eyce s ultan).

E B

I I

-

p hase

a t

a nd

t he d estruction

t he e nd o f

T roy

I I

i ts m aterial c ulture h as p ottery f orms k nown

E B

P oliochni V ( Yellow) u rban

I ,

s ubphase c ould h ave o ccurred t owards I II

c ontexts

( Fig.II:2):

P oliochni.

T he

i n

w estern

A natolia

( e.g.

T his i s a r ather d eveloped e arly

t own

p lan,

w hich

i s

q uite

w ell

p reserved, s hows t hat t he s ettlement w as d ensely p opulated a nd t he t own h ad b y n ow s pread t o t he w hole s urface o f t he m ound. B locks o f a djacent h ouses w ere s eparated b y s treets a nd a lleys ( or s quares). T he m ain s treet r an a long a n orth-south a xis. T he m ajority o f h ouses w ere o f t he " hail a nd p orch" ( megaron) t ype. H owever, i t i s i mportant t o n ote t hat t he m egarons, w ith t he e xception o f o ne, w ere n ot f rees tanding. T he f ree-standing m egaron, w hich f aced o ne o f t he m ain s quares o f

t he

t own,

m easured 7 ,5Ox2.70-3.90m ,

i n o ther w ords

i t h ad a

t rapezoidal p lan. T he s keletons d iscovered o n t he f loor o f t his m egaron i ndicate t hat i t w as d estroyed i n a v iolent e vent. I ts p opulat ion a nd i ts l arge s ize m ay l ead o ne t o s uggest t hat i t w as t he T own H all o f P oliochni V , o f T roy hg-I II . T he

a nd c omparable t o s ome e xtent t o t he G reat H all r est o f t he t own h ouses a re r ather mor e c omplex

t han t he o ne j ust d escribed. T he c entral f eature i n e ach c omplex o f j uxtapositioned u nits i s a m egaron ( see M ellaart 1 959). T he s imple h ouses c onsist o f a m egaron, a c ourtyard a nd a n umber o f s ubsidiary r ooms l ining o ne s ide. M ore e laborate h ouses w ere c omprised o f a l arger n umber o f s ubsidiary r ooms. P oliochni V i s, i n f act, o ne o f t he u nique s ites i n t he e astern A egean w hich p rovide a r elatively c lear p icture o f u rban d evelopment d uring t he s econd h alf o f m illennium B C. I ts p roximity t o n orthwest A natolia m akes

t he t hird t his s ite a

m ajor s ource o f i nformation w hich c ould b e u sed t o u nderstand s imilar d evelopments i n t he w estern p rovinces. L evel V w as d estroyed i n a c onflagration. I t s eems t hat t he d anger w hich p receded t he d estruction o f t he t own w as a nticipated t o s ome e xtent b y t he t own's i nhabitants. T his m ay e xplain t he r emarkable s carcity o f p recious o bjects f ound i n t he d estroyed h ouses. H owever, i t c ould w ell b e t hat s uch o bjects w ere p lundered d uring t he a ctual d estruction o f t he s ettlement b y e nemy a ction. l ength

I n a ny e vent, o f

t ime

u ntil

t he

t own r emained a bandoned f or a n u nspecified

i t w as

r esettled i n t he

P oliochni

H oards o f m etal a rtifacts f ound i n t he E B I II s trata s tudents o f p rehistoric m etallurgy w ith a m ajor s ource o f L iterature: B ernabo Brea 1 964; 2 0; B ranigan 1 974; N aumann 1 975;

1 976; H uot 1 982:16718; M ellaart 1 959.

1 50

V I

p eriod.

p rovide t he i nformation.

T reuil

1 983:18-

T HERMI ( Fig.I:2

i V:1-2)

L ocation: T his l ow m ound i s s ituated o n t he i sland o f L esbos. T he a ncient s ettlement i s l ocated 1 0km n orth o f M ytelene n ear t he v illage o f P yrgi T herme. E xcavations:

W .

S tratification :

L amb 1 929-1933. T he o ldest s ettlement,

I ,

i s s ucceeded b y f our mor e

s uccessive t owns w hich w ere c ompressed i n a 4 m t hick d ebris. T hermi I V , i n f act, r epresents a n o ccupational h istory o f c a. s ix c enturies. T he f irst t own o r v illage w as e stablished d uring t he e arlier p art o f t he E B I a nd t he f inal, T hermi V , w as a bandoned d uring t he e arlier p hases o f T roy I I ( EB l ilA). A rchitectural s ubphases a re f ar l ess n umerous

t han t hose o bserved a t T roy I o r I I.

F inds:

T he

h ouse f oundations o f T hermi I a re b uilt o n v irgin s oil

( a

r ed c layey s oil). T hey a re r elatively l arge a nd r ectangular i n p lan. M ost h ouses u nearthed c ontained t wo r ooms, a s mall r oom c onnected t o a l arger o ne.

W alls w ere b uilt,

a t l east i n t he l ower c ourses,

o f

s tone.

A s i n P oliochni B lack o r B lue, n o r eal m egarons e xisted a t T hermi E xcept f or a c hild b urial i n a j ar p laced u nder a h ouse f loor, i nhumations w ithin t he s ettlement w ere e ncountered b y L amb. S ome

I . n o o f

t he h ouses h ave a n umber o f p its d ug i n t he f loor. I t s eems t hat j ars w ere p laced i nside t hese p its a nd c overed b y s tone s labs a nd/or w ooden c overs. T here i s n o t race o f a f ortification w all s urrounding t his s mall s ettlement o f f armers a nd/or f ishermen. T hermi I I i s b etter p reserved a rchitecturally t han t he p receding v illage. O ne o r m ore s treets d ivided t he s ettlement, w hich b y n ow m ay h ave b een f ortified. T he s treets w ere p aved a nd a t l east o ne o f t hem l eads t o a g ate. T hermi I II h as t wo a rchitectural p hases. S trata b etween 3 .85-4.05m a re a ssigned t o l ilA. H ere t he h ouse w alls a re n ot w ell p reserved. T hey s eem t o h ave b een d amaged d uring t he l ater c onstruction a ctivities. I n t his l evel t he f irst b othroi, o r c lay l ined p its b elow t he h ouse f loor w ere f ound.

C harred r emains

s uggest

t hat i n s ome o f

t hem c ereals

m ay

h ave b een s tored. T he n ext m ajor p hase o f t he t own i s I lIB-IVA. U nfortunately, L amb c ould n ot a lways i dentify t he n ew b uildings o f I VA w hich m ade u se o f s ome o f t he h ouse w alls o f I lIB. t he p eriphery o f t he t own a re b etter p reserved. I t b uildings h ouses a t

T he b uildings o n i s v ery l ikely t hat

o f I VA a nd I lIB w ere c ontemporary. A ccording t o L amb, t he t he c entre o f t he t own w ere b uilt f irst, a nd l ater, w hen t he

p opulation i ncreased w ithin t he s ettlement, w ere e rected u sing a d ifferent o rientation.

t he h ouses o n t he p eriphery I n I VB, t he t own s hows a

r apid

t he

d evelopment

w hich

s tarted

d uring

I VA

p hase.

I n

t he

s tratigraphy, h owever, t here a re n o c lear c ut m arks d ividing t he t wo s ub-levels. I n f act, s ome o f t he h ouses a ttributed t o T hermi I VB c ould w ell

b e

c ontemporary

w ith T hermi I VA.

T hermi V r epresents

a

t own

s ettlement w hich i s s maller t han t he p revious o ne. H owever, t he t own i s b etter p lanned a nd t he s treets d ividing t he s ettlement i nto n eighbourhoods t own a nd

a re l arger.

T here i s a t own s quare i n t he c entre o f

t he h ouses w ith v estibules a re d ivided i nto

t wo r ooms,

t he

o ne o f

t hem u sually l arger t han t he o ther. A lthough t hey a re n ot f rees tanding t hey a re c onsidered t o r epresent t he f irst m egarons a t T hermi. T hese

a re

c ontemporary

w ith t hose s een a t T roy

s urrounded b y a s trong f ortification w all. o f

t he

i mportant

h ouses

w ere b uilt

t o e mphasize

t hat

o utside

t he

B ut,

l lc.

T he

t own

a s a t P oliochni,

f ortification

w all.

I t

i s s ome i s

t hese l ast w ere b uilt o f c alcareous s tones

1 51

a nd b locs

o f

s chist ( Fig.IV:1-2).

T he p ottery r epertoire o f T hermi, l els w ith t he T roy I I nformation

i n t he s tudy o f

c eramics a nd o ther f inds a rtifacts

t oo d eserve

L iterature:

w hich i ncludes n umerous

e arly I I a ssemblages,

-

e arly A natolian p ottery.

L amb 1 936;

I n a ddition

s uch a s s tone a nd s ilex i mplements,

t o b e m entioned N aumann 1 975;

p aral-

I s a n I mportant s ource o f t o

t he m etal

( see B ranigan 1 974). H uot 1 982;

T reull

1 983:27-28.

B 0ZK8Y ( HÖYüCEK) L ocation:

I t

i s

s ituated n ear K yme

( near F oca)

o verlooking

t he B ay o f

I zmir. E xcavations:

T hey w ere c arried o ut o n a s mall s cale;

f irst i n 1 955 a nd

l ater i n 1 958. S tratlgraphy:

T he

e xcavations,

w hich w ere c arried o ut

t o a d epth o f

2 m , r evealed t wo a rchitectural l evels s eparated b y a t hin l evel w ith s igns o f c onflagration. I t s eems t hat b elow t he l owest e xcavated l evel, t here a re f urther a rchitectural s trata p ointing t o e ven e arlier h uman o ccupation d uring t he l ate f ourth o r e arly t hird m illennium B C. F inds: P ottery c ollected f rom t he e xcavations h as b een d ated t o T roy I p eriod, I n o ther w ords, t o t he E B I I o f w estern A natolia. L iterature:

T reull

1 983:30;

M ellink 1 956:376;

t he

1 960:63.

HE LV AC I L ocation:

T he m ound

E xcavations: I t w as i n 1 949 a nd 1 954.

i s s ituated n ear L arisa s outh o f K yme. b riefly e xcavated b y S enyUrek,

G t lltekin a nd D 8nmez

S tratigraphy: F ive a rchitectural l evels w ithin t he r emains m easuring o ver 5 m i n d epth. I n m ost p laces v irgin s oil w as n ot r eached. F inds:

T he

p ottery c ollected

f rom t he s uccessive

l evels

I s d ated

t o

t he T roy I p eriod. I t s eems t hat t he s ettlement w as a bandoned e ither a t t he e nd o f t he T roy I p eriod, o r d uring t he e arly p art o f T roy I I. I t E B

i s v ery l ikely Ip eriod.

L iterature:

t hat

S enyt irek,

t his m ound w as s ettled a t

G t lltekln a nd D nmez

1 950;

t he b eginning o f

T reull

t he

1 983:30.

B AYRAKLI L ocation: I t i s s ituated o n w hat u sed t o b e a s mall p eninsula o n e dge o f t he B ay o f I zmir, i n t he a ncient p lain o f B ornova. E xcavations: A kurgal a nd C ook b etween U niversity a nd B SA a t A thens.

1 52

1 948-51

o n b ehalf

o f

t he

A nkara

S tratigraphy:

T he

e arliest s ettlement w as f ounded

i n t he e arly

t hird

m illennium B C. F inds: h ouses

E xcavations b elow t he I ron A ge a nd C lassical r emains r evealed w ith s tone f oundations b uilt o n t he r ock. T he s ettlement t o

w hich t hese h ouse r emains h ave b een a ttributed h as b een d ated b y A kurgal t o t he T roy I -II p eriod. H owever, s ince t he l ower l evels o f t he m ound h ave n ot b een e xcavated i n a s ystematic w ay, t he s equence o f o ccupation a s p resented b y A kurgal L iterature:

A kurgal

K LAZOMENAI

( LIMANTEPE)

L ocation:

1 950:54.

T he s ite o f K lazomenai i s s ituated n ear L iman T epe

M ahallesi), T he mou nd

a cross

t he

s tood i n a ncient t imes o n a p eninsula

f lanked b y

U rla.

t wo b ays.

K lazomenai r escue e xcavations, u nder t he s tarted i n 1 979. P reviously t he s ite w as

b riefly e xplored i n t he y ears S tratigraphy:

( Iskele

i sland o f K arantina i n t he d istrict o f

E xcavations: P rehistoric s upervision o f G . B akir,

l evels

i s n ot c omplete.

1 921-1922.

S o f ar p rehistoric r emains u nearthed b elow t he C lassical

i ndicate

a n o ccupational h istory d uring t he t hird

a nd

s econd

m illennia B C. F inds:

I n

t he T roy I p eriod a l arge w all o f

f lat q uarried s labs

i n d ry m asonry s urrounded t he s ettlement o n t he l and s ide.

T his

l aid

f orti-

f ication w all i s p reserved t o c a.4m i n h eight. A n arrow t rench i n 1 980 r evealed a r amplike s urface o f t ightly l aid b locks. I n 1 981, i t b ecame c lear

t hat

t he

r ibbed s tone

r amp i n f ront o f

t he f ortification w all w as

t he s ide o f a l arge r ound t ower w ith s loping s ides. T his t ower w as o riginally b uilt o f m udbrick a nd l ater r evetted w ith a s tone f acing. T his

m onumental s tructure o f

h eight

o f 4 m.

t hick,

w as

I nside

e xposed

s ector i ncludes a ssemblage. T he m ainly

k nown

1 982:561). t ion

w all

l ayered l imestone i s a lso p reserved t o

t he f ortress,

o ver

t he m ain w all,

l üm i n l ength.

w hich

i s

T he p ottery f ound

a

1 .10m

i n

t his

b lack b urnished b owls f amiliar i n t he T roy I e xistence o f l evels c orresponding t o T roy I lV a re

f rom

p it d eposits w ith

H owever,

w heelmade

t he c eramic e vidence

s uggests

r ed t hat

w ares

( Mellink

t he f ortifica-

e xposed h ere c ould n ot h ave b een e rected a fter t he

e nd

o f

T roy I p eriod. L iterature: a nd E rkanal

A nla an a nd B akir

1 980;

B akir 1 982; M ellink 1 982;

E rkanal

1 983.

A IIO G ALA L ocation:

T he

t wo c aves,

n ortheastern p art o f E xcavations: S tratigraphy: t he

E .

t he u pper a nd t he l ower,

t he I sland o f

E ccles

C hios.

i n 1 938.

T he l ower c ave

f ourth ( if n ot

a re s ituated o n t he

e arlier)

s eems

t o h ave

m illennium B C.

1 53

b een

i nhabited'

m ainly

i n

T he p ottery c ollected h ere

d oes n ot p eriods.

i ndicate c ontinuation o f o ccupation d uring t he E B I o r I I W hereas t he u pper c ave p roduced a p ottery a ssemblage w hich

c ould b e c orrelated w ith m aterial o f p re-Troy I a nd e arly T roy I s equence. A ccording t o H ood, t he m aterial e vidence f rom t he u pper c ave c ould i ndeed p rove t he e xistence o f t wo p eriods o f o ccupation. T he r emains

e xcavated

a t

a

d epth b etween 4 m a nd

2 .90m

( Ayio

c orrespond t o t he o ccupation o f t he l ower c ave w hich i s c ontemporary w ith E mporlo X -IX a nd t he N eolithic p eriod i n A yio G ala I I i s t he

s urface

r epresented i n t he u pper c ave b y d eposits

a nd 2 .90m l evel.

G ala

I )

c onsidered M acedonia.

f ound b etween

T he p ottery c ollected f rom t he

d ebris

i ndicates t hat t he c ave w as i nhabited d uring t he L ate C halcolithic E B I I p eriod. I n f act, m any o f t he p ottery f orms f ind c lose p arallels i n -

t he

l ocal

F inds:

a ssemblages o f T hermi a nd T roy I . T he

l ower c ave p roduced p ottery w hose s hapes a nd f abrics

a re

r elatively u nknown i n e astern A egean. T he s eries o f c omplete a nd r estored v essels f orms a h omogenous g roup b elonging t o a r ather n arrow h orizon. c olour o f

T he f abrics a re v ery g ritty a nd c ontain m ica. T he s urface t he v essels i s u sually r ed, o ften m ottled, s hading t o l ight

o r d ark b rown w ith a reas o f b lack. T he n ettled s urfaces o f t he v essels a re u sually b urnished. B owls a re r elatively f ew w hen c ompared t o t he n umber o f j ars f rom t he l ower c ave. W hile h andles a re r are, b owls a nd j ars w ere s upplied w ith v ertically p erforated l ugs. D ecorated w ares a re f ew, a nd d ecorative t echniques i nclude r elief P attern b urnishing w as n ot k nown ( it a ppears l ater e .g.

a nd i ncision. K umtepe), b ut

w hite p ainted d ecoration w as k nown t o t he l ocal p otters. T he p ottery r epertoire f rom t he u pper c ave h as b een c lassified a ccording t o t ypes d efined

a t

E mporio.

A ll t he m aterial s eems

t o h ave

b een

h andmade.

W hile t he p ottery c ollected f rom b elow t he 2 .90m l evel s till i ncludes g ood e xamples o f r ed b urnished w are, m ainly b owls w ith p lain o r e verted r ims, a lso e ncountered i n t he l ower c ave, t he u pper l evels r eflect c ertain c ultural c hanges t aking p lace t owards t he e nd o f t he f ourth m illennium

B C.

T he

b urnished s urfaces o f c oloured

f abric

i s

t he v essels

b etter

a nd

f iring

i mproved.

s how a b etter f inish.

T he

B rownish g rey

w ares a ppear s ide b y s ide w ith r ed b urnished w ares.

I n

t he

l ocal r epertoire b owls s eem t o b e v ery p opular. T hese h ave m ainly s traight o r i nward c urving r ims. H owever, c arinated b owls, b owls w ith t hickened c lub-like

r ims

a nd o utward c urving r ims w ere a lso p roduced b y

t he l ocal p otters. O ther f orms i nclude j ars a nd j ugs. T he l atter h ave s traight n ecks a nd f lat m ouths o r I n s ome c ases s loping mou ths w hich d eveloped t o m ore p ronounced b eaked-spouted j ugs.

L ug h andles o r t ab-

h andles o f v arious k inds s eem t o h ave b een s tandard o n b owls. P attern b urnishing a ppears i n t hese l evels b ut s herds w ith t his f orm o f d ecorat ion a re

r ather r are.

O n t he o ther h and,

d ecoration i n p aint s eems

t o

h ave b een c haracteristic o f t his p eriod. P atterns i ncluded d iagonal l ines, c ross-hatching a nd l attice. I ncised a nd r elief d ecorated s herds w ere

a lso

c ollected i n t he u pper

f ew i mported p eriod. L iterature:

p ieces

H ood 1 981;

f ound a t

F urness

l evels o f

t his s ite,

t he u pper c ave. t hey d ate f rom

A s f or t he

E H

a I I

1 956.

E MPURIO L ocation: T he m ound l ies o n a n atural h ill o verlooking c oast o f C hios, n ear t he v illage o f P iryI.

1 54

t he

s outhern

E xcavations:

H ood 1 952-1955.

S tratigraphy:

A t otal

a rea o f 2 20m 2 w as o pened b y H ood a t

t he f oot o f

t he A cropolis h ill o n t he n orthwest s ide o f t he s ite. T he e xcavations w ere c arried o ut i n s everal t renches i n a n umber o f a reas. T he b est s tratified s equence a nd t he e arliest w as r evealed i n t he m ain a rea A . H ere a s eries o f d eposits r anging f rom t he A egean N eolithic t o t he T roy I I p eriod ( EB I l-lIlA) w ere u ncovered. T en s uccessive p eriods, X -I, w ere d istinguished o n a b asis o f d ifferences i n t he s tratified p ottery a ssemblage a nd a rchitectural c hanges. T hese t en p eriods a ppear t o r eflect m ore o r l ess a c ontinuous o ccupation w ithout b reak i n t ime.

a ny

T his

o r p hases:

l ong o ccupation i s d ivided

i nto f ive m ain p eriods

s ignificant

1 .

X -VIII: l ithic)

F rom

2 .

V III-VI:

C ontemporary w ith L ate C halcolithic/EB I ( Kumtepe

3 .

V -IV:

4 .

I ll-lI:

5 .

I :

T roy

t he

A egean N eolithic t o K umtepe I A

( Late

C halco-

I b)

I ( late E B I -II)

E nd o f T roy

I -II ( EB I learly I II)

A d eveloped p hase o f T roy I I

F or a m ore c omprehensive

( ? )

s tratigraphy s ee H ood 1 981:90.

F inds: T he E B s ettlement e xposed h ere w as p robably l arger t han T roy I I w hich w as c a.100 x l OOm. S ubstantial r emains o f h ouse w alls w ere r ec overed i n t he l owest l evel X . S kulls d iscovered u nderneath t he l owest f loor m ay r eflect, a ccording t o H ood, a n i ntramural b urial c ustom. I n I X a nd V III m assive s tone w alls h ave b een i nterpreted a s t errace w alls. A

D -shaped

h ouse-room

o f P eriod

V III

( Hood

1 981:Fig.53)

e vidence o f o bsidian w orking. I n V II, o nly t wo w alls, l eading f rom t he e ast t o t he w ell, w ere d iscovered.

p roduced

f lanking a r oad T he m ain a rchi-

t ectural r emains o f h ouses w ere d iscovered i n V I, V , b ut p articularly i n E mporio I V. T he p ottery a ssemblage f rom a ll t hese l evels i s q uite r ich a nd s erves a s a n i mportant s ource o f i nformation t o d evelopment o f p ottery t raditions i n t he e astern A egean. L iterature:

T IGANI

H ood

1 981;

s tudy

t he

1 982.

( KASTRO)

L ocation: T he s ite i s s ituated o n t he i sland o f S amos, o n a p eninsula i n t he p ort o f T igani f acing t he w estern c oast o f A natolia. E xcavations: J antzen.

I n t he e arly t hirties b y a G erman E xpedition.

I n 1 968 b y

S tratigraphy: A s mall n umber o f t renches t hrough t he C lassical r emains r evealed p rehistoric l evels d ated t o t he L ate C halcolithic-Early B ronze A ge

( in Anatolian t erms).

e xcavated b uildings.

U nfortunately t his e arly d eposit

w as

n ot

s tratigraphically. T he E B r emains w ere d isturbed b y l ater H owever, t he m ore r ecent e xcavations p roduced a m uch

1 55

c learer s equence o f F inds:

e arly T igani.

T he e arly p ottery w as o riginally c lassified a ccording t o

o f d ecoration : A . C ommon w are w ithout s lip o r b urnish. r eddish-brown a nd b lackish-grey w ares w ith b urnished s lip. b lack

b urnished

w are w ith s ome e xamples o ccurring i n

t ypes

B . C l.

b lack ,

R ed, F ine r ed

o r

b uff. T his g roup i ncludes d ecorated p ieces u sing t echniques s uch a s i ncision a nd w hite p aint. C 2. F ine b lack h ighly p olished w are w ith i ncised d ecoration a nd o ccasional p attern b urnish. D . W hite p ainted d ecoration o n b lack w are. E . A g eneral c lass o f d ecorated w ares o ther t han

t hose

t ion). s lip.

w ith p ainted d ecoration ( e.g.

F . T he

i ncised a nd r elief

d ecora-

P attern b urnish o n s imple w ares. G . W ares w ith a r ed p resence o f a ll t hese g roups s uggests t hat t he p rehistoric

s ettlement h ere h ad t wo m ain p hases o f h uman o ccupation : T igani I ( Kastro I ), r epresenting t he L ate C halcolithic p eriod w ith p ottery g roups E ,

B a nd D ;

T igani I I ( Kastro I I)

r epresenting t he l ate f ourth

m illennium B C i s ( in i ts f inal s tages) p robably c ontemporary w ith t he v ery b eginning o f L B I . P ottery g roups a ttributed t o t his p eriod i nclude C a nd F . L iterature: F urness T reuil

B uttler 1 936;

1 956;

H eindreich 1 936;

S chachermeyr F r.

1 976;

W rede

1 936;

‚ I

M ilojcic 1 961;

J antzen 1 968; H uot

1 982:29;

1 983:32.

H ERAION ( Fig.II:4) L ocation:

T he s ite i s s ituated o n t he s outhern c oas ,t o f

S amos,

c a.7km

w est o f T igani. E xcavations: T he e arly e xcavations w ere c arried o ut b y a G erman g roup d irected b y W eigand i n 1 910. H owever, t he p urpose o f t he e xcavations, a s

w as

a lso

t he c ase l ater w ith T igani, w as n ot

t o

e xplore t he

p re-

h istoric s ettlement, b ut t he c lassical r emains. L ater t his s ite w as r e-excavated b y B uschor i n 1 953 a nd 1 955 i n o rder t o e xplore t he p reh istoric

r emains.

S tratigraphy: l evels w ere F inds: p ottery

F ive p hases o f o ccupation d uring

t he E B p eriod.

r ecorded b elow t he r emains o f t he c lassical

T hese

c ity.

T he m aterial c ollected f rom t wo p its i n H eraion I i nclude t hought t o b e c ontemporary w ith c ertain T roy I c eramic t ypes.

H eraion I I, H eraoin

T he r esults w ere p ublished b y M iloj Ci C i n 1 966.

I II

w hich p roduced a rchitectural r emains w ith

i ts s tore r ooms a nd

( e.g.

h ouses,

a re

M egaron I I), c onsidered

a nd c on-

t emporary w ith t he e arly p art o f t he E B I II p eriod ( Troy I I). H eraion I V p roduced m aterial c ulture r emains i n M egaron I , w hich m easures 1 3.90 x 7 .10m, a nd, a mong o ther p laces, i s c orrelated w ith T roy 1 11-1V. p its i n H eraion V , H eraion I V, c ould

i n t he l arge p ithos t omb. T his p hase T he m aterial f rom t he c ist t ombs a nd

w hich w as e stablished o ver t he b urnt r emains o f s ignal t he e nd o f t he t hird m illennium B C a t t his

s ettlement. L iterature: W iegand 1 911; S chede 1 966; P odzuweit 1 979; H uot 1 982.

1 56

1 929;

F urness

1 956;

M ilojcic

1 961;

V ATHY L ocation: l ooks t he

T his c ave i s s ituated o n t he I sland o f K alymnos. s outheastern b ay o f t his i sland w hich i s l ocated

d istance n orth o f E xcavations:

I t o vera s hort

t he I sland o f K os.

I n 1 922.

S tratigraphy: S igns o f f ourth m illennium o ccupation w ere f ound i n t he f orms o f s ilex t ools, p ottery s herds a nd f ire p laces. T he c ave s eems t o h ave b een a lso v isited o r o ccupied

i n t he M B-LB.

F inds: T he p ottery m aterial c ould b e c orrelated w ith m aterial w estern A natolia ( pre-Troy I ) a nd t he e astern A egean i slands T igani i n S amos). L iterature: 1 956; T reull

M aluri a nd J acopich 1 928:114-117; 1 983:33.

B rown 1 947:128;

f rom ( e.g.

F urness

I ASOS L ocation: T his i mportant s ite w ith p rehistoric, M inoan, M ycenaean a nd c lassical r emains i s s ituated n ear t he v illage o f K iyi K islacik , i n t he K t lllt lk L imani ( bay) w est o f M ilas ( Cl. M ylasa), i n t he p rovince o f M ugla. E xcavations: d elle M issioni p rogress.

U nder t he a uspices o f

t he S cuola A rcheologia d i A tene

I tallane a nd d irected b y D oro

L evi.

S tratigraphy: T he e xtramural c emetery o f p rehistoric i n t he g eneral a rea o f t he c lassical N ecropolis.

E xcavations

t imes

e i n

i s s ituated

F inds:* T he r ectangular a nd r ound c ist g raves ( the l atter w ere d ivided i nto s emi-circular c ompartments) p roduced, i n a ddition t o a f ew m etal o bjects, n umerous e xamples o f l ocal p ottery d ated t o t he E B p eriod. T he s trong C ycladic i nfluence o n t he l ocal w are i s m ost e vident. L iterature: O rmerod 1 911; 1 979; V olgtiander 1 982.

*

1 913;

L evi

1 965-66;

F or a m ore c omprehensive d escription o f

L aviosa 1 978;

t he E BA p ottery

Y akar

a ssemblage

f rom t he C arian c oast s ee V oigtlander 1 982.

B .

T he H interland

K ARATA

-S EMAYi I'K

L ocation: T his m ound, w hich i s c a.100m i n d iameter a nd 3 -4m h igh, s ituated 1 2km e ast o f E lmall, ( or 6 km a s t he c row f lies), a nd l ies o pen f ields b etween t he v illages o f S emayUk ( Boz8yl lk) a nd G 8kpinar.

1 57

i s i n

E xcavations: T he m ound a nd i ts i mmediate v icinity w as e xcavated b y B ryn M awr E xpedition h eaded b y M . M ellink b etween 1 963-1973.

t he

S tratigraphy:

T he c entral b uilding o n t he m ound a nd t he e nclosure w all

s urrounding i t b y M ellink t o

r evealed f ive m ain a rchitectural p hases: I -V, a ssigned t he E B I I p eriod ( Troy I ). T he E B I -Late C halcolithic

s ettlement

w as

p robably

l ocated 7 00m w est o f

t he

m ound,

o n

a

l ow

n atural h ill ( Ba bas ,i), o verlooking t he l ower p art o f t he E lmali p lain. E ighteen t renches w ere o pened a t B a ba i a nd t he p ottery c ollected h ere w as d ated b y E slick ( 1980:8-12) t o t he M iddle a nd L ate C halcolithic p eriod. K arata , i n f act, i s a l arge v illage s ettlement w ith h abitat ion a reas m ound. I t

a nd e xtramural c emeteries s urrounding t he s mall s eems t hat t he a rea o f t he c entral h ouse i n t he

c entral c entral

m ound w as n ot i nhabited d uring t he E B l ilA p eriod. O n t he o ther h and, h owever, e xcavations i n t renches 3 7, 6 5 a nd 6 6 s uggest t hat t he E B I I s ettlement p eriod

c ontinued

( Troy

I I)

t o b e i nhabited

i n t he e arly p art o f

t he

E B

I II

( Mellink 1 968:259).

F inds: K aratas I : T he m ound i s o ccupied b y a l arge r ectangular b uilding b uilt w ith s undried r n udbricks o n s tone f oundations. T his c entral b uilding m easures 1 0.75 x 7 .20m. T he w alls a re 0 .80m t hick. A long t he w alls w ooden p osts w ere r egularly s paced. T he w alls a nd f loors w ere p lastered. T his s tructure, w hose f unction i s n ot e ntirely c lear, w as s urrounded b y a t hick w all d elimiting a n e xternal c ourtyard o val i n p lan. I t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat t he i nterior o f t his w all w as s trengthened w ith b uttresses. T he e xternal c ourt s eems t o have b een p lastered s everal t imes. A s f or t he e nclosure w all, w hich w as e nlarged t wice, i t w as g radually t ransformed i nto afortification w all 4 -5m t hick. S outh o f t he b uilding a l arge r amp w ith a n a ccess b ordered b y a r etaining w all w as b uilt o f m udbrick o n t op o f h erringbone s haped s tone f oundations. T his r etaining w all w as s upported o n t he e xterior b y b uttresses. S outh o f t his f ortified a rea t he f irst h ouse w ere f ound b uilt a gainst a d ouble f ence. K aratas I I: a ccess r amp.

t he

r emains

T he d ebris o f l evel I w ere h eaped o ver a nd p ressed o n T he c entral b uilding w as r epaired. I t s eems t hat

t his l evel ( II) w as d estroyed i n a c onflagration. T his l evel p roduced, i n f act, a n umber o f r adiocarbon a ge e stimates o ften men tioned i n r egional c hronological s chemes.

A

K arata I II: T he m ound s eems t o h ave b een l evelled a t t his t ime. n ew e nclosure w all w as b uilt a round t he s mall m ound a t t he e nd o f

t his

p hase.

L ater,

i n I V a a nd b ,

t his w all w as

r epaired

s everal

t imes. O n t op o f t his r etaining w all a nd t he a ccumulated d ebris a nother w all s ystem ( the w hite w all) w as b uilt, w hich w as p rovided w ith a t ower. A fter a p eriod o f a bandonment, n ew b uilding a ctivity l eft i ts t races o n t he s mall m ound ( Karatas V ). A n umber o f h ouses s eem t o h ave b een b uilt o n t he s lopes o f t he m ound. I n t he e astern e xtension t rench, a p ebbled r amp l ed t o t he c entre o f t he m ound. I n t his p eriod o f K aratap V , t he n orthwestern a nd n ortheastern a reas i n t he p roximity o f t he m ound g radually t urned i nto d ensely b uilt u p a reas o f t he s ettlement. t ions a nd A natolian n orthwest, m egara e arlier

T hese h ouses w ere b uilt w ith m udbricks o n s tone f oundaa ccording t o t he t raditional e longated p lans o f w est a nd e ast A egean d omestic b uildings; t he m egaron. a reas ( trenches) 3 5-37 r evealed i ntrusive t ombs

( 1-4) m egara

b uilt o n q uarry-stone

f oundations.

3 A-C a nd D -F w ere u nearthed.

1 58

U nder

T hese a re

I n t he a nd f our

m egaron

3 ,

c ontemporary

w ith K arata 1 -1V. T his s ite a lso p roduced g ood e xamples o f r einforce p ise o r w attle a nd d aub c onstruction. I n f act, e xcept f or s ome o f t he E B

l ilA

m egara b uilt w ith t n udbrick w alls o n

s tone

f oundations,

p redominant b uilding m ethod u sed a t K aratap i s w attle S everal v ariations o f t his t echnique h ave b een o bserved

t he

a nd d aub. b y W arner

( 1979). T he E B I l-lila p ottery r ecovered f rom t he s mall m ound, t he h abitation a reas a nd t he c emeteries g enerally b elongs t o w are g roups w ell k nown i n w estern A natolia.

N evertheless,

t he p otters o f K arata r p

p roduced c ertain l ocal s hapes a nd d ecorative t echniques h ardly k nown o utside t he E lmali p lain. Among t he c haracteristic p ottery a re b eaks pouted p itchers d ecorated w ith w hite l inear a nd c urvilinear l ines o ver a r ed b ackground, m edallion j ars, r elief d ecorated p ottery a nd d ark b urnished l ug-handled b owls. T he p ithoi u sed f or t he b urials i n t he e xtramural T hese

c emeteries w ere q uite l arge,

l arge

p ottery

s ome o f

t hem c a.3m i n h eight.

c ontainers p roduced n ot o nly

n umerous

r emains o f t he l ocal p opulation b ut a l arge i nventory o f f acts, s tone i dols a nd p ottery.

s keletal

m etal

a rti-

T he e xcavations a t B a ba i a lso p roduced i nteresting r esults c onc erning t he p re-Troy I c ultural d evelopment i n s outhwestern Anatolia. H ouses w ere b uilt o f w attle a nd d aub o r r einforced p isé. I t i s n ot e ntirely c lear i f t hese h ouses r epresent t he L ate C halcolithic o r E B I s ettlement s ettlement

a t B a ba i. T herefore, I p refer t o r egard B a ba i a s a o f t he p roto-urban p eriod. T he h ouses c ontained g rinding

s tones a nd d ifferent k inds o f p ottery v essels. T he p ottery f rom B a ba i ( upper s trata) c ould b e c ompared t o s ome e xtent w ith t he c eramics o f

B eycesultan L ate C halcolithic I llIl.

L iterature:

P reliminary

1 968:223-259; 1 974:351-359.

1 969a:319-331;

A rchitecture:

N aumann 1 975;

P ottery :

H uot 1 982;

E xcavation R eports: 1 970a:245-251;

B ordaz

1 967:251-267; 1 973:293-303;

W arner 1 979.

E slick 1 980

( Ba ba i).

H uman r emains a nd t he K arata c emeteries: 1 976; W heeler 1 974; B artel 1 981. M etallurgy:

M ellink

1 971:245-255;

A ngel

1 968;

1 970;

1 972 a nd

1 982; Y akar 1 985.

K URUCAY L ocation: d iameter

T he

m ound,

w hich

i s a l ittle h igher t han l Om a nd

o f a pproximately 7 0-80m ,

i s

s ituated a t

t he

r oad f rom B urdur t o H acilar a nd a t a d istance o f s outhwest s hore o f t he B urdur L ake. E xcavations:

R .

1 6th km c a.4km

h as

a

o f

t he

f rom

t he

D uru s ince 1 978.

S tratification: A n a rea o ver 2 000m 2 h as s o f ar b een e xposed b y D uru. A lready i n t he i nitial e xcavations t he m ound r evealed t hree c ultural p eriods w ith s even b uilding l evels. T he l owest l evel ( 7) c onsists o f r emains o f t he E arly C halcolithic v illage ( Hacilar I c ulture). L evels 6 -4 r epresent t he L ate C halcolithic p eriod. A fter a n i nterruption i n o ccupation,

t he

m ound

w as

r esettled i n t he E B p eriod

1 59

( levels

3 -1).

D uru

b elieves

t hat

t he g ap i n t he o ccupation b etween t he L ate

l ithic a nd E B s ettlements c orresponds

t o

a t B eycesultan X L-XX ( Duru

1 980:70).

F inds:

l evel 6 b egin c a.0.30m a bove

T he

f oundations o f

C halco-

t he L ate C halcolithic s equence

t he d estruction

d eposit o f t he E arly C halcolithic s ettlement. T he b uildings f irst l evel ( 6b) o f t his p eriod d isplay, a ccording t o D uru,

o f a

t he c om-

p letely d ifferent t echnique t han t hose o f t he e arlier s ettlement. T he w all f oundations c onsist o f a s ingle r ow o f s tones. T he s uperstructure o f t he L ate C halcolithic h ouses w ere c onstructed o f m udbrick w alls. T he h ouses a re r ectangular i n s hape ( some o f t hem a re q uadrangular) a nd h ave o nly o ne r oom ( Fig.I:1). G enerally a t o ne c orner o f m ost r ooms t here i s a r ound o ven. I n s ome o f t he h ouses t he m iddle o f t he r oom w as r eserved f or f ireplaces b uilt a gainst a f ree-standing b rick w all o f c a.lm i n l ength a nd 3 5-40cm i n w idth ( Duru 1 980:64). T his s ettlement, a nd t he s ubsequent o nes, w ere s urrounded b y a p erimeter w all, p robably f or d efensive p urposes ( Fig.I:1). L ater, h owever, ( level 4 ), t he o uter w alls o f h ouses w ere s trengthened a nd i ncorporated i nto t he f ortificat ions I t i s

s ystem. T he p ottery a ssemblage f rom t his p eriod i s q uite r ich. i mportant t o s tress t hat t he p ainted E arly C halcolithic w are

( Hacilar I ) w as n o l onger p roduced a t t his s ite. I nstead, t he p otters p roduced a t hin w alled p ottery o f d ark g rey t o b lack c oloured c lay. T his w are w as p oorly f ired a nd s hows a c lumsy b urnish. T he m ost f requent t ype o f v essels a re o ne-handled c ups a nd j ugs ( Duru 1 980, F igs.17-19). S ome o f t he j ugs, w hich a re g enerally c arinated, h ave t wo h andles.

T he

l ocal

r epertoire i ncludes h igh-necked

j ars

w ith

f our

p erforated l edge h andles ( Duru 1 980:18, 3 ; 2 1, 7 -8), a nd p ots w ith o ne h andle o n o ne s ide a nd o ne l ug o n t he o pposite ( Duru 1 980, F ig.18, 7 1 0;

2 1,

1 -4).

I n

s pite o f

K uruçay a nd B eycesultan, m ents a re c ontemporary. C halcolithic

p ottery,

t he r esemblance b etween t he

p ottery

o f

D uru d oes n ot b elieve t hat t hese t wo s ettleH e o bserves t hat u nlike t he B eycesultan L ate

t he v essels

f rom K uru ay a re n ot d ecorated w ith

w hite p aint a nd h ave a m ore p rimitive l ook. T he L ate C halcolithic s ettlement p roduced a r elatively l arge n umber o f m etal a rtifacts w hich s hed i mportant l ight o nto t he m etallurgical p ractices i n p rehistoric A natolia

f ound

( Yakar 1 974).

T he a rchitectural r emains f rom t he E B s ettlement ( levels 3- 1 ) w ere t o b e s eriously d isturbed. O ne o f t he b uildings, w ith a w ell

b urnished l ong a nd p ottery o f r eminiscent c oloured,

r ectangular p latform w ith a m udbrick s tele s et o n i t ( 0.95m 0 .30m w ide), m ay h ave b een a s hrine ( Duru 1 980:66). T he t he t hird b uilding l evel h as n o t raits w hich c ould b e o f t he L ate C halcolithic w are. C eramics a re r ed o r b lack w ell-burnished

w ith t hick w alled s herds

p redominant.

T he

m ajority o f s hapes c onsist o f w ide m outhed, s harp c ornered b owls. B owls w ith t ab-handles o r b and h andles a re a bundant. S ome o f t he f orms h ave c lose p arallels p ottery c orrelations,

a t K usura a nd B eycesultan. O n t he b asis o f D uru c oncludes t hat t he E B s ettlement o f K uruçay

s hould b e d ated t o t he p eriod b etween o f E B I I ( Duru 1 980:68). L iterature: 1 983.

D uru 1 980;

1 983;

t he e nd o f

M ellink 1 981;

1 60

t he E B I t o

1 982;

1 983;

t he m iddle

1 984;

D eniz

A PHROD I Sl AS L ocation:

T his

c lassical

6 5km w est o f D enizli, t he n umerous E xcavations:

a t

s ite w ith p rehistoric r emains

t he s ource o f

t ributaries o f

i s

s ituated

w hich i s o ne

o f

t he M eander.

K adish 1 967-1968

S tratigraphy:

t he D andalos,

( pre-Classical

r emains).

T wo s eparate a reas w ere e xcavated

E arly B ronze a nd L ate C halcolithic r emains:

i n o rder t o

P ekmez a nd

r each

t he

t he A cropolis.

T he f ormer a rea i s s ituated e ast o f t he c ity. P ekmez: L evels V -IV c over t he s econd m illennium B C; i n V I t his a rea w as p robably u sed a s a l ate t hird m illennium c emetery; i n V II a -c t here i s a s uccession o f f loor l evels, a nd t h l owest l evels V III a nd V ild, w hich w ere e xplored i n a s mall t rench 2 m ( at a d epth o f 3 m), p roduced n o a rchitectural r emains.

T he s herds

c ollected h ere w ere d ated t o

t he L ate C halcolithic

p eriod. T he A cropolis: c omplexes, s ome o f

T he t hem

a rchitecture t o s peak o f.

s tratigraphy i s r epresented b y a n umber l evels w ith h uman a ctivity b ut w ith

o f n o

I n c omplexes X I-VII t here a re n o t races

o f

a rchitecture e xcept f or a r ing o f s tones i n X o r I X. C omplex V I i s m arked b y a f loor. H ere, u nder t he f oundations o f s ome h ouses, w heelm ade p latters o f E B I II p eriod w ere a re r epresented b y m udbrick w alls.

f ound i n a bundance. I n I V, w hich h as

C omplexes V -IV t wo s ubphases,

s uccessive s tone a nd m udbrick w alls a nd a p ise w all w ere u nearthed. T heir E B I II d ate d erives f rom t he w heelmade p latters f ound u nder t heir f oundations. T he b est k nown c omplex i s I I. H ere t wo s eparate t renches r esulted i n t he d iscovery o f a t otal o f s even a rchitectural T his l evel w as d estroyed b y f ire a nd s ubsequently a bandoned. l evel a lso p roduced a s mall n umber o f F inds: I n a ddition m egaron i n c omplex I I, q uantity

u nits. T his

C -14 d ates.

t o a rchitectural r emains, i ncluding a p ossible t he e xcavations a t A phrodisias p roduced a l arge

o f s herds w hich r epresent a t ime s pan f rom t he

L ate

C halco-

l ithic p eriod t o t he t ransition p eriod f rom E B t o M B ( Levels E -D i n t he A cropolis). T he l ate f ourth m illennium m aterial d erives m ainly f rom t he a rea o f P ekmez. L iterature:

K adish 1 969;

1 971.

S tudies o f

p rehistoric

A phrodisias

h ave b een c ompleted a s d issertations b y M artha S . J oukowsky ( Neolithic a nd F inal C halcolithic) a nd J eannine L eon-Leurquin ( Chipped S tone I ndustries). A v olume o n p rehistoric A phrodisias b eing p repared b y J oukowsky ( Mellink 1 983:431).

i s

t o a ppear

s oon,

B EYCE S ULTAN L ocation:

T his

l arge m ound,

c a.40 a cres a nd 3 5m h igh,

f rom C ivril, i n t he u pper M eander ( Menderes) w est o f A fyon ( as t he c row f lies). E xcavations: S tratigraphy:

S .

L loyd a nd J .

E xcavations

v alley.

I t

i s i s

s ituated 5 km 5 7km s outh-

M ellaart 1 954-1959.

c arried d own f rom t he s ummit o f

t he m ound

t o

t he v irgin s oil e xposed f orty l evels. O f t hese, X L-XX w ere d ated t o t he L ate C halcolithic p eriod a nd X IX-VI t o t he E arly B ronze A ge: X L_

1 61

XXXV= Late Chalcolithic l; XXXIV-XXIX = Late Chalcolithic 2; XXVIII­ XXV= Late Chalcolithic 3; XXIV-XX= Late Chalcolithic 4; XIX-XVII= EB Later, some scholars I· XVI-XIII = EB II and XII-VI= EB III a-b. p;oposed to modify the internal division of the architectural levels by correlating the Late Chalcolithic culture of Beycesultan, at least partly, with the EB I culture of northwest Anatolia (e.g. Kumtepe I a-b sequence. See the regional stratigraphy). In view of the Kurucay stratigraphy, it may be possible to suggest that the Late Chalcolithic phases 4-2 are, in fact, the early phases of the EB I period in western Anatolia (Yakar 1979:62). It is important to stress, however, that this issue has not yet been solved satisfactorily (see Kamil 1982:6069). Finds: The architecture of the Late Chalcolithic levels is not well This is because the lowest levels are known to us only represented. The exposed remains of from a number of small and narrow trenches. mudbrick walls suggest that the fourth millennium houses were rather small, rectangular in shape and probably free-standing. It is important to emphasize that the earliest house remains with more or less a clear pla n do not appear before level XXXIII (Late Chalcolithic These houses, like those found in later levels, were built of 2). mudbricks with no stone foundations. They include fireplaces, clay benches and storage bins. Since the builders at Beycesultan did not use stone foundations for their brick walls, the so-called Late Chalco­ lithic building tradition here could not have developed from the earlier 'KuruGay' domestic architecture which produced rather oore In Late Chalcolithic 4 developed brick houses with stone foundations. one encounters a house plan (level XXIV) which is somehow reminiscent of EB megaroid houses in western Anatolia. The pottery repertoire from the Late Chalcolithic strata includes numerous forms and decorative techniques which show slow but unmistakable development towards more sophisticated ceramic types. Sometimes, it is difficult to distinguish between amphorous sherds from the lowest levels and those from the EB I-II levels. Technically, the wares of the Late Chalcolithic levels are not very different than those of early third millennium levels. Late Chalcolithic 1 pottery: It is a characteristic dark burnished ware of black or brown colour with simple shapes. Decora­ tion, except for white painted patterns, is relatively rare. During this phase the local potters produced a limited range of forms, such as shallow bowls and a few types of jugs and jars. In this phase, which is also marked Late Chalcolithic 2 pottery: by a change in the orientation of house plans, a number of new ceramic features could be observed in the local assemblage. The fabric of the dark burnished ware is more refined and fabrics are lighter in colour. In addition to the disappearance of some of the old shapes, there is a marked decrease in the number of white painted pottery. A new ware, cream burnished, appears at this time. Bowls, jugs and juglets are the popular forms. The former have flaring sides. Among the decorative techniques, the pattern burnish in this phase is of· considerable chronological significance for the dating of the pre-Troy I sequence in the northwest and the eastern Aegean islands (e.g. Besiktepe lb and Incised sherds which are characteristic of the third phase Tigani). also occur, but these are not filled with a white chalky substance.

16 2

Late Chalcolithic 3 pottery: The pottery of this phase is very similar to that of phase 2. However, it has been noted by Mellaart that cream-burnished wares disappear, and pattern burnishing and white painted linear patterns become very rare. Late Chalcolithic 4 pottery: It is the best studied phase of all. Black and brown wares of the earlier strata still predominate the local Red, buff and grey coloured wares also persist. And in repertoire. the coarse ware, no change can be observed at this time. Slips are rather uncommon. White painted decoration almost disappears. Carinated bowls with concave rim and handles are among the most characteristic shapes of this phase. Other forms include jars with two handles, wide-mouthed jars and bowls with flat bases and handles. The EB strata at Beycesultan are better documented. The archi­ tectural remains include a long wall which may have belonged to a fortification system or terrace wall, shrines (see: Chapter XIII) and hall and porch type (megaron) buildings in X-VIII. Unfortunately, almost none of the buildings produced an absolutely complete plan. As for the pottery assemblage of the Early Bronze Age strata, the follow­ ing observations could describe the characteristic features and development of the local forms. Levels XIX-XVII: Characteristic of this phase is the appearance of a fine ware and a coarse ware. The former is of superior quality, Some of the vessels hard-fired and beautifully fluted and burnished. manufactured in this ware are quite large. The characteristic colours are jet-black and orange-red. A few examples of. the latter show mottling with yellow and light grey spots. Thin straphandles, globular shapes, rounded bases inverted and everted rims (in bowls) are charac­ teristic of this phase. Shallow fluting is applied horizontally, vertically, or, on small jugs, obliquely. Incised wares were no longer produced. They are found, as pointed out by Mellaart (1958:121), as import. As for white painted pottery it was still made, but in very small numbers. Among the common shapes in the local repertoire is a tall-necked jar. Levels XVI-XIII: In these strata, dated by Mellaart to the EB II period, buff and black coloured wares are predominant. They are usually slipped and burnished, but still handmade. The use of the wheel is not known before the advent of the EB III period in western The fabrics contain much grit and straw. Mottled surfaces Anatolia. are common and the grey coloured cores, in fact, testify to the poor quality of the firing in the local kilns. It is important to emphasize that some of the ware discovered in the shrine of level XV, described by Mellaart as "votive ware", is of better quality and with rather more emphasis on decoration. In this period, coarse ware of the earlier period (red dish, unburnished fabric, full of grits and straw, mainly jars and pithoi), is rather absent. In decoration, the potters had a preference for grooves, ribs, and fluting. Incised decoration was not as popular as it once was. In fact, it is these vessels which show the greatest resemblance to the vessels of the Yortan group (from cemeteries). One of the features in pottery decoration which first appears in Level XIV, is linear designs in matt white paint. Among the common shapes of this period are inverted rim bowls on ribbed pedestals. Plastic ornament on the rim usually includes a lug below the carination. Cups with highflung straphandle, jugs with beak or 163

c utaway s pout,

w ith o r w ithout

f eet,

a re a mong

t he p opular s hapes

l evels x i v-x iii . S trangely e nough, h orned o r t ubular l ugs, o ccur i n l evels X VI-XIV, d isappear i n l evel X III. L evels M ellaart

X II-VI:

T he

a s b elonging t o

w ares

f rom t hese l evels a re

t he E B I II p eriod.

c lassified

C haracteristic

o f

s uch a s

o f

b y t his

a ssemblage a re b uff w ares c overed b y a r ed, b uff o r b rown w ash , w hich m ay o r m ay n ot b e p olished, a nd r ed a nd b uff s lipped a nd p olished w ares. n umbers

T he f irst g roup o f w ares s eems t han t he l atter g roup.

t o h ave b een p roduced i n l arger

G enerally s peaking,

s hapes i nclude t all b eak-spouted v essels, t wo-handled d rinking c ups, s ome o f t hem o f L iterature:

M ellaart

1 958;

t he c haracteristic

b owls w ith r ing b ases " proto-Minyan" s hape.

L loyd a nd M ellaart

1 962;

H uot

1 982;

a nd

M ellink

1 965.

K US U RA L ocation: T he m ound, w hich i s 1 4m h igh a nd c a.400m i n d iameter, i s s ituated 5 5km s outhwest o f A fyon K arahisar n ear S andikli. I t i s c omp osed o f a m ound a nd i ts E B Ic emetery. E xcavations:

W .

S tratification: w hich

y ielded

L amb i n 1 935-1937. P eriod

A

1 5 b urial

j ars

i s i n

r epresented b y a n 1 4 t ombs.

e xtramural

P eriod B w as

c emetery

e xplored o n a

l arge s urface 3 2x16m a nd r evealed t races o f h ouse w alls a nd a g ood d eal o f p ottery. P eriod B h as s ix a rchitectural s ubphases. B etween B a nd C , w hich i s s econd m illennium B C, t here i s a p eriod o f t ransition r epresented b y r ed-cross b owls ( Lamb 1 938:237). F inds:

I n

b oth s ides a pparently

B -3

t he e arliest o f

o f a s treet. r ectangular.

t he B p eriod h ouses s eem t o h ave

l ined

O n o ne s ide o f t he s treet t he h ouses w ere E ach h ouse ( main r oom) w as p receded b y a

n arrow v estibule. O n t he o ther s ide o f t he s treet t he h ouses, w hich h ave n o a ccess f rom t he s treet, w ere q uadrangular a nd w ere f urnished w ith f ire p laces. T he w alls w ere o f s undried b ricks, a nd o ccasionally o f p is , r esting o n s tone f oundations. T he h ouse f loors w ere o f b eaten e arth. I n t he l ater l evels o f t his p eriod ( B-4/6) t he p artition w alls o f t he h ouses w ere r eused, b ut g enerally s peaking t here i s n o s erious c hange i n t he f inal

t own p lanning o r c onstruction t echnique.

s tage o f

c emetery A natolia.

i s

t he s ettlement

( Period B )

t he s treet w as

H owever,

i n t he

c ancelled.

h interland, a s w ell a s t he c oast. T hose o f Y ortan, B abak8y K arata , a re a ll f rom t he E B 1 1-111 p eriod. S trangely e nough, p ottery a ssemblage f ound i n t he c emetery i s n ot r epresented i n s ettlement. L iterature:

T he

i mportant i n t he s tudy o f b urial t raditions i n w estern I t i s s o f ar t he o nly c emetery o f E B I p eriod f ound i n t he

L amb

1 937;

1 938;

H uot

a nd t he t he

1 982.

Y ORTAN L ocation: T he e xtramural c emetery a t a l ocation c alled Y ortan n ear G elembe i s s ituated c a.55km s outh o f B alikesir a nd c a.17km n ortheast o f K irka aç.

1 64

E xcavations: P . G audin i n 1 900. I n 1 901 w ith t he a ssistance o f C hapot f rom t he F rench S chool o f A thens. S tratigraphy:

K mil , i n a r ecent a nd c omprehensive

p ottery m aterial

( 1982),

t he E arly B ronze A ge

s uggests

( 1982:52).

t hat

V .

s tudy o f

t he Y ortan

t he c emetery w as u sed

t hroughout

H is e valuation i s b ased,

h owever,

o n

t he a ssumption t hat t he s ettlement a t B eycesultan X IX-XVII, w hose p ottery a ssemblage i s r ather r eminiscent o f c eramic t ypes o f Y ortan C lass A r epertoire, i s o f E B I d ate ( 1982:67). M y o wn a ssessment, a gain b ased o n t ypological g rounds, i s t hat B eycesultan X IX-XVI i s e ither t he s trata o f a l ate E B I s ettlement o r i t s hould b e d ated, e specially i n v iew o f t he f act t hat a t K uruçay w e h ave a L ate C h a lco l ithic c ulture w hich is de f i n ite ly e arlier t han t hat o f B eycesultan ( XL-xx), t o t he E B I I p eriod ( Yakar 1 979). K âmil d oes n ot a gree w ith m y s ynchronization o f t he L ate C halcolithic s trata o f B eycesultan ( except f or L ate C halcolithic 4 ) w ith t he K umtepe l b-a s equence ( Yakar 1 979:62; K mil 1 982:60). m ajority o f C lass A p ottery,

B ut, i n f act, h e h imself a dmits t hat t he w hich i s t he e arliest g roup, i s o f E B I I

d ate. I n s ummarizing t he c ontroversial v iews o n t his s ubject, o ne m ay s uggest t hat t he c emetery w as i ntensively u sed p articularly d uring t he E B I l-lila p eriod. F inds: I n t wo s easons o f e xcavations G audin e xposed 1 07 b urials i n p ithoi o r j ars m ainly l ying u nder t he K irkagaç_Gelembe r oad. T he d epth o f t he 1 .00m

s oil d eposit w hich h eld t he b urials w as r ecorded b y G audin t o b e t o 1 .50m . O ne o f t he l argest b urial j ars d iscovered m easures

1 .75m

i n

1 982:7).

h eight a nd o ver 1 .00m i n d iameter a t t he w idest p art

( Kâmil

S maller v essels m ust h ave b een u sed f or i nfants a nd c hildren

s uch a s t hose d iscovered a t o ther w estern c emeteries. T he p ithoi w ere p laced i n t he s ame a llignment w hich s hows t hat t he Y ortan c emetery w as a n o rganized b urial p lace o f a s ettlement n earby. t he

o pening w as

t owards

t he s outheast,

s istency i n t he a ilignment o f r ule

a pplying

t o

t he Y ortan b urials

t he m ajority o f

I n a ll

t he j ar t ombs

e ast o r n ortheast.

t he E arly

i s,

T his c on-

i n f act,

B ronze

A ge

a g eneral

b urials

i n

w estern A natolia ( KEmil 1 982:8). O ne o f t he b urials w as f ound i n a c ist g rave b uilt a nd c overed w ith f lat s labs o f s tone. T he Y ortan s keletal r emains s uggest t hat t wo b urials p er j ar o r p ithos w as t he r ule i n t his c emetery. H owever, o ne o f t he l arge p ithoi c ontained u p t o s ix s keletons.

M etal a rtifacts f ound b y G auding i nside

t he j ars

a re

n ot n umerous. A ccording t o K mil ( 1982:9), o nly a v ery f ew s hapes a mong t he r elatively l arge a ssemblage o f c eramic f orms d iscovered w ith t he b urials m ay h ave b een a s pecial c lass o f w are p roduced f or t he d ead. T he m iniature v essels ( jugs a nd j uglets) w ere p robably t oys f or c hildren. T hey m ay h ave b een, o n t he o ther h and, s ymbolic h ousehold u tensils d eposited w ith t he y oung b urials ( see R eligion a nd C ult). S ome o f t he c omposite t riple o bjects o f c ultic s ignificance f ound t o c ontain a r ed/orange

j ars p laced i n t he g rave m ay h ave ( Kâmil 1 982:P1.xv). C ertain j ars c oloured s ubstance,

r ed o r y ellow o chre u sed i n t he c ult

o f

t he d ead

b een w ere

w hich m ay h ave b een a ( Kâmil

1 982:9).

A mong t he i mportant f inds f rom Y ortan a re l arge p ithoi a nd s maller J ars w hich s erved a s f unerary u rns, a nd s maller v essels b uried w ith t he d ead. T hese a re c lassified i nto s ix m ain s hapes. C lass

A P ottery:

v essels a nd

I t i s b y f ar t he m ost n umerous g roup c ontaining 2 24

o ut o f a t otal o f 2 63.

j ugs.

I t

i s a h andmade

T he m ain t hree f orms a re p ottery w ithout

1 65

t he u se o f

b owls, t he

j ars

p otter s

f ast w heel. B lack a nd g rey c olours a re i n m ajority. A ccording t o K âmil, t he p redominance o f t he b lack a nd g rey w ares i n Y ortan " A" c lass p ottery c ultures

s eems t o b e aw idespread a spect o f t he n orthwest i n t he E B I -II p eriods. T he b urnished w ares w ere

A natolian d ecorated

e ither w ith w hite-filled i ncised p atterns o r w ith m att w hite

p ainting.

L ess

c ommon a re t he

j ugs w ith m oulded r elief p atterns.

T he w hite p aint

w as a pplied s o t hickly t hat t he a pex o f t he c hevron mot ifs o verlapped, s tanding o ut a lmost i n r elief. I t i s i mportant t o s tress t hat i ncision w as o nly u sed o n s mall v essels. C lass

B p ottery:

T his g roup,

a ccording t o K âmil,

d ates

f rom t he e nd o f

t he E B I I p eriod. I n r elation t o t he A c lass p ottery, t he f abrics a re b etter a nd t he v essels h ard f ired. D ecoration i s l imited t o g rooved o r t wisted h andles. M ottling i s r are a nd f abrics a re l ight r ed, g rey a nd d irty b rown,

s ometimes c overed w ith a t hin s lip o f

s imilar c olours.

C lass C p ottery : T he v essels w ere f or t he f irst t ime p roduced o n a f ast w heel. B lack o r d ark g rey w ares n o l onger o ccur. A n ew f orm w hich s mall

i s a lso k nown f rom E B I II s ettlements i n w estern Anatolia i s a j ug w ith a v ery t all n eck a nd b eak s pout. T wo-handled t ankards

l eave n o d oubt t hat t his g roup s hould b e d ated a t t he e arliest t o t he E R l ila p eriod. O ther f inds f rom Y ortan i nclude a s mall n umber o f s tone

f iddle-shaped i dols.

L iterature:

F orsdyke

1 925;

O rthmann 1 966b;

H uot

1 982:32-34;

K âmil

1 982.

B ABAKÖY L ocation : T his e xtramural c emetery i s s ituated c a.35km n ortheast Y ortan, a f ew km n orthwest o f B igadic i n t he B alikesir p rovince.

o f

E xcavations: B ittel a nd S tewart i n 1 936. L ater t he s keletal r emains f rom t his c emetery w ere i nvestigated b y K 8kten. S tratigraphy: I t i s t he o nly c emetery o f t he s o-called Y ortan c ulture w hich w as s cientifically e xcavated i n t he B alikesir p rovince. T he p ithol, s ome o f w hich a re l arger t han t hose k nown f rom Y ortan, o riented a long a n e ast-west a xis, w ith t he o pening f acing e ast. m ouths

o f

t hese l arge b urial

j ars a re c overed b y s tone s labs.

a re T he

I t

i s

v ery l ikely t hat t hese s tone c overs w ere p artly v isible o n t he s urface, m ore o r l ess l ike a l ow t ombstone, t hus a llowing t o m ake c onsecutive u se o f F inds:

t he p ithoi f or o ther m embers o f T he

f unerary d eposits a re m ainly p ottery

t hese w ere m iniature,

e vidently p roduced f or

i ng t hem i n t he t ombs. w eapons, a re r ather f ew. i s

r elated

e xtent

i n

t o

t he f act

l ater t imes,

B ittel

1 941;

v essels.

t he s ole

M ost

o f

p urpose o f p lac-

P ersonal o bjects, s uch a s j ewellery o r m etal I t m ay w ell b e t hat t heir r elative s carcity t hat a nd

t he c emetery w as d isturbed t his e xposure l ead

m etal a rtifacts a nd s tone a nd m arble L iterature:

t he f amily o r c lan.

i dols

O rthman 1 963;

1 66

t o t he

t o

a

g reat

p lundering

t hrough t he c enturies.

1 966a;

K amil

1 982;

H uot

1 982.

o f

O VABAYIND I R L ocation: m ent a nd

T his s ite, w hich p robably i s c omposed o f a n E B f lat s ettlei ts e xtramural c emetery, i s s ituated a r ather s hort d istance

n ortheast o f

B abak8y,

E xcavations:

s outheast o f

R escue

B alikesir.

e xcavations b y A kurgal.

T hese

r ather

b rief

e xcavations w ere p rompted b y t he i ntensification o f c landestine s ells o f Y ortan p ottery i n t he f ifties, w hich w ere t hought t o d erive m ainly f rom t he a rea o f O vabayindir. S tratification:

T he

e xcavations w ere c arried O ut

m odern c emetery o f t he v illage. D ue t o t renches, s ome o f t hem i n t he c ourtyards o f t he

i n t he a rea o f

t he

t he s mall s cale o f t he t he m odern v illage h ouses,

r esults w ere n ot e ntirely s atisfactory.

F inds:

N one o f

t he t ombs w ere f ound i ntact.

A s mall a mount o f

p ottery

w as r ecovered. A s f or t he r emains o f e longated h ouse w alls ( stone f oundations) t hey a re t oo f ragmentary f or a c omprehensive r econstructi on.

L iterature:

A kurgal

1 958.

D EMtRCIHÖY I )K ( Fig.V: 1 ) L ocation:

T his

w estern e dge o f t he d escent o f T he m ound

i s

E xcavations:

i mportant

p rehistoric

s ituated

n ear

t he

t he E ski se hir p lain ( 25km w est o f E ski ehir), j ust a t t he A natolian p lateau t o t he c oastal r egion o f M armara.

c a.5m h igh a nd h as a d iameter o f c a.80m. I t

w as b riefly e xplored b y B ittel

' e xcavated b y K orfmann i n t he y ears S tratigraphy: a f raction o f

m ound i s

1 977

t o

i n 1 937.

L t w as

r e-

1 978.

T he d imensions o f t he m ound v isible t oday r epresent o nly t he f ormer e xtent o f t he E B-MB s ettlement. T he w estern

h alf o f t he p lain h as b een e roded a way o ver t housands o f y ears, p rim arily b y a s tream w hich i s s till f lowing t oday ( Demircih8yUk 1 :242). L ikewise,

t he h eight o f

t he m ound,

w hich r ises

c a.5m a bove

t he p lain,

h as d iminished t o s ome e xtent. A ccording t o a d eep-trench r eport, v irgin s oil u nderlying t he d eepest s trata w as f ound a t a d epth o f 8m b elow t he s urface o f t he p lain, i n o ther w ords, 4 -6m b elow t he p resent d ay w ater t able. T he p rocess o f e rosion m ust h ave a lso c overed t he e arliest s ettlements o f t he s ixth/fifth m illennia B C, n ear D emircih 8y[ Ik. T he e xistence o f s uch a N eolithic/Early C halcolithic s ettlement i s a ttested b y s tray f inds w ithin E arly B ronze A ge c ontexts ( Demircih8yt lk 1 :242). P ainted s herds o f H acilar I t ype c ulture d iscovered p redominantly i n t he E B h ouse w alls m ade o f p ise. A ccording t o t he e xcavators, n early a ll o f t hese s herds w ere b rought i nto s ettlement b y a ccident; t hey w ere m ixed i nto t he m ud a nd e arth u sed t he c onstruction o f h ouses.

t he f or

A ccording t o K orfmann, w ho f ollows t he t erminology u sed b y M ellink ( 1965), t he m ain o ccupation o f t he s ite w as d uring t he E B I ( pre-Troy I ) a nd E B I I ( Troy I ) p eriods.

S eventeen b uilding p hases a re a ssigned

t o t he E arly B ronze A ge. T hese p hases h ave b een a lphabetically d esign ated. T here i s e vidence o f a n i nterruption i n o ccupation f ollowing

1 67

P hase C , b ut a m ost r emarkable c ontinuity i n t he a rchitectural s equence w as t raced f rom P hase D o nward t o t he e nd o f t he s ettlement ( Phases D ,E ‚ , F E 2 1 s et t le ment

, F2 , F3, G , H , I , K1 , 1 (2 , L , M , 0,P ). D isruptions i n th e ( human a ctivity) a re a ttested, a ccording t o K orfmann, i n

p hases E1 , E2 a nd H . w ere d iscovered i n

T races o f a s udden c atastophe o f a nother o rigin P hase L . T his c ould h ave b een t he d irect c on-

s equence o f w ide-scale h ostilities

i n t he r egion.

F inds: T he s ettlement i s a c ircular c ompound, 7 0m i n d iameter, w hich f rom t he b eginning w as e nclosed b y a f ortification w all. H owever, i n F1 t his w all w as t ransformed i nto a m ighty f ortress o f s tone a nd m udb rick. T his n ew f ortification, c onstructed o f p artially e mbanked s tones w alls, i n c onjunction w ith a n o bstacle t o a pproach b efore i t, m ust h ave s tood a t l east 7 m h igh. O ther a rchitec ural f inds f rom t his m ound i nclude c omplete h ouses w hich m easure c a.50m ( Fig.IX :5). T hese a re o f p aramount i nterest i n s tudying t he d omestic a rchitecture o f w estern Anatolia. T he p ottery r epertoire o f D emircih8yUk i s q uite r ich.

T he

s hapes

a re

c omparable

t o s ome e xtent w ith

t he

E B

I -II

p ottery o f n orthwestern Anatolia. O f p articular i mportance a re t he n umerous t erracota f igurines, a f ew o f t hem i n g ood c ondition, f ound i n t he s ettlement.

F inally,

i t

i s

i mportant t o e mphasize

t he i mportance

o f D emircih8yt 1k C -14 a nd T L d ates i n t rying t o e stablish a m ore s olid c hronological b ase f or t he r elative c hronology o f w estern A natolia. H owever, t he r adiocarbon d ates p ublished p reviously i n s ummary r eports a re n ot r eliable b y K orfmann s a dmission. T he c orrected e stimates a re t o a ppear s oon. L iterature: 1 979;

1 980;

B ittel a nd O tto 1 939;

D emircihHyt tk I ;

K orfmann 1 977-78;

M ellink 1 978.

I ,

B OZHOYUK L ocation: l ocated

T his

s mall

m ound,

w hich w as c ut b y a r ailroad

4 5km n orthwest o f E skisehir.

t rack,

i s

I t

i s s ituated a s hort d istance

f rom t he d istrict c entre b y t he s ame n ame. a nd um i n h eight.

I t m easures 4 0m i n d iameter

E xcavations:

I t w as e xplored b y K oerte i n 1 895 a nd 1 896,

w ho

t ook t his

s ite f or a t umulus. S tratigraphy: T he e xcavations a nd t he r ailroad t rack w hich e xposed t he m ound r evealed f ive a rchitectural l evels. U nfortunately t he p ottery f rom t his s ite w as p ublished w ith n o p articular c onsideration f or s tratigraphy. F inds:

M ainly

a ssemblage, s imilar t o f igurines,

p ottery

a nd

f igurines m ade

o f

c lay.

T he

t he

p ottery

g enerally s peaking, s uggests a n o ccupation s equence r ather t hat r ecognized a t D emircih8yt ik f urther s outh. T he t o

t hose

k nown f rom t he E B s ettlements i n t he E skisehir a nd A fyon r egions

( Bilgi

1 978;

o n

t he o ther h and,

s how s tylistic s imilarities

K orfmann 1 979).

L iterature:

K oerte

1 899;

H uot

1 982:34.

1 68

N OTES 1 .

I n t he D andanelles, i n t he A egean b ays, a nd i n t he S ea o f M armara t hroughout t he y ear v ast q uantities o f f ish c an b e c aught; b ut a t c ertain s easons t here a re u nparalleled s hoals o f t unny, m ackerel a nd s ardine t hat m igrate f rom s outh t o n orth. D uring t his s easonal m igration p attern w est q uantities o f f ish s warm i nto t he i nlets a nd b ays o f t he A egean c oast. A ccording t o B intliff ( 1977), T roy, w ith i ts f ormer l arge b ay, w ould n ot o nly h ave f ormed a n i deal h arbour b ase w ould

f or c ulling t hese h igh p rotein r eserves,

b ut

t he b ay

i tself

a lmost c ertainly h ave b een s easonally f ull t o b ursting

w ith

f ish. 2 .

T his

i nformation i s b ased o n H ood s p aper " Dating T roy I I" P art

2 ,

w hich h e k indly s ent m e i n 1 982. 3 .

I bid.

4 .

T he c alibrated B P d ates, s ome o f t hem b ased e stimates, h ave b een t aken f rom E aston s l ists

5 .

A ccording t o H ood, t he p opulation mov ements f rom A natolia c ould b e d ivided i nto t hree m ain g roups. T he i nitial s ettlements o f e ach g roup a nd

w ere e stablished i n d ifferent a reas, e nding i n t he s outh.

A ccording t o

t his

o n 5 568 h alf-life ( 1976:168-173).

b eginning i n t he n orth t heory i t i s

t hat t here w as e ventually s ome d egree o f o verlap, g roup r eplacing o r m erging w ith t hose o f a nother: g roup o f

s ettlers

a ssumed

s ettlers o f o ne 1 . T he f irst

f rom A natolia e stablished t hemselves i n M acedonia

i naugurating t he l ocal E BA, w hich i s c haracterized b y t he s udden a ppearance o f p ottery o f v aguely T roy I t ype. 2 . S ettlements a ssignable t o t he s econd A natolian g roup a re f ound m ainly i n E uboia a nd t he C yclades.

T hese s ettlements,

a ccording t o H ood,

a ppear t o

h ave b een f ounded b efore t he e nd o f t he E H I I a s d efined a t L erna. W heelmade a nd o ther p ottery k nown a t T roy I I i s c haracteristic o f t his L efkandi I g roup.

3 .

T he f inal g roup o f A natolian s ettlers

i naugurated t he E H I II p eriod i n C entral a nd S outhern G reece. T his i nformation d erives f rom H ood s p aper o n " Evidence f or I nvasions i n t he A egean A rea a t t he E nd o f t he E arly B ronze A ge" w hich h e k indly p resented m e a c opy i n 1 984.

1 69

C HAPTER V I:

C ENTRAL A NATOLIA

N ATURAL E NVIRONMENT A ND S ETTLEMENT P ATTERN ( MAP V I)

b road

T his l arge r egion i ncludes t he S akarya b asin i n t he w est, t he o pen p lains o f t he A nkara p rovince, t he e ast-central p lateau

w hich i s d elimited b y t he w ide c urve o f t he K izilirmak, a nd t he Tuz G 81t 1 a nd K onya b asins i n t he s outh. H owever, s ince t he E BA c ulture o f t he s outhern p lateau ( e.g. t he K onya b asin) i s c losely r elated t o o f C ilicia a nd P isidia, I h ave p resented t he c ultural h istory o f K onya V II).

p lain w ithin t he c ontext o f T he n orthwestern p art o f

s outhern A natolia t he S akarya b asin,

t hat t he

( see: C hapter c overing t he

p rovince o f E sk 4ehir a nd e xtending i nto n orthern K onya a nd w estern A nkara, c onstitutes a n u pper d rainage b asin o f t he S akarya r iver. The b road p lains o f

t he S akarya a nd

i ts

t ributary t he P orsuk a re

s eparated

b y r olling u plands w hich c ulminate i n t he p eaks o f t he S ivrihisar S undiken r anges ( Dewdney 1 86-196). T he K 8ro lu mou ntains f orm n orthern

b oundary

A natolia. n umbers t imes.

L arge

o f

t his

p astures

r egion

a nd

s eparate

i n t his b asin c ould h ave

i t

f rom

a nd t he

n orthern

s upported

l arge

o f l ivestock i n a ntiquity a s w ell a s i n l ater p rehistoric T he m ain n atural r oad l inking t his p art o f A natolia w ith t he

H aly b asin f ollows t he P orsuk v alley a lmost t o P olatli. F rom P olatli t his r oute c ontinues a long t he A nkara S uyu a nd M amak v alleys t o t he K izilirmak v alley e ast o f A nkara. T he l argest c oncentration o f L ate C halcolithic a nd E BA s ettlements

i n t his

S akarya b asin i s

f ound

i n

t he

E ski ehir p lain ( Burney 1 956:181). A s p ointed o ut b y B urney, t he n ature o f s ites h ere v aries w ith t errain. A lmost a ll o f t he p reh istoric s ites i n t he E ski se hir p lain a re m ounds. I f f lat s ettlements, ( e.g.small v illages w ith t imber h ouses) e xisted i n t his r egion i n p rec lassical t imes t hey c ertainly d id n ot l eave a ny t races o r t hey s imply e scape d etection. T he s econd l argest c oncentration o f E BA s ettlements a re f ound i n t he A nkara p rovince. S ome o f t hese a re f ound s outh o f A nkara b etween t he v alleys o f S akarya a nd K izilirmak; K o9umbeli, A hlatlibel, K arao lan, P olatli a nd a f ew n orth o f t he c apital: E tiyoku u, B itik. T he d istribution a nd n ature o f p rehistoric s ettlem ents i n t his d istrict s uggest t hat t he s heltered b asins w ere f avoured b y m ixed

f arming c ommunities,

p articularly i n t he E BII-Ill p eriod.

