The Later Prehistory of Northern England, Parts i - iii: Cumbria, Northumberland and Durham from the Neolithic to the Late Bronze Age 9781407392264, 9781407392271, 9781407392288, 9780860544173, 9781407317755

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The Later Prehistory of Northern England Cumbria, Northumberland �nd Durham from the Neolithic to the Late Bronze Age

. Rosemary Annable

Part i

BAR British Series 160(i) 1987

B.A.R. 5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

B.A.R. 160 (I), 1987: 'The Later Prehistory of Northern England' Part I

©

Rosemary Annable, 1987.

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407392264 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407392271 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9781407392288 (Volume III) paperback ISBN 9780860544173 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407317755 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860544173 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

i n M emoriam

I. F.S. 1 949 - 1 977

C ONTENTS P age P art i T ext a nd A cknowledgements

b ibliography 1 .

I ntroduction C hapter T he

1 .

1 T he e nvironmental e vidence

b ackground

o f

t o

t he n orth o f

P ollen a nalysis:

t he e nvironmental h istory E ngland

f rom t he n orth o f

o f

t he e vidence

E ngland

V egetation h istory z ones T he e lm d ecline C learance

3

t he n ature

a ctivity:

1 -VIIa

1 1 1 4

z one V IIa

1 6

C learance a ctivity: z one V IIb o nwards E nvironmental e vidence: s ummary P alynology a nd o f

a rchaeology,

h uman a ctivity

A rchaeological a nd S torrs

i n t he

a nd

1 8 3 0

t he e vidence

p rehistoric

p eriod

p alynological e vidence

3 3

a t

M oss

4 0

C hapter 2 . N eolithic a nd E arly B ronze A ge s ettlement T he M esolithic b ackground

4 2

T he b eginnings o f a griculture N eolithic s tone i ndustries

4 7 5 0

L ater s tone i ndustries T he " axe t rade" a nd t he d istribution o f s tone i mplements f rom t he n orth o f E ngland t hroughout B ritain

6 9

P rehistoric f lint w ork N eolithic p ottery

8 2 8 9

S ettlement

s ites

9 3

b urials

9 7

N eolithic S tone

c ircles

1 03

H enges C hapter

1 09 3 .

B eaker a nd E arly B ronze A ge b urials

I ntroduction P roblems o f t he p ractices C hronology:

a nd

1 13 a vailable

e vidence

s ome l imitations

t raditional

f or

o n i ts

b urial i nterpretation

c hronologies

1 26 i n B ritain

a nd I reland o ther a ssociated d ating e vidence c hronological b asis o f t he p resent a nd E BA b urial

c ontexts

f ound

i n

t he

1 27 1 29 1 34

s tudy

n orth o f

E ngland

B urials w ith a ssociated g rave g oods O ther e vidence f or m ortuary p ractices T he

' social - i nterpretation o f

C orrespondence T he

a nalysis

i nterpretation o f

D ifferences e ast

i n

b urial

o f

1 35 1 46 1 81

b urials

E BA b urials

1 83 i n t he

n orth o f E ngland

E BA b urials p ractice

1 16 1 21

s ite s tratigraphy r adiocarbon c hronology f rom s ites

b eaker

7 4

b etween C umbria a nd

1 88 2 14

t he n orth2 19

P age C hapter 4 .

B ronze A ge m etalwork

I ntroduction C opper m etallurgy

2 22 2 23

E BA m etalwork M BA m etalwork ,

2 24 2 27

t he W allington t radition a nd W ilburton m aterial

L BA m etalwork o f t he Ewart P ark p hase H allstatt C m aterial T he C hesterhope g old b eads T he d istribution o f L BA b urials C hapter 5 .

2 35 2 42 2 43

m etalwork i n t he n orth o f

E ngland

2 44 2 49

L ater _ prehistoric s ettlement s ites

U nenclosed h illside

s ettlements

P alisaded s ites H illforts a nd d efended O ther

s ettlement

F ield

s ystems

C hronology L ater p rehistoric

2 51 2 54 2 56

s ettlements

t ypes

2 57 2 58 2 61

s ettlement:

s ome

c onsiderations

- f orm a nd f unction

2 64

- c limate a nd s ettlement l ocation C hapter 6 .

2 66

C oncluding r emarks

S ettlement a nd s ubsistence T rade, e xchange a nd s ocial c onnections

2 70 2 74

S ocial a nd

2 76

s ettlement

o rganisation

A bbreviations

2 78

B ibliography

2 81

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS

i n

T his r esearch, w hich w as t he University o f O xford,

o riginally s ubmitted a s a D .Phil. t hesis w as f inanced i n p art b y a s tate s tudent-

s hip f rom t he D epartment o f E ducation a nd S cience a nd b y a dditional g rants f rom t he M eyerstein F und a nd t he C ommittee f or G raduate S tudies i n

t he

U niversity

S oroptimists m y

p arents;

t o a ll o f

A ccess

t o

c ollections D arlington, N ewcastle,

t he

G olden

J ubilee

F und

d ue a lso

s hould

a lso

l ike

p rovided

b y t he

c urators

S underland a nd a t

t he B ritish M useum ,

e xpress m y g ratitude

t o a ll o f

t he f ollowing

w hom

i n t heir t hem. i ndividuals

m y

e nquiries

ork, i n s ome c ases a llowing m e t o t his w hambers, W . C ummins, R .V. D avis, C . C

c oncerning v arious a spects o f u se u npublished i nformation: P rof. G . D imbleby, H oulder, P . M ellars,

t o

t hey h ave d ealt w ith

o f

C oniston, L ancaster,

f or f acilitating t he s tudy o f c ollections f or p roviding a dditional i nformation a bout t o

t he

g rateful.

i n m useums w as

k ind a ttention w ith w hich

o f

B ritain a nd a lso b y a ssistance f rom

t hese I a m m ost

m aterial

O xford,

a re a nd

t he

O xford,

a t A lnwick, B arnard C astle, B olton, C arlisle, D urham, E dinburgh, H artlepool, K endal, K eswick,

t hanks c harge f or

o f

I nternational o f G reat

C .I. F ell, H . R . M iket, D .J.

F rame, H .S. G reen, A . H arding, C .H. R obinson, F . R oe, I . S mith a nd M .J.

T oo l ey. I

a m

p articularly

g rateful

t o P rofessor R ichard W right

o f

t he

D epartment o f A nthropology i n t he U niversity o f S ydney f or h is a dvice o n t he u ses a nd i nterpretation o f c orrespondence a nalysis a nd f or p ermission I n

O xford

f acilities t o t he

t he

t o u se

o f

s taff

I nstitute

t he I

c omputer f acilities

e njoyed

t he I nstitute o f o f

t he u se o f

o f

t he A shmolean

o f A rchaeology.

t he P hotographic D epartment A rchaeology

h is D epartment. L ibrary

P articular a nd

f or m uch a dvice a nd

a nd

t hanks

t he D rawing O ffice p ractical

g reatest

e ncouragement

o f

d ebt

i s

t o P rofessor K enneth C able

m y w ork a t

a ll

t imes.

f or h is

i n

a ssistance

w ith i llustrative m aterial. A s m y r esearch s upervisor D ennis d isplayed u nfailing p atience a nd k indness i n h is a ttention a spects o f m y w ork. M y

t he

a re d ue

B ritton t o a ll

s upport

a nd

I NTRODUCTION T he

s ubject

p alynological E ngland,

o f

t his

e vidence

t hat

i s

s tudy i s a s urvey

o f

t he a rchaeological

f or l ater p rehistoric s ettlement

i n t he

c ounties

o f N orthumberland,

i n

D urham,

a nd

n orthern

C umberland,

W estmoreland a nd L ancashire n orth-of-the-Sands ( as c onstituted b efore r e-organisation i n 1 974). T his a rea i s n ot a n atural r egion, a nd h as n ot b een c onsidered a s s uch, b ut w as c hosen f or s tudy b ecause i t h as, i n t he p ast, b een a much n eglected p art o f t he H ighland Z one, r egularly e xcluded

f rom t he d iscussion o f

E ngland and n eighbouring

i s, f or m any p eriods, s parse f arther s outh i t w as c onsidered m ent t ime,

s ettlement d istributions

i n

i ncluded w ith t he d iscussion o f A s t he m aterial c ulture o f t he a rea a nd ' poor b y c omparison w ith a reas t hat p rocesses o f s ettlement d evelop-

a nd c hange c ould o nly b e u nderstood b y s tudying t he a rea t hrough r ather t han b y c omparing t he c ountrywide d istribution o f s pecific

a rtifacts t ion,

o r

s ettlement

a c onsiderable

a ble o f

a rtifact o r

o nly s poradically S cottish m aterial.

f rom t he t his

t ypes

a mount

o f o f

e xtensive w ork o f

p art

o f

l imited

s ource

f or

p alaeobotanists

t he H ighland Z one,

p rovided a n a dditional a gricultural p ractice.

c hronological

p ollen e vidence

o f

a nd i n

e vidence

s pan.

i n t he p eats

p articular

f or

I n a ddi-

t he p eriod,

h uman

i n

t arns

C umbria,

s ettlement

A lthough o ften c onsidered w ithin t he g eneral c ontext o f i n t he H ighland Z one, g eographical t erms,

a vail-

a nd

a nd

s ettlement

t he n orth o f E ngland i s n ot a n atural r egion i n b ut i s d ivided f rom n orth t o s outh b y t he e xposed

u plands o f t he P ennines a nd C heviot H ills. T he i nfluence o f t his t opographical b arrier i s s een t hroughout t he l ater p rehistoric p eriod i n t he d iffering t raditions a nd i nfluences a pparent i n C umbria a nd t he n orth-east i n a ll a spects o f s ettlement. T he e xtent o f t he a rea o f s tudy i s a rbitrarily d efined t o t he n orth a nd s outh b y t he c ounty b oundaries. T he a ffinities o f s ettlement i n t he n orth o f a djacent a reas a re a lso d iscussed i n t his w ork. T he

p eriod

b eginning t he L ate

o f

o f

s tudy c onsidered

a griculture

B ronze A ge,

c hronological a vailable

a t ime

l imits

o f

t he

a rchaeological

i n t his

s urvey i s

i n t he e arly 4 th m illennium b c s pan o f

t hat t o

f rom

t he

t he e nd

s ome 3 ,500 r adiocarbon y ears.

s urvey w ere a nd

E ngland w ith

d etermined b y

p alynological

t he n ature

e vidence.

I n

o f T he

o f

t he

p ollen

d iagrams t he f irst u nequivocal e vidence o f w idespread h uman i nterference i n t he v egetation i s f ound i n t he e arlier 4 th m illennium b c c oincident w ith t he b eginnings o f a n a gricultural e conomy. i st m illennium b c t he e nd o f t he p eriod o f s tudy w as f ixed

I n b y

t he t he

d isappearance f rom t he a rchaeological r ecord i n t he L ate B ronze A ge o f d atable d iagnostic a rtifacts f rom w hich t he p attern o f s ettlement i n s pecific p eriods c ould b e d etermined. W hile t here i s a c onsiderable n umber b c t o

o f s ettlement t he p eriod o f

l ong-lived t ypes p articular p eriod.

s ites i n t he a rea d ating f rom t he 2 nd m illennium t he R oman c onquests t he m ajority o f t hem a re o f

w hich a re t herefore d ifficult M oreover t he n umber o f e xcavated

t o a ssign s ettlement

t o a s ites

f or which r adiocarbon d eterminations a re a vailable c onstitues a s ample o f l ess t han 1 % o f t he n umber o f k nown s ites a nd c annot b e u sed a s d efinitive e vidence f or E vidence

f or

t he

s ettlement l ater

c hronology.

p rehistoric

s ettlement

i n n orthern E ngland

v aries c onsiderably i n t ype and e xtent f rom t he N eolithic t o B ronze A ge, i n s ome c ases r eflecting t rends f ound t hroughout

1

t he L ate B ritain,

f or

e xample

t he a bsence o f

b urial e vidence a fter t he e nd o f

t he

E arly

B ronze A ge, b ut i n o thers m ainly a f eature o f d ifferential s urvey a nd e xcavation. T he d ifferent t ypes o f e vidence f or o ccupation i n n orthern E ngland d uring t his p eriod a re d iscussed, f or c onvenience, i n s eparate s ections o f t he w ork, a lthough i t i s r ecognised t hat t here i s a c ons iderable c hronological o verlap b etween s ome o f t he t ypes o f m aterial s o d iscussed. T his i s c onsidered f urther i n t he c oncluding s ection o f t he w ork. T he e vidence d iscussed i n t his s urvey h as b een c ompiled f rom p ublished w orks a nd f rom a s tudy o f a rchaeological m aterial i n l ocal m useums a nd n ational c ollections, w ith t he e xception o f m aterial h eld a t B arrow M useum w hich w as n ot a vailable f or s tudy. T he b asic r esearch f or t his w ork w as c ompleted b y 1 977, t hat i s, b efore t he p ublication o f G ibson's B ronze A ge p ottery i n t he n orth-east o f E ngland ( 1978) a nd C owie's B ronze A ge f ood v essel u rns i n n orthern B ritain ( 1978). A ll c atalogue e ntries a nd r eferences f or b urials w hich w ere a lso d iscussed b y t hese w riters h ave b een c ompiled f rom m y o wn w ork, a lthough r eferences t o t hese p ublications, b een i ncluded w here a ppropriate.

e specially t heir i llustrations, h ave T he r eport o f t he N orthern A rchaeo-

l ogical S urvey, A rchaeology i n t he n orth ( Clack a nd G osling 1 976) i s r eferred t o, i n t he u sual m anner, w here t his h as b een c onsulted. P ermission t o s ee t he G azetteer w hich w as c ompiled f or t he s urvey a nd p ublished s eparately w as r efused. R eferences t o t he t wo m ajor j ournals c overing t he a rea, t he T ransactions o f t he C umberland a nd W estmorland A ntiquarian a nd A rchaeological S ociety

a nd

A rchaeologia A eliana

a re

c omplete u p t o a nd i ncluding t he v olumes f or 1 978 a nd 1 979 r especti vely. M ore r ecent f inds r eported i n t hese j ournals h ave n ot b een a dded t o t he C atalogues a nd M aps i n P arts i i a nd i ii a s t hese d o n ot s ubstantially

a lter t he d istributions a nd d iscussion i n t he

t ext.

A

l arge p art o f t his w ork w as c ompleted i n 1 981 a nd i ncluded r eference s ources a vailable u p t o t he o f 1 980. P arts o f t his s tudy, e specially C hapters d ate a nd

2 , 3 , i nclude

D etailed

5 a nd 6 h ave b een s ubstantially a ugmented s ince r eferences a vailable t o t he b eginning o f 1 983.

c atalogues,

w ith

r eferences,

f or

a ll

t he

t hat

m aterial

d iscussed i n P art i , t ogether w ith t he T ables a re t o b e f ound i n P art i i, a nd d istribution m aps a nd F igures i n P art i ii. C atalogue n umber r eferences A ll b c

a re u sed i n t he

r adiocarbon d ates

t ext

i n p arenthesis a nd i n t he F igures.

a re q uoted i n u ncalibrated r adiocarbon y ears

t o o ne s tandard d eviation.

2

C HAPTER 1 :

T HE E NVIRONMENTAL E VIDENCE

T HE BACKGROUND T O T HE E NVIRONMENTAL H ISTORY O F T HE N ORTH O F E NGLAND

G eology a nd s oils T he

h istory

c ontrolled

b y

o f

t he v egetation o f

a n umber o f

a ny r egion

i nter-related a nd

i s

i nfluenced

i nter-dependent

a nd

f actors,

t he e ffects o f a ny o ne o f w hich c annot w ith e ase b e s eparated f rom t he o thers. C hief a mong t hese a re s olid a nd d rift g eology a nd t he s oils d eveloped

o n t hem,

t he c limate,

e levation,

a spect a nd m icroclimate o f

e ach p articular a rea, a nd l ast, b ut b y n o m eans l east, t he e ffects t he a ctivities o f m an a nd o ther a nimals o n t he l andscape. T he i ts

b asis

o f

g eological

2 75).

I n

r ocks

t he

o f

t he

T he

s hales,

a nd

l ie t o

b oth

p l.XIII:

t he c entral C umbrian ' dome', h as

b een

l ies

S tamp 1 946,

t he

c raggy a nd m ountainous.

l ess

r ugged S kiddaw s lates,

T o

t o

p roviding

a c ontrast

i n s cenery

t o

m any r adial

t he n orth o f

t he o ldest r ocks

t he s outh t he s ofter S ilurian s trata o f t he

i n

2 71-

c omprised o f

s ubject

w hich h ave p roduced a d istinctive p attern o f

t errain i s

' dome

a rea,

t he n orth o f E ngland

1 971,

B orrowdale v olcanic s eries,

u plift,

d rainage. v olcanic

t opography o f

( Taylor B .J.,

t he n orth-west,

o f

p eriods

t he v aried

s tructure

o f

f lagstones m ore

t he o f a nd

r esistant

B orrowdale v olcanic r ocks. A round t his c entral L ake D istrict b lock a re f ound a v ariety o f y ounger r ocks, i n p articular t he C arboniferous l imestone s eries, a long t he w estern f oothills o f t he E den v alley, F urness, a nd i n s outh-east C umbria, a nd t he s andstones a nd m udstones t he

C umberland

•

A long

p lain,

t he s outh-west c oastal a rea a nd

t he e astern s ide o f

t he E den v alley

r uns

i n o f

t he E den v alley.

aulted t he s teeply f

illstone 2 00Oft ( 610m) s carp o f t he C ross F ell m ass, t he l imestone a nd m m ass, his g rit e xpanse o f t he P ennine u plands. O ver l arge a reas o f t nly s e xposed o m illstone g rit f orms t he s urface r ock a nd t he l imestone i f asses o ntrusive m V arious i i n d eep v alleys, s uch a s t he R iver T ees. d olerite

o r

b asalt

s tructure, t he d ykes, f ound t hese

r ock

a re

f ound

i n t he

m ost , n otable o f w hich i s n ot o nly i n D urham, b ut

t ypes

l imestone a nd m illstone g rit t he W hin S ill a nd i ts a ttendant i n t he n orthward e xtension o f t o

i nto N orthumberland,

t he e ast a nd

s outh

o f

t he

C heviots. N orthumberland a nd D urham • f orm, i n e ffect, t he e ast f lank o f t he n orthern p art o f t he P ennines, t he s urface l evel o f w hich d rops s teadily i n

s tone. o f

t o

t he e ast,

N orthumberland, t he

T he m ost v olcanic

m ore g entle

i nterrupted a nd

e levated

r ocks

t opography

o f

b y

i n D urham b y p art o f

t he s carp o f

t he F ell

t he

t he M agnesian

s carp

o f

n orthern N orthumberland i s

t he C heviots,

o f

l ime-

c omprised

c onsiderable e levation,

t han t he C umbrian m ountains.

3

s andstones

b ut

T he D urham

P ennine

c hain

m ay b e c rossed

H altwhistle) g ap, t o t he

s eparating C umbria

b y a n umber o f

g aps,

F eatures l akeland

o f

t he

c orries,

T yne

o f

t he A ire a nd

a nd

( Hexham-

t he

l ast g laciation i n t he n orth o f E ngland t he d rumlins a nd k ettle m oraines,

p articularly i n t he L une v alley, v alley a nd a round t he C heviots, w hich m asks

N orthumberland

g ap, a long t he v alley o f t he r iver T yne, a nd t he S tainmoor s outh o f w hich t he S hap F ells c onnect t he P ennines a nd t he

L ake D istrict. F urther s outh t he v alleys c onnect L ancashire a nd Y orkshire.

t he

f rom

n amely t he

t he s olid g eology

R ibble

i nclude

w hich a re f ound

t he C umberland p lain, t he E sthwaite a nd m ost i mportant, t he g lacial d rift

i n s ubstantial p arts

o f

t he

r egion.

T he d istribution o f b oulder c lay ( glacial d rift) i n t he n orth o f E ngland c learly e mphasises t he d istinction b etween t he d rift-free u plands a nd t he d rift-covered l owlands o n w hich t he s oils a re d eveloped ( Map 2 ). O ther n otable f eatures o f d rift d eposits

o f

g lacial s ands

a nd g ravels,

o f t he a rea g eology a re

l acustrine c lays,

s ilts

a nd

g ravels, a lluvium a nd t errace d eposits ( Map 3 ) f ound i n r iver v alleys a nd e stuaries, a nd i n l arger q uantities, p articularly i n t he C umberland p lain a nd

t he B reamish-Till

b asin i n n orth N orthumberland

G eological S ciences Q uaternary M ap,

f rom

T he c ontemporary s tatus o f t he v arious s oil t he l ate A tlantic p eriod o nwards, c annot

a lthough p ollen a nalysis o ffers ( pp.16-32). H owever, i n g ross

( Institute o f

1 977). t ypes o f n ow b e

t he r egion, d etermined,

s ome i ndication o f t he v egetation c over t erms, i t s eems u nlikely t hat t he s oils

o f t he l owland a reas h ave c hanged r adically i n t heir c omposition o ver t he p ast 6 000 y ears. T he p resent l and u se o f t hese a reas s uggests t hat n one

h as

t ion u pon

b een e xhausted

b y h uman o ccupation.

T he d egree o f

e xploita-

a t a ny p eriod c annot b e e asily c alculated a nd w ill h ave d epended t he t echnology a vailable a s w ell a s u pon t he d ensity o f p opula-

t ion, a nd, i n t he m ore m arginal a reas, u pon t he i mmediate n ecessity f or t he c ultivation o f a reas l ess c ertain o f a g ood r eturn. I n t he u plands, d egraded t he

h owever, s tatus o f

e ffects

o ccupation

o f

t he p osition 'is v ery d ifferent. t he s oils i s p robably t he r esult

c limate,

e xposure,

o f

H ere, t he p resent a c ombination o f

n atural s oil d egradation a nd h uman

( pp.23-27).

F rom

a c onsideration o f

t he s olid a nd d rift g eology o f

a nd o f p resent d ay l and u se, i t i s p ossible t o d ivide t he t hree b road c ategories, w hich m ay b e o f s ignificance w hen t he p rehistoric o ccupation ( 1)

s oils

( 2)

s oils, ( a)

o f

u pland

a reas,

p redominantly

b etter d rained,

( b)

o f

s oils w ith

s ome

t he a rea,

t he r egion s oils i nto c onsidering

n amely:

d eveloped o n s olid g eology a nd n ow d egraded

o f

t he

l oamy

l owlands, s oils,

d eveloped o n g lacial d rift

w ith b oth s and a nd

i mpeded d rainage;

c lay m ixtures

bar ns w ith b oth s and

a nd

c lay. A s

c an b e

a reas r ocks,

o f

s een

( Map 4 )

t he C heviots, c limate,

t he s oils P ennines

e xposure

a nd

o f

g roup

( 1)

a re f ound

a nd C umbrian m ountains, o ther n atural f actors

4

i n t he w here

u pland

r esistant

c oincide

t o

t he

e xtent t hat s ome n atural d egradation o f t he t hin s oils m ight e xpected. P eat g rowth a nd a m ore o pen v egetation a re i ndicated

b e i n

t hese a reas f rom p ' re-Atlantic p eriods ( pp.11-13). O f t he s oils i n c ategory ( 2) a f ew t ypes, m ainly s ands, m arine a lluvium a nd bar ns o n t he p eripheries o f t he C umbrian c oast, a re t oday a rtifically d rained. T he p otential o f t hese s oils d uring t he p rehistoric p eriod w ould b e d ictated, t o a l arge e xtent, b y c limate a nd a c omplicated p attern o f m arine t ransgressions w hich t ook p lace i n t he n orth-west f rom t he 8 th m illennium b c o nwards ( pp.7-8). I t s hould a lso b e n oted t hat s ome areas o f p rehistoric s ettlement h ave b een c ompletely n orth-east c oast, f or e xample i n t he H artlepool a rea,

l ost f rom t he b y t his p rocess

( pp.42-43). T he o ther s oils o f c ategory ( 2) a re p redominantly bar ns, ' mainly w ith s ome c lay c omponent, a s i n t he e ast o f N orthumberland a nd D urham, a nd p arts o f t he C umberland p lain, b ut a lso c omprising l ighter a nd s andier s oils, N orthumberland.

a s

i n p arts o f

I n g eneral,

t he E den v alley,

t he

F urness a nd n orthern

l ighter a nd b etter d rained s oils a re

f ound a round t he C umbrian m ountains, t he E den v alley, i n F urness, t he B reamish-Till b asin, w hich a reas a lso h ave n otable d eposits

a nd o f

a lluvium a nd g ravels, w hile h eavier s oils w ith a p otential f or i mpeded d rainage a re f ound o n t he e astern s ide o f t he P ennines f rom t he A ln t o t he T ees. C limate a nd c limatic c hange T he

b ackground

t o

t he p ost-glacial d evelopment o f

B ritish v egeta-

t ion i s p rovided b y t he p attern o f c limatic c hange d uring t he p eriod ( Manley 1 971, 2 74-86; L amb 1 977, 3 72-4; G odwin 1 975, 2 5-9). S ynchron ous c limatic c hanges a re i ndicated b y p ollen z one b oundaries, w ith t he e xception o f T he

t hat b etween z ones V IIb a nd V III i n t he B ritish s equence.

g eneral c limatic t rend d uring t he p eriod f rom t he

o f N eolithic s ettlement

i n B ritain i nto

b eginnings

t he L ate B ronze A ge i s

f rom t he

s table, w armer a nd w etter A tlantic ' climatic o ptimum w ith a verage t emperatures s ome 3 -4 ° F ( 2°C ) a bove p resent d ay l evels, t o t he c ooler a nd w etter c limate o f t he S ub-atlantic p eriod, a pproximating t hat k nown a t

t he

p resent

( Table 1 ).

o scillating p attern o f r ainfall ( Lamb 1 965, 6 -7;

S uperimposed o n t his

m ore m inor f luctuations L amb 1 977, 3 72-4).

o verall t rend i s i n

b oth

w armth

a n a nd

T wo p eriods a re o f p articular r elevance w hen c onsidering t he i nter-relationship o f t he v egetational h istory o f t he a rea a nd i ts h uman s ettlement, a s e xpressed i n t he a rchaeological r ecord. T hese a re, t he p eriod i mmediately p rior t o t he A tlantic/Sub-boreal t ransition ( zones V IIa-VIIb), a nd t he c limatic d eterioration o f t he 2 nd t o i st m illennium b c. T he l ast s ynchronous p ollen z one b oundary i n t he p ost-glacial h istory o f n orth-west E urope, o ccurs a t t he A tlantic/Sub-boreal t ransit ion, t he s o-called ' elm d ecline'. O riginally a scribed, f rom t he b otanical e vidence, t o c limatic f actors, o n a ccount o f t he s uscepti bility s pecies 1 941), r esult

o f e lm t o l ate s pring f rosts, a nd t he s ensitivity o f o ther s uch a s i vy a nd m istletoe t o a f all i n t emperature ( Iversen t he o f

e lm-decline

h as m ore

a nthropogenic f actors,

r ecently b een c onsidered t o

b e

t he

c onnected w ith t he s pread o f N eolithic

f arming p ractices ( Troels-Smith 1 960; G odwin 1 975, 2 45-7). V arious d ifficulties a ttending t his m onocausal e xplanation a re d iscussed e lsew here

( pp.14-16).

R ecent w ork o n w orld c limate d oes h owever

5

s uggest

t hat

a s hort

t erm c old e pisode,

t he ' Piora o scillation

t ook p lace a t

t he e nd o f t he A tlantic p eriod c 3 500 - 3 000 b c, w ith a n a dvance o f g laciers i n E urope a nd a c older c limate t han a ny f or s everal t housand y ears p reviously ( Frenzel 1 966, 1 03). V egetation c hanges a re r egistered t hroughout s everal c ontinents d uring t his o scillation ( Lamb 1 977, 3 72), w hich c oincides w ith t he m ean d ates o f c 3 350 - 3 150 b c f or t he

e lm

d ecline i n t he B ritish I sles

( Smith a nd P ilcher

1 973,

9 10).

T he p ossible c ritical i mportance f or t he f ortunes o f U lmus a nd T ilia o f t his c limatic d eterioration, w hich c oincides i n t he n orth-west o f E ngland w ith a f all i n s ea-level a nd t he e xtensive r emoval o f m aritime c onditions, h as b een n oted b y T ooley ( 1978, 1 89-90). I t s eems t heref ore t hat t he e vidence n ow s upports t he o riginal h ypothesis t hat t he A tlantic/Sub-boreal z one b oundary c ould i ndicate s ynchronous c limatic c hange. B y c ontrast, t he S ub-boreal/Sub-atlantic c limatic d eterioration c annot b e i dentified i n t he p ollen r ecord b y a ny s ynchronous e vent. T he o riginal z one V IIb/VIII b oundary, d rawn f or s outh-east E ngland w here b eech ( Fagus) a nd h ornbeam ( Carpinus) f irst a ppeared a s c ont inuous c urves i n p ollen d iagrams, w as f ound t o b e i nappropriate i n t he n orth a nd w est o f B ritain a nd i n I reland, w here t hese s pecies d id n ot p enetrate ( Pennington 1 969a, 8 3). N or c an t he G renzhorizont, o r r ecurrence s urface, f ound i n r aised p eat b ogs b etween t he l ower a nd u pper S phagnum p eat b e t aken t o r epresent a s ynchronous h orizon i ndicating t he o nset o f t he w etter a nd c ooler c onditions o f t he S uba tlantic p eriod ( Godwin 1 975, 3 3-4). I t i s n ow k nown t hat t here a re m any s uch b oundaries, o f d ifferent d ates, e ven w ithin o ne b og, a s f ound f or e xample b y v an Z eist a t E mmen ( Godwin 1 966, 1 0), t hat t he w hole s eries o f s uch r ecurrences a re n ot n ecessarily p resent i n a ny o ne r aised b og ( Dickinson 1 975), a nd t hat c orrelation f rom o ne a rea t o a nother

i s

p articularly d ifficult.

T he c omplex r elationship

b etween

r enewed p eat g rowth a nd c limatic c hange i s n ot y et f ully u nderstood i n e cological t erms ( Tooley 1 978a, 1 87), a lthough a ny p revailing p rocess o f v egetation c hange w ould b e g iven a n i mpetus b y c limatic p hases w hich l ed t o i ncreased l eaching o r r aised w ater-tables ( Seddon 1 967, 1 79-80). •

U nlike o ther z one b oundaries,

n ot m arked b y c limatic r egime.

t hat

b etween z ones V IIb a nd V III i s

t he l oss o f a ny s pecies u nable t o w ithstand t he n ew T his r emoves t he p otential f or t he c lear r egistration

o f c limatic c hange i n b otanical t erms ( Tooley 1 978a, 1 86). D espite t he l ack o f a ny o ne m ajor v egetational c hange, t he g radual p eriod o f c limatic d eterioration i n t he S ub-atlantic, f rom w hich t here h as n ever b een a f ull r ecovery, i nvolved c hanges o f s ome m agnitude, d etectable i n s ome p arts o f t he w orld, f or e xample, A laska, C hile a nd C hina, f rom a s e arly a s 1 500 B C. I n E urope t he m ost m arked c hanges s eem t o h ave t aken p lace f rom 1 200 t o 7 00 B C , w ith s ome r ecovery o f w armth a nd a t endency o nce m ore t owards a d rier c limate i n t he s econd p art o f t he i st m illenn ium 3 73).

B C, t he ' Little O ptimum', e xtending t o a bout A D 4 00 ( Lamb 1 977, B y 7 00 - 5 00 B C p revailing t emperatures i n B ritain m ay h ave b een

a bout 4° F ( 2 °C ) l ower t han t hey h ad b een h alf a m illennium b efore, r eaching t he l evels w e k now t oday. I ncreased w etness, m ild w inters, c ooler s ummers a nd i ncreased w indiness a re c onsidered t o b e t ypical o f t he p eriod, t he i mpact o f w hich w ould h ave v aried a cross t he B ritish I sles,

b eing w orse

L amb 1 977, s teps,

a nd

3 73). t he

b y s ome w riters

p erhaps

c hanges t o

i n S cotland t han i n E ngland

T he d eterioration w as

a chieved,

( Lamb 1 965,

i n g eneral,

7 ;

i n m inor

i n v egetation w hich i t o ccasioned a re c onsidered

b e o nly r elatively w eak ( Frenzel 1 966,

6

1 13;

T ooley

1 978,

1 86). T he m ain e ffect o f t his g radual c limatic d eterioration w ould h ave f elt i n a reas c lose t o t he l imits o f c ultivation, w here a s mall

b een

c hange i n a verage t emperatures o r r ainfall m ight t ip t he b etween e ffort e xpenditure a nd a r eliable e conomic r eturn

b alance ( Whittle

1 982,

a ffected

1 98).

I n t he n orth o f

E ngland

t he a reas p articularly

w ould b e t he u pland f ringes o f c ultivable l and o r p asture a nd l owlands s usceptible t o i ncreased w etness. I n t he S ub-boreal p eriod ( zone V IIb) p rior t o t he o nset o f c limatic d eterioration, a verage t emperatures a pproximately 4° F ( 2 °C ) h igher t han t he p resent w ould e ffectively i ncrease l apse 2 70ft

t he

l imit

o f

c ultivation b y a bout 1 000ft.

T hat

i s,

w ith

a

r ate i .e. a c hange i n t emperature w ith a ltitude, o f a bout 1° F p er i n t he B ritish u plands, t he l ength o f t he g rowing s eason n ow

f ound w armer

a t 8 0Uft w ould h ave b een o perative a t 1 800ft. s ummers o f t he S ub-boreal w ould h ave i ncreased

g rowth

o f

b oth c rops

a nd

p asture,

a s

t his

i s

I n a ddition t he t he i ntensity o f

r elated

t o

t he a mount

b y

w hich t he a verage t emperature e xceeds 4 2°F , t he t emperature a t w hich g rowth b egins. A n e xtension o f t he h eight o f t he t ree l ine w ould a lso b e

p ossible w ith a l onger g rowing

s eason a t h igher a ltitudes

t han

a t

p resent ( Taylor J .A. 1 975, d eterioration i n c limate

1 2; M anley 1 952, 2 22-6). T he e ffect o f a t o t hat o f t he p resent w ould b e t o r educe

s ubstantially

t he g rowing

t he l ength o f

s eason a t

a ltitude.

I n u pland

p astoral a reas t his w ould t herefore i ncrease t he amount o f t ime d uring w hich s tock h ad t o b e f ed b y h and i n w inter ( possibly b y a bout t wo m onths)

a nd

u nsuitable t he s horter

m ight

r ender u pland

l ocations u sed

f or

a rable

f arming

f or c ultivation w here c rops c ould n ot m ature a nd r ipen i n g rowing s eason. O n l ower, w ell d rained g round t he e ffects

w ould b e l ess e vident, a lthough s ome a dditional f odder m ay h ave b een r equired f or o verwintering s tock. I n l owland a reas w ith h eavy s oils t he

d evelopment

l argely c over,

d ependent l and

u se,

o utline t he o ccasioned b y m ental

o f

i mpeded d rainage a nd

g ley s oils w ould

u pon f eatures

o f m icro-climate

s oil

a spect.

t ype

a nd

s uch

a s

A lthough i t

i s

h ave

b een

v egetation p ossible

t o

t ypes o f e ffects u pon l and u se w hich m ight h ave b een c limatic d eterioration, t he r elationship b etween e nviron-

c hange

a nd

h uman s ettlement

i s

p roblematic

( pp.266-8).

I n

a ddition, t he a bsence o f V IIb a nd V III a nd t he l ong

a s ynchronous c hronology o f

b oundary b etween p ollen z ones t his p eriod o f c limatic c hange

m ake

o f

c ause

t he

i dentification

p articularly d ifficult

c limatic

a nd

s ettlement

e ffect

t o d efine.

S ea-level c hanges F or o ver 1 50 y ears t he s ubmerged c oastal p eats o r ' buried f orests' o ff t he c oasts o f n orthern E ngland h ave b een r ecorded b y w orkers w ith b oth b otanical a nd a rchaeological i nterests ( e.g. B aker 1 832; C ameron 1 878; T rechmann 1 936 a nd 1 947). w illow, b irch, h azel, a lder,

T hese d eposits, w ith t he r emains o f p ine a nd o ak, c harcoals, r uminants a nd

n on-marine m ollusca a ttest t he f ormer e xistence o f d ry-land c onditions i n a reas n ow s ubmerged b elow s ea-level ( Godwin 1 975, f ig.6) a nd o nly e xposed b y s evere s torms o r b y d redging a ctivities. S uch c hanges t he r elative l evels o f l and a nd s ea w ere o ccasioned n ot o nly b y t he a djustment e nd o f t he b ut

a ppear

o ccurring 2 nd

i n r e-

o f s ea-levels c onsequent u pon t he m elting o f t he i ce a t t he l ast g laciation, a nd t he c oncomitant r ecovery o f l and f orms, a lso

t o

b e c losely a ssociated w ith

f rom t he e arly p ost-glacial

m illennium

A D.

S ea-level

p eriod

c limatic i nto

c hanges d uring

7

t he

o scillations,

t he b eginning o f F landrian

i n

t he t he

n orth-west o f E ngland h ave r ecently b een s tudied i n c onsiderable d etail ( Tooley 1 978a: 1 98 0. T he m ost c omplete s et o f s uch t ransgressions i n t he n orth-west w as f ound j ust o utside t he a rea o f s tudy a t L ytham i n L ancashire, w here s ome e leven e pisodes o f m arine i ncursion w ere f ound, d ating f rom t he 8 th m illennium b c i nto t he h istoric p eriod ( pollen z ones V -VIII), v arious o f t hese e pisodes b eing r epresented a t o ther s ites i n t he a rea. T hese e pisodes, o f v arying d uration b ut r egular o ccurrence,

c an b e c orrelated w ith o ther a reas,

i ncluding

n orth-east

E ngland, w here L ytham e pisodes V I a nd V Ia a re r egistered a t I nner F arne, N orthumberland, a nd a t H artlepool B ay w here a s ingle m arine t ransgression b egan t owards t he e nd o f F landrian I I a nd e nded s hortly b efore t he U lmus d ecline, t he l a rrs b elow a nd a bo r t he m arine d eposit b eing d ated r espectively 3 335 - 1 20 b c a nd 3 290 - 7 0 b c ( Hv.4712 a nd H v.3459). T he e xtent o f t he r ise i n s ea-level d uring t hese e pisodes i s m ore d ifficult t o a ssess, a s l ocalised c oastal m ovement m ust a lso b e t aken a reas

i nto c onsideration. T he o verall e ffect w as t he l oss o f c oastal p lains d uring t he F landrian p eriod ( p.42).

o f l arge S ome o f

t he h igher s ea-level s tands c ould h ave b een a chieved v ery q uickly, f or e xample L ytham I II, w here t he s ea r ose b y o ver 7 m ( 23ft) i n a bout 2 00 y ears. G iven t he s tatistical e rror o f t he r adiocarbon m ethod o f d ating, t his c ould h ave b een a chieved i n a s l ittle a s 7 0 y ears, o r a s m uch a s c hanges, a nd i ce

3 60 y ears. T he c limatic i mplications o f t hese s ea-level w hich a ppear t o c orrelate w ith v ariations f ound i n d eep s ea c ap c ores, s uggest t hat a n o scillating p attern o f c limatic

a melioration t his p eriod.

w as

s uperimposed o n t he g eneral

P OLLEN A NALYSIS: E vidence

t rend o f

c limate

d uring

T HE N ATURE O F T HE E VIDENCE F ROM T HE N ORTH O F E NGLAND

f or

t he e nvironmental h istory o f

t he n orth

o f

E ngland

d uring t he p ost-glacial p eriod i s d erived f rom p ollen d iagrams c ompiled f or o ver 1 00 s ites w ithin t he r egion ( Table 2 ). S ince t he p ioneer w ork o f

v on

P ost,

a t

t he b eginning o f

t his

c entury,

p ollen

a nalytical

m ethods h ave b een g reatly d eveloped a nd e xtended, t o i dentify n ot o nly m ajör p hases o f v egetation d evelopment a nd c hange, b ut a lso m inor, m ore l ocalised e pisodes a nd m an's p art i n a ffecting t hem. T he m ethods a nd s ome o f t he l imitations o f p ollen a nalysis h ave b een d iscussed l ucidly b y M oore a nd W ebb ( 1978) a nd n eed n ot b e r epeated i n a ny d etail. H owever, i n c onsidering t he d iscussion o f t he e nvironmental h istory o f t he n orth o f E ngland w hich f ollows,

a n umber o f

p oints s hould b e b orne

i n m ind. F irst,

i t

i s

a pparent

f rom t he d istribution m ap o f

t he

s ites

i nvestigated ( Map 6 , C atalogue 1 ), t hat w ork w ithin t he r egion h as t ended t o c oncentrate o n p articular a reas, n otably t he u plands o f t he L ake D istrict

o f

C umbria a nd u pper T eesdale i n D urham.

W ith t he e xcep-

t ion o f w ork b y W alker o n t he C umberland l owland, S mith o n t he m ires o f s outh-west W estmorland a nd B artley a nd o thers i n s outh-east D urham, l owland p arts o f t he r egion a re v ery u nder r epresented, p articularly i n N orthumberland a nd n orth D urham. S econd,

t he

p ollen d iagrams

c onsidered i n t his s urvey h ave

p ublished o ver a p eriod o f m ore t han f ifty y ears.

8

b een

T he e arlier d iagrams

w ere b ased o n a s ample c ount o f 1 50 a rboreal p ollen g rains a nd w ere c ompiled o n a p ercentage b asis. T his r aises c ertain d ifficulties i n t he i nterpretation «o f t hese d iagrams, p articularly w hen t rying t o d etect

t he

s mall c hanges

i n f orest c omposition

i ndicative

o f

e arly

h uman i nterference i n t he l andscape. R ecent a bsolute p ollen d iagrams a re m ore s ensitive t o t hese t ypes o f v ariation, a nd, i n c ombination w ith t he r adiocarbon d eterminations w hich a re a n i ntegral p art o f t he a bsolute d iagram m ethod, h ave p roduced m uch m ore d etailed e vidence t han p revious w ork. O lder d iagrams a re n ot t herefore d irectly c omparable w ith m ore r ecent w ork. T hree-dimensional p ollen d iagrams, a s u sed b y T urner t o l ocate t he s ites o f c learances r ecorded i n p ollen d iagrams ( Turner 1 975), h ave n ot y et b een u sed i n t his r egion, a nd, w ith t he e xception o f t he s ites i n T eesdale, m ost a reas a re r epresented b y o nly o ne

d iagram .

R adiocarbon

d eterminations h ave b een m ade f or

o nly

a

c omparatively s mall n umber o f s ites. N ot a ll p ollen z ones a re r epresented i n e ach s ample ( Table 2 ) a nd t his, i n c ombination w ith t he o ther f actors m entioned a bove, m eans t hat e vidence i s o nly a vailable f rom

a p roportion o f

t he

t otal n umber o f s ites

i nvestigated,

f or

a ny

p articular p eriod. E vidence f or h uman a ctivity i n t he n orth o f

E ngland i s

r ecorded i n

t he p ollen d iagrams a vailable f or t he r egion f rom t he l atter p art o f z one V ila o nwards. T his m aterial h as b een c ollated f irst w ith r eference t o t he g eographical a rea w hich t he p ollen d iagram m ight b e c onsidered t o r epresent, a nd s econd, w ith r eference t o t he p ossible c hronological s pan o f I n t he f irst s ites

a t

t he h uman a ctivity s o r ecorded.

i nstance,

a n a ttempt h as , b een m ade

t o g roup t ogether

t he s ame g eneral e levation a nd i n p roximity o ne

t o

a nother

( Map 6 ). F or t his p urpose, a n a rbitrary r adius o f 1 0km h as b een s elected a s t he a rea m ost l ikely t o b e r epresented a dequately i n t he p ollen d iagram ( although t he p ollen r ain i s, o f c ourse, c omprised o f l ocal a nd n on-local c omponents), a nd s ites w ith i ntersecting r adii a re c onsidered t ogether. G eographical f actors a re c onsidered a s o f p rime i mportance i n t hose a reas w here e xtreme v ariations i n h eight a re f ound w ithin a s mall d istance, a nd t herefore s ites s uch a s t hose a t h igh e levations i n t he c entral C umbrian m ountains a re g rouped s eparately f rom t hose i n t he v alleys. A n umber o f s ites a re c onsidered i ndividu ally,

w here n o o thers

h ave b een e xamined i n t heir l ocality.

W hile i t

i s r ecognised t hat l ocal f actors s uch a s s lope, a spect a nd m icroclimate a re o f g reat i mportance i n d etermining t he v egetation o f a n a rea, t his a rrangement i s u sed t o p rovide c omparability a t a m ore g eneral l evel. S ites g rouped t ogether a re a ll l ocated o n t he s ame s oil t ype ( p.4) a nd t he g roupings a lso c oincide w ith m odern l and u se c ategories. D ating

o f

c learance e pisodes

i s d ifficult w here o nly o ne o r

t wo

r adiocarbon d eterminations h ave b een m ade o n m aterial f rom t he p ollen c ore, a nd h azardous w here n one h as b een m ade a t a ll. T he s equence a t a n umber o f s ites m ay b e c ompared w ith d ated p rofiles f rom o ther n eighbouring l ocations ( as, f or e xample, W alker's w ork o n t he C umberl and l owland, w ith t he d ated S caleby M oss d iagram), o r a ssuming a r egular d eposition o f s ediment o r p eat, " dates" m ay b e e xtrapolated b etween t wo h orizons, s uch a s t he z one V IIa/VIIb b oundary a nd e xtensive N orse l and c learances ( Pennington 1 970 f ig.17). T his m ethod i s, o f c ourse, s ubject t o a n umber o f o bjections, b ut h as b een t entatively e mployed w ith t he e vidence f rom t he n orth o f E ngland, w here n o o ther m ethod o f

d ating w as

a vailable.

T hese d ifferent

9

t ypes o f

" dates"

a re

d ifferentiated s hown

i n t his

i n t he c hronological c hart

( Table 3 ).

c hart s hould b e t reated w ith c aution.

T he i nformation I t

a ttempts

t o

p rovide a t abulation o f t he s equence o f c learances i n t he v arious a reas d iscussed b elow ( pp.16-29). I t s hould n ot, h owever, b e u sed a s a p recise i ndication o f t he o ccurrence o r e xact d uration o f t hese e pisodes. E ven w ith p ollen s equences w here r adiocarbon d eterminations a re i ndicated, i t i s s eldom t hat s ufficient o f t hese h ave b een m ade a t c losely s paced i ntervals, t o a llow o f t he p recise c hronological d efinit ion o f a ny o ne c learance p hase. A

n umber o f

i nterpretive m ethods h ave b een e mployed b y w orkers

i n

t his a rea t o i dentify b oth t he o ccurrence o f v egetation c learances a nd t heir f unction. B efore t he m ore r ecent u se o f a bsolute p ollen d iagrams, P ennington a ttempted t o i dentify c learances f or p asture a nd c ereal a griculture b y p lotting i n c ombination a n umber o f g rassland h erbs ( indicative o f o pen g round), t he c urves f or w hich w ere c ompared w ith t hose f or a n umber o f i ndicators o f p odsolised s oils a nd p eat ( indicative o f s oil c hange a nd e rosion). A n e xpansion o f g rasses, w ith a f all i n e ercus a nd a n i nwash o f s oils w as c onsidered t o i ndicate c learance f or p asture, w hile a d ecline i n a ll t ree g enera, p lus e vidence o f c ereals, A rtemisia a nd C henopodium w as c onsidered t o i ndicate c learance f or p asture, w ith c ereal a griculture ( Pennington 1 964, 2 38). T he u se o f c ertain s pecies a s i ndicators o f p astoral o r a rable a reas h as b een d eveloped b y D r. T urner, w ho h as a lso d irected a ttention t o t he i mportance o f t he n on-arboreal p ollen f requency a s a n i ndicator o f t he d egree o f c learance i n a ny a rea ( Turner 1 965). W alker's w ork i n t he C umberland l owland h owever, e xamined t he i nterr elationship o f f our d ifferent p lant c ommunities, f rom w hich a f ive p hase p attern o f t he f orest 1 89-193). I versen's

f orest

c learance w as

c anopy t o i ts T he p attern p hases

o f

i dentified,

f rom t he r eduction o f

r egeneration a fter c ultivation ( Walker 1 966, i dentified b y W alker c losely a pproximates t o

f orest

c learance a nd r egeneration

( Iversen

1 941;

1 949), a lthough i t s hould b e n oted t hat a ll t he c omponents o f I versen's s cheme a re v ery s eldom f ound i n t he a rea. M any c learances d o n ot h ave a ny e vidence o f c ereal p ollen b ut % J ould a ppear t o i ndicate t he s pread o f o pen g rassland o r p eat h abitats, a nd c harcoal, i ndicating t he u se o f f ire f or f orest c learance, i s a lso q uite r are. E nvironmental a rea o f

s tudy i s

e vidence

r elating

t he e arliest c learances,

( 2)

c learances

I n

o f

t he

c onsidered i n t wo p arts:

( 1)

b c

t o t he l ater p rehistory

o ccurring b efore

t he e lm d ecline h orizon

f rom t he e lm d ecline h orizon t o

t he m id-lst m illennium

( arranged i n t he g eographical g roupings d iscussed a bove)

v iew o f

t he d ifficulties

a ttending t he e xplanation o f

t he

e lm

d ecline a s a n a nthropogenic p henomenon ( pp.14-16) t his h orizon i s n ot c onsidered, i n t he f ollowing d iscussion, t o i ndicate a n e ffect o f N eolithic p opulations o n t he l andscape. N ot o nly w ould s uch a n a ssumpt ion p re-judge a p roblem w hich i s s till a m atter o f c ontention, n eeding c onsiderably m ore r esearch, b ut f rom t he a rchaeological p oint o f v iew t he u biquitous d istribution o f s uch a p henomenon r enders i t u ndiscrimi nating

a s

a n

i ndicator

o f

p rehistoric

1 0

s ettlement

l ocations

a nd

a ctivity. O nly m ore s ubstantial i ndications o f v egetation d isturbance a re t herefore c onsidered a s o f p ossible a nthropogenic o rigin. T he u se o f t he z one V IIa/VIIb b oundary a s a h orizon s eparating t he e arliest c learances f rom o ther c learance a ctivity i s a lso a cknowledged t o

b e

s omewhat a rbitrary,

i n v iew o f

t he r ange o f d ates w hich h as b een

o btained f or t his h orizon ( pp.15-16: T able 4 ). H owever, t he m ajority o f t he e arliest c learances i n t his a rea h ave b een d ated b y m ore o bjective m eans, a nd h ave b een f ound t o l ie i n t he m id-4th m illennium b c. O ther a ctivity i n t he a rea i s c onsidered i n r elation t o t he e lm d ecline s imply b ecause t his u niversally o ccurring h orizon h as b een m ost r eadily i dentified b y p alaeobotanists. N o a ssumption o f a bsolute c ont emporaneity s ites.

i s

m ade

f or

V EGETATION H ISTORY Z ONES T he g lacial B ritain I II)

d evelopment

t he p lacing o f

I T O V ila:

A S UMMARY

a t

d ifferent

( Table 1 )

o f v egetation i n t he n orth o f E ngland i n t he l ate

a nd p ost-glacial p eriods ( Godwin 1 975, f ig.31).

s evere

t his b oundary

c onditions

i s c losely a kin t o t hat e lsewhere I n t he l ate g lacial p eriod ( zones

p revailed,

w ith

u nstable

s oils,

i n I -

s upporting

h erbaceous s pecies w ith s ome B etula a nd J uniperus. W armer p ost-glacial c onditions ( zones I V-VIIb) w ere, h owever, m ore f avourable t o t he d evelopment o f a w ooded e nvironment, c ulminating i n t he e stablishment o f m ixed o ak f orest i n t he A tlantic p eriod. T wo s light r egional v ariat ions i n t he n orth o f E ngland m ay b e n oted. I n z one V I B etula s eems t o h ave c ontinued a s a n i mportant c omponent o f t he v egetation. I ts o ccurrence a s b uried t imber i n u pland p eats i n t he L ake D istrict ( Pearsall a nd P ennington 1 973, 1 35) m ay s uggest t hat t he m aximum e xtension o f u pland t ree c over t ook p lace d uring t his p eriod ( p.13). A s econd i mportant c omponent o f d eposits o f z ones V I t o V IIb.

t he v egetation w as p ine, f ound i n T he c onsiderable v ariation i n t he

r epresentation o f t his g enus f rom s ite t o s ite, a nd t he p ossibility o f l ong d istance t ransport o f p ine p ollen r aise s everal p roblems i n t he i nterpretation o f t he i mportance o f p ine i n t he l ocal v egetation. H owever, s ubstantial d ifferences i n t he f requency o f p ine p ollen a t s ites i n c lose p roximity w ould s uggest t hat a l arge l ocal p ollen c omp onent I t

i s

s eems

i nvolved, l ikely

a nd

t hat

t hat p ine w as

a ctually g rowing i n t his r egion.

t he d istribution o f

t he t ree w as

c ontrolled

b y

e daphic f actors. B y

z one

V ila

a ll t he c omponents o f m ixed o ak

f orest

a re

w ell

r epresented i n t he a rea w ith t he e xception o f T ilia ( Godwin 1 975, f ig.53), t he c limatic l imit o f w hich m ay h ave b een r eached t o t he s outh a round M orecambe B ay ( Pennington 1 970,

5 8).

E vidence f or m ore o pen v egetation a t t he e nd o f t he A tlantic p eriod I t i s g enerally a sserted t hat b y t he e nd o f t he A tlantic p eriod c limatic-climax f orest w as e stablished o ver t he B ritish I sles, p robably t o a h eight o f s ome 2 500ft ( 762m) ( Pennington 1 969a, 5 5; P earsall 1 968,

1 1

2 46).

E vidence

d iversified

F irst, a s m ental e vidence f rom a s e vidence

f rom t he n orth o f

p attern o f

E ngland h owever,

v egetation e xisted a t

t his

s uggests

t hat

a m ore

p eriod.

i s m ost o bvious f rom t he s ource o f m uch o f t he e nvironf or t his a rea, p eat b egan t o f orm i n v arious l ocations

e arly a s o f p eat

z one I II o nwards ( Map 7 ). A reas w ith c onsistent g rowth i n a n umber o f l ocalities i nclude U pper

T eesdale, M oor H ouse, t he n orth P ennines i n D urham a nd t he m ires l owland L onsdale. T ree p ollen i s, o f c ourse, w ell r epresented d iagrams

f rom t hese

l ocal c omponent o f d iagrams ( compiled

s ites,

b ut

t his

n eed n ot

r epresent

t he

o f i n

i mmediate

t he p ollen r ain. U nfortunately, r elative p ollen o n a p ercentage b asis) o bscure t he r eal r epresenta-

t ion o f n on-arboreal s pecies i n t he v egetation, a s e xpressed i n t erms o f t he a rboreal p ollen c omponent.

t hese

a re

o nly

R ecent, m ore d etailed p alynological w ork i ndicates t hat e ven a t A tlantic c limatic o ptimum, t he t otal t ree p ollen f requency a t a

t he

v ariety

o f

s ites

i n U pper T eesdale,

w as

o nly 3 0 - 5 0%

( Turner

e t

a l

1 973, 4 02). S quires, w orking i n t he s ame a rea, a lso f ound e vidence o f a f airly o pen e nvironment i n t he A tlantic p eriod, a nd s uggested t hat l imited

a reas

h ollows, p eat a nd 1 970,

o f

B og,

A

A part k nown o f

s imilar m osaic

M oor H ouse

( Pennington 1 965a),

i s

o akwood w ere

i nterspersed

p atches o f m ore e xtensive b irch-hazel u nstable h abitats, s uch a s s cree a nd

1 75ff).

V alley

m ixed

( Chambers

a nd m ay h ave

f rom t he e vidence t he

t otal

t ree

o f

o f

d amp

a lder

s crub, a reas o f b lanket s pring h eads ( Squires

v egetation

1 974,

w ith

t ypes

8 3 a nd 9 6)

i s

s uggested

a nd R ed T arn

a t M oss

b een r epeated i n m any u pland a reas. p eat

f ormation a t

c ertain s ites,

c over i n l owland a reas.

I t

i s

o f

l ittle

p articular

i nterest, t herefore, t o n ote t hat a t b oth N easham a nd M ordon C arr t here i s a l arge s crub c omponent w ith s ome h erbs, p rior t o t he e lm d ecline, i ndicating t hat n either e t a l 1 976, 4 61-2). A s econd

a rea w as

i ndicator o f

t otal

c limatic-climax f orest

a m ore o pen e nvironment

i s

t he

( Bartley

o ccurrence o f

P lantago l anceolata, a s pecies p articularly a ssociated w ith p asturel ands. I versen c onsidered t his s pecies o f p articular i mportance i n t he i dentification

o f

i ntroduced w ith t he B ritain, h owever,

c learance a ctivities

i n D enmark,

a nd p ost-glacial p eriods i n i ts o ccurrence c annot

( Godwin 1 975, b e d iscounted

3 29), ( Smith,

i t

s eemed

t o b e

a lthough m an's i nfluence A .G. 1 970, 8 8-9). N or

i s P lantago l anceolata n ecessarily r epresentative b ut i s c oasts

a s

a ppearance o f a griculture ( Iversen 1 941; 1 949). I n t he s pecies i s r ecorded t hroughout t he l ate g lacial

o f m an's

a ctivities,

a lso f ound i n c ommunities i n u nstable c ontact z ones, s uch a s a nd r iver s ides ( Godwin 1 975, 3 29). B oth l owland a nd u pland

h abitats a re r epresented i n t he f ollowing l ist o f P lantago l anceolata i n t he n orth o f E ngland ( Map 8 ).

1 2

e arly

r ecords

o f

S ite

P ollen h orizon a t w hich P lantago l anceolata a ppears

U pper V alley B og, M oor H ouse D ead C rook I , U pper T eesdale

V Ic e arly V I

W iddybank M oss F oolmire S ike M oss W eelhead M oss

)

( l ate z one V I - e arly V ila

H elton T arn F oulshaw M oss

b efore V IIb V ila

B radford K aims L angdale C ombe

V ila V ila

W illiamson's M oss, E skmeals D ufton M oss, T eesdale

p re-elm d ecline V Ib

F o E arth G ill,

V ila

T eesdale

S kelsmergh

F inally,

V ila

i t r emains

t o

c onsider t o w hat l evel t he t ree l ine w ould

h ave e xtended i n t he A tlantic p eriod. A n a ltitude o f 2 500ft ( 762m) h as b een s uggested ( p.11), b ut t his w ould s eem t o b e a n o ver e stimate i n c ertain a reas. I n U pper T eesdale S quires s uggested t hat t he l imit o f c losed w oodland w as b elow 1 700ft ( 518m), o ther t han o n p articularly f avourable s oils ( Squires 1 970, 1 81-3) a nd a l ower l imit o f o nly 1 200ft ( 366m) h as b een s uggested f or t he s ame a rea ( Chambers 1 974, 9 7). t he P ennine f ell t ops t he m aximum o f f orest e xpansion c onsisted b irch-hazel

s crub,

w ith v ery f ew l arge

t rees

O n o f

( Raistrick a nd B lackburn

1 932, 9 9), a lso i ndicating a m uch l ower l imit f or c losed w oodland, a nd a s imilar p icture e merges e lsewhere o n t he P ennine u plands. A t M oor H ouse a b asal

f orest

l ayer o f

s tunted b irch,

w illow a nd j uniper

w ould

s eem t o r elate t o z one V I ( Johnson a nd D unham 1 963, 1 47ff). I n t he c entral C umbrian m ountains P ennington h as s uggested t hat t ree c over e xtended t o a bout 2 500ft ( 762m) i n z one V ila, f or a l ow r ate o f e rosion i s r ecorded i n t he l ake d rainage b asins, d espite a h igh r ate o f l eachi ng ( Penniagton 1 970, 6 7). H owever, a t t he z one V IIa/VIIb t ransition a t R ed T arn M oss o nly 3 0% o f t he t otal p ollen r ecorded w as a rboreal ( Pennington 1 975, 7 8). I t s eems l ikely t herefore, t hat i n t his a rea, a s a t o ther l ocations i n t he n orth o f E ngland, m ore o pen c onditions p revailed, p articularly i n e xposed p ositions. T he o rigins o f t he d evelopment o f t hese a reas o f m ore o pen v egetat ion w ill l ot b e f ully e xamined h ere. T hey c ould r epresent t he n atural c limatic-climax v egetation o f t he p articular l ocality ( Eyre 1 968, 1 467 ) o r m ay b e s econdary p lant c ommunities ( Smith, A .G. 1 970, 9 0) p erhaps d eveloped i s a r esult o f M esolithic o ccupation. W hate ,T er t heir o rigins, t heir e xistence p rovided, i n t he 4 th m illennium b c, v aried h abitats w ith a g reater p ossible r ange o f e conomic 2 xploitation c limatic-climax f orest.

t han

w ould h ave

1 3

b een

o ffered

b y

c ontinuous

T HE E LM D ECLINE T he l ast p ollen z one b oundary i n t he B ritish I sles w hich c an b e d efined b y a u biquitous v egetation c hange i s b etween z ones V ila a nd V IIb, d ated t o t he s econd h alf o f t he 4 th m illennium b c a nd m arked b y a s ignificant d ecline i n e lm p ollen. W hen t he a ctivities o f e arly p reh istoric f armers w ere f irst r ecognised i n t he p ollen r ecord b y I versen i n h is ' landnam

s equence

( Iversen 1 941),

t he e lm d ecline t ogether w ith

t he d ecline o r d isappearance o f f rost s ensitive s pecies s uch a s C ladium m ariscus ( Great S edge), H edera h elix ( Ivy) a nd V iscum a lbum ( Mistletoe), w as c onsidered t o b e d ue t o c limatic f actors ( Godwin 1 975, 2 45). c ommon

H owever, i n 1 960 T roels-Smith p ropounded t he t heory t hat, w ith o ther p atterns o f p rehistoric v egetation d isturbance

i n t he

e lm d ecline c ould b e i nterpreted a s o f h uman o rigin, b eing e ffected b y t he s elective u se o f e lm a s w inter f odder f or s talled c attle ( TroelsS mith 1 960). A s e vidence f or m an's i mpact u pon t he v egetation i n z one V ila h ad n ot a t t hat t ime b een r ecognised, t he e lm d ecline w as t heref ore t he e arliest ( and m ost w idespread) i ndicator o f N eolithic a ctivity i n t he B ritish I sles. T his h ypothesis h as r eceived w ide a cceptance, a nd a lthough n o l onger t he e arliest e vidence o f f arming, t he e lm d ecline i s s till w idely c onsidered t o b e o f a nthropogenic o rigin, i ndicative o f t he f irst m ajor a gricultural a ctivity i n t he c ountry ( Pennington 1 969, 6 5; G odwin 1 975, 2 45-7; W hittle 1 977, 1 7). H owever t he v ery u biquity o f t he e lm d ecline a nd i ts a ppearance w ithout o ther i ndicators o f f orest c learance o r c ultivation r aises s ome d oubts i ts s tatus a s a n i ndicator o f h uman a ctivity. O ther f actors

a bout w hich

c ould e ffect s uch a c hange i n v egetation i nclude s oil c onditions, c limate a nd d isease ( Godwin 1 975, 2 45-7; t en H ove 1 968). A r eal d ecline i n e lm p ollen i s a u niversal f eature o f v egetation h istory i n E urope, S candinavia a nd e ven i n t he e astern p art o f N orth A merica a t t he e nd o f t he A tlantic p eriod, h ence i ts u sefulness a s a p ollen z one b oundary i ndicator. I n t he L ake D istrict P ennington h as e stimated t hat e lm p ollen s hows a r eal d ecrease i n d eposition t o a v alue b etween o nef ifth a nd o ne-tenth o f i ts p revious a nnual d eposition r ates ( Pennington 1 975, 8 4), w hile G odwin s uggests t hat, i n g eneral t erms, t he f requencies

o f e lm f all

( Godwin 1 975, 2 44).

t o a h alf,

E vidence o f

o r l ess,

o f

t heir p revious v alues

a d ecline i n e lm p ollen i s n ot h owever

r estricted t o t he A tlantic p eriod b ut i s a f eature o f p revious i nterg lacials, w hen, u nder n atural p rocesses o f c ontinued l eaching b y r ain, s oils p reviously b ase-rich b ecame p oor i n b ases, a llowing a r eturn t o d ominance o f l ess e xacting t rees ( Pennington 1 974, 8 0). T his w ould s uggest t hat a d ecline i n e lm m ight b e e xpected a s a n ormal f eature o f s oil d evelopment w ithout

h uman i nterference.

C limate, f irst s uggested a s a n e xplanation f or t he e lm d ecline i s s till c onsidered t o b e a p ossible f actor i n s uch a u niversal v egetation c hange, i f o nly a n i ndirect o ne ( Pennington 1 974, 6 4; G odwin 1 975, 2 47).

E vidence

f or

a

c ool

p hase

c

3 500

- 3 000

b c

r aises

t he

p ossibility t hat c ertain s pecies d eclined, o r w ere r educed i n v igour, a s a r esult o f a s hift i n c limate. N o e xtreme e ffect o f t his c hange i s r egistered i n B ritain, w here n o s pecies d eclines c ompletely a t t his t ime, n or w ould U lmus g labra b e p articularly s usceptible, a s i t i s a h ardy s pecies ( Godwin 1 975, 2 45). H owever, i f a ny s pecies h ad b een m ade v ulnerable t hrough o ther c auses, s uch a n e pisode m ight b e c rucial. A d isease o rganism t ransmitted b y f ungal s pores o r i nsects c ould a lso p rove d eleterious t o e lms, a s s hown r ecently i n B ritain ( ten H ove 1 968). T his w ould h ave t o b e i ntroduced i nto t he B ritish I sles b y

1 4

h uman o r a nimal a gency. U nfortunately f ew, i f a ny, s amples o f e lm w ood a re k nown f rom t his p eriod w hich c ould b e e xamined f or t races o f e lm d isease i n t he b ark. A part

f rom

t hese a lternative e xplanations

f or t he

e lm

d ecline,

t here a re a lso c ertain d ifficulties c oncerning t he a nthropogenic i nterpretation o f t his p henomenon. C utting b ranches o f e lm f or u se a s w inter f odder w ould r educe t he f lowering c apacity ( and h ence p ollen p roduction)

o f

t he t ree,

w hich w ould n ot

f lower a gain

w ithin

e ight

y ears o f c utting. I n a ddition, a n e xpansion o f g rasses, w hich d oes a ppear t o a ccompany t he e lm d ecline a t a n umber o f s ites ( Map 1 0) c ould a lso r educe t he p ower o f e lm t o r egenerate, f or s eeds o f t he t ree f ail t o g erminate i n w et g rass ( Prof. D imbleby, p ers.comm.). H owever, t he l abour i nvolved i n t he p rovision o f f odder i n t his m anner i s e normous. I t h as b een e stimated t hat s everal s quare m iles o f f orest

w ould

h ave h ad

t o b e u tilised

t o p rovide s ome

1 000kg

q uite m ixed o f

e lm

f odder n ecessary t o o ver-winter o ne c ow ( Walker 1 966, 1 97). S uch e ffort m ay b e n ecessary i n m ore e xtreme e nvironments b ut w ould s eem a n u nsuitable p arallel f or B ritish c onditions i n t he 4 th m illennium b c. A s s ubstantial a reas o f f orest a nd w oodland e xisted a t t his t ime a mple w inter f odder c ould h ave b een o btained b y a llowing c attle t o b rowse f reely d uring t he w inter m onths. E lm b ark i s c ertainly a ttractive t o c attle ( Smith A .G. 1 975, 6 5) a nd e lms c ould h ave s uffered s elective a ttack i n f orest b rowsing. B ut t hey w ould p resumably h ave b een s imilarly a ttractive t o w ild s pecies o f B os d uring t he M esolithic a nd i t

r emains

p roblematic

a s

t o w hy t he e lm

d ecrease

o ccurs

a t

t his

p articular h orizon. F inally, i t i s d ifficult t o e nvisage a p rocess o f a nimal m anagement a nd h uman a ctivity w hich w ould s electively d estroy e lms e verywhere w ithout t he m ajority o f s ites,

a ny o ther e vidence o f v egetation d isturbance a t e ither i n t he f orm o f p asture f or a nimals o r

c learance f or h uman u se. T he c hronology o f t he e lm d ecline T he

r eady a cceptance o f

V IIa/VIIb b oundary h as o f t he e lm d ecline,

a n a nthropogenic e xplanation f or t he z one

t ended t o d etract f rom t he s tudy o f t he b y w hich t he m echanisms w hich c aused i t

p rocess m ay b e

b etter e xamined. T he a bsolute d ecrease i n e lm p ollen ( p.14), t he d uration o f t he e lm d ecline a nd t he c hronology o f t he z one b oundary a t d ifferent s ites a re a ll o f i nterest i n t his r egard. T he i dentification o f t he p attern o f e lm p ollen d ecrease a nd t he p oint a t w hich t he e lm d ecline m ay b e c onsidered t o b egin a re o f p articular i mportance f or t he d ating a nd i nterpretation o f t his e vent. S ampling i ntervals a nd t he r ate o f d eposition o f a p eat o r l ake s ediment w ill a ffect t he a ppearance o f a ny e pisode o f v egetation c hange. A t s ome s ites t he d ecrease i n e lm i s g radual, a ttributed t o t he r apid r ate o f 1 975, s een, s ome

f or e xample a t U llswater, w hich i s s edimentation o f d eposits ( Pennington

8 0), w hile a t o ther s ites f luctuations o f v arying d egrees a re b efore t he e lm p ollen c omponent d rops t o i ts l owest p oint. A t s ites b oth ' primary a nd ' secondary' e lm d eclines h ave b een

i dentified, o ften s eparated b y m any c enturies, i f n ot l onger ( p.26). T he h orizon w hich i s c onsidered t o b e t he e lm d ecline a nd w hich i s r adiocarbon d ated m ay t herefore v ary f rom s ite t o s ite. C aution s hould a lso b e e xercised i n t he i nterpretation o f s ites w here t he e lm d ecline i s s aid t o b e f ollowed b y g eneral f orest c learance. W hen t hese e pisodes a re d ated t hey a re o ften f ound t o b e s everal h undred y ears a part

a nd c annot

t herefore b e

c onsidered a s

1 5

r elated e pisodes.

A lthough

t he

e lm

d ecline

h as

c ommonly

b een

i dentified

a s

a

s ynchronous z one b oundary . 23350 t o 3 150 b c ( Smith a nd P ilcher 1 973, 9 10) t he r ange o f d ates i s v ery l arge f rom c 3 900 t o 2 600 b c ( ten H ove 1 968, 3 59). T his i s i llustrated b y d ate jirom t he n orth o f E ngland ( Table 4 ). W ithin U per T eesdale d ates f or t he e lm d ecline i nclude 4 000 — 60 b c a nd 3 995 _ 6 0 b c ( SRR 9 2 a nd 9 3) a t U pper V alley B og, 3 410 ± 7 0 b c ( SRR 5 10) a t D ufton M oss a nd 2 830 — 50 b c ( SRR 3 97) a t F ox E arth G ill, a ll i n t he s ame a rea o f u plands a nd w ithin a f ew k ilometres o f e ach o ther ( Radiocarbon 1 5, 1 973, 5 59-60; 2 3, 1 981, 2 59-60). C alibration o f t hese d ates w ould g ive a g reatly i ncreased o verall t ime s pan f or t his m ajor v egetation c hange ( Godwin 1 975, 2 45). T he d uration o f t he p eriod o f d ecline i s a lso p oorly k nown. d ate h as b een o btained f or t he w hole p rocess.

A t m ost s ites o nly o ne W here s amples h ave b een

t aken u nderlying a nd o verlying t his h orizon t he d ecline h as b een f ound t o b e a chieved i n a s l ittle a s a c entury o r l ess, f or e xample a t V alley B og a nd M ordon C arr,

w ithin c 6 00-700 y ears a t D ufton M oss

( Radiocarbon

2 3, 1 981, 2 63), w hile a t B lea T arn a t wo-stage d ecline i n e lm p ollen t otals w ith a s light r egeneration i n b etween w as a chieved i n a bout 5 00 y ears ( p.17). S uch c ontradictory e vidence c ould s upport a n a nthropogenic, c limatic o r a n e daphic e xplanation f or t he e lm d ecline a s t he v arying e ffects o f a ll o f t hese f actors c ould h ave b een f elt a t q uite d fferent t imes i n d ifferent l ocations. I t d oes h owever s uggest t hat t his z one b oundary i s a g reat d eal m ore c omplex t han w as o riginally e nvisaged a nd r equires c onsiderably m ore s tudy b efore t he r elative c ontributions a ssessed. B ecause o f

o f m an, c limate, s oil a nd o ther f actors c an b e t he m any d ifficulties a ttending t he e xplanation

o f t his p henomenon t he e lm d ecline i s n ot c onsidered i n t his s tudy t o b e o f a nthropogenic o rigin u nless a n i ntegral p art o f a g eneral r educt ion i n t ree c over o r a ccompanied b y o ther i ndicators o f v egetation d isturbance o r c ultivation.

C LEARANCE A CTIVITY:

Z one V ila 1 20 W illiamson's M oss,

• 1 0 B lea T arn 5 B arfield T arn

1 10 M oor H ouse,

1 18 W iddybank M oss 5 1 H artlepool B ay

6 2 L angdale C ombe 3 5 E henside T arn 1 6 B owness

E skmeals

U pper V alley B og

C ommon

N ine s ites, i n a v ariety o f l ocations, s how s ome e vidence o f t he r esults o f h uman a ctivity i n t heir v icinity f rom a bout t he m id-4th m illennium b c, A t

o r p erhaps e arlier.

b oth B lea T arn a nd B arfield T arn,

w here f ull c learance e pisodes

c oincide w ith t he e lm d ecline, p revious m inor e pisodes h ave a lso b een r ecognised. A t B lea T arn t his w as c haracterised b y a s light f all i n U lmus, B etula a nd P inus, w ith a n i ncrease i n P lantago a nd G ramineae, •

a nd s ome C alluna p resent. A lthough t he c urves f or a rboreal p ollen a nd t otal p ollen n umber c losely p arallel e ach o ther, t he r ecovery o f a rboreal p ollen i s s lightly s lower, a s m ight b e e xpected i f t rees h ad b een s ignificantly a ffected i n t his e pisode. T he e lm d ecline i n t his p rofile i s d ated a t 3 285 j : 5 5 b c ( SRR-18) a nd a d ate o f c 3 700 b c i s

1 6

e stimated f or A t

t he e arlier c learance

B arfield T arn a ctivity p rior

( Pennington

1 975,

t o t he e lm d ecline,

f ig.3,

7 6-77).

w hich i s d ated t o

3 390 1 20 b c ( K-1057), i s d efined b y p eaks o f P lantago, R umex, C ompositae a nd G ramineae, w ith l ittle s ignificant c hange i n t he c urves f or t ree p ollens ( Pennington 1 970, f ig.11). A t L angdale C ombe, a s imilar e xpansion o f h erbs c an b e s een i n z one v ariations i n t he f requency o f U lmus ( Walker 1 965, 7 70cm l evels).

T he e xpansion o f G ramineae,

V ila, 4 97,

a ccompanying f ig.3 c 8 00 -

C yperaceae a nd E ric

eae i s

a ccompanied b y t he a ppearance o f P lantago a nd F raxinus a nd o f s and i n t he l ake m uds. S ome n atural p rocess o f d eterioration m ay h ave b een a ffecting t he v igour o f U lmus a t t his s ite, ( where U lmus d ecreases s teadily), b ut h uman a ctivity i n t he a rea a lso s eems l ikely ( Walker 1 965b, 4 97; P ennington 1 970, f ig.8). A t

E henside

r eduction

f ollowed

T arn a nd B owness

C ommon p eriods o f

b y c learing m aintenance h ave

f orest a nd

b een

s hrub

i dentified

b y

W alker, b efore t he z one V IIa/VIIb b oundary ( Cumbrian z one 1 6). B y c omparison w ith t he r adiocarbon d ated s equence f rom S caleby M oss, r eduction i n t he f orest

c anopy a t E henside T arn m ay h ave b egun a s e arly

a s t he v ery b eginning o f t he 4 th m illennium b c, a nd a t B owness C ommon s omewhat l ater, a bout t he m id-4th m illennium ( Walker 1 966, f igs.49 a nd 5 0). U nlike o ther c learance p hases a t t he s ite, p hase A a t E henside d oes n ot h ave e vidence o f c harcoal a nd s and i n t he l ake m uds, n or a re a ny c ereals

r ecorded a t

t his e arly s tage a t e ither s ite.

T o t he s outh o f E henside T arn, a long t he s outh-west C umberland c oast, e arly a ctivity i s a lso i ndicated a t W illiamson's M oss, E skmeals. F luctuations i n t he f requency o f U lmus a nd Q uercus a re f ound a t t he 2 60cm l evel, p rior t o t he e lm d ecline, w ith t he a ppearance o f P lantago ( Pennington 1 975, f ig.11). T he e pisode i s f ollowed b y a r ise i n w ater l evel, i ndicated b y a c lay l ayer i n t he d eposit, a t 2 50cm , b efore U lmus d ecreases a bsolutely, a t 2 40cm. R adiocarbon s amples ( SRR 5 69 a nd 5 70) f rom t hese l evels a ppear t o h ave b een c ontaminated b y t he d ownward p enetration o f h umus a nd a re o ut o f s equence. 2 64). C ereal p ollen i s f ound j ust b elow

( Radiocarbon 2 3 1 981, t he m ajor e lm d ecline,

a lthough t ree p ercentages a t t his l evel a re n ot s ubstantially l owered. A p eak o f P lantago a ppears a t t he m ajor e lm d ecline, b ut c ereals a re n ot r epresented. T he m ixture o f e vidence s uggesting t he m aintenance o f t r ee c over w ith a gricultural a ctivity m ay b e e xplained a s r epresenting b oth l ocal a nd n on-local c omponents o f t he v egetation. T auber s w ork s uggests t hat s amples f rom t he m iddle o f a l ake ( as w ere t hese a t W illiamson's M oss), w ould r eceive b oth t hese c omponents, w ith p ollen f rom b eyond t he i mmediate l ocality w ell r epresented ( Tauber 1 965; T urner 1 975, 8 6-7).

i n

I n t he e xposed a rea o f M oor H ouse, C ross F ell, s light f luctuations t he v egetation c over c omparable w ith t hose a t L angdale C ombe h ave

b een r ecorded i n z one V IIa a t U pper V alley B og, V BI1I. A n e lm d ecline w ith a n i ncrease i n h erbs

l ocal p ollen i s r ecorded a t

s ite a t

b c

a h orizon d ated 4 000 ± 6 0 b c a nd 3 995

1: 6 0

( SRR 9 2,

z one t his

S RR 9 3)

w ith t he s econd e lm d ecline o ccurring o nly m uch l ater a t a bout 2 800 2 600 b c ( SKR 9 0, S RR 9 1) ( Chambers 1 978, 2 75-8). T he s uggestion o f h uman i nfluence i n t his a rea, w hich, w ith i ts p attern o f o pen v egetat ion w ould h ave b een a s uitable o ne f or g razing, i s p erhaps s upported b y e vidence o f c harcoal i n d eposits o f t he s ame p eriod, a t s ites i n U pper T eesdale ( Squires 1 970, 1 28, 1 91ff). c ereal p ollen w ere a lso r ecorded i n T eesdale,

1 7

T wo e arly o ccurrences o f a t t he s ite o f W iddybank

M oss ( Turner e t a l 1 973, f ig.17), i n l ocal p ollen z one 0 c, t hat i s, p re-elm d ecline, a nd f rom r adiocarbon d eterminations f rom n eighbouring s ites, p robably m id-4th m illennium b e o r e arlier ( ibid, 3 32). S ingle r ecords o f v alidity.

c ereal g rains m ay, o f c ourse, b e c onsidered a s o f d oubtful H owever, s uch p ollen m ay h ave b een b lown f rom m ore f avour-

a ble c ultivable a reas l ower d own t he v alley, a nd i n v iew o f t he e vidence f or c ultivation e lsewhere i n t he a rea d uring t his p eriod i t s hould n ot b e i gnored. M uch m ore c omes

c ertain e vidence o f

f rom o rganic d eposits

t his

t ime

i n t he i nter-tidal z one i n H artlepool

a gricultural a ctivities a t

B ay

( Tooley 1 978b). T wo e pisodes o f f orest r ecession, a ssociated w ith c harcoal l ayers a nd a ccompanied b y t he e xpansion o f o pen-habitat h erbaceous c ommunities h ave b een f ound i n t he a rea, p rior t o t he e lm d ecline, w hich i s d ated c 3 200 b e ( Hv.3459 a nd H v.5217). A lthough ' there i s n o c lear e vidence o f s equential l and u se w ith p eriods o f c learance f or p astoral f arming s ucceeded b y p eriods f or a rable f arming' ( ibid, 7 4), t he p ollens o f C henopodiaceae, R umex a cetosella, C ruciferae, U rtica a nd o thers, w ith a lso l ow c ereal p ollen f requencies, s uggest a t ype o f m ixed f arming e conomy, e ven d uring t he l atter p art o f F landrian I I, t hat i s, p rior t o t he e lm d ecline. P erhaps m ore t han a ny o ther s ite i n t he r egion H artlepool B ay p rovides e vidence o f e arly a griculture i n t he n orth o f E ngland

C LEARANCE A CTIVITY, ( a)

f rom t he 4 th m illennium b e o nwards.

Z ONE V IIb O NWARDS

( Table 3 )

C umberland p lain 1 6 BowneSs C ommon 8 2 O ulton M oss 9 4 S caleby M oss

C learance a ctivities i n t he v icinity o f B owness C ommon, e vinced i n z one V IIa, c ontinue t hroughout t he r emainder o f t he

f irst p ollen

r ecord f rom t his s ite. I n t otal, s ome 3 3 p hases o f v arying v egetation c omposition h ave b een r ecognised ( Walker 1 966, f ig.50). E arly p hases o f f orest a nd s hrub r eduction a t t he s ite a re o f s ome 1 50 y ears d urat ion e ach, f ollowed b y l ong p eriods o f c learing m aintenance ( c 3 00 y ears) a nd f orest r egeneration, o f a bout e qual l ength. t o 1 700 b e h owever, a s m any a s 1 7 e pisodes o f f orest c learing m aintenance a re r ecorded, o nly 3 0 y ears d uration, f ollowed b y u ntil c 1 500 b e. C erealia a ppear i n t o t he iop o f t he d iagram ( c 1 000 b e) o f

s hrub

w eeds

r egeneration,

b oth O ulton M oss

e ach o f e qual l ength a nd p erhaps s imilar s lightly l onger e pisodes t he p ollen r ecord f rom c 1 600 b e c oinciding i n g eneral w ith p hases

p eaks o f G ramineae a nd a g reater

t han p reviously ( ibid, A t

F rom c i ibo b e r eduction a nd

v ariety

o f

1 94).

a nd S caleby M oss

i ndications o f

h uman a ctivity

a ppear m uch l ater t han i n t he a rea o f B owness. A t O ulton M oss l ong p hases o f s hrub r eduction a nd r egeneration o ccur f rom c 2 200 b e t o 1 500 b e, f ollowed b y a s hort p eriod ( perhaps o nly 5 0 y ears) o f c learing m aintenance a nd s lightly l onger p hases o f f orest a nd s hrub r eduction a nd

r egeneration.

C erealia a ppear f rom a bout 1 600 b e t o

1 8

t he t op o f

t he

d iagram,

a t

c 1 000 b c

( ibid,

f ig.51).

A t

S caleby M oss,

a r adiocarbon

d ated p rofile, c hanges o f a s omewhat l esser n ature a re r egistered f rom c 1 700 b e, w ith t he a ppearance o f C erealia f rom a bout 1 600 t o 1 400 b c T ibid, f ig.52). T he c hanges s hown i n t his d iagram a re m uch l ess d etailed t han t hose a t O ulton M oss o r B owness C ommon, b ut t he r ate o f c learance o f f orest w ould a ppear t o i ncrease g reatly f rom a bout 1 400 b c o nwards, w ith a m ajor e xpansion o f g rasses ( ibid, 2 00). B owness C ommon, s ituated i n a n a rea o f l ow l ying m arine a nd e stuarine a lluvium , p rovides t he l ongest a nd m ost d etailed s equence o f h uman a ctivity i n t his a rea, w ith e arly b eginnings i n z one V IIa. O ccupation o n t he s omewhat h eavier b oulder c lay a nd c lay l oam s oils a t O ulton a nd S caleby, i s r egistered o ver a m illennium l ater, a lthough a reas o f a lluvium l ie w ithin s hort d istances o f b oth s ites. ( b)

S outh-west C umberland c oast 3 5 E henside T arn 3 2 D rigg 1 20 W illiamson's M oss,

E skmeals

5 B arfield T arn T hree

o f

t he s ites

i n t his

a rea h ave e vidence o f

p re-elm

d ecline

a ctivity, n amely E henside T arn, E skmeals a nd B arfield T arn ( pp.16-17). T he l ongest s equence i s p rovided a t E henside T arn ( Walker 1 966, f igs.22 a nd 4 9) w here d eposits c over t he p eriod f rom a bout t he 6 th m illennium b e a lmost t o t he d rainage o f t he t arn i n A D 1 869 ( ibid, 1 02). S event een e pisodes o f c learance a nd r egeneration h ave b een p articularly i dentified i n t he p rehistoric p eriod, f rom t he 4 th t o t he i st m illenn ium b e, w ith t hree s ustained p eriods o f c learance m aintenance ( Walker's p hases A t o C , i bid, 1 02-5), f rom c 3 500 t o 3 000 b e, 2 500 t o 1 600 b e a nd f rom 1 400 t o 1 100 b e. C erealia a ppear f rom a bout 2 300 b e o nwards, c orresponding w ith t hese p hases, a nd f ine c harcoal f ragments i n t he f orest

l ake m uds c learance,

i n p hases B a nd C m ay r epresent t he u se o f f ire i n o r a t s ettlements c lose t o t he t arn ( ibid, 1 15).

U nfortunately, a rchaeological m aterial f rom t he t arn e dge c annot b e c losely c orrelated w ith a ny p articular p hase o f a ctivity r epresented i n t he p ollen d iagrams ( pp.94-96). I t i s p erhaps u nlikely t o r elate t o t he e arliest a ctivity i n t he v icinity, p hase A , f or c harcoal a nd a bundant s and i n t he l ake m uds a re l acking i n t his p hase, w hich m ight s uggest a ctivity a t s ome g reater d istance, o r o f a d ifferent n ature f rom l ater c learances ( ibid, 1 16). T he l ength o f t he p hases o f c learance a nd r egeneration a t E henside t hroughout t he p rehistoric p eriod a re o f t he o rder o f s everal h undreds o f y ears, w hich w ould s uggest a d ifferent p attern o f l and u se f rom t he m uch s horter a lternate p hases o f c learance a nd r egeneration f ound a t B owness C ommon i n t he 3 rd t o 2 nd m illennia. E vidence

o f

W illiamson's M oss, 1 975,

f igs.11

h uman

a nd 1 2;

8 4),

a n i ncrease i n P lantago i n

Q yercus a nd

c learance o f p robably i n

a ctivity

E skmeals,

p rior

t o

t he

e lm

d ecline,

i ncluding p ollen o f C erealia

i s s een t o

( 240cm l evel)

a t

( Pennington

c ontinue a fter t hat h orizon,

w ith

s hortly f ollowed b y s ome d ecrease

t he f urther a ppearance o f

C erealia

( 230cm l evel).

T he

o ak f orest f or c ereal c ultivation i n t his v icinity, t he l ate 4 th m illennium b e, a ppears t o h ave o ccasioned

l ocal e rosion, f or a n i nwash o f s oil i s f ound a bove t he c learance h orizon. F airly c ontinuous e vidence o f c ereals i s f ound a bove t he

1 9

p ost-elm d ecline c learance, r adiocarbon d ated t o c 2 700 - 1 900 b c ( Radiocarbon 2 3, 1 981, 2 64; S RR 5 65-8). T he e xpansion o f P lantago l anceolata j ust p rior t o t he c learance o f o ak a nd t he r e-appearance o f c ereals m ay b e c ompared w ith a s imilar s equence a t B arfield T arn. B y e xtrapolation f rom t he s equence o f f our r adiocarbon d ates i n t he u pper p art o f t his p ollen p rofile, a ctivity i mmediately b efore a nd a fter t he e lm d ecline c ould h ave b een o f s ome 6 00 y ears d uration. T his s hould b e b orne i n m ind c learances.

w hen c onsidering t he

i mmediacy

o f

p ost-elm

d ecline

B etween E henside a nd E skmeals, a s hort p ollen s equence f rom D rigg i ndicates f orest c learance i n a n a rea p reviously s ubject t o m arine t ransgression ( Pennington 1 965b, 8 2-5). A t a l evel a t w hich d amp a lder w ood S ome

g ave w ay t o a d rier t ype o f w oodland, s truck f lints w ere f ound. 8 cm a bove t he a rtifact l evel, a s t he f lint f lakes w ere b ecoming

i ncorporated i nto t he a ccumulating r aw h umus, a c learance e pisode i s r ecorded, w ith a d ecline i n Q uercus a nd p eaks o f G ramineae, P lantago a nd P teridium. T he s parse r epresentation o f U lmus s uggests m ay b e p ost-elm d ecline a ctivity. I ntercalated l ayers o f

t hat t his s and a nd

h umus

s and,

a bove

t he c learance h orizon s how t he e ncroachment o f

a nd

p ossibly d une f ormation, a fter t he d eveloping s oil p rofile h ad b een d isturbed. T he a rchaeological s ignificance o f t he s truck f lints ( which u nfortunately a re n ot o f d iagnostic t ypes) i n r elation t o t he c learance e pisode c annot b e d etermined u ntil t he p rofile h as b een d ated a nd t he c hronological r ange o f t he v arious e pisodes c an b e d etermined. T o t he s outh o f D rigg a nd E skmeals l ies B arfield T arn, w here e arly a ctivity i s f ollowed b y a n a ttack u pon t he o ak f orest c oincident w ith t he e lm d ecline, w ith e vidence o f c ereal c ultivation a nd s oil e rosion ( Pennington 1 970, 6 8-9, f ig.11). T hree p eaks o f c ereal p ollen a re i dentified i n t his e pisode, f ollowed b y a p eriod o f s ome f orest r egeneration a nd a nother v igorous c learance a nd c ultivation p hase. I f t his f inal p hase m ay b e d ated t o a bout 2 200 b c ( ibid, 6 9) t hen t he t hree p eaks o f c ereals w ould a ppear t o b e a t i ntervals o f a bout 1 00 t o 2 00 y ears,

w ith s ome

c ereal a nd g rass

c omponent e ven d uring t he l onger

p hase o f o ak r egeneration, p erhaps f rom c 2 800 - 2 400 b c. M ore d etailed a nalyses o f t he e lm d ecline c learance e pisodes ( Pennington 1 975, 8 1-4) s how c harcoal f ragments i n a ll s amples a bove t he s teepest f all

i n

t he

p ercentages

o f o ak ,

s uggestive o f

t he u se

o f

f ire

i n

p reparing t he g round f or c ereal c ultivation. T he e xpansion o f t he c urves f or g rasses a nd P lantago b efore t he c urves f or c ereals a nd a rable l and w eeds ( ibid, f ig.9) m ay a lso i ndicate a s uccession o f u ses o f

t he

c leared g round,

o f

l oamy b oulder c lay,

A ll

t hese s ites

p rior t o i ts u se f or a rable a griculture.

o n t he s outh-west C umberland w ith g ood a mounts

c oast

a re i n a n

o f g lacial s ands,

a rea

g ravels a nd

a lluvium. A reas c lose t o t he c oast m ay h ave h ad l ess f ully d eveloped s oil p rofiles i n t he 4 th m illennium b c, d ue t o l ate m arine t ransgress ions

( c)

( pp.7-8).

M ires o f s outh-west W estmorland 4 3 F oulshaw M oss 5 4 H elsington M oss

5 5 H elton T arn 1 22 W itherslack H all

8 0

1 07 T hrang M oss

N ichols M oss

2 0

All these sites, in low lying areas of the Rivers Kent and Winster, are situated on, or near, alluvial deposits. There are, in general, few indications of prehistoric agriculture in the area (Smith A.G. 1958, 378) which seems to have supported mainly mire communities. The zone VIIa/VIIb boundary is marked by a decline in Ulmus only with some expansion of grasses and Plantago (ibid, figs.4-7; Smith A.G. 1959, 118-20, 123-4) but no other indicators of human interference in the vegetation. An expansion of Plantago, Ericaceae, and Gramineae with Sphagnum and Cyperaceae in zones VIIb and VIII at Foulshaw Moss, Helsington Moss and Nichols Moss (Smith A.G. 1959, figs.6, 8 and 10) may perhaps be dated to the 1st millennium be, but without radiocarbon determinations such attributions are tentative. Similar activity at Witherslack Hall may belong to the same period. Later "clearance" epiiodes would appear to relate to Romano-British and later historic activity, to which period similar episodes at Helton Tarn may also correlate. At all these sites, the evidence for human activity is very small. The tree pollen counts, although variable, appear to bear little relation to the expansion of grasses, etc., nor is any cereal pollen recorded in any of the.diagrams in phases probably of pre­ historic date. While the presence of Plantago may represent some pastoral activity in the area, it seems likely that the variability of other species reflects local changes in the growth of the mires, and a less local arboreal pollen component. Evidence for human activity at Thrang Moss, on the other side of the Kent estuary (Oldfield 1960), is difficult to correlate with other sites, as the radiocarbon dates obntained for the elm decline are particularly late, at� 2400 be (Q 247 and Q 249). Oldfield's demarca­ tion of a 'Primary Elm Decline' with some Piantago followed by a second phase of elm reduction (ibid, 209, fig.13) emphasises the difficulties of defining a single elm decline horizon at some sites. The second elm decline is part of an overall decline in tree pollen (including Pinus, Quercus and ·Tilia) accompanied by an expansion of Plantago and Pteridium, with Cerealia the only significant indication of agricul­ tural activity in the region. (d)

Eden valley 1 Abbot Moss 73 Moorthwaite Moss

Abbot Moss and Moorthwaite Moss occupy similar positions on the west and·east sides of the lower Eden valley, both at about 400ft O.D. (122m) in areas of boulder clay with some glacial sands and gravel nearby. At Abbot Moss the zone VIIa/VIIb boundary is marked by a decrease in elm pollen only, and phases of forest reduction, clearance and regeneration can be identified only from� 2700 be to the top of the pollen profile at c 1200 be (Walker 1966, fig.53). Eleven episodes have been defined with-one prolonged period of forest regeneration from c 2300 to 1700 be. The other phases identified in the diagram are of shorter duration, perhaps in the order of about 100 years. Cerealia appear at about 2400 be and later, and more significantly at� 1500 be just after a pronounced expansion of grasses and shade intolerant herbs, during a period of clearing maintenance. As in other diagrams, cereal pollen is evidenced in periods of shrub regeneration and not only during clearing maintenance. 21

Zone Vlla to Vllb activity at Moorthwaite Moss is unrepresented owing to a hiatus'in the deposits (Walker 1966, 72 fig.16). But clearance activity at the top of the diagram, with falling values of Quercus, an expansion of Corylus, Fraxinus, Gramineae and Plantago, and with evidence of cereals may date to Cumbrian zone 19 and the 2nd millennium be, comparable with later activity at Abbot Moss • (e)

Windermere and Esthwaite Basin 121 Windermere 40 Esthwaite Basin 91 Rydal Water

12 Blelham Tarn 83 Out Dubs Tarn 66 Loughrigg Tarn

Cores from Windermere, used for the study of late glacial and early post-glacial vegetation development, provide little detailed evidence relevant to later prehistoric land use. However, cores 4, 6 and 7 appear to show roughly three main, progressively increasing peaks of Gramineae after the elm decline, with a major expansion of grasses in the top of the deposits (Pennington 1947, figs.). These phases have not been dated, but a general decline in the tree cover in the area is apparent, although the major episodes may be of historic date. At Esthwaite little change in the forest cover is discernible until a clearance episode, probably at the end of the 2nd millennium This is followed by the regeneration of mixed oak forest, perhaps be. more open than previously, which is maintained until much more extensive Norse land-use made a considerable impact on the Lake District vegetation (Franks and Pennington 1961, 40, fig.4; Pennington 1970 fig.17). A suggestion of small temporary clearances of Bronze Age date is found at Rydal Water (Pennington 1970, 72), but in general the area bears little evidence of human activity until probable Iron Age or Romano-British 'landnam' episodes, found at Blelham Tarn, Out Dubs Tarn and Loughrigg Tarn (Pennington 1965a, 320-1). The regional pollen component accumulating in these tarns may however, overshadow small scale changes, unless these are very close at hand. (f)

Sites intermediate between the south-west Cumberland coast and the central Cumbrian mountains 6 31 38 67 21

Barnscar Devoke Water Ennerdale Water Loweswater Burnmoor Tarn

A number of sites lie on the western edge of the central Cumbrian mountains within areas encompassing both solid geology and drift deposits. The earliest evidence of human activity is seen in the large valley lake of Ennerdale Water (Pennington 1975, 80-1) whose outflow, the River Ehen, flows close by Ehenside Tarn. After the elm decline, which occurs within a period c 3250 - 3100 be (SRR-309, 3180 .:t. 60 be), clearance of oak wood is recorded with Plant.ago and an expansion of grasses. This is accompanied by an inwash of soil material rich in Alnus pollen, fern spores and degraded pollen, which Pennington 22

a ssociates w ith a p ermanent d ecline i n u pland b irch w oods, w ith

t he

t emporary

c learance o f o akwood i n

t he

c ontemporary

l owland,

w hich

i s

r egenerating b y c 2 900 - 2 800 b c ( SKR307, 2 880 l i t6 0 b c). T he l owland c learance e pisode, w hich h as n o e vidence o f c ereal p ollen o r a rable w eeds, i s o f c omparatively s hort d uration, p erhaps 1 00 y ears, o ccurring a s imilar l ength o f t ime a fter t he m ain d ecline i n e lm p ollen p roduct ion. A s econd w ell d efined c learance e pisode a t t his s ite f alls j ust b efore a d ate o f 1 046 ± 5 5 b c ( SRR-181), b ut n o f urther d etails o f a re a vailable ( Radiocarbon 2 1, 1 979, 2 19-20). B y c ontrast, a t L oweswater, E nnerdale W ater, m uch w oodland,

t his

i n t he u pland a rea t o t he s outh o f i ncluding s ome e lm, c ontinued w ell

a fter t he z one V IIa/VIIb b oundary, w ith e vidence o f u pland o akwood c learance o nly i n t he ' Brigantian p hase ( Pennington 1 965a, 3 18). A t B urnmoor T arn t here i s l ittle s ignificant c hange i n f orest c over b efore t he d estruction o f u pland o akwood a t a bout 1 500 b c, w ith t he r evertence' o f B etula a nd a n e xpansion o f G ramineae a nd P lantago l anceolata ( Pennington 1 970, f ig.15a). T o t he s outh, a t D evoke W ater, t wo p hases o f e xpansion o f g rasses a re r ecorded, p ossibly d ating f rom c 2 500 t o 1 500 b c a nd f rom c 1 300 t o 1 000 b c. I ndications o f w ashed-in s oils a re f ound a t t hi jsite, b oth b efore a nd d uring b oth g rassland p hases ( Pennington 1 964, f ig.3b). A s imilar e xpansion o f g rasslands w as r ecorded a t B arnscar, a n earby c airn s ite ( Walker 1 965a, 6 0-3). P ollen s amples t aken f rom t he o ld l and s urface b eneath a c airn, a nd f rom w ith

a l ater p it, i ndicate a c hange f rom p artly f orested c onditions, o nly a l ittle e vidence o f b og f ormation a nd a f ew w eeds p rior t o

t he c onstruction o f t he c airn, t o a m ore o pen e nvironment w ith a l arger p roportion o f g rassland h erbs, i ncluding P lantago l anceolata. N o d ate h as b een o btained f or t his p articular c airn, b ut e xcavations i n t he l ocality h ave b c

( g)

p roduced c ollared u rns,

a nd a d ate i n t he 2 nd m illennium

i s a p ossibility.

F urness F ells 1 3 B lind T arn 4 8 G oatswater 9 5 S eathwaite T arn T hree

u pland

t arns

i n a reas o f

t he B orrowdale v olcanic s eries

i n

t he F urness F ells s how a c onsistent p attern o f g rassland e xpansion d uring t he p rehistoric p eriod. A t B lind T arn a nd G oatswater a g radual e xtension o f G ramineae a nd g rassland h erbs c an b e s een f rom t he z one V IIa/VIIb b oundary i nto t he h istoric p eriod ( Pennington 1 964, f igs.5 a nd 6 ). A t S eathwaite T arn t he s ame g eneral t rend c an b e o bserved ( ibid,

f ig.4) where t wo p articular p hases

i dentified,

o f e xpansion o f g rasses w ere

w hich m ay f all b etween c 2 600 - 1 800 b c a nd 1 500 - 2 00 b c.

C ereals a re r ecorded a t t he e nd o f t he l atter p eriod. I ndications o f w ashed-in s oils w ere f ound a t S eathwaite b efore a nd d uring t he f irst g rassland p hase, a nd a lso i n t he s econd. U nfortunately t hese a re p ercentage p ollen d iagrams, c annot g rasses

a nd t he a bsolute d ecline i n c ertain s pecies

b e d istinguished. P ennington s uggests t hat t he e xpansion o f a nd i n-wash o f s oil m aterial o ccurs a s a r esult o f t he d estruc-

t ion b y m an o f

o ak f orest

( ibid,

2 38),

b ut p rocesses o f n atural

s oil

d egradation m ust a lso b e c onsidered, p articularly i n u pland a reas w hich m ay a lready h ave h ad a m ore o pen v egetation a t t he t ime o f t he e lm d ecline.

A

r adiocarbon

d etermination

2 3

o f 1 090

1 40

b c

( NPL-124)

o btained f or m aterial c ollected f rom S eathwaite T arn i n 1 965 i s s aid t o i ndicate a p eriod o f a ccelerated e rosion a nd p artial d eforestation ( Radiocarbon 1 1, 1 969, 1 33).

( h)

C entral C umbrian m ountains 3 A ngle T arn

6 2 L angdale C ombe

6 9 M ickleden 8 8 R ed T arn 8 9 R ed T arn M oss

6 3 L oft C rag 1 0 B lea T arn 8 5 Q uagrigg M oss

1 08 T hunacarr K nott T he i mportance o f

t hese p redominantly e levated s ites

l ies n ot o nly

i n t he r ecord t hey p rovide o f u pland v egetation, b ut a lso i n p roximity t o t he G reat L angdale a xe ' factory', t he s ource o f a r esource o f t he N eolithic i nhabitants o f t he d istrict. A t B lea T arn, g roup,

a n umber o f

a t

c 6 00ft

( 183m) 0 .D.

t heir p rime

t he l owest l ying s ite i n t his

r adiocarbon d eterminations h ave e stablished t hat

t he

s teep f all i n e lm p ollen b egan w ithin o ne s tandard d eviation o f a d ate o f 3 150 2 : 1 20 b c ( K-957) ( Pennington 1 970, f ig.12; P ennington 1 975, 7 68 ). T his f all i n e lm i s p aralleled b y a n a bsolute d ecline i n P inus a nd B etula a nd a s imultaneous r ise i n t he f requency o f G ramineae, C alluna a nd P lantago l anceolata, i nterpreted a s a c learance i n p ine-birch w oodl and, b c).

w hich w as m aintained u ntil a t l east c 2 450 b c ( SRR-16, 2 526 2: 7 0 A d ecline i n Q uercus d uring t he c learance e pisode p arallels a

g eneral d ecline i n t he amount o f f rom a bout 3 000 b c o nwards,

a rboreal p ollen d eposited i n t he t arn a nd i s n ot t herefore c onsidered t o

r epresent c learance a ctivities i n o ak w oodland ( Pennington 1 975, 7 7, f ig.3). A r eal i ncrease i n t he d eposition o f A lnus, C orylus, F ilicales a nd d egraded p ollen d uring t he c learance e pisode w ould s eem t o i ndicate i ncreased

r un-off

f rom

c leared l and

( ibid,

a ctivity a t t his s ite m ay d ate t o c 3 700 b c, t he e lm d ecline c learance p hase. -

w ith

7 8).

P re-elm

s ome 4 00 y ears

d ecline p rior

t o

A s imilar c learance p attern i s r epeated a t A ngle T arn, c oincident o f t he e lm d ecline, n amely a d ecline i n P inus, t he a ppearance

P langa p 3 260 2 :

l anceolata a nd R umex a nd a n i ncrease i n G ramineae, d ated 1 20 b c ( K-1058). A bove t his l evel s uccessive i nwashes

t o o f

o rganic s oil, w eathered m ineral s oil a nd u nweathered m ineral s oil w ere f ound, w ith p ollen o f F ilicales a nd P inus, f ollowed b y t he v irtual d isappearance o f p ine f rom t he p ollen r ecord ( Pennington 1 969b, f ig.2; P ennington 1 975, 7 8). a vailable f or t his s ite,

N o o ther r adiocarbon d eterminations a re a nd t he r ate o f t his c hange c annot b e

e stablished. S omewhat

l ater a ctivity i s

s een a t L angdale C ombe

f ig.3) w ith a p eak o f p lants o f m ore o pen h abitat, R umex, G ramineae, C ompositae a nd R anunculaceae,

( Walker

1 965b,

i ncluding P lantago, p ossibly o ccurring

a bout t he s econd h alf o f t he 3 rd m illennium b c. S ome e vidence o f c harcoal a nd s and i n t he l ake m uds m ay i ndicate e rosion c onsequent u pon t he u be o f f ire f or c learance, o r t o e ncourage t he e xtension o f g rassl ands i n t his a rea. A ctivity a t M ickleden ( ibid, 4 98) w ith a d ecrease i n Q uercus a nd U lmus a nd a n i ncrease i n h erbs a nd P lantago m ay d ate t o t he s ame p eriod.

2 4

A t R ed T arn M oss, a n a rea o nly l ightly f orested a t t he e nd o f t he A tlantic p eriod ( p.12) t he e lm d ecline i s f ollowed b y a d ecrease i n P inus w ith a n e xpansion o f P lantago l anceolate a nd C alluna a nd a s harp i ncrease i n t he a mount o f c harcoal i ncorporated i n t he m or ( Pennington 1 975, 7 8, f ig.4). A s oil c hange c onsequent u pon t he u se o f f ire i n w oodland

c learance

i s

i ncreasingly a cidic, m illennium ( NPL-122, f acilitate w oodland

a lso r ecorded i n

t he

p rofile,

w hich

b ecomes

a nd i s r ecolonised b y b irch b y t he e nd o f t he 3 rd 1 940 2 : 90 b c). W hile f ire m ay h ave b een u sed t o c learance, i t i s a lso p ossible t hat a reas o f

C alluna w ere r egularly d eliberately b urnt, i n t his m ore o pen e nvironm ent. C harcoal i n t he p rofile a t R ed T arn M oss b elow t he l evel o f t he e lm

d ecline

s uggests

t he e arly u se o f

t his

t echnique

o f

m oorland

m anagement. A s p eat a ccumulated a t R ed T arn M oss, t wo o ther c learance e pisodes, e lsewhere i n t he v icinity a re r ecorded, p ossibly i n t he s econd h alf o f t he 2 nd m illennium b c a nd j ust p rior t o t he R oman c onquests ( Pennington 1 965a, 3 19, f ig.15). S oil c hange c onsequent u pon h uman a ctivity, w ith e vidence o f f ire, i s a lso f ound a t t he s ite o f T hunacarr c hipping

K nott

( Pennington

1 973,

f loor i n t he L angdale a rea.

4 6;

P ennington

1 975,

A s a t R ed T arn M oss,

7 8-9),

a

t he b ase o f

t he p rofile i s a m ineral s oil, f ollowed, a fter h uman o ccupation o f t he a rea, b y t he a ccumulation o f a m or h umus a nd p eat. T wo r adiocarbon d eterminations f rom c harcoal ( not f ound i n d irect a ssociation w ith t he s ampled

p eat p rofile)

n ium b c w orking L oft

i ndicate u se o f

t he s ite i n t he m id-3rd

m illen-

( BM 2 81, 2 730 2: 1 35 b c a nd B M 6 76, 2 524 2 .:52 b c). O ther a xe s ites i n t he a rea w ere a lso s ubsequently p eat c overed, a s a t

C rag

( Fell 1 954b,

E lsewhere

2 38-9).

p eat a nd m oorland d eveloped w ithout h uman i nterference,

a s f or e xample a t Q uagrigg M oss ( Pennington 1 975, f ig.5) w here a n otable e xpansion o f C alluna i s r ecorded a t t he e lm d ecline h orizon, b ut w ith n o e vidence o f c ultural p ollens o r a n i ncrease i n g rasses ( ibid,

( i )

8 0).

U pper T eesdale 3 4

8 7

D ufton M oss

R ed S ike M oss

2 8 C ronkley P asture 4 4 F ox E arth G ill

1 18 W iddybank M oss 1 01 S lapestone S ike M oss

7 1

1 15 W eelhead M oss

M ire H oles

U pper T eesdale h as f or l ong b een r ecognised a s a n a rea o f b otanic i mportance, c ontaining, a s i t d oes, a n umber o f r are s pecies, t he e nd

r elics o f t he l ate-glacial f lora s o w idespread i n B ritain a t o f t he l ast g laciation, b ut n ow s urviving i n o nly a l imited

n umber o f f actors f airly

m ajor p lant

s pecialised l ocalities

( Pennington 1 969a,

1 07-10).

A mong t he

f avouring t he s urvival o f t hese s pecies w as t he m aintenance o f o pen c onditions i n t he a rea, e ven d uring t he p eriod o f t he

' forest m aximum' ( p.11-13), w ith v aried c omponents o f t he v egetation s uppoLted o n p atches o f a lluvium, b oulder c lay, o utcrops o f l imestone, q uartz d olerite, a nd i n p articular o n t he ' sugar l imestone'. S ome e arly h uman i nterference i n t he a rea h as b een s uggested

( p.18),

a nd

t he

f inal d ecline o f P inus c oincident w ith t he U lmus d ecline, a s f or e xample a t W eelhead M oss, T inklers S ike a nd o ther s ites o n W iddybank F ell

( Turner e t

a l,

1 973,

4 01)

m ay i ndicate c ontinued h uman u se o f

2 5

t he

a rea.

L ater a ctivity,

p robably i n t he f orm o f g razing a nimals i n t he

a rea, p roduced p hases o f g rassland e xpansion, G ramineae a nd P lantago r ise a nd f all t ogether,

w here t he c urves f or d ated a t W eelhead M oss

t o t he e nd o f t he 2 nd m illennium ( Gak-2913, 1 200 j : 1 00 b c) a nd a t T inklers S ike t o t he m iddle o f t he i st m illennium b c ( Gak-2027, 6 20 2 . 8 0 b c) ( ibid, 4 03). I n t he a rea i n g eneral, t he t rend i s f or r eplacement o f w oodland b y g rasses a nd b lanket p eat d evelopment, c hange

t o t he

l atter b eing a n i rreversible p rocess.

A rable

t he t he

a gricul-

t ure, a s r epresented b y t he s poradic o ccurrences o f c ereal p ollen, i s p erhaps a l ittle m ore l ikely t o h ave b een p racticed i n a reas l ower d own t he d ale. N o e pisodes C ronkley

r adiocarbon d eterminations a t s ites P asture,

i nterference, z one t he

h ave b een m ade

f or p ost-elm d ecline

e xamined b y S quires ( 1970) s uch a s D ufton M oss, F ox E arth G ill a nd M ire H oles, b ut c ontinued

g iving a n i ncrease i n h erbs,

f rom a bout m idway

V IIb m ay r elate t o B ronze A ge o ccupation o f 2 nd m illennium b c,

t he a rea,

w hich c orresponds w ith s imilar

t hrough

p erhaps

e vidence

i n

f rom

d ated s ites i n U pper T eesdale. • A bundant e vidence o f t he u se o f f ire i n l and c learance w as f ound a t C ronkley P astures, w ith a n i ncrease i n G ramineae, E ricales, C yperaceae a nd a m aximum o f r uderals, b ut, a s w ith o ther s ites i n t he a rea, t he o verall e ffect o f d eforestation w as i ncreased p aludification, w ith p eat d eveloping f rom w oodland a nd s crub h umus. D rier a reas o f o pen g rassland w ould a ppear t o h ave p rovided a u seful e conomic r esource i n t he 2 nd a nd i st m illennia b c, w ith s ome e vidence o f a rable a griculture i n t he r egion t hroughout t he p rehistoric p eriod.

( j)

M oor h ouse 1 10 U pper V alley B og 1 4 B og H ill 5 0 H ard H ill

d ale

A p attern o f o pen v egetation s imilar t o t hat f ound i n U pper T eesi s a lso r ecorded i n t he e xposed u pland a rea o f t he M oor H ouse

N ature R eserve. D iagrams c ompiled f rom p eat s amples a t H ard H ill ( Johnson a nd D unham 1 963, f igs.28 a nd 2 9) a re,

B og H ill a nd i n t he m ain,

d ominated b y l ocal b og s pecies, w ith p eaks o f g rasses a nd P lantago, p ossibly o f l ate p rehistoric d ate, b ut m ore p robably r elating t o t he h istorical p eriod. A t U pper V alley B og a m ore d etailed a nalysis o f t he d eposits

s howed

( SRR-94, t han i n

4 764 ± 7 4 b c, S KR95, 4 829 ± 7 5 b c) w hich i s s omewhat e arlier U pper T eesdale ( p.25), w ith t wo p eriods o f d ecline i n U lmus

d ated

t o

a d ecline i n P inus

c 4 000 b c

( SRR-93,

i n t he A tlantic p eriod c

3 995 ± 5 0 b c a nd S RR-92,

4 800

4 000 ± 6 0 b c)

c 2 800 b c ( SRR-91, 2 844 - 5 5 b c a nd S RR-90, 2 646 2 :60 bc). d ecline i n e lm w as n oted b y S quires i n h is d iagrams f rom

b c

a nd

A s econdary U pper T ees-

d ale, t hought t o b e o f B ronze A ge d ate a nd d ated a t D ufton M oss t o 1 730 — 80 b c ( SRR - 5 08) ( Squires 1 970, 2 04; R adiocarbon 2 3, 1 981, 2 63). A t U pper V alley B og t he f irst e pisode o f e lm d ecline, w ith a n e xpansion o f h erbs, i s o f s hort d uration ( p.16) b ut t he s econd, f rom t he m id-3rd m illennium b c, w ith p eaks o f h erbaceous s pecies a nd s mall a mounts o f c ereal p ollen, m ay h ave l asted u ntil c 1 450 b c, w hen t he p eak o f c learance

w as

r eached,

f ollowed b y w oodland

2 6

r egeneration

( Chambers

1 974,

( k)

8 4).

W eardale 1 03 S teward S hield M eadow 1 5 B ollihope B og

T wo d iagrams i llustrating r ecent f orest h istory a nd l and u se i n W eardale p rovide s ome e vidence o f t he v egetation o f t he a rea i n t he l ater p rehistoric p eriod ( Roberts e t a l 1 973, f igs.3-5, 7 -9). B y e xtrapolation o f t he r ate o f p eat g rowth b etween r adiocarbon d ated h orizons i t s eems l ikely t hat a s m uch a s a m illennium o r m ore m aybe r epresented b y t he l ocal p ollen z ones S Sd a t S teward S hield M eadow a nd B f

a t

B ollihope B og, s ites

c overing

t he i st

m illennium

b c,

o r

l onger.

B oth

w oodland Q uercus,

c ontaining B etula, P inus, A lnus a nd C orylus w ith w hich i s o f l ess s ignificance a t t his e levation.

p ossibly

a ppear t o h ave s upported a r easonable a mount

a ppears t o h ave b een s lightly m ore w ooded d uring t his S teward S hield, w ith a h igher t otal t ree p ollen f requency,

o f

a l ittle B ollihope

p eriod t han c onsiderably

f ewer h erbaceous p ollens a nd d enser w oodland ( ibid, 2 16). C learance a ctivity i s o nly r ecorded a t t hese s ites i n t he l ate I ron A ge a nd R oman p eriod, a lthough v ariations i n P lantago a nd G ramineae f requencies o n u npublished d iagrams f rom t hese w idely s paced s ites a lso i n U pper W eardale m ay i ndicate h uman i nterference i n t he a rea, i n t he i st m illennium b c, o f t he s ame ( Turner e t a l 1 973, 4 03).

( 1)

t ype a s

t hat r ecorded i n

U pper

T eesdale

S outh-east D urham 7 B ishop M iddleham 5 1 H artlepool

7 4 M ordon C arr 5 8 H utton H enry 1 06 T horpe T he m ost o f t he D urham. ( p.18),

7 6 N easham

B ulmer

s ubstantial e vidence f or h uman a ctivity i n l owland

a reas

n orth-east o f E ngland i s t o b e f ound i n p arts o f s outh-east E arly a ctivity i s f ound a t H artlepool i n z ones V ila a nd V IIb w ith c learance f or b oth p astoral a nd a rable a ctivity a nd t he

s imultaneous d ecline i s a ccompanied

d ecline

o f

U lmus a nd T ilia

( Tooley

1 978b,

7 4)

w hich

r epeated a t t he s ame p eriod a t B ishop M iddleham, b y a n i ncrease i n w eed s pecies ( Bartley e t a l 1 976,

a lso 4 49).

C learances a t M ordon C arr a nd H utton H enry o ccur s omewhat l ater, i n t he 3 rd m illennium b c w ith i ncreases i n h erbaceous s pecies, g reater a t M ordon C arr t han a t H utton H enry, a nd a ccompanied b y c ereal p ollen ( ibid, 4 63). T he l argest s cale a ctivity o ccurred h owever i n t he 2 nd m illennium b c, w ith m oderate c learance a t M ordon C arr, a l arge c learance a t H utton H enry w ith a m arked i ncrease i n h erbs a nd w eeds a nd o ne r ecord o f c ereal p ollen, a nd a v ery l arge c learance a t B ishop M iddleham. A t t he l atter s ite P lantago l anceolata r eached 4 1% o f p ollen d uring t his e pisode, w ith t ree p ollen r educed t o o nly 1 0%, w hic l, t here w as l ittle r ecovery o f t he f orest ( ibid, 4 49, 4 64). c lea/ance a t a rea

d uring

B ishop M iddleham i s b y f ar t he l argest t he

p rehistoric p eriod.

T o

t he

t otal a fter T his

s uch e pisode i n t he

s outh,

i n

a

l owland

p osition i n t he v alley o f t he T ees, b ut o utside a 1 0km r adius o f o ther s ites i n t his g rouping, c learance a ctivities a re a lso r ecorded a t N easham F en. I n t he 2 nd m illennium b c c learance f or b oth a rable a nd

2 7

p asture, c 1 700 - 1 100 b c r educed t he t ree p ollen t o 5 0 - 6 0% o f t he t otal p ollen c ount, w ith a n i ncrease i n h erbs i ncluding P lantago a nd A rtemisia a nd s ome c ereals. T his w as f ollowed b y r ecolonisation b y t rees,

a nd a s econd,

e vidence o f

l arger c learance e pisode f rom c 8 50 - 5 00 b c,

c ereals,

a gain w ith l ater f orest r egeneration

w ith

( ibid, 4 64).

T he p roximity o f m ost o f t he s ites i n t his a rea o ne t o t he o ther a nd t he c hronological s pan o f t he e vidence f or h uman a ctivity w ould s eem t o s uggest c ontinuous o ccupation, a lthough o f v arying i ntensity t hroughout t he p rehistoric p eriod.

( m)

F urness a nd C artmel 1 11

U rswick T arn

3 6 E llerside M oss 9 0 R usland M oss I n

t his

a rea

i s

f ound a m ixture o f s crub

d eveloped

o n

d rift

d eposits o f l oamy b oulder c lay, s olid g eology ( both s andstone a nd l imestone) a nd a lluvial d eposits, w ith l ocalised a reas w ith r estricted d rainage g iving r ise t o p eat f ormation. A t U rswick T arn a nd E llerside M oss a d ouble e lm d ecline w as i dentified ( Oldfield a nd S tatham 1 963, 6 4, f igs.3-6), n amely a p rimary d ecline i n e lm o nly, f ollowed b y a s lightly l ater s econd d ecline a ccompanied b y h igh v alues f or w eed a nd g rass p ollen, p ossibly d ated t o t he b eginning o f t he 3 rd m illennium b c. A t E llerside M oss t he s equence c ontinues w ith p artial r egeneration o f t ree c over, f ollowed b y a nother c learance p hase w ith f luctuating v alues o f P lantago a nd P teridium w ith C erealia, p ossibly o f 2 nd m illennium d ate, a nother s horter p eriod o f t ree r egeneration a nd a t hird c learance e pisode, p ossibly i n t he s econd h alf o f t he i st m illennium b c ( ibid, 5 9, f ig.4). A t U rswick T arn o nly t he f irst p hase a fter t he e lm d ecline i s r epresented, d ue t o a h iatus i n t he d eposits, w ith s ome e vidence o f f looding ( ibid, 5 9). A t R usland M oss, a s a t E llerside M oss t o t he s outh, t here i s e vidence o f a l ong s equence o f c learances t hroughout m ost o f t he. 2 nd m illennium b c a nd i nto t he f irst p art o f t he i st m illennium, w ith a d ecrease i n Q uercus a nd a n i ncrease i n G ramineae, C orylus, P lantago a nd P teridium , w ith s ome s uggestion o f a c hange i n t he p attern o f g razing d uring

( n)

t he p eriod

( Dickinson 1 975,

9 26-7).

U pper c atchment o f t he R iver K ent 5 9 K entmere 1 00 S kelsmergh T arn A t

b oth K entmere a nd S kelsmergh ( Walker 1 955)

p hases

o f

c learance

h ave b een i dentified w ith a n e xpansion o f G ramineae, C yperaceae, R umex a nd P lantago, w hich m ay d ate t o t he 2 nd m illennium b c ( ibid, 2 40-5, 2 52,

f igs.7-8),

f ollowed a t b oth s ites b y a n a pparent

r egeneration o f

t ree c over. A s econd m ajor e xpansion o f h erbaceous S kelJmergh, w ith t he a ppearance o f C erealia m ay d ate t o t he o f

t he

i st m illennium b c

e vidence o f

c ereals

( ibid,

( ibid,

2 43),

2 42),

p lants a t l atter p art

w hile t hat a t K entmere,

c ould b e o f h istorical d ata.

2 8

w ithout

O ther s ites 1 7 2 6 2 5 1 5

B radford K aims C ranberry B og C oom R igg M oss M uckle M oss

1 05 7 2 1 09 2

T hirlmere M ockerkin T arn U llswater A keld S teads

A n umber o f s ites w hich c annot u sefully b e c onsidered w ithin t he r egional g roupings d iscussed a bove m ust b e m entioned h ere. I n t he n orth o f N orthumberland s ubstantial c learance a ctivity w ith e vidence o f t he u se b oreal,

o f f ire t ook p lace a t A keld r ; teads p rior t o t he e nd o f t he S ubw ith a d ecrease i n t ree p ollen f rom 8 8% t o 3 4% a nd a n i ncrease

i n h erb a nd g rass p ollen f requencies, i ncluding P lantago a nd A rtemisia ( Miket 1 976, 1 14). U nfortunately t his c learance, p resumably f or a gric ultural

p urposes,

h as o nly b een d ated w ithin t he

p ollen

z one.

A t

B radford K aims, t o t he e ast, a t rend t owards a r eduction i n t ree c over i s s een, w ith i ncreases i n G ramineae, b ut t hese t oo h ave n ot b een d ated ( Bartley 1 966, 1 46 a nd 1 51, f igs.4-6). I n t he P ennine u plands, t o t he n orth a nd s outh o f t he T yne g ap, a t C oom R igg M oss ( Chapman 1 964, 3 091 0, f igs.8 a nd 9 ) a nd M uckle M oss ( Pearson 1 960, 6 65, f igs.7 a nd 8 ) i ncreases i n G ramineae, P lantago, E ricaceae a nd S phagnum s uggest t he e xtension o f h eath a nd p eat c ommunities. A s s een i n o ther a reas, h uman i nterference i n t he f orm o f t ree c learance m ay h ave e ncouraged t his p rocess, b ut n o s pecific e vidence o f h uman a ctivity h as b een n oted i n t hese d iagrams. A t a l owland s ituation i n C ranberry B og, C o. D urham ( Turner a nd K ershaw 1 973, 9 26-7), t here i s s ome e vidence o f c learance a ctivity a nd a n

e xtension

o f g rassland p rior t o

t he r e-formation o f p eat

i n

z one

V III, p erhaps t herefore r elating t o a ctivity i n t he l ocality i n t he i st m illennium b c. I n C umbria, d iagrams f rom U llswater a nd M ockerkin T arn i ndicate i ncreases i n ' cultural p ollens j ust a fter t he e lm d ecline, i n a p hase l asting s ome f our h undred y ears, a t M ockerkin ( Pennington I 965a, i n t he a mount U llswater, b ut

w ith l ittle c hange i n a ll t ree s pecies 3 14, f ig.14) a nd a r eal d ecrease o nly

o f e lm p ollen, w hich w ith s ome i ndications o f

d eclines v ery g radually a t a ccelerated i nwash o f f orest

s oils a t t he s ame h orizon ( Pennington 1 975, 8 0, f ig.6). L ater e xtens ion o f g rassland a nd C alluna i s f ound a t T hirlmere, a t t he e nd o f z one V Iib,

p ossibly

P ennington 1 970,

i n

t he 2 nd m illennium b c

7 4-5,

( Pennington

1 965a,

3 18-9;

f ig.15b).

T hree o ther s ites i n N orthumberland a nd D urham n ot o riginally i ncluded i n t his s urvey a re F ellend M oss n ear H altwhistle, S teng M oss o n t he e ast s ide o f t he v alley o f t he N orth T yne a nd H allowell M oss i n s outh-east D urham. A t F ellend M oss a m inor e pisode o f f orest c learance h as b een d ated t o 1 740 ± 6 0 b c ( SRR - 8 77), w ith m ore s ubstantial c learance o nly o ccurring i n t he R oman p eriod. A t S teng M oss t he m axima o f t hree s eparate ' landnam' t ype c learances h ave b een d ated t o 1 650 5 0 b c ( SRR - 1 045), 1 070 2 = 50 bc ( SRR - 1 044) a nd 6 40 2 = 5 0 b c ( SRR 1 043). I n s outh-east D urham a s light o pening i n t he f orest, p erhaps f or

g razing i s

( Radiocarbon 2 3,

r ecorded a t H allowell M oss a t 1 700 1 981,

2 60-1,

2 72-3,

2 9

2 77).

2 = 60

b c

( SRR

- 4 18)

E NVIRONMENTAL E VIDENCE:

S UMMARY

( Table 5 ,

M aps 7 4

- 7 6)

i n c ommon w ith t he r est o f B ritain a nd I reland t he e arliest u nequivocal e vidence o f m an's a ctivities r ecorded i n p ollen s pectra i n t he

n orth

c hanges

o f

o f

E ngland o ccurs

v arious

s orts

i n t he

h ave

4 th

m illennium

b een i dentified

b c.

i ncluding

V egetation

a r eduction o f

e lm , b irch a nd p ine a ccompanied b y a n i ncrease i n g rasses, P lantago a nd C alluna; a n e xpansion o f h erbaceous s pecies w ithout a s ignificant c hange

i n

t ree

c over;

g eneral

f orest

a nd s hrub

r eduction w ith a n i ncrease i n P lantago; p astoral a nd a rable i ndicators i ncluding t ypes t he

o f

v egetation d isturbance m ay

l ocal

i mpact

a nd n on-local

o f

p rior

t o

t ypes.

s olid g eology, a spect d egradation i n p arts o f T he

i mpossible

o f

a ssess

p alynological O f a s

u nequivocal

e vidence

t he

i n a n a rea o f d eposits

f armers

a ttribution o f w ithout

e vidence,

s ame s ite. i nterpreted

o nly

i nfluence

i n t he d iagrams,

f rom p eat

N eolithic

o ak a nd e lm

b ut

v aried

t opography

s uggests

t he e ffects

t hat

o f

e ven

e levation,

a

f ound

a ll t he t ypes i ndicative o f o f

t hese c hanges

c ombination

o f

i n s tratigraphic

i n v egetation i s

a rchaeological

r elationship,

a nd

a t

t he

o f p alynological e vidence w hich h ave b een a griculture, o nly c ereal p ollen p rovides

f arming

p ractice.

E ven t his

i ndicator

b elong t o p hases o f c rop a nd s tock e xperimentation i ntermediate t rue M esolithic h unter-gatherer p ractices a nd a f ull N eolithic e conomy

o f

a lso t he

a nd c limate h ad e ncouraged p rocesses o f s oil t he a rea w hich n ever s upported c limatic-climax

' cultural

t o

l and u se

E vidence

t he a ctivities

f orest.

r eflect n ot

p ollen c omponents

h uman o ccupation a nd

a nd v egetation

r eduction;

a nd t he a ppearance o f b oth c ereal p ollen g rains. T hese

m ay

b etween f arming

( p.49).

T he

n ature

o f

t he e lm d ecline a nd

t he m echanism

w hich

p roduced

t his u niversal v egetation c hange a re p roblematic. T here i s n o d irect r elationship b etween t he e lm d ecline p henomenon a nd t he b eginnings o f a griculture

i n B ritain a nd I reland,

r adiocarbon c ident

y ears

b efore

w ith o ther

n ot

c onsidered

h as

b een u sed

a nd

' later'

d istinction d ifference

t o

i ndicators b e

h ere,

o f f or

c learances i n i n

t he

o f

f orest

c onvenience,

d isturbance

o f

t erms,

t he

a ctivity

t his

i s

t he e lm d ecline

i s

n or i s ' there

c oin-

e lm d ecline

A lthough

E ngland,

s ome 8 00

U nless

a s a d emarcation b etween

i n t he n orth o f

t ypes

t aken p lace

b oundary.

a nthropogenic o rigin.

a rchaeological t he

w hich m ay h ave

z one V Ila/VIib

a n

a ny

r ecorded b efore

o r

' earlier' a rtificial

s ignificant a fter

t his

h orizon. I n t he c ontinuation t hose

l ater 4 th a nd 3 rd m illennia b c p ollen e vidence a nd e xtension o f a ctivity ( often w ith c ereal

a reas w ith p re-elm d ecline

d isturbance,

t hat

i s

t he

s uggests p ollen)

a i n

C umberland

p lain, t he s outh-west C umbrian c oast, s outh-east D urham a nd U pper T eesdale, w ith a dditional a rable a ctivity i n t he E den v alley a nd F urness

a nd C artmel,

a n e xtension o f

g rasslands

i n t he

F urness

f ells,

t he C umbrian m ountains g enerally a nd e vidence o f c learance i n s ome o f t he L akeland v alleys. T his p attern o f a ctivity c ontinued i nto t he 2 nd m illennium b c w ith a f urther e xtension t o t he e ast o f t he C umberland p lain, t he v alleys l eading f rom t he w est c oast o f C umbria t o t he c entral m ountains, a long t he v alleys o f t he K ent, T ees a nd E den, a nd i n F urness a nd C artmel. B ecause o f t he l imitations o f t he p ollen e vidence t hese d evelopments c an o nly b e c onsidered i n v ery g eneral t erms. M oreo ver, t his e vidence i s r epresentative o nly o f t hose a reas f or w hich p ollen p rofiles a re a vailable a nd d oes n ot i ndicate a l ack o f s ettlem ent

i n o ther a reas w ithout

p ollen e vidence.

3 0

E ven

i n

c learance c enturies a

t he e arliest

a ctivity ' r ather

p articular

w ere

t han d ecades.

a rea

m aintenance,

s tages

c ould

e ven

o f

o ften o f

v egetation d isturbance

l ong d uration,

A s ystem o f

t he

l ocation o f

b e

r otational

p roduce a n o verall

w hile

t o

o f i n

l and u se w ithin

i mpression

i ndividual

p hases

m easured o f

c learing

f ields

c hanged.

N evertheless l ong p eriods o f l and u se w ithin t he p ollen c atchment o f v arious s ites a re i ndicated a s f or e xample a t E henside T arn, W illiams on's

M oss,

s hortest

O ulton

p eriods

m aintenance w ere B owness l ong

M oss o f

o f

a t

t he o rder

B arfield T arn, a nd

M oss,

B arfield

c atchment

f orest o f

c learance r equire

T arn a nd a t

n ot o nly

i s

t he

i nappropriate

f ound

a t

i n F urness

a nd

p ollen d iagrams b y w hich t he

E vidence

f rom

c learances c learance

A s

o f

s lash a nd b urn m odel o f

c ompiled

E ngland

t he

u pper

R owley-Conwy h as f orest-

w hich

f ertility,

d o

b ut

r egeneration p henomenon i s

i n

a f unction o f

( Rowley-Conwy 1 981,

s upports

t he

n ot s ome

8 5-8).

s uggestion

t hat o f o f

l and u se.

d istinction b etween p astoral

d efine

p recisely.

i ndicators c ereal f ields. 4 th t o

t he

d iagram w as

n orth

C artmel,

o f

A bbot

w ere o ften o f l ong d uration a nd t hat a lternative m odels a nd l and u se s hould b e a pplied t o e xplain t hese p atterns

p rehistoric T he

t he

C ommon,

t emperate E uropean s ites

s hifting c ultivation t o m aintain s oil

t he m ethod

i dentified a t L ong p hases

B owness

s outh-east D urham.

T he

c learing

p erhaps a c entury

a nd E nnerdale W ater.

' landnam

f or

D urham. a nd

d uration,

w ith o ther e pisodes

s ites a nd

s outh-east r eduction

a bout 3 0 y ears

A bbot M oss

p ercentage

f ound

N ot

a s

o nly

a nd a rable

a re

p lants

f ield-edge w eeds

l and

o ften

( Edwards

u se i s u sed

1 979,

d ifficult

a s

p astoral

2 57)

b ut

a lso

p ollen w ill o nly b e r ecorded a t s ample s ites c lose t o a rable R ecords o f c ereal p ollen a t m any o f t he s ites s ampled f rom t he i st m illennium b c s uggest t hat a rable a griculture w as q uite

w idespread b e

p astoral

s ome

o f

i n

f orest

r egeneration a re a lso

t he R iver K ent

d emonstrated

w ould

s ites

C ommon c 2 200 - 1 700 b c,

s hrub

t o

a nd a t

a lternating

t hroughout i ncorrect

t he a rea i n t he p rehistoric t o

c onsider

t he n orth o f

p eriod a nd

E ngland

a s

t hat a

i t

l argely

r egion.

I t h as p ollen

e conomic

b een s uggested d iagrams a bout

b reak,

a ctivity

a nd a nd s uch

a n

a rea

o f

t hree

i s

s omewhat

c an o nly b e

i mplied

r eaction

t here

d oubtful.

i dentified

d imensional w hen

a gainst

A t rue

o f

c essation o f

p roperly o n a r egional

p ollen d iagrams

i s

t he h igh l evel

i n a n

p opulation g rowth i n t he e arly 3 rd m illennium b c, w hen r esources p opulation b ecame o verstretched ( Whittle 1 980, 3 31). E vidence f or a ' standstill'

a

t hat t he r egeneration o f w oodland s een t he m id 3 rd m illennium b e r epresents

( Turner

a k nown r elationship

1 975)

a ctivity

b asis

a nd

i n

b y t he u se

c an

o nly

b etween a h uman

b e

c ommunity

a nd t he e cological i mpact s hown i n t he d iagram ( Edwards 1 979, 2 63). W hittle s f ourteen e xamples o f s ites w ith c learing r egeneration c ome f rom u pland a nd l owland s ites i n B ritain a nd I reland a nd s hould f irst b e i nterpreted w ithin t heir o wn r egional c ontext. P articular c are m ust a lso

b e

t ion i s

t aken i n t he r ecognised

a s

i dentification o f

t he

c riteria b y w hich

r egenera-

t hese m ay d iffer b etween p ollen a nalysts,

a s m ay

t he s pecific h orizon i dentified a s ' regeneration' a nd s ampled f or r adiocarbon d ating. F inally, t he u se o f a t wo s tandard d eviation t ime s pread

f or

p eriod

o f

P ollen

e vidence

c essation

t he

r adiocarbon d ates

' standstill' o f

l ess

f or

f rom t he n orth o f

c learance

r egeneration a nd

d istinct

( Edwards

E ngland d oes

1 979, n ot

2 61-3,

s uggest

i n t he m id 3 rd m illennium b c.

3 1

r enewal m akes a

t he

f ig.2). g eneral

R egeneration o f

w oodland a t v arious s tages i n t he d ifferent d iagrams c annot p ositively b e i dentified a s a c essation o f a ctivity w ithout m ore p ollen s amples f rom w hich a p icture T wo

o f

i rreversible

l ocal o r c hanges

f ormation

o f

b lanket

a ctivities s ediments

o f e arly f armers. h ave b een n oted

r egional

i n t he

p eat,

h ave

a ctivity

l andscape,

s ometimes

c an b e

c onstructed.

s oil e rosion a nd

b een

a ttributed

t o

t he t he

I nwashes o f s oils a nd a c hange i n l ake a t a n umber o f s ites, p articularly i n

C umbria, o ften c oincident w ith c learances j ust a fter t he e lm d ecline, a s a t W illiamson's M oss, B arfield T arn, E nnerdale W ater, B lea T arn, A ngle T arn a nd U llswater,

o r w ith l ater

g rassland p hases

a s

a t

D evoke

W ater, S eathwaite T arn a nd L angdale C ombe. T hese c hanges h ave b een i nterpreted a s t he r esult o f i ncreased e rosion, f ollowing t he c learance o f

f orest

f or

c ultivation.

M odern e xperimental

h ydrology s how a c onsiderable i ncrease o r r iver c atchment i s r emoved ( Swanks e ffect

m ight

b e

e xpected w hen c limatic-climax

H owever,

t he

s urface

d isturbance

s treams, f low.

s ilting o f

a nd I n

l akes

o f

h ence

a

s tudies

s oils

t he

f orest

a nd

b ogs

b ut

s tatus

i s

o f

w ith a m ull

i n

c atchment

i n r un-off w hen f orest i n a l ake a nd D ouglas 1 974) a nd a s imilar f orest

w as

d oes n ot n ecessarily r elated

t he s oils s oil

t o

t he

p ower

o f

t he e rosive

t hrough w hich

s tream f low i s

c leared.

r eflect t he

s treams

r egular w ith

f ew

s pates, b ut a d egraded s oil, e ven u nder f orest c over m ay s how s easonal s pates, b ecause r aw h umus i s a l ess e ffective ' sponge f or a bsorbing r ainfall ( Prof. D imbleby: p er.comm.). E vidence o f e rosion m ight t herefore s uggest t hat s ome s oils w ere a lready b ecoming d egraded p rior t o

h uman

i nterference,

a m ajor

t rend

i n v egetation i n p arts

v egetation a nd

t he s tunted g rowth o f

o f

t he

a rea. O pen t ogether

w ith

t he

d evelopment

o f

p eat

t rees

a nd o ther

i n u pland

a reas,

s econdary p lant

m unities t hroughout t he p ost-glacial p eriod i ndicate a t endency t o d egradation i n t he n orth o f E ngland. A lthough p ollen d iagrams

c oms oil s how

e vidence o f p ine a nd b irch w oods i n C umbria a nd o ther u plands, t his d oes n ot i ndicate t hat t hese s oils w ere s uitable f or c ultivation. P inus s ylvestris,

t he

s pecies

d uring t he A tlantic p eriod, ( 1) t he t ransitional s tages t he

i nitiation

o f

b ogs w ith d ry a reas B oth a re d egraded a ccelerated c ause

o f A

s teep

a reas

p rocesses

c ontrast m ay a nd

m ay

t opography

h ave o f

b og,

a lready

l ikely

t o h ave

b een g rowing

( 2)

d eveloped

r aised

b ogs

a nd

b lanket

b egun,

b ut w ere

b y n o m eans

t he

s ole

v egetation s uccession.

b e d rawn b etween t he

t he n orth-east

s lopes,

p ine m ost

o n w hich p ine c an r egenerate ( Godwin 1 975, 1 03-5). s oils. C learances i n t hese a reas m ay h ave

r etrogressive

n orth-west o f

r aised

o f

i s c haracteristic o f t wo t ypes o f h abitat o f v egetation s uccession c orresponding w ith

r esistant e ncouraged

o f

E ngland.

v olcanic

r ocks

e rosion a nd

t he P ennine u plands

a nd

t opography a nd

g eology o f

I n C umbria t he a nd h igh r ainfall

s oil l oss. t he C heviots

t he

c ombination i n e levated

I n t he m ore r ounded a

c ombination

o f

h igh r ainfall a nd a l ow p recipitation/evaporation r atio w ould t end t o e ncourage t he d evelopment o f p eat b og c ommunities a nd s oil d egradation.

3 2

P ALYNOLOGY A ND A RCHAEOLOGY A ND T HE E VIDENCE O F H UMAN A CTIVITY P REHISTORIC P ERIOD

I N

T HE

T he r ecognition o f v arious t ypes o f m an-made v egetation d isturba nce, f orest c learance a nd a gricultural a ctivity i n p ollen s pectra h as c onsiderably e nlarged t he p icture o f m an's a ctivities i n t he p reh istoric p eriod, i n s ome i nstances s uggesting s ettlement i n a reas f or w hich t here i s l ittle a rchaeological e vidence o f o ccupation. W hen a ttempting t o i nterpret t he e vidence f or s ettlement p rovided b y a rchaeology a nd p alynology i t o f e ach t ype o f s tudy.

i s n ecessary t o

c onsider t he l imitations

P ollen a nalysis a nd p rehistoric a ctivity T he m ethods a nd

l imitations

o f p ollen a nalysis h ave b een d iscussed

b y m any p alaeobotanists ( e.g. M oore a nd W ebb 1 978) a nd t he i nference o f p rehistoric a ctivity i n p articular h as b een r eviewed b y E dwards ( 1979). P roblems r elevant t o t he i dentification o f p rehistoric a ctivity i n p ollen s pectra

( and t he a ssociation o f

t hat a ctivity a nd a rchaeological

r emains) c oncern t he l ocation a nd c hoice o f s ampling s ites, t he n ature o f c learance a ctivity a nd t he c riteria b y w hich i t i s i nferred, a nd t he d ating o f t he e pisodes i dentified i n t he d iagrams. T hese m ay b e s ummarised a s f ollows: ( 1)

T he

m ajority o f

p ollen s ample s ites a re n ot

c hosen w ith r eference

t o k nown a rchaeological r emains n or a re m ost s amples p rimarily i ntended t o e lucidate t he n ature a nd e xtent o f p rehistoric o ccupat ion i n a n a rea ( 2)

b ecause o f t he p roblems o f a rchaeological c hronologies a nd t he l imitations o f r adiocarbon d ating o f p ollen s amples ( p.15) i t m ay b e i mpossible t o c orrelate a rchaeological m aterial a nd p alynol ogical e vidence o f s ettlement f rom t he s ame v icinity, f ound i n d irect s tratigraphic r elationship ( pp.40-41)

( 3)

t here

i s

a b ias

i n t he c hoice o f

p ollen s ampling

s ites

u nless

t owards

u pland l ocations w hich m ay b e u nrepresentative o f l arge a reas o f t he l owlands w hich s upported h uman a ctivity d uring t he p rehistoric p eriod ( 4)

a

p ollen

c atchment

a rea m ay c hange t hrough t ime

c over i n t he v icinity i s ( 5)

v ariable i n

a mounts o f

a s

v egetation

a ltered

n on-local p ollen,

t he i mmediate v icinity o f

u nrepresentative o f

t he s ampling s ite,

a re

a ctivity

p resent

i n

p ollen s pectra ( 6)

p atterns o f v egetation c hange m ay b e a f unction o f t he m ethod b y w hich t he p ollen d iagram i s c ompiled ( as i n p ercentage d iagrams) ( Rowley-Conwy 1 981,

( 7 )

t he t he

8 7)

d egree o f d etail i n a p ollen d iagram i s l argely d etermined b y i ntervals a t w hich a d eposit i s s ampled a nd t he n umber o f

p ollen g rains

c ounted

3 3

( 8 )

t he i nterpretation o f h uman a ctivity i n p ollen s pectra b y p alaeobotanists i s r elated t o c ontemporary a rchaeological e xpectat ions

( 9)

( 10)

( e.g.

t he n ature o f

t he e lm d ecline p p.14-16)

d ifferent t ypes o f l and u se m ay p roduce s imilar p atterns p ollen s pectra ( Edwards 1 979, 2 56-7)

i n

t he

p alaeobotanists m ay u se d ifferent c riteria t o i dentify t he p henomena e .g. a rable o r p astoral l and u se ( p.31)

s ame

T he a rchaeological r ecord a nd p rehistoric a ctivity T he

k nown

d istribution o f

a rchaeological m aterial i n a n a rea

i s

b iased b y a n umber o f f actors r elating t o t he r ecognition a nd r ecovery o f a rtifacts a nd s ites a nd i s r epresentative o f a v ariety o f a ctivities n ot a ll o f w hich m ay b e r ecorded i n p ollen d iagrams. I n t he n orth o f E ngland t here i s a b asic u pland a nd l owland d ichotomy i n t he d istribut ion o f

p articular

t ypes

o f a rchaeological m aterial,

a s

f ollows:

s ettlement s ites s till o bservable a bove g round l evel u pland l ocations: p reserved b y l ack o f

b urial m onuments

d isturbance o f g round a nd s till v isible u nder s uitable c onditions

f ield s ystems c airn f ields

i ndividual a rtifacts l owland l ocations: f lat g raves s ettlement

( no a bove g round m onument) s ites n ot

a bove g round

l evel

r evealed b y d isturbance o f g round o r a s c rop m arks

p reserved

( recoverable

b y a erial p hotography)

I n a ddition t he d istribution o f b oth u pland a nd l owland m aterial i s b iased b y l ocal i nterest a nd f ield w ork , a nd a ctivities a nd l ocations w hich b ring m aterial

t o

l ight e .g.

m ining,

p eat

c utting,

s and

d unes

e tc. I n s ome i nstances a rchaeological e vidence o f s ettlement h as b een t otally l ost b y n atural p rocesses s uch a s s ea-level c hange a nd e rosion o r

t emporarily o bscured b y t he g rowth o f A ll

t ypes

a ctivity i n s ome

o f

p eat.

a rchaeological m aterial a re

f orm o r o ther.

B ut m any o f

i ndicative

o f

t hese a ctivities m ay

h uman n ot

b e d irectly r epresented i n t he p ollen r ecord o r m ay b e m isinterpreted. V arious t ypes o f a rchaeological m aterials a nd s ites, t heir e nvironm ental i mpact a nd p ossible m isinterpretation a re l isted i n T able A ( pp.37). I n a ddition i t s hould b e n oted t hat c ertain t ypes o f a ctivity s uch a s f ishing, h unting, t rapping a nd t he c ollection o f w ild f oods i n s mall q uantities m ay n ot b e r ecorded i n p ollen d iagrams a nd t hat

t hese

a ctivities m ay n ot b e r epresented b y a ny a rchaeological r emains i n t he l ocality i n w hich t he a ctivity t ook p lace. A s imilar a rgument may

3 4

a pply t o t he s easonal u se o f u pland a reas f or g razing, w hich m ay n ot h ave n ecessitated . field b oundaries o r p ermanent s ettlements a nd o f w hich t here w ould I t

i s

t herefore b e n o s ignificant a rchaeological

r emains.

a pparent w hen c omparing t he a rchaeological a nd p alynological

e vidence f or h uman s ettlement i n t hose a reas o f t he n orth o f E ngland f or w hich p ollen d iagrams a re a vailable t hat t here i s s ome d isparity b etween t he i ndications o f h uman a ctivity p rovided b y t he t wo t ypes o f e vidence

( Table B )

e ast D urham,

( pp.38-39).

T his

i s

t he l ower a nd u pper T ees,

p articularly o bvious i n s outh-

t he C umberland

p lain,

a nd t he e vidence

C umbrian m ountains w here o f N eolithic a nd B ronze

a ctivity W eardale

i n t hese a reas i s s hown i n p ollen d iagrams. a nd s outh-west W estmorland t here i s s ome

e vidence O f

M oor H ouse

t here i s l ittle a rchaeological A ge s ettlement, a lthough h uman C onversely i n a rchaeological

o f s ettlement a lthough l ittle d isturbance i n t he v egetation. t he s everal p roblems

a nd b iases

c oncerned w ith t he i nterpreta-

t ion o f a rchaeological a nd p alynological e vidence f rom t he a rea t he f ollowing w ould a ppear t o b e t he m ost s ignificant i n t he l ight o f t hese d iscrepancies: A rchaeology ( 1)

I n

t he

p ast

t he n orth o f E ngland h as

s uffered f rom

a

l ack

o f

s ystematic a rchaeological f ield s urvey. T his h as b een r edressed b y d etailed s tudies o f s ettlements a nd f ield s ystems i n t he n orth o f N orthumberland, p articularly i n u pland a reas. I n t he l owlands o f N orthumberland, D urham, t he E den ' v alley a nd t he C umberland p lain a erial p hotography h as r evealed l arge n umbers o f s ites g enerally

c onsidered

t o b e o f

I ron A ge o r

R omano-British

d ate.

T he p ossibility r emains t hat a t l east s ome o f t hese s ites m ay b e o f e arlier d ate, c ommensurate w ith t he p alynological e vidence f or s ettlement a nd a rchaeological e vidence S urvey o f t he a rea i s s till v ery u neven. ( 2)

o f

u pland

a citivity.

A n umber o f a reas a re n ot a menable t o f ield w alking w here p ossible a rchaeological m aterial h as b een c overed b y t he g rowth o f p eat e .g.

P ennine u plands,

S W W estmorland.

( 3)

D ifferent t ypes o f l ater l and u se o f a reas o f p rehistoric s ettlem ent m ay h ave o bscured o r d estroyed a rchaeological e vidence e .g. u rban d evelopment, m ining, a rable f arming, f orestry.

( 4)

T he n umber f actors o f

o f a rtifacts o f a p articular t ype m ay b e r elated t o a vailability a nd m ay n ot b e a d irect, q uantifiable

r epresentation o f a rchaeological a ctivity. F or a rtifacts m ade f rom l ocal s ources ( Group V I a xes, o ther p erforated t ools)

m ay b e m ore c ommon p er h ead o f

t ion t han b ronzes, w hich a re s carce i n t he a rea. n ecessarily m ean t hat a rchaeological a ctivity i n r educed f inds.

d uring

e xample s tone a xehammers a nd t he p opula-

T his d oes t he a rea

t he E arly B ronze A ge a lthough t here m ay

3 5

b e

n ot w as l ess

( 5 )

T he

n orth o f

E ngland m ay h ave b een l ess

r ich i n c ertain i tems

o f

m aterial c ulture t han a reas f urther s outh. E ven o n e xcavated s ites a rtifacts a re f ew. T he n umber o f s tray f inds m ight t hen b e e xpected t o b e s ubstantially l ess t han i n o ther p arts o f a nd s ettlements a nd b urials m ay b e m ore r epresentative l evel o f p rehistoric a ctivity. ( 6)

C ertain t ypes o f a ctivity w ill n ot b e r epresented l ogical m aterial i n t he v icinity e .g. u pland g razing.

( 7)

C ertain a rtifacts a re n ot

r epresentative o f

b y

B ritain o f t he

a rchaeo-

a ctivities w hich w ould

h ave a ny i mpact o n t he v egetation r ecord e .g. w eaponry. ( 8)

T he e stablishment o f s ome s ites w ill n ot b e r ecorded i n p ollen d iagrams i f t he a rea i s a lready o ccupied o r b ecause t he s ite i s s mall e .g. s ettlements, n on-monumental b urials, c airns.

P alynoloz 47 ( 1)

I n

a n

a rea o f v aried

t opography t he r epresentation o f

l ocal

a nd

n on-local p ollens i n a p ollen d iagram m ay b e e xtremely v ariable. T he p recise l ocation o f a ctivity r epresented i n t he p ollen s pectrum m ay t herefore b e d ifficult t o d etermine. T his m ay b e p articularly a pparent u plands a nd l owlands. ( 2)

i n u pland l ocations

r eceiving p ollen

f rom

T here i s a s trong l ocal c omponent i n s ome o f t he d iagrams, p articularly i n t he l owlands. T his i s d emonstrated i n t he d ifferences b etween e vidence f or s ettlement f or e xample a t B owness a nd O ulton M oss H allowell M oss,

( only s ome 1 0km a part) a nd i n s outh-east D urham a t B ishop M iddleham a nd M ordon C arr ( also a bout 1 0km

a part). ( 3)

I n u pland a reas s usceptible t o s oil d egradation a nd o n s teeply s loping s ites t he e ffect o f h uman a ctivity m ay b e t o a ccelerate n atural p rocesses o f c hange. T he u ltimate o utcome o f t his a ctivity i n t erms o f v egetation c hange m ay b e o ut o f a ll p roport ion t o

t he h uman a ctivity i n t he a rea.

( 4)

T he i dentification o f t ypes o f l and u se/agriculture d epends t he i nterpretive m odel u sed ( Edwards 1 979, 2 63-266).

( 5)

L ake s ediments r eceive p ollen f rom s tream i nputs, a ctivity i n t he w atershed s ome m iles d istant f rom

r eflecting t he l ake.

P ollen f rom t hese d eposits m ay p resent q uite a d ifferent o f a ctivity f rom p eat d eposits i n t he s ame a rea. ( 6)

L ocal

a gricultural

e conomy a nd m ay n ot

a ctivity

m ay b e p art

t herefore b e

e conomic s ystem p racticed i n t he a rea.

3 6

o f a

p icture

r egionally

t ruly r epresentative o f

u pon

b ased

t he t otal

A rchaeological m aterial

E nvironmental i mpact

P ossible m isinterpretation

r egistered i n p ollen. d iagram 1 .

s ettlement s ites

1 .(a ) ( b) ( c)

c learance f or s ite t imber f elling

1 .(a)

c harcoal f rom d omestic h earths

a gricultural u se

( b)

a gricultural u se

( c)

p reparation o f g round f or c ultivation b y b urning

* E stablishment o f s ettlement s ite m ay n ot b e r egistered i n a n a rea w hich h as a lready b een c leared a nd o ccupied 2 .

l arge b urial m onuments

2 .(a )

c learance o f s ite

( b)

t imber f elling, f or s ome N eolithic l ong b arrows

( c)

t imber f or c remations

2 .(a) ( b) ( c)

a gricultural u se c learance f or a griculture

*N ot r egistered i n p ollen d iagram i f a rea i s a lready g rassland o r h as b een p reviously c leared

3 .

s mall b urials w ithout v isible m onument e g. c ists,

3 .(a)

n one a t b urial s ite ( area t oo s mall) t imber c ollection f or c remations

3 .(a) ( b)

4 .(a) ( b)

c learance o f s ite t imber f elling f or s ome m onuments w ith l arge p osts e tc.

4 .(a)

5 .

n one i f r aw m aterial i s c ollected f rom s crees, e xposed a reas e tc.

5 .

n one - i f l ost i n p rocess o f e xchange/trade

6 .(a)

n on-cist c remations e tc.

4 .

5 .

6 .

S tone c ircles/henges e tc.

a xe f actories a nd o ther s ources o f r aw m aterials

( b)

s ite o f c remation n ot s ame a s b urial s ite, t herefore c learance m ay f ail t o b e i dentified a s f or b urial p urposes a gricultural u se

( b) n atural p rocesses o f s oil d egradation e tc. m ay b e a ssociated w ith h uman a ctivity

i ndividual a rtifacts ( a)

t ools

6 .(a)

( b) w eapons ( c)

- d eliberately c oncealed ( to b e r ecovered) - d eliberately d eposited ( not t o b e r ecovered) - i f a n i tem o f s tatus e tc. e vidence o f c learance/agriculture e tc. i f t ool l ost i n u sual p lace o f u se

d omestic i tems

( b) ( c)

n one e vidence o f c learance/agriculture i f l ost/deposited w ithin a rea o f

( b) ( c)

s easonal a ctivity i dentified a s p ermanent s ettlement

p ermanent s ettlement 7 .

8 .

c airnfields ( agricultural o r s epulchral)

7 .

c learance f or c onstruction o f c airn

7 .

f ield s ystems

8 .

a gricultural i ndicators

8 .

N ot i dentified i n p ollen r ecord i f a rea a lready c leared/ o ccupied i dentification o f s ystem o f a griculture d epends u pon c riteria u sed

T ABLE A

3 7

A rea

( a)

C umberland p lain

A rchaeology

tray f inds o nly ( a) ' - s - n o f ield s urveys - p arts o f a rea p eat c overed a nd

P alynology

( a)

n ot a menable t o s urvey - a ir p hotography s hows c onsiderable o ccupation i n I ron A ge/Roman p eriod ( some o f r emains p robably o f e arlier

- e vidence o f a ctivity i n a rea f rom 4 th-lst m illennium b c i ncluding c ereal p ollen; p ossibly a n a malgam o f v arying s ettlement p atterns - s trong l ocal p ollen c omponent

d ate) ( b)

S W C umberland c oast

( b) - v aried e vidence o f s ettlement b ut f ew s ettlement s ites y et i dentified - f ield w alking o n c oastal s ites p roducing v aried m aterial f rom

( b)

d isturbed c ontexts - l oss o f s ome s ites d ue t o

p erhaps d ue t o e xposed c oastal l ocation

c hanging s ea l evels

( c)

S W W estmorland

( c)

- l ittle e vidence o f s ettlement - d istribution a nd q uantity o f p articular a rtifacts m ay b e a

( c)

f unction o f l ocal p roduction/ a vailability r ather t han a n a bsolute i ndicator o f a ctivity - n o f ield s urvey - a rea o f m ires n ot a menable t o s urvey ( d)

E den v alley

( d)

- v aried e vidence o f o ccupation,

- e vidence o f a ctivity i n a rea f rom 4 th ist m illennium b c, i ncluding c ereal p ollen; p ossibly a n a malgam o f v arying s ettlement p atterns - s trong l ocal p ollen c omponent - s ome e rosion a nd s oil c hange

- l ittle s ignificant, d atable e vidence o f p rehistoric a ctivity - p ollen d iagrams p robably r epresent l ocal c hanges i n c onditions a nd t he g rowth o f m ires

( d)

i ncluding c airns a t s outh e nd o f v alley o n w est s ide - n o f ield s urvey i n n orth a nd c entre o f v alley - a ir p hotography s hows f ield s ystems a nd c onsiderable

- e vidence o f a ctivity d uring 3 rd-2nd m illennia b c, i ncluding c ereal p ollen - n o p ollen d iagrams f rom s outh e nd o f E den v alley w hich h as c onsistent e vidence o f p rehistoric s ettlement

e vidence o f o ccupation, s ome p robably o f p rehistoric d ate ( e)

W indermere/Esthwaite

( e)

b asin

- l ittle e vidence o f s ettlement - n o f ield s urvey

( e)

- d iagrams n ot d etailed, o nly s how g eneral t rends o f g rassland i ncrease a nd d ecline i n t ree c over - s ome t emporary s mall c learances p robably o f B ronze A ge d ate

( f)

I ntermediate b etween S W c oast

( f)

a nd C umbrian m ountains

- s light e vidence o f a ctivity f rom a rtifacts - s tone c ircles a nd c airnfields

( f )

- e vidence o f a ctivity i n 3 rd2 nd m illennia -m ain f eature a n e xpansion o f g rasslands

t he m ost s ignificant a rchaeological r emains - n o f ield s urvey ( g)

( h)

F urness f ells

C umbrian m ountains

( g )

- v ery s light e vidence o f a ctivity

( h)

-t angdale ' axe f actory' o nly k nown a rchaeological e vidence

( g )

- p robable 3 rd-lst m illennia g rassland e xpansion

( h)

- e vidence o f d eforestation a nd p ossible b urning o f m oorlands - g eneral t rend t owards p eat a nd

- c airns - n o f ield s urvey

o f a ctivity

( i)

U pper T eesdale

( i)

m oorland d evelopment

- s light a rchaeological e vidence o f s ettlement - r ecent f ield s urveys s uggest e vidence o f p rehistoric

( i)

- e vidence o f z one V IIa a ctivity w ith c ereal p ollen a nd f urther u se i n 2 nd Ist m illennia a lso w ith c ereals - a rea f airly o pen e ven a t

s ettlements

e lm d ecline - v aried m osaic o f h abitats w ith e vidence o f u se f or g razing - g eneral t rend t owards s oil d egradation i n w etter a reas

T ABLE B

3 8

A rea

. A rchaeology

P alynology

_ ( j)

M oor H ouse

( J)

( j )

- n o e vidence o f s ettlement a fter M esolithic p eriod - p eat c overed u plands n ot a menable t o f ield s urvey

- e vidence o f a ctivity i n 3 rd2 nd m illennia w ith c ereal p ollen - a rea f airly o pen a t e lm d ecline - g eneral t rend t owards p eat d evelopment

( k)

W eardale

( k)

- v aried e vidence o f s ettlement

( k)

- s ome f ield s urvey

- a vailable d iagrams r elate m ainly t o l ater p eriods b ut n o r eal e vidence o f N eolithic o r E arly B ronze A ge u se - v ariations i n P lantago a nd g rasses i n 1 st m illennium p ossibly d ue t o h uman u se

( 1)

S E D urham

( 1)

- v aried b ut v ery s light e vidence o f s ettlement f rom s ingle f inds a nd a f ew s ites

( 1)

- e vidence o f a ctivity i n 4 th2 nd m illennia i ncluding c ereal p ollen - p ossibly s trong l ocal p ollen c omponent

( m )

- p robable a ctivity 3 rd1 st m illennia m ainly r elated t o g razing

- a ir p hotography s hows c onsiderable n umber o f ' native' s ites, p ossibly o f e arlier d ate ( m )

F urness & C artmel

( m )

s ome

- e vidence o f s ettlement l argely i ndividual f inds, b ut s ome c airns - n o f ield s urvey

- s ome e vidence o f c ereals ( n)

U pper c atchment o f R iver K ent

( n )

- v ery s light e vidence o f s ettlement

( n )

- s light e vidence o f v egetation d isturbance i n t he l ater 2 nd1 st m illennia - i ncrease i n g rasses - c ereals l ate i n i st m illennium

I ndividual s ites B radford K aims

- v aried e vidence o f s ettlement

- r eduction i n t ree c over i n z one V llb

C ranberry B og

- v ery s light e vidence o f o ccupation - n o f ield s urvey

- s ome e vidence o f d isturbance i n t he ( ?) i st m illennium

C oon R igg M oss

- v ery s light e vidence o f o ccupation - f ield s urvey o f l ater p rehistoric

- s ome v egetation d isturbance i n ( ?) 3 rd-2nd m illennia - g eneral t rend t owards e xtension o f h eath a nd p eat

s ettlements

Muckle M oss

- v ery s light e vidence o f o ccupation - n o f ield s urvey

- g eneral t rend t owards e xtension o f h eath a nd p eat

T hirlmere

- v ery s light e vidence o f o ccupation - n o f ield s urvey

- s ome e vidence o f ( ?) 2 nd m illennium d isturbance, m ainly e xtension o f g rasslands - e xtension o f g rasses a t

M ockerin T arn

- v ery s light e vidence o f o ccupation

U llswater

- v ery s light e vidence o f o ccupation - n o f ield s urvey

- s ome a ctivity i n 3 rd m illennium i ncluding e rosion

A keld S teads

- v aried e vidence o f a ctivity

- s ome e vidence f or c learance i n t he 2 nd-lst m illennia

F ellend M oss

- v ery s light e vidence o f o ccupation - n o f ield s urvey

-m inor c learance e pisode i n t he e arlier p art o f t he

S teng M oss

- v aried e vidence o f s ettlement

- t hree ' landnam ' p hases f rom m id-2nd t o m id i st m illennium

H allowell M oss

a s

e lm d ecline b ut n o r eal d ecrease i n t ree c over

- n o f ield s urvey

2 nd m illennium

i n N orth T yne v alley - s urvey o f l ater p rehistoric s ettlements ( 1)

- s light o pening i n t he f orest i n t he e arlier p art o f t he 2 nd m illennium, p ossibly f or g razing

S E D urham

T ABLE B

3 9

A RCHAEOLOGICAL A ND P ALYNOLOGICAL E VIDENCE F OR S ETTLEMENT A T S TORRS M OSS T he

o nly c ertain a ssociation o f a rchaeological a nd

p alynological

e vidence i s t o b e f ound a t s ites w here a rchaeological m aterial i s s tratified i n d eposits s uitable f or p ollen a nalysis. S uch s ites h ave n ot y et b een f ound i n t he a rea o f s tudy, b ut w ere s pecifically s ought i n e xcavations a t S torrs M oss o n t he e ast s ide o f M orecambe B ay i n 1 965 - 1 967 ( Powell e t a l 1 971). S ituated i n a l ow l ying a rea w hich h ad a ltered i n a p rocess o f n atural h ydrosere d evelopment f rom t idal d eposits t o r eed s wamp t o c arr v egetation a nd f inally m oss p eat, e xcavations a t S torrs M oss p roduced a n umber o f p ieces o f w orked w ood a mongst a n a rea o f r otten t imber, a nd s ome p oor l ithic m aterial w ith a r im f ragment o f a w ooden b owl o n a n e arly g round s urface. N o s ignificant a rchaeological f eatures w ere i dentified i n t he a reas e xcavated a nd i t w ould a ppear t hat t he a rtifacts f ound w ere n ot t ruly i n

s itu b ut h ad b een w ashed d own o n t o

t he s ite f rom a h igher l ocation

( ibid, 1 35). N one o f t he a rtifacts w as d iagnostic o f a p articular c ulture a nd a lthough t he p ollen p rofiles i ndicated s ome c ontemporary h uman i nterference w ithin t he p ollen c atchment a rea t his d id n ot i nclude c ereal p ollen o r i ndications

a

o f

s ignificant w oodland c learance.

B ecause t he d epth o f p eat o n t he s ite w as i nsufficient t o p rovide g ood p ollen p rofile, a nd t he p ollen s pectrum h ad p oor p ollen

p reservation a nd a n o ver-representation o f l ocally p roduced p ollens a nd s pores, a ttempts w ere m ade t o d ate t he a rtifacts f rom t he s ite a nd t o p ut t he c hanges a t S torrs M oss w ithin a r egional p erspective b y c ompari ng t hem w ith o ther l ocal p ollen d iagrams ( ibid, 1 26-33). T he p osition o f t he w ooden a rtifacts w ithin a v ery s hallow p eat d eposit ( SM 1 ) i n A rea B w as c orrelated w ith a l onger p rofile f rom t he s ite ( SM 2 ) w hich i n t urn w as c orrelated w ith a l evel i n a d iagram f rom H awes W ater. B y a ssessing t he s edimentation r ate f rom a nother H awes W ater p rofile, a nd a lso c omparing t his w ith d ates f rom S ilverwater, i t w as s uggested t hat t he a rtifact l evel a t S torrs M oss d ated t o c 3 00 - 4 00 y ears b efore t he ' primary' e lm d ecline a t H awes W ater. A t F oulsham M oss t he l evel p resumed t o c orrelate w ith t he a rtifact l ayer a t S torrs M oss h ad r adioc arbon d ates o f 3 430 - 1 00 b c ( UB - 4 63) a nd 3 485 - 10 0 b c ( UB - 4 62). T he S torrs M oss s ample f rom t he a rtifact l evel g ave a d ate o f 2 640 : 1 :9 0 b e

( Gak

r ootlet

- 8 53),

c onsidered

t o b e a m inimum a ge

b ecause

o f

m odern

p enetration.

T wo m ajor p roblems b eset t he i nterpretation o f t he S torrs M oss m aterial, f irst, t he a rtifacts a re n ot d iagonistic o f a p articular ' culture a nd s econd, t he m ethod o f o btaining a ' date' f or t he a rtifact l evel b y c omparison w ith p ollen p rofiles f rom o ther s ites i s h ighly c ontentious. T he m any l imitations o f p ollen a nalysis i ncluding t he c atchment a rea o f t he d iagram a nd t he r epresentation o f l ocal a nd n onl ocal p ollen s uggest t hat i t i s i nappropriate t o a ttempt t o d ate o ne v ery s hallow p rofile ( SM 1 ) w ith a s trong l ocal p ollen c omponent w ith o ther

d iagrams

s ediments),

o btained

f rom d ifferent

s ources

( i.e.

e ven w ithin a c omparatively s mall a rea.

p eats a nd I n a ddition,

l ake i t

s hould b e n oted t hat a r eliance u pon t he s ynchroneity o f t he e lm d ecline m ay b e u nreliable, a s t here i s a c onsiderable d ate r ange f or t his p henomenon ( p.16). A t T hrang M oss, n ear S torrs M oss, t he e lm d ecline w as d ated t o c 2 400 b e ( Q247 a nd Q 249) a nd i t i s p ossible t hat t he

S torrs M oss

a rtifacts a lthough i n z one V ila p eat c ould b e

m illennium b e d ate.

4 0

o f

3 rd

U nfortunately s o u nsatisfactory i ng

o f

t he

c hanges

l ate A tlantic t he

l onger

b e t his

m ent

s ite d oes

s ettlement

t he b eginnings

u nusual

p eriod w ould T he

t he e xcavation a t

A p re-elm d ecline d ate

a nd e ven f or

c onsidered

i n C umbria.

o f

n ot m aterially a dd

i n e conomy a nd

p eriod.

v egetation

d uring

m any a spects

t hat,the

b e

( p.16)

S torrs

t o a n

t aking p lace d uring

o f

a griculture

a nd a ctivity

i mportance

o f

a re t he

f or h uman i nterference n ear

i n a ccord w ith o ther e vidence

p ossible

M oss

u nderstand-

w ould

S torrs f or

i n n o

M oss

s ettle-

l ocations w ith a m osaic

o f

h abitats a nd r esources, s uch a s S torrs M oss, f or t he i ntroduction o r a doption o f a griculture i s n ow b eing b etter a ppreciated.

4 1

C HAPTER 2 :

N EOLITHIC A ND E ARLY B RONZE A GE S ETTLEMENT

T HE M ESOLITHIC B ACKGROUND

( Map 1 1,

C atalogue 2 )

A d etailed e xamination o f M esolithic m aterial f rom t he n orth o f E ngland d oes n ot c ome ‘ N _thin t he s cope o f t his w ork, b ut t he f ollo c ,.ng b rief d escription o f t he e vidence f or M esolit l L c o ccupat ion i n t he a rea f orms a n i ntroduction t c t he s tudy o f l ater p eriods.

T he

s pread o f

h uman o ccupation i n B ritain d uring t he

M esolithic,

f rom t he 8 th t o t he 5 th m illennium b c, t ook p lace a gainst a b ackground o f r adical c limatic a nd e nvironmental c hange; t he f ormative p eriod o f p ost-glacial v egetation d evelopment f rom t he t undra c onditions o f z one I II t o t he s pread o f c limatic-climax f orest i n t he A tlantic p eriod ( zone

V ila).

F our m ajor c hanges d uring t he p eriod n ecessitated

s iderable a daptation b y m an a nd a nimal p opulations e nvironments n amely: ( 1)

c limatic

c hange - f rom t he l ow p ost-glacial

I V t o t he c limatic o ptimum o f ( 2°C ) h igher t han t oday ( 2)

s ea

l evel

q uantities i sostatic

c hanges

t o

t heir

t emperatures o f

z one V ila w ith t emperatures

- c onsequent

u pon

t he

r elease

z one

s ome 4° F

o f

l arge

o f w ater f rom i ce c aps ( accompanied i n s ome p laces b y r ecovery o f l and f orms) w hich c aused t he l oss o f c on-

s iderable a reas o f l and p reviously a vailable f or o ccupation p enetration o f t he s ea l andward o f p resent c oast l ines ( 3)

c on-

c hanging

d evelopment

a nd

o f v egetation - f rom o pen b irch a nd p ine w oodlands i n

z one I V t o t he s pread o f h ardwoods i n z one V I a nd c limatic-climax f orest w ith o ak , e lm e tc. i n z one V ila c overing l arge a reas o f t he c ountry ( 4)

i nsulation o f

B ritain

b y r ising s ea l evels

i n t he

a ffected t he o verall c limate b y t he i nfluence a round B ritain a nd w hich p revented e ntry o f a nimals

B oreal

o f m aritime m an, p lants

w hich a ir a nd

f rom o ther c ountries o ther t han b y s ea t ransport.

A ll f our p rocesses w ould h ave a ffected t he d istribution o f p lant a nd a nimal c ommunities a nd h ence t he h uman p opulations w hich r elied u pon t hem. T he s ubstantial r ise i n s ea l evels d uring t he M esolithic w hich o ccasioned t he l oss o f c onsiderable a reas o f c oastal p lains ( Jacobi 1 973, 2 50-1, f ig.4) h ad a c omparatively m inimal e ffect i n t he n orth-east o f E ngland w here t he s eabed s lopes s teeply p arallel t o, a nd n ot

f ar f rom t he p resent s hore l ine.

4 2

B ut

i t c aused e xtensive l and l oss

i n t he n orth-west, S olway

F irth,

p articularly i n p reviously d ryland a reas s uch a s

M orecambe B ay a nd p arts

o f

t he I rish S ea

( Fig.2).

t he T he

m ost e xtensive a nd r apid c hanges i n s ea l evels a ppear t o h ave t aken p lace f rom t he e nd o f F landrian l b ( the e arlier M esolithic) t o c 5 000 b c w hen p enetration b y t he s ea l andward o f t he p resent c oast o ccurred ( Tooley 1 978a, 1 97-9). T his w ould n ot o nly h ave a ffected t he i mmediate c oastline b ut a lso t he c ourse a nd h eight o f r ivers, a nd m ay t herefore h ave

b een n oticeable a t

s ome d istance i nland.

L arge a reas o f

n orth-

w est E ngland a nd s outh-west S cotland a menable t o s ettlement d uring e arlier M esolithic h ave b een l ost f rom t he a rchaeological r ecord

t he b y

m arine i ncursions. S maller c hanges i n s ea l evels c ontinued d uring t he l ater M esolithic ( and e ven i nto h istoric t imes) a nd a re r ecorded i n t he d iscovery o f ' buried f orests o ff t he p resent c oast o f n orth-east E ngland, s ome w ith o ak a nd p inewood a nd p robably t herefore o f z one V I a nd V ila d ate, a nd t he r ecognition o f o ld s hore l ines i n C umbria a nd s outh-west S cotland, o ften a ssociated w ith l ater M esolithic o ccupation ( Bonsall 1 981, 4 53; M orrison 1 981, 4 41-2). A rchaeological m aterial o f M esolithic d ate m aybe d ivided i nto t wo s tages, t he e arlier M esolithic c 8 300-6500 b c, c haracterised b y l arge m icroliths o f s imple f orrs, a nd l ater M esolithic i ndustries c 6 500 4 th m illennium b c ( or e ven l ater) w ith a r ange o f m uch s maller m icrol ithic e quipment i ncluding g eometric f orms, w ith s ome c ontinuance o f e arlier f orms i n s ome a ssemblages. A lthough m aterial o f e arlier M esol ithic d ate i s k nown a s f ar n orth a s n orth-east Y orkshire ( Spratt 1 02-10), n o a ssemblages o f s pecifically e arlier t ype h ave y et

1 982, b een

r ecognised i n t he n orth o f E ngland. E vidence f or o ccupation o f t he a rea d uring t his p eriod i s r estricted t o o ne f ind o f b one e quipment f rom t he n orth-west a nd a s eries o f r adiocarbon d ates f or u ndiagnostic f lint i ndustries f rom H artlepool i n t he n orth-east. I n C umbria p robable e arlier M esolithic o ccupation i s e videnced b y t he d iscovery a bout t he y ear 1 875, o f t wo b one h arpoon h eads a t C rosby-on-Eden ( Hodgson T .H.

1 894,

4 02).

T hese

t wo a rtifacts w ere f ound t ogether o n

t he s urface o f a p eat d eposit w hich w as s hrinking d uring a v ery d ry s ummer. N umerous t runks o f l arge t rees p rincipally o ak , w ere e mbedded i n t he p eat, i mmediately b elow w hat w as c onsidered t o b e t he b ank o f a n a ncient

e stuary.

f orm ( Fig.1).

T he

t wo h arpoon h eads

T he f irst 1 1k i n.

l ong

( now l ost) w ere d ifferent

( 28.5cm)

i n

c omprised a t riangular

s pearhead w ith t wo b arbs a nd a l ong t ang t erminating i n a r ectangular ' plate' ( ibid, p l.I). T he s econd 1 1% i n. l ong ( 30.2cm) w as u niserially b arbed ( ibid, p l.II). T hese w ere o riginally c ompared w ith k nown e thnographic m aterial, w hen e xhibited b efore t he S ociety o f A ntiquaries i n 1 894 a nd " unhesitatingly p ronounced .. t o b e t ypical s pecimens o f h arpoon h eads i n u se a t t he p resent d ay b y n atives o f T erra [ sic] d el F uego" ( ibid, 4 02 n ote). W hile t he c omparison b etween t he C rosby-onE den t riangular h arpoon h ead a nd a m odern e xample f rom t he E nglish N arrows i s i ndeed s triking ( Stewart 1 946, p l. 3 1.h), t he u niserially b arbed e xample i s o f a f orm w ell k nown f rom M esolithic s ites s uch a s S tar C arr ( Clarke J .G.C. 1 954, 1 23 f f) a nd o ther ( Mellars 1 974, 8 b, f ig.11). T he d iscovery o f t hese p rojectile h eads i n a p eat d eposit b y a r iver e stuary, w ith e vidence o f a s ubstantial a lteration i n t he l ocal v egetation p robably a ttributable t o s ea l evel c hanges s uggests t hat t he a rea o f C rosby-on-Eden m ay r epay f urther s tudy f or t he r emains o f e arlier M esolithic o ccupation i n C umbria. T he i dentification o f o ak w ood b elow t he p eat m ight s uggest a d ate i n z one V I ( 7th m illennium), t owards d ates

t he e nd o f o btained

t he e arlier M esolithic f or t hese f inds.

f rom a ntler

f ound i n a ssociation w ith a n

4 3

A s eries o f u ndiagnostic

f lint b c

i ndustry

( BM80,

w ith

a

8 1,

9 0;

m icrolithic

( Q-1474; s ame

i n ' submerged 8 3 a nd

J acobi

p eriod.

f orest

i ndustry

1 976,

N one o f

a t W est H artlepool

R adiocarbon 3 , 7 1)

1 961,

4 1-2)

7 th

t o

e xclusively c hance

t he

t hese d ates

a re

o f

d istribution o f

r epresentative

f or

e xample

o f

( Cherry 1 967;

o f

f lintwork,

a nd p articular

s ystematic

i n W eardale

l ater

a nd

f rom a bout

a ttested

s ite

w ith o ccasional i n C umbria.

f ieldwork b y p articular

o f

T he f inds

i ndividuals,

a nd o n

t he

c onditions

f or

l ocating

o r s ites w here i ndustrial

p ollution

f avourable

s and d unes,

t he

a lmost

c oncentrations o f

( Fell a nd H ilyard 1 953)

1 969)

i s

t he

c ontext.

E ngland

o r

a nd o ne e xcavated

f lint w ork s ites

a re c oast

c ollections

o ther a rtifacts

b c

t he n orth-east a t

f rom a n e xcavated

m id 4 th m illennium b c

f rom u nstratified

f inds

6 750

f rom F il. p oke B eacon d ated 6 810 ± 1 406

s uggest o ccupation i n

L ater M esolithic o ccupation i n t he n orth o f m id

c 7 150 t o

a nd -h azelnut s hells

C umbrian

s uch m aterial,

s uch a s

h as d estroyed c oastal a reas,

v egetation. I n C umbria t hese s ites a re r estricted t o b ut i n t he n orth-east h ave b een d iscovered a t b oth

c oastal a nd i nland l ocations i ncluding t he u plands T eesdale, s ites o n t he D urham c oast a nd i ntermediate r iver v alleys. c ollections o f r emains t o f lint o ther p remium t asks

m ay

a lso

h ave

b een u sed d own t o

h ave n ecessitated

a v ery s mall

t he u se

2 9).

T he

( Wymer

d ating

o f

1 977, t hese

8 6)

a nd D rigg

i mplements

i s

w ith b oth e arlier a nd

l ater M esolithic

h arpoon h ead

b een

h as

a lso

T he d istribution o f

o f a

S pecific

t ools

e ven

i n

i n t he n orth o f 1 63 p l. x xxv),

( Nickson a nd M acdonald 1 956,

u ncertain a s

i ndustries.

f ound a t W hitburn

' Obanian' h arpoons

s ources b een a t

s ize.

o f v ery s mall

l ater p eriods. T ranchet a xes w hich a re g enerally r are E ngland h ave b een f ound a t H artlepool ( Trechmann 1 936, M onkwearmouth

a nd t he

s mall n umbers o f m icroliths i n s urface l ater m aterial a nd a t e xcavated s ites

b e d etermined. I n a n a rea w hich c ontains n o t han b each p ebbles f lint w ould a lways h ave

a nd m ay

T he s tatus o f p redominantly

o f W eardale l ocations i n

( Mellars

a nd o ther

t hey

c an b e

f ound

A n ' Obanian' a ntler 1 970,

p l.xxxiii).

a ssociated

f eatures

o f

t his i ndustry w hich a re w ell r epresented i n S cotland s uggests a s pecifically c oastal f orm o f e conomy. T he W hitburn e xample, l ike o ther n orth-east s ubmerged a nd

c oast p eat

m aterial w as

d eposits,

t he m id 4 th m illennium b c

• I n c oast

C umbria

i n

t he

e xcavations

v icinity

f lint-scatters

h ave

a n i solated

a nd m ay

b e d ated

( ibid, h ave

o f E skmeals, b een f ound

D iscrete s ites a re d ifficult e xtensive s catters o f f inds, o f m ore t han 5 0 a rtifacts M onk M oors h earths a nd

b een c arried o ut w here a l arge

i ndustry,

i n t he

s hingle

t he

s outh-west

o f m icrolithic

a ssociated w ith a f ormer

o f

o ccur

o n

n umber

s hore

l ine.

p er s quare m etre ( Bonsall 1 981, 4 55-6). A t s takeholes w ere e xcavated a ssociated w ith a

r eminiscent

e lsewhere.

f rom

t o i dentify i n t his a rea, w hich h as m any b ut w ere a rbitraily d efined b y a d ensity

b lade

a ssemblages

p robably w ashed u p

s omewhere b etween t he m id 6 th

3 44-5).

m ainly n arrow b lade m icrolithic m icroliths

f ind,

F lint d eposits,

t ypes

w ith s crapers k nown

t ools w ere m ade

i n

a nd

s ome b road-

e arlier

M esolithic

f rom s mall

w ith s ome u se o f

v olcanic

p ebbles w hich t uff

f rom

a

s imilar s ource a t o ther c oastal s ites i n t he a rea. I n t he e xposed c onditions o f t he o ld s hore l ines i t i s i mpossible t o d etermine f rom s ite s tratigraphy w hether t hese d eposits r epresent o ne m ain p eriod o f o ccupation f rom s ite

o r a s uccession o f u ses. T wo r adiocarbon d eterminations 1 a t M onk M oors i ndicate o ccupation i n t he e arlier 5 th

m illennium b c ( BM-1216, 4 802 t 1 56 b c, s aid t o 1 356 ( unpublished)), b ut o ther d eterminations M esolithic

m aterial

r ange

f rom c 2 000-1000 b c,

4 4

b e i n a greement w ith Q f rom f eatures w ith l ate a s d oes

a

d ate

f rom

W illiamson's M oss ( Radiocarbon 2 4, a dequate s tratigraphy o n t hese u ncontaminated

s amples

1 982, 1 53-4). c oastal s ites

I n t he a bsence t he c ollection

f or r adiocarbon d ating i s a p roblem.

T he

o f o f c on-

t inued u se o f t he a rea w ell i nto t he l ater p rehistoric p eriod f or s pecific l ocal a ctivities s uch a s f ishing, f owling a nd t he c ollection o f s hellfish o r f lint i s a p ossibility. M esolithic s ubsistence s trategies A rchaeological e vidence f or t he s ettlement o f b y

B ritain a nd

I reland

M esolithic c ommunities h as g enerally b een i nterpreted i n t erms

o f a

h unter-gatherer m odel, i ntermediate b etween h unters o f t he P alaeol ithic, e xisting i n a n e nvironment w hich o ffered l ittle, i f a ny , o ther s ource o f f ood t han l arge m ammals a nd t he c ultivators o f t he N eolithic, e ntirely d ependent u pon a gricultural p roduce. W ithin t his h unter-gatherer r ange l ies a t remendous v ariety o f

i ntermediate a lternative

s ubsistence s trategies, d epending u pon c limate, v egetation, s ite l ocat ion a nd s eason. E vidence f or d iet i n t he B ritish M esolithic i s s light, f or a lthough a l arge n umber o f s ites a re k nown, t hese c onsist l argely o f f lint s catters w ith f ew t races o f h abitation a nd n o d omestic r efuse. P atterns o f s ubsistence a ctivity a re d educed l argely f rom s ite s ize, t he r ange o f s pecies k nown t o b e i n e xistence a nd t he a ssumed e conomic c atchment a rea o f t he s ites ( e.g. S immons 1 979) w ith s ome a rchaeological e vidence f or s pecies k illed i n t he f orm o f b one a nd a ntler t ools. M esolithic c ommunities a re g enerally c onsidered t o b e m obile, w ith l ow l evels o f p opulation d ensity, f ollowing a nimal h erds i n t heir s easonal m ovements. A vailable a nimal r esources c onsisted o f r ed d eer, r oe d eer, e lk, w ild o xen a nd w ild b oar, f orest s pecies w ith l ess g regarious h abits t han t hose h unted i n t he P alaeolithic ( Mellars 1 974, 8 0). W ith t he c hange f rom t undra t o w oodland a nd t hen t o c limatic-climax f orest a nd w ith l arge a reas o f l and l ost d uring t he e arlier M esolithic, t he p attern o f m ovement o f t hese s pecies m ust h ave a ltered

c onsiderably d uring t he p eriod.

T he d ependent

a ssumption t hat M esolithic p opulations w ere p rimarily u pon m eat a nd n eeded t o f ollow t heir f ood h as h owever b een

c hallenged. C larke h as s uggested t hat t he v egetable c omponent o f t he M esolithic d iet, w hich w ould l eave f ew i dentifiable a rchaeological r emains, h as b een u nderestimated a nd t hat t he t ypes o f t ools w hich a re i dentified a s h unting e quipment m ight e qually b e p arts o f c omposite t ools f or v egetable p reparation. T he c ollection o f e dible p lants, r oots, n uts e tc., a r eliable, l ow r isk , m oderate y ield a ctivity, m ight b e s uccessfully c arried o ut i n t he d eciduous f orests o f t emperate E urope. T he e xploitation o f f orest r esources i n c ombination w ith t he u se o f e stuarine s ites, w ith a ccess t o m arine a nd f reshwater s pecies, c ould a llow a g roup t o b e s edentary, a s l ong a s l ocal r esources w ere f ruitful

( Clarke D .L.

1 979b,

2 08-13,

T he m ajor o bjection t o C larke's v alue

o f

p lants o f

2 30-5). b asic h ypothesis

t he t emperate f orest.

c oncerns

C omparisons

w ith

t he f ood h unter-

g atherers i n w arm , s ubtropical o r t ropical c limates w ith h igh e nergy p lant f oods a re i nappropriate. F or a lthough a l arge n umber o f e dible s pecies o f p lant m ay h ave b een e njoyed a s a vailable, t he m ajority o f t hese a re p oor s ources o f f ood e nergy a nd c ould n ot b e u sed a s s taple r esources. I ndeed t he q uantities o f s uch p lants n eeded t o p rovide t he b asic d aily n utritional r equirements w ould b e e normous. I t w ould n ot o nly b e b eyond t he c apacity o f t he h uman d igestive s ystem t o c ope w ith

45

s uch q uantities o f

f ood,

b ut

t he a mount o f e nergy u sed

t o o btain

w ould b e u neconomic ( Bonsall 1 981, 4 61-3; J arman e t a l 1 982, P lants m ay h ave p rövided t he b ulk o f t he M esolithic . d iet, b ut u nlikely t hat t hey w ere s taple r esources p rotein n eeds o f t he p opulation. C larke's p articularly

c rucial f or t he

t hem 6 7-8). i t i s

e nergy

a nd

s uggestion t hat w aterside l ocalities m ay h ave b een p roductive b oth o f p lant a nd a nimal r esources i s o f

s pecial i nterest i n t he n orth o f E ngland, w here t here i s s ome e vidence f or t he o ccupation o f c oastal s ites. E stuarine s ites, i n p articular w ould h ave b een i deally s uited f or t he p rovision o f a dequate f ood r esources o n a y ear r ound b asis d ue t o t he r ange o f h abitats t hey o ffered. B y o ccupying s ites v isited b y a nimals, b irds a nd f ish o n a s easonal b asis, M esolithic c ommunities m ay h ave b een r elieved o f t he n ecessity t o f ollow f ood. S ites s uch a s t hose a t E skmeals w ere s uitable f or o ccupation i n s ummer b ut c ould a lso h ave b een u sed a ll y ear r ound b y e xploiting l and g ame, s ea m ammals, s altwater a nd f reshw ater f ish, w ater f owl, s hellfish a nd e dible p lants ( Bonsall 1 981, 4 657 ). I n t he a bsence o f a ny e vidence f or u pland s ites i n C umbria i t i s p ossible t hat c oastal a nd e stuarine s ites i n t hese m ild w est c oast l ittorals w ere o ccupied t hroughout t he y ear, e specially d uring A tlantic p eriod ( Taylor J .A. 1 975, 1 0). I n t he n orth-east, p articularly i n D urham, w hich i s b est k nown f or M esolithic r emains, p attern o f

t he a nd t he

s ubsistence a ctivities m ay h ave b een s omewhat d ifferent.

I n

t his a rea t he c onfiguration o f t he c oastline a nd s eabed ( which f alls s teeply a way w ithin a s hort d istance) d oes n ot o ffer t he s ame p otential u se

o f

e stuarine

r esources o r s hallow w aters

a fforded

b y

t he

w est

c oast. S easonal m ovement b etween i nland a nd c oastal s ites u tilising a v ariety o f r esources m ay h ave b een p racticed i n t his a rea. T he i mportance o f c oastal s ites a s s ources o f f lint i n b oth C umbria a nd t he n orth-east s hould n ot h owever b e u nderestimated, a nd a ctivity m ay b e a ttributed t o t he n eed f or t his r esource.

s ome

c oastal

E nvironmental e vidence f or M esolithic s ubsistence s trategies E vidence f rom a n umber o f B ritish s ites, i ncluding s ome w ith s tratified M esolithic m aterial, s uggests t hat M esolithic c ommunities m anipulated t heir e nvironment t o e ncourage t he g rowth o f p articular p lants,

e ither f or h uman u se,

s uch a s h azel

( Smith A .G.

1 970)

o r f or

a nimals. T his w as a chieved b y b urning t he f orest o r w oodland m argin t o e ncourage b rowse, i n s ome c ase p romoting t he d egradation o f u pland s oils,

f or e xample o n t he N orth Y ork m oors w here r ecurrent e pisodes

o f

b urning h ave b een r ecognised f rom t he 7 th m illennium b c ( Dimbleby 1 962; S pratt 1 982, 5 8-67). I n t he n orth o f E ngland n o d irect c orrelation h as e stablished b etween M esolithic s ites a nd e pisodes o f y et b een v egetation v egetation

d isturbance i n t he p ollen r ecord. A reas w ith a m ore o pen a nd a m osaic o f h abitats s uitable f or t he t ypes o f

i dentified i n Y orkshire w ere p resent i n u pland a nd a ctivities a reas i n t he n orth o f E ngland ( p.11). B y t he 4 th m illennium c aution

s hould b e e xercised i n t he ' cultural

l owland h owever

a ttribution o f p hases

o f

v egetation d isturbance. A lthough s ome w riters h ave a ssumed t hat a ll p re-elm d ecline d isturbance i s o f M esolithic o rigin, f arming w ould a ppear

t o h ave b een e stablished i n p arts o f B ritain a nd I reland b y

e arly 4 th m illennium b c, s ome 7 00 y ears b efore t he e lm d ecline. o ver, N eolithic a ctivity c an o nly b e s ecurely i dentified b y

t he

M orec ereal

p ollen

a nd e arly a nimal d omestication m ay f ail t o b e r ecognised i n t he

p ollen

r ecord.

T he i dentification o f

4 6

s pecific e conomic p ractices

a s

d efined b y t he t erms ' Mesolithic a nd ' Neolithic' m ust b e c onsidered i n t he l ight o f t he p ossible m echanisms b y w hich a n a gricultural e conomy w as e stablished i n B ritain a nd I reland.

T HE

B EGINNINGS O F A GRICULTURE T he

r eplacement o f

a h unting a nd g athering m ode o f

s ubsistence b y

a f arming e conomy p oses t wo m ajor q uestions. F irst, h ow d id t he p ractice o f a griculture s pread t hroughout E urope a nd I nto B ritain? a nd s econd, w hy d id t he c hange t ake p lace? I n B ritain a nd i n I reland w here t he

w ild p rogenitors

o f

c ultivated c rops a nd o f

s ome d omestic

a nimals

d o n ot o ccur, b oth c ereals a nd s tock m ust h ave b een i ntroduced b y h uman a gency ( Zohary 1 969; S immons a nd T ooley 1 981, 1 94-5). T hree t ypes o f m echanism h ave b een s uggested t o e xplain t his t ion, l ocal m igration a nd d iffusion.

p rocess,

n amely c olonisa-

T he i ntroduction o f a griculture i nto B ritain h as t raditionally b een i nterpreted a s t he p hysical d isplacement o f M esolithic c ultures b y N eolithic

e conomies.

T his

w as

t hought

t o h ave

b een

a chieved

b y

c olonisation b y E uropean f armers, b ringing w ith t hem n ot o nly a f ully d eveloped a gricultural e conomy, a ssociated w ith a s edentary m ode o f l ife, b ut a lso t he u se o f p olished s tone t ools a nd p ottery. T he c olonisation h ypothesis h as b een s upported b y o bservations t hat t he c hange b etween M esolithic a nd N eolithic o ccupation i s t oo e xtensive t o b e c ompatible w ith c ontinuity ( Whittle 1 979, 1 04) a nd t hat, w herever r ecognised i n B ritain, N eolithic e conomies a ppear t o b e " mature a nd n on-experimental" ( Case 1 969, 1 77). T he s pread o f f arming i n E urope g enerally h as b een c ompared w ith a ' moving f rontier' ( of w hich B ritain w ould b e t he l ast o utpost), t hat i s, t he b oundary o f a s ociety g rowing u nder t he f avourable i nfluence o f t he n ew e conomy a nd e xtending i nto a ll u sable l ands

( Alexander 1 978,

1 3-4).

A s econd m odel a lso i nvolving

p opulation m ovement b ut o n a s maller s cale a nd i n a l ess f ashion t han c olonisation i s t he ' wave o f a dvance' t heory.

d eliberate T his m odel

a ssumes p opulation g rowth a ssociated w ith a n a gricultural e conomy c ausing m odest l ocal m igration. T his w ould g enerate a n o verall w ave o f p opulation w ould n ot

e xpansion w hich w ould p rogress a t a c onstant r ate b ut w hich c onstitute t he i ntentional s ettlement o f a n a rea b y a

c oherent g roup o f p eople i mplied b y c olonisation ( Ammerman a nd C avalliS forza 1 973, 3 43-5). R adiocarbon d eterminations f or t he s pread o f f arming a cross E urope s upport t his h ypothesis b ut o ther e xplanations, s uch a s d iffusion a re p ossible. F inally i t c an b e s uggested t hat f arming t echnology t ogether w ith s eed a nd s tock m ay h ave b een p assed o n f rom

o ne

g roup

t o a nother b ut

t hat

t his d id

n ot

i nvolve

p opulation

m ovement. F arming m ay h ave b een c opied b y t he i nhabitants o f a n a rea a nd a nimals a nd s eed a cquired i n a p eaceful f ashion t hrough t he u sual c hannels

o f

e xchange b etween M esolithic g roup.

I n t he B ritish

I sles

t hese u sual c ontacts w ould h ave i nvolved s ea j ourneys ( O'Kelly 1 981, 1 81-2). E ach ' explanation' o f t he b eginnings o f a griculture m akes c ertain a ssumptions c oncerning t he m echanisms b y w hich a griculture w as i ntroduced o r a cquired a nd p oses p articular q uestions r elevant t o t hese a ssumptions ( Harris 1 981). I f a griculture w as b rought i nto B ritain b y E uropean c olonists t hen t hese q uestions c oncern t he o rigins o f t he s ettlers,

t heir i nitial a reas o f

4 7

s ettlement a nd t he f ate o f M esolithic

c ommunities ( Whittle 1 977; 1 980, 3 30). A lternatively i f a gricultural t echnology a nd e quipment w ere a cquired b y M esolithic p opulations t he s tages i n w hich a f ully a gricultural e conomy w as e stablished m ust b e e xamined a nd t he m ethods b y w hich t hese c an b e a rchaeological a nd p alynological r ecord.

r ecognised

i n

t he

T he q uestion o f w hy t he c hange w as m ade f rom h unting a nd g athering t o f arming h as b een c onsidered b y p hilosophers f or s ome c enturies a nd a s a n i ntegral p art o f t he e xplanation o f h ow f arming w as s pread, h as a lso b een o f c oncern t o a rchaeologists. F or p hilosophers s uch a s R ousseau,

t he q uestion o f a gricultural o rigins

o f

e nslavement

m an's

a dopted

t o h ard l abour.

a n a gricultural w ay o f

M an

c oncerned t he b eginning b ecame

l ife o nly w hen f orced

i ndustrious t o d o s o

a nd

( Harris

1 81, 3 -4). M odern a nthropological s tudies o f h unter-gatherer p opulat ions h ave s erved t o r e-emphasise t his p aradox, t hat i s, m an's c ons cious c hoice o f a d ifficult o ption. I f p re-agricultural c ommunities w ere s o w ell a djusted t o t heir o wn e nvironments a nd w ere r arely s hort o f f ood, t hen w hat c ould c ause t hem t o c hange? T he p hilosophical b ias i n t his t ype o f ' explanation o f c hange p rescribes t he w ays i n w hich t hese c hanges m ay b e e xplained. I f a griculture i s v iewed a s s uch a n u nattractive p roposition t hen i t i s i nevitable t hat t he a doption o f f arming m ust b e s een a s i mposed, f or e xample b y p opulation g rowth o r c limatic c hange, r ather t han w illingly a dopted ( e.g. C hilde 1 949; B inford 1 968). c hange 2 06-7).

e ither

F or

S ociety i s

c onsidered a s

f rom w ithin i tself o r o f

t he a rchaeologist

s tatic a nd u nable t o g enerate i ts o wn a ccord

( Bender

t he d efinition a nd r ecognition o f

1 978,

a spects

o f

' Neolithic' o r ' Mesolithic' o ccupation f rom e nvironmental e vidence o r f rom m aterial c ulture i s i ncreasingly d ifficult. M any o f t he o ld d eterminants o f N eolithic e conomies w hich w ere i n a ccord w ith t he c oncept o f a n ew c ulture i ntroduced i nto t he B ritish I sles, a re n o l onger d iagnostic f eatures o f t he p eriod. S tone a xes a re f ound i n M esolithic c ontexts ( p.68), t he e lm d ecline i s n ot a n a nthropogenic m arker o f f arming p ractice ( p.14-16) a nd M esolithic c ommunities m ay h ave b een i ncipient h erders ( Jarman e t a l 1 982, 6 0-1) m aking a n oticea ble i mpact o n t he e nvironment a nd d eveloping a s edentary w ay o f l ife i n s uitable

s urroundings

o f f arming c hallenged.

a s

a N o

( p.47).

p roduct s pecific

O ther e vidence f or t he

i ntroduction

o f p opulation m ovements h as a lso b een E uropean o rigins f or B ritish N eolithic

c ommunities c an b e i dentified f rom m aterial c ulture, n or i s aw ave o f s pread o f f arming s ettlement d iscernible f rom t he k nown r adiocarbon d eterminations. s eems h ighly p arable w ith

I f

a n i nflux o f E uropean s ettlers

c olonised B ritain i t

u nlikely t hat t he a bsence o f a ssemblages d irectly c omE uropean t ypes c ould b e e xplained b y t he " disruptive

p rocess o f c olonisation" ( Whittle 1 980, 3 39) o r t he " strains o f r eadjustments" t o n ew e nvironments ( Case 1 969, 1 81ff). I ndeed s ettlem ent i n a n ew e nvironment m ay l ead t o g reater e mphasis u pon o ld t raditions r ather t han t heir a bandonment ( Pitts a nd J acobi 1 979, 1 71). I n a ddition, d ispersed, e vidence o f b c

a re

f ined

n o i nitial

f ocus o f

s ettlement,

f rom w hich g roups m ay h ave

c an b e i dentified i n t he B ritish I sles. a griculture d ating f rom t he b eginning o f

S ites w ith e arly t he 4 th m illennium

f ound w idely d ispersed i n B ritain a nd I reland a nd a re n ot t o

E uropean

t hose p arts i nfluence.

o f

s outhern E ngland

V egetation

g eographically

c on-

c losest

c learance w ith T riticum t ype

t o

c ereal

p ollen i s r ecorded a t C ashelkeelty I 3 895 ± 1 00 b c ( UB2413) ( Lynch 1 981, 8 9-90) w ith e vidence o f N eolithic o ccupation c 3 800-3500 b e

48

e lsewhere

i n

f ig.12), E ngland m ent

B ritain

a nd I reland

i ncluding, s ome ( p.16-18).

d oes

n ot

' revolution

I n m any

a ppear

t o

r espects

t he

F irst,

l ocation

t he M esolithic a nd

a gricultural e conomy c ould

t he

p ossible

r otation

( p.46)

h ave

I t

i s

o f f or

t he s tages

t he

t hat

t he

N eolithic

c ould o f

t o

c on-

h ave b een p articular a nd

b y w hich

a

s ite f ully

b een e stablished.

l ater M esolithic

g eneralised e cosystems,

o f

p opulation m ove-

f or e nvironmental m anagement s econd,

1 974,

n orth

t herefore n ecessary

s ites

i n t he n orth o f

o ccupation o f a c ombination o f s uggests

I .F.

i n t he

b y w hich a griculture c onsiderations a re

e vidence

T he d istribution o f

S mith

c ereals

b e a s atisfactory m odel

i mportance. i n

1 17-9;

f or

t he h ypothesis

i n t he B ritish I sles.

s ider a w ider r ange o f p rocesses a dopted o r i ntroduced. T wo

a nd

( ibid,

e arly e vidence

u se

i s,

o f

b y

s ites

M esolithic

a reas

i n

E ngland s easonal

c ommunities

o f

w ith h igh p roductivity w here

t he d iversity o f s pecies e ncouraged t he u se o f a w ide v ariety o f p lants a nd a nimals ( Harris 1 969, 8 -9). M anipulation o f a nimals, b y b urning v egetation t o

e ncourage

b rowse,

i s

s uggested

i n t he p ollen e vidence a nd

i t i s l ikely t hat M esolithic g roups p ossessed a g ood k nowledge o f p lant r esources a nd a nimal b ehaviour a nd m anagement. I n c ertain f avourable l ocations g roups m ay h ave b ecome s edentary a nd i n t hese a reas d isturbed o r o pen h abitats m ay h ave b een c reated a round t he l iving a rea. W hile n ings

t he

a ssumed

h usbandry k nowledge

t he

a nd o f

c olonisation o r m igration m odel s imultaneous

c ereal

a griculture

f arming w as

o f

a gricultural

i ntroduction i nto

a cquired

t his m ay n ot

b y

c ontact

B ritain

h ave

b egin-

o f

b een

a nimal

s o

i f

a

b etween M esolithic g roups.

S mall q uantities o f s tock o r s eed m ay h ave b een o btained a nd e xperimented w ith o n a s mall s cale. T hese w ould n ot h ave p rovided t he s taple n ovelty

f ood o f M esolithic g roups i mmediately a nd a d ietary s upplement ( Clarke D .L.

a s

g rew,

s eed

t he

b ut w ould b e t reated a s a 1 979, 2 73-4). H owever,

s tock m ultiplied a nd a k nowledge

p otential

u sefulness

o f

o f

h usbandry w as

d omestication w ould b ecome m ore

g ained

a pparent.

A t aste m ay a lso h ave d eveloped f or t hese n ew f ood s ources a nd a ttempts m ade t o p lant a nd h arvest s eed e fficiently a nd t o e nsure t hat s tock w ere w ell m aintained.

O n t heir

p arts

b y g razing a nd

o f

t he

l andscape

p art

t he

s tock w ould

b egin t o

t ransform

r educing r egeneration o f

v egeta-

t ion c over. E xchange o f s tock, s eed a nd o ther p roducts b etween M esolithic g roups b y t he u sual m echanisms o f e xchange ( Care 1 979, 9 8) w ould e nsure t he d istribution o f t he f undamentals o f a griculture w ithin a c omparatively s hort t ime. T he m ost s uitable e nvironments f or t his t ype

o f

e xperimentation

g eneralised e cosystems v irtue o f t he v ariety o f

w ould

b e

p rovided

b y

p recisely

t hose

f avoured b y M esolithic c ommunities, f or b y p lants a nd a nimals t hey s upported, e xperimen-

t ation c ould b e c arried o ut w ithout r isk t o t he i mmediate f ood s uply. I n a ddition t he p ropensity t o s edentism i n t hese a reas h ad n ot o nly p rovided

d isturbed

e stablished

a

o r

o pen

p attern o f

h abitats

s ettled

f or

c rops

l ife w hich w as

a gricultural p ursuits ( Harris 1 969, 9 ). e xperimentation t he c hange f rom h usbandry t o d efined b y a n e nergy t hreshold, T hat i s, t rue a griculture m ay e xpended e xpands a nimal

i n

t he

b eyond s ources

e xpended

( Clarke D .L.

s tock

b ut

a t v ariance

I n s uch a p rocess f ood p roduction m ay

h ad w ith o f b e

r ather t han b y ' cultural' i ndicators. b e s aid t o h ave b egun w hen t he e nergy

m aintenance a nd

t hat

a nd n ot

c ontrol o f

i n t he

1 979b,

49

t he

n ew

f ood

d etection a nd p ursuit

2 24).

o f

s upplies p lant

a nd

I n

t he

s ettlement t ure

i s

n orth o f

E ngland

t he c oincidence o f

a reas

w ith e arly v egetation d isturbance a nd

s triking

( pP.16-18).

E lsewhere

o f

M esolithic

e vidence

o f

t he u se

o f

i n E ngland

a gricult he

s tone s ources b y b oth M esolithic a nd N eolithic g roups a nd p atterns o f a rtifact d istribution b etween t he t wo ' cultures

s ame

s imilar m ay b e

m ore t han c oincidental ( Care 1 979, 1 00) a nd a m odel o f M esolithic a cquisition o f f arming s kills a nd d omesticates s hould b e c onsidered a p ossibility. t o s uch a e xample,

S uch a m odel d oes n ot h owever p rovide a c omplete a nswer n otable p eriod o f c hange. I n s outh-west I reland, f or

e arly

c ereal

a griculture a t C ashelkeelty o ccurs

w ith n o e vidence w hatsoever o f

i n a n

a rea

M esolithic o ccupation ( Lynch 1 981,

1 19-

2 0), a lthough t he c oastal a nd e stuarine r esources o f t he a rea p rovide e xactly t he t ype o f g eneralised e cosystem d iscussed p reviously ( p.49). I t h as a lso M esolithic i s I t

i s

b een a rgued t hat a s ignificant f eature o f t he i ts l ack o f c ontact w ith o ther a reas ( Woodman 1 981,

p ossible I f

( other

t hat

a lternative t han

c urrently c hange

b y

a re

f or

t he

i nadequate

w hich m ight

u nequivocal

a ssociated

w ith

p atterns

o f

h unting

t o

a ccumulates

f or b c,

( if

s uch

T he

S TONE

e conomy r ange

o f

M oreover,

p rovided

t he m odels i n

a s

b y c ereal

p ollen

v egetation t he

o nly

p ollen i t may

a s mall n umber o f d omestic

c hange

h ave

r estricted

b een

e xpectations o f

a ny e xist)

r ecognised t heir

s hould b e

i n

a nd

h ence

a

c learance.

A s

c rops

v ery e arly

i n

s tages

s ought

p ollen

f orest

c ereal

i ntermediate

v ariety

i nterests

a rchaeologists,

' landnam' a nd

t he a ppearance o f

a nimals

A lthough a

a t

o f

a gricultural

e ven e arlier

d ates

I NDUSTRIES

i ntroduction o f

m arks t he b eginning h is e nvironment,

d omesticated t he

t ime.

a griculture

t hat

l ater 5 th m illennium b c.

N EOLITHIC

m ode

p ossible

t his t ime.

o f

a pparent

a f arming

h ave

e lm d ecline,

m illennium

b c o n

i s

i s

g athering e conomy.

t he c urrent

t he

i n t he

a nd

v egetation

e vidence

e xperimentation

i t

t he

t his

a griculture

t he m aintenance o f

c oncentration u pon t he 4 th

d escribe

p alaeobotanists

i nterpretations

t he i ntroduction

t enable

r ecognition o f t o

t ook p lace a t

t o d ifferentiate p hases o f c rop e xperimentation f rom s cale c ereal f arming o r t o r ecognise t ypes o f c learance

w ithin a b asically d iagrams,

o f

p eoples

f or

a re

b e e xpected a t

e vidence

b e i mpossible o rganised s mall

o f

h ypotheses

c olonisation)

u sed

d iagrams

o f

s ome m ovement

I rish 2 03).

o f

a nimals

o r

f lint

t he a

i nto

B ritain i n t he 4 th m illennium

w idespread a nd p ronounced i mpact o f d ependence u pon c ultivated c rops

s ubstantially r eplaced a h unting

s ubsistence.

s tone

a griculture o f a s

a xe,

T he p rincipal e xamples

o f

t ool

t ype

w hich a re

f or s ome

a nd

m an a nd

g athering

1 500 y ears

w as

f ound w idely d istributed

t hroughout B ritain. T his a rtifact m ay b e c onsidered a s a N eolithic t rait o f s ome i mportance, a nd i n a reas s uch a s t he n orth o f E ngland, w here f ew d iscovered, s ome

i ndication o f O ver

E ngland o f

d omestic o r f unerary s ites o f N eolithic d ate h ave b een t he d istribution o f s ingle f inds a nd g roups o f a xes g ives

o ther

f ive

( Map 8 0, s tone,

a reas w ith h uman a ctivity d uring

h undred

s tone

a xes

C atalogues 3 - 5 ), f ound,

i n g eneral,

50

a re

r ecorded

3 3 o f

f lint,

i n a reas

o f

t he p eriod. f rom

t he

4 o f j ade b oulder

n orth

o f

a nd o ver 4 89 c lay d eposits

b elow t he 6 00ft c ontour.

S ome a xes h ave b een f ound a bove

t his h eight,

f or e xample, i n u pper W eardale a nd T eesdale, a nd o n t he w estern e dge o f t he E den v alley, b ut o n t he w hole, t he u plands o f t he C umbrian m ountains, t he P ennines a nd t he C heviots a re l ittle r epresented. A c ontrast m ay b e n oted b etween t he c oncentrated d istributions i n C umbria, a nd a m ore d ispersed p attern i n t he n orth-east

a xes

o f o f

E ngland ( Map 8 0). I n C umbria n otable g roupings o f a xes a re f ound a long t he C umbrian c oast, a nd o n t he F urness p eninsula a nd W alney I sland, a nd i nland, a t t he h ead o f D erwentwater, i n t he V ale o f S t. J ohn, i n t he c entral p art o f t he E den v alley a nd o n t he l ower E den i n t he v icinity o f p resent d ay C arlisle. I n o ther a reas f inds a re s parse, p articularly i n t he c atchment o f t he R iver K ent, a nd b etween t he r ivers K ent a nd L even i n t he s outh-east, n orth o f t he R iver E den t o

i n t he n orth-east i n t he C umberland t he S cottish b order a nd i n t he w est,

p lain a long

t he c oast b etween M aryport a nd S eascale. I n N orthumberland a nd D urham , t he p attern o f a xe d istribution i s m ore d ispersed, a nd c oncentrations o f f inds, p articularly a long

m uch

t he c oast a s i n C umbria, a re u nknown. T he a rea o f g reatest a ctivity w ould a ppear t o h ave b een t he n orth o f N orthumberland, f rom t he T weed t o t he C oquet, w hile t o t he s outh t he v alleys o f t he T yne a nd W ear a re a lso r epresented b ut t o a m uch l esser e xtent. F ew a xes h ave b een f ound i n t he s outhern h alf o f N orthumberland, n otably b etween t he r ivers W ansbeck a nd B lyth, a nd

o r i n t he s outh-east o f D urham,

b etween t he

W ear

t he T ees.

A m ajor f actor a ffecting t he d iscovery o f s tone a xes i s p resent d ay l and u se ( Map 5 ). T he o bserved a ltitudinal l imit o f t he d istribut ion o f a xe f inds c orresponds c losely w ith t he m argins o f u pland a reas w hich

a re

u sed a lmost e xclusively f or g razing a nd p ermanent

p asture,

a nd w hich c arry e xtensive a reas o f p eat c over p articularly i n t he P ennines a nd C heviots. A s s uch, t hese u plands a re e ffectively " dead" a reas f or t he d iscovery a nd c ollection o f a rchaeological m aterial f ound w hen t he g round s urface i s d isturbed. T he e xtent o f u pland s ettlement o r l and u se i n t he N eolithic, a s i ndicated b y a xe f inds, m ay t herefore b e

u nder-represented I n t he l owlands

i n t his

d istribution.

o ne m ight a nticipate t hat

i s r elated t o t he e xtent o f a rable f arming. f inds i n s ome c ultivated a reas w ould s uggest

t he d ensity o f

a xe f inds

H owever, a s carcity o f t hat t he o bserved p attern

o f a xe d istribution i s n ot e ntirely a n a rtifact o f m odern a gricultural p ractice. F or e xample, i n C umbria e xtensive a rable f arming i s c arried o ut i n t he E den v alley, w ith o ther c ultivated a reas t o t he n orth, i n t he B rampton r egion, a nd a round t he n orth a nd w est s ides o f t he c entral C umbrian ' dome'. I n g eneral h owever, t hese a reas h ave p roduced f ew a xes. T he s ame i s t he c ase i n t he e astern p art o f D urham a nd s outh N orthumberland, T ees v alley, s carce i n d iscovery.

w here

m ixed f arming i s

p ractised,

w hich h as a h igh p roportion o f

a rable;

a nd i n t he

m iddle

f or a xes a re a lso

t hese l ocalities d espite a ppropriate c onditions f or t heir L owland a reas w hich a re u sed e xclusively f or g razing a nd i n

w hich a xe f inds a re n otably s carce i nclude t he S olway a lluvial s trip, t he K ent a nd m iddle L une b asins a nd t he h eavy b oulder c lay r egion o f s outh-east D urham. T he a pparent s carcity o f f inds i n t hese a reas m ay t herefore b e s omewhat a rtificial, s upports t he s uggestion t hat p arts K ent

a lthough t he e nvironmental e vidence o f s outh-east D urham a nd t he R iver

c atchment a rea i n p articular w ere l ittle u sed d uring t he 4 th

5 1

a nd

3 rd m illennia b c. T he o verall d istribution o f N eolithic a xes i n t he n orth o f E ngland i s n either m arkedly r iverine, n or n oticeably r elated t o t he o ccurrence o f a lluvium a nd g lacial s ilts, s and a nd g ravels. T he c oncentration o f f inds i n p arts o f C umbria i s i n m arked c ontrast t o t he m ore d ispersed p attern f ound i n t he n orth-east a nd t he p aucity o f f inds i n c ertain r egions m ay b e r eal. I t

i s o f

i nterest

t hat

t he p attern o f

s ettlement s uggested b y

t he

e nvironmental e vidence, w hich p rovides a n i ndependent s ource o f i nformation r egarding p rehistoric l and u se, i s c orroborated b y m any e lements o f t his d istribution. O ne n otes i n p articular t he i mportance o f p arts o f t he C umbrian c oast, i ncluding t he v icinity o f B owness, E skmeals a nd F urness, a nd a s carcity o f N eolithic m aterial i n a reas w hich a ppear f rom t he p ollen r ecord t o h ave c ome i nto u se l ater i n t he p rehistoric p eriod, i n s outh-west W estmorland, t he E den v alley a nd a round S caleby M oss. A ctivity i n u pland a reas, i ndicated i n t he p ollen r ecord i s, a xes, b ut d ifferent

t he

a t p resent, l ittle r epresented b y s ingle f inds o f N eolithic t he u se o f t his m ore o pen e nvironment m ay h ave b een o f a t ype f rom t hat

o f

t he

l owlands.

A xes o f f lint, j ade a nd o ther k inds o f s tone h ave b een f ound i n n orth o f E ngland. T hese a re n ow c onsidered s eparately. F or t he

p urposes o f t his d iscussion " stone" r efers t o a ll a xes n ot o f j ade a nd t hese a re c onsidered f irst, b eing t he m ost n umerous.

f lint

o r

S tone a xes A

m ajor a rea o f

i nterest i n s tone a xe s tudies i s

i dentification o f t he r ock s ources a nd t he p attern o f d istribution o f

t he p etrological

f rom w hich a xes w ere m anufactured t he v arious a xe " factory" p roducts

t hroughout t he c ountry. R ocks w hose s ources h ave b een i dentified a re d esignated b y n umbered G roups, w hile o ther r ocks a re d escribed a s ' ungrouped'. I mplement p etrology r eports h ave n ow b een p roduced f or m any a reas o f t he c ountry ( Catalogue 6 ) b ut w ork h as o nly r ecently b egun o n a s ystematic e xamination o f m aterial f rom t he n orth o f E ngland a nd t o d ate, r esults a re k nown f or o nly a v ery s mall n umber o f i mplem ents. F our r ock s ources h ave b een i dentified w ithin t he a rea o f s tudy: G roup X V, a m icaceous s ub-greywacke i n t he s outhern L ake D istrict, G roup X VIII t he q uartz d olerite W hin S ill, G roup X I a f ine s ilicified t uff f rom G reat L angdale, a nd t he G roup V I t uff w hose p roducts a re w idely a nd a bundantly d istributed, w ith k nown " factory" s ites i n t he G reat L angdale a nd S cafell P ike a rea. G roups X V a nd X VIII w ere m ore c ommonly u sed f or t he p roduction o f p erforated i mplements ( p.69ff) a lthough s ome a xes a re k nown, a nd G roup X I i s o f r are o ccurrence ( Bunch a nd F ell 1 949, 1 1-13; C lough a nd C ummins 1 979, 1 27). I n a ttempt

v iew

o f

t he i mportance o f

t he G reat

L angdale

f actories,

a n

h as b een m ade w hen e xamining m aterial f rom t he n orth o f E ngland

t o d ifferentiate G roup V I a nd n on-Group V I p roducts. S imilar i dentification o f G roup V I a xes o n t he b asis o f m acroscopic e xamination h as b een p reviously s uggested b y P iggott ( 1954, 2 95, f ig.45), M anby ( Fell 1 964; M anby 1 965) a nd m ore r ecently f or t he m aterial b y M iss F rame ( 1978). c an b e s uggested o n t he b asis t exture,

f eel a nd c olour o f

F ell a nd S cottish

A p ossible L angdale o rigin f or a n o f o ne o f t hree c riteria: f irst,

t he r ock,

5 2

s econd,

a xe t he

t he d istinctive s hape o f

c ertain

G roup

V I

p roducts,

n otably t he g round

s ide

f acets

o f

t he

c lassic " Cumbrian".axes ( p.54) a nd t hird, a c ombination o f t hese t wo f actors. U sing t hese c riteria, t he N eolithic s tone a xes f rom t he n orth o f E ngland h ave b een g rouped i nto f ive c ategories: ( 1)

a xes w hich h ave b een p etrologically e xamined a nd f or w hich d etermination h as b een m ade a s t o t heir s ource o f o rigin.

( 2)

a xes w hich, o n v isual i nspection a re s uggested t o b e o f G roup V I r ock, o r w hich, o n t he b asis o f a dequate p ublished d escriptions a nd i llustrations w ould s eem t o b elong t o t his c ategory: ( VI)

( 3)

p ossible G roup V I p roducts o n t he b asis f or a re

o f v isual i nspection,

w hich s ome d oubt e xists a s t o t his a ttribution. T hese i n g eneral o f s omewhat d ifferent c olour, f eel o r s hape

t he u sual G roup V I p roducts,

b ut a re o f

f ine g rained r ock:

a

b ut a xes f rom

( ?VI)

( 4)

a xes w hich o n t he b asis o f v isual i nspection a re d efinitely n ot o f G roup V I o rigin, b eing o f e ntirely d ifferent c omposition a nd s tructure.

( 5)

a xes

i nadequately r ecorded

i n t he l iterature,

w hich h ave n ot

l ocated i n m useum c ollections a nd f or w hich n o c omment r ock t ype i s p ossible.

o n

b een t heir

A n umber o f r ough-out a xes f rom C umbria a re a lso c onsidered t o b e o f G roup V I a nd f all i n c ategory ( 2) a bove. I t w as n ot c onsidered p ossible t o i dentify G roups X I, X V a nd X VIII m acroscopically o r t ypologically. T he n umber o f i mplements i n e ach c ategory i s T able 6 . T he s mall n umber o f p etrological i dentifications f or

a xes

f rom t he r egion a re

s hown i n a vailable

l isted s eparately ( Catalogue 7 ).

A lthough t he a ttribution o f aG roup V I o rigin, b ased o n m acros copic e xamination, c annot b e c onsidered a s c ompletely r eliable, t he d istinction b etween c ategories ( 2) a nd ( 3) j ointly, a nd c ategory ( 4) d ifferentiates

t he m ajority o f

t he a xes

o f

f ine g rained

r ock

b y a f laking a nd g rinding t echnique f rom t hose p roduced b y a nd p olishing, o ut o f r ocks o f m ore g ranular c omposition. s ome s uggested a ttributions o f G roup V I m ay l ater b e p roved

p roduced p ecking" A lthough i ncorrect

( and t he ? VI c ategory d oes r epresent a d egree o f u ncertainty f or s ome f ine g rained r ocks), i t i s c onsidered t hat t he c ategories w ill r emain s ubstantially c orrect a s r egards t he d istinction b etween f laked a nd p ecked a xes. I t s hould b e s tressed h owever t hat a p ossible G roup V I i dentification w as n ot s uggested p urely o n t he b asis o f t he a xe h aving b een p roduced b y a f laking t echnique, b ut i t c an b e n oted m ajority o f a xes i n c ategory ( 4) w ere n ot s o p roduced. A marked d istinction m ay b e n oted b etween t he p roportions d ifferent c ategory,

t hat

o f

t he

t hese

a xe g roups i n C umbria a nd t he n orth-east. E xcluding t he ? VI i n C umbria o ver 7 0% o f a xes a re o f p robable L angdale o rigin

a nd o nly 7 .8% o f o ther g roups, b ut i n t he n orth-east o nly 3 0% a re o f p robable G roup V I o rigin a nd a lmost 4 0% a re o f o ther r ock t ypes. W hile C umbria w as m aterial, a

d ominated b y p roducts f rom i ts l ocal s ource o f r aw l arge n umber o f r ock s ources a ppear t o b e r epresented i n

t he n orth-east,

w hich m ay b e

o f

b oth g rouped a nd u ngrouped m aterials.

5 3

G roup V I a xes: C ertain

t ypology d istinctive

' Cumbrian

a xes

t ypologically, b efore b eing i dentified o rigin. T he ' Cumbrian' a xe ( Figs.3-5), b road,

s quare

b utt,

g round

l ateral

c onstriction t owards t he b utt ( 1897, 1 06-7, f ig.61) a nd t he c lub')

l ater a dopted

d istribution " related a xes

o f

f orms" w ithout

w ith

f ig.2).

t he

c alled v ariant s ection

a nd

v ariants t hat

O n

h ave

a lso

s ides

c onsidered

t he

t he b asis

G roup

o f

V I

c lassification

i s

' Cumbrian' a xes

t owards

t he

b y M anby

" waisting"

o f

t he

b ut

( Fell

( Manby

B ,

1 964,

b e d eliberately

f ig.3).

s uggested

p roduced

f orms, s uggest

t he

f or

o val T hese

s een i n t heir d istribution t o

a n e xamination o f i n

4 0-1,

E ngland,

w ith a p ointed

1 965,

o f

e xcluded

f rom n orthern

a nd v ariant

t he

f orm a nd

b utt e nd,

c utting e dge

t o

a xe

o r

b y E vans ' Cumbrian

F ell d iscussed

t his

o f a p articular f inishing a rea

o rigin

' variants' w hich a re

I n 1 964 M iss e xamples

( Figs.10-12)

p roducts

a nd a d istinct

b een r ecognised

s ignificance c ould b e

t hey w ere

p robable

a " waisting"

w ith r ounded s ides

s harp

w ere

a lthough n o

f orms A ,

f acets

s mall

m aximum w idth a t

O ther

b een r ecognised

e nd w as f irst d istinguished t erm ( or s ometimes t hat o f

b y o ther w riters.

b oth l arge a nd

h ave f or l ong

p etrologically a s o f L angdale w ith i ts l ong, s lender f orm,

a ll t he

n orth

o f

b y

t he

a vailable

E ngland,

t his m aterial;

d istinguished

( ibid,

a xes

a

t wo

' Cumbrian'

f ollowing

2 1). o f f old

a xes

a nd

c haracteristics:

( Figs.3-9)

-

s ide

f acets

-

t rapezoidal

i n p lan w ith b road,

s quarish

( or s lightly r ounded)

b utt -

t hickness a nd

-

i s

o f

t he

g reatest

i mplement v aries

t owards

m aximum w idth a bout t he

t he

t he

e nd

c entre o f

t he a xe,

l ength o f

t he

a xe

o r s lightly t owards

b lade

' variant' a xes

( Figs.10-12)

-

n o

-

p ointed

o val

-

t hinner

t han C umbrian e xamples

-

t hickness

-

a long

t he b lade

s ide f acets

b utt

o f

w ider

c ross-section

t he a xe i n

i s

u niform d own i ts

r elation

t o

t he

l ength

c utting e dge

t han

' Cumbrian'

f orms -

m aximum w idth o f

t he

i mplement

a t,

o r n ear,

t he

c utting e dge.

T hus d efined t he ' Cumbrian' f orm o f a xe i ncludes b oth F ell's ' Cumbrian' t ype, w ith a nd w ithout w aisting, a nd M anby's v ariant A , o f w hich o nly f our e xamples a re r ecorded i n t his r egion ( Manby 1 965, 3 56 ).

A s

' Cumbrian'

t he

d egree

a xes

( some

o f a re

s quareness e xtremely

54

o f

t he l ateral

s quare,

o thers

f acets l ess

s o)

v aries a nd a s

i n i n

a ll o ther r espects v ariant A i s l ike t he ' Cumbrian f orm, i t s eems m ore a ppropriate t o i nclude i t i n t his c ategory. T he n umbers a nd p ercenta ges o f ' Cumbrian' a nd ' variant' f orms o f G roup V I a xes i n C umbria a nd t he n orth-east a re a s f ollows:

H oards

G roup V I ' Cumbrian'

G roup V I ' variant'

T otal

C umbria

9

-

9

N orth-east

3

-

3

8 6 ( 77%)

2 6 ( 23%)

S ingle f inds C umbria

N orth-east

3 6

2 1

( 63%)

? VI a xes

d ifference

5 7

( 37%)

a re e xcluded h ere.

t he g raphs ( Figs.13-17) v aries, m ents a re k nown f or e ach a xe. W hen t ogether,

1 12 ( 100%)

( 100%)

T he t otal n umber o f a xes

i ncluded i n

a s n ot a ll c haracteristics o r m easure-

c onsidering a ll p robable G roup V I a xes f rom t he r egion b oth ' Cumbrian' a xes a nd -v ariants', i t i s a pparent t hat a e xists

f rom t he n orth-east

b etween t he r ange o f

s ize o f

a xes f rom C umbria

( Fig.13) w hich m ay b e s ummarised a s

a nd

f ollows:

S ize r ange o f a ll p robable G roup V I f inished a xes N orth-east 5 - 2 6cm A xes l ess t han 1 6cm i n l ength A xes l ess t han 2 0cm i n l ength

6 8% 8 2.5%

C umbria 4 - 3 9cm A xes l ess A xes l ess

t han 1 6cm i n l ength t han 2 0cm i n l ength

4 5% 6 0%

A xes i n t he n orth-east a re g enerally s maller t han t hose f rom C umbria, a s s hown b y t he p ercentages o f a xes l ess t han 1 6cm , a nd l ess t han 2 0cm i n l ength. S ub-division o f t he m aterial i nto t he t wo f orms d iscussed a bove m ore,

s eems t o s uggest t hat i t i s t he ' Cumbrian' a xe w hich d iffers t he b etween t he t wo p arts o f t he r egion, f or 8 0% o f ' Cumbrian' a xes

f rom

t he

n orth-east a re l ess

C umbria ( Figs.14-15).

t han 2 0cm i n l ength,

D ifferences

m uch l ess m arked.

5 5

a nd o nly 5 2%

f rom

i n t he s ize r ange o f ' variants' a re

S ize r ange o f

' Cumbrian

a xes

S ize r ange o f ' variants'

C umbria 5 - 3 9cm

C umbria 9 - 2 7cm

A xes

l ess

t han 1 6cm i n l ength 3 4%

A xes

l ess t han 1 6cm i n l ength 6 5%

A xes

l ess

t han 2 0cm i n l ength 5 2%

A xes

l ess t han 2 0cm i n l ength 7 7.8%

N orth-east 5 - 2 6cm

N orth-east 7 - 2 2cm

A xes l ess t han 1 6cm i n l ength 6 0% A xes l ess t han 2 0cm i n l ength 8 0%

A xes A xes

l ess t han 1 6cm i n l ength 7 7% l ess t han 2 0cm i n l ength 8 2.5%

I n t he n orth-west t he s ize r ange o f ' Cumbrian' a xes i s c onsidera bly e xtended b y a n umber o f ' Cumbrian c lubs', w hich v ary i n l ength f rom 2 0 t o 4 0cm. S ome 2 1 e xamples a re k nown, c omprising c 1 3% o f a ll p robable G roup V I a xes

f rom C umbria ( Catalogue 8 ,

F igs.3-5).

T his f orm

i s u nrepresented i n t he n orth-east, a lthough s ome l arge a xes w ithout w aisting a re r ecorded, s uch a s t hose f rom P onteland a nd W itton G ilbert ( Fig.6, n o.169). I t

i s p ossible

t o p ut f orward

t he h ypothesis

t hat ' variants' c ould

b e m odified ' Cumbrian' f orms. A xes i n v arious s tages o f r e-working a re k nown f rom t he r egion ( p.57) a nd t he f laking p roperties o f G roup V I r ock m ake i t p articularly a menable t o r e-use. T wo a spects o f t he s hape o f ' Cumbrian' a xes w ould n ecessitate c onsiderable r e-working o f t he a xe, i f t he c utting e dge w as v ery w orn. T he f irst i s t he p osition o f t he m axinum w idth o f t he a xe, t he s econd, t hat o f t he m aximum t hickn ess, w hich l ies n ear t he c utting e dge. T he b lade o f a ' Cumbrian' a xe c ould n ot b e s ubstantially r e-ground w ithout s ome t hinning o f t he i mplement, b ecause t he o riginal t hickness o f t he b ody o f t he a xe w ould p revent i ts b eing s haped i nto a n ew c utting e dge. H owever, i f t he a xe w as r e-flaked a nd p olished t wo m odifications i n i ts s hape w ould e nsue. T he t hickness o f t he b ody w ould b e r educed, a nd w ould b ecome m ore u niform a long t he l ength o f t he i mplement, a nd a n ew c utting e dge w ould b e m ade f urther u p t he b ody o f t he a xe, c loser t o i ts m aximum w idth. T he c utting e dge o f t he r e-worked a xe w ould t hen c oincide w ith i ts p oint o f m aximum w idth. T hese f eatures a re p recisely t hose f ound i n t he G roup V I ' variant' a xes.

t hat

I f s uch a n h ypothesis i s s ubstantially c orrect, o ne w ould p redict t he w idth t o t hickness r atio o f ' Cumbrian' a xes w ould b e l ower

t han t hat o f ' variant' a xes. T hese v alues a re p lotted i n F igs.16 a nd 1 7. I n b oth C umbria a nd t he n orth-east, t he w idth t o t hickness r atio f or ' Cumbrian' a xes i s l ower, a nd t he r ange s maller t han t hat o f v ariant' a xes n amely:

N orth-east

C umbria

' Cumbrian' a xes W :T r atio

1 .5 t o 2 .8

' variant'

1 .7 t o 3 .6

a xes W :T r atio

' Cumbrian' a xes W :T r atio v ariant' a xes W :T r atio

5 6

l ess t han 1 t o 2 .6 1 .6 t o 3 .1

T he m ajority o f ' Cumbrian' a xes h ave a W :T r atio o f ' variants

C umbria

' Cumbrian' a xes W /T v ariant'

N orth-east

T hese r esults b een p roduced

t han 1 .9,

a xes W .T

1 .9

7 0.8%

1 .9

2 8%

1 .9

4 9.8%

1 .9

1 6.1%

w ould s eem t o i ndicate t hat ' variant' a xes a s a r esult o f m odifying ' Cumbrian' f orms.

a ssuming

F ramlington, f rom

a xes W /T

' Cumbrian' a xes W /T v ariant'

a xes

l ess

t he

a m ajority w ith a r atio g reater t han 1 .9 v iz.

v ariant' f orms

s uch a s

t hose

f rom

c ould h ave R e-flaked

H ousesteads,

L ong

B owness-on-Solway a nd p erhaps e ven a p artly p olished

E henside T arn w ould s eem t o

s ubstantiate t his

s uggestion

a xe

( Fig.11

n o.86).

B utt-faceted a xes

( Catalogue 8 )

A n umber o f p robable G roup V I a xes, o f ' variant' f orms h ave a p ronounced g round f acet

b oth ' Cumbrian' a nd a t t he b utt. T his

c haracteristic, w hich h as a lso b een n oted i n Y orkshire ( Manby 1 979, 6 5) a nd i n S cotland ( Frame 1 978, 1 4) i s c omparatively r are i n C umbria, b eing

f ound

o n a bout 7 % o f

a ll G roup V I a xes,

b ut

i s o f m ore

c ommon

o ccurrence i n t he n orth-east t otalling s ome 2 5% o f s uch a xes. T he l atter f igure i s c losely c omparable w ith t hat o f 2 4% f or b utt f aceted G roup V I a xes

i n S cotland

T he v arious

( ibid,

1 4).

t ypological f eatures o f G roup V I a xes d iscussed

a bove

w ould a ppear t o b e e venly r epresented t hroughout t he n orth o f E ngland. ' Cumbrian' a nd ' variant' f orms a nd b utt-faceted a xes a re f ound d ispersed i n b oth C umbria a nd N orthumberland a nd D urham, w ith n o o bvious l ocal c oncentrations o f a ny o ne f orm ( Map 1 2), a lthough t he p ercentages o f e ach d iffer b etween t he t wo a reas ( p.55). B y c ontrast ' Cumbrian c lubs' a re f ound o nly i n C umbria, b ut w ithin t hat a rea o ccur i n a ll t he m ain a reas o f a xe c oncentrations ( Map 1 3). T he a ssociation o f a ' Cumbrian c lub' w ith t wo o ther a xes o f ' Cumbrian' f orm i n t he h oard f rom B elmont, P enrith ( Fig.20), s uggests t hat t here i s a t l east s ome c hronological o verlap b etween t hese t wo a xe ' Hoards' o f a xes a nd r ouh-outs

f orms.

( including t hose f rom E henside T arn)

( Figs . 20-26) A lthough f inds, t here

t he m ajority o f a xes o ccur a s i ndividual, u nassociated i s a lso a s mall n umber o f h oards o r c ollections o f a xes

f rom t he r egion ( Catalogue 3 ) c omprised o f b oth p olished e xamples a nd r ough-outs. A ll t he a xes s till a vailable f or s tudy a re c onsidered t o b e o f p robable G roup V I o rigin, B owness-on-Solway, H igh H aume

a nd t he d escriptions o f m aterial a nd I bbotsholme s trongly s uggest

t hese w ere a lso o f L angdale o rigin.

f rom t hat

T he t erm ' hoard' i s p erhaps s ome-

w hat m isleading i n t his c ontext, s uggesting i tems d eliberately c onc ealed. A lthough n one o f t hese f inds w as e xcavated a rchaeologically, t here a re s ettlement

i ndications t hat s ome o f t hem w ere d erived f rom p robable c ontexts, a s a t E henside T arn a nd M ossgarth, P ortinscale.

5 7

O nly

t he

h oards

i n a l imestone

f rom S kelmore H eads c revice,

a nd S tainton-in-Furness,

a re s uggestive o f

d eliberate

b oth f ound

c oncealment.

I n

g eneral, t he n umber o f a xes i n a ny o ne c ollection i s s mall, o n a verage a bout t hree o r f our, w ith o ne e xceptionally l arge g roup o f t wenty a xes ( now l ost) " in v arious s tages o f m anufacture" f rom c omposition o f t he v arious ' hoards i s a s f ollows:

H oards o f p olished a xes

H oard o f

r ough-outs

H igh

H aume.

T he

H oards w ith p olished a xes a nd r ough-outs

B elmont,

P enrith

E aglesfield

E henside T arn

B owness-on-Solway

K eswick

H igh H aume

I bbotsholme

P ortinscale

H igh H aume

S owerby W ood S tainton-in-Furness

S kelmore H eads

P ortinscale

H eddon-on-the-Wall L ow B uston

T he l owland

m ajority o f s ituations,

a long

t he

( Map

1 5).

a re o f 1 6cm).

h oards a t

t he

C umbrian c oast T he

a xes

d ifferent

a re h ead

a nd,

f rom C umbria,

i n p articular,

i n t he h oards

s izes,

a nd h ave

o f D erwentwater, o n

s how v arious

b een f ound

i n t he E den

i n

v alley,

t he F urness p eninsula s tages

o f w orking

a lthough a ll a re c omparatively

l arge

a nd ( over

T he m ost d iverse m aterial c omes f rom E henside T arn ( Figs.21-22). I t i s d oubtful w hether t he m aterial f rom t his s ite s hould p roperly b e i ncluded i n t he c ategory o f a ssociated f inds o f a xes, a s i t d oes n ot c ome f rom a c losed c ontext, a nd t he s ite m ay h ave b een i n u se f or a v ery l ong p eriod ( pp.93-96). H owever, a s t hese a xes w ere f ound i n t he s ame g eneral a rea o f t he t arn b ed, w ith s tone s labs o bviously u sed f or g rinding

a nd

p olishing,

r ough-outs

f rom t he

s haping

f laking

a nd

c ontrasts

w ith

t hey a re h ere d iscussed

s ite f ound

t he

h ave

t ogether.

b een l ittle w orked,

o n m aterial a t

t he a xe

m uch g reater d egree

o f

b eyond

T he

t he

' factory'

t ype

s ites.

f laking f ound o n

s urface a s p ossible p rior t o p olishing. a xe f rom E henside c ould b e r e-worked.

p olished

e xample

i s

a n e xceptionally l arge

t he

T he

t he

b utt.

s imilar o ther

T hese w ere

s tone,

a s

i f

r ough-outs

f ound

T he f irst c oma xe, f ound i n a nd

" together w ith c obbles

t he i mplement m aker h ad

f rom

s pecimens, b ut a re l arger a nd i n s ize a nd s hape w ith t he

P ortinscale

a s a s

s pecimen.

o n a c lay l ayer, b eneath a c overing o f p eat ( Fig.24). T he a re w ell-flaked s pecimens, r anging i n s ize f rom 1 9 t o 2 7cm, i ng a t

t wo

p artly p artly

T he s maller T he o ther

T wo s mall ' hoards' a re k nown f rom P ortinscale. p rises f our r ough-outs, a nd a c uriously b adly g round

o f

o f T his

p artly p olished a xes, a nd o n o ther r ough-outs f rom h oards, s uch t hose f rom P ortinscale. T hese h ad b een f inely w orked t o p roduce e ven a p olished

t wo

a re

r ough-outs a nd t aper-

a nd

c hippings

b een a t w ork

a lso

t here".

f inely

p repared

b roader a t t he b utt ( Fig.23), c omparable l argest r ough-out f rom S kelmore H eads

( Fig . 25) O nly ( Fig.9) a nd

t wo a xe s aid

a g roup

t o o f

h oards h ave

a xes

a re k nown f rom t he n orth-east,

b een f ound w ith o thers a nd

f ragments

5 8

( now l ost)

a C umbrian a xe a t

f rom H eddon-on-the-Wall.

L ow T he

B uston a xes

f rom

H eddon

( Fig.26)

a re

n otably s maller t han a ny

f rom

h oards

i n

C umbria. O ne i s d amaged a t t he b utt, a nd t he t wo o thers a long t he s ides. F ragments o f p olished a xes f ound w ith t he m ore c omplete s pecimens s uggest t hat r e-working m ay h ave t aken p lace p roducing s omew hat d ifferent m aterial f rom t hat f ound a t C umbrian a xe f inishing s ites. W ith t he e xception o f t he h oard o f t wenty a xes f rom H igh H aume, t he c ollections o f a xes d iscussed a bove c ould r epresent t he

a ll

p ersonal t ools o f a n i ndividual f amily o r s mall g roup. A lthough i t h as b een s uggested t hat a xe p roduction a nd f inishing w as " on a n i ndustrial s cale" ( Manby 1 965, 2 1) t here i s l ittle i ndication i n t he a rchaeol ogical r ecord o f a ny m ass p roduction o r r e-distribution o f a xes i n t he n orth o f E ngland. R ough-outs

( Map 1 6,

F ig.27)

A t otal o f 5 0 r ough-out a xes h ave b een f ound i n C umbria i n a reas f rom t he G reat L angdale ' factory s ites a nd c hipping f loors,

a way

c omprising 3 4 s ingle f inds a nd 1 6 f rom a xe ' hoards'. N o r ough-outs a re r ecorded f rom t he n orth-east. T he r ange o f l ength o f t he C umbrian r ough-outs i s 1 5 t o 3 1cm ( Fig.19) c oincident w ith t hat f or t he m ajority o f p olished a xes ( Fig.13) w ith t he e xception o f t he l argest s pecimens, f rom 3 2 t o 3 9cm l ong. T he r ough-outs h ave b een f ound i n a reas w ell r epresented

b y

f inished a xes,

p articularly F urness a nd t he

h ead

D erwentwater, i n s ome c ases w ith e vidence o f l ocal a xe g rinding f inishing. A f ew r ough-outs f rom a reas i n w hich p olished a xes

o f a nd a re

c omparatively s carce, f or e xample, t he ' eastern s ide o f t he R iver D erwent a nd B assenthwaite L ake, n orth o f W indermere, a nd i nland f rom t he E skmeals c oast, b etween t he r ivers I rt a nd E sk, m ay i ndicate r outes o ut

o f

t he L angdale v alley ,

D espite

t o t he s urrounding l owlands

i ncreasing k nowledge o f

( Map 1 6).

t he d istribution a nd f requency o f

G roup V I a xes t hroughout B ritain, t he m echanisms o f t rade o r e xchange b y w hich s uch p roducts w ere o btained a re s till l ittle k nown ( pp.74-82). T he t he

w idespread o ccurrence o f t he t ypical ' Cumbrian' a xe m ight s uggest r e-distribution, f rom t he n orth-west, o f f inished i mplements. H ow-

e ver, b een

a s mall n umber o f r ecorded o utside

m aterials

h as

A n ot

o f

r ough-outs, o f p robable L angdale o rigin, h ave C umbria a nd t rade o r e xchange o f t he r aw

a xe m anufacture i s a p ossibility.

c ountry-wide s urvey o f r ough-outs o utside t he n orth o f E ngland b een u ndertaken f or t his w ork, b ut o ther r egional s tudies a nd

r eports o f t he v arious I mplement P etrology C ommittees c an b e c onsidered h ere ( Catalogue 6 ). T hese i nclude t he w ork o f M anby, p articularly i n Y orkshire ( Manby 1 965; M anby 1 979), M iss F rame i n S cotland ( Frame 1 978) a nd p etrology r eports f or W ales a nd L ancashire ( unpublished), t he s outh-west,

E ast A nglia,

L incolnshire,

N ottinghamshire a nd

R utland,

D erbyshire a nd L eicestershire, a nd a f irst r eport f or Y orkshire, c overi ng a n ot i nconsiderable p art o f B ritain. S ixteen r ough-outs a re r ecorded f rom t hese a reas ( Catalogue 9 , M ap 1 7). F lakes o f G roup V I r ock a nd f ragments o f a xes f rom s ettlement s ites ( Manby 1 979, A ppendix A ) o r p artially g round a xes ( Manby 1 965, 2 3-6, f ig.2-3) a re n ot c ons idered a s d irect e vidence o f t he d istribution o f r ough-outs, a s t hey m ay h ave b een p roduced w hen r e-working b roken o r w orn i mplements. i s i mmediately a pparent, t he n umber o f k nown G roup V I r ough-outs, a l arge a rea o f

B ritain,

i s v ery s mall.

5 9

A s f rom

A mong

t he

e xamples

f rom Y orkshire q uoted b y

M anby,

t hose

f rom

R ipon h ave n o p rovenance b ut a re t hought t o b e l ocal f inds ( Manby 1 979, 7 2) a nd t wo o thers m ay b e r e-worked a xes. T he T horpe F ell e xample ( Davies 1 963, 5 3, f ig.1.1) i s a pparently e ntirely f laked, b ut t he b adly s haped b lade e nd, i rregular c ross-section a nd s quared o ff b utt, t ogether w ith i ts c omparatively s mall s ize ( 13.4cm) m ight i ndicate t hat t his i s a r e-worked a xe. T he K eighley s pecimen i s l arger ( 24cm) a lthough i ncomplete ( Manby 1 979, f ig.3.1), a nd a ppears t o b e p artly g round, p articularly a t t he c utting e dge w hich i s t he m aximum w idth o f t he i mplement, a s w ith ' variant a xes ( p.54). T his t oo m ay b e r ew orked m aterial. T he S cottish e xamples a re m ore c onvincing, a nd t hat f rom M ochrun w as s aid t o h ave b een f ound w ith a n umber o f c hips o f s imilar m aterial ( Gillespie 1 916, 6 3), b ut n o s urer e vidence i s k nown o f

f inishing s ites. T wo o f

t he

r ough-outs a re p articularly n otable b y t heir s ize,

t hat

f rom M orecambe, L ancs. b eing 3 2.5cm l ong ( Lancaster M useum) a nd f rom C rawford, L anarks. 3 9.8cm l ong ( Hunterian M useum B .1951.906), e xceeding a ny k nown r ough-outs f rom C umbria, b ut c omparable w ith t he l argest, p artly

p olished

a xe

f rom E henside T arn ( p.58).

T he l ength

o f

t he

O verton e xample ( 31cm) c oincides w ith t he t op r ange o f r ough-out s ize w ithin C umbria. A v ariety o f s tages o f a xe p reparation a nd f laking a re r epresented b y t hese f inds, a s a lso n oted i n C umbria ( p.58). T he r ough-outs f rom M orecambe a nd B allure, K intyre ( Scott 1 969, f ig.90r) a re p articularly w ell f laked a nd p repared f or p olishing, W ellfield, J edburgh a nd A nnan, D umfries a re l ess s o.

T he G reat L angdale a xe " factories" S ince

t he

o thers

f rom

( Fig.28)

e arly d iscovery o f

a s mall w orking f loor i n t he

S take

P ass a rea, b y P rofessor D .M.S. W atson, f leetingly r ecorded i n a n a ccount o f t he a xe f actory a t G raig L wyd ( Warren 1 921, 1 98) m any m ore a xe w orking a reas h ave b een r ecorded i n t he v icinity o f G reat L angdale, f rom t he P ike o f S tickle s crees t o S cafell P ike ( Bunch a nd F ell 1 941; F ell 1 951; P lint 1 962 a nd 1 978; C lough 1 973). P etrological a nalysis h as

c onfirmed

5 8), t ure

t he m ost c ommonly o ccurring r aw m aterial o f N eolithic a xe m anufaci n B ritain, a nd a lso a s t he s ource o f t he r are G roup X I ( Bunch a nd

F ell

1 949,

1 1;

t his

a s

t he s ource o f G roup V I r ock ( Keiller e t a l 1 941,

F lint 1 962,

7 a nd 2 4).

N o e xact c orrelation h as y et b een e stablished b etween t he d etailed g eology o f G reat L angdale a nd t he v arious g rouped a nd u ngrouped r ocks w hich p robably c ome

f rom t he a rea.

A s w ell a s G roups V I a nd X I, o ther

r ocks, c losely r elated t o t hem , h ave b een i dentified a mongst m aterial c ollected b y P lint ( 1962, 2 4-6) a nd " near G roup V I" a nd " tuff" s pecimens a re r ecorded i n v arious i mplement p etrology r eports ( e.g. K een a nd R adley 1 971, 1 9 a nd 2 2). N one o f t hese h as b een a ccurately l ocated, n or h as t he g eology o f t he G roup V I m aterial y et b een a dequately m apped c larified

( Houlder 1 979,

8 7-9,

f ig.1).

T hese p roblems m ay b e

w hen m ore s urvey a nd e xcavation w ork h as

t he c hipping s ites.

6 0

b een u ndertaken

o n

A

l arge n umber o f

f lakes

a nd i mplements h ave b een r ecovered

f rom

t he s crees b elow P ike o f S tickle, p articularly t he s outh s cree b etween 7 5Uft a nd 2 000ft ( 230 - 6 10m), a t t he s ides o f w hich a re w orking a reas w ith a ccumulations o f c hips a nd f lakes T here a re i ndications t hat o utcrops o f

( Bunch a nd F ell 1 949, 1a nd 3 ). r ock w ere w orked, a s f or e xample

a round H arrison S tickle ( Plint 1 962, 1 ) a nd t o t he e ast o f L oft C rag ( Fell 1 951) a nd t hat d etached b oulders o f t uff w ere u sed, a s o n P rofessor W atson's s ite ( Warren 1 921, 1 98). S uch f reshly e xposed r ock m ay h ave b een e asier t o w ork t han w eathered s cree ( Clough 1 973, 3 7). V arious s izes o f

s tages i n r oughing o ut t he a xes a re e videnced b y t he d ifferent w aste f lakes ( ibid, 3 0). M any a xes w ere v ery f inely p repared,

s haped a nd f laked, p olished ( Plint 1 962,

t o a s tage a t w hich t hey c ould t hen h ave b een p l.I), b ut s ome c ruder r ough-outs a re f ound a way

f rom t he f actory s ites ( p.58) s uggesting t hat n ot a ll p roducts w ere s o f inely f inished i n t he v icinity. M any o f t he a bandoned r ough-outs a re u ndamaged. P erhaps s everal d ays w ork w as c arried o ut i n a s ingle v isit t o t he a rea, a nd t hen a s m any o f t he b est r ough-outs t ransported b ack t o t he v arious s ettlement s ites a s c ould b e c arried, l eaving o thers b ehind. ' factory T he l owlands s outh:

T here a re n o i ndications t hat r ough-outs w ere p olished a t s ites, b ut w ere p robably f inished i n t he l owlands. G reat

L angdale

a rea i s c omparatively

t he

a ccessible

f rom

t he

b y t hree d ifferent a pproaches - f rom t he n orth, t o t he n orth f rom L angstrath B eck t o S tonethwaite

w est B eck,

a nd t he

R iver D erwent a nd D erwent W ater; W astwater a nd t he R iver I rt; a nd

t o t he w est f rom L ingmell t o W asdale, t o t he s outh a long t he L angdale v alley

t o W indermere, t he R iver L even a nd F urness. I n a ll t hree l owland a reas r ough-outs a nd e vidence o f a xe f inishing h ave b een f ound. I n 1 969-70 s mall s cale e xcavations w ere u ndertaken a t t he s ite o f T hunacarr K nott, w here c onsiderable a xe-making d ebris h ad p reviously b een n oticed ( Clough 1 973, 2 7-8). T wo i nsubstantial f eatures w ere r ecorded i n a n a rea w here l arge f lakes a nd b roken o r d iscarded r ougho uts w ere f ound, n amely t he e nd o f a n arrow s hallow g ully a nd a p ossible

p osthole

( ibid,

f ig.2)

b ut n o d efinite t races o f

s tructures

w ere f ound. A n a rea o f c harcoal g ave a r adiocarbon d ate o f 2 524 2 :52 b c ( BM-676) c omparable w ith a nother d etermination o f 2 730 : I t1 35 b c ( BM2 81) f rom a n e roding p eat l ayer n earby. S amples f rom a p eat d eposit a t T hunacarr K nott s how t hat a fter t he e lm d ecline t he a rea c arried a m ineral s oil c over, l ater o verlaid b y t he a ccumulation o f m or h umus a nd d eveloping p eat o ver t he c hipping f loor o ccupation ( Pennington 1 975, 7 8-9, f ig.4). T he d isappearance o f p ine f rom t he p ollen p rofile a t t he t ime w hen t he p eat w as d eveloping, m ay c orrelate w ith t he d estruction o f u pland p ine

f orest e lsewhere i n t he a rea,

d ated

t o a bout

t he m id-3rd

m illennium b c. P ollen

e vidence

f rom a n umber o f

s ites i n

t he

L angdale

r egion

( pp.24-25) s uggests t hat i n t he l ate 4 th a nd 3 rd m illennia b e, t he v egetation c over i n t he v icinity o f t he a xe ' factories' w as n ot c losed c limatic-climax f orest, b ut w as v aried, w ith o pen h abitats ( Langdale C ombe) l ight w oodland ( Red T arn M oss) a nd d eveloping p eat d eposits ( Quagrigg M oss, n ear S cafell). T he e xtent a nd d ensity o f u pland p ine f orest ( p.32).

i s u nknown, A reas

o f

b ut m ay h ave b een q uite s cattered,

o n t hin

s oils

l oose s cree a nd r ock o utcrops w ould n ot h ave c arried

s ubstantial v egetation c over. I t

i s

p erhaps

u nlikely t hat a ny s ubstantial

6 1

a mount

o f

u pland

f orest

c learance w ould b e n ecessary s olely f or

i ng a nd w orking

t he r ock s ources,

t he p urpose o f e xploit-

w hen t hese w ere a lready e xposed,

i n

c omparatively o pen a reas, a nd w hen a xe f inishing w as c arried o ut a t s ome d istance. N or w ould t he a rea b e a ttractive o r s uitable f or p ermanent s ettlement s ites. T he d ecline o f p ine i n t he u plands, w hich i s f ound a s e arly a s c 3 200 b c a t B lea T arn a nd A ngle T arn ( p.24) b ut p erhaps a s m uch a s 8 00 y ears R ed T arn M oss a ctivities a t a nd

T hunacarr

l ater a t s uch s ites a t T hunacarr K nott

( Pennington 1 975, t he a xe ' factory'. K nott,

a nd

7 9) n eed n ot b e d irectly r elated t o A t c hipping s ites s uch a s L oft C rag

t he d evelopment

o f p eat w as t aking p lace

a s

a

r esult o f p rogressive n atural s oil a cidification a nd p aludification, w hich m an's a ctivities m ay s imply h ave h astened ( ibid, 8 0).

i s

I n c ommon w ith o ther i dentified s ources o f a xe m aterial L angdale r eferred t o a s a n a xe ' factory w ith p roduction s uggested " on a n

i ndustrial

s cale"

( Manby 1 965,

2 1)

a nd w ith a " considerable b ulk t rade"

b etween C umbria a nd o ther m ajor a xe u sing a reas ( Cummins 1 974, 2 04). H owever, a lthough a n umber o f w orking s ites h ave b een l ocated a nd q uantities o f f lakes a nd r ough-outs d iscovered i n t he s crees, n o e stimate h as y et b een m ade o f t he v olume o f w aste m aterial o n t he s ite, n or o f t he n umber o f i mplements w hich m ight h ave b een p roduced f rom i t, a s s uggested f or e xample f or t he F rench s ite a t P lussulien ( Le R oux 1 979, 5 5-6). U ntil m ore s urveys a re m ade o f t he L angdale a rea a nd t he e xtent o f i ndividual w orking p laces i s a dequately r ecorded, i t i s n ot f easible t o e stimate t he s cale o f w orking i n t he a rea. E vidence f rom b eyond t he L angdale s ites d oes n ot i mmediately s uggest l arge s cale a xe p roduction. T he e stimated n umber o f G roup V I i mplements f ound t hrougho ut

B ritain i s

l ess

t han t wo t housand

( p.75),

t he p ossible c urrency o f

t he r ock t ype i s v ery l ong, p erhaps 1 500 r adiocarbon y ears ( pp.68-9) a nd t here i s n o e vidence o f b ulk t ransportation o f a xes i n t he f orm o f l arge h oards ( pp.57-59). A lthough t he d uration o f u se o f t he s ite may h ave b een c onsiderable, i t r emains t o e stablish w hether, a t a ny o ne t ime, a xe m anufacture w as c arried o ut o n a l arge s cale a s a n o rganised " industry". N orth-east N on-Group V I a xes I n

c ontrast

( Map 1 4,

F igs.29-32)

t o C umbria,

t he n umber o f n on-Group V I a xes

i n

t he

n orth-east i s l arge, s ome 6 4 a xes ( 37.7%) o ut o f a t otal o f 1 70, a s c ompared w ith o nly 4 9 a xes ( 28.8%) i dentified a s o f p robable G roup V I o rigin. N o a ttempt h as b een m ade o n t he b asis o f m acroscopic e xaminat ion t o i dentify t he p ossible o rigins o f t hese a xes. B oth t ypologically a nd p etrologically t he m aterial s eems d iverse a nd may i nclude b oth g rouped a nd u ngrouped r ocks. I n g eneral t hese a xes a re s mall, r anging f rom 7 t o 1 4cm i n l ength ( Fig.18) w ith o nly a f ew l arger s pecimens, s uch a s t hose f rom F owberry C hatton ( 69), L onghoughton ( 103), s mall

M ilfield ( 109), T wizell g roup o f a xes o f g ranular,

( 154) a nd B elford ( 16) g ranite-like r ock a re

( Fig.29). A t ypologically

s imilar, b eing b roadly o val o r c ircular i n s ection, w ith a p ointed b utt, n amely t hose f rom B owlees ( 26), L eamington H ill H ead ( 95), G oswick ( 74), S herburn ( 134), R ookhope ( 124), a nd D arras H all, P onteland ( 48), ( Fig.31). T hese m ay b e c ompared w ith C ornish " Bridlington" t ype a xes i dentified i n Y orkshire ( Manby 1 979, 6 8 f ig.1.11)

a lthough t heir i dentification c annot b e c ertain,

a re p etrologically e xamined.

6 2

u ntil

t hey

A n e dge-ground a xe f rom ( ?) B laydon

( 22)

( Tait 1 968,

f ig.1.3) m ay

b e c ompared w ith t hat f rom K eswick ( 287) ( Fig.32), a nd l ike t he K eswick e xample d oes n ot a ppear t o b e a n i ncompletely f inished r ough-out, b ut a s uitably s haped p iece o f r ock , e dge-ground a nd p olished. A f ragment o f a n a xe f rom K yloe C rags ( 92) ( Fig.30) i s o f a t ype u nique i n t he a rea, w ith a v ery w ide b utt a nd p ointed o val c ross-section. W hen c omplete t he a xe m ust h ave b een l arge, w hich i s a lso u nusual i n t he a rea. Two a xes a re n otable f or t he b eauty o f t he r ock o f w hich t hey a re m ade ( Fig.32). T hat f rom R othbury ( 128) w ith a w ide s quare b utt i s a m arbled o live g reen a nd t he o ther, f rom t he R iver C oquet ( 31) i s g reen, w ith

a d arker b anding a cross

t he a xe.

B oth a re h ighly p olished.

t he b asis o f m acroscopic e xamination n either o f j ade ( see p p.65-66). T hree o f p etrologically

t he s ix e xamined

t hese i s c lassified

a xes f rom t he n orth-east w hich h ave p roved t o b e o f n on-Langdale

O n a s

h ave b een o rigin, a

G roup X VIII ( Whin S ill) a xe f rom W ashington ( 158), a G roup I X ( Tievebulliagh) a xe f rom M urton ( 112) a nd a n a xe o f u ngrouped c oarse s andstone f rom S underland ( 141). T he m ajority o f n on-Langdale a xes i n t he n orth-east h ave b een f ound i n t he n orthern h alf o f N orthumberland, a n a rea w ell r epresented b y a xe f inds ( Map 1 4). A s i n C umbria, t hese a xes a ppear t o b e q uite e venly d istributed i n a reas a lso r epresented b y G roup V I f inds, a nd n o p articular c lusterings a re a pparent. C umbria N on-Group V I a xes

( Map 1 4,

F igs.32-33)

T he n umber o f a xes f ound i n C umbria w hich a re d efinitely n ot o f G roup V I r ock i s e xtremely s mall, o nly 1 9 ( 7.4%) o ut o f a t otal o f 2 56 a xes a nd r ough-outs r ecorded i n t he a rea. S ome o f t hese m ay n ot b e i mports

i nto t he a rea,

b ut m ay h ave c ome f rom l ocal s ources o ther t han

t he w ell k nown G roup V I t uffs; f or e xample t he a xes f rom S ilver T arn ( 365) a nd B rotherelkeld ( 206), d escribed a s o f v olcanic, f linty a sh, a nd f rom Ambleside ( 173), o f c oarse g rained b edded a sh " probably f rom t he B orrowdale v olcanic s eries" ( Hogg 1 959, f rom S cawfell P ike ( 354) m ay a lso b e o f

1 88). l ocal

T he l arge i mplement " rough a sh". T his

s pecimen s eems s omewhat u nwieldy t o h ave b een u sed a s a n a xe, a nd c ould h ave b een a s tone a rd p oint ( Rees 1 981, f ig.3). A s imilar t ype o f i mplement i s k nown f rom B elford, N orthumberland ( Figs.30 a nd 3 3).

( 267)

T he a xes f rom C rosby R avensworth ( 219), M awbray ( 310) a nd H olme a re a ll c losely a like i n s hape, b eing a lmost t rapezoidal i n p lan,

w ith a w ide b utt a nd s traight c utting e dge ( Fig.33). p ossible t o e xamine t he a xe f rom H olme ( North 1 949, t hose

f rom M awbray a nd C rosby R avensworth a re b oth o f

I t h as n ot b een 2 17, f ig.2) b ut m ottled

g reen-

g rey-white g ranite-like r ock. T here i s o ne e xample f rom K eswick ( 287) o f a n i mplement w orked a t t he c utting e dge o nly ( Fig.32). T his d oes n ot a ppear t o b e a r e-worked a xe, a s t he r ough b ody i s n ot f laked, b ut s eems t o b e a s uitably s haped p iece o f r ock o n w hich h as b een m ade a m ost b eautiful S eascale m ay b e o f

M an,

h aving

p olished c utting e dge. T he a xe f rom B ailey G round, c ompared w ith t hose o f " Ronaldsway" t ype f rom t he I sle t he

b utt

a rea l eft

6 3

r ough,

t o

f acilitate

h afting

( Fig.33). i t

A s G roup V I a xes h ave b een f ound o n M an ( Kinvig 1 950,

s eems

t hat

d uring t his p ossible. O nly

c ontact w as p eriod,

o ne

o f

e stablished b etween C umbria a nd

a nd a " Ronaldsway" o rigin f or t his

t hese

n on-Group V I a xes

h as

b een

f ig.5)

t he

i sland

s pecimen

i s

p etrologically

e xamined, t hat f rom L indale-in-Cartmel, w hich i s o f g reenstone ( Fig.32). A n o rigin i n C ornwall i s t hought m ost l ikely, a lthough t he s pecimen c annot b e i dentified w ith o ne o f t he k nown C ornish a xe g roups ( Lancaster M useum r ecords). T he d istribution o f n on-Group V I a xes i n C umbria i s w ell d ispersed ( Map 1 4),

a lthough ,

w ith t he e xception o f t wo a xes

f rom M awbray ,

a re a bsent f rom t he C umberland p lain a nd t he E den v alley. n umber o f a xes i n t his c ategory i s c omparatively s o s mall, s ignificance c an b e a ttached t o t heir d istribution. F lint a xes

( Catalogue 4 ,

T he T imber o f

f inds

H owever, t he t hat l ittle

M ap 1 8)

f lint a xes

f rom t he n orth o f E ngland i s s mall.

O nly

5 a re r ecorded i n C umbria a nd 2 7 i n t he n orth-east, c omprising 2 % a nd 1 3.5% r espectively o f a ll k nown a xes i n e ach a rea. T ypologically t he a xes m ay b e d escribed a s c ompletely g round, o r e dge-ground ( Manby 1 979, f ig.1) w ith a f ew r e-worked e xamples a nd o ne c ompletely f laked a xe. T he n umbers

o f e ach t ype a re a s

T ype

f ollows:

C umbria

* North-east

C ompletely g round E dge-ground

5 -

1 5 5

R e-worked

-

2

C ompletely f laked N ot k nown

-

1 4

T otal

5

D espite

t he

p roximity o f

f lint a nd f lint a rtifacts, o r

t he

" Duggleby' t ype a dzes

2 7

t he n orth-east

t o s ources o f

n o e xamples a re k nown o f ' Seamer

( Manby 1 974,

9 5ff,

f ig.40 ;

Y orkshire t ype

a xes

M anby 1 979, 6 9).

T he m ajority o f t he c ompletely g round f lint a xes c losely r esemble t ypical ' Cumbrian' a xe i n s hape a nd h ave p ronounced s ide f acets.

T wo e xceptions a re k nown ; a t hin a xe w ith s quared b utt f rom A cklington ( 6) a nd t he v ery f ine B urradon a xe ( 13) a pparently a r are t ype ( Evans 1 897, 1 03). T he A cklington s pecimen r esembles e dge-ground a xes i n s hape b ut i s c ompletely g round ( Fig.34). T he l arge B urradon a xe h as a s quare b utt a nd a lmost p arallel s ides f laring s lightly a t t he c utting e dge w ith a p ointed o val c ross-section O f

t he

e dge-ground a xes

( Fig.35).

t hose f rom B udle

( 12)

a nd

t he

C heviot

H ills ( 15) a re b oth l ong, s lender s pecimens w ith f ine f laking o n t he b ody a nd a t riangular p olished a rea a t t he c utting e dge ( Fig.34). T hat f rom H arbottle ( 17) ( Fig.34) i s w ider a nd i s m arginally e dge-ground. T wo s maller a xes f rom E ast T hirston M oor ( 16) a nd P resson H ill, W ark

6 4

( 25)

m ay b e r e-worked,

( 23)

w hich

a s a lso

t hose f rom H arwood

w ere o riginally g round.

( 18)

a nd

H ilf l eid

T he H ilf l eid f ragment

h as

b een

e xtensively r e-worked a s a s craper, a nd h as t he c haracteristic b lunting b lows a t o ne e nd o f t he t ool w here i t w as s hortened ( Weyman 1 977, f ig.1). T hese c an a lso b e s een o n t he a xes f rom E ast T hirston M oor a nd P resson H ill. T he f lint a xe f rom t he W ooler a rea ( 32) i s e ntirely f laked a nd w ell s haped, w ith t he e dges f inely w orked. f ragments o f p olished f lint a xes c ame f rom H owl J ohn,

T wo v ery s mall f ound w ith o ther

f lints

F ord,

( p.89)

a nd f rom b arrow C LXXXVIII a t B roomridge,

w ith o ther

o ccupation d ebris. A lthough p reliminary r esults

i ndicate s ome s uccess i n

i dentifying

f lint s ources b y g eochemical a nalysis ( Bush a nd S ieveking 1 979, 9 7) t his r esearch h as n ot y et b een e xtended o n a c ountry w ide b asis a nd t he s ource o f t he f lint a xes f ound i n t he n orth o f E ngland i s u nknown. I f f inished i mplements w ere e xchanged o r t raded r ather t han r aw m aterials, t he a bsence o f s pecifically Y orkshire t ypes o f a rtifact ( p.64) m ay s uggest a s ource f urther a field t o t he s outh. T he c hronological r ange o f f lint a xes i s c onsiderable a nd u ntil s pecific f lint s ources c an b e i dentified, i ndividual f inds c annot b e m ore c losely d ated. F rom t he r ecorded a ssociations o f s uch m aterial i n Y orkshire M anby h as s uggested t hat e dge-ground a xes a re o f L ate N eolithic d ate ( Manby 1 974, 9 3-8; M anby 1 979, 7 7). H owever, t he n umber o f e dge-ground a xes i n t he n orthe ast t ion

i s s o s mall t hat n o c omparison c an b e m ade b etween t his d istribua nd t hat o f c ompletely g round a xes, a s a ppears s ignificant i n

Y orkshire

( Manby 1 979,

f igs.9 a nd 1 0).

I n t he n orth-east t he d istribution o f f lint a xes r epeats t hat o f o ther a xe t ypes w ith t he m ajority o f f inds f rom t he n orth o f N orthumberland ( Map 1 8). B ut t he v ery f ew f lint a xes f rom C umbria o ccur i n a reas

s parsely r epresented b y o ther f inds,

a t t he s outh o f

t he

E den v alley, i n t he s outh-east n ear t he K ent e stuary a nd i n t he n orthe ast b etween t he r ivers E den a nd L yne. T he d ominance o f G roup V I a xes i n C umbria i s r eflected i n t he v ery s mall n umber o f f lint a xes r eaching t he n orth-west a nd a lso i n t he d istribution o f t hose a xes i n a reas p eripheral t o t he m ain G roup V I a xe c oncentrations. I n t he n orth-east, b y c ontrast, f lint i s j ust o ne o f t he m any a nd v aried r ock t ypes r epresented i n a n a rea w hich m ay h ave o btained J ade a xes

i ts

i mplements

( Catalogue 5 ,

f rom a d iversity o f

s ources.

F ig.36)

T he t erm j ade

i ncludes m aterial c onsisting

o f

t wo q uite d istinct m inerals, n ephrite a nd j adeite ( Smith W .C., 1 963, 1 33-4). H owever s ome i mplements h ave p roved o n c hemical a nalysis t o b e c omposed o f p yroxenes w hich a re n ot j adeite i n t he s trict m ineralogical s ense g eneric t erm ' jade

( Woolley e t a l 1 979, 9 0n). i s h ere r etained t o c over

T he a ll

t hese c ategories. I n C ampbell S mith's ( Smith W .C., 1 963; 1 965;

c atalogues o f j ade a xes i n t he B ritish I sles 1 972) e xamples f rom t he n orth o f E ngland h ave

b een c onspicuous b y t heir a bsence, a nd a c onsiderable g ap i n t he d istribution o f t hese a rtifacts m ay b e noted i n N orthumberland, D urham a nd C umbria, a nd a lso i n W ales, Y orkshire a nd L ancashire ( Coles e t a l

6 5

1 974,

f ig.2).

M ore

r ecently

h owever a n a xe

f rom K irkby L onsdale

p etrologically e xamined a nd i dentified a s o f j adeite a nd ( Jones e t a l 1 977, n o.99). T o t his m ay b e a dded t hree o ther

w as

f eldspar s pecimens

f rom P enrith B eacon, H artlepool a nd ? K endal, w hich h ave b een e xamined i n m useum c ollections a nd w hich, o n t he b asis o f m acroscopic e xaminat ion,

a re

t he a xe

t entatively

i dentified a s

i n K endal T own M useum i s

i n v iew o f t he l arge n umber o f c omprises m uch m aterial f rom L t. p ossible. T he a xe t he B ritish I sles. A ll

f our a xes

1 40-6)

r anging

" plump"

a xes

t he

n orth,

a l 1 977, c orrespond f ound

a re o f

i n

p redominate

i n

( Fig.36). a s

i t

T he

p rovenance o f

i s u ndocumented,

b ut

l ocal f inds i n t he c ollection ( which C ol. 0 .H. N orth) a l ocal p rovenance i s t ype w ith a uthenticated j ade

C ampbell S mith's

c olour

f rom p ale

t ype I I

g reen

t o

i n s outhern B ritain,

w ith a m ixed

p opulation o f

( Smith

a lmost a nd

t ypes

t he

a xes

f rom

W .C.,

1 963,

b lack.

T hese

t hinner t ypes

i n E ast A nglia

i n

( Bishop e t

f ig.3). T he a xes l isted h ere w ould t herefore s eem t o m ore w ith t ypes f ound i n s outhern B ritain t han w ith t hose

i n S cotland.

d istribution o f t hose

c onforms

j ade

d oubtful,

N one o f

a ll

f rom t he n orth o f P reliminary

o f

c omes

f rom a k nown c ontext.

a xes

i n B ritain a nd

i s

s hown i n F ig.37.

E ngland

r esults

t ion b etween a xe

t he a xes

k nown j ade

c hemical a nalyses

t ypology a nd

c omposition,

a nd t he " hachettes" o mphacite. c ategorise t he p lump a xes.

I reland,

s uggest a g ood

t he

t hin a xes

T here i s n ot y et A s ingle s ource o f

T he

i ncluding

c orrela-

b eing j adeite

e nough i nformation t o a ll j ade a xes s eems

u nlikely i n v iew o f t heir d ifferences i n c omposition a nd t ypology. T he d ark g reen p yroxene m ay h ave c ome f rom t he A lps, b ut t he o rigin o f t he l ight

g reen p ure j adeite h as

n ot

b een l ocated

( Woolley e t

a l

1 979,

9 4-

5 ). A vailable r ange

f or

t he

m illennium

b e,

S omerset

( Coles

d ating

e vidence

i mport

o f j ade

s uggests

a xes

w ith t he s ecurely d ated e t

a l

1 974),

i nto

a c onsiderable

i nto B ritain,

t he

f rom

a xe b eside

l atter h alf

o f

t he

c hronological t he

l ate

S weet T rack

4 th i n

t he 3 rd m illennium

b e ( Smith I .F., 1 979, f ig.1, 1 6-17). A s imilar d ate s pan i s a lso f ound f or j ade a xes i n E urope, b ut b eginning s omewhat e arlier i n t he 4 th m illennium b e ( Woolley e t a l 1 979, 9 0).

c ome

T he f our j ade a xes f rom t he n orth o f E ngland d o n ot, i n g eneral, f rom a reas w hich a re w ell r epresented b y o ther a xe f inds ( Map 3 0).

A f ew s tone

a xes

a re

b ut n ear K endal, s carce. T he u se f rom

r ecorded

n ear P enrith,

i ncluding o ne h oard

( p.58)

K irkby L onsdale a nd H artlepool s uch i mplements a re o f t hese o bjects i s u nknown. A lthough t hese e xamples w hich

b y

t heir f orm a ppear t o b e n on-utilitarian, t hey a re n evertheless e xtremely f ine c ondition a nd w ould n ot a ppear t o h ave b een u sed

t he n orth o f

i n a s

c utting

E ngland a re n ot

( Catalogue

l arge,

t hin t ype,

a xes

f rom

c ertain n umber o f o f

C atalogue

s tone a nd f lint a xes

( other t han h oards)

1 0)

I n c ommon w ith

t ype

t he

i mplements.

P ossible a ssociations o f

f lint

o f

c ontext.

t he

r est

o f

t he n orth o f a xes

a nd

t he

c ountry,

E ngland a re

f ragments

T hese m ay b e

t he m ajority o f c asual,

6 6

s tone a nd f inds.

h ave h owever b een r ecorded

c onsidered u nder

1 0):

s ingle

t hree

A

i n s ome

h eadings

( see

( 1)

a xes

a ssociated w ith m onuments a nd s ites

( 2)

a xes

f rom f unerary c ontexts

( 3)

a xes

f ound w ith o ther a rtifacts.

F ew o f t he " associations" w ith m onuments a nd s ites c an b e c ons idered o f s ignificance. I n m any c ases i t i s a pparent t hat a n earby f eature

i n

t he l andscape w as m entioned,

a s a m eans

o f

m ore

c losely

i dentifying t he l ocality o f t he f ind, f or e xample, " near t he s tone c ircle" a t C astlerigg a nd L ittle S alkeld, o r " near a ncient e nclosures" o r e arthworks, a t A lnwick , U rswick o r P ennington. S imilarly t he " site o f a ncient d wellings" a t H altcliff m ay n ot r efer t o a ny p rehistoric f eature, b ut t o s ome l andmark , w ell k nown l ocally. O ther f eatures s uch a s t umuli, s tone h eaps o r d ouble s tone c ircles m ay b e b arrows o r f ield c learance c airns w ere c ollected. A xes

i n w hich a xes h ave b ecome i ncorporated w hen t he s tones

f ound a t M ossgarth,

P ortinscale m ay h ave b een a ssociated w ith

s ome s ort o f w ooden p latform o r s tructure ( p.58), a nd t he " very a ncient r oad u nder 21 2 f / t o f p eat" a t H olmrook c ould h ave b een a w ooden t rackw ay, o thers o f w hich h ave b een f ound e lsewhere i n C umbria, f or e xample a t A mbleside, F oulshaw M oss, S andwick a nd S takes M oss. T he " unfinished s tone a xe" u nearthed j ust u nder t he t urf a t t he e ntrance t o t he M ayburgh h enge i s u nfortunately n ow l ost, a nd i ts t ype c annot b e i dentified.

A f ragment

o f

a G roup V I a xe r ecovered a t G reycrofts

s tone

c ircle, S eascale, w as n ot f ound i n o ne o f t he e xcavated f eatures, b ut " near s tone 4 ". I n v iew o f t he f act t hat t he s tones o f t he c ircle w ere d eliberately c onsiderable

b uried e arly d isturbance o f

i n t he 1 9th c entury, p resumably c ausing t he a rea, t he a xe c annot b e r egarded a s

p ositively a ssociated w ith t he o riginal c onstruction o f

t he m onument.

A t K ennel H all K nowe a s tone a xe w as f ound o n t he c lay s urface d uring t he e xcavation o f a " native" s ettlement e nclosure. B eaker s herds, a l eaf a rrowhead a nd f lint a nd c hert w aste w ere a lso f ound, r epresenting a v ariety o f p re-enclosure u se o f t he s ite. F ragments o f m ounds h ave b een

a xes f ound w ith o ccupation m aterial u nder b urial r ecorded a t t hree s ites. A t B roomhill, F ord

C LXXXVIII, c alcined b ones a nd c harcoal w ere i ntermingled w ith t he d omestic d ebris, b ut a t W arden L aw a nd C rosby G arrett C LXXIV, i ndividual i nhumations w ere i dentified, a bove t he o ccupation m aterial o n t he o ld g round s urface. S imilar a ssociations a re r ecorded i n Y orkshire Y orkshire, E ngland

( Manby 1 979, A ppendix A ) a nd o ther a reas, b ut u nlike n o a xes h ave b een f ound a s g rave g oods i n t he n orth o f

( ibid,

O ther o r

g rinding

A ppendix B ).

a rtifacts w ith w hich a xes h ave b een f ound c omprise s tones,

s uggesting a xe f inishing a nd

v ariety o f f lint t ypes f rom f lint s catters f inds w ere a rchaeologically e xcavated, a nd r emain u ncertain.

6 7

p olishing,

r ubbing a nd

a

( p.86-89). N one o f t hese s o t heir e xact a ssociations

A xe c hronology T he c hronology o f p etrologically i dentified a xe g roups h as b een p rogressively r eviewed i n t he l ight o f n ew i dentifications a nd r adioc arbon d ates ( esp. P iggott 1 962; E vens e t a l 1 972, 2 48-57), a ll o f w hich w ere m ost r ecently s ummarised b y D r. S mith ( 1979). T he n ature o f m uch o f t he d ating " evidence" i s, a s D r. S mith h as r ightly p ointed o ut, i mprecise ( Smith I .F. 1 979, 1 3). T he e arliest k nowledge o f t he s ources o f g rouped m aterials a nd t he m anufacture o f p olished s tone a xes i s a t p resent u ncertain ( ibid, 1 3). T he u se o f f ine-grained r ock t o p roduce m icrolithic t ools, i s k nown a t s ites o n t he C umbrian c oast u sing t uff o f t he B orrowdale s eries ( p.44) a nd a lso a t T rwyn D u, A berffraw, A nglesey w here f lakes o f G roups V III a nd X XI r ock h ave b een i dentified ( Ireland a nd L ynch 1 973, 1 70-5). E lsewhere i n W ales p ecked a xes h ave b een f ound i n u nequivocal M esolithic c ontexts ( Whittle 1 977, 1 03) a nd p olished a xes h ave f ound a t u nequivocal M esolithic s ites i n I reland ( Woodman 1 978,

b een 1 08-

1 14). A lthough w ide s cale p re-Neolithic u se o f p olished s tone a xes i s n ot n ecessarily s uggested b y t his e vidence, i t i s o f i nterest t hat a w orking k nowledge o f t hese r ock t ypes d uring t he M esolithic p eriod i s e videnced i n p recisely t hose a reas w here g reater e xploitation o f t hese r ocks w as p ractised a t a l ater d ate. W ithin

t he

n orth

o f

E ngland r adiocarbon

d ates

f or

G roup

V I

m aterial c ome f rom E henside T arn a nd T hunacarr K nott. N one o f t he E henside d eterminations c an b e d irectly r elated t o t he a rchaeological m aterial f rom t he s ite ( p.96) a nd u nfortunately t he s urviving a xe h aft h as n ot b een d ated. T wo c harcoal s amples f rom a c h eing f loor a t T hunacarr K nott ( BM-281, 2 730 - 1 35 b c; B M-676, 2 524 — 52 b c) s uggest t he u se o f a L angdale a xe ' factory s ite i n t he m id 3 rd m illennium b c ( Clough 1 973,

2 7,

3 0).

A f lake o f L angdale t uff a nd a r e-worked f ragment, p robably o f a n a xe o f s imilar m aterial, w ere r ecovered f rom s ubmerged p eat d eposits o n t he f oreshore a t H artlepool B ay ( Tooley 1 978b, 7 3). N either w as i n d irect a ssociation w ith d ated m aterial, a lthough t he p ollen s pectra f rom a bout

t he l evel o f

t he f lake c orrespond w ith t hose f rom t he

l evel

o f t he N eolithic i nhumation ( p.100) d ated t o 2 730 j : 6 0 b c ( Hv.5220). A n e arlier e lm d ecline h orizon a ssociation i s, h owever, p ossible, w ith a d ate i n t he

l ater 4 th m illennium ( p.18)

( ibid,

7 3-4).

U nequivocal 4 th m illennium d ates o r G roup V I a xes a re,

a t p resent,

l acking, b ut i n v iew o f t he e vidence f or e arly p re-elm d ecline a gricultural a ctivity i n C umbria ( pp.16-18) a nd t he p ossible e arly d ates f rom G roup V I a xes i n o ther p arts o f B ritain ( Smith I .F.1979, 1 8) i t s eems l ikely t hat t his r ock s ource w as e xploited f rom t he l ast q uarter o f t he 4 th m illennium b c, c ontemporary w ith t he u se o f s ome C ornish s ources, a nd p ossibly a lso w ith G roup V II, G raig L wyd i n W ales ( ibid,

f ig.1).

T he

l atest

a ssociations o f G roup V I a xes w ould a ppear t o b e

w ith

B eakers, a s a t C hew P ark, S omerset ( Evens e t a l 1 972, 2 53) a nd a s s urface f inds w ith B eaker a nd f ood v essel p ottery t ypes i n t he p arishes o f H ockwold-cum-Wilton a nd F eltwell i n N orfolk ( Clough a nd G reen 1 972, 1 37-40). ( p.85)

A f ew p erforated o f

i mplements a nd b arbed a nd t anged a rrowheads

G roup V I a lso s uggest s ome u se o f t he

6 8

r ock s ource i nto

t he

2 nd m illennium b e, b ut t he m ajority o f a xes p robably d ate t o t he 3 rd m illennium b e. T he l atest d ated a ssociation i s t hat r ecorded f rom L lansilin, D enbighs., i n a c airn a t T y-newydd F arm, w ith a b ronze s ocketed a xe

( Welsh p etrology r ecords).

O ther s uch s urvivals,

o r r e-

u se o f o bjects f or o ther t han u tilitarian p urposes a re r ecorded w here ( Smith I .F. 1 979, 1 3). A ssociations k nown a t

o f

G roup V I m aterial w ith o ther g rouped

t he h enge s ite a t C airnpapple,

W est L othian,

e lse-

r ocks

a re

w ith G roup

V II

( Piggott 1 962, 2 34) a t B ryn L lwyn, " King C harles B owling G reen", F lintshire, w ith G roups V II a nd X XI ( Glenn 1 914; W elsh p etrology r ecords) a t D yserth C astle, a lso w ith p robable G roup X XI a xes ( Glenn 1 915; W elsh p etrology r ecords), a t N orth D eighton, Y orkshire w ith G roup V II ( Manby 1 979, A ppendix A ) ( Cummins a nd M oore 1 973, 2 29).

a nd a t

S axby,

L incs.

w ith

I f G roup V I r ock w as e xploited i n t he 4 th m illennium b e, p roducts o f t his a xe ' factory' m ay h ave b een c urrent f or a s

G roup

X X

t hen t he l ong a s

1 500 ( radiocarbon) y ears. I t s eems l ikely t hat t he a pparent d ominance o f p arts o f t he c ountry b y G roup V I a xes ( p.74) i s, i n p art, a f unction o f t he c onsiderable d uration o f u se o f t his r ock s ource. V ery l ittle e vidence i s a vailable f or e stablishing t he c urrency o f a xes o f G roups X V a nd X VIII. T he n umber o f p etrologically i dentified a xes o f e ach g roup i s c omparatively s mall, o nly a bout 4 0 o f G roup X VIII a nd f ewer o f G roup X V ( Smith I .F. 1 979, 1 9-20). A s urface f ind o f a G roup X VIII a xe a t W indmill H ill p rovides t he o nly " datable" c ontext f or s uch m aterial, p erhaps c 2 000 b e, i f t he a xe h ad b een d erived f rom t he u pper f ill o f t he d itches ( ibid, 2 0). P erforated i mplements o f G roups X V a nd X VIII a ppear t o h ave b een c urrent t hroughout t he 2 nd m illennium

b e

( pp.70-72)

( ibid,

f ig.1),

a lthough i t i s p ossible t hat

t hese s ources w ere s poradically u sed f or t he m anufacture o f a xes t o t his.

k nown

p rior

G roup X I w ould a ppear t o b e a r arely u sed L angdale s ource, o nly f rom t he ' factory' s ite i tself a nd f rom W indmill H ill, w here a

f lake o f aG roup X I a xe f rom a l ow l evel i n t he d itches m ay b e d ated t o t he m id-3rd m illennium b e, f rom c harcoal i n c orresponding l ayers ( BM7 4, 2 580 2 : - 1 50 b e) ( Evens e t a l 1 972, 2 51). I t r emains t o b e d etermined w hether t he s carcity o f G roup X I p roducts i s r elated t o a l imited o ccurrence o f t he r ock t ype i n t he L angdale a rea. A b utt f ragment o f a r ough-out f rom P ike o f S tickle, i dentified a s G roup X I, c ame

f rom t he s outh s cree

( Bunch a nd F ell 1 949,

1 1-13).

L ATER S TONE I NDUSTRIES A lthough t he m ajor e xpansion i n t he e xploitation o f r ock s ources f or a xe p roduction i s, b y d efinition, e ssentially a N eolithic t rait, t he m anufacture o f b oth u tilitarian a nd p ossibly n on-utilitarian p erforated s tone i mplements c ontinued i nto t he p eriod d uring w hich s imple m etal o bjects w ere a lready a vailable i n t he B ritish I sles. T he m ajor g roups

o f

p erforated i mplements

6 9

f or w hich a ssociations a re

k nown

a nd f or w hich s ome c hronological r ange b attle a xes a nd, t o a l esser d egree, f ound

i n t he n orth o f

a re m ore h ere.

E ngland.

p roblematic a nd

c an b e d educed a re m ace h eads, a xe h ammers, a ll o f w hich a re

S tone a dzes

c an b e

l ess

a nd

p ebble h ammers

p recisely d ated a re n ot

w hich

i ncluded

I t h as n ot b een c onsidered p ossible t o i dentify a ny p articular s ource o f p erforated s tone i mplements b y m acroscopic e xamination a nd g rouped

s ources

a re o nly

i ndicated

i mplements w hen t he a rtifact M ace-heads

e ast,

( Catalogue

t hroughout

t he

r egion,

C umberland

f ound

i n

n either

c atalogues

o f

p erforated

M ap 2 7)

o f

' ovoid

o f

t hese

B ritain,

i s

h as

h as

y et

s uggests

f lint,

T hrelkeld

w hite,

f rom t he

C oquet

a nd

c lusterings

i n t he a rea, n orth

b een

( Roe

a s

1 968,

c ome

o f

f inds.

T he

1 979).

T he

i t d oes

( Fig.27.9).

i n t he r est

N one

O ne

o f

t hat

h as

f rom W ol t Angham i s

t he a ppearance b lack a nd

M acroscopic

( Fig.67.4-5)

a re b oth a

p erhaps a g ranite,

f rom Twizell

( Fig.67.7)

a nd t he m ace-head f rom L ongtown i s p ossibly o f i n a n e xample f rom W inchester ( Roe 1 968, 1 63).

o f

T he m acey ellow-brown

t he r ock d ense,

a nd C ambo

o f

' pestle'

t he m ace-heads

e xamined.

t hat a v ariety o f m aterials w ere u sed. ( Fig.67.3)

w ere

H owever,

( 1968;

f ig.34).

p etrologically

f rom t he

n orth-east

W ansbeck.

b een d iscussed b y R oe

i n t he

f rom K irkwhelpington

f rom

t he C umbrian e xamples

r ivers

k nown f rom W olsingham

r egion

i nspection

o f

f our m ace-heads

p redominates

p articularly

m ace-head

p olished

f our

c onstitute s ignificant

m ace-heads

m ace-head

t he

b ut

p lain a nd

t he a rea b etween t he

t ypology

h ead

i n t he

b een p etrologically e xamined.

E ight m ace-heads a re r ecorded f rom C umbria a nd s ix f rom t he n ortha ll o f w hich a re l oose f inds. T hese a re w idely d istributed

n orth

i n

1 9,

h as

m ottled

t hose

b lack

i s a m icaceous

a nd r ock,

p ottery, a s a lso k nown A s imilar d iversity o f

r aw m aterials u sed f or m ace-heads i s f ound e lsewhere i n t he c ountry, i ndeed R oe h as n oted t hat a n a spect o f t he p etrology o f m ace-heads t hat

i s

g rouped t o h ave o f

i mmediately

s triking

i s

t hat

v ery f ew o f

t hem

a re

m ade

o f

r ocks o f k nown p rovenance' ( Roe 1 969, 3 74). M any r ocks a ppear b een u sed b ecause t hey w ere v isually a ttractive. T he p etrology

t hose m ace-heads m ade

o f

g rouped m aterial i s

s omewhat

d ifferent

f rom

t hat o f b attle-axes a nd a xe-hammers, a nd t he m ain g rouped m aterial u sed w as G roup I , C ornish g reenstone. A f ew m ace-heads a re made o f G roup V I a nd G roup X VIII s tone, t he s ources o f w hich a re i n t he n orth o f E ngland, b ut n one h ave y et b een i dentified a s s outhern L ake D istrict ( Roe 1 979, 3 0, 4 6). D atable a ssociations a rea o f s tudy. T hese a re,

o f G roup X V,

f rom

t he

f or m ace-heads m ust b e s ought o utside t he i n g eneral, f ew a nd c ome f rom b oth o ccupa-

t ion s ites a nd f unerary c ontexts ( Roe 1 968, 1 53-5). A lthough R oe s uggests t hat t he p ottery m ost f requently a ssociated w ith m ace-heads i s G rooved W are ( ibid, 1 55), a n e xclusive a ssociation, F engate

w are,

a t L ower K napp

G arrowby W old C 69, a nd w ith a v ariety

F arm,

G los.,

f ood v essels

b y n o m eans f ound w ith a nd u rns

M ace-heads

w ith

A

f ragment

a re

n ot

h owever f ound

i n f unerary

o f a c ushion m ace-head w as

f rom

t he

f irst

t o

t he

t hird

7 0

q uarter o f

c ontexts

r ecovered

n ear t he t op o f a m idden a t S kara B rae f or w hich d ates o f 2 070 ( Birm-434) a nd 1 881 1 10 b c ( Birm-433) h ave b een o btained. r ange

a t

w ith a Y orkshire v ase f ood v essel a t D oune, P erths., o f L ate N eolithic w ares, i ncluding B eaker s herds, a t

W indmill H ill. B eakers.

i t s hould b e n oted t hat t his i s a nd m ace-heads h ave a lso b een

2 1

f rom

1 10 b c A d ate

t he 2 nd m illennium b c

i s

s uggested

f or t he c urrency o f m ace-heads

1 5-16). N o s ubdivision o f t his t ype c an b e s uggest d a t p resent. B attle-axes I n

t he

( Catalogue 2 0, n orth

i n B ritain ( Smith I .F.

p eriod o f u se a ccording t o

1 979,

m ace-head

M ap 2 7)

o f E ngland s even b attle-axes h ave

C umbria a nd e leven i n t he n orth-east,

b een

f ound

i n

a ll o f w hich a re i solated f inds,

w ith o ne e xception, a b eautifully m ade o chre c oloured b attle-axe f rom S eghill ( Fig.67.1), w hich w as f ound i n a c ist. T hese b attle-axes a re w idely d istributed i n t he r egion w ith n o s ignificant c lusterings o f f inds, a lthough t hree e xamples h ave b een f ound i n t he W ear v alley. T he t ypology o f b attle-axes, i nitially d iscussed b y R oe i n f ive ( 1966) h as n ow b een m odified i nto a s impler s cheme o f E arly, m ediate

a nd D eveloped

e xamples

f rom t he n orth o f E ngland f all w ithin t he ' Early

t ypes

( Roe 1 979,

2 3,

f igs.1 a nd 2 ).

s tages I nterA ll

t he

p art o f

t his

s cheme ( Fig.68), w ith t he e xception o f t he m ore e laborate b attle-axes f rom B arras B ridge, N ewcastle a nd f rom S eghill ( Fig.61.1-2). T wo b attle-axes f rom t he a rea h ave b een p etrologically e xamined, f rom H eathery B urn ( SW 9 81: D URH 1 ) a nd P lumpton W all ( SW 1 045: C umb 1 2), a nd b oth a re o f G roup X VIII ( the W hin S ill). A s a lso n oted w ith m ace-heads, i t i s n ecessary t o l ook o utside t he a rea o f s tudy f or d atable a ssociations w ith b attle-axes, w hich o ccur p articularly i n f unerary c ontexts. T hese a ssociations i nclude a c ons iderable r ange o f E arly B ronze A ge g rave g oods, a nd B eakers, f ood v essels a nd u rns ( Roe 1 966, T able I V). R oe's t ypological s tages s hould n ot b e c onsidered a s a r egular c hronological s equence, a s a llowance m ust b e m ade f or c onsiderable o verlap b etween t he s tages. T he o verall s equence h as n ot h owever b een q uestioned ( Smith I .F. 1 979, 1 6). R adioc arbon d eterminations r elevant t o b attle-axe c hronology i nclude a d ate o f 1 564 ± 1 20 b c ( BM-441) f or a S tage I b attle-axe i n t he a sh f ill o f o ne o f t he w alls o f H ouse 1 , N ess o f G ruting, S hetland a nd o f 1 239 2 46 b c ( BM-682) f or a g rave g roup a t H ove w ith a S tage V b attle-axe a nd a C amerton-Snowshill d agger ( ibid,15-16). O ther d ates, f or C larke's S outhern B ritish B eakers w ith w hich b attle-axes a re a ssociated i n b urials ( ibid, 1 5) s hould b e t reated w ith c aution i n v iew o f r ecent e vidence t hat s ome B eaker t ypes h ad a l ong c urrency a nd a re n ot r estricted s olely t o t he r anges o f d ates s uggested b y C larke o r L anting a nd v an d er W aals ( pp.127-8). A t ime s pan o f s ome f our r adiocarbon c enturies, f rom c 1 700 - 1 300 b c i s s uggested f or b attle-axes ( ibid, 1 6), a lthough s ome r adiocarbon d eterminations f or p ottery t ypes w ith w hich b attle-axes a re f ound i n a ssociation e xtend t his p eriod t owards t he e nd o f t he 2 nd m illennium b e ( pp.127-9), a s d oes a lso a r adiocarbon d etermination f rom G withian, T he n umber o f

w hich m ay b e

b attle-axes

r elevant

f ound i n B ritain i s

( p.73). c onsiderably

l arger

a nd t heir d istribution m uch w ider t han t hat o f m ace-heads ( Roe 1 979, f ig.4). A c oncentration o f f inds i n E ast Y orkshire m ay r eflect t he l arge n umber o f b urials e xcavated i n t he a rea, a s b attle-axes o ften o ccur a s g rave g oods. O f t he p etrological g roups u sed f or b attle-axes t he m ost c ommon a re G roup X II, a s ource o n t he S hropshire - M ontgomerys hire b order a nd G roup X VIII, t he W hin S ill ( ibid, f ig.3, 4 1-2). G roup X VIII p roducts a re p articularly w ell r epresented i n t he e astern p art o f t he c ountry, b ut a re k nown a s f ar w est a s A nglesey. G roup X V w ould a ppear t o h ave b een l ittle u sed f or t his t ype o f a rtifact. I t i s n otable

t hat

a lthough t wo s ources o f

7 1

r aw m aterials u sed f or b attle-axes

o ccur i n t he n orth o f a rea i s q uite s mallb A xe-hammers

E ngland

( Catalogue 2 1,

t he n umber o f

s uch a rtifacts k nown i n t he

M ap 2 8)

T he m ost c ommonly o ccurring h eavy p erforated s tone i mplement i n B ritain i s t he a xe-hammer, o f w hich 4 5 a re r ecorded i n t he n orth-east a nd 1 35 i n C umbria. D ifferentiated f rom t he b attle-axe o n t he b asis o f s ize,

w eight a nd

f inish

( Roe

1 966,

1 99-203),

t he

p erforated

s tone a xe-

h ammer i s g enerally a s omewhat c rude a nd w eighty o bject, t he p recise f unction o f w hich i s u ncertain. T races o f w ear o n e ither s ide o f t he b lade, n orth

a nd s igns o f b attering a t t he b utt e nd o n m any e xamples f rom t he o f E ngland m ight h owever s uggest a c ombined f unction a s m allet

a nd w edge. o f

A xe-hammers

C umbria,

v alley,

i n

t he

a re

g eneral

C umberland

w idely d istributed

b elow t he 6 00ft p lain

a nd

( Map 2 8)

( 183m)

i n t he l owlands

c ontour,

i n p articular

i n t he

i n F urness

a nd

E den t he

s outh-east, w ith a f ew e xamples a lso i n t he v alleys o f t he c entral C umbrian m ountains. I n t he n orth-east, w here t he n umber o f a xe-hammers i s m uch s maller, t heir d istribution i s m ore d ispersed, w ith o nly o ne c lustering o f m aterial i n t he v alleys o f t he T yne a nd t he N orth T yne. A s

i n C umbria,

a lmost

a ll

f inds

c ome

f rom b elow 6 00ft

( 183m).

A s imple t ypological d ivision o f a xe-hammers h as b een n amely C lass I , c onvex i n p rofile ( Figs.69-73) a nd C lass I I, p rofile ( Fig.74) ( Roe 1 969; 1 979, 2 9-30). f rom t he n orth o f E ngland a re o f C lass I , c lass

t hroughout

t here

w ould a ppear

a nd

p etrology,

t he t o

c ountry. b e

s ome

s uggested, c oncave i n

T he m ajority o f a xe-hammers w hich i s t he m ore c ommon

U nlike o ther

p erforated

i mplements,

c orrelation b etween a xe-hammer

t he m ajority o f G roup X II a nd X IV a xe-hammers

t ypology b eing o f

C lass I I a nd G roup X VIII o f C lass I . G roup X V e xamples a re o f b oth c lasses. S ix a xe-hammers f rom C umbria w hich h ave b een p etrologically e xamined a re

t hat

a ll

o f G roup X V

( Figs.71.1,

7 2.1,

7 2.4).

A xe-hammer c hronology i s m uch m ore d ifficult t o e stablish t han o f m ace-heads a nd b attle-axes, a s a xe-hammers a re m ost r egularly

f ound a s i solated f inds a nd a ny r ecorded c ontexts a re p oorly d ocumented. S ix p ossible c ontexts h ave b een n orth o f

E ngland

S hackleton

a s

b oth v ague r ecorded i n

a nd t he

f ollows:

C amp

-

f ound w ithin t riple d itched

a nd

r amparted

e nclosure B urradon

( Fig.74.3)

-

f ound c lose

W hickham

( Fig.73.1)

-

s aid

S t.

C uthbert

W ithout

t o

t o a c ist

h ave

b een f ound w ith a b urial

f rom a ' tumulus'

E ndmoor

-

R ampside

- f ound a mongst a h eap g rave.

S imilar a nd e qually a nd e nclosures h ave t hroughout

B ritain

t ory'

1 979,

( Roe

o n a f ield

c learance

h eap o f

b ones

i n d igging a

l oose ' associations w ith c airns, c ists, b urials b een d ocumented b y R oe, i n h er s tudy o f a xe-hammers ( 1969)

3 0).

a nd

T wo

a ll a re,

w ithout

l inks w ith o ther

7 2

e xception,

p erforated

' unsatisfac-

i mplements

h ave

b een

s uggested

m anufacture. b attle-axes h ammers

t o

h elp d efine t he c hronological s pan

o f

a xe-hammer

T he , first i s t he t ypological s imilarity b etween E arly a nd b asic a xe-hammer f orms, w hich m ay s uggest t hat a xew ere

p re-

d ominant ( Roe 1 969, 2 41-2). T he s econd i s t he p etrological b etween g rouped m aterials u sed f or a xe-hammers, w hich w ere a lso

w ere

p robably

f irst m ade w hen E arly

l ink u sed

f or b attle-axes a nd m ace-heads

( and,

b attle-axes

i n s ome c ases,

a lso f or N eolithic

s tone a xes). F our p etrological g roups ( I, X II, X VIII a nd X XIII) l ink a ll t hree t ypes o f p erforated i mplement a nd s even g roups l ink b attlea xes a nd a xe-hammers ( I, X II, X III, X IV, X V X VIII a nd X XIII), o f w hich t wo, G roups X II a nd X VIII a re p articularly c ommon. A s n oted p reviously, t he c hoice o f r aw m aterials f or m ace-heads i s m ore e clectic a nd i s n ot s o f requently o f g rouped r ocks. F or w ant o f b etter e vidence

t hese p etrological

l inks h ave b een i nterpreted a s a n

i ndica-

t ion t hat a xe-hammers w ere p roduced c oncurrently w ith b attle-axes, f rom c 1 250 b e ( Smith I .F. 1 979, 1 6). S uch a n i nterpretation i s h owever a s omewhat o ptimistic o ne. U sing t he u sual a rchaeological c riteria o f d atable a ssociations a nd c ontexts, t here i s n o d ating e vidence f or t he u se o f a xe-hammers i n B ritain. A n a rgument f or t he c ontemporaneity o f E arly b attle-axes a nd a xe-hammers b ased u pon t ypological c onsiderations s eems u nsound. A xe-hammers s how n o d evelopmental s equence o f m orphological c hange a nd t he t ypological v ariations b etween C lasses I a nd I I a nd t heir s ub-divisions a re c omparatively m inimal. T he s hape o f t he a xe-hammer i s r elated t o i ts f unction a nd i s n ot t he c opying t he s hape o f a nother a rtifact t o w hich i t i s n ot

r esult o f a pparently

f unctionally r elated. I t w ould b e a s c onvincing t o a rgue t hat E arly b attle-axes a re d erived f rom a xe-hammer f orms, a s v ice v ersa, b ut n either i s a r easonable c hronological c hronological s pan o f a xe-hammers r emains

' argument. T he t herefore a n o pen

p ossible q uestion.

A l ong c urrency o f u se i s j ust a s p lausible a s t he s horter s pan s uggested b y S mith. O ne r adiocarbon d etermination s uggests t he u se o f a t l east o ne s ource o f g rouped r ocks t owards t he e nd o f t he 2 nd m illennium b e. A d ate o f 1 120 ± 1 03 b e ( NPL-21) w as o btained a t G withian, C ornwall f rom l ayer 5 , a t t he b ottom o f w hich w as f ound a f ragment o f G roup X II r ock, a b attle-axe o r a xe-hammer, b een i dentified

f rom t his

w hich m ight b e p resumed t o b e a f ragment o f a s o nly t hese t wo t ypes o f i mplement h ave

s ource

( Mrs.

R oe,

p ers.

c omm.).

• T he f requency o f o ccurrence o f a xe-hammers i n C umbria i s p art o f a p articularly w estern e mphasis i n t he d istribution o f t his a rtifact i n B ritain, w ith c oncentrations S cotland ( Roe 1 979, f ig.5). m ost

o f f inds a lso i n L ancashire a nd s outh-west • The d istribution o f t he p roducts o f t he

c ommonly o ccurring r ock s ources,

G roups X II,

X V a nd X VIII

f orm

r egional g roupings: G roup X VIII p rimarily i n t he e ast o f E ngland ( Map 7 9), G roup X V i n t he w est ( Map 7 8) a nd G roup X II i n W ales a nd t he W elsh b orders ( ibid, f ig.6). T he w eight o f t hese o bjects m ay h ave r estricted t heir d istribution. e ast c oast o f E ngland, F irth a nd

t he

T ransport b y w ater m ight b e s uggested a long t he a nd i n t he w est a round M orecambe B ay, t he S olway

s outh-west c oast o f

S cotland.

7 3

T HE " AXE T RADE" A ND T HE D ISTRIBUTION O F S TONE I MPLEMENTS F ROM T HE N ORTH O F E NGLAND T HROUGHOYT B RITAIN T he i dentification o f s pecific a xe ' factories o r l ocalised s ources o f s tone f rom w hich N eolithic a nd E arly B ronze A ge t ools w ere m ade, c ombined w ith t he p etrological i dentification o f l arge q uantities o f s tone i mplements, a llows a c onsideration o f t he m echanisms b y w hich s uch i tems w ere d istributed t hroughout B ritain, c ommonly r eferred t o a s t he " axe t rade". O f t he f our s ources o f s tone i dentified i n t he n orth o f E ngland

' factory' s ites

e xact l ocation

o f

h ave b een f ound f or G roups V I a nd X I b ut

t he w orking s ites

f or G roups X V a nd X VIII

a re

t he n ot

k nown. T he d istribution o f a ll g rouped a xes i s i ncomplete a s p etrological a nalysis h as n ot y et b een u ndertaken f or t he w hole o f t he c ountry, b ut c ertain p atterns w hich h ave a lready e merged s how t he p opularity o f p articular t ypes o f a xe a t a c onsiderable d istance f rom t heir s ource. I t i s t hought u nlikely t hat t hese d istributions r elate t o t he m anufacture o f s tone t ools f rom g lacial e rratics ( Cummins 1 979, 9 -10) b ut a re t he r esult o f a c omplex p attern o f e xchange d uring t he N eolithic a nd E arly B ronze A ge p eriods. G roup V I

( Map 7 7)

T he d istribution o f t he b est a vailable

s tone

t ools

f rom t he G roup V I ' axe f actory' i s

d ocumented o f a ll g rouped m aterials a s i nformation i s f or t he d istribution o f G roup V I a xes i n S cotland, a s w ell a s

E ngland a nd W ales ( Frame 1 978). T his d istribution ( Map 7 7) m ust r ead i n d ifferent w ays f or v arious p arts o f t he c ountry, a s i t

b e i s

c ompiled f rom t he r esults o f b oth m acroscOpic i nspection a nd p etrol ogical a nalysis, w hile s ome a reas h ave n ot b een i nvestigated a t a ll: S cotland

A lmost

C umbria N orthumberland

l iterature a nd i n m useum c ollections; b ut t he i dentification o f t he a xes i s m ainly b ased o n

c omplete

d istribution k nown f rom

t he

D urham

m acroscopic e xamination

W ales L incolnshire E ast A nglia D erbyshire L eicestershire

P etrological i dentification o f 6 0-75% o f a ll r ecorded a xes. p robably r epresentative o f

N ottinghamshire R utland

a s ample o f c D istributions

t he t otal

S outh-west E ngland L ancashire

P etrological i dentifications.

T otal n umber o f

Y orkshire

r ecorded

u nknown.

a xes

i n

L ancashire

Y ork-

s hire c 4 0% s ample o f a ll r ecorded a xes N ot y et i nvestigated. A f ew a xes w hich h ave b een i dentified i n o ther p etrological r eports

O ther a reas

a re m apped

T he b oundaries o f g eographical B ritain f rom c oncentration

e ach a rea a re i ndicated o n t he d istribution m ap.

s pread

o f

G roup V I p roducts e xtends

o ver t he

w hole

T he o f

t he n orth o f S cotland t o C ornwall, w ith a p articular o f a xes i n t he e astern h alf o f E ngland i n Y orkshire a nd

7 4

L incolnshire, w here o ver 6 0% o f a ll g rouped a xes i dentified t o d ate h ave p roved t o b e o f L angdale o rigin ( Cummins 1 979, f ig.8). P erforated i mplements o f G roup V I a re r are, b ut t hree m ace-heads h ave b een i dentified f rom t he T hames v a ley a nd s outh L incolnshire ( Roe 1 9 79 , 4 b, f ig.11). T he d istribution o f G roup V I p roducts a s a m easure o f t heir d istance f rom s ource h as b een c owpiled f or t he S cottish m aterial b y M iss F rame a nd i s e xpanded h ere u sing t he a vailable e vidence f or t he w hole o f B ritain ( Table 7 , M ap 7 7). I n S cotland, t he n orth o f E ngland, Y orkshire a nd t he I sle o f M an t he a pproximate n umber o f G roup V I a xes i s k nown f rom p ublished w orks a nd s urveys o f m useum c ollections ( Frame 1 978; K invig 1 950; M anby 1 979, 7 2, T able I I). I n t he r est o f E ngland a nd W ales a n e stimate h as b een m ade o f t he p robable t otal n umber o f G roup V I a xes i n a reas f or w hich p etrological r eports ( published a nd u npublished) a re a vailable. T hese c an b e e stimated f rom t he n umber a nd p ercentage o f G roup V I p roducts a nd o f a ll r ecorded a xes ( Table 7 ). T wo m easures o f d istance h ave b een u sed: c oncentric c irles w ith a r adius o f 4 0 m iles ( which e ncloses a ll o f t he C umbrian s ource a rea) a nd t he O rdnance S urvey 1 00km g rid s quares w hich p rovide u nits e quidistant t o t he n orth a nd s outh o f t he a xe f actory. B oth m easures a re s omewhat c rude, b ut s how t he s ame g eneral p attern ( Figs.38 a nd 3 9). I n E ngland t he

m ost p rominent f eature o f

t he d istribution i s

t he l arge n umber

o f

a xes f ound i n Y orkshire. U sing t he g rid s quare m easure o f d istance a xes f all a way e venly w ith i ncresing d istance f rom t his Y orkshire p eak ( Fig.39). B ut i n F ig.38, b ased u pon t he c oncentric c ircle m easure o f d istance a n i rregularity i n f all-off o ccurs w here o nly a s mall n umber o f a xes a re r ecorded b etween 1 60 t o 2 00 m iles f rom G reat L angdale, w ith a m uch l arger n umber o f a xes f ound a t a d istance o f o ver 2 00 m iles. T his d rop i n a bsolute n umbers o ccur t o t he s outh o f t he W ash i n n orthw est N orfolk a nd s outh L incolnshire, w here f inds o f a ll a xes a re f ew a nd a lso i ncludes . a n umber o f c ounties w here t he d istribution o f G roup V I p roducts i s a s y et u nknown. I n S cotland t here i s n o o ther m ajor c oncentration o f G roup V I a xes o ther t han t hose f ound i n t he s outh-west a nd t he n umber o f a xes d ecreases r egularly w ith d istance f rom L angdale ( Fig.39). G roups X V a nd X VIII

t hese

( Maps 7 8 a nd 7 9)

A xes o f G roups X V a nd X VIII a re c omparatively r are i n B ritain a nd s ources w ere m ore c ommonly u sed i n t he m anufacture o f p erforated

s tone i mplements. A xes o f n either G roup c an b e c ommon i n C umbria w here t he a mount o f n on-Group V I m aterial i s s mall ( p.63) b ut e xamples m ay b e f ound i n t he n orth-east w hen a xes t here a re p etrologically e xamined. T he S cottish d istribution o f t hese products i s u nknown. B oth a xes a nd p erforated i mplements o f G roup X V a re l argely d istributed i n t he w estern h alf o f E ngland a nd i n t he M idlands ( Map 7 8) w hile G roup X VIII p roducts o ccur m ainly o n t he e astern s ide o f t he c ountry, b ut a gain w ith a s pread i nto t he M idlands ( Map 7 9). G roup X V p roducts h ave b een f ound a s f ar s outh a s E ast A nglia b ut d id n ot r each t he s outh-west. O nly t wo e xamples h ave b een i dentified i n Y orkshire ( Manby 1 979, I II). B y c ontrast G roup X VIII p erforated i mplements a nd a xes a re ( as

m ore c ommon t han G roup X V a xes) a re w ell r epresented i n a p art o f t heir p redominantly e astern d istribution) b ut

T able ( which

Y orkshire a re a lso

f ound i n t he s outh-west. T he e astern b ias o f G roup X VIII a nd t he w estern b ias o f G roup X V p roducts a pplies t o a ll p erforated i mplements ( including b attle-axes, a xe-hammers a nd m ace-heads) r egardless o f t heir q uality o r f unction

( Roe 1 979,

f igs.3,

7 5

6 a nd 1 2).

M odels o f

t rade a nd e xchange

T heoretical s tudies m onetary e conomies a nd a cquisition

a nd

u se o f

o f t rade a nd e thnographic s tone

t ools

i n s ocieties w ithout f or t he p roduction,

i n p rimitive

n umber o f m ethods b y w hich a rtifacts t he p rehistoric p eriod. T hese a re o f ( 1)

e xchange e vidence

s ocieties

s uggest

c ould h ave b een d ispersed t wo m ain t ypes:

r eciprocal e xchange ( also k nown a s ' trickle t rade' o r l ine t rade) i n w hich a rtifacts m ay c hange h ands m any c omparatively

s hort

c onnection b etween d estination. ( 2)

r edistributive

d istances,

b ut w here

t he

o f

s ource

e xchange,

i n

a n

' down-thet imes o ver

t here m ay b e n o

o bject

a nd

w hich a rtifacts

a re

a

d uring

i ts

d irect u ltimate

t ransported

i n

b ulk t o o ne o r m ore s econdary c entres o f d istribution a nd i n w hich t here i s a d irect a nd k nown c onnection b etween t he s ource o f a n o bject 2 ;

a nd

t he

r edistribution c entre o r c entres

W hite a nd M odjeska 1 978;

a re

s ometimes

M cBryde

d ifferentiated

' trade'

( redistributive);

c ontext

o f

s ocial

a s

1 979).

( Beale T hese

' exchange'

e xchange

b eing

i nteraction a nd

t rade

1 973,

1 41-

t wo p rocesses

( reciprocal)

c arried

a nd

o ut w ithin

c arried

o ut

t he

f or

t he

p urposes o f g ain ( Rowlands 1 973, 5 89-90). T his t erminology i s r ather r estrictive f or p rehistoric s tudies w here s o m any f actors a ffecting ' trade'

a rtifact m ay

d istribution a re u nknown

b e u sed

s atisfactory

i n i ts

w idest

r eciprocal m ovement

o f

s ense

( p.78),

d enoting

g oods'

a nd t he t he

( Renfrew

t erm

' mutually

1 979,

2 4ff).

A s u sed i n t he f ollowing d iscussion t he t erm ' trade' d oes n ot d enote a p articular t ype o f e xchange o r m echanism o f a rtifact d istribution. Two

t ypes

s tudy o f

t he

s ion a nalysis I n

a nd

r egression

m athematical t ion.

A o f

s patial

a nalysis

a re

a rtifacts

s imulation s tudies

a nalysis

s traight-line

n umber

o f

d istribution o f t he

d istance t erms

f rom

b y

t he

c omparison

o f

c ommodities

r ate

p articularly a menable

o f k nown o rigin,

( Hodder a nd O rton

o f

f all-off

t he

s ource

o f

1 976,

a rtifact

c an

b e

t he g radient s ome

a nd o f

w ith

s ummarised

f actors

i n

t ransforma-

t ransformation v alues t he

t he

1 04-54).

n umbers

r egression g radiant a nd d istance

i ndicates

t o

n amely r egres-

w hich

f or

m ay

a

h ave

a ffected t he a rtifact d istribution s uch a s t he s ize o f t he s ource, m ethod o f t ransport, s cale o f a rtifact p roduction a nd t he ' value' o f t he

p roduct.

F or

s tone

i mplements

i n

p articular

t wo

m odels

a re

s uggested: ( 1)

s mall

s cale

c oarse

( 2)

s upplying

w here

t he

a l ocalised

f riction e ffect

( e.g.

G roup X II p icrite a xe-hammers)

L arge

s cale c oncerns

d istributed

a nd

a nd

( e.g.

i ndirect

H owever,

a s

d ifferent

f actors,

1 4).

T his

o bjects m odel

c oncerns

p roducts,

m ay

b e

s imulated

i s

t he

p attern o f

o r

d istribution i s

w idely c omplex

G roup V I a xes) o f

t hese m odels a ttempted b e h anded t hat

c ommon

m anufacturing f ine p roducts w hich a re

i n w hich

s imilar p atterns

w hich m ay

a rea w ith

o f d istance i s m arked

o f

d istribution m ay r equire a dditional

b y s imulation s tudies o n m ore

t han o nce,

a r andom w alk,

7 6

b e

a ccounted f or

t esting ( ibid,

s uch a s

1 07-

1 26-52).

F or

s tone a xes,

s tarting e ither

b y

( ibid,

t he

f rom a s ingle

c entre

i n a s ystem o f

o ne o r m ore c entral m ay b e m odelled:

r eciprocal e xchange

p laces

( 1)

t he n umber o f

' steps

( 2)

t he

e ach ' step'

( 3)

t he d irection t aken o n e ach ' step'

U sing

l ength o f

d ata f or

t he

( e.g.

i n r edistributive

a llowed

r elative

t he a xe

f actory)

e xchange.

o r v ia

T hree v ariables

p er w alk

p ercentage d istribution o f

a xes

o f

G roups

I , V I a nd V II i n t he s outh a nd e ast o f E ngland ( south o f t he T ees) t he b est f it w ith t he k nown d istribution o f s uch a xes w as o btained w hen s tarting ' step' G roups t ive i n

f rom

t rade

i s

s ource w ith 5 t o

p roduced,

E ngland.

n umber

o f

s imilar

e ffect

t ion

s ingle

t hrough a n umber

f all-off

e astern

h ave

a

1 2

' steps' p er

w alk

a nd

a

l ength o f a pproximately 1 00km f or G roup I a nd 1 50-175km f or V I a nd V III ( Elliott e t a l 1 978). W hen s imulating r edistribu-

s teps

s tudies

o f

s imilar

I ncreasing

t o

t he

p laces, t hat

i n a r andom w alk m odel

c an o nly

s how w hat

s tudies

h ave

n ot

f actors

w hich d etermined

s hould

b e

c onsidered

t ypes

o f

d ata

i ncluded

f or G roup V I

s tep,

f rom o ne 1 30,

o f

s ource

1 49).

p rocess

c ould

i n

l arger

c an p roduce ( or

a

s imula-

c ould

1 35).

a xe d istribution c rude

a xes

I n g eneral,

( Hodder 1 978c,

c omparatively

p eaking

o r a dding a

i n t heir m odels m ost

t he o riginal a s

a n otable d ouble

f ound

l ength o f

( Hodder a nd O rton 1 97b,

p roduced a n o bserved s et

t hese

c entral

n ot)

H owever a s

o f

t he

m ajor

( pp.78-81)

a nalyses

o f

t hese

c omplex

p rocesses. I n

a ddition

r epresented b een

d rawn

' service H odder I

i n t o

t he p atterns

o f

c ommunications

s tone

i mplements,

t he

b oundaries

w hich m ight

o f

p articular

a xe

a reas'

u sing

a nd

t o

t he d istribution o f

a r estricted

G roup V I

p roduction a reas

a mount

p roducts. w as

o f

T he

t aken a s

f arthest

i dentified

T his w as

d ata f or

' breaking

t he

b e

t ypes.

w hich

m ight

a ttention h as f irst

b etween

p oint

b etween t he f rom t he

t he

a ttempted b y

t he d istribution o f

p oint'

b e a lso

G roup

t wo

f actory

a xe s ites

a t w hich r ough-outs w ere f ound. T his i n t urn c orresponded w ith t he b oundary b etween t he t wo t rade a reas i dentified u sing a g ravity m odel b ased u pon t he p ercentage o f e ach a xe t ype ( Hodder 1 974). b oundary, c losely c orresponding t o t hat i dentified b y i ndicated o f a xes

A s imilar H odder, w as

b y C ummins o n t he b asis o f t he r elative p ercentage f requency o f G roups I , V I a nd V II i n E ngland a nd W ales ( Cummins 1 980,

f ig.8). F actors

a ffecting t he o riginal d istribution o f s tone a xes

T he m ethods o f a nalysis a pplied t o t he s tudy o f s tone i mplement d istributions h ave b een c oncerned w ith t he r edistributive p rocesses b y w hich t ake

a xes i nto

o riginal

w ere

d ispersed

t hroughout

a ccount m any o ther

a rtifact

f actors

d istribution.

T hese

t he

c ountry,

b ut h ave

w hich w ould h ave i nclude

f ailed

i nfluenced

t he m ethods

t o t he

a nd d uration

o f i mplement p roduction, t he m ethod o f a cquisition a nd c ontext o f c onsumption o f s tone t ools a nd t he d istribution a nd d ensity o f c ont emporary

s ettlements,

a s

f ollows:

7 7

a xe p roduction -

s ize

-

d uration a nd

o f

t he

-

o rganisation l abour) r ate o f

-

s ource o f o f

u se

o f

p roduction o f

l ocation o f

m ethod o f

r aw m aterials

f requency o f

a xe

u se t he

o f

t he

s ource

s ource ( i.e.

s pecialist/non-specialist

t ools

f inishing s ites

a cquisition o f a xes

-

o wn m anufacture

-

r eceived

-

r eceived a s g ifts o r a s p art o f s ocial o ccasions ( e.g. marriage, f uneral)

-

a cquired

c ontext o f

i n e xchange

f rom l arge

r edistributive

c onsumption

-

a s

g eneral

-

a s

t ool

f or

p urpose

-

a s

g ift

( not

-

a s

i tem o f

-

a s

c eremonial

f or o ther g oods/services

( i.e.

i nteraction

o n

s pecific

c entre

h ow u sed)

t ool

s pecific

t ask o nly

f or u tilitarian u se)

d isplay

d istribution o f

( not

f or

r egular u se)

o bject

' consumers'

-

d istribution a nd

d ensity o f

-

a bsolute

t he

-

d uration o f

s ize

o f

c ontemporary s ettlements

p opulation

s ettlement

i n a p articular a rea

g eographical f actors -

p resence/absence

o f

p hysical

b arriers

t o

h uman

s ettlement

o r

p opulation m ovement -

k nown r outes

-

a vailable

o f

f orms

c ommunication o f

t ransport

o ther f actors -

a lternative

-

l ocal

t raditions

-

v alue

o f

-

p otential

( Phillips

s ources o r

o f

s upply o f

p references

a rtifacts f or

p articular g oods

t he a rtifact u sable

1 979;

l ife

o f

t he o bject

W hite a nd M odjeska 1 978).

T hese f actors w ill n ow b e c onsidered w ith r eference l ogical e vidence f rom t he n orth o f E ngland.

7 8

t o

t he

a rchaeo-

A xe p roduction O f

t he

f our

g rouped s ources o f

s tone i n t he

w orking s ites a re k nown o nly a t G reat L angdale. a s ingle ' factory b ut a n umber o f s eparate

n orth

o f

E ngland

T hese d o n ot c omprise c hipping f loors w ith

d ifferent a ccess r outes f rom t he s urrounding l owlands ( Fig.28). p roduction w as a t wo-stage p rocess. R ough-outs w ere s haped a t

A xe t he

s ource b ut a xes w ere p olished a t l owland s ites w ithin a 4 0 m ile r adius o f L angdale a nd r edistributed f rom t hese s ites ( pp.59-60). S imulation s tudies o f a xe d istribution h ave f ailed t o t ake i nto a ccount t his t wos tage p roduction a nd t he r edistribution o f f inished p roducts f rom n umerous l owland s ites a nd n ot f rom a s ingle s ite a t G reat L angdale. S imilarly, a lthough s ometimes u sed a s e vidence o f d irect t rade, t here i s n o s ubstantial e vidence f or t he d istribution o f r ough-outs o utside t he i mmediate a xe f inishing a rea o r f or b ulk t rade i n f inished i mplem ents ( pp.59-60) s uch a s i s i ndicated b y t he l arge a xe h oards i n S candinavia

( Clark J .G.D.

1 948,

2 21-2,

f ig.2)

o r c aches o f M esolithic

m aterial i n I reland ( Woodman 1 978, A ppendix 7 ). E ven i n C umbria h oard s ize i s g enerally s mall, s uggestive o f s mall-scale e xploitation o f t he s tone s ource r ather t han b ulk t rade. G roup V I a xes w ould a ppear t o h ave b een i n u se f or a t l east 1 200 r adiocarbon y ears a nd p ossibly l onger ( p.68) a s t he u se o f s tone a xes c ould h ave c ontinued w ell i nto t he 2 nd m illennium b c i n a reas w here b ronze w as s carce. P roducts o f G roups X V a nd X VIII a re d ated t o t he 2 nd m illennium b c b y t he a ssociat ions o f p erforated i mplements, b ut a xes c ould b e s omewhat e arlier ( p.69). N o e stimate o f t he t otal a xe p roduction o f t he G roup V I s ource h as b een m ade, a s t he f ull e xtent o f t he c hipping f loors i s u nknown. A n e stimated 2 000 a xes o f p robable L angdale o rigin a re k nown i n B ritain, a t otal c losely c omparable w ith t he n umber o f d olerite a xes f rom P lussulien i n n orth-west F rance ( Le R oux 1 979). I f L e R oux's e stimate i s c orrect o f a t otal a xe p roduction a t P lussulien o f s ix m illion a xes,

t hen t his

s uggests

t hat

t he a rchaeological s ample o f

a xes

i n F rance a nd p ossibly t herefore i n B ritain r epresents a bout 1 /3000 o f t he t otal p roduction a t t he s ite. H owever, e ven t his s cale o f p roduct ion c ould h ave b een a chieved b y a s f ew a s t wenty f ulltime w orkers ( ibid, 5 5-6). A xe a cquisition a nd c onsumption

m ay

E thnographic e vidence i ndicates t hat a rtifacts s uch a s s tone a xes b e a cquired w ithin d ifferent s ocial c ontexts a nd t hat t he c ontext

o f a cquisition m ay d etermine t he u se t hat i s m ade o f t he a rtifact ( Phillips 1 979, 1 10-12). F or e xample, a n a xe r eceived i n c eremonial o r g ift e xchange m ay n ever b e u sed a s a t ool b ut m ay b e r eserved f or d isplay o nly. T here i s s ome i ndication f rom t he a rchaeological e vidence, e ven f rom s tray f inds, t hat t his m ay h ave b een t he c ase i n t he N eolithic a nd E arly B ronze A ge. T his i s b est i llustrated b y t he o ccurrence t ools b ut i s

o f

e xotic,

j ade a xes

i n B ritain,

p robably n ever

u sed

a s

b ut p erhaps a s i tems o f d isplay o r ' ritual' s ignificance ( p.66), a lso k nown f or i tems o f l ocal p roduction. F or e xample, t here

o ccur t hroughout B ritain n umbers o f f inely c rafted a xes w hich d o a ppear t o h ave b een u sed a s w orking t ools. T his i s w ell k nown G roup V I a xes b ut a lso f or o ther m aterials. p roduction a rea o f G roup V I ( where o rdinary v aluable

n ot f or

W ithin t he i mmediate s ize a xes w ere l ess

t han i n o ther a reas) f ine a xes a re f ound i n e xaggerated f orm,

b eing f ar t oo l arge f or n ormal u se ( p.55). T his t radition m ay a lso b e f ound i n t he 2 nd m illennium b c i n t he p roduction o f b attle-axes a nd

7 9

m ace-heads, p erforated

t he f ine n on-utilitarian e quivalent i n t he i mplements o f t he f ine e arlier N eolithic a xes.

r ange o f H owever,

e ven t he r ange o f ' use o f s trictly u tilitarian t ools m ay h ave v aried, a ccording t o c ircumstances s uch a s l ocal a vailability. I n a reas w itho ut

s tone

r esources w here

t ools w ere h ard t o c ome b y t he u se

o f

t he

t ool m ay h ave b een r estricted t o t asks o nly i t c ould d o, w hereas i n a reas b etter s upplied s uch i mplements m ay h ave b een u sed a s a ll-purpose t ools ( Phillips 1 979, 1 11-2). D istribution o f s ettlement A s s tone t ools c an o nly b e e xchanged a nd u sed w here t here i s a p opulation t o r eceive t hem t he d istribution o f i mplements m ust b e a ffected b y t he d ensity a nd d istribution o f c ontemporary s ettlements a nd p opulations. W hile p atterns o f s ettlement m ay h ave a ltered o ver t he 1 000 t o 2 000 y ears d uring w hich s tone t ools w ere i n u se, t he p alimpsest o f h uman o ccupance r epresented b y a rchaeological m aterial r eveals a reas o f g reater a nd l esser a ctivity d uring t he N eolithic a nd E arly B ronze A ge. F or e xample t he l arge a mount o f m aterial f ound t he E ast R iding o f Y orkshire, s hown n ot o nly i n t he d istribution

i n o f

a xes b ut a lso o f N eolithic p ottery a nd f unerary m onuments, m ay b e c ompared w ith t he s parse r epresentation o f f inds a nd s ites i n C umbria a nd t he n orth-east o f E ngland. I n t his c ircumstance i t s eems l ikely t hat a m uch l arger n umber o f G roup V I a xes m ight b e f ound o utside C umbria t han w ithin i t, f or t he s mall l ocal d emand c ould b e s atisfied w ith e ase a nd a v alued o bject p referentially e xchanged w ith o ther m ore p opulous a reas i n n eed o f s uch a c ommodity. I n a ddition, t he c irculat ion o f g oods a nd t he c onsequent d emand f or a p roduct w ould b e m ore r egular i n a n a rea o f d ense, l ong-lived s ettlement s uch a s Y orkshire, t han i n a m ore s parsely p opulated r egion. I f t he e xchange o f c ommodities w as l argely c arried o ut o n a r eciprocal r ather t han a r edistributive b asis, b etween c ommunities w ithin a c ertain o ptimal d istance o f e ach o ther, t hen t he i mpediments t o a rtifact d ispersal w ould n ot b e o f a g eographical k ind ( particularly i n B ritain w hich h as f ew i mpenetrable a reas) b ut w ould r elate t o a n a bsence o f p opulation t hrough w hich s uch e xchanges c ould b e e ffected. T his m ay e xplain t he c omparative i solation o f t he n orth-east o f E ngland w hich r eceived f ew, i f a ny, a xes f rom t he p rolific Y orkshire s ources a nd f ew G roup V I a xes c ompared w ith t he r est o f t he e astern h alf o f E ngland, a lthough c oastal r outes c ould h ave m ade b ulk r edistribution o f g oods e asy. T he r eliance o f

c ertain a reas u pon p articular s ources

o f s upply o f

s tone t ools i s p erhaps s omewhat o ver e xaggerated b y p etrological s tudies w hich t end t o g ive t he i mpression t hat s ome a reas d ealt l argely i n p roducts s ites s hows

f rom a s ingle s ource. H owever, e vidence f rom t hat a xes f rom d ifferent s ources a re r egularly

a ssociation a s I .F.

1 979,

o n e arlier N eolithic s ites

T able

1 ),

o ccupation

e xcavated f ound i n

i n s outh-west E ngland

s ites

i n Y orkshire

( Manby

( Smith 1 979,

A ppendix A ), a t L landegai ( Houlder 1 968, 2 18), W indmill H ill a nd t he W est K ennet A venue ( Smith I .F. 1 965, 1 10-6, 2 34), B ryn L lwyn a nd D yserth ( Welsh p etrology r ecords) a nd o thers. M any o f t hese s ites h ave b een i nterpreted a s ' redistributive c entres b ecause a xes f rom d ifferent s ources a re f ound t ogether. T his t ype o f e xplanation i s a f unction o f t he b ias o f t he a rchaeological e vidence. T he m ajority o f a xes a re s ingle u nassociated f inds a nd i t i s t he e xcavated s ites w hich p rovide

e vidence f or t he

T hese s ites

r eal c ontext a nd a ssociation o f

s hould n ot b e i nterpreted a s

8 0

t hese

f inds.

r edistribution c entres b ecause

t hey a re t he o nly e xcavated N eolithic s ites, b ut r ather m ight b e c ons idered a s e vidence t hat a n umber o f a xes f rom d ifferent s ources w ere r egularly i n c irculation a t t he s ame t ime w ithin a ny o ne ' consumer' a rea. O nly i n t he v icinity o f p roducts ' swamp t he a rea.

t he l arge a xe ' factories' w ould

l ocal

A rtifact v alue W hen c onsidering t he d istribution o f b e d ivided i nto t wo p arts: ( 1)

a reas

w ith t heir o wn s ources o f

s tone a rtifacts B ritain

s tone w hich w ere

b oth

m ay

p roducers

a nd c onsumers o f s tone t ools ( 2)

a reas w ithout s tone s ources w hich w ere c onsumers

o nly

P roduction a reas a round s tone s ources w ould b e a mply s upplied b y l ocal r esources a nd t ools f rom o ther s ources w ould n ot b e a cceptable a s e xchangable c ommodities w ithin t hese a reas. T his i s w ell i llustrated b y t he d ominance o f G roup V I p roducts i n C umbria o r G roup V II i n N orth W ales. I n ' consumer - a reas h owever s tone t ools w ould b e a t a p remium a nd m ay h ave h ad e ven g reater ' value' t han a t h ome. W ithin t he p roduct ion a rea o nly p articularly l arge o r f inely w orked t ools w ould a chieve t he v alue o f l esser t ools i n c onsumer a reas ( p.55). T he c omparative v alue o f a xes i n c onsumer a nd p roducer a reas i s d emonstrated b y t he s ize d istribution o f G roup V I a xes i n t he n orth-east a nd C umbria ( pp.55-57) a nd b y o ther e vidence f or t he u se o f a xes t o v ery s mall p roportions

i n c onsumer a reas

s uch a s Y orkshire

( Manby

1 979,

7 3).

T he

p otential f or r e-working a xes p roduced b y a f laking t echnique m ay h ave e nhanced t he v alue o f t hese p roducts a s c ompared w ith -p ecked' a xes l ess

a menable

t o r e-shaping.

M odels o f e xchange T wo

m odels

s tone i mplements. e vidence s uggests

h ave

b een s uggested

t o e xplain t he

d istribution

o f

W hile e thnographic a nalogy a nd m uch a rchaeological t he h ypothesis o f r eciprocal e xchange ( e.g. W hite a nd

M odjeska 1 978; M cBryde 1 979) a r edistributive p rocess w ith d irect c ontact b etween p roducer a nd c onsumer h as b een s uggested f or t he d istribution o f a xes o f G roups I a nd V I ( Cummins 1 979; h ypothesis i s b ased u pon t he o bserved d ifference i n

1 980). f all-off

T his w ith

d istance o f t he r elative p ercentages o f G roups I a nd V I a s c ompared w ith t he p roducts o f o ther a xe f actories ( Cummins 1 979, 7 -9). W hile t he a bsolute n umber o f a xes f rom t hese s ources i s c ertainly l arger o utside t he i mmediate p roduction a rea t han w ithin i t, t he h igh r elative p ercentages o f t hese p roducts o n t he e astern s ide o f E ngland a s d emonstrated

b y C ummins

i s a f unction o f

t he d ata u sed.

T he r elative

p ercentage f requencies o f p articular a xe g roups p resented b y C ummins a re r elative p ercentages o f a ll g rouped s tone a xes. H owever, b oth s tone a nd f lint w ere i n c irculation d uring t he N eolithic p eriod a nd, w hen c ontemporary, m ay b e c onsidered a s c ompetitive p roducts i n t heir r espective a reas o f d istribution. T he r elative p ercentage s hare o f t he a xe m arket o f a ny p articular a xe g roup s hould t herefore b e c alculated a s a p ercentage o f b oth s tone a nd f lint a xes i n t he a rea. I f t he f igures f or t he r elative f requency o f G roup V I a xes i n Y orkshire a re r ecalculated u sing M anby's e stimates o f t otal a xe n umbers ( Manby 1 979, T able

I I)

t hen

t he

p ercentage

8 1

o f G roup V I

a xes

i n

Y orkshire

i s

a pproximately 3 0%. a re a lso a vailable o f

a ll

a xes

I n t he E ast M idlands, f or w hich c omparative d ata ( Moore 1 979, T able I ) G roup V I c onstitutes a bout 5 0%

f rom t he

a rea.

I t w ould

s eem t herefore

t hat

w hen

c on-

s idered a s a p ercentage o f a ll a xes t he f requency o f G roup V I a xes m ight i ndeed f all o ff r egularly w ith d istance f rom C umbria ( where G roup V I c omprises t o

c ompile

a t

l east 7 0% o f

c omparative

a ll k nown a xes).

f igures

f or

s tone

a nd

I t

h as n ot

f lint

a xes

b een p ossible

i n t he

s outh o f

E ngland b ut i t s eems m ore t han l ikely t hat t he r elative f requencies o f G roup I a xes s hould b y s imilarly r ecalculated, a s t his a rea w as w ell s erved

b y f lint

c urrency s ources

o f

s ources

G roup

i n S ussex,

I p roducts.

c ontemporary

N orfolk a nd W iltshire

I n W ales,

w ith G roups

d uring

t he o ther a rea w ith

I a nd V I,

t he

e ffect

o f

t he s tone

f lint

a xe

c ompetition w ould b e l ittle f elt d ue t o d istance a nd t he s teady f allo ff o f t he r elative p ercentages o f a xes f rom W elsh s ources m ay b e s ubstantially

c orrect.

S ummary I n

t he 4 th a nd 3 rd m illennia

B ritain w as

d ominated

b y

t he p roduction o f

t he s tone

a xe f actories

s tone

i mplements

i n t he L ake

i n

D istrict,

W ales a nd C ornwall w ith a lternative s ources o f f lint i mplements o n t he S outh D owns, i n Y orkshire a nd N orfolk. A xes w ere p robably d istributed f rom

t hese

s ources

w ithin a n etwork o f s imilarity t he b e

s uggests

c ountry o f

t hat

b y s imilar

e xplained

b y t o

p roducts

i mplements w ere

f low o f

( e.g.

i mplements

A s

f rom

i nto

a r esult

m any

T he a xe

t hese

s ources m ay b e

t hroughout

c oncentrations

f rom t heir

f rom l ess

d ensely

p opulated

p opulous

c omplex

I n

t he d uration o f

' consumer'

p rocesses

f ound w ithin

a

b y

t he

l ocated

a round

a vailability t he

o f

s ingle f actors p roduc-

i ts u se.

t he 2 nd m illennium b c

a ltered

o f

s ource may

a rea, b ut t he p rominence o f a p articular p roduct i s r elated t o o f p ropinquity, t o t he s ize o f t he s ource a nd r ate o f i mplement t ion a nd

p lace

f rom d ifferent

d istributed

t he n earest o f

t aking

i nteraction.

P articularly l arge

C umbria)

t hem.

i mplements

a ll

e xchange

a t a c onsiderable d istance

t he

a reas

a djacent

e xchange

r eciprocal

t han ' economic')

p rocesses.

c ertain g roups

p roduction a rea

o f

( rather

i n t he d istance d istribution o f

' factories a xes

b y a p rocess s ocial

t he

p attern o f

o f a g reater

c ountry.

A s

i mplement

n umber

a r esult

o f

d istribution i s

r ock s ources,

t he d istribution o f

f rom t hese s ources i s a m ore l ocalised p henomenon. T his d istribution i s n ot a f unction o f t he t ype o f i mplement

e venly

p roducts

p atterning o f p roduced, a s

b oth f ine a nd c oarse p roducts f rom t hese s ources a re f ound i n t he s ame a reas, b ut i s i nfluenced b y t he n umber a nd g eographical d istribution o f o ther

r ock

s ources

f rom w hich s imilar a rtifacts w ere m anufactured.

P REHISTORIC F LINT W ORK I N T HE N ORTH O F E NGLAND E vidence

o f

p rehistoric a ctivity i n t he

r epresented

b y

s catters

i ndividual f inds.

a nd

h uman a ctivity

f lint i n t he

w ork, r egion i s

i s

n orth

o f

E ngland,

k nown a lmost e xclusively T he i nterpretation o f

l imited

8 2

b y

t his

f our m ain f actors

f rom

a s

f lint

e vidence n amely:

o f

( 1)

t he

d istribution

o f

f ieldwork,

a nd

t he a res

i n

w hich

i t

c an

u sefully b e c arried o ut ( 2)

t he s tatus

o f

t he m aterial s o

( 3)

t he s elective w orkers

( 4)

t he p ossibilities o f d ating s uch m aterial

c ollection o f

f ound p articular f lint a rtifacts b y

T he p rimary b ias i n t he d istribution o f f lint d istinct f rom c asual f inds o f i ndividual a rtifacts) t he u neven r epresentation o f f ield w ork w ithin t he a nd t he s outh-west C umberland c oast, f or e xample, s iderable a ttention o ver m any y ears, b een c arried o ut i n a ny o ther a reas.

f ield

w ork s catters ( as i s o ccasioned b y r egion. W eardale h ave r eceived c on-

b ut l ittle s ystematic w ork h as T he f easability o f s uch f ield

w ork i s d etermined a lso b y p resent day vegetation c over. F lint s ites a re u nlikely t o c ome t o l ight u nless t he g round i s i n s ome w ay d isturbed, a nd a reas o f p eat, p ermanent p asture, a fforestation , u rban s ettlement a nd i ndustrial d evelopment a re t herefore l ikely t o b e u nderr epresented, a s a re a lso u pland a reas d ifficult o f a ccess a nd o ut o f e asy r each o f p resent d ay s ettlements. W here f inds o f f lint a re r ecorded i t i s n ecessary t o c onsider s tatus o f s uch m aterial, t hat i s, w hat t ype o f a ctivity m ight i t

t he b e

c onsidered t o r epresent? I t i s n ecessary t o d ifferentiate b etween c ollections o f m aterial m ade p erhaps d uring s everal y ears, o ver a c omparatively l arge a rea, a nd t hose f ound w ithin a v ery r estricted l ocation i n c lose a ssociation. B oth c ollections o f m aterial i ndicate a ctivity, b ut t he f ormer m ay s imply c onstitute a ccidental l osses i n a f avoured l ocation o ver m any h undreds o r e ven t housands o f y ears ( comp arable i n s tatus w ith f inds o f m ore m odern m aterial i n t he s ame a rea), w hile t he l atter a re t he m ore l ikely t o r epresent a ctual s ettlement o r w ork p lace l ocations. W ith t he e xception o f s ome M esolithic s ites ( p.44) n one o f t he f lint s catters r ecorded f rom t he n orth o f E ngland c an b e c onsidered a s f lint a ssemblages. c entrated f lint s catters, s urface

E ven i n a reas w ith m ore c ond isturbance o ver m illennia,

o ccasioned b y a griculture, h uman a ctivity o r n atural p rocesses, c ould h ave c aused c onsiderable m ixing o f m aterial. I t w ould t herefore b e m isleading t o c onsider a ny o f t hese f inds a s o f t he s ame s tatus a s m aterial

t he

e xcavated f rom c losed c ontexts.

A lso, a s n one o f t hese a reas o f a ctivity h as b een e xcavated, f inds r ecorded i n s ystematic d etail, a t hird b ias e nters i nto

a rchaeological c ollection o f

o r t he

r ecords, w hich i s t hat o f t he s elective r ecognition a nd p articular a rtifact t ypes. I t s eems l ikely t hat t he

p resence o f f lint s catters i s p articularly n oted w hen c omplete, r easona bly s ized a rtifacts a re p resent, s uch a s a rrowheads o r s crapers, a nd t hat t hese a re f avoured i n c ollection o ver s maller f lint f lakes w aste, a nd l ess w ell k nown o r l ess e asily r ecognisable t ool t ypes. s tatistical a nalyses o f t he p roportions o f v arious a rtifact t ypes f lint

w aste f ound i n t hese c ollections w ould b e s ubject

a nd A ny a nd

t o t he l imita-

t ions j ust m entioned. F inally, p articular

i t

r emains

d ate r ange

t o

c onsider t he p ossibility o f

t o s uch m aterial

8 3

a ssigning

f rom t he n orth o f E ngland.

a I n

t he t he a re

a bsence o f d etailed s tudies o f e xcavated f lint i ndustries w ithin r egion, t he o nly a rtifacts w hich m ay b e d ated w ith a ny c onfidence d istinctive t ypes f ound i n d atable c ontexts e lsewhere i n B ritain,

p rimarily a rrowheads a nd o ther p rojectile p oints. O ther a rtifacts, s uch a s s crapers a nd b lades, c annot b e m ore p recisely a ssigned w ithin t he N eolithic t o E arly B ronze A ge s tudies o f e xcavated m aterial. T he

i ndividual

k nown f rom p ublished t ions a nd r ecords.

a rtifacts

p eriod

a nd

i n t he

f lint

a bsence

s catters

o f

s ystematic

d iscussed

a ccounts a nd i llustrations a nd T his m aterial w as n ot e xamined

b elow

a re

f rom m useum c olleci n d etail f or t his

s tudy, b ecause o f t he l imited u sefulness o f u nassociated f inds o f t his t ype a nd a lso b ecause a spects o f f lint w orking w ere b eing r esearched b y o ther w orkers, p articularly R . Y oung a t D urham a nd H .S. G reen. R eference

h as

b een

m ade

w here

a ppropriate

t o

G reen's

p ublished w ork ( Green 1 977; 1 980) w hich f orms t he m ost a nd a ssessment o f f lint a rrowheads i n E ngland a nd W ales. T he

m aterial

f rom

t he

a rea i s

d iscussed

r ecent

u nder

t wo

f irst, i ndividual f lint t ypes ( whether f ound s ingly s catters) a nd s econd, f lint s catters, r epresentative o f p articular

a rea,

b ut

n ot

a ssociation w ith b urials C hapter 3 .

f orming

t rue

a re n oted h ere

a ssemblages.

t hesis

a nd

c orpus

h eadings:

o r i n f lint a ctivity i n a

F lints

f ound

b ut a re d iscussed m ore f ully

i n i n

T here a re n o f lint b earing d eposits i n t he n orth o f E ngland b ut s ome s mall f lint p ebbles c ould b e f ound i n l ocal b oulder c lays a nd i n c oastal d eposits. T he n earest s ources o f f lint f rom w hich a rtifacts o f a ny

s ize

d uring

c ould

t he

h ave

b een m anufactured w hich a re k nown t o h ave

p rehistoric

p eriod a re

t hose

i n

t he c halk d eposits

b een u sed o f

n orth-

e ast I reland, p articularly A ntrim ( Herity a nd E ogan 1 977, f igs.3 a nd 1 7) a nd t he b oulder c lays o f t he Y orkshire c oast ( Manby 1 979, 7 1-2).

I ndividual

f lint

t ypes

F lint a rrowheads • G reen's

r ecent

s tudy o f

f lint

a rrowheads

c onfirms

o f l eaf t ypes w ith e arlier N eolithic m aterial, ( that i s, p etit-tranchet, c hisel a nd o blique C lacton

o r G rooved W are,

m aterial,

p articularly

a nd

b urials

b arbed a nd

t anged

( Green 1 980,

8 4,

t he

a ssociation

t ransverse a rrowheads s hapes) w ith ' Rinyoa rrowheads w ith B eaker 1 08 a nd

1 29).

O nly s ome 4 0 l eaf a rrowheads h ave b een f ound i n t he n orth o f E ngland ( Catalogue 1 1), a c omparatively s mall n umber f or s uch a l arge r egion. f requent 6 8,

M ost a re o f G reen's t ype 4 A, w hich h e o bserves i s i n a reas r emote f rom g ood s tratified s upplies o f f lint

f ig.29 and T able I V.1),

n otably

t he

s mallest

s ized

t ype

t ypology. A f ew e xamples o f l arger t ypes 3 A a nd 3 B a re ( ibid, f ig.28). T wo N eolithic b urial s ites h ave p roduced h eads; f ound

t he

r ound

b arrows

a t

B roomhill,

i n a ssociation w ith s herds

F ord C LXXXVIII

o f G rimston-Lyles

m ost ( ibid

i n G reen's a lso k nown l eaf a rrow-

( ibid,

2 99),

H ill w are a nd f lint

c hippings a nd a t W arden L aw ( ibid, 3 01), f ound i n a s mall ' hoard' o f f lint i mplements n ine i nches b elow t he s urface o f t he m ound ( Catalogue 5 ).

T he d istribution o f

l owland,

c oastal

a nd

l eaf

i nland

a rrowheads s ites

8 4

a re

i s n ot

a ll

e xtensive,

r epresented

b ut u pland,

( Map 1 9)

a nd

a

g eneral c orrespondence m ay b e n oted b etween t he a reas r epresented i n t his d istribution a nd t hat o f M esolithic m aterial f rom t he a rea ( Map 1 1). R adiocarbon d ating s uggests a r ange o f u se f or t he t ype f rom t he 4 th t o t he 2 nd m illennia b c, w ith t he m ajority o f d ates l ying i n t he 4 th t o 3 rd m illennia r ange ( ibid, T able I V.30). T ransverse a rrowheads a re o f r arer o ccurrence t han l eaf f orms, b ut a re a gain w idely d istributed ( Catalogue 1 2, M ap 2 0). I t i s p ossible t hat t hese t ypes a re u nder-represented i n c asual c ollections o f f lints, b eing o f l ess d istinctive s hape t han l eaf o r b arbed a nd t anged a rrowh eads. T hey h ave h owever b een r ecorded i n a reas o f m ore c omprehensive f lint c ollections s uch a s t he W eardale a nd C umbrian c oastal s ites, b ut a re, t he

i n g eneral, s outh ( ibid,

c ontext

a t W ooler

l ess c ommon i n t he n orthern h alf o f E ngland t han i n f igs.39-41). O ne e xample i s k nown f rom a b urial ( EBA B urials C atalogue)

f ound w ith o ther f lints a nd a

f ood v essel ( Table 1 0 n o.620). R adiocarbon d ates s uggest a n o rigin i n t he 3 rd m illennium b c, b ut t he m ajority o f d ates f all i n t he 2 nd m illennium. A n o rigin i n t he M esolithic p eriod i s, h owever, a lso a p ossibility ( ibid,

1 00,

T able V .2).

T he l argest n umber o f a rrowheads i n t he n orth o f E ngland a re o f b arbed a nd t anged f orm , k nown a t o ver 1 00 s ites ( Catalogue 1 3a). S ix a rrowheads o f b arbed a nd t anged f orm a re p articularly l arge ( Catalogue 1 3b) a nd m ay b e c lassed a s o f G reen's B allyclare t ype " missile p oints", m ost d ensely d istributed i n t he h ighland z one o f E ngland a nd W ales. I t h as b een s uggested t hat t hese a rrowheads m ay b e i mports i nto t he a rea, m ost p robably f rom I reland ( ibid, 4 7, 7 5 a nd 1 18, f ig.48). A ll a re s ingle f inds w ith t he p ossible e xception o f t hat f rom ( p.167), a ssociated w ith a m iniature v essel ( EBA B urials

D oddington C atalogue,

T able 1 0 n o.191). T he s maller b arbed a nd t anged f orms a re s omewhat m ore w idely d istributed t han e arlier a rrowheads, b ut a re s imilarly w ell r epresented i n a reas w here l eaf a nd t ransverse a rrowheads h ave a lso b een f ound ( Map 2 1). T wo e xamples, f rom D rigg a nd N ewbiggin-on-Lune, w ere m ade n ot f rom f lint b ut f rom L angdale t ype v olcanic t uff. T he o nly b arbed a nd t anged a rrowheads f rom a n e xcavated c ontext a re a g roup o f

s ix,

f rom o ne o f

N orthumberland

t he

e xternal s hafts

( Harding A .F.

1 976,

o f

3 ).

t he h enge a t M ilfield N orth, T hree r adiocarbon d ates f rom

d ifferent p arts o f t he s ite c entre a round c 1 8 0 b c ( BM-1149, 1 824 . 7 / :3 9 b c; B M-1150, 1 851 ± 6 2 b c; H AR1199, 1 800 - 8 0 b c) ( Radiocarbon 2 1, 1 979, 3 46). O ther d ates i n t he 2 nd m illennium b c f or m aterial i n a ssociation w ith b arbed a nd t anged a rrowheads a re k nown f rom e lsewhere i n t he

c ountry ( Green 1 980,

T able V I.18).

F lint d aggers

o ne

T wo f lint d aggers, d agger f ragment o f

f rom I rthington a nd H ighfield H ope, T arset a nd v olcanic s tone f rom t he R iver N orth T yne a re

r ecorded i n t he a rea, a ll o f w hich a re i solated f inds. d aggers f rom A mble a nd L ilburnsteads w hich w ere f ound i n

T he f lint a ssociation

w ith b urials a re d iscussed e lsewhere ( p.168, T able 4 3). T he e xample f rom I rthington i s b roadest i n t he m iddle a nd a lmost p ointed a t b oth e nds ( Smith R . 1 919, 1 6, f ig.10) b ut t he t wo d aggers f rom N orthumberl and a re b oth n otched ( Jobey 1 967, 2 07, p l.). T he c omplete f lint d agger f rom H ighfield H ope, T arset h as a s quare b utt a nd t wo n otches o n e ach s ide. T hese f eatures m ay b e c ompared w ith t wo e xamples f rom W ales, a d agger f rom Y stradfellte, B recknock w ith t wo n otches a nd a r ounded

b utt,

f ound

i n a ssociation w ith a

8 5

' Finger

P inched

B eaker

( Grimes 1 931 n o.7; C larke 1 970, f ig.912), a nd a nother f rom L laneliew w ith a s quare b utt.and n o n otches ( Grimes 1 931 n o.6), a nd a lso w ith a d agger f rom Q uy F en, s quare t ang ( Smith R . T he

f eatures

C ambs. w ith l ess p ronounced n otches 1 919, f ig.11).

o f

a s quare

b utt a nd d ouble n otches

a nd a s horter

a re,

h owever,

r are a nd t here d oes n ot a ppear t o b e a n e xact p arallel f or t he T arset f ind. M ore u nusually, t he p ossible d agger f ragment f rom t he R iver N orth T yne, w hich h as b roken b etween t he n otches, i s m ade o f g rey/green v olcanic s tone ( Jobey 1 967, 2 07) a nd p rovides a nother i nstance o f t he o ccasional u se o f s uch r ocks f or t he p roduction o f a rtifacts, s uch a s a rrowheads a nd d aggers, w hich w ere u sually m anufactured o f f lint. F lint a ngle-flake A c urved f lint ' angle-flake', f ound a bout 5 ft b elow t he s urface i n E lton R oad, D arlington, i s u nique i n t he a rea. T he f lake, w hich i s o f g rey-brown m ottled f lint, i s c 1 6cm l ong, 2 .5cm w ide a nd h as a t riangular c ross s ection. T he i nner f ace o f t he l ong f lake i s u nworked ( as s truck f rom t he c ore) b ut t he o ther t wo f aces a re s teeply p ressure f laked a nd m eet a t a w orked c entral r idge ( Cowen 1 966, 2 09-10, p l.XIV). T his f orm o f i mplement i s p articularly w ell k nown i n n orthern F rance ( ibid, 2 10) a nd i s a lso k nown i n t he C hannel I slands ( Hawkes J . 1 937, I I, 6 2, f ig.11), m ade o f G rand P ressigny f lint, w hich i s w idely d istributed i n F rance, t he N etherlands a nd G ermany ( Sherratt 1 976, f ig.7; v an d er W aals 1 964, f ig.14). T wo o ther e xamples, o ther t han t hat f rom D arlington, a re k nown f rom B ritain, o ne f rom n ear C ambridge, w ith r etouched e dges b ut w ithout a p ronounced w orked r idge ( Evans J . 1 897, f ig.297) a nd a nother f rom n ear S alisbury ( Cowen 1 966, 2 10). C owen s uggests t hat t he e xamples f rom D arlington a nd C ambridge m ay b e i nsular c opies o f t he t ypical F rench f orm , m anufactured o f f lint c hosen f or i ts r esemblance i n c olour t o G rand P ressigny m aterial, a nd t hat t he e xample f rom S alsibury m ay b e a r eal i mport ( ibid, 2 10). E ven i f a n i nsular c opy, t he D arlington i mplement i s l ikely t o h ave b een m ade o utside t he n orth o f E ngland w hich d oes n ot h ave f lint b earing d eposits w ith r aw m aterial l arge e nough f or m aking F lint s catters A reas

( Table 8 ,

C atalogue I 3a,

i n w hich p rehistoric f lint

t his s ize o f

i mplement.

M ap 2 2)

s catters h ave b een f ound a nd

t he

p rincipal a rtifact t ypes t hey c ontained a re l isted i n T able 8 . S ome o f t hese s catters a re d erived f rom e xcavated c ontexts, s uch a s t he E arly B ronze A ge b urial s ites a t C orbys C rags, G oatscrag, o r K irkhill, W est H epple, o r f rom s ettlement s ites o f p robable I ron A ge o r R omano-British d ate, e ver,

a t B elling L aw o r K ennel H all K nowe. E ven o n t hese s ites h owt he f lint w ork o ccurred i n m ixed o r u nstratified d eposits a nd n ot

a s a ssemblages f rom d iscrete f eatures. T he e xception t o t his i s t he N eolithic s ite a t T hirlings, w here f lints ( most o f w hich a re s crapers a nd b lade f orms) h ave b een f ound i n p its a nd p ost p its. H owever, m ajority o f f lints w ere c ollected a s s urface f inds a fter p loughing r elatively f ew c ame f rom t he e xcavated f eatures w ork c ontinues o n t his s ite i t i s h oped t hat p icture o f O f

t he N eolithic f lint

t he o ther s ites

l isted,

i ndustries

o f

t he

t he a nd

( Miket 1 976, 1 19). A s a m ore c omprehensive r egion w ill e merge.

a ll a re c ollections

o f m aterial m ade

i n

f ield w alking. A f ew o f t hese s ites, i ndicated i n t he T able w ith a n a sterisk, w here m aterial w as c ollected o n o ne o ccasion w ithin a l imited

8 6

a rea,

a re

r easons

o f

a m ore

m entioned

c oherent

‚ above

n ature

( p.83),

t han

t hey

t he

o thers,

c annot

b e

a lthough,

c onsidered

f or

a s

t rue

a ssemblages. A f ew p oints o f i nterest c oncerning m aterial c ollected a t t hese s ites w ill b e d iscussed, t ogether w ith s ome o bservations o n t he c ollections

o f

m aterial

f rom o ther

S ites a t E skmeals, S t. d iffuse o f t he f lint a rtifact o n

t he

s outh-west

d unes.

I n

t he

a ssemblages g roupings l ikely,

o f

C umbria,

t he

m aterial

t he

A tlantic

a re n ot

l ocated

i t

i s

d ifficult

p articularly

f rom t hese

s ites

e vidence o f

p eriod

w here b y

e arly

t he u se o f

( pp.16-18)

c ores

a nd

b lades, w ere o f

a re t uff

o f o f

s hould b e

w as

f ound

f ig.3.43).

T uff

a t

t hat

f lint

c ultural I t

i s

t here

i s

s ome

o verlap

c ultures a nd m odes o f i n t he f lint i ndustries,

a ctivities

m ay

h ave

b een

( Map 2 3) ( Cherry 1 973), w hich h ave w ith m icroliths, m ulti-platformed i n t his

r egard,

B orrowdale V olcanic

t he m ost

h as n ot

w hich

a ssigned.

f or

p rolific s ite

b een f ound

a t

B ,

s ome o f

s eries

T ables 2 a nd 3 ), i ndicating a n a cquaintance w ith m aterial u sed i n N eolithic a xe m anufacture. O ne f lint

s and-

A ge

r esources.

i nterest t he

s hifting

B ronze

d isturbance i n t he v egetation

a gricultural c oastal

T he f ive s ites a t S t. B ees p roduced M esolithic t ype m aterial, a rtifacts

i n

t o k now t o

b etween ' Mesolithic a nd e arly ' Neolithic' s ubsistence, a nd t hat t his w ill b e r eflected s upplemented

c onstitute t he l east a nd u nlike o ther s ites

s tratified N eolithic o r

i n a n a rea w hich h as

d uring

i n t he r egion.

B ees a nd S eascale p roducing a reas,

C umbrian c oast

a bsence

i n

s ites

t hese

( ibid,

f ig.4,

t he s ource o f l eaf a rrowhead

a t

r aw o f

R ottington

( ibid,

t he e xcavated M esolithic

s ite o f

M onk M oors ( pp.44-45) d ated t o a bout t he 6 th m illennium b c ( C. B onsall; p ers. c omm.) b ut i s k nown a t o ther m ore m ixed s ites i n t he a rea a nd m ay i ndicate m aterial. A t ( Map t he

a

t he

2 3)

l ate M esolithic o r e arly N eolithic d ate

s ix s ites

i n t he v icinity o f

( Cherry 1 969)

c ontinued

u se

o f

b y p ollen e vidence c ollected a t s ites 1 ,

d ifferent

g roups

W illiamson's M oss o f m aterial

t he a rea f rom z one V ila ( p.16ff). 2 a nd 6 ,

f or t he

a re

t o V IIb,

S t.

a t

B ees

E skmeals

s uggestive

a s

o f

a lso i ndicated

T he l argest a mount o f m aterial w as a long t he n orth a nd n orth-east s ides o f

t he m oss, f ormerly a p ond ( ibid, f igs.1 a nd 4 ). T his i ncluded f ineb laded c ores, s mall b lades, m icroliths, s crapers, h ammerstones, t wo s mall f ragments i dentification), t hree f ound

o f s tone g ritted p ottery ( too s mall a r ough-out L angdale a xe, s ome p ieces o f

j ust

i s

m ore

t o

t he e ast.

h ighly

T he

s maller m ore M esolithic

p atinated

t han

t he

o ther

l ike m aterial,

a rtifacts,

p articularly a t t he n orth e nd o f s ite 1 a nd a t s ite 6 , s outh e nd o f s ite 2 , t he m aterial w as m ore m ixed a nd a rrowheads, t he

p re-elm

a xe

r ough-out

p ollen s equence d ecline

w ith w hich b e

p ositive c lay a nd

a rrowheads. A t s ite 6 t wo t uff b lades a nd t wo t uff c ores w ere w ith t he f lint w ork, a nd a b lade o f t uff w as a lso f ound a t s ite

5 ,

f rom

f or h ard

s ome

a ctivity o f

a nd

s herds

o f

p ottery

( ibid,

a t W illiamson's M oss w ould i n t his

a rea,

w hich

w as

f ound

w hile a t i ncluded 4 1-44).

s uggest

t he t he

D ating

s mall s cale

i n t he e arly 4 th m illennium b c

t he m ore h eavily p atinated m icrolithic m aterial

m ay

a ssociated. S ites

i n

m ay r epresent t hese a reas, a rtifacts,

t he v icinity o f

S eascale

( Map 2 3)

( Cherry

1 967,

f ig.5)

s omewhat l ater a ctivity. T uff h as n ot b een f ound i n a nd s crapers a nd k nives c omprise t he b ulk o f t he f lint

a lthough

o ne m icrolith w as

8 7

f ound a t

B urnt M oor a nd

s ome

o f

t he f lint

c ores

p roduced s mall b lades a nd

f lakes

( ibid,

f ig.3,

T able

p .15). " Sickle g loss" w as n oted o n a f lint b lade f rom S tony-How ( ibid, f ig.2.36) a nd a xes w ere f ound a t B ailey G round a nd S tony-How, w ith a t hird k nown a s a 1 9th c entury f ind n ear H allsenna. O ne a rrowhead o f b arbed a nd

t anged f orm w as

c ollected a t

S eascale v illage.