E ast-central A natolia c omprises t he

T uz

s eparates f orms

t he

S outhern

G 81 i ! 1 t he

( Salt L ake).

t he t erritory i mmediately e ast

H ere a f aultline s carp

s ome

l ake b asin f rom t he u plands o f K ochisar.

w atershed A natolia) a nd

b etween

t he

t he b asin o f

i nterior

d rainage

3 00m

o f h igh

T his

u pland

s ystem

( see:

t he u pper K izilirmak.

T he f ault-

l ine w hich e xtends f or 1 50km a long a n orthwest-southwest a xis, p assing e ast o f A nkara a nd w est o f ç ankiri, s eparates t he m iddle K izilirmak f rom t he u pper S akarya. T he g reater p art o f c entral A natolia ( east c entral p lateau) i s s ituated e ast o f t his d ivide i n t he c atchment o f t he K izilirmak, w hich f ollows a h orseshoe-shaped c ourse o f mor e t han 7 00km b efore i t b reaks t hrough t he P ontic r anges i n t he p rovince o f

1 70

C orum. I n f act, t he m ountainous

n orth o f q orum a nd A masya s tarts t he c entral s ector o f r egion o f n orthern A natolia. A s f or t he K izilirmak

( Halys) r iver, i t r ises i n t he n ortheastern s ector o f c entral A natolia i n t he a ngle b etween t he Y ildiz d a lari, m ost s outherly o f t he P ontic r anges, a nd T ecer d a lari, m ost n ortherly o f t he T aurus f olds ( Dewdney 1 971:186-196). T he u pper K izilirmak r uns f or a d istance o f 1 60km b etween S ivas a nd K ayseri, a nd f lows t owards t he s outhwest i n a s eries o f n arrow, f aulted d epressions b etween A kda lari a nd H inzir r anges. P rehistoric

s ites

w ith E B o ccupation a re n ot

f ound

i n

t his

a rea

i n

n umbers t o s uggest a d ense s ettlement p attern ( Yakar a nd G rsanS alzmann 1 979). I t i s i mportant t o s tress, h owever, t hat t erraces a long t he K izilirmak v alley p rovide l arge a reas o f c ultivable l and. N orth o f K irikkale, t he K izilirmak t urns n ortheast a nd p asses t hrough a n u pland b asin w hich, t ogether w ith t he v alley o f D eu ce, p rovides l arge e xpanses o f c ultivable l and. H ere t he a nnual r ainfall i s h igher t han m ost o ther a reas o f c entral A natolia. P rehistoric s ites i n t his s ector

( north

o f K irqehir) a re f ound e specially i n t he

s outhern

w estern p arts o f t he S eyfe L ake b asin ( Todd 1 980:23-24). T o t he o f t he S eyfe L ake a n umber o f E B s ites l ine a r oute l eaving t he n ear B ortepe.

T his r oute p asses

a nd w est b asin

t hrough a v alley r unning n orth-north-

w est f rom K ir ehir. I n t his v alley p rehistoric m aterial h as b een f ound a t a n umber o f s ites; f rom a m ound w ithin K ir ehir ( Alkim 1 956) i n t he s mall a lluvial p lain a round ç oi in a t t he n orth e nd o f t he v alley a nd f urther w est a long a nd s outheast o f

t he K ir ehir-Kaman r oad ( Todd 1 980:24). t he S eyfe L ake, p rehistoric s ites

T o t he e ast o ccur q uite

f requently

t he

t o

a long

r oute w hich r uns e ast

f rom

M ucur

T opakli,

K alaba a nd H immetdede a long t he f oot o f t he l ow r ange w hich s eparates t his a rea f rom t he K izilirmak v alley ( Todd 1 980:24). S outheast o f H immetdede t he r oute f ollows t he K arasu v alley p ast B eyde irmeni t o t he p lain o f K ayseri. I n t he v alley o f B ogazliyan c ay, r unning w est f rom B ogazliyan, e xtensive p rehistoric o ccupation i s r eported t o b e e vident o n t he b anks 1 980:24). T he

o f

t he r iver a nd o n t he h eights

a rea e ast o f t he T uz C ilL f,

i mmediately a bove l t

i ncluding

( Todd

t he d istrict o f A ksaray,

t he p rovinces o f N ev ehlr a nd K ayseri ( which e xtend t o Y ahyali p lain i n t he s outh a nd K ir ehir i n t he n orth) w ere r ather d ensely p opulated i n l ater

p rehistoric t imes,

( e.g.

H acibekta ,

A cemh8yt lk,

K t lltepe).

I n t he

t erritory s outhwest a nd w est o f K irsehir m ost o f t he l arge p rehistoric m ounds h ave b een s ubmerged u nder t he r eservoir o f t he H irfanli D am ( Todd 1 980:23). I n t he e nvirons o f G Ul ehri ( Arapsun) a nd A vanos, n orth-northeast f ew s ites, b ut

o f N ev ehir, p rehistoric o ccupation i s a ttested a t a i t i s n ot a s d ense w hen c ompared w ith t he c oncentration

o f s ites f urther n orth i n t he S eyfe b asin a nd e lsewhere ( Todd 1 980:23). A s p ointed Out b y T odd f lat s ettlements a re f ound i n t his r egion a long t he b anks o f t he K izilirmak. T he c limate h ere, e specially i n t he e astern s outh

K izilirmak v alley, o f

I s s teppic,

b ut

K irikkale a s lightly m ilder w eather

m editerranean) u nderstand t he

f rom s outh o f K ir ehir c ondition

t o

( xerothermo-

p revails. I t i s i mportant t o e mphasize, i n o rder t o s ettlement p attern a long t he K izilirmak, t hat t his

c limate i s r estricted o nly i mmediate e nvironment, a nd I s

t o t he v alley o f t his r iver a nd l inked b y a n arrow c limatic c orridor

i ts t o

t he s ame t ype o f c limate w hich p revails i n t he S alt L ake b asin ( Todd 1 980:23). As f or t he a lluvial p lain o f Y e ilhisar, m uch o f it consists o f s alt m arshes a nd s aline d eposits ( e.g. t he c entre o f t he p lain). P rehistoric

s ites a re

a n a ltitude o f

f ound n ear t he e dges o f

t his p lain w hich l ies

c a.1000m s urrounding t he s alt K urtba a C 81 i 1

1 71

( Todd

a t

1 968:

M AP V I:

C ENTRAL A NATOLIA

1 .

A lacah8yUk

2 2.

Y az i likaya

2 . 3 . 4 .

B «yt lk G «llt icek E skiyapar Y arikkaya

2 3. 2 4. 2 5.

M anaho z B avurdu Y anarlar

5 . 6 . 7 . 8 .

M a at K ayapinar I nandik H asano lan

2 6. 2 7.

Ci kr i k a vdarli

2 8. 2 9.

1 udra K uq l uca

9 . 1 0.

E tiyoku u K ocumbeli

3 0. 3 1.

t j ukurkent B eysehir

1 1. 1 2. 1 3. 1 4. 1 5.

A hiatlibel K arao lan B itik I lica Y enido an

3 2. 3 3. 3 4. 3 5. 3 6.

I ii c ap ma r S apmazk8y A cemh8yt ik H acibekta K i ll t epe

1 6. 1 7.

P olatli G ordion

3 7. 3 8.

S uit a nhan K umluktepe

1 8. 1 9. 2 0.

Y azirh8yt {k H amidiye U ryanhHyt lk

3 9. 4 0. 4 1.

H ash8yi lk A ll ar K arah8yt lk

2 1.

K ara8ren

4 2. 4 3.

M ahmatlar H orortepe

1 72

>

1 73

2 4). O f a n umber o f p rehistoric s ettlements i n t he K ayseri p lain, o nly a f ew d ate f rom t he E B p eriod. T he m ain r eason f or t he r emarkable s carcity o nce

o f

e arly s ettlements h ere c ould p erhaps b e e xplained b y

i ntense

v olcanic a ctivity o f

K ayseri p lain

( Todd

P atches s ites

s outh

t he

o f

t he

1 968:24)

T he Y ozgat p rovince, p lateau, v alleys

t he E rciyas v olcano

w hich t o a l arge e xtent c onsists o f

t he B ozok

i s a n u ndulating c ountry m arked b y l ow h ills a nd s mall f ertile w atered b y s prings. T his p rovince h as n o m ajor p lains. o f

f lat

l and b etween t he v alleys a re r ather a rid.

a re u sually f ound

P rehistoric

i n t he w ell w atered s mall v alleys.

T here

i s a

l arge c oncentration o f p rehistoric s ettlements w ithin t he ç iqekda i Y ozgat a nd Y enipazar t riangle. E ast o f t he B o azliyan-Yozgat r oad t he d ensity o f m ounds i s g reater ( Osten 1 937, M ap I II). A ccording t o T odd t here a re n o s igns o f o ccupation y et i n t his p rovince w hich c ould b e d ated

t o

t he N eolithic p eriod

T he

n orth-central

( 1968:25).

p art

t he A natolian

o f 9 orum ,

t he S ivas m ountains

p rovince. T he r elief o f t his r eaching h eights o f c a.1750m.

t hose

n ear

A masya,

o f

p rovinces

S ungurlu,

T okat a nd

A laca,

A masya

p lateau

i ncludes

t he

t he w estern/northern s ectors

o f

r egion i s q uite h igh w ith s ome S mall a lluvial p lains s uch a s a nd K azova

h ave

a

n umber

o f

p rehistoric s ites d ating f rom t he f ourth a nd t hird m illennia B C. T hese s mall s ettlements a re n ot l imited t o t he v alleys b ut a re f ound o n t he h illy c ountry a s w ell.

T HE

S EQUENCE O F C ULTURAL F RAMEWORKS S tratigraphic

e xcavations

a nd f ield s urveys

i n c entral

A natolia

d id n ot y ield c oncrete e vidence r egarding s ettlement a ctivity i n t his r egion p rior t o t he f ourth m illennium B C. T his d oes n ot n ecessarily m ean, h owever, t hat s ome s mall p ockets o f a rable l and i n t he w estern a nd s outhern s ectors o f t his r egion w ere n ot p opulated a t a ll d uring t he L ate N eolothic o r E arly C halcolithic p eriod

( e.g.

t he u pper P orsuk

v alley). T he A natolia G t lllt icek, b y

d ark

b urnished

h andmade

a nd

d ecorated

w ares

o f

c entral

( white p ainted, i ncised ) known f rom Y azirh8y t 1k, B Uyt lk A lacah8y t lk 9 -15 m ark t he b eginning o f l arge s cale s ettlement

L ate C halcolithic f armers

i n c entral A natolia.

A lthough t he

t erm

L ate C halcolithic i s u sed t o d escribe t his p ottery c ulture, m ost s cholars a gree t hat i t s hould b e d ated t o t he E B I p eriod o f A natolia. I n v iew o f t he f act t hat p ottery g roups r ather s imilar i n f orm d ecoration a re a lso k nown f rom t he s outhern p lateau a s e arly a s

a nd t he

L ate C halcolithic p eriod i t m ay b e m ore c autious t o a ssess t o t his g roup o f w ares a l onger t ime s pan. T he h andmade d ark s lipped b urnished p ottery o f t he C opper A ge i s u sually r efered t o a s E B I I p ottery. I t i s i mportant t o s tress, h owever, t hat t his h omogenous m onochrome w are, w hich h as a n e xtremely w ide d istribution i n A natolia, s eems t o h ave b een p roduced a s e arly a s t he l ater p art o f t he E B I t o t he e nd o f t he E B I II. D uring t his l ong p eriod o f p roduction t he i ntroduction o f c ertain l ocal c haracteristics i n s urface c olour, d ecoration a nd f orms c ould h elp u s d etermine t he t ime r ange o f t his w are i n t he l ocal a nd r egional s tratigraphies. I t s hould b e r emembered t hat i n a reas w here t he p ainted C appadocian w ares ( Intermediate a nd A li ar I II) d id n ot p enetrate,

t he

e xistence o f

l ate

t hird m illennium o ccupation

1 74

i s

n ot

W EST-CENTRAL P LATEAU S

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A h 1

E B I II

-

1

t

5 y k

ü

Rh

a

k

E

r

m

H

p I n

r

-

8

l b

4

A V c J a ?

y i k

C E C ulture

Y a z i r h

V

L

I I

A T E

l a

C

U

0

H

R B

y

A

A N

k

A L I

U

C

to

S

A R

C ulture

0

1 75

a lways e asy t o d etect, u nless o f c ourse c ertain m etal f orms, a rchitecture a nd a rt s tyles a ccompany t he l ocal r epertoire o f h andmade b urnished p ottery. A nother p roblem i n t he r egional s tatigraphy o f n orth-central A natolia i s t he d ate o f t he r ich P ontic t ombs s uch a s A laca H 8yt ik, H orortepe. T he p resence o f h andmade d ark s lipped b urnished p ottery r elated t o t he r ich b urial d eposits l ed K o ay t o d ate t he

t ombs o f A laca

t o

t he E B I I p eriod.

A nother

f actor

i n f avour

o f

h is a ssessment w as t he f act t hat t he t ombs w ere f ound b elow a b urnt s tratum c ontaining A li ar I II p ainted w are. H owever, s ince t his p ainted p lain t ombs

C appadocian w are w as n ot r eally i n v ogue o utside

t he

K ayseri

b efore t he E B hIC p eriod, i t i s v ery l ikely t hat t he P ontic d ate f rom t he E B I II a nd n ot E B I I p eriod. T hree p hases c an b e

d istinguished i n t he e volution o f t he C appadocian p ainted w are ( Alisar I II). I n t he f irst p hase ( EB I IIB) v essels h ave s imple d ecorative p atterns i n r ed o r p urplish b rown p aint o n a r eddish b uff s lip. I n t he s econd p hase ( EB hIC) d ark b rown c oloured p aint o r s ometimes r ed p aint i s u sed t o d esign l inear p atterns o n a h ighly b urnished b uff o r o range s lip. I n t he t hird p hase ( EB hIC-MB 1 -11) b ichrome p ainting i n b lack/ d ark b rown a nd

r ed o n a r ed s urface w ith c ream s lipped

p anels

p roduced

g eometric d esigns. A t K lltepe i n l evel 1 2 t he f irst e xamples o f t his p ainted p ottery ( early a nd s ome m iddle p hase) a nd t he s o-called I ntermediate w are a re f ound t ogether w ith l arge q uantities o f r ed, b rown a nd b uff m onochrome w are. T he e arlier l evel 1 3 ( EB l IlA), p roduced n o C appodocian p ainted w are b ut, l ike A li ar M 7, i t r evealed a f ew e xamples o f I ntermediate p ainted p ottery w ith s ome r ed s lipped b urnished m onochrome w are. F inally, i n l evel 1 1 a t K t lltepe, t he I ntermediate w are d isappears a nd i n i ts p lace t he f irst e xamples o f t he l ater t ypes o f C appadocian p ainted w are a ppear. T his s ubdivision o f t he p ainted w are g roup o f c entral A natolia, w hich n o d oubt c ould b e f urther r efined, i s c ertainly v ery u seful i n d etermining t he o ccupation s equence i n e ast-central p lateau i n t he s econd h alf o f t he t hird m illenium B C. F urthermore, t he d istribution p attern o f t his p ottery d uring t he v arious p hases o f i ts d evelopment c ould h elp u s e valuate t he c ultural i nteraction w ithin t he c entral p lateau. B ut t he a bsence o f C appadocian p ainted p ottery f rom m ost s ettlements i n t he n orthern o r w estern s hould n ot b e n ecessarily i nterpreted a s a s ettled l ife d uring t he E B I II p eriod. M etal o ther s ites i n t he A nkara o r E ski ehir r egion

s ectors o f t his r egion g eneral i nterruption o f f orms f rom Ahiatlibel a nd s uggest t hat, e xcept f or

t emporary

m ost

a bandonment o f a f ew s ettlements,

f ortified

v illages,

t owns a nd c itadels e stablished d uring t he E B I I c ontinued t o b e i nhabited i n t he w estern a nd c entral s ectors o f t he p lateau, a t l east u ntil

t he

e nd

o f

t he E B I II.

I n e stablishing t he E B

I I

a nd

I II

s equence i n t his r egion, a nd p articularly i n t he n orthern, c entral a nd w est-central s ectors o f t he p lateau, i t i s i mportant t o r ealize t hat i n t he h andmade r egional r epertoire o f d ark s lipped b urnished g roup r ed a nd

b rown

o nes d uring r epertoires,

c oloured m onochrome v essels b ecame m ore p opular

t hroughout t he t hird m illennium ( e.g. A hiatlibel), f orms a nd d ecoration t echniques ( shallow f luting, r ibbed p atterns o n s pouted p itchers a nd s mall b owls) t he

t han

b lack

t he l ate E B I I a nd E B I II p eriod. I n c ertain l ocal h owever, b lack s lipped p ottery r etained i ts p opularity

s tratigraphic p osition o f

b ut t hen c ertain c orrugation a nd c ould e stablish

s uch h andmade m onochrome p ottery.

m etalforms w hich a re c haracteristic o f t he E B I II p eriod A natolia o ne s hould m ention t he s haft-hole a xes, h alberds, s pearheads w ith h ooked t ang ( see: S tronach 1 957).

1 76

A s

f or

i n c entral s words a nd

C HRONOLOGY T he c hronology o f

t he c entral A natolian E BA s equence c an b e e stab-

l ished i n a n umber o f w ays: ( a) B y c orrelating t he c eramic e vidence f rom P olatli, K t lltepe a nd H acibekta w ith t hat o f T roy a nd D emircih8yt {k ; ( b) B y s ynchronizing i t w ith t he C ilician a nd, t o s ome e xtent, n orth S yrian/Mesopotamian E BA f ramework; ( c) B y e stablishing a c hronological s equence f or t he m etal t ypes w ith t he h elp o f S yrian a nd n orth M esopotamian c ounterparts; ( d) B y r elying o n c arbon

e stimates

A lacah8yUk,

d eriving

f rom

o ld

a s w ell

a s

n ew

t heir r adio-

s eries

( e.g.

D ermircih8y t lk).

A s M ellink p ointed o ut, i n c entral A natolia a re

t he b est L ate C halcolithic-EBA

f ound a t A li ar,

A laca a nd K f lltepe.

s equences A s ynchro-

n ism b etween K t lltepe l evel 1 2 a nd T roy I Ic-g i s p rovided b y t he o ccurr ence o f a d epas f orm i n t he f ormer. T wo s imilar d epata w ere a lso f ound a t P olatli a t t he e nd o f p hase I . T he f ollowing p hase I I a t P olatli p roduced a f ew e xamples o f C appadocian p ainted w are o f t he f ound a t K Ultepe 1 1. A t P olatli p hase I I, r ed-cross b owls o f T roy f orms a ppear p ottery b etween

( level 1)

b efore t he i ntroduction o f C appadocian

( level 1 3). T he f ollowing a re t he t he l ater E B s equences o f K t lltepe a nd

p robable T arsus:

t ype I V-V

p ainted

s ynchronsims ( a) W heelmade

S yrian g rey b ottles o f T arsus E B I lib f ound a t K i lltepe 1 1; c aliciform w are f ound i n t he l ate E B I II c ontexts o f

( b) Amuq J b oth s ites

( Mellaart 1 957:64); ( c) W heelmade b owls a nd p lates o f p lain w are, c haracteristic o f C ilician E B I II, o ccur i n l arge q uantities i n t he e arly E B I II l evels ( 13-12) a t K l lltepe ( Mellaart 1 957:64); ( d) A s ingle s herd o f C appadocian p ainted w are f ound a t T arsus i n t he E B l ila c ont ext ( Goldman 1 956: F ig.285). T he d iscovery o f i mported p ottery a nd s eals o f n on-Anatolian o rigin i n t he c entral p lateau a re a lso o f g reat i mportance i n e stimating t he r elative c hronology o f t he E B I I i n t his r egion. A w heelmade S yrian t ype b ottle f rom a s ealed a t A li ar 1 3T ( an i ntramural b urial: v on d er O sten 1 937:168;

c ulture c ontext M ellink

1 965:112) c orresponds t o i mported E B I I b ottles a t T arsus a nd t he I l-lilA b ottles f rom U r a nd F ara. T he c ylinder s eal f rom A li ar

E D 8 m

( von d er O sten 1 937:183, 3 455) h as i ts c losest p arallel i n a s tratified s eal f rom T ell A smar, E D I , b ut a ccording t o M ellink t his g ives n o m ore t han a p ost q uem i ndication T he i mportant

( 1965:112).

p re-Hittite s equence a t A lacah8yt ik i s b asically m ade u p o f p eriods:

t wo

t he e arliest h as a p ottery a ssemblage w hich c ould

w ell b e p artly C halcolithic a nd p artly o f E B Id ate, a s f or t he s econd ( "Copper A ge") p eriod, i t c overs b oth t he E B I I a nd I II w ith n o c lear d emarcation b etween t he t wo. T he

' Royal

T ombs'

s tratigraphic t erms,

o f

A lacah8yt lk c ould n ot

m ainly b ecause o f

b e

d ated

i n

p urely

t he a bsence o f c learly r ecorded

s ections ( Mellink 1 965:112). T he p rincipal d ifficulty i n r econstructi ng t he s tratigraphy o f A lacah8yt Ik h as t o d o w ith l evels 7 -5 a nd t heir r elationship t o

t he v arious s haft g raves

( see a lso H uot

1 982).

T hese

t ombs c ontained n ot o nly a n e xtremely r ich c ollection o f m etal f inds b ut a lso h andmade m onochrome w are o f " Copper A ge" p eriod. W hile t he P ottery i ncludes f orms r ather f amiliar w ith E B I I c ontexts o f A natolia, s ome o f t he m etal a rtifacts h ave p arallels i n t he

c entral E B I II

a ssemblages i n t he A egean, C ilicia a nd n orthern S yria ( see: S tronach 1 957; B ittel 1 959; M ellink 1 965:116-117). F or i nstance T omb M a t A lacah8yt lk c ontained f ragments o f a s pouted b ronze j ar w ith t he b asket 1 77

C ENTRAL A NATOLIA

I

P hase

A lI ar

K ültepe

P olo t II

C ILICIA A lacahöyük

T arsus

5

C a P L i

U

( Ib)

E BIlIb

P a

6

2 250

B C

d 0 C

I

6M

a 1 2 T roy

I I

t ypes

1 2T

7

a I 1 3

I

7M

( la)

C

n

0

t

P

e

p e

d

8

8m 1 4

1 4T uM

A 0 e

B C:KarataB)

E R

1 2M ( ca-2900

2 500 B C

1 3T

I

( 2800-2600

E BIIIa

P

I

P hase

n

B C:Be9iktepe)

I I

9 2 800/2700

L a 1 4M

t

( ca-2950

e

l evel

B C

1 1/12)* E B

I

1 5 1 9M L ate C halcolithic

V

*

Y akar

1 979.

F or

w est

A natolian a nd

M esopotamian

d ates

s ee

1 78

t he

r elevant

c hapters.

B C

h andle

o f

a t ype p aralleled

i n T reasures B a nd S a t T roy

I I

( Bittel

1 959:24; M ellink 1 965:117); T omb K h as a s imilar s ilver v essel w ith a v ariant o f i t d iscovered a t K ayapinar. T he s lotted s pearhead w ith b ent t ang

i s o ne o f

I II, a nd

T roy I I t herefore

t he m etal

f orms

o ther P ontic m etal a rtifacts B C. a n

f ound a t A lacah8y { lk T omb T ,

T arsus

E B

( Treasure A , S S 5 842-44) a nd Amorgos ( in t he C yclades), f urther c orroborates t he d ating o f t he A lacah8yt 1k a nd t o

t he s econd h alf o f

t he t hird m illennium

A ccording t o M ellaart T h o pinion t he t ombs o f A lacah yUk b elong t o o pen c emetery o n t he e dge o f t he c ity ( 1957:65). A s s uch t hey

s hould b e r egarded a s e xtramural g raves b elonging t o t he s econd h alf t he t hird m illennium B C. T he d esertion o f t his 'royal' c emetery r elated, i s n ot

i n M ellaart s v iew, t o t he f all o f t he r uling d ynasty, u nlikely t hat t his w as c aused b y t he a rrival o f t he

i ntroducing

t he

C appodocian

p ainted

p ottery

i nto

t he

o f i s

a nd i t p eople

K ir ehir-

B o azliyan b asin ( 1957:66). A ccording t o t his a ssessment t he d estruct ion o f A lacah8y 1 1k 5 ( the s quaters s ettlement ? ) m ay h ave t aken p lace a s m uch a s a c entury l ater. A d ate b etween 2 400-2200 h as o ften b een p roposed f or t he'Royal T ombs ' o f A lacah8yUk. R egarding t he e xistence o f C appadocian p ainted p ottery i n l evel 4 a t A lacah8y t lk, t his c ould n ot b e t aken a s a c lear i ndication t hat t he d estruction o f l evel 5 t ook p lace b efore t he e nd o f t he E B I II p eriod. I t i s f ound t ogether w ith w heelm ade C appadocian m onochrome p ottery o f t he e arly s econd m illennium B C. A ccording ( B,D,H) B C o r

t o

0 rthman

( 1963:98)

t hree o f

t he 1 1

t ombs

o f

A lacah8yt ik

m ay b elong t o t he b eginning o f t he T ransitional p eriod ( ca.2000 s lightly e arlier). H uot, o n t he o ther h and, e stablished a

s tratigraphy f or t hese g raves, p lacing T ombs F , K , L , A ?, C ? b etween t he d estruction l evels o f 7 a nd 6 ; T I, A , E ? b etween t he d estruction l evels o f 6 a nd 5 ; a nd t he r emaining B , D , H , R , T 2, S ? a fter t he d estruction o f l evel 5 . I t end t o a gree w ith t his c lassification o f t he t ombs a nd t he r elatively l ate d ate w ithin t he E B I II p eriod ( EB I lIB)

f or

s ome o f

t hem.

C ULTURAL F RAMEWORKS/ETHNO-CULTURAL T RAITS ( FIGURES X II-XVI). P roto-Urban P eriod T he

s o-called

L ate C halcolithic c ulture o f

c entral

A natolia

i s

s till n ot p roperly d ocumented. T he l ittle i nformation w e p ossess c oncerning a rchitecture, f igurative a rt, p ottery a nd s tone i ndustries d erives

f rom a s mall n umber o f s ettlements s uch

A lacah8yt lk, Y azirh8y t 1k,

A li ar, c iradere, Y arikkaya, K arao ' lan a nd H ash8ytk ( see:

B { ly t ik

G t 1111cek,

S ultanhan, M a at, 0 rthmann 1 963:

a s,

H orortepe, M ap 9 8).

M ost o f t hese s ettlements a re l ocated i n t he n orthern s ectors o f t he c entral p lateau. G enerally s peaking, i t i s p ossible t o d istinguish a s mall n umber o f r egional v ariations I n t he L ate C halcolithic c ulture o f t he c entral p lateau, e specially b etween t he a rchitecture a nd p ottery a ssemblage o f t he Y ozgat a nd 9 orum p rovinces. I n t he l atter p rovince t he l ate f ourth o r e arly t hird m illennium v illage a rchitecture r eflects a b uilding t radition b ased o n t he u se o f s tone f oundations t o s upport t he s un-dried m udbrick w alls o f h ouses. A t A lacah8yt {k, i t s eems t hat t he s tone s ubstructures o f i ndividual h ouses w ere b uilt u pon a l ayer ( bedding) o f m udbrick ( three c ourses t hick) ( Naumann 1 975:Fig.32). T his

t ype o f

s ingle o r

t wo

r oom d omestic s tructure i s n ot

f ound i n t he

Y ozgat o r o ther p rovinces i n t he e astern o r c entral s ectors o f t he p lateau. A t A lI ar ,for i nstance, h ouse w alls w ere b uilt o f p isé a nd m udbrick b ut w ithout t he u se o f s tone f oundations.

1 79

T he h andmade d ark s lipped b urnished w ares

i n t he l ocal

a ssemblages

f orm a d ominant g roup w hich, o n a r egional b asis, i s r ather h omogenous i n f abric, s urface t reatment a nd f iring t echnique. T he m ain d iffere nces d ue t o l ocal o r s ub-regional v ariations h ave t o d o m ore w ith d ecoration t echniques a nd p references f or c ertain f orms. B eside p lain w et-smoothed w ares

f ound i n e very s ettlement o f

t his p eriod,

t here a re

t hree m ain g roups o f d ark s lipped p ottery; b lack, r ed a nd g reyish b uff. I n e ach o f t he g roups t he v essels a re c oated w ith a t hick s lip w hich i s b urnished. v egetable

F abrics a re u sually c oarse c ontaining g rits a nd s ometimes a t emper. I n t he Y ozgat p rovince t he p otters d id r arely

d ecorate t he v essels w ith i ncised p atterns o r w hite p aint. I n t he ç orum p rovince, o n t he o ther h and, i ncised w hite-filled l inear p atterns a nd d ull w hite p ainted m otifs w ere f requently a pplied o n b owls a nd j ars ( e.g. A lacah8y { Ik, B t ly t lk G t lllt fcek). A f ew s herds o f r ed-on-cream o r w hite p ainted w are f ound a t A lisar s uggest t he e xistence o f p ottery g roups s till m aintaining c haracteristics o f e arlier t raditions i n t he Y ozgat r egion. A mong t he c haracteristic f orms a re f ruit s tands ( with l ong, p edestals), w ide-mouthed j ars, b ell-shaped c ups, b owls w ith f lat a nd r ounded b ases ( Fig.XII). I n t he ç orum p rovince, i nstead o f t he l arger w ide-mouthed

j ars,

t he p otters p roduced a j ar

f orm w ith a l ower

p rofile a nd m ore p ronounced s houlder c arination. T he

L ate C halcolithic c ulture o f c entral A natolia i s b asically

a

v illage c ulture w ith n o c lear d emarcation b etween i ts e arlier a nd l ater p hases. S ettlements s eem t o h ave b een s mall a gglomerations ( Fig.XII:4) w ith o r w ithout d efensive w alls. I ntramural b urials i n j ars a nd s imple g raves b elow h ouse f loors a re o ne o f t he m any a spects w hich c haracte r ize t his c ulture. s hallow t ombs w ith

O ther f orms o f b urials i nclude s tone c ists a nd a w ooden p latform p roped u p o n s tones, ( e.g.

A lacah8yt lk). I t i s i mportant m embers o f f orms w ere m ade o f

p ossible t hat t he l atter w as u sed m ainly f or t he c ommunity ( Fig.XII:10). F igurines i n h uman c lay a nd a re f ound i n m ost h ouses ( Fig.XII:18).

T hey a re a bstract r epresentations o f d eities(?) o r h umans(?). t hese f igurines h ave p erforations a t b oth s ides o f t he h ead,

S ome o f p robably

f or h air a nd/or e arring a ttachment. M ost o f t he o bsidian, f lint a nd c halcedony i mplements d eriving f rom L ate C halcolithic d eposits a re b lades,

s crapers,

a rrowheads

a nd c ores

( Fig.XII:12-15).

T hey

h ave

f orms w hich g enerally a ppear t hroughout t he t hird m illennium B C. B one o bjects, s uch a s a wls a nd h andles, a re a lso f ound i n g reat n umbers i n m ost L ate C halcolithic/EB I s ettlements i n t his r egion. O n t he o ther h and c opper t ools s uch a s k nives, f lat a xes, a dzes o r a wls a re r ather r are, w hich s uggests t hat m etallurgy w as n ot a s a dvanced i n c entral A natolia i n t he p roto-urban p eriod a s i t w as i n t he s outhwest, s outhe ast o r e astern A natolia

E arly U rban P eriod

( Fig.XII:g).

( EB I I)

T he C opper A ge C ulture

( Fig.XIII)

T he e arly s tages o f u rban d evelopment i n t his r egion c an b e b est s tudied a t A li ar. D uring t he e arly p hase o f t his p eriod o nly t he c itadel m ound w as i nhabited. B ut b y t he s econd p hase t he s ettlement w as e xpanded t o i nclude a reas b eyond t he m ound ( e.g. t he c ity t errace). T his g radual g rowth o f t he s ettlement c annot b e e xplained o nly i n t erms o f a w hich

p opulation g rowth b ut a lso a s a r esult o f c ultural d evelopment m otivated t he t ransformation o f t he v illage i nto a w ell p lanned

1 80

t own

s ettlement.

d efense

w all.

T his T he

s ettlement w as f ortified w ith a s trong

a ppearance o f s tone

f oundations

f or w alls

o uter i s

a n

i nnovation o f t his p eriod i n t he Y ozgat r egion. T hese f oundations, u sed i n t he b uilding o f f ortification w alls, l arge b uilding u nits a nd h ouses

v ary

i n h eight f rom a s ingle

l ayer o f

s tone

t o

s ubstructures

n early a m eter i n h eight ( Fig.XIII:21). M ud b inding w as a lways u sed i n t hem. T he s uperstructures a re u sually b uilt o f m udbricks o r o f p is . F ortification w alls o f t he p eriod a re r easonably t hick ( ca.2.00m) a nd t heir s tone f oundations/substructures a re mor e t han 2 .50m h igh. H ouses w ere l arger t han t hose o f t he e arlier p eriod. A t A lacah8ytk h ouses w ere b uilt i n g roups o f t wo t o t hree u nits a round l arge c ourtyards. ( Fig.XI i r:11). i t i s n ot c lear i f a t A lisar a nd o ther c ontemporary s ettlements s uch a s K Ultepe, S uluca K arah8yt 1k , Hacibekta a nd A cemh8y t 1k t he h ouses w ere a rranged

i n a s imilar w ay,

o r w ere a ligned a long a lleys

a nd s treets a s i n T arsus E B I I, o r N or untepe V III-VII. I t i s w rong, h owever, t o a ssume t hat s mall v illages c eased t o e xist i n m ost p arts o f t he c entral p lateau. A t P olatli f or i nstance, t he e arliest f armers, w ho b uilt t heir h ouses o n c lean g ravel b eside a s pring o f w ater, m aint ained m ost a spects o f t raditional v illage a rchitecture i n t he e arly u rban p eriod a nd e ven l ater. D espite t he f act t hat t heir v illage s uffered r epeated d estructions t he s ettlers d id n ot, i t s eems, a ttempt t o r ebuild i t a ccording t o e arly u rban c oncepts, w hich r equired t he e rection o f a h eavy f ortification w all. T his h as n othing t o d o w ith f amiliarity w ith m ore a dvanced b uilding t echnology I n o rder t o b uild l arge

t owns.

A s

p ointed

Out

b y L loyd,

t he e xcavations

a t

P olatli

r evealed n o m ore a nd n o l ess t han o ther c ontemporary c entral A natolian s ites r egarding t he d omestic a rchitecture. B uildings, s ome o f t hem r elatively l arge,

w ere o f

s un-dried m udbricks

r esting o n s tone

f ounda-

t ions c a.1.00m h igh. T he l ocal b uilders a lso w ere f amiliar w ith t he u se o f t imber i n b rickwork i n o rder t o r einforce t he w alls. T he r eloc ation o f v illages t o a reas c lose t o t rade r outes a nd m ineral r esources i n t he m id-and l ate t hird m illennium B C c ould b e e xplained i n t erms S ocio-economic r eorganization.

o f

A lmost a ll t he p ottery o f t his p eriod i s h andmade. T he v essels g enerally s how a t hick r ed s lip w hich i s q uite w ell b urnished. T he m ajority o f

t he v essels w ere m ade o f m edium t o c oarse w are,

b ut

s mall

b owls a nd c ups w ere m ade o f f iner a nd b etter l avigated c lays. D ecorat ion w as r arely a pplied o n v essels. B ut i n t he Y ozgat p rovince t he p otters

s ometimes

p roduced p ainted

( red o r b rown o n p inkish c ream

a nd

l ight b rown s lipped s urfaces) p ottery a longside t he d ark b urnished m onochrome w are. F urther n orth i n t he C orum p rovince p ainted v essels a re n ot

f ound

i n t he l ocal

r epertoires.

T he m onochrome w are

i ncludes

s ome d ecorated v essels w hich c ould b e d ated t o t he e arly a nd l ate p hases o f t his C opper A ge c ulture. D ecoration t echniques i nclude i ncised w hite-filled l inear p atterns ( early p hase), c orrugated, r ibbed a nd f luted d ecoration ( generally l ate p hase). A lthough f requently c alled d ark b urnished w are, t he p redominant c olour i n t he E B I I a ssemb lage o f t he c entral p lateau i s t he r ed s lipped w are. T he u sually p lant t empered. A lthough t his w are a t A lisar a ppears e arly

t hird

m illennium B C,

i f n ot e arlier,

t he p aste

p aste i s s ince t he

t hen w as

g rit

t empered. T he c olour o f t he r ed s lipped w are r anges f rom l ight b rick r ed t o d ark r ed. S moke s tains s ometimes p resent i nteresting m ottled e ffects. t his f lat j ars

B lack-topped v essels a re u sually f ound i n t he e arly p hase o f

c ulture. F orms i nclude b owls w ith r ounded b ase a nd i ncurving r im, b ased b owls, s mall . c ups w ith r ounded b ottoms a nd s ingle h andle, w ith

s ingle h andles a nd s pouted j ars w ith a l arge 1 81

s trap

h andle.

T he t ypical j ar o f t his p eriod h as a s lightly o utcurved r im a nd o ne h andle e xtending f rom r im t o s houlder. S ome h andles s how a r oughly t riangular c ross-section ; M ost o f m ain c lasses.

s ome a re b and h andles

( Fig.XIII).

t he h uman-shaped f igurines o f t his p eriod f all i nto t wo O ne c lass c an b e d escribed a s h ighly s chematized s tatu-

e ttes h aving a d isc-shaped o utline ( Fig.XIII:12). A 1 4ar H 8yt 1k p roduced a n i mportant n umber o f t hese f igurines w hich a re a lso f ound a t o ther E B I I s ites i n c entral A natolia ( von d er O sten 1 937:177-180). I n t his c lass t he b ody i s r epresented b y a f lat d isc a nd t he n eck a nd h ead b y a c onical p rotuberance. M ost o f t he i dols a re m ade o f c lay a nd o nly

a

s mall

n umber a re o f

s tone o r a labaster.

T he

s ometimes h ave i mpressed o r i ncised o rnamentation a nd a re m arked b y n otches o r i ncision. T he s econd c lass s o-called m ade

o f

v iolin-shaped f igurines c lay.

( Fig.XIII:33).

c lay

e xamples

f emale s ex o rgans i s m ade u p o f t he

T hey a re

B esides a r elatively s ketchy i ndication o f

g enerally h ead

a nd

n eck, t hese s tatuettes o r i dols h ave s tumps i ndicating a rms a nd a b ody c onstriction s uggesting t he w aist l ine. T hese t oo a re u sually f ound d ecorated w ith i ncised l ines a nd i ndication o f t he f emale s ex o rgan. I d o n ot r eally s uppose w ere r epresentations

t hat t hese s tatuettes, a t l east n ot a ll o f t hem, o f d eities. T hey m ay h ave b een p roduced f or

c ertain c ultic p urposes o r m agic u sed t o r estore t he b odily f unctions o f p atients s uffering f rom a n umber o f d isorders ( see: R eligion). F lat a nimal f igurines c arved o f s erpentine o r d iorite ( Fig.XIII :31,36) a re

t ypical o f

t his

p eriod.

T hey w ere p robably s ewn o n g arments.

T he m ajority o f g lyptic f inds ( Fig.XIII:4,6). T hese a re e ither o f c opper o r b ronze ( Fig.XIII:30,35). Y ozgat,

K ayseri

o r A nkara r egions.

f rom t his p eriod a re s tamp s eals s tone o r c lay, b ut o ccasionally o f T hese a re f ound m ainly i n t he T he s tone s eals

o f A l 4ar C opper

A ge c ulture a re d ivided i nto t wo p rincipal g roups. T he f irst g roup c onsists o f s tamp s eals w ith c oncave, r estangular o r r ound b ases. T he m otives a re c haracterized b y i ntersecting l ines c onnecting t he c orners o f t he b ase, e ach q uadrant i s f illed w ith i ncised a ngles. T he s econd g roup i s m ade u p o f g able-shaped o r d omed b acks. T hese a re p erforated p arallel T he

t o

t he b ase

( Fig.XIII:4,6).

s tone o bjects o f

t he C opper A ge c ulture s how

r elatively

f ew

n ew f orms. O ne o f t hese i s t he s tone o r s erpentine w horls w ith r ound, o val o r t runcated b iconical c ross-section a nd i ncised l inear d ecorat ion.

T hese,

a lthough

r elatively l arge B lades, s crapers, t he

s ame

p eriod O sten

c haracteristic

o f

t his

p eriod,

a ppear

i n

n umber i n t he E B I II a nd l ater p eriods ( Hittite). f lakes, c ores o f f lint, o bsidian a nd c halcedony h ave

f orms a s t hose o f

t he p roto-urban p eriod.

B eginning w ith t his

s mall o blong o bjects o f h ematite a ppear ( e.g. A l 4ar: v on d er 1 937: F ig.e 7 11). A ccording t o v on d er O sten s imilar f orms

o ccur v ery e arly i n M esopotamia a s w eights. T hose o f A lisar m ay h ave b een a mulets. F armers i n c ertain r egions o f A natolia a pparently u se s uch o bjects t o d etermine t he s ex o f u nborn c hildren ( 1937:190). T he o bject i s t aken h orizontally b etween t wo k nife b lades. I f t he a mulet d oes n ot

m ove,

t he c hild,

a ccording

t o

t his b elief,

w ill b e a g irl;

i f

i t t urns t he c hild w ill p robably b e a b oy. M etal o bjects o f t his p eriod, m ainly o f c opper a nd c opper a lloys, i nclude p ins, f lat a xes, k nives a nd a f ew j ewellery p ieces ( Fig.XIII :10,23-24).

1 82

P eriod o f I n

E merging D ynasties

t he l ater p art o f

d ivided i nto

( Fig.XIV).

t he t hird m illennium B C,

a s mall n umber o f c ultural

c entral A natolia i s

p rovinces,

a mong

w hich

t he

C appadocian E BA c ulture ( painted p ottery c ulture) o r A li sa r I II c ulture a nd t he P ontic c ulture a re t he t wo i mportant o nes. T he C appadocian E BA ( III) c ulture p robably d eveloped f rom t he e arlier i ndigenous C opper A ge ( EB I I) c ulture a nd i s c haracterized b y m onumental a rchitecture, a dvanced m etallurgy, p ainted p ottery a nd i ncreased r egions c ulture

c ultural

i nteraction

w ith w estern

A natolia,

C ilicia

a nd

b eyond t he T aurus r ange. N ew c haracteristics i n t he m aterial o r b urial f orms ( circular a nd r ectangular c ists a ppear n ext t o

t raditional i ntramural j ar b urials ( e.g. K Ultepe)) d o n ot n ecessarily s uggest r adical c hanges i ntroduced b y n ew e thnic e lements w ho m ay h ave p enetrated t he l arge t owns o r t he r ural f arming c ommunities o f e astc entral A natolia a t t his t ime. I t i s p ossible t o d isagree w ith t his a ssessment b y p ointing o ut t hat t he l arge p alace o r t emple c omplex o f K 1 11tepe h as a c entral h all w hich r esembles t he m egaron p lan o f w est A natolian A natolian A lisar

s tructures ( Fig.xIv 26), o r t hat p ottery f orms o f w est o r C ilian E B I II r epertoire a re f ound i n s mall n umbers a t

a nd K ! lltepe a nd i n l arger n umbers a t H acibektas

( Fig.XIV:8,27),

T he p enetration o f w estern e lements e ither f rom t he w est o r s outh i nto e ast-central a nd c entral A natolia a pparently d id n ot h ave t he s ame d ecisive c ultural i mpact o n t he l ocal t raditions t hat i t h ad o n C ilican l ate t ombs

E B I I t radition. T he e mergence o f l arge a t K t lltepe ( Fig.XIV:24) a t t he b eginning o f

s tone-built t his p eriod,

c ircular a nd t he

r ich t omb d eposits d iscovered i n t hem , p oint t o t he e xistence o f s tratified a nd r ather a ffluent u rban s ocieties l iving i n l arge a nd f ortified t owns ( e.g. A cemh8yt 1k V , K t lltepe 1 3-11, A lisar l ate 7 ,6 a nd e arly 5 ?). O ne m ay w ell a ssume t hat s uch t owns o r c ities ( city s tates) i n A natolia p roduced l ocal d ynasties w hose i dentities m ust h ave b een k nown t o t he S yrian a nd M esopotamian ( e.g. A kkadian) p otentates. T he

p lain w are o f

t his p eriod i s i n m ost c ases v ery d ifficult

t o

d istinguish f rom t hat o f t he C opper A ge r epertoire ( Fig.XIV:1,29). H owever, i t i s p ossible t o p oint o ut t hat t he s lip i s u sually m uch l ighter y ellowish r ed a nd b y n o m eans a s c arefully a pplied a nd p olished a s t he r ed s lipped p ottery o f t he e arlier p eriod. I n c entral A natolia, s ome l ocal p otters s eem t o h ave p referred t he b lack c oloured w ares t o r ed o nes ( e.g. K arao lan, A hiatlibel). F rom t he a rchaeological p oint o f v iew t his p henomenon c ontributes t o t he c hronological c onfusion i n d ating s ome o f t he l ocal p ottery g roups. F orms o f t he m onochrome p ottery a re r ather s imilar t o t hose o f t he p ainted w are g roups s uch a s t he I ntermediate o r E arly C appadocian a nd M iddle C appadocian ( Fig. X IV: 1 8,20-22). B owls a re v ery c ommon. T hese u sually h ave r ims c urved i nwards. S ome o f t hese h ave l ateral h andles w ith f lat o r s lightly r ounded b ases. C ups w ith f lat o r p ointed b ottoms a nd l arge j ars a re a mong t he m ost c ommon f orms i n t he r egional r epertoire. C ups c ould b e d ivided i nto t wo m ain g roups. T he f irst h as a s hort r im , s lightly c urved o utward, a h igh h andle f rom l ip t o s houlder, a nd a p ointed o r r ounded b ottom . S ometimes t he p ointed b ottom i s t runcated. T he s econd g roup h as a h igh c ylindrical n eck a nd a h andle w hich e xtends f rom t he m iddle o f t he n eck t o t he s houlder. A s f or t he t ypical j ar f orm o f t his p eriod, i t h as a n early o val b ody w ith a s hort r im c urved o utward a nd t wo o r f our h orizontal o r v ertical h andles ( Fig.XIv:16). T he s oc alled

I ntermediate p ainted w are f ound a t K t lltepe

1 83

( 13-12),

A lisar a nd

e ven a s f ar a s K arah8yUk-Konya h as a w ell l evigated p aste a nd u sually t empered w ith g rits, a lthough p lant t empering w as p referred s ome p otters. v arying s hades, o f

l inear

T he s lip o f t his h andmade p ottery h ighly b urnished t o a f ine p olish.

d esigns

i s b y

i s r eddish b uff i n D ecoration c onsists

i n v arying s hades o f p urplish

b rown

a nd

i nclude

m otifs s uch a s l ozenges, c hevrons a nd z igzag l ines ( Orthmann 1 963; O kt« 1 973). A s f or t he C appadocian p ainted g roup ( Ali ar I II) i ts p aste i s m uch c oarser t han t hat o f t he I ntermediate p ainted w are. P lant t emperi ng

s eems

t o h ave b een p referred i n t his h andmade

p ainted

g roup.

A s

a lready m entioned a bove ( Stratigraphy) t his w are c ould b e d ivided i nto t hree s ub-groups. T he d ecorative p atterns a re r ather s imple. T he m ost c ommon m otifs a re l inear e lements s uch a s c hevrons, z igzag b ands, l ozenges a nd w avy l ines. s uch d esigns, a ppearing e lements f ashion,

S mall s pirals a nd h ooks m ay b e c ombined w ith u sually b elow t he h andle. T he c ombined

e ither f orm c ontinuous w ide b ands o r a re a rranged i n m etope s eparated b y v ertical b road b ands o f s olid c olour o r b y a

c ombination o f n arrower s traight o r w avy l ines ( von d er O sten 1 937:2392 42; O rthmann 1 963). B owls s how a d ecorated b and r unning a round t he r im ( Fig.XIV:22-23). S ometimes v ertical p anels e xtend f rom t his d ecorated s trip t o t he b ottom . A s f or c ups, t hese h ave d ecorated b ands o r p anels c overing p art o r t he w hole b ody.

L arge

j ars h ave g eometrical

a ll-over d esigns. T he P ontic c ulture ( Fig.XV-XVI): T his c ulture, a ppearing i n t he n orthern d istricts o f t he c entral p lateau i n t he s econd h alf o f t he t hird

m illennium B C.,

i s d efinitely r elated

t o

t he E B

I II c ulture

o f

n orthern A natolia. A s M ellaart p ointed o ut, t he b eginning a nd e nd o f t his c ulture, w hich i s k nown m ainly t hrough d iscoveries o f t omb d eposits i n t he ç orum , A masya a nd T okat p rovinces, a re s till a m atter o f c ontroversy. S ome s cholars s uggest t hat s ome o f t he l ate P ontic t ombs m ay d ate f rom t he e arliest p hase o f t he s econd m illennium B C ( e.g. O rthmann 1 963). A s i n t he c emeteries o f A lacah8y{ lk, H orortepe, M ahmatlar a nd K ayapinar, i n t he G 81ler a nd O ymaa aç c emeteries ( situated

c a.50km

n orth o f ç orum)

t he g raves

( jar

b urials)

i ncluded

v arious m etal a rtifacts o f c ultic s ignificance, m etal v essels a nd w eapons ( dzgt 1 ç 1 978:89). A lthough t hese t ombs a re u nlike t he s haft g raves o f A lacah8yt fk o r H orortepe t heir c ontents a re r ather s imilar b ut d efinitely m etalwork ,

l ess e laborate ( Yakar 1 981a). p articularly c ertain t ypes

i nfluenced

o ther

s chools

o f

T he P ontic t radition o f w eapons a nd v essels,

o f c raftsmanship i n

c entral

A natolia

a nd

b eyond ( see: C hapter X I). B ut c ult o bjects s uch a s s un-discs, a nimal f igurines, m etal t ables w ith h uman l egs, a nthropomorphic r epresentat ions o f m ortals a nd d eities a re n ot f ound o utside t he p rovinces o f C orum o r Amasya.

D ISCUSSION D iscussing t he p ossible o rigins o f c entral A natolian h andmade d ark s lipped b urnished w ares i t i s i mportant t o e mphasize t hat, d espite a d istant r esemblance t o e ast A natolian d ark b urnished w are, t hese t wo g roups d eveloped f rom t he v ery b eginning i ndependent o f e ach o ther. T odd

c orrectly

p oints

o ut

t hat t he c eramic

d ividing

l ine

b etween

e astern a nd c entral A natolia i s b etter v isible i n t he E B I lIll t han i n E B I ( 1973). A s f or t he o rigin o f t he c entral A natolian i ncised w are o f t ype

t he o f

L ate C halcolithic c ulture

( EB I ),

A miran s uggested

d ecoration s hould b e c onsidered a d erivative o f

1 84

t hat

t he

t his

i ncised

p atterns

f ound a t Y anik T epe

( 1968:318).

T odd r ejects

t his

v iew

b y

a rguing t hat t he l ack o f s imilarity, b oth i n s hapes a nd d esigns, o f t he p ottery o f c entral A natolia a nd n orthwestern I ran m akes s uch a n o rigin v ery u nlikely ( 1973). I nstead h e p roposes a c entral A natolian o rigin. I n m y o pinion t he d istribution p attern o f t his a nd o ther r elated w are g roups i n A natolia a nd t he B alkans i s s o e xtensive t hat i t i s p ossible t o

s uggest

a

n orthern

o rigin f or

L ate N eolithic-Chalcolithic

t he c entral A natolian v ariant

( e.g.

s outheastern E urope).

T he e thnic a ffiliation o f t he A lacah8yt lk a nd o ther P ontic b urials i s s till e nigmatic. M ellink r egards t he A lacah8y t lk r oyal b urials a s m embers o f a l ocal d ynasty ( 1956). I n f act, i n t he s ame a rticle s he m aintains t hat " a s eries o f s mall k ingdoms c an b e r econstructed a long t he r oute f rom T roy t o A laca, a nd t hat t he r ise o f m etallurgy w as o ne o f t he m ain f actors w hich m ade t hese s ites l ocally p owerful a nd o ccasionally u seful t o t heir A egean n eighbours" ( 1956:57). T he s haft g raves w hich w ere i n f act s ubterranean s tone a nd t imber b uilt c hamber t ombs s uggest t hat t he d ynasty o r t he u pper s trata o f t he C orum p rovince m ay h ave b een o f a d ifferent b ackground f rom t he m ajority t he p opulation ( Mellink 1 956:58). M ellink d oes n ot o verrule p robability

t hat

t he A lacah8ylk b urials w ere k ings

o f

o f t he

I ndo-European

( Hittite) o rigin. T he u nusual c haracter o f t hese a nd o ther s imilar b ut l ater t ombs i n t he r ather c onservative e arly A natolian ( intramural j ar b urial)

c ontext c ould i ndeed

i ndicate " the d erivation o f

t he A lacah8yt 1k

f uneral a rchitecture f rom s outh R ussia" a s a v ery l ikely p ossibility ( Mellink 1 956:56). A ssuming t hat b urial c ustoms, c ertain a spects o f a rt f orms a nd r eligious i mmagery a re r eliable i ndications o f e thnoc ultural o rigins, t hat b uried 1 956:56).

a t

o ne m ay s uggest t hat t he d ynasty b uried a t A laca a nd M aikop

i n C aucasia

w ere

s omehow

r elated

( Mellink

A ccording t o M ellink, t he k ings o f A laca o ccupied a p rivileged p osition i n t he f ield o f t rade a nd c ommunications a mong t he i nhabitants o f

t he A egean a nd A natolian w orld

( 1956:47).

T heir a dvantage

l ay

i n

s uperior t echnology a nd a ccess t o m etallurgical c entres. M ellink i s c ertainly c orrect i n p ointing o ut t hat a ll t he s ignificant c orrelations w hich c an b e e stablished b etween A lacah8y { lk a nd t he A egean w orld b elong i n t he c ategory o f m etal a rtifacts. A mong t hese m etal o bjects, m irrors a re p articularly i mportant t o t he d iscussion o f r elations b etween t he A egean a nd A natolia, o r, i n o ther w ords, b etween t he E arly C ycladic ( and E uboean) " frying-pans" a nd b ronze m irrors f rom t he A laca t ombs. T he u nusual f eature o f t he r aised r ims o n t he A laca b ronze m irrors ( Fig.XVI:10) i s e xactly p aralleled o n t he E arly C ycladic " frying p ans". S ome o f t he h andle f orms o f t he l atter c ould a lso b e s een o n c ertain A lacah8yik m irrors ( Mellink 1 956:53). I t i s v ery l ikely t hat t hese e nigmatic

o bjects o f r ather s imilar o utline b ut o f d ifferent

a nd d ecoration m ay b e c ult o bjects o f s imilar a nd/or a ttributes o f r ather s imilar d eities. I n

m y

r eligious

o pinion t he P ontic c ulture i s n ot e ntirely

m aterial s ymbolism

i ndigenous

t o

A natolia. I ts s ophisticated m etallurgy c ould h ave h ardly d eveloped f rom t he r ather m odest C opper A ge m etalworking t raditions ( see C haper X I). A lthough t he i nhabitants o f n orth-central A natolia w ere p artly i ndigenous, t he t ypes o f s ettlements a nd b urials s uggest t hat i n t he s econd h alf o f t he t hird m illennium B C s ome r egions ( e.g. ç orum, Amasya, T okat) m ay h ave b een o ccupied b y s emi-nomadic g roups p ractising e nclosed n omadism ( see A lacah8yt lk).

1 85

F IGURE

X II:

M aterial

C ulture o f

t he P roto-Urban P eriod f rom

N orth-

C entral P lateau. I n a rchitecture,

h ouse r emains

f rom A laca W Jyt lk ( 4,11)

s uggest

t hat

d omestic d wellings w ere s mall s ingle o r m ulti-room s tructures b uilt m udbrick w alls h 8y t lk). T his

o f

s upported o n s tone f oundations ( for d etails s ee: A lacaf orm o f a rchitecture i s d ifferent f rom w attle-and-daub

t radition s een a t I kiztepe

i n n orthern A natolia

( 25-26).

S ome o f t he h ouses a t A lacah8y t lk p roduced i ntramural b urials. I n a n umber o f c ases, t he d eceased w as p laced i n a c ontracted p osition o n a w ooden b ed/platform p ropped-up o n s tones a t t he b ottom o f a s hallow s haft g rave ( 10). T omb d eposits c onsist o f h andmade d ark b urnished j ars a nd f ruitstands ( 18,17,19,24), i n o ther w ords, s ome o f t he m ost c haracteristic f orms o f t he r egional p ottery r epertoire. H olemouth j ars ( 6), p itchers w ith t hin b and h andles, j ars w ith h orn h andles a re a dditional f orms k nown t o u s f rom B «yt lk G t 1111cek, A lacah8yt tk a nd o ther s ettlements w ith l ate f ourth a nd e arly t hird m illennium o ccupation. W hite p ainted l inear d ecoration a nd i ncised g eometric p atterns d ecorate s ome o f t he f iner p ieces ( 5,6,17). I n f act, t he d ecorated p ottery o f t his

r egion i s v ery s imilar t o

( e.g.

t he d ecorated w are o f n orthern

A natolia

I kiztepe). I n

r eligious

i magery,

s chematized

c lay

f igurines

f rom

B 1 1yUk

G i 1llL Icek ( 7-8) o r I kiztepe ( 22) p rovide s ome o f t he b est e xamples o f f igurative a rt. I t s eems t hat t he a rtists ( ?) o f I kiztepe s hared s imilar s tylistic c oncepts ( compare 2 2 f rom I kiztepe a nd 2 3 f rom L ug i n Y ugoslavia).

F IGURE X III:

M aterial C ulture o f

t he P roto-and E arly U rban P eriod

f rom

t he E ast-Central P lateau. T he

p ottery

i nventory o f A l 4ar M 1 9-7 p rovides s ome o f

t he

m ost

c haracteristic s hapes o f t he s o-called L ate C halcolithic a nd C opper A ge C ultures i n c entral A natolia. T he h andmade d ark b urnished w are g roup o f t he f ormer c ulture i s r elatively p lain a nd i ncludes f ruit b owls j ars w ith p edestal b ases ( 8), s quat j ars ( 17) j ars w ith t all n ecks a nd s maller v essels w ith s ingle o r d ouble h andles ( 2,7). I n

( 1), ( 16) t he

f ollowing p eriod, w ide-mouthed p itchers w ith s ingle h andle, d rinking c ups w ith a s ide h andle, a nd s pouted v essels b ecome v ery p opular. I n

t he m etal a ssemblage c opper t ools a nd o bjects o f

p eriod

( 9,

b ronze

( 23-24)

G lyptic s eals

1 0),

a re p roduced i n a rsenical c opper,

d uring t he C opper A ge. a rt

( deity

r elatively s peaking,

A nimal

r epresentations

r epresentations?) a bundant a t A l 4ar.

1 86

( 33 34,

e arlier

c opper a nd l ow t in-

a re i ntroduced.

i s w ell r epresented w ith p endant

( 4,5,6,22,30,35).

f igurines

N ew f orms

t he

s eals, ( 31,36) hA,

o r

b utton

a nd

h uman

1 1-12)

a re,

1 87

I I

1 0

14

1 6 ‚ 7

1 8

2 2

23

1 0

' 1

2 4

30

29

35

3 2

33 3 4

11 48

3 6

F ig.

XIV

1 89

F IGURE X IV:

M aterial C ulture o f

t he E B I II P eriod

( Emerging D ynasties)

f rom t he E ast-Central P lateau. T his p eriod i s c haracterized b y t he p resence o f p ainted ware g roups s uch a s I ntermediate W are: 2 ,3,8,9,11; a nd C appadocian P ainted W are: 1 6,18,20-23. T hese g roups a re b est r epresented a t A li ar 7 -5 a nd K { lltepe 1 0-12. T hey a re g enerally h andmade a nd a re f ound t ogether w ith m onochrome r ed s lipped b urnished g roup ( 1) a nd S yrian b ottles ( 27). D uring

t his

p eriod m onumental s tructures s uch a s

t emple o r p alace

c omplexes ( 26:KUltepe) o r h eavy f ortifications ( 17:Al 4ar 5 ) s tart t o e merge i n m ajor s ettlements. T he c ircular c ist g raves f rom K Ultepe ( 24)

a nd

r egarding o f

t he

t he

t omb d eposits ( 25,19,15,30)

t he s ocial s tatus o f

p rovide u s w ith

t hose b uried a nd t he e thnic

i nhabitants o f C appadocia a t t his

s ome

c lue

a ffiliation

t ime.

B utton s eals ( 10,12) a re d ecorated w ith n ew n aturalistic d esigns. N evertheless, p endant s eals w ith t heir g eometric d esigns ( 4) d o n ot d isappear e ntirely.

F IGURE

X V:

M aterial

C ulture o f

t he P ontic R oyal T ombs

f rom

N orth-

C entral A natolia. T he h andmade d ark b urnished w are f rom A lacah8yt ik ( 1,2,9,10-12, C opper A ge s trata ( 8-5) i s a lso f ound i n t he R oyal T ombs A natolian p ottery f orms ( 14,15) s eem t o h ave p enetrated t o

( 16). t his

1 7)

W est r egion

t owards t he e nd o f t he E B I II p eriod. T he t ombs o f A lacah8y l lk p rovide a n e xtremely r ich i nventory o f m etal a rtifacts w hich i nclude b ronze s pearheads, s haft-hole a xes, s words, l ong d aggers, c rescentic a xes, c ult o bjects a nd d rinking a nd p ouring v essels m ade o f b ase m etal a nd p recious m etal. H alberds 2 3,25 a re f rom M ahmatlar ( see S tronach 1 957).

F IGURE

X VI:

M aterial

C ulture o f

t he P ontic R oyal T ombs

f rom

N orth-

C entral A natolia. A lacah8ylk i s n ot t he o nly s ite w here a n i mpressive

r epertoire

o f

m ainly p recious m etal o bjects h ave b een d iscovered ( 5, 8 , 6 , 1 2-13, 1 51 8 a nd 2 0). A t H orortepe, e xcavations b y 6 zgt ic r evealed a n umber o f c ult ld Wo A J

o bjects m ade o f b ronze ( 7,9,10) a nd v essels o f b ase m etal a nd o f ( 14-gold, 1,19). T he q uadruple s piral b ead o f g old f rom My ! 1k ( 3)

h as a p arallel a t T roy l Ig ( Fig.XI).

1 90

1 3

6

ß W f 4 ; 1 7

1 8

2 3 2 2

34 33

F ig.

X V

1 91

9

.*

F iq.

X VI 1 92

A RCHAEOLOGICAL S OURCES

A .

S urveys T he

p ioneering w ork i n s urface e xplorations

i n

c entral

A natolia

w as c arried o ut b y v on d er O sten i n t he y ears 1 926-1931 ( von d er O sten 1 927; 1 929; 1 930; 1 933). H e m ainly c oncentrated o n r ecording m ounds, h ill-top s ettlements a nd a ncient r oads,

w ith a p articular i nterest

i n

p re-classical s ites. I n

1 941

t he p rovinces o f A nkara,

K onya a nd E skisehir w ere p artly

s urveyed b y R .O. A n k. H is s urvey r ecords, w hich i ncluded d escriptions o f a n umber o f p rehistoric s ettlements, w ere l ater p ublished b y O zgüç ( 1956). I n 1 955 C . B urney i nvestigated t he p rehistoric m ounds i n t he E skisehir p lain a s p art o f h is m ore e xtensive f ield s urvey o f n orthern A natolia i n p re-classical t imes ( Burney 1 956). H is r eport c ontributed m ost v aluable i nformation o n L ate C halcolithic a nd E arly B ronze A ge p ottery g roups i n t his r egion, a s w ell a s m aps s howing t he d istribution o f f ourth a nd t hird m illennia s ettlements i n c entral A natolia. U nfortunately n one o f t he a rchaeological s urveys c arried o ut i n c entral Anatolia w ere v ery s ystematic o r i ntensive ( unlike t hose c onducted i n o ther p arts o f A natolia). I n t he s eventies, ô zg th j, i n t he c ourse o f h is e xcavations a t M a at H 8yUk, v isited s ome a reas o f ç orum, T okat a nd A masya a nd p ublished s ome E BA u nstratified f ind s pots ( 1978).

o bjects

( metalwork)

f rom

T his a uthor s urveyed t he a rea o f G emerek a nd t he w estern d istricts o f t he S ivas p rovince i n 1 977 ( Yakar a nd G t lrsan-Salzmann 1 979). T he m aterial c ulture f rom E B m ounds w est o f S ivas c ould b e c ompared w ith t hat o f e ast-central A natolia. B . E xcavations C entral P lateau ( South o f A nkara)

P OLATLI L ocation: T his m ound, 2 5m i n h eight, A nkara n ear t he d istrict o f P olatli.

i s s ituated 6 5km s outhwest

E xcavations: S . L loyd a nd N . G 8kçe i n 1 949. P rior t o e xcavation t o e xpose t he s tratigraphy, t he m ound w as b eing

o f

t his t est i llegally

e xcavated b y v illagers m ainly a s a s uitable s ource o f c layey e arth f or t he m anufacture o f m udbricks. T he e xcavations b y L loyd a nd G 8kce w ere s mall s cale a nd l asted f or l ess t han t hree w eeks. S tratigraphy : p robed

t o

( 11-15)

T he

s ite,

a d epth o f 2 4m .

a re d ated

w hich r evealed 3 1 a rchitectural P hase I ( levels

t o t he E B I I

( Copper A ge)

1 -10)

l evels,

a nd p art o f P hase

a nd E B I II.

O rthmann,

w as I I o n

t he o ther h and, s uggested t hat P hase I s hould b e d ivided i nto t wo: l a a nd l b ( 1963:28-30). A ccording t o h im t he m aterial o f P hase I a ( levels 1 -4)

r epresents

t he m aterial c ulture o f

1 93

t he E B I I p eriod.

W hereas

l b

( 5-10)

i s

c onsidered

r ather l ate i n t he s econd

h alf

o f

t he

t hird

m illennium B C ( 0rthmann 1 963:98-99). P hase I I p roduced a n e xample o f r ed-cross b owl a nd a s herd o f C appadoclan T arsus p ainted p ottery. T hese f inds s uggest t hat t his p hase m ay w ell b e c ontemporary w ith T roy V ,

l ate E B

I lib,

a nd B eycesultan V u -VIa.

F inds: T he f inal a rchitectural l evels o f P hase I p roduced m uch p ottery d escribed b y L loyd a s s mall b owls a nd j ugs, o rnamented w ith s hallow f luting o r c orrugations, a nd f inished w ith a b urnished o r p olished r ed s lip. B lack c oloured v essels s imilar t o t hose f ound a t A hiatlibel w ere a lso f ound a t t his s ite. D ecorated p ottery s uch a s w hite-on-black p ainted o r w hite-on-red p ainted w ere a lso a ssemblage o f P hase I . T roy I I t ype d epas c ups o f

i mportant c hronological

s ignificance.

f ound i n t he p ottery f ound i n t his p hase a re

A rchitectural

r emains c onsist

o f s tone f oundations a nd m udbrick w alls. B urial c ustoms w ere a lso i llustrated a t P olatli: s imple s haft-graves i n t he e arliest l evels a nd j ar b urials i n t he l ater l evels o f P hase I . I n a ddition, a c ist t omb l ined a nd s ealed w ith t hin s labs o f l imestone w ith a s keleton l ying i n a c ontracted v essels f rom

p osition p roduced a c opper j ug w hich m atches t he g old t he A lacah8yt lk t ombs. T he c ist t omb w as l ocated i n a n

e mpty s pace b etween t wo h ouses, a nd d irectly a bove t he t omb a r ound s tructure w as c onstructed w hich r evealed s mall o fferings. P erhaps t his b uilding w as a s ort o f L iterature:

f unerary m onument r elated

L loyd 1 951;

1 956;

O rthmann 1 963;

t o t his

H uot

t omb.

1 982:51-53.

Y AZ I RHÔY I 1K L ocation: w hich i s

I t i s a s mall m ound o f c a.95m i n d iameter a nd 9 m i n h eight s ituated 3 km e ast o f Y azirk8y o n a n atural h ill a long t he

h ighway b etween A nkara a nd S ivrihisar. E xcavations: T his s mall m ound w as s eriously d amaged b y t ions. S alvage w ork w as c arried o ut h ere b y T emizer. S tratigraphy: F our a rchitectural f oundations a nd b rick w alls. F inds:

T he

i llegal e xcava-

p hases b etween 0 -8m r evealed

m ound p roduced a m aterial c ulture c omparable

t o

s tone

t hat

o f

B i 1ylk G Ullücek, P azarli, K ayapinar i n t he n orth-central p lateau a nd D t {ndartepe, I kiztepe I I, T ekek8y a nd K ayak i n n orthern A natolia. W hile t he s tone a nd m udbrick h ouse r emains s uggest a c entral a nd w est A natolian t radition i n a rchitecture, t he p ottery a ssemblage w ith w hiteo n-black p ainted a nd i ncised d ecorated s herds, h as c ertain c haracteristics

w hich

p oint

t o c ultural a ffinities w ith

c ultures

M acedonia, T hrace, t he B alkans a nd e ven t he e astern A egean. r egards t his s ite a s a n i ntermediate s tation b etween c entral a nd A egean L ate C halcolthic s ites. L iterature:

T emizer

1 960;

Y akar

1 975:134;

H uot

i n

T emizer A natolian

1 982:53-54.

A HLATLIBEL ( Fig.II:5) L ocation:

T his h ill-top s ettlement s outhwest o f A nkara

t o b e a n E BII/Ill c itadel.

1 94

i s

c onsidered

I t m easures o ne q uarter o f a n a cre. E xcavations:

H .

S tratigraphy: m illennium ,

K o ay i n 1 933.

o rthmann t hinks

h as

t hat t his s ettlement,

d ated

t o

t he t hird

t wo a rchitectural p hases.

F inds: 4 0m .

T he t hick w alls o f T his s ite r evealed,

p lans s tone p hase

a re n ot e ntirely c lear), a n umber o f b urials i n s imple j ar a nd l ined c ist g raves. T he l atter t ombs b elong t o t he m ore r ecent o f o ccupation o f t he c itadel. T hese p roduced m etal w eapons o f

t he

t his h abitation s ite e nclose a n a rea o f 3 0 x i n a ddition t o a rchitectural r emains ( their

t ype k nown i n t he P ontic c ulture,

a nd a r ich a ssemblage o f p ottery

d ated t o t he s econd h alf o f t he t hird m illennium B C. A rchitectural r emains s uggest t hat t he s ite w as n ot o ccupied c ontinuously. T he m ain o ccupation m ay b e d ated L iterature:

t o a t ime s panning b etween E B I IB-EB

K o ay 1 934;

B ittel 1 941;

0 rthmann 1 963;

l ilA.

H uot:50-51.

. 1

K ARAOGLAN L ocation: h igh i s

T his r elatively l arge m ound m easuring 2 50 x 1 80m a nd 2 0m s ituated s ome 2 5km s outh o f A nkara a nd 1 5km s outheast o f

A hiat l ibel. E xcavations:

B etween 1 938-1941 b y R .

0 .

A n k.

S tratigraphy: L evel V , w ith i ts f our s ub-phases, r epresents t he E B 1 11 11 s ettlement. V c i s c onsidered E B I I, a nd y b-a-V a re d ated t o t he s econd h alf F inds: a t

o f

t he

A mong

t hird m illennium B C.

t he f inds,

w hich a re n ot v ery d ifferent t han t hose f ound

o ther s ites n ear A nkara,

t he w hite-on-black p ainted w are g roup

v ery c haracteristic o f t his s ettlement. I t i s f ound i n t he s trata a s w ell a s i n t he I ntermediate p eriod ( level I V). L iterature:

K OCUMBELI

1 939a;

1 939b;

1 948;

0 rthmann 1 963;

H uot

A hiatlibel,

I t

1 982:51.

i s s ituated 1 .5km s outh o f Y alincak a nd c a.2km n orth

a nd,

p rovince,

l ike i t

A hiatlibel

E xcavations:

t o

a nd s ome o ther E B s tations

m ay b e d escribed a s a h ill-top

t hird m illennium r emains. f rom Ahiatlibel

I n f act,

i n

t he s ite i s s eparated b y a

w ith r idge

t he s outh.

B urhan T ezcan i n 1 964-1965,

T he h ouses f oundations.

f ireplaces. A hiatlibel.

T he

o f t he

s ettlement

a nd S evim B uluc i n 1 966.

S tratigraphy : T he E B h abitation h as t hree l evels o n t he e ast s ide t he s ite a nd o nly o ne w ell p reserved l evel o n t he l ower s ide. F inds: s tone

i s I II

( YALINCAK)

L ocation: A nkara

A r k;

E B

o f

a re b uilt o f p oorly p reserved m udbnick o n l arge H ardened f loor p atches m ark t he l ocation o f i nventory

o f

h ouses

T he p ottery a ssemblage,

1 95

r esembles

f or i nstance,

t he

i ncludes

f inds

f rom

s mall o ne-

h andled c ups, l arge r ed p itchers a nd b owls, a nd c ups w ith s mall o mphalos b ases a nd g rooving i mitating m etal f luting. L arge b lack j ars a lso h ave g rooved d ecoration. I ncised d ecoration o n p ottery i s s lightly d ifferent f rom A hiatlibel. I t s eems t hat t he p ottery h ere d eveloped s ome l ocal p atterns a nd t echnique i n t he E BII/Ill p eriod. J ar l ids a re s mall, s ome a re o f t all t ypes w ith f lange a nd s tringh oles. A lthough s ome o f t he p ottery s hapes s uggest t he e xistence o f a n a dvanced m etal i ndustry,

n o m etal w as

f ound i n t he h ouses.

O ther f inds

i nclude c lay s tamp-seals w ith g eometric d esigns, s pindle w horls, a nd h uman f igurines. T he l atter a re f lat a nd r ather a bstract. h ave f iddle-shaped c ontours w ith r ounded h eads,

a nimal They

i ncisions m arking

t he

e yes, e yebrows, b reasts, w aist, a nd d etails o n t he l ower b ody. T hese f igurines w ere f ound i n v arious r ooms w ith n o p articular c oncentration, w hich s hould h ave b een s ignificant i n r econstructing t he r eligious a nd c ultic p ractices o f t he i nhabitants. O ther d iscoveries i nclude a f ew c opper o r b ronze o bjects a nd m aceheads o f s tone. A lthough h ouses d id n ot r eveal a ny i ntramural b urials, o ne t omb, p ossible c ontemporary w ith t he E B I IB-IlIA s ettlement, w as f ound w ithin t he s ettlement c ompound. I t w as a p it g rave c overed b y s tone s labs. I t h eld a c ontracted b urial l ying o n i ts r ight s ide w ith t he h ead a t t he e ast. T here p ottery i n t he g rave b ut a s lotted s pearhead w ith c urved t ang, e ar-plugs

o f

L iterature:

t he

w as a nd

n o t wo

t ype a lso d iscovered a t K arayav an.