I t i s p ossible t hat t hese s ites o f S t. B ees, E skmeals a nd S eascale r epresent d ifferent p hases i n t he l ater M esolithic a nd N eolithic o ccupation o f t he C umbrian c oast, b ut t his r emains i n e xcavated a nd s ecurely d ated c ontexts.

h eads

t o b e

d emonstrated

I t i s n otable t hat o n t hese m ore c oherent s ites v ery h ave b een f ound, n or a re a ny r ecorded f rom T hirlings.

f ew a rrowT his m ight

b e s een t o s upport t he s uggestion p reviously m ade ( p.83) t hat a b ias e xists i n t he d iscovery a nd r ecording o f f lint s ites d epending u pon t he t ypes o f r ecognisable f lint w ork t hey p roduce. B y a p rocess o f f inder s election a rrowheads a nd p erhaps a lso s crapers, m ay b e o ver-represented i n s urface c ollections o f f lint. A s w ell a s t he s ites n oted a bove, f ragments o f v olcanic t uff h ave a lso b een r ecorded w ith f lints a t T rough E nd, W alney I sland ( Barnes a nd H obbs 1 951; B arnes 1 970). f laking q ualities o f t his s tone w ould h ave r endered i t a u seful

T he r aw

m aterial a nd i n s ome c ases p arts o f b roken a xes w ould a ppear t o h ave b een u tilised f or s maller t ools ( p.89). C ores o f t uff a t E skmeals, s ite 6a nd a t S t. B ees w ould h owever s uggest t hat a t t hese s ites t he r aw m aterial w as d eliberately i mported o nto t he s ite f or t he p roduction o f

s mall t ools, T he

a nd d oes n ot

s ignificance

o f

r epresent a

t he

r e-use o f b roken a xes.

m icrolithic

-

c omponent

i n

s ome

f lint

s catters, a s a t C hatton S andyford, C orby's C rags, B owden D oors, G oatscrag A a nd B , a nd K irkhill, W est H epple r emains p roblematic. I t s eems a l ittle u nwise t o c ategorise t hese s ites a s h aving h ad M esolithic

o ccupation,

o n

t he b asis o f

a s l ittle a s

o ne

m icrolith,

a lthough c onsistent u se t hrough t ime o f a f avoured l ocation, l eaving a m ixed r esidue o f f lint t ypes, r emains a p ossibility. B ut i n a n a rea w ithout l ocal s ources o f f lint s uch r aw m aterial w ould b e a t a p remium a nd t ools m ight, i n g eneral, h ave b een w orked a nd r e-worked u ntil m uch s maller i n s ize t han t hose i n a reas w here f lint w as r eadily a vailable. T he m icrolithic c omponent a t s ites w hich p roduce a rrowheads, s crapers a nd o ther f orms m ore c haracteristic o f N eolithic a nd B ronze A ge a ssemblages m ight r epresent c onsiderable t hrift i n t he u se o f s carce r esources,

r ather t han t he r emnants

o f h ypothetical M esolithic o ccupa-

t ion. S everal f lints " of M esolithic f orm" a re r ecorded f rom a h ut s ite a t B racken R igg, U pper T eesdale, w here c harcoal f rom o ne o f t he p osth oles g ave 1 978, 8 -9).

a

d ate o f

C onnections

1 230 ± 6 0 b c

b etween I reland a nd

( HAR 2 414)

( Fairless

t he n orth o f

E ngland,

a nd

C oggins

p articularly

C umbria, i ndicated b y f inds o f l arge B allyclare-type b arbed a nd t anged a rrowheads ( p.85), a re a lso s uggested b y e xamples o f h ollow s crapers, a c lassic I rish f lint

t ype

( Herity a nd E ogan 1 977,

4 2,

f ig.14),

a t H igh

S ellafield, D rigg, E skmeals, s ites 2 a nd 6 , S eascale B ailey G round, t he s andhills a nd C ow L eys L ane, W alney I sland a nd a t G reymare H ill F arm. A s w ith t he B allyclare a rrowheads, t he f inds c ome p redominantly f rom C umbria. S crapers f lint

a re

s catters.

t he m ost c onsistently r ecurring t ool I t

h as

b een

8 8

s uggested

t hat

t his

t ype i n a ll t he a rtifact

i s

p articularly

r elated

o ften i n a reas r elative

o f

t o

t he k eeping o f

s ummer

p roportions

p asture

o f

l ivestock,

( Bradley 1 978,

t he v arious

t ool

a nd 4 5,

t ypes

s crapers,

b ut

a t

t he S eascale

t he m aterial

o ther t wo s crapers

s ites, m ay

i ndustries.

s ites

A lthough t he

c annot

c ompared f or a ll t he n orth o f E ngland m aterial, i t t he s ites a t E skmeals a nd S t. B ees m ore b lades A s

s kin p reparation, 5 6).

u sefully

b e

c an b e n oted t hat a t a re r ecorded t han

s crapers w ould s eem t o p redominate.

f rom S eascale

i s

a nd p ossibly r epresent a

o f l ater d ate, t he o bserved f requency o f r eal d ifference b etween t hese f lint

I n g eneral

t erms

g enerally d ifferent

h owever,

i t

s eems

f rom t hat

l ikely

t hat

a t

t he

t he

s craper

w as a u seful m ulti-purpose t ool i n N eolithic a nd B ronze A ge a ssemblages ( ibid, 4 5), a s w ere a lso b lade t ool f orms. M ost o f t he C umbrian c oastal

s ites

p roximity e conomic

o ne

f rom

w hich

t o a nother,

a ctivities w ere

f lint a nd

b eing

i t

s catters s eems

c arried

a re

k nown

u nlikely

o ut

a t

a re

i n

c lose

t hat w idely d ifferent

a djacent

s ites.

F lintwork s ites w ith a xes a nd a xe f ragments A

n umber o f

w hich h ave

s tone a xes

p roduced

c onsidered

t o

I sland

e xample,

f or

d unes,

f lint

a nd

a xe

f ragments

s catters,

b e d irectly a ssociated e ighteen a xes

w ith a m ixture o f

o f

C oniston g rit,

b een f ound c annot

w ith e ach o ther

o r

f ragments

o ther m aterial,

s iltstone,

( p.83).

h ave

i n a reas

g enerally b e O n W alney

b een f ound i n s and

b oth p rehistoric a nd

d ate. A s w ell a s a xes a nd f ragments o f f ragments o f o ther t ypes o f s tone h ave a lso f lakes

h ave

a lthough t hese

l ater i n

p robable L angdale o rigin, b een i dentified, i ncluding

g rey g ritstone,

a nd p orcellanite,

p robably f rom T ievebulliagh o r R athlin I sland ( Group I X) ( Cross 6 7-76, f ig.3). O ther ' foreign c onnections a re i ndicated b y t he R onaldsway

t ype

a xe

o f

a t

Among t he m ore c oncentrated f lint s catters, a xes h ave b een f ound E skmeals a nd S eascale. I n g eneral t hese s ites h ave n ot p roduced

m icrolithic f lints,

f rom B ailey G round,

b ut

m ainly s crapers

S eascale

1 947, s tone

a nd

( Fig.33).

b lades,

H allsenna, S tony-how a nd B ailey G round. T he E skmeals w as f ound a djacent t o t he s outh e nd o f

a nd

i n • f lint

h ave

s catters

N EOLITHIC P OTTERY

b een f ound

a mongst

f or e xample a t

r ough-out a xe f rom s ite 2 , w hich m ay

r epresent t he l ater o ccupation o f t he a rea. p articularly o f G roup V I r ock, w ere u sed t o p roduce ( p.88)

a s

A xe o ther

f ragments, t ool t ypes

o ccupation d ebris w ith b urials

a nd

a t G reymare H ill F arm a nd H igh S ellafield.

( Catalogue

1 4)

T he s mall a mount o f N eolithic p ottery f rom t he n orth o f E ngland i s i nsufficient f or t he c onstruction o f a ny r egional s cheme o f p ottery t ypology

a nd

s outhern

E ngland

c hronology

t o

p lace

a nd Y orkshire

b etween t he b etter

( Smith I .F.

1 974,

k nown 1 06-123)

w ares a nd

o f t he

s omewhat m ore i diosyncratic s tyles f ound i n S cotland ( McInnes 1 969). T hree b road c lasses o f w ares c an h owever b e r ecognised, w hich m ay b e c ompared

w ith

B ritain, f orms o f

n amely, a nd i n c hronological o rder, t he p lain r ound-based t he G rimston-Lyles H ill s eries, d ecorated s tyles k nown

t he g eneral d evelopment

o f

p ottery

s tyles

e lsewhere

i n

c ollectively a s P eterborough w are, a nd G rooved W are. D etails o f t his m aterial f ound i n t he r egion, t he m ajority o f w hich o ccurred a s s tray

8 9

f inds, a re l isted N eolithic p ottery,,

i n C atalogue 1 4. T wo s ites w hich T hirlings a nd O ld Y eavering, h ave

e xcavated a nd r ecorded m uch l ess p recise.

i n d etail,

G rimston-Lyles H ill s eries

h ave b een

p roduced r ecently

b ut e arlier e xcavation r ecords

a re

( Map 2 4)

N orth-east

C umbria

B roomhill H arlow H ill O ld B ewick

E henside T arn W alney I sland

O ld Y eavering T hirlings P lain p ottery f rom t he s ites

l isted a bove m ay b e c lassified a s

o f

t he G rimston-Lyles H ill s eries, t he e arliest, m ost w idely d istributed a nd l ongest s urviving N eolithic p ottery t ype, w ith r adiocarbon d ates s panning t he p eriod f rom t he e arly 4 th t o t he e arly 2 nd m illennium b c ( Smith I .F. 1 974, 1 06-8, f igs.13 a nd 1 4; G reen 1 976, T able I II). C haracteristically t he r ange o f f orms k nown i n t he G rimston-Lyles H ill s eries i s e xtremely l imited, c onsisting o f u ndecorated c arinated o r S p rofile b owls, w ith a f ew h emispherical c ups o r s mall b owls, t hese f orms b eing f ound n ot o nly o n s ettlement s ites, b ut a lso i n a ssociation w ith b urials i n l ong a nd r ound b arrows a nd c hambered t ombs, a nd w ith a v ariety o f c eremonial m onuments ( Smith I .F. 1 974, 1 08, 2 82-3). T hese v essel f orms a re f ound i n t he n orth o f E ngland i n a f unerary c ontext a t B roomhill ( Greenwell 1 877, 4 10), o n s ettlement s ites a t T hirlings ( Miket 1 976) a nd E henside T arn ( Darbishire 1 873), a nd i n a ssociation w ith t he ' ceremonial w estern r ing d itch a nd a p ossible c remation b urial a t O ld Y eavering ( Hope-Taylor 1 977, A ppendix I I). T he s herds a t B roomhill i nclude b oth s imple b owl a nd c arinated b owl f orms, w ith g ritty i nclusions " such a s w eather o ut o f t he l ocal s andstone" ( Newbigin 1 935, 1 52) s uggesting p erhaps l ocal m anufacture. P iggott n oted t wo t ypes o f f abric a mongst t he p lain s herds f rom E henside T arn ( Fig.40) c ontrasting t he g ritty f abric o f t he S -profile b owl w ith t he f iner b urnished c arinated b owls ( Piggott 1 931, 9 6, 1 43, f igs.7.1 a nd 7 .2-4), e arliest

a d istinction p reviously n oted b y D arbishire ( 1873, 2 91). r adiocarbon d ate a t E henside, o btained f rom c harred w ood,

— 300 b c

( C-462)

c ould b e

r elevant t o

T he 3 014

t his m aterial.

O ver 4 00 s herds r ecovered f rom p it F 366 a t T hirlings a re a lso o f t he G rimston-Lyles H ill s eries, w ith b oth p lain a nd c arinated b owl f orms ( Figs.41 a nd 4 3) i n a r ange o f s izes ( Miket 1 976, f igs.7.7 7 .9). T wo t ypes o f f abric a re p resent, t he f irst r ather c orky w ith a p itted s ites,

s urface, w hich M iket c ompares w ith t hat k nown o n Y orkshire a nd t he s econd f requently h ighly b urnished a nd w ith i nclusions

c omparable w ith m aterial

f ound i n l ocal g ravels

( ibid,

1 14).

A r adio-

c arbon d ate o f 5 250 ± 1 50 b c ( HAR844) f rom t his f eature i s c onsidered a s a nomalous, a m ore l ikely d etermination b eing t hat o f 3 280 ± 1 50 b c ( HAR877) f or a p ost-pit n earby, w hich c ontained a v irtually i dentical g roup o f p ottery, o ne s herd o f w hich j oined a nother f rom p it F 366 ( ibid,

1 18).

N o d ates h ave b een o btained f or t he o ther g roup o f r ecently e xcavated m aterial a t O ld Y eavering, w here a n umber o f p rehistoric f eatures

w ere d iscovered,

i ncluding a l arge f ragment o f

9 0

a

c arinated

G rimston-Lyles H ill s eries

b owl

a djacent

o ther

c remation,

a nd

( Fig.43.3), r im

p ossibly a ssociated w ith a n

f ragments

o f

t he

s ame

s eries

( Fig.43.2) i n t he m ake-up o f t he f loor o f a l ater b uilding ( Hope-Taylor 1 977, 3 53, f ig.123.1-7 a nd 3 45, f ig.119). T wo s lightly d ifferent t ypes o f f abric h ave a lso b een r ecognised a mongst t he G rimston s herds a t t his s ite ( ibid, 3 53). A s mall p lain h emispherical b owl f ound a t O ld B ewick ( Fig.43.1) a nd s mall s herds p ossibly o f G rimston t ype f rom H arlow H ill a nd T rough E nd, W alney I sland c omplete t he c atalogue o f t his t ype o f m aterial k nown i n t he r egion. D ecorated " Peterborough" w ares N orth-east

( Map 2 4)

C umbria

A llendale

B rougham

A lnwick C atcote F ord C astle F ord

E henside T arn W alney I sland

H asting H ill H eatherwick K yloe C rags O ld Y eavering T hirlings

u nder 1 11).

T he d ecorated p ottery f rom t he r egiän w ill h ere b e c onsidered t he g eneral h eading o f " Peterborough" w are ( Smith I .F. 1 974, U ntil m ore i s k nown o f l ocal s equences i n t he r egion, i t s eems

i nappropriate t o a pply a ny s tylistic c lassification w hich m ay b e v alid o nly f or t he s outhern p art o f B ritain. I n S cotland, w here t he a pplicat ion

o f

t he E bbsfleet,

M ortlake a nd F engate c lassification h as

b een

f ound i nappropriate, t he t erm " impressed w are" h as b een s uggested t hese p ottery t ypes ( McInnes 1 969, 2 2). I n

t he

n orth o f E ngland

t his m aterial

i s v aried

i n

f orm,

f or

w ith

i ncised, i mpressed a nd t wisted c ord d ecoration. A s mall h emispherical b owl w ith v ertical i ncised l ines a nd a r im s herd w ith a n i nternal b evel w ith i ncised a nd i mpressed d ecoration c ame f rom a r ound m ound a t H asting H ill ( Fig.44.2-3) a nd m ay h ave b een a ssociated w ith d isarticulated

i nhumations.

L ongworth h as

o rigin f or t he s herds f ound " near F ord", t hese c ame f rom t he s ite a t C rookham. ( Fig.45) a re c ombination o f

a lso s uggested a

f unerary

b ut t here i s n o e vidence t hat T he c onical b owls f rom F ord

t he m ost e laborately d ecorated i n t he r egion, w ith a i ncised h erringbone d esigns a nd t wisted c ord d ecoration,

i n c oncentric s emi-circles o n t he r im a nd o bliquely o n t he b ody. E lements o f t he c ircle p attern o n t he r ims m ay b e c ompared w ith t he l ess

c arefully w orked d esigns T he

l arge

r ound

o n s herds

f rom T hirlings

b ottomed p ot f rom F ord w ith

( Fig.47).

t wisted

c ord

a nd

i ncised d ecoration i s c omparable i n s ize a nd s hape w ith v essels f rom K yloe C rags ( Fig.46.2) a nd t he n orth s ide o f E henside T arn ( Fig.44.4). R ound b ased b owls w ith i mpressed d ecoration f rom H eatherwick, A llendale a nd

B rougham ( Figs.44 a nd 4 6)

a re a lso a like i n s hape,

w ith a

g roove

b eneath a r ounded r im. R ounded o r s lightly f lattened d ecorated r im s herds f rom O ld Y eavering w ere f ound i n a ssociation w ith t he w estern

9 1

r ing

d itch

c omplex,

w hich a lso

p roduced A OC

p ossible s herds o f.the G rimston-Lyles ( Hope-Taylor 1 977, 3 53-4, f ig.123). A F 466,

v ariety w hich

v essels

f ragments,

a nd o f G rooved

f rom T hirlines w ere

f ound i n b c

a nd W are

p it

( HAR1451)

1 19). V essel f orms i ncluded l arge b owls, a nd t all, w ide w ith s imple r ims, d ecorated i n i ncised, t wisted c ord a nd i mpressed

A d ate r ange " Peterborough" w are b e

d ecorated

B eaker

s eries

p roduced a r adiocarbon d ate o f 2 130 - 1 30

( Miket 1 976, m outhed p ots f inger n ail

o f

H ill

a pplicable

t echniques

( Figs.47 a nd 4 8).

f rom t he m id 3 rd t o t he m id 2 nd m illennium b c i n s outhern B ritain ( Smith I .F. 1 974, f ie.17)

i n t he n orth o f E ngland.

O nly t wo d ates 2 130 - 1 90

f or m ay b c

a nd 1 970 ± 1 00 b c ( Gak 1 398 a nd G ak 1 396) a re a vailable f or " impressed" w ares i n S cotland, b oth f rom G randtully, P erthshire ( McInnes 1 969). G rooved W are

( Map 2 4)

N orth-east E wart

C umbria

I

F ord, R ed S car O ld Y eavering

W alney

I sland

w are,

w ith w hich i t

B ridge

T hirlings U nlike t emporary

" Peterborough" G rooved W are

( Smith I .F. t ype

s ite

s tone

1 17-8,

a t R inyo,

d istinct M anby's

1 974,

s tudy h as t ool

t ypes

f ig.16)

w ith w hich

r are i n C umbria,

c omes

o f

w ith i ts

i t

i s

f rom

' domestic'

t erms

2 43,

a f ar f lung

a re

d eposit,

p it

i n

( p.100),

v essel

f ig.6,

2 1-22,

A s ingle, ( Fig.50.4) i s g rooves

a nd T he

F ord

v essel

s herds,

w ith

a re

c onsists

c ould o f

i n w hich j oining

t he p it f ill, 1 977, 3 48-9, a lso

l arge,

t ogether w ith a f ig.120). T he

b e

i nterpreted

f orms w ere

a lso

f ound a t

i n

s traight-sided v essels, a nd f inger a nd 1 22).

s ite V I a t

t he n orth

o n t hese t he d ecoration i s n ot i n c hevrons o r o blique l ines

i s

e nd

a pplied, ( Barnes,

f ig.7.23).

l arge a nd v ery t hick s herd f rom R ed S car W ood, d ecorated i n a p attern o f t riangles, o utlined

i nfilled w ith o val t riangular

a t O ld Y eavering

A s a nd

a lthough w ell

e xamination s uggests t hat m ore t han o ne t ype o f f abric i n t he a ssemblage f rom O ld Y eavering ( ibid, 3 49-51).

S imilar

m arks.

f lint

a ssociation,

a t O ld Y eavering,

w hich

o f W alney I sland ( Fig.51), b ut b ut i s i ncised o r i mpressed, 1 956,

9 7).

a nd a v ariety o f

e laborately d ecorated w ith r aised b ands a nd c ordons, g rooves n ail a nd s tamped i mpressions ( Fig.49) ( ibid, f igs.121 M acroscopic r epresented

r egionally

f igs.96 a nd

o ften f ound

c on-

B ritain

F our G rooved W are s ites a re n ow k nown i n t he a nd o ne i n C umbria. T he o nly e xcavated

f rom a ' ritual

t his

p art,

t he e xception o f

N orthumberland a nd D urham ,

s herds w ere f ound i n d ifferent l ayers o f p ossible c remation d eposit ( Hope-Taylor p ottery

i n

t hroughout

f our s ub-styles

( 1974) G rooved W are,

r epresented i n Y orkshire. n orth o f N orthumberland m aterial

a nd,

n one

a nd L ongworth 1 971,

s hown

i s,

f ound w idely d istributed

O rkney,

( Wainwright

c omparatively

i s

( Fig.50.1)

w ould r aised

i mpressions

d esign i s

s eem t o

( Hope-Taylor b e m uch

c ordons,

a nd

s ome

c omparable w ith t hat

w ere

9 2

1 977,

l arger. f ound

d eeper

c ircular

f ound o n a s herd

f ig.121.6) P ossible d uring

F ord w ith

a lthough G rooved

f ield-walking

t he W are a t

T hirlings

( Miket 1 976,

1 19,

f ig.7.5.15)

a nd o ther s herds,

G rooved W are t ype a re a lso r eported i n t he l ower f ill o f I p it a lignment ( Miket 1 978, 1 -2). R adiocarbon

d ates f rom S tonehenge,

p ossibly o f

t he E wart P ark

t he D urrington W alls m onument

a nd a djacent s ettlement, a nd M arden, a ll i n W iltshire i ndicate a d ate r ange f or G rooved W are f rom c 2 180 t o 1 520 b e ( Wainwright a nd L ongworth 1 971, 2 65-6; S mith I .F. 1 974, 1 19) t o w hich m ay b e a dded d ates f rom F engate, N orthants. c 2 030 t o 1 930 b c ( RAR 3 97, 3 99, 4 01 a nd 4 04), H unstanton, N orfolk 1 736 7 1 : + 6 36 b c ( BM-704) M ount P leasant, D orset 2 038 - 84 b c ( BM-667) a nd 1 961 - 89 b c ( BM-663) a nd S tacey B ushes 1 830 - 1 50 b c ( HAR858), w hich s ubstantiate t his r ange e lsewhere i n t he s outh o f E ngland. T he d istribution o f t he i ndividual p ottery t ypes d iscussed a bove i s w idespread, a ll b eing k nown i n b oth C umbria a nd t he n orth-east, b ut s parse, a rea i s

d ue

t o

t he s mall n umber o f

( Map 2 4).

e xamples o f

e ach t ype f ound i n

t he

T he o nly g eographical c lustering o f e ach p ottery t ype

i n t he n orth o f N orthumberland,

b ut a s

t he a mount o f m aterial k nown

i s e xtremely s mall, a nd t he c hronological s pan o f N eolithic c eramics v ery l ong, i t i s n ot a ppropriate t o s uggest c ontinuous o ccupation o f t he a rea o n t he b asis o f t he c eramic e vidence. T he o ccurrence o f d ifferent N eolithic p ottery t ypes a t T hirlings, O ld Y eavering, W alney I sland a nd E henside T arn m ight, h owever, s uggest t he r epeated u se o f p articular l ocations o ver a l ong p eriod o f t ime. C hronological e vidence f rom t he s outh o f E ngland i ndicates t hat b oth d ecorated a nd G rooved W are c ould h ave b een c ontemporary w ith B eaker c eramics, w hich a re k nown p rimarily f rom b urial c ontexts ( P.146ff) a nd w hich a re a lso w ell

r epresented i n t he v alley o f

t he R iver T ill.

S ome o verlap

e ven

b etween t he G rimston-Lyles H ill s eries a nd G rooved W are i s s uggested b y t he a ssociation o f t hese t wo t ypes i n f eature 8 a t S tacey B ushes ( Green 1 976,

1 6). T he

m acroscopic i dentification o f

d ifferent f abrics

a mongst

t he

G rimston w are s herds a t T hirlings a nd E henside, a nd t he G rimston a nd G rooved W are m aterial a t O ld Y eavering s uggests e ither t he e xploitation o f m ore t han o ne s ource o f c lay b y a c ommunity, o r a n e xchange o f c eramics

a mong

( Peacock 1 969,

S ETTLEMENT

d ifferent g roups,

a s

i dentified i n

s outhern

E ngland

1 46-7).

S ITES

O nly t wo s ites i n t he n orth o f E ngland h ave p roduced a s ufficient v ariety o f m aterial t o j ustify t heir i nclusion u nder t he c ategory o f N eolithic s ettlement s ites, n amely E henside T arn i n C umberland a nd T hirlings

i n N orthumberland.

E henside T arn

t o

I n 1 869, M r. J ohn Q uayle a t enant f armer o f M iddle E henside c aused b e d rained a s mall s heet o f w ater k nown a s E henside ( or G ibb) T arn,

o ne o f a s eries o f s uch t arns w hich p reviously e xisted b etween t he E hen R iver a nd t he s ea. A n o utfall t rench 1 5ft d eep a t t he l ake s ide w as

9 3

c ut

u p

f rom t he

t he R ev.

S .

o peration,

t wo

r ecognised D arbishire t ion

o f

r iver

t o

t he e asterly

P inhorne w ho n oticed, s tone

a xes

c orner o f

t hrown u p b y

a nd

s ome

a s p rehistoric a rtifacts. a dded f urther a rtifacts t o t he

m aterial

a rchaeological

f rom E henside

l iterature

a s

a

t he

w ooden

a nd

i n 1 873,

s ite

w as

w hich

e xcavations a nd w ith t he t he

i t

d uring t his

i mplements

I n 1 871 t he t otal

p ossible

l ake,

t he d rainers

h e

b y R .D. p ublica-

e ntered

s ettlement

s ite

t he

o f

t he

N eolithic p eriod, o ne o f t he v ery f ew t o h ave s urviving w ooden a rtifacts a nd e vidence o f t he g rinding a nd p olishing o f s tone a xes f rom t heir r oughed-out s tate. A s w ell a s t he a ccount b y D arbishire, t hree o ther s ources o f i nformation e xist f or t his s ite. F irst, s mall-scale a rchaeological e xcavations w ere c arried o ut i n 1 957 b y S tuart P iggott a nd

B rian B lake,

a rea e xcavated c onstructed s amples t hirdly, w ood

f or

w ho

e xamined

b y D arbishire. t he

s ite b y D .

a n a rea o f

t he l ake m argin c lose

S econd,

t wo p ollen d iagrams

W alker,

o ne o f w hich w as

t o

h ave

t he b een

p repared

f rom

c ut f rom P iggott a nd B lake's t rench ( Walker 1 966, 9 6), a nd t hree s eparate r adiocarbon d eterminations h ave b een m ade o n

f rom b oth t he

o bvious

1 9th a nd 2 0th c entury e xcavations.

d ifficulties

i n t he

s tudy o f

t imes a nd i n d ifferent w ays c orrelate s ome o f t he f indings

m aterial

f rom t he s ame s ite, i t o f a ll t he e xcavations.

' Notes o n d iscoveries a t E henside T arn, A fter

t he

d iscovery

o f

W hile

c ollected

v arious

C umberland s tone a nd

a t

i s

t here a re d ifferent

p ossible

t o

1 873 w ooden

o bjects

w hen

E henside T arn w as d rained, D arbishire u ndertook e xcavations o f h is o wn i n 1 871. T hese c onsisted o f t renching a nd t urning o ver t o a d epth o f 8 ft t he e xposed b ed o f t he t arn o n i ts s outh-east s ide f rom a p oint a bout 5 0ft f rom t he r ecent w aterline t o t he s hore a nd e xtending, p arallel o f

t o

t he

t he e xposed

m ethod

o f

b each l ine, b oggy

f or a bout 3 00ft

s urface

' excavation'

( Darbishire

l eaves m uch

t o

r ound

1 873, b e

t he e asterly

2 78,

d esired,

p l.VII).

t he

D arbishire g ave

f ull a nd c lear d escription o f t he s tratigraphy o f t he l ake m arginal d eposits, w hich c onsisted o f t he f ollowing l ayers i ng

c orner

W hile

a

b ed a nd i ts ( in d escend-

s equence):

( 1) ( 2)

r ecent w ater l evel b oggy s oil w ith r oots

( 3)

f orest b ed w ith 4 ft t hick

( 4)

l eaf

( 5)

S phagnum

b ed,

( 6)

f ine g rey

( 7) ( 8)

l ake m argin o r m arl w ith m any

w ithoug s and

a nd

l eaves, t wigs

l eaves

o f

w ater p lants,

b ranches a nd o r b ranches,

t runks 3 - 4 ft

o f

l ft

t hick

f allen t rees,

3

t hick

( lake-bed) b each s tones

a nd m uch

s and.

T he t rees i n t he ' forest b ed' a ppeared t o h ave f allen i nwards, t owards t he l ake, a nd t heir r oots w ere r otted o ff. A lso i n t he s ame l ayer w ere f ragments o f O smunda r egalis ( Royal F ern), g rows o n t he b etter d rained l ocalities i n f ens a nd b ogs p eaty

s oil

t hroughout

( Godwin 1 975, a ll o f

8 9-90).

T his

t he a rea e xamined,

s tratigraphy w as f or a t

t he

t he f ormer t arn, t he s andy b ottom w as c overed w ith o nly a v ery s hallow d eposit o f l ake-weeds, t hen w hich 2 80).

s helved

v ery

p reviously I t w as

a t

s teeply i nto a d eep p it e xisted

t his

i n t he c entre o f

p oint

t hat

t he

9 4

t o

r emains

n ot

s outh-east

c onsistent c orner

o f

f or f ive o r s ix y ards t wigs a nd l eaves, a nd t he e ast

t he

w hich u sually a nd i n w oods o n

t arn

f ound

o f

t he

i sland

( Darbishire b y M r.

Q uayle

1 873, a nd

t he R ev.

S .

P inhorne c hiefly o ccurred a nd

t o a scribe t hese o bjects o utlined a bove.

i t

i s n ot

t herefore p ossible

t o a ny p osition i n t he s tratigraphic

O f t he o bjects c ollected b y D arbishire, e ight, p ot-boilers a nd b ones o f B os l ongifrons w ere

s equence

p lus s ome p ossible r ecorded s trati-

g raphically. T hese c onsist o f t wo r ough-out a xes ( Fig.21), t wo w ooden ' clubs', t wo g rinding s tones, a b ow s haped p iece o f w ood ( Fig.52) a nd a f ragment o f a w ooden b owl. W ith t he e xception o f t he c ontradictory a ccounts o f t he p osition o f t he w ooden b owl f ragment ( ibid, 2 80 2 89), a ll o f t hese o bjects w ere e ither f ound i ncorporated i n

a nd t he

' forest b ed o r a t t he b ase o f i t, o n t he s urface o f t he ' leaf b ed'. U nfortunately i t i s n ot r ecorded h ow f ar f rom t he o ld s hore l ine t he o bjects w ere f ound, n or h ow s cattered o r c lustered w as t heir d istribut ion i n t he a rea e xcavated. P erhaps t he m ost n otable o bject f ound b y D arbishire f or w hich n o s tratigraphic r ecord i s g iven i s t he p olished a xe w ith t he w ooden h aft s till r emaining ( Fig.22) ( ibid, P ottery w as f ound b oth o n t he l ake b ed o n t he n orth s ide o f t he t arn a nd i n s ome q uantity a t t he s outh-east c orner ( pp.90-92) ( Figs.40 a nd 4 4). H earths ' about t wo y ards i n d iameter' ( ibid, 2 80, p l.VII) w ere s een a t v arious p laces a round t he s hore a nd w ere a lso n oted a mongst t he b ranches, t hat i s, p resumably i n t he ' forest-bed' n earer t o t he s hore. E xcavations b y P iggott a nd B lake,

1 957

I n 1 957 s mall-scale a rchaeological e xcavations w ere c arried o ut o n t he e astern t arn m argin,

i mmediately t o t he n orth o f

t he a rea

' turned

o ver b y D arbishire ( Walker 1 966, 9 1-2). I n t he s teeply s loping t arn m argin t he f ollowing s tratigraphy w as d escribed, t he m ajor d ivisions o f w hich c an b e c orrelated w ith l ayers d escribed b y D arbishire. P iggott a nd B lake

D arbishire

( 1)

c oarse d etritus m ud a nd

( 2)

b oggy s oil a nd w ater p lants

( 2)

l ake p lants f ine d etritus m ud

( 3)

e nd o f t he d eposits) t ree t runk ' platform', m ud,

( 3)

f orest b ed

( 4)

l eaf b ed

( 6)

l ake b ed

t wigs, ( 4)

b oulders,

( lakeward

s and a nd

g ravel c oarser d etritus m ud w ith l eaves

( 5)

W oody d etritus m ud a nd a nd s mall b ranches

t wigs

( 6) ( 7)

f ine b rown d etritus m ud s ilty c lay/lenses o f d isturbed s and a nd c lay

G ravel, s and a nd l arge s tones w ere f ound a mongst t he t ree t runks o f l ayer ( 3). I t h as b een s uggested t hat t hese t imbers f ormed p art o f a n a rtificial p latform o n t he e dge o f

t he l ake.

S ome o f

t he b utts o f

t he

t rees w ere t apered b ut n o a xe m arks w ere i dentified ( ibid, 9 0, p 1.2). H owever, t he t imbers a ppear t o b e s loping a t s ome c onsiderable a ngle l akewards, a s d o a ll t he m arginal d eposits, a nd i t s eems a l ittle u nlikely t hat t hese f ormed a ny s ort o f s tructure. W alker s uggests t hat a lthough t hese t rees c ould n ot h ave g rown i n s itu i t i s j ust p ossible t hat t hey g rew ' sufficiently c lose b y t o h ave f allen n aturally i nto t he l ake-edge m ire,

p articularly a t a t ime w hen t he s oil o f

9 5

t he s urrounding

.

s lopes w as d isturbed, a nd s and ( ibid, 9 0). P ollen

s amples

a s

i s e videnced b y t he s pread o f

b oulders,

f rom t he a rchaeological t rench ( diagram

g ravel

E henside

T arn B ) s how a h iatus i n t he d eposits c orresponding w ith t he t imber ' platform' l ayer. T he r easons f or t his h iatus a re u nknown, b ut c ould h ave h ad a n a nthropogenic o rigin ( ibid, 1 15-6). T he l onger p ollen p rofile f rom E henside T arn i s d iscussed i n C hapter 1 . R adiocarbon d eterminations

t his

T hree r adiocarbon d eterminations s ite, a s f ollows:

C harred w ood

h ave b een m ade f or m aterial

( of u ncertain p rovenance)

C -462

3 014 l i e -3 00 b c

W ooden i mplement ( collected b y P inhorne i n 1 869)

B M-68

1 580 ± 1 50 b c

S take

Q -303

( 2101 1H 7 1 15 b c

f rom ' occupation p latform'

( 2175 ( Radiocarbon 2 ,

1 960, 7 0;

3 ,

1 961,

2-

f rom

1 15 b c

4 0).

U nfortunately t he w ooden a xe h aft, w hich i s t he o nly w ooden a rtifact o f s pecifically N eolithic t ype f rom t he s ite h as n ot b een d ated. A lthough w hen f irst p ublished t he d ate o f 3 014 ± 3 00 b c w as c onsidered t o b e a rchaeologically u nacceptable f or t he N eolithic p eriod i n B ritain , t his w ould n ow f it e asily w ithin t he a ccepted d ate r ange f or t he p eriod. I n v iew o f t he p ollen e vidence f or t he o ccupation o f t his a rea f or m illennia i t i s p ossible t hat a ll t hree r adiocarbon d eterminations a re c orrect' a nd r elate t o v arious T he

v arious

t antalising

b ut

s ources

o f

p eriods

o f

t he s ite's u se.

i nformation

s omewhat i nconclusive.

f or

E henside

P ollen e vidence,

T arn

a re

r adiocarbon

d eterminations a nd a rtifacts f rom t he s ite s uggest t hat t he a rea o f t he t arn w as i n u se f or o ver t wo m illennia. A ctivity i n t he v icinity b egan b efore t he e lm d ecline a nd c ereal a griculture i s r ecorded f rom a bout t he m id 3 rd m illennium b c o nwards ( p.19). T he t arn m argins w ere u sed f or

a xe

g rinding a nd p olishing a nd p ottery a nd h earths

a lso

s uggest

s ome d omestic a ctivity. W ooden o bjects f rom t he s ite g ive s ome i dea o f t he l arge v ariety o f s uch t ools, c ontainers a nd w eapons w hich w ere i n u se d uring t he p rehistoric p eriod. T he r easons f or t he c essation o f a ccumulation o f t he t arn d eposits d uring l ocal z ones C 17 t o C 22a i nclusive ( from a bout 3 000 b e t o t he e arly i st m illennium A D) a re u nknown, b ut m ay b e c onnected w ith h uman o ccupation i n t he a rea a nd t he d isturbance o f

t he s urrounding s oils.

T hirlings L ike E henside T arn t he s ite a t T hirlings w ould a ppear t o h ave b een o ccupied o ver a c onsiderable p eriod, a lthough u se o f t he s ite m ay n ot h ave b een c ontinuous. P its a nd p ost-pits w ith N eolithic p ottery w ere d iscovered d uring t he e xcavation o f a n A nglo-Saxon s ettlement ( Miket 1 976), b ut a s y et n o s tructures a re s uggested f rom t he p attern o f t hese f eatures. w ith

d ates

G rimston-L les H ill a nd d ecorated w ares h ave b een i dentified o f 3 280 - 1 50 b c

( HAR877)

9 6

a nd 2 130

2:

1 30

b c

( HAR1451)

r espectively.

P ossible G rooved W are s herds w ere f ound i n f ieldwalking

( pp.92-93). P it F 366 w hich p roduced a l arge q uantity o f G rimston-Lyles H ill s herds a lso c ontained c arbonised f ragments o f h azel, o ak a nd b irch a nd p it F 466 w hich p roduced l ater d ecorated w ares i ncluded c arbonised h azel n ut s hells. I mmediately w ithin t he e dge o f a s imilar p it 4 m t o t he s outh-east o f F 466 w as a s andstone s addle q uern. A l arge n umber o f f lints w ere f ound a fter t he s ite h ad b een p loughed, b ut r elatively f ew c ame

f rom e xcavated f eatures.

N EOLITHIC B URIALS

I N T HE N ORTH O F E NGLAND

( Catalogue 1 5,

M ap 2 5)

T he m ost d istinctive a nd c haracteristic f orm o f b urial p ractised d uring t he e arlier p art o f t he N eolithic p eriod i n B ritain i s t hat o f c ommunal

i nhumation b eneath a l ong m ound,

b een f ound

t hroughout

t he c ountry.

o f w hich v arious

' Unchambered

f orms h ave

l ong b arrows a nd l ong

c airns, s ome a t l east o f w hich c overed t imber s tructures u sed p rior t o t he c onstruction o f t heir c overing m ounds, h ave b een r ecognised i n s outhern E ngland, i n p arts o f L incolnshire, Y orkshire a nd C umbria, a nd i n S cotland ( Ashbee 1 970, f igs.1 a nd 2 ; M anby 1 970, f ig.1; M egaw a nd S impson 1 979, f ig.3.4). I n t he w estern h alf o f B ritain t he c hambered t omb c onstruction p redominates ( Daniel 1 950; H enshall 1 963; P owell e t a l 1 969), i ncluding i n t he e arlier N eolithic t he C otswold-Severn g roup, p ortal d olmens, C lyde t ombs a nd ( in I reland) c ourt c airns a nd i n t he l ater N eolithic t he p assage g raves p articularly w ell-known i n S cotland a nd I reland ( Megaw a nd S impson, 1 12-25, 1 30-141). T he d istribution o f t hese v arious b arrow t ypes i n s outhern B ritain w as r ecently s ummarised b y W hittle ( 1977, 5 0-62, f ig.7). R ound b arrows w ith N eolithic b urials a re m uch l ess w ell k nown a nd a re c onsiderably f ewer i n n umber t han l ong m ounds, b ut a re w idely d istributed t hroughout t he c ountry ( Kinnes 1 979, f igs.4.1-4.3). f orm , w ith a

A rtifact v ariety o f

a ssociations s uggest t hat t he r ound b arrow a ssociated r ites, w as u sed t hroughout t he

N eolithic a nd i nto t he B eaker p eriod ( Chapter 3 ). A s mall n umber o f N eolithic f lat g raves w ith s ingle o r m ultiple b urials a re a lso r ecorded ( Kinnes 1 979, a ppendix 2 ), w hich p rovide s ome e vidence o f n onm onumental b urial p ractice. T he c omparatively s mall n umber o f b urials k nown f or t he w hole o f t he N eolithic p eriod t hroughout B ritain w ould s uggest t hat t he m onumental f orm o f b urial s ite, a nd i ts a ssociated p ractices a nd r ites, w as r eserved f or o nly a s mall p roportion o f t he p opulation. O nly

a

s mall n umber o f N eolithic b urial s ites a re k nown

i n

t he

n orth o f E ngland, b ut t hese i nclude b oth l ong c airns a nd r ound m ounds, w ith s ingle a nd m ultiple b urials, a nd t here i s a lso e vidence o f n onm onumental b urial p ractice i n t he a rea. T hese s ites a re l isted a nd d etailed

i n C atalogue 1 5.

S ites a nd p ractices:

l ong m ounds

L ong m ounds c omprise t he m ost n umerous g roup o f N eolithic b urial s tructures i n t he n orth o f E ngland, b ut o f t he 1 9 k nown e xamples o nly t hree,

R aiset

a dequately

P ike,

S kelmore

e xcavated a nd

H eads

r ecorded,

m aterial.

9 7

a nd

B ellshiel

a nd n one h as

L aw

h ave

p roduced a ny

b een

d atable

T he

m ost

s ubstantial e vidence o f

b urial p ractices

i n t his

d uring

t he N eolithic c omes

f rom t he t rapezoidal m ound o n R aiset

C rosby

G arrett

e xcavated

C CXXVIII,

b y C anon G reenwell i n

t he

r egion P ike, 1 9th

c entury ( Greenwell 1 877, 5 10-13). A lthough G reenwell's a ccount o f t he s ite l eaves m uch t o b e d esired, m any f eatures o f t he m ound's c onstruct ion a nd b urial d eposits m ay b e c ompared w ith d etails k nown f rom

o ther

l ong m ound e xcavations, f or e xample, i n Y orkshire a nd L incolnshire. T he m ain ' crematorium d eposit a t R aiset P ike l ay a long t he m ain a xis o f t he m ound, a t i ts w ider s outh-east e nd, b etween t wo r ows o f v ertical ' flues' o r v oids,

w hich e xtended f rom t he l evel o f

t he c remated r emains

t o t he t op o f t he m ound ( Fig.53). S tone a nd t imber h ad b een s tacked o ver t he d isarticulated a nd f ragmentary b odies, t erminating a t t he n orth-west e nd i n a s tanding s tone i n t he b ody o f t he m ound, a nd a t t he s outh-east e nd i n a l arge p it, w hich c ould h ave c ontained a t imber u pright. T hese f eatures h ave b een r e-interpreted a s t he r emains o f a m ortuary h ouse', t he u pright t imbers o f w hich a re r epresented b y t he v ertical ' flues - ( Ashbee 1 970, 1 32-3), s ome o f w hich s tructures p red ate t he e rection o f t he b arrow w hich u ltimately c overed t hem ( Manby 1 970, 8 ). H owever, i t s eems u nlikely t hat t he R aiset P ike t imbers e ver f ormed a f ree-standing r oofed ' house'. T he a bsence o f p ost-pits b elow t he n atural s urface s uggests t hat t he t imbers w ere n ot f ree-standing b ut w ere s upported b y t he b ody o f t he m ound, n or d oes t here a ppear t o h ave b een a ny s pace b etween t he t op o f t he ' flues' a nd t he s urface o f t he m ound f or a r oof. I t s eems m ore l ikely t hat t he t imbers w ere a n i ntegral p art o f t he m ound c onstruction, w hich w as f ired w hen v irtually c omplete. T he t rench s ome 1 5ft ( 4.57m) f rom t he s outh-east e nd o f t he c rematorium d eposit i s r ather s hort f or a f acade t rench, e ven i f ' degenerate' ( Manby 1 963, 1 93) ( although i t w ould h ave c oncealed t he b urials f rom v iew), a nd m ay h ave b een u sed a s a h earth f rom w hich t he b urning o f t he b urial d eposit w as f uelled. S ome p art o f t his e nd o f t he b arrow m ust h ave r emained o pen, a t l east t o s tart t he b urning. O f t he

6 - 7 b odies

i n t he m ain ' crematorium' d eposit,

t hree w ere a dults

a nd t hree o r f our y ounger p ersons. T he u nburnt b ones f ound a t v arious l evels i n t he o ther e nd o f t he m ound, t o t he n orth-west o f t he s econd s tanding s tone, a re s aid t o h ave b een m ainly o f c hildren. F rom t he m ounds a t B ellshiel L aw a nd S kelmore H eads t here a re n o r ecorded b urials. E xcavations a t t he e ast e nd o f t he l arge t rapezoidal m ound a t B ellshiel ( Newbigin 1 936) r evealed o nly a s omewhat d ubious ' grave'. T he p ossible r e-arrangement o f p art o f t he s tone k erb a round t his f eature m ight s uggest t hat i t p ost-dates t he c onstruction o f t he m ound, a nd t hat s tone f rom t his b efore m odern d isturbance. T he m uch s maller m ound a t

e nd o f

t he s tructure w as

S kelmore H eads

r emoved e ven

( Powell 1 963)

c ontained a

l ine o f f our s tanding s tones, b etween t wo o f w hich w as a d isturbed a rea w hich c ould h ave c ontained b urials ( Fig.54). B one a nd p ottery w ere s aid t o h ave b een r ecovered f rom t he s ite p reviously. A t B ellshiel L aw t he s tones

o f

t he m ound w ere f ound e mbedded i n a l ayer o f

p eat,

a nd a t

S kelmore H eads t he o ld t urf l ine w as r ecorded. A t n either s ite t heref ore w as t he g round s urface p repared b y s tripping b efore t he c onstruct ion o f t he m ound. I n c ommon w ith o ther s ites i n t he r egion t he s tone f orming t he m ounds w as s urface c ollected a nd q uarry d itches w ere n ot n eeded

( Manby 1 970, 4 ).

9 8

T he u nexcavated l ong b arrows t o o ver e xamples.

3 00ft

( 21

- 9 1m)

i n t he a rea r ange i n l ength f rom 7 0ft

c omparable i n

s ize

w ith

t he

e xcavated

O val m ound T he o val m ound C rosby G arrett C LXXIV ( Greenwell 1 877, 3 89-391) i s v ery s imilar i n s ize t o t he l ong m ound a t S kelmore H eads, a nd c ontained b oth i ndividual i nhumations a nd s cattered i nhumations a nd c remations ( Figs.54 a nd 5 5).

T he p rimary b urials o n t he n atural s urface b elow t he

m ound w ere t hree a dult m ale i nhumations, t wo o f w hich w ere a ccompanied b y g rave g oods ( Greenwell 1 877, f ig.157; K innes 1 979, f ig.18.9). E lsew here w ere f ound b urnt a nd u nburnt r emains o f a dults a nd c hildren, a nimal b ones, t hree s herds o f p ottery o f t he o rdinary d escription' ( now l ost) a nd a f ragment o f a p olished g reenstone a xe. T he t otal n umber o f i ndividuals r epresented i n t he m ound m ay h ave b een m ore t welve, a nd i t i s p ossible t hat a ll w ere c ontemporary.

t han

R ound m ounds A r ound

v ariety o f f unerary r ites a re a lso k nown f rom t he N eolithic b arrow b urials i n t he r egion. A t C opt H ill ( Trechmann 1 914) a

r ectangular s tone-lined ' crematorum p it w ith a ' flue' a t e ither e nd ( Fig.56) i s r eminiscent o f t he d eposit a t R aiset P ike; a s i s a lso t he d eposition o f d isarticulated a nd i ncomplete b odies w ithin i t. A t B roomhill, F ord C LXXXVIII ( Greenwell 1 877, 4 10), c remated r emains w ere d eposited i n p atches o n t he n atural s urface o f t he m ound a nd u nburnt d omestis d ebris w as s cattered w ith t hem. A t W arden L aw ( Trechmann 1 914) t he

t he b urial r ite w as b ones

o f

i nhumation,

a nd

t he ' disturbed' c ondition o f

a y oung a dult a nd a c hild c ould

b e

r e-interpreted

a s

d isarticulated r emains. F lint c ores a nd c hippings a nd a f ragment o f a g reenstone a xe w ere f ound o n t he n atural s urface, t o t he s outh-east o f t he b urials, a nd a h oard o f f lint i mplements i ncluding t wo l eaf a rrowh eads, a k nife, a n e nd s craper a nd t wo f lakes ( Green 1 980, n o.47) l ocated o nly n ine i nches b elow t he s urface o f t he m ound c ould b e a s econdary d eposit. H owever, a s d omestic d ebris w as f ound t he m ound, t hese d eposits m ay w ell a ll b e c ontemporary.

t hroughout

F ragments o f P eterborough w are ( p.91), r ecognised a mongst m aterial f rom a b arrow a t H asting H ill ( Trechmann 1 914; M anby

l ater 1 973),

m ay i ndicate a n e arlier p eriod o f u se o f t his p redominently B ronze A ge b urial m ound, w ith w hich s ome o f t he t en ' disturbed' i nhumations f ound t hroughout t he m ound m ay b e a ssociated. I n C umbria, t he b roken a nd d isjointed r emains o f a t l east n ine a dults a nd t wo c hildren b eneath a r ound c airn a t B ents H ill, C rosby G arrett C LXXIII ( Greenwell 1 877, 3 878 )

m ay a lso b e o f N eolithic d ate.

N o a rtifacts w ere f ound

w ith

t he

b urials, b ut t he s election o f c ertain p arts o f t he s keleton f or b urial, f or e xample t he l ongbones a nd c rania ( the s maller b ones b eing n otably a bsent), m ay b e c ompared w ith p ractices w ell N eolithic c ommunal b urials ( Kinnes 1 979, 7 0).

r epresented e lsewhere i n

T here i s n o e vidence o f b urials a t c airn E , C hatton S andyford ( Jobey 1 968) o r a t B amborough C XCIV ( Greenwell 1 877, 4 14), b ut b oth h ave s imilar c haracteristics, w hich m ay r elate t o s ome f unerary p urpose. a djacent s lot,

A t C hatton S andyford ( Fig.57) a n a rea r eddened b y b urning, t o a s ub-rectangular g rave-sized p it w ith a d eeper c entral

p roduced

c harcoal f rom w hich a d ate o f 2 890

9 9

2 :9 0

b e w as o btained

( Gak-1507).

N earby

a t B amborough a s imilar ' grave

f eature w as

a lso

f ound f illed w ith s tones a nd w ith a d eeper s lot i n t he s outh-east c orner. N either s ite p roduced a ny a rtifacts. T heir p osition i n a reas w here o ther c airns a re r ecorded m ight s uggest s ome f unerary a ssociat ion, b ut t his c annot a t p resent b e a scertained. S ingle,

n on-monumental b urials

T hree s omewhat v aried b urial d eposits w ould a ppear t o f all i n t his c ategory. T he f irst i s a ' bog b urial' d iscovered i n p eat o n t he f ores hore i n t he i nter-tidal 7 3),

a

z one a t H artlepool

c rouched a dult m ale i nhumation,

( Tooley

1 975,

2 9;

1 978b,

b one f rom w hich g ave a r adio-

c arbon d ate o f 2 730 ± 6 0 b c ( Hv.5220). T he p artial a nd d isturbed s tate o f t he i nhumation m ay b e d ue t o t he e rosion o f t he p eat i n w hich i t w as b uried. I ndividual i nhumation i s c omparatively r are i n t he B ritish N eolithic, b ut i ts r ecognition d oes, o f c ourse, d epend u pon a ssociation w ith d istinctive, d atable a rtifact t ypes, c arbon d ating. I t i s p ossible t hat o thers t he B ritish I sles ( Tooley 1 978b, 7 3).

o r u pon t he u se o f r adioo f t he 7 5 ' bog b urials' i n

n oted b y T ooley m ay h ave b een

o f

N eolithic

d ate

A t O ld Y eavering t wo f eatures w ith c remated b one m ay a lso b e b urial d eposits. T he f irst, a b owl-shaped p it f ull o f b lack e arth a nd c remated b one w as a djacent t o a nother s imilarly s haped p it c ontaining c leaner f ill, s ome c harcoal, f ragments o f c remated b one a nd a s herd o f G rimston w are, t he t wo b eing c onsidered t o b e a ssociated ( Hope-Taylor 1 977, 3 45, f ig.119). T he s econd w as a ' ritual' p it w ith s herds o f G rooved W are, ( ibid, 3 45,

f ragments o f c remated b one, c harcoal a nd h azel-nut s hells 3 48-9, f ig.120). B oth f eatures a re a t s ome d istance f rom

t he a gglomeration o f o ther p rehistoric c remations w estern r ing d itch ( ibid, f ig.73).

i n t he a rea o f

t he

O n t he a ssumption t hat b oth o f t he d eposits w ere o f h uman b one a nd t he s ite a t O ld Y eavering w as n ot u sed f or d omestic o ccupation a t

t hat

t his t ime, t hese b urials m ay b e a p art o f a c ontinuing ' ritual' a nd f unerary u se o f t he a rea, s uggested b y t he e xcavator ( ibid, 3 35-338). T he G rooved W are p it a nd i ts c ontents c ould h owever b e i nterpreted a s d omestic s oil. i tself,

r ubbish,

o f

s ites

c omparable

L ongworth 1 971, W are a re r are, w as n ot

l ayers

o f

s oil a nd s ub-

I ts i solation a s a s ingle p it i s n ot u nusual a nd w ould n ot, o f q ualify i t f or ' ritual' s tatus. O ver 6 0% o f G rooved W are

' domestic' a nd

i ntercalated w ith ' sealing'

c onsist o nly o f s ize w ith t hat

2 49-50). a nd i t h as

t he p ractice

p its,

a nd h alf o f

t hese a re

f ound a t O ld Y eavering

s ingle,

( Wainwright a nd

I n g eneral, b urial a ssociations w ith G rooved b een c oncluded t hat ' one m ust a ssume t hat i t

t o p lace G rooved W are w ith t he d ead'

( ibid,

2 49).

T wo o ther c remation d eposits w ith G rooved W are a re h owever r ecorded, a t T ebbs P it, P eterborough ( ibid, 2 81) a nd C hippenham b arrow I I ( Leaf 1 936, 1 44), a lthough i t h as b een q uestioned ' whether t he s herds r epresent a d eliberate d eposition' ( Wainwright a nd L ongworth 1 971, 2 54). T he i solated c remation a ssociated w ith t he G rimston w are v essel

i s

u nusual, a lthough , o f c ourse, o ther s uch s hallow d eposits m ay h ave b een d estroyed d uring p loughing a t t he s ite ( Hope-Taylor 1 977, 2 36).

1 00

M ortuary e nclosures T hree u nexcavated s ites w hich s hould b e i ncluded i n a c onsiderat ion o f N eolithic f unerary p ractices i n t he n orth o f E ngland a re t he p ossible ' mortuary e nclosures a t M ilfield, E wart a nd H asting H ill, d iscovered b y a erial p hotography ( Miket 1 976, 1 28 p ls.7.II-III). t rapezoidal e nclosure a t M ilfield a nd t he r ectangular e xample a t m ay b e b eneath

c ompared w ith t hose f ound a t W illerby, K ilham a nd l ater b urial m ounds ( Manby 1 970, f ig.2), o r w ith

T he E wart

S kendleby, e nclosures

f ound a t t he D orcheste c emetery ( Atkinson e t a l 1 955, 6 0-3) a nd N ormanton D own ( Ashbee 1 970, 4 9, f ig.33). T he f eature a t H asting H ill w hich i s c 2 00m l ong b y 3 0m w ide h as b een t entatively i dentified a s e ither a m ortuary e nclosure o r a c ursus, a nd i s c onsiderably l arger t han t he f eatures i dentified a t M ilfield a nd E wart. S ome a ssociation w ith t he h enge s ites a t M ilfield a nd E wart i s a lso a p ossibility. D istribution ( Map 2 5)

i n

T he m ajority o f l ong b arrows i n t he n orth o f E ngland a re s ituated t he u plands, o ver 6 00ft ( 183m) a bove s ea-level. S mall g roups o f

m ounds a re f ound a long t he w est e dge o f t he E den v alley a nd n ear t he u pper r eaches o f t he r ivers N orth T yne a nd R ede, w ith t wo e xamples o n t he w estern f lank o f t he c entral C umbrian m ountains a nd s ingle s ites i n t he v alleys o f t he r ivers W ear a nd u pper W hite L yne. ' Some m ounds h ave b een r ecorded i n l ower l ying s ituations, n amely t hose a t S kelmore H eads, H avebrack a nd H arlow H ill, b etween t he 2 00 a nd 4 00ft ( 61 - 1 22m) c ontours. N eolithic r ound b arrows h ave b een f ound p redominantly i n t he n orth-east, b ut w ith o ne e xample a lso i n C umbria. T he s ites a t H asting H ill, W arden L aw a nd C opt H ill f orm a g roup o n t he s outh s ide o f t he R iver W ear o n c omparatively l ow l ying g round, b etween 2 00 a nd 3 00ft ( 61 - 9 1m), w hile t he r ound b arrows i n t he n orth o f N orthumberland a re i n m ore e levated p ositions, a s i s t hat a t B ents H ill, C rosby G arrett. D iscussion T he s mall n umber o f N eolithic l ong m ounds i n C umbria, N orthumberl and a nd D urham f orm p art o f t he s parse n orthern r epresentation o f a t ype o f f unerary m onument b est k nown i n t he s outh o f E ngland, b ut w ith c oncentrations o f s ites a lso i n Y orkshire a nd L incolnshire ( Ashbee 1 970, f igs.1 a nd 2 ; M anby 1 970, f ig.1). N o d atable m aterial w as r ecovered f rom e xcavations a t B ellshiel L aw, S kelmore H eads o r R aiset P ike, a nd g rave g oods a re a lso n otably a bsent f rom t he m ajority o f s ites

i n Y orkshire a nd L incolnshire

( Manby 1 970,

1 3).

T here w as

n o

e vidence f or a ny p re-mound e nclosure a t R aiset P ike, a lthough i t i s p ossible t hat d etails o f t his s ort c ould h ave b een l ost i n G reenwell's m ethod o f e xcavation. M any f eatures o f t he R aiset P ike ' crematorium' d eposit s uch a s t he p osition, s ize a nd f iring o f t he b urnt a rea, t he p it b eneath i t a nd t he d isarticulated n ature o f t he b urials, a re c losely c omparable w ith t hose f ound a t s ites i n Y orkshire, f or e xample M arket

W eighton,

H eslerton,

( Greenwell 1 877, 4 87-90;

W estow

M anby 1 963;

1 01

a nd i n p articular W illerby 1 970,

1 0-13).

W old

A lthough t here d oes n ot a ppear t o h ave b een a ny f ree-standing m ortuary s tructure a t R aiset P ike, i t i s p ossible t hat t he c entral a rea o f t he m ound p erhaps w ith t imber r evetting ( that i s, t he ' flues') w as u sed a s a s torage p lace f or b urials f or s ome t ime b efore t he s tructure w as f ired. H owever, i f t he ' flues w ere a ctually c onstructed a s v ents t o f acilitate b urning, a s s uggested b y K innes ( 1979, 5 8) t hen t he d isarticulated a nd f ragmentary h uman r emains f ound i n t he m ound m ust h ave b een s tored e lsewhere p rior t o c remation. I n c ommon w ith m any o ther N eolithic f unerary s ites b een a c omplex o ne

t he ' burial' p rocess w ould

( Kinnes 1 975,

s eem t o

h ave

1 7).

W here p ottery a ssociations o ccur w ith l ong b arrows i n n orthern E ngland, t hey a re o f G rimston-Lyles H ill t ype. R adiocarbon d eterminat ions f rom W illerby W old, 3 010 ± 1 50 b c ( BM-189) a nd 2 955 ± 1 50 b e ( BM1 88), K ilham 2 880 2: 1 25 b c ( BM-293) a nd H anging G rimston 2 760 1 1 290 b c ( HAR2160) s uggest t he u se o f t hese s tructures i n t he f irst h alf o f t he 3 rd m illennium b c ( Manby 1 970, 1 0-13; P ierpoint I 979a, 2 24). T he r ange o f r adiocarbon d eterminations f or l ong b arrow c onstruction a nd u se t hroughout t he c ountry i s s omewhat l onger, f rom t he m id 4 th t o t he m id 3 rd m illennium b e ( Ashbee 1 970, f ig.43; S mith I .F. 1 974, f ig.18). D atable a ssociations o f G rimston-Lyles H ill w are a re a lso w idespread ( Smith I .F. 1 974, f igs.13 a nd 1 7), f rom t he e arly 4 th t o t he e arly 2 nd m illennium b e, a nd t his b urial f orm m ay h ave b een i n u se f or w ell o ver a m illennium, a lthough P ierpoint h as a rgued t hat t he l ong b arrows i n Y orkshire w ere c onstructed ( Pierpoint 1 979a, 2 24).

' within a

s hort

c hronological

h orizon'

T he N eolithic r ound b arrows i n t he n orth o f E ngland a re r epresentative o f a l ess w ell k nown b ut q uite n umerous g roup o f N eolithic f unerary s tructures, r ecently s tudied b y K innes ( 1979)% S mall c oncentrations o f s ites h ave b een i dentified i n t he P eak D istrict a nd i n Y orkshire ( ibid, f ig.4.1-3) t he r esult o f c onsiderable d igging a ctivity i n t hese a reas b y G reenwell, M ortimer a nd B ateman. A lthough a ll t he s ites h ave t he s ame o utward f orm, a c onsiderable v ariety o f s tructures a nd m odes o f b urial d eposition h ave b een f ound b eneath t hem. T he ' crematorium' d eposit a t C opt H ill, w hich h as v arious f eatures i n c ommon w ith s imilar d eposits f ound i n l ong b arrows, m ay b e c ompared w ith o ther r ound b arrow c rematoria a s a t G arton S lack 8 0 a nd 8 1, a nd C owlam 2 77 ( Mortimer 1 905, 2 35-41, 3 40-1). A lthough t his t ype o f s ite h as b een i ncluded i n K innes' e arlier s tage A ( 1979, 5 8) t he c rematorium t rench a t G arton S lack 8 0 w as s tratified a bove a c rouched i nhumation w ith a B eaker ( Mortimer 1 905, 2 36, f ig.597) a nd t his t ype o f b urial p ractice c ould t herefore h ave b een i n u se i nto t he 2 nd m illennium b e. O ther m ultiple c remations w ere f ound a t B roomhill, F ord w hich h as b een d iscussed

a s a p yre s ite

p atches o f n ot s eem

b urnt e arth a nd c harcoal d escribed w ithin t he s mall m ound d o t o h ave b een s ubstantial e nough t o s uggest t hat c omplete

( Kinnes 1 979,

5 8-9;

M anby 1 970,

1 5).

T he

b odies w ere c remated i n s itu a nd o nly p arts o f b odies m ay h ave b een r epresented ( Kinnes 1 979, 5 8). T he u nburnt d omestic d ebris a t B roomh ill i ncluded s herds o f a bout t wenty p ots, m ostly o f G rimston-Lyles H ill t ype a nd f lint c hippings, n one o f w hich c an b e v ery c losely d ated. C omparison w ith t he m aterial f rom T hirlings, w ith a d ate o f 3 280 — 1 50 b e ( HAR877) t o p rovide a d ate f or t he B roomhill s ite, a s s uggested b y K innes

( 1979,

5 9), m ay b e s omewhat m isleading,

t ype

h ad a l ong c urrency i n t his a rea,

w here

( p.90).

1 02

a s

i f

t he G rimston p ottery

f ound t o b e t he c ase

e lse-

r ound

I nhumation, w hich i s b arrows ( Kinnes 1 979,

t he m ore c ommon b urial r ite i n N eolithic f ig.1.5) i s f ound a t W arden L aw. A gain,

t he

a ssociated m aterial i s n ot

c losely d atable n or a re o ther

f eatures

o f t he b urials c losely a ttributable t o o ther r ound b arrow ' stages' ( ibid, 7 0-71). I nhumations a t H asting H ill a nd B ents H ill, C rosby G arrett a re s imilarly d ifficult t o p lace. T he b urial a t H artlepool i s o ne o f o nly a v ery f ew s ingle i nhumation f lat g raves o f k nown N eolithic d ate. M ultiple b urials a re a lso k nown f rom f lat g raves ( Kinnes 1 979, a ppendix 2 ).

o f t he p eriod

T he o val m ound a t C rosby G arrett w ith t hree s ingle i nhumations a nd o ther s cattered r emains, i s o ne o f a n umber o f B ritish F inal N eolithic d eposits i n w hich i ndividuals w ould a ppear t o b e o f s ome i mportance, b eing b uried s ingly, c omplete, a nd o ften a ccompanied b y g rave g oods ( Fig.55). D istinctive a ssociations w ith b urials o f t his t ype i nclude a ntler m ace-heads, e dge-polished a xes, l ozenge a rrowheads a nd b oarst usk b lades ( ibid, 6 5), f inely w rought a rtifacts, p erhaps o f s ome p restige o r s tatus v alue. T he a ssociation a t C rosby G arrett o f a n a ntler m ace-head w ith a f ire-lighting k it i s u nique ( ibid, 6 4-5). T he ' skewer p in w ith a l ateral l oop a nd b oars' t usks ( Fig.55) w ere d iscussed b y A tkinson a s t ypical o f t he ' Dorchester' s eries o f b urials ( Atkinson e t a l 1 951, 7 2-3, 1 43) w hich a re a p art o f a ' broad c lass o f n on-Beaker b urials i n t he F inal N eolithic p hase' ( Manby 1 974, 9 3). A s imilar L ate N eolithic d ate h as a lso b een s uggested f or t he a ntler m ace-heads, w hich m ay h ave b een c ontemporary w ith m ace-heads o f s tone ( Roe 1 968, 1 62). H owever, a r adiocarbon d etermination o f 2 461 . 2 : 7 9 b c ( BM-705) f or a n o ccupation l ayer w ith a n a ntler m ace-head a t N orthton, I sle o f H arris ( Simpson 1 976, 2 22) s uggests e arlier b eginnings. T he r ecorded

m ajority i n

o f

t he N eolithic b urials a nd

t he n orth o f E ngland c annot

f unerary

b e c losely

d ated,

s tructures b ut

h ave

a ffinities w ith v arious t ypes o f s ite k nown e lsewhere i n B ritain, f or w hich a m inimum d ate r ange o f a m illennium , f rom t he m id 4 th t o t he m id 3 rd m illennium b c m ight b e s uggested.

T he o nly ' definite L ate N eolithic

b urials i n t he r egion a re t hose f rom C rosby G arrett C LXXXIV, w here t he p ractice o f i ndividual i nhumation m ay b e c ompared w ith t hat k nown i n B eaker a nd E arly B ronze A ge c ontexts.

S TONE C IRCLES T he

( Catalogue

s tone

p rehensively

1 6,

c ircles o f

s tudied

b y

M ap 2 6)

t he B ritish I sles h ave B url

( 1976)

a nd m any

r ecently

• have

b een

b een

c om-

a ccurately

s urveyed a nd r ecorded, o ften f or t he f irst t ime, b y T hom ( 1967; 1 971; 1 978; T hom a nd T hom 1 980). A dequate m easurement a nd d escription o f s uch

m onuments

i s

o f

c onsiderable

i mportance

w hen

a ttempting

t o

d ifferentiate b etween t rue s tone c ircles a nd t he d enuded r emains o f o ther s ites, s uch a s c airns a nd h ut c ircles, w hich m ay g ive t he a ppearance o f s mall c ircles o f s tanding s tones. I n t he n orth o f E ngland, w hich h as c onsiderable a reas o f f ield c learance h eaps a nd b urial c airns, m any o f w hich a re m ade u p o f r ings o f l arge b oulders i nfilled w ith s maller s tones, t he p roblem i s p articularly a cute.

1 03

O f

t he

r ings

o f

s tanding

s tones

t hemselves

m any

h ave

b een

e xtensively d amaged, o ften b y b lasting, t o c lear l and f or a gricultural p urposes, o r t o r e-use t he s tone f or b uilding m aterials. Y et o thers h ave f allen a nd b ecome o vergrown, o r h ave b een o therwise d isplaced. W here d amage o r r emoval h as b een e xtensive i t i s n ow o ften i mpossible t o r econstruct t he s ize o r s hape o f t he o riginal m onument o r t o e stimate a ccurately t he n umber o f s tones i t c ontained. M any o f t he s ites w hich w ere r ecorded i n t he n orth o f E ngland h ave t otally d isappeared, a nd o thers a re e xtremely f ragmentary. T he d egree o f d etail i n w hich t hese s ites a re k nown i s t herefore v ery v ariable, a nd t his i s r eflected ( Catalogue 1 6). M onuments

i n t he c atalogue e ntries f or t he s ites

w hich

i n t he

r egion

h ave b een d iscussed b y b oth B url a nd T hom

u nder

t he g eneral c ategory o f ' stone c ircles s how c onsiderable v ariation r espect o f a n umber o f f eatures s uch a s: -

i n

s ize

-

s hape

-

a nd e llipses) n umber o f s tones h eight o f s tones

( e.g.

t rue c ircles,

f lattened c ircles,

e gg-shaped r ings

-

s pacing o f

-

e mbanked c ircle o utside t he s tones o utliers ( i.e. s ingle s tones o utside

-

i nternal f eatures - ' portal s tones' o r e ntrances - c oncentric c ircles o f s tones - o ther s tone f eatures w ithin t he c ircle

s tones t he c ircle)

- i nternal c airns - e vidence o f b urials - c up a nd r ing m arks o n t he s tones S uch d iversity i s k nown a t t he

m ost

t he s ites

n otable f eature b eing

i n t he n orth o f

t he e xtreme d isparity

E ngland,

p erhaps

i n s ize

b etween

t he s mallest s tone c ircles, l ess t han 1 0m i n d iameter, a nd t he l argest 1 09m i n d iameter. W hether a ll t hese s ites s hould b e d iscussed w ithin t he s ame c ategory, a s f unctional e quivalents o f o ne a nother, i s a m atter o f

t he

i nterpretation

( p.108).

C ertain f eatures a re, h owever, r egularly f ound i n c ombination w ith l arger c ircles g reater t han 2 6m i n d iameter, n amely: m ore t han 2 0 s tones -

s tones o ver l m h igh p ortal s tones' o r e ntrances o utliers f lattened c ircles

T hese

f eatures

s tone

c ircles

t ion i s n ot H all F oss, h eight, v alid.

s erve

( Burl 1 976,

t o d ifferentiate a g roup o f

f rom t he s maller a nd s impler o nes.

6 0,

T able 2 ).

l arger,

m ore

c omplex

A lthough t he d istinc-

a bsolute, f or e xample s ome o f t he s maller c ircles s uch K emp H ouse a nd N unwick P ark a lso h ad s tones o ver l m

a s i n

n evertheless t he g eneral d istinction b etween t he t wo g roups i s T he l arger s tone r ings, s ome o f w hich a re f lattened c ircles a nd

n ot t ruly c ircular, h ave f eatures s uch a s o utlying s tones, d istinct e ntrances o r p ortal s tones a nd l arger n umbers o f t aller s tones. T he s maller

s ites a re g enerally t rue

c ircles

1 04

a nd a re p lain

( Table 9 ).

A

n umber

o f

s tone c ircles w hich h ave b een s urveyed b y

T hom a re n ot d iscussed i n t his s urvey ( Catalogue 1 7). c ircles w hich w ould a ppear t o b e i ntegral p arts o f b urial r ing c airns, s ome o f w hich, o n e xcavation, h ave r emains, a nd a re d iscussed e lsewhere ( see C hapter 3 ).

B url

a nd

T hese c airns,

p roduced

a re o r

b urial

L arge s tone c ircles B y

f ar

t he l argest s tone c ircle

i n t he r egion i s t hat

k nown

a s

L ong M eg a nd H er D aughters ( Fig.58), a h uge s ite 1 09.4 b y 9 3.0m , s et o n s loping g round o n a t errace a bove t he e ast b ank o f t he R iver E den ( Burl 1 976, f ig.8d, 8 9-92). T o t he s outh-west o f t he e ntrance, m arked b y p ortal s tones, i s a s ingle o utlier o f r ed s andstone, L ong M eg, p ossibly b rought u p f rom t he E den v alley s ome 11 2 m / iles d istant, w ith c up a nd r ing m arks ( ibid, f ig.14c). T he s tones o f t he c ircle, o f w hich t here a re a bout 7 0, a re o f l ocal p orphyritic s tone, a nd t he l argest w eighs a n e stimated 2 8 t ons. A ll t he o ther l arge s tone c ircles i n t he r egion a re l ess t han h alf t he s ize o f L ong M eg. T hose a t C astlerigg ( Fig.59), B rats H ill, G rey C roft ( Fig.60) a nd G amelands a re a lso f lattened c ircles, t he f irst t wo b eing a lmost p recisely t he s ame s hape ( Thom a nd T hom 1 980, 3 0) a lmost t he s ame s ize. T he r ectangular s etting o f s tones w ithin C astlerigg c ircle ( Burl 1 976, f ig.8e) i s u nique. S tudfold, S winside ( Fig.61) a nd G retigate A a re a ll w ere p robably t hose a t A sh H ouse W ood a nd L amplugh. E lva h as a n o utlier, c ompared w ith f our o f t he f ive L ong M eg, C astlerigg, G rey C roft a nd B rats H ill. A t

G unnerkeld

a nd O ddendale t here a re

t wo

a nd t he

T he s ites a t E lva, t rue c ircles, a s O nly t he c ircle a t f lattened c ircles,

c oncentric

r ings

o f

s tones. A t G unnerkeld ( Fig.62) t he i nner r ing i s c omprised o f s maller s tones t han t he o uter, c losely s et, e nclosing a l ow m ound. A t O ddendale ( Fig.63) t he o uter r ing h as c losely s paced s tones a nd t he i nner r ing f orms a c ontinuous k erb, a lso a round ' a m ound. T he s tatus o f t he t wo s ites i s u ncertain, s ince t he c ontemporaneity o f c ircles w ith t he c airns h as n ot b een e stablished. C airns

t he s tone h ave a lso

b een r ecorded w ithin o ther l arge s tone c ircles s uch a s C astlerigg, B rats H ill a nd p erhaps L ong M eg, w hose p rimary f unction i s n ot c ons idered

t o h ave b een f unerary.

S mall c ircles D etails c oncerning t he s mall s tone c ircles i n t he n orth o f E ngland a re m uch l ess p recise t han t hose o f t he l arge c ircles, a nd m any a re o f u ncertain s tatus. T wo r easons f or t his a re a pparent. F irst, s maller s tone

c ircles

a re m ore e asily d amaged t han t he l arger o nes,

a nd

s ome-

t imes h ave b een t otally o bliterated. S econd, m onuments o f t his s ize, c omprised o f l ow s tones, a re c losely c omparable w ith t he r obbed r emains o f

c airns

a nd

r ing c airns.

S uch s ites

a re

t herefore,

m uch

m ore

d ifficult t o i dentify a ccurately a nd t he c atalogue o f s mall c ircles i n t he n orth o f E ngland s hould b e t reated w ith c aution. T he m ajority o f t hese c ircles a re p lain, w ith l ow s tones o r b oulders. A n umber h ave i nternal c airns, s uch a s t hose a t L ow L ongrigg a nd W hite M oss, B urn M oor ( Burl 1 976, f ig.15). I t i s u nknown, h owever, w hether t he s tone c ircle

f ormed p art o f

t hese b urial m onuments,

b uilt w ithin p re-existing c ircles.

1 05

o r w hether c airns

w ere

S tone c ircles w ithin h enges:

M ayburgh

Two 1 8th c entury r ecords s uggest t hat a n umber o f s tanding s tones w ere o riginally t o b e f ound w ithin t he h enge a t M ayburgh ( Catalogue 1 8, F ig.64). s tones

P ennant's i n t he

o nly o ne a lso

c entral

r eferred

s uggested f allen t he

s tones

i nfer b ank. i s,

o f

s tone t o

t hat

o uter

p lan o f

c entre

t he

t he

r emains

f our

c ircle

t he

i ndicates

a nd

f our a t

a n a rrangement o f t he e ntrance,

( reproduced i n D ymond

s tones

r emaining

t hese w ere p art b y

s ite

s ite,

e ntrance

o f t o

a n i nner c ircle o f t he

( Stukeley 1 776,

1 891).

' till a y ear o r

4 4).

S tukeley

t wo

a go

s tones,

s ite i ndicating

t he

T he e vidence i s

f our

o f w hich a nd

w ith

t he

p osition

o f

i nsufficient

t o

w hat t ype o f a rrangement o f s tones o nce e xisted w ithin t he h enge O nly 1 3 o f t he 7 8 h enges i n B ritain a re ' circle h enges', t hat h ave

s tone

w hich i nclude C ornwall

t o

c ircles

C lass

w ithin

I a nd C lass

t he O rkneys.

t hem

( Burl 1 969,

I I h enges,

O n a ccount

o f

8 -9).

T hese

s ites,

a re w idely d istributed f rom t heir c omparative

r arity B url

h as c oncluded t hat s tone c ircles ' must b e r egarded a s b eing f oreign t o t he o riginal i dea o f h enges' ( ibid, 9 ). I ndividual s tanding s tones o r s ettings o f s tones w ithin h enges m ay h owever b e l ess r are. A s etting f or a l arge s tone w as f ound w ithin t he h enge a t M ilfield N orth ( p.111) a nd p its w ithin o ther h enge s ites i n t he r egion m ay a lso r epresent s imilar f eatures. L ocation a nd d istribution

( Map 2 6)

O f 5 5 s tone c ircles i n t he n orth o f E ngland, 4 4 a re i n C umbria a nd 1 1 i n t he n orth-east. O f t hese t he m ajority o f t he l arge c ircles a re i n C umbria, s ome w ithin o nly a m ile o r s o o f e ach o ther, a s a t G rey Y auds

a nd B roomrigg A ,

H ouse

W ood.

a nd a round t he

T he

t he

c ircles

a re d istributed

c entral C umbrian m ountains,

l ow l ying a rea o f

e ast t he

G rey C roft a nd G retigate,

l arge

t he C umberland

a nd S winside a nd A1-1 a long

t he E den

w ith a n a bsence

p lain,

a nd

o f

v alley s ites

i n

i n t he s outh a nd s outh-

o f C umbria, f rom t he R iver D uddon t o t he K ent e stuary, i ncluding F urness p eninsula a nd t he a reas a round Lake W indermere. T he

m ajority o f

t he

l arge

s tone

b etween

2 00 a nd 6 00ft

m ediate

b etween

t he

c ircles

( 61-183m)

a re

a bove

r iver v alleys

l ocated

i n g ently s loping a reas

s ea-level,

a nd

i n p ositions

t he u plands,

i nter-

f or e xample

L ong

M eg, S tudfold, S winside a nd A sh H ouse W ood, E lva, L amplugh a nd G rey l auds. C astlerigg i s s imilarly s ituated a nd l ies b etween t he t wo v alleys o f D erwentwater a nd t he Vale o f S t. J ohn. G retigate a nd G rey C roft,

b y

c ontour,

c ontrast, a s

d o a lso

l ie t he

c lose

s maller

t o s ites

t he s ea,

b elow t he

o f A nnaside,

2 00ft

K irkstones

( 61m)

a nd H all

F oss. M any o f f unerary, a re l ess

a ccessible

e xample,

a t

C astlehowe, v alley. a re

t he s maller s tone c ircles, w hose f unction m ay h ave b een s ituated i n s omewhat d ifferent l ocations, i n e levated a nd

i n

u plands,

W hite M oss K emp

O ddendale t he

s ame

H ouse

u pland

a reas

a nd W hite H ag,

o f

c airns,

a s,

a nd W ilson

o n t he w est

a nd G unnerkeld w hich m ay b e

s ide

b urial

o f

c ircles

f or S car,

t he

E den

( p.104)

l ocality.

I n t he n orth-east, e levation, a bove s ea

o ften a mongst

a nd B urnmoor a bove E skdale,

t he c ircle

a t H ethpool

l ies

a t

a n i ntermediate

b ut t he I lderton c ircle i s i n u pland o ver 1 000ft ( 305m) l evel. T he o ther s mall c ircles i n t he a rea a re a lso i n

s ituations,

s imilar

t o

t hose

106

i n C umbria.

E xcavation a nd c hronological e vidence N one

o f

e xcavated

t he

s tone

i n r ecent

c ircles

t imes o r

i n t he n orth

o f

t o m odern s tandards.

E ngland

h as

b een

A n umber o f

s ites

h ave b een v ariously t renched a nd p robed, b ut t he r esults o f t hese e xcavations a re u ninformative. M ost h ave p roduced n o a rtifacts. T he c ircle a t S winside w as t renched i n 1 901, w ithout r esult ( Dymond 1 902). T he c entral c airn o f t he d ouble c ircle a t O ddendale w as d ug-out p rior t o 1 879, p roducing s ome c harcoal a nd b urnt e arth, b ut w as t hought t o h ave b een p reviously e xamined ( Simpson 1 883, 1 78). T he r ectangular e nclosure w ithin t he C astlerigg c ircle w as t renched i n 1 882, a nd a s mall p ortion a t t he w est e nd w ith a 3 ft d eposit o f b lack e arth, s tones a nd p ossibly s ome c harcoal m ay b e i nterpreted a s a p it ( Dover 1 883, 5 05). E xcavation i n 1 949 a t G rey C roft w as l imited t o t he a rea o f t he c entral c airn ; a b roken G roup V I a xe f ound b y s tone 4 h as n o c ertain a ssociations

w ith

t he

m onument's

c onstruction

( Fletcher

1 958,

6 ,

f ig.4). T wo w orked f lints w ere f ound i n p lough s oil a t G amelands, a nd a b roken u nfinished s tone a xe a nd a ' brass c elt' ( both n ow l ost) a re r ecorded f rom t he h enge a t M ayburgh, w hich m ay h ave e nclosed a s etting o f s tones ( p.109) ( Ferguson 1 883, 1 84). S uch f inds a nd ' excavation' r ecords p rovide n o r eliable e vidence f or t he d ating o f s tone c ircles i n t his r egion. D ating

e vidence i s s imilarly e lusive e lsewhere i n B ritain.

B url

s ummarises t he e vidence f rom t hree l ines o f a pproach, r adiocarbon d ating, a rtifacts, a nd t he t ypology o f , stone c ircle ' architecture' ( Burl 1 976, 4 5-50). I n a ll t hree a nalyses h e i ncluded b oth l arge ' open' s tone c ircles a nd s maller s tructures c ontaining b urials. A s r ound c airn b urials a re t ypical o f t he L ate N eolithic a nd t he E arly B ronze A ge i n B ritain, a 2 nd m illennium b c d ate i s t o b e e xpected f or t he l atter s ites. W hether t hey a re t o b e r egarded a s l ate v ariants o f t he l arge ' ceremonial' s tone c ircle i s

t radition ( Wainwright 1 969,

1 17-8)

d ebatable.

T here a re n o r adiocarbon d eterminations a vailable w hich a re d irectly r elevant t o s tone c ircle s ites. T hose d iscussed b y B url ( 1976, 4 6) i nclude S tonehenge I I a nd t he S tanding S tones o f S tenness, b oth h enge s ites, b urial s ite w ith

t he p assage g rave a t N ew G range, B arbrook I I, a a n u rned c remation, a r ing c airn, C ircle 2 78,

C aernarvon, a nd a c airn p roducing f lat r immed w are a t S andy R oad, S cone, P erthshire. A rtifact a ssociations ( found w ith b urials) a re a ssigned b y B url t o a m iddle p oint o f t he a ssumed c hronological s pan o f p roduction o f t he a rtifact t ype, f or e xample f ood v essel a ssociations t o

1 600 b c a nd c ollared u rns

t o 1 550 b c

( Burl 1 976,

4 7,

f ig.6).

S uch

a n ' analysis' h as n o v alidity w hatsoever a nd c annot b e u sed t o ' prove' B url's h ypothesis o f s tone c ircle t ypology. T he a rchitecture m ethod o f d ating i s b ased u pon t he a ssumption t hat t he m ost i mposing c ircles, t hat i s, t he l argest, a re a mongst t he e arliest, a nd t hat t hese p redominantly s outhern B ritish c ircles m ay h ave d erived f rom h enges w hich h ave a verage d iameters w ell i n e xcess a ssume

t hat l arge e quals e arly i s,

M oreover,

h enges,

p ossibly w ith l argest s ites, ' early' 2 000

l ike

s tone

o f 3 1.0m "(ibid,

c ourse,

c ircles,

4 3).

T o

t o p re-judge t he i ssue.

c ome i n a v ariety o f

s izes,

v aried f unctions ( p.111). E vidence f rom s ome o f t he i n s outhern E ngland, f rom w hich B url s uggests t he l arge

s tone c ircles w ere d erived,

- 1 500

o f

b c

( p.112),

s uggests

a p eriod o f u se

c ontemporary w ith m any

1 07

o f

B url's

f rom

c

' later'

s maller o f

b urial

s tone

c ircles.

c ircles

T he i nterpretation o f A rchaeological f unction o f s tone p ostholes, a rea

a nd

a rgues

b rief

I n e ffect,

i n B ritain

t herefore,

i t

s eems

t hat

t he d ating

v ery m uch a n o pen q uestion.

s tone c ircles

e xcavation p rovides o nly n egative e vidence f or t he c ircles. T he a bsence o f f eatures s uch a s p its,

t he

r emains

a gainst

d uration.

i s

o f

t imber s tructures w ithin t he

a ny h ypothesis

o f ' domestic

A c onsideration o f

t he

l abour

e nclosed

o ccupation, r equired

e ven

f or

t he

o f c on-

s truction o f m any o f t he c ircles s uggests c ommon e ffort f or a t ask o f s ome c ommunal i mportance, b ut t he u ses f or w hich s uch m onuments w ere r aised

c annot

n ow b e

t hat

a stronomical

s ignificance.

A

s imple

o f

r econstructed.

c onsidered,

t he s ite a s

f unction o f

T hree p ossible f unctions

a m eeting

p lace,

a b urial

s uch a p ermanently d esignated

c an

s ite,

b e

o r o f

a rea w ould

b e

a s a m eeting p lace f or s ome t ype o f r egular a ssembly, o r o ther a ctivity, o r a s t he f ocal p oint o f a t erritory a nd i ts i nhabitants.

t o

T he q uestion o f t he p ossible f unerary f unction o f s tone c ircles i s s ome d egree a m atter o f d efinition, a s t o w hat c onstitutes a s tone

c ircle.

O bjective

e mployed m onument.

e ntirely r egardless o f s ome c oncept o f t he f unction A s n oted p reviously, B url's s urvey o f s ites i n

i ncludes

c ircles

i nterpreted

a s

f or l arge l abour w as

c riteria

o f

l ess

f oci

o f

n umbers o f e xpended,

o f

p hysical

t han 1 0m t o

c lassification

1 09m i n d iameter.

c annot

I f

b e

o f t he C umbria

t hese

c ommunal a ctivity a nd i mportant m eeting

a re

p laces

p eople, i n t he c reation o f w hich c onsiderable t hen t he s mallest s ites c annot b e c onsidered a s

f unctional e quivalents o f t he l argest. ( unknown) p urpose o r i ntent, h owever,

I nterpreted a s s ymbols o f s ome l arge a nd s mall c ircles m ay b e

e quivalent. A ttention b etween w hich

h as

m ay

s urround

f unerary

m onument.

c ircles' s ite a nd

c riteria h as

a ppears

p rimarily

a

f unction o f a re m ore r epresent

c ircles,

s tones m ay h ave T he

c airns,

v ariety

t he

o r b urial

o f

t he

s ites

f ound

s ites

b een a n i ntegral

o f m onuments

( p.104),

e vidence

t o

f unerary f unction,

o ther l arge

c ircles

s uggest

t hat

i n E ngland

p art

o f

a s

o f

d ifficulty o f

l arge m onuments,

w hich h ave e vidence n ot c onsidered t o b e

d efinition a re

' stone

b ecome

c urrent

T hom's

l arger s tone

t hese

l arge

s uch s eem t o h ave ( Burl

1 976,

c ircles.

c ircles b een

4 0).

o f b urial d eposits ( Burl 1 969, 8 ), p rimarily s epulchral i n f unction.

t he

f irst

1 971; t hat

1 978). s tone

108

t he t hese T he c on-

s ome o f

b ut w hich a re

T wo m ajor c onclusions

c ircles w ere

h ad

B urials

a lso e ncountered w hen

w hich a lso v ary c onsiderably i n s ize,

( Thom 1 967;

w ork;

o f A

t o f ormal

A s a r esult o f a ccurate a nd d etailed s urveys o f h undreds o f c ircles t he a stronomical i nterpretation o f s tone c ircles h as i n

a t he

t hese t ypes c ategories.

a ccording

o f

w hich

i n w hich c ertain f eatures

i n t he

n or d oes

c onfusion s tones

a t

d iscussed

i n t he n orth o f E ngland

r egularly a ssociated

l ittle

o f

l arge

c ommon w ithin s maller s tone c ircles b ut w hether t he p rimary f unction o f a ll t hese m onuments i s u nknown.

t ypes

s idering

s tone

h owever b een d iscussed

d esign a re

s ame

o f

a s

t he p ossibility

a nd d enuded

b y B url a nd T hom w ould a ppear t o i nclude a ll i t i s d ifficult t o a rrange t hem i nto e xclusive

c lassification o f

b een d rawn t o

c ircles

b e d escribed

c ircular

T here

a lso

' true' s tone

c onstructed

s tone a gain a ppear w ith

r eference

t o

a s tandard u nit

( Thom 1 967, 3 7) a n c l l unar o bservatories, t hat

s uch

c ould

o bservations,

o f

l ength,

t he M egalithic y ard o f

2 .72ft

s econd, t hat s ome o f t he m ajor s ites w ere u sed a s t o p redict a nd o bserve t he p hases o f t he m oon, a nd

o nly h ave

c arried

o ut

b een b uilt

a fter a s eries

o ver a n umber o f

i nterpretation o f a stronomical h ypothesis o f a s tandard u nit o f

y ears

f unction i s n ot l ength ( Kendall

o f

p reliminary

( Thom

1 971).

T he

d ependent u pon t he 1 974, 2 50). I n t he

n orth o f E ngland t he c ircle a t B lakely M oss i s c onsidered t o b e a n ' observing s ite ( Thom 1 971, 7 1-3) a nd o bserved l ines a re a lso n oted a t C astlerigg,

S unkenkirk,

t able 8 .1). a u nifying

B urnmoor,

L ong M eg a nd G rey C roft

( Thom 1 967,

A lthough t he h ypothesis o f a M egalithic y ard w ould p rovide f eature f or s tone c ircles t hroughout B ritain, a n a stronom-

i cal f unction i s o nly c laimed f or a l imited n umber o f s ites, t he m ain o nes b eing B rogar, S tonehenge, C allanish a nd T emple W ood. T hom c onc ludes t hat w e d o n ot k now w hat t he r ings w ere r eally i ntended f or. M ost

o f

1 78).

t hem s eem t o h ave n o a stronomical T he

s eem

t o

f unction a scribed

p rovide

t o

a f ew o f

s ignificance'

t he s ites

a s atisfactory e xplanation f or

d oes

t he

( Thom n ot

1 978,

t herefore

f unction

o f

t he

i s g reatly h indered

b y

t he

g reat m ajority. T he

i nterpretation

o f

s tone

c ircles

l ack o f c hronological e vidence f or t he c onstruction a nd d uration o f u se o f t hese s ites ( p.107), f or e xample w hether t he ' observatory' s ites w ere i n u se a t a pproximately t he s ame p eriod, a nd w hether s tone c ircles i n c lose p roximity w ere u sed a t d ifferent t imes, o r w ere p arts o f s ome l arger

' complex'

T he

o f

s ites.

a ssumption o f

e rroneous.

T he

a rrangement, t hroughout

d isparate t he

a s ingle

c ircles

i n s ize a nd

c ountry,

l abour

f or

t ransitory, s o m uch m ore

H ENGES

S mall t heir

T here

a re

l ocation,

c ircles m ay

i n t heir

d esign

b e a nd

a nd u nevenly d istributed

c oncentrations

o f

s ites

i n

S ome c ircles m ay h ave h ad a stronomical S ites i n p ropinquity m ay h ave b een u sed i n

c ircles

n ot

c onstruction

s hort t erm f unction e ffort.

( Catalogue

a re v aried

w ith c onsiderable

s ome a reas b ut n ot o thers. s ignificance, o thers n one. c ombination.

f unction f or a ll s tone

t hemselves

r equiring

c onsiderable

a mounts

m ay

s erved

m uch

h ave

t han t he

s ome

o f m ore

l arger c ircles w hich r equired

1 8)

t wo g roups

o f

h enge m onuments

i n t he n orth o f

E ngland;

o ne i n C umbria, a m ile a nd a h alf S SE o f P enrith, b etween t he r ivers L owther a nd E amont, a nd t he o ther i n N orthumberland i n t he M ilfield b asin,

b etween

C umbria

h ave

i n

t he

N orthumberland,

d iscovered

r ivers

b een r ecorded

o nly

o f

r ecently

T ill

a nd G len.

s ince a t

w hich

n o

b y a erial

l east s urface

T he

t hree

m onuments

t he 1 7th c entury, t races

b ut

r emain,

i n

t hose

h ave

b een

p hotography.

T he M ayburgh,

r elative d isposition o f K ing A rthur's R ound

a dmirably t he w est,

i llustrated b y P ennant ( 1769, p l.), ( Fig.64). M ayburgh, o n w ith a c entral a rea 2 87ft ( 87.5m) i n d iameter i s s urrounded

b y a b ank 1 20ft

( 36.6m) w ide a nd

t he m onuments n ear P enrith T able a nd t he L ittle R ound

1 4ft

1 09

( 4.27m)

h igh

( Dymond

k nown T able

1 891,

a s i s

p lan)

c omprised e ntirely o f s mall s tones. N o d itch w as e xcavated t o p rovide m aterial f or t he m ound, t he s tones f or w hich a re r iver c obbles. W ithin t he e nclosed a rea a s ingle s tanding s tone r emains, o f w hat m ay h ave b een a n i rregular s etting o f f our s tones, w ith f our o thers a t t he e ntrance ( Pennant 1 769, p l.), o r a d ouble s tone c ircle ( Stukeley 1 776, 4 4). T wo a rtifacts h ave b een r ecorded f rom t he s ite, a ' brass c elt' f ound i n p loughing, a nd a f ragment o f a n ' unfinished s tone a xe. B oth a re n ow l ost. A bout 8 00ft ( 244m) t o t he e ast l ies K ing A rthur's R ound T able, c omprising a s ingle d itch a nd o uter b ank. O riginally a C lass I I h enge w ith e ntrances t o t he N NW a nd S SE ( Fig.65), t he n orthern e ntrance, f lanked b y t wo s tanding s tones ( Dugdale 1 664-5 i n B ersu 1 940), w as d estroyed a bout t he e nd o f t he 1 8th c entury w hen m aking t he Y anwath r oad. P art o f t he e ast s ide o f t he m onument w as l ater s imilarly r emoved ( Dymond 1 891, 2 00). A bout t he f irst p art o f t he 1 9th c entury t he d itch w as c leared o ut a nd s omewhat e nlarged, a b erm m ade b etween t he d itch a nd t he b ank a nd a r aised c entral ' platform' w as c reated i n t he e nclosed a rea, f or a t ea-garden ( Bersu 1 940, 1 77 a nd 1 98). B roken c hina f ound i n t ipped l ayers d uring e xcavations i n 1 939 c onfirmed t he d ate f or t hese c hanges, w hich w ere r ecorded i n o ral t radition i n t he a rea. D espite s uch m odern d isturbance i t w as p ossible, i n B ersu's e xcavation, t o a scertain t hat t he h enge b ank h ad b een b uilt u p o n a c entral c ore o f t urves, p laced o n t he o ld g round s urface, w ith s andy b oulder c lay a t t he f ront o f t he b ank a nd g ravel a t t he b ack. T he b ank, w hich w as n owhere p reserved i n i ts o riginal s tate, m ay h ave b een a bout 3 3ft ( 10m) w ide a nd 7 ft ( 2.13m) h igh, s urrounding a d itch 4 8ft ( 14.6m) w ide a nd e nclosing a n a rea s ome 1 72ft b y 1 45ft ( 52.5 - 4 4.2m). T here w as n o e vidence o f i nternal f eatures o f t imber o r s tone a nd n o d ating e vidence w as f ound. A ' cremation t rench' c ontaining c harcoal a nd b urnt b ones m ay h ave b een a ssociated w ith a p ossible c airn s ite, t he s lightly r aised a rea n oted b y S tukeley ( 1776, 4 3), w hich w as l ater c onsiderably a dded t o, t o f orm t he c entral ' platform'. B ut a s t here w as n o t race o f f iring w ithin t he t rench, i t c annot h ave b een u sed a s t he s ite o f a c remation p yre. T he b urnt b ones w ere t oo f ragmentary t o b e p ositively i dentified. I ts s tatus a s a b urial s ite i s d ubious a nd i ts c onnection w ith t he h enge s tructure i s u nknown. S ome 4 00ft

( 122m)

t o t he s outh o f

t his m onument i s

t he s ite o f

t he

e arthwork k nown a s t he L ittle R ound T able, o bliterated a t t he e nd o f t he 1 9th c entury w hen w idening t he a pproaches t o t he n ew l odge-gates o f L owther

P ark ( Dymond 1 891,

1 87).

E ighteenth

c entury

i llustrations

( Fig.64 a nd 6 5) i ndicate t hat t his w as a c ircular e nclosure w ith a s ingle d itch a nd b ank a nd a n e ntrance t o t he n orth-east ( Pennant 1 769, p l.; S tukeley 1 776, p 1.48). E stimates o f i ts s ize r anged f rom l ess t han 2 00 t o 3 00ft ( 61-91m) i n d iameter. I n 1 939 B ersu e xcavated t hree t renches 2 02-205).

i n a h ollow m arked a s I n t wo

o f

t he

t he s ite o f

t he e arthwork ( Bersu

t renches a n a lmost V -shaped d itch w as

1 940, l ocated

3 m w ide a nd 1 .3m d eep. T his w as n ot f ound i n t he t hird t rench, w hich m ay h ave e ncountered t he o riginal c auseway e ntrance t o t he m onument o n t he N E s ide. T he e stimated d iameter o f t he c ircle o f w hich t he t wo d itch s ections f ormed a p art w as 4 8m. T he i nner b ank n oted b y S tukeley p roved t o b e o f r ecent o rigin, a nd t he p attern o f t he d itch f illing i ndicated

t hat

i f a b ank h ad e xisted i t w as p robably o n t he

N o d ating e vidence w as I n

t he n orth-east

r ecovered f rom t he e xcavated o f E ngland

t en h enges h ave b een

1 10

o utside.

t renches. i dentified

i n

t he

M ilfield

b asin

( Fig.66),

a ll,

w ith

t he e xception o f

t he s ites a t

Y eavering a nd W ooler, b etween t he r ivers T ill a nd G len ( Miket 1 976). T he m ajority o f t hese h enges a re c omparatively s mall, w ith d iameters o f l ess

t han 2 5m a nd h ave

a nd S W.

T wo

d iameter 5 0m.

a re

o f

3 8m a nd

O ther

a n

t hrough

s outh a nd

l arger,

t he C lass

p ossible ' ritual

a lignments, r uns

t wo e ntrances

s omewhat

' avenue'

o f

a ligned

t he C lass

I o val e nclosure a t f eatures

t wo

i n t he

C oupland

s ame

p arallel d itches

t he C oupland h enge

o ther p its a nd g raves

e ither N W a nd S E,

o r

N E

I h enge a t L inthaugh w ith a

1 5

a nd e xtends

f or a t

( Harding A .F.

1 981).

a rea

c

6 9m

b y

i nclude

p it

t o 3 0m a part w hich l east

l km

t o

t he

R ecent e xcavation

o f a n umber o f t he h enges a nd a ssociated f eatures h as r evealed a v ariety o f i nternal a nd e xternal p its, p ostholes a nd p ossible g raves a nd

h as

p roduced

a n umber o f

c losely c omparable

r adiocarbon d etermina-

t ions f or t he c onstruction o f v arious e lements o f t his ' ritual c omplex' ( ibid). A t M ilfield S outh a l arge p it i n t he c entre o f t he h enge c ontained a s ub-rectangular

s etting o f

s tones,

l ater

f illed b y a

p ost,

s urrounded b y a n umber o f s maller p its, w ith d ates o f 1 950 ± 1 10 b c ( HAR - 3 071) a nd 1 590 1 00 b c ( HAR - 3 040) f rom b urnt m aterial a bove t he s tone s etting a nd 1 740 ± 8 0 b c ( HAR - 3 068) f or c harcoal a ssociated w ith t he p ost. A d ate o f 8 40 * 1 :9 0 b c ( HAR - 3 072) f or t he s maller p its i s t hought t o b e c ontaminated b y t ree r oots. M ilfield N orth w as s urrounded c ircle

o f

b y

a n e xternal

s mall

p its,

b urials.

D ates

f rom t wo

f illing, p ossibly

1 824 ± . 3 9 c ontemporary

v essel, p it B f rom

c ircle o f

a n e mpty l ayers

c ist

p ost a nd

' shafts'

t hree

w ith

a n

l arge p its,

i nternal

p ossibly

i n t he h enge d itch i ndicate q uite

f or

r apid

b e ( BM - 1 149) a nd 1 851 2 = 62 bc ( BM - 1 150) ) w ith p it C , a p ossible g rave p it w ith a f ood

b ut n o b ody, d ated t o 1 800 2 : 80 b e ( HAR - 1 199). P ottery f rom e xemplifies t he p roblem o f t he B eaker-like f ood v essels k nown

t he a rea

( p.154) while

t he

f ood v essel

f rom p it

C h as

s ome B eaker

d esign c haracteristics c omparable w ith v essels f rom M oor L odge, A lnwick ( Fig.89 n o.11) a nd R atcheugh ( Fig.89 n o.477) ( p.154). A t O ld Y eavering a

p it 2 m o utside

w hile

o ther

t he w est

f eatures

e ntrance

c ontained a

c ontained N eolithic

c ontracted

i nhumation

p ottery w ith a d ate o f

2 940 1 1 -

9 0 b e ( HAR - 3 068) i ndicative o f e arlier a ctivity o n t he s ite e videnced a lso i n H ope-Taylor's e xcavations ( pp.90-92). G rooved w are a nd s mall q uantities

o f

a lignment,

r adiocarbon d ated

b e

( BM - 1 653) T he

h ave

f orms

c remated

b one w ere

a nd

a lso

a nd

f unctions

b een s uccessively

t o

r ecovered

f rom t he E wart o f

r eviewed

f rom t he M ilfield N orth p it

1 820 ± 5 0 b e I p it

( BM - 1 652) a lignment

a nd

1 566

( Miket

h enge m onuments

i n B ritain a nd

b y J .G.D.

( 1936),

C lark

2=80

1 981). I reland

A tkinson

( 1951)

W ainwright ( 1969) a nd B url ( 1969). A part f rom a s ub-division b ased o n t he n umber o f e ntrances ( Piggott a nd P iggott 1 939, 1 40), t he h enge c ategory h as b een u sed t o d escribe s ites o f w idely v arying s ize, f rom 3 0ft ( 9m) i n d iameter a t F argo P lanation, W ilts. t o 1 200ft ( 366m) a t M ount P leasant, D orset a nd 1 600ft ( 488m) a t D urrington W alls, W ilts. ( Atkinson 1 951,

F ig.27,

T able I I).

E vidence

f rom r ecent

e xcavations

s ites s uch a s M arden, D urrington W alls a nd M ount P leasant s uggests t he d istinction b etween s ites m ay r elate n ot o nly t o t heir s ize, a lso

t o

t heir

f unction,

a nd

t hat

t he a ssociation o f

t imber

a t

t hat b ut

b uildings

a nd l arge q uantities o f p ottery a nd o ther a rtifacts a llows o f a m ore ' secular' i nterpretation o f t he f unction o f s ome o f t he l arge s ites, a s d istinct f unction -

f rom

t hose

e arthworks

( Wainwright

1 979,

w ith

2 37).

' a

m ore

A n e xclusive

o vertly

c eremonial

a ssociation w ith t he

m akers o f G rooved W are h as b een n oted a t M aumbury a nd S tonehenge I , w hile a t D urrington W alls, M arden a nd W oodhenge G rooved W are o ccurred i n

s uch

q uantity

a s

t o m ake

i t

c ertain

1 11

t hat

i ts

u sers

a lone

w ere

c oncerned

w ith

t he c onstruction o f

t hese m onuments

( Wainwright

a nd

L ongworth 1 971, 2 52). R adiocarbon d ates f or t hese m ajor s ites i n t he s outh o f E ngland s uggest a p eriod o f c onstruction a nd u se f rom c 2 000 b c. 1 29) 2 24)

B ut t wo o ther d ates, f rom A rminghall, N orfolk, 2 49Q 2: 1 50 bi 7 ( BM a nd L landegai, ( north c ircle) C aernarvon, 2 530 2 : 1 45 b c ( NPL i ndicate e arlier b eginnings. W ainwright h as s uggested t hat, b y

a nalogy w ith s mall r ing-cairns a nd o ther p rimarily f unerary m onuments, t he s maller h enges, o r ' hengi-form e arthworks' o f l ess t han 1 00ft ( 31m) i n d iameter, m ay h ave b een c onstructed l ate i n t he h enge t radition ( Wainwright 1 969, 1 17-8). D ates f rom t he M ilfield b asin w ould a ppear t o c ontradict t his a ssumption a nd t he c hronological d ivision o f h enge s ites o n t he b asis o f s ize d oes n ot s eem a ppropriate. A s

a t

s ome o ther s ites w idely s pread

t hrough

t he

c ountry,

f or

e xample T hornborough, P riddy, L landegai a nd D orchester, t he h enges i n t he n orth o f E ngland o ccur i n c lusters ( Burl 1 969, 5 ; W ainwright 1 969, f ig.1, 1 16). S ites i n v ery c lose p roximity i nclude t he t hree m onuments n ear P enrith a nd t he C oupland a nd M ilfield S outh h enges, w hile o thers i n t he M ilfield b asin a re s paced a t i ntervals o f o ne o r t wo k ilometres, o ver a d istance o f s ome 6 km f rom n orth t o s outh. N one o f t he h enges h as s o f ar p roduced e vidence o f i nternal s tructures c omparable w ith t he t imber b uildings f ound i n l arger s ites i n t he s outh o f E ngland. I nternal f eatures w ould a ppear e ither t o b e a bsent o r t o c onsist o f s mall n umbers o f s tanding s tones o r p ost-pits, p ortal s tones a nd o ccasional e xtra r ings o f c oncentric p osts. S imilar f eatures a re f ound a t o ther h enges w idely d istributed t hroughout t he c ountry, f or e xample, p ortal s tones a t S tonehenge I , W oodhenge, A vebury s outh e ntrance, G orsey B igsbury, P riddy s outh a nd o thers, a nd c ircles o f p its o r s hafts a t M aumbury, M axey , L landegai a nd D orchester ( Burl 1 969, 6 -8). T he u se o f

s ites w ithin h enge ' clusters'

r emains p roblematic.

I t

i s a pparent t hat e ven i f t he s ites w ere u sed s equentially, t he m ain d efining f eatures o f t he e arlier h enge, n amely t he d itch a nd b ank, w ould s till h ave b een v isible, e ven i f i nternal e lements, s uch a s t imber p osts a nd s tanding s tones h ad b een r emoved. S ome t ype o f r itual u se, i nvolving a v iew o f p rominent f eatures o n t he h orizon h as b een s uggested f or t he M ilfield h enges ( Harding A .F. 1 981, 1 31) b ut e xcavat ion o f t hese s ites d oes l ittle t o r esolve t heir m eaning.

1 12

C HAPTER 3 :

B EAKER A ND E ARLY B RONZE A GE B URIALS

I NTRODUCTION A

m ajor

s ource

o f

e vidence f or t he o ccupation o f

t he

n orth

o f

E ngland d uring t he 2 nd m illennium b c i s p rovided b y f unerary r emains. A lmost a t housand i ndividual d eposits o f p robably l ate N eolithic ( Beaker) o r E arly B ronze A ge d ate a re k nown f rom t he a rea, 6 73 i n t he n orth-east a nd 3 06 i n C umbria ( Map 8 1). T hese c omprise i nhumation a nd c remation b urials, c ists w ith n o h uman r emains, a rtifacts f rom b urial m ounds a nd c omplete p ots p robably f rom b urial c ontexts. T hese d eposits m ay b e d ivided i nto f our c ategories:

( 1)

( 2)

B urials w ith g rave g oods o f

B urials

B eaker o r E BA d ate

( 36%)

w ith g rave g oods w hich a re i nsufficiently d escribed

f or a ccurate c lassification ( e.g. ' pot', ' sherds') a nd w hich d o n ot s urvive b ut w hich b y r ite a nd c ontext m ay b e c ons idered a s o f E BA d ate ( 19%)

( 3)

4 )

B urials w ithout g rave g oods b ut w hich b y r ite, c ontext o r a ssociation w ith o ther d atable b urials a re p robably o f E BA d ate

( 36%)

C omplete B eaker a nd E BA v essels w hich b eing f ound c omplete, m ay b e c onsidered a s o riginating i n a f unerary c ontext

( 9%)

( Table 1 1) T he n umber o f b urials w ith g rave g oods o f E BA d ate i s l arger i n t he n orth-east t han i n t he n orth-west, b ut b urials w ithout g rave g oods b ut w hich b y r ite, c ontext o r a ssociations a re o f p robable E BA d ate a re m ore n umerous i n C umbria. T he p ercentages o f b urials i n t he o ther t wo c ategories a re c losely c omparable i n b oth p arts o f t he a rea. T he m ain d ifference

b etween

t he n orth-east a nd

t he n orth-west i s i n t he

n umber o f b urial d eposits o f p robable B eaker o f E BA d ate, o f w hich a re k nown i n t he n orth-east a s i n C umbria. T he a vailable d ata f or a ll b urial d eposits

i s

t otal

t wice a s m any

p resented i n t abular

f orm i n t he B urials C atalogue, T able 1 0 i n P art i i, w ith a ccompanying r eferences a nd n otes. T he f ollowing c ategories o f i nformation f or e ach i ndividual d eposit a re p resented

i n T able 1 0 n amely:

113

-

C atalogue n umber

-

S ite n ame

-

N ational g rid r eference

-

B urial r ite i .e.

-

O rientation o f

-

S ex/age

-

G rave g oods:

-

B urial c ontext:

i nhumation/cremation

b ody i n g rave

n on-ceramic a nd c eramic m ound/flat g rave c ist/covering s labs/neither

-

P osition o f

d eposit

r elative t o o ld g round s urface:

b elow/on/ a bove

A s t he q uality o f i nformation f rom b urial s ites i s v ery v aried ( p.118) e ach o f t hese c ategories i s n ot r ecorded i n a ll i nstances. I n s ome c ases t he c atalogue d escription o f t he b urials m ay d iffer f rom t hat g iven b y t he o riginal e xcavator, b ecause t he i nformation h as b een r e-assessed. w hen h uman

F or e xample, b urial r ite i s o nly l isted i n t he c atalogue r emains w ere f ound. T he a ssumption t hat a c ist w ithout

h uman r emains o riginally c ontained a n i nhumation b ecause t his b urial r ite i s r egularly a ssociated w ith c ist g raves i s n ot s ufficient e vidence f or t he i dentification o f b urial r ite f rom t he a rchaeological r emains. S imilarly ' traces o f f ire', b urnt s tones o r c harcoal a re n ot c lassified a s f ound i n m ounds

c remations w ithout e vidence o f b urnt b one. A rtifacts b ut w hich w ere n ot r ecorded a s f ound i n d irect a ssocia-

t ion w ith h uman r emains a re i temised s eparately i n t he c atalogue e ntry f or t hat s ite. B urials a nd a rtifacts w hich a re i nsufficiently r ecorded f or a ccurate c lassification a re n oted i n t he C atalogue a nd d escribed i n t he R eferences a nd N otes. T he b urial n umbers i n t he c atalogue a re a lso u sed i n t he t ext, i llustrations a nd T ables. T he n umber o f e xamples o f a p articular b urial r ite, c ontext o r g rave g oods d iscussed i n r elation t o o f

a nother v ariable d iffers, d epending u pon t he p articular c ategories i nformation b eing d iscussed, a s a ll v ariables a re n ot r ecorded f or

e ach b urial. T he E BA b urial e vidence f rom t he n orth o f E ngland

i s d iscussed

a s

f ollows: ( 1)

P roblems

o f

t he a vailable e vidence f or b urial p ractices

l imitations o n i ts ( 2)

i nterpretation

C hronology - t raditional c hronologies - r adiocarbon d eterminations - e vidence o f s ite s tratigraphy - o ther d ating e vidence - s cheme u sed i n t his

( 3)

s tudy

C onventional d ata a nalysis - b urial c ontexts g rave g oods

1 14

a nd

s ome

( 4)

O ther e vidence f or m ortuary p ractices

( 5)

S ocial i nterpretation o f

( 6)

C orrespondence a nalysis o f

( 7)

I nterpretation o f I n s ection

( 3)

b urials

b urials

b urials

f rom t he n orth o f E ngland

f rom t he n orth o f E ngland

t he a vailable b urial d ata i s

c onsidered i n r elation

t o t wo m ain v ariables n amely b urial c ontext ( i.e. g rave o r m onument t ype) a nd a ssociated g rave g oods. B oth v ariables h ave b een u sed c onv entionally a s a m eans o f i dentifying p articular g roups o f a ssociated b urials ( e.g. B eaker b urials, d agger g raves, m ultiple c ist m ounds). B urial c ontext I t

w as

t hought a ppropriate i n a r egional s tudy t o

i dentify

a nd

q uantify a ll t ypes o f b urial m onument o r b urial c ontext f ound i n t he a rea i n o rder t o a ssess t he r elative i mportance o f a c ontext a nd i ts a ssociated f eatures a t a l ocal r ather t han c ountry w ide l evel. T he i dentification o f s pecific r ecurring t ypes o f b urial c ontext a llows a c omparison t o b e m ade b etween d ifferent p arts o f t he a rea, a ssociated f eatures o f r ite a nd g rave g oods i n e ach c ontext a nd d istinguishes t he r arity,

o r o therwise,

o f a p articular t ype o f c ontext. .

G rave g oods A s w ith t he a nalysis o f b urial c ontexts, i t was t hought a ppropriate t o i dentify a nd q uantify a ll g rave g oods, b oth c eramic a nd n on-ceramic, f ound w ith E BA b urials i n t he a rea o f s tudy a nd t o e xamine t heir a ssociated b urial r ites a nd c ontexts. A s m any m ajor s tudies o f E BA a rtifacts a re c oncerned l argely w ith m aterial f rom b urials, i t i s p ossible t o c ompare t he o ccurrence o f p articular a rtifact t ypes i n t he n orth o f E ngland w ith t heir w ider d istribution t hroughout B ritain a nd w ith

r egional

p atterns

o f d istribution i dentified i n

o ther

s tudies.

T he i nterpretation o f t he a ssociations o f b urial c ontext a nd g rave g oods a nd t he r elevance o f t his f orm o f a nalysis i s c onsidered i n S ection ( 7). D istribution o f b urials I n

t he n orth-east

( Map 8 1) t he m ajority o f

s ites a re f ound

i n t he n orth o f

N orthumberland, b etween t he r ivers T weed a nd C oquet, b elow t he 6 00ft c ontour. S maller c oncentrations o f s ites a re f ound i n t he v alleys o f t he N orth T yne a nd t he T yne, a nd o n l ow l ying g round n ear t he m ouths o f t he

r ivers

W ansbeck,

B lyth a nd W ear.

I n c ontrast

t o

t he

n orth

o f

N orthumberland, t he r est o f t he e astern h alf o f t he a rea b etween t he r ivers C oquet a nd T ees, a nd p articularly b etween t he T yne a nd t he T ees h as

p roduced

a reas

o f

f ew b urial s ites.

t he

u pland

t he n orthern P ennines a nd C heviots.

I n C umbria,

w here

i n t he n orth-east, i n

B urials a re a lso r are i n

c ontrast

t o

t he

t otal n umber o f b urials

t he m ajority a re t o

b e

i s m uch s maller

t han

f ound i n t he E den v alley a nd,

t he n orth-east a re a lso r ecorded i n u pland a reas

a bove

t he 6 00ft c ontour, o n t he w est s ide o f t he u pper E den. A f ew o ther s ites a re k nown, s cattered i n l owland a reas a round t he c entral C umbrian m ountains,

w ith

o ne s mall c oncentra ticn

115

i n F urness.

L arge a reas

o f

C umbria

a re

h owever a lmost

t otally u nrepresented

b urial f inds, i n p articular t he C umberland c oastal a rea a nd t he s outh-east.

P ROBLEMS

O F

T HE

A VAILABLE

L IMITATIONS O N I TS T he

m ajor

p ractices i n q uality w hich,

E VIDENCE

i n E arly B ronze

l owland,

F OR B URIAL

t he

A ge

s outh-west

P RACTICES

A ND

S OME

I NTERPRETATION

p roblems

c oncerning

t he a vailable e vidence f or

b urial

t he 2 nd m illennium b c a re t hose o f s ampling a nd d ata i n t urn, i mpose l imitations o n t he i nterpretation o f t he

b urial e vidence. h eadings:

T hese p roblems m ay b e c onsidered u nder t he f ollowing

-

s urvival

a nd d iscovery o f

-

e xcavation a nd

-

i dentification o f

-

s ample a nd

b urials

r ecording h uman r emains

p opulation

S urvival a nd d iscovery o f b urials The k nown d istribution o f B eaker a nd E BA b urials ( Map 8 1) s hows a c onsiderable d isparity i n t he r epresentation o f d ifferent p arts o f t he n orth o f E ngland i n t he b urial r ecord. A lthough i t i s u nlikely t hat b urials w ere d ispersed a t r egular i ntervals o ver a n a rea o f s uch v aried t opography,

a

d iscovery ( and

n umber h ence

o f

f actors

r ecording)

o f

h ave

i nfluenced

t hese s ites.

t he

Among

p attern

o f

t hese a re:

l and u se -

s ites d estroyed r esidential

-

s ites o r

-

b efore

d iscovered

w here n o

s urface

-

v isible m onuments

-

a reas

w hich

i ndustrial l ogical

i ndustrial e xploitation,

o ther d isturbance o f

d iscovered d uring s uch a ctivities

e xcavated

s ites

b y p lough a griculture,

d evelopment a nd

d o

t he g round

a nd s ometimes

r ecorded

f urther d evelopment

i n a rable a reas t races

i ndicate

b y u se o f

a erial

p reserved b y p astoral u se o f n ot•

a ctivity,

s upport

u nsuitable

r emains

116

p hotography,

t heir l ocation

a ny

v iable

t he a rea a gricultural

f or t he d iscovery o f

o r

a rchaeo-

p roximity t o m odern s ettlements a nd n ature o f

t ne t errain

-

( iscovery o f s ites r elated t o . o , . .acion o f ; rom w hich s urveys m ay b e c arried o ut

-

n ature o f t he t errain a nd t he t ype o f v egetation i t m ay r estrict a ccess a nd v isibility o f f ield m onuments, t he g round a nd b y a erial p hotography

l ocation m aterial

o f v isible

m onuments

a nd

k nown

m odern

s et dements

o ccurrence o f

s upports b oth o n

p rehistoric

v isible a ntiquities m ay a ttract a ttention t o a p articular a rea, a s m ay t he k nown o ccurrence o f p revious d iscoveries i n t he a rea

a ctivities s ocieties -

o f l ocal

a ntiquarians

a nd

h istorical

o r

a ctivities o f c ollectors a nd a ntiquaries m ay b e a pparent i n a p articular l ocality, n ot o nly b ecause o f t heir o wn a ctivities b ut b ecause t hey a ttract o ther d iscoveries, b rought t o t hem a s t he l ocal e xpert

-

a rchaeological

n ews

o f w hich

h istorical a nd a rchaeological s ocieties a ctive i n a a rea e ncourage

A ll o f

t he r ecording o f

i s

p articular

l ocal a ntiquities

t hese f actors h ave b een a t w ork i n t he n orth o f E ngland a nd

a re r eflected i n t he k nown d istribution o f b urials a nd a lso s ettlements a nd a rtifacts. E xamples i nclude: -

-

-

-

t he

d ichotomy

e tc.

a nd u pland s ites

b etween l owland s ites d iscovered

r ecognised d uring f ield s urveys

t he

a bsence o f

i n t he P ennine u plands

f inds

b y

a nd

t he C umberland

l owlands a nd i n e xtensive a reas d evoted t o g razing

o f C umbria w hich

c oncentrations

o f

W ooler,

K irkby S tephen,

B arrow a nd o ther m odern s ettlements

c oncentrations

o f

f inds

f inds

a round

p loughing

a re

A lnwick,

l argely

R avenglass,

i n a reas w ith v isible a ntiquities,

f or

e xample, c airn f ields a nd l ater p rehistoric s ettlement s ites e .g. i n t he C heviots a nd t he v alleys o f t he N orth T yne a nd E den -

i nfluence

o f C anon G reenwell,

L t.

C ol.

N orth,

t he B erwickshire

N aturalists C lub, B arrow N aturalists F ield C lub a nd t he a ntiquarian i nterests o f t he D ukes o f N orthumberland a t A lnwick a nd

o f

t he R ev.

J ohn H odgson a nd G .

T ate i n

t he

n orth

o f

N orthumberland

i n

E arly B ronze A ge b urials i n t he n orth o f E ngland h ave b een f ound t wo t ypes o f b urial c ontext, m ounds a nd f lat g raves. T hese t wo

c ontexts

t end

t o b e d iscovered

i n d ifferent w ays.

T he a bove

m onuments, p articularly t hose i n c ommanding p ositions, v isible a nd s o a re r eadily r ecorded i n f ield s urveys.

1 17

g round

m ay b e e asily T hese a ttracted

t he

a ttention

c ontext

o f

e arly

e xcavated in

a ntiquaries t he

a nd

a re

1 9th c entury.

t he m ajor F lat

t ype

g raves

o f

a re

b urial

g enerally

d iscovered o nly b y a ccident d uring a gricultural w ork o r o ther e arth m oving a ctivities. Among t he f lat g raves t hose c onsisting o f s ubstant ial c ists a re i ntrinsically m ore l ikely t o b e n oticed t han u nprotected c remations

i n p its.

a ffect

s urvival

t he

t he

i mmediate

T he d epth a t w hich b urials p rocess

b urial

( Balkwill 1 976).

c ontext

a nd

i mportance.

T he

e xcavation o f a g rave

o f

r ock,

s urvival i ts

o f

t he

q uality o f s uch a s

b urial

c ontents.

g rave

i nto r ock,

c ontext,

i f

e nsures

u ndisturbed,

S mall b urial d eposits

a lso

m onument)

c onstruction a re o f

a s tone c ist,

m ay

t he p reservation o f

( rather t han o f a b urial

d esign, materials a g rave o f

a re p laced

F or

o r

t he

c onsiderable

t he c onstruction

t he a lmost u nlimited a nd

p laced i n b ags

t he p rotection o f a nd u nprotected b y

a f ormal ' grave" s tructure w ill b e s ubject t o d isturbance b y a nimals e tc. a s w ell a s t o t he d amaging e ffects o f c lose c ontact w ith t he s urrounding

s oil.

I t s eems l ikely t hat i n t he n orth o f E ngland c remations a re u nderr epresented b y c omparison w ith i nhumations a nd t hat l ess c onspicuous f orms

o f

b urial

c ontext

u nder-represented

s uch a s

f lat g raves w ithout

s tone

b y c omparison w ith f unerary m onuments

s labs

a re

s uch a s m ounds

o r c ists. W ithin t he b urial c ontext o r g rave t he s urvival o f h uman r emains a nd g rave g oods i s a ffected b y t he f orm o f t he g rave, t he a ction o f t he s urrounding s oil a nd t he c ondition o f t he b ody o r g rave g oods w hen d eposited. O rganic s ubstances a re p reserved o nly i n e xcept ional

c ircumstances a lthough t races o f

b e p reserved a s s mall q uantities

o rganic r emains m ay

s omeLimes

i mpressions o n o ther o bjects e .g. o n m etal o r i n v ery i n p laces w here t hey h ave b een p rotected b y a p articu-

l ar f eature o f t he g rave e nvironment. I n g eneral, h owever, b urial p ractices a nd r ituals a re o nly r epresented i n t he a rchaeological r ecor 'd b y

t he

b urial

c ontext,

s ome h uman r emains

a nd s elected

g rave g oods.

E xcavation a nd r ecording T here a re v ery w ide d ifferences i n t he r eliability o f e xcavation t echniques a nd s ite r ecording i n t he a rea. T he e xcavation a ctivities o f C anon G reenwell a nd o ther a ntiquaries h ave n ever b een s urpassed i n q uantity. O ver h alf o f t he b urial s ites i n t he a rea w ere d iscovered a nd r ecorded b efore o r d uring t he 1 9th c entury a nd 9 0% o f a ll b urials w ere h as a nd

r ecorded

p rior

t o

b een p articularly g rave

g oods

h ave

1 950. p oor

T he

s tandard o f

e xcavation a nd

i n C umbria a nd,the m ajority o f

b een r ecovered

b y m ethods

w hich f all s hort

m inimum s tandards

e xpected o f m odern e xcavations.

C umbria

e xcavation i n a n a rea

n on-cist

o f

p oor

b urial

u nfortunate.

c ontexts

I n

t he

o ften

n orth o f

r arely r ecorded i n o ld e xcavations ' old g round s urface'. I n m any c ases c ontemporary

g round

l evel

o f

t he

T he c oincidence

i n

c haracterised

w ith m ultiple g raves E ngland

a round

a s a

r ecording

h uman r emains

w hole

b y m ore i s

c omplex,

p articularly

s tratigraphy

w as

o ther t han w ith r eference t o t he t his w ould a ppear t o h ave b een t he t he b urial m ound,

r ather

t han

a n

e xcavated b uried s oil. M any a rtifacts f rom e arly e xcavations s urvive b ut d etails o f t heir d iscovery a nd a ssociations a re s o v ague t hat t hey a re

o f

o nly

l imited v alue

f or m any k inds

o f

a nalysis.

O ne

f urther

a spect o f e xcavation a nd r ecording t echniques s hould b e n oted. I n t he m ajority o f c ases w hen a b urial w as d iscovered, l ittle, i f a ny e xaminat ion o f t he s urrounding a rea w as c arried o ut b urials o r e ven t races o f s ettlement w ere t o b e t hat

t he o nly

l arge

c ollections

o f

t o a scertain f ound. I t i s

a ssociated u rns

118

a nd

i f m ore n otable

c remations

w ere

f ound

d uring

b uilding w orks,

a s

f or e xample a t G arlands w hen a

a rea w as e xcavated f or b uilding p urposes, a rchaeological e xcavations f or r emains o f Y eavering. c remations t hat

I t a nd

I dentification o f

f ar

d istant

t he h uman r emains a nd

a vailable

t he a ge

t o

f rom c ontemporary s ettlements.

h uman r emains

s cientifically a s

l arge

p its o r d uring p eriods e .g. a t

i s p ossible t hat t he l arge n umber o f s ingle o r d ouble c ists i n t he a rea w ere p arts o f l arger c emeteries a nd

t hese w ere n ot

F ew o f

i n s and o ther

e xcavated

i n t he a rea h ave

i n t he m ajority o f a nd

s ex o f

c ases

( 80%)

t he b urials.

n o

b een

e xamined

i nformation

i s

I n e arlier e xcavations

w here a ge o r s ex h as b een s uggested o n t he b asis o f t he s tature o r m uscularity o f a n i nhumation, s ome c aution s hould b e e xercised i f t hese r emains

h ave n ot

b een c ompared w ith o ther

i dentification o f a n

e stimate

c remations d eposit h as b e

c hildren b y s ize

o f t he

m ust

p recise n umber

o ften b e

i s,

a ge m ay b e o f

c ontemporary

o f

l ess

c ourse, r eliable.

i ndividuals m entioned

r egarded

a s m inimal.

b urial 2 ( 242-2)

( 245);

I n

a s

T he

a lthough

t he

c ase

r epresented

W here p roper

b een c arried o ut m ore t han o ne i ndividual h as r epresented i n a s ingle c remation d eposit

G oatscrag,

m aterial.

a cceptable,

a

e xamination

o ften b een f ound a s f or e xample

H olystone C ommon C CV

o f

i n

( 314-316)

t o a t

( 317-

3 19); W est H epple ( 599-602); C rosby R avensworth C LXXXII ( 760-1); H olmrook ( 824-5) a nd S hield K nowe ( 936-7). T he a verage n umber o f c remations i n s uch m ultiple f our. N o c remations i n

d eposits i s t wo a nd r anges b etween t wo a nd t he a rea h ave b een e xamined i n s ufficient

d etail t o s uggest t he m ethod o f p osition o f t he r emains d uring

p re-treatment o f t he b ody c remation, a s d etermined

a nd i n

t he s ome

A merican s tudies ( e.g. B inford 1 972a, 3 75-8). O f t he 1 73 i ndividuals i dentified a s t o a ge a nd s ex 1 32 i ndividuals w ere a dults a nd 4 . 1 c hildren.

A s

t he a ge

d istinction h as

C hildren 0 -11 A dolescent A

n umber o f

y ears,

c hildren i s

o r d escribed

1 2-17 y ears,

m ature

o ften n ot

a s

h ave n ot

m ales

5 2

3 8

A dult

f emales

2 7

2 0

2 9

1 9

C hildren

( 12-17

' Adult' T otal

y ears) y ears)

o r

f ollowing

a ' young

' infant' p erson'.

b een i dentified a s

N orth-east

A dult

( 0-11

t he

t o

s ex

b ut

i n t he l iterature a s ' adults'. T he d istribution c hildren i n b oth p arts o f t he a rea i s a s f ollows:

E ngland

C hildren

a ssessed

a ' child

o r d escribed a s

i ndividuals

a re s imply d escribed o f m ales, f emales a nd N orth o f

o f

b een m ade:

1 2

9

C umbria 1 4 7 1 0 3

5 3

3 7

1 6

1 73

1 23

5 0

119

A

n umber o f

i nfrequently

b urial

c ontexts

g rave g oods

a re

c ontain n o h uman r emains

p resent.

I t

i s

a lthough n ot

p ossible t hat

i n

e arly

e xcavations s ome h uman r emains w ere m issed, p articularly i f m ounds w ere t renched, a nd i n s ome c ases h uman r emains m ay h ave d ecayed w ithout v isible

t race.

T here

i s

h owever

e lsewhere i n B ritain t hat E BA g raves m ay, i n f act, b e

s ome

e vidence

f rom r ecent

e xcavations

t his a bsence m ay b e o riginal a nd t hat ' cenotaphs ( Allen D . 1 982, 7 8-9).

s ome

S ample a nd yopulation A lthough a lmost n umber

o f

s idered

i n

s urvey

a t housand

e xamples

o f

r elation

a nd

t he

t o

p ossible

c arbon d eterminations

d eposits m ay s eem a c omparatively l arge

E BA b urial

p ractices

c hronological

f or E BA b urials

B ritain s uggest a d ate r ange f rom a t b urial t raditions ( Tables 5 4-55). i ncrease

t his

s pan

t o

U nfortunately i mpossible p articular

t o

s pan o f a nd

t he a bsence o f t he

must

b e

a rea c overed

t otal

b y

t hese

b urials.

o ther E BA m aterial

c ont his R adio-

t hroughout

l east c 1 800 b c t o 1 200 b c f or E BA C alibration o f t hese d ates w ould

o ver a m illennium

a ssess

t his

t he l arge g eographical

( Watkins

1 975,

E BA c emeteries

p robable

s ize

l ocality o ver a k nown t ime

s pan,

o f

o f

A ppendix I C).

a ny s ize m akes

t he

p opulation

f rom b urial

i t

i n

r emains.

a

U nder

t hese c ircumstances i t i s a lso i mpossible t o e stimate t he s ignificance o f t he r elative n umbers o f a dults a nd c hildren o r o f. m en a nd w omen i dentified a s r egards I n

i n t he a rea. S ettlement e vidence m ay p rove m ore i nstructive g roup s ize i n a n a rea w ith n o r eal c emetery t radition.

t he

s mall

s ample

o f

i ndividuals

i dentified a s

t o a ge

a nd

s ex

t here i s a n e xcess o f a dult m ales o ver a dult f emales. H owever, t his a pparent d iscrepancy i n n umbers s hould b e a pproached w ith s ome c aution. A w orld-wide s tudy o f m ortuary r emains i ndicated t hat a n a pparent e xcess

o f

a dult

m ales

r ather

t han a f eature

m ales

i n

r emains

a ny t he

f emales m ay b e a r esult

p rehistoric

p opulation m ay h ave

( Weiss

b etween

o ver

o f

1 972).

b een

I n t he n orth o f

n umbers

i dentification o f

p opulations

o f

a dult

i nhumations,

o f t hat

o verestimated E ngland

m ales

a s

a nd

a nd

m odern f rom

s keletal

t he g reater d iscrepancy

f emales

o ccurs

i n

B urial r ite I nhumation

C remation

A dult m ale

4 5

A dult

1 4

1 3

1 9

3 4

1 6

1 3

f emale

' Adult' C hildren

( 0-11

C hildren

( 12-17

y ears) y ears)

7

5

7

9 9 W hile t hat

i t

t he

f ollows:

A ge/Sex

b urial

b ias

t he n umber o f

i s

p ractices

p ossible a nd

r ites

i n o lder e xcavations

t hat

t his

a ccorded i t w as

r epresents

7 4 a r eal

t o m en a nd w omen,

c onsidered q uite e asy

120

d ifference i n t he i t t o

i s

a lso

l ikely

d etermine

t he

sex

of an inhumation and considerable bias is shown in these results. the more diff�cult task of determining the sex of cremated remains considerably more caution was exercised and a larger number of deposits are identified only as 'adults'. Ln

I n both inhumation and cremation deposits the age of adults, like children, has rarely been estimated. According to evidence from a variety of prehistoric cultures life expectancy in the B•ron ze Age may have been of the order of about 32 years, although some aged individuals are known (Hassan 1981, 102-123). This figure is quite likely, given that the average life expectancy in the Middle Ages was of a similar order and has only increased considerably over the last two -cen turies.

CHRONOLOGY Traditional chronologies Although radiocarbon dating is -the most significant objective contribution to chronological studies in prehistory,· the number of radiocarbon. determinations for British prehistoric sites is still com­ This is particularly the case for burial sites of paratively small. probable Beaker and EBA date, which comprise the largest group of sites Traditional chronological schemes form the basis for for this period. the organisation and discussion of material of the period with some rather spasmodic references to radiocarbon determinations, not infrequently only a single determination from a site. Traditional chronologies for British prehistory are based on or more of the following:

one

artifact typology artifact technology economy funerary customs site stratigraphy social organisation connections between Britain and Europe generally connections between Britain, historical chronologies

southern Europe and areas

palaeobotany and other environmental studies

121

with

The limitations of the archaeological evidence particularly applicable to the c9nstruction of chronological schemes are: different types of sites are known for different periods general lack of settlement sites for Neolithic

EBA

lack of deep stratigraphy. on British sites many artifacts associations

are known largely

as

single

finds,

without

differing 'traditions' within Br.itain make it difficult compile a chronological scheme for the whole country

to

comparatively small number of exotic artifacts which provide correlations with other chronological schemes in Europe probable connections with historically dated sequences do extend earlier than about the mid 2nd millennium BC

not

Bronze Age chronologies Traditional chronologies for the Bronze Age in Britain have relied heavily upon the identification of items of material culture which might be compared with similar artifacts in the more closely dated European sequence. Such material has often been interpreted in terms of an invasion model, or Britain has been identified as the last point in a chain of culture diffusion across Europe, with an appropriate time lag necessary for the Channel crossing. In the early part of the Bronze Age grave a�sociations are of prime importance, with a shift to bronzes in the later Bronze Age. The first major corpus of pottery and associated grave goo�s from Bronze Age burials was provided by Abercromby in 1912. His study of Beaker typology and chronology provided a basic model for the interpretation of Beaker remains, slightly re-adjusted only as late as 1963 by Stuart Piggott. · Childe also used pottery as the basic analytical tool for the identification of archaeological cultures, (Childe 1949, 9) while the more exotic grave goods, by which the relative dates of different assemblages might be established were used by Piggott to identify the 'Wessex culture' (Piggott 1938). For these writers the major changes apparent in the . archaeological record were attributable to .foreign influence or actual influx,· �eakers from the Rhineland in the EBA, the Wessex culture from Brittany in the MBA and Deverel-Rimbury urns fiom continental LBA cultures. Supposed connections with the shaft graves at Mycenae, themselves containing objects of Egyptian manufacture for which an historical chronology was available, linked Wessex culture material to an historically dated horizon at c 1550 - 1450 BC. Other dates were more tentative. Although often- reliant upon individual artifact chronologies the wider social implications of archaeological interpretations were not ignored, particularly in Chiide's concept of an. archaeological 'culture' and in the identification of Wessex 'chiefs' by Piggott. Because distinct types. of burial context, rite and grave goods were found associated with each of the major ceramic styles of the Bronze Age this 'cultural' scheme held good as a chronological sequence. 122

I n t he 1 950s.various r econsiderations p articularly u rns, s uggested t hat s ome a ttributable

t o a n e arlier p eriod.

o f p resumed L BA m aterial, o f t his m aterial m ay b e

M argaret S mith's r e-examination o f

t he c ontinental c onnections o f t he B ritish ' ornament h orizon b ronzes, f ound i n a ssociation w ith D everel-Rimbury u rns w as o f p articular i mportance ( Smith M .A. 1 959). S mith's s uggestion t hat t hese b ronzes b elonged t o t he M iddle B ronze A ge b roke t he p resumed B eaker-Wessex-urn s equence a nd p rovided t he i mpetus

f or t he r e-examination o f g rave g oods

a ssociated w ith s uch b ronzes. T he r ecognition t hat B eakers, f ood v essels a nd u rns m ight a ll b e a ttributed t o t he E BA w as c onfirmed b y l ater r adiocarbon d eterminations. M ajor m odern s tudies o f E BA c eramics h ave

c oncentrated u pon t he t ypology a nd o rigins

t ypes, e dged

o f

i ndividual

c eramic

t heir a ssociated r ites a nd g rave g oods, a lthough i t i s a cknowlt hat t hese t ypes m ay b e a t l east p artly c ontemporary ( Longworth

1 961:

S impson

1 968:

C larke 1 970).

T he o nly

m ajor

c hronological

s cheme f or t he E arly B ronze A ge d erived f rom m odern c eramic s tudies i s t hat p ut f orward b y D avid C larke. B ronzes h ave o f c ourse a lso b een u sed

a s

t he

b asis

f or B ronze A ge

c hronologies.

D etailed

r egional

s tudies o f m etal w ork a nd e arly m etal w orking g enerally ( e.g. C oles 1 962a; 1 966; E ogan 1 964; B ritton 1 963) t ogether w ith t he r esults o f m etallurgical a nalyses ( e.g. B urgess 1 968a) p rovided t he p otential f or f urther t ypological d ivision o f B ronze A ge b ronzes. T his s hift i n e mphasis f rom a rchaeological c ultures t o t echnological p eriodisation a s t he b asis o f c hronology w as e xemplified b y B urgess' s cheme f or t he B ronze A ge b ased e ntirely o n i ndustrial p hases o f b ronze w orking ( Burgess

1 974).

T he l atest a ttempt t o p rovide a c hronological a nd s ocial o verview o f t he p eriod i s o f a d ifferent n ature. I n a b old a ttempt t o e scape a rtifact-based c hronologies B urgess p resented i n h is s tudy T he A ge o f S tonehenge c oncept o f

( 1980a) a ' spirit o f t he e ra' p eriodisation b ased o n t he ' constant c ulture c ontact'. I n t his s cheme t he m ajor

e lement

c hange i s

o f

i n t he r ealm o f

i deas

a nd B urgess

c asts o ff

b oth

t he ' Three A ge' r eferents a nd t echnological p hases. I nstead a s uccess ion o f p eriods e ach o f ' fundamentally d ifferent c haracter' i s d efined, e ach i dentified b y t he n ame o f t ions e ra'

a s ite f or w hich r adiocarbon

d etermina-

a re a vailable a nd w hich ' epitomises t he e ssential s pirit o f i ts ( Burgess 1 980a, 2 1-24). T he l imitations o f t hese t ypes o f

c hronology w ill n ow b e d iscussed. B ecause

o f

t he n ature a nd l imitations

o f

t he a vailable

e vidence

n one o f t he t raditional c hronological s chemes f or t he B ritish B ronze A ge a re t rue c hronologies. T hey a re, r ather, a c ombination o f t ypology, p eriodisation, s ocial i nterpretation a nd t he e vidence o f s ite s tratigraphy. T hese c hronologies h ave t o b e u nderstood i n t erms o f t he m odels o f s ocial o rganisation a nd s ocial c hange o n w hich t hey a re b ased. B ronze A ge c hronologies f all i nto t wo t ypes f irst, t hose b ased u pon t he t ypological s tudy o f a s ingle a rtifact, a nd s econd t hose b ased u pon a w ider r ange o f a rchaeological

e vidence s uch a s a rtifacts a nd s ites,

d efined a s

' cultures' o r ' traditions'.

C hronology f rom t ypology F our g eneral f actors s hould b e c onsidered w hen u sing a rtifact t ypology a s t he b asis o f a ' chronological' s cheme. F irst, t he m ore c omplex t he a rtifact, t hat i s, t he m ore t raits c an b e d istinguished b y

1 23

v isual i nspection o r s cientific a nalysis, t he g reater t he p otential f or t ypological s ubdivision. S econd, t he n umber o f c ategories p roduced i n a ny t ypology i s a rtifact. T hird, t hetical

s cheme

m aterial,

a f unction o f t he t ype o f a nalysis a pplied t o t he t ypology i s n ot c hronology. A t ypology i s a h ypoo f

t he

d evelopment

c hronological

i ndependently. F our, t he a rtifact s hould b e r elated d ifferences

i n c ast

a nd

i s

v alidity

a n

i nterpretation

o f

w hich

m ust

b ronzes m ay b e

s ignificant b ut

a s

t he r elevant

t rait

o f a n S mall

s mall d eviations

i n

O ver p recise d efinition c an b e a rtificially. T hese p oints a re

i llustrated b y v arious a nalyses o f B ritish B ronze A ge w hich c hronologies h ave b een d erived. s hape

t he

p roved

d egree o f d escriptive d efinition t o t he t ype o f a rtifact c oncerned.

t he d ecoration o f p ottery m ay n ot b e. m isleading a nd m ay c ategorise a n o bject

U sing

o f

b e

f or

m aterial,

a nalysis

f rom

A bercromby

a nd

l ater P iggott d efined t hree g roups o f B ritish B eakers ( Abercromby 1 912: P iggott 1 963). U sing d ecorative m otif a s t he c riterion o f a nalysis C larke

i dentified

s even

( Clarke

1 970).

N either

t ype o f

m ay h ave b een o f s ignificance t o t he o riginal m akers p urely f unctional f eature. A bercromby a nd C larke

c ategorisation

a nd n either i s a b oth i nterpreted

t heir s ion.

B eaker t ypes a s a d irect r esult o f f oreign i nfluence o r i ntruA t t hese p oints o f ' invasion o r ' influence' t he s equence o f

t ypes

o f

E uropean

B ritish B eakers c hronology.

c ould b e

t ied

t o a p articular p lace

U sing a n a lternative m odel

o f

r egional d ifferent

d evelopment L anting a nd v an d er W aals i nterpretation o f t he s ame m aterial u sed

a nalysis

l inks

c hronological o f

t his

B eakers

u sed o ccur

e quation

t ype o f

o f

s ingly.

p attern

C larke's b ook

p recise d ate

o f

o ccurs

a nd

w ith

f rom b urial

t hat,

a

c ontexts

i n w hich

t hat a rtifacts i n g eneral u se,

t he

t he

t o

o f

s ome,

t he a s a

p roduce

a

i n B ritain.

i n e quating

t ypology a nd

A lthough b ronzes

c hronology a re a pparent

a re m uch m ore a menable

s tudy t han B ronze A ge c eramics m ost

s tray f inds.

t hey

c hronology

b asis

t ypes w hich c an b e c onsulted

b ronzes.

t he

t his s ort o f b ecome p igeon

b y

f ound

p articular

T he i ntegrity

r eligiously u sed,

i s

t he

b e c ontradicted b ecause

f rom t he h ypotheses w hich a re

B eaker

t ypological a s

s lot

B eaker

t he g reatest d anger o f

B eaker c orpus

p roblems

s tudy o f

p recise

a re

P erhaps

f or a ny B eaker

S imilar t he

c annot

i n

i nflux a nd

( 1972) p roduced a b y C larke. B ut e ach

o utside c onnections.

' types' w ith c hronology i s

d isassociated

t ypology.

' type' o f o f

a nalysis

i n t hese s tudies

i n a c hronological

b ecomes

i n

h ypothetical o n t he b asis

p articular

u sually h oled

a

s pan,

l imited

T hese a re d ifficult

t o

r elate

E BA

t o

t o

m etalwork

o ther i tems o f

m aterial c ulture, a nd t o t he e vidence f rom s ettlements a nd b urial s ites w here b ronzes a re r are. T he e arliest s tages o f c opper w orking a nd ntirely h ypothetical a nd a re o f f or e xample a re e B urgess p oints o ut, e ven i n l ater M oreover, a s aution i n e quating i ndustrial o r n ecessary t o e xercise c

b ronze t echnology u nknown d uration. s tages

i t

i s

t ypological s tages w ith c hronological p hases. A lthough t he i dea o f a d evelopmental s equence o f i ncreasing t echnological c omplexity i s a ppealing,

i t

i ndustrial

p hases

1 94) . c ountry

p ossible

w ide

t hat d ifferent

c ontinued

T he d evelopment o f

c hronological d istinct

i s

t ypes

c hronological

b ronzes

b ronze m etallurgy o n a r egional,

b asis m ay f urther c omplicate a ny e quation.

o f

i n u se s imultaneously ( Burgess

I ndividual i ndicators,

f inds

a lthough

p ost q uem f or a p articular t echnique o f

1 24

p otential

s hould n ot t here m ay

m anufacture.

b e b e

o f

v arious

1 974,

1 90-

r ather t han t ypological/

c onsidered a s a

t erminus

T he

r elevance o f m etal

t ypology a nd

' industrial

d evelopments

t o

o ther a spects o f-material c ulture a nd t o s ocial l ife a nd s ocial o rganisation c an a lso b e q uestioned. O ne o f t he r easons B urgess g ives f or a m etalwork b ased c hronology ( rather t han o ne b ased o n c eramics) i s t he m ay,

' undiminished r elevance' o f b ronzes t hroughout t he p eriod. h owever, h ave v aried c onsiderably t hroughout t he B ronze A ge.

s ocial

s ignificance a nd

' value'

o f

b ronze

i n t he e arly s tages o f

T his T he

c opper

a nd b ronze w orking w hen b ronze a rtifacts w ere c omparatively r are a nd s omething o f a n ovelty, m ay h ave b een q uite d ifferent f rom l ater p eriods w hen b ronze t ools a nd w eapons w ere m uch m ore c ommon. T he e quation o f c hanges i n b ronze t echnology w ith c hanges i n o ther a spects o f m aterial c ulture, s ubsistence, s ocial o rganisation a nd r eligious b eliefs i s p articularly s weeping ( e.g. B urgess 1 974, 1 94-198). I f t ypology

d oes

n ot n ecessarily e qual

c hronology

t hen a ttempts

t o

l ink

p articular a spects o f s ocial l ife a nd o rganistion w ith s tages i n ' industrial' d evelopment a nd t o e stablish c ause a nd e ffect f rom t hese h ypothetical c orrelations, a re u nsound. ' Cultures' a nd T he

c hronology

s econd m ajor

t ype

t he c haracterisation d istinctive s ocial, H owever,

a s

w ith

' tradition'

i s

d istinction

w as

n eed

n ot

o f

c hronological

s cheme

t ypological

p hases,

a p eriod d efined b y a ' culture'

n ot n ecessarily a d iscrete

c hronological

a cknowledged b y C hilde w ho n oted

r epresent

i s p eriodisation,

o r

o f a p articular t ime s pan a ccording t o c ertain s epulchral, t echnological o r o ther f eatures.

t he s ame

c hronological

t hat

s pan.

o r

T his

e ach

' culture'

s pan i n d ifferent

g eograph-

i cal a reas. C ultural p hases c ould o nly b e s ynchronised b y c ommodities w hich e njoyed a l imited c urrency a nd w hich w ere i nterchanged b etween g roups

o f

( Childe

1 949,

T he 1 980, a nd a s

p eople.

m ost

d efines

r adical a ttempt p eriods

n ature o f a nd

i ncreased u pheaval r ather t his i deas

i n t erms

' culture

i ndicative

c hange

T he b asic u nit

o f

c hange'

a d istinct

t he

c ulture w as

r eplaces

a t o f

p eriodisation, i deas.

b reaks s ocial

T his

t he

s ocial

a way

t hat b y

c oncept

f rom t he

g roup o r p hase

t hese w ith p eriods

d efined

p opulation p ressure, a c hanging ( Burgess 1 980a, 2 2-24 e t s eq.).

t han a d escriptive t ype a nd

o f

g roup

9 ).

b y

o f

B urgess

i dea o f o f

i n

t he m echanics ' culture'

t echnological

s uch

c oncepts

a s

s ocial o rder a nd s piritual T his i s a n i nterpretative

p eriodisation.

T hree m ajor

p roblems

b eset

o f a pproach. F irst b ecause p eriods a re d efined i n t erms o f s ocial m ovements i t i s d ifficult t o e stablish a d irect

c orrelation b etween t hese f actors a nd a spects o f m aterial c ulture w hich c omprise t he a vailable a rchaeological e vidence. S econd, i f i deas d o n 3t

c orrelate

d irectly w ith m aterial

b etween p eriodisation a nd T hird, b een

t he

s ites w hich a re u sed

p reserved

r epresentative d ifficulties

a nd o f

c ulture

t emporal s equence t o

e xcavated

d efine

b y

i s

c an b e s een i n B urgess'

t he

t he ' spirit' o f

c hance.

a p articular e ra b ut

t hen

d ifficult T hey

m ay

s cheme.

a re

r elationship t o

e stablish.

e ach e ra h ave n ot

t herefore

b e

e xceptional.

F or

e xample,

T hese

m any i tems

o f m aterial c ulture c urrent i n t he M eldon B ridge p eriod c ontinue i n u se i nto t he M ount P leasant p eriod. T he i ntroduction o f m etallurgy a nd t he B eaker t radition p rovide ' a c onvenient p oint' a t w hich t o m ake t he d ivision b etween t han a g loss ( ibid, 2 3). h ave

n o

t he

t wo

p eriods,

b ut

t hese

t wo

f eatures

w ere n o m ore

o n e xisting t raditions' a nd l ife c ontinued m uch a s b efore I f m etallurgy a nd t he i ntroduction o f t he B eaker t radition

p articular

r elevance

t hen i t

1 25

i s

d ifficult

t o

s ee

w hy

t hey

s hould

b e

u sed

a s

i ndicators

o f

t he M ount P leasant

p eriod.

D espite

t he

a ssertion t hat n ew C riteria a re b eing u sed t he M ount P leasant, O verton a nd B edd B ranwen p eriods a ppear t o a ccord w ith t he s equence o f B eaker, f ood

v essel

a nd u rn t raditions

e xplanations s imply b een

e stablished

m uch

e arlier.

T he

o ld

o f s ocial c hange s uch a s i nvasion a nd d iffusion r eplaced w ith n ew o nes. A rchaeological ' cultures

h ave h ave

b een M ore

r eplaced b y ' traditions', b ut w ithout a ny s ocial a ffiliation. i mportantly h owever w hen c onsidering t his s cheme a s a c hronology

i t

n ecessary

i s

A lthough

h is

t o

e xamine B urgess' u se o f

c hronology d efines

d eterminations f rom t ype s ites, a ssociated w ith t his m ethod o f a ssociated d ates B urgess a t

w ith

b oth

c alibrated i s

a ble

s pecific

( McKerrell

t o d efine e ach p eriod s ome m ajor

d eterminations. o f

1 975,

i n a bsolute

c hange

a nd

t he

6 5-66). t erms

t ook p lace.

a re

n o d efinite b reaks

i n t he s equence

a nd

H owever

t hen

h istorical

B y

c arbon d eterminations f rom v arious o f t hese t ype s ites g uishable w hen t he r adiocarbon m ethodology i s a pplied t here

r adiocarbon

B urgess i gnores t he c onventions d ating a nd t he s tatistical e rror

r adiocarbon d eterminations

f rom t hem

p oints

r adiocarbon

e ach p eriod i n t erms

d oing a rgues t he

s o t hat

r adio-

a re i ndistinc orrectly. I f

t he d ifferences

i n

t he ' spirit' o f e ach e ra a re m uch l ess d istinct. W hat a re d efined a s r adical s ocial c hanges a nd u pheavals m ay, i f t hey t ook p lace o ver a l onger

p eriod,

b e

i nterpreted a s

g radual

s ocial

c hange.

S ite s tratigraphy E vidence E BA

b urial

f rom

t he n orth o f

p ractices

E ngland

c oncerning

t heir a ssociations

t o

s ufficient o ld

F ew T he

g round

i ndividual

o f

o f

d etails

s tratigraphy. t he

s tandards f or

s urface d oes

s tratigraphic

T he

s equence

h owever e vidence

c ould

f rom

t he a rea i s

p rovide a c rude f rom

s ites

o f

p reviously, t he 1 9th a nd e arly b elow t hose

e xcavations

a d eposit,

o f

b urial

a ssociations

r ecording much t hese

b e d etermined i s

p oor.

i n

i n

r e-interpretation

p osition o f

O f t hese s ites o nly C hatton S andyford m odern s tandards a nd t he q uality o f e vidence

o f

s ubstantial

r ecorded

s ite.

e xcavation a nd

t he a ccounts

o r

c hronology

f ound

b urials i n s ingle g raves. A s d iscussed o f b urials i n t he a rea w ere e xamined i n t he t oday.

b urial d eposit

t he

b e

w ith

c entury

o ne

t o

c ontexts

2 0th

t han

i s

m ultiple m ajority e xpected

m ore

a nd

b elow,

s ome

s ummarised

s ite

o n o r a bove

d atum l ine

w here

p rovide o f f or

t he

t ype

i n T able

o f 5 3.

h as b een e xcavated a ccording t o t he m ajority o f t he e xcavated

A lmost

n othing

c an b e

e stablished

f or

s ites i n C umbria w hich h ave s uffered p articularly f rom b ad e xcavation. I n g eneral t he w ell e stablished s equence, B eaker - f ood v essel e nlarged f ood v essel - u rn, i s f ound. E xceptions a re E tall M oor ( p.166)

a nd H arbottle P eels,

c ollared u rn. b urial

d eposits

w here a f ood v essel w as

A ssociations a re d iscussed

o f m aterial s eparately

f ound

i n t he

f ound

t ogether r elevant

s econdary t o i n i ndividual

s ections

b elow

( pp.146-181), r ecorded c ases

b ut c an b e w here m ore

s ummarised q uite s imply. I n a ll a dequately t han o ne v essel h as b een p laced w ith a s ingle

b urial,

v essels

l ike t ype a re

o nly

o f

f ound i n c ombination,

t hat

i s,

B eakers w ith B eakers, f ood v essels w ith f ood v essels, a nd u rns w ith u rns a nd i ncense c ups. D ifferent d ecorative s tyles w ithin t he i ndividual

c eramic

s hire v ases a nd n oted. F irst,

t ypes

a re h owever k nown i n c ombination

' local' f ood t he l arge

( e.g.

Y ork-

v essels). T wo p ossible e xceptions m ay b e i ncense c up a nd f ood v essel p loughed u p a lthough t he d irect a ssociat ogether a t R oseden, I lderton ( 354-355), he c ircumstances, a s t hey t ion o f t he t wo v essels i s u ncertain, i n t b u r ia l s . A n d s e c on d , t he c ould h ave c ome f rom s eparate c ontigious

126

a ssociation

o f

i ndividual

Y eavering ( 648, e 51, r esidual m aterial.

B eaker

6 63),

s herds w ith

u rned

a lthough t hese m ight b e

c remations

a t

i nterpreted

a s

R adiocarbon c hronology f rom s ites i n B ritain a nd I reland T he

r adiocarbon d eterminations

c urrently a vailable f or L ate

N eo-

l ithic a nd E arly B ronze A ge c eramics i n B ritain a nd I reland a re s ummarised i n T able 5 4, t he r eferences f or w hich c an b e f ound i n T able

5 5. B y c omparison w ith t he n umber o f k nown s ites o f t he p eriod, t he n umber o f s uch d eterminations i s s mall, p articularly f or f ood v essels. T he m aterial r epresented i n t he B eaker p art o f t he T able c omes n ot o nly f rom g raves, b ut a lso f rom d omestic a nd ' ritual s ites, e .g. M ount P leasant,

F ifty F arm,

K nap H ill,

f or f ood v essels a nd u rns t ion o f M ount P leasant, D ownpatrick. T he

e arliest

L ion P oint a nd N orthton,

w hile

t hat

i s p redominantly f rom g raves, w ith t he e xcepB allynagilly, C oney I sland a nd M eadowlands,

u nequivocal d ates

f or B eaker m aterial a re a

s eries

f rom t he s ettlement s ite a t B allynagilly, C o. T yrone, c 2 000 - 1 850 b e, w ith c ombed ( UB558), f alse r elief ( UB556) a nd f inger t ip d ecorated s herds ( UB557). F ine a nd c oarse B eaker w ares h ave b een r ecognised a t t his s ite, a nd c hequer a nd l ozenge p atterns a re f ound, s uggesting a ffinities w ith C larke -s N /MR a nd S outhern B eaker g roups 3 5).

H owever,

u ntil

f ully p ublished,

( ApSimon 1 969,

i t i s n ot p ossible

t o m ake c om-

p arisons w ith m aterial f rom o ther a reas. N o c ord d ecorated s herds h ave b een i dentified i n t he a ssemblage, d espite i ts e arly d ating. T wo o ther e arly d eterminations ( BM 4 37 a nd B M 4 38) f rom P inhole C ave, D erbyshire h ave b een o btained f rom b ulked s amples, a nd a s s uch t heir v alue a s d ating e vidence f or t wo S 4 b eakers f rom t he s ite i s i n d oubt. T hey a re, h owever, r eviewed w hen

l isted h ere f or t he s ake o f c ompleteness, a nd m ight b e m ore d eterminations o f B eaker m aterial a re a vailable.

T he B allynagilly d ates, w ith a d eveloped B eaker a ssemblage, d o a t l east o ffer t he p rospect t hat s imilarly e arly m aterial m ay b e o btained e lsew here. A t

o nly t wo s ites,

o ther t han B allynagilly,

h as a B eaker s equence

b een d ated, n amely a t M ount P leasant a nd N orthton, S outh H arris. A ll o ther d eterminations c ome f rom s ingle d eposits o nly. T he M ount P leasant d ates, f rom c 1 680 - 1 460 b e e ncompass a l arge v ariety o f B eaker

t ypes

f ound i n l ayer 5 ( the s econdary s ilts),

o f

t he s ite

I V

e nclosure d itch, i ncluding A OC, N 1/D, S 2-3 a nd S 4 s herds, N /MR m aterial f rom a h earth i n t he m ain e nclosure d itch, a nd t he l ater a ssociation o f B eaker, t he

f ood

v essel a nd c ollared u rn s herds i n t he t ertiary s ilts

s ite I V c omplex ( Wainwright

1 979,

7 5-124,

1 86).

T he

o f

a pparent

c ontemporaneity o f s herds o f s o m any o f C larke's B eaker t ypes i n t he s ame s ilts, a nd t he c ontinuance i n u se o f A OC f orms, c onsidered t o s tand a t t he b eginning o f B eaker d evelopment i n B ritain, a re o f p articular i nterest. A t N orthton, S outh H arris, t wo h orizons w ere i dentified, w ith s tone b uilt s tructures a nd s everal t housand B eaker s herds o f N orthern w ith B eakers k nown c olour a nd s ize. o nly h aphazard

B ritish t ype ( Simpson 1 976). T hese m ay b e c ompared f rom g raves, b ut m anifest a g reater r ange o f f abric, S ome ' domestic' v essels, w ithout d ecoration, o r w ith f ingernail i mpressions w ere a lso f ound. S ome

t ypological c hange w as n oted b etween t he B eakers f rom h orizon I , t ypified b y h orizontal g rooved o rnament o n t he n eck , a nd t hose f rom B eaker

h orizon

I I,

w ith

a

g reater

127

s lackness

o f

p rofile

a nd

a

m ultiplicity o f d ecorated t herefore, n ot j ust a s

z ones. N orthton i s o f t he o nly s ite i n t he

p articular i mportance c ountry p roducing a

d omestic a ssemblage o f N orthern B eakers ( cf. C larke 1 970), b ut b ecause t hese e xhibit c hanges i n d ecorative s tyle w ithin t wo d ated p hases, w hich h ave b een r ecognised a rchaeologically. T he d ifference i n d ate b etween t he t wo p hases w ould h owever a ppear t o b e s mall, a s t he t wo r adiocarbon d ifferent

d eterminations

( Arch.

a re

n ot

s tatistically

s ignificantly

S ite I ndex 1 .5).

T he m ajority o f

B eaker d eterminations

l ie w ithin a p eriod f rom t he

l ate 3 rd t o t he m id-2nd m illennium b c, w ith l ater c ontinuance p ossible i ndicated b y m aterial f rom M ount P leasant, a b urial w ith a S 4 B eaker a nd j et d isc-bead a t B albirnie, F ife ( Ritchie 1 975), a S 4 B eaker a nd a f lat b ronze k nife-dagger f rom a c ist a t A shgrove, F ife ( Henshall 1 966) a nd f rom a d eposit b etween t he k erb s tones o f t he p assage g rave a t s ite 8 , K nowth. U nfortunately w ith t he s mall n umber o f d eterminations a vailable, i t i s n ot y et p ossible t o f orm a ny r eliable i dea o f c urrency o f p articular B eaker t ypes, a s h as b een p ossible w ith

t he t he

D utch m aterial ( Lanting a nd M ook 1 977, 8 3-94). D eterminations f or A OC m aterial, f or e xample 4 a re a vailable o nly f rom a b urial a t A ntofts, Y orkshire ( BM 6 2 1 800 - 1 50 b c), a nd a s s herds i n t he l ater " ritual" c ontext o f M ount P leasant ( BM 6 68 1 680 ± 6 0 b c), b oth l ate d ates b y c omparison w ith D utch A OC B eakers, d ated t o c 2 250 - 2 000 b c ( ibid, 8 9). I t i s p ossible t hat t he t ypes o f B eakers p laced i n g raves f orm a s omewhat m aterial

d ifferent c hronological s equence f rom a ssociations o f s imilar i n d omestic a ssemblages. T hat i s, c ertain t ypes o f B eaker m ay

h ave c ontinued i n d omestic u se l ong i nappropriate f or i nclusion i n g raves.

a fter b eing T his h ypothesis

p resent b e t ested w ith r egard t o t he B ritish b eakers, s uggested f or t he D utch P rotruding F oot B eaker ( PFB)

c onsidered c annot a t

a lthough i t i s S equence t hat

' beakers o f t ype la , w hich o ccur i n g raves o nly i n e arly c ontext o ccur i n s ettlements a lso i n l ate c ontext ( ibid, 8 7). F rom d ated s ites w here t he B eaker t ypes c an b e i dentified ( Table 5 6) i t w ould s eem t hat a w ide r ange o f d ecorative s tyles w as w ell e stablished b etween c 2 000 - 1 750 b c i ncluding l ate S outhern t ypes, w hich m ay e ven h ave a ppeared p rior t o 2 000 b c, a nd w hich a lso s urvive l ate i n t he B eaker p eriod. N orthern d ecorative s tyles l ater, c 1 750 b c o nwards, b ut i n v iew o f t he p aucity o f l ittle

s ignificance

D eterminations

c an b e a ttached

t o t his a t

f or f ood v essels

a nd u rns

a ppear s omewhat d ated m aterial,

t he m oment. i ndicate a l ong c urrency

o f u se f or b oth c eramic t ypes, e xtending f rom c 1 800 - 1 200 b c, w ith e ven l ater d ates f rom a n u rn b urial a t B rown E dge, T otley, D erbyshire ( Lewis 1 966, 1 16), a nd a s ample k ept f rom o ld e xcavations a t G reat A yton M oor, Y orkshire ( Pierpoint 1 979a, 2 24-5). U rn d ates e arlier t han t hose p resently a vailable f or f ood v essels a re i ndicated f rom H arpley, N orfolk, B rightwell, S uffolk a nd B renig 4 5 i n D enbigh. F ood v essel t ypes f rom n on-funerary c ontexts a re r epresented b y d eterminations f rom B allynagilly, C oney I sland a nd M ount P leasant, a nd u rns i n s imilar c ontexts f rom M ount P leasant a nd f rom M eadowlands, D ownpatrick. T he t wo p hases o f o ccupation i dentified b y t he e xcavator a t t he l atter s ite a re c orroborated b y t he s ignificantly d ifferent d ates o btained f rom t he u pper a nd l ower o ccupation l ayers, a lthough n o t ypological d ifferences w ere f ound b etween t he c ollared u rns f rom e ach p hase. T wo p ossible B eaker s herds w ith c ombed d ecoration ( Pollock a nd W aterman 1 964, f ig.12.2-3) w ere f ound i n l ayer 6 a t M eadowlands, t hat i s, b etween t he

1 28

t wo d ated o ccupation l evels,

i .e.

m ay s till h ave b een . current,

b ut

m aterial i s u nknown,

a nd

c 1 625 - 1 375 b e,

w hen s uch p ottery

t heir d irect a ssociation w ith t he u rn

t hey m ay h ave b een d erived m aterial.

A f ew d ates m ay b e i nferred f or p ottery i n a k nown s tratigraphic r elationship w ith d ated m aterial, o r i n p ossible a ssociation w ith i t. T ermini a nte e ms a re S warkeston, D erbyshire,

p rovided f or B eakers a nd s tructures u nderneath p rimary a nd s econdary b arrows,

a t t he

l atter w ith a c ollared u rn d etermination o f 1 395 2 = 1 60 b c ( NPL-17), a nd a t B allynagilly f or c harcoal, o verlying B eaker m aterial, 1 640 l i t6 0 b c ( UB 198). A p rimary c remation i n a n e nlarged f ood v essel a t B renig 5 1 w as i ntermediate s tratigraphicallz b etween a d etermination f or t he s tripped p re-barrow s urface 1 560 — 70 b c ( HAR801) a nd a s econdary c remation i n a c ollared u rn, 1 470 ± 7 0 b c ( HAR802). A lso a t B renig, s ite 4 5, a n u rned c remation w as f ound i n a p it, d ug i nto t he e astern s egment o f

a p alisade

t rench,

t he f ill o f w hich p roduced c harcoal d ated

t o 1 340 ± 7 0 b c ( HAR658), a nd a t B renig 4 0, a c ollared u rn m ay p ossibly h ave b een a ssociated w ith a w ooden p latform o r s mall ' mortuary h ouse', p lanks f rom w hich g ave d ates o f 1 470 2 =80 bc and 1 380 2 =80 bc ( HAR799, H AR800). T he p recise n ature o f t he w ooden s tructure a nd i ts r elationship

t o

t he u rn h ad b een d isturbed b y e arlier b arrow d iggers.

O nly t hree d eterminations f or E arly B ronze A ge c eramics h ave b een o btained w ithin t he a rea o f s tudy, n amely f rom C hatton S andyford, K irkhill, H epple a nd H owick H eugh: t hese a re i ncorporated i n T able 5 4 a nd

i ndicated b y a n a sterisk*.

O ther a ssociated d ating e vidence B eakers T he c hronological i mplications o f t he m ost r ecent s tudy o f B eaker p ottery ( Clarke 1 970) a re c losely a ssociated w ith a n i nterpretation o f t he m aterial i n t erms o f c ontinental o rigins. T his, i n t urn, i s b ased u pon

t he

r ecognition o f

i ndividual B eaker

t ypäs d efined p rimarily

b y

t he d ecorative m otifs e mployed o n e ach p ot. M uch d epends t herefore, C larke's w ork, o n t he i ntegrity o f h is B eaker t ypes. S ome g roups

i n o f

B eakers w ith c ertain t echniques o f d ecoration a nd p articular m otifs a re e asily i dentifiable, f or e xample t ypes w hich u se o nly a s ingle d ecorative t echnique s uch a s A OC, ' Barbed w ire', r usticated o r f ingern ail

d ecoration a nd,

i n m ore c omplex p atterns,

s ome S outhern b eaker t ypes. o f m otif, i s w ell

O ther g roupings,

t he l ozenge m otifs o f

b ased u pon a c ombination

a re l ess r eliable, i n p articular t he N /NR B eakers. T his t ype r epresented i n t he n orth o f E ngland, a ccording t o C larke's

c lassification,

b ut

t he

e xamples

o f

s uch B eakers w ould a ppear t o

h ave

v ery l ittle i n c ommon. I t i s d ifficult t o s ee a ny r eal m easure o f c omparability b etween s uch d iversely d ecorated B eakers a s t hose f rom A lwinton,

A keld,

( figs.83 a nd 8 8) v ariety

o f

D ilston ( Tait

P ark

' A

1 965 n os.36,

a nd 3 8,

' B', 4 2,

F ord o r 4 3,

H orton

4 5-7).

C astle

T he

l arge

B eaker d ecoration s ubsumed i n t his g roup w as a cknowledged b y

C larke, w ho s uggested t hat ' it s eems t o h ave b een e ngulfed a t a n e arly s tage b y t he N orthern B ritish/Dutch g roup b oth i n B ritain a nd H olland' ( Clark

1 970,

I ,

3 9).

F rom t he o ther s ide

o f

t he

C hannel

C larke's

r eviewers c onsidered t he c ontinental c ounterparts o f t his B eaker ' group' e qually i ncoherent, b oth g eographically a nd c hronologically ( Lanting a nd v an d er W aals

1 972,

3 1).

1 29

T he

h ypothesis o f

a c ontinental o rigin f or m any B eaker t ypes

h as

b een s trongly c riticised b y L anting a nd v an d er W aals, w ho r eject s uch a n o rigin f or t he W 7MR, N /MR, B arbed W ire a nd N l/D g roupings, a s w ell a s t he d isparate N /NR ' group m entioned a bove. T hey s uggest m ore r egional d evelopment o f d ecorative s tyles w ithin B ritain. F our o f t he f ive B eaker g roupings o f d oubtful c ontinental o rigin h ave a m ore r estricted d istribution i n B ritain t han o ther B eaker t ypes, n amely W /MR f ound i n t he s outh o f B ritain, N /MR a nd N l/D i n t he n orth a nd B arbed W ire B eakers i n E ast A nglia a nd r epresent s uch r egionalibation.

t he a rea o f

t he

T hames,

a nd

m ay

H owever, u nlike o ther t ypes o f p ottery f ound i n E arly B ronze A ge g raves B eakers a re a lso w ell r epresented o n a l arge n umber o f s ettlem ent s ites a nd i n o ther n on-funerary c ontexts. T hese s ites p rovide t he t ype o f e vidence o f B eaker a ssociations w hich i s a lmost c ompletely l acking i n f unerary c ontexts. T he c ontemporaneity o f t he l arge q uantities o f s herds a t s uch p rolific b ut u nstratified s ites a s t he s and d unes o f R oss L inks, W alney I sland, R isby W arren o r T usculum c annot b e a ssumed. O ther s tratified c ontexts a re h owever m ore c ertain, e .g. B allynagilly, M t. P leasant a nd W indmill H ill, a nd t ogether w ith r adiocarbon d eterminations p rovide i ncreasing e vidence t hat m any o f C larke's B eaker t ypes w ere n ot o nly w idely d istributed t hroughout B ritain, b ut w ere i n u se a t t he s ame p eriod a nd c urrent f or a c ons iderable l ength o f t ime ( pp.127-8, T able 5 6). A lthough C larke's t ypological s cheme d oes n ot p reclude t he u se o f a p articular B eaker t ype o ver a r ange o f t ime w hich m ay o verlap w ith t he t ime s pan o f o ther B eaker t ypes, t he c ontinuance o f c ertain B eaker t ypes, i n p articular A OC B eakers, w hich C larke p laces a t t he h ead o f h is d evelopmental s equence, w ould e nvisaged. T he l imits

f or

a pposite.

n ow a ppear t o b e c onsiderably l onger t han p reviously u se o f B eaker t ypology t o d efine n arrow c hronological

p articular F or

t his

B eaker

r eason i t

t ypes w ould n ot i s n ecessary t o

t herefore

s eem

t o

b e

c onsider t he o ther g rave

g oods f rom B eaker b urials, a nd t he c hronological l inks w ith o ther L ate N eolithic - E arly B ronze A ge m aterial.

t hey m ay p rovide

T he r arest a rtifact k nown f rom B eaker b urial c ontexts

i s t he

g old

b asket-shaped e arring f rom K irkhaugh. O nly t hree o ther e xamples a re k nown i n B ritain, n amely f rom a nother B eaker b urial a t R adley, B erks. ( Williams 1 948, 5 -6; C larke 1 970, f ig.63), a c ist a t O rton, M orayshire, i n a b arrow w hich a lso p roduced a g old l unula ( Paton 1 871, 2 9 a nd 3 2), a nd

t he

o ld

g round

s urface

b eneath t he

r ampart

o f

a

c liff-edge

e nclosure a t B oltby S car, Y orkshire ( British M useum 1 953, 3 4; T aylor J .J. 1 980, p 1.3e). I n E urope s imilar e arrings h ave b een f ound a t E rmageira, i n P ortugal, R usilow a nd W asosz, i n P oland, a nd i n t he c ave ' Trou d el H euve' i n B elgium, w ith t wo f inds a lso i n I reland ( Butler 1 956,

7 0n.20 a ) ,

I n B ritain,

C larke c onsidered

t he f inds

f rom K irkhaugh

a nd R adley a s d iagnostic o f h is ' Early' g roup o f a ssociations, c omp arable w ith B ell B eaker a ssemblages o n t he c ontinent ( van d er W aals a nd G lasbergen 1 955, 3 1-3), f or w hich B utler o riginally s uggested a d ate o f c 1 700 - 1 500 B C ( Butler 1 956, 6 8). O n t he b asis o f a g reater n umber o f r adiocarbon d eterminations n ow a vailable, h owever, t he d ate r ange f or B ell B eakers w ould s eem t o l ie b etween c 2 000 - 1 700 b c ( Lanting a nd M ook 1 977, 9 4). A ll o ther d atable a ssociations f or s uch e arrings

i n W estern E urope

( with t he e xception o f

t he B oltby S car f ind,

o f w hich p ublished d etails a re n ot a vailable), w ould s eem t o l ie i n a c omparable B ell B eaker - E arly B ronze A ge r ange ( Butler 1 956, 6 1). I f t he g old b asket e arrings a nd o ther g old o bjects w ith s imilar d ecorative

1 30

t echnique, s uch a s f rom a c ommon s ource

t he B ennekom n eck-ring, a re c onsidered a s i mports ( although a p recise o rigin i s u nsure) ( ibid, 6 5),

t hey m ay m ark a c ommon h orizon b etween t hese d ifferent c ultural g roups a cross E urope. C ase, h owever, r ejects t his m inimal v iew , a nd a rgues t hat t he e xamples o f g old w orking a nd m etallurgy f ound i n h is e arly, m iddle a nd l ate B eaker p hases ( the g old e arrings a ppearing i n h is e arly a nd m iddle c ontexts) d o n ot s uggest s pecialist c raftsmen, b ut m ay t he p roduct o f p urely s easonal a ctivities a nd w idespread e xchanges g oods ( Case 1 977, 7 4 a nd 7 7). B ronze

b asket e arrings

a re a lso k nown f rom

B eaker

b e o f

c ontexts,

a t

s ite 1 7, T allington, L incs., i n a g rave p it w ith f our o r f ive i nhumat ions a nd a S 4 B eaker ( Simpson W .G. 1 976, 2 17) a nd a t B uxton, D erbyshire w ith a f inger-pinched v essel ( Clarke 1 970, f ig.910). B y a nalogy w ith e xamples f rom t he M igdale h oard ( Piggott a nd S tewart 1 957a) t hese may h ave a s lightly l ater c urrency t han t he g old e arrings.

a mber

T anged b eads,

O xon. B eaker

c opper d aggers, s tone b racers, a s f ound a t D riffield, Y orks,

s mall o bjects o f g old a nd a nd D orchester-on-Thames,

( Gerloff 1 975 n os.237, 2 39) a re a lso t ypical o f c ontinental B ell a ssemblages ( van d er W eals a nd G lasbergen 1 955, 3 1-3). T he

a ssociation a t D orchester-on-Thames o f a t anged d agger o f u nalloyed c opper ( Coghlan a nd C ase 1 957, 1 20-1; G roup I II m etal) w ith a s mall, r iveted k nife o ne o f t he r ivets o f w hich i s o f b ronze ( Case 1 965, 2 19) i ndicates a c lose c ontinuity b etween t he d evelopment o f c opper a nd b ronze t echnology. T he a ppearance o f l arger f lat r iveted b ronze b lades c ould, t herefore, h ave b egun o nly s lightly l ater t han t he c urrency o f c opper e xamples. F lint d aggers, j et b uttons a nd p ulley r ings, i ron o re a nd s trike-a-light f lints, c haracteristic o f C larke's ' Southern' a ssemblages, t end t o r ecur c onsistently i n w ell-equipped g raves, s uch a s A cklam W old 1 24, G arton S lack 3 7 a nd M iddleton-on-the-Wold, Y orks., a nd L ittle D ownham, C ambs. ( Clarke 1 970 f igs.780, 7 78, 8 76, 9 59). T hese g raves w ith f lint d aggers a re g enerally w ithout m etal a ssociat ions, a lthough t hey w ould a ppear t o b e c ontemporary w ith t he u se o f b ronze.

A

r ange

o f

o ther

g rave

g oods,

i ncluding

f lint

f lakes,

s crapers, b lades, b arbed a nd t anged a rrowheads a nd d ouble-pointed c opper o r b ronze a wls, w hich f orm a b asic c omponent o f m any B eaker a ssemblages, a re a lso k nown f rom f ood v essel a nd u rn c ontexts a nd w ould a ppear

t o b e c ommon t ypes,

i n g eneral u se f or a c onsiderable t ime.

F ood v essels A s n o a pparent d evelopmental s equence h as b een d iscerned f or v essel

p ottery a s a c lass,

a nd a s

f ood

f ood v essel s herds a re r arely f ound

i n d omestic c ontexts, c omparative d ating m aterial i s p rovided o nly b y o ther a rtifacts f ound i n a ssociation w ith f ood v essels i n g raves. T hose r ecorded i n t he n orth o f E ngland a re t ypical o f s mall r ange o f s uch a ssociations t hroughout B ritain. T he m ain a ssociations

o f

f ood v essels o f Y orkshire v ase t ype

b een s ummarised b y S impson ( 1968). i n c losed a ssociation w ith ' local ( p.153)

t hese

t ypes

t he c omparatively

h ave

A s Y orkshire v ases h ave b een f ound f ood v essels i n t he a rea o f s tudy

m ay b e c onsidered

t ogether f or t he

p urposes

o f

d ating. T he m ost d istinctive a rtifacts r egularly f ound i n t he n orth o f B ritain i n f ood v essel g raves a re j et n ecklaces o f c rescentic f orm. W here t hese a re f ound w ith a ssociated c eramics, t hey a re i nvariably o f f ood v essel

t ype,

a nd

t o

t his

e xtent

131

t he d ating o f

t he

t wo a rtifacts

i s

m utually i nterdependent. H owever, s uch n ecklaces a lso o ccur i n r ich g raves w ith d istinctive m etalwork a ssociations, a s f or e xample, a t M asterton,

F ife

S tewart 1 957). e arly t o m id d agger,

( Henshall

a ssociated w ith a p air

t ion, a b ronze ( Henshall I 963a; o f

a rmlets

e arlier t hat

1 963a)

M elfort,

A ngus

( Piggott

a nd

o f

b ronze a rmlets

w ith

r epousse d ecora-

b lade a nd a m ultistrand j et n ecklace o f b arrel b eads 1 968, f ig.44), t he M elfort g rave ( with a s imilar p air

a nd a j et

( Henshall

j et

a nd

O n t he b asis o f W essex c ulture p arallels a d ate i n t he 1 5th c entury B C h as b een s uggested f or t he M asterton

s pacer-plate n ecklace) p ossibly

1 968,

1 75-6).

T his

s pacer-plate n ecklaces

i s

b eing

i n a ccord w ith

s omewhat

t he h ypothesis

a re t he n orthern e quivalent

o f

a mber

n ecklaces s uch a s U pton L ovell G 2 ( Annable a nd S impson 1 964, n o.227), o f t he ' Wessex c ulture', w hich i s t raditionally d ated t o t he 1 6-15th c enturies L HII, a nd

B C o n t he

b asis

o f A egean c onnections,

f or w hich h istorically d erived 1 500-1400

v alidity o f t hey

m ay

v essel

B C ( Piggott

t hese

b e

o f

o nly

c eramics

T he

1 938,

c orrelations

a nd

l imited

A pSimon

a bout

1 954,

t o

t he

o verall

a nd

4 8-51).

h owever b een q uestioned

r elevance

L HI

1 550-1500 T he

( p.223)

a nd

c urrency o f

f ood

t heir a ssociated g rave g oods.

a ssociations

c onsisting o nly o f

9 5-6;

h as

e specially

d ates a re g iven a s

o f

b ronze o bjects w ith f ood

k nife-daggers,

a wls

a nd

t wo

v essels

e xamples

o f

a re

f ew,

b ronze e ar-

r ings ( Simpson 1 968, 1 98). T o t he t wo k nife-dagger a ssociations l isted b y S impson m ay b e a dded t hose f rom M erthyr M awr, G lam., B ishops W alton, H ants.,

a nd

n os.48,

W etwang,

8 9 a nd 3 00:

k nife-daggers w ithin

t he

M ortimer w ith

o f

M ortimer

p 11.42G, s imple

E arly

f orm,

5 3E).

( Simpson

a f ood v essel w as

a d agger o f G erloff's

Y orkshire

A ll o f

w hich a ppear

B ronze A ge

b arrow 2 33,

b arrow 2 94,

4 4C,

t hese

( Gerloff

a re

f lat

t o h ave h ad a

1 968,

2 00).

t ype A rmorico-British B ,

l ong

A t

f ound s econdary

1 975

r iveted l ife

T owthorpe,

t o a n i nhumation w hile

a t

H utton

B uscel, G reenwell b arrow C L11, t he s tratigraphic r elationship w as r eversed, w ith a s imilar d agger s econdary t o a f ood v essel ( ibid, 2 02; G erloff t o

1 975 n os.126 and 1 28).

a p eriod

T hese

f rom t he m id-16th c entury,

d aggers w ell

a re a ssigned

i nto

t he

b y G erloff

1 5th c entury

B C

( Gerloff 1 975, 9 8) a gain o n t he b asis o f W essex - M ycenaean c onnect ions. G iven t he c ontemporaneity o f m ore e laborate m etalwork w ith f ood v essel

c eramics,

i n d irect i n

B eaker

l ikely

i t

i s

p erhaps

a ssociation. a nd

t hat

f ood

s uch

n otable

t hat

D ouble-pointed

v essel

c ontexts

t hese h ave n ever b een f ound

c opper o r b ronze a wls

( Simpson 1 968,

s imple,utilitarian i tems h ave

2 00),

a nd

i t

i s

c urrency.

T he

o ne d istinctive f lint a rtifact a lmost e xclusively f ound w ith v essels i s t he p lano-convex f lint k nife s ensu s tricto ( p.168).

f ood T his

a ssociation w ould p lano-convex c eramics, 1 976,

a ppear

k nives

a nd

t he

t o

a re

f ood

b e

o ne

f ound

v essel

p eculiar w ith

a l ong

a re k nown

t o B ritain,

a r ange

a ssociation i s

o f

n ot

f or

E arly

i n I reland B ronze

p redominant

A ge

( Kavanagh

3 10). I n

1 968

S impson c oncluded

t hat

t he e vidence o f

s tratigraphy

a nd

a ssociation i ndicated ' a g eneral c ontemporaneity w ith t he t wo p hases o f t he W essex c ulture w ith n o e vidence f or a n e arlier d evelopment o f t he Y orkshire v ase,

n or

M ore

h owever,

r ecently

l onger c ourse

c hronological p ossible

c urrent v essel

o f

d uring g raves

r epresent

a ny

t hat

i ts

s urvival

s pan f or

p art

n o o f

B C'

f ood v essel p ottery

s ome o bjects,

o nly a s hort h ave

a fter 1 400

( Simpson 1 968,

r adiocarbon d eterminations s uch a s

p eriod,

o ther

t he w hole

f ood v essel

132

2 02).

i ndicated

( p.128).

I t

i s

a o f

s pacer-plate n ecklaces w ere

b ut a s a l arge

d istinctive

h ave

g rave

n umber g oods,

c hronological

o f t hese

r ange.

f ood m ay O ne

s hould p erhaps b e w ary o f t oo c lose a n a nalogy w ith W essex c ulture d ates. T his t ends t o a rise b ecause t he W essex c ulture g raves p rovide t he m ost d istinctive a nd p robably m ost s tudied g roup o f m aterial i n t he E arly B ronze A ge. H owever, a m ost i mportant a spect o f t he m aterial f rom t he n orth o f B ritain i s p recisely t hat t here i s n o W essex c ulture e quivalent i n t his a rea. G raves a re, i n g eneral, p oor i n n on-ceramic g rave

g oods,

a nd

f ood

v essels

i n p articular a re

f ound

w ith

o ther

r estricted, b ut v ery d istinctive a ssociations. I t w ould b e u nwise t herefore t o a ttempt t o d ate a ll f ood v essel g raves f rom t hose a ssociat ions f ound i n r ich g raves, w hich a re b oth u nusual a nd r are. T he a pparent c ontemporaneity o f l ater B eakers, f ood v essels a nd u rns d uring t he E arly B ronze A ge, a nd t he f ew d istinctive a rtifacts f ound i n a ssociation i n f ood v essel g raves, a re p erhaps m ore s uggestive o f s ocial d ivisions

t han o f

E nlarged f ood v essels,

d istinct

c hronological o nes d uring t he p eriod.

e ncrusted u rns a nd c ollared u rns

A s d iscussed e lsewhere, t he a ffinities o f f ood v essel u rns a ppear t o l ie w ith f ood v essels o f t he Y orkshire v ase t ype ( p.162). H owever, t he a rtifacts t ypical o f s uch f ood v essel g raves a re n ot, i n g eneral, f ound w ith f ood v essel u rns, w hich a re p oor i n a ssociations b oth i n N orthern B ritain a nd i n I reland

( Cowie 1 978,

4 4;

K avanagh 1 973,

5 17-

2 0). A s w ith a ll E arly B ronze A ge c eramics, a ssociations w ith v arious t ypes o f f lint a rtifact a re t he m ost c ommon, t he m ore d istinctive t ypes o f w hich i nclude p lano-convex k nives, f ound a t B lanch, M ortimer b arrow 9 0, Y orkshire ( Cowie 1 978, 4 6) a nd a t E dmondstown, B rownstown a nd K illycarney a rrowheads,

i n I reland ( Kavanagh 1 973, 5 17), a nd b arbed a nd t anged a s m any a s 1 3 f rom t he H ill o f D oune ( Cowie 1 978, 4 4) a nd

f rom B anff ( Kavanagh 1 973, 5 20). D ecorative i tems a re a lso k nown, s uch a s t he j et b eads f rom Y eavering a nd t wo f aience b eads f rom B rynford, F lintshire ( Beck a nd S tone 1 936, 2 36). B ronze i tems a re v ery l ittle r epresented w ith f ood v essel u rns. N one i s k nown i n I reland ( Kavanagh 1 973,

5 17)

a nd

t he o nly r ecord o f

s uch i n N orthern

B ritain

i s

t he

p ossible a ssociation o f a M iddle B ronze A ge w ing f langed a xe o f C oles's C lass I I w ith a s herd o f a n e ncrusted u rn f rom L illiesleaf ( Cowie 1 978, 4 6 f ig.3.2). A n e nlarged f ood v essel f rom W hitford, F lintshire w as f ound i n a ssociation w ith a k nife-dagger, f ragments o f a b ronze a wl, a w hetstone, f lint i mplements a nd c hippings ( Gerloff 1 975, n o.90, p 1.8), b ut a s b oth t he a wl a nd k nife t ype a re o f l ong c urrency i n t he E arly B ronze A ge, n o m ore p recise d ating i s p ossible. A s w ith f ood v essels, i t i s p erhaps t he l imited r ange o f a rtifacts f ound i n a ssociation w ith f ood v essel u rns t hat i s o f s ignificance h ere, a p oint e mphasised b y K avanagh f or

t he I rish u rn t ypes

( 1973,

5 17;

1 976,

3 33).

C ollared u rns

i s

U nlike I reland a nd k nown ( Kavanagh 1 973,

p arts o f S cotland w here a v ariety o f u rn t ypes 5 24; M orrison 1 968, 8 0), t hat p redominant i n

t he n orth o f E ngland i s t he c ollared u rn. A l arge v ariety g oods i s k nown f rom s uch u rn c ontexts, i n E ngland a nd W ales, i tems o f p ottery, p ersonal o rnaments e xception

o f

o f g rave i ncluding

f lint a nd b ronze, c omprising t ools, w eapons, a nd ( Longworth 1 961, 3 04-6), b ut n one o f t hese, w ith t he

s mall a ccessory v essels

( or ' incense c ups')

i s

s o

c on-

s istently f ound t hat t hey m ay b e s aid t o c onstitute a t ypical c ollared u rn a ssemblage. I tems f ound w ith o ther E arly B ronze A ge c eramics a re r epresented, i ncluding b ronze a wls, p iano-convex f lint k nives, a nd o ther f lint t ypes, l eaf a nd b arbed a nd t anged a rrowheads, b one p ins a nd

1 33

a wls,

a nd

b eads

e xclusively

u rn

o f

j et

o r

s hale.

a ssociations,

a nd

O ther

a rtifacts,

f or w hich a L ate

a ppropriate i nclude s egmented f aience b eads, b one t weezers, t he m ore e laborate f orms o f t he b ronze l ater

a nd S econdary

s eries

o f

u rns

h ave

m ore

d ate

i s

p erforated w hetstones, b attle-axe s eries, a nd

d aggers o f C amerton-Snowshill a nd A rreton t han W essex I l c annot b e d emonstrated

P rimary

w ith

W essex

t ypes. A ssociations ( Longworth 1 979). A

b een i dentified

b y L ongworth,

a nd w ithin t he S econdary s eries, t he n orth-western a nd s outh-eastern s tyles ( Longworth 1 970). A ccording t o t he r adiocarbon a ssays a t p resent

a vailable,

s pecific d ate

r anges

f or

t he

t wo s eries

c annot

b e

d istinguished w ithin t he c omplete r ange o f d ates f or c ollared u rns. T he c hronological s ignificance o f L ongworth's t ypological d ivision r emains u nproved. A ssociations

a re k nown w ith f ood v essels

M eath, B urial X VI, w ith a s tone a nd p ossibly a lso a t F enagh, C o. a re r arely f ound L ongworth s uggests c hronological

w ith o ther p ottery t hat t he m ajority o f

r ange

f or

c arbon d eterminations m illennium.

F or

c ollared

s uggest

a reas

u rns

i n a ssociation w ith u rns

c annot

p laced m ore

T here

a re

E BA b urials.

o f

t raditional

b een l onger,

a re

r are,

p recisely w ithin t he

C hronological b asis o f

o f

f rom c 1 650 - 1 200 b c,

t he n orth o f E ngland,

a rtifacts b e

t he p resent

b ut

p erhaps s ites

a nd f inds

c hronological

w hen c onsidering

s chemes

t o

a rise

t heir

a rtifact

o ccurrence t ypologies

r ange.

t he

t he

c hronology

i n t he a pplication

E BA

b urial

e vidence.

S econd t here i s a f undamental c ontradiction b etween t he r adiocarbon d eterminations f or E BA c eramics a nd t he o bserved o f

r adio-

a lmost a

w here d istinctive

i ndividual

t otal

c ertain d ifficulties

c hronological

C o.

s tudy

t wo m ajor p roblem a reas F irst,

a t T ara,

t ypes ( Kavanagh 1 976, 3 06). t he d ating e vidence i ndicates a

i t m ay h ave

s uch a s

i n I reland,

b attle a xe a nd r iveted b ronze d agger, A ntrim, b ut i n g eneral c ollared u rns

i n g raves.

T he

c hronological

a re h eavily d ependent

u pon t he

a vailable s equence

i mplications

o f

i nterpretative m odel

f rom w hich t he c hronology i s d erived. I n a ddition t he m ajority o f b urials, w hich d o n ot h ave a ssociated g rave g oods, c annot b e b rought i nto

c onsideration

i n a c hronological

t ypology. ' cultures

D escriptive p eriodisation c onsiders, i n a ssociation,

r epresent

q uite

d ifferent

a spects

o f

s cheme

b ased

l ife,

t o

c orrelate

t he

a vailable

b urial

s uccessfully g rave

s uggests

c eramic f ood a ny ( e.g.

e vidence,

r esolves

s tratigraphy.

d ating s ame

k nown N either

t ypes

b urial

t he T hat

a

f ound

c ontext

a rchaeological t ype

o f

i s,

c onflict

t hat

c onsiderable

o f

c onsidered

a ll a s

B eaker a

S impson 1 968). a nd E BA b urials

s ingle

g roup.

b ased

t his

s ocial

l evel

s ubdivision o r

' period'

o f

o f t he

o riented,

r adiocarbon d ating a nd

o verlap

w hen t hese

t heir s tratigraphic

L ongworth 1 970:

w ith

a lthough t he e vidence o f

t ypes

s equence

v essels - u rns. T his p roblem d oes f urther s ubdivision o f c eramic t ypes

e vidence

r emains

b etween

p eriod

i n E BA g raves,

a rtifact

p eriodisation o n t he b ut i t i s d ifficult

c hronological

e ither a rtifact b asic

o n

i ncluding d ifferent

g roupings ( Hodder 1 978b, 1 4-15). I nterpretative o ther h and c onsiders m uch w ider s ocial p rocesses, g eneralisation.

o nly

s uch a s t he i dentification o f a n umber o f v ariables w hich m ay

i s

a re

O n t he b asis

r adiocarbon t hree

f ound

a lways,

n ot a ppear t o s uggested i n

f rom t he n orth

o f

t he

o f

i n

m ain t he

B eakers -

b e r esolved b y r ecent s tudies t he o f

r adiocarbon E ngland

C ontemporary b urial o ptions

c an

a re b e

e xamined b y t reating t he m aterial a s w hole, r ather t han b y e xtensive s ub-division w hich m ay t end t o o bscure a ny e lements o f c ontinuity o r

1 34

c omparability t han

o ne

m eaning

i n t he d ifferent

b urial g ption i s o f

t ypes o f

e vidence.

M oreover

p racticed a t a p articular

t ime,

i f m ore t hen t he

t hat o ption i s b est s ought r elative t o o ther

c ontemporary T he s tudy o f b urials a s a s eparate a c ultural p ackage h as t he a dvantage t hat, r egardless o f t he p assage o f t ime, t his a ctivity r epresents a r esponse t o a n u nchanging v ariable, t hat i s, d eath.

p ractice r ather t han i n i solation. a ctivity, r ather t han a s a p art o f

B EAKER A ND E BA B URIAL C ONTEXTS F OUND I N T HE N ORTH O F E NGLAND B urial

c ontext

c an b e c onsidered a t

t wo l evels,

o r i mmediate c ontext o f t he b urial, a nd s econd, t he d eposit a nd a ny o thers a ssociated w ith i t,

f irst,

t he g rave

t he l arger c ontext o f t hat i s, t he b urial

m onument. T he i mmediate c ontext o f a ll b urial d eposits f rom t he n orth o f E ngland c an b e d ivided i nto t wo c ategories n amely c ist g raves a nd n on-cist g raves. N on-cist g raves a re n ot s imply a n egative g rouping, t hat i s, a ll b urials n ot i n c ists, b ut s hare m any f eatures i n c ommon, s uggesting t hat t his i s a r ecognised f orm o f d isposal i n i ts o wn r ight. U sing t he d istinction b etween c ist a nd n on-cist g raves t he l arger b urial c ontexts f ollows:

f ound

i n t he n orth o f E ngland m ay b e

c lassified

a s

B urials i n c ists A l A 2

f lat c ist g raves * mounds w ith a s ingle c ist

A 3

m ounds w ith a s ingle c ist a nd o ther

A 4

m ultiple c ist m ounds

( non-cist)

d eposits

( some w ith o ther n on-cist d eposits)

B urials n ot i n c ists B l

f lat g raves

B 2

m ounds w ith a s ingle b urial d eposit

B 3 B 4

m ounds w ith m ultiple c remations it g raves m ounds w ith p nhumations a nd c remations m ounds w ith i ultiple i nhumations m ounds w ith m

B 5 B 6

O ther s tructures w ith a ssociated b urials S tone c ircles 4 - P oster s tone

c ircles

N atural f eatures w ith a ssociated b urials R ock s helters P ot-hole

*

T he

t erm ' mound

s tone,

a nd

o f

i s u sed

t o

i nclude m onuments

s tone o nly

1 35

o f

e arth,

o r e arth a nd

T he

f requency

o f

o ccurrence o f

t hese b urial

c ontexts

s iderably b etween t he n orth-east a nd C umbria ( Table d ifference ( given t he d isparity i n t he t otal n umber o f t wo

p arts

a re

c ommon

c ists,

o f

t he

r egion)

c ontaining

f ound

i n

b eing

i n t he n orth-east i nhumations

C umbria,

b ut

n ot

F lat c ist g raves F lat

n orth l and

E ngland a nd

a nd

r are

( Tables

c ist g raves

o f

o f

t he 6 00ft

c ontour

c orresponds b urials.

a nd,

w ith I n

t he

t he

c ist

a nd

n orth-east,

l argest

w hich w ithout

c remations h ave b een w hereas

r ock-shelter

w ith p it

c ategory o f t he

g raves

b ut

t he d istribution o f

c ases

a ll

f lat c ists

b urials

n orth o f

F ew s uch g raves

d istribution o f

m ajority o f

g raves, M ounds

t he T yne a nd N orth T yne, ( Map 2 9).

t otal

c on-

a re

1 5)

r epresented i n

i n g eneral,

t he

f lat

C umbria.

i nhumations

1 3 a nd

c omprise

i n t he v alleys

o r

i n

c ircles a nd m ounds n ot i n C umbria.

a re w ell

i n D urham a nd C umbria

n umber o f r are

i n t he

b urial s ites, 4 -Poster s tone r ecorded i n t he n orth-east b ut A l

t he a nd

v aries

1 2), t he m ain b urials i n t he

a re

i n

t he

N orthumberc omparatively f ound

t his

E arly

a bove

g rave

t ype

B ronze

A ge

c ontain s ingle

b urial

d eposits. E xceptions a re a n i nhumation a nd c remation a t B laydon ( 1001 01), a d ouble i nhumation o f t wo a dult m ales a t H igh B uston ( 286-287), a d ouble u nusual L aw

c remation o f t wo c hildren a t H igh M ickley ( 302-303), t he m ost i nhumation o f f ive i ndividuals ( probably a f amily) a t K elloe

( 364-368),

a p ossible d ouble i nhumation a t

S cales

H aggs

( 930-931)

a nd c ists w ith t wo c ompartments u nder o ne c ist l id a t b oth L esbury ( 378-379) a nd B rackenhill ( 723-724). T he a ssociations o f b urial r ite a nd g rave g oods i n f lat c ist g raves a re l isted i n T able 1 5.1. T he m ore c ommon b urial r ite i s i nhumation. a re f ound i n a lmost e qual n umbers t han

o ne

v essel

i n a c ist

o f

i s a m ore

B eaker a nd f ood v essel a ssociations g raves, b ut t he d eposition o f m ore c ommon p ractice

i n B eaker t han

i n

f ood v essel a ssociations. I n t he n orth-east a pproximately 3 7% o f s uch c ist b urials d o n ot h ave a ssociated g rave g oods a nd 3 2% h ave n o r ecorded A

h uman r emains. n umber

o f

t hey

w ere

w hether ( Map 2 9),

a lthough

c ists f lat t he

a re

i nsufficiently

g raves

f ormer

r ecorded

t o

o r w ere o riginally c overed

s eems

p erhaps

t he m ore

b e

c ertain

b y

l ikely.

a

m ound

T hese a re

l isted s eparately ( Table 1 3). G rave g oods f rom t hese g raves ( Table 1 5.1) a re c omparable w ith t hose i n f lat c ists, b ut a lso i nclude a n e nlarged u rn

f ood

v essel

f rom S crenwood

f r 'om H edley W ood

( 280)

( Fig.94)

a nd a

m iniature

( 516).

A lthough s ingle

b urial

a ppears

t o

b e

t he

r ule

i n c ist g raves,

t he

c ists a re o ften f ound i n c lose p roximity o ne t o a nother, i n g roups o f t wo o r m ore, a nd t hese m ay b e c onsidered a s c ist ' cemeteries'. T he n umber o f g raves c hosen t o c onstitute a ' cemetery i s a rbitrary. W addell f or e xample c hooses t hree ( 1970, 9 9) a nd t wo i s o bviously m inimal. g rave

N evertheless

f orm a nd

b urial

i t

r ites,

s eems

l ikely

i n c lose

r elated s ufficiently t o b e c onsidered c emeteries' w ere f ormed o ver a n umber o f p osition o f

t he

t race

n ow

h as

e xcavated C umbria w hich

f lat o ccur

i s

c ists

w as

b urials

h aving

( p.149).

i n t he n orth-east

a s ' cemeteries'. y ears i t i s p ossible

i n ' cemetery'

s hown i n Map 3 0.

g roupings T he

A m inimum o f a nd

( Table

l argest

136

t wo

s imilar

t o e ach o ther,

o riginally m arked i n s ome m anner

d isappeared c ists

t hat

p roximity

o f

1 4),

t he

6 2

m ay b e I f s uch t hat t he

o f w hich a ll o f

s even

t he c ists

18 i n

t he d istribution o f

' cemeteries'

w ere

f ound

a t

B owchester

F ield,

H umbleton

( about

e ight c ists)

a nd

a t

S eahouses

( seven) b ut o n a verage t he n umber o f c ists i n a ' cemetery g roup i s o nly t hree. T he n umber o f c ists i n a ' cemetery' i n t he n orth o f E ngland, r anging f rom t wo t o e ight, c orresponds w ith t hat r ecorded i n S W S cotland, w ith f ood v essel a ssociations ( Simpson 1 965, 2 5). S ome ' cemeteries' w here ' several' c ists a re r ecorded, a re i nsufficiently d ocumented t o f orm a ny c onclusions a s t o t heir e xact s ize. I n s ome c ases t he b urial r ites a nd g rave g oods f ound i n a djacent g raves a re c losely s imilar, f or e xample t wo o f t he g raves a t D ilston P ark ( 189-190), e ach w ith a c remation a nd m ultiple B eakers, t he t wo c ists a t J esmond ( 361-362), e ach w ith a c remation a nd t wo f ood v essels, a nd g raves a t T hrunton ( 573-574) a nd W ooperton ( 623-627), w ithout g rave g oods. I n o ther ' cemeteries' B eakers a nd f ood v essels a re f ound i n a djacent g raves a s a t B edlington ( 67-71), B laydon ( 97-102) a nd S eah ouses ( 517-524). T he n umber o f g raves i n e ist c emeteries w ith B eakers a nd f ood v essels i s e qual, a nd t here d oes n ot a ppear t o b e a ny p reference f or o ne t ype o f g rave g oods t o b e d eposited i n g raves i n ' cemeteries' r ather t han a ny o ther ( Table 1 5.2). ' Cemeteries' a re f ound i n a ll a reas w ith f lat c ist g raves ( Map 2 9) a nd a re n ot r estricted A 2

t o a ny o ne p art

o f

t he r egion.

M ounds w ith s ingle c ist o nly S ingle

c ist

g raves

( Tables 1 3 a nd

c overed b y a m ound a re

1 5.2,

M ap 3 1)

f ound i n t he n orth-east

p redominantly i n t he v alleys o f t he T ill, t he A ln a nd t he C oquet, a nd i n C umbria i n t he u plands o n t he w est s ide o f t he u pper E den v alley. T he m ore c ommon b urial r ite i s i nhumation a nd B eakers a nd f ood v essels a re f ound i n a lmost e qual n umbers ( Table 1 5.2), a s a lso f ound i n f lat c ist g raves. T he c lose s imilarities b etween b urial r ite a nd g rave g oods f ound i n f lat c ist g raves a nd i n s ingle c ists c overed b y a m ound s uggest l ittle f undamental d ifference b etween t hese t wo b urial c ontexts i n t erms o f t he m ethod o f d isposal o f t he d ead a nd t he o bjects w hich i s w as c onsidered a ppropriate c ontrast t o t he g rave g oods

t o p lace w ith t hem. f ound i n c ist g raves

T his i s i n m arked i n s tructures w ith

m ore t han o ne b urial, s uch a s m ultiple c ist c airns a nd m ounds w ith a s ingle c ist a nd o ther n on-cist b urial d eposits, w hich e xhibit a s omew hat d ifferent A 3

p attern o f

a ssociations.

M ounds w ith a s ingle%cist a nd o ther b urial d eposits ( Tables 1 3 a nd 1 5.2, M ap 3 2)

Twelve s ites i n t he n orth-east a nd s even i n C umbria c onsist o f a b urial m ound w ith o ne c ist a nd o ther n on-cist b urial d eposits. I n t he m ajority o f c ases t he n on-cist b urials a re c remations, o ften i n c inerary u rns. T hree e xceptions t o t his m ay b e n oted i n t he n orth-east a nd o ne i n C umbria. A t C opt H ill t he r emains o f f our i nhumations w ere f ound n ear t he t op o f t he b arrow ( 172-174), w hich a lso c ontained a c ist, f our c remations a nd a n e nlarged f ood v essel; a t G rundstone L aw ( 253-255) a n i nhumation w as p laced a bove a m assive c ist c ontaining t wo i nhumations, w ith s tones

a nd a t S teeple H ill ( 562-564) a f emale i nhumation c overed l ay t hree f eet d istant f rom a c ist w ith a m ale i nhumation

a ccompanied

b y a f ood v essel c ontaining a c hild c remation.

( 912-916)

t wo i nhumations a nd p arts

o f

A t

O rton

t wo o thers w ere f ound o utside a

c ist. T he

b urial

r ite a nd g rave g oods a ssociated w ith t he c ist d eposits

137

i n t hese m ounds a re s hown i n T able 1 5.2. I nhumation i s t he m ore c ommon i n t he n orth-east, but c remation i n C umbria ( although t he s ample n umber h ere i s s mall). I n c ontrast t o t he g rave g oods f ound i n f lat c ists a nd s ingle c ists i n m ounds, f ood v essel a ssociations o utnumber t hose o f B eakers, b eing f ound a t f our o ut o f t welve s ites i n t he n orth-east, a nd o ne o ut o f s even s ites i n C umbria. O nly o ne B eaker a ssociation i s k nown, t hat f rom R osebrough C XCVII ( 495). A lthough t he s ample n umber i s s mall, i t m ay b e s ignificant t hat c remations i n m ounds w hich a lso c ontain a s ingle c ist a re m ore o ften f ound i n m ounds w ith f ood v essels i n t he c ists A 4

t han w ith B eakers.

M ultiple c ist m ounds

( Tables

1 3 a nd 1 5.2,

M ap 3 3)

M ultiple c ist m ounds o r c airns ( Savory 1 972) o r -c emetery m ounds' ( Waddell 1 970, 1 00) i ncorporate t wo o r m ore c ists, s ometimes w ith o ther n on-cist b urial d eposits. T wenty-six s uch s ites, w ith a m inimum o f 9 7 c ists a re k nown i n t he n orth-east, a nd f ive, w ith a t otal o f 1 1 c ists i n C umbria. B y f ar t he l argest m ultiple c ist c airn i s t hat d iscovered a t A mble ( 18-32), w hich c ontained a s m any a s t wenty o r m ore c ists a nd n umerous c remations. D etails a re k nown o f o nly e leven o f t hese c ists a nd t hree o ther d eposits. T he u sual n umber o f c ists i n a ll o ther m ultiple c ist c airns i n t he n orth o f E ngland i s o nly t hree o r f our. A s w ith

a ll o ther c ist g raves

i n t he r egion,

i nhumation i s

m ore

c ommon

t han c remation ( Table 1 5.2). H owever, t he c eramic a ssociations i n m ultiple c ist b urials a re s ignificantly d ifferent f rom t hose f ound i n f lat c ist g raves a nd s ingle c ists i n m ounds, f or t he p redominant v essel t ype

i s

t he f ood v essel,

f ood v essels, f our B eakers

a nd B eakers

a re r are.

I n t he n orth-east,

3 2

t wo e nlarged f ood v essels, t wo u rns, a n i ncense c up a nd a re r ecorded f rom s uch c ists. I n C umbria, w here t he

n umber o f s ites i s m uch s maller, t wo B eaker a nd t wo f ood v essel a ssociations a re k nown. M ultiple c ist c airns i n t he n orth-east w ould s eem t herefore t o b e p rimarily a ssociated w ith f ood v essel b urials. O ther n on-cist

b urial d eposits

i n t hese c airns, m ainly c remations,

a lso

h ave p redominantly f ood v essel a ssociations. G iven t he p ossible c hronological o verlap o f B eaker a nd f ood v essel c eramics i t s eems p robable t hat t he r epeated a ssociation o f f ood v essels w ith t hese b urials i s a d eliberate o ne. F ood v essel a ssociations a lso p redominate i n m ultiple c ist c airns i n s outh-east S cotland, b ut B eaker a ssociations a re m ore D erbyshire

c ommon i n t he w est a nd n orth ( Savory 1 972 0121).

o f

S cotland,

Y orkshire

a nd

W here s tratigraphy i s r ecorded, t he e vidence s uggests t hat o ther b urials i n t hese c airns c ould h ave b een d eposited c ontemporary w ith, o r s ubsequent t o t he c onstruction o f t he c ists. T he c ists t hemselves a re n ot a rranged

s ymmetrically,

w ithin a ny o ne U nlike m ultiple e xtreme

n or a re t hey a ll o riented i n o ne d irection

c airn.

t he m ajority o f o ther E arly B ronze A ge g rave

s tructures

n o

c ist c airns a re r ecorded i n t he v alley o f t he T ill a nd i n t he n orth o f N orthumberland, a lthough e xamples a re w idely

d istributed e lsewhere i n t he r egion ( Map 3 3). I n B ritain a s a whole m ultiple c ist c airns a re c omparatively r are ( Savory 1 972, f ig.1) b ut a re o f

s omewhat m ore c ommon i n I reland, w here, i n g eneral, a l arger n umber c ists i s f ound i n e ach m ound t han i n t he n orth o f E ngland ( Waddell

1 970,

1 01,

f ig.3).

1 38

B 1

F lat g raves

( Tables 1 3 a nd 1 5.3,

M ap 3 4)

B urials w hich w ere n ot i n c ists a nd d o n ot a ppear t o h ave b een i ncorporated i n a ny m onumental g rave c ontext a re h ere d iscussed a s ' flat g raves'. T here i s s ufficient e vidence c oncerning t he d iscovery o f

t hese

b urial

b urials

t o

s uggest

t hat f lat g raves m ay b e c onsidered

c ategory i n t heir o wn r ight.

c ategory s imply o riginal c ontext.

B urials a re n ot i ncluded i n

b y d efault o f m ore d etailed e vidence a s T he p redominant b urial r ite i n f lat g raves

a s

a

t his

t o t heir i s c rema-

t ion, a nd a ssociated g rave g oods i nclude f ood v essels, e nlarged f ood v essels, e ncrusted u rns a nd, i n p articular, c inerary u rns ( Table 1 5.3). • I n t he n orth-east t he m ajority o f f lat g raves c onsist o f o ne o r t wo v essels w ith c remations i n s mall p its, s ometimes w ith c overing s tones, o r s urrounded b y s tones. U n-urned c remations i n c ircular h ollows c overed w ith a s tone, a s f or e xample a t F ord W est F ield ( 2272 28), m ay a lso b e o f E arly B ronze A ge d ate, a s s uggested b y s imilar b urials a t L ilburn H ill F arm a nd a t C rookham D ene ( 181). C onflicting a ccounts d escribe t he l atter s ite a s a b arrow a nd a s a n atural k noll, a nd s o i ts s tatus a s a f lat g rave c emetery i s d oubtful, b ut u n-urned c remations a t t he s ite, w hich a lso p roduced a c remation w ith a ' pot' a nd a j et n ecklace, w ere p laced i n c ircular h ollows e ach c overed w ith a f lat s tone. F lat g rave c emeteries a re r are i n t he n orth-east. G roups o f v essels i n f lat g raves i nclude a f ood v essel, t wo e nlarged f ood v essels a nd a nother p ot a round a t iny ' cist w ith a c remation a t H igh B uston ( 288-292), t hree f ood v essels a nd c remations a t P lessay M ill ( 473-475) a nd s everal c remations a nd o ther p ots a t F ord W est F ield a nd P lenmellor C ommon ( 472),

b ut n one o f

t hese c onstitute l arge n umbers o f

b urials. A t P asture H ouse, H owick ( 327) w here s ome h uman b ones a nd s everal l arge u rns w ere f ound 4 ft b elow t he s urface' t here i s s ome s uggestion o f a p ossible c inerary u rn c emetery, b ut t his c annot b e v erified a s t hese p ots a re n ow l ost. An

u nusual

' grave' w hich m ight b e c onsidered a s o f

E arly

B ronze

A ge d ate i s t hat d iscovered o n L ilburn H ill F arm ( 393-404), c onsisting o f a r ectangular p it a pproximately 9 ft l ong b y 41 2 f / t w ide a nd 3 ft d eep, w hich c ontained t wo r ows o f c remated r emains o ne a bove t he o ther, e ach i n a c ircular p it ( Fig.75) ( Moffatt 1 885). T he t op r ow c onsisted o f s even d istinct c remated d eposits a nd t he l ower r ow o f f ive, e ach w ith s mall s tones f eature w as ( Fig.75)

p laced o n t op o f t hem. a p yramidal s tone w ith

o f

a

I n o ne c orner o f t his r ectangular ' inscribed' c oncentric m arkings

t ype a lso k nown f rom s ome c ists

a nd

o ther

m onuments

p robably o f L ate N eolithic t o E arly B ronze A ge d ate. A s n o g rave g oods w ere d eposited w ith t hese c remations i t i s, o f c ourse, i mpossible t o d ate

t hem

w ith

a ny c ertainty,

b ut a n E arly B ronze

A ge

d ate

i s

a

p ossibility.

f lat

T he o nly s ite i n t he n orth-east w hich m ight b e c onsidered a s a g rave c emetery i s t hat a t t he ' Anglo-British' s ettlement o f

A d G efrin

a t

Y eavering,

w hich h as p roduced o ver

t wenty

p rehistoric

b urials ( 646-666) ( Hope-Taylor 1 977, f igs.12 a nd 7 3, A ppendix I II). T he m ajority o f t hese a re c lustered i n a n a rea s ome 1 50ft s quare o n a n atural k noll a t t he w est e nd o f t he s ite, w here t he w estern r ing d itch w as a lso d eposits

l ocated. P loughing h ad c aused e xtensive d amage t o s uperficial a t Y eavering b ut t he s urviving e vidence i ndicated t hat m ost

c remations o f p robable E arly B ronze A ge d ate h ad b een d eposited i n p ots, o ne o f w hich w as a c ollared u rn ( Fig.76) ( ibid, f ig.117). T he

1 39

r elationship s tones o ther

b etween t he w estern r ing d itch c onsisting o f

a c ircle

o f

a round a c en ral m onolith w ith a c remation a t i ts b ase, a nd t he b urial d eposits w as n ot d etermined. A f ew N eolithic a nd E arly

B ronze A ge s herds ( p.144).

B eaker

p rovide t he o nly d ating e vidence f or t he s tone c ircle s herds w ere f ound w ith u rned c remations

( 4)

a nd

( 648 a nd 6 51) a nd s herds o f P eterborough t ype f abric w ith u rned t ion ( 2) ( 646), i mmediately a djacent t o t he c ircle. H owever,

( 7)

c remal ittle

c an b e d educed f rom t hese a ssociations, a s e ven t he s herds f rom w estern r ing d itch m ay h ave b een r esidual, a nd t he s tone c ircle a djacent c remations c ould h ave b een c ontemporary.

t he a nd

A f ew o ther c remations w ere f ound a t s ome d istance f rom t he r ingd itch, i ncluding t hree e xamples i n s omewhat a typical v essels, a f lat b ased p ot o f B eaker-like f abric w ith i ncised d ecoration, a h eavily r usticated v essel, a nd a p lain, s traight s ided p ot w ith a h ole i n t he b ase

( Fig.76)

( ibid,

f ig.118 n os.25,

2 6 a nd 3 3),

n one o f w hich c an b e

e asily p aralleled b y o ther m ore c ommonly k nown t ypes o f f unerary p ottery. T wo b urial d eposits a t Y eavering w ere c overed b y c airns, ( 11) a t t he w est e nd o f t he s ite, w ith a n e ncrusted u rn ( Fig.109) ( 653) a nd ( 34), t he e astern r ing d itch ( 665), w hich h ad b een d estroyed.

a nd j et b eads t he v essel f rom

A ll o ther b urials a ppear t o h ave b een i n f lat g raves. T he d urat ion o f u se o f t he s ite a s a p rehistoric b urial g round i s u nknown. B urials m ay h ave b een a dded i nfrequently o ver m any c enturies, o r d eposited c lustered a s a o ther

i n c omparatively q uick s uccession, p articularly t hose a t t he w estern e nd o f t he s ite. T he u se o f a n atural k noll

b urial m ound i s f requently n oted i n t he a rea f or b oth c ist a nd b urials, a nd t he s ite a t Y eavering m ay h ave b een a f avoured

l ocation f or

t hese d eposits

f or s ome c onsiderable t ime.

I n C umbria, a s w ell a s f lat g raves w ith o ne o r t wo v essels, c omp arable w ith t hose i n t he n orth-east, t here i s a lso e vidence o f u rn c emeteries, a s f ound a t G arlands ( 767-793), I releth M ill ( 830-838), S tainton H ead ( 947-949), W aterloo H ill ( 955-963) a nd p ossibly M aryport ( 966-974). E xact d etails o f t hese s ites a re l imited, a nd s ome i ndicat ion o f t he s ize o f t he c emeteries c an n ow o nly b e a ssessed u pon t he n umber o f s urviving u rns ( which m ay o ften h ave c ontained m ore t han o ne c remation). B y c omparing d etails o f t he p ottery f rom G arlands p ublished b y S pence ( 194Q), K .S. H odgson ( 1957) a nd A bercromby ( 1912), w ith a n a ccurate c ontemporary i llustration o f t he m aterial b y " T.B." a n i nmate o f t he G arlands a sylum ( in H odgson K .S. 1 957) ( Fig.102), i t i s p ossible t o d educe t hat a m inimum o f 2 1 u rns a nd s ix i ncense c ups w ere f ound, t he l argest n umber o f v essels f rom a ny s ite i n t he r egion. N o d etails a re r ecorded a s t o t he m ethod o f d eposition o f a rea w hich t he s ite c overed. A t s traight

t he u rns,

o r t he

I releth M ill e leven u rns w ith c remations w ere f ound, i n a l ine a t i ntervals a bout a y ard a part, a nd a t S tainton H ead

s everal u rns,

o f w hich t hree s urvive,

w ere f ound w ithin t he s ame a rea

i n a s mall h ill o f s and. A t W aterloo H ill a m inimum o f f ive c inerary u rns a nd a n i ncense c up w ere f ound i n h ollows 6 -8ft i n d iameter, f illed w ith h eaps,

b lack a s

a sh i f

t ion o f u rns, a lso h ave

a nd

c harcoal,

w ith o ther c remations r ound

t hey h ad o riginally b een i n b ags. s even c inerary u rns a nd

c ome f rom a s ingle s ite,

t wo e nlarged

p erhaps

1 40

a bout

i n

T he N etherhall c ollecf ood

v essels,

m ay

i n t he v icinity o f M aryport.

A ll

o f

g round, a t C umberland

t hese C umbrian u rn c emeteries

E arly B ronze A ge b urials), T ree-trunk c offins O ne i n

t he

a re

l ocated

i n

l ow

l ying

o r b elow t he 2 00ft c ontour, o n t he s outhern e dge o f p lain ( an a rea o therwise a lmost u nrepresented b y f inds a nd

t he o f

i n F urness.

( Map 3 4)

s pecial g roup o f

b urials w hich h ave

b een f ound

i n f lat g raves

r egion a nd w hich m ay b e o f E arly B ronze A ge d ate a re

t hose

i n

t ree t runk c offins. A s ingle c offin a t C artington ( 142) c ontained a n i nhumation, f ragments o f s ewn l eather, f lints a nd a p ottery v essel w hich, b y i ts d escription w ould s eem t o h ave b een a n A OC B eaker ( p.147).

T he

b ody h ad b een l aid o n b racken.

A t W yden E als

o n

t he

n orth b ank o f t he T yne a c emetery o f a t l east t welve s uch c offins w as l ocated ( 630-641), s ome o f w hich w ere e xcavated a nd p reserved ( Whiting 1 937, m ents

9 6-7, p 11). N one c ontained a ny g rave g oods, b ut i n s ome, f rago f i nhumations s urvived. A ll t he c offins w ere o f o ak a nd h ad

r ounded e nds w ith t he u pper a nd l ower p ortions o f t he c offin s ecured b y t wo o ak p egs d riven i nto h oles b ored a t e ach e nd. A c emetery o f c omparable

s ize

i s

a lso

r ecorded a t

S elby

i n Y orkshire w here

t he

p osi-

t ion o f s ome o f t he g raves w as i ndicated b y o ak h eadposts, t wo t o t hree f eet l ong ( ibid, 1 00-101). T ree-trunk c offins w ith E arly B ronze A ge a ssociations a re k nown e lsewhere i n B ritain, p articularly i n Y orkshire a nd W iltshire ( Elgee a nd E lgee 1 949; A shbee 1 960, f ig.26) a nd i t i s p ossible A

t hat

t he

p lank

c ontained w hich h ad q uartz -

c emetery a t W yden E als

b uilt

c offin 6 f t

m ay b e

l ong f ound

i n

o f

s imilar d ate.

L orton

M oss,

C umbria,

a ' small q uantity o f w ood a shes, s tones o f s everal k inds b een s ubjected t o t he a ction o f f ire a nd ' a f ew c rystals o f

( Wilson J .

1 880,

3 44-5).

T he j oints

o f

t he c offin w ere c aulked

w ith m oss, w hich h as b een r ecorded e lsewhere a s a l ining m aterial E arly B ronze A ge c offins ( Ashbee 1 960, 9 2-3), a nd a n o val h ole c lose t he

e nd

o f

a ttachment a s b y

a

o ne

s ide

o f

o f a l id.

t he

T he

c remation a nd p erhaps

c omparison w ith o ther

t he 2 nd B 2

c offin m ay h ave

c ontents t he

o f

t he

r emains

m illennium b c i s

A n umber o f T he

g oods

m ounds

a nd

c ontain s ingle

r ecorded b urial

f rom s uch m ounds

v essels

u rns

t ion c oncerning

( Table t he

b e

a f uneral p yre,

( Ashbee

1 960,

o r

t he

i nterpreted a nd a gain,

9 1) a d ate

i n

a p ossibility.

M ounds w ith a s ingle b urial d eposit

c ists.

o f

s imilar m aterial

b een f or h aulage,

c offin m ight

i n t o

r ite

i nclude 1 5.3).

b urial

f rom t hese m ounds, a nd d eposits i ncluded i n t his

i s

( Tables b urial

1 3 a nd

M ap 3 5)

d eposits w hich a re n ot

p redominantly

B eakers,

1 5.3,

c remation a nd

f ood v essels,

I n t he n orth-east

e nlarged

t here

r ite a ssociated w ith m ost

o f

i n

g rave f ood

i s n o i nformat he g rave g oods

i t i s p ossible t hat m any o f c ategory a re t here b y d efault,

t he t hat

' burial' i s, b eing

r ecorded ( 72-73),

s imply a s f rom a m ound', a s f or e xample, B eakers f rom B elford F ord ( 225) a nd R ayheugh ( 478), f ood v essels a nd e nlarged f ood

v essels

f rom B erwick ( 84-85),

( 407-408), b alance o f h ave

n o

r ecorded

h uman r emains

t han i n

t he n orth-east,

m ounds

w ith s ingle

w est

e nd

o f

G reenville

( 251-252)

a nd

L onghoughton

a nd a j et s pacer p late f rom H olwick ( 310). I n C umbria t he i nformation i s s omewhat d ifferent. O nly f our o f 2 4 s ites a nd

i nhumation i s

a lthough n ot

b urials

t he

i n C umbria a re

t he E den v alley.

141

s omewhat m ore

p redominant f ound

b urial

c ommon

r ite.

o n t he u plands

a t

A ll t he

A p recise E arly B ronze A ge a ttribution i s,

o f

c ourse,

u nsure f or

t hose s ingle b urials w ithout g rave g oods, w hich, u nlike m ultiple b urials i n a s ingle m ound c annot b e a ttributed t o t his p eriod b y a ssociation. I t s hould b e r emembered t hat t here i s a n e arlier, N eol ithic

t radition o f

s ingle b urials

b eneath m ounds

( Kinnes

1 979,

6 4-5)

a nd t hat I ron A ge e xamples o f s uch b urials a re a lso k nown i n t he a s f or e xample a t H igh Knowes ( Jobey a nd T ait 1 966). B 3

M ounds w ith multiple c remations M ounds

a re t he

( Tables

w hich c ontain m ultiple

1 3 a nd

1 5.3,

c remation b urials,

a rea

M ap 3 6)

w ithout

c ists,

w idely d istributed i n N orthumberland a nd i n t he n orth-west a round c entral C umbrian m ountains, b ut a re a bsent f rom t he E den v alley a nd

f rom D urham. G rave g oods a ssociated w ith t hese b urials a re p red ominantly c inerary u rns ( in w hich t he c remations a re o ften d eposited) b ut

a lso

i nclude,

i n t he n orth-east,

a f ood v essel,

t wo e nlarged f ood

v essels d eposits

a nd a n e ncrusted u rn. O n a verage t he n umber o f i n a m ound i s s mall, a bout t hree i n t he n orth-east,

o r

i n

s ix

C umbria.

K irkoswald

A n o dd e xception

( 879-910),

w here m ore

i s

t he

b arrow

t han 3 0 d eposits

o f

a t

c remation a nd f ive

O ld

b urnt

P arks,

b ones w ere

r ecorded a round t he c ircumference o f t he m ound, s ome w ith f ragments u rns a nd o ther s herds ( now l ost). T he m ajority o f a ll c remations t hese m ounds o riginally 8 4

a re

i n

a ccompanied b y p ottery,

b ags,

a re

C hatton S andyford i n

f requent

t he

( Fig.77)

c airn 1 i s

n orth o f

o ccurrence

t he o nly e xample o f

E ngland,

i n Y orkshire

B arrows 4 , 5 6 a nd 2 26). T he s hallow o val p it, a nd B 2, c overed g rave,

p erhaps

a lso k nown.

M ound w ith p it g raves

g raves

b ut u n-urned d eposits,

o f i n

a c airn w ith

a lthough s uch g raves

( e.g.

M ortimer

1 905,

t wo c entral g raves a c ircular p it 5 ft

a re 9 8,

p it

o f

m ore

1 15,

3 03:

a t C hatton, B 1, a v ery d eep, w ere i nitially

b y a l arge c airn, t o w hich w as s ubsequently a dded a t hird p it B 3, a nd a k erb o f d ressed s tones w ith a n i nner -p latform' ,

( Jobey 1 968,

f ig.2,

2 9-32).

A n u n-urned c remation a nd a c remation i n

a n e nlarged f ood v essel ( Fig.78) w ere a lso i nserted i nto t he m ound, p robably a fter t he c onstruction o f t he k erb. B eakers w ere f ound i n g raves

B i,

B 2

a nd B 3

( p.149,

F ig.78),

b ut n o h uman r emains,

a lthough

t he e xcavator a ssumes t hat a ll t hese w ere i nhumations ( Jobey 1 968, 2 9-31). T he l ack o f g keletal m aterial i n g raves B 1 a nd 8 3 m ay e xplained h ad

e xtend o f t he g rave

b y

t he

b een s ubject

d isturbed t o

b ut

8 2 n ever

c ontained a b urial.

w ere

c ontained

i nhumations

c ould

o nly

i ntact,

h ave

a ll

t hat

n one

i n g raves t he

b een

s uggesting

r ecent

t hat

f ound

o f

t he

I t

a lso s eems

a nd 8 3. r emoval

I f o f

e ver

t o

r emoved,

c ontained

1 42

o f

w here g rave

t he

c airn

B 2 d id

h ave a nd

c urious

p arts

w hile

o f t he

O n t he

o riginally t he

b odies

b odies

t he

w ere

o ther h and,

o perated w ith s uch

b urials.

n ot m ost t hat

t hat n o b one

t hese g raves

a ll

s oon a fter b urial.

a re u nlikely

b ones w ould b e

t hese g raves

g raves

t op o f t he 5 ft d eep p it a nd I t s eems p ossible t herefore

s uccessfully a chieved

r obbing v ery

c airn r obbers

o f

B l

t otal

t hese

t he d isturbance

f or m ore t han a f oot i nto t he p it f illing w as u ndisturbed.

f ragments

m ore

c ondition o f

r obbing,

1 4, b e

p ossibility

c are

r emains

B 5-6

M ounds w ith b oth i nhumations a nd i nhumations o uly ( Table 1 3)

c remations a nd

m ounds

w ith

T hese t wo t ypes o f s ite a re f ound i n C umbria o nly ( Map 3 7) a nd a re s ituated a lmost e xclusively o n t he w estern u plands o f t he u pper E den v alley, w here t he m ajority o f t he m ounds w ith a s ingle b urial d eposit w ere a lso f ound ( p.141). A n umber o f t hese m ounds c ontained n o g rave g oods a nd s o d ating i s, i n s ome c ases, u ncertain. B 5

M ounds w ith i nhumations a nd c remations

F ive m ounds c ontained b urials b y b oth i nhumation a nd c remation: A sby . C LXXII ( 686-688), C rosby G arrett C LXXVI ( 751-755), C rosby R avensw orth C LXXXI ( 757-759) a nd C LXXXII ( 760-762) a nd K irkby S tephen C LXVIII ( 843-844). G rave g oods i nclude a j et s pacer p late, b one p in, c hisel a nd

t oggle

a t C rosby G arrett C LXXVI ( Fig.108)

a nd a n ' urn

R avensworth C LXXXI a nd C LXXXII ( both o f u nknown t ype). p recise d etails o f t hese e xcavations a re l acking, t he b urial

a t

C rosby A lthough d eposits

w ould s eem t o h ave c ertain f eatures i n c ommon. T he a verage n umber o f b urials p er m ound i s t hree, a nd, i n c ases w here t he a ge a nd s ex o f t he i ndividuals h as b een d etermined, t hese o ften s eem t o c onstitute a ' family' g roup w ith a dult m ales, f emales a nd c hildren, a s f or e xample a t C rosby G arrett C LXXVI a nd C rosby R avensworth C LXXXI a nd C LXXXII. A lthough r obbed a t

t here i s a lways t he p ossibility t hat t hese d eposits h ave b een s ome p oint i n t heir h istory, i t i s a lso n otable t hat a t f our

o f t he f ive s ites t he i nhumations a re r ecorded a s d isturbed o r s cattered, w hich m ay r eflect t heir o riginal m ode o f d eposition. D ispersion o f b ones w as a lso n oted a t W arcop C LXXI w ith t wo i nhumations. B 6

M ounds w ith m ultiple i nhumations

T hree s ites w ould a ppear t o h ave e vidence o f m ultiple i nhumations b eneath m ounds. T he s implest o f t hese i s W arcop C LXXI ( 952-953) w ith t wo d ispersed i nhumations w ith m uch c harcoal a bout t he b ones. T wo o ther m ounds h ave e vidence o f m ultiple b urials, b ut d etails c oncerning t hem a re s o i nadequate a nd t heir e xcavation s o u nsystematic a s t o m ake f urther i nterpretation i mpossible. N o g rave g oods w ere r ecorded i n t he m ound a t S unbrick ( 950), w hich m ay h ave c ontained o ver t en b urials, p erhaps o riginally f ragAentary. A t B irkrigg E ast ( 714-718) a b ronze a wl ( Fig.107) f ound w ith a bout f ive i nhumations, a lso f ragmentary, s uggests a d ate i n t he E arly B ronze A ge. A t t he s ame s ite m ore t han 3 0 d eposits o f b lack e arth u nder c overing s labs w ere r ecorded, s ometimes a ccompanied b y ' disintegrated p ot' a nd s tone f ragments. N o t races o f b one w ere o bserved a s

h owever,

a nd

t hese d eposits a re n ot h ere c lassified

c remations.

B urials w ithin s tone c ircles I t i s d ifficult t o m ake a f irm d istinction, b ased u pon f ormal c riteria, b etween t he l arger s tone c ircles w hose f unction m ay h ave b een p rimarily c eremonial a nd s maller c ircles, s ome o f w hich, o n e xcavation, h ave p roved t o b e b urial s ites ( pp.103-109). F our s ites e xcavated i n C umbria w ould s eem t o f all i n t he l atter c ategory, n amely t he ' Druid's T emple', B irkrigg ( 709-713), L acra B ( 848), L acra D ( 849) a nd L eacet H ill ( 850-857), a ll o f w hich a re c omprised o f c ircles o f l ow s tones. A t t he ' Druid's T emple', B irkrigg ( Fig.79) f our c remations w ith

1 43

c harcoal

a nd

p avement c ircle m uch A t

o f

o f

o ne

s tones

l ess

c remation i n a c inerary u rn w ere

c obbles-within a s tone s ome 7 5ft

r egular

c ircle 2 8ft

f ound

b eneath

i n d iameter.

i n d iameter a lso e xists

a t

t his

t han t he

i nner

c ircle a nd i s

n ot

L acra 1 3 a c remation w as

f ound

a bove

g round

t he o ld

s mall m ound o f e arth a nd s tones w ithin t he s tone D , a v ery i rregular s tone c ircle, a n i nverted

A n s ite,

a n i ncense

c ircle,

a s

c up p laced a t

f ound

t he

b ase

s urface

c ircle, c inerary

o f v arious

d ug

i nto

c remated T he p ottery s tone 4 ,

i n t he

f ound

b urial

a t

r ite

( Bryce

2 04-6,

1 863,

p l.XXII)

s omewhat

t he

o f

t he

u nder

a

a nd a t L acra u rn w as f ound ( Fig.79) s ix p ots

s tones

( actually a s ix 1 9th c entury,

o f

t he

s ites

i s

5 11,

1 960,

a s

c remation a nd f or

o f

8 4-6, t he

e xample a t

p l.VI).

a ssociated

t he

3 14-7),

M osley H eight,

C richie

c ircle),

h ave b een f ound w ithin

f igs.2 a nd 3 ,

p l.XVII),

a nd B roomend

s tone

a nd c harcoal a nd

( Craw 1 932-4,

b urial d eposits

i n B ritain,

( Griffiths

W estern r ing d itch, A

t hese

S imilar

e lsewhere

P enmaenmawr

o f

i n a c entral p it

a ll

c inerary u rns.

A rran

1 953,

l atter p art

h uman b ones

c ircles

C ircle,

i s

a t L acra D .

I n N orthumberland D uddo F our S tones w as

b ut

c oncentric w ith i t.

w hen t renching a t t he f oot o f s tone A . L eacet H ill c ircle p roduced t he l argest n umber o f c inerary v essels, a t otal o f a nd

a

o uter

( Cowie

D ruid's

M achrie M oor

Lancs.

1 978,

3 8,

( Bennett 1 03).

Y eavering

d ifferent

s tone

c ircle

w as

f ound

a t

Y eavering,

t he

r emains o f w hich f ormed t he w estern r ing-ditch c omplex ( Hope-Taylor 1 977, 1 08-112, f igs.50 a nd 5 1), w hich m ay h ave b een a f unerary s tructure, a lthough o ne c annot b e o f s uch a m onument w as s epulchral. i ts

l ocation i n a n a rea o f

c ertain w hether t he p rimary f unction H owever t he p lan o f t his c ircle a nd

p rehistoric

b urials

( ibid,

f ig.73)

m ight

s uggest a f unerary p urpose, r ather t han a p urely c eremonial o ne. E xcavation o f t he s egments o f a n i nterrupted r ing d itch, a t t he w estern e nd o f h ave

t he Y eavering

c ontained

s uch s tone a round t he

s ite,

s quat,

r evealed

u pright

s ettings p erimeter

s hallow s played

s tones

( ibid,

1 09).

s ockets w hich c ould T he

e xact

p it ( at t he b ase o f w hich w as a c remation) m ay a lso h ave u pright s tone. S uch c entral s tones a re n ot a f eature o f s tone w ere

c ircles. l ater

A ll

r emoved

n umber o f

i s n ot r ecorded, b ut m ay h ave b een o ver o f a c ircle s ome 5 2ft i n d iameter. T he

o f

a t

t he

s ome

s tones

o f

t he c ircle,

u nknown d ate d uring

a nd

t wenty, c entral

c ontained a n ' ceremonial'

t he c entral

t he h istoric

s tone

p eriod,

f or

t he e rection o f t he w ooden ( ? t emple) s tructure a nd i nhumation g raves o f P hase I I ( ibid, 1 15). D ating m aterial f rom t he r ing d itch c onsists o f

t wo

c orded

B eaker

s herds

a nd a P eterborough

s ilting o f t he d itch s egments, a s mall e verted f rom a s tone h ole a nd a P eterborough r im s herd t he

c entral

c ould

h ave

p it

' Four-poster A d efined b e

i n

b y C oles

b urial

n os.8-10,

f rom o ther

s urvey

a nd S impson

s ites. ( Burl

b y

B url

N orthumberland T hese

p articularly P erthshire, i n I reland

3 53-4,

1 3,

s herd

f rom

t he

1 5,

f ig.123)

a ll

o f w hich

c ontexts.

s tone c ircles

r ecent

o ccurrence

( ibid,

b een d erived

r im

r im s herd o f b lack w are f rom t he u pper p art o f

1 971,

b ut

( 1971)

o f

( 1965, a re a re

f ig.2).

h as

d rawn

' four-poster' 4 3-4),

w ell r are O ne

1 44

a ttention

s tone

t o

c ircles,

t he f irst

w hich o n e xcavation p rove

k nown

i n

n orth-east

t o

S cotland,

i n E ngland a nd W ales,

a nd u nknown

o f

r ecorded

t he

t hree

e xamples

i n

N orthumberland, a nd w as

t he T hree K ings

s tone

c ircle,

h as

b een e xcavated

( Burl

J ones 1 972). -Beneath a s mall c airn w ithin t he f our p ost s etting a c entral p it a bout 51 2 t / o 61 2 f / t i n d iameter ( Fig.80). A lthough

p reviously

d isturbed

i t w as

p ossible

t o

c onjecture

t hat

t his

p it

h ad

b een l ined w ith s tone s labs, s ome o f w hich w ere f ound a round. N o t races o f a b urial r emained, b ut s ome c harcoal, p articularly h azel w ith a l ittle

o ak,

w as

E vidence a re

b urial

f ound

i n t he

f rom o ther e xcavated

s ites

c remation, a s D unmoid ( Burl

a t

l and,

t he

p it

a t

( ibid,

s uggests

w hich

t he

7 -10).

t hat

b urial

t hese

r ite

i s

f or e xample a t L undin F arm, C arse F arm I , G lenballoch a nd 1 971, 4 3-4). P ottery a ssociations i nclude a n e ncrusted ( Allen 1 881,

C arse F arm I a nd s herds L undin F arm, a lthough t ypes

o f

' four-posters

o f 2 nd m illennium d ate,

u rn f rom G lenballoch

m aterial

b ottom l ayer

t he

l atter

( Burl

1 971,

8 8-90,

f ig.9),

a c ollared u rn f rom

o f c ollared u rn a nd c ord o rnamented B eaker a t t he p recise a ssociation o f t hese t wo p ottery

s ite

i s

u ncertain,

4 4-5).

a s

T wo o ther

a t G oatscrag a nd D oddington M oor

b oth w ere

f ound

' four-posters'

( Burl

1 971,

5 1)

i n

m ound

i n N orthumberh ave n ot

b een

excavated.

R ock-shelters Two r ock-shelter b urial N orthumberland, a t G oatscrag ( 180)

( Beckensall 1 976),

s ites h ave b een e xcavated i n t he n orth o f ( 241-245) ( Burgess 1 972) a nd C orby's C rags

b oth o f

w hich p roduced

c remations

i n a ssocia-

t ion w ith e nlarged f ood v essels. A s ingle v essel w as d iscovered C orby's C rags, b ut t he G oatscrag s ite a ppears t o h ave f unctioned a s s mall

c emetery

w ith

t wo u rned a nd

t wo

u n-urned

c remation

a t a

d eposits

( Fig.98), r epresenting a m inimum o f f our a dults a nd a n i nfant. P its a nd p ostholes a t G oatscrag m ay b e a ssociated w ith b urial a ctivities ( Fig . 81) A lthough t he

p rehistoric

B ritish I sles

c ave

a nd

( Bradley 1 978,

r ock s helter

6 5-7),

t here

b urials

a re n o

o ccur w idely i n

c lose p arallels

t o

t he G oatscrag c emetery ( Burgess 1 972, 4 1-3) n or a re a ny o ther e nlarged f ood v essels f rom n orthern B ritain k nown f rom a s imilar c ontext ( Cowie 1 978,

3 9).

n orth-east

I t h ave

i s

o f

i nterest

p roduced

t herefore

s imilar

t ypes

t hat

o f

b oth r ock-shelters

i n t he

f unerary p ottery.

P ot-hole I n C umbria a f ragment o f H eaning W ood s tone c losed b y

a

( 821),

f lake-knife

w ith p arts ( Barnes

a ssociation h owever, f issure

i n t he

a c ollared u rn w as o f

t hree

1 970a). a s

l imestone,

t he

T his

c annot

p ot-hole

w hich c ould

c hute.

145

f ound

i nhumations, b e

i n a p ot-hole

a nimal b ones c onsidered

c onnects w ith h ave

a cted a s

a t

a nd a a s

a

t he

s urface

a

r ubbish

B URIALS W ITH A SSOCIATED G RAVE G OODS B urials w ith B eakers F ifty

s ites

( Tables 1 6-20)

i n t he n orth o f E ngland h ave p roduced a t otal o f

5 9

b urials w ith B eakers, 4 8 i n t he n orth-east a nd n ine i n C umbria. T hese a re w idely d istributed t hroughout t he l ower l ying p arts o f t he r egion, t he g reatest n umber b eing f ound i n t he n orth o f N orthumberland, w ith o ther s ites s cattered m ore t hinly b etween t he C oquet a nd t he T yne, i n D urham a nd i n C umbria. T o t hese m ay b e a dded f ive g raves w ith v essels w hich, b y t heir d escription m ay h ave b een B eakers ( Table 1 7) a nd t wenty c omplete B eakers, o f u nknown c ontext, w hich m ay a lso h ave c ome f rom g raves

( Table

1 8 a nd 2 0).

T he d istribution o f

t hese g raves a nd B eakers

( Maps 3 8 a nd 3 9) r e-emphasises t he c oncentration o f n orth o f N orthumberland a nd a lso i n t he E den v alley.

s uch f inds

i n

T he b urial r ites, c ontext, B eaker t ypes a nd o ther g rave a ssociated w ith t hese b urials w ill e ach b e d iscussed i n t urn. B eaker b urial r ite i n t he n orth-east

t he

g oods

( Table 2 1)

O f 2 9 b urial d eposits w ith B eakers f rom t he n orth-east o f E ngland f or w hich t he b urial r ite i s k nown, 3 1 a re i nhumations, i ncluding a d ouble i nhumation o f t wo a dults, p ossibly b oth m ale, a t H igh B uston ; a q uintuple a dult

b urial

m ale

( possibly a f amily)

a ged 3 0-40 y ears,

a t K elloe L aw c onsisting

a f emale o f o ver 3 0

y ears,

o f

a nd

a n

t hree

c hildren a ged 1 2-15, 7 -10 a nd a ged 4 ; a nd a c ombined i nhumation a nd c remation f rom S ummerhill, B laydon. T wo o ther c remations w ith B eakers a re k nown f rom t he a rea, i dentified a s t he r emains o f

b oth f rom c ists a t D ilston P ark, o ne a y oung p erson. B oth c remation s ites a re

i n t he v alley o f t he R iver T yne. T he B eaker f rom N orham C astle s aid t o h ave c ontained h uman b ones w hen f ound. T his r eport i nitially d ismissed b ut a h uman c remation r emains a p ossibility. A mongst t he i nhumations c hildren h ave b een i dentified,

w as w as

1 4 a dult m ales a nd f emales a nd f our a nd o nly o ne y oung p erson ( a f emale a t

N orth S underland), o ther t han t he t hree c hildren s omewhat e xceptionally f ound t ogether a t K elloe L aw. I n a ll c ases w here t he p osition o f a n i nhumation i s r ecorded t he b ody i s c ontracted, o n e ither t he l eft o r r ight s ide, e ast-west.

t he m ost c ömmonly o ccurring o rientation o f t he b ody b eing A t A mble P ier t he b ody l ay N E-SW, a t N orth S underland a nd

t he S neep S E-NW, a nd a t D alton, H untlaw N -S, a n o rientation m ore c ommonly f ound w ith b urials w ith f ood v essels, a c eramic f orm w hich t he H untlaw B eaker q uite c losely r esembles, b eing o f c oarse m anufacture w ith f ingernail d ecoration. O f t he s ix e xamples w here t he s ex o f t he s keleton h as m ales

w ere

b een a scertained a nd t he b ody p osition i s k nown, l aid o n t heir

l eft h and s ide a nd t he

t he t hree

t hree f emales o n t heir

r ight h and s ide. H owever, t his s ample i s n ot a l arge e nough o ne f rom w hich t o d raw t he c onclusion t hat t his d ifference i n b ody p osition a lways

i ndicates

t he s ex o f

t he i ndividual s o b uried.

T here i s

n ot

e nough i nformation t o s uggest a ny c orrelation b etween t he p ositioning o f t he b ody w ithin t he c ist ( the m ost u sual f unerary s tructure) a nd t he a ge

o r s ex o f

T here ( Table 2 2) y ears)

a nd

t he d eceased.

a re s even e xamples o f m ultiple B eakers i n s ingle g raves t wo o f w hich a re a ssociated w ith y oung p eople ( under 1 8 t he t hird w ith a n a dult m ale.

1 46

T he s mall s ize o f

t he c ist a t

N orth H azelrigg ( 21 2 f / t l ong b y 2 ft w ide) m ight s uggest t hat h ere t oo t he p erson w as y oung. F or t he c ountry a s a w hole C larke f ound t hat t he m ajority o f b urials w ith m ore t han o ne B eaker, w here t he s ex h ad b een d etermined, w ere o f f emales, o ften w ith a y oung o r n ewborn c hild ( Clarke 1 970, I I, 4 49). T his t endency w ould a lso a ppear t o b e f ound i n f ood v essel b urials. B eaker t ypes i n B eaker b urials i n t he n orth o f E ngland T he

n omenclature

o f

B eaker p ottery t ypology h as

( Table 2 3) b een

r adically

a ltered s ince t he p ublication o f D avid C larke's c orpus i n 1 970, a nd h is B eaker t erminology h as r apidly e ntered t he a rchaeological l iterature. T he c hronological i mplications o f C larke's s cheme a re h owever d ebatable a nd i n t he f ollowing d iscussion C larke's B eaker t ypology i s u sed a s a d escriptive t erminology o nly, t o c onsider t he b urial c ontext a nd g rave g oods a ssociated w ith i ndividual B eaker t ypes, a nd t he e vidence o f m ultiple B eaker a ssociations c onsidered a s a d iscrete

t he

i n s ingle g raves.

E ach B eaker t ype i s n ot

c hronological h orizon.

T he r ange a nd f requency o f o ccurrence o f B eaker t ypes i n g raves i n n orth o f E ngland i ncluding c omplete B eakers o f u nknown c ontext

w hich p robably a ccompanied b urials i s s hown i n T able 2 4. T hese a re p redominantly o f ' Northern t ypes, a lthough i t s hould b e n oted t hat C larke's ' Northern' a nd ' Southern' B eakers a re b y n o m eans c onfined t o t heir r espective p arts o f t he c ountry ( Clarke 1 970 c p. M aps 5 -6 a nd 7 1 0). T he d eposition o f m ore t han o ne B eaker i n c ist g raves i n t he a rea ( Table

2 2)

p rovides e vidence f or

t he r egular a ssociation o f p articular

B eaker t ypes, n amely N /NR, N 2 a nd N 3. M iniature B eakers a re f ound i n s uch a ssociations a t B orewell F arm, N orth H azelrigg, N orth S underland ( Fig.82) a nd B rougham. B eakers f rom s eparate g raves w ithin t he s ame m ound a t C lifton ( Fig.83), C hatton S andyford ( Fig.78) a nd L ow T rewhitt ( Table 2 2) h ave t he s ame a ssociation o f t ypes a s t hose i n s ingle c ists, w ith t he a ddition o f t he S 4/FV t ype B eaker a t C hatton S andyford B 3. A lthough s eparate b urials w ithin t he s ame m ound a re n ot n ecessarily c ontemporary,

t he s tratigraphic e vidence f rom C lifton,

w ere b elow t he o ld g round

s urface b eneath t he m ound,

w here b oth c ists a nd L ow T rewhitt,

w here a ll t hree c ists w ere b uilt o n t he o ld g round s urface, s uggests t hat t hese g raves m ay h ave b een c onstructed a t a bout t he s ame t ime. G rave B 3 a t C hatton S andyford a ppears t o h ave b een a n a ddition t o t he m ound, b efore t he c onstruction o f t he s tone k erb ( p.142), b ut t his n eed n ot h ave

l ong

p ost-dated

t he f irst

t wo g raves.

I n v iew o f t he r epeated a ssociation o f N /NR, N 2 a nd N 3 B eakers i t s eems a ppropriate t o c onsider t he d istribution o f t hese N orthern B eaker t ypes t ogether ( Map 4 1). T hey a re f ound p articularly i n t he v alleys o f t he E den a nd t he C oquet

t he T yne, a nd i n t he n orthern p art o f N orthumberland f rom t o t he T weed. ' Southern' B eakers a re f ound o nly i n

N orthumberland,

a s

a re

a lso

t he

f ew e xamples

f rom

t he

r egion

o f

C larke's N /MR, N l/D a nd F P t ypes ( Map 4 2). I n c ontrast t o t he p attern o f d istribution o f ' Northern' B eakers, A OC v essels a re w idely b ut t hinly d ispersed, w ith f inds i n s ome a reas w hich a re o therwise u nrepresented b y B eaker m aterial f rom g raves, s uch a s t he s outh-west a nd s outh-east o f C umbria ( Mecklin P ark a nd S izergh F ell) a nd t he v alley

o f

t he S outh T yne

( Kirkhaugh).

T he d istribution o f A OC B eaker

g raves, t heir u nusual b urial c ontexts a nd t he e xceptional g rave g oods w ith w hich s ome e xamples a re a ssociated m ight s uggest t hat s uch b urials w ere

o f

a s omewhat d ifferent n ature f rom t hose a ssociated w ith

1 47

o ther

B eaker

t ypes.

O ther g rave g oods w ith B eakers i n t he n orth-east o f E ngland

( Table 2 5)

T hirteen B eaker b urials w ith o ther g rave g oods h ave b een f ound i n t he n orth-east o f E ngland ( Table 2 5). T hese a ssociated a rtifacts a re o f t ypes r epresented e lsewhere i n B eaker c ontexts ( Clarke 1 970, A ppendix 3 ), b ut a s w ith s uch m aterial t hroughout B ritain, a re n ot o f v ery

c ommon o ccurrence,

w ith f ew e xamples

( or o ften o nly o ne)

o f e ach

t ype b eing k nown f rom t he a rea. T he r ichest b urials f rom t he a rea, b y v irtue o f t he n umber o f o bjects a ssociated w ith t hem a nd t he r arity o f c ertain o f t he a rtifact t ypes, a re f rom K irkhaugh ( Fig.84) a nd W est L ilburn ( Fig.84). T he K irkhaugh g old b asket ' earring i s o ne o f o nly t wo f rom B eaker b urial c ontexts i n B ritain, t he o ther a p air f rom R adley ( ibid, f ig.63) ( although s ome b ronze e xamples a re a lso k nown ( p.130),

a nd

t he c opper o r b ronze k nife f rom W est L ilburn o ne o f o nly

t hree e xamples, k nown a lso f rom r ich B eaker b urials a t D riffield, Y orks. a nd D orchester-on-Thames ( p.131 i bid, n os.735 a nd 1 265). T he m ost c ommonly o ccurring g rave g oods, a nd o ften t he l east c lassifiable, a re f lints, k nown f rom s even s ites, s ome b eing s crapers o r f lakes w ith s econdary w orking a nd o thers o f n o p articular t ype, p erhaps u sed a s ' strike-a-light' f lints. T he f iner f lint t ypes a re k nown i n l esser n umbers, t wo b arbed a nd t anged a rrowheads, f rom H igh K nowes a nd K irkhaugh, a f lint k nife ( of u nknown t ype) f rom S tell K nowe a nd a f lint d agger f rom L ilburnsteads ( Tait 1 965, g oods a re a lso o f u ncommon o ccurrence, s uch a s C hatton S andyford ( Fig.78) f rom S hipley a nd E llsnook.

p 1.4). t he j et

O ther g rave b uttons f rom

a nd W est L ilburn ( p.175) a nd t he r ed o chre T here a re i nsufficient n umbers o f b urials

w ith g rave g oods t o s uggest a ny c orrelations w ith p articular b urial r ites, o r w ith t he a ge o r s ex o f t he i ndividual, b ut b oth m ales a nd f emales a re r epresented. T he b urial a t W est L ilburn i s n otable, b eing t hat o f a w oman, f or o ther b urials o f k nown s ex w ith j et b uttons a nd c opper o r b ronze r iveted d aggers a re m ales ( Clarke 1 970, I I, 4 48). B eaker b urials w ith o ther g rave g oods a re k nown f rom a ll t ypes o f b urial c ontext, i ncluding t hose o f r are o ccurrence s uch a s t he t reet runk

c offin a t C artington a nd

t he p it g raves i n t he m ound a t

C hatton

S andyford.

t ypes

W ith t he e xception o f C larke's B eaker t ypes S 4 a nd F P a ll o ther o f B eaker f ound i n t he a rea a re f ound a ssociated w ith o ther g rave

g oods, t ypes

a lthough o nly i n c omparatively s mall n umbers. T he f our B eaker w hich a re r are i n t he a rea h ave ( with o ne e xception) o ther g rave

g oods i n a ll c ases i n w hich t hey o ccur w ith b urials, n amely t he A OC B eaker b urials a t C artington a nd K irkhaugh, t he N i/D B eaker a t t he S neep, t he N /MR B eaker a t E llsnook, a nd o ne o f t he t wo S 2(W) e xamples, a t L ilburnsteads.

W ith t he B eaker

t ypes m ore c ommon i n t he a rea

( N/NR :

N 2: N 3) g rave g oods o ccur i n a pproximately o ne c ase o ut o f t en. T he l arger n umber o f b urials w ith o ther g rave g oods i n t he n orth o f N orthumberland m aterial

i n

( Map t his

4 0)

a rea,

r eflects

t he g reater c oncentration o f

c ompared w ith t he r est

o f

t he

B eaker

n orth-east

o f

E ngland. B eaker b urial c ontexts i n t he n orth-east o f E ngland T he f rom f lat

( Table 2 1)

m ajority o f B eaker b urials i n t he n orth-east

o f E ngland

c ist g raves.

t o b e d iscovered

T here

i s a t endency f or

1 48

t hese

c ome

i n m odern p loughing a ctivities, b ut c ertain e vidence w ould s uggest t hat s ometimes a t l east t hese g raves w ere o riginally m arked i n s ome w ay. F irst, a nd m ost o bvious, t here i s t he q uestion o f h ow t he m aterial e xcavated f rom t he p it o f. c ist,

i n w hich t he c ist

s labs w ere p laced w as d isposed

I n n o c ase w as t his d eliberately p iled b ack o ver t he b ody i n t he o n t he c ontrary, i n s ome c ases t he j oints o f t he c ist w ere l uted

w ith c lay t o p revent t he i nflow o f a ny e arth, a nd u nless d isturbance h as t aken p lace, a s f or e xample a t W est L ilburn ( Colling ood E .f. 1 946, 2 17ff), p ossible m oved

t he b ody i s u sually f ound f ree o f s uch m aterial. I t i s t herefore t hat u nless t he e xcavated s poil w as d eliberately

e ntirely

a way

f rom t he s ite,

i t c ould h ave b een

d isposed

o f

a round t he c ist, t o f orm a l ow m ound w hich c ould b ecome q uite f lat e ventually, e .g. t hrough c ultivation. T here i s a lso a p ossibility t hat t he p osition o f a c ist w as i ndicated b y a ' marker s tone o r b y a p ile o f s tones o n t op o f t he c ist, a s w as r ecorded a t H awkhill, L esbury; M oor L odge, A lnwick , a nd a t B laydon, S ummerhill. N one o f t hese m ounds c onstituted a c airn s ensu s tricto a nd e xamples o f t hese t ypes o f ' grave m arker' c ould h ave b een e asily d isplaced o r r emoved, a s a h indrance t o p loughing, w ithout a ny r ealisation t hat a c ist l ay b eneath. A f inal a rgument f or t he e xistence o f s ome s ort o f c ist m arker i s t he o ccurrence o f s mall ' cemeteries' o f c ists ( pp.136-7). O n t he a ssumpt ion t hat a ll o f t he g raves i n a ny o ne c emetery w ere n ot c onstructed s imultaneously s ome m ethod w as o bviously r equired b y w hich s uch s ites c ould b e a ccurately l ocated a gain s o t hat o ther g raves m ight b e a dded t o t hem. T herefore t he d esignation o f s uch g raves a s ' flat' c ist g raves m ay b e s omething o f a m isnomer, b ut t he t erm i s r etained i n c ontrast t o l arger b arrow c onstructions w hich w ould a lways m ore o bvious m an-made f eatures o f t he l andscape.

h ave

b een

O f t he 4 6 B eaker b urials k nown f rom t he n orth-east o f E ngland, 2 7 a re f lat c ist g raves ( including a c ist w ith t wo c ompartments, e ach c ontaining a B eaker, a t L esbury, B urney K nowes), 1 0 c ome f rom c ists c overed b y m ounds a nd n ine f rom m ounds a lone, i ncluding t he t hree g raves ( all w ithout s keletal r emains) a t C hatton S andyford. W here s tratigraphy h as b een r ecorded, a ll B eaker c ists i n m ounds w ere c onstructed o n o r b elow t he o ld g round s urface, a nd a s s uch d o n ot a ppear t o h ave b een a dded t o p re-existing m ounds. B y c ontrast w ith f ood v essel c ist b urials, w hich a re r egularly f ound i n m ultiple c ist c airns B eaker c ist b urials a re o ften f ound i n m ounds w ith s ingle c ists, a s a t B lack H eddon, B randon H ill, E llsnook, R ayheugh C XCIII, a nd A lnwick, W hitehouse. T he b urials f rom L ow T rewhitt a nd L esbury, H awkhill w ere f ound i n m ultiple c ist c airns h owever, a nd o ne o f t he c ists a t L esbury c ontained a f ood v essel. T he m ost u nusual c ombination o f b urials w as f ound a t R osebrough C XCVII, w here t he o rnate a nd i diosyncratic R osebrough u rn ( with i ts e nclosed c remation) w as f ound b eneath a m ound i nverted o n t op o f t he c ist c ontaining a B eaker b urial ( Fig.99). N ine B eaker b urials

a re r ecorded f rom m ounds w ithout

c ists,

a nd o f

t hose f rom F ord a nd R ayheugh F arm , n o f urther d etails a re k nown. I nformation c oncerning t he m ound a t S tell K nowe i s a lso s canty, b ut t races o f b urning w ere f ound o n t he o ld g round s urface o f t he c airn w hich c ontained a B eaker s herd a nd a p olished f lint k nife. I n a r obbed c airn a t H igh K nowes a p lain r im f ragment o f a c ordoned B eaker w as f ound w ith a b arbed a nd t anged f lint a rrowhead a nd o ther f lints, w hich m ay o riginally h ave b een p laced i n a s hallow

1 49

g rave s ome 31 2 f / t b y 2 ½ f t

b y f t d eep. G raves e xcavated i nto t he n atural s urface b elow t he m ound a re a lso r ec uded a t E tall M oor a nd C hatton S andyford. A t E tall M oor B eaker s herds o f l ate ( 7) S 4 t ype ( Fig.106) w ere f ound i n a n a nomalous p osition o nly s ome 1 21 2 i / nches b elow t he s urface o f t he m ound, s tratified a bove f ive c inerary u rns a nd a n i ncense c up ( Fig.106) i n a h ollow, e xcavated i nto t he n atural s urface. F rom t he f ragmentary c ondition o f t he B eaker a nd t he u nusual p ositioning o f t he u rns t ogether i n a l arge e xcavated f eature i t c ould b e s uggested t hat t his w as o riginally a B eaker g rave ( comparable w ith e .g. H igh K nowes a nd g rave B 1 a t C hatton S andyford), w hich w as c leared o ut i n a ntiquity a nd r e-used f or t he d eposition o f t he u rns a nd t heir c ontents. T he B eaker m aterial w hich w as r aised o ver t he u rns,

d isturbed w as t hen i ncorporated i nto t hus b ecoming s tratified a bove t hem.

t he

m ound

T he m ost d etailed e vidence o f B eaker b arrow b urials c omes f rom e xcavations a t C hatton S andyford, t he o nly m ound w ith p it g raves i n t he a rea o f s tudy ( p.142), w here t wo b urials ( B1 a nd B 2) w ere f ound i n c lose p roximity u nder a c airn 4 0ft i n d iameter, w ith a t hird b urial o n t he p eriphery, p robably a dded s lightly b efore o r c ontemporary w ith t he c onstruction o f a l arge k erb o f d ressed s tones a dditional t o t he o riginal b ody o f t he c airn ( Fig.77). A ll t he g raves h ad b een d isturbed a nd n o s keletal r emains w ere f ound. G rave B 1 w as o val, 5 ft b y 4 f t b y 1 0 i nches d eep, a nd o riented N -S. T o t he w est s ide o f i t w ere t races o f b urning a nd f our s take h oles o n t he o ld g round s urface, t he c harcoal f rom w hich g ave a r adiocarbon d ate o f 1 670 2 : 50 b c ( Gak-800). A m uch l arger c harcoal s pread c 1 9ft i n d iameter w as f ound c entred a round t his a rea. T wo j et b uttons f ound i n r obbed m aterial o n t he s outh s ide o f t he g rave a re a ssumed t o h ave b een a ssociated w ith t he o riginal B eaker ' burials'. G raves B 2 a nd B 3 a re t he o nly e xamples o f p it o r ' shaft' g raves f rom t he r egion, B 2 b eing a c ircular p it 6 ft i n d iameter c ut t o a d epth o f 5 ft, a nd B 3 a n o val p it 4 1 2 f / t i n l ength a nd 3 ft d eep. E ach g rave c ontained a B eaker, t hose f rom b urials B 1 a nd B 2 o f N /NR t ype a nd f rom B 3 o f S 4/FV t ype ( Fig.78). T he c omplete a bsence o f a ny s keletal m aterial i s p erhaps s omewhat u nusual ( p.142), f or a lthough t he g raves h ad b een d isturbed, t he B eakers r emained, i n t wo c ases c omplete a lthough c rushed. S imilarly i n t he A OC B eaker b arrow a t K irkhaugh n o t race o f a b ody w as o bserved. B eneath t he l ayer o f s tones, a pparently b uilt u p f rom t he

c entre o f

t he m ound,

w as f ound a n a rea o f

l ight e arth

i ntermixed

w ith s mall l oose s tones, s ome 5 ft i n d iameter a nd l ft t hick. I n t his a rea i n w hich a n atural c left i n t he r ock h ad b een f illed w ith c lay w ere f ound a ll t he g rave g oods w ith t he e xception o f t he B eaker, w hich l ay s ome 41 2 f / t s outh-west o f t he c entre u nder a s tone. I t h as b een t entatively s uggested t hat p atches o f g reasy g reyish c lay f ound o n t he r ock s urface n ear t he c entre o f t his b arrow m ay r epresent a c remation ( Clarke 1 970, I I, A ppendix 3 .6) b ut t he e vidence i s a ltogether i nconclusive a nd n o t race o f t ion

( Maryon 1 936,

s uggest

b urnt b one w as o bserved d uring

2 10-11).

t hat a n i nhumation,

T he s tructure o f p erhaps

i n a c offin,

t he e xcava-

t he c airn m ight

r ather

h ad b een l aid o n t his

n atural k noll a nd a c airn e rected o ver i t. S ettlement o ver t his a rea a s t he b ody o r c offin d ecayed w ould h ave b een f airly l imited a nd t he p rofile o f

t he c airn r etained.

T he o nly o ther A OC B eaker b urial k nown i n t his a rea w as f ound a t C artington a nd s ome o f t he e vidence f rom t his s ite m ight b e s een a s s upporting t he s uggestion t hat t he K irkhaugh b arrow c ontained a w ooden

1 50

c offin. A t C artington t he b urial, o f w hich o nly s ome h ad b een p laced i n,an o ak t ree-trunk c offin 51 2 f / t l ong, t ion w ith ' oaken w edges f ine b lue w ashed c lay'.

a nd l arge s tones p iled a round a nd p acked w ith T he b ody h ad b een l aid o n b racken. T he s ize

o f t he c offin, i ts l ocation u nder c overing s labs a nd a re a ll e lements r eminiscent o f t he K irkhaugh b arrow , c ontained a s imilar d eposit.

t ext

t eeth r emained, f ixed i n p osi-

t he c lay p acking w hich m ay h ave

N o s ignificant c orrelation c an b e e stablished b etween b urial a nd r ite i n B eaker g raves, a s t he v ast m ajority o f b urials

c onf rom

t he a rea a re i nhumations. T he t hree c remations f rom t he a rea w ere f ound i n f lat c ists. G rave g oods o ther t han B eakers a ppear i n a ll t ypes o f b urial c ontexts. A ll i nstances o f m ore t han o ne B eaker i n a n i ndividual g rave h ave b een f ound i n f lat c ists. I f w e a ccept t he t ypes o f

B eaker d iscussed b y C larke

( pp.129-30),

t he s mall n umber o f e xamples

o f e ach B eaker t ype m ake i t d ifficult t o d raw a ny f irm c onclusion a s t o t rends i n a ssociations b etween v essel t ype a nd b urial c ontexts ( Table 2 3). H owever, s ome c omparisons m ay b e m ade w ith C larke's a nalysis o f g rave t ypes a nd B eaker a ssociations c ompiled f or t he w hole o f B ritain ( Clarke 1 970, I I, 4 48-9). O f w ith k nown g rave c ontexts ( 17), i s

a lso

t he c ase f or t he

e xamples o f r egion, a nd F or

t he

t he s mall n umber o f A OC B eaker b urials t he m ajority w ere i n b arrow g raves, a s

t wo e xamples

f rom t he n orth-east.

O nly s ingle

g raves w ith N /MR a nd N l/D B eaker t ypes a re k nown i n t he t hese a re a lso c omparatively r are t hroughout t he c ountry.

l arger B eaker g roups,

N /NR,

N 2 a nd N 3,

t he s ituation i n

t he

n orth-east w ould a ppear t o p arallel g eneral t rends, w ith t he e xception o f t ype N 2, w hich h as a n a lmost e qual n umber o f f lat c ist g raves a nd c ists i n m ounds i n t he n orth-east, w hereas c ist g raves i n m ounds a nd m ound b urials i n g eneral a re m uch l ess c ommon o verall. T his t rend i s m aintained i n t he n orth-east t o a l esser d egree w ith B eakers o f t ype N 3 w ith w hich m ound b urials P ossible ' Beaker

d oes

o f

a ll t ypes a re l ess

b urials f rom t he n orth-east

c ommon. ( Table 1 7)

F ive p ossible B eaker b urials a re l isted. T he p ottery f rom t hese n ot s urvive a nd s o t heir d esignation a s ' Beakers' c annot b e

v erified.

T wo

c ome

f rom b arrows n ear B elford

f inding a re k nown) a nd o ne f rom a c ist a t B elford). T he ' Beaker ' f rom B orewell F arm,

( no o ther

d etails

o f

W arrenton ( also n ear w here a nother B eaker

b urial w as a lso f ound, c ame f rom a f lat c ist w ith a n a dult f emale i nhumation a nd s ome f lints, w hile t hat o n B ewick M oor w as f ound i n o ne c ist o f a m ultiple c ist c airn . O ne o f t he o ther c ists c ontained j et b eads. C omplete B eakers w ithout k nown c ontext f rom t he n orth-east

( Table

1 8)

T here e xist t welve c omplete B eakers o f k nown p rovenance b ut o f u nknown c ontext i n t he n orth-east a nd a lso a n A OC b owl f rom P onteland ( Fig.87),

t he o nly o ne o f

i ts

t ype i n t he c ountry,

s aid

t o h ave

b een

f ound i n d raining, b ut o f w hich n o f urther d etails a re r ecorded. A ll t he B eakers a re o f t ypes r epresented e lsewhere i n t he a rea f rom b urials. A s t hese B eakers a re c omplete, i t s eems l ikely t hat t hey t oo w ere f ound i n s ome b urial c ontext, t he d etails o f w hich a re n ot k nown. T he B eakers c ome f rom a reas g enerally a lready w ell r epresented b y B eaker b urials, w hile t he e xamples f rom A ncroft, G ryndon a nd N orham s ubstantially a ugment t he d istribution j ust t o t he s outh o f t he R iver T weed.

151

* Beaker b urials i n C umbria

( Tables

1 9 a nd 2 0,

M ap 3 8)

I n c ontrast t o t he 5 0 B eaker b urials k nown f rom t he n orth-east o f E ngland, o nly n ine a re r ecorded i n C umbria. T hese e xhibit a v ariety o f f unerary c ontexts, a lthough f ew c onclusions a s t o t heir s ignificance c an b e d rawn f rom s uch a s mall n umber o f s ites. W here

s ufficient d etails a re k nown,

a ll t he b urials

a re

i nhuma-

t ions, f ive i n c ists a nd o ne l aid o n t he n atural s urface b eneath a m ound a t C rosby G arrett C LXXV. T hree o f t he i nhumations w ere o f a dult m ales, i ncluding a n a ged m an, a nd o ne o f a y oung a dult. N o h uman r emains

w ere f ound w ith e ither o f

t he A OC B eakers a t M ecklin P ark

a nd

S izergh F ell, a lthough t he f ormer m ound w as o nly t renched. T he c ons truction o f t hese t wo b arrows, w ith l arge s tones r egularly l aid, p articularly o ver t he c entral a rea, a nd t he p osition o f t he S izergh F ell

B eaker b eneath a l arge s lab a re b oth e lements

K irkhaugh r emains. c harcoal

b arrow, I n t he

r eminiscent

w hich a lso c ontained a n A OC B eaker b ut c entral a rea a t M ecklin P ark w ere f ound

a nd h azel n uts,

f our q uartz

p ebbles a nd a

f lint

o f

t he

n o h uman b rushwood c hip,

b ut

w hether t hese r eally r epresent g rave g oods o r n ot i s u nclear. T he o nly o ther o bjects w ith t he b urials o ther t han B eakers w ere a c urved b one a wl 21 2 i / nches l ong w ith t he y oung a dult ( male?) i nhumation a t C lifton ( 1) a nd t wo p ieces o f ' putty i n t he M cKenny H ughes c ollection w ith t he B eaker f ragment f rom C rosby F ell, s aid t o h ave c ome f rom a c airn o pened i n J uly 1 883. I t i s u nknown w hat t his ' putty' w as f or, u nless i t i s s amples o f c lay f ound i n t he c airn ( as f or e xample a t K irkhaugh) o r e ven a s

l uting o f

a c ist w hich w as n ot

r ecorded.

O f t he n ine B eaker b urials f rom e ight s ites i n C umbria, t hose a t A instable p arish, B rougham a nd C astle C arrock a re f rom f lat c ists, t he t wo c ists a t C lifton f rom a m ound, a nd t he r emaining f our e xamples f rom C rosby F ell, C rosby G arrett, M ecklin P ark a nd S izergh F ell a re f rom m ounds a lone. T he A OC B eakers c ame f rom m ounds, a s i s m ost c ommon t hroughout B ritain, a nd t he c ist b urials w ere a ccompanied b y B eakers o f N /NR a nd l ater N orthern t ypes. A s n oted p reviously ( p.147), t he A OC B eakers

c ome f rom w idely s paced s ites

i n a reas n ot

r epresented b y o ther

f inds o f B eaker p ottery, w hich i s c oncentrated i n C umbria i n t he E den v alley. F our o ther c omplete B eakers o f k nown p rovenance b ut u nknown c ontext, w hich m ay r epresent b urial f inds, t he E den v alley.

a lso c ome f rom t he a rea o f

F ood v essels i n t he n orth o f E ngland U nlike B ritish B eaker p ottery a nd c ollared u rns, w hich f orm ' reasonably c oherent c lasses o f r elated v essels' ( Clarke 1 970, I , 2 70), t he t erm f ood v essel e mbraces a w ide v ariety o f c eramic f orms a nd d ecoration, t hat h ave b een r egularly f ound w ith b urials o f s ingle g rave t radition

i n

t he B ritish E arly B ronze A ge.

T he t erm ' food

v essel',

f irst i ntroduced b y T hurnam ( 1871), h as t herefore b ecome a c onvenient c ategory f or v essels o f d ifferent s tyles w hich c annot b e c lassified a s B eakers o r u rns ( ibid, 3 77ff). T hese p roblems o f c lassification a re n ot h elped b y t he l ack o f

*

A b urial w ith t hree B eakers a t L evens P ark,

o f d efinition a nd h ence a m odern c orpus o f f ood

W estmoreland w as

f rom t his d iscussion a nd f rom t he B urials C atalogue. 1 973:

S cottish A rchaeological F orum 4 ,

1 52

5 2-5.)

( D.

o mitted

S turdy

v essels,

n o

c omprehensive w ork h aving b een p ublished s ince A bercromby's

B ronze A ge P ottery i n 1 912.

T he m ost

r ecent d istribution m ap o f

f ood

v essels t hroughout B ritain w ould a ppear t o b e t hat p roduced b y M iss C hitty f or t he 4 th e dition o f S ir C yril F ox's P ersonality o f B ritain i n 1 959,

w hile

t he c ountry w ide d istribution o f

f ood v essel b urials

w as

i llustrated b y S impson i n 1 968. H owever a f ew r egional s tudies o f f ood v essels, p articularly i n t he P eak D istrict ( Manby 1 957), s outh-west S cotland ( Simpson 1 965), a nd i n t he n orth o f I reland ( ApSimon 1 969) h ave e lucidated s ome o f t he p roblems o f t he c lassification o f t his m aterial a nd h ave s hown r egional v ariations w ith w hich s imilar p ottery f rom t he n orth o f E ngland m ay b e c ompared. • A bercromby's c lassification o f f ood v essels ( 1912, 9 3-4) w as b ased p rimarily u pon s hape, n or w as a ny g reater s ignificance a ttached t o s ome o f t he g roupings t hus p roduced. S ome o f t he f ood v essels c ould n ot b e a scribed t o a p articular r ecurring t ype ( ibid, 1 14-5). L ater w ork h as t ended t o s implify A bercromby's t ypological s cheme a nd h as r educed t he n umber o f t ypes t o t hree, w hich h ave r egional a scriptions, n amely Y orkshire

v ases,

I rish

b owls a nd I rish v ases

( ApSimon

1 958:

1 959;

S impson 1 968). T he o rigins o f a ll t hese t ypes o f p ottery a re g enerally s een t o l ie i n a c ombination o f l ocal l ate N eolithic c eramic s tyles a nd B eaker i nfluences ( ApSimon 1 958; C larke 1 970, I , 2 70-1), t he f ood v essel c eramic t ype b eing u nknown o utside B ritain ( Piggott 1 962a, 8 5). W hile I rish b owls a re i ndeed b est r epresented i n I reland a nd I rish v ases,

c alled b y A pSimon I rish-Scottish v ases

( ApSimon 1 969,

4 0),

a re

w idespread i n I reland a nd S cotland, s uch t ypes a re a lso w idely, i f n ot d ensely, d istributed i n t he r est o f B ritain. Y orkshire v ases t oo a re w idespread i n B ritain a nd t he n orth o f I reland. T he r egional d esignat ion ' Yorkshire i n Y orkshire v ases i s i ndicative m ore o f t he v ery l arge a mount o f m aterial k nown f rom t he c ounty t han o f

a v erified

a rea

o f o rigin o r c entre o f d istribution o f t his c eramic t ype. I ndeed b oth t he s ocial s ignificance o f t he d ifferent f ood v essel t ypes a nd t he n ature a nd e xtent o f t he c onnections b etween t he t ypes a re u nknown a t p resent. U nlike B eakers, t here i s n o e vidence f rom w ork d one t o d ate t hat f ood v essels o f t he I rish a nd Y orkshire v ase t ypes c an b e o rdered i nto d eveloping s eries; i ndeed, a s l ong a go a s 1 938 M iss K itson C lark d emonstrated t he c ontemporaneity o f t ypes o f Y orkshire v ases w ith a nd w ithout s tops, p erforated a nd u nperforated ( Kitson C lark 1 938, 5 5-6). A t entative I rish b o T4 , s eries w as s uggested b y S impson ( 1968, 2 07 f ig.50). T he o ccurrence i n c losed a ssociation ( usually g raves) o f v essels o f d ifferent t ypes ( as d efined b y A bercromby) s uggests t hat h ere t ypology i s n ot a n a id t o c hronology. F ood v essels h ave b een f ound i n d irect a ssociation a t e ight s ites i n t he n orth-east o f E ngland a nd a t t wo s ites i n C umbria ( Table 2 7, F igs.85 a nd 8 6). T hese a ssociat ions a re o f t wo t ypes, n amely v essels f ound w ithin t he s ame c ist a nd v essels f ound a ssociated w ith t he s ame ( non-cist) b urial d eposit i n a m ound. E vidence f rom t hose s ites c onfirms b oth t he a ssociation o f d ifferent t ypes o f Y orkshire v ase a nd o f Y orkshire v ase a nd ' local' f ood v essel t ypes. A ssociations o f o ther n on-ceramic o bjects w ith f ood v essels a re i n g eneral f ew a nd w ith n otable e xceptions ( pp.171-4) o f a n u ndistinguished n ature a nd h ence o f l ittle h elp t owards a r efined

a re m ore

f ood v essel c lassification o r c hronology.

T he f ood v essels f rom t he n orth o f E ngland w ill f irst b e s idered c ollectively a s a c eramic t ype, r egardless o f w hether a c ontext i s k nown o r n ot. a re c onsidered b elow.

T he k nown b urial a ssociations

1 53

c onf ind

o f s uch v essels

F ood v essels f rom t he n orth-east o f E ngland a nd B eaker p ottery T he p roblem o f t he d efinition o f a f ood v essel p ottery t ype b egins i n t he B eaker c eramic s eries. B eaker c lassification d epends u pon a c ombination o f t hree c haracteristics, n amely f orm, f abric a nd d ecoration. D ifferent w eighting m ay b e g iven t o e ach o f t hese c haracteristics d epending u pon t he i mportance o r s ignificance p laced u pon t hem. C larke's a nalysis c oncentrated m ainly o n t he d ecorative m otifs a nd z ones o n B eakers p ottery; h owever, h e d id i dentify a g roup o f ' sub-beaker f ood v essels w ith c oarse f abric a nd ' carelessly i ncised a ttempts a t S outhern b eaker m otifs a nd e ver i ncreasing F ood V essel c haracteristics - ( Clarke 1 970, I , 2 71), f ound i n n orth-east S cotland. S imilar c hanges i n t he q uality b oth o f t he f abric o f p ots a nd o f t heir d ecoration c an a lso b e i dentified i n t he n orth-east o f E ngland, g iving a l ack o f a greed d efinition b etween s ome B eakers a nd f ood v essel t ypes. E xamples i nclude o ne o f t he t wo B eakers f rom D ilston P ark c ist B ( Tait n o.74, C larke N 3) d ecorated o nly w ith d eeply s cored h orizontal l ines ( Fig.83 n o.190) t he F P B eaker f rom D alton, H untlaw ( Tait n o.84), a b ipartite v essel c arination ( Tait

f rom H irst w ith i mpressed d ecoration a round n o.85), a t hick g lobular p ot w ith e verted r im

t he a nd

i mpressed d ecoration f rom H asting H ill ( Fig.87 n o.275) ( Tait n o.88, C larke N /NR-FN), a c oarse b ipartite B eaker f rom L ilburn H ill w ith c rudely

i ncised

' southern' m otifs

( Fig.88 n o.389),

a nd

t he S 4/FV

p ot

f rom C hatton S andyford B 3, a lso o f t hick f abric w ith a r oughly i ncised a nd i mpressed p attern ( Fig.78). C ertain c haracteristics o f a ll t hese v essels,

o f

s hape,

d ecoration

o r f abric,

d ifferentiate

t hem

f rom

c lassic f ine w are B eaker t ypes, w ith c arefully e xecuted o rnament. C onversely o ther v essels e xhibit f inely w orked B eaker t ype d ecoration, b ut a re n ot o f t he u sual B eaker s hapes, s uch a s t he b owl f rom M oor L odge, A lnwick ( Fig.89 n o.11) a nd t he s traight s ided p ot f rom R atcheugh ( Fig.89 n o.477) i n t he s ame v icinity. A v essel f rom t he l arge m ultiple c ist c airn a t A mble a mply i llustrates a m ixture o f B eaker a nd f ood v essel c haracteristics, a b evelled r im) w ith

c ombining a B eaker s hape ( with t he a ddition o f i ncised h erring b one ' decoration t ypical o f

Y orkshire v ase f ood v essels O n

t he

b asis o f

s hape o r d ecoration)

( Fig.90 n o.26).

a s ingle c riterion o f

p ots

l ike

c lassification

t hose m entioned a bove m ay b e

( fabric

o r

c lassified

a s e ither B eakers o r f ood v essels. W here c lassification i s d ebatable, a ll c riteria h ave b een c onsidered a nd v essels h ave b een c ategorised a ccording a s t hey h ave m ore B eaker t han f ood v essel c haracteristics o r v ice v ersa. I t i s r ecognised h owever t hat t here i s, i n s ome c ases, a n o verlap b etween t he c ategories o f ' Beaker' a nd - f ood v essel', w hich m ay b e a t a re

l east i n s ome d egree c ontemporary c eramic f ound

b urial

r ites

i n i dentical

t ypes

( pp.127-9),

b urial c ontexts a nd a ssociated w ith

t he

a nd s ame

( pp.217-8).

F ood v essels f rom t he n orth-east o f E ngland

( Table 2 8,

M ap 4 3)

O f 1 11 f ood v essels f rom t he n orth-east o f E ngland, 6 1 a re o f Y orkshire v ase t ype, o ne i s a n I rish b owl, a nd 4 3 a re f orms w hich a re n ot e asily c lassifiable w ithin e xisting s chemes. S ix f ragments m ake u p t he t otal. T en o ther p ots, f ound w ith b urials a nd o riginally d escribed a s ' food v essels', b ut u nillustrated a re n ow l ost ( Table 3 1) a nd a lso c annot b e c lassified. O ver 4 0% o f f ood v essels f rom t he n orth-east o f E ngland

c annot

t herefore b e a ssigned

1 54

t o a ny o f

t he

t hree

' classic'

g roups.

A lthough s ome o f

t hem c ould b e d escribed a s b owl f orms,

t hey

h ave f ew , i f a ny, o ther u nifying c haracteristics a nd i t m ay b e m isleadi ng t o a ttempt t o c lassify t hem f urther. Y orkshire v ases A s

h as

a pparent

( Table 2 9)

b een

o bserved p reviously,

n o

d evelopmental

i n Y orkshire v ase f ood v essels a nd

s eries

i s

t he c ontemporaneity o f

t he

v arious t ypes h as l ong b een n oted ( Abercromby 1 912, I , 9 3-4; K itson C lark 1 938, 5 5-6). T he t ypes a nd s ub-types d evised f or t his m aterial a re t herefore p rimarily a d escriptive t ool. A s implified f orm o f M anby's r evision o f t he Y orkshire v ase t ypes i n A bercromby's s cheme i s h ere u sed ( Manby 1 957, 3 -5, f ig.!). T he t ypes i dentified i n t he r egion a re a s T ype

f ollows:

l a

-

s houlder g roove w ith l ugs

T ype 2

-

s imilar t o l a,

T ype 2 a

-

s imilar t o 2 ,

T ype 3

-

b ipartite

T he n umber o f e ast

o f

( sometimes

p erforated)

b ut w ithout l ugs b ut w ith t hree g roves

f orm ,

( without

w ith n o s houlder g rooves.

v essels w hich c an b e a ssigned t o e acc i t ype i n t he

E ngland i s a s N umber

V essels w ith h erring b one d ecoration

O ther d ecoration

l a 2

2 2 1 1

2 0 4

2 7

2 a 3

2 2 6

1 6

2 1 0

3

i s

m arginally

t he m ost c ommon t ype o f Y orkshire v ase

n orth-east, f ollowed b y t ype l a a nd t ype 2 . p arallel t he p attern k nown f rom E ast Y orkshire, m ost

c ommon t ype

D istrict, 1 957, 1 ).

w here T he

f ollowed b y t ype l a,

a s

i n

h e

T his w ould a ppear t o w here t ype 3 i s a lso

c ompared w ith

t he

P eak

t ype ' 2 i s t he m ost c ommon f ollowed b y t ype 3 ( Manby m ajority o f Y orkshire v ases i n t he n orth-east h ave

h erring b one d ecoration.

T his

i s p articularly f ound o n f ood v essels o f

t ypes l a a nd 3 . O ther f orms o f d ecoration i n i mpressed t echnique a re h owever m ore c ommon o n t ypes 2 a nd 2 a.

a s

n orth-

f ollows:

T ype

T ype

t he

l ugs)

a nd

i ncised

T hree Y orkshire v ases f rom t he n orth-east a re p articularly n otable t hey d emonstrate a l evel o f a rtistry u ncommon i n s uch f ood v essel

c eramics

( Fig.92).

T he f irst,

f rom b arrow C CII,

a t H arbottle P eels

i s

o f u nique d esign, e xecuted e ntirely i n i ncised a nd i mpressed t echnique, w ith h orizontal b ands a round t he r im a nd n eck , a nd p endant t riangles o n t he b ody.

T he g roove

b elow t he n eck i s v ery s hallow w ith a lmost

i mita-

t ion l ugs a nd t he b ase o f t he v essel i s a lso o rnamented. A s imilar s tandard o f w orkmanship i s e xhibited o n t he v essels f rom B olton H ouse, B eanley

a nd B owsden W est F arm ,

b oth d ecorated w ith c arefully

m oulded

g rooves a nd r ibs o n t he n eck a nd b ody w hich a re o rnamented w ith i mpressed c ircles a nd a f inely i ncised h erring b one p attern. T he s imilarity b etween t hese v essels i s p articularly s triking, a nd i t s eems l ikely

t hat b oth w ere

t he w ork o f

t he s ame h and.

1 55

I t a pplied

s hould

b e n oted

t o

p articular

a

d escriptive

t erm

a nd

t hat

t he

r egional d esignation

f ood

t hat,

v essel

a s

t ype

i s

' Yorkshire'

u sed

a lso n oted b y S impson

p urely f or

a s

a s

a

s outh-west

S cotland ( 1965, 3 7), n o s uggestion o f p lace o f m anufacture, d istribution, o rigin o r o ther i nfluence i s t hereby i mplied.

c entre

o f

I rish b owls A

s ingle

e xample

o f

t he h ighly o rnate I rish b owl

i s

k nown i n t he n orth-east,

o f

' smooth p rofile

f alse r aised v ase

f orm ( Simpson 1 968,

f rom R oddam,

d etermine

a ny

S impson's

I rish

( ibid,

t he

2 07,

t he

( Fig.92),

o ther e xample

o f

t he u se

b owl

d evelopment

t ypological

o f

t his

t echnique

w hich m ight h elp

i n I rish b owls,

' series'

a nd

g iving a Y orkshire

r emains

a re

l acking

p urely

w hich,

h ypothetical

( Table 2 9) f ood v essels w hich c annot b e o f

I rish v ases,

f rom t he f ew a reas

d ifferent

r egions.

s o

I rish b owls f ar s tudied

F or e xample,

f rom t he P eak D istrict

p laced

i n o ne o r o ther

a nd Y orkshire v ases, i s

o f v arying

M anby i n h is

c ould a ssign a ll o f

d iscussion o f t hem t o

o f

diversity

t ypes

i s

a pparent.

t wo

I n a m ap p ublished

( Piggott 1 962a, 8 7 f ig.12) S impson d ivided f ood v essels c ategories n amely ( 1) v essels s howing I rish i nfluence, s howing

E nglish i nfluence a nd

( 3)

n ative

f orms

a nd

i s

i mportance f ood t ypes,

n amely 5 1 e xamples o f Y orkshire t ype a nd s ix a s o f I rish t ype f eatures ( Manby 1 957, 8 -9). H owever, f urther n orth i n S cotland g reater

t o a nd

f ig.50).

t hree g roups

v essels

o nly

s tylistic

T he p roblem o f

i n

f ood v essel

( 363)

2 05-7) w ith b oth i mpressed

C losely d atable a ssociations,

L ocal f ood v essels

o ne

t ype

J esmond

r elief d ecoration. S imilar w edge s haped i mpressions z igzag i n f alse r elief a re a lso f ound o n a t ype l a

i n t he n orth-east.

o f

f rom ' Villa R eal',

i n

o r a

1 962

i nto t hree ( 2) v essels

l ocal d evelopments.

T his c lassification h as n ot b een f ully d eveloped i n p ublished f orm b ut i n w ork o n s outh-west S cotland p ublished i n 1 965 S impson d ivided f ood v essels

f rom

Y orkshire

t he

v ase

a rea i nto

f ood

t he

v essels

c ategories

a nd

I rish

' beaker-food

v ase,

I rish

b owls,

t he

l atter

v essels',

p ossibly r eplacing h is e arlier c ategory o f ' native f orms a nd l ocal d evelopments' ( Simpson' 1965, 3 0-38). T he t erm b eaker-food v essel i s p erhaps

a

C larke's m ovements 2 71), a nd

l ittle m isleading.

t erm

m arked

n or

i n

f ood

t he

v essel

S impson's

a s

m anufacture n orthern

c entre o f I n a dopted t ype. o f

b y a d ecline s ense o f t ypes

I t

i n p ottery T he

B eaker t he f or

T he

m aterial

o f

o f

i s

w ord

s tandards

s ettlement

s light,

( Clarke

b ut

o f

p redominant

( Simpson 1 965,

1 970, s ome a w hole o f

' local'

i s

h ere u sed

I , o f i s

l ocal

n otably

p reviously

i n t he

3 7).

t erm

' local'

f ood

v essel

f ood v essels w hich a re o f n either I rish n or

w hich,

a s

B eaker

b oth B eaker

t he g roup a s

S cotland i n t he a rea

d iscussion t he

s ense

t radition o f w ares

f rom B eakers),

s outh-west

f ollowing a ll

s ame

f or h im l ate

B eaker c ontribution t o

a n i ndigenous

( possibly d eveloped p art

i n t he

d enoting

v essels w hich c ombine e lements

( p.154).

i ndicative

i s n ot u sed

f ood v essels'

' beaker-food v essels'

c onsidered t he

' sub-beaker

a s a c onvenient

w ith c ertain e xceptions

i s

Y orkshire

t erm f or a g roup

( pp.157-8),

i t

i s

n ot

ub-divide f urther w ith a ny d egree o f c ertainty o r c onvicp ossible t o s essels a re o f d iverse f orm a nd d ecoration. T he z oning o f t ion. T hese v t he d ecoration o n a s mall g roup o f v essels f rom C olwell, W est L ilburn,

156

B eanley

W est

F arm a nd F ord

( Fig.93)

c ould b e

t aken t o

i ndicate

s ome

B eaker i nfluence. The b owl f rom C olwell b ears z oned i ncised d ecoration o f h orizontal l ines a lternating w ith t riangles s omewhat r oughly e xecuted ( Fig.83)

b ut c losely r esembling B eaker m otifs k nown f rom D ilston P ark ( Tait n os.43 a nd 4 4), N orham, B eanley M oor a nd A mble ( Tait

n os.60, i ncised

7 8, 8 2). T he b owl f ood v essel f rom F ord h as s imilarly z oned d ecoration, a s d o a lso t hose f rom B eanley W est F arm a nd W est

L ilburn, t he l atter t wo w ith l ines o f i mpressions b etween h orizontal b ands o f i ncised o r t wisted c ord l ines. O ne o f t he t wo v essels f rom L ongridge T owers, B erwick ( Fig.86), i s o f B eaker s hape w ith c ombed d ecoration ( also f ound o n t he Y orkshire f ood v essel w hich a ccompanied i t). V essels d ecorated e ntirely w ith t wisted c ord i mpressions a re k nown f rom W indy E dge, A lnwick ( Fig.89), S outh C harlton ( Fig.96), S teeple H ill a nd P lenmellor C ommon ( Fig.87). N one o f t hese r esembles t he a ll-over-cord s herds f rom G lenluce w hich S impson s uggests m ay r epresent a B eaker c ontribution t o h is ' beaker-food v essel t ype i n s outh-west S cotland ( Simpson 1 965, 3 5), a lthough t he f orm o f t he P lenmellor C ommon p ot i s t he m ost B eaker-like o f t he c ord d ecorated f ood v essels c ited. T he f abric i s h owever t hick a nd g ritty a nd v essel r ough ( Tait 1 965, 2 5). S ome

p ots

r esemble

Y orkshire v ase s hapes,

a s f or

e xample

t he

t he

v essel f rom W oodhorn R oad, A shington, a ngled b elow t he n eck ( like a t ype 3 f ood v essel) b ut w ith a f lat t opped r im, a nd e xamples f rom H asting H ill, D our H ill ( Fig.85) a nd K yloe ( Fig.110), w hich a ll h ave a s light g roove o n t he b ody b ut a re s quat i n f orm a nd w ith l ittle c oncavity i n t he n eck. c rude. A nother

g roup

T he d ecoration o n a ll t hese v essels

o f v essels w ith s ome s imilarities

a re

i s

s omewhat

t hose

f rom

H igh C ocklaw, H irst, H owtel, H owburn a nd R osedean F arm , I lderton ( Figs.87 a nd 1 09). A ll a re o f o pen m outhed f orm a nd a re d ecorated b y s eries o f i mpressions. T hose f rom H owburn a nd H igh C ocklaw a re v ery s imilar i n s hape, t he f ormer d ecorated w ith v ertical o val i mpressions a nd t he l atter w ith v ertical s tabs m ade p ossibly b y t he e nd o f a s tick o r t wig ( Fig.109). T he t wo e xamples f rom H irst a nd t hat f rom C ornhill, H owtel c losely r esemble o ne a nother i n s hape a nd m ethod o f d ecoration, a gain m ade b y s mall i mpressions c overing t he w hole b ody o f t he p ots ( Fig.87). F inally t he v essel f rom R osedean F arm, I lderton ( Fig.87), a lthough o nly k nown f rom a n i llustration, w ould a ppear t o b e m uch l ike t he H owtel e xample i n f orm w ith r oughly i mpressed m arks o ver m uch o f t he b ody. T wo u ndecorated v essels a re a lso k nown f rom t he n orth-east, f rom J esmond ( Fig.86) a nd H exham. T hat f rom H exham h as a s ingle g roove b elow t he c oncave, o utward f laring n eck a nd r im , a nd t hat f rom J esmond t wo g rooves a nd a s lightly n arrower m outh. T he l atter v essel, w hich i s o f e xtremely c oarse f abric a nd m anufacture, c omes f rom o ne o f t wo c ists,

e ach c ontaining

t wo f ood v essels

f ound a t ' Crag H all',

J esmond

b ut w hether i t w as a ssociated w ith t he o ther s urviving f ood v essel f rom t he s ame s ite i s u nknown. • O ther u nusual e xamples a mongst t hese f ood v essels a re p ots w ith h andles f rom S pital H ill a nd D oddington, a n a lmost s traight s ided v essel w ith a s light o verhanging r im a nd t wisted c ord d ecoration f rom P lessay M ill ( Fig.94) a nd a s mall, t hick f lat r immed p ot f rom B lack H eddon.

A lso

i ncluded

i n t his

g roup a re

157

t he b owl

t ype f orms f rom

E lswick

L ane,

N ewcastle,

w ith

c ombed

d ecoration

( Fig.92),

f rom

C orbridge w ith f our p erforated l ugs o r f eet a round t he b ase ( Fig.92) a nd f rom ' Crag H all J esmond, w ith a w ide g roove a nd s lightly r aised ' lugs' a round t he c entre o f t he b ody, t he w hole n eatly d ecorated w ith t wisted a rea.

c ord a nd i ncised i mpressions

F ood v essels f rom C umbria T hese

m ay b e

n orth-east

o f

( Table 2 9,

( Fig.86).

M ap 4 3)

c onsidered u nder t he s ame

E ngland.

N ine o f

E ach i s u nique i n t he

t ypes a s v essels

t he f ood v essels

f rom

f rom

t he

C umbria

a re

Y orkshire v ases, f ive o f w hich, f rom M oor D ivock , S hield K nowe ( three v essels) a nd P lumpton ( Fig.95) h ave ' classic' a ll-over h erring-bone d ecoration. T he o thers a re d ecorated w ith t wisted c ord i mpressions, t he m ost u nusual o f w hich i s t he v essel f rom B rownrigg w ith a lternating r ows o f i mpressed d ots a nd t wisted c ord o n t he i nner f lange o f t he r im, a h erring-bone d esign a round t he n eck, i mpressed d ots i n t he s houlder g roove a nd f estoons o f 1 973, 3 48-50, p l.). ( 923), i s a s mall p ot s ions

( Fell 1 967,

t wisted c ord i nfilled w ith d ots b eneath ( Fell T he o nly ' local' f ood v essel, f rom R avenglass o f v ery c oarse f abric w ith f inger n ail i mpres-

1 7-25,

f ig.),

q uite u nlike a ny o f

t he o ther ' local'

f ood v essels f rom t he n orth-east. An I rish b owl i llustrated b y P ennant ( 1774, p l.V11.342) i n t he N etherby c ollection m ay b e o f l ocal p rovenance. S uch a f ind i n t he v ery n orth o f C umbria w ould n ot b e u nexpected, S cotland.

c onsidering

F ood v essel b urials E ighty-seven

t he

w idespread d istribution o f

t ype

i n

b urials w ith f ood v essels a re k nown i n t he n orth

o f

( Tables 3 0 a nd 3 7,

M ap 4 4)

E ngland, 8 1 i n t he n orth-east a nd o nly s ix i n C umbria. t hese b urials a re f ound i n t he n orth o f N orthumberland t o t he Tweed, T yne, B lyth,

w ith o ther e xamples W ansbeck a nd W ear.

C umbria a re w idely d ispersed, o f

t he E den v alley and one

w hich

T he m ajority o f f rom t he C oquet

i n t he v alleys o f t he T yne, N orth T he v ery s mall n umber o f s ites i n

o ne i n t he s outh west,

( with

t he

t wo b urials)

t hree i n t he a rea

o n t he B ewcastle F ells.

T he d istribution o f 2 6 c omplete f ood v essels o f u nknown c ontext, m ay h ave a ccompahied b urials ( Tables 3 2 a nd 3 8a) a nd o f t welve

b urials

s aid

t o

h ave b een f ound w ith ' food v essels'

( now l ost)

( Tables

3 1 a nd 3 8) i s i llustrated i n M ap 4 5. T his a dds c onsiderably t o t he a mount o f m aterial k nown f rom t he n orth-east, w idely d istributed i n t he m ain r iver v alleys, a nd i n C umbria e mphasises t he i mportance o f t he E den v alley. F ood v essel b urials i n t he n orth-east o f E ngland B urial r ite

T able 3 0)

( Table 3 3)

T wenty-six i nhumations a nd 2 4 c remations

a re

r ecorded

f rom a t otal

o f 8 1 f ood v essel b urials i n t he n orth-east o f E ngland. F rom t he s mall n umber o f c ases i n w hich t he a ge a nd s ex o f t he i ndividual h as b een a ssessed, i t w ould s eem t hat b oth m ale a nd f emale a dults a nd c hildren a re

r epresented.

T he s ample i s h owever t oo s mall

t o d raw a ny c onclu-

s ions a s t o t he r elative f requency o f o ccurrence o f e ither s ex o r o f d ifferent a ge g roups. A m ixed r ite b urial i s r ecorded a t S teeple H ill ( 562-563)

w here

a n a dult m ale i nhumation w as a ccompanied b y

1 58

a

c hild

c remation i n t he t wo p ots i n t he c ist, w ith a nother p ossible e xample a t H ollinheugh ( 308-309). A d ouble i nhumation o f t wo c hildren a ged 1 1 y ears a nd 6 -9 m onths i s k nown f rom D our H ill ( 196-197) a nd a d ouble c remation f rom H igh M ickley ( 302-303) w ith a c hild o f 7 -8 y ears a nd p robably a y ounger i ndividual. A ll i nhumations w here t he b ody p osition i s r ecorded a re c rouched, o n e ither t he l eft o r t he r ight s ide, a nd s how g reater v ariety o f o rientation, i ncluding f ive b odies l ying d ue n orth-south, t han B eaker c rouched i nhumations, t he m ajority o f w hich l ie e ast-west. T here d oes n ot a ppear t o b e a ny c orrelation b etween t he s tyle o f f ood v essel ( as d efined a bove) a nd a p articular b urial r ite. S ixteen Y orkshire v ases, a n I rish b owl a nd n ine ' local f ood h ave b een f ound i n a ssociation w ith i nhumations i n t he a rea Y orkshire v ases a nd f our ' local' f ood v essels w ith c remations. b een

n oted

p reviously ( p.153)

t hese d ifferent

f ood v essel

v essels a nd 1 3 A s h as

f orms

a re

f ound i n a ssociation i n c losed c ontexts, a nd a ny s pecific s ignificance a ttached t o a p articular s tyle o f f unerary p ot a nd a ssociated b urial r ite

i s

n ot

a pparent.

O f

t he b urials

a ccompanied b y t wo f ood v essels

( Table 2 7)

t hose a t

D our H ill a nd S teeple H ill w ere a ssociated w ith d ouble b urials ( see a bove) b oth o f w hich i ncluded c hildren, w hile a t L ongridge T owers, B erwick t he s ize o f t he c ist m ay i ndicate t hat h ere t oo t he b urial c ould h ave b een t hat o f a y oung p erson o r p ersons. T he t wo c ists a t ' Crag H all', J esmond, a re a lso u nusually s hort. A lthough c remation b urials w ere f ound h ere, t he s ize o f t he c ists m ay s till b e i ndicative o f t he s ize i n l ife o f t he i ndividual i nterred, f or l arger c ists a lso k nown e ven w here t he b urial r ite w as c remation. T hroughout

t he B ritish I sles a s a w hole c remation i s t he

a re

d ominant

b urial r ite a ssociated w ith f ood v essels i n W ales a nd I reland ( Simpson 1 968, f ig.48). I n t he n orth o f I reland c remations e xceed i nhumations b y n early f our t o o ne, r egardless o f t he s tyle o f f ood v essel p ottery a ccompanying t he b urial ( ApSimon 1 969, 3 8-40). T he s ituation i n t he n orth-east o f E ngland i s m ore c losely c omparable w ith t hat f ound i n t he r est o f E ngland a nd S cotland w here b oth i nhumation a nd c remation a re f ound i n t he s ame a reas a nd a re n ot a pparently m utually e xclusive i n d istribution ( Map 4 6). t ions

a s

f ound

T he t endency f or i nhumations

i n t he n orth-east o f

E ngland i s

t o e xceed

r epeated i n

c rema-

t he

s ame

s ort o f p roportions i n t he s outh-west o f S cotland, w here t here w ere 1 6 k nown i nhumations c ompared w ith 1 1 c remations ( Simpson 1 965, 2 5) a nd i n S cotland

a s

a

w hole w here f ood v essel b urials

b y

i nhumation

e xceed

t hose b y c remation b y m ore t han t hree t o o ne ( Piggott 1 962a, 8 5). I n t he P eak D istrict a nd i n Y orkshire i nhumations a nd c remations a re b oth f ound, a lthough t he E ast R iding o f Y orkshire i s u nusual i n t his r egard i n t hat t he i nhumation t o c remation r atio i s i n t he o rder o f 1 0:1, w ith t he p ercentage o f c remations i ncreasing a s o ne m oves n orth a nd w est ( Simpson 1 968, 2 02). I n t he n orth-east o f E ngland f ood v essel i nhumat ions a nd c remations a re w idely d istributed, n either r ite b eing c onfined t o a p articular a rea t o t he e xclusion o f t he o ther. O ther g rave g oods w ith f ood v essel b urials i n t he n orth-east o f E ngland ( Table 3 4) • E ighteen f ood v essel b urials i n t he n orth-east o f E ngland w ere f ound i n a ssociation w ith o ther g rave g oods, t he c ommonest o f w hich a re a rtifacts

o f

f lint

u ndistinctive

o f

f lint,

f ound w ith 1 4 b urials.

T hese i nclude p ieces

t ype f rom B eanley W est F arm

159

a nd

H ulne

o f

P ark,

f lakes

f rom Amble

a nd H asting H ill

f rom H asting H ill t ransverse a rrowhead H ill,

H asting H ill

c onvex

k nife,

a ssociations

a

n ecklace

j et

a nd

i s

H asting

a nd W arkshaugh.

( Simpson 1 968,

( Fig.109).

O ther

H ill

( 275)

s mall

T wo

a nd

k nife-dagger

f ood v essel

o f

b lade

i nclude

a re k nown, o ne

i n

f ood

C ocklaw w ith

t wo j et

b uttons

( although w hich g rave

p ebble h ammer ( Fig.90)

f ound

a t H igh

a b one a wl a nd

i n B ritain

a s errated

a rtifact

f ound

a ssociations

b ronze

f rom Amble

a ssociations

w as

a t G reat T osson

a ' rude

i tems

a nd

A b eautifully w orked p iano-

r ecurring

2 09),

u nfortunately u nclear),

P itland H ills.

a f lake

c ollection o f f lints i ncluding a k nives f rom D oddington, H arehope

c onsistently

a n a ntler p ick f rom g raves

g raves

a

( 275)

t he o nly

v essel

( 278),

( 276), a s mall f rom W ooler a nd

o f

t ine

f rom

u nknown

t ype

f rom

a n a wl f rom F owberry o f

o nly f ive

( Simpson 1 968,

o r

a ntler

2 00;

a nd

k nown

f rom

G erloff

1 975,

n os.48, 8 9 a nd 3 00). T he c rescentic j et n ecklaces f rom K yloe a nd H igh C ocklaw a re o f t he t ype w ell k nown i n f ood v essel a ssociations. G rave g oods f ood

a re f ound i n a ssociation w ith b oth Y orkshire v ases a nd v essels. T he t ypes o f g rave g oods a ssociated w ith f ood

b urials

i n

o ften p oor

t he n orth-east q uality

( Simpson

1 968).

s pecific

t ype

r emains a dult

o f

c hildren,

d ifficult s ex.

t welve T he

t he

n ine

i dentified

a nd

o ne a nd

b urials

a s

l ack o f

s mall

e xamples

a s

' adult'

a h alf

a w hole, o f

a re

t he

t o

T hree

i nhumations

o f

one

a scertain a ny

d efinite

o f

t hese

b urials

w ere

o thers

w ere

o nly a nd ' t wo

b e

a nd

g oods

and w hole

s keletal

y ears.

s ample.

a

t he

I t w ould

a ll p arts

f emales m ay n ot

s ize

s carcity

B ritain a s

r ecurring g rave

o r

t wo w ere

c omparative

i nformation c oncerning

i t

r epresented. r ecorded

c onsistently

t he p aucity o f

b urials

v essel

c onsidering

l ack o f

t heir

s ituation t hroughout

m akes

a ged

f ood

E ngland,

t he

a ssociation b y a ge

m ales,

w ith

T he a nd

i n t hese

p atterns

o f

r eflect

' local' v essel

o f

t he

s eem t hat,

c ommunity

p articularly

a s

w ere

s ignificant

W here

t he

b urial

t hree

c remations,

r ite

i s

w ith

a

p ossible f ourth a t H augh H ead, W ooler. N ine f ood v essel b urials w ith o ther g rave g oods c ome f rom c ists i n m ounds, s ix f rom f lat c ist g raves a nd

t he

t hree

T he

b urials

d istribution

c oncentration m ay

b e

a ll

f ood

i n

F ood

t hese

t his

v essel

b urials

a re

w ith

a rea,

o f

i s w ell d ispersed

t he g reater

r ather

t han a s

i n t he n orth-east a lso

s imply a s

i n

o f

f lat

i n

c ists

i n

t ions

( p.138).

b urial

t his

O f

d eposit

H ollinheugh, w hich

h ave

S teeple

i n m ounds

p art i n

o ther

t he

D our H ill

H ill, w ere

t he

f rom a m ound'

a nd

t wo

f ound

i n

t he

c ist

b urials

( Beanley

b urial

u n-urned a t

p redominantly

a nd L ow B uston)

B roomhill, m ound

F ord.

m aterial

a nd

f ound

f urther

f ood

i n f lat

d etails

f ive

o f o f

m ounds a ssocia-

a re

t he

H arehope

o thers a re

c ist

v essel

F arm,

T hese

a t

a re

o f f ood v essel b urials r ecorded. O f t hose

t hree

a re

i n

S even f ood v essels, o f m ultiple

o nly H ill,

m ounds

a n i nhumation

H olystone C ommon a nd

i n t he c ists t hemselves. A t t hree o f t hese S outh C harlton a nd S pital H ill u rns w ere a lso

1 60

o f s ome

A s mall n umber

i n m ounds W est

d eposits.

c remations

o f

( Table 3 5)

i n m ultiple

h ave

m ound

a

This

f requency

E ngland

E ngland

t he m ajority o ccur

B ritain

o ther n on-cist

w ith c remations

s ites,

o f

r elative

w ith

4 7).

a n i ndication

g raves.

e xact c ontext a re u nknown. T he m ajority f rom f lat c ists o f w hich 2 6 e xamples a re

b urials

b ut

( Map

r egion.

i n t he n orth-east o f

a nd

g raves.

N orthumberland

i n a p articular

c ists

r ecorded

f rom f lat

g raves

a r eflection o f

i n

b urial c ontexts

w hich

u rns

o f

n orthern h alf

' wealt r

i n m ounds

v essels

a s

v essels

F ood v essel

t heir c ome

t he

e xplained

c oncentration o f

c ists,

f rom P lessay M ill

c ist

a t

s even

f rom f ive

m ounds a nd

n ot

s ites, H arbottle P eels, f ound i n t he m ounds ( one

a t e ach s ite). F ew d etails a re k nown o f t he f inding o f t he f ood v essel b urials i n f lat g raves. T he Y orkshire v ase f rom I lderton w as f ound w ith a l arge a nd s omewhat a typical i ncense c up a nd t he l ocal f ood v essel

f rom

o thers'.

P lenmellor

T here

i s a lso

C ommon

w as s aid t o

h ave

b een

t he p ossibility t hat t he t hree

c remations f rom P lessay M ill

f ound

' with

v essels

w ith

( Fig.94) w ere f ound t ogether.

D etails o f t he b urial r ite a ssociated w ith d ifferent t ypes b urial c ontext a re s omewhat l imited a s a n umber o f g raves h ave

o f n o

r ecorded h uman r emains. F ifteen i nhumations a nd s even c remations a re k nown f rom c ists i n m ounds a nd t en i nhumations a nd e ight c remations f rom f lat c ists ( Table 3 6) b ut n o f irm c onclusions a s t o t he r elations hip o f a p articular r ite a nd b urial c ontext c an b e b ased u pon s uch a s mall s ample n umber. T he p ottery a ssociations f ound i n p articular b urial c ontexts h ave s triking s tatistic, w hich i s t he l arge n umber o f Y orkshire v ases

o ne f rom

c ists

i n m ultiple c ist c airns

( 19),

c ompared w ith t he n umber

o f

' local f ood v essels f rom s imilar c ontexts ( 3). A s t he n umbers o f Y orkshire v ases a nd ' local' f ood v essels i n t he n orth-east o f E ngland a re a pproximately t he s ame, t he a ssociation o f s pecifically Y orkshire t ype f ood v essels w ith m ultiple c ist c airns w ould s eem t o b e s ignificant, s uggesting t he d eliberate i nclusion o f v essels o f t his t ype i n s uch b urial c ontexts. B y c ontrast, 1 6 Y orkshire v ases, a n I rish

b owl a nd 1 1

' local' f ood v essels h ave

b een f ound i n f lat

c ists,

s uggesting n o p articular a ssociation o f o ne p ottery t ype w ith t his b urial c ontext. T he n umbers o f b urials f ound i n t he o ther b urial c ontexts r epresented i n t he a rea a re t oo s mall t o d raw a ny c onclusions a s t o t he s ignificance o f t he f ood v essel p ottery t ypes a ssociated w ith t hem. F ood v essel b urials i n C umbria

( Table 3 7)

I n c ontrast t o t he n orth-east, f ew f ood v essel b urials h ave b een r ecorded f rom C umbria a nd i t i s n ot p ossible t o m ake a ny s ignificant c omparison b etween t he r ites, o ther g rave g oods a nd b urial c ontexts f ound i n t he t wo p arts o f t he r egion. ( There i s a p arallel h ere w ith t he k nown o ccurrence o f b eaker p ottery, w hich i s a lso c omparatively r are i n C umbria). S ix f bod v essel b urials a re r ecorded i n C umbria, o f w hich a re f rom t he s ame m ound a t S hield K nowe. T he b urial r ite

t wo i s

k nown a t t hree s ites ( Map 4 6) c remation a t C roglin a nd M ecklin P ark, a nd a n i nhumation a nd c remation i n c ist ( 1) a t S hield K nowe w ith t wo f ood v essels ( fig.86). T he c remation a t M ecklin P ark w as i dentified a s t hat o f a n a dult a nd t he s mall s ize o f c ist ( 2) a t S hield K nowe, w hich c ontained a m iniature f ood v essel ( Fig.86 n o.935) b ut n o h uman r emains, m ight i ndicate t hat t his g rave w as f or a c hild. O ther g rave g oods ( Map 4 7) c onsist o f a s mall c obble s tone i n c ist ( 1) a t S hield K nowe a nd a f lint a bout

k nife a nd a rrowhead ( both o f u nknown t ype) a t M ecklin P ark w ith 1 00 d isc b eads o f j et a nd f ragments o f t wo b arrel s haped b eads.

T he o nly p robably

b ronze a ssociation w ith a f ood v essel i s a C lass l b f ound w ith a Y orkshire v ase o f u nknown c ontext

' Cumberland' A ll

f ig.1.4a-b).

f ood v essel b urials

v essel f lat c omplex a nd f eature

( Fell 1 967,

4 ft

r azor f rom

N o

f ood

c ists a re k nown. T he m ound a t S hield K nowe i s t he c ontained t wo c ists w ith f ood v essels a nd a lso a n

f rom C umbria a re f rom

m ost o val

b y 2 ft b y 9 i nches

d eep w ith c harcoal,

161

m ounds.

t races o f

b urning

a nd

t he

c remated

r emains

o f

a t

l east

t wo p ersons.

C ist

( 1) a nd

t he

c remation f eature .w ere b elow t he o ld g round s urface a nd m ay b e c ont emporary. T he p osition o f t he s econd c ist i s n ot r ecorded. A t B rownrigg t he m ound c ontained o nly o ne c ist, o utside w hich w as a c remat ion.

N o

o ther

d etails a re k nown o f

t he f ood v essel

b urials

m ounds b urial c airn.

a t C roglin a nd M ecklin P ark, b ut a t M oor D ivock C LXXXIII d eposit w as f ound b eneath t he o ld g round s urface u nder

f rom t he t he

P ossible ' food v essel' b urials i n C umbria ( Table 3 8) c ome f rom t wo o ther b urial c ontexts, t he f lat c emetery a t W aterloo H ill ( p.140) a nd a s tone c ircle a t L eacet H ill ( p.143). F ood v essel u rns: e nlarged f ood v essels a nd r elief d ecorated ( encrusted) u rns i n t he n orth o f E nsland ( Tables 3 9 a nd 3 9a) A r ecent s tudy o f B ronze A ge ' food v essel u rns' i n n orthern B ritain ( Cowie 1 978) d iscusses t ogether t he c eramics o therwise k nown s eparately a s e nlarged f ood v essels a nd e ncrusted ( or r elief d ecorated) u rns. T he q uestion o f t erminology w as d iscussed b y C owie a nd t he t erm ' food v essel u rn' u sed, i t s eems, m ore f rom c onvenience t han c onviction ( ibid, 1 3). A lthough ' food v essel u rn' i s o f u se a s a g eneric t erm, t he n ames e nlarged f ood v essel a nd e ncrusted u rn a re r etained w here a ppropriate i n t he f ollowing d iscussion a s a m ore u seful d escriptive t ool. C owie's a ttempt t o d ifferentiate f ood v essels a nd e nlarged f ood v essels a ccording t o h eight ( ibid, 2 0-22, f ig.2) s hows i n f act c ont inuity i n t he r anges o f s ize o f t hese v essels. A lthough t he e xtremes a re e asy t o c lassify, i n p ractice t he t erminology a pplied t o v essels l ying i n t he i ntermediate r ange i s d etermined b y t he r ite o f t he b urial, r ather t han b y t he s ize o f t he p ot a ccompanying i t. A s w as i ndicated b y C owie, t he a ffinities o f f ood v essel u rns a ppear t o l ie q uite f irmly w ith f ood v essels a nd, i n p articular, w ith Y orkshire v ases ( ibid 1 4, f ig.1, 5 5). T he m ain f ood v essel f orms e mulated i n e nlarged f ood v essels, o f w hich t here a re 3 0 e xamples i n t he n orth o f E ngland, a re t hose w ith a g roove ( of v aried w idth) b eneath t he n eck, t he b iconical f orm , a nd m ore r arely, t he f orms w ith a s ingle o r d ouble g roove w ith s tops ( as f or e xample a t W hickham ( Fig.97), H igh B uston a nd G oatscrag (ng.98)). T he d ecoration o n t he m ajority o f t hese v essels i s h erringbone ( e.g. Amble ( Fig.91), G reat T osson, C hatton S andyford

( Fig.78),

H umbleton H ill

( Fig.97),

T rimdon G range),

o r i s i n a p attern o f r egular r oue o f i mpressed d ecoration o f s ome o ften f ringing a nd e mphasising t he a ngles o f t he b ody o f t he p ot f or e xample,

a t C atcherside,

G reen L eighton,

t ype ( as,

F arnham a nd G oatscrag).

T he f ew e ncrusted u rns f ound i n t he r egion ( only e ight i n n umber) d o n ot h ave d ecorative c haracteristics s o t ypical o f Y orkshire v ases. T he p lastic d ecoration a round t he n eck o f t he u rns c onsists i n f ive c ases o f a z igzag o r s inuous l ine, w ith a s imilar e lement a lso i n t he m ore c omplex d ecoration o n t he n eck o f t he B ranthwaite u rn. T he e xceptional u rn i n t his c ategory i s t hat f rom R osebrough ( Fig.99). B y v irtue o f i ts a pplied s calloped d ecoration i t m ay b e c onsidered t o b e a n e ncrusted u rn, b ut i s u nlike a ny o ther i n n orthern B ritain. T welve o f t he f ood v essel u rns f rom t he r egion c ome f rom s ix s ites ( two f rom e ach s ite), a nd e nlarged f ood v essels a nd e ncrusted u rns w ere f ound i n t he s ame b urial m ound a t B roomhouses C CXIV a nd a t H umbleton H ill ( Fig.97). T he

p redominant

b urial r ite a ssociated w ith b oth

1 62

e ncrusted

u rns

a nd

e nlarged

v essels f ormer p erson.

f ood v essels

i s

c remation,

a s k nown i n 1 7

c ases.

T he

a t R osebrough a nd G oatscrag b oth c ontained t wo c remations, t he t wo a dults, a nd t he l atter a n a dult f emale ( ?) a nd a y oung O ne

a ssociation w ith a n i nhumation i s k nown a t G reat T osson.

F ew a ssociated g rave g oods a re r ecorded, a d earth f ound t hroughout n orthern B ritain ( Cowie 1 978, 4 4-6), o nly a f lint k nife o f u nknown t ype ( and n ow l ost)

f rom R osebrough,

a f lint

s craper f rom B roomhouses C CXIV

( Fig.99), a r ubbing s tone a t W aterloo H ill, j et d isc b eads a t Y eavering ( Fig.109) a nd a n a ntler p ick a nd j et b utton f rom o ne o f t he c ists a t G reat T osson. T he m ajority o f t he p ots c ome f rom m ounds a nd w ere f ound w ith c overing s labs ( Table 3 9b). T wo e nlarged f ood v essels w ere f ound i n c ists i n m ounds, n amely t hose f rom Amble a nd G reat T osson a nd o ne, f rom H edley W ood, i s r ecorded o nly a s f rom a c ist'. O ther b urial c ontexts i nclude f lat g raves, a s a t H igh B uston ( with o ther v essels a round a t iny c ist), a nd a t R yton, W hickham , H ow H ill, S pringield a nd W aterloo H ill, t he l ast f ound a t s ome d istance f rom t he p its w ith o ther u rned a nd u n-urned c remations o n t he s ame s ite. T he v essels f rom C orby's C rags a nd G oatscrag w ere f rom r ock-shelters ( p.145 F ig.81). W ith t he e xception o f t he v essel f rom H edley W ood ( Fig.94), n one o f t he f ood v essel u rns c ome f rom f lat f ood v essel b urials.

c ist g raves,

w hich a re a c ommon c ontext

I n 1 0 i nstances e nlarged f ood v essels a nd e ncrusted u rns

o f

h ave b een

f ound i n b urial c ontexts c ontaining o ther p ottery. A t R osebrough a nd C hatton S andyford B eakers w ere f ound p rimary t o t he f ood v essel u rns, a nd a t C atcherside t he e nlarged f ood v essel w as f ound b elow t he n atural s urface, p rimary t o a c ollared u rn. A t o ther s ites n o s tratigraphic r elationship b etween t he d eposits w as a dequately r ecorded b ut t he m ajority

o f

t he a ssociations a re w ith f ood v essels,

a s a t C opt

H ill,

G reat T osson, H asting H ill a nd H igh B uston a nd w ith ' cinerary u rns ( of u nknown t ype) a lso a t H asting H ill a nd H umbleton H ill. T here w ere n o o ther b urials o r p ottery a ssociated w ith t he p ots f rom s ites a t B arrasford, B roomhouses, C orby's C rags, G reen L eighton, S pringfield H ill a nd W aterloo H ill, n or a ny o ther r ecorded f inds f rom F arnham, R yton, T rimdon G range, W hickham o r H ow H ill, T hursby, w here o nly t he p rovenance o f W hatever

t he v essels

i s k nown.

t he s tatus o f

e nlarged f ood v essels a nd e ncrusted u rns a s

c lasses o f p ottery i n t heir o wn r ight t he t ypical a ssociations o f t hese v essels w ith c remations, u sually i n b urial m ounds, r aise c ertain q uestions c oncerning C owie's c onclusions a bout t hese p ottery t ypes. A lthough C owie s uggests t hat f ood v essel u rns could r epresent t he l arge c omponent i n w hat s till u nfortunately r emains a l argely h ypotheti cal d omestic F ood V essel a ssemblage'

( Cowie 1 978,

5 9),

i t r emains

f act t hat a t t he u pper l imit o f t he c ontinuous s ize r ange v essels a nd e nlarged f ood v essels t here i s a m arked c hange b urial r ite a nd b urial c ontext, w hich m ay b e a ssumed t o b e s ignificance.

N or c an t his b e e xplained s imply a s

t he i mpact

t he

o f f ood b oth i n o f s ome o f

t he

s pread o f c remation i n t he E arly B ronze A ge u pon n on-cinerary c eramic f orms' ( ibid, 5 9), f or c remation i s f ound i n t he n orth o f E ngland w ith B eakers a nd f ood v essels i n c ist g raves, w ith n o a pparent c hange i n p ottery f orms, a nd i s t he p redominant b urial r ite w ith f ood v essels i n I reland. B urial c ontext m ight t herefore b e c onsidered t o b e m ore c losely

c orrelated w ith p ottery t ype t han b urial r ite.

1 63

F ood v essel u rns a re w idely d istributed i n t he n orth-east E ngland ( Map 4 8) i p a reas w hich a re w ell r epresented a lso b y f inds B eakers a nd f ood v essels, i n p articular i n t he n orthern h alf

o f o f o f

N orthumberland, a long t he e ast c oast n ear t he m ouths o f t he A ln a nd t he C oquet a nd a lso i n t he v alleys o f t he T yne, N orth T yne a nd W ear. T wo f ood

v essel

u rns

a re a lso k nown f rom t he u plands b etween

t he

r ivers

F ont a nd W ansbeck, a n a rea w hich i s u nrepresented b y B eakers a nd f ood v essels. I n C umbria f ood v essel u rns a re f ound i n t he n orth p art o f t he a rea a long t he e dge o f

t he C umberland p lain,

w ith o ne e xample a lso

i n t he E den v alley a nd o ne a long t he w est c oast a t B ranthwaite. c omparison w ith t he d istribution o f B eakers a nd f ood v essels c an b e t entative a s

t he a mount

o f

s uch m aterial i n t he a rea i s v ery

A ny o nly s mall.

H owever i t m ay b e n oted t hat w hereas B eakers a nd f ood v essels w ere f ound p articularly i n t he E den v alley, t he d istribution o f f ood v essel u rns i s s omewhat t o t he n orth o f t his i n a n a rea b etter r epresented b y f inds o f c inerary u rns. U rns i n t he n orth o f E ngland

( Table 4 0)

B urials o f t he E arly B ronze A ge a ssociated w ith u rns a re w ell r epresented i n t he n orth o f E ngland. F ifty-one u rns a re k nown f rom 2 3 s ites u rns

i n C umbria, a nd 3 9 u rns f rom 2 6 s ites i n t he n orth-east, w ith 2 6 o f n o k nown c ontext f rom t he a rea a s a w hole. T he m ajority o f

t hese v essels a re c lassified a s c ollared ( or o verhanging r im) u rns, w hich a re f ound i n s izes r anging f rom 3 i nches t o 2 ft ( 7.5cm - 6 1cm) i n h eight a nd w hich , w hen d ecorated, d isplay a s imple r epertoire o f m ainly g eometric m otifs ( Longworth 1 961, 2 70, f ig.3). O f 1 16 u rns a dequately k nown i n m useum c ollections, o r f rom i llustrations a nd d escriptions, o nly n ine v essels a re n ot o f c ollared u rn f orm ( Banniside M oor ( 702), B roomridge ( 133), E gglestone ( 199), L ow S hield G reen C rag ( 420-421), S outh C harlton ( 538), S imonside H ills, R oose ( 928) a nd Y eavering), t ogether

w ith

a n

i ndeterminate n umber o f

p lain

v essels

a lso

f rom

Y eavering. O f t he n ine u rns o f o ther f orms, f our w ere f ound i n m ounds w hich a lso p roduced c ollared u rns ( Banniside, B roomridge, S outh C harlton a nd S pital H ill). I n g eneral t hese ' o ther u rns a re p lainer t han t he c ollared f orms, a nd a re b ucket-shaped, a s e .g. a t E gglestone, L ow S hield G reen C rag, a nd Y eavering ( Fig.76). O ther e xamples, s uch a s t he b iconical v essel . T ith i ncised d ecoration f rom B anniside M oor, v essels w ith t wisted c ord d ecoration f rom B roomridge a nd S outh C harlton ( Figs.96 a nd 1 00) a nd a h andled v essel f rom S pital H ill e asily c lassified.

( 7)

a re

l ess

O f t he c ollared u rns, l arge a nd s mall e xamples h ave b een f ound t ogether o n a t l east e leven s ites. C ompletely p lain u rns a re k nown f rom A ppleby S lack, B arnscar ( Fig.101), G arlands ( Fig.103), R avenstoned ale ( Fig.105), E tall K nowes, a nd a re m ore

M oor C LXXXIV ( Fig.106) a nd p ossibly a t H igh c ommon i n C umbria t han i n t he n orth-east.

A lthough i n d ecorated e xamples t he c ollar i s g enerally t he f ocus o f t he o rnamentation, a l arge n umber o f v essels f rom t he n orth o f E ngland h ave d ecoration a lso o n t he n eck a nd s houlder. T his i s c haracteristic o f L ongworth's N orth-West s tyle, o ne o f t wo m ajor r egional s tyles o f h is s econdary s eries u rns, w hich a re n ot e ntirely m utually e xclusive i n d istribution ( Longworth 1 979). E xamples o f t his t ype o f o rnamentation a re f ound b oth i n t he n orth-east a nd i n C umbria ( Table 4 1), t otalling a bout a t hird o f a ll c ollared u rns k nown f rom t he a rea. A s s pecific r anges o f d ates r egional s tyles

f or L ongworth"s P rimary a nd S econdary s eries u rns a nd c annot b e d istinguished a ccording t o t he r adiocarbon

1 64

a ssays a t p resent a vailable ( Longworth 1 979), t he m aterial f rom t he n orth o f E ngland h as n ot b een f urther s ubdivided i nto t hese c ategories. A ll o f t he b urials k nown i n a ssociation w ith u rns i n t he r egion c remations. U nfortunately t he m ajority o f t hese h ave n ot b een

a re

e xpertly e xamined. a ge

o f

W here s ome e stimate h as b een m ade o f

t he i ndividuals r epresented,

t he n umber a nd

t welve a re s ingle c remations

o f

a dult m ales a nd f emales a nd o f y ounger p ersons, a nd f our , are m ultiple c remations. T hose f rom B anniside M oor, H olmrook a nd H owick H eugh a re d ouble,

w ith a n a dult

( in t wo c ases f emale)

a nd a c hild,

a nd t hat

f rom

W est H epple i s a d eposit o f f our i ndividuals, n amely t hree a dults a nd a c hild. T here i s n o r ecord o f t he t ype o f b urial a ssociated w ith t welve o f t he u rns, a nd i t i s p ossible t hat s ome u rns w ere d eposited w ithout a b urial a s m ay h ave b een t he c ase w ith s ome c ist g raves a nd B eaker a nd f ood v essel d eposits

( p.183).

T he m ost c ommonly o ccurring g rave g oods w ith t hese u rned b urials a re o ther c eramics, t he m ost r egulrly r ecorded o f w hich a re i ncense c ups, a ssociated w ith 1 6 u rns a nd f our ' probable u rns ( p.167). U rns a re a lso f ound a ssociated w ith o ther v essels a t B roomridge ( Fig.100), H olystone C ommon C CV ( Fig.100) a nd L ow M oralee F arm, o r w ith f ragments o f o ther v essels ( possibly n ot c omplete e ven w hen f irst d eposited), a s a t B anniside M oor E , H owick H eugh, M iddle G unnar P eak, S pital H ill a nd Y eavering. A lthough t he i nformation c oncerning t hese d eposits i s s canty,

t here w ould a ppear t o b e a t endency f or s uch a ccessory v essels,

o r p arts o f t hem, t o b e a ssociated w ith t he c remation o f a p erson, o f a n a dult a nd c hild, o r, w ith d eposits h aving a ssociated g rave g oods, i ncluding i ncense c ups.

y oung o ther

G rave g oods, o ther t han c eramics, h ave b een f ound w ith 1 5 u rn d eposits, a nd c onsist m ainly o f i tems o f b ronze, f lint a nd b one. T he b ronzes i nclude a t anged a wl f rom K irkoswald ( Fig.101), a c lass I B r azor f rom S tainton H ead ( Fig.105) ( Butler a nd S mith 1 956, 3 1, 5 1), a nd a f ragment o f a n a wl f rom E tall M oor. A lmost a ll t he f lints a re f lakes, w ith t he e xception o f a k nife f rom S pital H ill ( 7) a nd a l arge t riangular w orked f lint f rom G arlands, a nd a ll t he i tems o f b one a re f ragments o f p ins. M ore u nusual o bjects a re a p erforated c lay b ead w ith i mpressed d ecoration f rom R avenstonedale

( Fig.105),

j et b eads

a nd

a b utton f rom F ord C oMmon a nd a f ragment o f a w hetstone a t H owick H eugh. T he m ore e laborate a rtifacts s ometimes f ound i n a ssociation w ith u rns, s uch a s b attle-axes a nd g rooved b ronze d aggers a re u nknown i n t his a rea. T he p roportion o f u rns w ith a ssociated g rave g oods ( 12%) i s

s omewhat

L ongworth's

f ound

t han

t he o verall f igure f or

B ritain

o f

2 0%

t ions.

o f

t he b urials

I n C umbria,

f ound

i n

s tudy ( Longworth 1 979).

U nlike o ther E arly B ronze A ge b urials, u rns a nd c remations i n a lmost e qual n umbers i n C umbria a nd i n t he n orth-east.

c ontexts a re

l ower

a re c omparable,

b ut d iffer i n t heir

a lthough c ommonly f ound i n m ounds

i n a n a lmost e qual n umber o f

f lat g raves

p ropor-

( 13 s ites),

( 11

a re T he

s ites),

u rns w ith

n otable e xamples o f f lat c emeteries a t G arlands a nd W aterloo H ill, a nd p erhaps a lso a t I releth M ill ( p.140). U rns a re a lso k nown f rom b eneath t he s tone ' pavement', o r b eside t he f oot o f i ndividual s tones, a t s tone c ircles c ontext

s uch a s B irkrigg, u nknown i n t he

( pp.103-9).

B y c ontrast,

L acra D a nd p ossibly a lso a t L eacet H ill, a n orth-east, w here s tone c ircles a re r are t he m ajority o f u rns

165

f rom t he n orth-east

c ome

f rom

b urial

m ounds

( 18 s ites)

a nd u rns

i n f lat g raves h ave

g enerally

b een f ound s ingly ' ( five s ites). O nly t he s ite a t Y eavering w ould a ppear t o h ave b een s ome s ort o f ' cemetery', a lthough o ccupation o n t he s ite

w ould a ppear t o c over a l ong p eriod,

a nd

t he r elationship o f

t he

b urials o ne t o a nother i s n ot k nown ( p.139). M iniature c ollared u rns h ave b een f ound i n c ists a t B rougham i n C umbria, a nd S crenwood i n N orthumberland. I n C umbria t here a re f ew a ssociations o f u rns w ith o ther

c eramics

f rom t he s ame s ite, w hich i s t o s ome e xtent a r eflection o f t he l arger n umber o f f lat g raves i n t he a rea, a nd t he d earth o f o ther E arly B ronze A ge c eramics, s uch a s B eakers a nd f ood v essels. I n t he u rns w ere f ound i n s ix m ounds w hich a lso c ontained f ood e nlarged f ood v essels, a nd a t E tall M oor ( Fig.106) a lso c ontained B eaker s herds. " Possible u rns"

i n a

n orth-east, v essels o r m ound

w hich

( Table 4 2)

A n umber o f p ots w hich m ay b e r eferred t o a s ' possible u rns a re l isted s eparately. T hese, o f w hich t here a re n either i llustrations n or d etailed d escriptions, a nd w hich a re n o l onger e xtant, w ere d escribed b y r eliable w riters i n t he o riginal a ccounts o f t heir d iscovery, a s ' cinerary u rns', a nd m ay, f rom t heir c ontents o r c ontext b e c onsidered a s p robably f alling i n t he g eneral c ategory o f c inerary u rns. S ome o ccur o n s ites f rom w hich o ther u rns a re k nown a nd a re i llustrated, b ut h ave b een d istinguished f rom t his m aterial, i n a n a ttempt t o d efine m ore c learly r eliable a nd l ess r eliable c lasses o f d atable m aterial o f t he E arly B ronze A ge. T he g eneral t rends i n a ssociations o f u rn m aterial, b urial c ontexts, t he " possible u rn" c ategory. T he d istribution o f

e tc.,

o utlined a bove a re r eflected a lso i n

c inerary u rns

i n t he n orth o f E ngland

( Map 4 9)

i s s omewhat d ifferent f rom t hat o f B eakers a nd f ood v essels. I n t he n orth-east t he d istribution d oes n ot s how t he s ame c oncentration o f f inds i n t he n orth o f N orthumberland, a s k no w n f or B eakers a nd f ood v essels ( although t his a rea i s s till w ell r epresented), a nd t here i s a n a bsence o f f inds f rom t he c oastal a rea a nd l ower r iver v alleys o f N orthumberland, n otably a long t he T yne, A ln, C oquet, B lyth a nd W ansbeck. I n g eneral t he d istribution m ay b e s ummarised a s b eing m ore i nland

a nd u pland

t han t hat o f

o ther E arly B ronze A ge

p ottery

t ypes.

I n C umbria c inerary u rns a re t he m ost n umerous a nd w idespread t ype E arly B ronze A ge p ottery, b eing f ound i n t he E den v alley, a long

o f t he

e dge o f t he C umberland p lain, t he s outh-west c oast a nd i n F urness. A lthough g enerally f ound b elow t he 6 00ft c ontour, a f ew e xamples c ome f rom m ore e levated s ites, w est o f t he E den v alley. T he a rea a long t he S olway F irth a nd n ot

t he l owland m osses o f

T he

d istribution

o f

' possible u rns'

d istribution d iscussed a bove, o f

t he s outh-east o f

t he r egion a re

r epresented b y s uch b urial f inds.

s ites

o n t he w estern u plands

I ncense c9s A c ups' u rns

n umber o r

a nd

( Map

5 0)

r einforces

t he

i n p articular t he p ossible u se i n C umbria o f

t he E den v alley.

( Map 5 1) o f

s mall a ccessory v essels,

g enerally t ermed

' pygmy c ups' h ave r egularly b een f ound i n c remations

i n t he a rea.

' incense

a ssociation

B oth d ecorated a nd p lain e xamples

1 66

w ith a re

k nown, o f b ionical a nd o ther f orms, f requently w ith t wo h oles i n t he b ody o f t he v essel, , t he p urpose o f w hich i s u nknown. I t s eems u nlikely i n m any c ases t hat t hese w ere f or t he i nsertion o f a n o rganic h andle, a s s uggested b y L ongworth ( 1979), a s t he h oles a re t oo s mall f or t his a nd a re w rongly p laced f or b alance i f a h andle w ere b eing u sed. n orth o f E ngland t wo t ypes o f p lain a ccessory v essels a re f ound,

I n t he n amely

s mal ' thumb p ots w ithout h oles, a s e .g. f rom B anniside M oor, B room H ouse F arm ( Fig.100), E tall M oor ( Fig.106) a nd S tone B ridge, a nd p lain b iconical f orms w ith h oles, a s e .g. f rom B roomrigg, G arlands ( Fig.104), W aterloo H ill ( Fig.104) a nd F ord C ommon. W ith a f ew e xceptions, a lmost a ll o f t he d ecorated i ncense c ups h ave h oles. T he m ajority o f t hese v essels a re b iconical a nd a re d ecorated w ith i ncised g eometric p atterns o r i mpressed o r t wisted c ord d esigns, o ften o ver t he b ase a s w ell a s a ll o f t he b ody o f t he p ot, w ith e xamples f rom B elsay, B roomridge, I lderton,

R othbury,

S outh C harlton,

G arlands,

M allerstang,

O ld P enrith,

R oose a nd S kirwith M oor. O ther s hapes w ith h oles i nclude a lmost i dentical v essels w ith f laring r ims f rom L ucker a nd M arley K nowe. D ecorated c ups w ithout h oles c ome f rom L ilburn H ill, L ow M oralee F arm, O ld P arks a nd p ossibly O ld P enrith. T he s mall v essel f rom D oddington M oor i s u nlike o ther i ncense c ups w ith t wisted c ord d ecoration a s i t i s o f

q uite

f ine f abric,

i s b urnished a round t he c arination a nd

h as

a

c ompletely f lat b ase ( Fig.107). N othing i s k nown o f t he f ind c ontext o f t he p ot, e xcept t hat i t w as a pparently a ssociated w ith a l arge f lint p rojectile p oint ( p.85). I t c ould h ave b een a n a ccessory v essel w ith a n u rn w hich d oes n ot s urvive. W here t he b urial r ite i s k nown, i ncense c ups a re a lways a ssociated w ith c remations. U nfortunately f ew o f t hese h ave b een e xamined, a nd a ssociations a re o nly k nown w ith a n a dult f emale ( ?) a nd c hild a t B anniside M oor E ,

a n a dult a t B roomrigg C ,

a nd a c hild a t M allerstang.

A t B roomridge, B roomrigg C a nd M allerstang, t he i ncense c ups w ere t he o nly c eramics a ssociated w ith t he c remations, b ut i n t he m ajority o f c ases t hey a re f ound w ith u rns o r m iniature u rns. A l arge a nd s omewhat a typical i ncense c up w as f ound w ith a f ood v essel a t R oseden, I lderton. O ther g rave g oods w ith i ncense c ups w ere f ound a t D oddington ( as a bove), M allerstang ( a b one p in) a nd i n o ne o f f rom O ld P arks, K irkoswald w as f ound a s et o f I ncense c ups w ere f ound w ith 2 8% o f t he u rns i nto c onsideration a ll t he ' possible u rns', k nown,

t hen t his

f igure d rops

t he a ccessory v essels b iconical j et b eads.

f rom t he a rea. I f w e t ake a s w ell a s t hose b etter

t o a pproximately 2 0%.

I n b oth C umbria a nd t he n orth-east, t he m ajority o f i ncense c ups c ome f rom m ounds, a t otal o f s ix a nd n ine s ites r espectively, w ith t hree o r f our f inds f rom f lat g raves i n t he n orth-east a nd t wo i n C umbria. I t i s p articularly i n C umbria t hat s everal i ncense c ups a re k nown f rom o ne s ite, n amely t hree f rom M ill H ill, t wo f rom O ld P arks a nd s ix f rom G arlands. I n t he n orth-east, t wo v essels a re k nown f rom L ow M oralee F arm,

b ut

o nly o ne i s

a dequately d escribed.

G rave g oods o f f lint i n t he n orth o f E ngland A rtifacts

o f

f lint a re,

( Tables 4 3-47)

w ith t he e xception o f

p ottery,

t he m ost

c ommonly o ccurring g rave g oods f ound i n E arly B ronze A ge c ontexts i n t he n orth o f E ngland. A v ariety o f a rtifact t ypes o f v ariable q uality o f w orkmanship i s k nown, r anging f rom t he b eautiful L ilburnsteads d agger t o m ere f lakes o r s palls o f f lint, p ossibly u sed a s s tike-al ights. I n m any c ases f lint a rtifacts a re i nadequately d escribed a nd

167

a re u nillustrated i n t he o riginal p ublication o f f requently l ost i n m useum c ollections o ver r eflected

i n t he f ollowing d iscussion,

a b urial, a nd a re m ost t he y ears. T his i s

w here f uller d etails a re k nown

o f t he f iner f lint t ypes t han o f a n e qual n umber o f l ess f lint s crapers a nd f lakes a lso f ound i n b urial c ontexts. F lint d aggers

d istinctive

( Table 4 3)

T wo f lint d aggers h ave b een f ound i n a ssociation w ith E arly B ronze A ge b urials i n t he n orth o f E ngland, b oth f rom N orthumberland. T he f iner e xample i s a b eautiful a nd s kilfully f ashioned d agger f ound i n a c ist w ith a n i nhumation a t L ilburnsteads, W ooler ( 406) ( Grimes 1 931 n o.77; C larke 1 970, f ig.816; T ait 1 965 p 1.4), i n a ssociation w ith a B eaker o f C larke's S 2 t ype. T he d agger w hich i s 1 4cm l ong a nd 5 cm m aximum w idth, c an b e c ompared w ith o ther e xamples f rom B eaker c ontexts s uch a s t hose f rom F akenham , S uffolk ; O verton W est, W ilts.; S lack 3 7, Y orkshire ( Clarke 1 970, f igs. 1 75-7, 1 79, 7 78). A

s econd f lint

d agger f rom A mble

( 34),

a nd G arton

f ound a t a s hort d istance

f rom t he l arge c airn A mble C CXCVI, i n a c ist w ith a n i nhumation a nd a n ' urn', i s s maller a nd l ess f inely w orked ( Thompson G .H. 1 893, p l.V). T he e dges o f t he d agger i n p articular a re n ot s o r egularly f laked a s, f or e xample, t hose f ound i n a ssociation w ith B eakers a nd G rimes w as d oubtful i f t his A mble f ind s hould b e c lassified a s a d agger a s t he f orm w as a typical a nd t he a ssociations u nclear ( Grimes 1 931 n o.76). T he ' urn w ith w hich t he d agger w as f ound i s u nfortunately l ost, w as b roken o n f inding a nd t he p ieces t hrown a way. F lint p rojectile p oint T he

a s

i t

( Table 4 3)

f lint p rojectile p oint f rom D oddington w as

f ound

' close u nder

t he s urface' w ith a c ord i mpressed m iniature v essel ( Fig.107) a nd m ay r epresent p art o f a b urial d eposit. T he p rojectile p oint, w hich i s t oo h eavy t o b e u sed a s a n a rrowhead, i s o f b arbed a nd t anged f orm a nd b elongs t o G reen's ' Ballyclare' t ype, w hich m ay h ave i ts o rigin i n I reland ( Green 1 971, 2 41; G reen 1 980, 1 18, 2 99). T wo e xamples o f c omparable s ize w ith s quare b arbs w ere f ound a t W interslow H ut, W ilts., i n a r ich g rave w ith a _W/MR B eaker, a b racer a nd t anged c opper d agger ( Clarke 1 970, f ig.13): a nd a n E arly B ronze A ge d ate i s a lso l ikely f or t he D oddington e xample, t he o nly o ne o f i ts t ype i n t he n orth o f E ngland

i n a b urial c ontext.

F lint k nives

( Table 4 4)

P lano-convex f lint k nives F lint t hese, w ith

k nives

s even t he

a re k nown f rom 2 8 b urial s ites

w ould a ppear

w hole

o f

i n

t he

r egion.

t o b e ' true' p lano-convex k nives,

t he u pper s urface o f

t he

k nife

f laked,

t hat a

O f i s, t ype

c ommonly a ssociated w ith f ood v essels ( Clark 1 932, 1 59-60; S impson 1 968, 1 98). F ive e xamples w ere f ound i n c ists, i ncluding o ne p articu larly l arge c ist a t C hollerford, a nd t wo i n m ounds. O ne o f t he k nives w as f ound i n a ssociation w ith a f ood v essel a nd a c rescentic j et n eckl ace a t H igh C ocklaw, a nd a s econd c ame f rom a c remation w ithin a c ollared u rn a t S pital H ill. T he s herd a ssociated w ith t he b urial a t F ord C ommon C LXXXV i s m erely d escribed a s o f t he o rdinary c haracter' a nd

i s

o f u nknown t ype.

A t B atter L aw,

1 68

C hollerford,

C astle C arrock

C LXIV ( Fig.107) a nd H awkshead M oor t here a re n o o ther a ssociated a rtifacts, e ither . with t he b urial i tself o r i n t he r est o f t he m ound, w here

s uch e xists

( Table 4 4a).

F our o f

t he b urials

a ssociated

w ith

p iano-convex k nives w ere c remations a nd o ne a n i nhumation ( Table 4 4). A lthough t here i s i n t he c ountry a s a w hole a h igh p ercentage o f a ssociations o f p iano-convex f lint k nives w ith f ood v essels ( especially Y orkshire v ases), t hese b eing t he o nly c onsistently r ecurring g rave g oods f ound w ith f ood v essel c eramics ( Simpson 1 968, 1 98-200, 2 09), s uch k nives a re a lso a ssociated w ith o ther p ottery t ypes ( Clarke 1 932, 1 59-60), i ncluding c ollared u rns ( Longworth 1 961, 3 04-6) a s s een a t S pital H ill.

I n u naccompanied b urials

i n E ngland a nd W ales

a re k nown w ith b oth i nhumations a nd c remations w hich i s a lso r eflected i n t his a rea. D ouble-edged a nd s ingle-edged k nives

t he

( Clark

t he k nives

1 932,

1 60-1),

( Table 4 4)

A d istinction i s m ade h ere b etween t rue p iano-convex k nives a nd s impler b lade f orms w ith r etouch a long t he e dges, o ften w ith a

m arked k eel o n t he u pper s urface k nown i n N eolithic a nd l ater c ontexts ( Simpson 1 968, 1 98, f ig.45.6; M cInnes 1 970, 4 1-3). A ll o f t he k nives l isted i n t his c ategory w ould a ppear t o b e d ouble-edged ( rather t han w holly f laked o n o ne s ide), a s f or e xample t he k nives f rom T row R ocks a nd B lawearie, b oth o f w hich h ave a p ronounced k eel, a nd t he b eautif ully r etouched s aw-like k nife f rom C oldsmouth H ill ' (Fig.107) ( Craw 1 931, f ig.3B). S uch d ouble-edged k nives h ave b een f ound a t e ight b urial s ites. A ssociations i nclude f ood v essels, a n u rn a nd j et b eads. A t C oldsmouth H ill, T row R ocks C CXV a nd O rton C LXXVIII n o o ther g rave g oods w ere a ssociated w ith t he b urials n or w ere a ny f ound e lsewhere i n t he c overing m ounds, a nd a l ate N eolithic d ate c annot b e r uled o ut f or t hese g raves. A s w ith t he b urials w ith p iano-convex k nives, i nhumation a nd c remation a re b oth r epresented, b oth i n c ists i n m ounds a nd i n m ounds

a lone.

F inally,

f ive

e xamples

a re k nown o f b urials

w ith

s ingle-edged

f lint k nives, t wo i n a ssociation w ith a f ood v essel a nd a t hird w ith a n e nlarged f ood v essel. N o d etails a re k nown o f t he ' knives f rom s ix o ther s ites a t w hich f ood v essel a nd B eaker a ssociations a re r ecorded.

k nife

T he m ajority o f o ther g rave g oods f ound w ith a ll t ypes o f f lint a re f ood v essels a nd j et b eads ( themselves g enerally a ssociated

w ith a f ood v essel a ssemblage). W here f lint k nives c onstitute t he o nly g rave g oods, d atable m aterial a ssociated w ith o ther b urials i n t he s ame m ound i s a lso r are. S uch i s p articularly t he c ase w ith t he ' true' p iano-convex k nives w here n one o f t he s ites p roduced o ther g raves w ith a ssociated a rtifacts. O f t he o ther f int k nives, t he m ound a t C oldsmouth v essel,

H ill

t hat

o n

c ontained

a f ood v essel a nd

a n

( ?)

c ists a t B laydon a nd B edlington w ere p arts o f s mall c ist w here B eaker a nd f ood v essel b urials w ere a lso f ound.

l ie

e nlarged

t he H ackthorpe H all e state a c inerary u rn,

a nd

f ood t he

' cemeteries',

T he a ssociations o f t hese f lint k nives w ould t herefore a ppear t o i n g eneral w ith a f ood v essel a ssemblage, a lthough a n e arlier

d ating o f t he b urials w ith s ingle g rave g oods m ust a lso b e c onsidered a p ossibility. S uch f lint k nives c onsidered b oth i ndividually a nd a s o f p articular t ypes a re q uite w idely d istributed t hroughout t he n orth o f E ngland ( Map 5 2). N o o ne k nife t ype i s c onfined t o a p articular g eog raphical a rea a nd a ll a re w idely b ut t hinly d istributed. S ix k nives

1 69

c ome

f rom D urham,

w hich i s l ittle

o ther g rave g oods n orth o f d ate.

o f

t he R iver A ln,

F lint a ssemblages

r epresented

t he E arly B ronze A ge,

i n t he d istributions

o f

a nd o nly s even f rom t he a rea

w hich i s c omparatively r ich i n b urials o f

t his

( Table 4 5)

M ost a rtifacts o f f lint, b oth o f f ine q uality a nd o f i nferior w orkmanship o ccur i n g raves s ingly. T here a re h owever a f ew b urials w ith w hich a s mall a ssemblage o f f ints h as b een f ound. T hese g enerally c omprise s ome c ombination o f s crapers, k nives, a rrowheads a nd f lint f lakes. T hree a ssemblages H igh P ark

i nclude a rrowheads o f b arbed a nd

t anged f orm,

a t

K nowes w ith a f lint s craper a nd p lain B eaker s herds, a t M ecklin w ith j et d isc b eads a nd a f ood v essel, a nd a t K irkhaugh w ith a n

A OC B eaker, f lint e arring ( Fig.84). w ith a f ood v essel,

f lakes a nd c ores, a w hetstone a nd a g old b asket A n o blique a rrowhead f rom W ooler w as a ssociated f lint f ragments a nd a f lint ' spearhead ( Colling-

w ood a nd C owen 1 948,

f ig.2.

G ibson 1 978,

f ig.IV.3).

T he d escription o f

t he l ast a rtifact a s a ' spearhead' i s h owever m isleading, a s i t t hick a nd a symmetric i n s ection, i s n ot f inely w orked a nd w ould

i s b e

q uite u nsuitable a s a p rojectile p oint. I t m ay h ave b een u sed a s a c ombined s craper a nd b orer. O ther a ssemblages i nclude s crapers a nd f lakes a t B orewell, C artington, H asting H ill a nd B anniside M oor, a k nife a nd f lint f lakes a t D oddington a nd L ow H ills, a nd a k nife, s craper a nd f lakes a t M urton M oor. S uch i tems m ay f orm a b asic ' tool k it', o r m ay b e t oken r epresentations o f t he a ctivities p erformed b y t he i ndividual w ith w hom t hey w ere b uried. ( One a rrowhead, f or e xample, i s u nlikely t o b e t he u sual c omplement c arried b y a n a rcher). W ith t he e xception o f t he a rrowheads m ost o f t he a rtifacts a re t ools r ather t han w eapons. T he f lint f lakes o f n o s pecific f orm m ay h ave b een s trike-a-light f lints. w ere f ound w ith A OC B eakers,

O f t he f our B eaker f lint a ssemblages t wo a t K irkhaugh a nd C artington. A b arbed a nd

t anged a rrowhead, s craper a nd k nife, w hetstöne a nd A OC s herds f rom W ards H ill, R othbury ( Tait 1 965, n o.33) m ay r epresent a s imilar a ssemblage, b ut t heir a ssociation i s u ncertain a s t his m aterial, t ogether w ith o ther Baker s herds ( ibid, n o.89) w as d iscovered i n q uarrying. I n g eneral t he a ssociation o f m ore t han o ne f lint a rtifact w ith f ood v essel b urials w ould s eem t o b e r are. S impson d oes n ot m ention s uch a ssemblages i n h is s tudy o f f ood v essel a ssociations ( 1968) a nd i n t he n orth o f E ngland o nly t hree a ssemblages a re k nown o ut o f a t otal o f 8 7 f ood v essel b urials. T here a re n o r ecorded f lint a ssemblaies f ound i n a ssociation w ith c inerary u rns i n t he r egion. F lint s crapers a nd f lint f lakes f ound w ith E BA b urials ( Tables 4 6 a nd 4 7) O ther

o bjects o f

a nd - a l ess

f lint f ound w ith E BA b urials

d istinctive a rtifact

h ave b een f ound a t s ix s ites, c remations i n c ists a nd m ounds. v essel' a t R oddam W ood,

t ype - f lint

a re f lint

f lakes.

F lint

s crapers s crapers

a ssociated w ith b oth i nhumations a nd O ther g rave g oods c onsisted o f a ' food

a nd a f ragment o f a j et

c up a t H igh K nowes

( 3).

S ingle f lint f lakes f rom b urial c ontexts i nclude s ome f lakes w ith s econdary w orking a s, e .g. f rom B roomhill, F ord C LXXXVII a nd C hatton S andyford

c airn

( 1),

a nd o ther o bjects

1 70

o f n o d iagnostic

t ype o r

f orm

a s,

e .g.

a t

v arious.

B eanley W est I n

F arm a nd H ulne P ark.

t he majority

o f

c ases

f lint

T heir u ses m ay h ave

f lakes

h ave

b een

b een f ound

w ith

o ther g rave g oods, u sually p ottery. I n o lder d iscoveries, w hich w ere n ot s ystematically e xcavated, i t i s p ossible t hat t he d iscovery o f a p ot i n t he g rave l ed t o a m ore r igorous s earch f or o ther a ssociated g rave

g oods

a nd

r espect.

I n

w ould t ype.

e asy

b e

S ingle

t o

a s

t he a nd

s ample

o f

f lakes o f

f lint

a re k nown a s

w ith B eakers,

a p art

f inds

i s

o ther g raves w ithout

o verlook s mall

f lint

a ssociations, g oods,

t hat

c ists

f lakes

s omewhat o f n o

a c omponent

f ood v essels

r icher a ssociations

b iased

i n

c eramic g rave s pecific

o f

( such a s

a s

i t

a rtifact

a w ide

a nd u rns,

t his

g oods

r ange

o f

t he o nly g rave

t he B eaker g raves

a t

W est L ilburn a nd A mble P ier, a nd a f ood v essel c ist a t Amble C CXCVI), w ith b oth i nhumations a nd c remations, a nd i n a w ide v ariety o f b urial c ontexts. J et n ecklaces a nd O ne t ypes

o f

N one

c rescentic

' jet w hat o f

t he

o bjects

c annot

T he j et

a nd

b eads

b arrel

( 3) ( 4)

d isc b eads b iconical b eads

( or

t he

f or

t he

b e

r aw

a nalogous

b een

t he

t o

t he

s cientif-

m aterial

o f

t hese

b eads

r ecorded

O thers,

t ions

b e a scribed

p lates

a re

G arrett

( Fig.108)

n ow l ost,

k nown,

b ut

t ypes:

i n c rescentic n eck-

a lso

o f

f rom t he

f ound

b ut

s eparately

o f

n ecklaces

t he

a ppear

B roomhouses, t ypes

o r p arts

a t P ark E nd,

c omprising o nly

e laborate w ould

f rom S winburn

c annot

b e

( now

c lassified

C rookham D ene a nd

a re k nown f rom f uller w ritten d escrip-

t o o ne

t hose

r egion t hat

a ' jet n ecklace' a nd

f rom H umbleton,

a lso

e xamples

) l aces,

f our

( see T able 4 9)

n ecklaces

t ypologically.

E ngland a re o f

) o ften c ombined

f usiform)

d escribed o nly a s

a nd m ay

s ource

i n t he n orth o f

W arksburn a re

m ost

t o

a rtifact

n ecklace,

f rom t he n orth o f E ngland h as

a s ingle

f ound

s pacer-plates

t he

c onsidered

j et

b e a ssumed.*

( 1)

N ine

w hich i s

n orthern

t he

s imilar d esign f rom t he s outh o f E ngland a nd e ven t o o f w hich c ome f rom I reland ( Craw 1 929, 1 69-70). T he

( 2)

i s

o f

' jet' o bjects

e xamined

O f

t ype

i s

i s u sed a s a g eneric t erm i n t he f ollowing d iscussion t o m ay b e a v ariety o f r aw m aterials f rom d ifferent s ources.

i cally

l ost)

a nd p articularly

i n a ssociation w th E BA b urials

a mber n ecklaces o f g old l unulae, m ost w ord c over

( Table 4 8)

t he m ost d istinctive

f ound

e laborate

b eads

o f

l isted a bove. n ecklaces

w ith

W arksburn B ridge

o ne s pacer-plate e ach.

t o h ave

b een t hat

a nd O f

r ecorded

s pacerC rosby

t he o thers

a t

' Stoney-

v ague', H umbleton ( and n ow l ost) w ith 1 3 ' flat, q uadrangular b eads' ( which m ay b e i nterpreted a s s pacer-plates) r anging f rom 1 2 t / o 1 34 i nches a cross w ith

a nd

1 2

c ylindrical

b eads.

T he

' gold-points' i n ' zig-zag o rder'.

i nitial f orms

o f

s urvey w ork o n t he l ignite

b y G .

s pecific

l argest

s pacer-plate w as

S uch a l arge

i dentification o f

B ussell i n t he U niversity o f

b eing f urther d eveloped i n t he R esearch L aboratory a nd t he H istory o f A rt i n t he U niversity o f O xford.

171

n umber

j et

s tudded

o f m edial

a nd

o ther

B radford

i s n ow

f or

A rchaeology

p lates

i s

u nique

( cf.

C raw 1 929,

A ppendices)

a s

o f ' gold p oints'. I t i s p ossible t hat p ieces w ere c ombined i n a ntiquity a t H umbleton, a s n ecklace f rom S tewart 1 957), s ame

c ist,

H umbleton n ecklace w as

a t

a lso

k nown f rom P itreuchie, p laced

F orfarshire

i nside

( Callander

a ' tulip

s haped

l ost) b ut n o f urther d escription i s g iven o f 1 54-5). O ther n ecklaces n ow l ost i nclude t hat

B roomhouses,

A ngerton,

( perhaps a t oggle o r a nd f lint a rtifacts, D ene,

p erhaps

d escription w ire a nd s ome

t he

a lthough

e lement

s imply

t erminal

o f

o f

w ith e ight

p lates

f inding

a t

o f

2 12). h igh'

t he v essel ( Tate f rom a r ich b urial

s pacer-plates

a nd a n

a nd

b e

b uttons

o r

f usiform

t he C rookham n ecklace

t he n eck o f

i t w ould i t

1 916,

u rn 1 6"

' ear-drop'

t erminal p late) f ound w ith a b ronze k nife-dagger a nd w edge-shaped a nd r ound b eads f rom C rookham

h anging a round

u nusual,

t he d ecoration

a c ist b urial a t M elfort, A rgyllshire ( Piggott a nd o r p erhaps t wo s eparate n ecklaces w ere d eposited i n t he

T he ( now 1 856,

a s

i s

o f m ore t han o ne n ecklace i s s uggested f or t he j et

a n u rn

c urious

l east w ere n ot

t o

( ibid, i nvent

c orrect

b eads.

s trung o n

1 54-5)

i s

T he c opper

c ertainly

s uch a d escription i f

a nd

t he b eads

h ad

b een

f ound a t

H igh

f ound w ithin t he u rn.

O f

t he

C ocklaw

h as

t wo e xtant j et n ecklaces a t erminal

p erforations

b oth

f rom t he a rea t hat

p late a nd a m edial p late w ith

t hree

d ecorated w ith a l ozenge d esign o f

a nd

d ots,

f our

a nd

t wo

l arger p lain s pacer-plates e ach w ith f ive a nd e ight p erforations ( Fig.109). T he r emaining ( incomplete) m edial p late i s u ndecorated a nd h as a

t hree a nd r eplaced

o riginally t he

c ist A t

t hat

o r

f our

p erforations

r e-arranged

a rranged

o f

r emaining

p iece,

i f

s ymmetrically.

a fter

b reakage.

T his m ay b e

t he d ecorated m edial p lates S ome 8 0 b arrel

b eads

w ere

w ere f ound

i n

w hich o nly 2 2 r emain.

K yloe

( Fig.110)

t he m edial

o blique w ear a t

p lates w ere

s paced n ear

t he e nds t he

o f

t he b eads

t erminal p lates

s uggests a nd

t hat

t he m ain b ody o f t he n ecklace w as c omprised o f m ultiple s trings b eads i n a c urve. T his s uggested r econstruction w ould r equire s ome

o f 1 95

b arrel

a ny

s ite

a t

b eads,

w hich

( Newman 1 976,

i s m ore

t han h ave

s o

f ar

b een r ecorded

f rom

1 79-80).

B arrel b eads w ithout s pacer-plates a re k nown f rom a c ist a t W ark, F ord C ommon a nd s ingly a t H epple a nd w ith a c remation a t G oatscrag.

I f j et b eads w ere p laced w ith a b ody w hich w as w ould, o f c ourse, t hemselves b e d estroyed. I t

t o b e c remated t hey i s p ossible t herefore

t hat t he f ragmentary b urnt b ead f rom G oatscrag m ay b e t he o nly r emaini ng p art o f a l arger n ecklace. N ecklaces o f d isc b eads c ome f rom Y eavering ( Fig.109), B roomrigg a nd C rosby R avensworth a nd b arrel a nd d isc o nly

b eads c ombined f rom B lawearie ( Fig.108) a nd M ecklin P ark. b iconical b eads i n t he a rea w ere f ound w ithin a n i ncense c up

m ound w ith u rned a nd T he b eads f inds

o ccurrence

w hich

w ould

i n S cotland

u n-urned

c remations

i n t he n orth o f a ppear

t o

b e

a t O ld P arks,

E ngland o f

j et

f ig.3),

K irkoswald.

s pacer-plates

i ncomplete n ecklaces

( Morrison 1 979,

T he i n a

e lsewhere

i s

a nd

p aralleled

i n E ngland

b y

( Craw

1 929, A ppendix D ) a nd e ven i n a v ery r ich d agger b urial a t K erguevarec, F inistere ( Piggott 1 939, 1 93-5, f ig.3). T he r egular o ccurrence o f i ncomplete n ecklaces, t he s uggestion t hat p arts o f w ere c ombined a s a t M elfort a nd a lso t he e vidence

d ifferent n ecklaces t hat s pacer-plates

w ere r epaired o r r e-bored, a s a t K yloe ( Newman 1 976, 1 81), a ll t end t o i ndicate t hat t hese o bjects w ere s ubject t o c onsiderable w ear d uring t heir

l ife

t ime o r m ay e ven h ave

b een d ivided a nd

172

r e-combined

a mongst

v arious o wners. I t s eems u nlikely t hat t he i ncompleteness m ajority o f t he s urviving e xamples w as d ue t o a ccidental l oss. s uggested

r econstructions

o f

s pacer-plates a nd b eads

o f t he V arious

( Callander

1 916,

2 09; C raw 1 929, f ig.6; H enshall 1 963a, 1 47, f ig.2) m ust r eflect a c ombination o f b oth t he u niqueness o f t he o riginal d esign a nd o f s ubsequent r e-patterning o ver a n umber o f y ears u se.

o f

L ittle i s k nown o f t he b urial r ite a ssociated w ith t he d eposition t he m ajority o f t he s pacer-plate n ecklaces f rom t he a rea, f or a t

H igh C ocklaw,

H umbleton,

K yloe,

P ark E nd a nd W arksburn n o h uman r emains

a re r ecorded. A t C rosby G arrett w here h alf o f t he c airn h ad b een m uch d isturbed, t he j et s pacer-plate w as f ound j ust n ear a n a dult f emale c remation l aid o n t he o ld g round s urface u nder t he b arrow w ith t wo i nfant i nhumations i mmediately a bove i t, a nd m ay h ave b een a ssociated w ith t his m ixed r ite d eposit.