T ezcan 1 966;

M ellink 1 966:148;

1 967b:162.

K ARAYAV S AN L ocation: T his l arge E BA m ound, w hich o nce m ust h ave s tood o ver 1 3m i n h eight, i s l ocated s ome 2 0km e ast o f P olatli, o utside t he v illage o f K arayav an, n orth o f t he r oad t o H ayn iana. T he h igh m ound h as a l ower t errace o n t he e ast s ide. E xcavation:

R .

S tratigraphy :

T emizer i n 1 965. T renches w ere o pened o n t he t op o f

t he m ound a nd o n t he

t erraces t o t he e ast. T he t op l evel r epresents t he e nd o f t he T he t errace l evels r epresent e arlier s tages o f E BA a nd y ielded m udbrick a rchitecture. d eposits a re F inds:

A ccording t o p reliminary e stimates p rehistoric

1 2m t hick.

R ectangular

d ivisions

E BA. g ood

m ade

m udbrick

h ouses o n s tone

f oundations

b y a p air o f s pur-walls a re a mong t he

w ell

w ith

s ub

p reserved

a rchitectural r emains u nearthed a t t his s ettlement. T he h ouse d oors c ould b e r econstructed b y p ivot-stones p reserved o n t he i nside o f t he r ooms. T he m udbrick h ouse w alls a re w hite p lastered o ver t he b rickw ork.

T he

i nventory

o f

t he d omestic d wellings c onsists o f

h earths,

g rinding-stones, s torage j ars a nd t he u sual h ousehold p ottery. L arge s torage p its, c a.1.50-2.00m i n d iameter, w ere d iscovered i n t he o pen s paces a mong t he h ouses. O ne r oom c ontained a l arge o ven o n s tone f oundations. T ombs w ere f ound a mong t he h ouses. T heir o rientation v aried. O ne c ist-grave, b uilt o f s tone s labs, c ontained a c ontracted b urial l ike

w ith t omb g ifts o f b ronze o r c opper b racelets a nd g old e arplugs

t hose f ound a t K oçumbeli.

T he p ottery o f K arayav an i s g enerally

a r ed b urnished h andmade w are. T he l ocal a ssemblage i ncludes m edium h eavy b owls, j ugs, p itchers, l arge j ars, a nd s mall v essels o f c ylindrical f orm w ith f langed b ases. C lay f igurines a nd s pindle w horls

1 96

a re

v ery

s imilar t o

K arao lan. e xcavators

A hlatlibel

a nd

I t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat among t he s mall f inds m ention a f ew e xamples o f o bsidian w hich m ust h ave

t hose d iscovered

a t

K oçumbeli,

t he b een

I mported f rom t he s outh. L iterature:

M ellink 1 966:148.

C entral P lateau ( north o f A nkara)

E T Y OKUS U 1

L ocation:

T his m ound i s s ituated s ome 5 km n orth o f A nkara.

E xcavations:

S .

A .

K ansu i n 1 937.

S tratigraphy: T hree a reas, a n E B 1 1-111 s ettlement. a rchitectural p hases.

A , B a nd C , w ere o pened b y K ansu e xposing O f t hese t hree a reas, A p roduced t hree

T hese r epresent t he r emains o f

a n E B

I I s ettle-

m ent w hich w as f requently r ebuilt. A fter a b rief a bandonment(?), t he s ite s eems t o h ave b een r esettled i n t he f inal p hases o f t he t hird m illennium B C. F inds: T he a rchitectural r emains a re n ot w ell p reserved. T hese c onsisted o f m ainly r ectangular f ree-standing h ouses b uilt o f m udb ricks. B ut i nterestingly e nough, h ere h ad r ather r ounded c orners,

s ome o f t he s tructures r esembling, a t l east

u ncovered i n p lan,

d istantly s imilar d wellings f rom e astern A natolia ( e.g. N or untepe). P ottery f orms a nd f abrics a re v ery s imilar i n m any w ays t o t hose k nown t o u s f rom t he E B I lIll l ocal r epertoires o f t he A nkara r egion ( e.g. K arao lan). L iterature:

K ansu 1 940;

O rthmann 1 963:26-27;

H uot

1 982:48.

N orth o f A nkara a nd s outh o f q ankiri t here a re a n umber o f i mportant s econd m illennium s ites w hich w ere i nhabited s ince t he E B I II p eriod, i f n ot e arlier. T hese a re B itik n orthwest o f A nkara, A sarcik n ear t he e xtramural c emetery o f I lica s ituated 1 2km n orthwest o f A ya ( or 4 0km w est o f A nkara) a nd I lica. T he l atter s ite, w hich w as a H ittite b urial g round, p roduced a n umber o f j ar b urials w hich c ould b e d ated t o t he E B I II p eriod ( Orthmann 1 967:60). A t A sarcik, b elow t he H ittite

l evels

( 111-1v),

O rthmann d iscovered a t wo-phased E BA o ccupa-

t ion i n l evel V ( 1966). O f t hese t wo p hases, t he f irst ( V) r evealed a rchitectural r emains d ating f rom t he E BII-III p eriod. L evel V a, o n t he o ther h and, r epresents t he t ransitional p eriod w ith i ts c haracteristic p ottery a ssemblage ( Orthmann 1 966b; H uot 1 982:49). T he t hird

H ittite

m illennium

s ettlement a t B itik o verlies s ettlement

o ccupation w as a ttested u nder E B I II s ettlement f ollowed,

( Ar k 1 944).

t he r emains o f

H ere

a

t oo a t wo-phased

l ate E BA

t he t hick d ebris o f t he H ittite t own; a n w ithout i nterruption , b y a rchitectural

r emains d ated t o t he t ransitional p eriod. T hese s trata l ocal v ariant o f t he r ed-cross b owls a lso k nown f rom T roy ( post E B I II).

1 97

p roduced a T arsus

v and

E ast-Central P lateau

A LI SAR L ocation : T his h uge m ound, w hich m easures 5 20 x 3 50m a nd i s 3 0m h igh, i s s ituated 2 00km e ast o f A nkara a nd 8 5km s outheast o f B o azk8y. E xcavations:

B y

v on d er O sten i n 1 927-1932 o n b ehalf o f

t he O riental

I nstitute o f C hicago U niversity. S tratigraphy: s equence o f i nto

E xcavation o n t he mou nd a nd t errace r evealed p re-Hittite o ccupation. T his s equence c ould b e

t hree m ain p eriods,

n amely:

L ate C halcolithic/EB

a l ong d ivided

I p eriod

t ermed

A li ar O (=levels 1 9M-15M) a nd I a(=14-12 M ); C opper A ge w hich c orresp onds t o E B I l-EB l ilA a nd t ermed A li ar l b( 11-7M a nd 1 4-13T); E arly B ronze A ge c orresponding t o E B I IB a nd I ntermediate p eriod a nd d efined a s A li ar I II ( =6-5M a nd F inds:

F rom

1 2T)

( see a lso H uot

1 982:72).

A li ar 0 a nd I a r emains o f m aterial c ulture c onsist o f a

f ew p isé a nd m udbrick w alls o f h ouses, a s mall n umber o f i ntramural b urials i n j ars, c ists a nd a h andmade p ottery a ssemblage o f l ocal a nd r egional

w ares.

O ther

f inds

s pindle w horls a nd f igurines F rom r emains,

l b w e h ave, a n

e xtremely

i nclude s ilex

a nd

s tone

i mplements,

( human a nd a nimal r epresentations).

i n a dditional t o w ell r ich

i nventory

p reserved

o f s mall

f inds

a rchitectural a nd

p ottery

r epertoires. A li ar l b i s i n f act a t own s howing s ome c haracteristics o f u rban p lanning. I t h as a f ortification w all a nd h ouses w hich w ere p robably

b uilt a long n arrow s paces s uch a s a lleys o r e ven

s treets(?).

T he w ares o f t his p eriod a re a m ajor s ource o f i nformation t o s tudy t he r egional d evelopment o f h andmade m onochrome a nd p ainted p ottery o f c entral A natolia. Among t he s mall f inds, w hich i nclude m etal o bjects a nd g lyptic m aterial, s ome a re o f p aramount i mportance i n e stablishing t he

c hronological

p lateau v is-à-vis F rom

A li ar

a rchitecture.

I II

T he

c itadel g ate m odifications

t he C opper A ge c ulture o f

t he

c entral

w e

h ave n o s ignificant

o nly e xception t o

r emains

i n

t erms

t his g eneral a ssessment

i s

o f t he

o f 5 M ( Fig.XIV: 1 7) , w hich c ontinued t o b e u sed w ith s ome i n t he e arly s econd m illennium B C ( Naumann 1 975:258).

L evels 6 a nd p ainted w are.

5 p roduced s ome o f t he b est e xamples o f C appadocian I ntermediate p ainted w are , w hich s tarted t o b e p roduced

i n 7 M ( EB l ilA), o f

p osition o f

t he C ilician E BA s equence.

a ppeared a lso i n 6 M t ogether w ith s ome e arly e xamples

C appadocian p ainted p ottery w hich i s a lso k nown u nder

t he

n ame

o f

A lisar I II. L iterature:

v on d er O sten 1 937;

O rthmann 1 963;

H uot

1 982:70-75.

K ULTE P E L ocation: T his h uge m ound, c overing a n a rea o f o ver 5 00m i n d iameter a nd s tanding s ome 2 0m a bove t he s urface o f t he s urrounding p lain, i s s ituated 2 1km n ortheast o f K ayseri. E xcavations:

B .

H rozny i n 1 925.

T .

1 98

0 " zg 1 1c s ince

1 948.

S tratigraphy:

T he E B s equence i s o nly a ttested o n t he m ound b elow t he

s econd m illennium r emains. L evels 1 Vu i o n t he e xtensive t errace a re d ated t o t he e nd o f t he E B I II a nd b eginning o f t he M B p eriod. T hese t wo l evels w ith t heir m aterial c ulture r epresent, A natolian M BI w hich c ould b e p laced w ithin t he f irst c enturies o f t he s econd m illennium B C. d ated t o t he E B I I a nd I II p eriod. F inds: L evel c haracteristic o f p hase o f d ifferent u nder t he

i n o r

f act, f irst

t he t wo

L evels

1 4-11 o n t he m ound a re

1 4 p roduced a m onochrome t he C opper A ge c ulture. L evel

p ottery r epertoire 1 3, w hich i s t he f irst

t he E B I II p eriod, r evealed a rchitectural r emains a nd t ypes o f t ombs, s ome o f t hem ( e.g. s imple e arth b urials) h ouse f loors. I n a ddition t o c ist t ombs l ined w ith s tone

s labs, c ircular s tone b uilt t ombs w ith i nternal d ivision w ere a lso u nearthed i n t his l evel. T hese l arge t ombs p roduced t he f amous a labaster i dols r epresenting c omposite f igures, b ronze a rtifacts a nd s ome g old j ewellery ( Fig. X IV:24,25,19,15,30). P ottery g roups f rom t his l evel i nclude e xamples o f I ntermediate p ainted p ottery a nd mon oc hrome d ark b urnished v essels c omparable t o t hose f rom A li ar 7 . I n l evel 1 2 ö zg { fc d iscovered a n a rchitectural c omplex w hose c entral h ail h as a p lan r eminiscent o f t he h ail a nd p orch b uildings o f w estern A natolia.

T his

( or b oth?).

s tructure m ust h ave b een e ither a p alace o r a

M ore a labaster a nd c lay f igurines,

d eities o f

t he l ocal p antheon,

w ere f ound i n t his

t emple

p robably r epresenting l arge c omplex.

I t i s

i mportant t o e mphasize t hat t his l evel t oo h ad t ombs s imilar t o t hose f ound i n t he e arlier s ettlement. I n a ddition t o I ntermediate p ainted w are l evel 1 2 p roduced t he f irst e xamples o f C appadocian p ainted p ottery.

T he

l ocal a ssemblage i ncluded a n umber o f

S yrian b ottle o r

t he

r elevant

t o t he l ater t hird m illennium B C ( ca.2400i s t he f inal p hase o f t he E B I II p eriod.

A rchitectural e vidence f or t his s ettlement i s o f c haracter. J ar b urials a re f ar m ore n umerous i n t his o ne.

s uch a s

t he w est A natolian d epas w hich a re c onsidered

i n d ating l evels 1 3-11 2 100/2000BC). L evel 1 1

p revious

f orms

r ather u ncertain l evel t han i n t he

C appadocian p ainted p ottery i s h ardly

a ccompanied

b y

I ntermediate p ainted w are. S yrian i mports ( e.g. b ottles) s till p oint t o i ntensive c ommercial a ctivity w hich t o s ome e xtent c haracterized t he e conomic l ife o f t he E B I II p eriod. L iterature:

I ,

d zg1q 1 963;

O rthmann 1 963;

0 & 0

1 973;

H uot

1 982.

I s

A CEMHOY U K L ocation: T his l arge m ound i s s ituated 1 8km n orthwest o f A ksaray a nd 1 0km t o t he n orth o f t he m ain e ast-west h ighway w hich c onnects K ayseri t o A nkara. E xcavations: S tratigraphy:

N .

O zg 1 3c s ince T his

s ite

1 962. h ad

b een s ettled

s ince

t he

C halcolithic

p eriod. A d eep s ounding o n t he e ast s ide o f t he m ound ( Trench S ) r evealed E B 1 11-I1 l evels ( 8-10) u nder t he p alace c omplex o f S arikaya. F inds: L evel 8 ( EB I II) h as a h ouse w ith a f ragmentary C appadocian i dol o f a t ype b est k nown f rom K Ultepe 1 3-12. L evel 9 y ielded r ed b urnished w ares a nd a w heelmade b uff w are w ith d ull r ed p ainted b ands a nd h atched z ones; t he l atter i s v ery f ine i n f abric a nd s tyle. I n

19 9

l evel

1 0 s ome o f

t he p ottery r eported b y 5 zgIc

i s o f T arsus E B I I

w hich i s a lso k nown f rom K arah8yUk-Konya, a nd P orsuk B o az). T he h ouses o f l evel 1 0 h ave m udbrick w alls f oundations. L iterature:

d istrict w ithout

t ype, ( Dar s tone

M ellink 1 983:431.

H AS H ô 'YÜK L ocation:

I t

E xcavations:

i s a s mall m ound s ituated 3 5km e ast o f K 1r ehir. L .

S tratigraphy: 1 5.20m . T he

D elaporte i n 1 931 a nd H .

A n a rea m easuring 8 0 x 5 /10m w as e xcavated t o a d epth o f p re-Hittite s equence a t t his s ite i s s imilar t o t hat

o bserved a t A li ar. p eriod. F inds:

c ambel i n 1 943.

T he s ite w as

M ainly p ottery.

i nhabited s ince t he L ate C halcolthic

M onochrome a nd p ainted g roups a re v ery s imilar

t o t hose k nown f rom K i litepe, A li ar a nd o ther c entral w ithin t he m iddle K izilirmak b end ( see: O rthn iann 1 963).

p lateau

s ites

N orth-Central P lateau

A LACAH Y 1 1K ( Fig:

X V-XVI)

L ocation: T he m ound i s s ituated n orth o f Y ozgat, c orum ( 50km s outhwest o f c orum). E xcavations: A n k a nd t hen K o ay s ince 1 935. A kok s ince t he s eventies. S tratigraphy: A lacah8y1k p eriod I V i s C halcolithic/EBI).

T he

b etween S ungurlu a nd

R econstruction w ork b y

r epresented

b y l evels

1 4-9

( Late

P eriod I II h as f our l evels, 8 -5, d ated t o t he E B I I/IIlA-IIIB(?). p roblem w ith t he s tratigraphy o f p eriod I II i s t he ambiguous p osi-

t ion o f t he R oyal T ombs' i n r elation t o t he p oorly p reserved a rchitectural r emains o f l evels 7 -5. S ince o ne e xpects t o f ind s uch a s equence o f ' dynastic' t ombs e ither w ithin t he c ompound o f a l arge t emple o r p alace c omplex o r i n i ts i mmediate v icinity, t he l ack o f a ny s ort

o f

n umber

m onumental o f

g raves.

q uestions T hese

a rchitecture i n p re-Hittite A lacah8yUk

r aises

r egarding t he

i n

g raves

i dentity o f

a re c onsidered

t hose b uried

t o b e o f

i ntramural

b ecause K o ay ( 1951:153-155) r eported t hat a s ection o f s ettlement w as s et a side a nd l ater e xpanded a s a r oyal

a

t hese

c haracter

t he C opper Age b urial g round.

I n m y o pinion A lacah8yL 1k w as n ot a c ity o r a t own b y s outh A natolian o r e ven

c entral

s emi-nomadic

A natolian s tandards. t ribe

I t m ay h ave

b een a v illage

h aving a n e conomy b ased o n e nclosed n omadism

o f

a

( see

C hapter X II). A lacah8yt lk w as p robably o ne o f t he p ermanent s ettlements i nhabited b y s edentary g roups o f a P ontic t ribe a nd p art o f t he v illage m ay h ave s erved a s a s pecial b urial g round f or t he l eaders o f t he t ribe.

2 00

T he

g raves

a re o ften d escribed a s

s hallow

s haft-tombs.

T hese

s hafts w ere, i n f act, d ug i n o rder t o b uild, a t t he b ase, a c hamber t omb w ith s tone w alls, c orner w ooden p osts a nd c eilings o f b eams. T heir l ength v aries f rom 3 .00 t o 8 .00m , t heir w idth f rom 2 .00 t o 5 .00m a nd

h eight

c ontracted

a bout

0 .75m.

T hey

c ontained

i ndividual

p osition a ccompanied b y a r ich a ssortment o f

r itual ( tribal) o bjects. s acrificial o fferings a nd

b urials p ersonal

O ver t he c eiling b eams c lay w as l aid, f uneral f easts t ook p lace. O nce t he

i n a nd

t hen h eads

a nd l egs o f s acrificed a nimals w ere p laced o ver t he t imber r oof, t he s haft a bove t he r oof w as f illed i n. A pparently n o e laborate s urface m onument

o r

s tone m arking w as u sed a bove

t he

g raves.

B ut

t his

i s

h ardly s urprising c onsidering t hat t his a rea o f t he m ound a s a whole c ould h ave b een a m onumental b urial g round h aving a l ayout s imilar t o a t umulus(?). A ccording t o H uot o f

l evels 7 ,

p osition o f

( 1982:57-65),

6 a nd 5 r espectively, t he

t hree d estruction l ayers,

n amely

c ould h elp a ssess t he s tratigraphic

1 3 t ombs o f A lacahb 'ylk.

b etween t he d estruction l evels o f 7 a nd 6 ;

T ombs T i,

F ,K,L, A

A ?,C?

a nd E ?

a re p laced

b etween l evels

5a nd 6 ; B ,D,H, R ,T2 a nd S ? a bove t he d estruction o f l evel 5 . T his l ast g roup, t herefore, c ould b e d ated t o 2 200/2100-2000 B C (EB hIC), i n o ther w ords, t o t he p eriod b efore t he i ntroduction o f C appadocian p ainted p ottery a t A lacahJyUk P eriod 1 1.4. F inds:

A lacah8yf lk

e vidence

w hich c ould h elp u s r econstruct

I V

( levels

1 4-9)

p roduced

s ome

t he v illage

a rchitectural

a rchitecture

i n

t he ç orum p rovince i n t he l ate f ourth a nd e arly t hird m illennium B C. T he a rchitectural r emains o f t he f ollowing p eriod a re r ather r ural i n c haracter. T he m ost i mportant f inds a re t he m etal a rtifacts f ound i n t he t omb d escribed a bove. a nd o ther p ersonal o bjects,

W omen w ere a ccompanied b y t heir j ewellery a nd t he m en ( tribal l eaders a nd/or p riests)

b y t heir p ersonal s ymbols o f a uthority w hich c onsisted o f w eapons a nd r itual o bjects. I n e ach g rave t he b ody w as s urrounded b y s olar d isks, a nimal s ymbols, l ibation v essels a nd o ther f orms o f r eligious i magery. A l arge p roportion o f t hese o bjects w ere o f g old o r s ilver. w ere m ade o f g ood q uality b ronzes s ometimes i nlaid w ith m ore m etals.

S ome o f

t he s words o r d agger b lades w ere w rought

L iterature: A n k 1 937; P rzeworski 1 939; K o ay 1 944; 1 973; B ittel 1 959; M ellink 1 956; O rthmann 1 963:32-39;

H OROZTEPE

W eapons p recious

i n i ron.

1 947; 1 951; 1 966; H uot 1 982:54-65.

( Fig.XVI)

L ocation: T he s ite i s l ocated i n t he v illage o f n orth o f T okat a nd n ear t he d istrict o f E rbaa. E xcavations: S tratigraphy:

T .

H orortepe

s ome

4 0km

z g« 9 i n 1 956. T he e xcavations o n t he s ettlement s ite d id n ot r eveal a

c lear c ultural s equence. B ut t he d iscovery o f c ertain t ypes o f p ottery s uggest t hat t he 2 m t hick d eposits, i n f act, b elong t o a n o ccupation d uring t he e arly p art o f t he t hird m illennium B C a nd t owards t he e nd o f t he E B I II. T he R oyal T ombs o f Hor?ztepe w ere f or t he m ost p art e xcavated i llegally b y t he v illagers. 0 zgUç, w ho o pened f ive t renches i n

t he

c emetery a rea,

d iscovered o ne i ntact

2 01

t omb

i n t rench A .

F inds: h aste,

T he

t omb e xcavated b y

d z g t l i,

a nd a n umber o f

o thers

p roduced a r ich a nd m ost u nusual i nventory o f m etal

r obbed

i n

a rtifacts.

T hese w ere m ade o f b ronze, e lectrum o r s ilver. T hey i nclude a n umber o f v essels s uch a s f rit s tands, l arge j ars w ith h andles, p itchers, c ult o bjects

s uch a s s istra,

h uman ( deity?)

a nd a nimal

r epresentation,

a

m irror a nd a m usical i nstrument. A s f or t he t ombs, t hese a re n ot s imilar t o t hose e xcavated a t A lacah8yUk. A t l east t here a re n o t races o f a c hamber b uilt a t t he e nd o f a s haft o r f or t hat m atter a ny e vidence t hat s tone w alls o r t imber r oofs w ere u sed i n t he c onstruct ion(?) o f t he t ombs. I t I s s upposed t hat t he t ombs b elong t o t he f inal p hase o f t he E B 1 11(C) o r e ven p artly t o t he I ntermediate p eriod ( MB I ). L iterature:

t i zg { lç 1 958;

1 964;

0 rthmann 1 963;

4 9-50;

T ezcan 1 960.

K ALINKAYA L ocation:

T his s mall m ound

E xcavations:

i s s ituated 3 km n orth o f A lacah8y t Ik.

T emizer a nd A kok i n 1 971-1972.

S tratigraphy: T he e xcavations, u ndertaken i n o rder t o p ut a s top t o i llegal e xcavations b y l ocal f armers, r evealed s econd a nd t hird m ill ennia r emains. T here a re i ndications t hat t he s ite m ay h ave b een i nhabited a s e arly a s s tratification o f F inds:

t he l ate f ourth m illennium B C.

U nfortunately t he

t he s ettlements i s n ot a bsolutely c lear.

T hese c onsist m ainly o f b adly p reserved h ouse w all o f m udbrick

u pon s tone f oundations a nd i ntramural g raves. T hese t ombs a re i n f act j ar b urials w ith t he o pening f acing e ast, a nd t he c ontracted b odies l aying w ith t he h eads t o t he w est. T he j ars w ere f ound i n s ome i nstances c losed w ith f ragments o f o ther j ars. r ather s imilar, b ut s impler i n f orm a nd q uality, d iscovered f igurines,

T he t omb d eposits a re t o t he m etal a rtifacts

i n t he A lacah8yUk g raves. T hese I nclude s mall a nimal o pen w ork s un d isks, d aggers, b racelets, p ins a nd a t erra-

c ota f iddle-shaped f igurine. L iterature:

M ellink 1 972:

1 69-170.

E SK IYAPAR L ocation: w hich i s

T his

l arge m ound

i s p artly c overed b y t he m odern

v illage,

s ituated 6 km w est o f A lacah8y1k.

E xcavations: A kurgal i n 1 945. T emizer c onducted h is f irst s eason o f e xcavations i n 1 968 w hich w as s ucceeded b y a s mall n umber o f s easons i n t he s eventies. S tratigraphy: T he E BA o ccupation ( levels 5 -6) w as u nearthed u nder t he t hick a rchitectural d ebris o f t he H ittite s ettlement ( levels 5 -2). F inds:

T emizer

s trata. i ncludes

T his h oard c ould b e r oughly d ated t o t he E B I II p eriod. I t t wo g old n ecklaces o f r epus6 w ork, a s ilver t orque, a s ilver

b racelet,

d iscovered a n i mportant h oard o f

h airpin w ith s piral h ead,

2 02

j ewellery

a p air o f e arrings

i n t he

i n g old a nd

E B

a

m iniature S yrian b ottle L iterature:

i n s ilver.

M ellink 1 969b:206-207.

K U SARAY L ocation :

T his

l Om h igh m ound l ies 2 5km e ast o f C orum a long

t he

r oad

t o S amsun. E xcavation:

H .

S tratigraphy:

K osay i n 1 966. T he

m ound h ad a ttracted a ttention b ecause s ome

t ablets

h ad a llegedly b een f ound t here b y v illagers. S oundings m ade t here b y K osay e stablished t hat t he m ound m ainly c onsists o f a s mall w alled c itadel c a.100m i n d iameter a nd a t errace w hich m ust h ave a lso b een i nhabited. B elow t he H ittite l evel r emains o f t he L ate C halcolithic a nd E arly B ronze A ge s ettlements w ere l ocated. T hese s ettlements w ere a pparently b urnt, s uggesting t hat t he t ransition f rom t he f irst p eriod t o t he s econd, o r f rom t he E B t o t he M B p eriod, w as n ot v ery s mooth. F inds:

M ainly p ottery a nd s tratigraphic o bservations.

L iterature:

M ellink 1 967b:157-158.

B O AZKÖY L ocation: T his l arge s ite, m easuring s ome 4 14 a cres, n orth e ast o f A nkara, a s hort d istance f rom S ungurlu.

l ies

E xcavations: S ince 1 906 w ith s ome i nterruptions d uring G erman I nstitute o f A rchaeology a nd G erman O rient S ociety. S tratigraphy: H ouse

o n

T he p re-Hittite l evels o f

t he S lope

( 8c-d-9)

B Uyt lkkale(V),

a nd t he L ower T errace

c a.160km

m ajor

w ars.

t he a rea o f

( 5)

p roduced

t he s ome

p ottery o f I ntermediate p eriod a nd C appadocian p ainted s herds ( Vf). I t i s c lear t hat t he s econd m illennium c omplexes a t t his s ite d estroyed a nd c overed t he a rchitectural r emains o f s mall s ettlements o f t he l atest p hase o f A ge. A ccording s ettlement d ate

t o

t he E BA a nd t he t ransition f rom E arly t o M iddle

t o

i s n ot t he E B

B ittel

( 1970:28-30),

t he

t he o ldest d iscovered h ere.

l ate

t hird

B ronze

m illennium

H abitation s ites w hich

I I o r e ven e arlier h ave b een r ecorded

i n

t he

v alley

n orth o f B o azk8y ( Bittel 1 970:Fig.4). T hese h ave a lso b een t raced i n t he m ountainous t errain s outh o f t his s ite. A t Y arikkaya n orth o f Y azilikaya

e xcavations

r evealed

s howing

n o m ajor d ifferences

b etween

t hem .

T hese

h ouses

t wo

b uilding

p eriods

w ith

i n o rientation o r c onstruction a re

m ostly

s ingle

r oom

h ouses

t echnique

u nits.

T he

i ntramural g raves w ere n ot p articularly r ich i n r itual d eposits, b ut t he p ottery f rom t he h ouses s uggests t hat o f t he f ive a rchitectural s ub-phases t he e arliest o ne o r t wo c ould w ell b e d ated t o t he s econd h alf o f t he f ourth m illennium B C ( Hauptmann 1 969). S ome 6 km s outheast o f B o azk8y a nd n orth o f D erbent t here i s t he E B I lIll s ettlement n ear c iradere. T his s ettlement t oo m ay h ave b een s ettled a s e arly a s t he L ate C halcolithic / EBI p eriod. T his s ite p roduced a n i nteresting g roup o f

p ainted

p ottery g roup c alled C iradere

2 03

w are

(ktu

1 973:130-132).

T hese v illages a nd f armsteads o f

t he E arly B ronze A ge

i n t he n eighbour-

h ood o f B ogazk8y a re s ettlements n ot d irectly c onnected w ith h istorical H attusha a nd, a ccording t o B ittel, t hey c annot b e i ncluded i n i ts e arly h istory. H owever, t owards t he e nd o f E B I II a nd p articularly i n t he t ransitional p eriod ( ca.2100/2050-1950/1900), t wo t o t hree a reas w ithin B o azk8y w ere s ettled ( see a bove). A t t his s tage i t i s v ery d ifficult t o

d etermine t he s ize o f

t hese s ettlements.

B ut c onsidering

t hat

a

h ouse p lan u nearthed i n l evel V c s uggests t he e xistence o f l arge m ultir oom h ouses i n B o azk8y, i t i s p ossible t o a ssume t hat o ne i s d ealing h ere n ot w ith s mall v illages b ut w ith w ell o rganized t owns a nd d istrict c entres. F inds:

M ainly p ottery a nd o ccasional i ntramural

L iterature:

0 rthmann 1 963;

t ombs.

B ittel 1 970.

B IYUK G ÜLLUCEK L ocation :

T his s mall m ound i s s ituated c a.15km n orth o f A lacahbyük.

E xcavations:

K osay i n 1 947 a nd 1 949.

S tratigraphy: f irst

T wo

s ettlement

s trata

b elow t he P hrygian/Hittite

f ounded o n v irgin s oil d ates

f rom

r emains.

t he

l ate

T he f ourth

m illennium B C. I t c onsisted o f v illage h ouses b uilt o f m udbrick w alls o n s tone f oundations. E ach u nit w as m ade u p o f t wo t o t hree r ooms. T his l evel, w hich p roduced a h andmade d ark b urnished p ottery w ith s ome p ieces d ecorated w ith w hite p aint, w as l abelled C halcolithic. H owever, a s a lready p ointed o ut b y 0 rthmann, t his w are g roup i s c onsidered t o b e r epresentative o f t he E B I p eriod i n c entral A natolia. T he s econd l evel

p roduced a rchitectural

d ebris o f F inds:

t he

r emains,

i ncluding f ireplaces,

o ver

t he

l evel o ne h ouses.

M ainly p ottery a nd h ouse w alls.

I t

i s a n i mportant

s ite i n t he

s ense t hat i t i s f requently r eferred t o i n r elation t o c hronological d iscussions a nd e thnic a ffiliations o f t he e arly s edentary g roups o f c entral A natolia. L iterature:

K osay-Akok 1 957;

0 rthmann 1 963-39-40;

H uot

1 982:65.

M A AT H 6Y IK L ocation: T he m ound m easures 4 50 x 2 25m a nd h as a h eight o f I t l ies 2 0km s outh o f Z ile i n t he p rovince o f T okat. E xcavations: S tratigraphy:

T .

c a.29m.

ö zg t ic s ince 1 973. T his s ite w as

i nhabited s ince t he t hird m illennium

B C,

i f n ot e arlier. E BA b uildings h ave b een r ecognized a lmost o n e very c orner o f t his m ound, u nder t he t hick d ebris a nd s tructural s trata o f t he H ittite p eriod. A t l east t wo b uilding l evels o f t his p eriod h ave b een r ecognized s o f ar.

A I .

F inds:

T he l arge E B

f oundations.

M ost

I II h ouse w alls w ere b uilt o f m udbricks u pon s tone o f

t he

f oundation w alls

e xposed

i n

t he

t hird

m illennium s ettlement a re o f r ough l imestone b locks a rranged i n a r ow, o r t wo r ows o f s maller s tones ( Emre 1 979:P1.I-Iii). A s f or t he m udb rick w alls, t hese s how w ell p reserved p atches o f t hick p laster. S ome o f t he r ooms d iscovered h ere m easure 3 .50 x 3 m . T he f loors a re m ade o f p acked e arth. L arge s torage j ars, b owls, p itchers, s mall c ups, s pindle w horls a nd b ronze p ins a re among t he f inds r ecovered f rom t hese b uildi ngs. T he E B I II s ettlement s eems t o h ave b een d estroyed i n a c onflagration w hich a ffected a n umber o f t he s ettlements i n c entral a nd n orthern A natolia

( Emre

1 979:22-23).

E xcavations o n t he n orthern s lope

r evealed f our g raves: o ne i nhumation a nd t hree p ithos b urials. T hey w ere a rranged i n a g roup u nder t he f loor l evel o f t he l atest b uilding l evel. T he t hree p ithoi, b uried s ide b y s ide, h ave t hick w alls c overed w ith a d ark b rown a nd p olished s lip. T hey h ave b een p laced w ith t heir m ouths f acing e ast. T he b odies w ere a rranged i n c ontracted p osition w ith t he h ead a t t he b ase o f t he p ithos. T wo o f t he p ithoi c ontained a b ronze p in e ach; t he t hird h ad a p in, a b ronze e arring a nd a p air o f f luted b ronze b racelets. T he p ithoi w ere c losed a nd s upported w ith s tones. A nother p ithos g rave w as f ound b y E i nre i n t he s outhern p art o f t he H ittite p alace c ourtyard. I n a ddition t o a b ronze p in, a p air o f e arrings a nd a b racelet f ound i n t his p ithos, t he p ersonal o rnamen ts i ncluded

b eads o f

b ronze,

d ispersed a nd c ould b e

r ock-crystal a nd f aience.

f ound u nder a ny h ouse.

T he g raves

a re

T he E BA p ottery o f M asat

H oyuk i s n ot d ifferent f rom t he g roups o f p ottery c ommon t o n orthc entral p lateau o r n orthern A natolia. I t i s h andmade. E xcept f or s ome s mall v essels m ade

o f f ine f abric t he p ottery i s u sually a c oarse

w are

a nd t he f orms a re m edium i n s ize. T he p aste i s m ixed w ith s and a nd s traw. T he m ajority o f v essels a re r ed s lipped a nd f airly w ell p olished.

R ed

s lip

a ppears

i n v arious s hades.

V essels w ith

g rey,

b rown o r y ellow s lips a re a lso p resent, b ut i n l esser n umbers. T he s hallower v essels a re s lipped i nside a nd out. C haracteristic f orms i n t he l ocal r epertoire a re n o d ifferent t han t hose o f A li ar o r A lacah8yt lk. T hese i nclude s mall c ups w ith e verted r ims a nd h andles, c ups w ith r ounded b ases a nd i ncised d ecoration, b owls s imple o r p itchers, T he

b and w ith

e verted r ims h aving k nobs s et o n t he s houlder, b eak-spouted t eapots w ith b asket-handles a nd t wo-handled d rinking c ups.

t eapots

f ound

a t

A s E mre p ointed o ut,

t he

E BA t eapots o f c entral A natolia a re c onsidered t o b e t he p rototypes t he m ore r efined t ypes o f t eapots o f t he A ssyrian C olony p eriod.

o f A s

A lacah8yf lk,

a re

t erracota p arallels o f

K ayapinar,

t he m etal

H orortepe a nd T roy.

t eapots

f or t he d epas f orms ( fragments) f ound a t M a at t hese r esemble f ound a t A lisar, A lacah8yt lk, K t lltepe a nd 0 ymaa ac ( Emre 1 979:27). L iterature:

Emre

t hose

1 979.

K AYAPINAR L ocation:

T his s mall m ound i s s ituated c a.25km s outheast o f T okat.

E xcavations: S tratigraphy: a rchitectural

R escue w ork i n 1 952 b y T emizer. D espite l evels,

t he l ack o f a c lear s tratigraphy b ased T emizer i dentified t hree m ain p eriods

o n o f

o ccupation. T he e arliest d ate f rom t he L ate C halcolithic p eriod. T he E BA o ccupation i s r epresented b y p ottery a nd m etal f inds w hich i nclude

2 05

t hree m etal v essels. F inds:

M etal

a rtifacts

f ound b y T emizer a nd s ome e xcavated i llegally

b y v illagers c ould b e c lassified a s p ertaining t o w orking t radition o f t he E B I II p eriod. L iterature:

T emizer 1 954;

B ittel 1 959;

t he

O rthmann 1 963:51;

P ontic

m etal-

H uot 1 982:66.

M ALTEPE L ocation:

T his

1 8m h igh m ound w ith a d iameter o f

c a.50m i s

s ituated

c lose t o t he c ity o f S ivas. T he m ound i s c omposed o f a c itadel a nd a t errace. T he c itadel, w hich i s r eferred t o a s t he a cropolis, w as l argely d amaged d uring t he i llegal e xcavations b y l ocals. E xcavations: d ays.

T he

r escue e xcavations b y Ö zgtl i j

i n 1 947 l asted f or

f ive

S tratigraphy: T he e xcavations o n t he m ound r evealed t hree a rchit ectural l evels, 1 -IlIH , w hich c ould b e d ated t o t he s econd, t hird a nd f ourth q uarters o f t he t hird m illennium B C. T he t errace, o n t he o ther h and, h as t wo l evels, I -lIT, m ost l evel o n t he m ound, h as w ith t he o ne a t A lisar 5 M. F inds:

H ouse

w alls

d ated t o t he E B p eriod. I H , t he u pper f ortification w all w hich i s c ontemporary

i n l evel I I H .

I n I H t here i s a p ainted

d ark b rown o n a c lear s urface. T his p ainted p ottery g roup g eometric m otifs a nd l inear p atterns s uch a s h orizontal b ands,

w are,

i ncludes l ozenges

e tc. U sually o nly t he e xterior o f t he v essels a re d ecorated. T he h andmade m onochrome w are f ound t ogether w ith t he p ainted g roup h elps d ate t he l atter t o t he I ntermediate p eriod. T he m onochrome p ottery o f I I

T

I n

I II

h as a h ighly b urnished b lack s lipped e xterior a nd H

a w ell p reserved h ouse o f

t he E B I I

p eriod

r ed

i nterior.

w as

u nearthed

d uring t he v irgin s oil M altepe.

r escue e xcavations. T his h ouse w as n ot c onstructed w hich i ndicates t hat m ore E B l evels m ust h ave e xisted

L iterature:

O zgfc

1 947;

O rthmann 1 963:52-54;

2 06

H uot

1 982:79-80.

o n a t

C HAPTER V II:

S OUTHERN A NATOLIA

N ATURAL E NVIRONMENT A ND S ETTLEMENT P ATTERN ( MAP V III) T his r egion i ncludes L ycia i n t he s outhwest, t he l ake d istrict a cross t he w estern T aurus r ange, t he l arge b asin f rom K onya t o N igde i n t he

s outh

A natolian

p lateau a nd C ilicia s outh

o f

t he

e ast-central

T aurus m ountains. T he s outhern p lateau i s t he d riest p art o f t his l arge r egion, w ith a n a nnual r ainfall a s l ow a s 2 50mm i n p laces, a nd t he a rea i s v irtually d evoid o f s urface s treams. A s a r esult o f m oisture c onditions, w hich s tarted t o d eteriorate a fter c a.3000 B C, t he p opulation d ensity t oday i s o ne o f t he l owest i n A natolia. A reas c lose t o t he

f oot o f

t he T aurus a re mor e f ertile,

a llowing f or a mor e v aried

c ultivation i nvolving, i n a ddition t o c ereals, f ruit, v egetable a nd v ine. I n a ssessing t he s ettlement p attern d uring t he f ourth a nd t hird m illennia B C, o ne s hould c onsider c ertain f actors r egarding t he n atural e nvironment w hich 5 000 y ears a go w as n ot v ery d ifferent t han t he p resent c onditions 1 . F or i nstance, t he s aline c onditions i n t he a rea o f t he S alt L ake ( Tuz G 81{ 1) b asin d ate b ack t o c a.5000 B C ( Erol 1 978:126). T he s aline i nterludes s ince C halcolithic t imes a ppear t o h ave w iped Out t he f reshwater f auna o f t he l ake. T he d ifficulties w hich f aced t he f armers o f l ater p rehistoric t imes c annot b e d escribed o nly i n t erms o f a nnual r ainfall. T he p roblem o f f looding i n t he l ower a reas o f t his r egion w as a s erious o ne w hich m ust h ave w eighed h eavily o n t he s election o f s ettlement l ocations b y f armers. D espite t he l ow r ainfall, l arge q uantities o f w ater r un i nto t he b asins f rom s urroundi ng h ills a nd, a s a r esult, i n s pring w ater f loods v ast c ultivated a reas. I n t he a bsence o f a ny n atural o utlet t o i nternal d rainage, t he w ater i s s low t o c lear a nd

t hese b asins o f p arts m ay r emain

w aterlogged a ll t hrough t he s ummer ( Dewdney 1 971:186-196). T he K onya p lain i llustrates b oth t he p roblems a nd p otentialities i n t he A natolian b asins o f a n a rea,

i nternal d rainage. A round K arapinar, s everal s quare k ilometres i n s ize,

f or i nstance, t here i s o f t rue s and d esert,

a lthough o nly 3 0km a way t he H otamis d epression i s c overed w ith w ater f or t he g reater p art o f t he y ear. T he T uz G dlt l b asin i s b ordered o n t he w est s ide b y K araca D a ( 1724m) a nd b y o ther l ow m ountains t hat ru n s outh. T he B ozdag r ange s eparates t his b asin f rom t he K onya p lain. I n t his a rea E B s ettlements a re f ound c a.12km f rom t he l ake s hore ( Todd 1 980:21). T he K onya p lain, w hich i n t he s outh s tretches t o t he f oot o f t he T aurus t he r outes L ate

r ange, i s w atered b y t he ç ar amba c ay. I ts p osition a long f rom w estern A natolia t o C ilicia c ould h ave a ppealed t o t he

C halcolithic

a nd

E BA

g roups

t o

e stablish

t heir

s ettlements,

p articularly i n a reas b etween ç umra a nd K araman. T he l atter a rea c ommanded t he m ain r oute t o t he s outh, t he a pproaches t o t he C alycadnus ( GHksu) v alley l eading t o C ilicia. A s f or t he ç umra p lain, w hich is s till w ell w atered b y t he ç ar9amba, t he s ettlements h ere w ere i n t he p roximity t o t he r oads l inking t his l arge b asin w ith t he h ill o r t he l ake d istrict ( e.g. B eysehir, S eydi ehir) t o t he w est. I h.

area

b etween

E re li a nd B or,

2 07

a lthough i t

w as

n ot

c ountry A s f or

f ertile

i n

M AP V II: ( The d istribution o f C opper,

S OUTHERN A NATOLIA L ead a nd S ilver d eposits a fter M TA 1 972)

H acilar M olla A hmet

5 5.

T ilkili H 8yUk

1 09.

A kkilise

5 6.

K oca H 8yUk

1 10.

T efenni

S amsin S irkeli

5 7. 5 8.

K Uç { lk H 8y { lk K oca H 8yUk I

1 11. 1 12.

H asan P a a

5 . 6 . 7 .

V elican C eyhan I II ç ukurk8pr«

5 9.

1 13.

H ukkük8y

6 0. 6 1.

B oz H 8yUk B t IyL fk G 8n t 1 H 8yUk I I B t lylk G 8nl H 8yUk I

1 14. 1 15.

B ayat H 8yUk B eyler H 8yUk

8 . 9 .

D o inurtepe M inareli

6 2.

K araman H 8yt 1k

1 16.

K arah8yt ik

1 17.

K ocah8yf lk A kqay H 8yUk I

1 0. 1 1. 1 2.

M isis P ekmezli S ultantepe

6 3. 6 4.

K onya E ast

1 18.

M ur s al

6 5. 6 6.

E vderesi S eydihan H 8yUk

1 19. 1 20.

S t J le H 8yUk K arat a

1 3. 1 4.

T armil T atarli ç avu lu G eçemez H amzall B uran

ç umra B H 8yUk umra F H 8yUk S akarcalar H 8yUk

1 21. 1 22.

1 5. 1 6. 1 7.

6 7. 6 8. 6 9.

1 23.

A t tep e O rentepe

1 8. 1 9.

H esigin K abarsa

7 0. 7 1. 7 2.

B oyat H 8yt Ik K epirce M ounds O rtakaraviran S outh

1 24. 1 25. 1 26.

ç ingantepe M altepe S ii i fk e

7 3.

G 8kh8yt lk

1 27.

S aricalar

1 28.

T eki r ky

1 . 2 . 3 . 4 .

K inet K t lrkç { ller

7 4. 7 5.

P ekdemir H 8yt {k A kcalar H 8yt lk

2 2.

S oli

7 6.

K arabulak H 8yUk

2 3. 2 4. 2 5.

N ergis S oyali T epesidelik

7 7. 7 8.

E vre i M ound H oma

7 9.

K arahisar H 8yUk

2 6. 2 7.

T llan T irmil

2 8. 2 9.

Y alak8zt 1 Y enicehJyt {k

8 0. 8 1. 8 2.

E flatunpinar H 8y9k B ey ehlr H 8yUk K araçaylr H 8yUk

3 0. 3 1.

Y enik8y I I B oz

8 3. 8 4.

H ozat H 8yt 1k A gap H 8yUk

3 2.

H acibozan

3 3. 3 4.

I mamo lu K ozanli

3 5. 3 6. 3 7.

2 0. 2 1.

8 5.

G elendost H 8yUk

8 6. 8 7. 8 8.

O ren H Jy1k

Z eytinli A lyahanun A nberinharki

8 9. 9 0. 9 1.

G Jnd{ Irlt P inarba 1 D inar H 8yUk

3 8. 3 9. 4 0.

D ervi ll D omuz I E ksiler

9 2. 9 3. 9 4.

H 8yi lk B ozh8yt lk I I A kg1n

4 1.

K izil

9 5.

4 2. 4 3.

M ercin P a cu

9 6. 9 7.

4 4. 4 5.

Y enice I I T enevardi I

9 8. 9 9.

K u sura B urdur Y azir G encali M ancarli

4 6.

c aputcu

4 7.

K arah8yt lk

1 00. 1 01.

S alda K ara A ll

4 8.

U luki lah8y { 1k

1 02.

G ebren

4 9. 5 0.

Z eyve T epe I I T opaktepe

1 03. 1 04. 1 05.

S eller P inarba i I I K iziar

H UyUklü S enirce

5 1.

B eytepe

5 2.

K izilh8y { lk

5 3.

S incirli H 8yt ik

1 06. 1 07.

Y el te n

5 4.

q iller H 8yUk

1 08.

K evker

B elem H 8yUk

2 08

G ilevgl

K oziubucak

2 09

a ntiquity,

i t d ominated

t he n orthern a pproaches o f

t he C ilician

g ates

a nd t he s ilver m ines o r d eposits i n t he T aurus m ountains. A ccording t o M ellaart, n ot l ess t han a h undred p rehistoric m ounds w ith E B I -II o ccupation c an b e f ound i n t he K onya p lain ( 1963;207). T his e stimate d oes n ot i nclude o ther f ourth a nd t hird m illennia s ettlements w hich m ay l ie u nder t he l arge M iddle B ronze, I ron A ge o r C lassical m ounds. M ellaart e stimates t hat t he m ajority o f t he s ettlements i n t he K onya p lain a re s mall t o m edium s ize v illages w ith a s maller p ercentage o f t he t otal b eing t he r emains o f t owns o r e ven c ities. A mong t he l atter g roup

o f m ounds,

K erhane,

S a i nih,

S eydihan,

B { ly t lk A lama,

Emirler,

E minlar a nd K anaç H 8yt 1k n orth o f K araman s eem t o b e i mportant s ettlem ents w ith a l ong h istory o f o ccupation ( Mellaart 1 963:207). T he l ake d istrict t oo, s ituated b etween t he K onya p lain a nd I sparta, w as d ensely s ettled b y f arming c ommunities. T hese m ounds a re g enerally f ound i n f ertile

s tretches o f

a nd B urdur.

S u la,

Eridir

T he m ounds a nd f lat s ettlements s eem t o h ave b een

l and b etween t he l akes o f

B eysehir,

f ormed

o ver n atural e levations. I t s eems t hat e ven c ertain c aves i n t he T aurus m ountains w ere t emporarily i nhabited d uring t he E B p eriod. A s f or t he s ettlement p attern o n t he s outhern c oast, M ellaart p oints o ut t hat b etween M ersin a nd M iletus o n t he A egean s hore, c onsists o f n arrow c overed w ith s hrubs i naccessible

t he c oast

s trips o f p oor l and a nd g ravel a nd t rees ( 1954:176). M ost o f

f rom t he p lateau a nd e qually u napproachable

f rom t he s ea.

A long t his c oast r uns a g reat w estward c urrent w hich m akes b ay p articularly d angerous f or s ailing. d istribution o f p rehistoric s ettlements ( or t he s outhern c oastal z one o f A natolia d ensely s ettled i n p rehistoric t imes. A fter

t he

g eographical I t c omprises t he A manus.

K onya p lain a nd

m ostly

w aste, h eavily t his c oast i s t he

A ntalya

I t i s e vident, b y t he a bsence o f t hem),

( except e ast o f

t he l ake d istrict

t he t hat

S ilifke) was n ot

t he

m ost

i mportant

r egion o f s outhern T urkey i s t he a lluvial C ilician p lain. t wo d istinct a reas n ot c ounting t he c oastal s trip a long T he s outhwestern p art o f t his p lain i s f lat a nd i n p arts

m arshy a nd c onsists o f a t hick a lluvial d eposit ( Seton-Williams 1 954:121). C ilicia i s w atered b y t he T arsus a nd t he S eyhan a nd t he C eyhan R ivers. P rehistoric s ites a re n ot f ound o n t he c oast b ut

c a y

f urther i nland i n t he n ortheastern p lain w hich i s d ivided f rom t he a nd f rom t he s outhwestern p lain c alled ç ukurova. T he w hole o f

s ea t he

C ilician

t he

w est,

b y

p lain

i s e nclosed o n t hree s ides b y t he T aurus r ange o n

t he A ntitaurus o n t he n ortheast a nd

s outheast. T hese m ountain r anges a ccounts f or m uch o f t he f ertility o f

t he A manus o n t he e ast a nd

i nduce a h eavy r ainfall w hich t his r egion. T he i mportance o f

C ilicia i n a ntiquity, a s t oday, i s n ot o nly i ts f ertility, b ut i s m ainly d ue t o t he f act t hat i t i s t raversed b y i mportant t rade r outes f rom c entral A natolia t o S yria a nd b eyond, a nd i n t he o pposite d irect ion. t rade

T he r oad f rom T arsus, w hich w as p robably t he a dministrative a nd c entre o f t his p lain i n e arly h istorical t imes, t hrough t he

T aurus, p ass

c rossed

t he C ilician g ates

( K1lek B o azi).

l inking C ilicia t o n orthern S yria,

B elen G eçidi A manus a nd

t hrough t he A manus.,

t he s ea

i n p rehistoric n umerous s prings c overed

i n

A s

f or

T he m ain m ountain

o n t he o ther

h and,

w as

t he

t he c oastal p lain b etween t he

( the G ulf o f I skenderun),

i t w as n ot d ensely s ettled

t imes. A lthough t here i s p lenty o f w ater f rom t he t hat g ush f rom t he Amanus, t he s oil i s r ather t hin a nd

m ost p laces w ith l ayers o f g ravel.

N orth

o f

I skenderun

t here a re n o e arly s ettlements u ntil o ne r eaches a v ery l arge m ound n orthwest o f D 8rtyol. T his i s n ot t he o nly p rehistoric s ettlement i n t his

a rea;

K arah8yUk,

b elow

E rzin,

2 10

m ay

h ave

b een

a n

i mportant

s ettlement

i n

l ater

p rehistoric

t imes.

T oday

m ost

a ncient

s ettlements ( mounds) c an b e s een l ining t he m ain r oad c rossing C ilician p lain ( Seton-Williams 1 954:127). F rom M ersin t o A dana a

t he r ow

o f a ncient s ettlements l ine t he m odern r oad, s howing t hat t his r oute w as a lways i n u se. A t Z eytinli a nother r ow o f m ounds r uns f rom t he l ower e nd o f

t he C ilician g ates

t o t he S eyhan a nd

t he

C eyhan,

m arking

a nother r oad c rossing n ear T uzsuzzade a nd K iziltaha o n t he w ay t o t he c oast n ear A y 9. T he e ast s ide o f t he C eyhan h as a l arge m ound c alled D omurtepe, s mall a nd

b ut m ost o f t he m ounds s ituated o n t he p lain a re r ather u nless t hey a re p artly b uried u nder t he t hick s ilt d eposits

o f c ukurova, t hey c ould o nly b e t he s ites o f p rehistoric v illages. I t i s i mportant t o e mphasize t hat p rehistoric m ounds i n t his r egion a re s ituated s ome 1 0-15km f rom t he p resent d ay s hore ( except f or K azanli). T his s ettlement p attern i ndicates t hat t he e arly f arming c ommunities k ept a way f rom m arshy a reas o f t he C ilician p lain. N orth o f A ya , i n t he v alley a pproaching t he v illage o f K urtkulak, t here a re s ome l arge m ounds, s uch a s S oyali a nd H esigintepe o n t he n orth s ide o f t he p ass ( Seton-Williams

1 954:128).

T HE S EQUENCE O F C ULTURAL F RAMEWORKS S outhern

A natolia

w as

A ceramic N eolithic t imes. i mportant p art o f t hem,

i nhabited b y

f arming

c ommunities

s ince

T he a ncestors o f t hese f armers, a t l east a n o ccupied t he t housands o f c aves a nd r ock-

s helters i n t he T aurus a nd Amanus m ountains d uring t he P alaeolithic a nd M esolithic t imes. I n C ilicia a nd i n t he G 8ksu v alley t he L ate C halcolithic o ccupation i s c haracterized b y t he p resence o f C ilician L ate C halcolithic p ainted w are. I n a ddition t o t his g roup, w hich h as a w ide d istribution s outh o f t he T aurus r ange, C oba ( or f lint-scraped) b owl f ragments s uggest t hat i n C ilicia ( except p erhaps a t M ersin) t here i s n o v isible b reak i n o ccupation d uring t he t ransition t o t he E B I p eriod. A ccording t o M ellaart, w ho s urveyed t he K onya p lain i n a s ystematic w ay ( 1961;1963), L ate C halcolithic r emains n orth o f t he T aurus r ange a re f airly c ommon. E xcept f or C an H asan a nd t o s ome e xtent K arah { lyt fk, r evealed e arlier o pinion,

m ight

a lmost n o o ther s ite w ith L ate C halcolithic p ottery o r l ater r emains ( 1963:199). T his, i n M ellaart s

s uggest a s hift i n t he s ettlement p attern i n t he

K onya

p lain a fter t he e nd o f t he E arly C halcolithic p eriod. T he L ate C halcolithic o ccupation i s r epresented b y r ed, b rown, b uff a nd b lackish b rown s lipped b urnished m onochrome w are a nd b y w hite p ainted w are ( and r elated f abrics). T he l atter ( painted) g roup i s g enerally f ound i n p rehistoric m ounds i n t he c umra a rea. I t i s a bsent i n t he S eydi ehir r egion a nd r ather r are i n t he e astern h alf o f p lain

( Mellaart

C alycadnus C ilicia

1 963:201).

( C8ksu)

w hich

s o

v alley.

T his p ottery a ppears I t

r epresents a n

i n M ersin

i ntrusive

f ar h as o nly b een r ecorded a t M ersin a nd

B ey ehirt he K onya ( XII) c ulture w hich

a nd i n w as

p robably i ntroduced f rom t he K onya p lain v ia t he G Jksu r oute. R egarding t he r egional s tratigraphy o f t he K onya p lain, i t s eems t hat m ost L ate C halcolithic v illages w ere d eserted t owards t he e nd o f t he f ourth m illennium B C o r m aybe l ater.

A ccording t o M ellaart

t here

a re

n o E arly B ronze A ge m ounds i n t he i mmediate v icinity o f t he L ate C halcolithic o nes ( 1963:203). H owever, s ince c ultural c ontinuity i s v ery m uch i n e vidence, o ne c an s uggest t hat t he s hift o f s ettlements w as

p robably p romoted b y e nvironmental

2 11

f actors.

T he d eterioration o f

'H C o

. 0 0

•

z

2 12

C o . 0 0

.

H

z

0 a )

A c e r a m i c H a c i l a r

_ J / I f /

/7 / 7 / f

c a t a i . H ö y ü k

c a t a l H y i k W e s t

H

H a c i l a r V

i H 0 : C o C o ' I : 0 4 . J :0 4 1 H • ' 1 •c 4 4 C U C C o C o 0 Q ) C . ) C o I i C U 0 0 5 . 4 C U - ..

C a n H a s a n I

H

U )

K a r a h y f i k X I X

4 1

p e r i o d d e s e r t e d ?

H H

K u r c a y C u l t u r e ( V I i v )

A n a t o l i a n

. 1 j 4 . '‚

M e t a l i c W a r e

H

F l u t e d / R i b e d D e c o r a t i o n

H H ) 0 4 . ' J U ) C a )

M o s t v i l a g e s , t o w n s a n d c i t e s

D I S T R I C T I S P

C i l i c i a n P a i n t e d

T H E G d K S U

V A L E Y

L a t e U b a i d

M e r s i n X I

M e r s i n X V I

0

U )

.-

' 0

4 i

c o ‚ 1 4 i

-

A

t he

h ydrological

b alance i ndirectly a ffected

t he p hysical

e nvironment

i n t he K onya p lain a nd S alt L ake b asin. T he c hemical a nd p roperties o f s ome l akes c hanged d rastically a nd t he r ange s oils

I n

( Erinc

1 978:93-96).

T he

t he K onya p lain e xpanded,

r eaching i ts o ptimum

c ultural c ontinuity I n t he K onya p lain d uring

b iological o f s aline c a.3000

B C

t he l ate f ourth

a nd e arly t hird m illennium B C i s n ot a ttested i n t he C ilican p lain. H ere t he e arliest E B r emains ( e.g. T arsus) b elong t o s ettlements w hich w ere f ounded b y f armers w ho i mmigrated f rom t he K onya p lain. M ellaart h as a lready p ointed o ut t hat t he l ocal a nd n orth S yrian t raditions i n t he p ottery c ulture o f E B IIl C ilicia w ere n ot a s d ominant a s t hey w ere i n t he L ate C halcolthic p eriod ( 1963:205). S ince t he p ottery s equence o f K arah t lyUk i s s till n ot p ublished i n a c omprehensive w ay, i t i s r ather d ifficult t o d istinguish b etween t he E B I a nd E B I I a ssemblages i n t he K onya p lain. O f t he f ive m ain c lasses o f E B I -II p ottery d istinguished b y M ellaart ( each c lass h as i ts o wn p articular s hapes w ith s ome o verlapping b etween t he g roups), b urnished w ares, s cored w are, r ed p ainted w are a nd p lain c oarse w are a re c onsidered t o h ave

d eveloped

f rom

t he

r egional

L ate

C halcolithic

r epertoire.

M etallic w are, o n t he o ther h and, ( red g ritty p ottery o f C ilician E B 1I I), c learly r eflects t he p resence o f E B s ettlements, a t l east u ntil t he t hird a nd f ourth q uarters, o f t he t hird m illennium B C. A ccording t o M ellink, h owever, i t I s n ot c lear i f t he m etallic w are o f K onya w as p roduced b efore E B I ( 1965:114). A ccording

t he E B I I o r r elated

t o

t o

K onya

M ellaart,

t he

t he r ed g ritty w are o f

p lain

s uffered

c atastrophe a t t he e nd o f t he E BII p eriod ( 1963:236). i n t he d estruction a nd d esertion o f E B s ettlements e arlier. s ettlements h is s urvey

T arsus

a

g reat

T his r esulted c a.2300 B C o r

I n t he K onya p lain a lone, a mong t he n umerous E B I I ( 100) o nly a v ery f ew ( around 6 -8) p roduced, a ccording t o r eport, E B I II p ottery w ith w est A natolian/Cilician

c haracteristics.

T hese

O rtakaraviran

S izma a nd H atunsaray.

E I,

i nclude K arahIyt Ik-Konya, A lso,

S eydihan,

Z encirli,

t he l ocal E B I II w ares

k nown f rom K arah8yt 1k V -VII w ere n ot f ound b y M ellaart d uring h is s urvey o f t he K onya p lain, e xcept f or a f ew p ieces o f p ossibly E B I II p ainted w are

c ollected

f rom

H atunsaray,

K arah8yt ik-Akviran,

S eydihan

a nd

E n iinler. M ellaart a ssumes t hat t his d estruction p attern i n t he K onya p lain a nd p arts o f w estern A natolia c ould b e a t 9ibuted t o t he i nvasion o f I ndo-European e lements f rom t he P ontic s teppe

o f

I n C ilicia a nd G 8ksu v alley, t he m ain e vidence f or t he o ccurrence E B o ccupation i s t he p resence o f r ed a nd b lack b urnished w ares a nd

o ther w ell

w ares,

i ncluding s ome n orth S yrian t ypes,

s tratified.

I n

t he

s econd h alf o f

t he

w hich a t T arsus

t hird

m illennium

a re B C.,

c entral A natolian m onochrome p ottery a ppeared a t T arsus E B I II. B ut t he m ain i mpact w hich c hanged t he c ourse o f c ultural d evelopment i n C ilicia s eems t o h ave a rrived f rom t he w est. N ot o nly I n t he r egional p ottery a ssemblage,

b ut

i n a rchitecture t oo,

o ne c an c learly

t hat i mmigrant g roups w ho s ettled I n C ilica a nd m ainly o f s outhwest A natolian o rigin.

o bserve

t he G 8ksu v alley

w ere

C HRONOLOGY T he T arsus e xcavations i n C ilicia d emonstrated l ong t ime a go t hat t he C iljcjan L ate C halcolithic a nd E BA s equence c ould b e e asily a ligned

2 13

w ith t he Amuq F -J s equence, a nd w ith t hat o f M esopotamia s panning f rom t he P rotoliterate a t o t he e nd o f U r I II ( Mellink 1 965:110). C ilician c orrelations w ith t he Amuq a re p articularly w ell e stablished f or p hases H , I a nd J . T he r ed g ritty w are o f T arsus E B I I i s c omparable t o t he b rittle o range w are o f A muq H ( and G edikli E B I I); E B I II g oblets o f T arsus a re b ottles o f Amuq J p ointed

f ound i n t he Amuq p hase I a nd t he r ing b urnished g rey s outheast A natolia n orth S yrian t radition a re a lso f ound i n

a nd T arsus E B T u b ( Yakar 1 979:55; M ellink 1 965:110). b y M ellink, t he Amuq s equence a nd i ts c orrelation

A s w ith

Out

T arsus

E B

C ilician

1 -111

p hases i s n ot t he o nly p oint o f

E B c hronology ( 1965:110).

t radition f ound s ynchronizations

d eparture

f or

t he

W heelmade p ottery o f n orth S yrian

a t T arsus s ince t he E B I l evels c ould p rovide w ith b etter d ated s ites b eyond t he Amanus ( see S outh-

e astern A natolia). T he T arsus E B I I p ottery a ssemblage i ncludes a n umber o f i mported w ares f rom t he l ower E uphrates b asin w hich s uggest t hat t he l ater p art o f t he E B I I o f C ilicia c ould b e c onsidered c ontemporary w ith t he E D l ilA a nd p art o f E D I lIB ( Yakar 1 979:57; M ellink 1 965:111). A c eramics, w hich f ound p rovide

a dditional

l arge n umber o f i mported n orth M esopotamian t heir w ay t o T arsus i n t he E B I lib p eriod,

l inks b etween t his p eriod i n C ilicia a nd t he

p ost-

A kkad e ra i n n orthern S yria a nd t he H abur r egion. A s f or t he C ilician s ynchronism w ith E gypt, t his i s b ased o n a r eserved s lip p itcher o f C ilician E B I I t ype f ound i n a n a nnex t o m astaba G 1 233 a t G iza, d ated b efore 1 976).

t he e nd o f C heops

T he

c hronological

l ife

( Mellink 1 965:

e valuation

o f

1 11;

S panos 1 977;

t he E B s equence

i n

t he

Y akar

K onya

p lain, b ased o n K arah8y8k, i s r ather m ore d ifficult t o a chieve. E aston h as u sed t he s tratigraphy o f t his v ery i mportant E B-MB s ettlement t o p rove t hat h is e quation o f T arsus E B ITroy I a nd T arsus E B I I=Troy I I i s c orrect ( 1976:157). H is s ynchronism i s b ased o n t hree m ain a ssumpt ions: ( a) K arah8yt fk V II i s c ontemporary w ith T arsus E B I I b ecause o f t he o ccurrence o f m etallic w are;

( b)

I n l evel X XII t he f langed l ids a re

o f T roy I t ype a nd c ups w ith s mall h andles ( loop) o f T arsus E B I t ype; ( c) L evels X XII-XII h ave s cored w are w hich o ccurs a t T arsus t owards t he e nd o f t he E B I a nd c ontinues i nto t he E B I I ( Goldman 1 956:108). T his s cored w are ( imported).

i s a lso f ound a t T roy f rom M iddle T roy I t o l ate T roy I I S ince K arah8yUk l evels X I-VII c ontain n o s uch w are,

a ccording t o E aston t hey s hould b e c ontemporary w ith t hose o f l ate E B I I a t T arsus. E aston h olds t he v iew t hat t he d isappearance o f t he s cored w are w as c ontemporary i n t he K onya p lain a nd C ilicia, t hus s uggesting

t hat

i ts

a bsence

f rom l ate T roy I I

c oincides

w ith

t he

a bsence o f t his p ottery f rom T arsus E B I II ( 1976:157). Ih ave a lready s tressed t he d angers o f o verreliance o n t he K arah8yUk s tratigraphy ( Yakar

1 976:61).

a ssigning o nly o ne

E aston, l evel

t oo r ealized t he d ifficulties

( VII),

a s p roposed b y A lp,

i nvolved

i n

t o t he w hole E B I I

p eriod a t K arah8yt {k, w hile t he E B Io ccupation s trangely e nough w as a ssigned 2 0 l evels. E aston c orrelates K arah8y i ! lk X VI-VII w ith B eycesult an X IV-XIII a nd T arsus E B I I ( 1976:165). H owever, w hile d oing s o, h e o verlooked, p robably w ithout r ealizing i t, c ertain f acts r egarding t he p ottery s equence o f K arah8y t fk b riefly m entioned b y A lp i n h is p relim inary s hort r eports. t o t hat o f m iddle a nd

T he p ottery a ssemblage o f X VII-XII i s c omparable l ate T roy I ( Alp 1 964:116-117). I n f act, t he s o-

c alled e arly T roy I t ype l ids w ere f ound i n l evels X XIII-XVIII o f K arah3yt ik. W hile i ncised d ecorated l ids, w hich s how a r esemblance t o t hose o f T roy I , c ontinue d ownwards b eyond t he X VIIIth l ayer, m ore a rchaic o nes

f ound

i n t he l ower l evels o f K arah8yt ik p redate T roy I .

2 14

A s

L a t e C h a l c o l i t h i c F

H

H

o 0

C l ) C l )

H C H H H

H H

z

2 15

F o r M e s o p t a m i a n C 1 4 d a t e s e t h e c h r o n l o g y o f S o u t h e a s t e r n A n a t o l i a

K O N Y A P L A I N N O R T H

P r o t l i t e r a t e a b

P r o t l i t e r a t e c d

E a r l y D y n a s t i c I

E a r l y D y n a s t i c I

E a r l y D y n a s t i c l i A

E a r l y D y n a s t i c I l B

S Y R I A / M E S O P T A N I A * H

c a . 2 9 0 B C

A N T O L I A

3 0 / 3 2 0 B C

-

2 5 0 B C

0 0 0

0

p q

H c o

H

I i

H

0

4 C

f or c ups w ith s mall l oop-handles, t hey d o n ot a ppear i n t he l owest l evels o f K arah8yt tk, w hereas a t T arsus t hey a re f ound m ainly i n t he u pper

l evels o f

t he E BI s trata a nd i n t he E B

I I c ontext a s w ell

( Gold-

m an 1 956:98, 1 18, F ig.234, 2 50:210). R egarding t he s cored w are, a bsence a t K arah8yt 1k l evels X I-VII a nd i ts o ccurrence a t T roy I -II n ot b e a s s ignificant ( chronologically) a s i t s eems. A t p rovenance o f t he s cored s herds i s n ot k nown ( Troy 1 :39,45). b e

f rom

t he s outhern A natolian p lateau o r i mported

f rom

i ts m ay

T roy t he T hey m ay t he

A egean

c entres. A n

i mportant f actor w hich s hould b e t aken i nto c onsideration w hen

d ating l evels X I-VII o f K araho t 1k i s

t he o ccurrence o f

t he I ntermediate

w are f rom l evel X I o nwards ( Alp 1 964:116-117; 1 974:545). I t m ay b e a rgued t hat t he s equence i n t he T road o r s outhwest A natolia d oes n ot n ecessarily r eflect t hat o f t he K onya p lain. I n s ynchronizing K arah8y { lk l evel V I w ith C ilician E B l ila a nd w est A natolian E B l ila ( Troy I Ie-g), I t ook i nto c onsideration t he f act t hat l evel V I p roduced t hree t ypes o f d epas c ups c losely r esembling t hose f ound a t T arsus a nd T roy I I ( see A lp 1 973:434). R egarding l evel V II a t K arah8yt 1k , t here i s n o a rchaeological j ustification t o l imit i ts d uration w ithin t he C ilician E B

I I p eriod.

I t s hould a lso b e s tressed

w are o f T arsus E B I I c an a lso b e f ound, t he C ilican E B

t hat t he r ed

g ritty

a lthough I n s maller a mounts,

i n

l ila.

F inally, i t s hould b e e mphasized t hat i n v iew o f t he c lose c orrelations b etween C ilician s outhern p lateau a nd w est A natolian f rameworks, a nd t he f act t hat i n t he E B I II p eriod w estern A natolia i s c ulturally e stimates

l inked

t o

s outhern

A natolia,

c alibrated

r adiocarbon

f rom s outheastern A natolia a nd w estern A natolia c ould b e

o f

s ome a ssistance i n a ssessing t he r egional c hronology.

C ULTURAL F RANEWORKS/ETHNO CULTURAL T RAITS ( xVI1-XVI1l)

i n

I n t he f ourth m illennium B C t here a re t wo m ain c ultural p rovinces s outhern A natolia: C ilicia a nd t he s outh A natolian p lateau

( Including t he l ake d istrict). T he L ate C halcolithic c ulture o f C ilicia d id n ot d evelop f ree o f o utside i nfluences. I n a rchitecture, a nd p articularly i n p ottery, o ne c an d etect t he p ersistence o f s trong n orth S yrian-Mesopotamian t raits w hich w ere s o d ominant i n t he e arlier C halcolithic p hases. T his c ulture, a lthough m ore e xposed t o i nfluences f rom a cross t he A manus r ange, c ertainly d id n ot d evelop i n i solation f rom c entral A natolia ( southern p lateau). I n f act, t he w hite p ainted b lack b urnished w are o f M ersin X II s eems t o h ave b een I ntroduced f rom t he K onya p lain. I n t he s outhern p lateau, o n t he o ther h and, t he L ate C halcolithic c ulture w as c ertainly i ntrusive. C an H asan 1 , t he L ate C halcolithic t hat n either

s ettlement i n t he K araman r egion, c learly d emonstrates i ts r ather f limsy a rchitecture, t hick w alls b uilt o f m ud-

b ricks), n or i ts h andmade d ark b urnished w ares c ould h ave d eveloped f rom t he r egional M iddle C halcolithic c ulture ( Can H asan 2 A -B). S trangely ( e.g. A egean w ith

e nough,

w hite

t he

L ate C halcolithic p ottery o f

t he

K onya

( and m ainland G reece-ThessalY) L ate N eolithic w ares t he

p lain

p ainted d ark b urnished) h as mor e c ommon f eatures w ith t he

r ed-on-white

p ainted

c eramics o f

b ichrome p ainted p ottery o f C an H asan 2 .

2 16

t he K onya

t han i t

p lain

o r

h as t he

I t

i s v ery l ikely

t hat p opulation m ovements f rom t he n orth,

w hich

a ffected t he d emography o f w estern A natolia a nd t he A egean b asin a t t he e nd o f t he f ifth a nd e arly t hird m illennium B C, m ust h ave e xtended t o c entral A natolia, i ncluding t he s outhern p lateau. T he f act t hat m ost L ate C halcolithic s ettlements i n s outhern A natolia ( except C ilicia) a re n ot l ocated o n m ounds w ith E arly C halcolithic r emains c ould o nly s upport t he a ssumption t hat t he f ourth m illennium c ulture o f t he s outhern p lateau w as a lso, t o s ome e xtent, i ntrusive. T he s edentary c ommunities s eem t o h ave o rganized t hemselves i n s mall s ettlements a nd m aintained, a s t heir p redecessors, a n e conomy b ased o n m ixed f arming. T he e vidence f rom C an H asan 1 s uggests t hat h ouses w ere b uilt o f m udb ricks a nd n ot n ecessarily o n s tone f oundations. T hese d wellings, a lthough r ather f limsy, w ere r elatively s pacious a nd w ere n ot b uilt i n c losely p acked u nits, a s w as t he t radition d uring t he M iddle C halc olithic p eriod. A s tudy o f t he p ottery a ssemblage f rom E B I -II m ounds a nd f rom K arah8yUk-Konya i llustrates t hat t he t hird m illennium c ulture o f t he K onya p lain, w hich e xpanded t o C ilicia a t t he b eginning o f t he E B I p eriod, w as s trongly a ffiliated t o t he L ate C halcolithic o f t he s outhern p lateau. S ettlements o f t he E B Ip eriod a s s mall t o m edium s ize v illages. T he p rocess o f r eally s tart i n s outhern A natolia b efore t he E B I I T arsus ( EB I I a rchitectural r emains) p rovides t he o f e arly u rban p lanning i n A natolia ( Fig.XVII).

c ould b e c lassified u rbanization d id n ot p eriod. I n C ilicia, b est e xample s o f ar L arge h ouses l ining

b oth s ides o f a s treet, a nd a f ortification s ystem , s uggest t hat s ome o f t he e lements o f u rban p lanning s tarted t o e merge i n t he E B I I t own. W hether t his w as a l ocal d evelopment o r d erived f rom n orthern S yria i s o pen t o q uestion. I n v iew o f t he f act t hat C ilicia c ontinued t o m aint ain i ts t raditional l inks w ith r egions b eyond t he A manus, w hile i ts c ulture d eveloped a long t he l ines o bserved i n t he K onya b asin, s ome i nfluences

i n t own p lanning c ould h ave i ndeed c ome f rom S yria.