T he o nly k nown i nhumation w ith a s pacer-

p late n ecklace i s t hat o f a f emale a t B roomhouses, A ngerton, a nd t here i s a p ossible a ssociation w ith a c remation a t C rookham D ene. D isc b eads w ere f ound w ith a n i nhumation a t C rosby R avensworth, w hile a ll o ther b urials o f k nown r ite w ith d isc o r b arrel b eads a re c remations, a s a t F ord C ommon, G oatscrag, H epple, Y eavering a nd B roomrigg C . A t B roomhouses a nd F ord C ommon t he j et o rnaments w ere f ound w ith f emales, a t G oatscrag w ith a y oung a dult a nd a dult m ale. a ssociations

t he d isc b eads a t B roomrigg w ith a n

I n S cotland t he a ssociations a re m ainly f emale, a re n ot u nknown ( Callander 1 916, 2 15).

b ut m ale

T he a ssociation o f f ood v essels w ith j et n ecklaces a nd t he c oincidence o f d istribution o f t hese t wo a rtifact t ypes h as o ften b een r emarked ( Clark J .G.D. 1 932a, 4 1; P iggott 1 962a, 8 5; S impson 1 968, 1 97 a nd 2 05). S ome a ssociations h ave b een r ecorded i n S cotland w ith B eakers a nd c inerary u rns ( Callander 1 916, 2 15), b ut H enshall r egards t he

B eaker a ssociations

t ions 1 963a,

a s d oubtful o r e quivocal a nd s ees

t he a ssocia-

o f j et n ecklaces a s l ying f irmly w ith f ood v essels ( Henshall 1 48). I n n orthern E ngland s pacer-plate n ecklaces w ere f ound

w ith f ood v essels a t H igh C ocklaw a nd K yloe a nd w ith v essels

o f u nknown

t ype a t C rookham D ene a nd H umbleton. D isc a nd b arrel b eads w ere a lso a ssociated w ith a f ood v essel a t M ecklin P ark , b arrel b eads w ith a n u rn a t

F ord c ommon,

d isc b eads w ith a n e ncrusted u rn a t Y eavering

( Fig.109)

a nd s herds o f u nknown t 9pe a t C rosby R avensworth, a nd b iconical b eads w ith a n i ncense c up a t O ld P arks. A t B roomrigg a nd H ackthorpe H all c inerary u rns w ere f ound, a nd a t G oatscrag f ood v essel u rns, n ot i n d irect a ssociation w ith t he j et b eads.

a lthough

O ther a ssociations w ith j et n ecklaces a nd b eads a re o f f lint w ork, i ncluding a b eautifully w orked p iano-convex k nife a t H igh C ocklaw a nd ' two f lint k nives' w ith a ' light h ammer o f f lint' ( all n ow l ost) a t B roomhouses. O ther k nives a re r ecorded f rom B lawearie a nd M ecklin P ark, t he l atter w ith a f lint a rrowhead. T he o nly o ther o bject a ssociated w ith a j et n ecklace w as a b ronze k nife-dagger a lso f rom B roomhouses, m aking t his

t he r ichest g rave i n t he g roup.

O f a t otal o f 2 1 b urials w ith j et b eads o r n ecklaces, t welve a lso h ave o ther g rave g oods. B y c omparison w ith g raves w ith j et n ecklaces a nd b eads i n S cotland ( Callander 1 916, 2 38-40; M orrison 1 979, 2 5-8) i t w ould s eem t hat f ewer n orthern E nglish g raves w ith j et o bjects a lso h ave p ottery a ssociations. A ssociated g rave g oods o f a ny s ort a re a lso f ewer t han f urther n orth, a lthough t he s ample s ize i s, o f c ourse, m uch s maller

t han

t hat

f or S cotland a nd a bsolute

173

c omparisons

c annot

b e

r easonably m ade. H owever t he g eneral t rend o f a ssociations a ppear t o b e c losely s imilar t o t hat f ound i n S cotland. T he c ists.

m ajority A ll

f ive

o f f lat

b urials w ith j et n ecklaces c ist g raves

a nd b eads

w ould

c ame

f rom

i n t his g roup c ontained s pacer-plate

n ecklaces o r p arts t hereof, a nd s imilar n ecklaces w ere f ound i n a c ist i n a m ound a t H umbleton, i n a m ound a t C rosby G arrett a nd p ossibly i n a f lat g rave i n m ounds O nly t hree o f E ngland

a t C rookham D ene. O ther t ypes o f n ecklace c ame f rom c ists a t B lawearie ( a m ultiple c ist m ound), S winburn a nd W ark. o f t he f ourteen j et n ecklaces o r b eads f rom t he n orth-east w ere f ound i n m ounds w ithout c ists b ut a ll o f t he C umbrian

e xamples c ame f rom s uch a c ontext. ( p.136) i n C umbria, w here E BA c ist

T his i s a f eature n oted p reviously b urials a re r are.

T he d istribution o f j et n ecklaces a nd b eads i n t he n orth o f E ngland ( Map 5 3) i s p art o f a m ore g eneral p ronounced n orthern b ias i n t he d istribution o f t his a rtifact t ype t hroughout B ritain ( Craw 1 929, f ig.8). M ore t han t wice a s m any c rescentic n ecklaces a re k nown f rom S cotland ( Morrison 1 979, f ig.4) a s f rom E ngland, w here t he t ype i s r estricted t o N orthumberland a nd D urham , C umbria, Y orkshire a nd D erbys hire, w ith t wo i solated e xamples i n E ast A nglia. I n o ver 1 200 b arrows o pened i n Y orkshire o nly e ight j et n ecklaces h ave b een f ound ( Callander 1 916, 2 09), a lthough s ome o f t hese a re m agnificent m elanges o f b uttons, s pacer-plates a nd b arrel a nd d isc b eads ( quite u nlike a ny e xamples f urther n orth), a s f or e xample a t C alais W old ( Mortimer 1 905, p l.LIII f ig.418a), a nd a lso i n D erbyshire a t W indle N ook a nd O ver H addon ( Bateman 1 848, 8 9, f ig., a nd 4 7, f ig.). W ithin t he n orth o f E ngland d ifferences m ay b e o bserved i n t he q uality a nd t ype o f j et o rnaments f ound i n t he n orth-east a nd i n C umbria a nd a lso i n t heir b urial c ontexts. O f 1 5 r ecorded f inds o f j et f rom t he n orth-east, s even h ave s pacer-plates a nd w ere a pparently p arts o f c rescentic n ecklaces, w hereas o f t he s ix f inds f rom C umbria o nly o ne s pacer-plate i s k nown, t he o ther b eads b eing o f s impler f orm. S imilarly i n t he n orth-east m ost j et n ecklaces w ere f ound i n c ists b ut i n C umbria a ll c ame f rom m ounds w ithout O bjects

o f

j et

c ists.

( including b uttons)

a re w ell r epresented

i n

t he

n orth o f N orthumberland a nd i n t he v alleys o f t he C oquet, W ansbeck a nd N orth T yne, w hile i n C umbria t he E den v alley i s t he m ain f ocus o f s uch d iscoveries w ith a n i solated f ind a t M ecklin P ark ( Map 5 3). J et b uttons a nd r ings J et

( Table 5 0)

b uttons w ith V -perforations,

w hich a re o f m uch

l ess

c ommon

o ccurrence t han j et b eads o r n ecklaces, h ave b een f ound a t e ight s ites i n t he n orth o f E ngland. L arge n umbers o f b uttons f ound t ogether a re u nknown a nd w ith t he e xception o f C hatton S andyford a nd G reat T osson, w here t here a re t wo, t he b uttons o ccur s ingly. T he o nly ' button f ound i n a ssociation w ith j et b eads, n amely t hat f rom F ord C ommon C LXXXVI, i s a lso t he s mallest e xample, l ess t han 1 .7cm i n d iameter ( Greenwell 1 877, 4 07). T he o ther b uttons r ange f rom 2 .0cm t o 6 .6cm i n d iameter, a re o f s imple c onical d esign a nd h ave n o s pecial f eatures. T he o nly e xception t o t his s imple f orm i s t he l argest b utton, t hat f rom W est L ilburn, w hich h as t hree h oles a t t he b ack, m aking a d ouble V -perforation, a nd b eading

a round

u nusual

f eature

t he e dge

o f

t he b utton o n i ts

f ront f ace

f ound o therwise o nly o n t wo e xamples

174

( Fig.84), f rom

N et

a n L owe

H ill, A lsop M oor, D erbyshire. I n s ize t he W est L ilburn b utton h as b een c ompared w ith a n e xample f rom W interbourne M onkton, W iltshire ( Collingw ood a nd C owen 1 946, 2 24), a nd i s a lso c omparable w ith t he b utton f ound a t W ooler w hich i s 5 .3cm i n d iameter I n

t he

n orth-east o f E ngland

( BM 7 9.12-9.1771). t hree o f

t he f inds

c ome

f rom

c ist

g raves a nd t wo ( including t he b utton a nd b eads a t F ord) f rom m ounds. A t W est L ilburn a nd C hatton S andyford b urial B 1 t he b uttons w ere a ssociated w ith B eakers ( Figs.78 a nd 8 4), w ith a r adiocarbon d ate f or t he l atter b urial o f 1 670 2 =50 b c ( Gak 8 00). T he p recise a ssociations o f a rtifacts w ithin t he c ist g raves a t G reat T osson a re u nfortunately f ar f rom c lear ( Greenwell 1 877, 4 30-2) a nd G reenwell's d ivision o f t he m aterial

i s

n ot

s ubstantiated b y t he o ther w ritten a ccounts

o f

t he

d iscoveries ( Tate 1 862; D avis a nd T hurnam 1 865). A d efinite a ssociat ion o f t he j et b uttons w ith a f ood v essel a nd a n e nlarged f ood v essel f rom c ame

t he s ite i s t herefore u ncertain, a lthough t he b uttons c ertainly f rom c ist g raves. T he t iny b utton f rom F ord w as f ound i n a

c inerary u rn w ith a c remation o f a n a dult f emale a nd t he l arge b utton f rom W ooler w as t he o nly a rtifact i n a n u nusually l arge c ist ( 41 2 f / t b y 21 2/ 31 2 f / t

b y 2 ft d eep) w ith a m ale i nhumation.

I n C umbria a rtifact a ssociations w ith j et p recise. A t B roomrigg C a j et b utton w as f ound i n b eneath t he m ound w hich i tself c ontained a c ist, a n c remations a nd a s eparate f ind o f d isc b eads o f j et,

b uttons a re l ess a n a nimal b urrow u rn, i ncense c up, w hile a t W oodhead,

B ewcastle, a j et b utton w as f ound w ith a j et p ulley r ing o n t he f loor o f a s tone b uilt h ut ( Hodgson K .S. 1 940, f ig.11). T he p recise r elationship o f e ither o f t hese f inds t o t he c ontext i n w hich t hey w ere f ound i s u nclear a nd n either i s d irectly a ssociated w ith a b urial. T he f ind a t B ewcastle i s a pparently i n a s ettlement c ontext, a lthough f ew d etails w ere r ecorded. A j et b utton f rom M oor D ivock ( Spence 1 940, 1 13;

C arlisle M useum) m ay h ave I n

( Clarke

B eaker 1 970,

c ontexts I I,

c ome f rom a c airn.

j et b uttons u sually h ave

A ppendix 3 .3),

m ale

b ut W est L ilburn i s

a ssociations

t he e xception t o

t his. S maller ' buttons a s p arts o f n ecklaces a re m ore t ypically a ssociated w ith f emales, a lthough j et n ecklaces d o n ot h ave e xclusively f emale a ssociations ( p.173). A s w ith o ther o rnaments o f j et, b uttons a re m ore f requently f ound i n c ist b urials, b ut o ther c ontexts a re a lso k nown a s a re a lso a ssociations w ith a r ange o f f unerary p ottery i ncludi ng B eakers,

c inerary u rns

a nd p ossibly f ood v essels.

A t G rey C roft, S eascale, a f ragment o f a j et r ing w as f ound i n a b urial c ontext b ut w as n ot i tself a ssociated w ith a b urial d eposit. T he

r ing,

w hich

h as

a t rapezoidal c ross

s ection i s

a bout

a n

( 2.5cm) i n d iameter, t he p art t hat r emains b eing p lain a nd n ot o f p ulley-ring t ype ( Fletcher 1 958, f ig.3). I ts d ate a nd f unction

i nch t he a re

u nknown. J et f ragment O ne

o ther

o bject

o f j et i s k nown f rom a b urial c ontext

i n

t he

n orth o f E ngland, a nd t his i s a r im f ragment o f j et f rom a m ound a t H igh Knowes, f ound w ith a f lint s craper. T he f ragment c ould b e p art o f t he r im o f a j et c up, w ith a d iameter o f c 1 0cm. O ne o ther s uch f ragment w ith a c omparable d iameter i n t he R ogerson c ollection i s k nown f rom t he a rea,

b ut n o f ind c ontext

i s

175

r ecorded.

T he o bject m ay b e f rom

t he H ebburn M oor a rea ( Newbigin 1 941, k nown f rom D orset, 1 ) evon a nd W iltshire a re

s o

1 09, p l.VIII.7). ( Newall 1 929) b ut

f ar o therwise u nknown a t

t his

p eriod.

E arly B ronze A ge k nife-dagger E ngland ( Table 5 1, M ap 5 4)

a nd

d agger

N ine

b urials

b urials i n

a ssociated w ith a v ariety o f

S hale c ups v essels o f

a re j et

t he n orth

o f

E arly B ronze A ge

k nife-

d aggers a nd d aggers a re k nown f rom t he n orth o f E ngland, a ll h aving b een f ound i n t he n orth-east. T hese b urials o ccur p rimarily a nd a lmost e xclusively i n c ists, a ssociated w ith a ll o f b ody

p osition

s keleton d ate

i n

w as t he

s keletal i s

i s

r ecorded

c ontracted, a rea.

r emains

s ome

b oth i n m ounds a nd f lat, a nd t he b urial t hem i s i nhumation. I n t hree c ases w here ( at Amble, a s

i s m ost

A lthough

d iffers

h ave

o f

b een i nhumed.

A llerwash, e xcavated a t t he o pposite e nd

t o v ery

b y

t he

A t

B arrasford

p halanges

e xcavators

m ost

a nd

d isorder

t o

o f

t he

a l

1 965,

i tself

w as

n ot

s urvival a n

i ncomplete

r epresented

a t

p elvis w ere p laced l eg b ones, a s i f

w ere

t he

r ibs,

v ertebrae, b eing

A t H umbleton t he b ones

( Cowen 1 966,

f ound

A ngerton.

( the m andible a nd m axilla)

6 5-75).

o f

t here

i n t he g rave

H umbleton a nd B roomhouses,

s kull

t his

p elvis a nd l ower l imbs w ere S imilar f eatures, s ometimes

t runk a nd l imb g irdles w ere n ot f ound, w hile m ost o f t he m ore s ubstantial b ones r emained, s kull

t hat

i s m ost p ronounced

s keleton w as m issing, o f

t he

t he

o f

c onditions,

p ost-deposition d isturbance,

B arrasford,

t wo p ieces

( Jobey e t

l ocalised

i n 1 972, w here f ragments o f t he o f t he c ist f rom t he c ontracted

a t R eaverhill F arm,

H umbleton),

s canty a nd

t he n ine b urials

T his

r epresenting a w hole b ody w hen o nly t he p resent ( Newman a nd M iket 1 973, 9 0). a ttributed

a nd

c ommon f or c ist b urials

e vidence i s

a ccording

i ndication f rom f our

b ody m ight

C heswick

r ite t he

i n

o f

t he

a t B roomhouses a lthough p lus t hree t eeth, t he 2 26),

a n otable

e xclusion

p erhaps, a s t his i s u sually o ne o f t he m ost d urable p arts o f a s keleton. A t W est L ilburn t he c ontents o f t he c ist w ere a pparently d isturbed ( only f ragments o f t he B eaker r emained), t wo o f t he l ong b ones o f t he s keleton w ere s plit l ongitudinally a nd t he f ill o f t he c ist c omprising s oil, g ravel a nd l arge w ater-rounded s tones, w hich m ust h ave

b een d eliberately p ut

i n,

i s

u nusual

( Collingwood a nd

C owen 1 946,

2 17-229). • W here f urther d etails r emains i n t hese b urials, B arrasford L ilburn. b eing

a nd C heswick a nd T wo

6 ft

C heswick a lthough

o f

l ong 5 ft

t he

t he

a vailable c oncerning t he a re i dentified a s a dult,

f emale a t A llerwash,

c ists w ere u nusually

b y 2 ft w ide l ong

a re a ll

a nd 21 2 f / t d eep

b y 2½ f t w ide

b y 11 2 f / t

l arge,

B roomhouses t hat

( Tate

1 891, ( Raine i s

a nd

W est

a t N orth C harlton

d eep

i nhumation w ithin t he C heswick c ist

s keletal m ale a t

2 69-272) 1 852,

a nd

a t

2 34-5),

d efinitely r ecorded

a s c ontracted. B oth B roomhouses. M assive

o f t hese c ists h ad c lay l uting, a s d id t hat a t c ists a nd c lay l uting a re f eatures a lso r ecorded

f or

i n S cotland

s ome

dagger

T he m ound c ists

graves

k nife-dagger

' Kip H ill') o nly

d uring s ix

c ist w as

o ne

o f

t wo

1 77). c ists

f ound

b eneath

a

a t N orth C harlton ( Tate 1 891, 2 72) a nd i t i s r ecorded t hat o ther h ave b een t aken o ut o f t he m ound a t B arrasford ( MacLaughlan's ( Jobey e t

a nd H umbleton a re a ll T he

b urial

( Henshall 1 968,

t he

n on-cist

a l

1 965,

f ind,

c onstruction o f

f eet w est

o f

t wo

6 5-75).

T he f inds

i n a reas w hich h ave p roduced t he

b urial

a r ailway

c inerary u rns

a t Amble, o ther

c ist

f rom L ow M oralee F arm

C heswick b urials. w as

f ound

c utting o n t he R idley H all E state, a nd

176

a n i ncense

c up w ith

c remations

( 415-417). n oted a t

T he t wo f inds c ould h ave c ome f rom a m ound, b ut n one w as t he t ime, n or a ny t ype o f c ist c onstruction a round t he

i nhumation. F our o f

t hese b urials

h ave m ultiple a ssociations.

A t

A llerwash,

a s w ell a s t he t wo f ragments o f b ronze s trip w hich m ay h ave c onstituted p art o f t he s heath m ounting, t races o f b ronze w ere a lso f ound o n t op o f a s tone c overing o bject o f c opper

t he b utt o f t he d agger, o r b ronze h ad a lso b een

s uggesting t hat d eposited w ith

a s econd t he b ody

( Newman a nd M iket 1 973, 8 7-95). T he d agger w ould a ppear t o h ave b een l aid b eside t he i nhumation, r ather t han h ave b een p ositioned a s w orn, w hich i s n ot s urprising i f o nly a p art o f t he b ody w as i nhumed. T he k nife-dagger f rom A mble w as a ssociated w ith a f ood v essel, a r ichly d ecorated e xample w ith a h erring-bone p attern e xecuted i n i mpressed ' whipped c ord m aggot t echnique ( Fig.90). A t W est L ilburn t he k nife ( of p rojecting b utt t ype) w as f ound w ith f ragments o f a B eaker, a j et b utton, f lint f lake a nd a p iece o f c halk ( Fig.84) ( Tait 1 965 n o.69) a t ypical a ssemblage f or t his k ind o f k nife. T he l argest g roup o f a ssociated a rtifacts f rom a k nife-dagger b urial c omes f rom B roomhouses, A ngerton. U nfortunately n either t he o bjects t hemselves n or t he s ketches

o f

t hem m ade

b y t he R ev.

J ohn H odgson c an n ow b e f ound,

b ut

a

s ufficient d escription e xists t o i ndicate t hat a b ronze k nife w ith t hree r ivets w as f ound w ith t wo s harp f lint k nives a nd a s mall p iece o f f lint, j et b eads a nd ' a l ight h ammer o f f lint'. F rom t heir d escription t he j et o bjects c omprised o ne b ead o r t oggle ( described a s a n d rop') a nd e ight s pacer p lates ( pp.171-4) ( Cowen 1 966, 2 26-7).

' ear-

K nife-dagger a nd d agger t ypes T he

b ronze k nife-daggers a nd d aggers

r epresented

i n t hese

g raves

m ay b e d ivided i nto t hree t ypes. T he f irst i s t he k nife-dagger w ith p rojecting b utt d istinguished b y C larke ( Clarke 1 970, I , 2 6Off), a n e xample

o f

w hich

w as

f ound a t W est L ilburn

( Fig.84)

( Gerloff

1 975

n o.240). T hese w ere p robably u sed a s k nives a s t hey a re t oo s hort t o h ave b een a s tabbing w eapon a nd a re f rom t heir a ssociations t he e arliest r iveted b lades i n B ritain ( ibid, 1 60). T hree o f G erloff's f our e xamples o f t his t ype o f b lade h ave n o r ivet h oles r emaining a nd h ence t he c omplete s hape a nd n umber o f r ivets i s c onjectural, a lthough t he s traight o r s lightly c urved h ilt p late m ark c an b e s een. T he t hree b lades w ith k nown a ssociations, o f w hich W est L ilburn i s o ne, a re f rom B eaker b urials, t hat f rom D riffield, Y orkshire, a ssociated w ith a s tone w rist-guard w ith g old c apped t ubular c opper r ivets, a N 2 B eaker a nd t hree o val a mber b eads ( Clarke 1 970, n o.1265), T hames f ound w ith a t anged f lat c opper d agger,

a nd f rom D orchester-ons tone w rist g uard a nd a

W /MR B eaker ( Clarke 1 970 n o.735; G erloff 1 975, n os.237 a nd 2 39). T he W est L ilburn f ind t oo m ay b e c onsidered a c omparatively r ich B eaker g roup i n t he n orthern E ngland c ontext. A nother k nife w ith p rojecting b utt

i s

k nown f rom G lenluce,

W igtown,

b ut

t his

k nown a ssociations ( Gerloff 1 975 n o.238). t hese k nives a re m ade o f c opper ( ibid, 1 59) o f

t he D orchester b lade c ontains 6 % t in

T he m ajority o f c ome u nder G erloff's

i s a s tray f ind w ithout

I t h as b een s uggested t hat a lthough o ne o f t he r ivets

( Case 1 965,

2 19).

k nife-daggers f rom b urials i n t he n orth o f E ngland c ategory o f f lat r iveted k nife-daggers. T hese a re

d ivided b y G erloff i nto v arious t ypes, b ut o f t hese t ypes r epresented i n t he n orth o f E ngland n o s ignificant r ecurrent a ssociations o r d iscrete g eographical d istributions a re a pparent. T he k nife-daggers

1 77

d iffer m ost o bviously a ccording t o t he s hape o f t he m ark o f t he h iltp late and t he n umber o f r ivets; a ll c ould h ave b een p roduced i n s imple, s ingle p iece m oulds. T he s mallest a nd s implest b lade i s f rom A mble ( Gerloff n o.260) w ith t hree r ivets a nd n o h ilt p late m ark ( Fig.90). T hese b lades a re a ssociated w ith b oth m ale a nd f emale b urials ( mainly c remations) t hroughout t he c ountry, t he l arge c oncentration i n W essex r eflecting t he n umber o f b urials e xcavated i n t he a rea ( ibid, 1 67, p 1.39). A lso w ithin t his g roup o f f lat r iveted k nife-daggers i s t he e xample f rom H umbleton ( Gerloff n o.295) w ith t hree r ivet h oles a nd a n

f l h ilt p late m ark ( Fig.111), a nd t he b lade f rom A llerwash ( Newman a nd M iket 1 973, f ig.3) w ith a l op-sided A. h ilt p late m ark ( Fig.111) f ound w ith t wo f ragments o f b ronze s trip w hich m ight h ave f ormed p art o f t he s heath b inding. T races o f a w ooden h aft r emained o n t his e xample w hich m ay b e c ompared w ith t he H umbleton b lade, o r w hich m ay f all i nto G erloff's ' Type B utterwick ( Gerloff 1 975, 4 2), s ince i t h as b evelled e dges. T he e xcavators s uggested t hat t he A llerwash b lade m ay h ave b een h ammered i nto s hape f rom a r oughly m oulded b lock o f b ronze ( Newman a nd M iket 1 973, 9 2). T he b lade f rom N orth C harlton ( Gerloff n o.82) h as a Vs/ s haped h ilt p late m ark ( Fig.111) a nd i s c lassified a s ' Type M asterton' ( Gerloff 1 975, 5 8), a t ype w ith t riangular b lade, t hree p lug r ivets a nd a r ounded b utt. T he N orth C harlton e xample w hen f ound i n 1 824 i s r eported t o h ave h ad a v ery s harp p oint a nd a h aft a pparently o f b one, w hich s oon c rumbled t o d ust ( Tate 1 891, 2 72). T he p oint t oo i s n ow l ost. T he ' Type M asterton' b lades h ave a p articularly S cottish d istribution b ut e xamples a re k nown i n Y orkshire, D erbyshire a nd S taffordshire ( Gerloff 1 975, p 1.32). T here a re n o c onsistent a ssociat ions o f g rave g oods w ith t his t ype a nd t he b urial r ite i s m ainly i nhumation, a lthough c remation i s k nown ( ibid, A ppendix 1 2). i llustration o f t he b lade f rom B roomhouses s urvives, b ut i t d escribed a s f lat w ith t hree r ivets a nd m ay b elong w ith t his g roup. T he

t wo m ore

c omplex e xamples o f

b ronze t echnology o f

N o i s

t hese E arly

B ronze A ge t ypes, a re t he d aggers f rom C heswick a nd B arrasford ( Fig.111 n os.156 a nd 5 3) b oth o f w hich m ay h ave r equired c asting i n a t wo-piece m ould. T he C heswick d agger ( Gerloff n o.96, G roup R idgeway) h as a c learly d efined m id-rib, a V s haped h ilt m ark a nd t riangular b lade. O nly o ne r ivet s urvives, a lthough t wo w ere n oted i n t he 1 9th c entury ( Donaldson 1 832-41, 9 2-3) a nd t races o f a l eather s heath a re s uggested. T he d agger f rom B arrasford h as t hree r ivets, a n o mega s haped h ilt m ark a nd a t riple-reeded m idrib ( Gerloff n o.101, T ype A uchterhouseB arrasford): o nly t hree e xamples o f t his t ype a re k nown f rom B ritain, a nd e xamples o f G roup R idgeway b lades a re a lso r are, a lthough w idely d istributed ( Gerloff 1 975, p 1.33). B oth t he C heswick a nd t he B arrasford d aggers c ome f rom g raves w ith m ale i nhumations. B urgess a nd G erloff b oth s uggest t hat, t hough t ypologically a nd t echnologically m ore a dvanced

t han t he f lat e xamples,

r ibbed d aggers b elong t o a l ater p eriod e t a l 1 965, 7 1). F inally t he b lade G erloff i n t riangular, r ivet 1 923,

t here i s n o e vidence ( ibid,

f rom L ow M oralee F arm,

h er s tudy, i s d ifficult 31 /i 2 nches ( 8.3cm) l ong a nd

6 7-8;

t hat

t hese

B urgess i n J obey

w hich w as n ot

i ncluded

b y

t o p arallel. T he b lade i s t he b utt r ounded w ith o ne l arge

h ole s lightly o ff-centre a nd a r ivet n otch o n e ither s ide ( Brewis 2 9-31, f ig.1) ( Fig.111). N one o f t he b lades e xamined b y G erloff

w ould a ppear t o e xhibit t his a rrangement. ( ?) w ooden h ilt o n t he b lade.

1 78

T here s eem t o

b e

t races

o f

a

O ther g rave g oods

( Table 5 2)

A v ariety o f g rave g oods o ther t han t hose a lready d iscussed a bove a re f ound, i n s mall n umbers, w ith b urials o f t he E BA i n t he n orth o f E ngland. T hese i nclude t ools a nd o rnaments o f b one, a ntler, s tone, c lay, amber a nd b ronze. S ome o f t hese m ay b e c ompared w ith o ther e xamples i n t he r est o f B ritain, a nd o thers a re s o f ragmentary ( e.g. s ome b ronzes), o r a re o f s uch a n u nremarkable t ype ( e.g. c obble s tones), t hat t hey a re o f l ittle v alue f or c omparative p urposes. A ll s uch g rave g oods, w hatever t heir i ntrinsic v alue a s d atable o bjects, h ave b een l isted, i n a n a ttempt t o p rovide a s c omprehensive a p icture a s p ossible o f t he r ange o f E BA b urial a ssociations i n t he r egion. T he i ndividual a rtifacts, m ore a ssociation w ith E BA p ottery,

t han h alf o f w hich w ere f ound a re d iscussed b riefly b elow.

i n

d irect

B ronze O ther

t han b ronze d aggers a nd k nife-daggers

( pp.176-8)

o nly

t wo

t ypes o f b ronze a rtifact a re k nown w ith b urials i n t his a rea, b ronze a wls a nd b ronze r azors. T he a wls a re o f t wo t ypes, d ouble p ointed f rom B irkrigg E ast ( Fig.107) ( Davey a nd F orster 1 975, n o.20) a nd ( BM) a nd s ingle p ointed w ith a f lattened t ang f rom K irkoswald

F owberry ( Fig.101)

( Clough 1 972, f ig.lb). T he f ragment f rom E tall M oor i s t oo s mall ( lcm l ong) t o a llow o f p ositive i dentification a s t o t ype.. D ouble p ointed a wls

a re w ell r epresented i n B eaker a ssociations b oth i n

E urope, a nd A ppendix 3 ;

B ritain

a lso w ith f ood v essels i n t his c ountry ( Clarke S impson 1 968, 2 00), w hile t he s ingle p ointed a wl

a nd 1 970, w ith

f lattened t ang w ould a ppear t o b e a n i nsular d evelopment, f ound i n a ssociations n o e arlier t han t he W essex c ulture ( Simpson 1 968, 2 00). T he d ouble p ointed a wl f rom F owberry w as f ound i n a ssociation w ith a c lassic Y orkshire v ase ( Fig.95) a nd t he t anged a wl f rom K irkoswald w ith a c ollared u rn ( Fig.101). T he b ronze r azors, f rom ' Cumberland" p ossibly a ssociated w ith a Y orkshire v ase ( Fell 1 967, f ig.1.4A-B), a nd f rom S tainton H ead, U lverston ( Fig.105), a ssociated w ith t wo c ollared u rns a nd a s maller a ccessory ( Fig.105) v essel ( Fell 1 958, 9 -12, p l.; D avey a nd F orster 1 975 n o.23), a re b oth o f C lass I B ( Piggott C .M. 1 946, 1 21; B utler a nd S mith 1 956, 3 1, 5 1-2). T he ' sword h andle o f b ronze' ( now l ost) f rom a c ist a t H umbleton h as n ot b een i dentified. S everal o ther c ists a re k nown f rom t he a rea w ith a ssociations w hich i nclude a j et n ecklace ( p.171) a nd a k nife d agger ( p.176). F ragments o f b ronze f ound w ith s everal o ther b urials c annot b e s pecifically i dentified. T hose

f rom C arrock F ell a nd W est H epple

( 603) m ay h ave b een

a wls

a nd

f ragments o f b ronze f rom B roomrigg C w ith p arallel e dges a ttached t o a f ibrous s ubstance m ay h ave b een p art o f a b inding. A s mall t hin ' plate c annot

o f

b ronze

w ith r ivet h oles f rom

C oldsmouth

H ill

( Fig.107)

b e s pecifically i dentified.

B one a nd a ntler O bjects o f b one i nclude c urved a wls, a ssociated w ith a f ood v essel a t H asting H ill a nd a B eaker a t C lifton a nd a f ragment o f a p erforated b one p in f ound i n t he b ody o f t he m ound a t C rosby G arrett C LXXVI w ith a s mall b one c hisel, a b one t oggle a nd o ther i tems ( Fig.108). A ll o ther b one p ins w ere a ssociated w ith c remations a nd h ad t hemselves b een b urnt. A s t he n umber o f b urnt p ins i s o ften t he s ame a s t he n umber o f c remation d eposits w ith w hich t hey w ere a ssociated, t he p ins m ay h ave f unctioned

a s

f astenings

f or a s hroud o r o ther c overing o f

179

t he

b ody,

b efore c remation.

T he b one

t oggle f rom C rosby G arrett

( Greenwell 1 877,

f ig.53) h as a c rudely i ncised d ecoration w hich w ould a ppear t o b e u nique, a nd i s p erforated t hrough t he s ide ( Fig.108), a s i s a lso t he p lain e xample f rom B laeberry H aws C , w hich w as f ound w ith a p ot a nd a c remation a nd w as i tself b urnt. B one t oggles w ith p erforated s ide l oops a re k nown i n a ssociation w ith f ood v essels f rom Y orkshire ( Simpson 1 968, 2 10, s tandard p attern f or

a

f igs.45.4 a nd 4 6.3) t he t ype.

b ut

t here w ould s eem t o b e n o

T wo l arge p ieces o f a ntler a re k nown f rom b urial c ontexts, o ne i n c ist w ith a n i nhumation a t G reat T osson a nd a nother i n t he b ody o f n ear a c ist w ith a f ood v essel a nd

o ther

g rave g oods. I n C umbria p ieces o f a ntler a nd a nimal b ones w ere i n c ists w ith i nhumations a t K irkby S tephen a nd I ron H ill.

t he

m ound

a t H asting H ill,

f ound

O rnaments o f c lay,

a mber a nd g lass

T he o nly o rnaments a nd n ecklaces a re b eads s ingly. f ig.52),

f rom b urials o f

i n t he a rea o ther t han j et b uttons

f ired c lay,

a mber a nd g lass.

A ll w ere f ound

T he c lay b eads f rom R avenstonedale ( Fig.105) ( Greenwell 1 877, a nd f rom B anniside M oor ( Collingwood W .C. 1 910, p l. f acing

p .350) l ost)

w ere f ound w ith c remations i n m ounds, a nd a n a mber b ead ( now i s r ecorded f rom a c ist i n a m ound a t R ugley. T he o nly o ther

i tems

o f

a mber i n t he n orth o f E ngland a re t wo b eads w hich w ere

f ound

i n d raining a p eat b og a t S imonside i n t he 1 9th c entury ( Cowen 1 966, p l.XV) a nd a b ead i n t he H eathery B urn c ave ( Britton 1 968, n o.13) ( Fig.128). A lthough g enerally m uch r arer i n t he n orth o f B ritain t han i n t he s outh, a mber b eads h ave o n o ccasion b een f ound i n c ombination w ith j et, a s i n t he n ecklaces f rom C ruden a nd B linmill, R othie-Norman, A berdeenshire,

a nd f rom ' Lanarkshire

( Callander 1 916,

2 11,

2 15).

A

b lue g lass b ead w ith a w avy l ine o f o paque w hite w as f ound b eneath a l ow c airn a t G rayson-lands, G lassonby ( Collingwood W .G. 1 901, 2 98-299, f ig.). a lso w ith w ave

A c ist

a nd

t wo

c remation d eposits,

o ne i n a c ollared u rn,

w ere

f ound b eneath t he c airn b ut t he b ead w as n ot d irectly a ssociated a ny o f t hese. T he b ead i s o f G uido's g roup 5 , (-m iscellaneous d ecorated b eads') w hich e ncompasses m aterial v ariously d ated f rom

t he I ron A ge t o t he p ost-Roman p eriod. I t i s s uggested t hat t he G lassonby b ead i s a s econdary s tray o f ? D ark A ge d ate, i n a n e arlier m ound ( Guido 1 978, 2 5, 1 28). G lass b eads h ave b een f ound i n u nequivocal E BA b urial c ontexts i n B ritain, b ut t he m ajority o f s uch b eads

a re

m onochrome,

B oscregan, S t. ( ibid, 2 0-22). R ed

w ith t he p ossible e xception o f

J ust-in-Penwith,

o chre o r h aematite,

e xamples

C ornwall a nd M orehampstead

i n

f rom D evon

w hich m ay a lso h ave b een u sed a s am eans

o f b odily d ecoration, h as b een r ecorded f rom f our b urials i n t he a rea, i n t he n orth-east w ith B eaker b urials a nd i n C umbria w ith ' sherds' a nd c remations. S tone O bjects o f s tone f rom b urials i nclude a b attle a xe o f R oe's t ype I IB f rom a c ist a t S eghill ( Fig.67) ( Roe 1 966, 2 36 n o.148) a nd w hets tones f rom a c ist a t F oulden, w ith a n u rn a t H owich H eugh, f or t he

c ontents o f w hich t here i s a r adiocarbon d etermination o f 1 440 2 . 9 0 bc ( 1-6974), a nd w ith a n A OC B eaker a nd o ther g rave g oods a t K irkhaugh ( Fig.84). A p erforated w hetstone o f a t ype k nown i n a ssociation w ith

1 80

c ollared u rns e .g. . W arminster b arrow G 5 ( Annable a nd S impson 1 964 n o.537) w as f ound a t H owtill F arm , N orham ( Nat.Mus.Antiq. E dinburgh A L124) b ut i ts c ontext i s u nknown. A f inely m ade s tone c hisel f rom a m ound c ist,

a t O rton ( Fig.107), p ossibly f rom t he d isturbed c ontents o f a i s t he o nly o ne o f i ts t ype f rom t he r egion. O ther s tone o bjects

( some n ow l ost) f ound w ith b urials i n t he a rea c lassify a nd a re d escribed o nly a s ' cobble s tones', w hetstones a nd ' pounders'.

a re d ifficult t o ' pebble h ammers',

O THER E VIDENCE F OR M ORTUARY P RACTICES B ronze A ge b urials h ave b een d iscussed l argely i n t erms o f t he d isposal o f t he d ead a s i t i s t hese r emains, i n t he f orm o f i nhumations a nd

c remations

a nd t heir a ssociated g rave g oods a nd

m onuments

w hich

c omprise t he m ajority o f t he e vidence f or b urial p ractices. A t a n umber o f s ites t here i s s ome e vidence f or o ther t ypes o f m ortuary r ituals w hich t ook p lace i n t he v icinity o f t he g rave. i nformation i s r ecorded a t i nsufficient s ites t o b e

T his t ype o f i ncluded i n a

c lassification o f b urial p ractices f rom t he a rea. B ut w here s imilar f eatures a re r ecorded i ndependently a t d ifferent s ites, t hey m ay b e a n i ndication o f m ore w idespread p ractices o f w hich o nly l imited t races r emain. C remation T he

m ost o bvious

f eature o f

c remation p ractices

i s

t hat w hich

i s

u sually l acking i n B ronze A ge b urials, n amely t races o f t he s tructure o r p yre o n w hich b odies w ere c remated. A t a lmost a ll s ites w here c remations h ave b een f ound t here i s n o e vidence o f o ther b urnt m aterial w hich m ight h ave c onstituted t he f uneral p yre. T his s uggests t hat i n t he m ajority o f c ases t he f inal d eposition o f c remations t ook p lace a t a b urial s ite s eparate f rom t he c remation a rea. O ne n otable e xception i s t he c remation ' cemetery a t W aterloo H ill, C umbria w here t he c remat ions, i n u rns a nd p ossibly b ags, w ere f ound i n h ollows 6 -8ft i n d iameter

w hich

w ere f illed w ith b lack a sh a nd

c harcoal.

T his

s ite

c ould b e i nterpreted a s b oth a p lace o f c remation a nd a c emetery w ith c ompleted c remations s tored i n t he p yre h ollows. A s econd a spect o f c remation p ractice w hich s uggests t hat c remations m ay h ave b een s tored f or s ometime b efore f inal b urial i s t he f requent o ccurrence o f m ore t han o ne c remation i n t he s ame u rn o r d eposit. S everal o f t hese d eposits c onsist o f a dult f emales a nd c hildren. A lthough b oth m aternal a nd i nfant m ortality m ight b e e xpected t o b e q uite h igh i n s uch p opulat ions a nd u nweaned i nfants m ay h ave d ied t hrough l ack o f s ustenance i f a ccident o r i llness b efell t heir m other, i t i s d ifficult t o a ccount f or t he

s imultaneous

d emise

s eems l ikely , t hat l ater w ith o thers, b ody

p rior

t o

o f a c hild a nd

t wo o r t hree a dult

f emales.

I t

i ndividual c remations w ere s tored t o b e d isposed o f a t a s uitable o pportunity. T he p reparation o f t he

c remation a nd d etails

o f

t he c remation p rocess

a re

n ot

w ell k nown f or B ritish p rehistoric m aterial, a lthough A merican w ork s hows h ow f ruitful s uch a s tudy c an b e ( e.g. B inford 1 972a). T here i s s ome e vidence h owever t hat c remations c omprise t he r emains o f o nly s ome p arts o f t he b ody, a s f ound f or e xample a t L itton C heney i n D orset a nd

181

i n

o ther c remations

e xamined b y W estley

( Westley

1 976,

9 7-8).

T wo

e xplanations m ay b e-suggested: e ither t he d eposit p laced i n a n u rn o r b ag w as o nly a ' token d eposit a nd o ther p arts o f t he c remation w ere d isposed o f e lsewhere ( for e xample, s cattered), o r a n i ncomplete b ody w as c remated, t he b ody h aving z een d ivided p reviously f or e xample f or r itual r easons, b y e xposure e tc. T he c remation u rns t hemselves a re f ound b oth z . pright a nd i nverted. h ope-Taylor's m eticulous e xcavation o f a n u rnea c remation a t Y eavering s nowed t hat t he c remation w as t ipped i nto t he u rn t hrough a h ole i n t he b ase o f t he i nverted p ot ( HopeT aylor 1 977, 3 38 f f.). O nly v ery d etailed e xcavation r eveals d etails o f t his s ort a nd i n g eneral n o s pecific a ssociations h ave b een i dentified w ith u pright o r i nverted u rns. T he p resence o f a f ew s herds ( insufficient t o h ave f ormed a c omplete p ot) w ith s ome c remations m ight a lso b e i nterpreted a s a f orm o f ' token' d eposit. I nhumations T here i s s ome e vidence f rom t ae n orth o f E ngland t hat i n c ertain c ases i nhumation d id n ot a lways e ntail t he d isposal o f a c omplete b ody. N otable e xamples a re s ome o f t he b urials w ith d aggers, w here p arts o f t he b ody a re m issing ( p.175). A . s imilar a bsence o f p arts i s a lso r ecorded a t H exnam ( 2E5) w here a l arge b oulder

o f t he c orpse r eplaced t he

s kull o f a d isturbed i nhumation a nd a , : S eahouses ( 523) w here a n i nhumat ion a ppeared t o h ave b een e xhumed a nd r e-buried. ' T ne d isturbed a ppearance o f s ome r emains m ay b e r elated t o t he o riginal d eposition i n t he g rave o f o nly p arts o f a c omplete s keleton w hich w ere m ade t o r esemble t he l ayout o f a c omplete c orpse ( as a t A llerwash) o r t o t he b urial b urial.

o f

a d isintegrating c orpse, r ather t han t o d isturbance a fter S imilar ' disturbed' i nh Lumations a re r ecorded a t f our o f t he

f ive s ites w ith i nhumations a nd c remations i n C umbria ( p.143) a t W arcop ( 952-953) a nd B irkrigg E ast ( 7i4-718) a nd a t G rundstone L aw ( 254). T his i s a lso a f eature o f N eolithic b urial p ractice i n t he a rea ( pp.971 03). A lthough c lear, T hese w as

t races i nclude

f ound a bout

t he

d istinction b etween i nhumatiOns

a nd

c remations

i s

o f b urning a re r ecorded w ith a n umber o f i nhumations. t he d ispersed i nhumations a t W arcop w here m uch c harcoal t he b ones,

i nhumations

a t B randon H ill

( 113)

a nd K elloe

L aw ( 364-368) i n w hich s ome o f t he b ones w ere s lightly c alcined a nd f ire r eddening i n c ists w ith i nhumations a t B rougham ( 737), C hollerford ( 161) a nd N etherwitton ( 437). I ndications o f b urning a t t he s ite o f t he g rave o r f unerary m onument a re n umerous. T hese i nclude p atches o f b urning, s take h oles a nd a l arge s pread o f c harcoal a t C hatton S andyford ( p.142) a t hick d eposit o f c harcoal a nd e arth, c overed b y s tones, a t H awkshead M oor ( 815-820) a nd b urnt s ubsoil b eneath c airns a t D our H ill

( 196-197)

A ttention t o c onstruction a nd

a nd S tell K nowe

( 565).

t he p reparation o f t he g rave i s s hown i n t he l uting o f s ome c ists a nd i n t he d eposit o f

m atter o n t he f loor o f

c ists a s

a t ype o f

b edding,

a s a t

c areful o rganic

S outh C harlton

( 535), a t A llerwash ( 4) w here t he b ody w as l aid o n a b ed o f r ushes a nd a lso i n t ree t runk c offins a t L orton ( 859) a nd C artington ( 142). C harc oals o f t ype o f

c herry, o ak a nd h azel i n a c ist a t W ooler ( 618) m ay b e s ome a romatic o r f loral t ribute t o t he d eceased. M ore u nusual

r emains a re t he h undreds o f l impet s hells c overing a n i nhumation a t F ulwell ( 233-234) a nd t he b ones o f w ater v oles a ssociated w ith a f emale c remation a nd t wo i nfant i nhumations a t C rosby G arrett ( 751-755).

1 82

O ther e xamples

o f

t his

p ractice a re r ecorded.

G raves w ithout h uman r emains Two m ethods o f d isposal o f h uman r emains a re g enerally r ecognised i n E BA b urial p ractice, i nhumation a nd c remation. H owever, i t i s p ossible t hat a n a bsence o f f ormal d isposal o f h uman r emains i s a p ositive b urial o ption d uring t his p eriod. T his o ption i s r ecorded i n t he a nthropological l iterature ( Ucko 1 969, 2 70-271) a nd r ecent a rchaeol ogical e vidence s uggests t hat t he a bsence o f h uman r emains i n a g rave i s n ot a lways a r esult o f u nfavourable s oil c onditions ( Allen D . 1 982, 1 06-7). I n t he n orth o f E ngland e mpty c ists c omprise a bout 4 0% o f a ll c ists e xcavated i n t he n orth-east a nd 3 3% o f t he m uch s maller n umber o f c ists f ound i n t he n orth-west. A bout h alf o f t hese c ists w ithout h uman r emains c ontain g rave g oods b oth c eramic a nd n on-ceramic, i ncluding s uch h uman

-r ich -

i tems a s j et n ecklaces. I n s ome i nstances c ists w ithout r emains a re i n c lose p roximity t o o thers i n w hich r emains a re

w ell

p reserved,

a gain s uggesting t hat

s oil c onditions d o

n ot

a lways

e xplain t he a bsence o f h uman r emains. I n n on-cist b urial c ontexts t here a re a lso e xamples o f e mpty u rns a djacent t o t hose w ith c remations a t B ambrough C XCVII; D uddo F arm, F elkington; H olystone C ommon C CV a nd L eacet H ill s tone c ircle.

T his

p henomenon w as

a lso n oted b y E llison i n

t he s outh o f E ngland ( Ellison 1 980, 1 22-123). W hile i t i s p ossible t hat c ists c ould h ave b een b uilt b efore t hey w ere n eeded a nd t hen r emained u nused f or s ome r eason, t his w ould n ot a ccount f or t he p resence o f g rave g oods i n m any o f t he g raves. T here r emains t he p ossibility t hat s ome ( if n ot a ll) e mpty c ists r epresent i ndividuals w ho n ot,

h ad t o b e a ccounted f or i n f unerary t erms o r s hould n ot, b e p laced i n a g rave.

T HE ' SOCIAL

b ut w hose r emains

c ould

I NTERPRETATION O F B URIALS

T he d iscovery o f

p rehistoric b urials,

p erhaps m ore

t han a ny o ther

t ype o f a rchaeological r emains p rompts a c onsideration o f t he r ole o f t he i ndividual i n s ociety a nd o f t he b eliefs a nd c ustoms a ssociated w ith d eath, l ife -s g reatest c risis. A lthough t he i nterpretation o f t hese f eatures h as v aried o ver p hilosophical a nd r eligious t hought, b een

t ime a ccording t o c ontemporary t he s ame t ypes o f q uestions h ave

c onsidered b y v ery d ifferent w riters.

u pon f amily l ife a nd s ocial o rganisation, a nd

p ower a nd r eligious

T hese i nclude s peculation p ersonal

o r ' other w orld - b eliefs.

s entiment,

w ealth

U ntil c omparatively

r ecently, t he m ajority o f t he e vidence f or p rehistoric s ettlement i n B ritain d uring t he N eolithic a nd E arly B ronze A ge c ame f rom b urials, a nd t he i nterpretation o f t his e vidence w as t he m ajor f ormative i nfluence i n t he s tudy o f t he e vidence f or s ettlement d uring t hese p eriods. A c omprehensive s urvey o f t he p hilosophical a nd h istorical b ackground

t o

b y C hapman ( 1971). A b urials

i s

t he s tudy o f

b urial c ustoms h as

r ecently b een

p resented

a nd R andsborg ( 1981) a nd w as a lso d iscussed b y B inford r esume o f t he m ain i nfluences i n t he i nterpretation o f

p resented h ere.

D uring t he 1 7th,

1 8th a nd e arly 1 9th c enturies

t he p hilosophical,

r eligious a nd s ocial q uestions w hich w ere p osed b y t he g rowing b ody

1 83

o f

e vidence o f t he e arly i nhabitants o f B ritain w ere c onsidered w ithin a p hilosophical f ramework o f u nilinear p rogressive d evelopment - t hat i s, a p rogression o f m an a nd s ociety f rom t he s tate d escribed i n t he B ook o f G enesis t o t he b est o f a ll s tates, n amely, t he p resent. E vidence f rom t ravellers a nd e thnographers o f c ontemporary p rimitive p eoples, i ncreasingly k nown t o t he w estern w orld f rom t he 1 7th c entury, w as c ompared w ith t he a rchaeological e vidence o f e xtinct p rimitive s ocieties a nd c omparisons n oted b etween t he t ypes o f t ools, m onuments a nd f unerary c ustoms c ommon t o b oth. E thnographic e vidence, i t w as t hought, w ould i lluminate t he m eaning o f m uch a rchaeological m aterial, a nd t he e vidence o f a pparently s imilar c ustoms a nd b eliefs i n d iverse p laces t hroughout t he g lobe w ould b e r econciled w ithin o ne u niversal e xplanatory s cheme ( e.g. o f b urial p ractices f or m ent

w as

p rimitive

B ateman 1 861, i ii). T he p articular i mportance t he u nderstanding o f m an's s piritual d evelop-

h ighlighted i n t he l ater 1 9th c entury i n r eligion

b y

F razer

( 1890)

a nd

T ylor

m ajor

s tudies

( 1871).

F or

o f

t hese

s cholars r eligion w as s een a s a n e xpression o f m an's u nderstanding t he s pirit w orld a nd o f t he s upernatural, t he l ogical c ulmination

o f o f

w hich w as C hristianity. T he m ain e vidence f or r eligious b eliefs w as t o b e f ound i n t he p ractices a nd c ustoms s urrounding b urial, t he t ime a t w hich

m an

p assed

i nto

a nother

w orld.

T he

e vidence

o f

E gyptian

d iscoveries s uggested t hat t he i ndividual w as b uried w ith a ll p ersonal p ossessions a nd a ccoutrements w hich w ould b e o f u se i n t he n ext w orld. B urial p ractices t herefore c learly e xpressed t he e xpectations i ndividual a nd s ociety f or t he l ife h ereafter. A

s imilar

i nterpretation

h ad b een a ssumed

b y

o f

a ntiquaries

e xcavators l ike T homas B ateman, w ho, w hen c onsidering g rave n oted t hat t here w as a pparent i n p rehistoric b urials t he

a n

a nd

g oods, i nnate

c onviction o f a f uture l ife o ffering t o m an.., n othing m ore t han a r epetition o f t he o ccupations a nd j oys o f t he p resent ( Bateman 1 861, i i). D ifferent t ypes o f ' social' g rouping i n g raves w ere c ommonly i nterpreted w ithin t he f ramework o f t he G ermanic m odel, s o p opular d uring t he 1 9th c entury, n amely t he n uclear f amily a nd t he l arger t erritorial ' bond' w ith a c hief a t t he h ead ( Greenwell 1 877). B y t he e arly 2 0th c entury t he t heory o f u nilinear p rogression w as m uch l ess p opular. S ocial D arwinism o ffered w ider p erspectives f or t he i nvestigation o f t he d evelopment o f h uman o rganisation. I n a rchaeology t he t heory o f d iffusion ( again d erived f rom e thnography) b ecame a ccepta ble a s a m eans o f e xplaining b oth c ultural s imilarity a nd c ulture c hange ( Chapman a nd R andsborg 1 981, 3 ). F or a rchaeologists t he t heory h ad a d ouble a ttraction b oth a s a m eans o f e xplaining c ulture c hange a nd a s a n a id t o t he f ormation o f c hronologies. I f c ontemporary f eatures s uch a s t he g rave g oods, b urial r ite a nd b urial c ontext a ssociated i n o ne b urial w ere u sed a s t he b asis o f a rchaeological c ultures', t hen t heir a ssociation w ith o ther g eographical a reas c ould b e m easured a nd t he s pread o f t raits b etween t hem d iscussed i n r elation t o p ossible c hronological i ndicators f ar r emoved f rom B ritain. T he i dentification o f ' rich' g rave g oods w ith p ossible f ar f lung t rading c onnections w as o f p articular s ignificance i n t his a pproach. T he s hift i n e mphasis t o i tems o f m aterial c ulture i n g raves a ltered t he f rame o f r eference f or b urial i nterpretation f rom r eligion t o c onsiderations o f w ealth', f orm

' power' a nd

' control o f

i n C hilde's M arxist

r esources', •

i nterpretation o f

c ontrol a nd h ence p olitical p ower w ere s een a s s ociety.

1 84

e xemplified i n

c ulture,

e xtreme

i n w hich e conomic

t he m otivating f orces i n

A lthough h aving s omewhat d ifferent v iewpoints t he t heorists o f u nilinear p rogression a nd d iffusion s hared c ertain a pproaches t o t he m aterial t hey w ere s tudying. B oth c onsidered b urial p ractices i n r elation t o s pecific i deas c oncerning p rocesses o f c hange i n s ociety a nd b oth r elied h eavily u pon e thnographic e vidence a nd e xtensive c rossc ultural c omparisons t o v alidate o r e xplain t he s tructure o f a p articular s ociety, c ulture o r s et o f b eliefs. I n e ffect b oth a pproaches r estricted t he b oundaries o f a rchaeological i nterpretation a nd, i n t he c ase o f t he a rtifact d ominated d iffusionist m odel, c ons iderably n arrowed t he f ield o f s tudy t o t he m inutiae o f a rtifact t ypology. T he r eaction t o t his e xcessive p articularisation w as f ound i n t he N ew A rchaeology d eveloped i n p articular b y L ewis B inford i n t he U nited S tates. I n t he A merican c ontext B inford's n ew p erspectives c an b e s een a s a n a ttempt t o r eassess a rchaeology a nd t o g ive t he s ubject a d egree o f a utonomy. I n t he w ider f ield t he N ew A rchaeology w as a p art o f a g eneral t rend i n i deas i n t he 1 960s f ound i n m any b ranches o f k nowledge c oncerning s ociety,

i ncluding h istory,

a nthropology a nd

l inguistics.

T he n eed t o a ssert t he a utonomy o f a rchaeology a s a d iscipline i n i ts o wn r ight, r ather t han a s a s omewhat i nferior f orm o f e thnography w as m ore a cute i n America w here a rchaeology, o ther t han c lassical s tudies, w as s ubsumed a s a p art o f a nthropology. I n B ritain t his p roblem d id n ot a rise. T he i mportance a nd s ingular c ontribution o f a rchaeology t o t he h ighly r espected f ield o f c lassical s tudies h ad l ong b een e stablished. T he s tudy o f t he e arlier i nhabitants o f E urope a nd B ritain w as m erely a b ack p rojection o f t he s ubject i nto p eriods f or w hich l ess i nformation w as a vailable, b ut w hich w ere n one t he l ess o f s ome i mportance a nd r espectability. A lthough c ertain s elf-assertive a spects B ritain,

o f t he A merican N ew A rchaeology w ere n ot a ppropriate t o m any o f t he a rguments c oncerning t he l imitations o f c urrent

a rchaeological i nterpretations, a nd a ttempts t o a chieve a m ore i ntegrated v iew o f c ulture a nd s ociety, d id e ventually f ind a r esponse, b ecause m uch c urrent a rchaeological o rthodoxy h ad r eached t he l imits o f i ts

i nterpretation.

I n a n a rticle e ntitled ' Archaeology a s a nthropology' p ublished i n 1 962 B inford s tressed t he c onsiderable p otential o f t he a rchaeological r ecord

f or

t he

s tudy o f ' total e xtinct

c ultural

s ystems'.

I f

t he

m eaning o f a rtifact a ssemblages a nd t he r elationships b etween d ifferent p arts o f t he a rchaeological r ecord c ould b e ' read" i n r elation t o e ach o ther, t hen a rchaeological e vidence w ould n o l onger b e a t ype o f l esser e thnography, d istorted b y t ime, b ut w ould p resent a c oherent a ccount o f a n e xtinct c ulture. d ifferent m eanings o f t heir p ractical, ( his t echnomic, ( Binford f unctions

o f

a n a ttempt w as m ade t o d efine w hich B inford d iscussed i n t erms

t he o f

s ocial a nd i deological f unction w ithin t he s ociety i deotechnic a nd s ociotechnic c ategories o f a rtifact)

1 962, 2 19-220). h owever, a s a ny a rtifact m ay h ave s everal a nd ' meanings' w ithin a s ocial g roup t his t ype o f d efinition

w as d ifficult f ound w ithin p arts

A t f irst a rtifacts,

t o i mplement. T he h ypothesis t hat m eaning w as t o t he b ody o f t he d ata a nd t hat t he i nter-relationship

t he a rchaeological

r ecord c ould b e

b e o f

' read' w hen c onsidered a s a

c oherent w hole w as m uch b etter a pplied t o t he s tudy o f b urial p ractices ( Binford 1 971). B urial, t he m ost d eliberate a nd i mmediate m ethod b y w hich p arts o f a n o ngoing c ultural s ystem a re t ransformed i nto a rchaeol ogical r emains,

c ould b e c onsidered a c oherent a nd s ignificant s tate-

185

m ent m ade b y a s ociety. R ecurrent p atterning w ithin t his t ype o f d ata s hould b e s usceptible t o i nterpretation w ithin a c oherent w hole. O n t he b asis o f t wo m ain a nthropological o bservations, t hat t he s ame b urial p ractice c ould m ean q uite d ifferent t hings i n d ifferent s ocieties a nd t hat t he t reatment o f a n i ndividual a t d eath w as r elated t o t he s ocial p osition o f t he i ndividual i n l ife, B inford s uggested t hat

b urial

p ractices

w ere r epresentative

o f

s ocial,

r ather

t han

r eligious, p rocesses. T wo l evels o f s ocial o rganisation m ight b e s ymbolised a t d eath, t he ' social p ersona', t hat i s, t he r ole o r s tatus o f t he i ndividual a nd t he c omposition a nd s ize o f t he s ocial g roup o f w hich t he i ndividual w as a p art. T he v alidity o f t hese h ypotheses w as t ested o n e thnographic d ata ( ibid, 1 7-23). S imilar p ropositions w ere t ested b y S axe ( 1970) a lso u sing e thnographic m aterial.

a nd

T wo h is

l evels o f i nterpretation a re d eveloped i n t he w ork o f B inford f ollowers. F irst, t he a nalysis o f d ata f rom a p articular

s ociety w ith a n e mphasis u pon t he i ntegrity a ssemblage o r g roup o f v ariables a nd s econd, b ody o f a rchaeological

t heory w ith ' law-like

b ehaviour, h aving u niversal a pplication, b ehaviour b etween g roups.

o f m eaning w ithin a n a n a ttempt t o e volve a g eneralisations o f

f rom o bserved

h uman

r egularities

o f

M uch o f t he w ork c arried o ut s ince 1 970 o n t he i nterpretation o f m ortuary p ractices h as b een c oncerned w ith t he d evelopment o f t he h ypotheses 7 -10). -

p ropounded b y B inford a nd S axe

( Chapman a nd R andsborg

1 981,

T hese i nclude: t he i dentification o f v arious d imensions o f s ocial p erson a nd t he d iscriminants b y w hich t hese m ay b e r ecognised, i n p articular ' rank' a s i dentified b y e ffort e xpenditure, g rave g oods o r t he d emographic s tructure o f a b urial p opulation ( e.g. S hennan S . 1 975: B rown J .A. 1 981, 2 9-30: T ainter 1 978, 1 191 22:

-

S hephard 1 979,

t he i dentification o f s ocial o rganisation a ccording t o t he n umber o f d imensions o f s ocial p erson r ecognised i n m ortuary r itual, 1 23:

-

i n p articular,

B rown J .A.

t he

r elationship r emains

t he n ature b etween l ogical

-

o f

d egrees

r anking

( Tainter 1 978,

1 22-

2 8-30)

2 6-27)

m ortuary 1 977) -

1 981,

t he r elationship b etween f ormal d isposal a reas a nd t he c ontrol o f l imited r esources ( Chapman 1 981: S hephard 1 979: B rown J .A. 1 981,

-

5 6)

o f

t he

d egrees

o f

r anking

e vidence

c ulture f ormation p rocesses t otal

r emains

o f

4 1:

T ainter 1 978:

t he

l oss

o f

b etween

a nd s ettlement

( O'Shea 1 981:

t he

a nd

i n

C ordy

r elationship t he

a rchaeo-

S chiffer 1 976,

2 7-

P eebles a nd K us 1 977)

s pecific t ypes o f

d ifferentiation a nd

a nd

e xtinct c ultural s ystem a nd t he s ame

e xhibited

( Tainter

r anking

i nformation r elative

( O'Shea 1 981,

4 9:

t o

s ocial

B rown J .A.

1 981,

i nfluence

u pon

3 7) -

t he s ymbolic n ature o f m ortuary r itual a nd

1 86

i ts

t he 2 67:

i nterpretation o f L each,1979, 1 21:

a rchaeological r emains ( Ucko 1 969, T ainter 1 978, 1 19-122)

2 65-

I n a ddition t o t he n ew p erspectives i n m ortuary i nterpretation p ropounded b y t he N ew A rchaeology, s tatistical a nd c omputer a nalyses d eveloped t esting

d uring t he l ast 2 0 y ears h ave o ffered a n o bjective m eans b oth t he p atterning o f

a rcheological d ata w ithin s ites a nd

o f t he

d egree o f c orrelation b etween t hem ( Chapman a nd R andsberg .1981, 9 -10). T echniques u sed h ave r anged f rom s imple t ests o f s ignificance t o c omputer m ethods w hich c an a ccommodate m uch g reater q uantities o f d ata t han c an b e a nalysed p articularly a pplied t o i n

t he d ata,

m anually. S eriation t echniques t he i dentification o f c hronological

f or e xample i n t he I ron A ge

c emetery a t

h ave b een p atterning

M ünsingen-Rain

( Hill M .O. 1 974, 3 51-354) w hile c lustering m ethods h ave b een a pplied t o t he i dentification o f g roupings o f v ariables w ithin a s ingle s ite, ( Taylor

1 975)

o r

p articular a rtifact

g roup t ype

o f

s ites

( Kinnes

1 979)

o r

e ven

w ithin

a

( Clarke 1 970).

L ike o ther e arlier a ttempts

t o i nterpret b urial p ractices

t he

N ew

A rchaeology h as r elied h eavily u pon t he u se o f e thnographic e vidence f or t he f ormulation a nd t esting o f h ypotheses c oncerning t he i nterpretation o f m ortuary d ata. A lthough t he d evelopment o f a rchaeol ogical t heory h as d one m uch t o e lucidate t he p roblems o f c ulture f ormation p rocesses, a n umber o f p roblems r emain c oncerning t he i nterpretation o f m aterial f rom a rchaeological s ites a nd p eriods f or w hich n o ( 1)

e thnographic e vidence i s

A ll o f t he d imensions m ortuary p ractice, a nd o rganisation

a vailable.

o f t he s ocial p ersona f rom w hich t he f orm o f

i s d educed,

m ay n ot b e

r ecoverable

r epresented i n l arger s ocial i n t he

a rchaeo-

l ogical r ecord, o r m ay f ail t o b e r ecognised. E thnographic e vidence s uggests t hat c ertain d imensions o f s ocial d istinction, s uch a s d ress, m ay n ot b e p reserved a nd t hat t he m eaning o f p articular d istinctions m ay b e o bscured w hen c ross c ut b y o ther f orms

o f I t

s ocial d ifferentiation. i s n oticeahle

t hat a rchaeologists h ave

r elied h eavily u pon

t he c oncept o f r ank o r s tatus d istinctions, u sually i dentified b y g rave g oods, r ather t han u pon s uch p ossible d istinctions a s k in a ffiliation, t ime o r l ocation o f d eath, f amilial p osition e tc. T his r eliance i s p artly o ccasioned b y t he d ifferential p reservat ion

o f

i tems i n t he g rave a nd b y t he

i mportance

t raditionally

a ttached t o g rave g oods, b ut a lso r epresents a m uch e asier f orm o f e xplanation t han m ight b e p ossible o therwise. T he e mphasis u pon s tatus ( 2)

T here u se

a nd g rave g oods

i s

i tself a b ias

i n t he i nterpretation.

i s a t endency w hen i nterpreting a rchaeological m aterial t he

r esults

o f

B inford a nd S axe

a s

a rchaeological

t o

' laws',

r ather t han a s h ypotheses t o b e t ested a gainst a vailable d ata. s hould b e n oted t hat S axe s s tudy ( 1970) w as r estricted t o

I t a n

a nalysis o f t hree w idely d iffering p eoples, a nd t hat B inford's a nalysis ( 1971) s ubstituted a l evel o f s ubsistence f or c omplexity •o f s tatus s tructure a s t here w as i nsufficient e thnographic e vidence f or t he l atter.

1 87

( 3)

T he d egree o f s ocial d ifferentiation e xhibited i n b urials a nd t he s ignificance g f d ifferentiation c an o nly b e a ssessed o n a c omp arative b asis u sing a l arge s ample s ize. I n t he a bsence o f d ata f rom l arge c emeteries i t m ay n ot b e p ossible t o d istinguish b etween t he i dentification o f s tates ( through w hich a ll i ndividuals m ay p rogress) a nd s tatuses o r r anks r estricted i n a vailability ( e.g. O rton a nd H odson 1 981). S imilarly t he i mportance o f b urial v ariables ( such a s g rave g oods) m ay b e o ver e stimated u nless t hese c an b e c ompared w ith e vidence f rom o ther c ontexts,

( 4)

T he

s uch a s s ettlements.

i nterpretation

o f

s ocial o rganisation f rom

s ocial p ersona c ombined w ith e ncourages t he c lassification o f o f

l imited

f eatures

o f

d istinctions

o f

t he u se o f s ocial t ypologies a s ociety o r g roup o n t he b asis

b urial p ractice,

w hich a re

l argely

t he

r esult o f d ifferential s urvival. C lassification o f s ocial t ype a ccording t o e volutionary t ypologies m ay t hen l ead t o m any a ssumpt ions c oncerning o ther a spects o f s ocial l ife a nd b ehaviour w hich a re

u nsubstantiated

E vidence t hat i dentified i n

o r

t ested b y a ny o ther

d ifferent n umbers d ifferent t ypes o f

f orm

o f d egrees o f a rchaeological

o f

e vidence.

r anking r emains

m ay b e o f t he

s ame s ociety, f or e xample, b urials a nd s ettlement e vidence ( Tainter a nd G ordy 1 977), s uggests t hat b urial e vidence a lone s hould n ot b e u sed t o c lassify s ocial o rganisation.

( 5 )

A lthough t he N ew A rchaeology a ttempts t o i dentify l aw - l ike g eneralisations o f b ehaviour a nd s ocial o rganisation a pplicable t o a ll

s ocieties,

i t i s a pparent

t hat t he i nterpretive c oncepts

a nd

v ocabulary u sed i n b urial a nalysis a re s trikingly m odern ( e.g. s tatus, e ffort e xpenditure, c ontrol o f r esources). R eligious b eliefs, a n otable f eature o f a lmost a ll s ocieties r ecorded e thnographers, a re n otably a bsent f rom t he c urrent a nalyses

b y o f

m ortuary p ractices. A n e mphasis u pon ' social i nterpretation m ay o bscure o ther f eatures r elative t o m ortuary b ehaviour s uch a s r eligion, e nvironment e tc. ( Saxe 1 970, 2 33-234).

C ORRESPONDENCE A NALYSIS O F E BA B URIALS A lthough

t he

a nalysis

o f

I N T HE N ORTH O F E NGLAND

a spects o f E BA b urial p ractice s uch

a s

g rave g oods o r b urial c ontext a llows a c omparison t o b e m ade w ith s imilar a rtifacts a nd s ites e lsewhere i n B ritain, a ll b urial v ariables a re n ot s pecific

c onsidered t ogether i n t his t ype o f a nalysis. B ut r ather, t ypes o f v ariables, s uch a s g rave g oods, a re c onsidered o f

p articular i mportance a nd o ther a spects o f b urial p ractice a re i nterpreted i n t erms o f t hem. A m ethod o f c omputer a nalysis w hich i s p articularly a ppropriate b oth t o t he t ype o f m aterial f rom E BA b urials a nd

t o

t he p roblems o f m ortuary d ata i s c orrespondence a nalysis.

C orrespondence a nalysis i s a n a nalogue o f p rincipal c omponents a nalysis a nd i s a d ata r eduction m ethod a ppropriate t o t he s tudy o f a bundant d ata. T he m athematical b asis o f t he a nalysis h as b een d iscussed b y H ill ( Hill M .O. 1 974) a nd Ulviken ( 1982) a nd i n g eneral s tudies b y P imentel ( 1979, 1 45-6) a nd M ardia ( 1979, 2 37-9).

1 88

A rchaeological e xamples o f t he a pplication o f t he m ethod a re d iscussed b y H ill ( Hill M .O. 1 974, 3 50-4), M ardia ( 1979, 2 38-9) a nd b y B 9 51viken a nd o thers ( 1982). T his m ethod o f a nalysis h as b een w idely u sed i n t he n atural s ciences, i n p articular i n e cology a nd g eology, b ut t o d ate h as b een l ittle u sed b y a rchaeologists. C ertain g eneral c haracteristics o f t he m ethod a re o f p articular i mportance. ( 1)

t he a nalysis

( 2)

t he a nalysis i s s ymmetrical i n u nits a nd v ariables w hich a nalysed t ogether a nd c an b e p lotted o n t he s ame d iagram

( 3)

i ndicates

i f

t he d egree o f i nfluence

t here

i s

a ny p atterning i n t he d ata a re

o f a p articular v ariable c an b e i dentified

o n t he s catter d iagram a s u nits t end t o b e a ttracted i n t he d irect ion o f v ariables f or w hich t heir p rofile v alues a re h igh a nd v ice v ersa ( 4)

' rogue

( 5)

t he a mount o f v ariance e xplained b y e ach v ariable o r a xis r ead o ff t he g raph

( 6)

t he a nalysis c an d etect p atterning e ven w hen ' noise' i s ' rogue' v ariables a nd s ites

( 7)

v ariables

a nd

s ites a re e asily i dentified c an

b e

c reated b y

t he a nalysis m ay b e u sed f or m aterial w ith a c onsiderable

c hrono-

l ogical s pan ( 8)

t he a nalysis m ay b e u sed b oth a s a m ethod o f o rdination a nd a s m eans o f c lassification o f t he d ata

a

A n umber o f t hese f eatures h ave b een u sed t o a dvantage i n t he a rchaeological a pplications o f c orrespondence a nalysis. F or e xample, c orrespondence a nalysis h as b een u sed t o s en ate 7 0 t ype o f a rtifacts i n g raves a t M unsingen-Rain ( Hill M .O. 1 974, 3 51-4) a nd a s a t est o f t he s tratigraphic u nits e xcavated o n a f arm m ound a t H elgSy ( BS1viken e t a l 1 982, 5 2-5). d ata a s w ell a s a ssemblages

T he p otential o f t he m ethod f or c lassification o f o rdination i s s hown i n a n a nalysis o f a rtifact

a ssociated w ith h ouse s ites

i n N orway a nd

F inmark,

w here

t he a ttraction o f p articular h ouse s ites ( units) a nd a rtifact t ypes ( variables) a ssociated w ith d ifferent s ubsistence a ctivities s uggested t hat t he o rdination o f h ouse s ites m ay b e e xplained i n t erms o f a c lassification b y s easonal u se

( op.

c it.,

4 4-51).

T he m ethod i s e qually a pplicable t o t he s tudy o f m ortuary d ata a nd i s a ppropriate t o t he t ype o f i nformation a vailable f rom t he n orth o f E ngland. T he a dvantages o f t his p articular t ype o f a nalysis a re a s f ollows: ( 1)

t he

m ethod o f

a nalysis w ill i ndicate w hether o r n ot

t here i s

a ny

p atterning i n t he d ata. I n v iew o f t he p roblems o f c hronology a nd s patial d istribution a ssociated w ith t he m aterial a nd t he a bsence o f ( 2)

a ll

c emeteries

i n t he a rea t his

v ariables

b urial p ractices

i s

p articularly u seful.

w ith c ommon v ariance w hich c an

b e

c an b e a ccommodated b y t he m ethod

1 89

i dentified

i n

( 3)

e ach

v ariable

i s d iscrete a nd n o ap riori a ssumptions

t o t he i mportance o f p articular a ssociations o r p arts p ractices ( e.g. g rave g oods) ( 4)

m ortuary

v ariables a nd u nits c an b e p lotted o n t he s ame g raph w hich t he d egree o f a ssociation b etween b oth v ariables a nd u nits. p rovides a n o bjective w ay i n w hich a ssociations b etween v ariables

( 5)

a re m ade a s o f

v ariables

a re

s cored

t o

c onsider

a ccording t o p resence

o r

t he

s hows T his

p ossible

a bsence:

t his

e liminates a ny u ncertainties c oncerning t he r eliability o f q uantitative d ata w hen t he d ata h as b een c ollected b y d ifferent e xcavators o ver a l ong p eriod o f t ime. ( 6)

e ach u nit t herefore

( i.e. b urial) i s d iscrete a nd t he m ethod o f a nalysis i s s uitable f or b oth s ingle g raves a nd c emetery d ata, a s

e ach b urial ( 7)

i s a nalysed i ndividually

t wo l evels o f a nalysis a re p ossible w ith t his m ethod ( a) e xaminat ion o f p atterning i n t he d ata ( b) e xamination o f u nderlying v ariables w hich i nfluence t he p atterning. T his may a ssist i n t he i nterpretation o f

( 8)

t he o bserved p atterning

t he p ossibility t hat

e ither c hronological o r s patial f eatures h ave

i nfluenced t he p atterning s catter d iagrams

o f

t he d ata c an b e

e xamined

i n

t he

C omputer p rogram T he c omputer p rogram u sed i s R ECORD a p rogram f or c orrespondence a nalysis a dapted f rom L . O rloci ( 1975) M ultivariate a nalysis i n v egetat ion r esearch. T he p rogram w as i mplemented o n a H ewlett-Packard G 835 m icro-computer i n t he D epartment o f A nthropology , U niversity o f S ydney. P resence/absence d ata w ere u sed a nd t he a nalysis w as r un w ithout w eighting.* S ample u sed f or a nalysis A t est

s ample

o f

t he a vailable

b urial e vidence w as

a nalysed t o

s ee

i f a ny p atterning c ould b e i dentified i n t he d ata. T he b est a vailable d ata w as u sed f or t his a nalysis. T his c omprised b urials f or w hich t he m aximum p ossible i nformation w as r ecorded f or a ll c ategories o f v ariable w hich c an u sually b e i dentified i n b urial p ractice, n amely b urial r ite, a ge, s ex, a ssociated g rave g oods ( if a ny) a nd g rave t ype. T he s ites u sed a re l isted i n T able C . I t w as c onsidered i mportant t hat t he a ge, a nd i n t he c ase o f a dults, t he s ex o f t he i ndividual h ad b een d etermined a s t hese h ave o ften b een t hought t o b e m ajor d eterminants o f b urial p ractice. C hildren a re r arely i dentified a s t o s ex ( even b y c ompetent s pecialists) b ecause o f t he d ifficulty o f d ifferentiating b etween t he s exes i n i mmature i ndividuals. F or t his r eason t he s ex o f

Ia m m ost g rateful t o P rofessor R .V.S. W right o f t he D epartment o f A nthropology, U niversity o f S ydney f or i ntroducing m e t o c orresponde nce a nalysis, f or p ermission t o u se t he c omputer f acilities o f t he D epartment

o f A nthropology a nd

s catter d iagrams.

f or h is a nalysis o f

T he i nterpretation o f

190

t he b urial

t hat a nalysis

d ata

i s m y o wn.

t he

i ndividual w as n ot

e ntered a s

a v ariable i n

t he

a nalysis.

A ge,

i dentified o nly a s A dult o r c hild, w as i ncluded. S hould a ny d istinct p atterning b e a ssociated w ith t he s ex o f t he i ndividual t his w ould b e a pparent w hen t he a nalysis w as e xamined, a s t he s ex o f a ll a dults w as k nown a nd c ould b e s hown o n t he s catter d iagram.

A ny b urials

t here w as s ome d oubt a s t o t he p resence o r a bsence v ariables w as o mitted f rom t he a nalysis. N inety v ariables w ere i ncluded

i n t he b est

f or w hich

o f a ny b urials

o f t he a nd 1 3

s ample c omprising 2 7 c remations a nd

6 3 i nhumations. T he i mbalance i n t he p roportions o f c remations a nd . inhumations w as a r esult o f t he s maller n umber o f c remations f or w hich t he s ex o f

t he i ndividual h as b een i dentified.

a p resence o r a bsence

s core f or t he

T he b urials w ere g iven

f ollowing v ariables:

V ariable 1

B urial

r ite

P resence = c remation ) A bsence = i nhumation )

2

A ge

3 -10

A ssociated g rave g oods

3 4

F lint C opper/bronze

5

J et/lignite

6 7

B one/antler B eaker

8 9 1 0

F ood v essel E nlarged f ood v essel/encrusted u rn U rn

1 1-12

B urial c ontext

P resence = a dult ) A bsence = c hild )

1 1

P resence = m ound

A bsence :f lat g rave

1 2

P resence = c ist

A bsence = n o

1 3

O ther ' ceramic a ssociation n ot l onger e xtant)

A s

o f:

g rave

g oods:

i dentified a s

c ist

.p ot t o

t ype

i .e.

t he n umber o f e xamples o f e ach t ype o f n on-ceramic g rave

v ery s mall a nd w hen s ubdivided a ccording t o s pecific o f o nly ö ne e xample, t here i s t he p ossibility t hat

c eramic

( original

g oods

n o

i s

t ype m ay c onsist t hese i tems w ill

e mphasise s ingle i diosyncratic b urials r ather t han i dentifying m ore g eneral p atterning. I n a ccord w ith t he p rinciple o f u sing v ariables w ith c ommon v ariance,

1 18-9)

n on-ceramic

g rave g oods w ere c lassified a ccording t o t he m aterial o f w ere m ade, r ather t han b y f unction. I t i s a lso p ossible,

w hich t hey u sing t his

c riterion,

t o

a s d iscussed b y T ainter

i nclude

( 1978,

i tems w hich a re d amaged o r n ow l ost a nd

w hich

c annot b e c lassified w ith a ny c ertainty. I diosyncratic g rave g oods o f w hich o nly o ne e xample w as k nown i n t he s ample e .g. c obblestone a re n ot i ncluded i n t his o mitted w as

a nalysis

f or t he a bove r easons.

T he n umber o f

i tems

f our f rom f our g raves.

Two a spects o f b urial c ontext a re c ategorised, t he i mmediate b urial c ontext ( that i s, c ist o r n on-cist) a nd t he p resence o r a bsence

19 1

A nalysis N umber

B urials C atalogue n o.

1

A nalysis n o.

4

B urials C atalogue n o.

A nalysis n o.

B urials C atalogue n o.

3 1

2 61

6 1

5 49

2

2 0

3 2

2 76

6 2

5 62

3

3 6

3 3

2 77

6 3

5 63

4

5 3

3 4

2 78

6 4

5 64

5

5 4

3 5

2 85

6 5

5 69

6

6 7

3 6

2 87

6 6

6 02

7

1 06

3 7

3 02

6 7

6 05

8

1 13

3 8

3 16

6 8

6 21

9

1 14

3 9

3 21

6 9

7 06

1 0

1 15

4 0

3 28

7 0

7 30

1 1

1 21

4 1

3 29

7 1

7 32

1 2

1 30

4 2

3 34

7 2

7 34

1 3

1 40

4 3

3 35

7 3

7 44

1 4

1 56

4 4

3 44

7 4

7 50

1 5

1 63

4 5

3 53

7 5

7 58

1 6

1 71

4 6

3 64

7 6

7 59

1 7

1 73

4 7

3 65

7 7

7 60

1 8

1 87

4 8

3 66

7 8

7 61

1 9

1 89

4 9

3 67

7 9

7 62

2 0

1 95

5 0

3 68

8 0

8 24

2 1

1 96

5 1

4 52

8 1

8 39

2 2

1 97

5 2

4 61

8 2

8 42

2 3

2 12

5 3

4 62

8 3

8 45

2 4

2 14

5 4

4 68

8 4

8 47

2 5

2 22

5 5

4 90

8 5

9 11

2 6

2 41

5 6

5 08

8 6

9 12

2 7

2 43

5 7

5 11

8 7

9 13

2 8

2 53

5 8

5 17

8 8

9 25

2 9

2 54

5 9

5 27

8 9

9 39

3 0

2 57

6 0

5 34

9 0

9 55

Table

C Burials

used

in

correspondence

1 92

analysis

o f

a b urial m ound.

T he i dentification o f p articular t ypes o f

c ontext

e .g. m ound w ith s ingle c ist, i s n ot i ncluded a mongst t he v ariables a s i t i s p ossible t o t est t he a ssociations o f t hese c ategories a fter t he d ata h as b een a nalysed.

s ites

A n a lternative s ample o f b urials e xcavated b y a s ingle i ndividual,

c ould h ave b een d erived f rom t hus h aving a g reater d egree o f

c omparability i n e xcavation a nd r ecording t echniques t han s ites e xcavated b y d ifferent i ndividuals. T he o nly s ignificant g roup o f s ites a vailable u sing t his c riterion w ould b e t hose e xcavated b y C anon G reenwell i n t he 1 9th c entury. H owever a s t hese w ere p redominantly b urial m ounds t his w ould h ave i ntroduced a s ignificant b ias i nto t he d ata i n a n a rea i n w hich f lat g raves a re s o w ell r epresented. R esults o f c orrespondence a nalysis A p lot o f t he 1 3 v ariables a nd 9 0 b urials f or t he f irst t wo e igenvalues i s s hown o n p .194. V ariable 9 , e nlarged f ood v essels a nd b urials 2 6 a nd 2 7 ( the o nly b urials i n t he s ample w ith e nlarged f ood v essel a ssociations) a re o ff t he l imits o f t he g raph i n t he l ower r ight q uadrant. T he p lot s hows g ood o rdination a nd a c lear l inear p attern f rom t he l ower l eft t o t he t op r ight q uadrant. T he o rdination o f t he d ata i s s hown e ssentially i n t he f irst e igenvalue, t hat i s, t he h orizontal a xis. T he s catter d iagram c an b e i nterpreted a s a s ingle s pread, t hat i s, a s a c ontinuous d istribution f rom t he l ower l eft t o t he t op r ight q uadrant o f t he g raph p ossibly s howing a s trong s pace o r t ime d imension o r a s t wo g roupings o verlapping i n t he c entre a t t he v ertical a xis. T he f irst h orizontal a xis c ontrasts B eakers, f ood v essels, f lint a nd c ists a t o ne e xtreme w ith b one o r a ntler, c remations a nd u rns a t t he o ther. T he s econd v ertical a xis c ontrasts e nlarged f ood v essels w ith b one o r a ntler a nd u rns. T owards t he j unction o f t he a xes b urials a nd v ariables w ith s cores c lose t o z ero ( either p ositive o r n egative) a re l ike e ach o ther o nly b ecause t hey a re n ot c haracteri sed b y t he a ttributes o f t he Atremes, t hat i s, t hey a re n ot p articularly s trongly i nfluenced. T herefore, o f t he v ariables a nalysed t he

f ollowing

a ppear

t o d iscriminate m ost

s trongly

b etween

b urials

n amely: B eakers c ists ( and a lso f ood v essels f lints c remation u rns b one

i ts

( and a lso

o pposite,

i ts

n on-cist g raves)

o pposite,

i nhumation)

( antler)

' pot' a nd

t he f ollowing v ariables d iscriminate l east

s trongly:

b ronze j et a dult

( and

m ound

( and i ts

i ts o pposite, o pposite,

c hild) f lat g rave)

T he i nterpretation o f t he s catter d iagram i n t erms o f s ome u nderlying v ariable c an b e t ested w ith r eference t o t hree v ariables k nown f rom a ll s ites

b ut n ot

i ncluded

i n t he c orrespondence a nalysis:

1 93

a l cremation

bone/antler

G . 1

••

•

H •

c d

c f ) M

W

r d

4 4 0

a )

•

0

t ) . 0 r d

•

•• •

c d

c d \ . 0

ON

•

•

• •

r d

•

c a C D

▪ c d

C l )

• r d c d • c d

•

•

I V

•

0 1 1

•

• •

owe o•

. . 1 a ) m

• • •

I adult

oe

I o o . H

•

•

So° 00. ••

•

•

c a• r o

H C orrespondence and

s ites

(*)

analysis: scatter f or

f irst

two

diagram

e igenvalues

1 94

of

variables

( I I)

0 0 c o

a l b one/ant ler

0

• c . 1 c o

e 0 0 • c o

•

2

8

c o •

•

• . ▪ ‘" C O

•

C D

•

•

r-e

g rm n ay . )

•

c ) A (( i)

e l "

•

I A

• C orrespondence R adiocarbon

analysis:sites

dates

f or

s ites

i dentified

( 66) West 1 95

by

Hepple

analysis and

n umber.

( 40)Howick

Heugh

(1) (2) (3)

sex of adults geographical distribution of burials larger burial·· context

When the sex of all adult burials is identified in the scatter diagram, as shown on p.197, it does not appear that the ordering of the sites is in any way attributable to this variable. Adult men and women are found in each quadrant of the diagram and are found in burials which are in close juxtaposition in the scatter diagram plot. In order to examine the geographical spread of the burials each site was identified according to its 100km national grid square letter reference (e.g. NT, NU). All parts of the area of study were found to be represented in the three main quadrants of the diagram (p.198). It does not seem therefore that the linear ordination of sites is attributable to a geographical spread of particular burial variables. The distribution of particular burial contexts (e.g. flat cists, multiple cist mounds) within the quadrants of the scatter diagram (p.199) emphasises the discrimination of burials according to the variable relating to immediate burial context that is, cist or non-cist graves, but does not show any significant grouping of burials according to the types of larger burial context which have been identified previously (pp.135-145). It is also possible that the linear distribution of burials in the scatter diagram is explained by chronologi�al factors, representing a changing pattern of association of all burial variables through time, which is characterised at one extreme by burials associated with Beakers and at the other by burials associated with urns. Such . an explanation would be in accord with older traditional chronologies and some radiocarbon �vidence for the primacy of Beaker ceramics in the EBA, but is at variance with the majority of the radiocarbon evidence which indicates a considerable degree of contemporaneity of EBA ceramics (Table 54).� Radiocarbon determination� are available for two of the sites included in the correspondence analysis, Kirkhill, West Hepp le and Howick Heugh •·. These are in close juxtaposition in the upper right· hand quadrant of the diagram and have comparable radiocarbon dates (p.195). However, it is also possible to interpret the scatter diagram as two groupings (in the lower left and upper right quadrants) with a degree of overlap between them. These hypotheses will be examined with reference ·to the associations of variables indicated by the correspond­ ence analysis for all burial data from the area. In summary, the results of the correspondence analysis of the best available data for burial practices in the EBA in the north of England suggest the following: (l)

that there is patterning in the data and that. this may be identified as a single spread associated with a space or time dimension or as two groups with some overlap

(2)

that there is no particular association of variables the sex of the individual

1 96

related

to

cremation

•

••

C \ J

•

0 0 H W

•

•

•

••

•

W 0

•

1 -, 0

•

•

r d

•

•

• • •

« 10

a ) •

•

r d a S

O le

•••

R IO

•

1 .•

•

•

Correspondence

analysis: burials

1 97

•

i dentified

by

s ex

U cremation

g . 4

0 , . 4 0 0‘ c d H u ) N , . I g . r e ) C N ,O o i b d h o w \ $ . . , _ 7 , s , c d 1 c d s . 0

5 g 4

L I N a l I .H c0 M ^M I N

t a l c, .E l ‘ . 0

O tn pI C . . . )

2 62

Z

e=

$ ,

a ) H r e ) g a .k .0 c d I 4 ) Z

c d

0 . , C 4 ) g 4 0

.

0 Z

r d c d

•

3 W S . c . . C a ) C Z

u ) T i

• N r . 1 H

.x0,,,, ,

C • r I

C .

q . ( palisaded

0

A

g .

4

)

-r . Nc) U.\ CO N c d H H > I c d X I O

Z

C 0

W

n

, ▪ zc o t ). 0 0 C CO c d I Z X C . ) c d Z

O

N

H

y •c d

H •C

ON 1 . > • H 0 H H ON 0 v ; ) E 4

E l X

1 E 1

( C 1 )

g .

C 0 4

HI

( X I

• = *

22 0

I

P I C D

9 00 R ectilinear

Hillforts

8 00

s ites

7 00

6 00 5 00 -

•

4 00 -

I

3 00 2 00

-

1 00

-

bc 0 _

1 00 ad 2 00

-

3 00

-

• W

4 -,

4 4

c • d

•

o

4 -, • H 4

Z •

X Y .

▪ O

a !

> .

. 1 Z . •t U ) ON a ) H O I • , i x a t a l C h

Table

C 0 4 -, , C t r • t 1 ), 1 r i o i n 4 I P I F 1

*

H

. 1 : 1

g 4 4 4

0

0 •

c r ) 0

Z

2-

, S 4• H « , g . -I g . 4 e . I a l a l VD N > 2- f aa \ 0 N u ) H C O ON > N c r l H I a f H i t-N c r l , N C I g 4 a l . , I a t P C , 1 4 ( ) O r. . C 7

K Radiocarbon the

north

of

u )

P C1

0

4 -,

cc

e

, f

o

W . e > I

W =

-. .

H N . ,. 4

.

.r i

• r I a t e f ) H a l N . 1 H H I i >< A 0

dates

L . r •

•2-

0 0 2 3

4

g l i 7 . 4 t • • 0 I 4 \ • ‘ ) 4 -, ( . 1 0 H • , 1 a 0

u ) W

4 4

ON . 1D

a , H 4 H f l • . • c o t i ) H H H

a H 4 )

a l H 4 II C . ) Z

( I ) c d C . )

for

England

2 63

° J ON H 1

P 4

• •

. .0 2 ' c d24 • 4 -, r n H 2 H C . )

•

Z

4 -, u-\ 0 r i •

0 > ( 3 H \ r 4 z - o 1 .

-

.

Z . . • •

X N 0 H ) . n

s ettlement

•

•

nO 4 N 4 -, H 0 H

. m • 0 . )2- 4

H H a l e l w4 = t — ) . 4 H « 1 t O I H ON C

, r 2 0 4 ) 0 S • c . 1 C d \0

*

types

0 H H I H I Z r -I w a )

*

f ound

*

in

a ssociation b y

t he

s tone o f

o f

r ound

c ivilising

h ouses, r ather

t hat

a

s tructures

i nfluence

o ften f ound

d evelopment

m ent

t imber

a re

o f

p articular

R oman c ulture

o verlying

c oncerned

t han i ts

h ill

a rrangement

s ettlement

i s

a nd t hat s uch a s equence w ill b e v alid r egardless o f l ocal c onsiderations. E xcavations g reater

i n t he

c omplexity

a nd

n orth o f i n

r adiocarbon d eterminations a nd i n m any p hase s ite. n orthern d egree a nd

h ill

t he

f orts

o ccupation o f d uring

t he

i st

e arlier 2 nd m illennium b c u se

i n t he

o utward

f orm o f

p eriod,

s uggest

f orm

e xcavations

o f

a nd

i s

p alisaded

w ith

s ites

a

m uch

d evelopment T he n umber

i ndicate a

w ide

t ypes,

p alisaded

s ome

o f f ew

c omplex, m ultif rom S cotland,

s ettlement

s ettlements,

m illennium b c,

a rea,

c omparatively

( Table K )

v arious

u nenclosed o f

a ssume

o f a c ertain

a nd S cotland

o f

s ettle-

T hey

s imple H ownam s equence.

u se

f orm

B oth s equences

f unction.

o nly o ne s ample f rom a a t p resent a vailable

o f

f ollowed

f or a l arge g eographical

Y orkshire a nd D erbyshire

c ontemporaneity

p articular

a nd

s ettlement

f rom r ecent

c ases c onsists o f D eterminations

E ngland, o f

t he

o f

s ites

d efences.

t ypical

E ngland

l ongevity

t han p reviously e nvisaged

e xpressed

f ort

p rimarily w ith t he

i nternal

f orm o f

w ith p rehistoric

e vidence

i n

s ites f or

a nd u nenclosed

t he

s ettle-

m ents.

L ATER P REHISTORIC F ORM A ND

S ETTLEMENT:

S OME

C ONSIDERATIONS

F UNCTION

T he

r ecognition

o f

s ettlement

t ypes

a nd

f ield

s ystems

o f

B ronze

A ge d ate i n t he n orth o f E ngland a nd S cotland i s b eginning t o p rovide e vidence o f t he d omestic s ites a nd a gricultural p ractices c ontemporary w ith t he w ealth o f E BA b urials a nd m onuments a nd w ith L ater B ronze Age o ccupation o nce k nown o nly f rom f inds o f m etalwork. T he m ajor p roblem w ith

t he

i nterpretation

o f

s ettlement

a nd

e conomy

f rom t hese

s ites

i s

t he p ronounced u pland b ias i n t heir d istribution, l argely a f eature o f s urvival i n u ncultivated a reas. B ut o ther a rchaeological e vidence s uch a s

t he

d istribution o f

t ools

a nd

l ands,

w here

a ddition, e xtent m ents,

B ronze A ge

t he

s tudy

s uggest

p erforated

s tone

c ontemporary o ccupation i n t he

h enge m onuments,

l ow-

s ettlement

o f

s ites

p rehistoric

a re

a s

s ettlement

y et

u nrecognised.

s ites

i s

t o

a

h ampered b y t he c lassificatory s chemes a pplied t o t hese t he d eficiencies o f w hich c annot b e a ttributed s olely

f ragmentary l

E BA b urials,

m etalwork w ould

a nalysis

n ature

o f

t he a rchaeological

, l nQQi firari nn

me nr

o r

house

t erms

Are

orpcisel v

01111

1 9oLc,

r emains.

those L i),

out l ined v inich

a re

T he

I n l arge

s ettlet o t he

f aults

b y H ill that

i n

UllieLei lL

c riteria o f c lassification a re b eing u sed t o i dentify e ach t ype s ite. P alisaded a nd s tone-built e nclosures a re d efined a ccording t he

m aterials

s ettlements g round,

o f

r efer

w hich t o

r ectilinear

h illforts,

t hey a re

a t echnique a nd

b y d efinition,

b uilt, o f

c urvilinear c annot

b e

o ver, b ecause o f t he g eological a nd t he u plands a nd l owlands a nd b ecause a rchaeological b oth

t he

s ites,

u plands

a nd

s ettlements l owlands

( as

s cooped

b uilding

s ites a re

a nd

d efined

f ound o ther

p latform

o n

b y

o f t o

s loping

s hape

t han o n h ills.

and M ore-

t opographical d ifferences b etween o f t he d ifferential s urvival o f

d efined

b y s hape

t hese m ay

2 64

s ites

c onstruction

o f h is

b e

o f

c an b e s tone

o r

r ecognised

i n

t imber),

a s

c an p alisaded

e nclosures

o r u nenclosed

s ites

s urvive o nly i n t he u plands.

s ite

c lassification m ay

o f

l ocal

r esources

e nclosure

o r

t opography, r elates t o

r epresent

s uch a s

b ut

s ome

t imber,

t echnique

o f

i n t he a vailability

o thers

m ay b e a

o ccupation

( for

e xample,

p ermanent

s uch

a s

r eflection

s hape,

o f

l ocal

o r s easonal o ccupation)

a ll o f w hich a re o f i mportance w hen c onsidering w hich t hese r emains m ight r eflect. T he i dentification o f s implistic a nd t ends t owards c hronological

s equences

p articular,

t he

i ndicative o f

r elationship

M orphological

t he

e conomic

s ite f unction f rom i ts f orm i s t he c onstruction o f d evelopmental

p rehistoric s ettlement t ype. o f c hronology, s ettlement

l ands.

t hese d ifferences

t raditions a nd p references. N one o f t hese c lassifications t he f unction o f t he s ite, i ts s ize o r p ossible c ycle o r

d uration o f

t ion o f p roblems

e ntirely s tone-built

o f

r eal d ifferences

s tone o r

c onstruction

s ites,

W hile

o f

s tudies

a n u nlikely d egree o f

s ystem

s omewhat l aws a nd

r egimenta-

S uch s tudies a re b edevilled d evelopment a nd c hange a nd,

t he

s ettlement

o f

s ettlement

s ite

t o

f orm

i ts h ave

b y i n

a ssociated t ended

t o

e mphasise t he d istinction b etween u nenclosed a nd e nclosed s ettlements, a lthough e ven t his d istinction i s d ifficult t o d raw a nd c ategories s uch a s f ig.10). l argely

' partially e nclosed s ettlement m ust b e d evised ( Topping 1 981, T his c ategorisation p laces p articular e mphasis u pon w hat i s t he dwelling a rea f or t he h uman o ccupants o f t he ' farm' w hile

i gnoring

t he

l arger w orking u nit

c omprised o f

e nclosures

o r o ther

f ield

b oundaries. T he i dentification o f t ype o f f arming f rom d omestic b uildi ngs m ay b e m isleading. V arious a ctivities c oncerned w ith s tock m ‘-: y b e carried

i n d ifferent a reas o f t he l arger ' farm' w ithin t emporary e nclosures c omposed o f h urdles o r h aybales a nd a re n ot

out

s helters,

o r

n ecessarily r epresented b y e nclosed s pace w ithin t he d omestic u nit ( e.g. S mith C .A. 1 974). M oreover, w hile t he p rovision o f y ards i n s ome s ettlements m ay b e a ssociated w ith c attle k eeping, m inor p art o f t he o verall f arming s trategy a nd g ive s ion o f s torage t hose

t he s ite's e conomic a rea w ithin r ound

w ho

p astoral e vidence a nd

i dentify

t he

t ypes

l ack o f

r emains

f orm a i mpres-

b asis. I n a ddition t here i s a c onsiderable h ouses w hich h as p erhaps b een n eglected b y d iscrete

s torage a reas

r ather t han a rable a griculture ( ibid). i n t he f orm o f f aunal a nd s eed r emains

f ield

t hese m ay a d istorted

h ypothetical.

a s

i ndicative

o f

W ithout c orroborative t he u se o f m any s ites

T opping f or e xample

s uggests

t hat s ingle h uts i n t he C ollege v alley m ay r epresent a ' pioneering' p hase o f o ccupation a ssociated w ith c ereal a griculture i n a n a rea o f c airn-fields

( Topping 1 981,

2 0) w hereas

i n W estmorland W ebster i denti-

f ied e nclosed ' Romano-British' s tone s ettlements ( some o f w hich m ay b e o f a n e arlier d ate c omparable w ith N orthumberland s ites) a s p ioneer p astoral 1 971,

s ites w ith a ggregate s ites

6 8-9).

c ertain s ites, m ent a nd l ocations

E vidence i ncluding

f or

s ize

d aughter

c onsiderable

b oth e nclosed

a nd

s ettlements

l ongevity o f u nenclosed

( Webster

o ccupation

p hases

o f

o n

s ettle-

t he o ccurrence o f d ifferent c ategories o f s ite i n s imilar s uggests c onsiderable c aution i n t he c orrelation o f s ite f orm

a nd s ite f unction. W ithin t he o f h ouse c onstruction o r f orm o f b ank, m ent

a s

s ettlement b oundaries n o s pecific t ype h ouse d esign ( e.g. r ing-groove, r ing-

' Votadinian') i s r estricted t o a p articular c ategory o f s ettle( Hill 1 982c) n or i s a ny t ype o f s ite h ierarchy e vident f rom t he o f An

t he

h ouse s tances.

e mphasis u pon t he p resence o r a bsence o f

h as i nfluenced n ot o nly t he e conomic b ut a lso o f s ettlement s ites. I n g eneral e nclosure i s

2 6 .5

m an-made

e nclosures

t he s ocial i nterpretation i nterpreted f rom w ithout,

r ather t han f rom w ithin,

t hat

i s,

a s a s tatement v is-à-vis

t he o utside

w orld, r ather t han a s a s tatement o f w hat i s w ithin t he e nclosure. H ence a n e mphasis u pon d efence a nd t he i mportance o f e nclosure a s a n i ndicator o f o utside f orces ( e.g. M egaw a nd S impson 1 979, 2 90). H owe ver,

a

n otable f eature o f

e nclosed s ites i n t he n orth o f E ngland

i s

t hat t hey a re n ot d efensible a nd, i n m any i nstances, a re b uilt o f c ombustible m aterials i .e. w ood. T he c ommanding v iew o f t he s urroundi ng c ountryside e njoyed b y m any s ites s uggests a d egree o f c ontrol o f t he a rea r elated t o a k nowledge o f w ho o ccupied o r e ntered i t, r ather t han a s pecifically m ilitary o r d efensive s tance. M oreover m any u nenclosed' s ites a re i n f act w ithin a w ell d efined a rea o f t heir o wn, c omprising n atural f eatures s uch a s w ater c ourses, s lopes, s cree a nd f ields d efined b y m an-made f eatures s uch a s c airns a nd b anks. T he d istinction b etween e nclosed a nd u nenclosed s ites, i n b oth e conomic a nd s ocial

t erms, m ay b e s omewhat i llusory.

C LIMATE A ND S ETTLEMENT L OCATION

n orth

T he u pland b ias i n s ettlement e vidence f or t he o ccupation o f t he o f E ngland i n t he 2 nd ist m illennia b c a nd t he i dentification o f

p ossible a rable a griculture a bove t he p resent d ay l evels c ultivation f ocus a ttention u pon t he p robable e ffects

o f o f

e conomic c limatic

c hange d uring t he B ronze A ge. A ccording t o s ome, c limatic c hange i s t he s ingle c ausitive f actor w hich ' explains" ' a ll o ther o bserved c hanges i n t he a rchaeological r ecord a nd h ad s uch a c ataclysmic e ffect t hat n ot o nly a gricultural p ractice b ut a lso s ettlement t ypes, s ocial o rganisat ion a nd r eligion w ere t otally a ltered a s a r esult ( Burgess 1 974, 1 948 ). t he

H owever, e xtent o f

t he p recise c hronology a nd d uration o f t his c hange a nd i ts e ffects i n p articular a reas i s s o l ittle u nderstood

t hat q uite d ifferent c limatic c onditions h ave b een u sed t o ' explain' t he e nd o f t he E BA i n W essex ( Bradley 1 980, 5 a). ' C limatic c hange h as l argely r eplaced t he ' invasion h ypothesis a s a m oveable f east w hich c an b e a djusted t o a rchaeologists' c onvenience t o e xplain t he a pparent c essation o f o ccupation a t a ny s ite, w ithout t he i nconvenience o f c onsidering o ther p ossible e xplanations. n eed c onsideration: ( 1)

w hat e ffects

( 2)

i s

( 3)

w hat

c ould a c hange

t here e vidence o ther f actors

o f

t his p roblem

i n c limate h ave p roduced?

s ettlement

c ould

T hree a spects o f

' recession'?

e xplain c hanges i n s ettlement

a nd

s ocial

o rganisation?

i n

A s t he

t he c limatic d eterioration o f t he 2 nd-lst m illennia b c r esulted c limate o f t he p resent d ay, w hich i s g enerally a menable t o

a gricultural p ractice i n m ost o f B ritain, i t i s t hought t hat t he m ajor e ffects o f c limatic c hange w ould b e f elt a t t he a ltitudinal l imits o f a gricultural p ractice ( Whittle 1 982, 1 96-7). T hat i s, c hange w ould b e r egistered i n t hose a reas w here a r eduction i n t he g rowing s eason w ould l ower t he a ltitudinal t hreshhold b y a bout 1 000ft a nd n ecessitate a l onger p eriod o f h and f eeding o f s tock i n w inter a nd w ould r educe t he g rowing s eason f or c rops t o t he e xtent t hat t hey w ere n o l onger v iable.

2 66

F or

a n a rea s uch a s

t he n orth o f E ngland w ith a s ubstantial a mount

o f

u plands a nd w ith e vidence f or t heir o ccupation u p t o a nd b eyond t he 1 000ft c ontour, c limatic c hange c ould h ave b een o f s ome i mportance. H owever, t he B ronze A ge s ettlement e vidence m ust b e u nderstood a s a f ragment o f a m uch l arger p attern o f o ccupance i n b oth u plands a nd l owlands. F arming s trategy c an o nly b e d etermined w hen t he e xtent o f a f arm c an b e r ecognised, a nd t he p roportion o f l and d evoted t o e ach t ype o f f arming p ractice a nd p robable p atterns o f c rop o r g razing r otation a re k nown ( Halliday 1 982, 7 5). E ven u nder b etter A tlantic c limatic c onditions

s ettlements

s ites

g razing

f or

a ltitude l owlands

i n t he u plands w ould n eed t o

i n t he s pring a nd a utumn,

u tilise

a nd c ereal

l owland

g rowing

a t

w ould b e l ess d ependable a nd p roduce l ess y ield t han i n t he ( Manley 1 952, 2 20-31). I t i s p robable t hat m any u pland s ites

m ay h ave b een u sed o n a s easonal b asis a nd t hat c ereal g rowing a ltitude m ay h ave b een a ttempted o nly i n m ore f avourable y ears

a t t o

p rovide a f odder o r g rain s upplement, r ather t han a d ietary s taple. T he a mount o f a djustment w hich c limatic c hange n ecessitated w ould h ave d epended u pon t he a vailable r esources o f t he l owlands b ut w ould n ot h ave i nvolved t he t otal a bandonment o f u pland g razing, w hich w ould s till b e a vailable i n s ummer m onths, a s i t i s t oday. A ny c hange m ay h ave b een a chieved q uite g radually b ecause t he l ong p eriod o f c limatic c hange m ay h ave r endered a ny a lteration a lmost g eneration t o a nother.

i mperceptible f rom

o ne

T he p otential f or u pland s ettlement i n t he n orth o f E ngland, w here t rends i n s oil f ormation t end t owards s oil d egradation, w as n ot e ntirely d ependent u pon c limate b ut w ould a lso b e d etermined b y f actors o f s oil, e levation , r ainfall, s olid g eology a nd p atterns o f u se. H uman o ccupation o f t he u plands i ncluding t imber c learance ( not o nly f or b uilding b ut i n m uch l arger a mounts f or f ire w ood) t ogether w ith a nimal g razing m ay h ave a ccelerated n atural t endencies t o s oil d epauperisat ion,

q uite i ndependent A

m ainly

c hange

o f

c limatic f actors.

i n t he f orm o f

b een a ttributed

s ettlement

i n t he n orth o f

E ngland

t o c limatic c auses a s a n e xplanation f or

h as h ypo-

t hetical s chemes o f s ite t ypology, s uch a s t he a ssumed c hange f rom u nenclosed t o e nclosed s ites ( Topping 1 981, 1 8-22), o r a s a p art o f a m uch b roader ' catastrophe t heory o f a rchaeological c hange ( e.g. B urgess 1 980a, 1 2). R eal e vidence f or t he c hange i s h arder t o f ind i n t he n orth. C urrent c hronological e vidence f or t he u se o f v arious o f s ites a nd f ield s ystems i n t he n orth o f B ritain s uggests t hat o f

t ypes m any

t hese w ere i n c ontemporary u se c oincident w ith a nd p ost-dating

t he

p robable p eriod o f c limatic c hange. N o w idespread r ecession o f s ettlem ent i s a pparent, i ndeed a n otable f eature o f s ettlement i n t he n orthe ast i n p articular i s t he c onsiderable l ongevity o f o ccupation b oth a t i ndividual s ites a nd i n c ertain a reas a s a w hole. T his w ould a ppear t o b e c orroborated b y t he p resently a vailable p ollen e vidence. I n t ion

t he c omplex i nterrelationship o f

a nd

s ettlement,

a gricultural p ractice t he p rimacy o f

s ocial o rganisa-

c limate a s

a c ausitive

f actor -e xplaining' c hanges i n s ettlement a nd s ocial o rganisation d ebatable a nd m oreover h as n ever b een f ully e xamined a s a s et

i s o f

t estable h ypotheses ( Bradley 1 980, 5 7-8). N umerous o ther f actors c ould e qually w ell b e a dvanced t o ' explain' c hange o n a l ocal o r r egional s cale,

t hese

i nclude:

2 67

-

c hanges i n a gricultural p ractice s uch a s t he d evelopment o f n ew b reeds o f a nimal o r c rops ( including w inter s own c rops)

-

d ifferent m ethods o f h erding, i ncluding g reater m obility c onsequent u pon t he u se o f h orses, a nd t he a bility t o c ontrol l arger a reas o f f arms

-

n atural v egetation c hange

-

e volution

o f

a r egional e conomy

w ith

s pecialist

p roduction

r ather t han i ndividual s elf s ufficiency -

r eduction i n p opulation c ausing a m ove a way f rom m arginal l and

T hese a nd o ther f actors

s hould b e c onsidered i n a ny m odel o f

b efore c limate a lone c an b e c onsidered a lteration i n s ettlement p atterns.

2 68

a s

r esponsible

s ettlement f or

a ny

C HAPTER 6 :

C ONCLUDING R EMARKS

E vidence f or l ater p rehistoric s ettlement i n t he n orth o f E ngland b een d iscussed i n t he f oregoing t ext a ccording t o s pecific

h as

c ategories o f a rchaeological r emains i n r oughly c hronological s equence. H owever, i t i s i ncreasingly d ifficult t o d ivide t he e vidence o f s ettlem ent i nto t he c onventional p eriod s tructure w hich h as a rchaeology f or s o l ong, w ith d iscrete f eatures o f a rtifact a nd

s erved s ettle-

m ent t ype. A r eassessment o f t he c onventional d ivisions o f t he p eriod i n t he l ight o f t he i ncreasing a mount o f e vidence f or p rehistoric s ettlement i n a rchaeological

B ritain a nd I reland a nd a s hift i n t he e mphasis e nquiry f rom a rtifact s tudies t o t he i nterpretation

o f o f

s ocial p rocesses h ave c ast d oubt u pon t he v alidity o f a s ingle e xplanat ion s uch a s ' invasion o r ' colonisation' t o e xplain ' events' l ike t he i ntroduction o f a griculture, B eakers, m etallurgy o r e ven t he e lm d ecline, p reviously c onsidered a s f irm c hronological m arkers. T he a doption o f s ocial a nd e conomic t hemes a s a n i nterpretive f ramework f or B ritish

p rehistory h as l ed

t o a m uch m ore r igorous a nd

b roadly

b ased

e xamination o f t he a rchaeological e vidence, g iving a m ore d ynamic p icture o f s ettlement a nd s ociety t han t hat s uggested f or B ritain a s t he p assive r ecipient

o f C ontinental i nfluences o r c olonisation.

M ore-

o ver t he r ecognition o f t he c omplex i nterplay o f e conomic, s ocial a nd e nvironmental f actors i n t he s haping o f p rehistoric s ettlement p rovides a m ore r ealistic r ecognition o f t he p rocesses o f s ocial d evelopment a nd c hange t han i s o ffered b y a s ingle a ll-embracing e xplanation f or p henomena w hich m ay b e m any f aceted a nd b oth g eographically a nd c hronologically w ide r anging. A lthough t here a re a dvantages o ffered b y a m ore b roadly b ased i nterpretive f ramework a nd m ore r igorous t esting o f h ypotheses i n c ontemporary a rchaeology, a n umber o f f undamental p roblems b eset t he i nterpretation o f t he e vidence o f p rehistoric s ett lement b oth p articular.

i n

B ritain

i n

g eneral

a nd

i n

n orthern

E ngland

i n

F irst, i t i s a pparent t hat t he a mount o f a rchaeological e vidence p rehistoric s ettlement i s e xtremely s mall a nd i s b iased b y t he

f or

p reservation o f d ifferent s orts o f e vidence f or v arious p hases, n o o ne t ype o f w hich c an b e c onsidered a s m ore r epresentative o f a spects o f s ocial l ife t han a nother ( Whittle 1 981, 2 97). I n t he n orth o f E ngland t his d isparity i s e xacerbated b y d ifferences i n s urvey w ork , e specially r elating

t o

t he i dentification o f

s ettlement

s ites.

R adiocarbon d ating

a nd c alibration s erve t o e mphasise t he l ength o f t ime w hich t he a vailable e vidence c overs f rom t he b eginning o f a griculture t o t he e nd o f t he B ronze A ge, t he c hronology o f w hich h as d oubled i n t he l ast t hirty y ears. A lthough t he a dvent o f r adiocarbon d ating h as c aused c onsiderable s cale

a nd

r eadjustments

t o b e m ade i n b oth t he a rchaeological

i n a rchaeological p erspectives,

t ime

t he s tatistical l imitations

o f t he m ethod a re f requently o verlooked o r e ven a bused i n t he s earch f or s imple c ause a nd e ffect r elationships a nd s implistic e xplanations o f

c omplex p henomena.

I t

i s

s till d ifficult

2 69

t o a ssess w ith

a ccuracy

w hether a c hange i n s ettlement, e nvironment o r m aterial p lace q uickly o r o ver a l ong p eriod o f t ime a nd, i n t he

c ulture s pan o f

m illennia,

c omparatively

s hort

t oo

p eriod

b ecause

s o

e asy o f

t o

r egard h alf

t ime.

m uch

M any

e vidence

a m illennium a s

i nterpretations

i s m issing.

a

a ppear

A lthough

t ook f our

c onvincing

i t

i s

o nly

n ecessary

s ay s omething a bout t he a rchaeological o ver d efinite b y s imply i gnoring t he

e vidence ' explains

b y a ssuming t hat o ne a spect o f t he a rchaeological r ecord a ll. I t i s u nlikely t hat a ny o ne t ype o f i nterpretation,

o r

e conomic, s ettlement

s ocial o r e nvironmental w ill a ccount a nd s ociety o ver s uch a l ong p eriod o f

a c ountry o f s uch v aried t opography, T his i s p articularly a pparent i n t he d oes n ot c limatic

i n t he

f or

t wo

p arts

s ettlement

( 1)

s ettlement

a nd

( 2)

t rade,

e xchange

( 3 )

s ocial

a nd

T he

i nfluences

i n

o f

t he

t he

i s o f

e asy t he

f or a ll a spects t ime, p articularly

o f i n

c limate a nd r esources a s B ritain. a rea c overed b y t his s urvey w hich

c omprise a n atural r egion i n t opographical, t erms a nd w hich h as e vidence o f b oth s hared

t raditions E vidence

e vidence i t l imitations

t o

a ttempt t o t o b ecome

a rea

t hroughout

a rea w ill

b e

t he

s ummarised

g eological o r a nd d isparate p eriod i n

o f

t hree

s tudy. t hemes:

s ubsistence a nd

s ocial

s ettlement o f

c onnections

o rganisation

e nvironmental

a nd

p ossible

c limatic

c hange

a re

n ot

d iscussed h ere a s c ausitive f actors i n s ocial a nd s ettlement c hange, t he e vidence f or w hich i s d ebatable, b ut a re c onsidered w ithin t he c ontext

o f

s ettlement

S ETTLEMENT A ND T wo

m ay

b e

g enerally.

o f

e vidence

a re

a vailable

f or

t he

l ater

p rehistoric

o f t he n orth o f E ngland, p ollen a nalysis a nd a rchaeological D iscrepancies b etween t he t wo s ources o f s ettlement e vidence

u nderstood

i nterpretation g ood

s ubsistence

S UBSISTENCE

t ypes

s ettlement r emains.

a nd

o f

i n e ach

c orrespondence

t erms t ype

o f

o f

t he

b iases

i n

t he

d ata a lthough t here

b etween t he

t wo.

i s,

r ecovery

a nd

i n g eneral,

L ater M esolithic o ccupation

a o f

t he a rea c an b e i nterpreted a s a p eriod o f m anipulation o f p lant a nd a nimal r esources, w ith a t endency t o s edentism i n c oastal a nd e stuarine l ocalities r ound f ood i n

t he

i n C umbria w hich h ad g eneralised e co-systems o ffering r esources, a nd t he s easonal u se o f u pland a nd c oastal

n orth-east.

B ritain

b y

l ocation

a nd

p opulations B ritain s tock, l ithic h uman

T he

a bsence

E uropean f arming u se

o f

s uggests

m ight

h ave

r esources t hat

t he

o ccupation

l ocalised

i n e levation,

b y

b oth

o f

a nd

f or t he

t he

' Mesolithic' o f

a g radual

c olonisation

c oincidence a nd

a n a gricultural a doption a nd

t echnology w ithin e vidence s uggests

t o

o f

o f s ite

' Neolithic" e conomy

a daptation

i n o f

t he f ramework o f M esot hat t he i nfluence o f

p robably a ssociated w ith a griculture w as

f rom t he 4 th

o f t he a rea s ite l and e nvironments

e vidence

d evelopment

c onsisted

s eed a nd a gricultural s ettlement. P ollen

o f

c ommunities

y ears ites

t he m id 3 rd m illennium b c,

a nd

i n

v ery b oth

m uch p arts

l ocation a ppears t o h ave i nvolved t he c hoice o f l oww ith v aried t opographical f eatures s uch a s v ariations

l akes,

w ater

c ourses

2 70

a nd

l ighter

s oils.

T hese m ay h ave

b een d istinguished b y l ighter f orest c over a nd s econdary p lant c ommunities w hich w ere d eveloping t hroughout t he M esolithic p eriod, b oth w ith a nd w ithout h uman i nterference. T he d istribution o f N eolithic a ctivity i s n ot n oticeably r iverine a nd t his, t ogether w ith a l ack o f e vidence f or s ettlement i n l arge t opographically u nvaried l owland

a reas,

s ettlement

p articularly

c oncentrated

t hose o n b oulder

i n

c lays,

a reas w ith m ore v aried

s uggests

t hat

e nvironments

a nd

v egetation, a voiding e xtensive a reas o f d ense c limatic-climax f orest. T he d ifference i n t he p attern o f d istribution o f N eolithic a rtifacts i n C umbria a nd t he n orth-east ( clustered v ersus d ispersed) m ay b e e xplained, a rea. I f

a t l east i n p art, b y e arlier M esolithic o ccupation o f t he a griculture w as i ntroduced i nto B ritain w ithin t he e xisting

p attern o f M esolithic s ettlement, t hen t he l ocations o f C umbrian M esol ithic s ites, w ith t heir p otential f or s edentism , w ere b etter s uited t o t he a doption o f f arming t han t he s easonally o ccupied s ites o f t he n orth-east, u nsuitable

w hich a t e ither e xtreme ( upland o r c oastal) m ay h ave b een f or p ermanent a gricultural o ccupation. E arly c ereal

a griculture i n U pper T eesdale a nd M oor H ouse m ay r epresent e xperimentat ion w ith t he n ew c rops w ithin t he s easonal c ycle o f M esolithic s ubsist ence s trategies i n t he n orth-east. T he a bsence o f N eolithic u se o f t he c oastal f lint s ources o f D urham, s o w ell e videnced i n t he M esolithic a nd t he p attern o f N eolithic a rtifact d istribution s uggest t hat i n t he n orth-east t he i ntroduction o f a griculture r equired c ons iderably

m ore

a djustment

w est, w here e stablished n ew e conomic s trategies. P ollen

i n s ettlement

l ocation t han i n

t he

n orth-

s ettlement a reas p rovided s uitable b ases

a nalysis p rovides

t he m ajority'of

f or

e vidence f or s ubsistence

i n a n a rea w ith f ew e xcavated s ettlement s ites. A rable a griculture w as w idespread, a lthough f ield b oundaries o f t he p eriod h ave n ot y et b een i dentified. h ave b een w oods, w ithin f aunal

W hile i t i s p ossible t hat i n l ong o ccupied a reas t hese o bliterated b y l ater a ctivity, n atural f eatures s uch a s

f orests a nd w ater c ourses m ay h ave p rovided t he b oundaries w hich a gricultural s ettlement w as f irst o rganised. S canty e vidence f rom e lsewhere i n B ritain s uggests t he i mportance o f

c attle i n t he e conomy ( supported b y s ome f aunal r emains f rom E henside), w hich c ould h ave u tilised u ncleared f orest a s w inter b rowse w ith n o n eed t o h and f eed s tock. a ppear i nappropriate m odels

S lash a nd b urn a nd s hifting c ultivation f or t emperate r egion s ettlement a nd p ollen

e vidence, f lint s catters a nd t he f ew k nown s ettlement s ites i ndicate c onsiderable l ongevity o f o ccupation. P ositive e vidence o f h uman i nterference f ound

i n

e xploited

t he

v egetation a nd m ost a rchaeological

l owlands,

a lthough r ock s ources

i n

t he

m aterial u plands

i s w ere

f or a xes.

F rom

t he

m illennium E ngland

i n

t he

m id

3 rd

m illennium

b c t he m ost n otable

i s a n e xtension o f

b c t o

f eature o f

a t

l east

s ettlement

t he i n t he

a ctivity b oth i n t he l owlands

a nd

l ater

2 nd

n orth i n

o f

a reas

i ntermediate b etween t he l owlands a nd e xposed u plands, a t a ltitudes o f a bout 6 00-1000ft. E vidence f or a gricultural a ctivity i s l argely c ircumstantial f or t his p eriod a s t here a re f ew e xcavated s ettlement s ites, b ut t his e xtension o f s ettlement i n t he n orth m ay b e a ssociated w ith

d evelopments

i n a gricultural p ractice k nown

a s

t he

' secondary

p roducts r evolution ( Sherratt 1 981: G ilman 1 981). A lthough a gricultural a ctivity i s a ttested i n t he a rea f or a t l east a m illennium p rior t o t his p eriod, i t i s a p rominent f eature o f a gricultural d evelopment

i n t he O ld W orld

t hat

t he u se o f

271

s econdary p roducts s uch a s

a nimal

t raction

a nd

t ransport,

w ool

a nd

m ilk

d oes

n ot

d evelop

i mmediately u pon t he d omestication o f p lants a nd a nimals b ut m ay o ccur s ome c onsiderable p eriod, e ven m any m illennia a fterwards ( Sherratt 1 981, 2 62). I n t he n orth o f E ngland t wo p articular f eatures o f t his ' revolution m ay b e o f s ignificance, f irst t he u se o f a nimal t raction f or l owland a rable p roduction a nd s econd, w ool g rowing i n t he u plands. A lthough c onsiderable i nterest h as i dentification o f u pland s ettlements d ate, o r e arlier, i n t he n orth-east,

b een f ocused r ecently u pon

t he

o f p ossible s econd m illennium b c i t i s a pparent f rom t he d istribu-

t ion o f a rtifacts, b urials a nd m onuments a nd a lso f rom p ollen e vidence t hat t he l owlands o f n orthern E ngland s upported t he m ajority o f a ctivity a t t his p eriod. T his a ctivity i s e vidence i n C umbria b y t he d istribution o f s ome b urials, m onuments a nd a xe h ammers, ( which m ay b e a gricultural t ools) ( Rees 1 981, 7 1), a nd p ollen e vidence o f i ncreased a rable p roduction i ndicating a v ery c onsiderable e xtension o f s ettlem ent t he

f rom t hat k nown i n t he c lustered d istribution o f s tone a xes. n orth-east p rimarily b urial e vidence i ndicates t he e xtension

I n o f

a ctivity a long r iver v alleys a nd i nto t he l owlands o f n orth N orthumberl and a nd s outh-east D urham. B oth t he c onsiderable e xtension o f s ettlement i n C umbria a nd t he u se o f f ertile a reas i n t he n orth-east w hich w ere l ess t ractable d uring e arlier p hases o f s ettlement m ay i ndicate t he w idespread u se o f a m ore e fficient t echnology, n amely a nimal t raction i n p loughing. I n a ddition t he i mprecise a ssociations o f a xe h ammers w ith c airns, e nclosures a nd b urials ( also i n, o r n ear c airns) m ay b e m ore s ignificant a s i ndicators o f l owland l and d ivisions a nd a gricultural p ractice d uring t he p eriod t han h as b een t hought. F aunal e vidence f or t he p ossible u se o f s econdary p roducts s uch a s m ilk i s l acking, b ut c hanges i n c eramic s tyles, p articularly t he p roduction o f s maller v essels a ssociated w ith f ood s uch a s B eakers a nd

f ood v essels m ay b e i ndicative o f d ietary c hanges. I n t he u plands o f

t he n orth a n i ncrease i n g rasslands a nd

g razing

a nd t he e stablishment o f s ettlement s ites s hows t hat t he u se o f t hese a reas b ecame ' economic' d uring t his p eriod. ' While t here i s s ome e vidence o f p ossible u pland a rable c ultivation t hese a reas l ie m ainly a bove t he l imits o f e fficient a rable a griculture a nd i t s eems m ost l ikely t hat t he p roductive u se o f t he u plands w as e ffected b y a n i ncrease i n p astoral p ursuits a nd i n p articular w ool g rowing. I n a n a rea s uch a s t he n orth o f E ngland w ith a c onsiderable u pland c omponent s heep n ot o nly u se l and w hich i s u nsuitable f or a rable a griculture o r i naccessible f or o ther s tock b ut, a s a f orm o f m obile e conomy c an b e l eft t o g raze w ithout r equiring d aily h erding o r r eturn t o t he p arent s ettlement. T he m ain d anger t o s heep c omes f rom w ild p redators a nd t he d istribution o f b arbed a nd t anged a rrowheads m ay r epresent n ot h unting, b ut t he p rotection o f f locks b y t he s hepherd-archer. T he a bsence o f a rrowheads

f rom

m ore c oherent

f lint s catters

( possibly

r epresenting

s ettlement s ites) a nd t he l ack o f h uman s keletons w ith a rrowhead w ounds ( Bradley 1 978, 8 4) s uggests t heir u se o utside t he a mbit o f o rdinary d omestic a ctivities o r h uman c onflict. E vidence o f s pinning a nd w eaving e quipment i s s carce a lthough t hese i tems c ould h ave b een m ade o f w ood. T wo i ndications o f s uch a ctivity a re p rovided b y i tems u sed t o d ecorate p ottery a nd p resumably t herefore o f c ommon o ccurrence, f irst t he a ppearance o f t wisted c ord d ecoration o n p ottery o f L ate N eolithic d ate, p resumably s pun f ibres o f s ome s ort, a nd c ombed d ecorat ion

o n B eakers a nd

f leeces

f ood v essels,

a nd p repare w ool.

p erhaps c ombs u sed t o

I n a ddition t o

2 72

p luck

t heir o wn e conomic u se

s heep t he

e fficiency

w ith

w hich

s heep c lear a reas

t hey g raze m ay

h ave

h ad

a

s econd e ffect, n amely t o e ncourage t he u se o f c leared u plands f or a rable a griculture e ither f or c rops f or h uman u se o r t o p roduce a dditional w inter f odder, t he n atural s ources o f w hich w ould d isappear i n a n i ncreasingly c leared l andscape. I n m any c ases h owever t he a pparent f ertility o f u pland a reas w as m isleading a nd a c ombination o f n atural p rocesses o f s oil d egradation, g razing a nd b urning c aused i rreversible c hanges i n t he p oorer q uality u pland s oils w hich c ould n ot b e o ffset e ven b y t he b etter c limate p revalent i n t he e arlier p art o f t he p eriod. T he n ecessity f or s tone c learance m ay i tself b e a s ign o f e rosion ( Bradley 1 978, 1 8) w hich w ould b e e xacerbated b y g razing, b urning a nd p loughing. I n g eneral t erms a gricultural a ctivity d uring t he L ate N eolithic a nd E arly B ronze A ge w ould a ppear t o h ave c onsisted o f m ixed f arming w ith p ossible s easonal u se o f b oth u pland a nd l owland g razing. A lthough s ettlement w as m ore e xtensive t han p reviously, t he c onstruction o f l arge m onuments a nd c emeteries i n a reas o f g ood a rable l and a nd t he u neven d istribution o f s ettlement w ould n ot s uggest t hat t he

l andscape

o ccupied a t F rom

t his t he

w as f ully t ransformed b y h uman a ctivity

o r

c ompletely

p eriod. l ater

p art

o f

t he 2 nd

m illennium

t o

t he

m id

i st

m illennium b c a rchaeological e vidence o f s ettlement i s l argely r estricted t o t he d istribution o f M iddle B ronze A ge a nd L ate B ronze A ge m etalwork

a nd

a v ariety o f

s ettlement

s ites o f o ften l ong-lived f orm.

T he e ffect o f c limatic c hange d uring t he p eriod i s p roblematic. N o w holesale s imultaneous a bandonment o f t he u plands i s a pparent i n t he n orth a nd t he f ate o f i ndividual u pland s ettlements i s l ikely t o h ave b een d etermined l argely b y l ocalised c onditions o f m icro-climate, e levation, s oil t ype a nd l and u se. I f t he l ength o f t he g rowing s eason w as r educed, w ith c onsequent e ffects u pon g razing a nd m arginal a rable p roduction, p lace. I t i ndication

i t i s o f

i s i n t he l owlands t hat a djustments m ust h ave t aken t he p attern o f l owland u se w hich i s p robably a b etter s ocial a nd e conomic c hange

t han

t he

m arginal

( Hill 1 982a, 1 2). A n e mphasis u pon t he d evelopment e nclosure, i nterpreted a s a r eflection o f p ressure o n

u plands

o f s ettlement r esources, h as

s omewhat b iased t he d iscussion o f f irst m illennium s ettlement t owards s ites s uch a s h illforts w hich, b eing r estricted t o h ills, m ay f ail t o r eflect t he f ull r ange o f s ettlement p otential, w hich f or t he p revious t hree

m illennia

h ad

b een

m ainly

l ocated

i n

t he

l owlands.

T he

i dentification o f p atterns o f s ettlement i n t he l ater 2 nd a nd i st m illennium b c i s h indered b y t he l ongevity o f u se o f p articular s ettlem ent t ypes a nd t he u ndiagnostic n ature o f t he f ew a rtifacts f rom e xcavated s ites. T he m ajor t rend i n s ettlement d uring t his p eriod, i nterpolated f rom t he d istribution o f p robable I ron A ge s ites, s ome o f w hich w ere o ccupied f or a c onsiderable p eriod i ncluding t he L ate B ronze A ge, w ould r epresented

a ppear t o b e t he o ccupation o f m any l owland a reas l ittle i n e arlier p eriods a nd t he m ore r egular d istribution o f

s ettlements i n t he l andscape. T his i s a pparent i n t he d istribution o f r ectilinear s ites i n t he s outh o f N orthumberland, i n e vidence o f c learances

i n

s outh-east D urham a nd a lso i n p arts o f

t he

C umberland

l owland s uch a s t he C umberland p lain a nd t he E den v alley, w hile s ettlem ent c ontinued i n t hose a reas w ell r epresented i n t he a rchaeological a nd p alynological r ecord i n e arlier p eriods. I t w ould a ppear t hat i t i s

i n t he i st m illennium b c t hat

t he l andscape b ecame f ully

a nd o ccupied.

2 73

o rganised

T RADE,

E XCHANGE A ND S OCIAL C ONNECTIONS

I n c ontemporary d evelopments i n a rchaeological t heory a nd i nterpretation t he c oncept o f a n a rchaeological ' culture a s d efined b y i tems o f m aterial c ulture s uch a s a rtifacts, s ettlement t ype o r b urial f orm

h as

c ome u nder c onsiderable a ttack.

N ot o nly m ay t here

b e

n o

d irect c orrelation b etween t he d istribution o f a rtifacts, s ites o r m onuments a nd t hat o f r ecognisable s ocial g roups i n t he p rehistoric p eriod ( Hodder 1 978b, 3 ) b ut t he i dentification o f c omplete m aterial a ssemblages i n c ontemporary u se, e ven w ithin r estricted g eographical a reas, i s h ampered b y t he s elective d eposition o f p articular a rtifacts i n s pecific c ontexts ( such a s g raves) o r t heir r estricted u se i n d ifferent c ontexts, p ossibly d ictated b y f unction o r b y ' sumptuary r ules'

( Bradley 1 982,

3 5).

D espite t heir ' cultural'

l imitations h ow-

e ver, s imilarities i n i tems o f m aterial c ulture p rovide s ome g uide a s t o t he p rocesses o f t rade, e xchange a nd c ommunication w hich e xisted b etween p rehistoric c ommunities, w hether d irect o r i ndirect, a nd i n s ome c ases a llows o f a n e xamination o f t he m echanisms b y w hich t hese c onnections m ay h ave b een a chieved. T wo m ajor t rends a re a pparent i n t he

l ater p rehistory o f

n orthern E ngland,

f irst,

t he i nclusion o f

t he

a rea i n c ommon t raditions o f b urial, r itual, e xchange a nd s ocial d ifferentiation f ound t hroughout B ritain, a nd s econd, t he d evelopment o f m ore r egional c onnections, w ith d ifferent a ssociations i n t he n orthw est

a nd n orth-east.

W hile i t

i s a pparent t hat a l arge a mount o f t rade

o r e xchange i n p erishable i tems i s n ot r epresented i n t he a rchaeol ogical r ecord a nd a lso t hat m any s ocial a ssociations m ay n ot h ave b een d istinguished b y i dentifiable m aterial r emains, t he a rchaeological m aterial p rovides s ome i ndication, i f o nly a t a c oarse l evel o f a nalysis, o f t he c omplex o f s ocial r elationships b y w hich s ociety w as a rticulated. F rom

t he 4 th t o

t he 3 rd m illennium b c N eolithic t raditions

f ound

t hroughout B ritain a re r epresented i n t he n orth b y l ong b arrows a nd b y g eneralised i tems o f m aterial c ulture s uch a s s tone a xes a nd p lain c eramic s tyles. A t a m ore l ocal l evel h owever t wo d ifferent p atterns o f a ssociation m ay b e d iscerned. I n t he n orth-west C umbria f orms p art o f a l arger a xe-finishing r egion ( possibly u nited b y w ater c ommunicat ion) w hich i ncludes s outh-west S cotland a nd p arts o f L ancashire, i dentified b y t he l imited d istribution o f r ough-out a xes, a xe h oards a nd e xceptionally l arge a nd f inely w orked ' ceremonial' r ough-outs. T he e xtensive d istribution o f a xes f rom t his a rea a nd f rom t he o ther m ajor a xe ' factories' d emonstrates t he e fficiency o f h and-to-hand e xchange w ithin r egional ' consumer' a reas, p articularly i n a reas o f d ense o r l ong e stablished s ettlement a nd a lso t he w idespread s ocial n etworks w ithin c ommunities i n B ritain a s a w hole. T he e xtension o f t hese c ommunications a cross t he s ea i s e videnced b y I rish p roducts i n B ritain g enerally a nd i n s mall a mounts i n t he n orth-west, w here t he W alney I sland a rea i n p articular h ad t o u se w ater c ommunications. T he a bundance o f G roup V I p roducts i n t he n orth-west d id n ot h owever e xtend t o N orthumberland a nd D urham. T he p oor q uality, v ariety o f r aw m aterials a nd s mall s ize o f a xes i n t he n orth-east, t ogether w ith t he a bsence o f s pecifically Y orkshire a xe t ypes s uggests t hat c ommunicat ions w ith a reas n orth-east, a nd f ormed r ather a nd

t o t he s outh a nd w est w ere p oor. I t s eems t hat t he i n p articular t he n orth o f N orthumberland, m ay h ave

a s outhern e xtension o f t he S cottish d istributional n etworks t han a n orthern e xtension o f t he E nglish o ne. T he d ifferent u se

p ossible

m echanisms

o f e xchange o f p roducts

2 74

o f s imilar

f orm

i s

i llustrated b y t he d istribution o f j ade a xes,

w hich a re r epresentative

o f B ritain's w ider E uropean c onnections a t t his p eriod. T he t otal l ack o f j ade a xes i n a reas s uch a s Y orkshire a nd L incolnshire w hich a re r ich i n

o ther a xes,

n orthern p robable s uggests m echanisms

c ommon t o o ther s tone

F rom diversity

p aralleled b y t he d iscovery o f j ade a xes

i n

a reas

o f

E ngland n ot w ell r epresented b y o ther a xe f inds, a nd t he n on-utilitarian o r e ven ' ritual u se o f t hese f ine p roducts t hat t hey w ere n ot e xchanged t hrough t he u sual n etworks o r b y

a bout o f

t he

t ools,

m iddle o f

b urial p ractices,

b ut w ere o f a d ifferent n ature.

t he 3 rd m illennium

b c

a n

i ncreasing

c eramic s tyles a nd o ther a rtifact

t ypes

p rovide c onsiderably m ore e vidence o f s ocial n etworks a nd e xchange p atterns t han i s a pparent a mongst t he l imited e arlier N eolithic m aterial a ssemblage. A lthough i nterpreted i n ' cultural' t erms,

m uch o f t his i t i s a pparent

m aterial h as b een t hat t he a ssociations

o f v arious a rtifacts s uch a s d ifferent c eramic s tyles w ith b urials, a h ighly r itualised c ontext o f c onsumption, o r i n l ocations w here t he f unction o r u se o f v essels m ay b e d etermined b y ' sumptuary r ules' ( Bradley 1 982, 3 5) h as d iverted a ttention f rom t he c onsideration o f t hese a rtifacts a s o nly a s elected p art o f t he m uch l arger c ontemporary m aterial a ssemblage. T he r ecognition t hat v arious p arts o f t he B eaker ' package' m ay b e c onsidered a s i ndependent v ariables ( Whittle 1 981, 2 99-306) a nd t hat, a lthough i nspired b y E uropean e xamples t he d evelopm ent o f B eaker c eramics m ay b e c onsidered o n a m ore r egional s cale, a dopted i n v arying q uantities i nto t he c ontemporary c eramic r epertoire ( Gibson 1 982) h as e nlarged t he p icture o f s ocial c onnections d uring t he L ater N eolithic a nd E arly B ronze A ge. T he m ajor f acet o f t rade a nd c ommunications

d uring

t his

p eriod

a ppears

t o

b e

a

m uch

g reater

d evelopment o f r egional t raditions a nd s tyles t han p reviously, w hile a spects o f s ocial d ifferentiation a nd c ommunal b ehaviour r epresented i n b urials a nd m onuments r ecognisable t hroughout B ritain w ere p reserved. A s i n t he e arlier N eolithic t he a ssociations o f C umbria a nd t he n orthe ast l ie i n d ifferent d irections. I n t he n orth-east a nd i n p articular i n t he m ore d ensely s ettled a rea o f n orth a ssociations o f b oth a rtifact s tyles a nd

N orthumberland t he m ain f unerary t raditions a re

S cottish. T his i s a pparent i n l ater N eolithic d ecorated p ottery s tyles, f ood v essel a nd B eaker t ypology , b urial t raditions, e specially c ist b urial a nd i n t he d istribution o f i tems s uch a s j et n ecklaces a nd b rönze d aggers. a rea

I n C umbria t he v ery d ifferent

a re s hared w ith o ther p arts o f

b urial

t raditions o f

w estern B ritain e specially

w est S cotland a nd n orth-west E ngland, a s b efore, w hile s ome c onnections a re a pparent i n b oth f lint w ork a nd m etalwork. d istinction

b etween t he

t wo p arts

o f

t he a rea i s

a lso a pparent

t he

s outhI rish T his i n

t he

c irculatiön o f p erforated s tone t ools o f k nown g rouped s ources w hich t hroughout t he c ountry a s a w hole s how m ore r estricted r egional d istributions t han t he p roducts f rom t he s maller n umber o f a xe ' factories', p robably d ue t o t he a vailability o f s uch p roducts f rom a n umber o f s ources e venly d istributed a round t he c ountry. D espite t he e volution o f

r egional b urial

t raditions a nd a rtifact s tyles

t he u se

o f

s imilar t ypes o f ' status i ndicators" t hroughout B ritain a nd t he w ides pread d istribution o f h enges a nd s tone c ircles w ould s uggest a s imilar l evel o f s ocial d evelopment i n B ritain g enerally a nd a c ertain c ommunality o f F rom

t he

s ocial o r

' ritual'

l ater p art o f

c ommunication.

t he 2 nd m illennium b c t o

t he e nd

o f

t he

L ate B ronze A ge t he n orth o f E ngland s hares i n t he m ore g eneral n orthern b ronze w orking t raditions, s uch a s t he d istribution o f M iddle

2 75

B ronze A ge f langed a xes a nd a v ariety o f L ate B ronze A ge a xe t ypes, b ut s maller s cale n etworks s uch a s a re f ound i n t he d istribution o f t ool t ypes i n s outhern E ngland a re h ard t o f ind. W hile s ome c ommunality i s f ound a cross t he w hole a rea i n t he d istribution o f t ools, t he u sual d iversity b etween C umbria a nd t he n orth-east i s d efined b y w eapons a nd i n p articular s words a nd r apiers. W hile t he n orth-east b ecomes a p art o f t he g eneral e astern b ias i n t he d istribution o f w eapons s uch a s r apiers, s hields a nd s words, C umbria i s n otable f or i ts p aucity o f w eaponry. T his i s p erhaps t he m ore s urprising c onsidering t he l arge n umber o f p revious

r apiers f ound i n s outh-west p eriods a ppeared t o s hare

C umbria. A c ertain n umber o f a s b efore.

S cotland, a n a rea w hich i n s ubstantial c onnections w ith

I rish c onnections a re h owever

a pparent,

S OCIAL A ND S ETTLEMENT O RGANISATION I n

t he

e arlier

N eolithic t he d istribution a nd

o rganisation

o f

s ettlement i s e videnced l argely b y a xe f inds a nd b urial m onuments, c ontrasting t he m ore c lustered p attern o f o ccupation i n C umbria w ith a m ore d ispersed o ne i n t he n orth-east. L ong b arrow s ize, t aken a s a n i ndicator o f t he p otential l abour f orce, w ould s uggest t hat t he E den v alley i n C umbria a nd t he R ede v alley i n N orthumberland w ere m ore p opulous t han o ther a reas. A s i n l ater p eriods, k nown b urial m onuments c ontained o nly a s mall m inority o f t he p opulation, w hich i n n orthern E ngland a s a lso i n Y orkshire a nd L incolnshire w as n ot d ifferentiated t he i nclusion o f p ersonal g rave g oods. T he i ndividual i mportance s tatus o f t hose s o b uried a nd t heir r elevance f or t he s tudy N eolithic s ocial s tructure i s a m atter f or s peculation. A l ack

b y o r o f o f

c orrespondence b etween b arrow s ize a nd t he n umber o f i ndividuals b uried, f ound t hroughout B ritain, t he d eposition o f o nly p arts o f i ndividuals a fter o ther f unerary r ituals h ad b een p erformed e lsewhere a nd t he c losure o r d estruction o f m onuments b efore t hey w ere f ull, m ight s uggest t hat t he t oken d eposition o f h uman r emains i n t he m ortuary

h ouse

f unction o f F rom s ettlement

o r

t he s ite, t he

3 rd

t hroughout

b arrow

e nclosure

a ncillary t o t o

t he

c ontributed

o nly

a

s econdary

s ome s ocial o r r eligious p urpose.

l ater 2 nd m illennium b c

a n

e xtension

t he a rea i s a ccompanied b y m uch g reater

o f

r egional

d iversity, i ncreased i mportance o f t he i ndividual i n b urial p ractice a nd a w ell d efined c hoice o f b urial o ption. D espite t he a ppearance o f c omparatively ' rich' i tems i n g raves, t he a bsence o f a r igid h ierarchy o f w ealth o r o f d efinite g rave ' sets' t ogether w ith t he c omparatively l arge n umber o f s uch ' rich' b ut n on-utilitarian i tems a nd t heir o ccurr ence i n s mall c emeteries i ndicates t hat s ocial d ifferentiation m ay h ave b een l argely f amily b ased a nd d etermined b y a ge a nd p ersonal q ualities.

T he

i mportance o f

a dults,

e specially a dult m ales a nd

t he

i dentification o f s ocial d ifferentiation b y i tems w ith a h igh d egree o f c raft s pecialisation m ay b oth b e a ssociated w ith t he ' secondary p roducts i tems o f

r evolution' s uggested f or t his p eriod. T he d istribution w ealth i n t he g rave i n a reas w hich a re b est r epresented

f unerary r emains m ay b e a f unction o f p opulation d ensity r ather i ndicating a ny ' control' o f s pecific r esources i n t hese a reas. a pparent

p overty o f

C umbria a s

r eflected i n g rave g oods

2 76

i s a

o f b y t han T he

f unction

o f b urial o ption, a nd t he a rea i s n ot n otably d eficient i n o ther c ont emporary a rtifacts f rom n on-funerary c ontexts. C ommunal c onstructions s uch a s h enges a nd s tone c ircles d emonstrate t he w ider s ocial g roupings w hich c ould b e a ctivated f or s pecial p urposes a nd, a s i n t he e arlier p eriod, t he E den v alley i s b est r epresented b y i ts q uantity a nd s ize o f s uch m onuments. S ettlement s ites a re a t p resent i nsufficiently k nown t o p rovide a g uide a s t o c ommunity s ize, b ut t here i s s ome i ndication f rom b oth m onument a nd c emetery s ize t hat l arger s ocial g roups w ere t o b e f ound

i n t he C umbrian l owlands

L ongevity

o f

u se o f v arious

t han e lsewhere i n t he a rea. s ettlement

t ypes a nd t he a bsence

o f

b urial e vidence i n t he M iddle a nd L ate B ronze A ge m ake t he i dentificat ion o f s ocial o rganisation p articularly d ifficult f or t his p eriod. I n t erms o f i ndividual d ifferentiation o r ' status i t m ight b e e xpected t hat a c hange f rom t he p roduction i n t he E arly B ronze A ge o f l argely d isplay o bjects s uch a s d aggers t o t hat o f w eaponry s uch a s s words a nd s hields, w hich m ust b e u sed w ith s kill t o b e o f e ffect, i n t he M iddle a nd L ate B ronze A ge w ould b e a ccompanied b y a c hange i n s tatus a ttribut ion f rom t he r ecognition o f p ersonal q ualities t o t hat o f f ighting p rowess. H owever, b y c omparison w ith a reas f urther s outh t he i nfluence o f t he n ew f ighting t echnology i n t he n orth o f E ngland m ay h ave b een c omparatively s mall. I n t erms o f s ettlement s ites t he a rea i s c haracterised b y a d iversity o f s ettlement t ypes w hich c hange l ittle t hroughout t he p eriod a nd w hich a t l east i n t he n orth-east h ave e vidence

o f

c onsiderable s tability o f g roup s ize

( Jobey

1 980a,

1 5).

T he d istinction b etween t he t wo p arts o f t he a rea a pparent f rom t he 4 th m illennium b c o nwards i s s een i n s ettlement f orm t owards t he e nd o f t he m illennium i n t he d evelopment o f s mall h ill f orts i n t he n orth-east a nd a l ack o f F rom t he

d efended s ettlements t he 4 th t o

p rehistory

i n C umbria.

t he i st m illennium b c t wo t rends a re a pparent

o f n orthern E ngland;

f irst,

a n otable

l ongevity

i n o f

o ccupation i n a reas s ettled i n t he e arlier N eolithic a nd s econd, t he e arly e stablishment o f d iffering t raditions, s ocial c onnections a nd p ossibly s ocial o rganisation i n C umbria a nd t he n orth-east w hich w ere m aintained

t hroughout

t he p eriod.

2 77

A bbreviations

A A A C

A rchaeologia A eliana .

A lnwick C atalogue

A nt.J.

A ntiquaries J ournal

A rch.

A rchaeologia

A rch.Camb.

A rchaeologia C ambrensis

A rch.J.

A rchaeological J ournal

B AP

J .

B AR

B ritish A rchaeological R eports

B B

W .

B NFC

B arrow N aturalists

C BA

C ouncil

C BA G roup 3 N ews.

A rchaeological N ewsbulletin f or C BA R egional

A bercromby:

G reenwell:

B ronze A ge P ottery

B ritish B arrows

( 1912)

( 1877)

F ield C lub

f or B ritish A rchaeology

G roup 3 C leveland, C umbria, l and, T yne a nd W ear'

D urham,

N orthumber-

C W

T ransactions o f t he C umberland a nd W estmorland A ntiquarian a nd A rchaeological S ociety

D AJ

D erbyshire A rchaeological J ournal

E dinburgh c at.

C atalogue o f o f

H BNC J BAA

t he N ational M useum o f A ntiquities

S cotland N ew e d.

( 1892)

H istory o f

t he B erwickshire N aturalists C lub

J ournal

t he B ritish A rchaeological

o f

A ssociation JRSAI

J ournal o f

t he R oyal S ociety o f A ntiquaries

o f

I reland N at.Hist.Trans.North.

a nd D urham N atural H istory T ransactions

o f N orthumberland

a nd D urham N ew Phytol.

N ew P hy ologist

N CH

N orthumberland C ounty H istory

P hil.Trans.Roy.Soc.

P hilosophical T ransactions

o f

t he R oyal S ociety

o f L ondon P PS

P roceedings

2 78

o f

t he P rehistoric S ociety

P PSEA

P roceedings

o f

t he P rehistoric S ociety o f E ast

Anglia PRIA

P roceedings

o f

t he R oyal I rish A cademy

P roc.Roy.Soc.

P roceedings

o f

t he R oyal S ociety o f L ondon

P roc.Yorks.Geol.Soc.

P roceedings

o f

t he Y orkshire G eological S ociety

P SA

P roceedings

o f

t he S ociety o f A ntiquaries

o f

o f

t he S ociety o f A ntiquaries

o f

L ondon P SAN

P roceedings

N ewcastle-upon-Tyne P SAS

P roceedings

o f

t he S ociety o f A ntiquaries

o f

S cotland R CHM W est.

R oyal C ommission o n H istorical M onuments, W estmorland

TAASDN

T ransactions

o f

t he A rchitectural a nd

A rchaeological S ociety o f D urham a nd N orthumberland T rans.Dumfries

a nd G alloway T ransactions

o f

t he _ Dumfries

a nd G alloway

N atural H istory a nd Antiquarian S ociety U JA

U lster J ournal o f A rchaeology

V CH

V ictoria C ounty H istory

W AN

W iltshire A rchaeological M agazine

Y AJ

Y orkshire A rchaeological J ournal

M useum A lnwick

A lnwick C astle

A shmolean.

A shmolean M useum ,

B M

B ritish M useum,

B owes

T he B owes M useum ,

C oniston

R uskin M useum

D urham

D epartment

O xford

L ondon B arnard C astle

o f A rchaeology c ollections,

T he O ld

F ulling M ill E dinburgh

N ational M useum o f Antiquities

H artlepool

G ray A rt G allery a nd M useum

2 79

o f

S cotland

K endal

K endal T own M useum ( collections t o

t he A bbot H all M useum,

K eswick

F itz P ark M useum

N ewcastle

M useum o f

P itt-Rivers

P itt-Rivers M useum ,

P P

P rivate

A ntiquities

p ossession

2 80

O xford

n ow t ransferred

K endal)

B IBLIOGRAPHY

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1 978.

F rontier s tudies a nd

t he e arliest f armers

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f ound i n L ewis. A nnable F .K.

t he m ethods a nd 4 1-53.

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r ecently

2 7-46.

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J RSAI 4 7

( for

C atalogue o f I rish g old o rnaments i n t he

c ollection o f t he R oyal I rish A cademy. N ational M useum o f S cience a nd A rt, D ublin, G uide t o t he c ollection o f I rish a ntiquities. D ublin, H MSO. A shbee P .,

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E xcavations

Y orkshire,

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o n K ildale M oor N orth R iding o f Y AJ 3 9,

1 79-92.

1 960. T he B ronze A ge r ound b arrow i n B ritain: a n i ntroduction t o t he s tudy o f t he f unerary p ractice a nd c ulture o f t he B ritish a nd I rish S ingle-Grave P eople o f t he s econd m illennium B C. L ondon. 1 970. T he e arthern l ong b arrow i n B ritain: a n i ntroduction t o t he s tudy o f t he f unerary p ractice a nd c ulture o f t he N eolithic p eople o f t he t hird m illennium B C. L ondon. A tkinson R .J.C., 1 951. T he h enge m onuments o f G reat B ritain, i n A tkinson R .J.C., P iggott C .M. a nd S andars N .K., E xcavations a t D orchester,

O xon.,

A tkinson R .J.C., P iggott C .M . a nd S andars N .K., D orchester, O xon. F irst r eport, V I.

8 1-107. 1 951. E xcavations a t S ites I , I I, I V, V a nd

O xford.

A tkinson W .,

1 882. O n s ome E arthworks n ear E amont B ridge. ( for 1 881-2) 4 44-55.

B aker T .,

1 832. A ccount o f a d iscovery o f s ome r emains o f t rees, w ithin S ea M ark , a t W hitburn, i n t he C ounty o f D urham.

B alkwill C .J.,

A A ( 1)

2 ,

1 976.

T he e vidence o f

1 975. p oint

c emeteries

f or l ater p rehistoric

i n t he U pper R hine v alley.

P rocesses o f

v iew ,

o f

s oil d egradation:

i n E vans J .G.,

P PS 4 2,

F .,

1 956. I sland. 1 963.

P ottery f rom p rehistoric s ites, C W ( 2)

5 5,

D iscovery o f

S kelmore H eads,

a nd C leere H . t he H igh-

N orth E nd,

W alney

1 -16. f our r oughed-out

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1 87-213.

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d evelopment B all D .F.,

C W ( 1)

C W ( 2)

s tone a xes

6 3,

o n W alney I sland.

P rehistoric p ottery f rom F urness.

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2 82

a t

2 7-30. C W

C W

( 2)

( 2)

7 0,

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T he d ating o f

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s keleton f ound a t N easham n ear D arlington, D urham. N ew P hytol. 5 1, 3 64-77.

c ounty

1 953. A l ong p ollen d iagram f rom N orthumberland. T ransactions o f t he N orthern N aturalists U nion 2 p t.1, 4 0-3. B lake B .,

1 959.

E xcavations

C umberland, B oardman J .,

B olton J .,

o f n ative

1 956-58.

C W ( 2)

( Iron A ge) 5 9,

s ites

i n

1 -14.

B rown M .A. a nd P owell T .G.E., 1 971. T he E uropean c ommunity i n l ater p rehistory: s tudies i n h onour o f C .F.C. H awkes. L ondon. 1 869. G eological f ragments c ollected p rincipally f rom r ambles a mong t he r ocks o f F urness a nd C artmel. U lverston.

B S1viken E .

B onsall C .,

e t a l., 1 982. C orrespondence a nalysis: a n a lternative p rincipal c omponents. W orld A rchaeology 1 4, 4 1-60.

t o

1 977., i n I nternational U nion f or Q uaternary R esearch X C ongress 1 977, G uidebook f or E xcursion A 4. 1 981. T he c oastal f actor i n t he M esolithic s ettlement o f N orth-West E ngland, i n G ramsch B . ( ed.) M esolithikum i n E uropa..., 4 51-472.

B onsall C .

a nd M ellars P ., M onk M oor, ( 1) 1 2, 3 .

B oon G .C.

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1 976.

E xcavation o f

B ootle,

C umbria 1 975.

( eds.),

1 976.

t he M esolithic s ite a t C BA G roup 3 N ews.

W elsh a ntiquity:

e ssays m ainly

o nj orehistoric t opics p resented t o H .N. S avory u pon h is r etirement a s K eeper o f A rchaeology. C ardiff. B owen H .C.

a nd F owler P .J. ( eds.) 1 978. E arly l and a llotment i n t he B ritish I sles: a s urvey o f r ecent w ork. B AR B ritish S eries 4 8.

B radley R .,

1 978.

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1 980.

S ubsistence,

e xchange a nd t echnology:

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i n S outhern E ngland c 1 400-

7 00 b c, i n B arrett J . a nd B radley R . ( eds.) S ettlement a nd S ociety i n t he B ritish L ater B ronze A ge, 5 7-75.

2 84

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1 947.

A f ounder's

h oard f rom D artford,

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P PS

K ent,

1 3,

w ith a

1 75-7.

1 923. N otes o n B ronze A ge b urials a t L ow M orralee F arm, R idley H all e state. P SAN ( 3) 1 0, 2 9-31.

B ritish M useum 1 953.

L ater p rehistoric a ntiquities o f t he B ritish

I sles. B ritton D .,

L ondon,

1 963.

B ritish M useum.

T raditions

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P art 1 .

P PS

1 968. L ate B ronze A ge f inds i n t he H eathery B urn C ave, C o. D urham. I nventaria A rchaeologica G B 5 5. 1 971. T he H eathery B urn C ave r evisited: a n e ssay t owards t he r econstruction o f a w ell-known a rchaeol ogical d iscovery, i n S ieveking G . d e G . ( ed.) P rehistoric a nd R oman S tudies, 2 0-38.

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p t.2,

J uly 1 971).

1 981. T he s earch f or r ank i n p rehistoric b urials i n C hapman R ., K innes I . a nd R andsborg K . ( eds.) T he a rchaeology o f d eath, 2 5-37. 1 863.

B ryce J .,

c ircles B unch B .

B urgess

A n a ccount o f A rran.

o f

e xcavations w ithin t he s tone

P SAS 4 ( for 1 860-1862)

4 99-524.

a nd F ell C .I., 1 949. A s tone-axe f actory a t P ike o f G reat L angdale, W estmorland. P PS 1 5, 1 -20. C .B.,

1 968a.

S tickle,

B ronze A ge m etalwork i n N orthern E ngland,

t o 7 00 B C.

c 1 000

N ewcastle-upon-Tyne.

1 968b. B ronze A ge d irks a nd r apiers a s i llustrated b y e xamples f rom D urham a nd N orthumberland. T AASDN 1 , 3 -18. 1 969.

T he L ater B ronze A ge

N orth-western F rance.

i n t he B ritish I sles a nd

A rch.J.

1 25

( for 1 968)

1 -45.

1 970. E xcavations a t t he s cooped s ettlement H etha B urn I , H ethpool, N orthumberland. T AASDN 2 . 1 971. S ome d ecorated s ocketed a xes i n C anon G reenwell's c ollection. Y AJ 4 2 ( for 1 967-70) 2 67-72.

2 85

1 972.

G oatscrag:

a B ronze A ge

r ock s helter c emetery i n

n orth N orthumberland. W ith n otes o n o ther r ock s helters a nd c rag l ines i n t he r egion. A A ( 4) 5 0, 1 5-69. 1 974. T he B ronze A ge, i n R enfrew C . p rehistory: a n ew o utline, 1 65-222.

( ed.)

B ritish

1 976. B urials w ith m etalwork o f t he l ater B ronze A ge W ales a nd b eyond, i n B oon G .C. a nd L ewis J .M. ( eds.)

i n

W elsh a ntiquity..., 8 1-104. 1 980. T he B ronze A ge i n W ales i n T aylor J .A. ( ed.) C ulture a nd e nvironment i n p rehistoric W ales..., 2 43-86. 1 980a.

T he a ge o f S tonehenge.

L ondon.

1 980b. E xcavations a t H ouseledge, B lack L aw, N orthumberland, 1 979, a nd t heir i mplications f or e arlier B ronze A ge s ettlement i n t he C heviots. A rchaeology 1 , 5 -12. 1 980c.

E xcavations o n B lack L aw,

N orthern

N orthumberland,

1 979.

U niversity o f D urham a nd U niversity o f N ewcastle-uponT yne A rchaeological R eports f or 1 979, 3 . 1 981. E xcavations a t H ouseledge, A keld, N orthumberland. U niversity o f D urham a nd U niversity o f N ewcastle-uponT yne A rchaeological R eports f or 1 980, 7 -10. 1 982. E xcavations a nd s urvey o n B lack L aw, A keld, N orthumberland. U niversity o f D urham a nd U niversity o f N ewcastle-upon-Tyne A rchaeological R eports f or 1 981, 4 -6. B urgess

C .B.

a nd C oombs D .,

( eds.)

f inds o ld a nd n ew. B urgess

C .B.

a nd C oombs D ., D .

B urgess

C .B.

( eds.)

1 979.

1 979.

B ronze A ge h oards:

s ome

B AR B ritish S eries 6 7. P reface

B ronze A ge h oards:

i n B urgess C .B.

a nd C oombs

s ome f inds o ld a nd n ew,

a nd C owen J .D., 1 972. T he E bnal h oard a nd E arly B ronze A ge m etal-working t raditions, • in L ynch F . a nd B urgess C .B. ( eds.) P rehistoric m an i n W ales a nd t he w est..., 1 67-81.

B urgess

C .B.

a nd M iket R ., 1 974. A b ronze a xe f rom E lsdon, N orthumberl and, a nd t he p roblem o f M iddle B ronze A ge f langed a xes. A A ( 5)

B urgess

C .B.

2 7-32.

a nd M iket R ., 1 976. T hree s ocketed a xes f rom n orth-east E ngland, w ith n otes o n f aceted a nd r ibbed s ocketed a xes. A A ( 5)

B urgess C .B.

2 ,

4 ,

1 -9.

a nd M iket R . ( eds.) 1 976a. S ettlement a nd e conomy i n t he t hird a nd s econd m illennia B C. B AR B ritish S eries 3 3.

2 86

B urgess

C .B.

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s uggestions, i n B urgess C .B. a nd M iket R . ( eds.) S ettlem ent a nd e conomy i n t he t hird a nd s econd m illennia B C, 3 09-31. B url H .A.W.,

1 969.

H enges:

A rch.J. 1 971. AA ( 4)

1 26,

i nternal f eatures a nd r egional g roups.

1 -28.

T wo " Scottish" 4 9, 3 7-51.

s tone c ircles

i n N orthumberland.

1 976. T he s tone c ircles o f t he B ritish I sles. H aven. B url H .A.W.

a nd J ones,

N .

1 972.

s tone c ircle, B urnham B .C.

B ush P .R .

T he e xcavation o f

N orthumberland.

N ew

t he T hree K ings

AA ( 4)

5 0,

1 -14.

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a nd S ieveking G . d e G ., 1 979. p rovenance o f f lint a xes: a nd C ummins W .A.

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1 956. T he L ate N eolithic g old o rnament f rom B ennekom. I I T he a ffinities o f t he B ennekom o rnament. P alaeoh istoria 5 , 5 9-71. 1 963. B ronze A ge c onnections a cross t he N orth S ea: a s tudy i n p rehistoric t rade a nd i ndustrial r elations b etween t he B ritish I sles, t he N etherlands, N orth G ermany a nd S candinavia c 1 700 - 7 00 B C. P alaeohistoria 9.

B utler J .J.

a nd S mith I .F., 1 956. R azors, u rns, a nd t he B ritish M iddle B ronze A ge. U niversity o f L ondon I nstitute o f A rchaeol ogy 1 2th a nnual r eport,

C allander J .G.,

1 916. N otice o f a j et n ecklace f ound i n a c ist i n a B ronze A ge c emetery, d iscovered o n B urgle L odge F arm, M orayshire, o rnaments.

C ameron A .G.,

C are V .,

w ith n otes o n S cottish p rehistoric j et P SAS 5 0 ( for 1 915-1916) 2 01-40.

1 878. N otes o n s ome p eat d eposits a t K ildale a nd W est H artlepool. T he G eological M agazine ( n.s.) D ecade I I, V ol.5,

3 51-2.

1 979.

T he p roduction a nd d istribution o f M esolithic

a xes C ase H .J.,

2 0-52.

1 965.

i n S outhern E ngland.

P PS 4 5,

9 3-102.

A t in-bronze i n B ell-beaker a ssociation.

A ntiquity 3 9, 2 19-22. 1 969.

N eolithic e xplanations.

2 87

A ntiquity 4 3,

1 76-86.

1 970. 3 90-1.

R eview o f H arbison 1 969a a nd 1 969b.

P PS 3 6,

1 977. T he B eaker c ulture i n B ritain a nd I reland, M ercer R . ( ed.) B eakers i n B ritain a nd E urope..., 7 1-101. C ase H .J.

e t a l., 1 966. E xcavation a t C ity F arm, H anborough, O xoniensia 2 9-30 ( for 1 964-1965) 1 -98.

C eloria F .,

O xon.

1 974. P reliminary l ist o f N eolithic a xes f rom L ondon r egion w ith p etrographic d ata. L ondon S tudies 1 ( Expanded r eprint o f i st e d.) 8 7-92.

C hallis A .J.

C hambers

i n

a nd H arding D .W., 1 975. L ater p rehistory f rom t he T rent t o t he T yne. B AR B ritish S eries 2 0.

C .,

1 974. T he v egetational h istory o f T eesdale: a t hesis p resented f or t he D egree o f D octor o f P hilosophy i n t he F aculty o f S cience i n t he U niversity o f D urham. 1 978.

A r adiocarbon-dated p ollen d iagram f rom V alley

B og, o n t he M oor H ouse N ational N ature R eserve. P hytol. 8 0, 2 73-80. C hapman R .,

1 981.

T he e mergence o f

N ew

f ormal d isposal a reas a nd t he

p roblem o f m egalithic t ombs i n p rehistoric E urope C hapman R ., K innes I . a nd R andsborg K . ( eds.) T he a rchaeology o f d eath, C hapman R ., K innes I . d eath. C hapman R .

7 1-81.

a nd R andsborg K . ( New d irections

a nd R andsborg K .,

1 981.

( eds.) 1 981. T he a rchaeology o f i n a rchaeology). C ambridge.

A pproaches

t o

t he a rchaeology o f

d eath, i n C hapman R ., K innes I . a nd R andsborg K . T he a rchaeology o f d eath, 1 -24. C hapman S .B.,

1 964. T he e cology o f C oom R igg M oss, S tratigraphy a nd p resent v egetation. 5 2,

C harlton D .B.,

1 982.

N orthumberland,

1 967.

N Y900959.

N orthern

3 -5.

a nd D ay J .C., 1 978. R edesdale. AA ( 5)

6 7,

N orthumberland: I J ournal o f E cology

A B ronze .Age s ettlement o n T odlaw P ike,

O tterburn,

C herry J .,

( eds.)

2 99-313.

A rchaeology 3 , C harlton D .B.

i n

E xcavation a nd 6 , 6 1-86.

f ield s urvey i n U pper

P rehistoric h abitation s ites

a t

S eascale.

C W ( 2)

1 -16.

1 969.

E arly N eolithic s ites a t E skmeals.

C W ( 2)

6 9,

4 0-53. C herry J .

a nd C herry P .J., B ees,

1 973.

C umberland.

M esolithic h abitation s ites a t S t. C W ( 2)

2 88

7 3, 4 7-66.

C hilde V .G.,

1 949.

P rehistoric c ommunities o f t he B ritish I sles.

3 rd e d., C lack P .A.G.

L ondon.

a nd G osling P .F.,

1 976.

A rchaeology i n t he n orth:

r eport

o f t he N orthern A rchaeological S urvey. E dited b y D .W. H arding. D urham, N orthern A rchaeological S urvey. C lapperton C .M., D urno S .E. a nd S quires R .H., 1 971. E vidence f or t he F landrian h istory o f t he W ooler W ater, N orthumberland, p rovided b y p ollen a nalysis. M agazine 8 7 n o.1, 1 4-20. C lark J .G.D.,

S cottish G eographical

1 936. T he t imber m onument a t A rminghall a nd i ts a ffinities. P PS 2 p t.1, 1 -51. 1 932.

T he d ate o f

t he p iano-convex f lint-knife i n

E ngland a nd W ales.

A nt.J.

1 932a. F resh e vidence f or M an 3 2, 4 0-1.

1 2,

1 58-62.

t he d ating o f g old

" lunulae".

1 948. O bjects o f S outh S candinavian f lint i n t he n orthernmost p rovinces o f N orway, S weden a nd F inland. P PS 1 4, 2 19-32. 1 954. E xcavations a t S tar C arr: a n e arly M esolithic s ite a t S eamer n ear S carborough, Y orkshire. L ondon. C larke D .L.,

1 970. B eaker P ottery o f G reat B ritain a nd I reland. C ambridge. 1 979a.

A nalytical a rchaeologist:

D avid L . 1 979b.

C larke.

E dited b y h is

M esolithic E urope:

c ollected p apers o f

c olleagues.

t he e donomic b asis,

C larke D .L. A nalytical a rchaeologist: o f D avid L .

C larke,

L ondon. i n

c ollected p apers

2 07-262.

1 979c. T he B eaker n etwork: s ocial a nd e conomic m odels i n C larke D .L. A nalytical a rchaeologist: c ollected p apers o f D avid L . C larke, 3 33-362. C lough T .H.McK., 1 969. 1 -39. 1 972.

B ronze A ge m etalwork f rom C umbria.

R ecent

B ronze A ge

f inds

f rom C umbria.

C W ( 2)

6 9,

C W ( 2)

7 2,

4 4-52. 1 973.

E xcavations

1 969 a nd 1 970.

o n a L angdale a xe c hipping s ite i n

C W ( 2)

7 3,

2 5-46.

1 979. B ronze A ge m etalwork f rom R utland, i n B urgess C .B. a nd C oombs D . ( eds.) B ronze A ge h oards: s ome f inds o ld a nd n ew,

1 17-35.

2 89

C lough T .H.McK.

a nd C ummins W .A.

( eds.)

1 979.

S tone a xe s tudies:

a rchaeological, petrological, e xperimental a nd e thnographic. C BA R esearch R eport N o.23. C lough T .H.McK.

C oghlan H .H.

C oles J .M.,

a nd G reen B ., 1 972. T he p etrological i dentification o f s tone i mplements f rom E ast A nglia. P PS 3 8, 1 08-55.

a nd C ase H .J., 1 957. E arly m etallurgy o f I reland a nd B ritain. P PS 2 3, 9 1-123. 1 961.

T he S alta M oss r apier.

C W ( 2)

c opper i n

6 1,

1 6-24.

1 962a. S cottish L ate B ronze A ge m etalwork: d istributions a nd c hronology. P SAS 9 3 ( for

t ypology, 1 959-1960)

1 6-134. 1 962b.

E uropean B ronze A ge s hields.

P PS 2 8,

2 56-90.

1 966. S cottish M iddle B ronze A ge m etalwork. ( for 1 963-1964) 8 2-156. 1 971.

S cottish E arly B ronze A ge m etalwork.

( for 1 968-1969) C oles J .M.

C oles J .M.

1 01

L ondon.

O rme B ., B ishop A .C. f rom t he S omerset

a nd W oolley A .R., 1 974. A j ade a xe l evels. A ntiquity 4 8, 2 16-20.

a nd S impson D .D.A., 1 965. T he e xcavation o f a N eolithic r ound b arrow a t P itnacree, P erthshire, S cotland. P PS 3 1,

C oles J .M.

P SAS

1 -110.

a nd H arding A .F., 1 979. T he B ronze A ge i n E urope: a n i ntroduction t o t he p rehistory o f E urope c . 2 000 - 7 00 B C.

C oles J .M.,

P SAS 9 7

3 4-57.

a nd S impson D .D.A.

( eds.)

1 968.

S tudies

i n A ncient E uro _pe:

e ssays presented t o S tuart P iggott.

L eicester.

C ollingwood E .F. a nd C owen J .D., 1 946. A p rehistoric g rave a t W est L ilburn. AA ( 4) 2 4, 2 17-29. C ollingwood E .F.

a nd C owen

H ead, C ollingwood E .F.

1 948.

W ooler.

AA ( 4)

a nd J obey G .,

L ilburn.

1 961.

AA ( 4)

3 9,

A p rehistoric g rave a t H augh

2 6,

4 7-54.

A f ood v essel b urial a t W est 3 73-80.

C ollingwood R .G., 1 933. A n i ntroduction t o t he p rehistory o f C umberland, W estmoreland a nd L ancashire N orth-of-theS ands. 1 938. C ollingwood W .G.,

C W

( 2)

3 3.

T he h ill-fort o n C arrock F ell.

1 901.

T umulus a t G rayson-lands,

C umberland.

C W

( 2)

1 ,

2 90

2 95-9.

C W

( 2)

G lassonby,

3 8,

3 2-41.

1 910. A n E xploration o f t he C ircle o n B anniside M oor, C oniston. C W ( 2) 1 0, 3 42-53. C olquhoun I .A.,

1 979.

T he L ate B ronze A ge h oard f rom B lackmoor,

H ampshire, i n B urgess C .B. a nd C oombs D . ( eds.) A ge h oards: s ome f inds o ld a nd n ew, 9 9-115. C oombs D .,

1 975.

B ronze A ge w eapon h oards

B ronze

i n B ritain.

A rchaeologia A tlantica 1 , 4 9-81. C owen J .D.,

1 933. T wo b ronze ( 4) 1 0, 1 85-98.

s words

f rom E wart P ark ,

W ooler.

AA

1 948. M useum n otes: B ronze a xe-head f rom B roomwood C amp, E dlingham. AA ( 4) 2 6, 1 27-39. 1 966.

A r are f lint f rom D arlington.

A A ( 4)

1 967. T he H allstatt s word o f b ronze: a nd i n B ritain. P PS 3 3, 3 77-454. 1 971. C owen J .D.

A n ote o n t he E astgate h oard.

a nd M aryon H ., 2 80-309.

1 935.

4 4,

2 09-10.

o n t he c ontinent

AA ( 4)

T he W hittingham s word.

4 9,

A A ( 4)

2 9-36. 1 2,

C owie T .G.,

1 978. B ronze A ge F ood V essel U rns i n N orthern B ritain. B AR B ritish S eries 5 5.

C raw J .H.,

1 929. O n a j et n ecklace f rom a e ist a t P oltallach, A rgyll. P SAS 6 3 ( for 1 928-1929) 1 54-89. 1 931.

T he e xcavation o f

C oldsmouth H ill, 3 79-84. 1 934.

N eolithic c airns

D uddo s tone C rawford 0 .G.S.

C ross

M .,

W .A.,

c ircle.

a nd W heeler R .E.M.,

H BNC 2 7

c airns

i n N orthumberland

H BNC 2 8 1 921.

t he B ronze A ge.

o n

( for 1 929-1931)

( and

( for 1 932-1934)

t he)

8 0,

o f

1 947.

A P rehistoric S ettlement o n W alney I sland, C W ( 2)

4 6,

A rch.

7 1,

1 33-40. P art

6 7-76.

1 974. T he N eolithic s tone a xe t rade A ntiquity 4 8, 2 01-5. 1 979.

8 4-6.

T he L lynfawr a nd o ther

h oards

I V. C ummins

t wo B ronze A ge

n ear Y etholm.

N eolithic s tone a xes:

i n B ritain.

d istribution a nd

E ngland a nd W ales, i n C lough T .H.McK. ( eds.) S tone a xe s tudies..., 5 -12.

t rade

i n

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F air M .C.,

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F lintshire.

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p ost-glacial v egetational h istory: P roc. R oy. S oc. B , 1 47, 3 52-66. G ordon A .,

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S ocigtg J ersiaise. H enshall A .S.,

1 963.

T he c hambered t ombs o f S cotland.

E dinburgh.

1 963a. A B ronze A ge c ist b urial a t M asterton, P itreavie, F ife. P SAS 9 6 ( for 1 962-1963) 1 45-54. 1 966.

A d agger-grave a nd o ther

A shgrove, 1 66-79.

H erity M .

1 968.

S cottish d agger g raves, ( eds.) 1 977.

c ist-burials a t

P SAS 9 7

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i n C oles J .M.

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a nd S impson 1 73-95.

L ondon.

1 978. E arly f ield s urvival i n n orth C umbria i n B owen H .C. a nd F owler P .J. ( eds.) E arly l and a llotment i n t he B ritish I sles: a s urvey o f r ecent w ork, 1 19-125.

( ed.)

H igham N .J.

F ife.

D .D.A.

a nd E ogan G .,

H igham N .J.,

M ethilhill,

1 979. T he c hanging p ast: s ome r ecent w ork i n t he a rchaeology o f N orthern E ngland. M anchester.

a nd J ones G .D.B.,

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F rontiers,

C umbrian a erial s urvey 1 974-5. 1 6-53.

2 99

f orts a nd f armers: A rch. J .

1 32

( for 1 975),

H ill M .O.,

1 974.

C orrespondence a nalysis:

m ultivariate m ethod. H ill P .R.,

1 982a.

S ettlement

a n eglected

A pplied S tatistics 2 3,

a nd c hronology,

3 40-354.

i n H arding D .W.

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( ed.)

S cotland,

1 982b. B roxmouth h illfort e xcavations, 1 977-1978: a n i nterim r eport, i n H arding D .W. ( ed.) L ater p rehistoric s ettlement i n s outh-east S cotland, 1 982c.

T owards a n ew c lassification o f p rehistoric

h ouses. H odder I .,

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S cottish A rchaeological R eview 1 ,

2 4-31.

1 974. R egression a nalysis o f s ome t rade a nd m arketing p atterns. W orld A rchaeology 6 , 1 72-89.

( ed.)

1 978a.

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a pproaches

i n a rchaeology).

( New

L ondon.

1 978b. S imple c orrelations b etween m aterial c ulture a nd s ociety: a r eview, i n H odder I . ( ed.) T he s patial o rganisation o f c ulture, ( ed.)

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1 978c. S imulation s tudies i n a rchaeology. d irections i n a rchaeology). C ambridge.

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P attern o f t he p ast:

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C ambridge.

a nd O rton C ., 1 976. S patial a nalysis i n a rchaeology s tudies i n a rchaeology, 1 ). C ambridge. .

H odges H .W.M.,

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H odgson J .,

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2 9-56.

1 822. S ome a ccount o f a s et o f g old b eads, p resented t o t he A ntiquarian S ociety o f N ewcastle u pon T yne, b y H is G race

t he D uke o f N orthumberland.

1 827-1835.

A A ( 1)

A h istory o f N orthumberland,

P ts.II-III. H odgson K .S.,

( New

1 ,

1 -10.

i n t hree p arts,

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S ome e xcavations i n t he B ewcastle d istrict. I , 1 940. ge t umulus o n t he S hield K nowe. I I, A h utB ronze A ear W oodhead. C W ( 2) 4 0, 1 54-66. c ircle n 1 957.

T hree u npublished c ollections

p ottery:

N etherhall,

1 -17.

3 00

o f

A

B ronze A ge

G arlands a nd A glionby.

C W ( 2)

5 6,

H odgson T .h.,

1 894.

B one s pear o r h arpoon h ead f rom T erra d el F uego,

f ound o n p eat n ear C rosby-on-Eden. 1 895) 4 02. 1 904. A n a ncient 2 11-212. H odson F .R.,

1 974.

C W ( 1)

1 3

p alisade o n B owness C ommon.

( for 1 894-

C W ( 2)

T he p lace o f a stronomy i n t he a ncient w orld.

4 ,

A

j oint s ymposium o f t he R oyal S ociety a nd t he B ritish A cademy. A cademy.

( Phil. T rans. R oy.

2 76) B ritish

H ogg A .H.A.,

1 975.

H ogg R .,

1 959. P olished s tone a xe f rom A mbleside. 1 86-8.

H ope-Taylor B .,

H ill-forts o f B ritain.

S oc. A ,

1 977.

Y eavering:

L ondon. C W ( 2)

5 8,

a n A nglo-British c entre o f e arly

N orthumbria. D epartment o f t he E nvironment A rchaeol ogical R eports, 7 . L ondon, H .M.S.O. H oulder C .H.,

1 968. T he h enge m onuments 2 16-21.

a t L landegai.

A ntiquity 4 2,

1 979. T he L angdale a nd S cafell P ike a xe f actory s ites: a f ield s urvey , i n C lough T .H.McK. a nd C ummins W .A., S tone a xe s tudies..., 8 7-9. H umphreys

S .C.

a nd K ing H ., ( eds.) 1 981. M ortality a nd i mmortality: t he a nthropology a nd a rchaeology o f d eath. L ondon.

H utchinson T .C., 1 966. T he o ccurrence o f l iving a nd s ub-fossil r emains o f B etula n ana L . i n U pper T eesdale. N ew P hytol. 6 5, 3 51-7. H utchinson W .,

1 794. T he h istory a nd a ntiquities o f t he C ounty P alatine o f D urham. I -III. N ewcastle, 1 785-1794. 1 794. T he h istory o f t he C ounty o f C umberland, a nd s ome p laces a djacent, f rom t he e arliest a ccounts t o t he p resent t ime. C arlisle, 1 794-1797. ( Reprinted 1 974).

I nstitute o f G eological S ciences, K i n gdom : I reland J .

a nd L ynch F .,

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Q uaternary m ap o f t he U nited

G eological s urvey t en m ile m ap. 1 973.

M ore M esolithic f lints

i st e d.

f rom T rwyn D u,

A bberffraw. A nglesey A ntiquarian S ociety a nd F ield C lub T ransactions 1 973, 1 70-175. I versen J .,

1 941.

L and o ccupation i n D enmark's

p ollen-analytical s tudy o f

S tone A ge:

t he i nfluence o f

a

f armer

c ulture o n t he v egetational d evelopment. D anmarks G eologiske U ndersSgelse I I. R aekke, n o.66, 2 0-68. 1 949.

T he i nfluence o f

p rehistoric m an o n v egetation.

D enmarks G eologiske U ndersSgelse, N r.6,

1 -25.

3 01

I V.

R aekke,

B d.3,

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J arman M .R.,

J obey G .,

B ailey G .N. a nd J arman H .N., 1 982. E arly E uropean a gric ulture: i ts f oundation a nd d evelopment. ( Papers i n E conomic P rehistory, 3 ). C ambridge. 1 959. E xcavations a t t he n ative s ettlement a t H uckhoe, N orthumberland, 1 955-7. A A ( 4) 3 7, 2 17-278. 1 960. S ome r ectilinear s ettlements i n N orthumberland. P art 1 . A A ( 4) 1 962a. A A ( 4)

o f t he R oman p eriod 3 8, 1 -38.

A n ote o n s cooped e nclosures 4 0,

i n N orthumberland.

4 7-58.

1 962b. A n I ron A ge h omestead a t W est B randon, AA ( 4) 4 0, 1 -34. 1 964. E nclosed s tone b uilt s ettlements N orthumberland. AA ( 4) 4 2, 4 1-64. 1 965. ( 4)

4 3,

H ill f orts a nd s ettlements

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i n N orth

i n N orthumberland.

A A

2 1-64.

1 966. ( ed.)

A f ield s urvey i n N orthumberland i n R ivet A .L.F. T he I ron A ge i n n orthern B ritain, 8 9-109.

1 967.

L ewisburn M useum:

f lint d agger.

AA ( 4)

4 5, 2 07-

8. 1 968.

E xcavations

N orthumberland. 1 968a.

c airns 4 6,

a t C hatton S andyford, 5 -50.

N otes o n s ome f ood v essels

N orthumberland. 1 968b.

o f

AA ( 4)

T AASDN ( n.s.)

1 ,

f rom n orth 1 03-5.

A r adiocarbon d ate f or t he p alisaded

a t H uckhoe.

A A ( 4)

4 6,

s ettlement

2 93-295.

1 970. A n I ron A ge s ettlement a nd h omestead a t N orthumberland. AA ( 4) 4 8, 5 1-95. 1 970a.

E arly s ettlement

c ounties.

a nd

t opography i n t he B order

S cottish A rchaeological F orum 2 ,

1 971.

E arly s ettlements

T rans.

D umfries a nd G alloway ( 3)

1 971a.

E xcavations

( 4)

7 1-93.

4 9,

B urradon,

7 3-84.

i n e astern D umfriesshire. 4 8,

7 8-105.

a t B rough L aw a nd I ngram H ill.

3 02

A A

1 973.

A n ative s ettlement a t H artburn a nd

C auseway,

N orthumberland

( 1971).

AA ( 5)

t he D evil's

1 ,

1 1-53.

1 973a. A R omano-British s ettlement a t T ower K nowe, W ellhaugh, N orthumberland. AA ( 5) 1 , 5 5-79. 1 975. l and.

A b eaker b urial f rom N orth H azelrigg, AA ( 5) 3 , 2 17-9.

1 977. A f ood v essel b urial o n D our H ill, N orthumberland. AA ( 5) 5 , 2 04-7.

N orthumber-

B yrness,

1 977a. I ron A ge a nd l ater f armsteads o n B elling L aw, N orthumberland. AA ( 5) 5 , 1 -38. 1 978.

I ron A ge a nd R omano-British s ettlements o n K ennel

H all K nowe, 1 -28.

N orth T ynedale,

N orthumberland.

1 978a. B urnswark H ill, D umfriesshire. a nd G alloway ( 3) 5 3, 5 7-104. 1 980.

S ettlement p otential

A A ( 5)

6 ,

T rans. D umfries

i n N orthern B ritain i n t he

l ater s econd m illennium b c, i n B arrett J . a nd B radley R . ( eds.) S ettlement a nd s ociety i n t he B ritish L ater B ronze A ge, 3 71-6. 1 980a. U nenclosed p latforms a nd s ettlements o f l ater s econd m illennium B C i n n orthern B ritain. S cottish A rchaeological F orum 1 0

( for 1 978),

t he

1 2-26.

1 980b. E xcavations a t S tandrop R igg, N orthumberland, 1 979. U niversity o f D urham a nd U niversity o f N ewcastleu pon-Tyne A rchaeological R eports f or 1 979, 4 . 1 981. G roups o f s mall c airns a nd t he e xcavation o f a c airnfield o n M illstone H ill, N orthumberland. AA ( 5) 9 , 2 3-43. 1 981a. G reen K nowe u nenclosed p latform s ettlement a nd H arehope c airn, P eeblesshire. P SAS 1 10 ( for 1 978-1980), 7 2-113. 1 982. T he s ettlement a t D oubstead a nd R omano-British s ettlement o n t he c oastal p lain b etween T yne a nd F orth. AA ( 5) J obey G .

J obey G .,

1 0,

1 -23.

a nd N ewman T .G., 1 975. A c ollared u rn c remation o n H owick H eugh, N orthumberland. AA ( 5) 3 , 1 -16. S mith D .J.

a nd T ait J .,

R eaverhill F arm ,

1 965.

A n E arly B ronze A ge b urial

B arrasford,

6 5-75.

3 03

N orthumberland.

AA ( 4)

i n 4 3,

J obey G .

a nd T ait J .,

1 966.

E xcavations

c airnfields a t A lnham , J obey

I .,

1 980. N ews.

J ohnson C .G.

o n p alisaded s ettlements a nd

N orthumberland.

M urton H igh C rags, ( 2) 1 0, 9 .

AA ( 4)

N orthumberland.

4 4,

5 -48.

C BA G roup 3

a nd S mith L .P. ( eds.) 1 965. T he b iological s ignificance o f c limatic c hanges i n B ritain. P roceedings o f a s ymposium h eld a t t he R oyal G eographical S ociety, L ondon, o n 2 9 a nd 3 0 O ctober 1 964. S ymposia o f t he I nstitute o f B iology, 1 4.

J ohnson G .A.L.

a nd D unham K .C., 1 963. T he geology o f M oor H ouse, a N ational R eserve i n n orth-east W estmorland. M onographs o f t he N ature C onservancy, 2 . L ondon, H .M.S.O.

J ones R .F.J.,

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J ones V .,

T AASDN ( n.s.)

B ishop A .C. a nd W oolley A .R., 1 977. T hird s upplement o f t he c atalogue o f j ade a xes f rom s ites i n t he B ritish I sles. P PS 4 3,

K avanagh R .M.,

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2 87-93.

T he e ncrusted u rn i n I reland. I rish A cademy ( C) 7 3, 5 07-617.

P roceedings o f t he

1 976. C ollared a nd c ordoned c inerary u rns P roceedings o f t he R oyal I rish A cademy ( C) K een L .

a nd R adley J ., o f

K eiller A .,

1 971.

s tone a xes

P iggott

S .

R eport o n t he p etrological f rom Y orkshire.

a nd W allis F .S.,

P PS 3 7,

1 941.

F irst

i n I reland. 7 6, 2 93-403. i dentification

1 6737. r eport

o f

t he s ub-

c ommittee o f t he S outh-Western g roup o f m useums a nd a rt g alleries o n t he p etrological i dentification o f s tone a xes.

P PS 7 , 5 0-72.

K endall D .G.,

1 974. H unting q uanta, i n H odson F .R. ( ed.) o f a stronomy i n t he a ncient w orld, 2 31-66.

K endrick J .,

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K innes

I .,

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T he p lace

1 36-140.

M onumental

p ractices.

f unction i n B ritain N eolithic b urial

W orld A rchaeology 7 ,

1 6-29.

1 979. R ound b arrows a nd r ing-ditches i n t he B ritish N eolithic. B ritish M useum O ccasional P apers, 7 . L ondon. K invig R .H.,

1 950.

A h istory o f t he I sle o f M an.

2 nd e d.

L iverpool. K itson C lark M .,

1 938.

1 937)

T he Y orkshire f ood-vessel.

4 3-63.

3 04

A rch. J . 9 4

( for

K ozlowski

S .K.,

L amb H .H.,

( ed.) 1 965.

1 973.

T he M esolithic i n E urope.

B ritain's

c hanging c limate,

W arsaw.

i n J ohnson C .G.

a nd

S mith L .P. ( eds.) T he b iological s ignificance o f c limatic c hanges i n B ritain, 3 -31. 1 977. C limate: p resent, p ast a nd f uture, V ol.2. C limatic h istory a nd t he f uture. L anting J .N.

a nd M ook W .G.,

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T he p re- a nd p roto-history o f t he

N etherlands i n t erms o f r adiocarbon d ates. L anting J .N.

a nd v an d er W aals J .D., f rom t he 4 6.

L each E .,

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c ontinent:

1 972.

B ritish B eakers

a r eview a rticle.

A v iew f rom t he b ridge,

C .S.,

a s

s een

H elinium 1 2,

i n S priggs M .

A rchaeology a nd a nthropology: 1 61-176.

L eaf

G roningen.

2 0-

( ed.)

a reas o f m utual i nterest,

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D iscussion,

( eds.)

S pace,

i n B urnham B .C.

1 934.

R eport o n t he e xcavation o f

a nd K ingsbury J .

h ierarchy a nd s ociety,

1 19-124.

t wo s ites

i n

M ildenhall F en. P roceedings o f t he C ambridge A ntiquarian S ociety, 3 4 ( for 1 932-1933) 1 06-27. 1 936. T wo B ronze A ge b arrow s a t C hippenham , C ambridges hire. P roceedings o f t he C ambridge A ntiquarian S ociety 3 6, 1 34-55. 1 940.

F urther e xcavations

i n B ronze A ge 1 arrows

a t

C hippenham , C ambridgeshire. P roceedings o f t he C ambridge A ntiquarian S ociety 3 9, 2 9-68. L e R oux C .-T.,

L evy J .E.,

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S ocial a nd r eligious o rganization i n B ronze A ge

D enmark. L ewis G .,

L ivens

.

R .G.,

L ongworth I .H.,

B AR I nternational S eries

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P etrology o f

1 961.

T he o rigins

s eries W ales. 1 970.

1 24.

f or t he P eak D istrict.

S cottish s tone i mplements.

a nd d evelopment

o f

P SAS 9 2,

t he p rimary

i n t he c ollared u rn t radition i n E ngland a nd P PS 2 7,

2 63-306.

T he s econdary s eries

i n t he c ollared u rn

t radition i n E ngland a nd W ales. A ctes d u V II e C ongres I nternational d es S ciences P rghistoriques e t P rotoh istoriques.

P rague 2 1-27 a 8ut

3 05

1 966,

I , 6 62-5.

L ort L owndes

R .A.C.,

1 979. 1 979.

L ecture t o

1 779.

O bservations

1 963.

t he P rehistoric S ociety,

o n c elts.

" Celtic" f ields,

i n t he L une V alley.

C W

A rch. 5 ,

f armsteads, ( 2)

6 3,

1 9 D ecember

1 06-18.

a nd b urial m ounds

7 7-95.

L ynch A .,

1 981. M an a nd e nvironment i n S outh-West I reland, 4 000 B C - A D 8 00: a s tudy o f m an's i mpact o n t he d evelopment o f s oil a nd v egetation. B AR B ritish S eries 8 5.

L ynch F .,

1 970. P rehistoric A nglesey: i sland t o t he R oman c onquest.

t he a rchaeology o f t he A nglesey A ntiquarian

S ociety. L ynch F .

a nd A llen D .,

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B renig V alley E xcavations

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i nterim

r eport. T ransactions o f t he D enbighshire H istorical S ociety 2 4, 1 3-37. L ynch F .

a nd B urgess C .B. ( eds.) 1 972. P rehistoric m an i n W ales a nd t he w est: e ssays i n h onour o f L ily F . C hitty. B ath.

L ynch F .

e t a l., 1 974. r eport.

B renig V alley e xcavations 1 973: i nterim T ransactions o f t he D enbighshire H istorical

S ociety 2 3, M acinnes L .,

1 982.

9 -64.

P attern a nd p urpose:

t he s ettlement

e vidence,

i n H arding D .W. ( ed.) L ater p rehistoric s ettlement i n s outh-east S cotland, 5 7-73. M ackenzie E .,

1 825.

A n h istorical,

t opographical,

a nd d escriptive

v iew o f t he C ounty o f N orthumberland, a nd o f t hose p arts o f t he C ounty o f D urham s ituated n orth o f t he R iver T yne, w ith B erwick u pon T weed, a nd b rief n otices o f c elebrated p laces o n t he S cottish b order. ( 2nd e d.). N ewcastle-upon-Tyne. M aclaughlan H .,

1 864.

M emoir w ritten d uring a s urvey o f

B ranch o f t he W atling S treet N orthumberland. L ondon. 1 864.

E astern B ranch o f t he W atling S treet

c ounty o f N orthumberland. 1 857,

1 858 a nd 1 859).

1 867.

N otes o n c amps

C arham, H BNC 2 4 M anby T .G.,

1 957.

t he E astern

i n t he c ounty o f

L ondon. i n t he p arishes o f

F ord, K irknewton a nd W ooler ( for 1 919-22) 4 31-70. F ood v essels o f

i n t he

( Survey m ade i n t he y ears

B ranxton,

i n N orthumberland.

t he P eak D istrict.

D AJ 7 7,

1 -29.

1 963. T he e xcavation o f t he W illerby W old l ong b arrow, E ast R iding o f Y orkshire. P PS 2 9, 1 73-205.

3 06

1 965.

T he d istribution o f

r ough-out,

" Cumbrian"

a nd

r elated s tone a xes o f L ake D istrict o rigin i n N orthern E ngland. C W ( 2) 6 5, 1 -37. 1 970.

L ong b arrows o f

d ating e vidence. 1 973. AA ( 5)

n orthern E ngland:

s tructural a nd

S cottish A rchaeological F orum 2 ,

N eolithic p ottery f rom H asting H ill, 1 , 2 19-22.

C o.

1 -27.

D urham.

1 974. G rooved w are s ites i n Y orkshire a nd t he N orth o f E ngland. B AR B ritish S eries 9 . 1 979.

T ypology, m aterials,

a nd d istribution o f f lint

a nd s tone a xes i n Y orkshire, i n C lough T .H.McK. a nd C ummins W .A. ( eds.) S tone a xe s tudies..., 6 5-81. 1 980. B ronze A ge s ettlement i n E astern Y orkshire, i n B arrett J . a nd B radley R . ( eds.) S ettlement a nd s ociety i n t he B ritish L ater B ronze A ge, M anley G .,

3 07-70.

1 952. C limate a nd t he B ritish S cene. s eries. L ondon.

M ardia K .V., K ent J .T. L ondon. M aryon H .,

1 936.

a nd B ibby J .M.,

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I rish B ronze A ge

c ists:

a s urvey.

J RSAI

I .

1 00,

9 1-139. W ainwright G .J.,

1 969.

r ecent

A r eview o f r esearch.

h enge m onuments

P PS,

3 5,

i n t he l ight o f

1 12-33.

1 979. M ount P leasant, D orset: e xcavations 1 970-1971, i ncorporating a n a ccount o f e xcavations u ndertaken a t W oodhenge i n 1 970.

R eports o f

t he S ociety o f A ntiquaries W ainwright G .J.

t he R esearch C ommittee o f

o f L ondon,

N o.XXXVII.

a nd L ongworth I .H., 1 971. D urrington W alls: e xcavations 1 966-1968. R eport o f t he R esearch C ommittee o f

t he S ociety o f A ntiquaries o f L ondon,

3 22

N o.XXIX.

W alker D .,

1 955.

S tudies

i n t he p ost-glacial h istory o f B ritish

v egetation, X IV. W estmorland.

S kelsmergh T arn a nd K entmere,

N ew P hytol.

5 4,

2 22-54.

1 964. P ost-glacial d eposits a t T arn W adling, C umberland. N ew P hytol. 6 3, 2 32-5. 1 965a.

E xcavations a t B arnscar,

1 957-58.

C W ( 2)

6 5,

5 3-65. 1 965b. T he p ost-glacial p eriod i n t he L angdale F ells, E nglish L ake D istrict. N ew P hytol. 6 4, 4 88-510. 1 966. T he l ate Q uaternary h istory o f t he C umberland L owland. P hil. T rans. R oy. S oc. B , 2 51, 1 -210. W alker D .

a nd L ambert C .A.,

1 955.

W estmorland: h istory. W alker D .

a nd W est R .G.

B oreal d eposits a t K irkby T hore,

d ata f or t he s tudy o f p ost-glacial

X VI.

N ew P hytol. 5 4,

( eds.)

1 970.

S tudies i n t he v egetational

h istory o f t he B ritish I sles: H arry G odwin. W ard J .E.,

1 977. 7 7,

W arren S .H.,

W atkins T .,

2 09-15.

e ssays i n h onour o f

C ambridge.

C airns o n C orney F ell,

W est C umberland.

C W ( 2)

1 -5.

1 921. E xcavations a t t he s tone-axe f actory o f G raigL wyd, P enmaenmawr. J ournal o f t he R oyal A nthropological I nstitute 5 1, 1 65-99. ( ed.)

1 975.

R adiocarbon:

c alibration a nd p rehistory.

E dinburgh. W ebster R .A.,

1 971.

A m orphological s tudy o f R omano-British

s ettlements

i n W estmorland.

C W ( 2)

7 1,

6 4-74.

W eiss K .,

1 972. O n t he s ystematic b ias i n s keletal s exing. A merican J ournal o f P hysical A nthropology 3 7, 2 39-50.

W est T .,

1 822. T he a ntiquities o f F urness. N ew e dition w ith a dditions, b y W illiam C lose. U lverston.

W estley B .,

1 976. T he c remations f rom L itton C heney, D orset i n B urgess C . a nd M iket R . ( eds.) S ettlement a nd e conomy i n t he t hird a nd s econd m illennia B C,

W eyman J .,

W hellan W .,

9 7-99.

1 977.

A r e-worked f lint

l and.

A A ( 5)

1 860.

T he h istory a nd t opography o f t he c ounties o f

5 ,

a xe f rom M ilfield,

N orthumber-

2 03-4.

C umberland a nd W estmoreland.

3 23

P ontefract.

W hite J .P.

a nd M odjeska N .,

1 978.

' Where d o a ll t he s tone t ools g o?'

S ome e xamples a nd p roblems i n t heir s ocial a nd s patial d istribution i n t he P apua N ew G uinea H ighlands, i n H odder I . ( ed.) T he s patial o rganisation o f c ulture, 2 5-38. W hiting C .E.,

1 937.

A ncient l og c offins

i n B ritain.

T AASDN 8 , 8 0-

1 05. W hittle A .W.R.,

1 977.

T he e arlier N eolithic o f s outhern E ngland a nd

i ts c ontinental b ackground. 3 5.

B AR S upplementary S eries

1 978. R esources a nd p opulation i n t he B ritish N eolithic. A ntiquity 5 2, 3 4-42. 1 979. 7 0.

S cord o f

B rouster.

1 980. T wo N eolithics? 3 29-34, 3 71-3. 1 981.

C urrent A rchaeology 6 5,

1 67-

C urrent A rchaeology 7 0 a nd 7 1,

L ater N eolithic s ociety i n B ritain:

a

r ealignment, i n R uggles C .L.N. a nd W hittle A .W.R. ( eds.) A stronomy a nd s ociety i n B ritain d uring t he p eriod 4 000 - 1 500 B C, 2 97-342. 1 982. C limate, g razing a nd m an: n otes t owards t he d efinition o f a r elationship, i n H arding A .F. ( ed.) C limatic c hange i n l ater p rehistory, W ilde W .R.,

1 863.

1 92-203.

A d escriptive c atalogue o f t he a ntiquities i n

t he M useum o f t he R oyal I rish A cademy V ol.l.

A rticles

o f s tone, e arthen, v e etable, a nd a nimal m aterials; o f c opper a nd b ronze. D ublin. ' W illiams A .,

1 948.

E xcavations

B erkshire,

1 944.

i n B arrow H ills F ield, O xoniensia 1 3,

1 822.

W ilson W .,

B rass. W oodman P .C.,

1 978.

C ommunications A A ( 1)

1 ,

R adley,

1 -17.

1 880. A n a ccount o f a n o aken t rough o r L orton M oss. C W ( 1) 4 , 3 44-5.

W ilson J .,

a nd

c hest,

r especting I mplements

f ound o n

o f a ncient

1 3-16.

T he M esolithic i n I reland:

a n i nsular e nvironment.

h unter-gatherers i n

B AR B ritish S eries 5 8.

1 981. P roblems o f t he M esolithic s urvival i n I reland, i n G ramsch B . ( ed.) M esolithikum i n E uropa..., 2 01-210. W oolley A .R.

e t

a l., 1 979. E uropean N eolithic j ade i mplements: p reliminary m ineralogical a nd t ypological s tudy, C lough T .H.McK. a nd C ummins W .A. s tudies..., 9 0-6.

3 24

( eds.)

S tone a xe

a i n

W orld c limate f rom 8 000 t o 0 B C S ymposium h eld A pril, W ymer J .J.,

( ed.)

1 966.

1 977.

a t

P roceedings

o f

t he I nternational

I mperial C ollege,

L ondon,

1 8 a nd

G azetteer o f M esolithic s ites

i n E ngland a nd

W ales, w ith a G azetteer o f U pper P alaeolithic s ites E ngland a nd W ales

Z ohary D .,

1 9

R oyal M eteorological S ociety.

e d.

b y C .J.

B onsall.

C ouncil

i n

f or

B ritish A rchaeology R esearch R eport

N o.20.

1 969.

b arley i n r elation

T he

p rogenitors

t o d omestication a nd W orld,

i n U cko P .J.

o f w heat

a nd

a gricultural d ispersal a nd D imbleby G .W.

( eds.)

i n t he O ld T he

d omestication a nd e xploitation o f p lants a nd a nimals, 4 7-66.

3 25

The Later Prehistory of Northern England Cumbria, Northumberland and Durham from the Neolithic to the Late Bronze Age

Rosemary Annable

Part ii

BAR British Series 160(ii) 1987

B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

B.A.R. 160 (II), 1987: 'The Later Prehistory of Northern England' Part II

©

Rosemary Annable, 1987.

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407392264 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407392271 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9781407392288 (Volume III) paperback ISBN 9780860544173 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407317755 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860544173 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

C ONTENTS P art i i C atalogues a nd C atalogues

t ables

N umber 1

S ites w ith e vidence

3 25

2

o f t he n orth o f E ngland S ources f or d istribution o f M esolithic f lint w ork

3

s ites S tone a xes

3 33 3 34

4

F lint

3 73

5

J ade a xes

6

S ources u sed i n c ompiling

7

V I, X V a nd X VIII i mplements t hroughout B ritain P etrology r esults f rom t he n orth o f E ngland

3 77 3 79

C umbrian c lubs

3 80

8

f or

t he p ost-glacial e nvironment

a xes

3 76 t he d istributions

a nd a xes w ith b utt

o f G roup

f acets

9 1 0

G roup V I r ough-outs f ound o utside C umbria P ossible a ssociations o f s tone a nd f lint a xes

1 1

L eaf

1 2 1 3

T ransverse a rrowheads B arbed a nd t anged a rrowheads

( other

t han h oards)

3 81 3 82

a rrowheads

3 84 3 85 3 85

1 3a

F lint

1 4 1 5

N eolithic p ottery N eolithic b urials

1 6 1 7

S tone S ites

1 8 1 9 2 0

H enges M ace-heads B attle-axes

4 12 4 16 4 17

2 1 2 2

Axe-hammers B ronze A ge m etalwork

4 19 4 31

2 3

L ate B ronze A ge

2 4

C airns

t he

s catters

3 89 3 92 3 98

c ircles l isted b y B url o r T hom, c ategory o f

a nd

' stone

4 04 n ot

i ncluded u nder

c ircles

4 11

b urials

4 67

c airnfields

4 68

T ables N umber 1

V ariations

i n c limate a nd v egetation i n B ritain i n t he

L ate-Glacial a nd P ost-Glacial r epresented

p eriods

2

Z ones

i n p ollen d iagrams

3 4

C hronology o f c learance a ctivity R adiocarbon d eterminations f or t he e lm d ecline i n

5

P eriods

6

N umber

7

N umbers

8

F lint

E ngland

4 74

n orthern E ngland o f

9 1 0

a xes

t o

p ossible h uman 4 83

i n p etrological

c ategories 1 -5

o f G roup V I a xes k nown i n B ritain

s catters

S ize o f

4 78 4 82

v egetation c hange d ue

i nterference o f

4 73

f rom n orthern

4 85 4 86

s tone c ircles

E arly B ronze A ge

4 84

4 89

b urials

4 90

R eferences

a nd n otes

f or T able 1 0

5 41

1 1

N umbers

B eaker a nd E BA b urials

5 88

1 2

B urial c ontexts

o f

5 89

13 14 (15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 27 28 29 30 31 32

33 34 35 36 37 38 38a 39 39a 39b 40a 40b 40c 40d 41 42 43 44 44a 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52

53 54 55 56 57

Classification of burial sites according to context Flat cist cemeteries Burial contexts: associated rites and grave goods Beaker graves in the north-east Burials with(?) Beakers in the north-east Complete Beakers of unknown context from the north_.east Beaker graves in Cumbria Complete Beakers of unknown context from Cumbr.ia Beaker burial contexts and associated burial rite Beaker types found in association in graves Beaker burial contexts and associated Beaker types Range and frequency of occurrence of Clarke's Beaker types Beaker burials with other grave goods Food vessel types found in association in graves Food vessel types in the north-east Food vessel types in Cumbria Food vessel burials in the north-east Burials w.ith(?) food vessels in the north-east Complete food vessels of unknown context from the north-east Food vessel burial rite Food vessel burials with other grave goods Food vessel burial contexts Food vessel associations in graves Food vessel burials in Cumbria Burials with(?) food vessels in Cumbria Complete food vessels of unknown context from Cumbria Food vessel urn burials Food vessel urns of unknown context Food vessel urn burial contexts Urn burials in the north-east Urns of unknown context from the north-east Urn burials-in Cumbria Urns of unknown context from Cumbria Collared urns typical of ·Longworth's NW style Possible urn burials Burials with flint artifacts Burials with flint knives Flint ·knives with burials: other associations Burials with flint assemblages Burials with flint scrapers Burials with flint flakes Burials with jet necklaces and beads Types of jet necklaces and beads found with burials Burials with jet buttons, rings and fragments Dagger and knife-dagger burials Other grave goods - bronze - bone and antler - beads and ochre - stone EBA burial sites with artifacts in stratigraphic relationship Radiocarbon dates for EBA pottery References for Table 54 and Table 56 Beaker types from dated contexts Chronological scheme used for metalwork from the north of England

590 594 595 598 600 600 601 601 602 603 604 605 606 606 607 608 609 612 612 613 613 614 615 615 616 616 617 619 619 620 621 622 623 624 625 627 628 629 630 627 631 633 634 635 636

637 638 639 640 641 642 644 648 650

C ATALOGUE 1 S ites w ith e vidence f or t he p ost-glacial e nvironment o f t he N orth o f E ngland ( The f ollowing s ite n umbers a re u sed t hroughout t he t ext a nd a lso i n Map 6 ). * Sequences w ith r adiocarbon d eterminations

1

A bbot M oss

NY 5 11434 P ennington ( 1970) W alker ( 1966)

2

A keld

N T 9 65305

S teads

M iket 3 *

A ngle T arn,

B owfell

( 1976)

NY 2 406 P ennington

4

B ald C rag, U pper

S quires

B arfield T arn

S D

( 1970)

1 08870 P ennington

6

B arnscar

( 1975)

S D 1 597 W alker

7 *

& ( 1970)

NY 8 14261

T eesdale 5 *

( 1969b)

B ishop M iddleham

( 1965a)

N Z 3 24304 B artley e t a l ( 1976) R adiocarbon 1 5 ( 1973)

8

B lack B and,

U pper

4 5

NY 8 09269 S quires

( 1970)

B lack H ill, U pper T eesdale

N Y 8 15280 S quires

( 1970)

1 0*

B lea T arn, L angdale

NY 2 93044 P ennington ( 1964) & ( 1970) R adiocarbon 1 5 ( 1973) 5 57-8

1 1*

B lelham B og

NY 3 66006

T eesdale 9

P ennington ( 1970) O ldfield ( 1970) R adiocarbon 6 ( 1964) 1 2

B lelham T arn

NY 3 65005 P ennington

1 3

B lind T arn

S D 2 63967 P ennington

3 25

( 1965a)

( 1964)

1 21

1 4

B og H ill, M oor

H ouse

N Y 7 69328 J ohnson & D unham ( 1963)

1 5*

B ollihope B og,

W eardale NY 9 834 R oberts,

1 6

B owness C ommon

B radford K aims

1 9

B rant R ake M oss

B roadgate F ell, n r R idsdale

2 0

( 1966)

N U 1 631 B artley

1 8

S D

( 1966)

1 49988 P ennington

( 1970)

NY 9 085 B lackburn

B urnhope

( 1953)

N Z 1 948 R aistrick & B lackburn

2 1*

B urnmoor T arn

2 3

C atton C arr

C old F ell

( Hartleyburn

C ommon) 2 4

2 5

2 6

C olt C rag

C oom R igg M oss

C ranberry B og

( 1932)

N Y 1 804 P ennington

2 2

( 1973)

N Y 2 06619 W alker

1 7

T urner & W ard

( 1965a)

& ( 1970)

NY 8 28577 R aistrick & B lackburn

( 1932)

NY 6 055 P recht

( 1953)

NY 9 378 R aistrick & B lackburn N Y 6 979 C hapman

( 1932)

( 1964)

N Z 2 32545 T urner & K ershaw ( 1973)

2 7

2 8

C ronkley F ell, U pper T eesdale C ronkley P astures, V pper T eesdale

N Y 8 43287 S quires

( 1970)

1 56-7

• NY 8 57288 S quires

( 1970)

1 00-112

2 9

C ross F ell

NY 7 06354 G odwin & C lapham ( 1951)

3 0

D ead C rook/Dead C rook M oss

NY 8 02305 . T urner e t a l

3 1*

3 2

D evoke W ater

D rigg

( 1973)

S D 1 58969 P ennington

( 1964)

S D 0 698 P ennington

( 1965b)

3 26

& ( 1970)

3 3

3 4

3 5

D ubby M oss

N Y 7 99306 T urner e t a l

( 1973)

D ufton M oss, U pper T eesdale

N Y 8 72293 S quires

E henside T arn

N Y 0 03071 P ennington ( 1970) W alker ( 1966)

( 1970)

7 7-99

& ( 1975)

3 6

E llerside M oss

S D 3 581 P ennington ( 1970) O ldfield & S tatham ( 1963)

3 7

E mbleton 's B og

N U 1 65297 B artley

3 8*

3 9

4 0

4 1

4 2

E nnerdale W ater

E skmeals

E sthwaite B asin

F oolmire S ike M oss

F otherley M oss

( 1966)

N Y 1 015 P ennington ( 1975) R adiocarbon 1 6 ( 1974) R adiocarbon 2 1 ( 1979) S D 0 75935 P ennington

( 1970)

N Z 0 15575 R aistrick & B lackburn

F oulshaw M oss

S D 4 882 S mith A .G. ( 1959) P ennington ( 1970) B arnes J .A . ( 1904)

4 4

F ox E arth G ill, U pper T eesdale

NY 8 42282 S quires

4 6

4 7

4 8

4 9

F urness M oss, U pper T eesdale G lasson M oss

G lasson S hore

G oatswater

G reenmines, U pper T eesdale

( 1961)

( 1973)

4 3*

4 5

& ( 1975)

S D 3 697 F ranks & P ennington NY 8 04303 T urner e t a l

( 1970)

. NY 8 00305 T urner e t a l N Y 2 41596 W alker

( 1966)

N Y 2 61605 W alker

( 1966)

S D 2 66977 P ennington N Y 8 08265 S quires

3 27

2 46-7 2 19-20

1 13-132

( 1973)

( 1964)

( 1970)

1 57-8

( 1932)

5 0*

H ard H ill, M oor H ouse

5 1*

H artlepool

NY 7 27331 J ohnson & D unham ( 1963) N Z 5 032 T ooley

5 2*

5 3

5 4*

5 5*

5 6*

5 7*

5 8*

( 1975)

& ( 1978b)

H averigg ( Buried p alaeosol)

S D 1 578 R adiocarbon 1 1

H eathery B urn M oor

NY 9 048 R aistrick & B lackburn

H elsington M oss

H elton T arn

H igh F oulshaw M oss

H oughton G range

H utton H enry

( 1969)

S D 4 888 S mith A .G. P ennington

( 1959) ( 1970)

S D 4 20849 S mith A .G. P ennington

( 1958) ( 1970)

6 5

N Z 3 450 R adiocarbon 1 1(1969)

6 3-4

N Z 4 135 B artley e t a l

( 1976)

K entmere

NY 4 803 W alker ( 1955) P ennington ( 1970)

6 0

K ilhope L aw

NY 8 044 R aistrick & B lackburn

K irkby T hore

NY 6 45252 W alker & L ambert

6 2

L angdale C ombe

N Y 2 62083 W alker ( 1965) P ennington ( 1970)

6 3

L oft C rag

N Y 2 75075 F ell ( 1954b) C lough ( 1973)

6 4

L ong C rag, U pper T eesdale

NY 8 35255 S quires

( 1970)

L onglee M oor

N U 1 56195 B artley

( 1966)

6 5

6 6

L oughrigg T arn

( 1927-32)

S D 4 683 G odwin ( 1961) R adiocarbon 3 ( 1961)

5 9

6 1

5 88

N Y 3 45045 P ennington

3 28

( 1932)

( 1955)

1 44-152

( 1965a)

6 7

L oweswater

N Y 1 25125 P ennington

6 8

L ow T arn

NY 1 63093 P ennington

6 9

M ickleden

7 0

N Y 2 65070 W alker

M ickle F ell, U pper T eesdale

7 1

M ire H oles,

U pper

7 3

M öckerkin T arn

M oorthwaite M oss

( 1970)

( 1965b)

NY 8 10249 S quires

T eesdale 7 2*

( 1965a)

( 1970)

1 60-162

( 1970)

1 33-143

NY 8 49267 S quires

N Y 0 83232 P ennington

( 1965a)

N Y 5 10510 W alker ( 1966) P ennington ( 1970)

7 4*

7 5

M orden C arr

M uckle M oss

N Z 3 21253 B artley e t a l

( 1976)

NY 8 05666 R aistrick & B lackburn P earson ( 1960)

•7 6*

7 7*

7 8

N easham

N easham

N Z 3 210 B lackburn ( 1952 R adiocarbon 1 ( 1959) F en

N ewbiggin C arr

N Z 3 32106 B artley e t a l

( 1932)

6 6

( 1976)

N Z 3 188 R aistrick & B lackburn

7 9

8 0

8 1

.

N ewton B ewley

N ichols M oss

N unstainton C arrs

N Z 4 64274 M itchell e t a l •3 D 4 483 S mith A .G.

8 3

O ulton M oss

O ut D ubs T arn

N Z 3 20295

NY 2 54513 W alker

P restwick C arr

( 1965a)

( 1957)

N Z 1 872 R aistrick 3 29

( 1976)

( 1966)

S D 3 67948 P ennington F ranks

8 4

( 1973)

( 1959)

B artley e t a l 8 2

( 1932)

&B lackburn

( 1932)

8 5

8 6*

8 7*

8 8

8 9*

Q uagrigg M oss

R avenglass

N Y 2 107 P ennington

S D 0 896 R adiocarbon 1 1

R ed S ike M oss, W iddybank F ell

N Y 8 18293 T urner e t a l

R ed T arn

N Y 2 67037 P ennington

R ed T arn M oss

9 1

9 2*

9 3

R usland M oss

R ydal W ater

S t.

B ees

S alt H olme

( 1969)

( 1973)

( 1964)

S D 3 588 D ickinson

( 1975)

N Y 3 55063 P ennington N X 9 62116 W alker

( 1965a)

( 1970)

( 1966)

N Z 5 03237 M itchell e t a l

( 1973)

9 4*

S caleby M oss

NY 4 31635 G odwin e t'al ( 1957) W alker ( 1966) P ennington ( 1970)

9 5*

S eathwaite T arn

S D 2 53988 P ennington

9 6

9 7

9 8

9 9*

S edgefield

S heraton

S houlthwaite M oss

S ilverdale M oss

( 1964)

( 1973)

N Z 4 52354 M itchell e t a l

( 1973)

NY 3 020 P ennington S D 4 575 O ldfield

( 1965a)

( 1960)

S kelsmergh T arn

S D 5 34966 W alker ( 1955) P ennington ( 1970)

1 01

S lapestone S ike M oss,

N Z 8 20306

1 02*

S mall W ater

& ( 1970)

N Z 3 53281 M itchell e t a l

1 00

W iddybank F ell

5 88

c NY 3 315 P ennington

9 0*

( 1975)

T urner e t a l N Y 4 55100 P ennington

3 30

( 1973)

( 1970)

1 03*

S teward

S hield M eadow

N Y 9 83438 R oberts,

1 04

T arn W adling

T hirlmere

( 1964)

NY 3 118 P ennington

. 1 06*

T horpe B ulmer

( 1965a)

T hrang M oss

& ( 1970)

N Z 4 53354 B artley e t a l

1 07*

( 1973)

N Y 4 85445 W alker

1 05

T urner & W ard

( 1976)

S D 5 077 O ldfield ( 1960) P ennington ( 1970)

1 08

T hunacarr K nott

NY 2 7400814 P ennington

1 09*

U llswater

( 1973)

N Y 4 220 P ennington

( 1975)

1 10*

U pper V alley B og, M oor H ouse

N Y 7 63331 •Johnson & D unham ( 1963 R adiocarbon 1 5 ( 1973) 5 59-560

1 11

U rswick T arn

S D 2 773 O ldfield_&

1 12

W alney I sland O ldfield

1 13

S tatham ( 1963)

W askerley

( 1965)

N Z 0 545 R aistrick & B lackburn

1 14

1 15*

1 16

W eelfoot M oss, U pper T eesdale

N Y 8 14291 T urner e t a l

W eelhead M oss, U pper T eesdale

N Y 8 05305 T urner e t a l ( 1973) R adiocarbon 1 5 ( 1973)

W iddybank F ell, U pper T eesdale

1 17

1 18

1 19

1 20

( 1973)

N Y 8 129 H utchinson

( 1966)

W iddybank F ell, U pper T eesdale

N Y 8 13297 T urner e t a l

( 1973)

W iddybank M oss, U pper T eesdale

N Y 8 15295 T urner e t a l

( 1973)

W igton

NY 2 56495 W alker

W illiamson 's M oss, E skmeals

( 1966)

S D 0 893 P ennington

3 31

( 1932)

( 1975)

5 61-2

1 21*

1 22

1 23

W indermere

W itherslack H all

W ooler W ater

S D 3 999 P ennington

( 1947)

S D 4 36860 S mith A .G. P ennington

( 1958) ( 1970)

c NT 9 928 C lapperton, D urno & S quires

1 24

W reay

N Y 4 45238 W alker

3 32

( 1966)

( 1971)

C ATALOGUE 2

( Map

1 1

)

T he d istribution o f M esolithic f lint-work s ites i n t he n orth o f E ngland h as b een c omplied f rom t he f ollowing s ources:W ymer ( 1977) J ohnson & D unham ( 1963) P PSEA 7 ( 1932-4) P PS 2 ( 1936) P SAN ( 4)

1 88-98

1 61-8

6 ( 1935)

A A ( 4)

1 ( 1925)

A A ( 4)

3 1

A A ( 5)

3 ( 1975)

P roc .

( 1953)

Y orks.

1 49-51

14-5

4 2-7 9 8-114 2 19-21

G eol.

( 1942)

S oc.

C W ( 2)

4 2

C W ( 2)

5 0 ( 1951)

2 0-9

C W ( 2)

6 7

( 1967)

1 -16

C W ( 2)

6 9

( 1969)

4 0-53

C W ( 2)

7 0

( 1970)

2 77-80

C W ( 2)

7 3

( 1973)

4 7-66

C W ( 1)

1 3

( 1894-5)

A A ( 4)

4 8

( 1970)

2 7 p t.

12-121

H arpoon h eads 4 02, p ls.

3 37-46

T ranchet a xes P PS 2 ( 1936)

1 61-8

W ymer ( 1977)

8 6

C W ( 2)

5 5

( 1956). 2 9

3 33

1 ( 1947)

2 3-32

C ATALOGUE

3

S tone A xes f rom t he n orth o f E ngland ( excluding f lint a nd j ade,

s ee C atalogues 4 a nd 5 )

D etails o f a ll s tone a xes r ecorded f rom t he N orth o f E ngland a re c atalogued i n t he f ollowing m anner: C atalogue N umber - t hese n umbers a re u sed i n t he t ext, a lso i n C atalogues 7 ,

F igures a nd

8 a nd 1 0.

P rovenance a nd G rid r eference M easurements o f e ach a xe L ength W eight

( where k nown)

a re l isted i n t he f ollowing o rder:

( cms) / W idth ( cms) / T hickness ( grammes, t o n earest 2 5g)

( cms)

P etrology P etrologically e xamined: v i x viii

G roup V I . Group X VIII

g reenstone t uff

g reenstone t uff M acroscopic e xamination:

T ype

( vi) ( ?vi) ( a)

G roup V I p ossibly G roup V I r ocks d efinitely n ot G roup V I

( b)

n ot k nown

( now l ost/not a vailable f or s tudy e tc.)

( Group V I o nly) " Cumbrian" a xe " Variant" a xe

C u. V ar. C omments R eferences

( for a bbreviations,

M useum L ocations

s ee P art i )

( for f ull l ist o f Museums,

3 34

s ee P art i )

/

N .

2 1 . . . .

. I " , . . . .

1 ' . L . . .

CI st < 7\ 4/ / 1 P r I • ON • • • • il r I F1 2 .1 4. / 4 , • • •• CV , ,

M CV I ll / -, st

CI VD ch CS i I s . ." • . . . 0 L l l L f 1 C r l 1 40 / • •• , • • • . C ,I CV ' 0 . -4 s r ./

C Y " c el I • CV C l ) V ' ) o L 4 r I g L . ,

3 U

00 00

ON Ve 1 01 s . . 1 . . 4 " ;

, " I . • •

, ‘ . ° , C9 Y 4 / 1 C9 . 4

3 0

0

g

C / 3. R . 4

r -4

r i

1 1

0

0

e ,

c

c ;

0

0

e

0

00

0

. 4 -, •r I

. 0 -, •r 4

/ 1

•r • I

. • • • • • •r • I

. 0 -, •r • I

, -, . •v I

> . . .,

> ' , . . .,

> ` . . . ,

r C 2 . . . . ,

. • • • • • > • , . . .,

> • . . .,

> . . . . . ,

> s . . . .,

p art p olished

e

C I) U-1

•r 1 ▪ •

C / )

•r 4 4/ 1 4

•H

N Y 0 09072

. • • • • • •r I

v i.SW .557 .Cumb.6

•

p art p olished

f acets:

p olished

C . )

C i ss V ' 71

p olished w ith

VJ

, • • • • • •

A rch. 4 4(1873)273-92

r 2 L . g t ,

c \ J

o

r 4

1 1

r i

C ` q

CO

c f )

2 2.2/8/3 .4/850g

L . r )

L (

3 0/8 .4/3 .5/1425g

O D L e-) N

8 /20 00g

e 2 0 L t

3 7/9.4/4 .

bD 0

2 4 .4/7 .4/4 .3/800g

E henside T arn ( Gibb

2 0/6.3/4 .5/800g

3 0/8 .5/5/1600g

E aglesfield N Y 0 830

" in t he m oss"

2 8/7/4.5/1150g

C ATALOGUE

C,1

K eswick •H

C r • ) 0 0 C A r 4 b O 0 0

•r I =

•r I

C • 4 =

•1 . 4 =

. 4 "

C " . 4

▪

• . c , •H 0 C I +

I f -) C • 4

c o

C i 1 4 C . )

•H

L (

f ound d igging a

" C )

•r I . • •••

c u t

0 • •

2 6.7/10/4 .8/1525g

= 0

2 5.1/9.8/5.1/1400g

O 4 )

P ortinscale,

0 b 4 )

o nly p artly

C s °

2 0/7/4.5/650g

0

2 0/6.3/4.2/550g

O • b C ) b 0 •m l " c i

2 3/7.1/5.2/850g

2 1 1 :

2 7.3/8.4/4.7/1150g

• • 1 "

C W(2)65(1965)24

C W(2)2(1902)418

P PS.30(1964)46

C W(2)65(1965)24

, • • • •

2 3.2/-/1/1350g

p olished s tone

V J < 7 N C O

2 9.8/-/-/2275g

n r.

I bbotsholme, W indermere

S D 2 30762

r— I

1 2 4

0 b t 1 •H

. • • • ••

9 /8 . 8/4 .8/1125g

9 /8 / 4 .5/900g

2 2.

2 2.

1 9.1/8/3 .9/625g

1 4

N

( 7 1

• , t

o ther s imilar

0 \

• . 4 1

. • • • ••

•H •

• , • 4 4 4

C I O •• 1 4 4 ( 2 0 •r 1 4 4

= = = = =

= = = = =

•H •H

•H

c r )

C : 1

% . 0

N ew . 1 932.88

c o

( 4 •1 . 4 L I 1

r e-used f rag?

r -

C I O • 4 4

L ow B uston, W arkworth

. • • • • ••

•H

8 .6/4/2.6/ -

b utt c hipped

•

4 .6/4.6/2.6/-

b oth s ides c h ipped

C W(2)12(1912)281

C W(2)37(1937)103

•

9 .4/7.2/3/-

•H

r o r I

8 .2/5/2.2/-

s light s ide f acets

• H •

a c revice

s ide f acets

•1 -

N ORTH E AST

•H

1 9/8 .3/4 .2/-

•r 4 ▪

S owerby W ood

4 /10 .4/5.1/1725g

2 5. • H • . • • • ,

b i )

. • •• • .

•r l

r -

c n r • •

0\

d i )

L t

c 0

A lnwick 1 880.32 T ate(1866-9)Vol.1.13

E states O ffice C t 1 4 1 4 1

•H U ) C / )

5

u

f acet

t u t re 0 0 ) •H J 4 O. 4 1 •H

b utt

4 4 "0

" indurated s hale"

T ate(1866-9)Vol. •H

" indurated s hale"

b t )

c a

" indurated s hale"

0 . )

bD

c utting e dge m uch a braded

c n

A lnwick 1 880 .35

E states O ffice H BNC 1 0(1882-4)0

P SAN(2)5(1893)228 p ossibly r e-used a s ah one

A A(2)6(1865)168-9

R eferences

4 1

a . ) z

c a

r 4 0 ) 4

, . . •H

. . .

>

e n e n c o

i n i n e n c o

c o 0 e n 0 ,

N U 1 35118

4 : 1 j

• • • .

.0

• . . ,

. . ,

Cn r 1

cc

c r .

2 r

cc

c

r 4

, • • . ,

C Q

. . . ,

c

. 2 O

c a a ) 4 4

0

c a

. e

" < 4 I

B roomhill

C lennell

P rovenance

a )

" 2 • . 4

c o

t )

r ' ' •

C

*4

, e r f . . C J • 0 ) 1 c v . . . -0 , , . 2 • U . .t •4 - " . . . .

C r . • 1

C9 • " 1 . . 4 n

e n

r i

I

a ) • 0 . . 1 .-

I o . . ( 1 ) L n

-. i , . . • O N

•H

C C

< 4 -

Q ) *, . C°

4

n ) 0 0

," 1

b l ) 0 s r ; ) c n , -4

• • • • • 10

. . . . .

•H " • . . . Z

Cs. ' •

• e e n . < c,)

N .

3 38

CV 4 1

CV t 1

r • • 1

0 4 I

CA 4 4

. Z c n

•A ) • 4

r d 0 .

. 2 0

‘ t i

.0

CV 4 1 CA 4 4

. 0 c n

e n -4 r e a ) 3 › ,

> . .

CV r 4

•H ) 4

a ) W n

. . . •H

o r, .

. s z . . . . ,

r°

. . . ,

c 3

•H

a ) 0 c a a

. . . . .

. ,

c d A .

. . 0

. 2 u

•H

•H

4 7 !

4 1

3 C

g i w

i

1 4 . . . .

0 1

„0 " . . . . . I • -" . . .

) 4 i n 0 • -1

OD

0 0 0

t n ( , )

. . . . .

< 4

' . 1'

c

0

3 C

g i a ) c s

, 4

i

4 , 1 " . . . . .

0

, n

1

c n . 2 -0 , . 4

t

) 4 . . . . .

•H

•

" . . . . .

0 I 4 0 " --

I . . . , _

I .. . . . „ , ,

4 4


g

r I , ., .

o o

c o

1 1 • • • • • 1 4 , t 0 1 v • I i n

•V) C O • . . . . _ PO Z •A c e 4 4

- •20 c H h

I ) 1 4

sH

4 ' > . . . , • 1

; : :

!4

•. . u )c o

C C l i 3 4 E +

m 1 ) C A I 4 . . . •

o nly c utting e dge p olished

: C l ) . 2

. b 0

u c o

' 40 r 4 I

f rag."greywacke"

4 . ) W

.

‘ .0 I -4

c utting e dge c hipped

C O

. -, •H > e s ••

0 3

S underland M useum

H BNC 9 (1879-81)40 a braded c utting e dge

4 3 . 1 C 4 2

H BNC 1 2(1887-9)504

R eferences C omments

A A(4)39(1961)379-80

. ,

C r )

N ew . 1 948 .9

N ew . 1 865.2

A lnwick 1 880.34

N ew . 1 960 .39

A lnwick 1 880.36

C O

O 1 . 1 '0 0 ›, 0

. , •H >

. -,

. . .

c o . .

. . .

. . . »

. . 4 1

c o . . -

> . . . ,

N N C O

N N C O

C .1 % . 0 C O

, t \ I D C O / 4 1 0

C . 1

0 1 4

1 i

C O ▪

C s 1

. . .

4 4

40 / 1

•H

P rovenance

CO

c n

U •H

C . ) • % 0

0 0

( N . I

CD

1

1 -1 i n 1 I tr e

. G

•H s • -, Z C I • • . . ZI" . •

el

. . I A N H . ( D in

C O- • , 4 o. C O, 1 ) c r % ' C O c q 0 N < • • 1 4 • C O • C D r i c C e O . 4 W .-4 4G

C 9 H

( 11 . i

1 " 4 1

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. . .

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L l N c s ,

-

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C D

c q

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I I -

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C •• . I

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4 . ) b e c n i n C r-•

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•

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2

0

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C C D

C s • J

) 4

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5 . _ .

2 C O 4 . C O C O W

C Z i n I s, 0 CO

. . J 2

. . .

C D C Y " I

.

C D i n c n . „ , ,

. -. C O

. . .

N Y 7 78653

0 3

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i n H

H

-i n 5 4 . 0 \ O 4 c 1 -1 CA W • 'C O

g lo p

-,

/ 4

L f1

Z e l

V D 4 1

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g r %

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C O 0

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I

C

C O

0 . -

•H

W

4 4 ' ` , . .

r 4 4 3

i 4 1 1 • i C I )

Cn

g o Cg

r 4 4

b 0 i n r C \ I

a . . , „ ,

in •

, J D C O s • • • •

C l ) I •H s ., 1 4 e l C O . " . . w i n •

c o. 0

C O 0 ' C O ›,

N s s, /0 4 1 • L n

c o-

, I e n C O , . . i.

t e C ) C D

. . . .

r I

C I . r --

.„

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. 4

a . •

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C -,

. 0 1 1

o

•

4 ) . f . 0 -

2c o . — . 0

CO

I 1 " . . . 02 , -4

r I " .. . .

CO

P 2 e

c . H

p l ch

pl , 4

C O e I

c r, 4 4

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H N

c v N

r , c v

, f c v

3 39

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C l )

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, . . . . •

. 1 . .

r •-1

C l )

1 -4

•

4 ) 0 • . I 4 1

• , 4 1 : 1 : 1 4 2 4 . 1 W

" felstone"

s ide f acets

f acet b y c o 1 4 t 4 4

b utt

C omments

b f t t a c e u ( ) ( ) 9 4 5 1 3 2 3 9 2 P S A N

b utt b roken

R eferences

,

I I

( 7 ,

r c i

a

g r 4

. • • • . ( r ) •

J ' D N C O C o s r Co

C o

. . . ,

4 0 . c Z

C o

r •

r r . " n

• 0 , . . • . t . , . 1 .

1 : c •

cL I

r I r 4

E 9 1 4 . -

C O

C r r ' . 1 Ch s . . ., I I

1 1

w ide b utt & s ide f acets

Co

V C • •

Co

. 4 1 / 2 1

c n c l ) -Z r

r i l

N ew . 1 932 .77

N ew . 1 964.9

N ew . 1 933 .1 v r I 1 3 ) U V

01

b o

9 8 4 2 N U 0

b i t u m s n g 9 5 6 9 N 1 1 A e w . .

› , E I

b D 0

Z

Z

N

40 / 1

, 0 0 E 4 Z

0

1 4 e 0

z

Z

P rovenance

C l ) b O

-o

C o 1 4

C u 1 4

c 0

( f 3

C o

% .0

C o

C u

. , . C u

r • • • • . •1 4 > ( ••

.. C u

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, .. . . ,

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s .. . *

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, . . . ./

, . . . . . ,

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C . .

c • • •

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r I

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•F 1 \. I

N

• -4 "

•

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v f • • . . /0 4 1 • • C . . ) C 7,

-

% .0

0

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( 7, C ‘ I

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0 , › .

C V , t

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% 0 C V N

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C o C V 1 1

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1 1.6/4.7/2.5/150g

Z r f 1

. . . • 4 > c • • , . . . "

N T 9 80062

• r i $ . 4

. -. 0 . . . ,

B urradon

a ) 1 4

, , • , 4 > ‘ . . ,

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0 1 4

o n w

a ,

1 4 e e

. 0 c v e 0 1 •1 1 • " 0 r 2 . 1

Z

0 4

P• I a

H BNC.21(1909-11)48

( 1 4

40 / 1

0 . i . . f " , 0 1

0 4

0 . 4

V D i . 1. c m i I C V . . . . C f l C . . • • • .

• . . ° : . 2 . . 4 : CE 1' i g f f r , l c r . r . ,, • • 4 . . . . • •• c n 0 C L ) > Z . I

C L I

i n

. 0

l i

Z C • 1 • : 1 1 . . ., c o f 2 4 C . )

0 C . )

4

c a

0

w

c o 0 U

a )

C 4

C d

c o

c a

0

P 0 C . )

a 0 C 4

P SAN(3)4(1910)173.pl.

P SAS.92(1961)59.fig.2 H unterian

N ew . 1 949.5

N ew . 1 978 .21 P SAN(4)8(1937)66

N ew . 1 934 .3 R eferences

. c o z $ . 4

C V . • • • , e 4 r c r

: c h C O ; 4 1

a ) 0 4 1 W

w ide s ide f acets

11 b i )

b utt b roken

w ide s ide f acets

m uch a braded

s ide f acets

C D

b o 5

•1 1

c a

4 ) •• • 1 4 . 1 C 1 : 1 0

C O

• W b oa ) 4 1

44

z

•r . i >

G rid .r ef .

. .

L . 0

c y , C . ' ; C N N

, • • • ••

. --,

r e

es .

c a

. . ,

. . . c y i n

e

, . o

V D C 7, 0 1

r • c o 0 1

c • •

. • • • • .

•r 1

c r , c n ‘ . o C O

c n , i r-1 V D c n 0 1

( ; ) . 1 " i n C O

z

H z

c o . . .

) 1

C Z )

4v o a, C T

c r , c n L . o C O

z

z

i n c n

. 1 r i n . 1

40 / 1

1 1

1 1 r i n . 1

C O v 1 1 1 C N

0 1 1 3 D

' x i

0 • L 1 . 1 " O D -. e i n •. -1 • > r a l -. . z i n C . ) cv

C O

Ö l ) I l l C V I 1 . . . . . i n O . 1 c q C V-' e e •1 •, -, • 5 4 i n X L -5 4 • • 4 0 • C . ) o•

c n

1 _ _ _ C " ) c l C O .0

•

e

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n r.Coupland C astle

P rovenance

c a , 4 b O I : , 0 0 t r l 0 • . I r 1 . _ . e V D

t

0

L n

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0 0

c a 0 0 4

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• • I r 1" • • • • . . 1 . 1 C V

m

c d. . = up

c n

c o i n

c o i n

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f :14

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. C 3 W b a 0 0 P i n W 0 1 •r• 1 • • • • • . . g t . • . I

. 2 0 0

$ . 1

i n

c-

c n . . e 00

4 -1 C O o r-

nr i

5 4

g

1 • . . . . . • •V D 3 •

c um

4 . % . 0 › , •

wo

3 dw •

r a w

I t ' ,

N ew .1950 .6 P SAN(5)1(1950)9-10

S underland M useum

s ide f acets

" re-worked"

O ne o r t wo a xeheads 1 . 4

> E H,

N ew . 1 932.66

. c )

P SAN(4)7(1935)14-15

0

( 2 4

P SAN(4)5(1932)328

N ew . 1 932.68 " 0

c n c r1 / 4 c i )

P SAN(4)5(1933)328

N ewcastle M useum " sandstone"

b utt a nd s ide f acets

P SAN(4)5(1933)334-5 w ide s ide f acets

5 2 4

s ide f acets

A lnwick 1 880 .30

N ew . 1 932.89 A A(4)31(1953)112 s ide f acets

R eferences

C l )

5 4

C . )

C . )

b o 0

G rid r ef .

0 5 4 4 . 4

•4 •a I

. • -•

C V ▪

c a

▪ C t 1

C " ▪) / 4 1 0

▪ C N C ,1

•

•

C f , C f ,

C V

C T •,

•4

•

-

C y " N

•4

L r a / 4 1 0 c n

C T,

4 4 H .4 Z D O

P rovenance

0 . 0 Ln c 44 / 1 , I -/. 4 1 O o N•

.

0 0

1 . 3 CV b 1 ) -. c a 0-1 • 4 •

0 N ( 0 • • • . 5 4 r • C . ) N • • `, " 0 L t ) , i • 0 i n

, i i _ 5 _ _ _ 1 : 1 t n

1 . 0 0 4 1 " • • • .

c p

0

• 4. / 1 „ . 1 . 0 0 -0 V ) 3 . 4 i v c o

no ,

in

i r ,

C V

cn . CV • .0 -i t ' l

.

( = sr . !

b i )

0 e

Cl

r 4

in

0 Ln . . _ 0 . c o 5 4 0 _ 0 re -' 4 4

. r1 . . a * , • .0 . .„

0 Z

c o C i f ) 0

a )

0 0 o r s ) 4 4 . . u ) -• L . u •I - C V 4 . ' • • • E t .0 . . . _

a ) 0

e 4 c e c

o1 4 /

• 4

1 - C 4 . . . 0 . 0 . .

1/ 4 ▪ 4. / 1

4 • /. 4 1 ,

c n 0 • / 4 1 • , . 4 r " )1 / 4 . 0

In , 4

c s i .

•r • I r l -0 N

0 i n . . . " C " cn C I ) • , 1 0 r j 1 1

u ) 0 . t i i --

N • 0 o N .I

in

in I f5i

/0 4 1 in

r /. 4 1 u,

co i

3 42

0

b a c v

4 • 3 CO U ) n i , 1N r l

4 1

4 " 0

b l )

•H

N • ' $ . 1 in Z r e

4 I 5 4 v e

z -. 0 41 1 • 0 tn

r 3 . 1

1 4 \ I . 0 t e . r . 1 CT

c r , i n

40 / 1

0

i 0 -/ 4 1 -0

4 c l o 0 I •4 \

c a

r • •

e • » . 1 • • I C l

c o -1 41 / 4 / ( r ) 0 0 c 0 • 5

c 4. / 1

•2 L n

4 4 •

• -L 4

g )

5 4 • 0 L -1 /. 4 1 , - a\ . L J 4 4 L i-) ( I ) \

5 1 L t ' , 0 r • • • L -1 • t i j H . n i, -4 1 -4 4 4 r i

. 4

40 / 1

40 / 1

b b N i r . '

N * . . e c o = N 0 1 44 / : ) 0 \ 4 . 3 v . 1

.4 . ( 1 ) C ' " ) • T 1 r I

40 / 1

v,) .i:-v,)

nr. Frosterley Rogerley Quarry 11.1/6/3/-

76

75

74

Greymare Hill Farm -/5/-/-

Goswick 13�3/5.4/3.6/350g Great Bavington 11.6/6/2.8/250g

Glororum 10.8/5.4/-/-

Gallowlaw Moor, Beanley North Farm ·12.6/6.l/3.5/325g

72

73

Fulwell Quarry

71

Fowberry Chatton 26/7.9/5.4/1575g

70

69

Foumart Knowe 9.8/6.5/2.5/175g

68

Foumart Knowe 4.9/5/2.6/75g

67

Flodden Edge 14.5/7.6/4/575g

66

Felton, Mouldshaugh Farm 11.1/6.7/3.4/375g

Felton, Lanehead 14.2/7.3/4.l/550g

65

64

Provenance

Cu

Type

(vi) (a) (a)

NU 1633

NU 0545

NY 9880

NZ 04975514 (b)

(a)

-

(vi) (Museum records)

(vi)

(a)

(a)

(a)

( a)

( a)

( a)

Petrolog.z

NU 0618

NZ 391597

NZ 0336

NU 0429

NU 107254

NU 107254

NT 908352

NU 1800

NU 1800

Grid ref. ·

frag.

wide side facets: cutting edge re-ground

butt chipped

cutting edge missing

frag. :? side facet

frag. :butt and side facets

butt facet

body scored: cutting edge battered

wide side facets

Comments

CBA.Group 3 News 15(1977)14-5

PSAN(4)5(1932)328

PSAN(4)7(1936)246

PSAN(2)8(1897)98, 105-6,fig.

AC.17

PSAN(3)7(1917)194-6 fig. AA(4)31(1953)112

PSAN(4)5(1932)329

References

New.1932.67

New.1936.12

Alnwick 1880.33

Sunderland 159.1972

New.1949.3

New.1983. 7

New.1973. 7

Alnwick Estates Office

New.1975.16

New.1932. 76

Museum

0 4 0 4

0 4

N ew . 1 963 .8

N ew .1926.13

N ew . 1 956.93A

N ew . 1 914.11

0 4

C . )

c d

e • -, • , i >

. • • • • , 4 >

. .- s .

• •-,

"— I

v -I

. 2.

Z r

C T, } 4 ,-4 I 4 , , 1

c r . , 1_ 4 , t 1 . 4 . , i i

•

/

f rag.:

b utt m issing

b utt m issing

1 2

" polished a xe"

•

. . oz ., 1

S underland M useum

1 . . ,

Z r

9 1 I 4 0 9 4

c r . 0, . 4 c n — I c s i . . • • . . • .

ON

r . c n , . . , ,

40 / 1

9 4 I 4 0 9 4

P SAN(4)2(1926)178-9

P SAN(3)6(1914)186

If )

b utt f acet

C W(2)65(1965)37

R eferences

C W(2)65(1965)31

. , 40 / 1

C O I I s, Z r C I . • • • , 0,

c T j

o

c o . . . •

. . •

> . . •

c o s . _ ,

. ,

c o . . ,

c o • . . •

. .

•9 1•

. d •

Z r c ,1 N . C D

c , 1 ' Z r e l 9 1

2r r I C I

Z

Z

N Z

I n C ' . ' C 4

0 0

. 1c,/ r -0

N ) Z

z

Z

40 / 1

. .

•r 4

N Z 3 53589

. . . •

. • • • • •H

. .

N Y 7 88688

. •

•9 . 4 > r•

N Z 1 75448

9 4 0 I 4 . 1 W a

r 4 C

--

P rovenance

W

0 I n 9 -4

0 0 C D 0

., 9 1 • N 9 . . , . . . 1. i n

• 4 9 .C ' ) C 9 . , _ C .

C ' • )

. . 2 . .

5 .

•

N

9 . 4

T -

0 0 ▪

0 , r s .

b O 0 0

0

C 0 4 1

g l o1 4 /

c o

=

0 C O

•

C O

9 1 C O

0 • 0 1 Z ' s, e." 1 O -1 4 . 1-

g l 0 0 1 Z " s s, r n 0 S . 1 4 1 n

0 1 . 0 / 4 0• . £ 2 . c u • -i = 9 1

0 . 1 2 , . 0 d ) =

C O

C O

i n•

. . . e n 9 4

3 44

C D C V ' 0 L e ) C Z / • , f e s . ' 0 4 -,c o

> , . 2-

9 4 s ` . . . . . 0 ,-4 = r 4

C O

0

t 0

Z t n

0 i n r . 1 . . . . e l • c ,1 . . . / 4 1 r , •

o L i-)

. I J 0 c u C f ) . . . . . . 4 " 4

" , . . . c y) • 4 s s . . % „ 0 •

c u e

r n " 0 0 a ) 4 1 0

> ,9 4 9 4 . 0 1 / 4 0

0

0 0

H ylton C astle

b o

0

c n 0

$ . 1 i x )

K ennel H all Knowe

( 4 1

, I C ) A t o

W L n ( n ' s , .

/0 4 1 C O

•

r 0 0

0 0 C O

C O

d , " • . c e

=

0 . 1i n =0 Z

1 . 4

1 1.5/6.1/3 .1/300g

1 1.5/8.6/4.7/625g

P rovenance

8 .3/4 .3/1.8/100g

c d

c r,

c n CT

0

.• r 0 • 4 g ) . . . . .

9 c n

w c o

0

, • — f

' 0 ( 2 4 2 ,

•

CO

r • • •

C c i

2. -

l

I

.

• , . 4 9 13

c r

0 C . C ' l " . . 4 ) C O

.

" . .. . .

4 I I r l 4 . ) . •1 1

2

40 / 1

P SAN(4)8(1938)144

C .)

> . . . •

. . . . . •e . 1 >

, . . • •/ . 4

c r ,

c • • . . .

CO

0

0

0

0

C • 1 •

N 1 1

N r 4

Z

C

. 0 • / 4 1 3 a ) b e CI 0

$ 4 t r )4 . Q , E s ", r 4

C 0

. 4 "

1 • • •

3 45

U )

0 0 ul

4 4 V 4 1 0 < C V C ",. •r 4 a .

> . . _ ,

4 2 1 )

0 4 . . 1

CO

• 00

W I" -, z 0 4

•

c r ,

• ON

C I O • . 4 0L t ) 0 4

0

.s,

CO

C1. 1

5 1: j-

c l , 1 c . n 1 4 0

` • • •. •

, r )

0 0 c r l / 40 1 • 0 . a ) 0 4

11

t d ) u n 1 30

c v

, 1

5 4

r-4 C • 1

C O I ll

J I 4 2 0 = 4 1 ` C , I . . C •, I I n •o I < 1 •

1 .

c e . . _ . .

. 4 " ▪

o

0

1 1 < 3 0

. . 1 „ "

Cs • 0 c r ,

w ide s ide f acets

b utt f acet:

c o . . .

• f 4 0 b i )c q . ^ • ,4 • ,1 0 . c 0 C. ecN 5, , 0 L i-) c d c l S . c t l . . n W CT 5 4 i CO $ 1 VD N ( U \0 "0 • r . i • r . . .

.Z

e —i

11

N ew . 1 938.2

N ew .1933 .20

N ew . 1 932.79

c 41 / 1 c n 0 4

r e-worked

P SAN(4)5(1932)329

40 / 1

•)

. : c 4 n . \ . i . .4 ä 9 ( c ! 0. . c ° : . . . i n

N ew . 1 938 .5 w ide s ide f acets

b0

i n

•r I , . C . .1 = .

< 7 1 V D

r I

0 )

, 0 e — I4 1 , 1

c n c n c r )

. • • • •r . 1

. . . .

, . . . . •

• C s . 1

=

•

ä C h

> . . •

R I

C Z

c 0

, . . . •v I >

. . . . . •1 -

o

O

0

P SAN(4)8(1938)148

N ew . 1 960 .7 f acet b utt

. . ,

. r l . . ,

« I

Z

0

e s ,

N U 2 25125

=

. . . . .

N U 1 92080

c o c n i n 0 _ _

N ewcastle M useum

N ew . 1 934 .26 P SAN(4)6(1934)352 c utting e dge d amaged

N ew . 1 929.21

N ew . 1 964 .3

c utting e dge m issing

s ide f acets c t I

A A(4)37(1959)347

N ew . 1 929.20

N ew .1929.19

N ew . 1 929.18 R eferences G rid r ef .

, a )

e " . . . c i

40 / 1

0 =

' I0 , — I

r e i

0

r I l l 4 > ,• •. C I ) , — , v 4

•

U N 0 i —I 5 i l. -s • -

z r ee l

0 4 4 4 1

•

1 /1

$ . 4 ( I ) 01 CV 0

"0 Z

t r)

.Z

.0 -

• CT

0 >A

( 2 4 C V 4 e — I

=

•

t e -0 U ) 0 4

b o borc 0

. C l -0 •

a )c , '

t e c . )c n 0 4 • C t i Ltl

4 1

c o 1 4

( 1 ) r • 1 0 C . )

<
. . H

i —

I . ,. . . O r-( 1 ) • I : , u " ) $ ' 1 -c u c , 1

. . . . ,

. _ . ,

2-

0 0 0

X

)

. . . ,

i n c o c ,) N )

1 4 •r 1

•

H

>

C O • • 2 * i n

•r l i n

0

X

H

N Z 3 76476

0 r i n

Cr i

N Y 8 10245

e I c r c r C • 4

n

. . . . ..,

N -

0 r • 4 r I

3 46

r I 1 1

Murton S tation E state

F 4C O 0 • M I i n , . . .

0

C ' s 1

I

I .,

C arr H ouse

P rovenance

•

r e c. ,4

3 0

o • • • • c a . . . . •

H Z

O D 0 i n r 4 C -0 o

0

• • • • X ) . . . •

M ickle F ell

N T 9 76058

G rid r ef.

1.... , f , . . , 1. . . . . ,

.4 >

. . . ,

( 3,

•

H

, .. .. .,

I... ,

>

. 0 , . . ,

r e • . . . ,

c • , . . . ,

0

40 / 1

‘ . 1 0

0 4 1 •H ( 1 )

1 1

• d • r 1 r 4

t f l r I

r I • 1

, . 4 r n o •

eh

z

Z

.

. C. C q

Z

P Z I

C S )

0 0

ON

N ew . 1 932.14 .2b

1 : 1 1 1 3 .

C C h

b 0 W 4

N ew . 1 920 .4

N ew . 1 956.97 .A

l d h O D r a u m

0 0 W 4 z

E

i b d P e c r g e n r .

c c c

., C h O D.4 ' ,I •. . . c ) c y e 2 ; •,, P 0 — 4< l c X a
•H C I ) 4 4 C . ) n C ( ) / C '

-m

, . N . C h 0 0 r •i s . ., I I C l ) < •C h M e C

P SAN(4)6(1934)354

. • • • i 4 . 4 a ' r 4

N.

e P . ( v 4 ( 1 " c e 1 . 1 •

c o

H

H

N ewcastle M useum

O D 1 V D N . O D

m

r4 o • • •

O D C D

E vans.ASI(1897)105

. . 1 . 0

1

i n U D

l ) c

S underland M useum

R eferences

D J 4 / 1

i n

b utt f acet

b utt f acet

b utt f acet

b utt f acet

b h R M e r o s o g o r u

c )

g i C l › .

9 3 1 2 4 1 2 N e w c . . t o C l

t o C l

4

4

4 4

i 8 3 l 1 8 A k 1 0 n w c .

4 4

l l C V e r a a ( . )

C . )

G rid r ef :

H " 4 • • • . • A l M . o l C c 1 2 / Z 1 C O •

i r r i • •

g t C l r . : ›

C D CV ,t 00 CO C V

N. Cl ) 01 00 f • • CO

N Z

i n

c s i

N.

c v

N.

, 1

40 / 1

40 / 1

a

r . 1 H C V

1 4

r 1

CV Cl ) . 1

z

N Z

N Z

N Z

N Z

C V ,t cl ) Ch

in cV C V . 1

Z

1 . 1 0

. 1 0

. t .

r 1 0

40 / 1

40 / 1

40 / 1

0

0

0

v :, 1 IN . 1

Z

Z

E

2

N. cl ) 00 CO

O D

•

A ,t

O D 0 •

C 4 01

3 47

Cl )

C • 1

•

. I * A 4 . 1 r l 0 • C 4

41

C l )

A A 0 0 4 . 1 • O

r 4

N

0 4 . ) › ,

S t.John 's

P onte l and 2 6.1/7 .7/4.2/1075g

P onte l and

P allinsburn

P rovenance

0

t n w c r, 3 0 0 C O c c -

r e • 4 ( r ) $ 4 " 0 W $ . 4

r I o • • . / 4 1 0 i . -1 0., . I . . . , N . . , c n . ..

r . 4 . . . . / 4 1 0 . -I 0, r • 4 • . . . , N . . . . c n

0 ▪1 . . . . . r . . . c n

S . /

Sr /

0 W c f 3 C 4

c f 3 1 I t a . o t .

g 0 ) C O O

z

-1 0

O

c f 3 , t 0 4 a .

r . 0 1 I C O N . r I . . . . . /0 4 1

c f 3 , 1 C L . O .

r e-ground

AA(4)31(1953)112

. 0 1 I C O N .

" greens t one"

c utting e dge E 4

. 0 . . . 1 0 . . . ,

N Z 3 64678

o • • • •

N Z 0 15385

N Y 8 09699

• • • • •H

N Z 5 1923162

. , 0 1 I 0 0 N .

S underland M useum

0 O Z c c

S underland M useum

g Z r a l

S underland

r • 4

E vans:ASI(1897)125

e t 0 W N 4

T ooley(1978b)73 r e-worked f rag.

R eference

N ew . 1 978 .21

c 0 • b O W 3 I

. . . . . •H > • . . . "

. . . . . •H > C • . • / 4 1 . . . ,

e • -• •H > . . . . . ,

o • • • 3 0 , -,

0 1 C I 0 1 0 ,

0 1 p i 0 1 c 2 N

C T c n C T a ,

N . ( 4 , 0 1 c n

C --

O

i f )

C A

A O •

c a 0

c d

C )

1 ` . . I n C A c n

• •- ,

0 0 I A r • • c l

3 4 c a C f ) 3 . 4

c u

S eaton C arew

P rovenance

U )

, -4 0 1

-0

r I I c l . ) •H 4 /-1 , o • C A r I o n . O L f-‘ •H * " . . . •• N W • C l ) N • S

4 I C L D O 0 O 0 1 1 . . , . •1 4 0 • 0 C ' ) 4 4 . $ . 4 t i l a ) • O . t r ) I 4 " . . c f c 0 . 0 • C l ) O N

b . 0 V I h • c n • . . . r •

0 g . 0 , o I 4 W . 0 C f )

i n s . . . . C s 1 • I n c 0 " ) • . 1 " , ,

b 0 . • 0 Q ) L I 1 -0 4•H " . . . u s ) / 4 1 0 ( 3 ) . 0 . c n 0 * s • • • 0 0 W O . • . 1 0 , 0 4 i 4 . 1 ) 0 s e •H c u t • . O 4-1 1 / 4 0 C l ) C l ) ,1

. t 3 4 ) 0 1 1 I n c . . , . . U I

c i

. . t . , „ . 0 ) In 0 . • 0 O h

0

4o / 1

c n -

b i ) t i l r • • r . . . . . L t 1

b 0 & I r • • v I . . . „ . / 4 1 0

. 1 , , W 1 /0 4 a . • 0 r --

W c -a • 0 . 1-

C ,4 . .

, z -

4 . .

" ä , _ ,

c t "4 . 4 ) C O C l ) . I

c t i C \ j• 4 4 N . C l ) • -1

r 0 • . 1 . 4 r 4 C l ) ,1

o o

c n r I

3 48

c n

1 4 •A n O U ) 3 4 ) , . 2 C . ) . " 0 4 1

b0 I n c1 /I 4 C • 1 , , , •

c e( . 0 c i r e )

+ $ . 4 0 W • H " C i Z

> ,

•

• A r 2 ' s L n Z C „ C 0 c f l < 4 c f 3 . -4

0

« u m

} c i e -c 0

' 0 3 1 0 4 4 X 0

I I n

I; c ", " 0 c u t 7 . , W

r • , J D -

" c ) C

r i

' Z • C1 c f 3 . -4

-

. . 0 3 . 0 c ) V I : 1 0 . ) , 4 3 t ( V " 0 Z

. . W > • H C / ) f 2

C,1 d •

0 S 1 4 . )

c o

N ew . 1 921.8 11 1 -4 4 -4 r I . • • • . •t .

P O •, I

▪

o

c 1

i n c s ) c r . N -

i n c v ( : ,

c r ) c n

r • • • , 10 CO

CO CO CO

P SAN(3)10 (1921)47

r • • • • • . r • • 4 I

b utt f rag.

C omments

1 4

A A(3)11(1914)162-7

•

b utt f acet

1

• C •1

" industrial c laystone"

44 / 1 .4

( . 1

Z

H BNC.9(1879-81)466-7

•1 . 4 1

0

t apering a t b utt

( )

t f )

C l ) a )

b O a ) 1 . . C Z

m uch a braded

•

41

C W(2)65(1965)32

ON

CO 4 1

C l ) a ) c r . c r .

b utt m issing

•

4 . 44

H BNC.12(1887-9)28-9

"4

L c -

ON 4 1

v ery b lunt c utting e dge

P SAN(2)4(1891)104

P SAN(3)10(1923)216

a ) L t 1

a ) ) . C Z

H BNC.13(1890-1)264

N ew . 1 960 .39

E i

R eference

N ew . 1 814 .11

C o c 0

c o

• • • •

4 • • • • •4 .

•r • I

, •• •

•4 . 1 •

• • • • •

0 c n

c r . c . 1

0

r I 4 .4

•4 1

•4 -

0

N Y 7 78653

4 .0

c o c •-1 c v c o

r . /0 4 1 1 . /N r I

40 / 1

N

, -I

N

• 10 00

Z

0

e

U , 0

. c ) 0 . i. C • 1

H Z

P rovenance

C

4 ., U • , 1 1 4 4 . ) c o I • , . I -, i c r-) ' 0 N C -c o i n 4 -1 " • • . . •

c : 1 r? )

0,

•

2

C I 0 0 0 4 . i 1 4 . 1 i 4 e ,- 4 . . . Ö l ) C I * P i 1 40 / •r I • I 4 • V D P O N „2 " • • • •

U C O 0 •

ß

0 . .s .

1 4 r 0 .

7 24 ß C9

1 4 . -1

U

4 1

4 1

' • • •

0 0 1 1 • • g

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N.

C, C n

0 0 C n

C , C n

0

0

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3 70

3

3

0

0

e

. — I

•

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r u

, C t )

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C / 3

a ) b 0 , . . , ( e l r • 1

1 4 c a

C W(2)74(1974)2

1 4

c a

• r • 4•

•m l •

0 N N O N 4 4 C 91

. / : 3

L f l N L r , C d

C . )

C . )

C . )

0 • • . • i v >

•e 4

• H

L f l

C O • s t t f l N

0 0 V ) r • • I C • 1 s e r • •

N Y

=

•g 4 ▪

• • r • I

c utting e dge d amaged

. I 4 $ . 1 c d , 4 : 3 i a v • ) ) 4 . )

S D 1 85686

=

. • • • • • r l

0 0 c d W 4 4

b utt b roken

a . i 1 Z 4 2

S D 1 70725

=

. • • , • r l

C W(1)1(1874)217

5

( 1 )

S D 1 76675

S D 1 96645

G rid r ef.

•4 4

B M .St.104 .R

0 0 ( T )

C . )

• r • I •

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b roken a xe

o f a xes

3B

p olished a xe

s t d rs e r r . N

C W(2)71(1971)8

1 1

C W(2)71(1971)8

2

f rags.

B arrow 5 311

B arrow 5 318 C W(2)71(1971)8

C W(2)71(1971)7

R eference

I f ) O N N N C I . 0, I n

4 . + 4 1

C c d

4 4 • 4 4

P rovenance

-0

C 0 • i c n 1 1 C l ) C r 4 ( I 3

i n C • • 1 , e 3 . 2 0 4 4 4 4 • " 4 =

I 1

-I C

-0

I . r • • ) 4 •

" 0 C E « I 1 4 C c a0 1 C 4 1 E r C . ) s ' s . k • 4 v . ) i • • •

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r 1

1 4 c e

D O

a )

o

' V •A 0 44 ( t 1 1 4

0 N • • • .

c o 4 1 '

• C • 4 " . . . i f ) • L I )

0 ( 1 1 v 4 . . , . . c a 1 4 4 " . . . l ' s › , • ( 1 ) i n C s . . .

0 I . 4` , , 1 . Z r-I

. 4 0 a %• 3 a %

, i • , . ,

( c 1 " r i C C t i l › , ( 1 ) ( 1 ) ( 1 ) . Z 0 1 4

0 • ( 0 1 3. 12

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3 71

a .

. = ( . ) 1 4 C

6

c a 0 0

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i

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a ,

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. .,

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0 4 0 U 1 4 0

U 1 • I ' s • • • . . c O . C V

b i ) 0 0 4 3 1 v 4 • • • • r • • • , ▪. . C ° C) 0 . " . 1 . 4 C T t o • • , 1 4r. " )

a ) U G c t l G a ) > 0 1 4 C % 4

. . . X I . . . ,

c o 1i n c . )

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L n r r c n

Z

Z

c n

c 0 4 . 1 4 3 0 • e l

I n r 1 • % . ( 0 " . . . . I n • • 1 4 c 9 0 c v

, 1 c 9 . t

t t 0 e n L n -. M D I n 0 -4 . / r 1 b 0 • • m l 1 -• • ' " , . . c 0 • • $ . 4 r • 0 r • -4

C V c • • 1

e

o 0

o 0

/ . •r 1 > , . . ,

. . . . • f 1 > . . . ,

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C f l

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c c u

0 0 N .

W " • • • ' V c l Z • • r 4 0 c,4

1 , 1 1 40 / C D " ` ' 0 t n

, _ . : . Z4 m r )

;9 , c . . 0 : 1 •

I n c -S i . 1 .-

4 " c • I 2-

1 , 1 C . 1 . 1 "

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a , I I s s

) . 4

r" .

1 + 0 0 Z

I . 1 . 4 " 1

o c . )

o 0

. . . . . • H > , . . ,

. . • r i >

V O C V

e

4.1 / 1

. 0 e n . )

e

e v cn

In

> . . 0 C 0 c n G C =

b 0 0 c r t O N -• 4 .1 r s i U • I n ^l • • 4 , £ ) . . 4 . •r i O D -. 2 c n I n

C W(2)40(1940)114

M anchester . . . . J O . . . ,

C W(2)35(1935)177

C W(1)9(1887-8)204 c n 4 . ) r 4 ( 1 ) U =

r efashioned a s a f ish

C W(2)71(1971)6 b utt b roken

e . 1 , 4 > • . •

C W(2)40(1940)107

C W(2)35(1935)180 " of t he I rish t ype"

B arrow 5 274

B M .S t. 1 04 . P C W(2)65(1965)28

R eferences • " 4 > . . . . ,

b t 0 t r , % 0 . . . . . C O

r s C N I

t n C A 0 . . .

e

C I n 1 4 . . L r l . 0

•

. 1 1 s . . . 0 V D › ,• • 1 " c . 9

I ' s C s . 1

e

3 72

c a I • r i • • • . 1 4 c v « I I . i n . . . . C r s • ) , I

C O . . . . 0 , 4 J A . 0 › , .I n

. 0

0 0 C V

e

-z r ,C )

% .0 51 '

• o e . 0 2. •

N ewcastle

N ewcastle

N ewcastle

1 949.4

C arlisle 2 7.26.322

C arlisle A .II.19(M3)

1 4 ,

r • 4

i d f G r e .

, . .

: ' . ; = . . i s :

CN

. . . ,

s . . .

4 5 8 6 S 5 D

X C O v • 4

m O X

a ) c o c ) 1 . 1

l d t c o e m p e y g r : o u n

,-

N O C 0 t . c , ' 0 O N C , i n o c 0 0 e 4 n . • u 0 I a D C N V r •▪ 0 0 0 n / 4 1 r . e O r I C

c ) 4 . 4 e e U 0

. e l e u . n a . 4 a . 4 c ) ) )

e. . N . 4 z e C H 04.

p o e •

r 4 •• . 1 4

e 5 i , 0 . . 4 ) 4 . 1 4 . . $ . 4 1 › , 0

4 1 )

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c ,

4 -

• , 41 . l e 00 ) C .. .2

0 a ) , . 0 c 0

••

, 4 . 3 0 1 U 3 E : 0 U r . :

C O

N O T E A S R H T

4

be

0 e d C 5 er e 0"0 4

4 4 e • , ) , ) , 4 . 4 e a ) . =

‘ 0 a )

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a ) 1 1

9 t r + 4 e 1 4 t r I . 4 . • . -

u ll 4 4 1 e l i l ) @ I

v•

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p i

, › , › > , 0 i m i . 4 . . l 1 ( ) . • . 4 . 0 , C O C e 0 4 v C . v I 4 • . 1 • •

c z . . . . c s ; ( 2 4 C . )

1 a 1 ) ' < o C t 4 . ) 0 o 4 , a ) c e 1 I e o m D c ( ) O e 4 m u 4 4 • 4 . • 5 a a ) , 1 -

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y

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,

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z

z

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4 . 4 m 4 •m 4 ca

U

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CO

1 1 1

C ATALOGUE 4

t r t ' V • C O 4 J

) 4

0 • c r , • U 0 : 1 r -4

00

C C )

4 1

C O

a O

m 4 0

4 1 : 3

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be

C O r m4

O

be

b O •


i f ,

1 . 1

W , . e 0

C . >

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C 4

0 0 En I , r 4 " • • • • • N ' • • • • •

i n

• co • • ,

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C 0 . 1 . ) ( 1 ) 1 1 •• 4 ,Z E f

4 1

6 0 t i rs" • • • • V i ) • v 1 • • • • • L I1 • Ln "s .

0 r . 4 4 . 2 4 J 0 , 1 : 2

N " . . . . . 1 . " • .0 . . . • I

CV •• • • • • ' I C % JD 0 • 0 . 1 . » " . . .

C A c e 14

r 'l . N ' '

1 4 • c e %0 = "4

) 4 c 'n c e • W ON

r • •

c o

e f t N C V . . . . CV

4

r • • 4

o f p olished a xe

f rag.

C l 4

C g

z 0 2 1

C e 3 1 ) 0 11 " 0 ( N 6 0. .4 C • • • • • C 1 3 C ' " )

a ' , e 4

" partly p olished"

o f p olished a xe r e-used

§

f rag.

1

›t .0 4 . 1 •1 . • 4

r e-worked

d e r g e o n g u

e dge g round

2 . ) , . e z e c

r • • 4

a . c i t 1 F 4 .

j

Z 12

< 4 :> > 4 Z g i 1 b l 1 I r P 4 . 4 L . = 0 4 g . . xP V

4 .

•

e dge g round

Z • I • • • • • •

1 4 . •

( 1 4 • > 0 1 4 r N . • • . 4 v 4 . A I • . a . 4 4 1 e n b r 1 • • 0 0 N 0 1 , • ' 0 C . O A 4 v 4 r , N 1 4 N V 1 C 4 • . • o . , r 4 • 0 0 V C 1 C • . . . • ^ C , r o 4 E n 1 : o , c 0 1 ' I 1 , • N ' " 4 t r r r s . 4 • • • • . • • • •0 1 C . " , r f I M 0 1 C , ' 0 " " 7 . 1 -e \ G " ‘ ' 1 O . I f l , i n . 4 C O 1 N 4 . 1 4 . 1 1 C I . 1 . • • . ' • • 1 0 4 . C 0 . , h 0 • 1 • . . / . • . I 1 r • O H 1 0 C O v 4 2 • 4 , N I 1 • • • 2 ' a ‘ D ' . " . s n ' I & I V . . . 3 • 1 . , r 4 . , . . 4 1 ” . 4 , , . • . • • . . , • • • • • • • • • • < < C . C . . . h v . . 1 r I I , . , s . ' 0 o 4 . . • -5 C ' l C , 1 . a •4 N n c . . ,) 1 , N • r e • • 4 ( u • • • -i I " e 4 I . ) . . • • • • , N . . :c i , s . U ) • • • « , . . , . . , ,1 l 3 . 7 . . e ) e . s • . X , 4 . N . . • . / . ' r n f 3 r . . ‘

J C •

• r 4 e e e 4 1 4 . -

N ewcastle

Z 0 2

c ompletely g round

c ompletely g round

c ompletely g round: b utt c hipped

R eferences

( 1 1 . ‘ Z 2 C O C v i :-

a 0

• • • • • N

( 2 0 •m l

C

•

C

0 N

" i " l h d p s e o e a x

: = >

c a

›, $ . 1

› , 1 4

0 4 . ) C l ) I C O " • • I .. . .„ c r .

Z I l a " • • • •

$ 1 0 . 4 i

c e c0 . -I , ,

r • 4 C . . )

" ' i . r ) . s .

c e

4 ) " f ' s . . , . L t-)

i n I

r e .1

, 2 . .,

rn " 4

1 946.5

c 0

C O

C D

r • •

r • • • L n f • • •

40 / 1 40 / 1

•

e N

. 2 i 1 C 3 • , . •

a ) •r I N 4 4 • r 4 L n

. Z 4 ) ( I ) g t 1 . 4

^ ( I D 1 1 C D • i i n • . 1 " . . . = r 4 • e •' 0 -r o c° C l ) • 0 r i

• I Z

o r1 Z • -I

1 4 0 . 4 r • -•

• , . 1 I < • e 9 ' 1 1 •

c •-1

—

,c )

a ) " O •A t o 0 0 c a ) . 4 0

N ewcastle M useum R ecords f rag.: c 0

C O

O N

a ‘

z

z

o

z

c a 4 4

c a c o • 0

. I › ,P I 0 j . 3 G O , z • 4, c n

c n " C I • • 4 C D I •f 4 . 0 I C O . . . . L ( , z -. 4 3 L n •

0 s • • • • c : 4 c h

0 L i l C O • I

c ‘ i

" 0 a )

40 / 1

4 1

e l

N

, 4 • b 0 0 i n . 4 -i n • c l * . . 0 0 • d-c h •

c ompletely g round

E lgee(1933)pl.I c ompletely g round

e l

z

9 0 r l a ) • • 1 ( 4 4

M iddlesborough

S underland 2 4 .1944 P SAN(2)3(1889)3

E dinburgh c at.(1892)38 40 / 1

C O O

D ixon(1903)149,fig.11

E dinburgh A .9402 r e-worked

1 956.278.A N ewcastle c ompletely , g round

A A(5)5(1977)203-4,fig.1 N T 9 45330

R eferences

t o

c a

5 -

r -

Z e ‘ i

‘ t s

> , . 0 c ) 0 0 $ 1 C D . 0 4 . 1 t o W g . . e ) . 4 , 4 :. 5 . 4

I 1

C

a ) a )

U

. s

• •

t o I a ) * --

o . ) • . 4 l• > L • I , 0 . 0 e • i W O 0 1 : 4 . C 1 t z l e V

c 0 c g

e 4

3 75

9 c i

, i 4 4 1 v 4 0

4J

0 0 0 i n c v . . . v 1 • e l ' ' • e • I •

0 ,r ) 3 -/0 4 1 . • i • i r l • 4

t e i n c g e l . . . 5 4 e l e l ) " • • r 1 ‘ , 0 0

•

0 v : ) 3 . e q . . 1 4 ,C ) g • --I

C ATALOGUE 5

J ade a xes

C umbria K irkby- L onsdale, s urface o f A dd! p asture S D 6 27790 L th . 8 .53 c m , W th . 3 .59 c m , T h . 1 .99 c m , W t . 9 6g . P ointed b utt , b evelled e dges T ype I I B S ea—green S ectioned : j adeite & f eldspar J ones e t a l .(1977) n o.99 , p 1 .23;

2 89 , 2 92 C raven M useum , S kipton D 3 205

P enrith B eacon N Y 5 231 L th . 1 5 .1 c m , W th . 5 .9 c m , T h . 3 .25 c m , W t . 3 75g . R ounded b utt , b evelled e dges T ype I IB D ark o live g reen S ectioned 1 955 : n o r eport k nown E vans : A SI ( 1897) 1 04 N ewcastle 1 956 .279 A ? Kendal l ocal ( or e thnographic s pecimen ? ) S D 5 192 L th . 1 1 .4 c m , W th . 5 .3 c m , T h . 2 .8 c m , W t . 2 25g . P ointed b utt , b evelled e dges T ype I IC V ery d ark g reen t o b lack U npublished K endal T own M useum

N orth—east H artlepool N Z 5 032 L th . 8 .45 c m , W th . 4 .15 c m , T h . 2 .5 c m , W t . 1 25g . R ounded b utt , b evelled e dges T ype I IB P ale g reen, m ottled U npublished G ray M useum & A rt G allery , H artlepool

3 76

C ATALOGUE 6 S ources u sed i n c ompiling t he d istributions o f G roup V i, X V a nd X VIII i mplements t hroughout B ritain ( Maps 7 7-79)

P etrological i dentification T he s outh-west:

c omprising B erkshire,

G loucestershire,

S omerset, W iltshire a nd t he C hannel I slands.

C ornwall, D evon,

D orset,

( Hampshire, o riginally i ncluded i n t his a rea, n ow c omes u nder t he s outh-east a rea i mplement p etrology g roup) K eiller,

Y orkshire

P iggot & Wallis

S tone & W allis

( 1947)

S tone & W allis

( 1951)

( 1941)

E vens,

G rinsell, P iggott & W allis

E vens,

S mith & W allis

( 1962)

( 1972)

( First r eport) K een & R adley

E ast A nglia:

( 1971)

c omprising N orfolk,

S uffolk,

C ambridgeshire a nd

E ssex C lough & G reen

( 1972)

L incolnshire, N ottinghamshire & R utland C ummins & M oore

( 1973)

D erbyshire a nd L eicestershire M oore & C ummins

( 1974)

L ancashire & C heshire U npublished p etrological r esults, b y c ourtesy o f D .J. R obinson, G rosvenor M useum, C hester

W ales U npublished r ecords o f t he W elsh I mplement P etrology C ommittee, b y c ourtesy o f C .H. H oulder, a nd M onmouthshire, A berystwyth.

M iddlesex C eloria

( 1974)

3 77

R CAHM W ales

S cotland L ivens

( 1961)

U npublished r ecords, b y c ourtesy o f t he N ational M useum A ntiquities, E dinburgh. N orth o f E ngland:

c omprising C umbria, N orthumberland & D urham .

A s mall n umber o f u npublished m useum r ecords o f p etrological r esults. ( Catalogue 7 )

M acroscopic _ i dentification N orth o f E ngland A s d escribed i n P art i .

( Catalogue 3 )

L ancashire s outh-of-the-Sands a nd Y orkshire M anby ( 1965) M anby ( 1979) S cotland F rame ( 1978) I sle o f M an K invig ( 1950) G eneral F ell

( 1964)

3 78

7

C atalogue

P etrology r esults f rom t he n orth o f E ngland:

a xes

S ettlement s ite E henside T arn

( 3)

E henside T arn

( 6)

o r

( 7)

V I

S W557/Cumb.

6

V I

S W556/Cumb.

5

B ER 2

S ingle f inds N orth-east 4 2

C ornhill

V I

7 1

F ulwell

V I

11

M urton

V I

12

M urton

I X

1 41

S underland

c oarse s andstone

1 58

W ashington

X VIII

( ungrouped)

C umbria n ear V I

1 91

B eckermet

2 27

D erwentwater

2 46

G range o ver S ands

2 96

L eece

V I

2 98

L indale-in-Cartmel

g reenstone

3 20

n r.

3 26

O utgate

V I

L a.40

3 60

S eascale

V I

S W531

3 99

W alney I sland,

5 27

V I

S W269

4 00

W alney I sland,

5 26

V I

S W268

V I t uff

t uff

M illom

3 79

S W I141/Cumb. S W270/Lanc.

1 7 3

( probably C ornish) S W867/Cumb.

7

L a 5 1

C atalogue

8

" Cumbrian c lubs" I n h oards:

B elmont

S ettlement s ite:

S ingle f inds: A xe N os.

( 3)

E henside T arn ( 6)

C umbria

1 91,

1 97,

2 15,

2 28, 2 44,

2 52, 2 63,

3 22,

3 33,

3 36,

3 50,

4 20, 4 21.

3 76,

2 77,

2 96,

3 04, 3 06, 3 16,

A xes w ith b utt f acets N orth-east A xe N os.

1,

1 4,

2 7,

1 67,

1 69.

2 28,

2 54,

3 3,

3 4,

7 9,

9 7,

1 02,

18,

1 21,

1 22,

1 23,

C umbria A xe N os.

2 92,

2 96,

3 03,

3 07,

3 80

3 16,

3 22,

3 31,

3 55.

1 45,

C ATALOGUE 9 G roup V I r ough-outs f ound o utside C umbria ( Measurements a re g iven i n t he o rder g rammes)

L th./Wth./Thickness/Weight i n c ms a nd

L ancashire M orecambe 3 2.5/-/1/1750g

( VI)

S lyne

( VI)

w ell-shaped & p repared

C W(2)50(1950)10 M anby 1 965, 2 6 C W(2)62(1962)20 H anby 1 965, 2 6

2 0.3/-/-/Y orkshire K eighley

V I

? r ough-out, r eworked:

o r

b utt b roken

M anby M anby

1 965, 1 979,

P PS 3 7 f ig.

2 6 7 2,

( 1971)

3 .

?R ipon, W akeman 's H ouse

V I

M anby

1 979,

7 2

?R ipon, W akeman 's H ouse

( VI)

Manby

1 979,

7 2

Manby

1 979,

7 2

S carborough

( VI)

T horpe F ell

( VI)

( 13.4)/7.8/3/W est L uttons

( VI)

S cotland A nnan, D umfries 1 4. 4 /5 . 2/-/-

V I

O verton, 3 1/10/4.

D umfries 10g

? r ough-out, r eworked:

o r

F rag.

C W(2)63(1963)53,fig.1.1 Manby 1 965, 2 6 Manby

L ivens

D UM 2

F rame

( VI)

f ig.3.1

1 9,27

1 979,

7 2

1 959,

5 9,fig.2

1 978,99

6 /2

T erregles, C airnsmore, D umfries 2 0.2/9.5/5.1/1100g B allure, K intyre 2 5.8/7.4/4.3/966g

( VI)

C rawford,

( VI)

L anarks.

T ruckell 1 965, f ig. F rame 1 978,100

( VI)

w ell-flaked & p repared

S cott M anby F rame

1 969,fig.90r 1 965, 2 6 1 978,99

M anby

1 965,26

F rame

1 978,100

1

3 9.8/9.7/6.3/2525g ( VI)

R oxburgh W ell F ield,

s mall r ough-out o r f lake

C amphouse F arm ,

J edburgh

( VI)

E dinburgh A F

1 059

1 6. 15.2/2.8/240g M ochram ,

W igtown

P SAS 5 0(1915-16)63,fig.1

( VI)

M anby

1 965,26

E dinburgh A F 6 40

3 81

C ATALOGUE 1 0 P ossible a ssociations o f s tone a nd f lint a xes ( Axe N os. ( 1)

( other t han h oards)

r efer t o C atalogues 3 & 4 )

A xe f inds p ossibly c onnected w ith m onuments a nd s ites

A xe N o. 4 5 0 5 5 8 9 1 56

N orth-east A lnwick,

B roomhill

D ewley L ane, T hrockley E ast T hirston M oor K ennel H all K nowe W arkworth M oor

-

n ear a ncient e nclosures f rom a t umulus

-

i n a s mall, c ircular c amp I A/RB s ettlement o n a h eap o f s tones; p ossibly a c learance c airn o r a b urial c airn

C umbria 2 05

B ristowe H ill,

1 96

K eswick

-

i n a d itch 3 t o 5 f eet d eep, f illed u p w ith o ther m ixed f inds, i ncluding q uern f ragments, s tone b locks a nd a s tone " saucer" o r

B onfire S car c ave

-

w ith p ossible r ubbing s tones, f lints, a nimal a nd h uman r emains a nd i ron o bjects

2 11

C astlerigg

-

n ear t he s tone c ircle

3 60

G reycrofts

2 07

H altcliff,

s tone c ircle C aldbeck

c utting t hrough a m eadow ,

t he " site

o f a ncient d wellings" H oard

H igh H aume

2 65

H irdwood,

B ank E nd

-

" upon t he f oundations o f a n o ld b uilding" f rom a d ouble c oncentric s tone c ircle; p ossibly a b urial c airn

2 70

H olmrook

-

l ying " by a v ery a ncient r oad" u nder 2 1 f eet o f p eat

2 99

L ittle S alkeld

-

n ear t he s tone c ircle

3 19

M ayburgh, E amont B ridge -

H oard 3 29

( 2)

u nder t he t urf

M ossgarth

-

w ooden p latform? o r s tructure

P ennington

-

f ield w ith e arthworks

S owerby W ood 3 89

e ntrance t o t he h enge,

U rswick,

B olton C hapel

• -

4 ft b elow t he s urface " probably t he b ed o f a n a ncient t arn" f ield w ith e arthworks

F unerary s ites

F lint

1

B roomhill,

F ord C LXXXVIII

c hip o f a p olished f lint a xe, f ound i n p atches o f b urnt e arth, c alcined b ones, c harcoal, s herds a nd f lints b eneath a r ound b arrow

1 55

f ragment o f a p olished g reenstone a xe

W arden L aw

o n o ld g round s urface o n S .E.

s ide o f

r ound b arrow w ith f lint f lakes, a nd c hippings 2 17

C rosby G arrett C LXXIV

-

c ores

f ragment o f p olished a xe, w ith s herds a nd f aunal r emains b eneath a n o val b arrow

( 3)

A xes f ound w ith o ther a rtifacts 1 71

A glionby, W aterloo H ill E henside T arn

s and p it w ith o ther p rehistoric f inds e sp. b urial u rns ( Table 1 0, n os. 9 55-962) a xes, g rinding s tones a nd w ooden o bjects f rom ? settlement s ite

2 38

E skmeals, s outh s ite ( Williamson 's Moss)

f lint i ndustry

2 44

G osforth,

r ubbing o r p olishing s tones

7 6 2 64 F lint 2 0

K ell B ank

G reymore H ill F arm

f lint s catter

H igh S ellafield

f lint s catter

H owl J ohn

f lint s catter

3 57

S eascale,

B ailey G round

3 58

S eascale, H all S enna

f lint s catter

3 59

S eascale,

f lint s catter

f lint s catter

S toney-How

W alney I sland,

s andhills-

f lint s catter

W alney I sland,

s andygap -

f lint s catter

W alney I sland,

lint s H illock W hins f catter

3 83

C ATALOGUE 1 1 L eaf a rrowheads:

s ingle f inds

( Leaf a rrowheads

f ound a mongst f lint s catters a re

l isted i n T able 8 ) .

N orth-east N r. A lnwick

N U 1 912

P SAN

B lackton

N Z 4 08258

B owes 1 957.226

B ollihope C ommon

NY 9 733

B owes

B udle B ay/Ross L inks

N U 1 436

G reen

C raster

N U 2 519

P SAN ( 3)10(1923)271, A A ( 3)20(1923) x xi

C rimdon D ene

N Z 4 84365

T rans.North.Nat.Union I

( 4)9(1942)97

( 1977)

( 1936)

2 07-16,

f ig.

E astgate, F linty F ield

NY 9 538

G reen

E astgate,

N Y 9 54386

A A

F inchdale

N Z 2 646

G reen

( 1977)

H amsterley

N Z 0 90333

G reen

( 1977)

H auxley

N U 2 703

G reen

( 1977)

H orden

N Z 4 50415

P PSEA 7 ( 1932-4)

K ilhope L aw

N Y 8 20449

AA

N Z 1 70458

G reen

( 1977)

L ow F arnham

N T 9 78029

G reen

( 1977)

L yne H ill

N Z 3 090

P PSEA 7 ( 1932-4)

N r. M arden

N Z 4 065

G reen

N r.

N Z 2 115

B owes 1 957.23

P olice F ield

L anchester,

H ollybush

P iercebridge

( 1977)

( 4)31(1953)

1 06

( 4)31(1953)

1 88-98

1 12

1 88-98

( 1977)

B owes 1 958.1796 Q uarry H ouse

N Z 3 563

AA(4)19(1941)

R ookhope,

N Y 9 24434

A A

R yton

N Z 1 564

G reen

W est D enton

N Z 1 866

N ewcastle

B ankfoot

3 84

3 19-23

( 4)31(1953)

1 12-6 1 10

( 1977) 1 961.4

C umbria E denvalley

c NY 5 541

G reen

( 1977)

K ilhope L aw

N Y 8 19449

G reen

( 1977)

U nderbarrow S car

S D 4 880

G reen

( 1977)

W asdale S crees

N Y 1 605

W hitehaven

Y ealand

S D 5 074

C W(2)37(1937)155-6,

f ig.

3 .

L eaf a rrowhead w ith b urials B roomhill, F ord C LXXXVIII

s ee C atalogue 1 5 F ound w ith f lint c hippings, a f ragment o f a f lint a xe a nd G rimston-Lyles H ill s herds.

C ATALOGUE 1 2 T ransverse a rrowheads:

s ingle f inds

( Transverse a rrowheads f ound a mongst f lint s catters a re l isted i n T able 8 ) N orth-east B eadnell

N U 2 329

A A

B lackhall's

N Z 4 739

G reen

( 1977)

C rook,

N Z 1 65345

B owes

1 961.40

H owl J ohn

N Y 9 65390

A A

L ow F arnham

N T 9 78029

G reen

R ookhope,

N Y 9 24434

A A

S D 0 894

C W(2)38(1938)311-2,

R umby H ill

B ankfoot

( 4)50(1972)291

( 4)31(1953)

1 06

( 1977)

( 4)31(1953)

1 10

C umbria E skmeals

P l.

T ransverse a rrowhead w ith b urial W ooler

s ee E BA B urials C atalogue , T able 1 0, n o.620. W ith f ood v essel a nd o ther f lints.

C ATALOGUE 1 3 B arbed a nd t anged a rrowheads: ( Barbed a nd t anged a rrowheads

s ingle f inds f ound a mongst f lint s catters a re l isted i n

T able 8 ) . N orth-east A lnwick

N U 1 912 3 85

P SAN

( 4)8(1939)

1 48

A llendale C ommon

N Y 8 651

P SAN

A ncroft

N T 9 945

G reen

N U 1 834

N ewcastle 1 922.6

B irtley

N Y 8 778

A A

B udle B ay/Ross L inks

N U 1 436

G reen

B yrness

N T 7 505

N ewcastle Museum r ecords

C arrawburgh

N Y 8 59712

G reen

C raster

N U 2 519

P SAN(3)10(1923)271,

C rimdon D ene

N Z 4 85365

T rans.North.Nat.Union I

B amborough,

S hada C rags

( 4)6(1935)60 ( 1977)

( 2)12(1887)

2 64

( 1977)

( 1977)

( 1936)

2 07-16,

3 19-23

f ig .

C ronkley S car

NY 8 427

B owes

D arlington

N Z 2 914

D arlington M useum

E ast B oldon

N Z 3 761

G reen

( 1977)

E astgate,

F linty F ield

N Y 9 538

G reen

( 1977)

E astgate,

P olice F ield

N Y 9 54386

A A

E shwinning

N Z 1 942

N ewcastle 1 952.6

F inchdale

N Z 2 646

G reen

F ord

N T 9 62372

C BA G roup 3 N ews ( 1972) 1 2

G reta B ridge

N Z 0 813

B owes M useum i ndex

G rindon

N Z 3 554

G reen

( 1977)

H amsterley

N Z 1 130

G reen

( 1977)

H amsterley

N Y 0 90333

C BA G roup 3 N ews(1)

1 958.1811

( 4)31(1953)

1 06

( 1977) ( 1)2

2

( 1972)13 H arbottle

N T 9 304

P SAN

H auxley

N U 2 703

G reen

H eathery B urn c ave

N Y 9 05493

B ritton

H eathery B urn

N Y 8 540

A A

H eseldine

N Z 4 438

G reen

H ordon

N Z 4 50415

P PSEA 7 (1932-4)

3 86

( 4)5(1933)

2 9,

f ig.

( 1977) ( 1968)

( 4)31(1953)

1 12

( 1977) 1 88-98

K leider B urn

N Y 6 494

A C 2 5, f ig. E vans: A SI ( 1897)

3 88

K ilhope

N Y 8 25433

A A

( 4)31(1953)

1 12

L anchester C ommon

N Z 1 044

A A

( 1)1(1822)

A A

( 4)43(1965)

3 18, p l.

( 4)31(1953)

1 12

1 01-2

L ark S eat

N Y 9 59397

A A

L ongframlington

N U 1 201

P SAN

L uckermoorhouse

N U 1 530

N ewcastle 1 927.139.5-6

L yne H ill

N Z 3 090

P PSEA 7 ( 1932-4)

Marsden

N Z 4 065

G reen

M ickle F ell

NY 8 024

B owes 1 958-1812

M ilfield

N T 9 333

N ewcastle 1 967.4A

M ilfield N orth H enge

N T 9 34349

C BA G roup 3 N ews

( 4)8(1939)

2 42

( 1977)

( 1976)3 O ld B ewick

N U 0 621

G reen

P ikestone F ell

N Z 0 48342

A A

R yton

N Z 1 564

G reen

( 1977)

W earhead

N Y 8 539

G reen

( 1977)

N r.

N Z 1 044

G reen

( 1977)

W esterhope

N Z 1 966

N ewcastle 1 974.7

W esternhope B urn

N Y 9 35366

G reen

W olsingham , D odd H ill

N Z 0 83392

B owes 1 961.40.1

B irkdale C ommon

N Y 8 44018

G reen

C aldbeck

N Y 3 239

C arlisle

N Y 3 87573

C arlisle

C rummock W ater

N Y 1 519

K eswick

D ungeon G hyll

N Y 2 906

C W(2)35(1935)179

E gremont

N Y 0 110

C arlisle

G ilpin B ridge

S D 4 685

C W(2)4(1903)411

W est B utsfield

( 1977)

( 4)31(1953)112

( 1977)

C umbria

C arlisle,

K ingmoor

3 87

1 88-98

( 1977)

( 1)12

X VI

G osforth

N Y 0 603

C W(2)25(1925)377

G osforth

N Y 0 803

C W(2)43(1943)53

I rthington

N Y 4 961

G reen

K endal

S D 5 192

C W(2)71(1971)5

L azonby F ell

NY 5 15545

C W(2)51(1952)170-1,

N r.

N Y 1 47474

C BA G roup 3 N ews

L orne F arm

( 1977)

( 1977) M ill G ill,

L angdale

f ig.

( 2)

1

9

N Y 2 906

C W(2)64(1964)376

NY 6 97066

C W(2)63(1963)58,

N Y 6 2)9

G reen

P ortinscale

N Y 2 523

C W(2)35(1935)175

N r.

N Y 5 63104

C W(2)74(1974)3

S kelmore H eads

S D 2 775

C W(2)63(1963)

S kelton p arish

NY 4 335

C W(2)40(1940)107

U lpha,

S D 1 993

C W(2)21(1921)273

U nderbarrow

S D 4 890

C W(2)58(1959)106,

f ig.

U nderbarrow S car

S D 4 890

C W(2)34(1934)218,

f ig.

N ewbiggin o n L une

1

f ig .

1 .3

( made o f v olcanic t uff) O rton,

W hiteriggs

S hap W ells

E sp H all

( 1977)

1 -30,

f ig.

7

1

B arbed a nd t anged a rrowheads w ith b urials _ H igh K nowes

s ee E BA B urials C atalogue,

T able 1 0, n o.297

M ecklin P ark

"

1 0,

" 8 63

K irkhaugh

"

1 0,

" 3 72

anged a rrowheads L arge b arbed a nd t

( "projectile p oints")

N orth-east D oddington

N U 0 032

s ee E BA B urials C atalogue T able 1 0, n o.191

M iddleton-in-Teesdale

N Y 9 425

P SAN

N ewton K etton

N Z 3 317

D arlington M useum

N Y 0 09072

C W(2)67(1967)

( 4)5(1933)

3 32-3,

f ig.

C umbria E henside T arn E skdale W etheral,

C lint H ead F arm

2 29-30,

N Y 1 800

C W(2)67(1967)

N Y 4 654

CW(2)35(1935)173 C W(2)43(1943)174 E vans: A SI ( 1897)

3 88

2 30

3 03

f ig.

1

C ATALOGUE F lint s catters

1 3a

( see T able 8 )

1

N Y 8 153

P SAN

( 2)5(1893)228

2

N Y 8 455

P SAN

( 2)7(1897)274-5,

3

N Y 6 86882

A A

( 5)5(1977)

4

N U 1 019

A A

( 4)19(1941)

1 12-6

5

N U 0 633

A A

( 4)50(1972)

5 8-60

6

N U 1 624

A A

( 4)19(1941)

1 12-6

7

N U 1 07254

N ewcastle 1 973.7

8

N Y 9 76376

A A

( 4)31(1953)

9

N U 1 2800965

A A

( 5)4(1976)

1 0

N Z 0 150

P SAN

1 1-12

N T 9 77371

A A

1 3

N Z 0 50552

C BA G roup 3 N ews

1 4

N U 0 724

AA

1 5

N T 9 502

P SAN

1 6

N Y 6 67898

A A

( 5)6(1978)

1 7

N T 9 800

A A

( 5)

1 8

N U 0 002

P SAN ( 4)5(1933) H BNC 1 2(1887-9)

2 35-6 5 2

1 9

N Z 3 218

P SAN

( 3)1(1905)

6 4

2 0

N Y 9 342

P SAN P SAN

( 3)4(1910) ( 3)5(1913)

2 05 1 06-7,

( 4)5(1933)235

2 8-9

1 10 1 1-16

( 2)5(1893)216

( 4)50(1972)

5 6-8

( 4)19(1941)

7 6-8

1 -28 1 53-87

N U 0 601

P SAN

2 2

N T 9 56322

M iket

2 3

S D 1 92663

C W(2)51(1952)

1 -3

2 4

N Y 5 45290

C W(2)72(1972)

3 6-43

2 5

S D 0 698

C W(2)36(1936) C W(2)55(1956)

2 0-3 1 7-29

C W(2)65(1965)

6 6-85

( 1976)

1 4-15

1 12-6

( 2)9(1901)

1 974)

( 1)15(1977)

2 1

3 89

f igs.

1 13

1 15-7,

1 79,

2 20

2 6

S D 0 698

C W(2)37 ( 1937)

2 14-5

2 7

S D 0 47996

C W(2)65(1965)

6 6-85

2 8

S D 0 698

C W(2)65 ( 1965)

6 6-85

2 9-32

S D 0 698

C W(2 ) 6 5( 1965)

6 6-85

3 3

S D 0 893

C W(2)36(1936) C W(2)37 ( 1937)

2 0-3, 1 00

3 4

S D 0 79938

C W(2)63(1963)

3 1-52

3 5

S D 0 81943

d itto

3 6

S D 0 79935

d itto

3 7

S D 0 81930

d itto

3 8

S D 0 80941

d itto

3 9

S D 0 85990

C W(2)69(1969)

4 0

S D 0 83970

d itto

4 1

S D 0 83945

d itto

4 2

S D 0 81915

d itto

4 3

S D 0 89955

d itto

4 4

S D 0 87990

d itto

4 5

N Y 0 17043

C BA G roup 3 N ews

4 6

N Y 5 541

C W(2)43(1943)

1 73-4

4 7

N Y 0 94037

C W(2)66 ( 1966)

4 75

4 8

S D 1 95757

C W(2)50(1951) C W(2)54 ( 1955)

2 0-9 5 -8

4 9

N X 9 46149

C W(2)73 ( 1973)

4 7-66

5 0

N X 9 59121

d itto

5 1

N X 9 61118

d itto

5 2

N X 9 64115

d itto

5 3

N X 9 69117

d itto

5 4

S D 1 84741

C W(2)46 ( 1947)

6 7-76

5 5

N Y 0 43010

C W(2)67 ( 1967)

1 -16

3 90

2 26-7

4 0-53

( 1)1(1972)

9 -10

5 6

N Y 0 59011

C W(2)67 ( 1967)

1 -16

5 7

N Y 0 51008

d itto

5 8

N Y 0 42012

d itto

5 9

N Y 0 51003

d itto

6 0

N Y 0 54006

d itto

6 1

N Y 0 49004

d itto

6 2

N Y 6 132

C W(2)40(1940)

6 3

S D 1 774

C W(2) 3 8( 1938) 1 60-3 C W(2)39 ( 1939) 2 62-80 C W(2)42 ( 1942) 1 12-121 C W(2)46 ( 1947) 6 7-76 C W(2)47 ( 1948) 6 8-77 C W(2)49 ( 1950) 1 -9 C W(2)50(1951) 1 5-19 C W(2)55 ( 1956) 1 -16

6 4

S D 1 78685

C W(2)70(1970)

2 77-80

6 5

S D 1 96645

C W(2)71(1971)

7

6 6

S D 2 04629

C W(2)50(1951) C W(2)51 ( 1952) C W(2)70(1970)

2 0-9 1 1 -8

6 7

S D 1 85664

C W(2)52 ( 1953)

1 78

6 8

S D 1 92651

C W(2)50(1951)

2 0-9

6 9

S D 1 97646

C W(2)50(1951) C W(2)51 ( 1952)

2 0-9 1 -3

1 08-9

C ATALOGUE

1 4

N eolithic p ottery N orth-east A lnwick N U

1 813

S tray f ind F ragment o f d ecorated b owl

( type u nknown)

L eeds

:A nt.

T ait: A llendale,

J our

A A ( 4)

7 ( 1927)

4 6

( 1968)

4 57

2 80

B M

O ld T own F arm N Y 8 158

S tray f ind B ody s herd o f r ound b ottomed b owl.

G roove b elow r im ,

B ody d ecorated w ith w edge s haped i mpressions. T ait:

A A(4)

4 6

p lain.

P eterborough w are.

( 1968)

2 75-81,

f ig.

2 .2.

N ewcastle B roomhill,

1 956.

3 25A

F ord N T 9 6503730

E xcavation . G reenwell b arrow C LXXXVIII: o ccupation d ebris, s cattered w ith c remations. O ver 2 00 s herds, n early a ll f ragments o f c arinated b owls w ith a f ew s imple b owl f orms. T wo s herds d ecorated w ith s ingle s xratched l ine. G rimston w are. O ther a ssociated m aterial: l eaf a rrowhead.

f lint c hippings,

B B,

f rag.

A bout 2 0 p ots.

o f p olished f lint a xe a nd

4 10

G reenwell: H BNC 4 ( 1856-62) 3 92-4 T ait! AA ( 4) 4 6 ( 1968) 2 79 N ewbigin: A A ( 4)

1 2

( 1935)

1 48 B M 7 9.

C atcote,

H artlepool

1 2-9.

1 406

N Z 4 829

S tray . find. S herd o f P eterborough w are. M iket

( 1976)

1 25, n .2. H artlepool,

C rookham ,

G ray M useum & A rt G allery

s ee F ord

E wart P ark I E xcavation.

N T 9 5833184/NT 9 5443182 P it a lignment,

l ower l evels o f p its,

3 ,

4 ,

5 a nd 6 .

?G rooved w are. M iket: F ord C astle

C BA G roup 3 N ews.

( 2)

4 ( 1978)

1 -2

N T 9 45375

S tray f inds ( 1) L arge r im f ragment o f d ecorated c onical b owl w ith f lattened r im .

T op

o f r im d ecorated w ith c oncentric s emi-circles o f c ord i mpression; r im b evel w ith i ncised h erring b one. S light g roove b elow n eck, p lain. Two h orizontal d iagonal

l ines o f i mpressed t wisted c ord a t s houlder, w ith s imilar

l ines b elow .

( 2)

( 1)

L arge r im f ragment o f h eavy w ide m outhed p ot w ith r ounded r im w ith s light h ollow n eck b elow . R im d ecorated w ith o blique i mpressed l ines o f t wisted c ord. N eck p lain. B ody c overed w ith o blique r oughly s cored l ines ( see n ext e ntry). & ( 2)

P eterborough w are P iggott: A rch.J .88 ( 1931) 6 7-158, f igs. 1 8.1 & 2 3 L ongworth: Y AJ 4 2 ( 1968-70) 2 58-61, f igs. 1 .3 & 1 .2 T ait: A A ( 4) 4 6 ( 1968) 2 80 L eeds:

A nt.

J our.

7 ( 1927)

4 57 B M

F ord S tray f inds. ( 1) ( 2)

A braded r im s herd. R ounded r im d ecorated w ith o blique i mpressed l ine s o f t wisted c ord. D ark b rown f abric, o range i n f racture. & ( 3) T wo t hick b ody s herds d ecorated w ith r oughlyscored s hort l ines. D ark b rown f abric, m ost o f e dges b lackened. B urnt a s s herds?

( All f ragments o f F ord C astle n o. L ongworth ( 4)

( as a bove)

2 a bove?

B M 7 9.12-9.

B ody s herd, d ecorated w ith s hort i mpressed l engths o f t wisted c ord. D ark b rown-black f abric. B M 7 9.

( 1)

1 743A

p 2 61)

- ( 4)

1 2-9.

1 743A

P eterborough w are

N ear F ord S tray f inds. ( 1) R im s herd. ( 2)

( 1 )

R ounded r im d ecorated w ith i ncised h erring b one p attern

R im s herd. F lattened r im d ecorated w ith c oncentric s emi-circles o f c ord i mpressions; r im b evel w ith i ncised h erringbone. N eck p lain. B ody o f p ot d ecorated w ith d iagonal l ines o f i mpressed t wisted c ord. & ( g)

P eterborough w are L ongworth:

Y AJ 4 2

( 1968-70)

2 58-61,

f ig.

1 .1

& 1 .4

B M C omments L ongworth h as s uggested t hat t hese f ragments a re t hose s aid t o h ave b een f ound a t C rookham , w ith a c remation a nd j et n ecklace ( T able 1 0, n o.181) b ut

t here i s n o e vidence o f

t his.

F ord i n aw ood n ear R ed S car B ridge F ound a bout

N T 9 48338

lgt b elow t he l evel o f t he g round, w ith a s tone o ver i t.

F ragments o f t wo o ther u rns

( now l ost)

f ound a bout a y ard a way.

L arge, t hick b ody s herd. T riangular a reas, o utlined b y g rooved l ines, f illed w ith s hort j abbed i mpressions a nd p its. G rooved w are. L ongworth: Y AJ 4 2 ( 1968-70)258-61, L eeds: A nt. J our. 7 ( 1927) 4 57 T ait: A A ( 4) M anby:

4 6

( 1974)

( 1968)

f ig.1.5

2 80

5 B M

3 93

Harlow Hill

Stray find.

NZ 9768

Plain body sherd, possibly Neolithic.

? Grimston ware.

PSAN (4) 3 (1929) 74 New bigin: AA (4) 12 (1935) 1 48 Tait: AA (4) 46 (1968) 280

Hasting Hill NZ 352544

·Excavation; round barrow, in mound material. disturbed/disarticulated inhumations. (1)

(2)

Newcastle 1927. 133

Possibly associated with

Sherds of small globular bowl. Vertical incised lines from rim to approximately half way down the body.

Rim sherd with internal bevel. Deeply scored lines on internal bevel and on neck; finger nail impressions on exterior of rim. rrechmann: AA (3) 11 (1914) 135 Manby: AA (5) 1 (1973) 219-22,

Sunderland Musuem Heatherwick

NY 9092

Stray find. Body sherd of round bottomed bowl. Faint traces of "maggot" decoration on groove below rim and on body and inside ofneck. Brown fabric with black core. PSAN (4) 3 (1929) 74 Tait: AA (4) 46 (1968) 275-81, fig. 2.1 Newcastle 1956. 324A Kyloe Crags

NU

0538

Stray find. Fragments of large round bottomed, cylindrical vessel with flattented rim. Decorated on inside and top of rim with finger-nail impressions. . Slight groove below rim, plain. Shoulder and top 8cm. of pot also decorated with finger-nail impressions. Reddish-brown fabric. PSAN (4) 4 (1931) 70 Tait: AA (4) 46 (1968) 275-61, fig. 3.

Newcastle 1929.29

Old Bewick NU 0721

Under a stone. Small, plain hemispherical bowl.

Piggott: Arch. J. 88 (1931) 143, fig. 7.6. Tait: AA (4) ·46 (1968) 279 BM

Old Yeavering NT 926305

Excavation. Bowl shaped pit possibly associated with cremation. Large body sherd from shoulder of carinated bowl. Brown fabric, burnished. Grimston ware. Hope-Taylor (1977) 345, nos. 29 & 30, fig. 119

' Ritual'

p it c lose t o N E c orner o f b uilding C l

-

L ayer A

( 1 )

R im s herd d ecorated w ith h orizontal a pplied c ordons w ith s tab o r f inger-nail i mpressions. 1 21.1.

B rown f abric,

o uter s urface b lackened,

f ig.

( 2)

R ims a nd b ody s herds, d ecorated w ith g rooved a nd i mpressed l ines. b elow r im made a fter f iring. B rown f abric f ig. 1 21.2

( 3)

B ody s herd w ith r aised h orizontal b ands.

( 4)

B ase s herd w ith r aised c ordons.

O range f abric f ig.

B rown f abric.

f ig.

H ole

1 21.3

1 21.4

L ayer C ( 5)

R im s herd, d ecorated w ith c ordons, t hose o n o uter f ace w ith o val i mpressions. B rown f abric. f ig. 1 21.5

( 6)

L arge b ody s herd, d ecorated w ith h orizontal a nd o blique l ines o f g rooving w ith o val i mpressions. D ark b rown f abric. f ig. 1 21.6

( 7)

L arge r im a nd b ody s herd d ecorated w ith r aised h orizontal b ands. o f i ndentations 5 cm . b elow r im . D ark b rown f abric w ith r ed s lip. f ig. 1 22.

R ow

A ll g rooved w are M anby

( 1974)

W ainwright & L ongworth H ope-Taylor ( 1977)

( 1971)

2 81-2

I n s andy s oil u sed t o l evel a nd h eighten f loor o f B uilding D 2 ( 1)-

( 3) T hree p lain r im s herds. b owl f orms f ig. 1 23. 1 -3

( 4)

P lain i nturned r im s herd

( 5)-

( 7)

R im s lightly e verted;

f ig.

T hree e verted r im s herds,

p robably f rom

1 23.4 p lain,

p robably b owl f orms

f ig.

1 23.

G rimston w are W estern r ing d itch U pper s urface o f p it f illing ( 1)

R im s herd. I nner e dge o f r im d ecorated w ith t wisted c ord i mpressions T op o f r ounded r im d ecorated w ith t wisted c ord a nd f inger-nail i mpressions. f ig. 1 23.8.

( 2)

S mall,

( 3)

R im s herd. f ig .

( 4)

p lain r im s herd

f ig.

1 23.9.

p ossibly G rimston w are

F lattened r im d ecorated w ith t wisted c ord i mpressions

1 23.10

B ody s herd w ith a pplied c ordon H ope-Taylor

f ig.

1 23.11

?G rooved w are

( 1977)

C omments B eaker s herds,

a n e ncrusted u rn,

a c ollared u rn a nd o ther v essels w ith

c remations a lso f rom t he s ite( T able 1 0, n os.

3 95

6 46-666)

5 -7

T hirlings N T 9 56322 E xcavation o f A nglo-Saxon s ettlement N eolithic m aterial.

1 974.

P its a nd p ost-pit p roducing

P it F 366 O ver 4 00 p lain s herds, a m inimum o f 1 2 v essels. M ainly b owl f orms i n a v ariety o f s izes. O ne r im s herd d ecorated w ith o blique f inger-nail i mpressions, w ith c ircular i mpressions b elow . G rimston w are O ther a ssociated m aterial: c harcoal f ragments o f h azel, y ak a nd b irch c harcoal: 5 250- - 1 50bc ( HAR844) M iket(1976)

14-8,

P ost p it n ear F 366 V irtually i dentical g roup o f p ottery, c harcoal: E xcavations

f igs.

7 .7 - 7 .9

o ne s herd j oining a nother f rom F 366

3 280 ± 1 50bc

( HAR 1 8 77)

1 975

P its a nd p ost-pits P it 4 66 C lay l ined c ircular p it.

S ome o f p ottery p ressed i nto p it l ining,

t he r est i n p it f ill. S herds w ith s cored a nd i mpressed t wisted c ord d ecoration. B owls a nd s traight s ided f orms. O ther a ssociated m aterial: b urnt m aterial i ncluding h azel-nut s hells c harcoal:

2 130 ± 1 30bc

( HAR 1451)

M iket

f igs.

( 1976)

7 .10-11

A nother p it 4 m t o S E o f F 466 S imilar p ottery, i ncluding t wisted c ord d ecorated f orms. O ther a ssociated m aterial: s andstone s addle q uern i mmediately w ithin e dge o f p it. M iket ( 1976) f ig. 7 .12. n o. 5 9 C umbria B rougham N Y 5 628 S tray f inds T wo r im s herds

( probably f rom s ame p ot).

D ecorated i nside a nd o n r im w ith

" maggot" i mpressions. G roove b eneath r im p lain. " Maggot" d ecoration o n b ody i n i rregular h orizontal r ows. T empering o f v olcanic t uff. F ell:

C W

( 2)

7 2

( 1972)

3 6-43,

f ig .

2 .1-2 C arlisle

E henside T arn

N Y 0 08071

E xcavation N orth s ide o f l ake b ed, n ear a h earth ( 1) L arge r ound b ottomed v essel, a pprox . 3 8cm h igh. D ecoration o f i mpressed c ircles, s ometimes j oined i nto 8 s haped f igure, o n b ody a nd t op a nd o utside o f r im . P lain g roove b elow r im . F ragments o f c hert o r q uartz i n c lay ( 2)

F ragments o f a nother w ith s imilar d ecoration D arbishire:

A rch.

P iggott: A rch. F ell:

C W ( 2)

J . 7 2

4 4

( 1873) • 2 73-292

8 8

( 1931)

( 1972) 3 96

9 6,

1 43,

f ig.

2 2

3 6-43 B M & C arlisle

S E c orner o f t arn ( 1) ( 2)

L arge r im f ragment o f p lain o pen b owl R im f ragment o f c arinated b owl

( 3)-(4)

R im f ragments o f b owls

( 5)

O ther f ragments o f s houldered,

( 6)

F ragments o f l arge, v ery c oarse p ot w ith l arge a ngular g rits.

r ound b ottom b owls

( 1)-(5) G rimston w are ( 6) ? B M & C arlisle O ther a ssociated m aterial:

G roup V I a xes a nd w ooden a rtifacts

r /c d ates

3 014

3 00 b c

( C - 4 62)

2 101

± 15 b c ) ) ( Q - 3 03) 2 175 ± 15 b c ) 1 580 ± 1 50 b c

P iggott: F ell: W alney I sland,

T rough H ead

( BM - 6 8)

A rch. J . 8 8 ( 1931) 9 6, C W ( 2) 7 2 ( 1972) 3 6-43

1 43,

f ig.

7 .

1 -4

S D 2 00635

S tray f ind. S andhills S mall, p lain r im f ragment

p ossibly G rimston w are

B arnes:

C W ( 2)

7 0

( 1970)

18,

f ig.

2 .5

S mall b ody s herd w ith " maggot" i mpressions. C ross: W alney I sland,

N orth E nd,

C W ( 2)

5 0

( 1950)

1 5-19,

f ig.

1 .3

S ite V I

S tray f inds. ( 1) R im a nd b ody f ragment.

N arrow r ounded r im .

D eeply i ncised d ecoration;

v ertical s tabs b elow r im w ith t hree h orizontal l ines b eneath a nd r egularly s paced s loping l ines b elow . R eddish b rown f abric, b lack c ore. ( 2)

R im s herds w ith i nternal b evel. D ecorated w ith d eeply i ncised h orizontal z ig z ag l ines w ith h orizontal l ine b elow .

( 3)

F ragment o f f lat b ase,

( 4)

R im a nd b ody s herd o f b elow r ounded r im . i ncised c hevrons.

p ossibly o f

( 2)

l arge b ucket-shaped p ot.

T wo i nternalmouldings

D ecorated w ith o ver-all p attern o f s hallowly G rooved w are.

B arnes:

C W ( 2)

5 5

( 1956)

W ainwright & L ongworth M anby ( 1974)

3 97

1 -16,

( 1971)

f ig.

2 79

6 .21-22,

f ig .

7 .23

C ATALOGUE

1 5

N eolithic b urials L ong m ounds:

e xcavated

C rosby G arrett C CXXVIII, R aiset P ike

N Y 6 84072

T rapezoidal s tone m ound 1 79ft l ong ( 54m ), m ax . h eight ( 3.27m ), a ligned N W - S E

6 2ft w ide

( 49m )

a nd

1 0ft 8 ins.

E xcavation S E e nd: b odies

B urnt b urial d eposit i n c entre o f m ound, ( 3 a dults a nd 3 -4 y ounger p ersons),

c omprising 6 -7 d isarticulated

c overed w ith s tones a nd t imbers,

b etween t wo r ows o f v ertical " flues". S tanding s tone a t N W e nd o f d eposit a nd c ircular p it w ith c harcoal a t S E e nd. F urther t o S E a n a rea o f b urnt m aterial a nd a t rench w ith b urnt e arth,

s tones a nd c harcoal.

N W e nd: s econd s tanding s tone t o N W o f w hich w ere f ound m any u nburnt b ones, m ainly o f c hildren, a t v arious l evels t hroughout t he m ound, i ncluding o n o riginal g round s urface. S E e nd.

N W e nd o f m ound c onstructed o f l arger s tones t han

N o d ating e vidence. B B 5 10-13 R CHM W estmorland

( 1936)78,

C rosby G arrett

1 0

A shbee ( 1970) 1 72 M anby ( 1970) 2 3 S kelmore H eads

S D 2 7437544

S tone m ound 6 0ft l ong E - W . N o k erb.

( 18m )

a nd 3 5ft w ide

( 10m ) w ith r ounded e nds,

a ligned

E xcavation S tones o f m ound l aid o n o ld t urf l ine. T wo u pright s tones c 5 1 t o 6 ft h igh ( 1.6-1.8m ) n ear E . e nd o f c airn w ith d isturbed a rea b etween c 8 ft l ong b y 5 ft w ide ( 2.4 x 1 .5m ). " Stumps" o f t wo o ther u prights n ear W e nd o f c airn, i n s hallow s ockets. L ine o f 4 u prights d iffers s lightly f rom a pparent a xis o f c airn. No b urial d eposits. O ther c omments B one a nd p ottery s aid t o h ave b een f ound w hen d igging i n t he m ound i n t he 1 930s. N o d ating e vidence. P owell: C W ( 2) 6 3 M anby ( 1970) 2 2 B ellshiel L aw,

R edesdale

( 1963)

1 -30

N T 8 13014

T rapezoidal s tone m ound 3 67ft l ong ( 112m ), 2 9ft w ide a t W e nd ( 9m ) 6 0ft a t E e nd ( 18m ) 4 ft ( 1.2m ) m ax. h eight a ligned E - W . S tones r emoved f rom E e nd f or r oad m aking. S heep f old o n S . s ide. E xcavation C entre o f m ound c omprised o f l oose s tones, b edded i n p eat. K erb, l ocated a t E e nd, d eviated a round " grave" l ike f eature, 6 ft l ong, 3 1ft w ide a nd 2 ft d eep ( 1.8 x o .6m ) i n n atural f issure. o f h eavy b lack s oil a nd c airn r ubble.

W orked f lint i n

' grave'

f ill

N o b urial d eposits. O ther c omments " Iron s pearhead" s aid t o h ave b een f ound " on t he g round" a t t he b ottom o f t he l oose s tones w hen s tone w as r emoved c 1 912 f rom E e nd, ( ? m odern a rtifact). N o d ating e vidence.

R abbit h oles w ith s nares n oted e lsewhere i n m ound. 3 98

B rewis & H oneyman: P SAN ( 4) C raw : H BNC 2 8 ( 1932-34) 8 0 N ewbigin: A A ( 4) 1 3 M anby: ( 1970) 2 3 A shbee: ( 1970) 1 72 N CH 1 5 ( 1940) 5 8 H arlow H ill

( 1936)

5 ( 1933)

3 57-8

2 93-309

N Z 0 768

M ound 1 80ft l ong ( 55m ) 1 2ft w ide ( 3.6m ) a nd 6 ft h igh t he i nside f ull o f b ones h ighly d ecayed" N o d ating e vidence,

( I.8m )

" whole o f

? P rehistoric T ait- A A ( 4)

4 6

( 1968)

2 80

M allerstang S D 7 798 M ound o f a rtificial c onstruction,

b ut n o e vidence o f b urials

?P illow m ound N o d ating e vidence.

?P rehistoric G reenwell: C W ( 1) 1 ( 1874) 2 5-6 R CHM W estmorland ( 1936) 1 65, M allerstang

O ther l ong m ounds: " Devil's L apful",

1 9

n ot e xcavated n ear K ielder N Y 6 42928

M ound 2 00ft l ong ( 6Im ), 4 0ft w ide ( 12m ), 4 -5ft h igh ( 1.2-1.5m ) a ligned N NE - S SW . S mall c lose f itting s tones a long s ides; c entre c omposed o f l arge l oose b oulders. T races o f k erb a long E e dge. N CH 1 5 ( 1940) 5 8 N ewbigin: P SAN ( 4) A shbee ( 1970) 1 72 M anby ( 1970) 2 3 T he C urrick,

n r.

S kelton P ike,

T rapezoidal m ound 1 35ft l ong a t b roader e nd, s ides r obbed

B ewcastle

( 41m ),

H odgson:

6 0ft w ide

C W ( 2)

M ound 3 00ft

4 3

l ong

( 91m )

a nd

K irkby L onsdale

M ound 8 I.3ft w ider S .

1 0ft h igh

l ong

e nd.

N Y

( 1943) 1

1 0ft h igh ( 3m )

1 68-70,

( 1854)

f ig.

k erb

1

2 33

( 3m )

( 24.8m ),

( 1940)

15

S D 4 82802 3 8.7ft w ide

( 11.8m )

a nd 4 .5ft h igh

( 1.36m )

a t

A ligned N - S . F ell : C W

M iterdale

( 18m )

N Y 5 37243

S pence: C W ( 2) 4 0 M anby ( 1970) 2 3 H avebrack,

1 66-7

N Y 5 38827

M aughan: A rch. J . M anby ( 1970) 2 2 L owther p arish

7 ( 1937)

( 2)

7 1

( 1971)

3

1 301

M ound 7 2ft l ong

( 22m )

o f l arge b oulders"

3 6ft w ide

( 11m ) 3 99

a nd

1 0ft h igh

( 3m )

" Carefully b uilt

S pence: M anby D our H ill,

B yrness

L ong m ound,

C W ( 2)

( 1979)

4 6

( 1946)

2 92

2 2

N T 7 94021

o r t hree r ound c airns? C raw : H BNC 2 8 ( 1932-34) 8 0 B rewis & H oneyman: P SAN ( 4) 6 ( 1935) J obey: A A ( 5) 5 ( 1977) 2 04-7

C ow G reen,

C rosby,

R avensworth

1 8,

4 0-1

N Y 6 111

T rapezoidal m ound 8 7ft l ong ( 26m ) a t W e nd ( 7.6m ). A ligned E - W .

4 9ft w ide a t E e nd

( 15m ),

2 5ft w ide

Manby ( 1970) 2 3 A shbee ( 1970) 1 72 R CHM W estomorland E nnerdale,

S amson's B ratful

M ound 9 0ft l ong

( 27.4m ),

( 1936)

8 9,

C rosby R avensworth 4 6

N Y 0 98080

a ligned E - W . C W ( 1) 3 ( 1878) 2 49 A shbee ( 1970) 1 72 M anby ( 1970 ) 2 2

I reshopeburn

N Y 8 638 C lack & G osling

E lsdon, M onkridge

( 1976)

1 6

N Y 9 191 C lack & G osling ( 1976) N CH 1 5 ( 1940) 5 8 M anby ( 1970) 2 3

S pithope H ead

N T 7 603 C lack & G osling ( 1976) N CH 1 5 ( 1940) 3 8

T horneyburn w ith G reystead

N Y 7 685

C lack & G osling ( 1976) N CH 1 5 ( 1940) 5 8 N ewton R eigny

1 6

1 6

N Y 4 830

T wo m ounds O rdnance S urvey s heet 8 3, M anby O val m ound;

( 1970)

1i nch t o

1m ile

( 7th s er.

2 2

e xcavated

C rosby G arrett C LXXIV S tone o val m ound 6 6ft

N Y 7 309 l ong

.

( 20m )

4 0ft w ide

( 12m )

a nd

1 .6ft h igh

( 0.5m ),

a ligned N - S . E xcavation ( 1)

B urials o n n atural

s urface b elow m ound:-

C rouched i nhumationaged a dult m ale, S ide-looped b one p in a nd 2 b oar's

( 2)

Y oung a dult m ale c 2 0 y ears, D isturbed.

h ead t o S W ,

o n l eft s ide.

t usks.

h ead t o N E, 4 00

o n r ight s ide.

r evised)

( 3)

Y oung a dult m ale 2 0-24 y ears, h ead t o N , o n r ight s ide. A ntler m acehead, f lint k nife, f lint b lade a nd p yrites " strike-a-light" f ox j aw .

O ther b urial d eposits n ear ( 1), s cattered r emains o f 2 a dults & 1 c hild. I n v arious p arts o f t he c airn; b urnt b ones o f a n a dult a nd 2 c hildren a nd o ther u nburnt h uman b ones. P ossible t otal o f m ore t han

1 2 i ndividuals.

A lso i n c airn m aterial; b one p in, b ones & t eeth o f o x, r ed-deer a nd s mall h orse, 3 s herds o f p ottery " of t he o rdinary d escription" ( now l ost) a nd f rag . o f g reenstone a xe. D ating e vidence:

g rave g oods,

l ate N eolithic

B B 3 89-90, f ig 1 54. R CHM W estmorland ( 1936) K innes ( 1979) 1 8, f ig. R ound b arrows: B roomhill,

7 8,

C rosby G arrett 9

e xcavated

F ord

C LXXXVIII

S tone a nd e ar thmound

N T 9 77371

1 6ft d iam .

( 4.8m )

3 ft h ign

( 1 )

E xcavation F ound i n p atches o n n atural s urface, b urnt e arth, c alcined b ones a nd c harcoal, a nd u nburnt s herds, f lint c hippings, l eaf a rrowhead a nd f rag . o f f lint a xe. D ating e vidence: S herds o f 2 0 p ots, m ostly c arinated b owls o f G rimstonL yles H ill s eries. G reenwell: H BNC 4 ( 1856-62) B B ( 1877) 4 10, f ig. 1 57 N ewbigin ( 1935) M anby ( 1970) 2 4

3 90-4

G reen ( 1977) N o. 4 7 K innes ( 1979) 1 0 W arden L aw

N Z 3 71502

S tone a nd e arth m ound 3 3ft d iam . E xcavation

( 10m )

a nd 3 ft h igh

( 1m )

T wo d isturbed i nhumations n ear c entre o f m ound,

i n o ld g round s urface:( 1) c hild, n o m ore t han 6 y ears ( 2) y oung a dult 1 8-25 y ears S E s ide o f b arrow o n o ld g round s urface,

f lint c ores,

c hipping sand f rag .

o f g reens t one a xe H oard o f f lint i mplements 2 2cm b elow s urface o f b arrow;

2 l eaf a rrowheads,

k nife, e nd s craper a nd 2 f lakes I n b ody o f m ound: f lakes & c ores o f f lint a nd s ingle f rag. p ottery " of t he u sual t ype" ( now l ost) D ating e vidence:

o f u ndecorated

d omestic d ebris a nd f lint h oard T rechmann: K innes

H asting H ill

o ne i n h ole

A A ( 3)

( 1979)

1

( 1914)

1 62-7

2 2

N Z 3 52544

E xcavation F ragments o f t wo N eolithic v essels i n m ound m aterial. R emains o f a t l east 1 0 d isturbed i nhumations i n v arious p arts o f m ound, c ould h ave b een a ssociated. D ating e vidence:

P eterborough w are? 4 01

T rechmann: P SAN ( 3) 5 ( 1913) 1 39-40 T rechmann: A A ( 3) 1 ( 1914) 1 35-156 Manby: A A ( 5) 1 ( 1973) 2 19-22 C opt H ill, H oughton-le-Spring D iam .

6 6ft

( 20m ),

N Z 3 53492

7 ft 9 ins h igh

( 2.36m )

E xcavation S lightly t o s outh o f c entre o f m ound, r ectangular a rea 3 4ft b y 6 ft ( 10.3 x 1 .8m ) a ligned E - W , s et a round w ith b oulders e nclosing a b urnt d eposit o f s everal d isarticulated a nd i ncomplete b urials, w ith w ood a nd l imestone s tacked o ver t hem . ' Flue' a t e ither e nd 3 ft x l ift x 1“t d eep ( 1 x 0 .5 x 0 .5m ), l ined w ith b oulders a nd c ontaining c harcoal a nd b urnt e arth. B urning m ore e xtreme a t E e nd o f d eposit. D ark d eposit w ith b urnt b ones e xtended 6 ft ( 1.8m ) t o w est o f t he w estern ' flue'. T wo o ther b urials c ould b e o f N eolithic d ate:( 1)

c remation w ith f lints

s cattered o ver a n a rea c 2 4ft

( 2)

d isturbed i nhumation,

u pper p art o f b ody o nly, w ith f lint s craper

( 0.76m )

i n d iameter

N o d ating e vidence. T rechmann: A A ( 3) Manby ( 1970) 2 4 K innes C rosby G arrett C LXXIII, S tone m ound 3 6ft d iam .

( 1979)

( 1914)

1 23-30

1 0

B ents H ill ( 11m )

1

N Y 7 07068

a nd 4 ft h igh

( 1.2m )

E xcavation B roken a nd d isjointed r emains o f am inimum o f n ine a dults a nd t wo c hildren s cattered b eneath a pparently u ndisturbed c airn o f r egularly l aid l imestone f lags. N o c omplete i nhumation; s maller b ones, s uch a s t hose o f h ands a nd f eet, n otably a bsent. S ome a nimal b ones a lso i n m ound. N o d ating e vidence. B B 3 87-8 R HCM W estmorland, K innes ( 1979) 2 1

C rosby G arrett 9 ,

p .

7 8

R ound m ounds w ithout b urial d eposits C hatton S andyford

C airn E

N U

1 026

E arth m ound t opped w ith s tones

1 2ft d iam .

( 3.6m ),

2 ft h igh

( 0.6m ).

E xcavation S ub-rectangular p it, o riented N - S , 5 ft x 3 ft x 1 ? .ft d eep ( 1.5 x 1 x 0 .5m ) w ith c entral s lot l Ift x 7 ins x 8 ins d eep ( 38 x 1 8 x 2 0 c m ) d ug i nto n atural s urface a nd c overed b y m ound. A rea r eddened b y b urning a nd c harcoal, o n W s ide o f p it. D ating e vidence:

c harcoal f rom b urnt a rea J obey:

B amborough C XCIV

N U

C airn 6 2ft d iam ( 19m )

A A ( 4)

4 6

( 1968)

2 890 ± 9 0 b c 3 9,

f ig.

( Gak - 1 507)

1 0

1 34276 1 0ft h igh

( 3m )

E xcavation P reviously o pened b y M ajor L uard-Selby. R e-examined t o s urface l evel b y G reenwell. I n c entre o f m ound ,hollow ( "grave") e xcavated i n s ub-soil 4ft x 3f x 2 kft d eep ( 1.4 x 1 x 0 .6m ) a ligned N W SE, f illed w ith s tones. I n S E c orner, a n o val h ole s unk l Ift ( 38cm ) b elow b ottom o f " grave",

l ft 8 ins

l ong b y

l imns w ide

( 50cm x 2 8cm )

a nd f illed w ith c lay a nd s tones. B B 4 14

4 02

a lso a ligned N W - S E

S ingle b urials: H artlepool,

n on-monumental.

E xcavated

o n f oreshore i n p eat

N Z 5 232

E xcavation i n 1 972 C rouched i nhumation, p artial s keleton, s ome d is a rticulation. A dult m ale 2 5-38 y ears; s hort, s tocky s tature, t eeth b adly w orn w ith s igns o f g um r ecession . E vidence o f t wo b lows t o t he h ead a nd a r ib f racture, a ll h ealed. A rthritic c ondition i n v ertebrae. D ating e vidence:

O ld Y eavering

b one f rom s keleton T ooley

( 1975)

T ooley

( 1978b)

2 730 1 - 6 0 b c

( Hv.

5 220)

2 9-31 7 3

N T 9 26305

E xcavation B owl-shaped p it f ull o f b lack e arth a nd c remated b one, p robably a ssociated w ith a s imilar p it a djacent t o i t, w ith t hree f ragments o f c remated b one a nd a l arge s herd o f G rimston-Lyles H ill ware c arinated b owl. H ope-Taylor

( 1977)

3 45, n os.

2 9 & 3 0,

f ig.

19

" Ritual" p it, 3 -4ft d iam ( 0.9-1.2m) a nd l ft d eep ( 30cm ) c ontaining s herds o f G rooved w are, f ragments o f c remated b one, c harcoal a nd h azel-nut s hells. H ope-Taylor

( 1977)

3 48-9,

f igs.

1 20-122

" Mortuary e nclosures" M ilfield

N T 9 40337

T rapezoidal, a ligned N - S , c 6 0m l ong a nd 2 0m w ide a t w ider s outhern e nd. T wo p its a t m id-point o f l ength. C ircular e nclosure c 1 0m d iam . w ithin s outhern e nd. M iket E wart

( 1976)

1 28,

7 .111

N t 9 5503180

R ectangular c 5 0m l ong a nd 2 0m w ide a ngles.

p l.

a ligned N - S , w ith s lightly r ounded

C ircular e nclosure c 1 0m d iam . M iket

H asting H ill

( 1976)

1 28,

p l.

w ithin s outhern e nd. 7 .

I I

N Z 3 55541

C ursus c 2 00m l ong a nd 3 0m w ide a nd i nterrupted d itch s ystem ( ? c amp) N ewman: A A ( 5) 4 ( 1976) 1 83-4, D . H arding ( 1979) p l. 3 .IV

4 03

p .

I X

c ausewayed

C ATALOGUE 1 6: S TONE C IRCLES C umbria A nnaside S D 0 98853 D iam . c 1 8.3m B url A sh H ouse W ood D iam .

3 0.5m ,

( 1976)

C umb.

1

S D 1 92873

p lain r ing,

s aid t o h ave h ad 2 2 s tones D ymond:

C W(2)2(1902)

C ross & C ollingwood: B url ( 1976) C umb. 2 B lakeley R aise D iam .

( Blakeley M oss)

1 6.6m , p lain r ing,

6 5 C W(2)29(1929)

2 57-8

N Y 0 60140

1 1 s mall

s tones o f g ranite.

P ossible c airn a t c entre.

C W(2)28(1928)410 C lare: C W(2)75(1975) 1 -16 T hom ( 1971) L I/16 B url ( 1976) C umb. 3 T hom & T hom ( 1980) 5 2-3 B rats H ill

( Burnmoor E ast)

N Y 1 73023

D iam . 3 2.0 x 2 5.9m , f lattened c ircle. F ive i nternal c airns, d iams. 1 4-19 f t

( 4.2-5.8m )

e ach w ith d eep h ole i n

c entre. C 1 856 o ne o f c airns s urrounded b y r ectangular e nclosure o f s tones. M ost o f s tones o f c ircle l ocal g ranite, a f ew f rom S cafell r egion , a ll l ow . L ow o utlier 1 0m f rom NW o f r ing. D ymond: J BAA 3 4 ( 1878) 3 5-6 D ymond: C W(1)5(1881) 3 8-57 W illiams: P SA(1)3(1856) 2 25-6 T hom ( 1967) L I/6E, f ig . 6 .5 C lare: C W(2)75(1975)9-11 B url ( 1976) C umb. 4 T hom & T hom ( 1980) 4 0-1 B road F lat NY 4 25445 D iam . C 1 9.2m , ? p lain r ing,

? i nternal c airns. B url

( 1976)

C umb.

5

B roomrigg A NY 5 48466 D iam . 5 0.9 x 5 0.0m , e llipse, o utliers o r a venue? E ight s tones r emaining, l ocal r ed s andstone a nd a f ew o f g ranite. H odgson:

C W(2)35(1935)

H odgson: C W(2)52(1953) B url ( 1976) C umb. 6 B rougham H all D iam .

1 8.3m?,

N Y 5 228 i nternal c airn? P ennant ( 1774) B url ( 1976) C umb.

4 04

7

7 7-9, 1 -8

p lan

C asterton D iam .

S D 6 40799

1 8.0m ,

e mbanked c ircle?

T wenty s tones r emain,

u p t o l ft 7 ins h igh. R CHM W estmorland ( 1936) B url ( 1976) W est. 1

C astlehowe S car D iam .

6 .4m ,

N Y 5 87155

c ircle o r e llipse.

L ow s tones,

a ll

B url

W est.

( 1976)

l ocal g ranite. 2

R CHM W estmorland ( 1936) T hom ( 1967) L 2/11 T hom & T hom ( 1980) C astlerigs ' D j .am . a t N ,

6 6

9 0,

n o.

5 9

5 8-9

N Y 2 92236

3 2.9 x 2 9.9m , f lattened c ircle, i nternal c airn(s).

s light

t races o f b ank.

P ortal s tones

O riginally a bout 4 2 s tones o f l ocal m etamorphic s late, f rom 1 t o 2 .3m i n h eight. A t e ast, i nside t he r ing, r ectangular s etting o f l ow s tones 2 2 x l lft ( 6.7 x 3 .4m ). O utlier 2 96ft ( 90m ) t o S W , 0 .9m h igh. F ain t t races o f c airn 1 3ft d iam . ( 4m ) j ust N E o f c entre. S aid t o h ave b een t hree. E xcavation 1 882 R ectangular s etting t renched, ? p it l ocated a t W e nd, ( 1m ) d eep w ith b lack s oil, s tones a nd p ossibly c harcoal. D ymond: C W(1)5(1881) 3 9-57 D ymond: C W(1)6(1883) 5 05 T hom ( 1966) f ig. 3 9 T hom ( 1967) L 1/1, f ig. 1 2.10 B url ( 1976) C umb. 8 T hom & T hom ( 1980) 2 8-31 C hapel F lat D iam .

N Y 3 750

2 4.4m ? V CH C umberland ( 1906) B url ( 1976) C umb. 9

2 48

D acre p arish ( Little S tainton) N Y 4 93277 ? s epulchral c ircle. S ome o f s tones p artly b uried. C W(1)6(1883) 1 13 .B url ( 1976) C umb.

1 0.

E gremont N X 9 95107 B url E lva P lain N Y 1 76317 D iam . 3 4.4m ? ( 113ft). 1 5 s tones r emain,

( 1976)

O utlier 5 5m t o

C umb.

1 1.

S W .

o f l ocal v olcanic a sh, A nderson: H odgson :

l argest

l m l ong.

C W(2)23(1923) C W(2)63(1963)

T hom ( 1967) B url ( 1976)

L 1/2 C umb.

T hom & T hom

( 1980)

4 05

1 2 3 2-3

2 9-33, p lan 3 01

3 ft

G amelands, O rton N Y 6 40082 D iam . 4 2.1 x 3 5.1m , f lattened c ircle,

t races o f b ank.

S tones o f r eddish g ranite, o ne l imestone b oulder, P ossible e ntrance a t S E.

a ll a vailable l ocally.

S impson : C W(1)6(1883) 1 76-82 F erguson : C W(1)6(1883) 1 83-5 R CHM W estmorland ( 1936) 1 91 T hom ( 1967) L 2/14 ( Orton) B url ( 1976) W est. 3 T hom & T hom ( 1980) 6 4-5 G reti ete A ' Diam .

3 1.7m ,

N Y 0 57036 s tones c lose s et f orming a " wall". S tout: C W(2)61(1961) 1 -8 B url ( 1976) C umb. 1 3a

G rey C roft, D iam .

S eascale

2 7.1 x 2 4.4m ,

N Y 0 34024 f lattened c ircle.

S tones o f l ocal v olcanic l ava a gglomerates & o ne o f s andstone, a ll a bout 1 .3m h igh. 1 820 a ll b ut o ne s tone b uried, 1 0 o f o riginal 1 2 r e-erected i n 1 949. O utlying s tone 2 1m N . C entral c airn 2 2 x 1 5ft

( 6.7 x 4 .6m )

e xcavated

( see B urials c atalogue)

B roken G roup V I a xe f ound b y s tone 4 F letcher : C W(2)57(1958) 1 -8 T hom ( 1967) L 1/10 ( Seascale) B url ( 1976) C umb. 1 4 T hom & T hom ( 1980) 4 6-7 G rey Y auds N Y 5 44486 D iam . 4 7.6m ? O utlier. 8 0-90 s tones, 4 -5ft h igh . H all: C W(1)6(1883)467 G raham : C W(2)7(1907) 6 7-71 S pence: C W(2)35(1935) 1 71 B url ( 1976) C umb. 1 5 G unnerkeld N Y 5 68178 T Diam . 3 2.0 x 2 9.0m , c oncentric r ings O uter r ing h as 2 t allest s tones a t N a nd a nother a t

S ;

i nner r ing 1 4.6m

( 50ft) h as s maller s tones. I nternal c airn. A ll s tones o f l ocal m etamorphic r ock o r g ranite. -D ymond:

C W(1)4(1880) 5 37-40 R CHM W estmorland ( 1936) 2 11 T hom ( 1967) L 2/10 B url ( 1976) W est. 4 C lare: C W(2)75(1975) 4 -6 T hom & T hom ( 1980) 5 6-7

H all F oss D iam . E ight

S D 1 12857

2 2.9m? s tones CW(1)1(1874) 2 78 B url ( 1976) C umb. 4 06

1 6

H erd W ood N Y 4 106 D iam . 1 9.8m ? D ouble c oncentric c ircle.

I nternal c airns? C W(2)34(1934) B url

( 1976)

9 2

W est.

5

K emp H ouse, S hap N Y 5 67133 D iam . c 2 4.4m , p lain r ing. S tone a venue. 6 s tones r emain,

8 -9ft l ong,

o f g ranite. S tukeley: I ter. C ur. I I ( 1776) R CHM W estmorland ( 1936) 2 06 B url ( 1976) W est. 7

K eswick

4 2

N Y 2 723 S tukeley: I ter. C ur. I I ( 1776) W ard: C W(1)1(1874) 2 17-8

K irkstones S D 1 06843 T wo c oncentric c ircles? 3 0 s tones. C W(1)1(1874) B url K opstone D iam .

( 1976)

2 78 C umb.

1 7

NY 4 96216

2 3.2m ,

e mbanked c ircle,

c oncentric r ings? B url

( 1976)

W est.

8

L acra A S D 1 50814 1 5.2m , p lain r ing. 6 s tones r emain, B orrowdale v olcanic a sh.

,D iam .

L acra C S D 1 50810 D iam . 2 1.3m?, p lain r ing. C W1)1(1874)278-81 C W(2)48(1948) 1 -22 B url ( 1976) C umb. 1 8 & 2 0 T hom & T hom ( 1980) 4 8-9, L 1/12 L amplugh N Y 0 65177 D iam . 3 0.5m?, p lain r ing? V CH C umberland

L e W heles

( 1906)

B url

( 1976)

C umb.

2 5

B url

( 1976)

C umb.

2 2

2 48

N X 9 89180

L ong M eg a nd H er D aughters NY 5 71373 D iam . 1 09.4 x 9 3.0m , f lattened c ircle,

t races o f b ank o n S W .

T wo p ortal s tones a t S W . 7 0 s tones r emain o f l ocal p orphyritic s tone, o f c ircumference. O utlier ( Long M eg)

2 5m t o S W ,

t wo m assive b locks a t E & W

o f r ed s andstone.

a nd s piral c arvings. T wo i nternal c airns p reviously? 4 07

S E f ace o f s tone h as r ing

L ong M eg a nd h er D aughters

( Continued) S tukeley : I ter.Cur. I I C lare: C W(2)75(1975)7

( 1776)

4 7

D ymond: C W(1)5(1881)39-54 T hom ( 1967) L 1/7, f ig. 1 2.11 B url ( 1976) C umb. 2 3 T hom & T hom ( 1980) 4 2-3 L ow L ongrigg D iam .

N E

( Burnmoor A )

2 1.6 x 1 5.2m ,

E xcavation 1 974,

e llipse.

N Y 1 72028 T wo i nternal c airns.

o ne o f c airns,

c onfirmed a s

' non-sepulchral'.

D ymond: C W(1)5(1881)55 T hom ( 1967) L 1/6A B url ( 1976) 9 7, C umb. 2 4a T hom & T hom ( 1980) L ow L ongrigg S W ( Burnmoor B ) D iam . 1 5.2m , i nternal c airn.

3 6-7

N Y 1 72027 Dymond: C W(1)5(1881)55 T hom ( 1967) L 1/6B T hom & T hom ( 1980)

Mayburgh NY 5 23284 S tanding s tones w ithin h enge,

3 6-7

s ee H enge c atalogue f or d etails. B url

( 1976)

W est.

9

M otherby N Y 4 19282 D iam . 1 5.2m?, p lain r ing? VCH C umberland

B url

( 1976)

( 1906)

C umb.

2 48

2 6

O ddendale N Y 5 93129 D iam . 2 6.2m , c oncentric r ings. I nternal c airns. S tones o f l ocal l imestone. O uter r ing c losely s et s tones, t allest a t E , i nner r ing e ncloses m ound w hich w as d ug i nto p rior t o 1 879, p roducing s ome c harcoal a nd b urnt e arth. J BAA 3 5 ( 1879) 3 69 S impson : C W(1)6(1882)176-82 R CHM W estmorland ( 1936) 9 0 n o.55 B url ( 1976) W est. 1 5 T hom ( 1967) L 2/13 T hom & T hom ( 1980) 6 2-3 P otter F ell, n r. K endal S D 5 388? D iam . 2 8ft ( 8.5m ). 2 0 s tones r emain w ith 3 j ust o utside c ircle. P lint: R awthey B ridge

C W(2)60(1960)

S D 7 197? C W(2)26(1926)5 B url ( 1976) W est.

4 08

1 6

2 01

S tudfold, D ean M oor

N Y 0 40224

D iam . 3 5.1 x 2 8.4m , c ircle, p lain r ing? 8 s tones r emain a nd p arts o f o thers.

I nternal c airn 2 2ft d iam .

( 6.7m ).

C W(2)23(1923) 3 4-5, 2 57 C W(2)25(1925) 2 68-9 T hom ( 1967) L 1/14 ( Dean M oor) B url

( 1976)

C umb.

2 7

T hom & T hom ( 1980) S warth F ell D iam .

5 0-1

N Y 4 57192

1 7.4m, p lain r ing.

6 5 s tones,

e ach 3 -4ft h igh;

a ll e xcept o ne,

f allen.

C W(2)21(1921)

2 73

R CHM W estmorland ( 1936) B url ( 1976) W est. 1 7

4 0

S winside ( Sunkenkirk) S D 1 72883 D iam . 2 8.7m, e ntrance t o S E w ith 2 e xtra s tones o utside c ircumference. 5 5 s tones r emain a lmost t ouching, T allest s tone a t N , 2 .3m h igh.

a ll o f l ocal p orphyritic s late.

D ymond: D ymond:

C W(1)5(1881) C W(2)2(1902)

3 9-57 5 3-76, p lan

B url ( 1976) C umb. 2 8 T hom ( 1967) L1 /3 T hom & T hom ( 1980) 3 4-5 U llock N y 0 724 C ircle o f b oulders",

d estroyed c 1 867 D ickinson : C W(1)3(1878) 3 45 C ollingwood: C W(2)23(1923)258

W hite H ag

N Y 6 07114

P lain r ing? 1 1 g ranite b oulders, a ll f allen. R CHM W estmorland ( 1936) B url ( 1976) W est. 1 8 W hite M oss N E ( Burnmoor D ) N Y 1 72024 D iam . 1 5.9m . S tones o f l ocal g ranite.

I nternal c airn.

W hite M oss S W ( Burnmoor C ) N Y 1 72023 D iam . 1 6:6m . S tones o f l ocal g ranite.

I nternal c airn.

8 9

D ymond: C W(1)5(1881) T hom ( 1967) L 1/6D & L 1/6C T hom & T hom ( 1980) 3 8-9 W ilson S car

N Y 5 49182

D iam . 1 8.3m , p lain r ing? 3 5 s tones, t allest o nly 1 2ft h igh;

B orrowdale e rratics

S pence: C W(2)35(1935) 6 9, p lan R CHM W estmorland ( 1936) 2 11 B url

( 1976)

4 09

W est.

1 9

N orth-east B iddlestone

N T 9 54074 B url

T Doddington M oor D iam .

( 1976)

N orth .

1

N U 0 12317

1 2.2m , p lain r ing.

4 s tones r emain c 4 -7ft l ong. N CH 1 4 ( 1935) 6 5 B url ( 1976) N orth.

3

E gglestone N Y 9 82252 E mbanked c ircle? I nternal c airn? B url

( 1976) D urham 1

H utchinson : ( 1794) E lsdon

H ist.

o f C o.Durham I II

2 77

N T 7 006

8 -9 s tones r emaining,

4 -6ft

( 1.2-1.8m )

l ong .

N CH 1 5

( 1940)

6 0

B url & J ones: A A ( 4)50(1972) B url ( 1976) N orth. 6

1 -14

H ethpool N T 8 92278 D iam . 6 1.0 x 4 2.7m, r oughly h orseshoe s haped. 8 s tones r emaining,

5

t o 6 4ft h igh

( 1.6-1.9m ).

O utlying s tones?

N CH 1 4 ( 1935) 6 5 H oneyman : P SAN ( 4)6(1935) B url ( 1976) N orth . 8

1 16-7,

I lderton, T hreestone B urn N T 9 71205 D iam . 3 6.0 x 2 9.3m , f lattened c ircle, p lain r ing. 5 s tones r emain, l ocal g ranite, h ighest s tones a t N 1 .7m h igh, 5 3cm . N o f inds w hen d igging r ound

t he s tones. T ate:

N unwick P ark 5 s tones,

H BNC 4 ( 1 856-62)

N CH 1 4 ( 1935) 6 5 T hom ( 1967) L 3/4 B url ( 1976) N orth.

9

T hom & T hom ( 1980)

6 8-9

N CH 1 5 ( 1940) 6 0 B url ( 1976) N orth.

1 0

N Y 8 85741

2 .4m h igh

A A R idley C ommon

( 3)

1 3(1916)

1 4

N Y 7 78698

P lain r ing? B url

( 1976) N orth.

4 10

1 1

4 50-2

p lan

s mallest

S imonburn N Y 8 02712 D iam . 9 .0m . B url Y eavering B ell D iam .

1 2.2m ?

( 1976) N orth.

1 2

N T 9 18270 p lain r ing?

l ow s tones,

t allest

1 .2m h igh .

N CH 1 4 ( 1935) 6 5 B url ( 1976) N orth .

1 4

C ATALOGUE 1 7 S ites l isted b y B url o r T hom w hich a re n ot i ncluded u nder t he c ategory o f ' Stone C ircles' ( see _ Part 1 ). L acra B a nd D G retigate B a nd C B leaberry H aws B irkrigg, D ruid's T emple D uddo F our S tones G oatstones I ron H ill T he K irk M oor D ivock, C ockpit M oor D ivock ( Burl 1 976, W estmorland 1 0-14) C artington T he B eacon, L ancs. L ittle M eg G lassonby

4 11

C ATALOGUE 1 8 H enges C umbria K ing A rthur's R ound T able

N Y 5 23284

C lass I I h enge. D itch a nd o uter b ank, e ntrances t o N NW a nd S SE E xternal d iameter c 3 65ft b y 3 15ft ( 111 x 9 6m ). I nternal d iameter c 1 72ft x 1 45ft ( 52 3 7 4 4m ). M aximum w idth o f d itch 4 5ft ( 14m) d epth c 5 ft ( 1.5m ): g reatest h eight o f b ank c 7 ft ( 2m ), w idth o f b ank 3 3ft ( 10m ). E arly r ecords T wo s tanding s tones, o ne o n e ither s ide o f n orthern e ntrance. J ohn A ubrey's c opy o f s ketch b y D ugdale c 1 664 - 1 665 ( reproduced i n B ersu P lan b y P ennant

1 769,

1 940,

p l.E.2.)

p l.

B ank s lopes i nwards w ith " a v ery g radual d eclivity". O utside o f b ank s teep, o riginally h igh b ut r educed i n m any p arts b y r obbing f or r oad c onstruction. S tukeley

1 776,

4 3,

p l.

4 8

N e ntrance d estroyed a bout e nd o f 1 8th c entury m aking Y anworth r oad. P art o f e ast s ide r emoved m aking C lifton r oad. E arly 1 9th c entury, d itch d eepened b y o wner o f t he " Crown". D ymond 1 981, 2 00 E xcavations

1 937 & 1 939

B ank c onstructed o f c ore o f t urves p iles o n o ld g round , s urface, w ith b oulder c lay a t f ront a nd g ravel a t t he b ack. B ank n owhere p reserved i n o riginal s tate. B erm b etween b ank a nd d itch m odern. D itch p robably f lat b ottomed, r e-dug i n m odern t imes. N o i nternal s tructures o r p ostholes ( "Postholes" a nd o ther f eatures r ecorded i n

1 937 e xcavation p roved t o b e a nimal b urrows o r n atural g eological

f eatures) " Cremation t rench" 8 ft 3 in b y 3 ft s ome c harcoal a nd a f ew f ragments e vidence o f d ate. O pened u p w hen a rea . P ossibly a ssociated w ith a

b y 1 0 i ns d eep ( 2.5 x 1 x 0 .25m ) c ontaining o f b urnt b one w ithin e nclosed a rea. N o m odern t ipping t ook p lace i n c entral c airn?

S tukeley: I ter. C ur. I I ( 1776) 4 3, D ymond: C W ( 1) 1 ( 1891) 2 00, p lan R CHM W estmorland

( 1936)

C lark: P PS 2 ( 1936) C ollingwood: C W ( 2) B ersu: C lare: L ittle R ound T able C lass

4 9 3 8

p l.

4 8

2 52-3 ( 1938)

C W ( 2) 4 0 ( 1940) C BA G roup 3 N ews

1 -31

1 69-206 ( 2) 6 ( 1978)

1 0-11

N Y 5 23284

Ih enge

P enannular d itch w ith s ingle e ntrance t o N . D iameter c 2 00ft

P ossible e xternal b ank.

( 61m ).

E arly r ecords N o d itch s hown B ank s mall,

d itch o utermost.

P ennant

1 769,

C ircle 3 00ft i n d iameter S tukeley 1 776, 4 3,

p l.

4 8.

L ow c ircular r idge m ainly c omposed o f g ravel, 6 -9 i ns h igh a nd 3 t o 5 ft w ide a t b ase. D iameter o f c ircle 6 0-60 y ards. A tkinson 1 882, 4 44-5. 4 12

O bliterated c 1 878 w hen w idening t he a pproaches o f L owther P ark. D ymond E xcavation

1 939

t o t he n ew l odge g ates 1 891,

1 87

3 t renches

A lmost V -shaped d itch 3 m w ide 2 4m r adius ( 48m d iam .) ( 158ft e ncountered a c auseway o n t he C ould h ave b een a b ank o n t he

a nd 1 .3m d eep ( 10 x 4 ft) o f a c ircle p ossibly d iam .) O ne s ection w ithout d itch p ossibly N E s ide o f t he c ircle. o utside o f t he d itch. B ersu

1 940,

2 02-5

S tukeley: I ter. C ur. I I ( 1776) 4 3, P ennant ( 1769) A tkinson: C W ( 1) 6 ( 1882) 4 44-5 D ymond: C W ( 1) 1 ( 1891) 1 87-8 R CHM W estmorland ( 1936) 2 53 B ersu: M ayburgh

C W ( 2)

4 0

( 1940)

p l.

4 8

2 02-5

N Y 5 19285

C lass I h enge S ingle p enannular b ank o f s mall s tones w ith s ingle e ntrance t o t he e ast. N o d itch. D iameter o f e nclosed a rea 2 87ft ( 87m ). A verage h eight o f b ank c 1 4ft ( 4m ), a verage w idth c 1 20ft ( 36m ). S ingle s tanding s tone o f v olcanic as h w ithin e nclosed a rea, c- 9 ft h igh ( 3m ). E arly r ecords O ne s tanding s tone m arked a nd p ositions o f t hree o thers w ithin c entral a rea, a nd t wo o n e ither s ide o f e ntrance a t e nds o f b ank.

T rees g rowing o ver

b ank. P ennant

1 769, p l.

T wo c ircles o f h uge s tones, s aid t o h ave b een s ituated w ithin t he c entral a rea, t he i nner c ircle 5 0ft i n d iameter, u ntil b roken u p b y g unpowder. " One s tone s tands...another l ies a long...One s tone a t l east o f t he o uter c ircle r emains, b y t he e dge o f t he c orn; a nd s ome m ore l ie a t t he e ntrance w ithin s ide, o ften w ithout, a nd f ragments a ll a bout" T rees g rowing i n b ank, c entral a rea p loughed S tukeley

1 776,

4 4

F ence w alls e rected o n t op o f b ank, s till v isible i n p laces. S hallow g ap o n s outh-west s ide p robably c ut i n m odern t imes f or c art t rack i nto t he e nclosure. D ymond

1 891

C hance f inds - " brass c elt" d ug u p i n p loughing ( now l ost) S tukeley 1 776, 4 4 - p ortion o f b roken u nfinished s tone c elt f ound a t e ntrance u nder t he t urf ( now l ost) D ymond 1 891, 1 97

S tukeley: I ter. C ur. I I ( 1776) P ennant ( 1769) A tkinson: C W ( 1) 6 ( 1882) 4 51 D ymond:

C W

( 1)

1

( 1891)

R CHM W estmorland ( 1936) C lark: P PS 2 ( 1936) 4 4, 4 13

1 91-6, 2 53 f ig.

2 4

4 4

p lan

N orth-east C oupland C lass

N T 9 4083310

I I

E ntrances t o N W a nd S E. D itch c 6 .1m w ide, b ank

D iam . c 6 9m b y 5 0m . 1 0.6m w ide.

P air o f l arge p its i mmediately t o t he e ast o f t he n orthern e ntrance. P air o f p arallel d itches p asses a cross t he s ite t hrough b oth e ntrances, e xtending f or c 2 00m t o t he n orth, a nd o ver l km t o t he s outh, t erminating o n t he W s ide o f t he E ast M arley K nowe h enge A tkinson ( 1951) 1 05-6 P SAS 8 4 ( for 1 949-1950)

6 4-5,

f ig.

5

( For f ollowing e ntries s ee r eference a fter Y eavering) E ast M arley K nowe

N T 9 4203228

?C lass I I E ntrances t o N E a nd S W E xt. d iam . 2 5m , s egmented d itch . T hree p its a t c entre E wart P ark

N T 9 5683165

C lass I I

E ntrances

E xt.

2 2m ,

d iam .

t o N W a nd S E

l arge p it w ithin S E q uadrant

K irknewton, W est H ill

N T 9 0903000

?h engiform e nclosure L inthaugh

N T 9 3003660

C lass I E ntrance t o N E E xt. d iam . c 3 8m : r elatively n arrow d itch M ilfield C lass E xt.

I I d iam .

c ouncil h ouses E ntrances C 1 9m :

M ilfield N orth C lass E xt.

N T 9 3923356

t o W a nd E

s egmented d itch

N T 9 3403490

I I d iam .

c 2 2m .

E xcavation T hree d eep c entral p its p roduced c harcoal,

a s tone s etting f or a m assive

p ost a nd s ome s herds o f a c oarse r usticated v essel.

F ourth p it c ontained

a n e mpty s tone c ist. I nside f lat b ottomed d itch, a r ow o f s mall p its c 3 0cm d iam . a nd 9 0cm a part. E xternal s hafts o utside d itch, s one o f w hich c ontained t umbled s tones a nd 6 b arbed a nd t anged a rrowheads R adiocarbon d ates:

m iddle s ilt o f d itch 1 824 - 3 96 b c ( BM 149) g rave p it w ith E BA g lobular v essel 1 800 ± 8 0 b c ( HAR 199) p rimary s ilt o f d itch A .F.

H arding:

C BA G roup 3 N ews

R adiocarbon 2 1 W est A keld S teads ?C lass I E xt. d iam .

2 3m .

1 851

( 1979)

± 6 2 b c ( 1)

1 2

( BM 150) ( 1976)

3

3 46

N T 9 5863070 P ost p its c ircle i nterior p erimeter.

b y c oncentric r ing o f p ost-pits.

4 14

C entral p it s urrounded

W ooleT

Y eavering

N U 0 00280

N T 9 2803033

C lass I I E ntrances t o N W a nd S E E xt. d iam . 1 8m . a ll i n M iket

( 1976)

1 28-133

O ther f eatures p ossibly a ssociated w ith h enge m onuments P it a lignment E wart P ark I

N T 9 5833184 - N T 9 5443182

E xcavation P its c 8 0cm a part M iket:

C BA G roup 3 N ews

4 15

( 2)

4 ( 1978)

1 -2

C ATALOGUE 1 9: P ERFORATED S TONE I MPLEMENTS

M ace-heads N orth-east C ambo,

F airnley F arm

K irkwhelpington

N etherwitton,

N r.

L onglea F arm

R othbury

T wizell,

N ewcastle 1 975.22

NY 9 984 ( ovoid C ) R oe ( 1969) n o.69

N ewcastle 1 956.314.A

N Z 0 93895 P SAN(2)10(1902) 2 70,p1. R oe ( 1969) n o. 7 0 N U 0 601 ( ovoid) PSAN(4)5(1933)

2 12,

2 33-6

N T 8 842 E vans: A SI ( 1897) 2 23 R oe ( 1969) n o. 7 1

N orham

W olsingham , T op

N Z 0 03883 ( ovoid C ) AA(5)4(1976) 1 76-7 f ig. 2

R edgate H ill

N Z 0 838 ( pestle) P SAN(3)6(1915) R oe

( 1969) n o.

9 2,

B M u nreg .

p l.

3 3

B owes

C umbria N r.

B irdoswald,

H allguard

H arraby,

K endal,

NY 6 166

( ovoid)

E vans: A SI ( 1897) 2 24 f ig. 1 52 R oe ( 1969) n o. 1 6

F arm

C arlisle

T horny H ills

NY 4 254 R oe ( 1969) S D 5 21928

n o.

C arlisle 1 9.1944

5 1 06

K endal

N Y 3 768 ( ovoid A ) R oe ( 1969) n o. 1 9 R oe ( 1968) f ig. 3 2.4 NY 4 260 •C W(2)5(1905)

S tanwix

R oe T hrelkeld,

1 8

( ovoid)

• CW(2) 7 1(1971) R oe ( 1969) n o. L ongtown

B urns

( 1969)

C arlisle 6 2.1963

3 03

n o.

2 0

NY 3 08243 ( ovoid) E vans: ASI ( 1897) 2 25 R oe ( 1969) n o. 1 7

4 16

B M u nreg.

C arlisle 4 2.04

B M S t.

1 04.M

W alton,

t he H eugh

N Y 5 38654 C W(2)50(1951)175 C W(2)53(1954)204-5, f ig. R oe ( 1969)

n o.

2 1

C arlisle 8 8.1950

n o.

2 2

C arlisle 8 9.1949

N X 9 928

W orkington

R oe

( 1969)

C ATALOGUE 2 0 B attle-axes N orth-east C rook,

S tanley F arm

N Z 1 635 P SAN

( ? I ) ( 3)5(1911-12)

3 7,

p l. f acing p .19 R oe ( 1966) n o. 6 3 H arbottle

N T 9 304

H eathery B urn

P SAN(4)5(1933) 1 0 f ig. 1

1 52, p l.

R oe

1 46

NY 8 540

( 1966)

n o.

( frag.)

N ewcastle 1 931.44

G roup X VIII

( SW 9 81: D URH 1 ) AA(4)31(1953) 1 12 P PS 2 8 ( 1962) 2 62 R oe ( 1966) n o. 6 4 N T 9 502

H olystone

P P

( IC)

A rch. 7 5(1931)116, f ig. 4 71 R oe ( 1966) n o. 1 47 E vans: N ewcastle,

B arras B ridge

A ST

( 1897)

N Z 2 464 ( III o r l ater ? ) P SAN(3)1(1905) 1 46-7 AA(3)1(1914) 1 7-8 N CH 1 3 ( 1930) 1 6, p l. N Z 2 874 ( IIB) E vans: A SI(1897)

S eghill I n a c ist

B B 2 23, n ote R oe ( 1966) n o. S hilbottle,

D ene M oor F arm

1 94

N U 1 908

4 17

N ewcastle 1 904.6

1 36

1 48

B M u nreg.

( TB)

E vans: A C 2 4, R oe

B M u nreg.

A ST ( 1897) 2 00 p l. I I f ig. 1 2

( 1966)

1 49

A lnwick 1 880.91

S tanhope,

C rawley E dge

N Y 9 940 ( ? I , f rag.) P SAN(3)7(1915-16) 1 96 A A(4)31(1953) 1 12 R oe

S underland, M illfield

•S tockton t o D arlington R ailway

( 1966)

n o.

6 6

N Z 3 957 ( IIC) E vans: A SI ( 1897) 1 94 R oe ( 1966) n o. 6 5 N Z 4 419/NZ 2 914

B owes

B M u nreg.

( IIB) B owes

( ?) W ooler, L anton N T 9 25313 C onflicting m useum r ecords d esignate t his b attle-axe a s b oth o f p rovenance'

a nd f rom L anton,

n ear W ooler. R oe ( 1966)

1 958.1794

n o.

3 41

1 975.58

' no

N ewcastle 1 950.8

C umbria C ockermouth,

S tanger F arm

N Y 1 230 ( IB) CW(2)40(1940)110 R oe

D unmallet,

U llswater

?K endal

S olway M oss

V ickerstown

C arlisle 4 1.1932

B M S t.

S D 5 192 R oe ( 1969) n o.

K endal

R oe P lumpton W all

3 7

NY 4 624 ( IIC) E vans: A SI ( 1897) 1 84 R oe ( 1966) n o. 3 8

NY 0 846 C W(2)40(1940)

M awbray

W alney I sland,

( 1966) n o.

4 29

1 04.L

1 06

( 1966) n o.

3 9

C arlisle 2 19

N Y 4 937 ( III) G roup X VIII(SW 1 045: C umb 1 2) P PS 2 8 ( 1962) 2 63 R oe ( 1966) n o. 4 0

E dinburgh U niversity

N Y 3 369 ( IIID) C W(2)55(1955) 3 17, f ig. 1 R oe ( 1966) n o. 4 1

C arlisle 1 6.1953

S D 1 769

( IIB)

C W(2)2(1902) C W(2)4(1904) f ig. 2 R oe ( 1966)

4 18

4 17 3 26-7,

n o.