T he E B

I I i n C ilicia c ould b e d escribed a s a p eriod o f g radually i ncreasing t rade a nd c ultural e xchange w ith n orth S yria a nd c entral A natolia. E ven t he e vents w hich b rought a bout t he d esertion o f n umerous E B s ettlements i n t he s outhern p lateau, a nd t he i ntroduction o f w est A natolian E B I II c ulture t o C ilicia, d id n ot c hange m uch t he p attern o f e conomic a nd t rade a ctivity i n t he s econd h alf o f t he t hird m illennium B C. s eems

I n f act, t o h ave

m aritime

t rade,

c ontact w ith r egions b eyond t he T aurus a nd t he A manus i ntensified d uring t he E B l ilab p eriods. A s f or i t

m ust

h ave

i nvolved c oastal

s ettlements

b etween

S ilifke a nd I skenderun, o n t he o ne h and, a nd t he C ypriote p orts o n t he o ther. T rade c onnections w ith E gypt p robably i nvolved C ypriote m iddlem en w ho h ad t he p otential t o s upply t he E gyptian m arkets w ith A natolian s ilver T aurus)

( from t he T aurus m ountains), t imber ( both f rom t he A manus a nd a nd r esin ( from p ine a nd f ir). T he l atter c ommodity m ust h ave

b een i n g reat d emand i n E gypt a s i t w as a n e ssential s ubstance u sed i n e mbalming t he d ead ( the r eserved s lip p itcher o f C ilician E B I I f ound i n G iza c ontained t races o f t his s ubstance) ( Spanos 1 977:90). O ther i ndications o f t rade w ith a nd v ia C yprus a re p ottery o f C ypriote o rigin f ound i n E B I I c ontexts a t T arsus, s uch a s r ed a nd b lack s treakb urnished w are ( black-slip-and-combed w are f rom K yra-Alonia a nd P hilia), a nd E rimi w are ( red-on-white p ainted) ( Mellink 1 965:111-112). T he E B I II p eriod a t T arsus i s c haracterized b y t he e mergence o f w est A natolian f eatures i n a rchitecture, c eramic f orms a nd a n a dvanced m etallurgy k nown n ot o nly f rom T arsus, 1 7,22,23,31-32).

2 17

b ut

f rom S oli a s w ell

( Fig.XVIII

T he p resence o f i n t he

s ome e xtremely l arge m ounds w ith E B I lIll r emains

t he K onya p lain a nd C ilicia ( Mellaart 1 963:207) c ould w ell i ndicate e xistence o f l arge c ities w hich w ere t he c entres o f c ity-states.

T hese l arge u rban s ettlements

( e.g. K arah8yt 1k-Konya),

a nd t he f act t hat

t rade c ontacts b etween c entral A natolia/Cilicia a nd M esopotamia s ubstantially i ncreased f ollowing t he E D s hould

p rompt

u s

t o

r e-evaluate

o ur

s cepticism

n orth S yria! l ilA p eriod, r egarding

t he

a uthenticity o f t he 'legendary' c laims b y t he A kkadian k ings S argon a nd N aram-Sin a bout t heir m ilitary c ampaigns a gainst A natolian k ings a nd p rinces.

W e

h ave

t o

c onsider

t he

f ollowing

f acts:

( a)

T he

I nterpretation o f a rchaeological e vidence ( size a nd s hape o f E B I lIll m ounds) d oes n ot r ule o ut t he e xistence o f l arge c ity-states g overned b y 'royal' l eaders ( e.g. K ultepe); ( b) N orth S yrian/Mesopotamian i mports

f ound i n m ajor c entral A natolian

c ities

a nd a t T arsus i nclude

n ot o nly c ertain g oods t ransported i n c lay v essels b ut p robably s ome f ine j ewellery a nd l uxury i tems a s w ell. T he s cope o f t he t rade a ctivity b etween A natolian s ettlements a nd t hose i n a reas u nder A kkadian d omination,

b eyond t he Amanus,

s uggests

t hat

i t m ust h ave b een

o rganized b y m ajor c entres, p robably i nvolving f oreign m erchant g roups ( such s ystems e xisted i n e astern a nd s outheastern A natolia a s e arly a s t he L ate C halcolithic p eriod); ( c) T he f act t hat C ilicia a nd a reas i n a nd b eyond t he T aurus w ere r ich I n n atural r esources ( timber, s ilver, c opper) h ave

m ust h ave b een l ong k nown t o a mbitious A kkadian r ulers w ho

i ndeed

t ried

P ottery G roups

t o g ain a ccess

t o

m ay

t hese r iches.

( Fig.XVII-XVIII).

A .

L ate C halcolithic W ares:

1 .

M onochrome W are ( Mellaart 1 963:199). T he c lay i s b uff o r r eddish , w ith b lack c ores, a nd f ull o f g rits a nd s traws. F iring i s r ather p oor.

T he v essels

b ear a t hick b urnished s lip,

u sually r ed c olour,

b ut s ometimes a lso b rown, b lackish b rown a nd b uff c olours. B iconic al h ole-mouth j ar o r d eep b owl w ith t wo h andles a re c haracteristic f orms o f t his w are. H andles l ook m ore l ike l ugs ( Mellaart 1 963:Fig.2). T his w are i s c haracteristic o f t he s outhern p lateau. 2 .

W hite P ainted W are ( Mellaart 1 963:102-204). t hroughout t he K onya p lain. T he f abric o f

T his w are i s f ound t his p ottery g roup i s

b uff o r g rey w ith s mall g rits a nd s traw, w ell m ade a nd o ften t hin. B lack c ores a re c ommon a nd, a t l east t echnically, i t i s s imilar t o t he E B I b urnished w are o f t he K onya p lain. S imple b owls w ith h emispherical

p rofiles

a re r ather c haracteristic i n t he

r egional

r epertoire. B ut m iniature j ars, l arger j ars a nd j ugs m ade o f t his f abric a re a lso a mong t he k nown f orms o f t his g roup. T he d ecorat ion o n j ars i s f ound o n t he o utside, o n t he c arinated b owls t he u pper p art a bove t he c arination i s p ainted, a nd o n h emispherical b owls d ecoration i s f ound o n t he i nterior a nd e xterior ( Mellaart 1 963:Fig.4). T he m ost c ommon d ecoration i s t he i nterlaced p arallel c hevrons w are

a nd

g roup

c ombination o f v ertical l ines w ith m ust h ave h ad a l ong l ife

s pan i n t his

c hevrons. r egion

T his a nd

i n

a reas i n t he n orthern h alf o f t he c entral p lateau. I n t he l atter •r egion, i t i s u sually a ssociated w ith L ate C halcolithic c ultures o f E B

I d ate

( Orthmann

1 966)

2 18

3 .

C ilician w are. p aint

L ate C halcolithic P ainted W are.

I t i s a

h andmade

f ine

T he s urface c olour i s p ale r ed o r b uff. T he c olour o f t he i s n ormally r ed o r b rown, t hickly a pplied a nd m att ( French

1 965:182). C alycadnus

T he m ost c ommon s hape m ade o f t his a nd C ilicia i s a h emispherical b owl.

p ossible t o e valuate t his w are g roup a s a l ocal U baid ( or L ate U baid) p ainted p ottery.

w are I t

i n t he i s v ery

v ariant

o f

t he

B .

E arly B ronze A ge W ares:

1 .

H andmade b urnished w ares 3 T his c lass, a ccording t o M ellaart, c an b e d ivided i nto r ed a nd b lack b urnished g roups, e ach w ith n umerous v ariations m ottled

i n c olour

a nd

b lack

-

p lum r ed w ith o range b uff,

w ith g rey,

d ark b rown a nd

l ight b rown

m ottled

o r

s pecimens

( 1963:211). T he f abric u sually c ontains g rits a nd f inely c hopped s traw. S lips a re c ommon a nd t he w are, a lthough w ell f ired, s till h as g rey c ores. T he s lip i s u sually c rackled a nd t he s mall v essels a re w ell b urnished. D ecoration o ther t han b urnish i s r are, b ut t here a re e xamples o f i ncised d ecoration o n b lack c ups a nd r ed j ugs, j ars a nd b oxes o f E B I I d ate. T his w are h as a n e xtremely e xtensive d istribution i n s outhern A natolia. I t i s a lso f ound i n t he C alycadnus v alley a nd C ilician p lain ( e.g. b urnished).

C ilician E B

b lack

T he m ost c haracteristic s hape i n t his g roup i s a c lass o f

t hin

b owls w ith c urving r ims. A t T arsus t hey a re f ound m ainly i n t he E B I s ettlement. W hile i n t he E B It he b lack b urnished v ariant i s m ore i nto

p opular, t he r ed b urnished v ariant o f t hese t he E B I I p eriod. O ther c ommon f orms i nclude:

b owls s urvives s traight-sided

b owls, b owls w ith a s mall l oop h andle a nd f laring r ims ( Mellaart 1 963:Fig.8), h ole-mouth j ars w ith l oop h andles a nd n ecked j ars. T he l atter f orm w as m ost l ikely p rovided w ith l ids. S uch j ars w ere p robably m anufactured i n t he E B I I p eriod, b ut t hose d ecorated o n t he

n eck w ith a h uman f ace a nd p rotuberant e yes,

a n ose a nd

e ye-

b rows ( face-urns: M ellaart 1 963:10), m ay w ell d ate f rom t he E B I II p eriod ( Yakar 1 976). F inally, t he r egional r epertoire o f b urnished w are

g roups

i ncludes

t ubular s pouted j ars a nd

j ugs w ith

c ut-away

n eck ( Mellaart 1 963:Fig.11). D ecoration i s u sually l imited t o i ncised l inear a nd g eometric p atterns o n t he e xterior o f j ars, j ugs a nd 2 .

f laring b owls.

H andmade

P ainted

W are

( Mellaart

1 963:Fig.12).

T his

g roup

i s

u sually f ound i n t he c entral a nd w estern p arts o f t he K onya p lain. I t i s o n t he w hole a b adly-made w are w ith t he f abric c ontaining m uch c haff t emper. T he s urfaces o f v essels w ere m erely s moothed a nd

d ecorated w ith p aint w hich v aried i n c olour f rom r ed

t o

b rown

o r b lack ( Mellaart 1 963:221-222). P atterns ( e.g. s wags a nd w avy l ines) a re r estricted t o b ands o n b owls, l ids, r ims a nd j ar h andles. A ccording t o M ellaart, t his p ainted g roup c ould w ell b e a w estern

v ariant

o f

e astern d istribution 3 .

t he p ainted m etallic w are w hich

h as

a

m ore

( 1963:222).

M etallic W are o f t he K onya P lain ( Mellaart 1 963:228-229, F ig.141 7). T his h andmade p ottery, w hich w as n amed M etallic W are b ecause o f i ts s harp p rofiles, i ts b evelled e dges, i ts o mphalos b ases a nd o ther s eemingly m etallic f eatures, w as i n v ogue i n t he E B I I p eriod, a lthough i t m ay h ave b een p roduced a s e arly a s t he E B I .

2 19

T he

w are

h as a p ale r ed o r b uff b ody c lay

w ith

w hite

l imestone

g rits a nd n o s traw i nclusion. T he p ottery i s w ell-fired a nd s ometimes o verfired, m ost l ikely o n p urpose, w hich r esulted i n t he c lay b eing f used i nto a s tone w are. A s a nother r esult o f t his h igh f iring t he c lay i s p itted o ver t he l imestone i nclusions i n t he f abric. T his i s w hy t his w are, o r i ts C ilician v ariant a t T arsus, i s c alled r ed g ritty w are ( Fig.XVII:2-3, 7 ,8). O ver-fired e xamples o f t his w are h ave a p urple s urface a nd v itrified p aint. H owever, m ost v essels m ade o f t his w are h ave l ighter c olours s uch a s p ink, a pricot b rown, l ight r ed a nd s ometimes b uff. T his w are i n t he K onya p lain i s v ery o ften d ecorated w ith h atching, s tripes o r w avy l ines

i n a m att w hite,

r ed o r o range p aint,

s ometimes b oth;

l ater

e xamples ( EB I l-lilA?) h ave b ands o f b rown t o p urplish o r r ed p aint a long t he r im o f t he b owls, j ars a nd j ugs, o n t he b ase o f t he n eck, r ound l ugs a nd k nobs, a nd o n t he h andles, w hich, l ike s pouts, a re o ften c oated c ompletely. D ecorative p atterns i nclude, i n a ddition t o h orizontal b ands, v ertical z igzags i n g roups, c ircles, o vals w ith a f illing o f d ots, r ows o f d ots, t ree p atterns, c rescents, h ooks a nd a n o ccasional s wastika. T he r epertoire o f s hapes s een i n t his w are g roup h as a w ide d istribution i n s outhern A natolia. I n f act M ellaart, d uring t he s urvey o f t he K onya p lain, d id n ot ( 1963:228). T he m ost c ommon s hapes s pouted j ugs a nd c ollar-necked j ars. o f s hapes a nd s izes. S mall j ars w ith a nd o ften d ecorated w ith p atterns i n t he E B I I p eriod. A ccording

r ound

t o F rench ( 1965:183)

r ecognize l ocal v ariations m ade o f t his w are a re b eakT he l atter o ccur i n a n umber t wo l ugs a nd s traight n eck, t he l ugs,

a re q uite c ommon

t his w are g roup h as t wo

a reas

o f d istribution ( each p robably w ith i ndependent c entres o f m anufacture); t he K onya p lain a nd C ilica. F rench a nd M ellink b oth t hink

t hat

C ilician

i t

i s

b y n o m eans c ertain t hat,

i n f abric

o r

s hape,

r ed g ritty w are i s c ompletely i dentical w ith t he m etallic

w are o f t he K onya p lain. B ut F rench d oes p ossibility o f a c ommon o rigin f or b oth g roups.

n ot o verrule I n h is r eport

t he o n

p rehistoric s ites i n t he C alycadnos ( G8ksu) v alley, h e c lassifies t his w are a s: ( a) C ilician E B " Metallic" o r R ed g ritty w are; ( b) C ilician E B r ed a nd w hite p ainted " Metallic" w are; ( c) K onya P lain E B I I m etallic w are ( French 1 965:182). I t i s i mportant t o e mphasize t hat t he r ed g ritty w are o f C ilicia c ontinued t o b e m anufactured ( e.g. T arsus) d uring t he E B I h ave a lready r emarked ( Yakar 1 976:156),

l ila p eriod. I n f act, t he E B l ila e xamples

a s o f

t his w are a t T arsus a re n ot s ignificantly d ifferent f rom t hose o f t he E B I I p eriod. I n t he K onya p lain t oo, a n umber o f s hapes i n m etallic a nd e ven i n b urnished w ares, a ssigned t o t he E B I I p eriod, h ave a lmost e xact p arallels a mong t he p ottery a ssemblage o f T arsus E B l ila. T his f act m ay i ndicate t hat t he n umber o f s ettlements a ssumed b y M ellaart t o h ave b een d estroyed a nd d eserted a t t he e nd o f t he E B I I p eriod c ould b e s maller, a nd g enerally s peaking, t he s ettlement u nchanged

p attern f or s ome

o f

t he

E B

IIl

p eriod

p robably

t ime a t l east d uring t he e arly p art o f

r emained t he

E B

I II p eriod. 4 .

S cored W are ( Mellaart 1 963:224, F ig.13; F rench 1 965:185). T he w are i s b uff o r r ed w ith h eavy g rit a nd s traw t emper. T he s cored d ecoration

w as

p robably p roduced w ith a b rush w hen t he

2 20

c lay

w as

F IGURE X VII:

M aterial C ulture o f Anatolia.

t he E arly U rban P eriod f rom S outhern

T he b ulk o f t he m aterial i llustrated h ere c omes f rom t he E R l evels o f T arsus. T he r ed g ritty w are g roup f rom T arsus ( 2-3, 7 , 8 )

I I i s

c onsidered b y s ome t o b e a C ilican v ariant o f t he m etallic w are o f t he K onya p lain, a nd i t i s k nown a cross t he A manus r ange ( e.g. I slahiye p lain) u nder t he n ame o f b rittle o range w are. T he b lack o r r ed b urnished m onochrome w are g roups o f T arsus 9 , 1 0, 1 2, 1 3, h ave c lose p arallels i n t he s outhern A natolia p lateau ( e.g. K onya). p eriod

1 8 a nd 2 3 K arah8y l lk-

T arsus w as a lready a n e arly u rban s ettlement i n t he E B ( 1). C ertain u nrecorded e vents p rompted t he i nhabitants

I I t o

f ortify t heir s ettlement b y b uilding a w all t hrough a r ow o f h ouses a long o ne o f t he m ain s treets c ircling t he t own ( 14). L ater t his w all w as

c onsolidated

b y

d ismantling

t he

h ouses

a nd

b uilding

a

g ate

p rotected b y a t ower ( 16). T he p otters u sed t he w heel f or s ome o f t he f iner c eramic f orms, e specially t o p roduce t he n orth S yrian c orrugated c ups a nd b owls m ade o f l ight f abrics ( 6). T arsus p roduced a n i nteresting d esigns.

F IGURE

i nventory

X VIII:

T arsus E B

o f

s tamp

s eals w ith

l inear

M aterial C ulture o f t he E BA I II D ynasties) f rom S outhern A natolia. I II l evels p rovide

t he b ulk o f

a nd

P eriod

c urvilinear

( Emerging

t he m aterial e vidence f or

C ilicia. C hanges i n a rchitecture a re q uite r emarkable. T he m egaron a nd m egaroid p lans l eave n o d oubt t hat t he n ew i mmigrants a rrived f rom t he w est ( 1, 2 7-28). T his i s f urther c orroborated b y t he p resence o f w est A natolian E B I II p ottery i n t he l ocal r epertoire o f T arsus ( 2, 5 , 8 , 9 , 2 4, 9 , 2 6). T rade c onnections w ith M esopotamia a nd S yria a re d ocumented b y i mported p ottery ( 2) a nd n ew s tyles i n g lyptic f orm ( 3, 1 0). T he g reat

t echnological a dvances

j ewellery f rom T arsus 2 2, 2 3, 3 1-3 3).

( 4,

6 ) a nd

i n m etallurgy a re e vident i n

t he

t he f amous m etal h oard f rom S oli

( 17,

2 21

F iq.

XVI[ 2 22

2 8

F ig.

XVIII

2 9

2 23

3 0

3 1

3 2

3 3

s till w et. s ame a s p roduced

A ccording t o M ellaart,

t he s hapes o n t he w hole a re t he

t hose o f t he c oarse w are a nd r ed s lipped j ars. o f t his w are a re j ars, l arge b owls a nd s torage

V essels b asins.

T his w are m ay h ave b een p roduced s ince t he L ate C halcolithic p eriod ( French 1 965) b ut i n C ilicia i t i s f ound i n t he E B 1 -11 c ontexts a t T arsus ( See : C hronology). T he

u ndecorated

p ieces o f

t his w are h ave b een c lassified

b y

M ellaart ( 1963:226) a s c oarse w are. T he f abrics a re r ed, b rown a nd b uff i n c olour, s moothed o r w iped b ut n ot b urnished. B aking t rays, p ithol, h ole-mouth j ars a nd c ooking p ots w ere a ll m anufactured t his w are. I t i s d ifficult t o p recisely d ate t his g roup b ut c ould

b e

g enerally a ssigned t o a p eriod s panning

C halcolithic p eriod t o 5 .

t he e nd o f

t he E B

f rom

t he

o f i t L ate

I t.

W est A natolian/Cilician E B I II R ed S lipped W are ( French 1 965:184; G oldman 1 956; H uot 1 982). T his w are g roup i ncludes s ome h andmade v essels ( e.g. l arge j ars), h owever, t he m ajority o f s hapes i n C ilicia, G oksu v alley a nd i n t he K onya p lain ( e.g. K arah8yt ik) w ere m anufactured o n w heel. T he c lay o f t his w are i s f ine. T he s urface w as c oated, s ometimes o nly p artially, w ith a r ed s lip. F orms i nclude b owls, w hich m ake u p a n i mportant p ercentage o f t he l ocal r epertoires, j ars, t ankards a nd o ther s hapes t hat a re k nown t o u s f rom T roy I lIll. B ut s trangely e nough n o f ace j ars a re k nown f rom C ilician E B I II s ettlements. F rench r emarks t hat c ertain u niformity i n p ottery o f t his c ategory f rom

t here i s a C ilicia a nd

f rom w estern A natolia ( including t he K onya p lain). B ut h e a dmits t hat t here i s a d ifference o f o pinion a mong a rchaeologists o n w hether t he e mergence o f t his w are g roup i n t he t wo m ajor a reas m entioned a bove i s s imultaneous. R ed-cross b owls f ound i n t he G oksu v alley h ave b een i ncluded b y F rench i n t his c ategory.

5

A RCHAEOLOGICAL S OURCES A .

F ield S urveys A C ilician s urvey b y S eton-Lloyd

i n 1 951

c overed l arge e xpanses i n

t he p lains o f C ukurova a nd A elia, a nd t he c oastal s trip o n t he G ulf o f I skenderun. S ites i n t he C ilician p lain n umber 1 49. M ost o f t hese w ere o ccupied i n m edieval/classical a nd p re-classical t imes. A ccording t o t he s urvey r eport ( Seton-Wi lliams 1 954) m ore t han 2 0 s ites p roduced L ate C halcolithic m aterial w hile 3 0 t o 4 0 m ounds p roduced c lear e vidence o f E B o ccupation. O f t hese D omurtepe, a m ound m easuring s ome 1 00 x 1 50m i n s ize a nd c a.20m h igh, s uggests a c ontinuous h istory o f s ettlement s ince t he L ate C halcolithic p eriod t o t he e nd o f m edieval t imes n ot o nly a t t his s ite, l ocated c lose t o t he e astern b ank o f t he C eyhan r iver, 3 5km s outhwest o f M isis, b ut i n o ther a reas c oastal s trip a s w ell. S eton-Lloyd p rovides s hort

c lose t o t he b ut r ather

c omprehensive d escriptions o f m ounds i n C ilicia. B ut a d escription o f p rehistoric p ottery f rom s ettlements v isited g iven d ue p lace A

I n t he r eport.

s urvey o f p re-classical s ites

b y M ellaart a s e arly a s n umber o f y ears. o f t hem m ounds,

d etailed w as n ot

1 951

i n s outhern T urkey w as u ndertaken

( Mellaart 1 954;

1 961;

1 963)

a nd l asted a

M ellaart r ecorded a bout 4 00 p re-classical s ites, m ost a nd a f ew f lat s ettlements a nd t umuli. T his p roject

2 24

t ook

M ellaart

t o

t he s outhern p lateau a nd s outhwestern

A natolia.

I n

a ddition, t he c oastal z one s outh o f t he T aurus r ange w as e xplored f rom M ersin t o M iletus i n t he L ower M aeander v alley. T he s urvey w as m ostly m ade o n f oot a nd, a s a r esult, s ettlements l ocated i n i solated m ountain v alleys o r i n m arshy r egions w ere n ot e xplored. M ellaart e mphasizes t hat a ll t he p ottery w as c ollected o n t he s urface o f a ncient s ettlem ents

a nd

t renches,

o nly

i n

c ould

a f ew

c ases,

w hen

m ounds

w ere

a r ough s tratigraphy b e o bserved

d isturbed

( 1954:175).

b y A reas

w hich w ere r ather t horoughly i nvestigated b y M ellaart a re t he B eysehir a nd S eydisehir a rea, t he a rea e xtending b etween I sparta, K orkuteli a nd D enizli i n t he s outhwest a nd t he K onya p lain. I n h is 1 954 r eport M ellaart l isted s ome 8 4 E B s ites i n s outhern A natolia ( excluding t he C ilician p lain). A t l east o ne t hird o f a ll t he p rehistoric s ites p roduced C halcolithic p ottery. H e a lso p rovided a d etailed a nalysis o f s outhwest A natolian E BA p ottery a ssemblage, i ts d istribution i n t he r egion, a nd s imilar w ares i n n orthwest A natolian s tratified s ettlements s uch a s T roy,

T hermi,

a nd K usura i n t he w estern h interland.

P articular

e mphasis w as g iven b y h im t o d iscussing t he w hite p ainted p ottery i n s outhwestern A natolia ( 1954:202-215). T he d istribution o f t his p ottery f rom e astern G reece i n t he w est t o c entral a nd n orthern A natolia i n t he e ast ( 1954:Map 4 ) a nd i ts c hronology a s d escribed b y M ellaart i s p articularly i nformative a nd s hould b e r eferred t o i n d iscussions c onc erning

t he i ntrusive c haracter o f

t he L ate C halcolithic

c ultures

i n

A natolia. M ellaart p ublished t he r esults o f h is 1 958 ( last) s urvey o f t he s outhern p lateau i n a n umber o f a rticles. O f t hese, t he L ate C halcolithic a nd E arly B ronze A ge p ottery w as p ublished b y h im i n 1 963. H is r eport i ncluded d etailed d escriptions o f m ajor p ottery g roups o f t he f ourth a nd t hird m illennia B C i n t he K onya p lain a nd l ake d istrict, a nd

m aps

s howing

t he d istribution o f

t hese w are g roups

i n

s outhern

A natolia ( including C ilicia).

G 8ksu

I n 1 965 F rench p ublished a r eport o n t he p rehistoric s ites i n t he 6v alley. T he p urpose o f t his r e-investigation o f t he G 8ksu

v alley

w as

t o u nderstand b etter t he c ultural r elationship o f

t his a rea

t o t he t wo m ain c ultural r egions, t he K onya p lain a nd C ilicia, f rom t he N eolithic p eriod u ntil t he I ron A ge ( French 1 965:177). A t otal o f 1 0 m ounds w ere s tudied b y h im a nd t he p ottery c ollected o n t he s urface c lassified a ccording t o a d ifferent g rouping t han t hat p reviously s uggested b y M ellaart ( French 1 965:181-182). H e c ame t o t he c onclusion ( on t he e vidence o f p ottery) t hat t he G 8ksu v alley b elonged t o C ilicia r ather

t han t o

t he K onya p lain.

T arsus

t han t o

t hat o f K arah8yt lk-Konya.

T he E B p ottery i s c loser t o t hat I n t he l ate

o f

t hird m illennium

t he v alley u sed p ottery t ypes c ommon t o C ilicia a nd c entral a nd w estern A natolia. P art o f t he s outhern p lateau, e ast o f t he S alt L ake b asin, w as v isited b y T odd, i n 1 964-1966, f or t he p urpose o f i nvestigating

r et he

p rehistory o f c entral A natolia, p articularly t he N eolithic p eriod. T odd p ublished t he s urvey r esults, w hich i n f act w as h is d octoral d issertation,

i n 1 980.

H e p rovides a m ost i mportant i nsight i nto

t he

e arly p rehistoric s ettlements i n c entral A natolia, t heir n ature, a nd d istribution w ithin e cological n iches o f t he p lateau. H e a lso r efers t o K 8kten s n umerous p rehistoric s urveys i n s outhern A natolia, i ncluding e xplore

t hose t he

b etween

c aves o f

T arsus a nd A ntalya,

t he T aurus r ange

2 25

w hose

f or s igns o f

p urpose

w as

P alaeolithic

t o a nd

l ater o ccupations B .

( Todd 1 980:169-170).

E xcavations

C ilicia M ERSIN ( Y I JMÜKTEPE) L ocation:

T his l arge m ound,

n orthwest o f

w hich i s 2 5m h igh,

i s

s ituated s ome 3 km

t he m odern p ort o f M ersin.

E xcavations:

J .

G arstang i n 1 937-1939;

1 946-1947.

S tratigraphy : n orthwestern

T rench X , w hich m easured 8 x 1 5m , w as e xcavated o n t he e dge o f t he m ound t o a d epth o f c a.13m. I n t his t rench

t he e xposure o f n umerous p re-Hittite l evels ( prehistoric) l ed G arstang t o r e-evaluate h is o bjectives a nd s elect n ew a reas t o u nearth t he p rehistoric s ettlements,

t he e arliest d ating b ack t o p re-Hassuna t imes

i n M esopotamian s equence. G arstang

a ssigned

t he l evels X XXIII-XXV t o

t he N eolithic

p eriod

a nd l evels X XIV-XIIB t o t he C halcolithic p eriod e quated w ith H assuna, H alaf a nd U baid c ultures a cross t he Amanus. T he m ain r eason i n d oing s o

w as

t he e xistence o f H alaf a nd U baid t ype p ottery i n l evels

X VII-

X IIB.

l evel

L evel w as

b urnished

X IIA w as d esignated b y h im a s t he E arly C opper A ge. T his c haracterized b y t he p resence o f b lack o r g reyish-b lack p ottery

w ith w hite p ainted

d ecoration.

T he

p resence

o f

g enerally u nstratified d ark b urnished w ares a nd a f ew s pecimens o f m etallic w are ( red g ritty) a bove l evel X IIA a nd b elow X I s uggest t hat d espite t he l ack o f a c lear s tratigraphy ( except i n t rench X ) t he m ound w as i nhabited d uring t he E BA I lIll a s w ell. T he o nly q uestion i s, w as t he m ound s ettled i n t he L ate C halcolithic ( e.g. U ruk I V)? T he s ettle m ent m ay h ave b een r elocated t o a nother p art o f t he m ound. L evel X I r epresents F inds:

t he e arly s econd m illennium s ettlement.

T he E B

I s ettlement

( Early C opper A ge) p roduced m udbrick h ouse

w alls w ith s tone f oundations. T he w hite p ainted d ark b urnished r epertoire h as s ome v ery i nteresting s hapes o f s eemingly

w are l ocal

c haracter. M etal a rtifacts f rom p rehistoric l evels h ave b een t he s ubject o f m uch d iscussion i n t he e valuation o f E arly A natolian m etall urgy ( de J esus L iterature:

T ARSUS

1 980;

Y akar

G arstang 1 953;

1 984). H uot

1 982:92-94.

( Fig.XVII-XVIII)

L ocation: T he m ound i s s ituated s outhwest o f t he c ity o f T arsus, w ithin t he l imits o f t he c ity p ark. R emains o f e arly o ccupation a re h ardly v isible E xcavations: S tratigraphy A p eriod.

t oday. H .

G oldman i n 1 934-1939 a nd 1 947-1948. T he e arliest o ccupation o f

t he s ite c orresponds

F rom t he N eolithic p eriod o nwards

2 26

t he s ite w as

t o A muq

s ettled w ith

a lmost n o i nterruptions t hroughout m illennia a nd l ater p eriods. U nlike

t he

L ate

f ifth,

C halcolithic p eriod,

r epresented a t T arsus. b etween 2 7.00-ca.20.00m. c hange i n t he t radition o f

t he

f ourth ,

t hird,

t he E RA l evels

s econd

a re

w ell

T he E B I r emains w ere u nearthed b y G oldman W hat i s m ost s triking i s t he r ather a brupt

l ocal p ottery r epertoire f rom t he c haff-faced l ight w are t he L ate C halcolithic p eriod t o t he d ark b urnished w ares

o f K onya p lain t radition i n t he E B I . T he E B

I I s ettlement,

w ith i ts f ive

t o s even a rchitectural

w as u nearthed a t a d epth o f a bout 1 2.00-20.00m . ( EB t he

T he f irst

p hases,

s ettlement

h A) w as c onstructed o ver a y ellow c lay f ill o r t erracing c overing d ebris o f t he E B I s ettlement. T he s econd s ettlement o f t his

p eriod ( EB I IB) r epresents a n e laborate t own w ith s igns o f u rban p lanning. I t w as d estroyed b y f ire. T he e vent w hich l ed t o t he d estruction

o f

t he s ettlement p rompted

t he s ettlers

t o h urriedly b uild

a f ortification w all ( or a n ew o ne) w hich c ancelled s ome o f t he h ouses o n t he s ettlement p erimeter ( Fig.XVII:14). T he c onstruction o f t his f ortification s ystem m arks t he t hird p hase o f E B I I o ccupation. L evel E B HE a t T arsus m arks t he c onsolidation o f t he f ortification w all b y a dditional s upport s ystems. T he E B I II p eriod w as f ound a t a d epth b etween 9 .00-11.50m. I t h as t hree p hases. T he f irst s ettlement p roduced v ery l ittle a rchitectural r emains ( EB l ilA). I n E B I IIB t he f irst m egaron p lans a ppear a t T arsus, p robably i ntroduced f rom s outhwest A natolia. E B hIC, w ith i ts f our

a rchitectural s ub-phases,

r epresents a l arge

t own w ith h ail

a nd

p orch b uildings a nd a m aterial c ulture w hich w as i ntrusive i n a lmost e very r espect w hen c ompared t o t he a rchitectural t radition, t own p lanning a nd p ottery r epertoire o f t he E B I I p eriod. A fter t he d estruction o f T arsus E B HIC i v t he s ite t emporarily f or a v ery s hort p eriod o f t ime.

w as p robably a bandoned D uring t he t ransition t o

t he M B p eriod, o rigin.

i t w as o ccupied b y s quatters o r s emi-nomads o f

F inds:

i s o ne o f

T arsus

t he f ew k ey s ites i n T urkey

w hich

S yrian

p roduced

s tratigraphicaily r eliable a rchaeological d ata o f a ll c ategories. T he a rchitectural r emains f rom t he E B s trata h elp u s u nderstand t he r egional d evelopment o f e arly u rban p lanning, l ocal t raditions, o utside i nfluences i n b uilding t echniques a nd h ouse f orms, a nd s o o n. T he p ottery a ssemblage w ith i ts g reat v ariety o f i mported w ares a llows o ne t o r econstruct t he c ultural a nd t rade c ontacts o f T arsus, n ot o nly w ith c entres b eyond t he Amanus a nd T arsus, b ut a lso w ith l ands a cross M editerranean. T arsus, t ogether w ith S oli a nd M ersin, r etains

t he a n

i mportant p lace i n t he s tudy o f p rehistoric m etallurgy i n A natolia

a nd

t he r est o f t he N ear E ast. I t i s t he k ey s ite w hich a llows t he u se o f a h istorical c hronology f or w estern a nd c entral A natolia, a nd t he o nly s ite w hich p rovides a s ynchronization b etween t he e arly p hases o f C ilician E B I I a nd E gyptian F ourth D ynasty ( Cheops m astaba a nd C ilician R B

I I r eserved

s lipped p itcher).

L iterature:

G oldman 1 956;

M ellaart 1 957;

K onya P lain

2 27

M ellink 1 965;

H uot

1 982:88-92.

C AN H ASAN L ocation : f rom t he

l t i s s ituated s ome 1 3km n ortheast o f K araman, n ot t oo f ar f oothills o f t he T aurus. T he m ound i s l ong a nd r ather l ow,

m easuring 3 60 x 2 80m w ith a h eight o f 5 m. E xcavations:

D .

F rench 1 961-1967;

1 969-1970.

S tratigraphy: T he l owest l evel ,3, r epresents t he E arly C halcolithic v illage, w hile t he s ubsequent l evel 2 , w ith i ts t wo s ubdivisions ( 2B a nd 2 A), r epresents t he t ransitional E arly/Middle C halcolithic a nd M iddle C halcolithic o ccupations r espectively. L evel I p roduced r emains o f t he L ate C halcolithic s ettlement. T he t hin w alls o f d wellings, w hich w ere b uilt w ithout s tone f oundations a nd t imber, s uggest t hat t he i nhabitants o f t he f ourth m illennium v illage w ere, f or t he mos t p art a t l east, n ot t he d escendants o f t he M iddle C halcolithic p opulation o f t he K onya p lain. I n f act t he c haracter o f t he p ottery a ssemblage f rom t his l evel c orroborates t his t heory. A t t he e nd o f t he L ate C halcolithic p eriod, a nd f or r easons s till n ot v ery c lear, t he s ite w as a bandoned. F inds: o f

A g roup o f C halcolithic f igurines a nd a n i mpressive r epertoire

M iddle C halcolithic p ottery a re a mong t he i mportant f inds.

a rchitecture, s trengthened s urvived p oint t o

t he s tructures w ith b uttresses.

o f 2 B h ave t hick T his i s a r egional

w alls w hich

P ottery

f inds

a f ew c enturies i f n ot a w hole m illennium . l inks w ith r egions b eyond t he T aurus r ange.

L iterature: A urenche

F rench 1 962;

1 963;

1 964;

1 965b;

1 966;

A s f or

m udbrick t radition

1 967b;

1 968b ;

1 972;

1 981.

K ARAH Y TK L ocation: i s

T his l arge a nd f lat m ound

s ituated 7 km s outh o f

E xcavations:

S .

S tratigraphy:

( covering a n a rea o ver 5 0

a cres)

t he m odern c ity o f K onya.

A lp s ince 1 953.

T he e xposed s tratification s uggests 2 7 l evels o f o ccupa-

t ion. E xcept f or t he l ast f our l evels w hich a re a rchitectural p hases o f t he M iddle B ronze A ge s ettlement, t he r emaining s trata X XVII-V h ave b een d escribed b y A lp a s b elonging t o a n u ninterrupted E BA s equence. F inds: l evels,

I n a ddition t o a v ery r ich c ollection o f g lyptic f rom t he M B t he e xcavations p roduced a r ich a ssemblage o f E B p ottery. T his

r epertoire A natolia

i ncludes

( e.g.

m any f orms a nd

f abrics k nown t o u s

T roy) a nd c entral A natolia

( e.g.

f rom

w estern

I ntermediate w are

o f

K t lltepe). L iterature:

A lp 1 964;

1 967;

1 972;

1 979.

2 28

1 973;

1 974;

H uot

1 982:83-84;

Y akar

N OTES 1 .

A ccording p revailed

t o i n

g eomorphological e vidence e xtremely d ry c onditions t he K onya b asin f ollowing t he l ast s tand o f t he

p luvial l ake ( Erinc 1 978:93). T he l ake w as c ompletely d ried Out, a nd l oose s andy m aterial o f i ts f ormer f loor w as s ubject t o a n i ntense d eflation, l eading t o t he f ormation o f h air-pin d unes s tretching b etween 2 -4km. T hese d esert c onditions, w hich p revailed b etween 5 000-3000 B C, w ere l ater s ucceeded, a round 2 000 B C, b y a r elatively c ooler a nd m oister p eriod, w hich r esulted i n t he s tabilization o f t he h air-pin d unes t hrough a d enser v egetation. I n l ater c enturies t he c limate c ontinued t o f luctuate, f inally r eaching t he s emi-desert c haracter o f r ecent t imes b y t he f ormer s and d eposits o f t he p luvial l ake w hich w ere t ransported b y w inds. 2 .

F or o ther v iews s ee Y akar 1 976;

3 .

T his

w are

g roup

i ncludes

1 981a.

c lasses o f C ilician

p ottery

k nown

a s

C ilician b rown w ashed, C ilician E B c ombed, w hite o n r ed o r b lack, m att w hite o n r ed b urnished. F or t he d escription o f t hese s ubg roups s ee: 4 .

G oldman 1 956;

F rench 1 965.

A c up w ith a l oop-handle r ising a bove 1 2:6)

h as

a c ounterpart a t T arsus

t he r im ( Mellaart 1 963:

( Goldman

1 956:

F ig.

F ig.354:705).

T he j ar p rofiles i llustrated b y M ellaart m ay b e c ompared w ith t hose f ound a t T arsus E B I II ( Goldman 1 956: F ig.275:587). T he n otched h andle ( Mellaart 1 963: F ig.15-18) h as a p arallel a t T arsus ( Goldman 1 956: F ig.359:546). T he j ugs f rom t he K onya p lain ( Mellaart 1 963: F igs.15-16) a nd v ertical h andles a nd t ubular l ugs ( 1963:Fig.9) a re a lso c losely p aralleled a t T arsus

( Goldman 1 956:

F igs.269;

2 80:547;

2 83:643-647). 5 .

F or a c omprehensive s tudy o n t he r ed-cross b owls K orfmann 1 983.

6 .

T he v alley w as f irst i nvestigated b y M ellaart i n 1 951

2 29

f rom A natolia

( 1954).

s ee

C HAPTER V III :

N ORTHERN A NATOLIA

N ATURAL E NVIRONMENT A ND S ETTLEMENT P ATTERN ( Map V III) T his

r egion,

a lso k nown a s

t he B lack S ea R egion,

h as a t opographic

g rain w hich i s p arallel t o t he c oast. T he m ountains a long t he c oast a nd t hose f urther i nland r ise s teeply t o 1 000m o r m ore. T he c oastal p lains a re r ather n arrow, w idening o ut o nly i n a f ew p laces w here t he l arge r ivers f ormed w ide d eltaic p lains. M ost o f t he s treams d raining t he a rea a re r ather s hort a nd f low t o t he s ea. T he c limate o f t his r egion, p articularly o f a reas n orth o f t he m ountain r anges, i s r ather u nique f or A natolia i n t he s ense t hat t here i s r ainfall t hroughout t he y ear a nd w inters a re r elatively m ild. T he s ector w hich s hows d ensest o ccupation i n p rehistoric t imes i s t he S amsun p rovince.

t he I t

c onsists o f f our m ain g eographical a reas: T he B afra p lain a nd t he K izilirmak D elta; t he K izilirmak v alley ; t he h illy t erritory s outh o f t he B afra p lain a nd t he l ow u ndulated t erritory o f D ura'an-Vezirköprü H avza-Lâdik. T he B afra p lain l ies

t o

t he s outh o f

t he K izilirmak d elta.

I n t he

w est i t e xtends t o t he e ast o f A laçam a nd i n t he e ast t o t he K arak8y d eresi. T he n orthern b order o f t his p lain i s c a.14-15km i nland. T he K izilirmak v alley r uns f or a bout 8 0km. I n t he n orth, b etween B afra a nd t he v illage o f E ldavut, i t h as a w idth o f o ver 6 km, a nd i n t he s outh , i n t he v icinity o f ç akmak, i s 4 00m w ide. T he h ills a nd m ountains t o t he s outh o f t he B afra p lain a re t he f irst r ange o f t he n orth A natolian m ountains.

T heir m aximum h eight

i s

1 500m a nd

t hey a re c onnected

i n t he

e ast t o t he C anik m ountains a nd i n t he w est t o t he I sfendiyar m ount ains. T he l ow h illy t erritory b etween D ura an a nd L dik i s s urrounded b y t he I lgaz i n t he w est a nd K 8ro lu m ountain r ange i n t he s outheast a nd s outh. T he i nner r ange o f t he n orth A natolian m ountains s eals o ff t he

r egion A

f rom t he c entral p lateau a nd e astern A natolia.

n etwork

o f r oads i n t he B afra p lain p rovides

e asy

l and

m unications i n t he d elta o f K izilirmak b etween A laçam i n t he S elemelik a nd B o azkaya i n t he n orth, K izilirmak v alley i n t he

c omw est, s outh

a nd D erekJy i n t he e ast. F rom D erek 8 y a n arrow c oastal r oad l eads t o S amsun. T he m ain r oad l inking S amsun t o a reas i n t he h interland i s t he ç or u m _Merzifon-Havza - K aVak r oute a long a n orthsouth a xis. A t K ayak t his r oad t urns s outheast a nd r eaches D { Indartepe w hich l ies i mmediately t o t he s outh o f S amsun. I n t he h ill t erritory, m ountains, t here i s a n atural r oad w hich s tarts w est,

a nd

p asses

F rom t he w est o r s outh.

t hrough V ezirk8pr i l

t o

j oin t he

s outh o f t he f rom D ura an,

o rum-Samsun r oad.

d istrict o f D ura an t here a re n o n atural r oads t o t he B ut t here i s a n atural r oad t o t he n orthwest a long t he

C ; 8kirmak l eading t o t he d istrict o f D aday, n orth o f m odern r oad d escending s outhward f rom D ura an r eaches K izilirmak

a nd

c oastal i n t he

f ollows

t his v alley u ntil K argi.

2 30

K astamonu. T he t he v alley o f t he

T he

s lopes

o f

t he

v alley a re v ery

s teep.

I t

i s u nlikely t hat

t his v alley c ould h ave b een

u sed a s a n atural r oad i n a ntiquity ( Yakar 1 980). B ut, o n t he o ther h and, w est o f K argi t he D evrez v alley c onnected r egions a s f ar w est a s B olu w ith t he r egions s outh o f t he I lgaz m ountains s uch a s ç ekerek, I lgaz a nd T osya. N orth o f t he I lgaz r ange t here i s a d enser c oncentrat ion o f E BA s ites e specially i n t he K astamonu p rovince a nd e xtending t o E fl ni

i n

t he w est

( Burney 1 956:190,

a lso m ap).

F urther n orth

t he

p rovince o f S inop h as a n umber o f m ounds w ith c lear s igns o f E BA o ccupation. S outh o f t he D evrez c ayi t he K öro lu r ange f orms a n atural b arrier s eparating t he D evrez v alley f rom t he K izilirmak a nd T erme v alleys. T here i s, h owever, a m ountain r oad b etween G t {llUce, o n t he D evrez v alley, a nd ç ankiri, w hich w as m ost l ikely u sed i n a ntiquity. I t i s i mportant m ountains, t here c ould

h ave

t o n ote t hat i n t his a rea t oo, s outh o f t he a re i mportant c opper a nd s ilver-lead d eposits

b een e xploited b y

t he a ncient i nhabitants

o f

I lgaz w hich

t he

D evrez

v alley. S outh

o f

H avza

t he S amsun-çorum r oad b ranches o ff

t o

t he

w est

p assing t hrough M erzifon a nd G { lm«qhacik8y. A bout 5 km w est o f t he v illage o f G t 1mU hacik8y t here i s a n i mportant s ilver m ine w ith s ome o ld w orkings. T here a re, h owever, n o v isible a ncient s ettlements i n t he v icinity o f t his m ine o r i n t he D erealan c opper d eposits f urther n orth. T he

t opography o f t he l ower Y e ilirmak v alley a nd q ar amba

p lain

i s v ery s imilar t o t he B afra p lain a nd t he K izilirmak v alley. T he c oastal r ange, w hich i s f orested, i s r elatively l ow, b etween 1 000 t o 1 700m i n h eight. T he s ummits o f t his r ange, w hich a re f ormed b y g reat m asses o f g ranite, s tand b ack f rom t he s ea o n t he s outh s ide, f alling s teeply t o t he E rbaa p lain. T he h ills r etreat i nland b ehind ç ar amba. T his p lain h as a l ong a xis f rom n orthwest t o s outheast. T he Y e ilirmak b reaks t hrough i t i n a g orge w hich f ollows t he e ast-northeasterly d irection a nd t hen c ontinues t o q ar amba w here i t b uilds a d elta e xtending 1 8km t o t he s ea. T he d elta i s s ome 640 k m2 a nd i s p artly w ooded i n t he c entre b ut, l ike t he K izilirmak d elta, i s m arshy r ound t he e dges. t erritory. p arallel

T he h interland T he K elkit a nd

d epressions

s kirting

s outh o f S amsun a nd O rdu i s b roken t he u pper Y e ilirmak r an a long t he t wo t he c oastal r ange.

I n

t he

e ast

t he

K elkit v alley i s f airly o pen b ut b elow R e adiye i t n arrows t o a g orge, w hich o pens t o t he p lain o f N iksar. T he Y e ilirmak, o n t he o ther -hand, f lows w est-southwest t o T okat a nd b y t he b road K azova p lain a nd a n arrow v alley r eaches t he o pen c ountry o f A masya. K azova, l ike o ther f ertile p lains i n t he r egion ( e.g. S uluova b etween Amasya a nd M erzifon), Y e ilirmak

w as d ensely s ettled i n t he E B p eriod. A bove A masya t he j oins i ts t ributary t he q ekerek f rom t he w est a nd c ontinues

i ts c ourse, t his t ime i n a n e ast-northeast d irection , and K elkit i n t he E rbaa p lain. T here a re n o m ajor n atural r oads a n orth-south a xis

i n t his s ector o f n orthern A natolia.

A lthough t he c entral p art o f a nd

p artly w ooded

j oins t he r unning o n

t he Y e ilirmak d elta i s q uite

f ertile

t here a re n o p rehistoric s ettlements w hich c ould

b e

d ated t o t he E BA ( Yakar 1 980:79). c onsidering t he a lluvial n ature o f t he t errain t his i s n ot s urprising. H owever, 6 km s outh o f C ar amba, n ear t he v illage o f B eyyenice, a m ound k nown a s T epecik w as a pparently i nhabited i n t he E B p eriod. A s hort d istance t o t he s outheast o f t his s ite a s econd E B s ettlement, K ilise T epe, w ith E B p ottery, s uggests t hat t his r egion w as s ettled b y s mall f arming c ommunities s ince t he l ate f ourth m illennium B C. T he m ounds i n t hese s ectors, a nd t hose

2 31

M AP V III: N ORTHERN A NATOLIA o f C o p p e r , L e a d a n d S i l ver d eposits a fter M TA ( The d istribution 1 . 2 .

T t lmbUtepe ç obantepe

3 .

B ogazkesen

4 . 5 . 6 . 7 .

T epecik H orortepe U ntepe M ound w est o f N iksar

8 .

D t lndartepe

9 . 1 0.

D edet lstt i T ekkek&y

1 1. 1 2. 1 3.

B a ' tepe T epecik K elbes T epe

1 4. 1 5. 1 6.

A a itepe T epecik ( Bakirdere) O merusta C iftli i

1 7. 1 8.

T epecik K ara eyh

1 9. 2 0.

E lmacik K atirdami

2 1. 2 2. 2 3.

P a a eyh S ivritepe G 8kçebo az

2 4.

D edetepe

2 5. 2 6. 2 7.

B ede T epetarla H acibaba T epesi

2 8. 2 9.

I kiztepe i rlektepe

3 0. 3 1.

A zay T epe T öd t intepe

3 2. 3 3.

K aleyeri K aled8rugu ( Kayak)

3 4.

D anabasan

3 5. 3 6.

A ytepe T a karaca O ren T epe

3 7. 3 8. 3 9. 4 0.

C in T epe I H akimtepe I H acibaba T epesi D ingilkalecik T epesi

4 1.

Y Uktepe

4 2. 4 3. 4 4. 4 5. 4 6.

K aletepe T ombultepe D ev erkaya K oyiçi K ilisetepe

4 7.

H 8y t lktepe

( Salur)

4 8.

D o antepe

4 9. 5 0. 5 1.

K eltepe $ eyhsafi ç e tepe

5 2. 5 3.

D imeli S alman H 8yt ik

5 4. 5 5.

K m 2 08 T epe T a k8pr i l Y olu H 8yt ik

5 6.

T epecik

5 7. 5 8.

i mrentepe 6 renh8yt 1k

5 9. 6 0. 6 1. 6 2.

S emercitepe ç engelli M ound n orth o f K azankaya

6 3. 6 4. 6 5.

A ktepe B t lget A lacah8yt lk

6 6.

E skiyapar

2 32

I nandik

1 972)

E

‚ •

-

-

•

.

• •

-

-

g

) I

2

-

-

-

-

-

-

•

/

-

_• t

- -

• r

-

d

• •m

-

-

F /

-

-

=

-

-

-

S

-

-

-

-

-

-

J

%-

I

C D

/

' f -

f r

1 00

r

0

f ound

i n t he K izilirmak v alley,

a re i n f act

s mall v illages e stablished

o n h ill t ops o r s lopes. G enerally s peaking, i t i s p ossible t o d ivide t he p re-classical h abitation s ites i n n orthern A natolia i nto t hree g roups: s mall u nfortified s lope s ettlements ( small v illages), s mall m ound f ormations o n n atural h ills, a nd l arger m ounds o n n atural e levat ions a nd r elatively f lat t errain. M ountainous a reas o r e nclosed a reas w ith n o e asy a ccess f rom t he n orthern p lains w ere n ot i nhabited p ermanently b y s emi-nomadic o r s edentary g roups. A t l east t his i s t he c onclusion o ne a rrives a t a fter s tudying t he s ettlement d ensity a nd d istribution p attern i n s ectors s outh o f A laçam , t he a rea b etween A la am a nd V ezirk8prL I, t he K izilirmak v alley s outh o f S elemelik, n orth o f ç aklralan,

a nd

t he a rea b etween H avza a nd V ezirk8prU.

T he

S amsun

E xpedition r ecorded o nly o ne p rehistoric s ite i n t he t riangle o f D ura an-Kargi-Os m an c ik ( Yakar a nd D inçol 1 974:90-91). U nlike t he t hird m illennium s ettlements i n t he B afra p lain, a lmost h alf o f t he s ites b etween H avza a nd ç akiralan s eem t o h ave b een d eserted d uring t he e arlier p hases o f t he E BA. T he r emaining s ites, i ncluding s ix s outh a nd w est o f V ezirk pr { 1, w ere p robably i nhabited t hroughout t he t hird m illennium B C. H owever, w ithout s tratigraphic e xcavations t here i s n o w ay o f k nowing i f t here w ere t emporary i nterruptions i n t he h uman a ctivity. I n t he L âdik s ector, t he s ites a re c oncentrated e ast o f t he d istrict

a nd

a long

t he s hores o f

t he

l ake.

T here a re

n o

s igns

o f

o ccupation n orth a nd n ortheast o f K araabdal t owards t he C anik m ountains. O nly o ne o f t he e ight s ites i n t his s ector w as d eserted d uring t he E BA. T he r emaining s even s ites, w hich w ere o ccupied a t t he b eginning o f t he t hird m illennium B C, i nhabited i n t he M BA. T he s ites

i f n ot e arlier, b etween S amsun

c ontinued t o b e a nd H avza a re

c oncentrated a long t he f irst 6 0km o f t he r oad r unning s outh f rom S amsun. D t lndartepe i s t he t erminal o f t his n atural r oad. S ome 2 0km s outh o f i t, a nd o n t he l eft s ide o f t he r oad, i s a s ettlement, w hich w as d eserted a t t he e nd o f t he E BA. I n t he v icinity o f A kalan t here . a re t wo m ore p rehistoric s ettlements. A lthough t hese s ites a re s ituated f ar f rom t he n atural r oad, t hey m ay h ave h ad s ome c ontrol o f i t. K ayak, j ust n orth o f t he K arada p ass, i s a l arge m ound w hich o verlooks t he s trategic s tretch o f t he r oad S amsun-çorum. S ome 8 km s outh o f K ayak t here a re t wo m ore s ettlements w ith t races o f E BA o ccupation. c ontrolling

T hese f ace e ach o ther. t he s outhern s tretch o f

S alur h 8y1k i s t he l ast m ound t his r oad l inking t he c entral

p lateau w ith t he c oastal s trip. S outh o f H avza, t he r oad c ontinues t owards M erzifon a nd p asses t hrough o pen a nd p enetrable t errain.

a re

W ith t he e xception o f s mall s lope a nd s ummit s ettlements, w hich m ainly c oncentrated s outh o f t he B afra p lain, m ost o f t he m edium t o

l arge a re t he

m ounds a re

f ound

i n t he B afra p lai -n a nd Ldtk.

T he s mall m ounds

u sually s ituated i n t he v icinity o f l arger h abitation s ites. S amsum r egion, i n a lmost e very d istrict, t here i s a t l east

I n o ne

l arge o r m edium s ize m ound. A s f ar a s t he t hird m illennium i s c oncerned t he s ize o f t hese m ounds , w hich i s l argely d ue t o M BA o ccupat ion, d oes n ot n ecessarily i ndicate t hat t hey w ere t own s ettlements f unctioning

a s

d istrict

c entres.

T hey m ay h ave

b een l arge

v illages.

T he r elatively s mall s ize o f m ost o f t he t hird m illennium m ounds i n t he l ow h illy t erritory m ay b e e xplained b y t he f act t hat m ost o f t hem w ere d eserted i n t he c ourse o f t he E B I t/Ill p eriod, a nd t hose w hich w ere r esettled T he m ost

l ater w ere n atural

f avourable

n ot d ensely

e nvironment f or

p opulated.

i n n orthern A natolia w as,

t he e stablishment o f

2 34

a s

i t

f arming c ommunities.

i s

t oday, B ut

t he

r ich

p astures

a ttracted T he

i n t he l ow h illy d istricts a nd m ountains m ust h ave

c ertain

p astoralist g roups a s e arly a s

i ncreasing n umber o f p astoralists

t he E B

I II

a lso

p eriod.

i mmigrating f rom o ther p arts

o f

A natolia a nd b eyond m ay, i n f act, h ave h ad a c ertain i mpact n ot o nly o n t he d emography o f t his r egion, b ut a lso c ould h ave t riggered t he m igrat ion o f c ertain n atives t o o ther p arts o f A natolia ( the n orth-central p lateau), ( e.g. l ake

o r

i nduced

t hem t o a dapt

t o a n ew m ode o f

l ife a nd

e conomy

e nclosed p astoralism). T he p ollen d iagram f rom Y eniça a u pland n ear B olu s uggests t hat a round 2 200 B C t here w as a r etreat o f

b eech a nd f ir f orests i n n orthern A natolia. A pparently t his w as r elated t o i nterference b y m en, w hose p urpose c ould h ave b een t o e xpand t he f arming z one a nd p astures ( van Z eist a nd B ottema 1 982:280). I n o ther w ords, i t c orroborates t he a rchaeological e vidence w hich s uggests a p opulation i ncrease i n t he E BA I II.

T HE S EQUENCE O F C ULTURAL F RAMEWORKS T he

s tratigraphy

o pportunity

t o

o f

I kiztepe I I a nd I p rovides u s w ith

s tudy t he s equence o f p rehistoric

o ccupation

a

r are

i n

t he

B afra p lain. T his i nformation i n t urn c ould b e u sed t o e valuate o ther l ocal s tratigraphies i n t he S amsun p rovince ( e.g. D t tndartepe, T ekek y, K ayak) a nd r econstruct t he r egional s equence o f L ate C halcolithic a nd E BA f rameworks. A t I kiztepe I ,

t he L ate C halcolithic s ettlement,

a rchitectural p hases, c arbon e stimates i t C hronology).

I t

w as b uilt o n v irgin s oil. d ates f rom t he f ourth

m eans

t hat t his h umid f orest

w hich h as s even

A ccording t o r adiom illennium B C ( see ( deciduous)

z one

i n

n orthern A natolia w as n ot i nhabited i n t he L ate N eolithic o r E arly C halcolithic p eriod. I n f act, t he f irst f armers a rrived i n t his r egion , a bout t he s ame t ime t hat s outhern a nd e astern T hrace a nd t he T road w ere b eing s ettled. I t i s n ot c lear i f t he w hole o f t he B lack S ea r egion w as b eing p opulated b y L ate C halcolithic g roups a rriving f rom t he w est a nd a cross

t he s ea.

T he h andmade g rey,

g reyish b lack,

b lack a nd d ark

b rown s elf-slipped w ares w ith n o d istinctive d ecoration ( except f or a f ew e xamples o f j ars w ith f acial f eatures i n r elief) c haracterize t he s trata w ith L ate C halcolithic o ccupation. T he n ew

E BA

g roup o f

I f eatures p eople w ho

i n t he m aterial c ulture w ere i ntroduced b y f irst d estroyed a nd

C halcolithic s ettlement a t I kiztepe. c hange i n t he c haracter o f v illage

t hen r eoccupied

t he

a

L ate

A lthough t here i s n o n oticeable a rchitecture, t he n ew p ottery

r epertoire, t he c hipped-stone i ndustry, a nd a s mall n umber o f c lay f igurines s uggest t hat t he n ewcomers w ere a ffiliated w ith p eoples o f a d ifferent a ncestry t han t hose o f t he L ate C halcolithic s ub-strata. T he n ew c ulture w as n ot c onfined t o t he B afra p lain o nly, b ut s pread t o o ther p arts o f t he B lack S ea a nd e ven t o t he n orthern a nd w estern p arts o f t he c entral p lateau a s w ell. A nother e xplanation f or t he d istribut ion p attern o f t his c ulture c ould b e t hat t he n ewcomers, a rriving f rom t he w est i n g reat n umbers, f irst s ettled i n t he n orthern p arts c entral A natolia, g radually s preading t o t he B lack S ea l ittoral. A ccording

t o

t he s tratigraphy o f

i kiztepe a nd,

f or t hat m atter,

o f

o f

D i indartepe, n o m ajor e vents s eem t o h ave d isturbed t he h uman a ctivity i n t he p ermanent s ettlements d uring t he e arlier p art o f t he t hird m illennium B C.

H owever,

t his a ssessment

2 35

c annot b e m ade f or t he s econd

A s k e r H 8 y ü k

H I G H L Y B U R N I S H E D

I K Z T E P E L A T E C H A L C O L I T H I C P O T E R Y ( P E R I O D I )

]

Z O N G U L D A K

z

1 2 4

z 'H

D ü n d a r t e p ?

z 0

H

H H H

1

h alf o f t he t hird m illennium B C. I n mos t e xcavated a nd s urveyed s ettlements t here a re c lear s igns o f t emporary o r e ven p ermanent i nterruption i n s edentary o ccupation a t t he e nd o f E B I o r d uring E B l ilA ( in c entral A natolian t erms). A t I kiztepe, f or i nstance, M ound I w as t otally o r p artly t ransformed i nto a b urial g round. A s a t A lacah8yt ik , t he r elationship w ith t he E B r esidential a rea o f t he v illage i s n ot v ery c lear. A s l ong a s a rchitectural e vidence f or a m ajor v illage o r

t own o f

a t

i s

D t lndartepe,

E B I II p eriod a t I kiztepe,

l acking,

o ne

i s

a nd

t o s ome e xtent

n aturally t empted

t o

a sk

t he

f ollowing q uestion : w as t he c emetery a t I kiztepe a n e xtramural b urial g round, o ne o f m any d ispersed i n t his r egion, o f a s emi-nomadic p eople w ho i nvaded n orthern A natolia i n t he c ourse o f t he E B I II p eriod? W hat h appened a t i kiztepe a nd o ther P ontic s ites a t t he e nd o f

t he

t hird m illennium B C i s n ot v ery c lear. T he c emetery o n M ound I a t I kiztepe w as p robably n ot u sed e xtensively a fter t hat t ime s ince i t i s c overed w ith r emains o f t he s o-called T ransitional ( early s econd m illennium) s ettlement. B ut t his s ituation i s n ot e ntirely N evertheless, i t i s q uite p ossible t hat l arge g roups o f p astoralists

c hose,

f or s ome r eason o r o ther,

o ther p arts o f A natolia

( e.g.

c lear. P ontic

t o mov e a nd d isperse t o

c entral p lateau).

C HRONOLOGY S tratified

s amples

f or r adiocarbon d ating

t aken

f rom

I kiztepe

M ound I a nd I I p rovide s ome g rounds, b y n o m eans a bsolute, f or c alculating t he d uration o f t he L ate C halcolithic a nd E BA c omplexes i n n orthern Ana t olia.* I n e stimating t he b eginnings o f t he L ate C halcolithic c ulture o f I kiztepe ( Period I II), a nd t he s ubsequent E B I c ulture,

i t

i s

i mportant

t o n ote

c ertain

u ndeniable

s imilarities

b etween t he p ottery a nd f igurative a rt i nventories o f t his s ettlement a nd t he c orresponding m aterial c ulture f rom s ettlements i n t he B alkans a nd

b een

t he D anube

b asin.

N orthern A natolia s c onnections w ith s outheast E urope h ave l ong t he s ubject o f d iscussion b y A natolian a nd B alkan a rchaeologists.

H owever, t he e xact n ature o f t hese c onnections h as a lways b een a s ource o f c onfusion d ue t o d ifferent i nterpretations a nd c hronological c lassif ications o f c ultural c omplexes. T he s carcity o f w ell s tratified s ites i n t he m iddle D anube v alley a nd T hrace h as, t o s ome e xtent, c ontributed t o t his c onfusion, w hich o nly r ecently i s i n t he p rocess o f b eing d issipated. S ome o f t he r elief-decorated ( facial f eatures) j ars o f I kiztepe L ate C halcolithic r epertoire a re c orrelated w ith t hose f rom A nza I V i n M acedonia. T he d ecorated e xamples f rom t he e arly s trata o f I kiztepe

I I c ould a lso b e c ompared w ith r egional p ottery

f rom s outheast

E uropean s ettlements o f K aranovo V -VI h orizon. T he E B I p arallels a re w ith t he K aranovo V II h orizon i n t he B alkans a nd t he B { ly t lk G { 111 i 1cek w are

g roup

o f n orth-central A natolia.

E B

I II

p eriod

f rom D i lndartepe o r I kiztepe h as a t ypology v ery s imilar t o

t he

w eapons

d eriving

f rom t he P ontic

t ombs o f

T he m etalwork o f

t he

E B I II d ate.

C ULTURAL F RAMEWORKS/ETHNO CULTURAL T RAITS T he

L ate

C halcolithic c ulture o f I kiztepe:

w hich m ust h ave

b een i ntroduced

f rom

2 37

o utside .

I t i s a v illage T he s ettlement

c ulture ( with

N. H

c C I I c o

' -4

i P C I 1 O

O

0

oLr l +I

1 4 +1 0

II .

.4

+ 1+1+]

‚ 4 ‚ 4

.-

0

4 j 00 •4 cr ) ..

0

L f

N . 0 C '4 N . L r co

0

Q

0

C14 C 14c

1

1

1

0 O

0 0

0 O

' . 0

4

p q

0

P- r ,

O

N . C o O -

bo C 'l

M A C E D O N I A

0

0

4+

4

Q

H

+ + Lt Lr

o 4 CN c 1 I : j • . 1 Q ) C14

.

N.

C '4 C ' 4 N . N .

P C I

-44 P Q P O

a ) O t h e r d a t e s ( B P ) f r o m T r e u i l 1 9 8 3 : 1 7 1 2 5

C . )

: a ) : 0 .

C o

C o ' 4

1 i

>1

0 ( 0 w : 1 4

C )

c a : O X Q ) : Q

.

C o

s to

C O C o

E

0

Q )

C o

0 • ‚ 4

C o ( )

C O ‚ 4

a ) : C L O 0 C o

4 I

Q )

M r

C O •4

4

.

C O 4 I . 4 : C o

.

O

0

0

0

P O

0 0 0

H H

C •4

2 38

H

O 0

a ) ( 0

0 0 0 1.

F o r i l k i z t e p C 1 4 B P d a t e s e :

( I k i z t e p M o u n d I I )

N O R T H E R N A N T O L I A

1 8 : 5 5 2 B P 4 2 5 0 i 1 2 7 B C

A l k i m 1 9 8 1 : 3 7 1 5 0 .

N O R T H C E N T R A L P L A T E A U

P o n t i c T o m b s :

C . )

0 . C o Q ) 0 •4 C L 0 c

. l J N

i ts

e ight

h ouses

a rchitectural

b uilt

o f

p hases)

t imber o r

c onsisted

w ood a nd m ud.

i ncluding l arge o vens w hich w ere a rchitecture, w hich c ontinues i n m illennium B C i n n orthern A natolia,

o f

s mall,

f ree-standing

T hese h ouses h ad f ireplaces

b uilt o f p is . T his v illage t he t hird a nd e ven e arly s econd p robably h ad i ts o rigins i n e ast

a nd s outheast E urope. S mall f inds f rom t he f ourth m illennium s trata a t I kiztepe i ndicate t hat t he v illage e conomy w as b ased o n m ixed f arming a nd h unting. M etallurgy w as k nown, b ut o nly a v ery s mall p ercentage o f t ools a nd o bjects l ike p ins o r a wls w ere m ade o f u nalloyed c opper ( or c opper c ontaining s mall a mounts o f a rsenic). T he L ate C halcolithic w are o f I kiztepe i s a r ather f ine f abric c ontaining n o v egetable t emper b ut o nly m ineral i nclusions. l t i s w ell-fired, a nd d ominant c olours a re g rey a nd g reyish-black. T he v essels a re u sually s elf-slipped a nd b urnished. J ars a nd b owls w ith f lat b ases o r l arge j ars w ith a w ide o rifice a re a mong t he p opular f orms o f t he r estricted p ottery r epertoire. D ecorated j ars a re f ew a nd t hose r ecovered f rom t he L evel I II s trata s how t hat t he l ocal p otters h ad a p reference f or r elief a nd i mpressed d ecoration. T he d esigns i n r elief c onsist o f f acial f eatures s uch a s e yes a nd e yebrows. I n t he B alkans s imilarly d ecorated j ars a re k nown t o u s f rom t he K aranovo I ll-VI h orizon ( e.g. A nza I V, T ell A zmak, G umelnita)

( H.

A lkim 1 983a:177).

T he E BA IIl C ulture o f

i kiztepe

( =D t lndartepe I -II):

T he E BA I v illage

c ulture a t I kiztepe w as i ntroduced b y a n ew g roup o f p eople w ho d estroyed t he C halcolithic s ettlement. T here i s n o n oticeable c hange i n t he v illage a rchitecture a s f ar a s b uilding m aterial i s c oncerned. T he

s ame o bservation m ay b e m ade f or t he v illage e conomy o f

t he

e arly

t hird m illennium B C. I n m etallurgy a f ew c opper a rtifacts r ecovered f rom t he s ettlement ( Ikiztepe I I a nd I : L evel I Ib-a) d oes n ot i ndicate a

m ajor

t echnological

e volution s ince t he C halcolithic

p eriod.

p ottery a ssemblage o f t his p eriod c ould b e d ivided i nto s everal u sing a c lassification b ased o n t he t ype o f i ngredients a dded c lay.

M ost c ommon o f

t hese g roups a re w ares w ith c haff a nd

i nclusion o r c haff a nd m ineral i nclusion. u niform i n a ppearance, h andmade, b lack,

T he

g roups t o t he

s ea-shell

I n g eneral t he p ottery i s d ark g rey, b rown a nd r ed i n

c olour. T he v essels a re s lipped a nd l arger o nes s elf-slipped. B owls a re b urnished o n b oth s ides. D uring t he l ate f ourth a nd e arly t hird m illennium B C, w ares w ith b lack e xterior a nd b lack , b rown, r ed a nd g rey i nteriors, o r b rown e xterior a nd b rown, r ed a nd b lack i nteriors w ere q uite c ommon. A r ecurring f eature i n t he p ottery g roups o f t his e arly p eriod i s t he u se o f k nobs a nd o ther p rotuberances a rranged i n g roups a nd r ows n ot o nly a s h andles b ut f or d ecorating t he j ars. c haracteristic s hapes i n t he t hird m illennium r epertoire o f S ea

p otters

a re b owls a nd

j ars o f m edium s ize.

u sually p rovided w ith h andles.

M ost o f

T he

l atter

T he t he

m ost B lack

f orm

t he s hallower b owls h ave

i s

s imple

r ims a nd s lightly i nverted r ound p rofiles ( Yakar 1 975:Pl.27,2). S ome o f t he f iner a nd d ecorated b owls h ave e laborate h andles r epresenting s chematized q uadrupeds ( Yakar 1 975:Pl.26,2). J ars h ave m ore v aried p rofiles r anging f rom s traight-sided, s lightly f laring w ith r ounded a nd c arinated s houlders t o h ole-mouths. A lthough t he p reference w as f or j ars w ith f lat b ases, t he p otters d id m anufacture s ome v essels w ith r ounded a nd e ven o mphalos b ases. A s i n c entral a nd n orth-central p rovinces, h ere t oo h igh p edestalled b owls ( fruit-stands) c ould b e c onsidered o ne o f t he h allmarks o f t he E B I /Il c ulture. S ome o f t hem m ay h ave b een u sed a s i ncense b urners o r e ven a s s mall p ortable f ireplaces o r

o il-lamps.

2 39

M ore

t han

a ny

o ther f actor,

t he l arge

v ariety

o f

d ecorative

p atterns i n t his p ottery r epertoire c ould g uide o ne i n e stablishing t he n ature a nd e xtent o f c ultural i nteraction b etween t he v illages o f t he B lack S ea r egion a nd t hose i n T hrace a nd s outheast E urope. T he m ost p opular d ecorative t echnique a pplied o n h andmade b lack b urnished p ottery w as i ncision, p lain o r f illed w ith a w hite s ubstance. W hite p ainted l ayers

l inear p atterns r esulting

i n

( sometimes

t he w hite p aint w as a pplied

g reyish-white

l ines

o ver

t he

d ark

i n t hin

b urnished

s urface) w ere a lso a mong t he p referred d ecorative s tyles a lmost t hroughout t he E B I -II p eriod. S hallow b owls a re d ecorated i nside a nd w hereas j ars a re d ecorated o n t he e xterior o nly ( Yakar 1 975:Pl.27,1). R eserved s lip a nd p attern b urnishing a ppear t o h ave b een u sed t o a l esser e xtent. O ccasionally b oth w hite p ainted p atterns

Out

a nd

i ncised

m otifs w ere u sed b y t he p otters

i n v arious

c ombinations.

M otifs c onsist o f p arallel l ines c rossing t he v essel d iagonally s ometimes v ertically. I ncision w as u sually a pplied b efore f iring, i n s everal t echniques t riangles,

i nstances i ncluded

i t w as d one a fter i mpression w ith a

a nd b ut

f iring. O ther d ecorative p oint t o p roduce d otted

c oncentric c ircles a nd c hecker-boards.

T here

i s n o d oubt

t echniques, ( sometimes

t hat t hese d ecorative

p atterns,

m anufacturing

a nd h andles h aving t he p rofile o f a s tanding q uadruped c alled a nimal o r h orn s haped h andle) f ound i n t he E B I -II

c omplexes o f n orthern A natolia, o r i n t he p re-Troy I h orizon o f w estern A natolia a nd t he K onya p lain, h ave t heir p rototypes i n s outheast E urope w here s uch d ecorative s tyles d ate b ack t o t he N eolithic p eriod. T owards t he e nd o f t he e arly p arts o f v ariety o f

t he f irst h alf o f t he t hird m illennium B C a nd d uring t he s econd h alf, t here s eems t o b e a d ecrease i n t he

p ottery f orms.

T here i s,

h owever,

a n i mprovement r egarding

t he s urface t reatment o f t he v essels. A lmost a ll t ypes o f v essels ( of E B I IB i n c entral A natolian t erms) s how a t hick s lip a nd a h ighly . b urnished s urface. C haff a nd m ineral i nclusions i n t he f abric b ecome c haracteristic o f t his p eriod. V essels a re u sually b lack o r r ed o n , t he -

i nside a nd o utside, s ometimes b lack o n t he i nside a nd r ed o n t he o uts ide, o r v ice v ersa. I ncision i s r eplaced b y g rooving a nd k nobs, n ot a s p rominent a s i n t he e arly t hird m illennium, d ecorating t he s houlders o f j ars a nd b owls. F luted d ecoration, p reviously u nknown, s tarts t o a ppear i n t he s econd h alf o f

t he t hird m illennium B C.

D espit ,e t hese c hanges i n t he p ottery t echniques, t he p ottery c ulture i n t his p eriod

f orms a nd d ecoration ( EB I IB-IlIA), w hich h as

a v ery w ide d istribution i n t he c entral A natolian p lateau a nd t he B lack S ea r egion, d oes n ot s uggest a b reak f rom t he e arlier t radition, b ut r ather a g radual r egional d evelopment w ith i nnovations i nspired b y a n umber o f A t f ish

l ocal c eramic w orkshops I kiztepe I I a nd

b ones

a nd

i n t he n orth-central p lateau.