9 7

B arrow 5 002

C ATALOGUE 2 1 Axe-hammers N orth-east A lnmouth, H ipsburn

N U 2 310 A C 2 3,

p l.II f ig .

1 0

E vans: A SI ( 1897) 2 00 R oe ( 1969) n o. 3 15 A lnwick d istrict

N U 1 912 E vans: R oe

?A lnwick

A lnwick 1 880.90

A SI

( 1969)

( 1897) n o.

1 99

3 03

N U 1 912 A C 2 2, p l. R oe ( 1969)

B arrasford,

G unnarton C rags

I I f ig. 1 1 n o. 3 20

A lnwick 1 880.87

NY 9 174 AA(2)12(1887) 1 16, p l R oe ( 1969) n o. 3 04

B enwell

N Z 2 164 P SAN(4)11(1951)

B irtley

NY 8 778 P SAN(4)9(1942)

B lackhall M ill

1 93

9 7

N Z 1 22569 A A(4)50(1972)292-4, f ig.

B rancepeth,

S tanley

N Z 1 953 VCH D urham 1 (1905)200 R oe

B urradon,

E ast B ank

C arrawborough

N ewcastle 1 973.3

( 1969)

n o.

1 48

N T 9 806 A C, 2 3 R oe ( 1969) n o. 3 05 H BNC 1 0(1882-4)9 H BNC 1 1(1885-6)299

A lnwick 1 880.89

NY 8 671 R oe ( 1969)

C hesters

n o.

3 06

C olwell

N Y 9 575 A A(2)12(1887)119, p l. R oe ( 1969) n o. 3 07

C orbridge

N Y 9 964 R oe ( 1969)

C orbridge

n o.

3 08

3 592

B M 1 911.10-21.55

N Y 9 964 N ewcastle 1 956.106A

D oddington

N U 0 032 A C 2 3, p l. R oe ( 1969)

ha, f ig. n o. 3 09

1 A lnwick 1 880.88

E ggleston

N Z 0 023 R oe

E ggleston

( 1969)

n o.

1 43

B M u nreg .

N Z 0 023 P SAN(4)7(1935-7) 1 93 R oe ( 1969) n o. 1 42

F elling,

N est H ouse e state

B owes

1 958.1807

N Z 2 762 P SAN(4)8(1939)148-9

F elton,

F elton,

C hester H ill

S warland E ast H all

G unnerton

P l. R oe ( 1969)

n o.

1 44

N ewcastle 1 938.18

N U 1 800 R oe ( 1969)

n o.

3 11

N ewcastle 1 944.9

N U 1 601 R oe ( 1969)

n o.

3 10

N ewcastle 1 957.3A

NY 9 174 R oe ( 1969)

n o.

3 12

P SAN(4)10(1947)

6 3

N ewcastle 1 942.10

H alton E vans: A SI ( 1897) 2 02 R oe ( 1969) n o. 3 13 H aydon B ridge o r H ousesteads

B M u nreg.

NY 8 464/NY 7 968 N ewcastle 1 973.1 N Y 8 464 E vans:

N r H aydon B ridge

H exham/Corbridge a rea

H olystone & R othbury

A SI

( 1897)

2 00

3 14

N ewcastle 1 956.93A

N Y 9 364/NY 9 964 AA(4) 4 3(1965)

3 18,fig.

N ewcastle 1 965.3

N T 9 502/NU 0 601 P SAN(2)9(1901)

7 6-8

R oe

( 1969) n o.

NY 9 984

K irkwhelpington

N ewcastle 1 939.12 L ilburn H ill F arm

N U 0 125 A A(2)12(1889)

3 51-6

N T 9 907

N etherton

N ewcastle 1 908.2a N etherton e state

N Z 1 090 P SAN(2)10(1902) 2 79,p1. R oe ( 1969) n o. 3 16

N ewton,

N Z 0 38640 R oe ( 1969)

S haw H ouse F arm

N orth C harlton, M oor

B rowneyside

n o.

N U 1 623 P SAN(4)9(1939)42, R oe

( 1969)

n o.

B M u nreg.

3 17

3 18

f ig. N ewcastle 1 939.10

N orth S underland

N Z 3 957 P SAN(4)10(1942-6)280 R oe

P rudhoe,

E dgewell c olliery

( 1969)

n o.

3 19

N ewcastle 1 945.1

N Z 0 962 P SAN(2)5(1891-2)10 R oe

R edworth

( 1969)

n o.

3 21

N ewcastle 1 891.3

N Z 2 423 VCH D urham 1 (1905)199 R oe ( 1969) n o. 1 45

R oker b each

B owes 1 958.482

N Z 4 059 S underland 2 21.1974

S cots D yke,

b etween I ngleton

N Z 1 720/NZ 1 818

a nd H eadlam

P SAN(3)2(1907)74,

P l.

P SAN(4)6(1935)341-2 R oe ( 1969) n o. 1 46 S hackleton c amp

N ewcastle 1 933.38

N Z 2 30234 P SAN(3)3(1909)70-1

S hildon L ough

N Z 0 268 P SAN(4)10(1947) 6 3 R oe ( 1969) n o. 3 22

S tanhope,

NY 9 939 R oe ( 1969)

P arson B yers

n o.

1 47

B M u nreg.

?T eesdale B owes 1 958.1818 N Z 1 899

T hirston

E vans: A S1 ( 1897) 2 00 R oe ( 1969) n o. 3 23 T hornborough,

W hickham ,

H igh B arns

W haggs e state

W illington,

S toney C hesters

W olsingham a rea

N Z 0 17656 A A(4)50(1972)294, N Z 2 061 P SAN(2)9(1901) R oe ( 1969) n o. N Z 1 935 P SAN(4)10(1947)

f ig.

2 1 49

P P

N ewcastle 1 899.2

1 94

N Z 0 737 B owes

C umbria N r. A llithwaite

S D

3 876 G roup X V(La 3 8) C W(2)26(1926)37 R oe ( 1969) n o. 1 63

4 21

L ancaster 4 37/9

A lston d istrict

N Y 7 146 R oe

Ambleside

n o.

5 0

N ewcastle 1 958.2A

( 1969)

n o.

3 98

C arlisle 2 7.26.329

NY 3 704 R oe

A spatria p arish

A usthwaite

A ynsome

N Y 1 442 C W(2)40(1940) 1 05 R oe ( 1969) n o. 5 1

C arlisle 2 04

N Y 1 800 R oe ( 1969) n o.

C arlisle 2 2.4

SD 3 879 G roup X V R oe

A yside,

( 1969)

n r.

N ewby B ridge

A yside

( La 3 7)

( 1969) n o.

S D 3 983 E vans: R oe

5 2

A SI

( 1969)

( R4)

( 1897) n o.

L ancaster 4 37.12

1 64

1 98

1 66

A shmolean 1 927.3501

S D 3 983 G roup X V ( La 4 5) C W(1)8(1886)266 C W(2)65(1965)29 R oe ( 1969) n o. 1 65

B ackbarrow , R iver L even

B ackbarrow, R iver L even

B arrow i n F urness

L ancaster 4 37/13

S D 3 584 C W(2)14(1914)272-3,p1. C W(2)26(1926)37 R oe ( 1969) n o. 1 67

L ancaster 4 37/19

S D 3 584 C W(2)14(1914)272-3,p1 R oe ( 1969) n o. 1 68

L ancaster

S D 1 969 C W(1)14(1896-7)442-3,p1 R oe

( 1969) n o.

1 70

B arrow

R oe

( 1969)

5 3

C arlisle 6 9.1950

B eckfoot

B ewaldeth

NY 2 135 • C W(2)40(1940)110 R oe ( 1969) n o. 5 4

C arlisle 2 08(RF 2 5)

S D 1 966 C W(2)11(1911)483

B iggar

R oe B irkby,

n o.

C rag F arm

B olton W ood

( 1969)

n o.

1 73

S D 1 397 C W(2)37(1937)102 R oe ( 1969) n o. 5 5 N Y 1 005 C W(2)37(1937)43

4 22

B arrow 5 005

B orrowdale

N Y 2 416/NY 2 514 R oe ( 1969) n o.

B owness P arish

5 6

B M S t.

1 04K

NY 2 262 C W(2)40(1940)115 R oe

B owness o n S olway

( 1969)

n o.

5 7

N ewcastle

NY 2 28618 C W(2)35(1935)173 R oe

B owness o n S olway, B rackenrigg

B rampton

B rampton,

( 1969)

n o.

5 8

N Y 2 32614 C W(2)35(1935)173 R oe ( 1969) n o. 5 9 N Y 5 361 C W(2)40(1940)99-100 R oe ( 1969) n o. 6 0

H alf M oon I nn

C arlisle 1 0.1946.2

C arlisle 2 7.26.330

NY 5 361 C W(2)4(1904)351 R oe

( 1969)

n o.

•

6 1

B ranthwaite

NY 0 525 C W(2)47(1948)238

B rigsteer

S D 4 889 R oe ( 1969)

n o.

3 99

K endal

N Y 4 013 R oe ( 1969)

n o.

4 00

B arrow 5 262

N Y 5 327 R oe ( 1969)

n o.

4 01

C arlisle 1 19.1961

B rothers W ater

B rougham

B roughton i n F urness

S D 2 12884 G reywacke ( La 4 9) R oe ( 1969) n o. 1 77 C W(2)71(1971)8 L ancaster 4 37/3

B urnrigg

N Y 4 79558 C W(2)19(1919)165 R oe ( 1969) n o. 6 2

B urton

C arlisle

S D 5 276 B M 1 921.2-23.1

n r.

B urton S tation

B uttermere

C algarth

C ark

S D 5 276 R oe ( 1969)

n o.

4 02

B M u nreg.

N Y 1 717 R oe ( 1969)

n o.

6 3

B M S t.

S D 3 99994 C W(2)71(1971)4 S D 3 676 C W(1)9(1887-8)203 R oe ( 1969) n o. 1 80 4 23

P P

1 049

C arlisle

N Y 3 955 E vans: A SI ( 1897) 2 02 A rch . 2 (1809) 1 18, p l.

N r.

N Y 1 08286

C ockermouth

C W(2)6(1906)149-150 C ockermouth, A nnfield

NY 1 230 C W(2)50(1951)202 R oe ( 1969) n o. 6 4

C roglin

C arlisle 4 .1947

N Y 5 747 C W(2)43(1943)174

C rook

S D 4 694 C W(2)35(1935)179 R oe ( 1969) n o. 4 04

C rook, P ound F arm

S D 4 70952 C W(2)25(1925)25 R oe

C rosby R avensworth

( 1969)

N Y 6 214 R oe ( 1969)

D alton i n F urness

D alton i n F urness,

K endal

n o.

4 03

• n o.

4 05

S D 2 28742 R oe ( 1969) n o. 1 87 C W(2)71(1971)9 H arbarrow

E gton w ith N ewland

E gton w ith N ewland

E gton w ith N ewland

E henside T arn a rea

B arrow 5 277

( 1969) n o.

1 88

W arrington 1 2

S D 3 50859 C W(2)71(1971)9

K endal, A bbot H all

S D 3 06834 C W(2)71(1971)10

B arrow 5 308

S D 2 09792 C W(2)71(1971)9

B arrow 5 314

S D 3 13787 C W(2)71(1971)9

B arrow 5 313

N Y 0 402 A rch . 4 4(1873) 2 84 E vans: A ST ( 1897)200 R oe

E llers B row

B M u nreg.

S D 2 50716 C W(2)35(1935)180 R oe

E alinghearth

L ancaster 4 37/11

( 1969)

n o.

6 8

N Y 3 49037 C W(2)71(1971)4

P P

Embleton p arish,Stanger F arm

N Y 1 37277 C W(2)40(1940)110

N r E ndmoor

S D 5 384 R oe ( 1969) 4 24

n o.

B M C hristycoll.(lost)

4 07

K endal

E ndmoor, P reston P atrick

S D 5 483 R oe ( 1969) n o. 4 06 C W(2)74(1974)6-7

F alcon C rags

C ambridge 5 1-407

N Y 2 720 K enwick

F urness a rea E vans: A ST A rch . G ilgarran

( 1897)201-2

3 1(1846)

4 52

N Y 0 32230 C W(2)25(1925)269 R oe ( 1969) n o. 6 9

G lassonby,

B eck F arm

N Y 5 738 CW(2)37(1937)99, P l. R oe ( 1969) n o. 7 0

G reat C orby

C arlisle 8 3.1962

P P

N Y 4 754 R oe

G rinsdale

( 1969)

n o.

7 1

C arlisle 1 6.1945

N Y 3 758 C W(2)40(1940)100 R oe

H ayton & M ealo p arish

( 1969)

n o.

7 2

C arlisle A I I 2 10(M6)

N Y 1 041 C W(2)40(1940)105

H eversham

S D 4 983 E vans: A ST ( 1897)201 A rch. 2 ( 1809) 1 25, p l. V III.2 R oe ( 1969) n o. 4 08

H esket N ewmarket

N Y 3 438 R oe ( 1969)

n o.

7 3

C ambridge

N Y 3 438 R oe ( 1969)

n o.

7 4

S alisbury

H esket N ewmarket,

H owbeck

H unsonby p arish

I nglewood F orest, b etween W estward & C arlisle

I reby

I reby,

C aldbeck

I rthington p arish

CW(2)40(40)107 R og ( 1969) n o. 7 4

E vans: A ST ( 1897) 1 98 R oe ( 1969) n o. 7 6

C arlisle 2 7.26.326

A shmolean 1 927.3461

NY 2 398 C W(2)23(1923)242 R oe ( 1969) n o. 7 7

L ancaster 4 37/6

N Y 2 338 P SA(2)8(1879-81)491 C W(2)40(1940)107

C arlisle 2 02

N Y 4 961 C W(2)40(1940)100 R oe ( 1969) n o. 7 9

C arlisle 2 .1914

4 25

( R2)

?K endal

S D 5 192 R oe

?K endal

?K endal

( 1969)

n o.

4 28

K endal

S D 5 192 R oe ( 1969)

n o.

4 26

K endal

( 1969)

n o.

4 25

K endal

( 1969)

n o.

4 27

K endal

S D 5 192 R oe ( 1969)

n o.

4 30

K endal

S D 5 192 R oe

?K endal

S D 5 192 R oe

?K endal

K endal

S D 5 192 C W(2)35(1935)180 R oe ( 1969) n o. 4 09

?K endal

K eswick,

S D 5 192 R oe ( 1969) G oat F ield

n o.

C arlisle

4 31

K endal

N Y 2 723 K eswick

K eswick

N Y 2 723 R oe ( 1969)

n o.

8 0

B M S t.

1 04 I

K idburngill C W(2)40(1940)112 R oe

K irkbride

K irkby L onsdale,

( 1969)

n o.

8 1

N Y 2 356 C W(2)40(1940)106 R oe ( 1969) n o. 8 2 D ocker F arm

R oe R oe

K irkoswald C astle

L acra

C arlisle 2 7.26.331

S D 5 73746 C W(2)12(1912)431 C W(2)34(1934)113, 1 .2

K irkby S tephen

C arlisle A II 2 12. 1 4-99.5

f ig.

( 1969) ( 1966)

n o. n o.

4 10 9 1 ( as b attle-axe)

N Y 7 708 R oe ( 1969)

n o.

4 12

N Y 5 641 E vans: A SI ( 1897) 2 00 R oe ( 1969) n o. 8 3

C arlisle 1 8.1934

N ewcastle 1 814.1

S D 1 50813 C W(2)49(1950)213-4, f igs. R oe

4 26

( 1969)

n o.

9 6/97

P P

L anercost p arish

N Y 5 563 C W(2)31(1931)135-6 R oe ( 1969) n o. 8 4

L anercost p arish

N Y 5 562 C W(2)31(1931)135-6, R oe ( 1969) n o. 9 1

N r.

L arkrigg

L azonby F ell

P l.

S D 5 192 C W(2)35(1935)180 R oe ( 1969) n o. 4 13

K endal

N Y 5 139 R oe

M ansergh

P P

( 1969)

n o.

8 5

C arlisle 3 9.1936.1

S D ' 6 082 C W(2)7(1907)64, p l. R oe ( 1969) n o. 4 14

M awbray

N Y 0 846 E vans: R oe

Mawbray

( 1897)198 n o.

8 6

A shmolean 1 927.3459

( 1969)

n o.

8 7

A shmolean 1 927.3460

N Y 0 846 R oe

M awbray

N Y 0 846 C W(2)40(1940)106 R oe

M illom ,

A SI

( 1969)

F enwick

( 1969)

n o.

8 8

S D 1 780 C W(2)39(1939)283-4, R oe ( 1969) n o. 8 9

M illom,

F enwick

C arlisle A .II.209(R3)

P l.

S D 1 780 C W(2)39(1939)283-4,p1. R oe ( 1969) n o. 9 0

M uch U rswick

N ether S tanley

S D 2 674 C W(2)10(1910)509 R oe ( 1969) n o. 2 41 S D 4 54966 R oe ( 1969)

n o.

W arrington 5 0.63

4 15 K endal

C W(2)71(1971)3 N ewby B ridge

S D 3 786 R oe ( 1969)

n o.

2 09

N ewbiggin B eck

N Y 5 649 C W(2)40(1940)115

N inezergh

S D 4 92846 C W(2)37(1937)155-7,

N orth L onsdale E vans: A SI ( 1897)200 R oe ( 1969) n o. 2 10 4 27

p l.

K endal

O ld H utton

S D 5 688 C W(2)7(1907)64,p1 R oe

O rmside

n o.

4 16

N Y 7 017 C W(2)40(1940)112 R oe

( 1969)

N Y 6 234 E vans:

O usby M oor

R oe N r.

( 1969)

P enruddock

A SI

( 1969)

n o.

4 17

( 1897) n o.

C arlisle 3 .03.225

2 02

9 2

N Y 4 227 C W(2)7(1907)310 NY 4 937 E vans: A SI ( 1897) 1 98 R oe ( 1969) n o. 9 3

P lumpton

S D

R ampside

B M u nreg.

2 366 C W(1)14(1896-7)442-5, p l. 1 .3 R oe ( 1969) n o. 2 16

A shmolean 1 927.3779

B arrow 5 022

R ampside c hurchyard C W(1)15(1898-9)169-70, p l. 4 R oe ( 1969)

n o.

2 17

R avenstonedale p arish

N Y 7 203 C W(2)35(1935)179 R oe ( 1969) n o. 4 11

R ed D ial,

N Y 2 55460 E vans: A SI ( 1897)201 R oe ( 1969) n o. 9 4

W igton

S D 3 488 G roup X V ( La 5 0) E vans: A SI ( 1897) 2 00

R usland

C W(1)9(1888)203 R oe ( 1969) n o. 2 22 S t.

C uthbert W ithout

S hap q uarries • S ilecroft,

A rrow H ill

.N Y

S illoth

L ancaster 4 37/1

3 455 A rch. 2 ( 1809)118, P l. V III.'. E vans: A SI ( 1897) 2 02 R oe ( 1969) n o. 9 5

N Y 5 813 C W(2)35(1935)179 R oe ( 1969) n o. 4 18

K endal

S D 1 33817 C W(2)49(1950)213-4 f ig. R oe ( 1969)

N r.

A shmolean 1 927;3463

n o.

9 6/97

N Y 1 153 C W(2)17(1917)254 R oe ( 1969) n o. 9 8

P P

C arlisle 3 7.16

S ilverdale

S D 4 674 G roup X V(La 3 1?) R oe

S izergh,

L ow P ark W ood

( 1969)

n o.

2 24

B olton A -1-1871

S D 4 987 C W(2)34(1934)113, p l. R oe ( 1969) n o. 4 19

S kelsmergh, H olme H ouse F arm

L iverpool

S D 5 21971 C W(2)60(1960)200 R oe

S tainton,

S lop L ane

( 1969)

n o.

4 20

C arlisle

N Y 4 828 C W(1)14(1896-7)442-4,p1 R oe ( 1969) n o. 2 26

S tanwix,

R ickerby H ouse C W(2)35(1935)172-3 R oe ( 1969) n o. 9 9

S warthmoor

S D 2 73773 C W(2)45(1945)191-2, P l. R oe ( 1969) n o. 2 29

T emple S owerby

T emple S owerby

NY 5 83275 C W(2)40(1940)112 R oe ( 1969) n o. 4 22 NY 5 83275 C W(2)62(1962)324-5, R oe ( 1969) n o. 4 21

T hrelkeld

C arlisle 3 4.2

f ig. C arlisle

N Y 3 225 C W(2)43(1943)200, p l. R oe ( 1969) n o. 1 00

T routbeck

K endal

N Y 4 103 C W(1)9(1888)203 E vans: A SI ( 1897)200 R oe

( 1969)

n o.

1 01

U lverston,

H ill F all

S D 2 91782 C W(2)71(1971)11

U lverston,

O u' b as C ottage

S D 2 978 C W(1)15(1898-9)167-8 P l. 4 R oe ( 1969)

n o.

2 32

U lverston, R osside

S D 2 73788 G roup X V C W(2)74(1974)5-6

U pper H olker

S D 3 677 C W(2)35(1935)180 R oe ( 1969) n o. 2 40

V ickerstown

S D 1 868 C W(2)14(1914)492, P l. R oe ( 1969) n o. 2 42 4 29

B arrow 5 035

W ath

N Y 1 256 R oe

W averton,

C rosshill

W hinfell

( 1969)

1 07

P itt-Rivers

N Y 2 247 C W(2)37(1937)99 R oe ( 1969) n o. 1 08 N Y 1 325 C W(2)40(1940)110 R oe

W hitbarrow H ill

n o.

( 1969)

n o.

1 09

C arlisle 2 7.26.327

S D 4 486 L ancaster 9 38

W igton

N Y 2 548 C W(2)40(1940)106 R oe ( 1969) n o. 1 10

W indermere

S D 4 198 C W(2)3(19(3)411,fig . C W(2)62(1962)330 R oe ( 1969) n o. 4 23

W indermere

S D 4 14987 C W(2)5(1905)182, f ig. C W(2)62(1962)330 R oe ( 1969) n o. 4 24

W inscales

N Y 0 226 C W(2)35(1935)177 R oe ( 1969) n o. 1 11

W orkington

N X 9 928 C W(2)35(1935)178 R oe ( 1969) n o. 1 12

4 30

C arlisle A II.201.(R1)

C arlisle

C ATALOGUE 2 2

B RONZE A GE M ETALWORK

B ronze A ge m etalwork f rom t he n orth o f E ngland i s a rranged i n t his c atalogue i n t he f ollowing c ategories: C opper m etallurgy E arly B ronze A ge m etalwork M oulds & h oard S ingle f inds M etalwork f rom b urials M iddle B ronze A ge m etalwork, W ilburton material

t he

' Wallington t radition'

a nd

M ould a nd h oards S ingle f inds G old W ilburton t ype b ronzes L ate B ronze A ge m etalwork:

E wart-Park p hase

H oards H eathery B urn C ave d eposit S ingle f inds G old H allstatt C b ronzes H oards S ingle f inds M iscellaneous b ronzes:

u nclassified

( a)

a nomalous t ypes

( b)

t oo f ragmentary t o c lassify

( c)

t oo l ittle i nformation t o c lassify

( For a bbreviations u sed i n t he C atalogue r eferences s ee P art i )

4 31

M ETALWORK C ATALOGUE C opper m etallurgy F lat a xes N orth-East D urham N Z 2 742

B ritton ( 1963) f ig.1, 2 98 N CH D urham I ( 1905) 2 07 B M

H edgeley M oor,

n r.

P ercy's L eap N U 0 419

1 873.

A C 4 5,

p l.

A lnwick R amshaw M ill ( in s tream )

N Y 8 4427673

6 -2.3 X Va.5

1 880.189

P SAN ( 4) 6 ( 1933-4) N CH 1 5 ( 1940) 5 4 N ewcastle

6 0

1 933.19

C umbria S kelton,

C lough n o. 7 C W ( 2) 7 2 ( 1972)

n r. P enrith N Y 4 2377 ?u nfinished a xe

4 4-6,

f ig.

C arlisle 5 1.1967

E arly B ronze A ge m etalwork M oulds

N orth-east A A ( 1)

C ambo, W allington N Z 0 285 M oulds f or t hree f lat a xes a nd r ing

H urbuck N Z 1 348 Moulds f or t hree f lat a xes a nd

F lat a nd s lightly f langed a xes:

1 (?)

4 ( 1855)

1 02-8,

E vans: A BI ( 1881) 4 29-30 B ritton ( 1963) 2 99, 3 20 P SAS 3 8 ( 1903-4) 4 92 B M 1 852. 1 0-4.1

a wl

B ritton ( 1963) 2 99, 3 20 P SAS 3 8 ( 1903-4) 4 92 P SAN ( 3) 2 ( 1907) 3 91 B M W G 2 267

u ndecorated

N orth-east H oard N ewbiggin N Z 3 187 T hree, f our o r f ive a xes,

E vans: A BI ( 1881) 4 3 B ritton ( 1963) 3 00, 3 12

o f w hich

t wo s urvive

B M W G

1 788-9

S ingle f inds n r.

A lnwick

N U

p l.

1 912

4 32

E vans:

A BI

B M W G

1 804

( 1881)

4 3

l a

C orbridge

N Y 9 964

A C 4 5 N CH 1 0 ( 1914) 4 -5 A lnwick 1 880.190

C orbridge

N Y 9 964

A C 4 5 N CH 1 0

( 1914)

A lnwick ( ?)

E wart P ark

M orpeth

N T 9 532

N Z 2 085

N ewcastle u pon T yne n r.

R othbury

S tamfordham W allsend

N Z 2 464

4 -5

1 880.191

N ewcastle

1 932.47

N ewcastle

1 932.28

B olton

N U 0 601

P SAN

N Z 0 772

B M W G

N Z 3 21671

( 4)

1

( 1951)

1 790

N CH 1 3 ( 1930) 1 7, E vans: A BI ( 1881) B M W G

1 93-4

f ig. 4 3

1 0

1 791

C umbria S ingle f inds B arrow-in-Furness G reystoke

S D

D avey & F orster

1 269

( 1975)

n o.

6

C W ( 2) 4 0 ( 1940) 1 07 C lough n o. 4 , f ig. 1 .4

N Y 4 330

C arlisle

W estmorland

C lough n o. C ambridge

.W estmorland

C lough n o.

F lat a nd s lightly f langed a xes:

1 1 4.337 1 2

C ambridge

1 4.338

N ewcastle

1 952.4

d ecorated

N orth-eas t i B laydon, S ome N r.

S targate

' raindrop' C orbridge

N Z

1 67630

d ecoration

E vans: A BI

N Y 9 964

( 1881)

4 6

A C 4 5, f ig . A rch. J . 1 9 ( 1862) 3 63 M egaw & H ardy ( 1938) n o.

C ornhill o n T weed

N T 8 5433861

A lnwick

1 880.192

H BNC 3 0

( 1938-1946)

C oles

( 1971)

E dinburgh 4 33

f ig.

2 29,

8 .2

7 0

p l.

X VII

H exham

N Y 9 364

A A ( 4)

2 6

( 1948)

M egaw & H ardy R yall

N Z 0 15744

1 27-8,

( 1938)

M egaw & H ardy ( 1938) B M W G

p l.V

n o 6 7, n o.

f ig .

6 8

1 809

C umbria A ldingham , G leaston C astle P artly d ecorated

F langed a xes:

S D 2 61716

C W ( 1) 1 4 ( 1896-7) 4 42 C W ( 1) 1 5 ( 1898-9) 1 61-4, p l. E vans: A BI ( 1881) 4 3 M egaw & H ardy ( 1938) n o. 5 0 D avey & F orster ( 1975) n o. 1 C lough n o. 3

1

u ndecorated

C umbria H oard C aldbeck, i n a c ave o n t he e dge o f t he r iver G ilcoman c 1 780 N Y 3 239 F langed a xe; b een f ound.

o thers a lso s aid t o h ave

C W ( 1) 1 4 ( 1896-7) C lough n o. 2

S t.

C lough n o.

4 46, p l.

I I

S ingle f inds n r.

K eswick,

J ohn's V ale,

N Y 3 122

1 0

K eswick R oose, M ossfield

C W ( 1) C W ( 2)

S D 2 269

1 4 ( 1896-7) 4 46-7, p l. I I 4 0 ( 1940) 1 21, p l. 1 11.1

D avey & F orster C lough n o.

( 1975)

n o.

1 3

6

B arrow 5 1041 T emple S owerby

C W ( 2) 4 0 ( 1940) 13 M egaw & H ardy ( 1938) n o.

N Y 6 127

C lough n o.

9 7(?)

9

C arlisle P 3 ( 220) 9-6 W hittington,

H olm P ark

C W ( 2) C W ( 2)

S D 5 976

3 6 4 0

C lough n o.

' Cast'

f langed a xes:

( 1936) ( 1940)

1 42-3, p l. 1 21

5

P P

d ecorated

N orth-east A C 4 5-6, f ig. E vans: A BI ( 1881)

W hittington F ell N Y 9 90690 ( Previously w rongly s aid t o b e f rom

N CH 1 0

C hollerford B ridge)

( 1914)

7 4,

5 n ote,

N CH 1 5 ( 1940) 5 5 M egaw & W ardy ( 1938) 4 34

B M W G 1 814

f ig. 4 18 n o.

6 9

5 1

1 4c

C umbria B rough u nder S tainmore

N Y 7 914

E vans: A BI

( 1881)

5 3

C W ( 2) 4 0 ( 1940) 1 21, p l. I I C lough n o. 1 , f ig.1.1 M egaw & H ardy ( 1938) n o. 9 6 B M

1 874.

3 -28.75

H alberds N orth-east F ord W est F ield

N T 9 37365

E vans: A BI ( 1881) N CH 1 4 ( 1935) 6 0 T rump ( 1962) B M W G2064

n o.

2 24 2 25

C umbria H aberwyn R igg

( Harbyrnrig)

N Y 6 214

E vans:

A BI

( 1881)

2 69-70,

f ig.

O 'Riordain ( 1937) 3 12, f ig. C W ( 2) 4 0 ( 1940) 18-9, p l. C lough n o. 1 3, f ig. 1 .13

5 7 I

B M W G 2 060 M aryport

N Y 0 336

O 'Riordain

( 1937)

C W ( 2) 4 0 ( 1940) C lough n o. 1 4

3 12,

f ig.

5 6

p l.

I

18-9,

B M 1 905.11-6.3

T anged s pearhead B urnhope r eservoir

N Y 8 438

J ones ( 1978) 4 , f ig. 2 .6 A A ( 4) 3 1 ( 1953) 14, n ote 2 6 B owes

1 974.77

D aggers N orth-east R iver T yne,

E lswick

G erloff ( 1975) n o. 2 26, p 1.22 B ritton ( 1963) 3 09 N CH 1 3 ( 1930) 1 9ff, f ig. 1 5 A A ( 4) 4 3 ( 1965) 7 5

N Z 2 31632

B M W G

1 681

C umbria S take M oss,

H elsington

P SA ( 2)

S D 4 886

E vans: C W ( 2)

2 ( 1861-4)

C lough n o. K endal ( See a lso M etalwork f rom b urials) 4 35

3 70

A BI ( 1881) 2 46 4 0 ( 1940) 18-121 7 4,

f ig.5.

3 37

M etalwork f rom b urials N umbers r efer t o t he B urials C atalogue

Table

1 0

C OPPER/ B RONZE D aggers 4 A llerwash ( with f rag. 5 3 B arrasford 1 56 C heswick

o f

? s heath b inding)

K nife w ith p rojecting b utt 6 05 W est L ilburn K nife-daggers 1 8 1 23 3 35 4 18 4 49

Amble B roomhouses H umbleton L ow M oralee F arm N orth C harlton

A wls 2 03 E tal M oor 2 32 F owberry 7 15 B irkrigg E ast 8 47 K irkoswald R azors 9 47 S tainton H ead 9 77 ' Cumberland' F ragments o f b ronze

C lass I B C lass I B ( not i dentified)

1 66 C oldsmouth H ill, N .

f rom E BA b urials

C airn

4 41 N orham ( ? c opper s tain) 5 99 W est H epple, p it A 6 03 W est H epple, s keleton 3 4 8 58 L ittle M ell F ell B ronzes o f u nknown t ype f rom E BA b urials 3 47 H umbleton

' sword h andle o f b ronze'

G OLD 3 72 K irkhaugh

g old b asket " ear-ring"

M iddle B ronze A ge m etalwork, m aterial

t he W allington t radition a nd W ilburton

S tone m ould C roglin

N Y 5 747

T wo p iece m ould f or l arge s ide-looped s pearhead a nd

( ?)

c onical f errule

C W ( 1) 7 ( 1883-4) C lough n o. 6 8 B urgess

A :

( 1968a)

2 79-88,

f ig.

f ig .

1 8

B RONZE

H oards

( Table 5 9

A mbleside

)

N Y 3 704

F ound b ound i n a b undle,

2 ft d eep i n a p eat m oss i n 1 741.

( 1) ( 2)

S olid h ilted s word w ith k nobbed p ommel R osnogn s word w ith f our, s quare s et r ivet h oles

( 3) ( 4) ( 5) ( 6)

S olid h ilted r apier w ith p ointed b lade S traight-based, b asal-looped s pearhead C onical f errule ' Transitional' p alstave

H oard p reviously t hought t o b e l ost, b ut i tems

( 1)

( 2 b roken )

t o

( 4)

r ecently

r ediscovered i n t he R oyal C ollection a t W indsor. R eliquiae G aleanae I ( 1790) E vans: A BI ( 1881) 2 85 A rch. 5 ( 1779) 15 C W ( 2) C W ( 2)

4 5 6 5

B urgess A ngus W ell

( 1968a)

3 4-8 3 8-47, 6 3,

f ig.

f ig . 4

N Y 4 71660

" Above a b ushel" o f s pearheads

f ound i n

1 849,

( Bushel: m easure o f c apacity = f our g allons) ( 1)-(2) T wo s ide-looped s pearheads

C orbridge

( 1946) ( 1965)

1 87

S hildon L ough

i n p ulling d own a w all. M ost " sold f or o ld m etal"

R owlands

( 1976)

p l.

B M 1 968.

1 0-12.

1 &2

1 2

N Z 0 2456651

F ound i n d raining i n 1 862 ( 1) R apier w ith n otched b utt G roup I V ( 2) P rotected- o pening s pearhead, s ocket m issing

H BNC

1 0

( 1882-4)

1 93

N CH 1 0 ( 1914) 5 A C 5 5, 5 6, 5 8, f igs. E vans: A BI ( 1881) 2 48, 3 33 B urgess ( 1968a) 5 7, f ig.14 B urgess

4 37

( 1968b)

5 ,

f ig.2.9

D enwick

N U 2 014

F ound i n

1 832

( I)

( 2)

T ransitional p alstave,

L eaf-shaped,

l oop m issing

p egged s pearhead A C 4 7, 5 7, p . X Va f ig. 3 B urgess ( 1968a) 5 7-8, f ig.7.4 A lnwick

F arnley

N Z 0 0346306

F ound i n 1 835, a bout 1 3ft b elow t he s urface i n r ailway c utting o perations o n t he N ewcastle t o C arlisle r ailway. S ome d oubt h as b een e xpressed c oncerning t he l ocation a nd i ntegrity o f t his h oard ( NCH 1 0, p p 5 -6). T he r ailway w as c ompleted b y 1 834, a nd a s t he o bjects o nce b elonged t o M r. W ylam W alker t he c ontractor f or t his a nd o ther s ections o f t he N ewcastle t o C arlisle r ailway, i t i s p ossible t hat t he ' hoard' i s a c ollection o f a rtifacts m ade o ver s ome t ime, f rom d ifferent l ocations. B urgess h owever a ccepts t his a s a n a ssociated f ind. ( I) T ransitional p alstave B urgess I 968a f ig. 1 5.1 ( 2)-(3) T wo f ragmentary p rotected-opening s pearheads, b oth w ith s ockets m issing. f ig.15.2-3 ( 4) ( 5) ( 6) ( 7) ( 8)

P rotected-opening s pearhead, i n t wo f ragments f ig. 1 5.11 T wo f ragments o f l eaf-shaped s pearhead f ig.15.9-10 P lain l eaf-shaped s pearhead f ig.I5.8 T wo f ragments o f s pearhead w ith c hannelled b lade f ig.15.12 F ragment o f r apier b lade, n otched f or r e-hafting f ig .I5.7

( 9)

T hree f ragments o f r apier b lades, G roup I V f ig . 1 5.4-7

b evelled w ith f lattish m id-section A C 4 7, 5 6-8 N CH 1 0 ( 1914) 5 -6, n os. A A ( 4) 2 6 ( 1948) 1 32-3, B urgess B urgess

( 1968b) ( 1968a)

5 -18 . p l. V II

f ig .2.10-13 5 8, f ig.I5

A lnwick & N ewcastle H aydon B ridge

N Y 8 2926409 / NY 8 4946438

F ound i n b uilding t he r ailway, ( 1) ( 2)

1 835-6

T ransitional p alstave S ocketed a xe w ith c able m oulding a round m outh P SAN ( 2) 5 ( 1891-2) 2 28 P SAN ( 4) 1 ( 1946-50) 1 39 A A ( 4) 2 6 ( 1948) 1 34-5, p l.VII B urgess ( 1968a) 5 9, f ig.7.5 N ewcastle

4 38

I ngoe, L ow B ellridge F armhouse

N Z 0 5077627

F ragments o f t wo s hields ( 1) Y etholm t ype ( 2)

H arlech t ype

N CH 1 2 ( 1926) 1-12, f igs.8-9 A C 6 2-3, f ig., p l.XVIIa E vans: A BI ( 1881) 3 51 C oles ( 1962b) n os. 2 2 & 2 3 A lnwick

•M edomsley, H igh B radley F arm ( I)

N Z

1 22533

S ingle-looped s pearhead

T wenty m ore r eported p loughed u p i n s ame p lace i n P SAN

1 891, b ut a ll d estroyed

( 2)

B urgess

5 ( 1893) ( 1968a)

N ewcastle N etherby F ort a rea

1 84,

1 90 f ig., 2 13-6 f ig.I4.5

5 7,

1 892.5

N Y 3 971

R eputedly f rom t he a rea o f t he R oman F ort.

N o p ositive e vidence t hat

t hese o bjects f orm a h oard. G rouped t ogether o n t he b asis o f s imilar p atina a nd c ondition ( Burgess 1 968a, 5 7) ( I) ( 2)

L arge p rotected-opening s pearhead B lade f ragment o f l eaf-shaped s pearhead

( 3) ( 4) ( 5)

S ingle-looped s pearhead, e nd o f b lade m issing S ocket o f s ingle-looped s pearhead F ragment o f s pearhead s ocket C lough n os. 5 7-59 B urgess ( 1968a) 5 7,

f ig.

1 7.4

C arlisle 3 5.1949.3-5 W allington, M iddleton M oss F ound i n

N Z 0 37854

1 879 o n t he b anks o f a s tream w hich r uns

t hrough M iddleton M oss

( 1)-(8) E ight t ransitional p alstaves B urgess ( 1968a) f ig.9.1-8 ( 9)-(15) S even s ocketed a xes f ig.9.9-I5 ( 16)-(18) T hree p enannular a rmlets w ith p lain t erminals f ig .I0.3-5 ( 19) R apier w ith n otched b utt G roup I V f ig.I0.13 ( 20) ( 21)

R apier w ith n otched b utt, p oint m issing. G roup I V. f ig.10.11 R apier b lade w ith f lat m id-section. G roup I V. f ig.I0.12

( 22) ( 23)

P rotected-opening s pearhead B lade o f l eaf-shaped s pearhead w ith s tub o f

( 24)

F ragment o f s pearhead w ith c hannelled b lade

( 25)-(26)

T wo p oints o f b lades o f

( 27)-(28)

T wo f ragments o f

f ig. 1 0.1 s ingle l oop a t b ase f ig. 1 0.2 f ig.I0.10

s pearheads

f ig .10.8-9

s pearhead s ockets

f ig.I0.6-7

H BNC 1 3 ( 1890-1) 2 98 A A ( 2) 9 ( 1883) 5 2-3, p ll. E vans: A BI ( 1881) 8 9, 3 33,382,465 A rch. 7 3(1922-3) p l.xxxvii.I3 B urgess ( 1968b) f ig.2.15-17 B urgess P P 4 39

( 1968a)

5 9-60,

f igs.9-10

S INGLE F INDS P alstaves C umbria A spatria

N Y

1 442

u nlooped

E vans: A BI(1881) 8 6 A rch. J . 1 7 ( 1860) 1 64

B rampton

N Y 5 361

u nlooped

C W ( 2) 4 0 ( 1940) C lough n o. 3 0

9 9-100

C arlisle 2 30 R 3 8 B ranthwaite

N Y 0 525

u nlooped/shield p attern

C W ( 2) 3 5 ( 1935) C W ( 2) 4 0 ( 1940) C lough n o. 1 6 C arlisle

1 4-99

1 77 11

( 229)

4 C arlisle

N Y 3 955

l ooped

C lough n o.

3 6

Y ork M usuem n r.

C artmel

S D 3 778

u nlooped/shield p attern

C lough n o. 3 2 D avey & F orster B M

n r.

K eswick

N Y 2 723

l ooped/3 r ibs

1 856.

u nlooped/shield

N Y 5 130

p attern

n o.

3 2

7 -1.5020

E vans: A BI ( 1881) 9 3 V CH C umb. I ( 1901) 2 30 C lough n o. 3 7 B M W G

P enrith

( 1975)

1 841

B urgess ( 1968a) C lough n o. 2 0

f ig.2.2

C arlisle 2 7.26.431 P enrith

N Y 5 130

l ooped/

B urgess

' transitional'

C lough n o.

( 1968a) 3 8,

f ig . 1 2.10 f ig .4

C arlisle L 27 V .41 S eaton

N Y 0 130

S tainton i n F urness

u nlooped/shield

C W ( 2)

( 1923)

3 5,

p attern

C W ( 2) 4 5 ( 1945) C lough n o. 2 3 C arlisle L .I6.2

2 3

1 77

S D 2 48728 u nlooped/shield p attern

C W ( 2) 4 ( 1904) B urgess ( 1968a)

3 53 f ig .2.3

D avey & F orster

( 1975)

C lough n o.

3 9

B arrow U 5 ' Temple S owerby'

p l.

B urgess ( 1968a) C lough n o. 3 9a

( NY 6 127)

C arlisle P 2 9-6 7 4 40

6 6 2 32

n o.

3 8

W indermere,

n r.

O rrest F arm

S D 4 199

C W ( 2)

5 8

( 1959)

C lough n o.

1 89,

p l.

I II

4 0

P P

N orth-east A cton H ouse

N U

1 9190259

l ooped/

P SAN

' transitional'

B ellingham

N Y 8 40831

u nlooped

H igh R ochester

3 ( 1889)

B M W G

1 843

A rch.

4 5

1 5

( 1880)

( 1940)

N Z

3 71

5 4

B M W G

1 848

l ooped/shield

A rch.

4 5

p attern

N CH 1 5 ( 1940) 5 4, p l. 1 1.2 B urgess & M iket ( 1974) 3 2,n.5

N Y 8 393 ( 1880 )371

N ewcastle H owden-le-Wear

3 87

N CH 7 ( 1904) 3 75 B urgess ( 1968a) 6 5

N CH

n r.

( 2)

1 633 l ooped/

1 925.1.3

V CH D urham I ( 1905)

' transitional'

B urgess

( 1968a)

2 07

6 5

BM 1 904.6-18.1

O ther a xes C umbria A lston

N Y 7 146

B urgess & M iket N ewcastle

Ambleside, M illans P ark

B ern er K ettles

N Y 3 704

N Y 4 209

( 1974)

f ig.1.2

1 958.3-4A

C W ( 2) 5 ( 1905) C lough n o. 2 8

1 83

C W ( 2)45

1 77

( 1945)

C lough n o.

2 9

K eswick B rampton

N Y 5 351

C W ( 2) 4 0 ( 1940) C lough n o. 3 1

9 9-100

C arlisle A .II R F2I5 C arwinley B ack,

K irkandrews M oat P arish

N Y 3 558 C W

( 2)

4 0

C arlisle C astletown,

P enrith

N Y 5 130

( 1940)

1 00

O M 2 14

C W ( 2) 4 0 ( 1940) 1 07 C lough n o. 1 7, f ig.4 C arlisle A III 2 28 0 M407

C rook,

L ow F old F arm

S D 4 50937

4 41

C W ( 2)

3 7

( 1937)

1 02

C W ( 2)

4 2

( 1942)

2 33,

C lough n o. P P

1 8

p l.

E aglesfield p arish,

W aterloo F arm

N Y

18287 C W ( 2) 3 5 ( 1935) C W ( 2) 4 0 ( 1940) C lough n o. 1 9

1 77 11

C arlisle 2 33 R F357 n r.

L ongtown

N Y 3 768

E vans: A BI C lough p .

M ilburn,

L ownthwaite F arm

N Y 6 50304

( 1881)

7 3

3 5

C W ( 2) 3 2 ( 1932) 1 07-115,p1. C lough n o. 3 3, f ig .4 C arlisle 4 5-1948

R avenstonedale,

S anton B ridge

G arshill

N Y

N Y 7 204

C lough n o.

1 001

2 1

B M W G

1 823

C W ( 2)

4 3

( 1943)

C lough n o.

5 2

2 2

C arlisle 4 6-1936 ' Temple S owerby '

W hinfell W igton

( NY 6 127)

C W ( 2)

N Y 5 600 N Y 2 548

4 0

( 1940)

13

C lough N o.

3 4

C lough n o.

2 4

E vans: A BI

( 1881)

7 3,

Mentelius ( 1908) p l. C lough n o. 2 5,fig .4 B M W G W orkington

N X 9 928

f ig.50 X III.82

1 833

C W ( 2) 3 5 ( 1935) C lough n o. 2 6

1 77

Y ork M useum W raysholme T ower

S D 3 83755

C W ( 1)

1 6

( 1899-1900)152-6,p1.

C lough n o. 2 7 D avey & F orster

O ther a xes

'

N orth-east B irtley,

B lyth 's b rickyard

P SAN

N Z 2 755

( 4)

5 ( 1933)

2 12

P SAN ( 4) 9 ( 1942) 1 07-8,fig ., P roc. U niv . D urham P hil. S oc. 9 ( 1931-7) B ranshaw

P SAN

N Y 8 81997

( 2)

4 7-54

3 ( 1888)

P SAN ( 4) 5 ( 1933) N CH 1 5 ( 1940) p l. B urgess & M iket

3 21 1 52-3, 1 1.1

( 1974)

p l.

f ig .1.5

( as E isdon) N ewcastle 4 42

1 931.49

9 7

C hollerton p arish

N Y 9 371

E vans: A BI

( 1881)

7 8

N CH 1 5 ( 1940) p 1.11,3 B urgess & M iket ( 1974)fig.1.3 N ewcastle D arlington

N Z 2 914

l ooped

B urgess

1 855.2

( 1968a)

f ig.22.4

A shmolean D urham

N Z 2 742 B M

E lsdon,

E astnook F arm N Y 9 393

1 873.

6 -2.6

B urgess & M iket

( 1974)

f ig .1.6

P P ? Ewart P ark

N T 9 532

P SAN

( 4)

5 ( 1933)

B urgess & M iket N ewcastle F awnlees, W olsingham

N Z 0 538

3 00

( 1974)

1 932.48

E vans : ABI ( 1881) 7 6 A A ( 4) 3 1 ( 1953) 14 V CH D urham 1 ( 1905) B M W G

H alton C hesters

N Y 9 97684

P SAN ( 2) 2 ( 1887) 2 46 N CH 1 0 ( 1914) 3 89 ( 1974)

f ig.1.4

N Z 0 886

H igh F orce, D eneholm Q uarry

H udeshope B eck

N Y 8 72282

N Y 9 425

B M W G

1 819

J ones

( 1978)

B owes

1 958.

J ones P SAN B owes

L inden,

2 07

1 824

B urgess & M iket H artburn

f ig.1.1

n r. M orpeth

R ede V alley

T osson B urgh W illington,

N U

1 601

( 1978) ( 4)

f ig .2.3

7 ( 1937)

1 958.

1 93-4

1 838

N Z

( 2)

3 ( 1889)

P SAN

( 3)

1 0

P SAN

1 935

1 825

P SAN

D ixon

N U 0 23003 N ackshivan F arm

1 839

E vans: A BI ( 1881) 7 6 H BNC 7 ( 1873-5) 2 76, p l.V

N Z 2 085

B M W G

S warland d istrict

f ig .2.2

( 1921-2)

( 1903) ( 4)

3 21,

f ig.

2 15

1 32.fig.

8 ( 1939)

1 49

F langed a dze A skham F ell N Y 4 922

C W ( 1) 6 ( 1883) C lough n o. 4 1

5 10

F langed c hisel I rthington

E vans: A BI

N Y 4 961 4 43

( 1881)

C lough n o. 4 2 B M W G 2 017

8 5,

f ig.70

S ocketed a xe w ith m ultiple m outh m oulding L ow F ell,

L ittle L angdale

N Y 3 002

C W

( 2)

6 3

( 1963)

B urgess ( 1968a) C lough n o. 8 8 D avey

2 82,fig. f ig.11.2

& F orster (1 975 )no .96

R uskin M useum ( cast) S pearheads: k ite-shaped C umbria B lindbothel

N Y

1 225

C W ( 2) C W ( 2)

4 0 4 5

( 1940) ( 1946)

C lough n o.

4 8,

10, 1 72

18-123, p l.III.2

f ig.5

C arlisle R F 3 95 W hinfell T arn

S D 5 59980

P SA ( 2) 1 2 ( 1887-9) 2 24-7 C W ( 2) 5 ( 1905) 1 84 C W ( 2) 4 5 ( 1945) 1 72 C lough n o. 6 6 L ancaster 4 37/24

S pearheads:

s ide-looped

C umbria C aldbeck,

L ynewath

B ridge

C W ( 2)

N Y 3 239

1 5

( 1915)

C lough n o. C arlisle ? Carlisle

1 39.1961

C lough n o.

N Y 3 955

1 91

5 5

4 9

C arlisle 3 5.1949.2 G aythorn P lain

B B 3 96-7 C lough n o.

N Y 6 214

5 2

B M W G 2 048 M awbray,

D ubmill F arm

C W ( 2) 4 5 ( 1946) 1 74 A rch . 6 1 ( 1909) f ig. 6 3,p1.LXXVI

N Y 0 745

C lough n o.

5 6

B M W G 2 033 P enrith, F ell L ane N Y 5 130 ( ? f ound w ith r ibbed s ocketed a xe)

B urgess

S winside F ell N Y 2 422

C W ( 2) C W ( 2)

( 1968a)

C lough n o. 3 5 4 5

C lough n o.

1 9,

6 0 ( 1935)175 ( 1946) 1 75 6 2

K eswick T hreapland

N Y

C W

1 58393

( 2)

3 4

( 1934)

2 00

C W ( 2)

4 5

( 1946)

1 74

C lough n o.

4 44

B arrow

6 4

f ig .

1 6.8

W hitbarrow

S D 4 486

C W ( 2) 2 1 ( 1921) C W ( 2) 4 0 ( 1940) C lough n o. 6 7

2 73 1 23

N orth-east R iver A ln, n r.

A lnmouth

N U 2 3811158

A C 5 8, f ig. N CH 2 ( 1895) A lnwick

n r. A lnwick,

S hipley F arm

N U

1 48169

4 66-7

1 880.247

A C 5 7 N CH 1 3 ( 1930)18-19, ( as D issington) A lnwick

B arnard C astle

N Z 0 516

B ishopley C rag C harlton

q uarry

N Z 0 136

N Y 8 10850

( 1978)

B owes

1 975.55

N Z 3 08328

AA ( 4)

N Y 8 997

A rch . N CH

M ilbourne

N Z

( 3)

18742

A A

R edewater

4 6 4 5

1 5 ( 4)

P SAN B laydon

N Z

1 863

W eardaie

( 1968) ( 1880)

( 1940) 4 6

J ubilee g ravel q uarry

S tone m oulds

S pearheads:

p l.

( 2)

N Z

3 71

5 5 2 32-5,fig .5.pl.XVII

1 967.1.A 6 ( 1895)

2 6

P SAN ( 2)

1 ( 1884)

3 55

A rch .

( 1909)

6 1

f ig .

N ewcastle

1 884.7.67

A A ( 4)

( 1953)

3 1

5 9,p1.LXXV

1 4, n .26

H ancock M useum

1 935 P SAN

S ee a lso

1 9,

2 96-7,fig.

( 1968)

N ewcastle, W illington,

f ig.2.5

5 ( 1913)

N ewcastle

R iver T yne,

4 ,

B M W G 2 040

p robably C hilton q uarries D aveyshield M oor

1 880.246

J ones

P SAN

f ig . 1 4

( 4)

9 ( 1942)

1 43-4,p1.

C roglin

b asal-looped

C umbria A lston w ith G arrigill

C W ( 2) 4 5 ( 1946) C W ( 2) 4 0 ( 1940) C lough n o. 4 7

N y 7 540

C arlisle R F 3 65

4 45

1 74,fig.I 11

D alton-in-Furness

S D 2 374

C W ( 2) 5 ( 1905) 1 83-4 C W ( 2) 4 5 ( 1946) 1 75 C lough n o. 5 0, f ig .5 D avey & F orster ( 1975)

n o.

7 5

L ancaster 4 37/25 F urness

C W ( 2)

4 5

( 1946)

1 75

C W ( 2) 7 ( 1907) 3 9-41, f ig . C lough n o. 5 1, f ig . 5 D avey & F orster ( 1975) n o. 7 6 L ancaster 4 37/26 L ongtown,

S malnston

N Y 3 68690

C W ( 2) 5 3 ( 1954) C lough n o. 5 4

2 05-7,fig.2

C arlisle 4 4.1950 S ockbridge

N Y 5 00269

C W ( 2) 4 0 ( 1940) 13 B urgess ( 1968a) f ig .2.I3 C lough n o. 6 1 C arlisle 2 7.26.433

T ebay F ell

C W ( 2) C W ( 1) C W ( 2)

N Y 6 201

4 0 1 2 4 5

( 1940) 1 23,p1.III.2 ( 1892-3) 5 7 ( 1945) 1 74

C lough n o.

6 3

C arlisle 2 43

N orth-east E lford

N U

N CH 1 ( 1893) 2 84 E vans: A BI ( 1881) 3 27 A rch. 6 1 ( 1909) f ig . 2 1.pl.LXIII B urgess ( 1968a) f ig.16.4

1 9053096

B M W G 2 058 R yton W illows

R apiers

N Z

1 5666506

P SAN

( Group n umbers r efer t o B urgess

( 2)

9 ( 1901)

4 8,

f ig .

n o.

8 3

1 968b)

C umbria A ldingham ( Trump's

R ampside,

S D287 Group

_ I I)

P age B ank

P PS 2 8

( 1962)

9 6,

P P

S D 2 43680 G roup I I

C W ( 2) 7 ( 1907) 3 9, f ig . C lough n o. 7 5, f ig.5 D avey & F orster ( 1975) n o. L ancaster 4 37/27

S t.

J ohn's V ale

N Y 3 122

G roup I V

P PS 2 8 ( 1962) n o. C lough n o. 7 7 K eswick

4 46

5 8

6 5

N orth-east B inchester

N Z 2 09313

G roup I

B urgess

( 1968b)

f ig.2.1

Y ork M useum 1 265 R iver B lyth,

C owpen

N Z 3 1088235 G roup I I AA ( 2)

2 4

( 1901-2)xviii,p1.

N CH 9 ( 1909) 3 05,p1. B urgess ( 1968b) f ig .2.3 P SAN ( 2) 1 0 ( 1902) 3 6 N ewcastle C arham

N T 7 938

G roup I II

A A ( 1)

1 901.10

4 ( 1855)

1 9

A rch. 7 3 ( 1922-3) A C 5 6, f ig . B urgess

( 1968b)

N ewcastle C hapel F ell, W estgate

N y 9 038 G roup I I

B urgess P SAN

B owmont W ater

N T 8 85325 G roup I I P SAS 2 4

3 40

1 934.21

( 1889-90)

P SAS 9 3 H BNC 1 4 B urgess

2 .6

f ig .2.2

6 ( 1935)

N ewcastle K ilham ,

f ig .

3 5 f ig.5

1 853.5

( 1968b)

( 4)

P l.

1 6

( 1959-60) 5 -6,fig.2.2 ( 1892-3) 3 95-8 ( 1968b) f ig.2.4

E dinburgh D J 2 5 M ickley-on-Tyne

N Z 0 7276315

G roup I V

P SAN

( 4)

B urgess

1

N ewcastle R iver T yne, N ewcastle

N Z 2 464

G roup I I

N Z 2 464

C laxheugh

1 950.5

1 683

G roup I II N CH 1 3 ( 1930) f ig . 1 6 B urgess ( 1968b) f ig.2.7 V CH D urham I ( 1905) 2 07 B M W G

R iver W ear,

3 93

f ig.2.4

N CH 1 3 ( 1930) f ig. 1 7 B urgess ( 1968b) f ig.2.5 V CH D urham I ( 1905) 2 07 B M W G

R iver T yne, N ewcastle

( 1951)

( 1968b)

1 682

N Z 3 59576 G roup I V V CH D urham I ( 1905) 2 07 B urgess ( 1968b) f ig .2.8 B M W G 2 077

S olid h ilted s words C umbria S alta Moss

C W ( 2) C W ( 2)

N Y 0 85452

6 1 6 5

C lough n o.

( 1961) ( 1965) 7 6

C arlisle 9 3.1959 4 47

1 6-24, p l. 3 8-52

' Cumberland'

C W ( 2)

6 1

( 1961)

C lough n o. B M

1 870.

1 6-24,p1.

7 3

1 0-13,1

S hields n r.

A ydon C astle

N Z 0 0136631

E vans: A BI ( 1881) 3 51 N CH 1 0 ( 1914) 3 34-5 A C 6 3, p l. X VIIa.2 C oles ( 1962b) n o. 2 1 A lnwick

T ribley, B roomy H olme Y etholm t ype

N Z 2 35503

E vans: A BI ( 1881) 3 51 A C, 6 3 V CH D urham I ( 1905) 2 07 C oles ( 1962b) n o. 2 0 N ewcastle

B :

1 814.16

G OLD

N orth-east B ellingham

N Y 8 40831

P enannular a rmlet -"its f orm t hat o f a b ow, w ith t he p oints i nwards, i ts c entre b eing t wisted". F ound i n 1 861 a nd m elted d own

W eight

t urned

1 7 d wt.

N CH 1 5 ( 1940) 5 3 A A ( 2) 6 ( 1865) 4 8 A rch. 4 5 ( 1880) 3 70 A A ( 2) 1 2 ( 1886-7) 2 64 ( Destroyed) n r.

D innington

N Z 2 073

P enannular'ear-ring, W eight

c entre

t wisted a nd e nds p lain.

D iam .

2 .6cm .

2 36 g rains N CH 1 3

( 1930)

1 7,

f ig .9.

B M W G 2 2 F lodden,

B linkbonny

N T 9 10364

F ive t riple r ibbed r ings a nd o ne p lain s piral r ing, L th.

l inked t ogether.

C 7 .0cm N CH

1 4

A C 3 ,

( 1935) f ig.

B M W G 2 1

4 48

2 6,

f ig.2

C umbria E aglesfield

N Y 0 928

F ound w hile q uarrying l imestone;

a " twisted r ing o f f ine g old" C W ( 1)

3 ( 1878)

3 43

C W ( 2) 4 0 ( 1940) C lough n o. 7 8 ( Lost?) W inton

1 24

N Y 7 810

F ound i n 1 889 i n a c left i n t he r ock. F ragment o f b ar t wisted b racelet o r t orc, t he e nds c ut, b ent i nto a c ircular s hape. L th . r emaining c 2 1.0cm . W eight 1 02.4 d wts. 6 gr. C W ( 1) 1 ( 1890-1) 9 8-9 C W ( 2) 4 0 ( 1940) 1 24, p 1.111.2 C lough n o. 7 9 C arlisle

1 4a.

1 0

W ilburton t ype b ronzes R iver T ees,

a pp. M iddlesborough

N Z 4 920

B urgess ( 1968a) f ig . 2 2.1 V CH D urham I ( 1905) 2 07 B M W G

R iver T yne, a bove N ewcastle B ridge L arge s pearhead: s ocket b roken •

181

N Z 2 563 N CH 1 3 ( 1930) f ig.18 P SAN ( 2) 3 ( 1887-8) 3 09 V CH D urham I ( 1905) BM W G

' Kings M eadows',

R iver T yne

S pearhead w ith s mall

N Z 2 362

l unate o penings

N CH

1 3

1 646 ( 1930)

f ig . 1 9

V CH D urham I ( 1905) B M W G 1 667

4 49

2 07

2 06,p1.

L ate B ronze A ge M etalwork: H oards

( Table

6 0

A lnwick, H ulne P ark

E wart P ark p hase

) N U

1 614

F ound i n 1 726 " clearing t he e arth f rom a r ock...about h alf a y ard d eep i n t he g round", 2 0 s words a nd 1 6 s pearheads, a nd, a bout a f oot l ower, 4 2 " wedges o r c hizels" ( socketed a xes?). I t s eems t hat t his h oard c omprised l eaf-shaped s words " all w ell f inished", l eaf-shaped p egged s pearheads, s pearheads w ith o penings i n t he b lade a nd s ocketed a xes ( ?), s ome o f w hich h ad a d ouble m oulding a t t he m outh. W ith t he e xception o f t he e dges o f t he a xes, w hich w ere d escribed a s " much b roken a nd b attered", n o a ccount i ndicates t hat a ny o f t he o ther o bjects w ere d amaged i n a ny w ay. P arts o f t he h oard w ere v ariously d ispersed. F ive i tems w ere b ought b y G ale, f our o f w hich h e g ave t o L ord H ertford. T he r est " were s eized b y t he D uke o f S omerset's s teward, u pon p retence o f s ecuring t hem f or h is g race, b ut w ere n ever s ent t o h im". I t i s n ot k nown w ho o wned t he o bjects i llustrated b y T ate i n 1 866. O ne l eaf-shaped p egged s pearhead i s i n t he G reenwell c ollection. R eliquiae G aleanae

( 1790)

2 46-8

A rch. 5 ( 1779) p l.viii.4,25-26 G .Tate: H istory o f A lnwick I ( 1866-9) 1 4, p 1.11.5,7,8. A rch . 6 1 ( 1909) 4 60 E vans:

A BI

( 1881)

13,

2 85,

3 21

B M W G 2 051 B randon

N U 0 42171

F ound i n p loughing i n 1 857,

1 8ins b elow t he s urface a nd l ying p arallel

t o e ach o ther, t hree s words; o ne i ntact, w hich w hen f irst s een r etained i ts w ooden h andle, a nd t wo d amaged b y t he p lough ( 1)

O ne E wart P ark s word s urvives H BNC

1

( 1885-6)

2 83-5,

f ig. 1 0

E vans: A BI ( 1881) 2 85 ( as ' Branton ') A A ( 2) 9 ( 1869) 2 53 N CH 1 4 ( 1935) 6 1, p l. 1 .6 A A ( 4) 1 0 ( 1933) 1 85-198,p1.X111.3 A C,

5 2-3

N ewcastle C hipchase, F ound

1 868,

u pright. ( 1) ( 2)

P ark H ouse q uarry

1 932.21

N Y 8 78768

t wo p egged s pearheads,

p oint d ownwards

i n t he s oil a nd n early

A pparently c omplete w hen f ound.

L eaf-shaped p egged s pearhead, s ocket i mperfect F ragment o f b lade o f l eaf-shaped s pearhead, s ocket m issing N CH 4 ( 1897) 3 30 N CH 1 5 ( 1940) 5 5 A A ( 2) 7 ( 1876) 2 09-11 A A

( 2)

1 2

( 1887)

B M W G 2 052-3

4 50

2 64

Chipchase, Park House quarry

NY 878768

Found near spearheads (see above) Two socketed axes, found in a crevice of the rock in 1874.

(1) Bag-shaped socketed axe, single loop, badly corroded (2) Bag-shaped socketed axe, loop broken, badly corroded, damaged at mouth. NCH 4 (1897) 330 NCH 15 (1940) 54-5, pl.II. 6-7 AA (2) 12 (1887) 264 BM WG 1920-1

NU 072022

Debdon Burn, Cragside

(1) (2)

Ewart Park sword Three fragments of bronze rings

Evans: ABI (1881) 285 AA (4) 10 (1933) 185-198 NCH 15 (1940) 55 Burgess (1968a) fig.20.1 Newcastle 1888.21

Eastgate

NY 9538

Found.£ 1812, under some large rough stones.

(1)-(5) Five leaf-shaped, pegged spearheads; one fragmentary. (6) Socketed knife, point missing. (7) Socketed chisel (?) with rivet hoies and broad cutting edge. (8)-(10) Three socketed axes: one ribbed, two plain. (11) Socketed gouge (12) Socketed hammer (13) Tubular ferrule (14)-(15) Fragment� of two discs (? phalerae)

AA (1) 1 (1822) 13-16,pls.I II Evans: ABI (1881) 118,129, (74, 179, 315, 403 AA (4) 49 (1971) 29-36.

pp

Ebchester, Law Farm (1) (2)

NZ 1055

Ewart Park sword; hilt plate broken Bronze ring

Burgess (1968a) fig. 20.2 PSAN (4) 5 (1933) 254 AA (4) 10 (1933) 185-198,pl.XIII.4 Evans: ABI (1881) 285 VCR Durham I (1905) 207 Newcastle 1932.22-23

�lsdon parish

NY 9393

Two -socketed axes

(1) Socketed axe, damaged at mouth:.plain (2) Socketed axe, blade missing: plain 451

NCH 15 (1940) pl.II. 4 & 8 BM WG 1930 & 2432

E wart P ark, F ound i n ( 1) ( 2)

H opeshill

1 814,

M T 9 5513241

t wo s words s tuck v ertically i nto t he g round

E wart P ark t ype s word: E wart P ark t ype s word:

h ilt p late b roken c omplete AA ( 1) 1 ( 1822) 1-12, p l.IV. N CH 1 4 ( 1935) 6 1, p l. 1 .2-3. A A ( 4) 1 0 ( 1933) 1 85-98,p1.XIII.1-2 E vans: A BI ( 1881) 2 85 N ewcastle

H umbleton H ill F ound i n ( 1) ( 2)

1 816,

1 814.22 & 1 932.20

N T 9 628 t wo s ocketed a xes

S ocketed a xe: S ocketed a xe:

p lain b aggy P SAN ( 2) 3 ( 1889( 3 52 N CH 1 4 ( 1935) 6 0, n os. 3 -4 A A ( 4) 2 6 ( 1948) 1 30-1, p l.VI

N ewbiggin-by-the-Sea

N Z 3 188

F ound i n J une 1 878, m aking a c utting d own t o t he s eashore. " Others n ot s o p erfect w ere a lso f ound, a nd p assed i nto o ther h ands" ( see b elow ). T he o bjects n ow p reserved a t E dinburgh w ere g iven b y D r. P age, w hose f ather h ad c ollected t hem w hen s taying a t N ewbiggin i n J une 1 878. ( 1) ( 2)

L eaf-shaped p egged s pearhead. o f b lade d amaged. L eaf-shaped p egged s pearhead.

P art o f s ocket b roken,

p oint a nd e dges

( 3) ( 4) ( 5)

F ragment o f s ocket o f s pearhead a nd t ip o f s pearhead. B lade o f l eaf-shaped s pearhead, s ocket m issing. S ocketed k nife, w ith t wo r ivet-holes. B lade b roken 4 cm f rom s ocket

( 6)

F ragment o f

E dges o f b lade d amaged.

?k nife b lade w ith s ingle r ivet. H BNC P SAS

1 1 7

( 1885-6) ( 1882-3)

3 35-6 1 38-9

E dinburgh D RI-5 N ewbiggin M oor

N Z

3 188

A l eaf-shaped s pearhead: " found w ith t wo o ther l ess p erfect s pecimens a nd a n i ron s tirrup, J uly 1 878, N ewbiggin M oor". T he c oincidence o f p rovenance a nd d ate s uggest t hat l isted a bove, w ith t he a ccount

t his m ay h ave b een a p art o f t he h oard

s omewhat a ltered. A C 5 7

S imonside, F ound i n

G reat T osson

N Z 0 25985

1 868 u nder a r ock,

s word b lade,

2 l ead p ommels,

s urrounded b y s tones: 3 r ings a nd a k nife

( 1)-(2)

T wo E wart P ark s words w ith l ead p ommels

( 3)-(5)

T hree b ronze r ings

a l eaf-shaped s word, ( ?)

H BNC 8 ( 1876-8) A C 5 3 f ig. A lnwick

4 52

p l.

1 76-7, X VIIa.

p l.VII f ig.l.

U lgham P ark F arm T wo s ocketed a xes,

N Z 2 18934 f ound i n

1 973

( 1) R ibbed ( 2) F aceted A A ( 5)

4 ( 1976)

1 -9 f igs.

l a-b

P P

U nthank H all

N Y 7 2976301

T hree s ocketed a xes. ( 1)-(2) R ibbed ( 3) F aceted P SAN ( 4) 4 ( 1931) 3 0 A A . ( 5) 4 ( 1976) 8 N ewcastle ' Weremouth '

( Wearmouth)

N Z 4 03575

P lain s ocketed a xe " found w ith s ome o thers, b rass".

a nd a n o dd p iece o f c ast

S tukeley W hittingham ,

C oldwell F ield

F ound i n d raining i n 1 847, 2 ft b elow t he s urface. ( 1) ( 2) ( 3)

1 929.8-10

( 1725)

1 ;ü,

f ig.

N U 0 8961 38 p oint d ownwards

i n t he m oss,

i n a c ircle) a bout

S ocketed s word, w ith p eg h oles i n t he s ocket. ?P ommel a ttachment: b ronze p enannular b racelet h ard s oldered o n t o a s ocket E wart P ark s word, h ilt p late b roken

( 4) S pearhead w ith l unate o pening ( 5)-(6) P egged l eaf-shaped s pearheads. H BNC

1

( 1885-6)

3 05-6,p1.V11

N CH 1 4 ( 1935) 2 8, p l.II E vans: A BI ( 1881) 2 80,314,335, f igs. 3 51 & 4 18 A C 5 4, 5 9 AA ( 4) 1 2 ( 1935) 2 80-309 A rch. 6 1 ( 1909) p l.LXVI N ewcastle

1 956.236.1-5A

C umbria B utts B eck

S D 2 3207475

F rom a b urial. ( 1) ( 2)

I n a c ist w ith a n i nhumation

( see C atalogue 2 3).

E wart P ark s word ( bent w hen f ound) L eaf-shaped p egged s pearhead C W

( 2)

6 5

( 1965)

3 8-52

C lough n os. 1 05, 11 D avey & F orster ( 1975) L ancaster 7 1.70/1-2 4 53

n os.123-124

C arlisle, K ings M eadows

N Y 3 955

T wo r ibbed s ocketed a xes

( both d amaged) C lough n os.

8 3 & 8 4

C arlisle 2 0.1944 L ittle U rswick, L ong R igg F ield

S D 2 673

I n a c left i n t he r ock c 1 829; a h oard o f b ronzes s aid t o c onsist o f a s pearhead a nd 4 o r 5b ronze c elts a nd r ings ( now l ost) G aythorpe ( 1909) 2 12-3 C lough ( 1969) 3 5 L ittle U rswick T arn

S D 2 673

F ound " a f ew y ears s ince" e xcavating s tone f or l ime-burning, " in a c left o f t he r ock, s everal p ieces o f a ncient w eapons, a s s words, s pears, e tc." ( now l ost). B olton ( 1869) 1 22-3 T hese t wo a ccounts h ave b een d iscussed a s a s ingle h oard ( Powell 1 963,30), b ut t he d iscrepancy i n d ate a nd c ontents m ight s uggest t wo s eparate f inds.

4 54

H eathery B urn C ave

N Y 9 05493

F ound i n 1 843 a nd a t i ntervals b etween 1 859 a nd 1 872, l ength o f a c ave, r emoved b y l imestone q uarrying.

a long a c 5 00ft

T he c ontents o f t he c ave a re d ocumented b y B ritton ( 1968; 1 971), a nd a re l isted h ere i n a bbreviated f orm . N umbers ( in b rackets) f ollowing e ach e ntry r efer t o t he n umbering u sed i n I nventaria A rchaelogica G B 5 5 ( Britton 1 968). G old o bjects ' Lock-ring ' ( 1) P enannular b racelet

( 2)

O bjects o f b ronze 3P enannular b racelets

( 3-5) '

B racelet o f l ooped b ronze r od, w ith h ook t erminal F inger r ing ( made f rom f rag. o f b racelet) ( 12)

( 6)

H arness a ttachments 1 2 r ings ( 29-40) B utton w ith l oop S trap d istributor D isc w ith 5 l oops

( 41) ( 42) ( 43)

6 d iscs w ith 4 l oops

( 44-49)

W agon f ittings 8 c ylindrical n ave b ands

( 50-57)

W eapons/tools e tc. B ronze b ucket ( 58) ' Ewart P ark' s word

( 59)

F rag. o f s word b lade ( 60) 9 l eaf-shaped p egged s pearheads

( 61-69)

T ongs ( 70) O ne v alve ( of 2 v alve m ould) f or c asting s ocketed r ibbed a xes C asting j et ( 72) P iece o f c opper/bronze i ngot ( 73) 8 s ocketed r ibbed a xes ( 74-81) 1p lain s ocketed a xe ( 84) 1s ocketed a xe w ith w ing o rnament 3 s ocketed g ouges

( 83)

( 85-87)

S ocketed c hisel ( 88) N arrow c hisel o r a wl ( 89) A wl ( 90) B ifid r azor, C lass I I ( 91) T wo s ocketed k nives T anged k nife ( 94)

( 92-93)

P ins 1 4 b ronze p ins

( 95-108)

O bjects o f b one/stone/shell e tc. 5 r ings o f p olished j et

( 7-11)

Amber b ead ( 13) 2 C ylindrical s tone b eads 2 s tone p endants

( 14-15)

( 16-17)

3 p erforated s hells

( 18-20)

6 p erforated a nimal

t eeth

( 21-26

4 55

( 71)

B one c heek p iece ( 27) A ntler c heek p iece ( 28) 9 p ointed b one i mplements

( 109-117)

2 p ointed b one i mplements w ith p erforated h eads 2 0 p ointed b one i mplements ( 121-140) B one c hisel ( 141) 3b one g ouges ( 142-144) ? l arge b one g ouge ( 145) 1 6 b one s patulae ( 146-161) 8 O bjects w ith r ectangular s lot: 2 s mall b one t oggles ( 170-171) H andle o f a ntler t ine ( 172)

h andles o r t oggles o f b one a nd a ntler

2 o bjects, ? h andles, o f a ntler t ine A ntler t ine w ith c utting m arks ( 175) P ointed i mplement o f j et ( 120) l ead s pindle w horls(176) 2b one s pindle w horl s ( 177-178) 3 s tone s pindle w horl P olishing s tone ( 182) S tone h one ( 183)

( 118-119)

( 162-169)

( 173-174)

( 179-181)

F lint f abricator ( 184) B arbed a nd t anged a rrowhead 3F lint f lakes ( 186-188) S herds o f p ottery ( 189-196)

( 185)

B M, A shmolean & E dinburgh 1s ocketed r ibbed a xe: ( Jones 1 978, f ig.2.1)

s aid t o b e o ne o f s even f ound J anuary B owes

1 8,

1 862.

1 971.21

O n t he b asis o f G reenwell's a ccount o f t he d iscoveries ( 1894), i t s eems t hat a c onsiderable a mount o f m aterial, e specially p ottery, i s n ow l ost ( Britton 1 971, 2 4-30), a s f ollows:h alf a p enannular b ronze b racelet 1s tone b ead 3b one/antler c heek p ieces 1 0-11 b ronze r ings b ronze s word 8 (+) b ronze s ocketed a xes 2 a ntler t ine f ragments b one s pindle w horl l arge q uantities o f p ottery p iece o f b ronze w ire b one b ead k nife o f s plit b oar's t usk f rags. o f w orked b one a nd h orn s haped p ieces o f w ood B ritton B ritton

( 1968) ( 1971)

G reenwell:

4 56

I nvent.

A rch.

5 4

A rch .

( 1894)

G B 5 5

8 7-114

S ingle f inds S ocketed a xes N orth-east A llendale p arish

N Y 8 455

p lain

B urgess

( 1968a)

P SAN ( 4) N ewcastle A lnwick C astle, N orth D emesne

N U

1 928.127

A C 4 9 A lnwick

S outh M oor

N T 9 85379 f ragment

P SAN N CH

1 880.213

( 4) 1 4

2 ( 1927)

( 1935)

N ewcastle B elford, M artfield

N U

2 15

1 914

p lain

B armoor

f ig.20.3

3 ( 1929)

1 2383380 p lain

P SAN

( 4)

AA ( 4)

2 18,fig.

6 0

1 926.22 1 0

2 6

( 1947)

2 15,280

( 1948)pl.VII,

1 35-6

N ewcastle B elford

N U

1 033

p lain

B M W G

1 924

B randon

N Z 2 439

p lain

VCH D urham I ( 1905) B M W G

B ranton

N U 0 48162

1 919

H BNC 1 ( 1885-6) 2 87 N CH 1 4 ( 1975) 6 0 B M W G

B roomwood C amp

N U

1 3491185

r ibbed

P SAN H BNC

1 939 ( 4) 1 0 ( 1947) 2 04 1 ( 1885-6) 3 11, f ig .30

A A ( 4)

2 6

N ewcastle B urgh H ill,

T osson

N U023003

D ixon N CH

C hester-le-Street

2 07

N Z 2 751

p lain

( i948) 1 944.10

( 1903)

1 5

( 1940)

E vans:

A BI

1 37,p1.V11

1 32 5 4

( 1881)

16

A rch. J . 1 7 ( 1860) 7 5 V CH D urham I ( 1905)207 E aster T orr

N T 9 1552812

p lain

H BNC 1 9 ( 1903-5) N CH 1 4 ( 1935) 6 0

?E wart P ark N T 9 532

b aggy

N ewcastle

?E wart P ark

r ibbed

B urgess

N T 9 532

G lanton W estfield

N U 0 5731468

G reenleighton N Z 0 28920

1 932.50

( 1968a)

N ewcastle

1 65

f ig.20.4

1 932.49

H BNC 1 ( 1885-6) 3 13 N CH 1 4 ( 1935) 6 0, 5 44 r ibbed 4 57

B M W G

1 922

H eddon o n t he W all

N Z

1 366

p lain?

A A ( 2)

1 6

N CH

( 1930)

1 3

( 1891-4)

3 38,

p l.

f ig.11

C hester m useum H esleyside

N Y 8 16838

b aggy

N CH

1 5

( 1940)

N ewcastle H exham

N Y 9 364

r ibbed

P SAN

( 3)

1 852.7 4 ( 1910)

N ewcastle I ngoe

N Z 0 374

r ibbed

1 2

N ewham L ough

N U

1 691291

f aceted

?N orth T ynedale

r ibbed

p lain r ibbed

S imonburn

N Z 2 60237

N Y 8 68727

N CH 1 ( 1893) 2 69-70, f ig. E vans: A BI ( 1881) 1 29, f ig .151 B urgess & M iket ( 1976) 8 1 914

B urgess

B M W G

r ibbed?

P SAN

( 1968a)

T row R ocks

N U

f ig .20.5

1 925.14.3

p lain

N CH

1 5870117

N Z 3 84667

1 932-3 ( 4)

1 5

B M W G S warland B urn

2 07

N Y 9 85667

d itto S chool A ycliffe

f ig .7

1 880.212

N ewcastle S tagshaw B ank

1,

V CH D urham I ( 1905)

B M W G

S andhoe,

1 932.85

( 1926)

A lnwick N Z 3 21253

1 58

A C 4 9 N CH

M orden C arr

5 4

2 ( 9127)

( 1940)

5 4,

2 28, p l.

f ig. 1 1.5

1 925

b aggy

P SAN ( 4) P SAN ( 3)

6 ( 1935) 3 52 1 0 ( 1923) 2 15

r ibbed

V CH D urham I ( 1905) 2 07 B urgess & M iket ( 1976) f ig.lc. S outh S hields

R iver T yne

( Newburn)

N Z

1 665

r ibbed

P SAN ( 2) 9 ( 1901) 1 02.fig,139 A A ( 2) 2 2 ( 1900)XIV N ewcastle

R iver W ear

W arton

( Hylton)

N Z 3 557

A A ( 4) 4 6 ( 1968) 3 00 V CH D urham I ( 1905) 2 07

N U 0 0950301

D ixon ( 1903) 1 27, N CH 1 5 ( 1940) 5 4 S t.

n r.

W ycliffe H all

1 899.12.60

N Z

19143

r ibbed 4 58

P SAN

f ig.4

A lbans ( 3)

3 ( 1909)

3 18, p l.

C umbria A instable

N Y 5 51479

p lain

C W ( 2)

5 1

C lough n o.

( 1952)

I 72-3,fig.

8 0

C arlisle A ldingham ,

A lston

G leaston C astle

S D 2 62714

N Y 7 146

B lindbeck,

n r.

S leagill

f aceted

D avey& F orster

r ibbed

C lough n o.

N Y 5 919

( 1975)

8 2

8 1

N ewcastle

1 958.3-4A

C W ( 2)

( 1945)

4 4

n o.

1 61

P P B rough,

S windale G range

N Y 8 00149 f aceted

C W ( 2) C W ( 2)

5 ( 1905) 2 69 4 5 ( 1945) 1 78

C lough n o.

1 02

C arlisle 3 4.1904 B rough u nder S tainmore

N Y 7 914 r ibbed

C lough n o.

8 2

B M 1 874.3-28.76 C arlisle

N Y 3 955

p lain

C W ( 2)

5 1

C lough n o.

( 1952)

1 73-4,fig.4

8 5

E dinburgh D F125 G reystoke

L owther

N Y 4 330

p lain w ith C W ( 2) 5 1 ( 1952) f acet o n C lough n o. 8 6 o ne f ace E dinburgh D F126

N Y 5 223

r ibbed

C lough n o.

1 73-4,fig.5

8 9

C arlisle 2 7.26.430 M orland

N Y 6 022

r ibbed

C W ( w ) 4 5 ( 1946) C lough n o. 9 0

1 78

P P M osedale

N Y 3 532

C W ( 2)

2 4

C lough n o.

( 1924)

3 66

9 1

P P P enrith

N Y 5 130

r ibbed

C W ( 2) 4 5 ( 1945) C lough n o. 9 2

1 78

C arlisle 2 7.26.429 P enrith, F ell L ane

N Y 5 130

( ? f ound w ith a M BA s ide-looped s pearhead) R iver I rthing

r ibbed

B urgess

( 1968a)

C lough n o.

f ig.I6.8

9 3

( between N aworth & L anercost) c N Y 5 562 A rch. 5 3 ( 1893) 4 59

5 07

S hap r ural,

R ogersceugh N Y 5 212 r ibbed

S hap r ural,

R ogersceugh N Y 5 212 d amaged

C W ( 2) C W ( 2)

4 0 4 5

C lough n o.

( 1940) ( 1945)

13 1 78

9 4

C arlisle 2 7.26.427 S tainton-in-Furness

S D 2 48728 p lain

C W ( 2)

1 2

( 1912)

D avey & F orster ' Temple S owerby'

N Y 6 127

p lain

C lough n o.

2 77-84 ( 1975)

n o.

9 1

1 03

C arlisle P4 /9 0

S words:

E wart P ark t ype

N orth-east C hatton, Amerside L aw F arm

N U 0 6782740

A C 5 1, p l. X V1I.2 N CH 1 4 ( 1935) 6 1, p l.

1 .7

A lnwick K ielder F orest

N Y 6 49905

( confluence o f t he L ewisburn a nd N orth T yne)

H ilt p late b roken R iver W ear,

H ylton

B M 1 931.10-7. N Z 3 556

A A ( 4)

4 6

( 1968)

3 00-1

S underland D itto

S pearheads w ith l unate o penings B owsden M oor

H BNC 1 0 ( 1882-4) N CH 1 4 ( 1935) 6 0

N T 9 69425

1 92-4,fig.

E dinburgh D H99

S pearheads w ith o penings i n t he b lade N orth-east B lakehope

( High B leakhope)

H BNC

N T 9 215

1

N CH 1 4

( 1885-6) ( 1935)

2 90-1,fig.13

6 0

E vans: A BI ( 1881) 3 34, B urgess ( 1968a) 3 1,69

f ig.417

B M W G 2 056 T yne b ank,

n r.

O vington

B urgess

N Z 0 663

( 1968a)

6 9,

f ig .22.8

( 1909)

p l.

L XX f ig.42

P P

C umbria N aworth

A rch .

N Y 5 662

6 1

E vans: B urgess

A BI

( 1968a)

C lough n o. 4 60

( 1881)

B M W G 2 054

1 07

6 9

3 33-4,fig.4I6

P egged s pearheads N orth-east M iddleton i n T eesdale

N Y 9 48255 p eg-hole m ouldings

?W oolsington

N Z

1 969

J ones B owes P SAN

( 1978) 4 , f ig.2.4 1 958.1659 ( 3)

1 0

( 1923)

1 86,p1.

C umbria b etween A rkholme & R edwell

c S D 5 872

C W ( 2)

4 3

( 1943)

7 0,p.

K endal B ewcastle n r.

C amp G raves

N Y 5 674

E vans:

A BI

( 1881)

A rch. J . 1 ( 1954) C lough n o. 1 04 P iel C astle

S D 2 32637

3 14 2 31,

f ig.

C W ( 2) 3 ( 1903) C W ( 2) 6 ( 1906) C lough n o. 1 09

4 10 1 47-8,p1.

D avey & F orster

( 1975)

n o.

1 03

B arrow P enrith

N Y 5 130

C W ( 2)

4 0

C lough n o.

( 1940) 1 08.

1 08,

1 23

f ig.6

C arlisle 2 7.26.426 W oundale R aise, T routbeck N Y 4 103 ? from a b urial ( see C atalogue 2 3)

C W ( 2) 4 9 ( 1949) C lough n o. 10

1 0-14,fig.

P P

K nives N orth-east C artington N U 0 304 t anged ? found i n a c ist ( see C atalogue 2 3) D issington,

S tocksfield

S hipley F arm

N Z 0 561

N Z

171 s ocketed

s ocketed

D ixon ( 1903) 1 28, N CH 1 5 ( 1940) 5 5

f ig.5

P SAN ( 2) 6 ( 1895) 2 6 P SAN ( 4) 5 ( 1933) 3 28 N CH 1 3 ( 1930) 1 8,figs. A A ( 4)

4 1

N ewcastle

( 1963)

1 2-13

2 20

1 961.11

•

C umbria U rswick

S D 2 6277447

t anged

C W ( 2) 1 2 ( 1912) 2 83-4 C lough n o. 12, f ig.6 D avey & F orster P P

4 61

( 1975)

n o.

1 52

B racelet F urness

H omburg t ype

C W ( 2) 7 ( 1907) 3 9-41,p1. D avey & F orster ( 1975) n o.151 L ancaster 4 37/29

H arness m ount

( ?)

G range o ver S ands

S D 4 17784

C W ( 2) 7 2 ( 1972) 4 9-52,fig. D avey & F orster ( 1975) n o. 1 49 L ancaster 7 0.37

B ronze b ucket R avenstonedale

N Y 7 204

N icholson & B urn ( 1777) v ol. C lough n o. 17 ( Lost?)

4 62

1 ,529

G OLD ' Lock-rings' A lnwick,

C oopers

H ill

N U

1 92122

E xcavating f or r ailway b ranchline i n

1 850.

T he e xact c ircumstances o f

t he f ind a re u nclear a nd a ll t he a ccounts o f t he d iscovery w ere w ritten s ome c onsiderable t ime a fter t he e vent. S ome s ources m ention a g rave, o thers s tate t hat t he l ock-rings w ere f ound w ith a s ocketed a xe a nd a p ot. O nly t he g old o bjects s urvive, u ncertain ( 1) ( 2)

a nd t heir e xact a ssociations r emain

P lain l ock-ring L ock-ring w ith d ecoration o f c oncentric c ircles. A A ( 2)

4 ( 1860)

3 6-7

T ate(1866-9 ) vol.1,15-16,figs. P SAN ( 2) 4 ( 1891) 2 13 A rch. 5 4 ( 1894) 9 7 E ogan ( 1969) n os. 3 5-36 N ewcastle C heeseburn G range

N Z 0 94710

1 859.5

T äte ( 1866-9) v ol. 1 ,16 E ogan ( 1969) n o. 3 7 A nt.

J .

5 ( 1925)

1 42-3

B M W G 2 0

B racelets A spatria F ound

N Y

1 828,

1 442 i n t he d itch o f a h edge.

P enannular b racelet . W eight502.

1 0 d wt.

6 gr. A A ( 1)

2 ( 1832)

2 67-8,

f ig.

C W ( 2) 7 ( 1907) 2 77 C W ( 2) 4 0 ( 1940) 1 24, p l. A rch . 2 2 ( 1829) 4 39, f ig . C lough n o. 13

I V.1

B M N etherton,

h ayton

N Y

1 041

F ound a bout

1 796, w hen m oving a b ank o f s and a nd g ravel.

p enannular a rmlets w ith k nobbed t erminals,

T hree p lain

a bout 3 -4 i ns i n d iameter.

( Now l ost) H utchinson ( 1797) v ol.1,151,fig. C lough n os. 14-116 C W ( 2) 4 0 ( 1940) 1 24 V CH C umberland I ( 1901) 2 33

4 63

H allstatt C b ronzes H oards C aldlaw H ope

N T 9 118

F ound w ith a w hetstone a nd a p iece o f c orroded i ron . ( 1)

D ecorated s ocketed a xe H BNC 1 ( 1885-6) 2 91-2,fig.15 N CH 1 4 ( 1935) 6 0-1 A A ( 4)

2 6

N ewcastle S kelmore H eads F ound i n ( 1)-(4) ( 5)-(6)

1 902,

( 1948)

1 38-9,p1.V111

1 956.115A

S D 2 7427504 q uarrying l imestone.

S ix s ocketed a xes

F our a xes, d ecorated w ith r ibs a nd p ellets T wo p lain f ac et ad a xes C W ( 2)

3 ( 1903)

4 10,

C W ( 2) 5 ( 1905) D avey & F orster C lough n os.

p l.

1 82-3,fig. ( 1975) n os.114-119

9 5-100

B arrow & L ancaster

S ingle-finds S ocketed a xe K irkoswald

d ecorated

N Y 5 344

C W ( 2)

1 9

( 1919)

1 65

C W ( 2) 4 5 ( 1945) C lough n o. 8 7

1 78

C arlisle

S words E vans: A BI

R iver T yne, N ewcastle u pon T yne

( 1881)

P SAN ( 2) 2 ( 1886) N CH 1 3 ( 1930) 2 2, P PS 3 3 ( 1967) n o. N ewcastle

2 81 3 33, f ig. f igs. 2 0 & 2 2 1 98

1 886.23

E vans: A BI ( 1881) 2 8 1, f ig.344 V CH D urham I ( 1905) 2 07, p l. N CH 1 3 ( 1930) 2 2, f ig .21

R iver T yne, N ewcastle u pon T yne '

P PS 3 3

( 1967)

n o.199, p l.LX.3

B M W G 2 271 N ewcastle:

? River T yne

h ilt p late P PS 3 3 m issing

( 1967)

P SAN ( 2) P SAN ( 4) N ewcastle

R iver T yne,

n o.

2 00

5 ( 1892) 4 ( 1930)

1 60 1 04

1 929.67

b etween K ing's M eadows & H igh L evel B ridge h ilt p late N CH 1 3 ( 1930) 2 2, f ig.23 b roken P SAN ( 3) 1 0 ( 1923) 2 24 P SAN ( 4) 1 ( 1925) 1 84 4 64

N ewcastle

1 923.9

M iscellaneous b ronzes: ( a) A nomalous

u nclassified

t ypes

B ellingham L th. 6 cm .

m iniature s ocketed c hisel?

H artburn n r. L th .

2 0.5cm

( b)

T oo

M orpeth

N CH

1 5

( 1940)

5 4

E dinburgh D F123

b ronze b lade w ith

t wo l arge r ivet ( ?) n otches: h ilt b roken

N ewcastle

1 951.1

f ragmentary t o c lassify

S pearhead f ragments N orth-east B arnard C astle

N Z 0 59163

B irtley B rickfield H oly I sland

W ideopen

N U

J ones B owes

N Z 2 655

( 1978) 4 , f ig.2.7 1 958. 1 840

S kipton M useum D 1 942.9

1 24418

A A ( 5)

N Z 2 472

7 ( 1979)

2 45-6,

N ewcastle

1 978.20

A A ( 4)

4 1

( 1963)

N ewcastle

1 960.6

C W ( 2)

( 1940)

f ig.5

2 20

C umbria S t.

J ohn's i n t he V ale

N Y 3 122

4 0

C lough n o.

10

6 5

C arlisle 2 47 R F 2 20

S words N orth-east S outh L ynham , W ood C lose N U 0 65302 L eaf-shaped b lade, h ilt m issing.

( c)

A C 5 3 N CH 1 4

( 1935)

6 1, p l.I.1

T oo l ittle i nformation t o c lassify

C umbria A rthuret

b ronze p alstave

A rch.

F lookburgh S D 3 675

2 o r 3p alstaves

C W

( 1)

5 3

( 1893)

4 90

8 ( 1866)

2 65

I rton w ith S anton p arish f langed a xe

C W ( 2)

3 7

K irkdale

C W

9 ( 1887-8)

b ronze c elt

( 1)

( 1937)

C lough ( 1969) M atterdale

w inged c elt

4 65

C W ( 1)

1 02

3 5

7 ( 1884)

8 7

2 00-5

Mayburgh

b rass c elt

C W ( 1)

1

( 1890-1)

C lough

( 1969)

1 ( 1874)

1 97

3 6

S houlthwaite G ill

b ronze c elt

C W ( 1)

n r.

s pearhead

C W ( 2) 5 3 ( 1954)3 C lough ( 1969) 3 6

E skdale

s pearhead

A rch.

5 3

( 1893)

5 03

H olm C ultram

s pearhead

A rch .

5 3

( 1893)

5 06

M artindale

s pearhead

C W

( 2)

2 8

( 1928)

4 02

M oresby

s pearhead

C W ( 2)

2 5

( 1925)

3 51

C W ( 2)

1 2

( 1912)

2 81

C asterton

( ?)

S tainton-in-Furness

b ronze b lade 2 0 i ns l ong'

H elton D ale

B olton W ood,

b ronze r ing

n r.

' nearly

C W ( 2) A rch.

G osforth c opper b attle a xe

4 5 5 3

2 21

( 1946) ( 1893)

3 8 5 25

C W ( 2) 3 7 ( 1937) 4 3 C lough ( 1969) 3 6

N orth-east A keld

N T 9 55295

H BNC 8 ( 1876-8)

b ronze s word

4 03

C hew G reen C amp N T 7 85085 H BNC

_ b ronze s word E shwood n r.

P iercebridge

1 0

( 1882-4)

1 7

F lass N Z 2 141 f langed a xe

V CH D urham I ( 1905)

2 07

N Z 2 115 f langed a xe

V CH D urham I ( 1905)

2 07

C heeseburn G range F ound i n 1 803

N Z 0 971 a n umber o f b ronze s pearheads

n r. H exham , N ewbrough H ouse N Y 8 7096818 F ound i n 1 822 " two h eads o f s pears

N CH

P SAN

1 2

( 1926)

( 4)

1

1 2

( 1946-50)

i n a v ery p erfect s tate" ( said

t o b e l ike t hose i n t he E astgate h oard)

W oodfield,

C ornshields

W illow D ykes, N u 0 6853040 b ronze s pearhead

N Y 8 59756 b ronze c elt

M achauchlan S EBWS S urvey S heet I II

A A ( 2) 7 ( 1876) 1 6 N CH 1 5 ( 1940) 5 5

4 66

2 70-1

C ATALOGUE 2 3 L ate B ronze A ge b urials

N orth-east C artington N U 0 304 T anged k nife, f ound i n a c ist . D ixon ( 1903) 1 27-8 , f ig . P SAN(3)9(1901) 7 6, 7 8 f ig .

C umbria B utts B eck S D 2 3207475 E wart P ark " s word a nd p egged l eaf-shaped s pearhead f ound i n al arge c ist , 6f t . b y 4f t . b y 4f t . d eep , w ith a l arge q uantity o f b ones, b oth h uman a nd a nimal . F our ? horse t eeth r ecognised a mongst t he b ones. B ronze s word ( bent) f ound a t o ne e nd o f t he c ist a nd t he s pearhead a t t he o ther . C W(1)15(1898-9) 1 65-6 , p ls .II-III C W(2)45(1946) 3 4-8, f ig .2 C W(2)65(1965) 4 7-52, f ig . D avey & F orster ( 1975) n os .123-124 P enhurrock, C rosby R avensworth c N Y 6 214 B ronze s pearhead " from a b urial"

C lough ( 1969) 3 4

W oundale R aise, T routbeck N Y 4 11078 L eaf-shaped p egged s pearhead f ound ( ?) i n c ist i n c airn, w ith b urnt b ones. C W(2)49(1950) 1 0-14

B urials w ith m etalwork , p ossibly o f L BA d ate C onynger H urst ' S D 2 68774 A" circular t omb d iscovered, t ogether w ith a ncient b ones a nd a s word" . C W(1)9(1887-8) 4 97504 C rosby G arrett N Y 7 209 F ound i n 1 873, t hree c ontracted i nhumations l ying o n t heir s ides. B ronze p enannular a rmlet o n t he r ight a rm o f o ne o f t he b odies G reenwell ( 1877) 3 86-7

4 67

C ATALOGUE

2 4

( Map

7 3)

C airns a nd c airnfields ( t S ites a t w hich s ome c airns h ave b een e xcavated S ites u nderlined a re l arge c airnfields o f o ver 5 0 c airns) N orth-east N orth N orthumberland A lwinton p arish

t B ewick M oor

N U

1 834

AA ( 4)

t C rawley E dge,

1 026

S tanhope

N Z 0 0103971

P SAN ( 4)

N T 9 612

N Z

N U

N T 9 502 117

N Z

N Y 8 90800

N U 0 601

W allsend

1 5

3

1 67-9 ( 1)

A A ( 4)

2 3-5,

4 4

( 1977)

3 57-8

C BA G roup 3 N ews ( 1966)

1

8 ( 1974)

1 3-14

f ig.

6 ( 1865)

A A ( 2)

1 2

( 4) ( 4)

1 95-205

( 1951)

AA ( 2)

P SAN P SAN

1 564

2 71

3 7-8

( 1886-7) 6 4

2 41-2

( 1 -978)

5 ( 1933) 6 ( 1935)

2 42 3 46

( 1892)

2 9-30

1 54

B B 4 42 A A ( 2)

N Y 9 374

N Z 2 966

W hitsun B ank N U 0 229

1 5

C BA G roup 3 N ews

N Y 8 46603

t S winburne P ark

( 1)

( 1914)

C urrent A rch.

t S imonside S tublick

6

5 ( 1933)

1

P SAN ( 4)

O tterburn a rea , t R othbury a rea

1 95-205

( 1968)

H BNC 5 ( 1863-8)

N T 9 65163

t L ow S hield G reen

2 93-309

B B 4 26

1 40759

t L inhope C amp

( 1936)

C BA G roup 3 N ews

N T 9 79193

t K immer L ough

R yton

4 6

A A ( 3)

H olystone C ommon

t K irkley

1 3

A A ( 4)

N T 7 902

t H igh K nowes

f ig.12

B B 4 12

E asington t H are L aw

4 6-50,

H BNC 5 ( 1863-8)

N U 0 528 N U

( 1968)

B B 4 17-8

N U 0 823

t C hatton S andyford

4 6

B B 4 25

N T 8 12013

t C hatton p arish

D our H ill

A A ( 4)

N T 9 206

t B amborough p arish t B ellshiel L aw

( general)

4 68

( 1)

2 ( 1972)

B B 4 36 P SAN ( 4)

4 ( 1931)

7 5-7

P SAN

4 ( 1931)

1 25-6

( 4)

H BNC 5 ( 1863-8)

1 95-205

8 -9

C umbria A sby M ask

N Y 6 912

A sh F ell

N Y 7 505

A skerton p arish

N Y 5 672

B ampton p arish

B annerdale t B arnscar,

B eacon n r.

R CHM W est

N Y 4 916/NY 5 118

1 395

S D 2 80842

B ewcastle

B irker M oor t B irkrigg

1 596

N Y 0 7020735

B lawith F ells

S D 2 71897

t B leaberry H aws

B lindbothel B oat H ow

N Y

B rantrake M oss B roadside

t B roomrigg

B urwens

C arlatton

( 1937)

9 8

1 67, M artindale 3 4

C W ( 1)

1 2

( 1892-3)

C W ( 2)

6 5

( 1965)

( 1976)

1 83-4,fig .

5 3-65

L ancs.1

( 2)

4 3

( 1943)

1 70

C W ( 2)

6 4

( 1964)

3 73

C W

1 4

( 1914)

4 66-79

( 2)

B ampton

C BA G roup 3 N ews

( 2)

C W ( 2)

1 -5

6 4

( 1964)

8 ( 1979)

9 -10

O W ( 1) 9 ( 1887-8) 4 97-504, f ig. C BA G roup 3 N ews ( 1) 3 ( 1973) 1 7

1 4312611

C BA G roup 3 N ews

( 1)

C W ( 2)

3 9

( 1939)

3 1-4

C W ( 2)

3 7

( 1937)

4 3-51

R CHM W est

( 1936)

1 78-9, M urton 8

C W ( 2)

( 1970)

2 87-9

N Y 0 904

B rackenber M oor

3 7

( 2)

1

S D 2 792

N Y 0 810

t B olton W ood

C W

C W

S D 2 874

B irrel S ike

K irkby S tephen

B url

N Y 5 674/NY 5 96752 S D

d itto,

d itto, S D

2 0, A sby 2 6

R CHM W est ( 1936) 3 3-4, 7 0, 7 2, 7 4, 7 7.

N Y 4 315 B irkby F ell

( 1936)

N Y 7 119 S D

1 54982

7 0

( 1937) 9 8 72 ( 1943) 1 23 1974) 2 C W ( 2) 7 4 ( 1) ews ( C BA G roup 3 N

C W ( 2) C W ( 2)

N Y 5 48799

C W ( 2) C W ( 2) C W ( 2)

N Y 5 446

9 ( 1975)

3 7 4 3

3 5 5 0 5 2

1 ( 1972)

( 1935)

7 7-9,fig .,

( 1951) ( 1953)

3 0-42 1 -3

01-26 C W ( 2) 3 3 ( 1933) 2 9, C rosby R CHM W est ( 1936) 8 R avensworth 4 7

N Y 6 214

C W

N Y 5 32519

( 2)

4 3

( 1943)

1 70

( 1951)

2 01-2

t C arrock a rea

N Y 3 534

C W ( 2)

5 0

t C arrock F ell

N y 3 433

C W ( 2)

3 4

( 1934)

1 07-112

C W

3 5

( 1935)

1 70-81

4 69

( 2)

1 4

1 3

1 70-81

C astlerigg N Y 2 92236

B url

C awfell

C W

N Y

1 210

C hapel F lat

N Y 3 750

C lifton p arish C old F ell

( 1943) ( 1949)

1 70-2 2 17

S D 2 677

C W ( 1)

9 ( 1887-8)

1 27904

C W ( 2)

7 7

C rosby G arrett

C rosby R avensworth p arish

N Y 6 215

N Y 5 347/NY 5 45497

N Y 4 93277

N Y 0 40224

1 596

( Sites

1 -16)

t D uddon v alley

d itto,

8 9-90

C W

( 2)

3 3

( 1933)

2 01-26

C W

( 2)

3 5

( 1935)

7 7-9,

N Y 3 26118

E skdale

1 400/NY

1 800

t E skdale, M ilkingstead N Y E we L ocks G ilts

1 54997

N Y 6 21128

N Y 6 27119

C rosby G arret 8

( 1976)

C umb.

C W ( 1)

7 ( 1883-4)

C W ( 2)

2 5

( 1925)

( 1976)

N Y

1 313

G reat M ehl F ell G reendale,

n r.

N Y 3 97254 W astwater

N Y

1 44056 4 70

2 71-8 2 68-71

3 43

3 ( 1876) 2 51 6 1 ( 1961) 7 -15

C W ( 2)

2 3

( 1923)

2 66

( 2)

2 7

( 1927)

2 18-9

C W ( 2) C W ( 2)

4 3 5 0

( 1943) ( 1951)

8 2-6 2 00

R CHM W est

( 1936)

9 9, G rasmere 5 1

C W ( 2)

6 3

( 1963)

7 7-95,

C W

( 2)

3 8

( 1938)

2 70

C W ( 2)

2 8

( 1928)

1 49-51

C W ( 2)

3 3

( 1933)

2 01-26

d itto R CHM W est

( 1936)

8 9-90 C rosby

R avensworth 4 8, G ray C rag

1 70-181

1 0

C W ( 1) C W ( 2)

C W

S D 6 478

1 -5

7 8,

B url

E ller B eck

4 97-504

d itto,

B url

D alston H all N Y 3 750

S D

C lifton 5

C W ( 2) 3 3 ( 1933) 2 0 1-26 R CHM W est ( 1936) C rosby R avensworth 4 6

N Y 7 309

C umwhitton p arish

( 1977)

f ig .

9

4 3 4 8

N Y 6 112

N Y

C umb.

C W ( 2) C W ( 2)

C ow G reen

D unmeil R aise

( 1976)

3 1-4,

7 0,

S D

D evoke W ater

( 1939)

8

( 1936)

t C orney F ell

D ean M oor

3 9

C umb.

R HCM W est

N Y 6 05557

D acre p arish

( 2)

B url

N Y 5 36270

•C onynger W ood

( 1976)

4 9

C W •( 2)

3 9

( 1939)

3 1

C W ( 2)

2 3

( 1923)

12-4

C W ( 2)

2 8

( 1928)

3 71-6

C W ( 2)

3 1

( 1931)

2 09

f ig.

t G retigate

N Y 0 503

G unnerkeld

C W ( 2)

N Y 5 68178

B url C W

H ards F arm

1 351

4 684

( 1961)

( 1976)

( 1)

1 -6

W est.

4 ( 1880)

4

5 37-40

C BA G roup 3 N ews

( 2)

H arter F ell S D 2 199

C W

2 18-30

H especk R aise

C W ( 1)

6 ( 1881-2)

C W ( 2)

4 3

H irdwood,

N Y

6 1

N Y 5 553

B ank E nd

N Y 4 103

( 2)

B url

2 7

( 1927)

( 1943)

( 1976)

1 ( 1977)

9

4 67 1 70

W est.

5

H ollin C leugh

N Y 5 280

C W ( 2)

7 4

( 1974)

2 24

H owenook P ike

N Y 6 214

R CHM W est

( 1936)

C rosby

R avensworth 4 1 H owthwaite

H ugill

N Y 3 239

N Y 4 300

t I ron H ill

K irk

3 5

( 1935)

1 70-81

5 0

( 1951)

2 01

( 2)

C W ( 1)

N Y 6 06148

K inniside

C W ( 2) C W

C W ( 2)

S D 2 51827

B url N Y 7 708

3 8

( 1938)

( 1976)

R CHM W est

K irkstones

S D

t K nipe S car

L acra

S D

N Y 7 708

1 06843

C W

( 2)

B url

1 48812

B url

L ancs.

f ig.

8

1 44,

K irkby

1 4 ( 1935)

( 1976)

C W ( 1) C W ( 2)

N Y 5 219

3 5

6 3-70,

( 1936)

L onsdale K irkby S tephen, W ildboar F ell

8 6-90

C W ( 2) 3 3 ( 1933) 2 01-26 R CHM W est ( 1936) 9 0, C rosby R avensworth 5 8

M Y 0 810

K irkby S tephen

6 ( 1881-2)

1 70-81

C umb.

1 7

6 ( 1881-2) 1 76-82 7 ( 1907) 2 11-4

( 1976)

C umb.

1 9 & 2 0

L angdales

N Y 2 707

R CHM W est

( 1936)

1 51,

L ank R igg

N Y 0 89117

C W ( 2)

3 9

( 1939)

3 2

( 1936)

2 0,

L angdales 5 0

L ittle A sby

N Y 6 91091

R CHM W est

L ong M arton

N Y 6 624

d itto,

1 69-70,

d itto, C W ( 2)

8 9, C rosby R avensworth 4 2 3 3 ( 1933) 2 01-26

L ong S car P ike

L orton

N Y

1 525/NY

L ow P rior S cales

M allerstang

N Y 5 912

1 626 N Y 0 607

S D 7 798

L ong M arton

C BA G roup 3 N ews

( 1)

C W ( 2)

2 38-9

4 7

( 1948)

B B 3 83 4 71

A sby 2 7

C W ( 1)

1 ( 1874)

2 5

1 4

9 ( 1975)

1 4

M ardale

N Y 4 811

M ecklin P ark M iddleton

N Y

1 30024

S D 6 31875

M ilburn p arish

N Y 6 634

t M oor D ivock

R CHM W est

( 1936)

3 2-3,

C W ( 2)

3 0

( 1930)

2 22-3

C W ( 2)

6 3

( 1963)

7 7-95

C W

6 ( 1881-2)

( 1)

n r.

N Y 7 706

O ddendale

1 2

C W C W C W C W

8 ( 1885-6) 3 23-47 3 5 ( 1935) 6 6-8 1 ( 1874) 2 4 3 4 ( 1934) 4 5-9

( 1) ( 2) ( 1) ( 2)

O rton S car

d itto N Y 5 912

C W ( 2)

N Y 6 28099

R avenstonedale

N Y 7 203

R edhills,

S tainton

S andwick

N Y 4 219

S elside P ike

N Y 4 911

t S izergh F ell S D 4 986

( 1892-3)

( 1936)

1 79-87

2 6-8,

3 3

( 1933)

2 01-26

R CHM W est

( 1936)

1 91,

C W ( 1)

6 ( 1881-2)

C W

3 6

( 1936)

7 1-5

R CHM W est

( 1936)

2 12,

( 2)

O rton 4 0

R avenstonedale 3 6 10-18

S hap r ural 8 0

d itto 1 57, L evens 1 7 C W ( 2) 1 2 ( 1912) 3 97-401

S kellaw H ill

N Y 5 56155

R CHM W est

( 1936)

2 06,

S tickle P ike

S D 2 192

C W ( 2)

( 1971)

2

T hrang M oss

S D 2 77928

7 1

C BA G roup 3 N ews.

S hap 2 7

( 1)

3 ( 1973)

t T hre keld K not

N Y 3 29241

C W ( 2)

2 ( 1902)

t T hwaites F ell

S D

C W ( 2)

2 9

( 1929)

2 50-8

C W ( 2)

4 3

( 1943)

1 70

R CHM W est

( 1936)

2 30,

T indale F ell T ower

( Torr)

N Y 6 157

T routbeck P ark U lpha

S D

W arcop

1 75894

B rae

N Y 5 69728

N Y 4 22058

1 88967

N Y 7 71067

3 8-52

( 1)

R CHM W est

2 40, W arcop

( 1936)

1 85,

W oapbeck

C W ( 2)

7 3

( 1973)

3 62

C W ( 2)

4 0

( 1940)

15

1 31086

N Y 0 709

Y anwath p arish

1 ( 1972)

1 8 1 4

d itto 2 42, W harton 9 & 1 0 d itto

t W orm G ill

T routbeck 3 4

C BA G roup 3 N ews

W indrigg H ill N Y 6 125 N Y

1 7

d itto

N Y 7 33171

W harton

A skham 3 9-40,

1 80, N ateby 7

d itto 2 00,

N Y 4 828

4 81-9

C W ( 1)

R CHM W est B arton N ateby

B ampton 6 9

N Y 5 226 4 72

C W ( 1) 1 2 R CHM W est

N ewby

1 9

( 1892-3) 1 -5 ( 1936) 2 55, Y anwath

1 7

P c a 0

1 2

\

5

M ild w inters,

•

C d E • r i

C O

0 •H

0

o9 : 5

2 a )

c r ) F 1 a ) g C r )

5

} ) P 0 c d

< 1 . .)

' CLIMATIC D ETERIORATIONi

M ixed o ak f orest

E LM D ECLINE

0

E H

1 1

c d E H

( 1 ) C O

P

c d

r 2 . H P

' I TI OV r ID

T VIGVID— L SO c i

0

o

c \ Z r e \

r i

a )

P

0

0 , 0

C . ) r 0

0 0

0 0 c o C O

N c )

o

r _ a 0 0 0 0 H 0

L ate Glacia ]

O lder D ryas

E H

S ub-atlantic

' Little O ptimum

•MI

r C : 5

c d

5

J uniper & h erbaceous v egetation C older .

( 3 U

5 1 0 c + 4 0

T IC O PTI

0 c )

O SCILLATION'

• P

P

1P IORA

P

5

••

P OLLEN Z ONES S ITE

1

I I

I II

I V

V

V I

V IIa

Wi n,

( VIII)

+ ( Abbot M oss A 1

( Abbot M oss B

2

Akeld

S teads

3

Angle T arn

4

B ald C rag

5

B arfield T arn

6

B arnscar

7

B ishop Middleham

8

B lack B and

9

B lack H ill ( Blea T arn

1 0

( Blea T arn

1 0 B lea T arn, 1 1

1 971

B lelham B og

--- -- - - -

1 2 B lelham T arn 1 3 B lind T arn 1 4

B og H ill

1 5 B ollihope B og 1 6 B owness C ommon 1 7

B radford K aims

•

1 8 B rant R ake M oss 1 9 B roadgate F ell 2 0 B urnhope 2 1 B urnmoor T arn 2 2 C atton C arr 2 3 C old F ell

'

2 4 C olt C rag 2 5 C oom R igg M oss 2 6 C ranberry B og 2 7 C ronkley F ell 2 8 C ronkley P astures 2 9 C ross F ell 3 0 D ead C rook 3 1 D evoke W ater

T able 2 : Z ones r epresented i n p ollen d iagrams f rom n orthern E ngland 4 74

P OLLEN Z ONES

— S ITE

I

I I

_

I II

I V

V

V I

V IIa

V IIb

3 2 D rigg 3 3 D ubby M oss 3 4 D ufton M oss 3 5 E henside T arn 3 6 E llerside M oss 3 7 E mbleton's

B og

.

3 8 E nnerdale W ater 3 9 E skmeals 4 0 E sthwaite

B asin

4 1 F oolmire S ike Moss 4 2 F otherley M oss

---

4 3 F oulshaw M oss 4 4 F ox E arth G ill 4 5 F urness M oss 4 6 G lasson M oss -

4 7 G lasson S hore 4 8 G oatswater 4 9 G reenmines 5 0 H ard H ill 5 1 H artlepool 5 2 H averigg 5 3 H eathery B urn M oor 5 4 H elsington M oss 5 5 H elton T arn 5 6 H igh F oulshaw M oss 5 7 H oughton G range 5 8 H utton H enry 5 9 K entmere 6 0 K ilhope L aw 6 1 K irkby T hore 6 2 L angdale C ombe 6 3 L oft C rag 6 4 L ong C rag 6 5 L onglee M oor

-------

6 6 L oughrigg T arn

4 75

( VIII)

P OLLEN Z ONES I

S ITE

I I

r y

I II

6 7 L oweswater 6 8 L ow T arn 6 9 M ickleden 7 0 M ickle F ell 7 1 M ire H oles 7 2 M ockerkin T arn 7 3 M oorthwaite M oss 7 4 M orden C arr 7 5 Muckle M oss 7 6 N easham 7 7 N easham F en 7 8 N ewbiggin C arr 7 9 N ewton B ewley 8 0 N ichols M oss 8 1 N unstainton C arrs

-----/ [

8 2 O ulton M oss 8 3 O ut Dubs T arn 8 4 P restwick C arr 8 5 Q uagrigg M oss 8 6 R avenglass 8 7 R ed S ike M oss 8 8 R ed T arn 8 9 R ed T arn M oss 9 0 R usland M oss 9 1 R ydal W ater 9 2

S t.

B ees

9 3 S alt H olme

'

9 4 S caleby Moss 9 5

S eathwaite T arn

9 6 S edgefield 9 7

S heraton

9 8

S houlthwaite Moss

9 9 S ilverdale M oss 1 00 S kelsmergh T arn 1 01

S lapestone S ike Moss

4 76

v

V I

V IIa

V IIb

( VIII)

P OLLEN Z ONES S ITE

I

I I

I II

I V

V

VI

V IIa

V IIb

( VIII)

, 1 02 S mall W ater

---

1 03 S teward S hield Meadow 1 04 T arn W adling 1 05 T hirlmere ,

1 06 T horpe B ulmer

.

1 07 T hrang M oss 1 08 T hunacarr K nott 1 09 U llswater ,

1 10 U pper Valley B og 1 11 U rswick T arn -

1 12 W alney I sland 1 13 W askerley 1 14 W eelfoot-Moss

,

1 15 W eelhead M oss 1 16 W iddybank F ell 1 17 W iddybank F ell

,

1 18 W iddybank M oss 1 19 W igton 1 20 W illiamson's M oss 1 21 W indermere 1 22 W itherslack H all 1 23 W ooler W ater 1 24 W reay

4 77

,

Probable

clearance

Securely

( h)

dated

Tentatively S =

phases

dated

Phases

with

cereal

pollen

continuous

• Radiocardon

Cumberland

16

Bowness

82

Oulton

94

Scaleby

3 5

S . W. Cumberland

89

Red

Tarn

69

Mickleden

Williamson' s

Mires

5 4

Helsington Nichols

Moss

Moss Tarn

107

Thrang

(d)

Eden

7 3

Hall

Moss

Dufton

28

Cronkley

Moss

Windermere

91

Rydal

Esthwaite

6

4 4

Fox

71

Mire

87

Red

21

Burnmoor Devoke

Moss

Widdybank

101

Slapestone

115

Weelhead

( j)

Moor

Moss

110

Upper

(k)

Weardale

Sike

Moss

Moss

House Valley

Steward

15

Bog

Shield

Bollihope

Meadow

Bog

S . E. Durham

74

Mordon

Carr

58

Hutton

Henry Middleham

106

Thorpe

Bulmer

(m)

Furness

& Cartmel

Rusland

& Esthwaite

(n)

5 9

from

Neasham

51

Hartlepool

of

human

north

of

Steads

Ullswater

105

Tarn

the

sites

76

109

Fells

Kent

Skelsmergh

2 Akeld

Tarn

Moss

Moss

Kentmere

Other

sites

Water

3 Evidence

R iver

100

Basin

Seathwaite

Urswick

90

Water

Furness

Table

Sike

118

Moss

Intermediate

Ennerdale

9 5

G ill

Holes

Ellerside

Barnscar

( g)

Pasture

Earth

36

Water

38 31

Moss

Valley

40 (f)

Knott

Combe

Teesdale

34

7 Bishop

-

Moorthwaite

( e)

Tarn

Upper

111 1 Abbot

Moss

Langdale

( 1)

Moss

Witherslack

Tarn

Thunacarr

103

S . W. Westmorland

8 0

Helton

Moss

Tarn of

Mts.

coast

Tarn

Foulshaw

5 5

Plain

Moss

43

122

date

Moss

5 Barfield ( c)

Tarn

(0

pollen

Common

Ehenside

120

Red

108

determination

Palaeo-magnetic

( b)

Blea

8 8

3 Angle

1 _

cereal

Cumbrian

10

62

c Sporadic

( a)

Central

Thirlmere

72

Mockerkin

25

Coom

26

Cranberry

activity England

4 78

in

Rigg

Tarn Moss Bog

pollen

diagrams

0 -

I c

5 00_

• SRR180

1000 •SRR181 ; • NP IL ‚ 4 . 12

1 500_ •Q 83

Q116H •

2000_

I

I • SRR 1 82

bc

Q2 14 7

Q17 14

2 500_ ,

•

Q2 14 9

• SRR183

. uB456 3 000

• SRR307

• uB464

Q171. Q172 • Q170

• uB466

• SRR309

. Q85 K a .o .5 7

Q 168.

3 500

4 000

1

16

9 / 4

8 2 1 -

Table

120

3 5

( a) I

3

T

•u B463 .u B462

1

1

5 / 4 1

1

1

8 0

/ 4 3

5

I - (b ) I

• SRR308

122 ( c)

1

5 5

1

9 1

107 7 3 I4 d ) _ J 1 _ 4

4 79

4 o e

H

6

21

3 8

L __ _ . (

3 1 f

)

9 5

9 5

1 (g) '

0 SRR 89

SRR

G ak

I8 8 500

3 033

IC

Gak 2 027

c

1000 -

. Gak

1 2913

1 5 00 _

Gak 2 028

C I C

I C

2 000_

NFL. 122

Gak 2914

be

I

C

2 500 •

• SRR 9 0 • SRR 91 3 000_

. 1 (1058 IG ak

2915 u ' ) 0 1

3 500-

. Gak 2916

1 4 000, 1 0

8 8 1 0

Table

6 9 8 9

3

( h)

1 08 3

3 ) [ 62

) 4 4 28

4 80

8 7 71

1 01 118

(i )

I SRR93 • RRR9?

1 10

1 03

115

1 5 L _

k

0 SRRt

4 04 S jU t •122 • 127

5 00-

SRR100 :SRR99

220 SRR 128

S RR97 S RR98

1000_

I

SRR

Gak

1 01

2 073

1 500 _

•Gak 2 072

01

2000

bc

2 500 _

A ▪ SRR597

3000

Gak 2 071 • SRR476

Hv . W1 1 14 3 ) 49 7 •'W1 12

• SRR ) 475

Hy

• Ic 4 712

3 500 ,

4 000

I

U

7 4

7 5 8

106

( 1)— Table

3

1 11

9 0

1 00

5 9 ' — (m)— ' 1 — ( n)1 36

4 81

7 6

2

5 1

1 09

O ther

105

2 5

7 2 s ites

2 6

2 400

2600

2800

3000

3200

bc 3400

3600

3800

4 000

4200 CO

H

L C\

g i

0

( t )

H I

C . )

b . O •

( 1 ) H c d 0 \ r d 0

5

c d

H g i 0 1 . I 0 I C i ) ( Z

( 4

d

< 4

Table

4

S 1 g • i c d

0 H

U 3 CY ' C I . H C d C — 0 NI . 1 1 i f \

C \ I e l 4 0 E 1 I 1 ,1 , 0

Of

c d

\D

C— 0

c

CO 01

t -

H

L A

Radiocarbon north

> > , C ) 0

H

H

>

>

a s

Z

I

0

the

0

c \ . 1 EA

H

in

t r ) c i )

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r t ,

H I X • ( 24 0 P l l C a F A t f ) Z

01

U ) 0\

( I )

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O

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m ( L )

u )

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C I )

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0

g i C d E l

0 P I

H H c d t • c . ) H

C M C r ) H O c d g i 0\ 0 \ g i ON 0\ H N0 I I 0 I I

P4 (Z ( 4 P 4 C 2 4 I Z C D

g i l f 4 I Z

P i ( 4

t f )C I D H P I

C a

I UD 4 — I '

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0 H

O N

H

H

England

cd

a )

( 4

0

H

f or

g i C d EI

g f c d C . ,

. . . _ ,

c a

determinations of

0 C . )

L C\ \D

H 0 0 ( Y I

N

N- N• c d \ . 0

. C D

PIN0 H

0 \ r c i

I

I I H I I+ ) L C\ 1 2 4 Z a ) Z • 0i 24 fZ H Z f4 c d > Z C f ) C f ) = =

Zr

C ' )

H

N -

H

L C\

the

elm

decline

e C)

•H

n z : 9

c d

• • •" ,

•r-D

0

0 1 0

C l )

C 1 . 4

E

4 83

d iagram s t ops

b D

C d

W estmorland

0

0 1

0

u pper c atchment

0 1

0

( e) W indermere

c r )

( d) E den v alley

0 1

M oor H ouse

U pper T eesdale

p _ 4 C s -•

c . )

0

• •

( 5) N ot k nown

+

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, . 0

0 0 r !

±

. , % -° . c r l

c -

i

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0 0 r 1

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•

n

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0 C9 . . ..

C hapter 2 )

T u g -° I

± C -k r \

Hi >

0 g i c _ . _ 0

„ . . VZ

I

I

H

i

, , VZ , . o

•

N . . .•

> , ' 1 ' .

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d escribed

f a t

, LC \

HI i • " ;-

r -I 0

•0

I

I

C . _ .

r e \ •

N

H

C V .-

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r 1 , _ , . . .

C.

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C\ 1 • C

ä i

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f -1

21 4

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M ound/ flat

k l

a

A mble C CXCVI N U 2 604

v t r i

; .

a

* 18

P rovenance

0 • H 4 . ) > > • H

I 1

N o.

I nhumation C remation

N

B elow/ on/ a bove o •g •s •

I

,

G RAVE G OODS

b i

R ITE

H

d itto

H

d itto

H

( 3 o r 4 c ist

d itto

H

h i

d itto

H

1 -c 1

d itto

H

1 -x i

B arrasford G reen N Y 9 273

H

1 -. 1

1

d itto

C)

N) H H

1 -2 1

' c i

S chool H ouse

Z

e

B arrasford N Y 9 273 B arrasford, N Y 9 17724

Z

, d

I

d itto B amburgh N U 1 834

B elow/ on/ a bove o•g•s•

G ist/ slab/ n either

M ound/flat

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3

0

.,

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B erwick , L ongridge N T 9 59500 T owers

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B erwick , M urton N T 9 70485

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C hirton , N Z 3 468

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C hollerford N Y 9 16707

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( 6)

54

S pital H ill U 0 30006

( 7)

55

d itto

56

d itto

57

d itto

' FV '

58

d itto

F V(u)

59

S pital H ill N U 0 30006

5 60

d itto

5 61

S pital H ill N U 0 30006

5 62

S teeple H ill N Z 3 955

G )

d itto

5 65

S tell K nowe N U 1 15254

5 66

S tone B ridge N Z 2 56415

_

F 3 -

U (u)+U(i)

d itto n r S winburn s tanding s tone N Y 9 35746 ( " and o ther a rticles

5 69

S winburne P ark N Y 9 374

1N,

.

M

3

S winburne P ark N Y 9 374 S winhope N Y 9 482

( Sweethope)

5 72

T hree K ings N T 7 74009 ( F our-post

S ircle) t one c

I

5 71

t c i

_

1

.

I 1

2 FV

3

I

M

i • — '

2

( 10)

5 68

5 70

.

I

5 64

U +ss

( 8)

C D I

d itto

0 t a 4

_

K

5 63

5 67

22 c f ) Z P

H

B elow/ on/ a bove o .g .s . w

H

T itlington M ount N U 0 90163

t o

. ,

C ist/ s1a4/ n either

, P ottery

M ound/flat

A

d itto

I

5 75

B one/antler

T hrunton , B enacres N U 0 95108

e

J et

5 73

k a )

22 c ? )

C opper/Bronze

P rovenance

0 • H + ) > > • H TI T a

,

F lint

N o .

5 74 *

C remation

R ITE r

T om T a lon's G rave N T 9 35283

5 81

T rimdon G range N Z 3 736

5 82

n r .Trimdon G range N Z 3 736

5 83

T row R ocks C CXV N Z 3 866

5 84

T unstall H ill N Z 3 93544

.

W ark N Y 8 576

H

t o

H

t o

. 4

5 88

1

n r .Usway F ord N T 8 86145

1

C )

5 87

H

d itto

C D

5 86

I 1

d itto

I' s

C D

5 85

H i

H

5 80

H

T itlington/kemmer H ill N U 1 016

H

i

5 79

r

d itto

› z i

5 78

c )

d itto

, t i

5 77

H

T itlington/kemmer H ill N U 1 016

C D

*5 76

— _____

H

) H i

W arksburn b ridge N Y 8 61767

C r

5 91

t r

W ark N Y 8 576

z

5 90

_

d itto

C D

5 89

.

d itto

( central)

5 94

d itto

( SE)

5 95

d itto

( E )

5 96

d itto

( S)

K

F V

W arrenton N U 1 06304

B ?

5 98

W est B itchfield N Z 0 90770

U

5 99

W est H epple; p it A N T 9 75007

3

C

3

6 01

d itto

C

3

6 02

d itto

6 03

d itto

6 04

W est H orton N U 0 28308

6 05

W est L ilburn N U 0 224 ( f rag.

6 06

W est L ilburn N U 0 224

6 07

W est M atfen ' N Z 0 371

6 08

d itto

3

f

B

B

C z i

F

F V

C

C r i

I o f c halk)

I

6 10

W hickham N Z 2 061

C

6 11

W hitsun B ank ( 1) N U 0 22293

B

E i _ EV

( 3)

,

( 2) ,

-

3

C d

_

W est W harmley N Y 8 866

d itto

B elow/ on/ a bove o •g •s • t l i

;s keleton 3 4

6 09

6 13

U (i)

tC I

d itto

f

( D u i

C

6 00

d itto

•

I ?

5 97

6 12

› , -

H

5 93

E FV?

0 \

C

0

a .

H

W arkshaugh N Y 8 677

< ,

H

5 92

h L . A

4 ) 0

H

P rovenance

0

H

N o.

N

r

z o

• r I 0 P . 1 4

C ONTEXT

B one/antler

C op per/Bron

G RAVE G OODS

C ist/ slab/ n either

R ITE

6 17

W oodhorn N Z 2 988

6 18

W ooler ( ?) N T 9 928

6 19

W ooler

. B elow/ on/ a bove o .g .s .

W hitton F arm N U 0 50005

H

t o

6 16

C ist/ slab/ n either

W hitton D ene N U 0 58005

H

6 15

C D

e

M ound/flat

n r W hittingham N U 0 611

› _ < t 7 ]

P ottery

6 14

C 19 ( 2 4

B one/antler

P rovenance

J et

N o.

o

. H 4 -‚ > a • , -1 a 7 : 5 C

F lint

I nhumation C remation

C o p e r / B r e o n z

:

R ITE

( ?)

W ooperton N U 0 35203

(* :location o f c remat

6 29

W ooperton,nr .Roddam B urn N U 0 320

H H i H i

i nc . +p o1 s t

.

W orm L aw N T 9 37297

_

6 28

H

d itto*

H

6 27

H

d itto

,

6 26

P a

d itto

( 7

6 25

C )

d itto

( ?)

r f J

6 2 4

t o

6 23

3

t i

W oolsington N Z 1 969

M

H

6 22

7%

H

W ooler N T 9 93283

t o

6 21

>

W ooler, H augh H ead N U 0 02261 F 4

6 20

+

N T 9 928

li

I

0 0

,

C

F I

6 30als 6 41 Wyden E

If

B elow/ on/ a bove o .g .s .

P rovenance

4 . ) 0

Ci s t / sl ab / n either

N o .

0 r i 4 J > >9-1

C ONTEXT

B one/antler

1

G RAVE G OODS

C opper/Bronze l

I nhumation C remation

1

R ITE

1 i •

F

d itto d itto

F

d itto

F

d itto

F

d itto

F

d itto

F

d itto

F

( 630-641 t ree—trunk c Y eavering c amp " Sandy K nowe" N T 9 32307

6 43

Y eavering f arm N T 9 36304

6 49

d itto

( 5)

W estern r ing d itch , s tonehole ( 6)

p (u ) .

C d

F

F Bs herd+p

F

p (i)+ss

F

E U

M ?

s s

F

6 51

d itto

( 7)

6 52

d itto

( 10)

6 53

d itto

( 11)

c p

6 50

Bs herd+ss F

t t

( 4)

C d

d itto

F

t d

6 48

s s

C d

( 3)

6 54

d itto

( 12)

b b

C d

d itto

t d

6 47

P (i)

C O

( 2)

0

Y eavering N U 9 25306

C D

6 46

CD

d itto

0

6 45

CD

d itto

CD

6 44

.

I 4

6 42

C d

H •. 1

F

C d

d itto

C d

F

C d

d itto

t d

F

td

d itto

C d

F •

d itto

C d

N Y 7 064

d itto

( 25)

6 63

d itto

( 26)

6 64

d itto

( 33)

E astern R ing D itch(34)

6 66

B uilding E

6 67

n o p rovenance

6 69

d itto

6 70

d itto

6 71

d itto

6 71(

)N orthumberland

6 71(

)N orthumberland

C f )

B elow/ on/ a bove o•g •s • t d

Ci st / slab/ n either

, M ound/flat

P ottery

B one/antler

J et

C opper/Bronze

F lint

S ex

B ody P osition

H 1

d itto

•

6 68

C D

C D

6 65

( 35)

C 7 3 7 1

6 62

ö i

( 21)

t i t

d itto

t d

6 61

t : T J

( 19)

› . •

d itto

C I )

6 60

t o

( 18)

t f l

d itto

C o

6 59

"

( 17)

C S

d itto

c

6 58

>C I

( 16)

C D

d itto

C D

6 57

C D

( 15)

C D

d itto

C D

6 56

C D

Y eavering c ont ... ( 14)

C D

6 55

E e

C D

P rovenance

C D

N o.

C D

I nhumation C remation

R ITE

A ldingham ,Colt P ark S D 2 75700

U C J

C O

-

t i i

Q • , ,

( 3)

6 80

d itto

( d)

6 81

d itto

6 82

d itto

( e)

6 83

d itto

( f)

6 84

d itto

( g)

o

H . . . _ . ‘

o

d itto

t

6 79

. _ . . . .

( 2)

• . -

d itto

d itto

1 1

> >

.

u l . ' t i F c i

-----

> 7 3

d itto

-----

d itto

C D

d itto d itto

( i )

C D I+ . , • , • s , H A H i C D

6 89A ughertree F ell 7 00 N Y 2 632

` t i

d itto

I 1

6 88

C D

d itto

C D

A sby p arish C LXXII N Y 6 48131 '

C D

6 86

C D

A sby N Y 6 86112

C D

6 85

6 87

C D

i

6 78

C D

( 1)

c

A ppleby S lack S D 2 874

H.

6 77

c

A ldingham ,Colt P ark S D 2 75700 c-)

6 76

t ö

0 . ,

d itto

C D

6 75

B elow/ on/ a b ove o •g •s • _

6 74

t 3 C

A instable p arish N Y 5 346

C ist/ slab/ n either

6 73

M ound/flat

A instable N Y 5 48437

4 z 0 i D

P ottery

6 72

X

c n

C ONTEX T

B one/antler

P rovenance

B ody P osition

I nhumation C remation

N o.

G RAVE G OODS

f

C opper/Bronze

,

R ITE

1 I .

H . , . .. H . .— . .

( a)

d itto

( b )

7 11

d itto

( c)

7 12

d itto

( d)

7 13

d itto

( e)

H . . . . . ,

c _ l

C D

C D

7 10

C D

B irkrigg,Druid's C ircle S D 2 874

C D

7 09

C D

d itto

C D

7 08

C D

B arns c ar S D 1 395

1

"

F .

+ m

,

I

( w oollen f rag)

*7 07

M ound/flat .

P ottery > 1 1

2 71

c a

i t

c

"

F H

( h aematite)

I

7 04

—-

"

C D

( c lay b ead)

C D

C D

d itto

7 03

7 06

' L i

C D

B anniside M oor S D 3 097

7 05

' 1 3

0

d itto

I l i

C D

d itto

› l i

C D

d itto

7 02

B ody

0

d itto

7 01

C l )

e

0

d itto

P osition

I nhumation

A ughertree F ell c ont ..

X

r a i 3

C D

P rovenance

0

N o.

C remation

.

R ITE

,

( s tone c ircle)

d itto

7 18

.d itto

H

•. D

7 17

3 a

•. , .

d itto

F ? 2

•. D

7 16

( 715 p ig i ncisor?)

3

H 1

d itto

H

7 15

H

B irkri3g E ast S D 2 8917433

) i

7 14

1

7 19

B leaberry H aws C ;

( A )

o

• H I ) › . > • H ' L i t a

x c i 3 4 i) 6 3

B elo w/ on / a bove o .g .s .

C ONTEXT

C ist Alab/ n either

P rovenance

G RAVE G OODS

C D

N o.

I nhumation C remation

R ITE

7 21

d itto

( C)

B olton W ood N Y 0 904

7 23

B rackenhill N Y 4 469

I 1

7 22

C D

( 721 d ecorated b one o l

o

( B )

H

d itto

( c 1 ) + 0

7 20

0

S D 2 894

d itto

7 24

( double c ist) B rackenhill N Y 4 469 d itto

7 26 7 27

7 28

B ranthwaite N Y 0 525 B roomrigg N Y 5 446

7 29

Ij

7 25

'

B roomrigg

' CI

I

d itto

I V

7 34

d itto

V

7 35

d itto

V II

(

f ra7 .

o f b ronze

o

7 33

M

3

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t 3 : i

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3 .

•

7 32

1 2

n itt o d ' et b

( v i

7 36

B rougham , M oorhouses F arm N Y 5 46280

7 37

B rougham , M oorhouses F arm N Y 5 46280

( VII

3

t o

I I CD

d itto

CD

7 31

CD

X

C )

d itto

C)

7 30

t o

N Y 5 445

7 41

C arlisle N Y 4 14570

74 2

C arrock F ell N Y 3 433

7 43

C arrock F ell N Y 3 433

7 44

C astle C arrock C LXIII N Y 5 455

7 45

C astle C arrock C LXIV N Y 5 455

7 46

C lifton N Y 5 326

7 48

C roglin N Y 5 747

7 49

C rosby F ell N Y 6 101 ( 2 p ieces o f C rosby G arrett C LXXV

B ody P osition '1 2i

I 1 H i

I ' l

C D t I

M . 3

0

( 2)

3

' C i

( 1)

M

M

V 1

d itto

3

, r i

C ardonneth P ike N Y 5 59520

F ? 3

3

N Y 7 309 C rosby G arrett C LXXVI N Y 7 309

3

) ,

7 51

d itto

7 53

d itto

7 54

d itto

1

7 55

d itto

1

1

7 52

0

H . .

0

3

Usel

3 .

C rosby R avensworth C LXXX N Y 6 413

' d

( jet s pacer p late, b on 7 56

F

z

C D

7 4a

7 50

4 %

r

d itto

0

7 39

7 47

( > g

B rownrigg, G lebe F arm N Y 5 2983741

F I

7 38

P rovenance

c +

N o.

I nhumation C remation

.

R ITE

rovenance N o• P 7 57

er a °

P X

r c r i

M

7 59

d itto

M

7 62

d itto

7 63

C rosby R avensworth D ale M oor N Y 6 214

7 64

C rosby R avensworth N Y 6 212

7 65

E dmond C astle l odge N Y 4 96585

7 66

F

C rosby R avensworth N Y 5 95132 C LXXXII d itto

2 4 1

c i. > o a 4

,

d itto

7 61

• H

F . 3

C rosby R avensworth N Y 6 413 C LXXXI

7 58

7 60

C D

C ONTEXT

B one/antler

V

P 9 I t i )

J et

0

• , 4

C opper/Bronze l

G RAVE G OODS

f

C ist/ slab/ n either

R ITE

_

3

P

•

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3 s s

p

G arlands f arm N Y 4 33538

7 67

U

G arlands a sylum

d itto

U

7 70

d itto

U

7 71

d itto '

U

7 72

d itto

U

7 73

d itto

U

7 74

d itto

7 75

d itto

U

7 76

d itto

U

7 77

d itto

U

7 78

d itto

U

7 79

d itto

U

,

U

tr

7 69

j

U

L1

d itto

C e i

7 68

L i i

N Y 4 35535

+2

( 1 )

G arlands a sylum

t u l

N

"-i

> > • , -1 M I t r l

B elow/ on/ a bove o•g•s•

. r i

C ist/ slab/ n either

P ottery

o

M ound/flat

L I "

,

C l

7 80

P rovenance

C remation

N o.

I nhumation

1

R ITE

d itto

7 84

d itto

7 85

d itto

7 86

d itto

7 87

d itto

7 88

d itto

7 89

d itto

7 90

d itto

7 91

d itto

7 92

d itto

H

7 93

d itto

d i

7 63

t d

' . 1

b i

W

' . 1

t 7 J

1 -. 1

C= 1 c c

W CZ )

H

t : u

H

t d

I I

t d

H

H

H

H

I 4

h I

L t

' . 1

' . 1

•

C-:

t u i

d itto

1 -. 1

7 82

' i

d itto

C I :

7 81

h I

C 1

N Y 4 35535

G elt B rid7e N Y 5 159

7 95

G rayson—Lands

I

7 94

, , J

( f lat c emetery)

5 31

, -

I g

, g

'

H .

] i rc e : f

i 5

a >

C D •

G rey C roft N Y 0 34024 ( w ithin s i

I

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( blue ; lass b ead i n m c 7 98

0

M ? 3

H . . . . . . ,

d itto

H *

7 97

F ? 2

1

d itto

C D

7 96

C D

N Y 5 -7 3

G RAVE G OODS o

o a ,

0

A ,

0 9g i )A ' 2

3

4 4 3

C: . P 0 t l ,

7 99-8 4 H ackthorpe H all e state 7 99 N Y 5 323

H C D

d itto

C D

d itto

7 \ . ) r \ . ) z . )

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d itto

C D

d itto

C D

d itto

1 \ )

C D

d itto

C D

d itto

1 \ D

C D

d itto

i \ . )

C D

d itto

( O ther u rn f rags., f

H awkshead M oor S D 3 296

8 16

d itto

8 17

d itto '

8 18

d itto

C D

8 19

d itto

C D

8 20

d itto

H esket N ewmarket N Y 3 438 ( f lints,

8 23

)

C D C D C D

' U

s t

H ollin S tump N Y 6 513 ( h orse s ku1

( 1

8 22

p i g, j et f r

K

C D

8 15

H eaning W ood S D 2 674 ( p ot h ole)

t on E

i l n r lso i s to r t ie o b ject a

s tone p ounder & p erfor

8 21

lakes nd f k ni e s a

.

5.C)

C D

d itto

1 \ . )

C D

d itto

I \ . )

C D

d itto

d itto

U (i)

n

d itto

attle e tone b nd s b eads a

( 1 )

8 018 14

C D

d itto

c t -

8 00

,

C ist/ slab/ n either

N

H

› . 3I 7 : 5 c o

M ound/flat

0 P

B one/antler

P rovenance

)

N o.

I nhumation C remation

N

0 ; 4 0 : 1

a lso i n m o

B elow/ on/ a bove o •g .s •

C ONTEXT

I

I

R ITE

M ound/flat 1

P ottery

B one/antler

J et

F lint

G opper/Bronze

H

1 3

PZ 1

B pdy

P osition

I nhumation C remation

H .

1 C 2

1 F 4

d itto

I releth M ill S D 2 277

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d itto ,

C D

d itto

C D

d itto

C D

d itto

I ron H ill N Y 6 06148 ( * p ortion (

8 40

K irkby S tephen C LXV R asset H ill N Y 7 305

8 41

K irkby S tephen C LXVI ' Windy H illst N Y 7 490 2

8 42

K irkby S tephen C LXVII N Y 7 49041 ( * f rags . c )

8 43

K irkby S tephen C LXVII N Y 7 49041

M 3 ni &a 3

*

,

_

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1

› , .

1

F H

K irkby S tephen C LXIX M ailers t ang S D 7 798

C D

8 45

d itto

,

8 4 1i

C D

1

C D ' S

c h H

a M 3 b onas

P

H .

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C D

P 1 -

8 39

*

d itto

m — . .

C D

.

d itto

C D

d itto

C D

d itto

S r

H yning/levens S D 4 90863

P 1 i

8 29

i -1

H unsonby N Y 5 835

n

8 28

8 308 38

10

H ow H ill, T hursby N Y 3 15499

P a n ts,

8 27

3

0

8 26

d itto

1 i •, D

8 25

H olmrook N Y 0 18002

C D

8 24

P rovenance

C D

N o.

8 47

K irkoswald

C

M

B elow/ on/ a bove o •g •s •

t

U

3

>

C

0

a

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K irkby S tephen C LXX W iseber N Y 7 49041

0 F -D

4 : ) . )

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8 46

r 2e

M ound/flat

M

P rovenance

,

, •

N o.

x o

C ONTEXT

B one/antler

B ody P osition

g C 1

C opper/Bronze

o

• r-1 0 P 9 1

G RAVE G OODS

Ci s t/ slab/ n either

R ITE

C ( s tone c-r cle i

8 49

L acra D S D 1 48812

( s tone c ircle,

8 50

L eacet H ill ( centre) N Y 5 68264

c +

W

U (i)

>

L acra B S D 1 48812

o

8 48

X

N Y 5 544 13

r oot o- s tone

8 51

d itto

s tone 8

8 52

d itto

d itto

' I'

8 53

d itto

d itto

U

8 54

d itto

s tone 2

8 55

d itto

d itto

p

8 56

d itto

s tone 6

P

8 57

d itto

s tone 9

p

bd

t z i

C

e d L C

C

t z c i

P

b i l

t d

t D J

P (1 )

M aughan b y , N Y 5 72380

8 61

d itto

b i

8 60

•. ,

C ? L orton ' l oss N Y 1 525 ( . o ak p lank c of f t

' 1

8 59

U (u)

C

›

P (u)

C (+ )

M ecklin P ark N Y 1 30024

8 63

? M ecklin P ark c, N Y 1 001 ( " a d isturbed f

P , i

K +A b urial"

b b

F V

: 1 7 ;

8 62

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1

I

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' , _ , .

z

L ittle M ell F ell N Y 4 24240

1 -. 1

C

8 58

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7 . )

( s tone c ircle)

B ody P osition

0

M ill H ill, O ld P enrit )N Y 4 95358

M oor D ivock N Y 5 123

8 73

N ewton _Penrith N Y 4 731

8 74

O ld C arlisle N Y 2 63465

d itto

8 78

d itto

3 799 10

d itto

c l

c -)

3

CC / . . , +

a

8 77

a

d itto

a

8 76

C D

8 75 — )0 O ld P arks,Kirkoswald 8 75 N Y 5 75400

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8 72

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M oor D ivock, W hite R aise N Y 5 123

.

1 1

8 71

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M oor D ivock N Y 5 123

c r ) t n

c -

8 70

3

. . . ,

M oor D ivock C LXXXIII N Y 5 123

H 1

8 69

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M ill m , B eck F arm S D 1 65809

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d itto

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8 67

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8 66

7-

d itto

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* 8 68

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8 64

P rovenance

a

N o.

I nhumation C remation

R ITE

d itto d itto d itto d itto

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d itto

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B elow/ on/ a bove o .g .s ._

ab / 1

S VS C

n either

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C opper/Bronze

B ody

C d b i b i \ . x . )

( I d

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O rton C LXXIX , L ittle K inman, N Y 6 208

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F

d itto

9 14

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9 13

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9 12

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O rton C LXXVIII N Y 6 53090

i essels w rv

i — i

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( f ragments o f u rns a 9 11

P osition

C D C D C ) C D C D C D C D C D C D C D

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c ont ..

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O ld P arks,Kirkoswald

N

r 5 D )e

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P rovenance

G RAVE G OODS

C D

N o.

I nhumation C remation

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C ONTEXT r 7 2

0 • r—i 0 . f 1

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N o.

P rovenance

9 17

O smotherle .7 S D 2 77779

9 18

P apcastle N Y 1 131

9 19

P enhurrock N Y 6 214

9 20

P lumpton N Y 4 937

9 21

R aisgill H all N Y 6 35059 ( " bones o f o thers" ro bo iI t und a

9 22

M

r x ,

+2 0

2

F V

1 i s -1

R alfland F orest N Y 5 34134

9 23

R avenglass S D 0 896

9 24

R avenglass S D 0 896

9 25

R avenstonedale C LXXVII H ardrigg, N Y 7 203 ) ( p erforated c lay b ea d

9 26

R oanstrees N Y 5 18782

9 27

d itto

9 28

R oo s e S D 2 23695

( ?)

.

9 29

S cales H aggs S D 2 772

9 30

S cales H aggs S D 2 772

Q 31 9 32

d itto S eascale, H erding N eb N Y 0 36008

3

2

A

R ITE

N o . 9 33

Z I

r / 2

0

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c 92 r ; e r z i

P rovenance

P

C ONTEXT

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0 . I 4 )

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f

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S hield K nowe N Y 5 682

9 . 34

d itto

9 35

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9 40

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9 41

d itto

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9 42

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9 43

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3

l • i

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M

S izergh F ell S D 4 986

9 45

S kirwith M oor N Y 6 132

9 46

S tainton, R edhills N Y 4 827

9 47

S tainton H ead,Furness S D 2 42724 d itto

C D

9 49

d itto

C D

, •?

i 1

9 51

U llock N Y 0 65240

W

P •

P

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S unbrick , B irkrigg * S D 2 81741 ( * f rags . o f m any b ur f rags. i n m ound)

C D

9 50

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9 48

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C D

9 44

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S izergh F ell S D 4 986

I

9 39

c usk, o B oar's t

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S ill H ow, O dendale N Y 5 85135

G

9 38

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( 9 33-934 s mall c obb

9 59

d itto

9 60

d itto

9 61

d itto

9 62

d itto

9 63

W aterloo H ill, A glionby N Y 4 48567

9 64

W etheral, C lint H ead F arm , N Y 4 852

9 65

W hite L yne v alley N Y 5 60788

9 66

N etherhalfl c ollectio i l ( Maryport? N Y 0 336) d itto

9 68

d itto

9 69

d itto

9 70

d itto

9 71

d itto

9 72

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9 73

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9 74

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Position

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! -I

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(9 62 O ther u n-urned

9 67

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W aterloo H ill, A glionby N Y 4 48567

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W asdale B eck N Y 5 66084

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9 54

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d itto

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W arcop C LXXI N Y 7 415

' I C D

9 52

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' I

N o.

Cremation

R ITE

g / grin (

9 76

' Cumberland'

9 77

C umberland ?

5 40

4 ) o

H g i C a C D \ . . z { -) 4 -)

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o 9 4 ;

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t a

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75

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t j

N etherby c ollection ( NY 3 971)

o

C ONTEXT

t c l

9 75

G RAVE G OODS C opper/Bronze '

' P rovenance

I nhumation C remation

N o.

R ITE

E ARLY B RONZE A GE B URIALS T able 1 0 R efernnces a nd n otes

T he a bbreviations u sed i n t hese r eferences a re t hose u sed t hroughout t he r est o f t he w ork , t o b e f ound l isted i n P art i a nd a lso i nclude t he f ollowing, f ull d etails o f w hich c an b e f ound i n t he B ibliography . C larke

D .L .

C larke ( 1970) B eaker P ottery o f G reat B ritain a nd I reland

C owie

T .G .

C owie ( 1978) B ronze A ge F ood V essel U rns

G ibson

A .M .

G ibson ( 1978) B ronze A ge P ottery

T ait

J .

T ait ( 1965) B eakers f rom N orthumberland.

N umbers f ollowing t hese e ntries r efer t o c orpus n umbers u sed b y t he a uthors. O ther r eferences, f ollowed b y ad ate, e .g . F ell ( 1950), G erloff ( 1975), a re a lso t o b e f ound i n t he B ibliography . T he n umbers u sed i n t hese R eferences a nd n otes a re t hose a lso u sed i n t he E BA B urials C atalogue ( Table

1 0).

M useum r eferences a re g iven, w here k nown .

T he n otes c ontain a dditional

d etails o f b urials a nd a ssociated a rtifacts w hich c annot b e i ncluded i n t he C atalogue, T able

1 0, i ncluding p ublished d escriptions o f o b jects, p articularly

p ottery , a ppa rently n ow l ost .

5 41

E ARLY B RONZE A GE B URIALS R eferences a nd n otes

N orth-east 1 -2

A dderstone L ow M ill F arm *S elby : H BNC 3 ( 1850-6) 1 23-4

3

A keld C larke n o.647 T ait n o.38 P SAN ( 4) 5 ( 1933) 3 33

N ewcastle

4

A llerwash P arts o f d isarticulated b ody o f y oung a dult f emale l aid o n ab ed o f r ushes N ewman & M iket : A A ( 5) 1 ( 1973) 8 7-95

5

A ltonside, H aydon B ridge C ontents o f c ist s ieved b ut n o s keletal m aterial f ound J obey : A A ( 5) 6 ( 1978) 1 73-4, f ig .l

6

A lnwick G ibson n o.89

B M 7 9 .12-9 .1768

7

A lnwick , W hitehouse ( 1818) G . T ate : H istory o f A lnwick I ( 1866) 1 2 &p l .II f ig .1 A C 1 3 T ait n o.64 B AP I n o.173a ( not i llus .) C larke n o.649 A lnwick

8

A lnwick , W hitehouse g rounds ( 1833) G . T ate : H istory o f A lnwick I ( 1866) 1 2

9 -10 A lnwick , D enwick L ane G . T ate : H istory o f A lnwick I ( 1866) 1 1 1 1

A lnwick , M oor L odge ( 1861) G . T ate : H istory o f A lnwick I ( 1866) 1 0, p l .II f ig .4 A C 1 0-11 nbson n o.72 A lnwick

1 2

A lnwick M oor , n r . F orest L odge ( 1820) G . T ate : H istory o f A lnwick I ( 1866) 1 0

1 3

A lnwick, W indy E dge B AP I n o.217 p l .XLII G ibson p .55

B M 7 9 .7-3 .1

A lwinton , F arnham B AP I n o.162 p l .XIV T ait n o.36 C larke n o.650

B M

1 4

5 42

1 5-17

A lwinton C CIII B B 4 25-6

1 8-32

A mble C CXCVI ( 1883) 1 8 P SAN ( 4) 1 ( 1925) p l .fac .p .8, t op l eft : G ibson n o.69 B ronze k nife, G reenwell ( 1890) f ig .29 . G erloff ( 1975) n o.260 2 2 G reenwell ( 1890) f ig .30 : B AP I n o.206 p l .XLI G ibson n o.27 2 3 P SAN ( 4) 1 ( 1925) p l .fac .p .8, b ottom l eft : G ibson n o.17 2 4 P SAN ( 4) 1 ( 1925) p l .fac .p .8, b ottom r ight : G ibson n o.15 2 5 N o d escription o f p ot 2 6 B AP I n o.212 p L .XLII : G ibson n o.85 2 9 H BNC 1 0 ( 1882-4) p l .III .4 3 0 H BNC 1 0 ( 188204) p l .IV .2 : C owie p .87 N OR I G reenwell : A rch .52 p t .1 ( 1890) 6 6-70 T hompson : H BNC 1 0 ( 1882-4) 5 23-528 T he a ccounts o f t hese b urials d iffer i n c ertain r espects, w hich c annot n ow b e r econciled, b ut i t s eems t hat a m inimum o f t wenty c ists w ere f ound a nd s everal c remations, n ot i n c ists . O nly t hose b urials o f w hich s ufficient d etails a re k nown a re l isted h ere . B M 8 4 .12-23 .1&2 N ewcastle

3 3-34

A mble a bout 6 0 y ds. f rom A mble C CXCVI 3 4 P ot b roken a nd p ieces t hrown a way T hompson : H BNC 1 4 ( 1892-3) 1 21-2, p l .IV-V P ickering : P SAN L 2 ) 6 ( 1 895) 3 2, i llus .p .31 T ait n o .82 P SAN ( 4) 1 ( 1925) 8 , f ig . C larke n o.655 N ewcastle

3 5

n r .

3 6

3 7

A mble ( 1885) B rewis : P SAN ( 4) 4 ( 1931 ) 2 51, p l .XV G ibson n o.14

A mble P ier D unn : A rch .J .14 ( 1857) 2 81-2 D unn : A A ( 2) 3 ( 1 859 ) 3 6-8 H ardy : H BNC 1 0 ( 1882-4) 5 29-30 E xhib : P SAN ( 2) 6 ( 1895) 7 2 T ait n o.83 ( as A mble) & n o .99 C larke n os .652, 6 53

3 9

A lnwick

A ncroft B AP I n o.180, p 1 .XV T ait n o.73 C larke n o.656

3 8

N ewcastle

A shington, W oodhorn R oad J obey : A A ( 4) 3 8 ( 1960) 2 41-3, f ig .2 G ibson n o.25 .

B M W G 2 286

N ewcastle

A ydon t o n orth o f A ydon a nd M atfen r oad ( 1809) N CH 1 0 ( 1914) 34 E . M ackenzie : V iew o f t he c ounty o f N orthumberland 2 nd e d . ( 1825) v ol .II, 3 46

5 43

4 0-41

B amborough C XCVIII, R oseborough B B 4 17 G ibson n o.123, p .98

B M 7 9 .12-9 .1428

4 2

B amburgh , w est m ound H odgkin : P SAN ( 4 ) 4 ( 1931) 2 42 -4

4 3

B arrasford A C 6 7, p l.XXII G ibson n o.105 C owie p .88 N OR 2

A lnwick

4 4 -4 7

B arrasford, n r . t he S chool H ouse H all : N at .Hist .Trans .of N orth .& D urham I p t .II ( 1866) 1 54

4 8-52

B arrasford G reen/Barrasford, C athaugh G reen ( 1822) T wo f oods v essels a t A lnwick C astle a re l abelled " Two u rns f ound u pon C atheugh F arm, B arrasford a mong h eap o f s tones a nd d eposited i n a c avity f ormed b y f lat s tones s et u p e dgeways a nd c overed a t t op". O ne o f t hese i s t hat i llustrated b y H all i n 1 866 f rom a l arge b arrow w ith f ive c ists, e ach c ontaining t an u rn' a t B arrasford G reen . I t i s p ossible t herefore t hat t he t wo f ood v essels a t A lnwick c ame f rom s eparate c ists i n t he s ame m ound. A C 1 0, p l .VIII , b ottom o f p age H all : N at .Hist .Trans.of N orth .& D urham I p t .II ( 1866) 1 54 p l .XV .2 H all : A A ( 2) 7 ( 1876) 1 3 G ibson n os.22 & 5 A lnwick

5 3

B arrasford, R eaverhill F arm J obey e t a l :A A ( 4 ) 4 3 G erloff ( 1975) n o.101

( 1965) 6 5 -7 5

5 4 -5

B atter L aw F lint c hippings, a s mall f ragment o f p lain p ottery a nd s ome c alcined b ones f ound i n t he b ody o f t he m ound ( ? h uman c remation) T rechmann : A A ( 3) 1 1 ( 1914) 1 58-62, f igs.19-21

5 6

B eadnell ( 2) I nhumation o f p robable E arly B ronze A ge d ate, w ith a s econd p hase o f u se p robably o f I ron A ge o r R omano-British d ate T ait & J obey : A A ( 4 ) 4 9 ( 1971) 5 3 -6 9

5 7

B eadnell

5 8-59

( 1836) A llhusen : H BNC 3 3

( 1953-5) 1 24-6

B eadnell ( 1935-6 ) H erbert : H BNC 2 9

( 1935 -7 ) 2 18

6 0

B eanley

6 1

B eanley H ill ( c 1 849) H ardy- : H BNC 1 3

( 1890 -1 ) 3 3

B eanley M oor ( c 1 882) H ardy- : H BNC 1 3

( 1890-1) 3 1

6 2

A C 4 0

5 44

6 3

B eanley M oor C ist w ith i ncised s lab A C 4 1

6 4

B eanley M oor B AP I , n o.159a p l .XIII T ait n o.78 A C 1 4, p l .XII C larke n o.660

A lnwick

B eanley M oor , n r . B olton H ouse A C 9 , p l .VII, 1 .h .s. T ait : A A ( 4) 4 7 ( 1969) 1 68-71, f ig .3 G ibson n o.7

A lnwick

6 5

6 6

B eanley W est F arm H uman t ooth a nd a p iece o f f lint i nside t he f ood v essel A C 1 0 G ibson n o.74 A lnwick

6 7-71

B edlington 6 7 B ones a nd p ot m uch t rampled b y l ocal p eople . B eaker s herd ( Newcastle 1 963 .13 .H ) 6 8 B eaker : p l .IV .3 : T ait n o.37 . C larke n o.661 6 9 Ah andful o f f ragments o f h uman b one a nd a f lint k nife 7 0 G ibson n o .57 7 1 C ist p l .V .4 P urvis : P SAN ( 4) 1 0 ( 1947) 3 22-4 , p ll .IV & V N ewcastle

7 2-73

n r . B elford T wo B ritish u rns ( probably b eakers) i n b arrows o n M r . G raham's p roperty n r . B elford C larke n os.662, 6 63 ( lost) C W ( 1) 6 ( 1881-2) 4 67-70

7 4

B elford C rag " In d eep p loughing g raves a re s truck , i n s cattered p ositions, b ut n o r ecord i s k ept : t hey a re u sually e mpty" H ardy : H BNC 9 ( 1879-81) 2 50 G ibson p .57

7 5

B ellingham , H ole F arm ( 1972) C ist e mpty C BA G roup 3 N ews.8 ( 1974 ) 5 -6

7 6-77

n r .

7 8-79

B enthall

B elsay C astle D ons : P SAN ( 3) 6 ( 1915) 1 53, p l .fac .p .152

A skew : A A ( 4) 1 5 G ibson n o.52 8 0

( 1938) 1 49-55

B erwick , L ongridge T owers N o h uman r emains; s mall c ist J obey : T AASDN ( ns) 1 ( 1968) G ibson p p .71-2 5 45

1 0

N ewcastle

igs . 3 -4 9 f

8 1-83

B erwick u pon T weed, M urton W rongly a ttributed b y G ibson t o t wo s eparate p rovenances i n N orthumberland a nd D urham , b ut b oth f rom M urton, n r . B erwick i n t he n orth o f t he C ounty P alatine o f D urham , n amely N orthumberland. F ragments o f l arger u rns o f d ifferent p atterns a lso f ound i n t he s ame p lace, c ontaining f ine b lack a sh a nd f ragments o f b one . J ohnston : H BNC 1 ( 1832-41) 5 3-5 G ibson p .91

8 4-85

B erwick , M urton f arm F ood v essel a nd m iniature f ood v essel a pparently f rom t he s ame p lace o n t he e dge o f am ound J obey : T AASDN ( ns) 1 ( 1968) 1 03-5, f igs. G ibson n o.34 & p .72 N ewcastle

8 6

8 7-88

8 9

B ewes H ill P SAN ( 4) 6 ( 1934) 3 54 G ibson n o.9 B ewick M oor ' Drinking c up', ( now l ost). B B 4 18 T ait n o .95

S underland

P robably a b eaker

B lack H eddon G ibson n o.81

B M 5 2 .10-1 .4

9 0

B lack H eddon , L amb's H ill ( c 1 796) A A ( 1) 1 ( 1822) D ons .p .5 ( following p .134) C owen P SAN ( 4) 1 1 ( 1951) 2 70 , p l .IV T ait n o.53 C larke n o.666

9 1-94

P f lawearie C C , E glingham 9 1 P ottery v essel " of n o g reat s ize a nd c overed w ith i ncised l ines o f v arying d esign, o f t he c lass a ssociated w ith u nburnt b odies" : G ibson n o.62 ( as f ood v essel) 9 2 F ood v essel : B AP I n o.124 p l .XXXV : G ibson n o.1 9 3 J et b eads : B B 4 20 , f ig .159 9 4 O nly t hree c ists m entiona lin o ne a ccount , f our m entioned b y G reenwell B B 4 18-20 G entleman's M agazine & H istorical R eview ( ns) X IX ( 1865) 7 15-6 B M 7 9 .12-9 .1435-1437

9 5

B laydon T ait : T AASDN ( ns) 1 ( 1968) 1 01 , f ig .

9 6

B laydon, A xwell P ark T ait : T AASDN ( ns) 1 ( 1968) 1 01-2, f ig .1.2 G ibson n o.78

5 46

9 7-102

B laydon, S ummerhill ( 1937-8) 9 7 T ait n o.61 9 8 F lint " knife", B ulmer ( 1938) f ig .2 9 9 F ood v essel, B ulmer ( 1939) 2 61 , f ig . :G ibson n o.20 1 00 T ait n o.49 : C larke n o.667 1 01 B urnt b one i n f ill o f c ist ( 100) w ith s and, p ebbles a nd c harcoal 1 02 B urnt b one a bove b roken c over s tone o f c ist ( 100) B ulmer : A A ( 4) 1 5 ( 1938) 2 18-21 , f igs.1-2 B ulmer : A A ( 4) 1 6 ( 1939) 2 60-3 S underland

1 03-104 B oldon E xhib : P SAN ( 2) 8 ( 1899) 2 06 G ibson p .92 ( possibly r epeated a t p .58 & n o.115) 1 05

B olton, c hapel y ard P robably a c ist , f rom w hich w ere d rawn o ut f ragments o f a " very f inely m arked B ritish u rn" a nd o ther p ieces o f a n u rn o r u rns, s o m uch b roken t hat t hey c ould n ot b e p ieced t ogether . H ardy : H BNC 1 1 ( 1885-6) 3 08-9

1 06

B orewell F arm ( 1922) N o d escription o f t he " beaker" ( now l ost) H BNC 2 4 ( 1919-22) 3 83-4 T ait : A A ( 4) 4 3 ( 1965) 3 17 T ait n oa97

1 07

B orewell F arm ( 1948) C larke l ists t he s econd B eaker f rom B orewell F arm a s l ost , b ut i t i s a ctua lly h is n o.688 , l isted a s f rom L ilburn H ill . C larke n os .705, 7 06 ( lost), 6 88 ( as L ilburn H ill) T ait : A A ( 4) 4 3 ( 1965) 3 15-7 T ait n os .40 & 4 1 N ewcastle

1 08-109 B uwsden ( 1800) N o d escription o f t he ' urns' f ound " inverted u pon b road f lags a nd c ontaining b ones w hich a ppeared t o h ave b een p artially b urnt" H BNC 1 0 ( 1882-4) 1 93 G ibson p .93 1 10

B owsden H ollins ' Funeral u rn' t urned u p b y t he p lough H BNC 1 0 ( 1882-4) 1 93 G ibson p .92 ( as c inerary u rn)

1 11

B ow den W est F arm , L owick T ait : A A ( 4) 4 7 ( 1969) 1 68-71 G ibson n os .8 & 1 3

N ewcastle

1 12

B rainshaugh f ield a bout m ile s outh o f h omestead o f B arnhill c 1 780 " Some u rns o f e arthenware a nd s ome s tone c offins c ontaining h uman b ones a nd a shes o f b ones" w ere f ound N CH 4 ( 1 897 ) 4 76

1 13

B randon H ill S igns o f b urning o n i nside a nd t op o f g rave . S ome o f b ones a lso a ppeared t o h ave b een p artly c alcined . P eirson : P SAN ( 3) 1 ( 1905) 1 39-40, p l.fac .p .140 T rechmann : A A ( 3) 1 1 ( 1914) 1 30-2, f ig .5 T ait n o.67 C larke n o.219 5 47 B M

1 14

B rierton T he d escription su ggests t hat s everal c ists w ith i nhumations w ere f ound. O nly o ne s keleton w as i dentified a s t o a ge a nd s ex H oneyman : P SAN ( 4) 9 ( 1942) 2 23

1 15-122 B roomhill, F ord C LXXXVII 1 15 F ood v essel B AP I n o.98 p l .XXXIV : G ibson n o.50 1 16-120 U rns v ery d ecayed. N ot p reserved 1 21 B AP I I n o.119 p l.LXXII : G ibson n o.113 1 22 U rn n ot p reserved B B 4 08-9 L ongworth : P PS 2 7 ( 1961) 3 01 B M 7 9 .12-9 .1401-1402 1 23

B roomhouse, A ngerton ( 1842) R ev . J . R aine : A m emoir o f t he R ev . J ohn H odgson ( 1857-8) v ol .2, 4 31-2 C owen : A A ( 4) 4 4 ( 1966) 2 25-8

1 24-125 B room H ouse F arm A lnwick C astle m useum ( not i n t he c atalogue) 1 880 .21a .1-2 1 26-131 B roomhouses C CXIV , O vingham Af ew s tones r ecorded a s p reviously l ying o n t he s urface m ay i ndicate t he p revious p resence o f am ound o ver t hese b urials . 1 27 E nlarged f ood v essel B B 7 0, f ig .57 : G ibson n o.99 : C owie N OR 3 A , f igs .8 & 2 9 1 28 E ncrusted u rn B B 7 2, f ig .59 : G ibson n o.109 : C owie N OR 3 B , f ig .8 B B 4 37 -9 , f igs .57 & 5 9 B AP I I n os.485 & 4 97 p ll .XCVI & X CVII B M .79 .12-9 .1466-1468 1 32-133 B roomridge, F ord M useum l abel s ays f ound " in a s hallow b arrow", i n c ircular h ollow s unk i n t he . g round a nd l ined w ith c lay . B B 4 08 n al L ongworth : P PS 2 7 ( 1961) 3 01 B M 7 9 .12-9 .1398-1399 G ibson n os .18 & 1 33 1 34

B roomridge, F ord F ound n ear 1 32-133 a bove B B 4 08 n .1 .B AP I I n o.327 ( Ford) p l .LXXXIII

B M 7 9 .12-9 .1741

1 35

B urgh H ill, C CVIII R othbury B B 4 30

1 36

B urgh H ill, C CIX R othbury C ist c ompletely f illed w ith f ine s and, a f ew f ragments o f c harcoal a nd t wo s mall s herds B B 4 30

1 37

B urradon, E ast b ank ( c 1 859) N o d escription o f p ot A C 2 3 H . M ächauchlan : M emoir 1 ( 1864) 5 •

•

5 48

•

e astern b ranch o f W atling S treet

1 38

B yrness C ist e xposed 1 3 f t f rom e ast e nd o f l ong c airn C raw : H BNC 2 7 ( 1929-31) 3 29

1 39-141 C allaly , C astle H ill ( 1891) H arding : H BNC 1 3 ( 1890-1) 4 3 H BNC 1 4 ( 1892-3) 3 90-1 , p l .X ig .1 J obey : A A ( 4) 3 8 ( 1960) 2 4 13, f G ibson n o .79 1 42

N ewcastle

C artington O ak t ree-trunk c offin 5 t l ong, f ixed i n p osition w ith " oaken w edges a nd l arge s tones p iled a round a nd p acked w ith f ine b lue w ashed c lay" . B ody l aid o n b racken D ixon : P SAN ( 3) 6 ( 1915) 7 9-84 , p l . T ait n o .96

1 43144 C atcherside C CXI E nlarged f ood v essel B AP I I n o.494 p l .XCVII : G ibson n o.86 : C owie N OR 4 , f ig .9 ' Urn' w ith r im 2 e " d eep, o rnamented w ith a n i rregular p attern o f o val i mpressions B B 4 33-4 B M 7 9 .12-9 .1463 1 45

C hatton , L inkey L aw N ewbigin : P SAN ( 5) 1 ( 1956) 1 48-50, f ig . G ibson n o.16

1 46

C hatton p arish C XC C ist p reviously r ifled B B 4 12

1 47

C hatton C XCI C ist p reviously o pened, a nd o utside c ist B B 4 12

1 48

A lnwick

c remated r emains s cattered i nside

C hatton C XCII B B 4 12

1 49-155 . C hatton S andyford 1 49-151 C larke n os .647 .1-3 1 49-153 C airn 1 . E nlarged f ood v essel G ibson n o.96 : C owie N OR 5 , f ig .9 1 54 J obey ( 1968) 8 1 55 C airn B J obey ( 1968) 3 7 J obey : A A ( 4) 4 6 ( 1968) 8 -33, f igs. N ewcastle 1 56

C heswick D onaldson : H BNC 1 ( 1832-41) 9 2-3 J . R aine : H istory a nd a ntiquities o f N orth D urham ( 1852) 2 34-5 E vans : A BI ( 1881) 2 41 G erloff ( 1975) n o.96

1 57

C heswick L inks " Graves, c ontaining b ones o f f ull g rown m en, w ere, b efore t he y ear 1 826, f requently d ug i nto o n C heswick L inks, b etween t he s andhills a nd t he c ultivated l ands. I n o ne w as f ound a n u rn" J . R aine : H istory a nd a ntiquities o f N orth D urham ( 1852) 2 34-5 5 49

1 58

n r . C hipchase M ill N o d escription o f p ot H all : A A ( 2) 7 ( 1876) 1 4

1 59

C hirton , B illy M ill q uarry ( 1790) N CH 7 ( 1907) 3 16 E . M ackenzie : V iew o f t he c ounty o f N orthumberland 2 nd e d . ( 1825) v ol .II , 4 60

1 60

C hirton, C rawley C lose N CH 7 ( 1907) 3 16 N ewcastle C ourant N ov .7 , 1 818

1 61

C hollerford ( 1886) B ottom o f c ist p aved w ith r ounded s tones a nd t he i nterior r eddened b y f ire G ibson : A A ( 3) 2 ( 1906) 1 29-30 B ruce : P SAN ( 2) 2 ( 1887) 1 70-2

1 62-164 C hollerton p arish C CXIII U rn , m uch d ecayed, h ad c ollar w ith a lternate s eries o f h orizontal a nd v ertical l ines o f t wisted c ord i mpressions B B 4 36 -7 1 65-166 C oldsmouth H ill S outh c airn : 8 f t t o S W o f c entral c remation, a c ist s haped f eature, u nder t hree s labs, 4 f t b y 3f t b y 1f t 9i ns d eep c ontaining m uch d ark s oil a nd c harcoal . N orth c airn : 8 f t Wo f c ist o n n atural s urface, a f ragment o f b ronze w ith a r ivet C raw : H BNC 2 7 ( 1929 -3 1) 3 79 -8 4 , f igs . E dinburgh t R5-7 1 67-168 C olwell O ther c ists o r s tone l ined h ollows a lso i n a rea . H edIey : P SAN ( 2) 2 ( 1887) 3 37-8, f ig . G ibson n o.51 ( as W est H allington)

N ewcastle

C olwell B AP I n o.125, p l .XXXV H ardy : A A ( 2) 1 3 ( 1889) p l .XXII-III ( facing p .352) G ibson n o .66 N ewcastle 1 70-177 C opt H ill P rimary d eposit i n b arrow a " crematorium" o f N eolithic d ate A ll o ther b urials i n t he m ounds a re l isted a s o f p robable E BA d ate w ith t he e xception o f t he e xtended i nhumation o n t he s ummit o f t he m ound w hich m ay b e p ost-Roman 1 74 ' Food v essel' : G ibson p .68 1 77 E nlar7ed f ood v essel, B AP I I n o.484 p l .XCVI : G ibson n o .92 : C owie D UR 1 , f ig -4 T rechmann : A A ( 3) 1 1 ( 1914) 1 23-30 , f ig -4 B M 9 0 .11-11 .1 1 78

C orbridge B AP I n o.223 p l.XLII B rewis & B uckley : A A ( 4) 5 ( 1928) p l .X f ig .1 ( facing p .25)

G ibson n o .75

N ewcastle 5 50

1 79

C orbridge H edley : P SAN ( 3) 1 0 ( 1923) 2 81-2

1 80

C orby's C rags, E dlingham B eckensa ll : A A ( 5) 4 ( 1976) 1 1-16 G ibson n o.102

N ewcastle

1 81

C rookham D ene T ate r efers t o t he j et n ecklace a s c oming f rom a b arrow a t C rookham D ene, b ut o ther a ccounts m ention a n atural k noll, w ith s everal c ircular h ollows f illed w ith b urnt b ones a nd e ach c overed w ith a f lat s tone, w ithin o ne o f w hich w as t he n ecklace . B oth T ate a nd G reenwell r ecount t hat t he j et n ecklace w as s trung a round t he n eck o f ap ot . G reenwell s urmised t hat t he f ragments o f P eterborough b owls f rom n ear F ord ( pp . )o btained b y h im m ay h ave b een f rom C rookham , b ut h e h ad n o e vidence f or t his . T ate : H BNC 3 ( 1850-6) 1 54-5 L ongworth : Y AJ 4 2 ( 1969) 2 58-61

1 82

D alton, H untlaw ( 19 24) A nt .J .13 ( 1933) 2 62, p l .XLI H edley : P SAN ( 4) 3 ( 1929 ) 1 9-21, p l . T ait n o.84 C larke n o.668

1 83

N ewcastle

D ebdon M oor n r . T hropton ( 1902) P ot h ad ! usual n otched m arkings' D .D . D ixon : U pper C oquetdale ( 1903) 1 49-50

1 84-187 D enton B urn ( 1) C ist w ith t hree d ivisions c ontaining a f ood v essel w ith " a s ubstance v ery m uch r esembling .. s hagtobacco", a c remation a nd o nly s and D enton B urn ( 2) W ake : P SAN ( 4) 7 ( 1937) 2 26-7 W oodhouse : A A ( 1) 1 ( 1822) 1 01-2 G ibson n o.33 N ewcastle 1 88

D ilston P ark ( 1830)

1 89-190 D ilston P ark c ist A a nd c ist B ( 1905) C ist A , B AP I n os .167-169 p l .XIV C larke n os .675-677 C ist B ,'BAP I n os .170, 1 71, p l .XIV ; G ibson : A A ( 3) 2 ( 1906) 1 32-42, p l . C larke n os .678, 6 79 T ait n os.42-45 & 7 4 N ewcastle 1 91

1 92

1 93

D oddin7ton M oor G reen : A A ( 4) 4 9 ( 1 971 ) 2 37-41, f ig .1

B M 1 937 .12-13, 1 & 2

D oddin7ton ( 1920's ? ) J obey : T AASDN ( ns) 1 ( 1968) 1 03-5, f ig . G ibson n o.10

N ewcastle

D oddington F lat c ists w ith i nhumations f ound i n t he a rea B B 4 10-11

5 51

1 94

D oddington T wo p ots d ug o ut m aking t he f oundations f or r e-building a f arm c ottage ( 1) ' Size o f a s mall t umbler o f t hin t exture, b urnished a nd o rnamented a ll o ver w ith e ntire l ines a nd l ines o f d ots e ncircling i t i n a lternation' ( 2) ' Larger t han ( 1), f lower-pot s hape. T op h as a b and o f a lternate u pright a nd t ransverse s trokes, w ith a b roader b and o f c hevron o r z igzag o rnament b elow a nd f inally a s eries o f u pright a nd t ransverse s trokes t o t he b ottom' H ardy : H BNC 1 0 ( 1882-4) 2 83 G ibson p .94

1 95

D oddington C LXXXIX B B 9 0, f ig .78 & 4 11 B AP I n o.226, p l .XLIII G ibson n o.67

B M 7 9 .12-9 .1421

1 96-197 D our H ill, B yrness S ome e arlier d isturbance . T wo a reas o f s ubsoil b eneath c airn b urnt b right r ed J obey : A A ( 5) 5 ( 1977) 2 04-7 , f ig .2 G ibson p .62

1 98

Duddo

Four

Stones

S tone c ircle C raw : H BNC 2 8 ( 1932-4) 8 4-6, p l .VI B url ( 1976) N orth -4 T hom & T hom ( 1980) 6 6-7 , L 3 4 1 99

E gglestone ( 1966) I n N E b ank o f t he T ees. F ound a fter f looding, i n c lean s ilt J ones : C BA G roup 3 N ews ) 1 5 ( Jan .1977) 1 5 G ibson n o.143 B owes

2 00

E llsnook, n r . R ock S ome c harcoal i n c ist . P ockets o f c harcoal i n m ound B osanquet : P SAN ( 4 ) 6( 1935) 1 46-9 T ait n o .34 N ewcastle C larke n o.698

2 01-207 E tall M oor C LXXXIV 2 01 B eaker s herds f ound i n t op o f m ound a bout 1 f t b elow s urface, a l ittle t o W o f c entre . T ait n o.79; C larke n o.672 2 02 U rn. B AP I I n o.116d p l .LXXII : G ibson n o .134 2 03-206 F ound i n o blong h ollow 2 - -f t b y 2 ft b y 1 f t d eep, w ith r ough c overing o f s tones 2 03 U rn, B AP I I n o.116 p l.LXXII : G ibson n o.139 2 04 U rn, B AP I I n o.116a p l .LXXII : G ibson n o.120 2 05 U rn a nd i ncense c up , B AP I I n os.116c & 1 16b p l .LXXII : G ibson n o.135 2 06 U rn, b roken, p ossibly n ot r ecovered . O verhanging r im le d eep c overed w ith r eticulated p attern o f t wisted t hong i mpressions. B ody o f u rn b elow r im m arked i rregularly w ith s cattered o val i ndentations : G ibson p .95 B B 4 03-6 L ongworth : P PS 2 7 ( 1961) 3 01 G reenwell : H BNC 5 ( 1863 -8 ) 1 95-205 p l .XIII B M 7 9 .12-9 .1380-1384 5 52

2 08

F arhill C rags ( 1925) O ther v essels o f a s imilar n ature f ound i n t he p ast , b ut n ot p reserved J obey : P SAN ( 5) 1 ( 1956) 3 50, f ig . G ibson n o.41

2 09

F arnham G ibson n o.87 C owie N OR 6 , f ig .8

B M 7 9 .12-9 .1762

2 10-212 F atfield ( 1907) ' Food v essel' d escribed a s 7 fin h igh , 4 tin d iam . h aving t hin p arallel l ines r unning r ound t he v essel w ith i ndented t humb m arks i n b etween t hem J effreys : P SAN ( 3 ) 3 ( 1909) 1 50, p l .fac .p .155 T rechmann : A A ( 3) 1 1 ( 1914) 1 69-70 T ait n o.104 ( as a B eaker) 2 13-215 F awns,

C CX K irkwhelpington B B 4 33 G ibson p .97

2 16-218 F elkington, D ude ' ) F arm U rn, j ar-shaped, 2 0in h igh , 1 5in d iam . a t m outh , 4 in a t b ase, d ecorated w ith z igzag o r c hevron w ork o n t he u pper p art, t he l ower p art p lain . A nother, s imilar b ut s maller T ate : H BNC 1 0 ( 1882 -4 ) 5 43 -4 2 19

F ord C ommon C LXXXV S ome c harcoal i n t he c ist a nd a s ingle s herd " of t he o rdinary c haracter" B B 4 06-7 B M 7 9 .12-9 .1391

2 20-222 F ord C ommon C LXXXVI B B 4 07 G ibson n o.136 2 23

B M 7 9 .12-9 .1393-1397

F ord B AP I I n o.306, p l .LXXXIII

2 24

F ord B B 9 1-2, f ig .80 ' G ibson n o.73

2 25

2 26

B M 7 9 .12-9 .1742

B M 7 9 .12-9 .1419

F ord S aid t o h ave c ome f rom a b arrow B AP I n o.164, p l.XIV T ait n o.46 C larke n o.671 n r .