I l arge q uantities o f d eer,

s ea-shells

r ecovered

i n t he v illage

w ild b oar, c ompound

g oat, s uggest

t hat a lso d uring t he t hird m illennium B C t he e conomy w as b ased o n m ixed f arming, h unting a nd f ishing. L arge n umbers o f l oom-weights a nd s pindle w horls i ndicate t hat t here w as a n i mportant w eaving i ndustry a t I kiztepe, a nd v ery l ikely a t m ost o ther c ontemporary s ettlements i n t he B afra p lain. T he

E B

I II C ulture o f N orthern A natolia :

I kiztepe a nd D t indartepe a re

t he k ey s ites w hich p rovide i nventories o f m aterial c ulture. a rchitecture t here i s n o a ppreciable c hange f rom t he t imber h ouses

2 40

I n o f

t he E B I /Il p eriod. I t s hould b e s tressed t hat t he a rchitectural r emains a t b oth s ites d o n ot i ndicate t he e xistence o f t owns o r c ities i n n orthern A natolia d uring t he E BA. I n f act, e xcept f or s ome a rchitectural d eposits a ssigned t o t he E B [ II, w e k now v ery a bout t he n ature o f s ettlements o f t he l ate t hird m illennium B C.

l ittle I n m y

o pinion, w e m ay h ave l arge c amp s ites o r o pen v illages i nhabited b y p astoralists, o r a t l east s hared b y p astoralists a nd s edentary e lements o f d ifferent o r t he s ame t ribal g roup, p racticing a n e nclosed n omadic l ife. M ost c haracteristic o f t his c ulture a re t he n umerous i nhumations b uried w ith p ersonal w eapons a nd j ewellery m ade o f c opper h aving a h igh a rsenical c ontent. J ewellery c onsists o f b eads, e arrings, h airrings, b racelets, p ins a nd b uckles. S ome o f t hese a re m ade o f g old. Among t he w eapons a nd t ools d iscovered a t I kiztepe a re f lat c elts, c hisels, s pearheads w ith b ent t angs ( the s pearheads w ere f ound u pright n ext t o t he b ody), a nd s pearheads w ith r elief f igures. T he l atter w ere p robably c ult o bjects. T o t his p eriod o ne c an a lso a ssign a n umber o f t erracotta r epresentations o f f emale f igures ( deities?), w hich, u nlike t he e arlier s tatuettes, a re n ot e ntirely s chematized. T he a natomy i s r endered w ith s ome d etail a nd s ome o f t he h eads m ust h ave b een d ecorated w ith h air a nd e arrings. T he

b urial p ractice

( extended b urials

i n s hallow g raves)

o bserved

a t I kiztepe, a nd t he q uality a nd w ealth o f i ts m etal a ssemblage s uggest t hat t he E B I II c ulture o f n orthern A natolia w as s omehow a ffiliated t o n eighbouring c ultures s pread a ll a long t he s hores o f t he B lack S ea ( e.g.

e astern R omania,

s outhern R ussia i ncluding

t he C aucasus r egion).

D ISCUSSION T he b est p arallels t o t he w hite p ainted, i ncised w ares o r a nimal h andles o f I kiztepe a nd o ther n orth A natolian s ites a re f ound i n t he e ast A egean i slands. T he p ottery o f A . G ala i n C hios, T igani a nd H eraion i n S amos, V athy i n K alimnos a nd A gios M amas, O lynthus, K ritsana a nd V ardina i n M acedonia h ave c ommon f eatures w hich a re n ot s een i n t he p ottery o f T roy I o r T hermi I -Ill, b ut a re r ecognized i n t he B alkan p ottery s ince t he p re-Gumelr iita ( Karanovo V I) p eriod. T herefore, i t i s t empting t o p ostulate t hat t he p otters o f t he B lack S ea r egion, l ike t heir c ounterparts i n M acedonia a nd e ast A egean i slands, m aintained a l ong s urviving c eramic t radition w hich t hey i nherited f rom t heir a ncestors ( or n eighbours). T he s ame c an b e s aid f or t he C opper A ge m etallurgy o f t he C arpathian b asin a nd t he A egeanA natolian E arly B ronze A ge m etallurgy ( Makkay 1 976). H owever, u nlike M akkay w as

( 1976:291),

1d o n ot t hink t hat

d ependent o n t he m etallurgy o f

t he d evelopment o f

t he l atter.

t he

T he o pposite,

f ormer i n

m y

o pinion, m ust h ave b een t he c ase. B oth t he A natolian a nd A egean c ultural c omplexes w ere b eing i nfiltrated b y e lements o f O ld E uropean h orizon w hich a lready p ossessed a m etallurgical t radition c ertainly n o l ess

s ophisticated

( definitely m ore)

t han t hat w hich e xisted

i n

t he

A egean b asin o r o n t he s outhern l ittoral o f t he B lack S ea. T he V arna g rave g old f inds, w hich b elong t o a G umelnita-Bodrogkereztur m etall urgical g roup, h ave n o c ontemporary p arallels i n A natolia. H owever, s imilar m etalwork f rom T rabzon ( Rudolph 1 978) a nd I kiztepe c omes f rom c omplexes d ated t o t he s econd h alf o f t he t hird m illennium B C. T he l atter s hould n ot b e f orced t o f it a f ourth m illennium c ultural h orizon i n n orthern A natolia.

2 41

A RCHAEOLOGICAL S OURCES A .

F ield S urveys

T his ( 1928:164,

r egion w as f irst i nvestigated b y v on d er O sten i n 1 926 M aps I a nd I X). A fter t he b rief s urvey b y O sten, t he f irst

s cientific w ork w as u ndertaken b y K .

K 8kten a nd T .

I n a ddition t o e xcavations a t D l indartepe, s urveyed a n umber o f s ectors i n t he V ezirk8prU,

H avza

a nd

L adik.

T his

i zg & j i n 1 940-1941.

T ekek8y a nd K ayak , t his t eam v icinity o f B afra, A la am ,

i nvestigation r esulted

i n

t he

d iscovery o f a n umber o f p rehistoric a nd s econd m illennium s ettlements s uch a s S ivrite e, G 8kçebo az, K uzcular, I kiztepe a nd S alur H 8y«k i n L idar

( K8kten,

O zgt ic a nd O zg«c

1 945).

I n 1 955 B urney, w hile s urveying t he r egion e xtending f rom t he l ower S akarya i n t he w est, t o t he m outh o f t he K izilirmak i n t he e ast, r evisited s ome s ites p reviously i nvestigated b y K 8kten a nd O zg {k ( 1956:179-204). H is s urvey r eport, w hich i ncludes a b rief b ut c omp rehensive a ccount o f t he E BA p ottery i n n orthern A natolia, i s s till r eferred t o a s a r eliable h andbook b y m ost a rchaeologists d ealing t he e arly c ultures o f I n

1 971

U .B.

w ith

t his r egion.

A lkim d ecided t o f orm t he S amsun E xpedition i n o rder

t o c arry o ut a d etailed a rchaeological i nvestigation i n t he S amsun p rovince a nd e ventually e xcavate o ne o f t he m ajor mou nds i n t his r egion. I n 1 972 t his a uthor j oined t he S amsun E xpedition a s a f ull m ember a nd p articipated i n t he f ield s urveys. D uring o ur s urveys i n 1 972 a nd 1 973 m ore t han 6 0 n ew s ites w ere v isited a nd r ecorded. H owe ver, n ot a ll o f t hem w ere p rehistoric m ounds. S ome w ere s mall f lat s ettlement ( ?) s ites a nd s ome i nhabited i n l ater t imes. d isposition o f p rehistoric s ites i n t he B afra p lain a nd i n t he h illy

t erritory

s urveys

b etween

H avza-Vezirk8prU l ed u s

t o e xplore t he p ossibility o f a dditional

t o l and

a nd T he l ow

c onduct

f urther

r outes

b etween

t he c entral p lateau a nd t he B lack S ea l ittoral. W ith thi s and o ther o bjectives i n m ind, a reas i n t he D ura an , K argi, O smancik, G t {m t { hac1k8y a nd M erzifon w ere e xplored i n 1 972. I n 1 973 t he m ountainous t erritory b etween A la am-Vezirk8prt, t he s outhern a nd w estern p arts o f t he l ow h illy t erritory s outh o f V ezirk8prt l, t he s ectors b etween H avza ç akiralan, L âdik, a nd L âdik-Havza-Samsun w ere i nvestigated. F inally, i n 1 975, t he ç ar amba p lain a nd t he l ower Y e ilirmak v alley w ere i nvestigated b y t he S amsun E xpedition a s p art o f t he l arger r egional s urvey p roject. L iterature: Y akar

B .

A lkim 1 975;

D inçol a nd Y akar 1 974;

Y akar a nd D inçol

1 974;

1 980.

E xcavations

I KIZTEPE L ocation:

T his

A natolia.

I t

f ormations).

i s o ne o f m easures

O f

t hese,

t he l argest p rehistoric

4 25

x 3 20m a nd i t h as

s ites

f our

M ound I s tands o ver 7 m a bove

T he

s ite o verlooks

t he B lack S ea s hore

2 42

n orthern ( mound

t he s urface o f

s urrounding p lain a nd M ound I I h as a h eight o f o ver 6 m . s ituated 7 km n orthwest o f B afra a nd o n t he w estern K izilirmak.

i n

s ummits

I kiztepe b ank o f

s ome 7 km

t o

t he i s t he t he

n orth.

T he

f our a rtificial s ummits a t t his s ite w ere a ctually f ormed

o ver a s light n atural e levation b ordering t he K izilirmak D elta w hich i s s ome 6 000-7000 y ears o ld. I n o ther w ords, t he p rehistoric s ettlement h ere

w as

r ather c lose

t o t he s hore i n t he f ourth a nd

t hird

m illennia

B C. E xcavations: c arried o ut

I n t he s ummer o f 1 974 a t eam d irected b y U .B. A lkim t he f irst e xcavation c ampaign. W ithin t he f ramework o f

t his

t he e xcavation o n M ound I I

p roject

t his au t hor.* m illennium B C)

( prehistoric) w as

s tarted

b y

M ound I i s b eing e xcavated ( third a nd e arly s econd b y 6 . B ilgi, w ho, a fter t he d eath o f U .B. A lkim i n 1 981,

i s d irecting t he S amsun P roject. S tratigraphy: e xistence o f p hases p hases.

f kiztepe I I. A d eep s ounding h ere a L ate C halcolithic s ettlement w ith e ight

r evealed t he a rchitectural

( Level I II) a nd a n E B I -II s ettlement ( Level I I) w ith I kiztepe I w as s ettled d uring t he E B p eriod ( Level I I.

s even S ee

b elow). D uring a n a dvanced s tage o f E B o ccupation a l arge p ortion o f t he m ound w as t ransformed i nto a h uge b urial g round w hich i s a ssigned t o t he E B I II p eriod. I t i s n ot e ntirely c lear i f t his c emetery w as s till i n u se d uring t he s o-called I ntermediate p eriod ( Level I ). A ccording t o B ilgi, d ata o btained f rom t he 1 980 e xcavations r evealed t wo s eparate b ut c ontemporary h orizons f orming L evel I I i n M ound I ( see A S

1 981:188-191).

O ne o f

t hese h orizons

s hows a s lope

f rom t he c entre

o f t he m ound i n a n orth-south d irection. T he o ther h orizon i nclines t owards t he c entre o f t he mou nd i n a n e ast-west d irection. T his s ettlement o f t wo c ontemporary h orizons ( and h aving f our p hases i n M ound I ) i s r eferred t o a s L evel h a. I n t he d eep s ounding, o pened i n a n orth-south d irection,

s ome a rchitectural r emains o f s ix p hases w ere

f ound b eneath L evel h a,

a nd

t ion,

t hese,

r epresenting a n e arlier E B o ccupa-

a re g rouped t ogether a s L evel h lb.

F inds: T he a rchitecture o f t he L ate C halcolithic a nd E arly B ronze A ge. v illages i s a n i mportant s ource o f i nformation i n r econstructing t he r egional b uilding t raditions ( Yakar a nd L ouis G arzon 1 976; H . A lkim 1 983). T he a ccompanied

s imple i nhumations u nearthed i n t he E B I II n ecropolis w ere b y b urial g ifts c onsisting o f b ronze ( arsenical c opper)

t ools, c ult s ymbols a nd w eapons ( see C hapter X III). T he s keletons, u nlike t hose k nown f rom t ombs i n t he c entral p lateau o r w estern A natolia, w ere l aid f lat o n t heir b acks w ith t he a rms o n e ach s ide o f t he b ody, t he l egs s tretched o ut t ogether a nd t he s kull f acing t he s ky. T he p ottery i nventory f rom t he L ate C halcolithic a nd E BA l evels i ncludes n umerous f orms a nd d ecorated v essels w hich i llustrate t he c ultural . a ffiliations o f t he i nhabitants o f I kiztepe w ith p opulation g roups i n r egions b eyond A natolia a nd l ater w ith t hose s outh o f t he P ontic

r ange.

V arious t he m embers o f

n on-cultural d eposits u nearthed a t I kiztepe h ave

e nabled

t he S amsun E xpedition t o c arry o ut a rchaeometric s tudies

i n a lmost u nprecedented i ntensity i n A natolia ( matching i n s cope t he a rchaeometric r esearch c onducted a t D emircihbyuk). N umerous s amples f or c -14 c hronology w ere s tudied a t H acettepe U niversity. D osimeters ( tablets o f c alcium s ulphate, d ysprosium o xide a nd h afnium) w ere p laced

*

I d irected t he w ork a t I kiztepe I I u ntil t he e nd o f 1 975 p repared t he f irst t wo p reliminary r eports f or p ublication.

2 43

a nd

a t t he C halcolithic l evels o f I kiztepe I I a nd E BA I II a nd l evels o f I kiztepe I i n o rder t o o btain t he r adiation

T ransitional p rofile f or

d ating w ith t he t hermoluminescence m ethod ( G i ksu, U kav, K apur 1 981:617 8). T he q uantitative s pectral a nalysis o f m etal a rtifacts f rom v arious c ultural c omplexes i s n ow a vailable (zbal 1 981:101-112; K unc 1 981:113-134). T he c hemical a nalysis o f t he I kiztepe p ottery w as d one b y ß irgt ll ( 1981:21-22). I n a ddition t o t hese s tudies •o f p aramount i mportance f or t he u nderstanding o f e arly t echnologies, I kiztepe p rod uced a w ealth o f d ata r elevant f or P alaeozological a nd P alaeobotanical s tudies

( see A S

1 981:190-191).

L iterature: P rogress r eports a re p ublished i n A natolian S tudies u nder " Recent A rchaeological R esearch i n T urkey" ( see A S 1 979; 1 981). S ee a lso A JA p resent). 1 983a; ( 1981)

u nder " Archaeology i n A sia M inor" b y M ellink ( from 1 975 t o Y akar 1 975; A lkim , U .B. 1 980; 1 981; 1 983; A lkim , H . 1 981;

1 983b;

B ilgi

1 982.

F or a rchaeometric

s tudies

s ee:

T UBITAK I I

a nd T UBITAK I II ( 1983).

D EMIRC I HÖY U K ( KOCAGÖ z ) L ocation :

T his m ound l ies

1 6km s outhwest o f S inop n ear t he v illage o f

D emircik8y. E xcavations:

I t w as e xplored b y A kurgal a nd B udde a nd

r eported b y E rzen

t he r esults w ere

( 1956).

S tratigraphy: F our a rchitectural p hases s eparated ' f rom e ach o ther b y d estruction l evels ( conflagration) a re d ated t o t he f ourth a nd t hird m illennia B C. F inds: A ccording t o B urney w ho s tudied t he m aterial i n t he U niversity o f A nkara, t he c ulture o f t his s mall m ound d oes n ot s how m uch r esemblance D ündartepe),

t o n or

t hat o f t he B afra-Samsun r egion ( e.g. I kiztepe, f or t hat m atter e ven t o M altepe w hich i s s ituated o nly

5 km a way f rom t his s ite. A j ar f ragment f rom t he e arliest l evel i s g rey, b urnished a nd w ith i ncised r ectilinear a nd c urvilinear d ecorat ion,

w ith r ows o f d ots,

t he i nside b eing b one-burnished a nd

j et-black

( Burney 1 956:184). T his i s q uite d istinct f rom t he b lack a nd d ark g rey b urnished l ate, f ourth o r e arly t hird m illennia m aterial k nown f rom M altepe. A t c ontemporary s imilar w are. l evels

I kiztepe, h owever, t he r ich p ottery i nventory f rom s trata o nce i t i s p ublished i n d etail m ay w ell y ield a A t D emircih8yt lk, s ome o f t he p ottery f orms f rom t he E BA

h ave p arallels

a t T roy

I -II a nd Y ortan ( Burney

1 956:184,

n .17).

A ccording t o B urney, t he c ompletely d ifferent c haracter o f t he p ottery o f D emircih8yt {k f rom t hat o f M altepe a nd o ther m ounds i n t he S amsun p rovince c ould b e c onstrued a s t he r esult o f m igration f rom t he w est b y s ea

( 1956:184).

L iterature:

E rzen 1 956;

B urney 1 956;

o rthmann 1 963:49;

H uot

1 982:87-88.

D UNDARTEPE L ocation:

I t

E xcavations:

i s a m ound s ituated w ithin t he c ity K 8kten a nd O zgUc i n 1 941-1942.

2 44

l imits o f

S amsun.

S tratigraphy:

E xcavations

r evealed

f our

a rchitectural

p hases

a ttributed t o t he s o-called L ate C halcolithic p eriod ( EB I ). T he E BA p eriod f ollows t he u nderlying L ate C halcolithic/EB I v illage w ithout a ny v isible i nterruption i n o ccupation. O zgUq c alled t he L ate C halcol ithic c ulture t he F irst D Undartepe c ultures. I t i s c haracterized b y h andmade, g rey, b lack a nd r eddish w are. T his p ottery g roup w hich i s s el-slipped a nd b urnished, i s d ecorated w ith i ncised p lain o r w hitef illed S econd

i ncised g eometric p atterns. A ccording t o ' O zgUç, d uring t he D ündartepe c ulture ( = C opper A ge) t he s ettlement w as i nhabited

b y p eople w ith t wo d istinct c ultures w hich h e t ermed t he c ulture o f t he H ill a nd t he C ulture o f t he s lope. A s f ar a s t he p ottery a ssemblage a nd

a rchitecture o f

t he

f ormer i s c oncerned,

i t s eemed

t o h im t hat i t

h ad d eveloped f rom t he L ate C halcolithic v illage c ulture. T he S lope c ulture, o n t he o ther h and, a lthough p artly c ontemporary w ith t he H ill c ulture, d iffers i n i ts p ottery r epertoire w hich e xhibits s trong c entral A natolian a ffinities. T he e xcavations a t T ekek8y a nd K ayak d id n ot p roduce e nough e vidence t o s upport t he e xistence o f t wo c ontemp orary b ut d istinct E B I lIll c ultures i n t he B lack S ea r egion. I n m y o pinion, t he I kiztepe e xcavations m ay i ndicate t hat t he s o-called S lope c ulture o f D tndartepe i s o f E B I ll/Intermediate p eriod a nd n ot c ontemporary w ith t he H ill c ulture ( EB I l-lilA). F inds:

T imber

c onstruction,

w attle

a nd d aub

h ouse

r eally

r emains,

m uch

p ottery a nd m etal a rtifacts. L iterature:

K 8kten a nd O zgYc

1 963:45-47;

H uot

1 945;

O zguc

1 948;

S tronach 1 957;

O rthmann

1 982:86.

T EKEKÖY L ocation: p lain,

T his s mall m ound i s s ituated e ast o f

w est o f

E xcavations:

S amsun i n t he ç ar amba

t he Y e ilirmak. K 8kten a nd ö zg ! 19 i n 1 941-1942.

S tratigraphy : B elow t he s econd m illennium s ettlement c alled t he H ittite l evel, a n E arly B ronze A ge v illage w ith t hree a rchitectural p hases w as p artly e xposed. F inds: T he E BA v illage h ouses w ere n ot w ell p reserved. H owever, w ithin t he s ettlement a n umber o f i ntramural g raves w ere d iscovered. T he p ottery a ssemblage r ecovered f rom t he h ouses a nd t ombs a re r ather s imilar

t o

t hat

L iterature: H uot

r ecovered a t D Indartepe a nd I kiztepe E BA l evels.

K 8kten a nd

z gt 1c

1 945;

O zgüç 1 948;

O rthmann 1 963:47-48;

1 982:87.

K AVAK ( KALEDORU U) L ocation:

I t

i s s ituated 4 0km s outh o f

o f K ayak o n t he E xcavations:

S amsun a nd o utside

r oad t o S amsun.

K 8kten a nd ' O zg t ic

1 941-1942.

2 45

t he d istrict

S tratigraphy: l east

t wo

s ettlement

T he m ajor

w hose

E BA o ccupation a t t his s ite w as p hases

a re

a ttributed

t o

d ebris h ave b een c omprised

t he

i nto a

s ubstantial.

A t

t hird

m illennium

l ayer

a lmost

2 m

t hick . F inds: P ottery a nd s ome a rchitectural a rchitecture c haracteristic o f t he h interland. s imilar

t o

L iterature: H uot

r emains r eflecting a n T he p ottery i s r ather

t hat o f D t lndartepe a nd A lacah8yf lk ( EB I I l evels). K 8kten a nd ö zgt ic 1 945;

1 982:86-87.

2 46

i zgUc 1 948;

O rthmann 1 963:48-49;

The Later Prehistory of Anatolia The Late Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age

Jak Yakar

Part ii

BAR International Series 268(ii)

1985

B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 0ES, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R Walker, M.A.

BAR S268 (II),1985 'The Later Pr ehistor y of Anatolia' Part II

© Jak Yakar,1985 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407391274 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407391281 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860543411 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407342993 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860543411 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

C ONTENTS P age

C HAPTER I X :

E ASTERN A NATOLIA N atural E nvironment a nd S ettlement P attern

2 47 2 47

T he S equence o f C ultural F rameworks C hronology L ate C halcolithic C ultures

2 56 2 59 2 59

T he E arly B ronze A ge D iscussion C ultural F rameworks/Ethno-Cultural T raits L ate C halcolithic C ultures

2 67 2 67

T he E ast A natolian/Transcaucasian E arly

2 73

B ronze A ge C ulture D iscussion A rchaeological S ources A . B .

F ield S urveys E xcavations

2 78 2 80 2 80 2 88

T he K eban D am R eservoir A rea

2 88

T epecik P ulur

2 89 2 90

K orucutepe N orsuntepe T1intepe H an I brahim S ah ( Esenkent H 8yt 1k)

2 91 2 93 2 94 2 95

D e irmentepe

2 95

T he M alatya R egion A rslantepe G elinciktepe D e irmentepe

2 96 2 96 2 98 2 98

S emsiyetepe t mamoglu

2 99 2 99

P irot

3 00

K 8 kerbaba T he V an R egion T ilkitepe (amramalti)

3 00 3 00 3 00

T he E rzurum R egion K araz

3 01 3 01

P ulur G t lzelova

3 02 3 02

N otes

3 03

I llustrations:

C HAPTER X :

2 61 2 66

F igs:

X IX-XXIII

S OUTHEASTERN A NATOLIA N atural E nvironment

3 05 3 05

T he S equence o f C ultural F rameworks

3 26

C hronology C ultural F rameworks/Ethno - C ultural T raits

3 30 3 35

T he L ate U baid C ulture T he U ruk C ulture o f S outheastern A natolia

3 35 3 37

T he E arly B ronze A ge C ulture P ottery G roups

3 39 3 41

A . B .

P lain S imple W are R eserved S lip W are

3 41 3 42

C .

M ultiple-Brush P ainted W are

3 42

D . E .

R ed-Black B urnished W are B rittle O range W are

3 42 3 43

F .

S tone W are

3 44

G . H . I .

S imple W are C ombed W ash W are G rey S piral R ing B urnish W are

3 44 3 45 3 45

J .

E arly H abur W are

3 46

K .

H and B urnished C ooking P ot W are

( Eggshell H abur W are)

D iscussion

3 46 3 54

A rchaeological S ources A .

3 46

F ield S urveys T he E astern A manus S urvey G aziantep a nd i ts V icinity T he L ower E uphrates B asin

3 54 3 54 3 54 3 54

P rehistoric S urvey i n t he A ntitaurus R egion P rehistoric R esearch i n S outheastern A natolia

3 55 3 56

( Urfa-Diyarbakir-Siirt) B .

E xcavations T he Amanus R egion Amuq M ounds T ell T abara E l A krad T he G aziantep P rovince T u r nen H 8yJk G edikli ( KarahJyUk) C oba H 8y t Ik ( Sakçag8zt 1)

3 60 3 61

C archemish ( Kargami )

3 62

Z incirli T he U rfa P rovince H arran

0

3 65 3 66 3 67

S amsat G ritille

3 69 3 69 3 70 F igs:

S UBSISTENCE E CONOMY, F arming P astoralism a nd

X XIV-XXVI

T RADE A ND I NDUSTRY

M etal I ndustries P ottery W orkshops N otes

S OCIAL O RGANIZATION N otes

3 72 3 72

t he Q uestion o f N omadic T ribes i n

E arly B ronze A ge A natolia I ndustrial A ctivity a nd T rade T extile I ndustries

C HAPTER X II:

3 64 3 64 3 64

L idar K urban H 8y9k H assek H 8yt 1k

N otes I llustrations:

C HAPTER X I:

3 57 3 57 3 57 3 58 3 59 3 59

3 77 3 79 3 80 3 83 4 04 4 07

4 10 4 16

C HAPTER X III:

R ELIGION R eligious A rchitecture

4 17 4 23

C ult S ymbols a nd D eity I mages

4 25

N otes

4 37

I llustrations:

F igs:

X XVII-XXXI

4 38

B IBLIOGRAPHY S ITE

4 65

I NDEX

M AP

I X :

E ASTERN A NATOLIA ( Chapter I X)

M AP

I XA :

K EBAN R ESERVOIR A REA ( Chapter I X)

2 50

M AP X :

S OUTHEASTERN A NATOLIA ( Chapter X )

3 06

M AP X A: M AP X B:

T HE A NUQ P LAIN ( Chapter X ) T HE I SLAHIYE P LAIN ( after U .B. A lkim 1 969)

3 08 3 11

MAP

( Chapter X ) T HE A NTITAURUS R EGION ( after B rown 1 967)

3 15

MAP X I ):

( Chapter X ) T HE N ORTHERN G AZIANTEP P ROVINCE ( Chapter X )

3 16

MAP X E:

( after A rchi 1 971) T HE S OUTHERN G AZIANTEP P ROVINCE

3 17

MAP X F:

( after A rchi 1 971) T HE E UPHRATES B ASIN ( Based o n t J zdo an 1 977:12-13)

X C:

MAP X G: MAP X I:

2 49

( Chapter X )

( Chapter X ) T HE E UPHRATES B ASIN S OUTH O F C ARCHEMISH ( after M oortgat 1 959) ( Chapter x ) T HE H ABUR B ASIN ( after M oortgat 1 959) ( Chapter K )

3 19 3 22 3 24

C HAPTER I X:

E ASTERN A NATOLIA

N ATURAL E NVIRONMENT A ND S ETTLEMENT P ATTERN ( Map I X) T his r egion h as a h ighly c omplex t opography. T he r elief p ronounced e ast-west t rend a nd a n a lteration o f m ountain a nd

s hows a p lateau

m asses r ising w ell a bove 2 000m w ith d eep-set v alleys a nd b asins a t h eights r anging f rom 7 00m a bove s ea l evel i n t he w est t o m ore t han 1 500m i n t he e ast ( Dewdney 1 970:198-199). I n t he e xtreme n orth, a b ordering r ange, c omprising t he m ountains o f G Um« hane a nd R ize, r ises a bove 3 500m w ithin 3 0km o f t he B lack S ea. T his h igh b arrier i s a lmost c ompletely i mpregnable e xcept f or t wo n arrow p asses p rovided b y t he l ower ç oruh v alley i n t he e ast a nd t he H arsit v alley i n t he w est. T he H ar it r iver p ass, a lso k nown a s t he Z igana p ass, i s t he m ain g ateway t o t he e astern B lack S ea c oast. S outh o f t hese h igh r anges t he K elkit a nd ç oruh r ivers f orm a d eep a nd n arrow t rough. A t t he e astern e nd o f t he K elkit t he v alley r ises t o a n o pen a nd h igh l evel w atershed w est o f B ayburt. A t t his p oint t he r oad f rom E rzurum t o t he B lack S ea c oast m akes i ts w ay t owards t he h ead o f t he H ar it v alley. T he K elkit-çoruh t rough i s b ounded o n i ts s outhern s ide b y a m ountain m ass c omprising t he K e i, C imen a nd K op m ountains. T his m ountain m ass w idens a nd i ncreases i n h eight e astwards t owards t he O ltu v alley. B eyond t he O ltu v alley, t his s ection o f t he u pland o pens o ut i nto t he h igh b ut d issected l ava p lateau i n t he K ars p rovince. A rchaeological i nvestigations i n t he K elkit a nd q oruh v alleys r evealed t hat p rehistoric a nd s econd m illennium B C s ettlements i n t he u pper s tretches o f t hese v alleys a re r ather r are ( K8kten 1 944:673-680)., N orth o f B ayburt i n t he s mall p lain o f H art, f or i nstance, n o a ncient s ettlem ents a re k nown t o e xist. I n t he B ayburt p lain t he d iscovery o f t wo s mall m ounds, H indi a nd S iptoros, d oes n ot s uggest a p articularly d ense s ettlement p attern i n t he n orthern p art o f e astern A natolia i n t he B ronze A ge. T he r eason f or t his s ituation c ould a lso b e e xplained i n t erms o f e nvironmental f actors. B ecause o f p oor d rainage a nd q uality o f t he s oil t he B ayburt p lain w as c overed w ith l arge t racts o f m arshes w hich m ust h ave p ut s evere l imitations o n t he s ubsistence e conomy o f s edentary c ommunities. S outh o f t he B ayburt p lain a nd n orth o f E rzincan, t here a re a s mall n umber o f a ncient s ettlements w ith s igns o f E B-LB o ccupation. P ulur i n B ayburt, w hich w as p robed b y K . K 8kten ( 1944:675), r evealed a r ich a ssemblage o f E BA p ottery. I n t he u pper K elkit v alley, t he o nly s ector w hich s eemed t o h ave b een i nhabited t o a l imited e xtent i n t he f ourth a nd t hird m illennia B C i s t he S iran d istrict. T he o nly m ounds r eported f rom t his a rea a re l ocated n ear t he v illages o f T elme a nd K arak8y. W est o f t he d istrict o f A lucra, i ncluding t he a rea o f S ebinkarahisar, a rchaeological s urveys d id n ot r eveal t races o f a ncient s ettlements. H owever, i mmediately s outh o f t he K elkit v alley,

b etween t he d istricts o f S usehri a nd R efahiye n orth-

w est o f E rzincan, l ate p rehistoric s ettlements a re m ore a bundant. T hese i nclude B Uy t lk P ulur, K { lc { lk P ulur, K abaktepe a nd K iziltepe m ounds. A lthough

t hese h ave n ot b een e xcavated,

2 47

t he t ype o f m ounds a nd

t heir

M AP I X :

E ASTERN A NATOLIA

( Distribution o f C opper, L ead a nd S ilver d eposits a nd m ines a fter M TA 1 972) 1 .

T ilkitepe

5 6.

K uyuluk

2 . 3 .

I remir H ina

5 7. 5 8.

H oromhan K arah8yt lk

4 . 5 .

K alecik E rnis

5 9. 6 0.

I sak8y Y ukari S t ilmenli

6 . 7 . 8 . 9 .

K alecik I I A zath8yt ik A ni S iptoros

6 1. 6 2. 6 3. 6 4.

S eracik K orpinik P a nik P ulur

1 0. l vceklerin T epesi 1 1. H indi H 8yt i{ 1 1 2-13. M ounds b etween S iran a nd K elkit 1 4-15. M ounds b etween S u ehri a nd R efahiye 1 6. P ikli -s

6 5. 6 6. 6 7. 6 8. 6 9.

A van C 8ktarla D i 1iktepe A rsiantepe G elinciktepe

1 7. 1 8. 1 9. 2 0.

$ eyhyusuf S eyhpirim H unan A likirpun

7 0. 7 1. 7 2. 7 3.

ç iftlik I spendere D t {ztarla P irot

2 1. 2 2.

G aybeyan Z iyaret

7 4. 7 5.

F irat H tyi lk S ilbistan

2 3.

T ifnik

7 6.

A ga H 8yt fk

2 4. 2 5. 2 6.

M isaksin B ulanik L iz

7 7. 7 8. 7 9.

S inanli H asircilar I I H asircilar I II

2 7.

M ollakent

8 0.

S amankJy

2 8. 2 9. 3 0.

Z t llft lbulak A dilcevaz K a izman

8 1. 8 2. 8 3.

I kinciler V ren H oronvil

3 1.

K 8tek

8 4.

P ingan

3 2. 3 3.

K araz P ulur

8 5. 8 6.

A rmutak F ero

3 4. 3 5.

G ( lzelova K t ict iktepe

8 7. 8 8.

S ivrikaya S igam

3 6. 3 7. 3 8.

T epecik P ilir D i kapi

8 9. 9 0. 9 1.

S ekerat B agin T epecik

3 9. 4 0.

D urulmus T 8dt {rge

9 2. 9 3.

N orsuntepe T i llintepe

4 1. 4 2.

T opraktepe M altepe

9 4. 9 5.

K orucutepe T inazit

4 3. 4 4. 4 5.

K arabayir F l 8yt lk H 8yt {kde irmeni

9 6. 9 7. 9 8.

K 8venk S arpulu U luova

4 6.

ç ukurtarla

9 9.

S arsap M evkii

4 7.

T ilkih8yt fk ( Eymir)

4 8. 4 9.

H avuzk8y H alepk8prt 1sU H 8yt 1k

5 0. 5 1.

S icanh8yt 1k H asartepe

5 2. 5 3.

Y ukari B udakil H asarkaya

5 4.

B ahçedaml

5 5.

l hsanli

2 48

-

C ;

r 0

1 . 2 49

Km i 1iye

A ra k ir

S

E LAZ IG I i ii n t pe

1 k l epec n tepe : o rsu A ii sam

K orucu tepe

Ma l )

r XA

2 50

s urface

m aterial

s uggest t hat

v illage

s ettlements

t hey b elong t o

e xcavated

t he

i n t he E rzurum

c ategory

p rovince,

o f

i .e.

s mall K araz,

G Uzelova a nd P ulur. O n t he b asis o f p ottery e vidence a nd i ts c orrelat ion w ith s tratigraphically a nd c hronologically b etter d ocumented s ites f urther s outh a nd e ast, i t i s p ossible t o p ostulate t hat t he n orthern p art o f e astern A natolia w as n ot s ettled b efore t he f ourth m illennium B C. N one o f t he m ounds r ecorded s o f ar i ndicate t he p resence o f l arge o r

e ven m edium s ize u rban s ettlements

K eban,

c omparable

t o

t hose

f ound i n t he

M alatya a nd U rfa p rovinces.

T he v olcanic p lateau o f t he K ars p rovince i s d elimited i n t he s outh b y t he A ras r iver a nd i n t he e ast b y t he d eep a nd n arrow v alley o f t he A rap ay. T he l owest e levation o n t his p lateau s tands s ome 1 250m a bove s ea-level. T he h igh-rising A llahüekber d agi ( 3111m) a nd a s eries o f s maller e xtinct v olcanoes s uch a s H acihalil, A laca, A kbaba, U ç Olan T epe a nd B f lyt {kyahni d ivides t his p lateau i nto a n umber o f r elatively f lat a reas. T he r egion n orth o f K ars s hows a h igher a nd mor e p ron ounced r elief. H ere o ne o f t he m ajor g eographical f eatures i s t he v olcanic p lain o f A rdahan. T he K ura ( Kuru ay) c rosses t his p lain a nd i ts v alley p rovides t he f ew f ertile p atches o f l and b etween A rdahan a nd c ildir. G enerally s peaking, t his h ighland z one, i ncluding t he A ras v alley ( Araxes) s outh o f K ars, i s c overed w ith e xtensive p astures. C ompared w ith t he p rovinces o f E rzurum a nd E rzincan, t he p rovinces o f K ars w ere r ather d ensely s ettled i n l ate p rehistoric t imes. S ome o f t he 1 5 s ettlements r ecorded b y K ökten ( 1943:601-609), a re f ound a long t he K ura v alley b etween A rdahan a nd ç ildir. O nly s even o f t he s ettlem ent s ites i n t he K ars p rovince a re mou nds, t he r est a re f lat s ettlem ents, w hich s uggest t hat t hey w ere e ither s easonal s ettlements o r c amping s ites o ccupied b y s emi-nomads i n t he t hird m illennium B C. W ith t he e xception o f G 8kceali, K alecik a nd A zat H8yUk , t he m ounds r ecorded i n t he p rovince o f K ars a re n ot p articularly l arge. B ut, a s t rial t renches a t A zat r evealed ( K8kten 1 944:667), t he d ensest o ccupation i n t his p rovince w as d uring t he E arly B ronze A ge. A lthough t he E B s ettlem ent a t A zat w as a bandoned a fter b eing d estroyed b y f ire, t here i s n o e vidence

t o

s uggest

t hat a ll t he s ettlements

i n t he v olcanic p lateau o f

K ars a nd i n t he K ura v alley 1 s hared t he s ame f ate d uring t he s econd h alf o f t he t hird m illennium B C. I n v iew o f t he e xtensive g razing a reas i n t his h ighland z one, w hich i ncludes p art o f t he A raxes v alley ( Aras) s outh o f K ars, i t i s p ossible t o a dvance t he v iew t hat l arge n umbers o f p astoralists c o-existed w ith t he p ermanently s ettled f arming c ommunit ies l dir s ive T his

i n t his r egion. T he m iddle s ection o f t he A raxes v alley i n t he p lain m ust h ave p rovided a p articularly f ertile z one f or e xtena gricultural a ctivity i n p rehistoric a nd p rotohistoric t imes. z one i s e nclosed b y M t. A rarat ( B t iyt lk A gri D ag1:5165m) a nd A lag8z

m ountains a cross t he b order n orth o f E rivan. U nlike t he p lain o f K arak8se, s outh o f t he A ras m ountains, w hich d oes n ot s eem t o h ave b een f avoured s o m uch b y f arming c ommunities i n l ate p rehistoric t imes, t he Idir p lain, i ncluding t he a rea a round E rivan a cross t he T urkish b order, w as d ensely s ettled i n t he E B p eriod. T he A raxes a nd t he u pper E uphrates v alleys t ogether f orm t he m ain e ast-west r oute b etween A natolia a nd T ranscaucasia. A lthough t hese t wo r iver v alleys a re f ault-bounded a long m uch o f t heir l engths a nd d ifficult t o t ravel w ith p acked

a nimals,

e specially

i n

w inter

m onths,

n omadic

t ribes

m erchants m ust h ave u sed t his r oute r egularly s ince v ery e arly T he E uphrates ( Firat) f ollows a w inding c ourse a nd i s o ften i ncised,

p articularly

F urther w est

i n

t he

t he E uphrates a nd

a rea

b etween

E rzurum

i ts m ain t ributary,

2 51

a nd

t he M urat,

a nd

t imes. s harply

E rzincan. f low i n a

b road

b asin b etween E lazig ' a nd M alatya.

A bove E lazig,

t he M urat v alley

e xtends e astwards t hrough a s uccession o f b asins, f inally r eaching t he p lains o f M us a nd B ingol. T he r elative s carcity o f a ncient s ettlements o n t his v ast p lain s hould n ot b e v ery p uzzling. T he M u p lain w as a n o ld

l ake b ed,

a nd b efore i t r eached i ts p resent d ry c ondition i t

h ave b een c overed w ith s wamps i n t he e arly a nd m iddle H olocene. t oday t he q uality o f i ts s oil i s r ather p oor. N orth o f t he V an t he p lain o f K arak8se i s m ountains s urrounding i t. t owards

K arak8se

m ust E ven b asin

c overed w ith g ravel c arried d own f rom t he F rom M ug t he M urat v alley t urns n orthwards

a nd i n t his

s ection t he r iver f lows

i n a

b road

a nd

o pen b asin. T his b asin, w hich d eveloped o n a l ava p lateau s imilar t o t hose s een i n t he r egion o f K ars a nd A rdahan, i s b ounded o n i ts s outhern s ide b y a s eries o f i mpressive v olcanic p eaks s uch a s A lada ( 3351m) a nd S t lphan d agi ( 4434m) w hich s eparate i t f rom t he b asin o f L ake V an. T he p lain o f K arak8se i s c overed w ith g ravel, b ut f urther s outh p ast, w atered

t he a rea b etween B ulanik a nd P atnos m ust h ave b een u sed i n t he a s i t i s t oday, a s g razing l and, d espite t he f act t hat i t i s n ot a s

w ell a s o ther d istricts

c loser

t o

t he

s hores o f

L ake

V an

( Burney 1 958:158). I n a ddition t o c limatic f actors, o ther c onsiderations s uch a s p roximity o f n atural r esources m ust h ave h ad s ome i nfluence i n

t he t he

c hoice o f h abitation s ites i n t he V an b asin. T he p ollen d iagram p rep ared f rom s ections o f t wo s ediment c ores t aken i n t he s outhwestern p art o f L ake V an p rovides a d etailed p icture o f t he p alaeoenvironment i n t he B itlis p rovince a nd i n t he e astern h ighlands ( van Z eist a nd B ottema 1 982:279-280). I t s eems t hat t he d esert-steppe v egetation w hich d ominated t he s outh a nd s outhwestern a reas o f t he l ake b asin s ince t he b eginning o f t he p ost-glacial w as b eing g radually r eplaced b y o ak-dominated f orests i n t he m iddle H olocene p eriod. t rees h as b een i nterpreted a s a n o bvious i ncrease i n

T his s pread o f h umidity, m ost

l ikely c aused b y h igher p recipitation. T he e xpansion o f t he t ree-belt, w hich s tarted i n t he l ate f ifth m illennium B C, c ontinued u ntil t he L BA. T he g radual t ransformation o f f ertile a rea a t t he o utset o f

t his b asin f rom a n a rid i nto a r elatively t he C halcolithic p eriod s hould h ave b een

r eflected i n a s ignificant i ncrease i n t he s ize a nd d ensity o f t he p ermanent s ettlements. A ccording t o t he n umber o f r ecorded p rehistoric s ites, h owever, t his d oes n ot s eem t o h ave b een t he c ase. B urney d oes n ot r ule o ut t he p ossibility t hat s ome p rehistoric s ites w ere s ubmerged b eneath t he w aters o f t he l ake, n ow s tanding a t 1 650m a bove s ea-level. W e k now, f or i nstance, f rom t he v egetational a nd c limatic h istory t he w estern K ura b asin, t hat t he i ncreased p recipitation T ranscaucasia

n ot o nly l ed

t o

t he

r emoistening o f

t he c limate b ut

o f i n a lso

c aused a g radual r ise o f g roundwater i n l owlands a round t he m ajor l ake b asins. I t i s v ery p ossible t hat L ake V an, w hich h as n o s urface o utlet, p atches

e xpanded c onsiderably, i nundating s ettlements a nd c ultivated o f l and. I t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat t he g radual r eduction

o f f orests i n t he K ura a nd V an b asins a t t he e nd o f t he m iddle H olocene o r t he b eginning o f t he l ate H olocene i s a ttributed t o i ncreased h uman a ctivity. I a m i nclined t o t hink t hat t his h uman i nterference w ith i ts s urroundings i n e astern A natolia a nd T ranscaucasia w as a t r elated t o e fforts b y s edentary c ommunities t o m ove a way

l east p artly f rom p arts o f

t he l ake b asins a nd v alleys m ost a ffected b y i nundations. O ne t hen s hould e xpect t o f ind t races o f s ettlements, i n o ther w ords f lat s ettlements, i n t he n arrow m ountain v alleys s outh a nd w est o f l ake V an.

2 52

B urney p rovince

i s

o f

( 1958:158). R elatively

r ight V an

i n m aintaining

m ay

t hat n arrow m ountain v alleys

h ave b een s ettled

i n

l ate

i n t he

p rehistoric

t imes

T his w as i ndeed t he c ase i n c ertain a reas n orth o f V an. i solated E B s ettlements c an b e f ound i n t he d istricts o f

H anak, n ortheast o f A rdahan ( Kalecik H 8yt 1k), K Jtek a nd K a iz r nan ( Misir d a i) n orth o f K arak8se ( K8kten 1 943:601-603). L ake

V an

i s e nclosed o n i ts s outhern s ide b y a f aulted b lock

o f

t he B itlis r ange. A lthough t his l ake d oes n ot h ave a s urface o utlet, i t p robably h as a n u nderground d rainage t o t he K arasu, a n i mportant t ributary o f t he M urat r iver, a nd p ossibly t o t he s mall s tream w hich f lows s outh t hrough t he T igris ( Dicle) s outheast, a re t he f lat l and i s a lmost a re

B itlis a nd l inks u p w ith B otan c ayi b efore j oining s outh o f S iirt. B eyond L ake V an, t o t he e ast a nd m ountain c hains o f V an a nd H akk ri p rovinces, w here n on-existent. E ven t oday t hese h igh m ountain a reas

v irtually d evoid o f

c ultivation.

I t i s p ossible

t o

s uggest

t hat

t he s ummer p astures i n t he H akkâri p rovince m ust h ave a ttracted i n t he p ast, a s i t d oes t oday, s emi-nomadic t ribes ( practising e nclosed n omadism a nd m oving n orth i n t he d ry s ummer m onths o f t he s outh). S outh o f S iirt t he T igris v alley p rovides a n i mportant r oute t o t he p rovince o f E lazi g, a nd t hence a cross t he E uphrates t o t he p lain o f M alatya. S ivas. o ne

I n

F rom M alatya a nother r oute c ontinues n orthwestwards f act, M alatya l ies a t t he j unction o f t wo n atural

f rom t he s outheast a nd

t owards r oads:

t he o ther f rom t he s outhwest v ia M aras.

T he

r oad l inking M alatya t o S ivas c ould b e c onsidered a s r oughly d elimiting t he w estern b order o f e astern A natolia. I n

t he

E lazig p rovince A ltinova w as

t he m ost

i ntensely

s ettled

a rea i n e astern A natolia i n t he f ourth a nd t hird m illennia B C. n ow l argely s ubmerged u nder t he w ater o f t he K eban d am r eservoir.

l t i s T his

f ertile p lain w as m ore d ensely s ettled t han t he d istrict o f A van i n l ate p rehistoric t imes. S urvey r ecords s how t hat A ltinova c ontained s ome 3 8 a ncient s ettlements: 3 2 m ounds a nd s ix f lat s ettlements, a nd A van a t otal o f

1 4 s ettlement s ites

( Whallon a nd K antman 1 970:8).

O n

a n a verage t he m ounds i n t his r egion m easured 2 50 x 2 00m w ith a h eight r anging b etween 1 5 t o 2 0m. T he o nly e xception t o t his i s N or untepe w hich m easured 6 00 x 4 00 x 3 5m . H owever, s ince m ost o f t hese m ounds p roduced

e vidence o f

l ong o ccupation h istory l asting t o

t he e nd o f

t he

I ron A ge, t he e xact s izes o f t he p roto-urban s ettlements a re d ifficult t o e stimate. T he l ate p rehistoric s ettlements i n t he K eban r egion, p articularly i n A ltinova, w ere e stablished a long a n etwork o f s prings. T hese f ollowed a r egular p attern w ith a pproximately 5 km i ntervals, a nd e ach o ne w as s urrounded b y s maller m ounds o f a n a verage h eight o f 2 m, p ossibly v illages

( Whallon a nd K antman 1 970:8).

T he s econd i mportant r egion w ith a l arge c oncentration o f

a ncient

s ettlements i n t he E lazi p rovince i s f ound i n t he v icinity o f B askil. T he B askil d istrict i s a h igh p lateau w ith a n a verage e levation o f 1 500m. T he m ountains o n t his p lateau d escend a s f ar a s t he b ank o f t he E uphrates. 2 A lthough t here a re l arge s treams f lowing d own f rom t he m ountains, s maller s treams l ike H istikan d eresi h ave f ormed s mall a lluvial f lood-plains. T he l argest f lood-plain i n t his d istrict i s s ituated

s outh o f K ale K 8y (zdo'an 1 977:62).

c arried

d own

f rom

t he

m ountains b y

I t w as f ormed o f

f lood-waters

a nd

o f

r ubble

a lluvial

d eposits a ccumulated b y t he E uphrates. I n t he v icinity o f I miku a i a nd H asikli t his p lain w idens c onsiderably. I t n arrows a fter K adikBy a nd e nds

i n

t he v icinity o f H abibu a i;

2 53

a t

t his

p oint,

t he

E uphrates

f lows

i nto a d eep g orge

t owards

t he s outheast.

T he r idges s urrounding

t he f loor-plain a re r ather s teep b ut a t t he s ame t ime v ery e roded. A ll a long t hese r idges, f lood-waters h ave c arved o ut d eep a nd n arrowf looded v alleys ( dzdo an 1 977:63). T he r elative s carcity o f s ources o f w ater i n t his r egion s eem t o h ave b een t he m ain f actor f or t he a ncient s ettlements t o b e e stablished m ainly o n t he b ank o f t he E uphrates o r n ext t o s prings ( özdo an 1 977:63). S ince l arger m ounds a re f ound a long t he b ank o f t he E uphrates i t i s p ossible t o c onclude t hat t hose s ituated n ear s mall s prings w ere o f s horter d uration. H owever c hanges i n t he c ourse o f m ounds a nd t he

t he E uphrates c aused t he p artial d estruction o f i solation o f o thers. A f ew v illages w hich

s ome w ere

o riginally s ituated o n t he r iver b ank m ust h ave b een r ebuilt c loser t o t he r iver; t he m ain s ource o f w ater a nd s ubsistence. A ccording t o t he s urvey

r eport

p ublished

b y

O zdo an ( 1977) a lmost h alf

o f

a ll

t he

s ettlements i n t he B askil d istrict w hich w ill e ventually s ubmerge i n t he w aters o f t he K arakaya r eservoir a re f lat s ettlements. I miku a i i s t he l argest m ound i n t his r egion. M edium s ize m ounds r epresent s ettlements w hich p robably c overed a n a rea o f c a.11-12 a cres. T he s mall m ounds, a t otal o f f ive, r epresent v illages s ituated i n t he v icinity o f t owns. Among t he 2 3 a ncient s ettlements o nly a bout f ive w ere a pparently s ettled s ince t he L ate C halcolithic p eriod. A ccording t o

ö zdo an

( 1977:63)

" the a bsence,

o n a ll f ive

s ites,

o f

d efinitely d ateable t o p hrases e arlier t han L ate C halcolithic t hat e arlier l evels h ave m ost p robably b een s ealed u nder d eposits."

T he m ain s ettlement a ctivity,

h owever,

s eems

p ottery s uggests a lluvium

t o h ave t aken

p lace a t t he b eginning o f t he E arly B ronze A ge. Among t he 1 7 s ites w hich w ere o ccupied d uring t he E B, e msiye T epe, I miku a i, U yt tcek T epe a nd

K amikli

d eveloped i nto s izeable s ettlements b y

t he

e arly

u rban

p eriod. S outhwest o f B askil l ies o ne o f t he m ost f ertile p lains i n e astern A natolia; t he M alatya p lain. W ith a n a verage e levation o f 9 00m i t m ust h ave p rovided a c limate f ar l ess h ostile t han m ost o ther . r egions t o e arly f arming c ommunities. T he M alatya p lain t ogether w ith t he T ohma b asin a re s urrounded b y t he e astern T aurus s ystem i n t he w est, s outh a nd e ast, a nd b y t he h illy t erritory o f t he H ekimhan d istrict i n t he n orth. T he T ohma c ay c rosses t his a lluvial p lain o n a w est-east a xis t owards t he E uphrates, c arving o ut d eep v alleys w hich i n f act d ivide o f

t he

t his p lain i nto a n umber o f

M alatya p lain a nd

s maller p lains.

T he t opography

t he T ohma b asin i s n ot e ntirely

f lat.

T he

p lain s lopes g ently d own t owards t he E uphrates. L ow h ills a nd u ndulati ng r idges a lternate w ith l owlands. B etween t he v illages o f P irot ( H8yt 1k) a nd M eydancik l ow h ills a pproach a s f ar a s t he b ank o f t he E uphrates ( ôzdo an 1 977:26). T he T ohma f lows t hrough a d eep a nd a t p laces, w ide v alley. T he r idges o n t his v alley a re i ntersected i n m any p laces b y s mall s tream-beds a nd f lood-water b eds. S ome o f t he s mall c onical h illocks o n t hese r idges w hich w ere f ormed o f p ebble c ong10 m earte d eposits w ere o ccupied i n l ate p rehistoric t imes ( Yakar a nd S alzmann 1 979:40). T he G 8ktarla

v alley o f t he K angal T ohma i s s teep a nd n arrow e xcept b etween a nd M alatya, B alaban a nd l rmakli, a nd f or a s hort s tretch

s outh o f K uluncak ( Yakar a nd S alzmann 1 979:36). H ere a nd i n t he M alatya p lain p re-classical s ites d isplay a n umber o f d istinctive c haracteristics w ith 1 977:27). S cattered

r egard t o d istribution, s ize a nd t ype ( Ozdo an s ettlement p attern p redominates i n a reas w ith

a bundant s ources o f w ater. I n t his p attern a l arge c entrally l ocated m ound i s u sually s urrounded b y s maller m ounds a nd f lat s ettlements. T he

b est

e xample

f or s cattered-settlement p attern i s 2 54

f ound

i n

P irot

( Özdo'an

1 977:27).

H ere t he l arge m ound

( Pirot H 8yl lk)

a nd a n a rea o f

a bout 3 km e ncircling t he m ound p roduced s herds b elonging t o p eriods. I t i s o bvious t hat t he m ound i tself d id n ot c over e xtensive

a rea

s ettlement o zdogan M ahmudu I n

b ut

u nits

t he

m ain s ettlement w as

( villages o r f arms)

s ince

s urrounded t he

E BA.

w here s ources o f w ater a re r elatively m ore

b y

s maller

A ccording

t his s ettlement p attern i s a lso f ound i n t he w here s herds o f v irtually e very p eriod o ccur i n

a reas

v arious s uch a n

a rea s ome

l imited

t o

a round f ields. a nd

t he

e nvironment h aving a m ore a rid c haracter, a ncient s ettlements t end h ave m ore c ompact f orms a nd a re u sually l ocated n ear s mall s prings.

t o

N orth o f t he M alatya p lain i n t he m ountainous d istricts o f H ekimhan, G { lrt Ln a nd D arende a ncient s ettlements a re s parsely d istri b uted.

I n

t his r egion t he K uruqay a nd t he T ohma r un a long

a

n orth-

s outh a xis f orming n arrow v alleys a nd d eep g orges. Among t he m ountains l ie a s mall n umber o f f loor-plains i ntersected b y s mall s treams. I n t he n orthwestern e xtremity o f t his a rea t he U zunyayla u pland e xtends a s f ar a s t he T ecer m ountains i n t he n ortheast. T his u pland, t he t raditional h ome o f A natolian h orse b reeding, h as a n a verage h eight o f 1 750m. I t e xtends t o t he s outh o f K angal i n t he e ast a nd t he s lopes o f t he T ahtali a nd Or l in m ountains i n t he s outh. S ome o f t he v olcanic f ormations o n t his p lain m ay e asily b e m istaken f or a ncient s ettlem ents. I n a ddition t o H ekimhan d istrict s cattered s ettlements a re a lso f ound i n t he d istricts o f Y azihan a nd H asançelebi, m ainly a long t he n atural r oute l inking M alatya t o S ivas. T he d istribution p attern o f p re-classical s ettlements i n t his a rea, a nd i n s ome o ther p arts o f e astern A natolia, s uggest t hat t he e arly s ettlers w ere m otivated n ot o nly b y t he p roximity o f w ater s ources a nd a rable , l and b ut aso b y t heir d esire t o e xploit s ome o f t he m ineral r esources n earby. T he K angal d istrict e xtending f rom A lacahan t o U la§ i s a h illy r egion w ith o ccasional h igh p lateaux. D espite t he f act t hat i t i s w ell w atered b y t he t ributaries o f t he K izilirmak a nd t he E uphrates a nd h as r ich s alt d eposits, s outhwest

s igns o f a ncient o ccupation a re r ather s carce. o f K angal, H 8yt 1k D egirmeni n ear K ayak ( K8kten

C ukurtarla 1 944:667),

H alepk8prt {st l H 8yUk s outh o f t he K ormac m ountains a nd T ilki H 8yt lk s outhw est o f H avuzkJy a re a mong t he r are E arly B ronze A ge s ettlements i n t his r egion ( Yakar a nd S alzmann 1 979:39). H owever, t he e xtensive l and r eclamation p rojects a nd c ontinuous e rosion m ay h ave l evelled o ff s ome o f t he f lat s ettlements a nd h ill-top s ettlements i n t he v icinity o f R esadiye, D e1ikta a nd t he T ecer m ountains, t hus c reating a n e rroneous i mpression o f I n

t he

t heir d istribution p attern. S ivas p rovince

t here i s a d ense c oncentration

o f

m ounds

b etween G emerek a nd K ayadibi. T he u pper K izilirmak v alley e ast o f K ara8z i s s till w ide b ut, d espite t he f ertility o f t he l and, i t d oes n ot s eem t o h ave b een i nhabited i n l ate p rehistoric t imes. T he s omewhat s urprising a bsence o f m ounds b etween D irekli a nd § arki ql a

m ay

b e e xplained b y t he f act t hat t he w hole a rea w as t hickly w ooded u ntil v ery r ecently. F rom D irekli t o S ivas, t he K izilirmak v alley i s f requently

r educed

t o

d eep a nd n arrow g orges c utting

t hrough

r ocky

m ountains. T he a rea b etween S ivas a nd H afik a long t he v alley o f t he u pper K izilirmak w as d ensely s ettled i n p re-classical t imes. H illtop m ounds o f

s uch a s

H afik

a re

t he o ne w est o f

H afik ( Durulmu

c haracteristic

o f

1 979:40).

2 55

t his

r egion

H 8yt lk)

a nd D iskapi e ast

( Yakar

a nd

S alzmann

I n t he M alatya a nd S ivas p rovinces t here a re d ifferent t ypes o f m ound f ormations. M ounds o n e levations

a t l east f ive s light n atural

r epresent s ettlements e stablished o n a ncient r iver

d eposits

o f a lluvium a nd p ebble. T hese a re u sually f ound i n t he M alatya p lain a nd i n t he S ivas p rovince b etween G emerek a nd S arki 1a ( i.e. Y eni ç ubuk, K arag8l). M any o f t hese m ounds h ave b een'considerably r educed i n s ize b y f lood-water. I t i s q uite p ossible t hat a n umber o f s maller s ettlements d isappeared c ompletely b eneath t he r ising a lluvium o f t he s urrounding p lain. F or t he e stablishment o f s mall s ettlements s mall h illocks w ere c hosen. T hese a re f ormed b y o ld r iver d eposits o r m eander c ut-offs, a nd h ave t he a ppearance o f l arge m ounds. I n m any i nstances a ncient s ettlements o n s uch h illocks w ere s ealed u nder r ubble c arried b y l arge-scale f looding. M ounds o n h igh r idges a nd h ills a re u sually f ound a long t he b anks o f t he u pper K izilirmak a nd T ohma c ay. T he m ounds

i n t he d istricts o f K angal,

H ekimhan a nd D ura an a lso b elong

t o t his g roup. I n s ome c ases o nly t he u ppermost p arts o f t he h ills w ere o ccupied, p robably O ut o f d efensive c onsiderations ( e.g. T atlicak, K alatepe, D i kapi). E xpanded l ow m ounds a nd f lat s ettlements o n h illsides a nd h illtops r epresent f airly s mall s ettlements. T hey a re g enerally f ound o n r ock c onglomerates a long t he b anks o f t he T ohma. A t a n umber o f t hem, w here s ections a re v isible, i t i s p ossible t o d iscern v arious a lluvial d eposits b etween t he o ccupational l ayers w hich i ndicate f looding a nd t emporary a bandonment o f s ettlements. T he f act t hat n ot m any s ites o f t his t ype h ave b een r ecorded d uring n umerous a nd e xtensive f ield s urveys c ould b e a ttributed t o t he d ifficulty o f r ecognizing s uch f lat s ettlements. E ast o f S ivas i n t he T 8d i irge a nd H afik l akes m ound f ormations o n s mall i slands ( e.g. G 8lh8yt 1k-Pilir) c onstitute t he f ourth t ype o f s ettlement. B ut i t i s i mportant t o e mphasize t hat s ome o f t hese s ettlements w ere e stablished o n l ake s hores a nd l ater w ere i solated b y t he r ising w ater l evels ( Yakar a nd S alzmann 1 979:41). S mall m ounds o n n atural h ills w hich w ere u sed f or t umulus b urials i n c lassical t imes c an b e s een i n a n umber o f r egions, i n p articular i n S arkisla a nd U zunyayla ( e.g. T üm t llt lslt l H 8yt {k). S outh o f n arrow g orge. p art o f r eaching

t he M alatya p lain t he E uphrates f lows t hrough a d eep a nd I n t he v icinity o f G erger K alesi, i n t he n ortheastern

t he A diyaman p rovince, t his l ong g orge b ecomes w ider t he f lat l and s outh o f t he e astern T aurus r ange.

b efore

T HE S EQUENCE O F C ULTURAL F RAMEWORKS T he b eginning o f s ettled l ife i n e astern A natolia i s b elieved t o h ave s tarted d uring t he a dvanced s tages o f t he N eolithic p eriod. T he e arly f arming c ommunities s ettled i n t he f ertile r iver v alleys s uch a s t he

m iddle

b asins. a ctivity

t he

E uphrates

B ut t here i s s o f ar n o i ndication t o s uggest t hat i n t hese f ertile v alleys w as a s i ntense d uri g t he

A raxes

s ettlement N eolithic

p eriod a s i t a rchaeology o f V an, E rzurum,

( the A rarat p lain),

t he K ura

a nd

b ecame i n t he C halcolithic p eriod. A lthough t he t he p re-fifth m illennium B C i n t he p rovinces o f K ars, E rzincan, E laziK a nd M alatya i s n ot w ell k nown f rom

e xcavations, e xamples o f d ark f aced b urnished w are o f A muq A -E d ate f ound i n M alatya (zdo an 1 977:10) m ay i ndicate t hat s ome o f t he e arliest

s ettlements,

d eposits, s tress, v arious

d ate

h owever, p hases o f

p robably b uried b eneath t he r ubble o f

f rom t he L ate N eolithic p eriod.

i s

t he r iver

n ecessary

t o

t hat s ince t his w are w as a lso p roduced d uring t he C halcolithic p eriod i n s outheastern A natolia,

t he i t

2 56

I t

MALATYA

M C

K

E LAZI

P ainted

W are

KANGAL-HEKiMNAN

ERZURUM

EARS

M US -VAN

( Late T ypes) and

D Y N

E R

I II

B

A S E arly T ranscaucasion

T

W ares

A

I B S K

P ainted

Ware

( Karaz

( Early Types)

Ware

1 1)

n

W

Ware

I )

A a nd

K

E

a

r

1

y

T

r

a

n

a

c

a

u

c

a

a

i

a

a

r

e

a

L Y

E B

L ight

I t

U

C oloured

( Simple

Wheelmade

and R eserved

( Karaz

W ares

S lip)

K a nd

B

Imports

f rom S yria

a nd

C ilicia

A N a nd

p B

R

L ight

C oloured

W heelmade

T ilkitepe

W ares

0 B a r 1 y

T C )

T r a n s c a u c a s i a n

W a r e

( Dominant)

S

P ainted

E E l

A

C entral

Anatolian H andmade

Monochrome

W are

U L ight

K

C oloured

Wheelmade

C haff-faced

?

W ares

B A

L ate

( Dominant

i n M esopotamian

C olonies

o f Uruk

I V)

N C entral

Anatolian H andmade

Monochrome Types

C halcolithic D

F

a

r

k

F

a

Ub a i d

Wa r e

Ha l a f

Wa r e

c

e

d

B

u

r

n

i

s

h

e

d

W

a

r

e

M iddle

0

o »

a nd

P R

E arly

0

C halcolithic

D

Da r k

Fa c e d

H alaf

Bu r n i s h e d

U

2 57

W are

W are

i s

n ot

t he

m ost

r eliable

c hronological

s ettlement a ctivity i n e astern A natolia

F rom t he f ifth m illennium B C o nwards A ras

( Araxes)

v alley,

i ndicator

( Russell 1 980:19,

o f

N eolithic

5 3).

t he p opulation d ensity i n

t he

t he e astern a nd w estern s hores o f L ake V an,

i n

A ltinova a nd M alatya i ncreased c onside ra bly. T he C halcolithic s ettlem ents e xcavated i n M alatya ( e.g. D egirmentepe), i n A ltinova ( e.g. T t llintepe) b urnishe p ottery.

a nd

V an ( e.g.

T ikitepe)

p roduced,

i n

a ddition

t o

d ark

l ocal w ares, l ocally p roduced p ainted H alaf a nd U baid T he n ext s tage i n t he r egional s equence c orresponds t o t he

P rotoliterate a -b i n M esopotamia. S ome o f t he m ajor s ites i n t he M alatya p lain a nd i n A ltinova p roduced i mportant a rchaeological e vidence t o r econstruct t he c ultural d evelopment d uring t his L ate C halcolithic p eriod. A ccording t o r ather c omplex p ottery r epertoires f rom w ell s tratified s ites i t i s p ossible t o p ostulate t hat e astern A natolians o f t he e arly f ourth m illennium B C w ere c omposed o f f armers a nd p astoralists o f c entral A natolian, T ranscaucasian a nd n orth S yrian s tock. T he a rrival o f t he M esopotamian m erchants d uring t he U ruk I V ( Protoliterate a- b ) p eriod m ay h ave a ffected, a t l east t o s ome e xtent, t he d emographic a nd t he s ocio-economic s tructure i n t he E lazi gMalatya r egions. M esopotamians i n e astern A natolia e xpanded t heir n etwork o f " colonies" i n t he d irection o f t he u pper E u ph rates v alley, i n t he m etal r ich z one e xtending b etween U rfa a nd E lazig. O ther a reas o f e astern A natolia s uch a s t he E rzurum , K ars a nd V an p rovinces d o n ot s eem t o h ave b een p enetrated b y s ettlers f rom t he m ore s outherly p rovinces. A s a lready p ointed b y B urney, t he f ourth m illennium B C i n t he r emote p arts o f t he l ogical

e astern h ighlands i s n ot w ell k nown ( 1971:31). B ut i t i s t o a ssume t hat t he s ettlements i n t he f ertile p lateaux o f K ars

a nd E rzurum c ame u nder t he c ultural i nfluence o f T ranscaucasian r egions s lightly e arlier t han t he s ettled c ommunities i n t he m ore s outherly r egions o f e astern A natolia. A s f or t he s ettlements i n t he V an b asin a nd M ug p lain t hey w ere e xposed t o c ultural i nfluences e manating f rom w estern I ran, a nd t hen, i n t he e arly t hird m illennium B C, f rom t he A raxes

v alley.

T owards t he e nd o f t he f ourth m illenniun r , a reas i mmediately t o n orth o f t he e astern T aurus e xperienced t he a rrival o f s mall g roups f armers

a nd p astoralists

f rom t he n ortheast.

t he o f

T his w estward e xpansion

o f t he E arly T ranscaucasian c ultural h orizon g rew i n i ntensity d uring t he s econd h alf o f t he E B I p eriod, a nd i s a rchaeologically w ell d ocumented a t e xcavated s ites i n t he E lazig a nd M alatya r egions. T he s tratigraphies o f T epecik, N or untepe, K orucutepe, i mportant m ounds w hich a re n ow s ubmerged i n t he w aters o f t he K eban d am r eservoir, a nd A rsiantepe a nd § emsiyetepe i n M alatya, l eave n o d oubt t hat t his e xpans ion o f t he c ultural h orizon w as n ot t he r esult o f o ne b ig m ovement b ut o f c onsecutive p opulation s hifts w hich c ontinued t hroughout t he t hird m illennium B C. N ot a ll t he t ribal g roups a rriving f rom t he e ast s hared t he

s ame e thno-cultural b ackground.

m etallurgical t he

s ource

D ifferences

i n r ural a rchitecture,

t raditions a nd b urial h abits a re c lear i ndications o f

t his

p opulation m ovement s hould b e c onsidered

a

t hat v ast

g eographical z one e xtending f rom t he C aucasus i n t he n orth ( or e ven b eyond t his m ountain b arrier) t o t he C aspian S ea i n t he e ast a nd t he s hores o f U rmia i n t he s outh. I t i s a lso p ossible t o a ssume t hat t he f ertile v alleys a nd p lains o f e astern A natolia p rovided n ot o nly n ew h omes f or n ew p eople b ut a lso " staging a reas" f or f urther m ovements t o t he w est a nd s outhwest. T he e mergence o f n ew t raditions i n r egional a rchitecture d uring t he E B I a nd I I i s a ccompanied b y c lear c hanges i n

2 58

t he l ocal p ottery a ssemblages w here E arly T ranscaucasian f orms g radu ally o utnumbered o ther w ares o f S yrian, c entral a nd e astern A natolian t radition. H owever, l ocal p otters n ever r eally c eased t o m anufacture n orth S yrian a nd c entral A natolian i nspired f orms, w hich c an o nly s uggest e astern h ave

t hat d espite a ll t he t urmoil t he d emographic s tructure i n A natolia w as n ot c ompletely a ltered a nd t he p opulation m ust

s till

i ncluded i mportant

s egments o f

t he o ld

s ubstructure.

I n

s ettlement p lanning a nd d omestic a rchitecture e arlier n orms e stablished d uring t he s hort-lived p eriod o f M esopotamian c olonies d id n ot d isappear i mmediately,

a t

l east i n t he s ettlements

i n t he M alatya p lain

a nd A ltinova n ot b efore t he E BIb p eriod. D espite i ts g enerally u niform a ppearance t he E arly T ranscaucasian w are i n e astern A natolia o r K araz w are

a s

i t

i s s ometimes

c alled,

s hows

s ome r egional a nd

e ven

l ocal

v ariations i n f orm , f abric a nd d ecoration. H owever, a p recise i nternal d ivision o f E arly T ranscaucasian w are w ithin t he E BA i s e xtremely d ifficult t o a chieve. A s K elly-Buccellati p ointed o ut ( apud v an L oon 1 978:70) t he o nly c hanges o bserved i n t his d ark m onochrome p ottery a re t hose

r elating t o b ody s hapes a nd r im f orms b etween t he b eginning

a nd

e nd o f t he p eriod t hey w ere p roduced. B ut i n M alatya a nd E lazig t his w are i s o ften f ound t ogether w ith p ainted w ares w hich a re f ar m ore p recisely a ssigned t o p hases a nd s ub-phases o f

t he E arly B ronze A ge.

T he s equence o f h uman s ettlement i n t he p rovinces o f E rzincan, E rzurum, M uq a nd V an c annot b e f ully r econstructed. A l arge p roportion o f E BA s ettlements i n t hose p rovinces m ay h ave b een a bandoned d uring t he E B I II o r a t t he e nd o f t he E B I I p eriod ( e.g. P ulur, G t lzelova, T ilkitepe). T he q uestion i s w hy t hese p ermanent s ettlements c eased t o e xist a t a t ime w hen o ther r egions o f e astern A natolia, G eorgia a nd A rmenia s how i ntense s ettlement a ctivity w hich a lso c ontinued i n t he e arly c enturies o f t he s econd m illennium B C. C ould l t b e t hat e nvironm ental c hanges a nd/or a n i nflux o f a dditional n omadic t ribes f rom t he e ast

c aused a c hange

u nearthed

t hrough

i n t he s ettlement p attern?

e xcavations

t his

q uestion

U ntil m ore i s

l ikely

d ata t o

i s

r emain

u nsolved.

l inks

T he s trengthening o f c ommercial, c ultural a nd, p ossibly, p olitical w ith m ajor c ity-states i n n orthern S yria a nd M esopotamia i n t he

s econd h alf o f t he t hird m illennium B C c an b e o bserved i n t he m aterial c ulture o f e arly u rban c entres i n t he M alatya a nd E lazig r egions. M onumental a rchitecture i ncluding p alaces, p ublic b uildings a nd o ther f eatures c onnected w ith u rban p lanning s uggest t hat t he E B I II p eriod i n t he E uphrates b asin w as m ainly a n e ra o f s ocio-economic a nd p olitical o rganization p robably i nspired f rom l ong e xisting m odels i n . neighbouring S yria a nd n orthern M esopotamia.

C HRONOLOGY T he e xpansion o f n orth S yrian/Mesopotamian L ate C halcolithic E arly B ronze A ge c ultural h orizons b eyond t he n orthern b oundary o f

a nd t he

f ertile c rescent p rovides a l arge v ariety o f w ell s tratified a rchaeological d ocumentation , w hich i n t urn c an b e u sed t o a ssess t he r elative c hronology o f T his

h istorical

c hronological

t he l ate p rehistoric s equence i n e astern T urkey.

c hronology

f ramework o f

c ould b e

i ncorporated

w ithin

c alibrated r adiocarbon d ates.

2 59

a

l oose

I n

M esopotamian

e astern

t ime-scale

t he L ate

C halcolithic

c ultures

A natolia a re p laced h ere w ithin t he f ourth m illennium

B C,

o f i n

o ther w ords b etween t he e nd o f t he L ate U baid a nd t he e nd o f U ruk I V ( Protoliterate b ). I n a reas i n t he n ortheast, w here p ottery f orms o f s outhern s tyles a re n ot f ound a t a ll, a t l east n ot i n s tratified c ont exts, a ssessing t he c hronology o f l ocal c ultures i s d efinitely m ore p roblematical. I n s uch c ases t here i s l ittle a lternative b ut t o r ely e ntirely o n r adiocarbon a ge e stimates. H owever, s uch c alculations a re b y n o m eans

w ith

c onsidered h ere a s a bsolute.

A rslantepe m aterial

i n M alatya h as p rovided s ome o f t he b est f rom w ell s tratified s ites i n S yria a nd

c orrelations M esopotamia.

L ate U ruk t ype p ottery w as f ound i n t he f illing o f t he e arlier s truct ural p hases o f B uilding I V i n l evel V IA ( Palmieri 1 981:104-106). T hese i nclude f orms s uch a s b evelled r im b owl, w heelmade j ar w ith r eserved s lip t he s houlder.

d ecoration o n t he b ody a nd i ncised c ross-hatch b and o n W hile m ost o f t hese s outhern f orms s eem t o h ave b een

l ocally m ade, a f ew m ay h ave b een i mports f rom L ate U ruk-Jemdet N asr s ettlements i n n orthern S yria a nd M esopotamia. P almieri t hinks t hat a n o ccupational g ap o f r elatively s hort d uration m ay b e p ostulated b etween A rslantepe V II ( Late C halcolithic) a nd V IA ( EB I A) ( 1981:106). I n t his s tratigraphical

c ontext

i t

i s

i mportant t o n ote

t hat

t he

e nd

o f

A rslantgpe V II, a ccording t o r adiocarbon d ate e stimation, i s c a.3500 9 0 B C. A ccording t o t his c alculation t he e nd o f t he U ruk I V p eri09 m ust b e p laced w ithin t he s econd h alf o f t he f ourth m illennium B C. T he m aterial r emains f rom t he L ate C halcolithic l evels a t T epecik, N or untepe a nd o ther s ites i n t he K eban r eservoir a rea h ave a lso p roduced n umerous t ypological c onnections w ith o ther M esopotamian o utposts s ituated a s f ar a s w est-central I ran ( e.g. G odin T epe v ) , t he T igris ( e.g. N ineveh) a nd t he E uphrates v alley i n n orthern S yria ( e.g. H abuba K abira S ud, T el K annas). F or i nstance, a l arge n umber o f b ullae f rom A rslantepe V IA i nclude s ome s eal i mpressions d epicting c eremonial s cenes w hich a ppear a mong t he m ost a ncient p ictographs o f U ruk ( Amiet 1 973;

P almieri 1 981:106, T he

L ate

t hat

M ora 1 982:204-206).