B M

F ord B B 4 38 n .1 G ibson n o.112 C owie N OR 7 , f ig .8

B M 7 9 .12-9 .1739

5 53

2 27-228 F ord W est F ield S everal c remations, p laced i n c ircular h ollows s unk b elow n atural s urface e ach c overed w ith a f lat s tone . I ncised m arkings o n u nder s ide o f t wo o f t he s tones G reenwell : H BNC 5 ( 1863 -8 ) 1 95 -2 05 2 29

F oulden, n r . B erwick D ons : P SAN ( 4 ) 5( 1933) 3 29

2 30-231 F owberry T wo b eakers C larke n os.673 & 6 74 T ait n o.98 ( only l ists o ne b eaker) A rch .Camb . ( 7) 5 ( 1925) 2 8 2 32

F owberry , C hatton N CH 1 4 ( 1935) 6 0

B M

B M 7 9 .12-9 .1757

2 33-234 F ulwell ( 1900) I nhumation c overed w ith h undreds o f l impetshells. U rns a lso f ound, o f w hich o nly o ne c an b e i dentified f rom t he p ublished p hotograph . R elationship b etween c ist a nd u rns i s u nknown . E xhib : P SAN ( 3) 2 ( 1907) 7 8, p l.facing R obinson : P SAN ( 3) 2 ( 1907) 1 98 2 35-240 G lanton ( 1716) 2 36-238 ' Two u rns o f s ome f ine e arth' i n e ach c ist . ' Near t hese w ere t wo o ther u rns, o ne l arge a nd t he o ther v ery s mall' H ardy : H BNC 1 1 ( 1885-6) 3 13 G ibson p p .63, 9 5 2 41-245 G oats c rag R ock-shelter B urgess i A A ( 4) 5 0 ( 1972) 1 5-69, f igs.9 & 1 0 G ibson n os.103 & 1 10 C owie N OR 8 A & B , f ig .10 N ewcastle

2 46 -2 49 G reat T osson E xact a ssociations o f j et b uttons a nd a ntler a re u nclear, a s a ccounts o f t he d iscoveries d iffer J .B . D avis & J . T hurnam : C rania B ritannica ( 1865) v ol .II . V II P 1 .54 B B 4 31-2, f igs.160 & 1 61 G ibson n os.2 & 9 8 C owie N OR 9 , f ig .8 B M 7 9 .12-9 .1455-1456 T ate : P SAS 4 ( 1860 -2 ) 5 8 -6 4 2 50

G reen L eighton C CXII B arrow p artly r ifled. I rregularly s haped h ollow , 3 ft b y 2f t a nd 8 ins d eep e xcavated i nto t he r ock h ad n o c ontents B B 4 34 -5 G ibson n o .94 C owie N OR 1 0, f ig .8

B M 7 9 .12-9 .1465

5 54

2 51-252 G reenville L arge s tone c airn , u nder-most s tones o f w hich s howed t races o f b urning . M iniature f ood v essel a nd l arger v essel, v ery s imilar ( probably t herefore a f ood v essel) f ound w hen g round w as p loughed H ardy : H BNC 1 1 ( 1885-6) 2 85-6, f ig .11 G ibson n o.38 & p .63 2 53-255 G rundstone L aw L arge c ist 6 ft b y eft b y 2 -ft d eep w ith c ontracted i nhumation, a nd b ones o f a nother s cattered i rregularly i n t he c ist . R emains o f t hird i nhumation o n s lab a bove c overing s tone o f c ist . G reenwell & E mbleton : T rans .Tyneside N at .C lub V I ( 1863-4) 3 4-9 2 56

G ryndon B AP I n o .184 , p l .XV T ait n o.35 C larke n o.694

2 57

E dinburgh

G unnerton , S hort M bor F arm I nhumation c overed b y l ayer o f f ine, c lean s and N ewman : A A ( 5) 5 ( 1977) 3 9-40

2 58-266 H arbottle P eels C CII 2 58 ' Food v essel' 6 ins h igh , 6 i -ins d iam . a t m outh , 3 iins d iam . a t b ase . C overed w ith e ncircling l ines o f o val i mpressions ( now l ost) : G ibson p .63 2 59 F ood v essel : G ibson n o.37 2 60 U rn, 1 6ins h igh , o verhanging r im w ith p attern o f c hevrons s et o n e dge i n t wisted t hong i mpressions ( now l ost) : G ibson p .95 2 62 F ood v essel : G ibson n o.43 : B B f ig .71 2 63 F ood v essel : G ibson n o.36 2 65 F ood v essel : G ibson n o.6 : B AP I n o.200 p l .XLI B B 4 22-5 B M 7 9 .12-9 .1439- 14 42 2 67

H arehope H ill C CI B B 4 21-2 G ibson n o.116 G reenwell : H BNC 5 ( 1863-8) 1 95-205, p l .XIII B M 7 9 .12-9 .1951

2 68-278 H asting H ill 2 68 I ' Food v essel' o rnamented w ith ' a r aised l ine' ( now l ost) : G ibson p .64 , a nd i ncense c up , T rechmann ( 1914) f ig .16 .4 2 69 I I ' Cinerary u rn'. B ase a nd b ody p lain, n eck a nd s houlder d ecorated w ith r oughly i mpressed t wisted c ord p attern i n v ertical a nd h orizontal l ines c rossing o ne a nother . R im h as d iagonal i mpressed t wisted c ord o rnament , w ith f our c oncentric l ines o f t wisted c ord i nside t he r im : G ibson p p .95-6 2 71 I V F ood v essel . T rechmann ( 1914) f ig .11 : G ibson n o.59 2 72 V F ood v essel f rag . G ibson n o.83 2 73 V I E nlarged f ood v essel . G ibson n o.93 2 75 I X F ood v essel : T ait n o.88 : C larke n o. 2 21 2 76 X F ood v essel : G ibson n o.65 2 78 X II F ood v essel : G ibson n o.21 T rechmann : P SAN ( 3) 5 ( 1913) 1 39-40 B M 1 964 .12-6 .557 T rechmann : A A ( 3) 1 1 ( 1914) 1 35-56 S underland

2 79

2 80

H azon, S hilbottle ( 1833) F ood v essel s aid t o h ave h ad a l id A C 9 , p l .VII r .h .s . G ibson n o.42

A lnwick

H edley W ood, L inden B M 7 9 .12-9 .1766-7

2 81-283 H epple I t s eems t hat a n umber o f p rehistoric b urials h ave b een d iscovered i n t his a rea, i ncluding f ood v essel b urials i n c ists, c ists i n m ounds a nd u rns i n m ounds. T hree f inds f rom e arly d iscoveries a re k nown:2 81 M iniature f ood v essel : B B 9 1, f ig .79 : B AP I I n o.283 p l .LXXXII M iket f ig .4d 2 82 F ood v essel & l arger v essel : M iket f ig .4a 2 83 J et b ead : M iket f ig .4c ( More r ecent f inds f rom t he a rea a re l isted a s W est H epple i n t his c atalogue) B B 9 1 C owen : P SAN ( 4) 1 1 ( 1951) 1 95 M iket : A A ( 5) 2 ( 1974) 1 54-5 2 84

H exham G ibson n o.4 .7

2 85

B M 8 4 .12-24 .1

H exham , g olf c ourse D isturbed i nhumation : f ew b ones, m uch b roken a nd s kull m issing . L arge b oulder i n c ist H odges : P SAN ( 3) 1 0 ( 1923) 1 39-40

2 86-287 H igh B uston T wo i ndividuals, " of d ifferent a ges, h eight a nd m uscularity" H odgson : P SAN ( 3) 5 ( 1913) 2 43-4 B urman : A A ( 3) 9 ( 1913) 4 453 , p l . T ait n o.66 C larke n o.681 A lnwick 2 88-292 H igh B uston T iny c ist , 9 ins s quare, w ith c remation . O ne o f t he v essels u pturned o n t op o f t he c ist, w ith o thers p laced r ound a bout J obey : A A ( 4) 3 5 ( 1957) 2 69-72, f igs . G ibson n o.54 , 9 7 &1 06 C owie N OR 1 1 A& B , f ig .9 N ewcastle 2 93-296 H igh C ocklaw B olam : H BNC 1 7 ( 1899-1900) 1 27 , 1 98 C allander : P SAS 6 3 ( 1928-9) 3 70-1 G ibson n o.28

E dinburgh E Q 3 78-381

2 97-301 H igh K nowes c airnfield A 2 97 n o. ( 2) D isturbed, p robably c ontained a s hallow g rave • 3 t b y 2 ift b y l ift d eep d ug i nto t he n atural s urface . P lain B eaker s herds, w ith c ordon : T ait n o.106 • 2 98 n o.(3) H igh K nowes c airnfield B 2 99-301 n o.(4) R ing d itch w ith p robable m ound. ? ' native' s herds i n t op s ilt o f d itch . F lints a nd s herds s cattered t hroughout m ound J obey & T ait : A A ( 4) 4 4 ( 1966) 4 3-7 , f ig .

3 02-303 H igh M ickley , B roomhill C remated b one o n f loor o f c ist c overed w ith t hin l ayer o f c lean, s andy g ravel N ewman : A A ( 5) 5 ( 1977) 4 1-5, f ig .3 G ibson n o.62 ( Prudhoe) 3 04-306 H irst , A shington 3 04 T ait n o.85. N otes b y G reenwell ( 1895) o n t he o ccurrence t ogether o f b urnt a nd u nburnt b odies r efer t o h is o wn d iscoveries a nd n ot t o t he H irst f ind 3 05 T ait n o.86 : P SAN ( 2) 6 ( 1893-4) p l .p .221, 1 .h .s . N o d etails o f c ontext 3 06 G ibson n o.31 : P SAN ( 2) 6 ( 1893-4) p l .p .221, r .h .s . N o d etails o f c ontext D ons : P SAN ( 2) 6 ( 1895) 1 53-5 p l ., 2 02, 2 21 p l . B AP I n o.205 p l .XLI T ait n os .85 & 7 6 N ewcastle 3 07

H olburn , M iddleton H all e state C ist w ith p ot ( said t o b e i n C anon G reenwellis c ollection) H ardy : H BNC 9 ( 1879-81) 2 51-2

3 08-309 H ollinheugh , L onglee G . T ate : H istory o f A lnwick I ( 1866) 1 1, p l .II f ig .2 A C 8 -9, p l .VIII r .h .s . G ibson n o.44 w ick 3 10

H olwick i n T eesdale ( 1867) T wo d ecorated j et s pacer p lates " found w ith m any o thers f orming a n ecklace f ound i n ab arrow" V CH D urham 1.. ( 1905) 2 07 B M 7 9 .12-9 .1720-1

3 11-313 H olystone C ommon C CIV B B 4 26-7 B AP I n o.163, p l .XXXVIII G ibson n o.45

B M 7 9 .12-9 .1444

3 14-323 H olystone C ommon C CV B B 4 27-8 L ongworth : P PS 2 7 ( 1961) 3 01 G ibson p .87 & n o.124

B M 7 9 .12-9 . 14 45

3 24

H orton C astle C larke l ists t wo B eakers, o ne n ow l ost , b ut n either o f h is r eferences i ndicate t wo v essels f rom t his s ite . T ait n o.47 A A ( 1) 2 ( 1832) 2 0 A A ( 4) 8 ( 1931) 1 62 C larke n o.669 & 6 70 ( lost) N ewcastle

3 25

H owburn G ibson e quates t his w ith t he r eference t o H olburn ( 307), b ut t he t wo p laces a re q uite d istinct a nd t he v essels a re t herefore l isted s eparately G ibson n o.29 ( with H olburn r eference) B M 7 9 .12-9 .1754

3 26

H owford

( North B ritish r ailway c utting n r . H owford, T yneside) G ibson : A A ( 3) 2 ( 1906) 1 29-30 5 57

3 27

H owick n r . P asture H ouse S ome h uman b ones a nd s everal l arge u rns f ound 4 ft b elow t he s urface N CH 2 ( 1895) 3 39 , n ote

3 28-332 H owick H eugh U rn b roken i n a ntiquity . S herds a nd u rn o n t op o f c remated m aterial r /c d ate f or c remation 1 440+90bc O ther p ossible c remations i n d isturbed a rea J obey & N ewman : A A ( 5) 3 ( 1975) 1 -16, f igs. G ibson n o.125

3 33

H owtel, C ornhill E xhib P SAN ( 4 ) 4 ( 1931) 1 08, p l .IV f ig.1 N ewcastle G ibson n o.30

3 34

H ulne P ark ( NW e nd o f P ark, 1 863) G . T ate : H istory o f A lnwick I ( 1866) 1 2, p l .II f igs.3 & 9 A C 1 1 G ibson n o.35

A lnwick

H umbleton, B owchester f ield ( 1931) I ndications o f d isease i n s keleton G erloff ( 1975) n o.295 S hort : H BNC 2 7 ( 1929-31) 3 85-90

P P

3 35

3 36-340 H umbleton, B owchester f ield ( 1853) A ll c ists n ear o ne a nother o n g ently r ising g round M acLauchlan : H BNC 2 4 ( 1919 -2 2) 4 53 -4 3 41

H umbleton, B owchester f ield ( 1853) A bout 3 50yds N W o f t he a bove M acLauchlan : H BNC 2 4 ( 1919 -2 2) 4 53 -4 S hort : H BNC ( 1929-31) 3 87

3 42 -3 43 H umbleton B uildings ( c 1 850 ? ) T ate : H BNC 3 ( 1850 -6 ) 1 54 -5 3 44

3 45

n r .

H umbleton B urn ( 1811) T ate : H BNC 3 ( 1850-6 ) 1 54-5 H ardy : H BNC 8 ( 1876-8) 3 95 S hort : H BNC 2 7 ( 1929-31) 3 87 C owen : P SAN ( 4) 1 1 ( 1951) 2 70 G ibson p .68

( no p ot m entioned)

H umbleton H ouse, " Stoney-vague" ( 1803) I n c ist a " tulip s haped u rn" 1 6ins h igh , w ithin w hich w ere 2 5 b eads o f p olished c annel c oal, 1 3 o f t hem f lat a nd q uadrangular v arying f rom t o a cross a nd 1 /16 i n . i n t hickness; o ne o f t he l argest o f t hem s tudded o ver w ith F old p oints a rranged i n z ig-zag o rder . T he o ther 1 2 b eads c ylindrical, a l iins l ong a nd i in i n d iameter . A ll t he b eads w ere p erforated. T ate : H BNC 3 ( 1850 -6 ) 1 54-5 S hort : H BNC 2 7 ( 1929 -3 1) 3 87

5 58

3 46

H umbleton, " Broomy K nowe" A n a ncient g rave ( ? c ist) f ound i n p loughing H ardy : H BNC 8 ( 1876-8) 3 95 S hort : H BNC 2 7 ( 1929-31) 2 87

3 47

H umbleton , ? 1-m ile w est o f B owchester ( c 1 880) C ist f ound c ontaining a ' sword h andle o f b ronze' S hort : H BNC 2 7 ( 1929-31) 3 87

3 48-350 H umbleton H ill ( Durham ) ( 1873) B B 4 40-1 T rechmann : A A ( 3) 1 1 ( 1914) 1 20, f igs.1-2 G ibson n os.91 & 1 07, a nd p .96 C owie D UR 3 , f ig -4 S underland 3 51

I lderton P SAN ( 3) 4 ( 1910) f acing p .198 T ait n o .62 C larke n o.682

N ewcastle

3 52

I lderton , G reenhill ( 1872, M r . C larkels f arm) G reenwell : H BNC 6 ( 1869 -7 2) 4 15 -2 0 H ardy : H BNC 1 1 ( 1885-6) 2 75 B AP I n o.171 p l .XXXIX G ibson p p .6 8-9 n o.53, a nd f ollow i ng c atalogue e ntry ( as l ost) B M

3 53

I lderton , G alloway f ield ( 1863, M r . C larke's f arm) L arge q uantity o f s tones r emoved f rom a rea , p robably a b arrow H ardy : H BNC 1 1 ( 1885-6) 2 74 G reenwell & E mbleton : N at .Hist .Trans .of N orth .& D urham Ip t 1 ( 1866) 1 43-8 , p ll .XIII—XIV

3 54-355 I lderton , R osedean s eden E dge ( c 1 830's ? ) I ncense c up , B AP I I n o.286 p l.LXXXII : G ibson n o.71 ( as ' lost') F ood v essel, G ibson n o .64 ( as ' lost') H ardy : H BNC 1 1 ( 1885-6) 2 77 , p l .V B M W G 2 287 W G 2 287a 3 56

I lderton, R osedean f arm ( 1884 c utting n ew r ailway b etween A lnwick a nd W ooler) H ardy : H BNC 1 1 ( 1885-6) 2 78-9, f ig .6 G ibson p .69

3 57

I ngoe C ist c over w ith i ncised c oncentric c ircles A C 4 1

3 58

I ngram H ill R emoving a c airn , av ery l arge u rn f ound H ardy : H BNC 1 1 ( 1885-6) 2 88 G ibson 1 : )96

3 59

I ngram , H eugh H ill ( 1857) A lnwick C astle M useum G ibson n o.131

A lnwick

5 59

3 60

J esmond A A ( 4) 5 ( 1928) 1 9, p l .v .2 T ait n o.56 ( as G lanton) C larke n o.683

N ewcastle

3 61-362 J esmond, C rag H all ( 1844) F our f ood v essels f ound i n t wo c ists . U nknown i f t he t wo r emaining f ood v essels w ere f ound t ogether D endy : A A ( 3) 1 ( 1904) 1 4-6 , f igs. B AP I n o.159, N CH 1 3 ( 1930) 1 1, f ig .3 Gwen : A A ( 4) 4 4 ( 1966) 2 22-5, p l .XVI , f ig .2 G ibson p .70 & n o.61 B M 1 852 .1 _0 1 .2&3 3 63

J esmond,

" Villa R eal" ( 1828) B lackbird : A A ( 1) 2 ( 1832) 3 15, p l .XI ( facing D ons .p .22) D endy : A A ( 3) 1 ( 1904) 1 4-5, p l . B AP I n o.227 , p l .XLIII B rewis & B uckley : A A ( 4) 5 ( 1928) p l .V f ig .2 G ibson n o.70 N ewcastle

3 64-368 K elloe L aw ( 1948) S ite r obbed a fter d iscovery . C harcoal a nd b urnt l imestone i n t he c ist w ith s light t races o f b urning o n s ome o f t he b ones W ake & W right : A A ( 4) 2 9 ( 1951) 2 13-20 T ait n o.105 B owes C larke n o.222 3 69

K idland ( c 1 826, d ug o ut f or e recting M r . T elferts f armhouse) U rn , o rnamented i n B ritish c hevron s tyle D .D . D ixon : U pper C oquetdale ( 1903) 4 1 G ibson p .96

3 70-371 K ilhar n

H ill T ankerville : P SAN ( 3) 1 ( 1 9 0 5 ) 5 0 P iddocke : P SAN ( 3) 1 ( 1905) 9 1-2

3 72-373 K irkhaugh ( 2) E mpty c ist; a nimal b ones a nd s tone r ubber i n e ar t h a round M äryon : A A ( 4) 1 3 ( 1936) 2 07-17 T ait n o.31 C larke n o.651 N ewcastle 3 74

K irk N ewton L ongworth : P PS 2 7 ( 1961) 3 01

3 75

K yloe B rewis : A A ( 4) 5 ( 1928) 2 6-9, p l .XI f ig .2 D ons. : P SAN ( 4) 3 ( 1929) 9 4 N ewman : A A ( 5) 4 ( 1976) 1 77-82 N ewcastle G ibson n o.76

3 76

K yloe C rags D ons : P SAN ( 4) 4 ( 1931) 7 0 T ait : A A ( 4) 4 6 ( 1968) 2 75-81, f ig .2 n o.3 G ibson n o.130 5 60

3 77

L emmington H all Ag reat n umber o f c ists f ound; n o p ottery i n a ny o f t hem H ardy : H BNC 1 1 ( 1885-6) 3 08 H ardy : H BNC 1 2 ( 1887-9) 1 74

3 78-379 L esbury , B urneyknows ( 1823) D ouble c ist w ith s mall ' drinking c up' i n e ach c ompartment 3 78 B eaker; B AP I n o.172a ( not i llus.); A C 1 2, p l .XII; T ait n o.72; C larke n o.684 3 79 2 nd ' drinking c up' ( l DW l ost) T ait n o.101; C larke 6 85 ( lost) T ate : H BNC 7 ( 1873-5) 4 41 A lnwick 3 80-381 L esbury , H awkhill N o d etails o f f inding A lnwick C astle m useum n os .1880 .22a & 1 880 .22a .2 G ibson n os .11 & 5 8 3 82-387 L esbury , H awkhill 3 82 ( 1) B eaker : B AP I n o.172 p l .XIV : T ait n o.63; C larke n o.686 3 83 ( 2) F ood v essel; G ibson n o.4 ( Described b y G ibson a s u npublished, " found i n a c ist w ith a b eaker". T his a ppears t o b e ac onfusion w ith L esbury , B urneyknows, a nd i s i ncorrect). T ait s uggests t hat ( 1) a nd ( 2) w ere c remations, o n t he b asis o f s ome b rown p owder f ound i n t he v essels . H owever, a s t here i s n o r ecord o f b urnt b ones t hese a re n ot h ere c lassified a s c remations T ate : H BNC 3 ( 1850 -6 ) 6 3-7 G owen : P SAN ( 4) 1 1 ( 1951) 2 74 N ewcastle 3 88-390 L ilburn H ill F arm , E ast C airnfold f ield 3 88 U rn G ibson n o.129 3 88 I ncense c up H ardy ( 1889) p l .XXII A 3 89 B eaker H ardy ( 1889) p l .XXII B : T ait n o.48; C larke n o.687 H ardy : H BNC 1 1 ( 1885-6) 2 72, 2 87 H ardy : A A ( 2) 1 3 ( 1889) 3 51-6, p l .XXII D ons : P SAN ( 2) 4 ( 1891) 1 62 N ewcastle 3 91-392 L ilburn H ill f arm , N orth C ärnfold f ield ( c 1 840's ? ) O ne o f c ists c ontaining ' a t race o f i ron' ( ? p yrites) H ardy : H BNC 1 1 ( 1885-6) 2 72 H ardy : A A ( 2) 1 3 ( 1889) 3 51-6

3 93 -4 04 L ilburn H ill F arm G rave s haped f eature 9 ft 2 ins l ong c ontaining t wo l ayers o f c remations a nd a n ' inscribed s tone' w ith c oncentric c ircles. T op r ow w ith s even c remation d eposits a nd s econd r ow w ith f ive M offatt A A ( 2) 1 0 ( 1885) 2 20-2 H ardy : F UR IC 1 1 ( 1885-6) 2 71 4 05

L ilburn S outh S tead f arm -( c 1 860's ? ) H ardy : H BNC 1 1 ( 1885 -6 ) 2 73

4 06

L ilburn S outh S tead f arm G unn & H ardy : H BNC 1 5 B AP I n o.159, T ait n o.75, p 1 .4 C larke n o.690 5 61

( 1894-5) 9 2

G lasgow

4 07-408 L onghoughton p arish ( 'barrows n ear A lnwickl) G ibson n o.101 ( as n o p rovenance)

B M 7 9 .12-9 .1769 B M 7 9 .12-9 .1768

4 09

L onghoughton, L owstead F arm ( 1836) F ood v essel " said t o h ave h ad a c over w hich w as m uch o rnamented" A C 1 1, p l.VIII 1 .h .s. G ibson p .84 A lnwick

4 10

L ow B uston " Hilly L aw" ( 1815) C ist d iscovered o n r emoving s ome s tones ( ? c airn) F ood v essel w rongly d escribed i n A lnwick C atalogue a s f rom n ear W arkworth H odgson : H BNC 1 2 ( 1887-9) 5 25 N HC 5 ( 1899) 2 19-20, p l . H odgson i n B urman : A A ( 3) 9 ( 1913) 4 5 A C 9 , p l .IX r .h .s. G ibson n o.40 ( as W arkworth ) A lnwick

4 11-414 L ow H ills, E asington T rechmann : A A ( 3) 1 1 ( 1914) 1 67-9 B rooks : A A ( 4) 4 7 ( 1969) 1 83 4 15-418 L ow M orralee F arm ( 1921) U rn, 2 ft h igh, l ft d iam . a t m outh , u pper z one d ecorated w ith c ord i mpressions : G ibson n o.141 M iniature u rn : G ibson n o.128 I ncense c up, B rewis ( 1923) p l .fac .p .30, C owen ( 1966) f ig .4 I nhumation w ith b ronze k nife a bout 6 ft w est o f o ther b urials S pain : A A ( 3) 1 9 ( 1922) 1 29 B rewis : P SAN ( 3) 1 0 ( 1923) 2 9-31, f ig.1 C owen : A A ( 4) 4 4 ( 1966) 2 28-32 G ibson n os. 1 28 & 1 41 N ewcastle 4 19

L ow M orralee F arm ( 1921) P erhaps o riginally f rom v icinity o f o ther b urials 4 15-418 D ons : P SAN ( 4) 1 ( 1925) 1 0, p l .fac .p .8 G owen : A A ( 4 ) 4 4 ( 1966) 2 28-32, f ig .3

4 20-421 L ow S hield G reen C rag H all : A A ( 2) 1 2 G ibson p .92 4 22

( 1886-7) 2 43-8, p l .XVI

L ow T rewhitt ( 1837) G ist w ith t ulip s haped u rn a bout 9 ins h igh ( ? B eaker), w ith a shes i nside H ardy : H BNC 1 1 ( 1885-6) 2 97 -8

4 23 -4 25 L ow T rewhitt ( 1908) 4 23 C entral c ist : B eaker, T ait n o.54; C larke n o.708 4 24 W estern c ist : B eaker f rag ., T ait n o.92; C larke n o.709 4 25 E astern c ist : a f ew f ragments o f u nburnt b one i n c ist f ill w ith c harcoal a nd b urnt s tones B ate : P SAS 4 6 ( 1911-12) 1 5-26 4 26

L ucker, R eyheugh f arm ( 1852) I ncense c up f ound u nder a c airn w ith a l arger v essel a nd f ragments o f o thers A C 7 , p 1 . I X

5 62

A lnwick

4 27

M arley K nowe n r . C oupland M ound c ontaining a n i ncense c up, r emains o f u rns, w ood a nd b ones C owen : A A ( 4) 2 6 ( 1948) 1 27-9, p 1 .VI M acLauchlan : H BNC 2 4 ( 1919-22) 4 58-9

c harred

4 28-430 M arley K nowe f armyard C owen : A A ( 4) 2 6 ( 1948) 1 27-9 H . M acLauchlan : A dditional n otes . _

( 1867) 2 6

4 31

n r . M eldon C amp M acLauchlan : H BNC 2 4 ( 1919-22) 4 58-9

4 32

M iddle G unnar P eak ( 1978) C airn r obbed . F ragments o f a ccessory v essel i n f ill o f r obber t rench I . J obey : C BA G roup 3 N ews ( 2) 7 ( April 1 979) 4-5

4 33

n r M ilfield ( 1823) M acLauchlan

4 34

M ilfield N orth h enge H arding : C BA G roup 3 N ews

H BNC 2 4 ( 1919 -2 2) 4 59

( 1) 1 2

( 1976 ) 3

4 35

n r . M urton M oor T rechmann A A ( 3) 1 1 ( 1914) 1 67 F airless : C BA G roup 3 N ews ( 1 ) 4 ( May , 1 973) 1 5

4 36

b etween N etherton a nd B iddlestone U rn w ith a shes a nd c harcoal ( I ? c remation) H ardy : H BNC 1 0 ( 1882 -4 ) 5 46 -9 G ibson p .98

4 37

N etherwitton T races o f f ire, i n c ist? G owen : P SAN ( 4) 1 1 ( 1951) 2 71-2

4 38

N etherwitton T revelyan

:A A ( 1) 2 ( 1832) 2 07-8, p l .

4 39

N ewcastle u pon T yne ,nr W hitefriars T ower N CH 1 3 ( 1930) 1 2 A A ( 1) 3 ( 1844 ) 1 49

4 40

N ewcastle, E lswick L ane ( c 1 870ts) E xhib . :P SAN ( 3) 6 ( 1915) 7 9 B rewis & B uckley : A A ( 4 ) 5( 1928 ) p l .X f ig .2 G ibson n o.77 N ewcastle

4 41

N orham T ait n o.60 B AP I n o.183, p 1 .XV C larke n o.692, A ppendix 3 , p .442

4 42

N orham C astle H uman b ones s aid t o h ave b een f ound i n t he B eaker Gwen : A nt .J . 2 9 ( 1949) 1 85 C owen : P SAN ( 4) 1 1 ( 1951) 1 93 T ait n o.39 C larke n o.693 5 63

B M

c ?cremation) B M

4 43-446 N orth C harlton M oor 4 43 P ot, 7 in h igh, f lowerpot s haped, w ith c riss-cross t wisted c ord m arkings

44 P ot, 7 in h igh, a s a bove .

C ontained b lack, c harred e arthy m atter 4 45 P ot, 7 in h igh , a s a bove 4 46 P ot, 1 8in h igh, t ulip s haped a nd e legantly o rnamented, c ontained b urnt e arth ( Other c airns w ith c ists i n a rea) T ate : H BNC 1 3 ( 1890-1) 2 69-72

4 47

N orth C harlton, L ink H all f ield U rn " of t he c ommon s hape w ith r ude m arkings" T ate : H BNC 1 3 ( 1890-1) 2 68-72

4 48-450 N orth C harlton T wo o r t hree c ists u nder a b arrow 4 49 M assive c ist 6 ft b y 2 ft b y 2 -ft d eep, w ith c lay l uting, s tone " pillow" f or i nhumation, a nd b ronze d agger T ate : H BNC 1 3 ( 1890-1) 2 69-72 G erloff ( 1975) n o.82 E vans : A BI ( 1881) 2 37 4 51

4 52

N orth H azelrigg ( 1972) J obey : A A ( 5) 3 ( 197 )

2 17-9, f ig.1

N orth S underland, B lue B ell I nn ( late 1 870 s) F ilby : P SAN ( 3) 2 ( 1907) 1 23 B AP I n o.178, 1 79, p ll.XIV-XV G ibson : A A ( 3 ) 2 ( 1906) 1 49, p l. T ait n os. 5 1, 5 2 & 9 3 D avis : H BNC 4 ( 1856 -6 2) 4 28 -3 0 , p l eXIII C larke n os. 6 95 -6 97

B M

4 53 -4 54 O ld C ary H ouse C amp H all H all

4 55

4 56

:A A ( 2) 7 ( 1876) 4 :N at .Hist .Trans.North .

O ld R othbury B B 4 33 B AP I n o.158, p l .XIII T ait n o.81 C larke n o.703

& D urham I p t .IT ( 1866) 1 53

B irmingham

O tterburn ( 1729) A bout 6 0 t ons o f s tone t aken a way w hen c airn w as r emoved. M assive c ist 6 ft b y 4 ft b y 4 ft d eep c ontained 2 ft o f f ine w hite s and w ith c harcoal a nd p ieces o f b urnt b one, w ith l kft o f f ine m ould a bove, w ith a sh a nd c inders H ardy : H BNC 9 ( 1879 -8 1) 4 69

4 57 -4 58 O uston N orth F arm, P ike H ill H edley ( 1931) s urmised o f R iddell B lount E sq . f rom t his s ource", b ut ap ot w as f ound, i t i s H edley : P SAN H edley P SAN

t hat a n u rn, o nce i n t he p ossession o f C heeseburn " was i n a ll p robability a s t here i s n o d efinite a ccount t hat n ot i ncluded h ere ( 4 ) 3 ( 1929) 2 56-8

( 4 ) 4 ( 1 931) 5 0 5 64

4 59

P ark E nd, t he C ruses ( pre-1821) D ecorated j et s pacer-plate w ith 4 a nd 7 p erforations G owen : P SAN ( 4) 4 ( 1931) 2 53-4 N CH 1 5 ( 1940) 5 3, p l .I .b

4 60

P aston H ill , M indrum ( 1838) ' Small e arthen u rn' c ontaining a shes a nd s mall p ieces o f b urnt b ones H ardy : H BNC 1 2 ( 1887-9) 4 85 G ibson p .98

4 61-464 P itland H ills ( 1) 4 61 S mall u rn, " carefully o rnamented w ith l ozenge-shaped s corings m ade o f t wisted t hong : G ibson p .92 4 62 F ood v essel; H all ( 1886-7) p l .XVI : G ibson n o.5 4 63 C up m akings o n c over s lab o f c ist 4 64 L arge d eposit o f b urnt b ones H all : A A ( 2) 1 2 ( 1886-7) 2 48-58 4 65-467 P itland H ills ( 2) 4 65 S everal s herds o f " thin a nd r ather f ine B ritish p ottery" 4 66 U rn w ith b road p rojecting r im w ith t wo r ows o f i ntersecting t wisted t hong l ines u pon i t 4 67 P lain i ncense c up H all : A A ( 2) 1 2 ( 1886-7) 2 58-60, p l .XVI 4 68

P itland H ills ( 3) I nhumation i n h ollow 3 ift b y 3 ft b y 3 ft d eep H all : A A ( 2) 1 2 ( 1886-7) 2 60-1

4 69

P lainfield c 1 m ile N W o f F lotterton a nd n r . H epple C ist 5 ft l ong, w ith u rn ( broken) 7 ins h igh , j ar-shaped w ith c hevron o rnament

4 70

P lainfield 1 00-yds N W o n a " knowe" C ist w ith l arge u rn ( broken) w ith c hevron o rnament

4 71

P lainfield e ast o f " the B ank" L ow c airn w ith b roken u rn H ardy : H BNC 1 1 ( 1885-6) 2 97 G ibson p .98

4 72

P lenmellor C ommon ( 1853, w est e nd o f C ommon) F ound ' with o thers' D ons . p .20 , A A ( 1) 4 ( 1855) T ait n o.87

4 73-475 P lessay 4 73 B AP 4 74 B AP 4 75 B AP

4 76

M ill ( 1892) I I n o.493, p l .XCVII : G ibson n o.3 I I n o.493a , p l . . XCVII : G ibson p .88 I I n o.493b , p l .XCVII : G ibson p .89 A non : P SAN ( 2) 1 0 ( 1902) 1 22, 1 32

N ewcastle

B M W G 2 41/i2416

P onteland T ait n o.32 C larke n o.697 .1

N ewcastle

5 65

4 77

R atcheugh,

A lnwick B M 7 9 .12-9 .1779

4 78

R ayheugh F arm ( excavated b y M ajor L uard-Selby) C larke n o.657 B B 4 15

M aidstone

4 79

R ayheugh, B amborough M ajor L uard-Selby o pened s ome o f t he s malle 'r c airns a t R ayheugh . I n o ne w as f ound a p ot " ornamented w ith s ix e ncircling b ands o f s hort i mpressions i nclining t o t he r ight" B B 4 15

4 80

R ayheugh C XCIII Aq uartzite p ebble u sed a s a h ammer a nd s everal f lat p ieces o f s andstone ( ? p olishers) w ere f ound a mongst t he s tones o f t he m ound B B 4 13-4 T ait n o .94 C larke n o .6 58 M aidstone

4 81

R ayheugh C XCV N o r ecord a s t o c on B B 4 14-5

4 82

n r .

4 83

R oddam

nts o f c ist

R obin H ood's W eIl H all : A A ( 2) 7 ( 1876) 1 4

G ibson n o.39

4 84 -4 86 o pposite R oddam R igg H ouse H ardy : H BNC 1 1 ( 1885-6) 2 80-1 G ibson p .98 4 87-488 R oddam , n r . R oddam H all ( c 1 860) F ood v essel a nd a nother p ot, d escribed a s t aller t han t he f ood v essel w ith a p attern r oughly m arked a round t he n eck E xhib . :P SAN ( 3 ) 3 ( 1909 ) 9 2 , p 1 .f acing B rewis & B uckley : A A ( 4) 5 ( 1928) p l .VIII .2 H olderness-Roddam H BNC 3 7 ( 1967 ) 2 02 G ibson n o.46 N ewcastle 4 89-491 R oddam , J ubilee W ood ( 1936) A round t he c ist, " indications o f s econdary b urials o r c remations" H BNC 2 9 ( 1935 -7 ) 1 88 H olderness-Roddam : H BNC 3 7 ( 1967 ) 2 02 -3 4 92

R osebrough C XCVI I n c ist ' a v ery f ew u nburnt b ones'and s ome p ieces o f b urnt s tone B B 4 15

4 93 -4 95 R osebrough C XCVII 4 93 E ncrusted u rn, B B f ig .60;

B AP I I n o.120 p l .LXXIII; G ibson n o.90; C owie N OR 1 2 4 95 B eaker : T ait n o.58; B AP I n o.181, p l .XV ; C larke n o.659 B B 4 15 -7 B M 5 66

4 96-497 R othbury C CVI C artington F ell C harcoal a nd b urnt s tones i n a nd a round c ist B B 4 29 4 98

R othbury C CVII C artington F ell B B 4 29-30

4 99

R othbury S outh F orest ( 1876 , n r . C alcined b ones i n f ood v essel A C 1 1 G ibson n o.19

B ull B ush C ottage)

A lnwick

5 00-505 R othbury 5 00 U rn : G ibson n o.119 A lnwick 5 01 U rn : G ibson n o.122 A lnwick 5 02 U rn : p lain f rags. N ewbigin ( 1937) A lnwick 5 03 F ood v essel : G ibson n o.12; N ewbigin ( 1937) 3 2, f ig . A lnwick 5 04 I ncense c up : N ewbigin ( 1937) 3 2, f ig . 5 05 U rn , f rag .: G ibson n o.137 N ewcastle N ewbigin : P SAN ( 4) 7 ( 1937) 3 2-3 5 06

R ugley " Willow C lose" C ist w ith y ellow b ead " which a ppeared t o b e a mber" G . T ate : H istory o f A lnwick I ( 1866) 1 1

5 07

R ye H ill , C hollerford E xhib : P SAN ( 2) 4 ( 1891) 8 H edley : A A ( 2) 1 5 ( 1892) p l .VI n o.1 B AP I I n o.129, p l .LXXIII G ibson n o.126

5 08

5 09

R yton,

C lara V ale c olliery G raham : P SAN ( 3) 5 ( 1913) 1 8-9 T rechmann : A A ( 3) 1 1 ( 1914) 1 32-4 T ait n o.50 C larke n o.220

R yton ( 1928, i n a s and p it) D ons : P SAN ( 4) 4 ( 1931) 4 6 B rewis : A A ( 4) 6 ( 1929) 1 97-8, p l .XLVII G ibson n o.108 C owie D UR 4 , f ig .7

N ewcastle

E M

N ewcastle

5 10

R yton ,

B radley H all B B 4 42

5 11

S acriston c hurchyard ( 1888) B AP I n o.177, p l .XIV T rechmann : A A ( 3) 1 1 ( 1914) 1 34-5, 1 76 p l . T ait n o.68 C larke n o.223

5 12

S andhoe n r . S tagshaw C lose ( 1822) G rave 3 ft b y eft b y 4 ft d eep e xcavated i nto t he r ock N CH 4 ( 1897) 2 07

5 67

5 13

S atley G range f arm ( 1885 )

5 14

S atley p arish ( 1880) p asture f ield b etween E ast a nd W est B utsfield B oth f ood v essels s aid t o h ave b een t aken b y C anon G reenwell F awcett : P SAN ( 4) 9 ( 1942) 2 25-6 G ibson p .75

5 15

S cremerston H ill L ongworth : A A ( 4) 4 0 ( 1962) 2 80-1, f ig . G ibson n o.114 C owie N OR 1 3, f ig .2

5 16

E dinburgh E B 3 9

S crenwood ( Scrainwood) n r . A lnham ( c 1 870is?) D ixon : H BNC 1 0 ( 1882-4) 5 44-6 H ardy H BNC 1 1 ( 1885-6) 3 02-3, f ig .21 G ibson p p .89-90, n o.121

5 17-524 S eahouses ( 7 ) S keleton ' had b een e xhumed a nd r e-buried' F ilby : P SAN ( 3) 2 ( 1907) 1 21-4 , 1 94-5, p ls.facing p p .122 & 1 94 T ait n o.77 C larke n o.707 G ibson n o.26 N ewcastle 5 25

S eghill ( 1866) B B 2 23, n ote, f ig .116 R oe ( 1966) 2 36, n o.148

5 26

B M

S herburn B B 4 42

5 27-529 S hipley , A lnwick ( 1958) B eaker c ist e xcavated. T wo o ther c ists i ndicated b y s oil m arks ( unexcavated) J obey : A A ( 4 ) 3 8 ( 1960) 2 44-7 T ait n o.76 C larke n o.648 A lnwick 5 30

S malesmouth H all : N at .1 1ist .Trans .North . &D urham I p t .II ( 1866) 1 53, p l .XV .1 B B 4 36 T ait n o.55 B AP I n o.174, p l .XIV C larke n o.664 B M

. j . 31-)j3 J mi l _ey L aw , N ewham A C 1 1 G ibson n o.32 5 34 • •

A lnwick

S neep, T arret B urn H edley : A A ( 2) 1 5 ( 1892) 4 9-53, p l .VI H edley : P SAN ( 2) 4 ( 1891) T nit n o.57 B AP I n o.173, p i .XIV C larke n o.665

5 68

N ewcastle

5 35-546 S outh C harlton O rganic m atter o n f loor o f c ist 5 36 ( 1) P ot u nillustrated 5 37 ( 2) P ot o f ' food v essel t ype', 1 2i -ins h igh , 1 0ins d iam . a t m outh , w ith d ecoration o f t wisted c ord l ines; G ibson p .85 5 38 ( 3) U rn; H odgson ( 1917) f ig .1; G ibson n o.142 5 39 ( 4) M iniature u rn & i ncense c up; H odgson ( 1917) f igs .2-3; G ibson n o.117 5 42 ( 7) F ood v essel; H odgson ( 1917) f ig .4; G ibson n o.80 5 43 ( 8) M iniature f ood v essel; H odgson ( 1917) f ig .5 5 44 ( 9) B ases o f t wo f ood v essels; H odgson ( P 917) f ig .6; G ibson n o.84 5 45 ( 10) F ood v essel; G ibson n o.48 5 46 ( 11) O rganic m atter i n c ist H odgson : A A ( 3) 1 4 ( 1917) 1 25-32 A lnwick 5 47

S pindleston G ibson n o.95

B M 7 9 .12-9 .1774

5 48-561 S pital H ill, S imonside 5 48 n o.(1) s mall c inerary u rn , m uch b roken; G ibson p -99 5 51 n o. ( 4) c ist 1 5ins s quare a nd 1 8ins d eep c ontained % / 1. . 1 : y as mall f ragment o f b one" 5 52 n o. ( 5) f ragments o f t wo s mall u rns p ossibly o f f ood v essel t ype w ith a d eposit o f c harcoal a nd b ones ( ? c remation); G ibson p .75 5 56 n o. ( 7 ) u rn; D ixon ( 1892) p1. I II; G ibson p .99 5 57 S maller u rn , u nillustrated 5 58 F ood v essel; D ixon ( 1892) p l .IV ; G ibson n o.68 D ixon : A A ( 2) 1 5 ( 1892) 2 3-9 N ewcastle 5 62-564 S teeple H ill F ood v essel u nillustrated 5 62 ( a) ains h igh , 94ins d iam . a t m outh , 2 -ins a t b ase . F ive u nperforated e ars o n s houlder . C ompletely d ecorated w ith i ncised h erring b one d ecoration . 5 62 ( b) 5 tins h igh , 5 ti ns d iam . a t m outh , 2 i -ins d iam . a t b ase . N ot s o w ell m ade a s ( a). D ecorated t o s houlder w ith e ight e ncompassing l ines o f t wisted c ord, o ne o f s ame o n e dge o f r im a nd t hree o thers i nside t he l ip . R est o f b ody c overed w ith v ertical t wisted c ord l ines, s lightly r adiating f rom t he b ottom . B B 41 G ibson p .76 5 65

S tell K nowe Y ellow c lay s ubsoil h eavily s tained p ink b y b urning C BA G roup 3 N ews ( 1) 8 ( 1974) 1 3-4

5 66-567 S tone B ridge S maller u rn i nverted i nside l arger o ne T r ie bs co hn ma nn o .1 :4 0 AA&( 3 PP )1 91 91 (1 00 91 4) 1 70-2, f igs .23-25 G B M W G 2 /11 1-2413 5 68

S winburn n r . s tanding s tone ( Several c airns i n t he v icinity h ave p roduced c ists) B B 4 36 5 69

5 69

S winburne P ark ' Very c rushed a nd c rumbled r emains o f a n u rn' B ull : P SAN ( 4) 4 ( 1931) 7 8-81

5 70

S winburne P ark O val b arrow , p reviously o pened B ull : P SAN ( 4 ) 4 ( 1931) 7 5-7

5 71

S winehope ( Sweethope L ough) m argin o f w est e nd o f l ough N CH 4 ( 1897 ) 4 08 B M 7 9 .12-9 .2001

5 72

T hree K ings s tone c ircle F our-poster w ith c entral c airn . R obbed B url : A A ( 4) 4 9 ( 1971) 3 7-51 B url & J ones : A A ( 4) 5 0 ( 1972) 1 -14

5 73-574 T hrunton, B enacres H ardy : H BNC 1 1 ( 1885-6) 3 07 5 75

T itlington M ount ( c 1 832) " On t his h ill c ists a nd u rns h ave b een f ound" H ardy : H BNC 1 1 ( 1885-6 ) 3 13 H ardy : H BNC 1 3 ( 1890-1) 3 4 G ibson p .77

5 76-579 T itlington/Kemmer H ills M any b arrows, s ome o f w hich c ontained c ists . w ithout r esult H ardy : H BNC 1 3 ( 1890-1) 2 5-6 , 3 6

Af ew d ug i nto,

5 80

T om T allonts G rave ' Only h alf r emaining i n 1 857 , r est r emoved i n 1 859 T ate : H BNC 4 ( 1856-62) 4 45

5 81

T rimdon G range . B ody s herd o f ?u rn B M u nreg .

5 82

5 83

.

n r .

T rimdon G range V CH D urham I ( 1905) 2 07 B B 4 A2 G ibson n o.88 C owie D UR 5 , f ig . .7

B M 7 9 .12-9 .1733

T row R ocks C CXV S ome c harcoal i n c ist B B 4 42

5 84-586 T unstall H ill ( 1 81 4) T hree u rns, " ornamented w ith z ig-zag o r h erring b one o rnament a nd o f r ude c onstruction" . T wo b roken a nd t hird i n p erfect s tate . R . S urtees : T he h istory a nd a ntiquities o f t he C ounty P alatine o f D urham I ( 1816) 2 49 B B 4 J ,0 R obinson : P SAN ( 3) 2 ( 1907) 1 98 G ibson p .100 ( as c inerary u rns) 5 70

5 87

n r . o ld U sway F ord ( near e nd o f T rows f ir p lantation) C ist w ith b ones a nd a shes; b ones s lender a nd s mall ( ? i nhumation) D .D . D ixon : U pper C oc ruetdale ( 1903) 4 1

5 88-589 W ark n orth s ide o f v illage ( c 1 780's?) E . M ackenzie : H istorical .. v iew o f t he c ounty o f N orthumberland 2 nd e d ( 1825) v ol .II , 2 45 5 90

W ark ,north s ide o f v illage a s a bove ( 1787) C ist c ontained ' several p ieces o f w hat p eople c alled b urnt b eads, o r a s ubstance n ear t he t hickness o f ab lack l ead p encil, a n i nch a nd a n i nch a nd a h alf l ong . I t h ad t he a ppearance o f b eing p ieces o f h ard w ood, b urnt' E . M ackenzie : H istorical .. v iew o f t he c ounty o f N orthumberland 2 nd e d ( 1825) v ol.II , 2 45

5 91

W arksburn B ridge C ist w ith " ornament o f b lack b og o ak , p erforated w ith f ive h oles" . ( Probably j et s pacer-plate w ith f ive p erforations) H all : N at .Hist .Trans .of N orth .& D urham I p t .II ( 1866) 1 53 N CH 1 5 ( 1940) 5 3

5 92-596 W arkshaugh U rn; H all ( 1866) p l .XV .3 F ood v essel; H all ( 1866) p l .XV .4, B AP I n o.18o, p l .XXXIX ; G ibson n o .63 ( Gibson's i nterpolation o f t he d ecoration s hown i n B AP i s i ncorrect . I t i s a ll i mpressed a nd n ot t wisted c ord). S outh c ist: " very s mall f ragments o f b one w ith d ark u nctuous m atter a nd f ragments o f c harcoal" ( ? i nhumation) H all : N at .Hist .Trans.North .& D urham I p t .II ( 1866) 1 51-67 , p l .XV H all : A A ( 2) 7 ( 1876) 1 4 B B 4 36 G ibson p p .57 & 9 2 ( as B irtley ) a s l ost L ongworth : P PS 2 7 ( 1961) 3 01 B M 7 9 .12-9 .1759-1760 W arkworth

s ee 4 10 L ow B uston " Hilly L aw"

5 97

W arrenton

5 98

W est B itchfield G ibson n o.132

T ate : H BNC 3 ( 1850-6) 6 4 n ote

N ewcastle

5 99-603 W est H epple , K irkhill P it A : r emains o f a t l east 3 a dults a nd 1 c hild S keleton 3 4 :f ragments o f b ronze, p ossibly a n a wl ? M iket : A A ( 5) 2 ( 1974) 1 53-87, f igs . G ibson n o .138 N ewcastle 6 04

W est H orton ( 1938) I ncised m arkings o n u nderside o f c ist c over s lab C owen : P SAN ( 4) 8 ( 1939) 1 95-6

6 05

W est L ilburn ( 1946) C ontents o f c ist a pparently d isturbed. T wo o f l ong b ones o f s keleton s plit l ongitudinally C ollingwood & Gwen : A A ( 4) 2 4 ( 1946) 2 17-29 T ait n o.69 C larke n o.691 N ewcastle G erloff ( 1975)

5 71

6 06

W est L ilburn C ollingwood & J obey : A A ( 4) 2 9 ( 1961) 3 73-5, f ig.l G ibson n o.24 P P

6 07-608 W est M atfen a bout ? 1 -m ile f rom M atfen H all C avity i n m iddle o f m ound. R obbed? E . M ackenzie : V iew o f c ounty o f N orthumberland 2 nd e d v ol.II ( 1825) 2 27 6 09

W est W harmley D ons : P SAN ( 4) 3 ( 1927) 1 76 & p l.facing; p l .facing p .187 H edley : P SAN ( 4) 3 ( 1927) 1 87-9, p l . T ait n o.59 C larke n o.710 N ewcastle

6 10

W hickham, W ashing W ell F arm G ibson n o.1°0 C owie D UR 6 , f ig .4

S underland

6 11-613 W hitsun B ank C remation a nd l ozenge s haped f lint a rrowhead, w hich h ad a lso b een b urnt G reenwell : H BNC 5 ( 1863-8) 1 95-205 6 14

n r . W hittingham

6 15

W hitton D ene D .D . D ixon : U pper C oquetdale ( 1903) 1 46 N ewbigin : P SAN ( 4) 5 ( 1933) 2 42

6 16

W hitton F arm N ewbigin

6 17

B M 7 9 .12-9 .1765

:P SAN ( 4) 5 ( 1933) 2 41-2

W oodhorn B AP I n o.160, p l .XIV T ait n o.70 C larke n o.711

B M

6 18 -6 19 W ooler ( ?) P urchased b y C anon G reenwell F ood v essel a nd p lain f ragments o f a nother p ot

B M 7 9 .12-9 .1772

6 20

W ooler, H augh H ead ( 1946) F ragments o f b urnt b one d isintegrated; n ot p ossible t o i dentify a s h uman . C harcoals i n g rave, c herry , o ak a nd h azel C ollingwood & C owen : A A ( 4) 2 6 ( 1948) 4 7-54, f igs. G ibson n o.56 N ewcastle

6 21

W ooler G reenwell

6 22

:H BNC 6 ( 1869-72) 4 15-20

W oolsington ( ?) E xhib : P SAN

( 3) 1 0

B M 7 9 .12-9 .1771

( 1933) 1 80, p l .

6 23-627 W ooperton ( 1851) ' Four c ists w ere l aid b are a t W ooperton, a nd t hree l arge— s ized u rns o f c oarse m anufacture, w ithout o rnament, j ar—shaped a nd c ontaining b ones, w ere f ound' ( now l ost). U nclear a s t o w hether u rns w ere f ound i n c ists o r n earby i n s ame a rea H ardy : H BNC 1 1 ( 1885-6) 2 80-1 G ibson p .98

5 72

6 28

W ooperton, n r . R oddamburn ( 1860) H ardy : H BNC 1 1 ( 1885-6) 2 80

6 29

W orm L aw C harred w ood a nd a f ew b ones w ithin c ist ( ? i nhumation A bove t he c ist, f lints, ' native' s herds, i ron s lag a nd f ragments o f b ones . L ater d isturbance? T ate : H BNC 4 ( 1856 -6 2 ) 4 43 -4

6 30 -6 41 W yden E als ( 1824-1869 A t l east 1 2 t ree—trunk c offins l ocated, s everal o f w hich w ere e xcavated, a nd f ound t o c ontain i nhumations . O ak c offins w ith r ounded e nds, u pper a nd l ower p arts f astened w ith p egs 1-i ns d iam . d riven i nto h oles b ored a t e ach e nd . T ool m arks v isible . T wo c offins p reserved i n D urham C hapter L ibrary , t wo o thers s aid t o b e a t F eatherstone C astle C oulson & H utton : A A ( 1) 2 ( 1832) 1 77-8 D ixon : P SAN ( 3 ) 6( 1915) 8 2, n ote W hiting : T AASDN 8 ( 1937) 9 6-7 , p ll . 6 42

Y eavering c amp, " Sandy K nowe" C ist c ontained o nly s and M acLauchlan : H BNC 2 4 ( 1919-22) 4 57

6 43-645 Y eavering f arm O ne o f c ists c ontained ' a h andful o f b urnt w ood, a nd a v ery , s mall p ortion o f b one' ( ? i nhumation) H ardy : H BNC 8 ( 1876-8) 4 02

6 46 -6 66 Y eavering An umber o f b urials f ound a t Y eavering w ere a ssociated w ith p ottery o f p robable E arly B ronze A ge d ate . C remations w ithout a ssociated a rtifacts a re n ot i ncluded h ere a s t here i s e vidence t hat t he s ite w as u sed o ver a l ong p eriod a nd a w ide r ange o f d ates i s p ossible f or s uch m aterial . T he n umbering o f t he b urials i s t hat u sed i n A ppendix I II, S ection A ( pp .338-348) o f t he p ublished r eport . 6 46 ( 2) ' Urn' f ragments a nd s cattered s herds o f u ndecorated P eterborough—type p ottery herds f ig .115 ( 3a—b) 6 47 ( 3 ) S S h e r d s a n d ? i n t rusive B eakersherd f ig .123 ( 12) 6 48 ( 4 ) P o t r e m o v e d i n a n t i q u i t y ? 6 49 . ( 5 ) estern r ing d itch . S herd o f ?f ood v essel t ype 6 50 ( 6 ) W p ottery i n s tone h ole f ig .115 ( b ), p p .109-16, 3 39 6 51 ( 7) B eaker s herds b eneath b ase o f u rn, f ig .123 ( 14) 6 52 ( 10) U rn w ith s herds o f o ther v essels, i ncluding c lay " tray" ( ?) f ig .118 ( 10a—e) 6 53 ( 11) ? C airn o ver s mall c ist w ith e ncrusted u rn a nd j et d isc b eads f ig .115 ( 11) & 1 19 ( 11) 6 54 ( 12) S herds o f o range w are 6 55 ( 14) S herd o f b rown w are w ith l arge g rits 6 56 ( 15) S mall, h eavily g ritted s herds 6 57 ( 16) S herds

6 58 ( 17) S herds 6 59 ( 18) U rn a nd s herds f ig .115 ( 18a—b) 6 60 ( 19) U rn w ith h ole i n b ase f ig .117 5 73

6 46-666 Y eavering ( continued) 6 61 ( 21) U rn s herds, f ig .115 ( 21) 6 62 ( 25) V essel o f B eaker-like f abric f ig .118 ( 25) 6 63 ( 26) L arge s herd a nd r usticated ? B eaker s herd f ig .118 ( 26) 6 64 ( 33) U rn, p ossibly r edeposited d uring c onstruction o f B uilding A 4 f ig .118 ( 33) astern r ing d itch 6 65 ( 34) E isturbed b y B uilding E ( Appendix I II, S ection B , p .348) 6 66 ( 35) D B . H ope-Taylor : Y eavering : a n A nglo-British c entre o f e arly N orthumbria ( Dept . o f E nvironment A rchaeological R eports, 7 ) 1 977 ( Tait n os.26-30 . B eaker s herds, n ot i llustrated) 6 67-671 N o p rovenance, b ut p robably t he n orth-east N ewcastle 1 956 .188a 6 67 F ood v essel : G ibson p .78, n o.49 N ewcastle 1 956 .1881 6 68 F ood v essel : G ibson p .78, n o.60 N ewcastle 6 69 F ood v essel : B AP I n o.132, p l.XXXVI 2) 1 5 ( 1892) 6 70 ? F ood v essel & r im s herd. H edley : A A ( p l. facing p .50 A lnwick 6 71 I ncense c up A C 8 , p l .X .2 A C 1 3, p l.XIII: 6 71(a) B eaker; B AP I n o.174a ( not i llus .); T ait n o.65; C larke n o.712 6 71(b ) B eaker; T ait n o.71 C umbria 6 72

6 73

A instable, S pringfield I n s and a nd g ravel p it F ell & H ogg : C W ( 2) 6 2 C owie C UM 4 , f ig .6 A instable p arish C larke n o.107 H odgson : C W ( 2) 4 8 F ell ( 1950) n o.13

( 1962) 2 7-30, p l . C arlisle

( 1949) 2 15-6, f ig . P P

6 74-676 A ldingham , C olt P ark T wo s hort, c ylindrical v essels a bout l ft d iam . o f t hick f riable f abric, f ound i n m aking a r oad. T hird u rn o f s imilar d escription f ound i n t he n ext f ield. A ll v essels k nown t o h ave b een d estroyed C W ( 1) 3 ( 1878) x xix F ell : C W ( 2) 5 7 ( 1958) 1 2 T . W est : T he a ntiquities o f F urness. N ew e d. w ith a dditions b y W illiam C lose ( 1822) 3 89 6 77-684 A ppleby S lack 6 77 ( 1) G elderd ( 1914) p l.fac .p .471 6 78-9 ( 2)-(3) B arnes ( 1970) f ig .1 .2-3 6 80-1(d) P erhaps m ore t han o ne c remation 6 82-4(e),(f),(g) S mall p its w ith c harcoal, b lack e arth a nd f ragments o f u nburnt b one . P ossibly ' token' b urial d eposits . O ther d eposits o f c harcoal u nder s tones w ere a lso f ound i n t he b arrow G elderd e t a l :C W ( 2) 1 4 ( 1914) 4 72-9, p l .facing p .471 B arnes : C W ( 2) 7 0 ( 1970) 1 -8, f ig .1 .2-3 ( on l oan t o B arrow ) 5 74

6 85

A sby R CHM W estmorland, A sby 2 5, p .20

6 86-688 A sby p arish C LXXII , S ail-bottom ' Several b ones o f t wo b odies', p erhaps d isturbed b y i nsertion o f c remation B B 3 86 R CHM W estmorland, A sby 2 9 , p .20 6 89-700 A ughertree F ell ( 1881) T welve u rns ' of t he u sual B ritish t ype'. O ne s urviving u rn ( 689) h as a n o verhanging r im a nd i s c ompletely p lain F erguson : C W ( 1) 6 ( 1882) 1 90-5 B ellhouse : C W ( 2) 6 7 ( 1967) 2 6-30 C arlisle 7 01-706 B anniside M oor U rns, a s i llustrated i n p ublication, a re m uch r estored a nd l ittle s urvives o f t he o riginal d ecoration t o v erify t hat t he r estoration i s c orrect C ollingwood : C W ( 2) 1 0 ( 1910) 3 42-5, p l . C oniston , R uskin M useum 7 07-708 B arns c ar O nly t wo u rns r emain o f s everal f rom e xcavation o f a bout 1 4 b arrows b y L ord M uncaster i n 1 885. . S ome o f t he u rns a nd t heir c ontents w ere r eburied D ymond : C W ( 1) 1 2 ( 1893) 1 86 F air : C W ( 2) 4 3 ( 1943) 5 0 C W ( 2) 6 5 ( 1965) 6 4-5, f ig .5 C ambridge 7 09-713 B irkrigg, " Druid's C ircle" A ll c remations f ound b eneath a c obbled " pavement" w ithin a nd a round t he s tanding s tones . D ark e arth b eneath c remation ( a) a lmost e ntirely o f v egetable o rigin G elderd & D obson : C U ( 2) 1 2 ( 1912) 2 62-74 , p 11 . C W ( 2) 2 2 ( 1922) 3 46-52 B arnes : C W ( 2) 7 0 ( 1970) 2 -3, f ig .1 .1 B url ( 1976) L ancs .5 T hom & T hom ( 1980) 7 0-1 7 14-718 B irkrigg E ast F our o f t he i nhumations a re r epresented o nly b y p arts o f t he b ody , n amely 7 14 b y ap ortion o f s kull a nd 7 16-718 b y l oose t eeth , i dentified a s p robably f rom t hree i ndividuals . M ore t han t hirty d eposits o f d ark e arth u nder s tones, s ome w ith p ottery , c harcoal a nd s tone f ragments w ere a lso r ecorded i n t he m ound, b ut a s n o t races o f b one w ere i dentified t hese a re n ot c lassified a s c remations .4 71 G elderd e t a l :C W ( 2) 1 4 ( 1914) 4 66-72, p l .facing p 7 19-721 B leaberry H aws C ( c) P ottery o rnamented w ith c ircular i mpressions i n p erpendicular r ows . N ot r econstructable C owper : C W ( 1) 9 ( 1888) 4 97-504 7 22

B olton W ood C W ( 2) 3 7 ( 1937) 4 3-51

5 75

7 23-726 B rackenhill U rns f ound a bout 1 iyards t o e ast o f c ist . N o t race o f b arrow r ecorded. U rns w ith p rojecting r ims, p robably c ollared u rns D ixon & N orthesk : C W ( 1) 1 2 ( 1893) 1 77-8 7 27

7 28

B ranthwaite B AP I I , n o.498, p l .XCVII F ox : A nt .J .7 ( 1927) p l .XXX .4 F ell : C W ( 2) 4 0 ( 1940) 1 27 , p l .IV .2 F ell : C W ( 2) 6 7 ( 1967 ) 2 4 C owie C UM 1 , p 1 .1

C ambridge

B roomrigg C W ( 2) 6 8 ( 1968) f ig .3 .6 C larke n o.108

C arlisle

7 29-735 B roomrigg C H odgson & H arper : C W ( 2) 5 0 ( 1951) 3 0-42 , p ll C arlisle 7 36

B rougham , M oorhouses F arm T aylor : C W ( 1) 5 ( 1881) 7 9-97 , f ig .

7 37

B rougham , M oorhouses F arm B ottom o f c ist r eddened, w ith a shes a s f rom b urnt g rass . D escription o f t he s econd v essel ( T 104 1 l ost) f ound w ith t he b urial, i s s uggestive o f ab eaker . T he d eposition o f t wo, o r m ore, b eakers w ith a y oung p erson i s k nown e lsewhere i n t he r egion C larke n o.1017 H arkness & S talker : A rch . 4 5 ( 1880) 4 11-6 C lough : C W ( 2) 6 8 ( 1968) 1 -21, f ig .2 F ell ( 1950) n o.5 S ociety o f A ntiquaries, B AP I n o.166a ( not i llus .) L ondon

7 38-739 B rownrigg, G lebe F arm ( 1972) F ell : C W ( 2) 7 3 ( 1973) 3 48-50 , p l .

C arlisle

« 7 40

C ardonneth P ike H odgson : C W ( 2) 4 3 ( 1943) 1 70 W . W hellan : T he h istory a nd t opography o f t he c ounties o f C umberland a nd W estmorland ( 1860) 6 72

7 41

C arlisle, R ickerby H ouse F ell & H ogg : C W ( 2) 6 2 ( 1962) 2 7-30 F ell : C W ( 2) 6 7 ( 1967 ) 1 7-25, f ig .1 .5

7 42

C arrock F ell B arker : G U ( 2) 3 4 ( 1934) 1 07-12

7 43

C arrock F ell R obbed c ist v isible i n c entre o f c airn C ollingwood : C W ( 2) 3 8 ( 1938) 3 2-41

5 76

7 44

7 45

C astle C arrock C LXIII ' Leafy H ill' C larke n o.110 B B 3 79 B AP I n o .161, p l .XIV F ell ( 1950) n o.9 C W ( 2) 6 8 ( 1968) f ig .5 .11

B M 7 9 .12-9 .1349

C astle C arrock C LXIV B B 3 79-80

E M 7 9 .12-9 .1350

7 46-747 C lifton B ody i n c ist ( 2) m uch m ore d ecayed t han i n c ist ( 1) 7 46 C larke n o.1018; B AP n o.165; F ell ( 1950) n o .3 7 47 C larke n os .1019, 1 020 : B AP I n os .163, 1 76, p l .XIV ; F ell ( 1950) n os .1 & 2 T aylor : C W ( 1) 5 ( 1881) 79-97, p 11 .2,3 C arlisle A shmolean 7 48

C roglin D ons .p .3 : A A ( 1) 1 ( 1822) p l .VI .I B rewis & B uckley : A A ( 4) 5 ( 1928) p l .IX .2 N ewcastle

7 49

C rosby F ell B eaker f ragments i n b ody o f m ound C larke : A nt .J . 6 ( 1926) 1 75-80, p 1 .28 f ig .1 C lough : C W ( 2) 6 8 ( 1968) 1 -21 C larke n o.1021 F ell ( 1950) n o.11 C ambridge

7 50

C rosby G arrett C LXXV C larke n o.1022 F ell ( 1950) n o.10 B B 3 91 R CHM W estmorland, C rosby G arrett 9 , p .78

7 51-755 C rosby G arrett C LXXVI F emale c remation a nd t wo i nfant i nhumations i n c lose j uxtaposition, c overed b y b ones o f w ater v oles . S outhern h alf o f m ound m uch d isturbed a nd f ull o f s cattered a nd b roken b ones . A t l east o ne a dult a nd o ne c hild c ould b e i dentified. G rave g oods i n d isturbed p art o f m ound B B 3 91-3 R CHM W estmorland, C rosby G arrett 9 , p .78 B M 7 9 .12-9 .1368-1371 7 56

C rosby R avensworth C LXXX I nhumation p reviously d isturbed B B 3 97 R CHM W estmorland, C rosby R avensworth 5 2, p .90

7 57-759 C rosby R avensworth C LXXXI M any b roken a nd s cattered b ones o n n atural s urface B B 3 97-8 R CHM W estmorland, C rosby R avensworth 5 2, p .90 7 60-762 C rosby R avensworth C LXXXII ' Seal H owe' U rn " too m uch d ecayed t o a dmit o f a ny d escription" B B 3 99-400 R CHM W estmorland, C rosby R avensworth 5 6, p .90 5 77

7 63

C rosby R avensworth , D ale M oor F ragments o f ' early B ritish p ottery ' M oss : P SA ( 2) 7 ( 1877 ) 2 14 C ollingwood : C W ( 2) 3 3 ( 1933) 2 21

B M 1 881 .5-9 .16

7 64

C rosby R avensworth C ist v isible i n t op o f m ound R CHM W estmorland, C rosby R avensworth 6 3, p .90

7 65

E dmond C astle L odge N o d escription o f p ottery H all : C W ( 1) 6 ( 1882) 4 70 R aistrick : A A ( 4) 8 ( 1931) 1 63 ( as f ood v essel) F ell : C W ( 2) 6 7 ( 1967) 2 4 ( as f ood v essel)

7 66

G arlands F arm C larke n o.109 C W ( 2) 4 0 ( 1940) 1 03-4 C W ( 2) 6 8 ( 1968) f ig .5.15 F ell ( 1950) n o.7 C W ( 2) 5 6 ( 1957) 7

C arlisle

7 67-793 G arlands T here i s n o f ull c ontemporary a ccound o f t he d iscovery o f a f lat u rn c emetery a t G arlands a sylum n ear C arlisle i n 1 861 . V arious s ources r ecord p ottery f rom t he s ite, n amely S pence, H odgson, A bercromby a nd ' T .B . 1, a n i nmate o f t he a sylum , t he a rtist o f a c ontemporary d rawing o f t he m aterial, a s ag roup . Ac omparison o f t he m aterial p rovided b y t hese s ources s uggests t hat t here w ere a t l east 2 1 u rns a nd 6 i ncense c ups f rom t he s ite . I t i s n ot k nown w hether a ll t he u rns c ontained c remations ( only o ne i s r ecorded) o r i f m ore t han o ne c remation w as p laced i n a ny o f t he v essels . T here a re n o d etails a s t o w hether t he u rns w ere s urrounded b y s tones, o r c overed w ith s tone s labs . S ome o f t he v essels d escribed b y v arious w riters a re n ow a pparently l ost . T he f ollowing l ist i ncorporates a ll v essels w hich c an b e i dentified f rom p ublished d escriptions a nd i llustrations, w ith r eferences t o t he p articular s ources i n w hich e ach i s m entioned. ' T .B .' i ndicates t hat t he v essel i s i llustrated i n t he c ontemporary i llustration m entioned a bove, r eproduced i n H odgson ( 1957). O M f ollowed b y n umerals, i s t he C arlisle o ld m useum n umber B AP I I n os .113-113d, 3 85, p l .LXXI & L XXXII S pence : C W ( 2) 4 0 ( 1940) 1 01-3 H odgson : C W ( 2) 5 6 ( 1957) 1 -17 , p l . F erguson : C W ( 1) 1 2 ( 1893) 2 76 C arlisle 7 67 F rags ., d iam . a t m .11ains ,rim 3- i ns d eep . L ip w ith h erring b one p attern a nd r im w ith m odified f orm o f s ame, r est p lain . N o i llus . S pence ( a) O M 2 83 7 68 F rags ., d iam . a t m . eins, r im lins d eep . L ip w ith t wo p arallel l ongitudinal l ines o f t wisted c ord, r im w ith h orizontal l ines o f s imilar p attern . N o i llus. S pence ( b ) O M 7 69 F rags., d iam . a t m . eins, r im e-ins d eep S pence ( c); H odgson n o.13 O M 2 73 5 78

7 67-793 G arlands ( continued) 7 70 F rags., 6 ins . h ., d iam . a t m . 5 ins, d iam . a t b ase 3 i ns . R im a nd b ody a bove w idest p art c rudely o rnamented, r est p lain , s urface p itted . N o i llus . S pence ( d) O M 7 71 F rags ., w hole o f r im a nd b ody p itted w ith t humb-nail i mpressions, l ip u nornamented . N o i llus . S pence ( e) O M 3 15 7 72 F rags ., d iam . a t i n . 3 s -ins . R im w ith z ig-zag o f t wisted c ord i mpressions . N o i llus . S pence ( f) O M 2 82 7 73 F rags ., r im 2- i ns d eep . S pence ( g) : H odgson d escribed a s n o .15, i llustrated a s n o.12 : i T .B . 1 7 74 F rags ., d iam . a t i n . 8 i -ins, r im 3 fins d eep S pence ( h ) :H odgson n o .14 : I T .B . 1 :L ongworth ( 1961) 3 37 7 75 F rags ., d iam . a t m . 5a ins, r im 2 i -ins d eep . L ip w ith s ingle l ine o f t wisted c ord i mpressions, r im w ith s eries o f v ertical l ines o f s ame . S pence ( i) : ' T .B . 1? O M 2 74 7 76 F rags ., d iam . a t m . eins, r im 1 i -ins d eep . L ip w ith 2p arallel l ongitudinal l ines, r im w ith c hevron p attern b oth i n t wisted c ord. U pper p art o f b ody c ross h atched . N o i llus . S pence ( j) O M 2 71 7 77 l lains h ., d iam . a t m . 9 eins, d iam . a t b ase 4 iins . P lain . S aid t o b e c omplete b ut d rawn w ithout b ase . S pence ( k) : H odgson n o .9 : I T .B . 1 :B AP n o.113 O M 2 42, 2 73 7 78 C omplete e xcept f or f rag . o f r im . l lilns h ., d iam . a t i n . eins, d iam . a t b ase 4 iins . S pence ( 1) : H odgson n o.3 : I T .B . 1 :B AP n o.113a O M 2 53, 2 72 7 79 C omplete I e xcept f or f rag . o f r im . 1 5i -ins h ., d iam . a t i n. l 2 --in s, d iam . a t b ase A ims . S pence ( m) : H odgson n o.2 : L ongworth ( 1961) 3 36 O M 2 43 7 80 1 2ins h ., d iam . a t i n . leins . H odgson n o.1 I T .B .' : A bercromby n o.113b 7 81 B ase, 4 ins d iam . N o i llus . O M 2 48 , 2 79 7 82 F rag . o f r im . H odgson i llus . a s n o.15, n ot i n t ext : i T .B . 1 7 83 5 -ins . h ., d iam . a t i n . 4 Zii ns, r im l -ins d eep . S pence ( a) " fv" t ype : H odgson n o.6 : I T .B . 1 : L ongworth ( 1961) 3 39 O M 2 49 7 84 P lain : 4-k i ns h ., d iam . a t m . d iam . a t b ase 2 /ins . S pence ( b) " fv" t ype : H odgson n o.8 : i T .B .' : B AP n o.113 c : L ongworth ( 1961) 3 38 O M 2 47, 2 75 7 85 E ins h ., d iam . a t i n . 6 ins, d iam . a t b ase 3 -ins. S pence ( c) " fv" t ype : H odgson n o.5 i T .B . 1 : B AP n o.113d O M 2 52, 2 74 7 86 4 iins h ., d iam . a t b ase eins . W ith o verhanging r im . S pence ( d) " fv" t ype : I T .B .I O M 2 44a , 2 78 7 87 eins h ., d iam . a t m . eins, d iam . a t b ase 3 1 11ns . S pence ( e) " fv" t ype : H odgson n o.7 : I T .B . 1 : L ongworth ( 1961) 3 40 I ncense c ups 7 88 F rags ., 3 ins h ., 3 -ins d iam . a t m ., 3 ins d iam . a t b ase. l ip h as g rooves a round, c hevrons a nd h orizontal l ines o n w hole o f b ody , b ase p lain . S pence ( a) i ncense c up : I T .B . 1 O M 2 97

7 67-793 G arlands ( continued) 7 89 A pprox , 3 ins h ., d iam . a t b ase 2 ins. D ouble p erforation o n p art o f b ody t hat r emains . N o .illus. S pence ( b) i ncense c up : H odgson n o.12, i n t ext : O N 2 4 1 7 90 2 gins .h ., d iam . a t m . 3 1 1 -ins, d iam . a t b ase l iins . D ouble p erforation . S pence ( c) i ncense c up : H odgson n o.10 : I T .B . 1 : B AP n o.285 O M 2 40 7 91 2 ins h ., d iam . a t m . 2 ilns, d iam . a t b ase l -i ns . D ouble p erforation . S pence ( d) i ncense c up : H odgson n o.11 : f T .B .' O M 2 51 7 92 7 93 7 94

I T .B .1 ' ) O ne b ase m entioned b y H odgson I T .B .

G elt B ridge ( c 1 775) H all : C W ( 1) 6 ( 1882) 4 70

7 95-797 G rayson-Lands, G lassonby C ist p reviously o pened? B lue m ound a t o r n ear t he o riginal a ssociation w ith b urials B B 7 -8 C ollingwood : C W ( 2) B arnes & T urner : C W 7 98

g lass b ead f ound i n N W p art o f s urface, n ot i n d irect

1 ( 1901) 2 95-9, p l . ( 2) 1 ( 1901) 3 00-2

C arlisle

G rey C roft N ot p ossible t o v erify i f c remated b one w as h uman F letcher : C W ( 2) 5 7 ( 1958) 1 -8

7 99-814 H ackthorpe H all E state O ne c ist b elow t he o ther . C remations a ll w ith a c overing o f c obbles a nd f lakes o f s tone a nd a ' fine b lack m ouldt M äwson C W ( 1) 2 ( 1876) 1 1-4 8 15-820 H awkshead M oor T hick d eposit o f c harcoal a nd e arth c overed b y a s tone 1 7ft W NW o f c entre C owper : C W ( 1) 9 ( 1 888 ) 2 01, 4 97-8 F ell : C W ( 2) 6 4 ( 1964) 1 -5, f ig ‚ .2 L ancaster 8 21

H eaning W ood P ot h ole w ith a ssortment o f m aterial, i ncluding h uman r emains B arnes : C W ( 2) 7 0 ( 1970) 1 -8

8 22

H esket N ewmarket ( 1794) " Beneath t he b arrow , s everal p laces w here h uman b ones h ad b een b urnt a nd d eposited w ere d iscovered, a s a lso n umerous p ieces o f f lint a nd s tone b eads, a nd a s tone b attle-axe" W . W hellan : T he h istory a nd t opography o f t he c ounties C umberland a nd W estmorland ( 1860) 2 25

8 23

H ollin S tump B B 3 98 R CHM W estmorland, A sby 2 8 , p .20

5 80

8 24-825 H olmrook F air : 3 1 ( 2) 4 3

( 1943) 5 1

C arlisle

8 26-827 H ow H ill, T hursby F ell : C W ( 2) 6 7 ( 1967) 1 7-25, f igs. C owie : C UM 2 A & B , f ig .5 8 28

8 29

H unsonby, N ether M oor B AP I n o.175, p l .XIV F ell ( 1950) n o-4 C W ( 2) 4 0 ( 1940) 1 07 C larke n o.113

C arlisle

C arlisle

b etween n yning a nd L evens M cKenny H ughes : C W ( 2) 1 2

( 1912) 4 03-5

8 30-838 I releth M ill F ound i n e xcavating r eservoir . U rns i n s traight l ine a t i ntervals a bout a y ard a part . D estroyed a nd f ragments b uried i n t he d am e mbankment S pence : C W ( 2) 3 5 ( 1935) 1 80 8 39

I ron H ill R emains p ossibly f rom c ist, i n m ound. A ccounts u nclear a s t o w hich o f t wo m ounds w as e xcavated C ollingwood : C W ( 2) 3 3 ( 1933) 2 19-21 A rch .J . 1 8 ( 1861) 3 6-7 R CHM W estmorland, C rosby R avensworth 5 8 , p .90 T hom & T hom ( 1980) 6 0-1 B url ( 1976) W estmorland 6 .

8 40

K irkby S tephen C LXV G reenwell : C W ( 1) 1 ( 1874) 2 2 B B 3 82 R CHM W estmorland W aitby 1 5, p .236

8 41

K irkby S tephen C LXVI G reenwell : O W ( 1) 1 ( 1874) 2 2 B B 3 82 R CHM W estmorland, K irkby S tephen 1 2, p -144

8 42

K irkby S tephen C LXVII , G reenwell : C W ( 1) 1 ( 1874) 2 3 B B 3 82-3 R CHM W estmorland, K irkby S tephen 1 2, p .1AA

8 43-844 K irkby S tephen C LXVIII S igns o f f ormer d isturbance G reenwell : C W ( 1) 1 ( 1874) 2 2-3 B B 3 83 R CHM W estmorland, K irkby S tephen 1 3, p -144 8 45

K irkby S tephen C LXIX M allerstang G reenwell : C W ( 1) 1 ( 1874) 2 5 B B 3 83-4 R CHM W estmorland, M allerstang 1 8, p p .164-5 B M 7 9 .12-9 .1351

5 81

8 46

K irkby S tephen C LXX , W iseber B B 3 84-5 R CHM W estmorland, K irkby S tephen 1 0, p p .143 4 B M 7 9 .12-9 .1352

8 47

K irkoswald ( 1970) C lough : C W ( 2) 7 2 ( 1972) 4 7-9 , f igs .1 .6 & 2

8 48 8 49

L acra B L acra D D ixon & F ell : C W ( 2) 4 8 ( 1949) 1 -22

8 50-857 L eacet H ill R obinson & F erguson : C W ( 1) 5 ( 1881) 7 6-8 R CHM W estmorland, B rougham 9 , p .63 8 58

L ittle M ell F ell H uddleston : C W ( 2) 5 2 ( 1953) 1 78-80

8 59

L orton M oss O ak p lank c offin, j oints c alked w ith m oss . C offin c ontained " small q uantity o f w ood a shes, s tones o f s everal k inds w hich h ad b een s ub jected t o t he a ction o f f ire, a nd a f ew c rystals o f q uartz w hich m ight p ossibly h ave b een a rrow t ips" W ilson : C W ( 1) 4 ( 1880) 3 44-5

8 60-861 M aughanby " Whins" ( Little M eg) U rn u ndecorated . O ne o f k erb s tones o f c airn w ith i ncised c oncentric c ircles S impson : P SA ( 2) 3 ( 1864-7) 2 11-3 F erguson : C W ( 1) 1 3 ( 1895) 3 97 C W ( 1) 6 ( 1882) 1 11, 4 92 T hornley : C W ( 2) 2 ( 1902) 3 81, f ig .1 C W ( 2) 1 3 ( 1913) 4 07 C W ( 2) 2 3 ( 1923) 2 21 T hom & T hom ( 1980) 4 4-5, LV8 8 62

M ecklin P ark Q uartz p ebbles, f lint c hip a nd b rushwood c harcoal i n c entral a rea . B eaker s herd f ound i n t renching 4 ft N E o f c entre C larke n o.112 S pence : C W ( 2) 3 7 ( 1937) 1 04-5 C W ( 2) 6 8 ( 1968) f ig .2 .2 F ell ( 1950) n o.12 C arlisle

8 63

M ecklin P ark ' A d isturbed f ood v essel b urial'. N o o ther d etails F ell : C W ( 2) 6 7 ( 1967 ) 1 7-25

5 82

8 64-867 M ill H ill, O ld P enrith ( 1722) L arge u rn o f c oarse p ottery , 2 -ft i n d iameter , w hich f ell t o p ieces, i nside w hich w ere t wo i ncense c ups " full o f b lack e arth" . B oth i llustrated i n H utchinson ( 1794). T here i s a n i ncense c up, o f t he s ame p rovenance, i n t he c ollection o f t he N ational M useum o f A ntiquities a t E dinburgh . T he d ecoration o n t he u pper p art o f t his v essel i s i dentical w ith o ne o f t he i ncense c ups i llustrated b y H utchinson . H owever , a s H utchinson's e xample i s i ncomplete a nd p lain b elow t he t wo h oles, t hese w ould s eem t o b e s eparate e xamples o f t he s ame v essel t ype, p robably f rom t he s ame a rea W . H utchinson : H istory o f C umberland I ( 1794) 4 90 , p l .facing p .481, n o.11 ( incense c ups) B irley : C W ( 2) 5 2 ( 1953) 1 82-3 B AP I I n o.287 , p l .LXXXII S impson & Y oung : C W ( 2) 5 1 ( 1952) 1 71-2, f ig . E dinburgh E D1 8 68

M illom , B eck F arm ( pre-1872) " Urns w ith b ones" . P robably m ore t han o ne o riginally f ound C ross : C W ( 2) 3 9 ( 1939) 2 83-4 , p l .III

8 69

M oor D ivock C LXXXIII G reenwell : C W ( 1) 1 ( 1874) 2 4-5 B B 4 00-1 T aylor : C W ( 1) 8 ( 1886) 3 28-30, n o.4

B M 7 9 .12-9 .1377

8 70

M oor D ivock G reenwell : C W ( 1) 1 ( 1874) 2 4 S impson : C W ( 1) 6 ( 1882) 1 76-82

8 71

M oor D ivock , W hite R aise, " Star F ish c airn" T aylor : O W ( 1) 8 ( 1886) 3 23-47 , n o.10

8 72

M oor D ivock O pposite o ne o f f our l arge u pright s tones p laced i n a r ow i n t he b arrow S impson : C W ( 1) 6 ( 1882) 1 76-82 T aylor : C W ( 1) 8 ( 1886) 3 32-3, n o.5

8 73

N ewton P enrith ( Newton R eigny ) C larke n o.114 ' F ell ( 1950) n o.8 ( Skirwith M oor) C W ( 2) 4 0 ( 1940) 1 08

8 74

C arlisle

O ld C arlisle ( 1791) ' Human b ones o f p ersons o f v ery d ifferent a ge'. N ot r ecorded i f b ones w ere b urnt o r u nburnt . V essel a ppears t o b e a c inerary u rn W . H utchinson : H istory o f C umberland I I ( 1794) 4 09-10 , p l .facing p .409, n o.16

8 75-910 O ld P arks, K irkoswald ' S ome o f t he 3 2 d eposits o f b urnt b ones f ound w ith f ragments o f u rns a nd f iner p ottery . T wo l arge g rave-shaped f eatures o n e ast s ide o f b arrow , o ne, w ith a c remation ( 875), G ift b y aft b y 4if t d eep , t he s econd, s omewhat s maller , a bout t he s ize o f a n o rdinary g rave . 5 83

8 75-910 O ld P arks, K irkoswald ( continued) 8 76 f ragment o f a l arge u rn 8 77 U rn 1 3iins h igh a nd 1 2ins d iam . a t m outh . r ude a nd m uch w orn F erguson : C W ( 1) 1 2 ( 1893) 2 75-6 F erguson : C W ( 1) 1 3 ( 1895) 3 89-9 9 11

O rnament

C arlisle

O rton C LXXVIII I nhumation i n g rave 8 ft b y 5 ft b y 2 ft d eep, e xcavated i nto l imestone B B 3 94-5 R CHM W estmorland, O rton 4 1, p .191 B M 7 9 .12-9 .1374

9 12-916 O rton C LXXIX , L ittle K inman P ossibly p reviously o pened. N ot c lear f rom G reenwell's a ccount i f t he r emains o f t wo b odies f ound s cattered t hroughout t he m ound w ere t hose o f w hich p arts w ere a lso f ound i n t he c ist B B 3 95-6 R CHM W estmorland, O rton 4 2, p .191 I N 7 9 .12-9 .1375 9 17

9 18

O smotherley ( 1954) B arnes : C W ( 2) 5 4 ( 1955) 5 -8

B arrow

P apcastle B AP I I n o.122, p l .LXXIII L ongworth : P PS 2 7 ( 1961) 3 01

B M 7 0 .10-13.2

9 19

P enhurrock C ist s haped g rave c ut i nto t he r ock S impson : C W ( 1) 6 ( 1882) 1 76-82 R CHM W estmorland, C rosby R avensworth 5 1, p .90

9 20

P lumpton F ell

:C W ( 2) 6 7 ( 1967) 2 3

B M 1 04 .12-9 .1

9 21

R aisgill H all C ist a nd i nhumation ' with t he b ones o f s everal o thers r ound a bout' F erguson : C W ( 1) 6 ( 1882) 1 83-5 R CHM W estmorland, O rton 4 3, p .191

9 22

R alfland F orest R CHM W estmorland,

9 23

9 24

9 25

.

S hap r ural 7 9 , p .212

R avenglass ? , D rigg a nd C arleton p arish S pence : C W ( 2) 4 0 ( 1940) 1 11 F ell : C W ( 2) 6 7 ( 1967) 1 7-25, f ig .

C arlisle

R avenglass B AP I I n o.164, p i .Lxxvi S pence : C W ( 2) 4 0 ( 1940) 1 11 H odgson : C W ( 2) 5 6 ( 1957) 9 , n o-4 ( in e rror a s f rom G arlands)

C arlisle

R avenstonedale C LXXVII , H ardrigg B B 3 93-4 R CHM W estmorland, R avenstonedale 3 5, p .200 5 84

B M 7 9 .12-9 .1373

9 26-927 R oanstrees ( Kemps G raves) M aughan : A rch .J . 1 1 ( 1854) 2 30 ( as R oman) C BA G roup 3 N ews ( 1) 7 ( 1974 ) 1 2 9 28

R oose T he e arliest a ccount o f t his c airn s uggests t hat a b ody w as c remated i n s iturw ith t he u rn a nd i ncense c up w hich ' contained n othing b ut e arth' b y t he h ead, t he w hole b eing c overed w ith e arth a nd s tones a fter c remation A rch .J . 3 ( 1846) 6 8 , f igs . F ell : C W ( 2) 5 7 ( 1958) 1 2 E dinburgh E B 8 B arrow

9 29-931 S cales H aggs ( 1803) 9 29 F ound ' under a s mall h eap o f s tones'. R im f ragment o f u rn a bout 1 4ins d iam . " encircled b y ar aised m oulding a nd o rnamented w ith a k ind o f c arving" 9 30-1 A t al ittle d istance f rom ,i n t he s ame f ield . " A t omb h aving a b road f lat l imestone l aid o ver i t , a nd w hich h ad b een p laced u pon t wo u pright s tones a t t he e nds" ( ? c ist) T . W est : T he a ntiquities o f F urness . N ew e d . w ith a dditions b y W illiam C lose ( 1822) 3 92, p l .V .4 F ell : C W ( 2) 5 7 ( 1958) 1 2 9 32

S eascale, H erding N eb " Clay b urial u rn w ith s mall b ones" C .A . P arker ( ed .) : C W ( 2) X V , e xtra s eries ( 1904) 2 9 , 3 5 F air : C W ( 2) 4 3 ( 1943) 5 0 C herry : C W ( 2) 6 7 ( 1967) 5

9 33-937 S hield K nowe 9 36-937 C remations ( at l east t wo i ndividuals) f ound i n o val h ollow , b urnt d eep r ed a nd b rick h ard, w ith c harcoal H odgson : C W ( 2) 4 0 ( 1940) 1 54-66 C arlisle 9 38

S ill H ow , O dendale S impson : C W ( 1) 6 ( 1881-2) 1 76-82

9 39-943 S izergh F ell ' Platform ' o f l arge s tones i n c entre o f c airn . S ome e vidence o f a ll i nhumations ' having b een b uried i n a s mall c hamber' ( ? c ists) M cKenny H ughes : C W ( 2) 4 ( 1904) 2 01-4 R CHM W estmorland, L evens 1 7, p .157 9 44

S izergh F ell F ragments o f c harcoal a nd a f ew b urnt s tones i n m ound C larke n o.1023 M cKenny H ughes : C W ( 2) 4 ( 1904) 7 1-9 , f ig . R OHM W estmorland, L evens 1 7 , p .157 P P

9 45

S kirwith M oor

C arlisle

5 85

9 46

S tainton, R edhills G rave e xcavated i nto r ock T aylor : C W ( 1) 6 ( 1882) 1 13

9 47-949 S tainton H ead, F urness S everal m ore u rns f ound i n s ame a rea , m any s mashed J . B olton : G eological f ragments c ollected p rincipally f rom r ambles a mong t he r ocks o f F urness a nd C artmel ( 1869) 1 39 D obson : C W ( 2) 1 2 ( 1912) 2 82-3 F ell : C W ( 2) 5 7 ( 1958 ) 9 -12, p l . B M 7 9 .12-9 .1780-1783 9 50

9 51

B utler & S mith ( 1956) 5 1. S unbrick , B irkrigg T he r esults o f t he e xcavation o f t his c airn a re a lmost i mpossible t o i nterpret . F ragments o f m any b odies w ere r ecorded, b ut i t i s u nclear i f t hese w ere c remations o r i nhumations . T he m ethod o f e xcavation a dopted m akes i t p ossible t hat d ifferent p arts o f t he s ame b urial m ight b e f ound i n d ifferent t renches, a nd i t i s n ot p ossible t o e stimate t he t otal n umber o f i ndividuals r epresented. T he d etermination o f t he s ex o f a n i ndividual f rom t eeth , o r a s ingle b one f ragment , a s s uggested b y S ir A rthur K eith i n t he o riginal r eport i s c onsidered t o b e u nreliable . T he c airn o bviously c overed m any b urial d eposits, p ossibly f ragmentary D obson : C W ( 2) 2 7 ( 1927) 1 00-9 U llock ( c 1 876) I ncense c ups a nd u rns f ound C ollingwood C W ( 2) 2 3 ( 1923) 2 58 D ickinson : C W ( 1) 3 ( 1878 ) 3 46

9 52-953 W arcop C LXXI _ B B 3 85-6

9 54

W asdale B eck T iny c ist 1 2ins s quare F ell : C W ( 2) 7 4 ( 1974) 3

9 55-963 W aterloo H ill, A glionby ( 1927 ) I n s and p it . U rns i n h ollows, 6 -8ft i n d iam . a nd 3 ft b elow m odern s urface, s urrounded w ith b lack a sh a nd c harcoal a nd m any u n-urned c remations ( unknown n umber). E ncrusted u rn f ound a bout 6 0-70yds f rom o ther b urial d eposits . 9 56 H odgson n o .1 9 57 H odgson n o .2 9 58 H odgson n o.3 : L ongworth : P PS 2 7 ( 1961) 3 34 9 59 " Incomplete f ood v essel" eins h igh , 4 i -ins d iam . a t m outh . L ip h as o ne a nd t he r im s everal h orizontal l ines o f t wisted c ord i mpressions . B ody b eneath r im d ecorated w ith s hort o blique i ncisions . 9 60 ' Urn' 9 61 H odgson n o.4 9 63 E ncrusted u rn : H odgson n o .5 : C owie C UM 5 , f ig.5 S pence : C W ( 2) 4 0 ( 1940) 1 04-5 H odgson : C W ( 2) 5 6 ( 1957) 1 2-17 C arlisle 5 86

9 64

9 65

W etheral, C lint H ead F arm S pence : C W ( 2) 3 5

( 1935) 1 73

W hite L yne v alley R ichardson : C W ( 2) 7 4 ( 1974) 2 23-4

9 66-974 N etherhall c ollection ( ? L ocal p rovenance a t M aryport) 9 66 H odgson n o .1 : C owie C UM 3 A , f ig .5 9 67 H odgson n o.2 : C owie C UM 3 B , f ig .5 9 68 H odgson n o .3 9 69 H odgson n o.4 9 70 H odgson n o.5 : H utchinson p l .IV .67 9 71 H odgson n o.6 : L ongworth : P PS 2 7 ( 1961) 3 42 9 72 F rag . o f ?u rn , w ith c arination 9 73 F rag . o f p lain b ase 9 74 F rag. o f p lain b ase W . H utchinson : H istory o f C umberland I I ( 1794) 2 81, p l .IV .67 H odgson : C W ( 2) 5 6 ( 1957) 1 -6, f igs . C arlisle 9 75

N etherby c ollection ( ? L ocal p rovenance) T . P ennant : A t our o f S cotland, a nd v oyage t o t he H ebrides; M DCCLXXII ( 1774) p l .VII .342 ( facing p .84)

9 76

C umberland B AP I n o.182, p l .XV F ell ( 1950) n o.6 C W ( 2) 4 0 ( 1940) 1 12 C larke n o.111

9 77

C arlisle

C umberland ? ?C lass I b r azor B AP I I n o.488, p l .XCVI F ell : C W ( 2) 6 7 ( 1967) 1 7-25, f ig .1 .4a-b B utler & S mith ( 1956) 5 2, a s

' Keswick, N orthumberland' B M

5 87

[ sic ]

T able 1 1

( 1)

( 2)

:B eaker a nd E arly B ronze A ge b urials i n t he n orth o f E ngland

N orth-east

C umbria

B urials w ith g rave g oods o f E BA d ate

2 58 ( 38% )

( 30% )

C omplete E BA v essels, p robably f rom f unerary c ontexts

(9 % )

( 8% )

6 4

9 4 2 5

( 3)

B urials w ith a rtifacts w hich a re i nsufficiently d escribed f or a ccurate c lassification ( e.g. ' pot')

1 30 ( 19% )

5 6 ( 1 8 % )

( 4)

B urials w hich b y r ite, c ontext a nd a ssociation w ith o ther d atable b urials a re p robably a lso o f E RA d ate

2 21 ( 32% )

1 31 ( 42% )

6 73 ( 100% )

3 06 ( 100% )

C onsidering t he a rea a s aw hole ( Cumbria a nd t he n orth-east c ombined), t hen t he n umbers a nd p ercentages o f b urials i n e ach o f t he f our c ategories l isted a bove a re a s f ollows:-

3 52 ( 35% )

w ith g rave g oods

8 9 (9 % )

c omplete p ots a rtifacts i nsufficiently d escribed

1 86 ( 18% )

r ite /context /association p robably E BA

3 52 ( 35% )

T otal

5 88

9 79 b urials ( 100% )

T ype o f s ite

N umber o f s ites N orth—east

A l

f lat c ists I cistst ( no o ther d etails )

C umbria

1 18

7

4 6

3

A 2

m ounds w ith s ingle c ist

6 1

A 3

m ounds w ith s ingle c ist & o ther d eposits

1 2

7

A 4

m ultiple c ist m ounds

2 6

5

B i

f lat g raves

2 7

1 5

B 2

m ounds w ith s ingle b urial d eposit

4 1

2 5

B 3

m ounds w ith m ultiple c remations

1 8

B 4

m ound w ith p it g raves

B 5

m ounds w ith i nhums. & c rems.

6

B 6

m ounds w ith i nhums . o nly

3

7

1

S tone c ircles

2

4 —Poster s tone c ircles

1

R ock—shelters

2

P ot—hole

3

1

T otal:

T able

1 3

1 2

:B urial c ontexts i n t he n orth o f E ngland

5 89

3 55

9 5

A A l

B URIALS I N C ISTS F lat c ist g raves 1 2 4 5 9 3 3 3 6 4 4-47

5 7 6 7-71 7 4 8 0 9 7-102 1 05 1 06 1 07 11 14 1 23 1 37 1 39-141 1 45 1 54 1 57 1 59 1 61 1 67-168 1 79 1 82 1 84-186 1 87 1 88 1 89-190 1 95 . 2 33 2 57 2 85 2 86-287 2 93-296 3 02-303 3 04 3 26 3 34-335 3 36-341 3 42-343 3 44 3 52 3 61-362 T able 1 3

S ingle c ists ( no r ecord o f w hether f lat o r c overed b y m ound )

3 63 3 64-368 3 75 3 77 3 78-379 3 89-390 4 28-430 4 31

8 1 0 1 2 1 3 1 4 3 4 6 0 6 1

4 34 4 51 4 52 4 55 4 59 4 99 5 08 5 11 5 14 5 17-524 5 25 5 28-529 5 30 5 34 5 84-586 6 04 6 05 6 06 6 09 6 15 6 20 6 21 6 73 7 23-724 7 36 7 37 7 44 9 30-931 5 12 5 23

6 3 7 5 12 1 58 1 60 1 93 2 29 2 32 2 80 3 07 3 47 3 57 3 91-392 4 05 4 06 4 22 4 39 4 53-454 5 16 5 26 5 73-574 5 75 5 87 5 91 5 97 6 16 6 23-627 6 28 6 42 6 43-645 7 65 8 29 9 64

:C lassification o f b urial s ites a ccording t o c ontext ( Number srefer t o t hose u sed i n t he B urials c atalogue

5 90

& T able 1 0)

A 2 M ounds w ith s ingle c ist o nly 7 1 4 2 5 3 5 6 6 2 6 6 9 0 13 1 35 1 36 1 38 1 46 1 47 1 48 1 56 1 66 1 96-197 2 00 2 19 2 67 2 81 3 08-309 3 45 3 53 3 73 4 10 4 36 4 37 4 38 4 56 4 69 4 70 4 80 4 81 4 92 5 06 5 10 5 13 5 27 5 49 5 50 5 51 5 53

A 3 M ounds w ith s ingle c ist a nd o ther d eposits

6 29 6 65 7 43 7 64 7 94 8 23 8 39 8 41 8 70 8 71 9 38 9 54 9 65

5 4-55 15-122 1 62-164 1 70-177 2 01-207 2 53-255 2 82 3 11-313 3 70-371 4 89-491 4 93-495 4 96-497 5 62-564 7 19-721 7 38-739 7 95-797 8 15-820 8 60-861 9 12-916 9 21 A 4 M ultiple c ist m ounds 1 8-32 4 8-52 5 8-59 7 8-79 8 7-88 9 1-94 1 26-131 2 10-212 2 35-238 2 46-249 2 58-266 2 68-278 3 82-387 4 11-414 4 23-425 4 43-446 4 48-450 4 57-458 4 61-464 5 3 1-533 5 35-546

5 61 5 70 5 68 5 79 5 80 5 83 5 90 6 11 6 12

5 54-558 5 59-560 5 76-578 5 92-596 6 07-608 7 29-735 7 46-747 7 99-814 9 26-927

6 13 5 91

9 33-937 9 39-943

B

B URIALS N OT I N C ISTS

B 1 F lat g raves

B 2

3 8 3 9 1 34 1 42 1 94 1 99 2 09 2 27-228 2 34 2 89-292 3 25 3 27 3 33 3 54-355 3 56 3 88 3 93-404 4 15-417 4 73-475 4 72 5 09

M ounds w ith s ingle b urial d eposit

4 3 7 2 7 3 7 6-77 8 4-85 1 32-133 1 55 1 65 1 83 2 24 2 50 2 51-252 2 97 2 98 3 10 3 58 3 59 3 69 3 72 4 07 4 08 4 32 4 33 4 35 4 47 4 60 4 68 4 71 4 78 4 79 4 83 4 87-488 4 98 5 48 5 52 5 65 5 69 5 82 6 14 6 65 6 85 7 22

5 99-603 6 10 6 30-641 6 46-652 6 54-665 6 72 6 74-676 7 25-726 7 67-793 $ 24-825 8 26-827 8 30-838 8 47 8 58 9 17 9 29 9 32 9 47-949 9 55-963 9 66-974 1 10 4 18

5 92

7 42 7 45 7 48 7 49 7 50 7 56 7 63 7 98 8 40 8 42 8 45 8 46 8 48 8 62 8 69 8 72 9 11 9 19 9 22 9 25 9 28 9 44

B 3

M ounds w ith m ultiple c remations

O ther s tructures S tone c ircles

1 5-17 4 0-41 8 1-83 1 08-109 '1 43-144 1 81(?) 2 13-215 2 16-218 2 20-222 2 99-301 3 14-323 3 28-332 3 48-350 4 20-421 4 26 4 27 4 65-467 5 88-589 6 77-684 6 89-700 7 01-706 7 07-708 8 22 8 64-867 8 75-910

1 98 6 50 7 09-713 8 48 8 49 8 50-857 4 -Poster s tone c ircle 5 72

N atural f eatures R ock-shelters 1 80 2 41-245 P ot-hole 8 21

B 4 M ounds w ith p it g raves 1 49-153 B 5 M ounds w ith i nhumations a nd c remations 6 86-688 7 51-755 7 57-759 7 60-762 8 43-844 B 6 M ounds w ith i nhumations 7 14-718 9 50(?) 9 52-953

5 93

N orth-east

N umber o f c ists

1 -2 A dderstone 3 3-34 Amble 4 4-47 B arrasford 6 7-71 B edlington

2 2 3 o r 4 ,5

7 4 B elford C rag 9 7-102 B laydon 1 06-107 B orewell F arm 12 B rainshaugh 14 B rierton

' several' 5 2 ' several' ' several'

1 39-141 C allaly 1 57 C heswick L inks

3 ' several'

1 67-168 C olwell 1 84-187 1 88-190 2 93-296 3 04-306 3 36-341

2

D enton B urn D ilston P ark H igh C ocklaw H irst, A shington H umbleton, B owchester f ield

3 42-343 H umbleton B uildings 3 61-362 J esmond, C rag H all 3 77 L emmington H all

2 3 4 3 (?) a bout 8 2 2 ' a g reat n umber'

3 89-390 L ilburn H ill

2

3 91-392 4 28-430 5 17-524 5 27-529 5 73-574

2 3 7 2 2

L ilburn H ill F arm Marley K nowe S eahouses S hipley T hrunton

5 75 T itlington M ount

' several'

6 23-627 W ooperton

5

6 43-645 Y eavering F arm

3

C umbria 7 36-737 B rougham

T able

1 4

:

2

F lat c ist " cemeteries"

5 94

c d • r 1 g i d 'a

\ ID

I

N

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

M

o

O • c V

n

N

4\

c \ Z

C • •

l

c \ I

I

1

1

1

F lat c ist g raves

H

1

c \ Z

1

0

1

H

1 . r \ c \ /

c d ; f I

N o r ecorded r emains

0 c d

C remation

g rave g oods

\o

a ) N

o

+D

• , 1 H

P C D

5 95

C \ i "

a ) M c d C D

T able 1 5.1

H

C r1 ( \ 1

N o g rave g oods

H

F ood v essel

\O

N

H

. t.

I

I

I

N

CV

i

CM

P 4

C ` •

1 41 C r.\

C\ 1

C r. \

c \ I

I

I

H

t

H

I n

t O

k r \

c ' n

C \ Z

I

H

c f 1

H

I

I

I

I

I f \

C Y '\

C c \

H

0

I

I

\ .D

• r 1 ; 1

I

H

I

I

0

C D N

• o ; , m

4 -,

c l

•

H r , 1

H

0

P 0

5 96

c d 0

H

C \ 2 H

. . 4 -, 0

F A 0 , -

p C

g rave g oods

H

H

F ood v essel

N o r ecorded

0

C remation

a nd g rave g oods

r 4

g rave g oods

9 0

a ssociated r ites

c d r 1 g i r a

c l )

1 I

N c \ . /

H

I

H

H

I

I

I

4 t o

C D

> a ) C a

I

. . . .

+2

C I 3

0

42

0

i n

H H H C )

•

0 P 4 3 % .

T h z

I

C Y \ c r \

H

C V

I

H

( N 2

H ▪

\ C D

H

( 1' 1

C Y1

‘ o

H

H

c d C rl

9 0 c \ I

\ D

t r \

. t

C V

C N /

t x )

c \ Z

1 1

c d • r i

9

4

H

( \ I

I

I

I

1

0,1

\ O

4 -

0

\ D

I

I

1 C1

r ecorded r emains

C remation

a nd g rave g oods P . H

0 P c d

C ) N

; I

a )

+ -1

o

h

I

.P H r . , 1

0 F-D

0 C : n

0

C ,1

T able 1 5.3

, t

N o g rave g oods

r e \

C r1

F ood v essel

0

" . 0

1 (

1 , , m . . " 4 . )

• , + g 4

M ore t han B eaker

• , 4 c . )

E

S ex/age

, + g 4

4 — ) c n

C remation

4 ) c z i

B ody p osition

M ound

S ite

o . 4 4 . ) m

O ther g rave g oods

5 A ltonside 7A lnwick,

W hitehouse

?

1 4 A lwinton 3 3 Amble

M? 3

3 6 Amble P ier

M /3

6 7 B edlington

( 1)

6 8 B edlington

( 2)

2

c obble

s tone

f rags.

o f

F /3

9 0 B lack H eddon 9 7 B laydon 1 00-101

( 1)

B laydon

( 4)&(5)

77 4

3 2

1 07 B orewell F arm M /3

13 B randon H ill 1 42

C artington

y u

l eather t ree

t runk

c offin ( 1 49

2j et b uttons

C hatton S andyford B I

( 1 50 C hatton S andyford B 2 ( 1 51

C hatton S andyford B 3

1 82 D alton

( gs) 2

1 89 D ilston P ark A

2

1 90 D ilston P ark B

r ed o chre

2 00 E llsnook 2 01

E tal M oor C LXXXIV

2 25 F ord *

2 86-287 H igh B uston

T able 1 6

3

:

B eaker g raves

t

2

M /3 M /3

i n t he n orth-east o f E ngland

Z

2 97 H igh K nowes A

e

E n

T I

• r 1

r . . 1

0

B ody p osition

0

. S1te

I nhumation

o

o • , 4 4 . , c o c i )

3 1 U

t

M /3 F /3 /2 -/ 2 /1

o o

5

o 0 o

c n • , 4 i . i , 1

g . 1

c o , . 4 • J g i ( 1 ) 0 Z

e

O ther

=

g rave

( 1 )

t

w hetstone g old e arring

3 78 L esbury,

B urney K nows

t )

B urney K nows

U

3 82 L esbury,

H awkhill

*

4 06 L ilburn S .

t t

3 89 L ilburn H ill F arm s teads

(4 23 L ow T rewhitt

t

(4 24 L ow T rewhitt

t

t t

*

t t

t

f lint d agger

?

?

4 42 N orham C astle

3

t

N orth H azelrigg

F /2

4 52 N orth S underland

3

t

4 55 O ld R othbury 4 78 R ayheugh F arm

g oods

*

t

3 79 L esbury,

4 51

x

C I ) Cn

t

3 64-368 K elloe L aw

3 72 K irkshaugh

a ) b p c o

t

4 80 R ayheugh C XCIII 4 95 R osebrough C XCVII

t

t

t

211 1 6

77 .

5 08 R yton

*

t

t

5 11

t

t

*

*

*

*

t

*

*

*

S acriston

5 23 S eahouses

( 8)

5 27

S hipley

5 30

S malesmouth

5 34

S neep

5 65

S tell K nowe

? *

M /3 M /3

4 1 .—


,

'"(j

0

�

� u

(1)

bO

CU ...........

>::

(1)

C/)

�

t

?

153 Chatten Sandyford (l)C2 t

t

/2

t

/3

t

170 Copt Hill (1)

t

t

213 Fawns CCX

t

t

/3

222 Ford Common CLXXXVI

t

t

F/3

i

/3 /3

t

317-319 321

t t

t t

"

"

II

II

t

3

t

3

i

334 Hul'ne Park

t

t

t

364-368 Kelloe Law

t

t

5

424 Low Trewhitt

t

i

456 Otterburn

t

t

512 Sandhoe

t

534 Sneep

t

535 South Charlton

u

bone pin

cJ

'-

/3 /3,/1 /3,/3 /3

SS

jet beads & button �et bead)rock )shelter

FV'& I FV EFV bone pin bone. pin

/2

lbone pin

/2

/3,/3 B /1,/1,/1 B i

p

t t

u

t �

F/3

B

piece of perf. grey stone

t

t

599 West Hepple, pit A

i

605 West Lilburn

t

'!'able 47

I1

t

t

Wood

314-316 Holystone Common

2B cobble stone

s

244 Goatscrag (3) " (4) 245

280 Hedley

0

� Other grave goods

t

155 Chatten Sandyford, cairn B

268 Hasting Hill " " 278

(1) +J +J

FV

t

t

>,

�

FV- bronze knife M/3

121 Broomhill, Ford CLXXXVII t 148 Chatten CXCII

.+J....0 CU s (1)

4

t

Burials with-flint flakes

i

F/3

u

bronze frag.

B

bronze knife,jet button, frag of chalk

7 98 G rey C roft

4 ) m • -

0

t

S ex/age

S ite

4 J e , ,

C remation

0

B ody P osition

7 5

o " i 4 _ ) e 0

› , g i w 4 _ ) o

g,

O ther g rave g oods

f rag. r ing

8 46 K irkby S tephen C LXX

*

9 52

*

W arcop

C LXXI

t 2

6 32

o f

l ignite

e i, '

9 3 B lawearie C C 1 23 B roomhouses,

A ngerton

e

• , i

S ex! a ge

e

C remation

4 ,

B ody p osition

P lace

F lat

M ound

o • , 1

w

( I ) 4 _ ,

f lint k nife

t t

t

O ther c ontexts: O ther g rave g oods

t

F /

b ronze k nife-dagger 2 f lint k nives ' light h ammer o f f lint'

1 81

C rookham D ene

2 22 F ord C ommon C LXXXVI 2 44 G oatscrag

?

?

*

t t

( 3)

t

F /3 Y °

U

j et b utton r ock s helter f lint f lake

Yl ig

t

*

2 83 H epple

p

( Limited d etails o f f ind) F V

t

p

t

t

F V

t

t

" Stoney-vague" n ear t

H um b leton H ouse 3 75 K yloe 4 59 P ark E nd, 5 68 n r.

t he C ruses

S winburne s tandi g

s tone

t

t

5 90 W ark

t

t

5 91

f lint k nife

t

3 10 H olwick 3 45

t

*

2 96 H igh C ocklaw

' other a rticles"

t

W arksburn B ridge ?

6 53 Y eavering

*

t

E U

s mall s quare " cist"

C umbria t

t

7 32 B roomrigg C ( III)

j et b utton a lso i n

M /3

m ound 7 51-755 C rosby G arrett i n b ody o f m ound

t

C LXXVI 7 63 C rosby R avensworth " Dale M oor"

t

t

S S

F rags.

o f " early

B ritish p ottery"

T able

48

B urials w ith j et n ecklaces a nd b eads 6 33

. , 4 0

h . 4

e . , w c n

w 4 . )

O ther c ontexts: o f a -, o ther g rave g oods

F V

N i +

8 63 M ecklin P ark

E

C remation

P lace

4 J

B ody p osition

M ound

0 . ,

" Food v essel b urial" f lint k nife & a rrowhead

'f ragment o f

K irkoswald

I

h e e

8 78 O ld P arks,

I nside i ncense c up

a j et o rnament

7 99-814 H ackthorpe H all E state

T able 49

:

T ypes o f j et n ecklaces a nd b eads

B arrel

S pacer p late n ecklaces

a nd d isc b eads

9 3 B lawearie C C

1 23 B lawearie 1 81

f ound w ith b urials

8 63 M ecklin P ark

C rookham D ene

2 96 H igh C ocklaw B arrel b eads a nd j et

3 10 H olwick

' button'

3 45 H umbleton 2 22 F ord C ommon C LXXXVI

3 75 K yloe 4 59

P ark E nd

5 91

W arksburn

B iconical b eads

7 51-755 C rosby G arrett O ld P arks B arrel b eads o nly N ecklaces

o f u nknown t ype

2 44 G oatscrag 5 68 n r. S winburn 7 99-814 H ackthorpe H all ( frag. o f ' jet o rnament')

2 83 H epple 5 90 W ark D isc b eads o nly 6 53 Y eavering 7 32 B roomrigg C ( III) 7 63 C rosby R avensworth

6 34

N orth-east

e P lace

o

1 49

t

C hatton S andyford B I

2 22 F ord C ommon C LXXXVI

4 . ) e T i r . ,

o . , . 4 4 . ; w E 4 . C ' ) _c

•r I

0

i -

o . , 1 . 1 . ) . , 1 C l ) o f a i › , d o =

o . , + 4 _ ) e

e w

C . )

t

t

w e

› , w

x

4 ' 4 )

C / 3

r a 4

w

F /3

c

O ther c ontexts: o ther g rave g oods

B

( 2 j et b uttons)

U

w ith j et b eads, f lint

t

t

2 46 G reat T osson

t

6 05 W est L ilburn

t

*

F V/EFV a ntler p ick?

( ) F /3

t

f lake

B

r onze k nife-dagger f lint

f lake

i ece o f c halk 6 21

t

W ooler

t

t

‚711 i

M /3

C umbria

7 29-735

B roomrigg C

i n b ody o f m ound:

t

j et

e ads a lso i n m ound ( No o ther d etails)

M oor D ivock

F ragment o f j et

c up?

N orth-east 2 98 H igh K nowes A ( 3)

J et

t

f lint

s craper

t

i n b ody o f m ound

r ings

7 98 G rey C roft

T able

5 0

:

B urials w ith j et b uttons,

6 35

r ings a nd j et

f ragments

1 •, .

H e

f rags,

.,

f lints

j et n ecklace,

. . , _

h i e H e

O ther g rave g oods

b ronze t

H e

H e

1 23 B roomhouses

S ex/age

I nhumation

_ Ci s t H e H e

H e

H e

5 3 B arrasford

H e

1 8 Amble C CXVI

H e

H e

4 A llerwash

F lat

M ound

P rovenance

w . e w =

, + w C l ) C l ) w > 7 : 1 o o 4 .

f lint

8 c ' light h ammer o f

-„

H e H e r 3 E,

, . 1

H e

H e

H e

*

j et b utton, f lints & f rag. o f c halk

I

h e

6 05 W est L ilburn

h e

4 18 L ow M oralee F arm 4 49 N orth C harlton

H e

H e

H e

3 35 H umbleton

N e

1 56 C heswick

H e

e f i

f lint'

T able

5 1:

D agger a nd k nife-dagger b urials

6 36

i n t he n orth o f E ngland

rt

c i p X

( —i -

v )

G Q 0 0

< C D

0

0 r t 0 9

P ottery

S ex/age

C remation

B ody p osition

, • i

c n ( . . )

I nhumation

p unow

S ite

c d

B RONZE AWLS 2 03 E tall M oor C LXXXIV

t

t

2 32 F owberry

t

7 15 B irkrigg E ast

t

8 47 K irkoswald

/ 3

U

b one p in

F V

t t

p ig i ncisor

t

t M /3

U

t

t

U

B RONZE R AZORS 9 46

S tainton H ead

9 77

' Cumberland'

F V

F RAGMENTS O F C OPPER O R BRONZE 1 66 C oldsmouth H ill 4 41

t B

N orham

5 99 W est H epple,

/ 3,/3 4 / 3,/1 U

p it A

( stain: f lint

a wl?)

f lake

6 03 W est H epple, *

s keleton 3 4 7 29-735 B roomrigg C V I

*

7 42 C arrock F ell

t

8 58 L ittle M ell 9 50 B irkrigg,

( awl?)

*

( frag. t t

t

F ell

S unbrick

o f b inding?)

3 U

?

*

O BJECT O F U NKNOWN T YPE 3 47

T able

" sword h andle o f b ronze"

*

H umbleton

5 2

:

O ther g rave g oods:

b ronze

6 37

0

o • , 1

3 o

S ite

M

4 4 .

4 , C l )

• . 4 0

0 •F • 4 4 . 3 C O

4 •P 1 C l ) 0 f a . ,

g . C

› , " d

F 1

c : , P c l

0 •F • 1 4 )

W b . 0

C O

4 1

W

X

N 1 u

c u m

› , , 1

' )

o A 4

4'

, u tu er c ontexts a nd n

g rave g oods

B ONE P INS 4 0 B amborough C XCVIII

t

/ 3

U

B roomhill C LXXXVII

*

/ 3

U

f lint f lake

2 03 E tall M oor C LXXXIV

t

/ 3

U

b ronze a wl

1 21

3 14-316 H olystone C ommon

F /3

C CV

3 F /3

3 21-323

d itto

*

/ 2

4 f lint 2 U

f lakes

2 f lint f lakes

7 51-755 C rosby G arrett C LXXVI

( in b ody o f m ound) I

8 45 K irkby S tephen C LXIX

B ONE AWLS 2 75 H asting H ill

t

t

ovx

/ 3

7 46 C lifton

t

t dr

M ?/3

B ONE T OGGLES 7 21

( 1)

F V

f lint k nife,antler f rag.

B

( ?) t

B leaberry H aws C

p

f lint

s aw

7 51-755 C rosby G arrett ( in b ody o f m ound)

C LXXVI

B ONE C HISEL 7 51-755

( in b ody o f m ound)

C rosby G arrett

C LXXVI

' BONE R ING' 7 99-814 H ackthorpe H all A NTLER

( in b ody o f m ound)

E state

' PICKS'

2 46 G reat T osson 2 75 H asting H ill I f

T able

"

5 2

( VII) ( IX)

t

t h )

t

t

e r v IZ

F V/EFV

/ 3

: O ther g rave g oods: b one a nd a ntler

lint k nife,bone a wl F V f

1 , . 0

C )

H

t

I ron H ill

P ottery

r z i

g

c n

S ex/age

• 1 4

n i

C remation

, i

O ther c ontexts a nd g rave g oods

X

4

a nimal b ones

X

M ound

S ite

8 39

e

4

B ody p osition

o

. 1 I 4

a nimal b ones

Z

4

c n •H

w

o

P ottery

S ite

4

a l , +

C remation

0

B ody p osition

"1 : 1

I nhumation

t

C LXVII

S ex/age

8 42 K irkby S tephen

O ther c ontexts a nd g rave g oods

AMBER B EAD 5 06 R ugley

C LAY B EADS f lint f lake & s craper , w

7 03 B anniside M oor C 9 25 R avenstonedale C LXXVI

G LASS B EAD ( in b ody o f m ound)

7 95-7 G rayson -Lands

m m

A lnwick

, w

5 27 S hipley,

e

2 00 E llsnook

7 04 B anniside M oor D 9 50 S unbrick,

T able

B irkrigg

5 2

:O ther g rave g oods:

e d

w

R ED O CHRE

b eads a nd o chre

6 39

c r )

" C

• , 1 r . . )

t

t

t

4

4

, i

W ( 1 0

w r n

P ottery

c d

, + g r .

C remation

punoN

S ite

B ody p osition

o 4

O ther c ontexts a nd g rave g oods

BATTLE AXE 5 25

S eghill

C HISEL 4

9 12 O rton C LXXIX

O M

( disturbed)

M /3

WHETSTONES t

2 29 F oulden 3 28 H owick H eugh

( 1)

3 72 K irkhaugh

( 1)

t

3 73 K irkhaugh

( 2)

t

7 99-814 H ackthorpe H all

F /3

t

/ 1

U +ss B

f lints,

g old e arring

t E U

t

9 63 W aterloo H ill

.

C OBBLE S TONE,

• t

3 6 Amble P ier 9 33-934

S hield K nowe

*

t

t

t

t

t

t

*

t

M /3

lint-flake 2 B f 2 FV

' PEBBLE H AMMERS' t

1 23 B roomhouses

4 62 P itland H ills

( 1)

*

g r zz

' POUNDER A ND P ERFORATED S TONE' 7 99-814 H ackthorpe H all

T able

5 2

t

:O ther g rave g oods:

s tone

6 40

f lint k nives, j et b eads, b ronze k nife

F /

M /3

F V

S ite a nd n umber

1 8-32

R elation t o o ld g round s urface

A mble

1 431A4 C atcherside C CXI

b elow

o n

F V+bronze k nife F V E FV

F V

C oldsmouth H ill

F V

E FV

1 49-153 C hatton S andy-f ord

1 66

a bove

E FV f lint f lake

f lint k nife

b ronze f rag .

1 70-177 G op k- H ill

E PV p robably a bov e F V

2 01-207 E tall M oor

U + b one p in + b ronze a wl

B ( frags .)

U +I

2 13-215 F awns C CX

f lint f lake

2 58-266 H arbottle P eels C CII

' pot !

F V F V F V F V

F V F V

2 68-278 H asting H ill

F V F V+flint k nife + bone p in + antler

F V+flint f lake

3 14-323 H olystone G ammon C CV

b one p in f lint f lakes

p ot + I p ot F V E FV F V ,scraper+flake

f lint f lakes p ot b one p in 2 U ( possibly a ssociated)

4 61-464 P itland H ills

p ot

F V+pebble h ammer E U+flint k nife

4 93-494 R osebrough 7 01-706 B anniside M oor

U +sherd

c lay b ead s herds+haematite

7 29-735 B roomrigg C

i ncense c up j et b eads ( below g .s.?)

j et b utton b ronze f rag .

P able 5 3

E BA b urial s ites w ith a rtifacts i n s tratigraphic r elationship

6 41

2200 •

Beakers 2100 .

2000. • •

1900.

1800_

1 700

.

1600

.

•

• •

bc 1500•

1 400_

•

1300_

•

1200-

1100_

•

1 000

900

N _ 1 .t • - u-\ c 0 \ .D c0 0 \ .0 M C r l L I N t r\ H C r C r ) L C, \D

,. 0

ON I f \ C D

NI f \

L r \ c n _ e- N c n i N- u-\ C r ) c n N I I I I I I I Z CO I I r l L i CO Z P I P Q P : 1 X P I P Q \D P : 1 P c ) . 1 H 0 P I I I :Q C _, I J D 1 IC \ J

c :

a ) › , › • H C l i r i C i , i C O W c , H 0

› , H H . H 4 0 c d C

. k 1 •

› , H H , 1 4 0 d 0

( 1 . ) › , > , i d H . 1 U ) W d H C

› , H H , i D d C

H H H O H H • r -1 / 1 , 4 . I H • , I c d o d a l , I c r i c e g , g : c i g m p l ( 14 p c 1 p c i

Table

54

Z •

0 ' 1 ( Z > a C O H W ,A t ü ) u l , 4 c ) S . b . 0 d W « I , O C , C > O ( 1 ) 0 Z r z •

> a P I i l l H ,A 0 0 , 4 g-4 d Z : 1 0 d , d • C W • H H 4 > P • H H 4 4 • , • c d c t l• • 1 . X I g e l r t • r .J

r x .

Radiocarbon

0 2 » 0 m 0 c c0 < . . i W Nc _ 7 CO ,c 1 c0

u-\ N It * p a , -1 J I

i d s \ c0 N I 0\

N c \O 2 : 1 I ' I i \I D g 4 CO 0 I C D .O N P c 1 . 0 1 I X c v o P 2 > , N- X X , t ,f r ) m) , 4 ,c 1 I c r l Pr ) H L t.\ r i X e , 1 4 ) C D 0 0 c d P Q . 0 1 . i • , 4 p c ) 0 c o 4 ) H H b i ) • r I > , ( 1 , U ) C $ . , H . 4 c d 0 S • 0 I f a 4 a ) 0 > C l f N , . 0 , . 4 i ) , C Z i t r I 0 0 u ) 4 , 4 -, o H o z 1 H O W 4 ) •cl 4 > c d W • r-4 0 • , -i W e p l . 1

dates

• c e. 1

for

c . ) *

EBA

6 42

Z c n C ( 2 O : 1 N H U ) I H Z r 1 d 0 3 I 4 W 0 0 4 ) b e 0 0 4 ) • H ( f ) " s d g . 0 0

-e C D L r • Ne- \ 0 \ U \ _ e • i r\ 0 \ I IC r ) H H CO \O C \I\ I D t 0 I I 1 \D _ _ \D I C O cO N- Z , 1 1 M I I0 . = r a . M I • I C Z t " . Z . I P I , N d P Q \ . 0 H < 4 I P I d c 0 • , 4 = X l i g 4 0 ' 1 i -, 0 4 > N H C O P : 1 ,i 0 0 1 p o o 1 H 0 0 H c l d Z u-N X H c d ( i ) c a p c l 0 I d d k 0 4 ) t i ) C & C a ) o ) LD • i . . 1 0 W H H 4 -, 0 4 -) H i z i r I > f a i i l . > W S • H > c d b l ) • 0 S . 0 d d M I t n 4 ) 4 ) P 1 Z r i V ) Z

ceramics: Beakers

0 > 0 t O . u )

‹ e

1900 _ - Food

vessels

Urns

1800 -

• •

1 700

1600

•• I

1 500 _ •

• •

•

1 400 _

•

•

bc 1 300

• •

•

•

•

•

_

•

•

• •

. 6

1200 •

1100 •

1000 _

900

t -t i rN \D c0 hC D C V M I 2I C V C O 4 C\Ic0 C\I f : 4 H ON f a . ON t -H < ON I H Z N H 0 I \D Z I I I uN Z \D P I o Z -e M g r . I c n > f 4 C r I I 5 -2 › Z o O W C O I c d p : 1 , . > a C = 1 c l c d P C ) c d H 4 1 ) C D 4 ) Z H E O ' d o a j O • , 4 g . r i l 0 › , •c . . c d 4 0 a l 4 -) t r i H u )

r .

c o › . ) H H c d ( A

W H g . c d r l

i

• r-1 H U C l H 0 c d c d 0 0 E 4 r _ )

Table

5 4

> 4 0 c a f • , > ,

n

C D H ( 1 4 • 4 )

m m H H C V t I H -e \0 4 N- I c 0 f a , c I C O _ . 2 Z ON C 4 I ON . ,e t 4 t a 0 I ( 1 ) r 4 m i • , . • c C in f 4 _ / . c d H a ) c r ) 4 0 > H H 0 . 4 0 f a . . 1 4 ) m i $ • > > 4 a ) 0 3 c d ( 1 . ) 0 g . c l . )

H

I

g . • , I c d C. ) n c l 0

x r = t z r i n Z a . E 1 c n 3 z

Radiocarbon and

H H

C : ) c n C M I H . 1 2L I N _ 2- t : 1 H m H Z H ON I H I. -1 4 ) I Z 0 . . u ) Z a l Z c i ) r c ) g . 0 c d > G. . c l i • , I 0 ' C J c . . C 2 . 1 c d c , . c d Z , 1 H t i ).H C U 4 ) ( I ) c d . 5 4 g , 0 › , c d

dates

f or

urns

6 43

c0 _ 2H UN N-

H I c n ) 1 I Z f E A p c ) g . c d

r .

c a

t -t H co N2I H -Z r ON\D t -- t -- Z -e \ .0 I ON m N- CO ( N 0\ H C O t - Z r NH \D 0 \D I -Z r I < \D -Z r I r - 1C 0 0 1 1-1 U ) 1 ,4 I I Z I I 0 11 0 . . b ini i c d c l p I ZIZ 2Z 0 › , p l g . < I 0 > , a ) H C . r Z 4 0 Q. ). 1 u ) H i i , 4 q : 5 , -I 5 H = ( 1 . ) 0 a l

a ) -‚C ) g . c d

3

EBA

g . 4

c d r i i

UN

a ) t o + , • , 1 a i - 0 4 0 4 , C D . 1 g . C D

=

4 .,

C d

c . " ) x a ) c . ) , I C • , . g . > c d 0 >

H > 0 r d c d . 1 )

u ( x i r t ,x c a

c r N 0 1 t r\ c r \ 2M 2I m 0 I X c .-1 c r• Z p q H I ( 3 : 1 I ( 2 4

>

0 4 > H 0 C )

*

ceramics: food

r d 1 : 5 G . ) P 2

t Z = C O -2

a ) >

r -i-7

C d

P i 0 N J C. N I H „ s 4 I c d 2

H ON 0 c \ . i 1 C Z
, a ) 0 H 4 0 4 ) r I

' C i

>,

H • r-4 t ID f 4 I , • , 1 ' c d O+ ) . . r d 0 > c d g . G ) r c l c d 0 ( 1 ) • , . g , a ) g . g , g . M a l C c ‚ C C I Z I C . , *

vessels

T able 5 5

R eferences f or B eaker r adiocarbon d eterminations i n T able a nd c hronology o f B eaker t ypes, T able

5 4

5 6

A mesbury G .51, W ilts. R adiocarbon 1 8 ( 1976) 1 7 A ntofts, Y orks. A rchaeological S ite I ndex ... 3 J .1 A shgrove, F ife H enshall ( r966) 1 74 B albirnie, F ife R itchie ( 1975) 6 -7 B al lynagilly ,The C orbie R adiocarbon 1 3 ( 1971) 1 05-8 1 5 ( 1973) 2 18-9 S mith A .G . e t a l. ( 1971) 9 7-102 J RSAI 9 9 ( 1969) 1 65-8 A pSimon ( 1969) 3 5 B renig

C alliswold,

L ynch & A llen ( 1975) 1 3 -3 7 B arrow 2 75

R adiocarbon 2 1 ( 1 .979) 3 76

C hatton S andyford, N orthumberland J obey ( 1968) 5 -50 C hippenham , b arrow 5 , h earth V III , C ambs . L eaf ( 1940) 5 6-7 , f ig .20 C ooks t on, A irlie R adiocarbon 1 6 ( 1974) 3 48 D iscovery a nd e xcavation i n S cotland 1 970, 3 D urrington W alls, W ilts . ongworth ( 1971) W ainwright & L 1967) 1 66-84 A nt .Jour . 4 7 ( 1959) 2 89-90 A ntiquity 3 3 ( t t 4 2 ( 1968) 2 0-6 F ifty F arm , M ildenhall F en L eaf ( 1934 ) 1 06 27 F ochabers ( Boghead M ound), S peymouth F orest D iscovery a nd e xcavation i n S cotland 1 972, 3 0

K nap H ill, W ilts.

I t

I t

t

I t

I t

1

( 1961 e xcavations) W AN 6 0 ( 1965) 3 , -23 A ntiquity 4 3 ( 1969) 3 04 . . . .5 6 44

1 974 , 8 4 1 975 , 3 3

K nowth , M eath R adiocarbon 1 8 ( 1976) 3 3 -4 L etchworth , p it I , H erts . R adiocarbon 1 1 ( 1969) 2 88-9 L ion P oint , s ite 14 , a rea 2 , E ssex P PS 2 ( 1936) 1 78-90 A rchaeolozical S ite I ndex .. 3 J .1 L ittle P ond G round, W olverton, B ucks. D . C larke i n G reen ( 1974 ) 1 17-8 R adiocarbon 1 9 ( 1977) 4 03 M ount P leasant, D orset W ainwright ( 1979) 1 86 N ewgrange A ntiquity 4 6 ( 1972) 2 26-7 N orthton, S outh H arris S impson ( r976) A ntiquity 4 7 ( 1973) 6 1-3 P inhole C ave,

D erbys. G ilks ( 1974) 8 -15

S awdon M oor I

Y AJ 4 5 ( 1973) 6 7 -8

U dal, N orth U ist R adiocarbon 1 7 ( 1975) 4 6-7 W attisfield

( Cottage F ield), S uffolk R obertson-Mackay ( 1961) 1 02 P roc . S uffolk I nst . A rch . 2 7 ( 1958) 1 17

W indmill H ill, W ilts.

R adiocarbon 3 ( 1961) 4 2 S mith I .F . ( 1965) 1 1, 8 0-2

Y sgwennant R adiocarbon 1 1 ( 1969) 2 68 S avory ( 1972a) 1 7-50

R eferences f or f ood v essels

H a llynagilly S mith A .G . e t a l .

( 1971) 9 9

C oney I sland, L ough N eagh R adiocarbon 1 3 ( 1971) 1 04 U JA 2 8 ( 1965) 7 8-101 D unfermline,

c ist 3 P SAS 1 04 ( 1971-2) 1 35 6 45

D yrsgwylfa F awr, P onterwyd, C ardiganshire G reen ( 1980) 1 37 , n ote E arls F arm D own, A mesbury , W ilts . P PS 3 3 ( 1967) 3 36-66 H arland E dge R iley ( 1966) 3 1-53, 1 15-7 K nockenny F arm , G la nds R adiocarbon 1 6 ( 1974) 3 48 D iscovery a nd e xcavation i n S cotland 1 965, 3 M ount P leasant W ainwright ( 1979) R eswallie M ains F arm R adiocarbon 1 6 ( 1974) 3 48 D ISCOVB17 a nd e xcavation i n S cotland 1 967, 3 T allington, s ite 1 6 S impson W .G .

( 1976) 2 15-39

R eferences f or u rns

B arbrook I I D AJ 8 6 ( 1966) 1 15-7 A rch . J . 1 23 ( 1966) 1 -26 B edd B ranwen A rch . C amb . 1 20 ( 1971) 8 2-3 B renig 5 1 B renig 4 4 B renig 4 5

) ) )

L ynch & A llen ( 1975) 1 3-37 L ynch e t a l . ( 1974) 9 -64

erbys . B rown E dge, T otley M oor , D L ewis ( 1966) 1 15-7 C ity F arm , O xon . C ase e t a l .

( 1966) 2 1

C otton V a lley F arm R adiocarbon 1 9 ( 1977) 4 04 D evil's R ing, B rightwell R adiocarbon 1 2 ( 1970) 1 84 E riswell , S uffolk R adiocarbon 1 1 ( 1969) 2 85 P roc . S uffolk I nst . A rch . 3 0 ( 1966) 2 78 F engate

P ryor ( L976) R adiocarbon 1 9 ( 1977) 4 05-6 6 46

G randtully A ntiquity 4 3

( 1969) 2 16-7

G reat A yton„ Y orks . P ierpoint ( 1979) 2 24-5 H arpley , N orfolk E ast A nglian A rch . 2 ( 1976) 6 2 R adiocarbon 1 9 ( 1977) 41 H owick H eugh J obey & N ewman ( 1975) 1 -16 K irkhill, W est H epple M iket ( 1974) M eadowlands P ollock & W aterman ( 1964) 3 1-58 M ount P leasant W ainwright ( 1979) N ant M aden, P owys R adiocarbon 2 1 ( 1979 ) 3 43 -4 P ond C airn, M id-Glamorgan R adiocarbon 2 1 ( 1979) 3 43 R oxton , B eds .

R adiocarbon 2 1 ( 1979 ) 3 58 -9

S nail D own, E verleigh B urgess S warkestone

T regiffian

( 1974) 2 26

R adiocarbon 5 ( 1963) 3 6 G reenfield ( 1960) 1 -48

R adiocarbon 1 8 ( 1976) 3 9

W arren F arm A rch . J . 1 31 ( 1974) 7 5-139 W easenham L yngs, b arrow G .7 R adiocarbon 1 8 ( 1976 ) 3 9 W hitestanes M oor, D umfries ( pygmy c up) T rans . D umfries & G alloway 4 2 ( 1965) 5 1-60 W ykeham F orest

Y AJ 4 5

( 1973) 9 2

6 47

T able 5 6

:B eaker t ypes

( Clarke's n omenclature) f rom d ated c ontexts

P re-2000 b c B allynagilly

f ine w ares — c ombed a nd i ncised d ecoration c oarse w ares — p lain a nd f inger—nail d ecoration — c hequer a nd l ozenge p atterns —n o c ord d ecoration

P inhole C ave

3 4

c2 000-1750 b c F ifty F arm

f inger—nail d ecorated, c ombed, s cored, r usticated, a nd h andled v essels

C hippenham

S 2, F P

K nap H ill

S 3

L ion P oint

F P , S H4,

A ntofts

A OC

A mesbury G 51

S 2

L ittle P ond G round

p ossibly l ate E

B W ,

E .Ang ., F N ( unknown w hich t ype w as d ated)

( W)

c1 750-1500 b c M ount P leasant

A OC, N 1/D , S 2-3, 3 4 ( same l ayer i ncludes E , W /MR, N /MR, F N, F P u ndecorated a nd s troke o rnamented s herds)

C hatton S andyford

NAR

D urrington W alls

r usticated

W attisfield

F P , 3 4, S H4

W indmill H ill

F N, r usticated, E ? a nd p robably N orthern a nd S outhern t ypes

B renig 5 1

c ombed a nd i ncised d ecoration

N orthton

N .B ritish t ypes

S awdon M oor

S 3

Y sgwennant

S outhern t ypes

6 48

( with s tylistic c hange)

c1 500 b c a nd l ater B albirnie

S 4

M ount P leasant

N /MR

A shgrove, F ife

S 4

S ummary o f c urrency o f B eaker t ypes) a s k nown f rom d ated c ontexts

a lE2 F N F P r usticated B W E .Ang . A OC l ate E . S 2 S 2(W) 3 3 S 4

W AR N /MA NA IR N 1/ 1 ) N 2-N4

l ate 3 rd m ill.

b c

c2 000 b c

c1 750 b c

c1 500 b c

C opper

C opper a xes e tc .

L ater N eolithic

b ronze f lat B z A l a xes e tc . E BA f langed a xes

B z A 2

e tc

A cton P ark

?1 6th c entury B C

( A3)

B z B i B 2

M BA

T aunton

B z C

1 300 B C

D

P enard

H a A l A 2

1 000 B C W a llington— W ilburton

H a B l 9 00 B C

E vart P ark

H a B 2 8 00 B C B 3

L BA

7 00 B C H a C

H a C

I ron A ge

T able 5 7

:C hronological s cheme u sed f or m etalwork f rom t he n orth o f E ngland.

6 50

s la v ai e a rinuueuad a 2pa t er ias -F lp p alaXDOS i a l l i l l req

p al

d e

m i . p os

d e l

T as -f lp p a2urj ,

4 .

l uau lge . . 13 ap n . [t a

d 4 .

ie u -F pnl -F 2uoi

T i m

a viloo p apunou

*

' B uT IT ams

( including Y orkshire)

4 1

C O W c o T i C l . ) 4 a ) . x u o r i ) 1

a ri -t oo qe iä

* 1

4

* 4

2 u -fp inom a id -pi d e

2 uTpinou i a iqup

I

i a -F dra l lnq p agolom

4 •

d e

a nu1s r ed p a2uvig M O1

a nvlsred

i t q

d e l

d e l

4 .

d 4 1

*

* I

,

&a lvi ,

a r velsred i vuo -F lTsural ,

' 3 44

4 Ci

4 e

d f i

d e l

* I

*

aye La d e

1a) 1. 3c ' S d e r l

a pe iq p al l auur in

p adeqs—jual

d e

d e l

'p adrqs—jual

d e l

d e i

d e l

d e

d e

d e l

d e l d e l

p adooi — ar . du -fse

4 1

K ilnhurst

d e l

H aydon B ridge

d e l

2 uTuado p alDag o ld

d e l

Wallington

d

d e l

.

D oncaster

p a

.

C arr Moorside

7 --Spearheads---Spearhead f ragments

* 4

t radition'

> 4

al may

*

avi n uue ua d

4 A

sPl aTIIS

axe

ant-Is -re d

pal a) p os

re uo31 -!s ue ll ,

4 A

4 A

pea qle a ds pa 2 2 a d

4 t +

e

A

d e l

r i c i

4 1

pa de qs — Te a l

C l ) 4 _ J

r i c i

aPrI g

a ) -0

e

( 2 1 ) e c e a ) c 11 4 w e a ) s a . c n

4 ‘

qa) p os

pa de qs

ap pi q

4 A

ge ar'

4 4

4 A

pal ' a u ue qp

r g i

t 4 c +

pe a qau a ds pa dool —apT s

4 A

4 A

pe a qa p a ds

, t e 1

e

f i c +

4 A

4, 4

pa dool —a1 2 u3 s

pe a qa v a ds 2 uT u a do pe a ql e a ds

pa do oT —l es e q

al nia ag

pa gol o u

laT d e l

pa

S

Teo -plo p

qlT m

p .10 MS

1 31° M

Pa

4 A

4 e 4

el

*

pas e q-11 12T e aq s

nq

el

pal o al oa d

mq

4 A

4 1 1

aaI de m

l o . l os

4 e 1

1 . 1 9211S O u

i A

r n g — PTI OS

4 A

A

m

-c )

e o , . c o

•H , 1 O D 0 g lc i

, 1

( I )

a )

0

C O C A

C P

' 2

c d

g i . 1 ) C U 0 b p I 1

C ) o

o

• C O G ) ,1 , C,

7 1

0 4 i, 3

• , , c 0


0 0

Ö a

/ / i

,

e> c

ee ,c >o c 2

oe oe, e

D e

0

o , e O e b

C2

C 1 C7

C >

V

o

,

0

•

D

\

, . . . . . . \

P ca iC (7 ;

. . 0 0. /

1 ) o t ./ H UH / 1) 1 1 ) 1 1M M ) I 1 \ \ \ \ \ \ t e ,

c7 0 0

0 30

Standing in

s tone

3 0 f t

s itu

Stump

of

s tanding

stone Displaced

Skelmore

s labs

Heads

( after

Powell

1963)

Disturbance Compact and

1 Adult grave 2 Adult

cairn

stones

soil

male

with

goods male

( disturbed)

3 Adult grave

male

4 Scattered of

two

with

goods remains

adults

and

child

5 Cremations bones in

( 12 +

various

and

unburnt

individuals) parts

of

cairn

Crosby

Garrett

description

Fig. 54

by

CLXXIV

(from

Greenwell

Neolothic

burials

1877)

1

0

7 07

3 0 f t

• •

G rave 1

1 : 2

A

1 : 2

1 : 1

. A t a G rave 3 F ig.55

Crosby

Garrett

1 : CLXXIV

grave

7 08

goods

( Kinnes

1979)

3 0 f t

0

•

Charcoal

and

Wood

and

l imestone

over

burials

Traces

F ig.56

Copt

of

Hill

burnt

earth s tacked

burning

' crematorium'

deposit

7 09

( after

Trechmann

1914)

Fig. 57

Chatton

Sandyford

cairn

7 10

E

( after

Jobey

1968)

N

0

0

0

0

0

T

00 a �o O 0� �

D

o

C

0 CJ

a

0 C)

0

0 c:::>

0

D

0

0

(;)

a

0

a

()

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

� C

c,

• Long Meg( 12ft high)

0

50

0

0

0

oO

100

0

0

0

0

0

0

200ft

Fig.58 Long Meg and her Daughters (after Thom & Thom 1980)

711

0°

0 0 cs a

0

0

0 s t .

0 e2 C :3 0 CliC)

0

C 3 L )

03

;

0

Fig.59

Castlerigg

1 0

s tone

2 0

3 0

c ircle

7 12

4 0

( after

5 0ft

Thom

& Thom

1 980)

0

C I D

I o

F ig. 60

Grey

Croft

( after

Thom

1 0i

s tone

20i

30'

40

c ircle,Seascale

& Thom

1980)

50ft

( restored)

I

0 . 6 ) 4 o °

C 2 ) Ocv Q

0

o

0

00 0

h

C

P

09 c7

C 3C 3

°

I 0

F ig. 61

Swinside

I 10

stone

20

circle

30

( after

7 14

40

Thom

50ft

& Thom

1980)

I 0

Fig. 62

Gunnerkeld

10

stone

3 0

20

circle

7 15

1

4 0

( after

I

5 0ft

Thom

& Thom

1980)

c KD0

, 0

ö

0

C S

0 0

o

°

. e 3

0

0

1 0

F ig. 63

Oddendale

10

s tone

20

3 0

c ircle

40

( after

7 16

1 5 0ft

Thom

& Thom

1 980)

t

N .

w e . /4 , 07

. 10

" ea

. .•

, • . n a r Ti ./«. . 7Z

•

K

_ . . . .-"" ‘

1

• :. . . . . . . . . ••'

—. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .

, . . , . . "

•„7, , „ . . ., -e" . , , . . t .. , . . 1 . 1 11 -1 ( 1r 0 . . . . ,. .,

. .

•

, . . .,

-,-'`' .

• • • ,

. ' -

Z s i

;

s v•

j

: •

: e

-

-

• • •

F ig.64

Henges

near

Penrith

(Pennant

1769)

•

Fig. 65

King two

Arthur's of

the

Round

three

Table

henges

and

near

the

Little

Penrith

Round

( Stukeley

Table: 1776)

F ig.66

Henges ( after

in the Milfield Miket 1976)

basin, north

7 19

Northumberland

1

4

W

I cm

9 F ig. 67

Battle

axes

and

mace

( 3) Kirkwhelpington ( 6) Birdoswald

heads

( 4) Cambo

( 7) Twizell

( 1)Seghill

( 8) Rothbury

7 20

( 2) Barras

Bridge

( 5)Threlkeld ( 9) Wolsingham

1

-

-

4 W

I

J

7 F ig.68

Battle

axes

( 4)Stockton

( 1) Kendal

( 2) Lanton

( 5) Holystone 7 21

( 3) Dunmallet

( 6)Shilbottle

( 7)Stanhope

----

J g l I

F ig. 69

C II I IE Z IN IO

Class

3

CM

I axe

hammers

( 1) Kirkbride

( 3)Buttermere

7 22

( 2)Egglestone

F ig.70

Class

I axe

hammers

( 1) Halton

( 3) Doddington

7 23

( 2) Keswick

1

1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1( 11 1 13 1 cm

2

3 F ig. 71

Class

I axe

Ravensworth

hammers

( 1) Allithwaite

( 3) Larkrigg

7 24

( 2)Crosby

1

M

I

cm

3

F ig. 72

C lass

I axe

( 3) Haydon

hammers

Bridge

(1) Ayside

( 4) Rusland

7 25

( 2)Borrowdale

F ig.73

C lass

I axe

hammers

( 1) Whickham

7 26

( 2) Kendal

( 3)Wigton

1

3

F ig.74

Class

II

axe

hammers

( 1) Gunnerton

( 3) Burradon

7 27

( 2) North

Sunderland

•

. S ec iion - on -A .ß . Lo a r zn q outh ._ . .S

0 0® a Poundi a lan -o farapeshon ey,z i pp er ara t2 4 7 . S cale

n ch t o I_F o c i7 7

•

4

. r a-4, ••

o

;

-

a r ound P lan 6 1 76 7u r rshan zno

F ig. 75

Cremation

pit

H ill

(Moffatt

Farm

with

I tI lli t7

e »r ularlY Z e .

' inscribed' 1 885)

7 28

s tone

at

Lilburn

6 62

CM

6 60

E e 2 Fig.(6

Pottery

from

burials

at

Yeavering

7 29

( Hope-Taylor

1977)

F ig . 71

Chatton

Sandyford

Cairn

7 30

1

( Jo -b ey

1968)

4 7)

1 :1 B 2

1 50

1 5 1

\\ "• " .•

z r/z/z /z/ZZ77,

C l

1 52 F ig.78

Chatton

Sandyford: pottery

and

burials

in

1968)

Cairn

1

(Jobey

7 31

jet

buttons

from

B IRKR IGG

4

•

c +u r n

l u

4

•

•

•

d r

( l b

4 C cremation

•

1 0

20

3 0

4 0

50ft

L EACET H ILL

I x

• • 0

F ig.79

5

Stone and

10

circles

Robinson

X

Urns

found

20ft

with

burials

& Ferguson

( after

1881)

7 32

G elderd

& Dobson

1912

Fig. 80

The

Three

burial

pit

Kings: 4-Poster ( Burl

& Jones

7 33

stone 1972)

circle

with

probable

V V V 7 7 7 V V V 7 V

F ig. 81

Goatscrag ( after

A rock

Burgess

shelter

1972)

7 34

burial

s ite

C

M

I

4 5 1

Uo m if i r i l lm gw !

4 52

1 07

Fig. 8 2

Beakers ( Jobey

found 1975

in

association

& Tait

7 35

1965)

in

graves

ei l i i/ 111111 1

d hON I AP

_ e e l7 7/

1 89

l im i =1 1 1 1 1 1 1 = M 1 1

1 90

7 47

7 46 F ig.83

Beakers f ound i n a ssociation ( Tait 1 965 & C larke 1 970)

7 36

i n

graves

Cm

3 72

1 :3

1 : 3 Fig. 84

' Ric h' (Tait

g raves M & aryon

Beaker 1965

( 372)Kirkhaugh 1 936) 7 37

( 605 ) West

Lilburn

7 A ) . / 7( ,

0 000000000o0 7 22 2 °e / t ie - e a % go

W r > 7 e z7/ 7 / 7 /e 7 , ,- „ c .0 6

M

o o .0 0 d \o

\

00, -

o oD

c ö i -

0

g

/( )

. 4 9 1 1i1 .1#1 , ef f // AY ‘‘ ‘‘‘‘‘ 8 .ed ege > ,, 1 / I f

11

111 1

•

1 96 — 7 I

/ it/ /I/

M

t e .

CM .

D O D O O b b0 0

0 6.0 0oo n 0 b b 0

00

7

0

00 0

00 0

0 ODD O P

b a p( ) 0 000 D r i öl ‚o

D ODO

O Db 0 0°

° °

3 56

3 05 M IM I

M IM I

CM

4 76

4 72

2 75 . 87

' Local' food vessels (Gibson 1978, Hardy 1885-6

7 40

& Tait

1965)

00

3 04 U l 00

0 . e E t cd i oc .

e r 4 .

r o-T r i " r o e g •

3 24

2 25

W

I

Cm

1 4

3 F ig.88

z «e .

Atypical

' Beakers'

( 389)( 182)(30

Clarke' s

N /NR

( 225)(324)( 14)

type

7 41

4

) and ( Tait

Beakers 1 965)

of

• r

».•

i ä

m o u

l . p 011 ....C . 0.3 0 .3 . U p m a D O D

1 3

F ig.89

Food

vessels

( 11) Alnwick

( 61 ) 4 ) Whittingham

7 42

( 477) Ratcheugh

( 13) Alnwick

eZ e4 e /t ee, ,Ner

›ae ,2) )

5 %» i e N N e N 9

*

WA/

h Mw e 4

W O W/ e f il MN ed WA t e efee,,d e l

2 :5

c ( Y c

1 8

2 3

2 2

\ % .

c o rr a o i na t f ü e lM 8 4 1 8 g 1 0 0 8 r a t ee t W e 2 , 3 9 e 2 e 9 W ee9 6 . 477 77 " ,

2 4

1 1 1• = 1 1 1 1 1 1

F ig. 90

Grave

2 6

C I I I III Cm

goods

(Gerloff

from

1 975

burials

& Gibson

at

1978)

7 43

Amble

CCXCVI

2 9

30

F ig. 91

Grave goods from burials at ( after G . H. Thompson 1882-4)

7 44

Amble

CCXCVI

i t e i ? e w a m w A y 00o6d & o

e •

e pee 1 92 . 0% ‘ .0

1 1

6 5 2 62

3 63

1 1 1 11 1

= 1 1 1 111 1 1 1 cm

40

1 78

F ig. 92

C 1 1 1 1 1 1 11

Food

vessels

( 363) Jesmond (Greenwell

65)Bolton ( 262) Harbottle (111)3owsden ( 1 78) Corbridge ( 440 ) New castle (

, Tait 187 7

1969

7 45

& G ibson

1978)

0

0 00

00 0 0 0

0

0 C

0 0 C c 0 0 C

C 00 0 0 o ct 2 C O C CC

1 69

66 • 1 041

.. / .0 3-

• •• /. ..

4, 0 ,

• , • • •• • •

/3 ,

.S .

•• ; • •• •

•

( . \

. f \ • • A • • • C\ r , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , • ,, , , , , , , , ,

( \l c

•• ••. , ,,, . , • •••• •• •• •• ••• • • • ••• •• • -• • •• • •• • • ••

.. . . •

•

.( \ •• •• ( \ .

• • •• • •••• , , , ,, .

•. •. .• ••.

•

.

.

. ro •

1 ‘ . •

. . . ..•.

.

' A .• •

r •

r % . •

6 06 _

(C

i, 2 Z, _ '' 4 , : - -, , , , _ -_ __ — _ _ . . , . •. . . . . . . ._ —_ , . ., , -_ ,z _ ,, _ - • : . _".. . , _ _ _ -'' 14y • ' --- —

—

Cm

2 24 F ig. 93

Food

vessels

( 66)Beanley

( 224) Ford ( Gibson & Jobey 1 968)

( 169)Colwell

1 978, Greenwell 7 46

( 606) West

L ilburn

1877, Collingwood

////77//,/

\\\\NNN\ \

s

,

s '

\

s '

\ \ \

/ /// /

/

2 80 • • • •• •• ••• • ••• . ... .

. . . .. .

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2

. . .

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,

7/ . .

. .

•

--

. . . . . . . .

• •• •• • . .

. . . . . . .

4 75 4 73 1• 1 1L

F ig. 94

Food

vessels

( 280) Hedley

7

= 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

and Wood

C

enlarged

food

vessels

( 473-475) Plessay

7 47

Mill

F0 00 0 000 0 000 \ ‘\\\ x\N \%‘‘ i/F- 0 0 0 0 01,

‘‘‘ ‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘ W a Vv :00 ,, v e oo too t , 004,0090ivo,/o& e 01A00 b0t . ,111011100o N . N‘ V %%%N e NoVt AN•%‘ %% / 400 FieFFi 0 , : topeigo v iov e i‘‘ v io k‘‘‘‘‘ “%i 3 / 0 , 91/11,11#0 1 , 1 9 VO 4‘ ,04%‘ N A N ‘ 0 4 ' t e : \ 0 00 .01 0 ,04 #0,9dii

p riF

0101,e,

N % vet% V e , %t e 8 0% ‚ell #00 4 , 0 t oh , ‘ % VOA 10.1 0 , 01,i 1 4 0 000 , IAF 1 0 : 4 1 0 0,% t e,% 100,49/ 1

8 69

' V

. 9

1 M " V 9

9 . • 9 0

0

C „. 0 0

C b

0

a

0

O • p .ö

O 0

ö

0 0

0

a

0

0

0

a

› . > , >%»% %2 = \ N\\\\\ \ \\\\\ / // ////// //// / / \ \ \\\\\\ \\N \ \\ \ \

o o

0

0

0

a

o ö

0

0

0

ö o

O p o Ce s p

0 0

c ,

\ ) : 2

0

0

a

0

p

p

a

p

a r : 1

0

0 0 0

0 0 0

o

o

0

a a a 0 0 0 0 0 0

0

a 0

o , 3 0 0 0 0 0

0

2 32 c , ö A 00 0 o Ao 00 0 0 0 o < zo 0 0 0

0 4 >00 0 0 0 0( ) 000 c ‚000 •

Q' Z

no Anp O

O D A n

CCZCC C:f er

5 95

C

I I

C3 M I I cm

9 20 F ig. 95

Yorkshire vases ( 595) Warkshaugh

( 869)Moor Divock ( 920) Plumpton 7 48

( 232) Fowberry

• , ‘ . ,

#"' ". . . . . . . . . . . . ..

. . . . . . . . . .

• •

•

•

.• •

•

•

•

•

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•

•

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.

.

.

.

.

. .

•

•

•

•

•

• •

• •

. • •

•

•

•

•

.

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

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•

• •

•

•

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•

•

• • •• •

•

•

•

• •

•

•

•

•

• •

•

•

•

• •

• •

• •

y e

cm 1 1 1 1 1 1 =M 1 =1. 1 1 1

5 38 •

•• • • 0 ./ • I

•

I

. 0 . . .1 1.

• •

•• • •

•e

•• • • • •• • • •• • •

••• ,• . ••

. . .. / .• ••• 6 . .. 0 , / . .„ „• ••••

5 39

• ••• •

o ` .•

• •

, , , , ,

• • •

•

••• •• • •• • •••••• •• • ,,, , , • • • • • ,,,,,,, • e • • •• • • •• • e ••• • • ,, , ,, • ••

•••

▪

ee e•

•

• • e,

,

•• •• • •• •• •

0 . • • •• • • • •• •• •

,

• • „,

••• • • ••• '

"

• •

5 43

"

• • •• • • ••,

\\ \ \ \\‘ ‘ \\\

5 42

\\\\\\\ \ \\

5 4 5 F ig. 96

Pottery

from

burials

at 7 49

South

Charlton

(Gibson

1978)

r‚zz7 7 / ‚, / ,‚,/,/? ' f

••N%

•e••• •Vk-V l

, 0 %. ;

f r/ /,/li >> \\ t \‘ \ \

3 49 E

ME I I I IZZ I

cm

3 48

' 177

` ‘ ‘% \ ' ‘

j //1/5isir157 • \ 0 •1

2 26

r

•

• •

• •

• • •

•• •

Vfli ifffitf .i/ 4 .1 L

/6 10 Fig. 97

Food

vessel

urns

( 610) Whickham

( 348-9) Humbleton

( Cowie

1978)

7 50

Hill

( 226) Ford

' i h f i l f / I 4 1

k e l o t et t

te ep f , , ite e t et : V : e i t i @ e @pe e @ @ t g f ' g d z ä e t % e e , f .t _ c v ee E Gee! reicesg ii t . @. #e i t i o i ( z. 4 4 f e re e t .0 : . ‚6 2i l k ee K e ct ge@,e gsV e4 . e ge9 . 6 9i s e d4 9 : & 6 ' 9 1,i , 4 0 6 '

f e < A 9 e% k . e , > , e t t s ' r A .e t , %, t e ,t b r e5 t i ? g 4 . : = P g u e- %e d,, ,( E s e lf )

2 4 1— 2 F ig.98

Food

vessel

urns

from

Goatscrag

7 51

( Cowie

1978)

/

,/

I

i j \

/ /

/

f

I

l

/

\

i

• 11

_

I

/ 1

7

/ / \

\ I)

,

/

/

II .

11 111

„

M

Y, ' r

, \ \\ ‘/ \''``i . ‘ /

/1

*

v Y

y ' ,

I i3 . 1t . 4 I1 I \ \

\ \\ \ \ \ /

T i r4 I \ \ \ \\ / /

/

/ /

1 : 1

•

N

.

-•

•

e 3 , 3

-

1 :3 4 95

4 93-4 F ig.99

g u rz nziezi l IE : 1 1 C2 C

( 127-8) Ovingham ( 493-5) Rosebrough ( Cowie 1 978,Tait 1 965 & G reenwell

7 52

CXCVII 1 877)

3 22

1 24-5

( 1 32-3 F ig. 100

Urns

found

in

( 124-5) Broom

association House

Farm

( 322) Holystone

( 132-3)Broomridge

( Gibson

1978)

6 78 -9

7 07- 8

(

11:2 8 47 F ig. 101

Urns

0 1 1 :3 11 1EI CI IE: 1 1 11 3

f ound

in

association

( 707-8)Barnscar ( Barnes

CM

( 678-9) Appleby

Slack

( 847) Kirkoswald

197°a, Walker

1965a

7 54

and

C lough

1972)

F ig. 102

Bronze drawing

Age by

pottery ' T. B.'

( K. S. Hodgson

from an

Garlands: a

inmate

1957)

7 55

of

the

contemporary asylum

7 77

7 84

7 83

7 85

7 80 F ig. 103

Urns

from

Garlands

(K. S. Hodgson

7 56

1 957)

7= 1

J

7 69

7 74

7 73

7 9 1 7 80

7 90

/

A A A , .

9 56

9 58

9 63 F ig. 104

Urns

from

Garlands

and 7 57

Waterloo

Hill

( K. S. Hodgson

1957)

B izz i c m=

cm

1 : 2

1 : 1

9 47 -949

9 25 F ig. 105

( 947-9)Stainton

Head

( 925) Ravenstonedale

urns urn 7 58

and

and

bronze

clay

bead

razor

1-

Do

0 .

4 0)

: -1 1

: 1 9 4 :

3

i t e0. 4. 0. O0

0

80 00o • 0 , 0 0 0 0 00

O

O

2 02 ,,"

„ .

V

, 4

7

' •

1 1 /

2 0 1

1 ‘,:

1 : 3

4

2 03-4 cm

M ICIII MOIC :B EZZO LZ

2 05

1 :2 Urns ( Tait

and

Beaker

1965

0 .

• 4( 1

4

F ig. 106

e

9 O 0 00 0 0 00 O0 O0 0%0 00 0

/ r

0

0 0 0 0 4 )c o 0

4

, '

0

0

from

& Gibson

Etall 1978)

7 59

Moor

CLXXXIV

1 65 1 1 13 11 1 1 1. 1 1 1

= I I

MO

cm

1 66

7 45

• . • •• • •• •••• •

0

7 15

1 9 1

9 12-6

F ig. 107

( 745)Castle

Carrock

( 191) Doddington (Greenwell

CLXIV

( 165-6)Coldsmouth

( 715)Birkrigg

1877,Craw

1931

7 60

( 912-6) Orton

& D avey

& F orster

Hill CLXXIX 1975)

3 10

CM .

1 3 1 1 1 1 13 1 1

C:ZI M I I I M I

7 5 1-5 F ig. 108

( 93)Blawearie

CC

( 751-5)Crosby

Garrett

( 310)Holwick

7 61

CLXXVI

(Greenwell

1877)

I

I ® 1 0

6 53

§1 a 1

I N

0000 0 0000 2 96

F i g. 109

a m m

= 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

= 1 1 1

M

CM

p % O (A0 0 0

( 269) High.Cocklaw

( 653) Yeavering

7 62

( Hope-Taylor

1977)

1

er t -e i

C. v ' ic k

. 8 •

f Z - 2r de z :%

ü fV , 3

[

00 0

0

3 75 F ig. 110

Kyloe of

jet

food

vessel

necklace

and

suggested

(Gibson

7 63

1 978

reconstruction

& Newman

1976)

3

5 3 1 56

MC

R iver

11 .

6 05

Tyne

-

4 18

3 35 ,

. 1C

4

_ I Fig. 111

Daggers (Gerloff

and

4 49

knife-daggers

1975,Brewis

1923

7 64

from

R . Tyne

& Newman

and

& Miket

from

burials

1973)

4

3 C

6 F ig. 112

Copper

and

( 2) Durham ( 4) Hedgley

bronze ( after Moor

f lat

axes

Britton

( 1)Skelton

1963)

( 5) Wallsend 7 65

( after

( 3) Ramshaw

( 6) Greystoke

M ill

C lough

1 972)

2

3

I m i cz 1M 1 1 1 1= = M i cC l

5 F ig. 113

Bronze

axes

( 1) Morpeth

( 5)Stargate 7 66

( 2-3)Corbridge

( 4)Newcastle

-

---

cm 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

F ig. 114

. ,

1 =3 1 1 1 C3 1 1 1 1 1 1

( 1)Corbridge ( 4)Brough

( 2)St. John' s

( 5) Whittington 7 67

Vale F ell

( 3 ) Temple

Sowerby

4

3 F ig. 115

( 1) Haberwyn

R igg

( after

O ' Riordain

( after

Jones

( after 1937)

1978) 7 68

C lough

M

1 969)

( 3) Helsington

I cm

( 2) Maryport ( 4) Burnhope

1 3. SCALE A S IZE "

Ab

Aa ,

Fig. 116

Stone

moulds

from

Croglin

7 69

(M. W. Taylor

1 884)

af r az . _

I• 4 , •I . 4 _ 1 1 I I 1

I

Fig. 117

Ambleside

hoard

(Fell

7 70

(21 - z, •€ .4e.

&

Coles

1965)

cm

F ig. 118

Wallington

hoard

( Burgess

7 71

1 968a)

. 1 1 1 1 1 1.

Wa l l ington h oard 1 111 1 1 1 111 1 1 1 : 1 1 cm

Medoms ley

C orbr idge

F ig. 119

( Burgess

1 968a)

7 72

mi l l e 1 1 1 1»

. 1 13 1 1.

«Z.

j 8

1 2

;

F arn ley h oard cm

1 111: 1 1 11E: e l l

N e therby h oard

,

F ig. 120

( Burgess

1 968a)

7 73

1

4 Cm

F ig. 121

MBA

palstaves

( 3&6) Penrith

M

I

( 1) Keswick

( 2) Temple

Sowerby

( 4)Brampton

( 5)Seaton

( 7)Branthwaite

1

3

5 Fig. 122

MBA

' other'

( 3) Carwinley

axes Beck

( 1) Berrier ( 4) Milburn

7 75

Kettles

( 2) Temple

( 5) Castletown

Sowerby

( 6)Bxampton

1

2

3

W

I

4

Cm

6 5 F ig. 123

MBA

' other'

axes

( 1)Birtley

( 2) Halton

( 3) Elsdon

( 4) Chollerton

( after

( 5) Wigton

( after

1969)

C lough

Chesters

Burgess ( 6) Little

& M iket

1 97 '4)

Langdale

C

C umbe r land

1 1 11 =

p = 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 = MED

CM

S a l ta Moss F ig. 124

Solid-hilted

swords

( after

1961

Coles

7 77

and

F ell

& Coles

1 965)

3 . r n ie l li s-

N4

2

CM MI I IZ IZ IKZ

M I

. 4 1 1 1 1 8r .

1

Y

4 Fig. 125

MBA

rapiers

( 5) Page ( after

5

-me

Bank

6

( 1-2) R. Tyne ( 6) Vale

Burgess

1968b

of and 7 78

( 3)Blyth S t. John Davey

7

. 4 1 1 10,

( 4) Carham ( 7) Kilham

& F orster

1 975)

cm

8

7 F ig. 126

MMIC :7 7Z IK = 1 1 •1 1

MBA

spearheads

( 4)Swinside Furness Fair

9 ( 1-2) Angus

( 5) Alnmouth

( 8)Elford

1 946

and

Well

( 3) Milbourne

( 6) Furness

( 9) Alston

Davey

6

& Forster

7 79

( 7) Dalton

(Rowlands 1 975)

i n

1976, Cowen

1966

1 Cm

1 1 1

M 1 1 1 1

= 1 1

M 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

4

3

F ig. 127

5

1 :2

( 1)Chesterhope

gold

beads

( 2) Flodden,Blinkbonney

(Alnwick

Catalogue)

ear-ring

( 5) Grange-over-Sands

(Davey

& Forster

( 3) Furness

1975)

7 80

1 : 2

( 4) Dinnington

gold

1

CMS

6 5

7

— 1 2

1 7

1 3

1 8

1 9

2

2 0

1

F ig. 128

Heathery

Burn

C ave

22

Q3

( Britton • 1968)

7 81

2 4

2 5

2 6

0 3 5

0 3 7

3 6

2 7 '

3 9

3 8

4 0

1 CMS

4 1

4 5

F ig. 129

Heathery

Burn

Cave

( Britton

7 82

1 968)

CMS

1

F g . 130

Heathery

Burn

1

Cave

( Britton

7 83

1 968)

CMS

F ig. 131

Heathery

Burn

C ave

( Britton

7 84

1 968)

CMS

5 9

F ig. 132

Heathery

Burn

Cave

( Britton

7 85

1 968)

CMS -I

7 0

F ig. 133

Heathery

Burn

Cave

( Britton

7 86

1 968)

CM S

-C>

0

9 0

— e ;S MZ : 5 : '-92

E j 8 9

9 3

9 4

Fig. 134

Heathery

Burn

Cave

( Britton

7 87

1968)

O O

O oc

Q

-G

-

1 07

1 00

1 0 1

1 02 1 04

9 6

9 7

9 8

9 9 1 05

1 06

1 08

CMS

19

1 42

F ig. 135

Heathery

Burn

Cave

( Britton

7 88

1968)

—

1 5 1

C MS

1 67

t zW 5 '

0 1 70

t i 1 7 1

1 65

Fig. 136

Heathery

Burn

Cave

( Britton

7 89

1968)

4

S n % Ss 7 '

1 76

1 77

1 79

1 78

1 80

1 81

CMS

1 83

1 93

0

5 0 1 5

F ig. 137

1 00

1 50

3 0

4 5

Heathery

2 00 f eet 6 0 metres

Burn

Cave

( Britton

7 90

1968)

F ig. 138

Eastgate

hoard

c . 2: 3

s cale

( Wilson

1 822)

N ewb igg in h oa rd

cm

M I

C a r t ing ton Fig. 139

( after

Dixon

Wounda le R a ise 1903

and

Fell

7 92

1950a)

0

J F ig. 140

Whittingham

hoard

( after

7 93

Hardy

1885-6)

cm

0

cm

Ewar t F ig. 141

( after

P ark Cowen

B u tts 1 933,Burgess 7 94

1 969

and

B eck Davey

& F orster

1 975)

0

3

1

0

cm W

I

2

F ig. 142

( 1)Blakehope ( after

( after

Burgess

Hardy

1 968a)

1 885-6)

( 3) Naworth

7 95

( 2) Ovington ( after

Evans

1881)

2

3

1 1 1 1 1 = ME

1 F ig. 143

4

( 1) Bowsden

Moor

( 4) Wolsingham ( after

Jones

= I I M cm

5

( 2) Middleton

in

Teesdale

( 3)Barrow

( 5) Penrith 1978,Clough 7 96

1 969, Davey

& Forster

1 975)

o

o

1

2 W

3 F ig. 144

q

I cm

4

Ewart Park s words ( 1) Rothbury ( 2)Ebchester ( after Burgess 1 968a). Hallstatt C swords ( 3-4) R. Tyne ( after

Evans

1 881

and

NCH)

U lgham

Carlisle

Cm

F ig. 145

I

7

M I

( 1) Alnwick

( 2) R. Tyne

( 5) Greystoke

( 3) Hesleyside

( 6)?Ewart 7 98

Park

( 4) Ainstable

( 7)Brough

F ig.146

Skelmore

Heads

hoard

( Davey

7 99

& Forster

1975)

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m

SCOTLAND

>2 00m

0

o recam e B aykm

Map

5 0 1

1

Northern

8 00

England

1 -

e

n

o-

i g r e7 e

• A ce :

A

S.

e s.

e

; 4 , \ I

r. e

0

50 km

II

Solid

I

Boulder

geology c lay

and

morainic

dri ft

Peat

Map

2 Solid

geology,drift

( Quaternary

Map

8 01

of

deposits the

United

and

peat

Kingdom

1977)

5 0

0

km " Glacial

sand

Lacustrine alluvium

Map

3 Glacial, lacustrine (Quaternary

Map

8 02

of

and

gravel

clays,silts

and

r iver

and

alluvial

the

United

and

gravels,

terrace

deposits

deposits

Kingdom

1977)

/ .; Soils

developed

geology ‚ now Soils

developed

drift ‚ impeded Soils

4 s oil ( Soil

on

glacial

on

glacial

drained

50km

0

M ap

solid

drainage

developed

dri ft,better

on

degraded

types Map

8 03

of

England

and

Wales

1974)

. ;

I .

e . . ./

1 1 I

' C Grazing

and

dai rying

D R earing

and

other

E Mainly

reari ng

substanti al

dairying

G M ixed

f armi ng

w ith

substantial

rearing

mixed

f arming of

small

I

farming

Survey

8 04

f arming based

usage

1 942)

on

arable

agricultural

km

0

(Ordnance

grazing

w ith

X Land

Contemporary

sheep

farming

L M ixed

5

and

enterprises

F Mixed

H General

Map

l i vestock

.

value

5 0

2 00m

••• •0

0

5 0 km

Map

6

S ites

with

8 05

pollen

evidence

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

0

5 0 km

Map

7

Pre-Zone

8 06

VIIb

peat

formation

< 6 0m 6 0 —2 00m >2 00m

•

Sites

with

pre-Zone A

Open

vegetation

Zone

V IIa-b

0 I

Map

8

Evidence

8 07

of

PlaI ltago

VIIb

5 0 ,

open

k m

I

vegetation

at

transition

a

< 6 0m 6 0 - 2 00m >2 00m

0 Pre-elm

decline

activity

a Pre-elm

decline

erosion

0

5 0 km

Map

9

Pre-elm

8 08

decline

disturbance

< 6 0m 6 0 - 2 00m >2 00m

..

0 1

.

.

.

5 0 1

km

Map

10

Increase

8 09

in

herbs

at

elm

d ecline

. . t ,J 1 p < 6 0m 6 0 - 2 00m >2 00m

. e."

a e le •

7

«

. • Flintwork

„

A C 1 4

s ites

dates

a Tranchet

axes

h Harpoons 0

5 0

I km

Map

11

Mesolithic

8 10

activity

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

• Cumbrian

axes

'

A Variants

0

5 0 km

Map

12

Cumbrian

8 11

axes

and

variants

< 6 0m 6 0 - 2 00m >2 00m

0 I

.

. km

Map

13

Cumbrian

8 12

c lubs

.

5 0 I

< 6 0m 6 0 - 2 00m >2 00m

0 I

.

. km

Map

1)4 Non- Group

8 13

VI

axes

5 0 I

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m

I

>2 00m

I V Rough-outs A

Polished

axes

• Both 0

5 0 km

Map

1 5

Axe

hoards

8 14

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

• Single • In

hoards

0

5 0

L _ km

Map

16

Rough-outs

8 15

f inds '

Map

17

Distribution

of

Group

VI

8 16

rough-outs

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

0 I

.

.

. km

Map

18

Flint

axes

8 17

5 0 I

< 6 0m 6 0 - 2 00m >2 00m

0 I

.

i km

Map

1 9

L eaf

a rrowheads

8 18

5 0 I

< 6 0m 6 0 - 2 00m >2 00m

0

1

Map

20

Transverse

8 19

5 0

1

k m

arrowheads

< 6 0m

. . . . . . 6 0 -2 00m

E

>2 00m

• Barbed

& tanged

arrowheads A L arge

0 I

.

I

km

Map

21

EBA

arrowheads

8 20

projectile

5 0 I

points

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

0

5 0 km

M ap

2 2

Flint

s catters

8 21

Eskmeals Williamson' s Moss)

A Tarnflat B

Rottington

C Car

D South E Pow

B

park cliff

Beck

A North

beach

B South

beach

C S . E. beach D Skelda E East

Hill

ridge

F N . E. slope

A Seascale B Bai ley

village

Ground

C A crelands D Burnt

Moor

E Hallsenna F Moorside G Whitriggs H Stony

How 0

Map

2 3

Flint

work

sites

on

the

8 22

Cumbrian

coast

lkm

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m

I

>2 00m

E l G rimston-Lyles

' Hill

A Decorated • G rooved

ware

0 1

5 0 •

. km

Map

2 4

Neolithic

8 23

pottery

1

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

A

Long

mounds

h . Oval

mounds

•

Round

B Bog M

burial

Mortuary

0

2 5

Neolithic

8 24

burial

enclosure 5 0

km

Map

mounds

s ites

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

•

Over

A

Under

26m 26m

0 . km

26

Stone

circles

8 25

diameter

5 0

I

Map

diameter

I

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

• Mace

heads

A Battle

axes

5 0

L km

Map

2 7

Mace

heads

8 26

and

battle

axes

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

0 1

5 0 .

k m

Map

2 8

Axe

hammers

8 27

I

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

A Cist

0

5 0

k m

Map

29

Cists

8 28

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

Map

30

C ist

c emeteries

8 29

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

3

0

5 0 km

Map

31

Mounds

8 30

with

s ingle

cist

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

0 I

.

.

.

5 0 I

km

Map

32

Mounds

with

8 31

c ist

& other

deposits

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

,

0 L

5 0 .

I km

Map

33

Multiple

8 32

c ist

mounds

I

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

A Single • Multiple WTree

0

3 4

Flat

graves

8 33

coffins

5 0 km

Map

trunk

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

0 I

.

. km

Map

3 5

Mounds

with

8 34

s ingle

deposit

5 0 I

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

0

5 0

k m

Map

36

Mounds

8 35

with

multiple

cremations

< 6 0m 6 0 - 2 00m

on

Sandyford

>2 00m

• Mounds and

A Mounds p Pot

with with

hole

C Stone

O ther

8 36

burial

• R ock

shelter

5 0 km

3 7

inhumations

c ircles

0

Map

inhumations

cremations

s ites

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

0 Single

L Multiple

Beakers

A Multiple

burials

s ame

0 I

38

Beaker

context

.

5 0 I

.

8 37

burials

in

burial

km

Map

burial

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

0 No

0 1

context

5 0 .

.

I

km

M ap

3 9

Other

8 38

Beakers

I

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

0 I

5 0 .

i

I

km

Map

40

Beaker

burials

8 39

with

grave

goods

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

0 I

«

« km

Map

41

Northern

8 40

Beakers

(N/NR, N2,N3)

5 0 I

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

7

A N /MR

AN 1/D ,

• Southern A FP

0 1

• AOC

L

. km

Map

) 42

Beaker

8 41

types

5 0 I

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

• Yorkshire K . Irish

vase

• ' Local'

0 I

43

Food

8 42

vessel

food

vessel

5 0 &

I

I

k m

Map

vase

types

I

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

. , • Single

vessel

K Multiple

0 I

.

.

. km

Map

4 4

Food

vessel

8 43

burials

'

vessels

5 0 I

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

0 ? burial • No

0 I

.

context

,

. km

Map

45

Other

8 44

food

vessels

5 0 I

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

• Inhumation A C remation \ Both

0 I

. km

M ap 4 6

Food

vessel

8 45

burial

rite

5 0 I

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

0 I

5 0 .

.

I

.

k m

Map

47

Food

vessel

8 46

burials

with

g rave

goods

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

• Enlarged

food

• Encrusted

0 I

.

urn

5 0 I

. km

M ap

4 8

Enlarged encrusted

8 47

food urns

vessels

vessel

and

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

• With • No

0 I

burial

context

.

. km

M ap 4 9

Urns

8 48

5 0 1

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

0 I

.

.

. km

Map

50

(? )

Urns

8 49

5 0 I

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

0

5 0

I

, km

Map

51

Incense

8 50

cups

I

D>td 60 - 200m {][[]

>2oom �rmi�::

.,

If:�:

D Dagger

A Large arrowhead

� Plano-convex knife

x Other knife type

0

• Assemblages km

Map 52

so I

Flint artifacts with burials

851

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

B Spacer Beads;

plate

n ecklace

0 d isc A barrel A biconical

J ' Jet 0 I

•

n ecklace' •

. km

Map

5 3

Jet

artifacts

8 52

.

5 0 I

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

0 Knife

dagger

A Dagger

0 I

5 0 . _

. km

Map

5 4

EBA

burials

8 53

with

daggers

< 6 0m 6 0 - 2 00m >2 00m

0

5 0

k m

Map

5 5

Copper

8 54

metallurgy

r i
2 00m

• Mould M I Hoard

.

A Single • With 0 1

4 1 .• ' Westmorlandi

Map

5 6

EBA

metalwork

8 55

f ind

burial 5 0

•

a . ' km

1

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

I Mould • Hoard • Single

f ind

h . G old 0 I

.

.

. km

Map

5 6a

MBA

metalwork

8 56

5 0 I

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

0 1

.

. km

Map

5 7

Wallington

8 57

hoards

5 0 I

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

• Hoard • Single

f ind

I l Gold

0 I

5 0 .

. km

Map

5 8

L BA

metalwork

8 58

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

I Hoard A

0 I

Map

5 9

Hallstatt

8 59

Single

.

.

C bronzes

f ind

5 0 I

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

. .

H Hoard

0 I

M

Mould

\

Plain

A

D ecorated

L

. km

' Westmorland'

Map

6 0

EBA

f lat

8 60

axes

5 0 I

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

I N Hoard 0 Plain A

Decorated

0

5 0 km

Map

61

EBA

f langed

8 61

axes

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

A Halberds •

Tanged

spears

5 0 km

Map

62

Ualberds

8 62

and

tanged

spears

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

A

In

hoards

\ S ingle

0

5 0 km

Map

63

M BA

palstaves

8 63

f inds

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

7

0

5 0 km

M ap 6 4

MBA

other

8 64

axes

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

A

Kite

s haped

1 . Side

looped

•

Basal

0

5 0 km

Map

6 5

MBA

s pearheads

8 65

looped

6 0m 6 0 -2 00m

I

, >2 00m

A

Rapiers

I l Solid

0 I

.

hilted

. km

3 1' Cumberland '

Map

6 6

MBA

rapiers

8 66

and

swords

swords

M I

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

• In

hoard

• Single

0 1

.

.

. km

Map

67

LBA

s ocketed

8 67

axes

f ind

5 0 1

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

• Plain

I Baggy

• Yorkshire N Faceted • D ecorated 0 I

5 0 •

1

.

km

Map

6 8

LBA

s ocketed

8 68

axes

I

,

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

1

Lunate

•

O ther

openings

A

Plain

leaf

0

69

LBA

spearheads

8 69

shaped

5 0 km

Map

openings ,

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

A

In

hoards

•

Single

0 I

5 0 '

. km

Map

7 0

Ewart

8 70

Park

f inds

swords

I

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

•

Knives

A

Buckets

I

Harness

0

5 0 km

Map

' Ti

LBA

bronzes

8 71

mounts

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

•, . • LBA

burials

• ? LBA

burials

( doubtful)

0 I

.

.

. km

Map

72

LBA

burials

8 72

5 0 I

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

0

5 0 km

Map

7 3

Cairns

8 73

and

cairnfields

2 00m

Expansion Sporadic ' ,/'

of

of

grasslands

evidence

c learance

Clearance

a ctivity

C ereals 0

5 0 km

Map

7 4

Summary

of

earlier

4th

8 74

environmental millennium

bc

evidence:

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

Clearance c

a ctivity

C ereals Expansion

of

grassland

0

5 0 km

Map

7 5

Summary late

8 75

of

environmental

4th-3rd

millennium

evidence: bc

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

C learance G

a ctivity

C ereals Expansion

0 I

.

of

.

grassland

5 0 I

km

Map

76

Summary 2nd

of

environmental

millennium

8 76

bc

evidence:

Map

7 7

D istribution ( Boundaries

of

Group

shown

are

V I

axes

Implement

8 77

Petrology

Group

areas)

GROUP XV •p e r fo ra ted I mp lemen ts .a xes

k ms 1 00

Map

78

D istribution of Group ( Boundaries shown are

XV products Implement Petrology

8 78

Group

areas)

GROUP XV I I I •p er fo ra ted i mp lemen ts

Map

7 9

D istribution ( Boundaries

of

Group

shown

are

XVIII

products

Implement

8 79

Petrology

Group

areas)

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

t o,

. . . 0

5 0 km

Map

80

Neolithic

8 80

axes

< 6 0m 6 0 -2 00m >2 00m

0 I

5 0 . km

Map

81

Beaker

8 81

and

EB A

burials