C halcolithic c ultures

n umber o f a ffinities A rmenia a nd A zerbeijan. P ulur

1 09;

i n n ortheastern A natolia

a nd G t lzelova c ontain a n umber o f t he

s how

a

w ith t hose i n c entral A natolia a nd G eorgia, T he p ottery a ssemblages f rom K araz ( Period I ), a rchaic

f orms

w hich

s o-called K araz c ulture m ay w ell h ave s tarted i n t he

s uggest s econd

h alf o f t he f ourth m illennium B C. F or i nstance t he p ortable h earths ( and i ron) f ound a t K araz a nd P ulur a ppear a t Amiranis G ora i n s outhw est G eorgia a lready i n l evel I , w hich c ould b e d ated t o 3 470 ± 9 2 B C. A lso, a t B eshtashen i n s outhern G eorgia, K araz I t ype m aterial i s f ound t hroughout 1 982:1025).

t he l ower a nd m iddle l evels T his c ould i ndeed s uggest t hat

( Donjon 1 975:76-79; H uot t he K araz I p eriod w as o f

l onger d uration t han o riginally a ssumed. T ilkitepe i n V an c ould s hed v ery l ittle l ight o n t he c hronological p roblems r elating t o e ast A natolian L ate C halcolithic c ultures. T he p rimary s ignificance o f K orfmann ( 1982), t hat i t

t his s ite i s, a s a lready p ointed o ut i s t he o nly e xcavated s ite w ithin a r ange

b y o f

c a.400km f rom w hich a ny s tratigraphy i s k nown. T he V an r egion, a nd t o s ome e xtent t he M up p lain, b elong t o t he c ultural p rovince o f w estern I ran a t l east s ince t he L ate C halcolithic p eriod. P hase I a t T ilkitepe r evealed a p ottery r epertoire w hich i ncludes a s traw t empered w are w ith p ainted d ecoration.

T his

s o-called T ilkitepe w are a lso o ccurs a t G eoy 2 60

T epe

M

i n t he U rmia b asin.

I ts d istribution p attern

s uggests

t hat

l ocal v ariants o f F ertile C rescent

t his w are w ere b eing p roduced i n a reas a djoining t he i ncluding t he M alatya-Elazig r egion a nd m uch o f

w estern

t he

I ran

i n

e arly f ourth m illennium

B C

( Burney

a nd

L ang

1 971:37). H owever, s ince t his w are w as b eing p roduced i n w estern I ran a nd t he V an r egion a lso d uring t he s econd h alf o f t he f ourth m illennium B C, i n o ther w ords, w ell a fter i t w ent o ut o f f ashion i n i ts o riginal M esopotamian h omeland, i t c an h ardly b e d ated w ith m uch c onfidence. T he w heelmade c haff-faced w are w ith r eddish b rown p ainted d ecoration f ound i n t he K eban r eservoir a rea a nd i n t he l ower E uphrates b asin i s a ssigned t o t he L ate C halcolithic p eriod ( e.g. K oructepe P hase B ). A s f or t he p lain v ariant o f t his w are, t he s o-called C oba b owls '. o r F lint-scraped b owls ', i t, t oo, s hows a r ather s imilar d istribution p attern. A ccording t o R ussell, i ts e arliest o ccurrences i n t he A diyaman,

M alatya,

E lazig

a nd M u

r egions a re p robably

c ontemporary

w ith t he u se o f U baid w are ( 1980:23). A t A rslantepe-Malatya i t h as b een f ound i n a ssociation w ith s imple w are a nd r eserved s lip w are f rom P eriod V IA ( EBIA) d ated t o t he l ate f ourth m illennium B C ( Russell 1 980:24). T he E arly B ronze A ge C hronology E ast

A natolian

E BA c ivilization w as p art o f

h orizon e xtending f rom t he C aucasus i n t he s outh. N ahcevan. T he

t he l arger

i n t he n orth t o I ranian

c ultural A zerbeijan

T his v ast z one a lso e ncompassed G eorgia, A rmenia a nd q uestion i s, w hen d id t he T ranscaucasian E BA h orizon

e xpand w estwards a nd s outhwards? D id t his c ulture a rrive i n t he M alatya-Elazig r egion v ia E rzurum o r f rom t he e ast? T he a nswer t o t hese a nd o ther r elated q uestions r equires a g ood d eal o f s peculation, m ainly

i n e valuating t he

c arbon a ge e stimates,

c ame

c ultural c orrelations

a nd a vailable

l argely f rom t he M alatya-Elazi

r adio-

r egion.

A t T ilkitepe, t he T ranscaucasian d ark b urnished m onochrome w are i nto u se a t a t ime w hen t he T ilkitepe w are w as s till b eing

p roduced ( Korfmann 1 982:225). I n e astern A natolia t his E arly T ranscauc asian p ottery i s s till c alled K araz w are i n m ost l iterature. I n c ertain h alf o f

r egions i t i s a ssumed t o h ave a ppeared a s e arly a s t he s econd t he f ourth m illennium B C, a nd c ontinued t o b e p roduced a s l ate

a s t he e arly s econd m illennium B C. B ut, a s a lready p ointed o ut b y R ussell a nd o thers ( 1980:54), t he f abric, f orms a nd d ecoration o f t his w are s how s ome r egional v ariations w ithin i ts v ast a rea o f d istribut ion. F or i nstance, a t K araz t he P hase I p ottery w ith b lack e xteriors a nd p inkish i nteriors o ccur a t Amiranis G ora I I t ogether w ith d ecorated w ith d ouble s pirals a nd c oncentric c ircles i n r elief.

j ars T his

t ype o f r elief d ecoration, k nown a lso a t K araz I , i s c haracteristic o f t he e arly p hase o f t he T ranscaucasian c ulture. A ccording t o c alibrated C -14 e stimates A miranis G ora I I c ould b e d ated t o t he l ast q uarter o f t he f ourth m illennium B C ( Donjon 1 975; H uot 1 982:1033). T he c orrelat ion o f K araz I w ith Amiranis G ora I I i s a lso b ased o n t he p resence o f " collar n eck" j ar f orms a t b oth s ites. K araz P hase I I, o n t he o ther h and,

s eems

T his

o bservation

t o c orrespond i n t ime m ore w ith A miranis G ora I II t han

a ssemblages o f r eplaced w ith

i s

m ainly b ased o n t he f act

t hat

i n

t he

I I.

p ottery

t he r espective l evels r elief d ecoration i s l argely a n ew s tyle o f d ecoration, i .e. i ncised m otifs ( Huot

1 982:1024). H owever, o ne s hould n ot c onclude t hat K araz I I e ntirely c orresponds t o A miranis G ora I II. I n f act, s ome o verlapping w ith Amiramis G ora I I c ould b e c ontemplated. I t i s i mportant t o n ote t hat 2 61

l ike K araz I , d estructions

A miranis G ora I I a lso w as d estroyed b y f ire. T hese t wo m ay n ot h ave b een r elated t o t he s ame e vent a nd t herefore

a re o f l ittle s ignificance i n a ssessing t he e ntire c hronological r elat ionship b etween K araz I a nd Amiranis G ora I I. B eshtashen p rovides a c learer s tratigraphic s equence o f t he E BA i n G eorgia ( Huot 1 982:1025). A t t his s ettlement K araz I t ype m aterial i s f ound t hroughout t he l ower a nd m iddle l evels ( Donjon 1 975:79). T his c ould i ndeed s uggest t hat t he K araz I p hase w as o f l onger d uration t han o ne m ight a ssume o n t he s trength o f Amiranis G ora e vidence. T he c losest p arallels t o t he K araz Im aterial a re f ound, h owever, i n t he r egion o f s ettlement a t K i litepe I I h as 1 4 s uccessive

N ahcevan. H ere t he a rchitectural p hases

e ncompassing m ost o f t he E arly T ranscaucasian p eriod. T he d ark b urnished p ottery r epertoire o f K Ultepe I I h as a n umber o f f orms ( i.e. g lobular j ars w ith " collar n eck") a nd d ecoration ( i.e. d ouble s pirals i n r elief p laced o n t he s houlder o f j ars) w hich s how c lose a ffinities w ith t he m aterial

f rom K araz

I a nd G eoy T epe K i.

S ince

t here a re n o C -

1 4 d ates a vailable t o e stimate t he d uration o f K araz I o r G eoy T epe K i, t he m ost c onvenient w ay o f a ssessing t he b eginning o f t he K araz I p hase i s b y c alculating t he b eginning o f t he K t iltepe I I p eriod i n N ahcevan. K t lltepe I , w hich r epresents t he C halcolithic p eriod, p roduced t wo r adioc arbon

d ates

( Burney a nd L ang 1 971:42).

O f

f rom a d epth s ome 3 m b elow t he l owest E B l evel

t hese

t wo

i s 2 908

t he o ne -

t aken

1 50 B C ( before

c alibration) a nd 3 500 ± 9 0 B C a ccording t o D amon s c alibration t able, t hus s uggesting t hat t he E arly T ranscaucasian I p eriod m ay h ave s tarted i n t he s econd h alf o f t he f ourth m illennium B C. A ccording t o e stimates f rom Y anik T epe X III-VII, S hengavit I V a nd H asanlu V II, E arly T ranscaucasian I II p er od c ould b e p laced w ithin t he s econd

C -14 t he h alf

o f t he t hird m illennium B C. B ut, d espite c ertain p arallels b etween t he K araz P hase I p ottery a nd t he m aterial f rom t he E arly T ranscaucas ian a ssemblages i n G eorgia, A rmenia a nd A zerbaijan, t here i s n othing t o i ndicate t hat s ettlements s uch a s P ulur, G Uzelova a nd K araz i n t he . p rovince o f E rzurum w ere i nhabited t hroughout t he l ater p art o f t he t hird m illennium B C. I ndeed, o nly a f ew p ottery s hapes k nown i n n o A natolia d uring t he K araz I p hase c an b e c orrelated b lack b urnished p ottery f rom G eoy T epe K 3 ( Huot 1 982:1042).

w ith

t he

T he c hronological l ine d ividing t he L ate C halcolithic f rom t he E B I p eriod i s n ow r elatively w ell e stablished f or a reas a long t he u pper E uphrates a nd i n n orthern S yria. T he e pigraphic m aterial f ound a t H abuba K abira S outh, J ebel A ruda a nd T ell K annas l eaves n o d oubt t hat m ost o f t he L ate U ruk s ettlements i n n orthern S yria, a nd c onsequently i n s outheastern a nd e astern A natolia, c eased t o f unction a s t rading p osts p robably d uring t he e arly p art o f t he J emdet N asr p eriod ( Protol iterate c ). F or t he J emdet N asr a nd E D Ip eriod w e h ave t hree s ets o f r adiocarbon d ates: n amely f rom A rslantepe V I A -B, K orucutepe L III-LIV ( Phase C ) a nd f rom A rchaic E gypt. T he e arly E B Il evels a t A rslantepe ( VIA) p roduced s even d ates, t ables a nd t hen a veraged,

w hich i f c alibrated a ccording w ould p lace t he b eginning o f

t o t he D amon t his p eriod

w ithin t he l ast q uarter o f t he f ourth m illennium B C.' T he r adiocarbon c hronology o f t he F irst E gyptian D ynasty, a s c alculated b y H assan ( 1980:203-207), a lso p uts t he b eginning o f t his l argely c ontemporary w ith t he J emdet N asr p eriod, T hese

e stimates

a re

d ynasty, w hich i s t o c a.3100 1 20 B C.

i n r ather c lose a greement w ith m iddle

-

c hronology

d ates w hich s till h ave a l arge n umber o f s upporters. I t a nd

s hould b e

s tressed,

S yrian s equence

f or

h owever,

t hat

t he p roblems o f M esopotamian

t he E DI-IIIA p eriods 2 62

a re n ot e ntirely

s olved.

M unn-Rankin

h as

a p oint w hen h e w arns

t hat

t he

w ell

s tratified

b ut

o therwise p rovincial D iyala s equence h as n ot p roved a n e ntirely s atisfactory p aradigm f or S umer p roper ( 1980:128-129). F or i nstance, i n s outhern M esopotamia c eramic t ypes c onsidered t ypical o f E D I o ccur s ometimes i n t he J emdet N asr c ontext. A s f or t he E D I I p eriod, i ts m aterial c ulture i s n ot s o w ell d istinguished i n s outhern M esopotamia o r i n t he D iyala r egion. T he d egree o f o verlapping i n t he s tratigraphical s equences o f t he e arliest h istorical p eriods o f M esopotamia i s s till n ot p roperly u nderstood. I n o ther w ords, w hile i t i s p ossible t o d ate t he b eginning o f t he J emdet N asr o r t he l ate A kkadian p eriods w ith r elative a ccuracy, t he E D I -Ill s equence i s s till d ependent o n a rbitrary d ates. A mong t he v arious s uggestions t o d eal w ith t he c hronological p roblems r elating t o t he E D I II s equence, i s o ne t hat t hat

p roposes t o s horten t he E D I lIB p hase i n M esopotamia a nd S yria s o " there s hould b e l ess o f a p roblem r elating t he E bla t ablets,

w hich a re a rgued t o b e e arlier t han S argon, w ith t he p ottery, w hich i s j udged t o b e l ater" ( Gibson 1 982:538). T he A kkadian p eriod, t oo, i n t he D iyala r egion i s n ot b eyond s crutiny. G ibson h as p ointed o ut t hat t he p ottery a nd o ther a rtifacts, i ncluding g lyptic, c onsidered A kkadian i n D iyala r egion s ettlements

t hat a re,

h ad b een i n f act,

c haracteristic o nly o f t he l ater p art o f t he p eriod, t he r eigns o f N aram-Sin a nd h is s uccessors ( 1982:531). H e c ertainly h as a p oint w hen h e c onsiders t hat b ecause e arly A kkadian a rtifacts w ould h ave b een c ontinuations o f t ypes f rom t he p receding p eriod, t he l evels a nd o bjects o f t he t ime o f S argon, R imush a nd M anishtusu a re u sually e valuated w ithin t he E arly D ynastic I lIB c ontext. I n t he D iyala s ystem o f c lassification, c ertain g roups o f p ottery, s uch a s p lain b owls, m ay h ave

a

c ertain

c hronological r elevance a t

c ertain

s ites,

b ut

a re

u sually t oo g eneralized t o b e o f m uch h elp i n d efining a p articular t ime-span i n a m ore a ccurate w ay. F or i nstance, t he t ype o f j ar t hat i s u sually c onsidered t o b e c haracteristic o f t he A kkadian p eriod, t he m ultiple-ridged j ar, d oes n ot o ccur i n e arly a nd l ate A kkadian l evels i n t he D iyala r egion, w here a s a t N ippur a nd U mm a l H afriyat i t i s c haracteristic n ot o nly o f t he l ate A kkadian p eriod, b ut o f t he U t I II p eriod a s w ell ( Gibson 1 982:537). T his i s w here t he n eed f or mor e a ccurate C -14 d ates i ncreases. S o f ar t he f ew a vailable C -14 d ates f rom A rslantepe, K orucutepe a nd e ven G edikli s uggest t hat t he t radit ional a ge e stimates f or t he E D s equence i n e astern A natolia m ay b e m ore a ccurate t han t he u ltra-high d ates p roposed b y s ome s cholars. I n s ynchronizing t he e ast A natolian E BA s equence w ith t hat o f n orthern S yria/Mesopotamia, w ith t he h elp o f s tratified m aterial f rom A rslant epe, K oructepe, N orsuntepe, T epecik , t he A i nuq s equence, T ell C huera, T ell M ardikh, T ell B rak, S elankahiye, T ell H adidi a nd T ell S weyhat, i t s hould b e r emembered t hat a ny c hanges i n t he D iyala s equence, a s p roposed

b y

G ibson,

c orrelations

b ut a lso

c ould a ffect n ot

o nly

t he

S yrian-Mesopotamian

t hose w ith e astern A natolia a s w ell.

T he m aterial f rom A rslantepe V IA i s c orrelated w ith t hat f rom Amuq C ( early p art), a nd L ate U ruk-Jemdet N asr s equence i n n orthern M esopot amia.

H owever,

t he

s urvival

o f c ertain p ottery f orms o f

U ruk

I V

r epertoire i n t he J emdet N asr p eriod a t A rslantepe i s a s trong p ossib ility, i f, a s s uggested b y P almieri ( 1981:106), t he c ulture o f A rslantepe V I r epresents a l ocal d evelopment c haracterized b y a n i ndividual t ype o f p ottery w hich i s o nly p artly i nfluenced b y L ate U ruk t ypology o f s outhern M esopotamia. T he m aterial f rom A rslantepe V IB, o n t he o ther h and, a nd, p erhaps,

t he s o-called E B I , h orizon 2 , c orresponds t o t he E D I t o t he e arly p art o f E D I I. T his c ultural h orizon i s

2 63

c orrelated

w ith

A ccording

t he l ater p art o f p hase G a nd e arly H

i n

t o P almieri t he c ulture o f A rslantepe V IB s eems

t he

A muq.

t o o riginate

f rom l ocal t raditions r ather t han f oreign o nes r epresented b y H abuba K abira ( 1981:118). T he e arliest t wo l evels o f t he f ive a scribed t o V IB r evealed a p ottery a ssemblage m ade u p o nly o f E ast A natolian T ranscaucasian m onochrome w are, t he s o-called r ed-black b urnished h andm ade w are o f A rslantepe. H owever, a t a l ater s tage, l ight c oloured w heelmade w ares a ppear i n V IB. T his w heelmade p ottery, w hich i ncludes a s eries o f b owls, c an b e c ompared w ith t hose f rom t he E B Il evels o f N or untepe, T a kun M evkii ( Helms 1 971, p 1.39, 1 3, 1 4, 1 9) a nd Amuq G a nd H ( Palmieri 1 981:112). R eserved s lip d ecoration s eems t o b e t ypical o f d ecorative

t his f inal E B I p hase a t A rslantepe i n t he s ense p atterns ( i.e. v ertical a nd h orizontal l ines) a re

t hat m ore

s ophisticated t han t hose f ound i n V IA. I t i s c lear t hat V IB s hould b e m ainly s ynchronized w ith A muq G r ather t han t he e ntire G a nd H r ange. I n f act, a q uadruple s piral m otif f ound o n a s ealing f rom A rslantepe V I B c ould b e c ompared w ith a s imilar m otif o n s eals f rom Amuq C ( Amiet 1 972:142-143; B raidwood 1 960:Fig.253,7). A mong s hapes o f M esopotamian t ypology f ound a t A rslanteep V IB a re t wo f orms f ound i n t he " Ninevite 5 " c ultural a ssemblage. T his t ype o f p ottery a nd i ts r egional v ariat ions

a re

f ound

i n a l arge a rea o f

n orthern

M esopotamia,

s tretching

f rom t he T igris v alley t o t he H abur r egion. T ypical o f t his a ssemblage i s a s mall j ar w ith a h igh n eck, s tanding o n a l ow p edestal a nd h aving f our p ierced l ugs p laced o n t he b ody ( Palmieri 1 981:Fig.9; 3 , 5 ). T he e xamples f rom A rslantepe c an b e c ompared w ith j ars f rom T elul e th T halathat a nd N inive ( Palmieri 1 981:112). O ne o f t hese ( ibid. F ig.9:3) r ecalls,

a s

a lready p ointed o ut b y P almieri,

a s mall f ooted j ar

f rom

Amuq G ( Braidwood a nd B raidwood 1 960:Fig.222). O ther s hapes f ound i n t he w heelmade p ottery r epertoire o f A rslantepe V IB w hich c an b e c omp ared t o t he N inevite 5 f orms a re a f ooted g oblet a nd f ruitstands w ith c arinated b owls a nd p edestals

( Palmieri

1 981:Fig.9:4;

8 :1-3).

o f t his V IB p eriod c an b e p ut b etween 3 050 1 17 a nd 2 940 T wo m ore C -14 d ates f rom t he f inal l evel o f P hase C ( EBA

T he e nd

1 17 I -IIA)

B C. a t

K orucutepe, P -1926 f rom L ill-LIV a nd G rN-6774 f rom L IV, a lso s uggest t hat t he e nd o f t he E B I i n e astern A natolia s hould b e p laced a l ittle b efore 2 690

1 02 B C.''

I n f as t ,

I I

( Sakyol),

?20

a t

P ulur

-

a C- 1 4 d ate f or

1 02 B C,

t he b eginning o f

f urther s upports

t he

E B

p roposed

c hronological a ssessment. T he

c hronology o f

( early a nd

l ate)

s ome m ajor p ottery g roups o f

t he E D I II,

a nd U r I II p eriods a re r elatively b etter d efined

A kkad t han

t he p ottery a ssemblages o f t he E D I I o r e ven E D I p eriods i n n orthern S yria/Mesopotamia. A t T ell M ardikh, f or i nstance, t he d estruction o f P alace G a round 2 250 B C, m ost p robably b y N aram-Sin, i s s uggested, a mong o ther i ndications, b y a l id o f a n E gyptian a labaster v ase b earing a n i nscription w ith t he t itles o f P epi I o f t he V lth d ynasty ( Matthiae 1 980:9). N eedless t o s ay, t his t erminus p ost q uem f or t he d estruction o f P alace G i s o f u tmost i mportance f or t he c hronological c lassificat ion o f t he p ottery g roups i nto p re- a nd p ost-Narau r Sif l e ras. T his c lassification i s p articularly i mportant f or t he r elative c hronology o f e ast A natolian E B I lIll p eriod, w hich m aintained c lose c ultural a nd c ommercial l inks w ith t he m ajor s ettlements i n n orthern S yria! M esopotamia. A lthough t he E ast A natolian-Transcaucasian m onochrome w are f ound

o f i n

f abrics, E uphrates

t his p eriod t he

i s

c an b e e asily a nd

r ather d ifficult

l ocal p ottery

t o d ate,

a ssemblages,

c orrelated w ith t hose

t he O rontes v alley. 2 64

t he w heelmade

w ares

b oth

i mported

a nd

l ocal

f ound

i n t he H abur,

m iddle

A t

M ardikh,

t he

p ottery

o f I IB 2

( post-Naram-Sin)

i s

r ather

c learly d istinguished f rom t hat o f I IB 1 ( ED I lIB-early A kkadian) b oth b y p recise i nnovations o f t ypes a nd f orms a s w ell a s b y e vident c hanges i n t he p ercentages o f c ertain w ares. C ertain c haracteristics p ertaini ng t o s hapes a nd d ecoration o f t he m ajor p ottery g roups i n t he B alikh, H abur a nd t he E uphrates b asin s hould a lso b e g iven d ue a ttention i n c hronological a ssessments.

F or i nstance,

t he d ecoration o f s imple

w are

i n t he f orm o f s houlder r ib, a s ingle i ncised l ine i nside t he r im , o r i ncised s traight, c ombed a nd p arallel w avy l ines o n s houlder a re f ound i n t he p ost-Naramsin p eriod. T ubular s pouts a re a lso u ncommon i n t he l ate E D o r e arly A kkadian p eriod. O n t he o ther h and, r ound-based b owls a re a n e arly f eature r estricted t o t he E D I -lilA p eriod. R egarding t he b eakers a nd b owls, t he f lat-based a nd f laring o r s traight s ided t ypes w ere n ot u sed b efore t he A gade p eriod. I n t he T ell M ardikh I IB 1 p hase,

w hich i ncludes

t he l ater s tages o f

t he E D I II a nd

t he e arly p art

o f t he A gade p eriod, t he s imple w are b eakers, u nlike t hose f rom I IB 2 , a re n ever p ainted ( Matthiae 1 980:97). T ypical o f t he l atter p hase a re r ims f olded o ver a nd m oulded e xternally ( i.e. b eakers). B ut m ost c haracteristic o f M ardikh I IB 2 , a nd v ery f requent, a re t he b ell-shaped b eaker b ases w ith t heir i nterior s pace r eproducing i n n egative t he s trong c onvexity o f t heir e xterior. A nother i nnovation a ttributed t o t his p eriod i s t he s meared w ash w are i n m edium a nd l arge s ize v ases. T he n ew T ell B rak s tratigraphy i s e qually i mportant i n c larifying c ertain c hronological p roblems p ertaining t o t he s tone w are, s imple w are, s piral-burnished g rey b ottles a nd r ing b urnished b ottles f ound i n t he E B I II c ontext o f e astern A natolia. T his s tratigraphy r eveals t hree m ajor a rchitectural p hases i n t he s econd h alf m illennium B C, n amely t he l ate E D I II e arly A kkadian, -

o f t he t hird s ucceeded b y

N aram-Sin/post-Naram-Sin e ra, a nd t he l ast p hase r epresented b y t he U r I II p alace l evel ( Oates 1 978:237-244; F ielden 1 978:255-256). T he e vidence f rom B raq c orroborates t he c hronological c onclusions r eached b y O hne a t T ell C huera. T here i s n o d oubt t hat t he s tone ‚w are ( metallic w are) i s d istinctive o f t he E D s equence, b ut i n p articular o f t he E D I lIll p hases. I n t he A kkadian p eriod t his w are i s n ot a t p opular. I t w as e xported t o a reas a s f ar a s D iyala i n t he e ast T roy

i n

n orthwestern

A natolia i n t he E D I II

b ut

n ot

l ater

a ll a nd

( Yakar

1 979:56). T he

w ide

d istribution

o f

n orth

S yrian/Mesopotamian

w ares

i n

e astern A natolia, i n s outheastern A natolia a nd C ilicia m akes t he a pplication o f a r egional p ottery g uide p ossible f or s ites s ituated b eyond t he F ertile C rescent. A lso, t he i nclusion o f c hronologically s ignificant s tylistic f actors r elating t o g lyptics a nd o ther f orms o f a rt c an o nly i ncrease t he a ccuracy o f r elative d ates d erived f rom a p ottery d iagram. F or i nstance, t he g lyptic f inds, i ncluding a l imes tone

p endant w ith s ome g eometric d esigns f ound i n t he E B I l evels

N orquntepe

( Hauptmann 1 982:58) , h ave m otifs

t hat a re a lso

f ound i n

o f t he

A muq G p hase i n n orthwestern S yria a nd E D I i n n orthern M esopotamian s ites. S imilar f inds o f s eals a nd s eal i mpressions f rom K orucutepe p hase

,

H an

I brahim

C ( van L oon 1 978:109), S ah

( Ertem

f rom T a kun M evkii

1 982:77)

c ould a lso

b e

( Helms 1 973:119) m entioned

i n

a nd t his

c ontext. A t

T epecik

t he

N orth M esopotamian/Syrian t ype

w heelmade

w ares

a ccount f or a bout 2 5-30% o f t he t otal a ssemblage o f t he E B I I p eriod. T hese i nclude t he p lain s imple w are a nd t he r eserved s imple w are k nown

2 65

f rom

Amuq H a nd e arly I ,

s ettlements

i n

a nd t he m etallic w are k nown f rom E D

t he H abur a nd t he l ower E uphrates

b asin

I l-lilA

( e.g.

L idar

H 8yt Ik). I n t he M alatya-Elazi g " r egion, i n a ddition t o t he E ast A natolian-Transcaucasian p ottery a nd l ight w heelmade w ares o f s outhern i nspiration, t here i s a p ainted w are o f l ocal o rigin. I n t he K eban R eservoir

a rea t his p ainted w are a ppears a s e arly a s

t he E B

I

p eriod

( e.g. T epecik, K oructepe, N orsuntepe, P ulur), a nd c ontinues t o b e m ade w ith c ertain c hanges ( in t he c olour o f t he p aint a nd m otifs) t hroughout t he E BA. A t a n umber o f s ites, a nd i n p articular a t e msiyetepe, t his b eige c oloured w are, w hich i s u sually d ecorated w ith g eometric m otifs i n b lackish p urple p aint, a nd w hose f abric i s r ather w ell-fired, r eflects s everal p hases o f d evelopment, c orresponding r oughly t o t he E R I lill A a nd B . A t A rsiantepe V ID t he f inal p hase o f t he E R I II p eriod c ould b e p laced, a ccording t o C -14 d ates, w ithin t he l ast q uarter o f t he t hird m illennium B C. F or t he E B I II A , o n t he o ther h and, w e h ave n o

r adiocarbon d ates

f rom A rsiantepe.

O f t he

t wo d ates p rovided f rom

K orucutepe, P -1927, w hich u nlike G rN-6773 h as b een t reated f or a ny p ossible c ontamination w ith N aOH, p roduced a d ate o f 2 540 4 0 B C f or t he b eginning o f t his p eriod, w hich i s o nly a bout a h undred y ears -

h igher

t han c onservative e stimates.

D ISCUSSION T hose w ho a dvocate a h igh h istorical c hronology f or E gypt, M esopotamia a nd A natolia p oint o ut t hat t he U ruk 1 Vu i s equence ( Protoliterate b -d) t he 1 1). t amia

o ne a ssigned

s hould b e r egarded a s b eing o f g reater l ength

t o i t

i n m iddle c hronology s chemes

t han

( Mellaart 1 979:10-

M ellaart h as a p oint w hen h e e mphasizes t he f act t hat i n M esopot his s equence d oes n ot c onsist o f h ouse r emains, b ut o f

m onumental

t emples,

b oth i n t he E anna p recinct a nd o n t he A nu z iggurat,

w hich l eaves n o r oom f or

" arbitrary c ompression" o f

t he

l evels

t o f it a

v ery s hort t ime s pan ( less t han 1 00 y ears i f t he b eginning o f U ruk I V i s p ut a t a bout 3 100 B C a nd t hat o f t he E D Ia t 3 000 B C). T he d ate p roposed b y R owton f or t he b eginning o f U ruk V , c .3500 B C, i s a lso u nacceptable t o M ellaart ( 1979:10) b ecause h e c laims t hat t he J emdet N asr p eriod, r epresented b y t hree, p ossibly e ven f ive, b uilding l evels a t W arka I II, m ust h ave l asted m ore t han a c entury, p robably t hree c enturies. w ill

T herefore,

t he 3 500 B C a ssigned t o

l eave a lmost n o r oom f or

t he b eginning o f U ruk V ,

t he U ruk I V p eriod i f J emdet N asr

p eriod

i s p ut a t c a.3300 B C. A lthough M ellaart s a rgument h as i ts m erits, a nd h e i s q uick t o p oint o ut t hat " any r evision o f t he M esopotamian d ating i mmediately a ffects E gypt a s w ell t hrough t he s ynchronisms,

L ate U ruk-

L ate G erzean", m ost o f t he c alibrated C -14 d ates f rom A natolia a nd A rchaic E gypt d o n ot l end m uch s upport t o h is r ather h igh d ates f or t he b eginning o f t he U ruk p eriod ( 4000 B C), o r f or t hat m atter f or t he b eginning o f t he J emdet N asr p eriod a t a bout 3 400 B C ( 1979:14-15). M ellaart s c hoice a nd a pplication o f A natolian C -14 d ates i n a djusting t he M esopotamian h istorical c hronology i nto a h igh c hronological f ramew ork c alls N asr=Amuq

f or s ome r emarks ( Yakar 1 979:65-66). T he W arka I II=Jemdet G =Central A natolian E B I IA=3400-3100 B C e quation i s b ased o n

e leven C -14 d ates ( Mellaart 1 979:14), e ight o f w hich a re f rom A rsiantepe e arly E B I . O f t hese e ight r adiocarbon d ates s even s uggest t hat t he J emdet N asr p eriod t emple a t A rslantepe w as b uilt n ot e arlier t han 3 130 B C, a nd d estroyed a t a bout 2 940 B C. T o m aintain t hat t he b eginning o f t he J emdet N asr p eriod m ust b e p laced a t 3 400 B C b ecause o ne o r t wo r adiocarbon d ates i ndicate i t, i s n ot e ntirely w arranted, 2 66

e specially w hen o ne i s d ealing w ith C -14 e stimates w hich a re c ontroversial. T he c harred g rain f rom A rsiantepe V IA ( R-1010), r oom 2 8 o f

t he E B l a t emple,

g ives a d ate o f 3 180

t5 0

v ery f rom

( time o f

i ts

d estruction), w hich c ould b e f urther l owered t o 3 120 1 17 B C, i f c alibrated a ccording t o D amon t ables. H owever, t he c harcoal r emains o f -

w ooden l ids f ound i nside a n umber o f p ots a nd r oof b eams f ound o n f loor o f t he t emple p rovide, f or t he m ost p art, m ore r ecent d ates t he

c harred

g rain

o f

o ne

t o

t wo

y ears

g rowth

t he t han

( Radiocarbon

1 8,

1 976:336). D espite t his d iscrepancy, w hich f urther d emonstrates t he l ow r ate o f a ccuracy i n C -14 c hronology, a n a verage o f t en c alibrated d ates f rom A rslantepe, a fter t he a pplication o f c orrection f actor, p laces t he b eginning o f t he J emdet N asr p eriod s omewhere b etween 3 3003 200 B C. T he P ulur ( Sakyol) d ate ( P-2040) f rom l evel X II ( = Late C halcolithic/EB I ), w hich i s o ften u sed i n s upport o f a h igh c hronol ogical f ramework f or E arly B ronze A ge A natolia, i s n o l ess p roblematic w hen s tudied

i n t he l ight o f o ther P ulur d ates

f rom m ore r ecent

l evels

( Yakar 1 979:66; R adiocarbon 1 4, 1 972:192). L evel V , f or i nstance, p roduced a r adiocarbon d ate w hich i s m uch h igher t han t hose f rom t he e arlier l evels o f V I a nd I X. A nd t he d ate o f l evel V III i s c onsidera bly e arlier t han t he p receding l evel I X. E ven i f t hese d ates a re u sed s electively, a ccording t o o ne's p reference f or a p articular t ime s cale, t here i s s till n o b asis f or p lacing t he b eginning o f t he e ast A natolian E BA I p eriod b efore 3 300 B C. F urthermore, C -14 e stimates f rom t he E arly

C halcolithic

l evels

a t T ülintepe

( they r ange b etween

4 500-3200

B C) a nd t he E BA I -h a l evels f rom K orucutepe ( they r ange b etween 3 1502 690) l end a dditional s upport t o m ore c onservative d ates w hich a re s lightly h igher A s s cheme t wo

t han t hose p roposed i n m iddle h istorical

c hronologies.

f or t he A kkadian p eriod, I n M ellaart T h h igh i t I s p laced b etween 2 470 a nd 2 300 B C ( 1979:13).

o ut o f

f ive A rsiantepe C -14 d ates

t o s upport

c hronological H e u ses o nly

t he h igh

c hronology. .

H owever, t he r emaining t hree d ates ( Radiocarbon 1 8, 1 976:338-339: R 1 011, R -1012 a nd R -930a) d o n ot e ntirely f it I nto t his s cheme. O n t he o ther h and, a n a verage o f a ll f ive d ates c an p roduce a t ime s pan 2 340-1940 B C f or t he A kkadian U r I II s equence.

o f

-

A s m ore e xcavations w ill e ventually p roduce a dditional s eries o f i mproved r adiocarbon a ge e stimates t he q uestion o f c hronology c an o nly b e c oncluded t entatively. T he c hances t hat a h igh c hronology m ay o ne d ay c ompletely s ubstitute t he m iddle d ates

s eem t o

a ge e stimates

b e l ess l ikely

t han t he p ossibility o f

h istorical c hronology

t he m ore m oderate

p roving t o b e r elatively c orrect.

C ULTURAL F RM {EWORKS/ETHNO CULTURAL T RAITS ( Figs . XIX-XXIII} L ate C halcolithic C ultures A

r econstruction o f L ate C halcolithic c ultures

I n m ost

p rovinces

o f e astern A natolia i s p ossible o nly t o a l imited e xtent. T his i s b ecause m ost a rchaeological w ork, t he s o-called r escue e xcavations, h ave c oncentrated o n o ne p articular g eographical a rea: t he u pper E uphrates a nd t he l ower M urat v alleys. A s a r esult o f t his, t he M alatya-Elazig r egion h as b ecome o ne o f t he m ost e xtensively e xcavated a reas i n T urkey. O n t he o ther h and, t he p rehistory o f t he E rzurum, E rzincan, T ilkitepe

K ars a nd V an p rovinces s till l ack d etailed d ocumentation. i n V an, o r K araz, P ulur a nd G t lzelova I n E rzurum p rovide o nly 2 67

a v ague p icture o f t he f ourth m illennium B C c ultures i n t he r espective p rovinces. F ield s urveys c arried o ut i n t hese p rovinces s ince t he e arly f orties p rovide t he o nly r eliable s ources o f i nformation c onc erning t he p re-EBA c ultural h orizon i n n ortheastern A natolia. I t i s p ossible

t o a ssume t hat

t he L ate C halcolithic c ommunities o f

t he h igh-

l and z one w ere f armers l iving i n s mall v illages a long l ake s hores a nd r iver v alleys. H abitation s ites w ere s elected c lose t o w ater s ources a nd, a t t he s ame t ime, i n a reas w hich p rovided s ome s helter f rom t he h arsh w inter c onditions p revailing i n h igher a ltitudes.

T he

p resence

o f c entral A natolian, w estern I ranian a nd T ranscaucasian p ottery f orms i n t he l ocal p ottery a ssemblages c ould i ndicate t hat t he r egional c ultures p attern

w ere n ot e ntirely i ndigenous. i s c oncerned, i t i s i mpossible

A s f ar a s t he s ettlement t o k now w hether t he h ighland

f armers s pent t he l ong a nd e xtremely c old w inter m onths i n t heir s ettlements, o r m oved t o s easonal e ncampments i n s outheastern T urkey. S pending

t he w inters i n t heir p ermanent s ettlements w ould h ave r equired

s taying i ndoors f or l ong p eriods o f t ime. I f t his w as t he c ase w ith m ost s edentary c ommunities t hen o ne c an l ogically a ssume t hat l ife w ithin t he i mmediate c ompounds o f t he s ettlement w ould h ave r esulted i n a s urplus o f l ocal p roducts s uch a s t extiles, w oodwork, m etal a rtifacts a nd a nimal s kins w hich, m eans o f

b arter a t

I n

i n t urn,

t imes o f

c ould h ave p rovided

t he c ommunity w ith

f ood s hortage.

t he M alatya-Elazi g r egion a s w ell

f armers w ere l iving i n s mall

a gglomerations n ear w ater s ources. B ut t he w eather c onditions i n t he M alatya p lain o r i n A ltinova ( Keban d am r eservoir a rea) w ere m ilder c ompared t o o ther p arts o f e astern A natolia. T his w as n o d oubt a n I mportant f actor i n t he d evelopment o f s ubsistence e conomies p roviding f or f ood s urplus. H owever, i t w ould b e w rong t o a ssume t hat t he o nly m ode o f l ife i n t he M alatya-Keban r egion w as s edentary. T he p resence o f s ome n omadic o r s emi-nomadic g roups i n t his r egion c ould b e i nferred f rom a r ather i nteresting t ype o f b urial f orm f ound a t K orucutepe i n A ltinova. T owards t he e nd o f t he L ate C halcolithic p eriod K orucutepe w as a bandoned a nd t he m ound u sed a s a b urial mon ument, p robably b y s ome n omadic

t ribe.

O ne o f

t he

t wo m ud-brick t ombs d iscovered d uring

t he

e xcavations h ad a w ooden r oof r ecalling t he h ouse-like t ombs c haracteri stic o f t he K urgan c ulture ( Winn 1 981:114). T he g rey p ottery f ound I n o ne o f t he t ombs i s r eminiscent o f t he c eramics o f t he g rey w are c ulture o f n orthern I ran. A t T urengtepe t his c ulture h as b een t ermed b y D eshayes I ndo-European ( 1969:10-17). T he e xistence o f c losely k nit d wellings i n h amlets a nd v illages i n t his r egion m ay i ndicate t hat t he i nhabitants i n t he s ettlements p reserved t heir c lan o r t ribal t ies e ven w hen c onforming w ith a s edentary w ay o f l ife. G enerally s peaking, h ouses w ere s mall, c onsisting o f a n a verage o f t wo r ooms. I n s mall s ettlements w ere b uilt

t hese w ere i n c lusters.

g rouped t ogether a round a n o pen c ourtyard o r I n l arger , a nd f requently f ortified s ettle-

m ents, h ouses w ere s ometimes l ined a long a lleys a nd s treets. A s f ar a s t he r egional b uilding t radition i n t he M alatya-Elazi r egion i s k nown t o

u s,

p eriod.

t he

o nly

s pectacular

W ith t he a dvent o f

c hanges o ccurred d uring t he

t he U ruk I V p eriod i n

L ate

M esopotamia,

U ruk w hich

b rought a bout a n i ntensification o f l ong d istance t rade, n ew m ercantile t owns e merged, n ot o nly i n n orthern S yria, s outheastern A natolia o r w estern I ran, b ut i n t he M alatya-Elazig r egion a s w ell. T he a rrival o f t he M esopotamian m erchant g roups ( families?) m ust h ave a ffected, t o s ome e xtent, t he s ocio-economic a nd d emographic s tructure i n r espective r egions. P rior t o t his d evelopment, t he i nhabitants p opulated

t he u pper E uphrates a nd

t he w ho

t he l ower M urat v alleys w ere c omposed

2 69

o f

d ifferent

s tocks,

i ncluding c entral a nd e ast A natolian,

n orth S yrian

a nd T ranscaucasian f armers a nd p astoralists. O ne c an o nly s peculate t hat t he U ruk I V p eriod p roto-urban s ettlements e stablished i n e astern A natolia w ere p art o f a n e conomic s cheme d eveloped b y m erchants f rom m ajor M esopotamian c ities f or t he p urpose o f e xploiting a nd t rading i n c ommodities, t he s outh.

s uch a s m etals a nd w ood, w hich w ere i n g reater d emand i n T he c hoice o f s ettlements a long t he E uphrates, o ne o f t he

t wo m ajor w aterways p roviding s peedy t ransportation o f

s uch c ommodities

f rom A natolia t o S yria a nd I raq, m ust h ave b een d ictated p artly b y l ogistical c onsiderations, a nd p artly b y t he p roximity o f a m etal-rich z one e xtending b etween U rfa a nd E lazig . T hese c olonies w ere t hus c apable o f s upplying t he m ajor m arkets i n t he s outh w ith a l arge v ariety o f m etals, b oth f inished a nd u nfinished p roducts i n c opper, a rsenic-rich c opper, s ilver a nd l ead. I t i s a lso a ssumed h ere t hat s ome o f t he s ilver a nd c opper d eposits i n t he p rovince o f E lazig' w ere a lready k nown t o l ocal m etallurgists

( Yakar 1 984).

I t

i s

i mportant

t o

s tress t hat t rade c ontacts b etween e astern A natolia a nd M esopotamia w ere q uite i ntensive w ell b efore t he L ate U ruk p eriod. I n t he L ate U baid p eriod, s ome f arming c ommunities i n t he M alatya p lain w ere i nvolved i n o rganized t rade. e xchanged a re n ot k nown t o u s,

A lthough m ost c ommodities w hich w ere i t i s c lear t hat v illage e conomies w ere

l argely s upplemented b y i nterregional t rading. C onfirmation f or t his, i n t he f orm o f t housands o f b ullae r ecovered i n t he L ate U baid s ettlem ent o f D e irmentePe, i s m ost c onvincing ( Esin 1 981). I n t he L ate U ruk p eriod c ommerce w as b etter o rganized a nd n o d oubt b ecame a n i mportant m edium i n t he e xchange o f i deas a nd t echnologies b etween A natolia a nd M esopotamia. C hanges i n t he e conomic a nd d emographic s tructures m ust h ave

e ventually

a ffected

t he

s ocial

s tratification

o f

s edentary

c ommunities w ith t raditional t ribal o rganizations. N ew f orms a nd c oncepts i n v illage a nd t own a rchitecture i n f act a ttest t o n ew m odels i n s ocial p lanning, E uphrates

s tructures.

L arge ' public' e difices,

r eflecting M esopotamian .

a ppeared r ather s uddenly i n m ercantile s ettlements a long t he ( e.g. T epecik). O ne c an o nly s uggest t hat s uch l arge a nd

c entrally l ocated b uildings m ust h ave b een s ome s ort o f a dministrative o r c ommunity c entres. T hey m ay h ave i ncorporated s torage f acilities a nd c ommunal w orkshops. E vidence f or c raft s pecialization, e specially i n m etallurgy, i s a bundant i n t he L ate C halcolithic s ettlements. I n t he U ruk I V c olony a t N orsuntepe,

t he m udbrick h ouses,

b uilt a ccording

t o n orth M esopotamian a rchitectural t radition, b est k nown f rom T epe G awra, p roduced s melting f urnaces, h eaps o f c opper o re, c hunks o f s lag, f ragments o f b urned c lay a nd m etal o bjects s uch a s r ings, p ins a nd a wls. T he p resence o f s o m any f inds r elating t o m etallurgical a ctivity i nside t he h ouses a nd a lso i n c ourtyards a nd a lleys i ndicates t hat t he m etal w orkshops w ere p robably p roducing a rtifacts i n q uantities f ar g reater t han t he l ocal d emand w ould h ave r equired. N orsuntepe, a nd o ther i ndustrial t owns w ith s tructure,

w ere

i mportant s uppliers o f

I t s eems t hat s imilar e conomic

r aw m etal a nd m etal a rtifacts

t he E lazi gMalatya r egion. T he s miths o f N orsuntepe, T epecik T t llintepe c ould h ave e asily o btained t heir s upplies o f c opper o re t he d eposits

i n M azgirt,

K eydak a nd K arabek ( özbal E xcavations

i n

t he O vacik-Tunceli a rea,

c 8plerk8y,

i n

a nd f rom

M amlis,

1 983:209).

t he K eban d am r eservoir a rea i n t he

l ast

d ecade

p roduced a c omplete r ange o f r egional p ottery g roups, d uring t he f ourth m illennium B C. A mong t hese g roups, t he d ark f aced b urnished w are i s t he e arliest k nown i n e astern A natolia. I t h as a w ide d istribution a cross n orth M esopotamia, S yria a nd n ortheastern A natolia. H owever, 2 70

t his h andmade a nd r ather c oarse w are,

w ith a g rit a nd c haff

t emper,

h as

n ot y et b een f ound i n t he p rovinces o f V an a nd M u; ( Russell 1 980:20). S ince i t i s k nown t o h ave b een p roduced t hroughout t he f ifth a nd f ourth m illennia

B C,

i t

i s p ossible t o r elate

t his w are t o

t he

i nhabitants M esopotamia.

o f

t imes

t ogether w ith l ocally m ade p ainted U baid t ype

f ound

l atter ( e.g. m ixed

i s h andmade o r m ade o n a t ournette, b uff, w ith

i ndigenous

e astern A natolia a nd p arts o f n orthern S yria a nd I n t he L ate U baid p eriod, t his m onochrome w are i s s omew are.

i n l ight c oloured

T he

f abrics

g rey a nd w hite). T his w are i s t empered w ith g rit o r g rit c haff ( Russell 1 980:22). D ecoration o n t he e xterior i s

n ormally b lack a nd d ark b rown p aint a pplied

i n t hin

l ayers.

A lthough

i t i s n ot p articularly c ommon n orth o f t he e astern T aurus r ange, i t o ccurs a t a n umber o f s ites i n t he M alatya p lain ( e.g. D egirmentepe, A rsiantepe) a nd i n t he l ower M urat v alley ( T { llintepe, K orucutepe). C entral A natolian F ourth M illennium W ares a re k nown i n e astern A natolia a s C entral A natolian T ype L ate C halcolithic/Early B ronze A ge I p ottery. T hese a re h andmade, u sually s lipped a nd b urnished. T he u nslipped t ypes s hould b e c lassified w ithin t he d ark b urnished w are g roup. T he s lipped a nd h ighly b urnished t ypes, e specially t he R ed s lipped b urnished w are, c learly s how t he c entral A natolian i nfluence i n t he r egional p ottery r epertoire. A ccording t o E sin, t he c entral A natolian t ype w ares c ons titute a t ransition b etween t he K araz w ares ( Early T ranscaucasian) a nd t he d ark f aced b urnished w are ( 1982:112). T he s tratigraphic e vidence f rom P ulur, T epecik, T t llintepe a nd K araz s uggests t hat t he E arly T ranscaucasian r epertoire m ay

f orms i n t he E ast A natolian/Transcaucasian E BA h ave s tarted t o a ppear t owards t he e nd o f t he f ourth

m illennium B C o r s lightly e arlier. M ost o f t hese t ypes, h owever, a ppear a lso i n t he E B I p eriod. I n t he e arlier w are s and t emper i n t he f abric s eems t o h ave b een p referred t o s traw t emper ( Esin 1 982:112), a lthough t he l atter w as a lso u sed t o a l esser e xtent. B ut i t s hould b e e mphasized t hat t his w are d id n ot b ecome t he d ominant g roup b efore t he e nd o f t he E B I p eriod. T he s econd l argest g roup o f p ottery i n t he M alatya-Elazi w ares. T hese, t o

t heir

r egion i n f act,

i s c omposed o f n orth S yrian/Mesopotamian t ype c onsist o f s ome s ix g roups c lassified a ccording

f abric a nd s urface t reatment a nd a re g enerally f ound

t ogether

i n s ettlements o f t he L ate U ruk p eriod. M ost o f t hese g roups a re w heelmade, b ut s ome a re h andmade a ccording t o l ocal t raditions. E sin p refers 1 .

t o c lassify t hem u nder U ruk T ype W ares

P lain S imple W are: T he p aste i s t empered w ith a h igh p roportion o f f ine s and. I t i s g enerally u nslipped b ut b urnished. T he c olour o f t he

f abric c an v ary b etween c ream,

t o y ellowish b eige 2 .

( 1982:113).

C haff

F aced S imple W are:

m ade

a nd

t he

s ometimes w ith a p inkish

t int,

( Esin 1 982:113).

l arger,

T he m ore d elicate f iner f orms a re w heelc oarser

v essels

h andmade.

A s

f or

t he

b evelled-rim b owls, w hich a re p articularly a bundant i n U ruk I V p eriod s ettlements, t hey t oo c ould b e c lassified i n t his g roup o f w are. H owever, i t i s i mportant t o s tress t hat t he b evelled-rim b owls, w hich h ave a r ather e xtensive d istribution f rom n orthwestern I ran i n t he e ast, t o n orthwestern S yria i n t he w est ( e.g. A muqG aziantep), a nd t he E lazi r egion i n t he A natolian h ighlands, w ere h andmade. T hey w ere u sually p roduced i n m olds d ug i nto t he g round. A ccording

t o B eale

( 1978:299)

t he m ost o bvious p ractical

a dvantage

i n u sing s uch m olds a t a t ime w hen t he p otter s w heel w as b eing u sed i n M esopotamia a nd n eighbouring r egions, w as t o a llow t he p otter t o p redetermine a ccurately a nd e asily t he s ize a nd t herefore

2 71

t he c apacity ( assuming t hat t hey w ere r ation b owls) o f e ach b owl. I n v iew o f t he f act t hat t hese b owls a re f ound i n U ruk s ites a nd o utposts, a nd t heir l arge c oncentration w ithin o r n ear t emple a nd a dministrative c omplexes, c ould s uggest t hat t hey w ere p resentation b owls c ontaining p robably a c ertain a mount o f g rain t o b e p resented t o t he l ocal s hrine o r t emple p ersonnel . A ccording t o t his h ypothesis ( Beale 1 978:308), t he b owls w ere e mptied i n t he s torage a reas o f t he t emple o r s hrine, a nd h aving s erved t heir p urpose, t he b evelled-rim b owls w ould b e d isposed o f i n p its o utside t he s acred p recinct,

o r s imply d iscarded o utside s torage a reas.

T he f abrics

o f t he c haff f aced s imple w are a re y ellowish, r eddish o r p inkish b eige, a nd t he s urfaces a re u sually p lain. T he p astes a re t empered w ith a h igh p roportion o f s traw, w hich l eaves t races o n t he s urface o f 3 .

t he v essel a fter

f iring.

R eserved S lip W are: I t i s m ostly w heelmade. T he l ight c oloured p aste c ontains a h igh p roportion o f s and a nd l ime t emper a nd a r elatively

s mall

p roportion

o f

o rganic

i nclusion.

d ecoration w as p roduced b y r emoving t he s lip o n t he t hese v essels i n t hin s trips ( Esin 1 982:113). 4 .

A

s urface

s urface

o f

U ruk-Type L ight C oloured W ares: T hese a re a ll w heelmade a nd c an b e c lassified a ccording t o t hree m ain s ub-groups. Y ellowish b eige p astes

c ontaining

a mount t emper.

o f

o rganic

t emper.

a

l arge q uantity o f

s and m ixed

w ith

a

s mall

o rganic t emper. G rey p astes w ith f ine g rit a nd A nd f inally, p ink p astes h aving a h igh p roportion o f T his

t ype o f p aste a lso o ccurs

s and f ine

i n r ed s lipped a nd

g rey s lipped U ruk t ype p ottery ( Esin 1 981:113). 5 .

R ed S lipped U ruk T ype W are: u sually l ight p ink i n c olour. o f

6 .

t he p ots

i s

I t T he

i s w heelmade a nd t he p aste i s t hick r ed s lip o n t he e xterior ,

i rregularly b urnished a nd g lossy.

G rey S lipped U ruk T ype W are: I t h as a b lackish g rey s lip w hich i s b urnished b ut n ot v ery g lossy. I n s ome v essels t he s lip i s v ery t hinly a pplied b ut t he b urnishing o f t he e xterior c reates a s oapy s urface. A ccording t o E sin s ome o f t he v essels a re r ather r eminisc ent o f d ark f aced b urnished w are. U ruk t ype w ares i nclude b eadr im b owls, c arinated b owls, b owls w ith i nward t urned r ims, r ound b owls, h ole-mouth j ars, s quat a nd s hort-necked, r ound-bodied a nd v essels w ith p edestal b ases. I n t he c entral A natolian g roup,

f orms

a re

r ather

l imited t o d eep,

j ars w ith h orizontal h andles,

j ars t ype

r ound-bodied b owls

f ruitstands o n h igh p edestals a nd

a nd j ar

l ids w ih h andles. T he T ranscaucasian t ype w are, f ound i n t he L ate C halcolithic s ettlements, i ncludes a n umber o f f orms a nd d ecoration s tyles w hich s urvived i nto t he e arly p art o f t he t hird m illennium B C. H owever, r ail-rims w ith p ointed b ases,

w hich a re f eatures o f

t he E BI,

a re r ather

a bsent i n L ate C halcolithic a ssemblages ( Esin 1 982:115). D ecorative t echniques i nclude i ncised g eometric p atterns a nd s chematized h uman a nd a nimal f igures. S imilar d esigns i n r elief s eem t o h ave b een a nother p opular w ay o f d ecorating t he m onochrome v essels.

W ith t he

e xception

o f U baid t ype p ainted p ottery a nd d ark f aced b urnished w are, m ost o ther g roups o f w are p roduced b y l ocal p otters c ontinued t o b e m ade, w ith s ome c hanges

i n f orm a nd d ecoration,

2 72

d uring t he t hird m illennium B C.

T he E ast A natolian/Transcaucasian E arly B ronze A ge C ulture T he w estward e xpansion o f i s a ssumed h ere e xpansion,

a s

t he E arly T ranscaucasian c ulture h orizon

t o h ave s tarted b y m id-fourth m illennium B C. f ar a s o ne c an a ssess

B ut

t he a rchaeological e vidence,

t his m ust

h ave b een a s low m ovement p robably r elated t o s hifting a griculture. I t i s w rong, a t l east a t t his s tage o f r elatively p oor a rchaeological d ocumentation i n n ortheastern A natolia, t o v enture t heories a bout p ossible c entres o f d iffusion f rom t he K ura-Arax r egion. W hat s eems t o b e r ather c lear, h owever, i s t hat t he n ortheast A natolian E B s ettlem ents s uch a s P ulur, G t lzelova a nd K araz i n E rzurum , T ilkitepe, a nd E rnis i n t he V an p rovince d eveloped a m aterial c ulture r ather i dentical t o t hat p revailing i n G eorgia, A zerbeijan a nd A rmenia. I t s hould b e p ointed o ut t hat d espite a n u ndeniable u niformity i n c eramic p roducts, m etal a rtifacts a nd c hipped-stone t ools f ound w ithin t his c ulture z one, i n d omestic a rchitecture t he e xistence o f l ocal v ariations a re m ost s triking. T his c ulture d id n ot s pread t o t he d ensely p opulated a reas s outh o f t he T aurus r ange. T he d iscovery o f a f ew e xamples o f t he h andmade d ark s lipped b urnished w are o f t his c ulture a t H assek H 8yt lk s outh o f A diyaman p rovince c ould i ndicate t he e xistence o f a c ontact z one b etween t he t wo r egional c ultures. I n f act, t he Amuq i s t he o nly r egion a ffected b y a l imited s outhwesterly e xpansion o f t his c ulture a t t he

e nd o f

t he E B I p eriod.

c ertain g roups

T his e xpansion l ater o pened

t he

w ay

t o

t o m ove f urther s outh v ia t he O rontes v alley.

A c loser e xamination o f t he T ranscaucasian t ype w are a nd i ts p roportion i n t he l ocal p ottery a ssemblages i n t he E lazig a nd M alatya r egion, e specially i n r elation t o n orth S yrian/Mesopotamian t ype w ares, s uggests t hat s ome r egions i n e astern A natolia m aintained a l arge m easure o f e thno-cultural a utonomy, a t l east d uring t he f irst h alf o f t he t hird m illennium B C. F or i nstance, a t T epecik i n t he K eban f lood , a rea, t he s o-called K araz w are ( a t erm u sed t o d efine t he e ast A natolian v ariant o f E arly T ranscaucasian w are) f ound i n l ayer 8 ( EB I ) c onstituted

l ess

t han 3 5% o f

t he t otal p ottery

a ssemblage,

w ith

t he

r emaining m ajority a ffiliated w ith t he l ight c oloured a nd g enerally w heelmade s outhern t ype g roups. F rom t he E B I I p eriod o nwards ( layer 7 ), t he p roportion o f t he T ranscaucasian t ype w are g radually i ncreased a t T epecik,

a nd a t m ost o ther s ettlements

i n t he E lazi gMalatya r egion,

r eaching a bout 6 0% d uring t his p eriod, a nd 9 0% i n t he E B l ilA p eriod ( Esin 1 982:103-105). T his p henomenon c learly s uggests t hat t he i mmigration o f f armers a nd a lso p astoralists f rom G eorgia, A zerbeijan a nd A rmenia d id n ot i nvolve, a t l east i n t he i nitial p hases, l arge n umbers o f m omentum b y

t ribes. H owever, t his m ovement m ay h ave g ained s ome t he s econd a nd t hird q uarters o f t he t hird m illennium B C,

a ffecting t he d emography a nd s ocio-economic s tructure o f s ettlements i n t he M alatya-Elazig r egion. S uch c hanges a re o bserved b y c alculating t he p roportion o f c ertain p ottery g roups i n t he l ocal i nventories a nd a t t he s ame t ime b y i dentifying p ossible c hanges i n t he r egional v illage a rchitecture. S oon

a fter

t he e nd o f U ruk I V p eriod,

m ercantile

t owns

i n

t he

u pper E uphrates a nd M urat v alleys i n e astern A natolia s hared a f ate s imilar t o t hat s uffered b y s ettlements i n t he l ower E uphrates v alley ( both e vents

s ides o f t he m odern b order). A lthough t he r econstruction o f l eading t o t he d estruction a nd t emporary a bandonment o f t hese

M esopotamian c olonies i s i mpossible, o ne m ay a ssume t hat t hey w ere s omehow r elated t o p opulation m ovements f rom n orthern A natolia a nd 2 73

n orthwestern I ran.

A t N or untepe

t he e arliest E B Ih ouses,

c onsisting

o f t hree o r m ore r ooms, w ere r ectangular i n p lan. T hese w ere b uilt s ide b y s ide a long p aved a lleys o r s treets ( ?) ( Hauptmann 1 982:52). T his t ype o f m udbrick a rchitecture a nd s ettlement p lanning c learly s urvived f rom t he L ate C halcolithic b uilding t radition i n t his r egion. I n f act, t he d wellings o f l evel X XVI a t N or untepe i nclude m any f eatures w hich c ould b e s afely a ttributed t o l ocal t raditions. T his i s n ot s urprising c onsidering t hat t he p ottery i nventory o f t his p eriod ( EB I ) i s s till d ominated b y l ight w are g roups o f S yrian/Mesopotamian t ype.

S igns

E lazig

r egion

o f a m ajor i ntrusion o f T ranscaucasian e lements w ere d iscovered a t N or untepe i n l evel X XIV.

i n I n

t he t his

l evel t here i s a c lear d eparture f rom t raditional a rchitectural f orms a nd a s ubstantial d ecrease i n t he p ercentage o f l ight c oloured w heelm ade w ares i n t he l ocal p ottery a ssemblage. T he a ppearance o f a n ew h ouse f orm , a r ound m udbrick s tructure, p robably w ith a r ectangular a nnex, i n l evel X XIV, i s n ot l imited o nly t o N or untepe. A t H an I brahim a h, l evel V I, s imilar s tructures h ave a lso b een p artially e xposed d uring t he r escue e xcavations i n t he K eban f lood a rea ( Ertem 1 980; H auptmann 1 982:52-53). T he d istribution p attern o f r ound s tructures i n t he T ranscaucasian/east A natolian c ultural z one i ndicate t hat t heir l argest c oncentration i s i n A rmenia a nd G eorgia, b ut t hey a lso

o ccur

i n

A zerbeijan

( KUltepe

I I)

a nd

D agistan

( Kayakent)

( Hauptmann 1 982:55, n .34). A t T ilkitepe i n V an, t he E arly T ranscaucas ian p hase ( I) p roduced r ound h ouses c omparable t o s ome e xtent w ith t hose k nown f rom Y aniktepe i n t he U rmiya b asin, T ell J udeideh i n t he Amuq, A rslantepe V I D i n M alatya, N or untepe a nd H an I brahim S ah i n A ltinova-Elazig. I t i s b ecoming c lear t hat w hile e lements f rom T ranscaucasia

a nd

w estern I ran h ad s ettled d own i n

e astern

A natolia

s ince t he m id f ourth m illennium B C, i f n ot e arlier, t he f irst m assive p opulation s hift f rom t he K ura-Arax a nd U rmia r egions t ook p lace t owards t he e nd o f t he f ourth o r e arly t hird m illennium B C. A t p resent. i t

i s d ifficult

t o e stimate

t he e xtent o f

t his m igratory m ovement

a nd

i ts c ultural i mpact o n r egions s uch a s E lazig a nd M alatya. p ossible t hat t he e xisting s ettlements i n f ertile r egions

I t i s a lso i n E lazig

a bsorbed t he n ew f arming c ommunities t o a l arge e xtent. c ontinued t heir q uest f or n ew l ands f urther w est m ay

T hose w ho h ave b een

r elatively f ew a nd t herefore d id n ot h ave a s trong c ultural i mpact o n e xisting s ettlements i n t he M alatya p lain, a t l east n ot b efore t he e nd o f t he E B A rslantepe

I . I ndeed, ( Malatya) V I,

s upport t o t his v iew. t he P rotoliterate c -d

t he s tratigraphy a nd a rchitectural r emains o f p ublished b y P almieri ( 1981), c ould l end s ome

P eriod V I A a t A rslantepe, w hich c orresponds t o i n M esopotamia, i s c haracterized b y t he p resence

o f i mportant p ublic b uildings

( Palmieri

1 981:103).

P almieri r ecognized

a s equence o f f our b uildings, e ach d estroyed b y ' violent f ires'. A lthough t he i ncrease i n t he r atio o f T ranscaucasian t ype w ares i n t he p ottery r epertoire o f A rslantepe V I B i s r ather s ubstantial, E B Ia rchitecture o f p hases V I A -B d oes n ot i ndicate a c lear f rom

w ell

e stablished l ocal

m onumental p ublic b uildings, m ay

w ell s uggest

t raditions.

I n f act,

t he

t he l ocal d eparture

p resence

o f

i ncluding a t emple c omplex i n p hase V I A ,

t he e xistence o f a n a dministrative s ystem a t

A rslan -

t epe a s c omplex a s t hose f ound i n M esopotamia. A l arge n umber o f b ullae f ragments f ound i n t hese b uildings m ay i ndeed c onfirm t hat t his m ercantile t own c ontinued t o m aintain i ts s trong l inks w ith s ome o f t he m ajor I n

c entres

p hase

V I B ,

s outh o f

s igns o f c onflagrations, o ccupation

i n

t he e astern T aurus r ange d uring m ost o f E B

m ajor a rchitectural t he

I .

s how

c lear

s uggesting a r ather e ventful p eriod o f

h uman

l ater p art o f

l evels a t A rslantepe

t he E B

2 74

I .

D espite

a

s ubstantial

i ncrease i n t he h andmade m onochrome T ranscaucasian t ype p ottery i n t hese l evels c ertain c hanges i n b uilding t raditions o r i n t own p lanning ( buildings V I-IX) c annot b e e ntirely a ttributed t o n ewcomers f rom t he h ighlands. T he a rea w hich w as p reviously o ccupied b y l arge p ublic b uildings i n p hase V I A a nd a t t he b eginning o f p hase V I B w as r earranged d uring t he l atter p hase. B locks o f h ouses r eplaced t he p ublic b uildings, w hich m ay h ave b een r elocated t o a nother p art o f t he s ettlement. T hese h ouses w ere a ligned a long n arrow s treets. T he s ubdivision o f t heir i nteriors i ndicates t he n ature o f a ctivity w hich t ook

p lace

o thers

i n t hese d wellings.

b enches,

S ome o f

s torage p its a nd b ins,

t he r ooms

c ontained

a nd w orking p latforms,

o vens, w here

g rain w as s tored a nd p rocessed ( Palmieri 1 981:110). G reat q uantities o f c harred g rain w ere f ound b y t he e xcavators i n a lmost a ll o f t he r ooms a nd i n t he s treets. A f ew r ooms w ere f itted w ith e laborate b asins. T hese w ere f ormed b y a c ircular, s lightly d epressed a rea, p rovided w ith a p rotruding r im a nd w ith a s mall r immed c oncavity i n t he c entre. T his t ype o f b asin h as a lso b een f ound i n E B I s ites o f t he K eban a rea a nd i n t he Amuq H p hase ( Palmieri 1 981:10, n .4). A s eparate a rea i n t his s ector s eems t o h ave b een u sed f or s laughtering a nimals, a s i ndicated b y l arge q uantities o f a nimal b ones f ound i n s itu n ear a s mall d rainage c anal. I n v iew o f t he n ature o f i nstallations f ound i n t hese h ouses o ne m ay a ssume t hat t he l iving q uarters m ust h ave b een s ituated a bove t he g round f loor. A fter f urther s igns o f v iolence, which

c ould

o nly

i ndicate m ore c onflict

w ith

c ulturally

d ifferent

g roups o f p eople i nvading t he M alatya p lain i n e ver i ncreasing n umbers, t he s ettlement w as f inally a bandoned t emporarily a t t he e nd o f t he E B I . B ut t he s ite m ay h ave b een u sed b y n ew g roups o f T ranscaucasian f armers

a nd/or

p astoralists a s a s mall s easonal o r permanent

v illage

d uring t he E B I I. I t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat r ound h ouses o f T ranscaucasian t radition a ppeared a t A rsiantepe a t t he b eginning o f t he E B I II p eriod, i n o ther w ords m uch l ater t han t hey w ere i ntroduced i n t he K eban a rea. I n c ertain p arts o f E lazi g, e .g. A ltinova, T a kun M evkii, n ew g roups o f T ranscaucasian a nd p ossibly C aucasian f armers i ntroduced a n ew t ype o f v illage a rchitecture i n t he l ater p art o f t he E B a s

I . T his n ew " wattle a nd d aub" a rchitecture a ppeared a t N orsuntepe e arly a s l evel X X. O ther s ites w ith s imilar s tructures i nclude

D e irmentepe ( Hauptmann 1 982:48-49). T he s mall v illage h ouses a t t hese h abitation s ites w ere e quipped w ith h orseshoe-shaped f ireplaces, a d istinctive f eature o f t he e arly T ranscaucasian c ulture, a nd l arge o vens. I t s hould b e s tressed h owever, t hat t his n ew t ype o f a rchitect ure a t N or untepe s ignals a n ew p hase o f c ultural r egression r eflected i n t he l ayout o f t he s ettlement a nd o ther f eatures o f m aterial c ulture. H andmade d ark b urnished w ares o utnumber t he w heelmade l ight c oloured M esopotamian p ottery M alatya-Elazi r egion. t own X XI), m ud

a t

N or untepe a nd o ther s ettlements i n t he N or untepe w as t ransformed f rom a w ell p lanned

w ith m udbrick s tructures a ligned a long a lleys a nd s treets ( level t o a v illage w ith f limsy s ingle s tory d wellings b uilt o f w ood a nd

( level X IX).

D uring t he

i nitial p hases o f

t his

c ulture c ommercial

a nd o ther c ontacts w ith t he u rban c ultures o f C ilica, n orthern S yria a nd M esopotamia d iminished i n i ntensity. I t i s o nly d uring t he E D I II a nd A kkadian p eriod t hat c ontacts b etween t he M alatya-Elazig r egion a nd t he s outh i ntensified c onsiderably. T ranscaucasian c haracteristics i n t he

r egional

m etallurgy.

E B I -II c ultures i nclude a d istinctive a rsenical A t

N or untepe,

T epecik a nd T Ulintepe

f inds

c opper

i ndicating

m etallurgical a ctivity d uring t he e arly t hird m illennium B C, i nclude s lag f ragments, h orseshoe-shaped f ireplaces w here c opper w as m elted, s melting o vens, c rucibles, c lay-cones a nd t wo-piece m oulds f or c asting

2 75

" Karaz T ype" s haft-hole a xes

( see C hapter X I).

A t A rsiantepe,

o ne o f

t he m ost s pectacular d iscoveries m ade i n r ecent y ears i s a h oard o f 2 2 a rsenical b ronze o bjects r eportedly f ound i n t he r uins o f l evel V I A ( Jemdet N asr p eriod). T he c haracter a nd t ypology o f t he A rsiantepe h oard h ave i mportant c hronological a nd t echnological i mplications i n t he e valuation o f t he o rigins o f A natolian a nd n orth S yrian m etall urgies ( Palmieri 1 981:109; Y akar 1 984). I n t his c ontext i t i s i mportant t o e mphasize t hat h igh a rsenical c opper o bjects c ast i n o pen a nd t wo-piece mou lds a ppear i n t he E lazig r egion a fter T ranscaucasian g roups

b ecame t he c ulturally d ominating f actor i n t he 'local'

p opula-

t ion d uring t he E B l bIl p eriod. F urther n orth, i n E rzurum , t he r epertoire o f m etal a rtifacts f ound a t K araz i ncludes d aggers, s hafth ole a xes, c hisels, p ins, a wls, s ome j ewellery a nd a t l east o ne s ickle ( Esin 1 969:135). T he r ange o f t hese o bjects l eaves t he i mpression t hat t he m etal i ndustry o f K araz, a v illage s ettlement o f t he e ast A natolian/Transcaucasian E BA c ulture i n t he h ighland z one, w as t echnologically r ather a dvanced i n t he E B I I p eriod. A rsenical c opper a lloys w ere w idely u sed b y t he l ocal s miths. T he u se o f a rsenical c opper a lloys i n t he K arasu a nd A ras v alleys g oes b ack t o t he l ate f ourth m illennium B C, T he

r evival

a s

i s d emonstrated b y t he P ulur f inds.

o f M esopotamian e conomic a nd

p olitical

i nvolvement

b eyond t he e astern T aurus r ange u nder S argon a nd N aram-Sin o f A kkad i s r eflected i n t he E B I II c ulture o f t he u pper E uphrates v alley. T he e mergence o f m onumental b uilding c omplexes a nd n ew c oncepts i n t own p lanning i n t he K eban a rea a t t his

t ime c learly s uggest

t hat t he

u rban

a rchitecture i n n eighbouring S yria a nd M esopotamia m ust h ave b een a n i mportant s ource o f i nspiration. T he p artly e xposed p alace c omplex a t N or untepe

i s

a

c lear i ndication o f

t he

e xistence

o f

p olitically

p owerful d istrict c entres o f E lazi g " , a nd p robably i n M alatya, i n t he l ater p art o f t he t hird m illennium B C. I t i s p ossible t o p ostulate t hat

t he

c ultural

t ransformation o bserved i n

s ettlements

a long

t he

u pper E uphrates v alley i n t he E B I II a lso r eflect f undamental c hanges i n t he s ocio-economic a nd e thno-political s tructures o f t he be -al c ommunities. I n f act, o ne m ay a ssume t hat i ncreasing p opulation m ovem ents

f rom

t he

e ast a nd t he t hreat o f M esopotamian a rmies

s outh m ay h ave p rompted t he c ommunities w ith t ribal t ies

f rom

t he

e conomically s elf-sufficient s edentary i nto o rganizing t hemselves p olitically i n

o rder t o p reserve t heir c ultural e ntity. T he h ighly o rganized c itys tates o f t he s outh m ay w ell h ave s erved a s m odels f or t he n ew s ocial s tructures c reated i n a dministrative c entres s uch a s N or untepe i n t he K eban a rea. I n t he K arasu a nd A ras v alleys t he s mall s ettlements, w hich w ere i nhabited s ince t he l ate f ourth m illennium B C b y f armers o f T ranscaucasian c ultural a ffiliation, w ere l argely a bandoned a t t he e nd o f t he E B I I, p robably d ue t o t he a rrival o f n ew g roups o f p astoralists f rom t he e ast. O ther e vents o r r easons u nknown t o u s c ould h ave a lso c aused t he w idespread a bandonment o f E B I I s ettlements i n m ost p arts o f t he e astern A natolian h ighlands, A s

a lready

p ointed o ut

i ncluding t he V an b asin.

t he d ominant p ottery i n e astern

A natolian

s ites o f t his p eriod i s t he E arly T ranscaucasian w are. H owever, b ecause o f i ts w ide d istribution a nd e arly o ccurrence i n a n umber o f h ighland r egions, i t m ay b e m ore a ppropriate t o c all i t E ast A natolian! T ranscaucasian E arly B ronze A ge p ottery. G enerally s peaking, t his w are i s h andmade, l ow f ired a nd t empered w ith c haff a nd g rits. T he e xterior u sually h as a b urnished s lip. T he c olour o f t he w are i s i n m ost c ases b lack,

b ut

b rown

a nd

r ed

e xteriors

2 76

a re

n ot

u ncommon.

R ussell

c lassifies t he ( 1980:25-28).

E arly T ranscaucasian p ottery i nto f our m ain g roups T he f irst g roup c omprises w ares w ith c ontrasting

i nterior a nd e xterior c olour. T he f abric i s r elatively w ell f ired t hroughout. T he e xterior s urface c olour i s u sually b lack , w hile t he i nterior i s r ed, b rown, b uff o r g rey. s ometimes r eversed w ith t he r esult t hat

T his p attern o f c olouring i s t he e xterior s urface c olour i s

l ighter t han t he i nterior o f t he s urface. T he e xterior s urface i s a lways b urnished, v ery o ften p roducing a f ine g lossy f inish. I nterior m ay a lso b e b urnished a s i s t he c ase w ith s mall o pen b owls. I n A muq s ites t his w are i s c alled r ed-black b urnished w are , h owever,

t he i ts

o ccurrence t here i s l ater t han i t i s i n t he h ighlands. T he s econd g roup c onsists o f E arly T ranscaucasian w are w ith b lack s urfaces ( Russell

1 980:26-27).

A lthough m ost f orms a re h andmade,

a f ew c ould

h ave b een p roduced o n a s low w heel o r a re w heel-finished. T his i s n ot s urprising c onsidering t hat t he p otter s w heel w as b eing u sed i n p arts o f

e astern

w ares. g roup.

A natolia

t o p roduce M esopotamian a nd

S yrian

t ype

l ight

T he t empering m aterials a re f iner t han t hose o f t he f irst G rit w as m ore f requently u sed a s t empering m aterial t han c haff.

T he f abric, b lack t hroughout, i s r ather h ard. B oth t he i nterior a nd e xterior s urfaces a re u sually b urnished, a nd i n t he c ase o f o pen b owls, t he i nterior i s h ighly b urnished i n o rder t o a chieve a s mooth p olish. R ussell p oints o ut t hat t his p articular v ersion o f E arly T ranscaucasian w are i s n ot o ften r eferred t o a s a d istinct t ype. I t i s p robably c ontemporary w ith o ther E arly T ranscaucasian w ares, i ncluding t hose w ith c ontrasting c olours a nd r ed-brown s urfaces ( Russell 1 980:26-27). T he l atter c onstitutes t he t hird g roup o f d ark b urnished m onochrome w ares. f abrics

I t h as a w ide r ange o f f abric q ualities. O n t he w hole, t he i n t his g roup a re r ather c oarser t han t hose o f t he f irst g roup.

B oth c haff a nd g rit t empering a re u se d . W hile h ave b een p referred b y t he p otters o f M alatya,

g rit t empering s eems t o g rit a nd c haff m ixture

i s m ore c haracteristic i n t he p ottery o f t he E lazig r egion. C olours a re n ot v ery u niform o ver t he s urface. M ottling o f t he b asic r ed-brown s urface c olour w ith b lack a nd g rey i s c ommon. T he e xterior o f t he v essels i s a lways b urnished w hile t he i nterior, w ith t he e xception ' o f s mall o pen b owls, r arely i s. T he f ourth g roup i s m ade u p o f d ecorated w are w hose f abrics a nd s urface t reatment a re t he s ame a s t he p ottery o f t he f irst t hree g roups. ( appliqué), i ncision,

D ecorative t echniques i nclude m otifs i n r elief g ouging a nd p uncturing. W hite-filled i ncise

d ecoration, b est k nown i n n orthern A natolian E B I p ottery a nd i n s outhern A natolia, i s a lso f ound h ere ( e.g. G elinciktepe, T epecik, P ulur-Keban). R elief d ecoration w as e xtensively u sed i n t he E B I I p eriod i n E lazi g. I n t he E rzurum r egion, h owever, t his d ecorative t echnique w as u sed s ince t he E B I . A ccording t o K elly-Buccellati ( 1978:72), t o o btain t his e ffect t he v essel w as f irst i ncised i n t he p attern d esired; t hen t he i ncision w as f illed w ith e ither a p iece o f s traw o r s ome s ubstance w hich w ould e xpand u nder h eat. T he v essel w as t hen c overed w ith a t hick s lip w hich a dhered t o t he r aised p ortion o f t he d esign. D ecorative m otifs u sed i n t his s tylized b irds, q uadrupeds a nd l ozenges.

t ype o f d ecoration i nclude I n t he f inal p hase o f t he

e ast A natolian/Transcaucasian E arly B ronze A ge i ncised a nd f luted d ecoration b ecame m ore w idespread i n t he l ocal p ottery a ssemblages. A long

w ith

t he d ark b urnished m onochrome w ares i n

t he

M alatya -

E lazig r egions, a p ainted w are w as p roduced s ince t he b eginning o f t he E B p eriod. T he e arlier t ype i s a h ard, f ine t extured f abric , t empered w ith f ine g rit a nd w ell f ired. r arely g rey ( Russell 1 980:29).

F abric c olours a re p inkish b uff T he d esigns, g eometric p atterns,

2 77

a nd a re

p laced i n b ands a round t he n eck o f t he l arger v essels a nd a round t he n eck a nd r im o f t he s maller o nes. S ometimes i solated d esigns a re f ound o n t he u pper b ody o f t he v essels. T he d ecoration, i n b lack a nd s ometimes r eddish b rown p aint, i ncluded m otifs s uch a s d iagonally p laced l adder p attern, r unning s olid t riangles, t riangles f illed w ith l ines b etween t wo h orizontal l ines a nd c urving r ays. T he l ater t ype o f p ainted w are i s a lso f ound m ainly i n t he M alatya-Elazi r egion. S imilar e xamples f ound f urther e ast i n t he p lain o f M ug o r i n t he A diyaman a rea m ay h ave b een i mports f rom t his r egion. T his w are, l ike t he m onochrome w are, w as g enerally h andmade. H owever, h ave b een p roduced o n a w heel o r a re w heel-finished. u sually h ard,

f ine a nd c lose t extured

i s f ine g rit a nd, q uantities. T he

( Russell

s ome v essels m ay T he f abric i s

1 980:29).

T he t empering

a s i n t he e arlier t ype, i s u sually p resent i n l arge s urface c olour v aries f rom p ale b uff t o p ink , w ith

g rey c olours o ccurring o nly r arely.

T he r im a nd e xterior o ften h ave a

p ale

A s

y ellow,

w hite

o r p ink s lip.

f or t he p aint o n t he

r im

a nd

e xterior, i t i s g enerally b lack b ut o ccasionally d ark b rown a nd r arely r ed. A s a lready p ointed o ut b y R ussell ( 1980:30), b ichrome d ecoration i n r ed a nd b lack i s r ather r are. D esigns c onsist o f h atched t riangles b etween b road p arallel l ines r unning a round t he r im a nd s houlder o f t he v essels. R ows o f s mall t riangles, h eavy p arallel b ands s howing a d ense p attern, a nd o blique l ines h anging f rom a b road h orizontal a lso a mong t he c haracteristic p ainted p atterns.

b and

Among t he p ottery o f n orth S yrian a nd M esopotamian c haracter

a re

f ound

i n t he l ocal r epertoires i n t he M alatya/Elazig" r egion a re t he s imple w are, r eserved s lip w are, m etallic w are, s tone w are, g rey w are, m ultiple b rush p ainted w are a nd s meared w ash w are.

D ISCUSSION T he E ast A natolian/Transcaucasian E arly B ronze A ge c ulture e xtended g eographically i n a w ide a rc a round t he l arge d rainage b asin o f t he T igris a nd E uphrates ( Kelly-Bucellati 1 978:73-75; B urney a nd L ang 1 971:43-85). m ountainous r egion

I t i s t herefore a ssociated p rincipally w ith t he ( highlands) w hich e xtends f rom n orthwestern I ran i n

t he e ast t o t he C aucasus i n t he n orth, w est a nd S yria a nd t he J ordan v alley t o r efers

t o t his r egion a s t he

t he m ain a reas c arefully H urrians,

o f

t he

f ertile

e ast-central A natolia t o t he t he s outh. K elly-Buccellati

" Outer F ertile C rescent" b ecause i t f rames c rescent p roper.

A lthough m ost s cholars

a void i dentifying t his c ulture w ith p roto-Hurrians o r t he s triking s imilarity i n d iffusion o f t he m aterial c ulture

i n t his v ast g eographical z one d uring t he t hird m illennium B C, m ovement o f t he h istorical t exts,

H urrian s peaking t ribes a s d escribed i s v ery s triking. K elly-Buccellati

h owever, t hat l ater c ultures, s uch a s o nly p arts o f t his g eographical a rea,

a nd t he i n e arly s uggests,

t hat o f t he H urrians, i nfluenced a nd t hus c annot b e c ompared i n

t his

r espect w ith t he E arly T ranscaucasian s pread

( 1978:73).

t ype

T he m aterial e vidence f rom t his c ulture d oes n ot d iffer m uch i n t hroughout i ts c ultural s phere. I n a ddition t o d ark b urnished

h andmade p ottery, a rchitecture i n t he f orm o f s mall h ouses a nd m etal a rtifacts, s ettlements i n e astern A natolia, S yria a nd I srael h ave y ielded

p ortable h earths a nd h earth s tands m ade o f c lay a nd

s ometimes

w ith a nthropomorphic d ecoration ( Kelly-Buccellati 1 978:73). T hese a re i mitations o f b oth s tationary a nd p ortable h earths a nd s tands f ound i n

2 78

T ranscaucasian h ouses a s t he c entral f eature o f t he m ain r oom. W ith t he p ossible e xception o f P ulur i n t he K eban, t here i s n o c oncrete e vidence t hat s hrines w ere e ver b uilt i n t he s ettlements. I t i s p robable t hat t he c entral f ireplace i n t he m ain r oom o f t he p rivate h ouses s erved a lso a s t he m ain 'altar' d uring r eligious a ctivities. I t

i s

a ssumed

t hat t his c ulture e volved

i n

T ranscaucasia

a nd

C aucasia f rom a n i ndigenous N eolithic c ulture i n G eorgia, A rmenia o r A zerbeijan. I n I ran, f or i nstance, t he e xcavations a t Y anik T epe s uggest a n a lmost c ontinuous o ccupation s ince t he s ixth m illennium B C ( Burney 1 976:97). m ents

I t

i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat t he n umber o f s ettle-

i n n orthwestern I ran,

p opulation f luctuations, t his

p eriod

w hich i s a r ather r eliable

i ndicator

i ncreased s teadily d own t o c a.3000 B C.

t here a re a n umber o f u nmistakable

s igns

o f

A fter

i n c ertain

s ites

i n t he U rmia b asin o f t emporary a bandonment o f s ettlements. A t Y anik T epe, f or i nstance, d uring t he s econd q uarter o f t he t hird m illennium B C n ewcomers a ppeared, i ntroducing n ew a rchitectural a nd p ottery t radit ions. A ccording t o B urney ( 1976:98), a s wift-moving g roup o f t hese E arly

T ranscaucasian I I p eople s eems t o h ave b een r esponsible f or

t he

a rrival o f a n i ntrusive c ulture i n t he f ourth l evel a t G odin T epe. I n f act, s ites

t his c ulture s pread i n m any d irections.

o n t he n orthern s lopes o f

N orthward

t he C aucasus s how e vidence o f

s ome

c ontact

w ith t he E arly T ranscaucasian c ulture ( Kelly-Buccellati 1 978:74, n .2). A r ound h ouse f ound a t H aftavan T epe V II i n n orthwest I ran, s imilar t o t hose f ound a t Y anik T epe, d emonstrates t hat t his c ulture s pread a lso t o t he a rea a round L ake R eza iyeh ( Burney 1 976:99), e xtending a ll t he w ay

s outh

t o H amadan.

I n t he w est,

i t m ust h ave h ad c ontacts

w ith

c entral A natolian E B c ultures w est o f M alaty a in t he s outh a nd S ivas i n t he n orth. I n t he s outhwest, t he m ovement o f t he n ortherners i nto S yria a nd t he J ordan v alley h ad a c ertain i mpact o n t he e xisting r egional

c ultures.

B ut t he e ffects o f t hese m ovements i n t he

s outh-

w est, w hich o ccurred a t d ifferent t imes, w ere s hort l ived, w hile i n t he K eban a rea a nd M alatya t he e ast A natolian/Transcaucasian c ulture m aintained s ome o f i ts c haracteristics e ven i n t he e arly s econd m illennium B C. T he i nfluence o f E arly T ranscaucasian c ulture o n c entral A natolia i s d ifficult t o e stimate. T his i s b ecause t he a mount o f E arly T ranscaucasian b urnished w are a nd i ts i mitations i n t he c entral A natolian p ottery a ssemblage i s n ot s ignificant B uccellati 1 978:75). T herefore, o ne m ay a ssume t hat t he b etween t he f rom e ast

( Kellyc ontact

t wo c ultures w as n ot o ne o f m igration o r c ultural d iffusion t o w est, b ut t he r esult o f t rade b etween t he t wo r egions.

G enerally s peaking, t he E B I I p eriod i n e astern A natolia, n orthwestern I ran a nd t he K ura a nd A rax v alleys w as a p eriod m arked w ith v iolent c onflicts. A s a r esult o f t hese u nrecorded e vents s mall f arming c ommunities i n t he h ighlands m ay h ave a bandoned t heir s ettlements f or s afer a reas, w hile o thers j oined f orces i n f ewer b ut l arger f ortified s ettlements. A s a lready p ointed o ut b y B urney, t his n ew s ettlement p attern

i n c ertain p arts o f T ranscaucasia l ed

t o a g rowth o f

t owns

a t

t he e xpense o f t he s urrounding v illages ( 1976:99). F rom t he s ettlement p attern i n t he h ighlands, i ncluding t he V an b asin, i t i s p ossible t o s urmise

t hat

e conomy

w hich w as d ependent o n p astoralism,

l arge n umbers o f s edentary c ommunities

r everted

t o

a n

w ith o nly a f ew p ermanent

s ettlements. I i s

a gree w ith t he v iew t hat w hen t he E arly T ranscaucasian

e xamined

i n d ifferent g eographical a reas o f 2 79

i ts

c ulture

d istribution,

i t

b ecomes

c lear,

a s s tressed b y K elly-Buccellati

( 1978:74),

r easons p eriods.

f or i ts e xpansion m ust h ave b een r ather v aried a t A s f ar a s e astern A natolia i s c oncerned, h owever,

t hat

t he

d ifferent t he r ather

d ense d istribution o f b ase m etal o res c ould n ot h ave b een t he o nly c onsideration f or t he m ovement o f f arming c ommunities f rom t he K uraA rax v alleys

t o t he w est.

T he E B I II p eriod, o r t he p eriod o f e merging c haracterized b y a c ulture o f l argely l ocal d evelopment, t hat

t he

m aterial c ontext.

e arlier

T ranscaucasian a ffinities o bserved

d ynasties, i s i n t he s ense i n

t he

E BI/Il

c ulture a re f ar l ess o bvious i n t he l ate t hird m illennium T he p ainted p ottery o f t he M alatya-Elazi r egion w as p roduced

a t a l arge n umber o f s ettlements, b ut s trangely e nough w as n ot e xported t o a reas i n t he h ighlands o r s outh o f t he T aurus r ange. M udbrick m onum ental s tructures w ith t hick a nd s ometimes d ecorated w alls, c entral h alls a nd e xtensive s toreroom s pace, m ay s imply l ocally d eveloped a rchitectural t radition,

w ith l arge r eflect a

b ut o ne c annot h elp w onder-

i ng i f, i n v iew o f r enewed M esopotamian a ctivity ( warfare a nd t his a rea, s ome o f t he i nspiration d id n ot i n f act c ome

t rade) i n f rom t he

s outhern u rban c entres. C onsidering t hat s ome E B I II s ettlements ( such a s K orucutepe o r N or untepe i n t he K eban R eservoir a rea) p roduced a rchitectural r emains w hich c ould o nly b e i nterpreted a s P alace c omp lexes ( incorporating s torerooms f illed w ith s torage j ars a nd e ven s mall s hrines), o ne i s t empted t o a gree w ith t he a ssessment t hat c itys tates d ominating t he p olitical a nd e conomic l ife i n t he M alatya-Elazi g " r egion h ad e merged a lready i n t he s econd h alf o f t he t hird m illennium B C. l t i s q uite p ossible t hat t he e thno-political r eorganization i n e astern A natolia a ffected, t o s ome d egree, t he s ettlement p attern a t t his t ime. I t i s o nly l ogical t o p resume t hat w ith t he i ncreasing p olarization a mongst l ocal p owers, s maller s ettlements ( villages a nd h amlets) w ere a lso f orced t o r eorganize a round d istrict c entres a nd/or. t he f ortified t owns i ndustrial a ctivity A rsiantepe,

a nd

o f t he l ocal r ulers. i n e astern A natolia,

p robably

o ther

m ajor s ites

F inally, r egarding t he m etal w orkshops i n

t he

t he o f

M alatya-Elazi g

r egion, m ust h ave b een a mong t he m ain p roduction c entres i n e astern A natolia. T hese w orkshops c ould h ave s upplied s ome o f t he d emand f or f inished

p roducts a nd b ase m etal

i n

s outheastern

A natolia,

n orthern

S yria a nd p robably i n t he K habur b asin.

A RCHAEOLOGICAL S OURCES A .

F ield S urveys

K ili9 K Jkten T h p ioneering w ork d uring t he S econd W orld W ar: T h is m ost e nergetic s cholar m anaged t o c over v ast a reas o f e astern, c entral a nd n orthern A natolia o n h orseback. H is m ain a nd o ne o f t he u nchallenged c ontributions h as b een t he p rehistoric i nvestigations i n t he p rovinces o f K ars a nd A rdahan. I n t he p rovince o f K ars a lone h e m anaged t o i dentify 1 5 a ncient s ettlements. T he t rail o f m ounds t ook h im t o t he A ras v alley ( Araxes), t he I gdir p lain, t o t he K ura v alley b etween s hort

A rdahan a nd ç ildir p lain. t ime a t h is d isposal

i n K ars,

I n 1 942 h e e ven m anaged w ithin t he

t o e xcavate f our t rial

t renches A zat

w here h e d iscovered a n E B s ettlement w ith s tone

H iyV ik

a rchitecture

a nd a t ype o f p ainted p ottery w hich h e d escribed a t t he t ime a s " non-Anatolian o rigin" ( K8kten 1 944:667). C ould i t b e t hat w hat h e w as

t he s o-called T ilkitepe

( painted) w are.

2 80

F inally,

o f s aw

i t i s i mportant

F iq.

XIX

2 81

F IGURE

X IX:

M aterial C ulture o f

t he P roto-Urban P eriod f rom

E astern

A natolia I n

a rchitecture

C halcolithic

t he

l evels

b ulk o f

t he e vidence c omes

e xposed i n s ettlements s uch a s

f rom

t he

T epecik

L ate

( 1)

a nd

N or untepe ( 17) i n A ltinova ( both o f t hem a re n ow s ubmerged i n t he w aters o f t he K eban D am r eservoir). L arge s tructures w ith t ripartite d ivision o bserved i n t he L ate U ruk p eriod i ndicate s trong M esopotamian i nfluence i n t he p lanning o f p ublic b uildings, a t

t his A t

i f n ot i n t own p lanning,

t ime. t he e nd o f

t he L ate C halcolithic p eriod t here i s a n ew f orm

o f

b urial ( 2). T hese c hamber t ombs d iscovered i n t he L ate C halcolithic m ound o f K orucutepe s uggest t he a rrival o f n ew e thnic e lements ( ? ) f rom t he e ast. b urnished

T he d ominant p ottery o f t he p eriod i s t he h andmade d ark f ace w are ( 6-10) f ound a lmost i n e very s ite ( for a d etailed

d escription s ee T epecik i n A rchaeological S ources). M etallurgical a ctivity u nder t he s upervision o f t he M esopotamian m erchants c annot b e r uled o ut i nfluence

i n s ettlements s uch a s N or untepe ( 17). T he U ruk I V i s a lso f elt i n t he r egional p ottery a ssemblage w here

b evelled r im b owls a re f ound i n s ome n umbers. F urther

e ast,

T ilkitepe

i n V an p rovides u s w ith

p ainted w are a nd a rtifacts m ade o f s ilex a nd o bsidian

F IGURE

X X :

M aterial C ulture o f

s ome

r egional

( 3,4,5,11,12).

t he P roto-Urban P eriod

f rom

E lazi

M alatya T he h oard f rom A rslantepe ( 1-4, 1 0) p rovides u s w ith a r are o pportunity t o s tudy t he m etallurgy o f e astern A natolia d uring t he t hird m illennium ( early p art ? ) B C. S ee C hapter X I. T he a rchitectural r emains f rom A rslantepe V IA ( 7) a re i ndeed s pectacular. T here i s n ot t he s lightest d oubt t hat o ne i s d ealing h ere w ith m onumental b uildings s uch a s t emples a nd/or a dministrative c omplexes. A t N or untepe, a fter t he d estruction o f t he L ate U ruk s ettlement, t he E BA h abitation s hows f eatures w hich s uggest t he p reservation o f l ocal b uilding t raditions ( 13). F or f urther s tructural d etails a nd i llustrations s ee H auptmann 1 979. R eserved s lip w are ( 6) a nd p ottery f orms k nown i n n orthern M esopotamia ( 5) s uggest t hat a fter t he d estruction o f t he U ruk p eriod s ome s ettlements i n t he M alatya -E lazig r egion c ontinued t o m aintain t rade c ontacts w ith p rovinces e ast o f t he B alikh a nd H abur. A rslantepe V I i s s till c o ntributing i nteresting e xamples t o t he g lyptic r epertoire o f e astern A natolia F IGURE X XI:

( 8-9).

M aterial C ulture o f

t he P roto a nd E arly U rban P eriod

f rom

E astern A natolia I n

d omestic a rchitecture

N orsuntepe;

6 :

P ulur).

l ocal v ariations a re m ost

T owards

t he e nd o f

s triking

0:

t he E B I a nd p articularly

i n E B I I A natolian

s ome o f t he b est e xamples o f p ottery i s f ound a t m ost s ites

v ariant o f 9 ). T he

t his e xtensive g roup i s b est r epresented a t T ilkitepe ( 4, 5 , l ight s tructures o f N orSuntepe ( 1) m ay i ndeed i ndicate t he

a rrival o f n ew g roups f rom f urther e ast. 2 82

E arly T ranscaucasian/East ( 2,3,7,8:Pular). A nother

F ig.

XX

2 83

F ig.

XXI

2 84

F ig.

X x i i

2 85

F IGURE X XII:

M aterial C ulture o f

t he P roto a nd E arly U rban P eriod f rom

E astern A natolia A rsiantepe

V IB

r epresents

a s ettlement w hich l ost s ome

o f

i ts

e arlier i mportance. H ouses s how t he i ntroduction o f d ifferent b uilding t raditions. A s a lready i ndicated i n F igure X XI, t his p eriod w itnessed a c ontinuous m ovement o f

p eoples f rom t he e ast.

S ome o f

t hem s eem

t o

h ave i ntroduced t he r ound h ouses f ound a t a n umber o f s ites ( 4: N o 9untepe). T hese w ere l ater r eplaced b y l ight r ectangular s tructures b uilt o f w attle a nd d aub

( 9;

F igure X XI:1).

I n t he E B I I l ight f abrics o f n orth S yrian / Mesopotamian i nspira t ion w ere n ot a s p opular a s t hey o nce w ere ( 3, 5 ). D ark b urnished w ares d ominate t he l ocal r epertoires ( 6-7). S ome p ainted e xamples s tart t o a ppear i n t he M alatya-Elazig r egion ( 8).

F IGURE

X XIII:

M aterial C ulture o f

t he E arly B ronze A ge I II f rom

t he

M alatya-Elazig R egion

b uildings s uch a s p alace c omplexes, M onumental b uildings c ould b e f ound a t K orucutepe, a dministrative N or untepe, s ee H auptmann 1 979). N or untepe ( 4:

t emples T epecik

a nd a nd

i nventory o f t his r egion i ncludes, i n a ddition t o T he p ottery O L r ed s lipped w are w ith r ound b ases a nd p ot s upports m onochrome b la ck V_ i n t e dpo t t er y c haracteristic o f t his r egion ( 5-12). T he ( 2-3), s ome o f t his p ottery s ince t he E B I I p eriod c an b est b e f ollowed d evelopment N or untepe, K oructepe, P ulur a nd n ow a t e msiyetepe. S tone a t T epecik, m etallic w are a nd s imple w are f orms f ound i n t his r egion w are ( 13). o i ntensifying c ontacts w ith t he s outh. p oint t

2 86

' ,l,IFI UII, • j alr •

F ig.

XXLI1

2 87

t o e mphasize h ere h is s urvey i n t he u pper C oruh r egion w here h e l ocated t wo i mportant m ounds, n amely H indi a nd S iptoros. L iterature: C .

A .

K 8kten 1 943;

B urney s T he

M alatya,

1 944.

1 956 s urvey i n e astern A natolia:

s urvey

c overed

E lazi g, M uq,

t he

g reater p art

B itlis a nd V an.

o f

p rovinces

T he p lain o f Idir,

o f

S ivas,

n orth o f M t.

A rarat, w as p artially e xplored i n 1 957, s o w as t he p lain o f K arak8se w hich h ad o nly a f ew a ncient s ites. D espite t he d ifficult c onditions o f l ogistics a nd t opography B urney m anaged t o v isit a l arge n umber o f s ites a nd c ollect p ottery w hich h e p romptly p ublished i n 1 958. C ons idering

t hat

t he K eban e xcavations s tarted a d ecade a fter h is p ublica-

t ion o f t he r esults, h is p reliminary c onclusions, a s w e n ow k now , h ave p roved t o b e e xtremely a ccurate. H is r eport p rovides a d etailed d escription o f t he C halcolithic w ares i n e astern A natolia. T his c hapter i s f ollowed b y o ne o n t he e ast A natolian E arly B ronze A ge i ncluding a d iscussion o n t he c hronology o f t he T rialeti B arrows. T he i llustrated g eographical K arak8se

d escription o f e ast A natolian d ivision, n amely t he V an r egion,

p lain,

E lazig r egion a nd e mphasize h ere

E B w ares t he Idir

t he B ulanik a nd M alazgirt a reas,

f ollow a p lain, t he

t he M u§ p lain,

t he

t he M alatya r egion. I t i s p articularly i mportant t o t hat t he s herds d escribed i n h is r eport w ere

s upplemented b y i ntact v essels f rom E rnis, o n t he n ortheastern s hore o f L ake V an, n ow i n t he V an m useum. T his s ite, i t s hould b e s tressed, p roduced m ultiple b urials i n s tone c ists w hich, i n K orfmann s o pinion, c an b e

t ermed m egalithic

L iterature:

B urney 1 958;

T he S urvey o f I t

w as

( Korfmann 1 982:225). R ussell 1 980:

t he K eban D am r eservoir a rea: c arried o ut b y W hallon a nd K antman i n 1 967

( 1968).

t he

a rea s urveyed i n t he E lazig " p rovince w as 6 80km 2 A lthough g eneral i n c haracter, t his s urvey p rovided m ost u seful d ata r egarding t he n ature o f

p re-classical s ettlements

s ettlements

w ere

i n t he K eban r egion.

r ecorded;

3 2

o f

t hem m ounds

I n A ltinova a lone 3 8 a nd

t he

r est

f lat

s ettlements. I n t he A van r egion, t he l argest mou nd b y t he s ame n ame w as s ubsequently e xcavated b y F rench ( 1973). T he E B r emains w hich w ere r elatively s canty h ere a nd t hose o f T askun M evkii i ncluded i n t he E xcavations s ection.

( Helms

1 973) a re

n ot

T he L ower E uphrates B asin a rchaeological s urveys b y U . S erdaro lu a nd M . ö zdo an i n t he p rovinces o f M alatya, E lazig, A diyaman a nd U rfa a re d iscussed

i n t he f ollowing c hapter.

T he a rchaeological s urvey i n t he t riangle o f

S ivas-Gemerek-Malatya

c onducted b y t his a uthor a nd A yse G r an S alzmann i n 1 977 c overed M alatya p lain a nd t he T ohma S u b asin; t he G emerek-$arki la p lain ;

t he t he

u pland p lain o f U zunyayla a nd t he T ecer m ountain c hain; t he d istricts o f H ekimhan a nd D arende; t he u pper K izilirmak v alley a nd t he T ohma S u v alley. c larify

T he

p urpose o f

t his

t he d istribution o f

s urvey w as

t o g ather a dditional d ata

t o

l ocal p ottery c ultures o f M alatya a nd S ivas

p rovinces. A lso, i n a ddition t o i nvestigating t he t ype o f s ettlemen ts a nd t heir d istribution p atterns t he s urvey w as a lso i ntended t o s tudy t he

e xtent

o f n orth S yrian/Mesopotamian c ultural i nfluences 2 88

i n

t his

r egion. a ll

T he

o f

t he

s urvey r evealed t hat i n t he M alatya a nd S ivas ( 28) s ites s urveyed w ere s ettled i n t he

l ate

p rovinces f ourth

a nd

t hird m illennium B C. M any o f t he r ecorded m ounds w ere l ocated o n n atural h ills, w hereas s maller s ettlements w ere f ounded o n h ill s lopes w hich s ometimes c an e asily e scape o bservation. o f t he t hird m illennium B C, t he M alatya p lain,

D uring t he e arlier p art t he T ohma S u v alley, a nd

t he K eban r egion p resent a h omogenous p ottery a ssemblage k nown a s e ast A natolian d ark b urnished g roup. C ontacts b etween a f ew a reas i n t his r egion a nd s outheastern A natolia e xisted s ince C halcolithic t imes. B ut g enerally s peaking t he G emerek-Sivas a rea, i n c ontrast t o t he M alatya p lain, w as c onspiciously l acking i n n orth S yrian/Mesopotamian c onnect ions d uring t he l ate f ourth o r t he E arly B ronze A ge. I n t he E B p eriod t he s urvey m aterial i ndicated s ome c ontact b etween M alatya c entral A natolian r egions a s f ar a s Amasya a nd, e ven f urther n orth, P ontus

r egion.

T he

f ine r ed s lipped,

b urnished

b owls

w ith

I II a nd t he

b lack

i nteriors k nown i n n orth-central A natolia m ay h ave i ndeed r eached t he M alatya p lain a s a r esult o f t rade, b ut t his i s n ot c ertain. T he w ide d istribution o f t he M alatya p ainted p ottery t hrough t he T ohma S u v alley a s

f ar

a s K angal i n t he n orth,

a nd K eban d am r eservoir a rea

i n

t he

e ast, m ay r eflect t he s preading o f t his t radition f airly r apidly f rom o ne o r s everal c entres t o a reas w here i t w as c onsequently l ocally p roduced. B ut s trangely e nough t his w are d id n ot r each a reas b eyond t he T aurus r ange i n t he s outh o r t he Amanus m ountains i n t he s outhwest. T he T ohma S u v alley, w here a l arge c orpus o f v ariants o f t his w are a nd i ts d ecorative m otifs a re f ound, m ay b e s uggested a s o ne p roduction. I n t he S ivas p rovince, e specially b etween G emerek,

c entre o f S ivas a nd

p ainted b ichrome w ares h ave c lose a ffinities w ith t he c entral

A natolian t radition o f E B 1 1-111, t hough w e o bserved f ew p ieces w hich d istantly r esembled t he M alatya a nd E lazig'p ainted w ares o f l ate t hird m illennium B C. L iterature:

Y akar a nd S alzmann 1 978;

1 979;

1 981.

E xcavations T he K eban D am R eservoir A rea

T EPECIK L ocation: S ituated 3 1km e ast o f E lazi g " ', t his m ound c overed a n a rea 2 00 x 3 00m a nd w as 1 7m h igh b efore b eing s ubmerged i n t he w aters o f t he r eservoir. E xcavations: S alvage P roject

C arried

Out

T he

E sin w ithin t he f ramework o f

t he K eban

1 968-1974.

S tratigraphy: B etween e xcavated. A t t he e nd o f 1 7m ( Esin

b y U .

1 968-1974 a n a rea m easuring 8 500m 2 w as t he E B p eriod t he m ound m easured a lready s ome

1 979:70). e arliest s ettlement r emains e xposed i n s quare 8 -0

d ate

f rom

t he L ate N eolithic p eriod, r oughly c ontemporary w ith A muq A -B. T his l evel i s c haracterized, a mong o ther t hings, b y t he p resence o f t he e arly e xamples o f d ark f aced b urnished w are a nd c oarse s imple w are. T he s ame s quare a lso r evealed 1 4 a rchitectural l evels p ertaining t o t he e arly L ate C halcolithic p eriod. T he L ate C halcolithic p eriod i s a lso

2 89

r epresented

i n o ther a reas o f

t he s ettlement

( e.g.

5 4-L;

5 3-H) a nd

t he

p ottery a ssemblage a ssociated w ith t his p hase i ncludes w heelmade c haff f aced s imple w are a nd e arly e xamples o f t he K araz w are ( proto-Karaz ? ). T he E arly B ronze A ge

l evels w ere m ainly e xposed i n 1 1-H,

I , K ;

H , I , K ; 1 2-1, K , L , M ; 1 4-M, N ; 1 3-H; 1 5-K o n t he o ld m ound. I II p eriod h ere h ad f our m ain a rchitectural p hases, w ith p hases t hree d ivided i nto t hree a nd t wo s ub-phases r espectively. s ettlement r emains w ere d iscovered i n s quares 1 3-H ; 1 4-H ;

1 :-

T he E B t wo a nd

T he E B I I-I 1 4-M ; Na nd

1 5-K. T hese s ections w ere s ituated o n t he s outhwest a nd s outh t errace o f t he m ound. A s f or t he L ate U ruk s ettlement, i t w as p artly u nearthed o n t he w estern s ector o utside t he m ound ( 16-A). T his s ite, i t s eems, w as c ontinuously o ccupied s ince t he s ixth m illennium B C. T he m ore r ecent m ound f ormation o n t he t errace o f t he o lder m ound d ates f rom t he s econd m illennium B C a nd t he I ron A ge. F inds: f aced

T he L ate s imple w are,

C halcolithic p ottery r epertoire c onsists o f c haff a g roup o f l ight-buff w are r esembling s ome o f t he

U ruk w are o f s outhern M esopotamia ( e.g. b evelled-rim b owls), e arly f orms o f d ark s lipped b urnished w are w ith p rofiles r esembling t hose o f E arly B ronze A ge I K araz w are, a nd a s mall q uantity o f r ed s lipped b urnished w are. Among t he l atter g roup w ere f ound f ragments o f h igh p edestals ( fruit s tands) w ith c ut-out d esigns. A mong t he i mportant a rchitectural r emains b elonging t o t he e arly p art o f t he t hird m illenn ium a re t he r emains o f a m udbrick f ortifiction w all r esting o n s tone f oundation w alls, s tructed i n t he E B

f irst b uilt t owards t he e nd o f t he E B I a nd r econI I. T he p ottery a ssemblage o f t his p eriod i ncludes,

i n a ddition t o h andmade d ark b urnished e ast A natolian/Transcaucasian E B I -II w are ( here c alled K araz w are), n umerous e xamples o f w heelmade p lain s imple w are i dentified a s i mported n orth S yrian/Mesopotamian p ottery. T he E B I II l evels p roduced a n e xtremely r ich a ssemblage o f . s mall f inds c onsisting o f t ools m ade o f b one, s tone, s ilex a nd o bsidian. I n a ddition, b aked c lay f igurines a nd m etal a rtifacts m ake t his l ist q uite l ong. T he p ottery r epertoire, o n t he o ther h and, i s m ainly d ominated w ith l ocally p roduced w ares s uch a s m onochrome a nd b ichrome b urnished K araz w are, p ainted w are, s imple w are a nd A kkadian i mports t o t his

( grey s piral r ing b urnished w are). W alls o f h ouses b elonging p eriod w ere g enerally o f m udbrick w ith l ight c oloured p laster,

a nd w ere B oth t he

b uilt i n t he f orm o f d ouble w alls a djacent t o e ach o ther. t hickness o f t he w alls a nd t he f inds i n t he h ouses s uggest

t hat t he s tructures m ay h ave b een t wo-storeyed ( Esin 1 974:130). I n m ost c ases t here w ere s mall, r ectangular p latforms ( benches ? ) a djacent t o t he h earths

w alls o f t he h ouses. I n a ddition, t o t he h orseshoe-shaped s ituated i n t he c orners o f t he w alls, t here w ere a lso l arge,

r ectangular h earths s et o n h igh p latforms o f b aked c lay. H ouses g enerally c onsisted o f t wo r ooms, w ith f loors s ometimes c overed w ith w ooden p lanks. L iterature:

E sin 1 970;

1 971;

1 972;

1 974;

1 975;

1 976;

1 979 a nd 1 982.

P ULUR ( Fig.III:1) L ocation: w as

T his s ite,

w hich h as b een c overed b y

s ituated s ome 4 5km f rom E lazi g.

t he w aters o f

t he d am,

T he s ettlement w as b uilt o n a h ill

t op a nd t he a ctual h eight o f t he m ound w as c alculated b y K osay t o b e a round hr n . I ts d iameter a t t he t op w as c .60m a nd a t t he b ottom m ore t han c .90m . 2 90

E xcavations:

H .

S tratigraphy : m ound,

K osay o n b ehalf o f K eban S alvage P roject A part

f rom s econdary l ayers

i n 1 968-1970.

i n d ifferent p arts o f

t he m ain a rchitectural l evels r epresenting

t he

t he C halcolithic a nd

E arly B ronze A ge o ccupation h ave b een d escribed b y K o ay a s " 13 b uildi ng l evels" ( 1971:103). A s l evels 1 -1V h ave s uffered a g reat d eal o f d estruction i n r ecent t imes t hese y ielded n o a rchitectural f inds s peak o f. B ut f rom L evel V d own a rchitectural r emains b elonging t o

t o t he

E B p eriod i ncreased c onsiderably. L evels V -VIII h ave b een d ated t o t he s econd h alf o f t he t hird m illennium B C, i n o ther w ords, r oughly t o t he E B I II p eriod, w hereas L evels I X-XI, a lthough o riginally d ated t o t he L ate C halcolithic p eriod b y K o ay, i n f act b elong t o t he e arlier p art o f t he t hird m illennium B C. T he L ate C halcolithic l evels, d escribed a s N eolithic b y K o ay, m ay w ell c orrespond t o t he P rotoliterate a -b i n s outheastern A natolia. F inds: H earths a nd o vens, s ome w ith r elief d ecorations s imulating h uman ( ?) f igures, w ere f ound a t e very l evel. A t l evel I X-XI s igns o f c onflagration w ere p articularly s trong, s uggesting p erhaps t hat e vents w hich c aused s imilar d estruction a t T epecik, d id n ot s pare c overed o vens

N or untepe o r K orucutepe,

t his s mall v illage s ettlement. T hese a nd h orseshoe-shaped h earths w ithin

l evels p roduced t he s ame r ooms.

I nterestingly e nough, o ne h earth h ad a s mall p air o f a bstract h orns m odelled o n i ts r im i n r elief. A t P ulur h ouses w ere l aid o ut i n i nner a nd o uter r ows f ollowing t he t opography o f t he n atural h ill. B uilt n ext t o e ach o ther, t hese t wo-roomed r ow-houses ( and s hrines?) h ad t rapezoid p lans. T he r ooms o n t he o uter r ow w ere u sually c onnected t o t he s maller r ooms ( store-rooms?) i n t he i nner r ow b y s tepped t hresho lds. G rain p its w ere f ound i nside t he h ouses. T he w alls w ere b uilt o f m udbrick o n a s ingle l ayer o f s tone f oundations. o ther s haped

c lay s lanting p latforms a nd " seats

o f

T he b uilt-in

a nd

f urniture f ound i n t he h ouses c onsisted o f f ireplaces, f unnel. m ortars p artly b uried i n t he g round, g rinding s tones p laced o n s tone b locks d escribed b y t he e xcavator

.

a s

o f v arious s izes",

I n L evels V III, I X a nd X n umerous v otive o bjects a nd c lay o bjects p ossibly c ultic s ignificance w ere f ound i n s ome r ooms. A ccording t o

K o ay

t hese

r ooms

c ould b e

i nterpreted a s s hrines s imilar

k nown f rom E BA I -II B eycesultan

t o

t hose

( Kosay 1 979).

L ocal h andmade K araz t ype p ottery f ound i n L evels 1 -IX w ere p rec eded b y l ight a nd d ark g rey w ares. I n a ddition, a lmost a ll t he l evels p roduced

l ocal p ainted p ottery o f E B d ate.

L iterature:

K osay 1 969;

1 970;

1 971;

1 976 a nd 1 979.

K ORUCUTEPE L ocation: O ne o f t he l argest s ites i n w hat u sed t o b e t he A ltinova p lain w as f irst d escribed b y W hallon a nd K antman ( 1969:8, 0 55/1) a s a c ity m ound. T his l arge, h igh a nd f lat-topped mou nd m easured 5 00 x 3 00m ,

w ith a h eight e stimated a t c .15-17m.

E xcavations: e xcavations

M aurits

v an

a t K orucutepe,

L oon

1 968-1970.

o n b ehalf o f

C alifornia ( Los A ngeles) a nd Amsterdam,

2 91

t hird

s eason s

t he U niversities o f

T he

C hicago,

w ere c arried o ut u nder t he c o-

d irection o f H .G. G üterbock, M .N. v an L oon, G . B uccellati a nd P h. H . t en C ate. H . E rtem o f A nkara U niversity r estarted t he e xcavations i n 1 973.

H is

l ast s eason o f e xcavations a t

t his s ite w as

i n 1 975.

S tratigraphy: P hase G : P hase F : P hase E :

M iddle B ronze A ge I , E arly B ronze A ge I lIB, E arly B ronze A ge l IlA,

P hase D : P hase C : P hase B :

E arly B ronze A ge I IB, E arly B ronze A ge I -h A, L ate C halcolithic A ge,

P hase A :

T he E arly C halcolithic A ge,

T he o f

o ccurrence o f a f ew H alaf

r adiocarbon

c a.2000-1800 B C c a.2150-2000 B C c a.2300-2150 B C

S trata X C-XChI S trata L XXVhh-XC

c a.2600-2300 B C c a.3000-2600 B C

S trata L V-LXXVI S trata X XXIV-LIV

c a.3500-3000 B C S trata X XX-XXXIII c a.4500-3500 B C S trata l -XXIX t ype p ainted s herds a nd t he

t ests b oth i ndicate t hat K orucutepe c ould h ardly

r esult h ave

b een s ettled b efore 4 500 B C ( Koructepe 3 , 2 71). P hase B i s d ated b y c eramic p arallels w ith A muq F a nd r adiocarbon a ge e stimations. I t s eems t hat i n t he e arlier p art o f t his p hase t he s ite w as h eavily s ettled, b ut f requently e xposed t o d evastating f ires. E ventually t he m ound w as d eserted a s a h abitation s ite a nd b ecame a c emetery, o r a s I h ave i ndicated e lsewhere ( Yakar 1 984), a b urial m ound s imilar i n c onc ept t o K urgans i n T ranscaucasia. T he g rave c ontents s how t hat t he i nhabitants o f t his r egion p ossessed a m etallurgical t radition p arall eled o nly M esopotamia.

i n

t he p roto-urban c entres l ike T epe G awra i n n orth A ccording t o v an L oon, t he a bandonment o f K orucutepe

a fter t he e nd o f P hase B w as a pparently p art o f t he g eneral t akeover o f M esopotamia's n orthern f ringes b y o ff-shoots o f t he E arly T ranscauca s ian c ulture t hat c ut s hort t he b eginnings o f u rban d evelopment a nd r ee stablished v illage a nother m illennium . i zed

b y

c urvilinear

l ife a s t he b asic p attern i n mos t r egions f or I n i ts i nitial p hase t his c ulture w as c haracter h ouses,

o ften

s pectacular a nthropomorphic a ndirons, i mported M esopotamian o r S yrian p ottery C

b uilt

o f

p erishable

m aterial,

a nd a c ontinuing t rickle o f ( reserved s lipped w are). P hase

d eposits a re c haracterized b y h andmade c haff

t empered b urnished w are

w ith r elief d ecoration, a nd a n a rchitectural s tyle, w hich , a lthough r ectangular i n p lan, e xhibits t ypical E arly T ranscaucasian t raits s uch a s c urved w attle-and-daub a nnexes, b enches a nd l arge f ireplaces w ith a ndirons. A m uch l arger e xposure i n s trata o f P hase D r evealed t hick a ccumulations o f h ouse

r emains w ith c ultural c ontinuity

f rom o ne

l evel

t o t he n ext. T his i s t he p hase o f t he i ndigenous d evelopment i n t he c haff t empered b urnished p ottery, a ndirons a nd f igurines. B esides b lack b urnished w are, t here w as b rown b urnished w are w ith r elief d ecoration, a nd r ed o n c ream p ainted w are. B y P hase E t he s ettlement h ad t aken a r ather d ifferent c haracter w ithin t he w eakening E arly T ranscaucasian t radition; i nstead o f s mall h ouses c lustered t ogether, t he f lat s ummit o f t he m ound w as o ccupied b y a l arge c omplex. A t t he c entre o f t his s tructure s tood a s ingle-roomed h all w ith b ent-axis a pproach

t owards a t riple a ndiron a nd r aised p odium .

I n H orizon V III

a t N orsuntepe H auptmann f ound a s imilar b ut s lightly s maller h ail, p ainted r ed, a s t he i nnermost o f a s even-room c omplex, w hich h e i nterpreted

a s a c ult c hamber.

A c ylindrical d rain p laced v ertically

n ext t o t he K orucutepe a ndirons c ertainly d oes n ot c ontradict t his i nterpretation ( van L oon 1 980:274). A s a t N or untepe, m any a nimal f igurines a nd w heel m odels w ere f ound n earby. T hese h ave b een c onnected i n a v ery t entative w ay w ith r eligious i magery p ertaining t o t he t hunder g od a nd h is e ntourage i n l ate t hird m illennium S yria

2 92

( Korucutepe 2 ,

C hapter 7 ,

1 .3-5).

T his h ail a t K orucutepe s eems

h ave b een r epaired s everal t imes d uring p hases E a nd F . t hese

l ast

F inds:

t wo p hases

E xcavations

i ncludes g ood e xamples o f i n

t o

T he p ottery o f

p ainted w are.

S trata X XXViI-XXXIX r evealed t wo

r ectangular

t ombs b uilt o f y ellow m udbricks ( Fig.XIX :2). J udging b y t he c alcified w ood r emains i t h as b een s uggested t hat o ne o f t he t ombs m ust h ave h ad a w ooden r oof. A s f or t he s econd t omb , i t h ad b een r oofed w ith a c ombination o f m udbricks a nd s tones, p erhaps i n t he s hape o f a v ault. T hese t ombs r evealed a n umber o f b urials a dorned w ith p ersonal j ewell ery m ade o f s ilver ( Yakar 1 984). N o r emains a ttributable t o t he E B I p eriod w ere e xcavated. T he e arliest t hird m illennium a rchitecture d ates f rom t he E B hA : a s ingle-room h ouse m easuring 3 x 5 m a nd b uilt o f m udbrick w alls w ithout s tone f oundations. T he p resence o f E B I o ccupation a t t his s ite w as i nferred f rom p ottery e vidence c ollected f rom S trata X LV-LIV. A rchitectural r emains f rom P hases D a nd E a re p articularly i nteresting a nd c an c ontribute t o t he u nderstanding o f l ocal a rchitectural t raditions a nd d evelopment o f a n u rban a rchitecture t owards

t he s econd h alf o f

a rchitectural

f eature o f

t he t hird m illennium B C. t he E B I II p eriod i s

T he m ost

t he s o-called

i mportant h ail

a nd

i ts a nnexes i n S trata L XXXI-LXXXVIII ( Korucutepe 2 :20-23). T he e xcavat ions a t K orucutepe p roduced, a mong o ther t hings, a s et o f r adiocarbon d ates f rom v arious a rchitectural l evels, b otanical a nd p alaeozoological d ata w hich c ontributed t o d iscussions r elating t o c hronology a nd n atural

e nvironment.

L iterature:

M .N. v an L oon 1 969;

1

1 970;

1 971

;2

K orucutepe 1 ;

2 a nd 3 .

N OR$UNTEPE L ocation: 8 00

T his h uge m ound,

t he l argest i n t he r eservoir a rea, m easured

x 3 00m w ith a n i mposing h eight o f 3 0m.

I t w as s ituated s ome 2 6km

s outheast o f E lazi g '. E xcavations:

B y H . H auptmann b etween 1 968-1974.

S tratigraphY

F our d ifferent a reas o f

t his m ound a nd

t he

s urrounding

t errace w ere e xcavated, t he s ummit o f t he m ound, c alled t he A cropol a rea, t he s outhern t errace, a nd t he a rea i mmediately o utside t he s outhern t errace. s tratigraphical m ound. H ere,

T he

f ourth a rea,

w hich p roduced t he m ost i nteresting

r esults, w as s ituated o n t he w estern s lope o f t he i n a ddition t o a d eep p robe i n J /K-18/19, a l arger a rea

i n L /M-19 w as c leared s ystematically r evealing s pectacular r emains o f t he L ate C halcolithic p eriod, i ncluding p art o f a n U ruk s ettlement ( Hauptmann 1 974:95'97),

s howing c haracteristics o f n orth

M esopotamian

a rchitecture. A cropol:

V I=EBIIC,

V 11 EB11B,

V III-IX EBIIA

( In

H auptman

1 972

" Horizons" V II-V111 EB111A). W estern S lope: X VIII-XXVI = e arlier t hird m illennium B C. T he d ivision E B I a nd I I i s n ot c lear. L evel X X m arks a n i mportant c hange i n

1 . 2 .

C . B uccellati c o-author. G .H. G t lterbock c o-author.

2 93

a rchitecture.

T his a nd

t he f ollowing l evels c ould b e v iewed a s E BIb o r

e arly E B I I. F inds:

T he

a rchitectural r emains u nearthed a t t his s ite m ake N or un

t epe a m ajor s ource o f i nformation i n t he s tudy o f: ( a) T he d evelop m ent o f e arly u rban a rchitecture i n t he s econd h alf o f t he t hird m illennium B C; ( b) E B I II m onumental a rchitecture ( e.g. p alace c omplex); ( c) e arly f ortification s ystems ( e.g. E B I t own w all); ( d) e ast A natolian E B I r egional a rchitecture; ( e) v arious t ypes o f E arly T ranscaucasian a rchitecture ( e.g. r ound h ouses a nd w attle-and-daub a rchitecture o f E B 1 -11 p eriods); ( f) a r egional t ype o f L ate U ruk a rchitecture a nd i ts c omparison w ith o ther U ruk t ype s ettlements r eflecting s tronger s outh M esopotamian i nfluences ( e.g. T epecik). I n

a ddition,

e xtremely

w ell

t he

e xtensive

s tratified

e xcavations

a ssemblage

o f

p roduced

l ocal

a

r ich

w ares

o f

a nd E arly

T ranscaucasian, n orth S yrian a nd M esopotamian t raditions. M oreover, v arious p ainted w are g roups o f t he M alatya-Elazig r egion a nd i mported p ottery f rom t he s outh p rovide i mportant c orrelations w ith C ilicia, c entral A natolia, t he K ura-Arax r egion, w estern I ran a nd s outheastern A natolia. F inally, t he i ntroduction o f n ew f orms a nd t heir d evelopment w ithin t he l ocal p ottery r epertoire, c ombined w ith c hanges i n a rchitectural a nd m etallurgical t raditions d uring t he t hird m illennium B C,

p rovide t he n ecessary m aterial e vidence f or d iscussions r elated t o

p opulation m ovements a ffecting t his r egion. O ther f inds, s mall a nd l arge, i ncluding k ilns f ound s ince t he C halcolithic p eriod, a nd e vidence f or m etallurgical a ctivities i n t he f ourth a nd e arly t hird m illennium

B C,

a re o f

p aramount i mportance t o t he study

o f

r egional

t echnologies. F inally, p alaeobotanical a nd p alaeozoological s tudies b y B oessneck a nd v on d en D riesh p rovide a m ost i mportant p icture o f n atural e nvironment i n l ate p rehistoric t imes L iterature: Y akar

H auptmann 1 968;

1 969;

1 970;

( in H auptmann 1 972).

1 971;

1 972;

1 973;

1 974;

1 976;

1 984.

T I JLINTEPE L ocation: T his s ite, n ow i nundated b y t he w aters o f t he K eban D am, w as o ne o f t he l argest m ounds i n t he p lain o f A ltinova. O riginally i t m ust h ave s tood t o a h eight o f E xcavations:

U .

c .17 t n.

E sin a nd C .

I t h ad a c one b ase o f

2 00 x 2 50.

A rsebük 1 971-1974.

S tratigraphy: A n a rea o f m ore t han 2 000m2 , p ractically a ll b elonging t o t he C halcolithic p eriod, w as i nvestigated. O f t he t wo m ain a rchitectural l evels w ith t heir v arious s ubphases, t he f irst w as E arly C halcolithic o f o ne w as t he

t he s econd h alf o f

L ate C halcolithic o f

e arlier

C halcolithic

t he f ifth m illennium a nd t he

t he f ourth m illennium B C.

w as m ore

i ntensely

O f

i nvestigated

s econd

t hese t wo, ( Arseb t ik

1 983). F inds: f acts

A rchitectural r emains, p ottery a ssemblage, s tone a nd b one a rtio f a t ypical v illage c ulture i n t he A ltinova p lain. I mportant

p alaeoenvirof lmef ltal d ata.

2 94

L iterature:

E sin

a nd A rseb ' i ' ik 1 971;

1 972;

1 973;

1 974;

E sin

1 979;

A rseb { lk 1 983.

I I

( S

H AN I BRAHIM S AH ( ESENKENT H OYUK) L ocation:

S ituated

4 0km n ortheast o f E lazi g,

i t m easures

1 25 x

6 0m

w ith a h eight o f 1 2m . T he m ound s tands b etween a m inor s tream a nd t he E rzuruk t ributary, w hich f low a round i ts w estern a nd e astern s lopes t o j oin u p a t t he f oot o f t he s lope a nd f low i nto t he M urat r iver 5 km t o t he n orth. H an I brahim § ah i s t he f ifth m ound o n t he E 1azi -çemi kezek r oad a fter H Ulvenk, E rzuruk, P ayler T epe a nd A vcili, a nd i t I s f ollowed b y A svan, P ulur ( Sakyol) a nd K alaycik T epe. A ccording t o E rtem , f act t hat t hese m ounds s tand i n l ine s uggests t he p resence o f

t he a n

a ncient s econdary r oad r unning f rom n orth t o s outh ( 1982:62). E xcavations:

H .

S tratigraphy: F inds:

E rtem 1 970-1971.

V -VI:EBIII;

Among

t he

V II-IX :EBII;

i mportant

X -XIV:EBI.

d iscoveries

a re a

g roup

o f

c ircular

s tructures I n L evel V I; h orseshoe-shaped f ireplaces, r ound h earths f ound i n m ost l evels, a nd a p ottery a ssemblage I ncluding m onochrome a nd p ainted w ares. L iterature:

E rtem 1 982.

D EC I RNENTEPE p

L ocation: I t i s s ituated 2 2km e ast o f E lazi g, 2 1km a long t he o ld E lazi gBing8l m ain r oad, o n t he n orthern e xtremity o f w hat u sed t o b e t he A ltinova p lain. T he m ound m easured 1 30 x 1 20m a nd h ad a h eight o f 9 m . H owever, t he o riginal m ound, r ecent t imes, m ust h ave b een l arger. S tratigraphy: s ettlement. o f t he l evels,

I n O f

t rench

A ,

t hese l evels,

b efore b eing p artly d estroyed

b uilding l evels 1 -1V r epresent 1 Vu i d ated t o t he e nd o f

t he

t hird m illennium B C, r epresent t he E B I I, a nd t he I I-I, a re c onsidered b y D uru a s t he f inal E B p eriod.

t he

i n

E B

f irst h alf l ast

t wo

F inds: B uilding t echniques i n t he f our l evels i n T rench A e xhibited i mportant f eatures: I n t he e arliest l evel s tone w alls ( foundations) w ere r eplaced i n L evel I II b y a n ew b uilding t radition m aking u se o f w attle-and-daub a rchitecture. W hile e xamples o f t his h ut s urvived i nto t he f inal s ettlement, f rom l evel I I o nwards h ouses w ere g enerally b uilt o f m udbricks w ithout s tone f oundations. T hese s tructural c haracteristics w ere a lso p resent a t o ther c ontemporary s ites i n t he E lazig

p rovince.

I t

h as b een s uggested t hat

a t

D egirmentepe,

t he

w attle-and-daub h uts a nd m ud-brick s tructures w ere u sed b oth s imultaneously a nd c onsecutively. T he d ifference b etween t hese t wo t echniques a ppears t o b e a f unctional o ne, r ather t han a c hange i n b uilding t radition ( Duru 1 970:75). I n m y v iew t his s ituation m ay a pply t o

t his

s ite,

b ut t o g eneralize

t his s tatement b y D uru m ay g ive

e rroneous i mpression t hat a c hange i n b uilding m aterial s hould n ot c onsidered a c hange i n b uilding t raditions r elated t o t he a rrival

t he b e o f

n ew g roups o f f armers f rom t he n ortheast. A t D e irmentepe, t hin b rushw ood w alls w ere p lastered w ith m ud. I n D uru s v iew t hese w ere t oo 2 95

f limsy

t o

a fford p rotection a gainst t he h arsh w inter w eather i n

t his

r egion. T he w attle-and-daub h uts, t herefore, i n h is v iew, w ere u sed d uring t he s ummer m onths r ather t han f or c ontinuous h abitation. T hey m ust h ave b een o ften r epaired. L iterature:

P ossibly t hey h ad n o r oofs?

D uru 1 979.

T he M alatya R egion

A RSLANTEPE L ocation :

T his

l arge m ound , l ocated a lmost w ithin t he c ity

l imits

o f

M alatya, m easures 2 00 x 1 26m a nd i s 2 6m h igh. I t i s o ne o f t he l argest s ites i n t he M alatya p lain a nd t he u pper E uphrates v alley e xcavated s o f ar. E xcavations:

L .

D elaporte

r esulted i n p artly f ortification s ystem. 1 948, C . l evels.

i n

1 932-33

a nd

1 938-39.

H is

e fforts

c learing t he N eol littite s ettlement a nd I n t he y ears a fter t he S econd W orld W ar,

i ts 1 946-

S chaeffer c arried o ut e xcavations i n e arlier ( prehistoric) E xcavations w ere r enewed f or t he t hird t ime i n 1 964 b y t he

I talians h eaded b y S . P uglisi. H e r emained i n c harge o f t he p roject u ntil 1 973. I n 1 967, A . P almieri, t hen a m ember o f t he e xcavation t eam , u ndertook i ntensive w ork i n t he C halcolithic a nd E arly B ronze A ge s trata. T hese e xcavations, s till i n p rogress a nd s upervised b y P almieri,

h ave c ontributed

t o b etter u nderstanding o f

d evelopments

i n

e astern A natolia f ollowing t he C halcolithic p eriod. S tratigraphy : T wo m ain a reas r evealed t wo s lightly d ifferent b ut p artly c omplementing s equences. T his i s a c lear i ndication t hat h ouses . o f d ifferent p rehistoric p eriods w ere n ot a lways b uilt a t t he s ame l ocations, b ut s hifted f rom o ne a rea t o a nother w ithin t he s ame s ite. A ccording t o t he p ublished s equence, t he L ate C halcolithic p eriod, A rsiantepe V II, i s f ound i n t he n ortheastern p art o f t he m ound. T his l evel h as s even s ubphases, a -g, r epresenting a r elatively l ong p eriod w ithin t he C halcolithic d -g t he e arlier p hase a nd a -c t he l ater p hase. A rsiantepe V I A -B, e xposed i n t he s outhwestern a rea i n s tratigraphic s uccession, c omprises n umerous b uildings l evels. O f t hese, B uildings I V-I a re d ated t o t he E B I A, w hereas B uildings V , V I-IX , X a re c onsidered

t o

b e o f E B

A rsiantepe V IC,

i s

l B h orizon.

T he

E BII

b arely r epresented i n t he

p eriod,

d esigned

s outhwest a rea,

a s

m ostly b y

p its c ontaining p ainted p ottery o f G elinciktepe t ype. F inally, t he g ap i n t he o ccupational h istory w hich s tarted d uring t he E B I I p eriod ( or a t t he b eginning) m ay h ave c ontinued i n t he E B l ilA ( Palmieri 1 981: T able 1 ). A rsiantepe V ID r epresents t he E B t u B p eriod. T his f inal p hase o f t hird m illennium o ccupation h as b een e xposed b oth i n a reas i n t he n ortheast a nd s outhwest. R ecent w ork h as d emonstrated t hat L evel V II

( Amuq

F ) h as b een p artly d isturbed b y t he t own w alls o f

E B

IIl

p eriod. F inds:

P eriod V IA i s c haracterized b y t he p resence o f

b uildings p rincipal

i mportant p ublic

( Palmieri 1 981:103). I n t he o ldest o ne, B uilding I V, s tructural p hases h ave b een n oted. I n i ts f inal p hase

t wo o f

u tilization t his b uilding s hows a m onumental g ate w ith a n e ntrance r oom o f e longated r ectangular p lan w hich p robably l ed u p t o a p alace? I n o ne

o f

t he

n umerous

r ooms

i n t his

2 96

l arge b uilding

( A206)

a bout

t wo

h undred b ullae w ere f ound t ogether. T hese, c ontents o f t he r oom , w here t hey s eem t o b urned. o f

A ccording t o P almieri,

b ullae a nd

t he g ate o f

i n f act, w ere t he e ntire h ave b een i ntentionally

t he c lose r elation b etween t he d eposit

t his b uilding

( IV) e mphasizes

t he

" control"

f unction B uilding

w hich t he s tructure m ust h ave h ad o ver t he m ovement o f g oods. I II w as c onstructed l ater o ver t he n orthern p art o f B uilding

I V.

o ne

I n

o f

t he t wo s mall c ommunicating r ooms e xcavated

i n

t his

b uilding a h oard o f e xceptionally i nteresting s words a nd s pearheads o f h igh a rsenical c opper w ere f ound. I t s eems t hat o riginally t hey w ere b ound

t ogether i nto t wo b undles w hich w ere h ung o nthe w est

f urther d iscussion o n t he d ate o f B uilding I I,

t his h oard s ee Y akar

t he r emains o f w hich c onsist o f

w all

( for

1 984).

t wo r ooms,

a nd B uild-

i ng I , t he w ell k nown T emple ( Palmieri 1 973 a nd 1 981), f ollow i n t he s tructural s equence m arking a c ertain d isjunction f rom t he e arlier t wo b uildings. I ndeed, a ccording t o P almieri, t he o rientation o f t he t wo l ater b uildings a ppears c hanged, a nd t heir c onstruction o n a reas c utting t he s lope o f t he m ound s how t hat t he p resence o f s tructures w as u nknown I n

P eriod

B ,

t erraced p revious

( Palmieri 1 981:104).

B uilding

V i s

t he

b est

p reserved

a rchitectural

f eature o f l ate E B I . T he m ain p art o f t his b uilding s uggests a n e longated r ectangular p lan w ith w alls f urnished w ith s mall e xternal b uttresses ( Palmieri 1 981:Fig.5). T he f ollowing l evel s hows a d iff erent a rrangement b uildings ( VI-IX), f ire,

o f t he s ettlement ( ibid:Fig.6). H ere t he f our w hose r emains a re s everely m arked w ith e vidence o f

s eem t o b e s eparated b y n arrow s treets,

a ccording t o a

p recise

p lan. T he s ubdivision o f t he i nterior o f t he b uildings a lso f ollowed a c lear p lan. S ome r ooms c ontain o vens, o thers b enches a nd a ccessories s uch a s

s imple p its,

b ins a nd w orking p latforms,

w here g rain w as

s tored

a nd g round. I n t wo o f t he r ooms o f B uilding I X ( A170 a nd A 200) t wo. e laborate b asins w ere d iscovered b y t he e xcavators. T hese w ere f ormed b y a c ircular, s lightly d epressed a rea, w ith a s mall c oncavity i n t he c entre.

p rovided w ith a p rotruding r im, P almieri e mphasizes t he f act

t hat t his t ype o f b asin h as a lso b een f ound i n t he E B I s ettlements i n t he K eban D am R eservoir a rea a nd i n t he Amuq H p hase ( 1981:110). I n l evels o f p eriod V ID ( EB L EIB), t wo c ircular s ubterranean d wellings a ppeared, t he e arlier p artly c ut a way b y t he l ater o ne. B oth h ave i dentical r epresent

e laborate b enches a long t he w all. S uch c ircular r ooms a k ind o f d welling p eculiar t o t he M alatya-Elazi r egion i n

t he E arly B ronze A ge ( Mellink 1 983:432). H owever, i t m ay b e a m istake t o r efer t o t hese b uildings a s r epresenting a p articular a rchitectural p lan d uring a p eriod l imited t o t he E B I I o r E B I II. T hose o f A rsiantepe m ay w ell b e l ater t han t hose f ound a t N or untepe i n t he K eban. I t i s e qually i mportant t o s tress t hat A rslantepe V ID c ould a lso r epresent p art o f t he E B l IlA a nd n ot o nly E B I lIB. A l arge r ectangular r oom w ith a h earth p latform b elongs t o a d ifferent b uilding p hase o f V ID ( Mellink 1 983:432). w alls, b rick

p ossibly

s ite,

B esides

t he u sual b enches a long

t he

t here w as a s mall f ireplace a nd t he r emains o f a c ircular m udp latform c ontaining a s tone s lab i n t he c entre o f t he r oom , t he b ase o f a w ooden p ost.

I n a ddition t o i mportant a rchitectural r emains d iscovered a t t his y ears o f e xcavations a lso p roduced a r ich p ottery a ssemblage

c onsisting o f n orth S yrian/Mesopotamian, w ares, t ypical

l ocal a nd e arly T ranscaucasian

a n e xtensive c ollection o f s eal i mpressions, M esopotamian

f igures,

a nd m etal a rtifacts

2 97

s ome o f w hich w ith o f

u nprecedented

f orms a nd q uality. i mportant s eries c onsidered

o f

M ost i mportant o f a ll, A rslantepe p roduced a m ost c alibrated r adiocarbon d ates w hich a re g enerally

r ather r eliable i n t heir c alendar d ate e stimates

( Palmieri

1 981). L iterature:

P almieri 1 973;

1 981;

M ellink 1 983;

1 984:447.

G EL I NC I KTEPE L ocation:

S ituated

2 km

e ast o f A rslantepe-Malatya,

i t i s

a

s mall

e levation o n a r ocky s urface. E xcavations:

S .

P uglisi c arried o ut t wo s easons o f w ork i n t he y ears

1 965-1966. S tratigraphy: I t h as t wo g eneral c ultural h orizons, l ithic a nd a n E arly B ronze A ge o ne. F inds:

T he

s ettlement

i ndicates

t hat

n amely a C halco-

r ock-shelters,

p its

a nd

" irregularities" o f t he r ock s urface w ere u tilized t hrough v arious m odifications. S tone f oundations o f p robable w ooden h ouses w ere a lso d iscovered.

M egalithic

m onuments

( mostly s tone s labs)

f ound i n

v icinity o f t his s ite m ay b e r elated w ith t he s ettlement. p ottery a ssemblage i ncludes s ome s pecimens o f r ed a nd b lack

t he

T he E B b urnished

p ottery w ith i ncised a nd e ncrusted d ecoration, i ncluding p ointill p atterns r ecalling c entral a nd n orth A natolian t raditions, a nd p ainted p ottery d ated t o t he E B I I p eriod. A n umber o f h ammer-axes ( stone) p rovide a l arger b ackground o f c ultural a ffinities n ot o nly w ith c entral A natolia b ut w ith t he C aucasus a nd T ranscaucasia a s w ell. C anaanean t ype b lades p rovide f urther c onnections w ith Amuq. L iterature:

P almieri 1 967:117-193.

D EGIRMENTEPE L ocation: E uphrates

T his l ow m ound i s s ituated o n t he s outhern f loodplain o f t he c a.15km n ortheast o f M alatya. T he c a.8m t hick d eposits a re

l argely C halcolithic. E xcavations:

U .

E sin a nd G . A rsebt ik s ince 1 978.

s tratigraphy:

T he m ain l evel o f o ccupation i s d ated

p eriods.

t hese C halcolithic d eposits a nd b elow t he U rartian I ron

A bove

A ge r emains

i s

s ome

t o

t he U baid-Uruk

l imited e vidence o f E B Io ccupation.

F inds: T he L ate C halcolithic h ouses a re b uilt o f m udbrick w ithout s tone f oundations. A l arge c omplex w ith s torerooms i s o f p articular i nterest b ecause o f i ts c ontents. T hese i nclude a l arge n umber o f b ullae, s tamp s eals m ade o f s tone, a nd a r ich a ssemblage o f l ocal U baid p ottery. T he w alls o f h ouses a re w ell b uilt, p reserved t o a h eight o f 2 m ,

a nd b earing t races o f w all p aintings

i n r ed-on-white.

I n a ddition

t o c haracteristic p ainted U baid w are, t he l ocal r epertoire i ncludes n umerous e xamples o f C oba w are ( mainly b owls), d ark f aced b urnished a nd r ed-burnished w ares. T hese w ares s uggest t hat t he C halcolithic s ettlement a t t his s ite i s c ontemporary w ith A rsiantepe V II a nd s ettle-

2 98

m ents o f A muq P hases E -F i n n orthwest S yria. A n e xtensive r epertoire o f o bsidian a nd f lints t ools d iscovered d uring t he e xcavations m ay a lso b e v ery h elpful L iterature:

i n t he s tudy o f

r egional s tone t echnologies.

E sin 1 983.

S EMS I YETEPE L ocation: o f

I t i s

s ituated 2 5km n orth o f M alatya,

t he E lazig p rovince.

E xcavations:

M .

S tratigraphy: s ettlement. F inds:

i n t he B askil d istrict

I t m easures 6 5 x 7 0m a nd i s 6 m h igh.

D arga s ince 1 978. B elow t he L ate I ron A ge r emains a re l evels o f E B

T he E B I II ( A-B)

i s p articularly p rominent

T here a re s everal l evels o f

I ll Il

i n t his m ound.

r ectangular h ouses w ith f ireplaces.

T hese h ouses c onsisted o f o ne o r t wo r oom u nits, t he s econd r oom u sually d esigned a s t he k itchen. T he m udbrick w alls r ested o n s tone f oundations. I n s ome c ases i t s eems t hat t he w hole l ower w all w as b uilt o f s tones. F loors a nd w alls w ere c oated w ith m ud p laster a nd t hen white w ashed. T he h earths f ound i n t hese h ouses a re h orseshoes haped, i n o ther w ords, n o d ifferent t han t hose f ound i n e ast A natolian/Early T ranscaucasian c ultural h orizon. T he p ainted E B I II p ottery

i s o f

p robably

o f

f amiliar f abric b ut s ome o f

l ocal c haracter,

t he o rnaments

a re

c onsisting o f d ots a nd a rrows

p aint, a nd b ranch p atterns s ome m onochrome d ark b urnished w ares

u nusual, i n r eddish

w ith l eaves i ndicated. H andmade a re d escribed a s t he u sual e ast

A natolian K araz p ottery. L iterature:

D arga

1 981;

1 982; M ellink 1 982;

1 983.

I MAMOGLU L ocation:

I t

i s a s teep m ound,

c a.15m h igh a nd s ituated 2 0km n ortheast

o f M alatya. E xcavation :

E .

U zuno lu s ince

1 980.

S tratigraphy: B elow t he R oman, I ron A ge a nd s econd m illennium s trata e xcavations r evealed r emains o f a n E B I II s ettlement. S ome L ate C halcolithic s herds c ollected w ith l ater m aterial s uggest b eyond d oubt t hat

s omewhere

i n t his m ound

t here m ust a lso l ie a

f ourth

m illennium

sett l emen t .

F inds:

I n

o vens,

t he

a ddition p ainted E B

c onsidered d iagnostic L iterature:

t o h ouse r emains

( stone f oundations)

I II p ottery p roduced m ost

f or

t his

U zuno lu 1 981 a nd

i nteresting

r egional w are. 1 982;

2 99

M ellink 1 982;

1 983.

a nd

l arge

e xamples

P IROT L ocation :

I t

i s s ituated 4 0km e ast o f M alatya o n t he s outhern b ank o f

t he E uphrates.

T he m ound i s v ery s teep a nd m easures

1 40 x 9 5m ( without

t he s urrounding t errace) w ith a h eight a pproaching 2 5m. E xcavations:

0 .

K araca s ince 1 980.

S tratigraphy:

L evels

V I-XI p roduced a rchitectural a nd o ther e vidence

f or a n i mportant E B s ettlement.

L evel X II i s c onsidered

t o b elong

t o

t he C halcolithic s ettlement. F inds:

T he

E B

h ouses r evealed o vens w ith t heir p lastered

p latforms

c overed w ith s herds. S uch o vens a re n ot o nly c haracteristic o f e astern A natolia b ut o f n orthern A natolia t oo ( e.g. I kiztepe E B I /Il). I n t he L ate C halcolithic s trata, o ne h ouse p roduced a w all p ainting i n r ed-on w hite, s uggesting t he s hape o f a h uman f igure s et o ver a f ield o f r ed d ots a nd f lanked b y d ouble t riangle f orms. L iterature:

K araca 1 981;

M ellink 1 982;

1 983.

K ÖSKERBABA L ocation:

I t

i s a r ather s mall m ound s ituated o n a n atural e levation,

2 5km n orthest o f M alatya.

Ö . B ilgi 1 979-1983.

E xcavations: S tratigraphy:

B elow t he U rartian a nd l ater s trata a n i mportant E B

I II

l evel w as d iscovered. F inds:

T he m ain a rchitectural

f eature i s a l arge E B I II b uilding w ith

t hick m udbrick w alls, w hitewashed a nd p ainted w ith r ed d esigns. p ottery i s o f t he u sual r egional p ainted v ariety. T his w are i s

T he f ound

t ogether w ith t he d ark b urnished m onochrome g roups. L iterature:

B ilgi

1 981.

T he V an R egion

T ILKITEPE

( SAMRANALTI)

L ocation:

T his

s mall m ound

i s s ituated o n t he s outheastern s hore

o f

L ake V an. E xcavations: 1 899. H e e xpedition e xcavations. s tratigraphy e xcavations,

W aldemar B eick o f

t he G erman L ehmann-Haupt E xpedition i n

t hought t he s ite t o b e a S tone A ge t umulus. T he A merican d irected b y E dward B owen R eilly i n 1 937 r enewed t he T hese r esulted i n a g eneral u nderstanding o f t he o f t he s ettlement m ound. I n 1 939 K irsopp a nd S ilva L ake w hich l asted f or a bout t hree m onths , a pparently p roduced a

g ood d eal m ore m aterial e vidence w hich r emains u npublished.

3 00

S tratigraphy:

T he

1 937 e xcavations r evealed a t hree p eriod

b ased m ainly o n a rchitectural, b urial a nd p ottery e vidence. s ettlement w as t ermed P hase I II a nd d ated t o t he H alaf M esopotamia. ( ca.60), i s

s equence T he o ldest p eriod i n

P hase I I, w hich p roduced a h igh n umber o f s keletons d ated t o t he f ourth m illennium B C. T he l ast o ccupation,

P hase I ,

p roduced r ound h ouses o f E B d ate.

F inds:

T he

h igh

n umber

o f

b urials

f rom

P hase

I I

s uggests

t he

p ossibility o f i nternment a ssociated w ith o ne o r m ore c atastrophes. H owever, s ome o f t he n ormal i ndividual b urials w ere f ound p ainted w ith o chre a nd a ccompanied b y g rave o fferings. n umber o f H alafian p ottery. I n a ddition, l arge

q uantities

N emrutdagi t he l ake, s tress

o f

o bsidian t ools.

P hase I II p roduced a l arge e xcavations a lso r evealed

O bsidian a pparently

c ame

f rom

a nd S üphanda i, b oth o f w hich l ie o n t he o pposite s hore o f b ut w ithin e asy a ccess o f T ilkitepe. I t i s i mportant t o

t hat a ccording

t o

t he e xcavation r eport P hase I I w as

f ollowed b y

P hase I w ithout i nterruption i n t he o ccupation. T he P hase I c ulture i s d istinguished n ot o nly b y i ts a rchitecture, b ut a lso b y i ts p ottery a ssemblage w hich i ncludes a s traw t empered a nd p ainted w are c alled " Tilkitepe W are". P arallel o r i mmediately s ubsequent t o t his d ecorated w are ( with b road w avy l ines) a ppears t he E arly T ranscaucasian w are o f a t ype p reviously u nknown i n t he V an b asin. F urther e xcavations a re n ecessary t o d emonstrate w hether t he p ainted s traw t empered w ares w ere a bruptly s uperseded b y t he T ranscaucasian w ares o f t he K ura-Arax c ulture o r t he e ast A natolian K araz c ulture. L iterature:

K orfmann 1 982.

T he E rzurum R egion

K ARAZ L ocation:

I t

h eight o f

i s s ituated

E xcavations:

H . K o ay

S tratigraphy: l evels

1 5km s outhwest o f E rzurum.

T he mou nd h as a

1 6m a nd a d iameter o f 2 00m .

A

1 942 a nd

s tep-trench

1 944. c a.15m

l arge a nd 5 0m l ong

b eneath B yzantine a nd l ater d eposits.

e xposed

E B

T he s tratigraphy i s b ased

o n t he a rchitectural r emains o bserved i n t he a rtificial s teps i n t he t rench. T hese s teps r evealed m udbrick w alls o n s tone f oundations. T he w alls p robably b elonged t o r ectangular s tructures. K o ay o bserved t wo m ain p eriods o f o ccupation d uring t he l ate f ourth a nd t hird m illennium B C. T he f irst p eriod, w hich h e t ermed C halcolithic, i s r epresented b y a v illage s ettlement. T his v illage w as a pparently d estroyed b y f ire. F ollowing t his ' major' c onflagration t he s ettlement s eems t o h ave b een a bandoned t emporarily. H owever, a fter b eing l evelled a nd f illed w ith a t hick l ayer o f y ellow e arth, t he s ite w as r esettled d uring t he E B p eriod ( step I V). K araz I , t herefore, h as b een t aken t o r epresent t he e arlier

p art o f

t he E arly B ronze A ge,

t he L ate C halcolithic p eriod. t he E B

I I.

W hether

K araz

p erhaps p artly c orresponding t o I I,

o n t he o ther h and,

r epresents

t he s ettlement c ontinued t o b e i nhabited i n t he E B

I II p eriod i s a n o pen q uestion.

3 01

F inds:

M etal

a rtifacts s uch a s d aggers,

k nives,

a xes a nd p ins

d efinitely m ore a bundant i n t he l ater o ccupational p hase T he p ottery r epertoire w ith i ts h andmade d ark b urnished

a re

( Karaz I I). a nd r elief

d ecorated w ares i s, i n f act, a l ocal v ariation o f a p ottery t radition k nown i n t he K ura-Arax v alleys a nd i n n ortheastern A natolia. T he n ame K araz W are i s s till w idely u sed b y A natolian a rchaeologists t o d efine t he E B h and m ade m onochrome p ottery o f e astern A natolia. B ut i t i s w rong t o a ssume t hat t his p ottery w as c onceived b y p otters i n t he E rzurum r egion. I n f act, r ecent s tudies s uggest t hat i t d eveloped f rom L ate

C halcolithic o r e ven e arlier g roups w ithin a n a rea e xtending f rom

E rzurum i n t he w est L iterature:

t o G eorgia o r A rmenia i n t he e ast

K osay a nd T urfan 1 959;

( see H uot 1 982).

H uot 1 982.

P ULUR L ocation:

I t

i s s ituated

1 5km s outhwest o f E rzurum .

T he m ound i s

1 7m

h igh b ut c overs o nly a s mall a rea n o l arger t han f our a cres. E xcavations:

H .Z. K o ay a nd H . V ary i n 1 960.

S tratigraphy: o f

t he

l ate

F inds:

I n

L evels

1 -1V.

T hese

l evels r epresent a v illage c ulture

f ourth a nd e arly t hird m illennium B C. L evel

I V,

t he f irst v illage f ounded o n

v irgin

s oil

b y

f armers o f c entral A natolian a ncestry, a nd s ilex i mplements, r ather s imilar

f inds c onsist m ainly o f p ottery t o t hose f ound i n A lacah8y t 1k I V

a nd

e vidence i s

B t lyt lk

G t lllt icek.

A rchitectural

r ather

c onsists p roduced

o f s mall w all r emains a nd f ireplaces. L evel t he f irst c omprehensive a rchitectural r emains

a

m udbrick

l arge

s tructure

c ontaining

E arly

f limsy

a nd

I I a pparently i n t he s hape o f

T ranscaucasian

t ype

p ottery. T his m onochrome p ottery, w hich i s d ecorated w ith c urvilinear m otifs i n r elief, h as b een f ound i n a ll t he l evels e xcept t he f irst ( IV). L iterature:

K osay a nd V ary 1 964.

G UZELOVA L ocation: o f

t his

I t

i s s ituated s ome

1 5km n ortheast o f E rzurum.

T he h eight

r ather e xpanded m ound i s m ore t han 1 2m .

E xcavations: S tratigraphy :

H .Z. K o ay a nd H . V ary i n 1 961. E xcavations

w ere

c arried o ut f rom t he s ummit

o f

t he

m ound d own t o a m aximum d epth o f 1 4m ( Area A ). T his t rench p roduced n umerous a rchitectural r emains d ated b y a ssociated p ottery t o t he l ate f ourth a nd e arly t hird m illennium B C. F inds:

T he

p ottery r epertoire s hows c loser a ffinities w ith t he P ulur

m aterial t han i t d oes w ith t he K araz p ottery. B ut q uadrangular s pirals i n r elief, s uch a s t hose k nown f rom K araz, w ere a lso f ound a t G t lzelova. T he

c ollection o f

L iterature:

s mall a ndirons a re m ost s pectacular.

K o ay a nd V ary 1 967.

3 02

N OTES 1 .

T he

s ite w as s ubsequently r esettled i n t he s econd m illennium

B C.

I ndeed, E BA s ettlements w ere d iscovered b y K Jkten i n t he d istricts n orthwest o f A rdahan ( Kalecik H i ly t {k) a nd n orth o f K araki lse o n t op

2 .

o f M isir D a i

( e.g. K i ltek a nd K a izman)

C onsequently

t he r eservoir o f

( 1943:601-603).

t he K arakaya d am w ill a ffect o nly a

n arrow a rea e xtending a longside t he E uphrates. T he r eservoir w ill r emain i nside a n arrow, r ocky a rea, b ounded b y t he s lopes o f t he m ountains

n orth o f

s outh o f H 8yt tk M y 3 .

F or

a

b rief

p rehistoric 1 983:73; 4 .

t he v illage o f A taf a nd b etween K ale

K 8y

a nd

( bzdo an 1 977:62).

d iscussion o n t he s ilver a nd

c opper

d eposits

e xploitation I n e astern A natolia s ee 0 zbal a nd

K unc a nd G i ll

a nd Y ener

1 983:92.

T he A raxes v alley I s n ot,

a t p resent,

k nown f or c ertain t o

h ave

s ites a s e arly a s t he s ixth m illennium B C; b ut f urther e xcavations a re l ikely t o y ield e arly r adiocarbon d ates, i f n ot f rom mou nds i n t he A rarat p lain t hen f rom e arlier s ites i n t he h ills n earby ( Burney a nd L ang 1 971:34). T he p lain o f E rivan i s t he l ikeliest a rea f or t he o ldest s ettlements i n t he T ranscaucasian a rea. I n o ther p arts o f T ranscaucasia e arly N eolithic s ettlements a re n ot k nown t o h ave e xisted b efore c ase

o f

f ourth ( or 5 .

t he s ixth m illennium B C,

t he h ighlands o f e astern A natolia, l ate f ifth)

H alaf p ottery w as

a nd i n

n ot b efore t he

m illennium .

f ound b y K 8kten a lso i n t he r egion o f Y ayci

G okceli i n t he A ras

( Araxes)

r adiocarbon d ates

t he e arly

a nd

v alley.

6 .

F or

f rom A rslantepe s ee P almieri 1 981.

7 .

T he C -14 d ates f rom T t llintepe, a lthough n ot v ery r eliable, e nd o f t he C halcolithic p eriod t o c a.3200 B C. S ee:

p ut t he d zbakan

1 981:95-99 ( in p articular s amples K 1 1; K 3 4A). H owever, a r adioc arbon e stimate f rom t he L ate U ruk s ettlement a t T epecik p roduced a h igher d ate,

3 570

-

9 0,

w hich c ould b e t aken b y t hose s upporting

a h igh c hronological s cheme a s c onfirming t he b eginning c ultural p hase i n A natolia c a.3600 B C. 8 .

T he

A miranis

G ora d ates i n D onjon ( 1975:44) h ave b een

o f

t his

c orrected

a ccording t o D amon t ables. 9 .

Y anik

T epe X III-VII:

2 086

±1 04;

t 63

1 81

i n B urney a nd

1 971:46 a nd 6 5. S He gavit I V: 220 8 0 B C. H asanlu V II: 2 280 1 40; 2 121 1 38 B C. 1 971:281, n .81; B urney 1 961; 1 964. -

-

1 0.

F or

t he

-

l ist o f A rsiantepe d ates

3 03

L ang

H uot 1 982:1029. B urney a nd L ang

s ee P almieri 1 981.

1 1.

G rN-6774

4 070

t35

( 5568 H alf-life)

9 4 B C ( Damon c alibrated). P -1926 4 344 ± .69 ( 5568 H alf-life)

=

2 120 B C ( uncalibrated) 2 560

-

=

2 394 B C ( uncalibrated)

1 17 B C ( Damon c alibrated). I t i s i mportant t o s tress t hat P -1926 c omes

f rom

a n

3 030 e arlier

s tratum t han G rN-6774. 1 2.

K o ay 1 970:105.

S ee a lso Y akar 1 979:66;

H ere a ccording t o D amon c orrection.

3 04

R adiocarbon 1 4,

1 972:192.

C HAPTER X :

S OUTHEASTERN A NATOLIA

N ATURAL E NVIRONMENT A ND S ETTLEMENT P ATTERN ( Map X ) T his

r egion

f orms

p art o f

t he 'fertile

c rescent

w hich

l inks

M esopotamia t o t he L evant c oast. O ver m ost o f i ts l ength, t he n orthern b oundary o f t his r egion f ollows t he c rest o f a w ell-defined s eries o f m ountain r anges, t he m ost s outherly f olds o f t he T aurus s ystem ( Dewdney 1 971:202-204). A t t he s outhern f oot o f t hese m ountains i s a n a rea r ather d ifferent i n c haracter, b oth g eologically a nd g eomorphologic a lly, f rom t he r est o f t his r egion. H ere t he t opography i s c haracterized b y l ong, g ently u ndulating f olds a nd d omes ( Erinç 1 980:75). I n t his a rea, k nown a s t he T aurus " marginal f olds", s ome o f t he l andforms a re t opographically i nverted w ith e roded c ores, c orniches, h ogbacks a nd c uestas, a nd a mong t hese a re w idespread d epress ions, s ome q uite l arge, p enetrated b y s treams. T hese d epressions c ontain n umerous a reas s till s uitable t o s ustain f arming s ettlements a s t hey d id i n p rehistoric t imes. T o t he s outh o f t his a rea i s a g eog raphical z one c haracterized b y u ndulating p lateau s urfaces. T hese d ecrease i n h eight s outhward f rom 1 000 t o 5 00m ( Er nç 1 980:76). T he p lateau s urfaces a re i n p laces i nterrupted b y l ow m ountain r anges w hich t end t o f ollow t he t rend-lines o f t he T aurus p roper, r unning f rom s outhwest t o n ortheast b etween M aras a nd G aziantep, a nd f rom w est t o e ast a cross M ardin p rovince. t he

s tructural

T here i s a c onspicuous d ifferentiation i n

a nd t opographical

f eatures o f

t he e astern a nd

w estern

h alves o f t he s outhern p art o f t his re gion. T he t wo s ections a re s eparated b y t he K aracadag v olcanic m assif, r ising t o a h eight o f 1 938m a nd s tretching f rom n orth t o s outh ( Map:X). T he b asaltic l avas f rom t his v olcano o f P leistocene a ge h ave s pread o ver a n a rea l arger t han 7 000m 2 i n v arious s uperposed a nd j uxtaposed f lows ( Erinc 1 980:76). T o t he w est o f t his m assif, b etween U rfa a nd G aziantep, t opographical f eatures c onsist o f s lightly i nclined, s urfaces

f ormed m ainly o f

t he p redominant u niform p lateau

l imestone l ayers d issected b y t he

E uphrates

r iver a nd i ts t ributaries ( Map:X). K arstic d epressions a nd l arge p lains, s uch a s t hose a t H arran a nd S t 1r«ç, c overed w ith a lluvial s oil, v ery f ertile i f i rrigated, a re i mbedded i n t he s urface o f t his p lateau w hich s lopes f rom n orth t o s outh ( Erinc 1 980:76; D ewdney 1 971:202-204). I n c ontrast, t he t opography o f t he a rea e ast o f K aracadag i s m uch m ore r ugged. O ccupying t he c entre o f t his s ection i s t he D iyarbakir b asin w hich i s c overed w ith c lastic d eposits h undreds o f m etres t hick. T his b asin i s b ordered b y t he m arginal f olds o f t he T aurus f oothills, o n t he s outh b y t he M ardin t hreshold f ormed b y t he d omelike u pwrapping o f t he o ld g eological l ayers, a nd o n t he w est b y t he K aracada v olcanic m assif. T he T igris r iver e nters t his b asin f rom t he n orth; t o t he s outh o f D iyarbakir i t b ends s harply t o t he e ast a nd f ollows t he a xis o f t his b asin f or q uite a l ong d istance ( Erinc 1 980:75). A 6 a lready i ndicated, t he g reater p art o f s outheastern A natolia i s d rained b y t he E t iphraLes ( Firat) a nd T igris ( Dicle). O ver m ost o f t heir l engths t hese r ivers a nd t heir t ributaries f low i n v alleys c ut i n t he s urface o f t he

3 05

3 06

p lateaux t ion i n t hese

t o d epths v arying b etween 5 t o 5 0m. D ue t o t he l ow p recipitat his r egion m any o f t he s treams a nd s maller t ributaries o f

t wo

m ajor

r ivers

d ry u p c ompletely

i n t he i ntense h eat

o f

t he

l ong s ummer m onths. A s a r esult o f t his f armers t o t his d ay r ely o n d ry f arming i n l ine w ith t he l ong e stablished t radition i n t his r egion, a nd r eserve l arge a nd r elatively f ertile a reas f or s easonal g razing o f c attle a nd s heep. H owever, t he s ituation i n t he D iyarbakir r egion i s r ather A mbar,

d ifferent. R ivers c arrying l arge v olumes o f w ater s uch a s t he t he B atman a nd t he G arzan f low f rom t he T aurus M ountains i n t he

n orth,

a nd o thers

f rom t he M ardin t hreshold i n t he s outh,

t oward

t he

s ame b asin t o j oin t he T igris. T hus, w ith i ts w ide a lluvial p lains, i ts t erraces a nd r ivers c arrying w ater e ven i n t he s ummer, t he D iyarbakir b asin m ust h ave b een o ne o f t he m ost p ropitious f arming a reas

o f

t he w hole r egion i n p re-classical

T his S yrian

r egion,

d esert,

w hich f orms a n a rc a round h as,

n atural p assage f or M esopotamia a nd S yria. m ents t imes.

t hroughout

t imes

( Erin 9 1 980:76).

t he n orthern r eaches o f

p rehistory a nd h istory,

p rovided

t he a

t he n etwork o f r outes l inking A natolia w ith A rchaeological e vidence s uggests t hat s ettle-

a long t hese r outes e ngaged i n i ntensive t rade s ince N eolithic N atural r oads i n t his r egion g enerally f ollow t he m ain r iver

v alleys a nd a n umber o f m ountain p asses a long t he A ntitaurus r ange a nd t he Amanus, w hich l ink i nner A natolia a nd C ilicia w ith e astern a nd s outheastern r egions. A ccording t o g eomorphological e vidence a vailable f rom t his r egion i t s eems t hat t he c limatic , c onditions o f t he e arly p ostglacial p eriod s tarted t o c hange g radually a fter 9 000 B C. D uring t he p eriod 5 000-3000 B C, s outheastern A natolia e xperienced r ather e xtreme a rid c onditions w hich m ust h ave a ffected t he n atural e nvironm ent

t o

a g reat e xtent.

A t

t he b eginning o f

t he

p ostglacial,

a nd

d uring i ts v arious e arlier s tages, t he a nnual h ydrological b alance w as m arkedly p ositive ( Erinc 1 980:76). A ccording t o t his a ssessment, i n f act, i t i s p ossible t o p ostulate a c onsiderable s urplus o f w ater d ue t o a s outhward s hift o f c limatic z ones w hich r eached t he s outheastern A natolia a nd n orthern S yria a nd M esopotamia.

l atitudes D uring

N eolithic a nd E arly C halcolithic p eriods t he c limate i n t he w as c ooler a nd m ore h umid t han t hat w hich p revailed d uring

o f t he

s outheast t he l ate

p rehistoric a nd e arly p rotohistoric t imes ( post-5000 B C). A ccording t o E rinc, t here i s s trong e vidence i n s upport o f t his c onclusion ( 1980:80 8 1 .), t hat

i .e.: S ome r iver t erraces a nd e xtensive a lluvial d eposits s howing t he r ivers u sed t o b e m uch s tronger; e ntrenched d ry v alleys; l ake

t erraces s howing t hat l akes u sed t o r ise t o a m uch h igher l evel ( e.g. t he s hores o f L ake H azar, t he s ource o f t he T igris); a nd r emains i ndicating t he p ast. b een

t hat f orest f ormations u sed t o c over a m uch l arger a rea i n A s a r esult o f h umid c onditions t he s teppe z one m ust h ave

r estricted

t o

a m uch n arrower a rea

i n

t he

f irst

h alf

o f

t he

p ostglacial p eriod, p erhaps b ecoming a w ooded s teppe ( leso-steppe). l t i s a lso p ossible t o a ssume t hat t he l ower l imit o f t he f orests e xpanded d own t he s lopes, a nd r ivers d id n ot s hrink t o t he p oint o f d rying u p a t t he e nd o f t he s u m me r. S ummer d rought m ust h ave b een s horter a nd w as n ot a s i ntense a s i t i s t oday. T he p eriod o f p lant g rowth, s hortened b y d rought u nder

p resent c onditions,

m ust h ave b een m uch l onger d uring

t he N eolithic a nd E arly C halcolithi -c p eriods. D uring t he t hird a nd f ourth m illennia B C t he n atural e nvironment o f s outheastern A natolia w as

v ery s imilar

t o t hat e xisting

t oday.

T he c limate w as a n

e xtreme

c ontinental M editerranean o ne. l t i s d istinguished p articularly b y m arked a ridity i n t he s ummer a nd s ome p recipitation i n t he w inter m onths.

T he

e xtreme c ontinentality,

3 07

h owever,

i s

t he

r esult

o f g reat

c

S onEnI ' Kd dr Hu xARABuRçLu o. ,I

H yi J i

/A c i a t

Z ,nc ,, l , ( Sam l )

.. .. .. .. .

) -

—

I SKENDERUN

H yü

sAKcAGOZU

• ‚.

\

-

®

'I

ALEXA NDRETTE

.

K

r H

0 AZAZ

A

T, 1 1 E ri d ( Apd )

Q . I T e l l A T . I l A ç ni ANTAKYA ( A NT I OCH A )

/ T U 11 b ® T

?

\ AA

. 1 A kr d

Srn ' ( 5. S im .on )

Hy k ( A I

A Td I C kyd

d) 2 .

' o H ARI M

N I $EH DA IR NA 0

o f l JR MAN TN 0 S AR MADA

ALEPPO ( C }4 AIPA )

o S CVEY D LYE

0 TAFTA NAZ I DL IB 0

S ERMI N ( SER MION ) 0

' hp

XA

3 08

0 M ESS

d istance r egime,

f rom

t he

s ea a nd

i s e xpressed,

b y a g reat a nnual r ange o f

e specially i n

t emperature,

t he

t hermic

a nd a s mall a mount o f

r ainfall ( Erinç 1 980:76). T he m ost i mportant c limatic f eature a ffecting t he h uman e cology o f t he a rea a s a w hole i s t he f act t hat s ummers a re v ery h ot. G reat q uantities o f w ater a re l ost b y e vaporat ion a nd a lmost n o p recipitation o ccurs d uring t he l ong, h ot s ummer m onths. i ncreases

T owards t he b y 2 00-300mm .

m ountains i n t he n orth, I n t he n orthern s ectors,

t he p recipitation a t t he f oot o f t he

A ntitaurus m ountains, s emi-arid c onditions m ust h ave p revailed i n t he L ate C halcolithic a nd E arly B ronze A ges a s t hey d o t oday. I n s outh e astern A natolia f orests o ccur o nly i n t he m ore h umid a reas r ising a bove t he 7 00-800m l evel, m ainly i n t he T aurus m ountains t o t he n orth o r i n i solated m ountains s uch a s K aracada a nd R amandag i n t he s outh. B rown f orest s oils c over a r ather l arge a rea i n t hese r egions o f g reater p recipitation ( e.g. t he M ardin t hreshold). T he m ost c ommon t ype

o f

f orest

i s

s parse

o ak

f ormation

o f

p arkland

a ppearance

( Quercetum). T his r egion c an b e c haracterized b y t he m arked p red ominance o f d ifferent t ypes o f o ak i n i ts w oodlands. T he c ontinental c haracter o f t he c limate, f rom t he v iewpoint o f t he t hermic r egime, i s r eflected i n t hese o ak f ormations, w hich a lso e xtend a long t he f oot o f t he Z agros M ountains i n a c haracteristic b elt ( Erin 1 980:78). I n c ontrast, a reas l ower t han 7 00m a re c overed w ith s teppe f ormations a nd r eddish-brown s teppe s oils. T hese a lkaline s oils h ave m edium t o l ow o rganic c ontents a nd a re r ich i n l ime a nd p otassium . I n o ther w hile s uch s oils a re m ore s uited f or i rrigated f arming, s ince

w ords, a nnual

y ield o f g rain w ould n ot h ave b een v ery g reat u nder d ry f arming w hich w as w idely p ractised i n p rehistoric t imes. A s f ar a s t he v egetation c over i s c oncerned, t he s outheastern s teppes a re p oorer t han t hose o f c entral A natolia. T hey e xtend o ver w ide a reas i n t he D iyarbakir b asin, i n t he v alley f loor o pening i nto t his b asin, t o t he s outh o f t he M ardin t hreshold, a nd p articularly o n t he U rfa p lateau e xtending f rom t he K aracada m assif i n t he e ast t o t he b anks o f t he E uphrates i n t he w est ( Maps:I-III). A mong t he m ost i mportant e lements o f t he s teppe a re A canthophylluf l i, A stralagus s p., B romus a nd s ome w ild t ypes o f g rain ( Avena). T he p oorest a reas o f t he s teppe a re t hose t o t he s outh o f K aracadaj a nd U rfa. I n t hese a reas, w here t he y early r ainfall i s o nly a l ittle o ver 3 00mm ,

t he v egetation i s o f

t he d esert-steppe

t ype

( Erinc

1 980:78). A ccording

t o

a rchaeological i nvestigations

i n t he

p rovinces

o f

D iyarbakir a nd S iirt, p rehistoric m ounds a re c oncentrated i n t he f ertile v alleys a nd v alley e dges i n a reas t o t he w est o f S iirt, i n t he v icinity o f K urtalan, B atman, b etween B atman a nd D iyarbakir, a nd D iyarbakir a nd S iverek. T he r egion t o t he e ast o f S iirt i s m ountainous. A lthough i t w as n ot i nvestigated d uring t he p rehistoric r esearch b y ç ambel a nd B raidwood ( 1980:152), o ne m ay a ssume t hat m ountainous a reas, w ith d ifficult a ccess t o t he f ertile v alleys

s uch a nd

p lains s ituated i n l ow t errain, w ere n ot u sually f avoured b y s edentary c ommunities i n p rehistoric a nd l ater t imes. T he K ezer a nd B asur v alleys T his

m ay

w est o f w ell

S iirt p roduced o nly a f ew s ites b e d ue

t o

t he f act

t hat

( Benedict

t hese v alleys a re

1 980:152). n arrow

a nd

t herefore h ave o nly r estricted a reas f or c ultivation. T he v alley o f t he G arzan, o n t he o ther h and, i s r ather w ide w ith r olling h ills a nd l arge a reas o f n atural r oute

f ields s uitable f or c ultivation a nd g razing. T he m ain b etween K urtalan a nd B atman r uns t hrough t his v alley,

w hich i s f ertile i n c omparison w ith m ost o f t his h ighland r egion. T he h igh v alleys a t t he f oot o f t he T aurus a nd a reas a t t he n orth e dge o f

3 09

M AP X B: 1 .

O ruculu H 8yUk

2 .

G 8k H 8yUk

3 .

T HE I SLAHIYE P LAIN 3 9.

K arapinar H 8y { Ik

4 0.

T üt k ln H 8yf lk

D iserce H 8yUk

4 1.

S içanh8yt lk

4 . 5 .

S ivrimine H 8yUk S akarat H 8yUk

4 2. 4 3.

T atar H 8yUk C incikhi

6 . 7 . 8 .

K iri ka1 K aballi H 8y t lk B 6 ' Urt1enhi H 8yUk

4 4. 4 5. 4 6. 4 7.

d rdekburnu Y eser nek M elikanil A a1arobasi H 8yUk

9 .

S atir H 8yUk

1 0. 1 1.

K eferdiz H 8yUk S angurus H 8yUk

4 8. 4 9.

A 1a iz T ilkitepe

1 2. 1 3.

K arah8yUk M esth8y t lk

5 0. 5 1.

L ece M eydan E kbez H 8yUk

1 4. 1 5.

K arahasan H 8yUk C oba H 8yUk ( Sakça 8z{ 1)

5 2. 5 3.

T i e1e H 8yUk D egirmenli

1 6. 1 7. 1 8. 1 9. 2 0. 2 1.

K uskun H 8yUk ç akmak H 8yUk M elekier H 8yUk A açli H 8yUk G 8z1tf f i8yt 1k K emezanhi H 8yt lk

5 4. 5 5. 5 6.

K arafakili K arafakili I I Y enicek

5 7. 5 8.

K argihik D edeçinar

2 2. 2 3.

N ergishi H 8yUk K { 1 *$ lk G ercin

5 9. 6 0.

B ozhJylk K irmitli

2 4. 2 5. 2 6. 2 7.

B t lyt ik G ercin S { lzmez H 8y t lk A raplar H 8yUk Z incirli

2 8. 2 9.

P ancarli E lbistan H 8yUk

3 0. 3 1. 3 2. 3 3.

T u rac H 8yUk A rpali T u r nen H 8yUk U ca ac

3 4. 3 5. 3 6. 3 7.

D avulbaz G U11« H 8y 1 1k B erviyanhi H 8yUk I B erviyanhl H 8yUk I I

3 8.

A ltintop

6 1.

T ekdut

6 2. 6 3.

Y arir ntepe G Uzelceh8y t ik

6 4. 6 5. 6 6. 6 7. 6 8.

Y usuflu S ivrih8y«k A rpali H a1i1a a G 8kh8yUk

6 9. 7 0. 7 1.

K odalli H 8yt lk K unduz H 8yt Ik H ammaco H 8yUk

7 2. 7 3. 7 4.

O nnephi K oyuncu ç olakli

7 5.

K aradurm 91u H 8yUk

3 10

MAP XB

31 L

t he

p lain

b etween E rgani a nd D iyarbakir w ere n ot d ensely

s ettled

i n

p rehistoric t imes. A n umber o f a ncient s ettlements i n t his a rea a re f ound a round E rgani a nd b etween E rgani a nd M aden ( Benedict 1 980:169; F ig.10). M ost a ncient s ites i n t he p rovinces o f U rfa ' , D iyarbakir a nd S iirt

a re

m ounds

s ituated o n s mall n atural e levations.

S ome o f

t he

l arge m ound f ormations w ith L ate C halcolithic a nd E arly B ronze A ge o ccupation h ave d iameters c a.150m a nd -h eights o f 2 0-25m. I n a ddition t o m ound s ettlements, h illtop s ettlements a nd f lat s ettlements o n v alley

t erraces a nd h ill-slopes a re r ather c ommon

( Benedict

1 980:157-

1 91). T he U rfa p rovince, t he s outheast A natolian p lateau, g ently u ndulating o n t he A diyaman s ide, h as a m ore r ugged a ppearance i n t he S iverek d istrict ( 0zdo an 1 977:157). T o t he n orth o f t he p lateau i n t he S iverek d istrict, h igh h ills a nd d eep v alleys i ncrease i n n umber. T he

b ed

o f

t he E uphrates d eepens a nd

b ecomes

c onsiderably

n arrower

t owards t he n orth, a nd t he r idges s urrounding t he f lood-plain b ecome s teeper; b ut, n evertheless, t here a re s mall p ockets o f f ertile p lains w ith a ncient s ettlements. T he S iverek d istrict h as m ore n umerous a nd l arger m ounds t han i n t he K ahta d istrict. A n umber o f t hese s ettlements a re s ituated o n t he r idges s urrounding t he b ed E uphrates. O ne o f t he i mportant m ounds i n t his d istrict i s

a ncient o f t he N isibin

H 8yU U ( Ozdo'an 1 977:157; S 52/17). T oprakkale H 8y { I[ 1 ( Map X F :29) i n t his d istrict i s t he l argest s ettlement t o b e f looded b y t he K arababa D am . T he s ite c omprises, a mong o ther r emains, a m edium s ize m ound y ielding C halcolithic a nd E arly B ronze A ge f inds ( dzdo an 1 977:157). A nother i mportant s ite i s H assek H öyügü ( Map X F:31), a l arge s ettlement o f t he L ate C halcolithic p eriod a nd b eginning o f t he E arly B ronze A ge. F urther w est, n ortheast o f U rfa, s tretches o f f lat l and. H owever, o f t he r ugged,

t he H ilvan d istrict c onsists o f w ide t he l andscape c hanges i n t he v icinity

E uphrates, b ecoming u ndulating, a nd i n c ertain p laces e ven w ith v ertical l imestone s carps b ounding s ome s tretches o f t he

f lood-plain.

T his

f lood-plain i s a n e xtension o f

t he L idar p lain

t he B ozova d istrict. T here a re n umerous l arge m ounds b oundaries o f t his d istrict, e specially o n t he p lain a nd

i n

w ithin t he t he p lateau

( Ozdo an 1 977:162). O n t he f lood-plain, o n t he o ther h and, n o l arge s ites e xist. I n f act, o f t he t hirteen s ites r ecorded b y O zdo an ( 1977), o nly o ne, M eyan H 8y0gt l ( Map X F:20), c an b e c alled a med ium s ize m ound, t he r emaining o nes b eing s mall m ounds a nd f lat s ettlements. T he e arliest e vidence f or p ermanent s ettlements i n t his a rea w ere f ound a t S lleyman B ey H arabesi a nd T orcik ( Map X F:19, 2 1). A ccording t o O zdo an ( 1977:162), a rchaeological e vidence f or t he E arly B ronze A ge i n t his d istrict T he

c omes

f rom M eyan H Hy1 t f.

B ozova

e xtension

o f

d istrict

i n t he U rfa p rovince c onstitutes

t he U rfa p lain.

I n t he v icinity o f

a

n atural

E uphrates,

t he

l andscape b ecomes m ore u ndulating a nd i s i ntersected b y t he v alleys o f s mall s treams a nd f lood-waters. W ithin t he d istrict,

d eep t wo

s eparate f lood-plains b order t he E uphrates. l ow r idges d escend a s f ar a s t he r iver b ank. p lain

c omes

t o a n e nd a t B t {yt lk T epe,

a fter

t he

B etween t he t wo p lains, T o t he w est, t he f loodt his p oint t he

E uphrates

f lows i nto a s mall s trait. W est o f a kan, t he a rea l eading u p t o t he p lateau c onsists o f v ery s teep s lopes. S treams a nd f lood w aters h ave c arved o ut d eep c anyons i n t his a rea. T he l and i s m ainly f ormed o f s edimentary

r ocks.

E ast o f

a kan,

i n t he v icinity o f L idar,

t he z one

l eading t o t he p lateau c onsists m ainly o f t erraces a nd f oothills ( özdo an 1 977:171). T he l argest t ributary o f t he E uphrates i n t his

3 12

r egion i s t he I ncesu, w hich f lows t hrough a w ide b ed, w ith p atches o f a lluvial l and b ounded b y l ow r idges. T he s econd l argest s tream i s t he T avuk D eresi,

w hich r uns

t hrough a d eep a nd n arrow v alley.

I n r ecent

d ecades t he E uphrates h as c hanged i ts c ourse t owards t he s outh, i n t he d irection o f U rfa, a nd h as c aused t he f lood-plain t o g row n arrower. A s a r esult n umerous a ncient s ettlements a ligned a long t he r iver b ank, h ave b een d estroyed t o a g reat e xtent, t he b est e xamples o f t hese b eing K t ft 1k S a pk an T epe a nd B t lyUk S a kan T epe m ounds ( 5zdo an 1 977:172). D uring t he f ield s urvey c arried o ut i n 1 975 a nd 1 976 b y t 3 zdo an , 2 2 a ncient s ites w ere r ecorded w ithin t he a rea o f t he B ozova d istrict. T hree o f t hese m ounds: L idar, S askan B t {yt lk T epe a nd T atarhJy t 1k, c ould b e d efined a s l arge m ounds ( Map X F:11, 1 2, 1 8). I n t he s ame r egion t here a re t wo m edium s ize m ounds, s even s mall o nes, a nd s even f lat s ettlements. T he l argest a nd s tratigraphically m ost i mportant a ncient s ettlement i n t his d istrict i s L idar H oyuk. A ccording t o b zdo an, T atarh8y { lk t oo m ay h ave b een a l arge u rban s ettlement ( 1977:172). L arge s ettlements w ith p rehistoric a nd l ater r emains a re f ound n ot o nly o n t he b anks o f t he E uphrates, b ut f urther a way f rom t his l arge r iver o n t he p lateau a s w ell. O n t he o ther h and, t he i nner s tretches o f t he f lood-plain, a nd t he i ntermediate z one w ere m ainly o ccupied b y s mall, s eemingly u nimportant s ettlements. T his d istrict w as i nhabited s ince t he P alaeolithic p eriod. D uring t he N eolithic p eriod, a f ew s ettlem ents w ere e stablished i n v arious p arts o f B ozova ( e.g. U luk M evkii, s 8t {t T arlasi, B in s M ezarli 1). M ost o f t he C halcolithic settlements b elong t o t he l ater p hases o f t his l ong p eriod. L idar a nd K armitli a re a mong a ncient s ettlements w ith i mportant C halcolithic r emains. Among t he e ight E arly B ronze A ge s ettlements,

L idar H 8yt !k,

S a kan B i ! lyUk T epe

a nd T atarh8yt lk m ay h ave b een i mportant e arly u rban c entres. S outh o f U rfa, p rehistoric m ounds. T his

i s a b leak,

( Lloyd a nd B rice m ents

i n

t he d istrict o f H arran i s s tudded w ith s cores o f I n t his a rea i s d ominated b y t he J ullab v alley.

o pen e xpanse, 1 950:81).

b roken e very 4 -5km b y c onspicious m ounds

T hese a ccumulated r uins o f a ncient s ettle-

t he d istrict o f H arran a re s till o ccupied b y s mall

v illages

u sing t he s ame s mall s treams, w ells, o r s easonal w ater-holes w hich m ust h ave a ttracted t he e arlier s ettlers. T he J ullab r iver, u nlike t he J ullab v alley w hich i s a bout 2 4km w ide, i s r ather n arrow a nd, s outh o f H arran c ompletely d ry i n t he s ummer m onths. T he v alley o f t he J ullab i s c ontinued s outh o f H arran b y t hat o f t he B alikh w hich r ises i n t he s prings o f A in-al- AruS. T he u pper v alley b etween U rfa a nd A k çakale i s d rained b y t he J ullab a nd i ts s mall w inter c arry w ater a s f ar a s t he B alikh.

t ributaries, w hich o nly i n T herefore, b ecause o f s carce

w ater r esources i n t his s ector, m ost s ettlements, e xcept t hose v ery c lose t o t he J ullab r iver s outh o f U rfa, m ust h ave b een o ccupied b y s emi-nomadic t ribes. U ntil r ecently, t he J ullab w as u sed t o w ater a f ew f ields b y i ts s ide, i ts w ater b eing b arely s ufficient f or g rowing t hin c rops o f b arley, w heat a nd p ulse. I n t his d istrict H arran i s o ne o f t he m ost i mportant m ounds, w ith a n o ccupational h istory d ating b ack t o t he C halcolithic p eriod. I t w as a n i mportant s top o n t he t rade r oute b etween t he M editerranean a nd t he p lains o f t he M iddle T igris ( Lloyd a nd B rice

1 950:80).

F rom H arran t o I skenderun t he r oad c rosses

t he E uphrates b etween B irecik a nd C archemish a nd r eaches A leppo. F rom A leppo t his n atural r oute c ontinues s outhwestwards t hrough t he p lain o f A muq a nd f inally r eaching t he M editerranean i n I skenderun. F rom H arran e astward,

t he a ncient r oad k ept c lose

t o t he f oot o f

t he r ather d iscon -

t inuous e scarpment, w here t he s outheastern p lateau b reaks d own t o t he f lat p lains o f n orthern S yria. T he l ine o f t he e scarpment i s t raced b y

3 13

M AP X C:

T HE A NTITAURUS R EGION ( After B rown 1 967)

K arapinar

2 0.

M erikil

2 . .

H azarsak

2 1.

A ristil

3 . 4 . 5 .

K es B urun E rkek I II E rkek I I

2 2. 2 3.

A fsin T eàevin H 8yUk

2 4.

C ebikçil

6 . 7 .

E rkek I O ruco 1u

2 5.

T i1af in

8 . 9 . 1 0.

K avakiar F iraktin S ahmelek

2 6. 2 7. 2 8. 2 9.

P oskoflu M ehre K arah8yt 1k-Elbistaf l H Jyt Ik

1. 1 2.

S ariz a r

3 0. 3 1.

O zan H 8yt lk M araba

1 3. 1 4. 1 5. 1 6. 1 7.

Y alak D amlali P inarlar G 8ksun Y assih8yt ik

3 2.

K ara E lbistan

3 3. 3 4.

K t lçt ik T il H 8yt 1k T il H 8y t ik

3 5. 3 6.

M alap M ara ka1e

1 8. 1 9.

ç o u1han E mirilyas

3 7. 3 8.

S t lrg t l T uihum ç iftlik-Narli

1 .

3 14

I

3 15

I

4

I

4

l a

0

E

M AP X F: 1 . 2 . 3 .

M ound G âvurtepe D ut D eresi M evkii

4 . 5 .

B iricik H 8yUk B ortarla

6 . 7 .

A lmaliktepe K armitli H 8yUk

8 . 9 .

H ayaz H 8yt lk B iricik

1 0. 1 1.

K urban H 8yt 1k § a kan B ( Iyt 1ktepe

1 2.

a skan K t lç«ktepe

1 3.

T atar H 8yt 1k

1 4. 1 5.

S epet H avalisi I ncirlitepe

1 6. 1 7.

S amsat G ritille

1 8.

L idar

T HE L OWER E UPHRATES B ASIN 1 9. 2 0.

T orcik M evkii M eyan H 8y«k

2 1. 2 2. 2 3.

S Uleymanbey H arabesi T ibil H arabesi Aa i H amil H arabesi

2 4. 2 5. 2 6. 2 7. 2 8.

K ara t neh inet S ehremuz S irti S alahan M evkii A likan M evkii T ille

2 9. 3 0.

T oprakkale L udik H armani

3 1. 3 2. 3 3.

H assek H 8yUk H irbik M evkii K irli M evkii

3 4.

D evelik M evkii

3 5. 3 6.

Z iyaret M evkii D e t nirtepe

3 18

M ap XF

3 19

a s eries o f f ortresses ( or a ncient c aravan s tops) w hich i nclude U rfa, V iran ehir, M ardin, D ara a nd C izre. H owever, t he m ain t rade r oute, a voiding t he b roken c ountry j ust u nder t he s carp, r an f urther t o t he s outh, t hrough S ürüç, H arran, R a s-al- Ain, K oh H isar a nd N useybin ( Lloyd a nd B rice 1 950:80). S ince e arly p rehistoric t imes t his m ust h ave b een t he w ay t o N ineveh, w hence t he T igris c ould b e f ollowed d ownstream t o t he d elta. A nother t rade r oute f rom t he M editerranean t o M esopotamia w as t hat d own t he E uphrates t hrough C archemish i n t he n orth ( Lloyd a nd B rice 1 950:Fig.1). S ituated n orthwest o f

t he U rfa p rovince,

t he A diyaman p rovince h as

b een t horoughly i nvestigated b y a rchaeologists i n 1 975 i n o rder t o r ecord t he a ncient m onuments a nd s ettlements s ituated i n t he K arababa D am r eservoir a rea ( 0zdo an 1 977; S erdaro lu 1 977). I n t his p rovince, a n e xtensive a rea o f t he K hta d istrict t akes t he f orm o f a g ently u ndulating

p lateau;

t o

t he n orth t owards G erger,

t he

l and

b ecomes

i ncreasingly r ugged a nd r ocky, a nd t he f oothills o f t he m ountains t o t he n orth f orm a l ow n atural b arrier. T he s outheastern p lateau i n t his s ector i s t raversed b y t he K hta C ayi a nd i ts t ributaries, a nd b y s mall s treams w hich f low i nto t he E uphrates. I n t his s ector b oth t he E uphrates a nd t he K hta ç ayi a re b ordered b y f lood-plains o f v arying w idth. T hese w ere f ormed t hrough e rosion a nd d eposition o f s ediment b y t he r ivers a nd t heir t ributaries ( 0zdo an 1 977:84). O n t hese p lains a ncient t erraces c an b e c learly r ecognized a t v arious l evels. T he s teep z one b etween t he f lood-plains a nd t he u ndulating p lateau h as b een b roken u p w ith a lluvial f ans a nd c ones a ttached t o t hem . T hese f eatures t end t o c hange s hape a fter h eavy r ain-fall a nd s ubsequent f lood-waters. I n t he s outhern p art o f t he K âhta d istrict t he f lood p lains b ordering t he r ivers a re w ider a nd v ery f ertile. A ncient s ettlements

i n t his a rea s how a d enser d istribution t han t hose

f urther

n orth. A ccording t o t he f ield s urvey c arried O ut b y 0 zdo an ( 1977), i n t he a rea o f t he K hta d istrict t o b e f looded b y t he K arababa d am a nd i ts i mmediate v icinity, T ille H 8y t 1k c onstitutes t he o nly l arge m ound ( Map X F:28). I n a ddition t o t wo m edium s ize m ounds t his d istrict i s s tudded w ith m ore t han t wenty s mall m ounds a nd f lat s ettlements. I t i s i ndeed

l ogical

t o a ssume

t hat m ost s ettlements

i n t his

d istrict

w ere

r ather s hort l ived. O ne e xplanation f or t his c ould b e t he l imited s upplies o f d rinking a nd i rrigation w ater i n t he K hta d istrict ( 0zdo'an 1 977:85). A s a r esult m ost s ettlements w ere e stablished c lose t o

r ivers

t hat

f low a ll

y ear r ound,

l ike t he E uphrates a nd K âhta ç ayi.

H owever, s ince t hese t wo r ivers p eriodically o verflowed a nd c hanged t heir c ourses m ost s ettlements h ad t o b e r elocated t o n ew s ites, p articularly t hose a long t he b anks o f t he E uphrates. W hen i nvestigati ng

t he

r emember v alleys

s ettlement d ensity i n a reas

l ike

t his,

i t

i s

i mportant

t o

t hat l arge r ivers o ften s hift, c ausing t he s ides o f t heir t o r ecede a nd t hus d estroying l arge n umbers o f m ounds a nd o pen

s ettlements s ituated n ear r iver b anks. I n t his d istrict, t he n umber o f s ites i dentified a s b elonging t o t he C halcolithic p eriod a re m ore t han B ronze A ge s ites. I n v iew o f t he B ronze A ge o nwards, s mall l arger

o nes

(zdo an 1 977:86).

t his i t i s p ossible t o a ssume t hat f rom s ettlements w ere r eplaced b y f ewer b ut T his a rea t oo

w as

i nhabited

s ince

N eolithic t imes. T he S amsat d istrict d isplays t he s ame t opographical f eatures a s t he K hta d istrict. T he u ndulating p lateau t o t he n orth o f t he E uphrates i s i ntersected b y t he K alburcu ç ayi a nd i ts t ributaries. T he v alleys c arved o ut b y t he s treams i n t his d istrict a re w ider t han t hose i n t he K hta d istrict; a nd t he i ntermediate z one l eading u p t o t he p lateau i s f ormed o f t erraces w ith g entle s lopes. T he E uphrates i s

3 20

b ordered

b y aw ide

f loodplain.

T his p lain i s f ormed o f

r ecent a lluvium

d eposits c arried o ut b y t he c hanging c ourse o f t he E uphrates i n t he d irection o f U rfa. A ccording t o O zdo an, t his s hould e xplain t he a bsence o f a ncient s ites a long t he r iver b ank ( 1977:115). A ccording t o t he s urvey r eports p ublished b y O zdo an a nd S erdaro lu, t he d istribut ion o f s ettlements i n t his d istrict i s i n m any w ays r eminiscent o f t hat i n t he K ahta d istrict. S ettlements a re l ocated n ear s prings a nd s mall s treams. T here a re n o m ounds o r f lat s ettlements a long t he p resent d ay l ine o f t he r iver b ank. H owever, a n umber o f s ites e xist a long t he r iver b ank o f t he E uphrates n ortheast o f S amsat. B ut a ncient s ettlements p roviding e vidence o f c ontinuous o ccupation a nd l arge mou nd f ormations a ppear t o h ave b een s ituated o nly n ext t o s prings. C learly t he E uphrates h as f looded f requently a nd d estroyed s ettlements c lose t o t he s outhern r iver b ank. E vidence f or t his p henomenon c omes f rom H ayaz a nd B iricik w here s terile p ebble d eposits c ould b e s een b etween t he o ccupation l ayers o f t hese t wo m ounds. T here a re n o l arge s ettlements i n t he v alleys c arved o ut b y t he K alburcu a nd i ts t ributaries. T he u pper r eaches o f t he v alley w ere n o d oubt p referred i n t he c hoice o f s ettlement l ocation, ( Ozdo an 1 977:116).

b ecause t hey a fforded s afety f rom f looding T he l argest a nd s tratigraphically t he m ost

i mportant s ite i n t his d istrict i s S amsat H 8yUk ( Map X F:16). T he c one o f t he m ound a lone i s o ver 5 00m i n d iameter, a nd c .40m h igh. T he s econd l argest m ound i s G ritille. T hese t wo l arge mou nds, t ogether w ith B iricik a nd H ayaz, w hich a re c onsidered m edium s ize m ounds, b ring t he t otal m ound a nd f lat s ettlements i n t his s ector t o t hirty. t hese, t he m ajority ( 24) a re f lat s ettlements. F our m ounds a nd f lat s ettlement y ielding C halcolithic s herds w ere i dentified i n

O f o ne t he

S amsat d istrict ( Ozdo an 1 977:11). T wo o f t he m ounds n ow b eing e xcavated, G ritille a nd S amsat, w ere e xtensively o ccupied d uring t he m ain

p hases

h owever, p resent

o f

t he C halcolithic p eriod.

t hat u nlike i n e very

t he U ruk p hase,

s hould

b e

e mphasized,

s ettlement w ith C halcolithic o ccupation.

E arly B ronze A ge p ottery o ccurs y ielding

I t

t he H alaf a nd U baid p hases a re n ot

C halcolithic

f inds.

i n t his d istrict o n a ll

S amsat s eems

t he s ounds

t o h ave d eveloped i nto

a n

i mportant e arly u rban s ettlement d uring t he E B p eriod. T o t he p rehistoric U rla,

w est o f t he A dlyaman p rovince t he s ettlement d ensity i n t imes w as n ot a s i ntense a s i n t he p rovinces o f G aziantep,

D iyarbakir o r M ardin.

c omprises p rovinces. s eparates

T he a rea k nown a s

t he A ntitaurus

r egion

t he m ountain t erriin t o t he w est o f t he S ivas-Malatya T hese m ountains f orm a n atural b arrier w hich l argely t he s outhern a nd e ast-central p lateau n ot o nly f rom C ilicia

b ut f rom n orthern S yria a nd M esopotamia a s w ell. T his e xtensive m ountainous a rea i s b ordered i n t he s outheast b y t he M ara p lain. T he g eneral t hey

t rend o f

t he A ntitaurus m ountains

a re b roken u p i nternally,

i s n orth-east-south-west,

b ut

e specially o n t he s outhern f lanks,

b y

v alleys a nd s teep r idges w ith a n orth-south a lignment ( Brown 1 967: 1 23). T he A manus r ange a long t he M editerranean c oast, w hich i n a s ense i s p art o f t his m ountain z one, s eparates C ilicia f rom t he p lains o f A muq a nd M ara .

Among t he m ountain b locks

i n t his a rea l ie a n umber o f

o pen v alleys o f w hich t he p lain o f E lbistan i s t he l argest. f ertile p lain d otted w ith a ncient s ettlements w hose m aterial c losely l inked t o t hat o f M ara a nd t he E uphrates b asin.

T his i s a c ulture i s A d irect

r oute f rom M ara§ t o E lbistan f ollows t he b anks o f t he C eyhan r iver. l t i s q uite p robable t hat t his r oute w as u sed a s e arly a s C halcolithic t imes

b y

t raders

a nd n omadic p eoples

3 21

t ravelling f rom n orthern S yria

t o

0 1

M E M B I D J ( H I E K A P O L I S ) C

R L C I K ( A P A M E A )

IA h n

( T , . "

/ 4 ,p )

T d I T h j

H

. 4

I / /

‚ ‚ U

/

/

/ I

/ I

C

6

4 . 4 0

. 5'

. 4

/ /

0

. 4

X7 EL

-

3 22

e ast-central m ounds f act, a nd

A natolia a nd b ack.

G 8ksun i s o ne o f

s ituated a long o ne o f t he t ributaries o f t he l arge m ajority o f a ncient s ettlements

i n

t he m ost

i mportant

t he C eyhan r iver. I n i n t he E lbistan p lain

t he v icinity o f P azarviran f urther w est a re s ituated i n

r iver

v alleys. M ost o f t he a ncient s ettlement s ites i n t his r egion a re s mall m ounds r epresenting s mall t o m edium s ize v illages. A mong t he l arge m ounds, G 8ksun H 8yt lk ( Cl. C ocussos) i s o ne o f t he m ost p rominent. T his l ong m ound, m easuring c .300 x 1 50 x 1 2m , i s a f lat-topped s ettlement s ituated •o n a r ock r idge. T he l argest m ound, h owever, i s K arah8y 1 1k which m easures 3 50 x 3 00 x 1 8m ( Brown 1 967:163). M edium s ize m ounds s uch a s Y assi H JyL Ik ( Cl. P tanadaris 7 ), 3 km s outh o f T anir ( Map X L :22), T il H 8y ' ! lk ( Map X C:13), a nd T edevin H 8y t lk w hich i s s ituated o n a l imestone p latform s outh o f H urman S u n ear t he c onfluence o f H anu D ere, m ay

h ave

p eriods

b een t own s ettlements d uring t he L ate

( Brown

S outh o f M editerranean t he

a reas o f

C halcolithic

a nd

E B

1 967). t he A ntitaurus r ange a nd p artly p arallel t o t he E ast s hore l ies t he Amanus r egion ( Map X A). T his i s o ne o f t he s outheast n ot f ully e xplored

f rom t he

a rchaeological

p oint o f v iew. I n p rehistoric t imes, t wo m ain p asses o ver t he A manus r ange p rovided t he l inks b etween C ilicia i n t he w est a nd n orthern S yria i n t he e ast. T hese p asses a re t he B eylan i n t he s outhwest a nd A rsianli B ei i n t he n ortheast ( Alkim 1 969:280). T he P ass o f B eylan ( Belen G eçidi), k nown a s t he " Syrian G ates", a fforded c ommunications b etween t he s ettlements o f t he A muq p lain a nd t hose i n t he C ilician p lain v ia I skenderun.

T he

A rsianli B ei,

o n t he o ther h and,

p rovided a

r oute

w hich l inked t he a rea o f Z incirli ( ancient S am T hl) o n t he e astern s ide o f Amanus t o C ilicia v ia U lucak ( Kazanhi), A yran, B ahre a nd o smaniye. I t s eems t hat d uring p re-classical t imes t rade c ontacts a nd o ther m ovements b etween n orthern M esopotamia/Syria a nd C ilicia t ook p lace b y t he r oute c rossing t he A rslanhi B ei. T his r egion w as s ystematically s urveyed f rom 1 958 t o 1 960 b y A lkim ( 1969). T he a ncient s ettlements i n t his r egion a re s ituated i n s ix s mall p lains i n t he s trip o f l and b etween t he A manus M ountains a nd K urt D at . A ll o f t he m ounds, m ore t han 7 5, l ie n ear t he m ain r oads l eading t o t he m ain p asses i n t he Amanus r ange. C ompared t o m ost m ounds r ecorded i n t he v icinity o f M aras,

a nd e ven G aziantep,

t hose

i n t he A manus r egion a re q uite l arge

a nd h ave l ong h istories o f o ccupation t hroughout t he p rehistoric, p rotohistoric a nd e arly h istorical p eriods. T his a ssessment i s, t o a l arge f act,

e xtent , t rue a lso f or m ounds i n t he v icinity o f G aziantep. t he d evelopment o f a ncient s ettlements f rom s mall v illages

l arge p roto-urban c losely r elated t o

I n t o

a nd u rban c entres i n l ater p rehistoric t imes w as t heir p roximity t o t rade r outes r unning f rom e ast t o

w est a nd f rom s outh t o n orth a nd w est. T he s ites s ituated i n t he f ertile v alleys o f s outheastern A natolia h ad a lso a c onsiderable s trategic

i mportance c onsidering t hat t he

t opography o f

t he g round m ade

i t p ossible f or w ell f ortified s ettlements t o c ontrol t he p assage o f a l arge n etwork o f r oads t hrough a f ew p asses i n t he A manus ( Map:XB) a nd A ntitaurUS A s

f or

m ountains. t he

r egion o f G aziantep,

i t

i s s ituated a t

t he c entre o f

i mportant n etwork o f r oads. F rom A leppo, t he m ost d irect r uns n orth v ia K ilis a nd t hence t o G aziantep. A s econd

a n

t rade r oute r oute f rom

B irecik, w hich i s s ituated a t t he c rossing o f t he E uphrates, l eads t o t he e ast v ia G aziantep. T his p rovince w as s urveyed b y a n umber o f e xpeditions; h owever, t he m ost i ntensive i nvestigation w as c arried o ut b y t he I talians ( Maps X D-E). I n t he n orthwestern p art o f t he G aziantep

3 23

MALD IN(MAP .Dt ) T e l l Bim i V IRAN

A TeU E rn ien e

F -HlP ( CONSTANT I NA )

0 KOHHISAR 0 DAP .A ( A NASTAS I OPOLIS )

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AT e l l H en s ,d , AT e l l H omAd ,

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T e l l C hes /ATT 1 Em ir T e l l D .k A AT e l l Db k AT i t lHern ia l T e l l A bO R i ci , . T e l l S if le We e ten i

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T e l l A bA B ehr

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3 24

I

p rovince

i s s ituated t he w ide a nd s wampy v alley k nown a s S ak agHzU.

I t

s tands c .1000m a bove s ea l evel. S urrounding t his p lain a re t he M araq M ountains t o t he n orth a nd t he K urt M ountains t o t he s outheast, a nd t he Amanus t o t he w est. T his s mall a rea i s d ivided b y a s eries o f l ow h ills;

t he n orthern e nd

i s d ominated b y M aras,

w hile s outhwards

t his

p lain e xtends i nto a n arrow c left, t hrough w hich r uns t he n atural r oad t o t he Amuq v ia t he p lain o f I slahiye ( Taylor, W illiams a nd W aechter 1 950:59). T he w estern p art o f s outheastern A natolia, w hich i ncludes t he p lain o f I slahiye, i s w ell w atered, a nd t here a re n umerous s mall s treams, s ome r unning i nto s wamps a nd s ome i nto t he A ksu r iver. T his r iver r uns s outh o f M ara u ntil i t r eaches t he C eyhan ( Pyramus). T he w ater-shed a lso d ivides s outhwards a t t he h eadwaters o f t he K arasu w here t he a n

i t f lows

s outhwards

t o j oin t he l ake o f Amik ( Antioch).

l argest m ounds i n t he S akçag8zt l p lain i s K eferdiz H 8y { Ik. i rregularly s haped m ouna s ome 2 0m h igh a nd 2 00m l ong

O ne o f T his i s ( Taylor,

W illiams a nd W aechter 1 950:60). E xposed s ections f rom t his m ound a nd f rom C oba H 8yt 1k c learly s how t hat s uch l arge m ounds, p robably s maller o nes t oo, w ere b uilt o n n atural e levations s uch a s r ocky s carps. T his s ort o f n atural f oundation a dded t o t he h eight o f s ettlements, p rotecting t hem f rom t he e ffects o f p ossible f looding. T he l argest a nd m ost I t i s

i mpressive m ound i n t he v icinity o f S ak ag8zU i s S ongrus s ituated a bout a k ilometre t o t he n orthwest o f C oba H 8y t 1k,

H 8y t 1k. w hich

p rovides t he o nly r eliable s tratigraphy f or t his a rea i n p rehistoric t imes. S ongrus h 8y t lk i s a l arge m ound w ith a f lat t op, c .25m h igh, w ith a s pring o f f resh w ater a t t he f oot o f t he h ill. B ut, i t s hould b e

emphasized

h ere

t hat n ot a ll s ettlement s ites i n

t he

p lains

S ak ag8zt l a nd I slahiye a re l arge. S mall m ounds, r anging f ro m 5 to i n ' height a nd c .100-150m i n d iameter a re f ound i n t he p roximities l arger

s ites.

T he i mportance o f

t he r egion o f

o f 7m

o f

S a I ag8zt t i n a ntiquity

l ies i n i ts g eographical p osition ( Taylor, W illiams a nd W aechter 1 950:60). T his v alley c ontrols s ome i mportant r outes r unning a long t he v alley o f t he K arasu t o t he s outh, t he B ah çe p ass t o t he n orthern C ilician

p lain,

a nd

t he n orthern r oad

t o M araq a nd

t hen t hrough

t he

d ifficult m ountain t rack v ia G iksun t o E lbistan. T his a rea o f s outhe astern A natolia i s p articularly r ich i n t imber. O n t he s lopes o f t he Amanus, u p t o t he 2 000m c ontour, g row o aks, c edars, c ypresses a nd a bove t his h eight, I n

p ines a nd

v iew o f

t imber a nd p rehistoric

f irs.

t his n atural w ealth,

c ertain t imes.

o ne c an p ostulate t hat t rade

i n

f ruits ( dry?) m ay h ave c ommenced v ery e arly T he s ame v egetation c over i s a lso f ound i n

i n t he

m ountains r ound M ara a nd K urt D a' . T hese w oods w ere u sed f or b uilding t imbers i n E gypt, A kkad a nd l ater A ssyria. M any a ncient i nscriptions t ell

o f

t he r oyal e xpeditions

t o c ollect

t imber a nd m inerals i n

t his

r egion. I n a ddition t o t he r ich c opper d eposits i n E rgani, n orth o f D iyarbakir, t here a re a n umber o f s ilver m ines i n t he r egion o f M aras ( MTA 1 972:109). T hese a nd o ther d eposits i n s outheastern A natolia m ust h ave b een i mportant s ources a t t his t ime. f ound i n c lose p roximity t o c opper m ines i n t his

a ssumption.

H is

l egendary

T he s tele o f N aram-Sin, D iyarbakir, c orroborates

( ? ) c onquests a s f ar w est a s t he A manus

a nd t he M editerranean f or t he p urpose o f c ollecting t imber i nform u s t hat: " and t he j ourney t hat n o o ther k ing a mong t he k ings h ad m arched N aram-Sin t he K ing o f A gade m arched, a nd t he G oddess I nninni g ave h im n o r ival". " Naram-Sin t he m ighty o pened a p ath a nd h e ( Nergal) g ave h im A rman a nd I bla a nd p resented h im Amanus, t he m ountain o f c edar a nd t he N os.

u pper s ea..." 2 74 a nd 2 75,

( Gadd a nd L egrain, R oyal I nscriptions f rom U r, I , 1 928). T his I nscription h as g enerally b een t aken t o

3 25

m ean

t he

l ower e nd o f

t he A manus s outh o f

t he

B eylan

( Belen)

p ass,

e xtending f rom t he P lain o f Amuq u p t o t he w ide v alley o f K arasu ( Islahiye p lain). I n l ight o f r ecent d iscoveries o f m erchant t owns i n t he

E uphrates b asin a nd n orthern S yria d ating f rom t he L ate U ruk

( Iv)

p eriod, i t i s p ossible t o a ssume t hat t he n atural r esources o f t he a rea e xtending f rom D iyarbakir i n t he e ast t o t he M editerranean s hore i n t he w est

w as

a lready

b eing e xploited b y M esopotamians

w ell

b efore

t he

A kkadian a rmies r eached t he Amanus. I n v alleys a nd p lains s uch a s I slahiye, S ak ag8zt l a nd Amuq, w here w ater w as a bundant a s i t i s t oday, a nd t he s oil e xtremely f ertile a llowing t he g rowth o f w heat, b arley, o ats, l entils s urprising t o

a nd v arious o ther l eguminous v egetables, i t i s n ot f ind a v ery d ense s ettlement p attern d uring t he p re-

h istoric p eriods.

T HE S EQUENCE O F C ULTURAL F RAMEWORKS T his

e xtensive r egion s tretching f rom t he M editerranean c oast

i n

t he w est t o t he T igris b asin i n t he e ast c onstitutes b oth g eographica lly a nd c ulturally, t he n orthern p rovinces o f n orth S yria/Mesopotamia. A t

t he

v ersion

o f

b eginning o f

t he L ate C halcolithic

t he U baid C ulture s eems

p eriod

t o h ave e xpanded

f rom

t he

n orthern

t he

T igris

b asin w estwards, s preading n ot o nly t o a reas w est o f t he E uphrates, b ut a cross t he Amanus t o C ilicia, t hrough t he A ntitaurus m ountains t o t he p lain o f E lbistan a nd o ver t he e astern T aurus r ange t o a reas i n E lazi , M alatya a nd V an. H owever, u nlike i n t he p rovinces o f H atay, G aziantep, U rfa,

D iyarbakir a nd M ardin,

t he U baid C ulture d id n ot b ecome d ominant

i n t he M ara a nd E lbistan p lains. I n o ther w ords, l t d id n ot o verpower t he l ocal L ate C halcolithic t raditions w hich w ere r ather r elated t o t hose o f c entral a nd e astern A natolia. T he c haracteristic w are o f t his c ulture i s t he s o-called C oba W are, a lso k nown f or i ts f lint-scraped b owls. A nother f orm p roduced i n t his w are i s a s hort-necked j ar w ith a n e verted r im . I t i s u sually f ound i n l ate U baid o r p ost-Ubaid c ontexts, a t s ites r anging f rom a s f ar a s t he C ilician p lain, t hrough t he S ak agözü a nd M ara7 p lains, t o t he S injar a nd e ven t o T epe G awra a nd U qair i n t he e ast ( Brown 1 967:132). T hese t wo p ottery f orms, t ogether w ith t he p ainted U baid w are, a re a n i mportant i ndicator o f g eographical d istribution o f t his L ate C halcolithic c ulture. I n r egions w est o f t he E uphrates, p lains a nd t he Amanus r egion,

a nd i n p articular i n t he M ara , t he d ark f aced b urnished w are

t he t he

E lbistan o f e ast

A natolian a nd n orthwest S yrian t raditions a re f ound t ogether w ith U baid w ares. T he v illage c ulture o f L ate U baid-Early U ruk h orizon i n s outhe astern A natolia w as g radually r eplaced, d uring t he L ate U ruk p eriod, b y a r ather d eveloped t own c ulture. I n t erms o f t own p lanning a nd a rchitecture t his f inal p hase o f t he L ate C halcolithic p eriod c ould b e d escribed a s o ther p arts A natolia,

t he

e arly u rban . o f A natolia,

I t s hould b e s tressed, e xcept t he E uphrates

h owever, b asin i n

t hat i n e astern

e arly u rban' c ultures d id n ot e merge b efore t he e nd

o f

t he E B I p eriod. L arge s ettlements w ith m onumental a rchitecture, r eminiscent o f t hat f ound i n m ajor M esopotamian c entres o f t he P rotol iterate p eriod, a re f ound n ot o nly i n t he T igris b asin, a cross t he T urkish b order, a nd i n t he T abqa D am r eservoir a rea i n n orthern S yria, b ut i n t he p rovinces o f U rfa, A diyaman, G aziantep a nd H atay a s w ell. T hese,

m ostly

m ercantile

t owns,

m ust h ave d eveloped

3 26

r apidly,

t aking

a dvantage

o f

t heir g eographical p osition n ear t he m ineral

n atural r esources, c aravans

a nd

o ther

a nd m ost l ikely c ontrolling t he t rade r outes u sed b y

b etween M esopotamia a nd A natolia.

W ith t he a dvent o f t he P rotoliterate a p eriod t here i s a s udden a nd p rofound c hange i n t he r egional p ottery a ssemblage, n ot o nly i n t he s hape a nd f abric o f t he v essels b ut i n t heir o rnamentation a s w ell. T here i s a n o bvious d rop i n t he a mount o f p ainted p ottery, a nd t he d istinctive f orms o f t he L ate U baid p ottery r epertoire, s uch a s t he s hort-necked g lobular j ars, p ots w ith s loping s houlders a nd b eakers, a re

l argely

r eplaced

b y

s pouted

v essels

w hich

o ccur

i n

g reat

q uantities. F lat-based b owls w ith r ather s traight f laring s ides b ecome r ather p opular. A s f or t he b evelled r im b owl f ound i n l arge q uantities i n s ettlements a nd t ombs o f t he P rotoliterate a -b ( Late U ruk) p eriod, i t b ecomes t he h allmark o f t he f inal s tage o f t he L ate C halcolithic p eriod i n s outheastern A natolia. A t t he e nd o f t he P rotoliterate b , a l arge n umber o f s ettlements b ear c lear s igns o f c onflagration a nd o ther f orms o f d estruction. I t s hould b e n oted, h owever, t hat w hile t he i dentities o f t hose r esponsible f or t hese d estructions a re n ot c lear t o u s, t here i s a d efinite c hange b oth i n t he m aterial c ulture o f P rotol iterate c -d, a nd i n t he b urial c ustom a s r eflected b y t he a ppearance o f

c ist g raves w hich r eplaced

t he j ar b urials

i n

C archemish,

F l assek

H 8yt lk a nd p robably L idar. R eserved s lipped w ares, s ome b earing c ylinder s eal i mpressions, a re c haracteristic o f t he e arly t hird m illennium B C. I n l ocal r epertoires t hese a re s ometimes a ccompanied b y m ultiple b rush p ainted w are a nd s urviving f orms f rom t he p revious U ruk I V p eriod. I t i s i mportant t o s tress t hat t he r eserved s lipped w are o f n orth S yrian! M esopotamian s tyle c ontinues t o b e m anufactured i n t he E D I p eriod. T he J emdet N asr!ED I p eriod ( EB I ) i n s outheastern A natolia i s n ot r epresented i n e very s ettlement. I t m ay w ell b e t hat a fter t he w ave o f d estructions a t t he e nd o f t he U ruk I V p eriod, s ome s ettlements ( Gritille, K urban H 8y t 1k, S amsat) m ay h ave b een a bandoned t emporarily o r s ome s ettlements r epressed f rom l arge a nd w ell d eveloped t owns i nto s maller v illages. S tarting

w ith

t he

s econd q uarter o f

s ettlement a ctivity t hroughout t his

m illennium

B C,

r egion i ncreased c onsiderably.

t he

t hird

O ne

o f t he m ost i nteresting d evelopments w hich a ffected t he A muq p lain w as t he s uperimposition o f t he e ast A natolian/Transcaucasian E B I I c ulture ( Amuq H ) o n t he n orth S yrian a ffiliated l ocal t radition. n ew c ulture d id n ot r eplace e ntirely t he m ore d eveloped

H owever, t he a nd e qually

t raditional l ocal c ulture i n t he A muq. T he w heelmade l ight w ares o f S yrian t radition r etained t heir p opularity, i ndicating t hat t he i ndigenous p opulation i n a reas a ffected b y t he i nvasion c o-existed w ith t he n ewcomers o f n orthern o rigin. A ssuming t hat t he d ensely p opulated a reas o f i mmigrating t ribes, w hich i ncluded l arge l ife

s tyle w hile

E uphrates

s outheastern A natolia c ould n ot a bsorb a ll t he t hen i t i s l ogical t o p ostulate t hat t he l atter, s egments o f f armers, c ould h ave a dopted a p astoral

i n s earch f or n ew l ands

v alley,

a nd

m ost

p robably

f urther s outh. t he

F ollowing t he

M alatya-Marash-Gaziantep

( Islahiye) r oute t hey m ust h ave r eached t he r ather c rowded a nd m ostly w ell f ortified s ettlements i n t he E uphrates b asin s outh o f t he e astern T aurus r ange. W hen t heir e fforts t o e stablish a f oothold i n n orthern S yria / Mesopotamia p roved d ifficult t o a chieve t hey m ust h ave t urned w est, f inally r eaching t he A muq a nd l ater o verrunning t he s ettlements a long t he O rontes a nd t hose i n n orthern I srael. T heir p resence a cross t he Amanus

c ould h ave a larmed t he s edentary c ommunities

3 27

i n C ilicia

w ho

o rganized

t hemselves

w ithin h astily f ortified t owns

( Tarsus E B

I I?).

T hese g roups d id n ot b elong t o t he w estern b ranch o f t he e arly T ranscaucasian; t heir p ottery r epertoire d id n ot i nclude t he p ainted w ares o f t he M alatya-Elazig r egion. T he d isappearance o f t his c ulture o f T ranscaucasian h eritage i n n orthwest S yria a nd n orthern I srael d uring t he s econd m ystery. I n v iew t raditions a ssemblage,

h alf o f t he t hird m illennium B C i s s hrouded i n o f t he d eep-routed a nd l ong m aintained c ultural

r eflected I n t he a rchitectural r emains t he t heory o f c ultural a ssimilation' c annot

e xplain t he f ate o f t his i n t he s ocio-economic, l ed t o t he d ispersal o f t ime

t hey

a nd p ottery s atisfactorily

c ulture. I b elieve t hat s ignificant c hanges p olitical a nd d emographic c onditions m ay h ave t he o riginal b earers o f t his c ultures. T his

c ould h ave h eaded n orth b ack t o

t heir a ncestral

h ighlands.

I t i s i mportant t o s tress t hat n umerous r egions o f t he N ear E ast, a nd I n p articular s outheastern A natolia, w ere e xperiencing o ne o f t he n est t urbulant p hases o f t heir e arly h istory d uring t he t hird a nd e arly f ourth q uarters o f t he t hird m illennium B C, h aving w itnessed, a mong o ther e vents, t he m ilitary c ampaigns o f t he E D I ll-Akkadian k ings i nto S yria, a nd t he i ncursions o f h ordes o f n omads f rom d istant l ands, I ncluding t he a rrival o f w arrior t ribes ( Indo-Europeans?) f rom t he e ast. I n f act, t he p resence o f c remation b urials a t G edikli, d ated t o t he E B I II p eriod, l eave n o d oubt t hat n ew g roups o f p eople, m ainly s edentary, w ere i ncreasing t he p opulation o f e xisting s ettlements i n s outheastern A natolia.

I n r egional s tratigraphy t he s econd h alf

o f t he

t hird m illennium B C I s g enerally c haracterized b y a p ottery a ssemblage r ather u niform i n o utlook a nd t echniques. T hese i nclude t he b uff s imple

w are g roup,

b urnish

w are,

o range w are g roups O f

t hese

e arly K habur w are,

c ombed

( west o f

g roups,

a reas w est a nd e ast o f I slahiye

w ash w are

s tone w are,

( smeared w ash o f

g rey

s piral

A muq)

a nd

r ing

b rittle

t he E uphrates).

t he b rittle o range w as s pread t o a t he A manus r egion d uring

t he E B

I I.

n umber B ut

o f

i n t he

p lain i t r emained t he c haracteristic w are a lso d uring t he

E B

I II. T he b uff s imple w ares a nd t he e ggshell o r e arly K habur w are a re g enerally c onsidered t o b e c haracteristic w ares o f t he E B I I p eriod ( ED I l-lilA). B ut t his d oes n ot m ean t hat v ariants o f t hese g roups d id n ot s urvive i nto t he l ater p hases o f t he t hird m illennium B C. T he c ombed w ash w are a nd t he g rey s piral r ing b urnish w are a re u sually f ound i n s ettlements w hich w ere o ccupied d uring t he E D I I-Akkadian p eriods. A ssigned

t o

t he l ater p art o f

( even

l ater)

t he t hird m illennium B C a re

s tone-

b uilt l arge c hamber t ombs c ontaining m ore t han o ne b urial, a nd a r ich a ssortment o f m etal a rtifacts a nd p ottery p laced a s t omb d eposits. I n a rchitecture,

t he E B I II p eriod i s c haracterized b y t owns h aving t hick

f ortifications a dministrative

a nd c itadels ( upper c ities) c ontaining l arge ( public) b uildings, b uilt a ccording t o t he a lready w ell

d eveloped u rban a rchitecture o f n orth S yria/Mesopotamia. T he s equence i n t he A ntitaurus r egion,

p articularly I n t he p lains

o f M ara a nd E lbistan, s uggests a s lightly d ifferent c ultural d evelopm ent w hen c ompared w ith t he r est o f s outheastern A natolia. T he M iddle a nd L ate C halcolithic p eriods a re m ainly r epresented b y a l ocal v ariant o f d ark f aced b urnished w are k nown i n e astern A natolia a nd n orth S yria s ince t he f ifth m illennium B C. T he p resence o f t his w are i n t his r egion M ara

c ould b e i nterpreted a s p roving t hat t he p opulation a nd E lbistan w ere s omehow r elated

3 28

t o

t hose

g roups

o f

l iving o n e ither s ide

‚ 4

C H A L C O L I T H I C

-4

0 0 a ) '

.

a ll

4 . 4

0 ) c i ( a

C O . 14

4. 4

0 0 4

S

' I

( I)

41

0

0 a ) 0 . 0 4 0 ) 7

I -

-

-

_

O 0

o 0

._

( a

_

3 0

4 . 4

0 .4 4 0 ) 0

0 0 ) . 0

c a

( a

c i

a

c

T r

0

0 0 4 0 ) c a . 0 . W C0 ( a ' 4 4. 4 0 4. 4 0 0 4. 4 W . W D 4 ' a ) 0 ) c a 4 c i c a

0

a )

4 . 4

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0

( a 00 0 0 . 4

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0 0 . 0 0 0

a ) 4 . 4

4 I t . 4

0

c i

c i 0 . 0 0 0 0 4 ' c a 4. 4 0 0

( a

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0 ( a

( a

c i ( a c i O 0 . O

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c i

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a ) ‚ 4

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ia 4 4

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4 4

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( ac io o

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a )

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1

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a o f b e v e l e d

lo

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4 ., E n

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( a

i c i